irallel Grammar Series FIRST WELSH READER & WRITER MEX i- parallel (grammar Series FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER - BEING EXERCISES IN WELSH BASED ON ANWYL'S WELSH GRAMMAR BY EDWARD ANWYL, M.A. Professor of Welsh and Comparative Philology in the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth; Chairman of the Central Welsh Board for Intermediate Education REV. M. H. JONES, B.A. Tutor at the Trevecca College, Talgarth THE PARALLEL GRAMMAR SERIES is now published by Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., BROADWAY HOUSE, 68-74, CARTER LANE, LONDON, E.G. parallel Grammar Sertes FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER BEING EXERCISES IN WELSH BASED ON ANWYL'S WELSH GRAMMAR BY EDWARD ANWYL, M.A. Professor of Welsh and Comparative Philology in the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth; Chairman of the Central Welsh Board for Intermediate Education AND REV. M. H. JONES, B.A. Tutor at the Trevecca College, Talgarth LONDON : SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO., LIM. NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN CO. 1909 PREFACE AT the request of the Publishers of my Welsh Grammar I have now much pleasure, through the collaboration of my friend and former pupil, the Rev. M. H. Jones, B.A., in publishing a companion volume of Welsh Exercises. The great aim of my Welsh Grammar was the presentation of the distinctive features of the Welsh language, interpreted in the light of its historical development, whereas in earlier text-books Modern Welsh had been largely interpreted through the categories of English and other grammars. It is pleasing to note that the older unscientific methods of regard- ing the language are now gradually vanishing, and it is to be hoped that the present volume of exercises will not only be useful from a practical point of view, but that it will also serve to make clearer still the distinctive structure of the Welsh tongue, In bringing out this volume of exercises, which is the joint work of the Rev. M. H. Jones and myself, I desire to acknowledge in the most cordial terms the admirable help which his co-operation has given me. E. ANWYL. ABERYSTWYTH, 1909. 2209847 CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTORY : Welsh Alphabet : Symbols ...... i Vowels and Consonants ...... 2 Diphthongs : Accent ....... 4 Initial Mutations ........ 5 Order of Words in a Sentence . . . . .10 ACCIDENCE AND SYNTAX : Demonstrative Adjective or Definite Article . . .13 The Noun . . . . . . . . .17 The Adjective . . . . . . . .22 The Pronoun . . . . . . . .31 Adverbs and Conjunctions . . . . . .41 Prepositions ........ 46 The Verb-noun ........ 50 The Verb 54 REVISION TESTS IN WELSH GRAMMAR ..... 80 PARSING CHARTS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES . . 89 "rThe same or similar words used as different Parts of Speech 103 COMMON ERRORS IN WELSH SPELLING AND SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION : Welsh Orthography . . . . . . . 1 1 1 Welsh Prose Composition (+*^&- 4sc4w*4*S . . -113 Common Errors . . . . . . . .119 VOCABULARY : Welsh into English . . . . . . .125 English into Welsh . . . . . . .134 Vll FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER. INTRODUCTORY. THESE Introductory Notes and Exercises are mainly intended for students who have no speaking knowledge of Welsh. The student should first of all read the paragraphs referred to in the Grammar, and then read aloud or write the exercises. Only the most easy and essential sections of the Grammar are dealt with at first, and these will be graded in the order of their difficulty, so that the student will be able to read with proper articulation and accent any passage of ordinary Welsh prose, before he begins the exercises on the different Parts of Speech. In the Vocabularies only the most frequently used words are selected and their meanings are inserted in brackets after them. I. THE WELSH ALPHABET. ITS SYMBOLS AND SOUNDS. The pronunciation of the Welsh vowels, consonants and diphthongs is taught by means of English equivalents. Read and learn 4, 5 and 7 of the Grammar, then try the following Exercises : Note i. That every sound-symbol in every Welsh word must be sounded. Note 2. That every sound-symbol in Welsh (except Y, see 8 Gram.) has always the same sound. Note 3. That B, D, H (always aspirated), L, M, N, (long 6 or short 6), P, R (clearly trilled), S (always the sharp sibilant), and T have the same sound in Welsh as in English. 2 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER EXERCISE i. Read aloud the following words : Bod (to be), Bon (a stump), Bost (a boasting), Do (yes), Dol (meadow), Dor (door), Dos (go), Hon (this, fern.), Lon (lane), Mon (Anglesey), Mor (sea), Nod (mark), Nos (wgW), Ol (trace), os (if), Fob (a//, every), Son (rumour), Ton (waw), Ton (tawe). Note 4. That the vowels A, E, I, 0, U, W, Y have both long and short sounds. See Table 7 (a) Grammar. (N.B. In the first few Exercises long and short vowels will be marked - and - respectively). EXERCISE 2. ON THE VOWELS. Read aloud the following words : Mam (mother), tad (father), bad (boat), dal (hold), mab (sow), man (place], nam (fault), da (goo<*), na (no), Pab (the Pope), pam (why ?), tal (tall), tal (payment), tan (/if*), tan (2r), sal (poor). Neb (wo one), nen (roof), pen (tea<*), nes (nearer), mer (marrow), ser (s/ars), her (challenge), dim (nothing), mud (<*fn&), min (rfg), mis (month), mur (s/on^ iea//), md (wo/), Sul (Sunday), dur (sfc/), pur (/>M^), sur (sowr), tir (/anw/rf), bys (finger), dyn (Man), tyb (opimon), tyn (<*gW), byr (sAorQ- See Note l 8 Gram ' Note 5. That T and W are used not only as vowels but as consonants, as in the following examples : la (ice), iar (hen), iawn (just, right), lesu (Jesus), wele (behold), gwynt (wind), gwas (servant). See 11, Note 6 Gram. Note 6. That the consonants C, F, G have different sounds in Welsh from those represented by the same symbols in English. See Table 7 (b) Gram. EXERCISE 3. Read aloud the following words : (Note thatC has the sound of K in each case), Cod (bag), INTRODUCTORY cad (battle), cam (step, crooked), can (song), car (kinsman), cas (hatred), cul (narrow), cur (stroke), cwm (^zte), cwn (dogs), ac (cowJxwjt <^ EXERCISE 5. Read aloud the following words : Mae (there is), traed (feet), taith (journey), dau (/wo), aur (go/rf), brawd (brother), llaw (hand), eira (swow), deugain (forty), llew (//on), mown (/), oen (lamb), oer (co/rf), cnoi (to oV/e), ffowch (/7^), niwl (/og), byw (//), Duw (God), mwy (more), bwyd (food). 9. THE ACCENT. See 23-25 Gram. Note that the almost invariable rule in Welsh is to place the accent on the last syllabic but one of the word : and if a syllable be added to a word, the accent is moved in accordance with this rule. Con- trast this with the usual practice in English, which keeps the accent on the root syllable of the word, whatever prefixes or affixes are added. For example, barn (judgment), barnwr (judge), barnasom (we judged), barnedigaeth (judgment}. EXERCISE 6. Pronounce the following words, taking care to accent the penultimate syllable in each case : A-chub (to save), a-chub-wr (one who saves), a-chub-ed-ig (one who is saved) ; ad-rodd (to relate), ad-rodd-iad (recita- tion), ad-rodd-iad-au (recitations) ; hawdd (easy), an- hawdd (difficult), an-hawdd-af (most difficult) ; arf (weapon), arf-og (armed), arf-og-aeth (armour)', byw (alive), byw-iol (lively), byw-iog-rwydd (liveliness) ; go-leu (light), go-leu -o (to give light), go-leu-ad-au (lights) ; go-sod (to place), go-sod-iad (statement), go-sod-ed-ig (being placed) ; go-sod-ed-ig-aeth (enactment made], go-sod-ed-ig-aeth- INTRODUCTORY au (enactments) ; marw (to die), mar-waidd (deadly], mar-weidd-io (to mortify), mar-wol-aeth (death], mar-wol- aeth-u (to cause to die]. 10. The most important exceptions to the Rule of Accent are the following : (a] Words accented on the last syllable, viz., 1. Verb-nouns ending in -au, -hau, -eu, and -oi. See 26, 224, 236 Gram. E(7*. 2. Noun derivatives in -had. 3. Emphatic Personal Pronouns which are formed by reduplication. See 28, 132 c Gram. ' 4. Words beginning in ys- and ym-. See 27 Gram. E 5. Compound Prepositions. See 29, 298 Gram. EXERCISE 7. Pronounce the following words : Glan-hau (to clean], cryf-hau (to strengthen], par-hau (to continue], can-iat-au (to allow], di-leu (to blot out], os-goi (to avoid], coff-had (remembrance], par-had (continu- ance] ; my-fl (/), chwy-chwi (you), hwynt-hwy (they) ; y-storm (storm], y-sten (a can] ; y-stor (a store], ym-ladd (to tire one's self], ym-droi (to loiter] ; ger-bron (in front of], y-mysg (among], dra-chem (again). (b] Note the peculiarities mentioned in 30, 33 ; 31, 32 ; 34, 35 ; 36, 37 Gram. EXERCISE 8. Pronounce the following words : Apel (appeal], heresi (heresy], philosophi (philosophy] ; Saesoneg (English], meddwdod (drunkenness], gwelwlas (pale grey], marwnad (elegy), gwaywffon (spear), banadl (broom], cenedl (nation], bonheddig (gentlemanly], oher- wydd (because], unarhugain (one and twenty], rhagfarn (prejudice], morfa (a moor], dad-lwytho (unload], rhag- arweiniad (introduction] . ii. INITIAL MUTATIONS. The Englishman's chief difficulty in mastering the Welsh language lies with the Initial Muta- FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER tions of certain words in sentences or breath-groups. But if the following five sections (a to e) be well mastered, the student will find that all these changes are subject to rules which never vary. (a) Only words beginning with P, T, C. ; B, D, G. ; LI, Rh, and M in their Radical or Dictionary form are mutated. Words beginning with Chw, Ff, H, N and S are never mu- tated. All the other consonants are Derivative, i.e., no words beginning with them are to be found in a vocabulary ; for they are only written in certain phrases in their mutated form. (b) For the conditions that produce Initial Mutations, see Gram. 48, 49, 57. The changes depend entirely upon the sense in which the word is used, or upon the word immediately K1- 1 preceding it. 1. The Radical or unchanged form of the word is used, for example : (a) In the first word in a sentence, except in address or in the case of certain adverbial expressions. (b) After such words as Ein (our), Eich (your). (c) For Masculine nouns following the article Y (the) and the Numeral Un (one) : as Y ty (the house), Un peth (one thing). (Note that Feminine nouns are softened or mutated after Y and Un, except in the case of initial LI and Rh) 2. The Voiced or Soft Mutation arose in the old speech of Britain from the vowel-flanked position of the initial letter. It is found, for example, after such words as Dy (thy), Ei (his), etc. See Gram. 65 and Type A, pp. 77 and 78.",^ 3. The Spirant or Aspirate Mutation occurs after such words as Ei (her), tri (three), chwe (six), a (with), a (and), etc. See Gram. 66 and Type B, p. 79. 4. The Nasal Mutation is written after Fy (my), yn (in), pum (five), saith (seven), etc. See Gram. 67 and Type C, p. 79. (c) The Mutations of P, T, C. See Gram. 60. INTRODUCTORY Words beginning with P, T, C undergo 3 changes each. (1) Radical P may be mutated into Soft B, Spirant Ph, Nasal Mh. (2) Radical T may be mutated into Soft D, Spirant Th, Nasal Nh. (3) Radical C may be mutated into Soft G, Spirant Ch, Nasal Ngh. EXERCISE 9. I. Write Ein (our) before the words cadair (chair), penelin (elbow), teml (temple). Write Dy (thy) before the words pabell (tent), ceffyl (horse), tad (father). Write Ei (his) before the words canwyll (candle) , pobl (people) , torth (loaf). Write Fy (my) before the words ci (dog), telyn (harp), p&n (head). Write Ei (her) before the words clust (ear), trysor (treasure), pethau (things). Write Tri (three) before the words cyfaill (friend), ton (tune), pererin (pilgrim). II. Translate into English : Ei thref (home). Fy nghadair (chair). Dy borth (gate). Ein pobl (people). Ei chath (cat). Fy mhlwyf (parish). Dy geiniog (penny). Ein castell (castle). Tri tharw (bull). Ei phechod (sin). Fy nhafod (tongue). Dy drwyn (nose). III. Translate into Welsh : Thy cross (croes). My memory (cof). Her sleep (cwsg). Our sword (cleddyf). Thy father (tad). My tent (pabell). Her elbow (penelin). Our fire (tan). His shield (tarian). Three wells (pydew). Thy bush (perth). My family (teulu). Her loaf (torth). Our price (pris). (d) The Mutations of B, D, G. See Gram. 60. The Radicals B, D. G, should not be confounded with the mutated B, D, G which form the Voiced inflection of P, T, C. So if the student meets, in a sentence, with a strange Welsh word beginning with B, D or G, he must look for it in the dictionary under B and P, D and T, G and C respectively before abandoning the search. The same holds true of words begin- ning with Ch, M, and N, as we shall see later on. 8 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER Words beginning with B, D, G undergo 2 changes each. (1) Radical B may be mutated into Soft F and Nasal M. (2) Radical D may be mutated into Soft Dd and Nasal N. (3) Radical G may be mutated into Soft (G here being dropped) and Nasal Ng. The same rules apply to B, D, G as to P, T, C when written in phrases or breath-groups, viz., B, D, G are softened after Ei (his), Dy (thy) ; they take the nasal mutation after Fy (my) ; but retain the Radical form after Ei (her),Eu (their), A (and), and Tri (three). EXERCISE 10. I. Write Eu (their) before the words bad (boat), defaid (sheep), gelynion (enemies). Write Ei (his) before the words bedd (grave), dysgl (dish), gwaed (blood). Write Ei (her) before the words blodeuyn (flower), dant (tooth), gair (word). Write Fy (my) before the words bys (finger), diolch (thanks), gwisg (dress). Write Tri (three) before the words bardd (bard), diwrnod (day), gwr (man). II. Give the Radical or dictionary form of the following words : (Note that Y is the article " the " and is followed by the Radical in a Masculine noun, but the Soft or Voiced Mutation in a Feminine noun, except in the case of LI and Rh.) Y gath (the cat : Fern.). Y bennod (the chapter : fern.). Ygaeaf (the winter : masc.). Y darian (the shield : fern.). Y babell (the tent : fern.). Y gloch (the bell : fern.). Y gwas (the servant : masc.). Y bwthyn (the cottage : masc.). Y deml (the temple : fern.). Y drws (the door : masc.). Y dref (the town : fern.). III. Translate into Welsh : My table (bwrdd). My finger (bys). My God (Dtiw). Thy boat (bad). Thy brother (brawd). Thy city (dinas). God and (a) man (dyn). Father (tad) and brother. Husband (gwr) and wife (gwraig). His day (diwrnod). His earth (daear). Dog (ci) and cat (cath). My wife. My garden (gardd). Thy sheep (da/ad). His country INTRODUCTORY (gwlad). Thy hair (gwallt). His word (gair). Thy work (gwaith). His bread (bara). (e) The Mutations of LI, Rh, and M. See Gram. 60. Do not confound the Radical M with the M that is the mutation of B. For example, Mam (mother) is a word begin- ning with Radical M, which may undergo a mutation into F, as Ei f am (his mother), but Fy mrawd (my brother) is an instance where M is the Nasal mutation of the Radical B (brawd). Words beginning with LI, Rh, and M undergo only one change each. Radical LI may be mutated into L (Voiced). Radical Rh may be mutated into R (Voiced). Radical M may be mutated into F (Spirant). The Radicals LI, Rh, and M are mutated into L, R, and F respectively after Ei (his), Dy (thy}. But after Fy (my), Ei (her), Eu (their) they retain tne Radical. Note, that whereas Feminine nouns in initial P, T, C, B, D, G are softened after the Article Y (the) and numeral Un (one), the contrary is true of LI, Rh, and M, which remain unchanged. EXERCISE n. I. Write the following words with Ei (his), and Dy (thy, before them. Llaw (hand), rhaff (rope),mel (honey), llywydd (ruler), rhodd (gift), mab (son), lliw (colour), rhieni (parents), melin (mill). II. Translate into English : n^> Fy meistr (master). Ei merch (daughter). Ei ferch. Eu mawl (praise). Dy faneg (glove). Dy raw (spade). Dy lyfr (book). Fy rhiain (maid). Fy llety (lodging). Ei llais (voice). Eilais. Ei rhosyn (rose). Eillythyr (letter). Eimodryb (aunt). Ei fab (son). Eu merched (daughters). Eu llysoedd (courts}. Y llaeth (milk). Y rhoddion (gifts). Y merlyn (pony). Un lleidr (thief). Un rhwyf (oar). Un mor (sea). III. Translate into Welsh : (Meanings in brackets are given in their dictionary form). His voice (llais). His parents (rhieni). His mind to FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER (meddwl). _Thy ship (Hong). Thy rose (rhosyn). Thy smoke (tnwg). The sea (mor). One lake (llyn). The maiden (rhiain). One hammer (morthwyl). My book (lly/r). My spade (rhaw). My glove (maneg). Her parents (rhieni). Her mother (mam}. Her colour (//w). Their letter (Uythyr). Their battle (rAy/e/). Their field 12. THE PREFIXING OF H TO INITIAL VOWELS. See Gram. 68-71. Words whose radical initial is a vowel, have H prefixed to them when following Ei (her), ein (our), eu (their), a'i (and her), i'n (/o our), o'n (/row owr), i'w (to their), i'w (/o /b's or her), a'n (aw/>y), vigorously=yn egniol. ACCIDENCE AND SYNTAX 13 THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE OR DEFINITE ARTICLE. The following Notes and Exercises 13 and 14 are based on 145-147 ; 581 ; 582-589 of the Grammar. 1. FORM of the Article. The Definite Article is written in three forms in Welsh, viz., y, yr, and 'r. These are al- ways translated into the in English. The English Indefinite Article a or an is not expressed in Welsh. Hence ' a boy ' =bachgen, and ' an apple '=afal. The form Y is used before consonants and consonantal w, as y dyn (the man). y wraig (the woman]. The form Yr is used before vowels, consonantal i and the aspirate h, as yr afal (the apple), yr iaith (the language], yr haul (the sun]. The form 'r is used when the previous word ends in a vowel, as Aeth i'r ty gyda'r plant (He went to the house with the children]. Yr athraw a'r dosbarth (The teacher and the class). Cerddodd o'r orsaf tua'r dref (He walked from the station towards the town]. [NOTE. This is a survival from the time when yr was used before both vowels and consonants.] 2. POSITION of the Article. The Welsh Article always precedes its noun. 3. MUTATION governed by the Article. It governs the Voiced or Soft mutation of a Singular Feminine noun (except when such nouns begin with LI or Rh). See p. 77. Type A, Note 7, Gram, and notes on pp. 6, 8 and 9 on the Mutations in this Exercise Book. 4. The USES of the Article. The ordinary uses of the Article are the same in Welsh as in other languages. See 581 Gram. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER NOUNS, dyn (man). dynes (woman). bachgen (boy). plant (children). asyn (flss),-m. ceffyl (horse), m. oen (lamb), m. cae (field), m. mor (sea), m. afon (river), f. ty (house), m. ysgol (school), f. dodrefn (furniture), m. achos (cause), m. buwch (cow), f. VERBS. pora (3. s. Pres. he, she or it grazes). gwelodd (3. s. Aor. he saw). rhedodd (3. s. Aor. he ran). VOCABULARY i. rhed (3. s. Pres. he runs). gwerthodd (3. s. Aor. he sold). prynodd (3. s. Aor. he bought). mae (y mae) (3. s. Pres. there or it is). yw (3. s. Pres. is). PREPOSITIONS. yn (in). i (to), i'r (to the). o (from), o'r (from the). a, ag (with) ; Write a before consonants, and ag before vowels, gyda, gydag (with). gyda'r (with the). tua, tuag (towards}. tua'r (towards the). ar ol (after). ADVERB. ynghyd (together). EXERCISE 13. (a) Translate into English : i. Gwelodd ddyn a dynes. 2. Gwelodd y dyn a'r ddynes. 3. Rhedodd y bachgen o'r ty i'r ysgol. 4. Rhed yr afon tua'r mor. 5. Rhedodd gyda'r plant. 6. Gwer- thodd y ty, yr ysgol a'r dodrefn. 7. Prynodd y ceffyl, yr asyn a'r oen. 8. Y mae'r oen yn y cae. 9. Beth yw'r achos ? 10. Pora'r fuwch a'r oen ynghyd. (b) Translate into Welsh : i. He saw the river and the sea. 2. The man ran after the boy to the school. 3. The woman bought the house and the furniture. 4. He sold the horse and the ass. 5. The lamb and the cow ran into the field. 6. He ran with the children towards the river. 7. The man bought a horse. 8. The boy sold the lamb. 9. He saw the children together in (the) school. 10. There is a field with the house. ACCIDENCE AND SYNTAX 15 5. THE PECULIAR USES OF THE WELSH ARTICLE. Read carefully 582-9 in the Grammar. Note in addition, that nouns which signify titles, dignities and professions usually take the Article in Welsh, as Yr Ymherawdwr Nero (The Emperor Nero). Y Tywysog Llewelyn (Prince Llewelyn). Y Deon Howell (Dean Howell). VOCABULARY 2. NOUNS. VERBS. Y Bala (Bala), f. saif (3. s. Pres. it stands). Yr Amwythig (Shrewsbury) , f . cartrefai (3. s. Past Imperf. Yr Aifft (Egypt), f. he used to live}. Yr Eidal (Italy], f. teithiodd (3. s. Aor. he trav- Yr Hafren (Severn), f. elled). Y Drefnewydd (N 'ewtown] , f. wylodd (3. s. Aor. he wept). Yr lesu (Jesus), m. ganwyd (Aor. Impersonal, was Y Nadolig (Christmas), m. born). Y Pasg (Easter), m. gwerthwyd (Aor. Impers. was Tywysog (Prince), m. sold). brenin (king), m. cerddodd(3. s. Aor. he walked). mab (son), m. treuliais (i. s. Aor. I spent). tref (town), f. gosodais (i. s. Aor. / placed). i'r dref (to town), gorchfygwyd (Aor. Impers. eglwys (church), f. was defeated). lie (place) , m. gelwir (Pres. Impers. is called) Duw (God), m. For a list of verbal endings, see 208 a. and b. Gram. [NOTE. The use of the article before names of rivers is not an ancient practice in Welsh.] PREPOSITIONS. ADVERBS. ar (upon, on) \ Wele (behold). See 600 tros (over) I See 288 Gram. trwy (through) j Gram. Adref (home, towards home). gan (by) j NOTE (a). Passive verbs, like gelwir, take a Predicate- Noun or Predicate-Adjective after them like the verb Wyf. See 324 Gram. Gelwir yn Fab (ts called the Son). 16 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER (b) When two dependent nouns stand in juxta-position, the second is put in the'Genitive Case ; the preposition of or the Apostrophe and 's of the English corresponding phrase not being needed in Welsh. The first of the dependent nouns cannot take the Article in Welsh, but is, however, to be translated as though defined. See 587 Gram. Mab y brenin (the son of the king). Mab brenin (the son of a king). (c) Mae cannot be used for " is " in negative and in- terrogative sentences. See 481 Gram. EXERCISE 14. (a) Translate into English : i. Saif yr Amwythig ar yr Hafren. 2. Cartrefai Thomas Charles yn y Bala. 3. Teithiodd o'r Aifft i'r Eidal. 4. Wylodd yr lesu. 5. Ganwyd Crist ar y Nadolig. 6. Rhedodd plant y dyn i'r ty. 7. Gwerth- wyd dodrefn yr ysgol i'r wraig. 8. Aeth tros yr afon tua'r dref. 9. Rhedodd yr asyn o'r cae tua'r ty. (b) Translate into Welsh : i. The Severn runs through Shrewsbury. 2. He walked from Newtown to Bala. 3. I spent Easter in Egypt. 4. I placed the boy on the horse. 5. Prince Llewelyn was defeated in 1282 by King Edward. 6. The children are (=y mae) in school. 7. He went to town. 8. The man and the woman went to church. 9. The school children ran home. ACCIDENCE AND SYNTAX 17 THE NOUN. 1. KINDS OF NOUNS. The classification of Nouns in Welsh is the same as that of English, viz., Proper, Common, Ab- stract and Collective. Note that there is no need to translate Proper Names in English by Welsh equivalents, unless there are well known forms accepted for them. The few English or foreign names of Persons or Places that have special Welsh equivalents (such as I ago for James or Abertawe for Swansea), will be given in the Vocabularies. 2. CASES OF NOUNS. In Welsh there are three Cases Nominative, Accusative and Genitive. We have already seen in Section 13 (p. 10) that the Nomin- ative is the case of the Subject, and that in a sentence of the Normal Order it immediately follows the verb. The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object of a Transitive verb, and always follows the Nominative in a sentence of the Normal Order. In form there is no difference between a Nominative and an Accusative, except that the latter usually takes the Voiced or Soft Mutation. The Accusative in Welsh, more- over, can be governed by a Preposition. The Genitive is the case of the second of two dependent nouns written in juxta- position. e.g., Llais y wlad (The voice of the country}. (See Gram. 74- ; 374-5. Also Note b to Vocab. 2. First Welsh Reader). Note that the noun in the Genitive case (except where it is clearly attributive) is usually written in the Radical form : e.g., Merch Megan (Megan's daughter). Contrast this with the Adjective after a Noun feminine singular, which is always mutated, e.g., Merch dda (A good girl). 3. NUMBER IN WELSH NOUNS. Study carefully Gram. 75-7 ; 78-83, 93-8 ; 85-92. The Exercises will follow the above grouping of the para- graphs, and most of the words used in the Vocabulary, will be taken from the examples given in the Grammar. c i8 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER VOCABULARY 3. NOUNS. Adar, aderyn (birds, bird},m. blodau, blodeuyn (flowers, flower), m. coed, coeden (trees, tree), /. derw, derwen (oaks, an oak), /. plant, plenty n (children, a child), m. ser, seren (stars, a star), /. bachgen, bechgyn (boy, boys), m. carreg, cerryg (stone, stones), f. corff, cyrff (body, bodies), m. croen, crwyn (skin, skins), m. cyllell, cyllyll (knife, knives), f. dafad, defaid (a sheep, sheep), f. gwr, gwyr (man or husband, men or husbands), m. llygad, llygaid (eye, eyes), m. oen, wyn (lamb, lambs), m. sant, saint (saint, saints), m. troed, traed (foot, feet), /. ty, tai (house, houses), m. Afon, afonydd (river, rivers), / asyn, asynod (ass, asses), m. awr, oriau (hour, hours), f. bryn, bryniau (hill, hills), m. dyn, dynion (man, men), m. eglwys, eglwysi (church, churches), f. gair, geiriau (word, words), m. gardd, gerddi (garden, gar- dens), /. gwraig, gwragedd (woman or wife, women or wives), f. Haw, dwylaw (hand, two hands), f. lie, lleoedd (place, places), m. mab, meibion (son, sons), m. mor, moroedd (sea, seas), m. milltir, milltiroedd (mile, miles), f. nant, nentydd (brook, brooks), / pen, pennau (head, heads), m. Protestant, Protestaniaid (Protestant, Protestants) , m. pysgodyn, pysgod (fish, fishes), m. Blwyddyn, blynyddoedd (year, years), /. brawd, brodyr (brother, bro- thers), m. bys, bysedd (finger, fingers), m. can, caneuon or caniadau (song, songs), f. castell, castelli or cestyll (cas- tle, castles), m. ci, cwn (dog, dogs), m. cwningen, cwningod (rabbit, rabbits), /. dant, dannedd (tooth, teeth), m. gwartheg (cattle). merch, merched (girl or daughter, girls or daughters) , / mynydd, mynyddoedd or mynyddau (mountain, mountains), m. tref, trefi or trefydd (town, towns), /. ACCIDENCE AND SYNTAX 19 VOCABULARY 3 (continued] ADJECTIVE, ETC. See previous vocab. for gwe- llawer (many) . load, aeth, prynodd, teithiodd, hefyd (also), conj. cerddodd,rhedodd,rhed,saif, mae, cartrefai, treuliais and VERBS. gosodais. syrthiodd (fell), 3 s. Aor. sydd (is), 3 s. Pres. PREPOSITIONS, etc. See cafwyd (there were found}. previous vocab. for ar, a, clywais (/ heard), I s. Aor. ar ol, gan, gyda, i, o, tros, tor (cut), Imperative. Na trwy, yn : and for the Con- thor (Do not cut). junction a, ac. NOTE. Yng Nghymru (in Wales). EXERCISE 15. (a) Translate into English : i. Gwelodd y plant yr adar. 2. Gosodais goed a blodau yn yr ardd. 3. Y mae defaid ac wyn lawer yn y cae. 4. Saif y plentyn tan y dderwen. 5. Gwelais ser lawer. 6. Prynodd y gwyr dai, cyllyll, a chrwyn defaid. 7. Mae llygaid y saint ar dy Dduw. 8. Syr- thiodd carreg ar droed y bachgen. (b) Translate into Welsh : i. The children ran after the sheep. 2. Cut the tree with a knife. 3. The men and the boys used to live in Bala: 4. The child walked into many houses. 5. The boy saw the star. 6. The man bought the stones. 7. Do not cut the flowers. 8. There are sheep in the field. EXERCISE 16. (a) Translate into English : i. Rhed yr afonydd a'r nentydd i'r mor. 2. Gwe- lodd y dyn wyr a gwragedd, meibion a merched yn yr ysgolion. 3. Y mae yn y dref dai ac eglwysi, ysgol a chastell hefyd. 4. Clywais gan yr aderyn yn y coed. 5. Cafwyd ar y mynyddoedd, asynod, gwningod a defaid. 6. Gwelodd llygad y bachgen bysgodyn yn yr afon. 7. Y mae yn y corff, draed, dwylaw, llygaid, bysedd a dannedd. 20 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER (b) Translate into Welsh : i. The dogs ran after the cattle. 2. The girls and the boys went to church. 3. He travelled many miles over hills and through rivers. 4. I spent many years in the schools of the Protestants. 5. There are many castles in Wales. 6. Do not cut the flowers with the knife. 7. Brooks run from the hills to the sea. 4. GENDER IN NOUNS. It is most important that a stu- dent of Welsh should not confuse the grammatical distinction of nouns into Masculine and Feminine with the sex distinc- tion of persons and animals. For, since Welsh has neither neuter nor common gender, the names of even inanimate things must either be Masculine or Feminine. To discover the Gender of a Welsh Noun study carefully Gram. 104-112. Note that the gender of the names of sexless things can be determined by their meaning ( 108), their form ( 109- 111), or by the mutation of the adjective that follows them ( 112, note 3). VOCABULARY 4. NOUNS. gwr, gwraig (husband, wife). Brenin, brenhines (king, mab, merch (son, daughter). queen). tad, mam (father, mother). cyfaill, cyfeilles (friend), m. Barddoniaeth (poetry), f. and / blwyddyn (year), f. dyn, dynes (man, woman). Caer (Chester), f. meistr, meistres (master, mis- ca ^ i ca A / t ress )- ceffyl (horse), m. : plur. ceffy- Sais, Saesnes (Englishman, j au \ Englishwoman). caseg ( mare ), f. : plur. cesyg. Asyn, asen (ass), m. and /. creulondeb (cruelty), m. bachgen, merch or geneth Cymro (Welshman), Cymraes, (boy, girl). f. brawd, chwaer (brother, sister). Cymru (Wales), f. ewythr, modryb (uncle, aunt). dydd (day), m. gwas, morwyn (servant), m. eryr (eagle), m. and /. hwrdd (ram) , m., dafad (sheep) . ACCIDENCE AND SYNTAX 21 VERBS. VOCABULARY 4 (continued) iar (hen), /., ceiliog (cock), m. Lloegr (England), f. mis (month), m. wy (egg), m. ; plur. wyau (eggs). y Ddyfrdwy (the Dee), /. anrhydedda (honour), Imper. yw (is). Cp. mae and sydd. See Gram. SS 484-90. ADJECTIVE. newydd (new). PRONOUNS. fy (my). See Gram. 141. dy (thy). PREPOSITIONS, ETC. i (for as well as to, into). Gram. 385-9. tan (under). Gram. 410. mewn (in). Cp. yn. Gram. 428-35. ond (but), conjunction. EXERCISE 17. (a) Translate into English : i. Anrhydedda'r brenin. 2. Cartrefai tad a mam y ferch yn y ty newydd. 3. Syrthiodd y gwas tros y cerryg i'r afon. 4. Sais yw y brenin, ond Cymraes yw y frenhines. 5. Prynodd y meistr geffyl, hwrdd ac asyn. 6. Cafwyd wyau lawer tan yr iar. 7. Gwelais greulondeb yr eryr gwrryw. 8. Saesnes yw gwraig fy mab. 9. Gwelodd y plentyn flodau ac adar lawer yn yr ardd. 10. Prynais farddoniaeth y Cymro i (=/or) gyfaill o Gaer. (b) Translate into Welsh : i. Chester stands on the Dee. 2. The cat went after the birds. 3. He travelled through Wales in a year. 4. Honour thy father. 5. I saw the Queen of England. 6. There are in the field many she-asses, sheep and mares. 7. A stone fell on my maidservant's foot. 8. The king's son is my uncle's master. 9. I spent many years with an Englishman in England. 10. My wife's sister is my brother's wife. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER THE ADJECTIVE. In the study of the Welsh adjective, its etymology and syntax will be taken together in the following order : (1) Position, Number and Gender of ordinary Descrip- tive Adjectives. (2) Degrees of Comparison. (3) Numerals. i. POSITION, NUMBER AND GENDER OF THE ADJECTIVE. (a) Position. The Adjective generally follows its noun in Welsh. See 74 Gram. For exceptions, see 337 and 589 Gram., especially the use of holl (all, whole), hen (old), prif (chief), gwir (true, real) and unig (only). For the Attributive and Predicative use of the Adjective, see 304, Forms II and V with footnote, 306. The Predicative yn, which is not to be translated into English, is followed by an Adjective in the Voiced (or Soft) Mutation, except when such Adjective begins \\ith // or rh. See 324 Gram. (b) Number. Although many adjectives have Singular and Plural forms (see 74, 78, 99 Gram.), yet the pre- vailing tendency is to write the Adjective in the Singular even with a Plural noun. See 79 and the Rule given in 325 Gram. (c) Gender. In Welsh it is only the Singular Adjective that agrees with its noun in Gender. For the few Femi- nine forms of Welsh adjectives, see 102-3 Gram. It should be noticed, however, that here again Welsh shows a fondness for the Masculine adjective ; and that the chief difference between an adjective following a feminine noun and the one following a masculine noun lies in the fact that the former is always mutated. The only Nu- meral Adjectives that indicate gender are dan (in.), dwy (f.) ; tri (m.), tair (f.) ; pedwar (m.), pedair (f.) ; trydydd (m.), trydedd (f.) ; pedwerydd (m.), pedwa- redd (f.). THE ADJECTIVE (d) For the Adjectival uses of Pronouns, see 141, for Possessive Adjectives ; 148, for Demonstrative Adjec- tives ; 158, for Interrogative Adjectives ; and 163, 164 for Indefinite Adjectives. VOCABULARY 5. NOUNS. Alecsander (Alexander). byd (world), m. cyfaill (friend), m. cyff (trunk of a tree), m. Cymraeg (the Welsh language). Dafydd (David). dail, deilen (leaves, leaf), f. dol, dolydd (meadow, mea- dows), f. dyffryn, dyffrynoedd (vale, vales), m. ffordd, ffyrdd (way, ways), f. marchnad (market), /. nos, nosweithiau (night, nights), / palas, palasau (palace, pal- aces), m. porth, pyrth (gate, gates), m. pwnc, pynciau (subject, sub- jects), m. troed, traed (foot, feet), m. tywydd (weather), m. Tywi (the river Towy), f. ADJECTIVES. brwnt, bront (dirty), m. and /. cadarn, cedyrn (strong), s. and pi. coch, cochion (red), s. and pi. cryf, cref, cryfion (strong), m., f. and pi. cul, culion (narrow), s. and pi. cywir (true, faithful). da (good). dewr, dewrion (brave), s. and pi. du, duon (black), s. and pi. dwfn, dofn (deep), m. and /. gwael (poor}. gwlyb, gwleb (wet), m. and /. gwyn, gwen, gwynion (white), m., /. and pi. gwyrdd, gwerdd, gwyrddion (green), m., f. and pi. hardd, heirdd (pretty, beauti- ful), s. and pi. hen (old). hir, hirion (long), s. and pi. ieuanc, ieuainc (young), s. and pi. llwm, Horn (bare), m. and / llydan, llydain (broad, wide], s. and pi. man (small). mawr, mawrion (great, big), s. and pi. melus, melusion (sweet), s. and pi. 24 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER ADJECTIVES (continued) melyn, melen, melynion (yel- tlawd, tlodion(/>oor), s. and pi. low), m., f. and pi. tlws, tlos (pleasant, pretty), prif (chief). m. and /. prydferth (beautiful). trwm, trom, trymion (heavy), tew, tewion (thick, fat), s. m., f. and pi. and pi. tywyll, tywell (dark), m. and /. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. VERBS. fy (my), dy (thy), ei (his or daw (comes), 3 s. Pres. Ind. her). dysgodd (taught, did teach). ein (our), eich (your),, eu gwna (makes), 3 s. Pres. Ind. (their). gorchfygodd (conquered), 3 s. hwn(this), m. ; hon. (this), /. Aor. pa (what ?). oedd (was), 3 s. Past Impf. amryw (many). pora (grazes), 3 s. Pres. Ind. arall, ereill (another, other), sy'n canu (is singing). s. and pi. For other verbs, see previous holl, yr holl (all, the whole). vocabularies, rhai (some). ADVERBS, ETC. Eto (still, again), ar (on, upon), yn (in), ond (but), yn felus (sweetly), iawn (very), o (from), heddyw (to-day). EXERCISE 18. (a) Translate into English : i. Prynodd amryw flodau heirdd. 2. Gorchfygodd Alecsander yr holl fyd. 3. Y mae cestyll cedyrn yn nyffryn tlws y Tywi. 4. Y mae eich hen frenin eto'n ddewr. 5. Prif bwnc ein hysgol yw Cymraeg. 6. Ty- wydd gwlyb a wna flwyddyn lorn. 7. Gwyn yw'r blodau, gwyrdd yw'r dail a choch yw'r cyff. 8. Adar man sy'n canu yn felus. 9. Cul yw'r porth ond llydan yw'r ffordd. 10. Dynes gref oedd mam y gwas hwn. ii. Dafydd yw fy nghyfaill cywir. 12. Pa bwnc arall a ddysgodd yr athraw i blant yr ysgol hon ? (b) Translate into Welsh : i. Thy feet are wet. 2. He sold my yellow, white and red flowers. 3. This night is long and dark. 4. Brave THE ADJECTIVE 25 sons come from poor Wales. 5. He was a good friend but a poor master. 6. He sold his dirty house and bought this beautiful palace. 7. I placed many heavy stones on the wet road. 8. I sold in the market all the strong horses, the black cattle and the fat sheep. 9. Our lambs graze on your green meadows. 10. There are some very young girls in this school, n. This deep river runs into the great sea. 12. Another young man will come to this market to-day. 2. DEGREES OF COMPARISON. As in English, there are two modes of expressing the Comparison of Adjectives in Welsh, viz. the Inflexional mode of adding-ed,-ach,-af to the Positive. See 114 Gram., and the Periphrastic method of writing mor, mwy and mwyaf before the Positive. See 119 Gram. Note, however, that Welsh has, besides the Comparative Proper, an extra Comparative of Equality, 1 the uses of which should be carefully studied. See 114, 118 Gram. A large number of Adjectives are also Irregularly com- pared. See 115 Gram. In the Syntax special attention should be given to the Comparative Clauses. See 359a, 360 Gram. Note that Welsh often uses the Superlative where English has the Comparative, as Po iachaf y bo dyri, cryfaf oil fydd (The healthier a man is, the stronger he will be}. VOCABULARY 6. NOUNS. afon (river), /. ffuon (foxglove, ruddy). angau (death), m. grudd, deurudd (cheek, two arian (silver, money), m. cheeks), f. bachgen (boy), m. gwlad (country), f. blodau (flowers). llyfr (book), m. brawd (brother), m. paradwys (Paradise), f. cariad (love), m. Saesneg (the English Ian- coed (trees), /. guage), f. dibyn (edge), m. teulu (family), m. eglwys (church), f. tir (land), m. eira (snow), m. ty, tai (house, houses), m. 1 This may be called for convenience the ' equative ' degree. 26 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER ADJECTIVES. (Inf. = Inflexional; Peri. = Periphrastic; Irr.= Irregular mode of comparison). agos (near, Irr.). anwyl (dear, Inf.}. caredig (kind, Inf.}. coch (red, Inf.}. cryf (strong, Inf.}. cyfoethog (rich, Inf.}. cymysg (mixed}. da (good, Irr.}. gwyn (white, Inf.}. hardd (fair, beautiful, Inf.}. hen (old, Inf.}. hir (long, Irr.}. ieuanc (young}, Inf.}. llai (smaller, Irr.). mawr (large, Irr.). pell (far, Inf.). rhad (cheap, Inf.). tal (tall, Inf.}. tlws (pretty, Inf.}. trwm (heavy, Inf.}. VERBS. bo (byddo=he, she, or it be), 3 s. Pres. Subj. saif (it will stand}, 3 5. Put. ni welais (7 have not seen}, i s. Perf. or A or. Indie, y maent (they are), Cp. y mae =it is, there is. gvverthais (7 sold). prynodd (he bought}. aeth (he went}. cefais (7 found or 7 had). rhoddodd (he gave). ADVERBS, ETC. am (for). ymaith (away). bob amser (always). wrth (compared with). fy hun (my own). erioed (never). IDIOMS. Yn (not translatable) marks the Predicate Noun or the Predicate Adj., as yn frenin (king) ; " yn dalach " (f (tiler), na (than), na'r (than the). ni, nid (no, not) cyn (as) used with the Comparative of Equality, as " cyn wynned a'r eira" (as white as the snow). Po is used with the Superlative, as " po gryfaf " (the stronger), or " goreu po leiaf " (the less the better}. It translates the English the with the Comparative. The English how with an Adjective is translated by the Comparative of Equality in Welsh, as How near ! Agose or nesed ! Llai o dir (less land, lit., less of land}. Genitive position translates the English Possessive case, as " my brother's flowers " (blodau fy mrawd). THE ADJECTIVE 27 EXERCISE 19. (a) Translate into English : i. Y mae'r bachgen yn gryfach na'r tad a'r ferch yn harddach na'r fam. 2. Cochach oedd ei deurudd na'r ffuon cochaf. 3. Y nesaf i'r eglwys yw'r pellaf o barad- vvys. 4. Hardded wrth fy ngwlad fy hun yw'r gwledydd pell. 5. Po gryfaf fo'r castell hwyaf y saif. 6. Y fam yw'r garedicaf o'r teulu. 7. Ni welais flodau tlysach erioed, y maent cyn wynned a'r eira. 8. Gwerthais lai o dir ond am fwy o arian. 9. Y mae yn dalach na'r gwas, ond nid cyn gryfed. 10. Goreu po leiaf o Saesneg fo'n gymysg a'r Gymraeg. (b) Translate into Welsh : i. He bought the cheapest of the houses. 2. My dearest friend went away to-day. 3. The school is the next house to the church. 4. I found the heaviest stones in the river and the largest trees on the moun- tain. 5. How near he stands to the edge ! 6. He gave the best book to the youngest son. 7. Stronger is love than death. 8. The cheaper the land the richer the master. 9. The oldest man is not always the best man. 10. How pretty compared with my own flowers are my brother's flowers. 3. NUMERALS. After committing to memory the list of Cardinal and Ordinal Numerals given in 121 Gram., the Adverbial expressions given in 129 should be learnt. (a) Formation. Notice how compound Numerals are formed. There are simple and distinct words for the figures i to 10, 20, 100 and 1,000. From these, com- pounds are formed either by multiplying one number with another, as 20 x4 = 8o (pedwar again), by using the preposition ar (upon), as i upon 10=11 (un ar ddeg), or by using the conjunction a (and), as 40 and 5=45 (pump a deugain). The smaller number usually precedes the larger, and the noun is inserted after the first element of the com- pound Numeral, as Seventy disciples (deg disgybl a thri- ugain). See 123 Gram. 28 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER The Ordinals are made from the Cardinals by adding -ed or -fed, and the Adverbial Numerals or Multiplicatives by adding tro or gwaith (time). (b) Usage. Note that 2, 3, 4, third and fourth are inflected for gender. 121 Gram. Note that 10, 20, 100, 1,000 and 10,000 have plural forms when used as nouns. 125 Gram. Note that 5, 6, and 100 when used as adjectives are spelt as pum, chwe, can, but when used as nouns they are fully written, as pump, chwech, and cant respectively. For the Adverbial use, see 129 ; for the Distributive use, see examples 7, 8 and 9 in 129 ; and for the use of Possessive Adjectives with Cardinals, see 128 Gram. (c) Position. Simple Cardinals and Ordinals usually pre- cede their nouns, as tri dyn (three men). Note, however, that cyntaf (first) follows its noun. (d) Concord. The noun qualified by a numeral is always Singular in Welsh, although the verb and demonstrative adjective may be plural, as Y ddau ddyn hyn a derfys- gasant y dorf (These two men have disturbed the multi- tude). But if the preposition o follows the numeral, the noun is written in the plural, as pump o ddynion (five men). (e) The Mutations governed by the Numerals. See pp. 77-79 Gram. Type A (a), 3 ; Type B, 4 ; Type C, 3. Note ugain (twenty) in compound numerals is written as hugain, as Saith ar hugain (twenty- seven). VOCABULARY 7. NOUNS. adran (part), f. Awst (August), m. blwydd, blwyddyn, blynedd (year), /. dalen (leaf), /. dydd (day), m. emyn (hymn), /. glan y mor (seaside). gwartheg (cattle, cows). Hath, llathenni (yard, yards), / lie (place), m. llyfr (book), m. mil, miloedd (thousand, thou- sands). milltir, milltiroedd (mile, miles), /. THE ADJECTIVE VOCABULARY 7 (continued) - NOUNS (continued) mis (month), m. myrddiwn, myrddiynau (tens of thousands). oed (age), m. ochr (side), f. pobl (people). punt, punnoedd (pound, pounds) . rhan, rhannau (division, di- visions). teulu (family), in. tro (time, turn), m. ugeiniau (scores). wythnos (a week), f. CONJUNCTIONS, ETC. ar (on, upon). (of), often untranslated, heibio (by, besides). 1 (unto, to). yn well (better). er pan (since). . mewn (in, within). pan fu farw (when he died). yn yr un ty (in the one or same house). ADJECTIVES. diflas (miserable). pob (every). bob yn un ac un (one by one). bob yn ail (alternately). For the Numerals, see the lists in the Grammar. VERBS. argraffwyd (was printed). canwn (let us sing), Imperative. geilw (he calls). ganwyd (was born). gwelais (I saw). gwerthais (I sold). gwnaf (/ do or shall do). lladdodd (he killed). lletya (he dwells). rhoddodd (he gave). teithiodd (he travelled). ysgrifenodd (he wrote). EXERCISE 20. (a) Translate into English : i. Teithiodd gan milltir mewn wythnos. 2. Rhoddodd dair punt a phedwar ugain am y ty. 3. Mab deng mlwydd a chant oedd Joseph pan fu farw. 4. Gwerthais y pedwar ceffyl am chwe ugain punt a phrynais wyth o wartheg a thri oen. 5. Bob yn un ac un aeth y saith mlynedd diflas heibio. 6. Ganwyd i Job saith o fechgyn a thair o ferched. 7. Gwnaf yn well yr ail dro na'r tro cyntaf. 8. Yr oedd ugeiniau o bobl yn y lie heddyw. 9. Y mae wyth mlynedd a deugain er pan vvelais y lie. 30 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER io. Lletya yn yr un ty dad a mam, pedair merch a thri mab. (b) Translate into Welsh : i. The man bought twenty -one sheep and forty -seven lambs. 2. There are two sides to every leaf. 3. The first Welsh book was printed in the year 1546. 4. Let us sing the one hundred and seventy-eighth hymn. 5. There are twenty-six yards from the house to the river. 6. Saul killed his thousands, but David his tens of thousands. 7. There are three divisions to the second part of the book and four to the first. 8. He wrote fifteen books in ten years. 9. On the thirteenth day of the month of August the family went for nine days to the seaside, io. The brothers call in the houses alternately. THE PRONOUN 31 THE PRONOUN. The exercises on the Pronouns are arranged in the following groups : 1. The Personal Pronoun (four kinds), including the Formal or Introductory pronoun. 2. The Possessive, Demonstrative, Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns. 3. The Relative Pronoun. i. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. (a) The Simple or Normal Personal Pronoun should first be learnt. See 132 b Gram. Note that the English Neuter Pronoun it is to be translated by ef (m. he) or hi (/. she) in Welsh. Pronouns are often repeated after verbs and nouns in Welsh for the sake of emphasis, and are to be parsed as if in Appo- sition, as " Gwyddoch chwi " (You know), " Dysgaf " (/ learn), " Dysgaf fi " (I learn). See 134 Gram. The personal pronouns are usually followed by the voiced mutation. This is due to the omission after them of the pre-verbal relative particle " a." For the use of ti and chwi, see 138 ; and for certain limitations in the use of all the pronouns, see 562-66, 568 Gram. (b) The uses of the Emphatic and Conjunctive Personal Pronouns should next be studied. See 132 c and d Gram. With regard to the Emphatic Pronouns it should be noted that they generally precede their verbs, and are used only with the 3rd pers. sing. See 135 Gram. The English language has no equivalent pronoun to the Conjunctive of Welsh, its special meaning being usually translated by adding the words also or indeed to the English pronoun. All the Welsh classical writers make frequent use of this pronoun, and it is an idiom which should be carefully imitated by the student. ! FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER " A fynnwch chwithau hefyd fyned ymaith ? " (Will ye also go away ?) " Ni fedrais innau nad wylais beth o dosturi." (/, also, could not help weeping a little out of pity.) " Os gofynni di i mi paham, minnau a ofynnaf i tithau, O Eryr, paham nad wyt ti cyn lleied ar dryw bach ? " (// thou askest me why, I (indeed) will ask thee (also), eagle, why art thou not as small as the wren ?) (c) Lastly, the Postvocalic Personal Pronouns should be studied. See 132 a Gram. These Postvocalic Personal Pronouns should be distinguished in form, meaning and use from the Postvocalic Possessive Ad- jectives. See 141 Gram. VOCABULARY 8. NOUNS. aderyn (bird), m. bedd (grave), m. brenin (king), m. brawd (brother), m. bran (crow), /. camp (task), /. cor (choir), m. cyfeillion (friends), m, cyfarfod canu (singing prac- tice). chwaer (sister), f. Emanuel (Immanuel), m. gwartheg (cattle). lleidr (thief), m. nyth (nest), f. nos (night), f. plant (children). pluf (feathers). tro (turn, walk ; am dro=for a walk), m. ADVERBS, ETC. yn drwm (heavily). yfory (to-morrow) . adref (home, towards home). yn awr (now). iawn (very). nid (never). gwell yw gennyf (7 prefer). os (if) is followed by the Indicative, er (although). canys (for). gyda (with). rhyngoch (between you). iddo ef (to him). ADJECTIVES. cryfaf (Superl. of cryf, strong). dued (Comp. of Equal, of du, black, how black /). goreu, yn oreu (best). mawr, mwyaf (great, most). THE PRONOUN 33 VOCABULARY 8 (continued) ADJECTIVES (continued) newydd (new). oer (cold). talaf (superl. of tal, tall). union, (rightful). VERBS. awn, ni awn (we shall go). bydd, fe fydd (there will be). beirniadu (to criticise), verb- noun. bwrw eira (to snow), verb- noun. byw (to live), verb-noun. canu, yn canu (singing), verb- noun. claddasant (they buried). clywais (/ heard). clywed (to hear), verb-noun. condemnir (it shall be con- demned). credu (to believe), verb-noun. cyffesa (confess), Imperative. cymerwch (take), Imper. 2. P. or bring), cyrchu (to fetch verb-noun. darllenais (7 read). dewch or deuwch (come), Im- per. 2. P. dewisasoch (you have chosen). dont or deuant (they will come). gadawaf (/ leave). gwelais (/ saw), ni welais (/ did not see). gwn (/ know), gwyr (he knows). gwyddoch (you know). prynaf (/ shall buy], os pryni di (if thou wilt buy). rhyddheir di (thou shalt be released) . siarad (to speak), sy'n siarad (is speaking). tyred (come), Imper. 2nd sing. y mae hi (it (lit. she) is), yr oedd hi (it (lit. she) was), myfi yw (It is I). EXERCISE 21. (a) Translate into English : i. Y mae hi yn bwrw eira yn drwm. 2. Mi welais nyth aderyn ac yr oedd yn dlws iawn. 3. Fe bryn- odd fy nhad lyfr newydd imi. 4. Chwi wyddoch ddued yw pluf y fran. 5. Ni awn am dro yfory, os dont hwy gyda ni. 6. Clywais hwynt yn canu ond ni welais di yn y cor. 7. Aeth i'w gyrchu adref. 8. Os tydi yw'r lleidr, cyffesa i mi yn awr a rhyddheir di. 9. Efe yw'r talaf, myfi yw'r cryfaf. 10. Chwychwi a ber- chir, hwynthwy a gondemnir. n. Os prynni di fy nefaid 34 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER i, prynnaf finnau dy wartheg dithau. 12. Claddasant y plant, a'r tad, yntau, a aeth i'w fedd. 13. Tyr'd i'n clywed a'n beirniadu. 14. Ei gredu a'i fyw yw'r gamp. (b) Translate into Welsh : i. It is very cold to-day. 2. There will be a singing practice to-morrow night. 3. I prefer him to her. 4. Come to hear us singing. 5. For Immanuel is his rightful king also. 6. I am Alexander the Great. 7. He and I are not friends. 8. Take her and her brother to school. 9. I read to him and he to me. 10. He, too, never went to school, u. I leave it between you and them. 12. She also is my sister. 13. We indeed know best, although it is they who speak most. 14. Ye have not chosen me, but I have chosen you. 2. POSSESSIVE, DEMONSTRATIVE, INTERROGATIVE AND IN- DEFINITE PRONOUNS. (a) Possessive. Welsh has no proper Possessive nor Re- flexive Pronouns but uses for them the following sub- stitutes : The Article yr with the noun eiddo, conjugated with pronominal suffixes, like the preposition " heb " in 293, translates the English Possessive Pronoun mine, thine, etc. See 140 Gram. The Possessive Adjective fy, and so on, with the noun hun or hunan translates the English Reflexive pronouns myself, thyself, etc. See 139, 569 Gram. The Normal Possessive Adjectives can be easily dis- tinguished from the Possessive Pronouns, inasmuch as the former are used with nouns and the latter for nouns. But the Postvocalic forms of the Possessive Adjective may at first be difficult to distinguish from the post- vocalic forms of the Personal Pronoun. Cp. 132 a with 141 Gram. In form both sets are alike, with the exception of the 3rd sing, and plur. of the Possessive Adjective, which assume the form of 'w after the preposition i (to). In position they are alike in that both can only be THE PRONOUN 35 written after words ending in a vowel, but differ in that the Poss. Pronouns always precede verbs, while Poss. Adjectives precede nouns. In function Possessive Pronouns are always in the Accusative case governed by the verb that follows them ; whereas Possessive Adjectives agree in gender with the nouns to which they refer. NOTE. The postvocalic possessive adjectives are in origin probably remnants of the genitive case of the personal pronouns. (b) Demonstrative. Study the uses of hwn, hon, hyn, hwnnw, honno, hynny, both when written alone as well as when compounded with the Adverbs yma, yna, acw. See 148-154, 580 Gram. Note also the use of arall, gilydd, y naill and y Hall. See 155-157 Gram. When the Demonstratives are used as Adjectives they can be easily recognized by the order of the words, which is always as follows : Article, Noun, Demonstrative Adjec- tive, as " y dyn hwn " (this man). Compare 6 avrjp OUT05. (c) Interrogative, together with the Modes of introducing Questions. The Pronoun " pwy " (who P) is always written alone, while the Adjective " pa " (what P) is immediately fol- lowed by its noun. See 158-161 Gram. Note the Welsh equivalents of the English Interroga- tives : Who, Whom (Pwy), What (Pa beth or Beth), Whose (the noun followed by Pwy), How many (Pa sawl or Pa nifer o) ? How much (Pa faint o) ? What kind (Pa fath or Pa ryw) ? For the Syntax of Direct Questions see 283, 344 a and d Gram. ; and for Dependent Ques- tions, see 370 a Gram. (d) Indefinite. Study carefully the following paragraphs, 162-166, 579 Gram. Note that dim (of, nothing or none) which originally meant " something," has acquired a negative meaning and is often used in Welsh to strengthen the force of the true negative adverbs ni and nid. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER VOCABULARY 9. NOUNS. VERBS. arian (money), m. blwyddyn (year), f. brawd (brother), m. bwyd (food), m. cariad (love), m. cyfaill (friend), m. cwr (end, edge), m. chwaer (sister), f. dyddiau (days). fferm (farm), /. gardd (garden), /. gwlad (country), /. llogell, llogellau (pocket, pockets), f. llyfrau (books). pris (price), m. pryd (timt), m. ADJECTIVES. cuddiedig (hidden). ffol (foolish). holl (all). ADVERBS, ETC. a ? ai ? (Interrogative particles not to be translated). gennych (with you). am danynt (for them). adref (towards home). gartref (at home). heno (to-night). heddyw (to-day). cyn hir (ere long). i'e (yes), Nage (no). Nac ydynt (No, they are not). Nac oes, ddim (No, there is none). fel (as). carwn (we lovs, let us love). ceisi (thou dost seek). coe\ia.(he believes, will believe). daw, (he will come). dof (7 shall come). dyro (give), Imper. edmygu (to admire), verb- noun. galwodd (he called, he did en 1 1) . gwn (/ know ; nis gwn ddim, / know nothing). (A) glywsoch am ? (Have you heard of?) gweled (to see), verb-noun. oes (yes, or is). prynwch (buy), Imper. 2. P. rhoddi (to give), rhoddwch (you will give). sydd (is), sydd gennych (is with you, you have). teithiodd (he travelled). ydych (you are). ymvvel a (he visits). PRONOUNS. eu hunain (themselves). pa sawl gwaith ? (how many times ?). hwn yma (this here). hwn acw (that yonder). y naill, y Hall (the one, the other). ein gilydd (one another). rhywrai ffol (some foolish ones). ei heiddo hi (hers). y rhai hyn (these) . THE PRONOUN 37 EXERCISE 22. (a) Translate into English : i. Aeth pawb i'w dy ei hun. 2. Dyro hwn i'th fam a'r Hall i'th dad. 3. Pa sawl gwaith y galwodd i'w gweled hwy ? 4. Prynwch lyfrau i chwi eich hunain. 5. Pa un o'r llyfrau a geisi ? Ai hwn yma ai hwn acw ? 6. O'r pryd hwnnw teithiodd ei wlad ei hun o'r naill gwr i'r Hall. 7. A oes gennych ddim bwyd ? Nac ocs ddim. 8. Carwn ein gilydd fel y carwn ein hunain. 9. Ai heddyw y daw eich mab adref ? Nage, yfory. 10. Pwy a'u coelia ond rhywrai ffol fel hwy eu hunain ? 11. A yw dy frawd a'th chwaer gartref ? Nac ydynt. 12. Ei heiddo hi yw'r blodau hyn. (b) Translate into Welsh : i. All the money went to their own pockets. 2. Whose flowers are these ? 3. I will come to see you and your family ere long. 4. In these days many visit the castles of Wales to admire them. 5. What is in yonder school to-night ? Is it a singing practice ? Yes. 6. Her father is your hidden friend. 7. Whose son are you ? 8. I know nothing about this school. 9. How many servants have you on the farm this year ? 10. This is the house, and this the garden. What price will you give for them ? n. Have you heard of their love the one to the other ? 12. This is mine and that is yours. 3. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. This is one of the most difficult Parts of Speech to be mastered in the Welsh lan- guage, partly because the student needs much acquaintance with the classics of Welsh prose before he can idiomatically manipulate the Relative Clause ; and partly because the tendency with careless writers of Modern Welsh is to use yr hwn oftener than is necessary. The relative pronoun is by its very nature a conjunction, as well as a pronoun, and it is contrary to the instinct of a language to make its joints too bulky. The student should therefore carefully study the sections dealing with the syntax of the Relative Pronoun, viz., 167-171, 570-578 Gram. Particular attention should be paid to the following points : 38 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER (a) The position of the Relative Pronoun. (b) The use of a before the verb where the relative is subject or object. (c) The use of yr (y) in Oblique cases other than the Accusa- tive. See 168 Gram. (Y is written as yr before verbs beginning with a vowel, but this should not be confused with the Article yr which always precedes nouns.) (d) The kinds of Complex sentences in which the Rela- tive pronoun is used. See 305 for the Inverted Order, 362 for Adjective clauses, and Appendix. (e) The agreement or non-agreement of the Relative with its antecedent and verb. See 363 and 364 Gram. Note the use of the Subjunctive Mood with the Relative pronoun. (/) Never translate the English Relative Pronouns by means of the words pa tin and pa rai, and wherever possible give preference to the simple proclitics a and yr (y) rather than the compound forms. VOCABULARY 10. NOUNS. ADJECTIVES. bachgen (boy), m. dieithr (strange). craig (rock), /. gwir y rill ,^ cyfraith (law), vl b iawn / ^ dydd o orffwys (day of rest), m. J IQ JJ / fl m Duw (God), m. h n hose ^ gelyn (enemy), m. gerddi (gardens}. PRONOUNS. gwobr (prize, reward), /. gwraig (woman), /. ef (it). marchnad (market), f. yr hwn, y neb, y sawl (who, nefoedd (heaven), f. whoever). parch (respect), m. un (one). pregethwr (preacher), m. pwy bynnag (whosoever). pwll (pit), m. y rhai oedd oil (who were rhan (lot, phase), /. all). rhodd (gift), f. THE PRONOUN VOCABULARY 10 ADVERBS, ETC. ar unwaith (at once). cyn hir (ere long). dacw (lit., see yonder). dyma (lit., see here). gynt (formerly). gymaint (as much). neithiwr (last night). nid (not). oddicartref (from home). wele (behold, see). VERBS. boddi (to drown), boddwyd (was drowned). blino (to tire), oedd yn flinedig (was tired). caru (to love), cared (let him love, a garo (he who loves), General Relative with the Subjunctive. cael (to receive), cefais (7 re- ceived), cafodd (he received). a'm cant (they shall find me). canmolwch (you praise). ceisiant (they seek). cloddio (dig), Subjunctive, 3rd sing. clywsom (we heard). collais (7 have lost or 7 lost). cospi (to punish), a gospir (will be punished). cyfarfum (/ met). cymerwch (take), Imper. 2nd pi. daeth (he has come). dangosais (/ showed). (continued) danfonais (7 sent). darllenai (he used to read), Imperf. 3rd sing, dewiswch (choose, take), Im- per. 2nd pi. disgvvyliem (we were looking). dywedo (says),Subj. 3rd sing, ennillodd^ won). Aor 3rd. s. galw (to call) ,geilw (he will call) . gwelais (7 saw), gwelsoch (you saw). addysgwyd (was taught). hoffwch (you like). llafuriodd (he laboured). mentrodd (he ventured). prynais (7 bought), prynodd (he bought), prynai (he was buying, he bought). rhoddwch (give), Imper., 2. P. rhoddwyd (was given). safodd (he stood), safai (was standing) . syrth (he will fall). torri (to break), tyr (breaks). ymguddiai (he was hiding or he hid himself). ymwelsant a (they visited). PREPOSITIONS, ETC. yn awr (now). yn fore (early). ganddi (with her), gennych (with you). am dano (for him, for it). drostynt (on their behalf, for them) . ynddo (in it). wrth (by). iddo (to him). 40 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER EXERCISE 23. (a) Translate into English : i. Collais y defaid a brynais yn y farchnad. 2. Cyfar- fum a'r dyn dieithr a welsoch neithiwr. 3. A ddyvvedo pawb, gwir yw. 4. Dacw'r wraig y prynais flodau ganddi. 5. Nid hwn yw'r pregethwr y disgwyliem am dano. 6. Cafodd barch gan y teulu y llafuriodd drostynt. 7. Rhoddwch ef i'r plant sydd gartref. 8. Dyma'r ysgol y'm haddysgwyd ynddi. 9. Y sawl a gloddio bwll a syrth ynddo. 10. Pa lyfr bynnag a brynai, dar- llenai ef ar unwaith. u. Wele'r tai a brynodd fy mrawd. 12. Dewiswch pa rodd bynnag a hoffwch. 13. Fe eilw fy nhad, sydd yn awr oddicartref, gyda chwi cyn hir. 14. Mentrodd i'r ty yr ymguddiai ei elyn ynddo. 15. Wele'r gerddi-yn y rhai y cefais yr holl flodau hynny. (6) Translate into Welsh : i. I saw the boy who won the prize. 2. I met the men whom you praise so much. 3. He who loves God, let him love man. 4. The day on which they visited us was a very wet one. 5. This is not the book for which I sent. 6. This is the reward that fell to my lot. 7. Our Father which art in heaven. 8. Are these the children that we heard singing ? 9. Those that seek Me early shah* find Me. 10. Whosoever breaks this law will be punished, u. The man that we were look- ing for has come. 12. Take whichever book you like. 13. His servants, who were all tired, were given a day's rest. 14. He stood by the river in which his child was drowned. 15. I showed him the rock upon which there formerly stood a castle. ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS 41 ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. The study of the Adverb and Conjunction is comparatively easy in Welsh grammar, inasmuch as the functions of both parts of speech are the same as those of the English language. Read carefully the following paragraphs, 174-176; 590-600. Note that the English adverb in -ly is usually expressed in Welsh by means of the particle yn followed by a correspond- ing adjective. To distinguish the predicative yn with an adjective from the adverbial yn with an adjective, note that the former qualifies a noun or pronoun, whereas the latter modifies a verb. 324-4 Gram. Y mae'r llyfr yn newydd (The book is new). Gweithiodd yn egniol (He worked energetically}. For adverbial clauses and phrases see 600 ; 315-6 ; 385 ; 364 Gram. For a list of co-ordinating and subordinating conjunctions see 314-5 Gram., noting particularly the use of mai (that), in clauses of inverted order. VOCABULARY n. NOUNS - llyfr (600*), m. athraw (teacher], m. menyg (gloves), pi. bachgen (boy), m. milwr (soldier), m. brawd (brother] , m. mis (month), m. blwydd (year), f. oed (age), m. ceffyl (horse), m. pris (price), m. defaid (sheep). pwnc (subject, point), m. dosbarth (class), m. rhieni (parents), m. ffordd (road), f. stori (story), f. gofal (care), m. tad (father), m. gwersi (lessons), pi. /. tan (fire), m. gwlad (country), f. tai, ty (houses, house), m. lie (place), m. teulu (family), m. Llundain (London), f. tref (town), f. llwybr (path), m. ysgol (school), f. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER VOCABULARY n (continued) VERBS. af (7 shall go). aeth (he went). bod (being, to be). bum (/ was. Note the idiom " bum bron a cholli "= / have been on the point of losing, i.e., / almost lost). bydd (he will be). byddwn (7 should be) . cadw (keeping, to keep) verb- noun. caf (7 shall have), caf ddod (7 shall be allowed to come). cerddodd (he walked). clywais (7 have heard). colli (to lose, losing) verb-noun. cychwynodd (he started). cyrhaeddodd (he reached). dadleu (discussing, to discuss), verb-noun. darllen, darllenais (to read; I read). dod (to come), caf ddod (7 can come) ; yn dod (coming), Pres. Partic. Equiv. deallaf (7 understand). deuwch, dewch (come), Imper. 2. P. disgwyl, disgwyliaf (to expect ; I expect}. dywedodd (he said). eisteddwch (st7),Imper. plur. 2. gadewais (7 left). galw, galwaf (to call; I call). gallaf, gallwyf (7 can ; I may be able). gobeithiaf, gobeithiwn (7 hope, I hoped). gweithiodd, yn gweithio (he worked, working). gwelais, gwelwch (7 saw, you see). gweled, wedi gweled, i'w gweled (to see, having seen, to see them, lit., to the seeing of them). gwneuthoch (you did). gwyddwn (7 knew). hoffaf (7 like). llwydda (he gets on, succeeds) . medru, na fedrech (to be able, that you could not). myned (going, to go), verb-noun, ofni (to fear, fearing), yr wyf yn ofni (7 fear). prynodd, prynwch (he bought, you will buy). rhaid (it must), rhaid bod (it must be). rhoisoch, a roisoch ? (you put, did you put?) siarad (talking, to talk), verb- noun. ymddengys (it seems). ymddiddan (to talk, converse with). ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. acw (yonder). adref (homewards). ar ol (behind, after). allan (out). blaen, o'r blaen (first; before). bron (almost). ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS 43 VOCABULARY ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS (continued] brysiog, yn frysiog (hastily}. cynnes, yn gynnes (warm). cyntaf, yn gyntaf (first}. da, yn dda (good, well). diau, yn ddiau (certain; un- doubtedly] . digon (enough}. diwedd, o'r diwedd (end; at last) . do {yes, in answer to a ques- tion where the verb is in the Aorist). doe, y ddoe (yesterday}. drachefn (again). dyma (here is, or here are). echdoe (the day before yester- day}. echnos (the night before last}. eleni (this present year}. eisoes (already}. eto (again, still). felly (so). fyny, i fyny (upwards; up}. gerllaw (near] . goreu, o'r goreu (best; very well] . gwael, pur wael (poor ; rather poorly]. gwaith, tair gwaith (time ; three times}. gwell, yn well na (better; better than}. gwir (true). hamddenol, yn fwy ham- ddenol (leisurely ; more leisurely}. ii (continued] heddyw (to-day). hir, yn hir (long}. hwn (this}. hwyrach (probably, perhaps}. iach, yn iachach (healthy ; healthier} . lawr, i lawr (down; down- wards] . lie, pa le (place; where?}. llynedd (last year}. mawr, yn fawr iawn (large or great; very much}. mown, i fewn (in; within}. mor (so). mo'r=dim o'r (none of). mwy, yn fwy (more}. mynych (often, frequently}. neilltu, o'r neilltu (aside). neithiwr (last night). newydd (new}. ni, nid (no, not}. oer (cold). olaf, yn olaf (last, lastly). paham (why?}. pan (when). parod, yn barod (ready}. pob, pob amser (every, always). prin (hardly}. pryd, pa bryd (when?}. pur, yn burach (pure, purer}. rhad, yn rhad (cheap, cheaply] . rhy (too). tan (until, till). talm, er ys talm (space of time, long ago). tebyg, yn debyg (like}. tlws, cyn dlysed (pretty, as pretty). 44 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER VOCABULARY n (continued) ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS C y n P* 1 mi N S W U m0ntk (continued)- ( * s 8): trennydd (the day after to- fel ( as - ^ that). morrow). 8 an - 8 an f y mod ( stnce ' stnce trosodd, drosodd (over). , 7 am \ r u y da - chwi ( mih > mlh yr un (the same). uchel, yn bur uchel (high, ., rather high). ' ^(M to <*) mai (MO*). PREPOSITIONS, ETC. neu ( or ). am dano, am danynt (for oblegid (because). him; for them). os (if). ar ol (after). with (by). canys (because). ynte (or). ini ( = i + ni, to us). EXERCISE 24. (a) Translate into English : i. Gweithiodd eich brawd yn dda ond gwneuthoch chwi yn well. 2. Cychwynoddi'r dref echdoe neuechnos, ond ni chlywais eto a gyrhaeddodd. 3. Galwaf yn fynych yn yr ysgol, canys hoffaf ymddiddan a'r athraw yn fawr iawn. 4. O'r diwedd dyma'r milwr yn dod ar ol ini ddisgwyl yn hir amdano. 5. Darllenais y llyfr yn frysiog ddoe, a gobeithiaf ei ddarllen drachefn cyn pen mis. 6. A brynodd y dyn y tai acw yn rhad ? Do, os gwir yw stori'm cyfaill. 7. Hwyrach yr af adref drennydd, oblegid deallaf fod fy nhad yn bur wael. 8. Y mae yn rhy oer i chwi fyned allan heddyw ; gwell yw i chwi gadw'n gynnes wrth y tan. 9. Dywedodd mai yn olaf y byddwn yn canu ac nid yn gyntaf fel y gobeithiwn. 10. Ni welais fy rhieni er ys talm ond disgwyliaf alw yfory gan fy mod yn gweithio gerllaw. n. Ai i fyny ynte i lawr y ffordd yr aeth y gwas ? Mae'n debyg mai i fyny oblegid cerddodd yr un llwybr neithiwr o'r blaen. 12. Yr wyf fi a'm brawd eisoes wedi gweled Llundain deirgwaith. ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS 45 (b) Translate into Welsh : i. Where is my new book ? Did you put it aside ? Yes, yesterday. 2. Why did you do so ? Because I knew very well that you could not read it till to-morrow. 3. Come in and sit down, so that I can talk more leisurely with you. 4. Very well, for I am always ready to discuss this subject. 5. The horse is almost twenty years old. If so, its price is rather high. 6. If the boy gets on with his lessons, he will undoubtedly be first in his class. 7. Is the house large enough for the family ? Hardly, I fear. 8. Perhaps you will buy the sheep when you see them. 9. When shall I come over to see them ? Come the day after to-morrow. 10. I like the country better than the town because everything seems to be purer and healthier, ii. I never saw the flowers as pretty before, your care for them must be great. 12. Last year I left my books behind. 13. This year I almost lost my gloves in the same place. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER PREPOSITIONS. The chief points tc be noticed in studying the Welsh preposi- tions for purposes of translation and composition are the following : 1. The Mutations governed by them. Taking, for example, the simple prepositions; we find that they can be tabulated thus (a) Those governing the Radical form, cyn (before], er (since), erbyn (against), ger (beside), gerfydd (by), gwedi or wedi (after), heibio (past), is (below), mewn (in), serch (although), rhag (lest), rhwng (between). / (b) Those governing the Voiced (or Soft) mutation, am (for), ar (upon), at (to), gan (with), heb (with- out), hyd (unto), i (to), o (out of), tan (under), tros (over), trwy (throtigh), wrth (by). See page 77. Type A, 6, Gram. /- (c) Those governing the Aspirate mutation, a (with), gyda (along with), tua (towards). See page 79. Type B, 2, Gram. (d) Governing the Nasal mutation, yn (in) except when followed by a verb-noun. See page 79. Type C, 2, Gram. For a fuller list see 388-444 in the Gram. 2. The prepositions combined with Pronominal Suffixes. See 292-6 Gram, for the three types of suffixes ; and 288 for a list of the prepositions that take such suffixes. Note the use of gan with the verb "Bod" (to be) to translate the English " I have " or "I pos- sess " in 419 Gram. 3. The different meanings and idiomatic uses of prepositions. Study carefully 388-444 in the Gram., especially the uses of am (406), ar (407), at (408), gan (419), i ( 389-396), o ( 398-404), and yn ( 435-6). 4. Note the double forms a, ag ; gyda, gydag ; dan, tan ; dros, tros ; drwy, trwy ; and distinguish between the uses of yn and mewn. 437-9 Gram. PROPOSITIONS 47 5. Note the various prepositions that can be used to translate the different meanings of the English preposi- tions from ( 440-4 Gram.), above, after, at, before, by, for, in, on, over, to and with. 6. The noun element in prepositional phrases should be noticed, together with the fact that the Genitive case rather than the Accusative follows the " compound preposition " that ends with such a noun element. See 290-1, 297-8 Gram. VOCABULARY 12. NOUNS. arian [money], m. athraw (teacher], m. awr (hour], f. blwyddyn (year], f. bore (morning), m. brenin (king], m. cae (field], m. canol (middle], m. cartref (home), m. dadl (debate, discussion], (. dydd (day], m. dyffryn (valley), m. ffenestr (window), f. ffon (stick), f. gair (word), m. ; gair am air (word for word). gelynion (foes), pi. golwg (sight) m. gwers (lesson), f. gwlad (country), f. gwlaw (rain), m. hwyr (evening], m. Haw (hand], f. Lloegr (England). Hong (ship), f. masnachwr (tradesman), m. milwyr (soldiers), pi. mis (month), m. modrwy (ring), f. naw o'r gloch (nine o'clock). pla (plague], m. pobl (people). pryd (time], m. pwnc (subject], m. rhoddion (gifts), f. rhywbeth (something). stori (story), f. tarddiad (source), m. tref (town), f. tywyllwch (darkness), m. wythnos (week), f. VERBS. Af (/ will go). arhosodd (he stayed, remained). arcs (to wait) ; gallai aros (could wait). bod (to be). cefais (/ found). Aor. S. i. clywais (/ heard) ; clywed (to hear). derbyniasom (we received). 4 8 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER VOCABULARY 12 (continued) VERBS (continued) disgynai (was fatting). dos (go thou). dywed (he says, tells; also Imper. 2. S. tell), dywedwch (tell). dychwelodd (he returned). edrychai (he was looking). gad (let) Imper. galw (to call) ; gelwch (call), Imper. P. 2. gallu (to be able), nis gallai (he could not). gweled (to see). gan (with), used with the verb ' bod ' (to be). Y mae gennyf (lit., there is with me, I have), mae gennych (you have), a oes ganddo (has he ?), nid oes gennym (we have not). rhed (runs). rhoddwch (give), Imper. 2. P. safodd (he stood). siaradaf (/ will talk) ymwelodd (he visited). ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. braidd, o'r braidd (hardly). cymaint (so many). dau (two). dieithr (strange). doe, y ddoe (yesterday). fel (as, like). heddyw (to-day). liw nos (by night). mil (thousand). pob amscr (all time, always). tlws (beautiful, pretty). un (one). yn awr (now). yna (then). yn ol (ago). ymhen (at the end) (= yn 4- pen). PRONOUNS. (pa) beth ? (what P) efe (he). ei (his, or her). ereill (others). hwn, hon (this), m., /. ni (we). wrtho'i hun (by himself). EXERCISE 25. (a) Translate into English : i. Arhosodd wrtho'i hun am flwyddyn yn y ty gerllaw'r ysgol. 2. Edrychai'r plant trwy'r ffenestr ar y gwlaw a ddisgynai ar ben y blodau. 3. Af at y masnachwr i weled a oes ganddo rywbeth heb law hwn. 4. Gelwch ymhen misgyda ni, oblegid nid oes arian gennym heddyw. 6. Rhed yr afon hon trwy ddyffryn tlws o'i tharddiad hyd y mor. 7. Safodd yng nghylch mil o filwyr yng ngwydd y brenin ddoe am tuag awr. 8. Dywed wrthynt PREPOSITIONS 49 fod y pwnc uwchlaw dadl mewn gwlad rydd fel hon. 9. Oddeutu blwyddyn yn ol ymwelodd a'n tref er gwae- tha'r pla oedd ynddi. 10. Gad imi glywed oddiwrthyt o fewn wythnos ar ol i ti alw yn y lie. (b) Translate into Welsh : i. There was no ship in sight until evening, and then it could hardly be seen on account of the darkness. 2. The boys laugh at him in school because he is always behind with his lesson. 3. I will talk with you about this subject in a day or two. 4. Tell me the story word for word, for I have heard that you were in the place at the time. 5. He returned by night to his home, for he could not wait for the morning. 6. Give her the book you have in your hand. 7. Among so many strange people what is one friend against several foes ? 8. Besides these books I have others in that house by the river. 9. I found the ring in the middle of the field with your stick near it. 10. We have received gifts from our teacher who is now in England. 50 FIRST WELSH READER AND W PITER THE VERB-NOUN. The Verb-noun serves for so many important and idiomatic uses in Welsh that the student should make a special study of its constructions. It is treated in Syntax more like a noun than a verb in Welsh, therefore care should be taken not to regard it as an exact equivalent of the English infini- tive. See 536-7 Gram. The preposition to, for example, which marks the English infinitive is not to be translated into Welsh, except in the case of a limited number of verb- nouns. See 333 Cautions. Gram. In translating from English into Welsh, the learner should avoid using too many abstract nouns ending in -tad or -iaeth by giving the preference to verb-nouns. So idiomatic are some of the constructions of the Welsh verb-noun that the student should carefully notice the literal meanings given within the brackets after the examples found in the Grammar. That the Welsh verb-noun is practically always to be treated in Syntax as a noun can be seen from the following facts : 1. A knowledge of the finite verb and its conjugations is not necessary for understanding the verb-noun. Conse- quently its study is placed before that of the verb proper. 2. The Welsh verb has no infinitive mood or participle ; hence the noun infinitive, gerundial infinitive, the participle, gerund and verbal noun of English are all to be translated into Welsh by means of verb-nouns, either used alone or preceded by a suitable preposition. See 229 Gram. 3. A verb-noun is so called because it is made from a verbal stem ; and although there is little or no change in the form itself, yet it has a definite noun function in its clause. For the endings see 230-239 Gram. 4. The Welsh verb-noun may take the article, be qualified by an adjective, be used as the subject of a verb 538, follow a transitive verb as its object 539, 330, be THE VERB-NOUN 51 governed by a preposition, and assume the genitive case construction. 540-1. NOTE. It should be noted that the noun that follows a verb-noun is in the Genitive rather than the Accusative relation, and retains the Radical or unmutated form of its initial consonant. Compare " clywed canu " (to hear singing) with " clywais garni " (/ heard singing). 542-3; 378-9 Gram. Particular attention should also be given to the extensive use of Prepositions with Verb-nouns. See 240, 537, 546-9 Gram. (a) The so-called compound or periphrastic tenses are thus to be regarded and parsed. For exam- ple, " yr wyf wedi bod yn credu " (/ have been believing), is made up of the pre-verbal particle yr, the verb wyf (I am), the preposition wedi governing the verb-noun bod, and the preposition yn governing the verb-noun credu. See 184-7 Gram. (b) The English participle is always to be repre- sented in Welsh by a preposition and a verb- noun. See 546-556 Gram. (c) Subordinate clauses of an adverbial character can practically always be expressed by means of prepositions with verb-nouns. For example, the preposition cyn (before) or wedi (after), followed by a verb-noun, can be used under certain con- ditions in a temporal clause. See 347 b Gram. Similarly, for causal clauses see 349 b ; for final clauses, 351 ; for consecutive clauses, 352 b ; for conditional clauses, 357 ; for concessive clauses, 358 b ; and for noun clauses of state- ment, see 367 Gram. To know how to express the agent with a verb -noun see 241, 544 Gram. VOCABULARY 13. NOUNS. gwaith (work), m. adnod (verse), f. gwir (truth), m. bywyd (life), m. Joseph (Joseph)^ ffair (fair), /. Nadolig (Christmas), m. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER VOCABULARY 13 (continued)- NOUNS (continued] nos (night), /. ochr (side), f. oed (age), m. penned (chapter), f. proffwyd (prophet), m. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. ail (second). angenrheidiol (necessary). araf (slow). adref (home). allan (out). cyflym (quick). cywilyddus (shameful). da (good), yn dda (well). doeth (wise). dynol (human). dwyfol (divine). eto (again). hoff (fond). iachus (healthy). iawn (very), as in " mawr iavvn " (very much). ni (negative adv.), as in ni allaf (7 cannot). rhy (too). yna (then). yno (there). PRONOUNS, PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS, ti (thou) ; ei (his) ; eich (your). hyn (this). imi (to me) ; iddo (to him). o honof (lit., OH/ of me) translates the agent with, a verb-noun. gan (by) ; i (to) ; yn (in). dan (under) ; nes (until). ar (upon, of) ; gyda (=gyd + a ze>*7&). wrth (by) ; tros (owr) ; gennyf (with me). er (although) ; ar (about to) pan (when). VERBS AND VERB-NOUNS. aeth (fie went). aros (to stay), v.n. atebodd (he answered). blino (to fo tired), v.n. bod (to fo, being), v.n. bum (/ /kive fotfw). bydd (be), Imper. ; byddi (thou shalt be). canu (to sing), v.n. cardota (to fog), f.w. cerdded (to walk), v.n. cloddio (to rftg), v.w. cneua (to go a-nutting), v.n. cyrhaeddodd (he arrived). cysgu (to sleep), v.n. chwareu (to play), v.n. chwenychent (they desired), Imperf. P. 3. daeth (he came). darllenwch (read). Imper. P. 2. dechreu (to begin), v.n. dewch (come), Imper. P. 2. dweyd, dywedyd (to say), v.n. dyfod (to come), v.n. eistedd (to sit), v.n. gadawer (let), Imper. Impers gallaf (7 can). gweithio (to work), v.ii. THE VERB-NOUN 53 VOCABULARY 13 (continued) VERBS AND VERB - NOUNS methu (to fail), V.n. (continued) myned (to go), v.n. gwerthu (to sell), v.n. oeri (to grow cold), v.n. gwnaeth (it made, set). parha (he continues). gwne\idca.msynia.d(toerr),v.n. parodd (it set, it caused). gwrando (to hear, listen), v.n. prynu (to buy), v.n. hoffaf (/ like). siarad (to speak), v.n. llarpio (to devour), v.n. wylo (to weep), v.n. llarpiwyd (he was devoured), ymadael (to leave), v.n. maddeu (to forgive), v.n. ymddengys (he appears, seems) medru (to be able) ; ar fedr yr oeddwn (/ was). (about to). yr wyf, y mae, sydd (/ am, meddwl (to think, thinking), he is, it is). v.n. ystyried (to consider), v.n. EXERCISE 26. (a) Translate into English : i. Cerdded sydd iachus. 2. Y mae yn rhy hoff o gysgu. 3. Yna yr atebodd y proffwyd gan ddywedyd, " Gan farw ti a fyddi farw." 4. Dewch i gneua. 5. Daeth adref dan wylo. 6. Bum yn y ffair yn prynu a gwerthu, nes blino o honof. 7. Yr wyf a dweyd y gwir wedi blino ar y gwaith. 8. Gan larpio y llarpiwyd Joseph. 9. Y mae'n oeri gyda'r nos. 10. Gwnaeth i mi ddyfod ac eistedd wrth ei ochr. u. Ymddengys ei fod yn ddyn doeth. 12. Darllenwch y bennod eto gan ddechreu gyda'r ail adnod. (6) Translate into Welsh : i. Sleeping is necessary to life. 2. I like your sing- ing, very much. 3. But he answered and said, " I can- not dig, to beg I am ashamed." 4. This set him thinking. 5. Considering his age the boy did well. 6. He continues to work, although he failed. 7. Being tired of the work, the man went home. 8. To err is human, to forgive divine. 9. I was about to leave when he arrived. 10. Be quick to hear and slow to speak, ii. They desired to stay there over Christmas. 12. Let the children go out to play. 54 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER t THE VERB. Because of its difficulty, the study of the Welsh Verb has been kept to the last, and it is now suggested that the student should take up the Notes and the Exercises in the following order : 1. As a general introduction read 177-194 ; 203-208 b ; 279-281 ; 301-305 ; 316 ; 317-323 ; 324-326 Grammar. 2. The Verb Wyf (7 am). 3. The ordinary simple verb, (Personal forms) for the Present Indicative and Aorist. 4. The Impersonal or Passive Verb. 5. The Imperative and Subjunctive Moods. 6. Special uses of the Tenses, Imperfect, Pluperfect, etc. 7. Contracted and Irregular Verbs. THE VERB WYF (/ am). In the study of the verb Wyf the following features should be noticed : (a) The Welsh Verb has no auxiliaries of voice, mood and tense like the English verb. The verb Wyf is always a notional verb and its use in the so-called Compound Tenses is not analogous with the use of the auxiliaries in English. For example, the periphrastic form yr oedd wedi dysgu may be used to translate the Pluperfect he had learnt instead of the simple form dysgasai ; yet, when parsed separately, the words are respectively yr (Pre- verbal particle), oedd (3rd sing. Past Imperfect of verb wyf), wedi (Preposition governing dysgu) dysgu (Verb- noun, accusative case). In the same way all the Com- pound Tenses given in 184 Gram, may be compared with their corresponding simple forms in the paradigm of Dysgaf , 209 a. For the parsing of Compound Tenses, see 524-5 Gram. (b) The paradigm of Wyf in 195 a and b should be carefully learnt. It should be noted that in the case of the verb wyf only, are the Present and Future tenses, the Past Imperfect Continuous and Past Imperfect Habitual THE VERti 55 distinguished by separate forms. Byddwn is the only form that occurs more than once in the paradigm ; it may be ist plur. Future Indicative, ist sing. Past Imper- fect Habitual Indicative and ist plur. Imperative. (c) The most difficult feature in connexion with the verb wyf for an Englishman to master is the use of the forms Mae, yw, oes, and sydd to translate the 3rd sing, present Indicative he, she, or it is. Study very carefully 484- 470 Gram. The distinction in meaning and usage may be illustrated by means of the following sentences : Efe yw'r brenin ; lit., The king is he. Here the Predicate pronoun precedes the verb and the true Subject follows. Efe sydd frenin ; lit., It is he that is king. Here the pronoun is Subject and precedes the verb in an Affirmative clause of the Inverted order. Y mae efe yn frenin ; lit., He is king. Here mae is used in an Affirmative clause of the Normal order. Nid oes yma frenin ; lit., There is no king here. Here oes is used in a Negative clause of the Nor- mal order with an Indefinite Subject. Had the Subject been Definite the verb would have been yw, as Nid yw efe yn frenin ; lit., He is not a king. VOCABULARY 14. NOUNS. cynrychiolydd (representative) , Amser (time), m. m. athraw (teacher), m. chwaer (sister), f. awdwr (author], m. dosbarth (class), m. bachgen (boy), m. gwraig (wife, woman), f. bara (bread), m. heddwch (peace), m. brawd (brother), m. hynafgwr (old man, elder), m. byd (world), m. llyfr (book), m. cae (field), m. llyfrgell (library, bookcase), /. Caerdydd (Cardiff), f. llythyr (letter), m. cyfeillion (friends), pi. m. modd (mode, way), m. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER VOCABULARY 14 NOUNS (continued) morwyn (maid), f. pentref (village), m. rhyddid (liberty), m. tadau (fathers), m. pi. yspryd (spirit), m. VERBS. cael (to have), v.n. canu (to sing, singing), v.n. credu (to believe, believing), v.n. cyfod (arise), Imper. chwareu (to play), v.n. chwilio (to search), v.n. dianc (to escape), v.n. dylai (he should). galw (to call), v.n. gall (he can). gallant (they can). gorffwys (to rest), v.n. gweithio (to work, working), v.n. gwella (to improve), v.n. gwneud (to do, doing), v.n. am wneud (for doing, anxious to do). marw (to die), v.n. methu (to fail, failing), v.n. myned (to go), v.n. no no (to swim), v.n. ofni (to fear), nac ofna (be not afraid), Imper. tyred, tyrd (come), Impar. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. acw (yonder). ag, a (as), boddlon (willing). buan (soon). (continued) canys (for, because). dewr (brave). diweddar (late). doe, y ddoe (yesterday). eto (again). felly (so, thus). gartref (at home). gynt (formerly). heddyw (to-day). hefyd (also). heibio (by). hir, yn hir (for long). lie (where). newydd (new). nid, nad (not). o'r blaen (before). os, pe (if). parod (ready). pob amser (always). tebyg (like). un (one, same). unwaith (once). weithiau (sometimes). yma (here). yna (then, there). yno (there). PRONOUNS AND PREPOSITIONS. dim (nothing). eiddo pwy ? (whose ?) pawb (all). rhywim (someone). yr hwn (he who). allan o (from). am dano (for it). arno (upon it). gyda hvvynt (with them). iddo (to him). THE VERB 57 EXERCISE 27. (a) Translate into English : i. Pwy oedd y bachgen dewr acw ? 2. Cyfod, canys dyn yw yntau hcfyd. 3. Pwy nid yw yn methu weithiau ? 4. Da yw Duw i bawb ; byddwn ninnau debyg iddo. 5. Myned y mae amser heibio. Byddai felly i'n tadau. 6. Y mae'r plant yn yr un ysgol heddyw ag y byddem ni gynt. 7. Yr ydym yn credu nad yw ei wraig gartref. 8. Nid oes hynafgwr yn y pentref y byddwch yn myned iddo. 9. A yw eich tad yn y ty ? Nac ydyw, ond bydd yma'n fuan. 10. A oes heddwch ? Oes, ond ni fu felly bob amser. n. Os yw dy fam yn foddlon, tyr'd i chwareu gyda mi. 12. Os oes modd gwella arno yr ydym am wneud. 13. Pwy sydd yn canu ? Fy chwaer sydd yn canu. 14. Lie y mae Ysbryd Duw yno y mae rhyddid. 15. Pe buasit ti yma ni buasai farw fy mrawd. (b) Translate into Welsh : i. This is the letter. Who is its author ? 2. The sheep are in the field. Whose are they ? 3. Nothing is new for long in this world. 4. He has been our repre- sentative once, let him be again. 5. His father works in Cardiff, where he had been working before. 6. Who is as fond of the children as their mother ? 7. Who art thou ? It is I, be not afraid. 8. He who is working is the one who should rest. 9. If some one is at home he can have the book. 10. If the friends are not ready we shall be late. n. Is there a way of escape ? Yes, if they are able to swim. 12. Is that book from the library ? Yes, I have been searching for it. 13. There is no bread in the house where you were wont to call. 14. The teacher is not with his class, nor has he been with it to-day. 15. The maid will be in the house where she was yesterday. S 8 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER THE ORDINARY SIMPLE VERB. (Active Voice, Indicative Mood, Present and Aorist Tenses, Personal Conjugation.) These Notes and Exercises are intended to help the student to obtain a firm grasp of the general features of the ordinary verb in its most frequently used Voice, Mood and Tenses. (a) To begin, the paradigm of Dysgaf (/ learn) should be learnt. See 209 a Gram. Then, note the change of vowel that follows inflexion in certain stems 210 ; the contractions of verbal stems ending in -w, 221-2 ; and the conjugation of contracted stems in 6, and -ha, 223 a, 224 a Gram. (b) The formation of the 3rd sing. Present Indicative (see 211 Gram.) requires special attention, for classical Welsh writers have always preferred this terse and strong form of the 3rd sing. Present Indie, to the colloquial form that ends in -a. A special exercise is given on this form. (c) The pairs of meanings Present and Future, Aorist and Perfect should be carefully distinguished. See 467 Gram. Note the various uses of the Present tense, especi- ally the Historic Present in 472-9. The frequent use of the Aorist as the narrative tense, and as the form to translate the English Past tense of Action but not of Habit should be noted. See 507-514 Gram. (d) The Indicative is the Mood usually employed to express a statement of fact in a simple sentence ( 340), in a Relative clause of a Complex sentence ( 364), and in a Dependent Noun clause ( 365). The Indicative may also be used in Temporal clauses ( 347 a Rule 1), in Causal clauses ( 349 a), in Consecutive clauses ( 352 a), and in Condi- tional clauses with os. ( 352 Gram.) VOCABULARY 15. ,NOUNS. bwyd (food), m. Adeiladau (buildings), pi. m. cais (request), m. Aifft (Egypt), f. camsyniad (mistake), m. amser (time), m. cwbl (all, the whole). anialwch (wilderness), m. cyfamod (covenant), m. Arglwydd (Lord), m. cyf amser (meantime), m. THE VERB 59 VOCABULARY NOUNS (continued) cyfiawn (righteous), m. diafol (devil), m. drvvs (door), m. eira (snow), m. Ethiop (Ethiopian), m. gelynion (enemies), pi. gwellt (straw), m. gwers (lesson) , f. gwlad (land, country), f. Israel (Israel). Hew (lion), m. llythyr (letter), m. manna (manna), m. nos (night), f. oes (lifetime), f. papurau (papers), pi. pobl (people). son (talk, mention), m. tan (fire), m. tir (land), m. tref (town), f. ych (ox), m. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. adref (homewards). bob dydd (every day, daily). cyn wynned (as white). dyma (behold; these are the men=dyma.'r dynion). fel (like). gwerthfawr (valuable). heddyw (to-day). hir (long). mwyaf (most). nes (until). newydd (new). o bell (from afar). 15 (continued) o'r blaen (before). o gwbl (at all). pan (when). ychydig (little). yfory (to-morrow). yna (then). yn ddiwyd (diligently). yn fuan (soon). yn sych (dry). VERBS. brysiaf (/ hasten). cael (to get). cychwyn (to start). gofynnaf (/ ask). gorffwys (to rest). gwn (7 know). See 257 Gram.) gwthio (to push). The rest of the verbs used are given in section a of Exercise 28. PRONOUNS, PREPOSITIONS, ETC. ag ef (with him). am (of, about, for) ; am dano (about it). cyn (before). iddo (to him). iti (to thee). oddiwrth (from), oddiwrthyt (from thee). oni (unless). tros (over), tros y bwrdd (overboard). trwy (through, during). ymha le (where P). 60 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER EXERCISE 28. (a) Write out the 3rd sing. Present Indicative of the follow- ing verbs : Adferaf (/ restore), adroddaf (7 relate], agoraf (/ open], arhosaf (/ stay), atebaf (7 answer), blysiaf (7 long), brysiaf (7 hasten), cadwaf (7 keep), caraf (7 love), clywaf (7 hear), collaf (7 lose), cryfhaf (7 strengthen), cyfodaf (7 rise), cymeraf (7 take), dangosaf (7 show), datodaf (7 untie), deffroaf (7 awake), diffoddaf (7 extinguish, put out), dodaf (7 put), dychwelaf (7 return), edrychaf ar (7 look at), esgynaf (7 ascend), ffoaf (7 flee), galwaf (7 call), golchaf (7 wash), gosodaf (7 place), gwaredaf (7 deliver), gwnaf (7 make, do), gweithiaf (7 work), gwrandawaf ar (7 listen to), gwrthwynebaf (7 resist), llosgaf (7 burn), neidiaf (7 leap), parhaf (7 continue), poraf (7 graze), rhoddaf (7 give), safaf (7 stand), siaradaf (7 speak), tarawaf (7 strike), taflaf (7 throw), torraf (7 cut), trof (7 turn), ymadawaf (7 leave}. (b) Translate into English : i. Dysgant wers newydd bob dydd. 2. Gweithiodd yn ddiwyd drwy ei oes. 3. Clywsant son am y dyn o'r blaen. 4. Blysiodd plant Israel am wlad yr Aifft. 5. Ymha le yr arhosaist tros nos ? 6. Fe egyr y drws, os gwthiwch ychydig. 7. Yr Arglvvydd a edwyny cyfiawn. 8. Gwelsant dir eii gwlad o bell. 9. Os gwrthwynebi'r diafol efe a ffy oddiwrthyt. 10. Efe a ylch yr Ethiop cyn wynned a'r eira. u. Carant son am Gymru gwlad ygan. 12. Cymerasom fwyd cyn cychwyn o'r ty. 13. Efe a geidw ei gyfamod a'i bobl. 14. Ac os cyll efe un ddafad ni orff wys nes ei chael. (c) Translate into Welsh : i. You threw the most valuable papers into the fire. 2. We stood and looked at the buildings for a long time. 3. He did not listen to his father at all. 4. The lion shall eat grass like the ox. 5. If it continues dry we shall leave to-morrow. 6. Shall I show you the town ? Yes, before we return homewards. 7. Our fathers did eat the manna in the wilderness. 8. Then shall I answer his THE VERB 6 1 letter and show him his mistake. 9. When I awake he also awakes. 10. These are the men who took the sheep from the field, u. If it break we shall throw the whole thing overboard. 12. I know that he will return, but what shall I do in the meantime ? 13. The fire will soon burn the house unless we hasten to put it out. 14. If thou wilt love the Lord thy God and keep His covenant, He will deliver thee from thy enemies. THE IMPERSONAL VERB. In Early Welsh the verb had only erne Voice the Active ; but Modern Welsh, mainly because of a conscious effort to translate the English Passive construction, has added to its peculiar Impersonal (or Subjectless) Conjugation of the verb fresh meanings and applications which justify the in- clusion of the Passive Voice in the present Grammars. The clearest instance of such an adaptation of the Impersonal verb to express a Passive Voice is seen in a sentence of the Inverted Order where the noun or pronoun preceding the verb is now regarded as its Subject, as Dyn a welwyd (A man was seen). See 461 Gram. But the older construction still survives in Welsh in the case of an Impersonal verb preceded by a Postvocalic Personal Pronoun which is always an Accusative, as Fe'm gwelir (7 am seen ; lit., Tfare is seeing in respect to me}. See 177-8 Gram. The impersonal forms are also found in the case of intransi- tive verbs, such as eir (someone goes). The value of such a construction as that of the Welsh Imper- sonal Verb can be realized from 316 note 5 Gram. It would be well, therefore, to master at the outset the points of similarity and difference between the Welsh Impersonal construction and the English Passive Voice, so that the idioms connected with the former may not be needlessly disregarded in transla- tion and composition. For such purposes, therefore, the following rules should be observed : (a) The English Passive Voice can be expressed in Welsh, either by an Impersonal verb preceded by an Accusative Postvocalic Personal Pronoun or by an Impersonal verb 62 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER followed by a Simple Personal Pronoun in what is now the Nominative Case ; as Fe'th ddysgir (Thou art taught ; lit., there is teaching in respect of thee}. Dysgir di (Thou art taught). See 226-7 Gram. Colloquial Welsh uses the auxiliary cael with a verb-noun qualified by a possessive adjective to express the English Infinitive Passive, as Yr wyt yn cael dy ddysgu (Thou art being taught, lit., Thou art getting thy teaching}. See 228 and 280 a Gram. The form with the Accusative Postvocalic pronoun can only be used after the particles ni and na (negatives), fe (introductory or formal pronoun), oni (conjunction) and y (relative pronoun or pre-verbal particle) ; as Ni'm cofir mwy (7 shall not be remembered any more] . Ymguddiaf fel na'm gweler (/ hide myself so that I may not be seen}. Fe'th welwyd ganddo (Thou hast been seen by him}. Oni'm credir beth a wnaf ? (Unless I am believed what shall I do ?} Gwn y'ch cospir '(/ know you shall be punished}. (b) The conjugation of the Welsh Impersonal verb is simple and uniform. The verbal endings are only five in number and can be added to any verb, the changes in the personal Subject (originally the Accusative) being denoted in the noun or pronoun and not in the verb. See 208 b Gram. Learn and compare the Impersonal forms of pound forms u. 3 mostly used. : I have been writing. Bum yn ysgrifenu. 184. Compound form only. i. Past Indefinite 2. Past Imperfect or Continuous PAST. (English : I wrote. Welsh : Ysgrifenais (Aorist). 495, 508, 512. /English : I was writing. I Welsh : Ysgrifenwn. 184, 493. Yr oeddwn yn ysgrifennu. Compound form mostly used. PAST (continued) (English 3. Past Habitual \ Welsh : (English 4. Past Perfect or | Welsh : Pluperfect 1 5. Past Perfect tinuous (English Welsh: [ English 7. Future Perfect. Wekh : : I used to write. Byddwn yn ysgrifenu. 184, 497-8. : I had written. Ysgrifenaswn. 519. Yr oeddwn wedi ysgrifenu. 184. : I had been writing. Buaswn yn ysgrifenu. 184, 520. : I should write. Ysgrifenwn. 502. Buaswn yn ysgrifenu. 503. : I should have written. Ysgrifenaswn. Buaswn wedi ysgrifenu. 521-2. FUTURE. I. Future Indefinite f English Welsh : (English 2. Fut. Continuous \ Welsh : (English Welsh : {English Welsh : : I shall write. Ysgrifenaf (same as Pres- ent) 480. Gwnaf ysgrifenu. 481. Caf ysgrifenu. 483. : I shall be writing. Byddaf yn ysgrifenu (Cp. Pres Hab.). 480-1. : I shall have written. Byddaf wedi ysgrifenu. 184,517. Always Com- pound. : I shall have been writing. Byddaf wedi bod yn ysgri- fenu. 184. Always Com- pound. VOCABULARY 18. NOUNS. awr ginio (dinner hour), f. barn (opinion), f. blynyddoedd (years). bore (morning), m. brawd (brother), m. cais (request), m. cartref (home), m. craig (rock), /. cyfeiriad (address), m. Cymraeg (Welsh), Cymru fu (Wales of the past). daioni (benefit). deuddydd (two days). gonestrwydd (honesty), m. gwair (hay), m. iaith (language), f. lie (place), m. llythyr (letter), m. nos (nighi), f. papurau (papers). pentref (village), m. pwnc (subject), m. rheswm (reason), m. safle (position), m. syniad (thought), m. traddodiad (tradition), m. wythnos (week), f. ystraeon (tales). PRONOUNS, PREPOSITIONS, ETC. am (for, about), amdanoch (for or about you). ar (on), arnaf (on me), arnynt (on them). at (to). beth (what), beth sy'n bod ? (What is the matter) ; beth ddaeth ? (What has become ?) cyn (before). paham (why?). pa bryd bynnag (whenever). tu ol i (behind). ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. adref (homewards}. bob yn ail (alternately). beunydd (daily). cyfoethog (rich). difyr (interesting). eto (again). hwn (this). hyd nes (until). iawn (very). mynychaf (usually, most fre- quently). neithiwr (last night). nesaf (next). o'r blaen (before). pan (when}. pob (every, all). yfory (to-morrow). yn awr (now). yn bendant (definitely). yn dda (well). yn egni'ol (energetically). yn fuan (soon). yn ol (ago). yn sicr (certainly). yn wahanol (differently). VERBS AND VERB-NOUNS. adwaenwn (/ knew). af (I shall go) ;myned (going). ameu (to doubt). cael cynnyg (to have an offer). cawn we shall, Aux.), caw- som (we have found). 74 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER VOCABULARY 18 VERBS AND VERB-NOUNS (cOH- tinued) clywsom (we have heard] ; clywed (to hear) ; clywais (7 heard). codaf (7 shall arise). credu (believing). crynnu (trembling). cwrdd (to meet). cyrraedd (reaching). daeth (he came) ; daw (it comes). darllen (to read). dechreu (beginning). disgwyl (to expect). dweyd (to say, tell), dweyd ei fod (to say that he is). dychwelwyf (I may return) ; dychwelyd (to return). dysgaswn (7 had learnt). gadael (leaving). galw (to call) ; arfer galw (to be used to call) ; gelwi (thou dost call); galwant (they shall call). (continued) gobeithiaf (I hope). gorchymynasant (they had commanded). gweithio (to work). gwelaf (I see). gwerthu (to sell). gwnaf gofio (7 shall remember). gwrandawaf (7 shall hearken to). gwyddwn (7 knew), pe gwydd- ech (had you known). lladd gwair (to mow hay). llosgi (burning). llwytha (he loads). siaradem (we were talking). traethodd (he related, told). troseddu (to transgress) . wylodd at (she wept at). ymddwyn (to behave). ymguddio (to hide oneself). ysgrifenu (to write), ysgri- fenvvn (7 should write). EXERCISE 31. (a) Translate into English : i. Yr wyt yn crynnu. Beth sy'n bod ? 2. Gwelaf le i ymguddio tu ol i'r graig. 3. Byddaf wedi bod yn ysgrifenu am ddeuddydd pan ddaw'r awr ginio. 4. Traethodd ystraeon difyr am Gymru fu. 5. Buont yn gweithio yn egniol cyn cyrraedd y safle hwn. 6. Clywsom ddweyd ei fod yn gyfoethog iawn. 7. Yr ydych wedi troseddu o'r blaen mi glywais. 8. Byddai yn dweyd ei farn yn bendant ar bob pwnc. 9. Yr oeddech wedi gwerthu'r defaid, cyn i mi gael cynnyg arnynt. 10. Buaswn yn disgwyl am danoch, hyd nes y daeth eich llythyr. n. Pa bryd bynnag y galwant arnaf, gwran- dawaf hwy. 12. Gwnaf gofio eich cais pan ddychwelwyf THE VERB 75 adref. 13. Bydd yn lladd ei wair yr wythnos nesaf. 14. Byddi wedi clywed cyn y bore beth ddaeth o'th frawd. 15. Gorchymynasant losgi'r papurau. (b) Translate into Welsh : i. I shall arise and go to my father. 2. He is usually calling every night. 3. He has believed the tradition for years. 4. I knew your father well years ago. 5. Shall you be going to town to-morrow ? 6. You would have behaved differently in his house had you known. 7. We shah 1 meet again soon, I hope. 8. He daily loads us with his benefits. 9. She wept at the thought of leaving home. 10. They used to return to Wales every alternate year. n. I should certainly write if I knew his address. 12. We were talking abeut you last night. 13. You used to call in the village years ago ; Why do you not call now ? 14. I had learnt to read Welsh before beginning to write the language. 15. We had found reason for doubting his honesty. IRREGULAR VERBS. Defective, Anomalous or Irregular verbs constitute an extensive class in Welsh Grammar, and in syntactical function they follow the same rules as ordinary and regular verbs. But because of the peculiar formation of some of their tenses, and since others of them have no longer parts of their conjugation in use, it is well that the student should carefully commit to memory their surviving forms from the Grammar and learn to use them in sentences, as the following Exercise will illustrate. 1. Study the Compounds of Wyf. See 242 Gram. (a) Prepositional forms as Canfod (perceiving), 248 ; Hanfod (existing) , 249-250 ; Darfod (ending) , 251 ; Gorfod (overcoming), 252-3 ; Cyfarfod (meeting), 254 Gram. (b) Adjectival forms as Adnabod (knowing), 255 ; Cydnabod (recognizing) , 256 ; Gwybod (knowing) , 257; Clybod (hearing), 258 Gram. 2. Study the verbs containing the roots ag- and -el. See 243 Gram. Namely, Af (I go), Deuaf (/ come), Gwnaf (/ make). See 259-261 Gram. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER 3. Study the verbs that omit, or apparently omit, the last consonant of their Present Stem. See 244 Gram. Namely, Caf (/ obtain), 262-264 ; Rhoddaf (I give), 265-266 ; Arhosaf (I remain), 267-268 Gram. 4. Study the defective verbs of 245-247 Gram. Namely, Dygaf (7 bring), 245, 269 ; Atolygaf (I beseech), 245,269 ; Piau (it belongs), 270; Moes (t>ive), Hwde (accept), 271 ; Meddaf (/ say), Ebe (he said), 272 ; Davvr (it matters), 273 ; Dylwn (/ ought), Rhaid (must), 275, 276 ; Dichon (it is possible). 277 Gram. VOCABULARY 19. NOUNS. afon (river), f. amynedd (patience], /. Arglwydd (Lord), m. arian (money), m. benthyg (loan), m. blodau (flowers), m. blwyddyn (year), f. brawd (brother), m. concwest (conquest, victory), f. cyfaill (friend), m. cyngor (advice), m. chwaer (sister), f. da (good), dim da (any good). dieithrdclyn (stranger) ; dieith- riaid (strangers). dolur (disease), m, dwfr (water), m. dwyrain (east). dymuniad (desire), m. enw (name], m. esgeulusdod (negligence), m. ffigysbren (fig-tree), in. ffordd (road), f. gobaith (hope), m. golygfa (scene), f. gwaith (work), m. gwerth (value), m. gwir (truth), m. gvvrhydri (heroism), in. Gwynedd (North Wales). Iwerddon (Ireland) ; Mor Iwerddon (Irish Sea). llais (voice), in. lief (cry), f. Ihvythau (tribes). meddianny dd (owner) , m. meddyg (physician), m. Nasareth (Nazareth). pechaduriaid (sinners) . pentref (village), m. rhodd (gift), f. tir (land, earth), m. un (one, any one), in. ych (ox), m. ymchwil (search), m. ystenaid (pitcher), f. VERBS AND VERB-NOUNS. a. (he goes) Pres. 3 s. af (/ go). adwaenant (they know). adwaenost (knowesf). THE VERB 77 VOCABULARY VERBS AND VERB-NOUNS (COH- tinued) adwaenwn (7 used to know}. aros (stay), Imper. 2 s. atolwg (pray). awn (let us go). bloeddio (to shout). caffed (let him have). canfyddid (it was perceived); canfyddwn (/ could see], Sec. Put. s. i. cawn (we shall have). cloddio (to dig). clybu (he heard). cydnabum (7 acknowledged). cyfarf um a (7 met with) . cyferfydd (there shall meet). darfyddwn (we are finishing). darfydded (let him perish). darffo (it shall end), 3 s. Sitbj. deuid (one would come); deuid o hyd (one would come across) . deuwn (we are coming). dichon (possible), nid oes dichon (it is not possible) . diolchit (thou woiddst thank}. dwyn (to bear}. dychvvelais (7 returned). dyfod (to come}. dygwyf (7 may bring}. dyry (he shall give}. dywedir (it is said). ebe (said he}. edwyn (he knoweth). ei (thou wilt go). gad (let it alone). goddef (to stand, bear). 19 (continued) gorfyddai (were it necessary). gorfyddwn (let us overtake}. gorfod (must}; gorfodir fi I am forced}. gwadwn (7 should deny). gwel (see), mi a'th welais (7 saw thee). gwerthfawrogid (it would be appreciated). gwisgo (to wear). gwnaeth (he made). gwneid (was made). gwypwyf (7 may know). gwyr (he knows). hanai (he was descended). henffych (hail), Subj. 2 s. hwde (take). llefais (7 cried). marvv (to die). medd (says). moes (give). myned (to go). mynnech (thou mayest like). mynychu (to frequent). oeddit (thou wast). piau (he owns). rhaid y w (there is necessity) . rhoddir (it is given). pe rhoiswn (had I given}. siarad (to talk). trechu (to defeat). tyred (come). ymddwyn (to act). ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. brenhinol (royal). canys (because, for). cyn amled (as often). 78 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER VOCABULARY 19 (continued) ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS llawer (many). (continued) o hyd (continually). cyn hir (soon). perffaith (perfect). diau (undoubtedly). rhagor o (more). gynted (as soon as). yn greulonach (more severely). hawdd (easy). yn ol (ago). hyd oni (till). y fath (such). hyfryd (fair). yn sicr (surely). EXERCISE 32. (a) Translate into English : i. Awn a gorfyddwn arnynt, canys rhaid yw i ni drechu'r gelyn. 2. Cyferfydd a chwi ddyn yn chvyn ystenaid o ddwfr. 3. Af at y meddyg fel y gwypwyf fy nolur, canys gwyr ef yn dda beth ydyw. 4. Pwy a a trosom ni ? A ei di ? Af. 5. Arcs yma, atolwg, hyd oni ddygwyf fy chwaer tros yr afon. 6. Pwy biau'r blodau hyn ? Os tydi, moes i mi un i'w wisgo. Hwde'r un a fynnech. 7. " Cawn floeddio concwest yn y man," medd plant gobaith o hyd. 8. A ddichon dim da ddyfod o Nasareth ? Tyred a gwel. 9. Pe gwneid ymchwil, deuid o hyd i'r llyfr yn sicr. 10. Darfydded y pechad- uriaid o'r tir ! n. Canfyddwn tros For yr Iwerddon lawer golygfa hyfryd. 12. Henffych i enw Arthur, gwnaeth wrhydri tros ei wlad. 13. Pe gorfyddai i mi farw, ni wadwn y gwir. 14. Pa fodd y'm hadwaenost ? Mi a'th welais pan oeddit tan y ffigysbren. 15. Dywedir am ddefaid y dwyrain nad adwaenant lais dieithriaid. (b) Translate into Welsh : i. He was descended from one of the royal tribes of North Wales. 2. We are finishing our work soon and then we shall come with you. 3. Let it alone this year, until I shall dig around it. 4. I am forced to act more severely towards him than my desire. 5. Must thou visit the village as frequently now as formerly ? 6. I met your brother on the road last night. 7. The ox knoweth its owner. 8. " I used to know a friend of yours years THE VERB 79 ago," said the stranger. 9. I acknowledged his gift, as soon as I returned home. 10. I cried unto the Lord and He heard my cry. u. Let patience have its perfect work. 12. Who will give the loan of the book ? Had I given it to thee, thou wouldst not have thanked for it. 13. It is easy to talk, but who can stand such negligence ? 14. "It is not possible for me to go," said he, " until more money is given." 15. Had the value of the advice been perceived, it would undoubtedly have been better appreciated. 80 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER REVISION TESTS IN WELSH GRAMMAR. Hitherto the student has been mainly guided in the art of reading and writing the Welsh language. He may now profit by trying a severer test, viz., a test in the theoretical principles involved in the scientific study of the Grammar. The Questions have been selected from the papers set in the Matriculation of the University of Wales for the years 1896- 1908, and may be taken as fair examples of what an ordinary student of the Welsh language is expected to know. The questions have been arranged also in the same order as the sections and exercises of the " Reader and Writer," so that the student, if he cares, may test himself in the theory and the practice conjointly. I. INTRODUCTORY : SOUNDS, SYMBOLS AND MUTATIONS. 1. Discuss the weak points in the Welsh alphabet. When approximately did the letters k and v cease to be in common use ? (Matric. 1896.) 2. To what extent is Welsh an inflectional language ? (7905.) 3. Show the relation between vowel quantity and syllabic accent, noticing in this connexion naddo and nage. (1897.) 4. State the rules as to vowel quantity in Welsh and give instances. (1896.) 5. Classify the vowel changes commonly occurring in Welsh with instances. (1897, 1899, 1902.) 6. Give instances of vowel change in Welsh and distinguish between the usual mutations and reversion. (1898.) 7. Name the principal vowel changes which take place in forming the plural of nouns and give examples. (1901.) 8. Which are the consonants not liable to mutation in Welsh ? Give instances of the mutations of the other conson- ants when not occupying the position of initial letters. (1896.) 9. Give a table of the mutations of initial consonants, and REVISION TESTS IN WELSH GRAMMAR 81 notice what is exceptional in the case of // and rh. (1897.) TO. Mention the principal combinations in which the soft mutation takes place, illustrating by instances. (1897.) 11. Give rules for the mutation of initial consonants in the following cases : (a) Adjective after noun ; (6) noun after positive adjective ; (c) noun after a compar- ative or superlative ; (d) noun after un, daii or any other cardinal number ; (e) noun after ordinal number. (1898.) 12. Draw up a table of ordinary mutations of initial con- sonants, giving an example of each. (1899.) 13. Give instances of all the initial mutations of Welsh consonants, (igoo.) 14. Give, with examples, the rule for mutating the initial consonant of (a) a noun governed by a verb when immediately following the verb ; (6) a noun governed by a preposition immediately preceding it ; (c) an adjective immediately following its noun ; (d) a noun immediately preceded by its adjective. (1901.) 15. Enumerate the ordinary positions in which initial muta- tion takes place in a Welsh sentence and give ex- amples. (1902.) 16. Which of the Welsh consonants are not mutated ? Pick out the mutations in the following sentence, and explain the principle in each case : " Bydd i genedl ddeallus bob amser feithrin gwirionedd a chyfiawnder, ond cenedl annoeth a gais Iwyddiant trwy drais." (1906.) 17. Construct a table of mutable consonants. Of what use is mutation in determining gender and case ? (June, 1907.) II. THE ARTICLE. 18. How are the different forms of the article yr, 'r, and y used ? Give the Welsh for " The man's book " and state the rule as to the definite article in the case of a noun with a genitive depending upon it. (1898.) 19. What is the definite article' in Welsh, and what modifi- tions of it are in use ? State the rule as to the initial 82 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER mutation after the article and illustrate your answer by giving examples. (1901.) 20. State the rules for the use of the article when one noun depends upon another. (June, 1908.) III. THE NOUN. 21. Give the rules for the plural formation of Welsh nouns, with examples. (1897, 1900.) 22. Give the plural of pwnc, ysbytty, pared, mellten, perygl, car, cefnder, cam, tuedd, gras, nai and maen. (1903.) 23. What nouns form their plural by (a) an internal change of vowel ; (6) a change of stem ; (c) adding -aint, -ed, -iaid, -od ? Give the plural of edau, onnen, cyllell, dynes garedig, dafad dew, llif, dychryn, iau, giewyn, and can. (1906.) 24. Give the corresponding singular or plural of gwr bon- heddig, geneth fach dew, yr eiddo ef, yr anifail hwn, eryr cryf, dol las lydan ; and the corresponding mascu- line or feminine of dynes landeg, anner goch gorniog, gwydd dew, baedd gwyllt, Sais rhonc, and ceffyl melyn. (June, 1907.) 25. Give the plural of mamaeth, pared, Haw, llwyth, truan, llif, tydi, cennad, bron and cwm. When there is more than one plural distinguish between them. (June, 1908.) 26. Mention the vowel indications of gender in Welsh, (b) Give the gender of the terminations -aeth, -deb, d -er, -rwydd. (c) Take the sentence " Plentyn mawr yw hi " and give the gender of plentyn. (d) Criticise the statement that the feminine of gwyn is wen. (1898.) 27. Give the general rule as to the gender of monosyllabic nouns in Welsh, and mention the gender of the ter- minations -aeth, -deb, -dra, -og, -yn. (1900.) 28. How does Welsh differ from English as regards gender ? Indicate the gender of aberth, daioni, plentyn, nant, Nadolig, troed, emyn, doethineb, and perthynas. (1903.) 29. How far do the terminations of nouns indicate gender ? (June, 1908.) 30. Explain, with examples, the use of the genitive case in Welsh. (June, 1907.) REVISION TESTS IN WELSH GRAMMAR 83 IV. THE ADJECTIVE. 31. Classify the principal ways of forming the plural of nouns and adjectives. Give instances. (1898.) 32. Give a list of the adjectives which distinguish gender and number in Modern Welsh. (1896, 1900, igoi, 1902.} 33. Enumerate adjectives which distinguish gender by vowel change and give the gender of terminations -ydd, -ad, -an, -ni, -i. (1899.) 34. Give examples of adjectives which form the feminine from the masculine (a) by changing the internal vowel, (b) by mutation of the initial consonant. (Sept., 1907.) 35. Illustrate the formation of the degrees of comparison of adjectives, and the use of the particles cyn and mor. (1898.) 36. Give the degrees of the comparison of adjectives and state which are considered to be irregular. (1899.) 37. How are adjectives compared ? Give the degrees of comparison of buan, hen, da, ieuanc, hawdd, drwg, mawr, hir, gwerthfawr, llydan, llawer and gwlyb. (1904.) 38. Give the degrees of comparison of eight of the irregular adjectives. Show what degree of the adjective has the function of a noun and give examples of this usage. (June, 1908.) 39. Give the rules for the use of numerals (cardinal and ordinal) and show where can and pum take the place of cant and pump. (1897.) 40. Write out in Welsh the following numbers in full (a) as cardinals, (b) as ordinals, (c) as numeral adverbs 5, 18, 80, 99, 150, 201, i,on, and 10,000. (7905.) 41. Write down the Welsh cardinal numbers from i to 10 and state in all possible cases how they affect the mutable consonants. (June, 1908.) V. THE PRONOUN. 42. Give instances of the different kinds of personal pro- nouns in Welsh, and show how they are used. (7900.) 43. Classify the Welsh pronouns, and give the plural of ti, efe, hithau, tydi, hwn, fy hun. (1903. Sept., 84 FIRST WELSH READER AFD WRITER 44. Show how fy, 'm, dy, 'th are used both with nouns and verbs, and distinguish between ef, efe, fe, hwy, hwynthwy and hwynt. (1899.) 45. What is the exact meaning of demonstrative, reflexive, definitive and indefinite as applied to pronouns. Give instances. (7905.) 46. Explain and illustrate with sentences the use of neb and dim, pawb and pob tin, pawb %nd pob, rhyw and rhai. (1906, Sept., 1907.) 47. Which are the relative particles in Welsh and how are they used ? (1896, 1901.) 48. Distinguish between the meanings of a and yr and give examples. (1902.) VI. ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 49. How do you translate into Welsh the English adverb in -ly and the verbal noun in -ing ? What is the English for "Acefeynmyned heibio " and "Nid yw ond newydd ddyfod " ? (1900.) 50. Classify Welsh adverbs, showing how they are derived and giving examples. (1904, June, 7907.) 51. In what different ways are adverbs of time formed in Welsh ? Give examples. (Sept. 1907.) 52. What is the difference between oil and noil, tipyn and ychydig, aie and onide ? Illustrate with sentences (Sept. 7907). VII. THE PREPOSITION. 53. Enumerate the prepositions which take personal ter- minations and give the inflections of any three of those prepositions at length, indicating at the same time of what forms of the verb they remind you. (1896.) 54. Conjugate the prepositions ar, wrth, i ; er, tan ; dros, hcb, gan ; am, trwy. (1899, 1900, 1901, 1902, 1906, Sept. 1907.) 55. Analyse the following phrases and give the exact mean- ing of each odditan, oddifewn, oddiar, o fesur, o falchder, cyn bo hir. (1903.} REVISION TESTS IN WELSH GRAMMAR 85 56. What different relations are expressed by the preposi- tions i, o, a (ag), and am? (1905.) 57. Explain and illustrate with sentences the use of yn and mewn. (1906.) 58. What are compound prepositions ? Give examples and show how they affect mutable consonants. (June, 1907.) VIII. THE VERB-NOUN. 59. Illustrate the uses made of the verb-noun in Welsh, show- ing among other things that while it helps to complete the system of the verb it is not itself a verb. (1898.) 60. Give, with examples, the various uses of the infinitive mood in Welsh. (Sept. 1907.) 6 1. How are English participles represented in Welsh, and how are the periphrastic tenses of English rendered in Welsh ? (1899.) 62. " The infinitive mood is of very extensive usage in the Welsh language." Illustrate this. (1905.) IX. THE VERB. 63. Distinguish between wyf and byddaf and conjugate both ; give also the impersonal forms of each tense. (1898.) 64. Give the 3rd singular of all the tenses of the Welsh verb To be, also the impersonal forms corresponding to each. (1902.) 65. What are the chief compounds of Bod? (1903.) 66. Distinguish between sydd, mae, yw and oes. (1904.) 67. Explain and illustrate with sentences the use of yw and mae. (1906.) 68. Distinguish carefully between the meanings of the verb Bod in each of the following sentences, Efe yw'r brenin. Efe sydd frenin. Y mae efe'n frenin. Nid oes yma frenin. (June, 1908.) 69. Give the present and aorist (or preterite) of af, byddaf, clywaf, without omitting the impersonal forms or including periphrastic combinations. (1897.) 86 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER 70. How many conjugations has the verb in Modern Welsh ? Take any regular verb and give the ist person singular of each of its tenses together with the corresponding impersonal (passive) forms. (1898.) 71. Give all the forms, personal and impersonal, of the present indicative of wyf and gwelaf, and of the aorist of af and clywaf. (1901.) 72. " The terminations of verbs are changes and contractions of personal pronouns." Explain and discuss. (June, 1907.) 73. Give the present and future of the verbs wyf, gwn, and adwaen. (1896.) 74. Give in full the tenses to which gwyr and gwyddwn belong, together with their impersonal forms. (1899.) 75. Write down the passive voice inflections of earn. Explain the use of the passive voice in Welsh. (1905.) 76. Distinguish between gallu and medru, gwybod and adnabod, yr wyf yn cael, and y mae gennyf. (June, 1907.) 77. Conjugate the verb credaf in all the tenses of the indica- tive and subjunctive moods. Give ah 1 its passive forms. (July, 1908.) 78. Give in full the aorist indicative, the present and imper- fect Subjunctive of bwrw, myned, ffoi, colli. (Sept. 1907.) 79. Give in full the tenses to which daw and daeth belong, together with the impersonal forms. (1900.) 80. Give in full the present indicative and present subjunctive of troi, cael, myned, bod, dyfod, gwybod, adnabod. (1903, 1904.) 81. Analyse the following words and give the exact meaning of each ymolchi, ymweled, ymladd, ymddwyn. (1903.) 82. Explain with illustrations the meaning and use of dichon, piau, tybed, atolwg. (1904.) X. SYNTAX. 83. State, with examples, the principal rules as to the syntax of the verb in simple and compound sentences. (1897. ) 84. Mention what you regard as the chief differences of syntax between Welsh and English. (1898.) REVISION TESTS IN WELSH GRAMMAR 87 85. Explain the rule as to the verb and its subject, and give examples showing how the agreement between a verb and its subject is not a feature of Welsh syntax. (1899.) 86. Which is the nominative to the verb in the sentences, Efe yw Dafydd, Tydi yw'r gwr, Pwy yw y dynion ? What is the rule as to verbs and their nominatives in Welsh ? (7900.) 87. Explain some of the chief peculiarities of Welsh syntax. (1901.) 88. Explain the case relations of the following words and translate them into English : Gwrthyd gynorthwyo neb. Myned iddo. Iddo fyned. Myned o hono. (1902.) 89. In English a verb agrees with its nominative in number. Contrast the syntax of Welsh sentences. (1902.) 90. Note the peculiarities of Welsh as to the agreement in a sentence of (a) verb and subject, (b) adjective and noun. (Sept. 1907.) 91. How does Welsh differ from other languages in (a) the use of the verb-noun, (b) the agreement of a verb with its subject, (c) the agreement of a relative pronoun with its antecedent ? (1904.) 92. Render into Welsh in the form of a reported Speech (oratio obliqua) : " The two books which I have found are well worth reading, but neither of them belongs to him. To whom do they belong ? One is mine and the other is yours." (1906.) 93. Turn into Welsh in the form of reported speech : "We had not advanced a hundred steps, when we heard a strange noise in the grass behind us. I turned and saw my brother raise his gun, and wait calmly for the unknown enemy, which after all proved to be our own dog. In our hurry we had forgotten him and he had been sent after us." (June, 1907.) XI. MEANING AND DERIVATION OF WORDS. 94. Give the etymology of the following words ateb, cynnal, cytiin, dyffryn, dyna, drycin, ebol, hunllef, llynges, meddianol, melfoch, lylwyth, ysgyfarnog. (1896.) 88 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER 95. Distinguish between mae, mai, and man ; draen and drain ; poblog and poblogaidd ; llwythau and llwythi ; dysgu and dysgi ; cynghorion and cynghorau. (1903.) 96. Give the meaning and derivation of doeth, pader, caeth, torf, trannoeth, urdd, arf, arian, saeth, parth, canghell, pregeth. (1904.) 97. Distinguish between dirwyo and dirywio, llyw and lliw, kin, him, and hyn ; mewn and yn ; osand pe. (7905.) 98. Give the derivation and meaning of, arch, eglwys, calch, gofal, Hog, urdd, angel, efengyl, cyff, swllt, tafarn, torf. (1906.) 99. Correct the orthography of the following words where necessary, giving your reason in each case cynghor, cydmarol, y chain, cynheuaf, ysgrifenwyd, lluosog, dysglair, cymmaint, cyddio, cynganheddol. (July, 1908.) 100. Give the Welsh for the previous day ; the day after ; yesterday ; to-morrow ; the day after to-morrow and the following day ; the day before yesterday ; at dawn ; the next fortnight ; to-morrow evening. (7906.) PARSING CHARTS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 89 PARSING CHARTS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES. I. NOUNS. Kind of Noun. Gender. Number. Case. ~ , ( Proper Concrete l Common Abstract Masculine Feminine Common Singular Plural Nominative Accusative Genitive Verb-noun (a) Ordinary Examples parsed : i. Meddai 'r Cymry ddewrder digonol i beidio ildio i filwyr Rhufain ar unwaith. Cymry ddewrder beidio ildio filwyr Rhufain unwaith Noun, proper, masc. plur. nominative, subject to verb ' meddai.' In sentences of Normal order the subject follows the verb and the accus. the subject. Noun, abstract, masc. sing, accusative, gov- erned by verb ' meddai.' Abstract nouns must be masc. orfem. No noun is neuter in Welsh. Verb-noun (masc. sing.) accus. governed by prepos. ' i.' Verb-nouns are always masc. and sing, and never govern the accus. Verb-noun (masc. sing.) genitive dependent on ' beidio.' Noun, common, masc. plur. accus. governed by prepos. ' i.' Noun, proper, fern. sing, genitive, dependent on ' filwyr.' Noun, common, fern. sing, accus., governed by prepos. ' ar.' 90 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER (b) Special Examples parsed : 2. Rhifai'r cyfoethogion bump. cyfoethogion ' Adj. used as a Noun, masc. plur. nomin., subject to verb ' rhifai.' bump Numeral used as a Noun, masc. plur. accus., governed by verb ' rhifai.' See 309 b Gram. Plurals like ' cyfoethogion ' are often common gender. 3. Gwelais eryr benyw yn y filodfa. eryr Noun, common, masc. sing, accus., governed by ' gwelais.' The subject is often implied in the verbal ending as in ' gwelais.' benyw Adj. qualifying eryr. See 310 c Gram. Note. The Grammatical gender of the word ' eryr ' is masc., as the non-mutation of the initial consonant of the adj. ' benyw ' proves, although the expression ' eryr benyw ' refers to a female bird. See 104, 106, Obs. 2 : 112, 3 Gram. 4. Cerddodd filllir. filltir Noun, common, fern. sing. Adverbial accus. of distance. See 385 Gram. 5. Canwn y gdn drosodd eto. gan Noun, common, fern. sing, cognate accus. See 326, 2 Gram. 6. Y mae'r ddynes yn drwm ei chlyw. chlyw Noun, common, masc. sing, accus. of nearer definition. See 387 Gram. 7. Gochel Alecsander, y go/ copr. gof copr Noun, common, masc. sing, accus. in apposi- tion with ' Alecsander.' Noun, common, masc. sing, genit. of material. See 377 Gram. PARSING CHARTS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 91 8. O Arglwydd ! clyw fy lief. Gwna'm ffydd yn gadarn, gref. I fentro angeu loes : Arglwydd angeu loes Noun, proper, masc. sing. nom. of address. Noun, common, masc. sing, genit. dependent on 'loes.' See 383 Gram. Noun, common, masc. sing, genit. dependent on ' fentro.' 9. Y mae'r bachgen yn ysgolor gwych. ysgolor Noun, common, masc. sing, nomin. predicate noun with 'mae.' See 324 Gram, on Predicate noun. II. ADJECTIVES. Kind of Adjective. Gender. Number. Degree. Use. Descriptive 1 Masculine ( Feminine Singular ) Plural ) Positive Attributive Predica- XT , f Cardinal Numerals { Ordina , Compara- tive of tive Demonstrative 148 Equality The Article 145 Compara- Possessive 141 tive Proper Interrogative 158 Superlative (a) Ordinary Examples parsed : i. " Pa obaith sydd am feibion glewion a genethod coethedig tra y telir leied sylw i'r iaith Gymraeg yn ein hysgolion elfennol y dyddiau hyn ? Bydd y Cymry'n debycach o ymrestru gydaV cenhedloedd blaenaf pan bwysleisiont eu dwy ragoriaeth bcnnaf, sef eu hiaith a'u crefydd." Pa Adj. interrogative, qualifying the noun ' obaith,' attributive use. See 102 Gram. glewion Adj. descriptive, masc. plur. positive, qualify- ing ' feibion,' attrib. use. See 310 a Gram. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER coethedig leied T ein elfennol hyn y yn debycach 'r blaenaf eu dwy bennaf eu and 'u Adj. verbal, positive, qualifying ' genethod,' attrib. use. See 310 a Gram. Adj. descriptive, comp. of equality, qual. ' sylw/ attrib. use. * Definite Article, pointing out the noun ' iaith.' Adj. possessive, common, plur. qualifying ' hysgolion.' A Poss. adj. agrees in gender with the noun to which it refers. See 144 Gram. Adj. descriptive, positive, qualifying 'hysgo- lion/ attrib. use. Definite Article, pointing out the noun ' dyddiau.' Adj. Demonstrative, qualifying ' dyddiau.' Def. Art. pointing out the noun ' Cymry.' Adj. descriptive, comparative proper, qual. ' Cymry,' predicative use. Def. Art. pointing out the noun ' cenhedloedd.' Numeral, Ordinal, qualifying ' cenhedloedd.' Adj. possessive, common, plur. qualifying ' ragoriaeth.' Numeral, Cardinal, fern, qualifying ' ragori- aeth.' See 336 Gram. Adj. descriptive, superlative, qualifying ' ragoriaeth.' Adj. possessive, common, plur. qualifying ' hiaith ' and ' crefydd.' (b) Special Examples parsed : 2. Ym mysg y tri dyn ar ddeg hynny yr oedd deg o ddeillion. tri ar ddeg deg Numeral qualifying ' dyn.' See 123 Gram. Prep. gov. 'dyn.' understood. Numeral qualifying ' dyn ' understood. Numeral used as a noun, masc. plur. nomin. to verb ' oedd.' When prep.o separates the numeral from the noun the former is to be parsed as a noun. PARSING CHARTS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 93 3. Mae'r afon yn ddofn gerllaw'w ty ni. ddofn Adj. descriptive, fern. sing, positive, qual. ' afon,' predicative use. See 325 and 103 Gram. Adj. possessive, postvocalic, common plur. ist person, qual. ' ty.' See 141 Gram. 4. O bob gwrthrych canfyddadwy y wal gern'g dynnodd ei sylw fwyaf. bob ! Definite pronominal adj. qualifying 'gwrth- rych.' See 589 Gram. canfyddadwy Adj. verbal, positive, qual. ' gwrthrych.' See 559 Gram. gerrig Noun used as an Adj. qual. ' wal,' attributive Genitive. See 310 c, 338 Gram. 5. Pe meddai'r oil o honom heddyw yr lioll fyd ni'n digonid yn fwy na'r dynion gynt. oil holl Noun, numeral, common, sing, nomin. to verb ' meddai.' Adj. numeral, qualifying ' fyd.' See 589 Gram. Adverb used as an adj. qualifying ' dynion.' See 310 Gram. III. PRONOUNS. Kind of Pronoun. Gender. Number. Person. Case. r Postvocalic Masculine Singular ISt Accusative. . \ Simple Feminine Plural 2nd Nom. Ac- onal j Empiric Common 3 rd cus. Genit. v Conjunctive Possessive . \ Demonstrative Interrogative . Indefinite . Relative . \ Usually agreeing with its antecedent in gender, number, and person, but not in case. (a) Ordinary Examples parsed : i. Os tydi a gei bleser a minnau boen mewn anhawsterau 94 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER croesawn hwynt yn ddiofn, canys o'u derbyn felly y daw i ni ddaioni. tydi Pron. personal, emphatic, common, sing. 2nd nomin. to verb ' gei.' mmnau Pron. pers. conjunctive, common, sing, ist nomin. to verb ' gaf ' understood, hwynt Pron. pers. simple, common, plur. 3rd accus. governed by verb ' croesawn.' Poss. Adj. postvocalic, common, plur. 3rd. ni Pron. pers. simple, common, plur. ist accus. governed by prep. ' i.' 2. Yr eiddoch chwi fydd y llyfr hwn y canmola rhywrai lawer arno, os dywedwch pwy yw ei awdwr. yr eiddoch Pron. possessive, common, plur. form with sing, application. 2nd person, chwi Pron. pers. simple, common, plur. 2nd pers. Genit. Supplementary to eiddoch. Pron. relative, masc. sing. 3rd in agreement with antec. ' llyfr.' Adv. accus. Parse relative y always as Adverbial Accus. See 168, 570 Gram, rhywrai Pron. indef. common, plur. 3rd nomin. to verb ' canmola.' pwy Pron. interrogative, common, sing. 3rd Predicate pronoun with verb ' yw.' (b) Special Examples passed : 3. Fe'n carodd ni cyn ein bod, carwn ninnau'w gilydd. Fe I Formal pers. pron. See 133 Gram. Pron. pers. post-voc. common, plur. ist accus. governed by ' carodd.' To distinguish the postvocalics, note that the pron. always precedes a verb and is accus., whereas the adj. always precedes a noun and qualifies it. ni Pron. pers. simple, common, plur. ist accus. in apposition with ' 'n. 1 See 136 Gram, ein gilydd \ Pron. reciprocal, common, plur. ist accus. governed by ' carwn.' See 157 Gram. PARSING CHARTS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 95 4. Llyfr pwy yw hwn ? Llyfr y sawl a'i ceisio gyntaf. pwy Pron. interrogative, common, sing. 3rd geni- tive. See 159 Gram. hwn Pron. demonstrative, masc. sing. 3rd nomin. subject to ' yw.' sawl Pron. indefinite, common, sing. 3rd Genitive, a Pron. relative, common, sing. 3rd (antec. ' sawl ') nomin. to verb ' ceisio.' Pron. pers. postvoc. masc. sing, accus. governed by ' ceisio.' 5. A'rddaurt giliodd \'w tai en hunain, pan welsant y naill y Hall. Pron. relative, common, plur. 3rd (antec. ddau), nomin. to ' giliodd.' 'w Adj. Possessive, postvoc., common, plur. 3rd qualifying ' tai.' eu Adj. Possessive common, plur. 3rd qualifying ' hunain.' See 139 Gram. hunain Noun, common, plur. 3rd, genitive., See 139 Gram. naill Pron. indefinite, common, sing. 3rd nomin. to ' welsant ' in apposition to subject pron. implied in ' welsant.' See 156 Gram. Hall Pron. indefinite, common, sing. 3rd accus. governed by ' welsant.' IV. ADVERBS. Kind of Adverb. Degree. Use. /Time Simple 1 Place or Manner Compound^ Degree denoting Number 1 Affirmation ^Negation,&c. Positive Comp. of Equality Comp. Proper Superlative To modify a verb, adj., adv., prepos., conj. or a clause. Some adverbs are Con- junctive, others are Interrogative. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER (a) Ordinary Examples parsed : i. Dywed i mi paham y gweithiaist ntor dra egniol heddyw ? paham Adv. interrogative, modifying the verb ' gweithiaist.' mor Adv. of extent, modifying ' egniol.' See 118 Gram. dra Adv. of degree, modifying ' egniol.' egniol Adv. of manner, modifying 'gweithiaist, comp. of equality. Adverbs of manner only have degrees of compari- son, heddyw Adv. of time, modifying ' gweithiaist.' 2. Ai dy dad a alwodd yma ddwywaith ymhell cyn brecwast ? le. ai 1 Interrogative Adv. used in introducing a question. See 283 Gram. yma Adv. of place modifying the verb ' alwodd.' ddwywaith Numeral Adv. modifying 'alwodd.' See 129 Gram, ymhell Adv. of extent modifying the preposition ' cyn '(=yn + pell). ie Adv. of affirmation. See 286 Gram. 3. Hwyrach yr af yn awr. Nid yw yn gwlawio, ac argoela ddod yn braf o'r diwedd. hwyrach yn awr nid yn braf o'r diwedd Adv. of doubt modifying the verb ' af.' Introductory Adv. or pre-verbal particle. A, y and yr before verbs, especially the verb Bod, have so lost their force as Relatives as to be regarded as mere pre-verbal particles in Mod. Welsh. See 168, 570 and Appendix, p. 178 Gram. Phrase Adv. modifying the verb ' af.' See 598 Gram. Adv. of negation, modifying the verb ' yw.' Adverbial ' yn ' with the Adj. ' braf ' makes an Adv. of manner modifying the verb-noun ' ddyfod,' positive degree. See 324, 4. Adv. Phrase of time modifying ' ddyfod.' PAUSING CHARTS, WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 97 4. " Y mae dau yn well nag un," medd hen ddiareb. Os felly, goreu po amlaf y cofir hyn gan wyr trahaus. Introductory Adv. (or pre-verbal particle). Adverbial ' yn ' with adj. ' well/ making an adv. of manner modifying ' mae.' Com- parative proper. Adverb used in comparison, modifying ' yw ' understood. Adv. of condition modifying ' felly.' Adv. of manner modifying the whole clause. See 315-6 Gram. Adv. of degree, superlative. Cp. the English " The more the merrier." Adv. of comparison modifying ' amlaf.' See 346 h Gram. Adv. of degree or number modifying 'cofir.' superlative. Pre-verbal particle. y yn well nag OS felly goreu po amlaf V. CONJUNCTIONS. Kind of Conjunction. Function. Co-orclinative, 314 Gram. Sub-ordinative, 315 Gram. Joining words, phrases or the clauses of a Compound sentence to denote the addition, choice, contrast or inference of thoughts. {Joining the subordinate clause to the principal in a complex sentence and denning its dependence as being that of time, purpose, condition, concession, comparison or conse- quence. (a) Ordinary Examples parsed : i. Rhoddwyd yr arian a'r papurau i'r tad neu i'r, fam, ond gofalwyd na chafodd y plant afael arnynt, felly diogelwyd yr eiddo. Conj. co-ordinative, of copulative or cumula- tive force, joining ' arian ' and ' papurau.' 9 8 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER neu Conj. co-ordinating, of alternative force, join- ing ' tad ' and ' fam.' ond felly Conj. co-ordinating, of adversative force, joining " Rhoddwyd yr arian" . . . and " gofalwyd na chafodd." Conj. co-ordinating, joining " Rhoddwyd . . . diogelwyd ..." 2. Aeth adref pan orffennodd. pan Conjunctive Adv. of time, subordinating ' orffennodd ' to ' aeth adref.' (b) Special Examples parsed : Note particularly the Conjunctive Adverbs given in 346 Gram, and then examine the instances given to illustrate Temporal, Local, etc., clauses in 347 a-360 Gram. 3. Lie bo dolur y bydd llaw. (^/^Conjunctive Adv. Local force, subord.) 4. Af allan gan nad yw yn gwlawio. (Gaw=Conj. Adv. causal force, subord.) 5. Gweddiwch fel nad eloch i brofedigaeth. (Fel= Conj. Adv. purpose, subord.) 6. Arhosodd nes y blinodd. (Afcs=Conj. Adv. of consequence, subord.) 7. Pe delai, llawenychem. (Pe=Con}. Adv. condition subord.) 8. Er na. chlywais yn uniongyrchol eto credaf. (/>= Conj. Adv. concession, subord.) 9. Nid yw ei iechyd cystal ag y bu. (^g=Conj. Adv, of comparison, subord.) 10. Gwelsom y dyn pan fu yno. (Pw=Conj. Temporal, subord.) See 368 Gram. 11. Dywedodd mai fi biau'r wobr. (Mai=Con}. affirma- tive, subord.) See 315. 12. Gwn y bydd yn fachgen ufudd. (Y=Conj. affirm, subord.) See 315 Gram. 13. Dywedais nad awn yno mwyach. (Nad=Con\. negative, subord.) See 815. PARSING CHARTS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 99 VI. PREPOSITIONS. Kind of Preposition. Use. Simple /with pronominal suf- I fixes | without pronominal V suffixes /with pronominal suf- / wiLii piuiiuiiuiiai sui- , ) fixes Compound^ without pronominal \ suffixes Prepositional Phrases Give the gender, number and person of the conjugated pre positions. Prepos. govern a noun, pronoun and verb-noun in the accus. case. Genitive follows the noun ele- ment in a compound preposi- tion. (a) Ordinary Examples parsed : 1. Cyn gwybod ohonof safwn gerllaw 'r ty. cyn Prepos. simple, governing the verb-noun ' gwybod ' in accus. case, ohonof Compound prepos. common, sing, ist person suffix. ger Haw Prepositional phrase (ger=simp\e prepos. governing the noun ' Haw,' therefore ' ty ' is genitive). See 298-404 Gram. (b) Special Examples parsed : Special attention should be given to the parsing of prepositions compounded with pronominal suffixes. See 292-296 Gram. The list of Prepositional expres- sions given in 388 444 should also be carefully read. 2. Yr oeddent wedi bod yn canu ar hyd y nos. wedi Simple Prepos. governing the verb-noun ' bod ' in accus. case, yn Simple Prepos. governing the verb-noun ' canu ' in accus. case, ar Simple Prepos. governing ' hyd.' hyd Noun, common masc. sing, accus. governed by prepos. ' ar.' nos Noun, common, fem. sing, genitive. Each element in Compound tenses and preposi- tional phrases is to be parsed separately. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER 3. Y mae gennyf finnan gwyn yn dy erbyn di. gennyf finnau yn erbyn Simple Prepos. compounded with suffix ist pers. sing, common. Pron. conjunctive, common, sing, ist accus. in apposition with pronominal element of ' gennyf,' Elements of compound prepos., ' yn ' govern- ing the noun ' erbyn ' and the pron. ' di' in genit. See 435-6 Gram. 4. Aeth i'w dy er ys oriau. er ys Simple prepos. governing ' dy ' in the accus. case. See 142 Gram. Prepositional phrase governing ' oriau ' in accus. case. See 414 Gram. ' Er ys ' meant originally ' since it is.' 5. Yr wyf yn galw yng Nghaerdydd yn fynych, canys y mae 'r tren yn gyfleus. yn Prepos. governing the verb-noun ' galw ' in the accus. case. yng Prepos. governing ' Nghaerdydd ' in the accus. case. y n Adverbial ' yn ' followed by ad j . ' fynych /mak- ing an Adv. of time modifying the verb ' galw.' yn Predicative ' yn,' r ollowed by the adj . ' gyfleus/ used in the predicative position. To distinguish these four uses of ' yn,' note that the verb-noun governed by ' yn ' as prepos. retains its radical initial consonant, but that ' yn ' governs the nasal mutation of nouns and the soft mutation of an adjective in the predi- cative or adverbial position. PARSING CHARTS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 101 VII. VERBS. Kind of Verb. Conjugation or Voice. Mood. Tense. Number and Person. Agreement. Regular or Personal Indicative Present Sing, or Subject of Irregular or (Active Imperative (and Fu- Plural. personal Transitive Voice) Subjunc- ture) 1st verb is to or In- Imperson- tive Past I in- 2nd be mention- transitive al or perf. 3rd ed, and the (Auxiliary) (Passive Aorist agreement Voice) Pluper- of the verb fect. with it wherever such is the case. (a) Ordinary Examples parsed : 1. Ysgrifenaf lythyr fel y gwelo'm cyfaill mai myfi sy'n iawn. ysgrifenaf Verb, regular, transitive, personal, indicative present, sing, ist agreeing with the pro- noun ' ft ' implied in the verbal suffix. Verbs conjugated like ' dysgaf, trof, cryfhaf ' are Regular ( 2093-224 b Gram.), the ret,t Irregular ( 242-277 Gram.). Transitive and Intransitive are explained on p. 82 Gram. For subjects implied in the verbal endings see 316 Gram. gwelo Verb, regular, trans, pers. subj. pres. sing. 3rd agreeing with the noun ' cyfaill.' sy Verb, irreg. intrans. pers. indie, pres. sing. 3rd. The verb Bod ( 195 a, b), is an Irregular verb. 2. Gwnewch frysio neu-fe'ch delir gan y gwlaw. gwnewch frysio fe Verb, irreg. trans, pers. imperative^ pres. plur. 2nd agreeing with subject implied in verb-ending. Verb-noun, accus. governed by ' gwnewch.' Formal pers. pronoun. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER 'ch Postvoc. pers. pron. common, plur. 2nd accus. governed by ' delir.' See 178- 226 a Gram. delir Verb, reg. intrans. impersonal, indie, pres. See 209 b Gram. 3. Cafodd ei welcd yn ymegnio am ddianc. cafodd Verb, reg. trans, pers. indie, aorist, sing. 3rd agreeing with the subject implied in the verb-ending. ei Poss. Adj. indicating the subject of the verb- noun ' weled.' See 241 Gram. weled Verb-noun, accus. governed by ' cafodd.' See 280 Gram. ymegnio Verb-noun, accus. governed by prepos. ' yn.' The ym as a prefix to verbs is a prep, not a pron. Do not parse as Middle Voice. See 463 Gram, ddianc Verb-noun, accus. governed by prepos. 'am.' (b) Special Examples parsed : Special attention should be given to the parsing of anomalous and defective verbs. See 242-277 Gram. Care should also be taken to distinguish the Subject from the Complement in connexion with the verb ' Bod,' especially with mae, yw, oes, and sydd. See 324, 484- 490 Gram. 4. Gad ef hyd oni ddarffwyf gloddio o'i amgylch. ddarffwyf Verb, irreg. trans, pers. subj. pres. sing, ist the subject being implied in the verb- ending. See 251 Gram. 5. Henffych well ! brenin yr luddewon. henffych Verb, irreg. intrans. pers. subj. pres. sing. 2nd. See 249 Gram. 6. Os gwyr, dyweded. gwyr dyweded Verb, irreg. intrans. pers. indie, pres. sing. 3rd, the subject being implied in verb- ending. See 257 Gram. Verb, reg. intrans. pers. imper. pres. sing. 3rd. PARSING CHARTS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 103 7. Atolwg, Arglwydd ! clyw. atolwg Verb irreg. trans, pers. imper. pres. sing. 2nd. See 245 Gram. 8. " Pwy," ebe ef, " biau'r llyfr hwn " ? ebe biau Verb, irreg. trans, pers. indie, past imperf. sing. 3rd agreeing with subject ' ef.' See 272 Gram. Vefb, irreg. trans, impers. indie, pres. sing. 3rd agreeing with subject ' pwy.' See 270 Gram. VIII. THE SAME OR SIMILAR WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. Word. Part of Speech. Meaning. Example. a Conjunction and Prynnodd geffyl a chert yn y ffair. a . . Preposition with Torrodd ei fys a chyllell. 405 Gram. a . . Verb (see af. will go Pwy a a trosom ni ? ' 260) a . Relative pro- who, which Dyma'r llyfrau a brynnais. noun a Noun Letter A ' A ' yw llythyren gynta'r wyddor. a . Interrogative Not trans- A yw'th dad gartref ? particle lated 370 a Gram. ac . Conjunction and Pryn y gwir ac na werth aer Noun heir.battle Efe yw aer yr ystad. air . Noun(mutated) word Credwch ei air. [(mutated). aur. Noun gold Aur ac arian nid oes gennyf ag . . Preposition with Ni phrynni gymeriad ag aur ac arian. 329 a Gram. ag . . Relative pron. as Ycyfryw ag oeddent cefais hwy'n rhad. 572 Gram. ag . . Conjunctive as Nid yw cyn gyfoethoced ag y bu. pron. after 359 Gram. comparatives of equality ai . Interrogative Not trans- Ai ci yw dy was ? 370 a Gram. particle lated ai . Conjunctive or, either Deuwch naill ai heno neu nos yfory. 314 Gram. ai (ae) . Verb. 260 he was Ai ar ei union i wneud cymwynas. Gram. wont to go 104 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER THE SAME OR SIMILAR WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH (continued) Word. Part of Speech. Meaning. Example. a'i . Conj. and and his or Y mae Arthur a'i filwyr yn cysgu. poss. adj. and her a'i . . Prep. and with his Gweithiodd a'i llaw yn ddiwyd. poss. adj. or her a'u . Conj. and and their Hoffaf y bobl a'u harferion. poss. adj. a'u . . Prep, and with their Daeth y plant a'u llyfrau o'r poss. adj. ysgol. am . Preposition around, Yr oeddwn am y pared a'm gelyn. for 406 Gram. Gofelais am iddo fynd yn bryd-. Ion. 368 a Gram. a'm. Conj. and and my Rhowch fy enw i a'm tad i lawr. poss. adj. a'm. Prep, and with my Ysgrifennais y Hythyr a'm llaw poss. adj. fy hun. am . Conjunctive because A vdych yn ddig am nad aeth adv. y llane ? 349 & Gram. Conjunctive if only Fe fydd yn dawel am y caiff adv. ddigon o arian. 355.3 Gram . a'n . Conj. and and our Efe yw'n hathraw a'n cyfaill poss. adj. goreu. a'n . . Prep, and with our Gwnaeth gam a'n heiddo. poss. adj. a'n . . Verb and our . . will Nid a'n gwaith yn ofer. poss. adj. go 260 Gram. Cp. a'th, Prep, and with thy, a'ch poss. adj. your anwyd . Noun / passion la cold Gochel ddrwg anwydau. Cymerwch hwn at yr anwyd. ar . Preposition upon jTyf y grug ar y mynydd. IGwerthais y deg llyfr ar hugain. ar . . Noun ploughed Ni chaed nac ar na modi y land flwyddyn honno. ar . Relative pron that Holai pawb ar a welais am danat. 571 Gram. a'r . Conj. and dei and the ( Prynnais y ty a'r dodrefn. \ A'r dynion yn cysgu, diengais o'r article ( ty. a'r . . Prep, and with the Wedi lladd llawer a'r clcddyf, def. article diangasant. a'r . . Verb and go the Yno yr a'r llongau. def. article PARSING CHARTS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 10$ THE SAME OR SIMILAR WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH (continued) Word. Part of Speech. Meaning. Example. arch Noun ark A glywaist ti am Arch Noah ? arch Verb command Arch i'r ccrrig hyn fod yn fara. Bach . Noun : hook ; Daliodd bysgodyn bach a bach. Adj. small bai . Verb ( igsa): it were ; Pe bai arnat y bai hwn ni'th Noun fault hoffwn. bron Adverb almost Y mac bron yn bryd cinio. bron Noun breast Ai sugno bron y mae'r baban ? budd . Noun profit Nid oes budd ar wncuthur llyfrau lawer bydd . Verb ( 195 a) will be Bydd canu yn y nefoedd. cau, cae Verb-noun ; shut ; Yr wyf wedi cau y defaid yn y Noun field cae. can, cae Noun ; song ; ( Ai can newydd yw hon ? 1 Hoffaf fara can. adj. ; numeral white ; IOO i Y mae can mlynedd oddiar ( hynny. canu, cannu Verb-noun : verb-noun to sing ; to bleach 'Dewch i glywed y canu. - Yr oedd ei wisgoedd wedi eu { cannu fel eira. car . Verb (Imper. love ; ( Car dy gymydog. S. 2) ; noun friend i Car a chyfaill nid oedd ganddo. Yr oedd cant namyn un o'r praidd cant, Numeral ; loo ; they mewn hedd. cant verb shall have; Cant bardwn, os dychwelant. sang 263 Gram. Tudur Aled a'i cant ( = canocld 208 Remark b). Cymry ; Noun Welshmen; Gelwir y trigolion yn ' Gymry ' a'u Cymru ,, Wales gwlad yn ' Gymru.' chwaeth Noun taste Meithrinodd chwaeth dda. chwaith Adverb | neither Nid wyf linnau'n cofio chwaith. 1 much less dof, dof Verb; adj. t will come ; Dof a'r aderyndof i chwiyfory. tame di, du i Pronoun; adj. thou ; black ) dy, dy Poss. adj. : thine : ? Ai hwn yw dy hen dy du di ? Noun house \ er . Preposition for the Gwnaeth hyn er mantais i mi. sake of 416 Gram. er . Conjunctive although Er nad oedd efe gartref, cefais adverb groeso mawr. 358 a Gram. fe . . Formal pers. Not trans- Fe welodd ydynbethau rhyfedd. pron. lated 133 Gram. io6 THE SAME OR SIMILAR WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH (continued) Word. Part of Speech. Meaning. Example. 'fe . . Colloq. form he 'Fe wnaeth y drwg. of efe gwyr . Noun, plur. men Gwyr o nerth oedd milwyr of gwr Arthur. g&yr Adj. used as crooked Y gwyr a wneir yn uniawn. noun gwyr . Verb, 3 s. he knows Gwyr yn dda fy meddwl. pres. indie. gwir . Noun and adj . truth, true Dywed y gwir bob amser. Ai ystori wir yw hon ? gwaith . Noun (masc.) work Gwnaeth lawer o waith tros ei feistr. gwaith . Noun (fern.) time Gwelais ar unwaith fod teir- gwaith yn ddigon iddo. 129 Gram. gwaeth Adverb worse Yr oedd yr ail yn waeth na'r cyntaf. holl . Adjective all Ceisiodd Alecsander orchfygu'r holl fyd. oil .- . Noun the whole Ond yr oil a gafodd oedd daear ei fedd. hael . Adjective generous Hael yw Hywel ar bwrs y wlad. haul Noun sun Ei enw a bery tra fo haul. hwy Pronoun they Gwelsant hwy y lie o'm blaen. 132 Gram. hwy Adj. comp. longer Y mae'r nos yn hwy na'r dydd proper. eisoes. 1 1 5 Gram. hwn Demonstr. this Prynnwch y llyfr hwn i mi. adj. hwn Demonstr. this Hwn yw'r llyfr a brynnais. pron. hyn Adj. Comp. older Y mae efe yn hyn na'i frawd. proper 1 1 5 Gram. hun Noun sleep, self Wedi hun esmwyth dihunais. Euthum ato fy hun. 1 39 Gram. hin . . Noun weather Bu'r hin yndymherus drwy'rhaf He . . Noun place Symudodd i le newydd. lie . . Conjunctive wherever Aed lie y mynno. 348 Gram. adv. whither- soever llaeth . Noun milk Chwenychwch ddidwyll laeth y Gair. llaith . Adjective damp Y mae'r d daear yn llaith. PARSING CHARTS WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 107 THE SAME OR SIMILAR WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH (continued) Word. Part of Speech. Meaning. Example. mae . Verb is Pa le y mae dy lyfrau ? mai . Conjunction that Dywedodd mai efe oedd biau y wobr. mau . Possessive my own O maddeu fy anwiredd mau. adj. (obsolete) melin . Noun mill Gwerthwyd melin y Fron y ddoe. melyn Adjective yellow Un o hoff liwiau'r beirdd Cymreig oedd melyn. nad . Adverb in no, not Ofnaf nad ellwch fyned subord. clause 592 Gram. nid . . Adverb in no, not Nid fy lie i y w gwrthod principal 593 Gram. clause o . Preposition from, of Pwy o honoch ddaeth o'r lie gyntaf ? o . Adverb if O by del arnat eisieu, galw am danaf. 354 Gram. OS . . Adverb with if Os gwelwch yn dda, gelwch am indie. danaf. 354 Gram. pe . . Adverb with if Pe gwnelai hyn, byddai ar fai. subj. 355 Gram. pa . . Interrogative what ? Pa bentref yw hwn ? adj. pwy . Interrogative who? Pwy a ddywed im' ei hanes ? pron. peri Verb from to cause Ti a beri imi wylo o'i blegyd. paraf. pery . Verb from to con- Ei enw a bery tra bo haul. parhau. tinue pawb . Indefinite all Clywodd pawb y swn. pron. 589 Gram. pob Indef. numer- all Ond nid pob un a ddeallodd al adjective ystyr. tri . . Numeral three Galwodd tri dyn am danat hedd- yw. try. . Verb from he turns Os try oddiwrth ei ddrwg, madd- troi eu id do. y Definite ar- the Prynnodd y ty yn rhad. ticle y Relative who, or Dyma'r ty y gwelais ei adeiladu. pron. which in 1 68 Gram. oblique case io8 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER THE SAME OR SIMILAR WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH (continued) Word. Part of Speech. Meaning. Example. y Pre- verbal Not trans- Y mae'r hin yn deg. particle lated 315 : 346. yn . . yn . Preposition Predicative in Not trans- Rhoddodd geiniog yn y bhvch. Y mae efe yn athraw llwyddianus. lated yn . . Adverbial Not trans- Gweithiodd yn egniol tros ben. lated ynte Interrog. or Ai hwn ynte'r Hall ddewisaist ti ? particle 600 Gram. yntau . Conjunctive he also A'r tad, yntau hefyd a fu farw. yr . . pron. Definite ar- the Symudodd i wlad yr Aifft. ticle yr . Relative who, or Dyma'r ysgol yr arferwn ei pron. which in mynychu. 168 Gram. oblique case y* Pre- verbal Not trans- Yr oedd son lawer am dano. particle lated yw . Verb is Nid yw efe yma. 485 Gram. i'w . Prepos. with to his, to Aeth i'w wely yn gynnar. poss. adj. her, to 141 Gram their EXERCISE 33. Parse separately each word in the following sentences : A. i. Os yr Arglwydd nid adeilada'r ty, ofer y llafuria'r adeiladwyr wrtho. 2. Ys truan o ddyn wyf fi ! Pwy a'm gwared oddiwrth gorph y farwolaeth lion ? 3. Y sawl a dynno nyth y dryw, ni chaiff iechyd yn ei fyw. 4. Y llew fel yr ych a bawr wellt. 5. Bydded eich ymadrodd yn ' ie ' a ' nage.' 6. Aeth allan a hithau' n oer a chafodd anwyd. 7. Gan farw ti a fyddi farw. 8. A fynno iechyd bydded lawen. PARSING CHARTS, WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 109 9. Daiilenasant i'r dall bob yn ail. 10. Fe fyddys yn cychwyn o'r ty am dri o'r gloch. 11. Marchnatewch hyd oni ddelwyf. 12. O ! na byddai'n haf o hyd. B. Passages set for Parsing in the Welsh Matriculation. 1. Y mae gwatwareg ddeifiol yn gymysg a'i frawddegau mwyaf difrifol, ac yn ei ddywediadau mwyaf cyffredin ceir ami i frawddeg yn fflachio fel mellten nes goleuo'r gorwel o gwr i gwr. (1896.) 2. " Rhyw Ion newyddion heddyw Yrrwyd im a hyfryd yw." (June, 1908.) 3. " Dowch i'r farn a roir arnoch A dedwydd beunydd y boch." (September, 1907.) 4. Nid yw'r Golygydd yn gweled un angen am ddodi ger bron y cyhoedd yr esgusodion cyffredin a roddir tros gyhoeddi llyfrau. (1898.) 5. Hwn yw'r lie y mae crefyddwyr da Cwm Tyfolog yn addoli ynddo. (1899.) 6. Nid oedd dim nodedig yn neb o'i berthynasau oddieithr ei fam. (1900.) 7. Sonir yn gyffredin fod Elis Wyn wedi bwriadu cyhoeddi gweledigaeth arall, dan enw Gweledigaeth y Nef. (1901.) 8. Codwyd yr adeilad presennol ar adfeilion yr hen balas gan y llyngesydd Foley, gwr a enwogodd ei hun. (1902.) 9. Parse the words italicized in the following : (a) Ys truan o ddyn wyf fi. (b) Pvvy yw y brenin gogoniant hwn ? (c) O'u cadw y mae gwobr lawer. (d) Hebddo Ef ni wnaethpwyd dim a'r a wnaethpwyd. (1903.) 10. Parse (a) Dilyn drygioni a dywys i angeu. (b) Gwae y dyn sydd yn cydio maes wrth faes. (1904.) 11. Explain, grammatically, the following expressions : Ambell i ddyn, fe'm gwelir, gwr o Iddew, paid a mi, cyn myned a hono ymaith, wedi darllen llyfr. (1905.) 12. Parse Aed, darffo, henffych well, nos dawch, gwypo, rhoid (1906.) 13. Parse dwg, henffych, gwnaethpvvyd, darffo, canfydd- wyf, ymedy, (June, 1907.) i io FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER C. More difficult passages from the Welsh classics for pars- ing : 1. Ond o hir graffu mi a'u gwelwn hwy'n well a thecach eu gwedd na'r giwed felynddu, gelwyddog honno. 2. Gorweddais ar y gwelltglas, tan syn-fyfyrio deced a hawddgared wrth fy ngwlad fy hun oedd y gwledydd pell y gwelswn gip o olwg arnynt. 3. Gwaith ofer oedd iddo geisio cloi'r enaid a fedr fyw a thrafaelio heb y corph. 4. A chan ddaed ganddo ddrygioni, fe gais ddifa'r ddinas hon. 5. Ni cheisiai, ebr ef, ond gwaetha ungwr ddangos ei glanach hi'n holl stryd Balchder. 6. Deall hyn, O Eryr, canys ychydig a'i cenfydd nes iddo ddyfod. 7. Mi fedraf lyncu pob opiniwn am y caffwyf lonydd- wch yn fy nyth. 8. Rwy'n gweled mai gwych yw bod yn gyfrwys pa le bynnag y bwyf. 9. Ni allai aros clywed y gerdd yma. Atolwg, gad lonydd imi i ehedeg lie mynmvyf. 10. Gwell yw'r wialen a blygo na'r hon a dorro o eisieu irder. 11. Oni ad efe yr amyn un pum ugain yn yr anialwch a myned ar ol yr hon a gollwyd hyd oni chaffo efe hi ? 12. Gwyn ei fyd a ddisgwylio ac a ddel hyd y mil tri- chant a phymtheg ar hugain o ddyddiau. 13. O'm traserch darfum trosoch Ddwyn clwyf, fel lie bwyf y boch. 14. Hysbys y dengys y dyn O ba radd y bo'i wreiddyn. 15. Gwae fi, gwn boeni beunydd, Weled erioed liw dy rudd ! Aeth dy wedd, Gwynedd a'i gwyr, A'm hoes innau, a'm synwyr. COMMON ERRORS IN WELSH SPELLING COMMON ERRORS IN WELSH SPELLING AND SENTENCE-CONSTRUCTION. I. WELSH ORTHOGRAPHY. In Appendix II of the Grammar the student is recom- mended to study the Rules of Welsh spelling in the " Report of the Orthographical Committee of the Society for utilizing the Welsh Language " published by the Welsh National Press Co., Ltd., Carnarvon. These Rules, which aim at securing the maximum of consistency and phonetic accuracy with the minimum of interference with existing general usage, are here summarized for the use of the student. They are practical in their spirit and are not meant to be pushed to their logical conclusion in all cases in the face of clearly established usage. 1. How to write * yn.' With verb-nouns write yn followed by the radical consonant, as Yn canu. In adverbial phrases the com- ponent parts should be fused, as Ymlaen, ynghyd, ymysg, ymhen. The n of yn assimilates to the initial letter of a noun beginning with a mutable consonant, as Yng Nghymru, ym Mhen y Graig, yn Nhalgarth, yng Ngobowen, ym Mlaenanerch, yn Ninas Mawddwy. 2. When to insert the inorganic * h.' When the syllable that precedes the accented one ends in a vowel or in ng, m, n, and r an inorganic h is often written before the accent, as Dihareb, diarhebion ; angof, anghofio ; cymell, cymhellion ; brenin, brenhines ; aros, arhosaf. See 34, 35 Gram. An initial h is also added (a) to nouns beginning with vowels after the Possessive Adjectives (except eich), as Ei hesgid (her shoe. Cp. ei esgid his shoe) ; (b) to verbs after the Postvocalic personal pronoun, as efe a'm harbed (he saves me) ; (c) to the word ugain when following ar in a compound numeral, as Tri ar hugain (twenty- three). See 68-71 Gram. H2 FIRST tt'ELSH READER AND WRITER 3. How to write compound words and phrases. If the compound is accented on the penult., write as one word, as Ptryslais. If the elements are separately accented, join by means of a hyphen, as Rhag-arweiniad, cyn-lywydd. If the first element is a noun, adjective or preposition prefixed to a phrase, write all the words separately without a hyphen, as Cam gymeryd, di ben draw. See 36, 37 Gram. 4. When to use the apostrophe. Write yn, yr, etch, and the other Postvocalic particles as 'n, 'r, 'ch, etc. after a vowel, unless a pause^ comes between them and the preceding word ; as Torrfr coed, gweithio'n galed, gtlw'm gvas. The article yr is practic- ally always written as > after a, i, o, mo. tua, and gyda. It is better to omit all apostrophes from the middle of words, as ers, mynd, gorchmynion. See 146 Gram. 5. When to write ph * and ftV As far as possible write ph as the initial aspirate mutation of />, and ff as the medial and final consonant ; as argraff, gorffwys and ei phen. See 51, 66 Gram. 6. When to double the consonant Several good writers of the present generation show a tendency to limit the doubling of consonants to n and r only, leaving /, p, c, m and s to be always written singly, as hynny, torri. ateb, epil, drycin, amod and cyson. The n and r should be doubled only when preceded by a closed accented vowel, as absennol, cyrraedd. The n and r should be written singly when the vowel is open and in all doubtful cases, as tonau (tunes) and bara (bread). See Appendix II Gram. N.B. In all doubtful cases the safest plan is to follow the orthography of the present Welsh Bible. 7. How to distinguish the endings -ai, -ae, -au, -hau. Write -ai, -au, and -hau at the end of words only, and -ae in the middle of words, as gwelai (he was seeing), pethau (things), and daear (earth). The -au, being the plural suffix of nouns, is never to be found in verbs, except in verb-nouns that end in -hau, as parhau, glanhau, COMMON ERRORS IN WELSH SPELLING 113 coffau. The -ai is the ordinary 3rd. sing. Past Imperfect and Pluperfect ending of verbs, as byddai. See 236, 208 a Gram. 8. How to distinguish the prefixes di- and dy-. The safest and simplest rule is to use them according to the sound, as dyfal and difyr, dylanwad and dioddef. 9. When to write the terminations -i and -u in verbs. Write -i when the last syllable of the Present stem has the vowel o or the diphthong oe or ends in w, as crogi, oedi, sylwi and cyflawni. Write -u when the last syllable of the Present stem has vowels or diphthongs other than those enumerated, as tynnu, and tagu. Note, however, that i is not un- common after syllables with e or ei, as geni, gweiddi, gweini. See 234, 235 Gram. 10. Combinations of consonants. Note the spelling of the following words anhawster, neilltu, cosb, adsain, llanc, ieuanc, cymar (not cydmar), disgybl, dinistrio. Note also the spelling of araith, Beibl, blodau, Cymry (Welshmen), Cymru (Wales), diffeithwch, gwneuthur, hyd yn oed, lliaws (not lluos-og), Sais (Englishman), Saeson (Englishmen), Saesneg (English language), Seisnig (English), and uchaf (not uwchaf). II. WELSH PROSE COMPOSITION. In this section an effort is made to point out the Common Errors committed in writing Welsh, and, by drawing special attention to the grammatical rules which are violated, to show how such errors may be avoided. In the first place a list of the parallel idioms of English and Welsh is given, so that the student may compare the similarities and differences of the one with those of the other, and thus avoid the common error of imagining that to translate word for word or to follow the English order of words in a sentence will make an idio- matic Welsh sentence. Then a list of the commonest errors is added, together with exercises on the correction of such errors and on the translation of difficult sentences from idiomatic English into idiomatic Welsh and vice versa. H4 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER (a) A Comparison of the Idioms of English and Welsh. 1. The Article: Welsh has no Indefinite Article like English. Prynodd lyfr newydd. (He bought a new book.) The article is written in Welsh where it is unnecessary in English. Ymwelodd y brenin Edward a'r Aifft. (King Edward visited Egypt.) The article is not written with the first of two nouns as in English, where the second depends on the first. A glywsoch chwi enw'r llyfr ? (Have you heard the name of the book?} (See the Notes on the Article or Demonstrative Adjec- tive, p. 16 Reader.) 2. The Noun : English Proper nouns which have recognized Welsh equivalents should be translated by such forms, as Abertawe (Swansea), Caerefrog (York). And in all other cases, the borrowed word, if it begins with a mutable consonant, should be mutated, as Aeth o Gapernaum i Fethlehem. (He went from Capernaum to Bethlehem.) Welsh distinguishes between grammatical Gender and Sex, therefore all the nouns which are Neuter in English must be translated as either Masculine or Feminine in Welsh. Y mae pont fach ger y ty hwn. (Pont, bridge. Fern. ; ty, house, Masc.) The Singular of many Welsh nouns is formed from the Plural (collective), and not all Plurals from the Singulars as in English. Adar, aderyn (Birds, bird) ; ser, seren (stars, star). The nominative follows the verb in a normal Welsh sentence and usually retains the radical while the accusa- tive follows the nominative and takes the soft mutation. In a normal English sentence the Subject comes first, the Predicate second, and the Object third. Daliodd y bachgen bysgod lawer. (The boy caught many fish.) COMMON ERRORS IN WELSH SPELLING 115 The Genitive construction in Welsh translates both the English Possessive case and the case of the Ob- jective after the preposition ' of.' Adeilad cerryg yw ty'r dyn acw. (That man's house is a building of stone.} The Verb-noun is more of a noun in Welsh than in English and is far more extensively used. Preference should always be given to the verb-noun over an abstract noun ending in suffixes like -iad and -iaeth. For " Gwnaeth benderfyniad i weini cospedigaeth ar ei was cyflogedig," write Penderfynnodd gospi ei was cyflog. (He resolved to punish his hired servant.) 3. The Adjective : The normal position of a descriptive adjective in Welsh is immediately after the noun and not before it as in English. Dyn da. (A good man.) The Welsh adjective does not usually agree with its noun in gender and number, preference being given to the masc. sing, adjective even with plural and feminine nouns. Dyn mawr. (A big man.) Dynes fawr. (A big woman.) Pethau mawr. (Great things.) Afonydddwfn. (Deep rivers.) Welsh has one more Degree of Comparison than English, viz., the Comparative of Equality (or the Equative Degree). Cyn wynned a'r eira. (As white as the snow.) Wynned yw'r eira ! (How white is the snow f) The Welsh Comparative Proper is followed by the negative na, which translates the English than. Y mae Dafydd yn gryfach na'i frawd. (David is stronger than his brother.) The Welsh Superlative often translates the English Comparative. Y goreu o'r ddau. (The better of the two.) Goreu po gyntaf. (The sooner the better.) Welsh Numerals (both Cardinal and Ordinal), like their English equivalents, precede their nouns ; but in Welsh, ii6 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER the nouns remain singular and are often written between the parts of a compound numeral. Saith niwrnod. (Seven days.) Y trydydd dydd. (The third day.) Yr unfed bennod ar bymtheg. (The six- teenth chapter.) The Predicate adjective is introduced by the particle yn (not translated into English), which is followed by the Soft Mutation. A yw eich brawd yn gloff ? (Is your brother lame ?) 4. The Pronoun : The Personal Pronoun has four distinct forms in Welsh, three of which have no distinct equivalents in English, viz., the Postvocalic, Emphatic and Con- junctive. See 130-132 Grammar. Formal pronouns are frequently used to introduce verbs in Welsh, and the ordinary pronouns are likewise repeated for the sake of emphasis after verbs. Mi welaf le. (/ see a place.} Gwyddoch chwi am fy llyfrau i. (You know about my books.) The Welsh Demonstrative Adjective follows its noun and that noun is always preceded by the Article. Y dyn hwn. (This man.) The verb in a Welsh Relative clause is usually in the 3rd singular, even when the antecedent is a plural noun. It is only when the antecedent is a pronoun that the Welsh Relative, like the English, has the verb in agree- ment with it. Dyma'r dynion a ddaeth atom. (These are the men who came to us.) Mi a welais y rhai a alwasant arno. (/ saw them who called upon him.) 5. The Adverb : English Adverbs in -ly are translated into Welsh by means of the corresponding Adjective preceded by yn. Gweithiodd yn egniol. (He worked energetically.) Welsh Questions are introduced by special interroga- tive particles such as a, ai. The English answers yes and no are variously expressed in Welsh, sometimes by do, ie ; naddo, nage ; oes, nac oes, and sometimes by repeating the verb of the Question clause. COMMON ERRORS IN WELSH SPELLING 117 A alwasoch arno ? Do. (Did, you call upon him? Yes.) Ai arnaf fi y galwasoch ? Nage. (Was it upon me you called ? No.) A oes bwyd gennych ? Oes. (Have you any food ? Yes.} A wnewch chwi alw arno ? Gwnaf. (Will you call upon him ? Yes.) 6 The Preposition : Certain Prepositions in Welsh are inflected with pro- nominal suffixes, such as those typified by danaf, hebof, and gennyf. Peidiwch myned hebof. (Do not go without me.) The English of in such prepositions as for the sake of, in spite of, into the midst of, on account of, in the presence of, at the end of, and so on, has nothing to correspond to it in the Welsh prepositional, phrase, but is implied in the genitive relation of the nouns. Ymhen deuddydd. (At the end of two days.) The idiomatic uses of the prepositions should be carefully compared with those of English. See 388-444 Grammar. Note : yn (in) is used before words defined by the article; also before Proper names and most pronouns, mewn (in) is used before words undefined. gan with the Verb-noun, as Gan farw ti a fyddi farw. (Thou shalt surely die.} gan with the verb Bod translates the English has or have; e.g., Y mae gennyf lyfr. (/ have a book.) Wrth in comparisons translates the English com- pared with. Hawddgared wrth fy ngwlad fy hun yw'r gwledydd pell. (How fair compared with my own country are the distant lands.} 7. The Verb: The Welsh verb has no Middle Voice. For the form* r the prefix ym- is added to the verb to give it a reflexive force. Ymolchaf. (I wash myself.) The Welsh simple verb has no separate forms for the ii8 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER pairs of tenses Present and Future, Aorist and Perfect. The Welsh Verb-noun, compounded with suitable prepositions, translates the English Infinitive and Par- ticiple, the Absolute construction and the Periphrastic tenses. Arferwn gerdded y ffordd yna beunydd \vrth fyned tua'r ysgol. (/ used to walk that road daily in going to school,) For the verb is, Welsh has four different forms, mae, yw, oes and sydd and the idiomatic use of each form should be carefully noted. See 484-490 Grammar. The Regular Welsh verb has a special strong form for its 3rd sing, present indicative, which should always be used in preference to the colloquial and periphrastic forms. Yr Arglwydd a edwyn y cyfiawn. (Not ' adwaena ' nor ' y mae yn adnabod.') (The Lord knoweth the righteous.) The Verb comes first in a Normal Welsh sentence, and frequently it includes the Subject (when a pronoun) within itself. In English, on the other hand, the pronoun nominative is always written separately and the subject usually precedes the verb. Dychwelaf yfory. (/ shall return to-morrow.) Welsh shows a fondness for the 3rd singular verb in the following constructions : (a) In a sentence of the normal order, when the Subject is a noun or pronoun other than personal : Daeth pobl lawer ynghyd. (Many people came together.) Pwy yw y rhai hyn ? (Who are these ?) (b) In a sentence where the verb To be follows its Subject : Enwau'r cystadleuwyr yw. (The names of the competitors are.} (c) In a sentence of the inverted order the verb of the Relative clause after a is always 3rd singular. Wele'r llyfrau a brynodd fy mrawd. (Behold the books which my brother bought.} It should be noticed therefore that the concord of the COMMON ERRORS IN WELSH SPELLING 119 verb with its subject in English is far from being the common rule in Welsh. (b) Common Errors. The following are cautions as to the points of orthography, syntax, and style with regard to which mistakes are most frequently made : 1. Avoid using m, n and ng as the Nasal mutation of words beginning with p, t, and c. See 60 Grammar. 2. Note that the Voiced or Soft mutation is used to indicate the Nominative of Address, the Accusative case after a transitive verb, the Accus. after certain prepositions such as am, i and so on, and in the second element of compound words and breath-groups. See p. 77, Type A, Grammar. 3. Note that the aspirate mutation follows a (and), a (with), na (nor),/a (towards), Ira (very), ei (her), tri (three), and chwe (six). See p. 79, Type B, Grammar. 4. Note that the Nasal mutation follows yn (in), and saith, wyth, naw, deg in the case of diwrnod (day) and blynedd (year) only. See p. 79, Type C, Grammar. 5. Avoid writing the Soft mutation after un (one) and y (the) in feminine nouns beginning with // and rh. Cp. y lie, y rhes, un Haw, un rhan. 6. The inorganic h should not be omitted in the following constructions : After m, n, ng, r or a vowel in an accented syllable. Prefixed to initial vowels of nouns after ei (her), eu (their), ein (our), but not eich (your). Attached to ugain (twenty) in compound numerals. In verbs following the post-vocalic ace. pers. pron. '*. See 34, 35 ; 68-71 Grammar. 7. The different mutations that follow yn should not be confused, viz., yn + verb-noun. (Radical retained.) yn canu ; yn + adjective. (Voiced mutation.) Canodd yn dda. yn + noun. (Nasal mutation.) Yng Nghymru. Note the exception ' yn Gymraeg ' (in Welsh) and ' yng Nghymraeg y Beibl ' (in the Welsh of the Bible). See 436-439 Grammar. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER 8. Care should be taken not to confuse nouns with double plurals of different meanings. See 90 Grammar. 9. Since all the neuter nouns of English are either Masculine or Feminine in Welsh, careful observation of usage is necessary to avoid confusing the genders. See 100-112 Grammar. 10. The short lists of Feminine and Plural Adjectives should be learnt, so that their correct usage with feminine or plural nouns may be observed. Feminine nouns, for example, should not be preceded by a masculine numeral. See 99, 103, 121, 122-127 Grammar. 11. The use of the particles mor and cyn in the compari- son of adjectives should be carefully noted. See 118-120 Grammar. 12. Avoid using pwy ? (Interrogative Pronoun who ?) for pa (Inter. Adjective what ?) The former always stands alone and the latter always precedes a noun. Similarly pawb should be used as a noun and pob as an adjective. Distinguish between the use of ei (his) followed by the Soft Mutation and ei (her) followed by the Aspirate. Ei (singular, his or her) should not be confused with eu (plural, their). Note also that i'w stands for i ei or i eu and translates to his, to her or to their. See 132 a, 141, 158 Gram- mar. 13. Avoid using yr hwn, yr hon, pa un, pa rai to translate the English Relative pronouns into Welsh, when the forms a and y will suffice. See 167, 168 Grammar. 14. The following words should not be confused : gartref (at home) with adref (towards home], Cymru (Wales] with Cymry (the Welsh people], Saesneg (the English language] with Seisnig (English], o hono, o honi (of him, of her) with honno (that, fern.) and honni (to assert). 15. It should be noted that in prepositions conjugated with pronominal suffixes, the -ad, appears only in the 3rd person, masc. and fern. sing, and plural. See 293, no. 2 Grammar. COMMON ERRORS IN WELSH SPELLING 121 16. Care should be taken in writing Welsh verbs (a) That the Present Subjunctive in -wyf be not used for the Present Indicative in -af. (b) That to, the sign of the English Infinitive, be not translated into Welsh. The verb-noun without i will generally suffice. (c) That the verb in the Welsh Relative clause is 3rd singular in all cases except when the antecedent is a personal pronoun. (d) That the 3rd singular yw (is) should be used even with plural nominatives, as Enwau'r cystadleuwyr yw (not ydynf). Note also the idiomatic usage of mae, yw, oes and sydd to translate the English is. (e) That the simple verb should generally be pre- ferred to the periphrastic tenses : i.e., for ' oeddynt wedi gweled ' write ' gwelsent. ' (/) Auxiliaries and weak words such as cael should be avoided as far as possible in verbal con- structions. For ' y mae efe yn cael ei gydna- bod ' write ' cydnabyddir ef.' (g) The Sequence of tenses should be carefully observed. For ' Os aeth heb ddweyd buasai yn arwydd o ofn ' write ' Os aeth . . byddai. . .' 17. Literary Prose Style would also be improved if the following errors were avoided : (a) The writing of colloquial forms for those of literary Welsh, such as llefydd for lleoedd, sers for ser, etc. (b) The separating of prepositions from their objects, such as Cofiais am ac ufuddheais i 'r gorchymyn, for Cofiais am y gorchymyn ac ufuddheais iddo. (c) Redundancy of expression. (d) Violation of the normal order of words except when the need for a particular emphasis justifies the inversion. Things which are to be thought of together must be mentioned as closely as possible together. FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER (e) The use of two different kinds of construction in the same sentence. (/) The use of words spelt or pronounced alike but differing in meaning and origin. (g) The literal imitation of English phrase, such as Yr wyf yn alluog i (7 am able to) for Gallaf . Ei fynediad a dyfodiad (His coming and going) for Ei fynd a dod. Nid oeddwn yn ymwy- bodol o'i bresenoldeb (/ was not conscious of his presence) for Ni wyddwn ei fod yno. Fel mater o ffaith (as a matter of fact) for Yn wir. EXERCISE 34. (a) Correct the orthography of the following words where necessary, giving your reason in each case : cynghor, cydmarol, ychain, cynhenaf, ysgrifenwy'd, lluosog, dysglair, cymmainl, cyddio, cynganheddol. (Matric. 1908, July.) (b) Correct the errors in the following sentences : ' Clywais rhai yn dweyd fel hyn.' ' Daeth i fy mryd, dair neu bedair mlynedd yn ol, i ymweled a Llanwddyn.' ' Rhoddodd i ni f awr foddhad i sylwi ar ei ddull pwyllog a theg ef o edrych ar y pwnc.' ' Os aeth yr haul i lawr yn goch-lwyd, buasai hynny yn arwydd o dywydd teg.' ' Coeliwyf mai gwell peidio os y daw efe gartref heno.' ' A ganlyn ydynt yr enwau.' ' Pa bethyw hynny yn Nghymraeg ? ' (Matric. 1896.) ' Fel ei traddodir gan y brenhin.' ' Mae yn ei fwriad i ail agor ei chwarel.' ' I'r un amcan ag y dugodd Israel yr arch i'r gwersyll.' 1 I Rhys ab Meredydd.' ' Onid ellid trefni i gael pwyllgor ? ' ' Ai ni wnaeth efe brynu palas ? ' ' A ydym ni yn wir sylweddoli y pwysigrwydd ? ' ' Ar gyfrifoldeb eu hunain.' ' Rhyw noson dywell aeth tua'r rhos.' (Matric. 1901.) COMMON ERRORS IN WELSH SPELLING 123 ' Byw yn Gaer Dydd.' ' Cerdded i Bangor.' ' Myned gartref.' ' Pregethu yn Nghymraeg.' ' Llawer o lefydd tlysion.' ' Mae arno awydd i fyned.' ' Y rhai hyn ydynt y?: enwau.' ' Pawb a ddaethant yma.' ' Y wlad am ffrwythlondeb y/r hon yr oeddent wedi clywed son.' (Matric. 1902.) ' Peidiwch a dianc hebddom ni.' ' Y prif resymau yw y rhai a ganlynant.' ' Pwy ddyn a welsoch ? ' ' Ag un law heuodd un res o ffa.' ' Dacw'r bechgyn pa rai a ddiangasant o'r ysgol.' ' Parchus gynulleidfa, gwrandewch ! ' Aeth y plant ei hunain i'r ysgol.' ' Y bobl am ba rai yr ydym yn son.' ' Fe rhanwyd gwlad Canaan rhwng llwythi Israel ? ' Ceisiai ysgrifennu yn Gymraeg y clasuron.' ' Pawb dynion sydd farwol.' 'Wedi saith blynedd dychwelodd gartref.' ' Torrais fy mys a cyllell lym.' ' Dyma'r llanc am yr hwn yr oeddem yn son.' ' Y dynion a ddywedasant wrthi am wneud felly erddym. (c) Translate the following expressions into idiomatic Welsh or English as required : I. i. Goreu awen, gwirionedd. 2. Mewn undeb mae nerth. 3. Nid byd, byd heb wybodaeth. 4. Goreu arf, arf dysg. 5. You deceive yourselves. 6. Let justice be done. 7. To err is human. 8. I am determined to go. (Matric. 1903.) II. i. Ami done a dyr y garreg. 2. A fo ben bid bont. 3. Gan y tri hyn y lias traian y dynion. 4. Wedi ail ennill ei wlad gwaith nesaf Rhys oedd ail ennill ei awdurdod. 5. When they are not quarrelling, they are fighting. 6. Go and tell him that he is to come at once. 7. Those who leave before the time will lose 124 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER their places. 8. You have been told a hundred times at least to do this. (Matric. 1904.) III. i. Nid digon un byd. 2. Gelyn i ddyn yw ei dda. 3. Gvvell gwegil car na gwyneb estron. 4. Cas yw'r gwirionedd lie ni charer. 5. A penny saved is a penny gained. 6. Let the truth prevail. 7. The history of the world is the history of its greatest men. 8. He must go before you can possibly return. (Matric. 1905.) IV. i. I knew his brother quite well but I never knew where he lived. 2. He never meant to come. 3. It matters little to me whether you go or stay. 4. Can you come and see us without their knowing it ? 5. Breath- less and tired, he came in first. (Matric. 1906.) VOCABULARY I. WELSH INTO ENGLISH A, ac, ag, and, with, as. a, ai, untranslatable interrogative particles. abl, sufficient, able. acw, yonder, there. achos, cause, reason. achub, to save, defend. adeilad, a building. adar, birds. adnod, a verse. adran, a part, subdivision. adref, homeward. adwaen, to know ; adwaenir, is known. addewid, a promise. addysg, education. aed, let him go ; aeth, he went ; af, / shall go. afon, river. agos, near. angau, death. angenrheidiol, necessary. Aifft, Egypt. ail, second. Alecsander, Alexander. allan, out. am, for, about, of ; amdano, for him. ameu, to doubt. ami, often ; yn ami, frequently. amryw, many. amser, time. Amwythig, Shrewsbury. amynedd, patience. anialwch, wilderness, desert. anrhydeddu, to honour. anthem, anthem. anwyl, dear, beloved. ar, on, upon ; arnaf, upon me. ar ol, behind, after. ar unwaith, at once. araf, slow. arall, another ; ereill, others. Arglwydd, Lord. argraffu, to print, to impress. arian, money. aros, to wait, stay, remain. asyn, a he-ass. at, to ; ato, to him. ateb, to answer. ato, in the phrase Na ato Duw. God forbid ! atolwg, beseeching, I pray thee. athraw, teacher. awdwr, author. awn, let us go, we go. awr, hour ; awr ginio, dinner hour. Awst, August. B Bachgen, a boy. Bala, Bala. bara, bread. barddoniaeth, poetry. barn, opinion ; barnu, to judge. bedd, grave, sepulchre. beirniadu, to criticise, judge. benthyg, loan, a borrowed thing. beth, What ? Cp. Pa beth ? beunydd, daily ; beunyddiol 1 / daily. 126 blaen, point ; o'r blaen, first, before. blino, to become weary ; blinir, is troubled. blodau, flowers. bloeddio, to shout. blwydd, blynedd, blwydclyn, a year. bo, he may be ; bod, to be ; boed, let it be. boddi, to drown. boddlawn, willing ; boddloni, to satisfy. bore, the morning. braint, privilege. bran, a crow. brawd, brother. brenin, king ; brenhinol, royal. bron, breast, side of a hill. brwnt, dirty. bryn, hill. brysio, to hasten ; brysiog, hasty ; yn frysiog, hastily. buan, soon. buasai, *'/ would have been. buwch, cow. bwrw, to cast ; bwrw eira, to snow. bwyd, food. byd, world. bydd, bu, he will be ; he was. bys, finger. byw, to live ; bywyd, life. cadarn, strong. cadw, to keep ; cadwedig, saved. cae, field, enclosure. cael, to find, receive ; cael cynnyg, to receive an offer. Caer, Chester. Caerdydd, Cardiff. caf, 7 shall have ; caf ddod, 7 shall be allowed to come ; caflfed, let him have. cais, request. camp, a task. camsyniad, a mistake /camsynied, to mistake. can, caneuon, caniadau, song songs. can, cant, hundred. canfyddid, it was perceived. See canfod. canmol, to praise. canol, the middle. canu, to sing. canys, for, because. cardota, to beg alms. caredig, kind. cariad, love. carreg, a stone. cartref, home ; cartrefu, to dwell, to live. caru, to love. caseg, mare. castell, a castle. cath, a cat. cawn, we shall have. cefais, 7 found. ceffyl, horse. ceiliog, cock. ceisio, to seek. cerdded, to walk. ci, cwn, dog, dogs, claddu, to bury. cloddio, to dig. cloff, lame. clywed, to hear ; clybu, he heard. cneua, to go a-nutting. coch, red. codi, to arise. coed, trees. coelio, to believe. cofio, to remember. colli, to lose. concwest, victory, conquest. condemnio, to condemn. corif, body. coron, crown. cospi, to punish. craig, rock. creel u, to believe. creulondeb, cruelty. croen, skin. cryf, strong. crynnu, to tremble. cuddiedig, hidden. VOCABULARY WELSH INTO ENGLISH 127 cul, narrow. cwbl, all, whole. cwningen, rabbit. cwr, end, edge. cwrdd, to meet. cychwyn, to start. cyd-efrydwyr, fellow-students. cydnabod, to acknowledge. cyfaill, friend. cyfamod, covenant. cyfamser, meantime. cyfarfod, to meet ; cyfarfod canu, singing practice. cyfeiriad, address. cyfiawn, righteous. cyflym, quick. cyfodi, to arise. cyfoeth, riches ; cyfoethog, rich. cyfraith, law. cyfrifoldeb, responsibility. cyflf, trunk of a tree. cyffesu, to confess. cyngor, advice. cyllell, knife. cymdogion, neighbours. cymeryd, to take. Cymraeg, Cymreig, Welsh. Cymro, Welshman ; Cymraes, Welshwoman. Cymru, Wales ; Cymry, the Welsh people ; Cymru Fu, Wales of the past. cymysg, mixed. cyn, before ; cyn hir, soon, ere long ; cyn pen mis, before a month is over. cyn, as ; cyn wynned a, as white as. cynnes, warm. cynrychiolydd, representative. cyntaf, first. cyrchu, to fetch, or bring. cyrraedd, to reach. cysgu, to sleep. cywilyddus, shameful. cywir, true, faithful. CH chwaer, sister. chwarae, to play. chwech, six. chwerthin, to laugh. chwilio, to search. Da, good ; yn dda, well. dacw, see yonder, behold. dadl, debate ; dadleu, to discuss. dafad, sheep. Dafydd, David. dangos, to show. dail, leaves. daioni, goodness, benefit. dal, to catch. danfon, to send. dant, tooth. darfod, to cease ; darffo, it shall end. darllen, to read. dau, two. daw, he will come. deall, to understand. dechreu, to begin. clefnyddio, to use. derbyn, to receive. derw, oak. deuddeg, twelve. deuddydd, two days. deuwch, come (ye). See Dyfod. dewis, to wish, choose, take. dewr, brave. dianc, to escape. diau, certain ; yn ddiau, un doubtedly. dibyn, edge. dichon, possible, it is possible. dieithr, strange ; dieithr-ddyn , a stranger. diflas, miserable. difyr, interesting. diffygio, to faint, fail. digio, to offend, be offended. digon, enough. dilyn, to follow. dim, nothing. diolch, to thank. disgwyl, to expect, look for. 128 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER disgyn, to fall. diwedd, end ; o'r diwedd, at last. diweddar, late ; diweddaraf , latest. diwyd, energetic. do, yes. dodrefn, furniture. doe, yesterday. doed a ddelo, come what may. doeth, wise. d61, meadow. dolur, disease. dont, they will come. See Dyfod. dosbarth, class. drachefn, again. Drefnewydd (Y), Newtown. dros, over ; drosto, for him, on his behalf. drud, expensive. drws, door. du, black ; dued, how black ! Duw, God. dwfn, deep. dwfr, water. dwyfol, divine. dwyn, to bear, bearing. dwyrain, east. dychwelyd, to return. dydd, day. dyfod, to come. Dyfrdwy, the Dee. dyffryn, valley. dygo, Subj. 3 s. of dwyn, to bring. dylai, he should, ought. dyma, see, here is, behold. dymuniad, desire. dyn, dynes, man, woman. dynol, human. dyro, give (thou), dyry, he shall give. dysgu, to learn, to teach. dywedyd, to say, tell ; dweyd ei fod, to say that he is. Ebe, said he. echdoe, day before yesterday. echnos, night before last. edmygu, to admire. edrych, to look. edwyn, he knows. See adwaen. ef, efe, he, it. eglwys, church. ei, his, her ; ei heiddo hi, hers. ei, thou wilt go. See Af (/ go). Eidal, Italy. eich, your. eiddo pwy ? whose ? ein, our ; ein gilydd, one another. eira, snow. eisoes, already. eistedd, to sit. eleni, this year. eloch, 2 pi. Subj. of Myned to go. Emanuel, Immanuel. emyn, hymn. ennill, to win. enw, name. er, although, however ; er pan, since ; er mwyn, for the sake of. ereill, others. erioed, never, ever. eryr, eagle. esgeulusdod, negligence. eto, again, still. Ethiop, Ethiopian. eu, their ; eu hunain, themselves. ewyllys, will. ewythr, uncle. Pel, as, so that. felly, so, thus. fy, my ; fy hun, myself. fyny, i fyny, upwards. Ff. Ffair, fair. ffenestr, window. fferm, farm. ' ffigysbren, fig-tree. ffol, foolish. ffon, stick. ffordd, road, way. ffuon, rose, of a blushing hue. ffyrnig, fierce. VOCABULARY WELSH INTO ENGLISH 129 Gadael, to leave, allow ; gad, let. gair, word ; gair am air, word for word. galw, to call. gallu, to be able ; gallaf, / can. galluog, clever. gan, since, with, by ; gan fy mod, since I am. ganwyd, was born. gardd, garden. gartref, at home. gelyn, enemy. gerllaw, near. gewyn, muscle. glan, edge, side ; glan y m6r, seaside. glynu, to cling. gobaith, hope ; gobeithio, to hope. goddef, to stand or bear. goddiweddu, to overtake. gofal, care. gofyn, to ask. golwg, sight ; golygfa, scene. gonestrwydd, honesty. gorchfygu, to defeat, conquer. goreu, best ; o'r goreu, very well. gorfodi, to force ; gorfod myned, to be obliged to go. gorfyddai (pe), were (I) compelled. gorchymyn, to command. gorffen, to end, finish. gorffwys, to rest. gormod, too much. gosod, to place. grudd, cheek ; deurudd, cheeks. gwadu, to deny. gwael, poor; pur wael, rather poor. gwair, hay. gwaith, time, as in unwaith. gwartheg, cattle, cows. gwas, servant. gweddio, to pray. gweithio, to work. gweithred, act, action. gweled, to see. gwell, better ; gwell yw gennyf, / prefer. gwella, to improve. gwellt, straw. gwers, lesson. gwerth, value ; gwerthfawr, valu- able. gwerthfawrogi, to appreciate. gwerthu, to sell. gwir, true ; y gwir, the truth. gwisgo, to wear. gwlad, country. gwlaw, rain. gwlyb, wet. gwn, / know ; fel y gwypwyf, that I may know. gwnaf gofio, / shall remember. gwneud, to do, set ; gvmeud camsyniad, to err. gwobr, prize, reward. gwobrwyo, to reward. gwr, man, husband. gwraig, woman, wife. gwrando, to hear, listen. gwrhydri, heroism. gwthio, to push. gwyddonol, scientific. gwyliau, holidays. gwyn, white. Gwynedd, North Wales. gwyrdd, green. gyda, with. gymaint, as much. gynt, formerly ; gynted, as soon. H Haf, summer. Hafren, the Severn. hamddenol, leisurely. hannu, to descend. hardd, fair, beautiful, pretty. haws, easier. heb, without. heddwch, peace. heddyw, to-day. hefyd, also. heibio, by, besides. helynt, affair. hen, old. henffych, hail ! K 130 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER hir, long ; yn hir, for long. hoff, fond. hoffi, to like. holl, all, the whole. hwde, take (Imper.). hwn, this ; hwn yma, this here ; hwn acw, that yonder. hwrdd, ram. hwyr, evening, late. hwyrach, probably, perhaps. hyd, till ; hyd oni, hyd nes, until. hyfryd, fair, fine. hyn, this ; hynny, those. hynafgwr, elder, old man. I I, for, to, into, unto. I3ch, healthy ; iachus, healthy. iaith, language. iar, hen. iawn, very ; mawr iawn, very much. iddo, to him. ie, yes. lesu, Jesus. ieuanc, young. imi, to me. luddewon, Jews. Iwerddon, Ireland ; M6rlwerddon, Irish Sea. LL Lladrata, to steal. lladd, to kill. lladd gwair, to mow hay. llafurio, to labour, to work. llai o dir, less land. llais, voice. llarpio, to devour. Hath, yard. Haw, hand. llawer, much, many. llawr, i lawr, down, downwards. lie, place, where ; pa le, where. lie bynnag, wherever. lief, cry. llefain, to cry. lleidr, thief. lletya, to dwell. Hew, lion. llithro, to slip. Lloegr, England. llogell, pocket. Hong, ship. llosgi, to burn. Llundain, London. llwm, bare. llwybr, path. llwyddiant, progress. llwyddo, to get on, to succeed. llwythau, tribes. llwytho, to load. llydan, broad, wide. llyfr, book. llyfrgell, library, book case. llygad, eye. llynedd, last year. llythyr, letter. Mab, son. maddeu, to forgive. mae, there is. mai, that. Mai, May. mam, mother. man, yn y man, by and by. man, small. manna, manna. marchnad, market. marw, to die. masnachwr, tradesman. mawr, yn fawr iawn, large, very much. medru, to be able. medd, he says. meddiannu, to own. meddiannydd, owner. meddwl, to think. meddyg, doctor. meistr, meistres, master, mistress. melus, sweet. melyn, yellow. mentro, to venture, to risk. menyg, gloves. merch, daughter, girl. VOCABULARY WELSH INTO ENGLISH methu, to fail. mewn, i fewn, in, within. mil, thousand. milwr, soldier. milltir, mile. mis, month. modryb, aunt. modd, way, mode. moes, give, Imper. mor, so. mor, sea. mo'r, dim o'r, none of. morwyn, maid. mwy, yn fwy, more. myfi yw, it is I. myned, to go. mynych, often, frequently. mynychu, to frequent. mynnu, to will t to like. mynydd, mountain. myrddiwn, tens of thousands. N Na, than, no. Nadolig, Christmas. nant, brook. Nasareth, Nazareth. naw o'r gloch, nine o'clock. nefoedd, heaven. neithiwr, last night. nes, until. nesaf, next. neu, or. newydd, new. newyddion, news. ni, we. ni, nid, not, never. nis, as in nis gallaf, I cannot. nofio, to swim. nos, noswaith, night. nyth, nest. O, of, from. o bell, from afar. oblegid, because. ochr, side. oddicartref, from home. oddiwrth, from. oed, age. oedd, he was. oen, lamb. oer, cold. oeri, to grow cold. oes, is, lifetime. ofni, to fear. o gwbl, at all. o honof, lit., out of me. o hyd, always, continually. o hyn allan, from this time forth. olaf, yn olaf, last, lastly. o na ! oh that ! would that ! ond, but. oni, unless, if not. o'r blaen, before. os, if. Pa, what. pa beth bynnag, whatever, whatso- ever. pa bryd bynnag, whenever. pa mor anhawdd bynnag, however difficult. paham ? why ? palas, palace. pan, when. papurau, papers. paradwys, Paradise. parch, respect. parhau, to continue. parod, ready. par odd, it set, it caused. Pasg, Easter. pawb, all. pe, if ; pe rhoiswn, had I given, pechaduriaid, sinners. peid,iwch, do not. pell, far. pen, head. penned, chapter. pentref, village. perffaith, perfect. peth, thing ; peth felly, such a thing. piau, he owns. 132 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER pla, plague. plant, children. pluf, feathers. po, the, + Superl. pob, every ; pob amser, alway s. pobl, people. pori, to graze. porth, gate. pregethwr, preacher. prif, chief. prin, hardly. pris, price. profedigaeth, temptation. proffwyd, prophet. Protestant, Protestant. pryd, time. pryd, pa bryd, When ? prydferth, beautiful. prynu, to buy. punt, pound. pur, yn burach, pure, purer. pwll, pit. pwnc, subject, point. pwrcasu, to purchase. pysgodyn, fish. R Rhad, yn rhad, cheap, cheaply. rhag, lest. rhai, some. rhaid, it must ; rhaid yw, there is necessity. rhagor o, more of. rhan, lot, phase, division. rhedeg, to run. rheswm, reason. rhieni, parents. rhiw, slope, hill. rhodd, gift. rhoddi, to give, to put. rhy, too. rhyddhau, to release. rhyddid, liberty. rhyngoch, between yov. rhywbeth, something. rhywrai ffol, some foolish ones. rhywun, some one. Saesneg, English Language. safle, position. Sais, Saesnes, Englishman, Eng- lishwoman. sant, saint. sefyll, to stand. seren, star. siarad, to speak, to talk. son, talk, mention. stori, story. sydd, is ; sydd gennych, you have. syniad, thought. syrthio, to fall. Tad, father. tal, tall. talm, space of time ; er ys talm, long ago. tan, fire. tan, until, under. tarddiad, source. tebyg, yn debyg, like. teithio, to travel. teulu, family. tew, thick, fat. ti, thoit. tir, land, earth. tlawd, poor. tlws, pretty, pleasant. torri, to break. traethu, to relate, to tell. trechu, to defeat. tref, town. trennydd, the day after to-mnrrow. treulio, to spend. tro, time, turn, walk. troed, foot. troi, to turn. tros, over ; drosodd, over ; tros y bwrdd, overboard. troseddu, to transgress. trwm, heavy. trwy, through, during. tua, tuag, towards. tu ol i, behind. ty, house. VOCABULARY WELSH INTO ENGLISH 133 tybio, to suppose, to consider. tyred, come. Tywi, river Towy. tywydd, weather. tywyll, dark. tywyllwch, darkness. tywysog, prince. Uchaf, highest. uchel, high ; yn bur uchel, rather ugain, twenty, score. un, one, any one, same. union, rightful. unwaith, once. W Wele, behold, see. weithiau, sometimes. wrth, by, at, compared with. wrthyf, to me. wy. egg. wylo, to weep. wythnos, week. Y, The. ych, ox. ychydig, little. ydys, it is. y fath, such. yfory, to-morrow. yma, here. ymadael, to leave. ymaith, away. y mae, he, she, or it is. ymarfer, to examine oneself. ymchwil, search. ymdeimlo a, to be disposed to. ymddengys, it seems. ymddiddan, to talk, converse with. ymddwyn, to behave, to act. ymffrostio, to boast, to pride one- self. ymgryfhau, to strengthen oneself. ymgrymu, to bow oneself. ymguddio, to hide oneself. ymha le, where. ymhen, at the end. ymladd, to fight. ymlidio, to pursue. ymofyn, to search, make inquiry. ymolchi, to wash oneself. ymweled, to visit. yn, in. yna, then, there. yn agos, near. yn awr, now. yn bendant, definitely. yn drwm, heavily. yn dda, well. yn ddiwyd, diligently. ynddo, in it. yn egniol, energetically. yn felus, sweetly. yn fore, early. yn fuan, soon. yn gynt, sooner. yn gywir, correctly. yng Nghymru, in Wales. y naill, the one. yno, there. yn ol, ago. yn sior, surely, certainly. yn sych, dry. ynte, or. yn unig, only.. yn wahanol, differently. yn well, better. yn ystod, during. y rhai hyn, these. yr hwn, who, he who. yr un, the same. ysbryd, spirit. ysgol, school. ysgrifennu, to write. ystenaid, pitcher. ystraeon, tales. ystyried, to consider. VOCABULARY II. ENGLISH INTO WELSH Able, abl ; to be able, medru or gallu. about, am ; about to, ar fedr. acknowledge (to), cydnabod. act, action, gweithred ; to act, ymddwyn. address, cyfeiriad. admire (to), edmygu. advice, cyngor. afar, pell ; from afar, o bell. affair, helynt. after, ar ol. again, drachefn, eto. age, oed. ago, yn ol. all, pawb, cwbl, holl ; at all, ogwbl. Alexander, Alecsander. almost, bron. already, eisoes. also, he/yd. alternately, bob yn ail. although, er. always, bob amser, o hyd. another, arall. answer (to), ateb. anthem, anthem. any one, un. appreciate (to), gwerthfawrogi. are. (they), y maent. arise (to), cyfodi. as, a, ag ; cyn, fel. ask (to), gofyn. ass, asyn (m.), asen (f.). at once, ar unwaith ; at last, o'r diwedd. August, Awst. aunt, modryb. author, awdwr. away, ymaith. B Bala, y Bala. bare, llwm. be (to), bod; he maybe,'Jbo. bear (to), dwyn, goddef. beautiful, hardd, prydferth because, canys, oblegid. become (to), dyfod. before, o'r blaen, cyn ?< before a month is gone, cyn pen mis. beg (to), cardota. begin (to), dechreu. behalf (on his), drosto. behave (to), ymddwyn. behind, ar ol, tu ol i. behold, dyma, wele. believe (to), credu, coelio. benefit, daioni. beseech (to), atolygu. besides, heibio. better, best, guiell, ^goreu, yn oreu ; better than, yn well na. between, rhwng. birds, adar. black, du. boast (to), ymffrostio. body, corff. book, llyfr. bookcase, llyfrgell. born (to be), geni. bow oneself (to), ymgrymu. 134 VOCABULARY ENGLISH INTO WELSH 135 boy, bachgen. brave, dewr. bread, bara. break (to), torn. breast, bron. bring (to), dwyn, cyrchu. broad, llydan. brook, nant. brother, brdwd. buildings, adeiladau. bury (to), claddu. burning, llosgi. but, ond. buy (to), prynnu. by, heibio ; gan, wrth, at ; by and by, yn y man. by night, liw nos. condemn (to), condemnio. confess (to), cyffesu. conquest, concwest ; conquering, gorchfygu. consider (to), tybio, ystyried. continue (to), parhau ; continu- ally, o hyd. converse with (to), ymddiddan a. correctly, yn gywir. could (he), medrai. country, gwlad. 4 covenant, cyfamod. cow, buwch. criticise (to), beirniadu. crow, bran. crown, coron. cruelty, creulondeb. cry, lief ; to cry, lie fain. Call (to), galw. cannot (I), nis gallaf ; I can, gallaf. Cardiff, Caerdydd. care, gofal. castle, castell. cat, cath. catch (to), dal. cattle, cows, gwartheg. cause, achos ; to cause, peri. certain, diau ; certainly, yn sicv. chapter, penned. cheap, rhad. cheek, grudd ; cheeks, deurudd. Chester, Caer. chief, prif. children, plant. choose (to), dewis. Christmas, Nadolig. church, eglwys. class, dosbarth. clever, galluog. cling (to), glynu. cock, ceiliog. cold, oer ; to grow cold, oerii. come (to), dyfod ; come thou, tyred ; come across, dod o hydi. & command (to), gorchymyn. compel (to), gorfodi. Daily, bob dydd, beunyddiol, beunydd. dark, tywyll. darkness, tywyllwch. daughter, merch. David, Dafydd. day, dydd. day before yesterday, echdoe : night before last, echnos. dear, anwyl. death, angau. debate, dadl. Dee, Y Ddyfrdwy. deep, d'wfn. defeat (to), gorchfygu, trechu. definitely, yn bendant. deny (to), gwadu. descend (to), hannu. desire, dymuniad, to desire, chwenychu. devour (to), llarpio. die (to), marw ; when he died, pan fu farw. differently, yn wahanol. difficult, anhawdd ; however diffi- cult, pa mor anhawdd bynnag. dig (to), cloddio. 136 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER diligently, yn ddiwyd. dinner hour, awr ginio. dirty, brwnt. discuss (to), dadleu. disease, dolur. disposed (to be), ymdeimlo A. divine, dwyfol. division, rhan. do (to), gwneud ; do not (Imper.) peidiwch. doctors, meddygon. dog, ci. door, drws. doubt (to), ameu. down, lawr ; downwards, t lawr. drown (to), boddi. dry, yn sych, during, trwy, yn ystod. dweU (to), lletya. E Eagle, eryr. early, yn fore. earth, tir. easier, haws, yn haws. east, dwyrain. Easter, Pasc. edge, dibyn. education, addysg. egg, wy. Egypt, Yr Aifft. elder, hynafgwr. end, edge, cwr, glan, diwedd. end (to), gorffen ; it shall end, darffo ; at the end, ymhen. enemy, gelyn. energetic, diwyd ; energetically, yn egniol. England, Lloegr. English language, Saesneg. Englishman, Sais. Englishwoman, Saesnes. enough, digon. enter (to), myned i fewn. err (to), gwneud camsyniad. escape (to), dianc. Ethiopian, Ethiop. evening, hwyr. every, pob ; every day, bob dydd. exercise oneself (to), ymarfer. expect (to), disgwyl. expensive, drud. eye, llygad. Fail (to), methu. faint (to), diffygio. fair, ffair ; hyfryd, hardd. faithful, cywir. falling, disgyn ; to fall, syrthio. family, teulu. far, pell. farm, fferm. fat, tew. father, tt~d. fear (to), ofni. feather, pluen. fellow-students, cyd-efrydwyr. fetch (to), cyrchu. field, cae. fiercely, yn ffyrnig. fig tree, ffigysbren. fight (to), ymladd. find (to), cael ; I found, cefais. finger, bys. finish (to), darfod. fire, tan. first, cyntaf. fish, pysgod. flowers, blodau. foe, gelyn. follow, dilyn. fond, hoff. food, bwyd. foolish, ffol. foot, troed. for, am, canys ; for him, am dano, drosto. for the sake of, er mwyn. forbid (God), na ato Duw. force (to), gorfodi. forgive (to), madden. formerly, gynt. forth, ymlaen ; from this time forth, o hyn allan. friend, cyfaill, cy fettles. VOCABULARY ENGLISH INTO WELSH 137 frequent (to), mynychu. frequently, yn fynych. from, oddiwrth. furniture, dodrefn. Garden, gardd. gate, porth. get on (to), llwyddo. gift, rhodd. give (to), rhoddi ; Imper. moes, dyro. gloves, menyg. go (to), myned ; I will go, af ; go thou, dos. God, Duw ; God forbid, na ato Duw. good, da. grave, bedd. graze (to), pori. great, mawr ; greatest, mwyaf. green, gwyrdd. H Hail ; henffych. hand, llaw ; two hands, dwylaw. hardly, prin. hastily, yn frysiog ; to hasten, brysio. have (to), cael ; let him have, caffed. hay, gwair. head, pen. hear (to), gwrando, clywed. healthy, iach, iachus. heaven, nefoedd. heavy, trwm ; heavily, yn drwm. hen, iar. here, yma ; here is, dyma. heroism, gwrhydri. hers, ei heiddo hi. hide oneself (to), ymguddio. hidden, cuddiedig. high, uchel ; rather high, yn bur uchel. hill, bryn, rhiw, his, her, ei. holidays, gwyliau. home, cartref ; at home, gartref ; from home, oddicartref. homewards, adref. honesty, gonestrwydd. honour (to), anrhydeddu. hope, gobaith ; to hope, gobeithio. horse, ceffyl. hour, awr. house, iff. however, er. human, dynol. hundred, cant, can. husband, gwr. hymn, emyn. If, os ; if not, oni, pe. Immanuel, Emanuel. improve (to), gwella. in, mewn, i, yn ; in Wales, Yng Nghytnru. interesting, difyr. into, '. Ireland, Iwerddon. Irish Sea, Mdr Iwerddon. is (there), y mae, sydd ; it is, ydys. it, ef ; it is I, myfi yw. Italy, yr Eidal. Jesus, lesu. Jews, luddewon. judge (to), barnu. K Keep (to), cadw. kill (to), lladd ; He who kills shall be killed, A laddo a leddir. king, brenin. knife, cyllell. know (to), gwybod ; is known, adwaenir. Labour (to), llafurio. lamb, oen. 138 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRIT I K lame, doff. land, tir. language, iaith. large, mawr. last, lastly, olaf, yn olaf. last year, llynedd. last night, neithiwr. late, yn hwyr, diweddar ; latest, diweddaraf. law, cyfraith. leaf, dalen, deilen. leave (to), gadael, ymadael. leisurely, hamddenol. less, llai. lesson, gwers. lest, rhag. let (Imper.), gad. letter, llythyr. liberty, rhyddid. library, llyfrgell. life, bywyd. lifetime, oes. like (to), hojfi ; like, tebyg. likely, yn debyg. lion, Hew. listen (to), gwrando. little, ychydig. live (to), .byw ; used to live, cartrefai. load (to), llwytho. loan, benthyg. London, Llundain. long, At>, yn At> ; ere long, cyn hir. look (to), edrych, disgwyl. Lord, Arglwydd. lose (to), colli. lot, rAaw. love, cariad ; to love, car. M Maid, morwyn. make (to), gwneud. man, gwr, dyn ; old man, hynafgwr. manna, manna. many, amryw, llawer. mare, caseg. market, marchnad. master, meistr. May, Mai. meadow, d6l. meantime, cyfamser. meet (to), cwrdd, cyfarfod. mention, son. middle, canol. mile, milltir. miserable, diftas. mistake, camsyniad. mixed, cymysg. mode, modd. money, avion. month, mis ; before a month is gone, cyn pen mis. more, mwy, rhagor o. morning, bore. mother, mam. mountain, mynydd. mow hay (to), lladd gwair. much, llawer ; as much, cymainl ; too much, gormod. muscle, gewyn. must, rhaid, gormod. my, fy ; my own, fy hun. N Name, enw. narrow, cul. Nazareth, Nasareth. near, agos, gerllaw. necessary, angenrheidiol. necessity (there is), rhaid yw. negligence, esgeulusdod. neighbour, cymydog. nest, nyth. never, ni erioed ; ni byth. new, newydd. news, newyddion. Newtown, Y Drefnewydd. next, nesaf. night, nos ; by night, liw nos : last night, neithiwr. nine o'clock, now o'r gloch. no, na ; no, they are not, nac ydynt ; no, there is not, nac oes ddim. none of, mo'r. VOCABULARY ENGLISH INTO WELSH 139 North Wales, Gwynedd. not, ni, nid. nothing, dim. now, yn awr. nutting, cneua. Oak, derw. of, am. offended (to be), digio. offer (to have an), cael cynnyg. often, ami, yn ami, mynych. Oh that ! O na ! old, hen. on, ar ; on me, arnaf. once, unwaith. one, un. one by one, bob yn un ac un. one another, eu gilydd. only, yn unig. opinion, barn. or, neit, ynte. other, avail ; others, ereill. our, ein. out, allan ; out of me, o honof. over, trosodd, tros ; overboard, tros y bwrdd. overtake (to), goddiweddn. own (to), pian. owner, meddiannydd. ox, ycli. Palace, palas. paper, papur. Paradise, paradwys. parents, rhieni. part, adran. path, llwyby. patience, amynedd. peace, heddwch. people, pobl. perceive (to), canfod. perfect, perffaith. perhaps, hwyrach. phase, rhan, agwedd. pit, pwll. pitcher, ysten ; pitcherful, ysten- aid. place, lie ; where, pa le ? to place, gosod. plague, pla. play (to), chwareu. pocket, llogell. poetry, barddoniaeth. point, pwnc. poor, gwael, tlawd ; rather poor. pur wael. position, safle. possess (to), meddiannu. possible (it is), dichon. pound, punt. praise (to), canmol. pray (to), gweddio ; I pray, atolwg. preacher, pregethwr. prefer (I), gwell yw gennyf. pretty, hardd, tlws. price, pris. pride oneself (to), ymffrostio. prince, tywysog. print (to), argraffu. privilege, braint. prize, gwobr. probably, hwyrach. progress, llwyddiant. promise, addewid. prophet, proffwyd. Protestant, Protestant. punish (to), cospi purchase (to), pwrcasu pure, pur. pursue (to), ymlid. push (to), gwthio. put (to), rhoddi. Q Queen, brenhines. quick, cyflym. Rabbit, cwningen. rain, gwlaw. ram, hwrdd. reach (to), cyrraedd. 140 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER read (to), darllen. ready, parod, yn bawd. reason, rhestvm. receive (to), cael, derbyn. recommend (to), cymeradwyo. red, coch. relate (to), traethu. release (to), rhyddhau. remain (to), aros. remember (to), cofio. representative, cynrychiolydd. request, cats. respect, parch. rest (to), gorffwys. responsibility, cyfrifoldeb. return (to), dychwelyd. reward, gwobr ; to reward, gwobrwyo. riches, cyfoeth ; rich, cyfoethog. righteous, cyfiawn. rightful, union. risk (to), mentro. river, a/on, road, ffordd. rock, craig. rose (red) (lit. foxglove), ffuon. royal, brenhinol. run (to), rhedeg. S Saint, sant. same, yr un. satisfy, boddloni. save (to), achub ; saved, cadwedig. say (to), dywedyd ; he says, medd ef ; he said, eb efe, dywed. scene, golygfa. school, ysgol. scientific, gwyddonol. score, ugain. sea, mdr. search (to), chwilio, ymofyn. second, ail. see (to), canfod, gweled. see yonder, dacw ; see here, dyma, wele. seek (to), ceisio. sell (to), gwerthu. self, him, hunan. seem (to), ymddangos. send (to), danfon. servant, gwas. set (to), gwneud, parodd. Severn, Hafren. shall (we), cawn. shameful, cywilyddus. sheep, dafad, defaid. ship, Hong. should (he), dylai. shout (to), bloeddio. show (to), dangos. Shrewsbury, Amwythig. side, glan ; sea-side, glan y mdr, ochr. sight, golwg. since, er pan, gan. sing (to), canu ; singing-practice, cyfarfod canu. sinner, pechadur. sister, chwaer. sit (to), eistedd. skin, croen. sleep (to), cysgu. slip (may), llithro. slope, rhiw. slow, araf. small, bach, man. snow, eira ; to snow, bwrw eira. so, tnor ; so that, fel, felly. soldier, milwr. some, rhywrai ; some one, rhywun; something, rhywbeth. sometimes, weithiau. son, mab. song, cdn ; songs, caneuon, caniadau. soon, buan, yn fttan, cyn hir ; sooner, yn gynt ; as soon as, gynted. source, tarddiad. space of time, talm. speak (to), siarad. spend (to), treulio. spirit, ysbryd. stand (to), sefyll. star, seren. start (to), cychtvyit. VOCABULARY ENGLISH INTO WELSH 141 stay (to), aros ; stayed, arhosodd. steal (to), lladrata. stick, ffon. still, eto. stone, carreg. story, stori. strange, dieithr ; stranger, dieithr- ddyn. straw, gwellt. strengthen oneself (to), ymgryfhau. strong, cryf, cadarn. subject, pwnc. succeed (to), llwyddo. such, y fath. summer, haf. surely, yn sicr. sweet, melus : sweetly, yn felus. swim (to), nofio. Take (to), dwyn ; take (Imper.), hwde, cymerwch, dewiswch. taleo, y sir aeon. talk, son, ymddiddan ; to talk, siarad. tall, tdl. task, camp. teach (to), dysgu. teacher, athraw. tell (to), dywedyd, traethu, temptation, profedigaeth. ten thousand, myrddiwn. than na, nag. thank (to), diolch. that (conj.), mai. that, hwn yna ; that yonder, hwn acw. the, y, yr ; the + superl. The more the merrier, Goreu po fwyaf ; The one the other, Y naill y Hall. their, eu. themselves, eu hunain. then, yna. there, yna, yno. these, y rhai hyn ; these are, dyma. thick, tew. thief, lleidr. thing, peth : such a thing, peth felly. think (to), meddwl, tybio. this, hwn, hon, hyn ; this here, hwn yma. those, hynny. thought, syniad. thousand, mil. through, trwy. thus, felly. till, hyd oni. time, amser, pryd ; gwaith, as in unwaith. tire (to), blino. to, ar, i ; to him, ato, iddo. to-day, heddyw. to-morrow, yfory ; day after to-morrow, trennydd. too, rhy. tooth, dant, daint. towards, tuag. town, tref. Towy, Tywi. tradesman, masnachwr. transgress (to), troseddu. travel (to), teithio. tree, coeden ; trunk of a tree, cyff. tremble (to), crynnu. tribes, llwythau. trouble (to), blino. true, cywir, gwir ; truth, gwir. turn, tro ; to turn, troi. twelve, deuddeg. two, dau ; two days, deuddydd. U Under, tan. understand (to), deall. undoubtedly, yn ddiau. uncle, ewythr. unless, oni. until, nes, hyd oni, hyd nes, tan. unto, *'. upon, ar ; upon it, arno. upwards, fyny, i fyny. use (to), defnyddio. usually, mynychaf. I 4 2 FIRST WELSH READER AND WRITER Valley, dyffryn. valuable, gwerthfawr. value, gwerth. venture (to), mentro. verse, adnod. very, iawn, cp. mawr iawn. victory, concwest. village, pentref. visit (to), ymweled. voice, llais. W Wait (to), aros. Wales, Cymru ; Wales of the past, Cymru Fu. walk (to), cerdded ; a walk, tro. warm, cynnes. was, oedd. wash oneself (to), ymolchi. water, dwfr. way, modd, ffordd. we, ni. wear (to), gwisgo. weather, tywydd. week, wythnos. weep (to), wylo. well, yn dda ; very well, o'r goreu. Welsh, Cymraeg ; Welshman, Cymro ; Welshwoman, Cymraes. went (he), aeth. wet, gwlyb. what ? beth ? pa beth ? whatever, pa beth bynnag. when, pan, pa bryd ? whenever, pa bryd bynnag. wherever, lie bynnag, pa le bynnag? where? ymha le? white, gwyn ; as white as, cyn wynned a. whoever, yr hwn, y neb, y sawl. whosoever, pwy bynnag. whole, cwbl, holl. whose, eiddo pwy ? why, paham ? wide, llydan. wife, gwraig. wilderness, anialwch. will, ewyllys ; wilh'ng, boddlon. will (to), mynnu. win (to), ennill. window, ffenestr. wise, doeth. wish (to), dewis. with, gyda, gan. without, heb ; within, i fewn. woman, dynes, gwraig. word, gair ; word for word, gair am air. work (to), gweithio, llafurio. world, byd. would that, O na I write (to), ysgrifennu. Yard, llath, llathen. year, blwyddyn, blwydd, blynedd ; last year, y llynedd ; this year, eleni. yellow, melyn. yes, ie, do, oes. yesterday, doe. yonder, acw. young, ieuanc. your, eich. parallel Grammar Series, EDITOR: E. A. SONNENSCHEIN, D.LITT., OXON., PROFESSOR OP CLASSICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OP BIRMINGHAM. PUBLISHERS: Messrs. SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & Co., LTD., 25 High Street, Bloomsbury, London ; THE MACMILLAN Co., New York. "Almost every grammatical system has its 'rationale,' capable of being comprehended by the mind, if the mind is kept steadily to it, and of serving as a clue to the facts ; but . . . every one of .the grammars following a different system, the student masters the rationale of none of them ; and in consequence, after all his labour, he often ends by possessing of the science of grammar nothing but a heap of terms jumbled together in inextricable confusion." MATTHEW ARNOLD. Uniformity of Terminology and Uniformity of Classification are the distinguishing marks of this series ; all the Grammars are constructed on the same plan, and the same terminology is used to describe identical grammatical features in different languages. The terminology employed is such as to command general accept- ance, having been accepted and approved by the Grammatical Society a society which was formed in 1886 for the express purpose of drawing up a scheme suitable for use in teaching different languages side by side, and which numbered among its members many eminent teachers from all parts of the United Kingdom and America. The principle of selection is that the existing stock of grammatical terms is sufficient for its purpose, if used economically ; and the editor has been able to carry out his scheme without the introduction of new or unfamiliar terms. Those who are acquainted with the chaos which has hitherto reigned, and the bewilderment which is caused to pupils by th#* gratuitous use of two or three different terms where one would suffice, will appreciate the labour which has been devoted to the simplification of terminology in the series. But the editor and his collaborators have not limited themselves to a reform of terminology. Far more than this has been done. The whole classification of the facts of language for the purposes of Syntax has been rendered more scientific, and at the same time more intelligible, by the adoption of a common point of Yiew; and much attention has been given to the concise and accurate statement of rules, and to the exclusion or subordination of minutiae that merely burden without enlightening the pupil. The principle of Uniformity in Grammar, first carried out in the Parallel Grammar Series, has been formally approved and adopted by so high an authority as the German Ministry of Education (Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben, Easter, 1892) : its soundness, both scientific and practical, may therefore be regarded as thoroughly established. The progress of the idea on the Continent is fully set forth in an article by DR. HORNEMANN in Rein's Encyclopadisches Handbuch der Padagoyik (1898, vol. v., p. 232, ff.), where the move- ment is associated with the names of VOGT, BIOHNER, WALDECK, MANGOLD, HARRE, VOLLBRECHT, HEIL and SCHMIDT, SEEOER, BANNER and REINHARDT. The two last named have produced parallel syntaxes of French and Latin (1895 and 1896) for the "Reform- gymnasium " at Frankfort. Holland has now its parallel grammars of Greek and Latin by Dr. H. WOLTJER (1892 and 1894) ; France its Grammaire Comparee du Grec et du Latin by Dr. 0. RIEMANN and Dr. H. GOELZER. But at present England is the only country which possesses a complete series of grammars in which these principles are carried out. The Grammars are accompanied by a series of READERS AND WRITERS, each in a single volume, based on the following princi- ples : 1. The Reader is the centre of instruction. Each passage in it is designed (i.) to have a unity and interest of its own, sufficient to engage the attention of the pupil; (ii.) to exhibit, so far as circum- stances permit, one dominant grammatical feature. Forms which cannot be understood grammatically without more knowledge than the pupil possesses at a particular stage are not altogether excluded, but they are treated as isolated words, and are simply translated (without grammatical explanation) in the Vocabulary or Preparations. The Reader thus lends itself to the methodical learning and practising of grammar. Grammatical facts presented in concrete form in an interesting context are easily understood and remembered, and form the basis of that more complete and systematic knowledge which can only be acquired from a Grammar. 2. The Writer is based upon the subject matter and vocabulary of the Reader, and gives systematic practice in the dominant gram- matical feature under consideration. The pupil is early introduced to the writing of continuous passages ; these are at first built up out of separate sentences of easy construction, but gradually assume the character of connected prose in the proper sense of the term. No meaningless sentences or fragments of sentences are employed. Reading, Writing and Grammar thus go hand in hand, and the knowledge acquired in each department is immediately utilised in the others. In this point, too, the system worked out by the Editor and his collaborateurs coincides in all its essential features with the best results of foreign experience. 3. The courses are so arranged as to present to the pupil the im- portant before the unimportant, the less difficult before the moro 3 difficult. Grammatical details are reserved until the main outline of grammar has been mastered. 4. The terminology and classifications of the Parallel Grammars are employed throughout the Readers and Writers. The method briefly indicated above is here applied to all the languages ordinarily taught in schools, the teaching of which may thus be organised and concentrated on a uniform basis.