^ 1 -^ r 
 
 SANIA BAkBAR<. « 
 THE Ur4IV£RSITV o 
 
 O 
 
 V 
 
 < 
 
 y 
 
 C 5 
 
 X 
 
 ^UJ.4:^ 1? 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 2 
 
 g 
 
 < 
 
 QJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 O MtSII3AiNn 3HI 
 
 
 \ 
 
 AiisaaAiNn aMt «, 
 
 o THE UNIVERSITY o 
 O 
 
 >-l !, H 
 
 
 o THE UNIVERSITY o 
 
 vtm- 
 
 ^ 
 
 X 
 
 -^ 
 
 :1! 
 
 /
 
 -^1 ^ I ^ r 
 
 O SANTA BAHBARA O 
 
 » iO AOVaail 3Hl o 
 
 e THE UNIVERSITY o 
 
 
 o THE UBRARr Of o 
 
 u 
 
 r 
 
 ^ 
 
 d 
 
 L 
 
 R 
 
 o V»V9m ViNVS o 
 
 / 
 
 19^ 
 
 o UlSilMINn 3H1 « 
 
 O VDVWIV YjNVS o 
 
 « AiiSil9 
 
 ',W l< 
 
 O THe UNIVERSITY o 
 
 6 
 
 < 
 
 \ 
 
 o THE UNIVERSITY o 
 
 s 
 
 >- 
 5 < 
 
 y 
 
 c; 
 
 o THE IIB 
 
 
 \ 
 
 o 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY o 
 
 
 < 
 
 _l4l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 SI 
 
 \ 
 
 O THE UNIVERSITY o 
 O 
 
 iSr
 
 M A N 
 
 PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE,
 
 Ex Ldbris 
 C. K. OGDEN 
 
 MAN 
 
 PAST, PRESENT AND EUTURE. 
 
 A POPULAR ACCOUNT 
 
 RESULTS OF RECEIPT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 
 
 AS REGARDS THE 
 
 ORIGIN, POSITION AND PROSPECTS OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 FROM THE GERMAN OF 
 
 D-. L. BUCHNER, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "FORCE AND MATTER", "PHYSIOLOGICAL PICTURES", 
 'SIX LECTURES ON DARWIN", "ESSAYS ON NATURE AND SCIENCE", ETC. 
 
 W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 ASHER & CO., 13, BEDFORD STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 
 
 1872.
 
 nix 
 
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 In offering to ii British Pul^lic thi.s translation of 
 Dr. Biichnor's book on the "Position of Man in Nature", 
 I must beg to inform my readers that I am by no means 
 incHned to ticcept all the results iit which Dr. Biichner 
 has arrived. Thus I do not at all go with him in the 
 extreme materi^distic views which he holds with regard 
 to the nature of life, and there are many of his opinions, 
 especially upon moral and social questions, from which 
 I thoroughly dissent. 
 
 My object in preparing this transhition was simply to 
 give English Readers an opportunity of learning the direc- 
 tion which thought is taking" in a consideriible section 
 of the reading public in Germany. Among the popular 
 scientific writers of that country Dr. Biichner decidedly 
 stands in the first rank, and his opinions iire therefore 
 well worthy of consideration. In the present work his 
 exposition of matters connected with the position of man 
 in Nature will be found both interesting and instructive, 
 even to those who are opposed to him in princii^le, — nay 
 perhaps especially to them, as showing- to what results 
 the principles maintained by the school of thinkers to 
 which Dr. Biichner belongs, necessarily lead. 
 
 W. S. Dallas.
 
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 The following book has resulted from a series of 
 public discourses upon the great scientific discoveries of 
 recent times witPi regard to the Antiquity and Origin of 
 the Humaii race and the Position of Man in Nature, 
 delivered by the author during the last four or five 
 years in various places. The great and almost unexampled 
 interest of the subject and its importance in the develop- 
 ment and further evolution of our general conception of the 
 Universe and of life from the point of view of philoso- 
 phical realism (an importance which is still far from 
 being sufficiently acknowledg'ed), will justify the author 
 in abstaining- from any prefatory explaniition of his mo- 
 tives in deciding to communicate in the present compila- 
 tion the essential parts of these discourses to a more 
 distant or larger public, in a form suited for general 
 comprehension. In order to avoid alarming, tiring^ or 
 confusing the majority of readers by the particularly 
 copious iibundance of materials, the author has regarded 
 as desirable to adopt a method which is often employed, 
 and to ])lace the actual material or more exact proof of 
 what is stated in the 'J^ext in the shape of quotations, 
 scientific details and further particulars or remarks, in 
 a separate ^Ippendix brought into connexion with the 
 Text by continuous numbers. The author hopes that this 
 method will augment the scientific value of the book without
 
 PREFACE. VII 
 
 injuring its readability by the general public, to whose 
 wants he has paid particular attention in the text itself. 
 The extraordinary favour which the public has 
 hitherto manifested towards all the literary productions 
 of the author without exception, and which has been 
 his principal incitement to proceed in the same course, 
 will, he hopes, not be wanting to this new book, the 
 principal tendency of which is towards culture and intel- 
 lectual progress. The author believes that he is the 
 more justified in this expectation, since the book con- 
 tains in its second section a popular exposition of one of the 
 most prominent questions of the day — a question which, 
 in the last few years, has excited the minds of men in 
 a most remarkable manner. This question, which has 
 been so often misunderstood and answered in the most 
 various senses, relates to the ^ipc-gcuealogy of man as it 
 has been called. If the author should succeed by means 
 of credible and scientific evidence in diflfusing- correct 
 views, free from prejudice and ignorance and resting- 
 upon the truths of nature, upon this new doctrine which 
 has called forth so much opposition, this result alone 
 will appear to him of sufficient importance to compen- 
 sate for the trouble which he has bestowed upon the 
 book. 
 
 No doubt in this, as in former cases, there will be 
 no lack of those opponents and calumniators who seek 
 to displace light by darkness, truth by falsehood, and 
 facts by phrases. The author, who has neither time, 
 leisure nor inclination for futile polemics, thinks that h(^ 
 cannot meet such opponents better than by closing his 
 preface with the following passages from ixn English 
 writer, who has so brilliantly and resolutely defended the 
 author's standpoint against his own assailants tmd cen- 
 surers that it is unnecessary to add a single word to' 
 what he has said. 
 
 "There is nothing more frequent", says David Page 
 (Man &c., Edinburgh 1867), "than denunciations from the
 
 viir 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 pulpit and platform against the tendencies of modern 
 science, by men who are not only ignorant of the rudi- 
 ments of science, but who have bound themselves by 
 creeds and formulas before their minds were matured 
 enough, or their knowledge sufficient, to discriminate be- 
 tween the essentials and non-essentials of these restric- 
 tions. And here it may be remarked, once for all, that 
 no man who has subscribed to creeds and formulas, 
 whether in theology or philosophy, can be an unbiassed 
 investigator of the truth or an unprejudiced judge of the 
 opinions of others. His sworn preconceptions warp his 
 discernment; adherence to his sect or party engenders 
 intolerance to the honest convictions of other inquirers. 
 Beliefs we may and must have, but a belief to be chan- 
 ged with new and advancing knowledge impedes no 
 progress, while a creed subscribed to as ultimate truth 
 and sworn to be defended, not only puts a bar to further 
 research, but as a consequence throws the odium of dis- 
 trust on all that may seem to oppose it. Even when 
 such odium cannot deter, it annoys and irritates; hence 
 the frec[uent unwillingness of men of science to come 
 prominently forward with the avowal of their beliefs. 
 It is time this delicacy were thrown aside and such theo- 
 logians plainly told that the scepticism and infidelity —if 
 scepticism and infidelity there be — lies all on their own 
 side. There is no scepticism so offensive ^ls that which 
 doubts the fticts of honest and careful observation; no 
 infidelity so gross as that which disbelieves the deduc- 
 tions of comi^etent and unbiassed judgments." 
 
 These g"olden words deserve to be engraved on 
 brass and hung U[) in all Churches, Lecture-halls and 
 Editor's rooms.
 
 THE AUTHOR'S POSTSCRIPT TO THE ENGLISH 
 
 EDITION. 
 
 On the appearance of this English edition of his book on 
 the Position of Man in Nature, the author thinks it necessary 
 to express to his English Public his regret, that he was unable 
 in the preparation of its second section to make use of the 
 admirable arguments upon this subject, which have recently been 
 published in England by the distinguished naturalist Darwin in 
 his book upon the "Descent of IMan". This was impossible, 
 as the printing of the greater part of the translation was al- 
 ready completed when the work just mentioned made its appea- 
 rance. The author's regret at this circumstance was however 
 abundantly compensated by the satisfaction which he could not 
 hut feel when, on reading Darwin's work, he remarked the great 
 and remarkable agreement between his views and those of the 
 celebrated English naturalist, although he had been unable to 
 arrive at any definite opinion upon the subject in question from 
 Darwin's previous writings. Quite independently of any personal 
 feeling this circumstance may serve as a proof how completely a 
 correct interpretation of facts, and consistent and unprejudiced 
 thought in scientific matters, but especially in Natural History, must 
 lead to the same clear and simple results, no matter in what brain 
 the necessary process of thought is carried on, or whether it is in 
 England or in Germany, or in any other part of the civilized world. 
 
 Darmstadt, February 1872. 
 
 Dr. L. Biichner.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Process of human intellectual development p. i. The question of 
 the position of man in nature, the question of questions for mankind 
 p. 3. Origin and genealogy of the human race p. 4. Comparison with 
 the discovery of Copernicus p. 5. Hackel's geocentric and antliropo- 
 centric errors p. 5. Unfounded dread of the new discoveries p. 6. 
 Causes of former errors with regard to the position of man in nature 
 p. 7. Anti(|uity of the human race p. 9. Creation of man 6000 years 
 ago p. 9. 
 
 §. I. OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 Cave of Aurignac p. 10. J. Carver on the funeral ceremonies of a 
 North American Indian tribe p. 14. Antediluvian, Alluvium and Dilu- 
 vium, Note 2. Cave-discoveries p. 16. Old opinion as to the early state 
 of man p. 18. Fossil bones of animals regarded as those of man, 
 Note 3. Cuvicr on antediluvian man. Note 4. Fossils, Note $. Boucher 
 de Perthes and the discovery of flint axes in the Somme Valley p. 19. 
 Working in flint p. 22, and Note 6. Flint implements the lirst human 
 manufacture p. 23. Flint axes beyond the Somme Valley p. 24. J. Frere 
 p. 25. Lower jaw of Moulin-Quignon p. 26, and Note 8. Other fossil 
 remains of man p. 27, and Notes 9 — 11, Traces of human action on 
 bones of extinct animals p. 28. Pictures of extinct animals p. 29, and 
 Notes 14—15. Similar discoveries in the Tertiaries p. 31. Human re- 
 mains in Alluvium p. 33, and Note 16. Pile buildings, Note 17. Danish 
 Peat-mosses, Note 18. Mound of the Ohio, Note 19. Kitchen-middens 
 or shell-mounds p. 35, and Note 20. Giant's graves and dolmens p. 37, 
 and Note 21. Antiquity of man on the earth p. 38. Formation of the 
 surface of the earth in the diluvial period p. 40. Glacial period and
 
 XII CONTENTS. 
 
 antiquity of the Scmme Valley deposits, Note 22. Opinions on Tertiary 
 man p. 42. Antiquity of history, Traditions p. 43. Eyypt p. 44, and 
 Note 23. Ancient battles with animals p. 46. Condition of existing 
 savages p. 47, and Note 24. Prima-val man p. 47. Physical condition 
 of primaeval man p. 50. Inlluence of civilization, Note 25. Intellectual 
 condition of primaeval man and the most ancient human skull p. 51. 
 Discoveries of Schmerling and Spring in the Belgian caves, Note 26. 
 Borreby Skull, Note 27. Skull from Caithness, Note 28. Cheltenham 
 skull. Note 29. Neanderthal skull, p. 53, and Note 30. Human skulls 
 like the Neanderthal skull p. 54, and Note 31. Skull from Algodon 
 Bay p. 55, and Note 32. Progress of primxval man in the manufacture 
 of stone-implements p. 56, and Note 33. Stone ages p. 56, and Note 37. 
 Bronze and iron ages p. 57. Copper age p. 58, and Note 35. Use of 
 stone weapons in historical times p. 58, and Note 35. Earliest Stone- 
 age p. 59. Middle Stone age and Reindeer period p. 61. Caves and 
 troglodytes and cannibalism in South Africa, Note 38. Human bones 
 and skulls of the Reindeer period p. 62. Reindeer stations in Belgium 
 and Wiirttemberg', Note 39. Latest stone or neolithic age p. 62. Celts 
 p. 63, and Note 40. Pottery p. 63, and Note 41. Slow progress of 
 primaeval man p. 64. Stability the fundamental character of the savage 
 state ]). 64. External and internal impulses to progress p. 65. Immigra- 
 tion of foreign races, p. 66, and Note 42. Traditions on the rude primi- 
 tive state of man p. 66, Ideas of Classical Antiquity on this subject 
 p. 67. Later or Christian notion of an original state of perfection p. 68. 
 Sir John Lubbock and J. P. Lesley on theology and science. Note 43. 
 All civilization due to gradual development p. 71. 
 
 §. 2. WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 Zoological position of man p. 75, and Note 44. Order of Primates 
 p. 77, and Note 45. Its divisions according to Huxley p. 77. Its divi- 
 sion and genealogical connexion according to Hiickel p. 79. Animal 
 genealogical tree of man according to Hiickel, Note 46. Anthropoid 
 Apes p. 80. Resemblances to man in the lower Apes p. 81. Gorilla, 
 Chimpanzee, Orang-Utan and Gibbon p. 82, and Notes 47, 48. G. Pouchet 
 on the zoological position of man p. 84. The foot as a prehensile organ, 
 Note 49. Anatomical agreement of man and animals p. 85. Relative 
 differences in the structure of man and animals, Note 50. Their physio- 
 logical agreement p. 89, and Note 51. The brain in man and animals 
 p. 90, and Notes 52, 53. Developmental history p. 92. Modes of repro- 
 duction p. 94, and Note 54. The ovum p. 94, and Note 55. Evolution 
 and Epigenesis, Note 56. Similarity of the embryos of all animals 
 p. 96. The ovum in man p. 98. I'rimitive groove and dorsal chord 
 p. loi. Resemblance of the human embryo to those of animals p. 102.
 
 CONTENTS. XIII 
 
 Tail of man, tailed men j). 104. Human branchial arches, rudimen- 
 tary or aborted organs p. 105. The human intermaxillary bone p. 105, 
 and Note 57. Rudimentary organs as supports of the monistic conception 
 of the universe ]>. 105. Triple developmental series p. 106. Connexion 
 of developmental history with the question of the origin of man 
 p. 106. Imi)ortance of this question j). 108. Priority of the hypothesis 
 of the animal origin of man p. ifit). Huxley, Hiickel, Schaaffhausen and 
 Vogt p. 109. Vogt on microcepliali p. no, and Note 58. Schaaffhausen 
 on the animal origin of man and the theory of evolution p. in, and 
 Note 59. Priority of Dr. Reichenbach of Altona p. 112, and Note 60. 
 Lamarck, Oken and Darwin p. 112. The animal origin of man a ne- 
 cessary consequence of every theory of descendence p. 113. Claim to 
 priority on the part of the author p. 114. Huxley's three Essays 
 p. n4. Refutation of Huxley's attack upon materialism, Note 61. 
 Huxley on some fossil remains of man p. 115. Further discoveries of 
 this kind, jaw of La Naulette p. 116, and Note 62. Jaws of Moulin- 
 Quignon, Hyeres , Arcis-sur-Aube, Grevenbriick &c. p. nS. Rarity ot 
 human remains from primaeval times p. 119, and their general resem- 
 blance to animals p. 120. Existence of former intermediate forms be- 
 tween man and animals p. 120. Fossil remains of Apes p. 121. Pre- 
 historic Ape-men p. 121. Extinction of the Anthropoid Apes and the 
 lowest human races p. 122. The When? where? and how? of the first 
 production of man p. 123. Unity or multiplicity of mankind p. 123. 
 Application of the former idea of species to man ji. 124. Races of man 
 and the idea of races, Note 63. Diversity of languages p. 124. Schleicher 
 t)n primseval languages , Note 64. Agreement of the Asiatic and 
 African Anthropoid Apes with the primitive races of man in those regions p. 
 125. Scliaaflhausen on the unity or multiplicity of the genealogy of man 
 J). 126. Vogt a defender of polygeny p. 126. Hiickel on the origin of 
 man and his unity or multiplicity p 127. Hackel's primitive man or 
 Ape-man p. 128. Production of the true or speaking man from the 
 speechless primitive man p. 129. Division of the primitive man into 
 several species p. 129. Woolly and smooth-haired branches p. 130. 
 Further divisions of these branches p. 130. The Caucasian race the fu- 
 ture rulers of the whole world p. 131. G. Pouchet on the primitive 
 form and on the development of the races of man p. 131. Solution of 
 the dispute p. 132. Adam and Eve, Note 65. Rolle on the conversion 
 of the animal into man p. 133. Gradual or sudden development of 
 human qualities in individual anthropoids p. 133. Relation of man to 
 his animal cousins p 134. Intelligence of the great Apes p. 135. Wal- 
 lace on a young Orang, ji. 135, and Note 66. Intelligence of the Orang, 
 Chimpanzee &c.. Note 66. Intellectual life of animals in general p. 136. 
 The distinctions between man and animal disappear on close considera- 
 tion p. 136. Savage men and tribes p. 138, and Note 67. Marriage and
 
 y^lV CONTENTS. 
 
 faniilylife , Note 68. Social organization, Note 69. Sense of Shame, 
 Note 70. Belief in God, Note 71. Art of numeration. Note 72. Em- 
 ployment of tools, Note 73. Use of Fire, Note 74. Wearing Clothes, 
 Note 75. Suicide, Note 76. Agriculture, Note 77. Language the most 
 striking characteristic of man p. 138. Imperfection of the language of 
 savages, Note 78. Origin of language p. 139. Schleicher, Grimm and 
 J. P. Lesley on the origin of language. Note 79. First commencement of 
 language according to C. Royer, Note 80. Development of language 
 from emotional and imitative sounds p, 140. Bleek on the early deve- 
 lopment of speech p. 141. G. Jiiger on the language of man and ani- 
 mals p. 142. Origin of writing according to L. D'Assier p. 143. Con- 
 clusion p. 144. 
 
 §. 3. WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 The mystery of human existence is solved p. 146. The questions 
 of the how? and why? of existence p. 147. Process of development 
 p. 147. Solution of the enigma of the universe, Note 81. I'he distinc- 
 tion of the appearance from the thing itself and the limitation of our 
 sensuous perception, Note 82. Increasing scientific knowledge constantly 
 binds us more closely to earthly life p. 149. Man as the final product 
 of terrestrial development p. 149. The world first made known to itself 
 in man p. 150. The struggle for existence p. 151. Destiny of man. Note 
 83. Inheritance of intellectual qualities p. 152. Influence of advancing 
 culture upon the struggle for existence in man p. 153. Pacific railway, 
 Note 84. Question of the development of higher races in the future 
 p. 155, and Note 85. Improbability of this supposition p. 156. Advan- 
 cing development of the brain p. 157, and Note 86. Violence of the struggle 
 for existence on the moral and social domain p. 158, and Note 87. Its 
 conquest 1 y the endeavour after social elevation and common happiness 
 p. ]6o. Replacement of the struggle for the means of existence by that 
 for existence p. 162. The government and politics of the future p. 163. 
 Republicanism, federalism and ccntralisni p. 165. Division of labour 
 p. 166, and Note 88. Nationalities p. TOO. Principle of nationality 
 p. 167. Former national hatred p. 168. .Society and its infinite inequa- 
 lity )i. 168. Political liberation must be completed by social liberation 
 p. 169. Difference between the natural and social struggle for existence 
 J). 16'). Liberty and equality in the political and social sense p. 170. 
 Equal riglit nf all men to the material and intellectual pro]ieity of man- 
 kind \). 170. Immense contiasls in the present state of society ]). 17 1. 
 Want ni pliysical and inlellectual nourishment p. 172. Unequal pa) iiunt 
 of work, Note 89. The unbridled struggle for existence the cause of 
 social misery p. 172. Egotism the mainspring of social movement p. 173, 
 and Note ')(>. The improveiiionl of tliis comlitioii p. 174. Communism
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 XV 
 
 p. 174, and Notes 91, 92. Proposition of an equalization of the means 
 for the struggle for existence and replacement of the power of nature by 
 the power of reason p. 176. The social revolution and the Bourgeoisie, 
 Note 93. The soil a common possession p. 178, and Note 94. Limita- 
 tion of the right of bequest p. 178, and Note 95. Care of the state for 
 those who are incapable of earning p. 179, and Note 96. Feudal go- 
 vernment and popular government p. 179. Disadvantages of great pri- 
 vate fortunes and advantages of an enrichment of the commonwealth 
 p, 180. Capital and its nature p. 183. Folly of the cry against capital 
 as such. p. 183. Its unjust distribution p. 184. Periodical restoration of capital 
 to the community p. 184. Advantages of such an arrangement p. 185. 
 Labour and Labourers p. 186. Folly of establishing a special labour- 
 question Y>. 186. "Work-takers and work-givers and the capitalistic mode 
 of production p. 187, and Notes 97, 98. Lassalle's productive associations 
 and their deficiencies p. 188. Probable formation of a so-called fifth 
 estate p. 189. State-aid and self-aid p. 190, and Notes 99, 100. Means 
 of salvation p. 191. Judgment upon the Lassallean agitation among the 
 workmen p. 191. The family p. 192, Ideal and real families p. 193. Mi- 
 serable state of family life in the lower strata of society p. 194. Defec- 
 tive education of children and fertility of proletaires p. 195. Advan- 
 tages of social education over domestic p. 195. Good and bad families 
 p. 196. Fducation p. 197. A good popular education the dut\' of the 
 state p. 197. Importance of schools for the people p. 197. Crime and 
 criminals p, 198. Higher and lower educational institutes p. 198. Tlie 
 Universities and their reform, Note loi. Establishment of a legal work- 
 ing day p. 199, and Note 102. Woman and her emancipation p. 200. 
 The female brain p. 205. The political equalization of women p. 207. 
 War-service of women, Ncite 103. Marriage p. 208. Importance of 
 sexual selection p. 2(K). Alisurd fear of over-]iopulation ]). 210. Morals 
 and the only right princijde of morality p. 211. No innate conscience 
 or law of moralilv ji. 212. Fgolism the mainspring of all human deal- 
 ings p. 215, and Note 104. The moral principle of the future p. 2 1 6. 
 Religion and its sources p. 127. Replacement of faith by knowledge; morals 
 and religion have originally nothing in common p. 217. Religion rather 
 inimical than favourable to civilization p. 2 1 8. Morality independent of 
 the belief in God p. 2I'). Kmancipation of the State and of the school 
 from ecclesiastical influence p. 220 (Christianity or Paulinism p. 220 
 and Note 105.. Christianity as a world-religion, Note 106. Rome and 
 Christianity, Note 107. Philosophy p. 221. Death as the cause of all 
 jiliilosophy p. 225. Imperishableness of our nature p. 225. Materialism 
 and idealism are not opposites p. 227. Confusion of theoretical and 
 juactical materialism p. 229. Progressive tendency and programme of 
 materialism p. 230.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 "The great business of life — even that which hes most immediately before us — 
 will be more fully understood and more rationally performed, the better man knows 
 the place he holds and the relations he bears to the plan of Creation." D. PAGE. 
 
 "When we glance over the results of modern research now flowing in from all 
 sides and consider them in their significance for the knowledge of man, it can no 
 longer be a matter of doubt, that we have come to the end of established notions, 
 and that we are approaching a different conception of nature." 
 
 SCHAAFFHAUSEN. 
 
 "Natural history in the present day gives us a higher conception of the Universe, 
 than that entertained by the ancients; it no longer regards the material world as the 
 plaything of mere caprice, or history as an unequal contest between God an INIan; 
 it embraces the past, the present and the future as a magnificent unity, outside of 
 which nothing can exist." A. LAUGEL. 
 
 In his admirable Essay on Man's place in nature, 
 the celebrated anatomist and philosopher Professor Hux- 
 ley compares the process of development, by which the 
 human intellect is constantly advancing towards truth, 
 with the periodical moul tings of a "feeding and growing 
 grub." From time to time, he says, the old integument 
 becomes too straitened for the growing animal, it is there- 
 fore burst asunder and replaced by a new and larger one. 
 Precisely the same thing occurs in the history of the 
 intellectual development of man. "The human mind, fed 
 by constant accessions of knowledge, periodically grows 
 too large for its theoretical coverings and bursts them 
 asunder to appear in new habiliments."
 
 2 MAN IN THE PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE. 
 
 wSince the revival of learning' in the 15*'' century there 
 has been an abundance of strong food for the human in- 
 tellect, the education of which was indeed commenced by 
 the Greek philosophers, but then suffered the interruption 
 of a long- intellectual stagnation or sleep of fourteen cen- 
 turies. I will not stop to enquire, by what influence this 
 stagnation was broug^ht about, althoug^h this is clear enough 
 to the eyes of those, who are acquainted with fnic history 
 and not merely with that substitute for it, which has been 
 concocted by theologians and philosophers for their own 
 purposes. 
 
 But this revival of science being- once set on foot, it 
 was inevitable, that a more frequent bursting of the old 
 integuments would take place, this process of intellec- 
 tual moulting must be frequently repeated. And so it 
 was in the 16*'^ century by the overthrow of the old astro- 
 nomical system and the influence of the Reformation! and 
 at the end of the 18'*^ century by the period of intellectual 
 englightement and the influence of the great French Re- 
 volution ! 
 
 And now once more the human intellect has received 
 such a quantity of strong- and stimulatirig nourishment 
 by the extraordinary progress of the natural sciences, du- 
 ring- the last 50 years, that a new and great change and a 
 repeated bursting- of the old integuments appears to be 
 inevitable. 
 
 Nevertheless, as Huxley remarks in carrying still fur- 
 ther his admirable simile, just as these periodical moul- 
 tings are not eftected without superinducing various disea- 
 sed conditions, disturbances and general debility in the 
 animal undergoing change, — so also in the intellec- 
 tuiil world these mietamorphoses are likewise attended 
 with perils and discomforts of all kinds. Therefore it 
 is the duty of every good citizen and patriot to aid with 
 all the strength and means at his command (however 
 small they may be) towards the speedy and satisfactory 
 completion of this process or necessary crisis, or at any
 
 IXTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 rate to do what he can to assist in bursting' and stripping 
 off the old integuments and thus give room and liberty to 
 the growing- body. 
 
 This masterly comparison, by which at the outset of 
 his Essay Professor Huxley seeks to show, that it was his 
 riglit or better still his duty to take part in the public 
 discussion of the greatest scientific question of his age, 
 may also serve to excuse or justify the author of the pre- 
 sent book for having undertaken to treat in a familiar 
 style a question so important and difficult as the position 
 of man in nature, and to present to the general public an 
 exposition of the results attained by modern science for 
 its elucidation and for the refutation of old world errors 
 and prejudices. 
 
 Professor Huxley is undoubtedly in the right in descri- 
 bing- this question of Man's place in nature and his relations 
 to the universe as the question of questions for man- 
 kind, — as a problem which lies at the root of all others 
 and interests us more profoundly than any other. 
 
 "Whence our race has come"; he says, "what are the 
 limits of our power over nature, and of nature's power 
 over us; to what goal we are tending; are the problems 
 which present themselves anew" and with undiminished in- 
 terest to every man born into the world." — More simply 
 expressed these are the old questions which have in all 
 times occupied the human mind and which run as follows: 
 
 Whence do we come? What are we? and whither are 
 we going? — Problems which formerly seemed to be veiled 
 in the deepest obscurity of impenetrable secrecy and which 
 first received some elucidation or illumination from the 
 science of our own day. 
 
 In former times, of course, the answer to such questions 
 as these could but accommodate itself to the general philo- 
 sophical and theological ideas of the age, and that mystery 
 especially, with which we are now chietly occupied, lay 
 until quite recently buried under such a load of ignorance 
 and prejudice that, from a scientific standpoint, it could
 
 4 :\rAN IN THE PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE 
 
 only be reg'arded as insoluble and incapable of any scien- 
 tific treatment. Hence it came about, that the funda- 
 mental problem of all, that, namely, of the origin and pro- 
 duction or genealogy of the human race, was almost un- 
 animously declared, not merely by the philosophers of 
 former days, but also, in unison with them, by general 
 opinion, to be transcendental, that is to say beyond the 
 reach of human powers of conception and comprehen- 
 sion (at all events so far as these rested upon observation 
 and experience). 
 
 Who could have suspected, even a few years ago, 
 that within so short a period the progress of knowledge 
 and of scientific induction would throw a light so clear 
 and certain upon this mystery of mysteries, upon the 
 earliest past history and the first commencement of our 
 race upon the earth? 
 
 We may say without exaggeration, that tliis step 
 stands in the first line of all the advances made by the 
 human mind; that the discovery of the natural origin of 
 man and the demonstration of his true position in the 
 universe deserves to be ranged side by side with the great- 
 est scientific discoveries of all times , if, indeed, it should 
 not be raised above them. 
 
 Those men of science of our day, who have applied 
 their minds most thoroughly to this subject, have found 
 themselves constrained to express themselves in the same 
 or a similar manner. Thus Professor Schaaffhausen says: 
 "To have ascertained the real origin of man is a discovery 
 so fertile in its consequences for all human conceptions, 
 that futurity will perhaps regard this result of investi- 
 gation as the greatest of which the attainment was allotted 
 to the human mind." And from the opinion expressed 
 by Professor E. Hackel in his '■Natiirliche Sclwpfungs- 
 gcsclnchte' (Berlin, i860, p. 487) the recognition of the na- 
 tural (and especially the animal) origin of man must sooner 
 or later bring about a complete revolution in our entires 
 conception of th(> relations of mankind and the world.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 There is perhaps only a single scientific discovery, 
 which in point of importance and far-reaching conse- 
 quences is to be placed on the same level with this, and 
 that is the discovery, that the earth moves and that the 
 sun is stationary, or the establishment of the so called Co- 
 pernican system of the universe (i). Of all those 'burstings 
 forth' or 'moultings' of the human mind already spoken 
 of and of which we may count so many of g-reater or less 
 importance in the history of the development of human 
 civilisation, this great astronomical discovery is undoub- 
 tedly one of the most important and conspicuous. Nowa- 
 days we can hardly form a notion of the immense in- 
 fluence, which the great discovery of Nicholas Copernicus 
 about the middle of the i6'^ century, after the long- in- 
 tellectual lethargy of the middle ages, exerted upon the 
 men of that and the following centur}^; in this respect, 
 and as enlarging the intellectual horizon of the men of 
 that time, there is nothing to compare with it, except 
 perhaps, the discovery of America. 
 
 Starting from this idea, Professor Hackel, in nn ad- 
 mirable lecture on the origin and genealogy of the human 
 race (Berlin 1868), indicates iwo errors as the greatest and 
 most serious in their consequences, which still, as formerly, 
 stand in opposition to the development of the human in- 
 tellect; these he very appropriately calls th.e geoceniric and 
 the anfhropocenfric errors. The geocentric error consisted 
 in regarding the earth as the central point and chief object 
 in the whole universe, the other parts of which were con- 
 sidered only to serve the purposes of this central point and 
 its inhabitants; the anthropocentric error, which even still 
 governs the great majority of mankind, regards man as 
 the centre and sole object of the whole organic creation, 
 as the image of God or the ruler and centre of the ter- 
 restrial world, the whole mechanism of which has been or- 
 ganised and exists solely for his use and with reference to 
 his special needs. ' 
 
 The former of these errors, as is well known, was
 
 6 MAN IN THE PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE. 
 
 overturned and swept avay by Copernidus, Kepler, Galileo 
 and Newton; the second by Lamarck, Goethe, Lyell, Dar- 
 win iind their adherents and followers. 
 
 It is of this second error and its removal or rather of 
 what is to be put in its place, that the present book will 
 particularly treat. But before entering into details upon 
 the subject, the author will venture to refer to a phenom- 
 enon, which, as history teaches us, has always repeated 
 itself with every new and great discovery and of course is 
 not wanting in the present case. This is the entirely 
 unfounded fear, which takes possession of the minds of 
 men with regard to the supposed terrible consequences 
 of such discoveries — or of the promulgation of a new scien- 
 tific or philosophical conception of the universe. When 
 the Copernican system began to prevail, not only religion 
 but the whole moral order of the world was supposed to 
 be fearfully shaken and imperilled, and people thought, 
 that with the change in opinion as to the relative positions 
 of the heavenly bodies taith and civilization, religion and 
 morality, government and society must at once go to the 
 wall or at least undergo the most serious injuries. In 
 reality, however, as is well known, not one of all these 
 dreaded consequences and terrible prophecies was realized, 
 but on the contrary mankind has since progressed in the 
 most remarkable manner not merely intellectually but also 
 in morality and civilisation, and actually by the aid and 
 in fact by the influence of this very enlargement of 
 knowledge. 
 
 As it was then, so it will be now; all the in- 
 numerable declamations and tirades of the votaries of 
 darkness and victims of fear in opposition to the recent 
 step in advance will not only have no effect against the 
 truth, but the apprehensions raised by them will in no 
 way be fulfilled. In the eyes of the author and probably 
 of every thinking man, every intellectual advance of man- 
 kind, every great approximation to the truth is at the same 
 time an advance both materially and inorally\
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 With regard to the socalled an thropr acentric error, 
 against which the recent discovery of the true position 
 of man in nature must be regarded as especially directed, 
 it is, in itself, equally intelligible and excusable. For 
 without the knowledge of the numerous facts, which the 
 indefatigable spirit of research has now placed at our 
 command, man appears, at the first superficial glance, to 
 be so thoroughly and fundamentally different from sur- 
 rounding nature, that we can scarcely blame our ancestors 
 for not having known or even suspected the intimate and 
 insoluble connexion, that exists between all the phenomena 
 of nature and life, not excepting those presented by man 
 himself. 
 
 "In the past", as Prof. Perty well says in his '■An- 
 fliropologisclie Vorfrage' Leipzig, 1863) "man appeared 
 to be a creature foreign to the earth and placed upon it 
 as a transitory inhabitant by some incomprehensible power. 
 The more perfect insight of the present day sees man as 
 a being, whose development has taken place in accordance 
 with the same laws that have governed the development 
 of the earth and its entire organisation — a being not put 
 upon the earth accidentally, by an arbitrary act, but pro- 
 duced in harmony with the earth's nature and belonging 
 to it, as do the flov/ers and the fruits to the tree which 
 bears them." 
 
 These ideas are expressed in still stronger terms by 
 an English writer, as follows: — "In the opinions of former 
 philosophers man was an exceptional instance in the grand 
 scheme of creation; he formed an isolated phenomenon 
 in the great plan of nature, to make free with whom, after 
 the ordinary fashion of inductive inquiry, was little other 
 than an act of open and scandalous impiety." (Anthropol. 
 Review, 1865, Nr, g). 
 
 The state of things here pictured has now indeed been 
 changed. For as soon as we investigate the position of 
 man from the standpoint of modern science and the great 
 discoveries of recent days , setting aside all o Id pre-
 
 8 MAN IN THE PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE. 
 
 judices, we come at once to results which are completely 
 opposed to former views. We find, that man is most intima- 
 tely united with surroundinq- nature, not only in his bodily 
 but also in his iiitcUcctual qualities, and that his elevated 
 position is due only to the hig-her and more varied develop- 
 ment of his powers and faculties. Formerly, with a 
 strange and wilful blindness. Nature, from w^hose bosom 
 man has sprung, was regarded, not as his friend and re- 
 lative, but, on the contrary, as the greatest obstacle in his 
 course of life and especially in the way to the evolution 
 of his highest intellectual powers. I could cite innumer- 
 able passages from our most celebrated philosophers, in 
 which these notions are expressed in the clearest manner. 
 Nay, they sometimes even went so far as to declare posi- 
 tively, that nature was merely a revolt of the mind against 
 itself, and therefore loaded matter, which forms the foun- 
 dation of all nature, with the coarsest invectives. Truly 
 such conduct as this was as irrational as that of a child, who 
 raises its hand against its parents. 
 
 We know only too well, how far this contempt for nature 
 in contradistinction to the world of the spirit was carried by 
 those, whose conceptions of the universe were drawn from re- 
 ligious and especially from Christian sources. This senseless 
 fanaticism of rag^e against our own flesh must soon come to 
 an end in the presence of the great discoveries now under 
 discussion. For what we have now especially to seek 
 in the interest of the individual man and of the human race, 
 is not a contempt and rejection of nature, but the most 
 intimate acquaintance with it, in order that, by this know- 
 ledge, we may understand it, honour it — and conquer it. 
 To the gradual diffusion of this knowledge are due the 
 great influence and authority, which the natural sciences 
 have acquired in the last fifty years, and this will become 
 more and more striking as time goes on. 
 
 It is true indeed {and in the interest of historical ac- 
 curacy this must not be forgotten), the real position of 
 man in nature was partially understood or recognised by
 
 INDRODUCTTON. Q 
 
 a few remarkable thinkers at a very early period, long 
 before the promulgation of the observations which we 
 have now at our command. But theirs were isolated 
 guesses, resting upon an intellectual intuition, destitute of 
 the necessary basis of empirical proof, and therefore could 
 never arrive at general acceptance. The science of our 
 days could alone furnish them with the necessary foun- 
 dation. As regards this science itself, we must place in 
 the first rank the recent and interesting investigation into 
 the antiquity of the hitiiinii race upon the earth; an anti- 
 quity, which seems to us primaeval and leaves far behind 
 it all historical tradition. Of this socalled prehistoric 
 existence of man no one formerly had the least knowledge 
 or suspicion, and this circumstance alone must have almost 
 completely barred the way to a right recognition of the 
 position of man in Nature. 
 
 For if we imagine man, in accordance with the uni- 
 versally prevailing opinion of former times, created and 
 placed upon the earth by an Almighty sovereign or crea- 
 tive power about 5000 or 6000 years ago, — if we suppose 
 that he was then in all essential points the same thing or 
 creature that we now behold him, or even perhaps still 
 more perfect, — as a matter of course every thread which 
 could bind him, in accordance with regular laws, with 
 the rest of the universe, is entirely wanting, and there is 
 no room for any other opinion than the old one which we 
 have indicated. But the late discoveries and investigations 
 as to the primceval existence of man upon the earth have 
 proved, that man, although the highest and perhaps the 
 youngest member of the organic creation, has already 
 lived upon the earth during a period, in comparison with 
 which the few thousands of years covered by human hist- 
 ory and tradition shrink almost to a single moment. 
 
 The facts proving this assertion will form the subject 
 of the following section, the first of the three great divi- 
 sions of our book.
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 THE ANTIQUITY AND ORIGINAL STATE OF THE HUMAN RACE, 
 AND ITS DEVELOPMENT FROINI A BARBAROUS BEGINNING. 
 
 "Natural history has traced back the history of Man to a period which lies far beyond 
 all historical tradition. It has put back the antiquity of our race into that far past 
 time, when the European man fought with the cave animals of the diluvium and not 
 only ate the flesh of the Mammoth and Rhinoceros and the marrow of their bones , but 
 even laid cannibal hands on the flesh of his own kind, — into a time when in our 
 regions man fed his herds of Reindeer amongst the glaciers or lived in the pile-dwel- 
 lings of our lakes or heaped up on the northern coasts great mounds of shells, the 
 relics of his meals." pj^Op.^ SCHAAFFHAUSEN. 
 
 {Yortrag iiber die anthropologischen Fragen der Gegenwart). 
 
 "Modern science is not contented with breaking down the foundations of classical 
 chronologies, which indeed were already in a very dilapidated state , and throwing back 
 the origin of man to a period so distant, that in comparison with it our written his- 
 tory appears like a passing moment in a series of centuries which the mind is unable 
 to grasp, it goes still further etc." A. LAUGEL. 
 
 In the year 1852, or some seventeen years ago, an an- 
 cient cavern was accidentally discovered in France on the 
 southern slope of the Pyrenees, and close to the little town 
 of Aurignac, in the Department of the Haute Garonne, — 
 this has since become celebrated under the name of the 
 'Cavern of Aurignac'. It was closed by a heavy slab of 
 sandstone, and in it were found the skeletons or bones of 
 at least seventeen human beings, men, women and children, 
 which had been deposited here. At first, unfortunately, 
 a very imperfect examination of the cave was made, and 
 the bones were again deposited in some other place.
 
 OUR ORIGIN. II 
 
 It was only after an interval of eig-ht years (or in the year 
 i860), that a careful and scientific examination anddescription 
 of the place was made by the famous French palaeontologist, 
 M. E. Lartet, who had long been familiarly acquainted with 
 the numerous bone caves of the south of France and with 
 their contents. By this examination it was established 
 beyond the reach of doubt, that the cave of Aurignacwas 
 a primteval sepulchre of the stone age, —of a period, when 
 a great number of what are commonly called ajifcdiluviati 
 animals, of species long since extinct, were still living in our 
 part of the world. When the rubbish which covered 
 the slope was cleared away, it appeared that the floor 
 of the cave had in former times been continued forward, 
 so as to form a spacious open place or terrace in front of 
 it. This terrace had evidently served the important pur- 
 pose of furnishing the scene of the funeral ceremonies. 
 Upon it a layer of ashes and fragments of wood charcoal, 
 six inches thick, was found, and beneath this a sort of rough 
 hearth, composed of several flat pieces of sandstone red- 
 dened by the action of fire and resting immediately upon 
 the underlying limestone. But the most remarkable thing- 
 was, that among the ashes and in the soil, which covered 
 them, a great quantity of the bones of animals and many 
 articles of human handiwork were found. Of the latter 
 at least a hundred were discovered ; they were all made of 
 stone and chiefly of flint. Among them were knives, arrow- 
 heads, sling -stones, flint -flakes and other objects, besides 
 one of those flint nodules, which occur so abundantly in 
 the chalk hills of France, and from which the flint imple- 
 ments were manufactured ; this also had its surfaces chipped. 
 With these was found a sort of hammer, consisting of 
 rounded stone with a hollow place on each side; this was 
 made of a kind of rock not found in the district. It was 
 probably held by placing the thumb and forefinger in the 
 two opposite cavities and may have been employed in the 
 manufacture of the flint implements. Besides these stone 
 implements others were found, made from the bones and
 
 12 OUR ORIGIX. 
 
 horns of the Roe and Reindeer, such as needles, arrow- 
 heads, awls, scraping knives etc. and also the canine 
 tooth of a young Cave Bear, bored lengthwise and worked 
 in a peculiar manner, apparently to represent the head of 
 a bird. This probably was suspended from the neck as 
 an amulet or ornament. 
 
 The bones of animtils were very numerous and for the 
 most part belonged to species which lived in that Quater- 
 nary or Diluvial period of geological history which imme- 
 diately preceded our own epoch. No fewer than nineteen 
 species were counted, and among these were the very ani- 
 mals which are most characteristic of the Diluvial period, 
 such as the Cave Bear, the Cave Hyaena, the Mammoth 
 or primaeval Elephant, the Woolly Rhinoceros, the Gi- 
 gantic Irish Deer, Horse, Reindeer and Aurochs. Bones 
 of herbivorous animals were by far the most numerous; 
 those of the Carnivora and also those of the Mammoth and 
 Rhinoceros occurred but rarely. Hence we may conclude, 
 that the last named animals were too formidable or too 
 powerful to be hunted and killed by these early men. 
 All the marrow-bones, without exception, were broken and 
 split up to enable these primitive people to get at the mar- 
 row, which was one of their great dainties. Most of the 
 bones were also scratched or furrowed lengthwise, as if 
 they had been scraped with some roug-h instrument, such 
 as a flint knife, to detach the last morsels of flesh adhering 
 to them. Many of the bones also showed marks of the 
 teeth of predaceous animals, and the spongy portions of 
 them were gnawed off. This must have been done by 
 the Hyaenas, of which the petrified faeces (coprolites) were 
 found lying about in abundance. Many bones showed 
 evident traces of the action of fire, and these were of such 
 a kind as to prove, that the bones were in a fresh state 
 when exposed to it. 
 
 Of Jiurnan bones not one was fonnd outside the 
 cave. Within it, however, many were found, chiefly those 
 of the hands and feet, which had been left behind in the
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 13 
 
 first clearing- out. Their general condition was precisely 
 the same as that of the bones of the extinct animals, the 
 Cave Bear, Mammoth etc., and their chemical examination 
 showed them to contain exactly the same quantity of or- 
 ganic matter. All the bones whether of men or animals 
 presented the signs of high antiquity; they were friable 
 and porous, and adhered to the tongue. 
 
 Besides the human bones the interior of the cave con- 
 tained a number of bones belonging to the same species of 
 animals that were found outside it, but these presented one 
 very remarkable difference, — no traces of any violence, 
 of gnawing, breaking or the action of fire could be detected 
 upon them. Amongst others all the bones of the leg of 
 a Cave Bear were found lying together in their natural 
 position, from which we may justly conclude, that this 
 limb was put into the cave in an uninjured state and whilst 
 still covered with flesh. There were also eighteen small, 
 flat plates of a pearly substance, evidently derived from a 
 cockle-shell (Cardiniii). These were all perforated in 
 the middle and were probably strung upon a cord for the 
 purpose of being used as a necklace. Lastly the cave 
 contained a great number of well preserved flint- knives, 
 which apparently had never been used, a few instruments 
 made of horn, and other objects of the same kind. There 
 were however in the interior of the cave no traces of the 
 charcoal and ashes which were so plentiful on the outside 
 of it. 
 
 On his third visit to the cave M. Lartet examined the 
 rubbish, which had been heaped up near it when it was 
 first cleared out. In this he found many specimens of 
 worked flint-stones and teeth of men and animals, together 
 with a great number of fragments pottery roughly made 
 by hand and dried in the sun or half burnt, and various 
 ornaments made of hard bone. There is little difficulty 
 in seeing what is the significance of this remarkable dis- 
 covery. The cave of Aurignac was evidently a primaeval
 
 14 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 sepulchre of the so called Stone-age, in which the remains 
 of seventeen human beings had been successively deposited. 
 These people were of small statute. More than this, unfor- 
 tunately, we cannot say, as the skeletons could not be found 
 in the place of their second interment. The objects 
 found in the interior of the grotto seem to indicate, that in 
 accordance with the custom still prevailing among barba- 
 rous people food, implements, weapons and even ornaments 
 were placed in the grave with the dead. The heavy 
 sandstone slab before the entrance to the cave evidently 
 served to close it temporarily and to protect it from the 
 visits of wild animals. 
 
 The flat place or terrace in front of the cave is even 
 more interesting^ than the cave itself. Upon this, evidently, 
 the relations and other mourners of the deceased held the 
 funeral feasts. This is clearly proved by the hearth, the 
 fragments of charcoal, the bones, with traces of the action 
 of fire and of violence upon them, and the instruments with 
 which the flesh was cut and scraped from the bones. 
 After each interment, when the place was left by its human 
 visitors and the cave itself was closed with the sandstone 
 slab, the Hysenas came at night to regale upon the relics 
 of the feast, as is proved by the niarks of gnawing upon 
 the bones and the coprolites scattered about. 
 
 Thus this discovery gives us a pretty distinct picture 
 of the life and doings of the primitive European man, at 
 a period when history did not exist, and when Europe 
 was still inhabited by those large and powerful quadrupeds, 
 which have hitherto been reg'arded as characteristic of a 
 geological period antecedent to our own, and which have 
 since given place to a very different set of animal inhabi- 
 tants. The antique picture thus unrolled before us agrees 
 in its details most remarkably with that, which we obtain 
 from the accounts of travellers of the customs of savag-e 
 nations in distant parts of the earth. Thus amongst others, 
 we have the journal of an English traveller, John Carver, 
 who journicd through North-America in the years 1766 — 68
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 15 
 
 and witnessed the funeral ceremonies of an Indian tribe in 
 what is now the state of Jowa, at the junction of the Missis- 
 sippi with St. Peter's River. He describes these cere- 
 monies perfectly in accordance with the data furnished by 
 the discovery at Aurig'nac, and, as Sir Charles Lyell states 
 (Antiquity of Man), his account served our great poet 
 Schiller as the model of his well-known 'Nadozvessische 
 Todtc)iklagc\ in which the rites observed at the funeral 
 of an Indian chief are described in precisely the same 
 manner. 
 
 The actual antiquity of the cave of Aurignac has been 
 estimated at 50—10,000 years. Whether or not this esti- 
 mate is correct, this remarkable discovery certainly justi- 
 fies us in coming to the following" conclusions: 
 
 1. That long" before the existence of any history or 
 even of any tradition a savage tribe of men must have 
 lived in Europe in a barbarous condition or displaying such 
 rudiments of civilization, as we now find among existing 
 savages ; 
 
 2. That this tribe of men must have lived contempora- 
 neously with the Mammoth, the extinct Rhinoceros, the 
 Cave Bear etc., that is to say with animals which have long 
 since become extinct and which, as has already been stated, 
 are generally regarded as characteristic of a prehuman 
 geological period (2). 
 
 These conclusions, which carry back the presence of 
 man upon the earth to an unsuspected distance in the past, 
 would be perfectly justified, even if we had no other evidence 
 to stand upon than that furnished by thecaveof Aurignac. 
 But the fact of the very ancient existence of man, of 
 his contemporaneity with certain extinct animals (a pro- 
 position long disputed with the greatest violence but now 
 perfectly demonstrated) does not rest only on the discovery 
 at Aurignac, which is cited here merely as a simple example; 
 but similar discoveries in proof of it have been made in 
 nearly every part of the world — in England, France, 
 Italy, Spain, Germany and Belgium, nay even in America,
 
 l6 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 Asia, Australia etc. Everywhere the same or very similar 
 conditions have been found to prevail, — everywhere ca- 
 verns have occurred, in which remains of Man or indubitable 
 evidences of human handiwork are found associated with 
 the remains of supposed prehuman animals, and in many 
 instances under circumstances which, when carefully ex- 
 amined, leave no doubt, that the men and animals must have 
 been contemporaries. From a comparatively early date 
 the discoveries of Schmerling and Spring in the numerous 
 Belgian caves have been particularly celebrated; as early 
 as 1833 — 34 Schmerling, with perfect justice, deduced from 
 them the contemporaneity of man with the animals of the 
 Diluvial period. '■') But in opposition to the general prejudices 
 his testimony was wasted like that of one preaching in the 
 desert. The same fate had previously befallen the French 
 naturalists Journal andChristol, who, as early as 1828—29, had 
 made similar discoveries and drawn similar conclusions from 
 them, in the equally numerous caves of the South of France 
 (suchasBize nearNarbonne, GondresnearNimesetc.);andthe 
 assertions of the English Geologist Buckland in his 'Reliquiae 
 Diluvianae' (1822) and of the German palaeontologist Baron 
 von Schlotheim had met with no better reception. The last 
 named naturalist had made some discoveries in the years 
 1820 — 1824 in the gypsum quarries nearGera in Thuringia, 
 which led him also to infer the contemporaneity of man 
 with the Diluvial animals. The Danish naturalist Lund 
 was so much under the influence of this prejudice, that not 
 
 *) He book inwliich Schmerling gave his important observations to 
 the world is entitled: 
 
 Recherches sur les ossements fossiles decouverts dans Ics cavenies de la 
 province de Liege ('1833J. 
 
 "It is impossible", says Professor Fuhlrott, "to read his report without 
 sympathy; we feel with him the diflicully of the task of establishing an 
 o]nnion which offends against the lirmly rooled jirejiidices of the day. 
 And in fact neither by the solidity of his argnincnts, nor by the warmth 
 of conviction, with which he sujjports them, could he at that time gain any 
 adliercnts to his opinions." —
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 17 
 
 even his interesting discoveries in the numerous bone-caves 
 of Brazil, could thoroughly convince him of its falsehood. 
 But since this period numerous and careful investigations 
 of other bone-caves have been made, especially in Eng- 
 land, France and Belgium, partly at the expense of the 
 respective governments of these countries, and all have led 
 to the same results. Among the Belgian caves the so- 
 called TroiL de Fro)ifal, situated in the valley of the 
 Lesse, is particularly worthy of mention, because, when 
 it was discovered, it presented so precisely the same cha- 
 racter as the cave of Aurignac , that the two caverns 
 might almost be described in the same Avords. Here 
 again the mouth of the cave was closed by a slab 
 of sandstone; within it the remains of fourteen human 
 beings of small stature were deposited ; whilst in front of 
 it there was an esplanade for the funeral feasts, with its 
 hearth and traces of fire and with many flint-knives, bones 
 of animals, shells etc. 
 
 But all these early discoveries were incapable of 
 overthrowing a scientific prejudice which had for so long 
 a period enjoyed an unrestricted dominion over the learned 
 world and indeed, in spite of all evidence to the contrary, 
 still maintains itself in great force in some scientific and 
 in very many non-scientific circles. 
 
 This prejudice consists in the assumption, that man 
 cannot have had a more ancient existence upon the earth 
 than the latest of known geological periods, namely that 
 of the socalled Alluvium, which is a deposit produced 
 by the action of our existing rivers upon their banks and 
 at their mouths. 
 
 The formation of this deposit necessarily presupposes 
 that, \\hen it took place, the surface of the earth was of 
 the same form as at the present day; the equilibrium be- 
 tween land and water must likewise have been the same, 
 and the same fauna and flora must have been in existence 
 as at present. 
 
 2
 
 l8 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 The existence of man upon the earth was therefore 
 believed not to date more than a few thousand years before 
 the Christian era. This prejudice , sanctified by ag^e 
 and, as it was supposed, supported by great scientific 
 authority, had indeed been nourished and strengthened by 
 many circumstances, among which a principal part must 
 be ascribed to the numerous disappointments, which had 
 been experienced with regard to discoveries of supposed 
 fossil human bones, which afterwards turned out to be 
 those of animals (3), and to the asserted opposition of the 
 great anatomist and naturalist Cuvier (4). But another 
 circumstance may have contributed even more than these 
 to the misapprehension of the truth, and this was that the 
 prejudice in question agreed remarkably with a widely 
 diffused philosophical opinion, which had by degrees be- 
 come the darling of the general public. According to 
 this opinion, man, as the final flower or crown of creation, 
 its corner-stone as it were, could not have appeared upon 
 this theatre of his being until the last and most recent 
 geological period (the Alluvium), and thus he forms not 
 only the highest fulfilment, but also the final conclusion 
 of all organic creative activity. Of course this comfor- 
 table opinion was in danger of being greatly diminished 
 in value or perhaps even altogether upset by the inves- 
 tigations to which we have referred, and as the majority 
 of men, in their fondness for intellectual repose and com- 
 fort, dread nothing more than the shaking of old established 
 articles of faith , they prepared to fight against the new 
 ideas to the very last drop of their blood. It must be 
 confessed, that there was one circumstance much in favour 
 of the opponents of the new doctrine in their struggle 
 against the fossil man (5) and the evidence derived from 
 the cave - discoveries. So long as we had only these 
 cave-discoveries to appeal to it was said: Granting the 
 truth of all these discoveries and their results, how is it, 
 that we find no human remains and no traces of human 
 action in the regular strata of the period before the allu-
 
 OUR ORIGIN. IQ 
 
 vium, in deposits open to the light of day? Why do we 
 always meet with them only in these dark caves and 
 grottos, where there is always a possibility, that the re- 
 mains of man and animals may have been swept together 
 by great floods of water, and where at any rate the pe- 
 culiarity of the conditions, under which these remains are 
 discovered, leaves so much enveloped in obscurity and 
 mystery ? 
 
 But even to these grave questions the indefatigable 
 spirit of investigation has found an answer. And here we 
 might narrate the touching history of a man who, for twenty 
 long years, in spite of misapprehension and scorn, con- 
 tended in vain against the great prejudice in favour of the 
 late appearance of the human race upon the earth , until 
 finally he was rewarded by victory and general appre- 
 ciation. We refer to the celebrated French antiquary 
 and discoverer of antediluvian flint axes , Boucher de 
 Perthes, of Abbeville on the Somme. 
 
 The Somme , as is w^ell known , is a river of the 
 North of France (in Picardy) and falls into the English 
 Channel. In the greater part of its course it runs through a 
 district of white chalk, partly covered with Tertiary depo- 
 sits. Above these Tertiary strata there are great beds 
 of rolled pebbles, sand, gravel and loam, belonging to the 
 Diluvial period which we have already so frequently men- 
 tioned. In the vicinity of the towns of Amiens and 
 Abbeville these beds were laid bare to a considerable ex- 
 tent, partly by the formation of great gravel pits and 
 fortifications, and partly, in more recent times (1830 — 1840) 
 by the construction of a canal and railway. Years ago 
 the bones of diluvial and extinct animals (such as Ele- 
 phants, Rhinoceroses, Bears, Hyaenas, Deer etc.) had been 
 found in these diluvial deposits at a depth of 20 — 30 feet 
 and close to the underlying chalk; these were sent to 
 Cuvier in Paris, who determined and described them. And 
 it was here and in precisely the same places that Boucher 
 de Perthes found those famous flint axes of the rudest 
 
 2*
 
 20 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 form, which have given a totally different aspect to the 
 whole question of the antiquity of the human race upon 
 the earth. Boucher de Perthes had seen (probably in 
 1805 and 1810) certain worked flints in Italian caves and 
 was led to ascribe to them a high antiquity on account of 
 their peculiar coloration. His archaeological knowledge 
 enabled him to distinguish these flint axes from the 
 so called celts, the polished stone weapons of a much 
 later date , which have been found in a great many 
 places and may be seen in abundance in every collection 
 of antiquities. In the year 1838, Boucher de Perthes first 
 exhibited the flint axes found by him to the scientific So- 
 ciety of Amiens , but without any result. With equal 
 want of success he took them to Paris in 1839. In 1841 
 he began to form his collection, which has since become 
 so celebrated. In 1847 he published his 'Antiquites antedilu- 
 viennes', but even this work attracted no attention, until, in 
 1854, a French savant named Rigollot, who had long been a 
 determined opponent of Boucher de Perthes' views, became 
 convinced of the correctness of his statements by personal 
 examination and then made a successful search for these 
 flint implements in the neighbourhood of Amiens. He 
 Vv^as soon followed by others, especially Englishmen, among 
 whom were the celebrated geologist. Sir Charles Lyell, (in 
 whose presence during two visits to the locality no fewer 
 than 70 flint hatchets were turned out), Mr. Prestwich, M. 
 A. Gaudry and others. 
 
 Scientific men soon assembled in the valley of the 
 Somme from all quarters, and all those who came and ex- 
 amined for themselves went away converted to the new 
 opinions. Of course , as might be expected , objections 
 of all kinds were raised. Some declared, that the hatchets 
 had been thrown out of a volcano; others that they were 
 natural products of the action of water or frost. Others 
 again, without venturing to deny their artificial origin, 
 maintained that they had reached the depth, at which they 
 lay, either by a gradual sinking caused by their own weight
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 21 
 
 or by falling into fissures of the soil. However, all these 
 objections were soon shown to be untenable. Commis- 
 sions of scientific men, including the most celebrated names 
 of England and France among their members, assembled 
 repeatedly to investigate the matter, and the general result 
 of their examinations was expressed in the following im- 
 portant statements: 
 
 1. The flint hatchets are undoubtedly the work of hu- 
 man hands; 
 
 2. They lie in virgin or undisturbed deposits of the 
 Diluvial age, which have not undergone any alteration or 
 reconstruction by natural phenomena since their original 
 deposition , and therefore in deposits the formation of 
 which presupposes a structure of the surface of the earth 
 essentially different from that which now exists; 
 
 3. They occur associated with remains of fossil animals 
 now entirely extinct; and \k\ey prove that the aiitiqnity of 
 man -upon the cartli readies far beyond all historic times 
 and indeed far beyond all tradition. *) 
 
 These flint axes have been found in such abundance 
 in the Valley of the Somme, that their number, several 
 years ago, must have been some thousands, not to mention 
 the innumerable chips, flakes and imperfect specimens that 
 have been met with. 
 
 Manufactured from the flint -nodules so abundant in 
 the white chalk of France, these implements represent the 
 
 *) Carl Vogt expresses himself in the same way in his ' Vorlesioigeii 
 iihcr den J\fe>ischen' — At p. 52 of his first volume he says: "It is 
 now incontestably proved, that these flint weapons could only have been 
 fabricated by man, that they owe their existence to no other natural cause, 
 that they lie in great quantities in beds which have never been disturbed 
 or moved since their first deposition, and that they undoubtedly belong 
 to the same period as all the extinct animals that I have already men- 
 tioned." — And A. Laugel in his ^Lhomme antcdiliivien says: "The 
 greatest sceptics now admit, that the stones found in such considerable 
 numbers by Boucher de Perthes are indebted to the hand of man for their 
 peculiar form and their sharp edges." —
 
 22 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 first and lowest stage of human industry. They were 
 produced merely by knocking together the flint -nodules, 
 which, when thus treated, split up with a sharp, conchoidal 
 (or shell-like) fracture. Flint, hard as it is, is in fact very 
 easy to split, especially when it is operated on in a fresh 
 state with its pit-moisture still in it, or when it has been 
 soaked for a good while in water. When the nodules had 
 been split up roughly, the fragments were worked at with 
 little taps until they attained a useful form, and then the 
 instrument was complete (6), That this was the process really 
 adopted, and that it effects the desired purpose, has been 
 proved by experiment. 
 
 In these rudest forms of flint implements we find no 
 trace of any finishing process; they are neither polished, 
 ground, nor ornamented, in the manner usual with stone 
 weapons of a later date. Nor do we find in them a hole 
 for the handle or an external excavation or contracted 
 part for reception in a haft embracing the stone on the 
 outside. These flint axes were either held in the hand 
 itself or merely stuck into a piece of wood, as is done to 
 the present day by many savage people, who usually wedge 
 their stone weapons into the cleft branches of trees and 
 endeavour to fix them firmly by tight binding above and 
 below the stone. 
 
 At the places, where these flint axes were found in the 
 valley of the Somme, no other traces of human handiwork 
 were met with, not one of those articles made of horn, 
 bone, shell etc., which have been so frequently found in 
 deposits of later date and in the numerous ossiferous caves 
 especially have scarcely ever been missed. From this 
 we may conclude, that the objects found in the Valley of 
 the Somme are certainly more ancient than the cave of 
 Aurignac, which has already been described and in which 
 there was a great collection of iirticles made of bone and 
 horn together with flint knives which also indicate a later 
 stage of civilization.
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 23 
 
 We may therefore regard the flint axes of the valley 
 of the Somme, commonly known to archaeologists, from 
 the special localities where they are found, as stone im- 
 plements of the Ainiens- or of the Abbeville -type, as the 
 earliest known trace of human industry or as indicating 
 the first and rudest beginning of the arts of civilization. 
 As representing such a commencement as this these 
 objects, notwithstanding their simplicity and roughness, 
 possess the highest significance and must excite our deepest 
 interest. For they show us with what rude and primi- 
 tive steps man must have commenced his long and weary 
 march towards civilization , how poor and insignificant 
 were the first beginnings of a culture, which has since 
 yielded such grand and noble results. They furnish us 
 with the best guide to the recognition of the great funda- 
 mental law of nature and of man, according to which every 
 thing great and admirable, that man or the universe can 
 yield or possess, is not a gratuitous gift from above, but 
 only attained by slow and laborious development from 
 simple and rude beginnings, by gradual evolution of 
 the powers and faculties slumbring in nature and in man. 
 ^'■Ev oh I Hon is henceforward the spell by means of which 
 we may solve all the mysteries surrounding us or at least 
 put ourselves in the way of solving them." fHdckel, Natilr- 
 liche Schopfungsgeschichtc, Berlin, 1868.) 
 
 To use the words of the celebrated discoverer of the 
 flint axes, Boucher de Perthes, in his excellent memoir 
 De r Homme a?itcdiluvien (Paris, i860): "Let us not then 
 disdain these first essays of our forefathers ; if they had not 
 m.ade them, if they had not persevered in their efforts, we 
 should have neither our towns nor our palaces, nor any of 
 those masterpieces which we admire in them. The first 
 man who struck one pebble against another to give it a 
 more regular form , gave the first blow of the chisel 
 which produced the Minerva and all the marbles of the 
 Parthenon." 
 
 We must not, however, omit remarking, that the
 
 24 OUR ORIGIX. 
 
 valley of the Somme is no longer the only place where 
 rude flint implements of the character just described have 
 been found. Since these axes and their appearance have 
 become so well known and general attention has been 
 called to them, they have been found in many other parts 
 of France and especially in the Valley of the Seine, where 
 their occurrence in the lowest Diluvial deposits, associated 
 with the bones of Diluvial animals, was very accurately 
 ascertained by Gosse. And they have been discovered 
 not only in France, but in many other parts of Europe, 
 Asia, America etc., and in all cases in the same Quaternary 
 or Diluvial deposits, in company with bones of the same 
 extinct animals to which reference has already so fre- 
 quently been made, and, singularly enough, with the same 
 absence of all products of a more advanced state of civili- 
 zation. It must not be supposed however, that we 
 merely find single bones of the animals mixed with the 
 products of human industry, but sometimes the bones 
 of entire limbs or other parts of the body are met wnth 
 in their normal position in the gravel-beds which contain 
 the axes (Baillon), so that the idea of subsequent inter- 
 mixture or sweeping together by water is at once excluded. 
 A very convincing discovery of this kind was made on 
 the banks of the Manzanares near Madrid by Casiano de 
 Prado. In 1845 — 1850 large portions of skeletons of a Rhino- 
 ceros were found in the diluvial sand occurring there and 
 soon afterwards a nearly perfect skeleton of an Elephant. 
 In a bed of rolled pebbles lying bencatli this ossiferous 
 Diluvial sand several flint axes of human workmcinship 
 were discovered. According to Carl Vogt (Arcliiv fiir 
 Anthropologic, 1866, Part I.) this discovery removes all 
 doubt. 
 
 The flint axes have hitherto been found most abund- 
 antly in old river-valleys in England and France, and, in 
 England, also on some parts of the coast. Their number, 
 which was at first small, has gradually become so con- 
 siderable , that Sir John Lubbock estimates at more
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 than 3000 the flint implements of the earhest stone age 
 or the palaeolithic period, as he calls it, which have been 
 exhumed in the north of France and south of England 
 alone. None of these utensils are ground or polished, 
 and they are nowhere associated with worked metals or 
 pottery or with objects made of bone, horn etc. From 
 an historical point of view it is certainly worthy of notice, 
 that, as soon as the discoveries in the valley of the Somme 
 were made known, people remembered, in England, that 
 as long ago as the year 1797, these same flint axes had 
 been dug out in great numbers from a brickfield near Hoxne 
 in the county of Suffolk, where they occurred at a depth 
 of 12 feet in company with the bones of extinct animals. 
 As no one knew what to make of them they were thrown 
 by baskets-full upon the neighbouring road. The Eng- 
 lish Antiquary, John Frere, had noticed them, however, 
 and in the year 1801 he read a paper upon them at a Meeting 
 of the Society of Antiquari s , but the matter was not 
 regarded as of any importance. Nevertheless Frere even 
 then remarked quite justly, that the discovery pointed to 
 a very remote and indeed to an antediluvian period. Short 
 as his communication is, it contains the essence of all sub- 
 sequent discoveries and speculations as to the antiquity 
 of the human race. 
 
 Even before this time, in the year 1715, one of these 
 flint instruments of the most ancient kind had been ex- 
 humed, in company with Elephants' bones, from the gravel 
 of London; but people were then in a less favourable po- 
 sition than at the later period to draw definite conclusions 
 from this circumstance (7). 
 
 The great resemblance, that prevails throughout all 
 these axes found in England and France, is very remarkable 
 and is so great that the workmen in the gravel-pits where 
 they occur have given them the general name of 'cafs 
 tongues'. This circumstance may be partly explained, if 
 we consider that at the time of the deposition of the dilu- 
 vium England and France were not yet separated by the
 
 26 ' OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 Channel; they were then directly united by land, so that 
 reciprocal communication between the inhabitants of the 
 two countries was very easy. 
 
 Lastly, in connexion with this, it must be borne in mind, 
 that the cave-discoveries have also furnished an abundant 
 supply of rude stone-implements, although these are in 
 part of a diiferent character and generally belong to a 
 rather later date. 
 
 So much for the flint axes of the Diluvial period, of 
 which such numerous and remarkable specimens are now 
 to be seen in the great Museums of London, Paris and else- 
 where. An attempt has been made to weaken the force 
 of their evidence as to the high antiquity of the human 
 race by raising the following question: Why do we not 
 find associated with these axes other human remains, 
 especially human bones, seeing that plenty of bones of 
 animals are to be found with them? This point was seized 
 upon with avidity by the numerous opponents of the new 
 doctrine and has, in fact, given rise to much doubt. The 
 explanation of this obscure matter given by Lyell in his 
 work upon the Antiquity of man is exceedingly ingenious 
 and, as it appears to us, perfectly satisfactory. But this 
 explanation has become unnecessary, since Boucher de 
 Perthes, the original discoverer of the flint axes, succeeded 
 in satisfying even this requirement. On the 28"' March 
 1813, Boucher de Perthes took with his own hands from 
 a gravel pit at Abbeville, in which the axes had been 
 found, and from a great depth in it and close to the sub- 
 jacent chalk, a human lower jaw, the same which has since 
 become so celebrated as the jaw of Moulin Quignon. 
 
 This is now in the Anthropological Museum at Paris. 
 It is of a very dark, blue-black colour, and in its conforma- 
 tion shows some tendency towards an animal character. 
 Some objections to the genuineness of the jaw were made, 
 especially by the English savants, who were perhaps a 
 little jealous of the French discoveries, and these led 
 to long discussions in the scientific world. But on the
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 27 
 
 13'^'^ May 1863, an international scientific commission decided 
 that the jaw was genuine , that it had not only lain 
 where it was discovered, but that it was actually contem- 
 poraneous with the diluvial flint axes (8). 
 
 Until the 16**' July i86g, this interesting discovery re- 
 mained an isolated fact. But on that day Boucher de Perthes 
 found a number of human bones presenting the same 
 character as the jaw, and amongst these was a skull of a 
 very low type. These were found not far from the locality 
 of the first discovery, under the same circumstances and 
 at a depth in the ground of three metres (about 10 feet). 
 
 These, however, are not the only fossil human bones 
 which have been found out of caves. In his celebrated book 
 on theAntiquityof Man, Sir Charles Lyell enumerates several 
 cases, some of them of comparatively early date, such as the 
 fossil Man of Dentse, discovered by Dr. Aymard in 1844, 
 whose remains were found enclosed in the old volcanic tuff 
 of a long extinct volcano of Central France (Auvergne). 
 The man to whom these remains belonged must have 
 lived when the volcanoes were still in activity; and that 
 this activity pertains to a long-past geological period, is 
 proved by the circumstance that the remains of the Cave 
 Hyaena and Hippopotamus have been vaet with in similar 
 blocks of tuff in the same region. Sir Charles also notices the 
 human fossil of Natchez on the Mississippi, which was found 
 in the socalled Mammoth fissure associated with bones 
 of Mastodon and Megalonyx (animals long since extinct 
 and belonging to a past geological period). Further a 
 human skeleton found in 1823 by Ami Boue (g) near Lahr 
 in Baden (opposite Strasbourg) in the socalled Loess of 
 the Rhine valley (a product of the glacial period), and the 
 human jaw from 'Ocvq Loess near Maestricht (in Hollerd) which 
 was found during the construction of a canal (1815 — 1823) 
 together with the bones of extinct animals and is now pre- 
 served in the IMuseum at Leyden. All these bones were 
 discovered under such circumstances and in such a con- 
 dition that, if they had only been the bones of animals, no
 
 28 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 one would have thought of doubting their being fossils. 
 But as they were human bones , doubt seemed to be 
 perfectly legitimate so long as the old general prejudice still 
 existed. Now, however, Sir Charles Lyell, who has seen and 
 examined them all, declares them to be decidedly fossils, 
 that is to say belonging to a different geological period 
 from that in which we live. Sir Charles comes to the same 
 conclusion with regard to the skeleton of the celebrated 
 Neanderthal man, found in 1856 in a limestone cavern in 
 the valley of the Neander near Diisseldorf (10). To this 
 we shall have to refer in more detail hereafter, on account 
 of the peculiar interest which it possesses in connexion 
 with the primitive history of man. Since Sir Charles wrote, 
 a whole series of discoveries of human bones, in caves and 
 elsewhere, have been made. In their texture and mode 
 of deposition all these remains possess more or less of the 
 same significance as those already referred to and have a 
 similar claim to be regarded as fossil, but their enumer- 
 ation here would detain us too long (11). Many of them, 
 however, will be mentioned more particularly in connexion 
 with other matters. 
 
 But even now we have by no means exhausted 
 the proofs of the high antiquity of the human race 
 upon the earth. There is still a third series of proofs 
 (which, however, must be passed over here in a very rapid 
 sketch), and for these we are almost exclusively indebted 
 to the celebrated and indefatigable French palaeontologist, 
 E. Lartet. Although the geologist, who pays attention 
 only to the position of the strata andthepossibility of their 
 having undergone disturbances after their original depo- 
 sition, may still perhaps entertain some doubt upon the 
 subject (12), this evidence can leave no doubt on the mind of 
 the zoologist and palaeontologist as to the contemporaneity 
 of man and the Diluvial animals. The pi'oofs 771 qiicsHori 
 co77sist 771 flic 1 7' aces of tlic actio7i of i7ia7i 7ipon the 
 bo7ies of extinct a7ii77ials. Even before Lartet such things 
 were known. Thus in Sweden and Iceland signs of
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 29 
 
 wounds made by the hand of man during- the life of the 
 animals had been found upon the osseous remains of an 
 Aurochs (Bosprisciis) and of an Irish-Deer, and the same fact 
 is said to have been observed in America upon injured bones 
 of the Mastodon. But our first accurate and certain know- 
 ledge upon this point was furnished by Lartet, who has made 
 the subject his special study. He indicates, in France, uiiie 
 characteristic Diluvial animals, namely the Cave Bear, the 
 Cave Lion, the Cave Hyaena, the Mammoth, the Rhinoceros 
 with a bony septum to the nostrils (R. tichorhinus) , the 
 great Irish-Deer, the Reindeer, the Aurochs and the Urus. 
 By the occurrence of these species he distinguishes four 
 successive periods, of which that of the Cave Bear is the 
 most ancient, that of the Mammoth and Rhinoceros the 
 second, and that of the Urus the most recent. Now Lartet 
 has ascertained that bones of nearly all these animals show^ 
 unmistakable signs of the operations of man, either during 
 the life of the animals or while the bones were still in a 
 fresh state, the bones being sometimes injured by wounds, 
 sometimes worked upon and sometimes broken or split. 
 The last form of human interference is that most fre- 
 quently met with, and its object was evidently to enable 
 the marrow to be taken out of the bones, this having been 
 apparently as great a dainty with our earliest ancestors 
 as it still is among both savage and civilised people (13). 
 Many bones also exhibit a peculiar striation, as if the 
 flesh had been scraped from them with knives or flint flakes. 
 But besides all this, there are numerous indications 
 of somewhat artistic work , such as drawings , rough 
 sculptures and the like. These are rude figures or out- 
 lines, generally representing animals then living, engraved 
 by means of fragments of flint upon the bones and horns 
 of the great Irish Deer, the Reindeer etc. With some of 
 these were found fragments or plates of schist with en- 
 graved outlines of animals, especially of the Elk and Rein- 
 deer, but some also of much more ancient species, such as 
 the Mammoth or long-haired Elephant etc. Even the
 
 30 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 rude and imperfect outline of the figure of a man has 
 been discovered, engraved upon a fragment of Reindeer 
 horn, between two very characteristic horse's heads. 
 These drawing-s, which are of course very rough and 
 often very grotesque, display to us the very infancy of art; 
 nevertheless from the unanimous testimony of those who 
 have seen them, they are so characteristic that we may 
 recognize at the first glance the animals or objects which 
 they were intended to represent. The figures of the 
 Reindeer and the Mammoth {14) are particularly distinct. 
 Thus M. de Lastic found in the cave of Bruniquel on 
 the banks of the Arveyron a bone adorned with carvings, 
 on which were engraved a perfectly recognizable horse's 
 head and the head of a Reindeer, the latter easily identified 
 by the form of its antlers. The handles of daggers made 
 of ivory or bone have also been found, on which the above- 
 mentioned animals were represented at full length. Rein- 
 deer horn is the substance most frequently engraved upon 
 or worked and adapted to all sorts of purposes. 
 
 In all, Lartet has discovered and enumerated seventeen 
 localities, where these objects have been found and where, 
 according to him, man undoubtedly lived contemporan- 
 eously with the animals just referred to. In the year 1864 
 he and Christy first exhibited to the French Academy a 
 number of such specimens from the numerous bone-caves 
 of the Dordogne; the inspection of these carried conviction 
 to the most incredulous. (15) But a few years later the 
 quantity of these remarkable objects had become so great, 
 that in the Paris Exhibition of the year 1867 whole glass 
 cases were filled with these and the other material proofs 
 of the prehistoric existence of man. Gabriel de Mor- 
 tillet, the celebrated French archa^ogeologist, concluded 
 a report upon this portion of the Exhibition in these 
 memorable words: "The contemporaneity of man with 
 those species of animals which last became extinct, his 
 contemporaneity with the Reindeer as an indigenous ani- 
 mal in France is amply, positively and irrevocably proved
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 31 
 
 by the discovery of the products of human industry abun- 
 dantly mixed with the remains of these animals, which 
 have now become extinct or have emigrated, in undisturbed 
 quaternary beds and in the midst of cave deposits which 
 have never been disturbed. Upon this point the glass- 
 cases, which occupy the left hand side of the first gallery 
 of the history of French industry, can leave no doubt. 
 They are quite sufficient to convince any one, however 
 incredulous or obstinate. 
 
 "The glass-case showing the state of art in the Rein- 
 deer period furnishes a still more decisive demonstration. 
 The hand of man has perfectly represented not only the 
 Reindeer, an animal which has now emigrated, but also 
 the great Cave-Bear, the Cave-Tiger and the Mammoth, 
 all extinct animals, and this has been done upon the spoils 
 of the Reindeer and the Mammoth themselves. Man 
 was therefore incontestably contemporaneous with the 
 animals of which he employed various parts and which he 
 figured so accurately. It is impossible to have a more 
 convincing demonstration." — (Revue des cours scicntifiqnes, 
 1867 p. 703.;. 
 
 The discoveries ofLartet and his followers relate only 
 to the bones of so called Diluvial animals. But within 
 the last few years, further discoveries in the same direction 
 have been made known by a French naturalist, M. Des- 
 noyers , and if these prove to be correct, they Avill carry 
 back the antiquity of the human race upon the earth to a 
 period of which no one hitherto ventured even to dream, 
 except perhaps upon purely hypothetical grounds. These 
 consist of the traces of human action on the bones of 
 animals belonging to the Tertiary period, found in the 
 gravel-beds of St. Prest near Chartres in France. They 
 are said to be perfectly analogous to the traces of human 
 action observed on bones from the Diluvial period. 
 
 The Tertiary period forms, as is well-known, the last 
 of the three great sections (the Primary , Secondary and 
 Tertiary periods), under which it is usual to arrange the
 
 32 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 fossiliferous strata of the earth and consequently its geo- 
 logical history. The Tertiary immediately preceded the 
 Diluvial period. Sir Charles Lyell has personally examined 
 the specimens referred to and regards the conclusions which 
 have been drawn from them as certainly very probable, 
 although, on the whole, in his 'Antiquity of Man' he ex- 
 presses himself rather doubtfully about the matter. On 
 the other hand Carl Vogt (in his Vorlcsungen uber den 
 Aleusclicu and in the Arcliiv fiir ^hitliropologie) declares, 
 that the discovery is a genuine one and open to no doubt. 
 He also maintains that the formation, in which these 
 bones were found, is decidedly Tertiary and therefore 
 geologically older than the French Diluvial formations. 
 According to him it is characterised by the presence of 
 the Southern Elephant (Elcplias mcrcdionalis) and be- 
 longs to an epoch which undoubtedly preceded the gla- 
 cial period and the age of the Cave Bear, the Mammoth 
 and the Tichorhine Rhinoceros. The French naturalist 
 Quatrefages also takes the side of Desnoyers and declares 
 that his investigations bear the impress of the most severe 
 and careful study. Desnoyers testimony is the more 
 valuable as , up to the year 1845 , he was one of the 
 most decided opponents of the notion of the existence of 
 fossil man. 
 
 Its value is still further increased by a communi- 
 cation made by Abbe Bourgeois to the International Con- 
 gress of prehistoric Anthropology and Archaeology held 
 at Paris in the year 1867. — In the very same Tertiary 
 strata of St. Prest, in which Desnoyers found worked bones, 
 M. Bourgeois discovered implements of stone. He after- 
 wards stated that he had also found numerous worked 
 flints in strata likewise of Tertiary age in the commune 
 of Thenay near Pontlevoy, and from this and som.e other 
 discoveries he concluded that the existenceof man reached 
 a very high antiquity, extending even into the Tertiary pe- 
 riod. He added that Abbe Delaunay had found nearPouanc^ 
 (^Maine et Foire) fossil bones of a 1 lalillirn'inii (a horbi-
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 33 
 
 vorous cetacean of the Miocene or IMiddle Tertiar}^ period), 
 Avith evident signs of having been operated upon with 
 cutting instruments. 
 
 Lastly M. A. Issel communicated to the same congress 
 a notice of several human bones which, as he stated, he 
 had found in beds of Pliocene age (i. e. belonging to the 
 last section of the Tertiary period), in the neighbourhood 
 of the town of Savona iiiLiguria, and which presented all 
 the physical tokens of very hig'h antiquity. (See the 
 Cuniptc rendu, dit Congrcs iiitcrnafional d' Antliropologie 
 ct d'Archeologie prchistoriqiLC. Paris 1868). 
 
 As a matter of course we can only hope that these 
 remarkable discoveries will be confirmed in course of time 
 and after they have been submitted to a careful critical 
 examination. But , if they prove to be well founded, 
 they are doubtless strongly in favour of the conjectures 
 of those naturalists who, upon theoretical grounds alone, 
 have held that the earliest appearance of man upon the 
 earth must be referred back at all events to the last and 
 perhaps even to the middle or the earliest section of the 
 great Tertiary period. 
 
 In this summary the evidences in favour of the great 
 antiquity of the existence of man are exhausted, at all 
 events in their principal outlines. But we could not 
 mention in it those evidences which, leaving geological 
 times out of consideration altogether, are derived from the 
 present epoch, from the period of the earth's formation 
 which is now passing. And yet the alluviuvi or so- 
 called lecent formations furnish evidence of a very high 
 antiquity of the human race upon the earth — ■ an anti- 
 quity indeed which leaves far behind it not only the truly 
 historical periods, but even the times of Biblical tradition. 
 For wdiilst the latter can only be calculated backwards 
 to 5—7000 years at the utmost, the duration of the allu- 
 vial period according to the calculations of Geologists was 
 at least a hundred thousand years and perhaps still more, 
 
 3
 
 34 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 SO that this alone gives a very wide range in time for the 
 socalled prehistoric existence of man. 
 
 Moreover, the evidence derived from this source has 
 one great advantage over the earher proofs ; it does not 
 rest upon argument, but, at least in part, upon direct 
 calculation and observation. The discoveries made in 
 the alluvial deposits are now, as might be expected, very 
 numerous and varied; only a few of the best known will 
 be cited here as examples. 
 
 In the years 1851 — 54 experimental borings were made 
 in the Delta of the Nile in Lower-Egypt, and objects of 
 human handiwork or fragments of pottery were found at 
 depths of 60 — 70 feet. Reckoning the thickness of the alluvial 
 deposits in the Delta of the Nile at 5 inches in a century, we 
 obtain for these relics of human activity an antiquity of 
 14,400 — 17,300 years. But if we follow M. Rosiere in estima- 
 ting the rate of deposition at only 2 72 inches in a century, we 
 obtain for a fragment of red brick found by Linant Bey at a 
 depth of 72 feet an antiquity of 30,000 years. Burmeister 
 who "assumes that the addition to the thickness ofthesoilin 
 Lower Egypt is 372 inches in the century, and that since 
 the appearance of man in that region 200 feet have been 
 deposited, extends his calculation of the antiquity of man 
 to no less than 72,000 years. (See his Gcologische Brief e). 
 
 In Sweden a fisherman's hut was excavated, the age 
 of which is to be reckoned at 10,000 years or even more. 
 Another similar discovery was made in the same country, 
 during the digging of a canal between Stockholm and 
 Gothenburg, when a hearth built of stones, with fragments 
 of wood charcoal, was found beneath an accumulation of 
 'Osars' or erratic blocks in the deepest layer of the sub- 
 soil, proving that man must have dwelt on that spot during 
 and even before the so called glacial period. 
 
 In Florida (North America) portions of human skele- 
 tons were found in a bank composed of coral-rock, the 
 age of which is calculated by Agassiz to be at least 10,000 
 years. On the same continent, in the Mississippi delta,
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 35 
 
 during- the excavation of the gas works at New-Orleans, 
 human bones, including a skull which exhibited all the 
 characters of the aboriginal South American race, were 
 found at a depth of i6 feet, beneath six different alluvial 
 beds. The antiquity of these remains is estimated by Dr. 
 Dowler at from 50 — 60,000 years. This estimate has 
 been repeatedly attacked with a view to invalidate it, but 
 Carl Vogt, who reproduces the whole calculation in his 
 'Lectures on Man', says it is impreg'nable. According 
 to Broca all the endeavours that have been made to di- 
 minish the antiquity assigned to this celebrated discovery, 
 have been incapable of reducing it below 15,000 years. Sir 
 Charles Lyell (in his 'Antiquity of Man") cites an old sea- 
 bottom with fragments of ancient pottery near Cagliari (Sar- 
 dinia), which must have an antiquity of at least 17,000 years. 
 
 A few years ago, in making a railway near Villeneuve 
 on the Lake of Geneva, the section of a conical hill of 
 alluvium was exposed, and from the contents of this Dr. 
 Morlot inferred an antiquity of from 7 — 10,000 years for 
 the existence of Man at that spot (16). 
 
 Here, also, we must refer to the celebrated Pilc-buil- 
 dijigs or Lake dwellings of Switzerland, Italy etc., which 
 have attracted so much attention of late years. These 
 prove beyond the shadow of a doubt the existence of a 
 primaeval, prehistoric, semiaquatic population in Europe, 
 of whose existence history gives us no hint whatever (17). 
 
 To the same category belong the vast, primaeval 
 turf-moors of Denmark and Iceland, which conceal in their 
 bosoms innumerable proofs of the very high antiquity of 
 man in these regions (18); the ancient Mounds or Earth- 
 works in the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio in North 
 America, which also incontestably prove the existence of 
 a very ancient population already considerably advanced 
 in civilization, which possessed and cultivated the land 
 long before its occupation by the red Indian hunters (19); 
 and lastly the wonderful Danish shell-heaps or kifclioi- 
 iniddciis (Kjokkenmodclings), consisting of enormous heaps 
 
 3*
 
 36 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 of the shells of marine animals, especially Oysters, which 
 have served for the nourishment of primaeval men, by 
 whom their shells have thus been accumulated. These 
 heaps, which are placed upon the sea shore, are often as 
 much as 1000 feet in length, by 100 — 200 feet in breadth, 
 and 5 — 10 feet in height. They occur on the coasts of Zealand 
 and Jutland and of the islands of Fiinen, Moen, Samsoe 
 etc., and also on some parts of the Swedish and Genoese 
 coasts, always along the creeks and bays, where the force 
 of the waves is great, and generally at the very edge of 
 the water, except in those places where alluvial deposits 
 or elevations of the land have subsequently removed them 
 to a greater distance. In these shell-heaps direct traces of 
 the existence of man are always found, especially weapons 
 and other instruments of stone, horn and bone, fragments 
 of clumsy pottery, stone-wedges, stone-knives etc. in great 
 abundance, accomipanied by fragments of charcoal and 
 ashes, but no traces of corn, bronze or iron, or of orchard 
 fruits or domestic animals, with the sole exception of the 
 Dog. The numerous bones of animals, which have been 
 found, belong chiefly to the Urus, the Aurochs, the Stag, 
 the Roe-deer, the Wild Boar, the Fox, Wolf, Beaver, Otter 
 etc., and all the bones containing- marrow have been split 
 up for the purpose of extracting from them that favourite 
 article of food. Human bones never occur in the kitchen- 
 middens, probably because the people who formed them 
 were accustomed to bury their dead. * 
 
 That these shell-mounds or offal-heaps must be of 
 great antiquity, reaching indeed into a period geologically 
 
 * By the exertions of the Danish archaeologist Worsaae the IMiiseiim 
 of Northern antiquities and the Geological Museum of the University of 
 Copenhagen contain an extraordinary abundance of objects from the kitchen- 
 middens brought there and cxhiliitcd in their natural state. These shell- 
 heaps have long been known, bul tliey were regarded as natural deposits 
 until, in the year 1847, three distinguished Danish sa7'n>//s, Steenstrup, 
 Forchhammer and Worsaae, investigated them thoroughly and ascertained 
 their artificial origin.
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 37 
 
 separate from ours, is proved by the circumstance that the 
 shells of marine IMollusca contained in them, (such as the 
 Oyster, Ostrea edzilts, the Cockle, Cardium cdicle, the 
 Mussel, Mytiliis edulis etc.) are still of a size which is 
 never attained by representatives of the same species now 
 living in the Baltic. Living specimens are not more than 
 one half or even one third of the size of those in the shell- 
 mounds. The cause of the diminution of size is as follows : 
 The Baltic, being no longer freely in communication with 
 the Ocean and receiving the waters of numerous rivers, 
 does not retain the character of a true sea, but is merely 
 brackish, whilst these IMolluscs require to live in the salt- 
 water of the open sea in order that they may attain their 
 full size. This is the case in a particularly remarkable 
 degree with the common Oyster, which, as has been stated, 
 is very abundant in the shell-mounds; this mollusc does not 
 now occur in the Baltic except just at its entrance, where 
 it communicates with the open Ocean. From this we 
 must conclude that, at the time when these heaps were 
 formed, the Baltic had quite a different form from that 
 which it now possesses, and especially that its communica- 
 tion with the Atlantic ocean was much more free and 
 open. Nevertheless, the kitchen-middens notwithstanding 
 their high antiquity belong only to the recent or alluvial 
 period, as they contain only the bones of animals still 
 living.; The sole exception to this statement is the Wild Bull 
 or Urus (Bos primigenius or UrtisJ, which, however, 
 was seen by Caesar. Quite recently similar shell-mounds 
 have been discovered upon a great extent of the coasts 
 of both North and South America. (20) 
 
 To the pile-dwellings, kitchen-middens and the like we 
 must add as the last and latest term in the series of traces 
 of his existence left by prehistoric man in the alluvial soils 
 the tumuli or 'giant's graves', as they are sometimes called, 
 which were formerly supposed to contain the bones of a 
 race of giants who lived before man, and also the remar- 
 kable objects known as Dolmens or 'stone tables'. But
 
 38 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 although the grave -moundis and .stone- monument;? them- 
 selves are gigantic, the men who built them were nothing 
 of the kind, but rather of smaller stature than the men of 
 the present day (21). They were probably supplanted by 
 the taller, more powerful and more civilized race of the 
 Celts, with whose appearance on the scene the first dawn 
 of history in central Europe commences. 
 
 With these, therefore, we have arrived at the close 
 of that series of facts fitted to throw some light upon the 
 prehistoric existence and high antiquity of man upon the 
 earth, and consequently at the end of our description of 
 the whole matter before us. This subject can only be 
 sketched here in its most general outlines and so as to 
 show its most prominent points, just as an alpine tra- 
 veller standing in the centre of a mountain -panorama is 
 usually told the names only of the most prominent and 
 striking of the infinite chain of peaks and mountains sur- 
 rounding him, whilst the hundreds of smaller peaks, though 
 in their own way perhaps equally remarkable, are passed 
 over in silence. Certainly the questions which naturally 
 arise from the consideration of these facts as to the anti- 
 quity and origin of our race, or the consequences which 
 we are justified in deducing from them, are of more im- 
 portance and significance than the facts themselves. 
 
 Thus, what is truly the antiquity of the human race 
 upon the earth reckoned in years? What is the relation 
 of this antiquity to the antiquity of the earth itself? And 
 what is its relation to the periods of history and popular 
 tradition? How is it that we have no historical traditions of 
 this earliest period? And what is the relation between the 
 primitive time and the primitive condition of our race in 
 prehistoric periods? Are we to suppose that man has gra- 
 dually struggled from a low and rude state into civiliza- 
 tion? or that he fell from a primitive state of high cultiva- 
 tion, only to work his way again to the same condition 
 at a later period? and if the former be the case, liow has
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 39 
 
 his gradual advance to his present state of civilization been 
 effected? All these questions, which are almost immediately 
 connected with the highest interests of humanity, we shall 
 now endeavour to answer to the best of our power and 
 so far as the present state of knowledge will permit. 
 But before doing so we may remark that these questions 
 and conclusions do not merely occupy our intelligence, but 
 must also appeal to our emotions, when we consider the 
 immense series of races which have disappeared before 
 our time, and the immeasurable grandeur of that Creation 
 in the midst of which we live. 
 
 As regards the first question, or that of the determi- 
 nation by years of the antiquity of the human race, any 
 such calculation is excessively difficult except in the case 
 of the alluvial deposits. With respect to these we know 
 pretty nearly the depth of deposit produced in a certain 
 time, and then according to the depth at which human re- 
 mains or objects of human workmanship have been found, 
 we may calculate the time which must have elapsed since 
 those objects were deposited there. But as soon as we 
 pass from the Recent period to the so called geological 
 periods, we no longer possess any such standard of mea- 
 surement and have to depend solely upon approximate data. 
 Hence this question has been answered in the most different 
 ways. In Geology we know no absolute numbers, but 
 only such as are relative or proportional. We do not even 
 know exactly the total length of the Alluvial period, which 
 separates us from antediluvian times, but have to depend 
 upon calculations which are different in different places 
 and which indeed indicate an actual difference in the 
 length of this period at different parts of the earth's sur- 
 face. And as no definite line of demarcation exists be- 
 tween the Alluvium and Diluvium of the older geologists, 
 and as the two pass gradually one into the other, we do 
 not even know, how long the existence of the ante- 
 diluvian animals, upon which, however, the whole question 
 turns, may have extended into the alluvial period at par-
 
 40 
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 ticular places; and we know nothing certain as to the time 
 either of their first appearance or of their extinction. 
 Nevertheless this much is certain, that since the time when 
 those deposits in which we find the remains of man and of 
 Diluvial animals intermixed were produced, considerable 
 geological changes must have taken place in the surface of 
 the earth. * Thus, to cite only a few of these changes as 
 examples of the rest, nearly all the European rivers had at 
 that time, at least in part, a different and more elevated 
 course; England and France were not yet separated by the 
 Channel, but formed a single, continuous mass of land, so that 
 the men of that period might have gone on foot from London 
 to Paris, if those cities had then been in existence; and the 
 proud Thames, upon whose bosom nowadays the ships of 
 all nations rest, still formed only a humble affluent of the 
 German Rhine. The beautiful Switzerland, so favoured 
 by all tourists and lovers of Nature, was then inaccessible 
 to human foot ; — from the summit of the Alps to beyond 
 the Jura, down to Geneva and even to far distant Soleure, 
 it was buried beneath the chilling pressure of an enormous 
 mass of ice, which bore upon its mighty back gigantic 
 fragments of rock and rolled them along to places where 
 they now look as if they had been transported by the hands 
 of giants. The great desert of the Sahara was still over- 
 flowed by the waves of the sea; its desert and burning 
 sands were not yet exposed so as to produce that glowing 
 wind, which, nowadays, after traversing the Mediterranean, 
 melts away the winter-snows on the summits of the Alps 
 as if by magic and converts the plain of Switzerland, for- 
 merly buried under everlasting ice, into a blooming country 
 covered with towns and villages. Lastly the animals 
 and plants then living were essentially different, in ac- 
 
 * This is a point which has been demonstrated by Lyell in his 'Anti- 
 quity of Alan' from a geological point of view, in great detail and witli 
 great scientific knowledge.
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 41 
 
 cordance with this different state of things, from those of 
 the present day. 
 
 Such important changes as these, in the structure of 
 the earth's surface, in chmate, in the distribution of land 
 and water and in the organic world, necessarily imply the 
 lapse of a very long period of time, that is to say long 
 in comparison to the standards, which the shortness of our 
 own lives has led us to accept as our rules; for in the 
 history and development of the earth a thousand years 
 count as little more than a moment in our own existence. 
 
 The traces of the Diluvial period itself, the duration 
 and extent of which of course are of the highest im- 
 portance in this question, are not, as was formerly supposed , 
 the results of one or several sudden catastrophes, but of 
 a very gradual course of development and of multifarious 
 and distinct natural processes. For their production they 
 would certainly have required far more time than the for- 
 mation of the Alluvium. We possess sufficient evidence 
 that man must have lived {22} even during and before the 
 glacial epoch , a subdivision of the quaternary or Diluvial 
 period, probably extending very far back in it. 
 
 From this it follows, that his existence did not merely 
 coincide with the conclusion of the period of the Diluvium, 
 but that it extended far into that period, perhaps even to 
 its commencement, a fact which is further proved by the 
 deposition of the diluvial flint axes in the very lowest bed 
 of the Diluvium , quite close to the underlying chalk. 
 But if the discoveries of MM. Desnoyers, Bourgeois etc. 
 above referred to prove to be correct, the existence of man 
 extends far beyond even the Diluvial period and far into 
 the great Tertiary epoch, and in this case his presence 
 on the earth can only be calculated by hundreds of 
 thousands of years! 
 
 You are doubtless startled, honoured reader, by the 
 magnitude of this number; and yet in comparison with the 
 enormous periods of time, which the earth has seen pass 
 away during its gradual development and formation, it is
 
 42 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 a mere nothing". In the attempt to calculate the time 
 required for the building up only of the stratified portion 
 of the earth's crust geologists have reached a period of 
 from 6 — 700 millions of years! Other g'eologists make a 
 rather smaller calculation, but in this case a hundred million 
 years more or less is of little consequence. 
 
 Thus we see that, great as may be the antiquity of man 
 in comparison with the periods of history or tradition, he is 
 nevertheless very young upon the earth itself and under any 
 circumstances is one of its last and most recent productions. 
 For even supposing that man was in existence as early as 
 the close or even the middle of the Tertiary period, he 
 still reaches but a little way up in the great scale of the 
 history of the earth. This scale, so far as it relates to 
 the fossiliferous strata, has been divided by Lyell into 36 
 members, but this number now appears to be too small, 
 as still older strata have recently been found to contain 
 organic remains. In this scale then, the man of the Tertiary 
 period would extend to No. 3 or No. 4, or at the outside 
 to No. 5 or No. 6 ! Innumerable races of plants and animals 
 preceded him in series long drawn out and during almost 
 infinite periods of time, and man himself plays, as it were, 
 only in the last act of a colossal Drama, the first scenes 
 of which are concealed from us by impenetrable darkness. 
 
 Upon theoretical grounds Sir Charles Lyell regards it 
 as very probable, that man lived as long ago as the Plio- 
 cene or last subdivision of the Tertiary period ; but he con- 
 siders it improbable, that the existence of the human race 
 dates back to the Miocene or middle division of the same 
 period. This latter opinion he founds upon the fact that 
 about this time the general character of the organised 
 world (animals and plants) was still too different from that 
 of the living forms. On the other hand Sir John Lubbock 
 asserts, that in his earliest beginnings man must have lived 
 in the Miocene period, but that we can hope to meet with 
 his bones or other remains from that epoch only in the 
 tropical regions which have as yet been so imperfectly
 
 OUR ORIGIXc 4:5 
 
 explored ! Wallace even thinks that we must refer the 
 fir-st appearance of man upon the earth still farther back, 
 to the Eocene or first subdivison of the great Tertiary period. 
 
 From this we may see, that philosophers are still much 
 divided in opinion to the real antiquity of our race upon 
 the earth, and that it is still quite impossible to estimate 
 it definitely in years. All that we can regard as perfectly 
 certain is, that the known historical period is a mere notliing 
 in point of time when compared with the periods during 
 which our race has actually inhabited the earth, or as Lyell 
 significantly expresses it, this historical period is compara- 
 tively only a creation of yesterday. In this opinion all 
 students of the subject now agree, even those who were 
 formerly the most obstinate of its opponents. 
 
 In point of fact true history, that is such history as 
 we may consider authentic, from its being transmitted to 
 us by credible written or traditional evidence, by no means 
 attains so high an antiquity as is commonly believed. It 
 only commences with the institution of the Greek Olym- 
 piads or with the year 776 B. C. The famous Trojan war 
 is certainly a good deal older and carries us back to 11 00 
 or 1200 years B. C; but the account of it is well known 
 to be only a mixture of fiction and truth. That the Greeks 
 themselves did not venture to date their history very far 
 back, appears from the circumstance, that Hecatseus of 
 Miletus, who lived 500 years B. C, expresses the opinion, 
 that for some 900 years the Gods had no longer taken 
 women for their wives. This, therefore, would indicate a 
 date of 1400 years before our era. 
 
 Beyond this earliest dawn of history we have nothing 
 but myths and traditions, oral communications transmitted 
 from generation to generation or isolated data derived 
 from old documents; or a history has been artificially com- 
 piled from monuments, buildings, old inscriptions etc. Thus 
 the traditions of the Aryan race of mankind reach to two 
 thousand years B. C. The Semitic writings place the birth 
 of Abraham, the progenitor of the Jews, at about 2000
 
 44 OVK ORIGIN, 
 
 years B. C. * and throw back the Deluge into the fortieth 
 century before our era. From the creation to the Deluge, 
 the Bible reckons from i — 2000 years and from this we 
 g"et a totiil of from 5 — 6000 years before Christ. 
 
 The very ancient historyof the Chinese contains two iso- 
 lated dates as the oldest. According to their writings the De- 
 luge admitted by them took place in the time of the emperor 
 Yao, or in the year 2357 B. C, and the art of writing was 
 invented by Huangti as early as the year 2698 B. C. About 
 this time, and whilst the Jews still led a nomadic life under 
 the patriarchs, the Chinese must have already attained a 
 very high degree of civilization. The mythical or legendary 
 history of that people indeed reaches the enormous anti- 
 quity of 129,600 years, a lapse of time which according to 
 their traditions was composed of twelve great divisions 
 (each of 10,800 years) and embraced three great periods, 
 namely: the reign of darkness, the reign of the earth, and 
 the reign of iiian. Professor Spiegel gives a somewhat 
 similar account of the Babylonians, who ascribed to their 
 ten most ancient patriarches lives amounting altogether 
 to 432,000 years. According to Alex, von Humboldt, Strabo 
 says of the aborigines of Spain (the Turduli and Turdetani), 
 "they make use of the art of writing and have books con- 
 taining memorials of ancient times and also poems and 
 precepts in verse, for which they claim an antiquity of 
 6000 years." 
 
 As regards the derivation of history from Monuments 
 and Inscriptions, the first place is due to the most anciently 
 civilized land in the world, Egypt. We all know what grand 
 and interesting results the observations and excavations 
 of the learned, aided by the deciphering of the hierogly- 
 phical writings, have brought to light in that primitive 
 land of marvels, the source of all the arts and sciences; 
 
 * According to calculations made upon the authority of the inscrip- 
 tions upon some Assyrian tablets now in the British Museum, the time 
 of Abraham would fall about the year 2290 B. C.
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 45 
 
 and I will therefore only mention that all these results have 
 been thrown into the shade by the recent discoveries of 
 M. Mariette, who has found sculptures, inscriptions and 
 statues dating back to no less than from 4000 — 4500 years 
 B. C. He also discovered pictures and inscriptions upon 
 the walls of the tombs of that time, which leave no doubt, 
 that even at that far distant period a comparatively high 
 state of civilization must have existed in Egypt. 
 
 We may judge of the high idea the Greeks must have 
 had of the civilization and power of Egypt, when we find 
 Homer (800 B. C.) in the Iliad speaking with great admira- 
 tion of the Egyptian Thebes with its hundred gates, from 
 each of which two hundred chariots went forth to battle 
 (and Memphis was much more ancient); and Achilles cries: 
 "Not if you offered me the wealth of the Egyptian Thebes 
 with its hundred doors, would I stir from this place!" Con- 
 sider also the pyramids of Egypt, forty and more in number, 
 which could only be the result of the industry of a thousand 
 years and must be regarded as the monuments of a long line 
 of royal races, which have sunk one by one into the tomb. 
 And this agrees perfectly with the mythical history of the 
 Egyptians, which commences many thousands of years 
 before their historical era, the latter beginning only with 
 Menes, the first historical king of Egypt, 5000 years B. C. 
 {2^). These traditions of the most ancient civilized peoples, 
 reaching as they do so far back in time, consequently agree 
 perfectly with the teachings of modern science and show 
 that some recollection, however obscure, of a far distant 
 past must have been retained in the memory of these 
 peoples. Thus even if all the geological and palaeontolo- 
 gical evidence which has been brought forward to prove 
 the high antiquity of the human race should be denied 
 credence, this circumstance alone, in conjunction with the 
 perfectly demonstrated high degree of civilization of the 
 ancient Egyptians, at least six thousand years ago, must 
 convince us, that the opinion hitherto prevalent and founded 
 upon biblical authority, namely that the human race is not
 
 46 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 more than 6000 years old, cannot possibly be correct. The 
 adoption of such an opinion can only be explained by the 
 profound ignorance which formerly prevailed as to the 
 prehistoric periods of the human race. These were envelop- 
 ed in complete and impenetrable darkness, illuminated by 
 no single ray of light; but nowadays this is all changed, 
 and a new science, called archacogeology by Boucher de 
 Perthes (a combination of geology and palaeontology with 
 archaeology), has already thrown a satisfactory light upon 
 those periods, and in course of time will illuminate them 
 still more. Probably many of my readers will ask here: 
 But how is it that there is no historical evidence of this 
 long period which Ave call prchisforic? Why is this subject 
 enveloped in an obscurity so complete that we have no 
 direct information upon it? The answer to these questions 
 is not difficult. 
 
 It is evident that the state of prehistoric man was one 
 of primitive and natural barbarism, in which he neither 
 felt the necessity, nor possessed the means of handing 
 down historical traditions. These means could only be 
 furnished by the invention of the art of writing, which 
 took place at a very late period and is in itself very com- 
 plicated. Until then only oral tradition was known, and 
 this indeed has existed from very ancient times. But even 
 this could only prevail to a very limited extent, hampered 
 as it would be by the deficiencies of an imperfectly developed 
 language and by the want of materials worthy of trans- 
 mission. The life of the primitive man was no doubt of 
 the greatest simplicity and uniformity, and, according to our 
 ideas, most wretchedly tedious. It was an uninterrupted and 
 miserable strife with savage animals and with the innume- 
 rable hardships of the external world! The combats of pri- 
 maeval man with the large aniir.als of theDiluvial or theTer- 
 tiary period may certainly have had in them much that was 
 striking and worthy of being handed down to posterity, and 
 we know, that in fact contests with animals play a very pro- 
 minent part in th(i earliest legendary chronicles of all an-
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 47 
 
 ciently civilised peoples. It has therefore often been suppo- 
 sed, and probably with justice, that these legends may not 
 be wholly poetical and imaginative, but that they may be 
 founded at all events partially in truth, and especially that 
 the well-known terrible narrations of fearful battles with 
 Dragons , monsters and wonderfully formed animals of 
 enormous size may in part have originated in the fact, that 
 man really saw and fought with the large and sometimes 
 curiously constructed animals of the Diluvium or Tertiary 
 period. 
 
 Be this as it may, it is nevertheless certain that man 
 in his rude, primitive and natural state was quite incapable 
 of having a history, and that he must have struggled up 
 to a certain and not very low degree of civilization, before 
 he would experience the desire and obtain the means of com- 
 municating his experiences to posterity in a durable form. 
 That this is not a mere theory, but the actual fact, may 
 be seen clearly from the condition of existing savages, w^ho 
 have lived from time immemorial in nearly the same state, 
 and at any rate without any real or written history. There 
 can be no doubt that this condition of our existing- savages 
 furnishes the best picture we can have of the primitive 
 condition of man, and that there is an almost perfect ana- 
 logy between the two conditions. All the narratives of 
 travellers show that there is a wonderful resemblance in 
 the weapons and other implements, the customs and the 
 mode of life of the savage peoples visited by them to those 
 of primaeval man, so far as we can make out the state 
 of the latter from his scanty remains (24). 
 
 This leads us quite naturally to the second and last 
 part of this section, to those questions as to the primitive 
 state and primitive times of the human race which follow 
 immediately from our investigations into its antiquity. How 
 was our oldest ancestor, the primitive man, constituted both 
 physically and morally? what did he do? how did he live? 
 wherewith did he clothe and feed himself? How did he 
 make his gradual progress towards civilization? And what
 
 48 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 can we deduce from these researches into the primitive 
 existence of man, which upset everything previously re- 
 garded as true and open to us a view into an immensely 
 distant past hitherto completely enveloped in obscurity, — 
 what can we deduce from these with regard to our proper 
 subject, namely the position of man in nature and the im- 
 portant question, Whence do we come? 
 
 It is true that to enter upon this field is so far an uncer- 
 tain and dangerous course, that with regard to most points 
 we have to depend rather on assumptions, conclusions from 
 analogy and the like, than on direct knowledge, and thus 
 fancy must more or less lend its aid to reason, in testing 
 and arranging the evidence. Nevertheless we possess a 
 series of certain data, which may furnish us with a tolerably 
 perfect notion of the condition of primitive man and of 
 his excessively slow progress through the lapse of thousands 
 of years to his gradual perfection and ennoblement. And 
 this is especially the case when we call in to our assistance 
 the numerous observations which have been made on 
 existing savage tribes, in which, as already indicated, we 
 have before us a very distinct and instructive prototype 
 or representation for enabling us to judge of the condition 
 of our most ancient human ancestors. In all probability, 
 however, the general condition of primseval man was still 
 lower and more imperfect than even that of our most bar- 
 barous savages. From the earliest period of his existence 
 known to us he has left behind him nothing in the shape 
 of weapons or implements, except those rough stone wedges 
 already described, which were produced by merely striking 
 to gether nodules of flint in their fresh and readily cleavable 
 state. At that early period he was unacquainted even with 
 that first and most primitive of all arts, the art of making 
 pottery, the indestructible remains of which are met with 
 so abundantly at a somewhat later period; nor had he then 
 any of those implements made of wood, horn and bone, 
 which are also found in such plenty among the remains 
 of a kiter dat(\ The difference between the man of the
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 49 
 
 Diluvial or Tertiary period and the civilised man of the 
 present day, must therefore have been still greater than 
 that between the Australian savage and the cultivated Euro- 
 pean of our own time, — a difference so great that it is only 
 with difficulty and inward reluctance that the uninstructed 
 mind can resolve to admit a logical connexion between 
 that period and the present, and takes refuge in the most 
 improbable theories of the creation of man, rather than 
 accept the truth which lies so evidently before it. For upon 
 this point, at least, our observations leave no doubt whatever, 
 man has not, as the old conception of the universe represents 
 him, descended upon the earth from heaven as a child of 
 paradise, a finished and to a certain extent perfect being, 
 but, like all the rest of the organic world, he has gradually 
 been developed in the course of many thousands of years 
 and of innumerable generations, commencing his existence 
 as a rude savage, scarcely above the grade of animality, 
 and almost crushed by the forces of external nature. Naked, 
 or poorl}^ clad in the skins of animals or the bark of trees, 
 living singly, or in isolated families in forests, caverns and 
 clefts of the rocks or on the banks of rivers, and armed 
 o)ily zuifh /lis wrefcJicd stouc-7vedges, this savage or primi- 
 tive man had to maintain an almost unceasing struggle 
 with the overpowering forces of nature which surrounded 
 him and with the powerful animals of the Diluvial or 
 Tertiary period. Out of this contest he certainly would 
 not have come as a conqueror (perhaps, indeed, he would 
 never have begun it) if he had not been supported by his 
 comparatively great intellectual power*. For, as regards 
 
 * It has often been considered impossible or inconceivable that the 
 most ancient men with their wretched weapons, could have held their 
 ground before the gigantic animals of the past. But a glance at the still 
 existing savages of America, Africa and Australia, who likewise venture, 
 with their simple and imperfect weapons, to attack the most formidable 
 animals, and even combat them victoriously, may teach us better. "Those 
 must be blind", says J. P. Lesley "who cannot recognise the traces of 
 
 4
 
 50 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 his bodily powers, these were scarcely greater and probably 
 less than those of men of the present day. 
 
 The widely spread belief in the former existence of 
 a race of human giants is perfectly erroneous, and, as al- 
 ready stated, depends solely upon the discovery of the 
 bones of gigantic animals which were confounded with 
 those of men. It is true that some very ancient human 
 skeletons or parts of skeletons have been found, which 
 must have belonged to comparatively large and very mus- 
 cular men, such, for example, as the skeleton of the famous 
 Neanderthal man, and the human bones recently found by 
 M. Louis Lartet in one of the caverns of Perigord (Les 
 Eyzies) and probably belonging to the period of the Mam- 
 moth, which seem to indicate a rude, but strong and mui,- 
 cular race of men, with an approximation in the structure 
 of the bones to the type of the apes, and with prognathous 
 jaws, but nevertheless with a comparatively good develop- 
 ment of the brain. On the other hand most of the discoveries 
 of the so called Quarternary period indicate a small race, 
 with a narrow skull and prognathous jaws, and therefore 
 of a type resembling that of the Negroes or Mongols. In 
 the most ancient period of the Mammoth and Cave Bear, 
 the men, according to Broca (Rapport de 1865 — 67), were 
 not of large stature, had a narrow head with a retreating 
 forehead, and oblique (prognathous) jaws, in fact a general 
 conformation of the body such as is now approximately 
 met with in the lowest races of Australia and New -Cale- 
 donia. This is proved particularly by the ape-like human 
 jaw from La Naulette which will be described hereafter. 
 
 this long, hard, dcsjierate, bloody and diabolically cruel contest between 
 the first men and all the adverse forces of the air and the earth, a contest 
 in which all the advantages were on the side of Nature, and in which, 
 nevertheless, man conquered, because the powers of mind and reason came 
 to his assistance. When we consider what the weapons and implements 
 of the primitive man were, our astonishment that civilization ever found 
 a time and a starting puint must be increased."
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 51 
 
 and by the analogous hones found by theMarquis de Vibraye 
 in the cave of Arcis-sur-Aube. But the existence of this 
 rude and small type of man lasted until a much later period 
 of prehistoric time, namely into the socalled Reifideer 
 period, as is proved especially by the discoveries made in 
 the numerous caves of the Belgian province of Namur, 
 which were examined by a special scientific commission 
 by the orders and at the expense of the Belgian government. 
 The report of this commission, dated 26"" March 1865, states 
 that besides great quantities of partially worked Reindeer 
 horns and bones, flint instruments, black pottery, shell 
 ornaments etc. etc., there were found a great number of 
 human bones, all of which must have belonged to men of 
 small stature, in this respect most closely agreeing with 
 the existing Laplanders. The remains of 14 individuals 
 found in the Trou de Frontal as already mentioned, like 
 the human bones in the cave of Aurignac, indicate a smaller 
 race than that now in existence. The report prepared by 
 M. E. Dupont describes the Belgian cave-man as "petit, 
 bien muscle, vif et maladif." 
 
 That a similar small race must have continued to exist 
 even during the Bronze-period, which followed the Stone- 
 age, and in which man had already learnt the arts of alloy- 
 ing and working in metals, is proved by the well-known 
 small size of the handles of the bronze weapons. This fact 
 had struck archaeologists generally, long before anything 
 was known of Diluvial man. 
 
 If the primitive man was thus so inferior even in cor- 
 poreal attributes to the men of the present day (25), this 
 was still more strikingly the case with regard to his in- 
 tellectual capacities. Although his mental powers en- 
 abled the primitive man, nothwithstanding his comparative 
 bodily weakness, to come off victorious in his contests with 
 animals which exceedeed him greatly in size and strength, 
 these faculties can nevertheless only have been of the most 
 imperfect and undeveloped kind when compared with 
 the general intellectual culture of the existing generation. 
 
 4*
 
 52 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 This indeed is demonstrated by numerous discoveries of 
 ancient and primaeval human skulls in the most various 
 parts of the world, as these, almost without exception, 
 when they belong to a tolerably high antiquity, show a 
 rude or undeveloped form, and, in accordance therewith, a 
 comparatively small development of the brain. In some 
 respects they remarkably approach the type of the lowest 
 of existing races of men, that of the barbarous aborigines 
 of Africa or Australia. Among such the following may 
 be cited: 
 
 The numerous negro-like skulls from the Belgian caves 
 found by Spring and Schmerling (26); the socalled Borreby 
 skull from Denmark (27); the skull which was discovered 
 by Link among those collected by Schlotheim from the 
 gypsum-caves near Kostritz, and which was remarkable for 
 the singular flattening of its forehead ; the skulls of 
 of similar form discovered by Lund in a Brazilian bone- 
 cave mixed with the remains of extinct animals; that 
 found by Castelnau under the same conditions in the rocky 
 caverns of the Peruvian Andes, which had a similar form 
 and was much elongated behind * ; the skull , already 
 mentioned, resembling that of a Caffre in form and 
 having a low, narrow, receding forehead and very 
 prominent superciliary ridges, which was found in 
 company with Mammoth bones near Canstatt in the 
 year 1700 and is now preserved in the Museum of Stutt- 
 gart. The very ancient skull found in the Isle of Port- 
 land and presented a few years ago by J. W. Smart to 
 
 *) A strongly receding forehead always indicates a small or low 
 development of the brain, as is shown by the configuration of the skull 
 among the lowest races of mankind. Frere, whose rich collection of 
 skulls of all centuries of our era has been incorporated with the new 
 Anthropological Museum at Paris, cites as the principal result of the 
 comparison of such skulls, that the more ancient the type the more deve- 
 loped is the skull in the occipital region and the flatter is the forehead, so 
 that the transition of barbarous peoples towards civilization is revealed 
 by the increasing elevation of the frontal region.
 
 OUR ORIGIN, 
 
 53 
 
 the Anthropological Society of London also belongs to this 
 category ; it had its bones very thick, exhibited very pro- 
 minent orbits and was altogether of so low a type that it 
 resembled the very lowest of Negro skulls (see Anthrop. 
 Review for October 1865). We may also mention the 
 human skulls of very low type found in an old grave in 
 Caithness, among which there was one which was declared 
 by several scientific authorities to be the very worst-formed 
 European skull that they had seen with the sole exception 
 of that fromNeanderthal(28), — the skulls found on theCottes- 
 wold hills and reported on by Dr. Bird (29) in the periodical 
 above quoted (February 1865); the skull with a depressed 
 forehead, a greatly developed occiput and Negro-like type 
 described by Professor Cocchi from the valley of the Arno 
 near Florence (see note 11) etc. etc. 
 
 All these discoveries, together with a great many others 
 which could not be particularised here, are, however, sur- 
 passed in interest and importance by the celebrated 
 Neanderthal skull which has already been referred to. This 
 was found in 1856, associated with an undoubtedly fossil 
 skeleton in a limestone cavern of the Neanderthal near 
 Hochdal (between Diisseldorf and Elberfeld), and has been 
 careful exam.ined and described by Drs. Fuhlrott and 
 Schaaffhausen. 
 
 It has a very narrow, flat and surprisingly depressed 
 forehead, whilst the orbits and supraciliary ridges are deve- 
 loped and prominent to a degree such as has never been 
 observed in any other human skull. This peculiar con- 
 formation must have given the face of the Neanderthal 
 man a frightfully bestial and savage, or ape-like expression. 
 The rest of the skeleton to Avhich the skull belonged also 
 presented many resemblances in its structure to the osseous 
 framework of the lower races of men. The ridges and 
 crests especially which served as points of insertion for 
 the muscles, are very strongly developed, so that we may 
 conclude that their possessor was a very strong and mus- 
 cular, if a very savage man. This remarkable discovery
 
 54 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 naturally created much sensation in the learned ^^'orld 
 beyond Germany, especially in England and France, where 
 many plaster casts of the skull were distributed. In Eng- 
 land the distinguished Professor Huxley after careful 
 examination declared the Neanderthal skull to be the most 
 bestial and ape-like in existence, corresponding most 
 nearly with the skulls of the Australians. Professor 
 Schaaffhausen expresses himself in the same fashion. In 
 1864 at the congress of Naturalists at Giessen he declared, 
 in opposition to other interpretations, that the Neander- 
 thal skull represented a race-type, and that the entire 
 and undoubtedly fossil skeleton, which precluded the 
 supposition of idiocy, exhibited a number of characters 
 such as have been of late years observed in the skeletons 
 of very low races of men. He maintained finally, that 
 the skull and skeleton must undoubtedly have belonged 
 to one of the Autochthones or primitive inhabitants of 
 Europe living before the Indogermanic immigration (30). 
 As a matter of course many objections were raised to this 
 interpretation of the remains, on the part of those who 
 had an interest in invalidating this important piece of 
 evidence, but these produced no result. The chief ob- 
 jection raised by those who were not accurately informed 
 upon the subject, was founded on the supposition that 
 the discovery in the Neanderthal was an isolated one, 
 and that the peculiar and unexampled form of the skull 
 was to be explained away as abnormal or exceptional. 
 But in reality this is so far from being the case that 
 Professor Huxley was quite justified in declaring that the 
 Neanderthal skull is by no means so isolated as it might 
 appear to be at the first glance, but that it truly forms 
 only the extreme member of a scries leading by slow degrees 
 to the highest and best developed forms of human skulls. 
 
 The Borreby skulls belonging to the stone-age of 
 Denmark especially are considered by Huxley to show 
 a great resemblance to the Neanderthal skull, a resem- 
 blance which is manifested in the depression of the era-
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 55 
 
 nium, the receding forehead, the contracted occiput and 
 the prominent supracihary ridges. The same may be 
 said, more or less, of the other remains of skulls men- 
 tioned in our preceding enumeration, as well as of a 
 great number of skulls and fragments of skulls found 
 (with bones) chiefly in the north of Europe, which 
 are cited in detail by Professor Schaaffhausen in his 
 important memoir "Towards the knowledge of the skulls 
 of the most ancient races." In all these similar characters 
 were observable, although in a less degree. In nearly 
 all these crania the strong projection of the supraciliary 
 ridges and the low, flat, receding forehead are expressly 
 noticed as characteristic peculiarities (31). But if we leave 
 out of the account the last mentioned character of the 
 prominent supraciliary ridges, we have in the Peruvian 
 skull of one of the Titicaca race obtained by Baron von 
 Bibra from an ancient tomb at Algodon Bay in Bolivia 
 and brought by him to Europe, a form which, in its ex- 
 cessively small size, the narrowness and lowness of its 
 forehead, which indeed is almost entirely deficient, and its 
 elongated occipital region, exceeds even the Neanderthal 
 .skull in animality and inferiority of conformation. Bibra 
 says that it has more analogy with the skull of a monkey 
 than with that of a man, and the chemical examination 
 that he made of its bones indicates that it is of a very 
 high antiquity {^2). 
 
 PVom all these facts, and from many other discoveries 
 of human bones, including a great number of lower jaws 
 of very bestial form, which wall be more particularly refer- 
 red to hereafter, we may conclude with certainty, that our 
 most ancient European ancestor, or the primitive man in 
 all countries, must have been almost infinitely inferior to 
 our existing race of men both corporeally and intellectually, 
 in other words, he must have been an extremely barbarous 
 and perhaps almost dumb savage, who worked his way 
 up to a certain degree of civilization and made actual in- 
 tellectual progress by extremely slow degrees and by
 
 56 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 means of almost inconceivable efforts, impelled thereto either 
 by his own faculties or by influences from without. Nay 
 from the observations now before us it would almost seem, 
 that for thousands of years scarcely any progress of this 
 kind was made. At least according to the calculations of 
 Lyell and others (see note 22), a very long period must 
 have elapsed between the deposition of the upper and lower 
 gravel beds containing flint axes in the valley of the Somme 
 which are of considerable thickness. And yet no considerable, 
 readily perceptible difference can be pointed out between 
 the axes from the upper and lower beds, so that the in- 
 dustrial condition of primitive man must have remained 
 nearly unchanged during a very long period of time. 
 There is indeed some difference between the axes, but 
 it is so slight as to be recognisable, according to Lyell, 
 only by the eye of the practised observer, whilst the uni- 
 nitiated can see nothing of it. It has, however , been 
 observed that the so called ozurl forms predominate over the 
 elongated ones in the deeper beds. With more accurate 
 knowledge and more abundant material we shall no doubt 
 eventually succeed in obtaining" more delicate distinctions, 
 and may thus arrive at a better notion of the gradual 
 course of the development of civilization {^i^. 
 
 At a somewhat later period the differences in the 
 stone weapons become so considerable, and the gradual 
 progress in industrial skill of the primitive peoples shows 
 itself so distinctly, that in accordance therewith the so- 
 called stone-age has been divided into three distinct, con- 
 secutive periods or sections, characterised chiefly by the 
 form and the greater or less perfection of the stone wea- 
 pons and other instruments. These are the ancient, middle 
 and recent stone -ages, and they certainly embrace an enor- 
 mous lapse of time, as the ancient stone-age is undoubtedly 
 intimately connected with the first appearance of man upon 
 the earth, and the most recent age of stone was prolonged 
 far into the historical period, and even continues to the 
 present day among many savage tribes.
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 57 
 
 But in order that this expression „the stone-age" may 
 be rightly understood, it must be borne in mind that of 
 late the prehistoric periods of the human race and its 
 development in civilization have been generally divided, 
 after the example oi the'Northem savants, into the a^-es of 
 stone, bronze and iron, and that this division although often 
 attacked and doubted, has by degrees been fully establi- 
 shed in archaeological science. It is true that the periods 
 are united by the most gradual transitions from one to 
 the other and that they frequently seem to invade one an- 
 other's territories, but on the whole they indicate quite 
 correctly the gradual progress of civilization, the true 
 civilized periods commencing only with the introduction of 
 iron *. Bronze, an alloy or mixture of copper and tin, was 
 evidently a much less perfect material than iron, the use 
 of which alone could have rendered possible that advance 
 in civilization which has landed us at our present stage of 
 development. 
 
 Of course stone was the most imperfect material and 
 its displacement by bronze or brass was a greater step in 
 advance at the time when it occurred, than that sub- 
 sequently caused by the introduction of iron. 
 
 From this mode of division, which now serves us as 
 a measure for determining the most ancient periods of the 
 human race, we see at once that in reality the course of 
 development of human society has been the very opposite 
 of that imagined by the poets of classical antiquity and 
 pictured by them in their writings. For while they 
 represent a golden, a silver and an iron age following one 
 another and accompanied by a constantly increasing de- 
 terioration in the condition of human society, in reality 
 the very reverse has taken place. "A life of perfect in- 
 
 * According to M., Gabriel de Mortillet, a recognised authority, the 
 tirst appearance of iron is completely prehistoric, and the three periods 
 of Stone, Bronze and Iron have very gradually followed one another, at 
 all events in Switzerland and Italy.
 
 58 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 dolence and perpetual serenity was not the lot of thecjldest 
 human inhabitants of our country, but a life full of severe 
 and heavy labour, of great and ceaseless cares. And when 
 at last, the bronze and after it the iron age came in, this last 
 did not indicate a growing deterioration in the conditions 
 of human existence, but the greatest iniprovement, and the 
 most rapid progress that has been or could have been 
 made towards the freedom of man" (Virchow). 
 
 However, as we have already said, it must not be 
 supposed that well-marked boundaries exist between these 
 three periods; on the contrary gradual transitions are every- 
 where perceptible. A transitional period of this kind 
 must have occurred especially between the ages of Stone 
 & Bronze. It is indicated by numerous tombs and other 
 places in which implements made of stone and bronze are 
 found togcflicr. Implements of pure copper are also found 
 in this transition period, so that many people have been 
 inclined to intercalate here a special coppcr-agc{^\). Objects 
 of bronze and iron are also found together in many places; 
 but whilst the bronze was speedily and completely super- 
 seded by iron, the stone-weapons held their ground much 
 longer, and their use extends, as has already been stated, 
 far down into historic timics. Perhaps the last stone weap- 
 ons may have been manufactured with iron instruments, 
 and it is said that the English actually fought with stone 
 implements against William the Conqueror (35). A circum- 
 stance of great significance in the history of human deve- 
 lopment, obser\ed In this transition from stone to bronze 
 and from bronze to iron, is that the first hroiizc ivcapotis 
 7vcrr made exactly after the pattern of the old stone imple- 
 ijieiits, and in the same way also the earliest implements 
 of iron after the pattern of the bronze implements which 
 preceded them, although without such models before them 
 no one would have thoug-ht of bringing the malleable and 
 ductile metal into the rough and inconvenient forms of 
 the productions of the stone age. From this instance we 
 see most distinctly that the human mind cannot produce
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 59 
 
 anything at once and directly from itself, but that 
 it is everywhere confined strictly to the laws of its 
 gradual, sensualistic development and to the nourishment 
 furnished to it by impressions from without. Most certainly 
 we have no right to compassionate the limited capacity 
 of our oldest ancestor, who was incapable of his own powers 
 to rise to the idea of a true metallic implement, and could 
 only by degrees observe how the new material was ca- 
 pable of taking improved forms, as we ourselves are every 
 moment guilty of the same fault, but on a larger scale, and 
 both in material and intellectual matters can break loose 
 from the old and antiquated only with the greatest trouble. 
 Take as an instance the defective construction of our rail- 
 ways and railway-carriages, which are still made on the 
 pattern of the old and inconvenient post-roads and stag'e- 
 coaches, although with the materials now at our command, 
 if only these models were thrown aside, the whole arrange- 
 ment might be infinitely better adapted to its purposes 
 and rendered less dangerous , more convenient and 
 cheaper (36). 
 
 After all these digressions we must return to our main 
 subject, the stone-age, which in its three consecutive phases 
 or divisions of the ancient, middle and recoil period is best 
 of all fitted to furnish us with a picture of the gradually 
 ascending course of civilization. The ancient stone-period 
 is characterised by those stone axes of rude form on the 
 pattern of those of Amiens, Abbeville, Hoxne etc., which 
 are found chiefly in the gravelly or sandy deposits of 
 former river beds, but som.etimes also in caves of the most 
 ancient kind. They show no traces of fine work and 
 were produced merely by blows or taps; they are not 
 smoothed or polished and have no holes for the handle, 
 no ornamentation, or anything of the kind. Associated 
 with them we find no traces of metal, no pottery and no 
 remains of domestic animals; on the other hand they are 
 accompanied by numerous bones of extinct animals of the 
 Diluvial period, such as the Cave Bear, the Mammoth, the
 
 6o OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 Woolly Rhinoceros etc. Sir John Lubbock (Prehistoric 
 Times, London, 1865) calls this the Palaeolithic period, to 
 distinguish it from the second or Neolithic period, and 
 according to him, as already mentioned, about 3000 flint 
 implements of this age have probably been found in the 
 North of France and South of England. M. E. Lartet 
 thinks that we should distinguish in the Palaeolithic age 
 an ancient period of the Cave Bear and a more modern 
 one of the Elephant and Rhinoceros, but this distinction 
 has been regarded as superfluous by other writers, espe- 
 cially by Carl Vogt (37). 
 
 According to Carl Vogt {Archiv filr AiitJiropologie, 
 i(S66, Part I) the man of this oldest stone age, who must 
 be regarded, however, only as the descendant or successor 
 of a still ol.der and more barbarous race belonging to the 
 Tertiary period, was of large stature, powerful and Jong- 
 headed (dolichocephalic) judging from the skulls of Engis 
 and the Neanderthal. He paid honour to the dead, was 
 acquainted with the use of fire, made hearths, split the 
 hollow bones and skulls of animals in order to extract the 
 marrow and brains from them, adorned himself with corals 
 and the teeth of wild animals and clothed himself in skins 
 or in the bark of trees softened by beating. He possessed 
 rude axes and knives split off from blocks of stone and 
 implements of bone adapted for various purposes. And 
 judging from the great abundance of flint instruments 
 found in the European caves he was spread over the whole 
 of central Europe north of the Alps. 
 
 This description does not exactly apply to the bar- 
 barous primaeval man of the earliest diluvial times, and it 
 would appear that the describer must have had in his 
 mind at the same time a series of cave-discoveries belong- 
 ing to a somewhat later date. Westropp who disting- 
 uishes fozcr stages of civilization, names this earliest 
 stage of humanity that of savagery and supposes it to be 
 followed by the stages of hunters, herdsmen and agri- 
 culturists.
 
 OUR ORIGIN, 6l 
 
 The ancient stone age is immediately followed by the 
 middle stone age, characterised by stone weapons and flint 
 implements of finer workmanship and greater finish. 
 
 We might also call it the period of flint knives, as 
 these are found in enormous quantities, whilst the axes are 
 far less numerous in proportion. But it is generally indi- 
 cated as the Reindeer period, and the man then living as 
 the Reindeer-ma7i, on account of the immense quantity of 
 worked and chiselled bones and antlers of the Reindeer 
 (or Stag) which we find in localities belonging to this time. 
 This manufacture of the bones of IVIammals and fishes, 
 shells etc. was carried on partly for purposes of domestic 
 utility and partly for the production of ornamental objects. 
 But the extremely imperfect civilization of the man of this 
 period is shown by the circumstance that he still possessed 
 no domestic animals, with the exception, perhaps of the 
 dog, and that the remains of a very rude, blackish pottery 
 are only found here and there. The bones of animals 
 found belong partly to extinct forms and partly to species 
 which are still in existance, but which, like the Reindeer, 
 retreated to high northern latitudes before the period of 
 history or tradition. The whole period of the Reindeer-man 
 is completely pre-historic, as according to the unanimous 
 opinion of naturalists the Reindeer emigrated from our 
 regions in pre-historic times. 
 
 To this period belong the greater part of the objects 
 discovered in caves, especially in the numerous caves of 
 the South of France and Belgium, which have furnished 
 such abundant materials for the primaeval history of man. 
 It would appear from this, that the Reindeer-man lived 
 chiefly or almost exclusively in caverns, which, indeed, not 
 only at that period, but long before and long after it, 
 served mankind as places of residence or of refuge (38). 
 The cave of Aurignac described at the beginning of this 
 section, in which flint knives, ornaments, instruments of 
 bone etc. were found, must be placed in this series. It is 
 also characteristic of this period that in the localities be-
 
 62 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 longing to it numerous remains of man himself have been 
 found, whilst this has hitherto been the case to a very 
 limited extent in localities of the earliest stone age. Accor- 
 ding to Carl Vogt the skulls of this (second) period ex- 
 hibit a flatness of the frontal region, with a considerable 
 development of the occipital part and a rooflike form of 
 the cranial arch (as in Australian skulls). With this struc- 
 ture is usually combined strong prognathism or obliquity 
 of the teeth, a short form of the head (brachycephalism) 
 and a feeble structure of the body, so that the general 
 picture of the man of the Reindeer time corresponds most 
 closely with that of the existing Laplanders. The great ar- 
 tistic sense which is displayed in the drawings and carv- 
 ings of the Reindeer-man, as previously described, is 
 very remarkable, and the progress towards civilization 
 which was made by him in the finer finishing of his weap- 
 pons and implements and by the invention of pottery was 
 very considerable. As Vogt says, the Reindeer-man excelled 
 particularly in the art of working in bone. He evidently 
 lived only by the chase and by fishing and thus represented 
 the second or hunter-stage of the four degrees of civilization 
 established by Westropp. To the same stage this author 
 also refers the kitchen-middens or heaps of culinary refuse, 
 as we find in them only chipped stone implements, but 
 none polished or smoothed by grinding. 
 
 An exceedingly brilliant light has been thrown upon 
 the Reindeer period and the Reindeer-man by the very 
 careful investigation of the Belgian caves which has been 
 made during the last few years, as also by the celebrated 
 discovery at the source of the Schussen near Schussen- 
 ried in Swabia (39). 
 
 The middle stone-age is followed by the recent stone- 
 age, or Lubbock's Neolithic period. It is characterised 
 by the profuse occurrence of stone weapons and imple- 
 ments of fine workmanship, and especially by the circum- 
 stance that these implements are not, as previously, pre-
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 63 
 
 pared merely by chipping or tapping, but polished or 
 smoothed by a process of grinding' and cutting; they are 
 also engraved or furnished with scratched ornaments and 
 provided with holes for the reception of the handle. These 
 cut or polished stone im.plements have long been known, 
 and all Museums swarm with them. On account of their 
 generally chisel-like form they are commonly known as 
 Celts (from the Latin ccltis a chisel). The celts are found 
 most abundantly in the North, especially in Denmark (40). 
 
 What especially distinguishes this third and most re- 
 cent stone-age from its two predecessors, is the greater 
 development attained in it by the art of pottery, which is 
 of such great importance in the progress of civilization. 
 Numerous remains of earthenware made by hand occur 
 in the localities of this period (41). 
 
 A no less important advance in civilization is indicated 
 by the presence of the bones of tamed or domesticated 
 animals and by the signs of the commencement of agri- 
 cultural pursuits, including the keeping of cattle. The man 
 of that time, whose intellectual and bodily nature was more 
 and more approaching to the present condition may there- 
 fore have been not merely a hunter, but also partly a 
 herdsman and agriculturist. Subsequently also he under- 
 stood the arts of spinning, of weaving coarse stuffs, and 
 of building permanent huts and dwelling places. The 
 traces of this age are spread over nearly the whole earth. 
 In general all discoveries made in the socalled alluvial 
 soil are referred to it, as also the turbaries and shell-heaps 
 already described, the Swiss pile-buildings and the Irish 
 lake-dwellings, the tumuli or grave- mounds, the Dolmens &c. 
 The most ancient remains of the socalled Celtic age must 
 also be referred to this period, which indeed, as already 
 stated, sends its last offshoots far into the historical period. 
 Scattered through the whole of Europe there is a great 
 number of graves, the contents of which show them to 
 belong to one of the two last mentioned periods of the
 
 64 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 stone-agfe. By the increasing delicacy and perfection of 
 the weapons and implements, as well as by their greater 
 adaptation for the inost varied purposes both of peace and 
 war, these graves display in a remarkable manner the 
 gradual progress of the people of the stone age. But this 
 progress must have required an enormous lapse of time, 
 and the advance itself must have taken place slowly in 
 proportion to the antiquity of the men and their poverty 
 in the means of progress. How many thousands of years 
 may have elapsed before the transition from the oldest to 
 the n.iddle stone age could have taken place? before man 
 succeeded in giving a rather more delicate or improved 
 form to the rough flint hammers of the oldest period, or 
 in adapting the material at his command to more multi- 
 farious purposes? This remarkably slow progress cannot 
 astonish us if we only bear in mind the picture of the 
 condition of this period which has already been sketched, 
 and consider on the one hand the enormous difficulties 
 with which the primitive man had to contend, and on the 
 other the absence of all impulse, whether from within or 
 from without, to any such progress. For stabilily or ten- 
 dency to invariability or immobility may be regarded as 
 the fundamental character of the savage and primitive 
 state of man, a character which of itself and without the 
 accession of external impulses possesses essentially a ten- 
 dency to almost infinite duration. This indeed may be 
 observed in the case of existing savages, who remain 
 almost stationary for thousands of years without making 
 any essential progress. With regard to this Lyell says 
 very appropriately: "The extent to which even a consi- 
 derably advanced state of civilization may become fixed 
 and stereotyped for ages, is the wonder of Europeans who 
 travel in the East. One of my friends declared to me, 
 that whenever the natives expressed to him a wish 'that 
 he might live a thousand years', the idea struck him as 
 by no means extravagant, seeing that, if he were doomed 
 to sojourn for ever among them, he could only hope to
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 65 
 
 exchange in ten centuries as many ideas, and to witness 
 as much progress, as he could do at home in half a 
 century." 
 
 As may easily be imagined it is precisely the first 
 step in the path of civilization that must have been the 
 most difficult and therefore the slowest. On the contrary, 
 with every fresh advance, both the means and the desire 
 to overcome the difficulties or obstacles in the way must 
 have been increased. With regard to the external ob- 
 stacles to progress no doubt the large and powerful ani- 
 mals of the Diluvial period must have disappeared and 
 the mighty geological catastrophes of that age must have 
 run their course, before man could obtain sufficient space 
 and opportunity for the development of his powers and 
 the wider diffusion of his race upon the earth. And even 
 after all this had taken place, impulses of some particular 
 kind would be required, to rouse the primaeval savage 
 from that sluggish, inactive and unintellectual state in 
 which one generation after another had sunk into the 
 grave like the beasts surrounding them, and to force 
 upon him, as it were, the necessity of advancing in civili- 
 zation. 
 
 Among impulses of this kind I reckon prominent na- 
 tural phenomena, geographical or climatic changes, the 
 immigration or irruption of foreign races, wars, famines, 
 expulsions from old dwelling places, migrations, the com- 
 mencement of relations of traffic and commerce, the grad- 
 ual improvement of language &c., and especially the rise 
 of certain highly endowed individuals who possessed them- 
 selves of a political or spiritual sovereignty. 
 
 Without any such impulses it is possible that the sa- 
 vage state in which our oldest ancestor lived, might have 
 persisted to the present day. It is true that many people 
 talk about the existence of an innate and necessary in- 
 stinct of progress in human nature and believe that this 
 instinct must always and necessarily produce its due effect. 
 But in the presence of so many eloquent facts which 
 
 5
 
 66 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 testify to the contrary, it will be difficult for any one with 
 an unprejudiced judgment to believe in such a necessity. 
 Thus not only are there people who have remained station- 
 ary at the same degree of culture from the very dawn 
 of history, but there are others, such as the Chinese, who 
 have certainly attained a certain stage of progress, but have 
 then remained without alteration, whilst we can only find 
 one comparatively small group of nations which has hi- 
 therto been constantly engaged in a course of progress 
 and improvement. But even this progress in them has 
 not always proceeded spontaneously from within, but the 
 impulse towards it has come in historic times only from 
 without. We also see those nations which were formerly 
 the greatest and most powerful and endowed with the 
 most advanced civilisation, such as the Egyptians, Assy- 
 rians, Jews, Greeks, Romans &c., now in a state of almost 
 complete decay, whilst their place in the scale of progress 
 has been taken by quite different peoples in other lands. 
 Thus it is quite conceivable that the European primitive 
 man would perhaps never have emancipated himself from 
 his state of rude servitude to nature, if impulses from 
 without and especially the occasional immigration of foreign 
 races of a higher degree of culture, had not been brought 
 to bear upon him. Whether a complete displacement or 
 destruction of the aborigines by the newcomers took place 
 under these circumstances, or only a mixture and conse- 
 quent ennoblement of the native race, is a question which 
 can hardly be answered directly, but the second case is 
 certainly by far the most probable (42). 
 
 With this we may consider that we have touched 
 upon all the essential points in our knowledge of primaeval 
 man and his rude condition, scanty as this is at present. 
 It is remarkable that a certain reminiscence of this early 
 condition must have been preserved among the most an- 
 cient men and in the earliest recollections of peoples, for 
 among very many of the latter unmistakeable traditions 
 of the first rude commencements of culture and civilization
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 67 
 
 are to be found. Thus, for example, the Chinese possess 
 a complete picture of the progress of their civilization, 
 which in its main features agrees perfectly with the results 
 of our scientific investigation. This picture commences 
 with the time when men lived naked upon the trees and 
 were still unacquainted with the use of fire. Afterwards 
 they clothed themselves with leaves and bark, later still 
 with skins &c. &c. In the same way, according to Prof. 
 Spiegel (Genesis U7id AvestaJ the most ancient traditions 
 and legends of the Hebrews, Phoenicians, Hindoos, Baby- 
 lonians &c. all point to a primitive savage state from which 
 the human race rose to a higher condition only by the 
 help of the Gods or of specially endowed men (the so-called 
 patriarchs). According to the legends of the Babylonians 
 their ten most ancient patriarchs lived altogether 432,000 
 years! The Iranian heroic legend endeavours to show 
 a gradual development of the human race from a state of 
 complete savagery to a regular state of social life, and 
 this it does by the same steps of development that are 
 accepted in the Semitic legends. Its first king, Gaiumard, 
 taught men to clothe themselves in the skins of animals 
 and to eat the fruits of trees, whilst an accidentally ignit- 
 ed tree taught a subsequent king (Huscheng) the use of 
 fire. In this a divine nature was immediately supposed 
 to reside, and the worship of fire commenced. 
 
 By the Phoenicians also the first use of fire and the 
 discovery of the art of producing it by friction, are placed 
 in the second generation of the human race. According 
 to the Bundehesch, a very ancient Iranian document, the 
 first men lived only on fruits and water. It was only at 
 a later period that they made use of milk and flesh, ac- 
 quired the knowledge of fire, clad themselves in the skins 
 of animals, built themselves huts &c. &c. 
 
 If we leave out of consideration the merely poetical 
 ideas of the gold and silver ages, throughout the whole 
 period of classical antiquity, no other notion than the above 
 prevailed as to the primitive state of our race upon the 
 
 5*
 
 68 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 earth and the slow and gradual course of its development. 
 As a proof of this we may cite the celebrated passage in 
 Horace (Satires, Book I. 3,99), which, moreover, seems to 
 have been founded upon the well-known dissertation on 
 the Epicurean philosophy of the history of Creation in the 
 fifth book of the didactic poem of Lucretius Carus. "When 
 animals", says Horace, "first crawled forth from the new 
 formed earth, a stupid and filthy flock, they fought for 
 acorns and places of refuge with their nails and fists, then 
 with cudgels and finally with weapons which, guided by 
 experience, they had made for themselves. Then they in- 
 vented names for things and words to express their 
 thoughts, after which they began to abstain from war, to 
 fortify their towns, to establish laws &c." 
 
 After the period of classical antiquity had passed away, 
 and by means of influences of an unscientific kind which 
 I will not characterise more particularly, a conception 
 quite opposite to that just described Avas brought forth, 
 and gradually arrived at almost universal acceptance. This 
 is the notion that the primitive man was not a barbarous 
 savage, but on the contrary a being as perfect as possible 
 and endowed with the highest and best qualities, and that 
 we ourselves are only the degenerate descendants of a 
 better and more noble race, corrupted and ruined by sin 
 and labour. A consequence of the adoption of this opinion 
 is that even scientific men are fond of representing the 
 existing savages as the degraded and degenerate posterity 
 of miore highly endowed forefathers *. In this sense the 
 Count de Salles says: "Man, created by God, passed from 
 the hands of the Creator as a perfect work, complete in 
 body and spirit. Whatever may be the actual degradation 
 
 * In the case of many, or at all events of some savage tribes this 
 view may undoubtedly be to a certain extent correct, but as a general 
 rule it is certainly ijuile false.
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 69 
 
 of many men, civilization is their final goal, as it was their 
 original state *. 
 
 "It is difficult to conceive" says Quatrefages after 
 citing this passage, "upon what facts this author relies." 
 In point of fact, such an opinion as this having sprung 
 solely from theoretical considerations can only appeal to 
 theoretical grounds, whilst it is in the plainest contradiction 
 to every known fact. If the men now living were really 
 only the [degenerate and partially corrupted descendants 
 of a former higher and better race, it would be difficult 
 to understand how the human race could still exist, as it 
 is a law generally recognised and proved by experience, 
 that degenerate or degraded tribes and individuals are 
 never of long duration, but that they gradually disappear. 
 
 Lyell argues admirably ag'ainst this view in the follow- 
 ing words: "But had the original stock of mankind been 
 really endowed with such superior intellectual powers and 
 with inspired knowledge, and possessed the same im- 
 provable nature as their posterity, the point of advance- 
 ment to which they would have reached ere this would 
 have been immeasurably higher. We cannot ascertain 
 at present the limits, whether of the beginning or the end, 
 of the first stone period, when Man coexisted with the 
 extinct Mammalia, but that it was of great duration we 
 cannot doubt. During those ages there would have been 
 time for progress of which we can scarcely form a con- 
 ception, and very different would have been the character 
 of the works of art which we should now be endeavouring- 
 to interpret, ■ — those relics which we are now disinterring 
 from the old gravel-pits of St. Acheul, or from the Liege 
 caves. In them, or in the upraised bed of the Mediterranean, 
 on the south coast of Sardinia, instead of the rudest pottery 
 
 * The great poet Milton also was, as is well known, a supporter 
 of this hypothesis of the perfection of the primitive man, and sings of 
 Ad. 1 I as the most perfect of men and of Eve as the loveliest of 
 women.
 
 yo OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 or flint tools so irregular in form as to cause the unpracti- 
 sed eye to doubt whether they afford unmistakable evidence 
 of design, we should now be finding sculptured forms, 
 surpassing in beauty the master-pieces of Phidias or Praxi- 
 teles; lines of buried railways or electric telegraphs, from 
 which the best engineers of our day might gain invaluable 
 hints; astronomical instruments and microscopes of more 
 advanced construction than any known in Europe, and 
 other indications of perfection in the arts and sciences, 
 such as the nineteenth century has not yet witnessed. 
 Still farther would the triumph of inventive genius be 
 found to have been carried, when the later deposits, now 
 assigned to the ages of bronze and iron, were formed. 
 Vainly should we be straining our imaginations to guess 
 the possible uses and meaning of such relics — machines, 
 perhaps, for navigating the air or exploring the depths of 
 the ocean, or for calculating arithmetical problems, beyond 
 the wants or even the conception of living mathematicians." 
 
 Now we do not find in the depths of the earth such 
 things as are here described by Lyell, but in all cases just 
 the reverse, and we must therefore feel convinced that 
 man did not, in accordance with this opinion which we 
 find coming to the surface from time to time (4^). commence 
 with g'reat things to end with small, but that beginning 
 with small things he has ended with great, as indeed is 
 the rule in almost all human affairs! 
 
 Which of the opinions here described is not merely 
 the most probable, but the most encouraging and satis- 
 factory the author may confidently leave to the judgment 
 of the reader. It is only by a complete misapprehension 
 of the truth and of right sentiments that so many men can 
 have been induced to reject the view here developed of 
 the antiquity and origin of our race upon the earth as being 
 repulsive and discouraging, and to imagine that if it be 
 adopted the elevated sentiment of the dignity of human 
 nature must be endangered. We do not know how to
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 71 
 
 combat this false pride which regards a lowly origin as 
 something contemptible and degrading better than in the 
 admirable words of Professor Huxley, who speaks as follows 
 in his remarkable memoir on the Place of Man in Nature: 
 "Thoughtful men, once escaped from the blinding influence 
 of traditional prejudice, will find in the lowly stock whence 
 man has sprung, the best evidence of the splendour of his 
 capacities; and will discern in his long progress through 
 the Past a reasonable ground of faith in his attainment 
 of a nobler Future." 
 
 In reality the humbler our origin, the more elevated 
 is our present position in Nature! the smaller the com- 
 mencement the greater is the termination! the harder the 
 struggle, the more brilliant the victory! the more painful 
 and tedious the course by which our civilization has been 
 attained, the more valuable is this civilization itself, and 
 the more powerful the endeavour not merely to retain it 
 but to develop it still further! It is not humiliation and dis- 
 couragement, but incitement to something still greater, 
 that the thinking and right-feeling man must derive from 
 the knowledge of the antiquity and primitive state of 
 his race upon the earth! Probably everything that we 
 possess in the way of culture, civilization, art, science, 
 morality and progress , is nothing but the product of 
 an infinitely slow and difficult development and self- 
 education, starting from a rude and brutal state, advan- 
 cing step by step, from knowledge to knowledge, and 
 rendered possible by an enormous lapse of time in com- 
 parison with which the duration of our own existence is 
 like that of a flash of lightning. In the light of such 
 knowledge as this our present state of culture must appear 
 doubly important, precious and grand, as it is the final 
 result of an immense elevation, the production of which 
 has consumed and exhausted the powers of so many gener- 
 ations of men. Those who laid the first foundations of 
 this great edifice, could have had no suspicion of its future 
 grandeur!
 
 72 OUR ORIGIN. 
 
 "Certainly", cried Professor Joly of Toulouse, equally 
 poetically and truthfully, at the close of his lecture upon 
 fossil man, endeavouring to bring clearly before his au- 
 ditors the enormous progress made by science and the arts 
 in the long lapse of ages, "certainly, the little flint 
 hammers of the first inhabitants of Gaul cannot be com- 
 pared with those heavy blocks of iron which are set in 
 motion in our manufactories by the force of falling water 
 or of steam. There is a wide interval between their frail 
 skiffs, their canoes hollowed out by the axe and the action 
 of fire, and our immense armour-plated ships of war. There 
 is also a wide interval between the coarse stuffs manufac- 
 tured at Wangen and Robenhausen, and those supple, 
 delicate and splendid tissues which are produced by our 
 Jacquard looms. The men of the ages of stone and bronze 
 most certainly never suspected that one day the most ingeni- 
 ous machines would take the place of handiwork, increasing 
 the products a hundredfold and at the same time improving 
 them. They could never have imagined that steam would 
 transport our vessels in a few days from one hemisphere 
 to another; that the golden Phoebus and the pale Phoebe 
 would depict their own visages in the camera obscura; 
 that the master of the thunder, the black-eyebrowed Ju- 
 piter, as he was afterwards called, would be reduced in 
 our days to play the part of a mere postman; or that man, 
 armed with Volta's pile, would introduce a light more 
 brilliant than that of the sun into places where the sun 
 had never penetrated. Especially, we may say, they could 
 never have suspected that their own existence would be 
 contested and even denied by the savants of the Institute" 
 (Revue des Cours Scientifiques, 2™'' Amice, No. i6J. 
 
 In reality the subject of our book is anticipated by 
 the preceding considerations and general details, as the 
 view of the position of man in nature maintained in it is 
 proved not merely by the results of archaeogeological studies 
 or investigations upon the geological antiquity of man 
 upon the earth and his primitive condition, but equally,
 
 OUR ORIGIN. 73 
 
 or perhaps even still more by the results of systematic 
 zoology, comparative anatomy, physiology, ethnograghy, 
 psychology and the allied sciences, but above all by the 
 study of the developmental history of the organism of man 
 and animals, which has become so important of late. These 
 results, brought together from such numerous and diverse 
 scientific sources, all agree in so unmistakable and surpris- 
 ing a manner, and all point so completely in one direction, 
 that I hope the careful reader will no longer have any 
 doubt as to the true place of man in nature when he has 
 reached the end of the following section, which will treat 
 of the points relating to the second of the three great 
 questions proposed by us, — the question: "What are 
 we?" This section will also contain an exposition and 
 discussion of the theories which have lately been proposed 
 with regard to the infinitely important question of the 
 origin and descent of the human race from the world of 
 animals most nearly connected with it. 
 
 {End of the first part.)
 
 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 (the present position of man in nature; his developmental 
 
 history and production from the egg-cell. — origin and 
 
 genealogy of the human race.) 
 
 Mottos. 
 
 "It is dangerous to let man perceive too distinctly how closely he approaches the 
 animals, without at the same time showing him his greatness. — It is also dangerous 
 to let him see his greatness too much, without at the same time indicating his lowli- 
 ness. — Still more dangerous is it to leave him in ignorance upon both subjects. — On the 
 contrary it is of the greatest adrantage to give him a clear notion of both." PASCAL 
 
 "Like the Roman emperors, who, intoxicated by their power, at length regarded 
 themselves as demigods, the ruler of our Planet believes that the brute animal sub- 
 jected to his will has nothing in common with his own nature. The affinity of the ape 
 disturbs and humbles him; it is not enough for him to be the king of animals, but he 
 will also have it that an impassable gulf separates him from his subjects, and, turning 
 his back upon the earth, he flies with his threatened majesty into the cloudy sphere 
 of a special "Human kingdom." But anatomy, like those slaves who followed the con- 
 queror's car crying out "Remember that thou art a Man!", disturbs him in his self- 
 admiration and reminds him of that visible and tangible reality which unites him with 
 the animal world." BROCA 
 
 For it is indeed the true characteristic of science, that she casts her net in search 
 of results on every side, seizes upon every perceptible property of things, and 
 subjects it to the hardest tests, no matter what finally comes of it." 
 
 JACOB GRIMM. 
 
 In the first section of this book, after giving a general 
 exposition of the position of Ynan in nature and showing 
 the great importance of the investigations relating to it, 
 we went into the details of the question, and by referring 
 especially to the researches which have been made upon
 
 WHAT ARE WE. 75 
 
 the antiquity of the human race, and the rude, brutal state 
 of our oldest ancestors, the so-called primaeval fuen, fur- 
 nished evidence of the natural position of man and of his 
 gradual and painful upward development to a more cul- 
 tivated and truly human condition. 
 
 But in this second section this earliest ancestor of ours 
 will be traced in another direction; and in the first place 
 the question will be discussed of the true position which 
 our race occupies in the zoological system and with regard 
 to the animal world which is so nearly related to it, but 
 especially with regard to the highest representatives of 
 the Quadrumana, and at the same time of the Vertebrate 
 type in general, which come nearest to man in form and 
 structure. 
 
 And here again the known facts speak a language so 
 clear and incapable of misinterpretation that, when once 
 we are in possession of accurate information on the subject, 
 we can only ask with no small astonishment how it was 
 possible that this matter, at least in its main outlines, could 
 ever have been misunderstood or erroneously conceived 
 by men who could both see and think. For even at the 
 first superficial glance it must be clear to every man who 
 is moderately well educated, that, on all sides of his bodily 
 structure, man is most intimately allied and bound to the 
 organic world surrounding him, that he throughout obeys 
 the same organic laws of form, structure, adaptation and 
 reproduction, — and that he must therefore necessarily be 
 arranged as an integral constituent of one zoological system. 
 It was and is possible to overlook this simple and impor- 
 tant truth only by reason of the immense influence of 
 human subjectivity or self esteem, which regards it as de- 
 grading that we should be placed on the same grade as 
 the animals, or arranged with them in the same system. 
 But as a matter of course, in scientific viatters, this sub- 
 jectivity must be put in the background, and truth can 
 only recognise a perfectly objective consideration, to a 
 certain extent abandoning the personally human stand-
 
 76 WHAT ARE WE. 
 
 point, or indeed rising above it. This is well explained 
 by Professor Huxley in the following manner. To see 
 this rightly, he says, let us for a moment emancipate or 
 disconnect our thinking selves from the mask of humanity; 
 let us imagine ourselves scientific inhabitants of the planet 
 Saturn and well acquainted with the animated creatures 
 which inhabit the earth, their anatomical and zoological 
 characters etc. Now suppose that some enterprising tra- 
 veller, w^hom the difficulties of space and gravitation had 
 not prevented from visiting other planets, had brought 
 back with him from the earth, among other things, a spe= 
 cimen of the genus Homo, preserved may be in a cask of 
 rum, and that we have been called together to examine 
 this specimen of a creature previously unknown to us, of 
 a peculiar "erect, featherless biped", and determine scien- 
 tifically its position in the system. What would be the 
 result of such an investigation? All the Saturnian philo- 
 sophers would agree without the least hesitation, that the 
 new creature was to be arranged in the well known group 
 or subkingdom Vertebrata, and among these was to be 
 referred specially to the class Mamuinlia, as all the ana- 
 tomical and zoological characters presented by it agree 
 precisely with those of that group and class. If we were 
 further to inquire in what particular subdivision or order 
 of the Mammalia the creature in question was to be placed, 
 there could be no more room to doubt that it could belong 
 only to one of these orders, namely that of the Stmiac or 
 Apes (using that word in the broadest sense). 
 
 The structure of the bones, of the skull and of the 
 brain, the formation of the hands and feet, the teeth, the 
 muscles, the viscera etc. are all founded in the ape and in 
 Man upon precisely the same principles, and Huxley, him- 
 self an anatomist of great reputation, in his Memoir on 
 the relations of primeeval man to the animals immediately 
 below him, takes the trouble (which was hardly necessary 
 for educated readers) of proving in detail and by the com- 
 parison of every more important organ, that all the differences
 
 WHAT ARE WE. 77 
 
 of bodily structure that we can find between man and the 
 most highly organised apes (/. c. the socalled mithropoid 
 or man-like apes) are not so great in degree as the difi^e- 
 rences between the higher and lower species or families 
 of the Simiae. 
 
 "Thus" says our author in summing up the results of 
 his investigations, "whatever system of organs be studied, 
 the comparison of their modifications in the ape series leads 
 to one and the same result — that the structural differences 
 which separate Man from the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee 
 are not so great as those which separate the Gorilla from 
 the lower apes." From all these considerations Huxley 
 draws the important conclusion that, from a systematico- 
 zoological point of view, we have not even the right to 
 separate Man as a distinct order of Mammalia from the 
 order of the Simiae, or as they have hitherto been erro- 
 neously called, Quadrumana or fourhanded animals, and 
 certainly not to sever him (as was formerly pretty generally 
 done) entirely from the rest of the world and relegate 
 him to a particular kingdom of nature, the socalled human 
 kingdom, standing on the same footing as the animal and 
 vegetable kingdoms. On the contrary, man, considered 
 scientifically, can only be regarded as a distinct family of 
 the highest order of Mammalia, an order which embraces 
 in addition the true apes as well as the so-called Prosimiae 
 {Lcmtirs etc.). Following the example of the celebrated 
 lawgiver of systematic zoology, Linne, (44) we may most 
 appropriately designate this order by the name of "Pri- 
 mates", that is to say preeminent or noble forms*. This 
 highest order of the Primates is divisible according to 
 Huxley into seven families of nearly equal systematic 
 value. The lowest grade is formed by the Galeopithecini 
 
 * The usual mode of grouping of the animal world proceeding in order 
 from below upwards, or from the individual to the more general embraces 
 the following ideas: the species, \\\^ genus, the family, the order, the class, 
 the group or subkingdom and the kingdo7n.
 
 78 WHAT ARE WE. 
 
 or flying Lemurs, — the highest by man or the family of 
 the Anthropmi (45). 
 
 Immediately below man come the great man-like 
 apes and the monkeys of the Old world, and the monkeys 
 of the New world, as the second and third families in 
 descending order. 
 
 First the true Apes and Monkeys of the Old world 
 (Africa and Asia) forming the family of the Catarrhini 
 or "narrow-nosed vSimiae"; after these the monkeys of the 
 New world or America, called Platyrrhini or broad-nosed 
 Simiae." — 
 
 "Perhaps", says Huxley in concluding his remarkable 
 exposition of this subject, "perhaps no order of Mammals 
 presents us with so extraordinary a series of gradations as 
 this — leading us insensibly from the crown and sum.mit 
 of the animal creation down to creatures, from which there 
 is but a step, as it seems, to the lowest, smallest, and least 
 intelligent of the placental Mammalia*). It is as if 
 nature herself had foreseen the arrogance of man, and 
 with Roman severity had provided that his intellect, 
 by its very triumphs , should call into prominence 
 the slaves, admonishing the conqueror that he is but dust. 
 — These are the chief facts, this is the immediate conclusion 
 from them to which I adverted at the commencement of 
 this Essay. — The facts I believe cannot be disputed; and 
 if so, the conclusion appears to me to be inevitable." 
 
 The grouping is arranged somewhat differently by 
 Professor E. Hackel of Jena, who has lately written upon 
 this subject in a very thoroughgoing manner**. He 
 
 * Placental mammals are those whose young during the period 
 of pregnancy are nourished by means of a placenta within the uterus itself. 
 They form the highest grade of the Mammalia in opposition to marsupials 
 or pouched Mammals, which carry their young in a pouch or bag of the 
 abdomen and nourish them there by suckling, and probably originated 
 from the latter in geological times (at the end of the Secondary or the 
 commencement of the Tertiary epoch). 
 
 •** Ucber die Entstehung und den Stammbaum des Menschenge-
 
 WHAT ARE WE. 79 
 
 separates Huxley's last three families, theProsimiae in the 
 wider sense of the word, entirely from the order Primates, 
 so that in this order there remain only man and the so- 
 called true apes and monkeys of the old and new worlds. 
 The Prosimiae or Lemures, on the other hand, are re- 
 garded by Hackel, as the common trunk-group from which 
 the other orders of the socalled Discoplacentalia, or Mam- 
 malia with a disklike placenta '•■, have very probably been 
 developed as four divergent branches, namely the Rodeiitia 
 or gnawing mammals, the Insectivora, the Chiropiera or 
 Bats, and the true Simiae (46). 
 
 "Man however", according to Hackel "cannot be se- 
 parated from the order of the Simiae or true apes, as he 
 stands nearer in every respect to the higher apes than 
 these to the lower true apes." He therefore forms with 
 these animals the highest order of the Discoplacentalia 
 under the common and long known nam.e of \\\q Primates, 
 whilst the four other orders of this group of Mammals 
 are formed by the Prosimiae, Rodentia, Insectivora and 
 Chiroptera. Of the true apes the Catarrhini or narrow- 
 nosed forms, the apes of the old world as they are called, 
 approach nearest to man, as is shown by the formation 
 of the nose, which is characterised by a narrow septum 
 and by having the nostrils directed downwards, and also 
 by the dentition, which is exactly the same as in man, the 
 number of teeth being 2^2, whilst in the Platyrrhini or 
 
 schlechts. — (On the origin and genealogy of the human race). — Two 
 lectures. — Berlin 1868. 
 
 *) The Discoplacentalia, or Mammalia with a disk-or cake- like 
 placenta, form the highest grade of the placental Mammalia, the latter 
 including besides these the lower developmental forms ol the Zono- 
 placentalia, or Mammals with a zone-like placenta, and the Sparsiplncen- 
 talia, or mammals with a placenta formed of scattered lobes or cotyledons. 
 The Zonoplacentalia and Discoplacentalia are further united more 
 closely to each other in as much as both possess a decidiia or deciduous 
 membrane, which is deficient in the Sparsiplacentalia.
 
 8o WHAT ARE~"WE. 
 
 broad-nosed apes there are 36 teeth * ; even leaving out 
 ofconsideration all other similarities or agreements in struc- 
 ture. Only a low and small section of this order, the 
 Marm.osets of America, differ rather widely from man in 
 having the fingers and toes armed with claws, instead 
 of nails, such as are possessed by man and the other apes. 
 The Marmosets are placed by Huxley as the fourth of 
 the seven families established by him in his highest order, 
 and Hackel also leaves them in the order Primates, re- 
 garding' them as a peculiarly developed lateral branch 
 of the Platyrrhini. Among the Catarrhini themselves the 
 Lipocerci or tail-less forms approach most nearly to man 
 and are therefore called Anthropoid or man-like apes. 
 Under any circumstances, according to Hackel, the anato- 
 mical and structural differences between man and the 
 man-like Catarrhini are less than those between the latter 
 and the lowest repj esentatives of the Catarrhine group, 
 such as the Baboon for example**. 
 
 Of the Anthropoid apes there are now existing only 
 four genera with about a dozen distinct species; these 
 are the well known Gorilla, Chimpanzee, and Orang-Ou- 
 tan and the Gibbons, the last also named long-armed 
 apes. Each of these animals has certain peculiarities in 
 which it approaches nearest to man; thus the Orang 
 approaches nearer than all the rest by the structure of 
 the brain and the number of its convolutious; the Chim- 
 panzee by the structure of its skull and its dentition; the 
 
 * The dentition, as is well known, furnishes a very characteristic 
 indication of aft'inity among the Mammalia and is therefore of high sy- 
 stematic value. But it is not merely by the number, but also by the 
 kind and general structure of the teeth, and by their earliest development 
 that man and the true apes, especially the Gorilla, are brought so near 
 together. — 
 
 ** The Catarrhini in general may be divided into two great sections, 
 — the tailed and the tail-less. The first of these sections includes the 
 Baboons, Macaques, true Monkeys, (Cercopithecus) , Slender Monkeys 
 (Semnopithecus), Thumbless Monkeys (Colobus) and Proboscis Monkeys; 
 the second includes the Gibbons, Chimpanzees, Orang-Oulans and Gorilla.
 
 WHAT ARE AVE? 8l 
 
 the formation of its limbs or extremities, and the Gibbon 
 finally by the structure of its thorax. In perfect accor- 
 dance with this peculiar condition of things, the Simian 
 resemblances of the lower races of ma,n are in like man- 
 ner by no means concentrated in any one tribe, but are 
 distributed among different peoples in such a manner that 
 each tribe is endowed with some inheritance from this 
 relationship, some more, others less, as Dr. Weissbach has 
 ascertained by the comparison ofthe measurements of various 
 parts of thebody in different races of man collected by Scher- 
 zer andSchwarz on the voyage ofthe No vara Frig'ate (Vienna 
 1867) with corresponding- measurements ofthe Orang. 
 
 According- to this writer the Australian has the most 
 resemblance to the apes in the length and breadth of his 
 foot, the slenderness of his leg^-s, his broad nose and wide 
 mouth and the length of his arms; whilst other anthro- 
 pologists consider that in the lateral compression of his 
 skull, the greater number of his teeth, the later ossification 
 of the intermaxillary bone , his smaller brain and the 
 greater symmetry of its convolutions, as also in his long 
 arms and narrow pelvis, the negro presents the greatest 
 anatomical resemblance to the apes. Some of the Pla- 
 tyrrhini or flat-nosed American Monkeys also possess 
 man-like characters. We find among them skulls of a 
 fine, rounded form, with considerable development ofthe 
 brain-case and a comparatively small projection of the 
 m.uzzle, and in strict accordance with all this frequently a 
 very man-like countenance. Thus the Saim.iri has a facial 
 angle "^^ of 65 — 66 degTees, whilst in rnan this angde averages 
 
 *) The facial anyle of Camper is formed by two lines, one of uhich 
 touches the most projectinj^ points of the frontal bone and upi^er jaw, 
 whilst the second is drawn from the orifice of the ear to the bottom of 
 the nasal cavity. The more acute tlie angle thus formed, the more 
 bestial in general is the face, wliiL-^t it becomes more elevated and human 
 in character in proportion as the angle approaches a right angle (qo de- 
 grees', because under these circumstances the capsule of the skull, which 
 contains the brain, accpiires a preponderance over the essential parts of 
 the face or muzzle.
 
 82 WHAT ARE AVE? 
 
 from 70 to 80 degrees (in the Caucasians 80 — 85, in the 
 Negroes 65 — 70) and in the true Anthropoids never amounts 
 to more than 50 degrees *, and thus the Saimiri agrees in this 
 respect completely with the Neanderthal skull described 
 in the first part of this book, the facial angle of which was 
 also estimated at 65 — 66 degrees. According to Giebel, 
 indeed, it is only their size that gives the three first-men- 
 tioned Anthropoid apes their man-like character, whilst, 
 as regards corporeal structure, some American Monkeys, 
 and the Gibbons of which several distinct species exist 
 in southern Asia, are decidedly more anthropomorphous. 
 The anthropoid apes, two forms of which (Gorilla and 
 Chimpanzee) live in Africa and two (Orang and Gibbon) 
 in Asia, have only been accurately known in recent times, 
 so that even the great Cuvier (who died in 1832^ could 
 regard them as creationsof the imagination of his colleague 
 Buffon. NoAV, however, all the considerable zoological 
 gardens and museums of Europe possess living or dead 
 examples of them. It was only by report that early 
 fabulous accounts of the existence of such animals in dis- 
 tant regions of the eirth had penetrated to Europe, and 
 upon these Professor Huxley gives us interesting' informa- 
 tion, (47) together with a sketch of the natural history 
 of the anthropoid apes, in the first of the three memoirs 
 which he has published imder the title of "Evidence as to 
 man's place in nature." 
 
 His statements, however, althoug'h made only about 
 six years ago, have already in some respects become an- 
 tiquated, at least with regard to the Gorilla (Troglodytes 
 Goj'ilhi or Gorilla GiuaJ, the last discovered and at the 
 same time the most remarkable of the four anthropoid 
 forms. This animal is very large, has very man-like 
 limbs, and, when moving upon level ground, takes a half 
 
 * The young of the Anthropoid ajics however constitute an exception 
 to this rule. Thus in the young Orang, which possesses a very beau- 
 tifully arched, well formed and man-like skull, the facial angle rises to 
 67 degrees.
 
 WHAT ARE WE? 83 
 
 erect postui'e. Du Chaillu's narrati^-es of his extraordi- 
 nary strength and savage nature seem to be exaggerated. 
 It is possible that the Gorilla was seen by the Cartha- 
 ginian sailor Hanno, who, in the year 510 B. C. sailed, 
 with a fleet, round the west coast of Africa and found 
 wild hairy men, which he named Gorillas, upon an island 
 in a gulf. 
 
 The Gorilla is at any rate of the four anthropoid apes 
 the one which, notwithstanding certain very bestial cha- 
 racters, nevertheless shows the most and most striking 
 approximations in his structure to the human form , and 
 partly for this reason, partly on account of the strange 
 stories related of him, he has attracted a remarkable amount 
 of general attention during- the last few years. Of all 
 the anthropoid apes he is especially characterised by the 
 fact that in consequence of the structure of his foot and of 
 the muscles of his leg he is able with the least comparative 
 effort to stand and walk upright, and at the same time 
 possesses the most human form of hand, although in other 
 respects, especially in the formation of the skull and brain, 
 he is exceeded in resemblance to m.an by some other 
 apes (48). 
 
 All this shows clearly enough that the separation of 
 man from the IMammalia which approach him most closely 
 as a distinct order or class, or even as forming a distinct 
 human kingdom, can no longer be maintained in the present 
 position of science, and that the entire conception which 
 lies at the foundation of this separation must be rejected 
 even from the points of view opened to us by systematic 
 zoology. But in order to advance as securel}" as possible 
 with regard to this important point we add to the evidence 
 of English and German naturalists already cited the no 
 less clearly expressed opinion of a French zoologist of the 
 most modern school. In an excellent book upon the 
 plurality of Human Races (Paris 1864) M. Georges Pouchet, 
 rejecting the notion of the existence of a distinct human 
 kingdom as set up by Geoffroy Saint - Hilaire and De
 
 84 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 Quatrefages , declares that in his physical or corporeal 
 structure man stands in the closest juxtaposition to the 
 anthropomorphous apes, and that this is a fact which no 
 one can seriously dispute. And this resemblance, accord- 
 ing to him, does not exist merely in external form, but 
 we find it to be much greater when we resort to the care- 
 ful examination of the internal parts and most essential 
 organs or to the microscopic investigation of the anatomi- 
 cal constituents of the body. We can only come to the 
 establishment of a distinct ,, human kingdom" when Ave 
 compare the two extremes, — the highly cultivated Euro- 
 pean, elevated and ennobled by inherited qualities from 
 g-eneration to generation through thousands of years, 
 with the brute animal, — overlooking the innumerable 
 intermediate grades which unite them. Even the ideas 
 of good and evil or of God and immortality, upon which, 
 in the absence of essential corporeal differential characters 
 M. de Quatrefages thought he might found his human 
 kingdom, do not exist among all peoples, but are either 
 entirely wanting or in the highest degree discrepant. 
 From the animal to man there is only an uninterrupted 
 gradation or chain of allied links, and the same scientific 
 method must be applied ^to both. The order Biiucuia (as 
 distinguishing man from the ape) is, according to Pouchet, 
 only a creation of the writing table and could only have 
 been invented in a country in which the covering of the 
 feet is universal, for the uncovered foot of man, when not 
 spoiled by the customs of civilised life, in reality forms 
 an admirable prehensile organ and is employed as such 
 by nearly half the tribes on the face of the earth (49). 
 I fence man might be described as qnadrnmanoiis with 
 quite as much justice £is the apes, and most certainly he 
 cannot be regarded as forming a distinct order, but only 
 a distinct family of the group of Mammals hitherto cha- 
 racterised as Quadrumana. 
 
 So much for the consideration of man and his r(;la- 
 tionship to the animal world from tho st.'ind])oint of syste-
 
 WHAT ARE WE? 85 
 
 matic zoology. As a matter of course the result thus 
 attained is perfectly in accordance with that furnished 
 by general and comparative anatomy or the study of the 
 general and special anatomical structure of the body in 
 the different classes of animals , a science which , since 
 Cuvier's time, has become so amalgamated with systematic 
 zoology that it is no longer possible to separate them. 
 All the principal parts or organs of the human body agree 
 m.ost perfectly in all essential particulars both of external 
 form and internal composition with the corresponding parts 
 of animals, especially the Mammalia and their highest re- 
 presentatives. Indeed, so much is this the case, that, as 
 is pretty generally known, for thousands of years men had 
 no means of getting a knowledge of the human body, 
 except the dissection of the bodies of animals. Before 
 men ventured, in opposition to the general prejudice, to 
 dissect human bodies, the sole aid to the knowledge of 
 human anatomy was the dissection of Mammalia, and by 
 this means they were as well instructed as to the essential 
 parts of the human frame, as we are at the present day. 
 The celebrated surgeon, Galen of Pergamos, who lived 
 in the second century of our era and set up a system of 
 medicine which maintained its predominance for nearly 
 fourteen centuries, studied the structure of the body only 
 on the carcasses of apes, which he had at once recognised 
 as the most manlike in form of all animals; and as late as 
 the sixteenth century anatomy was taught and studied only 
 from the skeleton of a IMonkey (the INIagot or luiiuus syl- 
 van us). Vesal or Vesalius, the body-surgeon of the em- 
 peror Charles the fifth and of Philip the second of Spain, 
 was the first who ventured to dissect human bodies and 
 in so doing was so unfortunate that during' his dissection 
 of the body of a young Spanish nobleman, who had been 
 under his treatment, the heart began to beat. In accor- 
 danpe with the imperfect physiological notions of that age 
 it was believed that Vesalius had dissected a living man, 
 and in order to expiate this great crime the celebrated
 
 86 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 anatomi.st was obliged to mtike a pilgrimag-e to the Holy 
 Land, on his return from which he perished by ship- 
 wreck. 
 
 How great the anatomical similarity between man and 
 ape must be, may be seen from the words of the celebrated 
 anatomist. Professor Owen, who has studied the subject 
 the most carefully of all living anatomists, and whose opi- 
 nion bears the miore weight, because he has taken his 
 stand on the side opposed to the view here maintained 
 and places man and the apes in distinct subclasses, although 
 not upon purely iinatomical grounds. 
 
 In a p^lper "On the characters of Mammalia" (Journal 
 of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London for 
 1857) Owen says: — "Not being able to appreciate or con- 
 ceive of the distinction betw^een the psychical phenomena 
 of a Chimptmzee and of a Boschisman or of an Aztec, 
 with arrested brain-growth, as being' of a nature so essen- 
 tial as to preclude a comparison between them, or as being 
 other than a difference of degree, I cannot shut my eyes 
 to the significance of that all-pervading similitude of struc- 
 ture — every tooth, every bone, strictly homologous — 
 which makes the determination of the difference between 
 Homo and Pithecus the anatomist's difficulty. And 
 therefore ... I follow Linnaeus and Cuvier in regarding- 
 mankind as a legitimate subject of zoological comparison 
 and classification" '■'. 
 
 Of course all this ciinnot make the anatomical differ- 
 ence between man and his nearest allies in the series of 
 Mammalia any less than it really is, and it is indeed so 
 great that the first gkmce g^enercUly suffices to enable the 
 practised ematomist to recognise any characteristic part of 
 the body, especially of the skeleton or bony framework, 
 as belonging either to man or to an aninuU. Ikit the 
 
 * "Surely il is a liUle singular", says Tluxky, alter citing llic above 
 passage, "that the 'anatomist' who finds it 'dilTiciilt' to 'determine the dif- 
 ference' between Homo and Fithecus, should yet range them, on anatomical 
 grounds, in distinct subclasses!"
 
 WHAT ARE WE? 87 
 
 distinction does not affect the systems or organs themselves, 
 such as the bones, muscles, nerves, bloodvessels, viscera, 
 etc., which both in their coarser parts and in their more 
 minute chemical and microscopic constitution present pre- 
 cisely the same kinds of form and arrangement; it is rather 
 a difference of degree, size and development. Sometimes 
 it is in a gTeater delicacy of details, a higher and better 
 development of particular parts or org'ans, that the human 
 structure exceeds the animal; or the special arrangement 
 of the entire structure acquires a peculiar or divergent 
 formation, as is especially seen in the structure of the 
 osseous and muscular systems, in that of the trachea, 
 the brain etc. (50) But even these peculiarities of struc- 
 ture in man often indicate most definitely his animal re- 
 lationships. Thus in dissecting' the human body we not 
 un frequently find in the muscuUir system (which, as is well 
 known, has a greater tendency to individual variation 
 than any other part) peculiarities of arrangement in certain 
 bodies closely resembling those occurring in the apes ; and 
 according- to Dr. Duncan (Transactions of the Anthropolo- 
 gical Society of I^ondon, i86g) this condition of things may 
 even go so far, that he regards it as an indisputable fact, 
 that the anomalies or abnormal variations in the origin 
 and insertion of the muscles in man constitute the normal 
 or reg'ular condition in the apes. Professor Hyrtl, in 
 his "Human Anatomy," also particularly cites a number of 
 such variations in the muscles, presenting an analogy or cor- 
 respondence either with animal structure in general or with 
 that of the apes in particular, and indeed some of these varia- 
 tions are actually described by him as "Ape-structures". 
 Precisely in the same manner, the first or milk- den- 
 tition of man possesses a remarkable similarity to that of 
 the apes, and it is only the second dentition that acquires 
 the true human form. The structure of the three noblest 
 organs of sense (those' of sight, hearing and touch) also 
 shows an agreement between man and the apes which is
 
 88 WHAT ARE WK? 
 
 wanting to all other Mammalia; this is treated in more 
 detail in the author's "Lectures on Darwin" (p. 185). 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to add that the results obtained 
 by means of comparative anatomy are completed and con- 
 firmed by the revelations of comparative physiology or 
 the study of the functions of the body in the different 
 classes of animals and in man himself. As the structure 
 and function of an organ or living part of the body are 
 known by observation to be always necessarily in accord- 
 ance so long as there is no disturbance of equilibrium by 
 illness or defective development , the above - mentioned 
 result seems to be a matter of course even upon theore- 
 tical grounds; and although man is somewhat or even 
 very superior to animals physiologically, this is only to 
 this extent, that his physical or corporeal organisation is 
 distinguished from that of animals by its higher and finer 
 development, its more complicated structure, by an increase 
 in the division of labour, by better adaptation or by the 
 greater development of certain particularly importiint 
 organs, and thus is eucibled to perform operations which 
 are impossible to animals. Nevertheless, just as in the 
 case of the bodily structure, there is nothing more than 
 difference of deg"ree or of development, and this deve- 
 lopment commences even with the lowest forms of all, 
 and from these ascends gradually, but always under the 
 strict observance of the same universally prevalent kiws 
 of life. Hence investigators of these laws of life, phy- 
 siologists as they are called, like the anatomists of former 
 days, have never possessed any means of obtaining inform- 
 ation as to the physiological processes, which occur m 
 the human body, of more importance than investigations 
 and experiments on animals. AVe may indeed say that 
 three fourths of our knowledge of human physiology or 
 of the laws of human life have been acquired in this wa3^ 
 and that this knowledge is no less accurate than it would 
 have been had the observations been made upon man 
 himself. So far as observations of this latter kind are
 
 WHA'l' ARK WF ? 8g 
 
 pob.sibl(j tliey have always confirmed the results obtained 
 by the study of animals and the conclusions derived from 
 them, either entirely or with very slig-ht modifications 
 due to the difference of human structure; they have shown 
 that the fundamental laws of life are the same and un- 
 alterable in all living creatures. For instance when the 
 cut nerve in the thig-h of a frog' (certainly a low form of 
 animal) contracts or reacts when irritated, it does this in 
 exactly or almost exactly the same way as the nerve of 
 a man would have done if similarly treated; and when the 
 chest of an animal is laid open and the beating of the heart, 
 or the working of the lungs is observed, we have before 
 us, with only a very slight difference, precisely the same 
 spectacle that would have been presented to us if we sa\v 
 the opened chest of a living- m.an. In the animal, as in 
 man, the eye serves for vision, the ear for hearing, the 
 tongue for tasting, the stomach for digestion and the 
 liver for the secretion of bile; the feet serve for locomo- 
 tion, the lungs for breathing-, the kidneys for the sepa- 
 ration of water etc. By means of chloroform the animal 
 is stupefied just like the man; they live, sicken and die by 
 the same processes and causes. Hence the objection 
 that we so often meet with in antimaterieilistic contro- 
 versial writings, that the knowledge gained from the study 
 of animals cannot be applied to man, who is not an animal 
 but som.ething- quite different, namely a /Jia/i, only betrays 
 the grossest and most absurd ignorance of physiological 
 science or of the laws of life. Even socalled savaii/s, 
 especially out of the philosophical camp, are in the habit 
 of pluming themselves upon wisdom of this kind, which 
 reminds us of the time of INIoses or of the land of the 
 Phceacians (51). 
 
 The particular bodily organ or system, by which chiefly 
 man is man, which together with his other advantages (such 
 as the structure of his hand, his erect attitude, his articulate 
 speech etc.) gives him his principal superiority over the 
 animal and which is therefore characterized in m.an by a
 
 go WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 strength of development not witnessed elsewhere, is the 
 hrain in combination with the 7iervoits system. This 
 noblest and most important of all organs, with which all 
 the mental or intellectual activities known to us both in 
 man and animals are indissolubly connected, is constructed 
 in the Vertebrata in accordance with a grand and general 
 fundamental plan, which commences in the fishes and from 
 these animals upwards becomes further developed, con- 
 stantly increasing in distinctness ^lnd power, probably 
 under the influence of such momenta or causes as Darwin 
 has described in his immortal work on Natural Selection. 
 The greatest step in this upward development and 
 advance towcirds perfection of structure is not, however, 
 made by the brain at the point where we might perhaps 
 have expected it, namely between animals and man, but 
 in a much lower position, between the marsupial and 
 placental Mammals; for here a perfectly new structure, 
 the great commissure, makes its appearance and unites 
 the two halves of the cerebrum which were previously 
 separate. From this point onwards the two great he- 
 mispheres of the brain, the most important portions, in- 
 tellectmdly, of the whole organ, constantly increase in 
 size and in the complication of their structure, and arch over 
 the cerebellum more and more, until finally, by a complete 
 series of g-radual modifications, they att^iin their highest 
 development in the apes and in man, in which they are 
 exactly alike in all essential parts. For different as the 
 brains of man and of the tipes may be in size and deve- 
 lopment, it lias nevertheless been demonstrated by numer- 
 ous anatomical investigations of the most careful kind, 
 that all the essential parts and relations of the human 
 brain are perfectly prefigured in animals, and that the 
 superiority of man is due solely to the comparatively high 
 development of these parts, combined with a considerably 
 increased size of the whole organ. This important truth 
 cannot be better illustrated than by the recent attempt of 
 one of the greatest of living anatomists, Professor Owen,
 
 WHAT AKK ^\'Ef Ql 
 
 to establish upon the brain and its structure a specifically 
 distinctive character between man and animals, lie 
 affirmed that the complete over-arching- and concealment 
 of the cerebellum by the cerebral hemispheres, the exis- 
 tence of the hinder horn of the great lateral cavity of the 
 brain and the presence of the so-called pes Ilippocaiiipi 
 viiuor, an elongated white swelling on the floor of this 
 hinder horn, are all peculiarities of the human brain which 
 do not occur in animals, and with which, therefore, pe- 
 culiar and high intellectual powers must also be united. 
 'J'aking- his stand upon these assertions Owen thought that 
 he had a right, from a systematic zoological point of view, 
 to regard man as forming- a distinct subclass of Mammalia, 
 which he called Archcnccphahi or "brain-rulers". 
 
 This ren.arkable statement at once g-ave rise to a whole 
 series of anatomical investigations upon the brain of the 
 apes and to a philosophical dispute of which'the details may 
 be found in Huxley's well-known "Essay on Man's Place in 
 Nature," and also in the author's "Lectures on Darwin" 
 (2. edit. pp. 182 et seqq). This dispute ended in the 
 demonstration of the exact contriiry of Owen's assertions 
 in so evident a manner, that finally their author himself 
 found it necessary to retract them publicly, although at 
 the same tim.e he declared his adherence to his classiiica- 
 tional views already indicated, supporting- them by the 
 consideration of the general high development of the 
 different parts of the brain (52). Now it is true that, not 
 merely in size, but also in the comparatively higher de- 
 velopment of its individual parts, and especially in the 
 number, depth and want of symmetry of the superficial 
 convolutions and in correspondence therewith in the 
 comparatively stronger development of the gray s/ibsfa/icc, 
 (which, as is wa^U-known, must be regarded as the true 
 seat of menttd or intellectual activity) the human brain far 
 exceeds that of the Mammalia most nearly allied to him; 
 but all these superiorities are rclaiive andnot absohtfr, and 
 in their details are already indicated or prefigured in the
 
 gZ WMAl AKK wi;? 
 
 brains of the apes in such a manner that the ape's brain 
 may to a certain extent be regarded as a sort of sketch 
 or model, which has merely been more accurately worked 
 out in man. 
 
 "The surface of the brain of a monkey", says Huxley, 
 "exhibits a sort of skeleton map of man's, and in the man- 
 like apes the details become more and more filled in, 
 until it is only in minor characters, such as the greater 
 excavation of the anterior lobes, the constant presence of 
 fissures usucdly absent in man, and the different disposition 
 and proportions of some convolutions, that the Chimpan- 
 zee's or the Orang's brain can be structurally distinguished 
 from Man's" (53). 
 
 Now as the brain is the sole and exclusive organ of 
 thoug-ht, and as all intellectual power goes parallel with 
 its size, its development and its grade of structure in ge- 
 neral, just as every physiological function depends upon 
 the size, form and composition of the organ which sub- 
 serves it, it cannot be doubtful, that from the standpoint 
 of the materialistic or realistic philosophy the intellectual 
 life of man must be regarded only as a higher stage of 
 development of the faculties which are dormant in the 
 animal world. This proposition is demonstrated not only 
 by the above theoretical consideration, but also by direct 
 comparison of the minds of man and animals and by a 
 thoroughgoing examination of the intellectual and m.oral 
 faculties characteristic of man, both in the civilized and in 
 the savage state. However, before going further into 
 this matter, we must, in order to be able to judge quite 
 correctly of the position of man in nature, first of all take 
 counsel of another science, which stands in such intimate 
 connexion with those to which we have hitherto appealed 
 (zoology, anatomy and physiology) that it cannot be treated 
 separately from them. I mean the equally modern and 
 interesting science of Dcvdopwental History. 
 
 This comparatively m.odern science has brought to 
 light a number of extremely remarkable facts, which can
 
 WHAT ARl'. WE? 93 
 
 leave no doubts in the minds of those acquainted with its 
 results as to the close and intimate relationship of man to 
 the animal world. These facts, however, notwithstand- 
 ing- their great importance and significance, are unfortu- 
 nately still entirely or almost unknown in many circles; 
 nay even some naturalists, zoologists and anatomists, some- 
 times show a most lamentable igmorance of these facts 
 in their writings and statements, to say nothing of the 
 speculative philosophers and theologians, who think that 
 they can attain to the understanding of man and his place 
 in nature by pure thought or by Divine inspiration, whilst 
 in general they have scarcely a suspicion of these facts 
 or of the true laws of nature. "Ignorance and super- 
 stition", says Hiickel with equal pungency and truth, "are 
 the foundations upon which most men build up their 
 knowledge of their own organism and of its relations to 
 the totality of thing-s; and those plain facts of the history 
 of development, which might throw over it the light of 
 truth, are ignored." Indeed since Darwin indicated what 
 has given a perfectly new direction to the study of 
 organic nature, namely that in it every thing depends 
 upon development, proper attention has been paid to these 
 facts, at least on the part of the younger and more active 
 naturalists, and their great significance in a philosophical 
 consideration of nature, (which indeed cannot be too 
 highly appreciated) has been recognized. This signifi- 
 cance cannot be better indicated than in the following- 
 words of Professor Huxley: "The facts", he says, "to 
 which I would first direct the reader's attention, though 
 ignored by m.any of the professed instructors of the 
 public mind, are easy of demonstration and are universally 
 agreed to by men of science ; while their significance is so 
 great that whoso has duly pondered over them will, I 
 think, find little to startle him in the other revelations of 
 Biology." — Let us now pass to these facts themselves 
 and give an account of them in as condensed a form as 
 possible.
 
 94 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 Every living creature whether large or small, high or 
 low, simple or complex, commences its earthly existence 
 in a very simple form, infinitely different from its fully 
 developed or perfect state, and from this first stage to its 
 final development passes through a whole series of suc- 
 cessive changes or developmental stages. These stages 
 or steps have now become perfectly well-known, by the 
 investig'ations of embryology or th(^ study of the evolution 
 of the germ. In all those living" beings (Plants or ani- 
 mals) which may be called highly org-anized, the first of 
 these stages is the formation of an egg or germ.-cell, 
 whilst in the lowest forms increase or propagation is usu- 
 ally effected by simple division of the general substance 
 of the body into two or more separate creatures, or by 
 budding- {gciiiiuafion\ sprouting and the like (54). 
 
 This ovum is the same in its fundamental structure 
 throughout the organic world, only differing in slight 
 variations of form, size, colour &c.* We are here specially 
 interested only in the ovum of the Mammalia or at all 
 events of the Vertebrata in general, and this appears every 
 where to be almost the same structure, including even 
 that of man, wdiose ovum differs so little from that of the 
 hig'her Mammalia, that no essential distinction can be 
 demonstrated between them, any more, than between the 
 ova of different Mammalia. "There is not much resem- 
 bla.nce", says Professor Huxley in his luminous manner, 
 "between a barn-door fowl and \\\e dog who protects the 
 farm-yard. Nevertheless the student of development finds, 
 not only that the chick commetices its existence as an egg-, 
 ])rimarily identical, in all essential res])ects, with that of 
 the Dog-, but that the yelk of this (;g-g- undergoes division 
 — that the primitive groove arises, and that the contiguous 
 parts of the g-erm are fashioned, by precisely similar mo- 
 thods, into a young chick, which, at on(^ stage of its exis- 
 
 * For furthci details uium tliis subject see the authors " Physio- 
 logische Bilder", in the chajiler cm tlie cell (pp. 261 — 270^ —
 
 AVHAT ARE AVE? 95 
 
 tence, is so like the nascent Dog, that ordinary inspection 
 would hardly distinguish between the two." 
 
 Here, hoAvever, we must not have the ordinary fowl's 
 egg in our minds, as this, like the eggs of Birds in general, 
 or of the true Reptiles, is distinguishable at the first g-lance 
 from the egg of the mammalia, because in it the true egg, 
 which is not larger than the mammalian egg and in all re- 
 spects behaves in precisely the same manner, has been sur- 
 rounded by a mitrifivc yelk (the well known } elk of the egg) 
 which is easily distinguished from the foniiafive yelk of 
 the egg", and also by the albumen and shell as external 
 additions. By means of these additions the bird's egg 
 brings with it into the Avorld ready prepared all the ma- 
 terials necessary for the formation of the young bird, 
 whilst the egg of the Mammal or of man carries with it 
 from the ovary into the womb only the supply necessary 
 for the first foundation of the young animal and receives 
 all subsequent supplies from the maternal organism (55). 
 
 The same facts as in. the case of the Fowl and Dog 
 are revealed to us b)" the developmental history of every 
 other Vertebrate animal, whether it be a Mammal, a bird, 
 a lizard, a snake or a fish, and in a broad sense the same 
 ma}^ be said of every organic being. Always at the outset 
 and at the moment of first formation we find a structure 
 which we call an egg, and which consists of a small, round 
 very delicate body, 7s ^o 7ui o^ '^^""•f^""' cliameter, enclosed 
 by a firm membrane and filled Avith a viscid fluid Avith 
 numerous scattered granules Avhich is called the \clk (vi- 
 tcllits). In the midst of this yelk lies the beautiful vesi- 
 cular niichiis, 7r>(» liiiG i" diameter, Avith its clear contents; 
 it is also knoAvn as the genjiiiial vesicle. In this A'esicle 
 again a still smaller body (only 7r,(H) ^i"<") i^ enclosed; this 
 is the germinal spol or inicleolar curpiisele. This, as Avell 
 as the egg itself, consists of an albuminoid mass. 
 
 This same simple and similar structure then is exhibited by 
 the egg in all the higher animals, especially the Vertebrata, 
 before their fertilisation by the semen or male reproductiA-e
 
 g6 WHAT ARE AVE? 
 
 material. The remarktible discovery of the egg of the 
 Mammalia and of man in ii:s place of origin (the uvary) 
 was made not much more than 40 years ag'o by the cele- 
 brated embryologist von Baer. The detached egg on its 
 migration had however been previously seen in the ovi- 
 duct. 
 
 When once the existence of the egg was discovered 
 the next thing of course was to ascertain the further 
 course of its development and to observe how the ciiihryo 
 or foetus was gradually developed from the fertilised egg. 
 The first step in this progress is, that the contents of 
 the egg'-cell underg'o the remarkable process called seg- 
 mentation, in which the originally amorphous mass of the 
 yelk, by continual division and subdivision in which the 
 germinal vesicle and its nucleus take part, becomes broken 
 up into an aggregation of elementary parts called einbryo- 
 nal-cells. These cells in their turn tire capable of all 
 possible further changes of form, and from them the future 
 organism is built up by a constantly increasing formation 
 of new cells. As Huxley admirably expresses it: "Nature, 
 by this process, has attained much the same result as that 
 at which a human artificer arrives by his operations in a 
 brickfield. She takes the rough plastic material of the 
 yelk imd breaks it up into well-shaped tolerably even-si;^ed 
 masses — handy for building up into any part of the living 
 edifice. . . . Every part, every organ is at first, as it were, 
 pinched up rudely and sketched out in the rough; then 
 shaped more accurately; and, only, at last, receives the 
 touches which stamp its final character" (56). 
 
 At the commencement and even through a consider- 
 able period of embryonic life this goes on in the different 
 animals and groups of animals in so uniform a fashion, 
 that the young of all tmimals are almost exactly alike, or 
 at all events are very similar not only in external form 
 but also in all the essentials of their structure, however 
 different may be the form of the animal subsequently to 
 be [)ro(lucod from them. Tn this respect, therefore, the
 
 WHAT ARIt WE? Q7 
 
 embryos behave exactly like the egg itself, which is found 
 almost everywhere to present at first the same form and 
 size. From a certain period of embryonic life, however, 
 the differences of the individual forms gradually make 
 their appearance and become more and more distinct as 
 the creature under observation approaches its permanent 
 structure and the time of its birth. But even here it is 
 remarkable that the more closely individual animals re- 
 semble each other in the mature state, the long'er and more 
 closely do their embryos also resemble each other; whilst 
 the embryos become earlier and inore distinctly dissimilar 
 in proportion as the animals to be produced from them 
 differ from each other later in life. Thus, for example, 
 the embryos of a Snake and a Lizard, two forms of ani- 
 mals which are comparatively speaking- nearly allied, 
 resemble each other in appearance longer than those of a 
 Snake and a Bird, two animals which are very f^ir removed 
 from each other. 
 
 In the same way, and for the same reason, the embryos 
 of a Dog and a Cat continue longer to present a resem- 
 blance, than those of a Dog and a Bird, or a Dog and a 
 Marsupial animal. But at the first beg'inning and during* 
 the first period of embryonic life the embryos even of 
 the most different animals or groups of animals, such as 
 Mammalia, Birds, Lizards, Sn^ikes, Tortoises &c., are so 
 similar in appearance that, according' to the definite asser- 
 tion of von Baer, they can generally be distinguished, 
 from their external aspect, only by difference of size. 
 There are also some characters of form and external 
 outline, which sometimes, but not always, render it possible 
 to distinguish them, but these are exceedingly insignificant. 
 Professor Agassiz found this to his cost; for having one 
 day neglected to furnish an embryo in his collection with 
 a ticket, he was afterwards unable to determine whether 
 it belonged to ii Mammal, a Bird, or a Reptile*. 
 
 * It must not be supposed, however, that no diU'crences exist between 
 
 ihe various cmbrvos. (.)n tlie conlrarv tlicre nni^t be sucli diU'crences of
 
 ^8 What ark. \vk'^ 
 
 Thus the study of developmental history iurnishes us 
 with cleai- and incontrovertible evidence of the close 
 relationship of all living creatures with respect to their 
 first production and formation, and in connexion with our 
 special subject we have now only to ascertain whether this 
 natural evidence possesses the same validity in the case 
 of our own species. "One burns with impatience", says 
 Huxley, "to inquire wdiat results are yielded by the study 
 of the development of Man. — Is he something apart .-^ Does 
 he originate in a totally different way from Dog, Bird, 
 Frog and Fish, thus justifying those who assert him to 
 have no place in nature and no real affinity with the lower 
 world of animal life? or does he originate in a similar 
 germ, pass through the same slow and gradually pro- 
 gressive modifications,— depend on the same contrivances 
 for protection and nutrition, and finally enter the world 
 by the help of the samiO mechanism? The reply is not 
 doubtful for a moment, and has not been doubtful any 
 time these thirty years. Without question, the mode of 
 origin and the early stages of the development of Man 
 are identical with those of the animals immediately below 
 him in the scale (Sic." As regards the human ovum, it is 
 in all essential particulars like that of any other Mammal, 
 differing, at the utmost, only a little in size. Its diameter 
 is 7io or 'I I., of a line, and it is consequently so small that 
 with the naked eye it can only be perceived as a little 
 point. But when suitably magnified it is seen to be a 
 spherical vesicle containing in its interior a slimy proto- 
 plasm or }r//i, and in this the cell- nude us or geriniiial ve- 
 sicle with its nucleolar corpuscle or germinal spot. Ex- 
 ternally the entire structure, which is also called the (9TW^//, 
 
 a very (Iclinitc and marked kind as rej^ards both molccuhar and chemical 
 constitution; but they are so delicate that they cannot be detected cither 
 from external appearances, or by any ordinary means of investij^ation at 
 our command. It is to these differences of the most minute constitution 
 therefore, that wc must ascribe the foundation of those differences of 
 structure which afterwards diver<^e so widely.
 
 What ARli WEr" §9 
 
 is enclosed by a thick, translucent membrane, the cell- 
 membrane, or vitelline membrane. 
 
 It seems unnecessary to give any further description 
 of this simple and yet complicated structure, with which 
 every man, whether born in a palace or in a hovel, com- 
 mences his existence, as it would require to be made in pre- 
 cisely the same terms that have already been used in 
 describing the egg of the Mammalia. There is no visible 
 difference between them except that of size. Nevertheless 
 such differences do exist, and indeed must exist in a very 
 definite and characteristic manner. But they do not lie in 
 the external form, although even here subtle variations not 
 recognizable by our instruments of research, may and 
 indeed must exist, but rather in the inner chemical and 
 molecular constitution and in the tendency, caused by this, 
 to a peculiar systematic and individual further develop- 
 ment. "These delicate individual differences of all eggs 
 which depend upon indirect or potential adaptation, are 
 indeed not directly perceptible with the extraordinarily 
 coarse means of investigation possessed by man, but they 
 are recognizable by indirect inferences as the first causes 
 of the difference of all individuals" {Hlickel). 
 
 What is the subsequent destiny of this vesicle or 
 ovicell? It quits the organ, the ovary, in which it was 
 formed and matured (in the human subject every four 
 weeks, in animals only at the so called rutting season) 
 and passes thence by mechanical causes into the oviduct. 
 If the egg-cell is not fecundated here it is lost and dis- 
 appears without leaving any traces. If, on the contrary, 
 it is fertilized by the male semen, it becomes develoj^ed 
 in the womb {1 iter us) into an embryo, and, as a rule, does 
 not quit that organ until its perfect evolution into a young 
 creature capable of life *. And all this takes place exactly 
 in the same way as in any other Mammal. Even the 
 
 * The vital movement and further development of the egg commences 
 at the moment when it is fertilized by the male seminal cell, and then 
 up to the close of individual life it follows rigidly the direction which 
 
 7*
 
 lOO AVHAT ARE WE? 
 
 changes of form or transformations wliich the human 
 embryo undergoes from this period are exactly the same 
 as have been already described in the case of animals. 
 First of all the process of segmentation of the yelk or cell- 
 division occurs, commencing by the division of the germi- 
 nal spot and then of the germinal vesicle itself into two 
 separate cells. These then divide again, and this process 
 is continued until, finally, a spherical mass of cells, called 
 globules of segmentation, is produced. This aggregation 
 of cells now becomes converted into a spherical vesicle, 
 the blasfodcnii, on one side of which a disciform thickening 
 (the aiihryonal spot) is produced by continual increase or 
 growth of cells from the globules of segmentation which 
 are more strongly accumulated at this point. Soon after- 
 wards this embryonal spot acquires an elong'ated or bis- 
 cuit-like shape and forms the first definitive foundation of 
 the true body of the embryo, whilst the blastoderm itself 
 is only employed for nutritive purposes. The embryonal 
 spot consists of three superimposed and closely united leaves, 
 the three gcrvi-lamellae, produced in this way, — the cells 
 formed by the process ofseg^mentationarrang-e themselves. 
 
 has been impressed upon it both by its own constitution and by that of 
 the male reproductive material. As to the purely mechanical and mate- 
 rial nature of this process there can be no doubt, and yet the two repro- 
 ductive elements which meet in it are so minute and so slightly dis- 
 tinguishable from other elements of the same nature, that there is nothing 
 but an inlinitesimal and inconceivable delicacy and dillerence of these 
 materials in their intimate chemical and molecular constitution that can 
 l)e regarded as the cause of the innumerable (systematic and individual) 
 differences of the subsequent development. — "We must stand", says 
 Iliickel, "in wonder and admiration before the infinite and to us incon- 
 ceivable delicacy of the albuminoid material. We cannot but be astoni- 
 shed at tlie undeniable fact, that the simple egg-cell of the motlier and 
 a single seminal fdamcnt of the father transfer the individual vital move- 
 ment of these two individuals to the child so exactly, that afterwards 
 the most subtle bodily and mental peculiarities of the two parents reap- 
 pear in it." Who can venture, in the presence of such facts, to .speak 
 of "brute" iiKitler or to deny ils ability lo iirodnce mental ])hcnomena .''
 
 M'H.VT ARft WE? lOT 
 
 in accordance with d plan common to all Vertebrata, in 
 three membranous layers, each of which has a perfectly 
 definite shiire in the subsequent building up of the tissues. 
 From the outermost or superior leaf are produced the ex- 
 ternal skin with its folds and appendages (such as the 
 sebaceous gdands, sudorific glands, hairs, nails iS:c.) and 
 also the active central nervous system, the brain and spi- 
 nal cord. The innermost or inferior germ-lamella furnishes 
 the material for the formation of the mucous membranes 
 which line the entire alimentary apparatus from the mouth 
 to the anal aperture with all its enlargements or append- 
 ages, such as the lungs, liver, intestinal glands &c. Lastly 
 the middle lamella gives origin to all the other organs, 
 namely the bones, muscles, nerves &c. 
 
 As the first visible rudiment of the young org'anism, 
 an elongated, shield-shaped elevation of darker colour 
 makes its appearance in the middle of the embryonal spot ; 
 it is surrounded by a lighter coloured pear-shaped part of 
 the spot, and along it the three germ lamellae are intim- 
 ately united. In the middle line or longitudinal axis of 
 this shield -shaped prominence a straight shallow furrow 
 or groove now makes its appearance; this is \)aQ primitive 
 groove (also called the primitive band or axial plate) which, 
 as Huxley says, "marks the central line of the edifice 
 which is to be raised, or, in other words, indicates the 
 position of the middle line of the body" of the future 
 animal. On each side of the groove the superior or outer 
 germ-lamella then rises in the form of a long fold or ridge; 
 these two ridges finally unite above and form thesocalled 
 medullary tithe, em elongated cavity for the br^un and 
 spinal cord, which are to be produced from the w^alls of 
 this tube. The cavity itself becomes the central canal of 
 the spinal cord and the brain cavity. In the lowest forms 
 of Vertebrated animals (Ampliioxiis) it remains through 
 life a simple tube pointed at each end; whilst, in all other 
 Vertebrata, the anterior extremit}^ of the medullary tube 
 becomes enlarged into a rounded vesicle, the first rudiment 

 
 I02 WHAT ARE WE.'' 
 
 of the brain, and only the posterior extremity, forming 
 the tail, remains pointed. 
 
 wSimultaneous with these processes is the formation 
 at the bottom of the primitive groove, or in the middle 
 germ-lamella, of a solid cellular thread or cartilaginous rod, 
 the notoclwrd (or chorda dorsalis), on each side of which 
 the middle lamella becomes developed into quadran- 
 gular dark spots, arranged in pairs, the primitive ver- 
 tebrcc, which, with the notochord, constitute the first rudi- 
 ment of the vertebral column. The latter is produced by 
 the growth, from the dorsal surface of the notochord, of 
 certain arched processes, which springing upwards finally 
 unite to form a tube embracing the spinal cord. Many 
 fishes retain this dorsal chord, (which in all Mammalia, 
 and in Man, is entirely absorbed), throughout their whole 
 existence, — indeed all the grades of development which 
 the human embryo gradually passes through, are perma- 
 nently represented in the great series of the Vertebrata 
 when we pass from the lowest forms upwards. The most 
 ancient Vertebrata which w^e find buried in a petrified 
 state in the depths of the earth and which opened the 
 great procession of the Vertebrate type in the organic 
 history of the world millions of years ago, also possessed, 
 instead of a vertebral column, only a cartilaginous rod or 
 gelatinous cord to which we have given the name of 
 chorda, and it was only at a later period that this was 
 replaced by the true vertebral column composed of bicon- 
 cave vertebrcG. 
 
 In this stage tJie embryos of all Vertebrata, inclttdiiig 
 mail, are still perfectly similar. "In the earliest rudiment 
 of the embryo", says Giebel *, "when it consists only of the 
 primitive groove and notochord, it is impossible for us by 
 the most minute observation to distinguish the human in- 
 dividuality from that of any other Vertebrate, — of a 
 ]\Iammal or a Bird, — a Lizard or a Carp." 
 
 * Der JNIensch, i86i.
 
 WHAT ARE WE.-' IO3 
 
 But even at a still later period the greatest similarity 
 of development persists, and it is only by degrees that the 
 differences become more prominent by the stronger growth 
 of particular parts. Thus the four extremities of the Ver- 
 tebrata, which at first grow out of the dow^nward processes 
 of the walls surrounding the primitive groove in the form 
 of little buds and by degrees acquire the true structure 
 of the limbs, are so much alike during the first weeks or 
 days of their production that the delicate hand of man, 
 the coarse paw of the Dog, the elegant wing of the bird 
 and the stumpy fore-leg of the Tortoise can hardly be 
 distinguished from one another. Nor is there any more 
 distinction between the leg of man and of the bird, or the 
 hind leg of the Dog and Tortoise. And yet there are scarce- 
 ly any parts of the body which, when fully developed, are 
 more variously formed than the limbs of the Vertebrate ani- 
 mals. In a somewhat earlier stage, when even the rudiments 
 of the fingers or toes are not yet formed and the limbs 
 only form simple rounded processes shooting forth from the 
 sides of the trunk, it is not even possible to distinguish 
 between the fore and hind limbs. With regard to the 
 fingers and toes themselves it is a very remarkable cir- 
 cumstance that their presence to the number of five is the 
 rule throughout nearly all the INIammalia. This applies 
 even to the socalled Solipedes (e'.^. the Horse) which, in the 
 embryo-state, exhibit 5 toes; these however are afterwards 
 fused together into the Iioof-bonc, but in individual cases 
 (deformities) the whole or a part of them are retained. 
 
 What is true of the limbs, is true in exactly the same 
 manner of all other parts or org-ans, which all at first have 
 the same form and gradually develope their specific and 
 permanent differences. The difference however consists 
 very often merely in the fact that certiiin parts or organs, 
 which in the lower series of animals attain a permanent 
 development and a corresponding importance, lose this 
 importance in higher groups, become retrograde and are 
 either entirely lost or retained in a very aborted state.
 
 T04 WHAT ARK WE? 
 
 As an example of such organs we may take the tail in 
 man. In the earliest jieriod of his embryonic existence 
 man possesses this part in just the same state of develop- 
 ment as the embryos of tailed and tailless Mammals. It 
 is only towards the sixth or seventh week of embryonic 
 life that the tailbegins to retrograde and finally disappears, 
 leaving only a small rudiment, consisting of from 3 to 5 
 aborted vertebrae, which form the lower extremity of the 
 vertebral column even in the adult and fully developed man, 
 but remain concealed beneath the skin. They are imme- 
 diately connected with the sacrum and bear the name of 
 the OS coccygis. 
 
 The theme of tailed men has already often been 
 treated in a burlesque fashion, and the £ibsence of a tail 
 in man has always been regarded as an essential prero- 
 gative of his and as an important distinction from the 
 animal world. 
 
 In all this it was indeed forgotten that in the first 
 months of his embryonic existence man is not destitute 
 of this animal appendage, — nay that he even bears it 
 about witli him (although in a very rudimentary form) 
 throughout the whole of his life. Nor was it taken into 
 consideration that the large apes, which are so nearly 
 allied to man (Orang, Chimpanzee, Gorilla), are also tailless, 
 of course in precisely the same sense as man. According 
 to Hackel the aborted tail of man is "an incontrovertible 
 proof of the undeniable fact that he has descended from 
 tailed ancestors." He siiys indeed that in the tail of man 
 rudimentary muscles are still present,— the remains of those 
 muscles which in earlier days served to move the tail of 
 his ancient progenitors. 
 
 But even amongst those ancestors of man which are 
 much further removed from him in the great series of 
 organic development, some have impressed their striking 
 and unmistakable seal upon the human (Mnl:)r\(). \n the 
 first weeks (or days) of their embryonic life all Vortebrata
 
 WHA 1' ARE WE? 105 
 
 possess cin extremely important external structure, which 
 is comm.on to all, but subsequently becomes converted 
 into organs of the most different kinds. These are three 
 or four fissures on each side of the neck, with intervening 
 processes or arches, which in Fishes become the branchial ar- 
 ches and are destined to bear the respiratory organs or gills 
 {branchiae). These branchial or visceral arches, also called 
 bronchial arches, with their intervening branchial or visceral 
 fissures are originally present in man or in the Dog as w^ell 
 as in other Vertebrata. But it is only in the Fishes that they 
 remain as they were in the embryo, and become converted 
 into respiratory org-ans, — in the other Vertebrata, on the 
 contrary, they find a different employm.ent and serve as 
 the rudiments of the different parts of the face and neck. 
 
 Similar leg-acies from the animal world to man, or so- 
 called rndiiiicntary organs, are very numerous. AVe may 
 indicate, for example, the socalled inleri/iaxillary bone, 
 which was so long' supposed to be wanting in man and 
 yet was at last discovered by Goethe (57); the rudimentary 
 muscles for the movement of the ear, which by long prac- 
 tice some individuals are actually able to use in moving' 
 that organ; fhe male milk-glands, which in many men have 
 even been seen to the number of 4 (the two lower ones in 
 a very rudimentary state); the human milk-dentition and 
 its resemblance to that of the lower Mammalia in form; 
 the traces of ribs on the cervical (or neck-) vertebrae in 
 man &c. &c. 
 
 Rudimentary or aborted org'ans, whicli may be detect- 
 ed in great abundance throughout both the animal and 
 vegetable kingdoms, are among the strong'est supports 
 of the theory of derivation, as indeed of the monistic or 
 unitarian conception of the Universe generally. "If the 
 opponents of this conception", says Professor Hackel, 
 "understood the enormous importamce of these facts, 
 they must be reduced to despair. None of these op- 
 ponents has been able to throw even a faint glimmer of 
 light upon these extremely remarkable and important
 
 I06 WHAT ARli WT:? 
 
 phenomena. There is scarcely a, single one of the more 
 highly developed forms of plants or animals that has not 
 
 some rudimentary organs. It is the reverse of the 
 
 formative process, in which by adaptation to peculiar 
 conditions of existence and by the use of a still undeve- 
 loped part new organs are produced &c." 
 
 These remarkable facts of inheritance and of the 
 existence of rudimentary organs, like the previously 
 described embryological and comparative anatomical re- 
 semblances in general, stand in immediate connexion with 
 another, no less remarkable discovery, which shows that 
 there is not merely a complete joarallelism of the iJidivi- 
 diial and sysfeinafic development, but also a parallelism 
 of these two with the palcToutological development, — 
 that is to say the laws, in accordance with which the first 
 development of the individual creature takes place, may 
 be recognized not merely in the present world, but also 
 m the history of the past. It is the w^ell known re- 
 lation of juxtaposition, cause a?id effect and successio7i 
 that is unmistakably presented to us in this triple deve- 
 lopmental series and demonstrates to us, with a distinct- 
 ness which cannot be misunderstood, the great affinity ot 
 all organic beings to and their derivation from each other. 
 Thus in the great series of the Vertebrata we find per- 
 manently represented all the grades of development which 
 the human embryo successively passes throug^h; and, on 
 the other hand, the human embryo passes through a 
 graduated series of metamorphoses which closely approxi- 
 mate it at each stage of its development to the lower 
 grades ot development of the Vertebrate type, — that is 
 to say man (after representing in the egg-state the lowest 
 stag'e of life, the cell or Protozoon) resembles a Fisli in 
 the earliest stage of its embr^'ological development, then 
 an Amphibian and only at a later period a IVIammal. 
 Moreover the different steps, which it surmounts in this last 
 or Mammalian stage, correspond to the different stages of de- 
 velopment through which the Mammalian type gradually
 
 WHAT ARE WE.'' IO7 
 
 rises from the lowest to the higher orders and famihes*. But 
 this is not all; all these stages or grades of development 
 again precisely resemble the steps by which the Verte- 
 brate type has risen gradually during geological times and 
 in the course of many millions of years to its present state 
 of perfection, and the remains and representatives of which 
 we iind buried in the depths of the earth. This great 
 truth cannot be better expressed than in the admirable 
 words of one of the greatest of living- Naturalists, Professor 
 Agassiz, who says: "It is a fact which I can now assert as 
 universal that the embryos and young of all actually 
 existing animals, to whatever class they may belong, are 
 the living mtmatures of the fossil representatives of the 
 same families." Exactly the same idea is expressed by 
 Professor Hackel in the following words: — "The series of 
 multifarious forms which any individual of any series of 
 animals passes through from the commencement of its 
 existence, from the egg to the grave, is an abridged and 
 condensed repetition of that series of different specific forms 
 through which the ancestors and primitive progenitors of 
 that species have passed during the enormously long pe- 
 riods of geological history." 
 
 Consequently the development of the individual during 
 and even after its embryonic existence is nothing more 
 than a short and rapid repetition of the course of develop- 
 ment of the type to which it belongs, or in other words 
 the miniature, enclosed in a narrow frame, of the sequence 
 of those ancestors which form the entire ancestral chain 
 of the individual in question and which in its most essential 
 features is still represented by the system.atic sequence of 
 the living types of animals. There can be no more striking' 
 proof of the close relationship and connexion of man with 
 
 * "The different animals," says Professor Schaaffliauscn, ''are the 
 forms of animal life fixed at different stages, and the higher animal 
 advances during its development through the lower forms, but never 
 perfectly reproducing them, since the incessant formative impulse is con- 
 stantly tending to remove Ihe similarity again immediately."
 
 I oh WlIAl' ARE WKr* 
 
 the Lotiility of org'anised nature and especially with the 
 iinimals immediately below him. This fact at once throws 
 an equally bright and astonishing" light upon the important 
 question of the origin and derivation of the human race 
 itself, a question which as a matter of course is most in- 
 timately and necessarily connected with our subject, or 
 the question of the position of man in nature. vSince the 
 celebrated Darwinian theory has brought the doctrine of 
 the derivative nature and conversion of organic beings into 
 more general acceptance and at the same time general 
 attention has been attracted directly to the relation of man 
 to that doctrine, this equally important and interesting 
 question has excited the minds of men in a most remark- 
 able manner, and its answer in a Darwinian sense has 
 given rise to a very wide spread emotion. We may re- 
 mark in passing that this emotion, which has often been 
 accompanied or followed by the drollest outbreaks of 
 virtuous indignation, is a striking proof how little the 
 great results of natural history have become generally 
 diffused notwithstanding the innumerable attempts that 
 have been made to popularise them, and that it is pre- 
 cisely the most important results of these investigations and 
 the conclusions founded upon them that are still the great- 
 est mysteries to the majority of men. 
 
 It is true that at the root of this emotion lies the just 
 conviction which is productive of uneasiness to many minds, 
 that all investigations into the position of man in nature 
 and his relation to the rest of the organic world must 
 finally lead up to the question of the origin and deri- 
 vation of the human race, and certainly these researches, 
 which are in part of a very difficult and subtle kind and 
 111 themselves possess interest chiefly for those who make 
 a special study of them, would scarcely have interested 
 the public so much, if there were not always in the back- 
 ground the necessary and unavoidable tendency to this 
 very question. As I stcited in my third lecture on Darwin, 
 the whole question is to a certain extent an affair of /he
 
 AVHAT ARE WE ."^ lOQ 
 
 lieart for us, and no doubt it requires the most thorough- 
 yfoinL,"" examination and investigation. Professor Huxley, 
 who was the first to con e boldly before the general 
 public with opinions as to the natural origin and animal 
 derivation of man founded upon anatomical considerations, 
 expresses himself in the same terms. It is true that 
 similar views had often been expressed before Huxley, 
 but they were supported less upon particular facts than 
 upon general philosophy, or upon reflections derived from 
 ci general view of natural phenomena. Since Huxley 
 came forward, however, numerous voices have been 
 raised in other countries on the same side, — in Germany 
 •especially those of Professors Ernst Hackel of Jena and 
 Hermann Schaaffhausen of Bonn, the latter as I shall 
 speedily show, having really a claim to priority over 
 Huxley, in so far that he definitely asserted the animal 
 derivation of man ten years previously. It is a very 
 widespread notion that Professor Carl Vogt, the celebrated 
 naturalist and writer, is the true originator of the idea of 
 the natural and especially of the Simian origin of man. 
 This opinion, probably a consequence of Vogt's lectures 
 delivered in all the great towns of Germany, is in fact 
 quite erroneous. Vogt w^as even for a long time a very 
 decided and energetic champion of the doctrine of the 
 niimufabilify of species, which necessarily excludes the 
 theory in question, and it is only since Darwin and by 
 Darwin's means that he has become of a difterent opinion. 
 But even since this conversion he has never, so far as 
 I know, expressed himself publicly upon the point in 
 question so distinctly and decidedly as the naturalists just 
 mentioned. 
 
 In his well known "Lectures on Man" (Giessen 1863) 
 the intimate relationship between jNIan and animals is 
 c<ertainly recognised and supported by facts, and the sy- 
 stematic position of man is discussed in exactly the same 
 manner as ])}• Fluxley, — and finally at the conclusion of 
 the work and in the last lecture tha animal and especially
 
 tl6 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 the Simian origin * of man is represented as the necessary 
 consequence of the whole theory. Vogt has also subse- 
 quently published a series of investigations upon the so- 
 called ]\Iicrocep]iali (not indeed intended for the general 
 public), in which he treats this human deformity as a kind 
 of intermediate form between man and animals produced 
 by atavism or retrogression and gives to the Microcephali 
 the characteristic name of "ape men" (58). But how far 
 Carl Vogt has gone upon this point in his public lectures 
 on the prin-iitive history of man, or how far he has gone 
 into its details, we are unable to judge precisely, as these 
 lectures are as yet only known from newspaper reports. 
 In any case Vogt cannot be regarded as the originator 
 of the entire theory, merely because he was the first to 
 lecture upon it in public. Huxley's work so often cited, 
 which marks an epoch in the history of the subject, appeared 
 in the same year as Vogt's "Lectures on Man" and treats 
 the question in a far more thoroug'hgoing and definite 
 manner; it has therefore in any case the priority over 
 Vogt's. But at a much earlier period than either of them 
 and indeed at a period when, considering the prevalent 
 prejudices in opposition to it, greater scientific courage was 
 necessary, Professor Hermann Schaafthausen ventured to 
 lay down the outlines of the theory of organic development 
 and to establish as its necessary consequence the doctrine 
 of the animal derivation of man. This he did in three 
 memoirs printed in the years 1853, 1854 and 1858: "On the 
 colour of the skin in the Negro, and the approximation 
 of the human figure to the animal form" (1854), — "On the 
 persistency and transformation of species" (1853), and "On 
 the connexion of the phenomena of nature and life" (1858). 
 
 * Wlicn tlic term ''Simian origin" is employed it is always to be 
 understood in the Darwinian sense, as signifying derivation from an 
 antediluvian, extinct and still unknown progenitor holding a middle 
 place between the Human and the Simian types. A derivation of man 
 from one of the existing anthropoid a]ies has, so far as I am aware, never 
 been seriously maintained liy an)- one.
 
 WHAT ARE WE^ lit 
 
 As evidence of this I may here cite a passage from the 
 first mentioned of these three memoirs, in which the au- 
 thor demonstrates by striking examples that not only the 
 colour of the skin, but also the different form of the head, 
 upon which the distinction of the various races of men has 
 been founded, varies in the most essential manner with 
 climate, soil, civilization, mode of life &c., and that from 
 this, in conjunction with the circumstance that the dimin- 
 ution of intelligence in races causes animal forms to become 
 more and more prominent, the question must arise w,^^///^;' 
 the human form has not been 'produced froui the animal 
 and whether the increase of intelligence lias not broi/ght 
 about this development? He then continues in the following 
 terms: — "There is nothing in the least lowering to man in 
 our regarding his creation as a natural development, nor 
 is the human intellect thereby placed upon the same level 
 with the intelligence of the animal. We may regard the 
 highest intellectual and moral interests of the human race 
 as an undoubted fact and nevertheless admit the possi- 
 bility that the human mind has risen from a state of animal 
 rudeness to the hig-liest intellectual development. It will 
 of course be objected that man and animal are essentially 
 different. But if we had never witnessed the development 
 of the chicken from the egg, should we not with still more 
 reason regard these as two essentially different things? 
 Why should not the outlines of the moral \vorld of man 
 exist in the sentiments of an animal mind? If organic 
 bodies have been constantly advancing towards greater 
 perfection, why should not a gradual unfolding of the 
 intellectual powers also be possible? It is a more ele- 
 vated and worthy view of the plan of creation to regard 
 all nature as a whole coherent by its development, than 
 to imagine the Creator repeatedly destroying his creation, 
 in order to set another in its place". 
 
 Unfortunately these three admirable memoirs remained 
 too little known for them to have exercised any great 
 influence in favour of the theory of evolution which was
 
 tl2 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 destined soon aftoiwards to make such great progress. 
 And yet they must be regarded as having" already estab- 
 Hshed that theory and its apphcation to Man in all essential 
 points! (59) But if we leave out of consideration all more 
 profound scientific evidence and merely attend to the 
 question of the origin of man, Dr. H. P. D. Reichenbach 
 of Altona has a greater claim to priority than any of the 
 naturalists just mentioned. — On the 24.*'^ September 1851 
 that gentleman delivered before the 28'*^ Meeting of Ger- 
 man Surgeons and Naturalists in Gotha a discourse "On 
 the origin of Man", printed at Altona in 1854, in which the 
 doctrine of the animal-derivation of Man was most defin- 
 itely laid down and defended. "But where was the soil" 
 he says in this little work (pp. 7 & 8), which is written in 
 a rather grandiloquent style, "where was the soil on which 
 the first man w^as formed and rested, and where the 
 maternal bosom from which he derived his nourishment? 
 To these questions, however the pride of man nay struggie 
 ag'ainst it, we can only answer: T/ie soil on ivliich tlie first 
 mati was produced 7vas an am'inal, — Iiis first mother an ani- 
 mal, — a/nl the first naiirisliinent of his month the milk of 
 an animal" (60). 
 
 From all this it is sufficiently clear that the theory of 
 the animal origin of man is not, as so many people in their 
 ignorance suppijse, a discovery of Vogt's, but that it is a 
 theory founded upon the progress of development of 
 Science, which in some way or another would sooner or 
 later have been brougiit to light. Essentially, as has 
 already frequently been stated, it is completely included 
 in the theory of derivation and change, and is a necessary 
 and inevitable consequence of this. Hence even Lamarck, 
 the celebrated predecessor of Darwin, did not hesitate, at 
 the commencement of the present century, to apply the 
 theory of transformation established by him to man and 
 to assert the gfradual production of man from a man- like 
 species of Ape. Lorcnz ( )k('n, th,o head of tin- natural
 
 WHAT ARE WEr II3 
 
 philosophical School in Germany, which embraced similar 
 ideas, also expressed himself in the same manner (1809 — i8ig). 
 Darwin himself, the true father of the evolutionary 
 theory now prevalent, proceeded more cautiously than 
 Lamarck and, for some reasons not yet explained, left the 
 question whether and how far this theory is to be applied 
 to man, untouched *. This, however, did not prevent its being- 
 perceived that the animal origin of man is equally a ne- 
 cessary consequence of the Darwinian as of any other theory 
 of evolution, and it is undoubtedly recognized as such by 
 all the serious adherents of Darwin. But even if this were 
 not the case it would not alter matters in the least, for 
 without Darwin and the Darwinian theory Anthropology 
 would of itself in course of time have arrived at this ne- 
 cessary result, — indeed even before Darwin it had already 
 been attained, although only in the minds of certain indivi- 
 dual students. If we accept only one great law of organic 
 development, leaving out of consideration Darwin and his 
 theory, its correctness or incorrectness, we can form no 
 other hypothesis of the production of man. For it is im- 
 possible to conceive that this law of development has sud- 
 denly been broken at a particular point, and that by super- 
 natural intervention a new member of such importance as 
 man has been inserted in the natural series of beings and 
 provided with all those animal resemblances, indications 
 of relationship etc., which should belong' to him in accord- 
 ance with that law**. Such considerations as these had 
 led the author of this book, long before any thing' was 
 known of the Darwinian theory, to the idea of the natural 
 
 * According to statements in journals however, Darwin is at the 
 present moment engaged in the preparation of a book extending his theorj' 
 to man. 
 
 ** "If the theory of derivation", says Professor Hiickel (Two lectures 
 on the origin and genealogy of the Human race, i868). "be a necessary 
 and general law of induction, its application to man is only an equally 
 necessary, special law of deduction, a theory which follows from the for- 
 mer by inevitable necessity". 
 
 8
 
 114 WHAT ARE WE.'' 
 
 origin of man and especially of his animal descent, an idea 
 which he expressed openly and without circumlocution as 
 long ago as the year 1855 in the first edition of his \vork 
 on "Force and matter", wifhoui at that time having the least 
 suspicion, how soon positive observation and the advancing 
 knowledge of nature would lend efficient aid to this idea. 
 At present (but already fifteen years have elapsed) the 
 theory of the animal origin of man is an undeniable require- 
 ment not merely of a rational theory but of positive in- 
 vestigation and of science itself. It is supported above 
 all things by the common plan of development in the or- 
 ganization of the entire living world, which as already 
 stated is most clearly and indisputably revealed in three 
 directions (geologically, systematico-anatomically and em- 
 bryologically). Then we have all the positive arguments 
 which arise from direct comparison, and wdiich were first 
 laid down connectedly and with distinct reference to this 
 object by Professor Huxley in his three celebrated essays 
 on the position of man in nature. After furnishing in the 
 first of these memoirs a detailed description of the four 
 most man-like apes, the Gibbon, Chimpanzee, Orang and 
 Gorilla (an abstract of which is given in note 47 of the 
 present book). Professor Huxley passes, in his second mic- 
 moir, to his well known anatomical comparison of the struc- 
 ture of the body of man with that of the.larg-e apes, especi- 
 ally the Gorilla, and arrives at the important conclusion, 
 which has already been mentioned, that the anatomical 
 differences between man and the most highly organized 
 apes are not so great or so im.portant, as the differences 
 of the various families of apes. In his mind and in that 
 of every thinking person, this result leads to the further 
 question, — if we admit the mutual derivation of animals: 
 is this principle also to be applied to man and to the 
 equally interesting and important question of his first 
 origin? Huxley of course answers this question with a de- 
 cided affirmative and adds tliat in such case either the 
 origin of man must l)o oxplaincnl bv the gradual trans-
 
 WHAT ARE AVE.'' II5 
 
 formation of a man-like ape, or man must be regarded as 
 a special branch of the same fundamental animal stock as 
 the apes. This necessarily leads Huxley further to the 
 Lam.arckio-Darwinian theory of the transformation of spe- 
 cies, of which he confesses himself to be an adherent, at 
 least in general. Hence also he naturally becomes a de- 
 cided supporter of the animal origin of man, "But" adds 
 Huxley, after this declaration of opinion, "even leaving" 
 Mr. Darwin's views aside, the whole analogy of natural 
 operations furnishes so complete and crushing an argument 
 against the intervention of any but what a.re termed st'co//d- 
 ary causes, in the production of all the phenomena of the 
 Universe, that, in view of the intimate relations between 
 Man and the rest of the living world, and between the 
 forces exerted by the latter and all other forces, / can sec 
 no excuse for doubting that all arc coord'inafccl fcnns of 
 Natnrds great progression, from the fonnlcss to the 
 formed — from the i?iorganic to the organic — from blind 
 force to conscious ijttellect and will." 
 
 It would be impossible to express more distinctly and 
 decidedly the fundamental idea of the materialistic concep- 
 tion of the universe and nature, and the developmental 
 theory which stands in necessary connexion therewith (Ci). 
 
 At the conclusion of this essay Huxley also speaks 
 in admirable terms which we cannot take too much to heart, 
 upon the absurd fears entertained by the general public 
 and their unfounded horror of any such theory. For 
 this I must refer the reader to the work itself. 
 
 The third and last of Huxley's memoirs relates to some 
 recently discovered fossil remains of Man, which appear 
 fitted to a certain extent to fill up or at least dimini.sh the 
 structural interval which separates Man from the animals, 
 and thus to add palasontological arguments to those hitherto 
 obtained from systematic, anatomical and embryological 
 investigations as to the position of man in nature and his 
 animal origin. The most important of these remains is 
 the celebrated Neandcrtlial sic/dl alroadv mentioned and
 
 Il6 WHAT ARE WR? 
 
 described in tlie lirsL soetion of tliis work (p. 53), wliicli 
 Huxley describes as the most ape -like of all the human 
 skulls that he has ever seen, and of which he says 
 that in its examination we meet with ape-like characters 
 in all parts, and also that it has the greatest similarity 
 with the existing Australian skulls and with the ancient 
 Borreby skulls. Huxley also states expressly that this 
 skull is by no means an isolated phenomenon, but that it 
 is only the extreme term of a long series of bestial or at 
 least very lowly developed human skulls of the past and 
 present periods. A detailed account of the discoveries re- 
 lating to this subject has already been given in the first 
 section of this book. 
 
 Since Huxley wrote as above cited, a great number of 
 similar discoveries confirming the idea of the relationship 
 of man to the animal world have been made, and amongst 
 these the most remarkable is the discovery of the cele- 
 brated human jaw of La Naulette. 
 
 But before I pass to the detailed description of this dis- 
 covery I will remark that the maud idle or lower jaiv is of 
 all the bones of the body that which in the first place is 
 most readily preserved, and, in the second, is most frequently 
 met with in a fossil state separated from the rest of the ske- 
 leton. The latter circumstance is due to the fact that in conse- 
 quence of its loose attachment to the upper jaw (which is ef- 
 fected only by a small and not very firm joint and in other 
 respects by muscles which are subject to decomposition) it 
 is separated from the rest of the skeleton more readily and 
 quickly than other bones; the former to the fact that by 
 reason of its peculiarly solid consistencv, which resists 
 d(istructive agencies, it is able to persist longer than other 
 bones in the soil. To this we may add that when once 
 this bone is separated, from its comparatively small size 
 and corresponding lightness, it is more readily carried to 
 a distance by external agencies than other parts of the 
 skeleton, and may easily be deposited in any place. If this 
 applies to the lower jaws of animals, which on account of
 
 WllAl ARE WE.-" li; 
 
 their solidity and other characters were preferred by the 
 primaeval men for the manufacture of weapons, tools etc.. 
 it applies also and in a still higher degree to the very 
 solid and characteristically formed louder jaw of man; and 
 the lower jaw has in fact been found more frequently than 
 any other parts of the body in the researches that have 
 been made for the fossil remains of our earliest ancestors. 
 
 Thus, in the year 1866 a fragment of a human jaw 
 with very remarkable and animal characters w^as found 
 by the indefatigable Belgian Cave-explorer Dr. Edward 
 Dupont in the Tron dc la Naitktfe, a bone-cave situated 
 on the bank of the little river Lesse not far from the vil- 
 lage of Chaleux. It was in a deposit of river-loam cover- 
 ed with a layer of stalagmite and at a depth of about 
 4 metres. The most remarkable of its characters, besides 
 the comparative thickness and rounded form of the bone 
 and its elliptical dental curve, is the almost entire absence 
 of the chin. The projecting' or prominent chin is so dis- 
 tinctive a character of man, that Linne, the great lawgiver 
 of systematic zoology, could name no better bodily distinc- 
 tions between man and animals than the upright position 
 and the pro vdnent chin of the former. In animals, instead 
 of projecting-, the chin retreats, and the jaw of La Naulette 
 holds an intermediate position between the two; where 
 the projection of the chin ought to be, it exhibits a line de- 
 scending perpendicularly. 
 
 INIoreover the cavities destined for the reception of 
 the canine teeth are remarkably wide and large, £is in ani- 
 mals, although the canines themselves are closely con- 
 tiguous to the incisors and molars, and the jaw is thus 
 shown to be undoubtedly of human origin. But what is 
 still more remarkable than this is the circumstance that 
 the three hinder or persistent molars present exactly the 
 same relative sizes as is usual in the anthropomorphous 
 apes. Thus whilst in the higher races of Man the three 
 true molars are so arranged that the first is the larg^est 
 and the' last or hindermost the smallest, we find in the
 
 Il8 AVHAT ARK WK? 
 
 dentition of the ]c)wer races, such as the IMalays and Ne- 
 groes, that all the three molars are of ec^ual size, and 
 throughout larger than usual. But in the Anthropoid apes 
 the first true molar is the smallest and the last the largest, 
 and this is the case also in this fossil human jaw, the last 
 or hindermost molar of which even appears to have pos- 
 sessed five roots. (The large size of the hindermost molar 
 certainly indicates a low grade of organization). To all 
 this may be added that the inner surface of the jaw at 
 the point of the socalled suture or symphysis, behind the 
 incisor teeth, forms a line obliquely directed upwards and 
 consequently leaves no doubt as to the prog'nathism (a very 
 characteristic mark of the animals and lower races of man) 
 of its former possessor. 
 
 All these characters in conjunction with the general 
 aspect of the bone indicate that it is a human lower jaw 
 of very animal formation, and especially that is the most 
 ape-like jaw hitherto discovered. It was found associated 
 with the bones of extinct animals, principally the INIammoth 
 and woolly Rhinoceros, so that there can be no doubt as 
 to the fact that this man must have been a contemporary 
 of those animals and must therefore have lived in the so- 
 called J\ fai/im of h- period. The implements or flints found 
 with it also correspond to that period and present the 
 same type as those of St. Acheul (Valley of the Somme) (62). 
 
 The lower jaw of La Naulette is, however, no more 
 a peculiar and isolated bone of its kind, than the Neander- 
 thal skull in its way, but it is supported in its evidence 
 by a complete series of similar or allied bones. Such is 
 the celebrated human jaw of Moulin-Ouignon already de- 
 scribed (p. 26 & Note 8) which displays a tendency towards 
 animal structure in the shortness and breadth of the ascen- 
 ding ramus, the equal height of the two apophyses, the 
 indication of prognathism furnished by the very obtuse 
 angle at which the ramus joins the body of the bone etc.; 
 and also the human jaw belonging almost exactly to the 
 same type (according to Pruner Bey), which was found
 
 WHAT ARE AVE? IIQ 
 
 near Hyeres. But above all we must mention the jaw 
 found in thecaveof Arcis-sur-Aube (Burgundy) associated 
 with bones of extinct animals, which possesses all the es- 
 sential characters of the jaw of La Naulette, although in 
 a somewhat less degree; and that discovered in a fissure 
 of the tertiary limestone near Grevenbriick and described 
 by Schaaffhausen (Sitzungsber. der niederrhein. Gesellsch. 
 1864, p. 30) which indicates a low structure by its elliptical 
 dental curve and inlying dentary bone; whilst the human 
 lower jaw found in the cave of Frontal associated with 
 reindeer bones is remarkable for the size of the molars 
 and the extraordinary thickness of the bone in the molar 
 region. Finally we have to notice the fossil human jaw 
 already referred to (Note 11) from the gravel pits of Ipswich, 
 which was exhibited in April 1863 to the Ethnological So- 
 ciety ol London and exhibits, with all the signs of very 
 high antiquity, the characteristics of a low conformation. 
 
 We may look forward with confidence to further dis- 
 coveries of the same kind, although the conditions are pe- 
 culiarly unfavourable for the preservation of human bones 
 from the reindeer period and from a period preceding that 
 of the cave-inhabitants, and although their preservation 
 can as a rule be anticipated only in particular cases and 
 by a combination of peculiarly favourable circumstances. 
 It must be remembered, however, that the traces of those 
 innumerable generations of animals, which peopled the 
 surface of the earth from its earliest existence, and whose 
 bones in general possessed a much greater power of resist- 
 ing destructive agencies than those of man, have nearly 
 all disappeared with the exception of a comparatively few 
 relics, which a happy chance has buried in the interior of 
 protected caves, in the depths of peatmosses or in the 
 sand and gravel of former rivers! 
 
 But this very difficulty of preservation, and thesmaU 
 number of very ancient human remains render it all 
 the more significant that these remains almost without 
 exception bear upon them the evident signs of an inferior
 
 I20 WHAT ARE AVE? 
 
 conformation, and that among them there are some which 
 exceed in their animality of character the lowest and most 
 animal of existing races of men ! To this we must add that 
 these discoveries have hitherto been made almost exclu- 
 sively in regions now inhabited by civilized nations, and 
 in which we certainly cannot place the socalled cradle of 
 mankind. Under any circumstances the discoveries hitherto 
 made by no means point upw^ards, as ought to be the case 
 in accordance with the old opinions, but downwards, and 
 indicate the existence of a ruder, more animal and more 
 lowly developed human race, which formed to a certain ex- 
 tent an intermediate form between the existing men and 
 the highest known forms of animals, and of which the re- 
 mains still remain buried in the depths of the earth. 
 Moreover we must not forget that the commion character 
 of all these lower structures consists in a tendency towards 
 that fa^tal conformation or towards that early stage in the 
 development of man, Avhich has already been described in 
 its chief outlines, and that in this again the general har- 
 mony of organic nature, a condition of the law of develop- 
 ment which we have seen to be its fundamental law, is 
 most distinctly manifested. Why, we cannot help asking, 
 why has not a single discovery or a single fact been made 
 known, which contradicts this fundam.ental law or proves 
 the former existence of a more perfect, more highly orga- 
 nized or more highly developed race of men? 
 
 Significant as all these discoveries are in themselves 
 it is, however, unnecessary for the theory of evolution that 
 we should find directly intermediate stages between the 
 forms of men and animals living in the present day, as it is 
 now almost universally admitted by all adherents of Darwin 
 or of the doctrine of derivation, that man is not directly 
 derived from the Anthropoid or Man-like apes with which 
 we are acquainted, but from an unknown and long since 
 extinct intermediate or ancestral form, or perhaps from se- 
 veral such forms, in exactly the same way that in accor- 
 dance with the Darwinian theory we assume the_ former
 
 WHAT ARE WE.'' 121 
 
 existence of similar extinct stocks for nearly all living 
 forms of animals. "We should thus have to assume one or 
 more ancestors of this kind for man and animals and to 
 suppose that the existing forms of man and of the higher 
 apes are onl)^ the last oftshoots of developmental series 
 ramifying at an early period from common fundamental 
 stocks. 
 
 This opinion is also essentially supported'by the fact 
 already cited that the truly human characters or resem- 
 blances are not combined in any single genus of Anthro- 
 poid apes with which we are acquainted, but distributed 
 among them in various ways.' Indeed particular human 
 characters, such as the formation of the skull and face, are 
 more highly developed in the group of the Platyrrhini, 
 notwithstanding its distance from man, than in the Catar- 
 rhini, or even in the true Anthropoid apes themselves. 
 This remarkable fact leaves scarcely any doubt that a 
 separation of originally com.bined characters and a rami- 
 fication in various directions during further evolution, such 
 as the theory of derivation compels us to accept for most 
 of the higher existing forms of animals, must have coope- 
 rated also in the production of man and in his branching 
 off from the common fundamental stock of the Primates; 
 and according to this theory the living forms of Anthro- 
 poid apes are to be regarded not indeed as the ancestors 
 or progenitors of man, but as his near relations or cousins. 
 
 This view finds further efficient support in the well 
 known circumstance that quite recently some fossil remains 
 of apes have been discovered, which seem to indicate the 
 actual former existence of such primitive stock-forms. 
 Of these a short account has already been given in the 
 author's lectures upon the Darwinian theor}" (pp. 204 & 205). 
 These discoveries have hitherto been made only in Europe 
 (France and Switzerland), but similar ones may fairly be 
 expected in those tropical or equatorial regions which are 
 now the true home of the Anthropoid apes, and especial- 
 ly in their tertiary formations, most probably those of
 
 122 AVHAT ARE WE? 
 
 southern Asia*. There, or in Africa, or in the Islands of 
 the Malay archipelago, we shall probably some day meet 
 with that Man-Ape or Ape-Man, with that immediate inter- 
 mediate form between man and animal, which certainly has 
 not yet been found, but whose former existence is indicated 
 by so many convincing proofs**. That this intermediate or 
 transitional form is no longer in existence need not sur- 
 prise us, as it is well known that all the non-persistent in- 
 termediate forms become extinct with greater facility and 
 rapidity than other types, and the chief cause of the 
 comparatively large gaps which we now detect throughout 
 the plan of creation is to be found in this rapid extinction 
 of the intermediate forms. 
 
 Hence, although the gap or interval between man 
 and animal, which nowadays certainly exists and is of 
 great width, seems to be one which can scarcely be 
 filled up, we do not hesitate to regard such a condition of 
 things as founded upon the natural plan of development, 
 and consider that this apparently immense gap has not 
 always exhibited the same void that it does at present. 
 Already the great apes are in course of extinction, and 
 they become rarer from year to year by the advance and 
 competition of man. In a short time they will have entirely 
 disappeared. The lower races of man, which exhibit so 
 much animality of structure, likewise die out year by year, 
 
 * The existence of fossil apes was formerly regarded as impossible, 
 but we are now acquainted with no fewer than 14 species, of which Eu- 
 rope has furnished 6 or more; whilst the great continent of Africa, the 
 special habitation of ape-like men and man-like apes, has not yet offered 
 a single example of this kind. Africa however, has been but little in- 
 vestigated. 
 
 ** Even if this palaeontological intermediate form should never be 
 discovered, we must, in estimating the importance of this fact, bear in 
 mind the extreme imperfection and incompleteness of the geological re- 
 cord of creation, interrupted as it is by sunken or submerged lands. 
 "Geology is a magnificent inscription, but for ever disfigured; we can 
 certainly decipher some fragments of lines relating to those long past 
 times, but we shall never read the whole." (G. Pouchet).
 
 WHAT ARE WE? 123 
 
 and the savants of future ages would therefore have to re- 
 gard the interval between man and the animals as still 
 deeper and more impassable than it appears to us, if they 
 did not possess in writings, pictures and collections such 
 evidences of the past as may enable them to arrive at a 
 sound judgment. 
 
 Now that these results have been established in a ge- 
 neral way, and the animal origin of man has been shown to 
 be most probable especially upon natural History grounds, 
 we have to ascertain, how such a process of the pro- 
 duction of man from animal or animal-like beginnings may 
 also be possible or conceivable in its details, in other words 
 the whcnl wherel and how} of his first production. We 
 have olso in an especial manner to decide whether a unity 
 or a plurality of origin is to be regarded as probable or 
 certain. 
 
 This last important question coincides with or forms 
 part of the question as to the unity or plurality of inaukindm 
 general, which has been so often treated and already answer- 
 ed in the most various fashions, — a question which heis con- 
 stantly given rise to innumerable and infinite disputes among 
 naturalists and has divided them into tAVO great parties, 
 the so-called monogenists SiXid polxgenists. Essentially these 
 disputes only reproduce the old obscurity, removed by Dar- 
 win, as to the signification and origin of the idea of the 
 species; hence the whole question has lost most of its former 
 importance, since Darwin's appearance. For if we once 
 accept the possibility of the conversion of the ape-type 
 into the human type (whether gradually or by sudden 
 changes), it is of little consequence to the argument, w^he- 
 ther this conversion has taken place one or several times 
 and in one or several places, or whether the existing 
 differences among the individual races of men are due to 
 gradual transformations of an originally uniform type 
 or to original differences of derivation. As a matter of 
 science, therefore, it is quite indifferent whether the old.
 
 124 WHAT ARE AVK? 
 
 equivocal idea of jspecies is or is not iip])lied to man with 
 all his variations and aberrations; the whole dispute re- 
 tciins a fundamental significance only for the theologians 
 and theological naturalists, who still, quite erroneously, 
 invoke the mythical narratives of the Bible in proof of 
 the specific unity of the human race. 
 
 But even if we place ourselves at the former stand- 
 point of science and apply the antiquated idea of species 
 to Man, the facts are but little in favour of the Biblical 
 (or philosophical) unity of the human species. For the 
 African Negroes, the Chinese and the Aryans are certainly 
 in the sense of biologica.1 science as well characterized spe- 
 cies as the best-founded of those which zoology has ever 
 distinguished among animals, although all these forms have 
 hitherto been regarded only as races or varieties of a single 
 human species (63). And among' these which we may call 
 good species, we have then no sm,all number of bad or 
 doubtful species to intercalate. In this respect pliilologx 
 furnishes the same result as biology and shows it to be 
 scarcely conceivable or possible that all the tribes of the 
 earth can have originated from a single pair, at all events 
 at a not very distant period. A distinguished historian and 
 philologist in comparing the languages of the extreme east 
 with those of the Aryan gToup says that, "if the planets 
 whose physical constitution resembles that of the earth are 
 inhabited by organized beings like ourselves, we may as- 
 sert that the history and languages of those planets will 
 not differ more from ours than do the history and language 
 of the Chinese". According to the celebrated linguist 
 A.Schleicher, also, it is "positively impossible to refer back 
 all languages to a single primitive tongue. An unpreju- 
 diced investigation rather indicates as many primitive lan- 
 guages as there are disting'uishablc stock-languages. 
 
 We must consequently suppose a large but indeterminate 
 number of primitive languages (64)", (See: Schleicher on 
 the significance of language in the natural history of 
 man, 1865).
 
 WHAT ARE WE? I25 
 
 To return now to the matter immediately before us. 
 J .ooking at it from the standpoint of the derivative theory, 
 many observers have been struck by the fact that there 
 is a remarkable agreement in tJie coloitr of the skin and 
 also in the formation of the skull between the extreme 
 human races and those anthropoid apes which even now 
 inhabit the same regions of the earth with them. For the 
 Orang or Orang Outan which inhabits the Asiatic Archi- 
 pelago, is of a yellowish red colour and braeliyceplialous 
 or short-headed like the Malays; whilst the Chimpanzee 
 and the Gorilla, both of which are indigenous to Africa, 
 are black and dolichocephaloiis or long-headed like the 
 Negroes. 
 
 This peculiar relation would seem to indicate a com- 
 mon origin for both, so that it is possible the yellow or 
 short-headed man might have originated from a stock-form 
 resembling the Orang, and the black or long headed man 
 from one resembling the Gorilla or the Chimpanzee. This 
 supposition has been chiefly put forward by Professor 
 Schaaffhausen, who calls attention to the fact that south- 
 ern Asia and equatorial Africa are precisely those parts 
 of the earth's surface which have given origin to the two 
 extremes of human structure, between which all the other 
 forms may be arranged. These two crude and origina 
 types of the long-headed and short-headed man, the Ethi- 
 opian and the Mongol, the African and the Asiatic, which 
 as we have said, even at the present day form the two ex- 
 tremities or opposite poles of the long series of Men, 
 may be recognized in all their distinctness in the oldest 
 traces or remains of our race upon the earth, and thus 
 indicate a probable difference of orig'in. It is true that in 
 Europe we find both forms mixed together even at the 
 most ancient part of the human period known to us, but, 
 according to Schaaffhausen, this may possibly be due to 
 an alternate immigration of both races from Asia and 
 Africa in primaeval times. The circumstance that the most 
 ancient civilization had two starting points (India and
 
 126 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 Egypt), of which one is in Asia and the other in Africa, 
 is also in accordance with this view. 
 
 However, Schaafithausen admits (as indeed he cannot 
 help doing) that, in accordance with the Darwinian theory, 
 which presupposes the unlimited variability of all organic 
 beings, it must be fiossible that the human race originated 
 from a single pair, but he regards such an assumption 
 as improbable. The Gorilla and the Orang, says Schaaff- 
 hausen, are also both Anthropoid or man-like apes of very 
 similar structure, but "what is there to prove their common 
 origin? "In the same way there may have been for man 
 several developmental series, starting from primitive forms 
 separated from each other in space". 
 
 The most decided of the polygenists is Carl Vogt, 
 who, even before his acceptance of the Darwinian theory, 
 was one of the most zealous supporters of the plurality 
 of the human species and also of their multiplicity of ori- 
 gin. According to him the facts do not indicate a common 
 stock or a single intermediate form between man and ape, 
 but lead us to assume "several parallel series, more or less 
 limited locally, which may have been developed from thc^ 
 different parallel series of the apes". Even the American 
 man may, according to Vogt, have originated separately 
 from American apes. 
 
 The theory of the animal or more specially the simian 
 origin of man has received its widest and most consistent 
 development at the hands of Professor Hackel, who has 
 followed it out strictly in accordance with the Darwinian 
 theory, and from a point of view standing- intermediate to 
 those of the polygenists and monogenists. * 
 
 According to him this doctrine is of such importance, 
 "that hereafter men will celebrate this vast advance in 
 knowledge as the commencement of a new period in human 
 development". From zoological comparisons Hackel con- 
 
 * See his two adilicssc-s "On the oiii^in and i^cncalogy of llic bunian 
 race" (Berlin 18O8) and hU "Natural history ol Creation" (Merlin t.SdS',
 
 WHAT ARE WE? 1 27 
 
 eludes that all the apesof the old World must be descended 
 from a single stock-form which possessed the same nasal 
 structure and dentition as all the living Catarrhini or nar- 
 row-nosed apes; and from this he draws the further con- 
 clusion, that man has also been developed from it, or that 
 the human species is a branch of the Catarrhine group 
 and must have been developed in the old World at a pe- 
 riod of hoar antiquity from Apes belonging to this group 
 which have long since disappeared. Hackel regards the 
 notion, that the American man had a special origin from 
 apes living on that continent, as perfectly erroneous; in 
 his opinion the primitive inhabitants of America migrated 
 there from Asia, and perhaps in part also from Polynesia. 
 "As regards the genealogy of Man", says Hackel, „it is 
 quite certain that he must seek his immediate animal an- 
 cestors among the Catarrhini. Of course no single one of 
 all the living apes is to be reckoned among these ancestors, 
 which have long since become extinct, and at the present 
 day man is separated from the Gorilla by a gulf almost 
 as deep as that between the Gorilla and the Orang. But 
 this does not furnish the least evidence against the well- 
 founded supposition that the most ancient catarrhine (or 
 narrow-nosed) form developed from the Prosimdse was the 
 common primitive stock of all the rest of the Catarrhini 
 including man. It was only a single branch of the multi- 
 farious group of the Catarrhini, a branch long since extinct 
 and still unknown to us, that under favourable circum- 
 stances became transformed, by means of natural selection, 
 into the primary progenitor of the human race. At any 
 rate this process of metamorphosis was of very long dur- 
 ation, and the fossil apes have hitherto revealed to us 
 neither its time nor its locality. In all probability, however, 
 it occurred in Southern Asia, which is indicated by so many 
 signs as the common primeeval home of the different spe- 
 cies of man. Perhaps it w^as not southern Asia itself, but 
 a continent situated to the south of it which afterwards 
 sank beneath the surface of the Indian ocean, that w^as
 
 128 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 the cradle of humanity. The epoch at which the trans- 
 formation of the most man-like apes into the most ape-like 
 men took place was probably the last section of the true 
 Tertiary period, the so-called Pliocene epoch, or perhaps 
 even the preceding Miocene epoch." 
 
 Hence we must expect the discovery of the fossilized 
 remains or bones of the ape-like ancestors of the human 
 race (if any such still exist) in the Tertiary formations of 
 Southern Asia, whilst it is regarded byHackel as a matter 
 of absolute certainty, that no existing species of ape can 
 be the progenitor of man, 
 
 The first step in the production of man, the immediate 
 transitional form from the most man-like apes to man and 
 the common stock-form of all the species of man, was, 
 according to Hackel, the supposititious (and long since ex- 
 tinct) creature which he names the primitive or ape-man 
 (Homo priniigoiius, FithecaiifJiropiis, Alaliis). This was 
 produced from the Anthropoid apes by complete habitu- 
 ation to an erect gait, and the strong'er differentiation thus 
 caused between the extremities by the development of the 
 fore-limb into the true hand and of the hind limb into the 
 true foot. He was still destitute of the essential characteristic 
 of the true man, namely articulate speech, and the conscious 
 thought which is associated with it. There are many reasons, 
 according to Hackel, which justify us in supposing, that 
 this primitive man must have been a wooll} -haired, pro- 
 gnathous, long-headed being, of a dark brown or blackish 
 colour. The hairy covering of his body may have been 
 stronger and thicker than in any other species of Man; 
 his arms were probably longer and stronger in proportion, 
 and his legs shorter and thinner, with undeveloped calves. 
 His gait would be half erect, with inbent knees. His home 
 may have been southern Asia or eastern Africa, or per- 
 haps a continent now submerged. 
 
 From this primitive man, by natural selection in the 
 struggle for existence, there was developed as a last and
 
 WHAT ARE WE? I29 
 
 topmost branch, the true or speaking Man [Homo), dis- 
 tinguished from his predecessors by many advantages, but 
 chiefly by the greater differentiation or better development 
 of the limbs, the larynx and the cerebrum, and by the 
 possession of articulate speech. It is probable, however, 
 that the corporeal changes were completed long before 
 the production of an articulate language, "and that the 
 human species with its erect gait, and the peculiar form 
 of body superinduced thereby, existed before the true 
 development of human speech, and therewith the second 
 and more important part of the production of man, was 
 completed". 
 
 This last process, the production of articulate language, 
 in combination with the higher development or perfection 
 of the larynx, which again must have been accompanied 
 by a corresponding improvement in the brain, probably 
 did not take place until a period when the speechless pri- 
 mitive man had already become subdivided into a number 
 of species or subspecies. For, according to Hackel, the 
 various languages show so great a difference among them- 
 selves that it is impossible to believe that they could have 
 a common origin, and we must therefore assume the exis- 
 tence of as many primitive languages as there are families 
 of languages. Hence the subdivision of the primitive 
 man into the various species of man must have occurred 
 before the time of the origin of language. "Nevertheless 
 even these must converge at their origin at a higher or 
 lower point, and therefore all must finally be derivable 
 from a common primitive stock". 
 
 In all probability, according to Hackel, this process of 
 the formation of species of man from the primitiv^e stock 
 took place in the following manner. In the first place 
 there were developed from the speechless primitive man 
 a number of different species long since extinct and quite 
 unknown to us, of which the two most divergent prevailed 
 over the rest in the struggle for existence and in their 
 
 9
 
 130 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 turn became the stock-forms of all other human species. 
 These constituted a woolly-haired and a sjiioofh-liaircd spe- 
 cies. The woolly-haired species spread especially to the 
 south of the equator, whilst the smooth-haired branch turn- 
 ed towards the north and in the first place peopled Asia. 
 A portion of it may have been driven towards Australia. 
 Perhaps the existing Papuans and Hottentots are remains 
 of the first, and the Alfurus and a part of the Malays 
 of the second stock. Plowever, the descendants of the 
 woolly-haired stock (the Papuans or Negritos, the Hottentots, 
 the NegToes, Tasmanians etc.) have remained at a much 
 lower stage than most of the descendants of the smooth- 
 haired stock, to which, iiccording to Plackel, we must refer 
 the Australians, the Malays, the Mongols, the Americans 
 etc., but above all the white or Caucasian race of man. 
 "This species", he says, "has become more highly and 
 beautifully developed than any other, chiefly by adapta- 
 tion to the favourable conditions of existence presented by 
 Europe, with its temperate climate and exceedingly advan- 
 tageous geographical conformation". In Hackel's opinion 
 this species was produced in southern Asia, from a 
 branch of the Malayan and Polynesian species, or perhaps 
 from a ramification of the Mongolian. From southern Asia 
 the white man has spread westwards and become diffused 
 over western Asia, northern Africa and the whole of Eu- 
 rope. His skull is most frequently of an oval form and 
 holds a middle place between the long- and short-headed 
 types, the two extremes and rudest forms of cranial 
 structure. This species, however, is considered to have 
 divided at a very early period into two divc^rgent bran- 
 ches, — namely, the Semitic stock, which spread in the 
 south, and from which originated the Jews, Arabs, Phoe- 
 nicians, Abyssinians etc.; and the Indo-Geruiaiiic stock, 
 which migrated more towards the west and north and 
 gave origin to the most highly developed civilized ra- 
 ces, the Hindoos, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Germans,
 
 WHAT ARE WE? I31 
 
 Sclaves etc.*. The white or Caucasian species of man is 
 destined to hold the sovereignty of the earth, whilst the 
 inferior races, such as the Americans, Australians, Alfurus, 
 Hottentots etc. are advancing with gigantic strides to their 
 destruction. On the contrary it is to be expected that the 
 three other species of man, namely the Ethiopian in Central 
 Africa, the socalled Arctic or Polar man in the polar re- 
 gions and the Mongolian man in Asia, will still for a long 
 time be successful in the struggle for existence with the 
 Caucasian species, because they are better adapted than 
 the latter to the peculiar conditions and especially to the 
 climate of their native countries! 
 
 Hackel's theory, of which we have here given the princi- 
 pal outlines, consequently to a certain extent combines the 
 views of the polygenists and monogenists. Thus it assumes 
 the existence of a number of species or races of men very 
 early separated from one another and sharply defined 
 (especially from a linguistic point of view), but at the 
 same regards all these only as branches or offshoots of a 
 single primitive stock-form which became extinct at a very 
 ancient period. A perfectly analogous position is taken by 
 Georges Pouchet, although in other respects he is one of 
 the most decided adherents and defenders of polygenism. 
 In his thoughtful book on the "Plurality of Pluman Races" 
 {Paris 1864 2'^ ed.) he says: — "In the night of time there 
 existed a certain species, less perfect than the most imper- 
 fect man, and itself ascending by a certain number of inter- 
 mediate species the nature of which it is impossible for us 
 at present to suspect, to that primordial Vertebrate which 
 we assume. This species, a mere rough sketch of what 
 
 * The Semitic form of language is so essentially dilTcrent from the 
 Aryan or Indo-Germanic, that we cannot believe in their having had a 
 common origin, although, anthropologically, the two stocks approach each 
 other so nearly. From this we must conclude, either that the descendants 
 of the same ancestors, when geographically separated, developed among 
 themselves totally different languages, or that they were separated before 
 they possessed any language at all! 
 
 9*
 
 132 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 man now is, gave birth, after the lapse of a considerable 
 time, to several other species, the parallel and unequal 
 evolution of which, in accordance with what we have said 
 of animals, has nowadays for its contemporary (but not 
 its final) expression the different human species commonly 
 designated as races. Thus the whole of humanity would 
 be related, if we may be permitted to use this expression, 
 not in the serial direction, as the monogenists suppose, but 
 in a collateral direction, and in a degree which we are 
 unable to determine; the prognathous races having pro- 
 bably deviated less from the antecedent type, whilst 
 the others are further removed from this type and more 
 perfect." 
 
 The diversity of opinion here indicated as existing in 
 observers who are perfectly in unison upon the main ques- 
 tion itself, and especially the opinion of a decided poly- 
 genist just cited, show, at any rate, that, as has already 
 been stated, the question of the U7iity or plurality of the 
 human race and its origin has lost the greater part of its 
 former importance, having found its solution in the higher 
 unity of the general theory of descendence. Whether the 
 humanising of the animal has taken place once or several 
 times, at a single definite place or at several places, simul- 
 taneously or at different times, in the Pliocene, Miocene 
 or Eocene period or even earlier, are subsidiary questions 
 wliich have only a subordinate significance with regard 
 to the main point. Perhaps science will never be able to 
 give us any satisfactory information upon them, but even 
 then she will be in no worse position with regard to these 
 questions, than the adherents of the Biblical history of 
 Creation when tJiey are asked whether Adam and Eve 
 were or were not provided with a navel (65). With regard 
 to the precise manner of production of a more man-like 
 creature from an ape-like Mammal we can as yet of course 
 only raise general suppositions and hypotheses, to which, 
 however, we may hope that future investigations and dis- 
 coveries Avill one day furnish a more solid base. As Rolle
 
 WHAT ARE WE? 133 
 
 says (Der ]\Iensch etc. Frankfurt a. M. 1866): "It is a justi- 
 fiable hypothesis, that certain conditions of existence may 
 in some way have mitigated the commencement of that 
 retrograde metamorphosis of body and mind leading back 
 towards the bestial form, which attacks the existing large 
 apes at the period of the second dentition, and thus have given 
 to the antediluvian anthropoids a character, the human ex- 
 pression of which still strikes us in the little roundheaded 
 monkeys of South America". This conjecture is evidently 
 founded upon the well-known observation that the young 
 of most animals, but especially of the large apes, display 
 a comparatively better and less animal development both 
 of their corporeal and intellectual qualities, and particularly 
 a better conformation of the skull, than the adults, and 
 that this advantage, the effects of which have even been 
 observed in negro children, is only lost at the commence- 
 ment of perfect maturity, when the rude nature of the 
 animal (or of the savage man) acquires its full force. This 
 observation is remarkably in accordance with the fact re- 
 cently disclosed by Welcker, Vogt and others, that the 
 young ape comes into the world with a brain of much 
 greater size in comparison with that which it is subse- 
 quently to attain than that of mian, whilst the human child, 
 by a great advance during the first period of life, quickly 
 approaches the goal which it is ultimately destined to at- 
 tain. Hence the infant ape brings with him into the world 
 the foundation of a higher development, which, however, 
 becomes abortive in the further course of his simian exis- 
 tence, but which in one or more of the Anthropoid apes 
 of antediluvian times may nevertheless have been capable 
 of becoming developed into human characters. This de- 
 velopment may have taken place equally well (in accordance 
 with the Darwinian theory) either very gradually by the 
 influence of natural selection and the processes associated 
 with it, or more suddenly by the birth in one place or an- 
 other of an individual variety or aberrant form character- 
 ized by the peculiarly favourable development of some
 
 134 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 important parts or characters (such as the size and capa- 
 bility of evolution of the brain), which by the help of this 
 quality triumphed over its competitors in the struggle for 
 existence. Similar phenomena, which, according to Owen, 
 can properly only be reckoned amongst those of the for- 
 mation of iiioiisters (abnormal productions with a monstrous 
 or excessive development of particular parts), have been 
 often enough observed in both the animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms. That such a process as this, so far as it relates 
 to man, is no longer observable, need not surprise us, be- 
 cause, as has already frequently been remarked, the exist- 
 ing species of apes can only be regarded as being more 
 or less nearly related to man, but by no means connected 
 with him by a direct genealogical tie. In fact the living 
 Anthropoid apes can only be considered the terminal mem- 
 bers of a distinct vital branch which is already in course 
 of extinction and therefore has for the most part lost its 
 former vitahty and reproductive power. The close and 
 powerful competition of man, which has been acting inces- 
 santly during so many thousand years, must of itself cause 
 the retrogression and final disappearance of this lateral 
 branch of the great stock of the Discoplacentalia. Thus 
 man himself, with every step he takes forward on the great 
 ladder of progress and civilization, breaks down behind him 
 a portion of the bridge which formerly united him with 
 the animal world. Widely separated from all other crea- 
 tures he feels himself to be the ruler of the world, and in 
 his pride forgets that his first cradle, like that of the 
 founder of Christianity, stood in a stable or in a stil 
 humbler place. Nevertheless, or perhaps for this very reason, 
 there can scarcely be a better means of recognizing our 
 own nature or the true position of man in Nature, than 
 the careful study of those of our animal cousins and rela- 
 tions which had the misfortune (or the happiness) to strike 
 into a path of progress which leads their race to its de- 
 struction after a comparatively short period of existence. 
 And in this study nothing surprises as more than the
 
 WHAT ARE AVE? I35 
 
 wonderful traits of far-reaching" intellig'ence and extra- 
 ordinary habituation to human circumstances and wants 
 that we meet with in these animals, and especially in their 
 young. With it disappears, at least partially, that feeling- 
 of disgust and repugnance with which, (unjustifiable as it 
 is from a scientific point of view) we have hitherto been 
 in the habit of regarding these creatures, — casting them 
 from us, as it were, as caricatures or distorted pictures 
 of ourselves. This feeling, which originated in a period 
 of ignorance, and was nourished by false philosophical 
 theories having no foundation in a true knowledge of na- 
 ture, resembles that sentiment which impels savag'e tribes 
 to regard their near relatives with greater repugnance 
 and hatred than their ivliife enemies and oppressors, or so 
 frequently produces a fiercer enmity between the nearest 
 blood-relations than between perfect strangers. We look 
 at a Lion with admiration, nay, with a certain sentiment 
 of respect, and regard him as the king of beasts, although 
 in this respect he stands far below the Ape, who, even if 
 he were not our nearest animal relation, would still have 
 a much greater claim than any other animal to our sym- 
 pathy and interest on account of his intellig'ence, his do- 
 cility, his address, his pathetic attachments, his approach 
 to humanity in form and behaviour etc. The reports and 
 narrations of trustworthy travellers and observers, which 
 prove this, are innumerable, and quite lately the celebrated 
 traveller and naturalist A. R. Wallace has published an 
 extremely interesting and instructive account of a young 
 Orang, which he had the opportunity of observing' very 
 closely (66). 
 
 Indeed it is sufficiently well-known, that the intellectual 
 life of animals has hitherto been greatly underestimated 
 or falsely interpreted, simply because our closet -philo- 
 sophers always started, not from an impartial and unpre- 
 judiced observation and appreciation of nature, luit from phi- 
 losophical theories in which the true position both of man 
 and animids was entirely misunderstood. But as soon as
 
 136 WHAT ARE AVE? 
 
 we began to strike into a new path it was seen that intel- 
 lectually, morally and artistically the animal must be placed 
 in a far higher position than was formerly supposed, and 
 that the germs and first rudiments even of the highest in- 
 tellectual faculties of man are existent and easily demon- 
 strable in much lower regions*. The preeminence of man 
 over the animal is therefore rather relative than absolute, 
 that is to say it consists chiefly in the greater perfection 
 and more advantageous development of those characters 
 which he possesses in common with animals, all the facul- 
 ties of man being as it were prophetically foreshadowed 
 in the animal world, but in him more highly developed by 
 means of natural selection. On closer consideration all the 
 supposed specific distinctive characters between man and 
 animals fall away, and even those attributes of humanity 
 which are regarded as most characteristic, such as the in- 
 
 * If space would permit it would be easy for the author to support 
 this assertion by innumerable proofs. But as this cannot be done he 
 begs to refer the reader to the numerous recently published essays and 
 observations upon this subject, as also to the dissertations upon it given 
 by himself in previous works. — The second volume of his "Physiological 
 Pictures", which is not yet published, will also contain an essay upon 
 the mind of animals. In this essay it will be shown by numerous well 
 authenticated examples and facts, that the intellectual activities, faculties, 
 feelings and tendencies of man are foreshadowed in an almost incredible 
 degree in the animal mind. Love, fidelity, gratitude, sense of duty, reli- 
 gious feeling, conscientiousness, friendship and the highest self sacrifice, 
 pity and the sense of justice or injustice, as also pride, jealousy, hatred 
 malice, cunning, and desire of revenge are known to the animal, as well 
 as reflection, prudence, the highest craft, precaution, care for the future etc., — 
 nay even gourmandise, which is usually ascribed to man exclusively, exerts 
 its sway also over the animal. Animals know and practice the funda- 
 mental laws and arrangements of the state and of society, of slavery and 
 caste, of domestic ccconomy, education and sick-nursing; they make the 
 most wonderful structures in the way of houses, caves, nests, paths and 
 dams; they hold assemblies and public deliberations and even courts of 
 justice upon ofl'enders; and by means of a complicated language of sounds, 
 signs and gestures, they are able to concert their mutual action in the 
 most accurate manner. In short the majority of mankind have no know- 
 ledge or even suspicion what sort of creature an animal is.
 
 WHAT ARE WE? 1 37 
 
 tellectual and moral qualities, the upright gait and free 
 use of the hands, the human physiognomy and articulate 
 language, social existence and religious feeling etc. etc., 
 lose their value or become merely relative as soon as we 
 have recourse to a thoroughgoing comparison founded upon 
 facts. In this, however, we must not, as is usual, confine 
 our attention to the most highly cultivated Europeans, but 
 must also take into the account those types of man which 
 approach most nearly to the animals, and which have had 
 no opportunity of raising themselves from the rude, pri- 
 mitive, natural state to the grade of the civilized man. 
 
 In such a study as this, just as in the investigation 
 of the animal mind, we at once arrive at the knowledge of 
 quite different things from what the closet-philosophers in 
 their pretentious but hollow wisdom have hitherto endea- 
 voured to make us believe, aud we ascertain immediately 
 that the human being in his deepest degradation or in his 
 rudest primitive state approaches the animal world so close- 
 ly that we involuntarily ask ourselves where the true 
 boundary line is to be drawn. Whoever then wishes to 
 form a judgment as to the true nature of man or his true 
 position in nature must not, as our philosophers and soi- 
 disant "great thinkers" usually do*, leave out of consider- 
 ation the primaeval origin and developmental history of 
 man, and looking merely at his own little self in the de- 
 lusive mirror of self-esteem, abstract therefrom a pitiable 
 portrait of a man after the philosophical pattern. He must 
 on the contrary, grasp at nature itself with both hands 
 and draw his knowledge from the innumerable springs 
 which flow there in the richest abundance. 
 
 Nowhere do we find these springs richer and more 
 
 * They derive the name of "thinkers'', like Incus a non lucetido, not 
 from thinking but very frequently from not thinking, but are nevertheless 
 arrogant enough to denounce those, who disclose their threadbare non- 
 sense and are not satisfied with their empty verbiage, as ''ignorant ma- 
 terialists". May all thinking men arise and chase these paid dealers in 
 wisdom, these profaners of the temple, out of the sanctuary of true science!
 
 138 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 copious than in the reports of travellers in distant lands 
 as to the savage men and tribes which they have met with, 
 and especially in those simple narratives which often in 
 a few words give us a deeper insight into human nature 
 and its near relationship to the great outer world than the 
 study of the thickest volumes produced by our closet-phi- 
 losophers. All the definitions of these learned gentlemen, 
 all their tenets and arguments, all the deductions from 
 the socalled "hig-hest principles of science" which they 
 profess to have discovered, are broken by the force or 
 these simple facts, like soap-bubbles against the objects 
 which they strike. There are men and tribes and condi- 
 tions of human life upon the surface of the earth charac- 
 terized by such an absence of every thing that the culti- 
 vated European is accustomed to regard as the eternal and 
 indispensable attribute of humanity, that in reading the 
 accounts of them we are inclined to think that we have 
 fables rather than truth before us. Those who believe that 
 the distinctive attribute of man is to be found in his moral 
 sense, or in his higher inleUeclital activitx, will find on for- 
 ming a closer acquaintance with man and the conditions 
 of human existence, thtit the facts are no more in favour 
 of their views (67), than of those who think to find the ab- 
 solute preeminence of man over the animals in his family 
 life and the establishment of marriage (68), in his social or- 
 ganisation (6g), in his sense of shame (70), in his belief in 
 God (71), in his possession of the art of counting (72), or 
 in the facts that he alone mak-es use of instruments (75), 
 and knows the use of fire and employs it for cooking his 
 food (74), that he alone wears clothing" (75), commits sui- 
 cide (76), cultivates the ground (77), etc. etc. 
 
 Articulate language may certainly be regarded as the 
 most characteristic attribute of man, and by virtue of 
 this, in connexion with the better development of the larynx, 
 vocal organs and brain, and in association with his erect 
 posture and the increased usefulness of the hands, he really 
 first became a man; yet it is only the result of a whole
 
 WHAT ARE WEr 139 
 
 series of long-continued and tedious processes of develop- 
 ment, and occurs among some savage tribes in such a rude 
 and imperfect condition that it can hardly be called lan- 
 guage in the human sense of that word (78). Formerly 
 language was regarded as something innate and inherent 
 in man, existent, even at his first origin in a certain degree 
 of development; but the recent investigations of philo- 
 logists have taught us quite the contrary of this, and sho wn 
 us that languages, like species, have grown up and been 
 produced from simple beginnings by a slow and gradual 
 process during the lapse of thousands of years (79). Most 
 certainly the zeal, with which at the present day the savants 
 of all countries study the important problem of the origin 
 of language and propose their theories upon this difficult 
 question, furnishes the best proof that they have escaped 
 from the above mentioned prejudice. With an instinctive 
 knowledge that language must have been developed in 
 man gradually from the rudest commencements, they long 
 for information as to the mode of this evolution and as to 
 the first efforts of speaking man to give his thoughts and 
 sentiments regular expression in connected speech. For 
 undoubtedly the earliest man was just as incapable of any 
 such regular speech, as the animals and even some savage 
 tribes at the present day. 
 
 According to Westropp {Origin of Language) the ear- 
 liest man can only be regarded as a dumb or speechless 
 creature, which only by degrees learnt to give definite 
 expression to his feelings and necessities, just as children 
 do nowadays, and a \'ery long time must have elapsed 
 during which man was able to express his wants only by 
 gestures and inarticulate sounds. But in all this there is 
 nothing more degrading, than in the circumstance, that 
 we ourselves were once infants, "mewling and puking' in 
 the nurse's arms". Articulate speech is only a g'radual 
 acquisition which has risen by degrees from the riidest 
 commencement to its present perfection; like every thing 
 else it has its beginning, its growth, its development, its
 
 140 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 progress, its maturity and finally also its decline. Its de- 
 velopment has been as much a necessity and as much in 
 accordance with fixed laws, as that of the body and mind 
 of man himself, and it first arose from those inarticulate 
 sounds or cries of joy, pain, grief, pleasure etc. which are 
 also known to animals (80). Every thing else belongs at 
 once to the grade of development. Now as regards the 
 course of this development, it probably commenced only 
 by the formation of what may be called sounds of feeling, 
 followed soon afterwards by imitative j^??^??^'^ (onomatopoeia), 
 in which the sounds of external nature were imitated. 
 These would increase the scanty treasury of words. Hence 
 in all languages, numerous and different as they are (the 
 number on the whole earth is reckoned at about 3000) there 
 is a considerable number of words of similar meaning and 
 more or less similar in sound. Thus according to William 
 Bell [On the origin of langttage) the word loh, for example, 
 is a monosyllabic root for the designation oi light, flame etc., 
 which occurs in many languages and was originated from 
 the simple exclamation: oh! with an L or vibration of 
 the tongue placed before it. For a long time language 
 consisted only of such monosyllabic words, whilst by de- 
 grees the polysyllabic words were formed either by doubl- 
 ing the simple sounds, as in the words mannor, papa, 
 piirpitr etc. or by what is called agglutination. 
 
 Examples of imitative sounds are the words "baa" for 
 sheep, "moo" for cow and the like; or such words as 
 "wind", "whish", "rash" etc. 
 
 The simple exclamation also was imitated by com- 
 panions, and thus gradually became a fixed sign repre- 
 senting the sentiment or feeling expressed by it. Thus 
 whilst the exclamation was at first only an involuntary 
 accompaniment of the sensation, it afterwards became in- 
 dependent of this, and from being an expression, was con- 
 verted into a sign of feeling, which, instead of being called 
 forth by the feeling was rather fitted to call it forth. "The 
 origin of the consciousness of the distinction between the
 
 WHAT ARE "WE? I4I 
 
 sound and the sensation", says I. Bleek, "this estabHshment 
 of the sound as a pecuHar entity which being seized by the 
 will is thus converted into its instrument, is the first 
 foundation of humanity." — (On the origin of language, 
 Weimar 1868). 
 
 But as in most cases the life of the feelings is silent, 
 and in general only a very small portion of it makes itself 
 heard, it is easy to see with what tardiness and difficulty 
 the reciprocal action between word and sensation must 
 have produced the gradual rise of speech and of the con- 
 sciousness which belongs to it. The first stage of mutual 
 communication by word or speech therefore consisted, ac- 
 cording to Bleek, in a person who experienced a certain 
 condition of mind for which a word was known, uttering 
 that word; and the first phase of the existence of the word 
 as such occurred, when the simple exclamation of feeling 
 was not uttered as an exclamation, but employed volun- 
 tarily in order to call forth the feeling associated with it 
 or that supposed by the companions of the utterer to cor- 
 respond to it. In the second phase the individual sound 
 established itself by frequent employment as the conven- 
 tional expression for the sentiment or feeling indicated 
 by it, and gradually departed more and more from its 
 primitive signification. At the same time the necessity of 
 expressing mixed sentiments also produced mixed or 
 composite sounds or words and mixtures of entire complex 
 sounds. 
 
 In the third and last stage of the first or initial period 
 of the formation of speech, expressions were already 
 formed in this manner by the combination of known words 
 for a great number of mutual conditions unassociated with 
 any emotional sounds, and which therefore were not ex- 
 pressible by words in the previous stages. The reci- 
 procal amalgamation of distinct and previously separated 
 sounds or words then carried on the formation of new 
 words, which gradually departed more and more from 
 the primitive expressions of mere emotional life, and gave
 
 142 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 rise to the further development of true language. This 
 further development, as Bleek remarks, belongs to the 
 history of lang'uage, rather than to the problem of its 
 origin, the latter being already solved by the formation 
 of words and their separation both in sound and sense 
 from the primitive emotional sounds. 
 
 The well known zoologist, Dr. Gustav Jager, also 
 essentially adopts this mode of explanation , but he looks 
 at the question chiefly from the zoological point of view 
 and endeavours to demonstrate a close connexion between 
 the vocal utterances of man and animals. 
 
 According to him this connexion is so intimate, that it 
 is impossible to elucidate the question of the origin of speech 
 without a careful study of the language of animals. Speech 
 in the widest sense of the word was discovered, according 
 to Jager, long before there were any men; for the pair- 
 ing- call, which is so general among animals, is a lan- 
 guage. But still higher than this is the call produced 
 from the pairing- call by imitation, which is susceptible 
 of various modifications, and capable of expressing both 
 joy and terror, satisfaction and alarm. Beneath these is 
 the simple emotional cry, which usually occours in ani- 
 mals only under the influence of strong em.otions, such as 
 fear of death, anger, great pain etc. Many have the com- 
 mand only of these two or three sounds, whilst others 
 possess comparatively a very rich language. The most 
 complex is the language of Birds, which have very pro- 
 bably served as the preceptors of man. 
 
 According to Jiiger, therefore, the ]:)nmitive speech 
 of the human race was merely a natural language^ analo- 
 gous to those of animals, and also analogous to the ges- 
 ture-language of savages, deaf-mutes and pantomimists; 
 whilst our present conventional languages rest solely 
 upon a further development of the primitive natural lan- 
 guage. But according to this author, the production of the 
 true human language was preceded by an aphonic or dumb 
 period of receptivity, — just as the Apes, which approach
 
 WHAT ARE WE? I43 
 
 man so closely, are remarkably voiceless, but very recep- 
 tive or inquisitive, and many ages of the employment of 
 a mere gesture-language may have elapsed before the 
 speechless primitive man (Hackel's Alaliis) had brought 
 his conceptions of the outer world so far that by means 
 of the differentiation of the organs, which had taken place 
 in the meanwhile, and under the influence of social pro- 
 gress, he was able to add sounds or words to his ges- 
 tures. By custom, inheritance etc. a languag-e was then 
 at last formed; and this, in some favoured races, became 
 constantly enlarged with the gTowth of the idealistic 
 power and the increasing stock of ideas caused thereby, 
 whilst in other races it either remained stationary, or even 
 entered upon a retrograde course. 
 
 How impossible it is to establish an absolute separa- 
 tion between the language of men and animals, is shown 
 by the fact that so many of those general ideas which 
 have become quite familiar to civilised nations by the 
 richness and continued development of their speech, are 
 so strange to many savage tribes that they do not even 
 possess expressions for them. How then can we make it 
 a reproach to the animal that he is destitute of certain 
 other ideas expressing simpler relations, whilst even among 
 men so great a difference is to be found in the develop- 
 ment of ideas and language? 
 
 Writing also, like language, arose quite gradually, 
 and by the contemplation of externiil objects. Thus, 
 according- to d'Assier {Ilistoirc natitrclle dii, Langage, 
 Paris 1868), the first Chinese alphabet represented all 
 ideas by definitive pictures. A. large circle denoted the 
 sun; a smaller one conveyed the idea, of a star; a cross 
 represented the moou. The earliest Chinese hieroglyphs 
 also agree almost entirely with the P^gyptian; because the 
 first sensuous perception of external nature was e\'ery- 
 where the same. The Peruvians represented the arrival 
 ofthe Spaniards in America by means of a Swan swimming 
 towards the shore and spitting forth fire, in which the
 
 144 WHAT ARE WE? 
 
 colour of the animal was intended to denote that of the 
 strangers, its swimming body the ship, and its fire the guns 
 of the Spaniards. From this sort of rebus or hieroglyphic 
 writing, in which the idea of iiighf, for example, is ex- 
 pressed by an owl or by a darkened cross, the transition 
 to the true alphabet took place very slowly, and has in- 
 deed never been completely effected by many peoples 
 (such as the Chinese and Mexicans). Between them there 
 is the intermediate stage known as syllahism, so that hiero- 
 glyphics, syllabism and letters constitute the three suc- 
 cessive stages of writing, the interchanges and intermix- 
 tures of which are very easily recognized in the inscriptions 
 and manuscripts of the Egyptians. 
 
 Thus we have shown by the evidence of well-informed 
 men of science, and in part even by direct observation, that 
 even the human speech, that most important attribute of man 
 and of his humanity, that chief aid to his intellectual pro- 
 gress, that most striking distinction between man and the 
 animals, is after all the product of gradual and slow de- 
 velopment. We have seen that even this can only be re- 
 garded as a higher stage of development of aptitudes and 
 faculties already existing in the animal world; and this 
 being the case it seems to the author that the last diffi- 
 culty is removed which still stood in the way of the ap- 
 plication of the great organic law of development and 
 progress to man and of the admission of his animal 
 origin. 
 
 Thus then the light of science is broadly thrown upon 
 a question which formerly seemed to m.ock all the efforts 
 of investigators, and we have made the first step in an 
 intellectual revolution destined to move the world in the 
 direction of £i philosophical realism. In consequence of 
 this the position of man in nature and his relation to the 
 world around him, in other words the response to the 
 great question "What are we?", will be conceived in a to- 
 tally different spirit, and in one infinitely more in accor- 
 dance with truth and reality, than has hitherto been the
 
 WHAT ARE AVE? 145 
 
 case. There may still be some who, in the face of such 
 a result as this , cannot break free from the prejudices of 
 the past; and who would rather consider themselves the 
 descendants of a lump of earth into which God in old time 
 breathed the breath of life, than as the final products of 
 a natural process of organic development and progress. 
 Such people may console themselves with the words of 
 Claparede, who says : "It is better to be a perfectionated 
 ape, than a degenerate Adam", or with those of Bernhard 
 Cotta, who expresses himself as follows in his "Geologie 
 der Gegenwart": "Our ancestors may certainly do us 
 much honour. But it is much better when we do them 
 honour". Lastly they may consider that human progress, 
 which is desired by all, if reg'arded in the light of the 
 theory of development, is in accordance with natural laws 
 and therefore incessant and eternal, always supposing that 
 man does not allow the powers and faculties conferred 
 upon him by nature to lie fallow or become abortive, but 
 makes full use of them for the constant amelioration of 
 his condition and of his position with respect to nature, 
 materially as well as intellectually, — physically as well 
 as politically, socially and morally. 
 
 To elucidate this progress and development of the 
 future at least in its broad outlines, and both in its natu- 
 ral and artificial relations, in accordance with the indications 
 of the past will be the object of the third and last section 
 of this book. It will, as far as possible, set before the fu- 
 ture of man and of the human race its physiological and 
 moral prognosis! "For", as J. Bleek says, "the course which 
 we have already traversed, and the comparison of what 
 we have attained with what we have left behind and start- 
 ed from, justifies us in forming the highest hopes with 
 regard to what our race may possibly attain". 
 
 (End of the second part.) 
 
 10
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 (the future of man and of the human race.) 
 
 M o 1 1 o s. 
 
 "The sovereignty of man consists in his conviction that there can be no higher 
 purpose than that of humanity, in which the development of the earth is consummated." 
 
 RADENHAUSEN. 
 
 "As long as the animal nature predominates in man, climate and local conditions 
 will exert their influence unrestrictedly and , as in the vegetable and animal worlds, 
 produce the greatest multiplicity of structures. But with the awakening of the intel- 
 lect an activity commences which strives to free man from the constraint of nature in 
 the same way in the most different countries , until at last in the highest stages of 
 civilization the better forms of human society not only acquire concordant customs , in 
 the matter of food, clothing and habitations, but also, by a similarity of thought, 
 feeling and endeavour, demonstrate that higher unity of the human nature, which, 
 although it was not present at the first origin of our race , shines upon us as the bril 
 liant goal of human development, which is a matter of more importance." 
 
 SCHAAFFHAUSEN. 
 "For as soon as we have once clearly understood, that individual life and action 
 only form a small fragment of the great, eternal life of mankind, and that it is only by 
 partaking in the latter that the individual man really lives and, as we may hope, 
 lives forever — striving for the general good no longer appears a duty hard of fulfil- 
 ment , but a necessity of our nature, which we are the less able to resist, the more 
 we have recognized the true essence of things. And in truth it is the sentiment of 
 such a relation that is the great source of all noble and good efforts. Neither the 
 fear of eternal damnation nor the hope of individual happiness can really serve as 
 truly saving ideas to raise man to a higher existence, even when wc leave out of 
 consideration that each of these two fundamental doctrines of the vulgar dogmatism 
 rc.iUy places only a refined selfishness as the lever of its ethics." y -ot ^yir 
 
 The great mystery of the existence and origin of man, 
 on which so many generations have in vain exhausted 
 their strength, is, it seems to the author, solved by the 
 statements with regard to the po.sition of man in nature 
 and his natural relations to the universe given in the first
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? I47 
 
 two sections of this book. What further explanations can 
 be required upon these subjects ? An insight into the 
 process of the formation of man, into the natural hoiv? 
 of his origin and development in the past as in the pre- 
 sent, is all that we can rationally expect from human 
 science. For the question how? or whence? is the only- 
 one which, in accordance with the laws of cause and effect, 
 we can expect to be answered by nature and the essence 
 of things; whilst the wliy? is a foolish question, which 
 goes far above us and never can be answered by us. 
 If we were to ask why man is here, it would be equi- 
 valent to the question why all other things exist, why 
 the Universe exists, why there is any existence at all. 
 That we can never expect a satisfactory answer to such 
 questions as these is self-evident. Existence, whether in- 
 dividual or general, is simply a fact which we must accept 
 as such, and at the same time admit that, as, both in ac- 
 cordance with the laws of logic and from experience, it 
 must be regarded as without beginning and without end 
 both in space and time, it is useless to talk about a de- 
 finite cause for it, about the why? of its being. 
 
 It is, however, quite a different matter when we take 
 the hoisj? into consideration and set before us the question 
 of the manner in which the individual consecutive phe- 
 nomena of nature and of existence are bound or held to- 
 gether in accordance with the inviolable laws of cause 
 and effect. In this department, as we have said, modern 
 science has furnished us with the grandest and most un- 
 expected results and has shown us that the whole great 
 mystery of being, but especially that of organic existence, 
 depends upon gradual evolution. In the process of evo- 
 lution, so simple in itself, dwells the simple solution of 
 all those complicated mysteries which man has hitherto 
 believed could not be solved without the aid of super- 
 natural powers. To trace this process in its details and in 
 all its phases both in time and space, and in this way 
 gradually to acquire a more exact knowledge of those
 
 I4§ WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 indestructible threads which unite man with nature and 
 the totahty of extra-human existence, is the task of modern 
 science. All appeals to supernatural or unnatural or 
 even merely forced modes of explanation must in this 
 case be most stringently rejected. Simple, natural sup- 
 positions, in accordance with the known laws of nature 
 or at all events not contradicting them, can alone claim 
 acceptance , but these only until they are replaced by 
 better ones, approximating still more closely to the truth 
 and the real state of the case. When no explanation is 
 possible with the existing means of Science, the case must 
 remain as an open one, rec[uiring elucidation; but it must 
 not be covered up and concealed from the public eye by 
 imaginary theories after the well-known and convenient 
 fashion of the speculative philosophers, or by the use of 
 obscure terms, which require an explanation of their own 
 or may even be incapable of interpretation. But as such 
 explanations can only relate to the mode or to the simple 
 proceeding of a later entity from an earlier one and to their 
 causal connexion, and as, moreover, with all our know- 
 ledge we move constantly in a circle, in which the be- 
 ginning and the end are nowhere or at every point, it be- 
 comes clear to us why we must be satisfied with these 
 explanations of natural connexion, and why the question 
 as to a first or supreme cause of all being or as to the 
 why? of existence is one which in a philosophical sense 
 cannot be raised (81). "Whatever is absolutely incapable 
 of comparison", says Buffon, "is also absolutely incom- 
 prehensible; we only know mutual relations". — 
 
 In connexion with this generally recognized truth, the 
 third or last of the great questions proposed by us, the 
 question: where arc we going? can only be answered with 
 regard to this earthly life, with respect to the earthly 
 future and perfectibility of man. For even if Ave admit 
 that it is due only to the limitation of our knowledge or 
 the imperfection of our means of knowledge that the 
 destiny of the individual mtm or of mankind beyond this
 
 WHERE ARE AVE GOING .-^ 1 49 
 
 earthly life must ever remain hidden from us, or that we 
 can never attain a clear insight into the true essence of 
 things (82), even this admission would not do the least 
 injury. Our efforts (whether theoretical or practical) can 
 only be directed to that which we are able to grasp with 
 our perceptions and judgment, and more than a thousand 
 years of experience has taught us that our scientific know- 
 ledge constantly brings us into closer connexion with na- 
 ture and earthly existence the more it increases in depth 
 and compass, whilst on the other hand it removes us in 
 the same proportion from the spiritualistic hypotheses and 
 chimseras of the past. 
 
 The researches into the antiquity and origin of man 
 and his normal connexion with the organized world in 
 general which formed the subject of the first and second 
 sections of this book, furnish the best proof in confirmation 
 of the above assertion. Man did not come upon the earth 
 spontaneously, but by the mediation of the same natural 
 forces and causes to which all life owes its origin. He 
 did not descend from above or from the ether, but he has 
 sprung up from below by the same processes which lie at 
 the foundation of all terrestrial development. In accor- 
 dance with the present state of our knowledge he can be 
 regarded as nothing more than the last and highest pro- 
 duct of that slow process of development and evolution 
 by which our planet, the earth, in the course of enorrnous 
 periods of time completes its natural cycle of life, which in 
 turn is only a single phase of eternity. What higher or more 
 perfect structures than ourselves may still slumber in the 
 womb of time, to come forth hereafter by the same pro- 
 cess, we know not. But upon one point our science leaves 
 no doubt, namely that hitherto nothing higher or more 
 perfect than man has been produced by Nature, and that 
 it is not only the right, but the duty of man to regard 
 himself as the ruler over all existences accessible to him 
 and to guide and change them as much as possible for 
 his own necessities and purposes.
 
 150 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 It is easy to see that by this a perfectly new and 
 previously unknown principle was introduced into nature 
 and the world in general, a principle which is essentially 
 distinct from any thing that preceded it. For it is only 
 in man that the world becomes conscious to such a 
 degree that it rises out of its previous dreamlike na- 
 tural existence and allows dominion over nature to 
 take the place of a nearly involuntary subjection to 
 it. Nevertheless this did not take place suddenly or all 
 at once, but very gradually and only a long time after 
 the birth of those creatures which we may regard as the 
 earliest representatives of the human type, for only the 
 gradual evolution and inheritance from generation to ge- 
 neration of the faculties awakened in those creatures by 
 their more perfect organization could originate that ad- 
 vance or continual improvement of mankind which we 
 must at present regard as the final and highest object of 
 all earthly existence. But whilst, in those earliest periods 
 of his development, man was subjected to precisely the 
 same natural laws or conditions as the forms of the vege- 
 table and animal worlds which had preceded him in a long 
 series, influences, whether injurious or beneficial, to which 
 he could oppose but a feeble resistance, in the lapse of 
 time subsequently he has, by the further development of 
 his mental faculties, emancipated himself more and more 
 from those influences and has finally attained a point at 
 which he may say to himself with no little pride that his 
 present and future fate has become more or less independ- 
 ent of nature , that is to say, it is in his own hands. 
 Nature has, as it were, recognized herself in him, — has 
 consciously advanced in opposition to herself, — and has 
 thus undertaken a .peculiar task, the fulfilment of which 
 will remove both nature and man further and further from 
 the rude and imperfect states of the past. 
 
 By Darwin's admirable investigations we have been 
 taught to recognize as the principal cause of the trans- 
 mutation and evolution of the organic world in its natural
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? I5I 
 
 State that struggle for existence, which has now become 
 so celebrated, in combination with the influences of varia- 
 bility, natural selectiojt, inheritance &c. All these influences, 
 (perhaps with the exception of inheritance) must act with 
 the more intensity, the greater the power of nature over 
 the organic being. This applies also to the momentum 
 of migration, upon which much stress has lately been laid, 
 and to the influence of alterations in the external con- 
 ditions of life, which Darwin, as is well-known, did not 
 sufficiently estimate. For the less the individual being 
 was able to resist these influences by intelligence or in- 
 dependency or by the extreme simplicity of its conditions of 
 existence, the more strongly must they have made their 
 dominion over it be felt. If the perfectly purposeless 
 cooperation of all these causes, in themselves purely me- 
 chanical, has produced not merely a transmutation but at 
 the same a general advance in the organic world, so as 
 finally to lead to the birth of a being destined to put its 
 own spontaneity in the place of the mechanical forces of 
 nature, this is due neither to any preconceived plan, nor 
 to any personal merit, but it is merely the necessary con- 
 sequence of definite natural conditions coinciding precisely 
 in a particular manner and no other. Man has therefore 
 no one to thank for his existence and must seek the pur- 
 pose of his existence only in himself and in his own wel- 
 fare and that of his race (83). This welfare, however, is 
 synonymous with the greatest possible emancipation from 
 the influence, of and dominion over those natural forces 
 which originally Called him and the whole organic world 
 into existence. If the struggle for existence be the vital 
 phenomenon, which most closely unites man with animality, 
 then this must be strongest and fiercest in the primitive 
 or natural state and at first so occupy the whole of life 
 that no opportunity is left for intellectual development, 
 such as we now regard as the task of mankind. On the 
 other hand, however, the unfavourable position of man in 
 the natural state and his natural defencelessness face to
 
 152 WHERE ARE AVE GOING? 
 
 face with the animal world, must have forced him all the 
 more to the greatest possible exertion of his mental and bo- 
 dily powers in the struggle with the nature which hemmed 
 him in and overpowered him, thus becoming a main in- 
 citement to human advance in the matters of weapons, 
 dwellings, clothing, food &c. The difficulty of the struggle 
 also impelled him to mutual assistance and social union, 
 and this union again became a mainspring of progress. 
 It was only when the struggle with the animal world had 
 been brought to a successful issue, that the contests of 
 man with man commenced , leading to those perpetual 
 sanguinary wars which constitute the history of all tribes 
 and nations in a backward state of civilization. 
 
 But what more than any thing else assisted man in 
 his strug'g'le for existence, was the circumstance that the 
 knowledg'e or experience gained by the individual did not 
 die with him as in the case of animals, but by the agency 
 of education and tradition each successive generation was 
 enabled to develope a greater power of resistance than 
 its predecessor in its struggle for existence. This in- 
 fluence may have been very imperfect in its action in 
 those earliest periods of humanity when man approached 
 most closely to the animals, and thus the advance during 
 those periods may have been excessively difficult and 
 slow (as indeed has already been indicated in the first 
 section); but the conditions must have become more and 
 more favourable the further man departed from his animal 
 origin and brought into use the innumerable aids of ad- 
 vancing civilization. 
 
 In the present state of our knowledge there can be 
 no doubt that corporeal peculiarities or advantages of 
 organized beings (whether congenital or acquired during 
 life) are inherited by their progeny, to which, when they 
 are useful in the struggle for existence, they communicate 
 an impulse towards a more perfect development. Ex- 
 perience leaves no doubt that this is the case also with 
 intellectual peculiarities, advantages &c. in an equal, if
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING.'' I53 
 
 not in a higher degree. The material reason for this may 
 He in the extraordinary dehcacy and flexibility of the 
 organ of intellectual activity, the brain, the gradual im- 
 provement of which, both in the animal and the human 
 series, admits of no serious doubt. By means of this 
 organ and by the aid of its activity man has easily com- 
 pensated for all the disadvantages of his bodily organi- 
 zation in comparison with animals and has g'radually ele- 
 vated himself to the position of the undisputed lord of 
 creation. Even the powers of Nature he has conquered 
 and forced into his service to such an extent, that in his 
 case the original relations of Nature to the organized 
 being are exactly reversed. The struggle for existence 
 itself, which was at first, as in the animals, almost entirely 
 a struggle for the external conditions of existence, has 
 become changed in its whole nature by the progress of 
 the human intellect, — from the domain of mere material 
 life , it has passed to the region of the mind, — to the po- 
 litical, social and scientific domain. At all events this is 
 the case in the civilized nations, but it is true that among 
 savage tribes and on the more unfavourably situated parts 
 of the earth's surface the struggle for mere existence still 
 rages here and there in its rudest form. 
 
 It is clear that man's independence of the deter- 
 mining influences of external nature increases in propor- 
 tion to the advance of civilization, and that therefore the 
 transforming effects of climate, soil, food, locality &c., 
 which make themselves felt so unrestrainedly by the world 
 of animals and plants, must remain more or less without 
 action upon the civilized man. And in fact we see how 
 the civilized European or American by means of his im- 
 proved arrangements and knowledge is en&bled to main- 
 tain his existence under all latitudes and circumstances, 
 and even to compete successfully in their own countries 
 Avith the aboriginal tribes who may be regarded as best 
 adapted to the localities and climate. All backward bran- 
 ches of the great human family will by degrees disappear
 
 154 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 with but few exceptions under the pressure of civilized 
 man, and we can even now easily foresee the time when 
 a certain uniformity of culture and material conditions or 
 a true cosmopolitism of civilized man will be diffused over 
 the greater part of the inhabited and habitable part of 
 our planet. Even those natural influences which act most 
 determinately upon our race in the natural state, such as 
 climate, nature of the soil, distribution of land and water &c., 
 have become to a certain and not inconsiderable extent 
 serviceable to civilized man ; whilst he has found such 
 efficacious means of protection against those actions of 
 nature which he cannot directly govern, that they are in- 
 capable of troubling him except in a very diminished de- 
 gree (84). It need scarcely be added that the dominion 
 of man over the organic world of animals and plants is 
 now so great and permanent that , as Alfred Wallace, 
 Darwin's associate in his studies and opinions, has already 
 well shown*, we may foresee a time, when there will only 
 be cultivated plants and animals and when human selection 
 will have replaced natural selection every where except 
 in the sea. 
 
 From these points of view we must also answer the 
 question which, since the promulgation of the Darwinian 
 theory, has so frequently been raised, whether it is pos- 
 sible that in the future other and higher races or branches 
 of the great human family will be developed from those 
 now existing, as might be expected from the example of 
 the past. In the various attempts that have been made 
 to answer this interesting question, which is of such im- 
 portance in connexion with the future of the human race, 
 there has been ample room for fancy and the rage for 
 hypothesis to make themselves felt (85), although as yet 
 they have produced nothing tenable. If the question be 
 
 * Upon this subject see my "Six lectures on the DaiM'inian Theory &c." 
 ed. 2. pp. 256 et seqq. (Leipzig, Thomas, 1868). —
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING P 155 
 
 conceived merely from the standpoint of the theory of 
 evolution, this being accepted as an incontestable natural 
 law, we can scarcely find any but an affirmative answer 
 for it. But, on the other hand, when we recognize the 
 fact that the activity of man himself has introduced an 
 entirely new order into the world of living beings and, 
 partially at least, substituted rational spontaneity for the 
 blind force of nature, we shall be inclined to doubt whether 
 man in his present condition can be regarded as uncon- 
 ditionally governed by the above-mentioned law or con- 
 dition of things. The causes which in early times of the 
 human race drove certain tribes or branches to quit their 
 dwelling places for distant regions, where they sometimes 
 subjugated the people living there and sometimes inter- 
 mingled with them, in conjunction with their greater rude- 
 ness and the stronger influences of the forces of nature 
 may in those days have given many opportunities for the 
 breaking off of new races or varieties of man, even 
 though we can scarcely believe (with Wallace) in the pri- 
 mitive unity of the human race or assume that the many 
 and great diversities of the human type are all mere ra- 
 mifications of a single fundamental stock, produced by the 
 struggle for existence. On the contrary it has already 
 been shown in the second part of this book, how many 
 important reasons there are in favour of the opinion that, 
 even at his first development from the world of anim.als, 
 man made his appearance as a number of different spe- 
 cies. These species may certainly have subsequently 
 become extraordinarily multiplied and increased and may 
 sometimes also have intermixed, but nevertheless we must 
 not suppose that this process will continue without limit 
 when opposed by the mighty and equalizing influences 
 of civilization. It seems rather to be probable that under 
 the influence of this momentum a reducing movement will 
 be opposed to the differentiating one, thus tending to 
 superinduce a greater uniformity or similarity of mankind 
 in all parts of the earth, and this by the destruction of
 
 156 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 the weaker and a constant increase of the stronger or 
 more intelHgent races. 
 
 By all this the possibility of the formation of a new 
 and higher race in some particularly favoured locality 
 and from a stock characterized by remarkable adaptability 
 is by no means excluded, but considering the equalizing 
 tendencies of the present day and especially the rapidity 
 of communication and the consequent diffusion of every 
 advance in civilization, such a possibility does not seem 
 probable. In the present aspect of the struggle for exi- 
 stence bodily influences or external influences in general 
 come but little into the account, — the battle is now fought, 
 as has previously been stated, chiefly upon intellectual 
 and moral fields , and these nowadays are readily and 
 quickly equalized over the whole civilized surface of the 
 earth. 
 
 Thus, if what has just been said is correct, there is 
 no great room to expect the formation of new and more 
 highly endowed races of men, but nevertheless this need 
 not impair the prospect of a progressive development of 
 humanity and of the human race itself. The progress 
 remains the same or becomes still more considerable, but 
 the mode or the means by which it is attained are dif- 
 ferent. Whilst the struggle between peoples was form- 
 erly a contest of weapons , strength of body , courag'e and 
 ferocity, it now consists in an emulation in good and useful 
 arts, in discoveries, contrivances and sciences. The time 
 is past in which one people subjugated another or exter- 
 minated it to take its place; it is not by destruction but 
 b}' peaceful competition that one can attain a superiority 
 over the other. But by this means that uniformity of 
 culture and that intermixture of races are broug'ht about, 
 which so powerfully oppose the separation of new spe- 
 cies. The advancing development of the human race 
 will not therefore in future occur solely or chiefly in par- 
 ticular races destined eventually to subject or displace the 
 others, as has hitherto been the case, but it will constitute
 
 WHERE ARE AVE GOING? 1 57 
 
 an uniform acquisition of the whole species. How far hu- 
 manity itself will at the same time underg-o development 
 may be difficult to determine beforehand; but, in har- 
 mony with the change in the nature of the struggle for 
 existence, this development will certainly be rather intel- 
 lectual than corporeal, or in other words it will advance 
 pari passu with a greater evolution of the tendencies and 
 faculties now slumbering in the hrain of man. For as man 
 now a days carries on his struggle for existence chiefly 
 by means of this organ, and this will be the case more 
 and more hereafter, so the beneficial and propulsive con- 
 sequences of this struggle will also be favourable to this 
 organ and its activity, as indeed we know from experience 
 it has been in the past (86). Even backward peoples or races 
 when, favoured by their small personal requirements, they 
 come into competition with civilized man (as in the case 
 of the Chinese and Africans in America), can only stand 
 this competition permanently when they at the same time 
 adopt all the existing aids of civilization and follow the 
 same general course by which humanity is at present 
 striving to reach its ideal of civilization. But by this 
 means they also are carried away, perhaps unwillingly 
 or at least unconsciously, by the general movement of 
 civilization which has been set going by the more highly 
 developed brain of the Europeans, and thus sink more or 
 less as specially characterized races. 
 
 So far it would appear that all the momenta which 
 are connected with the progress and dissemination of civi- 
 lization over the earth's surface are less in favour of the 
 formation of new races of man, than of the diffusion of a 
 more or less uniform type of high human culture, — and 
 this would also be the issue of human development which, 
 in accordance with the general principles of humanity and 
 justice, must appear most desirable. The suppression of 
 a lowly race or people by a higher or more powerful one 
 has always produced such a mass of misery and injustice, 
 that the repetition of such a process can only evoke the
 
 158 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 most disagreeable sensations in every friend of humanity. 
 In the present state of the human conscience such sup- 
 pressions as this would appear to be doubly cruel and 
 lamentable, even though the replacement of the inferior 
 by a higher or better type must in itself be regarded as 
 just. But inasmuch as this displacement or replacement 
 may take place under present circumstances without acts 
 of violence and merely by the irresistible power of con- 
 viction, the common and uniform progress of humanity 
 has become a more probable course than that of the sup- 
 pression of races. At present, indeed, mere example ge- 
 nerally suffices among the civilized nations of the earth 
 to render every progress, every improvement, every in- 
 crease of knowledge common property! 
 
 Thus in the lapse of time and by the progress of ci- 
 vilization the struggle for the means of existence, such as 
 we witness in all its unmitigated violence in the life of 
 animals and in the lower stages of human development, 
 has become rather a struggle for existence itself and a 
 contention both of individuals and of peoples for the ac- 
 quisition of the hig"hest earthly benefits, in which we have 
 to do less with mutual suppression, than with mutual com- 
 petition or overreaching. 
 
 It must not, however, be concluded from this that the 
 struggle itself has therefore become weaker or easier. 
 On the contrary it rages on the domain of morals, to 
 which it has been transferred, as violently and inexorably, 
 as it formerly did on the physical field. Moreover it has 
 become more complicated and multifarious than the rude 
 struggle with nature, as it no longer relates merely to 
 the simple support of existence, but to a great number of 
 advantages of political, social or material position which 
 are united therewith. On one hand this has produced the 
 advantage that the struggle has called forth in man a 
 whole series of impulses and faculties, which are scarcely, 
 if at all, developed in the animal, and in this way has be- 
 come a principal cause of both general and individual
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? I5g 
 
 progress, — whilst on the other hand it has given rise on 
 the moral domain to horrors and barbarities without num- 
 ber, of just the same kind as those which formerly existed 
 in physical life (87). In comparison with the mere struggle 
 with nature the social struggle of man has the further 
 great disadvantage that the effects of the natural laws 
 are more or less prejudiced by the will and the contri- 
 vances of man , and that in this case therefore it is by no 
 means always the best, the strongest or the best fitted 
 individual that may expect to be victorious over his com- 
 petitors. On the contrary the rule is rather the suppres- 
 sion of individual intellectual greatness by the influence 
 of family, position, race, wealth &c. in the interests of 
 personal preferences. Nevertheless the impulse of human 
 nature towards movement and progress is so considerable 
 that it attains its object even under the most unfavourable 
 circumstances ; but how much more would this be the 
 case if these obstacles and inequalities were as far as pos- 
 sible removed, leaving a free stage, unaffected by injustice 
 and oppression, for the action of the natural law! The 
 struggle of man for existence is also far more full of suf- 
 fering than that of the animal, in as much as man, whether 
 as a class or an individual, generally feels the consequences 
 of neglect, oppression or conquest very heavily and pain- 
 fully, whilst the animal only sees, a blind natural destiny 
 in his lot and bows before it unresistingly. This sen- 
 timent in man becomes especially painful when the ge- 
 neral consciousness of the good or better is more or less 
 in advance of the actually existing arrangements. It is 
 in such a critical period that we now find ourselves, for 
 there has probably never been a period in which there 
 existed so great a disproportion between requirement and 
 fulfilment, between idea and actuality, between thought 
 and being, as at present. All arrangements in the state, 
 in society, in the church, in education, in work &c., in 
 consequence of a most prominent law of inertia, have re- 
 mained far behind what is required by the general human
 
 l6o WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 consciousness, elevated as it is by scientific knowledge, 
 reflection and material progress. If the forces opposed 
 to progress had not so great and powerful a reserve in 
 the indolence and immobility of the great and ignorant 
 masses, a very different state of things would long since 
 have taken the place of that which has hitherto pre- 
 vailed. 
 
 In such a position of affairs as this there can be no 
 greater or more elevating task for the philanthropist, than 
 the investigation of those points in which this dispro- 
 portion makes itself most strongly felt, and in which the 
 struggle for existence may be rendered easier and more 
 advantag"eous both for the individual man and for man- 
 kind in general. These are at the same time the very 
 points in which man is best able to show his dominion over 
 the rude natural conditions, and thus to raise himself fur- 
 thest above his lowly past. The farther he departs from 
 the point of his animal origin and relationship and re- 
 places the force of nature, which formerly exerted an un- 
 limited influence over him, by his own free and rational 
 spontaneity, the more does he become 7nan in the true 
 sense of the word, and the more does he approach that 
 goal which we must regard as the future of man and of 
 the human race. But for this purpose it is above all 
 things necessary for him to recognize that his natural 
 destiny can never be attained by him so long as he, like 
 the animals, feels only as an individual being and carries 
 on his struggle for existence upon his own account alone, 
 and guided by mere personal or egotistic motives. Man 
 is a sociable or social being and can evidently attain his 
 destiny, and consequently also happiness, only in conjunc- 
 tion with his like, or in other words, in the midst of human 
 society. The individual is all that he can be only in and 
 with humanity at large or by its means, and his endea- 
 vours after persontil happiness are therefore most intim- 
 ately connected with the striving of mankind in general 
 aft(!r prosperity and progress,
 
 WHERE ARE AVE GOING? l6l 
 
 This great and evident truth has unfortunately been 
 too much misunderstood or overlooked hitherto. It is 
 true that civilized man has long since overcome the rudest 
 and most primitive form of the struggle for existence by 
 means of regular political and social institutions, and in- 
 vented a multitude of arrangements which are intended 
 or adapted to protect individuals at least from the most 
 injurious consequences of this contest, and also to secure 
 the possibility of existence to the weak and defenceless. 
 Personal benevolence derived from the principles of ge- 
 neral philanthropy also accomplishes much that serves to 
 soften the hardships and terrors of the contest, or at all 
 events to shelter those who are overcome in it from being 
 pitilessly trodden down. But that this is the case is rather 
 the result of chance than of necessity, and we cannot deny 
 that the essential principles, upon which even now human 
 society is founded, are still the old principles of the rough 
 struggle with nature which have only acquired a milder 
 form by their transfer to the moral or intellectual region. 
 That these principles are not every where applied to their 
 fullest extent, is due to the amelioration superinduced by 
 the general goodness of human arrangemicnts, and by the 
 greater diffusion of the principles of humanity among man- 
 kind; but as a general rule these principles only make 
 themselves telt where the good or the interest of the in- 
 dividual as such is not in question, whilst, wherever this 
 is the case, social egotism has no bounds and recoils be- 
 fore no deeds. Even now-a-days those who are stronger 
 richer, more highly placed in society or more knowing 
 than the rest, exercise an almost undisputed dominion over 
 the weak, the ignorant and the lowly, and think it quite 
 proper to exert their powers to the utmost in their own 
 interests. 
 
 In such a state of things the collective body cannot 
 well feel as such; it must perceive that it is better that 
 all should strive with united forces and mutual support 
 towards the same goal, towards liberation from, the 
 
 II
 
 l62 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 trammels of the forces of nature, than that the best 
 powers should destroy each other by mutual contests. 
 Competition, which in itself is so beneficial, may and w^ill 
 continue, but it must be transform.ed from the old and 
 rude form of contest and destruction in the struggle for 
 existence into the nobler and essentially human form of 
 competition for the highest general well-being. In other 
 words the struggle for the means of existence will be 
 replaced by the struggle for existence, man by humanity 
 at large, mutual conflict by universal harmony, personal 
 misfortune by genera happiness and general hatred by 
 universal love! With every step in this path man will 
 depart more and more widely from his past animal con- 
 dition, from his subjug"ation to the forces of nature and 
 their inexorable laws, and approach more and more to the 
 ideal of human development. On this course he will find 
 again that Paradise, the ideal of which floated before the 
 fancy of the most ancient nations and which, according' 
 to tradition, was lost by the sin of the first man. The 
 only difference will be that this Paradise of the future 
 will be not imaginary but real, that it will come not at 
 the beginning but at the close of our development, and 
 that it will not be the gift of a Deity, but the result of 
 the labours and merits of man and of the human in- 
 tellect. 
 
 After having established the general principles from 
 which, in accordance with the materialistic or naturalistic 
 conception of the Universe, we must regard and predict 
 the future development of man and of the human race, 
 we have now to apply the general views thus obtained 
 to particulars and enquire how the different forms of 
 human thought and sociality will have to be moulded in 
 future in accordance with these principles.
 
 WHERE ARE AVE GOING? 163 
 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The purpose of government is the attainment of the 
 greatest possible welfare for all. As this is conceivable 
 only under the existence of the greatest possible freedom 
 for all, the free spontaneity of all nations and the legal 
 equality of every citizen of a state must be the highest 
 principles of every constitution of the future. That this 
 requirement a friori excludes every monarchical or hier- 
 archical principle is a matter of course. In a political 
 relation no one should be the subject or the lord of an- 
 other! The introduction of a republican form of Govern- 
 ment in the civilized states of Europe, America &:c. can 
 therefore only be regarded as a question of time. The 
 existing monarchies are nothing more than the remains 
 of the former feudal state and of the military conquests 
 of past times, or perishing ruins of a period when, in po- 
 litics, man only recognised the relations of Lord and Sub- 
 ject, of conqueror and conquered. The sentiment of the 
 present day is agitated to its inmost depths by the thought 
 that one should be the ruler or to a certain extent the 
 possessor of many, or that many should be the subjects 
 of a single individual, and this condition would long since 
 have been got rid of, if the upholders of the old system 
 could not calculate upon the support of the inert and 
 indolent masses, who have been so long accustomed to 
 obedience, in opposition to the knowledge of the more 
 cultivated classes, and if a certain dread of change and 
 of the uncertainty of the future were not m.ore powerful 
 even among a section of the latter than their insight into 
 better things. 
 
 The defenders of such a state of affairs usually assert 
 that the people are not ripe for a republican form of 
 government; but in this they apply an idea, good in itself, 
 to a false argument, as even the best- formed fruit will 
 never attain maturity in the absence of the vital conditions
 
 164 WHERE ARE AVE GOING? 
 
 necessary for it, such as air, light, heat and nourishment. 
 But for the maturation of freedom, the best agent is free- 
 dom itself. A man whose limbs are tied will never learn 
 to move freely, whilst when he is allowed to make free 
 use of them he may perhaps fall once or twice but will 
 always stand up again. 
 
 Moreover political freedom is in itself a thing so 
 simple and easy of comprehension that even some of the 
 most ancient civilized nations, and amongst these such as 
 were most noted for intellectuality, possessed it to a very 
 considerable extent; and it would truly be a remarkable 
 circumstance if men at their present stage of culture are 
 not ripe for a state, for which their civilized predecessors 
 were well-prepared thousands of years ago. If we are 
 to wait until, under the pressure of a monarchical form 
 of government all moi without exception shall pronounce 
 in favour of a change to the republican form from their 
 own judgment and conviction, we may probably wait 
 lor ever. But in all times the better understanding of 
 the few has outstripped the want of intelligence of the 
 many and formed the leaders of the ignorant masses to 
 the greatest revolutions. This will be the case also in 
 the politics of the future, and the more in as much as the 
 example of grandest political development known in his- 
 tory is extant in the present day under a republican form 
 of Government. It is quite inconceivable that the United 
 States of America could ever have taken that unexampled 
 flight of political and material development that it actually 
 has taken, under a monarchical form of Government, how- 
 ever much there may be to blame in their political ma- 
 nagement. 
 
 Many, indeed, will reply, and with justice, that in po- 
 litics less depends on the form than on the substance, and 
 that, as history proves, men may live with much less free- 
 dom under a republican form of Government, than under 
 some others. But the misuse of a thing' does not justify 
 the heaping of blame upon it, and if a monarchy leaves
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 165 
 
 the liberty of the subject unmolested, this is more or less 
 a matter of accident or good will ; whilst if freedom suffers 
 in a republic, the mass of the citizens are themselves to 
 blame, but at the same time in a position to correct their 
 errors. But even if all these advantages did not exist, 
 the mere pride of the freeborn and freethinking man 
 must reject with indignation every thought of personal 
 subordination in a political point of view, and put in for 
 himself a claim to the right of free spontaneity and to 
 the benefit of legal equality. 
 
 Among the republicans of the present day there exists 
 a rather profound diversity of opinion as to the comparative 
 advantages oi federalism and centralism — of a confederate 
 or united republic. The latter, being the simpler and 
 more natural would probably not have met with so many 
 opponents, if the minds of politicians had not been un- 
 necessarily prejudiced against its principles by the dis- 
 agreeable results which have been experienced in France 
 from the excessive extension of centralization. On the 
 other hand the experience neither of Switzerland, nor of 
 North America (both federal republics) is at all in favour 
 of federalism, the consequence of which has been in the 
 former the proverbial cantonish spirit and the Sonderbund 
 war, and in the latter the great American civil war which 
 spread so much misery and unhappiness over the great 
 republic of the west. In federal republics we have to 
 fear the breaking up and the self-will of the individual 
 states; whilst in the united republics the infringement of 
 liberty by the central power and an unnecessary subor- 
 dination of political or local peculiarities under the g-eneral 
 will are to be dreaded. Both these difficulties, it seems 
 to the author, may be easily got rid of by the combination 
 of the principle of iinily, which is essential to good govern- 
 ment with the widest possible extension of the autonomy 
 or self-government of the couiDiuuifies. 
 
 In the government of free communities such as our 
 German ancestors possessed there is the surest foundation
 
 l66 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 for the individual liberty of the citizen, and it is also ad- 
 apted to allow free play to all justifiable peculiarities of 
 particular races or districts without injury to the neces- 
 sary unity of the entire state and its g-overnment. Even 
 in the animal organism, which may furnish us with the 
 best type of the organism of the state, each individual 
 part, nay even every individual cell or cell-complex pos- 
 sesses its own individuality, and yet by its activity con- 
 tributes its full share to the existence of the whole. This 
 wonderful interweaving of the life of the separate parts 
 with that of the whole which is presented to our view 
 by the animal organism, depends upon the same principle 
 which is constantly becoming more and more predominant 
 in our present political iind social conditions, namely the 
 principle of the division of labour. We find that this 
 principle is the more distinctly developed, and that the 
 activity of the different parts is the more thoroughly em- 
 ploj'^ed for the benefit of the whole organism, the higher 
 we ascend in the animal kingdom, whilst, on the contrary 
 in Plants and in the lowest animals the different parts 
 usually possess so much individuality that very commonly 
 the whole organism may be divided into two or more in- 
 dependent organisms without any injury to life. This 
 comparison may furnish us with the best possible indication 
 of the direction in which our political development must 
 ascend, and show us that the object of the political or- 
 ganism will be better attained the more we succeed in 
 combining a high degree of division of labour and the 
 greatest possible independence of the individuals and com- 
 munities forming the state with the cooperation of all for 
 the welfare and existence of the whole (88). 
 
 NATIONALITIES. 
 
 Precisely the same principle which we have found 
 to be involved in the natural progress of the mutual re-
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 167 
 
 lations of individuals , must also hereafter become the 
 guiding- principle in the intercourse of peoples and na- 
 tions. In the place ot a mutually destructive struggle, 
 we shall have a competition in all useful things and a 
 more or less general endeavour to overcome the obstacles 
 which stand in the way of human happiness. Even under 
 present conditions this principle has already become so 
 powerful and important, that our existing systems of 
 government, which in their nature still depend entirely 
 upon the old principles of mutual diplomatic and military 
 enmity and suppression, have not quite succeeded in escap- 
 ing its influence, and in modern times the endeavours of 
 the individual states are unmistakeably directed towards 
 putting out of the way as much as possible all causes of 
 warlike complications and cultivating instead of these the 
 arts of peace and the blessings of mutual good under- 
 standing. It is true that this state of things is only a pro- 
 visional one and one that may be upset at any moment 
 by the desire of fame on the part of misguided sovereigns 
 or the combativeness of the enormous armies kept on foot 
 by them. But as soon as we have left this stage of bar- 
 barism behind us, wars between different nations will 
 hardly be possible, as every one will see that every war 
 carried on by one state against its neighbour is at the 
 same time a war against itself and its own dearest interests. 
 Moreover all sufficient inducement to war will be wanting, 
 as no one will think of subjugating or destroying a justly 
 independent people or nation for the benefit of another, 
 and any disputes that may occur will easily be settled by 
 an arbitration of nations or a national Areopagus. 
 
 A chief difficulty in this mutual unification of peoples 
 will consist in the definition and limitation of nationalities. 
 Important as are the arguments that may be urged against 
 the strict carrying out of what is called the Principle of 
 Nationality (which at present forms the guiding spring 
 of all political popular movements), it is and must be the 
 only principle upon which a permanent and just separation
 
 l68 \niKKK ARE \VV, GOIXG? 
 
 of nations can be effected. Every people possessing in 
 itself so much vitality, as to have developed in itself a 
 language, literature and history of its own, and which 
 cannot be regarded as a mere appendage of a larger race 
 or a branch from such a race incapable of independent 
 life, has a right to independent existence and must be 
 protected and sustained therein. Doubtful cases and dis- 
 putes as to the limitation of the different nationalities at 
 those points where they are partially intermixed, will have 
 to be submitted to the judgment of a well-informed and 
 impartial national tribunal , always supposing that the 
 parties interested are unable to come to a mutual under- 
 standing. And this at all events under such circumstances 
 as are to be anticipated, will not be difficult, as in this 
 case there will be no question of mutual oppression or 
 forcible extirpation of national peculiarities, but the only 
 purpose in view will be the attainment of peaceable coha- 
 bitation. That absurd national hatred of former times, 
 which has produced so much mischief, has already really 
 disappeared from the minds of the larger and more power- 
 ful civilized nations, to make room for a mutual esteem 
 and for a general desire for peaceful relations or peaceful 
 competition, as, for example, between the Germans and 
 the French, the French and the English, the Germans 
 and the Italians &c. No doubt this sentiment will by 
 degrees be diffused throughout the masses and render great 
 national wars no longer possible. The immense and in- 
 deed incalculable gain that national well-being will derive 
 from the cessation of those enormous and exhaustive mi- 
 litary preparations which the European states still think 
 necessary for their safety, is too well known and generally 
 recognized to require special notice here. 
 
 SOCIETY. 
 
 Far more important than any political or national re- 
 forms, is the reformation of Society in the direction of
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 169 
 
 the view of civilizatory progress here described by us. 
 For of what use to the individual are poHtical hberties or 
 the satisfaction of his national pride, of what advantage 
 to him are theories of national prosperity, if the enjoy- 
 ment of these things is embittered or rendered impossible 
 to him by social oppression? All political progress is and 
 must remain a chimsera so long as society feels itself 
 uneasy and uncomfortable in its very heart, and the people 
 will not attain to quietness and the cheerful enjoyment of 
 their existence until political liberation has found its ne- 
 cessar}^ complement in social freedom. In no department 
 of human being has the struggle for existence raged more 
 violently or left behind it deeper traces of its destructive 
 action, than in the social field, since it passed from the 
 natural to the intellectual field of action. Unfortunately 
 by daily custom and constant familiarity our nerves have 
 become so blunted to the presence of much misery that 
 we seem scarcely any longer to notice the boundless in- 
 equalities and injustices which have been the consequences 
 of the social struggle for existence, — we find the whole 
 thing just as natural as the terrible and remorseless na- 
 ture-struggle itself. But in this we forget the immense 
 difference that exists between the natural law, which ad- 
 mits of no exceptions and usually destroys its sacrifices 
 quickly and without their ever coming to a consciousness 
 of their condition, and the conscious struggle of man w^hich 
 is carried on under the pressure of regulations and con- 
 ditions which , being human, are capable of improvement. 
 It is true that the origin of these regulations and con- 
 ditions is due to a historical development which presents 
 a great similarity to the course of natural development 
 and which could only to a certain extent be influenced 
 by the arbitrary action of man. But in proportion as 
 mankind advance towards the height which they are de- 
 stined to reach , in proportion as they find themselves 
 more and more in a position to replace the rude conditions 
 of nature by free and rational spontaneity, the more must
 
 170 WHERE ARE AVE GOING? 
 
 the question press itself upon them whether the state of 
 inequality and injustice which we see extending" almost 
 without bounds through human society is necessary or more 
 or less accidental, and whether we are in a position to 
 counteract the injurious consequences of this condition of 
 thing-s both to the individual and the community by the 
 arrangements of society itself. 
 
 We have just seen that the great principles of liberty 
 and equality are the determining and almost undisputed 
 principles of the future from a political point of view, and 
 we can by no means see why these same principles should 
 not also be recognized as the determining principles of 
 social progress. At present, indeed, there are very few 
 men who see the necessity of social so clearly as that of 
 political reform, and it is, in fact, among the most free- 
 thinking of politicians that we frequently find the most 
 inveterate enemies of the endeavour after social improve- 
 ment. Nevertheless we shall hardly find any one to as- 
 sert that oppression and plunder are not so bad socially 
 as politically; and no one will give a negative answer to 
 the question whether any individual man at the moment 
 of his birth does not bring with him into the world an 
 equal claim upon the entire (material and intellectual) pro- 
 perty of humanity and especially of his people or nation. 
 On the other hand no one will be any more inclined to 
 deny that in reality and in the present state of Society 
 this claim is a horrible mockery. For one is born 
 with the crown upon his head ; another rolls in count- 
 less gold even in his cradle; another with his first breath 
 may call his own a great part of that soil upon which we 
 all are born and which, justly, should be the common pro- 
 perty of us all; and another before he begins to think is 
 destined to hold rank, riches, position, consideration and 
 lordship over his fellows ; whilst another comes naked and 
 bare into the world like the beasts, and like the "Son of 
 Man" has no place where he may lay his head. The earth 
 tself, which hais produ ced him, regards \\m\ to a certain ex-
 
 AVHERE ARE WE GOING.'' I7I 
 
 •tent as an outcast or as coming" into the field too late, and 
 he can only make good his right to his miserable existence 
 by appropriating the forces bestowed upon him by nature 
 (whether corporeal or intellectual) to the service of others. 
 But even under this condition and when he voluntarily 
 sacrifices his life and health to this service, society us- 
 ually prolongs his life only in the most miserable fashion 
 and leaves him in the midst of a national prosperity never 
 before realised, to suffer all the pangs of that mythical Tan- 
 talus who saw all sorts of food constantly before him but 
 could never reach them. Boundless poverty side by side 
 with boundless riches, boundless power side by side with 
 boundless weakness , boundless happiness side by side 
 with boundless misery, boundless slavery side by side 
 with boundless will, boundless excess side by side with 
 boundless want, fabulous knowledge side by side with 
 fabulous ignorance, the most strenuous labour side by side 
 with careless enjoyment, beautiful and glorious things side 
 by side with the deepest depression of human existence, — 
 such is the character of our existing society, which in the 
 magnitude of these contrasts exceeds even the worst times 
 of political oppression and slavery. Daily we are forced 
 to allow the most moving tragedies, arising" from these 
 contrasts, to pass before our eyes without being" in a. po- 
 sition to prevent their terrible recurrence, — constantly we 
 are forced to confess to ourselves that daily and hourly 
 men perish quickly or slowly by the want of the merest 
 necessaries of life, whilst close beside them the more fa- 
 vourably placed section of society is swallowed up in ex- 
 cess and luxury and the national welfare improves in an 
 unheard of manner. 
 
 When we wander through our large towns or great 
 industrial districts we have, at almost every step, the op- 
 portunity of observing how the dens of want and misery 
 are hidden behind the mansions of riches and happiness, 
 — how in view of groaning tables and overloaded stomachs 
 hollow-eyed hunger may be seen bearing its pangs in si-
 
 172 AVHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 lence, — and how, side by side with luxury and arrogance 
 of all kinds, hopeless want creeps shyly and anxiously 
 into the darkest corners or sits in gloomy despair hatching 
 deeds of horror. How often could the poor labourer res- 
 cue his starving' children from the most terrible death by 
 means of the crumbs which fall from the rich man's table 
 and which even his dogs disdain ! and what the palled 
 palate of the epicure rejects with disgust would be a deli- 
 cacy for him who eats only to satisfy his hunger! Even 
 intellectual food or intellectual enjoyment is so unequally 
 distributed that often the smallest portion of what is of- 
 fered to those standing in good positions and perhaps re- 
 jected by them as quite contemptible, might suffice to 
 make the happiness of the poor but longing mind or to 
 guide it to better purposes. How much talent, how much 
 genius may slumber in the masses who can never attain 
 the circle of action suitable to them, but are constantly 
 yoked to the plough of trivial avocations, whilst incapa- 
 city and weakness spread themselves out upon the seats 
 of power and learning. How much hunger (intellectual 
 or physical) could be satisfied without any trouble, if means 
 and cultivation were more equally distributed! How satis- 
 fied might every one be, either with food or with learning, 
 if all were active, and so many had not to work for one 
 or for a few (89)! 
 
 It is, as we have said, the social struggle for existence, 
 not yet regulated by the principles of reason and justice, 
 that has gradually called forth all these inequalities and 
 monstrosities of society. In 'this it has been most essen- 
 tially supported by those innumerable political oppres- 
 sions, acts of violence, robberies, conquests &c. with which 
 the past history of nations is filled, and of which the mourn- 
 ful effects are still regarded by uninstructed reason as the 
 necessary consequences of social movement. 
 
 Thus the present state of society and the distribution 
 of property in society is by no means, as many think, the 
 mere consequence of a natural development, but of a con-
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 173 
 
 catenation of circumstances and causes, among which the 
 legitimate gain and personal industry of the individual, 
 important as they are, play on the whole only a secondary 
 part. The place of the old political violence has been 
 taken by the rage of social oppression and plunder, w^hich 
 recognizes no other object than the becoming rich and 
 prosperous as quickly as possible at the expense of others, 
 and for the attainment of this purpose leaves no means of 
 mutual competition or overreaching untried. It is a matter 
 of course that those who have been beaten in competition or 
 overreached endeavour to make good their loss by every 
 means offered to them by cunning or power, although 
 owing to the inequality of the contest, they usually meet 
 but little success in tins. Of forbearance or pity there is 
 no more in this social war, in which every one's hand is 
 against his neighbour (at least as far as it is carried on 
 between individuals), than in the rude natural struggle al- 
 ready described. It is as it were a general flight or race 
 of fear before the troubles and wants of life, in which the 
 majority in their flight have scarcely a glance of pity, let 
 alone a helping hand, to bestow upon those who are sink- 
 ing to the ground beside them, and strike down those 
 who stand m their way without hesitation. Unceasingly 
 the stream roars onwards over those unfortunates who 
 fall, and the universal war cry runs as follows: — Save 
 himself who can! succumb who must ! 
 
 There can be no doubt that this state of things must 
 bring with it the greatest disadvantages to the nobler 
 impulses and tendencies or to the moral nature of man, 
 and that it must cause a boundless egotism to be the main- 
 spring of human affairs. Every deviation from the pre- 
 scriptions laid down by social egotism avenges itself in 
 the most grievous manner upon the individual and com- 
 pels him, if he will not be untrue to the cogent commands 
 of the principle of self-preservation, immediately to return 
 into the beaten track. Even the most devoted philan- 
 thropist could not withdraw himself from these commands
 
 174 WHKRE ARE WR GOING? 
 
 of social eg'otism, unless he is willing" to find himself im- 
 mediately affected by the greatest personal disadvan- 
 tages (90). 
 
 There will not be many men who will venture to 
 dispute the above propositions, which are merely derived 
 from daily experience, or to deny the simple principle of 
 natural justice that all men, at their birth, bring with them 
 into the world an equal right to all the (material or in- 
 tellectual) possessions of mankind existing at that mo- 
 ment. But after admitting these and similar truths, they 
 will immediately add with a compassionate shrug, that 
 there is no rational or available means of improving this 
 state of thing's, — that there have always been riches and 
 poverty, and that inequality of position and property, dif- 
 ferences of station, culture and the like are necessary and 
 indispensable attributes of human society, without which 
 it could not subsist. To this they will add that if even now, 
 in disregard of all existing- rights which have been ge- 
 nerally well-acquired, we were to undertake a general 
 distribution of goods amongst all the living, the old inequa- 
 lity would very soon return. Lastly they will picture in the 
 liveliest colours the (real and imaginary) dangers of com- 
 munism and then show that all attempts of this nature 
 have failed most ignominiously and must always fail on 
 account of the weakness and insufficiency of human na- 
 ture. The last statement certainly need not be admitted, 
 and to the former ones we may reply as follows: That 
 the existing egotism of human nature, which rules society, 
 is principally the consequence of the egotistical state of 
 human feeling and society, which has prevailed for many 
 thousand years and hardened in the constant struggle for 
 existence, and that a better guidance and education of 
 the human mind and especially of the spirit of Society in 
 the direction of reciprocity and fraternity would produce 
 astonishingly different results. Further that all the com- 
 munistic tittempts that have been made have not failed, and 
 that, whore they fell through, they were often destroyed
 
 AVHERE ARE WE GOING? 175 
 
 rather by external than by internal difficulties (gi). And 
 finally we may justly call attention to the fact that the advan- 
 tages of a community of goods are extraordinarily great both 
 economically and morally (92), and that we may easily 
 imagine a state of Society in Avhich without any danger 
 to the objects of Society itself or to the individuality of 
 the persons composing it*, labour would acquire a per- 
 fectly unconstrained and spontaneous character, serving 
 only the purposes of the community. But although all 
 this may be urged against the opponents of communism, 
 yet for the present and for a long time to come there is 
 so little chance of any practical realization of such ideas 
 or propositions, that all further reference to the subject 
 seems superfluous The general and quite insuperable 
 aversion of men to all kinds of communistic propositions 
 or systems is opposed to it, as also the still actually exist- 
 ing weakness and insufficiency of human nature itself, 
 which can only be conducted to and rendered capable of 
 better things by many years' education in the spirit of 
 community and general philanthropy. 
 
 We have nothing' for it, therefore, but to look about 
 for some other means which may serve, at least to some 
 extent, to weaken the frightful contrasts and monstrosities 
 of the present condition of society and thus gradually 
 lead to a better state of things. Here again science, and 
 especially natural science gives the right clue. For if, 
 as has already been shown, the true task of humanity 
 or of human progress in opposition to the rude natural 
 state consists in the struggle against the struggle for exi- 
 stence, or in tlic replacement of the power of nature by tlic 
 
 * "Obliteration of individuality" is the watchword that our philo- 
 sophers and political economists have jjiven out against communistic 
 systems of all kinds, although it is perfectly unjust, and although there 
 are so many individualities whose obliteration would really be of no 
 consequence. Moreover our present form of society, I think, docs quite 
 enough for the obliteration of individuality and for the ])roduction of a 
 general personal insignificance.
 
 176 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 power of reason, it is clear that this object must above all 
 be attained by the greatest possible equalization of the 
 circumstances and means under which and with which 
 each individual has to fight out his struggle for existence 
 and to carry on the competition for the preservation of his 
 life. Nature knows no such equalization , or admits it 
 only in an exceedingly imperfect fashion, and the weaker 
 or less favoured party saves itself in Nature rather by 
 evasion or flight from the stronger or from unfavourable 
 influences, than by direct opposition. Even in man this 
 was formerly the case to a great extent, if we leave out 
 of consideration the immediate natural influences which 
 nian opposed more or less directly by the aid of his power 
 of reflection and knowledge. But just as he has success- 
 fully carried on this contest with the external world and 
 still continues to fight it out victoriously, he must also 
 fight out the much more difficult internal contest against 
 his own animal nature, and, as we have said, put the law 
 of reason in place of the law of nature. If in politics we 
 have long since come to replace the old system of op- 
 pression and domination by the now generally recognized 
 principle of equal rights and equal duties, we must like- 
 wise socially replace the system of mutual plunder, which 
 has hitherto prevailed, by the principle of equal uiea/is or 
 equal circumstances. What sort of combat would it be 
 in which one of the combatants made his appearance naked 
 and armed with a wooden sword, whilst the other advan- 
 ced to battle cased in steel from head to foot, and with 
 sabres and guns? What sort of race would it be in which 
 one of the runners had to trust only to the powers of his 
 naked feet, whilst the other had the iiid of all the means 
 of locomotion which the progress of the arts had rendered 
 possible? And what sort of competition for existence is 
 that in which one party appears furnished with all those 
 innumerable advantages which rank, riches, culture, po- 
 sition &c. are able to confer upon him, whilst the other 
 has nothing to depend upon but the force of his naked
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? I77 
 
 arms or of his uncultivated understanding? force which, 
 moreover, has probably been checked in its development 
 even in his earliest youth by bodily or spiritual destitution. 
 Such a state of things cannot really deserve the name of 
 a struggle or competition for existence, as its issue in by 
 far the greater number of cases is decided beforehand, 
 and the whole merely represents a state of permanent 
 social slavery sanctified by age and inherited from ge- 
 neration to generation. Of course such a state greatly 
 paralyses the desire to struggle or the endeavour for per- 
 sonal improvement in the depressed portion of society, as 
 any one from whom nearly every prospect of success or 
 victory is taken, will find no particular pleasure in the 
 struggle, but will only think how he may scantily support 
 his life, destined as it is to the service of others. Fortu- 
 nately most of these Pariah's of society whilst possessing 
 no distinct consciousness of their position or knowledge 
 of the causes which lead to it, have likewise no feeling of 
 its horrors. If they had such a feeling and consciousness, 
 that social revolution which has been so often prophesied 
 and which is so much dreaded by the proprietary classes, 
 would long since have become a fact (93). 
 
 It must indeed be admitted that a complete equali- 
 zation of the means with which each individual carries on 
 his struggle for existence can scarcely ever become a 
 matter of possibility; but even a partial equalization would 
 be attended with the most beneficial consequences to the 
 state of society and would sharpen, instead of weakening 
 the desirable spur of competition. For when it is assigned 
 to every one to enjoy only the fruits of his own industry 
 or of his own exertions , and not to loll upon the bed of 
 idleness while the fruits of the industry or good fortune 
 of others are poured into his lap, he will find himself from 
 the first impelled, in the interest of self-preservation, to 
 industry and activity, whilst at present even those who 
 feel in themselves the impulse to work are often enough 
 condemned by their social position to an involuntary in-
 
 178 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 action. Even the natural inequalities of society and the 
 necessary difference of occupations in society will not suffer 
 under such an equalization. Birth, family, residence, talents, 
 personal desires, bodily strength or weakness, intellectual 
 advantages &c. superinduce a multitude of differences of 
 human nature which are quite incapable of equalization by 
 external means and which in the further course of each 
 individual life will make themselves felt with the same or 
 probably (when the external means of existence are equa- 
 lized) with far greater force than hitherto. 
 
 In order to bring about the desiderated equalization 
 to a certain extent- and place the individual in a position 
 in which he may be able to develope his natural talents 
 satisfactorily and find no obstacles to applying his industry 
 and his faculties in any direction of social life, far greater 
 means must be furnished to the community or the state 
 than has hitherto been the case. This object may be at- 
 tained in part by giving up the so-called ground -rents 
 (especially that which arises from simple increase of the 
 population) or by bringing back the property in land and 
 soil, which of right belongs to all in common, out of the 
 possession of private individuals into that of the com- 
 munity (94), and in part by a perfectly feasible gradually 
 increasing limitation in favour of the community of the 
 right of leaving private property to descendants (95). 
 These proposals have nothing to do with communism, 
 although to many they may tit the first glance appear to 
 be connected with it, as nothing is contained in them which 
 is in contradiction to the principle of private property as 
 such, or which could hinder the individual from enjoying 
 or employing in the fullest degree the produce of his own 
 industry and endeavours. The care of his descendants 
 also would not be taken from him so long as no complete 
 abolition of the right of inheritance is proposed; but this 
 care will weigh upon him with infinitely less pressure than 
 hitherto, as the community Avould under all circumstances 
 tiike charge of the education and culture of children until
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 179 
 
 they attained an age to earn their own hving, and must 
 always take charge of those descendants who are inca- 
 pable of earning any thing, whenever these were not suf- 
 ficiently provided for by private means (96). But the con- 
 sciousness that the individual by his industry is working 
 and caring not merely for himself and for his heirs (who 
 are often very undeserving or who do not require his aid), 
 but also for the community at large, would act most be- 
 neficially in opposition to those egotistical impulses or ten- 
 dencies which, as we have seen, at present unfortunately 
 constitute the mainspring of all social activity and have 
 as their consequence a fundam.ental corruption of the social 
 nature of man. The individual will also very soon perceive 
 that, whilst he works and cares for the community, he is 
 doing the same for himself and his, in as much as all are 
 merely individual constituents of the whole and must pros- 
 per as the community prospers. The socalled Manchester 
 men , who see in government only a sort of police esta- 
 blishment for the security of life and property, will not 
 find this easily intelligible; they wish to know as little 
 as possible of government and only require that social 
 murder and slavery should go on with as little hindrance 
 as possible under its protection. In this, indeed, they are 
 strongly supported by a reference to our present con- 
 ditions of state, which really make all governmental inter- 
 ference in private and social relations appear most un- 
 desirable and represent only a political plundering of the 
 entire body of the people on a large scale by a dominant 
 minority. A very different thing from this government 
 of force, which must be regarded as a remnant of the 
 middle ages, is the true popular governvienf, in which the 
 community is only the expression of all , and in which all 
 are only the expression of the community. Such a state 
 as this really resembles an organism , in which all the 
 juices flow constantly and in uninterrupted streams from 
 the circumference to the centre, to flow back again im- 
 mediately from the centre to the different parts and furn-
 
 l86 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 ish them with strength and health. In this uninterrupted 
 ebb and flow, in this ceaseless interchange of juices be- 
 tween the individual parts and the great central points 
 lies the best guarantee of health, whilst every interruption 
 of this movement, every stoppage or accummulation of 
 the blood in the different parts has illness or discomfort 
 as its consequence. Just so is it also in the body of the 
 state, which must be less comfortable in proportion as the 
 interchange between the wdiole and the individual parts 
 is less, and as property and riches accumulate in an un- 
 natural manner at particular parts of the periphery and 
 fix themselves there without any free circulation with the 
 general body. Hence the enormous private fortunes which 
 have been gradually accumulated, chiefly in consequence 
 of inheritance and marriage, in the hands of individuals 
 or families, and the employment of which is left entirely 
 to the will of individuals, cause just the same danger to 
 the community or to the state, as the excessive possession 
 of land by private individuals. By the immense influence 
 which property and riches have acquired in our present 
 social and political condition these fortunes have arrived 
 at the formation of a state in the state, and in time to 
 come and in proportion as the theory of the Manchester 
 men makes way, they will do this still more, and finally 
 things will come to such a pass that no regular govern- 
 ment can any longer exist. Money or the god Mammon 
 will in the end rem^iin the sole ruler of states, and we 
 even now use a very characteristic expression when we 
 call the millionaires "Money princes", as if to intimate.' that 
 in their hands property and riches are combined with ex- 
 orbitant political influence. 
 
 The measures proposed by us will of course operate 
 most effectually against this unnatural accumulation of 
 such large private fortunes as are injurious to the commu- 
 nity, — they will constantly carry back the national riches 
 from the hands of individuals to the place where they na- 
 turally and justly belong, namely the lap of the nation
 
 WHERK ARE WE GOIXG? l8l 
 
 itself. Like a beneficent rain they will there distribute 
 themselves among the individual members and awaken 
 life and health where before there was only desolation 
 and misery. In this wa.y, without the detested commu- 
 nistic division and without any infringement of private 
 interests, a certain amount of division will be taking place 
 continually and at every moment, and a constant, normal 
 and legitimate equalization between the whole and the 
 parts, as also between the parts themselves, will be estab- 
 lished. A method which accomplishes so much and yet 
 affects or injures no one in his personal rights, should not 
 be rejected without consideration, as it probably will be 
 by many who read these lines, but should be carefully 
 examined so that an impartial and unprejudiced opinion 
 may be formed upon it. Even those practical scruples 
 or doubts as to the possibility of carrying it out, which, 
 as in the case of every thing new, will here make them- 
 selves felt with great energy, may all be removed without 
 much difficulty, as a little consideration will make plain 
 to any one who desires to arrive at a clear judgment on 
 the subject. It will not be difficult by legislative processes 
 to prevent unlimited donations in case of death and to 
 render fraudulent evasions of the law impossible. The 
 limitation of the power of bequest also will not, as many 
 think, excessively injure the impulse to acquisition among 
 individuals. Innumerable examples prove that the desire 
 of acquiring property is not in the least altered or affected 
 by the want of direct or needy heirs of the body; and if 
 here and there an individual should be induced by the 
 want of direct inheritors to spend more upon himself or 
 upon others than he would otherwise have done, we can 
 find no injury to the community in this. On the contrary 
 a counterpoise to that avaricious and useless spirit of 
 hoarding which at present rules the minds of most men of 
 property, would be of the greatest service, and at any rate 
 useful and necessary expenditure of the moment would 
 no longer be limited to the same extent as hitherto, from
 
 l82 WHF.RE ARE WK (JOING? 
 
 considerations of the future and to the injury of the pre- 
 sent. The thirst for money and riches has the pecuHarity 
 that it is not, like any other thirst, stopped by being 
 satisfied, but in general increases in the same proportion 
 that food is offered to it. Every rich man is inspired by 
 the wish to become still richer, in order that he may rival 
 or excel those who already exceed him in riches in ex- 
 ternal display, — and the cases are comparatively rare in 
 which great private wealth is employed in carrying out 
 generally useful plans for the furtherance of the common 
 weal, arrangements for the assistance of struggling talent, 
 and so forth. It is clear that in this way only tendencies 
 and impulses are cultivated which are useless or injurious 
 to the common weal, such as avarice, jealousy, envy, 
 ostentation, dishonesty &c., whilst philanthropy, further- 
 ance of the common weal, the support of suffering or needy 
 people, sacrifices for great purposes, furthering the well- 
 being of man in material or intellectual matters &c. must 
 stand far behind these egotistical motives or tendencies. 
 
 This entire condition of things must, however, be 
 reversed, as soon as the individual is brought by the ar- 
 rangements of society itself, into a different and more 
 intimate connexion with it and with the community in 
 general. The tendency to employ his wealth not merely 
 for himself but for purposes of public utility will increase 
 to an unexpected extent, and in place of that absurd desire of 
 personal ostentation which prevails at present among nearly 
 all wealthy people and impels them to lavish unhesitat- 
 ingly uncounted sums upon the gratification of the small- 
 est and pettiest personal desires and vanities, whilst an 
 equally petty avarice prevails in opposition to all non- 
 egotistical objects, we shall have love of the community, 
 assistance to others, furtherance of great and general pur- 
 poses &c. But even should this action upon the spirit ot 
 individuals and this improvement of human nature be 
 wanting, the state or the community will take that care 
 upon itself and employ the wealth constantly flowing to
 
 AVHERE ARE WE GOING? 183 
 
 it from the private property of the dead, not only for the 
 advancement of the common weal, but also for the further- 
 ance of all general objects, beneficial to mankind as such, 
 and to its advancement. Thus while at present the wealth 
 of the nation is to a certain extent held in private hands 
 and in general employed in a manner either useless or 
 positively injurious to the community, the very opposite 
 must be the case then to the blessing of all. All this 
 necessarily leads to the question of capital, which has be- 
 come so important and been so often discussed in our day, 
 and upon which, unfortunately, infinite obscurity still pre- 
 vails in most heads. 
 
 CAPITAL. 
 
 Capital, in the most general sense, is another deno- 
 mination for work already done and completed, or, more 
 correctly expressed, it is the collected and stored up bodily 
 and intellectual work of our ancestors and contemporaries, 
 converted into possessions or useful property of all kinds * 
 (such as money, arable lands, houses, goods, means of 
 transport, tools, knowledge &c.). 
 
 From this definition it appears at once, how brainless 
 and senseless is the cry against capital as such which is 
 now the fashion among the working classes. The battle- 
 
 * Many define capital as the excess of the produce of labour over 
 its wages or as the increased value of the work performed by the ca- 
 pitalistic method of production, which the capitalist or speculator puts 
 in his pocket. It is clear that this is no definition nor even an expla- 
 nation of the mode of origin of capital, but only an expression of one 
 of those multifarious jirocesses by which capital accumulates in individual 
 hands. By such definitions nothing is explained, but only an unnecessary 
 agitation is produced. Even F. A. Lange (Die Arheiterfrage &c.) gives 
 no explanation of the mode of origin of capital, but only explains the 
 causes or one of the causes of its unfair distribution, when he says 
 that capital on the Avhole originates in ]-)art directly and in part in- 
 directly from the lordly possessions and the privileges of the feudal ages.
 
 184 WHRKK ARE AVK GOING? 
 
 cry of the workman should not be: Down with capital! 
 but: Long" live capital! Were we in a position at present 
 with a single blow to cause all capital to disappear from 
 the world, we should voluntarily throw ourselves back 
 into that rude and miserable state, in which our earliest 
 ancestors led their half- animal lives in a most imperfect 
 manner , as indeed the progress of civilization consists 
 chiefly in the gradual accumulation of those innumerable 
 appliances and knowledges by which alone a civilized life 
 freed from the rude bonds of the force of nature is ren- 
 dered possible. The greater, the more extensive and the 
 more valuable that enormous treasure of physical and 
 intellectual property, which mankind accumulates in its 
 gradual course of development and bequeaths onwards 
 from generation to generation, the more does it approach 
 the fulfilment of its true destiny, and the greater will also 
 be the general proportion of its happiness. The evil of 
 which we have to complain is not due to the fact that this 
 treasure or capital (in the widest sense) exists at all, but 
 to the circumstance that it is not in the same measure or 
 in the same marn/er at the command of every individual. 
 If all had capital, no one would have occasion to complain 
 of it, but in all probability every one would tell of its ad- 
 vantageous effects. It is only the interest on capital that 
 converts capital into that detested instrument of the rich 
 against the poor, by which the former are always sure 
 that without any exertions of their own the labour of 
 others will always be performed for them and for their 
 support. 
 
 Thus if we examine the affair to the bottom, it is clear 
 that the whole misconception which attaches to the so 
 called power of capital has its foundation not in the exi- 
 stence of capital as such, but solely in its unequal distri- 
 bution, which contradicts the principles not only of justice, 
 but also those of sound national economy. All the re- 
 proaches and curses that have been cast upon capital seem 
 to be unjust so long as we speak of capital in itself, and
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 185 
 
 probably become more or less just when we substitute for 
 it the expression "private capital". In fact we can by no 
 means see why the labour of the past and of the com- 
 munity in the present should benefit not the community 
 but only individuals, and why what belongs to mankind 
 is withheld by individual interests. Even without con- 
 sidering- what has been left us by our ancestors and the 
 universal right of all in the soil, the enormous increase of 
 value which all existing property experiences by the 
 simple increase of population , by the increase of credit 
 and by the rise of all industrial, mercantile and other con- 
 ditions, is so much the direct consequence of the common 
 activity of all that it must appear to be the greatest in- 
 justice, that the chief benefit of this increase of value ac- 
 crues almost exclusively to individual persons who are 
 accidentally in possession of this or that property and 
 who perhaps have contributed least of all by their own 
 activity to bring about the result. No one will be inclined 
 to assert that those in whose hands capital or the results 
 of the industry, the skill, the thought and the exertions 
 of the generations, which lived before us and of those still 
 living, is now chiefly to be found, have earned it by their 
 own activity and industry, or that the poverty and want 
 of property of the lower and working classes are the con- 
 sequences of misfortunes which they have brought upon 
 themselves. There is therefore no other means to level 
 these irregularities so as to satisfy justice and the needs of 
 national economy, except the partly permanent and partly 
 temporary restoration of capital, the wealth of the people, 
 the property of mankind, to the hands of those to whom 
 they naturally and justly belong, namely into the posses- 
 sion of the community or of mankind as such. Whilst 
 these goods then stand once more at the disposal of the 
 individual so far as he requires them for the development 
 and utilization of his powers, they make him independent 
 of the dominion of private capital and enable him, without 
 sacrificing his powers in the service of others, to serve
 
 l86 AVHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 both himself and the community or humanity at large by 
 his activity. But the former power of private capital itself 
 will lose almost all its importance in the presence of the 
 enormous concentration of the wealth of the people in the 
 hands of the state or of the community, and the diminution 
 or perhaps total cessation of the interest accruing from 
 it under competition with the capital of the state will 
 render it impossible for idlers any longer to live without 
 exertions or deserts of their own at the cost of the com- 
 munity or of others. The chief benefit will however con- 
 sist in the fact that the wealth of the nation will be taken 
 from under the influence of the arbitrary will, the stupi- 
 dity, the malevolence, or the avarice of private individuals, 
 and will no longer be applied to unproductive or even in- 
 jurious purposes, but solely to the benefit and welfare of all. 
 The boundless and most pernicious rage of speculation 
 will come to an end, and in place of incalculable national 
 debts we shall have an inexhaustible national wealth. 
 Even the private individual who has worked so long and 
 successfully as to be able to take his ease, as the phrase 
 goes, will probably in most cases prefer to hand over the 
 wealth acquired by him, in whole or in part, to the com- 
 munity and in return for it to stipulate for a correspond- 
 ing maintenance for life. Lastly one part of what we 
 now denominate capital and the part to which the dis- 
 agreeable accessory notion of capital principally clings, 
 namely ///o/ny, will scarcely be necessary to the state, as 
 it will probably in most cases be possible to attain all 
 the purposes of society by organization and mutual equa- 
 Hzation of work. 
 
 LABOUR AND LABOURERS. 
 
 One of the greatest follies which the present age has 
 committed and is still committing is the creation of a spe- 
 cial labourefs question and its separation from the great
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? iSj 
 
 or general social questions. In this case, also, as in the 
 question of capital, the root of the matter does not lie in 
 work itself but only in its unjust distribution. Fundamen- 
 tally all men are labourers with the exception of the com- 
 paratively few who live upon the stored up fat of their pre- 
 decessors or upon the labour of others ; and if work , as 
 is certainly the case, is very differently paid for, this ge- 
 nerally stands in a not unjustifiable relation to the kind 
 and difficulty of the work and the greatness of the dang- 
 ers and expenses connected with its acquisition or per- 
 formance. It is therefore only an unnatural revivification 
 of that class-opposition, which is in contradiction to all 
 the principles of modern times to place the labourer par 
 excellence (that is to say the industrial or factory work- 
 man) in contradistinction to all the other classes of society, 
 as Lassalle has done, and to require for him special pri- 
 vileges within a society which has elevated political equa- 
 lity into its leading principle. Laboitr is depressed, not 
 the labotirer as such. If we recognize as just the prin- 
 ciples upon which existing society is built up, we must 
 also accept all their consequences and not make it a ground 
 of complaint that the inexorable struggle for existence 
 gives unequal results, when the means wnth which it has 
 to be fought are themselves unequal. The ignorant work- 
 man excited by all sorts of demonstrations has nowadays 
 accustomed himself to regard his master as the real cause 
 of his miseries and wrongs, but this is just as unw^ise or 
 foolish as for him to regard capital in itself as his enemy. 
 Without capital and without a master he might at any 
 moment die of hunger, and as a work-taker he is very 
 often in a comparatively much more favourable position 
 than his work- giver , who on his part, if he is not himself 
 a capitalist, depends upon other capitalists and in general 
 has to struggle with a multitude of galling cares and dangers 
 of which his workmen have no conception. The workman, 
 all whose aspirations are directed merely to the increase 
 of the wages paid to him, does not consider that the work-
 
 l88 WHRRR ARK WK GOING? 
 
 giver, however rich or prosperous he may be, does not 
 pay him out of his own pocket, but only out of the pockets 
 of the public, and that this as well as the competition 
 which hems him in on every side, lay upon him certain 
 limits which he cannot overstep without bringing himself 
 to ruin. The existing relations between work-givers and 
 work- takers or the so called capitalistic mode of pro- 
 duction is only a necessary and inevitable result of our 
 given social relations , and those who , whilst acknow- 
 ledging these relations , declaim against this mode of 
 production and its consequences, which are certainly 
 often very g-rievous (97), act in just as wise a manner as 
 a surgeon who should take a symptom or external mani- 
 festation of a disease for the disease itself. Moreover the 
 reproaches cast upon the capitalistic mode of production 
 and the so called wages- system generally apply only to 
 very large industrial undertakings and to those trades in 
 which only working hands and capital are employed, whilst 
 wherever a business or a factory depends upon the creative 
 activity, the inventive genius, the industry or any other 
 special faculty of its undertaker, or even upon the par- 
 ticular goodness of its whole organization, the increased 
 gain, falsely called the premium on capital of the under- 
 taker or organizer, is very ivell earned (g8). 
 
 In order to get rid of the wages-system and give the 
 workman the actual produce of his labour instead of the 
 mere wages, Lassalle and his adherents have, as is well 
 known , proposed the establishment of productive asso- 
 ciations as they are called, that is to say independent as- 
 sociations of workmen for productive purposes, and this 
 by the aid of state credit or by the help of the state. 
 This proposition is subject to a considerable number of 
 both external and internal difficulties which render its 
 being carried out under existing circumstances exceedingly 
 questionable. But even if this were not the case, and 
 if we could succeed by means of the universal suffrage 
 advocated by Lassalle, in securing the acceptance and co-
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 1 89 
 
 operation of the state for his proposals (which , however, 
 is very improbable without some previous social reforms), 
 it would very soon appear that these state-factories would 
 be by no means in a position to attain the object expected 
 from them, namely the liberation of the workman from his 
 depressed social position, or would attain it in a very im- 
 perfect degree. For in the first place the average net 
 profit of a particular factory or business, which may cer- 
 tainly appear very large in the hands of an individual, is 
 comparatively very small as soon as it comes to be di- 
 vided among' all the partakers and co-labourers in the bu- 
 siness or among a great number, and in times of crisis, 
 of want of business or of greatly increased competition 
 it may even fall far below the level of what is generally 
 paid to the individual workman as wages. 
 
 In the second place the factories guaranteed by the 
 state (assuming their practicability and greater profit to 
 be permanent) will still benefit only a part and probably 
 a comparatively small part of the working population, as 
 no one will be inclined to assert that all the occupations 
 of daily life could be carried on by means of such organized 
 factories or associations (in which, moreover, the want of 
 unity between the individual partakers would form an 
 essential stumbling-block). Consider for example the very 
 large class of domestic servants and many other branches 
 of human activity! 
 
 Thus even if we presuppose the establishment and 
 the anticipated result of such associations established by 
 the aid of the state, there will always remain a great re- 
 sidue of workers not engaged in these associations. The 
 necessary consequence of this is the formation of an aristo- 
 cracy of labourers and of a fifth state besides the exist- 
 ing four. Within this fifth state and among these true 
 prolctaircs the whole movement will then begin again 
 from the commencement, and indeed more violently, threa- 
 teningly and bitterly than before, as the hatred of the 
 poor will be excited against their better situated or more
 
 igO WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 favoured confreres not merely on account of their social 
 inferiority, but also on account of their political inferi- 
 ority. 
 
 Not only this physical but also the intellectual pro- 
 letariate, and indeed every other class of society, will im- 
 mediately lay claim to the assistance of the state, and with 
 the same right as the industrial or factory workman, and 
 it can no more be denied to them than to the latter. And 
 at last where is the state, great as its credit may still be, 
 to obtain all the means to satisfy such numerous claims? 
 It is true that state-aid in itself and as a principle is by 
 no means so objectionable as Lassalle's opponents assert, 
 and the arguments against it, which it has been attempted 
 to derive from the accepted nature of the state, are en- 
 tirely untenable (gg). But without a previous reformation 
 of the law of property, and without the state being fur- 
 nished with enormous means, it is simply an impossibility, 
 and it is therefore quite natural that under the actually 
 existing state of things self- help in accordance with the 
 proposals of the celebrated political economist, Schulze- 
 Delitzsch, is preferred to it among really intelligent w;ork- 
 men. Indeed this self-help in which so many at present 
 pride themselves with mistaken vanity, is in itself only 
 a very poor expedient and as a principle just as inef- 
 ficient, as state assistance is efficient. For self-help without 
 means merely signifies simple failure or gradual languish- 
 ing. If we throw a man who cannot swim, without any 
 means of keeping himself above water, into a rushing 
 stream (and life is just such a stream), he will certanily 
 sink in it. But if we previously teach him to swim or to 
 sail and give him a boat or put an oar into his hand, he 
 will struggle successfully with the waves. But the blind- 
 ness that exists as to the present state of society is so 
 great, that those who possess all the resources for the 
 struggle or for onward movement in the greatest super- 
 fluity, furnish none of them to their poor or struggling 
 brother, but refer him scornfully to that self-help which
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? IQI 
 
 in most cases has not been practised by themselves, and 
 rather suffocate in their own fatness, than yield to others 
 something out of their superfluity, which, perhaps, is even 
 a trouble to themselves. The throwing of an oar or a 
 plank from the ship of the rich or high-placed man as it 
 sails proudly by, would often suffice to save the poor 
 one from certain destruction ; but the principle of self-help 
 forbids it, and the poor man must sink with a last despair- 
 ing glance at those treasures which are often only an 
 annoyance to others, and to him would be synonymous 
 with salvation and happiness (loo). 
 
 All this proves that self-help without aid from the 
 state is just as much an impossibility as state assistance 
 without the aid of society, and also that the root of the 
 whole evil lies not in the position of the labouring class 
 as such, but in the false and insufficient organization of 
 society. The position of the workman is only a simple 
 necessary consequence of our general and economic state 
 and of the false and unjust distribution of labour in social 
 life. Mutual equalization and distribution of the posses- 
 sions which have become useless to individuals through 
 the community with the assistance of the state, at the same 
 time securing to the individual those means and con- 
 ditions which he absolutely requires in his struggle for 
 existence, is here also the only means of salvation. 
 
 When the working men and the present leaders of 
 their movement have once clearly realized this truth with 
 all its necessary consequences, they will save themselves 
 many useless words and efforts and, what is of more con- 
 sequence, much self-deception. An evil is not cured by 
 counteracting its symptoms or external phenomena, but 
 by attacking it at the root. In this respect Lassalle has 
 done much mischief by raising a special workman's question 
 when he should have disclosed and attacked the social de- 
 fects; with his universal suffrage and state-associations he 
 has held out a bait to the workmen, at which thev cer- 
 tainly bit with avidity, but which, in the hour of danger,
 
 igZ WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 will leave them miserably in the lurch. Lassalle, however, 
 was no socialist, as so many in their ignorance suppose, 
 but an economist; at least his proposals have nothing of 
 a socialistic character about them. Almost at the moment 
 of the first appearance of Lassalle the author publicly ex- 
 pressed the opinion here maintained of him and his system 
 in a report upon Lassalle's Labour-programme made on 
 the ig**" April 1863 at Rcedelheim*, and although now 
 seven-years' experience lies behind us, he can still sub- 
 scribe to nearly every word contained in it. The crude 
 communism, into which Lassalle's labour-movement has since 
 degenerated, is, however, the best proof of its intrinsic un- 
 tenability. But for the workmen themselves and their 
 cause it is a bad sign that names such as those of Lassalle 
 and Schulze-Delitsch could become a sort of Shiboleth or 
 battle-cry to divide them into two hostile camps contend- 
 ing with each other with great fury; this shows a fright- 
 ful want of consideration and judgment and instead of these 
 a blind imitation or idolatry. But man should have no 
 idols, whether religious, political, scientific or social. Let 
 us leave idolatry to the middle ages, to the hypocrites, 
 the blockheads and the sluggards! 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 As often as proposals have been made for the im- 
 provement or reformation of the state of society, an un- 
 animous cry rises from the mouths of opponents that it 
 is intended to undermine the eternal and indestructible 
 chief pillars of law, morals and the family. The family, 
 especially, is regarded in this case as the indispensable 
 foundation of society, as the nursery of every thing good 
 and noble and as the firmest support of the socalled Chris- 
 tian state, — and every one who ventures to say a word 
 
 * Heir Lassalle unci die Arl>eiler. — Bcricht und V'ortrag etc. von 
 Dr. Louis Biichner. K. Jiaist. Frankfort on the Maine,
 
 WHERK ARE WE GOING? ig3 
 
 against this institution, sanctified as it is by age, is branded 
 as half a criminal. It is therefore well worth the trouble 
 to examine once for all how far this assertion, which is so 
 generally accepted as incontestible, is or is not correct, 
 and to see whether such terrible consequences, as are ge- 
 nerally set before us, are really to be anticipated from a 
 limitation of family rights for the benefit of the commu- 
 nity. We then ascertain in the first place that in its pre- 
 sent form the family also is closely and necessarily con- 
 nected with that condition of social egotism which we 
 have found to be the consequence of the unlimited struggle 
 for existence when not yet bridled by the power of reason, 
 and that the family represents on a larger scale in society 
 very nearly what the individual is in the community. 
 We know from history that the striving for family lustre, 
 family power and family wealth has at all times been one 
 of the principal objects of human endeavours, and that to 
 this striving all higher human objects, all considerations 
 of the commen-weal have been sacrificed in innumerable 
 instances without hesitation or scruple. Although the 
 great French revolution has effected a great improvement 
 in this respect and, by the principle of individual liberty 
 and equality introduced by it, broken the direct political 
 power of the great families, still the system continues to 
 exist as such in the social domain and by indirect means 
 even in the political; and what is called nepotism or the 
 favouring of certain families and their individual members 
 to the injury of the rest and of the community, forms , as 
 is well known, one of the most hateful and at the same 
 time injurious features of our political and social state. 
 
 If we leave this out of consideration and consider 
 only the family as such, no one, of course, will deny that 
 in itself it forms a truly human institution, and that in its 
 ideal form it is capable or even destined to exert the most 
 beneficial influence upon human development and manners. 
 But if we enquire further where and how often this ideal 
 family is really to be met with, the answer to this question 
 
 13
 
 194 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 is very lamentable. Here, as everywhere, the struggle for 
 existence in its wildest form has raged fearfully and most 
 unrestrainedly and left the happiness and the infinite ten- 
 dernesses of the true family life to be enjoyed by very few. 
 The family in its true form exists only for the rich and 
 prosperous; whilst the poor man or the proleiaire know 
 the family only in a form which in general constitutes the 
 direct opposite of what it should be. 
 
 If we consider first of all the lowest strata of society, 
 as those who belong to it are usually destitute of the 
 means of founding a true family, they often enough re- 
 place it by vicious courses or illicit cohabitation. Where 
 this is not the case, the family-life of the lower and lowest 
 classes is unfortunately as a rule rather a nursery of evi 
 than of good, and it fulfils its essential purpose only in a 
 very imperfect manner. For during by far the greater 
 part of the day both parents are absent from home seek- 
 ing their livelihood, — and as to the children, when under 
 the most defective care and domestic bringing up they 
 have attained a certain age, they are regarded by their 
 parents rather as working instruments than as human 
 beings entrusted to their care. The father who, in com- 
 mon life, leads a dependent and servile or uniform, un- 
 intellectual existence, sees in his wife and children the 
 only beings in the world over whom he is justified in ex- 
 erting a certain personal authority, and in the few mo- 
 ments of his being at home or of his family-life, revenges 
 himself by the rough treatment or maltreatment of these 
 beings for his social depression. If to this, as is so fre- 
 quently the case, drunkenness be added, the matter be- 
 comes still worse. The poor children grow up in constant 
 anxiety, in want, under the most unfavourable conditions 
 for life and health and misguided by the constant spec- 
 tacle of coarseness and evil*. Thus even in earliest youth 
 
 * Suicides, as is well known, are very rare amono children. Never- 
 theless Diirand- Fardel has ascertained, tliat between the years 1835 '^'^<^1
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 1Q5 
 
 the germ of intellectual and corporeal crippling is laid, 
 and whatever of good nature has still preserved in them 
 is utterly lost, when they are forced upon toilsome and 
 wearing labour at an age when the children of the rich 
 just begin really to enjoy their existence. Animal im- 
 pulses restrained by no moral counterpoise and want of 
 insight or of true family sentiment also allow the families 
 of the poor to become generally much more numerous 
 than those of the rich, and thus the wretchedness of the 
 rising generation is incalculably increased. But our ex- 
 isting system of police, which employs such great means 
 to manifest a hypocritical care for the bare life of those 
 under it, and which sends a poor girl, who in her shame 
 and despair has got rid of her illegitimate child, to the 
 house of correction for many years, makes no enquiry 
 whether and how a great, perhaps the greater part of its 
 future citizens are m.altreated both corporeally and intel- 
 lectually in their childish days and regards them merely 
 as the property of their parents, who are just as likely to 
 rear their child into a monster as into a good citizen. 
 But if the monster is there against our will, the christian 
 state, raised upon the foundations of true morality, is also 
 at hand, to punish the unfortunate victim with chains 
 and dungeon, with sword and rack for its own guilt! 
 
 No one who is acquainted with these circumstances 
 and who has had the opportunity of seeing with his own 
 eyes what a cradle of misery and despair, of abomination 
 and present and future crime the family in its bad form 
 frequently if not generally conceals within it, will be in- 
 clined to deny that, at all events for the lowest strata of 
 society, social education is far preferable to domestic, and 
 that an infringement or limitation of this sort of family 
 for the benefit of an education of youth arranged and 
 
 1844 no fewer than 192 siiicides of children under 16 years of age took 
 place in France, and of these 132 -ivere on account of ill treatment by 
 parents. 
 
 13*
 
 196 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 supervised b}' the state can do no more to injure the prin- 
 ciples of moraUty than those of sound reason. 
 
 But not only in the lowest classes of society, but also 
 in its middle and even at its highest point the family is 
 unfortunately only too often a school of despotism or of 
 evil, and rather the tomb than the cradle of good; and 
 this is especially the case when the chief of the family 
 has a defective character or a bad disposition, or when 
 by misfortunes, disappointments and so forth he is driven 
 to desperate courses, or finally when the harmony be- 
 tween husband and wife, which is so necessary for the ex- 
 istence of a good family, is wanting. It is true that in 
 what is called good society one does not generally have 
 much experience of these things, but the frightful family- 
 tragedies, which from time to time are brought to the light 
 of publicity by peculiar circumstances, allow us to con- 
 clude that much is concealed and kept secret. But even 
 where there is nothing of this kind in the case, and in 
 what are regarded as good families, family life does not 
 always exert a strengthening influence upon the nervous 
 system and upon the character, and the numerous hyster- 
 ical, anaemic and nervous ladies and the great number 
 of men with no energy and with feeble characters furnish 
 evidence by no means in favour of our family-education. 
 Taken for all in all a good, prosperous, rightly and ra- 
 tionally conducted family may cause all other systems of 
 bringing up to appear superfluous for its members; but in 
 the same degree that such families are rare, the value of the 
 family-principle as such is depressed, and in opposition to 
 it the value of a social or governmental system of educ- 
 ation rises. Even if the state were to leave out of ac- 
 count all high moral considerations and entirely neglect 
 the principle of political humanity, it must merely from 
 economical or selfish grounds turn its greatest attention 
 to that which will form the subject of the following section, 
 namely education.
 
 WHERE ARE AVE GOING? 1 97 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Both duty and interest prescribe to the government 
 of the future to turn its chief attention to a general, uni- 
 form system of popular education such as may satisfy the 
 claims of the present state of knowledge. Duty, because 
 as we have seen, every man brings with him an equal 
 right not merely to the material but also to the intellectual 
 possessions of mankind or in specie of his people, and be- 
 cause he can victoriously support his struggle for existence 
 only when he treads the stage of life furnished with the 
 most necessary means of cultivation of his time; Interest, 
 because nothing can be better for the state than if by 
 giving a good education to the people and by leading 
 them to what is good, its enormous expenditure for bar- 
 racks, prisons, police and the administration of criminal 
 law may be rendered for the most part unnecessary. 
 
 The theory of the Manchester men would withdraw 
 every thing, which does not relate to the protection of 
 person and property, from the charge of the state and 
 leave it to private activity; but how little it has proved 
 itself in respect to the important matter of popular educa- 
 tion is shown by England, the classic land of personal 
 liberty, where the rudeness and want of culture of the 
 lower ranks of the people have reached such a frightful 
 pass, that at present the agitation for the introduction of 
 general and compulsory school -education after the con- 
 tinental and especially the German pattern has become 
 universal there. On the peoples' school depends the whole 
 future of the state and of humanity; and whoever, in a 
 given state, could make sure of holding firmly in his hand 
 the Ministry of education for 20 or 30 years, might answ^er 
 for every possible change in that state, in the direction of 
 culture, freedom and progress. By education every thing 
 good may be made of man and especially of the average 
 man; by the want of it every thing bad. That crimes
 
 ig8 WHKRK ARR WK GOING? 
 
 against the laws of the state or of society are for the most 
 part just as much effluxes of defective culture or perverted 
 education, as necessary consequences of the general distres- 
 ses of society, is a fact too well known and recognized to 
 need more than a brief indication. Criminals are therefore 
 as a rule rather unfortunate than detestable, and a future, 
 better time will look back upon the criminal processes of 
 our day with the same feelings with which we noAV regard 
 the political trials or witchcraft processes of the past. 
 In the same proportion as culture, prosperity and morals 
 advance, we know by experience that crime decreases; it 
 will probably disappear in time altogether, with the ex- 
 ception of a scanty residue, just like the former great epi- 
 demic diseases. Crime, in political life, is nothing" more, 
 than disease in physical life; and just as in medicine and 
 in public sanitary administration we have gradually come 
 to see that it is better and more advantageous to prevent 
 diseases than to oppose them after they have broken out, 
 so in the life of the state we shall learn that it is better 
 to prevent crime by rational arrangements or to suppress 
 it at its origin, than to fight it against with fire and sword 
 when it has been produced. Make your arrangements good 
 and wise, we must say to the rulers of the state, and then 
 men also will become good and wise! 
 
 As regards the education or instruction itself it need 
 scarcely be remarked, in the face of the requirements so 
 often and so pressingly made by all liberal parties and in 
 accordance with the principles established by us, that ge- 
 neral , obligatory and gratuitous instruction in national 
 schools until the attainment of a certain age is the least that 
 can be demanded in this respect, whilst the higher edu- 
 cational institutions must at least be open gratuitously for 
 all those who are willing to make use of them. That the 
 fostering of science cis such must also form one of the 
 principal tasks of the state, and especially of the state of 
 the future, is a matter of course, although this must be 
 effected in a different way than by our existing Univer-
 
 WHKRK ARK WK GOING? IQQ 
 
 sities and higher educ^itional institutions, which have gra- 
 dually fallen from their former elevation as nurseries of 
 free science and become more or less mere training insti- 
 tutions for the learned professions , and especially for 
 future compliant tools of the mechanism of govern- 
 ment (lOl). 
 
 Moreover it is not sufficient merely to care for edu- 
 cation during the period of youth ; time and opportunity 
 must also be given to the grown-up man to continue his 
 intellectual development and to take part, at least to a 
 certain extent, in the great intellectual acquisitions of his 
 time. This applies especially to the true working classes 
 who after the termination of their school-time under pre- 
 sent circumstances usually escape entirely from the course 
 of culture of their time and allow the man to rise or sink 
 almost completely into the workman. But in a humanely 
 organized state every one should be and remain a man; 
 and this can be effected for the working classes only by 
 a legal diminution of the hours of labour and the esta- 
 blishment of a normal working day by the state (102). 
 The hours thus daily set free for the workman would 
 give him the opportunity to cultivate his knowledge, to 
 learn to understand the time in which he lives, to enjoy 
 suitable and intellectual pleasures, — in a word to live as 
 a man and not as a mere working machine or beast of 
 burden. 
 
 The attention of the state ought to be devoted not 
 only to the intellectual but also to the bodily education 
 of those who belong to it, and to the protection of 
 the rising g^eneration from premature crippling of the 
 body. The sins that are still committed in this particular, 
 partly by action , partly by neglect , are so indescri- 
 bably numerous and great that we might fill volumes 
 with their description. Here, again, nothing but social 
 education and governmental supervision can help us. 
 It is a statistically proved and truly horrible fact that 
 the duration of life in the lower ranks of society, espe-
 
 200 WHERE ARE WE GOING r 
 
 cially the working- classes, is generally only half or two 
 thirds of that which the higher ranks enjoy, so that by 
 the present condition of society the former are cheated 
 out of nearly half their normal life. The cause of this 
 sad phenomenon lies in the infinite deficiencies both of 
 public and private sanitary measures, in the neglect of 
 corporeal education during youth, and in the disregard 
 of the bodily welfare of the working classes during their 
 subsequent life. In improving these conditions the legal 
 abridgment of the time of labour and the alternation of 
 work and recreation thereby afforded will have the most 
 beneficial consequences. 
 
 WOMAN. 
 
 It is a fact historically proved that the estimation of 
 and respect for woman in human society have increased 
 in the same proportion that the degree of general culture 
 and good manners has been elevated. In like manner in 
 the present day we find that the position of woman is the 
 more creditable the higher the degree of culture in the 
 nation, whilst among savage tribes she still occupies that 
 lowest grade as the slave and beast of burden of the 
 stronger sex, which was quite universally assigned to her 
 at the dawn of civilization, and among half-civilized peoples 
 (for example, in the East) she occupies only the somewhat 
 better position of a half-slave. Even this single fact might 
 suffice to indicate the way on which the position of woman 
 has to advance in the future and to show how a man be- 
 longing to a civilized nation and himself laying claim to 
 culture, has to act towards her. "We men" as Raden- 
 hausen well says (Isis, Band III p. loo), "must accustom 
 ourselves to regard and treat the female half of mankind 
 not as agents for the service and gratification of the men 
 but as our equals." 
 
 There is indeed not the slightest visible reason why
 
 AVHERE ARE WE GOING? 20I 
 
 the principle of equal le,?al rights, which is at present so 
 generally recognized, should not also be extended to the 
 female half of the human race. The duties and per- 
 forniances that woman has to fulfil in the organism of 
 human society do not yield either in importance or in dif- 
 ficulty to those of the men, and these performances might 
 be increased far beyond their present measure if only a 
 larger and freer field were opened to the activity of wo- 
 men. Even if women, as many suppose, cannot in general 
 compete with men in the force and elevation of their per- 
 formances, this is no reason from cutting them off from 
 competition and thus injuring them in the general struggle 
 for existence more than they are already injured by their 
 weaker nature. Moreover, even after the removal of all 
 barriers, this very struggle for existence will furnish the 
 best security that woman shall not overstep the range of 
 activity assigned to her by nature, and all-powerful custom 
 will do more than any police-regulations to keep sensitive 
 women aloof from such things or spheres to which they 
 are not equal or fitted. There are inded many branches 
 of human activity for which women are as well fitted as 
 men, if not better, such as agriculture, cattle -farming, 
 gardening, watchmaking, weaving, needlework and the 
 like, also setting up type, post office work, book-keeping, 
 management of money, authorship etc. etc. All kinds of 
 arts and even sciences, teaching, medicine, care of the 
 poor and sick, the bringing up of children and so forth, 
 also very frequently find their most distinguished repre- 
 sentatives in women. That they do not always perform 
 so much as men is due not merely to their weaker nature 
 or to their smaller capability of work, but equally, or per- 
 haps even more, to their defective education and depressed 
 social position. Free women from this depressed position, 
 give them the education and culture necessary for life, 
 and we shall see what they are able to perform when 
 placed on an equality with men politically and socially. — 
 Whether this be much or little, it can only be for the
 
 202 WHERE ARE WE GOING.'* 
 
 advantag'e of the community if by increased rivalry the 
 zeal of competition is increased on both sides, and so great 
 an amount of working power, hitherto lying idle, is sup- 
 plied to Society. But the least that woman, as such, can 
 demand for herself, is that the course may at least be 
 left free to her on which to try competition with the 
 stronger sex. 
 
 "At any rate", as Radenhausen well says, "the female 
 half has a right to demand permission to try its capabili- 
 ties for the advancement of humanity in every branch of 
 activity, and that the path to culture which stands open 
 to the miale half, should also be opened to it." If this male 
 half or the socalled stronger se^ /cars this competition 
 and seeks to get rid of it by despotic regulations, this is 
 the best proof that in reality woman and her capabilities 
 of performance are more highly estimated than would 
 generally appear, and that this sex cannot resolve to resign 
 the cherished habit of ruling and oppressing. 
 
 The position of mitigated slavery which woman even 
 now generally occupies with respect to man, is merely a 
 residue from that barbarous period w^hen the stronger 
 man harnessed the weaker Avoman to the plough in spite 
 of her less bodily powers and set her to perform all labours 
 of the most difficult and humiliating kind, whilst he him- 
 self reposed upon his bearskin; and when the Europeans 
 of the present day exclude women from so many branches 
 of useful activity on the plea that their nature is not ad- 
 apted for them, this logic resembles the well-known slave- 
 law, which denies to slaves and oppressed people generally 
 the capacity for freedom and in accordance with this also 
 (in the interest of the oppressor) freedom itself. If it be 
 really true that woman does not possess the capabilities 
 which would entitle her to a position in life equal to that 
 of man, and that she is not able to acquire it, her social 
 position would not be essentially altered in spite of all 
 emancipation. Thus it would only depend upon an ex- 
 periment, quite free from danger in itself, to ascertain
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 2O3 
 
 whether the above-mentioned .supposition is correct or 
 not. — 
 
 The objections Avhich have been raised to the socalled 
 emancipation of women, or in other words to their political 
 and social equalization with men, are generally of so un- 
 tenable a kind that it requires some little self-command 
 on the part of a candid author to argue against them. 
 The commonest and most frequent objection is that woman 
 in her whole nature is intended for domestic life, for the 
 family, for bring-ing- up children and so forth, and that 
 this true destination of woman must be prejudiced by her 
 partaking in public or social affairs or in any other kind 
 of activity. This objection overlooks the essential point 
 on v/hich the whole question turns, and presupposes, quite 
 erroneously, that the object of the emancipation of woman 
 is to tear her from her natural sphere of action or her 
 household duties and to fling her unnecessarily into the 
 business of the great world. No woman who possesses a 
 family and a domestic sphere of action and finds in this 
 activity satisfaction for her mental or moral faculties, will 
 allow herself to be disturbed in this activity or kept away 
 from it by emancipation , whilst that very great num- 
 ber of women who do not possess such a sphere of action 
 or do not find their lives fully occupied by it, suffer the 
 heaviest privation in the want of this freedom and find 
 themselves condemned against their will to a mental or 
 bodily inactivity which often becomes the source of the 
 most serious evils. How many women pine away or de- 
 teriorate, sometimes bodily, sometimes intellectually and 
 both in and out of wedlock, under the deadening pressure 
 of a constant idleness which is imposed upon them by an 
 imaginary regard for their position, or by compulsorv 
 sloth and inaction! The innate impulse to action then 
 finally breaks out in a love of gossip or dress which ruins 
 the character, and in all sorts of frivolities and al^surdities 
 whichjustly lowers the female sex in the eyes of intelligent 
 men. On the contrary a woman who has learnt culture
 
 204 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 and work and is consequently in a position to exert a 
 profitable activity in life, will keep aloof from such follies; 
 she will not be compelled to speculate only upon marriage 
 and to give her hand to the first comer, often without 
 affection, merely for the sake of being married; if un- 
 married she will not feel unhappy through her whole life; 
 and if married she will stand by the side of her husband 
 in quite another fashion than hitherto. Hand in hand with 
 him, not as his servant or as a friend entirely dependent 
 upon him, but as his free and equal companion, she will 
 pass with him through life, and be able in case of need, to 
 take care of herself and her children even without him; 
 whilst, at present, as a general rule, the death of the 
 provider throws the whole family into the always open 
 arms of indigence. 
 
 It is an extremely absurd and truly pedantic assertion, 
 that culture and work strip the nimbus of womanhood 
 from woman , and that intellectually developed and in- 
 dependent women are not capable of a true devotion to 
 their husbands. The precise contrary to this is the truth, 
 and there can certainly be no better means of elevating 
 marriage and family-life in general than the emancipation 
 of woman to work, acquisition and culture. The mere 
 consciousness of being unable to support herself, and that 
 she must be all her life long a burden upon her husband 
 or her father, causes a feeling of depression in a woman, 
 which is the greater in proportion as she is sensible and 
 cultivated, and destroys that contentment which is so ne- 
 cessary to happy family-life. "The pure twilight of home" 
 so often referred to, in which alone true womanhood is 
 supposed to thrive and which has been so keenly ridiculed 
 by Fanny Lewald, is merely a great superstition and is 
 an anachronism in our time of universal striving after free- 
 dom and lig-ht. If it were not so, "the pure twilight of 
 home" in combination with "true womanhood" would be 
 best found in the hcirems of Turkish magnates! 
 
 With all this indeed it cannot and must not be denied
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING i 2O5 
 
 that the majority of women will always and under all cir- 
 cumstances seek and find their true task in life in marriage 
 and domestic cares, although, as has been said, even the 
 wife and mother will essentially improve her own position 
 and that of her family b)^ a greater am.ount of culture 
 and independence. But because this is the case, shall all 
 those women Avho do not reach this goal or do not Avish 
 to reach it, be forever depressed and condemned to com- 
 pulsory inactivity? Shall genius and intelligence become 
 of no consequence, merely because they happen to have 
 taken up their abode in a female brain? Shall talents and 
 capabilities remain undeveloped merely because a woman 
 possesses them ? and shall the impulse to activity and 
 business be allowed to w^aste without benefit to mankind 
 merely because they do not appear in the form of a man? 
 History teaches us incontestibly that there have been 
 among women savants, artists, politicians &c. as great as 
 among men; and if their number is small in comparison 
 with the men this is due in part to the natural destination of 
 woman to a more limited sphere of activity, and in part to 
 the want of freedom and equality, as also of the neces- 
 sary previous cultivation. Even in the dissimilar edu- 
 cation of the two sexes in youth there is an infinite in- 
 justice and injury to the woman, to marriage and to 
 the family \vhich cannot afterwards be made good. A cul- 
 tivated woman is as great a blessing to the house, as an 
 uncultivated one may be a curse! 
 
 It is true that from the scientific or physiological side 
 a weighty objection has been attempted to be raised against 
 the cultivability of wom.an in comparison to that of man, 
 by reference to the fact that the brain of women is con- 
 siderably inferior in size to that of man. This objection 
 sounds curious enough in the mouth of those who in all 
 other things reject the application of materialistic prin- 
 ciples, but do not disdain them here, when they can make 
 an advantageous use of them; but as the fact itself is in- 
 dubitable, w^e must accept the consequences deduced from
 
 2o6 AVHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 it, if these rest upon correct suppositions. This, however, 
 is by no means the case. For in the first place the smaller 
 stature and weaker muscular development of women, as 
 well as the smaller diameter of the nervous threads which 
 converge in the central parts of the nervous system, quite 
 naturally cause the total mass of the female brain to be 
 comparatively smaller, without necessarily causing the 
 development or energy of the parts of the brain devoted 
 to the intellectual functions to suffer. In the second place 
 even if it could be demonstrated that these parts re- 
 main in their development behind those of man, this may 
 just as well be ascribed to defective exercise and culti- 
 vation, as to an original deficiency. For it is well-known 
 that every organ of the body, and, therefore, also the 
 brain, requires for its full development and consequently 
 for the development of its complete capability of perfor- 
 mance exercise and persistent effort. That this is and 
 has been the case for thousands of years in a far less 
 degree in woman than in man, in consequence of her de- 
 fective training and education, will be denied by no one. — 
 Woman therefore should not be allowed to suffer under 
 the consequences of a condition of things of which she is 
 entirely innocent, — we should rather seek to cultivate her 
 natural talents to such a degree and in such a manner that 
 she may lose the taste for miserable g'ossip and finery and 
 find a pleasure in turning her mind to more serious and 
 useful matters than hitherto. When once this has been 
 effected we shall bo in a position, without injury to the 
 community, to confer upon women these political rights 
 which the most advanced among them even now demand 
 for their sex, and their possession of which will place them 
 with regard to their rights on a perfect equality with 
 men. Finally in confuting this objection a point must not 
 be forgotten to which attention cannot be too often called, 
 namely that the estimation of the intellectual value of a 
 brain depends not merely upon its size or material bulk, 
 but equally, if not even more, upon its internal constitution
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 20"] 
 
 and the finer development of its individual parts, and that 
 it is perfectly conceivable that the female brain as regards 
 this fineness and in accordance with the greater fineness 
 and delicacy of the female body generally, may exceed 
 the male brain in the same proportion as the latter ex- 
 ceeds the female brain in its development in size. 
 
 The greatest stumbling-block to men has probably 
 been the requirement of equality in political rights on the 
 part of women desirous of emancipation, and in fact under 
 the circumstances -which still prevail any such experiment 
 must be rather hazardous and extremely dangerous to 
 freedom and progress. Not that we would wish to say 
 that women might not be good politicians! On the con- 
 trary history teaches us most clearly that there have been 
 almost as many good politicians among women, as bad 
 ones among men. Even now in political (and other) re- 
 spects how many men are more effeminate and greater 
 gossips than the women themselves, and would be more 
 appropriate!}^ seated by the hearth or the spinning wheel 
 than in the grave councils of the men! And what com- 
 parison can be drawn between the political insight of a 
 cultivated woman, acquainted with the necessities of her 
 time, and that which may perhaps be possessed by a 
 footman or a shoe-black, who has never looked beyond 
 the narrow circle of his humble daily occupation! And 
 nevertheless this man possesses the suffrage and by 
 its means takes part in the settlement of the destiny of 
 his nation, whilst the intelligent and highly cultivated 
 woman is esteemed incapable of exercising any such 
 right! But all this applies only in individual cases, and 
 on the whole the still prevalent intellectual immaturity 
 and want of discretion of the female sex, and especially 
 its weakness in respect of religion, makes its complete 
 political emancipation appear impracticable, until the in- 
 dispensably necessary conditions of education and culture, 
 or of uniformity in the advancement of the two sexes, 
 shall have been fulfilled. Almost all experienced politicians
 
 208 WHERE ARE AVE GOING? 
 
 agree that the immediate g'ranting of the universal suffrage 
 to women would be equivalent to a political and religious 
 retrogression, which would of course be even much less 
 desired by free -thinking women, and especially by the 
 female leaders of the movement, than by men of demo- 
 cratic opinions. Indeed one of our most prominent author- 
 esses, the equally witty and thoughtful Fanny Lewald, 
 has been led by this circumstance to declare herself against 
 the extension of the suffrage to women at present and to 
 formulate the requirements of female emancipation as 
 follows : 
 
 "Instruction for the ignorant an? lowly and recognition 
 for intellectually mature women '."^ — a formula to which 
 the author adheres with all his heart! (103) 
 
 MARRIAGE. 
 
 Marriage, although it occurs also in animals (e. g. the 
 Storks), is nevertheless in its present form and conception 
 essentially a product of human culture. It is therefore 
 nothing rigid and unalterable, nothing given once for all 
 by nature , but must change and advance with the in- 
 crease of culture. For our marriage of the present day 
 this is all the more necessary, as in it the old principles 
 of compulsion which formerly ruled in state, church and 
 society, are still fully represented. For the progress of 
 true humanity in the state and society scarcely any thing, 
 however, can be more efficatious, than the liberation of 
 marriage from these narrowing bars and its conversion 
 into a proper relation of the two sexes, brought about by 
 a free and unconstrained choice on both sides and depend- 
 ant for its continuance upon the continuance of mutual af- 
 fection. In a certain sense it must be admitted that the 
 whole physical and intellectual future of the human race 
 depends more or less upon the future form of marriage.
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING.-' JOg 
 
 P'or although the union of the best with the best, as in 
 Plato's ideal State, would not ansAver, the union of the 
 most suitable with the most suitable will be the right 
 method to produce the best possible race in the future, 
 
 Darwin has already recognized n-hat he calls sexual 
 selection as a mainspring of progress in animals , and 
 Prof. Hackel does not hesitate to declare on the strength 
 of his investigations, that the progress of the human race 
 in history is in great part the consequence of sexual selec- 
 tion, which is developed to a far greater extent in man 
 than in animals. But it cannot well be disputed that this 
 peculiar element, which has only been brought to light by 
 Natural History, can unfold its entire and most im.portant 
 efficacy fully and unobstructedly only when the union of 
 the sexes is really the consequence of a perfectly free 
 choice and of a full mutual agreement with mutual liking- 
 and internal satisfaction. In contrast to this our present 
 conventional and constrained marriage, as is wellknown , 
 only too frequently presents, mutual discords and incu- 
 rable dissatisfaction of the most repulsive character which 
 is most injurious to the progress of the race. Even the 
 emancipation of woman that we have urged and her freer 
 and more independent position with regard to man will 
 constitute a necessary condition for a different form of 
 marriage in the future, and the free love-choice, which has 
 hitherto, contrary to all justice and reason, been allowed 
 only to the man, must in future form equally a right of 
 the maiden. The young woman having becom.e independ- 
 ent will no longer find it necessary to allow herself to bo 
 treated like m.erchandise in the market, or under a half- 
 compulsion to seize upon any miarriage that may be offered 
 to her merely to escape the m.elancholy state of spinster- 
 hood; but she will take the vows only when the future 
 life seems to promise to her or her advisers greater hap- 
 piness and greater satisfaction than the present one. The 
 number of unhappy marriages, prejudicial to the progress 
 of the race, which, unfortunately, is now so great will then 
 
 H
 
 2IO . WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 diminish, and that of the happy and beneficial ones will 
 increase. But where, in spite of this, a disappointment 
 may occur, the necessary facilitation of leg-al separation 
 will render impossible the repetition of those frightful 
 domestic dramas, which nowadays, to the shame of hu- 
 manity, are so often displayed before our courts of justice. 
 From the individual horrors which attain publicity, we 
 may judge of the many still greater horrors which are 
 borne silently and patiently in concealment, from dread 
 of public shame. Freedom, freewill and perfect recipro- 
 city form the vital air in which alone happy marriages 
 can thrive; and this leads of necessity to the removal of 
 all artificial obstacles which can be opposed either to the 
 conclusion of marriages, or to the dissolution of those in 
 Avhich a want of ag'reem.ent prevails. 
 
 Among the most foolish contrivances of political 
 Avisdom or political stupidity are the obstacles which in 
 many states are still opposed to marriag'es in the lower 
 classes, especially the labouring" classes, in fear of over- 
 population or the increase of poverty, even leaving quite 
 out of consideration the fact that it implies the greatest 
 and hardest of all injustices to render the unmerited 
 poverty of the individual still harder and more sensible 
 by seeking to shut him off compulsorily from the most 
 natural of human impulses, that of the propagation of his 
 kind. By the increase of its number a people becomes 
 not poorer but richer, especially where improved social 
 -arrangements make it possible for every one to lead an 
 existence worthy of humanity; and every new born hu- 
 man-being is a capital which benefits the whole by aug- 
 mentation of the power both of work and of consumption. 
 The less populated a district is, the poorer is it also and 
 the more miserable is the condition of its inhabitants; 
 whilst, on the contrary, in the European civilized coun- 
 tries the general deg'ree of prosperity has everywhere 
 risen with a corresponding increase of the population. 
 For there can be no doubt that by the increase of cul-
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 211 
 
 tivation and its innumerable aids, by increased division of 
 labour and so forth , the general capability of subsistence 
 increases in a much higher degree than the number of 
 people; and although it must be admitted that under nor- 
 mal conditions a certain limit to the number of the popu- 
 lation cannot be overstepped, we are still very far from 
 the attainment of this limit. Great famines occur most 
 readily in thinly peopled regions, or in such as have been 
 depopulated by war, pestilence, &c.; whilst the excess of 
 means of nourishment is nowhere greater than in the 
 enormous capitals of European states, in which millions 
 of men live together upon one spot. When the Spaniards 
 conquered America they found that its population was 
 decimated by frequent famines; at the present day Ame- 
 rica furnishes abundant nourishment for a far greater 
 number of inhabitants, and still possesses space and food 
 enough for untold millions! 
 
 MORALS. 
 
 The only correct and tenable moral principle depends 
 upon the relation of reciprocity. There is therefore no 
 better guide to moral conduct than the old and well-known 
 proverb: "What you would not have done to you, that to 
 others never do." If we complete this proverb with the 
 addition: "Do to others as you would they should do to 
 you", and we have the entire code of virtue and morals in 
 hand, and indeed in a better and simpler form than could 
 be furnished us by the thickest manuals of ethics, or the 
 quintessence of all the religious systems in the world*. 
 
 All other moral instructions whether derived from the 
 
 * The autliov seems here to forget that his pioveih is the (luiiit- 
 essence of at least one religious system as laid down by its ]-"ounder 
 for the guidance of his followers in their relations to other men. 
 
 14*
 
 212 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 conscience, from religion, or from philosophy, are per- 
 fectly superfluous in the presence of these simple and 
 practical rules. Of course these rules must become more 
 and more efficacious the higher the condition of recipro- 
 city is developed by the greater advance of the social state, 
 and the more the individual, by intelligence and culture, is 
 rendered capable of comprehending the objects of society 
 and his personal relation thereto, and of arranging his con- 
 duct accordingly. It is therefore a generally recognized 
 fact, and moreover sufficiently proved by history, that 
 the idea of morality in the general as in particular be- 
 comes further and more strongly developed in proportion 
 as culture, intelligence and knowledge of the necessary 
 laws of the commonweal increase, and that, in accordance, 
 with this, greater public order has always gone hand in 
 hand with alleviation of the criminal laws. 
 
 As an individual, or as primitive man, man is entirel}" 
 unacquainted with morals, and blindly follows the impulses 
 of the passions, the hvmger; the cruelty etc. which he has 
 in common with the animals. His moral properties are 
 only developed by living together with others in a societ}' 
 regulated by certain principles of reciprocity, and by the 
 knowledge of the laws which are necessary for the ex- 
 istence of such a community. The innate conscience or 
 law of morals which so many regard as the true deter- 
 mining principle in the actions of men, is nothing more 
 than a great superstition, an "Infant-school morality", as 
 the philosopher Schopenhauer so significantly expresses 
 it. For the conscience is formed and developed only with 
 the progressive knowledge of the duties which the in- 
 dividual has to fulfil , or thinks he must fulfil towards 
 imaginary supernatural powers (such as Gods, Heroes etc.), 
 towards his fellow-men, towards society, the state and so 
 forth. This belief, however, is entirely dependent on the 
 grade of general culture or knowledge at which a people 
 or an individual may be at any given time, and is there- 
 fore variable according to time, place, and circumstances.
 
 A\HERE ARF, \VK GOING .-' 213 
 
 jNtoses, the greatest teacher and leader of the Jewish people, 
 felt no sting's of conscience ivhen he allowed three thou- 
 .sand of his people to be cut to pieces as a propitiatory 
 offering to the Lord, but only feared that they would not 
 be sufficient, whilst nowadays such a proceeding would 
 be regarded as inexpressibly horrible and brutal; and the 
 honoured David, the darling of all theologians, when he 
 conquered the city of Rabbah (2. Sam. XII 31) "brought 
 forth the people that were therein, and put them under 
 saws, and under harrows of iron, and under axes of iron, 
 and made them pass through the brick-kiln: and thus did 
 he unto all the cities of the children of Ammon'" — (cited 
 in Radenhausen, Isis, Band II p. 34). The Phoenicians, 
 Carthaginians , Persians etc. although belonging- to the 
 nvilizcd nations of antiquity were not deterred by their 
 conscience from burning their own children alive or bury- 
 ing living- innocent men; and the Inquisitors of the Middle 
 ages and their associates of earlier and later times believed 
 that they were ohly fulfilling their duty in burningf about 
 nine millions of people as witches and magicians in the 
 course of eleven centuries, and making so many other in- 
 nocent people suffer under the most horrible tortures. 
 When the Roman emperors visited the newh' formed 
 Christian communities with the bloodiest persecutions they 
 believed that they were doing- good and that their con- 
 sciences were clear, just as much as the later Christians 
 themselves when, after their doctrine had become victorious, 
 they revisited all these persecutions and outrages in the 
 most ample measure upon those who thought differently 
 from themselves. The murderous w^ars of modern times 
 also, arising frequently from the most inconsiderable causes, 
 are generally waged by people who feel not the smallest 
 scruple as to the terrible death and i-nisery of so many 
 thousands caused by them, and, who win by them fame 
 honour and consideration, whilst in a future and happier 
 time such proceeding's will probably be regarded as the 
 Q-ravest moral crimes.
 
 214 WHERE ARE "WE GOING? 
 
 Conscience is therefore nothing established and innate, 
 but rather something variable and acquired, or an expres- 
 sion of human knowledge which advances Avith knowledge 
 itself. This advancing knowledge has caused the re- 
 cognition of many things as innocent or permissible which 
 formerly passed as grave sins, and on the other hand has 
 converted many things into sins or crimes which formerly 
 were not so regarded; and hence also as is well known 
 the ideas of good and evil present the greatest and most 
 striking differences, nay even complete contradictions, at 
 different times and among different peoples, all of which 
 Avould be entirely impossible if the innate conscience of 
 man were conferred upon him as an internal prescription 
 binding him for all times. Conscience is also quite inde- 
 pendent of the belief in God and of religious concep- 
 tions in general; it changes little, if at all, in accordance 
 with particular creeds, but merely accommodates itself to 
 the knowledge or degree of culture of each individual. 
 Hence also all apprehension that conscience may be lost 
 Avith some determinate form of faith is entirely unfounded; 
 on the contrary it must become sharpened and refined the 
 more the general conscience of mankind is elevated by 
 the advance of culture, and the more independent mankind 
 becomes in thought and being of all merely external rules 
 and dogmas. Indeed the men of the present day althoug^h 
 their attachment to definite rules of faith is far inferior to 
 that of the men of former times, are in g'eneral much less 
 inclined than formerly to crimes and acts of violence! — 
 and tolerance, pity, sense of the public good, respect for 
 law, philanthropy etc. have increased in the same propor- 
 tion with knowledge, culture and prosperity! Next to 
 cuUiLre, happiness and prosperity are the main sources of 
 morality and virtue. Man must be happy in his general 
 condition if he is to be virtuous, and all sins and crimes 
 go hand in hand with starvation, misery, disease or idle- 
 ness. If we add to this that moral qualities or tenden- 
 cies are heritable, just as much as corporeal and intellectual
 
 WHERE ARE AVE GOING? 215". 
 
 tendencies in general, it must become clear that the whole 
 moral progress of mankind is founded upon its constant 
 social and intellectual change and advance, and that sin 
 and crime will disappear from the Avorld as soon as the 
 springs of ignorance, want of culture and material misery, 
 Avhich still flow so abundantly, shall be stopped. 
 
 Morality may therefore be defined as the law of mu- 
 tual respect for the general and private equal rights of 
 man , for the purpose of securing general human hap- 
 piness. Ever}^ thing that injures or undermines this hap- 
 piness and this respect is evil, — every thing that advances 
 them is good. In accordance with this definition evil con- 
 sists only in degeneracy or the encroachment of human 
 and private egotism upon this general happiness and the 
 interests of the fellow man. What is beneficial to the 
 community or to the fellow man is in general good; and 
 the notion of g'ood onl}^ becomes converted into its op- 
 posite by the individual improperly placing the notion of 
 that which is beneficial or advantageous to himself above 
 the notion of that which is beneficial to the community 
 or to another person of equal rights with himself. The 
 greatest sinners therefore are egotists, or those who place 
 their own / higher than the interests and hiws of the 
 commonweal , and endeavour to satisfy it at the cost 
 and to the injury of those possessing equal rights. T\\\< 
 egotism in itself is indeed not objectionable, and really 
 forms the final and highest spring of all our actions whether 
 bad or good ((04). Moreover we shall never be able to 
 get rid of the egotism of human nature, and therefore all 
 that we have to do is to turn it into the right paths or to 
 render it rational and humane, by seeking to bring its satis- 
 faction into accordance with the good of all and the inter- 
 est of the community. And for this purpose there can 
 be no better means than the reform of human society in 
 the interest of the commonweal proposed by us. For as 
 soon as, by a proper organization of society, thing^s have 
 been brought to such a pass that the satisfaction of the.
 
 2l6 WHERE ARE AVE GOING? 
 
 personal / iit the same time satisfies the interests of the 
 community, and that vice versa the satisfaction of the ge- 
 neral interests at the same time implies the satisfaction of 
 the personal /, every conflict arising from egotistical mo- 
 tives between the interests of the individual and those of 
 the Society or the State Avill cease, and the principal cause 
 of crime and sin will be removed. The individual will 
 then, much more easily than at present, be able to strive 
 after personal happiness and agreeable sensations, or to 
 satisfy his personal /, without injury to the interests of 
 human society; he will onl}' advance his own well-being 
 when he furthers that of the community, and will advance 
 the well-being of the community in advancing his own. 
 
 In this accordance of the interests of the individual 
 W'ith the interests of the communit3^or of all others there- 
 fore, lies the whole, great moral principle of the future. 
 Let this accordance be once established and we have mo- 
 rality, virtue and noble sentiments in profusion. If not, 
 these will be deficient in proportion as society falls short 
 of this goal, and no external or internal means, no re- 
 ligion, no moral preachers, no criminal laws will be able 
 by any means permanentl)^ to make up for this deficiency. 
 Public conscience is at the same time flic conscience of the 
 individual; this public conscience can only be the con- 
 sequence of rational political and social conditions and of 
 an education and culture of all, founded on the principles 
 of universal philanthrop}-. It is in youth with its capa- 
 bilit}' of education and culture and its ready accessibilit}- 
 to all external and internal impressions that the foundation 
 for the culture of this conscience and therefore of all mo- 
 rality must be laid; and it must be the highest task of 
 public and general education to waken and strengthen in 
 the young those impulses and talents which are good, 
 and beneficial to human societ}-, and to weaken and sup- 
 press the bad and injurious ones. In this wa}- a perfectly 
 new^ race with a different moral organization will gra- 
 dually be produced; and crime, sin, vice and the like will
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING.-' 21"] 
 
 disappear in proportion as the soil shall become smaller 
 upon which alone they can thrive! 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 The less man knows of history, of nature, of 
 philosophy and so forth, the more, when he has once 
 begun to meditate upon himself and the phenomena sur- 
 rounding him, does he feel induced to believe in unknown 
 supernatural and superhuman influences, and to ascribe to 
 them every thing that appears to him mysterious in the 
 life of nature and of man. Hence the more religious a 
 man is, the less does he feel in himself the necessity for 
 culture and knowledg'e; and the ancient Hebrews there- 
 fore could not develope among them arts and sciences in 
 the same way as the more free-thinking Greeks, because 
 with them their God Jehovah supplied every thing. Na- 
 tions commenced with the crudest superstitions springing 
 from a deficiency or entire absence of knowledge of the 
 laws of nature, and have risen gradually and slowl}- from 
 this to that knowledge which is destined hereafter to re- 
 place and render unnecessary every kind of religion. 
 Those who see in such an abolition of religion, or in a 
 replacement of faith by knowledge, danger to morality and 
 virtue and consequently to the state and to society, must 
 be taught that morals and religion, or faith and virtue 
 have originally and in principle nothing to do with each 
 other, and have probably been comming'led only in the 
 course of history and for reasons of external expediency. 
 For the higher we ascend in the histor}- of religion , the 
 more do w^e find that the moral law and the priesthood 
 watching over its maintenance disappear from the scene, 
 whilst their place is taken by dogma and external worship, 
 or ceremonies in honour of the Deity.
 
 2l8 AVHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 The most recent investigations of Renan, Bournouf 
 and others place it beyond a doubt that among the Aryan 
 nations morahty never was an integral or necessary in- 
 gredient in religion, but that in their ancient relig'ions 
 only two elements are to be met with, namely the idea of 
 God and the ritual. This is also the case with the pi'icst- 
 Jiood among the Aryans, whose original religious tendency 
 Avas a decided pantheism; whilst in opposition to this the 
 religious tendency of the Semites (from which Christianity 
 has proceeded) was uionotlieisvi, and w^as under the charge 
 of a powerful priesthood. In the whole Sanscrit language, 
 the classical primitive language of the Aryan race of men, 
 there is no single word which signifies "to create" in the 
 sense of the Semitic or Christian dogma. JMoreover, as 
 Goethe has already shown, the celebrated Mosaic moral 
 precepts, the socalled ten Commandments, were not upon 
 the tables upon which Moses wrote the laws of the cove- 
 nant which God m.ade with his people. 
 
 Even the extraordinary diversity of the many religions 
 diffused over the surface of the earth suffices to show that 
 they can stand in no necessary connexion with morals, as 
 it is Avell-known that wherever tolerably well-ordered po- 
 litical and social conditions exist, the moral precepts in 
 their essential principles are the same, whilst when such 
 conditions are wanting a wild and irregular confusion or 
 even an entire deficiency of moral notions is met with.* 
 History also shows incontrovertibly that religion and 
 morality have by no means gone hand in hand in strength 
 and development, but that even contrariwise the most re- 
 ligious times and countries have produced the greatest 
 number of crimes and sins against the laws of morality, 
 and indeed, as daily experience teaches, still produce 
 
 * In China whevc people aic, as is Avcll-known , vciy indilTcrcnt or 
 tolerant in religions matters, this fine proverb is current: — "Religions 
 are various, but reason is one, and we are all brothers." —
 
 AVHERE ARE WE GOING? 21 9 
 
 them. The history of nearly all religions is filled with 
 such horrible abominations, massacres, and boundless 
 wickednesses of every kind that at the mere recollection 
 of them the heart of a philanthropist seems to stand still, 
 and we turn with disgust and horror from a mental aber- 
 ration which could produce such deeds. If it is urged in 
 vindication of religion that it has advanced and elevated 
 human civilization, even this merit appears very doubtful 
 in presence of the facts of history, and at least as ver)^ 
 rarely or isolatedly the case. In general, however, it 
 cannot be denied that most sj^stems of religion have 
 proved rather inimical than friendly to civilization. For 
 religion, as already stated, tolerates no doubt, no dis- 
 cussion, no contradiction, no investigations, those eternal 
 pioneers of the future [of science and intellect! Even the 
 simple circumstance that our present state of culture has 
 already long since left far behind it all and even the 
 highest intellectual ideals established and elaborated by 
 former religions may show how little intellectual progress 
 is influenced by religion. Mankind is perpetually being 
 thrown to and fro between science and religion, but it 
 advances more intellectually, morally and physically in 
 proportion as it turns away from religion and to science. 
 
 It is therefore clear that for our present age and for 
 the future a foundation must be sought and found for 
 culture and miorality, different from that which can be 
 furnished to us by religion. It is not the fear of God 
 that acts amelioratingly or ennoblingly upon manners, 
 of which the middle ages furnish us with a striking' 
 proof; but the ennobling- of the conception of the world 
 in general which goes hand in hand with the advance 
 of civilization. Let us then give up making" a show 
 of the profession of hypocritical words of faith, the 
 only purpose of Avhich seems to be that they may be con- 
 tinually shown to be lies by the actions and deeds of their 
 professors! The man of the future will feel far more happy 
 and contented when he has not to contend at every step of
 
 220 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 his intellectual forward development with those tormenting- 
 contradictions between knowledge and faith which plague 
 his youth, and occupy his mature age unnecessarily with 
 the slow renunciation of the notions which he imbibed in 
 his youth. What we sacrifice to God, we take away from 
 mankind, and absorb a great part of his best intellectual 
 powers in the pursuit of an unattainable goal. At an}- 
 rate, the least that we can expect in this respect trom the 
 state and society of the future is a complete separation 
 between ecclesiastical and worldly affairs, or an absolute 
 emancipation of the State and the school from every ec- 
 clesiastical influence. Education must be founded upon 
 knowledge, not upon fnifJi; and religion itself should be 
 taught in the public schools, only as religious history and 
 as an objective or scientific exposition of the different re- 
 ligious systems prevailing among" mankind. Any one who, 
 after such an education, still experiences the need of a de- 
 finite law or rule of faith may then attach himself to any 
 religious sect that may seem good to him, but cannot 
 claim that the community should bear the cost of this 
 special fancy! 
 
 As regards Christianity, or the Pauliiiisiii (105) which 
 is falsely called Christianit}*, it stands, by its dogmatic 
 portion or contents in such striking and irreconcilable, 
 nay absolutely absurd contradiction with all the acquisi- 
 tions and principles of modern science that its future 
 tragical fate can only be a question of time. But even 
 its ethical contents or its moral principles are in no way 
 essentially distinguished above those of other peoples, and 
 were equally w'ell and in part better known to mankind 
 even before its appearance. Not onl}' in this respect, but 
 also in its supposed character as the world-religion (106) 
 it is excelled by the much older and probably most widely 
 diffused religious system in the world , the celebrated 
 Jhiddliism, which recognizes neither the idea of a personal 
 God, nor that of a personal duration, and nevertheless 
 teaches an extremely pure, amiable and even ascetic mo-
 
 AVHERE ARE AVE GOING? 221 
 
 rality. The doctrine of Zoroaster or Zarathrustra also, 
 1800 years B. C, taught the principles of humanity and 
 toleration for those of different modes of thinking" in a 
 manner and purity which were unknown to the Semitic 
 religions and especially to Christianity. Christianity ori- 
 ginated and spread as is well-known at a time of general 
 decline of manners, and of very great moral and national 
 corruption; and its extraordinary success must be partly 
 explained by the prevalence of a sort of intellectual and 
 m.oral disease which, had overpow^ered the spirits of men 
 after the fall of the ancient civilization and under the 
 demoralising influence of the gradual collapse of the g'reat 
 Roman empire. But even at that tim.e those who stood 
 intellectually high and looked deeply into things recognized 
 the whole danger of this new turn of mind, and it is very 
 rem.arkable that the bestandmost benevolent of the Roman 
 emperors, such as Marcus Aurelius, Julian etc. were the 
 most zealous persecutors of Christianity, whilst it was 
 tolerated by the bad ones, such as Commodus, Helio- 
 gabalus etc. (107). When it had gradually attained the 
 superiority, one of its first sins against intellectual pro- 
 gress consisted in the destruction by Christian fanaticism 
 of the celebrated Library of Alexandria which contained 
 all the intellectual treasures of antiquity, — an incalculable 
 loss to science, which can never be replaced. It is usually 
 asserted in praise of Christianity that in the middle ages 
 the Christian monasteries were the preservers of science 
 and literature, but even this is correct only in a very 
 limited sense, since boundless ignorance and rudeness ge- 
 nerally prevailed in the monasteries and innumerable ec- 
 clesiastics could not even read. Valuable literary treasures 
 on parchment contained in the libraries of the monasteries 
 were destroyed, the m.onks when they wanted money sel- 
 ling the books as parchment, or tearing out the leaves 
 and writing psalms upon them. Frequently they entirely 
 effaced the ancient classics, to make room for their foolish 
 legends and homilies; nay the reading of the classics.
 
 222 WHERE ARE WE GOING.'' 
 
 such as Aristotle for example, was directly forbidden 
 by papal decrees. 
 
 In New Spain christian fanaticism immediately destroyed 
 whatever of arts and civilization existed among the natives, 
 and that this was not inconsiderable is shown by the nu- 
 merous monuments now in ruins which place beyond a 
 doubt the former existence of a tolerably high degree of 
 culture. But in the place of this not a trace of Christian 
 civilization is now to be observed among the existing In- 
 dians, and the resident catholic clergy keep the Indians 
 purposely in a state of the greatest ignorance and stu- 
 pidity (see Richthofen, Die Zustande der Republic Mexico. 
 Berlin, 1854). 
 
 Thus Christianity has always acted consistently in 
 accordance with the principles of one of the fathers of 
 the Church, Tertullian, who says: "Desire of knowledge 
 is no longer necessary since Jesus Christ, nor is investiga- 
 tion necessary since the Gospel". If the civilization of the 
 European and especially of Christian Nations has not- 
 withstanding made such enormous progress in the course 
 of centuries , an unprejudiced consideration of history can 
 only tell us that this has taken place not by means of 
 Christianity, but in spite of it. And this is a sufficient 
 indication to what an extent this civilization must still 
 be capable of development when once it shall be com- 
 pletely freed from the narrow bounds of old superstitious 
 and religious embarrassments ! 
 
 PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Just as the religions of the past have become out of 
 date in our time, so also in no less degree has the true or 
 speculative philosophy, which has unfortunately, especially
 
 WHERE ARE AVE GOING 223 
 
 in Germany, so long exerted an injurious influence upon 
 the minds of men, and one prejudicial to the true, free 
 spirit of inquiry. Its play Avith half-clear, obscure or per- 
 fectly meaningless words or phrases has gradually caused it 
 to be detested by the educated* and the belief in its formulas 
 and predictions has disappeared in the same measure that 
 the spirit of inquiry has become clearer, more thirsty for 
 knowledge and more candid. We are now no longer in- 
 clined to take appearance for being, words for acts, or 
 imagination for reality; and have perceived that it is only 
 in scientific observation and in facts that we can seek and 
 find a firm footing for philosophical* theories. '^The empty 
 twaddle of Seiii and Nichts'' asB. Suhle (A. Schopenhauer 
 and the Philosophy of the present day) admirably desig- 
 nates that socalled dialectic method of the philosophers 
 by profession which was dominant in the first half of the 
 present century, and attained its clim.ax in the great Hegel, 
 that "Deluge of words poured over a desert of ideas" as 
 Helvetius so suitably described the results of the scholastic 
 philosophy of the middle ages which is still far from, being 
 extinct, no longer imposes upon us; we have looked be- 
 hind the veil of the mystery and found nothing there ex- 
 cept the effete skeleton of philosophical emptiness of spirit 
 and thought, clothed with the motley rags of a f)hilo- 
 sophical termiinology or mode of expression. There is not 
 now and never was or will be a possibility of enlarging' 
 human knowledge beyond experience, or human philosophy 
 beyond the conclusions drawn from experience. 
 
 The lofty intellectual flights of the professors of Phi- 
 losophy, which have hitherto been universally esteemed 
 
 * Since the times of Scholasticism , nay properly speaking since the 
 times of Plato and Aristotle, philosophy has been for the most part as 
 Schopenhauer admirably expresses it a continual misapplication of general 
 ideas carried too far, such as "substance", "basis'", ''cause", "the good", 
 "being", ''becoming" etc. etc., and has thus gradually sunk into a mere 
 affair of words.
 
 224 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 as the highest, are therefore simply absurd, and the air 
 of superiority of the philosophical metaphysicians reminds 
 one of the proverb: "From the sublime to the ridiculous 
 there is but a step". (Suhle). All deductions from the 
 transcendental, or from what flies beyond observation are 
 illogical; there is no such thing as the socalled transcen- 
 dental science nor are there any causeless causes; hence 
 the seirch of the philosophers after a iiist or supreme 
 cause is entirely futile. Causal connexion or the relation 
 of cause and effect has neither beginning nor end. The 
 necessary consequence of a First cause is the irrational 
 assumption, equally contradictory to logic and observation, 
 that the history of existence must consist of hvo different 
 or separated parts, the first of which would be change 
 ivifhoiit causality and the second change with causalit}'. 
 Every thing in the world is necessarily and normally con- 
 nected, an opinion the stability of which, how^ever, we are 
 in a position to demonstrate directly only in a number of 
 cases in the actual world. Hence our knowledge is frag"- 
 mentary and not only capable of but actually calling for 
 improvement and completion ; whilst the philosophical error 
 seeks to parade before us "unlimited knowledge". We 
 must therefore endeavour to form convictions which are 
 not to stand once and for all, as philosophers and theo- 
 logians usually do, but such as may change and become im- 
 proved with the advance of knowledge. Whoever does not 
 recognize this and gives himself up once for all to a belief 
 which he regards as final truth, whether it be of a tJico- 
 logical or philosophical kind, is of course incapable of ac- 
 cepting a conviction supported upon scientific grounds. 
 Unfortunately our whole education is founded upon an 
 early systematic curbing and fettering of the intellect in 
 the direction of dogmatic (philosophical or theological) 
 doctrines of faith, and only a comparatively small number 
 of strong minds succeed in after years in freeing them- 
 selves by their own powers from these fetters, whilst the 
 majority rem.ain captive in the accustomed bonds and form
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING i 22^ 
 
 their judgment in accordance with the celebrated say- 
 ing of Bishop Berkeley : " Few men think ; but all 
 will have opinions!". Hence the numerous distorted 
 or condemnatory opinions expressed as to recent ad- 
 vances in science, although the latter may be as clear 
 as the sun and as indisputable as truth itself! Great 
 philosophers have called deafk the fundamental cause of 
 all philosophy. If this be correct, the empirical or experi- 
 mental philosophy of the present day has solved the greatest 
 of philosophical enigmas and shown (both logically and 
 empirically) that there is no death, and that the great 
 mystery of existence consists in perpetual and uninter- 
 rupted change. Every thing is immortal and indestruc- 
 tible, — the smallest worm as well as the most enorm- 
 ous of the celestial bodies, — the sandgrain or the water- 
 drop as well as the highest being in creation : man 
 and his thoughts. Only the forms in which being mani- 
 fests itself are changing ; but Being itself remains eternally 
 the same and imperishable. When we die we do not lose 
 ourselves, but only our personal consciousness or the ca- 
 sual form which our being, in itself eternal and imperish- 
 able, had assumed for a short time; we live on in nature, 
 in our race, in our children, in our descendants, in our 
 deeds, in our thoughts, — in short in the entire material 
 and psychical contribution which, during our short per- 
 sonal existence, we have furnished to the subsistence of 
 mankind and of nature in general. "Humanity", says 
 Radenhausen (Isis, Band III. p. i2i), "persists and flows on 
 although the individual disappears after a short course of 
 life; but neither his life, nor that of the waterdrop is lost. 
 For just as the latter could not complete its circulation 
 without dissolving or superinducing the combinations of 
 other matters, so every man leaves the traces of his exis- 
 tence behind him in what he separated or brought into 
 new combinations , in the contribution to the culture 
 treasure of humanity, which is furnished by every human 
 life, from the least to the greatest."
 
 226 • "WHERE ARE AVE GOING? 
 
 Where are the dead? asks Schopenhauer; and he 
 answers: They are with us! In spite of death and cor- 
 ruption we are still all together! 
 
 Drum streitet, Thoren, ferner nicht, 
 Ob Ihr im Geist unsterblich seid! 
 Denn keines Todes Macht zerbricht 
 Der Dinge Unverganglichkeit, 
 Die Alles was da ist und lebt, 
 In einem ew'gen Kreise fiihrt 
 Und, wo sie zur Vernichtung strebt, 
 Die P'lammen neuen Lebens schiirt! 
 Unsterblich ist der kleinste Wurm, 
 Unsterblich auch des Menschen Geist, 
 Den jeder neue Todessturm 
 In immer neue Bahnen reisst! 
 So lebet Ihr, gestorben auch, 
 In kiinftigen Geschlechtern fort, 
 Und dieser ewige Gebrauch 
 Verwechselt nichts als Zeit und Ort! 
 
 Just as no single atom or smallest conceivable par- 
 ticle of matter can disappear or be destroyed in the life 
 of nature in general, so not the smallest deed or most 
 insignificant thought of a man can perish or be lost in 
 the general life of mankind. For both propagate them- 
 selves in unending sequence , by virtue of the impulse 
 given by them, just as the oscillations of the surface of a 
 piece of water produced by a falling stone vibrate onwards 
 in constantly larger and weaker circles. And although 
 this movement itself must by degrees be lost or come to 
 rest just like these oscillations, it has in the meanwhile 
 set free a certain number of other (physical or intellectual) 
 movements, which on their part renew and continue the 
 same action. Thus the life of the individual is at the 
 same time the life of humanity, and the life of huma- 
 nity that of the individual ! Whoever cannot or will 
 not allow this great truth to suffice for him, whoever 
 is unable to find in it a sufficient impulse to virtue
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 227 
 
 and honesty, will also be incapable of being kept per- 
 manently in the right path by any external force or 
 agency. Neither philosophical nor religious creeds are 
 capable of furnishing even distantly an equivalent for it, 
 or of replacing by means of their mixed egotistical and 
 imaginary motives that firm moral position which the 
 individual must attain by the recognition of the impe- 
 rishableness of his being in connexion with humanity at 
 large. 
 
 MATERIALISM AND IDEALISM. 
 
 Materialism and idealism are usually regarded as ab- 
 solute opposites. Materialism is represented as a miser- 
 able, comfortless, hopeless, sad aad empty theory, only 
 fit for hypochondriacs, misanthropes or pure rationalists; 
 whilst in opposition to this the so-called idealism professes 
 to satisfy the higher intellectual and spiritual necessities 
 of man and to raise him, by a higher conception of the 
 world and of life, above the deficiencies and nothing- 
 nesses of this earthly life. In truth, however, this is so 
 incorrect that the Materialism of Science may rather with 
 perfect justice be described as the highest idealism of 
 life. For (and the author has already elsewhere discussed 
 this more in detail) the more we free ourselves from all 
 delusive imaginations of a world above us and outside of 
 us, or of a so-called Future, the more do we find ourselves 
 naturally directed with all our forces and endeavours to 
 the present or to the world in which we are living, and 
 feel the necessity of arranging this world and our life 
 as beautifully and advantageously as possible both for the 
 individual and for the whole. It is clear that thus a per- 
 
 15*
 
 228 WHERE ARE WE GOING i* 
 
 fectly immeasurable field of exertion and action is opened 
 up for the idealism or the idealistic striving of human 
 nature, — a field, it is true, which no longer lies beyond the 
 stars, but under our feet, and sets reality in place of ima- 
 gination. There are consequently no more zealous pioneers 
 of progress, no greater friends of freedom and no more 
 spirited defenders of the general equality of mankind in 
 rights and happiness than the materialists and freethinkers. 
 Their faith (for even the materialists have a faith) is 
 that man is better than he seems, that he can do more 
 than he thinks, and that he deserves to be happier than 
 he is. Heaven and hell, those primaeval bugbears of spi- 
 ritual despotism, exist also for the materialist ; but he seeks 
 and finds them, not, as of old, outside of man, but within 
 him, and shows that it depends solely upon man himself 
 and his conduct, whether he shall have a heaven or a hell 
 upon earth! . 
 
 This striving for human perfection, or for earthly im- 
 provement and felicity has given raise to the further objec- 
 tion to materialism, that its sole object is sensual satisfaction 
 and enjoyment, and that therefore, in the satisfaction of the 
 mere animal impulses, it neglects the hig-her spiritual needs 
 of man, the interests of his soul. This objection rests 
 upon so absurd and evident a confusion of scientific or 
 theoretical materialism, with practical materialism or the 
 materialism of life, that it scarcely deserves serious refuta- 
 tion. The materialism of science and the materialisnji of 
 life are things which differ toto coelo, and which can be 
 confounded with each other only by malevolence or in- 
 competency. Whoever sacrifices his life to investigation, 
 his personal interest to the truth, and the force of his ac- 
 tivity to the improvement of the lot of humanity, has no 
 leisure to run after sensual enjoyments, and is in reality 
 a far greater idealist than those who find in their idealism 
 a mean of obtaining great offices, fat livings, rich salaries 
 or brilliant distinctions. But even should materialism, when 
 more widely diffused among mankind, contribute (except
 
 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 22g 
 
 among its scientific supporters) to strengthen the striv- 
 ing after the enjoyments of this world which indeed 
 is already sufficiently strong, this could only be greeted 
 with satisfaction in the interests of progress, — always 
 supposing that the kind of enjoyment was such, in the 
 sense of the scientifico-materialistic conception of the 
 universe, as did not merely satisfy the gross and animal 
 impulses, but at the same time acted ennoblingly upon 
 the body and mind. By this means we should again 
 approach that cheerful and joyous conception of the 
 Universe which was held by classical antiquity, from 
 which we have been unfortunately carried far away 
 by monkery and ecclesiastical greed of power; and 
 those innumerable and immense aids to civilization, which 
 we have and the ancients did not possess, would in- 
 calculably facilitate, increase and ennoble our enjoy- 
 ments. 
 
 All this shows that materialism and idealism are not, 
 as so many suppose, born ennemies, but that at the bottom 
 they are only different expressions for one and the same 
 thing. In theory materialism far exceeds the old idealistic 
 philosophy in ideal value, inasmuch as it does not, like 
 the latter, assume a multitude of observational facts as 
 inexpHcable and therefore deduce them from supernatural 
 or innate causes [e. g. the mind), but it goes to the bottom 
 of things and seeks to embrace their most intimate and 
 final connexion. In practice it exceeds all other systems 
 and conceptions of the universe by setting the ideal 
 world within us in place of the ideal world without 
 us, and endeavours to guide it towards realization. No 
 other philosophy has ever stood like this in the closest 
 connexion with life itself; and the best touchstone of 
 its value and correctness will be found in the influence 
 which it has already exerted and will yet exert 
 upon life and its forms. Just as its theory is simple, 
 unitary, clear and definite, so also is its practical ten- 
 dency; and its whole programme with regard to the
 
 230 WHERE ARE WE GOING? 
 
 future of man and of the human race may be expressed 
 in six words, which contain all that can be theoretically 
 or practically required for this future, namely: 
 
 FREEDOM, CULTURE AND PROSPERITY FOR ALL.
 
 APPENDIX.
 
 'NOTES, EXPLANATIONS AND ADDITIONS. 
 
 1. (p. s) . .. 0/ the so'called Copernican system of the Universe. 
 In the year 1543 Nicolans Copernicus published his celebrated 
 book on the paths of the heavenly bodies, which effected a com- 
 plete revolution not only in astronomy, but also in the whole con- 
 ception of the Universe of that day. In gratitude for this he 
 was regarded as a fool by his contemporaries ! Even the great 
 reformer Dr. Martin Luther, who, however, like his opponents, 
 was a theologian, was so unable to comprehend the new discovery 
 that he came forward as a bitter opponent of Copernicus , and ex- 
 presses himself with regard to him as follows in his "Table-Talk": 
 "The fool wishes to upset the whole art of Astronomy. But 
 as Holy Scripture shows, Joshua commanded the sun and not the 
 earth to stand still." Might not our zealots against modern 
 science take an example from this? 
 
 2. (p. 15). ... a prehuman geological period. Formerly it was 
 supposed that the past of our earth was clearly separated from its 
 present, and it was imagined that the earth and its course of for- 
 mation had now entered upon a period of rest or of exhaustion, 
 or complete equilibrium of forces, whilst previously great revolu- 
 tions and catastrophes, terrible changes with periodical destruc- 
 tions of all organized being had taken place These two periods 
 of the past and present were then thought to be separated by a 
 great waterflood or "Deluge", which occurred not long before the 
 commencement of historical chronology and destroyed all the then
 
 234 APPENDIX. 
 
 existing organic creation, and this at once. The expression "primi- 
 tive world" {Vorwell) or "antediluvian" {Vorweltlich) is therefore 
 synonymous with the expression "Anterior to the sin-flood" (vor- 
 siindjluthlich), which is still so frequently employed. But it may 
 be remarked in passing that the word "sin-flood" [Silndjluth) is of 
 quite incorrect formation and leads to the false belief that this 
 flood was intended to destroy "sinful" men. But the word really 
 lying at the root of the word '^ Sundjluth" is the old German "5w" 
 or "stnf, which signifies great, mighty or of long duration, and 
 therefore it expresses only the idea of a great or enormous deluge. 
 The only correct orthography is therefore "Sm(/^ufh". 
 
 This entire conception is geologically incorrect. It is indeed 
 probable that, especially at the cessation of the so-called "glacial 
 period" (a subdivision of the quaternary epoch), certain great 
 floods may have taken place, but no one such as could have pro- 
 duced a simultaneous submergence of the entire surface of the 
 earth. These floods, moreover, were not produced by a single, 
 rapid catastrophe, but by many processes following one upon 
 another, and in long periods of time. The powerful animals of 
 the period in question became extinct quite gradually and not all 
 at once, and there is consequently no decided division between the 
 pas/ and present, between the so-called antedthivia?i and postdiluvian 
 times. In fact we only know of gradual transitions in an uninter- 
 rupted chain of geological phenomena. Even at the present day 
 the same essential processes and forces are at work in the forma- 
 tion of the earth's surface, as in former times. Nevertheless there 
 does exist a great difi"erence between then and now, inasmuch as 
 at the diluvial period we meet with essentially changed conditions, 
 such as a different form of the surface of earth, a different and 
 higher course for the rivers, a different proportion of land and 
 water, a difference in the deposits formed and above all a totally 
 different fauna and flora, among which are especially to be noted 
 the characteristic diluvial animals already mentioned. 
 
 The Diluvium is followed immediately by the socalled Allti- 
 viiim, which consists of the deposits of the existing rivers on their 
 banks or at their openings into the sea. This period presupposes 
 essentially the same conditions of the surface of the earth that
 
 APPENDIX. 235 
 
 now exist, and especially a fauna and flora perfectly similar to 
 those now living. There is no clear boundary line between the 
 two periods, but they pass gradually into one another. We may 
 therefore still further employ the often used expression "antedilu- 
 vian" {voriveltlich or vorsiindfluthlich), taking it as synonymous 
 with the still more frequently employed denomination "fossil" or 
 "petrified", but we must at the same time carefully avoid con- 
 necting with it an erroneous idea belonging to former geological 
 theories. Taken in this sense therefore, as stated in the text, the 
 discovery of Aurignac gives evidence of the antediluvian [vorwelt- 
 Itche or vorsundfliiihliche) existence of man, who evidently lived at 
 that spot contemporaneously with the extinct animals of that period. 
 This result completely annihilates the notion , formerly univer- 
 sally regarded as correct, that man only made his appearance upon 
 the earth during the period of the alluvium. 
 
 However, nearly all the tribes of the earth have the tradition of 
 a great deluge (SiindJluthJ, which destroyed the greater number of 
 living creatures, only leaving a few from which all subsequent 
 races are descended; and from this circumstance it has been sup- 
 posed that the actual universality of this great deluge might be 
 deduced. The Catholic Church which was at first inclined to set 
 up the universality of the deluge as an article of faith, finally in 
 1686 decided in favour of the opposite view and left opinion upon 
 this point free, in consequence of a report from the French Bene- 
 dictine Mabillon. 
 
 3. (p. 18). . . . turned out to be those 0/ animals. The best known 
 case of this kind is the celebrated or notorious "Homo diluvii testis" 
 or Antediluvian Man of Professor Scheuchzer of Zurich. Professor 
 Scheuchzer in 1726 discovered in a celebrated fossiliferous de- 
 posit near Oeningen in Baden a completely fossilized skeleton 
 which he regarded as the remains of a child of four years old 
 (Andrias Scheuchzeri) , and which inspired a theologian of the 
 period with the celebrated verses: 
 
 "Betriibtes Beingeriist von einem armen Sunder, 
 Enveiche Herz und Sinn der neuen Bosheitskinder, &c." 
 
 Subsequently it proved to be tlic skeleton of a gigantic Sa- 
 lamander.
 
 236 APPENDIX. 
 
 Anothe very amusing affair of the same kind took place in 
 1616. Near Chaumont in the south of France the bones of a 
 Mammoth or antediluvian Elephant were dug out, and these were 
 immediately declared by a speculative doctor, named Mazurier, to 
 be tlie petrified remains of the celebrated Cimbrian King Teuto- 
 bochus Rex, who was taken prisoner by Marius in the great battle 
 of Aquae Sexiiae (Aix), in the year 102 B.C., and of whom tradi- 
 tion said that he was so large that he overlooked the standards of 
 the army and that he had jumped over six horses at once. 
 Mazurier exhibited the bones for money and obtained considerable 
 sums, until at last after the publication of several learned treatises 
 and after many learned discussions the fraud was brought to 
 light. This and similar discoveries may have aided in pro- 
 ducing the belief in the former existence of a race of human giants 
 which was once so widely spread. In the same way the remains 
 of a Hippopotamus dug up in Sicily were long regarded as the 
 bones of one of those heaven-storming giants which play so promi- 
 nent a part in the Greek Mythology. 
 
 4. (p. P«8). . . . Jiaiuralisl Cuvier. Cuvier who, by his celebrated 
 work, the ''Recherches sur les ossements fossiles" (1812), was the 
 first to introduce system and order into the previously very imper- 
 fect knowledge of the remains of a former world, and whose 
 immense knowledge certainly quite justified his undisputed claim 
 to the leadership in this field, has generally been supposed to have 
 declared the -existence of fossil or antediluvian man to be an im- 
 possibility. But in reality his authority has been and still is cited 
 quite erroneously on this point. For, far from expressing himself 
 in any such terms, Cuvier only says that no fossil or petrified men 
 •or apes have yet been found. Most certainly if Cuvier were living 
 at present he would have taken his stand with his wfeighty autho- 
 rity on the side opposed to his opinion of that time. 
 
 The affair is, however, so important that I cannot abstain 
 from giving here Cuvier's own words. In his great work 'Sur les. 
 Revolutions du Globe" (1825) he says expressly: "But I will not 
 conclude from this {i. e. from the fact that as yet no remains of 
 man or apes had been found), that man did not exist at all before 
 this epoch. He might inhabit some countries of small extent, from
 
 APPENDIX. 237 
 
 whence he repeopled the earth after these terrible occurrences; 
 perhaps also the places where he dwelt have been entirely sub- 
 merged and his bones buried at the bottom of the present seas, 
 with the exception of a small number of individuals who have con- 
 tinued the species.". 
 
 It may serve for the explanation of this quotation to state that 
 Cuvier in the spirit of his time still believed in isolated, great and 
 universal revolutions of the globe, which, however, in reality have 
 not taken place. It will be seen, however, from the quotation that 
 Cuvier's followers and disciples were more orthodox or more limited 
 in their views than the master himself, a case which indeed is by 
 no means unfrequent. 
 
 5. (p. 18). . . . againsl Ihe fossil Tnan. In using the expression 
 '%ssil" we must take care to avoid the frequent misconception 
 that the idea of "petrifaction" is necessarily connected with it. 
 For although undoubtedly many fossil objects are found in a 
 petrified state, this condition is by no means always their essential 
 characteristic. Even in our times organic bodies are petrified 
 under favorable circumstances, whilst others which have lain much 
 longer in the earth do not become petrified. Moreover the word 
 ''fossil" itself (derived from the Latin ''/ossilis'^) by no means 
 signifies a petrified object, but only something that is dug out 
 of the depihs of ihe earth. According to Professor Pictet of 
 Geneva the word is applicable to all organic remains which 
 lie buried in those strata of the earth which have been form- 
 ed under certain conditions different from those of the present 
 day. Therefore in order that organic remains should be recognized 
 as fossil, they must belong to a period which preceded the present 
 state of things on the surface of the earth. 
 
 6, ([). 22), . . . the implement was canplete. In prehistoric times 
 flint was the most sought for and indeed almost the only material 
 that was worked in Europe, and it has exerted a much more 
 powerful influence upon the course ol' civilization than is com- 
 monly supposed, as for a long time the articles manufactured 
 from it were the only implements that man could produce. Even 
 now, savage tribes are anxious to obtain it, partly on account 
 of its hardness, partly on account of its mode of fracture and the
 
 238 APPENDIX. 
 
 readiness with which it is worked in consequence. — If one strikes 
 strongly with a round hammer upon the smooth surface of a 
 fiint-nodule, a conical fracture spreading through the whole mass 
 of the nodule is produced; whilst, if one strikes upon a projecting 
 angle of the nodule, fragments split off which have rather a half- 
 conical, flat and knife like form. When the four projecting 
 angles of an angular flint- nodule have been cut ofT in this man- 
 ner, the same process can be repeated with the eight angles then 
 formed, and so on, until at last an axe-like nucleus is left. Of 
 course a certain amount of practice and dexterity is required for 
 this purpose, as also care in the selection of the pieces for work- 
 ing. — A flint-fragment worked in this manner is, according to Sir 
 John Lubbock, as sure a proof to the Archaeologist of the presence 
 of man, as the traces of human footsteps in the sand were for 
 Robinson Crusoe. 
 
 The flints served sometimes as weapons, sometimes as imple- 
 ments. The former purpose was fulfilled especially by the larger 
 fragments or true axes; whilst the smaller fragments and chips 
 were employed as knives, saws, awls, arrowheads and lance-heads 
 etc. Even to the present day by means of the same or similar stone- 
 implements assisted by fire, our existing savages fell trees and 
 hollow them into boats, and also fight with each other. In the 
 year i8og an old stone-grave, ascribed by tradition to King Aldus 
 McGaldus, was opened in Scodand. There was found in it the 
 very brittle skeleton of a man of very large stature, one arm of 
 which was nearly separated from the trunk by a blow with a stone 
 axe. A fragment of the axe was broken off and remained wedged 
 into the bone. The stone itself was diorite, — a rock which does 
 not occur in Scotland. Other stone-implements, some of them 
 polished, were also found in the grave, but no trace of metal. 
 
 In later times the working of flfnt advanced, and we find all 
 kinds of axes, knives, arrow, and lance-heads, daggers, saws etc. 
 of this and similar materials. (From an Essay by Sir John Lubbock 
 in the Revue Litteraire, 1865-66, No. i.). 
 
 7. . . . definite conclusiojis from this circiwistance. At a still 
 earlier period people had so little notion of the nature and signifi- 
 cation of the stone axes and weapons of earlier and later times
 
 APPENDIX. 239 
 
 that they were regarded with superstitious fear and hope and as 
 productions of lightning or thunder. Hence for a long time they 
 were called thunderbolts (ceramia) even by the learned, and popularly, 
 in common with some fossil remains of animals, they still bear this 
 name. ,,Albinus (in his Meissener Land- imd Berg-Chronik) says 
 that the thunder throws down these stones, and Happelius [Kleijie 
 Weltbeschreibung) describes their production from the vapours in 
 the atmosphere as pleasantly as if he had himself been a witness 
 of it. As late as the beginning of the last century (1734) when 
 Mahndel explained in the Academy of Paris that these stones were 
 human implements, he was laughed at, because he had not proved 
 that they could not have been formed in the clouds. Even at 
 the present day they are reverenced and carried about by the 
 common people as talismans, love-charms etc". (Schleiden). 
 
 8. (p. 27) with the diluvial flint axes. The details of 
 
 this discussion will be found in the Prods- Verbaux des Seances du 
 Congrls riu7ii a Paris et d. Abbeville sous la presidence de M. le 
 Pro/esseur Milne- Edwards etc. printed in Paris. The French 
 savants Quatrefages and Broca also express themselves in the 
 same way. In his report on the labours of the Anthropological 
 Society of Paris for the year 1863, the latter says : — ''All this has 
 convinced you of the authenticity of this fossil jaw of Moulin- 
 Quignon", — and Quatrefages says, in his Anthropological Lectures 
 for the year 1865 : — ''The question of the authenticity of the dis- 
 covery at Moulin -Quignon is fully solved. No one any longer 
 doubts this authenticity, unless it be in England". 
 
 9. (p. 27). . . . near by Ami Boue. A more recent discovery 
 exactly similar to this is described in the memoir entitled "-Note 
 sur la dicouverte d Ossements fossiles htunains dans le Lehm de 
 la valtee du Rhin etc. (Colmar 1867). In the year 1865 human 
 bones were found in the Loess of the Rhine at Eguisheim, near 
 Colmar (Alsace), with all the indications of fossilization and in the 
 same bed with bones of extinct animals (Mammoth, Horse, Stag, 
 Aurochs etc). The results at which the author, (Dr. Faudel) ar- 
 rives, after a thorough examination of the case, are as follows: 
 
 I. The bed in question is undoubtedly Alpine Loam of the 
 Rhine valley {i. e. Loess).
 
 24.0 APPENDIX. 
 
 2. In this undisturbed soil contemporaneous fossil bones of ani- 
 mals and human remains were found. 
 
 3, Both have undergone the same changes of tissue and compo- 
 sition, and both occurred under absolutely the same circumstances. 
 
 4. Hence we may conclude that man lived in Alsace at the 
 time when the Alpine loam was deposited, and contemporaneously 
 with animals of the Quaternary epoch, such as the Gigantic Deer, 
 the Bison, the Mammoth etc. As regards the human bones in 
 particular, they consisted of two fragments of the skull, and showed 
 a depressed forehead, strongly projecting superciliary arches, and a 
 type on the whole approaching the so-called dolichocephalic or 
 long-headed form, — consequently a great resemblance to the 
 celebrated Neanderthal skull. 
 
 A very accurate chemical investigation and comparison of the 
 bones of man and animals here found, undertaken by M. Scheurer- 
 Kestner, led to the general result that '^from a chemical point of 
 view the contemporaneity of man with the extinct species of ani- 
 mals must be regarded as proved," 
 
 10. (p. 28) was Dihseldorf. The details of tljis 
 
 remarkable discovery, which attracted so much attention may be 
 found in Professor Schaaffhausen's memoir "Zur Kenntniss der 
 iiltesten Rassenschadel", as also in an essay by Professor C. Fuhl- 
 rott, entitled: "The fossil man from the Neanderthal and his 
 relations to the antiquity of the Human Race (Duisburg 1865)." 
 The last mentioned author, who was also the first investigator and 
 describer of these remarkable bones, says: ''The position and 
 general arrangement of the locality in which they were found, of 
 which I published a description at the time, place it, in my judg- 
 ment, beyond doubt that the bones belong to the Diluvium and 
 therefore to primitive times, i. e. they come down to us from a 
 period of the past when our native country was still inhabited by 
 various kinds of animals, especially Mammoths and Cave-bears, 
 which have long since disappeared out of the series of living crea- 
 tures". The human bones discovered agree in all essential re- 
 spects with the fossil remains of antediluvian animals which were 
 brought to light under perfectly analogous circumstances from 
 other caverns and fissures of the same limestone range and in the
 
 APPENDIX. ^4.1 
 
 immediate vicinity, and they possess properties which plead in 
 favour of a high antiquity for them. The whole of the bones, 
 but especially the cranium, are characterized by their uncommon 
 thickness and by the very strong development of all tubercles, 
 crests and ridges which serve for the attachment of muscles, a pe- 
 culiarity such as is usually observed in the bones of savage and 
 very muscular men (and animals). We shall refer hereafter to the 
 very peculiarly formed skull of the Neanderthal man. 
 
 The fossil state of the Neanderthal skeleton is still further 
 strongly confirmed by the discovery in the summer of 1865 of nu- 
 merous fossil bones and teeth of animals (Rhinoceros, Cave-Bear, 
 Cave-Hyaena etc.) in the loam-deposit of the so-called Teufels- 
 kammer, a cavern situated only 130 paces distant from the Feld- 
 hofner Cave (in which the Neanderthal man was found) and on 
 the same side of the Neanderthal. According to the Report upon 
 this discovery given by Professor Schaaffhausen to the Natural His- 
 tory Society of the Lower Rhine and published in the '^Kolnische 
 Zeitung" of the i. April 1866, a great part of these bones, espe- 
 cially those of the Cave-Bears, agree in colour, weight, density and 
 the preservation of their microscopic structure with the human 
 bones found in the Feldhofner Cave, and both are covered with 
 the same dendrites or tree-like markings. 
 
 Finally it is to be remarked that the loam -deposit which 
 partly fills the caves of the Neanderthal and the clefts and fissures 
 of its limestone mountains, and in which both the Neanderthal 
 bones and the fossil bones and teeth of animals were imbedded, is 
 exactly the same that, in the caverns of the Neanderthal, covers 
 the whole limestone mountain with a deposit from 10 — 12 feet in 
 thickness, and the diluvial origin of which is unmistakable. (See, 
 for details, the essay by Fuhlrott already cited). 
 
 II. (p. 28). . . would detam tis too long. I refer here to the 
 discoveries (not mentioned by Lyell) of human bones in the caves 
 of L'hombrive and L'herm, which are described more parti- 
 cularly by Carl Vogt in his "Lectures on Man" (Giessen 1863), and 
 which justify the conclusion, that man must have lived contempo- 
 raneously with the extinct cave-animals; to the human bones dis- 
 covered by Lartet and Christy in the cave of Les Eyzies 
 
 16
 
 24^ APPENDIX. 
 
 (Perigord) probably belonging to the period of the Mammoth; to 
 the human lower jaw found by the Marquis de Vibraye in the 
 grotto of Arcy in Burgundy; to the extremely animal human jaw 
 of the Mammoth period found in the cave of La Naulette in 
 Belgium and to the flint axes of the diluvium, as well as to nume- 
 rous analogous discoveries made in many bone-caves in France, 
 Belgium, England, Germany and other places. Everywhere 
 human remains or productions were found together with the bones 
 of primaeval, extinct or displaced animals under conditions which 
 exclude the idea of subsequent fortuitous admixture. Among the 
 discoveries of human bones outside the caverns we may also cite: 
 The teeth described by Jaeger and Quenstedt from the "Bohnerz" 
 of Wiirttemberg, — the human teeth found in an ancient travertine 
 near Rome upon which Ponzi has reported, — the human skull in 
 the Natural History Museum at Stuttgart, which was dug out in 
 1700 from the calcareous tuff of Canstatt in company with 
 bones of the Mammoth and which resembles the Neanderthal 
 skull in its low, narrow forehead and strong superciliary arches; 
 the fossil human jaw from the gravel-pits of Ipswich in Suffolk, 
 which was exhibited to the Ethnological Society of London in 
 April 1865, and which, besides its very low structure and the great 
 amount of iron contained in it, exhibited all the characters of very 
 high antiquity; the remains of a human skull found quite recently 
 by Professor Cocchi in the valley of the Arno near Florence in 
 diluvial clay together with various bones of extinct species of 
 animals, and which, according to Carl Vogt, are of like antiquity 
 with the Engis and Neanderthal skulls; the human bones which 
 A. Issel states that he found in Pliocene deposits (therefore be- 
 longing to the Tertiary period) in the neigiibourhood of the town 
 of Savona in Liguria (the find of Colle del Vento) and which bear 
 all the physical signs of very high antiquity, and others. These 
 and a number of similar discoveries of various dates require, however, 
 a more accurate testing and establishment by scientific authorities, 
 before they can be employed as satisfactory scientific evidence. 
 12. (p. 28). . . doubt upon the subject. In fact such doubts have 
 been raised by certain French savants, such as Elie de Beaumont, 
 Eugene Robert and others, notwithstanding the extreme improba-
 
 APPENDIX. 243 
 
 bility of their having any sohd Ibundation from a geological point 
 of view, — and the true diluvial character of the axe-bearing de- 
 posits has been questioned. Even if such doubts may be scienti- 
 fically and geologically well-founded they must vanish before the 
 immense mass of other facts and evidence leading from all sides 
 to the same result. Moreover, at present all the more conside- 
 rable savants of the world, almost without exception, admit that 
 the evidence of the contemporaneity of man with the great Pachy- 
 derms of the quaternary epoch and with the diluvial animals in 
 general is complete. A sharp criticism of the objections to the 
 genuineness of the flint-instruments raised by Eugene Robert, 
 Decaisne and others, will be found in a small work by Gabriel de 
 Mortillet; "Zi?j Mystifies de I'Academte des Sciences \ Paris 1865. 
 
 13. (p. 29). . . . savage and civilised people. That this special 
 fondness for marrow persisted long after the times of primaeval man 
 is proved by a notice by the Greek writer Procopius, who lived 
 about the year 550. In his Gothic History he describes people, 
 whom he calls the Scritliifi?ins, living in the extreme north of Scan- 
 dinavia, and states as the principal indication of their savage state, 
 that the childern are nourished not with their mother's milk, but 
 with the marrow of animals. As soon as the child was born, the 
 mother wrapped it up in a skin, hung it upon a tree, put some 
 marrow in its mouth, and then went straight off to the chase again. 
 An excellent mode of rearing children, and one that certainly is to 
 be recommended from the point of view of economy of time! 
 
 14. (p. 30) . ... the Jieindeer and the Maminoth. A plate 
 of ivory, broken into several pieces which were inbedded sepa- 
 rately in ossiferous loam hardened by the infiltration of lime, 
 showed, when put together, (as described by Carl Vogt in an essay 
 published in the Kolnische Zeitung for 1866) the outline? of no 
 less than three elephants walking one behind the otlier, of which 
 however the entire body only of the middle one was visible. By 
 the curvature of his teeth, the long mane flowing down from the 
 withers and the dense hairiness of the lower surface it was at once 
 shown to be a Mammoth drawn from the life. Figures of the 
 Reindeer are extraordinarily frequent; the animal is shown in the 
 most various positions and is readily recognizable by its antlers 
 
 i6»
 
 ^44 APPENDIX. 
 
 and hair-tufts. On a piece of slate in the possession of the 
 Marquis de Vibraye the artist has even ventured upon the repre- 
 sentation of a groop of Reindeer fighting with each other. Usually 
 several animals of the same species or groups of them are re- 
 presented, a leader preceding them whilst the others Ibllow 
 represented at half length. "In many groups we seem to re- 
 cognize a cautious watching with the nose and eye, the scenting 
 of peril". 
 
 As regards the representation of a human figure mentioned 
 in the text, this appears to be naked, and in the meagerness of 
 the hips and thighs and the prominence of the belly reminds us 
 rather of the Australian than of the European type. 
 
 15. (p. 30) to the i7iost incredulotis. — Christy deposited 
 
 in Paris a rich collection of such objects, which furnished a very 
 distinct picture of that distant time. In 1866 Professor Schaaffhausen 
 of Bonn laid before the 23d General-Meeting of the Natural History 
 Society of the Rhineland and Westphalia various implements of 
 this kind made of the bones and horns of the Reindeer, such as 
 arrow-heads with barbs, needles and dagger-like knives, together 
 with models of other objects, upon some of which pictures of 
 animals presenting the most striking likeness were cut. All these 
 objects were imbedded with flint knives and bones and teeth of 
 the Reindeer in a solid calcareous concretion. — A whole block of 
 this remarkable breccia had been presented by Lartet at the 
 Professor's request to the Museum at Poppelsdorf. To this the 
 Professor added a description of some similar discoveries in the 
 Todtenfeld at Uelde, not far from Lippstadt in Westphalia, the 
 numerous bone-caves of which promise, when carefully examined, 
 to furnisli results no less interesting to the student of prehistoric 
 times than those obtained from the caves of Belgium and the South 
 of France. At the above-mentioned locality there were Ibund 
 numerous broken human bones, with perforated teeth of the Wolf, 
 Dog and Horse, mixed with rude flint knives and an awl made 
 from the metatarsal bone of a stag. The mode in which the 
 human bones were broken leaves scarcely any doubt, according to 
 Schaaffhausen, that here the remains of a meal of cannibals have 
 been preserved, the same thing having already been proved by
 
 APPENDIX. 245 
 
 Spring with regards to the discoveries in the cave of Chauvaux in 
 Belgium. 
 
 In 1865, Pro'essor joly of Toulou-e when lecturing upon 
 fossil man in the Rue de U Paix at Paris laid before liis auditors 
 some still more interesting objects: — "Heie"', he said, "are two 
 lower jaws of the Cave-Pear, which have very probably been frac- 
 tured by man in tlie living animal, and in which union has taken 
 place in the normal way. Here is a skull of the same species 
 (skull from Nabrigas) which has been pierced in its frontal part by 
 a flint arrow. It is also a flint arrow that we see still adiiering 
 to this vertebra of a young Reindeer found in the cave of Les 
 E}zies by MM. Lartet and Christy. Lastly 1 must tell you that 
 Major Wanchoj)e has found a flint hammer buried in the skull of 
 a gigantic Deer (Megaceros hiberniciis). 
 
 "This tooth of Ursus spelaeus (the Cave Bear) which has 
 served to make a knife of which the enamel forms the edge, — this 
 phalange of the same animal, pierced with a hole w-hich traverses 
 it from side to side, — these barbed arrow-heads made of the bones 
 of the stag and Reindeer, and the grooves in which seem still 
 ready to receive the poison which formerly rendered them so dan- 
 gerous, — these antlers on which the flint saw has so clearly left 
 its mark, — and these bones uf lost species, fashioned into knives, 
 polishers, awls, pins, needles and even into whistles or objects of 
 ornament, — will not so many combined proofs gain you over to 
 the cause of M. Boucher de Perthes, which is also ours? It is 
 very evident that the bones thus worked could only be so treated 
 in the fresh state &c." 
 
 16. (p. 35) the e.vistetice of man at that spot. This 
 
 locality is particularly remarkable because it has enabled us to re- 
 cognize a regular superposition of three distinct phases of civiliza- 
 tion. It is a cone consisting of sand, gravel and rolled pebbles 
 which the little river Tiniere has gradually deposited at its opening 
 into the Lake of Geneva, and has been cut through for a length 
 of 133 metres and to a depth of about 7 metres or 23 feet by the 
 railway. This cutting has laid open three layers of civilization (C«/- 
 iurschichteii). The uppermost, a la}'er of 4-6 inches in thick- 
 ness at a depth of four feet, contained ancient Roman tiles
 
 246 APPENDIX. 
 
 and coins, and must therefore be referred to the time of the 
 Roman occupation. In the next layer, 6 inches in thickness and 
 at a depth of 10 feet, there were distinct traces of the so-called 
 Bronze-period; and a third and last layer, 6-7 inches thick and at 
 a depth of ig feet, contained rude pottery, fractured bones of ani- 
 mals, wood charcoal &c., — and may therefore be assigned to the 
 last divisions of the so-called Stone-period. The three layers were 
 separated by deposits of rubbisli, and the whole appeared so regu- 
 lar, that it could not be regarded as having been brought together 
 by the stream, but by a slow and regular process of deposition. 
 From the relative thickness of the deposits, and the historical 
 datum of the Roman time, Morlot calculates for the bronze-layer 
 an approximate age of 3 — 4000 years, and for the stone layer 
 an age of 4 — 7000 years, whilst the deposition of the entire 
 cone must have required a period of 10,000 years. 
 
 These estimates, however, have lately had some doubts thrown 
 upon them by an American savant, Professor Andrews of Chicago, 
 who has reduced them, by his own calculations, more than one 
 half; whether with justice the future must decide. 
 
 1 must, remark however, that, as staited by Carl V'ogt (Vor- 
 lesiingen iiber defi Menschen) , a human skeleton was found in the 
 stone-layer of the cone under consideration, and that its "very 
 round, very small, and very thick skull had the type of a Mon- 
 golian brachycephalan". Unfortunately Vogt could ascertain noth- 
 ing further about this skull. 
 
 15. (p. 35) no hint whatever. — In the winter of 
 
 1853 — 54, by taking advantage of a very low level of the water 
 in the lake of Zurich , Dr. Keller discovered the first traces 
 of the lake-divellings or pile-buildings , which have since been 
 found in so many places and become so famous. They have 
 been detected in great abundance in nearly all the lakes of Switzer- 
 land, and also in the Bavarian and North-Italian lakes, in the 
 peat-bogs of Mecklenburg and Pomerania, the remains of former 
 lakes &c. Within historical times Herodotus and Hippocrates 
 mention certain tribes in Thrace and on the river Phasis who 
 dwelt in pile-villages. This was 2:^ centuries ago; but even at
 
 APPENDIX. 247 
 
 the present da) many savage tribes still live in similar settlements, 
 such as were met with and represented by Dumont d'Urville in 
 his voyage of discovery to New Gninea. Moritz Wagner also 
 makes a similar report in his journey to Colchis and the country 
 of the Caucasus. Incredible quantities of bones, remains of food, 
 and articles of human industry of all kinds, which have been 
 found in the bottoms of the lakes beneath the former dwellings 
 and amongst the piles, generally in a very good state of preser- 
 vation, have enabled students to sketch a tolerably distinct pic- 
 ture of the life and doings of the ancient inhabitants of the pile- 
 buildings, of which details may be found in the numerous reports 
 and memoirs of Keller, Riitimeyer, Troyon, Messikomer, Heer, 
 Desor, Lisch, Lyell, Vogt, Virchow and others. Many pile-buildings, 
 especially those of the bronze-period, are so large that no fewer than 
 100,000 piles have been found driven close together at a certain 
 distance from the shore; and their number is so great that in the 
 Swiss lakes we already know far more than 200, and in the 
 Neuenburg lake alone 46 such lake-stations. The object of the 
 pile-buildings was evidently the protection of the inhabitants from 
 wild animals, the attacks of enemies &c., besides the ready ob- 
 taining of food by fishing. The inhabitants of the pile-dwellings 
 appear, however, to have been cannibals; at least the human 
 bones which have been found scorched, broken and, apparently, 
 gnawn by human teeth, are in favour of this opinion. 
 
 As regards the antiquity of the pile-dwellings they seem 
 certainly to have existed for a very long time, as we find in them 
 remains of the stone-, bronze- and iron-periods, sometimes sepa- 
 rate, sometimes intermixed. But however ancient even the oldest 
 of them may be, they all belong to the alluvial period, and pro- 
 bably their last offshoots extend far down into the historical pe- 
 riod. Many pile- buildings may have been inhabited down to the 
 time of the Romans, and the most recent dredging operations in 
 the bed of the Rhine near Mayence have even furnished evidence 
 that Rom.an colonists on the Rhine dwelt in pile- villages. At 
 any rate the pile-buildings furnish a proof of what is most im.- 
 portant for our present purpose, namely, that thousands of years 
 before the historical period the human race had already acquired
 
 248 APPENDIX. 
 
 SO high a degree of civilization as to be able to erect such 
 dwelling places as these, with all things belonging to them. 
 18 (p. 35) man in these regions. The Danish peat- 
 bogs, which have been chiefly investigated by Steenstrup, are very 
 rich in bones and remains of human activity; we might almost 
 say, witli Steenstrup, that the'^e is scarcely a square yard of them 
 that does not furnish proofs of the existence of prehistoric man. 
 Their dej.th amounts to from 10 to 40 feet or even more, although 
 the peat grows so slowly that old peat-diggers deny its increase 
 because they have been unable to observe it during their lives. 
 To form a layer of peat of 10 — 20 feet in thickness takes, ac- 
 cording to Steenstrup, at least 4000 years, and perhaps even from 
 three to four times this period. Now according to the species 
 of trees the remains of which are found in the peat-bogs, three 
 periods of peat-deposition in Denmark have been distinguished, and 
 these are designated the periods of the fir, oak and beech. The 
 lowermost, the Scotch Fir (Pinus sy/vestris ! indicates the most 
 ancient period; this is very old, as this tree never was indigenous 
 in the Danish islands in historical times, and must have become 
 extinct there time out of mind. This was followed by the Oak, 
 which has also been for a very long time extinct in Denmark, and 
 has given place to the Beech, the true, historical tree of that 
 country. Now even in the lowest deposit, among the trunks of 
 the Firs, traces of man have been met with in the form of wor- 
 ked flints and bones; whilst in the superjacent layers of the Oak- 
 period implements of bronze have occurred and in the uppermost 
 or Beech-layers implements, weapons and coins of iron, and even 
 indications of the Roman invasion. The historical period consequently 
 belongs only to the last of the three periods, or the Beech-period. 
 
 That there must be a certain parallelism in time between 
 the Danish Fir-period and the formation of the Kjokkenmoddings 
 is shown by the fact that in the latter the bones of the Caper- 
 cailzie, which feeds in spring upon the young shoots of the Fir, 
 have been met with. Human bones of that time have also been 
 found in the peat-bogs and in tumuli; the skulls are narrow and 
 round and have a projecting ridge above the eyebrows, so that 
 the ancient race was small and round-headed, with overhanging
 
 APPENDIX. 249 
 
 eyebrows, and thus possessed a great resemblance to the existing 
 Laplanders, who are probably a remnant of this primitive popula- 
 tion of the north. Their place is taken during the iron age by a 
 perfectly (Hfferent type widi an elongated, oval head and of far more 
 powerful structure. This is the case al^o with the dog, which was 
 smallest and weakest in the stone-age and strongest in the iron-age. 
 
 ig (p. 35). . . . red Indian hunters. Wlien America was firs 
 discovered and for a long time afterwards, that continent was 
 regarded as destitute of all ancient civilization, analogous to that 
 of Europe. Hence people were the more surprised when, by the 
 investigations of Squier and Davis on the "Ancient Monuments of 
 the Mississippi Valley", the opposite was proved and it was shown 
 that, long before the times of the Indian Redskin, those plains 
 must have been the seat of a considerable civilization. Great 
 walls of earth, ruins of towns, remains of statuary, objects of 
 gold, silver and copper, pottery, ornaments, stone-weapons &c., 
 prove that the western hemispheres were not always interminable 
 forests and endless prairies, serving no other purpose than that of 
 forming a hunting-ground for the red hunters. The earth-mounds, 
 which are often so large that fiur of them together exceed the 
 great Egyptian pyramid in cubic contents, may have served in 
 part as temples, in part as burying places, and in part as forti- 
 fications. The Europeans wiio made their way there found the 
 mounds covered with a dense forest in which the red Indian 
 hunter dwelt, without any traditional connexion with his civilized 
 predecessors; and from the growth of plants and trees upon the 
 earth-works an approximate antiquity of several thousand years, 
 before the European immigration has been assigned to them. The 
 human skulls which have been exliumed in some places belong 
 to a difierent race of men from those now living. 
 
 Quite recently, in South America mummies with brown hair 
 have been discovered. If tliis brown-haired race came from Europe 
 this must have happened long before all history ; and on the 
 western shores of that continent a civilization must have flourished, 
 of which all traces had already disappeared, when the Roman do- 
 minion was extended over Britain, Gaul and Spain. 
 
 According to Scherzer (Vortrag auf der Naturforscher-Vef-
 
 250 APPENDIX. 
 
 Sammlung in Wien, 1856) the Toltecs met with by the Spa- 
 niards are the architects of the monuments and buildings in the 
 interior of America. They first appear in the seventh century 
 upon the plateau of Mexico, and their remnants still linger in 
 Central America. 
 
 20 (p. 37) both North and South America. — Shell- 
 mounds and kitchen-refuse have been found in America in great 
 abundance. In South America on the east coast, on the Pacific 
 ocean, in Brazil and Guayaquil and on the east coast of North 
 America, near Halifax in Nova Scotia and on Margaret's Bay. 
 These last contain only implements of the stone-age ; and with 
 these are found bones of the Moose, Bear, Beaver, Porcupine &c. 
 The shells found belong to the species Venus mercenaria, Pecten 
 islandicus, Crepedula /orfnicata and Mytilus eduli's, the last in so 
 fragile or soft a condition, as to fall to pieces when touched. 
 A traveller, Clement Markham, has recently given a more ac- 
 curate account of the shell-mounds found on the coast of Ecuador, 
 not far from Guayaquil; they consist of fragments of pottery 
 and of four different sea-shells, one of which is extinct in that 
 region. IMany cutting instruments made of quartz-crystals were 
 also found. 
 
 As regards the absence of human bones in the shell-mounds 
 mentioned in the text, the rule appears to be not without ex- 
 ceptions. At least it is stated in the Anthropokigical Review 
 {February 1865, p. XXIX), that human bones have been found in 
 the shell-mounds of Caithness, in the same state as the bones of 
 animals associated with them. 
 
 21 (p. 38) men of the present day. — In the thirteenth 
 
 century the expression "giants' graves" or 'giants' mounds" first 
 makes its appearance, and certainly many of these immense 
 burying places which were scattered in the solitude of vast forests 
 and moors and are now for the most pait destroyed by agri- 
 cultural and roadmaking operations, fully deserved that name. Con- 
 structed of immense blocks and masses of stone, they were either 
 placed upon natural hills, or artificially elevated into hills, which 
 were afterwards planted with great trees. In the interior of the 
 sepulchres composed of huge, rough slabs of stone, objects of
 
 APPENDIX. 2,51 
 
 the stone-, bronze- and iron- ages have been found, but bronze 
 objects greatly predominate. On the Island of Schonen near 
 Kivik a gigantic grave of this kind was met with, in which the 
 drawings made upon the sandstone slabs enclosing the grave left 
 no doubt that at this place human sacrifices were offered to the 
 Sungod! 
 
 The northern antiquaries are of opinion that these giants' 
 graves are the productions of that Lappo-Finnish race which in- 
 habited the whole of Northern Europe, before the immigration of 
 the Scandinavio-Germanic races, and were driven back by this 
 immigration to the extreme north where it still leads an indigent 
 nomadic life. 
 
 Still older than the so-called "giants' graves", are the Dol- 
 mens or stone tables (also called Cromlechs or Menhirs), very an- 
 cient stone edifices, which have been found especially well-repre- 
 sented in Brittany. They consist of upright stones covered with 
 slabs laid transversely upon them and are reproduced, more or 
 less numerously in almost all the countries bordering the Mediter- 
 ranean, Under some of these remarkable monuments, corpse-cham- 
 bers containing abundant treasures of objects of art and human 
 remains have been found. The earthen vessels found stand on a 
 much higher technical ground than the vessels from the Swiss 
 pile-buildings. With regard to the purpose of these edifices and the 
 nature of their builders we have as yet nothing but suppositions. 
 One of the grandest and most enigmatical of these monuments is 
 the celebrated Stonehenge. 
 
 Moreover, according to a communication made by Dr. Hooker 
 to the Meeting of the British Association in the year 1868, the 
 Khasias of eastern Bengal even at the present day erect similar 
 dolmens or stone-tables, merely with the aid of levers and ropes. 
 (See Globus, vol. XIV. part 4). See also with reg rd to this sub- 
 ect the transactions of the International Congress for Archaio- 
 Anthropology for the year 1867, — on Megalithic monuments. Ac- 
 cording to a report there published by M. Bertrand the stone- 
 monuments are graves and belong for the most part to the third 
 Stone-age, or the age of polished stones. 
 
 22 (p. 41). . . . must have lived. About the middle of the
 
 252 APPENDIX. 
 
 great tertiary epoch a tropical climate and tropical fauna and 
 flora spread over the whole of Europe even into high nor- 
 thern lutitiules, — Palms. Cedars. L.iurels and Cinnamon trees 
 and other troiiicul phmts had flourished for example in the 
 valleys of Switzerland , and more than thirty different oaks 
 with evergreen leaves adorned the forests of that time, — Cro- 
 codiles had lived in our rivers, and Tapirs. Mastodons, Mammoths, 
 Rhinoceroses &c., in the forc-ts ; — but towards the end of the 
 tertiary period the temperature fell over the northern hemisphere, 
 Europe began to assume a different form, and m consequence of 
 the gradually changing physical influences the southern character 
 of the fauna and flora disappeared, to give place finally, during 
 the so-called glacial epoch, to a perfectly arctic or northern as- 
 semblage of animals and plants. Both in the north and in the 
 south of Europe enormous glaciers were formed, their starting 
 points being the high mountains; and these, either directly or by 
 means of drift-ice, scattered gigantic fragments of rock torn from 
 the Alpine heights over the low lands. Once, however, during 
 the quaternary epoch, a retrogression of these great glaciers took 
 place, for which reason geologists distinguish a first and a second 
 glacial epoch, separated by an interglacial period. But while 
 plants and animals suffered the greatest changes by this great 
 change of climate and of the formation of the land, man, fur- 
 nished with intellectual powers, knew how to resist these influences, 
 especially by the aid of fire; and in fact he lived through the two 
 glacial epochs in which many centuries passed in the gradual in- 
 crease and diminution of the great glaciers, man giving way be- 
 fore the increasing glaciers and following them up as they dimi- 
 nished in size. In the construction of a canal in the neighbour- 
 hood of Stockholm they cut through one of those hills called 
 Osars, which were deposited by drift-ice during the glacial epoch 
 upon the Swedish plain, then sunk in the sea and subsequently 
 elevated. In this, under an immense accumulation of erratic 
 blocks, with shells and sand, these was discovered at a depth of 
 18 metres or about 60 feet a circular mass of stones, forming 
 a hearth, in the middle of which there were wood-coals. No
 
 APPENDIX. 253 
 
 Other hand than that of man, could have performed this piece 
 of work! 
 
 In order to obtain a notion of the enormous period of time 
 which must have elapsed since the manufacture of the flint axes 
 of the Diluvium, we must have before us the data which M. De- 
 lanoue has given with regard to the geological constitution of the 
 valley of the Somme. In the environs of Amiens, beneath the 
 Alluvium and beneath the Loess, a product of glaciers, which 
 sometimes attains a thickness of 10 metres, there are two dilu- 
 vial strata: — a red superficial one which is characterized by having 
 its flints angular and not very numerous, — and a deeper one of 
 grey colour, the rounded flints in which furnish evidence of strong 
 rolling. These two diluvial ledges, each of which is several metres 
 in thickness, are separated by a layer of freshwater deposits, 
 which contains river shells and is sometimes as much as five 
 metres thick. Now it is the grey or lower Diluvium, lying imme- 
 diately upon the tertiary formations, that contains the remains of 
 human skill together with the bones of the Mammoth and fossil 
 Rhinoceros. Consequently after the lapse of the first or earliest 
 diluvial epoch a long period of repose must have occured, during 
 which the fresh-water deposits above the grey Diluvium were form- 
 ed; then a fresh geological change caused the formation of the 
 upper Diluvium; and still later under new conditions again a 
 thick layer of Loess covered the flint axes of the second diluvial 
 epoch. Finally the Alluvium was deposited upon the Loess. Hence, 
 since the hand of man made the first flint axes of the valley of the 
 Somme, its geological conditions have changed no less than four 
 times, and the duration of these periods of change is truly in- 
 calculable (See Broca; Hisioire des Travaiix de la Socieii d'An- 
 thropologie de Paris, 1863). Further details upon the Glacial 
 epoch and its relations to the question of the antiquity of the 
 Human race will be found in the works of Lyell, Vogt and others 
 already mentioned. Lyell, especially, (in his "Antiquity of man") 
 has given a very accurate summary of the facts relating to the 
 Glacial epoch and the traces of human existence contained in its 
 deposits. 
 
 To the above demonstration of the high antiquity of the ob
 
 254 APPENDIX. 
 
 jects found in the valley of the Somme, it might also be added, 
 that in that valley a peat of great thickness (often as much as 
 30 feet), belonging to the alluvial period, occurs. In the upper 
 layers of this Roman and Celtic monuments are contained, and 
 its growth was so slow, that it must have taken thousands of 
 years. Nevertheless it is much later than the old gravel-deposits 
 with Mammoth-bones and flint axes which lies beneath it. More- 
 over some of these gravel-deposits were accumulated in river- 
 courses which formerly flowed a hundred feet higher than the . 
 present stream, and before the valley had acquired its present 
 form and depth. What a length of time must consequently have 
 elapsed since the deposition of those axe-bearing beds! 
 
 23 (p. 45) 5000 years B. C. — "The Chronology of 
 
 the ancient Egyptians handed down by Manetho* and others", 
 says F. Rolle {Der Mensch &c., 1866), "like the race -tradi- 
 tions of other ancient peoples, was . regarded by Cuvier as un- 
 worthy of credit in comparison with the Mosaic records, and he 
 assumed that in accordance with the latter the creation of Man 
 took place about 6000 years ago. Nevertheless the historical 
 part of Manetho's report has since proved to be more authentic 
 than Cuvier's geological views. 
 
 "Even in 1845 Wagner asserted that the Mosaic record of 
 Creation could establish its claim tO be the most ancient compo- 
 sition above all other traditions, and that nothing but a defi- 
 ciency of the necessary linguistic knowledge has led to other 
 opinions; with the exception of the Hebrew the extant histories 
 of the most ancient peoples, including the Egyptians, reaches back 
 at the utmost to about 2000 years B. C. 
 
 "Nevertheless the investigation of the ancient Egyptian mo- 
 imments and the deciphering of the Egyptian hieroglyphs, which 
 has attained a high degree of certainty, have since proved 
 
 *) Manetho, high priest of Heliopolis, who lived 350 years B. C, cal- 
 culates for 375 Pharaohs a reigning period of 61 17 years, which, together 
 with the present era, makes about 8330 years. His statements have been 
 frequently declared unworthy of belief, but they have finally proved to 
 be thoroughly trustworthy.
 
 APPENDIX. 255 
 
 the historical truth of a great part of Manetho's reports and 
 shown that he was no mere fabulous writer, but that he drew his 
 materials from ancient Egyptian historical springs, was very well- 
 informed and one of the most trustworthy of the writers of an- 
 tiquity &c. 
 
 "The kingdom of the ancient Egyptians, according to Lep- 
 sius, was already a well-ordered state under the so-called fourth 
 Dynasty about the year 3400 B.C. Arts and Sciences flourished. 
 Hieroghyphic writing was already invented, and the characters 
 drawn in this early period are now the most ancient, perfectly 
 authentic, written records which the Archaiologist has any where 
 at his command. 
 
 "Beyond the fourth ancient Egyptian Dynasty the elucidation 
 of history by the deciphering of contemporary inscriptions has cer- 
 tainly made but little way. It is, however, certain that the deve- 
 lopment of the Egyptian civilization is much older than even the 
 dominion of the fourth Pharaonic dynasty. The attainment of so 
 high a degree of civilization as that, which already prevailed in 
 Egypt about the year 3500 B.C., presupposes a period of several 
 thousands of years during which man elevated himself by gradual 
 progress from a condition of rude savagery." 
 
 The celebrated French orientalist and Christologist, Ernest 
 Renan, has also done good service in connexion with the eluci- 
 dation of ancient Egyptian chronology. According to him before 
 the year 970 B.C., when Sesac appears as the first ruler of the 
 twenty second Dynasty, 21 Dynasties must be brought into the 
 Egyptian history, during which this stood in its highest lustre. 
 The greatest epoch of Egypt commences 1700 years B.C. and 
 therefore at a time when Greece and Rome were still nothing, 
 and when Niniveh and Babylon were far from having attained the 
 pinnacle of their greatness. Before the eighteenth Dynasty comes 
 the epoch of the conquering Hyksos or Shepherd kings. It 
 lasted 511 years and commenced 2000 years B.C. Before the 
 Shepherds Manetho reckons fourteen dynasties with 2800 years; 
 his testimony is good. The dynasties also were not merely local 
 but extended their sway over the whole of Egypt. Manetho's 
 first ten dynasties cannot be reckoned otherwise than from 5000
 
 256 APPENDIX. 
 
 to 2000 years B.C., and in them falls the brilliant period of the 
 Pyramids and their architects. Great light has been thrown upon 
 this epoch by Mariette's excavations; he discovered sculptures, 
 inscriptions and statues which reached up to 4000 or 4500 years 
 B.C. It is remarkable that in the graves and sepulchres of this 
 period, which already showed a high grade of civilization, no trace 
 was to be found of warlike life which afterwards became so im- 
 portant; nor did anything appear connected with religion or ritual. 
 Not a single picture of any deity occurred ; everything related sole- 
 ly to Death. 
 
 According to J. Braun (Geschichte der Kunst in ihrem Ent- 
 wickelungsgang durch alle Volker der alten Welt &c.) Egypt is 
 the most ancient of the great powers and the most ancient of 
 civilized peoples. 450 years B.C. the Egyptian priests showed 
 Herodotus (to whom the wonders of ancient Egypt must have 
 been greater mysteries than to our living Egyptologists) on the 
 outer walls of the great temple in Thebes, 345 mummy-chests 
 in which lay the bodies of high-priests who had ruled from father 
 to son in Thebes for an equal number of ages; it was a ponti- 
 fical monarchy of several thousand years. According to Braun 
 the Greek civilization originated chiefly from Egypt; and in his 
 opinion and that of Roeth the most important dogmas of Christ- 
 ianity are borrowed from the Egyptian theology. 
 
 We cannot but be astonished, when we consider, that at 
 a time, when in Europe the aborigines chased the wild animals 
 with miserable weapons of stone or dwelt in wooden huts over the 
 water and obtained their i'ood by hunting and fishing, on the 
 other side of the great Mediterranean sea, in that fortunate coun- 
 try through which the Nile flows, mighty cities flourished in 
 beauty and grandeur, and arts and sciences were cultivated, 
 whilst a jjowerful priesthood held the reins of a regular govern- 
 ment with a firm hand and probably maintained a flourishing 
 commerce along the shores of the Mediterranean! And what a 
 length of time must have elapsed between that period, when the 
 Egyptian aborigines themselves fought with weapons of stone and 
 the time when they had attained the degree of civilization just 
 described 1
 
 APPENDIX. 257 
 
 In an interesting little work on the origin and destin)' of 
 man (published in London in 1868), after a very exact demonstra- 
 tion of the ancient Egyptian chronology founded upon Mariette's 
 discoveries and Manetho's statements, the author, Mr. J. P. Lesley, an 
 American, sums up the results of Egyptian investigation as follows. 
 Such has been the history of Egypt! Seven thousand years have 
 passed since the fourth king of the first dynasty built the first py- 
 ramid of Cochome, the first which greets the traveller going forth 
 into the desert from the gates of Cairo. Yet even then Egypt 
 was an old country; its people civilized; its architecture grand in 
 idea and perfect in execution; its statuary natural; its language 
 not only formed, but reduced to writing; its agricultural life rich 
 with oxen, asses, dogs and monkeys, antelopes and gazelles, geese, 
 ducks and swans, and slaves of Numidia That they en- 
 joyed a happy, peaceful, and sometimes a jolly life, is easy to 
 see, for the walls of the Memphite tombs are covered with pic- 
 tures of feasts, and games, and dances, and boat tournaments, 
 such as amuse the populace of Paris in July; there you see poets 
 chanting verses and dancing girls with hair dressed up with plates 
 of gold. But you may look around in vain for the symbols of 
 any kind of warfare. Not a trace of military life is visible on 
 any monument previous to the twelfth dynasty, and very little 
 trace of religion. . . . The deity had neither name nor image. 
 Osiris was unknown. The dog Anubis is the only guardian of 
 these primeval mansions of the dead ; the first deity, as the first 
 friend of man. We can make out only the signs of a purely 
 patriarchal civilization, in a land of peace and plenty. Each tomb 
 is built by each farmer for his eternal resfdence. His effigy is 
 seen in it, surrounded by the pictures of his wife, his children, 
 his servants, his scribes, his dogs and green monkerys and his 
 household goods. And all this 3000 years before Solomon built 
 his temple on Mount Moriah, or the Assyrian his palace on the 
 platform of Koujunjik. 
 
 "For the present let me leave, impressed upon your imagi- 
 nations, one clear image, the contrast, th,e marvellous contrast, 
 between the two pictures I have drawn. On the one hand we 
 have this picture of peace and plenty among the ancient land- 
 
 17
 
 258 APPENDIX. 
 
 holders of the valley of the Nile. On the other hand, we have 
 that picture of want and warfare dominating the life of the wretched 
 savages in the pine-woods of Scandinavia, and standing for the 
 condition of the human race, or rather of all the other human 
 races existing at that ancient epoch, outside of the valley of the 
 Sphinx. 
 
 "Yet such a contrast still exists in all its grim integrity 
 upon the earth. Compare the palaces and parks of England 
 and New England with the wigwams of the west or the slave- 
 cabins of the south; with the utter homelessness of the Hotten- 
 tot and Australian in the one hemisphere, or the wretched reflec- 
 tion of primeval barbarism among V^.r viiserables in Paris or in 
 London. And so the world hoards up its old letters, although 
 they can be only re-read with shudderings and tears". 
 
 24 (p. 47) from his scanty remains. In speaking of 
 
 certain prehistoric discoveries made in Britain, Bernard Owen ex- 
 pressed himself as follows to the Anthropological Society of London: 
 "In the spear- and arrow-heads from Caithness the resemblance to 
 the American weapons in material, form and size and especially 
 in the mode of attachment to the shaft is so great, that the 
 two are scarcely distinguishal^lc." 
 
 Of the Mexican Indians we know that they still bleed them- 
 selves with lancets of obsidian (Brasseur); and eye-witnesses de- 
 scribe how the existing Tasmanians select a suitable flat stone from 
 the ground, strike fragments from it and employ it at .once as 
 an implement. 
 
 We are acquainted with stone -implements from America 
 which are even very similar to the most ancient Drift-implements. 
 Indeed the working of stone is so simple that we cannot wonder 
 that stone-implements from almost all countries (Europe, Asia, 
 America and Australia) should be strikingly similar in appearance. 
 The stone age has prevailed in every great region of the inhabited 
 world, and still partially persists in America, Australia &c.; for 
 there are races enough who have never been acquainted with the 
 use of metals. Nay plenty of savage tribes have been found 
 who had no knowledge even of the use of fire; and until the 
 arrival of Euroj^eans the Australians knew nothing about cooking
 
 APPENDIX. 259 
 
 or boiling food. Tlieir nourishinenl consislcd principally of ma- 
 rine animals which were devoured raw, just as was the case 
 with the ancient builders of the kitchen-middens or shell-mounds. 
 In Tierra del Fuego and in Brazil moreover extensive and per- 
 fectly fresh shell-heaps of the kind above described are still to be 
 found. 
 
 -5 (P- 5O ^^'■'^ ^'^'^"- '■'f ^^^'^ present day. It is a wide- 
 spread but erroneous opinion that culture and civilization weaken 
 and corporeally degrade Man. In general most certainly the re- 
 verse is the case. Better habitations, better nourishment, better 
 clothing and greater jirotection from diseases and from the mani- 
 fold injurious actions of external nature cannot act disadavanta- 
 geously ui)on man and his corporeal growth, but must be to his 
 advantage. This applies especially to those countries and climates 
 which do not spontaneously pour what he requires into the lap 
 of man, and which do not relieve him of all care about his 
 habitation and clothing. On the other hand it certainly cannot 
 be denied that civilization brings with it much that is injurious, 
 weakening and enervating or excessively exciting, and therefore must 
 be accompanied by disadvantages of which man in a state of 
 nature is ignorant. But this cannot upset the general rule, which 
 is indeed abundantly confirmed by experience. For wherever ci- 
 vilized peoples come in contact with savages or with tribes in a 
 natural state, the latter yield before the greater power and strength 
 of the former; nay, they even die out when in contact with ci- 
 vilization, as if touched by a pestilential breath, as has been the 
 case in America and Australia. It is true that here the enormous 
 preponderance of greater intellectual development comes into play, 
 and associated with it the increased power of material agencies and 
 of greater moral force. 
 
 As regards the primeval man of Europe and his bodily struc- 
 ture, it would appear, judging from the discoveries hitherto made, 
 that he not only belonged to a peculiar race, but that the pre- 
 historic races of Europe differed greatly among themselves. Ac- 
 cording to Vogt and Pruner-Bey there certainly existed two dif- 
 ferent, prehistoric races, of which one was large and dolichoce- 
 phalic, the other small and brachycephalic. But Vogt regards 
 
 17*
 
 260 APPENDIX. 
 
 the former as the most ancient. Professor Wilson, who has in- 
 vestigated the prehistoric times of Scotland, is also of opinion 
 that a dolichocephalic race was conquered and subjected by a 
 later, intrusive, brachycephalic one, whilst the latter in its turn, 
 after making considerable advances in the bronze age, was de- 
 stroyed by the Celts who introduced iron. According to Pro- 
 fessor Schaaflfhausen also the oldest human skull was probably 
 dolichocephalic, thick-walled and small. 
 
 Stone-weapons are generally found associated with long, 
 negro-like skulls; bronze-weapons with short, mongoliform skulls. 
 Even in the present day these two forms of skull represent those 
 two of the three principal races of man, Negroes, Mongols and 
 Europeans, which have remained most stationary in the general 
 development of civilization; whilst the type of the oval or average 
 head is that of European and other civilized peoples. This type 
 has probably been produced by an intermixture of the prehis- 
 toric races with the conquering people who introduced the Aryan 
 languages and the use of metals into Europe. For these con- 
 querors did not destroy the conquered peoples, but mixed with 
 and changed them. Since then fresh immigrations and inter- 
 mixtures have been constantly taking place. At the present day, 
 according to Broca (Report 1865-67), the two extremes of these 
 mixtures are represented by the Basques and Fins, of which the 
 former are dolichocephalic and the latter brachycephalic. Broca 
 is moreover of opinion that dolichocephalism and brachycephalism 
 have no definite relation to intellectual development and that 
 among the European autochthones or aborigines living before the 
 Tndo-Gcrmanic immigration, many were dolichocephalic and many 
 brachycephalic, some large and others small in stature. The mix- 
 ture of these with the Indo-Germanic immigrants, according to 
 him, produced the many differences of the existing European 
 peoples. 
 
 According to Professor Schaaffhausen (Ueber die Urform des 
 menschlichen Schadels, 1868) the dolichocephalic type of the most 
 ancient skulls is lower than the brachycephalic, and must there- 
 fore be regarded as older; but it might nevertheless possibly be 
 that it migrated into Europe at a later period and, being a ruder
 
 APPENDIX. 261 
 
 but physically more powerful race, overcame and displaced the 
 brachycephalic type. This would explain why so many ancient 
 skulls of a brachycephalic race have been discovered in Scandi- 
 navia, England and western Europe generally. Perhaps also, 
 immigrations of both races into Europe may have taken place 
 from time to time {from Asia, w'here the brachycephalic, and from 
 Africa, where the dolichocephalic type predominates). 
 
 All the prehistoric men of Europe, like most savages even 
 of the historical period, were cannibals, as appears from the nu- 
 merous discoveries of broken and scorched human bones. 
 
 "If we uplift the deposits of the earth's surface" says R. 
 Schweichel in an essay on the present state of linguistic and na- 
 tural science with relation to the primitive history of man (Leipzig 
 1808), "there appears as the first inhabitant of Central Europe a 
 man, whose protruding jaws and nearly deficient forehead betray 
 a savage animal character. The elongated skull with its strongly 
 projecting eyebrows reminds one of the Negro, the Mongol, the 
 Hottentot and the Australian. This autochthon, the associate of 
 the Elephant, Rhinoceros and Hyoena, was followed by a nobler, 
 broad-headed , slender race with small hands and feet, which 
 points towards Asia. It approaches the existing Lapps, Fins and 
 Esthonians. Its associate in time was the reindeer. This race never 
 entirely disappeared. Its traces are still to be found everywhere 
 among the present population of Europe. Professor Fraas has 
 called attention to them in Swabia, where they had previously been 
 regarded as a residue of the invasions of the Huns. 
 
 "The agricultural man belongs to -another race which made 
 its appearance in the later Stone-age especially in the pile-build- 
 ings, and was the principal occupant of central Europe through- 
 out the whole Bronze-age. The rounded skull , rather broad 
 than long, indicates an energetic muscular people. That they had 
 small hands is proved by the remarkably short handles of their 
 bronze swords, which are much too small for a hand of the present 
 day. In the north of Switzerland this type has maintained itself 
 to the present day." 
 
 26 (p. 52) Sprif/g and Schnierlitig. Dr. Spring, a 
 
 distinguished savant of the University of Liege, a long time ago
 
 262 APPENDIX. 
 
 made an extremely remarkable discovery on the bank of the 
 Maas in the neighbourhood of Chauvaux. About a hundred feet 
 above the present level of the river there was a small bone-cave, 
 in the deposits of loam and stalagmite of which there were nu- 
 merous bones of animals and men lying intermixed. The con- 
 dition of these bones, which were generally split and broken, led 
 Spring to conclude with perfect justice that they were the remains 
 of a feast of cannibals or man-eaters. The human skulls and 
 fragments of skulls found here all showed a form approaching 
 that of the Negro rather than that of the European. The skull 
 appeared to be absolutely, and especially in proportion to the 
 jaws, very small; the forehead depressed, the temples flattened, 
 the nostrils broad, the dental arches very prominent, and the 
 teeth obliquely placed. The facial angle scarcely amounted to 
 700. Judging from the length of the other bones, especially the 
 thigh-bones, the race must have been of small stature. Roughly 
 worked stone-axes and fragments of burnt clay accompanied the 
 remains. 
 
 According to Vogt (Kohlerglaube und Wissenschaft, 1855) 
 all these characters "indicate a primitive kind of man more nearly 
 resembling the oblique-toothed Alfuru, the Negro and generally 
 the whole lower type of human structure, than the higher one." 
 
 Among the numerous discoveries made by Dr. Schmerling 
 in the Belgian caves and described by him, the so-called Engis- 
 shdl (from the cave of Engis on the bank of the Maas) has 
 attained the greatest celebrity. In its length and narrowness, the 
 slight elevation of its forehead, the form of the widely sepa- 
 rated orbits and the well-developed supraorbital arches, it resem- 
 bles, especially when viewed from above, the celebrated Nean- 
 derthal skull , with which it has often been compared , but 
 nevertheless in general is far superior to this in its structure. 
 Vogt nevertheless thinks it should occupy a middle place be- 
 tween the skulls of the Eskimo and the Australian, and regards 
 it with reference to the proportion of length to breadth, as one of 
 the most ill-favoured, animal-like and simian of skulls. However 
 in judging of the Engis -skull we must not forget that although 
 it was found with extinct species of animals it was nevertheless
 
 APPENDIX. 263 
 
 also accompanied by remains of many still living species, and 
 that consequently its former possessor must in all probability have 
 belonged to a comparatively more recent epoch. 
 
 Exactly opposite the Engis cave, on the other bank of the 
 Maas, is the cave of Engihoul in which Schmerling also disco- 
 vered numerous human bones mixed with bones of extinct ani- 
 mals; but these were chiefly bones of the extremities, and only 
 two small fragments of skulls could be found. They were ac- 
 companied by a few rude stone implements; indeed these objects, 
 often associated with worked bones, occurred in nearly all the 
 caves investigated by Schmerling. 
 
 The Engihoul cave was visited in i860 in company with 
 Professor Malaise of Liege by the celebrated geologist Lyell, 
 who had had his first meeting with Schmerling 26 years before. 
 Additional fragments of bones of man and animals were found 
 and are figured by M. Malaise in the Bulletin of the Royal Aca- 
 demy of Belgium for i860 (Vol. X. p. 546). 
 
 27 (p. 52) the so-called Borreby skulls from De7imark. 
 
 These skulls, found in the tumuli of Borreby and belonging to 
 the stone age of Denmark, are small, round, and brachycephalic; 
 they have a retreating forehead, a declivous occiput, a depressed 
 vertex and projecting supraorbital arches. They resemble no other 
 European race, except perhaps the Lapps or Fins. 
 
 28 (p. 53) of that from the Neanderthal. In an an- 
 cient grave near Caithness in the north of Scotland a number of 
 human skeletons and skulls of very low formation were recently 
 found. The worst-formed of these skulls is very prognathous 
 (oblique-toothed, snoutlike); its forehead is very narrow and low, 
 the skull itself depressed and rooflike in the middle; the brain 
 very scanty. With it there were 6 other skulls more or less ap- 
 proaching the type just described, and all showing in the middle 
 the rooflike projection. Probably these primitive men were can- 
 nibals, as would appear from the judgment of Professor Owen 
 upon one of the human bones found, which was split up. The 
 skulls themselves, according to Laing, approach most nearly to 
 the African t}pe. 
 
 Similar low-formed skulls were also found on the Shetland
 
 264 APPENDIX. 
 
 islands. (See the details in the Anthropological Review, February 
 1865 p. XXXIV). 
 
 Professor Wilson, who, as already stated, has made a thor- 
 ough study of the prehistoric times of Scotland and has proved 
 that before the immigration of the Celts two or three generations 
 of aborigines must have preceded them there, describes the Scotch 
 primeval man from his investigations as follows; "Intellectually 
 he seems to have occupied the lowest grade to which an in- 
 telligent being can possibly sink; morally he was the slave of 
 superstitions ideas; and lastly corporeally he did not differ much 
 from the present inhabitants of the same country, with the ex- 
 ception of the miserable development of his brain." Nevertheless 
 the stone weapons found in the Scotch graves of this period, 
 rough as they may be, are still far beyond those of the Diluvium, 
 which are larger and ruder and indicate a race of men which 
 may indeed have been stronger, but which occupied a lower 
 position. 
 
 29 (p. 53) reported 07i by Dr. Bird. One of the 
 
 graves on the Cotteswold Hills near Cheltenham contained, ac- 
 cording to Bird's report, the bones of several individuals with 
 long oval heads and narrow foreheads. These skulls were strong- 
 ly developed behind, but narrow and low in front, and contrac- 
 ted in the forehead. The frontal sinuses and eyebrows project 
 and present above a wide and deep depression of the forehead. 
 The jaws are strongly developed and the teeth very much worn 
 away. The frontal suture did not occur in many skulls of 
 children ! 
 
 Another grave contained the bones of eight human beings 
 (adults and children) with well-developed heads. With them were 
 found implements of stone and bone and old pottery. 
 
 30 (p. 54) before the Indo-Ger?natiic immigratmi. The 
 
 first account of the Neanderthal skull was given by Dr. Schaaft- 
 hausen at the Meeting of the Natural History Society of the 
 Lower Rhine on the 4th February 1857 from a plaster cast pre- 
 pared in Elberfeld. He even then stated that it bore no traces 
 of artificial deformation, but was to be regarded as a natural 
 formation, which in the strong jjrominence of the upper sujjraci-
 
 APPENDIX. 265 
 
 liary region, caused by the extension of tlie iVontal sinuses, showed 
 the human type in such a low stage of development as could 
 hardly be found among the rudest of living races of men. Dr. 
 Fuhlrott of Elberfeld, to whom we are indebted for the preser- 
 vation of these bones (which were at first regarded as those of 
 some animal), afterwards brought them to Bonn for the purpose 
 of being accurately examined anatomically, and on the 2d June 
 1857 he gave a detailed description of the place where they were 
 found and of the discovery itself before the general meeting of 
 the Natural History Society of Rhenish Prussia and Westphalia. 
 The details, together with a comparative summary of all that had 
 been previously published in books and journals upon the Nean- 
 derthal Skull, will be found in Dr. Fuhlrott's Memoir already 
 cited: Der fossile Mensch aus dem Neanderthal &c. (Duisburg 
 1865). All the attempts that have been made (by Meyer, Wagner, 
 Blake, Pruner-Bey, Davis and others) to diminish or bring in ques- 
 tion the value of this discovery with respect to the primeval his- 
 tory of man by giving it a different interpretation, must from this 
 and from the explanations given by Prof. Schaaffhausen in his 
 memoir "Zur Kenntniss der altesten Rassenschadel", be regarded 
 as completely unsuccessful. Schaaffhausen says: "To regard the 
 unusual development of the frontal sinuses in the remarkable skull 
 from the Neanderthal as only an individual or pathological (morbid) 
 deviation, there is not the slightest reason; it is unmistakeably a 
 race-type, and stands in physiological agreement with the remar- 
 kable strength of the bones of the rest of the skeleton". 
 
 31 (p. 55) as characteristic peculiarities. "It is worthy 
 
 of notice", says Prof. Schaaffhausen in the memoir cited in the 
 text, "that a similar, although smaller projection of the supraci- 
 liary arches has generally been found in the skulls of savage 
 races, as well as in very ancient skulls." Then follows a long 
 enumeration of such cases from which we select the following as 
 the most noteworthy: "The remarkably small skull from the graves 
 on the island of Mocin, examined by Prof. Eschricht; the two 
 human skulls, described by Dr. Kutorga, from the government of 
 Minsk (Russia), one of which, especially, shows a great resem- 
 blance to the Neanderthal skull; the human skeleton found near
 
 266 APPENDIX. 
 
 Plau in Mecklenburg- in a very ancient grave in a squaitiiig 
 position, and associated with implements manufactured of bone, 
 with regard to which Dr. Lisch remarks, that "the formation of 
 the skull indicates a very distant period, when man stood on a 
 very low grade of development"; and a similar discovery in an- 
 other ancient grave in Mecklenburg (the Kegelgrab of Schwaan), 
 in which the remains of no fewer than eight bodies were found 
 together in a squattitig position in the original soil, and their 
 skulls likewise presented short, retreating foreheads and project- 
 ing eyebrows." 
 
 A number of further proofs of the low development of the 
 skull and brain in the primeval man are cited by the same 
 author in a quite recent memoir: "On the primitive form of the 
 human skull" (1868), which he concludes with the following- 
 words : 
 
 "From what has just been under consideration we may re- 
 gard it as beyond doubt that a skull, which does not bear the 
 signs of a low organization, cannot be regarded as derived from 
 primeval man, even though it may have been found among the 
 bones of extinct animals. But it is further clear that we must 
 now place the man of the primeval time a step lower, than the 
 rudest savages of the actual world". 
 
 32 (p. 55) of a very high miiiquily. Even this skull 
 
 is not isolated, but it resembles many skulls from the neighbour- 
 hood of the Titicaca lake in Peru, which all, according to Bibra, 
 have a greater resemblance to the skull of an ape than to other 
 human skulls. They usually have in the middle a blunt, comb- 
 like elevation along the whole length of the skull and are so 
 badly formed that they were long regarded as artificially de- 
 formed, which, however, is certainly not the case with the skull 
 brought home by Bibra. In Algodon Bay Bibra found 30 — 40 
 tumuli in which human bodies of a small race were put together 
 in a squaiihig posture. They belonged to an old Peruvian race, 
 or to a people who chiefly inhabited the region of the lake of 
 Titicaca. Most of the mummies found in Peru and Bolivia re- 
 semble this race (See von Bibra, "Die Algodon-Bay in Bolivia 
 Vienna, 1852).
 
 APPENDIX. 267 
 
 33. (p. 56) ilevelopmeni of civilizalion. At the anthro- 
 pological congress in Paris in 1867, M. Reboux stated that he 
 had examined more than a thousand flint axes collected in the 
 environs of Paris near the Seine (at Perret, Clichy, Batignolles and 
 Nenilly), and distinguished among them three kinds, namely, split 
 off, chipped and polished. According to him the split-oft" axes or 
 chips lay lowest down and the polished ones uppermost, and they 
 were never mixed together. All this, however, was received with 
 doubt by the Congress. On the other hand Professor Broca, in 
 his Report of 1867, which has been so often mentioned, stated 
 that the gradual improvement of the flint axes of Abbeville (in 
 the valley of the Somme) had been clearly shown by Gabriel de 
 Mortillet. In the lowest beds they are lance-shaped and of large 
 size. In the gravelly sand which covers the Diluvium and in 
 which no Mammoth bones are to be found, they are elliptical, 
 elongated and of smaller size. Finally, in the light, superficial 
 soil of the declivities, they are polished and sharpened, like those 
 which have been found in the dolmens. The question whether 
 this improvement was effected by internal progress or by the 
 arrival of new peoples, is left in doubt by Broca; but according 
 to him, the latter is rendered probable by the observations of Lartet 
 and Christy. The inhabitants of the caverns of Perigord in the 
 south of France had already, according to Broca, attained a high 
 degree of dexterity and made a great number of instruments of 
 bone, ivory and Reindeer horn. Their drawings even indicate 
 an artistic feeling which leaves far behind the rude sketches on 
 many Celtic monuments (and consequently of much later date). 
 They must have led a quiet, contemplative life and were pro- 
 bably destroyed by a stronger, but ruder people. 
 
 Broca regards these advanced men of the so-called Reindeer 
 period as probably the more cultivated descendants of the rude 
 savages of the diluvial time. But notwithstanding the progress 
 they had made they still fabricated their stone implements merely 
 by the process of striking and without grinding them, as was 
 subsequently done with the smoothed or polished stones. 
 
 34 (p. 58) a special copper age. In countries out of 
 
 Europe, according to the researches of Rougemont {L'cige du
 
 268 APPENDIX. 
 
 Bronze t(V.), copper seems often to have preceded iron. The art 
 of smelting iron appears to be of very ancient date in Africa. 
 In America (Mexico, Peru &c.) scarcely anything but copper or 
 bronze was worked; iron was very rarely or not at all employed. 
 In China and Japan however, as in Europe, we can distinguish 
 the ages of stone, bronze and iron. On the other hand in the 
 north of Tartary and in Finland we may almost say that there 
 was an iron age without any copper or bronze. 
 
 35. (p. 58) against William the Conqueror. "The use 
 
 of stone weapons, leaving out of consideration certain savage 
 tribes of recent times, was much in vogue during historical an- 
 tiquity. According to Herodotus the Ethiopian archers, whom 
 Xerxes brought with him in his army against Greece, made use 
 of short reed arrows which had stone tips. During the resear- 
 ches made not long since by Francois Lenormant in ancient At- 
 tica, an enormous quantity of lance-heads, made of flint and of 
 very rude manufacture was found in a small mound. On the 
 battle-field of Marathon, in the mound which the Athenians rai- 
 sed over the bodies of those who had fallen for their fatherland, 
 a number of stone {and bronze) arrow-heads were discovered". 
 (Thomassen, Enthiillungen aus der Urgeschichte p. 36. Neuwied, 
 1869). 
 
 Tacitus also (Germania, Cap. 47) relates of a people inha- 
 biting the northwest of ancient Germany, whom he denominates 
 the Fenni, that in war they made use of arrows which were fur- 
 nished with bone tips. It is extremely probable therefore that 
 this people also possessed stone weapons. Indeed the difficulty 
 of obtaining iron in sufficient quantities even after it was known, 
 and the want oi" knowledge of the mode of working it, may have 
 induced or compelled many of the peoples of later periods still 
 to continue the employment of stone weapons and implements. 
 
 36 (p. 59) more convenietit and cheaper. For this pur- 
 pose the breadth (Spurbreite) of the iron rails and the width of 
 the railroad in general must above all be made much greater; 
 the carriages, constructed in two stories, must run not over, but 
 between the wheels, witii the lower story reaching nearly to the 
 ground; at the same time their interior must not be divided into
 
 APPENDIX. 26g 
 
 little cells for the imprisonment of martyrs, but arranged in the 
 form of large and small saloons fitted up with all conveniences, 
 and so as to facilitate communication throughout the whole train. 
 The ingress and egress of passengers to and from the train must 
 be facilitated and hastened by means of movable platforms stand- 
 ing at the same height as the perron; the ticket offices and any 
 others that may be necessary must be placed in the train itself 
 &c. With such an arrangement running off" the line would become 
 an impossibility, the detestable rocking of the carriages would 
 cease and their motion become scarcely perceptible, a far greater 
 number of passengers might be conveyed, notwithstanding the 
 greatly increased convenience, more rapidly, more safely and 
 cheaper, without any injury to health or personal comfort even 
 on the longest journies &c. 
 
 37 (p. 60) especially by Carl Vogi. Lartet's four 
 
 epochs of the Stone-age are therefore the period of the Cave- 
 Bear, that of the Elephant and Rhinoceros, that of the Reindeer 
 and that of the Aurochs, a mode of division to which MM. Troyon 
 and d'Archiac adhere in essential points. A somewhat difi'erent 
 scheme, founded upon the epochs of Swiss Glaciation has been 
 proposed by Professor Renevier of Lausanne; it is as follows: 
 
 1. Preglacial epoch, in which man lived contemporaneously 
 with Elephas antiquus , Rhinoceros hemitccchus and the Cave- 
 Bear. 
 
 2. Glacial epoch, in which man lived contemporaneously with 
 the Mammoth, Tichorhine Rhinoceros, Cave-Bear &c. 
 
 3. Postglacial epoch, in which man lived contemporaneously 
 with the Mammoth and Reindeer. 
 
 4. Lasl epoch or epoch of the Pik-buildings, in which man 
 lived contemporaneously with the Gigantic Deer, the Aurochs &c. 
 
 38. (p. 61) places of residence or of refuge. It has 
 
 been shown, especially b}- recent investigations, that even the first 
 or earliest stone period is represented in the caves, which was 
 previously doubted or left as an open question. In some caves 
 (such as the Trou INIarguerite in Belgium) stone implements exactly 
 of the character of those found in the valley of the Somme (Mous- 
 tier and St. Achcul) occurred with enormous quantities of bones
 
 270 APPENDIX. 
 
 of the extinct Diluvi;il animiils (Rhinoceros, IIye\inii, I.ion and 
 Mammoth), but certainly together with many stone knives and 
 worked Reindeer horns, Hke those from the caves of Perigord in 
 the south of France. Dupont also, the indefatigable Belgian .cave- 
 explorer, quite recently (1867) found in one of his caves a great 
 number of flint knives (about 300) associated with split bones 
 of the Quaternary period (Cave-Lion, Cave-Bear, Rhinoceros &c.), 
 evidently the remains of a feast, and these stone knives were 
 very different from those of the Reindeer period. 
 
 According to Lartet, the distinguished explorer of the French 
 caves, many of the stone wedges of the caves are perfectly ana- 
 logous to those of the open diluvial deposits, so that, as he ex- 
 presses himself, many anthropologists believe that the diluvial 
 man contemporaneously inhabited the river-vallies and the caves. 
 According to him also we must distinguish two periods, in the 
 first of which the caves were only habitations and in the second 
 only places of sepulture (like the cave of Aurignac). The habi- 
 tation of the European caves, however, persisted partially into 
 historical times, and many were even occasionally made use of in 
 the middle ages, as, for example, the Cave of the Fort de Tayac 
 which often served as a place of refuge in time of war. 
 
 In accordance with this Lartet, in a discourse delivered at 
 the Congress of 1867, distinguished tlirec kinds of caves: i. Caves 
 of the diluvial period, with remains of the Elephant, of the large 
 Cat, of the Cave-Bear &c. ; 2. Caves of the Reindeer period, which 
 contain implements made by the hand of man showing conside- 
 rable artistic progress; and 3. Caves of the latest stone-age, with 
 remains of still-living and domestic animals, with numerous ar- 
 ticles of pottery and polished or ground stone-axes. 
 
 The caves themselves, according to Desnoyers, originated by 
 fissures in the limestone rocks, which were subsequently washed 
 and made wider and wider by rivers and the action of flowing 
 water. 
 
 The use of caves as habitations is still very common among 
 the savage inhabitants of extra-European countries. The number 
 of the London Anthropological Review ibr April 1869 contains a 
 very interesting account of the cave-iuliabiting cannibals of South
 
 APPENDIX. 271 
 
 Africa by Bowker, Block and Beddoe, wliicli furnishes suffi::icnt 
 evidence of the infinite savagery of these African cannibals, whose 
 habits remind us closely of our most ancient predecessors in 
 Europe. The largest cave of this kind, which was visited and exa- 
 mined by the above-mentioned gentlemen and which was situated 
 in the mountains beyond Thaba Bosigo, contained immense quan- 
 tities of Imman bones, especially those of children and young 
 people. Their condition left no doubt for what purpose the in- 
 dividuals to whom these bones had belonged had been brought 
 to this spot. In the back of the cave there was a space enclosed 
 with stones which had served as a prison and keeping place for 
 the victims, not destined for immediate consumption. 
 
 The savages, who until recently had held their human sacri- 
 fices here, were not driven to this course by hunger, as they in- 
 habited a fertile country abounding in game. They ate even their 
 own wives, children and invalids; and the bones of one young 
 person were still in so fresh a state that it could only be sup- 
 posed, that this victim might have undergone his terrible fate 
 within a few months. 
 
 Similar caves of smaller size were scattered through the whole 
 district and were still inhabited only thirty years ago by canni- 
 bals, who were the dread of the surrounding tribes. They sent out 
 hunting parties who lay in ambush among bushes and rocks or 
 at watering places and carried off women, children and travellers 
 for the purposes of cannibalism. There still remain a good many 
 of these former cannibals, and one of them who lives not far 
 from the cave, an old fellow of some sixty years old, was visited 
 by the travellers. 
 
 Dr. Bowker, with some friends, also visited the caves at the 
 sources of the river Caledon, which are still inhabited, althougli not 
 now, as formerly, by cannibals. Here also they found an old 
 savage of the cannibal times and learned that formerly the people 
 adopted the charming practice of setting traps for the numerous 
 lions, which infest the district by tying firmly in them little chil- 
 dren whose cr}ing was to attract the lions. At present nearly 
 all the tribes, by the exertions of their old chief, Moshesch, have 
 given up the horrible practice of cannibalism.
 
 272 APPENDIX. 
 
 The corpses of the Europeans, who fell in former battles with 
 these savages, were eaten by them, with the notion that by this 
 means the courage of the deceased would pass into their devou- 
 rers. Usually they ate only the heart, liver and brain; but !in 
 times of scarcity they consumed the rest of the flesh. 
 
 39 (p. 62). . . . 7iear Schussenried in Sivabia. Up to July 
 1866, E. Dupont had examined at the cost of the Belgian govern- 
 ment no fewer than 21 caves on the banks of the Lesse in the 
 province of Namur. Among these, there were four in which nu- 
 merous traces of the Belgian Reindeer- man occurred, namely, the 
 Trou des Noutons, Trou du Frontal, Trou Rosette and Trou de 
 Chaleux. The animals, whose bones were found, belong either to 
 living species or to such as have quitted the country, like the 
 Reindeer. The industrial objects of stone are all stone knives, 
 and (with the exception of a later discovery mentioned in note 
 37) neither polished nor diluvial stone axes were found. But in 
 the Trou de Chaleux alone Dupont found more than 30,000 such 
 knives together with numerous split bones of animals and an 
 immense mass of objects manuHictured chiefly from Reindeer 
 horns, such as needles, arrow heads, daggers, hooks &c. There 
 were also ornaments made of precious stones, bored shells &c., 
 pieces of slate with engraved figures, mathematical lines and the 
 like, remains of very coarse pottery, and finally hearths, ashes 
 and charcoal, intermixed with broken bones. To judge from the 
 latter the horse seems to have served as the principal diet of the 
 Reindeer-man, and next to the horse the Fox and the Water- 
 Rat, whilst remains of Fishes occur but sparingly. In the Trou 
 des Noutons no fewer than 150 worked Reindeer horns were 
 found; their acute tips may have served chiefly for the manu- 
 facture of javelins. The Trou du Frontal, which is analogous to 
 that of Aurignac, has already been described, and contained, be- 
 sides fourteen human skeletons, numerous flint knives, bones of 
 animals, shells, hearths, coals and traces of fire. The Trou Ro- 
 sette also concealed the remains of four buried men, whose skulls 
 were completely destroyed. 
 
 Dupont distinguishes three epochs for the Belgian cave-fauna, 
 just as Lartet had done with regard to the French caves. Of
 
 APPENDIX. 273- 
 
 these the most ancient is represented by extinct animals, such as 
 the Mammoth, Woolly Rhinoceros, Cave-Bear &:c.; the second by 
 species still living but which have emigrated, such as the Rein- 
 deer and Chamois ; and the third or most recent by living ani- 
 mals, some of which have been extirpated here by man, such as 
 the Stag, Beaver, Bear &c. According to him all caves must be 
 subordinated to one of these three divisions. 
 
 As regards the antiquity of the Belgian caves, all those with 
 contents must, according to Dupont, be more ancient than the 
 so-called "Blocklehm", and their period comes between that of 
 the Boulder drift and stratified Lehm and that of the ''Block- 
 lehm". 
 
 The men of the Belgian Reindeer period were, according to 
 Dupont, small, muscular, active and subject to diseases. Their 
 skulls had the so-called brachycephalic type in a slight degree 
 and ran into a point; the face was flattened, like that of the 
 Turanian race. The whole aspect of these cave-dwellers must 
 have been very rude. 
 
 Similar results were obtained by the examination of the rub- 
 bish heap w^hich was accidentally discovered in 1867 at the source 
 of the Schusse in the neighbourhood of the Black Forest (in Swa- 
 bia). The Schusse is a little river which flows into the lake of 
 Constance, and the source of which issues upon the high plateau 
 of Upper Swabia between the lake of Constance and the upper 
 course of the Danube, nearly in the middle of the railway be- 
 tween Ulm and Friedrichshafen. Operations undertaken for the 
 improvement of a mill-pool there brought to light the characte- 
 ristic remains of a complete station of the Reindeer period. More 
 than 600 split flints were found with such a quantity of partl}^ 
 worked and partly untouched antlers and bones of the Reindeer, 
 that Mr. Oscar Fraas was enabled to put together from these 
 remains a complete skeleton of the Reindeer which is now in the 
 ^luseum at Stuttgart. Most of the bones were split for the pur- 
 pose of getting the marrow out of them. The bones of a num- 
 ber of other animals, now living only in high northern latitudes 
 such as the Glutton, the Arctic Fox &c., were also found. The 
 Reindeer bones and horns showed numerous and unmistakeable 
 
 18
 
 274 APPENDIX. 
 
 traces of their having been operated on by means of stone in- 
 struments. There were also numerous remains of Fishes, and a 
 fish-hook manufactured from Reindeer horn. 
 
 Not only the careful investigation of the geognostic condi- 
 tions of the place, but also the flora of the time (for remains of 
 mosses were found which now live only in the extreme north), 
 leave no doubt that the Reindeer station on the Schusse belongs 
 to the Glacial epoch, or that it probably belongs exactly to the 
 interval between the two Glacial epochs which in all probabilit)' 
 Switzerland has experienced. Mr. E. Desor, at the Anthropolo- 
 gical Congress of 1867, declared the deposit inquestion to be the 
 ier?m'?ial moraine of the Rhine-Glacier, which was formerly very 
 large. Moreover according to him, this discovery at Schussen- 
 ried is particularly remarkable, because it is the first example of 
 a station of the Reindeer-men in a free and open deposit, their 
 remains having hitherto been found only in caves. 
 
 40. (p. 63) especially iti Denmark. According to an 
 
 admirable article by Sir John Lubbock on the use of stone in 
 ancient times (Revue Litteraire 1865 — 66 No. i) there are in the 
 great Museum of Antiquities in Copenhagen alone about 11-12000 
 articles in stone, and the number of all the specimens contained 
 in private and public collections in Denmark is estimated by 
 Mr. Herbst at 30000! The Museum of the Royal Irish Aca- 
 demy contains nearly 700 flint flakes, 512 celts, more than 400 
 arrow heads and 50 lance heads, besides 75 of the so-called scra- 
 pers, and many other articles made of stone such as sling-sto- 
 nes, hammers, whetstones, millstones &c. In the same way the 
 number of specimens in the Museum at Stockholm is estimated 
 at between 15 and 16000. "From this," says Lubbock, "we may 
 conclude that there was a time during which human society was 
 in so rude a state, that stocks and stones, horns and bones were 
 the only instruments that man was able to procure." 
 
 41. (p. 63) 0/ this period. The first appearance and 
 
 gradual progress of the art of pottery is very characteristic in 
 the primeval periods of the human race. During the most an- 
 cient cave period it is probable that notliing of the kind was used 
 except rude lumps of clay with a hollow in the middle for keep-
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 275 
 
 ing water to drink in the interior of the caves. Subsequently the 
 vessel was dried in the sun to make it harder. But it was only 
 in the Reindeer period that man seems first to have employed 
 fire for hardening vessels. In order to make the clay resist the 
 fire better, it was probably mixed with quartz-sand. These most 
 ancient vessels are, however, very rude and manufactured solely 
 by hand as may still be seen distinctly by the impressions of 
 fingers upon them. They are usually of a blackish colour. The 
 use of the potter's wheel was introduced much later. 
 
 42 (p. 66) dj' far the inost probable. P. Gleisberg 
 
 (Kritische Darstellung der Urgeschichte des Menschen, Dresden, 
 1868) is absolutely of opinion that in prehistoric times African and 
 Asiatic races of men immigrated repeatedly and alternately into 
 Europe, and thus gave the main impulse to the development of 
 civilization. Even if this should be correct it would at any rate 
 furnish no objection to the theory of development in general, 
 inasmuch as these immigrant races must have become developed 
 in their own homes from rude primitive conditions, and unmista- 
 keable traces of the stone age and its various phases have been 
 detected in different parts both of Asia and Africa (Palestine, 
 Syria, India, the Cape of Good-Hope, Madras &c.). 
 
 J. P. Lesley also (Man's Origin and Destiny) calls civiliza- 
 tion "the blossom of the migration of tribes" and is of opinion 
 that every great section of history has started from some barba- 
 ric invasion, as also that the most nobly organized races of men 
 had the greatest tendency to migrate. According to his represen- 
 tation the north of Europe has seen three diff"erent races of men, 
 corresponding to the three sections of the stone, bronze and iron 
 ages, of which the bronze-men, who came from a great distance, 
 first introduced the knowledge of metals and their working, to- 
 gether with the sense of art and the custom of burning the dead; 
 whilst the tall, strong, long-headed men of the iron age represent 
 the taste for war and conquest and brought the tribes, which pre- 
 ceded them, into subjection. 
 
 43. (p. 70) from time to time. Proof of this is fur- 
 nished by the very interesting speech on primeval man and his 
 progress made by Sir John Lubbock in the year 1867 at the
 
 276 APPENDIX. 
 
 Meeting of the British Association at Dundee, in opposition to 
 Archbishop Whateley, who had defended the old theory of per- 
 fection. Lubbock proves by convincing arguments that Whateley's 
 theory is scientifically quite untenable, and that not only do sa- 
 vages always show traces of gradual although very slow progress, 
 but traces of former barbarism are by no means wanting even 
 among the most civilized nations. IVIany a fishing village on the 
 English coast is still exactly in the same state in which it was 
 120 years ago. It is true that there are here and there peoples 
 who have gone back instead of advancing; but these cases can 
 only be regarded as exceptions, whilst in general there is no 
 foundation in fact for the assumption of a former condition of 
 perfection. IVIetal implements and traces of pottery, which is so 
 persistent, have never been met with among peoples who were 
 unacquainted with metals, as in Australia, New Zealand, Polynesia 
 &c. The art of spinning also and the use of the bow are un- 
 kown to many savages ; and yet these are arts which, once known , 
 would never have been lost. It is the same with house-building 
 or with religion of which no trace could be found among many 
 savages, and which nevertheless, if once existent, could not easih' 
 have been lost ; — or with the art of numeration which arose 
 very gradually by counting on the fingers and toes*) and even 
 at the present day among many tribes of Brazil, Australia &c. 
 does not go beyond the numbers 2 — 4; — or with the use of fire 
 which is still unknown to many tribes, such as the Dokos in 
 Abyssinia (who know nothing of marriage or family, but go quite 
 naked and live together like animals), and which, if once known, 
 would certainly not have been lost; — or with language, which is 
 so scanty among the Australians, for example, as to possess only a 
 few hundred words and among these none to express general 
 ideas; — or with the notions of marriage, family, paternity and the 
 like, which are perfectly unknown to many savages, and which 
 can be demonstrated to have made their way only with the gra- 
 dual advance of civilization. 
 
 *) Even among civilized nations counting by the fingers and toes 
 (5, 10, 20) is still quite common.
 
 APPEXDIX. 277 
 
 Many savages (Australians, Fiji or South Sea islanders &c.) 
 only recognize maternal descent, and the Egyptians, Chinese, 
 Greeks and Jews actually have traditions as to the introduction 
 of marriage. 
 
 Ever)'where, even among tlie most civilized peoples, we find 
 in superabundance the unmistakeable traces of a former state of 
 barbarism and of the extension of a stone age over nearly the 
 whole earth. — 
 
 That people like Archbishop Whately are not wanting even 
 in Germany is proved by an essay (of which a second edition 
 has just appeared), "On the commencement of organisms" by 
 Professor J. P. Baltzer of Breslau, who takes the field against 
 Carl Vogt and his Lectures on the primitive history of man with 
 what he calls scientific arguments, but in reality with the whole 
 theological armour of the middle ages, and likewise endeavours 
 to save tlie "Man of Paradise" from his expulsion by modern 
 science. Any one who is interested to learn how this science 
 looks in the eyes of a theologian and Professor of Divinity in 
 the present day, may amuse himself for a few hours by reading 
 this essay. 
 
 The biblical Adam and the whole Judi^o-Christian idea of 
 Creation connected with him can in the present day and in the 
 present state of science only be held by those who, like the theo- 
 logians, will not and therefore cannot be convinced by scientific 
 arguments. Thousands of preachers without troubling themselves 
 about tiie clear demonstrations of science, continue every Sunday, 
 to narrate to the public again and again their childish tales about 
 Paradise, the Fall of man, the Creation of the World in six days 
 (S:c. Sec, and millions of hearers say "amen" to them every Sunday. 
 And what are the scientific men doing while this is going on? 
 They smile over these old Jewish legends and fables and mix 
 indiff"erently in the midst of a multitude which appears as if bewit- 
 ched, without making what must appear to them the desperate 
 attempt to waken the sleepers out of their dreams. And yet, as 
 J. P. Lesley says in his excellent work which has been so often 
 cited, we might as well believe in Aladdin's Wonderful Lamp, or 
 that the cathedral of Cologne was begun and finished before
 
 278 APPENDIX. 
 
 breakfast yesterday, as that man was created only 6000 years 
 ago and in a single day! "There is no alliance possible, he 
 continues, between Jewish theology and modern science; they are 
 irreconcilable enemies. Geology in its present advancement cannot 
 be brought more easily into harmony with the Mosaic cosmogony, 
 than with the Gnostic, the Vedic or the Scandinavian. It has 
 
 escaped fully and finally from its subjection to the Creed 
 
 Nor' is the difficulty diminished by calling a day a thousand 
 years. We have in palaeontology the records of a thousand ages. 
 Many of the old limestone strata are entirely made up of corals^ 
 and their triturated debris. Some of the old Devonian mud-rocks 
 are mere masses of the casts of Brachiopods, of every size from 
 the youngest to the oldest. Some of the coal-measure shales 
 are leaved like a book , and every leaf glistens with delicate 
 freshwater shells. In the Deep- river basin of North Carolina 
 millions of fish-teeth lie packed away between two layers of 
 coal which lie but two feet apart. There are more than a hun- 
 dred beds of coal in a single coal-system, each of which is the 
 result of the growth of a peat-bog, swamp, and forest of a se- 
 parate age; to say nothing of the many fathoms of rocks which 
 intervene between each one coal-bed and the next in order over 
 it; during which long interval of time the land must have been 
 too deep below the water-level to permit of vegetation. — The 
 fossil dung of the fish which swam the seas during the deposi- 
 tion of the chalk of England, was so abundant, that the farmers 
 about Cambridge collect it, as it is set free from the mother-rock 
 by denudation, and use it to manure their lands." 
 
 44 (p. 77). . . Linne. "Linne, in his system, united man with 
 the apes proper, the Prosimia; and the bats in an order which he 
 named Primates^ — that is sovereigns, or as it were the highest 
 dignitaries of the animal kingdom. Blumenbach, on the contrary, 
 separated man as a special order, under the name of Bimana or 
 two-handed, to which he opposed the united apes and Prosimice 
 under the name of Quadruma?ia or four-handed. This division was 
 adopted by Cuvier and most of the zoologists, who succeeded him. 
 It was only in 1863 that it was shown by Huxley, in his excellent 
 'Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature', that this rested on false
 
 APPENDIX. 279 
 
 views, and that the pretended 'four-handed' animals (apes and 
 Prosimiae) are just as truly 'two-handed' as man himself. In aU 
 these relations the apes and Prosimice are circumstanced exactly 
 as man; and hence it was altogether wrong to separate him 
 from the former as a special order on the ground of the differen- 
 tiation (distinctive formation, perfection) of his hand and foot. But 
 the case is just the same with all other physical characters by 
 which one might endeavour to separate man from the apes — the 
 relative length of the limbs, the structure of the skull, the brain, 
 &c. In all these respects without exception, the differences be- 
 tween man and the higher apes are less than the corresponding 
 differences between the higher and the lower apes". — Prof. 
 E. Haeckel's Natilrliche Schop/tmgsgeschichte (Berlin 1868), 
 pp. 490-91. Compare, in reference to further details, the Author's 
 Vorlesungen iiber Darwin' (Leipzig, 1868), p. 147 et seq. 
 
 That, moreover, the above alteration of the original Linnean 
 system, proposed and introduced by Blumenbach in 1799, was early 
 recognized as false and decidedly condemned from the anatomico- 
 zoological point of view may be shown by the following words of 
 the celebrated Geoffroy St.-Hilaire: — "When man is regarded as 
 a group of the value of an order, and a position is assigned him 
 as remote from the ape, as the latter is from the Carnivora, he 
 stands at the same time too near to and too remote from the 
 higher mammalia, — too near if the exalted faculties which place 
 man above all organized beings be taken into account, too far if 
 only the organic affinities which unite him with the Quadrumana 
 and especially with the true apes, be considered ; /or in a physical 
 poi7it of vieiv the latter are much 7iearer to man thatt to their pro- 
 per relatives the so-called Prosimia?. What, then, is the signi- 
 ficance of the order Bimana of Blumenbach and Cuvier? An 
 impracticable compromise between two opposed and incompa- 
 tible systems, it is one of those bastard-like assumptions, one 
 of those equivocal resources , which , more nearly considered, 
 satisfy no one , just because they are meant to please every 
 body. It is probably a half truth, but also a half falsehood; 
 for in science what is a half truth but an error?" At all events 
 this passage proves that Huxley's startling announcement rela-
 
 28o APPENDIX. 
 
 tive to the anatomico-zoological position of man can lay no claim 
 to novelty. 
 
 45 (P- 7^)- • • ^'^'^ family of ilic Anlhropini. — The whole ar- 
 rangement is as follows : 
 
 1. Anthropini. Tiiis family comprises man only. 
 
 2. Catarrhini, or 7iarro7V-fiosed, comprising the true apes 
 of the Old World. 
 
 3. Platyrrhini, or flat-nosed, comprising the true apes of 
 the New World or America. 
 
 4. Arctopithecini, comprising the sahuis, marmosets, or 
 American clawed apes. 
 
 5. Lemurini, comprising the so-called Le?nures or Prosimia;. 
 
 6. Cheiromyini, including only the Cheiroinys. 
 
 7. Galeopithecini, comprising only the flying lemur, — a 
 remarkable form, which almost touches the bats in a similar man- 
 ner to that in which Cheiro??iys approaches the Rodentia, and 
 Lemur the Insectivora. 
 
 The singularity and ambiguous nature of Galeopiihecus have 
 procured for it the most various names, as the flying dog or fox, 
 flying cat, winged ape, &c.; and its arrangement in the system 
 has occasioned to zoologists much perplexity. Combining in itself 
 some characters of the ape and of the bat respectively, it at the 
 same time presents a further series of peculiarities which have no 
 closer systematic connexion. Its arms, legs and tail are enclosed 
 in a thick and densely hairy fold of skin, which commences at 
 the neck, extends down tlie flanks and joins together both the 
 fingers and the toes like the web of a water fowl; yet this cannot 
 serve for flight, but onl}- as a parachute, by means of which the 
 animal swings itself from branch to branch. 
 
 46 (p. 79) and /he true Simicc. — According to Hackel, 
 
 the ProsimiK are very remarkable and important animals. While 
 probably numerous genera and species were living in the early 
 Tertiary period, they are represented in the present by only a few 
 living forms which have retired into the wildest regions of Asia 
 and Africa. The various genera of the Prosimice exhibit striking 
 forms of transition to the other orders of Discoplacentalia; and 
 for these as well as other reasons the now living Prosimi?e may be
 
 APPENDIX. 281 
 
 regarded as the last remnant of a very ancient and for the most 
 part long since extinct ancestral group, from which the remaining 
 orders of the Discoplacentalia have branched off, and in which, so 
 to speak, like four sisters, they had their common root or ancestress. 
 Consequently the human race also has to seek its primeval ancestors 
 in the Prosimice, separated from which it is by the intermediate form 
 of the true apes. From them Hackel traces the genealogy of the 
 human race further backwards, through the Marsupial, Ornitho- 
 rhynchian, Amphibian and Piscine stages, to the so-called Lepto- 
 cardia, which appear to be the lowest stage of the vertebrate type 
 (being without either head, heart or limbs, &c.) and are themselves 
 the product of a very long process of development out of the still 
 lower ivorms, and finally out of the most simple conceivable pri- 
 mitive organism (monad). 
 
 47 (p. 82) interesting information. — It appears from 
 
 these communications that (independently of ancient myths) the 
 first authentic account of such an animal proceeded from an 
 Englishman (Andrew Battel) in the celebrated old book ^Purchas 
 his Pilgrimage' (1613). From A. Battel, who had lived for years 
 in the kingdom of Congo, and nine or ten months in the forests 
 there, Purchas heard '^of a kind of Great Apes, if they might so 
 be termed, of the height of a man, but twice as bigge in fea- 
 ture of their limmes, with strength proportionable, hairie all over, 
 otherwise altogether like men and women in their whole bodily 
 shape. They lived on such wilde fruits as the trees and woods 
 yielded, and in the night time lodged on the trees". 
 
 In a later account by the same narrator (1625), where two 
 anthropoid apes are spoken of, he says of the Pongo, represented 
 as the larger: — "This Pongo is in all proportion like a man; but 
 that he is more like a giant in stature than a man; for he is 
 very tall, and hath a man's face, hollow-eyed with long hair 
 upon his browes. His face and eares are without haire, and 
 his hands also. His bodie is full of haire , but not very 
 thicke; and it is of a dunnish colour. He differeth not from a 
 man but in his legs; for they have no calfe. He goeth alwaies 
 upon his legs; and carrieth his hands clasped in the nape of 
 his necke when he goeth upon the ground. They sleepe in the
 
 282 APPENDIX. 
 
 trees, and build shelters for the raine They cannot speake, 
 
 and have no understanding more than a beaste. . . . Those Pon- 
 goes are never taken alive because they are so strong that ten 
 men cannot hold one of them When they die among them- 
 selves, they cover the dead with great heaps of boughs and wood, 
 which is commonly found in the forest. . . One of those Pongoes 
 tooke a negro boy of his which lived a moneth with them". 
 
 A generation later, Tulpius was the first to give a picture, 
 taken from life, of ^'■Satyrus indicus", "called by the Indians 
 orang-outang or man of the woods", which was evidently a young 
 chimpanzee. Then the existence of other Asiatic anthropoid apes 
 became known, though at first the accounts were largely mixed 
 with fable; and as early as 1699 the Royal Society published a 
 very good and serviceable anatomical comparison of a so-called 
 "Pygmie", (a young Chimpanzee from Angola in Africa) with a 
 tailed and a tailless Monkey, and with Man — a work which has 
 served as a model for many later writers. The author, Tyson, 
 starting even then from views similar to those of Huxley in our 
 own day, enumerates forty-seven points in which the Pygmie has a 
 greater resemblance to man than to the tailed and tailless Mon- 
 kies; and thirty.four in which the reverse is the case, and names 
 it the most human like animal that has yet occurred to him. In 
 1744, William Smith (A New Voyage to Guinea') describes very 
 accurately an upright-going anthropoid ape from the neighbour- 
 hood of Sierra Leone, under the name of Mandrill (man-ape), 
 which likewise must have been a chimpanzee. Linne knew no an- 
 thropoid ape from his own observation; yet he enumerates four as 
 "Anthropomorphge" (in the treatise of his disciple Hoppius), and even 
 speaks of one of them as '■''Homo caudattis" (tailed man). Buff"on, 
 who saw a young chimpanzee alive, and became possessed of an 
 adult anthropoid ape from Asia, which he called a Gibbon, gives 
 very excellent descriptions of these animals ; while a Dutch 
 naturalist, Vosmaer, in 1778 published a very good figure and 
 description of a young orang which had been brought alive to 
 Holland; and at the same time his celebrated countryman, Peter 
 Camper (1779) composed a treatise on the Orang-utan, in which 
 he showed that it formed by itself a perfectly distinct species.
 
 APPENDIX. 283 
 
 He dissected several of these animals of young age. A full- 
 grown orang of 49 inches height was shot by the Dutch resident 
 in Rembang, Borneo, at the end of the last century, and very ac- 
 curately described by von Wurmb, a German officer. The papers 
 he has left contain further descriptions of this kind, as that of a 
 specimen 4 feet 5 inches in height. At present we are more in- 
 timately acquainted with the orang-outan than with any other of 
 the anthropoid apes. Besides it, we know in Asia only the 
 gibbon, which is indeed more widely distributed and hence more 
 accessible to observation, but, on account of its smaller size, has 
 attracted less attention. 
 
 In Africa, on the other hand; the accounts of the old Eng- 
 lish adventurer Battel have been splendidly confirmed by modern 
 discoveries. Since 1835, not only has the skeleton of the adult 
 chimpanzee (Troglodytes niger), which is evidently the smaller of 
 the two mentioned by Battel, and named by him (as it is now in 
 that country) the engeko, become intimately known through Prof. 
 Owen's excellent work, but in i8ig Bowdich found strong proofs 
 of the existence of the larger anthropoid ape, named by Battel 
 the pongo, by the natives the ingetia, or engena, "five feet high, 
 and four across the shoulders," builder of a house, outside of 
 which it sleeps. In 1847, Dr. Savage saw in the house of the 
 missionary, Wilson, on the Gaboon river, the skeleton of this 
 animal; and further inquiries led to so accurate a knowledge of it 
 that Prof. Wyman was able to give a description of its osseous 
 structure. Battel's pongo was thus discovered afresh; but the fre- 
 quent misuse of that name induced Dr. Savage to apply to the ani- 
 mal the name of Gorilla (borrowed from the 'Periplus' of Hanno the 
 Carthaginian). The skeleton of the Gorilla has since been investi- 
 gated by Owen and Duvernoy; while other African missionaries 
 and travellers have increased our knowledge in other respects 
 of an animal which has had the rare fortune to be, of the anthro- 
 poid apes, the first made known to the world (by Battel), and the 
 last investigated scientifically. 
 
 According to Huxley, all the anthropoid a|)es have certain 
 morphological characters in common. Thus they all have the 
 same number of teeth as man; the nasal cavities are divided by a
 
 28*4 APPENDIX. 
 
 narrow septum and are directed downward; the arms are longer 
 than the legs and end in hands which are provided with thumbs, 
 while the great toe is always smaller and more mobile than in 
 Man, and opposable, like a thumb, to the rest of the foot. None 
 of them has a tail or the cheek-pouches common in Monkeys ; and 
 all of them are inhabitants of the Old World. The accurate 
 investigation of their mode of life has ever been extremely dif- 
 ficult, as they inhabit only the dee})est forests of Asia and Africa, 
 The gibbons are the best-known, after them the orangs, while of 
 the mode of life of the chimpanzee and gorilla we have the least 
 knowledge from the direct testimony of Europeans. Of the Gib- 
 bon there are about half a dozen species distributed over the 
 Asiatic islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, and in Malacca, Siam, 
 Arakan, and Hindostan. They are only about three feet in 
 height (thus the smallest of the anthropoid apes) and very slender; 
 they live on trees, and in the evening descend in troops to the open 
 country. They have a very loud and piercing voice, and readily 
 and ivillingly assume the upright gait ; they can also in this 
 position, with a little assistance from their very long arms and 
 hands, run swiftly; in fact, testimonies are unanimous that, on 
 level ground, this is their usual and habitual practice. Their dex- 
 terity in climbing and leaping is astonishing. They drink by 
 dipping their fingers in the liquid and then licking them, and 
 sleep in a sitting posture. Duvaucel asserts, thai he has seen the 
 mothers carry their yojing ones to the ivater ajid zvash their /aces! 
 In captivity they exhibit intelligence , cunning, mischievousness, 
 and a sort of conscience, as is shown by an anecdote told by 
 Mr. Bennett. The Orangs seldom reach a height of more than 
 four feet; but some are said to have been found between five 
 and six feet high*. They dwell in the densest forests of Sumatra 
 and Borneo, and, as a rule, the old males live alone, exce})t at 
 l)airing-timc. They live perhaps forty or fifty years, are indolent, 
 and prepare themselves a bed of boughs and leaves, between or 
 
 *) According to Spencer St. John (Life in the forests of the Far 
 East: London 1862), the orang-outan attains in Borneo the height of 
 5 ft. 2 inches; while among the natives even 5 ft. 5 inches is considered 
 a tall stature, and the average is 5 ft. 3 inches.
 
 APPENDIX. 2S5 
 
 under the trees, with dexterity and quickness. They generally lie 
 on their back or side, resting their head on their hands. In cold, 
 windy and rainy nights, they cover themselves with branches, and 
 hide their heads therein. They climb very slowly and cautiously, 
 more like a man than an ape, never make a spring, and first 
 test the branches as to whether they will bear, by shaking them. 
 In the wild state very shy and even dangerous, they are easily 
 tamed and attachable. When pursued they throw branches and 
 heavy fruits from the trees. An orang examined by Dr. Miiller 
 in captivity, was found by him to possess great intelligence (Ver- 
 handlungen iiber die Naturgeschichte der iiberseeischen Besitzun- 
 gen von Holland, 1839-45). The Dyaks of Borneo distinguish 
 several species of Orang; but these perhaps may correspond to 
 individual variations, which among the orangs are very great. 
 The skulls available show as great variation as the most pronoun- 
 ced forms of the Caucasian and the African races in ]\Ian. Simi- 
 lar facts are met with in considering the two African apes, the 
 Chimpajizee and the Gorilla. Of the adult Chimpmizces measured 
 by Dr. Savage 7ione exceeded five feet in height. They stand up- 
 right, leaning somewhat forwards, but readily fall again upon all 
 fours, in which position the hands touch the ground, not with the 
 inner surface, but with the thickened ossicles of the outer side. 
 They are good climbers, live in company, yet seldom more than 
 five together; they defend themselves chiefly with their teeth 
 make nests, or beds on the lower branches of the trees, show in 
 their habits a high degree of intelligence, especially much aflfec- 
 tion for their young, and are said by the hunters to display, 
 Avhen pursued and wounded, a very human- like deportment. 
 The natives say that the chimpanzees were once members of 
 the human race, but were excluded from the society of man on 
 account of bad conduct, and little by little degenerated to their 
 present condition*. The chimpanzee is found from Sierra Leone 
 
 *) The apes are more acknowledged as brothers by savage or pri- 
 mitive tribes than by our modern civilization. According to a commu- 
 nication from Prof. Bischoff, the negroes in Guinea and the natives of 
 Java and Sumatra look upon the orang-outan (a word signifying ''wild
 
 286 APPENDIX. 
 
 to Congo, and it appears that there are several species of them. 
 The Gorilla or pongo (the latter name probably a corruption of 
 Mpongive the name of the race of men in whose country the 
 gorilla is met with), dwells on both sides of the river Gaboon, 
 in Lower Guinea, West Africa; it is named Engena by the na- 
 tives, attains a height of about 5 feet, is very broad between 
 the shoulders, and quite covered with coarse black hair, which 
 with age bocomes grey — except the face and ears, which are naked 
 and of a dark brown colour ; the skull bears a strong longitudinal 
 and a slighter transverse hairy crest; which the animal can move 
 up and down. The neck is short and thick; the arms are very 
 long, reaching below the knee, and the hands very large. The 
 gait is waddling, and the motion of the forward-leaning body 
 rolling, or from side to side. Like the chimpanzee the animal 
 reaches its long arms to the ground and then throws the body for- 
 ward between them with a half springing, half swinging motion. 
 When it assumes the erect position (to which it is said to be 
 much inclined), it balances its huge body by bending its arms 
 upward. The gorillas also live in companies, which, however, are 
 less numerous than those of the chimpanzees, and, as a rule, contain 
 only one full-grown male; for as soon as the young males become 
 adult they fight for the supremacy, and the strongest kills or 
 drives away the rest. Their dwellings are like those of the chim- 
 panzee. The gorillas are very savage and dangerous, and never 
 flee from man, as the chimpanzees do; they are hence objects of 
 terror to the natives, and are never attacked by them. In time of 
 danger the females and young hide themselves, while the male 
 furiously rushes on the foe. These communications from Dr. 
 
 man", "man of the woods") and the chimpanzee as men who could 
 speak, if they would, but who, from mere laziness, behave as if they 
 could not. The Siamese say: ''The ape is a man, certainly not very 
 handsome, but nevertheless a brother." (Bowring, Mission to Siam, 
 1855). And in the ancient Indian heroic poem 'Ramajana' the wild 
 tribes constituting the aboriginal population of the Dekhan, against whom 
 Rama fights, are called "apes" or "'men of the woods", the island of 
 Ceylon appears as ''Laaka", and its inhabitants as apes or the offspring 
 of apes. — Note by the Author.
 
 APPENDIX. 287 
 
 Savage ^^ere confirmed by a letter from Mr. Ford to the Academy 
 of Sciences, Philadelphia, in 1852. He says that the gorilla inha- 
 bits the mountain-ranges of the interior of Guinea, from the Ca- 
 meroon in the north to Angola in the south, and about 100 miles 
 inland, and only in the south approaches within 10 miles of the 
 coast. Formerly, he says, it was found only in the neighbourhood 
 of the sources of the Gaboon, while recently it boldly approaches 
 the plantations of the Mpongwe. This may be the reason that 
 formerly we had scarcely any information about it. A specimen 
 examined by Ford weighed 170 lb. without the viscera, and measu- 
 red 4 ft. 4 inch, round the chest. According to the same author, 
 it attacks in an erect position, with a furious bellowing, that may 
 be heard to a great distance, and, having thrown down its adver- 
 sary, lacerates him with its teeth. A young one, taken alive, pro- 
 ved perfectly untamable, and died at the end of four months. 
 Similar testimonies are given by French authors; and after what 
 we already know of the gibbon, orang, and chimpanzee, they 
 cannot very much astonish us. Particularly, as it has been proved 
 that the gibbon readily assumes the erect position, the gorilla is 
 in its entire structure much better adapted for doing the same. 
 Hence the distrust with which the statements of a recent tra- 
 veller (Du Chaillu) have been regarded is scarcely justified, since 
 every thing essential was known before. There is absolutely noth- 
 ing improbable even in his accounts respecting the Nschiego- 
 Mbotive and the Koolou-Kamha. Nevertheless, just on account of 
 this distrust, not yet removed, Huxley has avoided quoting Du 
 Chaillu's book in any way. The author has briefly given the 
 essence of Du Chaillu's account of the gorilla, the pecuHarly an- 
 thropoid koolou-kamba, and the nest-building ape the nschiego- 
 mbouve in his work, 'Aus Natur und Wissenschaft, Studien, Kri- 
 tiken und Abhandlungen' (Leipzig, 1869) II. Ed. p. 297. 
 
 48 (p. 83) by some other apes. — Thus, although in 
 
 proportion to its size it has the largest brain of all the anthro- 
 poids, yet the chimpanzee, and especially the variety of it the 
 koolou-kamba, which has a very broad forehead, has a better-for- 
 med skull, the orang a better-formed brain, and the gibbon is 
 superior in the formation of his trunk-skeleton, which is very
 
 288 APPENDIX. 
 
 similar to that, of man. On the other hand, the gorilla has the 
 shortest arms of all and the greatest resemblance to man with 
 respect to the shoulders- blade and the proportion between the 
 humerus and forearm. The same holds good with respect to the 
 more elevated nasal bones, the less-projecting intermaxillaries, and 
 the human-like shape of the ear. The broad, human-like pelvis, 
 the stronger development of the sciatic muscles, and the so-called 
 jiiasioid processes of the skull, developed in the gorilla alone, 
 lead to the conclusion that he is more adapted than other apes 
 for standing erect. The hand is peculiarly human-like, having a 
 proper thumb and short fingers, and is attached to the arm by 
 eight carpal bones, as in man, not 7iine as in other apes. It is 
 just the same with the lower limbs, which are distinguished by a 
 proportionally strong development of the heel, making the gorilla 
 more plantigrade than the chimpanzee. The number of the ver- 
 tebrae in each of the anthropoids is the same as in man; on the 
 other hand, the gorilla and chimpanzee come nearer to man in 
 the number of their ribs, which amounts to 13, while man, as a 
 rule, has 12 (sometimes 11 or 13), and the other apes possess 14. 
 The full-grown male gorilla has also a longitudinal crest-elevation 
 on the forehead, which is not generally possessed by the other 
 apes. The large occipital foramen, the more forward position of 
 which in man makes it possible for him to maintain the erect 
 posture, occupies nearly the same place in the skull of some of 
 the apes; and the number, arrangement and nature of the teeth 
 are alike in man and ape. 
 
 In the autumn of 1864, at the meeting of the Natural-His- 
 tory Society of Rhenish Prussia and Westphalia, Prof. Schaaff hausen 
 exhibited three excellently finished plaster busts of the gorilla, as 
 well as casts of the brain, hand, and foot, executed by Zeiller, the 
 sculptor, in Munich, from the animals which W. Sclimidt, of 
 Offenbacli, has prepared and stuffed for the city of Lubeck. At 
 the same time he exhibited photographs of the specimens in 
 London, Paris, Vienna and Lubeck. On the basis of the Lubeck 
 animals, and availing himself of Prof. Owen's celebrated memoir, 
 P. Meyer, M. D., Offenbach, composed his exhaustive treatise: 
 'The Gorilla, with a Consideration of the Differences between
 
 APPENDIX. 289 
 
 Man and Ape, and the new Theory of the Transformation of 
 Species.' Subsequently, two more examples arriving at Offenbach 
 from Lubeck, one of them a large, very strong, full-grown male, 
 he added an appendix of further details. Both of these, especially 
 the latter, are illustrated with very good figures, true to nature, in 
 which the animal stands as he is described by Winwood Reade in 
 his most recent account of his travels (1864) — erect on his feet, 
 and holding by the hands to the branches of the trees. The 
 measurement of the facial angle of a skull sent with them, which 
 must have belonged to a very old animal, gave, according to 
 Meyer, 55°. the capacity of the cranium being 26 cubic inches. 
 The occipital foramen was situated pretty forward towards the 
 centre of the basis cranii; and the two sole remaining lateral cut- 
 ting-teeth were strikingly like human incisors. 
 
 49 (p. 84) nearly half the tribes oti the face of the 
 
 earth. — "E. Geoffroy saw how the artificers in the bazars at Cairo 
 made use of their great toe for a thousand purposes of grasping 
 or seizing. — A Nubian, or negro, on horse-back prefers to take the 
 reins between the great toe and the other toes; and all Abyssinian 
 horsemen ride in this manner. — The negroes on the dahabiehs or 
 passenger-boats that navigate the Nile climb the main sail-yard 
 by seizing the sail-rope with their foot. — "Modera narrates that one 
 day three naturalists in the north of New Guinea beheld the trees 
 full of natives of both sexes, who, with their arms behind them, 
 were leaping from branch to branch, gesticulating like apes, 
 screaming and laughing." (G. Pouchet.) Further examples of the 
 use of the human foot as an organ for grasping may be seen in 
 my 'Vorlesungen iiber die Darwin'sche Theorie', pp. 197, 198, and 
 how very common this use appears to be among wild races in 
 general who live partly on trees. In the same direction points 
 the peculiar circumstance that among these poeple the great toe 
 is, as a rule, much further removed from the other toes tlian 
 among Europeans, who by constantly clothing and squeezing the 
 foot have more or less alienated it from its original destination. 
 
 50 (p. 87) the trachea^ the brain, etc. — The following 
 
 may be regarded as the most essential marks of distinction of 
 man from the animals most nearly related to him: — the shortness 
 
 19
 
 290 APPENDIX. 
 
 of the upper and the length of the lower limbs in proportion to 
 the trunk ; the broader pelvis and scapula or shoulder-blade ; the 
 arcuate curve of the vertebral column, and the whole formation 
 of the skeleton, favouring the upright gait, and the corresponding 
 parts of the muscular system; the shortness of the spinous pro-, 
 cesses of the cervical vertebrae; the more perfectly formed hand, 
 with its very mobile and opposable thumb, its use favoured by the 
 facility of movement of the arm ; the greater contrast in form and 
 function between hand and foot, and the increased division of 
 labour effected thereby; the globose form and the size of the 
 skull, and its height and largeness in relation to the more retreat- 
 ing face and the less-projecting jaws; the quicker coalescence of 
 the so-called intermaxillary bones and the greater perfection of 
 the so-called mastoid processes of the skull; the prominent nasal 
 bones, the projecting chin, the mouth with lips; the smaller teeth, 
 constituting an uninterrupted series of nearly equal height; the 
 larger and better-formed brain, &c. &c. All these, however, are 
 more or less relative and are balanced by manifold intermediate 
 and transitional stages in savage and extinct races of man and 
 other animals. Here, too^ as everywhere. Nature knows no abrupt 
 transitions, but only variations in a gradual development which 
 everywhere pursues the same fundamental plan. The oft-quoted 
 J. P. Lesley, here again, well says: "The differences which sub- 
 sist between man and ape and between the different races of 
 man, as well as those between the different races of apes, are 
 only variations of the great fundamental plan common to all. 
 Take for example the ideal brain-case. It may be more simioid 
 or more anthropoid; it may be dolicho-or brachycephalic, have a 
 low, retreating, or a high, erect forehead; it may exhibit a per- 
 fectly even rotundity, or be lumpy and knotty like the root of a 
 bay tree; it may be high and pointed, or enormously depressed 
 between the ears; it may bulge out over the ears, or before and 
 behind, and be ridged and channelled from side to side; yet all 
 these are differences we are accustomed to see daily, and which 
 we should see if we extended our steps to the forest of the tropics. 
 The whole thing is one of degree, or, still better, of execution in 
 details. In like manner an architect, having explained to his
 
 APPENDIX. 291 
 
 pupils the plan common to all Gothic churches, would show them 
 the different modes in which the fundamental idea of this plan is 
 carried out in the different churches of Europe". 
 
 51 (p, 89) or the land of the Phoeacians. — "The human 
 
 body", says Georges Pouchet in an excellent treatise on anthropo- 
 logical studies (Revue de la Philosophic positive, 1866, No. 2), 
 "furnishes to general anatomy not a single new fact. It neither 
 possesses any special tissue nor any special anatomical element ; 
 nay, it even lacks certain anatomical elementary parts which are 
 found in other ^^ertebrates — for example, the so-called electric 
 tissue. This positively established point in general anatomy, as 
 well as every thing we know of the properties of organized matter, 
 enables us already to recognize the worthlessness of certain an- 
 thropological theories. It is now fully proved that all functions 
 and all faculties of the living being can be reduced to the proper- 
 ties of the elements and tissues of which it is composed. We 
 prefer the term function for the phenomena of what is called 
 vegetative life, and faculty for certain phenomena of 'animal life'; 
 but the faculties just as much as the functions, are only the exter- 
 nal manifestation or interpretation {/raduch'on) oi^ certa.in properties 
 which reside in organized matter, and especially in certain anato- 
 mical elements. In order, therefore, to justify the admission of the 
 existence of a new and essentially peculiar faculty in man, such, 
 for instance, as has been made out of "re/tgiousness", at least a 
 peculiar anatomical tissue for it would have to be specified; for a 
 faculty unconnected with the other animal faculties, and indepen- 
 dent of an organic basis, is now-a-days inconceivable, except in 
 contradiction to all our anatomical knowledge. 
 
 "If we pass from general to comparative anatomy, we here 
 also find no phenomenon of importance which is absolutely proper 
 to man, except the volume of his cerebral hemispheres. All the 
 other characters are subordinate and of equal value with the dif- 
 ferences observed between the Mammalia themselves. If we were 
 determined to find the sign of man's predominance in his upright 
 gait or in the arrangement of the tendons of his hands, our judg- 
 ment would be like that of the Athenian philosopher who defined 
 man as "an animal with two legs and without feathers." Diogenes 
 
 19*
 
 2g2 APPENDIX. 
 
 threw a plucked fowl to him over the walls of the academy, thu> 
 ridiculing the wretched logic of the master." 
 
 52 (p. gi) high development of the diferent parts of 
 
 the hrain. — On this affair of Professor Owen, and on the general 
 question of man's place in nature. Prof. Broca, in his Report for 
 1863 (Report on the Transactions of the Anthropological Society 
 of Paris), expresses himself as follows : — 
 
 "From the zoological or anatomical point of view, man dif- 
 fers less from the four higher Apes than they do from the rest of 
 the apes. With them he constitutes a natural group, the Anthro- 
 pomorpha, of which he forms only the first subdivision; and our 
 learned colleague, Prof. Charles Martins, of Montpellier, has made 
 us acquainted with two new osteological characters which are met 
 
 with in this group alone Man is man through his intellect; 
 
 and if he be distinct from the lower animals, he must be so by 
 virtue of his brain, which is the organ of intelligence. Never- 
 theless anatomy finds between the brain of the chimpanzee and 
 that of the lord of the earth only slight differences of form and 
 constitution, which have been pointed out by M. Auburtin. The 
 distinctive marks asserted by Prof. Owen have been repeatedly 
 recognized as inaccurate. The higher apes, like ourselves, possess 
 a posterior lobe of the cerebrum, a posterior cornu of the large 
 lateral ventricle of the brain, and a hippocampus minor; and 
 nothing in the order of things, except the very considerable diffe- 
 rence of volume and the unequal abundance of the secondary 
 convolutions , entitles us to assume a decided , absolute diffe- 
 rence between the brain of the lowest man and that of the 
 highest ape." 
 
 53 (p. 92) can be structurally distinguished from 
 
 Mans. — As early as 1861, Huxley pointed out, as the only 
 differences between the brain of the ape and that of man, the fol- 
 lowing: — I, in the ape the brain, in comparison with the nerves 
 which issue from it, is smaller than in man; 2) in the ape the 
 cerebrum, in comparison with the cerebellum, is not so large as 
 in man; 3) the convolutions are less complex and more sym- 
 metrical in the simian than in the human brain; 4) the hemispheres 
 are rounder and deeper, and the proportions of the individual
 
 APPENDIX. - 293 
 
 lobes to one another more varied. Finally in the simian brain 
 certain windings and furrows are altogether wanting or only pre- 
 sent in a rudimentary condition. At the meeting of the British 
 Association in 1862, the anatomist Flower and Prof. Rolleston 
 took part with Huxley in opposition to Owen ; and Rolleston would 
 only admit as valid four differences between the human and the 
 simian brain — two qualitative and two quantitative. These dif- 
 ferences relate, i, to weight and height; 2, to the facial angle and 
 the division of the windings and foldings of the brain. Thus 
 Owen was quite isolated. 
 
 In an altogether similar manner the French savant Gratiolet, 
 perhaps the highest authority in the dcj)artment of cerebral ana- 
 tomy, expresses himself on the difference between the human and 
 the simian brain. He says that the former has throughout the 
 same type (character of formation) as the brain of the ape. The 
 cerebellum of the ape is quite covered behind by the cerebrum. 
 This latter has very much reduced olfactory lobes, and large cor- 
 nua to the lateral ventricles. The optic nerve vanishes, as in 
 man, almost entirely in the large hemispheres of the brain; while 
 in the other Mammalia it has its own centre, the corpora quadri- 
 gemina. The convolutions, too, are essentially the same, even to 
 some variations. Hence all the differences relate only to subordi- 
 nate characters; and the most essential of them relate to the de- 
 velopment of the convolutions during foetal life. 
 
 Mayer (\'erhandl. der Niederrhein. Gesellschaft fiir Natur- 
 kunde, Nov. 7, 1862) indicates as a principal characteristic of 
 the brain of the ape in comparison with that of man, together 
 with the smoother upper surface of the posterior lobe, "the 
 tapering of the anterior lobe, and the great concavity of its 
 under surface." Indeed, besides the difference of size, the deve- 
 lopment of the anterior or frontal lobes being so much inferior to 
 that of the rest of the brain, may establish the most essential dis- 
 tinction of the simian from the human brain; as is well known, 
 the frontal lobes stand in an altogether special relation to intelli- 
 gence and have recently been recognized as the proper seat of 
 the organs of the exceedingly important faculty of speech. Hence, 
 then, by his protruding broad and strongly developed forehead,
 
 294 . APPENDIX. 
 
 which corresponds to the fore part of the cerebrum, man is very 
 essentially distinguished, even at the first glance, from all animals, 
 and especially from his cousins the anthropoid apes. In this res- 
 pect a transition between man and animal is formed by the negro, 
 whose narrow and retreating form of forehead is likewise connec- 
 ted with a proportionately smaller 'development of the anterior 
 lobes of the cerebrum, and who not in this respect alone, but also 
 in the formation of the rest of his brain, as well as the structure 
 of his whole body, is well known to have many perceptible resem- 
 blances to the ape. According to Huschke, the brain of the 
 negro, by the preponderance of its long diameter, the incomplete- 
 ness of its convolutions, the shallowness and narrowness of its 
 anterior hemispheres, the roundish form of its cerebellum, the lar- 
 geness of its so-called vermiform process and the proportionally lar- 
 ger pineal gland, stands decidedly at a lower and less perfect stage 
 of development, corresponding on the one hand to the form of 
 a new-born European infant, and on the other to that of the 
 animals next to man. Generally, the differences in brain between 
 higher and lower races of men are quite the same as those be- 
 tween the brains of man and ape. Prof J. Marshall (Proceedings 
 of the Royal Society) found in the brain of an old Bushwoman, 
 which was very small (weighing only 2174 ounces), the convolu- 
 tions much less developed, simpler, and less marked by secon- 
 dary furrows [sulci) than the brain of European women, — as ge- 
 nerally a stronger or more numerous formation of sulci, according 
 to R. Wagner (Vorstudien, &c.), occurs in the brains of persons 
 of extraordinary intelligence, and is characteristic of them. The 
 observations of the same gentleman have established the impor- 
 tant fact that in the brains of human foetuses of five or six months 
 there is met with a formation perfectly like that in the lowest ape. 
 This fact confirms afresh the old principle of organic morphology, 
 that the human embryo repeats in its successive transformations 
 the forms of the lower animals, which have remained at those 
 lower stages of development. 
 
 In relation to the distinction of the human from the animal 
 brain, the greatest weight has always, and rightly, been attached 
 to relative size, although size by itself is only a rough or imper-
 
 APPENDIX. 295 
 
 feet standard for the determination of the mental value of a brain ; 
 for, on the one hand, it is essential to consider the ratio of the 
 size of the body to that of the brain, and, on the other, the grey 
 substance only, which covers the surface of the brain, can be 
 regarded as the seat of consciousness and of the higher men- 
 tal activities, while the ivhile substance is rather the conduc- 
 tor and medium of the nerve- forces which flow to and from 
 the brain. Hence, then, the great value and significance of the 
 furrows and convolutions of the brain; for the more numerous 
 and deeper these are, the greater the development of the grey 
 substance. 
 
 It is not surprising then, if, for example, the brain of the 
 elephant, weighing from 8 to lolb., exceeds the human brain in 
 absolute size by more than as much again; yet the ratio of its 
 weight to that of the whole animal amounts to only 73300, while 
 the human brain makes up ^'35 or 737 ^^ ^^^ whole body. The 
 whale's brain also exceeds the human brain in absolute size. The 
 brain of man and that of an anthropoid ape are more comparable 
 in respect of absolute size, since here the proportions of the size 
 of the body nearly agree, while the human brain far exceeds that 
 of these apes in volume and weight; for while Welcker estimates 
 the average cranial capacity of an adult man to be 1375 cubic 
 centimetres, he says that of the largest of the anthropoids, the 
 gorilla , never exceeds 500. Expressed in cubic inches , the 
 cranial capacity of the Gorilla varies from 26 to 34 cubic inches, 
 while that of Caucasian man amounts to from 92-114, and in in- 
 dividual cases still more. Of course this very considerable diffe- 
 rence is again very much reduced in the case of the coloured or 
 lower races of men, as Malays, Chinese, negroes, American In- 
 dians, &c., the capacities of whose crania, according to the ac- 
 curate measurements of Morton, Prof. Wyman and others, are as 
 low as from 85 to 75 cubic inches, and those of the Hottentots 
 and Alfurus have minima of 65 and 63 cubic inches. Individual 
 Hindoo skulls are said to have been met with having an internal 
 capacity of no more than 46 cubic inches. The average cranial 
 capacity of the gorilla amounts to 26-29 cubic inches, that of va- 
 rious apes of the much smaller chimpanzee to 21-26. The cranial
 
 2g6 APPENDIX. 
 
 space of human microcephali or "small heads" may even fall 
 considerably below the mean of the simian. 
 
 As to zvt'ighi, human brains have been known of 2, 3, 4, 
 and even nearly 5 pounds, while the brain of a large ox or horse 
 does not weigh 2 pounds. N'egro-hnxms weigh, on the average, 
 about ^Ib.*); while the weight of brain of the large anthropoid 
 apes varies from 10 to 20 oz. According to Huxley, it is doubt- 
 ful whether a healthy brain of an adult man ever weighs less 
 than 31 or 7^2 ounces (or about 2 lb.), and whether the heaviest 
 gorilla-brain ever exceeded 20 ounces; while he gives the weight 
 of the largest known human brain as 65 or 66 ounces (41b. 2 oz.). 
 Moreover R. Owen, in the 3rd vol. of his 'Anatomy of the \'er- 
 tebrata' (1868), states that the brain of an Australian woman 
 weighed 32 ounces, that of a Bushwoman only 30-^/4 ounces, 
 while the brain of Cuvier, the celebrated anatomist, weighed 
 64 ounces (or 41b.) 
 
 The so-called Camper's facial angle, which is a good index 
 of the development of the anterior portion of the brain, amounts 
 in the Caucasian race to 80-85", ii^ t^^e negro to 65-70°, in the 
 Neanderthal skull to 56-66°, and in the orang and chimpanzee 
 to not quite 50°. Besides, all the proportions of the skull and 
 brain are disproportionately more favourable as to form in young 
 apes than in full-grown or old ones, the chief reason being that 
 after birth the simian skull no longer continues to advance pari 
 passu with the other parts, but is retarded in its development 
 and finally remains stationary, similarly to the skulls of microce- 
 phalic or little-headed men. 
 
 54 (p. 94) or by budding, sprouting and the lil<e. — 
 
 These lowest kinds of organic propagation were for a long time, 
 during the earliest periods of the earth's liistory and its peopling 
 with organic life, the only ones generally subsisting, and are even 
 now widespread in the lowest regions of animal and vegetable 
 
 *) In the American war 141 negro-brains were weighed, the average 
 ■weight of which amounted to 46. 96 oz., while the weighings of another 
 observer brought out a mean of 45 oz. The largest of these 141 brains 
 weighed 56 oz., or S'/zH^jj "le smallest, only ^^^1^ oz.
 
 APPENDIX. 297 
 
 life, under the nam e of asexiia/ propagafi'ofi or ampkigony {Ha.cke\). 
 The simplest organic corpuscles we are acquainted with, and 
 which consist of merely an amorphous minute clot of mucus, the 
 so-called Monerce, propagate themselves only by a circular con- 
 striction of the the substance of their body and a consequent self- 
 division. The so-called cells, and those organisms which consist 
 only of simple cells, (as for example, the AmcBbce), do the same 
 only with this difference, that in them a constriction and division 
 of the nucleus precedes. Higher organisms, those consisting of 
 groups of cells, also propagate themselves by division — as, for 
 instance, the coral-animals. — Genwiation is not less widespread than 
 propagation by division ; it takes place by a prominence rising from 
 the original (one- or more-celled) organism, becoming larger and 
 larger, and finally either separating from the parent organism as an 
 independent being, or else, while remaining connected with the 
 latter, yet carrying on an independent life and growth of its own. 
 Bud-formation is more general in the vegetable than in the ani- 
 mal kingdom. — With bud-formation is closely connected a third 
 and a fourth mode of asexual propagation, or that by the for- 
 mation of spores and germ-buds, in which the parent organism 
 forms in its interior single cells or groups of cells, which after- 
 wards quit it and are further developed by themselves. This for- 
 mation, in which only a very minute portion of the producing 
 organism effects the propagation, conducts us at once to sexual 
 generation, which is the usual one among all the higher animals 
 and plants; its characteristic is that the female ovum or germ- 
 cell must be fertilized by male semen in order to attain the ca- 
 pability of further development. Moreover two separate individuals 
 of different sexes are not always required, since in the case of 
 hermaphrodites a single individual combines in itself both genera- 
 tive elements. It is evident that the separation of the sexes was 
 developed from the formation of hermaphrodites and iirst took 
 place at a mucli later period in the earth's history. It is now the 
 general mode of propagation of the higher animals, while, on the 
 contrary, it is found in a smaller number of cases among plants. 
 In it the female individuals form only ova, the male only semen 
 or (among plants) pollen-grains. An interesting transition-form
 
 298 APPENDIX. 
 
 between asexual and sexual generation is what is called partheno- 
 genesis (or virgin generaiion), which is frequent among the Articu- 
 lata ; here the germ-cells, perfectly resembling in appearance ovum- 
 cells, develope into new individuals without any need of the ferti- 
 lizing semen. In many cases, from the same germ-cells different 
 individuals spring, according to whether they have been fertilized 
 or not: thus, of the honey-bees, males (the drones) spring from 
 not fertilized, females or workers from fertilized ova. (According 
 to Hackel: Natiirliche Schopfungsgeschichte, 1868). 
 
 55. (p. 95) supplies from the maternal organism. — 
 
 Just that portion of the fowl's egg, which from its minuteness 
 escapes the observation of the novice and of the housewife who 
 uses the Q^g for cooking-purposes, is in reality the most impor- 
 tant, because from it the development of the young being begins. 
 It is only after this ovule or proper ovum is formed in the 
 ovary that the other substances which complete the &%g (yelk, 
 white, and shell) gradually take their places around it. These 
 substances contain all the materials necessary for the formation 
 of the young chick, as fat, albumen, salts of lime, &c., out of 
 which muscles, nerves, bones and feathers can be developed; 
 while the calcareous shell enclosing the whole permits by its 
 porousness, the entrance and exit of the necessary gases. N»w, 
 in order to bring about the development of this crude amorphous 
 mass, which contains within so small a space all the elements 
 and dispositions necessary for the formation of a living organic 
 being, nothing is required but warmth and a comparatively short 
 time, during which the simple germ contained in the yelk under- 
 goes a whole series of well-known stages of development or for- 
 mative changes, as the last result of which the finished chick ap- 
 pears. A more striking proof of the spontaneous activity and 
 creative force of Nature, excluding all not material or not natu- 
 ral influences, cannot be found! 
 
 With many animals, as with the frog, the whole of this 
 metamorphosis proceeds outside of the body of the mother, 
 and not within a closed shell, but openly, so that the develop- 
 ment can be the more easily observed of the tadpole into the 
 proper frog.
 
 APPENDIX. 299 
 
 It is well known that the insect world also presents numerous 
 examples of this gradual change of form — a change which is 
 often so considerable that only scientific investigation could de- 
 monstrate that animal forms so widely different in appearance 
 belonged to each other. Everywhere, however, whether we con- 
 template the highest or the lowest grades of the animal world, 
 the nature and the course of the transformation are fundamen- 
 tally the same and follow the same immutable laws. Hence, 
 infinitely various as nature appears in her inumerable modes 
 of manifestation she remains fundamentally ever the same, single 
 and uniform! 
 
 56 (p. 96) cvhich siaftip lis final character. — The ex- 
 ceedingly important facts of embryology, or the science of the 
 gradual development of the embryo from the ovum, were first 
 established about the middle of the last century, by the great 
 German naturalist Caspar Friedrich Wolf, in his celebrated 'Ge- 
 nerations-Theorie.' Till that time the altogether false belief had 
 prevailed that in the ovum was contained from the first an ex- 
 ceedingly minute but yet perfect organic being in the form of the 
 future animal, which required nothing more than to grow larger 
 by incorporating the nutriment supplied by the media surrounding 
 it. The ancients, indeed, were generally acquainted with the em- 
 bryo only in a pretty far advanced stage of development, at which 
 the form of the future animal may be recognized with some dis- 
 tinctness; and certainly this gave rise to the theory of evolution^ 
 which for a long time dominated science. Now-a-days this theory 
 is completely displaced by Wolf's theory of epigenesis, which shared 
 the fate of nearly all great discoveries; for it remained unacknow- 
 ledged for half a century, until Oken, Meckel, Baer and others 
 brought it into credit. 
 
 57 (p. 105). . . . atid yet ivas at last discovered by Goethe. — 
 The discovery of this pair of bones, which, present in all Mam- 
 malia, are situated between the upper jaw-bones proper, and bear 
 the four upper incisors, was rendered difficult in man because 
 they very early coalesce with the upper jaw-bones (maxillaries), 
 and are only recognizable in the skulls of very young subjects. 
 In human embryos the intermaxillary may be exhibited at any
 
 300 APPE.VDIX. 
 
 time; and in some few individuals it is preserved distinct 
 during their whole life. This discovery, of course, rendered quite 
 untenable the opinion of the older naturalists , that the inter- 
 maxillary constituted a prime mark of distinction between man 
 and a])e. 
 
 Moreover, Dr. Carus has recently discovered an independent 
 intermaxillary in the skulls of two Greenlanders and expressed, 
 his opinion that this character is perhaps common to all Green- 
 landers' skulls. The separation is described by Carus as like that 
 found in the skull of the foetus, as well as in those of quadru- 
 peds; hence it points to an approximation towards the formation 
 belonging to the lower animals. 
 
 58. (p. no) name of ape men. — Vogt regards 
 
 microcephaly as an arrested formation of the brain, especially of 
 the anterior hemispheres; and lie believes that it corresponds to 
 a lower stage in the developmental history of man, and therefore 
 has a typical significance; while other investigators see in it only 
 a morbid malfoj-mation brought about by various causes, and deny 
 that it has any meaning in favour of the derivation of man from 
 a lower animal. According to Vogt, moreover, there is a great 
 analogy between the microcephalic brain and that of the ape as 
 regards the laws of their growth, in that both are distinguished 
 from the normal human brain by their increase of volume after 
 birth proceeding only very gradually and to a small degree, while 
 the brain of a healthy human child during the first year after 
 birth makes a vast advance, increasing proportionally nearly as 
 much in that time as it 'does during the rest of its life. Now 
 as arrested growths are in a manner the mile - stones on the 
 path which leads back to the point of origin of man, microce- 
 phali are, according to Vogt, nearer to the ape and so to 
 the common ancestor of the latter and man, than is an ordi- 
 nary man. A description of two living microcephali is given, by 
 tlie author of the present work, in No, 44 of the 'Gartenlaube' 
 for 1869. 
 
 59 ({). 112) /// all essential points. — In suj)port of his 
 
 views M. Schaaffliausen called attention to a series of facts and 
 investigations which have now become the common talk of the
 
 APPENDIX. 301 
 
 day, as: — the existence of the large anthropoid apes (which even 
 in Cuvier's time were held to be fabulous animals), and their ap- 
 proach to the human form; the forms, discovered, by geology 
 and palaeontology, showing the transition from tertiary to recent 
 times ; the probability of the discovery of fossil or petrified 
 human bones; the investigations concerning primitive man and his 
 rude animal-like condition; the resemblance of the lower human 
 races, and especially the negro, to apes and other animals; the 
 occasionally approximations of the human structure to that of 
 beasts; the importance of inheritance in relation to body and 
 mind; the necessary connexion between bodily {especially cerebral) 
 organization and intelligence, &c., &c. As regards the human 
 reason, which is generally considered an insurmountable barrier be- 
 tween man and animal, it is, according to Schaaflfhausen, only 
 "the result of a finer and more complete organization," as the 
 human body can only be regarded as the finest and most perfect 
 expression of animal organization, — it is not a gift of Heaven 
 bestowed equally on all men, nations, and times, but a result of 
 universal human education; while even in beasts an incipient ten- 
 dency to all the activities of the human mind is to be pointed 
 out, and in a higher degree the nearer they approach to man; 
 for in the animal mind, banished to a narrow sphere, the funda- 
 mental forces of the human mind are latent. Thus reason is 
 is "that higher qualification which proceeds from the propor- 
 tionate development and completion of all our soul's faculties, to 
 which the human family has been gradually matured, and which 
 will conduct it to ever greater intelligence," &c. "The speach, 
 too, of wild tribes, compared with the languages of cultivated 
 peoples, is poor in words and inflections; many sounds are ab- 
 sent. What is there against the supposition that it has been de- 
 veloped from rude beginnings, from simple tones?" 
 
 In a treatise written in 1853 (therefore six years previous to 
 Darwin's) on the constancy and the transformation of species, 
 which already with forcible reasons combated the dogma of their 
 unalterability and vindicated the transformation theory even 
 against men like Baer, Vogt, and Burmeister, we read: "Should 
 it be thought derogatory to man to regard him as the last and
 
 302 APPENDIX. 
 
 highest development of animal life, and derive all the superiority of 
 his nature from the perfection of his organism. . . especially as 
 a series of most telling facts evidence the approximation of the 
 most highly developed ape to the lowest type of man most clear- 
 ly? But if all the facts speak convincingly for a gradual transi- 
 tion from the most recent geological period to the present state 
 of things, a like conclusion must be valid also for the earlier pe- 
 riods less known to us , and the whole creation must appear 
 as a series of organisms connected by propagation and deve- 
 lopment". 
 
 A few years later the author, in his lecture "Ueber den Zu- 
 sammenhang der Natur- und Lebens-Erscheinungen" (1858), felt 
 himself justified in expressing positively his conviction of the grand 
 unity of all nature, animate and inanimate, and all her pheno- 
 mena — a unity which previously scarcely any one had ventured 
 to anticipate. "Superstition and miracle," says the author, "it is 
 true, vanish before the new natural philosophy, but not the grea- 
 test miracle, the self-consistent universe! Know-ledge is never a 
 clog to the freest thought; it can only give new wings to the 
 imagination." 
 
 The discourse concluded with the prophetic words: — "It has 
 always been conceded that the idea of a gradual development of 
 organic life by a continually operating creation is bold and magni- 
 ficent; but it was supposed to be void of truth. // ivill he no 
 little satis/action to the o/ien erri7ig htonan mmd jvhen it shall be 
 showfi that the jnost exalted thought ive can conceive of Tiatiire is 
 also the truest!" 
 
 60 (p. 112) the first nourishment of his mouth the viilk 
 
 of an animal. — In the further course of his treatise, which starts 
 from palseontological facts, Reichenbach relies chiefly on the 
 knowledge which has been gained among savage races, and on 
 the points of animal-resemblance of the Negro, the New-Hollan- 
 der, the Bushman, the Peschera, the savages of the interior of 
 Borneo and Sumatra, &c., as well as on their lower grade of 
 mental culture. Also, towards the end of his pamphlet he distinctly 
 expresses the idea of the gradual rise of the whole animal and 
 vegetable kingdoms from a cell-formation intermediate between
 
 APPENDIX. 303 
 
 plant and animal; and he concludes with the words: "But what 
 is the most incomprehensible of all is, that a great natural phi- 
 losopher of our time should say that man is a modification of 
 the Deity, when we know from nature that he is only a modified 
 animality." 
 
 That these views, so openly expressed at that time, in op- 
 position to the general prejudice, did little more than draw upon 
 their originator ill-will and scorn, and, after they were printed, 
 passed away without leaving a trace, is easily understood. The 
 Author had an opportunity, at a subsequent assembly of natura- 
 lists, of becoming acquainted with the old gentleman who had 
 such an acute presentiment of the scientific future; and certainly 
 the triumphant development of his views which has followed must 
 have been a joy and satisfaction to him, even though he himself 
 remained forgotten. 
 
 61 (p. 115) ... . fiecessary connexion therewith. — Neverthe- 
 less, and in spite of the materialistic sentiment here and else- 
 where so openly expressed, Mr. Huxley (probably alarmed at his 
 own boldness and vexed at the shock given to his bigoted and 
 stiff-minded countrymen) has recently thought it necessary to give 
 a categorical negative to the worn-out, but still always dreaded, 
 accusation of materialism, thus abjuring, at least to a certain 
 degree, the bold spirit with which he six years previously opposed 
 the prejudices of his time and the outcry of ignorance. At any 
 rate the defence contained in an article in the February number 
 of the 'Fortnightly Review' for i86g, (which created so great a 
 sensation in England that several editions of the number con- 
 taining it quickly followed one another) is so ambiguous in ex- 
 pression that at its conclusion the reader is not at all sure whether 
 Mr. Huxley has been pleading for or against materialism. Only 
 one thing is clear, namely the declaration, "personally I am not 
 a materialist ; on the contrary I believe that materialism contains 
 grave philosophic error." Nevertheless all the arguments in the 
 article are as materialistic as possible and are sustained by a 
 materialistic sentiment and fundamental view, and the conclusions 
 arrived at are altogether materialistic. That antimaterialistic 
 avowal, therefore, can only have been possible to Mr. Huxley
 
 304 APPENDIX. 
 
 by his accepting a current error which has been a hundred times 
 refuted , but still is ever repeated , and taken materiaUsm in the 
 sense of a philosophic system resting on d priori speculation. 
 This designation may, perhaps, have been deserved by the mate- 
 rialism of former ages, although thai always, far more than all 
 the oppossite tendencies, relied on experience and actual fact; 
 while the materialism of modern times does riot deserve that 
 designation and ought much rather to be named a method than 
 a system. The distinction made by Mr. Huxley between mate- 
 rialistic method and materialistic system , adopting the former 
 and rejecting the latter, is quite inadmissible. No One, Mr. Hux- 
 ley included, can now say whither the materiahstic method, which 
 now-a-days is universally predominant in natural science, will in 
 time lead us in the explanation of natural occurrences, and whe- 
 ther it may not even bring us nearer and nearer to the much- 
 abused materialistic system. It is therefore very precipitate and 
 at least imprudent, to turn round upon general consequences or 
 convictions, to the bringing on of which the works of those who 
 now oppose them have most of all contributed. Science cannot 
 advance merely by experiment and observation; supposition and 
 hypothesis are also necessary and have always been the most 
 decided pioneers of scientific progress. What we do not know, 
 we try to guess; what w^e are unable to guess, we try to investi- 
 gate; and what we cannot yet investigate, we must at least try 
 to define as sharply as possible as a problem for future investi- 
 gation. No means must appear to us too insignificant by which 
 w^e may hope to come nearer the truth. Nothing, then, is more 
 ridiculous than that pride of not knowing, with which so many 
 respectable men of science are at present fond of acting in op- 
 position to materialistic endeavours. Apart from the fact that 
 actual [ignorance often hides behind this pompous profession of 
 not knowing, it betrays very little ardour for investigation when 
 men are always trying to push into the foreground the u7ihiown, 
 and very little penetration not to see that the entirely relative 
 conceptions of knowing and not hiozving cannot in this wise be 
 pushed asunder and contrasted; for, however much we may know, 
 learn, and experience, behind it all there w'ill always remain the
 
 APPENDIX. 305 
 
 territory of the unknown, immeasurable and to our power of 
 conception impossible to estimate. Then always forward into 
 this unknown land! never backward! must be the watchword of 
 every investigator and man of science animated by a genuine 
 love of truth. 
 
 Yet we find Mr. Huxley himself, in the above-mentioned 
 article , induced to declare that the order of nature is de- 
 terminable by our faculties to an unbounded degree, and in 
 another place he puts without hesitation "matter" and "na 
 tural law" as the two conceptions which in future are des- 
 tined to set aside all other methods of explanation. "And as 
 certainly" he says, "as every future is composed of a present 
 and a past, so surely will the natural science of the future more 
 and more extend the empire of ynalier and natural laiv , till it 
 becomes synonymous with knowledge, sense and action! The 
 consciousness of this great truth weighs, it seems to me, like 
 a nightmare upon many of the best spirits of the present time. 
 They watch what they call the spread of materialism with the 
 same feelings of terror and impotent anguish which the savage 
 experiences, during a solar eclipse, when he sees the great shadow 
 creeping over the face of the sun." 
 
 How little share, moroever, jNIr. Huxley's inmost conviction 
 can have in his opposition to materialism, is as evident as such 
 a thing can be from the following sentences, w^hich he has ven- 
 tured to write in an article entitled "Positivism and the Science 
 of the Present" (Revue des Cours Scientifiques, Oct. 1869), when 
 endeavouring to repel Mr. Congreve's animadversions on his 
 attacks upon the French philosopher Comte in his treatise "The 
 Physical Basis of Life.": "If there is any thing which is clear 
 in the present progress of science, it is the tendency to reduce 
 all scientific questions, with the exception of purely mathematical 
 ones, to what is called molecular physics that is, to the attraction, 
 repulsion, motion and combination of the smallest particles of 
 matter". And further: "The phenomena of biology (the science 
 of life) are as immediately related to molecular physics as are 
 those of chemistry; and this is a fact acknowledged by all 
 chemists and biologists who see beyond their own immediate
 
 306 APPENDIX. 
 
 occupation". If this is not a materialistic confession of faith in 
 its best form, coming very near to "materialism as a system", 
 the difference between Mr. Huxley's views and those of the 
 Author can only lie in the difference between their apprehensions 
 of the idea of "materialism". 
 
 62. (p. n8) .... and presefii the type 0/ those of St.-Acheul. 
 "The lower jaw from La Naulette", says Prof. Schaaffhausen 
 (Ueber die Urform des menschlichen Schadels , 1868), "shows 
 a clearly animal prognathism (oblique-toothedness) in the ab- 
 sence of a chin, a feature so important in the expression of the 
 human countenance. Here the upper jaw takes part in the 
 prognathism by forming behind the cutting -teeth an obliquely 
 directed surface. This striking formation had not hitherto been 
 observed; it is presented in a less degree in the fossil jaws 
 from Arcy; 1 find it also in the very ancient piece of a lower 
 jaw-bone from Fritzlar, in a young jaw from Uelde, in which 
 the canine tooth projects nearly 4 millimetres beyond the mo- 
 lar , and in the lower jaw from Grevenbriick , which also in 
 the elliptic form of the dental arch betrays the low grade 
 of its possessor." (This ellipticity, which is also possessed by 
 the lower jaw from La Naulette, is due to the narrower base 
 of the rude human skull and the projection of its upper 
 jaws; the dental arch of skulls of noble form being parabolic. 
 Among savage races, the inferior Negroes, the Australians and 
 especiall}' the Malays, like the apes, exhibit this lengthened form 
 of the dental arch.) 
 
 "The shape of the forehead of the Neanderthal skull", 
 says Schaaffhausen in another place in the same treatise, 
 "the dentition and the form of the lower jaw from La Nau- 
 lette and the prognathism of some children's jaws of the 
 Stone Age of Western Europe excel in animal -resemblance any 
 thing of this kind which can be observed among living sava- 
 ges", and, in a Report on the Transactions of Scientific Con- 
 gresses, he connects therewith the amply justified expectation, 
 that "tertiary Man" would "bring us still more distinct tokens of 
 animal form." 
 
 A rei)ort to the London Anthropological Society, by Dr. Carter
 
 APPENDIX. 307 
 
 Blake, the Secretary, on the jaw from La Naulette and the 
 condition of the place where it was found, is contained in the 
 July and October Parts of the 'Anthropological Review', 1867, 
 p. 294 et seq. It appears therefrom that with the jaw were found 
 a human ulna, two human teeth and a fragment of a worked 
 Reindeer-horn. After a close comparison with more than 3000 
 jaws of various races of man, he comes to the conclusion that 
 the Naulette jaw was contemporary with the mammoth and rhi- 
 noceros and presents characters which approximate it to those 
 of the coloured races of man, especially the Australian, or even 
 go beyond what is found in them. He will not "venture to 
 deny its indubitable similarity to the jaw of a young ape." 
 
 63 (p. 124] human species. — If the idea of species is 
 
 indefinite, that of 7-ace is so, if possible, in a still higher degree, 
 and consequently furnishes the clearest proof of the want of 
 determinate marks of distinction between the different species of 
 man and of the existence of innumerable intermediate forms 
 and transitional stages. The number of human races distin- 
 guished by different men of science at different times has varied 
 from two or three to fifteen! and yet each writer has his special 
 characters, according to which he undertakes the distinction of 
 the races, as colour, hair, form of skull or face, geographical 
 distribution, &c. The most popular classification of human races, 
 and at the same time the simplest; is that of Link and Cuvier, 
 who distinguish only Caucasians (white men), Mongols (yellow 
 men) and Ethiopians (black men); while the celebrated Blumen- 
 bach added the Red or American and the Brown or Malayan 
 Race; and according to Schaaft'hausen , there are properly only 
 two distinct races — an Asiatic, and an African — between 
 which all the other forms may be arranged. Baer distinguishes 
 SIX, Prichard seven, Bromme ien, Desmoulins and Pickering eleven, 
 Bory de St.-\'incent fifteen races, and so on. 
 
 Alteration of climate, change of dw^elling-place or of exter- 
 nal circumstances generally alter races, although never to such 
 a degree as to make them quite unrecognizable; for a new race 
 is never a simple product, but always a result of iivo causes — 
 one represented by the pri?nilive race, and the other by the
 
 308 APPENDIX. 
 
 naUire of the medium. Hence two different races (for example, 
 the Aryan and the Semitic) may both be very much altered in 
 a foreign climate and yet never become one and the same race. 
 Overlooking this important point gave rise to many misconceptions 
 and false opinions in the old controversy on the unity or plura- 
 lity of the human species. Moreover some races can thrive very 
 well, even in foreign climates, and propagate their peculiarities: 
 for instance, the Jews, the Canadians, the New- Hollanders, the 
 European inhabitants of the Cape of Good Hope, &c. 
 
 64 (p. 124) number of primiiive languages. Accord- 
 ing to Schleicher, certain language - provinces may be distin- 
 guished on the earth's surface, just as botanical and zoological 
 provinces have been. This holds good, for example, of all the 
 languages of the aborigines of America, which, notAvithstanding all 
 their variety, exhibit such an agreement that a special original 
 source, common to them all, may be imagined. Most confusedly 
 intermingled are the civilized languages of Asia and Europe. 
 
 Consequently we have every reason to suppose that, in 
 essentially homogeneous and neighbouring districts, similar types 
 of language were developed independently, just as, it may ac- 
 cording to all probability be supposed, was the case with man 
 himself. 
 
 The origin and development of language as such, of course, 
 falls far anterior to all history, and accordingly in the second of 
 the three periods distinguished by Schleicher for the development 
 of man generally: i, of physical development; 2, of the develop- 
 ment of language; 3, of historical life. Indeed many organisms 
 on the way to becoming man may not have been developed up 
 to the stage of speech-formation, but have fallen into a stationary 
 condition and then become retrograde. "The remains of these 
 beings that have continued speechless, become arrested and never 
 become human, are presented to us in the anthropoid apes of 
 the f)resent time." 
 
 65. (132) were or were not provided ivith a 
 
 navel. This oft-proposed question is generally treated as only a 
 jest and like the similar one: Which existed first, the eg^ or 
 the hen? And yet, as soon as Adam and Eve are regarded as
 
 APPENDIX. 309 
 
 another designation for the first human beings generally, there 
 is in it the deepest wisdom and the whole mystery of the origin 
 of man. Every placental animal (including man) that is born 
 living from a mother's- womb bears externally the distinct sign of 
 its former physical connexion with the maternal organism in the 
 form of a navel; and the absence of this would signify a sub- 
 stantial creation not dependent on parents. Scientifically such 
 a thing is impossible or inconceivable. Hence the first human 
 beings also must have borne this sign of their natural origin; 
 and from this simple consideration the logical necessity of the 
 whole descendence-theory follows. It also follows from the relation 
 of hen and egg; for no hen can be produced witliout an egg, 
 and no egg without a hen. Hence each of them can only be 
 the last result of a long preceding transmutation of forms and 
 ultimately of a spontaneous origination of the first and simplest 
 element of organic form! 
 
 66 (p. i,\5) .... which he had opporinm'tr of observing 
 very closely. — Mr. Wallace (see 'The Malayan Archipelage', London, 
 1868) was so fortunate as to come into possession of a very 
 young, uninjured female Orang and to keep it alive for nearly 
 three months. During this time he was able to observe its be- 
 haviour closely and was astonished to see how much it resem- 
 bled that of a human child. "Thus", says he', "the poor little 
 thing began to lick its lips, draw in its cheeks and turn up its 
 eyes with an expression of the greatest satisfaction when it got 
 a morsel that suited its taste. On the other hand, when its food 
 was not sufficiently sweet or savoury, it turned over the piece a 
 moment with its tongue, as if it would try the flavour, and then 
 spat it out. If the same aliment was continued, it began to 
 scream and to stamp with its feet, just like a child in a passion. 
 It was its usual tactic to scream, if it thought itself neglected 
 and wished to attract attention, although it exhibited its mental 
 superiority to the human child by gradually ceasing to scream 
 ^^■hen no notice was taken, but immediately began again if it 
 heard any one's footstep. During its illness, which ran its course 
 like an intermittent fever and killed it, it exhibited phenomena 
 altogether human-like."
 
 3IO APPENDIX. 
 
 Mr. Wallace also communicates many interesting details re- 
 specting the adult Orang, The most remarkable is its custom 
 of preparing itself a sleeping-place for the night. He saw an 
 animal, that had been wounded by a shot-, immediately seek for 
 safety at the summit of an immense tree. "It was in the highest 
 degree interesting to me to observe," says our authority, "how 
 excellently he selected his place, and with what agility he stretched 
 out his unwounded arm on all sides, broke off strong boughs with 
 the greatest quickness and ease and placed them one over another, 
 so that in a few moments he had formed a leafy hut that quite 
 concealed him from our view." Mr. Wallace also remarks that 
 on three occasions he saw the Orang when irritated, hurl branches- 
 of trees to the ground. The Orang, moreover, is feared more on 
 account of his strength than his size ; and the natives told Mr. 
 Wallace that, of all animals of the forest, only the Crocodile and 
 the gigantic serpent {Python) ventured to attack the Orang, and 
 he generally conquered them. 
 
 According to Grant ('Account of the Structure of an Orang- 
 outang', 1828), the Orang, when agreeably excited, is even capable 
 of a sort of laugh; this is especially worthy of notice, because laughter 
 has mostly been designated as an exclusive prerogative of huma- 
 nity. On the other hand, he gives distinct signs of his despera- 
 tion or grief. Grant says of the Orang observed by him: "He 
 emptied his porringer upon the ground, whined in a peculiar 
 manner and threw himself vehemently backwards to the earth, 
 while he beat his chest and body with his hands and from time 
 to time uttered a sort of groan." Dr. Yvan, who was attached 
 to the French Expedition to China in the year 1843, tells us 
 (Voyage et Recits, Bruxelles, 1853) that Tuan (an Orang from the 
 island of Borneo) clothed himself as soon as ever he could lay 
 hold of any piece of stuff for the purpose*. One day, his master 
 having taken away from him a mango-fruit, he set up a peevish 
 
 *) The wealing of clothes, too, has been indicated as if it were an- 
 exclusive prerogative of man, although so many savage peoples go naked, 
 and, as the above example shows, even animals exhibit a disposition to 
 clothe themselves.
 
 APPENDIX. 311 
 
 howling, like a vexed child. As this was not successful, he threw 
 himself flat on his belly, beat the ground with his fist, screamed, 
 wept and howled for more than half an hour. When at last 
 the fruit was given back lo him, he threw it at his master's head. 
 His favourite companion was a Manilla negrito; he was also fond 
 of playing with children. "One day, when rolling on a mat with 
 a girl between four and five years old, he suddenly ceased play- 
 ing and devoted himself to the closest anatomical investigation 
 of the child. The result much astonished him; he retired to a 
 corner and repeated on himself the same investigations that he 
 had made on his little comrade". 
 
 In the year 1836, the celebrated Geoffroy-St.-Hilaire, the 
 learned naturalist, mingled with the crowd which the arrival of 
 an orang drew to the Paris Zoological Garden, in order to hear 
 an opinion on this animal from the mouths of people entirely 
 without prejudice and unacquainted with the rules of systematic 
 classification. The result surprised the philosopher himself; all 
 unanimously declared that the animal from Sumatra was neither 
 an ape nor a man. "Neither the one nor the other", this was 
 the universal impression experienced. 
 
 Dr. Abel, at Java, had a young Orang-utan who used to 
 prepare himself a proper bed every evening, with boughs and 
 leaves, on a large tamarind tree that stood near the dwelling- 
 house. Afterwards, on the voyage home with Dr. Abel, he used 
 to make himself a bed with sail-cloths and rolled himself up 
 therein. If canvas was not to be had, he would take the sailor's 
 shirts and clothes which were hung up to dry. 
 
 Vosmaer had an Orang that exhibited the same cleverness 
 in arranging his bed. 
 
 W — r gives a similar account of the life of an Orang 
 (Gartenlaube, i860, No. 2). When the ship on board of which 
 the ape was came into colder parts, he never came on deck 
 without bringing his woollen blanket and wrapping himself in 
 it. His bed he accepted gladly, although he had never known 
 such a thing previously; and before sleeping in it twice or thrice, 
 he made it each time. Every night he slept exactly twelve 
 hours. In the kitchen, in order to play the cook a trick, he
 
 312 APPENDIX. 
 
 used to turn the water-cocks. Glass vessels, &c,, in which he 
 received wine or other drink, he never broke, but put them care- 
 fully aside after using. His features remained always alike, just as 
 those of savages do. He died through drinking up a bottle of 
 rum, which he had stolen, uncorked and emptied. During his 
 illness, his pulse was often felt; every time his master came to 
 his bedside he stretched out his paw to him. 
 
 A similar account is given of a Chimpanzee, who had been 
 bled during an illness, and every time he felt unwell stretched 
 out his arm. 
 
 Generally the large apes become in captivity, and in inter- 
 course with man, quite other beings than in the wild state. They 
 become accustomed to wear clothes, drink out of glasses, use a 
 spoon and a fork, uncork bottles, clean boots and brush clothes, 
 and are even said to be employed at the Cape in a number of 
 useful labours of the house and field. It is said that on ship- 
 board they help to reef and furl the sails. They make them- 
 selves a bed with a raised pillow, show an inclination for ladies, 
 light a fire and cook food thereon, dust furniture, clean the floor, 
 try to open locks, &c. Buflfon's celebrated Chimpanzee extended 
 his hand to visitors, went arm in arm with them , ate at table 
 sitting and with a napkin, used fork and spoon, wiped his mouth, 
 poured out a glass, fetched coffee, put sugar in it &c. A. Bastian 
 saw, on an English man of war, an ape sitting among the sailors 
 and sewing as zealously as the}-. Josse tells of an Orang that was 
 on good terms with all on board, except the butcher, whom he 
 only approached timidl}-, cautiously examining his hands. Degrand- 
 pre tells of a Chimpanzee that heated the oven, let no coals fall 
 and summoned the baker when the oven was heated. Le Vaillant 
 had an ape, whom he employed for seeking roots and who sought 
 to devour some secretly, but quickly concealed them whenever 
 he was surprised. 
 
 Werner Munzinger, the celebrated traveller, informs us that 
 the apes who live in the vicinity of villages (for example, belong- 
 ing to the famous ApeSlaie near Karen) are familiar with man 
 and never do any thing to injure him; wliile those of the lonely 
 parts, who seldom get a sight of him, regard him as an enemy.
 
 APPENDIX. T,IT, 
 
 and attack a solitary individual or only two together, but do not 
 venture to approach several. 
 
 The resemblance of the large apes to man makes the hunt- 
 ing of them very exciting and unpleasant; and Du Chaillu, in 
 his great work, has communicated some very interesting infor- 
 mation thereon. Brehm (Gartenlaube, 1862, No 40) says: "There 
 is one thing very characteristic of the ape-hunters: even the most 
 inured hunter cannot get rid of the idea that by killing an ape 
 he has committed a murder. The demeanour of a dying ape is so 
 human, that a cold shiver runs through one's frame when he has 
 to recognize himself as his murderer." (It may here be remarked 
 that the naturalist Schimper, who resided 28 years in Abyssinia, 
 assured Brehm that the accounts of assaults by male apes on 
 human females were no fables). 
 
 One day Dr. Boerlage, in Java, shot at some apes, and 
 hit a mother. She fell, mortal!}- wounded, from the tree, tightly 
 clasping a young one in her arms, and died weeping. The 
 scene was so affecting to him and his hunting companions, that 
 they firmly resolved never again to shoot an ape. The sight 
 of a dying African ape made a like impression on one of 
 the officers of the British exploring expedition under Captain 
 Owen. On the river Zaire he mortally wounded an ape; and was 
 so affected that he determined never to seek such an amusement 
 again. 
 
 With regard to the large aj;es and their intelligence, compare 
 further the statements of the author of the present work, follow- 
 ing Du Chaillu, on tlie gorilla, the kulu-kamba, and the nschiego- 
 mbouve or nest-building ape in Africa, at pp. 297 — 307 of his 
 collected essays "Aus Natur und Wissenschaft". 
 
 67. (p. 138) no more in favour of their vieivs. — 
 
 There are men and races of men, who have scarcel}- more 
 understanding than certain animals, and have as little idea of 
 religion or a moral world. Tlie lowest among the Oceanians 
 and Africans (as the aboriginal Australians, the South-Sea ne- 
 groes, Bushmen, Central-Africans, (Sec, &c.), are entirely desti- 
 tute of general ideas or abstract notions. Past and future con- 
 cern them not; they live only in the present. The Australian
 
 314 APPENDIX. 
 
 has no words to express the ideas of God, religion, righteous- 
 ness, sin, &c. ; he knows almost no other sensation than that 
 of the need of food, which he endeavours in every way to satisfy 
 and makes known to the traveller by grimaces. "In them the 
 capability of considering and inferring", says Hale (Natives of 
 Australia, &c., 1846), "appears to be very imperfectly developed. 
 The reasons which the colonists use in order to convince or per- 
 suade them are mostly such as are employed with children and 
 half-imbeciles." 
 
 An interesting letter (an abstract of which is given in No. 
 15 of the 'Ausland' for 1861) from a Frankfort lady, wife of 
 Dr. Bingmann, who, with her husband, emigrated to Australia, 
 depicts the natives as a race below all others in the capability of 
 improvement. They live quite naked, in huts of bark, in which 
 they sleep with their dogs. They indolently endure hunger, thirst, 
 cold and wet, eat any thing, insects, serpents, worms, roots, ber- 
 ries, &c., have no fixed dwelling-place, no tribual property and 
 are quite incapable of civilization. The missionaries have long 
 given up every attempt to civilize them; for if one baptizes them, 
 it has no more efl^ect than the baptism of a dog or a horse; they 
 understand nothing of the signification of the act. Each district 
 has a different dialect; so that at every 50 or 60 miles distance 
 they cannot understand each other. Marriages are very loose; 
 infanticide is universal; the aged are put to death. At ten or 
 twelve years of age they are already full-grown; and they live, 
 on the average, not more than 36 years. Advanced age is very 
 rare. Mentally, Madame Bingmann says, they are mere children; 
 they find amusement only in childish tricks and trifles. They live 
 only in the present and think neither of the past nor the future. 
 They cannot be taught any principles; they are dead to all mo- 
 rality. They know no sentiment, no spiritual life, no love, no 
 gratitude , but only unbridled passion and the sense of their 
 nothingness against the white races. Their complete extinction 
 is now only a question of time. The men of Australia appear, 
 like the animals and plants of that country, to have remained at 
 an earlier, imperfect stage, through being cut off from the rest 
 of the world.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 j^y 
 
 In 1864, Prof. Schaaffhausen laid before the Niederrheinische 
 Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde some photographs of the 
 natives (soon to become extinct) of Van Diemen's Land, which 
 he had received from the Rev. R. R. Nixon, the English Bishop 
 in Tasmania, and remarked that they showed such a surprising 
 resemblance to the apes as is presented by scarcely any other 
 race of men. Nixon had been obliged to desist from all 
 attempts at conversion, because the poverty of their language 
 and conceptions rendered every higher religious idea impossible 
 to them. 
 
 The aborigines of iVeru Caledonia, akin to the Fiji-Islanders 
 and belonging to the Papuan group, have, according to the ac- 
 count of Von Rochas, no shame, go quite naked, and indulge in 
 a number of sexual excesses of the basest kind. They have in- 
 telligence, as the beasts, hut no moral emoh'otis, are faithless in 
 the highest degree, perjured, crafty, will strike any one dowa 
 from behind, are cannibals, eating not merely their enemies, but 
 even their own relatives, can only with great difficulty count the 
 lowest numbers, use strong abortives, and bury the aged alive. 
 If a chief is hungry, he straightway knocks down one of his 
 subjects. — 
 
 Turning from Australia to Africa, we encounter among the 
 lowest human races there the same brutal degradation and irra- 
 tionality. "It is sufficient." says Eichthal (Briefe iiber die Ne- 
 gerrasse, 1839), ^o have seen black men and to have lived some 
 time among them, in order to be convinced that here is pre- 
 sented a different human nature from that of white men." The 
 experienced English traveller Burton depicts the negro of East 
 Africa as a being without any moral idea, or any thought reach- 
 ing beyond the narrowest circle of things perceptible by the senses. 
 He has or knows no conscience, no logic, no history, no poesy, 
 no belief except the grossest superstition, no domestic life, no 
 attachment to kindred, ro inclination to labour, no gratitude, ro 
 compassion, no care for the future, &c. Mentally he is totally 
 barren, and, though he can probably observe, he can deduce 
 nothing from what he has observed. Hence he has remained at 
 the first beginnings of civilization, and for thousands of years has
 
 3l6 APPENDIX. 
 
 -made no progress, although he has had sufficient contact with 
 •cultivated peoples. He lies, even without aim or profit, and is 
 in the highest degree obstinate and self-willed, just as some 
 animals are accustomed to be. His fetichism is only a rude, 
 sensual superstition, the expression of abject terror. If he has 
 killed any one, his only concern is lest the ghost of the mur- 
 dered man should molest him. He combines all the incapacity 
 and credulity of childhood with the obstinacy and stupidity of 
 age. 
 
 Similar was the experience of the celebrated traveller Sir 
 S. W. Baker in the region of the sources of the Nile (Explora- 
 tion of the Nile-Sources, 1866), The Kytsch negroes, on the 
 White Nile, he calls mere apes, and says that for their nourish- 
 ment they trust solely to what nature supplies. They lie for 
 hours on the ground, waiting till they can seize a field-mouse. 
 They go perfectly naked and smear their body with ashes. "Sa- 
 vages so dreadfully degraded", says Baker, "I never saw before." 
 The mission to the negroes of Sudan is perfectly useless. Moor- 
 lang, the missionary, says of them that they are inferior to cattle 
 and inaccessible to all moral feeling. Baker made the same ob- 
 servation among the Latuka negroes, a tribe in the interior of 
 Africa. They know neither gratitude, nor sympathy, nor self- 
 denial; they have no idea of dut\- or religion, know nothing that 
 is good, honourable, or honest, but only lust, selfishness, cruelty, and 
 above all, violence. Tliey are thievish, lazy, envious, and ever 
 ready to plunder their weaker fellows and to sell them into 
 slavery. 
 
 The same holds good of innumerable other African tribes, 
 as of the Mpongwes in Central Africa (of whom the American 
 missionary John Leighton, who lived four years among them, re- 
 ports that they possess neither religion, nor priests, nor sacrifice, 
 nor religious assemblies), of the Bechuanas (of whom Livingstone, 
 Andersson and others have given accounts), of the Kaffirs, the 
 Hottentots, the Bushmen (which latter are accustomed to be 
 reckoned among the most degraded of the races of men and 
 live on the steppes of Southern Africa, in holes in the earth dug 
 out with their hands, feeding on insects, worms, and small birds,
 
 APPENDIX. 317 
 
 which they swallow unplucked), &c. All that these tribes know, 
 or think they know of God, has first been brought to them by 
 the missionaries. 
 
 Moreover all these tribes are exceeded in brutal ferocity by 
 the Dokos, who inhabit the south of Shoa, an unexplored region 
 of Abyssinia, and of whom the missionary Dr. L. Krapf, in an 
 English work on his eighteen years' stay and his travels in East 
 Africa, gives very copious information from the statements of a 
 slave of Ennrea. The Dokos are human pigmies, growing not 
 higher than 4 feet, their complexion dark olive. They wander 
 in the woods and live in an utterly brutish manner, without ha- 
 bitations, or temples, or holy trees, and so forth. They go quite 
 naked, feed on roots, fruits, mice, serpents, ants, and honey, and 
 clamber about the trees like monkeys. They have no chief, no> 
 law, no weapons no wedlock, no family, and indulge in promiscuous 
 intercourse like the beasts, whereby they increase very fast. Mothers 
 suckle their children only a short time and then abandon them. 
 They hunt not, dig not, sow not, and are not even acquainted 
 with the use of fire. Yet they decorate themselves with necklaces 
 of snake's bones. They have thick lips, a flat nose, little eyes, 
 long hair, and long nails on the fingers and toes, with which they 
 root in the earth. They are taken by stronger races and used 
 as slaves. Du Chaillu, in his travels in Equatorial Africa \n 
 1863-64, found a race of men called the Obongo or dwarfs. Their 
 stature amounts to from 4 to 5 feet; their skin is dirty yellow 
 they have a narrow forehead, but prominent cheek-bones, and an 
 untamably fierce look. Their legs are short, their chest and 
 thighs covered with woolly hair. They live by hunting, on roots 
 and wild fruits, bury their dead in hollow trees, speak a peculiar 
 language , and live in huts made of leaves. (See 'Ausland" 
 1867, No. 14). 
 
 In Karl von Hiigel's work: 'Der stille Ocean und die spa- 
 nischen Besitzungen im ost-indischen Archipel' (Vienna, 1860^ 
 printed as a manuscript), there is a very similar communication 
 on the aborigines of the Philippuie Islands. This distinguished 
 naturalist says (p. 358): — 'The aborigines of the Philippine Islands 
 as previously mentioned, are more than probably that black race
 
 3l8 APPENDIX. 
 
 of men whom the Spaniards named, on account of their small 
 negro form, riegorillos de montes or dwarf negroes of the moun- 
 tains. I saw several of them in Manilla, who had been captured 
 in childhood and now appeared contented in their condition, 
 perhaps like a parrot, zvhtch becomes tatne if brought up from the 
 nest, and then is contented with its daily food. To the captured 
 adult, on the contrary, as to all these black aborigines, un- 
 restrained freedom is dearer than a life quiet and free from care; 
 and if compelled to remain, although abundantly supplied with 
 every necessary, it is said they die of home-sickness. This negro 
 lives like a zvild animal in the mountains and woods; he is of an 
 ungainly figure, dtvarfish size, tvith emaciated arms and legs, a 
 lean body covered tvith black and red hairs; the hair of his head 
 black and woolly. The wild negrillo is not a sociable being ; he 
 always lives by himself alone or with his wife if he can procure 
 one. This peculiarity has added to the difficulty of civilizing them 
 or making of them domestic animals. Without any fixed dwell- 
 ing, they traverse mountains and woods and sleep under trees, 
 which is rendered possible by the absence of voracious beasts. 
 They live by fishing and hunting, and can use their arrows very 
 dexterously. These negrillos dwell only on the mountains of St. 
 Matteo and Maribeles and in the province of Ilocos Norte. In 
 the Island of Negros, which is so named from them, they are 
 numerous. That they have a i)eculiar and probably very poor 
 language is a matter of course; the nature of this, and whether, 
 as is probable, the negrillos in difterent provinces speak different 
 dialects, I could not ascertain; no one in Manilla was in a po- 
 sition to inform me; the negrillos are there generally regarded 
 and treated as nothing better than a sort of apes." The toes of 
 these savages, who dwell either in holes of the earth or in tree, 
 are very movable and more widely separated than ours; the great 
 toe especially is distant from the rest. With them, as with fingers, 
 they hold themselves fast to boughs of trees and to ropes. 
 
 The other islands of the great East-Indian archipelago also har- 
 bour numerous similar tribes of men, some of which if possible still 
 nearer approach mere animal nature. In the interior of the large 
 island Borneo, savages 4 feet higli, of dark complexion, with wrinkled
 
 APPENDIX. 319 
 
 skin covered with hair, have been found, who know neither dwell- 
 ing-place nor family, who sleep in caves, or on trees, live on 
 vermin and eat one another. They can neither be tamed nor 
 be employed for any work. They have a human countenance; 
 but their speech resembles rather a brutal gabble than a human 
 mode of expression. On the island of Sumatra Mr. Gibson, an 
 American, had opportunity of seeing a so-called Orang-Kabu or 
 aborigine- He went quite naked; and his body was covered all 
 over with soft dark hair. It is said that the Orang-Kabu has no 
 language of his own, but only learns with great labour to pro- 
 nounce a few Mallay words. The same traveller mentions another 
 tribe, the Orang-Gugur, whose body likewise exhibits a very great 
 resemblance to an ape's. 
 
 De la Gironniere tells of the Ajetas, who inhabit the interior 
 of Luzon (one of the Philippine Islands): — "The people appeared 
 to me more like a great family of apes than human beings. 
 The* sound they made was like the short shriek of those animals; 
 and their movements were the same. The difference consisted 
 solely in knowing the use of the bow and the spear and how 
 to make a fire". (\V. Earl, 'Native Races of the Indian Archi- 
 pelago', London, 1853). — 
 
 If we turn from the Indian islands to the continent of Asia, 
 we meet here also, in the inaccessible wilds of India, with human 
 beings (probably the remains of the ancient primitive population V 
 who at first sight leave the observer in doubt whether he has 
 before him men or anthropoid apes. One day, in the solitudes 
 of the vast jungles, the Old Shikari ('The Hunting-grounds 
 of the Old World', by the Old Shekarry, quoted in the 'Aus- 
 land', i860. No, 39) met with wild men who lived on trees. 
 There were a man, a woman and a child, dark olive-coloured, 
 the largest of them not higher than 4 feet. They had no cloth- 
 ing; their eyes were small and piercing and their face wrink- 
 led; the nose was flat, the mouth wide, the teeth large and 
 yellow, the arms long and shrivelled, the nails like claws. The 
 discoverer took them at first to be in fact apes, and had to look 
 at them some time in order to become convinced that the)- were 
 human. With this agrees the information given by Piddington,
 
 320 ATPENDIX. 
 
 an English colonist, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Ben- 
 gal, vol. XXIV. p. 207 (quoted in the 'Ausland', 1855, No. 50), 
 on the Indian "ape men", as well as the account given by 
 von Hiigel (Amtlicher Bericht der Versammlung deutscher Na- 
 turforscher und Aerzte in Prag, 1837, p. 44) -of the inhabitants of 
 some of the hill-parts of India, whom he classes with the New- 
 Hollanders, because they had not yet arrived at forming a horde» 
 and scarcely a family was found united. I\Ian and woman live 
 isolated; and when by chance any one meets with them they 
 take refuge like monkeys on the trees. Piddington describes the 
 one seen by him as "small, flat-nosed, with gaping arched wrink- 
 les round the mouth and on the cheeks, with very long arms, 
 and with reddish hair on the coarse black skin. "Had he been 
 seen", he adds, "crouching in a dark corner or on a tree, he 
 would have been taken for a large orang-utan." 
 
 One of the newest reports on wild tribes of men in India 
 was read before the London Anthropological Society, in 1865, by 
 Dr. Shortt Zillah, a physician in Chingleput. One of the most 
 remarkable of them are the so-called Leaf-wearers, who inhabit 
 some districts of Orissa. They do not grow higher than 4 or 5 
 feet; and the women clothe themselves only with boughs, which 
 they fasten round the waist with strings. They are regarded as 
 the dregs of the province, of which they inhabit the remotest and 
 wildest parts. They live partly on boiled rice, partly on wild 
 fruits, roots, &c., have no priests, no education, no worship, &c., 
 but, on the other hand they have some superstitions customs. 
 Their only implements are the bow and arrow and an axe for 
 felling timber. 
 
 The American continent furnishes an equal abundance of 
 information relative to the wild or primitive condition of our race. 
 The Indians of Ucayale, writes Castelnau (Travels in Peru), ap- 
 pear scarcely to belong to our human kind. Their brown colour, 
 their big, almost spherical belly, their meagre arms and legs and 
 the strange shape of their (artificially deformed) head make them 
 appear like beings of quite another sort. The Cahibes, in South 
 America, just like the already described Australian blacks (who, 
 according to the experienced traveller Moritz Wagner, without
 
 APPENDIX. 321 
 
 huts traffic, or clothes, Hve on roots, fruits, snails, and, in c.ise 
 of need, on their oivn children, and, on account of their un- 
 bounded stupidity, cannot even be used as slaves), are obstinate 
 cannibals who even devour their own children and the aged. The 
 Digger or Pau-Eutaw-Indians are depicted, by the author of "A 
 Ride across the great American Desert and the Rocky Mountains" 
 as "the most degraded and wretched beings that inhabit the 
 North-American continent; their food is horrible; the Chinese 
 roasted dogs and rats are epicurean dishes in comparison. Some 
 of them brought with them lizards to the camp and ate them 
 raw with no other preparation than pulling out the tails. Their 
 hair is long and almost as coarse as a mule's mane. Their 
 face is void of all mental expression; and, excepting the eye, 
 which is remarkably fierce, the features are nowise noteworthy. 
 The traveller can only discover a striking resemblance between 
 them and wild beasts, both as regards their manners and their 
 exterior. I have often observed how in walking they turn the 
 head quickly from left to right, exactly as the prairie-wolf does. 
 In their voracity they have more resemblance to an anaconda 
 than a human being. I have been told, by those intimatel\- 
 acquainted with their manners, that five or six of these Indians 
 will seat themselves round a dead horse and eat till nothing is 
 left but the bones. 
 
 "We gave them the remnant of our dried beef, wliich was 
 putrid and mouldy. This they ate greedily; and when they saw 
 that nothing more was to be had, they expressed their satisfac- 
 tion by rubbing their bellies and grunting in a way that would 
 have well suited a herd of swine." 
 
 ''The Indians", says the author of the account of a journey 
 from New-York to California, in Diezmann's 'Aus der Fremde', 
 "are children. Their arts, wars, transactions &c., belong to the 
 lowest condition of human society. A company of boys from ten 
 to fifteen years old is quite as well able to govern itself as an 
 Indian tribe; and the primitive inhabitants of America will within 
 fifty years have vanished from the soil of their fathers. . . The 
 Indian depicted by Cooper and Longfellow is only visible to the 
 eye of the poet; to the prosaic observer the Indian appears a 
 
 21
 
 ^22 APPENDIX. 
 
 creature which has altngelher failed to reach llie dignity of huiiKui 
 nature, a slave of appetite and sloth," cV'c. 
 
 The Brazilian man of the woods or Botcjkudo, is according 
 to Dr. Robert Ave-Lallcmant (Journey through North Brazil, 1859). 
 quite naked and without the slightest sentiment of modesty. He 
 has thin thighs and calves, long, slender hands, a large trunk, 
 big belly and a depressed, narrow and bony forehead. lie is 
 not interested by any thing uncommon; his eyes are without lustre 
 and soul; his look is staring, dull and without intelligence. In the 
 presence of an European he is shy, embarrassed, and slips aside, 
 lie wears wooden plugs in his lips and ear-lobes, is consider- 
 ably smaller than the European, and appears, on close inter- 
 course, like a good-natured ape. When Lallemant endeavoured 
 to make him understand anything by signs, he imitated every 
 action, just as apes do. "I was convinced/' he says, "with deep 
 sadness , that there were two - handed apes." They are also 
 cannibals and quite incapable of seeing the abominablcness of 
 the practice. Nothing excites their curiosity or attention. They 
 speak little to one another, but rather mutually grunt and snufi'le. 
 They arc quite destitute of moral notions. To them a man is 
 either a friend and then good, or an enemy and then bad. In 
 eating they make a smacking noise, like swine. — In the 'Revue 
 des deux Mondes', 1863, Adolphe d'Assier says of the Brazilian 
 Botokudo that he is entirely destitute of moral ideas. Immorality 
 is normal, moralit}" sporadic or exceptional; an honest man is 
 called "not a thief", truth "not a lie". 
 
 On the 19th September 1868, at tlie fourth session of the. 
 International Congress for Archx>ology and History in Bonn 
 (Section for Primeval Histor}-), Otto Schmitz gave a very full 
 report on the wild Apaches Indians , whose country lies be- 
 tween the Rio Grande del Norfe and the Rio Colorado, among 
 whom he had been compelled to live several months , and 
 who exhibit the utmost degree of l)rutal barbarism. They go 
 quite naked, their leather-like skin seeming to compensate for 
 the want of clothing; sleep in hollows in the ground, feed on 
 fruits, berries, vermin and stolen horses ox asses, have no other 
 imiilements than Ixav and sjioar, and go singly or in small
 
 APPENDIX. 323 
 
 troops without a chief; only for marauding expeditions on a 
 larger scale than usual do they unite under chieftains. They 
 know no marriage, but only a longer or shorter cohabitation of 
 the sexes, the children being quickly lost in the horde, have no 
 notion of their age or of counting years, they are unacquainted 
 with pJiysiciiVis, do not wash their children, but powder them 
 with sand , leave their sick and dead on the road , and 
 have scarcely any idea of wailing for the dead. "They have no 
 idea that the dead live on, that there may be something better 
 elsewhere than here, or a conception of the Great Spirit, such as 
 is found among many Indians. The only festival they observe is 
 that of the full moon." Beasts are not slaughtered, but torn 
 asunder. In a marauding expedition the weak or the crippled 
 are left behind to starve, or are slain. The Apache speaks little, 
 and rather in gestures than in sounds, has no notion of greeting, 
 either at meeting or parting, speaks more in broken sentences 
 than in coherent words; guttural sounds so predominate that loud 
 discourse is almost impossible. The important auxiliary verb "to 
 be" does not exist. Their numeral system is decimal, like that 
 of most savage peo})les. 
 
 The inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego, at the southern ex- 
 tremity of America, are according to the Duke of Argyll (Pri- 
 meval Man, i86g, p. 167), perhaps inferior to all other races of 
 men. They are habitual cannibals; they will sooner kill and eat 
 their old women than their dogs; go perfectly naked, have an 
 ugly countenance bedaubed with paint, a dirty, greasy skin, 
 tangled hair, unharmonious voices and violent manners. "When 
 we see such men;" says Darwin (Voyage of the Beagle), "we 
 can hardly persuade ourselves that they are creatures like our- 
 selves and inhabitants of the same world". — 
 
 If we repair from the extreme south to the extreme north 
 of our globe, we find also here a similar spectacle among the 
 inhabitants of the Arctic Ocean, the Eskimos. "The Eskimo", 
 says John Ross (Narrative of a Second Voyage, &c., 1835, p. 448), 
 "is a beast of prey, without any other pleasure than that of eating; 
 without any princijile or rational emotion, he devours as long as 
 he can, and as much as \\v can got. like the vulture i»r tlie 
 
 21*
 
 324 APPENDIX. 
 
 tiger He eais only to sleep, and sleeps only as soon as 
 
 possible to eat again" As to their mental capabilities, they have, 
 according to Whitebourne, no knowledge of God, and live without 
 any form of civil government. On this point John Ross says: 
 "I could not be clear whether they understood any thing of what 
 I endeavoured to make intelligible to them by explaining the 
 simplest things in the simplest manner. Should I have accom- 
 plished more, if 1 had understood their language better? I have 
 very much reason to doubt it. That they must have had a cer- 
 tain sort of moral law written on the heart I could not doubt, 
 for their behaviour proved it; but beyond this all my searches 
 were vain, and no effort led to anything worth mention. Rela- 
 tive to tlieir o])inions on the essentials of tliat from which the 
 presence of a sort of religion might have been concluded, I was 
 at last compelled to give up the attempt in despair," {Loc. cit. 
 p. 548.) 
 
 This hasty sketch of the natural and moral history of savage 
 peoples may suffice in this place, although by similar or analo- 
 gous delineations by translatlantic travellers from the most diverse 
 regions of the inhabited earth it might have been much further 
 extended. The rude savage or primitive man is, even as to his 
 whole essence, so very different from the civilized and cultivated 
 man, who is accustomed to fixed civil and social arrangements and 
 educated by the culture of thousands of years, that it is impossible 
 to place the two on one level and from them, after the manner 
 of the idealistic philosophers, construct an ideal universal "essence 
 of man." It is only education, improvement, experience, the in- 
 heritance of acquired capabilities and the innumerable aids and 
 incitements of culture that make the civilized man what he is 
 now and what he must be, and probably will in process of time 
 continually still more transform him and remove liim still further 
 from his original brutish condition. It is true that some have 
 endeavoured to diminish the force of all those observations of 
 savage peoples, which we have urged, b}' labouring to represent 
 them as degefieratc, fallen from a previous better condition of 
 culture, and hence abnormally departing from the idea of huma- 
 nity. But, apart from isolated cases with which that opinion
 
 APPENDIX. 325 
 
 agrees, there are no facts to confirm such a view, or even to 
 make it appear probable. It is a universal law of nature that 
 degeneration leads to premature extinction; but some of these 
 tribes have already existed from time immemorial , and many 
 of them enjoy a fecwidUy too great to be reconcilable with the 
 fact of degeneration. 
 
 "The immediate impression," says Prof. Schaaff hausen (Ueber 
 den Zustand der wilden Volker, p. 164), ^'made by all the pheno- 
 mena of savage peoples, their intimate connexion with the nature 
 of the country they inhabit, the absence of any reminiscence of 
 any better condition , the bodily heidth and physical strength in 
 which, when out of contact with the influences of civilization, they 
 are preserved, the peculiarities of their organization (which betray 
 a lower stage of development), finally the absence of such signs 
 of decay as we perceive in certain cases — all tliis leads us to 
 think that most of the savage tribes have never been in posses- 
 sion of a higher culture. This view is also favoured by the 
 circumstance that many of the most polished nations of tlie 
 present day were in undent times at a like stage of barbarism." 
 
 68. (p. 138) the estabUshment of marriage. — -Of tlie 
 
 institution of marriage many of the savage tribes wliicli have 
 been depicted in Australia, Africa, Asia &c. have as good as no 
 conception; and with them family life is at the lowest stage — 
 nay, almost lower than with the beasts. Among the East-Africans 
 there subsists, as Burton states, no attachment between father 
 and child; but, on the contrary, there prevails, after the time of 
 childhood, a natural enmity between father and son, as among 
 wild beasts. The children are sold, the wife is driven out of 
 doors at pleasure. Sir S. W. Baker says: The Sudan negro knows 
 not love; the wife is only a domestic animal and a beast of 
 burden; polygamy prevails everywhere. Among the Australians, 
 according to Duboc, it is only at the beginning that the mother 
 concerns herself about her child; afterwards the original con- 
 nexion is entirely forgotten. They, like most of the South-Sea 
 Islanders, have no knowledge of genuine marriage , and hence 
 have not even the idea of paternity. Hence among such tribes 
 the heirs are often not tlie father's own children, but his sister's
 
 326 AITENIJIX. 
 
 children. Nay, tlierc is oven a triljo (tlic Wai)\'amwczi} among 
 whom tlie children born unl of their so-called wedlock, the ille- 
 gitimate are made heirs , to the exclusion of the legitimate! 
 Similar facts, as Sir John Lubbock (On the Primitive Condition 
 of Mankind) informs us, are found among the ancient Jews, 
 Greeks and Romans; while respect for woman has only very 
 slowly made its way with the advance of civilization. According 
 to the same author, many peoples (for example the Egyptians, the 
 Chinese, the Greeks, the Indians) have even traditions concerning 
 the introduction of "wedlock and marriage — which at any rate 
 proves that the idea of it cannot be innate and founded in human 
 nature as such! 
 
 Finally, the most savage of the savages, the Dokos, the 
 savages of Borneo, &c., have no notion whatever of marriage, 
 wedlock or family, and live promiscuously with one another like 
 the brutes. Indeed, as before mentioned, Otto Schmitz says of 
 tlie Apaches, who are much superior to the Dokos &c. , that they 
 know no marriage, but only a longer or shorter cohabitation of 
 the sexes, and that the children are very soon lost in the horde. 
 
 6g. (p. 138) or in his social organization. Even this 
 
 is only a result of a certain degree of social development and 
 among the wildest peoples is so imperfect that they run about 
 pell-mell in troops or hordes, like wild beasts, without any chief 
 or any otlier arrangements that might remind us of our own social 
 condition. On the other hand, the principle of association is 
 developed to an almost incredible degree among many of the 
 Articulate animals. Think of the bees, zvasps, termites and ants 
 and their wonderful social ceconomy, which is carried out so far 
 that the last mentioned, according to the well-known observations 
 ofllubcr and others, engage in set battles with each other, under- 
 take plundering expeditions, bring home other ants as slaves and 
 employ them in service, and keep in their extensive and well- 
 managed social dwellings other animals as "milch cows,"»S:c. The 
 termites or white ants have a perfectly organized state, with king, 
 queen, workers, soldiers, servants &c., and construct a building 10 
 and more feet high, with domes, towers, myriads of chambers, 
 corridors, subterraneous passages, stone bridges and vaults, store-
 
 Al'l'EN'DlX. 327 
 
 rooms, (Src, with which in strength and boldness, as well as judi- 
 ciousness of arrangement, a human edifice can scared}- lie com- 
 pared. In its interior is situated a so-called royal residence, with 
 chambers and galleries around for the attendants, and with spe- 
 cial breeding-rooms and nurseries, and, lastly, a public place of 
 assembly. To carry off the rain there are numerous gutters and 
 tubes, with under-ground draining-channels. There is no doubt, 
 also, that the termites have a language, by the help of which 
 they mutually cx])lain very detailed affairs. Not less remarkable are 
 the celebrated dog -communilies in the North American prairies, 
 with regular semisubterraneous cities which sometimes extend to 
 a circumference of thirty English miles, and contain a hundred 
 thousand inhabitants. According to the most credible assertions 
 of eye-witnesses the prairie-dog frequently lives in his house 
 together with species of small owl and the rattle-snake — which 
 strange social confederacy appears to be entered inttj lor the 
 sake of procuring food and of defence against danger. 
 
 70. (p. 138) in his senst of shame. The natives 
 
 of Australia are destitute of all sense of shame and never 
 think of covering their pudenda. As G. Pouchet informs us, 
 the Australians in the towns of the English colony, if not pre- 
 vented by the police, would daily violate public decency . after 
 the manner of monkeys in a menagerie. . '"The Australians", 
 say Lesson and Garnot (Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 18O7), 
 "have never felt the need uf a woollen covering otherwise than 
 to protect their chest; no idea of shame has ever caused them 
 to think of veiling their sexual parts." INIore or less the same 
 is found in all savage or uneducated peoples, who in this point 
 are quite like European children. Even highly civilized nations, 
 {e. g. the Japanese), have, as is well known, quite different ideas 
 of modesty from ours; and the highly cultivated nations of an- 
 tiquity, the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Phenicians iSrc, even 
 consecrated in relation to sexual matters a lasciviousness ol" man- 
 ners of w'hich we can now scarcely form a conception, (f'or the 
 particulars see Rosenbaum's interesting pamphlet: 'Geschichte der 
 Lustseuche'). The delicate consideration with which modern 
 custom has regulated the mutual relations of the sexes and
 
 328 APPENDIX. 
 
 has covered them witli a veil of sweet secrecy, is not any thing 
 innate or original, but a consequence of the development which 
 forms the history of civilization, the gradual raising of human 
 nature above that of the brutes. Nevertheless, from time to time 
 the old barbarian again breaks out with violence, either in isolated 
 shocking outbreaks of the repressed or forcibly restrained impulses 
 or in certain nudities or effronteries of society itself, tolerated 
 though not sanctioned by custom. As a rule, however, such in 
 some measure morbid excrescences of society belong to an age 
 that is dying out or already morally submerged, while they arc 
 almost banished by the breath of a new political or social spirit. 
 
 71. (p. 138) or in his belief in God. — Besides those 
 
 contained in Note 67, numerous examples of savage nations who 
 are destitute of this belief and even have no words in their lan- 
 guages to express the ideas God, religion, justices, sin. Sic, 
 may be gleaned from the Author's 'Kraft und .Stoff,' ii the edition, 
 p. 201 el seqq. "Three large sections of the earth's surface," 
 says G. Pouchet, "which are still inhabited by savages, appear to 
 have remained till now exempt from religious notions: they are 
 the interior of Africa, Australia and the polar regions — conse- 
 quently the three most difficult to explore, and hence the least- 
 known portions of the world." Latham says that the Australians 
 have not yet gone so far as to form by themselves even the rudest 
 elements of a religion, and that their minds seem to be actually 
 too inert for superstition. A missionary says of them: "What can 
 be undertaken with a people whose language knows no expressions 
 for 'righteousness,' 'sin' and tlu^ like, and to whose minds the 
 ideas which those words are intended to express are utterly strange 
 and unexplainable?" 
 
 Of the Latukas (region of the Nile sources) Sir S. W. Baker 
 states ('The Albert Nyanza,' 1867), that the idea of a deity does 
 not exist among them, and they have no sort of religion, not even 
 the rudest fetish-worship. 
 
 The belief in a God is not any thing original or innate, but 
 something made or grown, and first results from a certain amount 
 of reflection by the uneducated human mind on the surrounding 
 natural phenomena, which, from defective knowledge of the laws
 
 APPENDIX. 32Q 
 
 of nature and of tlieir intimate connexion, he cainiot explain in 
 a natural way, and hence refers them to an invisible, mysterious 
 cause; while the wholly uncultivated savage does not feel the 
 need of even such a superficial method of explanation. Science 
 is a continued struggle with this notion; and with every step she 
 makes forwards she drives back the belief in supernatural forces, 
 or the need of such a belief, into more remote and untenable 
 positions. Hence every science, and especially every philosophy, 
 that seeks reality instead of appearance, truth instead of pretence, 
 must necessarily be atheistic ; otherwise it blocks up against itself 
 the path to its end, the truth. As soon, then, as in a philo- 
 sophic book the word "God" occurs, except in criticism or re- 
 ference, one may confidently lay it aside; in it will be found 
 nothing capable of promoting the real progress of knowledge. 
 In properly scientific works the word will be seldom met with ; 
 for in scientific matters the word "God" is only another expres- 
 sion for our ignorance; in like manner as on more special oc- 
 casions the words ''vital force," "instinct," "soul," &c. 
 
 That, moreover, for religion itself the idea of a Deity is not 
 indispensable, is proved by the wellknown and oft cited example 
 of the most wide-spread religious system in the world, Buddhism. 
 Barthelemy St.-Hilaire, the author of the excellent work "Buddha 
 and his Religion' (1862), says: — "There is not found even the 
 least trace of the belief in a Deity in the whole of Buddhism; 
 and the assertion that it assumes the absorption of the human 
 soul in the divine or the soul of the universe is an altogether arbi- 
 trary supposition, which in Buddha's notion is not even possible. 
 In order to believe that man can lose himself by union with 
 God, one must first believe in God himself. But one can scarce- 
 ly even assert that Buddlia did not believe in him. He ignores 
 God so completely that he does not once endeavour to deny him. 
 He neitiier mentions him to explain the origin and the earlier 
 life of man, nor to advance a conjecture concerning his future 
 destiny. Buddhism knows God in no wise," &c. 
 
 The same writer adds to this statement the following words 
 (certainly very worthy of being laid to heart): — "The human mind 
 has hitlierto been observed scarcely anywhere else than among the
 
 330 Al'l'KNDlX. 
 
 races to which we ourselves belong. These races doublless de- 
 serve a very large place in our studies; but although they are 
 the most important, they are not the only ones. IMust not the 
 others also be taken into consideration, however inferior we may 
 deem them? If they do not fit into the hastily constructed frame, 
 must we distort them in order to be able to adapt them to our 
 too contracted theories? or is it not better to acknowledge that 
 the old systems are defective, and that they cannot comprehend 
 the whole of that which they pretend to explain?" 
 
 72. (p. 138) the art of counting. — That the art of 
 
 numeration, and the science of mathematics erected thereon, is 
 not any thing innate in the human mind, but is only gradually 
 developed by education and cultivation, is proved by the example 
 of the savage tribes of Australia and Brazil who have not carried 
 their numeral system beyond three or four, and can only indi- 
 cate higher numbers by gestures. (Jldfield even describes a tribe 
 who count no further than the number tivo- and designate all 
 be}'ond by the word bool-tha, which signifies "many." A native 
 of this tribe, wishing to give the narrator an idea of the number 
 of men killed in a battle, tried at first by mentioning the names 
 of those who had fallen, and at the mention of each name he 
 stretched out a finger; but after several vain attempts of this 
 sort, he ended by raising one hand three times in succession, by 
 whicli he wished it to be understood that the numlier amounted 
 to fifteen. 
 
 Generally, all numeration began with the fingers or toes; and 
 among most savage tribes it has remained at that stage to the 
 present time. Hence Jive, ten, and twenty everywhere form the 
 fundamental numbers ; and indeed the verbal signs for these 
 numbers agree with the names of those parts of the body. Among 
 many savage tribes of Africa, America, &c., for example, the 
 number five is called "a whole hand," the number ten "two 
 hands," iiventy "a whole man." The number six is denoted by 
 tlie expression "one of the other hand," *Sj:c. ; the number eleveft 
 is called "one of the foot," and so on. Tiventy-one is called "one 
 of the liand of anotlier Indian," »S:c. In some instances the 
 words of number arc taken from the proijerties of the individual
 
 APPENDIX. 331 
 
 fingers; in otliers; the names of other natural objeets whieli are 
 present once or oftener, serve as numeral designations. Tlius 
 the ancient Indians said earth or moon for one, eye or arm or 
 wing for iivo\ for three Rama, or fire, or property, because they 
 accepted three Ramas, three kinds of fire, Lind three properties; 
 {ox four they said age or \"eda, because they accepted four ages 
 and four Vedas, and so on. For four the Abipoins in America 
 say "ostrich- foot", because it has four toes. The custom of tying 
 up pine-cones in parcels of four has in some of the South-Sea 
 Islands led to the number four being denoted by the word "pono", 
 which signifies a packet, while for ten and a hundred the words 
 for bundle and great packet are used. 
 
 Moreover counting by 5, 10, or 20, or the number of the 
 fingers and toes, is so general that departures from it must be 
 regarded only as exceptions: and it lies at bottom of the numeral 
 systems of the most advanced nations. 
 
 Some observations seem to prove iliat the beasls also are 
 able to count. A mouse, from whom nine young ones had been 
 taken, came nine times, to fetch them back one by one, and 
 then no more, although she had not been able to look into the 
 cap in whicli they were imprisoned. The magpie can count to 
 four, but no further. If four hunters hide themselves before her 
 eyes, and three of them go away, she knows that one is still 
 there, and is one her guard; but if, on the contrary, there are 
 five of them, and four go away, she thinks that all are gone, 
 and becomes careless. 
 
 73 (p. 138) that he alone makes use of insiruments^ — 
 
 Animals also use tools. Apes push stones between the open 
 valves of the mussel-shell to prevent their closing and open the 
 shells of oysters by striking them with stones. Still better known 
 is the fact that apes defend themselves with sticks or cudgels, 
 and hurl down branches or heavy fruits from the trees upon 
 their pursuers. And Forbes observes ('Eleven Years in Ceylon') 
 that wild elephants break off boughs from the trees to use them 
 for keeping off the flies. It is well known that, w-hen tamed or 
 under training, beasts learn to use all manner of tools with great 
 dexterity. On the other hand, it is related of many wild tribes
 
 332 APPENDIX. 
 
 that tlicy have scarcely any idea of using tools. Thus the Min- 
 copies (the black inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, in the Bay 
 of Bengal), according to a report made by travellers to the Paris 
 Anthropological Society, possess neither dwellings nor hatchets or 
 the like. They know not the use of fire, leave their dead un- 
 buried, have no regulation or custom concerning marriage, and 
 appear in respect of their social instincts to be lower than the 
 beasts. Of them, of whom Colebroke said that their form and 
 features expressed the extreme of wretchedness and savagery, and 
 more recent accounts mention incredible traits of animal barba- 
 rism, R. Owen has lately (as Schaaflfhausen says in a communi- 
 cation to the Niederrheinische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heil- 
 kundc, June 8, 1864) been able to prove that in some charac- 
 teristics of their bodily structure, especially of their bony system, 
 they exhibit a lower grade of organization — which, in connexion 
 with their mental rudeness, must appear specially worthy of 
 notice. 
 
 74. (p. 138) cooking his food. — There are still peoples 
 
 such as the Dokos, the Andamans, &c., who know not the use 
 of fire and devour all tlieir food raw. Moreover, that the use 
 of fire cannot be an attribute of humanity as such is shown by 
 the circumstance that so many peoples have been fire-worship- 
 pers, and in part are so still, that, therefore, they considered fire 
 something extra- and supernatural. In like manner, when Ma- 
 gellan set fire to the huts of the Marian-Islanders, to whom fire 
 was unknown, they looked upon it as a kind of living monster 
 which devoured wood. Also in the Ladrone Islands the Spaniards 
 found the natives unacquainted with the use of fire. Finally, 
 there are sufficient traces from antiquity that in the oldest times 
 the use of fire was still unknown, in the traditions of the Egyp- 
 tians, Phenicians, Persians, Chinese, Greeks &c. about its intro- 
 duction and the gradual spread of the knowledge of it. 
 
 75. (p. 138) or /hat he alotie wears clothing. — That 
 
 many wild tribes of Africa, America, Australia, and Asia, as well 
 the islands of Oceania, have no idea of the use of clothing and 
 go perfectly naked, is well known and is sufficiently proved by 
 the testimonies already adduced. Indeed, when clothing is offered
 
 APPENDIX. 333 
 
 to them, they scorn it. In 1858 the American frigate 'Niagara' rescued 
 455 Africans from the slave-ship 'Elcho', in order to carry them 
 back to their native country. Dr, Rainey, who accompanied them, 
 writes of these savages: — "They are altogether very dirty and re- 
 fuse to wear any clothes. They cannot be prevailed upon to comply 
 with even those measures of cleanliness which are absolutely in- 
 dispensable for the preservation of health. The clothes which 
 where given them in Charleston they immediately rent to pieces. 
 It is seldom that one cares for another; the utmost they will do 
 is to assist each other if their back itches. Even for their sick 
 and dying they have not the least concern. If one of them 
 has died, they let the corpse lie amongst them for hours, as if 
 nothing had happened. But scarcely has the last sign of life 
 disappeared ere they take possession', without ceremony, of his 
 coverlet, his spoon, and whatever else he may have used. They 
 are the most imbecile, brutish, pitiable creatures I ever came 
 across." (See Allgem. Zeitung, 1858, No. 313). Similarly Wilhelm 
 Bischoff (Ausland, i860. No. 3) states, concerning his impressions 
 in the American slave-States: — ^'The genuine ivoo/Zy-Ziead, espedaWy 
 as he is not seldom found among the plantation-negroes, makes 
 upon tlie European, who is not accustomed to such a sight, an 
 extremely disagreeable impression, which is aggravated by their 
 character being, as a rule, in perfect correspondence with their 
 ugly exterior. It would be difficult in Europe, especially in Ger- 
 many, to find a stock that could, even remotely, be compared 
 with this race. Except speech and form, these negroes have in 
 them scared}- one mark of humanity; all their movements, their 
 entire deportment, remind one rather of the brute; and they 
 seem totally incapable of any higher culture," &c. "Almost all 
 are thieves and liars; hence the evidence of a black has no va- 
 lidity in a court of justice. It is useless trouble to make them 
 understand the wrong of this, because they are altogether igno- 
 rant of the word s/iame" &c. 
 
 Of the Nuehr negroes in Africa, Sir S. W. Baker (/, c.) says: 
 "They carry the nature of savages pretty well to the highest pitch. 
 The men go as naked as they were born; their bodies are rubbed 
 in with ashes, and their hair dyed red with a wash of ashes and
 
 334 APPENDIX. 
 
 cow's urine. These fellows are the veriest devils 1 ever saw ; 
 there is no other expression for them. Even the unmarried women 
 arc quite naked; the married wear a fringe of grass round their 
 loins." The same author gives a similar account of the negroes 
 of Kytschland , of the Latukas in the region of the Nile- 
 sources, &c. 
 
 76. (p. 138). . . conwiHs suicide, — There is said to be a woll- 
 authenticated case of the suicide of an ape. But even should this 
 not be the case, sufficient instances are known of animals (horses, 
 dogs, &c.), from excessive attachment to their dead or slain 
 masters ; refusing food and so killing themselves. On the other 
 hand, self-slaughter is, from intrinsic moral reasons, exceedingly 
 rare among children and savages. 
 
 77. (p. 138), . . . cultivates the ground. — Although M. Rochet 
 (in the Bulletin of the Paris Anthropological Society) has endea- 
 voured to establish that agriculture, as well as the mental and 
 moral qualities and the above-mentioned characteristics, is a 
 sign of the difference between man and beast, yet it is well 
 known to be only the result of a pretty far advanced state of 
 civilization, while the savage and primitive man lives merely 
 on the spontaneous productions of nature and what he can 
 get by hunting; and from this condition he passes first through 
 the pastoral to reach the agricultural stage. Besides, animals at 
 times practise agriculture, as is proved by the example of the 
 agricnlinral mil in Texas, observed during ten years by Dr. 
 Lincecum and described by him in the Journal of the Linnean 
 Society (quoted in the 'Ausland', 1862, No. 10). On ground with 
 a stony substratum, they build a storehouse in the soil and plant 
 round it a sort of grass which bears a small white seed. This 
 seed is gathered, dried and carried into the storehouse. After 
 wet weather it is sometimes brought out, dried and sorted. 
 
 This animal therefore stands in one respect higher than the 
 above-mentioned negroes of Kytschland (Africa), whom the tra- 
 veller ]5aker (/. f.) designated as apes, who depend for subsistence 
 solely on what nature produces, therefore neither sow nor plant, 
 and consequently are frequently on the verge of starvation. 
 
 78. (p. 139) ///(// H can scarcely he called a language
 
 APPENDIX. 335 
 
 /// the hiiDian sense of Ihal ivvrd. — The speech of the Fans of West 
 Africa is, Du Chaillu says, a collection of guttural tones which 
 no one can understand; and still worse and harsher is the speech 
 of the Oschebas. De la Gironniere, who staid some days among 
 the Ajetas on the Phili{)pine island of Luzon, says that the people 
 appeared to him like a large family of apes, and that the sounds 
 ihey iilte7-ed resembled the short shriek of those animals , and 
 their movements also were the same. The Brazilian Botokudo 
 has, according to Adolphe d'Assier (A r.) an extremely imperfect 
 language, indicating by the same word a number of tolerably 
 diverse objects. Thus the word tschohn signifie at the same time 
 tree, beam, twig, chip; the word po: foot, hand, finger, toe, nail, 
 heel, &. The Australian language is very poor, possessing only 
 a few hundred words, and among them not one to express a 
 general idea. Thus they liave denominations for individual trees, 
 but no word for the notion "tree." The same is true of the 
 languages of many savage peoples, which, as a rule, are quite, 
 destitute of expressions for general notions or properties which 
 at the same time belong to different bodies, as "colour/' "tone," 
 "tree," &:c. They have a special word for each kind of colour, 
 for each kind of tree, but no general designation. The language 
 of the savages of Borneo and Sumatra is said to be rather a 
 sort of brutish cackle or croak than a real human mode of ex- 
 pression. The speech of the Hottentots and Bushmen, too, is 
 distinguished by its poverty in words. Generally, savages are 
 accustomed to talk more by gestures and looks than by actual 
 tones. The lower in the scale a people or a man is, the poorer 
 are the}' in words, while wealth of words is a special characte- 
 ristic of superior minds; for word is nothing else but the incar- 
 nation of thought. The ^'eddahs in Ceylon, Sir Emerson Tennent 
 tells us, mutually make themselves understood almost entirely 
 by signs, grimaces, and guttural sounds which have little resem- 
 blance to definite words or language in general. 
 
 That language, however, is not exclusively the property of 
 man, is shown b}- the circumstance that brutes also possess the 
 faculty of mutual converse and communication in a very high 
 degree. The brutc^s understand each other, {\\v\ understand us
 
 336 APPENDIX. 
 
 and make themselves understood by us^ all which cannot be 
 done without a sort of language. It is very well known that 
 dogs know how to inform their masters, in relation to very de- 
 finite matters, by gestures, looks, play of the eyes, barking, 
 whining &c.; and it is as well known that dogs understand 
 exactly what is said of them, or when orders are given to them. 
 Every animal has its peculiar language and a number of deter- 
 mined sounds to express its wishes, wants, sensations, &c. Thus 
 Dupont has, by close observation, found that' pigeons and fowls 
 have twelve different tones, dogs have fifteen, cats fourteen, 
 horned cattle twenty-two, &c. — an estimate which is probably 
 much too low. At first all the tones were "guttural" or throat- 
 tones, as is still the case with brutes and savages; later the 
 "labial sounds" were added. Besides, as Pouchet justly remarks, 
 language, which is only a simple means of communication be- 
 tween two living beings and as sign- and tone-language, though 
 not as verbal language, belongs at the same time to man and 
 beast, must be distinguished from speech, — which is exclusively 
 the property of man, but is only possible with a certain deve- 
 lopment of articulate verbal language and the existence of de- 
 signations for general ideas. There is, according to Clemence 
 Royer, a greater difference between the most highly developed 
 analytical languages, or between the language of a Shakspeare 
 or Corneille, and that of a Papuan negro, than between the latter 
 and the stammering cry of an angry ape when scolding his fe- 
 male or )oung. Also the tones which apes are accustomed to 
 utter exhibit a close approximation to the lowest primitive forms 
 of human speech. "Language," says 11. Tuttle, "is the expres- 
 sion of thought; and even if the thoughts which the brutes un- 
 mistakeably communicate to one another are not identical with 
 the human, at any rate they are analogous. The dog calls his 
 companions or his master by means of an altogether peculiar 
 baying; in the roaring of the lion, the snarl of the tiger, the 
 song of the bird and the thousandfold modes of sound of the 
 insect world are found all the modulations of the expression of 
 feeling and mutual intelligence, from the alluring call to the 
 warning signal, from love to fury &c., &c. Lastly, in the com-
 
 APPENDIX. 337 
 
 parison of brute with human language, it must not be forgotten that 
 parrots, starHngs, ravens &c. are able to utter articulate sounds, 
 and many words very distinctly and, in fact, with consciousness 
 of their purport, even without having been expressly taught and 
 merely from voluntary imitation and independent observation. 
 
 79- (p. 139) thousands of years. According to the 
 
 distinguished linguist A. Schleicher ('Ueber die Bedeutung der 
 Sprache fiir die Naturgeschichte des Menschen'; 1865), language 
 is something which has gradually grown, and which once was not 
 existing. All the more highly organized languages have little 
 by little arisen or been developed from simple language-organisms 
 in the course of enormous periods. The languages of simplest 
 construction have been gradually formed out of so-called vocal 
 gestures and imitative sounds, such as the brutes also possess; 
 and language itself is the product of a gradual growth according 
 to vital laws which, in their essential features, we are able to in- 
 dicate. This growth took place in connexion and simultaneously 
 with the greater improvement of the brain and the vocal organs. 
 
 Schleicher however, in contradiction to M. Pouchet, defines 
 language as the expression of thought by means of words; and 
 he holds it to be exclusively characteristic of man, while vocal 
 gesture belongs to the brute also. Since, according to him, lan- 
 guage first made the man, our ancestors were not from the be- 
 ginning that which we now call man; and hence the results of 
 linguistic science also just, like those of natural science, lead 
 "decidedly to the adoption of a gradual development of man out 
 of lower forms." 
 
 J. Grimm, also, the renowned German etymologist, in his 
 well-known pamphlet on the origin of language ('Ueber den Ur- 
 sprung der Sprache.' VL Aufl., Berlin, 1866), calls the latter "a 
 progressive work," "a difficult acquisition" of man, and says ex- 
 pressly that it is not innate, but, in its origin as well as its pro- 
 gress, is "acquired" by us. Language, according to him, was 
 imperfect at first and has gradually increased in value; hence 
 it cannot have emanated from God. All verbal roots contain 
 j£'«j//(?«j' representations; and all ideas originate from the intuitions 
 of the senses. From the notion of hreaihing comes that of living; 
 
 22
 
 338 APPENDIX. 
 
 from the idea of expiri?ig (breathing out) that of dying", from 
 that of crorving the idea of a cock^ &c., &c. 
 
 Accordiug to J. P. Lesley (A c), every language has a cer- 
 tain number of roots (200- — 600) from which it has been deve- 
 loped. Now for the origin of these roots or germs there are 
 only three possibilities: — they were either communicated by divine 
 revelation or the gift of a ready-made language, or resulted from 
 the gift of a capacity of language to the first men, or, finally, 
 were produced by a higher, a human development of a faculty 
 of expression diffused throughout the animal world. Now-a-days, 
 says Lesley, the first of these possibilities can only be entertained 
 by those who believe in Adam and Eve, and is inadmissible on 
 account of the multiplicUy of languages. Scientifically only the 
 last two can now be spoken of, while the circumstance that all 
 animals have a sort of language, and that the human faculty of 
 speech is greater only because the human brain is larger and 
 more finely organized, speaks decidedly in favour of the last of 
 these possibilities. At an\- rate, according to Lesley, the original 
 development of language was just as gradual as that which we 
 now observe in every child; and the language of a nation grows 
 and changes with its changing mental condition. We shall never 
 fathom the languages of the so-called Stone-age; they have long 
 ago been lost and replaced by others. Language is a portion 
 of natural science; words and language live and become extinct, 
 exactly as living beings do, and like them become fossil also. 
 
 The following are dead, having completed their cycle of 
 life: — Sanskrit, Pehlvi, Egyptian, Chaldee, Hebrew, Greek, 
 and Latin. 
 
 80. (p. 140) which are also knoivti to animals. — The 
 
 animal cry was, according to Clemence Royer, the first com- 
 mencement of speech. There were different cries for the diffe- 
 rent sensations, as hate, love, terror, joy, anger, fear, &c. These 
 tones or primitive sounds were the first roots of all languages; 
 and to them the imitative sounds from external nature were 
 afterwards joined. This tone-language is as much the property 
 of the brute as of man; and, in the widest sense of the term, 
 every animal lias a language — that is a means of mutual un-
 
 APPEXDIX. 339 
 
 derstanding with his fellows, whether it be a cry or a song, a 
 gesture or a look, &c. Longing, fear, hunger, love &C.. each 
 of these sensations has its special expression with the brute; 
 verbal latiguage only is peculiar to man; but even this was at 
 first merely a brutish stammering. 
 
 The gap between our modern developed languages and this 
 earliest primitive condition of language was filled by ihe whole 
 long series of prehistoric peoples, with whom thousands of ori- 
 ginal forms of language may have become extinct. But even 
 now our languages are still very imperfect, and this imperfection 
 presents great obstacles to our minds and their mutual intelli- 
 gence. Hence the fate of humanity hangs on the future per- 
 fecting of languages! 
 
 8i. (p. 148) catmot he raised. — "The mystery of exis- 
 tence" as the author wrote years ago in a friend's album, "dwells 
 in the figure of the circle. Without beginning, without end and 
 without cause eternity can only revert into itself and begins and 
 ceases at every point of the immeasurable universe. But tlie human 
 intellect; accustomed to see everything that exists pass before it 
 in space and time, and in accordance with the laws of cause 
 and effect, shrinks the more from this simple solution of the great 
 world-mystery, the less it has freed itself from these barriers by 
 meditation and knowledge." 
 
 The speculative philosophers or metaphysicians indeed will 
 be just as averse to such a simple solution as the great mass 
 of the ignorant or of those who are captive in theological bondo, 
 because by it their whole striving after the discovery of super- 
 natural causes of the world and the order existing in it must 
 at once be wrecked, and their comfortable mode of philosopliizing 
 would immediately sink to the level of a useless clash of words 
 in the eyes of every clear-thinking person. "It is easy to see" 
 as James Hunt admirably, says in connexion with this, "why so 
 many philosophers still cling so strongly to philosophy in order 
 to solve the problems of the world. The reason is that the 
 method of philosophy in the treatment of all questions is so 
 infinitely easier than that of the direct observation of nature and 
 careful accumulation ol' facts, which must be used systematically 
 
 22*
 
 340 APPENDIX. 
 
 and patiently in drawing- conclusions, that there will always be 
 men who will prefer a philosophy founded on brilliant sophisms 
 and fluent dialectic to the toils of a true scientific method." 
 
 %- 82. (p. 145) the true essence of things. — The limited 
 
 nature of our physical knowledge and the change or addition 
 which the things to be known undergo or receive within our 
 physical means of knowledge or senses, form the last citadel 
 within which philosophical spiritualism has retreated, after it has 
 been victoriously driven from the field at all other points by 
 philosophical materialism or realism. Sulking solitary upon de- 
 serted rocks, it hopes at some more favorable time to be able 
 from this point again to reconquer the lost territory. But there 
 is this in opposition to it, that it is equally or perhaps even less 
 able than its opponent to give any account of what the so-called 
 ihi7tg is in itself, or of what the thing is without its phenomena. 
 Things, or more properly speaking the material movements of 
 the external world within our organs of sense may indeed only 
 then receive the properties which we ascribe to them, — tones, 
 colours, odours, nay even sensations of heat, light, taste &c. 
 may only be additions of our subjective I to the objective ex- 
 ternal world, — and the latter, when we deprive it of these ad- 
 ditions, may appear to be only an accumulation or sum of in- 
 numerable atoms or particles of matter vibrating against and 
 among each other in the most multifarious forms and relations, 
 but nevertheless these movements or in general things are not 
 on this account less real or actual, and in the form of contem- 
 plative ideas constitute" the foundation of all human knowledge. 
 Locke, the celebrated founder of sensualism, knew this very well, 
 for he ascribed a great part of the jjroperties of bodies to our 
 sensitivity and distinguished between what he called primary and 
 secondary properties of things, referring to the former extension, 
 im])ermeability, form, motion or rest and number, and to the latter 
 colour, tone, taste, odour, hardness, softness, roughness &.c. The 
 materialistic philosophers of antiquity also , such as Epicurus, 
 distinguished between the sensorial qualities of things or the 
 sensation of the organized animal body, and the things them- 
 selves, but added that beyond the things of the plienomenal
 
 APPENDIX. 341 
 
 world nothing- existed and there was nothing to seek. It is there- 
 fore a grievous error when, as we so often hear in the present 
 day, this distinction is described as a bran-new discovery of 
 science {especiaUv the physiology of the organs of the senses), 
 whilst even the simplest consideration without any scientific cul- 
 tivation leads us to separate our sensation from the action caus- 
 ing the sensation. And it is incomprehensible, how so acute a 
 thinker as F, A. Lange could allow himself in his well-known 
 "History of Materialism" (Iserlohn 1866) to be led by this cir- 
 cumstance and the well-known distinction by Kant of the ihing 
 itself from the phenome?ioti to go directly against materialism and 
 even in accord with Kant to support the maxim, Ihat our ideas 
 do not accommodate themsel'i'cs to the objects, but the objects to our 
 ideas. The simple consequence of this conception would be the 
 absurd assumption that all that we recognise is only an illusion 
 of the senses, — an assumption which must make an end not only 
 of all philosophy but of all knowledge. Even the imperfection 
 and the sufficiently demonstrated limitation of our sensorial per- 
 ception, which does not even possess a direct organ of j)ercep- 
 tion for so many motions which occur in nature and in tliis 
 respect is perhaps exceeded by many animals, will not suffice to 
 furnish a scientific foundation for the doctrine of Kant, which is 
 derived from pure speculation. Kant's "thing itself" is a purely 
 ideal entity, or a logical and empirical nonentity, of the connexion 
 of which with our conception proceeding from sensorial recognition 
 no conception can possibly be formed. A "thing itself" is incon- 
 ceivable for the very reason that all things exist only for each 
 other, and without reciprocal relations have no significance. But 
 even if there were a "thing itself", it would be absolutely incon- 
 ceivable or unrecognisable and could claim no value either for our 
 action or for our thought. We know things every w-here all the better, 
 the better we investigate their manifold relations to each other and 
 to other things. Even the qualities or properties which things ac- 
 quire within our organs and our capacity of conception and which 
 are usually designated by the philosophers as "appearance" in 
 contradistinction to the "thing itself", are therefore no less actual 
 and always represent perfectly definite and equally actual con-
 
 342 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ditions or movements of the external world. Hence when Lange 
 calls the world of sense "a product of our organization", this 
 opinion rests upon a perfectly one-sided conception of the ac- 
 tually existing relations and upon an artificial confusion of the 
 state of the case which is in itself very simple. If the senses 
 sometimes deceive us by a false appearance, as, for example, in 
 the movements of the celestial bodies, we correct the error thus 
 produced by contemplation, that is by the application of natural 
 laws, which, again, we have ascertained only by means and as 
 a consequence of sensorial impressions. The dccepHvilj of sen- 
 sorial appearances in particular cases is therefore established by 
 their truthfulness in general. 
 
 The author proposes hereafter and in a more suitable pla,ce to 
 express himself in more detail upon the whole ol the very impor- 
 tant matter here touched upon, and in the mean while recommends 
 those philosophers by profession who still believe in the "Ding an 
 sich" and without any appearance of a reason regard it as the 
 sole determinant, to set the following song to music and to have 
 it sung at their assemblies in place of the grace usual among 
 theologians : 
 
 O Ding an sich, 
 Wie lieb' ich Dich, 
 Du aller Dinge Ding! 
 Nur blinder Wahn 
 Sieht scliief Dich an • 
 Und achtet Dich gering. 
 
 Zwar weiss ich nicht, 
 Ob Dein Gesicht 
 Tst hasslich oder schon ? 
 Und ob Du wohl, 
 Fest oder hohl, 
 Magst liegen oder stehn ? 
 
 Ob jung, ob alt, 
 Ob warm, ob kalt, 
 Ob grade oder krumm, 
 Ob Du vol! Zwist, 
 Ob sanft Du bist, 
 Ob pfiffig oder dumm?
 
 APPENDIX. 343 
 
 Doch einerlei! 
 Dir bleib' ich treu 
 Und unveranderlich, 
 Und tliue dar, 
 Dass nichts ist wahr, 
 Als nur "das Ding an sichi" — 
 
 83. (p. 151) and that of his race. — Every answer to 
 
 the question so often discussed as to the destiny of man or the 
 purpose of his existence derived from points of view drfferent from 
 those here supported appears absurd or untenable, as soon as wc 
 confront it with the facts and witli the results actually attained 
 in life and history by the individual man or by the human race. 
 Existence is everywhere and in every condition or moment of its 
 happening its oivn object! Man is here not to prepare himself 
 (as the Theologians says) for a better world, or to inhabit and 
 people the earth (as the teleologists will have it), or (as the 
 philosophers suppose) to bring about a reconciliation between 
 being and thinking, between God and the world, — but, simply, 
 to be here! — One might add "and to be happy or comfortable 
 here", if this purpose did not for the most part disappear under 
 the mass of miseries and horrors which the struggle for existence 
 and for the good things of the earth brings with it. The free 
 spontaneity of man with reference to the general weal which 
 may be attained in the future, will alone be able to raise him 
 above this difficulty, and consequently to make him the creator 
 of his own happiness. But until then let us give up amusing 
 him with delusive phantasms of a something invisible or unattain- 
 able to be striven for by him, and drawing him away by them 
 from the care for his own weal and that of his race! If, then, 
 we wish to find the true destiny of man we must turn away 
 from the general, notion implied in the word "destiny", which 
 always presupposed the unproven existence of a destinator, and 
 seek the purpose of his existence in himself and in his relations 
 to his surroundings, just in the same way that existence in ge- 
 neral also cannot be conceived with reference to any purpose 
 lying outside it, but is merely existence for its own sake, and 
 therefore at every moment fulfils its destiny or purpose, — that is
 
 344 APPENDIX. 
 
 to say if we choose to make use of the essentially unphiloso- 
 phical notion of destiny or purpose at all. 
 
 84. (p. 154) in a very diminished decree. — On the 
 
 great Pacific railroad man now traverses in a few days, sur- 
 rounded by all the conveniences of the highest luxury and with- 
 out the least personal fatigue, the greatest breadth of the great- 
 est continent of the earth, rushing now over boundless prairies 
 and now between the dreadful precipices of snow-capped moun- 
 tains, which formerly kept thousands of unlucky wanderers for 
 months on the road and cost them life and health. And at the 
 same time he knows that at the moment of his departure his 
 arrival at his destination which will take place a week later, has 
 already been communicated there by means of the railway tele- 
 graph and has been made known in the local journals the day 
 afterwards ! 
 
 85. (p. 154) make themselves felt. — According to an 
 
 English writer, J. W. Jackson (see Anthropological Review, 1867) 
 the existing man in the view of the developmental theory is only 
 the commencement of a new Zoological order or of the biped 
 and bird-type of the Mammalia. He will therefore, hereafter, 
 become more covered with hair or feathers, divide into diflferent 
 species and genera, and in his perfected state will only inhabit 
 suns, of which the planets are merely the embryos. ]n his moral 
 nature man is not the fulfilment of the Divine idea of manhood, 
 but only a divine preparation for this. "There is metliod in this 
 madness!" 
 
 86. (p. 157) in the past. — The greater development 
 
 and increased perfection of the brain in the higher races of men 
 and in proportion to the advance of civilization is a fact as well 
 demonstrated, as the gradual improvement of the brain and its 
 individual parts in the Vertebrate series. This applies especially 
 to the anterior or frontal portions of the brain, whilst the pos- 
 terior parts appear to have become more flattened with advancing 
 civilization, so that a kind of greater erection of the wliole brain 
 accompanied by a widening appears to have been a chief charac- 
 ristiq. of its civilizatory development. This, however, relates only 
 to the very rough character of size and external form, whilst the
 
 APPENDIX. 345 
 
 internal improvement of structure, composition, formation of the 
 different parts tJcc. , generally remains concealed from the eye 
 of the anatomist. But it is in this, and in the more fully deve- 
 loped function of the activity of the organ that we have the 
 main lever of its relative superiority and also of its continued 
 development in the future. It is therefore a sign of great want 
 of knowledge or judgment when we find in many works written 
 in opposition to the theory of evolution, and especially against 
 the consequences deduced from it by Carl Vogt with regard to 
 the future development of the human race, that the following 
 absurd objection is brought forward, namely that an enormous 
 and injurious development of the brain and skull or a morbid 
 macrocephalism (big-headedness) must be the necessary conse- 
 quence of that development in accordance with the Darwinian 
 doctrine of evolution. Even within the space now furnished by the 
 human skull, the growth of which is subjected to definite laws, 
 prescribed by the type and mutual relations with the other organs 
 and parts of the body, there is still so much superfluous room 
 for the further development of the organ of thought in its indi- 
 vidual and more delicate parts, as may suffice for thousands of 
 years and for a civilizatory development of the widest kind. 
 Moreover we must not forget that by means of its present form 
 and constitution the organ is already capable of an evolution of 
 its function or activity by use and practice, such as we know it 
 attains only in very few men. It is a fact sufficiently well- 
 known to physiologists that the structure and function of an or- 
 gan do not always stand in an equal ratio to each other, but 
 often in a very unequal ratio, so that tiie hand, for example, which 
 in the animals most nearly allied to man serves almost entirely 
 as a grasping or motory organ, although approaching very near 
 to that of man, and which probably served only for the simplest 
 purposes in primeval man, is capable in the more highly deve- 
 loped men of an almost marvellous perfection and adroitness. In 
 the same way the brain of man also by practice and cultivation 
 becomes capable of performances which appear simply incompre- 
 hensible to the simple and uninstructed understanding. K we 
 add to this that a brain thus developed and trained under other-
 
 346 APPENDIX. 
 
 wise favourable circumstances transfers its acquired improvements 
 in accordance with the law of inheritance to its descendants, we 
 shall easily see, how, by this means a sufficient material founda- 
 tion is furnished for an unlimited intellectual progress, without its 
 being necessary for the organ of thought itself to become inflated 
 to a bulk inconsistent with the laws of structure in general. 
 Finally it must not be forgotten that the brain of the cultivated 
 man nowadays acquires with comparatively less effort and in a 
 very short time a whole series of ideas, concejitions and know- 
 ledge, on the creation or establishment of which the intellectual 
 powers of many generations of men before us have exhausted 
 themselves. The present treasure of civilization possessed by 
 man, like his material possessions, is the result of the life and 
 activity of the whole human race during the hundreds and thou- 
 sands of years that have passed away! The individual succeeding 
 at once to the whole of this valuable inheritance and taking 
 his stand upon it works on further, and this it is above all that, 
 together with his more perfect organisation, confers upon man 
 his immense superiority over the animal. Corporeally man is in 
 fact nothing but an ennobled and more perfectly organized ape; 
 but intellectually he is , in comparison to animals , a demi- 
 god, that is he has become so by the gradual evolution of his 
 powers! 
 
 87. (p. 159) ill physical life. — In a social point of 
 
 view, F. A. Lange (Die Arbeiterfrage, 1865) has added to the 
 struggle for existence the struggle for an advantageous positiofi, 
 the fundamental law of which, however, is the same as that of 
 the struggle for existence, inasmuch as the germs of the capa- 
 city and inclination for advantageous position are scattered through 
 the" masses, but destined in the great majority to be aborted. 
 Take away or diminish tl)e pressure which the struggle for exis- 
 tence opposes to the aspiring powers, and forms and perfor- 
 mances of an advantageous kind shoot up in unexpected abundance; 
 whilst by an increased pressure the finest talents become aborted, 
 and this with the heavy consciousness of abortion. It is nothing 
 but a deeply rooted error to suppose that ever)- talent or genius 
 will work its way under any circumstances. We forget especially
 
 APPENDIX. 347 
 
 in this to take into account the effect of higher position upon 
 the development of the fundamental powers, and overestimate the 
 performances of those who are accidentally highly placed in accor- 
 dance with their value to the whole. This evil can only be ope- 
 rated against by lightening as much as possible the struggle for 
 existence by means of such arrangements as will present space 
 and the possibility of development to every aspiring talent^ and 
 pre\ent in fidiire the iveal of millions from being sacrificed lo 
 the glory of a feiv! In the greatest possible equalization of the 
 means by which the struggle for existence is fought out by each 
 individual, lies the problem of the whole future of the human 
 race! 
 
 88. (p. 1 66). . . . welfare and existence of the ivhole. — The 
 principle of the division of labour, as Professor E. Hackel has 
 shown in an admirable discourse on that subject (Berlin i86g), 
 is diffused throughout the whole organic world and exerts itself 
 not only in the arrangement of the individual organism but also 
 in the social and confederate combinations of the individual spe- 
 cies of animals. Life, according to Hackel, is nothing but the 
 mechanical total result of the performances of the different or- 
 gans separated by division of labour; and these organs on their 
 part have been developed into tlieir various forms from simpler 
 and very simple forms, the so-called primitive and fundamental 
 organs, in consequence of a progressive division of labour. The 
 simplest or primitive form of organic life is, as is well-known, 
 the cell, which as the smallest organic individual or as the ele- 
 mentary organism constitutes all organs whether simple or com- 
 plicated. "Tiie apparent vital unity of every multicellular orga- 
 nism, like the political unity of every human state, is the com- 
 bined result of the union and division of labour of these little 
 citizens." Every cell in the body of the animal or plant has 
 thus up to a certain degree an independent life. Those cells 
 which are the most favoured or the most highly endowed under- 
 take the highest function of the animal body, that of self-con- 
 ciousness or of sensation, thought and will. 
 
 The division of labour of the organism itself is a result of 
 the struggle for existence in the course of man}-, many millions
 
 348 APPENDIX. 
 
 of years under the pressure of the external conditions of life, 
 and guided by the principles of variability and inheritance. 
 
 89 (jx 172) fo)- one or for a fetv. — Although it must 
 
 be regarded as a very just principle that ''Whoever does not 
 work, shall not eat," nevertheless daily experience teaches that 
 a great many do eat, who do not work, and never have worked; 
 and from this it follows as an inevitable consequence, that those 
 who do work must do so not only for themselves but also for 
 the nourishment of a whole army of idlers. And this makes it 
 appear the more unjust that those portions of the happiness of 
 life which fall to the lot of the individual, are usually smaller 
 in proportion as the exertion of his forces for the maintenance 
 of his own existence and that of others is great, whilst the best 
 and largest shares are in general carried off by those who have 
 made very slight, if any, efforts to deserve them. It must not be . ob- 
 jected to this that these people live upon the exertions or services 
 of their ancestors, because the most essential necessaries of life 
 are exactly those which cannot be created beforehand, and when 
 they are consumed, must necessarily have been produced by the 
 exertions of contemporaries. 
 
 What applies to bodily work, applies also, and almost in a 
 higher degree, to inielkchial labour, which usually becomes less 
 remunerative and more proletarian, the more it is directed 
 towards the highest and most truly ideal })roblems of humanit}-. 
 Philosophers and poets are born })roletaires, except when the luck 
 of ])roperty has smiled upon them in their cradle, and even in 
 business the heaviest and most wearing intellectual labour is ge- 
 nerally performed by those who are worst paid for it. It is a 
 very poor consolation, and moreover untrue, to say, that want 
 drives great intellects to the production of extraordinary works, 
 and that wealth and comfort keep them from it. Whoever is 
 kept back from intellectual creation by wealth or comfort, is really 
 destitute of the characters of prominent and creative spirits, for 
 whom the outpouring of their inward thoughts into the bosom 
 of mankind is as much a necessity as eating, drinking and sleep- 
 ing. On the other hand want and privation make poeple dis- 
 contented, inattentive and slow of thought and rob those who
 
 APPENDIX. 349 
 
 are subjected to them of those external and internal incitements 
 which are so absolutely necessary for the development even of 
 the greatest intellect. The leisure which is indispensable to the 
 poet, the philosopher, &c. is wanting to the man who is pressed 
 by want and the cares of life, and the scattering of his powers 
 which is caused thereby makes him attain that which forms and 
 must form a mainspring of the progress of the creative spirit, — 
 namely success, — too late, if at all. Of course so long as the 
 principles which now govern society with regard to the struggle 
 for existence prevail, it is useless to think of improving these 
 conditions, as only such intellectual work, as furnishes or pro- 
 mises to furnish a direct material benefit, is remunerated. What 
 an infinitely injurious influence upon the quality of our modern 
 literature this circumstance has exerted is too well-known to 
 render any further reference to it necessary. Professorial detail- 
 work or hasty workshop - work speculating upon the pocket of 
 the reader, with abject subjection to the temporarily prevailing 
 spirit or taste of the reader, is the predominant character of our 
 literature, whilst manly rectitude and philosophical conviction are 
 seen to encounter everywhere a mountain of vulgarity, ignorance 
 and calumny. 
 
 go. (p. 174) greatest personal disadvantages. — -The 
 
 present -foundations of society according to Radenhausen (Isis, 
 Band IV.) are mistrust, mutual plunder and egotism; it is a war 
 of every one against every one, in which it is not philanthropy, 
 but only an insatiable striving after gain that forms the main- 
 spring. F. A. Lange (y. ^. Mill's Ansichten ilber die sociale 
 Frage &c., Duisburg 1866), who like us regards the struggle for 
 existence as the essential spring of social movement, also calls 
 egotism the mainspring of our society. In opposition to this, 
 according to Lange, the principles oi justice ^xA fraternity which 
 have hitherto played only a secondary part in the state and in 
 society, must be made the principal thing. In theory we possess 
 a far higher ideal of true humanity than that which actually 
 exists. Morals must be introduced into national oeconomy and 
 by this means that hateful contradiction between theory and j)rac- 
 tice which moves our existing society to its misfortune must be
 
 350 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 got rid of. Morality itself must, however, as even Adam Smith 
 recommended, be founded upon sympathy; it is the regard of 
 the individual for the whole that settles morality. 
 
 In the first edition of his work "Force and Matter" (pp. 256- 
 57) the author wrote the following passage (afterwards omitted) 
 on the present state of our society: — "And finally let us once 
 more look a little more closely into human society and enquire 
 whether, or not it acts upon moral impulses. Is it not in fact 
 a helium omnium contra onmes? A universal race in which every 
 one strives to outrun or even to destroy every body else? Could 
 we not almost represent it as Burmeister does the Brazilians: 
 'Every one does what he thinks he may do without punishment; 
 cheats, takes advantage of, deceives and makes use of tlie 
 others as well as he can, with the conviction that no one would 
 treat him any better. In general the\- regard any one who does 
 not take this course as too stupid and silly to be able to follow 
 it &c." Every one does what agrees with his nature and follows 
 the impulses communicated to him either by this or b}- the ex- 
 ternal conditions of life; he does what appears to him to be 
 advantageous and suitable for himself and for the attainment of 
 his objects, without troubling himself about moral principles which 
 have not become positive. "All men are practical atheists" 
 (Feuerbach). A man who cares more for others than for himself 
 is usually, as Cotta says, called a "good silly fellow." 
 
 gr. (p. 175) internal difficulties. — M. Busch {\Vande- 
 
 rungen zwischen Hudson und Mississippi, pp. 129 et seq. (Stuttg. 
 1854) describes the Shaker town of Watervliet in America, whicli 
 had adopted the principles of community of all property and 
 non-compulsory labour (work at pleasure). The colony was in a 
 state of. the highest prosperity. Pohl, a Scotchman, founded, also 
 in America, a colony in which all constraint was to be done away 
 with, and every one was to work only according to his inclina- 
 tion and pow'ers. The idea of this was given to Pohl by his 
 ovvn factory in Scotland, in wliich he brought up poor children. 
 The colony, which had also adopted the principle of community 
 of women, proved a failure. The most celebrated of the man}- 
 societies arranged in accordance with socialistic principles is the
 
 APPENDIX. 351 
 
 great Phalanstere of New Jersey in America, which only broke 
 up after thirteen years of a flourishing existence. Active philan- 
 thropy served this society as a guiding principle. The land be- 
 longed to all in common; all also dwelt and ate together. 
 Every one worked at what he pleased and as much as he liked; 
 his work was estimated and put to his credit as a certain sum. 
 Every week a balancing of accounts took place, when the liabi- 
 lities and assets of each individual were settled according to his 
 work and the amount due by him to the society for his main- 
 tenance. There was no religion or church, but good schools. 
 The women had exactly the same rights as the men, even to 
 the right of voting; and a select committee governed and de- 
 cided upon the reception of new members, who had to submit 
 to a year of trial. The circumstance that many availed them- 
 selves of the Phalanstere and its cheap mode of life only in order 
 to save up a capital for themselves, together with the other cir- 
 cumstance that the capitalists not belotigittg to the Society who had 
 lent the money for the purchase of the land called it in for the 
 purpose of getting possession of the well-situated and beautifully 
 cultivated ground in order to sell it at a high price, caused the 
 overthrow of the undertaking. 
 
 Even in the prosaic land of China communism has taken 
 root. For there has existed in that country since the beginning 
 of the present Century a secret society called Thiantihoei (or the 
 union of Heaven and earth), which has extended itself from Can- 
 ton to Malacca, Java and the Indian Archipelago, was discovered 
 in the year 1824, and made itself remarkable by a rising in 
 Malacca in the year 1836. The adherents of this sect desire 
 to overcome the terrible contrast between poverty and riches and 
 start from the principle that all men have an equal right to the 
 possession of the earth and of their properties. They have 
 nothiog but precepts of brotherly love and practical benevolence 
 and strive after the liberation of mankind from misery and 
 oppression. (See Milne, Transact, of the Asiatic Soc. 1827. Vol. I. 
 and: Thian-thi-hoih: Gexchichte der Briiderschaft des Himmels 
 tmd der Erde, der commuiiistischefi Propaga?ida C/iifia's. Berlin 
 18.52).
 
 352 APPENDIX. 
 
 That community of goods was a recognised principle, carried 
 out in a greater or less degree by many religious sects of an- 
 cient and modern times, is a matter of history. I shall refer 
 only to the Jewish sect of the Essenes, to the first Christian 
 communities , the Albigenses , Waldenses , Bohemian brothers, 
 Herrnhuter (S:c. 
 
 92. (p. 175) ccconornically and morally. — Radenhausen 
 
 in his "Isis" (V"ol. IV. pp. 445 et secq.) admirably expounds the 
 oeconomical and other advantages of a cornmnnity of goods. Dis- 
 trust, tile thirst for unfair gain, plunder, selfishness &c., which at 
 present form the foundations of intercourse, would be got rid of; 
 and in the same proportion culture , conscientiousness, trust, 
 moral worth &c. would increase. "Whilst at present very many, 
 and precisely those who are in an influential position, seek out 
 of selfishness, to obstruct culture, the community, on the contrary, 
 would seek to foster it for its own benefit, in order that each 
 individual might be the more profitable to the whole." The 
 striving after enjoyment would be ennobled; the maintenance of 
 existence would be much facilitated, as communities can always 
 exist much more cheaply than individuals; work, when carried 
 on in common, would become easier, more agreeable, more 
 healthy and more profitable; the money-slavery of small manufac- 
 tories would cease; age and sickness would affect the individual 
 with respect to his material existence, no more than temporary 
 want of work; the knowledge and skill of individuals would not 
 be lost at their death, but would benefit the community and their 
 successors; the love of work itself, which would no longer be 
 mere hired work but would be for the service of all in common, 
 would increase extraordinarily &c., &c. 
 
 Even the transition from individual life to community 
 would not be so rugged as it would appear, since our pre- 
 sent life is already interwoven much more than is usually sup- 
 posed with communism. The direct and indirect savings in go- 
 vernmental arrangements which are now so costly, and in the 
 many devices for the security and maintenance of private pro- 
 l)erty, would be incalculably great; whilst the numerous losses 
 I)roduced by the whole army of evil inclinations, sucli as avarice,
 
 APPENDIX. 353 
 
 hatred envy, revenge, calumny, hardheartedness Sec, by which 
 mankind, is more severely punished than by a plague, would 
 cease. The ivorih of man, hitherto almost disregarded or des- 
 pised, would come into its right estimation, and a free son of 
 man would no longer, as heretofore, be less estimated, as regards 
 his worth, than a sucking pig or a lamb or the child of a 
 slave, &:c.' &c. 
 
 g3. (p. 177) have hecorne a fact. That the propertied 
 
 <:lasses should fear and detest the social revolution from personal 
 and class interests is intelligible and excusable, although the no- 
 tions which are usually formed of such revolutions and their con- 
 sequences, are generally much more dreadful than the things 
 themselves. On the other hand it is incomprehensible and in- 
 excusable that the'^e same classes should be just as shy and re- 
 cusant as towards the social revolution itself, towards all pro- 
 posals intended to check social evils in a peaceable manner 
 and to lead, by gradual reform, to a better state of things. The 
 more we refuse to see and acknowledge the social evils, the 
 more strongly will these spring up in silence, and the less possible 
 will it be in the end to escape Irom a solution of them by force. 
 Therefore instead of pursuing with hatred and calumny those 
 who drag the mischief to light and propose means for its cure, 
 they should be greeted with thanks and listened to quietly and 
 intelligently. Most certainly our wealthy burgher-class or the so- 
 called Bvurgeoisie, in which, at present, the most political influence 
 is concentrated, are destitute of the most necessary qualification 
 lor this purpose, namely cultivation. Having sprung from the lower 
 state of society and gradually attained to riches and influence 
 by the unexampled progress ol industry, trade and commerce, 
 generally to their own astonishment, they know nothing higher 
 than the assertion of this jiosition and material comfort and 
 despise everything else as unpractical enthusiasm and ideology. 
 The words "Money", "Credit", "Parliament", "Ministerial Responsi- 
 bility" ik-C.y exliaust the whole treasury of their social and poli- 
 tical ideas, — the highest flight they can take is to the require- 
 ment of a "free course for every One ", which they regard as the 
 Non plus ultra of liberalism, or to the removal of all those me-
 
 354 APPENDIX. 
 
 dieval obstacles which still stand in the way of free labour. But 
 they forget that the free course alone, on which the best places 
 are already occupied, and on which those who go on foot can 
 often scarcely find room among the crushing wheels of those 
 who travel in carriages, will by no means do, and that we must 
 not talk about freedom of labour, so long as this is subservient 
 to private capital or private possessions. In point of fact it is 
 still exactly as it was formerly, when the noble made his serfs 
 work for him; only the parts have been changed, and the moral 
 pressure which Capital and possessions nowadays exert upon the 
 labourer, is often harder than the old physical compulsion. That 
 this cannot remain so permanently is clear, and it will depend 
 entirely upon the intelligence or want of intelligence of our pre- 
 sent Bourgeoisie, or independent middle class, with regard to 
 social questions, whether we are now advancing towards a social 
 revolutmi with all its terrible and incalculable consequences, or 
 towards a peaceful and gradual reform. 
 
 94. (p. 178) thai of Uie coinmu fitly. As a matter of 
 
 course there can be no question here of a formal expropriation 
 or expulsion of the owners of the soil for the benefit of the state, 
 but only of a redemption of the land, that is to say a repurchase 
 of it for moderate sums to be settled by estimate. In the case 
 of small properties or pieces of ground, especially where these 
 form the sole possession of a man or a family, this estimate must 
 come very near their real value; whilst larger properties, whole 
 manors and the like must be subject to a certain reduction in 
 the estimate. It is well known that ver}- many and perhaps the 
 most important of the titles to tlie private possession of the soil, 
 which was orrginally in general a conmion possession, by no 
 means originate in honest acquisition, but from the times of con- 
 quest, feudalisni and forcible dominion, and for this reason alone 
 we might have the less hesitation about their retransfer into tlie 
 possession of the community. Nevertheless as, after the lapse of 
 so long a time investigations of the justice of the titles of acqui- 
 sition can no longer be instituted, and as we cannot make the 
 descendants answerable for the sins ol" their forefathers, no one 
 should be injured in his existing rights, but only comj)elled to
 
 APPENDIX. 355 
 
 give back his possessions to the state for a sufficient compen- 
 sation. 
 
 Such a restoration of the property in the land to the com- 
 munity, moreover, even if we leave entirely out of consideration 
 all social reasons or scruples of justice, is an oxonomical or poli- 
 tical necessity, and therefore cannot be avoided at last in spite 
 of all resistance. For the more the population increases, the 
 more necessary does it become to obtain from the existing soil 
 the utmost that it is capable of furnishing both in quantity and 
 kind. It can, therefore, no longer be left to the individual pos- 
 sessor of a piece of ground to decide whether and how far he 
 will make it capable of bearing, but, as we have said, in the 
 interest of the community as much must be got out of it as it 
 is capable of producing. This, however, can of course only be 
 done by cultivation on the large scale carried on on tlie prin- 
 ciples of scientific agriculture and by rendering every spot of earth 
 capable of cultivation in accordance with its position and nature, 
 whilst private possession acts in this respect quite arbitrarily 
 and often very irrationally. Thus in England great stretches of 
 cultivable land are either left entirely unemployed by their 
 possessors or converted into meadows, parks, race-courses, grand 
 gardens ike, which serve only for the gratification of individuals, 
 but by no means for the general benefit"'' ; and the same 
 thing occurs everywhere, although not to so great an extent as 
 in England. 
 
 Whether the state (jr community itself will undertake the 
 cultivation of the soil or leave it, under certain guarantees and 
 regulations, to agricultural societies, to the country comunities, 
 or, by agreement, to private individuals, is a question of secon- 
 dar}- importance, which will probably be settled in different w'ays 
 in different places in accordance with the condition of the countrv. 
 
 The lajid-quesimi has, as is well-known, become most press- 
 
 *) The county of Sutlieiland contiuns niore tliaii a million acres of 
 land whicli belung to /:«> owners, and of which only 23,000 acres are 
 under cultivation. The English J.ords pr. fer making sheepruns, hunting 
 grounds or enormous paries out of tullivablc soil.
 
 356 APPENDIX. 
 
 ing in the country of political freedom, England, in consequence 
 of the peculiar conditions of the possession of land, and here 
 the agitation in favour of community in })Ossession of land or 
 at least for a thorougli-going reform of the existing state of things 
 has already made itself felt and obtained many adherents. Ac- 
 cording to Radenhausen {Is/'s, Vol. III. p. 354) land-slavery in 
 England has been one of the principal means of making the high 
 nobility enormously rich, whilst, on the other hand, it has placed 
 the greatest difficulties in the way ol the agricultural improvement 
 of the soil, which is so necessary. 
 
 Ground rents appear to be most unjust when the}' are pro- 
 duced by simple increase of the population and the augmented 
 value of landed property caused thereby. This is most striking 
 in and near large, growing cities, where pieces of land, which 
 were previously almost of no value, often become real gold-fields 
 within a short time. This kind of rent or augmentation of 
 property is evidently produced witliout any assistance from the 
 individual, merely by the industry- and activity of the community, 
 wliich nevertheless leaves this result of its industry to the indi- 
 vidual owner of the property without any deduction. Here, even 
 ivithout the introduction of communistic possession of the soil, 
 the community even now, by suitable taxation, might be made 
 at least a joint proprietor of the benefit created by itself. 
 
 95. (p. 178). . . . private property to descendants. This i)ro- 
 position is very different from that wliich lias also been made of 
 a total abolition nf tiic right oi' inheritance; an abolition which 
 must cause such a jjrofound alteration of all social conditions, 
 tliat its sudden introduction cannot be imagined except by means 
 of the most reckless power. Social reforms cannot, like p(j]itical 
 ones, be suddenly organized, since for their introduction a certain 
 agreement of public oj)inion or of the classes of society is abso- 
 lutely necessary. But it is exactly in this respect that the pro- 
 posed metiiod of a limitation ul' the right of inhorilancc particu- 
 larly recommends itself to notice, as it is one that ((inducts ijuiti- 
 gradually from the jjresent social slate to a better one. witlKjut 
 disturbing an\ one in his possessions during his life, and may 
 bf iiureasfd (jv made more eiKM'getic arcording to circ iinist.inres.
 
 APPENDIX. 357 
 
 As a principle the limitation of the ri^^lit of inhcrittim <• has long 
 been recognised in the form of the xiuicssiun and kgatv duties 
 which have ])robably been introduced in all countries; and in 
 point of fact no juster and less pressing duty can be imagined 
 than the duty on inheritances, especially when these are indirect. 
 The individual has acquired what he possesses in, with and with 
 the aid of the community, and it must therefore be regarded 
 only as just and ecjuitablc, tliat after his death he should be 
 compelled to give up to the community a portion of what he 
 has acquired and can no longer make use of! Arbitrary or 
 absurd legaciers, such, for instance, as that of the rich English- 
 man who left his whole property to a lad}- with whom he had 
 not the slightest acquaintance, sim|)]y from his admiration for 
 her beautiful nose, or legacies to very distant lateral lines who 
 are not in want of them, would of course meet with as little 
 toleration on the part of the slate, as the enormous private pro- 
 perties, maintained by constant inheritance, which constitute a 
 state within the state, a power of money williin the p<iwer o'\ the 
 state, and exert both on their possessors and on their families an 
 unnatural influence injurious to the welfare of the community. 
 The place of the former aristocracy of birth has been gradually 
 taken by an arisloLiacv of lucallh, which at least is as strongly 
 opposed to democratic ])rincii)les and good taste, as the former, 
 and hereafter, if abiirrier is ncjt raised against it, will ac(]uire 
 a constantly increasing preponderance. 
 
 It may, indeed, be objected that great properties generally 
 split up or become divided among several distinct brduches bv 
 inheritance. Nevertheless experience teaciies that great wealth is 
 generally maintained in individual families (to which the circum- 
 stance that the rich always marry among the rich may cssentiallv 
 contribute); and on tiie other hand great properties often collect 
 l)y inheritance in individual hands, by the flowing togetlier of 
 many sources from various sides. The presumptive heirs of 
 great wealth are generally regarded by most peojile with quite 
 different eyes from ordinar}- men, and indeed nearly as beings 
 of a higher kind; they have the privilege o^ being stupid, lazy, 
 rude, presumptuous and even uncultivated, without losing much
 
 358 APPENDIX. 
 
 respect; for one is certain that they will one day easily compen- 
 sate for all these deficiencies by their wealth, and in spite of them 
 take a i:)romincnt and influential position in Society. They also 
 generally do not regard it as their duty to learn or do much, 
 or to be very just in their other duties to Society, as they are 
 usually quite sure of their advantageous lot without any exertion 
 of their own. 
 
 In concluding this note it may be remarked, moreover, that 
 the prohibition of the right of possession and inheritance is by 
 no means a discovery of modern times, but is already thousands 
 of years old. At the most different times intelligent and right- 
 thinking men have proposed or introduced regulations leading 
 towards it. See upon this subject Radcnhausen's "Isis" (Band III. 
 })p. 376 ct scqq), where it is demonstrated that at various periods 
 attacks have been made on behalf of the common weal upon 
 the right of possession and inheritance. Moreover it must not 
 be forgotten that even under present conditions in the State, the 
 community, the family, unions »S:c. we already possess an infi- 
 nity of communistic arrangments, all of which, if the Manchester- 
 theory were correct, ought to be got rid of and left solely to 
 private activity, which is almost always insufficient. 
 
 g6. (p. 179) bj privaU means. The desolate condi- 
 tion of descendants incapable of inheritance and left solely to 
 public beneficence by the death, age or illness of their suj)porter 
 forms one of the most crying and obstinate of social evils. It 
 is true, indeed, that privately by means of committees and benefit 
 societies, as well as by the numerous life assurance offices, and 
 publicly by means of parochial and otiier arrangements, the mi- 
 sery thus produced is as far as possible counteracted. But every 
 one who has attained even a little insight or experience in these 
 matters is well aware how insufficient and defective all these 
 arrangements are, what danger of loss there is in them, and how 
 they leave one in the lurch precisely in the worst cases. The 
 object would be attained quite differently and better if the state 
 or the community were to take over these natural cares and to 
 a certain extent constitute a great and universal mutual assurance 
 institution, under whicli innocent destitution would be an impossi-
 
 APPENDIX.- 359 
 
 bility. T[h; ( oiitribution which every iinli\i(hial i^jves towards the 
 burthens of the state, or the taxes, wouki of course have to be 
 increased in such a measure as would cover the expenses thus 
 arising; hut the (jbligatory contribution of all feach individual 
 according to his powers or the amount of his income) would 
 probably make the increase very small. It is impossible that a 
 community ordered upon humane principles should tolerate that 
 the invalids of labour, as they may be called, after having de- 
 voted their whole life and their powers to the service and pur- 
 poses of this community, should when old or sick be compelled 
 to want or even to die of hunger, or that their unendowed des- 
 cendants, children, women ike. should be pitilessly flung into 
 the arms of wan distress. The poor's rates and other arrange- 
 ments for the relief of the poor at present existing do not ge- 
 nerally fulfil the purpose for which they were intended, and are 
 often better fitted to develope ragamuffins and idle paupers 
 or to lielp beggary, than to relieve real and innocent ])overtv. 
 Nor can they prevent the most terrible and heart-breaking scenes 
 of social misery, slow starvation, desperate suicides (S:c. from 
 taking place almost daily in the midst of a society which is 
 rolling in superfluity. 
 
 97. (p. 188) often very grievous. "The capitalistic 
 
 mode of production" says J. G. Eccarius (Eines Arbeiters VVider- 
 legung der national -okonomischen Lehren J. S. Mill's, Berlin 
 1869)" is under the most favourable circumstances a social war 
 without interruption. The improvement of the machinery of pro- 
 duction goes about like a roaring Lion and seeks whom it mav 
 devour, it is a barbarous war, — the artillery and the victories 
 are all on one side, the killed and wounded on the other. It is 
 an abominable and comtemptible war produced bv avarice, — un- 
 disguised avarice, — which is the more hateful because the accu- 
 mulation of wealth for wealth's sake is represented as an en- 
 nobling princij)le and ])rocIaime(l b\- its wf)rshi]>pers a divine ordi- 
 nance or an eternal law of nature bringing health to humanityo 
 Those who perish in this struggle have not even the comfort of 
 dying for a good or glorious cause, — they are inspired by no 
 fanaticism, by no illusion. They are mere sacrifices to Plutus,
 
 360 APPENDIX. 
 
 who are acquainted with their fate and see their destruction be- 
 fore them at every step." 
 
 g8. (p. 188) 7'i'ry ivc// earned. In an essay on the 
 
 premium on capital in his "Pioneer", Karl Ileinzen expresses 
 himself upon this point very well as follows: — "But what measure 
 shall be applied when the works necessary for carrying on a 
 business arc of completely different kinds and the capitalist is not 
 merel} its undertaker but also, by special qualification, its creator 
 and maintainer? It is true that without the aid of the workmen 
 the business can no more exist than without capital; but shall 
 the capitalist have no preference over those who help him in his 
 business? shall they have an equal claim witli him to profit? 
 shall the greater share which he appropriates to himself be re- 
 garded as an objectionable 'premium on capital', when he alone 
 is the soul of the business, when it only exists by his creative 
 activity, when its nature requires special faculties which he alone 
 possesses, and perhaps only attained them by the greatest sa- 
 crifices? 
 
 "Even in the most everyday business we are perplexed by 
 the question of the right mode of division. Take a merchant's 
 business: — To carry it on we require, besides the undertaking 
 capitalist, book-keeper, clerks, messengers, carters, servants etc. 
 Shall all these assistants have an equal right to the {profits with 
 the capitalist? Shall his right to a greater share be disputed as 
 'premium on capital'? 
 
 "Let us take another example. An author who possesses 
 the necessary capital sets up a newsjiapcr. Notwithstanding his 
 intellectual and pecuniary capital, he is unable to bring it out 
 without the assistance of a book-keeper, a manager, a set of 
 printers and even a printer's devil. The Journal, however, pros- 
 jiers by the industry and talent of its founder, and by tiiis talent 
 and industry alone. His capital would be less powerlul without 
 his talent, than his talent without his capital. Now docs justice 
 require that he should divide the whole profit of his undertaking 
 with his assistant workers down even to the printer's devil? Does 
 he not do enough if he ])ays each of them the highest price for 
 his work, which cannot bv anv means be brought into the same
 
 APPENDIX. 361 
 
 CHtegor\' with his own? Is he to be condemned as a capitalist 
 if he estimates the product of his activity which decides the pros- 
 perity and even the very existence of the business, at a liigher 
 value than that of his workmen." 
 
 gg. (p. igo) entirely itjitenabk. It is mere nonsense 
 
 to reject the assistance of the state upon principles and argu- 
 ments derived from the nature of the state itself, as Wackernagel, 
 for example, has done, in his essay against Lassalle. The state 
 is not, as the present Bourgeois-party think in their stupidity, 
 merely a mutual law and protection office, but only the external 
 form within which the great advances in civilization of mankind 
 have to be performed. Everything therefore is an object of the 
 state which promises to advance the intellectual or corporeal 
 happiness and comfort of the citizens, its individual members, and 
 which the majority of these citizens regards at any given moment 
 as serviceable to the common welfare. Men without state are 
 inconceivable; hence we cannot separate tlie individuals from the 
 idea of the state and consider them without reference to it. They 
 are men in our sense of the word only by their living together with 
 other men in a political union, and the latter itself changes in its 
 nature every moment with the changing necessities or degrees of 
 cultivation of those of whom it is composed. In this sense State-aid 
 is nothing more than the assistance which the community offers to 
 the individual, and the more extensively this is done the more will 
 the great objects of humanity and Manhood be attained. Hence 
 state-aid itself is not in question, but only the viode'vn. which it shall 
 be exerted. All disjjutes about the nature and purpose of the State 
 become unnecessary as soon as tlie principle of tlie sovereignly of 
 the people is fully recognized and it is admitted that everything 
 must be law that the majority of the people will. The individual 
 freedom of which the adherents of the Bourgeois-State speak so 
 much, really exists only on paper, because so long as social 
 equality does not exist it becomes force and club-law in opposi- 
 tion to those who are least favoured. Of what use to the poor 
 workman is the power of moving about freely, when he finds the 
 same misery whereover lie goes? Of what use is freedom of 
 trade to him wlicn he must everywhere work only for those, who
 
 362 APPENDIX, 
 
 alone have the instruments of production in their hands? Where 
 is the individual freedom of all those poor ])ooplc or workmen 
 whom we can at any moment throw upon the streets and c(jn~ 
 sij^ni to the extreme of want, by depriving them of their scanty 
 employment? Freedom of labour, which the opponents of State- 
 aid and the defenders of the Bourgeois-state praise so highly, is 
 in fact attained by State-aid or the assistance of the less-favoured 
 by the community, so that every honest, healthy man who is 
 willing to work will fmd it possible to earn his independent 
 existence by work, and not always to serve as the slave of others. 
 If it depended only upon freedom of labour in the liberalistic 
 sense or the removal of political hindrances which narrow this 
 freedom, England and America would necessarily be the most 
 blessed countries in the world, whilst in reality the workmen 
 there have exactly the same and in part still greater grievances 
 than in other countries, and in the former country the social 
 contradictions and injustices are greater and more monstrous than 
 anywhere else. Here, and everywhere if things continue as they 
 are and industry on a large scale continues to overgrow small 
 businesses in the same proportion as hitherto, it will finally come 
 to pass that there will be only one God with unlimited power 
 in the world, namely Mammon or property, money; and human 
 society will consist only of a small number of millionaires or 
 great capit^dists and an enormous army of proletaires. — the 
 latter apparently existing solely for the purpose of consuming 
 their lives in the service of the former. 
 
 100. (p. igi). . . salvaiioii and happiness. Schultze-Delitzsch, 
 with his sell-help, has, however, the advantage over all his oppo- 
 nents, over all socialistic or a^conomistic systems, ihal he takes 
 his stand upon the ground of existing conditions and from this 
 evolves a directly beneficial activity, whilst all others hope in the 
 future and require considerable political revolutions as a necessary 
 preliminary condition for their practical activity. One may there- 
 fore very well be a decided socialist and nevertheless, so long- 
 as political conditions remain the same, he active in the direc- 
 tion of Schultzc's system. However, it is now a generally ad- 
 mitted f.K't that this s\stcni is almost solelv bcnelicial lo small
 
 APPENDIX. 363 
 
 operations, small masters iS:c.. wliHst the a( tual workman derives 
 very little if any benefit from it. 
 
 loi. (p. igg) mechanism of government. The evident 
 
 decline of our Universities or High Schools as seminaries of free 
 and independent science, which has been increasing from year 
 to year and is pretty generally admitted, is due to a series of 
 causes, of which the following are among the principal: — 
 
 1. The pressure exerted by the existing government upon 
 the teachers or established representatives of science in the Uni- 
 versities, which renders it more or less impossible for the indivi- 
 dual to teach anything which is in opposition to the views or 
 necessities of the Government and its generally reactionary en- 
 deavours. By this means a checking bridle is put upon every 
 new and suggestive investigation, and an almost insuperable 
 obstacle is opposed to everything that rises above the ordinary 
 level. Men who form the ornaments of science and who will 
 shine upon future generations as stars of the first magnitude, 
 are hunted or juggled away from the universities in consequence 
 of this system; whilst men of small intellects and narrow minded 
 pedlars of scientific details usurp the lofty thrones from which 
 the light of enlightenment and intelligence should shine down upon 
 the nation. If we add to this the incredible diiTusion of cliquism 
 in our High Schools, the bad payment, the mean and dis- 
 honouring hunting after hearers or students, the depressed position 
 of the private tutors, the submissive feeling of all those who 
 hope for advancement or increase of pay, and many other things, 
 we shall easily understand what must become of science under 
 such circumstances and in such hands, and what would long 
 since have become of it, if it did not bear in itself a force of 
 attraction and elevation which nothing can destroy. 
 
 2. The extraordinary universalization of culture, which draws 
 the means of culture and in part the interest in culture away 
 from the universities, which arc usually situated in small and 
 imperlectly developed towns, and towards the great central points 
 of intercourse, the populous cities containing a numerous and 
 intelligent poi)ulation. Jn many of these cities (for example in 
 Frankfort on the Mainj mor(> is often done, mereh by private
 
 364 APPENDIX. 
 
 activity, for science and scientific development, than in the actual 
 seminaries destined for that purpose and supported by the state 
 as well as by old donations and privileges. 
 
 3. The antiquated form or constitution of our Universities, 
 derived from the middle ages and contrasting with the whole 
 spirit of modern times, which exerts the most unfavourable in- 
 fluence not only upon the teachers, but also, and almost more, 
 upon the laughl, producing the absurd, renommistic, ragamuffin 
 student-life, with its innumerable barbarisms, injury to character 
 and health, squandered powers &c. 
 
 4. The extraordinarily advanced importance and increase of 
 printed books which conveys to the public all scientific and lite- 
 rary productions and all intellectual creations, much better, more 
 easily and more quickly than could be done by the Universities 
 which were formerly to a certain extent regarded as individual 
 central suns of cultivation. Nowadays we can learn nearly every 
 thing from books, and often better than by oral intercourse with 
 teachers; and only the practical branches of knowledge depending 
 upon inspection, observation and experiment, constitute, to a cer- 
 tain degree, an exception. Iiut often enough the oral discourse 
 of the University teacher is notliing more than a tedious repetition 
 from some Compendium or Textbook comj)iled by himself or by 
 others. 
 
 5. The general materialistic Tendency of the times, which 
 has extended even to the higher affairs of education and causes 
 only those branches of knowledge to appear of importance 
 rentable which, as Schiller says, look like milking cows capable 
 of supplying butter. All the higher and highest, truly humanistic 
 studies are thus pushed into a corner and so neglected that we 
 can hardly blame any one if he turns his powers and efforts 
 towards other objects. And nevertheless the necessity for a 
 purely human or universal University-culture, without any consi- 
 deration of the purposes of any calling, is at present stronger 
 and more pressing than ever, because there are a great number 
 of young pcopk; belonging to the higher mercantile or industrial 
 station, whd do not intend to adopt a learned career and yet 
 imjierativcly need nucIi culture. At our present Universities whicli
 
 APPENDIX. 365 
 
 almost entirely devote themselves to the purjtoses of the learned 
 callings, and whose lisls of lectures put fortli in the public jour- 
 nals as regards liumanistic studies, in general only effect a plea- 
 sant delusion of themselves and others, they cannot attain this 
 object, and thev eitlier do not visit them at all, or pass the 
 time destined for that purpose in trifling pursuits. What we re- 
 quire at present above all, therefore, especially in Germany, is 
 the establishment of a few High Schools or Universities which 
 would leave entirely out of consideration all learned professions 
 and only cultivate a general course of study, developing the mind 
 in the various principal branches of knowledge. As a matter of 
 course these institutions must be free from all governmental or 
 other influence, and mwst furnish free space for every philoso- 
 phical or other line of thought so far as it moves within scien- 
 tific bounds. These free Universities, moreover, would not only 
 benefit the unlearned callings, but also the learned professions, 
 for which they would form an admirable and really indispensabl\- 
 necessary preparation. 
 
 102. (p. 199) by the stale. The diminution r)f the 
 
 daily period of labour and the establishment of a normal working- 
 day of from 8 to 10 hours by the state is one of the most 
 justifiable recjuirements of the working class, and one which will 
 certainly in time be fulfilled. If the German working men who 
 for the last nine years have spent their force in the Lassallean 
 agitation for universal suffrage and state-help which are perfectly 
 useless under present circumstances and have not advanced one 
 hair's breadth nearer to their object, had selected this require- 
 ment as the subject of their agitation, they would by this time 
 probably have been further advanced than they are at present. 
 It is true that tlie (jjjponents of an abridged term of labour assert 
 that the workmen would not occupy those hours which would 
 thus be set free for them in useful or improving occupations, 
 l)Ul pass them in the public liouse. With some exceptions this 
 may be correct so long as the present rudeness and want of 
 cultivation, whicli stand in necessary connexion with the position 
 in life of the workman, continues. But it will be otherwise as 
 soon as thf utjrkman is differeuth edut'ated ami cultivated, and
 
 366 APPENDIX. 
 
 as soon as he can see that there is a possibilit}- in his future 
 life of giving a further development to the foundations thus laid; 
 whilst under present circumstances we can scarcely blame him, 
 if he seeks to forget in sensual enjoyments his unfortunate and 
 unimprovable position during the few minutes of his daily free- 
 dom. The objections raised from the economical point of view 
 also do not seem to be tenable, seeing that by the better pre- 
 servation of the power and good will to work, more may gene- 
 rally be done in a shorter time of labour than in a longer one, 
 which produces dejection and laxity, and permanently exhausts 
 the powers by excessive effort and the want of recreation. 
 
 103. (p. 208) rvith all his heart. All this of course 
 
 does not apply to the right of women *to the suffrage in p)-iii- 
 cip/e, which we maintain most decidedly, but only regard as prac- 
 ticable when women shall have attained a position of equality 
 with men in life, culture and power of performance. Many oppo- 
 nents of the emancipation of woman have made the absurd 
 objection, that with the exercise of universal suffrage women would 
 also be compelled to do military service like men; but they 
 have not considered that in consistently following out this principle 
 all weak or crippled men or in general all those not capable of 
 military service ought to be deprived of the suffrage. In her own 
 way and in proportion to her powers woman performs just the same 
 if not greater services to the state, than man and must give up as 
 a sacrifice to the war-god not only the sons whom she has borne 
 and brought up to man's estate, but also her brothers and her 
 husband, and undertake the care of those who are left behind. 
 What unlimited sacrifices women are capable ol' during times of 
 war, in the care of the sick, providing for the nuiintcnanre of 
 the soldier t*v:c., as also in direct participation in the defence ol 
 their country and l)carth, arc too well-known to render more than 
 this reference to them necessary. But this requirement af)pcars most 
 absurd when we consider that even among health}' men only a 
 comparative!}- small number usual!}- perform actual military ser- 
 vice; and tliat tliose especially who possess and exert tlie most 
 [Mjlitic.il influence are precisely those wlio liave never carried 
 .1 gun; wliilst, on tlic other hand, the }(jung men capahlr ol
 
 APPENDIX. 367 
 
 bearing arms, who are usually recruited from the rural popu- 
 lation, serve at a time when their age denies them any legal 
 participation in the exertion of the general political rights. In 
 time of war, as is well-known, every participation of the armies 
 in the field in political matters entirely ceases. 
 
 104. (p. 215). . . . whether bad or good. One of the prin- 
 cipal sources of good actions, especially as regards our behaviour 
 towards our fellow men, is pity. But at the bottom even this 
 highest of all noble sentiments is nothing but the efflux of a 
 refined egotism. For when we see a fellow man suflfering we 
 immediately put ourselves in imagination in the place of the 
 sufferer and ask ourselves what would be our own feelings if 
 we should be assisted or neglected by others. The disagreeable 
 sentiment of the imagined helplessness in ourselves becomes 
 immediately converted into the agreeable one of aid conferred 
 and liberation from a depressed position as soon as we have 
 actually given our assistance to the sufi"erer. Of course this pre- 
 supposes a certain development of the powers of sentiment and 
 imagination in which rude nations or individuals are more or 
 less deficient; this want of the sentiment of pity renders them 
 cruel and spiteful towards their fellow man, whilst the opposite 
 character is produced by higher cultivation of the mind and 
 heart. Moreover we act well, as regards our behaviour towards 
 mankind in general, out of consideration for our own weal or 
 advantage, for our good fame, our social position &c., as well 
 as out of respect for the laws and fear of punishment, whilst all 
 these motives would fall away as soon as, being merely limited 
 to ourselves, we could follow our own egotistical impulses, just 
 as the animals do. It is only his social relations, considerations 
 of the common weal and the conviction that it is his duty to 
 act for humanit}- to which the individual is indebted for every- 
 thing that makes man a man, and renders him that moral being 
 which the moralists and theologians imagine him to luive been created 
 at the beginning. Even the ivkkedness which is the source of all 
 bad actions towards our fellow men, just as pity is the source of 
 all our good ones, depends ultimately upon a want of r(>cognition 
 of this relation and is therefore fmally, like everytliing evil, a
 
 368 APPENDIX. 
 
 product of want of cultivation and ignorance. Even moral indif- 
 ference, or the mere abstaining from bad actions towards our 
 fellow men depends ultimately upon an egotism refined by cul- 
 ture, inasmuch as we partially feel the evil tliat we inflict, or 
 think to inflict upon others, in consequence of the process of 
 thought above described, as it it were inflicted, or to be inflicted 
 upon ourselves, and abstain from the action in order to escape 
 from this disagreeable feeling. 
 
 105. (p. 220) Panlinism. Jesus or Jeshua, called 
 
 Christ, was not and did not desire to be the founder of a new 
 religion and least of all of a world-religion, although millions and 
 millions of men have regarded and still regard him as such. 
 He was merely a Jewish religious reformer, and his original 
 doctrine is neither more nor less than an improved and purified 
 Judaism. His whole efforts were in the direction of the religious 
 sect of the Essenes, from which he arose, and were directed to 
 get rid of, or- repress those externals which were then so highl) 
 valued and to render religion more internal. Moreover after the 
 death of jesus the first community of Christians still lived quite 
 in the Jewish fashion, observed the Sabbath and the Jewish law.s, 
 practized circumcision and respected Jerusalem and the Temple. 
 It was Saul of Tarsus, afterwards called Paul, originally the most 
 zealous persecutor of the Jewish Christims, but afterwards con- 
 verted, who first made out of Christianity an opposition to Ju- 
 daism and gave it great extension by his travels and indefa- 
 tigable activit}'. Nevertheless tlie original pure doctrine was con- 
 tinued among the Jewish Christians as what is called Peli inism, 
 which remained strictly faitliful to the teachings of the master, 
 but ver\' soon came near its end with the fall of Judaism, and 
 was completely suppressed b\- the gradually developing PauUnism 
 or religion of the Genti/f Chris/id ns, wlio hated and despised the 
 Jews and tlieir doctrine. 'J'liis Paulinism speedily ruled the 
 world. Paul is therefore the true fcnmder of Christianity. (See for 
 details the little work by R. W. Kunis-— Jvr ;///«// und OfJ'en- 
 barung. Leipzig, 1870). 
 
 106. (p. 220) as a ivo) Id-religion. Christianity is not 
 
 a world-religion, altliouidi this is always estimated one of its
 
 At>PENt)lX. 353 
 
 chief merits. Tlius, for example, it does not suit the East and 
 makes no progress there at all, notwithstanding the greatest efforts 
 of the missionaries , presenting in this a striking contrast to 
 Islamism. The latter is constantly diffusing itself through Asia and 
 Africa and is peculiarly a religion for nomadic and seminomadic 
 tribes. Nearly half Asia has gradually accepted Islamism, although 
 no more can be said in its favour than in favour of Christianity 
 as regards the advancement of civilization. The fathers of Islam 
 themselves, the Arabs, are deeply depressed by it and have 
 exchanged the former bravery, wisdom and noble or knightly sen- 
 timents of the pagan times for indolence and stolen enjoyments. 
 Its character as a world-religion and its supposed preeminence 
 over all other religions is also belied by Christianity when , as 
 in Persia, it is insinuated in isolated professors among other sys- 
 tems of culture and religion. Thus Count Gobineau reports {Les 
 Religions et les Philosophies de f Asie centrale, Paris 1866), that 
 the Christians in Persia, whether Catholics or schismatics and 
 heretics, possess all the vices of the Mussulman and are dis- 
 tinguished from him only by greater ignorance, more superstition 
 and a profound disinclination for progress or for any mental effort. 
 On the other hand freethinkers are numerous and cultivated in 
 Persia. 
 
 107. (p. 221) loleroled it. To the Romans, with 
 
 their classical culture, the Jews and Christians appeared to be 
 atheists', for to imagine a simple Deity, incapable of being pic- 
 tured or felt, seemed to them to be a denying of God or a dark 
 doctrine deprived of God. The old idolatry was picturesque, 
 full of life and beautiful, and its feasts were feasts of joy and 
 sociability. The monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) 
 are generally zelotic and intolerant and therefore inimical to 
 progress, culture and the sciences; whilst in paganism and poly- 
 theism there is an infinite expansiveness and tolerance. The 
 Greeks and Romans saw in the Deities of other peoples only 
 their own over again, and therefore never thought of religious per- 
 secution. Nevertheless it cannot be denied that in a special 
 religious point of view Christianity must be regarded as an ad- 
 vance upon heathendom with its absurd sacrificial services, in- 
 
 24
 
 354 APPKNDTX. 
 
 asmiich as it rendered the belief in God more internal and in- 
 tellectual. But the crude sensualistic conception, which soon 
 overpowerd Christianity in the course of its historical develop- 
 ment, renders even this merit doubtful, and certainly gives its 
 defenders no right to declaim against scientific materialism.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abbeville ^o. 
 
 Abel, Dr. 311. 
 
 Abipoias 331. 
 
 Abraham 43. 
 
 Achilles 45. 
 
 Adam, the Biblical 277. 
 
 Adam and Eve 132. 
 
 Agassiz, Prof. 97. 
 
 Ajetas 319. 335. 
 
 Albinus 239. 
 
 Alexandria, Library of 221. 
 
 Algodon Bay 266. 
 
 Alluvial period 18. 39. 
 
 Alluvial soil 63. 
 
 Alluvium 17. 18. ^^. 
 
 America 211. 249. 
 
 Amiens 20. 
 
 Anatomy, Comparative 85. 
 
 Andrias Scheuchzeri 235. 
 
 Antediluvian 234. 
 
 Anthropini 78. 280. 
 
 Anthropoids or anthropoid Apes 
 
 77. 80. 82. 287. 
 Ants, agricultural 334. 
 Ape-man 128. 300. 
 Arabs 369. 
 
 Archeucephala 91. 
 
 Archiac, Vic. d* 269. 
 
 Archaeogeology 46. 72. 
 
 Arcy, Cave of 242. 
 
 Argylle, Duke of 323. 
 
 Aristotle 222. 
 
 Aryan race 43. 
 
 Assier, d' 143. 322. 
 
 Associations productive 188. 
 
 Aurignac, Cave of 10 — 15. 51. 61. 
 
 Aurochs 29. 
 
 Australians 81. 313. 314. 325—327. 
 
 335- 
 Ave-Lallcmant, Dr. 322. 
 Aymard, Dr. 27. 
 
 Babylon 44. 67. 
 Baer, K. E. von 96. 97. 
 Baker, Sir S. 316. 328. 
 Baltic Sea 37. 
 Baltzer, Prof. 277. 
 Bastian, A. 312. 
 Battel A. 281. 
 Beaumont, Elie de 242. 
 Beddoe 271. 
 Bell, W. 213. 
 
 24*
 
 556 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Berkeley, Bishop 225. 
 
 Bertrand 251. 
 
 Bibra, Baron von 55. 266. 
 
 Bimana 84. 49. 50. 
 
 Bingmann, Dr. 314. 
 
 Bird, Dr. 53. 264. 
 
 Bischoff, Wilhelm 333. 
 
 Blake, Dr. C. C. 307. 
 
 Bleek, J. 142. 145. 146. 271. 
 
 Blumenbach 279. 
 
 Boerlage, Dr. 313. 
 
 Borneo, Aborigines of 318. 
 
 Borreby Skull 52. 54. 116. 263. 
 
 Botocudos 322. 335. 
 
 Boucher de Perthes 20. 23. 26. 27. 
 
 Boue, Ami 27, 
 
 Bourgeois, Abbe 32. 4[. 
 
 Bourgeoisie 353. 
 
 Bowdich 283. 
 
 Bowker, Dr. 271. 
 
 Brain 90 — 92. loi, 153. 157. 292 
 
 —296. 344—346. 
 — in women 205 — 207. 
 Branchial arches and clefts 105, 
 Braun, J. 257. 
 Brazil 17. 
 Brehm, Dr. 313. 
 Broca, Prof. 35. 50. 74. 239. 253. 
 
 260. 267. 292. 
 Bronze 57. 
 Bronze-Age 51. 57. 
 Bronze- weapons 51. 58. 
 Bruniguel, Cave of 30. 
 Buckland 16. 
 Buddhism 220. 329. 
 Bundehesch 67. 
 Buffon 148. 282. 
 Burmeister 34. 
 Burnouf 218. 
 Busch, M. 350. 
 
 Caesar 37. 
 Cagliari 35. 
 Cahibes 320. 
 
 Caithness 53. 250. 258. 263. 
 
 Camper, P. 282. 
 
 Cannibals 247. 261. 262. 270. 
 
 Canstatt, Skull 52. 242. 
 
 Capercailzie 248. 
 
 Capital 183—186. 
 
 — premium on 360. 
 Capitalistic mode of production 188. 
 Carus Dr. 300. 
 
 Carver, John 14. 
 Casiano de Prado 24. 
 Castelnau, 52, 320. 
 Catarrhini 78. 80. 
 Cats' tongues 25. 
 Caves 10. 61. 269 — 272. 
 
 — Belgian 51. 61. 269. 
 Cave-epochs 269. 242. 
 Cell-nucleus, cell-membrane etc. 98. 
 
 99. 
 Celts 38. 
 
 Celts 20. 63 (Instruments). 
 Celtic period 63. 
 Centralism 165. 
 
 Chaillu, Du 83. 287. 313. 317. 
 Chaleux, Cave of 117. 
 Chartres 31. 
 Chimpanze 80. 82 125. 282. 283. 
 
 285. 312. 
 China 218. 
 Chinese 44. 66. 67. 
 Chorda 102. 
 
 Christianity 220—222. 368. 
 Christol 16. 
 Christy 30, 241. 244. 
 Claparede 145. 
 Clothing, use of 332 — 334. 
 Cocchi, Prof. 53. 242. 
 Coccy.x 104. 
 Colle del Vento 242. 
 Commodus 221. 
 Communes, Free 165. 
 Communism 174. 350. 
 Community of Goods 350. 
 Conscience, innate 214.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 357 
 
 Conscience public 216. 
 
 Copernicus and his system 5. 233. 
 
 Copper 57. 
 
 — age 58. 267. 
 
 Cotta, E. 145. 
 
 Cotteswold Hills 53. 264. 
 
 Counting, Art of 330. 
 
 Crime and criminals 198. 
 
 Cuvier 18. 19. 82. 236. 237. 254. 
 
 Darwin, C. 6. 90. 93- H-- ^^S- 
 
 123. 150. 209. 
 David 213. 
 Davis 250. 
 Death 225. 
 Decaisne 243. 
 Delaunay 32. 
 Delanoue 253. 
 Deluge 233. 
 
 Desnoyers 31. 32. 41. 270. 
 Desor, E. 274. 
 Destiny of man 343. 
 
 Developement, process of 147. 
 
 Developmental history 73. 93- 
 
 Digger Indians 321. 
 
 Diluvial animals 28. 31. 239. 
 
 Diluvial period 12. 21. 234. 
 
 Diluvium 234. 
 
 Discoplacentalia 79. 
 
 Dumont d'Urville 247. 
 
 Dupont, E. 117. 270. 272. 
 
 Dog 61. 249. 
 
 — Prairie 327. 
 
 Dokos 276. 317. 
 
 Dolmen 37. 251. 
 
 Domestic animals 61. 63. 
 
 Dowler, Dr. 35. 
 
 Eccarius 359. 
 
 Ecuador 250. 
 
 Education 197. 200. 
 
 — religious 220. 
 
 Egg, Animal and human 94 — 95. 99- 
 
 Egotism 173. 215. 125. 
 Eguisheim 239. 
 
 Egypt 44- 45- 
 
 Egyptian Chronology 254—257. 
 
 Eichthal 315. 
 
 Emancipation of woman 202. 
 
 Embryo, embryonal cells 96. 99. 
 
 Embryology 94. 
 
 Engihoul, Cave of 263, 
 
 Engis, Skull from 262. 
 
 England 197. 
 
 Eocene 43. 
 
 Epicurean philosophy 68. 
 
 Epicurus 340. 
 
 Epigenesis, theory of 299. 
 
 Equality 170. 
 
 Eschricht 265. 
 
 Eskimos 323. 
 
 Essenes 368. 
 
 Estate, fifth 189. 
 
 Evolution, theory of 299. 
 
 Facial angle 68. 81. 
 Family 192—196. 
 Faudel, Dr. 239. 
 Federalism 165. 
 Fire, use of 67. 276. 332. 
 
 — worship of 67. 
 Flint 21. 
 
 — 21. 238. 
 
 — axes,. Diluvial 20—23. 26. 
 
 implements and their period 22 
 
 59. 267. 268. 
 Florence 242. 
 Florida 34. 
 Forchhammer 36. 
 Ford, A. 287. 
 Fossils 235. 
 Fraas, Prof. 273. 
 Frankfort 363. 
 
 Freethinkers 228. in Persia 146. 
 Frere, John 25. 
 Frere, Abbe 52. 
 Frontal, Cave of 17,
 
 358 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Fuegians 323. 
 
 Fuhlrott, D. 53. 240. 265. 
 
 Future of man 146. 148. 
 
 Gainmard 67. 
 
 Galen 85. 
 
 Galileo 6. 
 
 Gaudry, A. 2u. 
 
 Gemmation 297. 
 
 Genealogy of the human race 74. 
 
 Geneva 40. 
 
 Geoffroy, E. 289. 
 
 — St. Hilaire 279. 311. 
 Gera 16. 
 
 Germ-cell 94. 
 
 Germ-lamellae lOO. 
 
 Germinal vesicle 95. 98. 
 
 Germinal spot 95. 98. 
 
 Giants 50. 
 
 Giants' graves 251. 
 
 Gibbon 80. 82. 282. 284. 
 
 Giebel, Prof. 82. 102. 
 
 Glacial period 34. 41. 234. 252. 
 
 274. 
 Gleisberg, V. 275, 
 Gobineau, Count 369. 
 God, Idea of 218. 
 
 — Belief in 328—330. 
 Goethe 6. 105. 218. 299. 
 Golden age 57. 
 
 Gorilla 80. 82, 281—287. 
 Gosse 24. 
 
 Government 163 — 166. 
 Grant, J. 310. 
 Gratiolet, Trof. 293. 
 Grimm, Jacob 74. 337. 
 Ground-rent 178. 354— 33''- 
 
 Hiickel, Prof. 4. 5. 23. 79. 80. 93. 
 
 99. 100. 104. 105. 107. 109. 113. 
 
 126 — 131. 209. 279. 280. 297. 
 
 298. 347- 
 Halifax, Nova Scotia 250. 
 JIalitherium 32. 
 
 Hanno 83. 
 
 Happelius 239. 
 
 Hebrews 67. 
 
 Hecataeus of Miletus 43. 
 
 Hegel 223. 
 
 Heinzen, Karl 360. 
 
 Heliogabalus 221. 
 
 Helvetius 223. 
 
 Hermaphrodites 297. 
 
 Herodotus 246. 256. 268. 
 
 Hindoos 67. 
 
 Hippocrates 246. 
 
 Hochdal 53. 
 
 Homer 45. 
 
 Hooker, Dr. 251. 
 
 Horace 68. 
 
 Hoxne 25. 
 
 Huangti 44. 
 
 Hiigel, Baron 317—320. 
 
 Hunt, James 339. 
 
 Huxley, Prof. i. 2. 3. 54. 71. 77— 
 
 80. 82. 86. 91. 92. 93. 94. 96. 
 
 98. lOi. 109. 110. 114 — 116. 
 
 278. 283. 296. 303. 305. 
 Hyrtl, Prof. 87. 
 
 Idealism 227—230. 
 Implements, use of ^l^i. 
 India, aborigines of 319. 
 Inheritance 356. 
 
 — limitation of the right of 178. 
 Inquisitors 213. 
 Intermaxillaries 105. 
 
 Invalids of labour 359. 
 Iowa 15. 
 Ipswich 242. 
 Iranian traditions 67. 
 Iron-age 57. 268. 
 Issel, A. 33. 242. 
 
 Jackson, J. W. 344. 
 Jaeger, Dr. 142. 242. 
 Jawbone, of La Naulettc 118. 306. 
 
 — of Moulin Quignon 26. 1 18, i8o. 
 239.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 359 
 
 Jawbone, of Hyeres 1 19. 
 
 Jesus or Joshua 368. 
 
 Jews 43. 
 
 Joly, Prof. 72. 242. 
 
 Julian 221. 
 
 Jura 40. 
 
 Kant 341. 
 
 Keller, Dr. 246, 
 
 Kepler 6. 
 
 Khasias 25 r. 
 
 Kitchen middens 35. 37. 248. 
 
 Kivik, Grave of 251. 
 
 Kulu-Kamba 287. 
 
 Kunis, K. W. 368. 
 
 Kutorga, D. 2C5. 
 
 Labour, corporeal and intellectual 
 348. 
 
 — division of 166. 347. 
 
 — and Labourers 180^192. 
 
 — -question 186. 
 Lahr 27. 
 
 Laing 263. 
 
 Lake-dwellings 35. 246. 
 
 Lamarck 6. 112. 
 
 Landquestion in England 355 
 
 Lange, F. A. 116. 117. 122. 125. 
 
 Languages, primitive 124. 308. 
 
 La Naulette 50. 
 
 Laplanders 51. 62. 249. 
 
 Lartet, E. Ii. 13. 28 — 31. 50. 60. 
 
 241. 244. 267. 
 Lassalle 187. 188. 190. 191. 
 Lastic, M. de 30. 
 Latham 328. 
 Latukas 328. 
 Laugel, A. i. 10. 21. 
 Legacy duty 356. 
 Lemurs, Flying 280. 
 Lenormant, F. 268. 
 Les Eyzies, Cave of 50. 241. 
 Lesley, J. P. 49. 257. 275 277. 290. 
 Lewald, Fanny 204. 208. 
 
 Leyden 27. 
 
 L'hombrive and L'herm. Caves of 
 
 241. 
 Linant Bey 34. 
 Lincecum, Dr. 334. 
 Linne 77. 278. 
 Link 52. 
 Lipocerci 80. 
 Lisch, Dr. 266. 
 Locke 340. 
 
 Loess of the Rhine 27. 
 Lubbock, Sir John 24. 42. 60. 62. 
 
 238. 274. 275. 276. 326. 
 Lucretius Carus 68. 
 Lund, Dr. 16. 52. 
 Luther 233. 
 Lyell, Sir Charles 6. 15. 20. 27 
 
 32. 35. 40. 42. 43. 56. 64. 69. 
 
 70. 253. 
 
 Mabillon 235. 
 
 Maestricht 27. 
 
 Magellan 332. 
 
 Malaise, Prof. 263. 
 
 Mammoth 29. 30. 32. 236. 243. 
 
 — Cave 27. 
 
 Man, primitive 66 259 — 261. 262. 
 
 — antediluvian 234. 
 
 — tailed 104. 
 
 — Caucasian 131. 
 
 — fossil 115. 235. 236. 244. 
 Manchester-men 179. 
 Manetho 254. 257. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius 221. 
 Mariette 45. 257. 
 Markham, C. 250. 
 Marriage 208. 325. 
 
 — limitation of 210. 
 Marrow 243. 
 Marsupials 78. 
 Mastodon 27. 29. 
 Materialism 227 — 230. 303. 305. 
 Materialists 228. 
 
 Mayence 247.
 
 36o 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mayer, Dr. 293. 
 Mazurier 236. 
 Medullary tube 102. 
 Megalony 27. 
 Memphis 257. 
 Menes 45. 
 Mexico 222. 
 INIeyer, Dr. P. 288. 
 Microcephali no. 
 Milk-dentition of man 87. 
 Milton 68. 
 Mincopies 332. 
 Minsk, Skull from 265. 
 Miocene 42. 
 Mississippi Delta 35. 
 
 — Valley 249. 
 Modera 289. 
 Modesty 327, 
 Money-Aristocracy 357. 
 Monotheism 218. 
 Monsters 134. 
 
 Morals 21 1 — 217. 
 
 — innate 214. 
 Morlot 246. 
 
 Mortillet, G. de 30. 57. 243. 
 
 Moses 213. 
 
 Moulin Quignon, Jaw from 26. 118. 
 
 180. 239. 
 Mounds, American 35. 
 Miiller, Dr. 285. 
 
 Namur 51. 
 
 Natchez, fossil from 27. 
 
 Nationalities 166 — 168. 
 
 Naulette, la, Cave of 242. 
 
 Navel 309. 
 
 Neanderthal man 28. 50. 241. 
 
 — Skull 53. 115. 263. 
 
 Negroes 82. 289. 315— 317- 333- 
 
 334- 
 Neolithic period 60. 62. 
 Nepotism 193. 
 New-Orleans 35. 
 Newton 6. 
 
 Obongos 317. 
 
 Oemingen 235. 
 
 Oken, L. 112. 
 
 Oldfield 330. 
 
 Olympiads 43. 
 
 Orang-utan 80. 82. 125. 135. 282. 
 
 284. 309—312. 
 Origin of the human race 74. 108 
 
 — no. 
 Osars 34. 252. 
 Ovary 99. 
 
 Over-population, dread of 2 jo. 2n. 
 Owen, Prof. R. 86. 90. 134. 288. 
 
 332. 
 Owen, B. 258. 
 Oysters 36. 37. 
 
 Pacific Railway 344. 
 
 Page, D. I. Yll and VIII of Pre- 
 face. 
 
 Palaeolithic period 60. 
 
 Pantheism 218. 
 
 Parthenogenesis 298. 
 
 Pascal 74. 
 
 Paulinism 220. 368. 
 
 Peat - mosses of Denmark and Ice- 
 land 35. 248. 
 
 Perigord, Caves of 50. 
 
 Perty, Prof. 7. 
 
 Peruvian Skulls 55. 
 
 Petrinism 368. 
 
 Phalanstere 351. 
 
 Philippines, Aborigines of the 317. 
 
 Philosophy 222—227. 
 
 Phoenicians 67. 
 
 Physiology, Comparative 88. 
 
 Pictet, Prof. 237. 
 
 Piddinglon 319. 320. 
 
 Pile-buildings 35. 246. 
 
 Pity 367. 
 
 Placental Mammals 78. 
 
 Plau, Skull from 266, 
 
 Plato 209. 
 
 Platyrrhini 78. 80. 81. 121.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 361 
 
 Pliocene 42. 
 
 Pohl 350. 
 
 Polishing of stone implements 63, 
 
 Polytheism 369. 
 
 Pongo 281. 286. 
 
 Pongi 242. 
 
 Poor's rates etc. 359. 
 
 Popular education 197. 
 
 Popular government 179. 
 
 Portland, Isle of 52. 
 
 Post carriages and roads 59. 
 
 Postdiluvian 234. 
 
 Pottery 44. 48. 61. 62. 63. 
 
 Pouchet, G. 83. 131. 289. 29r. 327. 
 
 328. 
 Prairie-Dog 327, 
 Prestwich, J. 20. 
 
 Priesthood among the Aryans 218. 
 Primaeval time of man 39, 47. 
 Primates 77. 78. 79. 278. 
 Primitive groove loi. 
 Primitive man, progress of 55. 63. 
 Printing, importance of 364. 
 Procopius 243. 
 Productive Associations 188. 
 Prognothism 118. 
 Prosimiae 278. 279. 
 Pruner-Bey 259. 
 Purchas 281. 
 Pyramids 45. 
 
 Quadrumana 278. 
 Ouatrefages, Prof. 32. 69. 239. 
 Quenstedt 242. 
 
 Races of man 155 — 157. 307. 
 Radenhausen 146. 200. 202. 213. 
 
 352. 356. 
 Railways 268. 
 Rainey, Dr. 333. 
 Reichenbach, Dr. 112. 75. 
 Reindeer 29. 61. 243. 
 
 — -period 51. 60. 273. 
 
 — -m;in 61 ). 62. 267. 
 
 Religion 217 — 222. 
 Renan, E. 218. 255. 
 Renevier, Prof. 269. 
 Revolution, Social 353. 
 Richthofen 222. 
 Rigollot 20. 
 Robert Eugene 243. 
 Rochas, M. von 315. 
 Rolle, F. 132. 254. 
 Rolleston, Prof. 293. 
 Rosiere, M. 34. 
 Ross, John 323. 
 Royer, Clemence 338. 
 
 Sacrifices, Human 251. 
 
 Sahara 40. 
 
 Saimiri 81. 
 
 Salles, Comte dc 68. 
 
 Sanscrit 218. 
 
 Savage, Dr. 283. 
 
 Savona 33. 242. 
 
 Schaalhausen, Prof. i. 4. 10. 54. 
 55. 107. 109. no. 119. 125. 126. 
 146. 240. 244. 260. 264. 265. 
 288. 300. 315. 325. 
 
 Scherzer 249. 
 Scljeuchzer, Prof. 235. 
 Scheurer-Kestner, Prof. 240. 
 Schiller 15. 364. 
 Schleicher, Prof. A. 124. 337. 
 Schlotheim, Baron von 16. 52. 
 Schmerling, Dr. 16. 52. 261. 262. 
 Schmitz, Otto 322. 326. 
 Schonen-island 251. 
 Schopenhauer 212. 223. 226. 
 Schultze-Delitzsch 190. 192. 362. 
 Schussenquelle 62. 272. 
 Schwaan, Grave at 266. 
 Schweichel, R. 261. 
 Scrithitinns 243. 
 Self-help lyo. 137. 
 Senses, deceptibility of 342. 
 Shakers 350. 
 Shell-mounds 35. 25U. 259.
 
 362 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Shetland islands 263. 
 Silver-age 57. 
 Skulls, ancient 52. 
 Slavery, social 177. 
 Smart, J. W. 52. 
 Society 168—183. 
 Soleure 40. 
 Somme river 19. 
 
 — valley 253. 
 
 Souls of animals 136. 
 Sovereignty of the people 361. 
 Sparsiplacentalia 79. 
 Speech, articulate 138. 
 
 — faculty of 235—239. 293. 
 
 — origin of 138. 308. 336. 
 Species, idea of 124. 
 Spiegel, Prof. 44. 67. 
 Spring, Dr. 16. 52. 261. 
 Squier, M. 249. 
 Stability 64. 
 
 State 163—166. 
 
 — -aid 190. 361. 
 
 — -factories 189. 
 Steenstrup, Prof. 36. 248. 
 St. Hilaire, Barth. 329. 
 Stockholm 252. 274. 
 Stone age 56. 59. 269. 
 Stonehenge 251. 
 Stone-implements 61. 267. 274. 
 
 — -industry 258. 
 
 — -tables 37. 251. 
 Strabo 44. 
 
 Struggle for advantageous position 
 
 346. 
 Struggle for existence in man and 
 
 animals 156 — 160. 
 Struggle for existence, social 172. 
 Suffrage, female 143. 207. 
 Suhle, Baron 223. 224. 
 Suicide 334. 
 
 — in Children 194. 
 Sweden 34. 
 Switzerland 40. 
 
 Tacitus 268. 
 
 Tail 104. 
 
 Tail-born in man 104. 
 
 Tasmanians 258. 
 
 Termites 326. 
 
 Tertiary period 19. 31. 32. 
 
 Tertullian 222. 
 
 Teufelskammer 241. 
 
 Thames, River 40. 
 
 Thebes 45. 
 
 Thenay 32. 
 
 Thiantihoei 351. 
 
 Thomassen 268. 
 
 Thunder-bolts 239. 
 
 Tierra del Fuego 323. 
 
 Tiniere, cone of the 245. 
 
 Titicaca-race 55. 
 
 — skull 266. 
 
 Toltecs 250. 
 
 Tournal 16. 
 
 Trojan war 43. 
 
 Troyon 247. 269. 
 
 Tulpius 282. 
 
 Tumuli 37, 
 
 Turf-moors 16. 17. 35. 
 
 Tuttle 336, 
 
 Tyson, Dr. 282. 
 
 Unity of the human race 123. 
 Universities, decay of 363 — 365. 
 Urus 29. 37, 
 
 Vertebrae, primitive 102. 
 Vesalius 85. 
 
 Vibraye, Marquis de 51. 242. 244. 
 ViUeneuve 35. 
 Virchow, Prof. 58. 
 Vitellus 95. 100. 
 
 Vogt, Carl 21. 24. 32. 35. 60. 62. 
 109. no. 126 133. 243. 24(3. 300. 
 
 Wackernagel 361. 
 Wages-system 188. 
 "Wagner, M. 247. 320.
 
 INDE X. 
 
 363 
 
 Wagner, R. 294. 
 
 Wallace, A. R. I35- I54- 155- 309- 
 
 310. 
 Wallace, E. 43. 
 Watervliet 350. 
 Weissbach, Dr. 81. 
 Walker, Prof. 133. 295. 
 Westphalia, Caves of 244. 
 Westropp 60. 62. 139. 
 Whateley, Archbishop 276. 
 Wickedness 367. 
 William the Conqueror 58. 
 Wilson, Prof. D. 264. 
 Wolf, C. F. 299. 
 Woman 200—208. 
 
 Work-givers and work-takers 187. 
 Worsaae, Prof. 36. 
 Writing, Art of 46. 
 — origin of 143. 
 Wurmb, Baron von 283. 
 
 Xerxes 268. 
 
 Yao 44. 
 Yelk 95. 100. 
 Yvan Dr. 310. 
 
 Zillah, Dr. 94. 
 Zonoplacentalia 79. 
 Zoroaster 221.

 
 o THE UNIVERSITV e 
 
 / 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 Santa Barbara 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW. 
 
 2/92 Series 9482 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 X
 
 O VDVSKVQ VINVS o 
 
 m 
 
 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBHAKY hAUiLi i r 
 
 AA 001 013 327 
 
 3 1205 02129 5856 
 
 WVSIIVa VINV? e 
 
 ?1 rr !r 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 a ynt/mm vinvs « 
 
 / 
 
 e THE UN4VEtSrrV O 
 
 y£ 
 
 B 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 IH 
 
 « THE UNIVEUITV o 
 O 
 
 I <? 
 
 / 
 
 ip^ 
 ipt 
 
 \ 
 
 o or CAllfOtNIA e 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 3 
 
 / 
 
 >> ^ANIA BAKBAtA * 
 
 N 
 
 wvmvt vxNvs e 
 
 9 
 
 m\ 
 
 X 
 
 O AlKUAINn 3W «