jy^\ J-c ^_^ yLvll Lus'* c_jIj:J' by Dr. C. Yandyck, Beyrout, 1857 ; and yUl ILiD L^h^ by Sheikh Kassyf el Yazji. In conclusion, I have to express my gratitude to Dr. W. Wright, Professor of Arabic at Cambridge, not only for carefully revising the proofs, but for kindly giving me many valuable suggestions and criticisms; and to the Eev. C. Taylor, of St. John's College, who also aided me very materially in the final revision of the proofs. E. n. PALMEK, Br. John's College, Cambridge 1st JtiHiiidi/, 1871. TABLE OF CONTEIfTS. PAET I.— ACCIDENCE. SECTION L— OETHOGEAPHT. PAGB The Alphabet v ' 1 Numerical Value of the Letters 3 Orthographical Signs . 6 Vowels 6 Tenwiu . » 6 Correspondence of the Vowels and Semi-vowels .... 8 Hemzeh ........ »...., 9 Meddah 9 The Vowels as Signs of Inflexion 9 Jezmeh or Sukiin 10 Teshdi'd 11 Hemzet El-wasl , . . . , 11 Hemzet El-kata' ,.,».. 13 The Pause 14 Anomalies in Writing » 15 Examples for Practice in Ptcading ....... 16 SECTION II.— ETYMOLOGY. The Measures of "Words » .. 19 Hoots containing Semi-vowels , 20 Acsimilation , 23 Vlll a:ABLE OF CONTENTS* SECTION III.— PAETS OF SPEECH. PAGE The Verb 24 Different Kinds of Verbs 24 Parts of the Verb 25 Tenses of Verbs 26 The Preterite 26 ThoAorist . « 27 Moods of the Verb 27 The Imperative 29 Forms of Simple Verbs 30 The Noun of Action ,....'....... 31 Derived Conjugations . , , 32 Signification of the Derived Forms 33 First Group (adding One Letter to the Root) 33 4th Conjugation, Jxsi • « 33 2nd Conjugation, Jje 34 3rd Conjugation, ^j■£\i 35 Second Group (adding Two Letters) » -. 35 5th Conjugation, ,J^ . , 35 6th Conjugation, Jx-uj* » . 36 7th Conjugation, tj^dj] 37 8th Conjugation, JjtJ]. ». 37 9th Conjugation, J^l, », 37 Third Group (adding Three Letters) 38 10th Conjugation, J^ri::--!]. „ 38 11th Conjugation, Jl«i 38 12th Conjugation, J.^^*Ji » 39 13th Conjugation, Jj-^1 * 39 The Tenses of Derived Forms 39 (1) The Preterite 39 (2) The Aorist . 39 f3) The Imperative 41 TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX PAGE The N"oun of Action . •, - - 42 Tables of the Derived Conjuirations — Active 43 u Passive 41 Quadriliteral Yerbs 44 Nouns Derived from Verbs 46 (1) Noun of Unity • . 46 (2) Noun of Species 46 (3) Agent ..." 46 (4) Passive Participle 47 (5) Nouns of Action formed with Mim 47 ■ (6) The Noun of Time and Place 48 (7) Noun of Instrument 50 (8) Noun of Quality 51 (9) Noun of Colour or Defect ........ 51 (10) Noun of Superiority (or Comparative) 51 (11) The Noun of Excess or Intensive Agent .... 52 Note on the ITse of the Tables 53 Table Showing the Correspondence of Forms Derived from Verbs 56 Irregular Verbs ,»«...... 58 -o^ Paradigms of Irregular Verbs ...,*., 59 I. Doubled Verbs 59 Derived Conjugations of the Doubled Verb . . . i 59 Preterite of the Doubled Verb ^ 60 Aorist of the Doubled Verb CI Imperative of the Doubled Verb 62 II. Hemzated Verbs 62 1. Verbs having Hemzch for the First Radical ... 62 Derived Forms of Verbs with luitial Herazeh ... 63 2. Verbs having Hemzeh for the Medial Eadical ... 63 Derived Forms of Verbs with Medial Hemzeh ... G4 3. Verbs with Hemzeh for the Final Radical ... 65 Derived Forms of Verbs with Final Hemzeh ... 65 X TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAOK III. Assimilated Verbs . . 66 1. Initial J 67 2. Initial ^ 68 Derived Forms of Assimilated Verbs 68 IV. The Hollow Verb 69 Derived Forms of Hollow Verbs 70 Preterite of the Hollow Verb (Medial j), Measure Jxi> Jxi 71 Aorist of the Hollow Verb (Medial j) ...... 71 Imperative of the Hollow Verb (Medial ^) .... 72 Preterite of the Hollow Verb (Medial i_c), Measure JxJj^ Jue 72 Aorist of the Hollow Verb (Medial ^) 72 Imperative of the Hollow Verb (Medial ^5) • . . . 73 Preterite of the Hollow Verb (Medial \ ), Measure Jjtij Jxs 73 Aoristof the Hollow Verb (Mediall) 74 Imperative of the Hollow Verb (Medial \) . . . . • 74 V. The Defective Verb 74 Changes in the Termination of the Preterite .... 74 Changes in the Final Kadical of the Aorist . . . • 75 Changes in the Final Eadical of Nouns ..... 75 Derived Forms of Defective Verbs 77 Preterite of the Defective Verb (Final ^), Measure Jx>u J^ 77 Aorist of the Defective Verb (Final j) 78 Moods of the Defective Verb ........ 78 Subjunctive Mood 79 Apocopated (Jussive, etc.) 79 1st Energetic » 79 2nd Energetic 79 Imperative of the Defective Verb (Final •) .... 80 Preterite of the Defective Verb (Final ^i), Measure Jwtjo J.%i 80 Aorist of the Defective Verb (Final ^) 80 Moods of the Defective Verb (Final ^j); Measure J^, Jaj 8 1 Subjunctive Mood 81 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI PAGE Apocopated 81 1st Enero;etic 81 'O^ 2nd Energetic 82 Imperative of the Defective Yerb (Final ^5), Measure J.;uj J,o 82 Preterite of the Defective Yerb (Final 3), Measure J. 85 Formation of Yerbal Nouns from Irregular Yerbs . . , . 86 Hollow Yerbs Declined as Strong Yerbs 87 Indeclinable Yerbs , 88 The Noun 89 Primitive Nouns 89 ^ Nouns Derived from Yerbs 90 The Genders of Nouns 91 Formation of the Feminine from the Masculine ... 93 Common Gender 96 Note on the Termination S" 97 Declension of Nouns 97 The Cases 97 The Ancient Declension 98 The Cases of Nouns with a \Veak Final Radical .... 99 Imperfectly Declined Nouns 100 Indeclinable Nouns 103 The Numbers of Nouns ; . . . 103 Xii TABLE OF CO^'TENTS. PAOB The Dual ., , . 104 The Plural ■ 105 Regular Masculine Plural 106 Regular Feminine Plural 108 proken Plurals 110 Plural of Paucity 110 Gender of Broken Plurals Ill Forms of Broken Plurals Ill Plural of Quadi-iliterals 112 Plurals of.Quinqueliterals 112 Note on the Formation of Plurals 112 Tables of Broken Plurals 113 1. Table of Broken Plurals from TriliteralJfouns ... 114 2. Table of Broken Plurals from Triliteral Feminine Nouns 121 3. Table of Broken Plurals from the most common Verbal Nouns 122 4. Table of Broken Plurals of the Masculine Agent, Form Js.\i 131 5. Table of Broken Plurals of the Feminine Agent, Form ^j^li 133- 6. Table of Broken Plurals of Quadriliterals .... 134 7. General View of the Formation of Broken Plurals . . 139 Plurals of Plurals 139 Irregular Plurals ,.....>^* 139 Examples of the Declensions of Nouns . 140 Regularly Declined Nouns . . , • * 140 Imperfectly Declined Nouns 141 Declension of Nouns ending in a Weak Letter .... 142 Formation of Nouns not immediately derived from Verbs . . 144 Noun of Relation 144 Abstract Noun 147 The Diminutive 148 The Pronouns 151 Personal Pronouns 151 TABLE OF CONTEXTS. Xlll PAGB Changes in Towels, etc., before the Affixed Prououns . , 152 A Yerb governing two Accusative Pronouns 153 Note on the Pronominal Signification of the Inflexions of Verbs 154 Demonstrative Pronouns 154 The Relative and Interrogative Pronouns 156 The Article . ; 157 The Numerals . . , 158 The Cardinal Numerals 158 The Ordinal Numbers IGO Other Classes of Numerals 163 Particles 165 Prepositions 165 Conjunctions 165 Adverbs » 166 Interjections 167 Imitative Sounds . . , . , 168 PAET II.— SYIS^TAX. SECTION I.— THE YEEB AND THE NOUN, The Tenses of Verbs 169 I. The Preterite 169 II. The Aorist . , 171 The Moods of Verbs . . , . 171 The Indicative Mood 171 Change of the Vowel in the Aorist '. 171 The Subjunctive Mood 171 The Apocopation of the Final Vowel of the Aorist .... 173 Particles which Apocopate the Aorist of two Verbs . . 174 The Energetic and Jussive Mood 176 III. The Imperative 177 Xl\ TABLE OF CONTENTS, The Cases of Nouns 177 The Subjective Case 178 The Agent and the Yerb 178 Concord of the Yerb and the Agent 180 The Subject of a Passive Yerb 184 The Objective Case 188 1. The Object of a Yerb , 188 2. "Words Defining or Specifying the Action .... 189 3. Nouns used Adverbially 190 4. The Cause or Effect of an Action 191 5. State or Condition 192 The Genitive or Dependent Case ........... 195 Prepositions , . . • . 195 Other "Words used as Prepositions ...,.., 197 A Sentence as the Complement of a Preposition » . . . 198 TheYocative 199 Apocopation of the last Syllable of the Yocative . . , 200 Nouns Definite and Indefinite ...••..... 201 Nouns in Construction .....»«.>.<. 201 Of the First of Two Nouns in Construction 201 Of the Second of Two Nouns in Construction .... 202 Other Modes of Expressing the Relation between Nouns . 204 Ellipse of the First of Two Nouns in Construction . . . 206 The Gender of an Adjective Qualifying Two Nouns in Construction , , . . . 207 Separation of Two Nouns in Construction ,»»... 207 Concordance of Nouns and Epithets 208 The Noun of Action as a Qualifjdng Epithet .... 208 The Numerals » 209 Construction of the Numeral and the Thing Numbered . 209 Agreement in Gender of the Numeral and Thing Numbered 213 The Use of the Article with Numerals ...... 215 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV PAGE The Ordinal Numbers 216 Dates 217 Proper Names 219 Simple Proper Names , . . . 219 Compound Proper Names ,.... 219 Constituent Portions of Proper Names 221 Nouns which Govern like Verbs , : . , 222 The Use of the Infinitive or Noun of Action as a Verb . 222 The Use of the Agent, Intensive Agent, and Passive Participle, as a Verb . 225 The Noun of Superiority , 226 Other Words which are Cognate to Verbs 231 SECTION IT— THE SENTENCE. Parts of a Sentence ^ . . 234 The Subject and Predicate 235 Omission of the Predicate ». 238 Concord of the Subject and Predicate 239 Inversion of the Subject and Predicate 240 Omission of the Subject 241 "Words Affecting the Subject and Predicate 241 1. Abstract Verbs 242 2. Approximate Verbs 244 3. Verbs Denoting a Mental Process . 246 4. Verbs of Praise and Blame 247 5. Particles which Resemble Verbs 248 Position of ^1 in the Sentence 250 Use o{ ^\ 250 Cases in which either ij\ or ^j] may be used ... 251 Loss of the Final ^ in the Particles ^\ and ^t, 1 . . . 252 XVI TABLE OE CONTENTS. PAGE 6. Negative Participles 253 The Absolute IS'egative ., 254 Eelative Sentences 256 Eelatives or Conjunctives . 256 Other Conjunctives 258 Nature of the Eelative 259 The Pronoun which Eefers to the Antecedent .... 260 Conditional Sentences 260 Protasis and Apodosis 262 Inversion of the Verb and Xoun '... 263 On Certain Involved Forms of Expression 264 Exception. » . . . 265 1. ![ . . 266 2.^i. and i_5j^ 266 3. lill, iX, and li.1:^ 267 Apposition 267 1. Description 268 iN'ature of the Descriptive . » 269 Concordance of the Descriptive and the Noun .... 270 2. Simple Apposition 271 Particles Employed in Forming the Apposition .... 272 3. Corroboration , , , 273 4. Apposition of Substitution ■. 276 5. Explanatory Apposition ............ 276 Admiration ».<......., » 277 SECTION III.— THE PARTICLES AND INDECLINABLE WOIIDS. Particles • , . 279 Certain Adverbs of Time and Place « 280 Pleonastic Particles ..*.»<....,.<. 283 • • TABLE OF CONTENTS. XVll PAGB Indeclinable Words 283 984 1. Compound Expressions 2. tl-'Ul:^ Metonyma 285 3. Adverbs of Time and Place 286 Summary of the Principles of Arabic Syntax 287 PAET III.— PEOSODY. SECTION I.— THE METRE. 291 Nomenclature Elements of wbich the Feet are Composed 292 Quantity . . .^ 293 The Normal Feet * 294 The Circles 295 TheEirst Circle i—iUi:'^^ yj J 295 Diagram of the Eirst Circle 297 The Second Circle, (— ai^^ ^ vJ^ 297 Diagram of the Second Circle 298 The Third Circle. L^L^UyJ J 298 Diagram of the Third Circle 299 The Fourth Circle, ^i 339 8. J^^TpC The Punning Metre 342 Examples of J'*^'^ 343 9. ^^tj^ The Swift Metre 346 Examples of ^.j^\ • * . . . 347 TAELE OF CONTENTS. XIX PAOB 10. _^I^TJ^ The Flowing Metre 350 ^^~ y Examples of _ -waL*J1 ..•»...••. 351 11. ujLJ^ ^^3^7 The Light or Easy Metre 354 Examples of u-g_«g'^i ••«•».•••' 355 12. c ^lj2f jl^ The Doubtful Metre 358 Example of Cjl,J^^ • « 358 13. ( *iii^Tj:^ The Curtailed Metre 360 Example of cl-Jju^t .,» .".... . 360 14. tj^c^l ,csr The Docked Metre . \ 362 Examples of ^Jl^^u^'^X . , , . , 363 15. < ^J\k:^\ jsT The Tripping Metre 366 Examples of i—jj\ic^\ . , . » '» 367 16. t:J ,U":>2T .^ The Consecutive Metre 370 • ■- ^ -> V • Examples of C^j\S:^\ * i ,.,,.. • 371 SECTION II.— THE EHYME. Different kinds of Rhyme ,.<,....».. 373 Consonants of the cUjIj .«<.>........ 373 Vowels of the Xlilj , ; . 374 i_^^-£ Faulty Rhyme ............ o75 jc^ll ^'j!;-* Poetical Licence ............ 375 APPEXDIX. Glossary of Technical Terms used in Arabic Grammar . . , 377 Index • • i t t e » « f ' « <* t t • • • 'i05 ADDITIONS AND COEEECTIONS. Page 12, line 25, /or ^^j read ^\^» „ 16, „ 17, „ fata „ fatan. „ 26, after line 7, add'. The same verb may have different meanings, in which case it has a different noun of action for each, as : S 9 9 ■< j>. to fall prostrate," J}j^' ^ ^ it . s ^ ji- to rush with a noise (water)," jJ^. Page 45, after line 13, add : This kind of quadriliteral verb is often onomatopoeic, and is formed by a repetition of the imitative sound, as^^i^ to gargle," ^_^y^^ "to whisper." Foreign nouns are also often employed in the forma- tion of quadriliteral verbs, as (_p2:>^ a girdle," ji:^^' to be girt." The culJLs^, or derived quadriliterals, in the text, are derived ostensibly from triliteral roots. Some quadriliterals are formed from obsolete triliterals, as S^ to become a pupil," from j^ (Hebrew '^^&>). Others are formed from phrases in common use, as qSa^^ to say AiJ^ ^^^^ 1 praise be to God ; '* (Ji^=- to say ^IlL> V\ i"»j ^ ^ J^^ ^ " there is no strength and no power but in God ;" J^ku^ to say ^1 *.uj in the name of God." Page 47, to the first paragraph add: There is another noun which resembles the agent in form, and is XXU ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. therefore called J.rUJl *~)Ij <^-wi!U^l tiLJl the qualificative re- sombliDg the agent noun." It is of the measure J-tii , a3 ^y "to be joyful," ^y "joyful." iJ^ to drink," . t_-J^ a drunkard." Page 50, to the account of the noun of time and place add : Adding a to this noun gives the sense of abounding in," as J^i S ^ -^ o 'a lion," is'jurfU *a place abounding in lions." '- Page 53, to the list of Nouns of Excess add : ,jx3 as Jjj- immense." J^ as yis>- sweet." Jjti „ I J5j "thin." JUi „ ^Is.--' "brave." Jxi „ L_-^ hard." juj „ (^l/».5>-j merciful." s ^ The form J^, when derived from hollow verbs, is frequently con- tracted, as c:-^r* C'-^.-',^'*) dead," l::-w* ; j^ ( r^f^^) good," j^ ; in the last case -»:>- is the form actually in use. Page 64, in the heading to second tabic, for initial hemzeh, read MEDIAL HEMZEH. Page 94, line 22, to the words 5. J^ when it has the significa- tion of J.cli," etc., add as afoot-note : This happens when it is derived from a neuter verb, in which case it is intensive. Page 95, line 3, for c-jo^ and ^,f>y read ^y>j and ^,fj' „ „ 1, to the word Jj^A^ add (when derived from transi- tive verbs). >j »> "> >> >> >> >> >> „ „ 12, „ jjcls „ (when derived from neuter verbs). ADDITIONS AND COERECTIONS. SXIU Page 95, line 28, add : Feminine nouns of this form (J^li always con- tain the meaning of d-M j, as J^l:^^ = jj^>- lUi J ; so in Kor. ii., 63, •J\ (j^jli ^ iJo_ \^\ Verily it is a cow neither aged, etc." where Page 99, line 2, for ^'j b 1 read >\j\b]. » » }> !-'> >> j*^ >> (»-'• „ 100, line 18, /or "for ^^ " read " for ,^:J ." „ „ „ 19, „ "for^" „ "for^." „ „ „ 20, „ "for J;i" „ "for ijj-" „ 146, „ 18, „ after or»Jl father,' "add or Juj: servant of." „ 304, „ 1, „ for -.^Jj^] read ^jJj^\ . I . u „ 306, lines 8 and 9, for the addition of one letter to a foot of four letters," read the addition of from one to four letters." Pages 327 and 329, heading of the page,/or jy 1 .^sPreac? ii J 1 .sT . Page 332, line 9, /or ^^)xU:;,« rea^? jJ-^li::^. 12 >> ■'■-'J j> ,, 333, „ 2, ,, ^jxiiwi* ,, ^^xA.«. S f ^9 5 >> c, ^ >> 344, „ 3, „ jy^^^ i» ^i"^** „ 348, „ 11, „ (j:^b „ ci^li. „ 365, „ 3, „ j\^\i^ „ jlfJb. • ^ ^ ARABIC GRAMMAR. PART I.-ACCIDEi^CE. SECTI0:N' L— OETHOGEAPnY. THE ALPHABET. (1). The Arabs write from right to left. Their alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, all con- sonants. KNGI.ISH ARABIC LETTK.R8. NAMtS. y.QUIVA- LEN'TS. PKO.NUNCIATION. \ Alif, A. /This at the commencement of a word is a mere prop for the letter 1 hcDizeh, or soft breatbiiie:, and has no sound of itself; after a ( consonant it serves merely to prolong the yoik el fet hah. c_? Ba, B. as in English, but more forcibly. iJLi Ta, T. a soft dental, like the Italian t. lL} Tha, Th. as in thill (/ (sometimes s). Z. Jim, J. as in John. z Ha, H. a strong pectoral aspirate. t Kha, Kh. guttural, something like the Scotch ch in loch. J Dal, D. soft dental, like the Italian d. J Dhal, Dh. like th in that. J Ra, R. [ as in English, but more forcibly. • J Za, Z. 2 ARAEIC GRAMMAR. ARABIC LKTTEKS. NAMES. KNGLISII KQUIVA- LENTS. PRONUNCIATION. t. Sin, Shin, s. Sh, [ as in English, but more forcibly. ^ Sad, s. a lisping s. ^ phad, Dh. a hard palatal d. \> T(li)d, T. a hard palatal t. b Dlic4, PJi. th in. this (sometimes z). L Ain, f a guttural vowel. Gliain, Gh. a guttural sound, something between ^ and r. <-J Fa, P. as in English, but more forcibly. J Kaf, K. like cTc in stuch, pronounced very gutturally. v^ Kaf, K. A • (J Lam, L. >* 1 Mim, M. c' Nun, N. )" as in English, but more forcibly. i- Ha, H. -? Waw, W. » o Yd, Y. - To which is added 1> Lam-alif, Ly^. These are joined to the preceding letter by prefixing a small curve or stroke, and to the following letter by re- moving the carve with Avhich they all, except alif, end. In ^ , ; j> J the removal of the curve would leave the letter unrecognizable ; these, therefore, as well as the alifj are not joined to the left. THE ALPEABET. 6 c c , wlien medial and fijialj change their form slightly, becominc; « k and -«_ i_ . (J/, when initial and medial, becomes i and C re- spectively. j^ t_f , when initial and medial, become j ^^ and ^ -. re- spectively. j», when initial and medial, becomes ^ and ^ re- spectively. ^, when initial, becomes a; when final a.; and when medial ^ or ^,. DETACHED. INITIAL. MEDIAL. FINAL. \ ^ I I L-J CLi lL} A .> J J • A AAA * ... ,4 u ^ . 3 J *• A A cr L5 z. zt 5>- Js- :>- js. .s i: t t t J j J J J^ jk Jk A J J -? J J J J J ^ ^ J ^ o-^ ^ «.9 .i «2 ^ u^ u^ 1. li L \i L li k li t i. £■ i X X t t ^ J i jj k £. ^ J- X i^ ^ "^ 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 CHRONOGEAMS. O The letters in their numerical order are arranged in a series of meaningless words to serve as a memoria techniea^ thus : This use of the letters as numerals is confined to mathematical works and "chronograms;" that is to say, words or sentences containing letters the sum of the numerical value of which gives the date of any event that may be required. In order to be still more easily retained in the memory these are usually woven into verse, as in the following upon the accession of the present Sultan of Turkey : Abdii'l 14-Ziz, fortune smiles upon him with might and happiness, by tlio grace of his Creator ! On the day of his accession the world holds festival in his liononr, writing the date (in the words), ou it he was estahlished on the throne.''^ , The sum of the numerical value of the letters contained in the sentence ^fJ\ J^y^ ^ makes up 1283, the date of the Mohammedan year corresponding with 18G6 of the Christian era. The Arabs of Morocco arrange their letters in a slightly different numerical order, thus : In ordinary transactions the Arabs make use of the following cyphers borrowed from the Indian, and written 6 ARABIC GRAMMAR. in precisely the same manner as onr own, i.e. from left to right, the reverse of the Arabic writing : 1234567890 \ r r e 1 V A H * e.g. lAvr 1872. OETHOGEAPHICAL SIGN'S. VOWELS. (3). The vowels and other orthographical signs are written above and below the letters. The vowels are — fethah, — dhammah, and — JcesraJi^ pronounced re- spectively — a^ as in fat ; — u, as in full ; and — /, as in ft. Fethah, hesrah, and dTiammah denote the sigiis -^ — ; while feth, hesr, and dhamm denote the sounds a, i, u. These sounds are modified by the hardness or softness of the preceding consonants ; like those of the consonants, they can only be approximately rendered in English. The student must therefore learn the correct pronunciation of the language orally. TENWIN. (4). When the vowels are doubled, thus 4^, they are pronounced respectively an^ un and in. This is called %^^ tenwin, i.e. "giving the n sound," The vowels thus doubled are spoken of as tenwln fethah^ tenwin Jcesrahy and tenwin dhammah respectively. The tenwin or nasal vowels are intimately connected with the long vowels. The old Arabic, like the Nabathean, seems to have declined its nouns with long vowels, and this form is still preserved in the con- ORTIIOGRAPniCAL SIGNS. 7 struct form of a few nouns expressing the most primitive relations of life, namely : father." brother." "mouth." possessor." Nominative y>\ abli, ^\ ahliu, »s fu (^^ famun), ^^^ dhu. Genitive ^J\ alt, i^^ alch'i, ijtf'h lJ'^ ^^'^- Objective ul aha, \s>~\ akhd, Is fu, ! J dhd. When the word is indefinite, and therefore pronounced without reference to any other word, a certain stress will be laid on the vowel which indicates the declension; but when it is either in construction or defined by the article, — that is, when it is mentioned only in its relation to another word, — the stress is laid rather on the word itself, and the long vowel becomes consequently shortened. This is at once apparent if we decline an English or Latin noun school boy fashion, as mus«," musli:^ Icifdbv^, "a book," lLnL* malihjfi, "of a king," but l1S\^* '-r'^^ KiTAm^ malikin, " the book of a king," — the dropping of the tenwin in these cases being equivalent to the shortening of the long vowel. From this it follows that tcmv'm is the sign of the indefinite noun, and its absence implies that the noun is definite. It is also worth observing, in confirmation of the above hypothesis, that the regular plural forms are nothing more than a prolongation of the terminations of the singular, as though the vowels were prolonged 8 ARABIC GRAMMAR. to imply an extension of the meaning: thus, ^J^J^ "a believer," is declined — MASCULINE. Singular. Plural. S i 9 ^ ^ 9 i- f Nom. \j^y* fnumtnun. ^^x^y* mli7nin(ma» . '%9 o S- 9 9 " • Genitive ^^y muminm, i ^ % ^ Objective \^^y* muminsio.. ) FEMININE. IN'om. Ai^y* muminoXxxn. LU\:>^y muminkivm. Genitive ^yy* inuminaiiu. \ ^ 't? ^ ' o > CL?\L«.^ jwMmwatin. Objective i^^y mumm&tan. j CORRESPONDENCE OF THE VOWELS AND SEMI-VOWELS. (5). No distinction appears to have been originally made in Arabic between the long and short vowels ; indeed, the earlier Kiific writing makes no use what- ever of the short superscribed vowels, but employs only the letters \ ^ ^. When two or more long vowels come together, the tone would, by the natural laws of accentuation, fall upon the last but one, and that alone would remain long, the others being either neglected or shortened. The process actually takes place in modern Arabic ; the word -s^-J'H* mafdtihu, for instance, is pro- nounced ^xa^ mefatih : here the long a is shortened by the principle above advocated, and the short u, having already undergone the shortening process in the ancient language, is in the modern dialect neglected altogether. From this it follows naturally that the short vowels ^ correspond to the weak consonants or semi-vowels ^ i t/. In Arabic writing the long vowels are formed by a com- bination of the two ; thus, Ij ha^ jj hu^ ^ hi. ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. 9 HEMZEH (C). In endeavouring to pronounce a vowel without a consonant, we make a distinct, though slight, effort with the muscles of the throat : this the Arabs represent by hemzeh \ , and the long vowels accordingly become at the beginning of a word it ««, j1 mi^ ^\ eV, = <2, w, z;^ ^ and ^ preceded by fetliali form diphthongs ^ hau (pronounced as ow in now) and ^ hai (pronounced as y in hy). MEDDAH. (7). In the case of \\ aa the second allf is written over the first thus ^ <^, or T without the hemzeli^ and is called meddah, "prolongation." The long \ is sometimes pronounced like our a in face, as in the word JJ^iW , pronounced ennes ; this is called Imaleh^ i.e. causing it to incline (to the sound of kcsrah), THE VOWELS AS SIGNS OF INFLEXION. (8). The vowels are used as terminations of inflexion ; thus, -^ or \ for the objective. — or J ,, nominative or subjective. — or t^ „ genitive or dependent case. They occur both in the moods of verbs and in the cases of nouns, e.g. : In nouns : t_-jlui a book," nominative or suljective, in "whicli form alone it can act as agent to a verb. ' The vowels used in the translitcratiou of Arabic words throughout this work arc to be pronounced as iu Italian. Jjtw j^l that he may do" (conditional). 10 AEABIC GRAMMAR. (^^\::^ genitive or dependent, dependent on the pre- ceding word, bls^ ohjective, expressing state or condition. And in verts : jxh^ he does" (active). From this it would seem that some such significations as action, dependence, and objective state or condition lurk in the respective vowels themselves. Some philologists have supposed that the Arabic language was origi- nally monosyllabic. If such were the case, the above suggestion as to primary signification of the vowels will enable us to understand the arrangement of ideas in Semitic languages in groups of three letters, or triliteral roots, corresponding with these vowels. The preterite passive in Arabic contains all three in proper order, fj.xi it was done," expressing — an action, rr depending upon or proceeding fi'om some one, -^ resulting in a certain condition, JEZMEH", OR StIKUN. (9). There are only two kinds of syllables in Arabic. 1. A consonant with a short vowel, as <-_> ha. 2. Two consonants with a short vowel between, as c:-^ hit In this case the mark -^ is placed over the last, and is called siikun, "rest," orjezmeh, "cutting off." A letter without a vowel is called quiescent. Note. — Two quiescent letters cannot come together; such a combi- nation, for instance, as l::^^ bist is inadmissible : the letters of pro- longation are considered as quiescent. In spelling, the vowels are always * ^ (t '- named after the consonants; e.g. c-_? hu-fethah, ba"; ^j jaa rajulun wa'bnumun w'amruun ) came »> P ^ ? o^^ Vy^^^ ^^1j ^^"^ ''---^iL' I ^ ^'^^ ^ ravca. — a son — a Raaitu rajidan w'ahiaman w'amraan ) man." ^*)j *^Mj -1 akhuitu Hhija^ "I write out the 14 AEABIC GRAMMAR. alphabet," contain all the short vowels and orthographical signs. The learner is referred to the examples in reading given at the end of this section, a perusal of which will render him familiar with all the possible combinations of the letters. Hemzet el-tvasl^ when following a vowel or temvm, is written T; but when it stands at the beginning of a sentence, it is written t «, 1 u^ \ i. Hemzet el-katd is always written in full 1. When the latter occurs in the middle of a word, and introduces -f- dhammah or — kesrah^ the alif^ which serves as its prop, is changed into the semi-vowel analogous to the short vowel; as '^y* mu'-minun^ "a believer," L:u^L>- "I came." When ^ is so used, the dots are omitted, to distinguish it from the letter of prolongation. THE PAUSE. (13). The final short vowels are dropped in pronuncia- tion at the end of a sentence ; thus ^:^)\ J^}^ ^\ *-^ Bismi HldJii Wrakmdni Wralim, not ..... ''rralnmi. I , with or without temum^ becomes s in the pause ; as iU^ ijLi'Xs^^ pronounced jd-at rahmah. Temvm kesrah and dhammah t^ are dropped; as aj 'l:>- and jjJj cij^, ^xq- nounced j'd'a Zeid and marartu hi-Zeid) but temvin fethah { becomes I , as IjjJ <.::^f\jj pronounced ra'aitu Zeidd. The single emphatic ^ nun^ which is sometimes added to the imperative and aorist of verbs, also becomes T; as ^ -iU pronounced at the end of a sentence Ij Jl idhrihd. Words of one letter add a in the pause; as Sj rah and <2 kill for J ra and j ku ANOMALIES IN WRITING. 15 "Words like ^li, in wliicli the temvm Jcesrah stands for a 1^ which has dropped out, reject the temvm in the pause ; as ^Uj cL^'i^, pronounced marartu hi-Jcadh. ANOMALIES IN WRITING. (14). Arabic is pronounced as it is written, except in the Pause, as mentioned above, and in the following in- stances : (1) The niin ^j in the following words is not written, but assimilates with the first letter of that immediately succeeding it. ^J^ and ^ when followed by U, become U^, Ujs. j^l „ ^, becomes 1 j^l or ^'^ . (2) An alif \ is written but not pronounced — (1) After ivaw, when that letter terminates a verbal form ; as V r* dharahii. This is also occasionally found in the construct form of a plural noun ; as S: \ \^ \j> dhdrihu Zeidin, the strikers of Zeid." (2) As a prop to tenwin fethah ; as iJjj Zeiddn. (3) In the words ^\^, ^^ycjv^, miatun, imatdni, "a <( ^ hundred," two hundred." (3) A wmo J is written but not pronounced in uXiljl uUlJca, ^l.l uld'i, jJjl ula, those ; " in the direct and oblique case of .^^kc (nomi- native ^j^^^, pronounced lAmrun ; oblique j^.^£., pronounced ^»in«), to distinguish it from ,as. 'Omar. (4) Alif is pronounced but not written in the following words : i^\ alldhu, "God," ^^>-J^ ar-Rahmdnu, "the merciful (God)," iX^L* maluilcatnn, angels," cul^^^-: samdwdtun, " licavcns," tliCj dhdlilca, ^ *' '' f ' ' '. ■-• I " "that," (-!-C!_jl uldilca, "those," liU (fern. lj^Jj thaldthun), "three," ^yij thaUthuna, "thirty," ^ Idkinna, "but," \si> hddlia, "this," 16 AEABIC, GEAMMAE. Jt^j>j IhrdMmu, Ahraham," ^xa,^]^ Ismail, Ishmacl," . i^-'l Ishdhi, Isaac," and sometimes in the proper names (^Is 'Otimidn, ,^r*r^ Sulaimdnu, ^^f*J^ Nomdnu. In this ease a small alif is generally written perpendicularly above the consonant with which it is to be pronounced. (5) The Hornet el-wasl is omitted — (1) from the word j^\ in the II \ ^ phrase - haydtun, life," i^J^ saldtun, prayer," i»ij zaMtun, alms," when these words are in the singular and stand by themselves, not being in construction or having the article or a pronoun affixed ; when not standing by themselves alif is generally written instead of wdw. (15.) EXAMPLES FOR PEACTICE IN EEADING. %hi sa zii ri dha du khi ha ju ihi ya hu wa ni ma lu Tea hi fii ghi a dhu ti ^ha su y 9 ia lu i u a p EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE IN READING. 17 ^^ b _jJ ^^ b- ^ ^ b y u?l ^\ jl jl » ri dhd dk M}. hd ju ihi td la ai i au u a md lu led k'l fii ghj- 'd ^(i i'l dhd su shi sd zu yd yu. hit wi wai wd ni c o S^ js -Li Jci. ki ^j ^ Ow" tJ-^v^ ij:-^ c:-^ i_--J mudh sar kd Unidk ka{ ruh haj had mit lit fut tab o^x c>^ ox c? ux v^ <— ^ r^ u^. jj u*"^ j'^ saf kam lal zur das dur i, -^1 f xo<*0 O-^ X OXC-^ X-CJ "^O ^ tva'Udhi fi ^l-haydti dlaihi fi U-liarhi fi 'z-zamdni linndsi lil'haydti 'd-dunyd lalittu ila ^l-yaumi lilluhi xOx ^o-o y i X '' O X tca-kadha 'lldhu hdda dhdha ^jtimd'a Bi-al'i man wadattuhufaftaraknd And after that God decreed a meet- (May) he whom I love (be ransom- ing, ed) by my father ! — we parted, Z;dw0 taslhnuhu dlaiya wadda fa^ftaraknaliaiilanfalammaHtakaind His (only) salutation to me was Wc were parted for a year, and Farewell!" when we met, 2 18 AEABIC GRAMMAR. /cat? raha yalcfuru hi W-Eahmdni tak- wa-jdhilin yadddiji 'l-ilmifalsafatan lidd "Went and denied the existence of An ignorant fellow, pretending to the Merciful God dogmatically, the science of philosophy, dnaita nafsaha mdkulan wa-mdkudd wa-kala arifu mdkulan fa-kuUu lahu " You mean that you yourself are And said, I know that it is so by hobbled fmdkulanj and fettered ! common-sense /'wiaMZfl?^/" Then I said to him, flraX-rt! takrau haban dnJca masdudd min aina ania wa hddha 's-shai'u tadhlcuruhu I see that you are knocking at a "What have you to do with this door which is shut against you." thing which you mention? fa-kultu lastu Sulaimdna 'bna Ddudd fa-kdla inna Icaldm'i lasta tafhamuhu And I said, "l am not Solomon, Then said he, "Tou do not undcr- the son of David !" , stand my speech.'' ^ This may be paraphrased as follows : — • A foolish Atheist, whom I lately found, Alleged Philosophy in his defence ; Said he, '• The arguments I use are sound." " Just so," said I, " all sound and little sense, " Tou talk of matters far beyond your reach : You're knocking at a closed-up door," said I, Said he, " You do not understand my speech." " I'm not King Solomon !" was my reply. Alluding to the Mohammedan legend that Solomon understood the language of beasts. THE MEASUEES OF WORDS. 19 SECTION II.— ETYMOLOGY. THE MEASURES OF WORDS. (IG), Every Avord in Arabic may be referred to a sig- nificaut root, consisting of either three or four letters, the triliterals being by far the more common. The letters (_J and c_j, c_; and ^, cJ and ^, cJ and j cannot, for obvious cuplionic reasons^ exist side bv side in the same root. In Euroj^ean languages significant roots are irregular in form, and the grammar of those languages treats only of prefixes and affixes, by which the meaning of the root is modified. Thus in English we add the termination e?^ to express the active participle or agent of a verb, and m(j to express the infinitive or gerund ; as make, maker, making. In Arabic, however, such modifications are obtained not only by prefij^ing or affixing, but by inserting letters in the root. Jxi fdl^ signifying mere action^ is taken as the typical root for exhibiting these modifications, and the formulcc thus obtained are called the "measures of words." For instance, the insertion of an allf between the first and second radical, and pointing the latter with the vowel kesrah^ gives the sense of the agent or active participle ; thus 3j«^ becomes Jxli ''one who does," and tliis Avord is the measwe upon which all other agents of this kind arc formed. It is, in fact, a mere formula, like the letters used 20 ARABIC GRAMMAR. in AlgeBra ; for as (a + h) may represent (2 + 3), (4 + 5), or any otlier numbers, so for the triliteral root J.^ in J^li we may substitute any other triliteral root and obtain the same modification of meaning ; as and ^jIj are said to be the 3^1j of the re- spective triliteral roots to which they belong. ROOTS CONTAINING SEMI-VOWELS. (17). The triliteral root may contain one or more of the weak consonants or scmi-vowols \ ^ ^ in which case certain euphonic and other changes will take place. These changes are called the Permutations of weak consonants, and depend upon the principle above advocated that the three weak consonants \ ^ ^^ are respectively homogeneous to the tliree vowels -^^^. When the vowel and weak consonant in any derived form are heterogeneous, the vowel changes the weak consonant into another weak consonant analogous to itself. To understand how a vowel can change one weak con- sonant into another analogous to itself, when we should rather have thought that the consonant would be stronger than the vowel, we must investigate the nature of the '^measures" above described. If, instead of the three radical letters of a significant root J * i, we substitute the signs (i) (2) (3), and then proceed to form "measures" of nouns and verbs in the THE MEASURES OF WOEDS. 21 ordinary manner, we sliall obtain such results as the following • • ' 1. Jii ' doing" = » (2) (1) 2. Lli "doer"' = >) (2) ('(1) 3. Jxi "ho dot's" = '(3) >) '(1) 4, J.xi it is dono" = '(3) (2) (1) "We see at once that the vowels arc the real or clia- ractcristic part of the measure, as they give the general sense of the form, wliile the radicals only define the par- ticular case to which it is to he applied ; they must therefore of necessity he preserved at any sacrifice to the consonant. ISTow, in the four forms given above, let us substitute for the numerical signs the letters j j c , an existing Arabic triliteral root, and we have : 1. "(3) "(2) "(1) = 2^ "A raid or foray.". 2. ] (3) (2) 1(1) = Ijdi Here the hsrali and the todiv arc hetcro- geneoxis, b;it tlie former, being the more important, changes the latter into ^c; that is, into the weak letter analogous to itself, and tlio word becomes u;li a raider. 3. (3) (2) (1) = tj- Hero the two /6'//trt7«s absorb the ^, charg- ing it into \ , and the word becomes Iji "he made a foray." 4. ^(3) (2) (1) (from tip "saying") Jj = J^J. ^ I have adopted the objccfivc case with tenw'm fdhah in this ilhistration, because (onviH dliaiiimah or tcmriii hsnih would iuvolvi; the qucstiiiu of a further permuta- tion, the dibuuiision of which is loll for the paragrapli on the deeleusiou ol' uouus, q.v. 22 ARABIC GRAMMA R. I have before suggested that the old Arabic had no short vowels ; the last form, therefore, must originally have been LJ, and the natural accent falling; on the penultimate would leave that alone long, while the ante- penultimate would be absorbed, and the word become Jj , as we actually have it. In the 3rd person preterite active of the same verb Jli the two fetlialis conquer the j. In the 1st person (.IJli the long J being quiescent conquers, and the accent falling on it, it becomes ci-Sy ; but this is naturally shortened in pronunciation, aiid the rule holds that two quiescent letters cannot come together. This, then, is the general principle of permutation : — When a vowel and a weak letter which is not analogous to it come together in a form, the ordinary laws of euphony require that one should yield, and in Arabic the vowel conquers: e.g. The measure JUj^, from ^\t, "would be ^'^y*i and the measure Jsxi^, from jj, would be ^. -^'^ ; but ^'ij'* miwzumm and ^j>4;^* muijkinun are repugnant to the ear, and therefore become ^jry^ mudfiun and (.t^v* muktnun, A permutation of other than weak letters occasionally takes place; as, for instance, when two letters which it is impossible to pronounce together occur in the same form ; then the softer of the two is changed into the cor- responding hard one. This can only take place in dental or pcdahil letters, for they are the only ones in which such a difficulty is likely to arise : e.g. Forming the measure Jv'cil iftadla from the root '—'•*? we should ASSIMILATION. • 23 have L-jj^\ idhtarala ; this, however, would be unpronounceable, and as the soft t CLi will actually sound like the hard t \s, the latter is '" -^ \-^ ^ written instead, and the form becomes w_J,l:;jt . Another euplionic change of which letters are suc- ccptible is ASSIMILATION. (18). One letter is often assimilated by another, which is then doubled. This naturally occurs when the same letter is repeated without the intervention of a vowel, as ju^ for jjc^ maddim ; or when two letters of the same kind come together, as ^J,^* makatta for cl-iC* maJcathta, although this last kind of assimilation is optional. RemarJc— it is obvious that in practice cases will oc- casionally occur for which the foregoing rules will not at first sight entirely account. The principle involved is, however, always the same, for it is the operation of the natural laws of euphony which produces every such change. Instead, therefore, of burdening the student's memory with a long list of 7'iiles for Permutation and Assimilation, I shall content myself for the present with the 'principle just given, reserving the consideration of the less obvious permutation for cases in which they occuiv 24 • ARABIC GRAMMAR. sectio:n' III.— parts of speech. (19). The parts of speech in Arabic are three :— 1. The Verb. 2. The Noim (including the pronoun and adjec- tive, and what we are accustomed to call the participle). 3. The Particle (including the preposition, adverb, con- junction, and interjection). THE VEEB. (20). An Arabic Verb with its fifteen conjugations, its active and passive voices, subjunctive and energetic moods, etc., may well seem a formidable thing for a beginner to encounter. We shall, however, see that the multifarious phases which it can assume are all capable of being reduced to a few measures easily remembered, as they depend more or less one upon another, and are intimately connected both in sense and form. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. Arabic Yerbs are of two kinds, sound and zvcalc. These are further subdivided into transitive and neuter, active and passive. They are either simple or augmented. The simple verb cannot contain less than three letters or more than five. It may happen that in conjugating, all the letters but one may disappear, so that a simple form may seem to have been one letter, as in i^ ti, the shortened form of L^l Ui, from ^] atdj "he came." THE SERVILE lETTEES. 25 The augmented verb is fonned either by repeating the second or third radical, or by employing one or more of certain other letters. The letters thus employed to augment or conjugate verbs and inflect nouns are called servile^ and are con- tained in the last three words of the foUowincj verse : ^ "Ci -O y P Pl --O P i^'s- , I asked the servile letters concerning their name ; they answered, and did not he: J^,.wJj j^t«i {i.e. safety and ease)." It may also happen that some of these letters occur as radicals in a verb, but in such a case nothing save a knowledge of the grammatical measures will enable the student to discriminate. We are accustomed to speak of the first, second, and third radical letter of a triliteral verb as the ._J fd^ c auiy or J lam respectively. PARTS OF THE VERB. (21). The Arabic Yerb has two voices,— active and passive ; three tenses,— preterite, aorist, and imperative ; fifteen conjugations. These last, however, are nothing more than derived verbs formed from the simple root by the addition of certain letters which modify or extend the sense. The noun which expresses the simple action is con- sidered as the source, JI^* , from which all derived forms, whether nouns or verbs, arc taken, as cl^ dharhim, ''striking;" and this occasionally supplies the place of the 26 ARABIC GRAMMAE. infinitive or gerund, which parts of the verb are wanting in Arabic. Note.— As this noun of action is variable in form, it has been found convenient in practice to treat the third person singular masculine as the form from which all others are derived. This is, therefore, the form under which all words are ranged in grammars and dictionaries. TENSES OF VERES. * THE PEETEKITE. (22). In simple verbs the preterite active is of the form Jxi, Jxi, or J-o. The preterite passive is invariably of the form 3*i . The Persons are formed as follows : TLUllAL. Fem. Masc, DUAL. Fem. Maso. twiixj SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. l::-^^ Jlxj ^ 3rd person. l::-^^ L::->Ui 2nd „ L::-Jjti 1st „ O ^ X o \Note. — The terminations c:^ , l::-^ , C--» , etc., are in reality- separate pronouns serving as nominative or agent to the verb. Again, in the third person singular masculine, a masculine pronoun is said to 1 This paradigm applies equally to the forms Jjti, Juii, and to the passive , Ui, which arc declined in the same way — u:.,J-«i ^.jL-^M , Ui - < f ''l • TIIE TENSES AND MOODS OF VERBS. 27 be implied. The same remarks apply to the affixes and prefixes by which the persons of the aorist are formed.] THE AOEIST. (23). The aorist active of the simple verb is formed as follows : PLURAL. DUAI,. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. • o yo^ X / j'O-' ^"Ox -'/'OX / yox 9 Cox J^h ^!h^. ^JUiJ fJixJj^ J-^* 1 • 1 3rd person y 1^9'- ^ y 9 > ^ y y PL, y' X Cox 9 COX j^ ^^sJ crri^' d-^ 2nd „ ^ C OX 9 9^-i. Jxsj JOl 1st „ The aorist passive is declined in precisely the same manner, merely substituting the vo^yel ^ for -^ in the pre- Jixcs and pointing the second radical with — , thus : PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. xoxo# X 9y{^9 ^xOC xxo» ^ x' cxo;> yxoy 3rd person xO^O» X 9 <^ 9 X xoC 9 ^^ 9 2nd „ 9 ^<~- 9 /xo-i 1st „ MOODS OF THE VEEB. (24). The aorist is declinable like the noun; that is to say, the final vowel is susceptible of certain changes to express modifications of the meaning. 1. It changes from -f- to — to express the conditional or subjunctive mood, and when preceded by certain par- ticles : in this case the ^j is also dropped from all the '■ V-' , ^. C X * So, too, AxJu aud AjiSii arc declined throughout. 28 ARABIC GRAMMAE. persons which end in that letter preceded by a long vowel, thus: PLURAL. Fern. Masc. ^C cox 9 9i^y DUAL. Fern. Maso. iUii- SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. f^xs3 JjtaJ Srd person. .Jjtij J.XSJ 2nd „ L^ 1st >» 2. It may be apocopated, i.e. lose its last vowel alto- gether when preceded by certain particles, or used as an imperative, or in a conditional or alternative sentence. It will then be declined : PLURAL. Fem. Masc. ^^ 9 ^ ^ P P'^^ ^O .'O^ 9 9 o^ DUAL. Fem. Masc. Ldi- SrVQULAR. Fem. Maso. J-xiJ (J-^l Srd person. L5 ^^' Jotii" 2nd » Wl 1st To the conditional form of the aorist a nun ^ , either single or doubled |t,", and preceded hj fetJiahj is some- times added to impart emphasis : it is chiefly used when this tense is employed as an imperative. It is then de- clined as follows : 1 . With the doubled nun '^. PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. • Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. 3rd person. 2nd „ H y 9 i^y •Si - 'COS 1st „ THE TENSES AXD MOODS OF VEEBS. 29 2. With the single 7im J. PLURAL. Fein. Masc. "Wanting ,ji^. DUAL. Fern. Masc. Wanting Wanting SINGULAR. Fern. Masc. 3rd person Wanting i^"^ Wanting 2nd „ •» • p o-' 1st „ [_Note. — It will be noticed that the long vowels * and ^ arc elided wherever they occur as terminations. This is because the ^ or ^ loses its fethah in such cases, and if the long vowel were then retained, it would violate the rule given on p. 10, that two quiescent letters cannot come together ; thus, the 2nd person feminine singular is ^j^^f^J , this becomes in the conditional form ei-^o^ ,;>^ 5. Jxl; Jaj (__J^ to be charming. ^\^ to bo easy. This form imj^lies natural or inlierent qualitieSj and is 9 9 <^ ^ always neuter or intransitive. 6. \.xsj (>i c* ^ • ^ to reckon. This form is rare in sound but common in weak verbs; as, <^jl cl.J^(j to inherit. j^V. 1J3 ^o ^^ near. Some verbs have different forms, and may take any one of the three vowels on the middle radical of the preterite with a corresponding difference of meaning ; e.g. To be sad. j^5^ To sadden, depress. jA£- To cultivate, build, people. j^ To live to old age. jA£- To be cultivated. ■^J ■^J To raise. To have a high (loud) voice. THE NOUN OF ACTION. (27). The noun of action corresponds in many respects to our infinitive. In simple verbs it is irregular in its formation, but the following arc the most usual measures : 32 AEABIC GRAMMAE. 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Classes. Transitive J-xi ; Neuter Jy«i MEASURES. EXAMPLES. Transitive 3ii 9 9^^ 5 or ^ ^ ^ 9 9'^^ So ^ To assist Neuter SxJ 9 9'^y- To sit Transitive JiS 9 o. so. y ^ ^ C-.^ 9 O^ S ox To strike Neuter S, 9'. L/*^ u4% S P . To sit Transitive JAi JxJ "t " - < V - 4^ To cut Neuter Ilj^ ^ -^ •' t-^ ;> ^ o ^ To be humble 4#A Class. Transitive Jjo ; Neuter Qxi. Transitive Neuter >* ^ P XO' ^,0'. -^ ^ 9 ^^ '^ SOx J*^ J^. J^ ff r^- r^ ;> xy X 4it To understand To rejoice bill Class. Sy y y S ■' 9 9 S y Neuter allUi iLlyti or Jjti Neuter >> PO X sy y^ To be charming Neuter ^J^jti civ- /> P o - '^yr^ To be easy Neuter :>« ^ (»^M h To be grand DERIVED CONJUGATIONS. (28). The meaning of the simple verb may be extended or modified in various ways by the addition of one or more letters to the root. There are in all fourteen of these derived conjuga- tions, which may be divided into four groups, namely : SIGNIFICATION OF THE DERIVED FOEilS. 33 1. Adding one letter to the root, which in transitive verbs strengthens or intensifies the action/ and in neuter verbs imparts a transitive sense. 2. Prefixing clj to imply "consequence" or "effect." 3. Adding two or more letters to the root to modify the original meaning. 4. Distorting the original form of the root as well as adding letters to it. This implies a corresponding distortion of the meaning, and indicates either colour, defect, or intensity. The simple triliteral verb is considered as the first conjugation, and the fourteen derived forms are numbered 2, 3, and so on, up to 15. In the following account of the signification of the derived forms these numbers are placed against the measures, but they are described in a somewhat different order. SIGN"IFICATIOIT OF THE DEEIYED FORMS. FIRST GROUP (adding ONE LETTER TO THE ROOT). 4:th Conjugation^ J^sT. (20). The prefix of hemzet cl Jcatd to the root gives a transitive sense to neuter verbs, and a doubly transitive or causal sense to those which are already transitive. 1 It is a commonly received theory of the Arab grammarians that a " redundancy of form generally indicates an extension of meaning," ^ y y y -i, y O-^ yy-^y -it's- ' y ^ y "-V ^-^ y y See Es-Sheikh Hasan el-Burini in his commentary upon Ibn el-Faridh's verse : \^yy^y y i^ 's. t^'Ci-^ yy y ju^ f^ y y (^ y '^ y c -o 9 -i-^ y y ^> ^f:\ ^^\ ->'i3 A_^... ^..,i liL-^-i^ ^.)\ c^oU 34 ARABIC GRAMMAR. The following are the most usual significations : Transitive or causal ; as 3p1 "lie caused to descend," from 3JJ '4o descend;" CJ^\ "he caused to strike," irom L-jja. Going to, or making for, a place : jy^t " he went to 'Trak." This will explain such forms as 3?*^ "^le ad- vanced;" ^jt "he retreated." Exposing or displaying: ^Ol "he exposed for sale," from ?l? "to sell." Turning into ; as J^jV\ Lp/i\ " The land became desert." Being or becoming at a certain time; as ^^\J\ "he was in the morning ; " ^^^\ " he was in the evening." A transitive verb occasionally becomes intransitive in this form; as C^\ "he fell prone," from Z<> "he throw him on his face." Ind Conjugation^ Jxi. Doubling the middle consonant intensifies the meaning of the root, and makes it, if neuter, transitive. Its most usual significations are : Transitive; as ^^ji "he sent forward," from ^li "to be in front." Intensive or frequentative; asjll "he broke to pieces," fromjli" "he broke;" ^\ c^-rki "I cut the rope in pieces," from ^ "he cut." Attributing to, regarding as, or making out to be ; as jlS "he looked upon him as, or proved him, truthful;" ^ -jj >• L_?j^ "he regarded him as, or proved him a liar." THE DERIVED CONJUGATIONS. 35 This form is used in deriving a verb from a noun ; as j,!i- ''he pitched his tents," from I^IL " a tent ;" j1^ "to skin," from jIp- "a skin." This use is '^almost identical with that of the English verb formed from a noun ; as to water, to sldu, to peel, etc. ord Co7ijugaiion, ^}s.\i. The insertion of alif between the first and second radicals gives an idea of reciprocity to the action ; as Jj'Ij ''he fought," from ^iL- ''he killed ;" 4;jli "he fought with blows," from CJj^ "he struck." The notion of a second party who reciprocates the action is always implied. It sometimes implies repetition ; as t-jLtU ' he doubled, but is sometimes used to express simple action; asyL, "he travelled." The form jll: would mean "he Avi-ote a book," or "he disclosed." When the original verb requires a preposition to make it transitive, the 3rd conjugation may be used in the same sense without the preposition ; as ^ CJ^ " he wrote to him;" Z:l^ "he addressed him by letter." SECOND GROUP (ADDING TWO LETTERS). ^th Conjugation, jkaj. This, by the prefix of cls, expresses the consequonco of the 2nd conjugation 3-^ ; as ^ys "he brought forward;" j»lft5 "he was so brought forward." From this sense comes that of experiencing or ac- quiring; as LlJiV^ "he was afraid," i.e. he was affected 36 ARABIC GRAMMAR. with the fear with which others inspired him," from cl-^ "to inspire with fear;" ^(i "he grew proud," from ^ 2ud conjugation from ^I;^ "pride." When the original root is a concrete noun, this form will imply simply adopting or employing; as sly "he reclined his head on a pillow," from Z^ 2nd conjugation (from fjll) "a pillow." ^th Conjugation^ J^ul-. This is formed by prefixing to the 3rd conjugation JIlS cu) , implying consequence, with the same results as in the 6th conjugation; thus 3j"'«^" "li® ^^^^^ one of the parties engaged in a fight between two," from jili 3rd conjuga- tion of (3^ . This prefix of cls to forms which signify reciprocal action, necessarily limits the idea of reciprocity to one of the two parties concerned. Thus, if it be said of any one, JjU* "he fought," or SzIj "he removed to a distance," the other party to such reciprocal action will become ^Cj "removed to a distance," and Jj'115 "fought against;" it follows, therefore, that the former will have an active sense, while the latter will be passive ; but passive only inasmuch as it is consequent on the other. The sense of feigning is sometimes contained in this form; as J=Jl^' "to feign illness." It appears to come somewhat in the following manner : A hypothetical form ^^j^ must have existed, which in such a word as this, from Ji.-» "to be ill," can only mean that his illness was merely for the sake of affecting a second party, and this, again, could THE DERIVED COXJUGATIOXS. 37 only mean that he displayed it to deceive another, and the prefix i± limiting the consequence of such action to himself, j^^sjUJ will mean that he was one who was afflicted with illness in order to produce an effect upon another, i.e. he assumed illness. ^itli Conjugation^ jilsU This conjugation expresses tlio state or condition re- sulting from the action of the simple triliteral verb J(xi ; as a.^^ "I cut it;'" ^'i^\ "it was cut." It is necessarily neuter or passive in signification. 8//^ Conjugation^ Jj;jt-^i\. This does not differ materially from the 7th conjugation, the only difference being that while the last indicates the state or condition resulting from, or exhibits the effects of the action of the simple triliteral verb, the 8th conju- gation conveys the notion of being affected by the action ; as 'icjf^ ''I collected it;" L^^\ "it was feathered to- cether, or was in a collected state." From this idea of "being in a state of" the form obtains a reflexive meaning; asj-^j^ "ho made bread for himself;" lI-1^^ "he took to a trade, or to gaining profit." In this way it approaches sometimes in meaning to Joe and J^ll^ ; thus we can say cIjI^ or tl?!^^] " he drew;" \J%^\^ or \J*.^^:^\ "tliey disputed.' ?> 9th Conjugation, ^^M . • The form of noun used to express a colour or quality is, as we shall presently sec, J.«l; the 9th conjugation 38 ARABIC GRAMMAR. appears to "be formed from this by doubling tlie last con- sonant to imply action, and thus making it into a verb. The licmzet el katd, being a characteristic letter in the formation of derived conjugations (see 4th conj.), is here chansred to the hcmzet el wasl. This form is used to express any quality which is very conspicuous, especially colour or distortion; as, y^^\ "to be red," fromj^! "red;" iljlL\ "to be hump-backed," from (Ij^y "a hunch-back." THIRD GROUP (aDDING THREE LETTERs). 10 th Conjugation, Jjtk-jU This conjugation implies asking or seeking, asyxu-^ "he asked pardon." Finding or considering a thing to be possessed of the attribute implied in the original verb, as lii^^j, " to con- sider grand or mighty." From the sense of "desiring" comes that of "desiring to be," ^jX^\ "he was proud," "desh-ed to be thought great," and hence becoming or turning into, as ^^y^^-^M "The clay began to turn into stone," or "petrify," i.e. to become stone-hard. 11//^ Conjugation, jl*.j^^. This is of very rare occurrence, and is merely an ex- tension of the 9th conjugation ^^M^ both in form and signification ; e.g. ^ll^^ " to be very yellow." The inser- tion of the \ may, as in the 3rd conjugation, convey some THE TENSES OF THE DEEIVED CONJUGATIONS. 39 idea of reciprocity, and jll^J^ may therefore mean to be of a brighter yellow colour than other things of the kind. 12th Conjugation, J^^^U 13//^ Conjugation, Jj-^j^. These imply great intensity, as ^T^lji^^ "to be very rough and rugged," from ^A^ "to be rough." The grammars give two other forms — 14th Conjuga- tion jjil^l , and 1 5th , ^^^\ ; but these are very rare, and may be regarded as varieties of the quadriliteral verb, of which I shall speak further on. ITo verb is susceptible of all these forms ; those in use will depend upon the nature of the original verb, and it must be left to practice and the common sense of the stu- dent to distinguish which may or may not be employed. THE TENSES OF DEEIVED FORMS. (1) THE PEEXEEITE. (30). The 3rd person singular masculine of the preterite has been already discussed in the last section. The re- maining numbers and persons are formed as in the simple triliteral verb; as jli, cJlis, ulAii, etc. (2) THE AOBIST. The aorists of derived forms arc pointed according to the following rules : The vowel of the final radical is a termination of in- flection, and is affected by particles or other governing words ; it is therefore independent of, and accidental to, the measure, like the case-endings of a noun. 40 AEABIC GRAMMAR. In derived verbs consisting of four letters the prefixes take dhammah — and the last radical but one is pointed with kesrah —, thus : 4. Preterite. Aorist. Jxi) [for Jxib], J^J', etc.* 2. >>-^P ^^9 J>^, t)^'> etc. 3. 9 ^9 9 --P Jili), J^U^', etc. Those derived verbs which prefix oj do not, in form- ing the aorist, change the vowels of the preterite ; the last vowel is accidental and variable, as has just been remarked : 5. Jjtij l)*^^.* (J-«^'> etc. y y' yy 9 -' y 9 ^ ^-'^ 6. Jxlii* Jxli:;j, Jj:li:J, etc. Those prefixing \ hemzet el ivad in the preterite sup- press this letter in the aorist, and do not change the vowels until the last radical but one, which they point with kesrah; as 8. J[x-^\ ;> •o^ J*"-^.* y ^o^ J*:^', etc 7, ^\ etc 10. 4>i:x-:[ etc 13. ^^\ 9 -y<~>y etc 12. J^_^^i^ 9 Cy'Ox etc Those which have /^m^e^ e? w«5^ prefixed, and which 1 S«!?ns«< e/ /;«<« is dropped in the aorist of the 4th conjugation. 2 The numhcrs and persons being the same as in the simple verb. ^^ ^ ^ p-a '^- 3 This pronominal prefix CJ is sometimes omitted, and we write Joj for J^jj . THE TENSES OF THE DERIVED COXJUGATIONS. 41 have also the fiual radical doubled in the preterite, sup- press the hemzeli^ but do not otherwise change the vowels until the last ; as Preterite. Aorist. 11. JUi^jSUip jUij[J_,l^;], JUi)-,etc. (3) THE IMPERATIVE. The imperative of the derived forms is formed like that of the simple verb, namely, from the aorist, by re- moving the pronominal prefix, and apocopating the final vowel; as 3. Jjli "he fought," ^all; "thou fightest," ^^ijli "fight thou." As in the simple verb, too, a hcmzet el wasl is prefixed, if it he necc^mry to the prommciation ; as Imperativo formed Imperative -nith 'reterite. Aorist. by the rule above hem:rt el wasl given. prefixed. >- ^^^ 9 xO^ o •^ o ^ ^ J*;ij' 'Sy-'^'. J--1 8. This hemzeh is always pointed with kesrali. In the 4th form it is a liemzet el katd which is lost in the aorist; this must therefore be restored in the im- perative. In the forms ending with a doubled radical the as- similation of two letters is resolved, the first taking Jcesrah and the second no vowel ; as [j'^^i] [J!.-^^"] [J!.^] J!.^^\ * 42 ARABIC GEAMMAE. THE NOUN OF ACTION. (31). The Nouns of Action of the derived conjugations are regular in their formation ; — they may be ranged in gi'oups, thus : Preterite. Noun of Action. 2. J-*ij" or d\xsij 3. y ^ ^ S ^ S yy -' 9 JUi or 'dSs^A^ 5. 6. \ S 9 yy 4 And all the forms which in the preterite hegin tvith hemzeh, \ form their !Noun of Action by inserting a long alif he/ore the last radical; as 4. Jjol, ^I^jU In the longer forms the consonant next following the hemzeh also takes kesrah as its vowel; as 10. J*A-i~;]^, j'^x^J^. N.B. — The suppression of a doubled letter or letter of prolongation in the verbal noun is always compensated for by adding a 'i after the final radical. TABLE OF THE DERIVED CONJUGATIONS. 43 (32). TABLES OF THE DEPJ^^ED CONJUGATIONS. ACTIVE. FERST GKOXTP. One letter added to the root. 2. Doubled radical, express- ing action or intensity 4. Prefixed alij, expressing ) action j 3. Inserted alif, expressing * reciprocity or emulation j Aor.act. J^....i^j pass. Jj...,£, Preterite, i Aorist. i Imperative. Noun of Action. 9 c c 9 ^C o >-» ^ s ex s -^ ox )^i J^^* or iUjtiJ J>*il .Uli I JUi or LL:li.-« L/^ SECOND GEOUP. L " "i prefixed to root, implying consequence. 5. Consequence of 2. 6. Consequence of 3. Aor. act. , U £•_; 1 • pass. , U c- ^ -Si ^y 9 -Jj z'^'' J^li:^ .bcJ s 9 ^^ THIRD GROUP. Two or more letters added, modify- ing the sense of the root. 7. Exhibiting the effect of the action of the root 8. Eoing affected by the action of the root 10. Asking for or regarding as the original idea ex- pressed by the root Aor. act. J^ .... ^_ ; pass. ^....\ (J-XAl—M 9 9 XO^' (J-x-ij 9 O^O ^ \x^J\ 9. 11. FOUKTU GROUP. Colour or defect 3.) Aor. act. Ui...ij Great intensity ■Ci ^o Aor. act. -J. '- < — ; o -'o J'^l u ARABIC GRAMMAR. PASSIVE. Preterite. Aorist. Preterite. Aorist. ^^9 9^y9 -' yci ^^^OC 2 J-i J-^'l 7 S'^\ J'**^. ^ oj 9 ^^9 X yo J 9 yy^? 4 ^^\ iM*. 8 J5^^ JjcJo, y 9 9 y yf »' ocoi 9 y^y >~> 9 3 Jf^^ JrU 10 J.!:;.^ J-xsc^l y^ 9 9 9 5" xo o y ^9 y ^ 9 9 9y^y y9 iyy<^9 9 y<^y<^9 * Verbs with a neuter signification cannot, of course, have a passive voice. QUADRILITERAL VERBS. 45 Examples of qiiadriliteral verbs,— -"Jr^j ^'he rolled (it) ;" Jxll'l " to creep with terror (the skin) ;" ^^^\ " it (a crowd) thronged." Preterite. Aorist. Imperative. Noun of Action. ^ ^^ o •- ^ o xy O O X i7xxOx S^XO 1 ^J^^ C.-^. ^^■^ ci.;5-y>-J and ^t .r>-t) • -'Ox-' • XO ••• O X O XX iT C o XX 2 ir.-^^- E.->^- ^^'^^ ■CJ-' -^ t^ i -' Ox O O X o 5 xO C. 3 -> * ^t;AJb j^-*-H -- X O/ o ^ Ox O X O O X O S- ^ o o 4 r=^>-l ff-'^ rfi'-l r^^^-l A common form of quadriliteral verb is obtained from doubled triliterals (that is, where the second and third radicals are alike) by repeating the first and second radicals; as from JJ "to slip," Jjjj "to cause the earth to quake." Other quadriliterals formed from triliterals are the following : 1 2 MEASURE, x-.-ox JUJ EXAMPLE X xO X Triliteral verb to •which it is referred. 3 4 5 x.xox C-^:?" to give one a t_-»Llj»" ^ to wear xxOx ■?. xxOx J-tf_jj^ to stuff the crop ikl^yf- (said of a bird) .1^ ^XO X i^JfcJ to overthrow XX •■J* -^ ^io-j to practise veterinary surgery i^j •". X o -- ^'•a:^^ to make one cleave to the stones (or, as we should say, the dust) J-^:^ J:.xi ^^ Jj to wear the high cap called i t^i i/*^ --ox xOx ^^^ i^lxs i5^'--' to throw prostrate • ^^Lo * Vulgarly called jelabvjeh, a sort of loose flanuel shirt. 6 7 46 ARABIC GRAMMAR. In the formation of tenses, persons, derivative conju-' gations, etc., these conform exactly with the ordinary- forms of quadriliteral verbs given above. NOUNS DERIVED FROM VERBS. (34). Certain nouns derived from verbs may be con- sidered as particular forms of the latter; they therefore range themselves naturally under the same head. The principal forms are the following : (1) IfOUIf OF UNITY. The "Noun of Unity from triliteral verbs is of the measure A-bJ; as CJjJ "he struck," 1j^.j> "one blow." From all derived conjugations, or quadriliterals, it is formed by simply adding '^ to the lN"oun of Action ; as j%j^ "departing" (7th conj. from ^_^)j ijlllk)! "one de- parture." (2) NOTJN OF SPECIES. The Noun of Species is of the form ii^ from triliteral verbs; as ^ij "he rode," 12^ "mode or style of riding;" and from all other verbs it is formed in the same manner as the iNToun of Unity ; as j%;1 " departing," aj^^ "mode or style of departure." (3) AGENT. The Agent is formed as follows :— From simple tri- literals it is of the measure 1,1c li; as CJJh "he struck," cl^U "a striker;" from verbs of more than three letters it is formed by changing the first letter \ of the aorist NOUNS DERIVED FROM VERBS. 47 into U mim pointed with dhammah, and pointing the penultimate with Icesrali ; as ■' ^ Ij ^ P ly ^ 9 S '-' '' 9 ^,s».L> ^,r>-_vj to roll, ^ j>--V< a roller. *^1 /♦^.O to be generous, fV^* °°^ ^^"^ ^^^^ generously. , ^ia^il — Jsx^i to deduce, ^ .isa^w^ one who deduces. (4) PASSIVE PAETICIPLE. From the simple triliteral verb this is alwaj^s of the measure Qf-s-*\ as ^^j^-* ''beaten." From all others it is formed by changing the initial letter of the aorist passive into ^ mim pointed with dhammah ; as— Preterite. Aorist. Passive Participle. ^ 9 5- 9 1^ y *^y <__>. ,^^ beaten. • >> 9 ■^ <^ ^ 9 5 • o ^ >> ^r' tr^-^J ^^:;^J^ rolled. ^ o-}. P^t^P s-^o c f^' (h /»...C^ honoured y o '-oi 9 y- '^ -^ O 9 •?^ O ^ O )P ^^\ ^ykriAM^ deduced. (5) NOTJNS OF ACTION FORMED •WITH MlM. Besides the simple Noun of Action already described (31), a verbal noun almost equivalent to it in meaning is formed by changing the initial letter of the aorist \ ya into ^ mm pointed yfiih. fethaJi in the simple triliteral verbs, and with dhammah in the quadriliterals and aug- mented forms, the penultimate being pointed with fethah in every case, as : Simple triliteral verbs, 'JkjS*. "^ '"' . s y '^ y- c_^ to strike, ^-^-J.« striking. j^j to assist, J-J2U,* assisting. 48 ARABIC GRAMMAR. "Verbs of more tliau three letters, wlietlier derived or . S ■ 9 otherwise, J^ . . . , ^ . A,p\ to honour, (V^ honouring. J.j'li to fight, Jjlii'« fighting. — .^J\ to deduce, _,isa*«.« deducing. In verbs commencing with j waiv and pointed with kesrah on the middle radical of the aorist, the wdw^ as we shall presently see, is apocopated in the aorist : in form- ing this noun, however, it must be restored, and the penultimate, contrary to the general rule, then retains the Jcesrah ; as Preterite. Aorist. Verbal Noun in mim. iXzj to promise, ^s.y» promising. 'JLij^ to inherit. Oi«^ inheriting. The hcsrah is sometimes, though rarely, retained in other verbs besides those beginning with weak ^ ; as Preterite- Aorist. Verbal Noun in num. ^S^j to return, "^frj, ir^J^ returning. jLj to go or become, rr^V. jt9^ going. ^U- to come, * eTsT *, ,-sr* coming. (6) THE NOUN OF TIME AND PLACE. This is formed in precisely the same manner as the Noun of Action in mhn; namely Ijtl^ from triliterals; as 3^ "a pl^ce of slaughter," from Ju.jj "tokiU." Jx.....i^ from verbs of four letters and upwards ; as ^jS^Sy* a place of rolling," from ^>-3 "to roll;" ^Jj-^'-* "a place or (ime of pur- KOUXS DERIVED FRO:i VEEBS. 49 chase," from '^SJ^\ "to buy;" j^'.^« "a place or station," from fSi\ " to remain stationary." As in the verbal noim formed with mm, the tvatv is restored and the Icesrah retained in verbs of the form Preterite. Aorist «kc» cV"tJ as iju:.^ a place in which a promise is performed. In all verbs commencing with » , even when the second radical of the aorist is not kcsrah, the second radical of the Koun of Time and Place is pointed with that vowel ; as . . . Noun of Time Preterite. Aonst. ^^^^j ^j^^^.^ • ^ / > ^ ^ «_Jj to put down. X:*^-' t^>"* ^ P^^^^' All verbs having licsrali iii the aorict retain that vowel in the noun of this form ; as „ ., , ■ 1 NounofTiri3 Preterite. Aonst. ^^^^ p,.^(.g^ / O '^ SOX I j^ ; T^^ K .-.<,;>, a time or place of striking. ^^j • > •• • V The penultimate sometimes, but rarely, takes kesrahj even when the last-mentioned rules do not apply ; as Preterite, Aorist. Koun of Time anil Place. /- ^ ^ f 9 1^ '' S ^ y «_li5 to rise, ^'^i t4-^'* ^ ^'"'"^ *^^ P-^^^^ "^ rising (of a star or constellation). 9 ft^^ jjh. to set, '-r'^-^K f-r^y^* a. time or place of setting (of the sun), i.e. the "West. y po X /VJj to risCj ^JJ^, (Jj^-* a ^^'^^ ^^ V^^^^ ^^ rising (of the eiin), i.e. the East. iXs-' to adore, a^-^. J^jsT'* a mosque. cLCJ to perform the (JXuu:.j CS^'-^ a time or place of sacrifice, or rites of the Ilajj, of performing the rites of •♦he Hojj. 4 60 AllABIC GEAMMAE. ,;5>- to slaughter, i^^sT ^L /- ^ ^ p f <^ ^ kiL; to fall, ^^^^^. iji to part (the hair), (Jj^, ^ ^ / to breathe through the nose j^i j'j^'* a time or place of slaughter. S ox 1^***^ a dwelling. L::-^i^ a place where a plant grows. , ^ -^ a place where one leans with the elbow. l^JLu*.^ a place in which one falls. fj Si^ the parting of the hair. j=^ the nostril. (7) NOTTN OP INSTEUMEIfT. "When a primitive noim it is of course irregular; as X.aj "an adze," ^L^ ''a knife." When derived from verbs, the most common forms are : EXAMPLE. i^j^ a file. iJiJtS^ MEASURE. JUX^ ^l:iL« a key. • fusuallv in words with \ s s a weak final radical, M'^ (^o'^'St^"^) a strainer. but sometimes in sound ( ^(^^ ^^ ^^^^,03^^^ I x- verbs), y Eare forms are : S ?l~ 9 S 9 (^ f JffO^ _ XicC ^ ijxkyt as kxw-^ a snuff-box, (J:sa,« a sieve, ^'^X^ a pestle, anything 9 ^ f used to pound with ; ^^X« an instrument for oiling or varnishing, also an oil-jar. ^ 9 1^ 9 ^pyc -; J,llU "thirsty," from ,>ki ; 3-fli "accomplished," from ^\Ji. It is seldom formed from any but neuter verbs of the measures J^*, as ^\^i^ and J^, as ^J^. From all beside 'd;!^ simple triliteral verb it is identical in form with the Agent ; as 3^-^* "equable, moderate," from Ja^I. (9) NOUN OF COLOUR OR DEFECT. This is properly ranked with the Noun of Quality, and is regular in its formation on the measure J,-e! ; ^"^ j\J\ "brown," '^^\ "squinting," JS^^\ "having a slender waist." It will be observed that the 9th conjugation of the derived forms is nothing more than this noun with its final radical doubled to give it action, and, in fact, trans- form it into a verb. (10) NOUN OF SUPEEIOEITT (oR COMPARATIVE). Jxil as t\JJi\ more accomplished, *i-ii more learned. This form serves for both comparative and superla- tive; as OjJ ^^^ j-^^ Greater than Zeid. JA i^\ God is Greatest. 52 ARKBIC GEAMMAR. If indefinite it is comparative and if definite superla- tive. When its nse is impossible, the word 11a "stronger" is employed instead, followed by the adverbial accusative of the noun; as i" ./♦.=- ^\ Stronger as to redness, because the form^^t, signifies the presence of colour without reference to its degree, and has not, therefore, a comparative or superlative force. It follows from this that the Koun of Superiority, when formed from simple triliterals, is always of the fii'st-men- tioned measure Jjtst. From all other verbs it is made by the addition of the word Jv^^ "more" or "stronger;" as L*U::j\ jJ^\ more or most vengeful. -■b^ (11) TnE NOTJIT OF EXCESS OS INTENSIVE AGEXT. The most common forms of this noun are : Jbu as j\^ a great helper. ■^1 - . -^ - J,^^ ,, <_»:'. «J^ a vey tnithfiil person. ij'^j^'* ,, (.t-iwu*^ a poor or wretched person. JbtL« ,, jL.iw^ a very lazy person. Jjxj „ u^j ^'^ apostle, one entrusted with an important mission. Q^^ a very ignorant man. J^ „ 1^../* ill> sick. \j a reciter. Other but rarer forms of the I^oun of Excess are : •TCP S o^ ' J^ as ^-xz very heedless. > 3T D^i i> )> 1 (See p. 32.) < 3 >> J-A J> f} 3^'l »> »» 1 4 <■ •c.- J-"^^. > )} J^H j> :^ 5 M » ft J"i » >> 6 j» J> » l:-l DERIVED ^ -^ -^ CONJUGATIONS. 1st Geoitp. ' 2 ', u^"-'^:'. :u.j (One letter added.) * 3 Jlli » :>^J » >> . 4 :l;s >> J„.4 )y 3'-l 2m> Geotjp. \' :^.:' >> :c..i3- :i= {lU prefixed.) (g Jill;- >> j> 7> M >j 3ed Geotjp. ^ 7 Oi^l :^....5 j> >> :'^ I Su....i (Two or more let- < tors added.) I' ^10 >> >> >> >> >> >> > > j5- 9 .>5! >> >' ji,....i 4'rR Geotjp. CColour or Defect.) 11 S'-l >> )> 7) » 12 ^ 'I' 6^—^.. >; >> J ...A 0' .13 )) >> >> >> >> (] OF FOEMS DERIVED FEOM YEIIBS. mil of 'ii.tv. Noun of bpc-cies. ;> »» » .ddins^ a to the liouii of Action. ?j » Agent. Patient. 5,li )> )) Noun of Action in mi in. Noun of Time or Place. Noun of Instrument, or Intransitive Agent. Superioritv Noun of (Com Quality. s ^ ^ ^ bti^ S" -^ O y' J,li >^ 151 Noun of j I uperiority | I omparativt' Intensive I and Auent. and Superlative). Ic . . .^ Lc...,« Jx...,-# Wanting: Jx...^« "Wanting '^i^ VJ^ !.^'i l.^] 58 ARABIC GEAMMAE. lEREGULAE VERES. (36). Irregular verbs are those of which the second ana third radicals are alike, or which contain one of the weak letters ^ , ^ or ^^ . They are of five kinds : I. Doubled^ in which the second and third radical are alike, and in the inflections of which an assimilation of the two last letters takes place for the sake of euphony ; as jk^ lor jju«. II. TIemmted, in which one of the three radicals is a hemzeh\ as 1^1 "he took," jll "he asked," 1^' "he read." III. Assimilated, in which the first radical is either j or ^^; as j^j "he promised," JuJ "it was dry." [As the occurrence of either of these weak letters in the place of the fiist radical affects the forms of the verb but slightly, the inflection is assimilated to that of the sound verbs, whence the name]. 1 Y. Hollotv, which have one of the weak letters ^ or ^^ for the medial letter; as J 'J (for Jy) "he said," ^l? (for ;_:^') "he sold." Y. Defective, of which the final radical is a weak letter ; as Sjk (for jjl) " he made a raid," ^^VJ (for ^j) "he threw," ^^j (for ^J). Combinations of these may of course occur, and a verb may have all the three radicals weak; as J^ "he repaired to," "he had recourse to." It will be noticed that the weak consonants or semi- vowels are \ licmzeli (not alif)^ ^ ivmv, and ^ ya : alif is not regarded as a consonant at all, but only as a prop for hemzcli or as a letter of prolongation. THE DOUBLED YEEB. 59 (37). PARADIGMS OF IRREGULAR VERBS. I. DOUBLED VERBS. j^ "to extend," y "to flee," ^^ "to bite." PASSIVE. Imperative. ACTIVE. Aorist. Preterite. Aorist. 1 Passive. i ^p •Si <" •5 >• *<--' •Si ^ • • uV* ^'* Jv/tJ JL^ 1 ir' «j ■5 . i.^ •Sif ^. y ^ ^•^. y 2 4 -^ « c ■55 ^ i^' ■Si ^ L.^. (^■^ ^ u^"V. 1./=^ 3 In the preterite and aorist the only change is the eu- phonic assimilation, as j^^ for jI^ , and S^ for ja^j ; as this throws back the vowel of the second radical in the aorist, the hemzet el-iuasl is no longer required in the imperative. See (11) and (25). DERIVED CONJUGATIONS OF THE DOUBLED VERB. PASSIVE. ACTIVE. Verbal Noun. Imperative. 4th Aorist. Preterite. Aorist. Preterite. Ci 5 1 ^11 UrJJuvW * f J^^ 5- o^ jjL^ 9^ ^9 ^ ^ ^ 2nd ■?.t»> 1 ^ <* Srd P gj ^ ^^ 5tli JJUJ' 6th •Si ("c-j ■si --0, wV»Jl - Vth 8th Oljjial:^ ■i ^ -- <^ c •a <'o-f ^ »* 10th 60 ARABIC GRAMirAR. It will be noticed that in the 3rd and 6th the \ (which is the characteristic letter of the conjugation), is in the passive changed by the — (which is the characteristic vowel of the voice), into the corresponding semi-vowel, namely J. The forms 5U, 3U5, etc., as well as 3U (for jjU), in the agent, are exceptions to the rule which pro- hibits a quiescent letter from following a long vowel. There are two reasons which make this exception admis- sible : first, that if the long vowel were shortened it would be impossible to distinguish between such forms as the 3rd conj. active and the passive of the first; and, second, because when the assimilation is resolved, the first letter is found to be only apparentlij quiescent, e.g, jU = jjU, and not jjU/ TEEXEEITE OF THE DOTJBLED VERB. PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. Fcm. Masc. Fem. Masc. • o ^ ^ 1 ^ -' C1.J o -- ^ J A.* 1st „ It will be observed that the assimilated letters are ^ In these paradigms I have omitted examples of the 4th group of derived conjuga- tions, as they are of rare occurrence, and when they are found the weak radical seldom undergoes permutation, 9 O V 2 Two other forms of the 2nd person preterite are admissible, namely: t •• « a^ as L.--.!^ or 1^- ^>A^ as c:,,^-JiJ . The last is constantly used in modem Arabic. N.B. — Where a consonant may be pronounced with any one of two or three vowels, ? c -5 ^ all the vowels are written as in (..li-^J A^ , which may stand for the 1st person or the 2ud person masculine, or the 2nd person feminine of the preterite. It is usual in such cases in MSS. to wite the word Xse,-* "together," in small characters over the whole. TENSES OF THE DOUBLED VERB. CI resolved whenever the second of the two letters would be quiescentj because otherwise it would violate the rule which prohibits two quiescent letters from occiu-ring together. The passive differs from the active only in the vowels. PLURAL. DITAL. SINGULAE. Fern. Masc. Fern. Masc. Fem. Masc. ■a <> 3rd person O 9 2ad „ 9 <~- 1st „ AOBIST OF THE DOUBLED VERB The aorist is also regular, the only changes being the necessary resolution of the assimilated letters in the femi- nines plui-al, as ^^sX:^ where ^J^; would violate the rule above referred to. AOEIST ACTIVE. PLUKAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. •A ^-^ 3rd person. 2nd „ ■i.9'- 1st „ AOEIST PAS SIVE PLTJRAL. ' DUAL. SIXGULAR. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. ^ c ^ o c 3rd person. • O X u -^ ^ -i, ^ 9 2nd „ ^^'i 1st „ G2 ARAEIC GEAM^iIAR. IMPERATIVE OF THE DOUBLED VERB. The same remarks apply to this as to the other tenses. It will be noticedj however, that in the plural fern, the hemzet el-tvasl is restored by the rule (25) given on p. 29. PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. Fern Masc. Common. Fem. Masc. '- o J- o i t * *" ,^>- \^^ ~ ? -if i_>^« A^ 2nd person II. HEMZATED VERBS. 1. Yerbs havino; hemzeli for the first radical. V - \ '' " \ f^'t. " ? n.i: ^A ^^^ 3 \:s^i\ [J^''] [X3I] X^i i^^ 5 These forms, it will be seen, correspond exactly to those of the sound verbs (p. 32). The only change being that when the alif \ which supports the hemzeh is preceded by a vowel, — or — , characteristic of the form, it is changed into the corresponding semivowel, asy^j fory b. ^ This verb is not used in the 1st conjugation, but is given in native grammars as an example of tlie form. YERBS WITH INITIAL HEilZEH. C3 DEEIVKD rORJrS OF VERBS WITH IXITIAL HEMZEH. PASSIVE. ACTIVE. Verbal Noun. Imperative. Aorist. Preteiite. Aorist. Preterite, s ■■ o ~- >'.'i-? X i 'i*^' X ^ J^ A .:;.! j^j ^-'' 4th S O' c-S 9^s-9 ^_:J 9 ~'i.9 ^wi-' > ^V. J> jh ^' 2nd S^^ S 9 O r^ 9 ^ ^f '^ .£ 9 %9 ^ ^ l)\y^ J^ ?'9- )h .JT 3rd s^s^ Ui'i.y ^-^5^^ -' _:t^ 9 CJS^^ -^■CJi^ ^u J^ "1 ^?y ^•W 5th 9 y"^^9 6th S - o O J"-- ^'iOC ^ ii-',' ^ So-' ^'5o ^w. J'-^. ^'-l 7th •» ^ O -' 5. -■ 9 'i 9 ^0^ ^ ^'^ /■.-.A >^'^. 8 th 9 <^^ t^ ^ 10th Here again the only clianges are those undergone by the alif\^ which serves as the j)rop to hemzeJi^ as 3T for JJu, Jjjj for Jb as before. In the 4th and Sth, Jli.;[ and ^[ are for^lj^J andJi^M, where the second of two licmzehs which come together yields and is changed into the ^c, corresponding to the preceding vowel hesrali. So too in the passive of the 4th, j^^ is for JJU . In the verbal noun of the 7th and lOtli the Jiemzch with Icesrah beginning a syllable but not a word, has for its prop a ^^ without dots. See (12) p. 14. In the ^ihjkA is sometimes further con- tracted into io^ , as jcsrl from j.^1. 2. Verbs having hemzeli for the medial radical. — llj *'to be weariedj" jU ''to ask," 1^ "^^ ^^ mean." 64 ARABIC GEAMMAR. PASSIVE. Imperative. ACTIVE. 1 2 3 Aorist. Preterite. Aorist. Preterite. r * A.11 the clianges in tliis and the table of derived forms, depend upon the rule that a hemzcJi beginning a syllable, but not a word, takes as its prop the semivowel homo- geneous to the vowel by which it is surmounted, and if this be ^ the dots are omitted. DERIVED FOKMS OP VEEBS TTITH INITIAL HEMZEH. Verbal Noun. Imperative. PASSIVE. j ACTIVE. 4th Aorist. Preterite. Aorist. Preterite. C'^l ^ o:J 9 ., 5^ o^ O -» / ^ ^ 9 9-^9 2nd o ^ ^ 9 J''^- Grd ^ - 9 » JUuJ 5th 9 __^ ^i> y 9 9 6 th Jll^l o ^ o ^ eel ,11^1 7th J-.-i*u_; 8th c o -^ o p C ^ O ^ ^r£ o • t- 10th 1 The -i- is sometimes dropped in the imperative, in which case the hcmzet el-wasl is no longer needed, (25) p. 30. Thus JLo) becomes J^. TERES WITH FINAL nE:!J:ZEH. 65 3. Yerbs with hemzeh for tlie final radical. — \.i> to congratulate," 1J "to create," Cs^^ ''to rust," 1,3 "to read," j^p- "to be brave." PASSIVE. Imperative. ACTIVE. 1 Aorist. Preterite. Aorist. Preterite. '^ 1? 2 1,;,:: 1js^_ 3 % 9 1^. 4 3--0 <- ly^ 5 All the changes in these, as well as the derived forms, depend upon the rule that the prop for hemzeh may be a weak consonant homogeneous to the preceding vowel. DERIVED FOEMS OF VEEB WITH FINAL HEMZEH. Verbal Koun. Imperative. PASSIVE. ACTIVE. 4th Aorist. Preterite. Aorist. Preterite. 1^. 5 oi r ^So- \^^9 S VtJi' ■f ~^9 V'^ A_) .-J ^.-^ !/^. ^^ ^J^. 2n(i 'b^ 5 <> i ^9 *—_y . .. ^jv Srd u^^ *5-'-' Id^-'i' ■S. ^99 ^ *"-' V"".-: 5th ij^ !ri- !;rV. ^J^ or^.-! ]/- Ija o *',-'^ )jlj 1;%^: ija 6th 7th o ■i -c 8th >• p:^ ^'^ » 10th 66 ARABIC GRAMMAE. The tenses of the hemzated verhs do not differ from those of the sound verb, thus : INITIAL HEMZEH. ^y% ^■^ ^tyi. Preterite Active >' cl:J\, etc. *.- * ^ c i ,, Passive 9 O^ ^J}> etc. Aorist" Active etc. „ Passive MEDIAL HEMZEH. etc. y^'s-^ o '■S-' y C^ y Preterite Active d^ ci^Ls l::JL, etc. -' 9 o • » ^ o y ^7 Passive ^•5 o ^ »5o y ' etc. Aorist _ Active JLj, /50 ? etc. „ Passive FINAL ] JLj, EEMZEH. etc. %^^ o Sx^* • C^^ Preterite Active V c?!^ t:^'l/^» etc. £ 9 ^1-9 ^ ^ . „ Passive y ^4;^, etc. Aorist Active V- etc. J.^OO 5-o«' „ Passive !r^. y'' etc. III. ASSIMILATED VERBS. The changes that take place in these verbs are : (1) when either kesrah or dhammah precedes the weak letter, they change it into the homogeneous weak consonant; N.B. when fethah precedes it, a diphthong is formed; VERBS WITH INITIAL WAW. 67 (2) when the verb is of the measure jA; in the aorist, the J of verbs beginning with that letter is di'opped in that tense. 1. INITIAL J. i;; "to promise," ^y^^^ "to be afraid," ^SJ "to let alone," ^^^ "to inherit," ll;5 "to be beautiful." PASSIVE. Imperative. ACTIVE. 1 2 3 4 6 Aorist. rreterite. Aorist. Preterite. 9^9 9^9 9^9 9 '-OC y 9 y c y 9 ^ 9 o Wanting. O.I Wanting. 9 9i.y y ^ ^ y y 9 y The tenses are declined exactly like the sound verb, e.(/. : Preterite 4Xc^, etc. 9 y tXRj, etc. 9 9 i^y ' , etc. f-y The ^ in most of these verbs is also rejected in forming the verbal noun, but a i; is added by way of compen- sation, as Preterite. Aorist. Noun. y yy 9 y S y ^3 ■SXJ ' 1. y yyy 9y y Sy y e^ 9 ^xoi uVCj^ <^y ■^^1 •^e^. ^.,^ 4th S <^ 1/ w -' 9r:>^9 -' - c 9-^9 x-Ji^ X-cy J^_^ •• '^V. u\j:1^ 3rd si>-^-- o-CJ^-' <> -Si --X)' y ^ 9' y-a^-'^ • ■^^-/■ >S£-y ^^y Ss.^:^ ^£-y '^ri tXry 5th S 9 yy O ^ '-^ 9 ■■ y9 y 99 ^ - ^yy y y yy Sz\^ JkJ:^jJ J " ^y^^ J 6th 5 -- o 9 y ^'^9 -■J 7th S ■"• o -Si S> ^^9 ^ il 9 ~^. 10th THE HOLLOW VERB. G9 lY. THE HOLLOW VERB. [In order to explain the nature of a medial j or ^j, I must make a hypothesis. Let us suppose that the names "hollow" or defective" really mean what they imply ; namely, that the holloio verb has no medial radical consonant, and that the defective verb is actually defective in the final radical ; we may then represent the hiatus by the mark * as we should do in ordinary writing ; and if we refer them to one of the six classes under which the sound verbs are arranged, all difficulty vanishes. Thus Jo, aorist Jyij, is in the dictionaries and grammars said to be a verb with a medial . of the measure J^, aorist J^., i.e. it belongs to class 1; see (26). In this case the Jb stands for Jji and J^^V. ^'°^ Jj-S! ' ^-^^ second is an obviously euphonic change, but the first is not so evidently required, since Jy kawala would be as easy to pronounce as J.-J kabaJa. If, however, we regard it as a really hollow verb, the measure will * i ; then instead of saying that its medial radical is,w » (in which case, having a medial radical, it could not be hollow), let us refer it to the class of sound verbs to which it belongs, namely J-'^ij, (_Ui, and *3, J*^J. Here the tvro fethaJis in J*3 coalesce into i ; and the — dliammah in J * i^. , from its position in the peuultimato, where it naturally receives an accent, retains the long sound which I have already supposed to be inherent to all vowels ; see (5). The forni is then written JyJJ, and the ^ thus ohfained is treated as the radical letter of the root. Similarly c.u, aorist j--^^., with a medial ya (_>, may be written c*j and referred to class 2, ^^^Jti , J^; be- coming ^*J, 9*r^. > that is «u, ^-^„- This is, of course, merely a hypothesis, but it at least suggests the jirinciple of the permutations which take place in the forms of Arabic irregular verbs.] 70 AEABIC GRAMMAE. ci; "to sell," Jli "to say," ujU- "to fear." PASSIVE. Imperative. ACTIVE. 1 2 3 Aorist. Preterite. Aorist. Preterite. P yp &• •• p y '6 ''•1 ' DERIVED EOEMS OF HOLLOW VEEBS. Verbal Noun. s c^ IT ? ^^ S y O Imperative. PASSIVE. Aorist. I-'. p y yp P^yyp ^j >• p ^of Preterite. >> '-OS JUuaaj y ~9P ACTIVE. Aorist. Preterite. p ~. yp 9 ^9 9 y y yy P ^O-" y y ■' r- y '■■■ 4tli 2nd Srd 5th 6th 7th 8th 10th In the noun of action of verbs with a weak medial this radical is elided and I added at the end to make up for it J as from j*b culjil for ^^Jl 5^ ^ o aUlii^l_ „ (♦^jiiinl ^ h The agent of the triliteral is 5^1j ; of all the others it is TEXSES OF THE HOLLOW VERB. 71 made by prefixing U to the aorist, and pointing the last radical but one with kesrah. PEETEEITE OF THE HOLLOW VERB (MEDIAL •"), IIEA9X7EB (J**:'. W** * PLURAl. Fern. Masc. yi^9 9 y y 9 y 2nd „ Jyi3 PASSIVE. 1st „ PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc' Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. yt^^9 y 9 ^} y ^9 y ^9 9 y' 9 y? 3rd person. • O^P y 9 ^9 y yf 2nd „ 9 y? 1st „ 72 AEAEIC GEAMilAR. IMPEEATITE OF THE HOLLOW VEEB (mEDIAL •). PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. Fern. Jlasc. Common, Masc. Fem. X o? 9 9 ■' 9 9 Of ^ . w ¥ jy' J^ PL O^ •^x' PEETEEITE OF THE HOLLOW VEEB (mEDIAL ^), MEASTTEE JvS-i*. JjtJ. ACTIVE. PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR, Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. ^ O 9 ^ 3rd person ■6 9L, 0?0 y 9<^ 9 O • 2nd „ 1st „ PASSIVE. PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc, y L, 9 .'-' ^ o -^ y ^-i ^^ y t^ 3rd person •i,9L, c c y 9(j O r o ^ r*^ y 2nd „ 1st „ AOEIST OF THE HOLLOW VEEB (MEDIAL ,^\ PLURAL. Fem. Masc. y ij y ^ 9 ■' y (^ y y 9 y t^ ACTIVE. DUAL. Fem. Masc. y y y '' y y y y ^ IxAdJ SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. 9 y 9 -^ ?-rrr^ f-^' ^^^ person. t^^^^*:^; t^ «_-.^' 2nd „ i let „ TENSES OF THE HOLLOW VEEB. 73 PASSIVE. PLUKAL. DtTAL. SINGULAR. Fein. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. ^ o^^ ^ 9 yp y ^9 y y 9 9 yP 9 y9 c^. Uv'^^r:! ^l^U ^ULj & tW. 3rd person ^ i^^9 y 9 yp y y9 y y 9 9 ^9 d^ 9 '-f J^^ 9 y^s. & 2nd „ ^ K tW 1st „ IMPERATIVE OP THE HOILOW VEBB (mEBIAL ^_$). PLURAL. Fem. Masc, y o 9 DUAL. Common, SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. o L«^ «-J 2iid person. PitETEEITE OT THE HOLLOW VERB (mEDIAL 1), MEASTJEE J*xi) '^'i . ACTIVE. PLURAL. DUAL. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. '- O ^ 9 y ^y y y y •5i>'o Ci'O y 91^ c;"-^ r^ SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. (j y y y y iU. ^Iri. 3rd person. >> o ^ 2nd „ 1st „ PASSIVE. PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. o ^ y t— 2^*^ 3rd person. •5 J'O o^o y<^ o ^ y 9 ci^iLrL 2nd „ o •^ 1st „ ARABIC GRAMMAR. P.'^^^ y,'^'^ AOEIST OF IHE HOLLOW TEEBS (MEDIAL !), MEISUKE J*A> J*j. PLURAL. Fern, Masc. PLURAL. Fem. Masc. y <^ y 9 y 9 y 9 y <^ y 9 y f ^ 9 9 y f (J DUAL. Fem. Masc. y .^ y y y y liUr ...liUr SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. 9 ■- y 9 y y e; PASSIVE. DUAL. Fem. Masc. y y 9 ^ y 9 ( sLsT' uJls^ 3rd person.' ^ y y 9 y y ^i\=^ «_jUi^* 2nd „ 9 y'i- 1st ^ „ yUl^ SINGULAR. Fem. , Masc. 9 y 9 \y y 9 4_Jlikr' uJl^ 3rd person. 9 9 y 9 c;^ 9 y "% ji\s-\ 1st „ f.y^y y,yy IMPERATIVE OF THE HOLLOW TEEB (mEDIAL 1), MEASTJEE jJ*JJJ ^J^^ PLURAL. Fem. Masc. c;^^ y DUAL. Common. lili. SINGULAR. Fem, Masc. o y ^l^ L-i:i- 2nd person. V. THE DEFECTIVE VERB. The defective verb is that which occasions most trouble to learners; the rules however which govern its per- mutations are very simple, and are all contained in the following table :- CHANGES IN THE TEEMINATION OF THE PEETEEITE. y y » ( In the Preterite of the 1st conj. only ; in all the a. • becomes \ \ . , „ ^ " , 't, ( derived forms j becomes i_f like c. I. c. ^ „ ^y Here the final vowel is dropped and the ^_f is ^ < then silent, ihefethah alone being pronounced. This letter is called short altf. d. iy >' PERMUTATIONS OF THE FINAL SEMI-VOWEL 75 CHANGES IN IHE TEE:!JIXATI0N OP THE AOHIST. 9 e, ( . remains unchanged j ) f^?^\ become cS d'. 4 becomes become g. p I become c5. A. ( i_> remains unchanged i^^) '/"l i. become j- become 9 ^ . 1 h 'l\ become 'J- becomes 9 ^^ f'.s ^ I become ^. Similarly in nouns. ^ i^ ) • »' ~' ^^^ 3 ^^'^ ^ ^°* being required to support ^^ j tenw'in kesrah. f - — ' *? *j „ 5 (but in verbs of the form ^JfJ ( =^j-fj) o^ is more commonly used). From this it follows that the subjunctive mood of tho aorist, which is formed by changing the final — into — , can only be formed from verbs of the form Ja1> or J.^., as ^y^. (by h) jj^^ (by e). m. The final vowel is, as we have seen, dropped in all cases except e and L In order therefore to represent the apocopated forms of the aorist we must drop the zvcalc radical', thus from ^y, the form J.>£) becomes *^^. These rules are all summed up in the following extract 76 ARABIC GRAMMAR. from the Alfhjeh^ an Arabic Grammar, in mnemonic verses, by Ibn Malik. p <5 ^ o >> ^ '- o5 S ^ i-t tt % 9 o _ ^ o 4 S ^ O ^O-^/ o ^ X X «> op O • -Ci fx-xx Any verb of which the last radical is alif or wdw or ya is known as defective. In the (verb with final) alif you must suppose all moods except the apocopated ; in such verbs as ^ J*^, and (C^. J^^ ™^y express the subjunctive mood. In both cases you must suppose the indicative mood ; and to express the apocopated mood you must cut off the final weak radical in all three ; by doing so you will be following a fixed rule." DEFECTIVE VERBS. ^^j "to throw," jjl "to make a raid," ^J "to be satisfied," ^^ "to run,"_^ "to be noble." PASSIVE. Imperative. ACTIVE. 1 Aorist. Preterite. Aorist. Pretei-ite. y 9 ^^ ^r-'l ff ^J. -1 d 9^.y (J Ui 2 f 3 '' O 9 ^ 9 }> y L, y C ^*-i 4 ^C 9 •^ 9 d 9t.^ 5 Tlie letters a, b, e, etc., refer to the rules oa p. 7-1, which explain the permutations. rOKMS AXD TENSES OF THE DEFECTIVE VERB. 77 BERIYED FOEMS OP DEFECTIVE VERBS. Verbal Noun. Imperative. PASSIVE. ACTIVE. 4th Aorist. Preterite. Aorist. Preterite. m o* >' S^ o^ — •* «^? ^ --• ~yf ■s ^ ^ 6j :kj ••> J' " SrJ-'V. " t-^ " ^rv'*'- " v!i^ 2nd J^ ^9 Srd w X/ •a^^ yj ^ ^J' ^ -; ? ■5>x--^ '^ y ^ / J*^' >■ " vS'*^'. " 'rr^"*" / s^>V. „ Oj*J' 5th 9 J^' 6 th 7th . » 8th 10th P, 'o-* y yy PEETEEITE OF THE DEFECTIVE VERB (FINAL _j), MEASURE J^'. jj^i. ACTIVE. PLURAl.. DUAL. Fern. MafC. Fern. Masc. OX' y 9L^ y yL,yy SINGULAR. Fem. Masc O " yy c^:;i a Ui ord person G" >* O-^^ r* ^ '^jj^ 2nd ,, ^ L.^^ Ll- 1st „ 1 The defective verb in the 2nd conjugation always makes its noun of action lSjt£3 instead of /LxaJ which is the most common form in the sound verb, as y "' r- y t^9 S> -'* 9 d^'jf- iL 9 r SINGULAK. Fem. Masc. o ^ p ^ / i.::->^ 5 ^5^ 3rd person, ei^o *^ l::^-' *hC 2n(i *> 9 1st >> » AOBIST OF THE DEFECTIVE VERB (fIKALj). PLURAL. Fem. Masc. 3J" ACTIVE. DUAL. Fem. Masc. u^jj> SINGULAR. Fem. , Masc. f o ^ <> o^ •jij* V. 3rd person. •- c.^ J ^^^ » ij^' 2nd „ 4r' .1st » PLURAL. Fem. Masc. PASSIVE. DUAL. Fem. Masc. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. / t_?)*^ / t-i/V. 3^*^ person. 2nd 1st >> >» MOODS OF THE DEFECTIVE VERB. "When a verb has a consonant for its last radical the moods which are the case-endings of the verb will be the same in the irregular as in the sound verb ; but the occur- rence of a weak letter as the final radical leads to certain modifications which have been already noticed (p. 74). MOODS OF THE DEFECTIVE VERB. 79 BX7BJUNCXIVE MOOD. PLURAL. Fem. Masc. / DUAL. I Fem. I Masc. '4/^ SINGULAR. Fem. Masc; "•■t 3rd person. 2nd iBt » I* APOCOPATED (jussive, ETC.). PLURAL. DUAL- SINGULAR. . Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. <• Po^ 9<^y ^9t^y ^PO^ co^ PO-- L^JjJ^. bj*^' b>. ?« Jxj' mjki^ 3rd person. y co^ >"o^ ^9^^ o^ ft^'- u;>" Uj^- '.>- »>• 2nd „ Po^ 1 i/ij% w '^ I il 1st „ 1st eneegetic. PLURAL. DUAL. smouLAR. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc.

y9t^ •a^?o^ U^^yn. t:,y~. <^lv^' ^bj-v. l;.!;^' Ci'.^/V. 3rd person W ^ <'o^ Ci y'O^ ~ yfc^ ■Si o^ •5 • yo ' u^jjj^' uj^l JiJ^ .^- U^J^' 2ud „ ■yj ^>' o^ gj '■9 1^% Uv!/^ 2nd eneege TIC. i^ 1st „ ' PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. o *'o^ ./ --co^ O -'S'O^ Wanting, ^jk^^ UJIJ^' 3rd person o >'o^ Wanting. o c-^ o ^co^ "Wanting, ^jxj ' «^=" Ui^" 2nd „ c -'<'o^ o ^i'oS u.l.:^ t:;>V^^ 1st „ •S o^ -gj po^ o o^ o <'o^ ^ ^""^ cir^' Ujj-'^"' c;-ir'*^"' UJ'J*-''' ^^*^^ ^°"^^ "*'^^^*^ "^^^^ ^^^' ^' ^^* 80 ARABIC GRAMMAR- IMPEEATIVE OP THE DEFECTIVE VERB (fII^AL j). PLURAL. Fem. Masc. 1st Energetic (^^j}i^ i^j^^ ^ 2iid >r DUAL. Common. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. oi i-o^ ^o^^ wjil 2nclper3. •Si o'J ■{i^i'cS U. O O'' ^ . ^ ' PBETEEITE OP THE DEFECTIVE VERB (fINAL ^_s), MEASURE J^. J-"" • PLUEAL. Fem. Masc. ■Si co^^ c<'o ^^ u-»^ ACTIVE. DUAL. Fem. Masc. bk-i» 1 \^y SmOULAR, Tern. Masc. 2, .. *J ^ l5'*^ ^^^ person. V '-^^^J 2nd „ * ^ •J 1st „ y o-' ^ PASSIVE. PLUEAL. Fem. Masc. -' p 9 ? ■Si <" y o" <> ^ 9 DUAL. Fem. Masc, ■• yj SINGULAR. Fem. Masc; i^ y 9 y ? "^^J \^J 3rd person. 9 y 9 ^^j c:-N-'«^ 2nd „ 9 9 c:-:r^j 1st „ AOEIST OP THE DEFECTIVE VERB (FINAIi ^), PLURAL. Fem. Masc. t/ o-- y 9i^y y vy y 9 (^y ^ See note, p. 79, ACTIVE. DUAL. Fem. Maso. y f^y ' c y iy SINGULAR. Fem. Maso. ^_5^y g ^^c-V. 3rd person. '^-^ 1st >» »» 5 See note, p. 77. MOODS OF THE DEFECTIVE VERB (fINAL ^-). 81 PASSIVE. PLURAL. Fem. Masc. ltV DUAL. Fem. Muse. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. ujV /^_5^. 3rd person. u^v 1st ^. c- MOODS OF THE DEFECTIVE VERB (fINAL ^), MEASURE JjtL J-ti SUBJUNCTIVE. PLURAL. Fem. Masc. L^y DUAL. Fem. Masc. u !/ SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. L5^' LS^- '^^'^ person. L5^y L^y L5^J' 2n(i 1st APOCOPATED. PLURAL, Fem. Masc. ^^y yy -r^ DUAL. Fem. Blase. W'V' SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. C/^ G^ G-' G^ Gt 3rd person. 2nd „ Ist „ 1st ENERGETIC. PLURAL. Fem. Masc. w > Lf^ "Si >'G-^ I. .. ..1 DUAL. Fem. Masc. •» X G'' «. ^ G'' - ^ G^ SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. Ci -^ G-^ ■gi ^ G^ ^^rV c;:^^. 3rd person. cJ^y' cr^^y 2nd „ eJrr'V ^^^ 6 82 ARABIC GRAMMAR. PLTTEAL. rem. Masc. "Wanting. ^J'^Jl * "Wanting. ^j^Ji 2nd energetic DUAL. Wanting. SINGULAR. Fern, Masc. ^■rr^y ^^A 3r(i person. >» '. f'^ ■'.''' IMPEEAXIVE OP THE DEFECTIVE VEKB (fINAL ,^), MEASUEE (J^ij J-*i . PLURAL. Fern. Masc. 1st Energetic i^^^:'^j^ i^J^ ' <.^ ^ 2nd „ er*J DUAL. Common. «. ^ o SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. ^c-^j^ ^ (*jI 2nd person. ', '' t.-' < ^ PEETEEITE OF THE DEFECTIVE VEEB (fINAL j), MEASUEE J^A;*. cJ^' ACTIVE. PLURAL. Fem. Masc. ^ ^ WVA^ !; PLURAL. Fem. Masc. ■i, 9 9 <^ 9 9 UtM^ ?J DUAL. Fem. Masc. C-»*5 1 Uk*s 1 L*::-.*? • PASSIVE. DUAL. Fem. Masc. yy 9 \^»a >««£' I y 9 ''9 9 Xa^^s 'J 1 See note, p. 79. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. o -^ ^ y y "-■"^J ^ L^J ^^^ person. JL^^j ^^:^j 2nd „ 9 " u:^*^ 1st >} SINGULAR. Fem, Masc. 9 1^ 9 y 9 ^^■"^J L let >> MOODS OF THE DEFECTIVE VEEB (FINAL j). 83 AOEIST OF THE DEFECTIVE VEEB (fINAL ,), MEASURE JjtO l/*^ • PLURAL. Fem. Masc. •^ t/ ^ Ox X o -^ ox XOX PLrRAL. Fem. Masc. X Ox O^ O X o^ ACTIVE. DUAL. Fem. Masc. X X ox X X O X X ^ox PASSIVE. DUAL. Fem. Masc. xxo? xxo^ t^-/ PLURAL. Fem. Masc. XOX ox o X ox u«i J SINGULAR. * Fem. Masc. xox X Ox ^y /lTV. 3rd person. xOS ^j\ let „ 8INGULAH. Fem. Masc. X 07 X o/* C5*^y /lT^' 3rd person. C xo? xo? ltV" kS^J 2nd „ ,\ Ist ^r » L^j" SUBJUNCTIVE. DUAL. Fem. Masc. XX ox X xox u y W/ SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. xox xox tc-*/ i^ir:*. "^"^^ person. O xox x'OX u5^j^ 1st » APOCOPATED (jussive, ETC.). PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. . Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Maso; X XOX' xox X xox X xox xOX X ox cr^y. v>. L-«ff J ^;J«^ r-i uV' »^u^^. 3rd person. X ox xox X xox 1st eneegei xOx xo' ::ic. 2nd „ 1st „ PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. ~ X xOX Si 9 xox «. X xox - X xox ^ XX ox CJ X xox 3rd person. ~ xo xox •a y xox •S xox 2nd „ •6 X xox •5 xxoS cr^y i:r-i'^ 1st „ 84 ARABIC GEAMMAR. 2nd energetic. PLURAL. Fem. Masc. AVanting. u**^^. Wanting. ^\y^Ji DUAL. Wanting, SINGULAR. Fem. JIasc. ij,-J-; fjir'J, ^^^ person. O ^ -' t/ -' ^ o^ e;trV c;--^^^' 2^^ 1st „ lilPEEATIVE OF THE DEFECTIVE VEKB (fINAL t), MEASURE (J*^; J-^ PLURAL. Fem. Masc. „xoxo -ii P ■^ c 1st Energtic i^---^jj^ i^ri'l o y xo 2nd J, Wanting. ^^^^^^ DUAL. Common. X xO Wanting. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc, ^^js m- i^j^ 3rd person. 0^0 o — o DOUBLY IMPERFECT VERBS. 1. INITIAL^ AND FINAL J OR ^J . (38), \J\ (initial ^ and final cs-, measure JxlJ Jli), " to guard ;" ^=^^ (initial^ and final . , measure jIIj Jxl), " to be sore-footed;" J^^ (initial^, and final o, measure J^l- ^), "to follow close upon," PASSIVE. Imperative. ACTIVE. 1 Aorist. Preterite. Aorist. Preterite. *• ^c^^ y 9 " 9 2 Ji 'J^ J w'^i 'J> 3 These are mere combinations of the defective with the initial J , and follow the rules given for each. Thus — ^j is of the form J^. ^S^\ like 1^^ it rejects its loaw in the aorist, and like ^J it changes is'^ into 05 ^^^ lJ into ^^ t>y/and//. DOIBLT liirERFECT VI RBS. 2. MEDIAL J A>-D FIXAL _j OE, (_>. (_5^ (final tj:, measure jAi ^^Q), "to wrap;" ^^J (final ^, measure Jxi; J-^j)? "^^ ^^ "^^^^^^ irrigated. ?) PASSIVE. i ACTIVE, Imperative. Aorist. Preterite. Aorist. Pretei-ite. ■ ^o y ^ ? o o ^ ^^ ^'h -'> •L-1 > ^ ^r";W. -> 1 ^o? -^ *" y' O ■^'^^ ^ ^ ^/J!/. '^^^ srv.^: 2 In these no cliange takes place in the second radical, which retains its power as a consonant. The final ^ follows the rule of Cs and i= in ^r/, and J^^J . Note. — The Verb ^s- , although in all other cases conforming to the foregoing rules, in the tenth conjugation loses its second radical ; as — Preterite , -^^^^ or , ^'^\ Aorist ^^.^^ or ^. O "C ^ ^ Imperative |^^-]. „ -^-^j. an^l so on. Combinations with \ liemzeh and the other weak letters also occur ; in these cases it is only necessary to apply to each letter the required rule according to the fore- eoinpr tables. Thus J^\. which is of the form Jitl- A^i becomes ^/^ b_ ^^ by c and g for ^X ^^ . Similarly to form the imperative J;j1 wc have J\ by the rule on p. G3 and by m for i_?)^^^. Again, ^\j of the measure J.^i. Jxj becomes e:,-J^ o|^ by c and /for o"^j^ o'^J; the licmzeh is then rejected, and the form becomes ^j^ J\j. Similarly the apocopated form of aorist isjj by m^ and the imperative j or \j by (13). 86 ARABIC GRAMMAE. (39). FORMATION OF VERBAL NOUNS FROM IRREGULAR VERBS. Treterite. Aorist. Verbal Noan. Agent. Passive Participle. Noun of Time and Place. •S '- i ^^ S y li y «» i> O X J^ J^_ 0^ 3U i-^^y^-^ ^^ y t.^ i?c-E s ^ i>l. X J\ jk ^' ^^3U "S^ 9's. o^ S S? ^ X 0 X l:J^ L5^.^ ij^lijii ^j^ Jy:^^ y^ y c ^ SOX jx s y S- ?>^ X S ox SC^ *• ^^ ij^ Jlc^j J^^ JlC^ ^ ^ y 9 O^ S K^y S X t^. t^. e.^. tiV. y y f 9 y «ro/' S X i» C X •r XX Jti uH cV ,1515 Jy^ JliU -^ -^ p ^ 5-ox ■^ — "^ S X iT X t^v-. t^ i4i; tr* tr* ^ -^ ^ ^ iO X 5" -^ S 9 y c-jU. UJ^ ^:u «-J_jS^ • -^ <'i-^ JOx y JC X :?o X 1;^ 4r ;U ij^ j^^'jt-* yy i^y i- Ox y S ox 1^ \^ y ^^ ^J. ^/ ^c'j ^J-* ^rv* y y y c^ # S X o y s 9<-'y s ox ^J c5->. ^'^ (>>o0^^r* y i? O^ 5^ ^ y S ^ -^ J} Li^. Ji ^)^J 4^ V-'^" ■' y ^ o^ ;> x y «r ox •4^ O'^;:'. >/r>' .z'> Ifrx y J? ox y S ox 'J' ^. W^^ vj^r* yy O ^ irx y S -O X ^> ^ $- ir^ ^ ^ y^^ 5 ^ £ 1 J Ox ^^;j ^ ^ij^. ^i ^J >}> ^>r* 1 Iftheve rbal noun I )e of the fonn s will become 1 , as j' \;ifbrf^; • • -u . i«;_«4:. , „5'r_ c, > Ti ifi ^s^ 2 When the noun is of the form ,iij, the case-endings are absorbed by/', p. 75 ; but when it is of the form ^i, these rules no longer apply, and no change therefore takes place, as X-j (for ^^), while '^j is regularly formed. HOLLOW VERBS DECLINED AS STROXG VEEBS. 87 The formation of the remaining nouns is regular, and can present no difficulty; in the form Jxit, from verbs with a medial weak radical, the strong form is used, as jjljt, not jQ . HOLLOAV VERBS DECLINED AS STRONG VERBS. (40). A few verbs with a weak medial radical pointed with Jcesrah are declined like strong verbs. Preterite. Aorist. Agent. 1 s ^ to be one-eyed. y> to be wanting. j.U to squint. X / (A^ S y afflicted with glanders (a camel). »* to be delicate in body. Note. — The tables given for the sound or regular verb will also serve for the conjugation of the weak or irregular verbs; in every case, however, the principles already given for the permutation of letters must be applied. The following is an example of this process, which will be found of the greatest assistance in enabling the student to grasp the principles of Arabic grammar. First find the form required amongst the derived con- jugations (p. 43); next ai:)ply the rules for euphonic change, p. 20 (17). Then if it be a tense, refer to the paradigms of the preterite, aorist, or imperative. If any further change be then required, again apply the rules of permutation. Thus to find the first person aorist of the 3rd conjugation from Vl. to malce a raid or foray.*' We look in the tabic (p. 43 or 56) for the S8 ARABIC GRAMMAE. third conjugation, which we find to be J.^li ; the corresponding form of Ua will obviously be 'jli. Again, the aorist of the third is of the measure J-s jy, which m this case will bejjUj; but j^ by g becomes ^. A further reference to the table of persons in the aorist, p. 27 (23), teaches us to substitute the prefix of the first person \ for the i of the 3rd person, and we get o '^■^' ughdu, the form required The final short vowel -^ of the aorist is variable, depending upon the action of particles, etc., but the . remaining vowels of the forms are constant, and there- fore exert a stronger influence upon a weak letter. By applying these principles, all difiiculties as to the conjugation of verbs containing weak radicals will disappear ; and we shall find that such a thing as a reaUy irregular verb does not exist in the Arabic language. The student is recommended to practise this process until he is completely familiar with all the permutations which can occur in conjugating a weak verb ; the foregoing tables, in which examples of each kind of irregular verb are given, will enable him to correct his exercises, INDECLINABLE VERBS. (41). Indeclinable verbs are those which have only one tense. They are— (1) ^J "he is not," ^li "perhaps," which have only a preterite. (2) The following which are only found in the impera- tive: cyla "give," Jli; "come." These are declined like a regular imperative, thus— SINGULAR. Fern. Mase. PLUEAL. DUAL. Feui. Masc. Common, ^^Ia \i3\i> LjU THE NOUN". 89 Some grammarians include ll^ , which is, however, not properly a verb; it is most frequently found in the expression (Trf II^, literally, "take and di'ag along" = "and so on." THE NOUX. (42). In the category of nouns the Arabs include also pronouns and certain prepositions, adverbs, and inter- jections. Nouns are either primitive or derived. PEIMITI^^ NOUNS. Primitive nouns are those which cannot be referred to any verbal root. The following are the most common forms of primitive nouns. 1. Triliterals. MEASURES. <7 • ^ EXAMPLES, ^ -^ ^ (j.wrJ horse. ffpp 5- ;> c J-i (J:^ neck. 5 S U^. i\.i\ Ccamel. ii^f ^* U^ s ■^ J^ a sort of bird Ui grape. MEASURES. EXAMPLES C- r. ^ Si'-' S ^ f 'i heart, i shoulder. z arm. Ji,i lock. U..=>- load. 2. Quadrilitcrals. MEASURES. EXAMPLES. jjlxj /^^ small stream. Jje fj^^d silk, Jlxj s,^z saffron (in flower). s ^ ^ Ji*i ^jJi a dirhem {Spa-^fxij, a eoiuj. MEASURES. EXAMPLES. ■--« -J crimson kJ-j: stout. ^^ o ,? S ^o / Jjj« c-.?^:^ species of locust. jJsLo i^^'f misfortune. 90 ARABIC GRAMMAR. 3. Quinqneliterals. MEASURES. EXAMPLES. ■Si''-' ff^O^'^ jLti Jj>- i-j quince. Jijti i_,>*i7^ cloud. MEASURES. EXAMPLES. jL«i J^^r JJ stout (a camel) S -'O y «r ^ o ^ JiUi :tijA.sET an old woman. Primitive nouns sueh as "a horse," "a camel," etc., cannot of course be reduced to rule, and must be learnt by practice. NOUNS DERIVED FROM VERBS. (43). I have already treated of the nouns immediately derived from verbs, and corresponding more or less to our participles. There are a great many other forms ex- pressive of specific ideas which may be studied with advantage ; the principal of these are the following. 1. Trades and offices are of the measure Illje ; as S^ -' ds^^ craft, artizanship. iJ^UsT trading. dJ^Uri- tailoring. d^^ \\ agriculture. Ajl:;*i office of secretary, ijljj office of vizier. i?-'0 ? X^J a handful, ij jkJ a trifle. J^'Oi' hJ^ a drink (of water, etc.). 8. Colour in the abstract, by lUi ; as ijAs>' redness. | "^^ yellowness. 9. Small pieces, refuse, by iJUi ; as iL^^y clippings, filings. ^U5 sweepings. Sjj;J filings. I THE GENDERS OF NOUNS. (44). There are only two genders in Arabic, masculine and feminine ; some words, however, have only one form for both, and may therefore be called of the common gender. The neuter does not exist, but its place is most commonly supplied by the feminine. 02 ARABIC GRAMMAR. The following are feminine : 1. Proper names of women, as d^ '^Illnd," 'J\^ Mary," and nouns applicable only to females, as It "a mother," \^6>-\ "a sister," J^l^ "pregnant." 2. Nouns ending in i', as o^U "a striker" (female), unless the sense be opposed to it ; ctaJ^ "Caliph ;" and some proper names of men, as i'Sllc " Obeideh," ^^s^ " Talhah." 3. Nouns ending in o, as ^^_^^ "Sulma" (a proper name), ^Ls>. "most beautiful" (female), ^' " fire," ^X " wine"." 7. The double parts of the body, as jJ "hand," ^^ "eye," J^ ''shoulder," ^j "foot." (Some others which are not double are also feminine, as J;-? "tooth," li "liver.") 8. Collective nouns, especially when they add i" to express an individual of the species, as *U;?- "dove" (the genus dove), 'iCX^^ "a dove." 9. All "broken" plurals. 10. The following nouns are considered as feminine. THE GENDEES OF NOUNS. 93 altliougli tliey do not all come under the lieads giveu above. earth. /ufc^k-ij sun. hare. a 9 y -^-^ hyena. viper. ^U rib. >. well. S 9^ ij£*j^ prosody. fox. Cik staff. 1, '•O'- < >-ii£ scorpion. " ^ i70 X J^j cheetah (hunting leopard) s - p ^ •' . Hell. See above, 6. 5- o^ i , (jwlj axe. 6' o ^ o _ j-,i.w^ Paradise. '^' ^y bow. war. (jwb cup. i o ^ wine. ^ 9 ^j^y* razor. ;li house. jlj fire. coat of mall. J^ sandal. Po bucket. fj^i soul. hand-mill. 5" -^ ,.,-^' oath. market. FORMATION OF THE FEMININE FROM THE MASCULINE. (45). The feminines of masculine nouns are formed as follows. 1. The ordinary method is by adding i" ; as < > ,l*» fern, ii \^ a striker. S ? o ^ <__>• r^^ ,, ' smallest „ t/r*^ j/^ first (for JV) „ J^i o j^\ (for^^n) „ o>^l 4. Jiet when it is descriptive of colour or deformity has for its feminine *lii ; as ^x o S xo ^ -1 red fem. ^\ ^xoS ^i-tf^ yellow ,, '\jLa P X o S _' ox c-JJo-! hump-backed „ j^bjc*. 5. j^ when it has the signification of J^Ij has no different form for the feminine, as S- /x S P ^ jy^ i^^j a patient man. j^ 'i\y%\ a patient woman. THE GENDERS OF NOUXS. 95 Eut J^ with the signification of J^ti^ makes lly^ in the feminine, as S /> o ^ s^ ;» o X ^fy* a riding horse or camel, fern. '^,fj^ L-JyL>~ a milch camel „ <1.'»L>. spy S-' 9 y fjy^j a messenger (one sent) „ ^¥^j • 6. Vice versa J-^ in the sense of J^^« has only one form for the masculine and feminine, as s ^ spy J^l^i ij-^j a murdered man S y s'i-y 1^ ^y^ 'i\'j^\ a murdered woman S y 'J 9 y f^j'>- J"^ a wounded man S y S'i-y o • f^.y>- i\^\ a wounded woman, S y . ^ . S y Sy y while ^\^i with the meaning of J^li makes ILxi in the feminine. !. y ?/ / j_-uLi) an intercessor, fem. a girl with swelling breasts. ^^sJls^ menstruating. . , ■ C6 ARABIC GEAMMAE. COMMON GENDEE. (46). The following nouns are used either as masculine or feminine : jli] ^eil. Q US a dry measure. «— «tf\ finger. ^ys** forenoon. S o< j_^Ju breast. t-.^ honey. i^ji earth. Jh^^ road. ^U5>- Wing. S 9 ^ Jsr buttocks. 3^ state, condition. S ^9 i/'j^ wedding. ciJjJW- store, shop. Juux. honey (wild). t^j womb. ^'*j lance. S ,^ 9 c-Jlis eagle. fj:*^ neck. S y J>— J road. tUfj-kic spider. o;-» nigbt journey. {j^j! horse or mare. ^ILo knife. (— ioi ship. ^1-s arms. jAj pot, kettle. (^lkL>) dominion. lij nape of the neck. J--! peace. (jwjj bow. i?-ii 9 J-j staircase, ladder. qkS shin-bone. ^ U«j heaven. ^jLJ tongue. r^x.^) barley. Jj night. Irl^ way. L->w«.*^ musk. rf peace. jjt^ intestines. i«_£-Ltf side of the neck. ^^ salt. All nouns not included in the foregoing catcgori masculine. THE CASES OF NOUNS. 97 "NOTE ON THE TEEMIXATION if. (47). The termination i expresses either the feminine gender or unity. 1 . In derived nouns it generally serves to mark the feminine of the individual to which the quality or action applies; as i^sr"aglft,"(«_i:sr' gifts." 5. And sometimes uce versa, as J>"*'^ a camel driver,' xS o X y o X X xxo-O s ' 'Adiy follows the example of his father in generosity, And he who resembles his father is not in fault." THE A:XCIENT DECLENSIO]!^'. 99 Or tlicy may take \ in all three cases, thus : Subjective i(M >^ij M Dependent Aj\ <^j \i\ Objective Ai\ ^j^} As Ul::jli J^-^ r J lAb Jj b IjUjI . IjsIjI J, " Verily her father and her father's father Have reached the same limit to which she has arrived." P and ^^ may be declined in the ordinary manner, or after the ancient manner, as With the Article. With Pronouns. Subjective tUi or i(ji Dependent y > ■it f " ^Jl/^ Objective ■l5^' >> Cs^ ji signifying "possessor," is always declined in the ancient manner ; thus 9^9 Subjective ^J as JUi^J Dependent ^^J „ JUi 1 J Objective 1 J ,, Jt^ o^ THE CASES OF NOUNS WITH A WEAE FINAL RADICAL. (50). The existence of a weak radical at the end of a noun must obviously affect the case endings ; the 100 ARABIC GEAMMAR. following results (already treated of, see p. 74) must be remembered : Nouns of the measure Jxi from verbs with a final . in the root, change the ^ into ^'by/', as Uj for LJj. Nouns of the measure jij from verbs with a final ^, change the 1$ into o"j as ^is . Kouns of more than three letters, of the form Jj * * * , whether from a final radical^ or ^ , make their termination in Cs ' as ^J^^y* , from ^j ; ^}S* , from l^J ( .^j). Nouns ending in ^^ or t^^ change that termination into T by ^'. Examples: dj "satisfaction;" ^Jxs "a youth;" ^ji^ ''a Cadi." MEASURE. INDEFINITE. DEFINITE. "With Article. 'With Pronoun. Jjo Subjective uj^i for j^j \^j 1 i^U^ y ^ -^ ^ Dependent Uij ,, •-ij U?J i :(Uij Objective l^ i „ ijJ^ LiJ i ilJj Juti Subjective ^^:;J „ ^:J is"^"^^ ^ (^'^ ^'^) Dependent ,^xj ,, ^^^ 15^' *^ (^^ '^'^) Objective ^^ „ ^__^ i.^^' ^^ C^'' '^) ,U'J Subj. (>l^ for Ijh^ (^^*^^ ^-f ^ Depend, j^lj „ s^^ k^^^^ ^t^^ Obj. ^r?*^^ }> W^ (regular) ^JliiJl (regular) i^\i IMPERFECTLY DECLINED NOUNS. (51). Certain words are not susceptible of temvin, and employ fethah both in the dependent and objective case. Such nouns may be arranged in four classes. IMPERFECTLY DECLI^'ED NOUNS, 101 1. a. Proper names which have been changed from then' original form ; as jA£- Omar, originally j,y^ the one who lives. J-^J Zuhel (the planet Saturn) „ J^'J the loiterer. 1. Foreign proper names of more than three letters, or in which the middle consonant is pointed with u vowel ; as i^cli^i "Joseph," '^\^ji\ "Abraham." Si'- S ' Note. — Such proper names as ♦J.-j or^»J are declined; the first, because it is an Arabic word, and the second, because it has three letters, the middle one of which is quic scent. 2. a. Distributive or collective numerals from 1 to 4. 9. ^ 9 9 ..- J Is- \ ones, ) ( ? ' -' 1 foiirs. to ^-^ tXr^^4 one by one, ?-y'* ^'^'•"" ^^ ^°^^''- Some grammarians include the remaining numerals up to ten ; viz. — ^j^\a^ fives, I ( jl^i tens. j> -' o ^ 1 to j y - o ^ ^s^,*^* five by five, ' ' JLx^t ten by ten. J. ^^1 plural of ^"XS (fem. of^^^i), and such words as ^ "all," g^ "some," ^ "some," ^' "few," which are analogous to the numerical forms above given. c. Nouns of the form J-tit, if nouns of colour or de- scription, and not making the feminine in S' ; as ^1^\ " more accomplished," J^t "red." ft Note. — Such words as «_j ^ four" (fem.), being neither descriptive nor comparative, and other nouns of the same form, which moreover make the feminine in i, are declined. 3. d. ]^ouns of the form ^l«i, if they are adjectival or descriptive, and do not make their feminine in i', as !,ViI. 102 ARABIC GRAMMAR. ^' drunk," feminine Jf^\ but if the first syllable be pointed with j-^ as J,Ij^ "naked," or if they have a substantival sense, as ^2,^P "a flint," or make feminines in l^ as ^U!>jj fern. liUjJ "repentant," they are de- clinable. 4. The following nouns ending in J- or ^T; (l) if that termination mark the feminine, as ^J^j "remembrance," ^T;^-* " a rock." (2) Proper names, as ^t/j . (3) Broken plurals, as^_^^ "wounded," -^XisJ^ "friends." (4) De- scriptive or passive adjectives, as ^J^ "pregnant," "red." JVoie. — Proper names ending in s, whether masculine or feminine, as > Ifote. — Compound proper names are treated of in the Syntax. 6. Proper names ending in ^\ , as ^!iV^£ . 7. Proper names having a verbal form, as s^^] "Ahmad"; or if they appear actually part of a verb, as Ijjj " Yazid,"JIi, "Shammar" (Shomer). 8. Broken plui-als which have two letters after an IMPEEPECTLT DECLINED NOUNS. 103 inserted alif, as 1^\1^ ''places of worship," J--/^^ ''mosques," i^jJ "beasts of burden" (for ulop) ; or which have three letters after the inserted alif^ the middle of such letters being a quiescent oj as ^^l^« "lamps," and AoIIj " candles." [The omission of tenwm in these forms probably arises from the operation of the principle advocated in (5), p. 8, respecting the shortcuing of vowels which do not receive the accent.] Exception. — When a i" follows such letters, the plural is declined, as aJjl-Mtf "polishers." Note.—kVi indeclinable nouns when in construction or preceded by the article take kesrah in the oblique case, as Sometimes by poetical license an imperfectly declined noun is made declinable, as in the following verse : — % 9 O^ OC -C «S^ '' 9 9 9-'? O fO-O 9:=; (for ;^y '' a staff," Ji (for [^ " a youth," the original radical must be restored in forming the dual, thus fj'y^^ and ^Gj . But if there be more than three letters, the t/ is retained, even although the original radical may be J, as ^y^ (from ^Jj) "thrown," ^J^ (from j^J) "a musical instrument," "a toy," both of which make their dual with ^ , as JCa^J* and J^}^ . It may be taken as a rule that final alif \ when it occurs later than the third letter in a word is to be written J- . In weak nouns ending in long alif followed by hemzeh the following rules hold. If the termination is the sign of the feminine, as Ay^c^ ''red," AjSi^ "a rock," we may use either hemzeh^ ^ or ^ in adding on the dual termination, as ,,^o^ ,^--Ox ,-',^0^ But of these the second is most common. THE NUMEEES OF NOUNS. 105 If the termination lie added to the root without "being a feminine sign, you may either leave it unchanged or change it to j, as from ^UL " a sinew in the neck," dual u^^V^ or ^^jLU . If it be substituted for a radical letter, as 5lir(from _j*uOj we may either leave it unchanged or change it into wdwy as t^^^'^-1^ and ^^^l^. Words of over five letters may drop the final cdlf in the dual, although the insertion of the euphonic ^ is the more regular method, as ^U-?li "a jerboa's hole," dual j^IjLjIj or i^^jU-tflj . The two following nouns - testicles, 'i^\ buttocks, in forming the dual reject the fcmiinine termination I, as in the following verse from the Ilamdsah "Fit quasi duo ejus testiculi hue illuc fluitantcs pera essent e corio facta ac longo jam usu attrita, intra quam duoe cucurbita) inclusse sint." This verse presents an instance of an another gram- matical peculiarity, namely, the use of J:^l, the numeral ttvo, instead of the dual of the noun J£i^, There appears to be an ellipse of some such word as £^ grain, as in the Persian idiom ^..^^ til JjJ " two apples." THE TLrEAL. (55). The plural in Arabic is formed either by affixes or by a modification of the original form of the singular, as in English we say ship, pi. ships ; man, pi. men. 106 ARABIC GEAMilAE. The first kind is called teclinically a regular plural ; the second a broken plural. The regular plural has only one form for the dependent and objective cases. If the singular be a regularly formed participial measure, the plural is made by addition : as Masc. ^» nom. jThis is an expansion of the singular ter- i . r- ,- ^ „ ^i^ oblique' mination -^ — , for as —un=»u, 80 f^^ una = 5j uu. Fem. ' " ^^ ) This is an expansion of the regular feminine CLi] ) affix i. EEGirXAB MASCULINE PIXTEAI. (56). The regular masculine affixed form is only used for — 1. Nouns of a participial form derived from verbs making their feminine in i and signifying rational beings. 2. Proper names of men, provided they consist of a single word, and do not end in s. 3. Diminutives of proper names of the description just mentioned, and diminutives of ordinary nouns, provided they denote rational beings, and are of the masculine gender, as J^^j a little man, plural (jy-^>y 4. Eelative adjectives ending in J>. 6. Nouns of the measure Jxi] provided they have the comparative or superlative meaning. It cannot be used in nouns which are common to both genders, as f^_^ wounded. jy^c patient. THE NUMBERS OF NOr>,'S. 107 There are a few words wliicli form exceptions to the rules above given; they are ^^A son, plural (^»ij ^\i^ family, „ ^^\ ' * I 1 _jj possessor, ,, ^ijj and .I.i JU world, universe, „ i^y^'^^ ^j\ earth, „ ^y^j^ jLs. ten, ,, s^^j^t: twenty. (And the other cardinal numbers, thirty, forty, etc., between twenty and ninety.) 1j^ "rejection;" i' li pL ciLjlli "glanders." K becomes Cl^l A (from final ^) „ dj^j'^ A (from final ^5) „ ^LIj THE NUJIBEES OF XOUXS. 109 N.B. i" whether singular or plural becomes ci? when followed by a vowel, as tj^\ "brothers," Ijylt " his bro- thers." *T when in construction becomes ^T in the dependent case (see p. 14); these follow the ordinary rule of per- mutation; e.ff. subj. /j\^^ "his women," dep. f^Uj. But if the second radical be weak, as ^^jj " perpetual rain," the sulcun may remain and the letter be pointed with fethah, because the Arabs are averse from the sound p, which results from pointing ^ with kesra/i. If the last radical be weak, as ,!>jlj " bribery," the sidim may either remain or the letter be pointed with fctliah ; thus, pi. (IjiS'yLj ^ or cb\jl,j . But if the first radical has dhammah or kesraJi, such change must not be made, as i^jj pi. c:j^'»jS "pinnacle." Nouns substantive of the form aI:^ make the plural c:-?i«i as Ij^ pi. ci;l^>- "retirement," "a chamber," and sometimes cbllUi . [The Benu Tamim allow tlie mliin to remain in this case, but if the S^ 9 second radical be weak, as in . bath, pi. ciJuUr.. ^Ld^ the month Eamaclhan, ,, ciJljl^*) * See p. 60, note 2. i-- 9 S o^ 2 iU.j is considered by some as equivalent in meaning to ij.j "a state or dj-nasty." 110 AEABIC GEAMMAR. BROKEN PLURALS. (58). There are two kinds of plurals recognized by the Arabic grammarians ; namely, Che plural of paucity, and the plural of multitude. The plural of paucity expresses any number between three and ten. The plural of multitude denotes any number from ten to infinity. So also a plural form, where only one exists, is neces- sarily common to both, but most nouns have two or more forms. When a plural of such a noun is required, it is for the most part formed on the measure of the regular feminine plural by affixing isj\. The plural of a plural cannot be less than nine. The plural of paucity, as well as the sound or regular plural, cannot be less than three or more than ten (unless this be the only form of plural in use for a particular noun, in which case there can obviously be no such limitation). PLTTEAL OP PAUCITT. (59). There are four measures of the plural of paucity: J}xi\ as Jjf-ji from Jjf-j foot. iSki ,, ^l^i dress. (This only occurs in words which have the penulti- mate a long vowel). jJujI „ JUk>-) ,, Jv».>- load. This is common to plurals of multitude also. BROKEN PLURALS. HI' The first and last forms are capable of having a second plural formed from them on the ordinary measure of quadriliterals, i.e. ^\i\ and J-flil . The sound plural and the plural of paucity denote several individuals^ while the broken plural denotes rather the whole class. (60). Nouns implying multitude, if they have not a singular, as Ti "people/' "a tribe," and plural nouns (unless the singular be distinguished by i', asys-- " trees," L^--), are called analogues of the plural •*JLsl \ >, , y^ f. will be found to embrace all the forms Ac^l*, J^Ul*, J^ll^ , etc., as the position of any of the three radicals in the form is immaterial. Thus from I'll* "key," we get (1) (3) -(2) (1) ^ ^^ . ^ \ _^li 'i '^ = ^j}l^ (the ~ changing the \ into ^), where the first radical i of the root occurs in the second place of the measure (2). And from 1^1:^ "jewel," we have (4) (3) '(3) (j) , ^^ ^ ^ . J ji ' . s^= Ji^l^ , where the fii'st radical s>- occui's in the first place (1). PLrBALS OF Qri>'QrEIITERALS. (CI). In words of five or more letters all above four are cut off in forming the plural, as j,_^Jvij: nightingale, plural J-^u.^ (s-":0 U ^ "^ ^ '(4) (3) ^-(2) -(J) S, ^ L.^ u^-^ quince, „ -,'^ (J) ^ j NOIE OX IHE FORMATION OF PLCRALS. (65). It is worth remarking that the letters used in the formation of plurals are the same as those ■\;vhich are used in the formation of tenses, viz. c:-~J'^ ; in fact, these, the long vowels, and the tesM'id, or doubling of a consonant, are all the increments in use; they are strictly analogous, both in nouns and verbs; for just as they modify TABLES OF BROKEN PLURALS. 113 the action of a verb in a manner corresponding to the modification of the form, so they modify the nature of the noun. Two main ideas seem to influence the formation of plurals. 1. The addition of one or more letters to express an addition to the sense as in verbs. 2. Marking the opposition between singular and plural. These are still further influenced by the nature of the vowels used, as a careful study of all the forms will show. In the measures of the broken plurals, as in the measures of the verbs, the vowels are the characteristic and really important part of the form. They will therefore exert their usual influence upon a weak letter ; thus l.\-A,* = (4) '(3) (2) (1), and should by the rule for the forma- tion of broken plurals from quadriliteral nouns make (4) (3) '(2) (1), that is j-4 u 4^ but the — is the most important form to preserve, and the I therefore yields and is changed to t_f , the word becoming ^j'li,* . Plurals are for tlie most part irregular, but some measures are of more common use than others. TABLES OF BROKEN PLURALS. (65). The following tables will be found to contain examples of every form of broken plurals in use. The left hand column contains the measures of the singular; the horizontal line at the top of the page gives the measures of the plural. 114 ARABIC GRAMMAE. 1. TABLE OF BROKEN PLURALS s ^ aLUi J' 5o y SO^ s^^ s-^ .J pi. ij»J or iL-5 ox. s oy ■^ ' ^ f husband or Ti) " ^^v \ ""^^^'^ ^y^^'^ ^^^ - / fellow). SO^ s^^ i^J. „ i'jfi- truffle. SO^ S.y j} pi. :o ox. s o J4 Rare. ^ji p)-i'-^ape. J J „ AJ-J elephant. so J-' Not from defective verbs. SOP S ' )cjS pi. 'i^ji ear-ring. SOP 5 ^ ^ ^ji^ ,, '^ji^ casket. S 9 S-^ (__;J „ Ljl) bear. J^ „ 'i\f^ pitcher. so? S ■' <^ ^^z pi. iLu^^ branch. f \ 1 i 1 S '^ s ^ S P'' S'i S ^ "i^ S^ o J^ {^\ ) pi. i'^. ^brother. ^^(^-*)pi-'^^"4 youth. Ju^\ pi. Ju.jUion. TABLE OF BROKEN" PLUEALS. 115 FROM TRILITERAL NOUNS. a y>> ij y S y P O-i oN J}^i Substantives or triliteral This is coniined to nonns, adjectives which make a and is not formed from feminine in ^. It is rare in those derived from verbs hollow and defective verbs. with a medial ^ . (See also the quadriliterals.) so -- s ^ So -- S P f S^z pi. jLfi slave. j=^. pl- j^ sea. so ^ s ^ So- U p 9 j=^. » j^ sea. {^jjjSj ,,^jw».i3 soul. s o^ s y so- S P 3 P P c_?.3 „ ^-'U^ garment. ^U-^ difficult. c:-^j ,, (-^4-^ house. so- S )'<' ^J*""^ " t-^.?^ 1 copper coin. so S y so S 9 P _jj pi. j-^J^ arrow. Js^^pl. J^^s^ load. ^ ^ . ^ ^ . So S pP ■'■ ^Jj ,, <-^A;J wolf. ^^ ,, ^J^^Aj ichneumon. So S P 9 . ( molar U^j-f "U^JL/-^ ((tooth). So «> S P P so? S ^ w^-^Ls pi. <-_?if hard. :s:*.s>- pi. tJS-^ soldier. S o^ s -- So? s ?? Jy ,, J. -J cloak. t-i^P S P 9 ^:> „ J_jiJ! lock. S ^S S P'i S-- s .- s-^ s ?" iXJ\ pl.Juol lion. J.-5^ pi. J Lj>- mountain Jk^-1 pi. J»-;l lion. S^y' SPP S -'. - s - ^} „ ^^^ idol. J^:>- ,, Jl/*:^ camel. S y S" ^ - S '9 j^ ^.jA^ leopard. s^ pi. J.^ liver. S ^ S P 9 t-^-J " J;-v*( (Syrian). a 9 y S - u.^"J pl- J^^^ "i^'ii- S )> .' s - ^-^ „ cU«j beast. 116 ARABIC GRAMMAR. TABLE OF BROKEN PLURALS i* ^ S --ofr J^^ JUi^ Rare. A plural of Paucity; it is used for all triliteral nouns which do not make their plural in Jjtil , especially from assimilated and hollow verbs. JO-- s y ^ o S ^ci Jl»£ pi. Jk--^ slave. L_>J pi. <— >^y^ garment. ^ o y ^ >- iTo^ S ^ i^'i^ t^J^ „ u^Ji" dog. (-jL-j ,, t-JL-jl sword. i?t.\ load. Sof S -'C5 *> J^ pl. JUi^ lock. so S ^^ _ oS u;d ^Li"^^ P^* '^"^^ ^°"* S' y S -- oS Ja^ „ jlL=.^l rain. S''^ G y S ^^ S y^'s- J-i t_->lj (<-r-?^j) „ '-r'^jjl door. S i S' S - i^-i. j=sr, pi. j=sr\ sea. t/ pi-'^^/^rS).^'"'"°'' So ^ oS i; .'oS iTo^ S^'^o-E _j]j „ ^\J\ ( J jl) bucket. ^^ „ tul^l sandal. «? o^ ^ o i s >'o s ^ „ c^ii^ (^1) fawn. S' o ^ 5^ ^ cS iiL>-j ,, <'«^5i face. «r o^ i- j?oi />**ij ,, c/*~^^ soul. » •; o^ <7 ?oS 1 . \ M ('1 small copper Rare. iTo ' i? CO S i* 515 £ S^ o5 J--i pi. J-i)^ lion's cub. ;J pl. i^y^ (^jijj^) button. fi- o s- c OS •^ *^ J^J '^ J^J^ foot. S-o ir ;> oS «_Lo ,, «_Li^ rib. Rare. s-oc S fi^t ^?o >> S ■' iJ% Jij pi. Jiil lock. ^-^ pl. A:?-yl tower. S-o <> i?^ o £ ^=^ " -^t (hole of a " V- • 'l reptile. Rare. S ^ '' S P <^ "i- i? -■ s^^ s ^ cs. J-.=5- pl. J-*:^^ mountain. Ssj (j.;) i>^M^ viaticum. tfs-^ s ^ ^ OS 5"yo5 S ^ S ^ ^ 5^ ^ o £ Ur „(_j^)^^iiU^.^O^ J^- / » . \ V t .1 (maternal (J^^)^^^l( uncle. staff.- ^ ^ 5^^^ i' OS Ui (^) i:^;Ubackofthe -/ •— \ neck. 118 ARABIC GRAMMAR. TABLE OF BROKEN PLURALS S 'oS {fiontinued>). See page 116. See page 117. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. J-i j^ pl.jl/«jl leopard. S f^ S ^9 Juiii pi, jL=z^ arm. S 9 ^ S 9 t^'i^ «_-»-j pi. ^--^\ beast (rare). Rare. i_^,Li pi. (_-j11?j\ fresh date. s S 9 9 Jjl pi. JbT camels. S 99 S ''('S ^_px pi. jl:»J5^ neck. TABLE OF BROKEN PLUEALS. 119 FROM TRTLITERAL "SOTJl^^S— continued. S -'O 5^ ^o? <- .. UH ^»-^ IlUi Rare. t_2.iL: pl. ^_^,l.U->: roof. ^^ „ ^lik> belly. S P S " ^•^^>- pi- ^J^^-rrT ^^' S 9 S ^ J^-= M UW ^^^1- S 9 S ^ Jji. ,, (o^-SH^ aloes- wood. 5- '^ ^ S '-O S^ -^ S ^<^ 9 iT^ X 5. . <__>->- pl. joW^ bustard. j^b pl. .,^jJj town. ^^-pLi^.U- S ^ S ^' ^ ' S ■^ ■^ S ^^ 9 a stone. _lj (—J) ,.A.:sn.j' crown. J^=- „ ^X^s^ lamb. «.' ^ i?-'^ ir -' £-' ^ S ^O ? jU (^.y) pl. ^^1^: fire. .^^ J „ ^J"^ male. # ^ i?^'- 5 -'o (^' ^lt''^ cjW y°"*^- It's. S ^ S 5^ -^ o ^U*=i-U^^»^1 brother. S^9 S ^O • .*) pl. ^_^^ nightingale. S '■9 S y L, Hjks ,, i^^J^ a kindof bird. S'-9 S -'O J^ „ (^Ij^ field rat. 120 ARABIC GRAMMAR, TABLE OF BBOKEN PLURALS FROM TRILITERAL XOUNS- coniinued. Rare. 9 -' ^ Rare. iro-' «r^ pp J*j pi. ^y^_ husband. S ^ S^ 9 9 aX „ -• ^ O •E 2 1 — 1 03 •J C-. I.-) oJ n tfj .-^* ^ 'Ph ^ ^ & ^ Pi u- io'«-i -1-3 • fl , O CD a ^ -4-J O s •n ° u C3 be a ^-^ ^^ CI O Q^ o i" pi a 4-3 -al bo 2 • n-l ra a fl • « 3 CO 00 C3 Sh to .2 ^ E'« O) o o Pi -3 fe C3 C3 03 OJ C3 C3 eS c3 1^ H "■5 c-> -J ■ft ^ "" 'p^ ^ 1— f - :; - u t):^' c;r3 C3 ID en o cS Si 122 ARABIC GRAMMAE. 8. TABLE OF BROKEN PLFRALS S^9 j; j'y ^ 6"^ Jljjj pi. J jJ neck. 1 5 ' y 5 ' 9 Jlji pi. JjJ neck. U'rr-' » U^:^\ acacia. <— jI:;^ pi. fc_^-i^ book. J? " S99 J^'^J- » Lry carpets. Not from defective or doubled verbs.^ 0^9 S 9 9 c\^ pi- "^j- shin bone. s ^ u_^.-.*:2j pi. c— ->*.2.Ji rod. S y S 99 ^_^-*djj pi. i^^aJj rod. S y S99 (throne, bed- J.j;^ " J^r-lstead. S ^ S 99 ji^'i „ J JJ one who warns S y '' S 9 f - sacred, pi. *j^ women, harem. Feminine. ^•l ; r. pi. fJ-:^\ neck. S " s " .l^>- pi- r:^>- ass. Feminine. S " SPC% c.\ , j pi. ^^ crow. (rare). Not passive in" signification. s ■- s ^ (. c ijL pi. ( Jl^-i noble. s ^ s ^ Jj.^l „ Jl^tall. Feminine. S ■^ S 9'-% 124 ARABIC GRAMMAR. TABLE OF BROKEN PLURALS Plural of Paucity. Rational and not passive. Rare. s ^ a ^o* u,g;r^ pl. (_JL.1^ noble. S'w-' if y S ■'d <:i-^'^ (for l::^;^) c:j|^\ dead. Rational beings and not passive. yjj pl. ^TJL' poor. j^^\ „ 'i-\j,%\ prince. jj*-Oj „ * Ljj 1 chief. S. p ^ J-- ^ _^^ 9 AJiAs?^ pl. ^ UL>. Caliph. ^Ss. ,, ^1 Ju:l enemy. TABLE OF BROKEN PLUEALS. 125 FROM THE MOST COMMON VERBAL l^OTJNS—contimied. Used in doubled and de- fective verbs where >^Ui Plural of Paucity. Plural of Paucity ; also used in all quadriliterals which ■would otherwise occur; it have a long vowel for the is rare in feiniuine nouus. third letter. 5- -'^ S^o J^ pl. ajji gazelle. — Lj>- pl. L^siA wing. aUL ,, tU^rl?^ food. ^ j^ pl. a^T god. r * •' ( priest). ^li pl. '^jH (loaf). .^ 1 t nriend » • J^^£ pl. i(»\.^i^ column. 126 ARABIC GEAMMAE. TABLE OF BROKEN PLURALS Used with nouns adjective implying pain or suffering. Not from hollow verbs. Jli Jlr Pl- cjI/-^ gazelle. S ^ ^ y Dt- 2ui S ^9 « S ■'9 s ^ o ■ < — >Uc pi. jjLiLc eagle. /•Li „ (jl^-i slave boy. S ^9 s ^O 3^ (2^J pi. J^j paralytic. i~ ^ ^ o ^ JU^ „ i^yU^ silly. if " Denoting affliction or injury. -<^ pl. ^s.-_:5- wounded. Jr:^' » ^ slain. c:^^ „(c::-j^^)^^ dead. ^^^1 „ tJ;-'^ captive. iS^ »(j-r-^)c;^-f^3,boy. • S }^ TABLE OF BROKEN PLURALS. 127 FROM THE MOST COMMON VERBAL lH OJJliiS— continued. Not from hollow verbs. C 1 • Feminine quadriliterals. « JUI pLilli}-*- . ijlsr*»pl i._-o ls.-= cloud. iUl-jj pl. (J5 Ly epistle. I— i-ij pi. t^i^j loaf. s ^ a yt^ 9 (.--w^ „ ^L~iJ rod. s y s -it 9 J-lrs- „ ^Ji^ friend. S y- /■ yy *-^^ pl. (<^l^, an orpban. i ^ y- y y . • t t • ( a boon (♦tI^ "Li^'*^ (companion. • S '' ^ 9 y y ijj^ pl.^jTj^ island. I'JkJi. pl. bU>^gift. 6 5/' ^ ^ ^ iLj^^ „ bl:^ fate. L-' Lll'lsubiects, '^'^ " ^1^ (peasantry. S 9 y- S y t^ p J^£ pl. ^^Sy^S- Jv*^" Pl'^^^^' {woman. S-- 9 y 9 -^y y " \ 1 SM (mileh \ For ^J lOkJfc to avoid the concun-ence of the two yds ^j. 128 ARABIC GRAMMAR. TABLE OF BROKEN PLURALS S ^9 Of colour or deformity. 9^ ^ t 5'0 y ^^/♦J>-1 pl.^r*. red. J^«j1 ,, J^-o black. ^_^-j1 „ j_^-J (for (^-J) white. P ^ O S S ^ 9 C— >Jk5»-l „ t-JJc*. hump-backed. ^ ^ 9 fem.ofjJ^JI (superla- tive). 4_5^ pi. jS greatest, ,^^^ „ _^;X^ smallest. i femofjjtil (not com- parative). *U-^£ pi. ^y: lame. ^o ^ sop *Tri^ „ _^^ yellow. of which the feminine is of which the feminine is - S ^^ 9 of which the fenuuine is i ^ ^o 9 TABLE OF BROKEN PLTJRALS. 129 FROM THE MOST COMMON VERBAL ^0X1:^5— continued. JUi blind. ^l*sl pi. (^UL? bald. *-tfi „ jjtK^ deaf. y ^ c S •ox JU^l pl. ^yU5- silly. • ^ ^ O ^ S ■' j^lAl2£ pi. ^^ thirsty. ^Lm^ pi. ,- pi. ^.aU.^ ravenous, emaciated. 9 130 ARABIC GRAMMAR. CO P o iJ o o H o H o CO p Ph o o fa • p— 1 o ,a m "cs o rO (-1 u a o -d -tj '« _g ^a -ti • o CQ ro .^ ^" c " "s fcC M to J^ o -id o ? <1> .r^ v:j 03 n3 t> .-^ CO xh. y "J 1^ — ' ^■5 ^r -5 ^—4 ^ 1— ^ -^ , ; Ph C^ ft 5A. R ^ !) .. 3 t — •— o • rH o O -iJ o 'tS ' ^ g , -i-i ^ c3 13 a ^13 o ^ a -*-> a • «4 o f3 r— ( be o u P. cc t, o fl r2 ft v3 -4J ^ A z?' ■r\\' -H. 'E. - ^ = - "0 ^ 3iJ5^p, i-;) ^-^ 1 a, ^:3 1 11 ra Xk 0-^- a al a o ej o <4^ a -. 0) o 03 ^ a a> Pi £> .§ :g d OS O a o S fc 3 o n.l a s B o ^1^ •^ CO .H ^ra M -*J '^3 el o u . „ (*^^ servant, \^^^^ „ e_^>iJ:» seeker. follower. Not from defective verbs. J-cli pl. \^ „ i jS^ magician. «_5 Ij ,, 'is\i for tU-J seller. (^^ .77 j^- X i? ^s>\a pl. l_-;'ls:'^ comrade. JU „ /•Lj sleeper, ys-l; ,, ^'^^^ merchant, f \; » ^^-j peasant. ^li „ *Lj standing. ilJlo -Jblj pl. 'V^'-i plunderer, J\^ ,, tt'ls*^ comrade. Plural of paucity ; rare. -%llr pl. jLJ^^ purified, clean, .^Vj „ j\^\ helper. S- pl. Ss- ruler. J I) „ j^y sleeper. _-^Ui ,, c.^^-,i absent, (j^ >, u?;-^ warrior) (rare). 132 ARABIC GRAMMAR, BROKEN PLURALS OF THE MASCULINE AGENT ^^— continued. S ^P Not from defective verbs. s -^ s ■^ P S\^ pi. j*lC>- ruler. ' if _^ S liP ♦jU „ *\^) sleeper. ..y* 1 ./ ) misbeliever yj^ „ jVAi ] (Pagan). S ^ S 'i P, ys-lj" ,, _;l=^ merchant. jU ,, ^Iji warrior (rare). (^yjjli pi. ^y^ji horseman. •^ -' S -it P t__>l.i „ ^_^L.i youth. Rare. --l=- pi. -f^..s.^^ pilgrim. J^-i^ » t-?;-'^ warrior. Rare. S^ 4-_aJ^^ pi. i— J^; stander. U^4V „ ^'^^■^ sitter. d^[i „ J»*j sitter. S ^ S P P .\&>l^ „ ii».;.-i) witness. <^l^ „ "i^(for^c»i^) kneeling. .rlJij pi. ^Tyt>i> poet. ^,../ ^vi';^-' (rational, JjU „ -^il^ii ^intellectual. JUj „ ^U:^ righteous. These are probably plui-als of obsolete forms J-^ , as ^^ , etc. Denoting aflliction or injury. Substantives. CSl^Jb pi. ,^^i-2> perishing. ^ -" ''^^''ihnving a large Oi^ " (,y-rr- i Jiuniiy, poor. J.-S-U pi. J.3>-^^-o coast. Masculine (rare). s ^ p ^^ (jyw;li „ {j^}y horseman. s ^ P y^ ^\j „ j-j^^) follower. Feniiniues (common). S '' P ^ ^ ^\.a\=^ „ J'*^_j^ pregnant. Denoting rational beings and derived from defective verbs. S -'P S^^P ^li pi. i'l-^i (- -n-all (inclosing). BPtOEEN PLURALS. 133 s ^ -» 5. BROKEN PLURALS OP THE FEMIXINE AGENT, FORM iH^lj i-Si 9 ^^V ■ Substantives. S^ _^ St3 9 S ^ f t ^ -' iLii •iUj Ltf pi. *4«ff fasting. ^ . " ^-^ • (loose to pasture. c'JLzl^ pl.^;;j:^»o thunder-clap. h"^^^ " >'t?V rarity. Feminine adjectives. 'i^\^ pi. t^^vs.- \ ».^ companion. h)^^ n j^^^^ [slave) givl. - ^}^ »» J-^ (for ^:y ). ^ See p. 130, note. 131 AEABIC GRAMMAR. 6. BROKEN PLURALS '(4) (3) \\2) \l) Jj> 9 -% 4j*i«tf pi. 9^U«p frog. idijJi ,, ^liJ bridge, arch. »_->-tfl pi. jt_>L5^ finger. ^•«j^ » ^^j^' viper. when used as substantives. jS\ „ ^l^\ greatest one. 5- <'-'0'- Cl^'»-.Gx pi. ^_^iLj: spider. i^^Jjusfi „ J jl:.£ niglitingale 1>ji „ ^i,f't^-' ^'U- pi. ^^^ a signet- ring. i; -' ' y ^ «_.'ll? „ f-J^*l? a stamp. 5^ ^ Jcli L-.-JIJJ pi. u-^J^J a mould. See p. 132. 1 See p. 130, note. BROKEN PLURALS. OK OF QUADRILITERALS. '(4) (3) ({2) (i) * ^j^ pi. i—Jj\^ experience. iiv/i^.* pi. jjli.jU,< livelihood.^ <» o ^ ^ ^ ^:ot^ pi. ^U^» meaning. ^ Note that in plurals of the fonii ^Icli^* in nouns derived from verbs whose medial radical is tj>, this \^ resumes its power as a consonant, and does not chanije into hemzeh as in all other cases. A few in ^ follow the same rule : as ijU-* plural Wuu-* "desert," Exceptional cases are ^jfl'.*^ "a place for diving," and tj\x^ " a cave," from ifij^ and j»i , which make (^^Ivn and -^Iv* , as if from {jo^ and^ji. 136 ARABIC GRAMMAR. BROKEN PLURALS ck^^ XT -' o y ^ ^^ ^ILL; pi. ^^-i^L: Sultan. not being a noun of relation. throne. S - cr^ pl. ^^IC: knife. jiy^ pl.^^l^ picture. i^J<} „ f^J^^ date, history. S O 5 9(uy. 5 S> ^ 1 BROKEN PLUEALS. 137 OF QJJ ADmLlTERALS— conimued. V) -.(3) \\2) \l) 9 ^ ^ £jiiipi.^w.}f™*» S ^O 9 X ^ _l^;« pi. ff^}\sLy% key. -- S ^ f ^ y i^jSm^ pi. i^-Maw* poor. ^ '"/ ^ 1 r (Contents, ^^^^^♦-s^i^ pl.|^-^Li,« J coniposi- V tion. S 9 y 9 -' '• (T- ?^ C9- pl . i>«-;^ N^ buffalo {j^y^^ » u^*^r=^^=r spy. fountain. Exceptional forms : jLj J pl. j^jlj J a certain coin, as if from ili J. • \ \ .1 . fa collection of poems,) t . / t . r \ .\ U'.J:'.^ " llrf^b'^i a register, as if from jc^'jt^ Vc;'^.9 ^^"^ u'^J^)- U^^ >» c;-i^^ or c;::^^^ ^° oven, as if from either (j^^1 or^,»-ji a 9 l^s- S 9'^% 138 ARABIC GRAMMAR. BROKEN PLURALS OF QUADRILITERALS, miO.— continued. liJUi cJi^ pl. pl. JJLi)U«J a Damascene. J^->L\i; pl. i'JkiUj a Baghdadi. — 5^ 5>^ i ^ ^ S^ ■^ -' jLj>- pl. iiji\^ a giant, powerful one. When gonerallj Jk-£ pl. J a word has several meanings in the singular, ^ nas a uinereni lurui oi DioKcn piurai lor eacn ^ s ^ ..r slaves, tiUc servants (of God), %.e. mr Pi* \ f Til ^ T» " i ^ ,..r eyes or fountains, ^^t-^l (Pl. of Paucity) eyes o. tains, ^Lcl nobles. JVJ houses, '■^'W^ verses of poetry (distichs). lEREGULAR PLUEAIS. 139 PLURALS OF PLURALS. (66). In the measure of the quadriliterals and quin- queliterals are formed plurals of plurals; thus, Jkj (^J>j) pi. JjJ (t^^.b hands, pi. of pi. jU (o^V.^) gifts. Or a regular plural may be formed from the broken plural, but it must be a feminine plural ; see (j^,,jO road, pi. J;";^ , pi. of pi. Cl^'U.!?, IRREGULAR PLURALS. (67). Plurals formed from singulars obsolete and other than those to which they are referred. /♦I motlier, pi. c:jL^^ as if from A^.«l S'' it 'CS S 9 *i mouth, „ i^yl „ s^ *t» water, „ iU^l „ it* The two following are also irregular. S^ O O ^(^ s ^i S y *l-«3 women, pi. ii^*«3 and ^^y^^ ^Lu3\ man, „ ^/^^^ (rare and poetic) and ijj\j From relative adjectives a collective plural may be formed by simply adding the feminine termination 'i)^ as, ^tiLi SLafiite, coll. pi. ^C-^Li) the Shafiite sect. The table opposite this page (No. 7) contains a general view of the broken plurals. » See p. 97 (47). 140 ARABIC GRAMMAR. EXAMPLES OF THE DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS. (68). EEGULAELY DECLINED NOTTNS. 1, Nouns derived from a verb (except jist) and de- noting rational beings; as t«^j.^, fern. > x^ do. do. SINGULAR. Fern. Masc. Qy ^ 9 S <-• 9 .^ i-^^ls^ Dependent ^' o ^ ^ o 9 l^X^ LJiX^ Obi active 2. Proper names consisting of tliree letters the middle of which is quiescent ; as Sjj Zeid, a man's name j ola ffmd,^ a woman's name. PLURAL. Fern. Masc. do. do. DUAL. Fern. Masc. ^ y y do. do. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. s^ s<^y iX>J^ i^\ Subjective ^ 9 a -i, y 9 Objective ' Words of this class, i.e. trilitcral names of females, may be imperfectly declined (see p. 102). IMPERFECTLY DECLINED NOUNS. 141 4. Broken plurals, except those of the form (4) (3) \ (2) (i), (4) -.(3) \ (2) (1), and those ending in o ov ^T; as x^\ 'lions," ij^j apes." PLURAL. «f ^ ^ S f'} it^.j i_\~;\ Subjective iJu\J (A~;^ Dependent i'wVi 1j<-j^ Objective (69). IMPEErECTLY DECLINED NO0NS. 1. I'roper names of men or women not included in classes 2 and 3 of the previous section: ^l^ "Othmau )j L2j "Zeinab." PLURAL. Fem. Masc. S ^xo-' y P ^ (^ 9 ^-ij ur yyi^ y 'O 9 *V*N-^.)l .,***J V^^XZ DUAL. Fem. Masc. rr'f.j ^-y SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. 9 ^o^ 9 ^'^9 >_^u.' ■, , . ,Uj>^ Subjective -J U' y •O -^ y X o ^^.j IJ' ■■^i> /Dependent and \ ami ( Objectiv >". ' l^;? 2. IN'ouns of the form Jol, whether comparative or descriptive of colour and deformity; as j2jI "more accomplished." PLURAL. Masc. y 9 y '^'i- •^ DUAL. Masc. Kl) )Ui c;r: .±^i\ SINGULAR. Masc. A^iil Subjective 1 \^\ Dependent and Objective ^^o. 3. Nouns of the form Jiri, adjectival and descriptive, and which do not make their feminine by the addition of I. These are declined like 'j^^ in the last paradigm but one. 142 ARABIC GEA3IMAR. 4. Broken plurals of the form (4) (3)1(2) (i), (4) -.(3) 1(2) (i); as ^jd ''dirhems" (drachmce) ; -^.^li^ "keys." 9 y^ t?' ^, i-li. J^l^J Subjective I Dependent \ and ' Objective (70 j. DECLENSION OF NOtTNS ENDING IN A WEAK lEXTEE, 1. Nouns ending in *l, the hemzeli being radical. These are declined quite regularly; as ^Tpj ''a reader." PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAB. ■^9 * \ji Subjective * \ji Dependent * \ji Objective 2. N'ouns ending in ^T, this termination being derived from a final radical j or ^j ; as ^ll^ for jllL^ "a suit of clothes." PLURAL. A regular plural cannot be formed from such a noun as this. See p. 106 (56), 1. DUAL. u i:a SUfGULAB. c/ t-'^lwi iisi.: \L^ * luo Subjective ^ Cj Dependent *\mS Objective *Toj for ts^^j "a mantle," is similarly declined. When the termination H is added to the root but is not a sign of the feminine, as '\Xz ''a sinew," it is declined in the same manner, but the form ^^Jljc is preferable in the dual. DECLENSION OF NOUNS ENDING IN A WEAK LETTER. 143 3. I^ouns endini? in M. PLUKAL. The regular plural is want- ing. See p. 130, note. DUAL. J,h^ SIXOrLAR. ^Jlc 'Ijjoi Subjective „ <;^ I Dependent SI .j^^ ^ and •1 iw— 1 ( Objective Broken plurals in *l are declined like the singular of this. 4. Proper names of men ending in ^ I ; as A.\ £\ "Zachariah." PLURAL. • J» •Si XX <* _^ X X DUAL. u ■n;/j or or 6INGULAB,. ,^vl XX ^k/0 Subjective 6. Triliterals ending in Tfor j . _-3 x^ r Dependent Si-C: I and •^^ (ObjecUye PLURAL. Regular plural wanting. See p. 96 {b^). DUAL. do. SINGULAR. 5> X l,.-ic Subjective !5> X l^- Dependent 1, ^1, etc., for JjI, J>-1, make ^^j-Jt, jj;^^^^ etc., in the dual. 6. Nouns ending in Jr for Zs, . SINGULAR. ^ X ^lii Subjective PLURAL. Regular plural wanting. See p. 96 (56). DUAL. ■ --- do. ^j:j Dependent ':j Objective 144 ARABIC GRAMMAR. Kouns ending in ,^ (witliout tlie temvin) are similarly declined in the dual. 7. Quadriliterals ending in — for j^ or ^^. DUAL. SINGULAR. ^Js\i Subjective PLURAL. .^li uW^ ^Ij Dependent L^lj Objective FORMATION OF NOUNS NOT IMMEDIATELY DERIVED FROM VERBS. NOTJIi OF BELATION, (71). The noun of relation is formed by affixing the syllable J>^ and rejecting all such inflections as the i" of the feminine, or the signs of the dual and plural, as \^ "son," or v^ "father," in which case the noun of relation is made from the last portion only, asjo Lt "Abu Bekr," ^'p/j juJpr^;! "Ibn el Walid," hlS^\ u^S\\'^ '"Abda '1 • ' ^^ ^ " In forming the noun of relation from nouns of which the first radical has been apocopated, the suppressed letter is restored, if the last radical be a weak letter; as 'L^ "marking," tlf^-ij; but not otherwise, as ij^ "a promise," o'^ "promissory." In words of which the last letter has been apocopated without any compensatory hemzeh being added, or of which the medial letter has a vowel in the original form, THE KOUN OF RELATION. 147 as 0\ (for^l), and 2jl "lip" (for 1^'i.), the missing letter is restored in forming the relative, ;md the com- pensating i, if it exist, is dropped, as ty\ "paternal," ^i-i labial." But if the compensating hemzeJi has been added, as ;[)\ (for ^^J), or the middle letter is quiescent in the original form, as ^S (for ^^j), it may be restored or not at pleasure : if restored, it takes the form of even though the original radical be ^^ as "^1 or IjZ ''filial,"^3ori-p''bloody!" " '"' ^^' In words which consist originally of only two letters when the last is a sound consonant, this may be either doubled or not, as j*? "how much?" rel. '^ or "^ • but if the last letter be a ^ tvaw^ it is always doubled, asyif,".^-:j. If the last letter be an allf^ it is doubled, and either hemzeh or who is substituted for the second alif thus obtained, as in ^ (a proper name), ^^^ JJ^J. Another form of the relative termination is ",;!. This IS principally used in technical or scientific terms ; as ^3U1^ "corporeal," ^jl^^j "spiritual," jf^i "external," jjjlj!^ "internal." Yery irregular forms are f\l "Syrian," j2 "of Yemen." (These are declined" lilve ^'J). ABSTRACT NOUN. (72). From the Noun of Eolation an Abstract Substan- tive is formed by the addition of the feminine termination if, as \ "a god," l^ "divine," £^'!! "divinity." Li theological works (especially Christian) the termination 148 ARABIC GRAMMAR. l?/is used instead, as c:j.i>i "divinity," "deity," ^zj^ ^kingdom (of heaven)." THE DIMINUTIVE. (73). The diminutive is formed by inserting 1 (quiescent t/d) after the second letter of the noun, and pointing the initial letter with dhammah and the second letter with fethaJi^ as J^-j "a man," dim. J^j* if the noun has more than three letters, all which follow the inserted - are pointed with hesrah^ as ^j^ "a drachma," dim. 1-,^^^. In such nouns, however, if the additional letter is not a radical, but is one of the feminine affixes l, i^^or ^T, the inserted alif of such forms as the broken plural 3^1, or the termination 'J\ added to proper names or epithets, such letter retains its original pointing with fethah, as ?^5 "a date," dim. 'i^] ^j^ "small," dim. •^jli^; r{J^ "red," dim. m;;.^', 'S^\ "loads," dim. jU-^1; ^UU, a proper name, dim. J^^^^ J^j^ "drunk," dim. 'j^j-^ In nouns where the characteristic vowel has changed a weak radical into another weak radical homogeneous with itself, such radical is restored, as cJ^? (for ^j?) "^ door," ^; ; 4.15 (for 410 "a fang," ^1^ ; l^;^, (for Ifj^^) ' ' a balance, ' ' j^-o^ . A quiescent weak letter before the inserted 1 of the diminutive is changed to ^ luaw^ as ^j\^ , aim. c-^.^-i ; Jj^ "a lion," dim. j^*^; ^-^^.j ^^^' ^^5- ^^^ ^^ the weak letter occur after the 1 ya of the diminutive, it becomes -., as f.^ "a key," dim. ^ill«; Jji^ "a small bird," dim.J-ilsi. THE DlillNUTIVE. 149 The reason for these last two rules is ohvious, because the charac- teristic vowels of the diminutive form are dhammak at the beginning and kesrah at the end, and consequently these vowels influence any "weak letters which may occur in these respective positions. "When the last syllable of the noun of more than three letters con- tains a long vowel, such vowel is influenced by the kesrah characteristic of the form, and becomes -. yd by the rules of permutation already given, as j»i-.2j., dim. ^i^.,.2s:.. In nouns of four letters of which the third is a long vowel, such long vowel coalesces with the -. of the diminutive, as ^lli. slave boy," dim. ^-J-i for *--»]-:: . When there are more than four radical letters in the word, the diminutive is formed by applying the above rule for quadriliterals, and rejecting all after the fourth letter, as Js^jSl^ " quince," ^^.a-!. Sometimes the rejected letters are compensated for by inserting a ?/d -. , as ^_^}^ . In nouns which contain five or six letters, but which are derived forms of the simple triliteral noun or verb, the diminutive is formed by rejecting the servile (or characteristic) letters of the derived form, but not the participial prefix * mim, as ^^jsX^-* " deducing," dim. ^-.s^; <__>,k«.2^ amtated, ' ami. c-j.-..::^. In words which are feminine in meaning, but not in form, or which are arbitrarily considered as feminine, the feminine termination i is added to the diminutive, as ,j^ eye," ^^-^^ ; jM house," Sji*'^' In nouns of two letters from which the third has been apocopated, such apocopated letter is restored in the diminutive, as *j (^V*^) "blood," J^x>j. If anything has been substituted for the apocopaterf letter, it is dropped in the diminutive, as '^^A^ "Z, Ji* 150 ARABIC GRAMMAR. for '\a^, J^, unless tlie substituted letter be tbe femi- nine termination, in which, case it is retained, as tsJ:, "lip," tli. In 1^^] "sister," ^ "daughter," the feminine termination cj assumes its usual form in the diminutive, which becomes aLl^l , illL . In nouns of more than three letters of which a radical has been dropped, this is not restored in the diminutive, as j^Ij "a Cadi," J^y . Diminutives of plurals of paucity, or of regular plurals, may be obtained by the foregoing rules, as ^S^\ ribs," *J-»Jl ; ^j>vj Zeids," ^^^J^ijjj; e^^ioc^ Jdmds,' eJiJu^i). Broken plurals of multitude, however, are not sus- ceptible of a diminutive form ; this is only obtained from the singular, which is then inflected with a regular plural masculine in the case of rational masculine nouns, and a regular feminine plural in the case of feminine or irrational nouns ; as AJ^L "poets," ^^jyi*)^ (from^l£); 3jii& "Hinds," ilS\sx.i, (from J); o^^ "camels," e-jil^?- (from J/i^). Compound nouns take the diminutive only in the first part of the compound; as tllCbJ "Baalbekk," I I ' ' lI^-Lxj ; aJJIjoj: Abd allah," ^lilj^^; .A^ - " fifteen," yLs. d^-^. Declinable nouns only are susceptible of .a diminutive. Diminutives of the demonstrative pronouns occur, though rarely, and their initial vowel is always fetliah instead of dhammah, as U "that," bj; IJ "that," fern. C"; tl<:JU "that," cbbj; c/|i "who," bSi; Jl^ "who," fem. LJl. THE PERSONAL PROXOUNS. 151 THE PRON"OUNS. (74). The Pronouns are of two kinds, separate and affixed, PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 1. The separate pronouns are : 1st person 2iid 3rd These only express the nominative case. ^a and ^ before the conjunctions ^ and j may lose their first vowel and become ^^j, ^i and ^^!tj, ^^.i ; Ol is pronounced ana (not and), and is considered in poetry as consisting of two short syllables. 2. The affixed pronouns are : SINGL'LAR DT.VL. P1,UKA.L. Masc. Common, T. Fern. Common. Masc. Common. 9 (^ ^ we. Fern. y OS OS ^ f oS o?oS ■ayos l:^3\ CUol U-Jl ye. cr^^ thou. thou. ye two. ye. ^^"^ l,«J& o ? « ? ^ he. she. they two. they. they. SINGULAR Masc. Common. Fern, DUAL. Common. PLURAL. Masc. Common. Fern. 1st person ^^^ \J ray, me. 2ud „ dJ thy, thee, thy, thcc. 12 your, you two. 7 your, you. your, you. 3rd „ !i his, him. her. their, them two. o' their, them. their, them. These only express the oblique or objective cases. THE NV2i OF PKECAUTION. (75). With verbs the ^^ of the first person becomes ^ ; the ^ thus emi)loyed is called 'Olijil ^y the nun of precaution^ 152 4rtAEIC GRAMMAE. because it serves to prevent confusion in verbs, the in- flexions of which, when they consist of short vowels, would otherwise be absorbed by the letter of prolongation. This confusion actually takes place in nouns, there being no distinction between the various cases of a noun when the pronoun of the first person is affixed to it ; as ^l::| ''my book," (nom. and objective), "of my book," etc. The nun of precaution is often used with certain particles which resemble verbs, such as lj\ "verily," ^J\ "that," IP "but," y.^ "as if," ^Q "perhaps." It is always used with 6^ "would that." It is also used with the particles ^^^, ^^ "from," and J\ "that;" gene- rally with 'JS\ "with," "near." With li or £i in the sense of ''enough," it may be used, but is more fre- quently rejected. It is not unfrequently employed when the pronoun of the first person is added to the form j2s1 l^, expressing admiration, as cCJ\ ^ j^ \J^j^^ ^* " How much I need the forgiveness of God ! " CHANGES IN TOWELS, ETC., BEFOEE THE AFFIXED FEONOTJNS. (76). After a long vowel ^^ becomes ^ , as Ijlk^ " sins," 4'i;il^^ "my sins." The pronouns of the third person, when preceded by Jcesrah — or ^'j change their dhammah to kesrahj as ^'bi, " (of) his book ; " j:^!^ " upon them." N.B. If a hemzei el-wasl follows the plural masculine pronoun, the mm must be pointed with — , as ^'hJ\ *^J-c "peace be upon them !" The feminine termination Tbecomes - before the affixed pronoun, as Ij}:4 "writing," l^i^ll^ "her writing." As the addition of the affixed pronoun serves to THE PEESONAL PROXOUXS. 153 make the noun definite, tlie tenwin necessarily disap- pears (see p. 7). The il) of the regular plural and the ij of the dual are omitted before the affixed pronouns, as ilj'c^ "his two books;" iJ,'-i "his strikers." With the affixed pronoun of the first person singular the ^ and o coalesce into ^J , as Ijj^ for lJ^^.J^ (by /; P- 75). Similarly the mute \ is di'opped in the third person masc. plural of the preterite, as i^ " they wrote it." A TEHB GOVEEIfING TWO ACCTTSA.TIVE PEONOUIS'S. (77). When a verb governs two accusatives, and both of these happen to be affixed pronouns, as iS ;>0 -' OS f ? 9f'-"' cS between the two, as S=J^\ ''I gave you," iy%L-J^:2.z\ "I gave you it," f4^^ "you gave," ^^.♦^krl "you gave it" (^ appears to have been the origmal full form of the termination of these pronouns). NOTE ON THE PKONOMINAL SIGNIFICATION OP THE INFLECTIONS OF VERBS. (78). The last rule assumes a fact -which the student will do well to bear ia mind, namely, that the prefixes and affixes by which the different persons of a verb are formed are in reality nominative pronouns : the affixes serve for the preterite, the prefixes for the aorist, the tense itself being indeclinable : thus Jij expresses the mere act of killing " in the preterite : J^ "he killed" {^q fethah representing the pronoun Tie). LSi.^ "she killed" (the fethah again is the pronoun and lU is the feminine termination, which in nouns assumes the form i). <^:Ji:xi "l killed" (^Ji^ is the pronoun I in the preterite of verbs)} and so on. Jij expresses the mere act of killing" in the aorist: f^pjb "he kills" (j is the pronoun he with the aorist). /.^'o^ J^* " she kills," etc. (j is the pronoun she with the aorist), and so on. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. (79). The Demonstrative pronoun is U "that," and is thus declined : PLURAL. DUAL. SmOULAK. Fern. Masc. Fern. Masc. ^i ^ i ^ ^ ^ ^ or j; J^ u^i i^j u Subjective ^ c^ O ■' I Dependent %% ^.^ »» / and (Objective THE DEMONSTRATIVE PHONOITNS. 155 Ij is seldom used by itself, and when it forms a compound the feminine singular assumes the form ^l or /i at the end, and li or cp at the beginning. 9 "When J J signifies "possessor" (seep. 99), it is fully declinea as follows : PLUKAL. Fem. Masc. 9 "i f ■ ' ^ -. P DUAL. Fem. Masc. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. 9 . • M _jJ Subjective M (_cj Dependent MJ IJ Objective For the ordinary demonstrative denoting distant ob- - ^ jects ! J is compounded with the affixed pronouns cJ. d/, Ul, ^or^!^; asLl^^i "that." PLURAL. Fem. Masc. DUAL. Fem. Masc. SINGULAR. Fem Masc. lI/Ij tl>-J d/lj Subjective I Dependent , and (Objective More usually the emphatic J is interposed, in wliich case the \ is written defectively in the singular, as di^ j ; see p. 15 (3). In the dual the two liquids J aud'^ coalesce into ^ : thus PLURAL. DUAL. Fem. Maso. ^ « -' ^ - y- SINGULAR. Fcm. Maso. Subjective ( Dependent 1 and ( Objective The ordinary demonstrative for near objects is formed by prefixing U "lo I" "here," to U, the \ being generally 156 ARABIC GRAMMAR. defectively wi'itten, as Ui) "this," wliicli is declined as follows : ^LURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc, ii^\i J^ ^'c^ ^- ^.< c:-^!^ I saw who {Jiim who) came. = ^l?- ki"9^' t-RV^ '"-W.b ^ ^^^ *^*^ ™^^ ^^^"^ came. THE ARTICLE. 157 [cT* ""^^^o-"" is sometimes, though very rarely, declined PLURAL. Fem. Maso. DUAL. Fem. Mssc. C^ ^ O ^ O X • o ^ o -^ Li)""* o o ^ ^ SINGULAR. Fem. Masc. .:>,« Subjective j^/# Dependent L,« Objective] l^ is indeflinable. \_Note.—\^ and its compounds are also indeclinable; that is, they are not susceptible of inflexions for case- endings ; the inflexions for number and gender not being considered by the Arabic grammarians as declen- sion.] 'J\ (fem. 'L\) "who" is declined like a regular noun. A compound word may be formed with this and the relatives. ^^"* and I*, which will then have the sense of "-soever," as \.'',^\ "whosoever " KXA "whatsoever." The first portion of this compound is declinable. THE ARTICLE. (81). The article ^t is indeclinable. It is used with nouns to specify — 1. The individual ; as ^S^\ "the Cadhi" (in question). 2. The species i^jiS\ " the horse " (as distinguished from the camel, etc.); ^^lliit "mankind." 3. To distinguish an individual inir excellence ; as il>,jj5t "El Medina," the city (i.e. of the Prophet). 4. To make an epithet into a proper name or sohriquet', as lijQ\ "Al narith," lit. "the ploughman.' 5. In certain proper names; as ^wS "the (idol) Ashtoreth," etc. 158 ARABIC GRAMMAR. The use of the Eelative pronouns and of the Article is treated of in detail in the Syntax. THE mjMERALS. (82). THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 1 t MASCULINE. FEMININE. / ""'? 1 ^o This is declined as an 2 r UH 1 .IS ordinary dual noun. 3 r s ^^ S \y From 3 to 10 the nume- rals assume the feminine 4 f form for the masculine, and vice versa. • •? ^ o ^ s ^ y From three to ten the 5 ^ LA**'*^ numerals govern a broken sa 5^ ir <^ S' o plural of the twun num- 6 1 tJL^- (C1.JA-! (^"^^-j bered, lohich is put in the iT'O^ iT O^ oblique case. If the noun 7 V - i-Jj.S:. , a»»»k>- above. 1 THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 159 MASCUtilNE. FEMININE. ''-' ^ '.* ^ -' o ^ ii 16 11 y ^ y ^^o ^' ^^O ^ '- o^ J;o;« 11 ^0 99 the nu- merals take an accusative 17 IV I" * « singular of thi thing num- bered. 18 lA y ^ y ^^O 19 11 !/^ tr^: /» ^ O y P yy 20 r. U^^T UJJ^^^Ljy^ >'*'•' -' >" c^ y S y "i- /* F O /- ^ fc are commou to both gen- 21 ri UV^.! ^-^ e^^^^J ^"^^1 ders, and are declined like ^ / O ^ ^O ^ y o ^ ^^o ordinary sound plurals, 22 rr Li^JLr'^^ -J U^H. CJJ>>'^5 >* c^^-'^i see (56) p. 107. y ^ y O y S y ' In compounding nume- 23 rr rals with 20, 30, etc., and a unit, tlie unit is placed 24 rf first, the two are connect- ed by the conjunction^ 25 re (Old, and both are de- clined. 26 n 27 TV 28 TA ^ p o ^ sy o *- '^ y o •- ii- o 29 rl y p y y u;>Tj t^ 30 r. 40 f. 50 c. y 4 60 1. 70 V. y 9 y y 80 A, ^,yUJ IGO ARABIC GRAMMAR. 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 1. t.. r.. r.. f.. c 1.. v.. A,. ^.. t... r... r... f... MASCULINE. T... V... A... ^.. aL't* {J*^' ;> o. y ..<) O u v,*j Jlj The word il,L» "hundred" is com- mon to both genders. i^/-o>w 100 . • ^j L« " a hundred men. " "When the hundreds are compounded with units, they are put in the oblique case of the singular. 4 5, [tOU* is pronounced as if written iu.^ mi-atun.'] i , i\ \ "a thousand" is common to both genders. Thousands compounded with units follow the rules above given, i.e. they are treated as a thing numbered. Thus for 3000 to 10000 the broken plural , iJJ is used in the oblique case ; from 10000 to 99000 the accusative singular ujl is used; and from 100000 upwards the oblique singular c^ jA ] , ORDIXAL NUMBERS, 161 MASCULINE. y 9 y ^ y 10000 t.... 11000 II... !^oS ^ -- ^ ---o 12000 ir... 13000 T... o5 9,^ 100000 1 200000 r JSs \^Z\^ 300000 r In these cases tlie hundred and unit o5 5 ^''-ot are written as one word. 400000 f 1000t)00 t...... 2000000 r 3000000 r ORDINAL NUMBERS. (83). The ordinal numbers for the units (except the \ ^ y first) are formed on the measure of the agent, masc. ^yz\i^ fem. dl^li ; the tens, hundreds and thousands do not differ from the cardinal numbers. MASCULINE. FEMININE. let J.' J^ 2nd 3rd 11 162 ARABIC GILiMMAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. — S ^ 4tli 5th 6tli 7tli Ll5 8th 9th 10th 11th •^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 12th 13th etc • -' <> c U^r^ *£ ^ 20th . 1 ^ 9 (^ y Sy y t:^^>^^5^ ^^^ UV^J tO jla^ 21st 22nd 'PC y S" y uv^r J '^^^ 23rd etc X ^ c ur- *J 90th • ^ O X X 91st etc. VARIOUS CLASSES OF NUMERALS. 1G3 (84). OTHER CLASSES OF NUMERALS. 1. The adverbial numerals are formed as follows : ^ ft ^ ^^o^ ij^, a,j J once {lit. one time, one turn, etc.). L3I3 or i ,^ j\j or Lj[i "i,^ twice. "^ -^J o^ •■-J liJ^lj or J^ u;:?^^ two by two. ;^ ,, cLJi^« three by three. y ^^i cbj ,, j-^;-* four by four. And so on. These are imperfectly declined. 3. The multiplicative numerals are : 'O y J_ft,-« sin_y* quadruple, fourfold, square. And so on. 4. The adjectival numerals are : S ■'9 ^rlj I quadruple, consisting of four. S _P ^Uj dual, consisting of two ^J^ treble, consisting of three. And so on 164 ARABIC GRAMMAR. 6. Fractions are ; 5 O fc-ji.^ half. cj^^jj or 4-lJj or cj^ij a third. S ^ S 9 > S l^> \ '^^J ». ti; »' t^J a fourth, j ^he plural of these etc. to > fractions is of the ^ *: ^/' ""^''atPTith ) form 3Q5 The fractions above a tenth are expressed by the use of the words ^ " part," ^.* ^Ij^ '^ parts of," as ^ _ ^ f ^''^ U^ U^iy^ cJ/ ^LrT' "^^ ^ P^^*'^ ^^"^^ parts, -g-^tb. 6. The recurring numerals are : «..iJdn lilJ every third. ^j^^ Ujj every fourth. 7. Approximate numbers are expressed as follows : ^j ''a few," used with the units from 3 to 9, as — "The Greeks are conquered in the nearer parts of the earth, but they shall conquer after being conquered in a few years." — Kor. XXX. 1. ^^J " a few more," used with the tens, hundreds and thousands, as : l^ ] Iji^ " upwards of ten." Sometimes the words ^.-vjJ ^t "or they exceed " are used in imitation of the passage of the Koran. " And we sent him to a hundred thousand or more." — Kor. xxxvii. 147. PREPOSITIONS. 1 65 Similarly el-I3elia Zolieir has — " I kissed him on his cheek, and counted a thousand kisses or therealouts.''* »ssr ' about," . jl J^-^jj U " what exceeds," and similar expressions, followed by the number, are also used in this sense. PAETICLES. (85). Under the head Particle the Arabs include Pre- positions, Conjunctions, Adverbs, and Interjections. PREPOSITIONS. (86). The prepositions are either inseparable (i.e. are written as one word with the following noun) or separable. The inseparable prepositions are five in number, namely . t__j in, by, with, etc. This, when joined with the affixed pro- 9 9.^9 nouns >, *-&, U..&, changes their dhammah into — , see LU by (a particle of swearing). . by (ditto). J to (with pronouns this is pointed with fethah). like. The separable prepositions are : Jl to. •5J ^ until. Ji upon. against. from. L5^ "^- ^j*i, ^Sl with, by. 0. o ? "r 9 jki,« or J^-« since, « from. There are many others which arc commonly regarded as prepositions, but which are really nouns, as >>if " with," 166 ARABIC GRAMMAR. jy "above," L^J "in the midst," etc. These are not pro- perly reckoned as particles. All prepositions take the following nouns in the depen- dent case. CONJUNCTIONS. (87). The conjunctions are also either inseparable or separable. The inseparable conjunctions are ■ . and, u_i and so (as a consequence of what has gone before). The principal separable conjunctions are : J\ "when. V^ except (if not). 1t>^ when. _ji or. \^\ as for. The thing predi- J then. |5 (-LJ in order that. cated of the noun pre- ceded by this particle takes i ; as " As for Zeid he went Li^ in order not. o . j but. away." ^ that (w^. 1 ^ ^ \aJ when. jjl that {quod). jiif. •U if- t* so long as. ADVERBS. (88). The Adverbs are also either inseparable, namely : \ interrogative. fjM or (_Jj-! expresses future time. J certainly. COJfJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. 167 Or separable, of which the most common are ; I/. ^ S c 0=r^ , oj , ^. or j^.'w yes. \S\ , ,.,w^l then, in that case. ^1 U1 ^ won't ^1 u], verily. UJ 1 only. ^1 whether, or (alterna- tive of 1) loJi ever, never. Lii only (and that is all). Si already. K certainly not. 3 no, not. J not. UJ not yet. , J never, not at all. Us not. ^ \ how? ^1 where ? Jj nay, rather. -5^ when? Jji> whether (interrogative). UJJ> here. cLyil^, LlXJuji) there. • Such adverbs as S^^t? "afterwards," (^Cj "before," which are merely nouns in an adverbial case ; and indefinite nouns in the adverbial accusative, as \Sj1 "ever," are not included in this list, since they are not, strictly speaking, particles. INTERJECTIONS. (89). The principal interjections are: t oX \ i)\ lal Uij ij ci> ah! alas! b W f\ oh ! ho ! etc., etc. A great many other words are used as interjections, but are in reality verbs or nouns, and are therefore not included amongst the particles. All particles arc indeclinable, and as such need not be 168 ARABIC GRAMMAR. discussed in the Accidence, which treats of the inflexion of words. They are all fully described, with their influ- ence on other words, in the Syntax. IMITATIVE SOUNDS. Note. — Imitative sounds are indeclinable, and they neither govern a following word, nor are governed by any preceding one ; such are J «=>• ^^J>■ Ji ft. Used in calling camels to drink. l!>- U>- lid hd. „ sheep ,, \z Ic A' d. „ goats „ jjli Ghdki. Imitating the cawing of a crow. jjll? Tdki, „ sound of a blow. J^ Tak. ,, „ stone falling. 169 PART II.-SYNTAX. SECTION I.— THE VEEB AND THE NOUN. THE TENSES OF TERES. There are three tenses in Arabic — the Preterite, the Aorist, and the Imperative. I. THE PEETERITE. (90). The Preterite denotes a completed act, but the time at which it took place is left indeterminate, unless defined by the context or by some particle. Thus the act may be completed only at the moment when the speaker is describing it, as God bless the day on which thou art saved. I pardon for its sake all the crimes of time gone by." Or the effect may still remain, as He only shall repair the Mosques of God who believes in God." — Kor. ix. 18. » So an Arab author, in citing a verse of poetry, employs the expression, js\h\ Jli Uif ''as the poet says^ Or it may express a foregone conclusion, such as na- 170 ARABIC GEAMMAE. turally occurs in hypothetical or conditional sentences, as lLsXj lL-Xj ^\ " if you rise, I will rise." Here the idea expressed seems to be : " if this suppo- sition be granted, namely, you have risen, then you may consider this, too, as granted, namely, that / have risenJ^ A similar idea seems to influence the English colloquial idiom, "if you do that, you are lost," or "are a dead man;" where "you are lost," "are a dead man," are apparent preterites. From this use of the preterite results another very common use in Arabic, namely, in precative sentences, as IfHij '^\ ^XS\ "may God perpetuate your existence I" And with 3 "not," in averting anything undesirable, or in cui'sing, as tl.<-i ctill t^^b ^ "may God not bless you ! " ^ (91). The preterite of the verb "^ with the preterite of another verb is equivalent to the pluperfect, as ^li jjj '^i "Zeid had stood up." But the pluperfect is more usually expressed by the preterite preceded by the particle j^', with or without the conjunction J. The particle j^ restricts the preterite to a time actually past, as .^J^ ^ S-'j ^^^ "^ "Prophets have come to you before me." We use the pluperfect, designating the action that had taken place before the occurrence of the event which we * There is a well-known Arabic jest about a Bedawi, who, on being asked by one of the Caliphs whether a sheep which he was carrying was for sale, replied curtly 1 "no." The Caliph reproved him for his want of politeness, and told him that he should always add CX^ i^ CJj\i " God bless you ! " — whereupon the Arab replied as above, ^ p I -*o ^ ^ ^ -^ THE MOODS OF YEEBS. 171 are describing; the Arabs, on the contrary, prefer to mention the circumstance or condition resulting from such previous action. II. THE AOEIST. (92). The Aorist denotes an act not yet completed. Like the preterite, it is somewhat indeterminate in respect of time, until defined by the context or by particles. THE MOODS OF YERBS. The aorist is susceptible of certain inflexions' to express the various moods. THE INDICATIVE MOOD. In the direct or indicative mood, the aorist ends in — ; it is used in all direct narration. CHANGE OF THE VOWEL IN THE AORIST. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (93). The aorist of a verb changes its final vov*^el -^ into jl, to express the subjunctive mood. This change takes place when the verb is preceded by any one of the following particles : 1. ^J ''that" (Latin ut\ ^J} ^! ^ "I wish that I may visit you." 2. ^J='((^1 5 = J ^^C i "it will not happen that") = "certainly not," as J-^Ji j^^ J "the miser will certainly not be liberal." 3. ^^\{ — ^\ ^p "then," in that case, in answer to the ' Two of these inflexions, the -?- and — , arc identical with the subjective and ob- jective cases of nouns, and the Arab grammarians give the same name to both. The remaining case, the dependent, has the apocopated form of the aorist for its parallel in tlie verbs. 172 ARABIC GRAMMAR. /-xo^O • 9 O-^ O -^ question "what if?" 'LA\ J^jJ ^^\ '' tlien thou shalt enter Paradise," in answer to the question allU liJI^T ^[ "what if I believe in God?" From this it will be seen that the particle ^^1 , expressed or understood, is the real instrument in forming the sub- junctive mood, and changing the _L of the aorist into jl. The ellipse of ^1, especially, takes place after the particles J "to, that," ^ "in order," ^) "in order to," jjL^ "until;" and after the conjunctions _^ and uIj, as m\ Ci3 rfi^J " That God may pardon thee." ^Ji'y L5 ^-"^^^ i "l carae in order that I may visit Cjj^}. '^JS c^U ) you" (for J J or J ^,.0). C-^^iij L_s^^^ C/^^^ ^-^^ 2^^^ the thief till he repent'' (for ^] j^). J-mjIi j^Jlb es**)^ "l am content to flee and save myself." ^Jl < > JLj, cLC»>/J^ JSU Job "Do you eat fish and. drink milk (at the same time)?" Ci3jblj ^je>.Uj li "Do not punish me so that I perish." \ "unless that it come straight." After the affirmative particle J in such expressions, as ^^^JUI t__>A.tJ c'Ul .li U "God will not torment the righteous." The suppression of J\ with the aorist in fethah, except in the instances given above, is rare, although it does sometimes occur, as a t SjissT^ i>j^ Tell him (to) dig it." (^jo-b JJJ ^>^\ ^^ "Catch the thief before he catch you." XX? ox yox -Si^-O p The conjunction ^t with the subjunctive mood must occasionally be translated as a negative, " in order not." xOS P X ? oS f-0-<3 OxO-O I -C X ^ O^ X -Ji-O X y OxO X x 1 ^x'' > • *'* XX xl XX X " "x X O /oi X " Those who believe in God and the last day will not ask permis- sion of thee that they should not engage in the holy war with their pro- perty and persons." I^.B. — The change of the final vowel of the aorist to fetJiah always implies a subjunctive or subordinate condi- tion. THE APOCOPATION OF THE FIXAL VOWEL OF THE AORIST. (94). The aorist of the verb is the only part of speech which can lose its final vowel altogether. The apocopation may take place in either one or two verbs. The cases in which one verb loses its final syllable are the following : 174 ARABIC GRAMMAR. 1. After J "not," and U] ''not yet," wMcli always give a past negative sense to the aorist, as *ij J He did not stand." _s~l ' "^^^ ^ J "^W" " He came, and the dawn had not yet appeared." 2. After tlie particle J nsed in an imperative sense, as IJj Cv ^^ "let Zeid strike." \Note. — This is the regular form of imperative for all except the second person. When preceded by c_J, J loses its vowel, as t-r^-ii " so let him strike."] 3. After ^ prohibitive, as ^^J ^ "do not strike." PARTICLES WHICH APOCOPATE THE AOBIST OF TWO TERES. (95). There are thirteen particles which apocopate the aorist of two verbs : jn*^ J-wwC' ^ If you are lazy, you will como to want." ^ o Ui^ " Whenever that." LjT ^1j ibt ,.,^ i__alj ^ -^1 e:^^ U CUlJ' UJ^ lI^jI • "And thou, whenever thou shalt come to what thou commandest Thou wilt find him whom thou commandest coming (to thee)." ^ "Whosoever." Jl belong the most excellent names.'* \i\ and , ^* "Whenever." 9 o^ -'^ ^ o-»o ^S ^x ^.i jO' ^'^l.w«Jl -(t-Jl ^:.^ "when I pat off my turban, ye will know me." J'.x> ^Jl iO J~ CX»*^_^, ijl J Whenever poverty assails you, have » patience." [in both the above examples Jjij and J-*^ are for J^j and J-/*^" ■y ^ y for the sake of the rhyme.] Ul^, jl, ^1 "Wherever." (.:LJy^^\ (S^j'^i V'^^* ^'*^.^ " Wherever ye are, death will reach you." CO* O O ^ -iii. U*^^^ L/**!;^ t-i^ Where you sit, I will sit." 9 \ -£i ■' '' O-^^ O ^ O <0j\ lLsS jiA^. «--^Ji)3kJ' U.l»a>. Where you go, God will grant you success >> U§ "However." K*>- i__5^l..2J" <^ vJ ^"'♦".s^ However you turn, you encounter good luck." 176 ARABIC GRAMMAR. U jj^ and ^^ are true particles, the remaining eleven are really nouns implying a condition or hypothesis ; they are all undeclined, except ^^-T, which makes J}L '^ J, ' ^ cuX and j^ do not apocopate the aorist unless joined with U = '' soever." Ik.^ , U and ^ are never joined with U ; the rest may be either joined with U or not. Note. — U after an indefinite noun is equivalent to the English "a certain," or " any whatever," as /*V.^^ cT? ^y. 77 /^ ^ <-^^ '-^ certain man went out one day." \^ ^L^-j '•^^.•'.b ^'* ■'• *^^^ ^*^' ^^^ ^°y ™^^ whatever." The n of the tenwin in this case always coalesces with the ^ of U, which is then doubled; thus U J4"J P^O" nounced rajulu mma. In a conditional sentence, when the aorist of the second clause is not introduced by one of the conjunctions J or uJ, its last syllable is apocopated, as CS^j^\ iAjj "visit me — I will honour you." THE ENERGETIC AISTD JUSSIVE MOOD. (96). The syllables ^"and ^^^ added to the aorist or imperative give greater force to the expression, and the second is stronger than the first. They are used in affirmation, interrogation, command, or prohibition. The affirmative J is also generally prefixed in forming these moods, especially in the jussive, to give still greater emphasis: as THE CASES OF NOUNS. 177 " We see tlie turning about of thy face in the heavens ; but we "will surely cause thee to turn to a point of adoration which shall please thee." — Ivor. ii. 139. " my children, God has chosen the religion for you, so do not, pray, die except ye are Muslims." — Kor. ii. 126. j_5'JJi (5^ fS-^-xJ ^, v^^li 1**^=^ L^,:^ '^^f^l *^ Go down from it both together; and if there shall come to you guidance from me," etc.^Iyor. ii. 36. " Ye shall surely see hell ; yes, ye surely shall see it with the eye of certainty ; then shall ye surely be asked concerning your luxurious life." III. — THE IMrERATIVE. (97). The Imperative is used in precisely the same manner as in other languages. We have already seen (p. 30) that it exists only in the second person, and that for the other persons the apocopated form of the aorist with the affirmative J prefixed is employed. The prohibitive is obtained in the same manner, by apocopating the aorist for all persons and prefixing 1 . THE CASES OF NOUNS. (98). In Arabic short vowels are used as terminations to express the different cases. — is nominative, direct or subjective. — is genitive, oblique or dependent. — is accusative, conditional, or objective. 12 178 ARABIC GRAMMAR. In nouns these are doubled to express furtlior the indefinite nature of the thing (see p. 7). When so doubled, they are pronounced with an n sound called ^i"^ (see (4) p. 6). [In verbs only _L and' JL are used, and the aorist is the only tense capable of being modified by them.] THE SUBJECTIVE CASE. (99). The following require the subjective or nomina- tive case : The agent or subject of a verb : j.jJ tl^ "Zeid struck." The nominative or subject of a passive verb ; as jJj tl^^ "Zeid was struck." Both the subject and predicate of a simple sentence in which the simple copula "e's" is either omitted, or ex- pressed by yb ; as *jljj Jl>; Zeid is standing." tf / yo OS *Jlj Axi\ Knowledge is useful." ^J^ y& diil " God is the living one.** THE AGENT AND THE VERB. (100). The agent is put in the subjective case. The agent follows the verb, and the object of the action follows the agent; as Vj^ joj tl^ "Zeid struck 'Amr." This order must be invariably observed in the following cases : 1. "When, from the noun being unable to exhibit the case-endings (see p. 100), an ambiguity would otherwise arise; as ^^ ^J^\ CJji "the youth struck John." THE AGENT AND THE YERB. 179 2. When the agent is a pronoun inseparable from the verb; as ISjJ \^ji "thou didst strike Zeid." 3. When the object of the action is separated from the agent and verb by the word i\ "except," as l^ ^^l jjj i^j^ U Zeid struck no one hit Amr" (lit. *'Zeid struck not— save 'Amr"). The agent is either (1) exjDressed separately, as Ij ^li "Zeid stood;" or (2) inseparable from the verb, as lI^jJJ "thou didst strike," where the pronominal affix tL' is regarded as the agent ; or (3) expressed, but separated altogether from the verb, as lLj! fl il/J U "none struck but thee." The agent cannot be suppressed, though the verb may; e.^. in answer to the question Ili ^ "who stood?" you may reply, 1^ "Zeid." But the agent immediately follows the object and verb when the object is an affixed pronoun and the agent an expressed noun or separate pronoun, as ^* H tXjJ i^j-^ Zeid struck me." \j\ ^\^ IjjJ <__^J U "No one struck Zeid but I." Similarly, when the agent has an affixed pronoun referring to the subject, as l«il uVJ tl^ "Zeid's slave struck him" (lit. "his slave struck Zeid" = ^P jJJ lii), in such a case we must not say fjuj '^Jl CJJi , because it is not admissible to make the pronoun refer to a noun not yet expressed : in other words, the relative cannot precede its antecedent. When the agent is separated from the verb by the word ^1^, the object immediately follows the verb, as in the above example, Ijf \\ Ij^j cl^ U. If none of the above-mentioned rules apply, you ISO ARABIC GRAMMAR. may either put the agent last or not, as j.jj \j\s. i^ji or ^J^ jjj CJJi "Zeid struck 'Amr." When the action is restricted by the particles UJ^ or ^Jj to the object, the usual order is preserved, as <# o '' iro^ y ^ \jA£. J^J ^J^«^ UJ^ "it is only 'Amr whom Zeid has struck." \jA£. fs 'Si) c_jyi? t« " Zeid has not struck any one but Amr. But if the action of the verb is restricted to the subject or agent, the object precedes, as jjj \jA£. k-r-Vf^ ^^^ "it is only Zeid who has struck Amr." t\j; f\ S^c L^Ji U "No one has struck 'Amr but Zeid." >'j i, J ■ J^ [As there would not be any ambiguity in the case of !'[, this rule is not always strictly observed ; but in the case of \^\ it must never be deviated from.] CONCORD OF THE VERB AND THE AGENT. (101). The agent is always in the subjective case, and is properly placed after the verb. When the agent is, grammatically speaking, masculine, of no matter what number, the verb is put in the mas- culine singular, as iX>J *li' "Zeid stood." The two Zeids stood." tt ^ 4Jojll (♦lis " The Zeids stood." i?o^ ^ fy' jjj *^h "Zeid stands." ^oiS-*^ ' ^^ Ji>sy)\ A^'sj^ "The two Zeids stand." j^. jkjjll >.!; " The Zeids stand." I CONCOED OF THE VERB AND THE AGENT. 181 With a feminine agent the verb is put in the feminine singular in the following cases : 1. If the agent be really feminine, no matter of what number, and follow the verb, as fc\:J5> c^^li ^^Hind stood/* j^ljc^J^ u:i-^^l5 'The two Hinds stood.'* i^\x^\ <::^^\i " The Hinds stood." o ^-^ ^ P c -Ct % 2. If the agent precede the verb, as c:^s*ll? ^^^1 "the sun (it) rose." The verb may either be put in the feminine or masculine singular in the following eases : 1. If the agent be not really feminine, but only femi- nine from a grammatical point of view^ as ^"^ "^ } " The sun rose." 2. If the agent be a broken plural, as •^ 1^ \ " The Hindus stood." 3. If the agent be a collective noun or the name of a species, as 9 J^ CJi { «' The trees put forth leaves." 4. Even when the agent is really feminine, provided a word intervenes between it and the verb, as " Hind stood to-day.'' 182 ARABIC GRAMMAR. When the intervening word is 'i\ , the verb is more elegantly put in the masculine, as 4xx& 1\^ ^li U " there rose not save Hind." The names of Arab tribes, when expressed and im- mediately following the verb, generally put it in the feminine ; they are in fact employed like broken plurals. As is also the case in the broken plural, when a second verb occurs referring to the same agent, such verb agrees with it logically in gender, number, and person, as \^Uj Jl^r^^ e:-^^:!:?"^ "the men assembled and (they) said," the broken plural requiring the grammatical con- struction with the feminine singular ; but in the second verb IjJli, which refers to the same agent, the logical agreement is preserved. A regular feminine plural, or a broken plural, may sometimes, though rarely, take a feminine singular of the verb which follows it, even in the second person, as in the followino: verse : 9 9 J^3 -P. L5^ J^^^^ ^ ^^. ^^^ ^.'r^^^ LT'JI^ J^9 i y y' i^ 9 y y S (^ 9 j'o^-o y y y 9y yyy cS.' O ij y y y y J**^, iJ^ r*«^ r^'^J^ C^^'^ uiy^ ^^r^ SJ^.b ul "^^ Ay*^'^ "Oh! doves of the Arak tree, carry the message of a lover who recovers not from his intoxication. Say, pharar is in chains, fettered ; far from his country in a nigged land. Oh! doves of Nejd, if ye see our tents, then say: Such is fortune — difficulty succeeding ease." The reason for using the verb, either in the feminine or masculine singular, with a feminine agent, seems to be that when we are conscious that we are speaking of a female, we say decidedly, ^^ she rose," namely, Ilind; but COKCOBD OF THE VERB AND THE AGENT. 18 o "when we are speaking of anything which is not neces- sarily present to our mind as feminine, we begin by a vague affirmation of the action having taken place, " he, she, or it rose," and having done so, we proceed to define it further by naming the agent. It is clear that in speaking of a woman we more often have the feminine idea in our mind, but that in the case of a merely gram- matical feminine, the gender may come as an after- thought ; hence we say, IL ] " The sun rose." Another reason for this arrangement of the agent after the verbs, and for the apparently arbitrary manner in which the verb is made either to agree with it or not, is that the verb is regarded as complete in itself, the pronominal affix or suffix, if any, being considered as the real nomi- native to it, while the verb itself remains unchangeable, as j^jj '*\3 "he rose(lmean)Zeid;" seep. 154(78). Here the pronoun understood in /•Ij is the real agent or nomi- native, while the word "Zeid" is only a further definition of the same; so too xji u:-^Ij "she rose (I mean) Hind," where the pronoun cL^'^is the real agent, and "Hind" the further definition of it. If, on the contrary, as in the sentence l::-,*!!? jj.a^£jt, we le/jin by mentioning the noun, its gender is present to our mind when we come to the verb, by which we predicate something concerning it. A collective noun, such as j^^' "a tribe," or a noun expressing an entire species, as 111 "sheep," ^.ll^ "birds," frequently takes the verb in the feminine singular, and occasionally even in the feminine plural, as J^i^\jJ\^ y.j c:^)b The children of Israel said." 184 ARABIC GRAMMAR. '^:?^^ o^'^"' 1>^ ,^1; J^ Jt^^ ^^b^ ^^1 "I see myself carrying bread upon my head, from which the birds are eating." " I^or can night o'ershado-w them nor day (protect them) ; — nor can their horses or riding camels bear them away ! " The names of Arab tribes are ordinarily feminine ; but as they are collective nouns, they take any following verb in the masculine plural, as I y «>-' ox -^ p^ " Thou art master of both men and genii; how, then, can the tribe of Kilab hope to remaia mistress of itself? They have not revolted from thee criminally, but as a well is neglected when it affords the chink of death." THE SUBJECT OF A PASSIVE VERB. (102). The same rules which apply to the agent of an active verb apply to the subject of a passive verb. It is always in the nominative. It is either an expressed noun, as joJ tlj-i "Zcid was struck," or an afhxed pronoun, as (JLo^^ "thou wast struck," or a pronoun separated from the verb by some intervening word, as l::.^? )!^ c-^ U ''none was struck but thyself." The passive state or condition may be expressed by a noun, especially a verbal noun, in which case the subject will be in the dependent case, according to the rules for the c-si'-o construct state of nouns, as^H JSl ^^ ^-^^-r-^ I wonder at the dates being eaten." If the noun be, however, a past passive participle, the subject will be in the sub- TUE SUBJECT OF A PASSIVE VERB. 185 jective case, as with a verb, as j^ juj ^JaJt "Zeid was given a dirhem." In the Koran the expression ^^Lpl \^^ ^j-.'^^ "who have received the scripture," is of frequent occurrence, and is explained by the rule above given. ^1 being the 4th conj. of ^\ "he came," is used transitively with two accusatives, thus : t__>L(ll *i>liT " he brought them the scripture," and in the passive the first object, li,, becomes the subject, the second still retaining its objec- tive function. The following may serve as the subject of a passive verb : 1. A noun governed by a preposition (when the verb governs by means of that preposition), as J^^ J^ "Zeid was passed by," where "by Zeid" is regarded as the subject of J.« 2. (a) An undefined noun if used as a proper name; (y8) a noun used adverbially, provided it is restricted in meaning by some following adjective; in either case the noun must be declinable, as yet) lo^V (* " -^^ fasted Eamadhan." ^U^ >-.o The fast of Ramadhaa was kept " (/3) U-^jLj " He marched a march." Here we may say in the passive, ^^ Jll^ 'j^ " a good march was marched," but we cannot say simply ^IJIjJ--^ 186 ARABIC GRAMMAR. " a marcli was marched," witlioiit the qualifying adjective. So too we say, juj ^^jJ J«l>- "he sat by Zeid," and l-O n) «)dl\ ^^^-5 -^~j he recited the formula glory to God. But we cannot say jJJ i_^jJ ij-1^ '' ^eid was sat by," or aI!1 ^Usu -i^.-j, because neither ^^jJ nor ^U-v are de- clinable. The following examples will illustrate the foregoing remarks : ^ ^ -' ACTIVE. V^Jrriyi^^'^^^-t PASSIVE. "God gave a Scripture to the "TheChildrcnof Israel were given a Scripture." Children of Israel." ^•t^ ^o^ ^o5 "He gave Zeid a drachma." " I ordered Zeid to kiU 'Amr." "Zeid was given a drachma." " Zeid was ordered to kill 'Amr." ^ ^o-^ ^ ^ ux o "He escorted Zeid from Bagdad "Zeid was escorted from Bagdad to el-Medina." 05 ^^ y^i-i-o to el-Medina." "The Sultan could not take him." "He could not he taken (his taking was impossible)." •^U-O •■ -^ mO " 'Omar brought the Prophet some " The Prophet was brought some Arabs." Arabs." When a verb which governs with a preposition is put in the passive voice, as ale C^^. " he disputed about it," the preposition with its case is stiU retained, as 'dis. iS^, *' it was disputed about." The verb is then strictly im- THE SUBJECT OF A PASSIVE VERB. 187 personal, and therefore, in forming the passive participle, the masculine form only is used, the pronoun alone being altered to express the gender, thus : cslc LiL;4^-*Sf " The thing (masculine) disputed about. CXc C_?»^>./^1 " The thing (feminine) disputed about. ' [CII 'iJipC£\^ although used by no less a person than Paris es Shidiac, is incorrect and \n^ilgar.] This idiom is almost parallel to the English vulgarism by which I have translated it: "The thing disputed aboutP This will explain all such idiomatic expres- sions as that contained in the passage of the Koran, chap. i. 10 : "Guide us iti the right way, the way of those to whom Thou hast been gracious, not of tho&e against whom Thou art angered (of those Thou art angry with)." JSfote. — Nothing but practice can teach which verbs govern by a preposition, and which take the complement in the objective case: for example, ^\ "he came" governs the objective without the intervention of a preposition. Generally, however, the purely transitive verbs govern the objective. Before y, introducing a proposition, the preposition may sometimes be omitted, as / 1 X ^o^ <^ ■£ o t"^ o-^ for > " He could not do that." y I x^o^ cS ^ ^ c t-x o^ Sometimes even before a noun the preposition is omitted, the noun being put in the objective case ; as 188 AEABIC GRAMMAR. ,»^C-t''->0'' .' t,>'o.<3 ^ - C5 ^^j. I "He supplied means to the ''CSo-O^ o>'^.^3 X ^ ^ -'Ci destitute and needy." fi^^,'- ^ p^ / o-- 63p:> for ^ c:.^ "I thanked him." ^--sil C^j-^l for -»i:U lI^j^*! "I ordered you to do good." THE OBJECTIVE CASE. (103). The following require the objective case : 1. The object of the action of a verb. 2. Words defining or specifying the action. 3. Nouns used adverbially. 4. The cause or effect of the action. 5. Words expressing the state or condition. 6. Words following particles of exception, vocatives (not addressing a person present), and a few other instances of which details are given in the following paragraphs. 1. THE OBJECT OF A TERB. (104). The object of the verb is that upon which the action falls, as \\{j oj^ "I struck Zeid." A verb may have two objects, as U^,j Ijuj \jiX^\ " I gave Zeid a dirhem ;" or two objects and a word defining the natui'e or period of the action, or the state of the object, as Oill^L* \y%s. Ijoj eu-l^t "I showed to Zeid 'Amr in the act of going away." The verb itself is frequently omitted in ejaculatory sentences, but the object remains in the objective case, as -'•'Sc-O ^ ^ .tc—o Ju-^ \ Jc^lM " The lion, the lion ! " i.e. ,itJi\ iJk^l " Mind the lion." THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 189 t< ■ {^\j-\ CS\^\ Your brother, your brother!" i.e. iJS^\ (♦J-1| Attend to your brother." The objective case is used in parenthetically intro- ducing a definition, as Jj^j (^ lj^"^^ ^-'^■^^ cr^ ""^^ (the Arabs) are the most liberal of those who bestow gifts," 2.e. L-jj)tl\ ^xx\ i^f:^^ ^^ we (I mean the Arabs).'''' ^ O »' ^ Ox x 2. AVOKDS DEFINIKG OE SrECIFYING THE ACTION. (]0'5). These will be best understood from the follow- ing examples : b . J ijL^jJ 'l struck a blow." • XX C^xOx ^xox /yo 'X cl^l) r^ or ...-.'Jj .J or tJj .^ if.'jj ,J ' I struck him one blow — ^^i!l S'Ai) - ' I flogged him three strokes of a hide whip." l!ry-j ''i:iJ^ I struck him a whip" (for with a whip," or the blow of a whip.") P 9 xxoS 9 Oxx ^w •!.:>- ^^y^s- \ u:-N«»l:>- I sat the best of sitting. X i^O-'O-^l y O ''X ^L^i^iUl c:_?Jots I sat in the posture called ^L=i.J!," i.e. scjuatting. o -3 -^ -5 J' ^ o -»-uJl Ji^ '—^/^ ■'■ D^arched all the mai-ch." X O XO.O X O X >■ Oxx ^jjt^ \ tjAxi i^:^j£. I knew some science. • o -Si -o X I ^'yox X 2JI lLSj.J c5:iJ,-i 'l struck him that blow." In some instances the governing verb may be under- stood, but the noun defining or specifying the action 190 ARABIC GRAMMAR. remains in tlie objective case, as ^^si ^L "Welcome!'* I.e. *_fSij^ ci^^AJf [lit.) you nave arrived a good arrival." So in answer to the question lLjJj ^ " whom have you struck?" you may answer \sjj "Zeid," without repeat- ing the verb. The governing verb is always understood in such sentences as the following : A^J La^ J 1y* " Gently" — " wishing well to Zeid," i.e. "act gently" — wish well (lit. [pray God to give] drink) to Zeid." ^\ ^Uuo "Glory to God!" {i.e. 4J1 ^Uu: ^J .) ^ y y ^ o . p xc-S {i.e. is.\b ^J^\ J U,K-J J_,*-:1 }. U^- ^^\ LZ-J\ Thou art my son really." >• CyO •'Ox 5" O X Ox jl/Ks:'! C-?^ ClJj-tf Jl)JJ Zeid has a voice — an ass's voice." Jl^^ J )b)l "Welcome !" {i.e. \^ e^j j L^l c:^'), Z«^. Thou hast come (as it wt re) to thy family, and trodden on smooth ground.") 3. NOUNS USED ADVERBIALLY. (106.) In the last few examples the objective case may be considered as simply adverbial or objective. The objective case used in this defining or specifying sense, like the second object of a doubly transitive verb, is not affected by a change of voice, as Uj.Ai, Ij^ j^jj tl^ "Zeid was struck a severe blow." Amongst the defining or specifying words above re- ferred to are to be included adverbs of time or distance, as jS^*" ^ 9 o-gj •' L^ ^-ii-^^ I prayed some time,'* THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 191 ^ C PC'-Cl '■ox P (^ P lyt^\ (♦y, Lii-v^-s "l fasted Friday." \^ '-^Vr' I marched a mile." and adverbs of place, when they are immediately de- rived from the verb, as ^Vj u^\'k^'* cLvH>- "I sat in Zeid's assembly;" or when the place is indeterminate, as \jlt^ iljsxi " I sat in a place." But if the place be definite and determined, as a house, etc., a prej)osition must be used, as l::-J^jT, ^ lL-II^ " I sat in the house." Other instances of nouns of time and place used adverbially are — 50-.0 X o X 9 ^ ^ ^ j^.aI\ t—^V t-i-^-^Jj^ I sat near the Emir." J6J.J1 ^-« ^.9^ ci^AuL?- ' I sat a long time in an easterly place." -JO-'-' o <• o t«v. ,^..f^ iJLij^ I walked twenty days." *_jJl J^ c:^-..!^ "I walked all day." ^o-o ^^ o^ p o tJjwJ^ ^_,^^ CJp.j I marched part of the post or day's march.." 4. THE CATTSE OE EFFECT OF TUE ACTION. (107). The cause or effect of the action is put ad- verbially in the objective case if it be indefinite and of the nature of an infinitive or verbal noun, as — ■^ L, ^ 9 O^ X 9-' ^ t^y c-o 9 c/^x liyi. '-^:^i^ I fled fearing." <|J ujt}U' ^\ 1-::-^^,^ "l beat my son to correct him." But if it be defined by the article, and of the nature of a noun substantive, it is better to use a preposition, as ./♦,*JJ Li^-r^ ''l came for the butter." O ^ o, 9 oxx iy^^ ci^^J!) " I fled for fear." 192 ARAEIC GRAMMAR. If it he of tlie nature of a verbal noun, "but in a state of construction with some other noun, it may be either used adverbially, or with a preposition, as Joiill (_J.=^ ^-^ y** " I fifid fearing slaughter." Jiii\ i_Jji:^ '-^^'^{y^ "l fl6 y P y y y p 9 LTs- y Ix^w tJ^j (^^ '--^.Ij -^ ^^^ ^ manias slave laughing." A verb or a nominal sentence may stand in the relation of an adverb expressing condition; in this case it is generally introduced by the conjunction j, as %^^ ^jjJiJLU J jyj ^U- " Zeid came and the sun was rising (sell, at the same time)." If the nouns forming the sentence tiave pronouns affixed to them, the J may either be used or omitted, as ''X 9 P y y it ^^ ^ . ^\j ^£ sSi^^ JjJ 5 [:>- Zeid came to me (with) his hand on his head." LJ^ lJ^ ^y <*^i/»ii I spoke to him mouth to mouth." A verb in the aorist thus used does not require j , as ^^,ii^ jjj 5\^ '•'• Zeid came running ; " but if it bo negative, it requires the^, as j^A-^. ^ J J*^J iji'^^ "Zeid came to me not running." The preterite requires j and also the particle jJ , as JiJij Jv5 ^ J^j *\j3- "Zeid came riding." In such an expression as ^^\ tl/.-^^' ^ '^S^^ ji'u ^\1 13 194 ARABIC GRAMMAE. "do you eat fish and drink milk (at the same time)," the conjunction J requires the following verb to be in the subjunctive (see p. 172). There is in all these cases an ellipse of some such expression as " your state is that—" eg. "do you eat fish and your state is ( = whilst) that you drink milk." The adverbial accusative is used in such sentences as the following : \mJ6 S) V «fO^ ^ o -3 -<: 9 C.^-- ^U '- '6\ jo: P VJ Zeid was happy in mind." I raised the Sheikh in power." Zeid is greater than you in wealth." How good is Zeid quA a man." How noble is Zeid's father qua a father." , Gotl bless him for a horseman." It is also used occasionally with words of weight or measure, as ■^ y ^ S -"O L>J J^ii^ ^-^^ "l hsxe a mithkdl in gold." A.k:o>- ..rJ^ I bought two measures of com." And also with the numerals from 1 to 99. The syntax of the objective case may be summed up by saying that it is used objectively and adverbially. The following sentence contains an example of each of the various uses of the objective case: P^ -f o-- ^ ^ O ^ 0..0 ^ c 5c-c^ -'S^c^ -o 1^ ^ ^ ■''i- 9 o^^ I struck, conjointly with Amr, Zeid, before the Emir, on Friday, a severe blow by way of correcting him." ^ & \^ <)JJ lit. "to God his milk-flow," an idiomatic expression of admiration. PREPOSITIONS. 105 THE GENITIVE OR DEPENDENT CASE. (109). The genitive case is peculiar to nonns, and is employed in two instances. 1. After a preposition, as sJ^\ "^y L::.,^^^ "I went out frojji the city." 2. When following another nonn, the sense of which, it defines or determines, and with which it is said to be in a state of construction, as jjJ 111 ^/^ "Zeid's slave came to me." PREPOSITIONS. (110). The prepositions which govern the oblique case are: c->, signifying — 1. Companionship, as ^■^*4*:' ''with his tribe." This gives a transitive sense to a neuter verb, as from ij^i "he went," i^ i_l^i>j "he carried it away." 2. Instrumentality, as J^'Sb "with a pen." 3. Correspondence, as *^i^ CJ^\ o^.^ "I sold the garment for a dirhem." 4. t_^ is employed pleonastically with the agent of certain verbs, as lo^f^ ^b ^ "God is a sufficient witness." 5. In the predicate of JJ-l, as Jlk- i^\ ^^ " God is not unjust." 6. As a particle of swearing, as alJlj " by God." ^, signifying — 1. "Of," or "from," in all the senses of those prepositions in English, as P O '- X - ' I went out/ro/w the city." 196 ARABIC gea:vimar. xoj'-o ^ y I fasted until sunset." When followed by a pronoun, the ^ in |j|_ and in ^jJ "near" (see p. 1.65) becomes quiescent, as &^1\ "to him." |1^ "from," "off," "away from," as ijMKsS\ ^js. /^-w-J^ l::^-^^^ I shot the arrow from the bow," ^ alH k— ^^ <:iJ^'.xJ:> I am occupied with the love of God (and p y ^ «. / iL«j L« jji turned thereby) away from all else," \^ is sometimes governed by another preposition, as i^'^. (j-^ c^ L/"!:^!' "®^^ ^^^ ^y I'iglit," ^«^. "from off," where ^^ implies the "distance from," ^ the "motion from." ^Ic, signifying — 1. "Upon," as S^^ ^J^ c^wVai-^ "I climbed upon the mountain." ^^ also may be governed PREPOSITIONS. 197 p <^y by J}^, as i^T JI ^^ c^;3 "I came down from off the roof," literally " from upon." 2. '' Against," as J^^^\ J^ ^y^ "he went out (rebelled) af/ainst the king." Ji also becomes ^jl with pronouns, as ^U " on him." J, signifying— 1. "To," ''belonging to," as j^jJ JUll *' the property is (belongs) to Zeid." 2. " For," as c^.ot.;U &zj_^ " I struck him/or correction." 3. "At" (pleonastically), as l^T^ c^^^^ "at Zeid I struck." dS "like," as ^1^ ^J "Zeid (is) like the lion." %~ "until" (limiting a continuous relation), as v> -^ '^ ^ ^o-iO 9 <-> ^\1^\ ^:^ l^jU\ u>v^ " I slept yesterday until the morning." dj and J are particles of swearing, as ^3ilj dll^j by God." ' OTHER "WORDS TJSED AS PEEPOSITIONS. (111). cIjJ "many a," or, conversely, "but few." (Ijj must begin the sentence, and the noun which it governs must be indefinite and qualified by a subsequent adjective, as ^LjJ *j i J^JJ (iJj " many a generous man have I met." Sometimes a pronoun is afiixed to it, in which case the followinsr word must be indefinite and in the accusative case, as l^-j ^j " many a man." If the particle U be affixed to Oj? it signifies "per- haps," "probably," and serves to introduce a sentence, as 1;Tj jjJ l^J " perhaps Zeid is standing." 1 It is worth rcmarkincj that the long alif in the name of God is pronounced with the imd/ehsce p. 9 (7)— if preceded by a kesrah -r ; but if preceded by any other vowel, it ispionouncedvcry full and broad: thus, w'alldhi, t'alldhi, as above, but , as .j..^»-.j Jo) ilj. J-Ji "Two days before the death of Zeid." i,yy y (^ ^ -o P9 yi^y ^-.■:.iilu«..' ^^wi-lll <^^ JkXJ " Two hours after sunrise." Many other nouns are used as prepositions, such as "Jli "except," 3^ "over," etc. They have the accusative form without tenwm. A SENTENCE AS THE COMPLEMENT OF A PEEPOSITION. (112). An entire proposition, verbal or nominative, is often the complement of a preposition, in which case it does not change its terminations, as THE VOCATIVE. 199 ili^-j Ul.«j *lilj U^^ jJJl ♦«:..' ^ U aU^j By God ! she is not a How good is the child,' her help is weepijig, and her armour silken attire" (said by an Arab who was told of the birth of a daughter). \jS ,J.^^J\j\^jWJ Proclaim, The departure is to-morrow.'" THE VOCATIVE. (113). The vocative particles are Ij, S\, !, Gt, ll^, of ■which the first, Ij, is the more common. They usually govern the noun in the subjective case. They may be either expressed or understood, as Ij^jb j^:: iJt-^ >— ^Url ''Joseph avoid this," i.e. t— i-l^J Ij "0 Joseph," etc. The vocative is put in the objective case — 1. When the noun is in construction, as aI!^ s^ b "Oh 'Abdallah!" Or when it governs another noun in the accusative, as L?^ Ulll? Ij " thou who art ascendinji; a mountain ! " 2. When it is undefined, or not directly addressed, e.g.., as when a blind man says, ^s^ 'd.>- \^j b " Here somebody ! take my hand." But if the noun is not in construction, but is indefinite, and not qualified by a sub- sequent adjective, being nevertheless directly addressed, it is put in the nominative case withoiit iemv'n., as :vji; "Oh Zeid!" 'S^j b "Oh man!" If, however, it be so qualified, it is more often put in the objective case, as l^^ i=rj ^^ " generous man ! " Indeclinable and imperfectly declined ^-"iins do not of course take the — , as ^^ Ij " Oh Moses !" ^\i Ij "Oh Cadhi ! " ^r^^ i; " Oh Sibawaih ! " ^.•v. 200 ARABIC GRAMMAR. In crj'ing for help, or expressing wonder, J i^ P'''^" fixed to the noun, which is then put in the oblique case, as OX'' . >> jjjj l) "Oh for Zeid (to help me) !" ^^^ V. " Oh for the (what a) wonder ! " When the noun has the article prefixed, the vocative is expressed by putting it in the nominative case and prefixing the word 1^4^ " masculine," and l^u 1 "feminine," for all numbers, as jJ-sliJ \ \j^\ Oh (thou) the accomplished !" 'i\ ^ \ l^A.;! Oh you woman there ! " The name of God ^i is seldom put in the vocative, but when it is, the Jiemzet el-wasl may be either retained or elided, as cUi\ b ya-allali^ or iUl U ya Hlah. But the word more generally used in addressing the Deity is ^I^iJl, with- out a vocative particle. APOCOPATION OF THE LA.ST SYLLABLE OF THE VOCATIVE. (114). In the following cases the last syllable of the vocative may be apocopated : 1. In all substantives having a feminine termination, no matter of what gender, as . The vocative jCa for ^^-s-l^ " Oh ! my companion," is a rare exception. NOUNS DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE. (115). I^ouns are either definite or indefinite. An indefinite noun is rendered definite by prefixing the article Jl ; or by placing it in construction with another and following noun. The loss of the temv'n is, as we have already seen, the distinctive mark of the definite noun. . FOUNS IN CONSTPtUCTION. OF THE FIRST OF TWO NOUNS IN CONSTEFCTTON. (IIG). Of two nouns in construction, the first invariably loses its tenwin. The use and application of the construct arrangement of nouns will be best understood from a study of the following examples : jJjs-Jl j*Li The slave of the man." 9 ^ 9 ^ 9 Jj>-j /♦!£. The slave of a man." p -^ p Here the loss of the tenwin makes the word j*li definite in both instances (see p. 7); it is not necessary there- fore further to define it by prefixing the article. From this results the rule that the first of two nouns in a state of construction does not require the article. Sometimes, however, when the two nouns in con- 202 ARABIC GRAM3IAR. struction have come to be regarded almost as a single expression, the article may be prefixed, as iJj^n 'L^\ The "Ufe of this ^vorld." j^^»-^^i ^^s^\ The book called "The life of animals" (name of a work on natural history). A noun may have several complements in construction with it, as 'i3[^jA\^j ^-r^^ (*4^ ^^B.e who knows what is hidden, and what is present." If it be necessary to leave the first of two nouns indefinite, and yet to express the same relation between them as that implied by the state of construction, the preposition J "to," or "belonging to," must be used with the second noun, as LL-|^ (_^LiJl. The relation of the second of two nouns in a state of • construction to the first— 2. e. the relation of the determin- ing or defining noun to that which it determines or defines— will be best understood from the following examples : <0J1 L^'Ls^ ' The wisdom of God/ j&^ .JkH i^i The silver of dirhems." ^^ ,^ ^ ^*4^ '^'^^ Creator of the earth." (jiu^ijlll y>- The heat of the sun." ^^<1^'\ U^ij " The fountain-head of wisdom." ^jlj^lirr*^ \ J-^ " All created things." j^lkLJl '^■'J^ " The king's treasury." -:s^J \ ^j^\ jjllii-j " The king of the land and the sea." sl/tw^l C^^ " 'T^® creation of the heavens. ' »^j^ y^< Those who meet their Lord." ♦.^amAjI ^'♦J^ Those who are unjust to their own souls." ^IlLjpil '-^}^ "The writer of the treatise." _jl^ Jj^ * '^^^ ^^^^ ^° disbelieve." j:jLs'*^-ui Incrcate (other than created)." 204 ARABIC GRAMMAR. o • ^ Jii t-^o-^ " A thing most pleasing. L) J 1 -*ri. " The best of creation." y o ^ ^^U^ /^s*^ -A. wom-out turban. di-ciaJ ^ J-c^ " The most learned of philosophers." <_;LuJ\ ?-:lr*' "Q^ic^ °^ (^^^ reckoning." We have seen that when two nouns are in a state of construction, the first becomes definite ; if it be required to express such relationship between the two, and yet to preserve the indefinite character of the first, a preposition must be interposed, as aj3\ iU^j "God's mercy." ^\ ^ U^j "A mercy from God." 6z.,^£=^j "His mercy." ^ 'U^j "A mercy of His." Sometimes this construction is used merely to give importance to the noun, as in the verse of Imru 'al Kais : ^^. j^ j ^^ ^}S. jx v^i^ ■.^\^j.\.i\ h2^ "And (many a) waterskin belonging to the tribe have I placed the strap thereof on a shoulder of mine accustomed to fatigue and used to travel." OTHER MODES OF EXPEESSIXG THE EEIATION BETWEEN NOUIfS. (118). The idea of possession, companionship, etc., is also expressed in Arabic by the use of the following words : 3J masc. ^y^ fern, "possessor," C^^\^ "companion," *y "father," '^\ "mother," "^\ "son," 11?^ or .^ " daughter," ^ " brother," dJ^\ " sister." .i and lJ-o-C imply simple possession or endowment, as (i^Tjj "learned," JU J^^l^ "wealthy." LOCAL NAMES AND SOBRIQUETS. 205 t_j1 and ^t imply that the thing expressed by the following noun proceeds from, or has an intimate con- nexion with, the person or thing so qualified. They are used in forming nick-names, and in the names of localities, as 'ijjjb ^\ "Abu Hurairch" ("father of the kitten," the name of one of the companions of Mohammed). j^HiiuJl yi\ Father of watching" (the cock). f^^j jjI Abu Pu'ah" ( father of perfume," Latakia tobacco). ^^ <^\ Abu Shiah" ( father of Shiah," i.e. a sweet-scented desert herb ; name of a mountain in Sinai). c^^Li:^ \ ^\ " Mother of Vices " (wine). sXijs *,\ "Umm Tarfa" (mother of tamarisks; name of a valley in Sinai). iJO ^i\^ and c:--.:^, or 'Li\^ are the converse of l^\ and \\^ as jj--^! ^M * Son of the road (a traveller)." ojl ^\ Son of howling (a jackal). (J-jpl l::-^:j * The daughter of the mountain (the echo)." ^1 and uL-oi^l also imply being endowed with a quality, as << ^xA\ ^\ Sincere (the brother of sincerity)." '- 0-0 >> S jj»x]l ^i>\ Eich (the brother of riches)." ^ »^i Trusty (the brother of confidence). ^1 is also used for "fellow," as Ujs^js-I ^y^'^ ^aa "this garment is the fellow to this one." Note.—^\\Q complement of ^i may be a verb in the aorist, although such construction is rare, as y P ^ o y 1 jo (^O L» JUuJ o Ju' ^ No! by him (through whom) yoi>, are preserved, it was not so." 20G . ARABIC GEAMMAR. The same construction occurs in the following verse of Ibn el Faridh : 1 jljj i_<,j111 jUi! Iju-1 iJt Li>j ^bi ^^ Ooo J-.Ji 1^1^ Jkj * Before ^e was numhered amongst those slain of (by) a fawn, He was a lion rending tlie lions of Shera.*' Some words, as J^ " all," require to be placed in a state of construction with another noun in order to complete the sense, as *pijT jf "all the tribe." In such a sentence as ci.*^^ ~S " ^ "^i^l ^^i^j" which is an apparent exception, the same rule holds, for it is equivalent to t^^^ ^=-1 J^ "every one will die." ELLIPSE OF THE FIRST OF TWO NOITNS IN CONSTEUCTIOK. (119). The first or second of two nouns in a state of construction may be understood in such an instance as l^li ^^ l)^J '^ ^^ f^^ "May God cut off the hand and foot of him who said it;" for - t . l^li (^ iX) 'S " Do you think every man a man, and (every) fire kindled by night a fire (of hospitality) ? " *> X xl ^^x " I saw the Teimite, of Teim, of the descendants of Adi." XX O V X c ^ii -Sj-o # -Sii-O X X -Jjx *'When it was the reign of Nasir (literally, 'the Ifasirian days'), viz. of Mohammed, son of Kclaon." UNUSUAL CONSTRUCTIONS OF NOUNS. 207 THE GENDEE OF AN ADJECTIVE QUALIFYING TWO NOUNS IN CONSTEUCTION, (120). The last of the two nouns gives the gender to the qualifying adjective, or whatever other word serves as the predicate, as 6jt.i\J\ ^^^ L::.-^xkJ "some of his fingers were cut off." The two nouns in construction may occasionally be separated, as in the following examples : £-»5^L: ^ U^lj' *xil Jjs> Are you leaving to me my companion?" \^j Jjol J CI.* 4^ -^-.^-^j S'IaI^ ^1 Verily the sheep hears the Yoice (by God!) of its master.'' 4_$'J»jj U.J i^_2io *-_;li>Jl lijs- U^ "As the book was written by the hand, one day, of a Jew.' SEPAEATION OF TWO NOUNS IN CONSTRUCTION. (121). The objective complement is frequently inter- posed between two nouns in a state of construction, when the first is a noun of action, as It has seemed good to many of the polytheists that their associates should kill their children." ^>'*i^ ^uisi cJy ^lidb ^><:n ^l-J^ ^^ cJy. They (the locusts) scatter the grains of the rich ears of com which grows on the plain as the flails scatter the cotton grains." l^ is sometimes inserted expletively between the two nouns, as Oh sheep that should be as a prey for him to whom its possession is lawful. — It is forbidden me ! Oh would that it were not forbidden ! " But these are perhaps nothing but poetical licence. 208 ARABIC GEAMMAR. CONCORDANCE OF NOUNS AND EPITHETS. (122). If the noun be definite, the qualifying epithet must also be definite, as ^^\^\:^\ "The mighty Book." ^j^1>\ ^"^ji^ "The faithful Abraham." If the noun be in a state of construction with another noun, or have an affixed pronoun, the qualifying epithet is placed after such compound expression, and is also rendered definite by prefixing the article, as A-^^ Li**'^'* '-r^''"-^ "The mighty Book of Moses." A,^^\ iJ\::^ "His honoured Book." P • - But if the noun be indefinite, the epithet will also be indefinite, as ^-^ s-'^ "^^ ^^ book." The rules for the concordance of the noun and epithet in gender and number are the same as for the agent and verb. Occasionally, however, a broken plural may take the epithet in the feminine plural, as CiJu ,L? Jft-j) Devouring lions. *— -'r^'J UT^ Firm mountains. c:.JUib-^ ( jj-*o Slender sharp swords. cUiJ.Jut^ /♦ui Numbered days. A collective noun may be qualified by an epithet- in the masculine plural, as ^„/^\ ^^\ ^jl ^^\ ''aid us against the infidel folk." THE NOUN OF ACTION AS A QUAIIPYINQ EPITHET. (123). Sometimes a noun of action, instead of an adjectival or participial form, is used as a qualifying THE NmiEEALS. 209 epithet, as 3^ "justice," instead of ^Al ''just ;" it then agrees with the noun in case, and in being definite or indefinite, but it remains always in the singular number, and preserves its own gender, as fjSs:. Cp^-j a just man. J Jcr ^^j " Two just men." U"^ u^J ^'^^'^ men." An example of this occurs in the Koran : \)ij\^ <^l:;jli oULu^ e;^* Irr^ ^^I'j^ ''^'^. ^ ^J'^ \J' ^.J (^^*^ Perchance his Lord if he divorce you will give him wives better than you true-believers, obedient and virgins." — Kor. Ixvi. 5. Ibn Malik in his Alfi'yeh gives the rule as follows : They frequently use the noun of action as an attribute, But keep to the singular number and the masculine gender."' THE NUMERALS. CONSTETTCTION' OF THE NTJMEEAL AXD THE THING XUMBEEED. (124). iJ^^J (fem.), j^lj (masc.) one^ is used as an adjective, as jo-ij J::>j one man," i^J^'j i]/«]. one woman." Ok^l, fem. tJJ^S.) i^ always a substantive, and is there- fore employed in a state of construction, as ^_^Lll j^js-I "one of the men," sl^l ^^j^i^^ "one of the women." Sometimes 5y "an unit," is used, as jLi 3j "of one and the same shape." For the simple numeral one in the abstract j^lj is used. 14 210 ARABIC GEAMilAR. Tloo is expressed by the dual number of the noun ; sometimes, for greater emj)hasis, the numeral ^:^\ J^•l^ may be used as well, as ^^\ Jl^ji ^jy* "I passed by ^ y y two men." The use of the numeral Uvo with a singular genitive, as in the expression J^^ liuj ''two colocynth gourds," is rare (see p. 105). From 3 to 10 the numerals are (l) either used as nouns substantive, governing the genitive of the broken plural, and if possible the plural of paucity, and agreeing with the noun in gender, as JU- 1 ^j^Jj " three men," ci^lij c_U.1j "three girls;" or (2) they may be regarded as adjectival, and placed after and in apposition with the noun, as yj^Ad>~ c:.'*l^j '^^ ^j^-J ^ ^ "he had three sons and five daughters." Very rarely they are construed with the accusative, as \>\^\ 'L^:i^ "five dresses" (see p. 194). From one to ten tlie numerals are declinable and follow the ordinary laws of construction and dependence upon verbs and particles. "When the thing numbered is a collective noun, the preposition "^^ should be introduced, as ^-.kJ \ ^ 'ijt.ij\ "four birds" {i.e. four individuals of the class lird) , kjb^^ cT? '^'^l "iiine of the family." From 11 to 19 the numerals are, as we have seen, indeclinable, and are therefore subject to no laws of con- struction ; the units must, however, agree in gender with the thing numbered. From 11 to 99 the numerals govern an accusative of the thing numbered. Where there is a distinction of gender, the numerals always agree with the thing numbered. The thin THE NUMERALS. 211 numbered being put in the singular, an adjective may- agree with it either grammatically or logically, as ^^''^^^ ^^oj" Twenty dinars of Nasir's coinage." In the first place iJ^lJ agrees grammatically with the singular masculine Ijb.) ; m the second logically with the feminine broken plural J-J 155, which is implied. We may use all the numerals as ordinary nouns, and place them in a state of construction, as jjj .^A^ "Zeid's twenty (horses, etc.);" the ^ being dropped by the rule given in p. 108. [In this case some grammarians decline the inde- clinable numerals : e.g. -^ ^ ^ •?. ^ o ^ . -' << * ^ " ~ au*,u*>ri. ^i^JSi These are your fifteen (camels). 1 jtXt^' y y . y y ''„y ij y V' CSjUts. a«g,*/t^ j,rL Take your fifteen (camels). kISJLs. i:^M*j'^s>. ^ kiil Give some of your fifteen (camels). Some few decline the last part only, thus : Subjective J^s. cUw*^ Dependent .Aj ^Lu.4.^ y ^ y <, ^ o / Objective .Jlt-s- LijjJ\ «jjl " The four Zeinabs." For the numerals in the abstract the masculine form is always used, as "LjAS i»j:^ 15^11 "three is half six." N.B. The article is here used to express the abstract or general nature of the noun, e.g. ''the (number) three ;" an indefinite noun is necessarily concrete; seep. 157 (81). When things of different genders are included under one numeral the following rules hold : From 3 to 5 the number of each species must be separately expressed : From 6 to 10 the numeral agrees in gender with the noun immediately following it, as ^Ul » <^^\ ^3U3 ^J "l have eight servants and handmaids." iX*cl , ^U^ , JUj , J "l have eight handmaids and servants." From 11 — 19 the numeral is always masculine for nouns denoting rational beings, no matter in what order they come, as ^y y y -^ (^ y y y ^ y y i^ ^ hXp^t 1iA-»£ .A£ iLu./».:>- ^'^^ * I ^^^^6 fifteen male and female slaves." ^ i^ y y ^y yyyyyy^y o \s*^ ■ h ,lrs- .jlkS ^/♦.^ if JCs£ "l have fifteen female and male slaves." For nouns denoting irrational beings the numeral agrees in gender with that which immediately follows it : •i^y y y ^ y ./^ y y ^ y y i^ ^ Ailj , L*5>- ,A£ ^*»A/*^ ^Jc-c "ihavefifteen male and female camels." lU?-_j li\i iJLs. ^^/--'♦ci. ci^?^ "l have fifteen female and male camels." THE NUMERALS. 215 And when the noun does not immediately follow the numeral, the latter is always in the feminine, as ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ •'O^ ^ ^^ o ^ ^ o ^ o ^l) ^ J.'iJ^ (^ l^ ijlLz ^^^'♦^rL o Axe " I have fifteen camels, male and female. >- y ^ yt^y y y y Li y y ^y o J.'*.^_j 'tjlj ^^ t* i^-l£ ^jo*^^ ^Ai^ I have fifteen camels, female and male." THE USE OF THE AETICLE WITH NriTERALS. (126). "With regard to the use of the article, the numerals may be treated like ordinary nouns, as y y y 9 <^ "^ -*o y y y y (I -.Ju ^yt.^\ j-^rJ And the seventy returned with joy." The prime of life is the age when man is stationary, between thirty and forty." In the last example the article is used to generalize the noun, see p. 157 (81). The rules for using the article with the thing numbered are really the same as those which apply in the case of ordinary nouns in a state of construction; e.g. JU-j ^1j "three men," is equivalent in construction to Jl^j c:,;!^! "men's voices;" adding the article therefore by the ordinary rule to the last only, we get in both cases, JU-")Tcij£ "the three men," JI^TlLO "the men's y y y y "^ voices;" see p. 201 (11 G). As, in some cases, the same two nouns in a state of construction are so frequently used together that they are regarded at last as one word, and may take the article, so, too, may the numeral, although in construction with a noun, e.g. IjUj jJlIi "seven fundamental precepts;" with 216 ARABIC GRAMMAR. p -uJ-o ^ ^^-^ >- ^ o -$ S the article, L^^^^Lll J U^ ^--Jl "the seven fundamental pre- cepts of the law;" cf. GllTi-Qi "the life of this world," scilicet^ ^\]liQh. is so frequently mentioned (see p. 102). This will of course apply only to the numerals from 3 to 10, and to the hundreds and thousands, i.e. those which are considered as nouns, and as such govern the thing numbered in the dependent case. Those which are not placed in construction with the following noun of course take the article, without refer- ence to such noun. The only thing remarkable about them is that in the compound numerals the article may be added to both portions or to the first only, as tf^^O ^^X^xOx c* ^_ ^ ,, r " The fifteen dirhems." , _ , , ^ ( ' The fifteen she-camels." Wherever the numeral, and not the thing numbered, takes the article, and a qualifying adjective follows, this must take the article, as in the example given above : iL>j^^Ul JUt) f--jiJ\ The seven fundamental precepts of the law." THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. (127). The ordinal numbers are regarded as agents or qualifying nouns, and are subject to the same laws. The ordinals for the units (except the first) are of the form Jilj, and are therefore susceptible of the feminine terminations, singular and plural. Those for the tens, hundreds and thousands are the same for both genders. THE OEDINAL NUMBERS. 217 For our expressions "one of two," "one of four," etc., the Arabs say, "the second of two," "the fourth of four," etc., as ^jSi \ ^Ij One of two. ixij\ «_jlj One of four. Similarly, for "he makes a fifth," they say, "he is the fifth of four." Here the true agent sense is given to the ordinal, which may therefore either govern like a noun or a verb (see p. 225), as !^^,,^ ^ ,,\ " He makes a fifth." DATES. (128). In dates the cardinal numbers are used fol- lowing the word dll) in the dependent case; the order preserved is units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and they are connected together with the conjunction j, as t_iJ^ . ^UiJj > ,.,^^M^ * Liux-j ''^J.«j , J In the year 1396. ' In employing the ordinal numbers for dates, the word day is frequently understood as with us ; e.g. i«^5;-i ,^ i^J^ c;'^^ ' 28 th of the month Ecjob." But if the article be used with the ordinal, the con- struct form cannot of course be employed ; e.g. ;_^^ . ^ (j^ UAr^ ^ -J ciT?*^^^ " "^^^ ^^^^ °^ ^^*^ month Eejob." The day of the month is expressed either in the same manner as with us, counting from the first day, or accord- ing to the following system : 218 ARABIC GRAMMAR. 1st Rojeb X -^ O ^O^- ■^'t s>-j i^t dJj J.)! On the first night of Eejeb being passed." ^ ^ ■03? w^^ '' ' \ "0^ the now moon or the ^5>-j iyj or J^^ ) blaze of Eejeb" (iti ^ ^ y-i * -c or J.^:iA»*^ 1 white mark on a horse's 2nd „ 3rd „ 10th „ -^ '^ O ^ '^ ^ O^^O^ forehead). • ^ nth „ 12th „ 13th „ 14th „ 15th „ to JUJ being understood before |oy^< r; (j"^ l::^Ic^ S^-i*.^ i^^^^ ' On eleven nights of Eejeb being passed. y-y'O O^x ''^O^O ^^o.<3 y y (^ O.M'.O •'x o o ^ '^ 4^ ^ f^ y ^ yUs- In the middle of Eejeb." 16th „ t-T-^^j i^'* '-^.t*^^ ^Ac r-^,j^ On fourteen nights re- to maining of Eejeb." 19th „ 20th „ -r^>' c; ,*'■« U^>o^ ^.A.u£ «_.luUj y y ^ J" y Kj y to 27th >7 «> .^-r -- y ■!■ y ■" y y JUJ being understood before ^j-Jj " ..^ PROPER NAMES. 219 X *^ o ^^ ^ t,^^^^ 28tli Eejeb ^r^J c^* ^^ c;rr^^^ 30tli ^ »-^^jcr?J*?'°^J^~'°Olr'°o!/^ X ^ c ^ .5-^ s -^ ^Z r On tho last night of ^ ' or \ Reieb." ■!*• PROPER NAMES. Lre eiuuer oiuipie, us (129). Proper names are either Simple, as \\ ' Zeid;" or Compound, as aJJ\ j.^^^ " 'Abd'allah." SIMPLE PEOPEE NAMES. (130). A mere proper name, not having an intelligible signification .in Arabic, is only inflected with — and — ; and being definite, it is not susceptible of tenw'in^ and cannot take the article, as 9 9 P ~-' i-jy ^ U.- Joseph came." 220 ARABIC GRAMMAR. ''Yezid," or^^ "Shammar," which have verbal forms. Such names remain uninflected and uninfluenced by verbs, particles, etc., as \^ LjIj s\-9> Taabbata-Sharran came.* \jS^ LjIj l::-v>\; I saw Taabbata-Sharran." \jL LjIij c1-J;^.« "I passed by Taabbata-Sharran." 2. Compounded of two words of which the second has become a mere termination, as cJ'^Jjs" "Hadhramaut," t£ JjUII ^^^J "^-^ '"H'l/^ "^ passed by Sa'id Zein el-Abidin." ^ .. NOTINS WHICH GOVERN LIKE VERBS. THE TTSE OF THE INFINITrVE OE NOUN OF ACTION AS A VERB. (133). As in English, the infinitive or verbal noun may govern another noun in the objective case, as jA^\ jjj i^jL ^^ '-^^■?'^ "I wonder at Zeid's drinking the wine." When governing the genitive, it has a passive sense, as .4^1 c-j-i ^^ ^■^^-r^'^ "I wondered at the drinking of the wine," i.e. at its being drunk. When the noun of action is separated from its com- NOUNS WHICH GOVERN LIKE VERBS. 223 plement, the latter is put in the objective case instead of the genitive, thns t^l (**'^> Feeding an orphan." L«-»uj y ■it -" 9 «^^:J1 15^*'^ ^:^^^=*- "My love for him taught me piety." 224 AEABIC GRAMMAE. The same constructions are found with the nouns of action from doubly transitive verbs, as Verily tlie people were shocked at Mohammed's giving Amr poisoned bread to eat." If the verb governs its complement by means of a preposition, the noun of action may be used with a similar construction, as s. Jc^-sr^ <^,*-si \ AtJ ,lli:i!'l Mohammed's waiting for Amr on Friday. Note. — It will be seen from the foregoing examples that, when the noun of action fulfils the function of the verb, either the subject or the object may be expressed by placing it in construction with such noun of action. When the noun of action is undefined, especially in the adverbial accusative, or when it is in construction with its subject, it frequently takes its objective com- plement with J, as ^^aKsr \^\jS\ "To please me," instead of ^_j)s\s^ \^S\ . ^ iLj, (jj-^/Lil jj*js:***^ The sun's warming the earth." Vice versctj the -noun of action is fi-cquently repre- NOUNS T7HICE GOVERN LIKE VEEBS. 225 sented by the aorist of the verb, preceded by the particle y, or by the preterite with U, as J3 j^ L^^^" ^\ That you should fast is better for you." ::^ Vt \jJj They would have liked that you should have perished." THE TJSE OF THE AGENT, INTENSIVE AGENT, AND PASSIVE PAETICIPLE AS A VERB. (134). The agent may govern a noun in the objective case if it refers to a present or future time, as Lyj i-r^U 1 jji "this is (a man who) is striking, or is going to strike, Zeid." Or if it be negative or interrogative, as \y^s. Joj ^-^l«* U ' Zeid is not striking Amr." \jAS. Jv-J c__>jIj1 *Is Zeid striking Amr?" If it refer to a past action, it must be put in the usual construct form with the oblique case, as j^jj l_^U Ui> "this (is the man who) struck Zeid." The pronoun ^^ of the first person, although properly used only with verbs, is sometimes joined to the agent when thus used, as ^^y jI^ ''^\ Ja " do you believe me ?" and with the noun of superiority, as <'0 OfOx X ^ '-0 S vi •Ji-OCOy' " (There is) another than the Anti-christ (who) inspires me with more fear for you than he does." (135). So too the intensive agent, as ^ o • S -5^ \jAS. ^^j*o ' He who thrashes Amr/ jj <-^ "Zeid, his slave is beaten," so also you say, ^«ii C'jtr^* ^J " Zeid whose slave is beaten ; " construed with the genitive, as ^--^ Hind is a most beautiful woman." But if it be followed by a definite noun in a state of of construction with it, it may either agree or not with its noun, as •' ''^ -' ( The two Zeids are the most accom- or .. :°^V^% .'"'^t 1 plished of the tribe." or The Hinds are the most beautiful T (( II.. ( It 1 01 (the) women. ' • The first construction is the most approved. Comparatives formed from transitive verbs take the object in the dependent case with J , as llli^ J.riJ ZJ^\ la> "he seeks more after knowledge than you." ' Those formed from verbs of loving, hating, etc., also take the object with J as auvoij ^^ a.IJ , ^^\ ^,^>^^\ "the believer loves God more than himself," and they take the subject with ^Jl^, as :r-»i ;:;^ f^^ J|^ l.^=^1 e;*;-*^^ "the believer is more beloved of God than any other. Those formed from verbs of knowing, etc., take i\\o object with c_>, as S:^ j.^ b lJ/:! Ul " I know the truth more than you." Those formed from intransitive verbs require the same preposition after them as the verb from which they are derived, as 228 ARABIC GRAMMAR. "He is more abstinent in worldly things, prompter to good, farther from sin, and more eager for praising God. Frcqueutly this use of comparative adjectives gives rise to an elliptical form of expression, as L^\^ ^i,* ^j^ ^^\ ^^ "he needs me more than I him;" where ^ is for A similar ellipse occurs in the sentence ^j c;rr^ L5^ '^•:? J^ ^ .^^^ L^^ Li;"*^^ ^'^>' ^^^.b ^ which will be explained further on. Followed by U, the noun of superiority expresses the greatest possible degree of superiority, as ^ ... ^ 0''*^»' tiy ' "He left us, when we had most need of him, in the plaws of our enemies." NOUNS EXPRESSING INHERENT QUALITIES. (138). Nouns expressing inherent qualities may govern like verbs; they will be susceptible of three different constructions, according to the point of view from which they are regarded. Thus we may express in Arabic the idea of " the man handsome of face," in any of the follow- ing manners : 9 y -'O-O 9 9 ■Zi y 1. ^^"^ \ - J ^\ J-J^ [In this example the article and noun of quality are considered as equivalent to the conjunctive and the verb, le. ^^'1 = ^^*M> uf^^ and if pointed with .1, i^^\ is NOUNS EXPRESSING INHERENT QUALITIES. 229 eitlier considered as tlie agent or nominative of such verb =" who the face is handsome;" or if pointed with — ^ ^"^t, as the adverbial accusative = "who is handsome as to the face."] Similarly, 2. ^-^1 '^-^ or ^^^j 1 , ^ ^^^ , , ^, "i, U:^« ) • '^ " The man handsome of face, whose face is handsome, or whose father's face is handsome." y -^ • ^ >. • > 'J \ s ^ ■' S 9 ^ t A man handsome of face," etc. In (l) we may also say &.^^\ ^^^'\ J^r^i^ which is merely the ordinary construction, i^'^^ '^^=^ "handsome of face," the article being pretixed to the compound expression formed by the two nouns in a state of con- struction (see p. 202). The genitive is obviously inadmissible in the other examples, as it would violate the rule for the construction of nouns, see p. 201 (112). In declining these forms of expression, the last word, which is considered as the subject of the verb, implied in ^J*us^^ remains unchanged, thus ^:?- J ] _ ^^ • (j*A«=9- iJ^J «i'* ^ -^ raan liandsome of face came to me." c^-jl \ _ S^:?^^ ^-w*>- J>^ fJ '-^ ^f ' I passed by a man handsome of face." P O ^O-O f9L,^ ■>■ I' '' ^'-^ P <^5^ i^?^^\ ^i,^t lu**!*- ilp-t ^-^^rllj -^ ^^^ ^ "^'^^ handsome of face." 230 ARABIC GRAMilAH. ^-^^^ ij"-^-^ ^ (J^V;^ ^ Li"^^^^ " -^^^ ™^^ handsome of face came to me." 9 9 t^ y ^ ^ o~o 9 -Oi-O 9 i^^y c^:p-j i^.«*^ \ iJ^^yV '^—^Jr'* ^ passed by the man handsome y ^ of face." f p- »! \ ^^yMS>- J-:^ rJ '~~1J/'* "*• P'^^s^^ "^y ^ ^^'^ ^^^'' "^f face." lk:^i;^\ i:,M*s>- 'i'^j^\ l::.^;! i I saw a -woman fair of face." o ^o-o y y y y 9 ^ ^_^ y d^^ ^ l:.*ur>- i^^^j ^J^l:>- There came to me two men fair of face." .^ i^ y And similarly where the adverbial accusative l^:>-j is used, as ^'■^-J (^AuTs- J.>^^ *~{/!/^ '-^ passed by a roan fair in face." ', ^ y ^ f^ y ^y y y ^ ^o-.^ 9 o5^ L.:>-j cUAy»j>- iX^l *-^.\; ' I saw a woman fair in face." ^o^ y y y y 9 y _^y k'^^ c^^****" LiJ^'^J iS'^^^^ There came to me two men fair in face." 99 L, y S o ^ But in the other cases the Avords c'.^^-^ , a:>-j, etc , being considered as the subject of the verb, implied in ^^J*'*^> the latter Avord must therefore agree with them in gender and number, though not in case, as ^^^% (^am:s- J"^ r? ^^^jr^ I passed by a man fair of face." Uf?-j ^.A^s- l^j^i\> "-^jf *'l passed by a vroraan fair of face." i^ 9 P 9 P ^ ^ ^ y P i^y y A.^^j i'^^:>- J^^^ ^^^Jj^ " -'- P^^^^^i by Dien fair of face." ^^li-.« |^»^s»- i^'^-u.jj CL.%.-* " I passed by women fair of appearance." <> y y KOUXS EXPRESSING IXHEREXT QUALITIES. 231 -j} ^^jy» " I passed by a man whose father was handsome," it will be necessary to change the form somewhat, and say i.<^ ^t^>-\ ij^t J^ ^^jy* ''I passed by a man whose father was handsomer than he." If, however, the proposition be affirmative, but preceded by a negative statement, and the subject is distinct from, the noun qualified, the adjective may assume the com- parative form, a3 0-' o^ 9-\ a:>-j ^-^iL' ^* *'I have never seen a man whose father is handsomer than he," because the sentence contains only one idea, and the noun with which comparison is made is the same which is qualified by the adjective. In such a case the form of the sentence will be il.^ ^lo-l ^^\ \~^j ^::--j[; u. OTHER WORDS WHICH ARE COGNATE TO VERBS. (130). 1. Words which contain in themselves the meaning of verbs may govern an objective case like verbs. Such words convey either A past sense, as j.u-i) " There is a difference between" = cj^,' 1 Powdered antimony with which the Orientals blacken the edge of the eyelids. 232 . ARABIC GEAMilAR. A precative or deprecative sense, as c:^C»A "Away with" = >^ " Be it remote." ^*.^T "Amen!" = t_^-j]. " Answer our prayer." An aorist sense, as if or ijt "Alas!" = t^-^*^ "lam in pain." ^; "Oh!" = ^\ "I wonder." An imperative sense, as Is Zeid (abiding) in the house. But this may also be explained by the rule for subjecl and predicate (see p. 236). 234 ARABIC GnAMMATl, SECTION II.— THE SENTENCE. PAETS OF A SENTENCE. (140). A proposition consists of a subject and an attribute or predicate, and enunciates the existence of the former in relation to the latter. The word express- ing this relation is called the verb. If simple existence be predicated, the substantive verb ^'Z^" is used. (141). A sentence or clause beginning with a noun is called a nominal sentence, as *\i sij "Zeid stood up." When beginning with a verb, it is called a verbal sentence, as joj yfi "Zeid stood up." The proposition is either major ^ consisting of a subject and predicate, the latter consist- ing of a complete clause, as i^jj /•Ij ''^j Zeid his father is standing ; or minor, and forming the predicate of another proposition, as ai} llj, in the above example. It may be both major and minor at once, as j:^!::-* -j . If it occur after a definite simple noun, as J-if'j %j A^ PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 235 "Zeid came running," it is considered as adverbial, ex- pressing the state or condition of the noun. The aorist indicativ^e, following a preterite without the intervention of a particle, often implies an act con- sequent on the past time implied in the preterite, as i^jLl *u ^J^ (JIl5^^ ''^® came to a fountain of water to drink." If the minor clause, consisting of or con- taining a verb, occur after anything but a substantive noun, it may be considered either as an epithet or an adverb, as ^ •o^oS s ■^ y > 5o iUjJl (Jjr,U,« .^J Ijjb This is a blessed notice which we have revealed." 1^U-j1 J-*3^ jLksM Jd^^ "Like the ass {Jit. like the similitude of the) carrying books." In the first of the above examples hdyA is regarded either as an epithet of J^i , and in apposition with tZ^ll* , or as adverbial of condition ; and in the second \jU\ ^^^r stands in a similar relation to }C^^ 1 . This .lis- 1 is not a really definite noun, but merely has the j( which marks species, see p. 157 (81), and is considered to be general and in a manner indefinite. The Arabic grammarians give a great many other examples of clauses, which, by standing in the position of an inflected noun, may dispense with the conjunction ; but the examples given above will enable the student to understand the principle of all similar constructions. THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. (143). The principle which I have already suggested for the concordance of the Agent and Verb (see pp. 182, 183), will apply equally to the Subject and Predicate of 236 ARABIC GEAMMAH. a sentence, and it will be seen that the following rules naturally result from it. 1. The predicate is always in the nominative or sub- jective case. 2. If both subject and predicate are definite, it is usual, for the sake of perspicuity, to insert the pronoun yi> masc. sing., *j& masc. pL, etc., which serves for the simple substantive verb " is," as ii /♦j-iUl ijsM •& cdSl ' God is the living — the self-subsistent." ^^:^f^ \ >J& cL^ji!jl " They are the prosperous." "Where the subject is a personal pronoun of the first or second person, the pronoun of the third 'person is used to form the copula, as CX^\ tl^Ty^ lil "I am the Lord thy God." The subject in Arabic is equivalent to what is some- times called in Latin grammar a pendent nominative^ and the predicate is any thing which is afterwards affirmed concerning it, as PREDICATE. SUBJKCT. ox,' ;? o uJ £ II l::^*!);' jj.-.,*^ I The sun it rose." This must not be confounded with ^XaiT l::^^!^ 'Hhe sun rose," as such an expression, consisting of a verb with its agent, may of itself form the subject to a subse- quent predicate. The subject may indeed be either a noun, as ^li SJ *^Zeid (is) standing;" or a detached pronoun, as pU^is ''he (is) standing ;" or more than one noun, as -j j\ji\ ^ In the house (is) a man." 2. If it follows an interrogative or negative particle, as j\j,]\ ^ , ^ J-ii Is there a youth in the house?" LJ J^ U " We have no friend" {lit. no friend is to us). 3. If it has an adjective qualifying it, as jS ,i ^* j^ ijl'y* L/r^j -^ helieving man is better than an infidel." 4. If it govern another word by means of a preposi- tion, 2i^'^^ 'j^'\ ^^ Zlj "a longing for goodness is good." 5. If it is in construction with another indefinite noun, as ^^-i) t-iJl i'jllc. ^j^ ^^ lA^ Jj^ "An hour's justice (is) better than a thousand months' worship." 238 - AEABIC GEAMMAR. 6. If it occur in a prayer, as iCli j^l^ "peace (be) upon you." [It will be seen that indefinite nouns under these circumstances become really defined ; they are therefore not really exceptions, although the grammarians give them as such.] The predicate should be indefinite, but it may be definite if the subject is so also, as fiil ju£ \ssb "this'(is) •Abdallah." OMISSION OF THE PREDICATE. (144). Sometimes the predicate is omitted, as ^—^\ It^li 1.::--.=^ j>- I went out, and behold ! the wild beast {scilicet, was before me)." It is always omitted in the following cases : 1. After i^ "were not," as \J*1 c3^ l>j i^ "were it not for Zeid, 'Amr would have perished" {i.e. had not Zeid come to the rescue, etc.). 2. When it precedes a noun in the objective case, which could not serve as the predicate, as L^U o^ " my journey (was performed) walking." f^ "were it not for," though exercising no gram- matical influence on what follows, may take the affixed pronouns, as iSp, ^ip, (-li'iy , etc. These represent the genitive, not the accusative ; for one says c/^y , not ^^^, see p. 151 (75). 3. After j "and," in the sense of ^ "with," as ^vl.rli^ Jj^J 3^ "every man and his own trade," i.e. "every man and his own trade should be found together" {ne sutor ultra crepidam). 4. When it is any form of swearing, as ^\.xii Cjj^ CONCOED OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 239 "by your life I will certainly do so and so," i.e. "by your life (I swear)." 5. When it is an infinitive or verbal noun serving instead of a verb, as J^'^'^ "good patience," i.e. "good patience (be mine) = I must be patient." (145). The subject may consist of an adjective with its substantive following a particle of negation or inter- rogation, in which case the predicate is not required, as Jj.VjjTIj^''^'* "the two Zeids are not standing." Here the word J U stands instead of the proper predicate. CS^^ ^ij^""* J^ "are your sons beaten?" In this case Cji^pi^ serves for the predicate. In these instances, as in the case of verbs and their agent, it is not necessary to put the word expressing action in the plural number, to agree with the noun in the plural, because it is mentioned first in the scutenco (see pp. 182, 183). COXCORD OP THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. (146). The rules for the concordance of the subject and its predicate or attribute are almost the same as those for the concordance of the agent and the verb ; p. 235 (143). If the predicate be a participial or true adjectival form and follow the subject, it agrees with the subject in gender and number, unless it be an irregular plural, in which case it is put in the singular feminine, as t/^ '-'9 9 ^^S ■' ^ ^J^^y* i\y\ ^li Both his parents were true believers." Sy ^ 9 9 9^-^^ 9 9 9 '^■Ul The first chapter." i.e. Jj^^ S-'V^^ ^^ " This is the first chapter." Or conversationally, as in answer to the question iJL-ol Jil^ "how are you ?" the answer may be J^l " ill." WOEDS AFFECTING THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. (149). Certain verbs and particles affect the subject and predicate both in furm and meaning ; they are the following : 1. The abstract verbs. 2. Approximate verbs. 3. Verbs denoting a mental process 4. Yerbs of praise and blame. 5. Particles which resemble verbs. 6. Negative particles. 16 212 AEABIC GRAMMAR 1. ABSTRACT VERBS. (150). The abstract verbs are — j^o He was. jUtf> He became. ^**1 He was or did something in ^ the morning. ^^^^ He was or did something at dawn. rA-jl ^s**l He was or did something at noontide. - ^,i "be wise," and L-^f ^jJ i "do not cease to be trustworthy." j^y generally takes the preposition j with its predi- cate, as Jibls^: J'?J \j^ "Zeid is not a fooL" In the case of the abstract verbs the same rules hold with regard to the order of the noun and predicate as those for the ordinary verb and its agent, or for the sub- ject and predicate of an ordinary sentence, see p. 178 (99) and p. 240(147). The abstract verbs may be employed like ordinary verbs, putting the agent in the nominative, and dis- pensing with any further predicate, as j^'iX ^ "The affair was {i.e. took place)." ^j^^ -4^^ Amr passed the morning." "What took place from our act and deed took place : and God is good and most enduring." In some cases ^l^ need not be expressed, as ^^ c;l 3 ^'"^ c.'! <-'^^ ^^ ^- '^ "What is said is said,— whether it be truth or falsehood," where Cli "j \ L«l- ''.1 are for 'J' IjI-* ^li ^^L The noun of action of the verb J, if is frequently cm- ^ JWs an abbreviation for ^ -kj }\ "to the end of it," and is equivalent to our " &c." 244 ARABIC GEAMMAR. ployed like the verb itself, with regard to the govern- ment of the object, but the subject is put in the genitive in a state of construction with it, as y <^ y o^ / ^ lL.x*i Ll^-.i ^f i \^ "--^^y^ "From thy being strong and others weak." The agent of the same verb may be similarly used, as Mohammed, who was a prophet when Adam was yet water and earth." 2. APPROXIMATE VERBS. (151). The approximate verbs are of three kinds. 1. Expressing the fact of the action of the verb being near or on the point of taking place, as ijjSj] , jIs , (IJ^ *'he almost " 2. Expressing hope, or expectation, or probability of its taking place, as ^j». , ^^, (J^^^l " probably he . . . ." 3. Expressing its commencement, as lljt, ^p^, J-'«r> ^iLc, l^t, "he began." These all take the aorist, as p P C> y P y o.<3 ^ kJiw (jw jli-S \ jl^ " The horseman almost fell " C^ ^ ^.■) LS*'^ Probably Zeid will stand." A.(:;j iXjJ Jjwf- ' Zeid began to speak." These verbs are only used in the preterite tense, ex- cept 'S^ and uliCijI , which have an aorist, as Sij^ , uJ^y. ; • • 5 9 the latter has also an active participle, CS^y^* . They must precede the noun, and the noun must precede the predicate. APPROXIMATE VERBS. 245 ^^£ and tlXijI , expressing contingency, generally take tlie particle j^t governing the conditional mood. With ol^ it is generally omitted : but it is always used with ^J1>. and ^^X\\ never with the verbs expressing com- mencement. 1. ^-I^, CS^L^ and ^Jl^l^l may be used impersonall}", as 11-.-W 'y^r-^' jm' ic***^ You may perhaps hate something.' gjU ^^^ Ciw.t He may perhaps come. 2. i^luc may be preceded by its noun, and may either agree with it in number and person or not, as y /'-- O i ^ ^ So^ *Jij eJ^ L_s***'^ "^.{i Perhaps Zeid may stand up." y 9 y i^ "i- ^^ •O**)^ or > Perhaiis the two Zeids may stand, or / Perhaps the Zeids may stand up.' p P-' oS yy y 9<^^ y • 3. In the other persons of the preterite of ^Js. the ^ may be pointed with Jcesrah^ as c:-^:^*!*^: "perhaps thou;" but fethah is the more usual. 4. ^^Ic may be followed by an accusative pronoun, as ^lli "perhaps he," or cJlLs "perhaps thou." lu^ is also sometimes used with the negative l« , as "I liave no power left in me, and devices arc not likely to do any good. That has come upon mo which makes me forget the gazelle and tlie ghazal (a form of poetry)." 246 A.EABIC GRAMMAR. 3. VERBS DENOTING A MENTAL PROCESS. (152). Verbs which express certain knowledge, sus- picion, or calculation, are called c_j>yjLH J'.*it "verbs de- noting a mental process." They are : Jlri- to fancy. ^\j to see. J.i to know. to reckon. *.rj to suppose, cXc to count. *^ x ^ jjx^ to set down as. J>^. to find. ^j^ to perc'ive. ^ to think. To these are added : sXst]. to adopt Jx?^ in the sense of to make into." .--5 to cause to turn into or become. These verbs govern two nouns in the objective case, one as the ordinary objective and the other adverbially, as ^jli UjJ l::-^,^ 1 " I saw Zeid (to be) an accomplished man. liL>U \j^s- \.z^-^)a " I thought Amr truthful. liL'Jv-s ^..G tUJ^"^ "l took Bekr as a friend." 11^ and o-tj may be used in the 4th conjugation with the double accusative, as ^ x>»^o^^o^ j' o^i 14^:^* \^£ \si\ l::^^^ " I showed to Zeid Arar in the act of going away. C'w>U iX? C*£ u:.-^^^ " 1 made Amr know Bekr as truthful." When these words are used parenthetically, as an after-thought, or before a particle of affirmation, inter- VERBS OF PEAISE AND ELAME. 247 rogation, or negatiorij they naturally cease to govern the noun, as ;> o ^ ^ i; o^ l^lrs- ij:,-^:^ JcJj "Zeid is (I think) a fool." ''--'^■~^ tjV 'Hi ^^^^ ^^ truthful (at least I thint so)." ajIs Jup l::^^!^ I knew (it) — certainly Zeid is standing.* J li Jk-S l--« e:^:^ I thought Zeid was not standing. ji^z z*^ j4^ "^Ij^ Lii-vtlc U "l did not know whether Zeid was stand- ing or Amr." 4. VEEBS OF PRAISE AXD BLAME. (153). The verbs of praise and blame are four in number, namely : x^ ^ ) For praise. , _' I For blame. 1x1 and Jj.i require a definite agent or nominative, in conjunction with which they serve as a predicate to a noun, the latter, hoAvevcr, being placed after them in the sentence ; thus— joj J^jl 1^ "lie is a good man, is Zeid." Predicate. ^'"™ "J subject. literally. Good is the man (namely) Zeid. You may also say Joj iJ^j 1^ with the same meaning ; but in this case the grammatical explanation is — Predicate. Advetbial. ^'""." o/ subject. Good is (he) (£110. a man (namely) Zeid. **j, Jul), and ^H, agree with the agent in gender and number. ^L> may be used as an ordinary transitive verb. \jJ!p- is compounded of the two words \Z^s- "it is agreeable," and Ij "that," the demonstrative pronouu being considered as the agent of the verb. The subject 248 ARABIC GRAMMAR. of the praise implied by \x^ is therefore merely a nomi- native in apposition with Ij, as "Bravo, Zeid!— Hind — the two men — the two women — the men — the women," etc. etc. "We may also add l"* to all these verbs, except IJ^iX, and say U*;, Ul^j, U ^l^. 5. PARTICLES WHICH RESEMBLE VERBS. (154). Certain particles resemble verbs in their action upon other words. They are — JjJ "probably." *-^^-^ would that." ,^ "but." ^li "as though." ^^\ "that" (emphatic).^ ^\^ ' verily." These are exactly the reverse of '^^^S in their mode of governing, for they put the noun or subject in the ob- jective or accusative, and the predicate in the nominative case ; thus — Uoli Sij ^ "Zeid was standing." Jli Ijdj ^ "Yerily Zeid is standing." Examples : aJIj \j^^s. ^ ^Ij "l have heard that Amr (is) coming." Ju.j1 \si\ ^ "As if Zeid were a lion." iJr^ Ijdj ^^ "But Zeid is a miser." >yo < \^t}\ c:^ *' "Would that youth could return." ,05 -f 9 » 1 This is only a stronger form of the particle \ "that," the jk^»::Jl ,,3 heing added as in verbs (see p. 28). PARTICLES WHICH RESEMBLE VERBS. 249 Jli. ^l\ CSsu£. ^\ Verily with you is Zeid." \S}j j^-^^ ^ ^^ ' Verily in the house is Zeid." In such an expression as ^l>-lojllll ^ ^\^ ''verily in the house is its owner," it necessarily precedes, because a relative pronoun cannot precede the thing to which it refers. If the pleonastic C* is added to any of these particles, they cease to govern the noun, as pjd Sjj \^\ "vcniy Zeid is standing." (Xj is sometimes exempt from this rule, as Ifij LyJ Ucx^]. [The reason for the difference appears to be that U is not really pleonastic, but means something like " the fact (is)," and therefore becomes the real subject, but, being indeclinable, it does not exhibit this effect.] The particle J , signifying commencement, is some- times used with ^\^. If it be joined to the predicate, the' regular order must be preserved, as lUlJ Gjj ^\ "verily Zeid is standing ; " but if it be joined to the noun, the order is reversed, as CJj^ljJl^ ^\ "verily in the house is Zeid;" but tl-lljITcLj* lL^A^ "verily Thou art the Bounteous One." 250 ARABIC GEAMMAR. POSITION OP ,.,1 IN THE SENTENCE. *,t is used in commencing; a sentence, or wherever it is necessary to break the grammatical order and begin a fresh clause, as 2i\i IjoJ ^ " Verily Zeid is standing." Jli aj! ^JJ\ , , -, -' 99^> Or simply to add a fresh clause, as J^l ^J ^^jj^j ^^; " I visited him, and certainly I was full of hope." Or at the beginning of a clause connected with such particles as \ "then," 1j[ "behold," and J4^ "where," as . IJl^ \si\ ,^,1 cLl^ , ^>St\ " sit where there is Zeid sitting." After such expressions as L^JiJ "I said," t\ "is not?" etc., as * Ijli \:si\ ^ c:-Jj "l said verily Zeid is standing.' ili i^y^ l^ f\ "Is not Zeid standing?" Or before the particle J in such an expression as ''S^ fjo'; ,!,! iXJiJi "I knew it— there is Zeid standing." Or after a particle of swearing, where the thing sworn to is introduced by the particle J, as ^UJ Ijjj J\^ aj.\^^ "by God ! there is Zeid standing." USE OF ^ . ^1 is used where something is immediately introduced by the verb, as JU Ijjj ^\ s_sf^- "■'■ ^^^® heard that Zeid is standing.' JU \L^\ ^j:^^ "I knew that thou wert standing." ox THE USE OF ''.,\ AND ^J . 251 c'i. ^^'-^ vj jj-ili Ciol o'J^-^ It is my opinion that thou art accomplished." j5t>Us uli^jl ^ijlib^l "My belief (is) that thou art truthful." j^,»ikiJ JJ\ Uil^ (J-^^ ''^^ "it is the truth like as you utter." ^ ^ ^c~o ^x o/^o^^ -S -' c./c-'-^ y o^<-S B-emember my bounties wherewith I have been gracious to you, and that I have made you superior to the whole universe." — Kor. ii. 44. And when God promises you one of the two parties that it shall be yours." — Kor viii. 7. Even where the verb governs its complement with a preposition, ^!,! introduces that complement, as 'j y y ^* O 9 i^ y i,_..-^jli Ji\>^ l::^^~ 'I wonder that you are writing." . r CASES IN AVniCH EITHER ,.,1 OE ,.,1 MAT BE USED, (155). In the following cases ^\ and ^] may be used indifferently : 1. After the conjunction i_J, where it implies conse- quence, as V?^ ^ti j^U ^%.* "he who comes to me (he) is honoured." 2. After a particle of swearing, when the subject of the oath is not preceded by J, as IjL* Sjj ,^,1 /Jll J "by God ! — Zeid is standing." 3. After C\ "is not?" and y^i "undoubtedly," as *jIj Ij^J j^j^ t«l ' Is not Zeid standing?" S Py ^i-o -OJi ^•^ j^ aJii ^^ Ajs- )! Undoubtedly God is forgiving." After such an expression as "I said," when it introduces the actual words of the speaker, as ajJ\ j^^ ^\ SJi ^jt *' the first thing I say is, ' I praise God.' " " 252 ARABIC GRAMilAR. LOSS OF THE FINAL ^^ Ilf TEE ABOVE-MEN'TIONED PARTICLES. Of the particles treated of in the foregoing paragraphs, those ending in ^, namely, ^\, ^, "^l^ and J^G, may be shortened into ^]^, ^t, ^Is and ^jC] ', they then govern under the following; circumstances — ^,J_ ceases to govern its noun, and generally takes J before its predicate, as ^UH jjj ^\ "verily Zeid is standing." ( J appears to be used in this case to distinguish it from the negative ^\ .) ^1 has for its noun an indefinite pronoun understood, and its predicate can only be a complete sentence or clause, as *jli Jkjj 1^1 ij:^^AX£. I knew that Zeid was standing." lor ♦^li j>.j ^\ <^:^^z *I knew that it (the fact) was thus — Zeid was standing.' If the commencement of such a sentence be a declinable verb, it must be separated from the particle ^t by one of the particles jj, i_Jj-j or (^, or else by a negative particle, as iXjJ ^l:s- Si ^ J-^ " We know that Zeid has come." /»yij' (_J»-j (^^ J-xj He knows that you will stand." j-4>^jjJ ^ j^LwJ|\ t^..>*«csr\ 'Does man think that we shall not ■ O' If the sentence begin with a verb, the latter must take the particle j^j or J , as KEGATIYE PARTICLES. 253 1/' a o yl. Juj j*lj jJ j^li As though Zeid had stood up." Jcj; C-?V. '^ kj^ '-^^ though Zeid had not come/' ^^ never governs a following word, because on the removal of its final ^ it ceases to have any direct con- nexion with nouns, and becomes a mere conjunction, as ^^^^-^M^^* lyl^ ^^^J "but they were of the unjust." 6. NEGATIVE PARTICLES. (156). The particles of negation, U, f, cbS and ^\, govern words in the same manner as the verb j^Jj, see p. 88(41), and p. 195(110)5. The following are the rules to be applied : U governs a word in the objective, if the negation be complete and continuous, and the order of words cor- rect, as UjIj Joj U "Zeid is not standing." But if the negation be afterwards qualified, or if the usual order of words be disturbed, it does not exercise this influence, as S ^ "^ S o^* ^ j\L V\^ ^J ti* Zeid is nothing but a poet." tVJ J li L* Not standing is Zeid." % governs like a verb— 1. If both its noun and predicate are indefinite. 2. If the predicate do not come before the noun. 3. If the negative be not afterwards qualified, as f-^l^ ^j S "there is no man present." 6A can only govern a noun of time, when the noun and predicate are not both mentioned together, as M^-^t Xs-KL lL>^ j i'UJ^ *ju "rebels repent when it is not the hour for repentance," for *A^^ dl\l> ll\lS\ - UJlb ^ "There is no one with us going-up-a-mountain." j-iU- i^ji \j.^1 "There is no passer- by-Zeid present." jo\s^ jS^ As. 1 There is no travelling servant present '* [In the last example the tenw'in is dropped, not on account of f, but because the noun is in a state of construction with the following one.] But if the noun be definite, or separated by any inter- vening word or words from the negative 1), it is not governed by the latter, as Zeid is not in the house, nor Amr ; and there is not in the house a man, and there is not with us a woman." In such cases as the above i should be repeated with each separate negation. "When there are several nouns to be denied, and i is repeated (such nouns being undefined, unconnected with any other word, and introduced by the ^), either or both of the above constructions may be used ; thus There is no strength and no power but in God." The prefixing of an interrogative particle to 1 does not alter its government, asJ^jjT^,i J^J ^t "is there no man in the house?" 256 ARABIC GRAMMAR. If the predicate would be otherwise ambiguous, it must be expressed, as jjj ^^^ lA J^j i "there is no man more learned than Zeid." But if it be obvious, it may be under- tood, as ^J\j i " there is no harm, scilicet Cj^^l to thee." RELATIVE SENTENCES. (158). The relative sentence in Arabic consists of four parts— (1) The antecedent. (2) The relative or conjunctive noun, pronoun, or particle. (3) The qualificative clause. (4) The pronoun referring to the antecedent, thus / c -Si- iZ.l\j ^jJ\ J^J^ JVl^^ (2) (3) (4) literally, The man who T saw him. RELATIVES OR CONJUNCTIVES. (159). i^'^'\ is for definite antecedents only; for in- definite ^^ "who?" and U "what?" are used. In inter- rogation we may add the demonstrative pronoun and say, ^3 ^ "who is that?" l3 IJ. "what is that?" The article Jl is regarded as a relative: (l) when joined to the agent or passive participle, as t_>?^^T j i^jds\ *'the striker and the struck;" (2) in such expressions as 'd^j\ ^J^^ "the beautiful of face" ( = a^j l^y^ lS^^\ see p. 228 (138); (3) when (as it sometimes though rarely is) it is joined to a verb in the aorist, as in the following verse : And he entices the Jerboa with sh'ihah^ out of the hole at the ena of its lair, and out of the hole by which it enters," «_~2JbJ| = ^ J->^3icj ^_^ jj \ into which it pops." ' " SMhah" a kind of sweet-smeiiing plant growing in tlae desert, especially ia the mouatain distiicLS. RELATIVES OR CONJUNCTIVES. 257 \_Note. — A verb is sometimes put in apposition with the agent and the article, when the latter is thus used as a conjunctive ; as By the horses rushing about breathing hard, and striking fire with their hoofs against the stones, and making incursions upon the enemy in the morning, and raising up dust therein." — Kor. c. 1 — 4.] 3I "which" (of two or more), "the one who," etc., may be used in four ways, as S _j^ ^9 0- 9 09 He of them who is standing pleases me." ^■i.'i- ''P-ii's. \^\^ \zJ\ are occasionally used to express something particular, and distinguished from anything else of the same nature ; the noun so specified being put in the accusative, as \ iUL=^ \ \^\ U JL^\ ^^1 God ! pardon us — we who are a special band." 'C^O-O ''^i ^^ /-^Ox 9 C (♦y^^ \d ^'^ S"^' e;^ "We will do so and so — we the tribe in question." C^)\ \^\ ^J^ J^l \A "l will do so and so— I individually." Or l^^J and 1^1 may be omitted, provided the noun thus specified have the article, as t— c-.^iJ ^_^U1 ^ji\ ^-?^l ^^sT "We Arabs are the most hospitable of men to guests." *-^l;y ^ 'W^^^4^"* \cJ^ " Wc, the bands of prophets, never have heirs." 17 258 4lEabic grammae. --I followed Ly the genitive is also used to express admiration ; if it come after an indefinite noun, it agrees with it, as J^-; Hs^ J^jJ c^^ "thou hast brought me a man — and what a man ! " If it follow a definite noun, it is put in the accusative, as ^j o"^ jjj ^^^^" "2^eid came to me — what a man The is)f" ^ and U. Although these are indeclinable, the pro- noun referring to them must agree in gender and number with the thing for which they stand, as ^*^.. 1 ^.t J^-yl ^ '*^^.^_^ I saw a man who (masc.) did not please me." "i jj-^ ilujol ^j^ '*^Jj -^ saw a woman who (fem.) did not please me." i^< and U are always masculine singular, unless speci- ally defined to the contrary, or to avoid ambiguity, as "l ^ A^\ ^ "-^^j '' I saw a woman who {lit. of L5 women (her) who) did not please me " (where ^ is femi- y 9 oy o -^ -^-Sc-*o ^ 9 t^9 nine), and ^'^^^0 ^ (♦V'^^ i^^^j'j "^ visited people who honour me" (where it is plural). OTHER CONJUNCTIVES. (160). Amongst the conjunctives or relatives are reckoned the particles ^^^1, ^!,t, ^, U, ^. ^t "that," with preterite or aorist of verbs, as c^/tJ ^ ^ l::^-js- I wonder at that you stood." (♦jiij' (^1 ^^ i..:^^- I wonder at that you should stand." J\ "that," with a noun and its attribute, the substan- NATURE OF THE RELATIVE. 259 five verb '* is " being understood, as l5li CvJ ^\ ^^jJCj '' I have heard that Zeid is standing." ^ or ^^4 "that" with the aorist, as l1(,.j1 ^^G c:--v-.p- ''I have come that I may visit you." U "what," "that," as in the following examples : Ijjj ci-^-J U>^« l::-^-.^-^ I wonder ichaf you struck Zeid /or." ro^ -a p K, ^ >jl5 Jo", l/»^ l:^^-^-'^ I wonder what Zeid is standing for (but this last construction is rare). ^ "if," "that," is used with either the preterite or the aorist, as ,' ^ ^ c Juj 4,\i p <-^'-V^^ "l would that Zeid had stood." joj *yi_; J J.\ I would that Zeid would stand." p is generally used in this sense with such verbs as j^ "to like" or "to be glad of," seldom with any other. NATURE OF THE RELATIVE. (161). The relative must be one of three things: 1. A sentence consisting of a subject and predicate, as A,\i ^^'<^\ L^n |J U ^ ' To God (belongs) what is in the heuveu and in the earth." But the meaning must be complete ; you cannot say, 2 GO ARABIC GEAMMAR, for instance, il3o ti^ST^T^ "he came who by you ," nor j*jJl ^jJl 5^_ lie came who to-day " 3. An agent, a passive participle, or a noun expressive of an inherent quality, as " The beater." " The beaten." " The fair of face." These, however, can only act as relatives to the article l}] when it is considered as a conjunctive (see above). THE PRONOUN WHICH REFERS TO THE ANTECEDENT. (162). The pronoun which refers to the antecedent agrees with it in gender, number, and person, as ^iyi u?^^ ^^ He came whom I struck. Lk.^ -J ^^ jJl '^\j>- They two came, both of whom I struck." Sometimes, though rarely, this correlative pronoun is idiomatically omitted, as in the proverbial expression ^Ij e^t U ^i\ "decide what you are the decider" (for iU^lj "its decider"). The use of any but the third person as the pronoun referring to the antecedent is rare, although we do meet with such sentences, as i^\-J^\ CS^ul3.z\ ^'^\ \j\ "I am he who gave you the book," literally " I am who I gave you the book." CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. (163). In conditional or hypothetical sentences the apodosis is generally introduced by one of the particles _J and cJ . The aorist subjunctive, pointed with fethah^ and intro- CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 261 duced by j^ or t_i , is used in the apodosis of a conditional proposition ; of this there are eight cases. 1. Imperative, asCi^-y^^^^ lI^C^Ij ^ijj "visit me and I will honour you." If the command be a noun, and not a real imperative (see p. 233), the aorist is pointed with — dhammah, as C3^\ ^y^^ ^ "hold your tongue, and I will treat you well." 2. Prohibitive, as tlCLc >----i.'V. ^ j^ i-^'-iM ^^J ^-y^^' ^ ^'do not strike Zeid, or he will be angry with you." Similarly, in negation, ^)^'} ^ ^ ^j>v^ ul/,^J uJ^l i5 "I do not know your house or I would visit you." 3. Precative, as l^^U ,\^ ^ *\ J-»^li ^_5t?'^; ^j ' I^ord aid me, and I will do right ! " 4. Interrogative, as a.JJ^ tirvTl j ^^ ^JV-^ t>:l^ ^.y-! J* ' ^^^ Zeid a friend he can lean upon?" 5. Polite invitation, as \j^=>- ^..^^■i ^ ^ i ^^:xj Ua:^ Jj:.j' )!1 "will you not alight with us, and you will meet with good treatment." 6. Urgent request, as CS.^ij ^^ CS^Jj^ LJ|^ i^O' b> "won't you come to us? we will honour you." 7. Desire, as i.i j Ju^il ^ ^ j j^^ili ^U J lt^ " would that I had wealth to give away in alms I " 8. Hope, as ^.0 ^ j\ <);.-#^.C:i j^jI* u^^^^^'^ J-'^J "perhaps our friend will come, and we will honour him." Note. The aorist subjunctive always refers to future time ; if the present be intended, it must be in the indicative mood, as " 2eid is so ill that they have no hopes of his recovery ;" or when, in the course of conversation, you use such a sentence as li jU> CS'^^y ' JJ 2^2 ARABIC GRAMMAR. then —in that case— I think you are speaking the truth," in reply to some previous question expressed or implied. PROTASIS AND APODOSIS. (] 64). The protasis and apodosis of conditional sentences like those given above should be aorists of verbs. If, however, the protasis be an aorist, and the apodosis a preterite, the former must be apocopated, as LLvil? J-^" ^\ "if you have patience, you will win" (lit. "have won," i.e. as we should say, "as good as won"), see p. 170. If the protasis be a preterite, and the apodosis an aorist, the latter may be either apocopated or not, as ji^ -y^j cLJ^ltf ^\^ "if you have patience, you will win." If both be preterite, there can, of course, be no apoco- pation, as lL."^ lL^ ^\^ "if thou standest, I stand." The introduction of (_j prevents the apocopation of the aorist, as <^^^ r*yV.J^ ^,.^ (*^^ L::-^/♦J ^ "if you rise, your brother will rise too." .' k_^Jbjj j j' i>_,AJbJu Is L::_^*Jij ^ "if you do not go, your companion i_>wc5-Ui i_^ji>jj)! will not go." The apodosis may be even omitted, as t-::-Ni^ (^1 M^ya t::-^\ You are unjust if you have for done it." >Jll? (.:i-Jli L::-J>xi ^ A% c:^! "You are unjust — i.e. if you have done it you are unjust." In the protasis of conditional propositions the verb must not be preterite, at least in meaning; neither must it imply a request ; or be a neuter verb ; or be governed by any of the particles I«, uljp, or ^ ; and it must not be preceded by any negative particle except JJ or S. INVERSION OF THE VERB AND NOUN. 2G3 In the apodosis, should the verb be affected by any of the reasons which would have disqualified it from occurring iu the protasis, it must be introduced by ^, as ^ilixu^i ^-^jr^ ^ " if you have patience, then you shall succeed." If it be an aorist, whether aifirnlative or rendered negative by the particle i , it may either be apocopated or not ; but if apoco- pated, it must be introduced by (_i. The particle L^^, in the protasis always refers to present or future time, although the verb is mostly put in the preterite. Even if the aorist be used, the apodosis must have the preterite, but the sense will be still present or future, as U-il Jo 1:1=^ 'ij^^^'^ ^^> ^V \j\i "when the pro- mised term of the future life comes, we will gather you tosrether." — Kor. xvii. 106. iNVERS^ION OF THE VERB AND NOUN. (165). We have already said that the proper arrange- ment of a proposition is (1) .(2) (3) Verb, Agent, Object, as (3) (2) (1) (2) (1) (3) ./Kc. JoJ f^j^ Ze'id. struck Amr." Either tbe agent or the object, however, may be placed first, as (1) ij\ Zeid — I have struck him." (3) j>-\^ lAki his slave, or by hid friend's slave." 2C4 ARABIC GRAMMAR. In (1) Zeid is regarded as the subject, of whicli the verb with its object ^J^ is the predicate. In (2) some word governing Ijjj is understood, e.g. Qj ^1 and the clause thus obtained is regarded as the subject of the proposition, the verb and its object dzjja is the predicate. If the object of the verb which thus precedes it be itself preceded by any word which ordinarily introduces a verbal proposition^ it is put in the objective case, as l13o^ ^^j^ ^;j j^]^ " If — Zeid — you strike him, he. will strike you;" ^\ " if" being always used with verbs. But if it be preceded by any other word, it is put in the nominative, as 'iJy^.-i Vj ^"^^ '"^^-^^ " I went out, and behold ! Zeid — they were beating him ;" \'^\ being used wdth nouns. If it be not preceded by any other word, it may be put either in the nominative or accusative indifferently, as dcj^ )ju; or jo; "Zeid — I stnick him." When an exception is implied, the second noun is in the objective case, as iCL^ \ .A^ > CS^-.>.=>- LZ-^ " I was thy friend, but (and) as foi' Amr S -^ 9 ^ ii\ iri*^ J XKsrr* (j-u3s5»- Mohammed sat down, but as for Jaafar I sent him away." ii4ljJj J ^r'*>*i ~!, which are nouns ; \ls., ik-j and l-iU-, which are particles partaking of tho nature of verbs. 2G6 ' ARABIC GRAMMAR. to 1. ^1 . "i] takes the objective case, if the preceding clause is neither negative nor interrogative, as fjoj i\^ j*j£1T11j " the people use— except Zeid." Otherwise it is put in simple apposition with the noun, as 's^j 1]^ Jo-t j*'\i U "no one rose but Zeid." If the noun to which exception is made be understood, the noun excepted and following ^\ is put in the case in which such noun would have been, as •TO'' tfi ^ -^ X jjj 1'!^ ^['i L« There rose not save Zeid.'* Iaj; *1 lt-oK t« I saw but Zeid. Oy' -a 9 t/^-* ^ 4ij^ ^\ <-::^jj^ U " I passed by but Zeid.'* 2. r^i and ^ij-^ • ^ and t^j-j, being nouns, place the thing excepted in a state of construction. ^y^ is indeclinable, but^i is declined, and follows the same rules as those given for the noun following ^ , as ^}\ j^ (*y^^ (*^ -^^^ people rose except Zeid." i^\jj^ (*y^V '— -i.l/'* ■'" passed by the people except Zeid;" where it is put in the accusative. i\i\jJ: iX>"l ^Ip- L* No one came except Zeid.'* Jkj ; -»£ Jks- b c:j ^..t U I passed by one but Zeid ;' ' where it is either declined or not. <\>\j^ 5^^ \^ ' None came but Zeid." ArposiTiON. 2G7 Jk); -^i Li-^'^ t* "l saw none but Zcid.'* Ox vx ^ O'' X lijjjJc c:-?,.'* U "l passed by no one but Zeid;'* where it is declined. ^ A X y 3. Ur, y~, and LiU-. \s£.y iJ-, and liilp^, are generally construed with the objective case, \lz and iX having for the most part the particle U prefixed. (jjj \11 U Z^jT^U ) " The people came except Zcid," ^i^^, ^ /-o^ 'y \ m- wbat is beside (or free t Jjj Is- U >_jiL] 1 ^Tp^ ; fi.oni) Zeid. If U be omitted, they may be construed with the oblique case, but this is rare. U--0 H "especially," may take either the nominative or genitive after it, as ^yj ^\ SJ uL^ i ^^\ ^j;^\ "all the people pleased me, especially Zeid." In the first case Jyj KZ^ "i is considered as equivalent to jjj ^^ U JL^ ^, and in the second a.j is regarded as the complement of ^ and in a state of construction with it ; the particle U being pleonastic, and exorcising no influ- ence on what follows, see p. 207 (121). APPOSITION. (1G8). "Words in apposition are put in the same case, as J^IIjTj^j ^1^ "Zeid the accomplished came," where the noun and qualifying adjective are considered to be in apposition, and are both in the subjective case with — . But if the first be indeclinable, the second is put in the case which the first would have exhibited had it been declinable, as J^ 1 illO j *-^.1; '' I saw that man." 268 ARABIC GRAMMAR. If the noun has lost its case-ending accidentally, as, for instance, by a vocative particle, see p. 199, (113) 2, it may take either — or — , as 1^1 jt ^^J>^\ j^j Ij "Oh Zeid the generous ! '' There are five kinds of apposition : 1. lil-otj Description. 2. (Jlial Simple Apposition. 3. Ik-^y Corroboration. 4. jjJ Substitution. ^* toQTwil^r. Explanatory Apposition. 1. DESCRIPTIOIf. (169). To this class belong what we should call ad- jectives; but it cannot be too strongly impressed upon tlie student's mind that there is no such thing in Arabic as an abstract adjective. Thus in the expression : 1)^ Jp-J "a generous man," the word l;^i does not signify "gener- ous" in the abstract, but rather means a " generous being," of what kind the context must define. The strictly literal translation will therefore be "a man, a generous one." This will explain how it is that we speak of "apposition," rather than of "the concord of adjectives and substantives," a phrase which could have no meaning in Arabic, and which would lead to much misconception. The Descriptive either applies to the noun itself, as ^i ^^_ "^jj* "I passed by a generous man;" or to some- thing connected with the noun, as i^\ ^J Jj>-^ ^jj"* " •''■ passed by a man whose father is generous." APPOsiTiox. 2G9 NATUEE OF THE DESCPJPTIYE. (170). The Descriptive must "be 1. A derived form, as s ;o. from c_^. S ^ ^ H •' handsome," from ,., 9 ^oS j-iil more accomplished," from ^y^. 2. A demonstrative pronoun, as 1 j^ jojj ^^^jy* "I passed by (thisj Zeid here." 3. A noun introduced by some other noun implying possession as, JU i ^^U ^\ ^j J-=r^ cu^ "I passed by a man the possessor of property." 4. A relative noun, as ^*^{ u^?. <-^^f* "I passed by a man of Beyrout." The noun thus qualified must be expressed ; and if it be indefinite, it must be limited to one individual, as in the foregoing example. The verbal noun is sometimes used as a descriptive, as Jj^ Jj^jj lI:"^ "I passed by a just man;" but this is for jlc c^i "a possessor of justice," and must stand by itself and be masculine, as though it had ^ J prefixed ; see p. 208 (123). A sentence consisting of subject and predicate may stand for the descriptive, as "^^ VS\ Ji-j ^f^ "I passed a man (whose) father is standing." Or consisting of a verb and its object, as J^l ^^^' J4>? ^^* "I j^assed by a man who loves knowledge." 270 ARABIC GRAMMAR. So too an adverb or a preposition and its case, as jijj\ ^ y (Jjjc^ Jsr^j ^^'\ 1 iiive a man with you" or " in the house." CONCORDANCE OE THE DESCRIPTIVE AND THE NOUN. (171). When the descriptive applies to the noun itself, it follows it in gender, number, and case, and in taking the article or not, as the case may be, as 1 ••C-O P 3? (J^liJl J^J^ ^^^ The accomplished man came.'^ j^-.L?li ^'^:>'j '^^^^i}) I sa^ two accomplished men." iLLjli i'^j^l) cl-?,^ "l passed by an accomplished woman." When the descriptive applies to something connected with the noun, it follows the preceding noun in number and case, and in taking the article; but in gender and person it agrees with what follows, according to the rules given for the concord of the verb and agent, see p. 178 (100), as " The man came whose father is — or whose two parents, or parents are — accomplished." 99 y^ % 9 ^.^t>—0 % 99^1^"^ 9^ ^0.^0 9 9 .O J CS-^ '—"Vr* ■'- Passed by thee and by Zeid." cLC;.t J 1^^ J^ ^ " The property is between me and thee." If the words thus connected are both verbs, they must agree in tense, as lAxs J aUj He rose and sat.'* Jkxiij _j ^yi) He rises and sits." If the first of two words so joined be a participle govern- ing a noun like a verb, the second may be a verb, as . And by the cavah-y making incursions on the enemy in the morn- ing, and raising up dust therein." — Kor. c. 3-4. 272 ARABIC GRAMMAR. Similarly a verb used as a noun may have a noun in apposition with it, as in the verse — Oh ! many a fair one of the tribe of el-Awdhij, mother of a boy who has crawled and is beginning to walk." where ll^ ji is equivalent to a participle. PARTICLES EMPLOYED IN" FORMING THE APPOSITION. (173). The particles employed in forming the apposi- tion are— J "and," implying simple conjunction, asJ^jSjj *'Zeidand'Amr." <_J "and," implying sequence or consequence, as ^^X« ilj A^ "Zeid rose and 'Amr." 1) "then," implying progressive series, as ^Xc 11 j^j 'A^ "Zeid came and then Amr." ^j^ "even to," implying limited progression, as 'Lj),M y^^>- ^jwU^ CIjU "The people died, even to the Prophets.' i'LluJl i_5^^^^ r^"^^ i*'^^ "The pilgrims arrived, even to those walking on foot." jT "or," implying simple disjunction, as^J^l Ji j^J i^. "Zeid or 'Amr came." "j.! "or" (after "whether"), as ^^ J.V 5j i^2J "is Zeid or *Amr with you ? " ^ "either," as l^^r U^_j lyii U]^ ^^lo-j "and he learned either law or grammar." 1' " not," implying simple negation, as jjil S j^j A:^ "Zeid came — not 'Amr." APPOSITION OF CORROBORATION. 273 j^b ''nay," "or rather," alternative, as^^ Jj j^J ^f^ "Zeid came to me — nay rather *Amr.' IP "but," as i^rsT J ^^;'»-c (j^ k^Jj (J^U- "Zeid came to me, but Amr did not come." C/^ ff o ^ o , 50^ y ^ •l.:j- jJJjj^x ijSj ^\ ^*Ip- L# Zeid came not to me, but Amr ha3 come." 3. CORROBORATION. (174). The corroborative apposition takes place either m (1) the words, or (2) the sense. The first consists of simjDle repetition by way of emphasising the word itself, as - *xj Yes, certainly ! Or it is the repetition of a clause, as lUs s{j lUi juj "Zeid is standing, Zeid is standing." If it be required to repeat the affixed pronoun, the word to which it is affixed must also be repeated, as clio ulio i^jj^ "I passed by thee, by thee" [not tlX^. It may, however, be repeated separately in its nominative form, as lI^I tl^ ^X'* " ^ passed by thee— thee." So, too, the initiative '^\ cannot be repeated without its noun, as ^^'J u[ ^^'.j A verily Zeid " [not l^j J^ ^p. 18 274 ARABIC GRAMMAR. If the pronoun be inseparable from tlie verb or pre- position, etc., it must be repeated in its detached form, as X L -t '^ Ox X "mi 1,1 1 i1 " L5 Jl ^-^{;*» Thou hast struck — thou. UT i_S^.r^ "Thou hast struck me — me." »Ji) i^ CLJ y* I passed by. him — him." In one case a verb in the third person singular has the corroborative detached pronoun following it in the first person, namely, after the particle of restriction Uj5_, as Ol *^ \^\^ "no one got up but me." I am he who provides them with livelihood, and who defends their rights; and none but I or the like of me protect their honour.' By the " apposition of corroboration" which takes place in the sense is meant such expressions as "he himself," " they — all of them," and the like, which are expressed in Arabic as follows : my — thy — him — her — its — self ; our — your — them — selves, are rendered by the words jjuli "self" or "soul," and j^^i "eye" or "essence," with the affixed pronouns. J^sS agrees in number with the noun, as MASCULINE. A^JiJ J^ij \ Zeid himself .xj'y'oi ,xo^-o f ~x f carne UL-gM jo'^Vj-^^ i Lsi^^ '^^^ ^^^ Zeids themselves to me. ^,-«Jj\ L:j?"^V^ J ■"■'^^ Zeids themselves FEMININE. x^ o X »ro L ^.ej jc^ ^ Hind herself U^^ijl lO^*^^ ^ c:^^^- The two Hinds themselves > came. ^^Ijj^ c:-j\j>i^l ] The Hinds themselves "SELFj" "selves," etc., HOW EXPRESSED. 275 ' as "J^ is used in the singular only, as j^A--c ^^JwS-Il ' The Zeids themselves. i^^^ lu\s:^^ '* The HinJs themselves." We may also say a^A-^ ^in 'propria persona^ A^ssj sjj A:>- 'Zeid came in propria persona^'' and so on. "All of them" is expressed either by the word Ji "all," with the affixed pronoun and agreeing with the noun in gender and number, or by the word %^.^\ "altogether," employed separately; "both of them," by the dual word ^K, fern. ^•:^^^ construed in the same manner as -"ll, as ^^^ j*^iJ \ ^\:>- "The people came, all of them." U>i>iii ^^)>^}\ •*^" " The two men came, both of them." l/i.^^.-:di ^jjM^b ^-^jj^ '^I possed by the two women, both of thoni." (The word '^ is often used to express thoroughness, as Jl2T(2!S 1J'^'^>^ "he is a thoroughly learned man.") ^ ^ kj % ^ o -^ o— o y -^ 7--^^' ^ji*.-^'! c:-^-^ I met the army all-together." ^ y t^ % '^ ^ ^ ^^A-zsA ^LjT ^^z J And on his family altogether." If it be necessary to repeat the pronoun affixed to ^^.L' or ^ "self," it is to be repeated in the nominative detached form, and placed first, as tiX>.uiij l::^! l::-^ -J Thou thyself didst strike." ^J«-c ^ '-r-N-a He himself struck. ' In short the words J^IJ := " self," J«.l3* =" selves," Ji = "all," '*-^^\ = " altogether," are used in almost the same manner in" Arabic as in English. 276 ARABIC UEAMMAR. "Each other," ''one another," are expressed by J^j "a portion," repeated for each of the two parties to the mntual action, as O'- o ? ;> o^ p o jkX£ t/^iv (*-^*^'V '5~^1 Go down, enemies to each other." Ox XX CPx^^xOi? xo wi ^ ^ V -i-^? X (^ ^_/i*j ^Lc ♦^^xj j»-a>uLij J-j^^ lL$3j To those prophets have we given pre-emmence, one of them over another." 4. APPOSITION OF SUBSTITUTION. (175). This is of four kinds : 1. Simple substitution of one word for another con- formable to it in meaning, as fvjj tl/»k1 ^X^ "Zeid, your brother, came." 2. Substitution to correct a statement respecting the whole of a thing, and to imply that a part only was /X^OS oS jJx o OS yxoy X -Si-O / CxS meant, as *yiil ^^ doi^J^l ailj c_r_.rjl c:^\ "I eat the loaf — a third of it — half of it — most of it." 3. Substitution of a word or phrase to correct a state- ment respecting a person or thing, and to imply that it is not the person himself or thing itself, but something connected wdth him or it which is meant, as 9 9 ^^ P P (^ 9 P9(^ SOX xxoS 'pxx i;ox X 9 ijy j\ ^ji i^jj L-^]^ Zeid was plundered— his mare — his garment." 4. Substitution of a word or phrase to correct a lapsus Unffitcv, or a statement erroneously made through want of reflection, as tjU\ iJJj^jT .jj^Jj " I rode the horse — the she-camel." 6. EXPLANATORY APPOSITION. (176). Explanatory apposition defines more particu- larly something that has gone before, as APPOSITIOX OF VOCATIVES. ADMIRATION. 277 Si\ (JJ^-o-l^ "^Xs- ' Your friend Zeid came." •v ■ ^ • 'Hi tJ-^^ '-r'j^^ ^^ "I am the beater of the man Zeid," —seep. 202 (116). In these two examples the word "Zeid" is said to be in explanatory apposition, ^^CjT^ji^. A noun (substantive or adjective) in apposition to a vocative, may be put either in the subjective or objective ; unless it be followed by another noun in a state of con- struction with it, in which case it must be put in the objective, as ^ " -W j.,*^"* I) "Oh! ilohammed, the Prophet." ^ JiWl Sij b "Oh! Zeid, the intelligent." ^\ J-U. (*rr^l/l V. "0^ • Abraham, the friend of God." 154-^ c^^ ^^J V. ^^ • °^^^» s*^^ of ™y brother." iV^o^fe.— If the word ^,5). occur between two proper names, and consequently lose its alif^ see p. 12, (11) -3, the noun to which it is in apposition may be pointed with either dlmmmah or fethaJi^ as *^ cJi ' "^I) ^ ! Zeid, the son of Amr. ' ADMIRATION. (177). There are many forms of expressing admiration in Arabic, as l^li ijj tUi God bless him^ for a horseman ! " = " what a fine horseman!" b)|^ bb^j J ^^.^luJ Ulj " Bravo ! Selma ! bravo ! bravo ! " Such as these are of course irregular; but there are • See p. 60, end of note 2." 9 See note, p. 194. 278 ARABIC GRAMALVR. two forms which may be derived regularly from any verb, viz. (i) Joef U. and (2) .« Jxi\. (1) J^] U takes the accusative of the thing admired, as ]jj\ ^^fj'*^ ^ "How handsome is Zeid!" asks a du-ect question, and is never hsed in alterna- tive questions, as 280 ARABIC GEAMMAR. S'-'' ^ •' o Jjj *Si J-fe " Did Zeid stand up?" J U »-4X Jji " Is Amr standing ? " If used with the aorist, J.J& gives it a future sense. >*3 'Yes." ^b Oh, yes; certainly!'* ^\ "Yes" — used only with inter- rogatives or oaths, a aUIj ^_f ^ (< Yes, by God I'M '\^\ "Yes." -c?- Just so." ui "Yerily." ^T "is not? "(before a vocative). t*l Is not?" (before an oath). The two last are also used in solemnly opening a dis- course ; V\ is also employed in making a petition. Ij> " Hulloa !" When this is used with the demonstra- tive pronoun 1J, the detached form of the pronoun often intervenes, as liyj) U "Ho! that one there." \3 L^J^ li "Ho! you there." *^ are used with the future tense to excite or encourage ]I \ to the performance of an action ; when used with \ j the past tense, they imply blame or reproach for Q having neglected it. CERTAIN ADVERBS OF TIME AND PLACE. (179). tl4^ signifies "where," and is generally joined to a sentence. ^^A is an interrogative of place, 1 Id Egypt \^i\ is commonly used for ^ "yes!" and in Syria and els^vrtere ^\ is frequently prefixed to Jo ; thus, ^ ^1 "yes!" <)J3^. ^J^ is also used, r \ ' * . especially by Turks, as equivalent to our "farewell," on formally taking leave of any one. CERTAIN ADVERBS OF TIME AJs^D PLACE, 281 c c ^jJ or tjjJ signifies ''near" = jc^. ^jJ becomes ^-jO with the aflB.xed pronoim, as ^;jJ . \_Kote. — ^jJ governs its noun in the genitive, with the sole ex- ception of ij^, which it governs in the accusative.] ,jj^\ "yesterday," but it means any day that is past. If it is in construction with any other word, it is declinable as an ordinary noun. bj "at all," used with a negative, and referring to past time, as Lj c'<^\j U " I have not seen him at all." ^Ic (all three terminations being recognized) signifies ^'everj" it is used with the negative, and refers to future time. If it be placed in construction with another word, it is declined, as ^^-.^lil j^y: "for ever and ever." jlJ^ and j^* = j|^ ^j^ "since," cJ^J j| "then (when it was so)" ^r:^ "then," ilVJ "on that day." \d\ "when," refers to future time even when joined with the preterite tense, as ^.j^\^\ "when you are, or shall be . . . ." ul "when," requires a complement, as II^ ^jtjuli "and when I saw him, he rose." «i\ "when," refers to past time. ^\ "where?" is interrogative or conditional. ^^bt "when," is interrogative or conditional. ^ ^.'-< i.? "how," is interrogative or conditional. ^il "now," refers to present time. This is not properly speaking a particle, but the adverbial accusative of the noun ^2,T "time," with the article. (ij^ and t-i-^:o>- may have either a nominal or a verbal sentence for their complement, as 282 AEABIC GEAMMAE. S S £■ 0-' O j^\ Sij j\ ^g)\ ^\s>- "My father came when Zeid was Emir." 9 ^ 9 y 9 i^ S^ ^ j^s. jJj J^ ^\ (-I-jL* "My father died when Omar was born." i/yuJU" u::^! '-^-^:r*" i^-v^Jj^ "l sat where you are sitting." p o ^5 f ^^ o -J, -o X y'i. P o ^ \ i^llaLJ^ ^\i\ ci-^-S" ""Where the Sultan stays, there will I stay." Note. — jijj, j^j^o-, t^j and X^U imitate the construction of JU as (^ P 9 ^ ^ ■$ «0 P ^(^'- P^jy ^ \ i^ju5 ^-jjl^n f-AX> /••.» ^ JJi "This is the day when their sincerity shall profit the sincere." I^Sl:.^ li-J1 (^;:j^ ""When she came to her house." ■^ ^ O^ fc ^ijjl>- /»»j ^^ Since the day he spoke to me." j^ ''that is," is used especially to introduce a comment nponor explanation of a difficult word, e.g. t_,ja j ^\ u\.s."^**^ 1 jj& "this- is ''asjad., i.e. gold." J^ and lJ*!: are used with the aorist of verbs to im- part a distinctly future sense, i_jj-o being the more em- phatic of the two. ji with the aorist expresses hope, it may be rendered in English by " I suppose," as^lU«J ^ j*juj ji " the traveller is approaching, I suppose." Like its English equivalent, it is used ironically, as ^^d^\ j^^. jJj " a liar will speak the truth, I suppose." With the preterite it implies the accomplishment of an expected action, as r»^^\ <~^lj •J»J The Erair is mounted" (said to people who are expecting his coming). L-^ ji. Jjj ^ lj>- Zeid came — he was riding too." is" "certainly not," said to one who tells you to do a thing, or makes an assertion. INDECLINABLE WORDS. 2S3 PLEONASTIC PARTICLES. (180). Pleonastic particles are . ^-j after JyTi "it is not." J "to" is sometimes, though rarely, so used, as S with \ in such sentences as U.uT L ,.,sr L^",-!! U "we have never been polytheists, neither we nor our fathers." U in conditional sentences (see p. 175). U after '^^ and ^^^ in which case it does not prevent them from governing the genitive as before. U after cl^j, see p. 197 (HI). U after ^, as U^ "like what" = " as." \_Note. — In U-uS whilst," and Uii whenever," the U and the word to which it is joined should always be written as one word.] \\ after the negative U, as IjIj jj^, '^S U " Zeid is not standing," see p. 254. ;j "that," after l^^ "when?" as ll^ ITj ^<^ ^ ^' " when that Zeid went we went." INDECLINABLE WORDS. (181). Indeclinable words, i.e. those ivliicli do not cliange their terminations to indicate the different cases, are the following : Particles. The preterite and imperative of verbs (see p. 2G, note : the pronominal prefixes and affixes being considered as separate words). The aorist when followed by the energetic ^ or ^. 284 AEABIC GRAMMAE. All nouns, when joined to the affixed pronoun of the first person. The demonstrative pronouns. The relative pronouns ^ and U. Interjections. Nouns which serve as verbs; see p. 231 (139). In addition to the above, which have been already described, there are — 1. Compound expressions. 2. <-ibljl-^ or metonyms. 3. Certain adverbs of time and place. 1. COMFOtrifD EXPRESSIONS. (182). 1. The compound numerals from 11 to 19, '' '' y y ^ "i- ^' jlL£. i^sA ^U- "Eleven came.'^ JLs. Ss-\ (»::-y,K "l saw eleven." yis. Jk5».lj '-^jj^ 'l passed by eleven." jjortions of the compound are pointed with fethah t^ j^nout. jLs. ujj^ is however an exception, the first portion being declined as an ordinary dual noun (see p. 158), 2. Compound adverbs of time and place, as ^Uu.^ fV^ i«^V. cJ^ ^° ^^'1 so comes to me morning and I ) ^\s>^\^ — ) evening. i^AjM^ * U.-L-s' = ) evening." ^ ^^ i^\j!:l\ 1 JJi This wine is middling." • O'' y ox '' S ^9 .::^^ i-^W" U^ So and so is my next door neighbour" ijiit. house liouse=liouse to house). cL'bll^ METONYMS. 285 3. The first portion of compound proper names is in- declinable, as i^y^jJ^^ tl>3^ (see p. 220). s 2. Cl^blii METOXTMS. (183). These are ^ o < ^ o '. / So and so." These are used with or without the conjunction j, as ^z^ ^ u:-^^^\ ^^« ^_^li The affair was so and so." Lii-vO i.:^.» J aS > How many dirhemsi*" C^'j^ cry r^ ' If it is separated from the noun to which it refers, the latter is always in the accusative, as IS-I ^J |i!^ "How many slaves have I?" 3. JclS "how many !" The predicate of this is generally a sentence, as in the verse i'^j ^^y" ^^. ^ J^^ i^V ^^^"^ ^ c.'^ ^'^^ How many griefs that the physician cannot heal does he suffer ! Ah ! would that my saying 'how many/ could express it!" 4. \^ "so and so," "so many," which always take the accusative, as Uijj \j>^ ^'^ "I tiave such and such a number of dirhems." It may be also repeated with or without the conjunc- 286 AEABIC GEAMMAR. tion, as l^J Ijo ^ \'6^ ^ Ijo U\i u,^* "I liad so many dirhems." 3. ADTEKBS OP TIME ANB PLACE. (184). Some indeclinable adverbs of place may be used absolutely without a governed noun, and are then pointed with — dhammah. They are — jjjj before (of time). ^U before, Jutj after (ditto). behind. I^^jsT under. behind. jj^ above. down. /»'Jlj before (of place). :^ up. jJi else," is also sometimes so used, but in this case some such word as U="what is," is supposed to be omitted : it occurs after ^J!Ji and i, as Jll f T^x: ■^ ^ ^ ^ J? o>^^ *'I caught ten, nothing else." ^^ "enough," as ,Li^ IIk , ^^ "I like his speech well enough." The declinable adverbs are sometimes made to govern a sentence, in which case they are pointed with fethah, as u.;,--^^! ci^-j'U ^J^ "the time I reproached old age." If they are followed by anything but a preterite, the declined form is preferred, as I^ij>-? ^^JjI^T^^, ^^' "the day their truth shall profit the truthful." jL "like," when followed by ^^1 or U, is pointed with fethah and not further declined, as ' '„" '^\ '',';' f l::^^' I rose like he rose,'* , ,, .^s .o ^ or "like he rises." (♦yv. '^^ J^ SUililARY OF THE PIIINCIPLES OF THE SYNTAX. 287 SU^MAEY OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ARABIC SYNTAX. (185). If we analyze Arabic sentences by the rules of European syntax, we shall find them full of anomalies. But if we discard our preconceived notions as to the concord of substantive and adjective, nominative case and verb, etc., and look at the question from an Arabic point of view, we shall find them consistent and logical. The following are the principal points of Arabic syntax, to which the attention of the student is directed. 1. Sentences are composed of nouns, verbs, and particles. 2. Arabic nouns are all concrete] that is, they are all what we should call substantives, and do not express abstract ideas. 3. The verbs contain a pronoun inherent in the form, which is their real agent. Consequently, in analyzing the sentence ^^J^ \ "^{j A^ "Zeid the generous came," rather than say, as in Euro- pean languages, that 1y)\ is the nominative or agent to the verb sl:>-, and that ^J^\ is an adjective agreeing with jkJj, I should prefer to say that the true explana- tion is — *l=j- He came" (the agent he being contained in the word ^l>-). Juj I mean Zeid " (Zeid being the name of the agent J-c uJ \ ^^, and therefore in apposition with it). >jiJ 1 The generous one" (also in apposition with the agent or with the name). 4. One noun may define or determine another; such a state of dependence is indicated by the dependent case, as Js^cL-l^ "the book of the man." 288 ARABIC GEAMMAE. The indefinite nature of a noun is expressed by tenwin. The definite nature of a noun by the loss of the tenwin ; and, if it stand by itself, except it be a proper name, by the addition of the article. The absence of both temvln and article shows that the noun, unless it be a proper name, is connected with that which immediately follows it. 5. A sentence naturally consists of a subject and predicate, that is, the thing about which we are going to speak, and some statement concerning it, as SUBJECT. PREDICATE. JiXi jjj Zeid (is) standing." Both subject a7id predicate are put in the subjective case with dhammah. The simple logical copula "z5," is generally omitted; if emphasis be required, the pronoun is used to supply its place, as ^jT^y* ixj "Zeid he (is) standing." The predicate may consist of or contain a verb, as ooj CJj^ '*Zcid struck." This is properly ^^ He struck,''^ namely ^^Zeid.^^ The agent "he" being contained in the verb, and the name of such agent being subsequently mentioned for the sake of clearness, hence it follows that the natural order of words is to place the so-called agent after the verb. But if the verb is active or transitive, there must be also an object on which the action falls, as \ja1 juJ «_Jli " Zeid struck 'Amr." The object is put in the objective case with fethah. If it is neuter or intransitive, further explanation may be needed as to the state or condition of the agent, as \l,..u*^ jjj IIj "Zeid rose hastily." SUMMARY OF THE PIUNCIPLES OF THE SYNTAX. 289 State or condition is always expressed Vy the ohjective case. I have said that both subject and predicate are put in the direct case, as in the sentence '' Zeid (is) stand- ing," in which tlie logical copula "is," and 'a noun or a verb with its true inherent pronominal nominative, form the predicate. If, however, we wish to express existence in a state of- — or, the fact of becoming^ that is, of assuming a certain con- dition — it is clear that by the rule above given, such state must be expressed by the objective case, as U.5li S}\ (^li Zeid was standing." if- "Ci X S^^ ^ ILL:>- Jl.-; iLs " Zeid became a tailor." Hence the rule that ^JS and similar verbs put the predi- cate in the ohjective case. 6. Particles modify the sentence by extending or re- stricting the action of the verb. Some few, ^j. ^'^^^ ^^^ like, are exactly the reverse of ^^^ see p. 248 (154), putting the subject in the objective case, and the predi- cate in the nominative, thus lUl) \sij ^J\^ "verily, Zeid is standing." Here the predicate is introduced by a second or subordinate initial particle J. The explana- tion of this seems to be — ^ I am going to speak of my subject. IjkjJ qud. Zeid," i.e. in bis condition of Zeid {ivhence iJie tise of the ohjective case). *juJ Well — (J) be is standing'' (wbicb last becomes, as it ■sverc, a new predicate, and is tlierefore properly put in tbe nominative). 19 290 ARABIC GRAMMAR. These are the principal points which the student should bear in mind. Having mastered these, and made himself familiar with the further details given in the course of the work, he should study some easy native oi-ammai-, siich as the Ajrumiyeh. This he will be able to do Avithout difficulty with the help of the Glossary of technical terms at the end of this book I i 291 PAET III.-PROSODY. SECTIO]^ I.— THE METEE. (186). A knowledge of Prosody is absolutely necessary to the student of Arabic, since it enables him to correct the errors of copyists and printers, and, in this way, to understand passages which would be otherwise obscure. NO:\IEXCLATUEE. (187). The technical name for prosody is i^*y^\ ^l^, the word ^'j^ signifying a "pattern" or "standard of comparison." It is also called J-U:^l *bj from the name of the inventor of the system. The Arabs have instituted a fiinciful comparison be- tween "a verse of poetry," ^X^ liJ-j {lit. "a house of poetry") and "a tent," y«-- ^rA^ ^^^^- "^ house of hair (cloth)." 9 O^ The parts of the^-i-l l::^-j or verse" are named after those of tlie^ii, •JJ'J or "tent," thus: — Each of the two hemistichs of which the d^ is composed is called a c\^^ "one of the two flaps which form the folding-door of the tent." The first of these is called the Jl^ or "fore-part," the second the Jjs-^ or "hind-part." Each of the ^l^^J^ consist of "feet," called ^'\y>A (sing. ^) "portions" when spoken of as integral parts 292 ARABIC GRAMMAR. of the Terse ; but when spoken of in the abstract they are called J-^ll5 (sing, ^xki), i.e. "representing the measure by parts of the root J*j " (see p. 19). The last foot of the first ^Vj^ is called the J^*/^, as it determines the metre ; the last foot of the second '^j^ is called the lIj^, or "class," and determines to what sub- division of a particular metre the verse belongs. The opening foot of the verse is called the jl^ ; the first foot of the second 9)^^ is called the ^Tjcj[ "be- ginning;" and all the remaining parts are included in the general term JA^ "stufiing." The metres are called J^=r (singular J^r). This word means ''sea," but in its primary signification it means ''extent" or "space," and is applied to the "space" covered by theyti, t^-j, or "tent." A complete poem in Arabic is called Is^i ; it should contain not less than thirteen or more than one hundred and twenty distichs (i^-^, pi. cbl-jT). The first two hemistichs ^s\pi^ rhyme together, and the same rhyme is repeated at the end of every second hemistich throughout the poem. The two rhyming hemistichs with which the poem commences are called the ^Ll.^ "exordium." A poem without a ^LLiL* , and consisting of only a few verses, is called I■^^ "fragment." The scansion of a verse, i.e. its resolution into the constituent feet J-^l^', is called ^^^ "cutting up." ELEMENTS OF WHICH THE FEET ARE COMPOSED. (188). The elements of which the feet are composed are not, as in Latin prosody, merely long and short syllables, but certain rhythmical sounds or notes ; namely, QUAXTITT. 293 ARABIC NAME AND SVMKOL. LATIN NAME AND SYMIIOL. ■^ . ' i -' ^ light chord. — (hemi-spondeus). X ^ J heavy chord. ^-^v-- (dibrach). (^ ^ ^ undivided bar. ^-^ — (iambus). J J;>^ 1^ divided bar. ^ (trochee). O ^-'^ -''V^ *•-;' (-r CU^ (_C .X-5 <.'«..A«i? ^J minor stay. v-' ^-^ — (anapaest). i.f^ i 1*5 li major stay. v_x v_^ ^^ — (pyrrichio- iambus). In the nomenclature of these elements the analogy be- tween the "tent" and the "verse" is kept up; the vl^-^ signifying "a tent-rope" or "cord;" the S;^ "a tent- peg" or "bar;" and the J-s^y (sing. ILjC*) the long ropes or " stays" by which the tent is fastened before and behind to steady it against the wind. Practically there are but four of these elements, as the last two are merely combinations of the first three. QUANTITY. (189). The quantity of a syllable or syllables consists in conformity with one of the elements above mentioned : thus the word "^ is not spoken of as a long syllable, but as a i-J-i:>- s--'r~=j ^^^ i^ equivalent to Ji\ again, J'i is not looked upon as consisting of two syllables, one long and one short, but as a j^«/^ w\3^ = ^lj. The following are the only anomalies in quantity which occui- in Arabic prosody : 1. Letters of prolongation are considered as quiescent, thusli,^^, ^V*. 2. ^ (cdif malmira) is also treated as though the ^- were a quiescent alif^ and for prosodial purposes ii = lixi . 294 ARABIC GRAMMAR. 3. The \ of Ij't ''I," is sliort, tliiis ^\=^J. 4. The — or — of the affixed pronoun is long, *, i = ys, Jj^ ; so too the — , with which j*^, (^j and *j, ^xil, are pronounced before a hemzet el-wasl, is long=j,«j&, etc, THE NORMAL FEET. (190). From the elements above spoken of, a certain number of feet are constructed which are called ^^J^, or standards. They consist of combinations of the elements re^^resented by a word of the same measui-e formed from the root JjJ (see p. 19). NORMAL fi:kt. c^ .Lili^ OP i^ p y ^ oy o^ o y . , **^XJ^ /J^ ^ ^ \ c/^ J^x« OF WHAT COMPOSED. /^ S 9 O ^ S ' — ■ S P '^ ■' S'^ y y .^ ^ s P(jy S-'-' si/ •• ^ C/ • • L/» > ;> o ^ S-- S^ -' S y y ??'*-?'* '^!^ "*" c •'♦-ST* jjj + ^j^^ O-oli •ifi^ J^Ji + j^Lfi^Aii- ;^,U->*J ARABIC SYMBOLS. + LATIN SYMBOLS. ^ The termination ^^ represents the tenwin, the \^ of which, as is explained further on, is always tvritten in noting the scansion of a Terse. 2 This may also be written .jlcll, and regarded as if composed of the following elements : P o THE FIRST CIRCLE. 295 THE CIRCLES. (191). The various metres j^ used by the Arab poets consist of combinations of the eight feet described in the hist table. They are fifteen in number, but divide them- selves naturally into five groups, each containing a certain number of metres, in all of which the number and con- secutive arrangement of the elements are the same ; the variety being obtained by beginning on a different element for each metre. In order to exhibit this corre- spondence, the Arab prosodians write these groups in five circles, which I will give and explain in detail. THE FIRST CIRCLE (192). The first circle is called UL;:.^^\ 'S^aricd," be- cause it is composed of feet of various lengths. The elements of which it is composed are — 10 9 7 4 ^' • O'^ Kow if these be divided into feet thus. 1 10 9 • 8 o -^ o • o ^^ .r^ u;-* c^' ^ uA^^ 7 6 3 c;-' e;^ cJ' ^J 2 1 c/> XJ we have the first metre of the circle, viz. J;;.yL The second line being obtained by following out the rule laid down of representing each foot by a word of the same measure formed from the root J*j . !N'ow, if instead of beginning ujion element i, we begin upon element 2, wq shall have a different effect produced, although the consecutive arrangement remains the same, thus 296 ARABIC GRAMMAR. I 10 9 O XX o ^ ^j ^:o ^j O ^ x X cy i-^ii 6 O XX o >> X 4 3 2 O >> X ^ wliich is the second metre of the circle, viz. jua^U Again, beginning on 4, we have C y^ c y O ^ X 1 10 9 O » ox o ;» cr-: X>JkAW.'l( cT*^ tj^ c; ,Uli 6 3 4 O ^ — Ox ox O C ox o y / xo X liA*^ which is the third metre of the first circle, viz. 12--«a-1 \ . Thus we obtain the three metres of the first circle as they are usually represented : ^ xO X o^ X o? oxo*' o^ X oy oxo^ The following verse will serve as a memoria technica for the circle XX O-O ? O X <> c o S J»x«U L->w« ^>X*-11 LaaJ («i^ -' O-O i X -Ji O ^ ^■^ ^ t,_ ■ ' X ^^ X By commencing at the word J^l, which suggests ),jjy(, we have a verse in that measure; commencing with ^J^ , which recalls j^;>a^5^ , a verse is obtained in the metre of SixiA) and similarly with ]=Lj for l^-^jf, the verse affording a complete specimen of all three metres with a rhyme for each. The followins; diaj^jram of the circle exhibits all the facts I have pointed out in connexion with this part of my subject. The two outer circles contain the memoria technica verse, the point at which each metre begins THE FIEST AND SECOND CIRCLES. 207 being indicated. The next three inner circles contain the conventional feet of each metre ; the commencements being also noted. The t\70 innermost circles contain the Latin symbols and the Arabic elements. ^ O ^o-o ^ y 1st ciecle, c-iiii^'^l i("jlj. Note. — That in selecting a word as the representative of the elements forming any foot, a form must be chosen which actually exists. This is exhibited very clearly in the circle. The same element ^^'j being represented by^, O^ P ■' when beginning the foot ^^i ^ = J^^xi , but when it ends a foot, as ^^,-j ^JJ = ^^^^i, it is represented by ^U, because ^w form of the root jJe could end in ^xs. ^oco-o p> THE SECOND CICRLE J -V b. * •■'•M "ac;reeinir," '05 (193). The second circle is called because all its feet agree in length, consisting of seven letters each. It contains two metres, viz. ; 298 ARAEIC GRAMMAR. o/' 9 O? ^ ^ 9 it P '^ ^ 9 ^^_jll ^u.Lcli^ j^-Jk^li^ ^-ilcU^ The mcmoria techiica for which is : ,l_C A^ C-«3 9 ^ f -> •Si o^^-' The following diagram explains the formation of the feet and metres : ^occ/-^3 ;>y» ^ 2nd circle, t_ilj.,»Jl ^"yJ^ii. THE THIRD CIRCLE . ^:xs.'^\ i".j!j. J-' P '-^ o P<^-a (191). The third cirelo is called e^L^-^^i "hrouglit on," because its feet are "brought on" from the first circle. It contains three metres, viz. : o c '' ^ oy '"' o c ^ ^ ^Jt^ ^rr^^'^-* .J^^'^-* cA"-?^'* THE TniRD AND FOUETH CIECLES. 299 j^- J\ »XX*">,o...^ fA.^ji^.^**''* iX^^UjM^ ^i-Mi,.H^IAi ,.Hieli And tlie mcmoria teclinka is : '^ o •o ^ o^ The following diagram shows the analysis of the cii'cle : • X o co-o 9-^ ^ 3kd cikcle, w^i^-/^'^ ^j-^^*^ X O ?0-0 9^ THE FOURTH CIRCLE ^-oA^ \ ijb (195). The fourth circle is called ^^^^i "the intri- cate," from the intricate nature of its metres, which are six in number, viz. . 9 -Si ^ >X^>^'J«^,U:;^\ J_jxi ^^^o Jy6 Ji^xi CSj\s^\ (or ^i\}\) ^li ^UU ^li ^li 301 And the memoria technica is L5^ jUj jl llii'l, ■ €.,'-'5 ^jJU!^^ _JUj ■ n-V] o^" o o^^ c? c?^ O^O O-'X o>'o<'-' iirW^ Jy^ C'W^ J>" O '^ O -x O^'' Ox O -^•' O X 0>^ O >'y' Ox' c ---^^ cr' (i?-* tiT^ ** • ** ^^- ^J ^^- c.;^" ^ v^ ^ v-> v^ .^.y^O- C X o X o ''x C/ cT* llT- UJ,, c;"> jt-j tiT-' cT'"' O ? O -' ^ ^ O y ■' ^ (j 9 Ij 9 ^ For the same reason the words employed to represent the feet or combinations of the elements are written j^jij, i^-^'i^, etc., and not J^^*, J^?^*- YARIATIOXS OF THE PEmiTIYE FEET. (198). The variations to which the feet are subject are of two kinds, ujl:^j "Deviation," and lit "Defect." ? X -i -<3 1. i_Jl:5-pl DEVIATIOjNT. (199). Deviation is either simple or compound. (a.) t}l:>^\ < Jl5»-jJ 1 siirPLE deviation. ^.^ is the suppression of the second letter of a foot when it is quiescent, i.e. without a vowel ; as the ^ in lljulL^, which then becomes ^^}^£^, and is changed VAEIATIONS IX THE NORMAL FEET. 303 by the rule given in p. 297, Note^ to ^if 'X« ; or as the 1 in ,^Lili, which then becomes M*i. j!aij is the suppression of the second letter of a foot with its vowel, as the ^ of ^,UliL«, which, then becomes jU^\ is making the second letter of a foot quiescent when it has a vowel, as the i of ^.l^li^*, which becomes ,^l!fi^,«, and by p. 297, Note, ^Ixi^uy^. •ff-r > is the suppression of the fourth letter of a foot when i»o-^ it is quiescent, as the k of ^Xx-kx.^^, which then be- comes i^l^lxL*^ , and is changed into ^^*lt* . i-j is the suppression of the fifth letter of a foot when quiescent, as the ^ of Ji^xi , which becomes ^y^ ; or of the i_s of ^i.-^ll^, which becomes J^(s^. jii is the suppression of the fifth letter of a foot when it has a vowel, as the I of ^ILu.m, which then becomes ^^.ill.*, and is changed by p. 297, JVofe, into ^rU'X^. t_U^i is making quiescent the fifth letter of a foot, when this has a vowel, as the I of (^^yd^ll^, becoming j:Lz\L^^, and subsequently ,]!^ll^ , by p. 297, Note. lJ^ is the suppression of the seventh letter of a foot when it is quiescent, as the ^ of !^5%Ij, which becomes ci^'lili; or the ^ in ^,! »_i::Jl,* becoming ^^^JJl^.. Note. — These modifications can only occur in a i.lSl or ^'chord,^^ as ^" or ^^; we cannot, for instance, apply the ^^ to the foot ^'j^^^, because the second letter 1, although considered as quiescent, is part of a j.jj or "^«/-" ^\J', nor can we apply the ^^ to the foot [Xx^jLl, because, although the seventh letter ^ is quiescent, it is part of a juj, ^^'t 304 ARABIC GEAMMAR. {I.) ^jJJ^) i__Jl?-'-.l COlirOTJND DEVIATION". Jl>- is the occurrence in one and the same foot of ^-^^ and ^ ; as the suppression of the ^ of "^J^sLU* by 1^^-, and of the i by ^, leaving l}^^^, or, by p. 297, Note, ^1^. 1}y>- is the concurrence of j^l ^ii^l ^^ ; as the suppres- sion of the :; of i^UU'U by J^\i and of the ^ by rir, leaving ^^i'ic.* = ^^xii^ . J-C^ is the concurrence of 'Q^ and cJc^, as the suppression of the ^ of j^] ^Ixu*^ by (TtJ^, and of the ^ by i^, leaving J j_lv* ; or of the \ and (^ of ^j%:li , leaving JfiiiJ is the concurrence of ^^ and tla^, as rendering the I of ^-l^ll* quiescent by - cl-ll Q^i) to a ^^^-^ JJ^ at the end of a foot, as adding ^ to ^Ullu!,«, which becomes ^i£'iL* = ^;'lcU::^, by p. 297, Note. j->jj.; is adding a quiescent letter to a \y*^ J^j at the end of a foot, as ^^ to ^Lcll';J», which becomes ^u\s.[^ i---uaJ is the addition of a quiescent letter to a i— jiJ^ l1->^ at the end of a foot ; as the addition of ^ to ^j' at the end of Jjij^^, which then becomes ^Itlj = ^^Ij^Irl/. VAEIATIOXS IN THE NORMAL FEET. 305 Those wliicli are forraed by taking away from the foot are — <_Jio- which is the suppression of a uj:-.i^ C^ ^^ ^^^® end of a foot, as of the ^1 in ^L^'i^ becoming ^^^ = ^]y6 ; or iji' in ^'ji~^, wliich becomes %Ij = ^U Ij. LlckJj is suppressing a ^-ii u^ll at the end of a foot, and making the previous consonant quiescent; as the suppression of ^J from j^^'sS* and making the J quiescent, the foot then becoming ^AL* = ^m. jJi is the suppression of the second letter of a t-i-i:^ ^f^ at the end of a foot, making the remaining letter quiescent ; as the suppression of the ^ and making the J quiescent in ^L^U», which becomes J.^ll^ ; or similarly in ^ .L* , wliich becomes J^« . ^^ is the suppression of the last letter of a ^^^^ jJj at the end of a foot, at the same time making the preceding letter quiescent ; as the removal of the ^ and making the J quiescent in ^UlU^, which then becomes j.xji::.^.* = jj^tji^* . cL-^£j is the suppression of one of the two moveable letters of the c^'*"^* j^^ in ^i%lj, which becomes ^^jUU or ^^f6 (according as the £. or J of % is re- moved) = !J;^'« . ijo- is the suppression of the entire c^^^ jJ.' from the end of a foot, as of the Jks. from ^^l^ljb^, which becomes \kx^ = J^x.i . fu is the suppression of a j/,1* j5\ from the end of a foot, as of the d^i from cu'iJiXt, which becomes I is the suppression of the last letter of a ^^X^ jJj at the end of a foot, as of the c-j of tL'Sj^l* , which then becomes iljju,« = ^. is the concurrence of Xp- and (»_£S in ,^A-^li-« ; the ^ being suppressed by "^^ and ^ by uJa^, making the foot J.r5 w = Jj^* • VAEIATIONS IN THE NORiTAL FEET. 307 at the be- \1J^ is the suppression of the a> of ginning of a verse, leaving ^j^^^. ^ IS the concurrence oi j^^and k«^,>iit m j:^\i^ ; the first removing the * and the second making the \ quiescent : the first thus becomes ^:iLilj = ^^iure by rule p. :iy7, ^'ote. Arabic Symbols, Latin Symbols, 5^ " Or ^ 308 ARABIC GRAMMAR. SECOND FOOT, Name of Foot. Natural Measure. Artificial Measure by rule p. 297, Note. Arabic Symbols. Latin Symbols. S '^ c <> ^ ^ c ^ o -^ o •• '•^'" ^^j-»£lL* e;-' e^ cJ'"' — — — — S P(^ ^ op • ^ O -^ y O • X J=^^ cA?^ ^- CI.' ^:>i- ^ _ v_^ s yo -' >> -' ^ ^ O ^ O -'-' ,( f^i-C* J^^li* c:-? ^;j' t:;-J' v^ _ _ v_ S >> o -' ^ '' ij 9 ?'' o ^ o ^^ 1-J.i^'* L55''-^ Jy^ Cf- CT^ ^ — — y ^ o S o ,; ^ O / ."O ^ o ^ O -^ o • r>' crW'^ J.XS^ e/' cr' cT — — — f^'^-i i. p .■ C '^ / O '^ j->i ^j cl; j^ — ^ — f ^ o S ; ^ P ? o ^ ^ O -. O X 4_^^\ uW^ J^xi^ ^ ci;^' d- — — ^^ S jP o ^ o -- ^ %^ y 9 y o o ^ o ^^ ^Ul^ ^V ^' cr^" cr^' ■ — / — . • — THIRD FOOT, ^J^\^ Name of Foot. Natural Measure. Artificial Measure by rule p. 297, Note. Arabic Symbols. Latin Symbols. i? ;> o -- oy X ^ -' v_. _ w v_x — o /o ^ ^ o y ^ -' o ^o ^ o ^^ ^ — — _ s ?^^ o >> y y O j' .^ x- o ^^ o ^^ Jylv^ ^s^ ^ cr^ v_^ '^ o-- o^^ ^ _ v^ 5 i-- o ^ o ^ ^ o *> /^ -^ — — <> ^oS O f^ X o;* ^o p O ^^-' o ^ — ^ — ^ y -'OS o y ^ o y /o ^ O O X — — — r^' cr-^ J^^ d^ cr — v_^ 0-' ^ o ^ ^ o^ o ^ _ _ ^ TABLES OF VAEIATIOXS m THE XORIUiAL FEET. 309 L, ? ^ ^ FOURTH FOOT, ..^ficlj. Name of Foot. Natural Measure. Artificial Measure by rule p. 297, Arabic Symbols, Latin Symbols. S y S 9 1^^ — ^ — — S 9<^-' 9 y y 9 y y ^ o ^ -^ O '^ — V. ^ iT / O ^ S 9 1^ ^ S 9 ^ ■- o ^ ^^ <-, y y ^ S 9 l^ ^ S 9 •-> ^ Si yo^ ^ >* o ? ^ (-,•'• x- c;^' 0/0-- \^ 9 y^ ^ o>' / o ^ ' ' S 9 O ^ S^ y 9 y ^^Izr^ ^^•^J^i J^^ ^ ^' ^.:^- Cl^ FIFTH FOOT, ^.i-l^- .•Vrtificial Measure 1 Name of Foot. Natural Measure. by rule p. 297, Note. Arabic Symbols. Latiu Symbols. i -^ 09 '■ t,^-- o y t^-^ o^^ d^^ c/ — ^ — S 9 <^ y oy - c ^^ ^ U.^^' ^' ^^^ -- V.—' S 9 <. y <_- -^ oc o^ O ^ O X tM^ J^li ^« -^c?-' — — i^^ 9 I.O'- O ^ '^ co^^ c ^ uV.-^'* crlf'^i u^-^^^ cT^ i^r' — ^ — iJtS-y (^ 9L, 9 y O j'^ .' C -^ '^ •^ o -^ J^,- ^J^^^ c^-^-^ c/'cr^ey"" — ^ — _ 1 See note 2, p. 291. 310 ARABIC GRAMMAR. o ^ o ^ o ^ SIXTH FOOT, ^J^^ku>jy*, Name of Foot. Natural Measure. Artificial Measure by rule p. i'97, Arabic Symbols. Latin Symbols. s ^ i, P o^ o » O y^ O ^ C ^ ^ (jlxi:^**^ CT*^ Ll^ \^ S 9 Ij ■^ o P o^ y O ? ^J" o ^x o ^ ^ U^r^-^ ^Ui:^* c;!^*^ cr^' J^ ^ <^ ^— v-^ . — £ '' ^ O ^ -' o ? o c --o? O •^ ^ O '- cA*^*^ ^■■^ ^ ^ ^ — ' ^^ — — S P O -* i^P ^9 O ^J^ X O x-* • • J^ cA^^ ^■J^i ^^J Cl^ClJ '•w' **-^ V-^ S P i^" o o^ o ;> o ;> PO-' o^ o ^ o ^ t?-^-* J^i:uu^ J^W. ij- ^^" ^- "~ "-" -~ ,-. s-^^ » OOP o^ c >> O ^ O^ C J> O b x-- O ^ o ^ Jjlx* ^jJ.xi:;-uA^ otM^-* (^ t^--* ^^■ t^' y 5 ^o^ S P <- ^ o o^ ;• C " ?^ O^ O • X • u^"" tp^^ J^-^ ^.Xi ^- ^i- ci^ ^-^ — — S P O " S<>^ ■' O 0(> O^ J> o ^ ^ ^ O C -■'•' ox X ^y^ ck^ i^J»ix>j.^ J1.U.. L^ cr^ V ^ -^ S o ^ S ■ii^ P o oc ^ o p O ^ ^ <> O O •«' • o ^ ^U;^ ^%:ii^ c) cr^" ^ cr*' v^ V^ 5" .fO'^ S^^J> O O? '^ ? o ^^ ^ C O ^x y X J^:-^ J::^-* cr^ ^l^« ^^-Cl^CLi v^ V_^ v^ i? p<^ ^ f o ^o ^ X ^ o -^ i^jK^ '^ ^^- cr^' V_* .w« •? <> O X 9 ox ^ ^ ^^ ,' .* <' JyLi*^ JxU^ 'CU Jj CL> \^^ ~^ ^^ ^^ See note 2, p. 294, and the diagram on p. 300. TABLES OF VARIATIONS IN THE NORMAL FEET. 311 SEVENTH FOOT, ^\r.{JcJ*. I Name of Foot. Natural Measure. Artificial Measure bv rule p. 297, Note. Arabic Symbols. Latin Symbols. s C P ' ^ P o--^ o--^,> ^U'uii.* cJ^ c;^ v_^ > ' — *^^ __ OP ^o c OP O^O P ^ — S J'O-- O ' ' P O ^ '- O .'^ u^y^-* ^LU.. c;--' cT^' •^ — — — . S P <^ ^ C P ^O P op y<^ P — ^ ^ — S P Ij ^ o p -- ,- ^- v_. — — S 9 <^ ^ S ^ '^ 9 (^ 9 9 f^ y o^ o ^o^ i ^s y y 9 o P^x o — j^l . Ijb^ c^« c,'--^' v.-^ v_^ _. OPo^ O^O'- £■«-' y J:'.'^^ OOP •^ p O ^ ^ -^ 9 X OOP y'O p o ^ o^ o P O O ^-' c ^o^ w ^ OOP .'y o ^ ^ p X s p <^ ^ sn -' >" o o? ^o<> O ^ xo P X o^op •'-' p op** ^-^ p O ^^ O X ^^ O XX'' v.-^ S^ o ^ i?;3 ^p o^o c ^op o p ^ o^ o p OX o-^ X O xc-x ^^ J-y» cr-^^-^'* ^'J ^^i^u^JJ^t uP' cr^' cr^' ™ v^^ __ _^ C P ^ ^ ? o -- o ^ ^ o^ ^ w — ^^ — — S P K, y S C ^ 9 -^ ? y 9 y y XX X J^r^-* ^Ix^ CLJlxi ^l; C^' CIJ X ^ ^ — ^ ox Ox Ox X S 9 1^ y U 9 /> C ^ — — — 5 o ^ J yo^ O -^ 9 L,y O X X Ox X i? 9 <^ y C ^ 9 y 9 y C y 9 y X O X X U^" LZj'iyK^ s_» ^_- i7 O -' 9 X c o ^ XX ox X v^ v^ 5" POX *7 y O X o •-■ ;> ^ O ^ ? X O ^ O X X* X c_jy^^ ^,^,^* C^'^J^.".^ ^'V ti,b ^^J C^ V..X — S 9 l^ y S 9 L, y y 9 '- O <> i'x X O X X (_i^AC ^^^ 'iyc^ J>^ l3- ^3- C^ THE METRES. 313 THE METRES. (202). Each of the fifteen metres (p. 295) may be subdivided into classes, according to the variations of which the Jo^^l is susceptible. These classes may be further subdivided according to the variations of the cl/p . Thus, the first metre Jj^lJ \ has for its normal ^*j=- the foot ^^-^U,* ; in practice, however, this is seldom employed in its integrity, the two variations ^Jl^ll• and i^^/tj being the only ones in use. These two classes of J:'jl2lt contain respectively four and two subdivisions, accordiug to the variations of the ^^^ A single instance will suffice to show the method of employing these and the foregoing tables. The verse from my edition' of the Poems of El Beha Zoheir, p. 7. x-c -- ^ ^ y l^;K^ UjLT l^,.' t_>^Uui" ^U^ Sii ^ 1^'*^'*^* (*^ J^ is said to be ^i^^\ ^3 15 ^^ the second class of the metre l!^ow, the second cJ J of the first ^^j^ of this metre is called J^y^^ (p- 314) ; if we turn to the table (p. SOS) of the second foot ^^i--^'!* (the normal CJj^)^ we shall find that the variation ^.-L* is equivalent to the foot ^^IxU-. , which is the actual C^^j^ of the verse in question. In tlio list of variations (p. 303), under the article ^J^-^^ we find described the process by which the change is made. 1 Now in tlic Press. 314 AEABIC GEAMMAE. TABLES EXHIBITING THE DIFFERENT METRES. •(►V^'^') -S^^c^ ;9X ' 1 V ^ 5- !K r -» ^^ •\ n M «« 0-^ •«•««•« r^ '^^J ^J ^1. ^1< <4 «h Ck «^ » «^ «t *«■ Vte •^ -^ »- *> ^^ •k «V ««. «^ ^■^ = • .o"^ *» •« *^ v^ J .4; = = "■ J s ^^^ r ^^ *k «• «k aik ••?. . :n) •te «> A •» ;-S - • [^^J \I i-H K. .^ ^ vv wv «te •^ V« •v ^ A '■ h' rC ^■?> •%«#«. «N i\ - •» « •^ •» 5^ - ^i) :i) ^^ 0-^ - •- 1- a. » >- a "J- "I -i ^'il ^^ ■^ 1^ 0:05 1 With this c-y? i.e. the jJj*i becomes (J%*J. o- iJo ? s ^^^ ■> it is usual to make the third foot of the j^-^, j_^.Ji,«, 9. 9^ ^S'PP. 10X0 METRE. 315 o CM M o • »o "-5 i I- r 1— til .1^ ll n f :3^ ^ ^. "3 \ •0" 1.1 ■1. v-0 ■'J *3 p (►^•'p'). -^ ^ y' If 's \ J 4, cs Is 1- -^'A \ * «'b The examples of 1, 2, and 3 are from the treatise of Sheikh Nasif el-Yaziji; they form a memoria technica, tlie first word tJLJlLI serving to recall to the student's mind that they illustrate the metre J)j]^. * These are examples of ,.^. o 16 ARABIC GRAMMAR. The licences permitted in tliis metre are J^j and wlif . ^^J, the suppression of the fifth quiescent letter of the foot, affects both ^,'iJU and |^Lcli^, making them re- spectively J^« and (I^Lll*. tlif , the suppression of the seventh quiescent letter in a foot, can obviously affect only [^l-rll*, which becomes Both licences cannot occur in the same foot, such a form as Jcli^ being impossible. This exclusion of one licence by another is called ^'IjlC . Examples: — 1. ^^pj, as O*" ^ y 9 9 y OC -'^ 9 9'' O? 9 9" <^ P " " 9 P ■• in which every foot except the CJj^ loses its fifth quies- cent letter. a 2. <«jis, as o >> -- ^ C (> O^ 9 "" O C ;'x O? yy 1^9 py 9 yy o?o^ where the second foot in each hemistich loses its last quiescent letter. In the first hemistich the first foot suffers Jj (see below). Of the licence called ^lL,— j^, pj, and jy sometimes occur. 1. ^y^\ LICENCES IN i_jLjT. 317: where j and JvIj are respeetiyely prefixed to the verse 2. pii' : where, instead of ^j^, the verse begins with ^^IXI (l^^|.)' « where, instead of J^^' , the verse begins with IS^ (j l«). The Jij.yi and d/Ji of a poem usually differ. But since the first two hemistichs rhyme together, and the rhyme concludes each distich in the poem, it follows that in the first distich the J^^y^. and JJ-i will .correspond. Thus : oi'.<'' -, ,-, S 1^ -^ 1^ 9 the ^ij.^ being ^ljt« , and the dji , ^^i-^ll* ; but in the first couplet the ^ /^ becomes ^Lcll^ , like the . The *-J^" may be repeated in the course of the poem, as in the same kasidah Imru' el Kais says : ■ii y y ^oS-i 9 ^O'- '• S y y ^o ? y yy y -^ ^"^ * ^ S yy ^ y * Instances of ^^^ . * An instance of l^ . 318 ARABIC GRAMMAR. H P H M W H c4 "5 ?^ •^ .< -- o V >3- «/»y^ ^3 J yTcO p^g ^ o o ^*\^ H. • xl •■^ .•5 ^ IS •c-o >> o ^ EXAMPLES or SjS^ \ f 319 ^'.S.^'T ^^•%^ ^^%^ \» •Jr^ o 03 P-( M pi? \ :5 \ • so, /^ 'A =i ^'^ X '^ ?\ 4 '^ pa o a 3 "- , vr9 .i^ ^3 -3^ Nr9 "b :*!} rr-( '"^ CO \ : 1 ^ ->\N 3^ 1 "> n;j \ 1- "b J — J • (.1 'J 320 AEABIC GRAilMAR. The licences allowed are 1. ^jX , as in the second of the two following verses : o where ji and j^ are added to the metre. 2. ,2r^ in the ^^, in ^Uli and ^;J%li. 3. t>i^ and Jli> in j^%l-'. In the first (^^^^ the same licences are allowed as in the yL^ , but in the first cl^ only '^j^ is allowed. In the second J^*j^, ^[^ is not allowed, or it would be confused with the third. El Khali'l does not allow ^2r^ in the ^^.-.^iU tl/^, but El Akhfash permits it: this ilJ^ is of such rare occur- rence that El Akhfash declares that only one aJu^i is found in that measure amongst the poems of the ancient Arabs, namely, one by ^U^LH, of which the first verse is 1. ^^'. *^ • • •• of -' o y ^ ^ where all the feet suffer ,^^^ , 2.^. the loss of the second quiescent. 2. ^^: y ^-%li ^^Ij c^'^li c^^iL^i ^^Li c:.'%li YAEIATIONS IN ^^2\ ^. 321 wliere all the seven-letter feet suffer uJi (i.e. the loss of the seventh quiescent). ^ O J" 0-^3 Ox-i? y -ii y 9 ^ vJ- i70,x yxx O^-' O)'''-^ 9 '^ ^ <^ 9 ^ p ^ y' where the seven-letter feet in the first hemistich suffer The metre '^i^\ is considered by native poets as the most difficult of all, and few, if any, examples of it occur in the later writers. The modern Arabs have invented a metre called jc^v^'I, which consists of ^. ♦^ (.T^ p? ■ H • Ph I H P O W H J ^ K ^ CO J' \13 :3 d^ ^^^ -t) '0^^ ;-l)^ .0- \I3 r?v m — *- I-, a ?0 ^ ? ^ '^ ^ ^i^^iiia^^ V ^ t>Jft»1 oj (4^ ::/ EXA:5rPLES OF 323 % 5> \ q o 14- • >"> w > ra J ■'A CO '^— i>, .v'u ■; oil. .VJ 'v-i w \3 J- o^ V3 1 <; ^i*)^ .<; ■ ^ J oJ ^1. u]- \i^ ^ .J '^J ;A-" ^.J!> 13 \ -3 x-^j n b o I j;:/-^ t4^ :o4 'I \ ») J ^ ^.. 1!^' ^1 •J 324 ARABIC GEAMMAR. The licence called ^Ji- may be used in the "^L^ of this metre ; and of the tlil^j the feet ^^Lli and ^l.*!;:^ suffer j!^, and ^.^^ol.* suffers ^ and jl=s-. 1. ^^ o • o ^ c-o y ^5 •-IE -^ ox^-^ c-^ i» o-^ The verse belongs to the second clyJ of the third j_^j^, the words ^_5^0^, consisting of eight letters (in- cluding the upright alif\ are all added over and above the metre by j^. t- P y- 1^9 y> <^ 9 y <^ ' yf ^' y ^' '' ' t^ ' y <^ 9 y 9 where every foot suffers ^,f^. •!»<■ 3. iJ=: 9 y (y ? yv,p iy 9 y o J? -'oy o c ^ c >> x"-' of ^ o *• --Of where all the seven-letter feet suffer 'Qs. 2^ is also admissible sometimes in the fii'st tl^ of the second ^^js- , as ^^ ^ Oi-o -' o^;>o^> -^ «,'-''* O "--C/S o>' ^ X JU^^^-w^ ^^Ll<:r^ -'^:'' c:^l^ U^UJ L:^.iU.\ '^'jj^^V. I, y y(y9 of '' of o^oy Of o.'Of Of y Of o^ o y so-- OfO-'Oy * By ^^j>- for ^Uili***^. VAEIATIOXS IN l^^^TjS^ 325 4. J^: ^^y ^Ixi ^Uli ^_^uL« ^^Ly ^Ly ^Lli ^^ It is also allawed in the first CJji of the second ^If- , . I as In the third ^^.jS- of this metre a somewhat unusual licence is allowed, the J^^j- and CSji both being sus- ceptible of ,2;r^ ) the foot (^;.'«i« becoming ^^^.t^* = ^^S.-o , as in the following verses of 'Obeid ibn al Abras : _^j juC* J-^^ i_^J J.i J (jwAi'* u^*j ^j jXi 9 9 ^ y — i'^' i?/o^ -ipy C_J^Ia**^ (._^Lj ,_^ J Ji _j C-'_j^t_j-« J.j1 ^Ji ij^ » P ^y y O^O-O 9 y y. 9 'iy y ^ y -"^ 9 J where the ^^j^ and cLvJ arc sometimes ^f.C>» and some- times ^^!^. If the ^^^^-^ of every verso in the poem is ^^xi , the metre is called k»^ \ ^i:-* , as in the table. The ''Jls>. may also suffer ~'^j^» , 326 AEABIC GRAMSTAR. t'l. ix^ ^ ^ ^^^ »-^:4. -? 5" ■'i ^ :-;f % ;4- f \\i x^' ' •^ «> •* •» : t) :4^ (••) *> \-— sj rtj ^'^ P3 ^'1 < 4 V *^ ^•1) 3 •" H ». H f^ 1 H r- r "V » I- s % iZ^ ^ A ■^^ «^ ^ « "■•> *\ ^ ^^ tj >J ^^ J-T) < "=5 ^J ^"^ .'O-O ? o ^ EXAMPLES OF^J^l^pC- 327 ca o ^ is 1-H t) -0^ Li:^ \ M ^ • S •^ S "V cyQ LV-«» CO _ *> o m a (^ a ^■i; Bnn ;-l ;! ? J }r1 ^ O 'n ^ i -.■> lO "J /^ ^ "^ ' — 1. -■I D o= I— v3 r> I, ^. r.i = ^ •Ox 0- a H O "1 328 AEABIC GRAMMAR. The following licences (cjl^J) are allowed in tliis metre: c^-^^, Ji^, and ^'ij. i c ^ o -^ ^ ^ 9^ ^ ^ 1— \j ^ ^ ^~ ;l where all the feet in the yl:^ suffer ^^J^ . 2. Jib: Q -s^v/: 9 y o -i .-o '^ y y«o — ' . > S >' -y -' -Ji X jUj ^^-^l^d ^^i^^'l-^ jJ,si ij\:il ^^^J 0;> >> ^ ^ ^X P y y Oi> ? X P yy 9 yy The fii'st tlJ^ of the first ^^^ may suffer J^, as K- y 9 9 '^9 y y S>Oy y -I- y y ^ ,^ y"}. y t,yy o ;>£ y ?y yi^9 y yL,yy -i^y y o ^ y 9iyy ^ ■^ y o ;>£ y ?y yi^9 y yL,yy -i^y y - ,_ ij 9y ^9 y y '-'9 yy LI/ 5"^ i '^ ^^ ^ "' I ^^'iLili^ 1 If the c_^«-2i occur in every foot in the second ^jO^j^ of this measure, it -will be identical with the Jrs- J 1 ■^J-sr* ; but if the foot ^:J_cU^ occur once only in the course of the poem, it is sufficient to stamp it as belonging to the metre J u. Similarly, if the Jju occui' in every verse of it, it will resemble the S 9 ^ y o-o y "Ci -o 9 ^ y ^c-o yo x- VAEIATIONS IN J^^]^^. 329 Of the .IL (seep. 307): il^s-j 1^, u^^^i a^d 1a^ sometimes occur in tliis metre, but they are not considered elegant. 1 lL -^- ' • O P 9^ L 9^ ---' 9 "" ^i • t, 9 /S .' O/ P 9 i^^ ^ • O -^ • ^^ •7 • i;:5^ s y yo^ j.::,-X]Ji) dx^j-j Jo^'wXj" (•'^J '^v ' •— -^p "^ '^^ L, 9 9 y Oy^ ^x ^ fy ^ y CC*-' O^x -'' 9 9 ^ y 4. (^ •5) ^ ■^ % y ■f-t o^/^cE • y y ^ o-o ^ y L, y 9 ij y y (^ 330 AEABIC GRAMMAE. H H O P^ 5-^ ■» ? g ». -^x lO [^1 4 n3 a ■) ■73 i=l t>\ CO , ^• _3 = • *■ 1 N ^'^ ' ^v^ ^ \-1 o o-O '^3 •^ J — ' . -A X -A -A ; "I 3 1 0^ 1^ v^ '^ 10- ^o= b ^J — »_ i- 332 ARABIC GRAMMAR. S, X o. The licences occurring in this metre are J.aJ:\ , Jajj^ and Jjrk , which may be employed in the ^jy^ and tl^J , as well as in the body of the verse (Jil^). 1. ■'.Iwh^ c i o -« ,i»'o»' o^ o ^ o O^OO? 0?0-'0? OCO^^^^ 0?C^07 O^C-'O^' O/C'OJ' and in the second CJJa of the first ^ji^f- . ^^»*i^ ^LsU::^ ^jLzXkx^ ^J^^Xsc^ ^Jk£.[h^ jJxljb^ The last foot having become c^Ll^ in the il^j-i, i.e. J^'i^, suffers the .further modification of j^\, and becomes c^ial^J.^^, see table, p. 311. The following (from El Baha, Zoheir) contains examples of the jUJt in the JL^\ lS^], and in the body of the verse : An example of ^l^^ in the Jj J^ foot is ir, '" o. ^ If jUk^i occur in every foot, the verse will resemble >>-i , but the occurrence of the foot .i^U':-^, if only once in the poem, proves it to be /L«o. Thus the above example might be supposed to belong to J^J- J \ , but the first verse of the Kasidah is — • O-^^O-' OXCy^) y P -^ X" X^ --O ^ 1^ 9 t^,^ ^ ■where the foot ^l^U:;^ occurs once in each hemistich. VAEIATIONS IN J^lLjl^^. 333 OC^O^ Oi" --^i" Of ^^J' o^ ^ ^ 9 JO^ t, p y o^ .' o ^ -i ^ >• i. f ^ ^^ 9 6 ^ -'X ^ j^ilij ci^ Jk.^.-i -\JiJ _j o ^ ^^ ;> O y y ^ 9 ^IrlA::^ ^^Lb^ 9 . . -^ O -^ ^ O'^'^ oy ^* oj' ^-^ t-y ^i* o^ ^i" oc ^9 <'<' ^^ ^^J-cli^ ^Lc.li^ ^Lcli^ jjLzli,.* iji^U^ ^LclLii J]aJjj in tlie S'j"* foot • Jksj in the Jj J^ foot : 3. Jj^: oP^oy cp.'O*' oy--c.j» oj^o» oc^L,? oy^oy ^^Jjl:;^ ^^y.*:ui^ ^^l^::;^* ^^^::>a^« ^^l^ajL* /1.t::liL« (2/>- in the Jv* ^^^^ • jjX in the Jj 3^ foot ; cJU-*^ UU^d/ Icjlil^Ll/ U^C^^lj 4. ^i»jri- is sometimes introduced into this metre, as 334 ARABIC GRAMMAR. 2 1" f W g ^ ^ » % to o4 ^ »t "^ "t p y^<^/. EXAMPLES OF ^ji^\ O % ^ Q o 03 r n i^ >^1^% •<3 1 i _j.\ s^ l-i^ ^3 I -^ J- \ ■\ 335 »^ E ^j» 1^ ill 336 ARABIC GRAMMAR. «?o^ fJcJ and sJs^ are allowed in this metre. XX X ^ where all but the ^^^^^ and tl^ suffer ^Ijl. 2. cJ:: i^ 9 i^ ^ 9 ^ ^ O 9 ^ ^ p ^ ^ XX • X where all but the cl/^I^ suffer lJb^. rox Jox • *• ' • -^ and X-p^ also occur. (V^j j^j V^ ^^^ (*j^ 1. (^^r^ : •Ji X i" o-o X XX f f xxo-o X -ix Here the first foot suffers X,X , ^'i^^cll^ becoming ^,l^»xl^ , and the j in J,lc is doubled by poetical license,^iijT ijjji . ^. I^^>-M) • OXO *'tS XX > ^xcxx'gi Here the first foot becomes J^\i , dropping by j:^ the ;t £ 3. first and fifth of i.L^ll^ . X X * • Here in the first foot J,lf/ is of the measure ^pSt for J-ill, formed by dropping the first and seventh of "^^sSsC*. VARIATIONS EST ^J-^l^pT. Q 37 4. (.j^ Where the word '3H\ occurs at the boginning of the verse, and is over and above the ordinary number of feet by the licence called ^^, see p. 305 (and Errata). * Instances of <._ o> . 22 O OQ OOO AEAEIC GRAMMAR O i""!) -(J »y ■73 d c;4 CO -• r3 ID > O H 1-1 H \3 ^J < ^ J J ^■■^ .-^^ 1) o J l^ \ o <\ ■ V) o C3 B \ : -a • i-H a ^7) < 11 o 1) ^6 a > >— 1 1— 1 N ^ s'). c, 1L/:-"-, ^0 ij =^ i l ''-^ h f' O '1 \ J =1 1 \_3 N \ K. \ \i -fi ■> -M J •(/! •^^ "d^ »\ b -^ •>^ 1x D r-1 }1: i •I !) ■:ii o'J V. It -a 'a X «> i-^: !> ^>q 3 r> \j (.1 «> N -I ^^V) (■I tjj # ^y 1^ p ^ (^ X 1/XP(. Sox ui..-. >^\^^=^ c; ^>S, op c^ o ;> XX O >" O' O )» 310 ARABIC GRAMMAR. ^.JX may be used in the ^[j:. and LjJ^ of the fifth S9-' ox x^ o-O X xox X t ox^oSox Of'x O? XX o>'oxof but this verse is said to belong to the metre Cj^. The ^*^ and CJJi both losing their secojid quiescent letter by '[j^ and becoming ^^^^ — ^j*^. S- O X »f X S' X X j^^, ijs, and J-^. U.ir- jJU-^ A^^i^ U11.J Ullt. U!l^ "^ s'x X X ^ UxVi^ jjii^ iiji- uiij uiii:_^ uiiL^ where all the feet are ^y^^ • And in the second cLj^J of the first ^J^^^ . X ^* •• X yx O ;> OXO ^ OiJ OXO 9 (y 9 Oxo P O /> OXO 9 oy Oxo «> the cl/Ji being ^^t^* c^kiU (see table, p. 310). 2. ^>: y y y XX Ox XX O O XXX X O/ xo / OP xo p Oi" xo^ oy xo O C --O C 3. :a « • ft ox ? X OX ^ X X y y ^ XX , ox X ^x X ^ O yx X O/x X OCX X OCX X y -S.-^ P 1^ >■ VARIATIONS IN j^) \ j^^. The first and second CSjs of the first 111 ^^ may be used alternately in a poem composed in the rejez metre ; but as the verses consist of a series of rhyming couplets, each distich is an instance of f-;.^" (see p. 317), and the ,^^yi and L_^ of the same verse should therefore alwa5^s agree ; thus in the opening verses of the Kitab es Sddih tv^cl Bd^im'.^ ^ ^ ^ *' 9 <5 O ^ ^UaJl^- P C-O^ -^ y 9 4 Wj u.^^ ^ J -^-^^ 4^ J ^^^^ \ , cr^l^ J-^ ^^-^ o ^ ^o-o^ -'O-'O x- -^<^* y >* -^ J^l^^_^iill^yl J^l; \ i^ O -Jl . tl/^J-X^ 1 J ;__J^^X»J ^ Jj^J'* _J (J/J^S^j J a. •• •'- o ? t,^ o where the tl^ is sometimes ,J.^:liLJ«, with or without ,2;^, ^, or JIX (see table, p. 310), sometimes ^J^*-'?!*, and sometimes (J^.jJ . Eejez is the only metre in which such a licence is allowed. * A series of Fables and Aphorisms in verse, by Ibn el Uibblriyeh, 342 AEABIC GRAMMAR. EXAMPLES OF J<«^51 43 U ■^ -, O S M r> •^ X_J XJ J -■^J T X -ej X :=^ J a O O M (.1 3- ^1^ ; ? X t Mi ARABIC GRAMMAR. ^ p ifo ^ Of the i-Jl:>-jj ,2r^> <— ^j ^^^ J^ occur. 1 ^^ "T , S f y' P 'TO'' In the j^-aL* c_->H.^. u¥ . c:;^%^ c;^%^ cJ^^ c;i%li ,:r^%li In the O ^ ^ iT o ^ «-^AW^ C_^-^. c ^ y i, 9 ^ ■^ ■51 '' S .^ .f 2. ^: X x>' >* ^ UUi l^ -; % ^ 'i^ [^' ^i-^li c:.^^li c^'^li o. / lSw»?^ ^ ^ ^ -3 -o » o VAEIATIOXS IN J^J\^^. 345 5-C ^ And of the \1D Oi r;i o> • ^ •^ H H h O H < ^' -J "•J EXAMPLES OF *-iJ^^'- 347 «i-l*q^ jjJM tJoM 'Pj«>. /" "I- V q :: ;: • - JJ O EXAMPLES ^3 .,; ^J ^ 1 ^y- ^J• ^> '-^- ^'^ J _ .- L - »- - o3 348 ARABIC GEAMMAE. o ^ S ^ The licences allowed are 1^^ j^, and jl>>. o -" ^ OP -'p c ^ ^ ;» t/j" -- op ^9 op ^^ In the 3rd ^If-, . ^o (j y f-' opo^op oPO^oP O^O o-* ^OP O^'O-'O-' In the 4 th j^^. ^ o» p c^ o I o » ^ ^ Oi'P-' 0P0--0^ OP ^y P >'.' -' •»• ^ ox '- P oS^" OP^x PO--OP OP ^P 2.^: o ^ -^ ^.^ C5 •O-' S ^ ^XO*' ^y ^ ^ •53-0 «■ o VAEIATIONS IN ^^\j=^,' 349 •TO .' 3. J-^ *• s ^ py^ y y^ y _ oy y y s ^ ^ '' -' ... I J^jiT^. .^ >=r. ^y -'- t>^^ ^icli ^-Axi ^ c;^^ d^ d^ 350 ARABIC GRAMMAR. EXAMPLES OF Lj^S , 351 \ 1 -I -I CO '^*^ .V3 a. o GO M '1 ^'l ;l ^:1 "> :-. \3 O ^ -N ^^= ?- ^ i -6% U ^ o ^^J n o.\ '^'J- r< 852 ARABIC GRAMMAR. The licences whicli occur are "^^^ , ^ , and J^i. , but ^ cannot be used in the second and third ^'yf-^ and ^CX must not be employed in the first. _ Si.-' 1. ^j^ : X i? ^ X ^ S " ^ ^^jyjcl^ LiSiy6 J^^ J^^ (-::j^_j*i j^Ia^ X 9 ^ In 2nd ^^•/i. In 3rd ij^^^^ • O >• P ^^t/— o ^^ lybllUi 2. , eL : 9 % O^ ^9^9 P ^C^ Uij 1 JkJ _j ^j J IjJ Jo- jj c ? ^oP 9 ^ •' (y 9 ''OP op ^OP ^ x ^ op ^o P ^Lcu^ C-jlcli ^_^-i^ ,^l*xi* C^icli ^LcX« *' » >• ^ ^ . ^ VAEIxiTIONS IN j^^\ j=s^.. oDd z.lU. O^^ y- '' S P ^ y^-' ^ jLai^ C;^J.Jti ^^^^ ,.I.riu..w< Cl^^iUi ^jJ^ 23 354 ARABIC GRAMMAR. • 1, EXAMPLES OF u_a-.;;Ls:' 355 3.56 ARABIC GEAililAR. JO -' Licences: ^^<^, (^, and JsLi. 1. 1^^ is allowed in the Jots. and tl^, as well as in the body of the verse, as Oi'^-' O? ^y r^9 ^ ^ ,'C/x 7 P O y^ X-y^O -^ ^(Jtj^^i^c; ^^-^^ c?^ o^ -^^ O^^ -^ CJ^* J,t^ 11' u) '' •4.'' • -» ^ ^o^ *y ^ ^•o-o In second tl^ of the first J^^j^- 9 ^ ^ O ^ i^Lts jJ «_i:i^.« i^'Lcli j^^^li ^ ■«_i::>A<*^ ^jj^rli ^ L5="J^ ^^JJ ^Ij:?^^ V.^^J OC^ O? O-'O^ o'^ O?^ ^ O? CO^ OC- l*^ o -' o ^ -i ? o5 ^ O^O 9 9 sM 9^9 ■^ Pl^ y 9 " y cr? ^' lij" L« >-/».i I) P C^ O ^ 9 -'Isli J«_ix,«,* CJlcli 3. /iLi: •^ oy ^ 1^9 y " ylcli J?-U^ ^jJ'Lr'i 9 ^ '' O ' CxO ^ ;!■. . . . I 1 VARIATIONS IN t-iJ^irl ,:sr . 357 <7 o f^-.x*lj also occurs in the first lIj^J: . ^j\j^\ L-J \j^\ ^j,^ L'^ U^ *i:>-J^j<_> l_Jlijj ^jirr. ^;.'IcIj becoming ^^ij^i-^ in the cl^. 353 AEABIC GEAMMAR. VAEIATIONS IN cjLi^l^^. OOU o y I-' '' In this metre the ^_s and ^ of the foot ^^-fl^* cannot both be retained at once. This rule is called ^j^^*. In the verse given as an example above, the ^ is sup- pressed ; an instance of the suppression of the ^ is ^ » -o p o5^ c ^ X where the , ji.;^ suffers i-Icf - jki) and C^ occur. sU^ £*Lj i^LuJt_^A ill ( jj~o the (t;Lcll^ of the first foot becoming ^^U. 9 ^^^ i^9 ^ ^ P 9 ^y L,9 ^ ^ 9 9*^-^ 3G0 ARABIC GRAMMAR. YARIATIONS IN . ^:x^^T .:^ . 301 In this metre the i_J and tlio . of c:^*i'».ti.« cannot both "be retained toofethcr. In the example the ^ has hcen suppressed by "'^Ir . The following is an instance of the dropping of the ^ : They are only very rarely retained togc.'tiiei-, as in the verse: l».''^ 9 ^ 9 U ■ <- 9 ^<^ 9 9 ^ f <^ 9 j\x:Ji^ d^j*xLi» ^^xx:,^.^ Cl^ift.^>^ ^ '' P O -^ ^ -' V C- ►'(_ ^ c A^i-iJ^ and ^.^^-i^l are of very rare occurrence in classical poetry. 362 ARABIC GEAMMAR. «4 .•q^ \ 1.1 ■■' N <1 O JL) H ft o ft W H h < -\ 1^ L'-b li o \ ■h NJD ^^ .=^^ ji' ri) ^ ■^ nv 3"^ 1) n:3 o 1 EXAMPLES OF ■J. y i^pu^ 3G3 11 o ^ «9 n O ^ -^ ^•^ « X- O >^, V. U ^_5 ^ '1 »-:?' D "^3 V A i1- I ."^ t"^ -.A o P4 J -i 364 ARABIC GEAMMAR. This metre is very rarely used in its full form as in the first example. «? The following licences are allowed — ^^, k-ai, and -'■• e;r^ * ^^'Lxi ;^?^ j^^'ljLJ jjS ?;^-^* 2. ^i^: 3. jil^ J in the first and third foot : ^L^\^ ?JU^^ ^^J^^ C^ H'^ ^-s, :. 4 = «* — -J v.:^s <; "J V •'J J ;3 S "b M la W O ^•') •:> C-) -> 111 y- oil •> o 08 AEAETC GRAMMAR. 5 '. c When the cl^ is t_J;i.sr* the ^j^^y^ may also suffer the same modification, so that there is an alternation between ^^xi and ^ , thus : O/'^ i^f?^ ^99' K, 9 9 ^ 1^ 9 9 " i,9 9 ■^ 99^ i^ 9 9 ^ j*i ^^x^ J^.O J_j.o J^ J^'e J_j«i J^ C/^'' L, 9 9 '' 1^9 9 ^ ^99-' C^-* \^9 9 ^ O/C^ 99^ J*-* j^!_ye J_j.o J^.O Jxj Jj*i ^^!_jxi J_j« 4_J^' occurs as a variation in the metre. J^li jU^ 4^^ji jl'j $ J^ w>l-u*i jl^:* jlsl OP^^ 9 9:^ 9 9 y 9 P ^ 9 9^ 99^ 99^ 9 9 y J^*i J_jxi Jj.6 where the fii'st foot is "^J^. VArjATIONS IN t__JjlO]^^. SG9 2. f): Jy^ J)^ Ji'^ J^^ '-^ J>^ J^ J*^ wlicre the first foot is Jjo . 24 370 ARABIC GEAMMAR. EXAMPLES OF CJ.1.>^^1 o^l Oi 372 ARABIC GRAMMAR. There is a modification of this metre, in which every foot becomes c ^-1^ ; the effect of this is to make the verso consist entirely of long syllables, and it is then called i^\j^\ J^ drops from the spout, or ^^iv^\ ^^-J "striking the naktis.''^^ The following is an example : 1 A wooden board suspended by chains and beaten, to serve instead of bells, in Chri&tian churches in the East — bells having formerly been prohibited. C'v. t o ■a ^ o^ **-j' -^r^ LT^LT^y c ^ c ^ ^ o ^ O ^ iS^Oy 373 SECTION II.— THE EIIYME. DIFFERENT KINDS OF RHYME. (203). The Lili, or Ehyme, is comprised between the ' last two quiescent letters of a verse. There are five kinds of Lili, distinguished by the number of vowelled letters which intervene between the' last two quiescent letters, viz. Name of Rhyme. Intervening. Example, S ''^9 none Jl^'i 1 2 O ^ X o O -^ '^ o y^\^^ 4 (204). CONSONANTS OF THE Lilj . J^jJ is the consonant upon which the rhyme depends, and which remains the same throughout the poem, as tlic J in Jk jrr-f" • -1^ U" is an \ of prolongation coming before the ^^j , but separated from it by a consonant, which is called J-^- J , as in the words Jw^l•, JjI^ . The J-ri- j may differ in every verse. (205). VOWELS OF THE Lilj . J"^ is the vowel of the Jc.j, which becomes long by the addition of the il^ . oll3 is the vowel between the letter i of the pronoun when it occurs as -^ , fV~'') or j_v^ yq-v.). ^\^\ changing the o^-?^* • H£^\ substituting a cognate consonant for the JfjJ. *TLj1 repeating the same word as a rhyme in the course of a poem unless at least seven verses intervene. 1^ \ so connecting a verse with one that follows that ^ ''\^\ the meaning of the first is not complete until the c^-'^^ y second be heard or read. Every verse should contain a distinct and intelligible proposition. i -.3 fy' ? ^ j^\ 'ij^ja POETICAL LICENCE. (207). The only poetical licence which is considered not to be a blemish is that of making an imperfectly declined 376 ARABIC GRAMMAR. ' noun declinable, as in the example on p. 103. The reason why this is approved of is, the Arab doctors say, that it is only restoring the noun to its original state. The Arab poets do, however, as may be expected, take frequent liberties with grammar and orthography in order to meet the exigences of their metres. The following are the principal of these licences : Changing a liemzet el-katd into a hemzet el-wasl (see p. 13), as ^J'^y. JU for ^J'^^ Jit ij ; j^\l ]^ 'ji^ f^ Throwing back the vowel of the hemzet el-lmtd when so changed on to the preceding consonant, if that be a quiescent letter, as ^!^ for 1j^ y . Changing a hemzet el-lmtd into the corresponding letter of prolongation, as [Ji^\j for ^j^\j ; t_^.<^ for u^^, etc. Dropping the hemzet el-Jcatd altogether, as IkJ\ for Vice versa., changing a hemzet el-ivasl into a hemzet cl- laitd. as ^r^\ , for ^^ .. The ^ of C< , when interrogative, is frequently omitted, as M ^j,^ lor U .^:^ . Other and more violent licences, such as the lengthen- ing a short vowel, or vice versa ; the improper use of the tenwm and teshdid ; the suppression or insertion of vowels, and the abbreviation of syllables, need not occupy the student's attention, as they occur comparatively seldom, and are nearly always noticed in the commentaries upon the poems in which they are found. APPEN^DIX. GLOSSAEY OF TECHNICAL TEEMS USED IN AEABIC GEAMMAE. A:>-{i\ accordinc: a full licence. ^\s^] inchoative, subject. j^UjJ^ ^ ^ 1 Jk^J I commencement of a certain period of time. iXrsri alphabet (arranged in nu- merical order). (J llo.'! causing a grammatical action to cease to take effect. y'^ ^i O-O/'' 0'£ i;^L^\aLij\ forms implj'ing in- tensity. •5, 'if, . . CU.M apposition, sequence. J..sr*^^ cLji apposition according to the context. Jl«^l relation of connexion. ~\A^\

  • -1 in answer to a tentative question. ^ o i ^-.i:?-i extraneous ; anj' part of a ])roposition beside the antece- dent (subject or agent), the com- plement of a verb or an adverb of condition. _5«:5-l hollow. cJ- Jlr^l units. 9 ^ o i '' ^1!1 express- mg the quality of a thing by means of the conjunctive ad- jfctive o'^-^^ • d.5:ull d.-^^ the .?«.s^ the last letter in the alphabet. * ^ t ^_^ui>-l especial. ^IS i.::j1^1 the verbs mentioned on p. 2 12. >lii-\ occultation ; a dull pro- nunciation of the j^. {,^jx::ii \ 'ii\S\ the article, particles, etc., which render a noun definite. ^1 ""-I . . . . A.\£.y\ insertion, assimilation of two I , * letters. 378 AEABIC GHAMMAE. ^i Xllj^ insertion with nasal sound; suppression of the (j before J, t^, or ^, which are then doubled, but a slight nasal sound is still heard. ■iiP ^ i ^ o ^xc ^J /♦liJ^ suppression of the ^ before ^ and J , which are then doubled to compensate for the loss. O ^ -' ^ ^o-o S ^ S ■"^ as- similation of the last quiescent consonant of a word with a homogeneous letter commencing the following word. ^-h^\ L5^^^ j^lijWssimila- tion of the last quiescent con- sonant of a word with the same letter beginning the next word. similation of the last letter, even when not quiescent, withahomo- geiicousletterbegiuningthenext woid. ^J^:^ \ Jtji:4 (♦li^i-^J^ assimilation of the last letter, even when not quiescent, with the same letter beginning the next word. i'lrs-U^ \ \^\ the word L^Uignify- ing something unexpected. ^\,-y\ «_> J\ the four increments, the letters \, CU , ^J , and ^, used in forming the inflexions of the aorist. Jliia-:]. difficulty of pronunciation. «? ^ o o A\3j^\ expressing disdain. XJlkiL^'l extension. ij\xx^\ metaphor. ^_fj\jc^\ metaphorical. Lj lxx-;\ indicating the employment of means, instrument, etc. ^litj.-;]. elevation. aJ \jc.J\ calling for aid. • A.. )\ exception. ' o'j^\ including all the properties of a species, in a metaphorical sense. Jljcj-j). depression. ^Li:;--:], interrogation. JUii.^-^], future. t_jlli:j-jj. introducing a new pro- position independent of the pre- ceding. <-;], noun of instrument. tj^ ♦-:]. the nominative of the par- ticle j_m' . >*U A^\ perfect noun. GLOSSARY 0"F GEAMITATICAL TEEilS. 379 c-Si "^ *" o jJ-.»ii_:Jl A-j]. comparative or su- perlative. <)il?- ♦-J], concrete noun. ^^ \ mJ\ collective noun. CPlJ *-;]. real or concrete noun. (Loxs) ^ *-j\ noun of species. "yt^:5- t^=r (*-^i collective ge- neric noun. (^ICJ \ J ^;;^j-i^ '*--l noun of time x- X t and place. i '-So, ^-.is Jt^\ a real noun. k_^/j.jJl ^)x. w]_ possessive noun or epithet. xO.<3 P O J.£liJ \ ♦-jj. agent. o _ c. -o Co. ^jjtij \ ^^J\ noun of action, ^o^o-o y o S^iiU \ j^\ noun of abundance. ^-'O— o c o ^\^1 >*-ji noun of unity (of time). c --^ o. S o - jju^\ *«;1. or jXji^Ij, j^J\ quasi- infinitive noun. •r jS s >> i o . ^ _ j.»-« *-j\ an expression equivalent to a noun. P O/O-O i* o J^jtA/*] \ »^\ patient, passive par- ticiple. t_-J»-u»:.^^ («— -^^ noun of relation. o-ci — o>> o. c 4:j1 w], noun of unity (of spe- cies). 5 U j! 1 w], noun denoting the vessel in which a thing is contained. ^JiJS^~ »Jl noun of accident, i. q. L:;^iib < 5 J • o X** -^ -<^^o ^ ill ijJ-J Ls}^ ^"^ ^ CT? JL-A^ 1 j^ ^J^li nouns derived from num- bers on the measure of the agent. ttcjjju^ 'U-jI imperfect nouns. OU-sl^ relation of the subject to the attribute. 4_jJu»j1^ a proper name, consisting of a complete proposition, i.e. of a subject and predicate. 5 U-i| in poetry, using a long for a short vowel (see also p. 374). ■a yo-'c^^ ^ ^c-o S ^ C expressing the idea of agent and patient at the same time. J 'v\\^\ technical or conventional term. \lk^l technical, s J-tfi root iX^'^ radical, t^-^Lsl radicals. Jj-tfl roots, principles. ^y surd verb = j_C£L£« doubled. i.ZJ\ya\ interjections. ^"^\ connexion, state of con- struction of two nouns. • ft.. 9 ^ X a construction as cpi i.J 1 ^ ^ the Eiver Euphrates. ^}^\ proper name formed of two nouns in a state of constniction. iruJl^ fixing,?.^, giving letters their proper vowels. jU^i implying. iilJ:>] see aJLL^ , J^l. being general. s (J^^\ being absolute. jl^l^ clear pronunciation. u_jy:| declension of nouns ; add- ing vowel points. ^|^|1 urging or exciting to the performance of an action. '^r* J'^^ inchoative verbs. t-r^-s''^! JlxJl verbs signifying wonder. ;j^i^ 1 jUii Verbs of sense or feeling. f V^ JUil inchoative verbs. (vrr^'y ' J C^^Il Jlxil verbs im- plying doubt or certainty. (.-^LLI! JUil verbs denoting a mental process. StS '"' J •OS o'< o p •oS ^ JUil, «.^ t-JJiJl JL-oi. j*jjlj ^^1 JUil verbs of praise and blame. ^j^U^n JUil approximate verbs. GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 381 s ^ ^ «r ^<-5 'L^\j ^^\!t^\ incomplete verbs, %.q^. J-,.ciiJl ^x:\ the form ^^\ when signifying comparative or su- perlative (as distinguished from the same form in the sense of colour or deformity). 9 iXj-rO -'OS see c ^A.^ \ ^■ f'-'i- c_i..,^^l.J\ c^al^^ a formula em- ployed to express an unusual concordance between the verb and the agent when the former agrees in number with the latter, in violation of the rules given on p. 180 (101). •A abbreviation for i,j>~\ ^\ = etc. /i^-^\ adhesion, propinquity. ^\x^\ depriving (a verb, etc.) of its grammatical influence. Lx^] («_ii\ the \ added to a word to express grief, complaint, etc. i'J-i.^ <._ ^j^ isolated «///", t.^'. if,4-.2Ji-« I— aJ^ short «?«/, the ter- mination ^, see p. 74. itJJjJv^K^ t-jjJl long «?«/, the ter- mination *| . 9 signi- fying the price at which, etc. t__jb category, conjugation. ; ,b sensible, obvious. J_vj substitute or pcrmutative ; this is of four sorts, viz. : JU>|;sr constant renewal. ■Si ^^ J ^ \ despoiling a word of its i ^\ grammatical influence on jj -sT / what follows. ^Lw^vrsT' being homogeneous, allit- eration, a pun. ^^Ja^sr a gentle request or in- vitation. CLi S ^ 9 '- . . i_^-S J composition, arrangement. ^^"^ *j J chaunting, intoning. 5- <- ^. ^..^•"^ rhythmical prose. i^-_W) making a letter quiescent. GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 383 |uj \ J-f>MJ dropping or soften- ing the hemzeh. jjJk>U adding the mark -^ to double a letter. The mark Jl. itself. imlijj^ inflexion, changing from one form to another, ^-x^" diminutive. v_ , ^ «=^ admiration. 2uXxj rendering transitive. jSxj impossibility. j\sxj numeration. f^jXj hinting, innuendo, being ambiguous. (j-JjO leaving in suspense. ^_pt *'t making definite. lySxj expressing the cause of an event. j^ki change. ~j^^ii^ exposition (especially of the Koran). {JuJCi dilatation. U)JJiJ" virtually. S ox 3y. J^" virtual. scansion. xO-<3 ^ X o X J^W ^ «L»jAJ' strengthening the in- XX X fluence of the antecedent. jjS^ repetition. y.^ spocificative or discrimina- tive. X xo-<3 S 9 ^ ^ J^\ ^ ^l:J grammatical in- " fluence of various antecedents upon their complements in one sentence; see p. 264 (1G6). ^1,^1:^ harmony. ijAJ hoping. ",jCij confii-ming. J ,-liJ" making indefinite. [^jjxf doubling a final vowel, which is then pronounced with a nasul sound ; see p. 6 (4). «_.'' J appositives. S ^ox j*-Sy corroborative. S^ X «LLij (a letter) having tesM'id. S x^ ^^j triliteral. XX -SJ X Lj abbreviation for Lj Jjs- lated to us." S _xi' ^-sUj biliteral. ' he re- l:_ 5" o -^ ^ abbreviation for it-^:=^ plunil, and in the Koran for J-i\=^ a lawful pause. jl:?- preposition. J. i^ ^ J^ ^ preposition with its noun. ^*^^ primitive (noun) jjl^ permissible. '^— O ■* P O X ,^ abbreviation for plural of a plural. 384 ARABIC GEAMiTAR. iXstT denial, negation. *\j!>- compensation. /^>- writing the mark — above a letter to signify that it is quiescent. <^J:>- the mark — (see ^S^). y>- attraction, genitive case. S (^ ^ j_/«^ plural. c^ «o fi o -^ ^-»Au.CJ ! J-'*^ broken plural. O ^0*i^3 ,? o ^-^■s: \ ^'♦^ plural of a plural. j»JU: f-'**=r / sound or regular ^^-* ^--^J^ ' plural. ^^^\sr Is. *_/♦>:?" plural formed by the addition of two letters (regular plural). ,j^*^^ ^-^s^ regular plural, y^S^ f-'*^ broken plural. ^_LaJ 1 ■^.^*^ plural of paucity. - productive pro- position; one expressing volition, or originating something. - proposition express- ing a state or condition. iiji^^y^ lUIJcLLk:?- proposition of two phases. ^-b^ :>- verbal sentence or proposition. S ^ ^O •" S^ O P '*>-' '^"•if-^ 'U.-«>:s- inchoative proposi- tion. 'U-i^l ^^>^ H'^ IL^^r a sentence which" follows the analogy of the adverbial sen- tence. ^j-x^ i\u^^ incidental proposi- tion, parenthesis. ^j wuA* I ^f--^*sj SjujS^ - gender. t_-?^jj>- response, apodosis. ^^\ c-J^.:>- apodosis of a com- mand. >»-uJiJ 1 c->l^:?- apodosis of an oath. ^ylJ \ s-J \^ apodosis of a condition or hypothesis. GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TEEMS* kJOO s\jeM)\ jU:>- tte liberty of cmi^loy- ing ^\jii\ qv. *;!»=»- words which require the aorist of a verb to be in the apocopated mood. j^ pronouncing clearly. ^»--« J^s^ adverb corroborative of condition. i«_i»-tf»^J V ^iLl*::^M Jlr^ adverb of the condition of that which is accessory to the thing qualified. L_j»*s»-*.n Jl^>- condition of the thing qualified. - accident. S 9 9 C_?j A;^ coming into existence (an act). « ''ii^s>- apocopation. 'jL^r.]. ^A:>- violent suppres- sion. i—ip^ particle, letter. 5 \-Jx:^\ (_J^ particle of exception. j^Ai^!^ J^-s^ accusative, express- ing a state present at a past time. f H y 'C-O 9 y 1^% n.xi^ \ ^\\s\ accusative, express- ing a state conceived of as being present at a future time. ^C c^<3 9 <^ y ' O , 9 ^ y future particle. ^j^\ < — J/=^ the particle Jj when tliere is no opposition between the two propositions which it unites. y o 1^.0 9 t^ y ^\-^V\ ( — ijs- initiative particle. y y o O"«o f L, y ^jIL|x^-| 1 (__ip~ letter of prolonga- tion. .' o o c-o 9 (j y /♦^jb.^-|l ( j^5^ interrogative par- ' tide. t=_il:s-c.^-| \ '— ^y=^ particle intro- ducing a fresh proposition. o;;j-.o ? ij y *^-'^-."J^ ( J^ particle of removal. o;*J-- expgetlcal or ex- planatory particle. w ^tJ-*^ P ^-f y .i^-A\ -"J- mity. O'Cj-^ P tf ^ yj:^\ ^J- {j rd). -7- ...II V- Ictter of dilatation. >- particle of proxi- Ictter of repetition t particle of hope, particle of warning, or calling the attention. j=^ ( — ij=>- preposition. 25 3SG AEAEIC GRAMMAR. hope or expectation. ^^ \ i—iy>- particle of restriction ^^^jTuJ^ particle expressing | '"^"^^J^ ] ^o^^tive particle, hone or esnectation. i\3ll^^ >— tr^ ) interjection. ST)s»- • (^^j>- I J;»- particle of response and retribution. J.^ •— v>- disjunctive particle. lSjZ>- vowel. - particle of repulsion ^ J^ t_J 5^ particle of reprimand (__jj?- conjunction. l?-£*]^ '— Lr=" conditional particle. ^^^^ uJf- soft letter. ^Jd^ '— t;^ particle of complaint. ^^ ^ ^/=^ the two corrective particles (JJ and ^^)• jU^|\ J ^=ry-^^ ^^^ the two ' particles of "hope and apprehen- sion. (__;..»- letters, particles, XjU!^^ ( Ji.»- particles of annexa- tion, «.e. prepositions. ^ ^ -O 9 9 9 i^\,=s:rV\ i_J.rS- letters of de- flection (J andj). ^o o-O P 9 9 ,lio1\ '-^Jy=^ particles of disap- probation. < jl:sr^^ ( j..=»- affirmative par- • • •• ^ ■*!• y tides. 0>'C'-^ P 9 9 J_\J^ I j, =► perrautative letters. U y^y o sjj -o ? >• y particles ^ > ^ •• ' ^j ^ of inciting or invitation. ^JLs^j\ i_J«;=^ particles express- ing conviction. .S's^\ ^^j=^ particles expressing the act of recalling to mind. o-5i -o 9 9 9 ;.' A^J\ I J./5- particles exnress- ing assent. OtS -«0 9 9 9 J-^LciH k-Jj5/=^ causal particles. j^^ \ k_i«/=- prepositions. J, ^^o-O 9 9 9.s:\ (_J«j-s'\ prepositions. GLOSSARY OF GEAiliTATICAL TERMS. 387 ^j£ks\ t_J.^ prepositions, parti- (-^L^-JbJl ^i-^>. real feminine. cles which put nouns in the genitive. C-Ji -O 9 9 9 (J^-^\ i—J*j=>- letters articulated with the extremity of the tongue and lips. o ^ 0-0 f P 9 (J^^ \ ( Jj .»- guttural letters. Jo ^ . 'J ^ i__J • r=^ servile letters or in- crements. L .-iJl <— **P^ conditional particles. «i -O 9 99 -.i-^Jl 4_5^^r»- sibilant letters. J^ 9 9 9 9 9 9 s- conjunctions, weak letters. short letters. dliiljij 1 or d-iliil^ , i^jZ^ trembl- ing or clacking letters. o^ -<:> 9 9 9 ^^-111 t_i.y>- soft letters. - letters of prolongation. ^J/ letters used in the formation of the aorist. .^/♦J \ i^tjS- the alphabet (ar- ^ rang( ' ' ranged in the Arabic order), ^ 0-0 9 9 9 s 9 9 » the alphabet, s- conjunctions, i. j>- short letters. '- - -a u 9 9 i\^\ '—i'j^ vocative particles. jJs^js^ *-_;l.uA=.- reckoning by the numerical value of the letters. )ass^ memory, i.q^. 1^^^ analogy. ^ lx:>- direct narration. ^uJu» Jlsw . guttural. '*»J ^ O >' t'u^sa*- guttural. ^^-o- predicate, attribute. >» w\Ji/*Jl -.iM the predicate placed first. J' >» O y'O-O Px ^ o -^ __?.^:.^S ^ -^^ \ the predicate in the accusative. So' Jji>- genitive or dependent case. Ii2,ht — without tesM'ul. U.^ quinquelitcral. \J^ J abbreviation for Jkb name of town" (in Geographical works). _ J J continuation of the discourse, the opposite of w_iJ« . ■»UJ precative. c_J^.jiIl *J,^£J principal forms. . gi^\ ^ ^Uaji deprecative. JJ'^jJ the Indian cyphers, the numerical cyphers in ordinary use, the Turkish handwriting ; (also abbreviations of the Arabic names of the numerals employt'd by Indian and Persian merchants and accountants.) 3S8 ARABIC GRAMMAR. L.iJi (letters) formed by a raDid movement of the lips. S ■' /»j blame. Ax.» J\j3 quadriliteral (vcrb^. Xj^iill ji triliteral (verb). X-JLSj J liquids (letters). J iLk)^^ bond (a conjunction). gib J quadriliteral. ^•lr>-^ feebleness (in tbc pronuncia- tion of a letter). jji^ 'I:^ decidedly feeble letter. _.j abbreviation for <)iS^ ''^'♦^^ "may God have mercy upon him !" used in speakiojj of those who are dead. ■^\Ji\ i.q. '^y^ q-v. ■r^\ >-ji punctuating and vocalizing the Koran. f o ^ ^X-*o / -^ ^ p J the ordinary numerical cyphers. AjM insinuating the sound of a vowel in pronunciation which is not written; fa little stronger than |»U«i)l ). J abbreviation for J^jsT* a tolerated pause (in the Koran). i^Jo^j pleonastic, servile (letter). (^Uj tense, time. ^ "^ I quiescent (letter).. *jL: sound. c^lS cause — the noun serving as complement to the adjec- tive in such a construction as isS>-^\ u;-"-"^^ ^y^J ' ~,_— : relating to the cause. <; G -' j-^-' rhythm. i2,«C: the mark — showing that a letter is quiescent — quiescence of a letter (see ^'f^')' t_^J.«j a privative sense. cIjLj irregularity, absence of analogy. ,~_::U-j irregular. dSJl^ \ (j--j! pronouncing the CJ as (jw. s -J jli) pi. , rare, uncommon. ^ji-lij that which distracts or di- verts a word from its original grammatical influence. C Uj state, accident, i.q. ^Usi. GLOSSARY OF GEAIilMATICAL TERilS. SSO ijxlj] ti-wi) assimilated to (analogue of) the verb. iL_^^ 1 a^-w) analogue of the plural. "^Ujt5<-j]. tLwi) analogy in use. 1 ■' ^. 5<^ J^jUbij. cU^ analogy in having need of a proposition to complete the sense. "Jl,4^i (Lwl analogy of omission. Csy^x^'* <^^ analogy in sense. S o ^ JO "xJj iLjj analogy in primitive formr jS^ the point where the two max- illaries meet. S >. Lj object of the ad- verbial determination of state or condition. s ^ ^^•* sound, regular. S JL, •' uJ .«s inflexion, conjugation, acci- dence. ,-ij (( — JjU)). i? O ^ jwVtf fore part, first member of, sibilation. clL? conjunctive sentence. *.,^La abbreviation of the formula aLj j dJ^s. ^ \ itfLs God bless him and give him peace!" always used after the name of Mohammed. iLx-.^ form, measure, case, voice, number i^z\k}\ ^^-f^ form of the agent. >" o ^ c-o c -^ i^^i^ \ ^^'f the passive voice. J? o ^ o«^ ^ y /*•L^x♦] \ <^-'«^ the active voice J^-ti^ 1 '^.■?-f forni of the patient. 390 ARAETC GRAMMAR. j> co-«o x^o ? f ^ c ^/♦.^J \ yi:^^ '^-*r?^ plurals of the last form of i)lural," i.e. of the form "(4) X3)f (2)^(1). U^ ?-s ■' >-tf writing the vowel — , ^J the vowel — itself. c ^ rr-;»>*» pronoun. j_^l>^Sl^-4>«tf pronoun of the thing or idea (the s added to ^\). .jlsM -j^ affixed pronoun of the first or second person. t-'ii -£> 9 y •^\^\j0^ i.q. ^\J!l^\j^^. t^'-^rPP J..J=AJ \ ,-^ the pronoun of sepa- ration. ^>^iJ ^ .-.4-J i^'. j^LiJ\^*.^ (the pronoun i added to ^^\ ). jj\i j.;^ an expressed pronoun. J^«i?j^n jel' k^ju: y--4-^ the pro- noun that refers to the conjunc- tive noun. ;:x:Uu^ ^^ \ pronoun hidden, or s\i.,J^^ \ innate (in the ^izj.M^ j.^;^ ) verb). Q..^-* jK^ attached pronoun. r, f O ^ .'■ UPS .-.4>«i attached pro- noun representing the nomina- tive case. 7-'j'.2;>^ ^wi:;^^ _».4^ attached pro- noun represcntiug the accusa- tive case. S --_o P .^JLU^ <^^y» .^^ detached pro- noun representing the nomina- tive case. •? ,'' P s p<^ ^ a ^ j^^^-* t—'^^.a:^ jr^^ detacht-d pronoun representing the accu- sative case. o ^o jj-iii^^. detached pronoun. 1. J^C ^ L) abbreviation for ^IL^ an abso- lute pause (in the Korliu). ^_^^I!^ expressing desire. 'L.-Ji? expression of desire. -fc'Ar apparent (pronoun), pro- nounced. I j .1? adverb. i^U»jJ^ ^ ^l.C*J^ u-Jyl? adverb of time and place. ,^t«J ( J^ adverb of time." ».xj u_j^ an adverbial predicate in a proposition when the substan- tive verb i& is expressed. S y ^ P So^ Jb*u.^ *— tr' ^" adverbial predicate in a proposition where the word is is understood. ^\^t k_ji? adverb of place. ^S 0-' J^ adverbial. aL^^ indicating adverbial con- dition of place. i>J^ adverbs. GLOSSARY OF GEAMMAIICAL TERIIS 391 p 9 O-^ <• O ^ t (( c abbreviation for -^y* ' name of a place" (in Geographical works). ji\s. preterite. ^jc^iz accidental. i^c ^ 1- in a state of grammatical conjunction. jj.^l£. governing word. J^JbiJ J^\s. grammatical regent. OjIc the pronoun contained in a qualificative sentence — the ante- cedent. .-£ preterite. >^j^\ I— aii£ apposition formed by particles. contextual apposi- -■SJ -o 7 o ^ t'kv*^^ the quality of being a foreign ,' . ^z noun. jj\ Lst^"^ foreign in origin. OwJ -^O *» • _i,t -cJl K^^^ ^ proper name of foreign origin. d^s. number. jjlj: deviation (formed by altera- tion from another measure). JLas- jAi real deviation. Ji^jj~- -.r. J A;: fictitious or con- ventional deviation. j2y: offering, invitation. LLJi\jtKS- tons. t_ g'^ ^- apposition.' j^l-J \ i-_aLi explanatory apposi- tiuu. tion. t>»iii the tens from 20 to 90. iSs. cause, motive ; in Prosody " defect." dJ .xi-«J \ ^3 ^^ 1 the connexion be- tween a verb and its objective complement. iLi-ill c:-;L«lc signs of the in- flexions indicative of genders and numbers. jX^ proper name. ^^AS. governance, regime. il^£ the quality of being a pro- per name. ^_^IJ j-^ ^ irregular, not "following the analogy of other words. jj^ui governing words. 5-31 -- 9 ■^'■ cLxU~o J-^ V irregular governing words. 'LJ^i J-^^^-c regular governing words. iJiiJ J,«1 »£ grammatical regents. <^..>^*^ J-:?^^ logical regents. *£■ abbreviation for /♦jLJI aJji '* Peace be upon him !" ju^ recollection, calling to mind. ^?-,Ish\ Jk^'J^ external reminis- cence. 392 ARABIC GRAMMAR. /U^jjl J>^\ or ,^^J^\jJ\ Jv*^^ atal reminiscence. the second letter of a tri- mental reminiscence, literal root, substance jIc aorist or future. ')\£. the third person. h\s. term, limit, extremity. jUi. name of a particular form of cypher. j^ future. ~ .. .. ^ "^. i-_fi,-ib>--»i conventional, fictitious. ;yi tional feminine. conven- Jl«j .-i. imperfect, weak verb. ^,«ji! -^ not neuter. SfC^-t j^ intransitive. ^,x^l ^jj^C*:;,^ _»x not susceptible of variations and not very sus- ceptible. ^l-^^-i. the j^ of the energetic mood of verbs when an 1 alif intervenes between it and the last radical. j-_^o-^ _*i not compound. J^ i not derived 2i^ -»i indeclinable. ^"j^i intransitive or neuter. ^ \i the first letter of a triliteral foot. Jc:ls agent. a><>Lc.'j the quality of agent. ^J writing the vowel — . ^:s:\J the vowel — . Jj unit. aL-^ i inflexions signifying genders and numbers. J.xi verb. ~^* J'tj or ^^ J*i indeclinable verb. c-.yt^ Jj«i declinable verb. I .s.^^ \ jL.tJ verb of wonder. b^l Jjo conditional verb. <*lj' Jje perfect verb. J-ciJ separation, S-^iii sentence, paragraph. . t- ^ abbreviation for then, at that time." and ri abbreviation for J-j , contested pause (in the Koran). s ^ -r. *du*J oath, s -jj cUii relation, adventure, accident. 5 o -; isjj shortness. abbreviation for .V^ *i -J^ ?> GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. o'Jo a pause, according to tlie autho- rities of the Kufic school (in the Koran). tLi-i abbreviation for 'ij^^_, <^* , slight pause, according to the authorities of the Kufic school (in the Koran). v_ , ^ 1j conversion, inversion, sup- pressing a vowel. •-■ ^ • o ^ ^lIaJj clacking, trembling. j^Ui analogy. ^.^Li analogous, regular (form). JuJ restriction. Interposing an iso- lated pronoun between the at- tached and corroborative pro- (y p. f 'L.^ o yoS o y o noun, as j»waJl *uj) *:i-^. IS writing the vowel ~. iyS the vowel — . *S phrase, part of speech, i'ljls"^! *ii hypothetical expres- sions. ^ P 0''c-<3 y o -o ;> -^ o ^ ^.rj- (♦!' the J responding to the conjunctions "if," and "if not." ^ i^^ j^ J) abbreviation for i—ii^ j! there is no pause" (in the Koran). iL) »i] formed by pressing the tip of the tongue against the cheek. JLjUJ linguals. 'Lxj adverbial accusatives in a pro- position or phrase which are not essential to the discourse, and may be removed without de- stroying the sense. llii! grammatically, literally. JiiJ verbal, grammatical. Jl,'* I— fi*iJ complicated, but with an interval; i.e. verbs doubly imperfect with a strong radical between the two weak letters. j^..ii.« *— i..4-^ contiguously com- plicated ; i.e. a doubly imperfect verb in which the two weak letters come together. v!Jl5 title, see p. 221 (132).' 'iXJij clacking. X « -o y o' LLA\ ^ indicating a predomi- nant quality. 'Li A (letters) formed in the uvula. iL^ soft (letters). S 9^ ■' At abbreviation for i^j^j^y, well known. ^^»/«j jj\ U« the t* of duration. s -• ^ •^ iUlj t* the l^ having a complete signification. f'-S #■« "Li ;U-^ \ U , see Z' ;ls-^ \ 1 . Lsl:>- t« special L« . iAjU t* expletive t«. d.*lx L* general t*. ^l^ t« the t* which hinders {i.e. the t« after such particles as ,1 , which hinders their action on succeeding nouns). Airli ♦-oJ J U* of which the agent or nominative is not named. 'i^jS.^y t* the t« performing the functions of a noun of action. (Lsi'u ti the I.* having an incom- plete signification. ^ufc-j 5-*/*J t« the L« in the sense of [j>*-^, i.e. denying a quality of the subject. ^^,.gj.js: \ ^_^aJ t* , U denying the existence of the species. ^J^y preterite. \\\ ^^"' i" \t^iat kind of rela- j*i)Jb j^, U 1 ^ion between two ^c '' p^-'i' ^ ( nounsinconstruc- ^^jJiij t* y tion which im- plies J "belonging to," or ^r-* "made of." GLOSSARY OF GRAM^MATTCAL TERMS. 395 ^ I wS:;^ inchoative, subject. ..M)'.-^ the ^ of the energetic mood of verbs when it immediately follows the last radical. ijjw* converted. 5 O^ ^^"-^ indeclinable. tLix-.-,^ explanatory. *^-^ vague. ^\ j^ ^y^-:^'0 not susceptible of variations. JV:.^ primitive form of a verbal root. r^^o p triliteral. ctj-ij^ having tesMid. ^\^^ ^^ Aii^ (a letter) with two dots underneath. \^i'' cT? ^^-^« (a letter) with two dots above. J ^ gj •^ <> yi ■£ ^ tCliLl^ the particles j^t^ , ^j^, .li, when they preserve the teshd'id. ■f- y 9 ^iL« dual. Jlsr" metaphor, hypothesis, con- ventionality. a '■ y p iUW* compensation. S^i^^ ijrjljsr* metaphorical, or conventional feminine. ft .y p \*\s^^ transitive. is^y y p ^^W* being transitive, act of passing awuy from. J^"* primitive. SOG ARABIC GRAMMAR. S 9 ij '' ., _sr^ noun governed by a prepo- sition. ts^ j^jS^ virtually in the geni- tive case. virtually in the genitive, as form- ing the complement of a gram- matical relation between two nouns (state of construction). «; ■' o ^ I, . ;jsr* having the mark - • quies- cent (a letter). J.^.jsr* complex. CV' ij.ijs'* openly pronounced. S. 9 i^ ^ jj.^^* passive. S ■<>.-■ 9 \ys^ tolerated. S 9 {^ ^ . . « (j^Jk^r^ definite, limited, S 9 '^ ^ i_J.jk.s'* apocopated. ^oS-o p y o ;l^-'^l , i^^s:^ (nouns) of which ^ the latter portion has been apo- copated. iSjS^ moved, having a vowel ; the opposite of "quiescent." , S 9 <^ ■■ i*..::^^ restricted. •J 9 ■^ ^ S ^ \:^s.^ i.q. ^y , q.vl fS-s.-^ clear, plain, obvious. J^^' \ (X^'* a proper name con- sisting of an entire sentence and not declined. ^oo-o ^ 9^ S y ^ c_jLc^! \ ^^ 6^ J^"^ having a place in the grammatical analysis. <-^ ^ Lsr* virtually, in consequence of its position. S 9 1^ - ^ J i^.s'* (in logic) the attribute. ■if 1 , < ^ ii_^l.s^ the second person. ^jJlj i:^z j^'*^\ the thing of which the quality is predicated by the word i_^AJ U ^^;*I:isr^ smuggled, (vowels not written but just slightly pro- nounced). s ^ ^> C^=^ particularized. »»» 'CJ-'O s- o •'O-o J* jjl _j^ — J/»J b j^^^os'* the special "^ object of praise or blame. i.jiijs'* losing its teshdid. JwiJL4.Sl 1^ t-jijlsT*^ 1 losing its tesM'id. • J-s^i'jL^ Jk-^ meddah preceded by a i' ',.^ in the same word. S ■■^9 Sy S '■(^9 i ^ -, UH'-^i x* or J-^i&i.^ Jk^ meddah over an 1 at the beginning of a word when the preceding word ends with a long vowel. s <-■ y _.J^ panegyric, eulogium. GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 397 o^ -i ?o -"O^ dJ.] yc^^W the person appealed to. S -ii -' f ■^jk^ masculine. S ^ y (^ P dJi]s^ pronounced ^vith a quick motion of the lips or tongue. (_jJ^'^X ) ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ second ■"^ \ words of the series (_Jjy« ; called u-J^UJ' q^.v. A^j^ numerical progression, units, tens, and so on. jj.isry« improvised (primitive pro- per names). ^.a^y* lawful, allowed. z ti^t put in the nominative case <~^^ . . . or indicative mood, having tlie vowel JL or - . iLsrr* c ji..* virtually in the nomi- native. /»JJ1 .^ ^wWlj ?.»i,'« put in the nominative to express praise or blame. \^^j^-* composed, compound. j_jv>l:^l ^.^^iyt proper names con- sisting of a complete proposition, ij-, as ^, «? ^ S" \5^>' i^LjI^ I— ^o^'* a proper name con- sisting of two nouns in a state of construction. S ■i-'^ S ^^ 9 ^e^-2J' »-r^^7^ compound expres- sion containing an ellipse of a preposition, conjunction, etc. yi^j-^ k—^i^ a proper name con- sisting of two words inseparably compounded. S y ^ ^^'f inseparably compounded. a-J jkjj.* augmented (verb). L_^-.*u^ actuated by an extraneous cause ; an adjective which, while seeming to refer to a preceding noun, really refers to one follow- ^ O^ C— O 9 m y' P ^.K^,-* the cause which enables the noun qualified to be so qualified = ^_^^-wJ. x^,w^ hidden, understood (opposed, to ; ,b). ic^i:iA«./»J ' the thing excepted. /•kXi/*.! I ^L2-;>/»J ' ^^xiiiAM^^ anterior conjoined exception. i^i:^^ 1 posterior conjoined ex- ception placed after a negative proposition. c--^'^^l posterior compound exception placed after an affirm- ative proposition. 1:;.>**^1 thethingfrora v^hich exception is made. tikji-^x^^n augmented (noun). 4lJjO/ju,« elevated (letters). c.i_;li:x*^^l the one called in for aid. ^J~>-i ^j-* t-ljUu^^'l the person against whom aid is sought. <0 C_;l.^*u.4>n person for whom aid is demanded. I 398 ARABIC GRAMMAR. 2Ss:xm^ depressed (letters). i, ■■ (^ p ^Ciau^ hidden. ^^.^My* common gender. ^..s^*^^ rhymed prose. IxLw*^ referred to the subject; attri- buted. C\ S^ (. C A; 3 M'* J^ ^^^ a verbal adjec- ^^ tive, or what may be considered as equivalent to one. l^^Ly% having teshcl'd. p '^y P <" o ^o-' icz J^AA^ll the object from which a thing is diverted or distracted. y y S f o y djUL) ,]»iA,« antecedent of two nouns in a state of construction. -=- L_J .sT J*AA^ the intermedi- ate member of a proposition. •.-^^ ^ / ^L:>-L2-* concomitance. jA^ ■« infinitive or verbal noun. "^-v^ ..^ jJu^« the verbal noun not commencing with > . ^♦^ jjwi^ the verbal noun com- mencing with j* . Z\ ,s.^2^ the quality of being a noun of action. J^^l ^-'V^^ mT? fj''^^ aorist of the first class. s y . y P t-jir\«J^« doubled. S y P ( }l<^« the antecedent of two nouns in a state of construction. tUJl t_"'l.^< the complement of such noun. ^/♦«^« pronominal agent; implied, understood. ^\J:}\ ..^ ^ j'*^^* containing the idea of the pronoun which expresses an event. "^ .J ^^»i.« the pronoun contained in a verb and consisting of a single quiescent letter, as the \ in irjb. JL-';^^ ""-^-J^ attached pronominal agent. ,o /> 5-^ C' c J.^!:^* ^/♦.^i^ detached pronominal 'J agent. y^/O^O- '^ y 9 ■ ^ S '''-' 9 c:^^fC^ \ * l:Ua*J^ iji;ll:,« concord- ance of the adjective and sub- stantive. c .lia-^ dominant (verb). c .lia^ a verb submitting to the in- fluence of the dominant verb. ^.Ik^ submission. i" / ^ o 9 cULia^ arched (letters) ^ , ^ ,)s , and b- S^^ 9 uVL^ universal. ^dla^ absolute, general. \ ilk « \ "whatever the first or second radical may be." S ■i 9 S-a 9 ;^o 9 >^ i.q. i:S/%> special noun. J::jt^ weak (verb). *Lia-j^l i—iJl , j.^ i.v.t:x.r,-« pre- " ceded by an interrogative par- ticle. ^^o»o-^! ^^ S yL,9 ^T^-:*^^ ^ ^^ wW;>.t,« preceded by the inchoative of which it serves as enunciative. J ?•*?.,♦] 1 jX; 4>.4::j«-* preceded by the noun which is qualified by the agent itself. / O^O-O ^^ S ■"^9 ^\ »*s»^l \ ^s. i^^':.x,t preceded by the conjunctive adjective. Jj\ '— L;^ ij^' wV^.-X'* preceded ■' by a negative particle. JU:^ \ i_c J ^£ jk^'ix.* preceded by the noun which is modified by the agent itself performing the functions of an adverbial accusative of state or condition. Lks^ dotted (letter) ; having dia- critical points. t__j..^« declined. k__jyt,* determinate, definite. ^Llb (_jjc^ determined by the ^ article. ■^ by the article. determined di .,«.« a determinate noun, noun. aJ..v« isolated determinate i !tj«,« active. S 9 <-^ ^ (_i»la."t^ in apposition ; word or proposition joined to another. d-is uJ^-i-tV;! word to wliicli the ( '»„h.x,^ refers or is ioiued. JO \ jt.,* active voice 9 ^ ^ j»^»jt^ the complement of the at- tribute ; governed. JsxiJ \ J^'*>*'« with the govern- ment of a verb. « ^ o ^ ^»:j«-« logical, J»^,x^n previously mentioned. cLJU.« superiority. S ^ 91^^ 'ks>-y'>^ having the vowel — . 400 ARABIC GRA^JilAE, i'l:>-li^ suddenness cji^t singular. yjJu* explained. ^-Ic (_>.is^i the inferior of two terms of comparison. (jyts^ passive participle, patient, objective comi^lement. U3 ^ ' J^'^'*^ ^ the first patient or accusative of a verb which has several complements. j^uJt J^L*!1 the second patient or accusative of a verb which has several complements. JxliJl |*U^ ^UJl J»..d^^ the object of the action performing the functions of the agent. i^Lcli ^2-*^.^ ^^'^ J_j*iJl the object of an action of which the subject is not expressed. ■S^O 9 i? C O -' iJ^-'-* J_»^-« " absolute patient," i.e. the verbal noun used ad- verbially, as b^.-s- in b^ A:i) . J . <^:' Jj^ * the patient or passive participle, the complement or object of a verb. fv** ^ (jy^^ the real objective complement. jK/^v^ ''^ Jv^* the fictitious complement. jj^*^ J^*^^* special complement. f'^j^j^ Jj*^* fictitious patient. -^ S c o »• ^^ J^xji.* real patient s '^ I " ^t ^ H ■' j4u: ij^xs.^ general complement. ^ Jjxi^ complement of a verb expressingtimeorplace of action. '^ J»*^< adverb expressing the motive of the action. ^^^ (iT^ Jj^'* adverb expressing the motive of the action. 9^ y S. 9 L,y ^^^ Uf^-* adverb expressing the person who participates in an action, as 1 jjJ j l::..^*:,^ U what hast thou done with Zeid ?" J ^ G -' ^(^s^« shortened. Ji'* resrular. S~y 9 L^ plural ijy*S^^ having the vowel 7"- ,c-x^ metonym. S yy y 9 S ^ f jja*-:d,* ambiguous, identical. ^j:^^* adopted; the verbs men- tioned on p. 45. J^yU c:;liLs^ adopted; the quadriliteral verbs described on p. 45. L_5J^ possession. • c^:.^,« deprived (of variations), im- perfectly declined J-^* specifying. J.-.^» specified, . t_^jli^l person supposed to be present and addressed in the vocative. Cj-^uS^l (..5^*-^ plurals of the form ' '(4).(3)f(2)V). *? >' • O^ >y»ai^ virtually in the accusative. \s^ <-_;^:^ virtually in the ac- cusative. A JJijl — A/*J ^ ^\^ i^^'^u^ ] in the I* jj^l ^aJJ ^-?^^i^ ) adver- bial accusative to express praise or blame. c:j^*i.^ qualified by an adjective. ^ P S ^ pi^^ iSjuiLy CJii^Y* general (com- mon) conjunctives. J P o^ ^ 'ry^y (in logic) the subject. #• o £ ^ •o-o - p p »r p o X ^ i>^2^1^,-^M y^J ^^-^y* em- ployed to express the proximate occurrence of the action predi- cated which one has already set about. 26 402 AEABIC GRAMMAE. L.i2r>- -^ \ J jj c ^Y* employed to express simply the speedy occurrence of the thing predi- cated. * Ij>- . j^sL- \ y iXJ c y£y% cmployed to express the speedy occurrence of the predicate as something hoped for. S f ^Jl^^ iJi^^yt real feminine. ^L^ r^ LL^^y* conventional *" or fictitious feminine. je^LsJ iJi^'^y* grammatical femi- nine. •Ci 9 i_$yjt^ iJ:^J^y* logical or natural feminine. S^ O 9 f^ having no dots or diacritical points. :? D U abbreviation for Ur>^i he informed us." jJu rare. u' ^ •- \j putting a noun in the ac- cusative case, or a verb in the subjunctive mood. uJU denying, of negation. j_^U defective. t_^n3 occupying the place of. ^JjiUJl ^r. t_^U j occupying or ) \^<::.Z^^ the place of the agent. »:sr grammar, syntax. * I Ju vocative case. tUu*3 relation, the relative pronoun. ^*JjCwuJ the Persian style of writ- ing, which bears the same relation to the e-s:***^ or Arabic hand which the iYa?/c does to the ordi- nary English printing. g^^ the Arabic hand-writing. w X j_^j words susceptible of only one application. 4_-v^ accusative or objective case. J^-xk) letters formed by pressing the tip of the tongue against the anterior part of the palate. adjective, epithets ^A-x»- t::..-s*j a real epithet. - — 9^'-a 9 o^ Jj^o^ \ ^/**a5 the first person, ^,-jtJl ^« J-C::^! jj*aJ the first person plural. GLOSSAUY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. . 403 ,Ju negation. i>*»i.js) \ ^j absolute negation of the existence of the subject. ju*J itf^»*^ L5*J negation synon- ymous with the verb ^JM.J . J l^ \ ^Jij negation of the present. J Uii^ 1 Jj negation of the future. tdaiij diacritical point. fjjij conversion ; removing a vowel from one consonant to another which precedes it. •$ o o- ■& o ^ o-o ^ 5" o '' ^-.♦^ ^ ^ i< ' f'^rr^** ^^ ^ t-ry tJ^ *^*^^" version of an adjective into a noun. 'i.Cj indeterminate noun. JO-' ^eiJ prohibition. ^^y expressions which abrogate. £\ Sx:j \ f^^^'j particles which des- troy the influence of the in- choative. ^^^^\y words which put nouns in the accusative, and verbs in the subjunctive. iy species. Jk-^^1 (j^3 the emphatic ^ added to the aorist and imperative of verbs. JU^J \ ^y \ the ^ which dis or > tinguishcs the af- JTI" \T ' ' ] fixed pronoun of the H^y ' U^ ^ accusative or first person used with verbs from the afiixed pronoun of the same per- son used with nouns. J^ or i-_c-J all above the tens in numerals composed of tens and units, after twenty-one. s abbreviation for i.'-\ij name of a small town" (in Geographical works). <-_iijJl ^U the M in pause. ■sLs.-^ spelling, orthography. -?.•'<- -' ^j'O) the letter or sign J_. so ^ J'*^ writing such sign. ^j) iy^ the hemzefi used in silent ^a. forming the imperative. O XC-.0 ?^o X ^Liij! ij^jS) see pp. 9 and 12, o xc-*o y ^ o ^ J^s^^jJ 1 ij^i> see pp. 9 and 11. ^J^^♦Jb mumbling (compressing the lips in mastication). (.--nJ^^j obligatory, necessary. j_Jlj actual, transitive (verb). £|Jcj|i ,'j initiative J. o-o t:'*'^ JJ' 3 expressing concom- itance. JlsrJljl^ the conjunction^ when it introduces an adverbial propo- sition, the initiative . . 404 ARABIC GRAMilAP^ CXH -<3 7,^ S^] j\^ the conjunction _j in such expressions as implying simultaneous action^ and putting the verb in the Bubjunctive. Jlo-Ui^wTj^j, » of concomitance, <_^ jlj see p. 198. j^ Jj measure of a word. ^JxaJ^ uJj ^^® measure of the verb. uji-tf. the quality of being an adjectiye. , O Jt «? O y jcLsl <_jLtf^ a natural adjective or qualifying teim. >> >> >> it Defective verbs, 74, 76. „ tenses of, 77. Demonstrative pronouns, 154. Dependent case, 195. Derived conjugations, tables of — (active), 43. (passive), 44. of assimilated verbs, 68. of defective verbs, 77. of doubled verbs, 59. of hemzated verbs — (initial), 63. (medial), 64. (final), 65. of hollow verbs, 70. 32-39. tenses of, 39. Descriptive, nature of, 269. „ sentence used as, 269, ,, and noun, concordance of, 270. Diminutive noun, 148. Doubled verbs, derived conjuga- tions of, 59. Doubly imperfect verbs, 84j Dual, 104. t3-.^J 374. E. Epithets, concordance of nouns and, 208. „ feminine pluralsuscd with broken plurals of nouns 208. „ gender of, 207. „ noun of action as an, 208. Exception, how expressed, 265. E Feet, 292. „ normal, 294. , , tables of variatio n i n , 3 7, 308,309,310,311,312. „ elements of which feet are composed, 292, 294. ,, variations of, 93. Feminine, formation of, 93. „ grammatical, 183. Flight, form of words signifying,9 1. Fractions, 164. G. jr^ 266. Genders, 91. ,, common, 96,' Genitive case, 195. E, lil^ 267. jS^ 374. ^^»:^-, change in the tenth conju- gation of, 85. is note on, 97. Jjb 89. ^js^- J-4, signification of, 89. Hamasah, verses from the, quoted, Uemzeh, 9. ,, combination of, with other weak letters in verbal roots, 85. Hemzet el kata' , 13. Remzet el toasl, 11, 14. „ pointing a quiescent letter before, 85. 408 ARABIC GEAMMAE. Hemzated verbs (initial), 62. ,, (medial), 63. ,, (final), 65. Hollow verb, the nature of, ex- plained, 69. „ inflected as strong verbs, 8 7 „ tenses of, 71. cL-ii 374. C- * l\ 266. lUSl 302, 304, 305, 306, 307. jAi:M *Lc 291. • Ji^y^\ J^ 291. Imaleh, 9, 197, note. Imperative, 29, 174. ,, of derived conjugations, 41 ,, of defective verbs — (final ^), 80, 84. (final ^), 80, 84. ,, of hollow verbs — (medial^), 72. (medial ^j), 73. (medial \), 72. (the form Jl«), 233. ,, nouns used as, 231, 232, 233. Imperfectly declined nouns, 100. Imru 'al Kais, poem of, quoted, 204 ^\^ 174, negative, 253. * 1 249, 289. ^ , position of, in the sentence, 250. 1j\ and ^\, cases where either may be used, 251. i^' and ^ , loss of the final ^ in these particles and their compounds, 252 Indeclinable verbs, 88. ,, nouns, 103. „ words, 279, 283. Indicative mood, 171. Inflexions of nouns and verbs, 171, note. Intensive agent, 52, 225. Interrogative pronouns, 156. „ particles, 379. Interjections, 167. Involved forms of expression, 264, 2G5. Irregular plurals, 139. Irregular verbs, formation of nouns from, 86. " Is," how expressed, 288. ^\ 153. J. Jezmeli or sulcun, 10. Jussive, 176. K. Kitab es Sadih wa 'Baghim, 341. iX 267. ^ . ,^ 374. Lili 373, 374. ,.,iii 275. S j> ^ 289. ^ 275. l^ll^ 285. INDEX. 409 Koran, ii. 126, p. 177; ii. 30, p I77;ii. 139,p. 177;i.7,p. 187 ix. 18, p. 169; ix. 44, pp. 173 184, 185 ; XXX. 1, xxxvii. 147 p. 164; xlvii. 17, p. 202; Ixvi 5, p. 202; cii. 6-8, p. 177. L. J 279, 289. C^-jS 267. Letters, correspondence with the Hebrew, Phoenician, and Greek, 4. „ which cannot exist side by side in the same root, 19. ,, numeral value of, 3. ,, written, but not pro- nounced, 15. „ "solar and lunar," 11. J 88. ^ ^ \j^'. M. U 175, 197, 225, 249, 253, 267; (relative), 258. JxJl U 278. "^^ U negative, 253, 254. J^^ 374. Measures of words, 19. Meddah, 9. Metonyms, 285. Metre, 291. Metres, the, 313. ,, 1st circle, 295. „ 2nd „ 297. „ 3rd „ 298. Metres, 4th circle, 299. „ 5th „ 300. „ ^\i^\ 296, 314, 315, 316, 317. „ Jo J.2i 296,318,319,320, 321. „ L.uJ[ 296, 322, 323,324, 325. „ j^l\ 298, 326, 327, 328, 329. „ JU'wtM298,330,331,332, 333. „ i-JJ^^i 300, 354, 355, 356, 357. „ 'p!^\ 299, 350, 351, 352, 353. c^Li2i 300, 358, 359. , ^'l£C^\ 300, 360, 36 J. „ ijL..c^^\ 300, 362, 363, 364, 365 „ l^Jf 298, 334, 335, 336, "^337. „ '^y^ 299, 338, 339, 340, 341. „ l\.tj\ 299, 342, 343, 344, 345. „ t^^-^^ 299, 340, 347, 348, 319. „ iLi/£Z\ 366, 367, 368, 369. „ c!^/s:2\ 370, 371, 372. 410 ARABIC GRAMMAR. Moods of verbs, 171, 173. ,, apocopated, 173. „ of defective verb— (final j), 78. (final ^), 81. (final ^), 83. „ energetic, 176. „ imperative, 177 ,, indicative, 171. „ subjunctive, 171. Motion, form, of words signifying, 91. El Mutanebbi, verses from, 17. Noun of excess, 52. „ of instrument, 50. K, C '"' ^jjd 275. Karnes of Arab tribes, gender of, 182, 184. Negation, 253. ,, of several nouns, 255. Negative, absolute, 254, 255. jlij 374. Nominative pendent, 236. Noun, tbe, 89. „ abstract, 147. „ of action, 31. Nouns of action of derived con- jugations, 42. ,, ,, of bellow verbs, 70. „ „ in wkm, 47. .,, „ used as a verb, 222, 223, 224. Noun, Agent 46. „ collective, 183, 208. ,, of colour or defect, 51. „ derived from verbs, 90. „ of colour, 128. „ diminutive, 148. „ of relation, 144. „ of quality, 51. expressing inherent quali- ties, 228, 229, 230, 231 „ of species, 46. „ ofsuperiority,51, 226,227. „ of superiority, pi. of, 128. „' of time and place, 48. ,, of unity, 46. Nouns, cases of, 177. „ imperfectly declined, 100. Nouns* in construction, 184, 201, 202,203,206,207,215, 216, 287. „ ellipse of the first of two, 206. „ gender of a word qualify- ing, 207. ,, separation of two, 201. „ use of article with the first of two, 215, 216. Nouns, used adverbially, 167, 190, 191. Nouns, Primitive, 89. , , formation of from irregular verbs, 86. „ declension of, 97, 140. , , examples of the declension of, 140-144 ,, indeclinable, 103. ,, defining or determining, 287. „ definite and indefinite, 201, 288. ,,' and epithets, concordance of, 208. ,, genders of, 91. INDEX. 411 » »> ft a Nouns, numbers of, 103. relation between, 204. derived from verbs, 46. ,, ,, plurals of, 122. (not derived from verbs), 144. wbich govern like verbs, 223. Number, 103. Numbers, approximate, 164. „ cardinal, 158. „ ordinal, 161, 216. Numerals, 6, 158, 209, 210, 211, 212. adjectival, 163. adverbial, 163. compound, 284. distributive, 163. fractions, 164. multiplicative, 163. recurring, 164. gender of, 213, 214. agreement in gender of numeral and thin? numbered, 213. government of, 158, 159, 160. use of article with, 215. „ with collective nouns, 213. JVun, assimilation of, in certain words, 15. ^b^l^jj 151. 0. Objective case, 188, 189, 190, 191, 102, 193, 199, 288, 289. »» n j> » » ft )} >) if » Object of the action, 179. Object of a verb, 188. Object, position of, 263, 264. Pain, form of word signifying, 90. Parenthetical sentences, 189. Particles, 165, 171, 172, 173, 174, 279. „ employed in formingappo- sition, 272. „ initiative, 279. „ interrogative, 279, 280. „ negative, 174, 253. pleonastic, 283. which resemble verbs, 248. Passive Participle, 47, 225, 226. Passive of verbs which govern more than one object, 185, 186. Passive verb, subject of, 184, 185, 186. Patient, 47, 225, 226. Pause, the, 14. Pendent nominative, 236. Permutation, 22, 74. Pluperfect, 170. Plurals, 105. ,; different pi. to express different meanings, 138. note on the formation of, 113. broken, 110, 182. of multitude. 111. Plural of Paucity, 110, 116, 117, 118, 123, 124, 125. „ „ diminutives of, 160. Plurals of Plurals, 139. >) ft )' 412 AEABIC GEAMMAE. w Plural Ecgular, (masculine), 106. „ „ (feminine), 108. ,, irregular, 139. Poem, parts of, 292. „ structure of, 292. Poetical licence, 375, 376. Portions of a thing, form of words signifying, 91. Precative expressions, 232, 238. Predicate, 234, 23fi, 237. ,, omission of, 239. Prepositions, 165, 195, 196, 197, 198, 233. „ nouns used as, 197. ,, omission of, 187. Preterite, 26, 169, 170. of defective verb — (final j), 77, 82. (final ^), 80. of derived conjugations, 39. of Hollow verbs — (medial ,^), 72. (medial \), 73. (medial .), 71. Probibitive, 174. Pronouns, 151. „ demonstrative, 154. „ affixed, 151. ,, expressing the nomina- tive, 151. oblique and objective, 151. interrogative, 156. Personal, 151. Pelative, 156. separate, 151. government of, 153. >} j> Pronouns referring to tbe ante- cedent in relative sen- tences, 256, 260. „ omission of, 260. Proper names, 201, 219, 220, 221. ,, constituent portions of, 221. „ declension of, 101. Proposition, arrangement of, 263. Prosody, 261. ,, nomenclature of, 291,292, 293. Protasis and Apodosis, 262. Q. Quadriliteral verbs, 44. Quadriliterals, plurals of, 112, 127. Qualificatives, 256. Quantity, 293. ,, anomalies in, 293. QuinqueHterals, plurals of, 112. E. Regular Plural, 106. Eelatives, 256, 257, 258. : ,, nature of, 259. Relative noun, 144. ,, Pronouns, 156. ,, sentences, 256. Rhyme, the, 373, 374, 375. Roots, nature of, 19. ,, containing semivowels, 20. iljj 197, 198. u^iJj 374. Cs^j 373, 374.> INDEX. 413 S- s ^^ 293. >> >> Scansion, 301. Self, selves, etc., how expressed, 274, 275. Semivowels, 8. Sentence, the, 234. „ analysis of, 287, 288. Sentences, conditional, 260, 2G1 „ nominal, 234. relative, 256. verbal, 234. '^-^\ i^ 111. as the complements of prepositions, 198. Simple Yerb, 30. Sounds, imitative, 168. „ form of words signifying, 90. State or condition, 192, 242, 289. Subject, 234, 236, 237. „ of a passive verb, 178, 184, 185, 186. „ omission of, 241. Subjective case, 236, 288. Subject and predicate, 288. concordance of. >> >> 235, 239. inversion of,240. words affecting, 241. Subjunctive mood, 171. Substantive verb, omission of, 237. Superlative, pi. of, 128. i^y^ 266. Syntax, summary of, 287. tLa 374. T. i^^^\j 374. Tables of correspondence of forms derived from verbs, 56. ,, of derived conjugations, 43. ,, of Irregular verbs, 59. Tenses, of defective verbs, 77. „ of doubled verbs, 61-62. ,, of Hemzated verb, 66. „ of hollow verbs, 71. imperative, 174. prohibitive, 174. ,, of simple verbs, 26-29. Temvin, 6, 178, 201, 288. Teshd'ul, 11. «_j.«.2J' 317. l^y 374. Trades, form of words signifying, 90. Tribes, names of, 182, 184. Triliteral nouns, broken plurals of, 114. V. Verbal noun, 25. Verbal nouns, plurals of, 122. Verb, the, 24, 169. „ agent of a, 178, 179. „ and agent, concordance of, 180,181,182,183,265. ,, ,, position of, 180. „ and noun, inversion of, 263, 264. „ „ in apposition with an agent and article, 257. „ omission of, 189, 190. 4U AEABIC GRAMMAR. Yerb, omission of, in ejaculatory sentences, 188, 189. object of, 179, 188. words cognate to, 231. note on tbe signification of the inflexions of, 154. subject of a passive, 178. Verbs, abstract, 242, 243. approximate, 244. assimilated, 58, 66. defective, 74, 76. denoting a mental process, 246, 265. different Jiinds of, 24. doubled, 58, 59. doubly transitive, 224. forms of, 30. governing by means of a preposition, 186, 187. governing two accusative pronouns, 153. having two objects, 188. Hemzated, 58. Hollow, 69. Indeclinable, 88. (initialj), 67. (initial ^), 68. Irregular, 58. Moods of, 27, 171. of praise and blame, 247. >> >> >> f> >> >> >> »» >> >> » )t >> >> >> >> >> Verbs parts of, 25. „ Passive, 178,184,185,186. passive of, 186, 187. six classes of, 30. Tenses of, 26, 169. which govern more than one object, 185, 186. Verse, structure of, 292. „ parts of, 291. Vocative, 199, 200. „ apocopation of the last syllable of, 200. „ apposition of, 277, Vowels, 6. nasal, 6. the characteristic parts ot a form, 21. correspondence with the semivowels, 8. as signs of inflexion, 9. » » W. Words indeclinable, 279, 283. Juj 295. <". -' i f * J jU-jJl 302. J/1^1 ujUJJl 302. ^,j-K*:\ ujUJJl 304. 0A£| THE END, I ^ Tl REC^ IB jm URL JUl ggiCIDUiDUJU .1 H0V1U8 a % dec; % jyv ' 6 LDURl REUcV FormljU^JJii UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. \li:Ll- '■■.'■ 'f -. 'Rt 4ViK0Ct27 1)9* JUl ,WT281994 '^1 158 00563 7078 TTATTttTTrnX'S f^ATCPn-RTT AlUT) ^ VV 000 6693204 WILLIAMS' ENGLISH AND SANSCEIT DICTIONARY. SANSCRIT GRAMMAR >'^:>"^'^■%.'»^fcf