VHT'S rw ' 'DICTIONARY. vr OF CHINES, PROCESSES, PEERING. INDEXICAL REFERENCES TO TECHNICAL JOURNALS (1876-1880.) EDWARD H. KNIGHT, A. M., LL. D. CHEVALIER DE LA LEGION D'HONNEUR. COMMISSIONER OF THE UNITED STATES, PARIS EXPOSITION, 1878; MEMBER OF THE INTERNATIONAL JURIES, PHILADELPHIA, 1876, PARIS, 1878, AND ATLANTA, 1881 ; MEMBER OF THE SOCIETE D'ENCOURAGE- MENT POUR L'INDUSTRIE NATIONALE, PARIS; OF THE SOCIETE D'HISTOIRE ET D'ARCHEOLOGIE, BEAUNE ; FORMERLY EXAMINER, AND IN CHARGE OF THE CLASSIFICATION AND PUBLICATIONS, UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE. 2flUu*trateD totttj more tfjan ttjree ttjouaano "How Index-learning turns no student pale, Yet holds the eel of Science by the tail." POPE. First Steam Engine. (Hero, 150 B. C.) BOSTON: HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY. NEW YORK: 11 EAST SEVENTEENTH STREET. GTbe Etoerstoe Iprcss, 1884. Copyright, 1882 and 1883, BT HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & COMPANY, All rights reserved. The Riverside Press, Cambridge : Electrotyped and Printed by H. 0. Houghton & Co. PREFACE. THE march of mechanical improvement, in the five years that have elapsed since the publication of the AMERICAN MECHANICAL DICTIONARY, renders it necessary to issue another volume, to keep the work abreast of the time. The two great Exhibitions, at Philadelphia and Paris, with each of which the author was officially connected as Delegate or Commissioner, and as a mem- ber of the respective juries, have brought forward a world of new matter ; and the records of our own Patent Office, as well as the testimony of our tech- nical journals, bear witness to the fact that at no period has invention been more fertile, more brilliant, or more important. The difficulty is not in filling a book, but in selecting the more important subjects to fill given bounds ; and the lavish abundance of the material has been such that it has necessitated the introduction of a new feature into the work that of copious references to the technical journals of the period 1876-1880, inclusive, for fuller statement of the subject matters involved. The author cherishes most confidently the belief that this feature will meet the approbation of readers and inquirers, and hopes that it may prove to the student in machinery, what William of Malmesbury said of a cognate subject, the introduction of the Arabic [Indian] numerals into Europe by Gerbert of Auvergne, "A great blessing to the sweating calculators." EDWARD H. KNIGHT, WASHINGTON, D. C., June 1, 1881. POSTSCRIPT. DR. KNIGHT, whose name is so honorably connected with the AMERICAN MECHANICAL DICTIONARY, did not live to see the final publication of this vol- ume. He was engaged upon the final section when he was taken ill, and died January 22, 1883. It was found, after his death, that he had left the remainder of the work in such a forward state of preparation that the task of editing was confined chiefly to such arrangement of his material as would bring it into the order which Dr. Knight was following. While, therefore, the Publishers share with the patrons of the work the regret that its accomplished editor could not give the final touches to his Dictionary, they take satisfaction in knowing that the work was wholly his. HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY. BOSTON, November 1, 1883, 270952 LIST OF SPECIFIC INDEXES. The Specific Indexes in the following List are to be found in their alphabetical placet in the body of th work, ach Index embraces the technical appliances, etc., appertaining to its subject. Agricultural Implements. Air Apparatus, Blowers, Ventilation, etc. Anchor. Art, in various materials. Aural Instruments. Barrel Making Machinery. Barrow. Beet Root Sugar Machinery. Bit. Blocks and Rope-leaders. Boat. Boiler Fittings. Bolt. Bone Instruments. Boring Tools. Bronze. Bullet Instruments. Carriage and Wagon Hardware. Cement, Plaster, Glue, etc. Ceramics. Clamping Tools, Vises, Wrenches, etc. Coil. Compositions, Water-proofing, etc. Core. Cotton Machinery. Drawing, Writing, Copying Instruments and Processes. Ear Instruments. Electricity, Telegraphy, etc. Embryotomy Instruments. Explosives. Exsection Instruments. Eye Instruments. Fabric. Fine Art Metal-work. Fire-arms, Ordnance, Explosives, etc. Fishing and Whaling. Forceps (Surgical). Furnace. Galvanic Battery. Gas. Glass. Grain Cleaning and Grinding. Grinding and Polishing Tools, etc. Gun Hand-tools. Gun Machines. Hammer. Hand Tools. Hardware, House, Carriage, Wagon, etc. Harelip Instruments. Heating and Lighting. Hinge. Hoisting, Shafting, Gearing, Grappling, etc. Hook. Hydraulic Engineering. Knife. Knot. Laryngeal Instrument!. Lead Alloy. Leather. Leather, Tanning, etc. Lens. Lifting Jack. Line. Lock. Machine. Measuring, Calculating, Testing, and Record- ing Instruments. Meatus Instruments. Metallurgy. Mill. Milling. Music. Nail. Nasal Instruments. Nautical. Needle. Net. Optical Instruments, etc. Ovariotomy Instruments. Paper, Printing, Books. Phonic Apparatus. Pipes, Valves, and Plumbing. Pipe Coupling. Plow. Polishing. Porcelain Colors. Portable Engine. Presses. Pumps, Water Engines, and Wheels. Railway Apparatus, Running Stock, and Parts. Rectal Instruments. Saw. Scissors. Scrotal Instruments. Shears, Scissors, etc. Sight. Skin Grafting Instruments. Spinning,- Textile Machinery, Fabrics, Sewing, Knitting, etc. Spiral Spring. Spring. Steam, Gas, and Air Engines. Stone Cutting. Testing Machine. Urethra Instruments. Urinometer. Uterine Apparatus. Vehicles. , Vehicles and Menage. LIST OF FULL-PAGE PLATES. PLATE. SUBJECT. PAGE. I. CLAYTON DUPLEX AIR COMPRESSOR 14 II. GROTTO AND AQUARIUM OF THE TROCADERO. (Pans, 1878.) . 44 III. BAND SAW-MILL. (By Arbey of Paris.) 72 IV. POIREE'S BARRAGE. (At Basseville, River Tonne, France.) .... 76 V. PATTERSON'S BEETLING MACHINE. (Mather fr Plait, Manchester, England.) 87 VI. CALICO PRINTING MACHINE. (In Four Colors.) 153 VII. PANELS CARVED IN WALNUT BY PROF. LUIGI FRULLINI, OF FLOR- ENCE. (Shown in Paris in 1878, now in the Museum of Buda-Pesth.) . . .174 VIII. COLLMANN'S VARIABLE CUT-OFF STEAM ENGINE. (Perspective View.) . 238 IX. DEPOSITING DOCK 252 X. DYNAGRAPH 281 XI. DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINES 283 XII. DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINES 284 XIII. ARC ELECTRIC LIGHTS 298 XIV. ELECTRIC CANDLES AND INCANDESCENT LAMPS 300 XV. SILSBY FIRE-ENGINE. SCHEFFLER FIRELESS LOCOMOTIVE. (Cres- cent City Railroad Co., New Orleans.) 338 XVI. PAUWEL-PERATE GAS AND COKE FURNACE. ( Villette, Paris.) . . .378 XVII. PAUWEL-PERATE GAS AND COKE FURNACE. (Villette, Paris.) . . 379 XVIII. STEAM ENGINE GOVERNORS 408 XIX. STEAM ENGINE (ETC.) GOVERNORS . . . . . . . .409 XX. GRAIN CLEANERS AND SEPARATORS. (French, British, American.) . .416 XXI. HOT-AIR ENGINE. ( Woodbury, Merrill, Patten, and Woodbury.) . . .467 XXII. WHITWELL'S HOT BLAST STOVES 470 XXIII. ICE MACHINES 488 XXIV. DEVELOPMENTS OF INCLINED PLANES ON PERUVIAN RAILWAYS. (Reduced from the Surveys in the Office of Senor Henry Meiggs, Lima.) . . .491 XXV. INTERIOR OF A FRENCH LAUNDRY. (Pierron et Dehattre, Paris.) . . 532 XXVI. AMERICAN TYPICAL LOCOMOTIVE. (Central Railroad, New Jersey.) . . 555 XXVII. FAST PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE. (Bound Brook Line, New York and Phila- delphia.) 555 XXVIII. MARINE ENGINE. (American Transatlantic Line.) 582 XXIX. BECK'S "INTERNATIONAL" MICROSCOPE 599 XXX. McCORMICK'S MOWER AND SINGLE-WHEEL REAPER . . . .620 XXXI. THE " PERNOT " OPEN HEARTH FURNACE, SPRINGFIELD IRON WORKS, SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS. (General Plan of Open Hearth Plant.) ... 645 Vlll LIST OF FULL-PAGE PLATES. PLATE. SUBJECT. PAGE. XXXII. THE "PERNOT" OPEN HEARTH FURNACES, SPRINGFIELD IRON WORKS, SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS. (Vertical Section.) .... 645 XXXIII. FRENCH OYSTER IMPLEMENTS 651 XXXIV. FRENCH PLATE-GLASS HOUSE. (Sectional Elevation and Plan.) . . 690 XXXV. PORCELAIN KILN, SEVRES. (Section and Elevation.) 704 XXXVI. MOLDING ROOM, SEVRES. ( With Air Compression and Exhaustion Apparatus.) 704 XXXVII. HOADLEY'S PORTABLE ENGINE .711 XXXVIII. PORTABLE STEAM ENGINE. (Marshall and Graves.) PORTABLE AND TRACTION ENGINE. (Hooven, Owens, Reutschler $ Co.) . . . .712 XXXIX. HOE'S TYPE REVOLVING NEWSPAPER PERFECTING PRESS . . 720 XL. KNOWLES. DIRECT-ACTING COMPOUND CONDENSING PUMPING EN- GINE 729 XLI. WESTINGHOUSE AUTOMATIC BRAKE. (Car Attachment.) . . . .740 XLII. WESTINGHOUSE AUTOMATIC BRAKE. (Locomotive Attachment.) . . 740 XLIII. APPLEBY'S ENGLISH LOCOMOTIVE STEAM CRANE . . . .741 XLIV. McCORMICK'S TWINE-BINDING REAPER 743 XLV. SPRINGS 847 XL VI. EIGHTY-TON STEAM HAMMER. (Schneider $ Co., Creusot, France.) . . 860 XL VII. SUGAR-HOUSE, COMPLETE INSTALLATION OF MACHINERY. (Com- pagnie de Fives Lille, Abbeville, France.) 873 XL VIII. TELEPHONES .883 XLIX. EMERY'S TESTING MACHINE 887 L. FAIRBANKS' TESTING MACHINE . 888 LI. PORCELAIN MOLDING ROOM . .894 LII. TORPEDOES 898 Lilt VERTICAL SECTION OF REVOLVING TURRET FOR HARBOR OR LAND DEFENSE 908 LIV. WASTE BURNING LOCOMOTIVE 936 LV. WASTE BURNING LOCOMOTIVE. (Sectional View.) 936 LVI. WOOL WASHING MACHINE 955 KNIGHT'S NEW AMERICAN MECHANICAL DICTIONARY. [An asterisk (*) indicates that an article or description referred to is illustrated.] A. A-ba'ting. Properly, bating. A steeping pro- cess in tanning. See BATING. A-bat-toir'. A city slaughter-house, where are assembled all the conveniences for butchering the animals and putting the offal into merchantable form. The plans usually involve humane, rapid operations and relatively cleanly and wholesome surroundings. See notices of the abattoirs of Philadelphia . . . *" Scientific American Sup.," 1375. Brighton. Lawson . . '' Scientific American Sup.," 1939. Ab'scess Knife. A pocket instrument with a curved blade, the edge on the concave, and contained in a tortoise-shell or ivory handle. The abscess lancet is a pointed thumb lancet in tortoise-shell scales. Ab-sor'bent Stra'ta Wa'ter-pow'er. An invention of M. G. Hanrian, of Meaux, France, for utilizing the descent of water in a tube leading from a water-bearing to an absorbent stratum as a source of power. The water passing downward in a ver- tical well-tube acts upon the buckets of an endless chain, which passes over a wheel above and rotates it. The invention is described and illustrated in the "Bulletin da Socitfe d' Encouragement pour V Indus- trie Nationale," and is reproduced in "Scientific American," * xxxiv. 159. Ab-sorb'ing "Well. A well or deep pit sunk into an absorbent stratum, and used .to carry off drainage. These wells are used in certain localities in the United States where a retentive stratum of clay rests upon gravel or sand, as in Alexandria, Va., where the drainage of the town is mostly obtained in this way, by well or cesspools dug into the sub- stratum. Ab-sorp'ti-om'e-ter. An instrument invented by Bunseu for measuring the absorptive power of gases. A-but'meiit. (Add.) 1. (Carpentry.) The shoulder on a joiner's plane between which and the plane-bit the wedge is driven. A-but'ment Crane. A crane mounted upon an abutment or pier, of a viaduct, for instance, and ascending with the elevation of the structure. Figure 1 represents a small crane of this nature, used at the Viaduc de 1'Indre. It was fixed on the piles, and then upon the masonry, being readily raised step by step as the structure advanced. In the instance cited two horses were attached to the rope by which the material was drawn up. Ac-cel'er-a'tor. (Ordnance.) A cannon with additional charge chambers, exploded consecutively in the rear of the shot, in order to give the ball the additional force due to the consumption of a large charge without the strain incident to exploding too large a quantity in a single mass. Lyman's United States patent, No. 16,568. An experimental gun on this principle was tested in New York and elsewhere and is shown and de- scribed in Holley's "Ordnance and Armor," *p. 885. Ac-cu'mu-la'tor. 1. A device for storing power ; as in the case of Sir William Armstrong's invention, in which the water from a pump is caused to raise a series of weights which press upon the column, and form a reserve of power for the working of an elevator, a punching machine, shears, or a riveter, as in the case illustrated in Fig. 2. The central stem of the accumulator is fixed, and serves as a guide for a cylinder which slips upon it and carries the weights, which in the present case are annular iron blocks surrounding the cylin- der. The water forced by the pump arrives from beneath and fills the annular space between the cylinder and the central guiding stem, so that the weight of the iron blocks and the cylinder is car- ried upon the column of water. The water is fur- nished by two pumps of 1 .5" diameter and 3.5" stroke, driven by band and pulley, the latter mak- ing 100 to 120 revolutions per minute. When the weighted cylinder arrives at the end of its course Fig. 1. Abutment Crane. it actuates a rod which closes the induction cocks of the pump, and cuts off the supply of water. The water from the accumulator enters the work- ing cylinder of the riveting machine by one open- ing and leaves by another, each being provided with valves. A hand lever admits the water to make the effective stroke, the water exit being closed either by the pressure of water or by a ACCUMULATOR. ACCUMULATOR. spring. The induction valve remains open until the rivet is finished, or for any length of stroke re- quired, as the case may be, and when it is desired to arrest the motion the induction valve is closed. To make the reverse motion, the water-exit valve is opened by a motion of the hand lever in the con- trary direction from that to admit the water ; the water runs out of the cylinder, mid the piston is driven backward by the action of a small cylinder placed in the piston and which is put in communi- cation with the accumulator by a special pipe and valve. The machine is designed to place 900 to 1,000 rivets of 30 millimeters, in sheet iron of 20 milli- meters, in 10 hours : and in smaller works to place 6 to 7 rivets per minute. Machines in which the suspended swage cylin- der is capable of presentation to rivet in any direc- tion are noticed under RIVETING MACHINE, and one is shown in Fig. 4351, page 1949, "Mech. Diet" The weight-case accumulator is shown in Fig. 4, page 9, vol. i. A hydraulic riveting machine, with two movable jaws, but without accumulator, is shown in Fig. 4354, page 1949, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 2. Sir William Armstrong's Accumulator as applied to a Riveting Mncliine. In Kinney's hydro-pneumatic accumulator, com- pressed air is made the reservoir of power. Like other familiar applications of the accumulator it is designed to be used in connection with the hy- draulic press, but the pumps force water into and compress air in vertical cylinders. The puinps work continuously until a stated pressure is at- tained, when, by automatic mechanism, valves are opened which prevent any further delivery ; the pumps merely working the water to and fro till a remission of pressure by the nse of some of the stored force puis them in service again. A number of these vertical cylinders are con- nected in series by pipes above (I) 11) and below so as to have communication, by which the pressure in them is equalized, and for use in charging them with air at the desired normal tension. See view of a battery of accumulators, page 121, vol. xxxviii., " Sc. American." The cut shows a section of one of the accumula- tors, and a sectional view of the apparatus for ren- dering the pump ineffective when the maximum stated pressure is attained. Proceeding from the gage pipe is a tube A', con- necting with a small chamber, in which is a plunger with a weighted lever whose arm L, when the level Fig. 8. Kinney's Hydro- Pneumatic Accumulator. is lifted, withdraws the valve in M, and opens com- munication between the pump cylinder JN and the pipe 0, leading to the tank from which water is supplied. Hydraulic accumulators are made in variety un- der various applications by Tweddell of England ; such, for instance, as Weight-case accumulators. Differential accumulators. Basement accumulators. Morane, of Paris, makes them specifically for the stearine and other chemical industries. Sellers & Co., of Philadelphia, for riveting ma- chines, etc. An excellent and compact arrangement is shown in figures 8, 9, 10, 11, article " Prcsse," Prof. Chas. Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures" edition of 1877. The portable hydraulic accumulator used in the works at the St. Gothard tunnel consisted of a ver- tical cylinder, in which a piston traveled, and which had to be loaded to a weight equivalent to 450 Ibs. per square inch. When the lift was not in opera- tion, the piston was raised to an extent proportionate to the quantity of water introduced, which it re- turned to the lift when the ingress cock of the latter was opened. The diameter of the piston was 11.81" diameter, and. the stroke was 66.93". The volume of water contained was 26.2 gallons, and the pres- sure on the piston 21.18 tons; the piston and cross- head weighed 1.18 tons. A load of 20 tons of lead ingots was suspended to the cross-head at the top of the piston. These could be removed at will to fa- ACCUMULATOR. ACOUMETER. cilitate the moving of the apparatus from place to place on the works. Views of the accumulator and the hydraulic pumps are reproduced in the " Scientific American Supplement." * pages 104, 105. 2. (Electricity.) a. In dynamo-electric machines, one iu which the residual magnetism of the field magnets generates in the armature coil a feeble initial current which increases the magnetism of the field of force magnets, thus producing a stronger current, and so on reciprocally to the maximum. The first patent in which this feature is present is S. Hjorth's English patent No. 2,198, October 14, 1854. The Dane is evidently entitled to the credit of the invention of this most important feature in dynamo electric machines. " This principle, of which we discover the appli- cation in almo-t all dynamo-electric machines, is that of the gradual successive increase of power in an electro-magnetic system under the influence of the currents of induction which it develops. It is sufficient for the purpose that a trace of magnetism remains in the armature to produce the amerfage and augmentation of the strength of the armature until the maximum is reached, dependent upon the strength, the resistance of the circuit, and the sat- uration of the armatures." "La Lumiere Elec- trique." The presentation of the memoirs of Wheatstone and Siemens on this subject at the Koval Society Meeting, February 4, 1867, was more than 12 years snl)M-([ucnt to the patent of S. Hjorth, of Copen- hagen. See DYNAMO-KLKCTRIC MACHINE. b. See SECONDARY BATTEKY. Faure. 3. A resilient section, in a chain or rope, usu- ally a drum of caoutchouc, used in British dredge- lines; whereby a certain amount of elasticity is given to the towing rope, preventing the parting of the rope, and giving the man on watch a chance to cast-off, to prevent losing the dredge, which has be- come fouled or full. Beardslee's method is to have a certain amount of slack rope held in reserve by a check rope, which breaks when a given strain is brought upon the main rope. See CHKCK-ROPE. See the following references : HYDRAULIC. Merdach. Paris. " Iron Age." xvii., January 13, p. 9. Grimshaw (I'atont April 16, 1878.) "Iron Age," * xxi., June 0, p. 7. Twedddl. " Railroad Gazette," * viii. 563. " Manufacturer and Builder ," * xii. 105. " Engineering," * xxvi. 271. Best 4" Marshall. " Scientific American Supple- ment,^ * 3659. " English Mechanic.' 1 ' 1 * xxvii. 455. Kinney. " Scientific American" * xxviii. 127. Kingston-upon-IIull, Eng. " Van Nostrantfs Mag." xviii. 211. ELECTRIC. English Patent. No. 2198, October 14, 1854. Ach'ro-mat'ic Con-den'ser. (Optics.) An attachment to the microscope, used when the light from the concave mirror proves insuffi- cient for any object requiring an intense transmitted light. The condenser slides, by its tube, into the fitting under the stage of the instrument, in which it has to be moved up or down until the focus of its I lenses falls upon the object, the light having been pievi. onsly reflected in the proper Achromatic Condenser, direction by the mirror. Fig. 4. The upper figure shows a simple form ; the lower is Webster's form of Crouch's achromatic conden- ser, provided with a revolving diaphragm having various forms of apertures. Ach'ro-mat'ic Right'-an'gle Prism. An achromatic form of the right-angle prism, which is an attachment to the microscope designed for throwing rays of light at right-angles, giving more perfect reflection. See RIGHT-ANGLE PRISM. Ac'id Pump. A pump constructed for draw- ing off corrosive liquids, emptying carboys, etc. It is a portable pump, made of glass, and con- vertible into a siphon by the addition of an exten- sion tube of caoutchouc to the nozzle. A large India-rubber air bulb produces the vacuum and ex- pulsion, but does not receive any of the liquid. The valves are glass poppets, riveted, while hot, into their seats. The joints in the pump are of accu- rately ground glass. The nozzle is also so jointed as to be flexible. See Nichols' pump. " Scientific American,' 11 * xliii. 232. Also the air-forcing pump of Wyllie, of Heb- burn-on-Tyne, England, used for pumping acid to cisterns at a height of 80'. The air-pressure regis- ters from 70 to 100 Ibs. "Engineering ," 1876. "Scientific American Supplement,''' * 524. A'cier-age. A mode of coating a metallic plate with a surface of iron or steel ; used to enable stereotype and copper plates to print a larger num- ber of impressions. Invented by Gamier of Paris. See Photographic Journal, vol. vi., p. 31 et seq., Sep- tember 15, 1859. A'corn-head'ed Bolt. A carriage-bolt with an ornamental head finished in silver, oroide, or gold, and in shape resembling an acorn. A-cou'me-ter. (Surgical.) An instrument for measuring the degree of hearing. Acouometer, Aco- eineter, Acousimeter. The instrument affords a source of sound of constant intensity and pitch, and is a substitute for the whisper and the watch, each of which has its difficulties. The voice is a complicated sound, the intensity of which it is difficult to regulate, and consonant sounds vary greatly in their audibility at given intensity. The watch has two tones with slight intensity, both audible when close, and but one at a greater distance. The first acoumeter was made by Schafhautl, who made use of a ball falling from a certain height as a source of sound. Wolke invented a pendulum acoumeter. He employed an upright sounding-board of fir, against which an oaken mal- let was allowed to fall through a given space. Itard had a freely suspended copper ring which was struck by a pendulous metallic ball. The elevation of the pendulum was measured on a graduated quadrant, and the intensity of the tone thereby de- termined. Politzer's acoumeter gives a sound of unvarying character, and the estimate of the degree of hear- ing of the patient is obtained by making the clicks of the instrument more or less remote from the ear. It consists of a steel cylinder 4 millimeters in diameter and 28 millimeters long, set in vibration by the blow of a small steel hammer, and applied in the vicinity of the external ear. The cylinder is fastened to a small column of vulcanite, the ham- mer being freely suspended from a slot in this col- umn by means of a pin. The tail end of the ham- mer shaft, projecting behind and beyond the column can be depressed to a certain point, and, when lib- erated, allows the hammer to strike the cylinder ACOUMETER. ACUPRESSURE PIN. from a certain height, thereby insuring a certain in- tensity of tone. Half rings being fastened at either end of the vulcanite column, the instrument may be held between the thumb and forefinger, the mid- dle finger being free to sat the hammer in motion. Fig. 5. Politzer's Acoumeter. A small disk is fastened to the column by means of a pin, and is used for testing perception for tone conduction from the mastoid. The illustration shows this application of the instrument. The determination of the hearing distance is usu- ally conducted by approaching the instrument to the ear until the patient announces that he begins to hear its tone, and it is well to require him to count the number of blows. "Archives of Ophthalmology and Otology," vi., 603 et seq. A'cou-sim'e-ter. A synonym for acoumeter. Itard. See ACOUMETER. A-cous'tic Tel'e-graph. One which trans- mits sonorous vibrations- The articulating tele- graph known as a telephone, is at present the acme of the art. The United States patent of Lancelot H. Everitt, of New Orleans, dated March 24, 1868, and No. 75,886, is a curious item in the history of the art. See, also, his patent No. 40,616, dated November 17, 1863. The summation states that "sounds produced at one end of the telegraph are transmitted to the other end along a wire." The first claim (of four) may be inserted (Patent of 1868): " Claim. 1. An acoustic battery for telegraphing, a ma- chine which creates and modulates sounds, that, when ar- ranged and sounded under symbolic formula;, they are made to represent and express all the letters of the English alpha- bet and all Arabic notations, and when thus evoked into ex- istence the machine reflects these sounds and transmits them through naked wire, buried in the land or water, to their destination, where they impart their various interpretations with such distinctness and order to the auditor who receives them as to become the most important and efficient commis- sioners of intelligence/' Ac'ti-nom'e-ter. An instrument for measu- ring the power of the sun's rays. Herschel's actinometer (described on page 11, " Mech. Diet."), consisted in a small open recep- tacle, attached to a fixed standard. Pouillet's pyrheliometer (described and illustra- ted on p. 1837, "Mech. Diet.") was of polished sil- ver. The vessel exposed to the solar rays contained 100 grams of water, was 100 millimeters in diame- ter, and 15 millimeters in thickness. It was covered on the exterior with lampblack. This instrument could not, however, be used in winter when the temperature fell below 32 Fall. To avoid the various defects of the instrument and to obtain exact measurement of the intensity of solar heat, Capt. John Ericsson invented the actinometer, or solar calorimeter. The instrument is fixed on a movable table within a rotary obser- vatory. It consists of a copper receptacle, filled with water, and covered with lampblack on the exterior exposed to the sun. A thermometer placed in the liquid indicates variations of temper- ature, and an agitator, moved by a belt passing over a little pulley, keeps the water in motion and insures its equable temperature. The water-vessel is placed in the bottom of a chamber, the flaring mouth of which receives a plano-convex lens whereby the rays are concentrated upon the calo- rimeter. In this chamber as nearly a perfect vac- uum as is possible is maintained, and a water jacket is provided so that the interior temperature may be constant. See "Scientific American Supplement" * p. 1103, where is also shown a modified form of instrument, also by Ericsson, for obtaining the measure of the intensity of the solar radiation at a given moment. An apparatus to measure and record the varia- tions of daylight throughout the day, has been in- vented by Herr Kreusler, of Bonn. The apparatus has a special bearing upon plant physiology, and consists of a drum, fixed with its axis in the plane of the meridian, and adjustable so as to be at right angles to the sun's rays. This drum has its border divided into 24 hours, 12 noon and 12 midnight being in the meridian plane. A strip of paper, sensitized witli solution of bichro- mate of potassium, and having divisions which cor- respond to those on the drum, is placed round this. A second drum closely surrounds the first, and is turned by clock-work (from which it can be de- tached) once in 24 hours, in the direction of the sun's apparent course. The second drum has a slit for admitting light to the paper ; its width is such that any point on the paper is exposed 20 sec- onds as the slit passes over. The whole apparatus is placed in the open air under a glass bell jar. The paper strip is placed in its right position at night or under artificial shade (to avoid coloration), and the outer drum slid over and so attached to the rotating axis that the " insolation slit " is op- posite the hour then present. The slit then begins to move round the inner drum correspondingly to the sun's course. The impressed slip, when re- moved in the evening, may be fixed by dipping in water and drying between blotting paper, and shows a mostly continuous succession of bands of various shades of brown. For comparison, Herr Kreusler made a scale of 10 degrees of darkening, exposing strips of the paper a given time under different an- gles of incidence of light. Bands of the experi- mental strip that appear homogeneous are then measured with reference to breadth and intensity, and the sum of the products of those quantities is taken as a measure of the action of light rays fall- ing on the instrument in a given time. Ac'tion. (Fire-arms.) Used generally, in ref- erence to the position or some characteristic of the firing mechanism ; as side action, snap action, etc. Specifically the iron body which lies between the barrels and the stock. Back action when the locks are bedded into the stock alone. Bar action when the locks are bedded partly into the stock and partly into the action. Also called fore action. Ac'tu-al Cau'te-ry. The application of ac- tual heat, as of the searing iron or galvanic wire, for searing or excision, as distinct from moxas or caustics. The latter are included under the terms potential or virtual cautery. See CAUTERY. Ac'u-press'ure Pin. A needle for arresting surgical hemorrhage by insertion and torsion. ACUS. ADJUSTABLE VISE. Fig. Il4ft, p. 38, Part I., * Tiemann's "Armamen- tarium Chirurgicum." A'cus. A needle. The term is especially used in reference to surgical needles. A number are mentioned on p. 12, " Mech. Diet." To these may be added the Acus capitata a pin ; Acus invaginata ; Actts paracentica, or acus paracentelica ; synonyms for the a. triquetra. See also ACUPUNCTURATOR ; DERMOPATHIC IN- STRUMENTS ; HYPODERMIC SYRINGE, etc., "Mech.. Diet." A-dapt'er. 1. (Optics), a. An attachment to the microscope for centering or throwing out of center the illuminating apparatus ; it is moved by rack and pinion. In the form shown it is specially contrived for Beck's ' International " microscope. Fig. 6. A dapter. b. In the case of object glasses made by different makers, and having different screws, a means for ennbling such to be fitted to a body not specially adapted to receive them. . c. An arrangement on a stand to facilitate the use of the object-glass as a condenser. 2. In physical and chemical apparatus, a tube of varying sized ends for uniting apparatus of differ- ent sizes. Made of glass or rubber. Add'ing Pen'cil. A small pencil-shaped add- ing device or arithmometer, usually having a metal- lic case and longitudinal slot with graduations and a traveling pointer, and a numbered disk. Smith 4" Potts, * " Sc. American Sup.,'' 1 page 542. *" Scientific American,'" xxxv. 86. OctoWr21, 1876. T tuner, Ger., *(' Deutsche Gewerbe Zeitung,'' reproduced in " Sc. Am. Supplement," *pp. 2701-2. neat's Adding Machine, " Sc. Am. Supplement,'' p. 742. Le Pascal Ad'it. (Mining.) A level. A horizontal drift or passage from the surface into a mine. The Joseph II. mining adit, at Schemnitz, Hun- fjiry, begun in 1782, was finished October, 1878. ts length is 16,538 meters, a little over 10^ miles; that of the St. Gothard tunnel being 14,920, and the Mont Cenis tunnel 12,233 meters. The, object of the adit is the drainage of the im- portant gold and .silver mines at Schemnitz. It furnishes a geological section more than ten miles in length, and gives not only valuable information as to the downward prolongation of the lodes known in the upper levels, but some new ones have been traversed, and the entire series of rocks, with their mutual limits as well as modifications and occasional transitions, are disclosed without interruption. The entire cost of the tunnel was 4,599,000 florins, about $2,300,000. Its height is 3 meters ; width, 1.6 meter- By the methods of working employed during the last three years it would have taken but 27 years to do the entire work. " There are 19 shafts at Pribram, which are connected at various levels. The deepest is at Adalbert, which has reached the depth of 1,020.1 meters and has thirty levels. It is the deepest perpendicular shaft in the world. At the thousand- meter level a station for magnetic observations is established. The underground workings also communicate with one an- other through the great drainage tunnel " Joseph II.," which is 21,906 meters long. All the water of the mines is raised to the level of this tunnel, which is 445 meters above .sea-level. The total length of the galleries is 245,089 me- ters/' Prof. James D. Hague, " Report on Mining Indus- tries," " Paris Exposition Reports,'' iv. 297- The length in excess of the former statement is due to the inclusion of some branch adits. The Rothschonberger water-adit at the Freiberg mines was completed in 1877. It conducts the water of the mines to the Elbe. The tunnel is ven- tilated by eight air-shafts, and lies about 400 feet below the deepest previous Freiberger water-adit. It has a uniform height of 9.84 feet, with a some- what smaller breadth. The present length of the adit with its ramifications is 43,000 meters (all of which length is now in use), and will be when com- pleted over 51,000 meters, or 3l miles. The cost of the tunnel is estimated at 12,000,000 marks or $4,000,000, and will be paid for by a tax on all the mines which it directlj' benefits. The gradient of the floor is only 0.03m. in 100 meters. Ad-just'a-ble-Beam' Plow. One which has a beam adjustable on a pivot upon the standard so as to throw the nose of the beam in or out of land, to adapt the implement to two or to three horses. In one instance the beam has a pivotal connec- tion above the standard, its rear end being adjust- ably attached to a heavy rod that connects the han- dles. The beam has what may fairly be called a center connection, the pivotal point being in the mid- dle of the ivork, or center of resistance. Ad-just'a-ble-bed' Press. A stamping, cut- ting or drawing press, for sheet-metal work, which can be set with level or inclined bed, to suit the requirements of special work ; notably, the making sheet-metal pans, box covers and bottoms, and similar ware. Ad-just'a-ble Plane. A joiner's plane, so ar- ranged that the angle of the bit relative to the bed is adjustable to suit the kind of wood being worked. The angle of the bit varies with the work ; the harder the wood the steeper should be the pitch ; which may vary from 43 to 60 ; indeed, if the spokeshave be included, it may be said from 25 to 60. The usual angle of the ground plane-iron is a bevel of 25 ; in the spokeshave the usual back of the bit becomes the bed. The pitch of planes is considered under PITCH, 6, Planes, p. 1793, "Mech. Diet." See, also, Hottxapffeft " Turning and Mechanical Manipulation," vol. ii. Fig. 7. Adjustable Plane. Ad-just'a-ble. Vise. One the jaws of which may be inclined, being pivoted on the horizontal axis, so as to secure any desired presentation of the work. Fig. 8 shows a form of vise, the jaws of which maintain their parallelism, and are concertedly ad- justable in a vertical circle to give an inclined pre- sentation, or to bring either of the respective pairs of jaws into position for work. ADJUSTER. AERATED WATER MACHINERY. Ad-jus'ter. (Surgical.) An instrument for bringing into coaptation the parts in case of rup- tured perineum. Dr. Agnew's, Fig. 537, p. 115, Part III., Tie- mann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum," Ad-just'ing Cone. An oculist's instrument for measuring the distance between the axes of the eyes. Fig. 8. Adjustable Vise. The instrument is shown in Fig. 9. Being held in the right hand, a distant object should be looked at with the right eye through the hole in the right hand cone; the other cone, fixed to an adjusting Adjusting Cone. arm, should then be moved backwards and for- wards until the left eye sees the same object through the aperture in the left cone, and the two holes appear as one. The distance between the eyes is then indicated on the cross bar, one side of which is divided to inches and tenths, the other to millimeters. Adze. A wood-cutting tool used with a sweep- ing blow, and with a blade at right angles to the length of the handle. Some memoranda of history and principles are given on pp. 16, 17, "Meek. Diet." Fig. 10 shows strictly modern varieties of American patterns. Adze-plane. A rabbeting and molding tool, especially adapted to solid paneling and used by coach and pattern makers. It has gage adjust- ments for depth and width of cut and for sweep in circular or crooked work. Fig. 11. Adze-p'ane. The plane-iron is adjustable for pitch by set screw and lever, and the bed relatively thereto by thumb-screw on the side of the handle. Fig. 10. Adzes. Flat head pattern. Square head pattern. Spur head pattern. Railroad pattern. Round eye pattern. Ship carpenter's pattern. 7. Canoe pattern. 8. Cooper's pattern. 9. Special pattern. 10. Stirrii]) pattern. 11. Special pattern. 12. Special pattern. The small slotted arms attached to the sides of the adjustable fulcrum are gages for depth, and a slotted piece on the bottom regulates horizontal distance from a guiding edge. The cut shows an adze-plane and specimen of work. The tool is perhaps well named as partaking of the characteristics of the adze and plane ; but it is also nearly related to the spokcshave, though handled in a different manner. A'er-a-ted Bat'ter-y. (Electricity.) One in which the exciting liquid is constantly agitated by air injected into the bath in order to depolarize the negative element. Byrne, *" Scientific Amtrican Sup.,'' Fig. 36, page 2526. * " Telesr. Jour.,'' vi. 222, 269, particularly used in gal van o- cautery . Air as a depolarizer in a single fluid cell is found in Piiluermacher's battery, "Teleg. Jnnr." vi. 388- A'er-a-ted Wa'ter Ma-ctiin'er-y. Various- ly known as " Soda-water apparatus." or " Machin- ery for making carbonated waters," the latter being the preferable title. The subject has been considered under the for- mer title on pp. 18-20 and 2236, 2237, "Mecli. Diet." Some improvements will be noticed under CARBONATED WATER MACHINERY (which see), and certain specific heads. Hay ward, Tyler & Co.'s (British) aerated water machinery, shown at the Paris Exposition, 1878, is described in " Engineering," * xxvi. 287, 288, and 349-352. The principle of an apparatus intended for mak- ing sparkling liquids, such as sparkling wines, cider, ginger-ale, etc., is readily seen in Fig. 1 2, which is a hand-worked apparatus capable of producing AEHATED-WATER MACHINERY. AERIAL TELEGRAPHY. Fig. 12. Non-continuous Aerating 3Ja sixty dozen quart bottles per day. It is on the non- continuous principle, the agitator chamber on the left being charged from time to time with the liquid. This is charged by means of the gas-pump, which receives the carbonic acid from the gas-holder, and that in turn from the generator on the extreme right. The wine or other liquor to be charged with car- bonic acid gas is poured through the gun-metal cap on top, into the cylinder, which should be filled about three-fourths full ; the gas is then drawn from the gasometer by the gas pump, and forced into the cylinder containing the wine ; when the indicator shows the requisite pressure, the working of the pump is stopped, and the agitator in the cylinder turned a few times, which will cause the wine or other liquor to take up the gas ; a further quantity of gas is then supplied by means of the pump, and the gas must be renewed as the liquor is drawn off into the bottles. The bottling apparatus, .shown beneath the cyl- inder, has two cocks fitted into the cone' or carriage, through which the cork is driven ; one is for sup- plying the liquor from the bottom of the cylinder, the other takes the surplus gas and foam or froth ; Fig. 13. British Arm tins; Filter. it is connected by a pipe to the top of the cylinder, and by this means none of the liquor or gas is wasted. A'er-'a-ting Fil'ter. One in which a current of air is conducted through the de- scending water. That made by the Sanitary Engineer- ing Co., of London, is of earthenware (Fig. 13). The up- per chamber has a movable pan with a block of mineral carbon. The lower has granulated car- bon. The water chamber beneath be- ing closed, the de- scent of water dis- places the air, which ascends through the granulated material iu contact with the water. A'er-a'tor. The apparatus for aera- ting the water for the fish-tanks at the Aquarium of the Trocadero, shown in Paris, is the inven- tion of M. Gauckler, who was also the au- thor of the original plan of the aqua- rium. See AQUA- RIUM. The water is that of the Vanne aque- duct, and as it is ob- tained very near the source of the river it is deficient in oxy- gen, which is essential to the life of the fish, and is supplied by the apparatus shown in Fig. 14. It is placed in the center of the system of tanks in the aquarium, and consists of an application of the principle of the Catalan trumpet (trompe) used to operate the bellows in the iron smelting furnaces of Spain, Elba, and elsewhere. It has a number of glass tubes into which water is forced by hydraulic pressure, carrying with it bubbles of air. Fig. 14. Apparatus for aera- ting distilled water on board ship, belongs un- der DISTILLING APPA- RATUS. A-e'ri-al Light Ap'- pa-ra'tus. A balloon, kite, or parachute light, used, iu a military sense, for discovering the posi- tion, etc., of an enemy's camp at night. As used in recent experiments at Chatham, Britain, it consists of a kite covered with loose canvas, hav- ing a parachute provided with an arrangement for exploding the fire-balls Ga br Atr . which are sent up the atins , the Water O f the TTO- line holding the kite. cadcro Aquarium. (Vertical The fire-balls being Section.) thus discharged, illuminate the surrounding coun- try for a considerable distance. A-e'ri-al Fho'to-graph'ic Ap'pa-ra'tus. An apparatus for taking negatives from elevated positions. The camera is supported by a balloon steadied by guys, and the slides operated by cords from the ground. It is especially designed for map- ping out an enemy's position, reconnoitering, etc. " Photographic News." A-e'ri-al Te-leg'ra-phy. (Electricity.) A method of telegraphing between points, dispensing with wires, and using the aerial currents. The current is reached by flying kites to a certain height at each point, the strings being copper wires con- nected to instruments at the ground ends of the wire. Professor Loomis states that messages have AEROHYDRIC BLOWPIPE. AEROPHORE. been thus sent by him between points twelve miles apart, using the atmospheric currents only in the interval between the kites. A'e-ro-hy'dric Blow'pipe. A blow-pipe for burning a mixture of hydrogen and air, giving an intense heat, and used for various metallurgic works, such, for instance, as soldering platinum with gold, the brazing of copper, and the autogen- ous soldering of lead, without the use of an alloy of tin. The latter use is especially called for in the production of leaden vessels to be used in the mak- ing of sulphuric acid. One form of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 738, p. 309, " Mcc/t. Diet." The compound blow-pipe is the invention of Dr. Hare, of Philadelphia; he used the combination of ox- ygen and hydrogen. The aero-hydric was invented by the Count de Richmont, of Prance. It is elab- orately shown in Figs. 395-398, article " CHALU- MEAU," Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Sci- ences," vol. i., edition of 1877. A'er-o-phone. 1. An invention of Edison for amplifying sound. Its object is to increase the loudness of spoken words without impairing the distinctness of the ar- ticulation. The working of the instrument is as follows : The maguified sound proceeds from a large dia- phragm, which is vibrated by steam or compressed air. The source of power is controlled by the mo- tion of a second diaphragm vibrating under the in- fluence of the sound to be magnified. There are three distinct parts to the instrument : A source of power. An instrument to control the power. A diaphragm vibrating under the influence of the power. The first of these is usually compressed air, sup- plied under constant pressure from a tank. Fig. 15. Edison's Aerophone. The instrument is shown in section in Fig. 15, and consists of a diaphragm and mouth-piece simi- lar to those of a telephone. A hollow cylinder is attached by a rod to the center of the diaphragm. The cylinder and its chamber, E, will therefore vi- brate with the diaphragm. A downward move- ment lets the chamber communicate with the out- let //, an upward movement with the outlet G. The compressed air enters at A and fills the cham- ber, which in its normal position has no outlet. Every downward vibration of the diaphragm will thus condense the air in the pipe C, at the same time allowing the air in B to escape via F. An up- ward movement condenses the air in B. but opens /. The diaphragm D is shown in section in Fig. 16. Its center is attached by a rod to a piston, P, moving in a cylinder. The pipes C and B are continuations of those designated by the same let- ters in the preceding figure. The pipe C communicates with one chamber of the cylinder, and B with the other. The piston, moving under the influence of the compressed air, moves also the diaphragm, its vibrations being in number and duration identical with those of the diaphragm in the mouth-piece. The loudness of the sound emitted through the directing tube F is dependent on the size of the dia- phragm and the power which moves it. The former Fig. 16. Aerophone. of them is made very large, and the latter can be increased to many hundred pounds pressure. G. B. Prescott. "Engineer," * xlvi., 425, Figs. 32, 33. 2. An invention of Edison's, better known as a megaphone. It consists of a horn for talking, and a pair of horns communicating by elastic tubes with the ear, for listening. See MEGAPHONE. An apparatus by Prof. Mayer for ascertaining the direction of sound is known as a topophone, and may be referred to in this connection. See TOPO- PIIONE. A'er-o-phore. A respiratory apparatus con- taining a reservoir of vital air or revivifying corn- Fig. 17. position. The ajrophore de- vised by Herr Schultz, captain of the fire brig- ade at Aschaffenburg, Bavaria, depends upon the regeneration of the exhaled air, the oxygen being reproduced as it is consumed. It con- sists of a simple reser- voir of sheet-iron, into which the products of respiration are re- turned. The respired air is led from the mouth by a flexible pipe to a cylindrical tube containing a layer of wadding to intercept dust, and pieces of pumice-stone saturated with caustic potash ab- sorb the carbonic acid. This tube is in direct communication with the reservoir, as is also another tube on the other side containing pumice-stone saturated with dilute acetic acid and sprinkled with crystals of permanganate of potassium. This latter is for replacing the oxygen absorbed in respiration, and for adding a certain amount of humidity to the air, which makes it fresher for breathing. Fig. 17 shows a German fireman provided with the appara- tus. The flexible tubes for inhalation and exhala- tion arc connected with the bottom of the reservoir. The apparatus only weighs about 10 Ibs., and may be used for half an hour together. Schultz's Acrophore. AERO-STEAM ENGINE. 9 AGATE BURNISHER. The Galibert and the Rmiquayrol, $ Denayrouze respirators are shown on p. 1923, * "Mech. Diet." See, also, "Scientific American,'- * xxxviii. 99. A'er-o-steam En'gine. See theory of the en- gine by Henderson, quoted by Thurstoii, " Vienna Expos. Rep'ts.," ii. 151-160. "Engineer " contains a description and illustra- tion of Wenham's " heated air engine," the details being taken from a paper read by C. W. Cooke be- fore the " Institute of Mechanical Engineers," in London. It belongs to that class in which the fire is inclosed, and fed by air pumped in beneath the grate to maintain the combustion, the whole, to- gether with the gaseous products of combustion, being made to act upon the piston. In addition to the British and United States pat- ents cited on pp. 20-23, "Mech. Diet.," the follow- ing British patents may be noted : Clark, 1,449 of 1863. Air is driven into the fur- nace, is heated, rises with the products of combus- tion, meets a fine spray of water, which is instantly converted into superheated stearn, and the whole passes to the cylinder. Miller, 932 of 1864. Steam and air combined. Boulton, 1,291 of 1864. Steam and air combined; mingles gas also. De Rosen, 5,398 of 1826. Volatile products of combustion mingled with steam. Vrooman, 3,083 of 1861. Charges air with mois- ture, and then heats it in spiral passages. James, 1,445 of 1864. High- pressure steam and compressed air. The air is compressed by the pis- ton in the lower part of the cylinder, and the steam then admitted to it. Stevens, 1864. Vapor of oil is added to air, steam, and volatile products of combustion. Cruickshanks, Eng. Pat, No. 8,141, of 1839. Ex- pands air (previously condensed) by heat obtained from liquid fuel injected upon red-hot clay balls. Hull, 4,935 of 1824, decomposes steam bypassing it through red hot fuel, whence the gases, together with those resulting from the fuel, pass to the working cylinder. A'er-o-ther'a-py Ap'pa-ra'tus. An appara- tus in which a patient is inclosed in a chamber of compressed air as a therapeutic. It is the opposite of the tlffmrator, described on p. 687, "Mech. Diet." in which the expulsion of morbid matter from the excretory ducts of the skin is expedited by withdrawing the pressure of the atmosphere from the surface. The aerotherapy apparatus is the invention of Dr. Carlo Forlanini, of Milan, Italy. It is claimed that by increasing the .pressure, the air is forced into the minutest passages of the lungs, and a much greater oxygenation of the blood is secured. This is realized by those who descend into the deep cais- sons used in laving subaqueous foundations. Fire and Limps also burn with great energy under these circumstances. A view of the Forlanini apparatus is reproduced in the " Scientific American," * xxxv. 63. See, also, Ware's compressed-air bath shown at Fig. 67, page 31, " Mech. Diet:' -ffis'the-si-om'e-ter. (Surgical.) An instru- ment for the determination of the cutaneous sensi- bility. Invented by Dr. Sieveking, of London, isr>s. In the original form it was simply a modi- fication of the common beam-compass. See Fig. 279, page 87, Part I., Tiemann's " Armamentarium Chirurgicitm." The " Medical Record," 1872, gives a drawing and description of an instrument by Dr. Alfred L. Carroll, constructed on the general plau of the two- legged compass, but with each free extremity di- vided into two points, one blunt and the other sharp. (Left-hand instrument in Fig. 18.) This arrangement enables the observer to determine the comparative sensibility to contact and pain at differ- ent distances by simply substituting the one pair of points for the other. Dr. Clymer p r o - vicles himself with two pieces of cork or two small shot, and accompli s h e s the same result by placing them upon the sharp points of the ordinary in- strument when he desires t o test the sense of contact without danger of exciting that of pain. JEsthesimntter. The right hand instrument, by Dr. Vance, exhib- its a completely portable instrument. When closed, the points are in coaptation, and are received in the case the same as the blades of a knife shut into its handle. When opened and the points separated, the distance between the points is denoted by the position of the slide, which is so arranged as to move over a scale engraved on one arm of the asBthesiometer. The scale is divided into inches and twelfths of an inch. The points can be sepa- Fig. 19. Dr. Elberg's sEsthesiometer. rated to the extent of 6". When closed, the in- strument is 4" in length. Fig. 19 shows Dr. Elberg's ^Esthesiometer with electrode points. See description of the principles and application of the instrument, under ESTHESIOMETER, p. 809, "Mech. Diet.' 1 '' Also, article by Dr. Reuben A. Vance in "Canada Lancet," iv., Feb. 1872; and "Medical World " of the same year. After Wale. (Saddlery.) The body of a collar ; the portion against which the names bear, and which rests upon the shoulders of the horse. The forward part of the collar is the roll. Aft'gate. The tail-gate of a sluice or lock. Ag'ate. A burnisher. So called because fre- quently made of that hard material. Blood-stones and dog's teeth are also used for burnishers. Ag'ate Bur'nish-er. A burnisher specially used in dental operations and bookbinding; in the former for surface-finishing cement or oxychloride fillings ; in the latter for smoothing the surface of gold leaf on book edges and covers. AGAVE. 10 AGRICULTURAL BOILER. Fig. 20 shows some forms of dentists' burnishers. A-ga've. Nets of agave fiber were shown in the Agricultural Hall, Centennial Exhibition, from the Argentine Republic. " The pita (Mexican IHe) is a variety of the agave, very prolific and yielding fibres varying in quality from the coarsest hemp to the finest flax. It is used for the manu- facture of thread, cordage, hammocks, paper." Xquier's " States of Central America," New York, 1858. See, also, his " Notes on Central America," 1855. Fig. 20. Dentists' 1 Agate Burnishers. Age'ilig. Imparting the characteristics of flavor of ripeness or ago, as of clay, wine, whiskey, calico, etc. See p. 23, " Mech. Diet." Sweet's apparatus for ageing distilled spirits is shown in "Scientific American Su/>plement," *p. 181. Ag-glom'er-a'ted Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which the deploarizing salt is united by a cement and pressure so as to form a solid block with and around the negative, the porous cup be- ing dispensed with. The improved Leclanche' is an instance. NiaurJel (American Translation), * 189. " Telf graphic Journal' 1 ' . . . *vii.3. Beaiifils' sulphate of mercury battery has a solid depolarizer. " Telegraphic Journal," * vi. 397. Ag'gry. Glass beads found in Ashantee and Fantee countries, and very highly valued. They nre supposed to be of ancient Egyptian manufacture. They are of many colors and pat- terns, the shades well marked or delicately blended, many of them resembling agates, for which they have been mistaken. The glaln neidyr. or holy snake-beads of the Druids, found in Wales, may have had a similar origin, as the Phoenicians traded to both places, and carried Egyptian products. There are abundantevidences in the museums to prove the capability of the ancient Egyptian glass-workers to produce these objects of art. See list of Egyptian glass in Museum of " New York Histoiical Society," on p, "Mech. Diet." Ag'i-ta'tor. 1. A stirring device used in the petro- leum refining process for mixing the o i 1 with the refining and deodorizing m a t e- rials. It was formerly a series of revolving _ scoops, but the work ^ is now done by blow- I ing in air which bub- bles up through the oil. = ^^ --~L A pump used for this purpose is shown in "Manufacturer and Builder," * x. 128. The oil is treated with one and one half per cent, of sulphuric acid, by which it is bleached. It is then washed with a solution of caustic soda, fol- lowed by a little ammonia, by which the acid is neutralized. 2. A device in the carbonated water apparatus to stir the gas and water together and cause the ab- sorption of the former by the latter. See CAR- BONATED WATER APPARATUS; see also cuts on p. 2236, "Mech. Diet." A-graffe'. (Fr. Agrafe.} A clasp. A hook, eyelet, or wire, by which a piano wire is firmly held, so as to prevent the translation of vertical vibration to the portion of the string between the bridge and the pin. Decker's agraffe is a stud secured directly to the wrest-plauk. Ag'ri-cul'tu-ral Boil'er. A boiler or caldron for cooking food for animals. The cooking apparatus made by Fouehe, of Paris, is shown in Fig. 21. It is made iu copper or iron, and is adapted to burn all species of fuel. One Fig. 21 Foucke's Agricultural lloilcrx. figure shows it closed for cooking, and the other in position for discharging its contents. The caldron is suspended on posts rising from Boriin's Agricultural Boiler. the sides of the furnace. When at work, the bot- tom of the caldron fits within the top of the fur- nace, cleats on the vessel resting on the rim of the lower section. When the caldron is to be discharged, it has first AGRICULTURAL BOILER. 11 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. to be lifted clear of the furnace so that it may Chaff sifter. Forage press. swing clear. This is done by means of the bail, i cheese^resfT cams on which raise the axis of suspension of the ' chicken K>P. Forking spade. Fountain pump. Frost cog. kettle, and it may then be tipped, as shown in the Chicken feeder. Fruit basket. figure. Chopping mill. Fruit-box. Bodin's agricultural boiler is made in several cider'mill forms, and is of cast-iron. ' ^^1 press. Fruit dryer. Fruit evaporator. Fruit pitter. It is provided with grates for wood or for coal, Clevis. Fruit press. and has additional steaming chambers, which may Clod clearer, be fitted on when required to increase the capacity, cioverhujler. the contents of each being kept distinct. clover-seed gatherer. Fruit separator. Gage wheel. Gang cultivator. Gang plow. It is easily transported in sections, economical of Cockle separator. Garden engine. fuel, and ready for immediate use in any place ^ olt ^' t - , without setting iu masonry. Compound cotton prefiB. The agricultural boiler of Tr'dsclder,oi Limoges, Concasseur. Garden loop. Garden tools. Gate. Geddes harrow. France, is portable, and has a circulation of water Coop. Germination apparatus. from the water-bath to the interior caldron, and ^ g^ker Gorse cutter, drafting tool. FIG. 23. Corn cutter Grain cleaner. H Corn drill. Grain crusher. -. J^H Cotton-seed huller. Half-shovel plow. ^BV* ffffr f f i f wTMTun f 1 1 r V^^I Cotton sweep. Hand corn-planter. VMI IBK Cotton-tie fastener. Hand cultivator. vHB^HBHHr Cotton truck. Hand rake. aBHSBf _. ^ Cotton-worm destroyer. Hand seeder. fc*.-.....v.-. i i ;-IM^tfS' Cranberry picker. Hand thresher. TritsMer's Circulating Boiler. Creamery. Harpoon hay-fork. Crutch. Harrow vice versa. The water flows over the edge into the Cultivator. Harrow cultivator. inner vessel, and out again at holes in the bottom. The flame courses twice aiound the caldron, fol- Cutter. Dairy implements. Decorticator. Harvester. Harvester cutter. Harvester knife. lowing a helical flue. Disk harrow. Hay-band machine. Beard's hog scalding kettle nnd food-boiler is an oblong sheet metal tub with a fire under one end, Ditch cleaner. Ditching machine. Divider. Hay-band twister. Hay carrier. Hay elevator. like some species of evaporators. Double harpoon fork. Hay fork. Banks' farmers' boiler is circular, of sheet-metal, Double- mold-board plow. Hay knife. hung on trunnions in a furnace, the front part of which is hinged, and is moved aside when the cal- dron is to be tipped to discharge the contents. Double plow. Double shovel plow. Double-tub press. Drag. Hay loader. Hay maker. . Hay press. Hay rake. The last two mentioned are made in Chicago. Drag chain. Hay tedder. Ag'ri-cul'tu-ral En'gine. A steam-engine for farm work. Used especially in this country for Drain cleaner. Drain-tile layer Drill. Hay un loader. Hemp knife. Hennery threshing, but having a very much wider use in Dropper. Hill-side plow. Britain and France. It is specially constructed Drying house. Hitching post. when designed for traction, and for plowing. See PORTABLE ENGINE STEAM PLOW. Duck's foot cultivator. Duster Ear lifter. Hoe. Hoeing machine. Hog scalder. Ag'ri-cul'tu-ral Im'ple-ments. See under Ensilage. Hog trough. the following heads : Ensilage cutter. Epinette. Honey extractor. Hoof cushion. Agricultural boiler. Breaker. Equalizer. Hop picker. Aplatisseur. Broad cast seeder. Espalier. Horner. Apple grinder. Brooder. Evaporator. Horse biscuit. Artificial mother. Broom-corn scraper. Excavator. Horse boot. Asparagus buncher. Broom-corn sizer. Expanding cultivator. Horse collar. Aspirator winnowing ma- Broom sewing-machine. Fanning mill. Horse groomer. chine. Broom trimmer. Farm cart. Horse hay-fork. Baling press. Broom vise. Farmer's tool-box. Horse hoe. Balk. Broom winder. Farm mill. Horse power. Barb wire. Brush plow. Feed boiler. Horse rake. Barley fork. Bush hook. Feed crusher. Horse rough. Bean mill. Butter box. Feed cutter. Horse shoe. Bee-house. Butter case. Feed mill. Horse-shoe stud. Beetle destroyer. Butter print. Fencing machine. Hoverer. Beet-root seeder. Butter tub. Fertilizer distributor Hurdle. Binder. Butter worker. Fertilizer mill. Husking glove. Binding reaper. Cake breaker. Fertilizer sower. Hydromere. Bisoc. Cake grinder. Field roller. Incubator. Blade. Calf pail. Flower-stand. Insect destroyer. Black land plow. Cane knife. Fodder cutter. Intermediate motion. Board fence. Cart roller. Fodder mill. Irrigator. Bramble scythe. Chaff cutter. Forage cutter. Jointer. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. AIR BAG. Knife-head. Seeding barrow. Land roller. Seeding machine. Lap ring. Separator. purposes on farms and plantations. But little used as yet in America, but much used in parts of Eu- Lawn mower. Share. rope. Lawn sprinkler. Share harrow. See the following : Lifting gate. Sheaf band. Listing plow. Sheaf binder. Litter cutter. Sheep-rack. Huston 4 Proctor, Br. . 'Engineering " . . * xxiii. 57. Wallis if Steevens, Br. . 'Engineering " . . * xxiv. 142. Loose box. Sheep-shearing machine. Maize cutter. Shoe pad. Aveling ff Porter, Br. . ' Engineering '' . . * xxvi. 26. Brown (f May, Br. . . 'Engineering'' . . * x. 452, 467. Manger. Shovel plow. Howard, Br 'Engineering " . . * xxv 48 Manure drag. Sifter. Marc. Single shovel plow. Aig'let. The metallic sheath at the end of a Meat chopper. Skeleton roller. lace or cord. Milk cooler. Skim-colter plow. Ai'no Cloth. (Fabric.) A cloth made by the Milking tube. Skim-plow. Ainos (tribes of the Saghalien, Yesso, and Kurile Milk pan. Sled harrow. Milk skimmer. Slip share. islands), from the divided fibers of the elm, beaten Mole trap. Soil pulverizer. so as to obtain bast layers, which are split and Movable fence. Spraying machine. woven. See Prof. Penhallow * in " American Nat- Mowing ma chine. Spring hoe. Oat crusher. Sprinkler. uralist," also "Scientific American Supplement," Oat separator. Stable. Oil-cake breaker. Stable cleaner. Air (or fend air). A molder's term, signifying Oil-cake grinder. Stable fittings. all the gases generated and driven through the Oil-cake mill. Stacker. sand and from the mold by the hot metal. Olive press. Stalk cutter. One-horse plow. Stall. Air-ap'pa-ra'tus,Blow'ers, Ven'ti-la'tion, Overshot separator. Steam plow. etc. See under the following heads : Peat spade. Steam plowing engine. Picket fence. Steam reaper. Aerated water machine. Hot-air syringe. Picket pin. Stone clearer. Aerating filter. Hot-blast blow-pipe Pig trough. Straw cutter. Aerator. Hydraulic blower. Fitter. Straw elevator. Aerophore. Hydro-pneuin. accumulator. Planter. Straw knife. Agitator. Kite. Plant sprinkler. Stream fence. Air bag. Laboratory forge. Plow. String binder. Air brake. Miner's forge. Plow fender. Stump extractor. Air chamber. . Mine ventilator. Plow holder. Subsoiler. Air compressor. Organ blower. Pony plow. Subsoil plow. Air engine. Parachute. Portable cider-press. Sugar-land plow. Air equalizer. Pneumatic conductor. Porter. Sugar spile. Air filter. Pneumatic dispatch. Post auger. Sulky cultivator. Air governor. Pneumatic elevator. Post-hole spoon. Sulky plow. Air injector. Pneumatic grain elevator. Potato assorter. Sulky rake. Air moistener. Pneumatic hoist. Potato-bug destroyer. Sweep. Air-pressure regulator. Pneumatic pump. Potato coverer. Sweep rake. Air pump. . Pneumatic railway. Potato digger. Sweet-potato digger. Air reservoir. Pneumatic screw. Potato hook. Swivel plow. Air ship. Pneumatic signal. Potato planter. Tea-preparing machine. Air telegraph. Pneumatic telegraph. Poultry coop. Tedder. Air trap. Pneumatic tube. Poultry feeder. Thatch-making machine. Air valve. Pneumatic tubular dispatch. Prairie breaker. Three-horse cultivator. Aspirating filter. Portable forge. Prairie renovator. Threshing engine. Aspirator. Pressure blower. Pruner. Threshing machine. Balloon. Pressure regulating valve. Pruning saw. Tie. Bench forge. Pressure regulator. Pruning shears. Tobacco cultivator. Bellows. Respirator. Pulverizer. Tobacco cutter. Blast regulator. Riveting forge. Rail fence. Tobacco granulating ma- Blower. Rotary blower. Rake, chine. Blowing engine. Speaking-tube whistle. Reaper. Tobacco hook. Blowing machine. Steam fan. Reaping machine. Tobacco spinning machine. Blow-pipe. Suction fan. Rice drill. Tobacco stripper. Brazing blow-pipe. Traveling forge. Rice huller. Toggle press. Carbonated-beverage app's. Tube whistle. Rice machinery. Tongueless cultivator. Compressed-air engine. Tuyere. Rice thresher. Transplanter. Compressed-air governor. Vacuum chamber Riddle. Treble tree. Compressed-air pump. Vacuum pump Ridging plow. Trenching plow. Damper. Vanner. Riding cultivator. Triple gang plow. Ripple. Triple plow. Damper regulator. Vanning machine. Double-blast forge. Ventilating apparatus. Road grader. Triple shovel plow. Exhauster. Ventilating cowl. Road plow. Trough. Exhaust fan. Ventilating light. Roller. Turning-mold-board plow. Rolling colter. Turnip cutter. Fan. Ventilator. Fan blower. Water aerating apparatus. Rolling colter plow. Turnip drill Fan forge. Wall ventilator. Root cutter. Turnip fingerer. Fan jet. Water column air-com- Root grinder. Vine puller. Fanuing mill. pressor. Root puller Vineyard implements. Fog trumpet. Water tuyere. Root pulper. Vineyard plow. Forge. Whistle. Root shredder. Walking cultivator. Gas blow-pipe. Wind car. Root slicer. Walk scraper. Greenhouse ventilator. Windmill. Root washer. Weed scythe. Guibal fan. Wind- wheel. Rotary plow. Wheat riddle. Hand blower. Workshop forge. Round. Wheat separator. Row-marker. Wheel hoe. Air and Cir'cu-la'ting Pump. A steam- Runner. Wine filter. engine, which in addition to the duty of the air Scarificator. Wine press. Scraper. Winnower. Screw press. Winnowing machine. Scuffle hoe. Wire fence. pump in condensing engines, pumps the water from the hot well into the boiler. See, for instance, the Blake combined air and circulating pump, " Man- Seed drill. Wire trellis. Seeder. ufacturer and Builder." * xii. 4. Air Bag. 1. Air bags for raising sunken ships Ag'ri-cul'tu-ral Lo'co-mo'tive. A self-mov- were tried bv Captain Gowan on the wreck of the ing steam-engine especially adapted for traction U. S. steamer "Missouri," in 1851, and again on AIR BAG. 13 AIR COMPRESSOR. sunken Russian men-of-war at Sevastopol. In 1864 air bags were applied for raising a steamer sunk in the Lake of Borteu ; in this case the bags, owing to some defect, gave way. The Alexandrov- sky system has rendered good service to the Govern- ment" and commerce of Russia on several occasions. " The bags adopted in the Russian navy are, when in- flated, of cylindrical form, measuring 12' in diameter and 20' in length. They are composed of three layers of the thickest canvas saturated with India-rubber. Their lifting power averages sixty tons. In order to lift a vessel, several chains are drawn by divers under her bottom, and air bags attached to the ends of each of them as near the ship's bot- tom as possible : the bags, being inflated by means of air- pumps, cause the ship to rise. Before pumping air into the bags, all the chains are connected in a transverse direction, so as to form one system, thus preventing the pairs of bags from sliding off from beneath the hull of the ship. As the vessel rises the surrounding water-pressure decreases, and the excess of air passes out through safety-valves.' 1 "En- gineering.'' See, also, Fig. 4148, p. 1847, "Mech. Diet." 2. (Surgical. ) Specifically, Politzer's air bag for inflating the Eustachian canal and treating diseases of the middle ear. See/, Fig. 2678, p. 1 1 85, " Mech. Diet.; " Fig. 1814, p. 869, ibid. See, also, Figs. 179-182, 184, pp. 39, 41, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." Air Box. (Mining.) A wooden tube used for ventilation in a mine when there is only one shaft. Air Brake. (Railway.) A railway brake op- erated by air, either by the compression or vacuum method. In the former, the air is compressed by a pump on the locomotive, and conveyed by pipes, and by flexible tubes between the cars, to cylinders under each car. Each cylinder has a piston which oper- ates the brake levers. The Westing/louse brake is an instance, and is described and represented on p. 356, "Mech. Diet." The Lotighridge brake is similarly actuated. In the latter form (vacuum), the air is exhausted from the device beneath the car, and the pressure of the atmosphere operates the brake-levers. The Eames and Smith brakes are of this class. See RAILWAY CAR BRAKE. Air Bridge. An arrangement for injecting air at the bridge of a furnace, in the rear of the grate surface. Examples of bridges are numerous in Plate LXL, and page 2327, " Mech. Diet." McMurray's corrugated-iron air bridge and fuel economizer, is shown in "Scientific American," * xxxvii. 374. Air Cam'el. A lightering device, consisting of a caisson placed beneath a vessel to diminish its draft of water to enable it to pass a relatively shal- low channel. The early use of the camel in Holland is referred to on p. 1874, "Mech. Diet.," under the caption, RAISING SUNKEN VESSELS. See also AIR CUSHION. Air Cham'ber. In Fig. 24, a is an air chamber to be placed over the suction cylinder in deep wells, the pump rod working through it. Also used as a vacuum chamber under a suction pump. With a force pump two may be used with advan- tage ; one as an air chamber above, and the other as a vac- uum chamber be- Air or Vacuum Chamber for neath th e P^mp cyl- Pumps. mder. In the same Fig., b is a chamber to be placed where the elbow would be in the angle of the as- cending suction pipe and the horizontal water pipe, or placed alongside of the pump when the situa- tion should require it. Air'-cock. A faucet to allow escape of air : as in the case of the air-cock, otherwise known as a pet-cock, to allow escape of air from the steam cyl- inder when starting the piston. Fig. 25. Air Cocks. The figure shows the ordinary straight nose air- cock, and the bibb-nozzle air-cock. See also CYLINDER COCK. Air Com-press'or. Applications of compressed air : Static : Employed in a condition of permanent elasticity. 1. Air reservoir in pumps. Regulators. Diving bells. 2. Pneumatic piles and caissons. Tubular foun- dations. Dynamic : Employed in movement. 3. Elevation of liquids ; ejectors. 4. Displacement of liquids. 5. Blowers: rotary, collapsible, and piston. 6. Air-guns. 7. Air-pumps and compressors. 8. Ventilation by chimney draft (vacuum). 9. Compression, and transport of compressed gas. 10. Compressed air locomotives. 11. Pneumatic railway brakes, tubular dispatch, and telegraph. 12. Ventilation by injection of compressed air (plenum). The air compressors at Mont Cenis, and Hoosac Mountain, are referred to on pp. 27, 28, " Mech. Diet." Under the caption " AIR AS A WATER ELEVA- TOR," various devices of the nature of ejectors are shown to the number of nine illustrations, embra- cing the famous device at Chemnitz, and many novel devices growing out of the deep oil-wells. See also Calles' AERO-HYDRO-DYNAMIC WHEEL. AIR-COMPRESSING MACHINES are shown on pp. 31-33, "Mech. Diet." both simple and compound. Under COMPRESSED-AIR ENGINES, are shown the Gowan colliery engine of Glasgow and the Som- meilleur apparatus at the Bardonneche end of the Mont Cenis tunnel. The latter form of apparatus, depending upon the compression of air by the body of descending water, is maintained in the Colladon apparatus, yet in much favor on the Continent of Europe, in positions where water is abundant and fall sufficient. The tendency, however, is to the steam-driven air- pump, of which one or two examples will be offered. The Gowan colliery engine is also shown on p. 10, article Air comprime, Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," Fig. 3321, Tome iv., edi- tion of 1877. The Modane air compressors of the Mont Cenis tunnel are shown and described in the last-men- tioned work, Figs. 3322, 3323, and accompanying text. AIR COMPRESSOR. 14 AIR COMPRESSOR, The cornpresseur Colladon is shown in the same work at Fig. 3324, article "Air comprime'," Tome iv., edition 1877. It was used at the St. Gothard tunnel. Brunniu's water column, or air-compressor, is described in the "Revue Universelle des Mines," 1879, the article being reproduced in "Van Nos- trand's Engineering Magazine," * xxi. 9. The action of the machine is in two periods : the first consists in compressing the air in a closed cyl- inder by direct pressure of the water ; the second, during which the water, having done its work, flows out. The compressor has a cylindrical reser- voir with double seal valves of unequal diameter, one to admit the water, and the other to subse- quently discharge it. Two other valves serve sev- erally to admit fresh air and to discharge com- pressed air to a special holder. The air-compressor designed by MM. Dubois and Francois, to drive drills for sinking shafts, is shown in Fig. 26. Dubois If Frangois' Air Compressor for Drivin " The arrangement consists of an air reservoir of 280 cubic feet capacity, of which from one fourth to three eighths is occupied by the injection water, and the remainder by the compressed air. Two iron pipes, 2" in diameter, conduct the iron, ana nas two vertical iron sranaarus a.aoio" in diameter ; each standard carries a horizontal screw, and the drill is mounted on a nut moving on the screw, and having a range of half a circle. During the period of blasting and extrac- tion of the spoil, the frame and drills are lifted, and when at work it rests upon a timber substructure. The compressor is intended to deliver air at a pressure of 3J atmospheres. It is actuated by a steam cylinder 29J" stroke and 13V i n diameter, and the piston-rod is attached direct to the piston of the compressor. The compressor cylinder has the same stroke and diameter as the steam cylinder, and the ends are inclined as shown in the section ; they are fitted with two valves for the admission of the air, and at each end there are two gun-metal valves arranged as shown. Into each end of the cylinder there penetrates the perforated extremity of a pipe, and through these, at every stroke, water is injected against the piston and the sides of the cylinder to prevent the heating due to compression. The water is not allowed to accumulate beyond the level shown in the section, an overflow being provided, operating automatically. The fol- lowing advantages are claimed for the arrangement: 1. The area of the inlet valves is very large. 2. The water injection ceases at the moment when it becomes unnecessary, that is to say, when the air reaches in the cylinder the same pres- sure that it has in the reservoir. 3. The compressor may be worked at a speed from 40 to 50 strokes per minute. At the coal mines of Werister it was used in sinking two shafts, each t>56 ft. deep, and the results of working with this system have been highly satisfactory." Kevue Indus- trielle. The Clayton duplex air compressor, shown in Plate I., has two horizontal steam cylinders and two air cylinders, securely bolted on a very strong frame, the steam pistons communicating most of the power through the yokes to the compression pistons. The fly-wheel is placed between the two compressors, and on each end of the fly-wheel shaft is a crank, which cranks are set at right angles to each other, so that when the full compression of the air is attained in one compressor the opposite crank exerts its full force to complete the strokes, thus giving an even and uniform motion without any danger of the machine sticking on the center. In the later form shown in the plate, a connect- ing rod is substituted for the former sliding journal boxes (shown in Fig. 1524, p. 650, "Meek. Diet.") ; the yokes are connected at top by a rod, and at the bottom by a distance piece which serves us a slide, working on a long slipper guide which is adjustable and is placed inside the frame to relieve the cylin- ders from the wear incident to the weight of the pistons, rods, and connections. The steam and air cylinders are united by ten- sion rods above. The engine is duplex, the .two portions acting upon the same crank shaft, the fly- wheel on which occupies the center of the machine. The air cylinders are cooled by the application of water in jackets so arranged that the cold water is first brought in contact with a portion of the top, and then forced around the extreme ends of the cylinders where the heat is great- est, the. water then traveling upward around the center or cooler portion of the cylinders. The adjustable tripping device can Shafting Dnlls. ^ ^ ^ m ^ discharge valves at any point in the stroke, afford- ing free escape for air in the cylinder as soon as it has reached the working pressure. The air gover- nor can be set to any pressure desired, and will not allow the pressure on the rock drills or other ma- chinery to vary, notwithstanding the pressure of steam or the number of drills at work. See Fig. 27. The lubricating valve supplies the air cylinders at each stroke with a fixed amount of lubricating fluid. The engines are disconuectable, so that one only may be worked when necessary for repairs or for other rea*on. The "Mining Journal" (British), 1877, has a dis- cussion on the respective constructions and uses of several air compressors ; the article is in part re- produced in "Scientific American Supplement," * p. 1491. It describes the " Moonta," * named from mines in South Australia, and in use in the Isle of Man, and in Cornwall ; the " Flower " compressor, used at the Powell Duffryn Colliery, South Wales, and the "Festiniog "-tunnel compressor. It also re- fers to the cost, and some points in connection with the following air-compressors : Sommeiller. Colladon. Cockerill Foundry. The following references to air-compressors may also be consulted : Bowers * " Iron Age,'' xix., April 26, p. 9. * '-. Min J.,^ xxv. 56. * 'Scientific Amer.,- xxxvii. 15. Brunnin Ton Age," xxiv., July 20, p. 13. 1'r. (water column) . * ' Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xxi. 9. 'Revue Univerxelle ties Mines,'' 1879. Burleigh * "Eng. Min. J.,-' xxii. 18& AIR COMPRESSOR. 15 AIR GAGE. Oaiiton * "Afon. JS.,"ix. 9; * xii. 9; *xii. 100. * " Technologist,''' Feb., 1877. * "Scientific American,'''' Feb., 1879. * "Iron Age," xix., May 3, p. 1. * "Iron Age," xxii., Sept. 19; Dec. 19, p. 1. * "American Manufact." Jan. 9, 1880, p. 13. "Engineering and Min. J.,'' Sept. 14, 1878. Colladon Article "Air Comprime," Fig. 3329, " Laboulaye's Diction- ary,'' 1 vol. iv. Cranston, Br * "Engineering,''- xxii. 320. " Scientific American Sup.," 837. Dubois If Frangois . . * "Engineering," xxi. 249. * "Scientific American Sup." 349. * "Revue Industrielle," 1876. (duplex) . * "Scientific American," xli. 410. Ericsson * "American Artisan," March 18, 1874. Ferroux FrizeU, * Genesee Falls .... Gowan Colliery , Glasgow * Guild if Garrison . . * Hathorn, Br * Ingersoll * Normandy Stillwell $ Co. * Factory at Norwalk . . * Norwali (compound) . * Patton ( water elevator) * Rant! * Hand $ Waring . . . * Rider * * Robey, Br * Royce * Sawtell * Sommeiller, Modanc Steel (Treatise), Br. . . * Sturgeon, Br . . . . * * Sutro Tunnel . . . . * Wetter-on-the-Ruhr, Ger.* Wyllie, Br * "Laboulaye's Dictionary,' Fig 3321. "Scientific American," xxxvi. 310. "Engineer," xlvii. 116. "Iron Age," xx., Nov. 29, p. 7. "Mining Journal " (Br.), Nov. 2, 1877. ''Min. and ,%. Press," xxxvii. 177. "Engineer," xlvii. 352. " Scientific American ," xlii. 367. "Eng. and Min. J.," xxx. 141. "Min. and Sc. Press," xxxviii. 25. "Eng. and Min. J.," xxx. 286. "American Artisan," Feb. 15, 1873. "Iron Age," xviii., Nov. 23, p. 1. "Engineer," xlii. 263. "Engineer," xlii. 129. "Scientific American Sup.," 774. " American Engineer," Nov. 1874. "Scientific American," xxxv. 390. Article "Air Comprime," "La- boulaye's Dictionary," Fig. a322,"vol. iv. "Engineer," xli. 473. "Engineering," xxvili. 51. "Iron Age," xxiii., Jan. 9, p. 1. "Engineer," xlix. 96. "Engineering," xxx. 185. "Engineering," xxi. 617. See: Za/mer's " Transmission of Motion by Compressed Air." Pernolet's "L'Air Comprime.'' Paris, 1876. Drinker's " Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills." New York, 1878. Air'-cool'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. See AIR-RE- FRIGERATING APPARATUS ; ICE-MACHINE. Air'-cross'ing. (Mining.) An arch built over a horse-way or other road, with a passage or air- way above it. Air Cush'ion. Air cushions, distended, serv- ing to support a vessel upon a camel or shallow- water ship-float, are shown in "Engineering," * vol. xxiii., p. 369 ; and the same device applied to grav- ing-docks, * on p. 51 1 of the same volume. The invention of the engineers Clark and Standfield. The cushions are composed of layers of canvas and rubber, capable of resisting a strain of about 40 Ibs. to the inch, and they are inflated by means of air compressors worked by engines at the side of the dock. They are protected outside with rope matting. The form of the bag when inflated re- sembles a bellows with a cushioned top, and the lower expanding section has inlet and relief pipes, the latter employed to allow the air to escape after a given pressure has been exceeded. Access to any part of the ship's bottom can be gained by al- lowing the air to escape from one or more bags, and so making it clear of the ship, while the latter is supported by the adjacent cushions. Air Cyl'iri-der. One in which air is the mov- ing power to operate a piston, or is acted upon by the moving piston. Such are found in various engines and devices : Air engines. Air cylinders of car-brakes. Air compressors. Compressed-air engines. Caloric engines. Air-pumps. Hot-air engines. Some of which names are synonyms. Air'-drain. (Add.) 2. (Molding.) A large passage, often of considerable length, to conduct the gases safely from heavy castings deeply bedded in the floor of a foundry. Air En'gine. An engine driven by heated air. The air engine of Woodbury, Merrill, Patten & Woodbury, patents June 8, 1880, heats and cools the same air alternately. It has two working cyl- inders, 10" diameter X 24" stroke, and two revers- ers, 20" diameter X 12" stroke. The essential fea- tures of the engine are a heater, regenerator, and cooler, which three in combination are termed a reverser, and, in conjunction'with a working cylinder, constitute a single acting engine. The rapid heat- ing and cooling of the air is necessary with each stroke, and the rapidity with which this is accom- plished is one of the peculiar excellences of this machine. The heating is by fuel in the furnace ; the cooling by the circulation "of water around small, thin copper tubes through which the air passes. See HOT-AIR ENGINE. The term air engine has become somewhat gen- eral, and instances of one class are given under Caloric engine, Compression engine, Hot-air engine, and of another under Compressed-air engine, Air compressor, etc. See list under AIR APPARATUS. Air E'qual-i-zer. A device to distribute a blast of air equally throughout the working space in a machine, to prevent its tendency to establish a central current and prove inefficient at the sides of the chamber. See, for instance. Shaver's device in middlings- purifiers, * "American Miller," viii. 2. Air Fil'ter. A proteciive ventilator consisting of a cloth interwoveu with thin brass wire to act as a filter for the air. It is to be attached to the upper and lower sashes so as to close the openings. Gaston Tissandier has made some investigations into the quantity of dust contained in 35.3 cubic feet of air, by causing that quantity of air to pass through a tube packed with gun-cotton, which fil- ters out the particles. He then dissolved the gun- cotton in ether, and was thus enabled to obtain the particles in a separated condition. After a heavy rain, M. Tissandier has collected 0.09 of a grain of dust in the above-mentioned quantity of air, but in dry weather this proportion rose to 0.3 of a grain. With regard to the nature of the ma- terial, he found that about one third was organic, one third silicious, and the rest composed of vari- ous substances. "Iron Age," xxi., January 24, p. 19. See instances. Figs. 95-100, pp. 46, 47, "Mech. Diet." Air Fur'nace. (Metallurgy.) One depending upon the draft of a chimney, as distinct from a blast furnace. A wind furnace. Air Gage. A manometer to indicate the pres- sure of air or gas in a vessel or chamber. It is sometimes similar to a steam gage, but in other instances, such as the piezometer, it serves to register enormous pressures of gas in the explosion of charges of powder. See list under " MEASURING AND RECORDING APPARATUS," infra. AIR-GAS APPARATUS. 16 AIR GATE. Air'-gas Ap'pa-ra'tus. Another name for the Carburetor, in which coal-gas or air is passed through a volatile hydro-carbon to increase or con- fer the illuminating power. See CARBURETOR, p. 464, " Mcch. Diet." Air Gate. (Molding.) An opening direct from a large mold, through which the displaced air es- capes at the time of pouring, and in which the metal afterward rises. A riser. Air Gov'er-nor. An instrument attached to an air-compressor, or blowing engine, to regulate the pressure of air in rock drills, blast furnaces, etc., where a uniform pressure of air is desirable. The Fig. 27. Air Governor on Air-compressing Machine. air governor may be set to any desired pressure, and operates to turn off the steam from the steam cylinder when the air pressure rises too high, and turns on more steam when the air pressure goes down. See also AIR-SPRING GOVERNOR. Air Gun. A compact and elegant form of the Fig. air gun, in which the whole, of the hollow sheet- metal butt is utilized as an air reservoir, charged by a piston in the barrel, may be seen in Labou- laye's " Dictionnaire des Arts ft Sciences," Article " Air Comprime'" Tome iv., Figs. 3317-3319, edi- tion of 1877. In the same article is the device by M. Bourdon for testing the force of the blow delivered by the bullet from an air gun, Fig. 3320. Hyde's Air Gun, "Scientific American," *xliii. 134. Air'-head. (Mining.) A channel driven on a level with the top of the gate road, about four yards distant therefrom. Air Heat'er. Generally : a device to heat air, as in a HEATING STOVE or HEATING FURNACE, which see. Specifically : a device to heat air to feed fur- naces, whether heating or metallurgic. The Sie- mens, Ponsard, Bicheroux, and other furnaces of the class, have regenerators to heat the incoming air. See GAS-GENERATING FURNACE, REGEN- ERATOR, AIR ENGINE, etc. Thonger's air heater, for locomotive furnaces, is shown in "Scientific American,'' * xxxv. 102. The Boswell air heater, for stoves, furnaces, laundries, fruit dryers, etc., is shown in "Mining and Scientific Press,'' * xxxvii. 281. Air heater by waste gases, '" ''Engineer,'' xlviii. 321. Air In-ject'or. A blowing device to throw a jet of air. Such arc found in atomizers, in some classes of fine sawing machines, to blow away the dust, and, as in the instance shown, in connection with dentists' burring engines. A rubber bulb is compressed automatically by means of a simple mechanism, which is connected with and worked by the driven pulley. The air is forced from the bulb through the connecting rub- ber tube to a fixed nozzle at the hand-piece, whence it is thrown into the cavity of the tooth. The air thus driven out of the bulb leaves a vacuum which is instantly filled again with air from the patient's mouth. This alternate exhaustion and supply is kept up so rapidly, even at the ordinary speed of the pulley, that the air is injected in a continuous stream into the cavity. This appliance operates to keep the cavity clear of bur-dust and cuttings, and also to keep the bit cool while in use. Dr. Hickman's Air Injector for Dental Engines Air Lock. An intermediate chamber between the outer air and the compressed-air chamber of a pneumatic caisson. See Plate II., op. page 49, " Mech. Diet." and Figure 1021, page 421, ibid. The air lock is the subject of a paper in the "Annales des Fonts et Chausse'es," reproduced in " Van Nostrand's Magazine," vol. xxii., p. 151, et seq. The paper is by M. A. Heinercheidt, and particu- larly concerns an improved closing port for the discharge in lock. It is well illustrated. See also article "Air Comprime," in Laboulaye^s "Dic- tionnaire des Arts et Sciences,'' 1 Tome iv., tfigs. 3314-3316, edition of 1877. Also air lock and dredging apparatus. Prague. *" En- gineering,'' xxix. 14. Air Lo'co-mo'tive. A locomotive driven hy heated air or compressed air, usually the latter. See COMPRESSED-AIR ENGINES ; STREET CAR MOTORS, etc. See notices on p. 603, "Mech. Diet." of Bompas, 1828. Parsey, 1847. Also, on pp. 2422-2424, ibid., of Medhurst, 1800. Bompas, 1828. Wright, 1828. Mann, 1829. Surrey, 1856. Pinkits, 1834-39. Turnbull. Fontainemoreau, 1844. Anderson, 1846. Fell, 1847. Van Kathen, 1847. Johnson, 1856. Creever $ Keeney, 1859. Smith, 1871. Bowen, 1873. The air locomotive of Major Beaumont, R. E. (British), was lately tried (1880). " The engine having received a charge of 100 cubic feet of air, with a pressure of 1,000 pounds to the square inch, left the Royal Arsenal station, on October 6th, at 12.22 p. M.. for a run to Dartford and back, about 16 miles. In order to increase the energy of the air, it was heated, on being ad- mitted to the cylinder, by a very small quantity of steam. The indications on the pressure-gage, as different stations were passed, were 940 pounds at 12.27 P. M. ; 860 pounds at 12.33 ; and 760 pounds at 12.40 ; 540 pressure being the store of energy on arriving at Dartford at 12.50. Waste having been occasioned by shunting, the return journey began with a pressure of 510 pounds at 1.35 P. M., and Plumstead station was again reached at 2.10. This locomotive, not so large as AIR GATE. 17 ATR-PUMP. one of our common street-cars, weighs about 10 tons, and draws a load of 16 tons up a moderate incline. It can be charged with air in fifteen minutes, does not send out any rush of steam or noxious gases, and makes only a trifling noise. Its sanitary advantages for underground work are obvious, and it can also be used for surface roads." British. Paper. The compressed-air locomotive (model) of the " Polytech- nic College of Philadelphia, ' : is noticed in "Scientific Amer- ican iSitpplt.ment," p. 624. Sec, also, Official Reports of Paris Exposition of 1878, vol. iv., p. 461, Commissioner Anderson's Report, for * JHekarski's compressed-air motor. * La m m-Fr/t n ri/'. s tireless locomotive. See, also, for Mekarski'f. "Scientific American,'' *xxxv. 82. Air Me'ter. An instrument for measuring the rate of motion of an air current ; used in mines, hospitals, etc. Casella's air meter is shown under ANEMOME- TER, which see. Air Mois'ten-er. An evaporator exposed to the heat of a stove, heating pipes, or radiator, to impart moisture to the atmosphere. See EVAPO- RATOR. Air Pis'tol. A small weapon differing in no substantial respect but size and portability from the air gun. Air-press'ure Reg'u-la'tor. An instrument for preserving an even pressure in pneumatic ap- paratus. Fig. 29. Air-pressure Regulator. A, Chamber filled with air at the desired pressure. B, .Space filled with water. <'. Caoutchouc membrane separating the air from the wa- ter, and lifted by the levers HI by means of the rod T. D, Pressure pump, with its supply and discharge-pipes F E respectively. G, Water-pipe leading to the machines in communication with the chamber. (In prolongation on the same axis, the journals of which are packed in the box S. J, Kod terminating in a cap-piece R, and connecting the slotted sector-guide P to the lever H. K, Regulation cock, moving automatically by means of its lever and a link connecting it to the rod J. Its purpose in .o prevent overstrain of the caoutchouc diaphragm when the latter is at its farthest depression. L, Counterpoise on the belt-shipping lever axis V. O, Levers fixed on the axis V, and connected at their ends by a gudgeon traversing the slot of the sector P. P, Sector-guide loose on the axis V. Q, Forks loose on the arbor V, jointed to the piece JW, which limits their movement. N iV, Fast and loose pulleys on the axis of the eccentric V, which works the pump rod. The cut represents the diaphragm near the end of its downward extension. The cock, K, is nearly closed, and allows passage to the minimum quan- tity of water. In the disposition of parts exhibited in the cut, the pump is about to start ; the ball L, in conse- quence of the position given to the levers, 0, by the sector P, has passed the vertical, and is about to draw on the belt fork, and bring the belt upon the fast pulley N. The pump continues to work until the raising of the diaphragm by excess of water shall act in- versely, by the connections already cited, upon the ball L, and shift back the belt to the loose pulley N'. Air'-pump. The uses of the air-pump have largely multiplied since its invention by Otto von Guericke. Fig. \'__ySu&^^ - -- -- ; Otto von Guericke's Air-pump, and the Magdeburg Hemi- spheres. (From a recent photograph.) The original pump, lately brought to light at a loan collection, is 5' high ; the hemispheres are 26" diameter ; two receivers form a part of the group. See Father Schott's " Technica Curiosa." 1. The air-pump used by divers has usually three cylinders and three single-acting pistons, operated by a three-throw crank. A form manufactured in Boston is shown under SUBMARINE AIR-PUMP. See AIR COMPRESSOR, DIVING-HELL, RESPIRA- TOR, etc., " Mech. Diet." 2. The air-compression pump of the Westing- house air-brake has a steam cylinder and air cylin- der placed in line, and with piston-rod connecting the two pistons. The steam and air admission and exhaust of the respective cylinders are governed by valves in the passages. See RAILWAY-CAR BRAKE. 3. The air-pump used in carburetors is usually a form of meter wheel, or a device like the tym- panum. See pp. 464 et seq., " Mech. Diet." 4. An air-pump used for beer fountains is shown in Fig. 31. It is somewhat of a refinement upon the mere lift-pump leading from each cask to the dispensing tap at the counter. AIR-PUMP. 18 AIR-REFRIGERATING MACHINE. 8. The independent air-pump is one driven by another motor, in place of being actuated by a crank on the main shaft. Such an air-pump is sometimes used in connection with a condenser, and being- in- dependent, a vacuum may be formed for the engine before it is staited. Otherwise the air-pump is combined with a cir- culating pump which takes the water from the hot- well and semis it to the boiler. 9. (Surgical.) Air-pump for cupping : Fig. 195, p. 64, Part I., Tifinami'g "Armamentarium Chirur- gicum." Jtmod't boot and arm, for drv cupping. Rid. Figs. 176, 177. pp. 112, 113. Part IV. Air-pump for sprav producer and atomizer. Ibi ' . S9, Par* II. " s-ee also Als-Pl'XP. p. I' Mech. Ditt.'' 1 Aspt- 9OL The following references may be consulted : Air-pump. Otto Von Gufrickt Simple. Hopkim Moll Weindtl Air-pump and Condenser. Tangyt *' Air-pump Condenser (Engl.) . , *' Air-pump for supplying air-ves- pumps. Wifptrman 4" Lneif ......... * ' Air-pump " Xiagara, 1 " Duplex . . * Air-pressure acid pump. Wyllie (Br.) *' .Sc. Am.," si. 35. Sc. Am..'' xxxiv. 371. Sc.Am..-' xx\' xxivii 343, 'Engineering.-' xxii. 51. N-. Am. Sup.." 1731. Engineer," xlriii. 4ti2 : S(.'Am. Sup.." 499. Se. .4m. Sw- Compressed-air Beer-pump. A single pump, D, condenses air in a cylinder, C, which connects by pipes to the spile-hole of each cask. From the faucet of each cask proceeds up- wardly a pipe through the case B, to the dispensing table A. F is a manometer, to indicate the press- ure. Arrangements on similar principles are used in France in cellars and wine-vaults for transferring and racking wines ; for heating them on the new process, to give the quality of a^e. etc. Air-pumps of this class are largely used in the United States in breweries and other factories, where quantities of liquids are to be moved. For this purpose direct pressure of air is more manage- able and convenient than the ordinary liquid pump of whatever class. They are classed as air-pumps up to a pressure of thirty pounds. 5. Air-pumps for a pressure exceeding thirty pounds per square inch are known as air-compress- mq machines, which see. The air locomotive of Colonel Beaumont, of Woolwich, England, is said to start with a reservoir filled at a pressure of 66 at- mospheres, while the Dubois and Francois air com- pressor delivers air to the rock drills at 3$ atmos- pheres. 6. Blowers may be classed as air-pumps, but whether for urging fires or for ventilation, their force is usually far inferior to that of the ordinary air-compressing engines, for the service of rock drills, for instance. 7. Geissler's air-pump without valve, as improved by MM. Alvergniat Freres, of Paris, and which suppresses respace nuisibif, is shown with illustra- tion on p. 491, vol. iii., of the " Reports of Paris Ex- hibition " of 1867. Succeeding pages describe * KrarogTx mercurial air-pump. * Riekar'it' TalTeless air-pump (Plate VIII.). * Dtlatilf' free-piston air pomp. The Spmtgel air-pump is shown at Fig. 393, p. 170, "Jaee*. Diet.-' Air-re-frig'er-a'ting Ma-chine'. A machine constructed by Hall, of Partford. Kugland, for re- frigerating the hold of an Australian meat-ship, has a pair of horizontal trunk-engines mount*. d on top of a condenser. To one side is bolted a com- pressing cylinder, 27" diameter and IS" stroke: to the other side is bolted the expansion cylinder, 2-2" diameter and IS " stroke. Both these cylin- ders are open-topped. The valves are placed in the bottoms of the cylinders, and are worked by c-ims on the crank-shaft ami into the compressing cylinder on the up-stroke, and delivered on the down-stroke into the surface con- denser, at a pressure of about 50 Ibs. to 55 Ibs. on the square inch. The air here parts with its heat in the condenser, and it is then delivered into the expansion cylinder, the valve of which cuts uff at about one fourth stroke. The expanded un- delivered through a pipe into the room to be , About fifty per cent, of the work expended in the compressing cylinder is returned in the expansion cylinder, the difference being made up by the en- gine. In the form recommended for ordinary use, the height is kept down to render i: s: ecially suit- able for the space between decks ; but the machine can be made to take almost any form, and can be made of any dimensions to suit particular require- ments. The condenser or refrigerate: nests of brass tubes, through which the water circu- lates. The tubes have an outside diameter of f", and are accessible through man-holes. See illustration in " -Sc. AM. Supplement," p. 4039. See also ibid., 4011. See also * "Engineer" 1. 24S. See REFRIGERATOR. The apparatus of MM. Nezereanx and Garlandat has a perforated plate, over which a water runs, while a body of air, driven by a fan, courses through the holes, and acquires within a few degrees the temperature of the water. " La Mature." See also " Scientific American," xxxiv. 82. By the use of an air-compressor, with tanks and cisterns, the temperature of a given space may be readily reduced nearly to the freezing point, if de- sired." Many processes, primarily intended for pro- AIR-REFRIGERATING MACHINE. 19 AIR TELEGRAPH. during ice, are available for air-refrigerating pur- AIR-COOLIXG APPARATUS; ICE-MACHINE ; in former volume-. The following I'nited States patent* may be ex- amined : N I \ - 211.7"' 87,0*1 j t 9U 19M74 44,731 N 17 V-:-l Air Res'er-voir. The reservoirs constructed by Dr. C. \V. s;. 'incus, for Colonel Beaumont, of Woolwich, Britain, to he used in his air locomotive, and withstand a pressure of 1,000 Ihs. to the square inch, are made of cylindrical rii._ '. rolled out of solid ingots in a tire-mill, and hemispheric*] ends l>eaten out of steel boiler-plate. / 'rs" (Br. iuced in " .^i-n iitiric Amt, " ment," The Matthews' reservoirs of similar shape made for carbonated waters, and used rs for carbonic-acid gas in the I'nited S:at< s torpedo ser- -heet steel, coated with tin, and sweated to^ctlier. *- - . iptiou on p. ~ M.cli. /- A peculiar arrangement of air reservoirs in pumps, to totallv exclude the shock, is shown in " Dinylfrs' Join-mil." and re]>roduced in " Scimtiric American," xxx\ i Air'-spring. A spring in which the elasticity of air is utilized in jilace of metallic or other ma- terial. 1. The air-spring used in a reciprocating flat '.'inting-press, to -top and reverse I lie move- ment of the bed. is a very importunt improvement over the wire spring, being almost indisj" for high rates if speed. To overcome the mo- nieiitum of the ; - X 46" drum cylinder \ith a full form of type running at the rate of l.OOd impressions per hour, is calculated to re- quire aUuit _'.5."iO pounds of resistance on each center. Fig. 32. 2. Air-springs are also used in gun carri.;. arrest the recoil of the gun; or to utilize the recoil of the gun to assist in elevating the gun in hatterv, after being depressed for loading. Notices are i;iven on p. los;.. .!/ ./,. Diet.," of the invention of Ka.!s ( lNl.V-1871 ). Moucrieff has another form. See HvDuo-rNKf- MATIC Gl N -CAliKIAGK. 3. The use of the air-spring in car-springs is shown in Fi_- 17.V>. "M< 4. The air-spring is MM in the spring hammer of Hotehkiss, air !>eing used as the elastic medium, links in the reciprocating cylinder allowing free in- ,ud egress of air. insuring a perfect cushion . !i stroke. r. > 4,965 19,764 Kl>l: All: AM> I'M I'M \ ! K M rncuinatir Sjirinjr (Railway). 1'iu-u; rarriage). riu'uni:iti<- S] ay). AirSjir:: :i,MV.Hgons. riu-\iiu:it.ir Sprinsi K'arri.i. rucuiii:itic Si'mii: 1or C;ir.N, etc. riu-iunatu- Sj.vn . riifiuuatu- Spring (Railway). Air Spriner (Il:i, 1'iu'ui liailway). Air Sprini; (H:u 1 'lit' uina tic Spriiii: llaih> . riu-u. ainl KuM>t r Spring ('Railway). I'lu-uiiiatic Spring (!;. Automatic Vent-i'iH-iKT for Air-jprings. Air'-spring Gov'er-nor. An attachment to an air-spring arrangement to regulate the pressure. The instance illustrated represents the governor attached to an improved form of flat-bed printing j press, to regulate the pressure of the air in the re- coil spring." Fig. 33 shows the governor attached to the connecting pipe, with the plug valve, which it oj>erates, and two spring gages to indicate the Fi 6 . 33. Air-spring Governor. r Bed of Printing The air-spring is used on the presses of several of the superior makers. The press spring shown in crnor attachment, by which, w hen the pr d, the air-spring is automatically j>ut on. according as the feed progre.-s.-s. and in stopping the s|irinu r po\\er is decreased ;us the feed declines. The bed is provided with two cylinders ith as many plungers at the ends of the frame, and the hollow rods of these plunders are connected by a pipe running alouir the lower part of the frame ; which pipe is opened or closed bv the valve of the governor. (See next article.) The plunger has a hollow rod and an automatic valve at it- extremity. This valve rises on the re- turn motion of the bed, and prevents a vacuum forming in the cylinder. Fig. 32 shows a longitu- dinal section of the device. amount of con- densation in binders. The val ve is shut by the motion of the lire .- s w li e n r u n n i n g a t speed, a n d is open when the .it rest. T h i s enables the press to l)f started at any point without helping it over the centers In- hand. Th'e spring gages indicate the pressure in the air cylin- ders, and tin's is determined by setting the plunders backward or forward on their rods, readilv adjust- ing the amount of spring to the speed of the press. The press is furnished with a table showing the gaee pressures indicating the amount of spring re- quired for the different speeds run. The workman simply adjusts the plungers until the gages indi- cate the pressure laid down on the tablet Air Strain'er. A gauze or perforated plate to prevent ingress with the air, of dirt, dust, or in- Such are used with the pump of the railway air-brake, in lihering the air for ventilation, etc. See also AIK FILTER. Air Tel'e-graph. A mode of communication known in France under the name of Sounerie tele- graphique, systeme Sparre. The principle is, that a compression of air produced by the pressure on or squeezing of an India-rubber ball at one end of AIR TELEGRAPH. 20 ALARM WHISTLE. a long tube (generally a leaden pipe) is immedi- ately transmitted to the other, and there makes au- dible signals. This mode of telegraphing is used in hotels, manufactories, vessels, etc., for limited distances. Generally known as Pneumatic telegraph, and il- lustrated by Fig. 3854, on p. 1755, "Mech. Diet." Air Test'ing. To detect the presence of mi- ner's fire-damp, various instruments have been em- ployed. See FIRE-DAMP DETECTOR ; GRISOUME- TER. Professor Wanklyn and W. J. Cooper have brought before the Sanitary Institute of England a new process for testing air. A strongly alkaline solution of permanganate of potassium is prepared, the strength of which is determined accurately. They allow a known volume of this solution to act on a given volume of air heated nearly to the tem- perature of boiling water. After allowing the solu- tion to act on the air they again determine the strength; the loss of strength represents the amount of oxygen consumed by a known volume of air. The purer the air the less the consumption of oxy- gen. Air Ther-mom'e-ter. In a loan collection of scientific apparatus lately exhibited at the " South Kensington Museum," London, the air thermom- eter of Galileo was shown. It was substantially like that of Santorio, of Padua, shown at Fig. 116, p. 53, "Mech. Diet." The illustration in the "Illustrated London News " of the period is repro- duced in "Scientific American Supplement," p. 742. The same work, at p. 8929, gives an account of Witz's air thermometer. For Winstanley's air thermometer, see "Engineering,"" * xxx., 459. Air Trap. A device in a conduit to allow air to escape at the more elevated portions where it passes over summits. A stop-cock, to be used as occasion may require, is the simplest form, but automatic appliances have been invented. That of Felix (French), used on the pipe-lines for the conveyance of beet-juice, is an iron bell tested to 15 atmospheres, placed at an elevated point on the pipe, where it is adjusted by two opposite tubulures soldered to its lower part. In the center is a pump cylinder in which slides a piston, the rod of which passes through the summit of the bell and communicates motion to a safety- valve. The air rises to the summit of this, passes into the cylinder, and gradually exercises a suffi- ciently strong pressure upon the piston to cause it to descend and open the escape-valve. A large portion of the air is ejected, the piston rises and closes the valve, and so on. Air Valve. A valve to regulate the admission or egress of air. 1. Such are used in bends and traps of water- pipes to allow escape of accumulated air ; as in a of Fig. 34. Fig. 34. Air Valves. Self-acting Air Valve. 2. A valve to be operated by a float to close a pipe communicating with a cistern (b). 3. A screw valve, c, to close the opening of an air reservoir ; such as an air cushion, for instance. 4. An automatic air valve is shown in Fig. 35. It consists of an oblate spheroidal disk placed in a chamber, and having attached to its radial axis a valve, which has its seat in the passage to be guarded. Changes in the heat of the disk chamber affect the ob- lateness of the disk and move the valve toward or from its seat. Expansion by heat acting in greater degree upon the exterior surface decreases the oblateness and shuts the valve opening. A curved plate would act similarly. A plate of two metals of unequal expansibility by a given degree of heat would do the same without being normally curved. See in- stances of thermostatic arrange- ment in LOW-WATER ALARMS (2), D E of Fig. 3008, p. 1359, "M <. 57, "Mech. l)ict." A modified Albert-type process, to produce col- ored pictures, was described in the New York " World," and the article reproduced in the "Sci- enlijic American Supplement," p. 2079. The Albert process is described at length on p. 18 of the Report of Dr. 0. A. Doremus, " Vienna Exposition Reports,'' 1 vol. ii., section D. Arbo-car'bon Light. One in which the ordi- nary illuminating gas is enriched by the volatiliza- tion of so-called (Mo-carbon, the solid residuum of creosote, placed in the form of cylinders in a reser- voir adjoining the burner, and heated thereby. "Enyinr-ering" xxTii., p. 157 'N /( uli fie American " xl., p. 201. Al-bu'meii-ized Pa'per. Paper prepared for photographic uses by dipping in a bath of white of egg, drying, and pressing. Al'cp-hol En'gine. In this connection the fol- lowing items may be considered, in addition to the notices on pp. 58, 59, "Mech. Diet." Abbe d'llauteville (1682) describes an engine, the action of which was produced by alternately evaporating and condensing, without allowing it to escape. 'Reflexions sur quelques Machines a eleoer des Eaux," p.' 9. Paris, 1682. Sec, also, English patent, No. 5,262 of 1825. -<>, No. 9,118 of 1841. Tubes of alcohol or ether in a steam boiler, and connecting with a cylinder, the latter with .-I condenser. Vapor re-used. Also, \V. Ketland, Eng. Patent, No. 7,526 of 1838. Applies alcohol to condense steam that has worked an engine and usi-< I he vapor generated to work another engine. Saves the condensed spirit vapor. Al'co-hol'me-ter. The alcoholmeter of Dr. Siemens is an instrument by which a stream of al- cohol and water mixed in any proportion is meas- ured in such a manner that one train of counter wheels records the volume of the mixed liquor, while a second counter gives a true record 6f the amount of alcohol contained in it. " The volume of liquid is passed through a revolving drum, divided into three compartments by radial divisions, and not dissimilar in appearance to an ordinary wet gas- meter : the revolutions of this drum produce a record of the total volume of passing liquid. The liquid, on its way to the measuring-drum, passes through a receiver containing a float of thin metal filled with proof-spirit, which float is par- tially supported by means of a carefully adjusted spring, and its position determines that of a lever, the annular po- sition of which causes the alcohol counter to rotate more or less for every revolution of the measuring-drum. Thus, if water only passes through the apparatus, the lever in ques- tion stands at its lowest position, when the rotation motion of the drum will not be communicated to the alcohol counter, but in proportion as the lever ascends a greater proportion of the motion of the drum will be communicated to the alcohol counter, and this motion is rendered strictly pro- portionate to the alcohol contained in the liquid, allowance being made in the instrument for the change of volume due to chemical affinity between the two liquids. :> Nature. Ale Re-frig'er-a'tor. 1. An apparatus in which malt liquor is cooled either by surface ex- posure; in pipes exposed to a cool bath; or in a vessel traversed by pipes containing a refrigerating liquid. See Fig. 631, p. 264, " Mech. Diet.; " see, also, devices in CONDENSER, Ibid. 2. A case or box in which barreled beer is kept for dispensing. See Fig. 632, p. 265, " Mech. Diet." Areu-rom'e-ter. An instrument invented by M. Boland to measure the elasticity of the gluten of flour, when submitted to the temperature re- quired to bake bread. Described, without cut, on p. 60, " Mech. Diet." The apparatus has a bath, K, of neat's-foot oil, beneath which is a lamp. The bath being heated to 318 F. (150 C.),the cover E, with the tube F, are lowered and then the aleurometer proper is put in. This is a brass tube, D, with a movable base- piece, B, and a cap, A, in which is a piston, (7, the upper part of which has a scale graduated from 25 to 50. The piston be- ing down, half the space be- neath it is filled with a ball of gluten, pre- pared by knead- ing and work- ing flour. The effect of the heat is to evap- orate the water of the gluten (66 per cent.) and the gluten swells. Until it has doubled its volume the piston is not moved. Beyond this it registers from 25 to 50. Gluten which does not more than double in vol- ume is not fit for bread, and the best has not ex- ceeded 50. Boland' 1 s Aleurometer. 'Sc. American Supplement " . . 'English Mechanic" .... 'Sc. American " (by chloroform } ' Leffel's Milling and Mech. News ' * p. 1871. * xxvi. 85. xxxvi. 323; 120, 258. * vii. xxxvii. 'American Miller" * vii. 59. Al'ge-rine'. (Fabric.) An all-wool French goods. Al'i-dade. 1. The movable arm of a graduated instrument carrying sights, or a telescope. 2. A theodolite, or telemeter, provided with such an arm. Two Viennese alidades shown in the Austrian Exhibition may be noticed : " Kraft & Son, of Vienna, had on exhibition an alidade, of which the pillar carrying the telescope was swung on a joint, so that both pillar and telescope could be lowered and made to lie flat and parallel with the rule. The object of this rather hazardous variation from the ordinary construc- tion was to make the instrument more portable by reducing the size of its packing-box. " Starke & Kammerer, instrument-makers for the Austrian Polytechnic Bureau, exhibited an alidade, with a telemeter attached to and parallel with the telescope, by which the distance of the instrument from the divided staff was deter- mined by the angle subtended by two fixed points on the staff. In other cases, the distance was obtained by observ- ing the vertical distance on the staff subtended by a known ALIMENTARY APPARATUS. ALLOY. angle or two fixed wires in the diaphragm of the telescope." Report of R. D. Cutts, "Instruments of Precision,'' 1 Vienna Exposition Reports, TO!, ii. ; II, p. 8. Al'i-ment'a-ry Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) Devices for feeding the helpless or refractory, such are : Nasal, esophageal, rectal. See Figs. 403-405, p. 101, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgi- cum." Masticator, Fig. 406, Ibid. ; and Fig. 3087, p. 1407, "Meek. Diet." A-liz'a-rine. The coloring principle of mad- der. It is made artificially from anthracine, a white crystalline substance obtained from coal-tar, which contains about 0.63 per cent, of anthra- cine. Paper by Johnson . . . . "Sc. American Sup.," 2128. Alizarine. Rum/iff . ... "Sic. American Sup.," 620. Alizarine Blue. Prud'/wmm . "Sc. American Sup., :: 2080. Alizarine, Printing with . . "Sc. American Sup.," 619. Alizarine "Sc. American,'' xli. 232. Al'li-ga'tor For'ceps. (Surgical.) Forceps with long jaws toothed throughout their length. Such are Thompson's urethral forceps for litho- trity; Figs. 169-171, p. 45, Part III., Tiemann's " Armamentarium Chirurgicum." Farabeuf's and Hamilton's Osteophors, Figs. 536, 53 c, p. 12, Part I., Ibid. And numerous other instances. Al'li-ga'tor Leath'er. The tanning of alliga- tor skins was commenced about 1855, and now from 17,000 to 20,000 are tanned yearly, which are consumed by boot and shoe manufacturers in the United States, as well as exported to London and Hamburg. Al-loy'. Tellurium has been proposed as a substitute for copper as an alloy for gold and silver in coinage. " Engineer," San Francisco. The Japanese alloys are mostly used for orna- mental castings, statues, musical instruments, and bells. The name given to an alloy generally cor- responds to the color produced by the treatment which the objects have to undergo before they are finished ; thus some of the alloys are named green copper, violet copper, black copper, etc. This color depends both upon the composition of the alloy and the chemicals used in coloring the metal. There are many different means used to produce one and the same color, and it so happens that almost every manufacturer uses particular compositions of his own ; generally it is only the proportions that differ, but sometimes even the constituent elements are different, although the alloy is called by the same name. Green copper (Sei-Do) is composed of copper and lead, ov copper, lead, and tin. Sentoku-do of copper, lead, and spelter similar to the old Corinthian alloy is said to have been first produced by a large conflagration which took place in China during the earlier part of the fif- teenth century. Black alloy called U-do, of copper, lead, and tin ; the brass, of copper and spelter, sometimes with a slight addition of lead, as, for instance, in Yechiu, one of the chief places of production of ornamental castings inlaid with gold and silver; the purple alloy is composed of copper and lead. Gin-shibu-ichi is generally composed of four parts of copper or alloy and six parts of silver. Shaku-do, copper with a small percentage (two to five per cent. ) of gold, which produces a beautiful dark blue color, and is mostly used for articles formed by hammering, or for repousse' work, gener- ally inlaid with gold and silver, and producing de- signs somewhat similar to Niello. Bronze for locomotive whistles : Copper 80 Tin 18 Antimony 2 100 Bronze for ball valves and pieces to be brazed : Copper 87 Tin 12 Antimony 1 100 For working models ; easily wrought : Copper Tin . Zinc . 1 0.26 Phosphor-tin for journal boxes : Tin with from 2.5 to 5 per cent, of phosphorus. Ravenue if Co., of Berlin, Ger., "Sc. Am.," xl. 118. Professor Silliman's process of making articles of metallic alloys resonant consists in exposing them for a determinate time to a temperature just short (say within 10 Fah.) of their melting point. This is claimed to endow them with a musical qual- ity. "Scientific American Supplement," 182. An alloy by Matthey, of London : Platinum 80.660 Iridium 19.079 Rhodium 122 Iron 098 Ruthenium 046 Density at 32 Fah., 21.6139. This is so malleable and ductile, that it may be drawn to a wire a few hundredths of a mm. in di- ameter. Organ pipe metal : Tin and lead in equal parts, cast into sheets and smoothed with a planer; that is, with a flat block beaten by a hammer. White alloy, by Beirman & Clqdius, of Hano- Copper 72.25 Manganese 16.25 Zinc 8.75 Iron 2.50 This alloy is malleable, does not change when immersed in water for, forty days, takes the silver plating well, but is a little yellowish. White alloy, by Le Marquand, of Paris. It is not liable to oxidation : Copper 750 parts. Nickel 140 Oxide of cobalt 20 Tin 18 Zinc 72 1,000 Alloy, for jewelry, having the appearance of red gold ^o fine. By Meiffren & Co., Marseilles : Copper 800 Platinum 25 Tungstic acid . 1C Gold 170 The three former are melted together in a cruci- ble, and then granulated in Water 1 cubic meter. Slaked lime 500 grams. Carb. potassa 500 grams. The granulated metal is dried, remelted, and the gold added. The flux consists of boric acid, nitrate of sodium, and chloride sodium in equal proportions. Alloy for jewelry, in imitation of silver sider- aphthite (unchangeable iron), by Meiffren & Co., Marseilles : ALLOY. 23 ALUMINIUM. Iron 66 Nickel 23 Tungsten 4 Aluminum 5 Copper 5 The first two are melted together and granulated in a bath of Water 1 cub. meter. Slaked lime 1 kilo. Carb. potassa 1 kilo. The latter three ingredients are similarly treated. The flux is one part boric acid to one of nitrate of potassium. Sodium and charcoal are added in melting the last-mentioned batch. The separate batches of granulated metal are then melted to- gether. The following patents may be consulted : Aluminum bronze . 223,900 Webster Nov. 2, 1880 Manganese bronze . Nickel-zinc 206,604 225,977 Parsons Fleitmann July 30, 1878 Mar. SO, 1880 Journal-box metal . 179,616 Schoenberg July 4, 1876 Metal coating alloy Bell-metal alloy . . Mook silver . 234,482 169,648 153,154 Jones Macker . . Campbell . Nov. 16, 1880 Nov. 9, 1875 July 21, 1874 219,265 Hubbell . Sept. 2, 1879 . -I ' 191,146 Hubbell . May 22, 1877 209,265 Hubbell . Oct. 22, 1878 219,097 Hubbell . Sept. 2, 1879 Plating alloy .... 194,365 204,856 Page . . Sparks . . Aug. 21,1877 June 11, 1878 Manganese alloy . . Anti-incrustation alloy Aluminum alloy . . 178,490 169,810 220,149 211,630 Ward . . Holden . . Howard Hubbell . June 6, 1876 Nov. 9, 1875 Sept. 30, 18(9 Jan. 28, 1879 211,909 Hubbell . Feb. 4, 1879 Manganese bronze . . 203,266 Hale . . . May 7, 1878 Journal-bearing alloy 221,400 Downs . Nov. 11,1879 tin , copper, antimony Door-knob alloy . . . 149,506 Morand April 7, 1874 See also ANTI-FRICTION Notices are to be found heads : METAL. under the following Aluminium bronze;. Anti-friction alloy. Anti-incrustation alloy. Bell metal. Bragg. Bronze. Bronze iron. Chroineisen. Chrysoid. Dysiot. Electro-silicon. Ferro-manganese . Ferro-silicium. Fusible metals. Gold alloy. Lubricant alloy. Manganese bronze. Metallikon. Melting point of alloys. Phosphor bronze. Phosphor tin. Sideraphthite. Silver alloy. Solder. Numerous recipes for alloys for solder, fusible plugs, white metal, type metal, jewelers' uses, and various mechanical purposes, are given under AL- LOYS, pp. 61-68 of "Mech. Diet." On p. 68 of that volume is a list of 77 alloys, which are considered in their alphabetical order in the volumes of "Mech. Diet." The following works treat on the subject : Guettitr's " Metallic Alloys." (Translated from the French.) Scoffre.n's " Useful Metals and their Alloys." Collins' s " Useful Alloys." Overman's "Metallurgy." Larkin's "Practical Brass and Iron Founders' 1 Guide.'" Graham's "Brass-founders' 1 Manual." Greenwood's "Manual of Metallurgy." Sfiretson's "Practical Treatise on Casting and Founding." Al'lu-mette'. A match or taper for lighting a lamp or candle. Al-lu'vi-um. (Mining.) A deposit of loose gravel between the superficial covering of vegetable mould and subjacent rock. Al'man-riv'et (From Allemand.) A form of joint in German armor in which the plates were slotted to slide on rivets to give flexibility to the armor. Al-pac'a. (Fabric.) 1. A taffeta woven goods made of alpaca wool. 2. A dress goods of cotton chain and long luster wool weft. 3. Figured fancy weaving makes fancy alpaca. Al-pa'ga. (Fabric.) A French dress goods made in a taffeta loom. It has a cotton warp and Lincoln wool weft. Al'pine. (Fabric.) A French goods, made on a " serge 2 and 1 " loom ; silk warp and merino wool weft. Alt-az'i-muth In'stru-ment. A theodolite with adjustments for altitude and azimuth. Al'ter-na'ting Cur 'rent Ma-chine'. (Elec- tricity.) One in which the current traverses in op- posite directions alternately, as in the Gramme ma- chine used with the Jablochkoff light. * "Telegraphic Journal," vi. 491 ; Al'ti-tude Meas'u-rer. Pickering'^ altitude instrument is designed for measuring the distances and heights of mountains. It consists of a common telescope, with a level attached, a scale of equal parts in the eye-piece, and with a mirror of plate- glass fastened to the object-glass, so that it can be set at any angle. Two images are seen, one through the glass, and the other by reflection from its sur- face, and any two objects may be made appar- ently to coincide by turning the mirror through the proper angle. Selecting as our object the moun- tain whose distance is to be measured, and as the other any convenient, well-defined point, the tele- scope is moved through a known distance, and the apparent change of position of the two images is measured by the scale. The altitude is then deter- mined by leveling the telescope and reading the apparent elevation from the graduated scale, which is now turned round. By a second inclined level higher mountains may be measured. Al'um Bat/te-ry. (Electricity.) Useful in ope- rating open circuit. It consists of zinc and copper, or zinc and carbon, without porous cups, immersed in a concentrated solution of alum. Sabtne, "Electric Telegraph,-' 1867, p. 228. Niaudet, American Translation, New York, p. 78. Al u-min'i-um. The metallic base of clay. A white, sonorous metal of increasing importance. The history of the production of the chloride of aluminium from alumina, by Oerstedt, the segrega- tion of a gray metallic powder, by Wohler, in 1827, and the production of metallic globules of alumin- ium by the last named in 1845, are mentioned on p. 70 of "Mech. Diet." The modification of the Wohk-r method, by M. H. Deville, in his works at Javelle, near Paris, under the patronage of Napo- leon III-, about 1857, are also referred to. The Deville process of that time is described with more detail in Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Man- ufactures,'" tome iv., article "Aluminium " (edition of 1877), but more recent improvements have ren- dered it unnecessary to redescribe it. Very important in this connection are the suc- cesses of M. Deville in the production of sodium, so necessary in the aluminium process. Starting with the foothold acquired by MM. Mareska and Donny, who published a work on the extraction of sodium in 1852, "M. Deville has arrived at the pro- duction of sodium with a facility and in such abun- dance as but a short time ago would have been re- garded as impossible." Laboulaye. See the lac- tionary above referred to for details of the sodium process. " It is now certain that the fabrication of sodium is at least as easy as that of zinc, with which it has, for that mat- ter, a very strong analogy." Dumas. Aluminium (by the later Deville process; is man- ufactured by decomposing the double chloride of ALUMINIUM. 24 ALUMINIUM. aluminium and sodium (cryolite), with the aid of metallic sodium. The sodium is obtained by heat- ing to redness a mixture of 100 parts of calcined soda, 15 parts of chalk, aiid 45 parts of coal. The chloride of aluminium is prepared by passing chlo- rine gas over a moderately heated mixture of pure alumina (obtained either from alum or the mineral bauxite), common salt and coal tar. The idea of this mode of producing the chloride of aluminium is attributed to Thenard, and its first execution to Oerstedt, but it pussed from a laboratory expedient to a practical use in the hands of M. Ueville. Chloride of Aluminium Apparatus. The operation is conducted in an iron gas-retort, and the result of the interaction of the several sub- stances present is the combination of the coal tar with the oxygen of the alumina, and the produc- tion of aluminium chloride, which unites with the chloride of sodium (common salt), forming a double salt, which volatilizes and is passed off into a sep- arate chamber, where it condenses. From this method of obtaining the chloride, it is impossible to keep it free from chloride of iron, for which reason the Parisian aluminium is invariably adulterated therewith. From this double chloride of alumin- ium and sodium the metallic aluminium is ob- tained, either by passing it in the form of vapor over a heated surface of metallic sodium, in a sim- ply constructed and connected system of iron cyl- inders appropriately heated, or the materials are'at once mixed and heated. The apparatus of M. Deville is shown in Fig. 36. The principal feature is a retort of fire-clay, like those used in gas-works, but set upright in the fur- nace. The retort has a capacity of 300 liters, and is heated by an envelope of flame, which follows a spiral course around it. It is pierced with three openings, two near the bottom, and two at and near the top. The opening O, near the bottom, is for a tuyere of porcelain, which reaches to the axis of the retort and introduces the chlorine gas into the charge. A second opening, opposite the former, is for cleaning out the debris of the exhausted charge. Of the openings above, one on top is for the in- troduction of the charge, aud the other at the side leads the volatile choride of aluminium into a condenser chamber, L, of masonry; or it may be made of boiler iron, and lined with glazed faience tiles. The condensing chamber itself has a conduit for the escape of waste gaseous products. The alumina employed is the result of the calci- nation of ammoniacal alum or sulphate of alumina. In place of adding to the alumina, first the pulver- ized coal, and then the oil, to render the mixture plastic, Deville employed simply coal tar, the refuse of the gas-works, which is very cheap and replaces the oil and coal. This melange is calcined in earthen pots in a reverberatory, heated from the waste heat of the chloride furnace. The mixture, being calcined, is charged into the retort, and the heat is gradually raised to a red. The current of chlorine gas is then introduced by the tuyere previously referred to, the production of gas being in stoneware pots containing peroxide of manganese and hydrochloric acid, heated in a sand- bath. The chlorine does not attack the retort, but fol- lows its axis in an upward direction, not extending laterally more than two decimeters, so that the sides of the retort are protected by a thickness of the charge not attacked by the gas. The chlorine is totally absorbed, and does not even show a trace in the condenser. Rousseau has a substitute process, in the heating of a melange of sea-salt, alumina, and coal, pro- ducing a liquid chloride which condenses continu- ously. The employment of Greenland cryolite, which is a double fluoride of aluminium and sodium, is at- tributed to Rose, of Berlin. The cryolite is heated with an excess of sodium, when metallic aluminium and fluoride of sodium are produced, and the lat- ter compound gotten rid of by treatment of the mass with caustic lime. Of late, the metal has been manufactured from the mineral bauxite, especially at the factory in Sa- lindres, near Alais (Card), France. There the bauxite is heated with soda in a reverberatory fur- nace, the resulting aluminate of soda is extracted by means of water, and alumina precipitated by a stream of carbonic acid ; this is then formed into balls, with salt and coal, and heated to a white heat in vertical retorts during the introduction of chlo- rine gas. The double chloride of sodium and alu- minium, which distills over, is fused with the addi- tion of 35 per cent, of sodium and 40 per cent, of cryolite as a flux, and the metal which settles at the bottom of the crucible is poured into molds. The cost of producing one kilog. of aluminium is stated to be 80 f., while the selling price is 100 f. The employment of bauxite (lartfilc r/V.s- ]>. Bronze xxvi. :! :t. Alloys xxix. 85, 186, 188. In Telegraphy . . . xxv. 280 ; xxviii. 6 : xxix. 186, 188. "Mining 4" Scientific Press.' 1 ' Uses xxxii.193: xxxvi. 115. Wire xl. 83. "Level's Milling (f Mech. News." 1 Uses ix. 131. " Van Nostrand'-s Engineering Mag.'' Making xxiii. 280. "Manufacturer (f Builder." Uses, etc ix. 270 : xii. 71, 143, 162. Manufacture .... xii. 127, 162. ix. 201 ; x. 182. (lost : Coins . . . . xi. 120. Bronze . . ... viii. 240. " Telegraphic Journal."' In Telegraphy . . . vii. 53. "English Mechanic.' 1 ' 1 Its .Kuturp xxiii. 454. tal xxiii 97. Alloys xxv. 228. United States Patents. M;uni!':H-turc .... Hinrnnl. 220,148 Sept. 30, 1879. Manufacture of Alloys Howard. 220,149 Sept. 30, 1879. EnglUi Patent . . . Thompson. 2,101 Mar. 27, 1879. Aru-min'i-um Al-Ioy'. Aluminium now en- ters as an inureilient into various alloys; that with copper is perhaps the most notable. See ALU- II IN I I'M BltON/K. Alloyed with 10 per cent, of copper, the alloy remains ductile. Alloyed with small quantities of zinc, tin, gold, or silver, it remains ductile, but is rendered harder and more brilliant. Alloyed with 3 per cent, of zinc, is a superior metal. Debnu/. Alloyed with 7 per cent, of tin, can be worked, does not take a fine polish, but is rendered non- bomogeneous by fusion. Does not alloy with lead. Alloyed with 3 per cent, of silver, is of beautiful color. With 50 per cent, of silver, is hard as bronze. With 1 per cent, of gold, is hard, ductile, and greenish. With 10 per cent, of gold, is crystalline. With 5 per cent, of silver, can be worked like pure aluminium, but is harder, takes a fine polish. See also p. 71, "Mech. Diet." With 4 per cent, of silver, it is used by Sartorius, of I'iottiugen, for the beams of analytical balances. One per cent, of aluminium with copper makes the latter more ductile, more fusible, enables it to fill the mold better, harder, more capable of resist- ing chemical re-agents. Copper, with 2 per cent, of aluminium, is used by Christoflc, in Paris, for works of art, and nu- merous " Articles de Paris." True aluminium bronze has from 5 to 10 per cent, of aluminium. See ALUMINIUM BRONZE. Silver, with 5 per cent, of aluminium, is hard as coin-silver, and is excellent for coinage. Aru-min'i-um Bat'te-ry. (Eli-ctriclt;/.) One in which one or both of the elements consists of a plate of aluminium. Aru-min'i-um Bronze. An alloy credited to M. De'bray, in which aluminium takes the place of tin or zinc, in combination with copper, to form a bronze. This application of aluminium is at present the most important use of the metal. Even so small an addition as 1 per cent, of aluminium to copper considerably increases its ductility and fusibilitv, and imparts to it the property of completely filling the mold, making a dense casting free from air- bubbles. At the same time the copper becomes more resistant of chemical re-agents, increases in hardness without losing in malleability, and unites in itself the most valuable qualities of bronze and brass. The " alloy formed of copper 9 and allu- minium 1, constitutes a new precious metal for in- dustrial uses, which will find still more numerous applications when its price, still rather high (15 fr. the kilo), shall be reduced." Laboulaye. On account of its grain, it is especially suitable for parts subjected to friction, and slides of loco- motives lined with aluminium bron/e have out- lasted more than twofold those of ordinary bronze. Besides its great tenacity, which much extends its applicability, it can, like iron, and it is the only al- loy which possesses that property, be welded and hammered hot, at a distance sufficiently remote from its point of fusion. The true aluminium bronzes, according to Ru- dolph Wagner, were first made by John Percy, in 1856. They are alloys containing 90 to 95 per cent, of copper, with 10 to 5 per cent, of alumin- ium. The direct mixture, by first fusion, of 10 parts of aluminium and 90 of copper, gives a brit- tle alloy, which, however, increases in strength and tenacity by several successive fusions. At each operation a little aluminium is lost. After the compound has been melted three or four times, however, the proportion of aluminium does not ap- pear to change, and the alloy may be again re- melted several times without, alteration. These fusions are effected in crucibles. The aluminium bronze is homogeneous, and possesses sufficient ex- pansion to fill the remotest parts of the mold. It affords sharp castings that can be worked more readily than steel. Aluminium bronze may be forged at a dull-red heat, and hammered until cooled off without presenting any flaws or cracks. Like copper, it is rendered milder and more duc- tile by being plunged into cold water when hot. The bronze polishes beautifully, and possesses great strength according to Anderson's experi- ments, an average of 75,618!- Ibs. per square inch. The resistance to compression is feeble. From the experiments of Col. Strange on the relative rigid- ity of brass, ordinary and aluminium bronze, it ap- ALUMINIUM BRONZE. 26 AMALGAMATOR. pears that the last named is four times as rigid as brass, and three times as rigid as ordinary bronze. According to M. Morin, the director of the man- ufactory of Nanterre, very homogeneous alloys are obtained with copper and 5, 7, and 10 per cent, of aluminium. The alloys with 5 and 10 per cent, of aluminium are both of a golden color, whilst that with 7 per cent, has a greenish tint. A copper al- loy with 2 per cent, of aluminium is said to he used in the Parisian ateliers, for works of art. It works well under the chisel and graver. It is considered excellent for organ reeds, giving a better tone than brass or German silver. Also used for piano strings, and vibrating bars of music- boxes. The uses of aluminium bronze in making various articles, such as cutlery, hardware, works of art, etc., and by M. Hulot, of the Postage Stamp Fac- tory in Paris, are mentioned on pp. 70, 71, " Mech. Diet. ; " and the series of Farmer's aluminium al- loys is given on p. 71, Ibid. The popularity of aluminium bronze is due to its beautiful golden color, which has enabled it to re- place silver-gilt to a considerable extent. Its luster is very durable, which M. De'bray explains by the great quantity of heat liberated when aluminium is combined with copper, showing that the alliance is very energetic and complete. In England, kettles made of aluminium bronze are employed for making preserves and ices from acid fruits. Morin & Co., of Nanterre, manufacture weavers' shuttles of bronze, which, of course, do not oxidize so readily as steel. Cambrien recommends this alloy for type cast- ing. Type made of it can be used fifty times as long as those from lead and antimony. The alloy is largely nsed in the making of mathemati- cal, optical Alveolar Abscess Syringe. Has a color like 18-carat gold, and is an excel- lent alloy for jewelry, and should be soldered with brass, silver, or gold solders. Avoid all potash for cleansing or as flux for soldering. See, also, four of Farmer's formulas for chrysoid (Cu. Al. Ag. ; Cu. Al. Zn. ; Cu. Al. Fe. ; Cu. Al. Ni.), giving alloys which in color and texture resemble gold. Page 71, "Mech. Diet." Aru-min'i-um G-un-met'al. Two per cent, of aluminium added to the usual gun-metal. Declared by Schulter to be equal to steel for guns. Good for statues, and bells also. Al'u-min'i-um Sil'ver. Silver 1 Aluminium 4 Melted together. Valuable in instruments in which light- ness is an object, such as sextants, octants, etc., which will weigh in this alloy but about one quarter as much as if made of silver. Aluminium pure is too soft for such -urposes and works with difficulty. Al'u-min'i-um Sol'der. Gold. Silver. Copper. Brass. Hard . . 83 _ Medium 54 8 18 _ Soft ... 14 67 15 14 Bottone recommends in preference to coat the surfaces to be soldered with a layer of copper in electro bath, and then use ordinary solder. Al've-o-lar Ab'scess Syr'inge. A syringe for injecting abscesses in the alveolar ridge or pro- cesses. It has straight or curved canulas for more convenient access to the parts. See " Dental Cosmos," November, 1876. Pig. 40. surgical, and scientific instruments. " Aluminium bronze is used in France for making the large preserving pans used by wholesale confectioners, and is rec- ommended as an alloy in type metal. Lange, in Glashiitte (Saxony), employs an aluminium in the manufacture of watch-springs. The new springs have the advantage over the old in not being subject to rust, in not being magnetic, and in possessing greater hardness and elasticity. An alloy of 100 parts aluminium and 5 silver can be worked like pure aluminium, but is harder, and takes a beautiful polish. Au alloy of 5 parts aluminium and 100 silver is almost as hard as ordinary silver, but has the advantage over it of containing no metal which is of a poisonous nature, or which can effect a discoloration of the silver." "Engineering and Mining Journal,'' xxiii. 157. Farmer's series of aluminium bronzes are given on p. 71, second column, "Mech. Diet." They are hard, tenacious, laminable, and ductile. See United States Patents : 220.149 .... Howard . September 30, 1879. 223,900 .... Webster . November 2, 1880. See also : "Manufacturer and Builder,'' viii. 240. "Eng. and Mining Journal,'' xxvi. 364. Aru-min'i-um Gold. A substitute for gold. Copper 90 Aluminium 10 100 Has a color like 14-carat gold. Copper 85 Aluminium 10 Gold 5 100 Al've-o-lar For'ceps. (Dentistry.) Forceps for gnawing away portions of the alveolar pro- cess, or for extraction of fragment of roots he- Fig. 41. Bayonet-shaped Alveolar Forceps. neath the summit of the alveolar ridge. They have variously shaped beaks : bayonet, straight, curved. A-maTga-ma'tion. (Galvanic Battery.) Coat- ing the zinc plate with mercury so as to present to the liquid a surface of metal which shall be equally affected by the excitant, in order to prevent the es- tablishing of local currents, which the impurities of the zinc would otherwise occasion. Ganot, "Physics," N. Y., 1877, pp. 684, 692. It is usually done by cleansing the zinc plate with dilute sulphuric acid, and then rubbing over the surface a small quantity of mercury. A-marga-ma'tor. The amalgamating machin- ery exhibited by the Republic of Chili'.it Philadel- phia, 1876, was a facsimile of the apparatus in use at Autofagosta, 011 a scale of -Jth. It is under the system of Krohnke. The series of machines and operations is as follows : AMALGAMATOR. 27 AMALGAM PLUGGEB. The tcashiny and reduction of the ore is accom- plished by means of two vertical iron rollers, rest- ing on an iron plate, and kept in motion, thereby producing the necessary friction. The rollers sit in an iron cup, into which the ores to be ground are received by means of a self-feeder. The water necessary is conducted to the cups by means of pipes, and is kept running continually. The re- duced ore is carried with the water through gutters into the open, flat tanks below, and there allowed to settle ; the water is then run off, and the ore car- ried to the drying shed. In the aina'/i/niiKitiiiij section are 12 large and 2 small revolving casks'; 4 upright tanks, wherein the chemical solution is mixed : one washer ; one cen- trifugal machine. The powdered and dried ore is placed in the large casks, and mixed with sufficient cold water to satu- rate the whole thoroughly. The necessary quantity of the chemical solution from the tanks is then added, previously mixed with boiling salt water. After revolving the cask a sufficient length of time to transform the silver ore from a sulphite into a chloride, the quicksilver is added, and the whole subjected to the action of the amalgam. Thence the. contents of the casks are run into the washer and there freed from the remaining impurities, acids, chemicals, etc., etc., leaving the pure silver and quicksilver. This then goes into the centrif- ugal machine, where the quicksilver is separated from the silver as much as this can be done by me- chanical action. In case there should still be left some impurities, which may be easily detected by a dark color, the whole is returned to the two smaller casks, and there washed with boiling salt water, until its appearance shows the true silver color. It is then discharged and stamped into molds, to be ready for section three. The condensing and smelting apparatus comprises four condensers and one smelting furnace. The condenser consists of a cylindrical body closed hermetically at the upper end, while the lower end is open. The cylinder or retort rests upon an iron plate, one third of which is below and two thirds is above the plate, this retort is surrounded by a furnace made of tire-brick. Below the retort is a mechan- ical apparatus, part of the machinery to be used to raise the silver into the retort. This appara- tus is connected with a railway on which is placed a car fitted with an iron water-bucket, in which is an iron stand whereon the mold containing the silver and the residue of quicksilver not separated by the centrifugal machine is placed by the aid of a derrick. The mold, which is made of two equal pieces fitted and held together by means of iron pins, is then taken off, the car is run on the me- chanical apparatus and the bucket filled with water, and the whole wound up, so that the silver column enters the open aperture in the retort and with the water-bucket closes this hermetically. The bucket being so much larger the retort stands from five to six inches in the water. After heating the silver column a proper length of time the quicksilver begins to evaporate, the vapors of which are so heavy that being brought into contact with the water they will soon condense and appear as me- tallic quicksilver at the bottom of the water-bucket. After all the quicksilver has been evaporated and condensed, the silver column is taken to the smelt- ing furnace and there molded into bricks and bars. Thirty-nine tons of silver ore are worked daily, and the loss is stated not to exceed 2 oz. of silver to 3 tons of ore, Avhatever the quality of the latter. The machinery cost $230,500. Amalgamators involving electrical action are : Nos. No*. 34,881 37,278 61,866 62,776 66,529 83,091 Inventor. Davis. Deetken. Rae. Rae. Switk. Rae. 86,249 90,777 90,965 91.878 96,931 Inventor. McDougal. Rae. Paul. Partz. Stevens. Paul if Wood. The following references may be consulted : * "Scientific American,'' 1 xli. 262. * ''Engineering-' . . xxvii. 43, 128, 135. *" Engineering " . . xxvii. 473, 491. * "Engineering" . . xxvii. 190. Horn, Wheeler- Patton, Patton, Stevenson. * "Min. and Sc. Press,'' xxxvi. 129, 137. * "Scientific American,'' xxxvii. 383. * "Scientific American,'' xxxix 271. * "Scientific American," xxxv. 131. "Iron Age" . . . xviii., Nov. 16; 18. * "Min. and Sc. Press," xxxv. 145. * "Min. and Sc. Press," xxxviii. 193. * "Scientific American," xl. 275. * "Eng. and Min. J.," 1 xxvi. 310. * "Min. and Sc. Press," xxxviii. 136. * "Min and Sc. Press," xxxvii. 97. * "Min. and Sc. Press," xxxiv. 372. * "Min. and Sc. Press," xxxviii. 153. * "Sc. Amer. Sup." . xxvii. 56. A-mal'gam Car'rier. A scoop for carrying a small quantity of amalgam to fill a cavity in a Fig. 42. Dickson . . . . Egleston . . . . Eslfston . . . . Egleston . . . . Wheeler, Varley, Forster- Firmin . . Fnrster-Firmin . . Forster- Firmin . . Incin Krohnke . Kustel fy Hoffman Mitchell . . . . Peck Porter-Firmin . . Reynolds . . . . Russell Secor Slevenot . . . . Amalgam Carrier and Burnisher. tooth. In the form shown, the back of the bowl serves as a burnisher. Fig. 43. A-mal'gam Ma-nip'u-la'tor. An instrument designed to facilitate the preparation of amalgam for fillings, hav- ing a cup at one end for taking up the desired amount of filings or powder, and a curved spatula at the other end for combining the mercury with the filings and packing it in the cavity. Fig. 44. anor. Amalgam A-mal'gam Plug'ger. A dentist's instrument AMALGAM RETORT. 28 AMETROMETER. for packing and condensing amalgam or allied stopping material in the cavities of teeth. Used 116. 45. Amalgam Retort. with a mallet. A-mal'gam R e - tort'. An iron retort with a luted and keyed lid, with a hollow inside the hitter for expansion. Am'a-to'ri-i. ( Cera- mics.) Dishes in ma- jolica with portraits of the ladies to whom they were presented. An Italian device. Am'ber. A fossil resin, noted as being the first electric substance known. It is largely found on the shores of the Baltic, which was formerly the only source of supp lv. The word electricity is derived from the Greek name of this substance, tfKfXTpov. Amber is largely used as mouth-pieces for pipes, etc. In the London Exhibition of 1851 there were four of these mouth- pieces, valued collectively at 1,000. The Baltic is the principal source of amber, as it was perhaps in the time of Nero, but it is also found in Roumania, the latter the product of a different tree, and assuming various colors, red, pink, brown, blue, green, and black. These colors are frequently found mixed in a single piece, and lumps also occur with silver-colored veins and gold specks. On ac- count of this variety of colors, the Roumanian am- ber is highly esteemed, and the darker and more beautiful pieces are more costly than yellow amber, especially as they are more rare. German amber is found in the sea or in alluvial earth ; the Roumanian amber is only found in mountainous places and highlands, where it is sought and dug out by the peasants. On Amber. Reboux . . "Scientific American Sup.,''' 1847. Sources of Amber . . . "Scientific Amirican Sup.," 168. Am'ber, Ar'ti-fi'cial. True amber is the fos- sil resin of a pine. Artificial amber is principally colophony, a resin obtained by the decomposition of turpentine. The detection is by means of heat or solution. True amber melts at 545-550 Fah. ; the spu- rious at a much lower temperature. True amber is slightly attacked by ether and alcohol ; the spurious very readily. Am'ber Bronze. A mode of coloring iron. An artificial bronze surface upon iron, obtained by rubbing brass upon the smooth iron surface, and protecting with varnish. U. S. Patent, 197,572, November 27, 1877. Am'ber Ce-meiit'. A solution of hard copal in pure ether, of the consistency of castor oil. Rust. The carefully-cleaned surfaces of fracture, coated with the solution, should be pressed together, and retained in contact by a band. A few days are re- quired for complete hardening. Small pieces of amber may bs united to form a much larger one by moistening the surfaces to be united with caustic potash, and pressing them to- gether. Am'ber Var'nish. Yellow amber is bleached by being treated with a hot solution of salt ; 1 Ib. oi' che white product is dried, powdered, and melted over a fire in a clean iron pot. 1 Ib. of fine nut-oil is then added, after which the whole is well stirred until thoroughly mixed. The pot is then removed from the fire, and when the heat is sufficiently moderated, 2 Ibs. of the essence of turpentine is added to form a composition of the proper consist- ency for use. "Scientific American,'' xxxix. 35. Am'bu-lance. Fig. 46 shows one style of am- bulance used in various semi-Asiatic armies. Fig. 46. Transport of the Wounded. Crimea. The Turkish ambulance, on porter-back, is shown in a picture from the London "Graphic," reproduced in " Scientific American," *xxxvi., 151. See cir- cular No. 6, Surgeon General's Office, U. S. * pp. 81-86. Am'bu-lance Cot. A cot adapted to be folded (or at least, as to the legs) to fit in an ambulance for transportation, or to stand on its legs when in field-hospital service. See " Art of War in Europe," Official Report by General McClellan, War Department Series ; * p. 80, where a French ambulance cot is shown. Am'bu-lance Stretch'er. A litter to oc- cupy a place in an ambulance wagon. Used to convey a soldier from the spot on which he falls to the ambulance depot, and then to form his bed in the wagon. It is composed of two wooden frames, the lower one with handles, carrying an upper one, secured at one end with a hinge (), and rising slightly to- wards the other, retained in the inclined position by India-rubber springs at b and c, which are en- Fig. 47. Ambulance Stretcher. cased with spiral steel cases. The bottom of the stretcher is formed of leather, and stuffed at the elevated end of the wooden frame to form a pillow. Rollers are attached to the under part of the lower frame at e e, to facilitate its being shoved into the ambulance wagon from the rear. A'me-trom'e-ter. An instrument invented by Dr. Thomson for the diagnosis of refraction in the examination for defects in the human eye. " It consists of a tmall fixed gas-jet A. a second one II, at- tached to a box C, which slides upon a bar D, the jest con- nected by a flexible rubber tube G ; the end of the bar /' forms a pointer, which, by elevating or depressing the other end of the bar, can be placed at any part of the graduated half-circle E, which is fixed firmly to the thimble H, by AMETROMETER. 29 AMMONIA ENGINE. which means the entire instrument can be attached to a common gas-burner, and the lights regulated by its stop- cock. " The jets having been lighted and turned down into two small flames about 5 mm. in diameter, the patient, placed 5 meters away, is directed to observe the flames, and to say whether he sees them as small points of light separated, or as diffused enlarged cir- cles which can be made to come in contact at their margins by sliding movements of the box on the bar by the hand of the sur- geon ; bearing in mind that an emmetropic or corrected ame- tropic eye will resolve the lights into two until they pass, one be- hind the other, and become fused, whilst in ametropia the circles will seem to touch : whilst a distance, depending upon the degree of :unetni|>ia, remains between the small light points. To determine the kind of ametropia, the patient is directed to pass slowh in front of the eye under examina- tion a slip of red glass in such a manner as to color ii.-ilf of each diffused circle, and if the red half seems to be on the same side with the red glass, myopia is recognized, and if on the other side, hypermetropia ; this may be as well done by passing before the eye a card or paper in such manner as to exclude from view one half of each circle. " To determine the degree of ametropia, the bar has been divided on one side into spaces of 2.5 cm. with a half space between, and on the other into English inch and half-inches, and it will be found that each space of 2.5 cm. will indicate an ametropia of one dioptric, metric system, and each inch jt of the old system. The cut represents the two flames as apart 2 dioptrics, and they would appear to a person having myopia or hypermetropia of 2 dioptrics or -fa as two circle3 of light, with their mar- gins in contact at one point, separating on the removal of light B, and overlapping when it is placed nearer to light A. " For those who pre- fer the old system to the metric, it will be remembered that the old glasses are not based upon their exact powers of refraction, but are ground on ra- dii of Paris inches, and that, owing to the index of refraction of the glass commonly used, they by a happy chance correspond in focal length almost exactly with the English inch ; hence each inch of distance between the test-lights as determined by the use of the inch scale on the bar, will indicate an ametropia of very nearly -^ ; and the higher degrees can be found instantly P by dividing 40 by the number of inches between the lights when Amid Prism. their margins seem to have come into contact." "Beck.' 1 '' Aml-an'thus. Earth flax: i.- e., ASBESTOS, which see. A-mi'ci Prism. A device adopted by Amici, for throwing an oblique pencil of condensed light upon an object. See Fig. 49. Am-mp'ui-a En'gine. The ammonia engine, which utilizes the expansion of liquefied ammonia, is described and represented on p. 90, " Mech. Diet." and references made to Dr. Lamm, and to the dis- sertation of Dr. Barnard on the subject. Gamjee's engine, U. S. Patent, No. 240,000, and dated April 19, 1881, uses the vapor or gas of am- monia expansively to the extent of more or less complete liquefaction, and then reconverts it from the liquid to the vaporous condition by means of heat, which restores it to its original tension. See THERMO-DYNAMIC ENGINE. Seyfort/i's Ammonia Engine, " Scientific American" * xxxix. 333. M. Frot's machine is described in article "Air Chaud," Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Man- ufactures," edition of 1877. The principle upon which the theoretical utility of ammonia, as a motor, is based, may be thus stated : As the gas is absorbed by water its latent heat becomes sensible, and the temperature of the solution consequently rises. This heat may again be used for the expansion of liquid ammonia into a gas, under great pressure the pressure thus generated being converted into work behind the piston of an engine. The heat thus transformed into work cannot be recovered and utilized as heat, and, consequently, to maintain the efficiency of the combination, additional increments of heat must be supplied, from external sources, to be again con- verted into work, and so on. In the apparatus of Dr. Emile Lamm (Fig. 50), the liquefied ammonia, which parted with its latent heat during condensation by pressure, is placed in the inner shell A, through which tubes traverse, the whole being inclosed in an outer shell, B. The fountain communicates with the valve chest of the cylinder C, in the same way as the steam induction pipe of a steam-engine connects the boiler and the fig. 50. Lamm's Ammonia Engine. cylinder. In the outer shell B is placed some of the water, or weak solution of ammonia that was left in the boiler of the still, of a suitable tempera- ture to generate the required pressure at starting. This heat exists, then, in the liquefied ammonia as expansive force, and passes out with the gas to the cylinder, where, a portion having been converted into work, the remainder passes, with the exhaust gas, back to the weak solution in the shell B, where, the latter becoming instantly condensed, the heat is again rendered sensible and passes through the walls of the tubes, to generate expansive force, and so on, the total loss of heat for a given amount of work being the equivalent of the work per- formed, plus that which may have radiated from the shell during the performance of the work ; while the loss of the material itself is only that due to whatever leakage has taken place. An oil-packed stuffing-box is shown at D. An annular chamber surrounding the piston-rod is AMMONIA ENGINE. 30 ANAL DILATOR kept supplied with oil from the chamber E, through a suitable pipe ; this forms a practically impassable barrier to the escape of free ammonia. The oil becomes more or less saponified by the action of the ammonia ; but this does not interfere with the use- fulness of the packing, or the proper lubrication of the moving parts. Lamm's United States Patents : No. 105,581 121,527 December 5, 1871. 121,909 December 12, 1871. 124,485 March 12, 1872. See English Patent, No. 2,768, of 1853. A hot- air engine, mixes vapor of ether with air. Jean Frot's Ammonia Engine, No. 60,500, De- cember 18, 1866. Specially designed for condens- ing, washing, and retaining for re-use the exhaust vapor. See also English Patents : 5,212 of 1825. 9,221 of 1842. Lauback, U. S. Patent, May 28, 1872 . . . 127,250. See also AIR AND GAS ENGINES FOR PROPEL- LING CARS. See also COMPRESSED-AIR ENGINE. Bom/ias, Engl. Pat. No. 5,644 . . . 1828, Compressed air. Stevens If Jierakaw . . 1,092 . . 1863, Compressed air. S. Carson, U. S. Pat. . December 9, 1856. N. H. Harbour . . . March 14, 1865, Garb, acid gas. Am-mo'ni-a Me'ter. An instrument by Grif- fin, for testing liquid ammonia ; one spindle, with 125, which includes the strongest ammonia that can exist at the temperature of 62 F., and extends to all weak solutions : sp. gr. .875 to 1.000. Every degree shows seventeen grains of dry am- monia in a decigallon of liquor. In " Chemical Rec- reations," p. 329, a table is given which shows every particular respecting solutions of ammonia ; the strength in atoms, the percentage of ammonia, its weight per decigallon in grains, the comparative money value of different solutions per lb., etc. Am-mo'ni-a Ore Pro'cess. The copper and silver salts, after calcination of the ore, are dis- solved by means of ammonia and ammoiiiacal salts ; this solution is then passed througli a galvanic tank, formed by a suitable and economical arrangement of sheets of platinum and copper, by which means the whole of the silver is deposited in practically a pure state, whilst the copper passes on still in ammoniacal solution and is precipitated as oxide, by passing steam into the solution, with the simul- taneous addition of a very small amount of caustic alkali. Tin's not only precipitates the copper as oxide, but drives off the ammonia, which may be collected for re-use. The special advantages claimed for the ammonia process are chiefly its economy and simplicity, and the purity of the products ob- tained. Am-mo'ni-a So'da Pro'cess. A process of soda manufacture, the success of which is mainly due to the ingenuity and perseverance of M. E. Solvay, of Couillet, Belgium. See p. 2234, "Mech. Diet." The fundamental reaction in the manufacture the decomposition of common salt in solution by bicarbonate of ammonium into insoluble bicarbon- ate of sodium and chloride of ammonium, and the regeneration of the ammonia by treatment with lime as contrasted with the cycle of reactions involved in Leblanc's process, attracted the atten- tion of technical chemists long since. As early as 1838, the method was patented in England by Dyar, Gray, Harrison, and Hemming. The subject is fully and lucidly treated in the Report of Dr. Jenkins", " Paris Exposition Reports " (1878), vol. iv., pp. 44 et seq. See also "Scientific American Supplement '-^ *2707, 2719, * 3969, * 41 12. "Scientific Amer.," June 24, 1876 ; and vol. * xxxvi. 405. Am-mo'iii-a Test Ap'pa-ra'tus. W. W. Goodwin's ammonia and sulphur test apparatus, for gas works. "American Gas-light Journal," * July 3, 1876. Am'o-ri'ni Vase. A vase to be presented as a love-token. For instance, one at the Paris Ex- position, by Solon, in the style of Louis XVI., the body in celadon, and an upper zone in blue with cupids in white. The vase supported by cupids (amorini), molded in oxydized silver. Am'pli-fi'er. (Microscope.) A plan for in- creasing the magnifying power by means of a double concave lens placed in the body tube of the microscope, between the object-glass and the eye- piece. The Tolles amplifier is discussed in the "Amtrican Journal of Microscopy?' February, 1878. The remarks are repro- duced in part in "Scientific American," 1 xxxviii., 152, 202. The Rev. J. II. Wythe. M. I)., describes two amplifiers used by himself, us follows : " Either of them is used in a sliding tube between the eye- piece aud objective, and the proper position is found by trial. The first consists of a cylindrical lens, conical in shape, with the smaller end concave, toward the tibject-glai, and the larger end convex. This gives a large incivuse of magnifying power aud excellent definition when used with the strongest eye-piece of Uundlach, or other makers. The second form is better still, and consists of a double concave lens, having a virtual focus of about 1J", at the end of a tube about 6" long, at the other end of which is the ordi- nary negative eye-piece. In both these forms the extent and flatness of the field is quite remarkable, as well as the amount of light, while the amplification is very great. With a periscopic eye-piece of Gundlach, or the No. 3 of the same maker, or with the strongest eye-piece of Crouch, my ^th objective defines the semi-lenses on the frustule of Pleuro- sigma angulatum, the markings on S. gemma, or Gramma- lopliora subtilissima , with a power of 4,000 diameters." See also " Carpenter on Microscope," 1 1875 ed. An'a-cos'ti-a. (Fabric.) A French goods made on a serge loom, aud having a worsted warp and merino wool weft. An'aes-thet'ic In-ha'ler. An instrument for the administration of ether, chloroform, nitrous oxide, etc. See pp. 92, 93, "Mech. Diet:' In the illustration is a metallic inhaler consisting of A, A metallic hood containing B, A flexible rubber hood covering both mouth and nose. C, Exhaling valve. D, Two-way stop-cock. /, Packing through which passes a silken cord attached to a mouth-gag. /, Contains the inhaling valve. F, Hollow sphere containing sponge saturated with the anfesthetic liquid through the opening G, H, Cover to close it when out of use. Fig. 51. Ancesthetic Inhaler. Ansethesia, Early use of . "Sc. American Sup.' 1 ' 1290. Plant . . . " Sc. American " . xxxv. 162. A'nal Di-la'tor. (Surgical.) Instruments for distending the sphincter ani to permit examination of the mucous wall of the rectum, are shown in Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum ," as fol- lows : ANAL SPECULUM. 31 ANCHOR. Aual Dilator, Fig. 563, p. 119, Part III. Thebtiud's Sphincter Ani Dilator, Fig. 534, p. 119, Part III. Called also RECTAL DILATOR. A'nal Spec'u-lum. (Surgical.) Speculum ani. An iustrument for exposing to view the interior of the rectum. The references are to Tiemann's "Ar- mamentarium Chirurgicum " : Gorget-formed Speculum, Fig. 549, p. 117, Part III. Trivalve Trellis Anal Speculum, Fig. 547. Ibid. Ashton's Fenestrated Anal Speculum, Fig. 546. Ibid. Bodenhamer's Recto-colon ic endoscope, Fig. 548. Ibid. Bivalve Speculum Ani, Figs. 534, 559. Ibid. Williams'* Rectal Speculum, Fig. 623. Ibid. See also ANAL, DILATOR ; HEMORRHOID IN- STRUMENTS, etc. A'nal Sup-port'er. (Surgical.) A pad of similar application to a truss, for supporting the part in cases of prolapsus ani. Matthieu's, Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum," Part IV., p. 134, Fig. 207 ; and p. 19, Fig. 46. An'a-lyz'er. (Optics.) The upper one of the two Nichols' prisms in the polariscope ; the lower one being the polarizer. See POLARISCOPE. An-a-mor'pho-scope'. A device to illustrate certain optical effects. The object has distorted figures, which become perfect on being looked at in the mirror. Fig. 52. Williams's " Reliance " anchor is without a stock, and is designed to be non-fouling and self-canting. It holds by both flukes at once, and has no stock 64. 'Reliance '' Anchor. to foul the cable, like the Latham anchor, Fig. 190, p. 95, " Mech. Did." The pair of flukes hinged in the head are also like the Latham and the Morgan (Fig. 188, Ibid.). The Marshall (Fig. 189, Ibid.), has also hinged flukes, but they are independent. Fig. 55. Anam orphoscope . An'a-tom'ic-al Syr'inge. For injecting the arteries of the human body with an embalming fluid, or, in subjects for demonstrating anatomy, with a colored fluid which solidifies in situ. An'chor. 1. The analogues in nature of the mariner's anchor are amusingly like the grapnel. The upper one in Fig. 53 is from a relative of the sea-cucumber (Leptosynapta Cirardii). It is covered with the symbol of the deep. The skin is filled with minute perforated oval plates, to each of which is attached by the shank a perfect little an- chor. Doubtless the flukes of these anchors give it the means of keeping itself in place. The lower specimen is the Pheronema, which has its threads near the extremities marked by projecting notches, while at the very extremity it is actually anchor- shaped, as shown by a thread greatly magnified. Fig. 53. Natural Grapnels of a Holothurian. Anchor and Barbed Threads of a Pheronema. Rosella, also, has a great outlay of mooring- threads, with frequently a line quadrate-barbed at its extremity. These "lines have actually at the bottom a four-hooked grapnel. Tyzack's Anchor. In the celebrated Trotman anchor (Fig. 182), the arms are hinged to the shank. Tyzack's anchor (Fig. 55, British) has a shank, A, made in two parallel parts secured together by pins, and a single arm with a fluke /?, fitted with a 7"-head, which rests against a pin H. The advan- tages of this form are similar to those just recited : Relative lightness, absence of stock, ready assump- tion of holding position, ease of handling, etc. This anchor was tested to destruction at the Lloyd's proving-house, Netherton, England, finally giving way at 250 per cent- overproof. "Engineer," * xliii. 355. The Martin self-canting anchor is in much favor with the British admiralty, all the turret-ships being provided with it, has no stock, nor steadying arms. Admiral Inglefield's modification of the Martin resembles the latter in the special feature that the arms are on parallel lines, and so grip the ground simultaneously. It differs from it, how- ever, in the very important characteristic, that in- stead of the arms being made of one forcing, and working through the crown, they are formed of separate forgings, and are attached to the shank by a swivel pin. The advantages gained for the an- chor are greater holding power and less liability to foul. The parts of, and apparatus concerned with, the anchor and cable : Anchor lift. Anchor shackle. Arm. Bill. ANCHOR. ANCHORED NET. Blade. Bower. Bull rope. Buoy rope. Cable shackle. apstaa. Cat. Cat back. Clutch. Compressor. Controller. Crown. Deck stopper. Devil's claw. Dog stopper. Fish. Fluke. Forelock. Grapnel. Hedge. Kedging. Kevel. Link. Messenger. Mooring swivel Nippers. Palm. Passing nippers Pawl. Pee. Point. Racking turns. Ring. Shackle. Shank. Slip stopper. Square. Stock. Stopper. Stream anchor. Stud. Swivel. Swifter. Throat. Trend. Warping. Whelps. Wing stopper. East River bridge are shown in Figs. 56 and 57. In the former the cable and anchor are shown in position, and in the latter figure an anchor-plate is shown separately. Each anchor-plate weighs 23 tons, and is made with 10 radiated arms. Four of these anchors are required at each end of the bridge, two meeting on the central longitudinal line, and the others disposed one at each side. Each is imbedded in concrete in the third row of stone. Through apertures left fig. 59. Section of a Pier, East River Bridge, New York. The followiug references may be consulted : Smith (Stockiess), Br. . * Spedden if Stafford . . * Swinburn (Portable), Br. * * Tyzack, Br * 'Engineer," xlvii. 219. ' Scientific American," xli. 7. 'Engineer," xliii. 427. 'Scientific American Sup. 'Engineer," xliii. 355. 1 Scientific American Sup. Fig. 57. Anchor-plate, East River Bridge, N. Y. 2. The anchors for the suspension cables of the Traction Rope Anchor for Steam Plow. in the centers of the plates the first set of bars for the chains is placed. Each chain has 10 sets of links and two sets lead from each plate. The sec- tion Fig. 56 exhibits the arrangement. To each pair of bars a strand of the cable is attached so that 19 strands in all will be fastened to the ends of two chains of bars loading from each anchor- plate. The strain on each of the four cables is estimated at 1,833 tons, or 7,332 tons on the col- lected four cables. Against this is the dead weight of the masonry structure, amounting to 44, (-00 tons. There is besides a pressure on the joints of the im- bedded links which has been considered and pro- vided for. " Scientific American " *xxxiv._15. See also "Scientific American Supplement," 1 * (54, (55, 3. A movable pulley carriage to which the trac- tion wire-rope of a steam plow passes at the head- lands. The frame carries a horizontal sheave and rests on thin disk wheels, which cut into the ground, and resist the side strain of the engine and imple- ment. It is moved along the headland by the mo- tion of the sheave or pulley, which is turned by the rope : the sheave is connected by gear to a drum, which winds up a rope stretched along the head- land, and keeps the anchor opposite its work. The apparatus is provided with a steerage, which ena- bles it to be worked along a crooked headland, and is managed by a boy, who also attends to shifting rope-porters. The box is to hold stones, intended as a counterpoise, to prevent the anchor from being pulled over when doing very heavy work. The particular form shown is designed for the 'roundabout system. Two anchors are employed, occupying positions opposite to each other on the headlands, and proceeding at a right angle to the course of the plow. This form of anchor is auto- matically moved the regulated distance, equal to the width of cultivation of the implement at one passage, and this without the draw-rope reaching to a claw-anchor at the other end of the field. See STEAM PLOW, " Mech. Diet." An'chored Net. (Fishing.) One secured by sunken anchors or stones, as with some seines. In contradistinction to drifting or staked nets. "1471. -1282. ANCHOR FISH-HOOK. 33 ANEMOGRAPH. Fig. 59. An'chor Fish'-hook. An anchoring hook for fish-nets or lines. The line is bent around the grommet and lashed. An'chor Lift. A device to lift the pile or pole wherewith a dredge or lighter is anchored. Such a pile is known in Mississippi River parlance, at least as a grouser, which see. Canan's anchor-lift is a device on the dredge operated by hy- draulic power to grip the anchor- ing pile during its upward move- _____ inent, and slacken from it on the Anchor Fish-hook. r ? tunl . m tio11 ' and SO b ? a . Su f es ' sion ot movements to raise it from the mud or sandy bottom into which it had been driven. "Scientific American," *xxxv. 70. An'chor Shack'le. (Nautical.) The bow or clevis, with two eyes and a screw bolt, or bolt and key, for securing the cable to the ring of the an- chor. Also used for coupling lengths of chain cable. An'chor Shot. (Life- saving Appara- tus.) A three- fluked anchor, with cord at- t a c h e d, fired Anchor tackles. f [ Om a g un on snore or aboard : in the first case, to afford communication with a stranded vessel; in the second case, to get a rope ashore, to enable boats to land through the surf. A grapple-shot ; or barbed shot, which see. Fig. fil. Fig. 60. Chandler's Anchor Shot. Before firing and after firing. The invention of Capt. Ralph Chandler, U. S. Navy ; the shot has hinged anchor flukes project- ing from its sides, and folding back into slots, so as not to interfere with the entrance of the shot into the gun ; but expanding when fired, to catch in the rigging. To the rear of the shot a chain or wire rope is attached, and carried to the front of the shot through another slot. 3 "Ordnance Report," 1878, Appendix P, p. 313, and Plate LI I. "Army and Navy Journal,'* April 27, 1878. p. 607. "Harpers Weekly," June 15, 1878. An'chy-lo'sis Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Suryical.) An apparatus for the gradual extension of contracted muscles. Used also for the breaking up of false anchylosis. Also as a safeguard against malposi- tion, allowing the joint to anchylose in the position of greatest usefulness in cases where a cure is im- possible. See Tiemann's "Armamentarium Oiirurgicum," Part IV. Elbow-joint Apparatus, Fig. 53, p. 23. Long Knee-joint Apparatus, Fig 90, p. 48. Short Knee-joint Apparatus, Figs. 91, 92, p. 49. See also Fig. 202, p. 79, "Mech. Diet." An'der-son Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) The or- dinary zinc and carbon elements are employed; the zinc being placed in the porous cell and immersed in a solution of muriate of ammonium, and the carbon in oxalate of chromium and potassium, in combination with free bichromate of potassium and hydro-chloric acid. "Scientific American,''' * xliii. 115. A-ne'mi-us. A small chemical smelting fur- nace. A-nem'o-graph. The vane for recording the direction of the wind, used in the observatories of France, consists of two connected strips of thin copper, about 2' in length, attached to an axis at A, and having a counterpoise, which enables the vane with its axis to turn with great readiness. Fig. 62. Wind Vane of French Anemograph. The axis has four copper disks attached. These are shown detached to the left of the cut, F\s- 62, and also in Fig. 63. Each disk is so cut that only T ^ths of its circumference has the full size; this portion only comes in contact with a metallic spring, of which there is one for each disk, and this wire connects with electric apparatus in the office of the observer. But two of the disks can be in electric connection at the same time. Take the left-hand disk (Fig. 63), for instance, Its surface has the 16 divisions, but only the 6, from E. N. E. to W. N. W., are on the extended portion of the perimeter, so as to touch the spring belong- ing to this di.-k. The other disks have each also the same proportionate parts of extended perime- ters : the second disk from N. N. W. to S. S. W., and so on. To illustrate, by tracing the action through a portion of a revolution, at the compass point N. N. E. the North disk (a, Fig. 63 ) alone touches a wire, and but one pencil records upon the traveling ANEMOGRAPH. 34 ANEMOMETROGRAPH. paper ribbon until N. N. W. is reached, when the West disk (b) closes the electric circuit, and two pencils record until W. N. W. is reached, when the circuit of the N. disk is broken, and the W. disk alone records. So on of the other portion of the circuit. It will be noticed that at the cardinal points, N., W., S., E., and two points on each side (32 points a b c Frenc.li Anemograph JJisicf on turning uxi*. to the compass), only one telegraphic pencil is at work ; at intermediate points two pencils record. Thus the direction of the air current is read within a point or two. Greater accuracy might be attained by multiplying the number of disks. The French observatories have four recording cylinders moved by clock-work. In the United States instruments one cylinder receives the four traces. The anemograph of M. Redier, of Lyons, has a vane supported on a wheeled tripod revolving on a circular rail. The axis prolonged downward has a paper-currying cylinder upon it ; this is gradu- ated vertically and horizontally, and a pencil ap- plied to the paper is moved vertically by clock- work. The tracing gives wind direction and time. An'e-mom'e-ter. An instrument for ascer- taining the rate of the wind. Casella's anemometer is a portable instrument, and is especially intended for measuring the veloci- ty of currents of air passing through coal-mines, aiid the ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public buildings. The indications are shown by a large dial and hand, and five smaller ones. The large dial is di- vided into 100 parts, and represents the number of Fig. 64. Casella's Am-tiiiimttrr. feet up to 100 traversed by the current of air. The five smaller dials represent 1,000, and so on, multi- plying successively by 10, to 10,000,000= 1,893 miles. By means of the large dial, as low a motion as 50 feet per minute may be measured. By means of the catch, a, the work is put out of gear. A handle and universal joint, e, allow the appa- ratus to be lifted to a higher level, or thrust into an aperture. See the following papers by J. W. Osborne, "Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science " : " Construction of a Sensitive Wind-vane," * St. Louis Meeting, Aug., 1878. " Wind-vane Rotations,'' * Nashville Meeting, Aug., 1877. See also Anemometer, Electric. Hardy . . " Teleg. Jour.,'' iv. 134. Anemometer .... Lons. . . "Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 1746. Anemograph .... French . . "Sr. Am. M/;.," 112. Anemometer . . . . Negretti . *"Man. if B.," x. 156. Anemoscope, Br. . . Vernon . * "Engineer" xlviii. 268, 326. An'e-mo-met' ro-graph. An instru- ment for recording the rate and direction of the wind. The anemometrograph of VEcole des Ponts e.t Chaitsse'es of France, is composed of two parts which may be regarded as distinct : the anemometer proper and the register. The anemometer is on the principle of that invented forty years since by Dr. Robinson, of the Armagh Observatory, Ireland. It is com- posed of a hollow vertical shaft, of which the lower portion is secured on a mast of any convenient height. The upper end carries four radial hori- zontal spokes, b, at angles of 90, each terminated Anemometrograph of the. Fonts et Chaussees, France. (Elevation.) by a light hemispherical metallic cup a, so disposed that the concavity of each is presented towards the convexity of the next one. When this windwheel as it may be called is ANEMOMETROGRAPH. 35 ANEMOMETROGRAPH. exposed to a current of air, the wind strikes in the hollow of that cup, the concavity of which is fa- vorably presented, but glides from the convexity of the others. Thus the windwheel assumes a rotary motion on its axis. It was demonstrated by Dr. Robinson that the number of turns in a given time are proportioned to the rate that is force of the wind, and it has been found 'that the number 3 expresses the relation between the speed of the wind aud the space traversed by the wings. Thus an anemometer, of which the circle described by the center of the wings is equal to 1.67 meter, will give for each turn of the wings an indication of 5.01 m. as the distance traversed by the wind. Below the windwheel is a counter, which, by means of an electric wire ( Fin Fig. 65), transmits to the register (Fig. 67), the indications of speed. Farther beneath, on a horizontal arbor, are fixed two large wheels R R', with inclined vanes, which are driven by the slightest current of air. The spokes of the wind-cups a a are mounted on a small vertical axis, c (Fig. 65), the pointed foot of which reposes upon an agate plate in a socket. A worm-wheel on the axis rotates a wheel, d, which has 200 teeth, and which carries on its side face two metallic pins which successively touch in passing a spring, e e. A wire g connects this spring with a binding-post, i, to which it is se- cured. The shaft which supports the windwheel and the counter is hollow to permit passage to the insulated wire (], and is united by a screw-joint to the por- tion beneath, in which the axis of the windwheels R R' is journaled. J is a cap to protect from rain and dust. Fig. 66. Anemometrograph. Fonts et Chaussees. (Plan.) The horizontal arbor of the wheels R R' operates by means of the wlnelsand pinions o v " (Fig. 66), and a pinion meshing into a fixed crown wheel, c c, attached to the body X Y Z, which supports the whole instrument. Owing to this arrangement, when the wheels commence to turn under the in- fluence of the wind, the pinion p turns also, but, in virtue of the reaction which it receives from the fixed teeth of the crown-wheel c c, it is dis- placed, and the wheels take a movement of trans- lation around the vertical axis M Af (Fig. 65), un- til the plane of their wings becomes parallel to the direction of the wind. The axis M Arrests in a socket, t. A brass ring, it, secured by a screw, ?/, holds it in the socket, and at the same time pre- serves ths necessary connection between the mov- ing and fixed portions of the instrument. A cross-piece, / /, attached to the moving portion of the instrument, carries two springs, x r, which, drawn by the movement of translation, strike suc- cessively on four metallic sectors, separated one from the other, and inlaid in an insulated disk. From these four sectors, which correspond to the cardinal points, N., S., E., W., proceed four electric wires, N S E (Fr.) as seen in Fig. 65. The binding post i communicates with another spring, which strikes in all positions upon a metallic circle, also imbedded in the insulated disk. The metallic contacts of the springs on the sectors, or on the cir- cle, suffice to establish electric connection with the register, which remains to be described. The registration is effected on a paper ribbon, e e (Fig. 67), which is unrolled from a bobbin, A, and which, having passed over an anvil, B B', envel- Fig. 67. Nfr Anemometrographic Register. Fonts et Chaussees. ( Elevation.) ops in part the engine-turned cylinder C", on its way, in turn to be again wound on the wooden drum of a pulley, D, which is turned by a weight, p, suspended by a silken cord from its axis. The cylinder C" is governed by a clock move- ment inclosed in the box H, which gives the paper a uniform rate of motion. The inscription of the meteorological indications derived from the appa- ratus formerly described, takes place upon the paper ribbon by means of 5 steel points, v, n, s, e, o, put in Fig. 68. Anemomtlrographic Register. Fonts et Chaussees. (Plan.) movement by the passage of an electric current in the electro-rnagnct corresponding to each point. The 5 electro-magnets are identical with the pul- sating armature electric bells ; an improvement due to M. Herve Mangon, now Director of the Con- servatoire des Arts et Metiers. The following is M. Herve Mangon 's arrange- ment of the electro-magnet in the registering appa- ratus of the A nemometrograph of I'Ecole des Fonts et Chauss&s of France. ANEMOMETROGRAPH. 36 ANGLE BRICK. One of the poles of the battery communicates with the extremity a (Fig. 69), of the wire of the bobbin A. The other extremity of the wire of the bobbin is fixed by the screw b to the steel spring Fig. 69. Electro-magnet of the Anemometrographic Register. (Eleva- tion.) d' d. The other pole of the battery connects by the wire f, with a metallic piece, c c, which sup- ports by a steel spring the soft iron armature p, the rod p', and the tracing point V. An insulator block, i, separates the spring b d' d from the piece c. It will be seen that the. electric current entering at a, follows the wire of the bobbin, arrives at 6 d' d, passes by the contact d, in the palette p, arrives at the piece c, and passes off by the wire f. As soon as a current is thus established the soft iron core of tbe electric coil attracts the palette p ; the point V descends, and strikes the paper placed beneath it on the anvil E. This descent destroys the contact between d and p, and breaks the cir- cuit, consequently the palette p, obeying the spring which sustains it, rises to resume its former posi- tion and elevates the point V. The contact is re- established in d and the preceding phenomena are repeated. The point V thus receives a rapid vertical vibra- tion as long as the current is maintained. It will thus be understood, referring to Fig. 65, that the point v will strike every time that the current shall be closed by the contact of the pin on the wheel d d, and the spring e e ; that is to say, each time that the windwheel makes 100 turns. As to the matter of the direction of the wind, it will be recalled that the striking springs are always in contact with one, or, at most, two of the four sectors answering Fig. 70. Angle Blocks. ( Upper and lower.) to the winds of the cardinal points. It results from this that the electric current will pass by one, or at most by two, of the elec- tro-magnets N S E 0. The traces left then on the paper ribbon indi- cate the successive directions of the wind. If the two springs are in si- multaneous c o n- tact with two op- posite sectors, the two electro-mag- nets correspond- ing thereto will operate together, and will indicate that the direction of the wind is comprised between the two cardinal points to which the two sectors appertain. The anemometograph of M. Secchi is shown in article Metoroyraplies, vol. iv., ed. 1877, Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Sciences," Figs. 14, 15. An'e-roid. (Preferably, a-ne'roid.) Pillischer's (London), is self-registering, at certain intervals, by means of electro-magnets and a break-circuit clock. Shown at Vienna, 1873. Aneroid, on the . . * "Engineering,"' xxi. 223, 490. *" Van Nostrand's Mag.'-' xviii. 104. *201. Cf. Plympton's " The Aneroid and how to use it." An-gel'o-phone. An English name for a har- monium or parlor organ. A 'le Block Fig . 71. Fig . 72. 1. (Bridge-build- ing.) Figs. 70, 71. A casting at the junction of the braces with the ^ chord, in a bridge fjr truss, and afford- ing points of bear- ing for the sus- pension rods. 2. (Nautical.) Fig. 72. A swivel dock-block used in changing the di- rection of a rope in h o i s t i n g or moving cargo, etc. Portion of Bridge Truss. It has usually an iron frame and sheave, and is anchored to a stake, or lashed to a ring-bolt. An'gle Bor'ing Ma-chine'. A carpenter's machine for boring mortises. The semi-circular guides allow the standard to be set at any angle with the base which lies flatly upon the timber, in order to allow the holes to be bored at any desired angle. Fig. 73. Angl Mac/tine. An'gle Brick. Bricks specially formed to en- able other than square angles to be turned ; either to make acute or obtuse angles, or to make the quoin ornamental. The angle bricks, shown in Fig. 74, are of the latter character, admitting of a mold- ANGLE CAR-BORING MACHINE. 37 ANGLE-IRON BENDING MACHINE. Fig. 74. ing in the corner, either cylindrical or with assizes of varying diameter. An'gle Car-bor'ing Ma-chine'. A framing machine adapted for car shop.*, bridge work, etc. being capable of straight, angle, and end boring, saving the mov- ing of the tim- ber by being it- sell' adjustable. (See Fig. 75.) Especially useful in boring holes in truck and body bolsters for truss-rods. The spindle has a horizontal move- ment of 24". The head has a horizontal move- ment in planed slides in the frame, which permits it to be brought close up to the stuff when doing angle- work. The head is adjusted vertically by the hand- wheel, obviating the necessity for movement of the timber. The overhead belt is kept at a proper ten- sion by a. weighted pulley, which is hung in a slack loop of the belt. Fig. 76. .77. Angle Cock for Sugar- house use. Angle Check Valve. Aii'gle Check Valve. A valve in a pipe meeting another at an angle. An'gle Cock. One oc- cupying a position at a turn or bend of a pipe, as in the instance shown, Fig. 77, which is one adapted to sugar-house use. An'gle-cut'ting Cir'cu-lar Saw. One adapted by adjustable bed and fences to rip, groove, or cross-cut, on any line oblique to the general working-line of the piece. Angle cutting adjustments are found on other classes of saws, such as baud and jig saws. See under those heads. See also BEVEL SCROLL-SAW, Fig. 669, p. 279, "Meclt. Diet.," where the princi- ple of the bevel is carried out by adjustment of the saw itself. An'gle-iron Bend'- ing Ma-chine'. A ma- chine for bending angle- irons for the rings of boil- ers. It consists of a largei Angle Car-boring Machine. circular cast-iron table, to one side of which the bending mechanism is attached. There are one large and three small vertical rolls. The larger one revolves upon a fixed spindle, while the spin- dles of the others can be traversed by means of screws. The angle iron to be bent is gripped be- tween the fixed and the middle traversing roll, and the two outer ones are then moved forward simul- taneously to bend the bar to the curves required. One of the large hand-wheels is used for moving Fig. 78. Angle-iron Bending Machine. ANGLE-IRON BENDING MACHINE. 38 ANGLE VALVE. the "-ripping roller, and the other for traversing the bending rolls, the screws employed for this being geared together. The two gripping rolls are driven by the gearing shown in the drawing, the moving roll being connected to the gearing by universal clutches, which allow a free motion to be given to the sliding bearings. The two bending rolls are free on the spindles, and are not driven. For car- rying the angle-irons upon the table, rollers may be recessed into its face. The machine illustrated in Fig. 78, was made for bending angle-irons for boilers 8' in diameter. "Engineering," * xxiii. 421. An'gle Meas'u-rer. Rutherford's glass scale, for the mensuration of angles of astronomical pho- tographs, is about 10" in diameter, divided to 10 minutes of arc, and adapted to a spectrometer sim- ilar to the one used by Mascart, and described in his paper on the measurement of wave lengths. The measurements are read by two microscopes, each magnifying 75 diameters. "Scientific Ameri- can," xxxv. 133. Fig. 80. Fig. 79. An'gle Pies s'u r e- valve. A weighted valve Angle Safety-valve. at the bend of a pipe. Fig. 79. An'gle Safe'ty-valve. One placed at the bend or angle of a steam-pipe. Fig. 80. The shear is operated by a heavy wrought-iron lever within the housing. An independent stop- motion will permit the blades to rest open. The Fig. 82. An'gle-shear'ing Ma-chine'. A shear adapted for cutting angle-iron while resting on tres- tles. Fig. 81. The blades have no shear given to their edges ; but by punching the angle off with a cut extending over all parts of the iron with uniform pressure, the piece cut off is not bent out of shape. Hydraulic Angle-shear. lower blade is in two pieces. The speed is 144 revolutions per minute, and the machine will shear 6" X 6" angles. Fig. 82 represents a hydraulic angle-shearing ma- chine, made by Tweddell for the French govern- ment dockyard at Toulon. It is a quadruple angle-shearing and punching machine, and, with 1,500 Ibs. pres- sure per square inch in the mains, will cut clean 6" X 6" X |" angle iron or any equal section, punching 1-iuch holes in the same. The ma- chine is really composed of four dis- tinct tools, having independent con- nections to the main. In the shop the machine is partly sunk below the ground line. Fig. 88. Angle Valt-es. a. Angle valve in bend. 6. Full-way angle bib-valve. c. Full- way angle stop-valve. An'gle Valve. 1 . One placed at a bend of a pipe or tube. In a, Fig. 83, it is operated by a ANGULAR BELTING. 39 ANIMAL CHARCOAL REVIVIFIER. Angular Belting. screw ami hand-wheel, and has screw connection sockets. Fig. 84. 2. One having an angular presen- tation relatively to the line of direc- tion of the pipe, as in 6, c, Fig. 83. An'gu-lar Belt'ing. A belt- ing made of trun- cated wedging pyramids of leather of many plies, cemented and riveted t o- gether, the whole strongly riveted to a conveying strap of leather. (See Fig. 84.) The belt fits into the angular peripheral channel of the belt pulley, and has great adhesion. An'gu-lar Bench Drill. A portable drill at- tachable to a bench, and capable of angular presen- pj 5 tation relatively to the surface of the latter. Fig. 85. The clamp H at- taches it to the bench. The hollow shaft, B, may be slipped, or it may be ro- tated in the clamp C on the stand- ard A, upon which the clamp itself is ver- tically adjustable. An'gu-lar Bif- stock. A n extension member to the ordinary brace having a joint for the angular transmission of the movement to the bit so that the latter may reach an object to which the brace cannot be applied vertically. Fig. 86. Fig. 86. An'gu-lar Trans-mis'sio 11 Mpve'ment. This is familiar in the gimhal joint commonly used ; as in the connecting members of the tumbling of threshing machines. 2218, "Mech. Diet." Bevel gears come under the title. The Clemens movement is shown in "Iron Age," *xviii., September 28, p. 1. An'i-line Pen'cil. From Portuguese anil, de- rived from nil, the Sanskrit name of indigo, the in- dicium of Pliny. French aniline pencils are made in grades, ac- cording to the hardness, very much like common lead pencils. The materials used are aniline, graphite, and kaolin, in different proportions. Angular Bench Drill. Made into a paste in cold water, the material is pressed through a screen that divides the mass into the slender sticks used in filling the pencils. When dry, the sticks are fitted to the wooden parts, and these are glued together in the usual way. They may be used in copying, marking in permanent color, and in reproducing writing or designs. In copying, a thin sheet of moistened paper is laid over the letter, design, or document, and the lines are traced with the pencils. The action of the water on the aniline gives a deep, fast tracing, resembling ink in color. On ordinary dry paper they give a well-defined mark that cannot be removed by india- rubber. When the paper is dampened with water, the markings assume the appearance of ink. Moist- ened sheets laid over the writing, under a slight pressure, will transfer good impressions, that do not blur, and that resemble the original in every respect. An'i-mal Char'coal Re-viv'i-fi-er. The fab- rication of bone-black, employed in sugar houses as a decolorant and absorbent, consists in the carboni- zation of bones in a closed retort; the bones hav- ing previously been broken, and deprived, by boil- ing, of their fatty components. Green bones give a maximum of organic substance rather than those long exposed to the air, and give by calcination a more, active decolorant. The revivification of the charcoal consists in the processes employed to restore the decoloring prop- erty. For this purpose it is first washed to remove soluble matters, and then calcined anew, to carbon- Fig. 87. Animal Charcoal Washer. ize the organic matters absorbed. This may be done twenty to twenty-five times, as the loss is from 4 to 5 per. cent, at each operation. This loss represents the diminution in weight, but the loss in value is greater, as the quality also deterio- rates. The washing may take place in water or in an alkaline liquor ; but the preference is given to a weak solution of hydrochloric or acetic acid. Fol- lowing the washing in the acidulated solution, which has, in the beet sugar process, for its special object, the separation of the carbonate of lime ab- sorbed, it is necessary to wash in clear water to re- move the lime and traces of acid not neutralized. The washing takes place in the apparatus, Fig. 87, or Fig. 88 ; the former being customary in France, and the latter the Klusemann washer being used principally in Germany. The action of the French machine is evident, the bone-black, fed in at one end, is passed to the other by means of the endless screw, being sub- jected to jets of water from the horizontal pipes throughout its whole course. The German machine receives the charcoal from the hopper A, at the lower end of the machine. A stream of water is introduced at the other end, and the charcoal is advanced against the stream by successive liftings from one paitition to another, until it is dumped at the upper end. Furnaces, for recalcination of the bone-black, are shown in Figs. 786, 787, p. 328, " Meek. Diet." The usual French charcoal revivifying furnace is that ANIMAL CHARCOAL REVIVIFIER. 40 ANODE. Kluftmnnn's Animal Charcoal Washer. of Blaise, mentioned in most books treating of the Beet-roue industry (which see). A favorite German furnace i s Fjg 8S) t h a t o f S h a 1 1 e n, ,___ shown Fig. 8 9. stores 360 per tube per Animal Charcoal Furnace. \ n This r e- kilogra m s 24 hours. From the hearth A the gas passes to the furnace B, in which the cast- iron retort tubes are vertically dis- posed, having hor- i z o n t a 1 plates which separate the space around the retorts into four divis- ions. The upper and second quarters of the tubes are exposed to moderate and increasing heat re- spectively. In the third is the full heat of the fire, and the lower extends beneath the furnace bottom and allows the bone black to cool before being dis- charged by the withdrawal of the register, which closes the lower end. The upper end of the retort is open, and the bone-black, somewhat dried upon the platform over the chimney, is shoveled into the tubes, the production being at the rate, say, of 11 pounds per 20 minutes, that quantity being retired below, and additional charge shoveled in above. The temperature is about 275 C., and the mate- rial augments in density in varying proportions, ranging from 77-80, np to 90-115. It has been proposed by MM. Laurent and Thomas to revivify charcoal by superheated steam at a heat of 300 C., but it has not, according to M. C. Laboulaye, been reduced to practice. An'kle Boot. (Mane'ge.) A covering for the ankle of a horse, to protect it from injury when struck by the other feet ; made of leather or heavy felt, with a small piece, called a shield, placed over the part to be protected. An'kle Com-press'or. (Surgical.) An ap- plication of the nature of a bandage, consisting of a rubber sac around the joint, with tubes, by which hot or cold water can be passed through. Dr. t> bai/re. An'kle -j oint Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) An apparatus for maintaining the leg, foot, and ankle in proper and unvarying adjustment, for treatment of the ankle. Sayrr. Sayre's Ankle-joint apparatus, Fig. 98. p. 52. Andrews' Extension bandage for inflamed ankle, Fig. 186, p. Izl. Weak ankle support, Fig. 60, p. 27. Talipes equinus apparatus, Fig. 62, p. 28. Talipes varus apparatus, Fig. 63, p. 29. 15all and socket club-foot shoe, Fig. 64, p. 30. Talipes valgus apparatus, Fig. 65, p. 31. Talipes calcaneus apparatus, Fig. 67, p. 31. All in Tiem ami's "Armamentarium Chirwgicum,'" Part IV. An'kle Shack'le. A man- acle for the ankles ; sometimes furnished with chain and ball. An-neal'ing. (Glass.) A process the reverse of tempering. See TEMPERED GLASS. (Metals.) In annealing cast- iron the malleable iron castings are put into iron boxes inclosed in pounded iron-stone or lime. The boxes are luted, rolled into a furnace or oven, heated for five days, and allowed to cool gradually in the furnace. Slow cooling of bronze produces hardness. See the following : Annealing Castings, Process for. Robinson * "Iron Age," xx., July 5, p. 7. Annealing Furnaces, Construction of. * "Iron Age,''' xxi., March 28, p. 7. Annealing Furnaces. Chess *"Iron Age," xxi., Nov. 29, p. 5. Ives *"Iron Agt," xx., Nov. 22, p. 5. Annealing Oven, Iron . * "Iron Age," xxi., March 7, p. 7. Annealing Oven, Glass. Siemens * "Scientific American Sup.," 4078. Annealing by Electricity, Machine for. Warrington .... *" Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' 129. An-neal'ing Lamp. An alcohol lamp and hot plate used by dentists for softening gold foil by heat, in order to render it adhesive when used in plugging teeth. The plate keeps it warm dur- ing the operation. An'nu-lar Fur'nace. Fletcher's annular melting furnace (British) for cruci- ble work is shown in " Iron Age," *xxii., November 21. p. 1; also in "Engineering," *xxvi., 140. An'nu-lar Pis'toii En'- gine. An engine with a ring- shaped piston, moving in the space between two concentric cylinders. See ANNULAR CYLINDER ENGINE, pp. 115, 116, and Figs. 253-255, " Mech. Diet." Also, Fig. 1 742, p. 739, Ibid. ; also, Figs. 4035, 4036, pp. 1830, 1831, Ibid. In Robertson's steam-engine the piston recipro- cates in the arc of a circle. "Scientific Ameriran Supplement," * 1232. Borsig, of Berlin, has introduced a compound 45 horse-power steam-engine with peculiar valve gear, and with annular pistons. It is shown and de- scribed in "Iron Age," * xxv., February 26, p. 1. Young's annular cylinder marine engine (Brit- ish), is shown in "Engineer," * xlii. 407, 412. An'ode. (Electricity.) The positive pole or "upway," so named by Faraday. The wire or plate connected to the copper or White's Annealing Lamp. ANTERIOR CURVATURE APPARATUS. 41 ANTIQUE BRONZING. other negative plate of the battery, and which leads the positive current to the object. Werners Nickel Anode, * "Sc. American,'' xxxix. 150. An'te-ri-or Cur'va-ture Tib'i-a Ap'pa- ra'tus. (Surf/leal.) The instrument consists of two upright steel stems fastening below to a shoe, and above to a calf band. A leathern band passes forward over the arc of the curvature, and around the stems, i-o as to constantly afford a backward pressure upon the deformity of the tibia. An'te-ri-or Splint. (Surgical.) A frame of stout wire suspended above a fractured limb, the latter being fastened to and suspended from the splint by rollers. The limb lies in a cradle of wire gauze. See Smith's anterior splint and Byrd's wire gauze supporter, Figs. 102, 103 a, 10*'/;, pp.50, 54, Part IV., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Cliirur- gicum." An'the-mi-on. An ornament in classic archi- tectural decoration, derived from various floral forms, but especially the honeysuckle. Worimni'S "Analysis of Ornament." An'thra-cene. A product of coal tar. Anthracene Manufacture, Fennfr, * "Sc. Am.," xxxiv. 226. See U. S. Patent, Perkin, No. 127,426, June 1. 1872. An'thra-cite Coke Fur'nace. The anthra- cite coke furnace of Pen rose & Richards, of Swan- sea, Wales, has a gas generator, not immediately in contact with the boiler, composed of iron rings, keyed and luted and lined with fire-brick. The carbonic acid, formed at the interior part of the furnace, is reduced to carbonic oxide in passing through the incandescent fuel, and the requisite Fig. 91. oxygen for its consumption is furnished by a pipe, shown in dotted lines, which has ori- fices through which the heat- ed air under pressure reaches the interior of the furnace. c .is the sup- ply hopper. An'thra- cite Dust bakraeite Coke Fur'nace. A furnace for burning the dust or slack of anthracite coal. This accumulates by millions of tons in the anthracite regions of Pennsylvania and Wales, and is a mate- rial addition to the cost and waste of mining opera- tions in those regions. See WASTE COAL BURN- INC; LOCOMOTIVE, for description of J. E. Wooten's locomotive. An'ti-clink'er Grate. A stove grate placed below the fire-pot so as to leave an annular open- ing between the two through which the clinkers can be raked out from the (ire. Aii'ti-fric'tion-ate. A name given by the in- ventors to a combination of materials welded into a solid mass, for machinery bearings, or bearing linings. Patents July 6, and .Tulv 27, 1875. Aii'ti-fric'tion Bear'ing. "This subject has been considered under many heads : anit Hicharilx' Furnace. Anti-friction bearing. Palier glissant. Anti-friction box. Anti-friction metals. Anti-friction pulley. Anti-friction step. Anti-friction wheel, etc. See pp. 118, 119, etc., "Merh. Diet." Avery's anti-friction has a circle of partially imbedded rollers in the journal. "Scientific American," * xl., 278; article "Rouleaux," * Labnu'.aye's " Dictionnaire rjes Arts et Manufacture.'!,''' iv., ed. 1877, where Chauffour's and Brti*- saut's (*) systems are described. One with roller bear- Fig. 92. An'ti-fric'tion Block. ings. Such are seen in the " Climax " door-hang- er, and in Fig. 263, p. 119, "Mech. Diet." In the illustration, Fig. 92, the pin C is keyed fast into the hub of the sheave G, and rests and turns on the roller bearings, one on each side of the block. The sheave G turns 5 times while // turns once. The smaller rollers, E, F, are t o keep the axis C in place. The strap A is broken, to expose the parts. An'ti-fric'tion Met'al. Belgian anti-friction metal is composed of Copper .20 Tin 4 Antimony 0.5 Lead 0.25 Mix all the other ingredients-before adding the copper. Doubleday's consists of cast-iron, copper, glass, antimony, tin, spelter, and lead. U. S. Patent, 178,841. Coline. ( French ) Asbestos and graphite in equal parts ; mix, and reduce to a paste by addition of silicate of soda or potash. Pressed to shape in a hydraulic press, or pressed to a block and turned to shape when solid. When the bearing is shaped, steep in hot melted paraffine or wax ; in solution of paraffine, benzole, or other mineral oil. See U. S. Patents : Anti-friction Block. 189,684 162,065 157,509 154,317 136,163 234,482 175,841 217,946 153,154 Behrens . , . April 17, 1877. Harrington . . April 13, 1875 Guile .... December 8, 1874. Campbell . . . August 25, 1874. Hunt .... February 25. 1873. Hunt . . . November 16, 1880 DoublerJay . June 20, 1876 Jackson . . . July 29, 1879. Campbell. An'ti-fric'tion Plow. One with rollers on sole, land side, or mold-board, to avoid friction of the passing soil. A doubtful expedient. Such were shown at the Centennial by two Swed- ish exhibitors : Catherineholm's Foundry, and L. P. Eklundh. It is, however, an old device. See d, e, f, Fig. 3823, p. 1745, "Mech. Diet." Wilkie's plow of this class dates from 1825. An'ti-in-crus'ta-tor. A material, process, or device to prevent the incrustation of steam boilers resulting from the adherence of a scale of salts of lime, etc. See list on p. 1177, "Mech. Diet.'" Vigier Process . . "Manufacturer and Builder," x. 124. Zinc "Scientific American," xxxv. 158. "Scientific American Svpplftnent," 518. Morehouse . . . "Scientific American," xlii. 374. Holders Alloy . " Scientific American Supplement," 468. An'ti-mo-ny Pho'to-graph. A process in- vented by F. Jones (Br.). The process is based upon the reaction which takes place between sulphur and antimoniated hy- drogen or stibine in the presence of li ght, by which sulphide of antimony results as the product of de- composition. " British Journal of Photography" 1876. Reproduced in " Scientific American Supple- ment," 352. An-tique' Bronz'ing. A process designed to ANTIQUE BRONZING. 42 ANVIL VISE. give the patina or surface effect seen on ancient bronze, and due to exposure and the effect of time. Also known as ORUGO, which see. The repeated applications on copper or brass of alternate washes of dilute acetic acid, and exposure to the fumes of ammonia, will give a very antique- looking- green bronze, but a quick mode of produ- cing a similar appearance is often desirable. To this end the articles may be immersed iira solution of one part of perchloride of iron in two parts of water. The tone assumed darkens with the length of immersion. Or, the articles may be boiled in a strong solu- tion of nitrate of copper. Or, they may be immersed in a solution of two ounces nitrate of iron, and two ounces hyposul- phite of soda in one pint of water. Washing, dry- ing, and burnishing complete the process. See also BRONZE COLORING. An'ti-ra'cer. A governor for propeller engines to prevent the racing of the screw when the ship pitches and throws the propeller out of the water. Durham, Br. . "Engineer" *1878. " Scientific American Supplement" *2397. See MARINE ENGINE GOVERNOR. An'ti-rat'tler. An attachment to a carriage coupling or fifth wheel to prevent the rattling of parts, one against the other. See Fig. 93. Fig. 93. Anli-nittlers. a. Represents Ladd's anti-rattler for shaft or pole coup- lings. A spring presses against the thimble to keep it from chattering on the bolt. 6. Is a fifth wheel anti-rattler. A caoutchouc pad rests iu the bearing. c. Wilcox's fifth wheel anti-rattler. A rubber sleeve is placed in the recess, and the rivet fastens down upon it. Fig. 94. gical.) An atomizing apparatus for suffusing the atmosphere with vapor of an antiseptic solution in the vicinity of a wound while being dressed, or upon a cut surface during an operation. Mr. Lis- ter is the principal authority in the matter, and his practice is most observed. The apparatus is generally a steam atomizer, an alcohol lamp making a jet of steam which converts the antiseptic liquid into spray. The apparatus of Hank, Weii\ tleud, Little, and Tiemann, are shown in Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgiciim," Part 1., Figs. 408-412, pp. 119-123. Figure 94 shows that of Dr. Weir, of New York. See '' New York MedicalJournal," December, 1877. A somewhat similar apparatus is that of Dr. Louis Sass, of New York, described in " Scientific American Supplement," * 1164. An'trum Tre-phine'. A small crown saw used by dentists when it is desired to enter the antrum through a tooth socket. Antrum Drill, Pope's, Fig. 50, p. 12, Part I., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." An'vil. A plate or cup inside the head of a Fig. 95. Antrum Trepltine. Antiseptic Spray Apparatus. An'ti-sep'tic Spray Ap'pa-ra'tua. (Sur- cartridge to strengthen it. ANVIL. See CUP ANVIL ; DISK Anvil for Paper Cartridge Shells, Saget, *"5'c. American," xxxv. 63. An'vil Cup'per. (Cartridge.) A machine for making the inside cup or case of the cartridge, which holds the fulminate ; the stamp cuts them out, and by a die working inside the stamp, draws them to the required length. Km. 9i>. Anvil and Vise Cumbini-d. Aii'vil Vise. A compound tool in which the anvil forms one jaw of the vise. Two forms are shown, in Figs. 96 and 97. One has a screw jaw at the square end of the anvil, and Combined Vise and Anvil. the other has a long jaw worked by treadle against the side of the anvil. APAREJO. 43 APPLIQUE. Ap'a-re'jo. A pack-saddle, or the whole appa- ratus necessary for loading pack animals. It is one of a number of terms such as "sinch" (Span- ish cincho, a girth) and " cabresto " (Sp. cabestro, a halter), which are working into our language from our Mexico-Spanish frontier. Ap'er-ture Sight. (Rifle.) Another name for the open bead siyht. See BEAD SIGHT. A'pex. (Mining.) The top or highest point of the mineral. Aph'lo-gis'tic Lamp. A flameless lamp ; one with platinum sponge and glass wick-holders. Also known as the Dobereiner lamp, and Hydrogen lamp. A-phon'go-scope. See MEGASCOPE. Ap'la-nat'ic Search'er. (Optics.) Another name for the amplifying lens. See AMPLIFIER. That of Dr. Royston Pigott is described in " Mi- croscopic Journal." A-plat'is-seur. A name from the French. A grain-flattening mill. Used for the rough crushing of grain for feeding stock. It has a pair of rollers between which the grain is fed from a hopper. See GRAIN-CRUSHER. Ap'o-neu'ro-tome. (Surgical.) A blunt pointed curved knife, the blade on the concave edge, used in supra-pubic lithotomy in cutting the tendinous membranes, aponeuroses. Fig. 155, p. 42, Part III., Tiemann's " Armamentarium GiiruTgicwn." Ap-par'i-tor Au'ris. A species of ear-cornet in which the canal is elongated and overbridged so Fig.99 Apple Corer and Slice A/i/ia/ilof Aitris. that sound entering the aperture A (Fig. 98), can- not diffuse, but is conducted within the tunnel through the meatus anditorius fito the tympanum. The instrument is of silver, with flesh-colored enamel, is so shaped as to be worn within the con- cha, and is sold in pairs, one for each ear. Ap'ple Co'rer and Sli'cer. An implement, Fig. 99, which acts by a simple downward thrust, removing a cylinder of apple containing the core, and cutting the apple into eight pieces. Ap'ple Gra'ter. The Boomer & Boschert apple grater has an iron cylinder with planed grooves to receive the knives (8) which are adjust- able by set screws above and below at each end, and held in their places by a heavy wrought iron band shrunk on at each end of the cylinder. The concaves consist of five iron levers with movable weights. "Scientific American.'' * xlii. 242. Ap'ple G-rin'der. A mill for grinding apples previous to pressing the pomace. Grinder. Fig. 100 shows the galvanized cast iron nut and concave of the " Peekskill " apple grinder. Fig. 101. Fig. 101 shows an apple-mill made by E. Bodin, of Trois- C r o i x, R e n n e s, France. The art of cider-making is in- digenous in Brit- Bodin's Apple Grinder, Reiines, France. tany, and it is considered that the crushing-mill is superior to the grater, giving a pomace which af- fords a clearer juice, with less pulp, and conse- quently less tendency to ferment. The nuts, or toothed cylinders, have six teeth, and can be ap- proached or parted by means of two screws. The duty is from 175 to 200 gallons per hour, by the moderate work of two men. Ap'ple Par'er. The " Missouri "combined ap- ple parer, corer, and slicer, works by a horizontal motion, the circular movement of the shaft rotating the apple, and the endwise movement of the shaft giving the sweep to the knife ; after which a sim- ple thrust delivers the apple to the corer and quar- terer, the quarters dropping to the table while the fork withdraws with the core. See Fig. 102. Fig. 102. Combined Parer, Corer, and Quarterer. Ap'pli-ca'tor. (Surgical.) Uterine and ure- thral applicators, for introducing medicaments, caustic, sponge tents, etc. ; pp. 21, 65, 73, 77, 82, 83, Part III., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgi. cum." Ap-plique'. 1. (Fine Art Metal Working.) Or- naments produced by affixing portions to the sur- face of the object. The metal is previously rolled or stamped into figures, scrolls, braids, etc., and these. are soldered on to the object to be orna- mented. The result resembles repousstf, which is, APRON. 44 AQUARIUM. however, produced by indenting the metal from the interior. 2. In cloth work, also known as opus consutum, or cut cloth work, the patterns are cut out and then sewed on. Fig. 103. Apron. A'pron. (Hydraulic Engineering.) A protect- ing surface of logs and brush anchored by rip-rap (or similar contrivances), to protect or to form re- vetment for river sides, or to form a jetty. See instance of apron in Charleston Harbor im- ovements. " Re/tort of Chief of Engineers U. S. /!_...,>' lQ7n"*; 7Q/I provements Fig. 104. Army," 1879, * i. 734. Savannah River. Ibid., * i. 742. Fig. 103 shows a portion of a cross-section of an apron. It con- sists of rip-rap, lying on brush an- chored by poles and founded on logs. A'pron Fas'ten-er. A spe- cies of catch, resembling a buckle, used for fastening the apron cover on the dash-board of a vehicle. It consists of an apron hook and an apron ring. A'qua-me'ter. A name for the pulsometer, a vacuum steam- pump. See AQUOMETER. A'qua-pult'. A portable force- pump. The foot of the barrel stands in a bucket of water and the foot of the operator is on the Douglas? Aqua- gtep o f t ] le ))OSt ,, ( pjor, Ex-pand'- ing. A mandrel hav- ing a wedge-shaped feather, capable o f being slipped so as to grip interiorly the hollow of a piece of Aquometer. ( Vertical Section.) work, or of u circular cutter. In Fig. 108, C is the steel mandrel; B B are two of the three keys that are drawn up and pushed down by the nut ; a groove is turned inside the nut A, which catches the heads of the keys B, and thus draws them up to tighten the work; in the outside of the nut A is a ta- per hole which the pin D fits, and which answers for a wrench, /^represents the tool Aquometer Valve. (Section.) operating on a piece of work. Arch. (Add.) 2. (Mining.) A piece of ground left unworked near a shaft. Fig. 108. Expanding Mandrel. 3. The fire-chamber of a furnace. The term is used especially in glass-furnaces. 4. The front opening of the ash pit beneath a furnace grate. Arch Bar. 1. A bar forming a lintel to the mouth of an ash-pit ; taking the place of the or- dinary brick arch. Fire-place arch bar, Wickersham, * " Scientific American," xxxv. 22. 2. The curved upper member of a round-topped truss. 3. A curved bar in a frame depending upon its camber for its stiffness. Arch Screw Press. One in which the punch and its slide are supported on a frame arched above the die-bed ; in contradistinction to one with an AREOTHERMIC BALANCE. 46 ARMOR COMPOUND. over-hang arm or bracket support for the punch- slide. A're-o-therm'ic Bal'ance. An invention of M. Blondeau for determining the density of liquids. Its advantages are the facility with which the operations may be performed, and the readings taken, the approximation of the specific weight up to the fourth decimal, and its adaptation to liquids either heavier or lighter than water. The instrument has a base, F, and leveling screw, G, and a hollow column, I, in which the stem of the upper part, K ff, moves up' and down, being held at any vertical adjustment by the binding screw P. H is a bearing for the knife edges that Fig. 109. Blondtau's Areothermic Balance. support the beam ; K, the scale-beam guide; J /' points to show the equilibrium of the beam. A 2, a weight which is suspended from the hook of the 10th division when the specific weight of a liquid heavier than water is sought. M n, hooks for sus- pension of the plunger with its thermometer, from the hook of the balance so that it may dip into the liquid whose density is sought, and which contains the test-glass. One of the arms of the beam car- ries at its extremity a cylindrical counterpoise, in the center of which is the point, ./' , and the other is divided into ten equal parts, numbered from 1 to 10. At each division there is an angular notch for receiving a weight. The method of regulating and using is described in a French paper translated and reproduced in " Scientific American Supplement," *3773. Ar'gen-tif'er-ous. (Mining.) Containing sil- ver. Ar'gen-ti'na. (Ceramics.) A name given by M. Hausen, of Stockholm, to his method of cover- ing unglazed porcelain with a coating of gold, silver, or copper. The process is supposed to be as. fol- lows : The porcelain articles are dipped in a solution of the metal, similar to that used for electro-plating, and then, by a peculiar process of reduction (per- haps by means of phosphorus vapors), the salt is de- composed, and the metal is deposited within the pores of the earthenware. Articles covered with a metallic coating according to this process, present every appearance of being entirely composed of the metal. Ar'ith-mom'e-ter. A calculating machine. A number of forms are shown in Figs. 325-329, pp. 143, 144, " Mech. Diet." Staffers arithmometer is provided with an at- tachment, which, if an impossible operation, such as dividing a number by another larger than it- self be attempted, stops the machine and rings a bell. Ar'ith-mo-pla-mm'e-ter. An invention of M. Lalanne ; an extension of the principles of the planimeter for calculating certain formulas. Reference is made at page 1728, "Mech. Diet.," to the plauimeter of Oppikoffer, and the polar pla- nimeter of Amsler is shown there in Fig. 3794. The conical planimeter of Lalanne is furnished with longitudinal and transverse scales for calcula- tions, and is shown in Fig. 353, Article " Calcnlcr" tome i., Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts," etc., edition 1877. Arm. (Siir931. *"Sc. Am. Sup.," 2013. "Iron Age," xx., July 5, p. 15. * "Engineer,'' xlii. 183. "Sc. Am.,'' xxxiv. 247. "Sc. Am. Sup ,'' 789. * "Engineer," xlviii. 465,468. "Sc.Am. Sup.," 1732. "Iron Age," xxiv., Aug. 14, p. 14. *"Sc. Am. SMj/.,"1789. * "Engineering,'" xxvii. 70. * "Engineer," xliv. 419. *"Sc. Am. Sup.," 1789. "Nautical Magazine." " Van Nostrand's Maga- zine," xxi. 28. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1777. "Sc. Am.,'' xl. 312. * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 2357. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 2145. Patent March 13, 1877. "Sc. Am.," xxxvi. 407. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xvi. 285. Experiments Trial, Shoeburyness . Plates and Projectiles Plate Machine, Br Chilled Cast Iron , Ger. , Gruson Compound Eng Br., Brown and Cammett Compound Effect of Shot and Shell Furnace, Br. , Wilson . Wilson . Iron and Steel .... Steel, Eng Targets, Eng WhitworWs Yates Gun, Krupp Consult : A. L. Holley's " Treatise on Ordnance and Armor," 1865. EaiTs "Si/stem of Naval Defences," 1868. Reed's "Our Iron-dad Ships,'" London, 1869. "Ship-build ing in Iron and Steel," 1869. Dislcre's "La Marine Cuirassee," Paris, 1873. King's " Report on European Ships of War,"' Ex. Doc. xxvii., 1877. Secretary of Navy's "Report on Armored Vessels," 1864. Noble's "Report on Penetration of Armor Plates,"- 1876. Arm Sling. (Surgical.) A wire gauze cradle for a fractured or dislocated arm, supported by a sling over the shoulder. Tiemann'x "Wire Arm-sling," Fig. 152, p. .93, Part IV., " Armamentarium Chirurgicum." Arm Splint. (Surgical.) A stiffening bandage apparatus, for holding parts in position rigidly dur- ing the junction of the bony parts, in cases of frac- ture, or the parts in position in cases of luxation. The splints are various, according to the part and nature of the fracture. Reference to Tie- manri's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum" Part I V. : Fig. 123, p. 76. Clavicle Levis . . Clavicle, Scapula, and Hu- merus Richardson Colles's Fracture Hewit . . Shrady . . Elbow Hamilton . Neck of Humerus Dislocated Clavicle .... Mayor . '. Olecranon Clark . '. Ununited Fracture of the Hu- merus Smith . . Ununited Fracture of the Fore- arm Smith . . Elbow and Wrist Andrew. . ti Contracted Wrist Fig. 208, p. 135 Ar'mure. (Fabric.) 1. The character of the weave. The system of harnesses with which the loom is armed, or provided, to produce a definite tissue. There are four fundamental or classical forms, Fig. 124, p. 76. Fig. 128, p. 79. Fig. 129, p. 79. Fig. 148, p. 91. Fig. 149, p. 92. Fig. 150, p. 92. Fig. 153, p. 94. Fig. 172, p. 109. Fig. 173, p. 110. P. from which all the varieties of simple tissues are derived. (a.) Taffeta, having 2 harnesses, forming a sin- gle interlacement. (b.) Twilled, or Batavia Weave,' harnesses. (c.) Serge, having 3 harnesses. (d.) Satin, G or more harnesses. See under those heads. See also FABRIC. 2. A silk and wool French dress goods. Ar'my Mill. A portable mill standing on a tripod, driven by two men at the hand cranks, and grinding into a sack suspended beneath. It is a French invention, costs $40, grinds 44 pounds per Fig. 111. Army MM. hour, and four of them, packed in two boxes, are a load for a mule on the march. Ar'my Scales. A portable form of scales which closes up in a box compact for transporta- tion ; such scales have a capacity from 600 to 1,200 pounds. When closed, the working parts are en- tirely protected. Ar'rage. (Mining.) A sharp edge or corner in an adit or drift. Arris. Ar'row-head For'ceps. (Surgical.) An in- strument for the extraction of the heads of Indian Fig. 112. Arrow-head Forceps. arrows, which frequently are purposely made to become detached from their shnfts. Ar-te'ri-al Com-press'or. (Surgical.) A clamp, to be placed upon an artery to prevent effu- sion of blood. Speir's artery constrictor is a species of hook, pulling into a case and clamping the artery. Fig. 87, Tiemann's "Arma- mentarium Chirurgicuin,'- Part I. Billroth's artery clamp is a small screw clamp, holding the artery between curved plates. Fig. 91 b, Ibid. Steams' 1 artery claws are hows of pliable but not flexible metal, pinched upon the artery by forceps. Fig. 89, Ibid. Artery compressors in lieu of tourniquets during amputa- tion. Erichson^s Fig 108. Buck's Fig. 109. Skeys Fig. 110. Ibid., Part I Ar'te-ry Con-strict'or. (Surgical.) A hook- ended instrument capable of being introduced into a wound to grasp and pinch an artery to prevent effusion of blood. See ARTERY COMPRESSOR. ARTERY FORCEPS. 48 ART. Ar'te-ry For'ceps. An instrument for catch- ing an artery and holding ic while being ligated. There are numerous forms, but all are of the nature of tweezers or nippers. 113. Artery Forceps. a. Spring-catch forceps. 6. Massachusetts General Hospital forceps, with five teeth. c. Spring-catch fenestrated forceps. d. Sugar's slide-catch forceps e. Combined artery and needle forceps. /. Fenestrated self-holding forceps. g. Wight's curved forceps. h. Stohlmann'a combined needle and artery forceps. i. Cleborne's double forceps. See, also, TORSION FORCEPS. Ar'te-ry Nee'dle. (Surgical.) A curved needle, or thread-carrying hook, for passing a liga- ture around an artery. See ANEURISM NEEDLE, Fig. 211, p. 102, "Mech. Diet." Suture, ligature, and ruptured perineum needles are similarly formed, but have some special char- acteristics ; p. 28, Part I., Tiemann's "Armamenta- rium Chirurgicum ." Ar'te-ry Scis'sors. (Surgical.) An instru- ment having on one blade a prolonged gorget-end to follow the artery. Fig. 149, p. 48, Part I., "Ar- mamentarium," ut supra. Ar-te'sian Well Ma-chine'. Fig. 114 is a boring machine for artesian and other deep wells, operating by means of the diamond rock drill. The foot of the drill rod is shod with an annular ring of black diamonds, and the rod is rotated by steam engine and intermediate gearing. The rod is lowered or raised by steam pressure in the pair of vertical cylinders attached to the frame, acting upon a yoke which is clamped to the rod when re- quired. Consult : Artesian Well. Charleston " Sc. Am.," xxx. 150. Pesth, Hungary, 3,120', 161 F. "Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 1972. Pesth, Hungary .... "Sc. Am.," xxxviii. 47. San Francisco *" Sc.Am.Sup.," 2473, 2518. Vittoria, Spain "Sc. Am.," xxxix. 291. Boring Tools *"Sc.Am. Sup.," 2526, 2543. Ar-tic'u-la-ting Tel'e-graph. A name for the telephone. Ar-tif'i-cer's Knot. A form of knot in which a rope is bent around a spar or handspike so as to jam when pulled taut. It is shown at 8, 9, Fig. 2777, p. 1240, " Mech. Diet.'' fig. 114. Artesian Well Boring Machine. Ar'ti-fi'cial Moth'er. A warm chamber for young chicks ; made as a substitute for a brooding hen to foster the young birds hatched in an incu- bator. The brooding chamber has a long napped blan- ket and is heated with hot water, by a lamp, or in some cases by fermenting manure. The villous coating of the chamber walls and ceiling afford nestling places for the young birds. Ar'ti-fi'cial Stone. See STONE, ARTIFICIAL; MARBLE, ARTIFICIAL; BETON, etc. Art, in various materials. See under the following heads : Amatorii. Applique. Argentina. Automaton. Aventurine. Bat printing. Bidiri ware. Black basalt ware. Black glass. Blacking. Bohemian glass. Bone porcelain. Bronzed glass Bronzing. Cameo cutting. Cameo glass. Cameo incrustation. Carving. Casing. Champ-leve'. Chasing. Checking. Cire-perdue. Cloisonne 1 . Coin. Colored glass. Crackle-ware. Cream- ware. Crystal. Damasceening. Damasking metals. Decalcomanie. Deglaziug. Delft ware. ART. 49 ASBESTOS. Depoltahing. De-vitrifi cation. Diamond. Doubled-glass. Doulton ware. Egg-shell ware. Electro-plating china Email ink. Enamel. Enameled glass. Encaustic. Encaustic tile. Engraved colored glass. Engraved glass. Etched enamel. Etched glass. Etching on porcelain. Faience. Faience d'O.'ron. Faience stannifere. Feathers, artificial. Filigree glass. Fine art metal-work. Flag. Flashed glass. Flat chasing. Flooring tile. Flowers, artificial. Fluted glass. Frosting. Gem, artificial. Gem engraving. Gilding on glass. Glass carving. Class cutting. Glass enamel. Glass engraving. Glass etching. Glass polishing. Glass silk. Glass silver. Grafito. Half clear. Hard paste. Heliogravure. Henri-Deux ware. Hyalithe. Incrusted work. Inlaying. .Iridescent glass. Iridiated glass. Irisated wire. Irisation. Ivory-dyeing. Ivory porcelain. Ivory work. Jasper ware. Jet. Jewelry. Kuft work. Lac work. Lacquer. Luster. Majolica. Marhleized glass. Metalized glass. Metal seal. Mezza-niajolica. Milling. Mirror. Mixed-clay ware. Modeling clay. Modeling wax. Mosaic. Mosaic glass. Mousselaine glass. Mural tile. Murrhine. Muslin glass. Niello. Oi'ron ware. Onyx glass. Opal glass. Orugo. Palissy ware. Parcel gilt. Parian biscuit. Pate changeante. Pate-sur-pate. Patina. Pearl. Pearl inlaying. Piercing. Plaque. Plaster bronzing. Plaster casts. Plastic crystal. Plastilina. Platinizing glass. Porcelain. Porcelain pate tendre Pottery . Rafaeile ware. Repousse^. Rose glass. Ruby glass. Satining. Sculpture. Seal. Sevres porcelain. Sgraffito. Silvering glass. Silver glass. Snarling. Soft paste. Spinning. Spun glass. Staining wood. Stannif.erous glaze. Stoneware, decorated. Tender porcelain. Terra-cotta. Terre-cuite. Tile. Tissue glass. Tortoise-shell ware. Transfer printing. Ultramarine. Under-glaze. Wax flowers. Wedgwood. Zinc decorating. As-bes'tos. A curious fibrous mineral ; a vari- ety of hornblende and pyroxene. It is found in many parts of the world, is of very various quali- ties, and requires careful preparation for some of the uses to which it is applied. See p. 167, "Meek. Diet." In the application of asbestos, it is used loose, or is made into sheets, felt, boards, braid, or rope, sometimes with a cementing substance, such as paper pulp, cement, mortar ; or as a covering or lining to hair-felt, to prevent the charring of the latter when used as a covering to steam boilers and pipes. For steam-packing the fibres are covered with braid, and made in coils of convenient length. As a paint, it is mixed with metallic pigments, and used on wooden structures, roofs, ceilings, and partitions. The best asbestos is found in Italy. An exhibi- tion of asbestos has recently been held at the Si- monetti Palace in Rome; the material in numerous different crude forms being exhibited, as also all 4 the known applications of it in the useful arts. The cabinet of Mr. C. A. Wilson, of Genoa, is said to contain one hundred distinct varieties from the Alps. It is largely exported from Italy to the United States. See "Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances.'' by Simmons. London, 1876. The uses of Asbestos are recited on pp. 167, 168, "Meek. Diet.'': Molded articles. Paper. Piston and rod packing, either in rope or loose form. Porcelain. Refrigerators. Roofing cement. Ropes. Safes. Wrapper for articles to be consumed. Yarn. Nes Patent 104,873, June 28, 1870. Absorbent in lamps. Boiler covering. Coffins. Cremation shrouds. Electric insulators. Fire brick and crucibles. Firemen's clothes. Flooring cement. Fuel bed for petroleum. Ink. Journal bearings, Ingredient in. Lamp-wicks. To these may be added : Cellar ceilings, to prevent radiation of heat. Sheathing paper, for walls and ceilings. Fire-proof boxes, for shelves, etc. Theatrical scenery. Converting hydro-carbon into gas fuel. Packing and lubricant, Jennings ; U. S. Patent, 1828. Mill boards, for steam joints. Gaskets, for man-hole plates. Filtering acids. It is used in the shape of trays of cardboard, for contain- ing molten metals at high temperature. As a sponge, to contain concentrated sulphuric acid in that form of lighting apparatus known as oxy genes, No. 18 of the series of lighting devices recited on p. 1315, " Meek. Diet.'' Asbestos is used in Italy as a fire-bed in a furnace, petro- leum being poured thereon and burned beneath the steam boiler. Scientific American, xxxvi., 217. Modifications of this form the subjects of many patents in England and the United States. See, also, ASBESTOS STOVE, p. 168, " Mech. Diet."- As a coating for metals in a furnace : Fire Clay Soap-stone Asbestos BRITISH PATENTS. No. 145 Lamp-wick, silk and asbestos woven together. 2,647 Plaited and felted asbestos for wicks. 1,413 Asbestos pulp for paper. Boiled ; fibres segrega- ted and mixed with alum. 6,555 Safes. 2,048 Lubricant of asbestos, mercury, fat, and oils. 213 Lubricant of asbestos and clay. (Laubereau.) 362 Insulator, and non-conductor in electrical ap- paratus. UNITED STATES PATENTS. 1870. Refrigerators, as a non-conductor. (F. Hyatt, V. S.) 1828. Packing for pistons, piston-rods, pump plungers, joints, etc., etc. (Israel Jennings.) August 22, 1865. Lubricant : asbestos, soapstone, and cot- ton. (Devlan.) March 29, 1870. Cord in a rope packing of asbestos. ( Ste- vens.) October 4, 1874. Loose asbestos packing. (Botticher.) November 8, 1870. Asbestos, graphite, and iron filings. (Kelly.) 1868. Made into sheets with felt or pulp. (Johns.) September 18, 1866. In carburetors. (Bassett.) August 14, 1866. In lamps as an absorbent. (Beschke.) Nos. 112,647 and 112,648, Packing. ( Stevens.) Nos. 112,649 and 112,650, Mode of treating asbestos. ( Ste- vens.) See under the following references : ' ' Engineering. ' ' Faucet Packing, Dcwrance. xxi. 68. "Mining and Scientific Press.'' Uses xxxiii. 180, 344, 4 232, 297, 393. Felt xxxvi. 307. "Engineering and Mining Journal.'' Powder xxi. 347. California Mines .... xxiv. 404 ; xxix. ! At Rome xxii. 141. Patents xxii. 347 ; xxiv. i Pipe Covering xxvi. 443. > ; xxxvii. ASBESTOS. 50 ASPHALT PAVEMENT. Packing xxvi. 58. Uses xxx. 444. "Scientific American." At Italian Exposition . . . xxxv. 79. Roof and Boiler Covering . *xxxiv.258; xliii. 357. Uses and History .... xxxv. 392 ; * xxxiv. 258. Fire Surface xxxvi. 217. "Scientific American Supplement." Packing 2947. "Polytechnic Review," August 26, 1876. "Lejfel's Milling anil Mechanical News." Uses * vi. 31. "Iron Age.'' Uses xix., Jan. 11, p. 15; xx., Sept. 13, p. 7. Kire Surface . . . . . xix., May 24, p. 1. Koman Exhibition .... xviii., Sept. 28, p. 1. "Manufacturer anil Builder." 1 Uses ix. 102, 127 ; viii. 176 ; xii. 227 ; x. 65 ; xi. 68. Paint xi. 236. Artificial x. 5. Roofing ix. 102; xii. 228. Boiler Covering ix. 102 ; xii. 31. "American Railroad Journal.' 1 '' Fire-proofing liii. 160, 193. Mineral Wool liii. 843, 1231. " Telegraph Journal." Uses v. 285. "English Mechanic.'' Fire Surface xxiv. 440, 531. "Engineer." Asbestos and Patents . . . xlii. 396. Cardboard xliii. 352 "American Builder," xiii. 9. See paper by Mr. Lloyd, "Philosophical Transactions," vol. xiv., p. 823, A. D. 1684. See "Abridgments,'" vol. ii., pp. 548- 554. Several articles. See, also, "Munsell on Paper," pp. 20, 25, 102. As-bes'tos Pa'per. Rosenthal's method of dis- integration of asbestos, for paper-making, is as fol- lows : The asbestos is put into wooden tanks lined with lead, covered with water, and chemicals added. Steam is introduced, and it is boiled four to six hours. When disintegrated it is passed through a pair of rolls, the top one covered with rubber, and a rubber apron running on the lower one, by means of which the water is driven from the fiber. It is then dried, and manufactured into board on a spe- cial machine. The Italian asbestos paper costs 40 cents per pound. The paper mills are at Tivoli, where Vic- toria made his successful attempt to manufacture this paper, which is specially adapted for valuable documents, etc. It has recently undergone most conclusive tests by the Marquis de Bariera at an exhibition of objects made of this substance, held in Rome. Two card-board boxes containing papers, one made of ordinary material and the other of asbestos, were thrown into the fire. The former was entirely consumed, while the latter remained intact, together with the papers it contained. It is ' also made into theatrical hangings. This is an ex- cellent use of it. " La France Nouvelle." As-bes'tos Felt. Mr. F. A. Gooch, of Cam- bridge, Mass., describes a mode of preparing a felt of anhydrous asbestos for filtering material. The felt is prepared by scraping white silky as- bestos to a fine, short down, boiling it with hydro- chloric acid, and washing it by decantation. "it is then deposited, by the aid of the Buusen pump, on ! the bottom of a platinum crucible perforated with fine holes ; or, better, the bottom may be made of fine platinum gauze. The process is described in the proceedings of the American Academy. As-cen'sion. (Mining.) The theory that the matter filling fissures was introduced from below. Ash'lar. (Masonry.) Cut stone masonry. When regular, it is ashlar; but when smaller cut stones break the regularity, it is called broken ashlar, as in the right hand illustration. Fig. 115. I ' 1 . '7* . ' . ' I l ' '.'.' LJ__L Fig. 116. Asparagiu Buncher. aturated with bituminous mut- Ashlar. Small asltlar, when the assizes are less than a foot in height. Rough ashlar, squared, when the face is only quarry-faced or pitch-faced. As-par'a-gus Bunch'er. The Sartrouville bunchtT, shown in Fig. 116, has two U-shaped frames in which the sprouts are laid, the tips symmetri- cally gathered in the contracted space, and the | bunches tied. As-phalt' Fave'ment. As- phalt is limestone ter. Leon Malo. The first quarry opened and worked was the fa- mous bed of Val de Travers, on the Neufchatel Pontarlier Railroad, Switzerland. The bed extends over a distance of six miles, and is 1.75 miles wide. The thickness of the bed varies from 3 to 16 feet, the annual production of the mine fluctuating be- tween 40,000 and 50,000 tons, occasionally exceed- ing the latter figure. The deposit was first discov- ered in 1712 by Eirinus, a Grecian physician, who obtained mineral rights from the King of Prussia, at that time in possession of Neufchatel. Eirinus sold the product obtained by him chiefly as a ce- ment for woodwork, masonry, etc., exposed to water. Eirinus finally abandoned Val de Travers and went to Alsace, where he opened new mines. After his death the asphalt industry collapsed entirely, other parties who obtained control of the mines using them for distilling oils which were sold as wonderful reined ies. It was not till 1802, when asphalt beds were discovered at Seyssel, on the banks of the Rhone, France, that a new impetus was given to an industry which has since steadily grown in importance. Natural asphalt must contain nothing else but carbonate of lime and bitumen, and the latter must thoroughly impregnate the rock, the grain of which must be as fine as possible. It must not contain less than 7 per cent., and not more than 1 1 per cent., of bitumen, and the latter itself must not, when warmed for a long time, lose more than 2 per cent, by weight. Greater loss indicates that bitumen is not wholly tarry matter. The following analyses show the composition of the asphalt from the most important mines of the Continent, No. I. being from Val de Travers, No. II. from Seyssel, and No. III. from Lobsann, in Alsace : I. IT. III. Water and other substances evap- orating below 90 C .... 0.50 1.90 3 40 Bitumen 10.10 8.00 11.90 ASPHALT PAVEMENT, 51 ASPIRATING WINNOWING MACHINE. Carbonate of lime 87.95 89.55 69.00 Carbonate of magnesia .... 0.30 0.10 0.30 Mineral matter insoluble in acids 0.45 0.10 305 Other substances 0.70 0.35 2.90 Sulphur 5.00 Sulphuret of iron 4.45 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 The asphalt rock is blasted with the aid of powder, dynamite having proved inefficient, proba- bly owing to the elasticity of the rock. It is ground, or, rather, torn to pieces between two roll- ers rotating at different velocities and provided with steel teeth, a 10 to 12 horse-power mill being capable of reducing to suitable size from 8 to 12 tons of rock per hour. The grinding is completed in a 22 to 25 horse-power Carr disintegrator, run- ning at a speed of 5UO revolutions per minute, and turning out 5 tons of powdered rock per hour. The fine asphalt is then melted in a cast-iron semi- cylindrical vessel, provided with a system of mix- ing knives attached to a shaft. During the opera- tion a varying quantity of mineral pitch is added. For a 3-ton vessel this operation lasts about 3 hours, the greatest care being taken not to allow the temperature to fall below 175 C., or go above 230 C. The product thus obtained is called "mastic 1 ," which possesses the valuable property of rendering the asphalt capable of being melted, while the asphalt rock alone would only be con- verted into a powder even by the application of the highest temperatures. As soon as the mastic is thoroughly mixed, it is run into molds. For use, the bricks are broken up and melted with a small quantity (from 2 to 3 per cent.) of pure pitch, and from 30 to 40 per cent, of clean gravel. See PAVING. Asphalt "Se. American Sup.," 1939. Asphalt and Wooden Road Construction, On, (10 Figs.) * Asphalt Manufacture . . Asphaltum, Manufacture of Asphaltum Road-making . Asphalt Tiles Asphalt Pavements of Paris 'Engineer,'' xlvi. 117. 'Iron Age,'' xxi., Jan. 17, 3. ' Sc. American Sup.,' 1 ' 1176. 'Man. If Build.,-' xi. 143. 1 Sc. American," xxxvi. 7. l Sc. American,'' xxxix. 65. As-phalt', Ar'ti-fi'cial. The " Lyons " as- phalt, introduced by M. Gobin into Belgium, is com- posed of 15 parts of bitumen, 35 parte of coal slack, 10 parts by weight of coke powder, 130 parts of lime, and 160 parts of fine gravel. The bitumen and coal slack arc mixed together in a. boiler, and skimmed until the, formation of a scum ceases. The coke powder and lime are mixed, heated to about 300 C. in order to dry them, and then they are added to the material in the boiler. The gravel is embodied in the mixture as the last ingredient. "Monitew fndustritl." As-phalt' Tiles. In a Bavarian method of making flooring tiles from asphalt, the drawing of the intended design is first made on coarse, heavy paper. This is then covered with bits of china and glass, so as to form a mosaic. Lastly, a bor- der is made to the sheet, and liquid asphalt is poured upon it. After the whole has been covered, the paper is taken away with cold water, and the tile is finished. As-phalt'o-type. (Photor/raphy.) The process of Niepce; producing the image on a plate cov- ered with bitumen of Judea. See pp. 673, 1683, " Mech. Diet." As-phal'tum. See paper on Petroleum, Bitu- minous Rocks, Shales, Asphaltum, etc., Brodhe.ad' s Report of Group I. ; Centennial Report, vol. iii., in- cluding : Page Page Petroleum 3 Shales of New South Bituminous rocks in Wales 11 America 10 Albertite 12 Page Coorongite 17 Kauri gum IjJ Auiber 18 Page Grahamite 14 Asphaltum 14 Asphalt .16 Ozocerite .... .16 As'pi-ra'ting Fil'ter. One in which the action is expedited by the withdrawal of air from beneath the filtering material. Fig. 117. By compressing the rub- ber ball in the hand, the slit in the India-rubber tube, which acts as a valve at 13, doses, and the air it con- tains is ejected through the valve at C. On removing the pressure from the ball, valve C closes by atmos- pheric pressure, leaving a partial vacuum in the ball ; air passes from the flask through valve B into the ball, to restore the equilib- Aspirating Filter. rium, and a partial vacuum is created in the flask which is increased by a second squeezing of the ball. The liq- uid material in the filter, i n conseq u e n c e, will be rapidly forced into the flask by atmos- pheric pressure on its surface. Partridge. The aspira- ting filter appa- ratus, Fig. 118, ope rates by steam genera- ted in the globe A, which pass- ing by D into E, issues at the point of the latr & Aspirating Filter. ter, drawing with it through K the air from the bottle L. M is the supply funnel ; B, the steam-gage ; C, water supply. As'pi-ra'ting Win'now-ing Ma-chine'. One which draws air through the grain instead of blow- ing it. Action by suction instead of blast. This is very common in the United States in smut mills and machines of that class, but the principle is Fiff- 119. Aspirating Winnower. more commonly adopted with winnowers in France than with fts. Fig. 119 is a French machine. The fan c draws air in the direction of the arrow. The grain, falling from the hopper b, meets the ASPIRATOR. 52 ASPIRATOR. blast entering at g, and, according to the compara- tive levity of the grain, seeds, chaff, dust, etc., each falls or issues at compartments f, f , eh. d is a counterbalanced valve, by which the force of the in-draft is regulated, e is another regulator. As'pi-ra'tor. An apparatus or instrument for drawing air. In Fig. 120, ^1 represents the dome aspirator- neeale, with the cut- pj g- 120. ting point projected, ready for puncture ; G, a magnified dia- gram of the same, after inser- tion, with the dome advanced so as to protect the interior of the cavity during aspiration; E, bulb in upright position, to in- sure the best action of valves ; C C, valves ; D, en- trance tube ; E, exit tube; F F, bits of glass tubing, through which to observe the presence or absence of fluid. nal," November, 1877. Fig. 121 is an aspirator which can also be used as an injector. The instrument consists of three Pitch's Aspirator. New York Medical Jour- Fig. 121. Aspirator. needles of assorted sizes, a rubber stopper which fits into a jar, and through which passes a double- current tube provided with stop-cocks. This com- municates by an elastic hose, at B, with a pump, and at A, by another hose, with the needle or capil- lary tube to be used. By putting the stopper in the bottle, closing the cock A, opening B, and giving 25 or 30 strokes of the pump, the air is exhausted from the bottle ; then close B, and the apparatus is ready for use. The tube is introduced, and cock A being opened, aspiration commences. To inject with the same instrument, connect the air-tube with the outward flow of the pump ; put the desired liquid in the bottle, and, while hold- ing the latter in reversed position, pump air into it. After having obtained the desired pressure in the bottle, close B, and detach the pump ; intro- duce the tube into the object to be injected, and open A. The rotating aspirator point for use as a trocar is a flat blade twisted. Dr. Warren. Aspirators are used in trades which produce del- eterious dust, also to remove shavings and sawdust from wood- working ma- chinery. Va r i o u s prin c i p 1 e s i are used. The Sturte- vant suction Aspirator for Dry Grinding. Chatellerault. fan is em- ployed. At the works of ChAtcllerault, in France, the jet of compressed air is used. A is a cylindrical tube, having a length at least five times its diameter. B is a tube throwing a jet of compressed air into the tube, the air at the rear being drawn forcibly through the passage a a 1 by the suction produced". Another form of aspirator is that used in ventila- tion; in fact, any exhaust pump or suction fan comes within the definition. Such are used in buildings of importance, hospitals, public buildings, and halls ; also in mines. Such machines operate on various principles : the piston, revolving fan, inverted caisson resem- bling a gas-holder. The former two are shown in Figs. 5, 6, Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Sciences," tome iii., article " Ventilation." The hydro-pneumatic aspirator of M. Legat has been applied to paper-making machinery, to replace the air-pumps, which serve 10 make a vacuum be- neath the web, on which the pulp collects to form paper. The effect of the withdrawal of the air from beneath the web is to drain out the water of the pulp, which becomes solidified sufficiently to take off and pass to the calenders. The hydro-pneumatic aspirator is on the princi- ple of the Giffnrd injector, and a view and descrip- tion of it are given in Fig. 3,237, Laboulaye's " Dic- tionnaire des Arts ct Sciences," tome i., article " As- pirateur." Fig. 123 shows the aspirating principle applied to grinding-rnills, to prevent the accumulation of Fig. 123. Aspirator Grinding Mill. flour dust in the husk. It is the invention of .MM. Jaacks and Behrns, of Lubeck, Germany. A fan exhausts air through the pipe a, from the mill-stone hoop, and fresh air enters with the wheat at the eye of the stone and passes between the buhrs, dd, cc. The hoop is air-tight, and has but the one inlet, k, and two outlets : one at ol'der-ing. Soldering by melting the adjacent surfaces of the material itself, without the intervention of solder. The application of autogenous soldering to the making of perfect platinum stills for sulphuric acid, by Johnson, Matthey & Co , of London, is described in Professor Jenkins' Report on Chemical Indus- tries, "Purls Exposition (1878) Reports," vol. iv., p. 65. Au'to-graph'ic Press. A press for making copies of autographic documents, letters, etc., either upon stone or a bichromated-gelatine pad. The form shown in Fig. 129, made by Deplaye & Co., of Paris, is on the prin- ciple of the litho- graphic press ; the stone or plate lying upon a bed which Hannot, Belgium . "Scientific American,'' xxxvii. 269. Sars, Norway . . . "Scientific American,'"' xxxvii. .326. Au'to-graph'ic Tel'e-graph. The Meyer ap- paratus has substituted the Caselli on the French lines served by that form of apparatus. The Ca- selli system is described on p. 191, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 130. Transmitter. graph Autographic. Press. travels beneath a pressure bar, the latter being shown in the cut as detached and swung aside. The press is intended for lithography and chro- molithography, as well as phototypy, and some other gelatine processes of reproduction. Au'to-graph'ic Pro'cess. A mode by which a manuscript or drawing made with a peculiar ink may be transferred to stone and then printed. The definition may be somewhat extended, now that a variety of processes operating with gelatine, with gelatine films, bichromated gelatine, etc., have been devised. As mechanical copying processes, the HECTOGRAPH, COPYGRAPH, etc., are familiar. Two autographic litho-processes mav be men- tioned : " In the Meyer instrument the sending-cylinder A is in- sulated, and upon it is wound the message written with an insulating ink upon a sheet of metallic paper. An endless screw, H, is moved by clock-work, and carries a car armed with a brush of metallic wires, D, and a metallic point. C. The brush and point are insulated from each other, and rub constantly against the surface of the paper. " For each turn of the cylinder A, the car moves forward one thread of the screw, or a distance of \ millimeter, so that each point of the surface of the cylinder is brought success- ively in contact with the point C. This point is connected permanently with the ground. " At the transmitting station, the positive pole of the bat- tery is connected constantly on the one hand with the brush D, and on the other with the line-wire. The battery is therefore continually in action, but the distribution of its current depends upon the position of the stylus C. When the latter touches the metallic surface of the paper, the cir- cuit is closed by the way of the brush D, the paper, the sty- lus, and the ground. Almost the entire current passes into this short circuit, and the line receives only a small portion, which may be left altogether out of account. When, on the contrary, the stylus C touches a part of the insu- lating ink, the short circuit is broken, and the battery current passes entirely over the line. ' The receiving cylinder carries a spiral thread which extends entirely around the cylinder. This thread rubs continually against an ink-roller. The paper is unrolled by clock-w'ork, and brought up to the spiral by the ac- tion of an electro-magnet "The apparatus for synchronism is also similar to that before described. " If the circuit is closed and the paper is brought in contact with the spiral during a whole turn of the lat- ter, a straight line is drawn across it : at the commencement of another turn a new line is begun, and so on. It will thus be seen that whenever the trans- mitting stylus touches the ink, per- mitting a current to pass over the line, the paper receives an impression cor- responding to the length of the emis- sion. The writing on the metallic paper is thus reproduced at the re- ceiving end." Lines. See "Report on Vienna Exposition,' 1 '' vol. ii., Section I., pp. 37, 40. D'Arlincourt's automatic telegraph is described in Lines' "Report on Vienna Exposition,"' vol. ii., Section 1., * p. 40. "Telegraphic Journal"' .... * vi. 495. * vii. 28. "Scientific American Supplement " * 2433, * 2645. Sawyer's autographic telegraph, or Panlelf graph, is de- scribed in " Telegrapher, 1 *' * 1876. Reproduced in "Scientific American Supplement," 1 * 302. Au'to-in-suf-fla'tor. An instrument for the self-administration of medicine in the form of pow- der. Figure 131. Au'to-ki-iiet'ic Tel'e-graph. (Electricity.) An English name for a form of municipal tele- graph for fire-alarms, police, etc. See "Teleg. Journal" .... * iv. 241. "Engineering'' * xxiii.402. AUTO-LARYNGOSCOPE. 57 AUTOPHONE. Dr. Bridge's Auto-insufflator Au'to-la-ryn'go-scope. An instrument by which one may inspect his owu larynx. See "Treatise on me Laryngo- scope," by Dr. Sieveking, "Lancet," April 8, 1865, p. 360. Au'to-mat'ic Air'- brake. (Railway.) West- inyhouse. The air is co'm- ])ressed by a steam-pump on the engine, and is stored in tanks on the engine, and under the tender and cars, connec- tion being made by pipes and flexible hose. "When the brakes are to be applied, compressed air is admitted from the tank on the engine to a valve called a triple, valve under each car, which releases the compressed air stored up in the tank under that car and admits it to a cylinder provided with a piston which is connected with a pyx tern of brake-levers, and the pressure of the air is thus transmitted to the brake-shoes. In this brake the air for operating the brakes on each car is stored up in a tank on that car, whereas in other systems of air-brakes the com- presst'd air to operate the pistons under each car must all flow from the tank on the engine, and in vacuum-brakes the air from the appliances on the car used to operate the brakes must flow forward to the engine before the brakes can be applied. This consumes an appreciable amount of time, whereas the application of the automatic brake is almost in- stantaneous. The triple-valve is so arranged that the brakes can be applied from each car by pulling a cord, and they will also be applied to the rear part of a train in case it should break in two parts, if one or more cars should be sep- arated from the rest of the train.'' Forney. See Figs. 655-745, " Car- Builders' Dictionary." " Engineering, " * xxv. 203. Au'to-mat'ic Bor'ing Tool. An instrument on the principle of what is known as the Persian drill. See Fig. 3650, p. 1671, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 132. Automatic Boring Tool. A spiral on the stem is rotated by endwise press- ure on the handle, and when the pressure is with- drawn the case is restored by a spring to its former position. Used for small drilling, such as dentists' and jewelers' work, etc. Au'to-mat'ic Car'-brake. See RAILWAY CAB-BRAKE. Au'to-mat'ic Clock. One that will continu- ally or recurrently wind itself. Such have fre- quently been suggested. Two are mentioned on p. 576, " Mech. Diet." Another is described in the "Journal of German Engineers," as the invention of F. Hellig.' The power winding it up is change of tempera- ture, which expands or contracts glycerine con- tained in a cylinder and supporting a* piston ; the piston-rod is connected by means of a toothed rack to ratchet wheels, so arranged that the motion of the piston will wind up the clock whether this mo- tion is upward or downward. The clock mav have a weight or a spring. It is evident that such a clock must not be placed in a room where the tem- perature is equal, but will act best when exposed to extremes, such as are found on the top of meteoro- logical observatories, for which the inventor espe- cially recommends it. Au'to-mat'ic Cut'-off En'gine. One self- operating, cutting off steam at such portion of the stroke as shall maintain a regular rate of motion. The cut-off device is usually operated through the governor. See CUT-OFF. Au'to-mat'ic Print'ing Tel'e-graph. An instrument or system which transmits a message, previously prepared, on a paper strip, which is sim- ply drawn through the instrument. The message is usually punched in the strip, the dots or dashes signifying letters. It is used in connection with a printer, which, in ordinary cases, is a puncher. Edison's, Phelps', Meyer's* described by Lines, in his " Report from the Vienna Exposition," 1873, p. 37 et seq. Little's Automatic Telegraph, * Lines' 1 "Report on Vienna Exposition " of 1873, vol. ii., Section I. Au'to-mat'ic Re-peat'er. (Electricity.) One which is thrown into action by the current itself. Au'to-mat'ic Sig'nal Tel'e-graph. One set in action by an original impulse derived from A thermostat, in case of fire. Tampering with a safe, for instance, by a robber. The turning of a handle, as that of a fire-alarm box, etc. Au'to-mat'ic Steam En'gine. One having a cut-off self-adjusted from the governor. See CUT- OFF. Au'to-mat'ic Su'ture. A spring claw, for Fig. 133. Hoff's Automatic Suture. holding together the lips of a wound. Used in vesico-vaginal operations, etc. The clasp is held on the end of an applicator, and thus applied, a slide pin releases it, and it is then self-holding. Au'to-mat'ic Switch. 1. (Electricity.) A device used in many forms of electric apparatus to turn the current in another direction, to reverse it, etc. An automatic device, to reverse the current in the electric candle of the Jablochkoff light. See " Scientific American Snp.," * 2574. 2. (Railways.) A self-setting switch, or one op- erated by agencies set in motion by the train, for instance. Au'tp-mat'ic Ven'ti-la'tor. (Railway.) A car ventilator arranged so as to be self-adjusted, according to the direction in which the car is mov- ing. Au-tom'a-ton. " Psycho," Eng. Cornet Player, etc. Houdiri's, etc. . 'Scientific American Sup.," 1684. 'Scientific American," 1 xxxiv. 342. ''Iron Age," xix., June 28, p. 24. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 2482. 'Iron Age," xxvii., April 6, p. 7. Au'to-oph-thal'mo-scope. An instrument by which one may inspect the interior of his own eye. Fig. 3403, p. 1563, " Mech. Diet." See "Treatise on the Use of the Ophthalmoscope,'- by Dr. Hutchinson, " Clinical Reports of the London Hospital," 1867, 1868, p. 182. Au'to-phone. An accordeon or organ, in which a music-sheet of Bristol board, perforated for the notes, is passed through the instrument ; the notes sounded are as air passing through the respective perforations is admitted to the appro- priate reeds or pipes. Invented by Merritt Gaily. See " Manufac. and Builder " * xi. 124. ' Scientific American " . * xl. 351 ; xli. 342. AUTOPOLYGRAPH. 58 AXE. Au'to-pol'y-graph. An autographic printing process. See Hectograph, etc. Bauer's Process, " English Mechanic," xxri. 46, 74. A-ven'tu-riiie. (Class.) 1. Aventurinus lapis. A variety of translucent quartz or feldspar spangled throughout with scales of yellow mica. DANA. 2. A precious quartz spangled with crystals or flakes of gold, giving it a brilliant appearance. 3. Artificial acenturine is an imitation of the nat- ural, and consists of glass intermingled with little flakes of copper which look like grains of gold. Gold-stone. Menage says that the mode of making artificial aventurine being discovered by accident among the Murano glass-workers, the stone was called avventurino, that is, pierre d'aventure, and that this name was eventually applied to the natural stone, which the artificial gem resembles. Artificial aventurine is made in Murano, Venice, by a secret process. It is yellow, and in the mass are to be seen imbedded numerous small brilliant crystals of copper, or, according to some chemists, of silicate of protoxide of copper. When polished, this glass affords a brilliant object for mounting by jewelers. It is evident that the crystals are produced in the body of the glass while the latter is in a state of fusion. Among the elements which compose the glass are found the oxides of iron and tin, and M. Peligot deems it probable that it is due to the redaction of the bioxide of copper by these metals that the production of the crystals of copper is to be attributed. M. Hautefeu'ille has made aventurine, the recipe for the ingredients being as follows : Glass (St. Gobain) Nitre Flakes of copper Peroxide of iron . 2,000 gr. 200 gr. . 125 gr. 60 gr. When the glass is completely melted, and while jet in the crucible, add 86 gr. of fine iron turnings wrapped in paper, and mix by means of a red-hot iron rod. The glass becomes blood-colored, opaque, and at the same time doughy and bubbly. Stop the draft of the furnace, put the cover on "the crucible and cover with cinders ; allow the furnace and cru- cible to cool very slowly. The following day break the crucible and the glass will be found permeated with crystals, regularly disseminated in parts, in others stratified and irregular, according to the suc- cess in mixing the materials. It has been suggested to add the filings to the pounded glass or frit, in order to obtain more com- plete dissemination. Green aventurine or aventurine de chrome, as termed by its inventor, M. Pelouze, is compounded of the following : Sand . 250 gr. Carbonate of soda . . . . 100 gr. Carbonate of lime . . . . . 60 gr. Bichromate of potassa .... 40 gr. The glass which results from this combination contains from 6 to 7 per cent, of oxide of chrome, of which about half is combined with the glass, and the remainder assumes the form of brilliant crys- tals or flakes. The color of the aventurine de chrome is that of the third yellow-green, the thirteenth tone in the chromatic circle of M. Chevreul. It is very bril- liant and its radiant power is stated by M. Pelouze to be second to the diamond only. It is harder than window glass, which it cuts easily, and is much harder than the aventurine of Venice. Awl Clip. A board and clip pin, to hold blanks, message, or memorandum paper, etc. The pin penetrates the pile of papers, which are re- moved from time to time with a slight tear in the Fig. 134. Awl Clip. Awn'ing Block. A small wooden block for suspending or stretching an awning over the quar- ter-deck, or elsewhere. Made plain or rope strapped, and with an eye. Awn'ing Cleat. A small becket on which to belay ;m awning rope. A w n ' i n g Hinge. One to which an awning rod is joimialcd. Curved Horn Awning Cleat. See Fig. 136. Awn'ing Slide. A holder with a tube through which the rod of the awning slides. Fig. 136. Vig. 137. Awniny Hins;e. Awning Slide. Axe. The poll is formed from a solid bar of iron by a machine that operates two punches simul- taneously to form the eye for the reception of the handle The heated bar is placed under shears that cut off a piece sufficient for the poll, which piece is placed in the machine, the two punches working from either edge, a supplementary punch finishing the eye and a set of dies forming the sides, when the poll drops, still red hot, ready to receive the bit. The after insertion of the steel bit and shaping the axe are done by ordinary forging. The axes are then sent to the hardening and tempering room, which is partially darkened. The hardening ovens are circular, having a vertical shaft in the center to which are attached rotating tables, on which the axes are laid with the bits to- ward the outside. The table turns slowly but con- tinually, bringing the axes over furnaces of anthra- cite coal alternating with spaces. When brought to the proper redness by heat, the axes are hung on hooks on a revolving frame, the bits dipping into a tank of brine, which is kept in constant circula tion by a pump. When cool, the axes are tem- pered, which is done by heating them in a rotary oven like that used for the hardening, except that the fuel used is charcoal. One of the batch of per- haps 200 which are tempered, or drawn, at one time is brightened, and serves as a test of all the others, the rotary action of the shelves insuring equal heating. When the brightened axe shows the right color, the entire batch is removed, and the axes are then ready for the subsequent finish- ing operations of grinding and polishing. Several kinds of axes are used among fishermen and whalemen. Boat hatchet : For cutting the harpoon line at the bow, if it become tangled in " paying out." AXE. 59 Head axe : For cutting off the head of the whale ; opening the skull to obtain the spermaceti ; cutting off the baleen, etc. See also SPADE. Rollins's axe, with detachable bits, is described in "Scientific American," * xxxvi. 355. (Stone Working.) Stone axes are of several kinds ; their distinguishing peculiarity is having an edge, while the hammer has & face and a pick has a point. The cavil has a face at one end and a point at the other. See list under HAMMEUS AND STRIKING TOOLS. Axe Wedge. A small iron wedge driven into the end of the axe-handle, within the eye, in order to expand the wood, and prevent the head flying from the helve. Axe-han'dle Lathe. This is a machine on the Blanchard spoke-lathe principle, and is adapted to work by pattern. It is shown, Fig. 138, as mak- ing a spoke. The pattern spoke is at the left, and rotates against a guide-piece, so that the swinging frame in which the pattern spoke and the blauk are chucked moves back and forth as the pattern traverses against the guide. The frame has a mo- tion endwise, and the revolving cutter dresses the blank in accordance with the governing piece against the pattern. It will turn out 20 to 25 dozen 3 feet axe-haudles, or 150 to 300 spokes per day, according to size. The machine feeds itself after the work is in, work- ing by a pattern, and is so arranged that the same pattern will make several sizes, and stops feeding when the end of the stick is reached by the cutter. It is also arranged with adjusting screws to level up the tilting frame for different sizes of work. Fig. 138 Axe-handle Lathe. Ax-ilia Ther-mom'e-ter. A thermometer, so named from the axilla affording a convenient place for the instrument in the observation of per- sonal temperatnre. See also CMNICAI, THERMOM- KTER. Fig. 139. Axilla Thermometer. Ax'le. The rubber-cushioned carriage axle is shown in the hub, Fig. 140, and detached, but with the cushions in place, in Fig. 141. Miller's Rubber -cushioned Axle-box. A, Hub. B, Axle-box. C, Axle arm. D, Rubber cush- ions. E, Compression nut. F, Cavities in compression nut admitting points of the wrench when compressing cushions. G, Slotted retaining sleeve. H, Spur on axle-box. J, Space between axle-box and hub. It consists of a vulcanized rubber cushion in the form of a thick band interposed between the axle- box and the wood of the hub, as shown by Fig. 140, giving a sectional view of an ordinary hub, to which the cushioned axle is applied. Adjustable axles to regulate height, are common in reapers, and their adjustment at the divider, on the grain end of the cutter bar, is one of the points of regulation in fit- ting the machine to cut to a certain height of stubble. The axles of wheeled cultivators have also an Fig. 141. Rubber-cushioned Axle. adjustability to raise or lower the machines, accord- ing to the required depth of tillage. Lincoln's Patent Axle, *" Mining If Sc. Press," xxxviii.289. Axle centering machine, *"Railroad Gazette," xxvi. 59. Fig. 142. Spring and Axle Block. AXLE BLOCK. 60 AXLE LATHE. Ax'le Block. A block bolted to a vehicle axle to form a seat for the spring. See Fig. 142. Ax'le Box. (Hallway.) A cast-iron box iu- closiiig the eud of the axle, its bearing brasses, the key or saddle, and the receptacle for grease or oil and waste. The accompanying cut, Fig. 143, is from For- ney's "Car-builders' 1 Dictionary : The following may be consulted : Axle, Austrian . Paget, Becker, * "R. R. Gaz.." xxii. 559. Axle, Br. . . . Axle, Self-oiling, Attack . Tomlinson Tomlinson Windmark Axle, Radial . Ax'le Box Met'al. Lining Metal for Axle Boxes * "Engineering,'' xxix.280. * " Sc. Amer.," 1 xxxyi. 54. *"Sc.Amer. Sup.," 1875. * "Engineer," xliv. 333. Tin 24 Copper 4 Antimony ..... 8 Melt and then add tin 24 60 Fig. 143. Axle, Wheel, and Axle Box A. Center of axle. B. Neck of axle. C. Wheel-seat. D. Dust-guard bearing. E. Journal. F . Axle collar. 3. Stop-plate. 7. Journal bearing. 8. Journal bearing key. 9. Stop-key journal-bearing. 10. Journal box. 11. Journal-box cover. 12. Journal-box cover hinge- pin. 13. Journal-box cover spring. 14. Journal-packing. 15. Dust guard and chamber. 16. Dust collar. 17. Equalizing-bar seat. 18. Pedestal. 19. Pedestal horns. 20. Pedestal jaw. 21. Hub of wheel. 22. Wheel-plate. 23. Kim of wheel. 24. Face of rim. 25. Tread of wheel, or wheel tread. 26. Wheel-flange. 27. Journal-bearing stop-key. 28. Oil cellar. 29. Stop journal-bearing. Axle Box Guides. (Railway.) Slips on the inner faces of the pedestals of a railway truck, to guide the axle brasses as they move up and down. Ax'le Cen'ber-ing and Siz'ing Ma-chine. A machine tool, to be used in connection with an axle lathe, to center the rough axle, and after it has been turned to size in its journals and rough-turned in the ./ft, to finish this part accurately, and to dress off the ends as well as to re-center. This machine is provided with a powerful chuck lined with brass to clamp the axle by its outer collar. It is arranged with fast and slow motions on the driving gear. Fig. 144. Axle Centering and Sizing Machine. The axle rests in an adjustable V-guide at its end farthest away from the driving head; a squaring- up tool finishes the end of the axle, and at the same time re-centers it. The Jit part of the axle is brought to size by a hollow reamer provided with adjustable cutting blades. Ax'le Clip. A saddle-shaped clamp which binds a spring to its axle, a spring bar to its spring, etc., etc. Various forms of axle clips are shown in Fig. 145. Ax'le Collar. An enlargement on an axle to form a butting ring, that is, to receive a thrust. The collar is ordinarily on the shoulder of the axle arm in road vehicles, but is also placed on the outer eud in car axles. Ex- amples of each are given on pp. 198-203, and Figs. 1091- 1093, p. 459, " Mech, Diet." Ax'le Lathe. 1. A lathe, Fig. 146, for turning car axles. The shears or bed is in the form of a continuous cylinder of requisite strength, with flat surfaces added to the cylinder for attachment of heads and bearing of slide-rest. The live-head or driving-head is simple and powerful. The face plate is fitted with the Clement driver, which insures rotation of the axle with no lateral strain on the centers. The back-head has a very large spindle AXLE LATHE. 61 AXLE LATHE. Fist. 14:,. Fig. 147. Axle Clips. a. Flat, sharp center bent axle clip. b. Sharp center bent axle clip for spring bars. c. Sharp centor-ribbed, bent axle clip for spring bars. tl. Sharp, wide center, ribbed, bent axle clip for spring bars. e. Sharp center, 0. G., bent axle clip for spring bars. /. New pattern, sharp center, O. G., bent axle clip for buggy perch-plates and sleigh work. g. Coach axle clip. with large center, and a clamping arrangement, which insures the spindle being held central and at the point nearest to the work. It has a rack- Fig. 146. Car-axle Lathe. feed with quick hand traverse to bottom rest ; pat- ent adjustable tool holders, automatic feed motion, which can be started instantly; rate of feed, 15 to the inch. 2. A machine, Fig. 147, for turning the spindles of wagon and carriage axles. It swings over ways Wagon-axle Lathe. 18"; the bed is 8' long; with plain head, especially adapted for turning wagon axles, with taper at- tachment to carriage. This lathe can also be used for turning any regular tapers or irregular shapes, by guide or pattern, which can be fastened to a rail on back side of the bed-piece. 3. A machine for turning spindles of wooden axles for the reception of thimble-skeins. The ma- chine, Fig. 148, turns the axle to a pattern, making the wooden spindle fit any inequality in the thimble skein, filling it throughout. A is the driving pulley, which rotates the mech- anism supporting the knife in the standard G. B is a curved cutter bar, to the outer end of which is se- cured the knife C, and which enters the sliding block D, as a fulcrum. Block D trav- els in the ways F, and is actuated therein by the feed gearing shown at E. At H is the clamp which holds the axle while it is operated upon, and at / is the pattern, just below which is shown the end of the bar B, project- ing, which, terminating in a friction roller, enters the skein, and is held against the inside surface of the same, thereby guiding the knife in its revolu- tion, thus necessarily causing the axle to be turned to an accurate fit. Fetu Deliege, Liege . . * "Engineering," xxix. 413. Axle-lathe Hoist. Thomas. * "Railroad Gazette," viii. 289. Fig. 148 Axle-turning Mar/line. AXLE LUBRICATOR. 62 AZOTINE. Ax'le Lu'bri-ca'tor. Eggleston's axle lubri- cator has a cap-piece inserted into the upper side Fig. 149 Axle Lubricator. of the arm, and wick protruding up through it, and extending downward into an oil reservoir. See, also, AXLE-BOX, "Mech. Diet." Ax'le Pack'iiig. (Railway.) A dust guard around a car axle, to prevent access of dirt to the interior of the axle-box. Figs. 1091, 1092, p. 459, "Mech. Diet." Ax'le Sad'dle. A saddle-shaped clip, for se- F . lgo curing a spring to an axle. A plate or yoke slips over the screwed ends, and is secured by burs. Ax'le Seat. (Rail- way.) The opening in a wheel, fitted to re- ceive the axle arm. Ax'le Set and Gage. An apparatus, Fig. 151, for enabling the wheelwright to get Axle Saddle. the height and dish of wheel : the taper of spindle : to set the spindle for the dish : to obtain the gather. The apparatus consists of a steel bar, A, 6' 3" long, and an index and gage bar, B, 3' 9" long, which slides against the former, and has a scale cut upon it to adapt the apparatus to any sized wheel. The bar B is attached to the main bar, 13" from the end, by a straight standard, K, pro- jecting 4" from one edge and 3" from the other. A screw, passing through the center of this standard, serves as a pivot for the index and .gage-bar B. A Pig. 151. Axle Yokes. Carleton's Axle Set and Gage. vertical sliding rule, .7, on the bar B, is designed to show the dish, while the graduated scale on the bar shows the height of wheel. A movable arm- rest, L, is attached to the bar A, to support the gage horizontally over the center of the axle, the rest L and standard K resting on opposite shoul- ders of the spindles, while the taper-taker is placed over the end of the spindle to be set. The taper- taker, or graduated double caliper, is fitted with a movable arm, scale, and graduated sliding gage. It is moved on the index bar B, through a socket, and held in place by a set screw. The short cali- per, and the short ends of standards, 3" long each, are placed on the opposite ends of the bar A, on the " gather side." Bex's axle setter, patented December 21, 1875, is for straightening bent axle arms. It is of the type of Fig. 507, p. 200, "Mech. Diet." See "Scientific American " ' * xxxv. 18. "Mining and Scientific Press" . . . * xxiv. 289. Ax'le Stop'-key. (Railwny.) A plate abut- ting upon the end of the car-axle, to resist excess- ive lateral motion and take the wear. Ax'le-turn'ing Ma-chine'. See AXLE LATHE. Ax'le Yoke. A plate benenth the axle ; a cross-bar through which the ends of the spring saddle- clip are passed, and bo- t - lir neath which they are secured by nuts. Fig. 152. Ax-om'e-ter. An instru- ment to determine the proper height of the bridge of the spectacles, in order that the lenses may be properly centered vertically with regard to the pupils. 'Fig. 153. The patient having put on the spectacles, the movable bridge j-jj,. 153. of the instru- ment is raised or lowered until the pupils are seen in the cen- ter of the cir- cle. This done, the axometer is ^ j Jizomeier. p 1 a c e d on a sheet of paper, and the bridge, along with the lower half circles, is traced thereon with :i pencil. Az'i-muth In'stru-ment. Sir William Thom- son's instrument for taking azimuths, which he terms the " azimuth mirror," was patented Nov. 19, 1878, No. 210,068. In it the axis, on which the mirror is pivoted, is above the plane of the lens, which is contained within the inclined tubular leg, which arrange- ment allows of the interval of no vision between mirror and lens to be reduced to a minimum, by reason of the inner straight edit-ing La'dle. An iron ladle for hold- ing and pouring the melted alloy known as babbit- metal, and used for bearings. Ba-biche'. (Fishing.) Properly barbicke. A common name in France for the nigelle de Damas; called also araiynee (spider), barbe de capucin, and cheveux de Venus. Used in net-making. Back Band. (Manege.) That portion of the harness attached to the gig-saddle under the jockey, and used as a support for the shaft-tug. Back Board. (Boat.) The board across the stern-sheets of a boat for supporting the backs of the passengers. Back Cyl'in-der-head. (Steam.) That head of a cylinder through which the piston-rod passes. Back End. (Minim/.) That part of a judd (an undermined mass of coal) which is left after the lump is brought down. Back'ing Boards. A pair of wooden jaws, Fig. 154, to grip a book in the book-binder's vise. Kg. 154. Backing Boards. Backing Hammer. Back'ing Deals. (Mining.) Timbers placed behind cribs to keep back loose strata. Back'ing Ham'mer. (Bookbinding.) The hammer, Fig. 155, used in beating the backs of Fig. 156. books in condens- ing and rounding them. Back'ing I'ron. 1 (Bookbinding.) An i appliance used in giving the rounded shape to the backs of books. On its face it has depres- s i o n s. of varying depth and width. Back'ing Ma-chine'. (Bookbinding.) A ma- chine used in rounding the backs of books. That shown in Fig. 160 is adapted to back blank books from |" to 4" wide, and .30" long and under. The Backing Iron Fig Backing Pan on Leveling Stand. revolving backing-iron is hollow, and is heated from the center bv gas or steam. On the right of the cylinder is the adjusting screw, and at the same end is the de- vice which secures the cylinder on the groove desired. B a c k'i n g Pan. (Stereotyping.) A pan, Fig. 157, in which the electrotype shell is placed, face downward, while the melted metal is poured on its back. The table being per- fectly level, the stand the floor by its feet. The pan is is secured to . r swung on to the stand, and the metal poured on to Fig. 158. Back-geared Lathe-head. the shell, commencing at one of tbe corners and Kg. 159. Spur-wheel with Back-lash Spring. gradually running it over the whole until it is of sufficient thickness. Ki-. 160 Book-backing Machine. BACK-GEARED LATHE. G4 BACK-TRUCK LOCOMOTIVE. Back'-geared Lathe. One having a set of variable gears iu the head-stock. Back'-lash Spring. A spring interposed be- tween an engine or horse-power and the machinery driven, to prevent a jerking motion iu transmission. The spring is wound upon the shaft, its ends con- nected to the driver and driven portion respectively, so as to absorb a sudden jerk. Fig. 159 represents the spur-wheel of a thresher, with a casing for the spring cast in its center. Fig. 161, a, represents a spring and hub detached Fig. 161. Fig. 162. . He ff 'tier's BackJash Springs. from the casing. The hub is keyed to the shaft ; the inner end of the spring is connected to the hub, and the outer end to the wheel. Fig. 161, b, is a bevel-wheel of a side-gear, forming a casing for the spring. Fig. 162 is Alsop's spring wound upon the shaft, and hav- ing a similar func- tion to the above de- scribed. In Fig. 162, A is a mill-spindle ; D the spiral spring, one end clamped to the spin- dle, and the other end to the driver C, Alsop's Back-lash Spring. which presses by its pins a a upon the spokes of the pinion B. Fig. 163. Fig. 164. Back-task Spring, ap- plied to Tumbling- rod Coupling. Fig. 163 shows a bevel- wheel with spring in a case. Fig. 164 shows a spring in Back-lash Spring. a case to form part of line- shaft of a horse-power. See also BACK-LASH, p. 206, "Mech. Diet." Back'-log. A casting or a work in earthen- ware in semblance of a back-log or pile of wood, and hollow to admit gas from the service-pipe. The surface of the back-log has minute perfora- tions at which gas is emitted and burned, resem- bling a log on fire. Back-press'ure Valve. A valve which is free in the normal direction of the flow, but closes automatically against |,. jir ^- back-pres.su re. _ _ ,-. lu the sectional view, VfeHMraBjaME/ Fig. 165, the valve can be screwed down tightly, but normally yields to upward flow, and is closed at any time against down- ward flow. In Fig. 166 the valve is normally closed by a weighted lever, but yields to direct pressure of a given tension while al- ways opposed to any re- turn current. Back Saw. One with a stiffening bar at the back. That shown in Fig. 167 has a back less Giobe than the full length of the saw, and has a recess in the handle for the thumb. Fig. 106. Weighted Back-pressure Valve. Back Skin. (Mining.) A leathern covering worn by miners when working in wet places. Back Spring. (Vehicle.) A spring at the rear of a ve- il i c 1 e body, but more es- pecially a C- spring which rides up in the rear of Back-sale. the carnage, and from the forward pendent end of which the body is suspended. A pair of C-springs is shown in Fig. 1541, page 655, " Mech. Diet." Back Stay. In a carriage: (I), one of the rods extending from the reach or perch to the outer end of the hind axle. The stay-end is the end-piece, which is fitted to the axle, and is some- times sold separately as a piece of carriage hard- ware, the lengthening-rod being added by the blacksmith. 2. One of the standing flaps on the back of the carriage-top, on each side of the curtain. Back Strap. (Manfye.) A broad strap used instead of a pad on common harness. In some sections of the country the strap that extends from the hames back to the hip-straps is more generally known as the turn-back. Back'-truck Lo'co-mo'tive. One having a truck with a pair of wheels under the rear of the BACK-TRUCK LOCOMOTIVE. 65 BAGRATION BATTERY. t which hold the mouth of the bag distended while bei' j filled. Masher's bag-holder has two telescopic standards, wi 1 curved flanges to hold the bag. locomotive, as distinct from the usual truck in front of the drivers. The engine is intended to run equally well in either direction, being, in fact, a double-ender, adapted for sharp curves and steep grades. The 9X16 and 10 X 16 engines of this style are well adapted to suburban roads and spe- cial service on wide or narrow-gage roads, and light shifting on wide gage. Fig. 168. H. K. Porter if Co.'s Back-truck Locomotive. A 4- wheel truck is sometimes substituted for the 2-wheel, the tank being placed over the rear truck. Baffle Plate. (Steam.) A plate in a steam- furnace, to direct or divert the course of name and gases. Placed in a space traversed by water-tubes, it will determine the course of the heated gases toward portions of the boiler which would not otherwise be as fully exposed to the heated cur- rent. Bag. (Fishing.) The middle portion of a large haul-seine, the last to come ashore. The portions on each side of the bag are the wings. Ba-gasse' Dry'er. An apparatus for drying the refuse cane-stalk from the mill. Page "208, "Mech. Diet." Berry, Br. . . . , . * "Engineering," xxix. 204. * "Engineering.'" xxx. 482. Bag Ear-syr'iiige. An ear douche, with elas- tic rubber bag for ejecting the liquid. Bag Fill'er. A funnel used in filling bags. See also B A G-H O L D I N G m --.. IRUCK. Machines on a larger scale for filling flour-bags of various di- mensions are shown un- der FLOUR PACKER. Bag'gage Bar'row. A two-wheel hand-ve- hicle for conveying trunks. See Fig. 170. Bag'gage Truck. A hand-truck adapted to receive trunks. Fig. 171 shows the pattern used on. the Eastern Railway of France. Bag-hold'er. A device to hold a bag or sack while being filled. T here are many varieties : a truck which holds the bag : riff. Baggage Barrow. funnel held upon a tripod, or on the end of a weighing beam, etc. See BAG-HOLDING TRUCK ; SACK LIFTER ; SACK FILLER, etc. FairchiM's bag-holder has a metallic funnel attached to a standard, and to the funnel are attached four steel hooks a uiig-uuiuer lias iw< nges to hold the bag. Fig. 171. Baggage Truck. The bag-holding truck Fig. 172. Bag-hpld'ing Truck. of Bodin of Rennes, France, is shown in Fig. 172. It has a slanting frame, supported by a strut, and a clip-ring at top to hold the dis- tended mouth of the bag. A similar de- vice is made by Pitner of Chi- cago. . r B . a & '~ n e * Bag-holding Truck, (c ishing.) A purse-shaped net, or part of a net. In some cases a sort of dip net, like Fig. 3318, p. 1522, "Mech. Diet.;" sometimes a portion of a net into which fish collected by the wings are driven or led. See list under NET. Fig. 173. Romaine's Sack-fittfr and Weigher. Ba-gra'tion Bat'te-ry. {Electricity.) One in which the zinc and copper elements are immersed BAG WEIGHER. 66 BAIT MILL. Fig. 174. in a jar filled with earth, sprinkled with chloride of ammonium. DC, la Rive. Bag Weigh'er. Fig. 173 shows a French de- vice. A tripod supporting a. scale-beam, on one end of which is a funnel to which the open mouth of a bag is clamped. The bag hangs beneath a spout, and when a prescribed weight of grain has passed from the spout into the sack, the shutter is closed, the bag removed and tied, and an empty sack sub- stituted. The bag is clipped by a ring to the fun- nel, which is suspended by a notch on the end of tin- weigh-beam. The scale is centessimal, the scale-weight being one-hundredth of the weight of grain which makes its equipoise. Bail. (Milliny.) The arch-shaped support of a mill-stone. The balance-rynd. In the figure, C is the hail resting upon the cock-head a of the spin- dle. B is the driver, with two cushioned horns, c d, which in the figure are exposed to view by the lifting of the bail out of place, but in operation occupy recesses in the bail. The cushions, being yielding, allow tbe stone to be self-balancing. Bain- Ma'rie. A water-bath ; used in per- f u m e r y manufacture. See for particulars p. Bacon's Cushioned Bail and 393, vol. vii., "Chambers' DnveT - Encyclopedia," article " Perfumery," where is given an interesting ac- count of the flower-farms and processes of the Var, France. '''Art of Perfumery,'''' Septimus Presse. London, 1855. " British Perfumer," C. Lilly. London. 1822. "Libraire Roret," Mine. Celnart. Translated by Morfit of Philadelphia. "Treatise on Perfumery,'' Pradal If Malepeyre. Translated by Dussauce. " A Practical Guide for the Perfumer," Dussauce. Kiit. 17;'). Bait, Ar'ti-fic'ial. (Fishing.) Tin minnows, roach, dace, and gudgeon. Gutta-percha minnows. Tin blue-fish squids. White bone blue-fish squids. Insects : Imitations of grasshoppers, hornets, bee- tles, spiders, wasps, May-grubs, grubs, etc. Ke.Uogg's patent, No. 74,378, is for an ice- chest for bait, for fish- ing-vessels. Burnham, No. 84,855, uses u saturated solu- tion of lime to preserve bait. Thorp's fish-bait, No. 96,288, is a baked crack- er, made of equal parts of coarsely-g r o u n d wheat, oats, rye, and corn. Goo/lman, No. 135,- 113, uses to make bait more attractive, oils of anise, asafoHida, and cardamons ; black root and buzzard-flesh (!) a few drops on the bait. Bait Box. 1. The cistern or tank in which bait of fish - BaU or clams is carried to the fishing-grounds. 2. On a smaller scale, the angler's bait-can for worms or what-not. Kepner's can for live bait, No. 163,498, has a perforated false bottom and openings at the sides, to allow circulation of water when the can is set therein. Hitchcock's bait-kettle, No. 181,844, has ice-cooler, min- now-bucket, and trays. Lasater, No 194,253, has a combined minnow-trap and can. Bait Cut'ter. A bait-cutting machine. See BAIT MILL. Bait Mill. A grinding mill to mince bait, fre- quently on the principle of a sausage-cutter. UNITED STATES PATENTS. No. 35,472. N. Richanlson. Triangular teeth on each of two rollers, working together. No. 73,464. N Richardson. Strips containing teeth are re- movable. No. 74,682. Z. G. Greenleaf. Like a roller sausage-ma- chine. Fig. 176. 'keif-acting Balance Pe BAL. 67 BALANCE ENGINE No. 83 ; 048. V. Doane. Holler-knives and stationary blades. No. 101,260. S. Hamblin. Knives spirally arranged on roller. No. 129,576. W. M'Kay. Circular saws on roller. No. 172,777. tf. Richardson. A roller cutter-mill. Voss, 1876. Like a sausage-cutter. Bal. (Minimj.) Cornish ;i mine. Balance Crane. One in which the load is in part or entirely balanced by a counterpoise on the crane-frame extension. The manner in which the load on the lifting- diuin acts on the counter-balance weights will be readily understood from the engraving, Fig. 176. The rigid rods which tie the jib-head to the side- frames in ordinary railway-track cranes are here replaced by two short tie-rods, each with a chain- sheave at its lower end. One end of each of the chains passing over these sheaves is attached to a chain-barrel fitted with worm and wheel-gear, while the other ends are coupled to the short arms of two bell-crank levers, having a fulcrum in the top of tlio side-frames ; the lower ends of the long limbs of the bell-crank levers are fitted with weights con- nected by strong wrought-irou links to the axis of a cylindrical balance weight, which is free to roll on the tail-pieces of the crane framing. When the load is being lifted the strain due to the weight of the load passes through the tie-bars and chains to the short arms of the bell-cranks, and the strain thus applied causes the long arms and weights to rise out of the vertical position and to draw the cylindrical weights into the position shown, or until they are at a distance from the center suffi- cient to counterbalance the load being lifted. When the load is released, the levers resume the vertical position shown in the dotted lines. The action is therefore entirely automatic, there are few parts, none of them liable to de- rangement, and all so strong and simple in con- struction that these cranes have never been known to fail iu securing the safety and certainty which they were designed to afford. The chain-barrel is fitted with a tangent wheel and worm which serve to adjust the jib to any an- gle or radius required, as well as to lower it down for traveling. The under carriage and side-frames are of wrought iron. Bal'anced Draw'bridge. A counter-weighted bascule or lifting drawbridge. Instances are to be found iu the drawbridges of fortifications, of coun- terpoising by means of suspended weights from chains passing over pulleys. Bnrdon's draw- bridge balanced by hydraulic pressure is shown in " Manufacturer and Builder," * xi. 29. Bal'ance Dy'- n a-m o m'e-t e r. An invent! o n of Samuel Batchelder of Boston. It is placed in the line of communication between the motor * and the machinery to be moved, the power exerted on the machinery being measured by the steelyard and weight which form a part of the machine. _ A A and JSBare two pairs of belt pulleys, each pair con- sisting of a fast and loose pulley. A is driven by a belt from Fig. 177. the prime motor, and a belt from B communicates motion to the machine to be driven. The first pulley, A, and the bevel Wheel D, are fast upon the shaft C, which revolves in bearings /. The bevel wheel F is connected with the pulley B by a sleeve, K, which is capable of turning on the shaft C. The bevel wheels D F are geared together by the bevel wheels E E, which run upon a cross shaft having a boss, G, through which the main shaft passes freely. It is evident that if this cross shaft is not retained in its place by some adequate force, the motion of the bevel wheel D will only cause the cross-shaft t o move round upon the shaft C, and the wheels E will roll upon the wheel F, without com- municating motion to it or to the pulley B ; L but if the wheels E and the cross-shaft are held station- ary, the motion of the pul- ley A will be communicated to the pulley B through the bevel wheels, and the force there applied to retain the shaft G and wheels E in place will indicate the Balance Dynamometer (Plan.) power transmitted through the dynamometer. The amount of power is ascertained by means of a graduated scale beam, H J, connected with the shaft of the wheels E by straps, o. Balance Dynamometer (Elevation). The weight M, fastened to the shorter arm of the graduated beam by a set screw, affords a means of balancing the beam when the machine is at rest, and the weight W, like that of a common balance, moved on the graduated arm of the lever, will indicate the strain upon the belt. The number of pounds thus indicated multiplied by the number of feet through which the belt moves per 'minute will give the number of pounds raised one foot high per minute. The product divided by 33,000 gives the horse-power expended in driving the machinery. A worm, Y, on the end of the shaft C. is made to move an index which shows the number of feet through which the belt or surface of the pulley moves in a given time. Balance Plow. Bal'ance En'gine. A name applied to a form of steam-engine which has two pistons acting in opposite directions in the same cylinder. "" instance : For BALANCE PLOW. 68 BALING PRESS. Welts . . "Engineer," *xlvii. 332. "Scientific American," xxxv. 281. "Engineering and Mining Journal," xxvii. 237. Bal'ance Flow. A plow used in steam cul- ture. The ends are duplicates, one balancing the other, as shown in Fig. 179. The implement is drawn across the field, back and forth, without being turned at the ends. When it reaches the end of its course the plows are lifted from the ground and the other set lowered to do the plow- ing on the return trip. See STEAM PLOW, pp. 2354-2356, "Meek. Diet.,'" et infra, for installation and method of working. Barance-wheel Turn'ing Ma-chine'. A machine-tool for the automatic turning of the cir- cular rims of balance wheels, such as are used upon sewing-machines and other light machin- ery. The work is performed by two tools op- erating upon opposite sides of the wheel at the same time. These tools are automatically re- volved in a horizontal plane, about the rim of the wheel, in opposite directions, so that one-quarter revolution of each tool-post completes the half- circle, and then both spindle and tool-posts cease revolving. The centers around which the tool-posts revolve are ad- justable, and allow a variation in the size of wheel to be turned, of from 6" to 1" in diameter. This adjustment is made by simply turning a screw. The feed-works are in- closed in the base of the machine, and are readily accessible for oiling, etc. The cone has two speeds. See "Scientific American," *xxxviii. 271. Balance-wheel adjusting apparatus. Ide * "Scientific American," xlii. 307. Ba-la'ta. The gum of the Achras dissecta of the family Sapoteas (Mex. Zapotl) found in Gui- ana, and having properties similar to gutta percha. It may be vulcanized by digesting with sulphur. Bald'win Bit. (Manege.) A bit having two mouth-pieces, the inner one working on levers ; claimed to possess superior advantages over others for driving horses that are hard to control or have bad or vicious habits. Ba-leen'. Views and diagrams showing the manner in which the baleen (whalebone) is arranged in the head of the whale (Balcena mys- ticetus) were given in "Land and Water," 1877, and repub- lished in "Scientific American," xxxviii. 88. The house of Meyer, in Hamburg, is probably the larg- est manufacturer of whalebone wares and walking-sticks in the world. The value of the prod- uce of the former in 1871 was 362,000, and the number of sticks and whips was 175,000 dozen, valued at 65,000. Fig. 180. Tl a curved blade, F, in a metallic, plate, C D, with handles A B. The knife-edge is parallel with the upper edge of the directing notch E. Bale Hooks. 1. Large lifting-hooks suspended in pairs from the chain of a crane or winch. See Fig. 181. 2. Small hand-hooks, Fig. 182, used by 'long- shoremen in handling bales. . 181. Bale Hook*. Bal'iiig Press. Two continuous baling presses took high honors in Paris in 1878, those of Ded- erick and Dodge. The former has a plunger or piston in connection with a reciprocating feeder, which drives a bunch of hay within the range of the plunger before each stroke of the latter. A certain quantity being thus compressed into a compart- ment at the end of the chamber, is tied with wire ainl dropped from the machine. In the Dodge machine the hay is thrown loosely on the feed-table or troughs in front of the press, whence iron teeth carry it right into the open mouth of the machine, when it is seized by the revolving cones in the head-piece and drawn in from the feed-table in two continuous streams, and built up into a bale 26" in diameter. The diameter of the bale is never increased, but the bale grows longer as layer after layer is built up. In doing this the density of the bale is regulated by the friction-clutch, which has been previously made tight. After the bale is built such length Fig. 183. Baleen Splitting-knife. Ba-leen' Knife. A knife used in splitting the baleen into rods of the required size. The baleen is held in a bench-vise and split in *-i A *t^rtd-i*-*i- r\f ?fo KAia '"FVm b-nifo PTirr 1 ftO TiQC the direction of its , Fig. 180, has Mabit/e Frews' Hay Press. as desired, the action of the compress-screw is brought into play by simply shifting one cog-wheel, and in a lew serondH BALING PRESS. 69 BALL AND SOCKET PIPE. rhe bale is compressed endwise and shortened about one- fourth or one-fifth its length without increasing its diam- eter. While the compression is going on, the man attending the press is passing around and fastening the two wires. When this is done, the pressure is released, the bale dropped out, and the press set for another bale. Fig. 183 represents a baling press, made by Mabille Freres of Amboise, and worked by horse-power. The rotation of the band-wheel is transferred by bevel gearing to the verti- cal shaft, and that by spur pinion to the system of gearing on top of the machine, which, is of different speeds and pow- ers for rapid work at the first of the pressing^, followed by slower and more powerful condensation as the truss ap- proaches its final dimensions. A multitude of small baling presses are used in France, both for packing rations for cavalry and for stowing away in convenient form for handling, the straw or hay of a farm. One of the smaller kind is that made by Guitton of Cor- beil, France. It has three pliable steel bands, which are Fig. 184. (1 a : itmi's Ration Press. laid back against the bar (one is shown in this position) while the crate is being filled. The bands are then laid over, the ends brought down in front, and secured to hooks. These are forcibly drawn down by pressing the foot on the treadle, each band being in turn attached, a catch holding each firmly until the encircling cord is placed and tied. Each steel band being then released, the bundle is thrown out. The machines make bundles from 30" to 40" long. A larger size, made on the same principle, but mounted on wheels, makes bundles of from 60 to 80 Ibs. weight. See baling presses, etc. : Ertel * "Min. and Sc. Press,''' xxxvii. 25. Albaret * "Scientific American Sup.," 1949. Jia'n! Tie, Hayden . . * "Scientific American," xxxv. 310. liarlecker . . . * " Sc. American, 1 ' xxxviii. 229. Hoop Tightener. Knowles .... *" Scientific American," xxxv. 274. Hale-wire Ends, Securing. Smith. * "Scientific Ameri&zn," xxxv. 66. Trillins;, Guilhem, * Knight's Report. " Paris Exposition Report," v. 236. Kation, Guitton . . . Ibid., v. 237. Balk. (Agriculture.) The space between rows of plants in a field, as of corn or cotton. Bal'laiid. (Mining.) Derbyshire : Dusty lead ore. Ball and Spck'et Coupling. A coupling which, by affording a joint, permits flexure. Fig. 185. Ball and Socket Coupling. (Parts Detacher!.) Figs. 185, 186, show a ball and socket coupling for line shafting, a more compact device than the gimbal joint of the tumbling shaft. It has not a perfect ball, but the leaves are the equivalent, and operate against plates in the case. The rounded edges of the leaves allow flexure with- out cramping. A divergence from the straight of 5" in 12' is readily permitted. Ball and Market Coupling. (Parts Connected.) Ball and Sock'et Hang'er. One the axis of the opening in which is adjust- able so as to be capable of being brought in line with a shaft. In Fig. 187, a is the frame or hanger ; b, the upper, and c, the lower portion of the box. This box is provided, top and bottom, with spherical surfaces, so placed as to be, in reality, portions of a sphere which has its center in the center of tin- axis of the box ; d and <- are what are called the plungers. These are screwed into the frame, and are provided with cnp- shaped ends to clasp the spherical parts of the box. The box can rock to a limited extent in every di- rection in these cup-shaped ends. The plungers serve a double purpose: 1st, of providing the socket for the sphere to roll in ; 2d, to permit of a vertical ad- justment of the entire box to bring them in line one with another; f is an oil dish to catch the drippings from the box. Ball and Sock'et Pillow - block. O n e which is capable, within certain limits, of accommodating itself to the line of direction of the shafting. Fig 188. Ball and Socket Pillow-block. Fig. 188 shows a ball and socket pillow-block, and beneath it are all the parts, detached. Ball and Sock'et Pipe. One having a flexible joint which permits the sections to be laid out of mutual line. Kig. 189. Ball and Socket Pipe. The illustration shows a pipe with two such joints, each inclosed with casing plates bolted to- BALL AND SOCKET TRUSS. 70 BALLOON MUSKET. gether. The ball at the end of one section rolls in a spherical cavity in the other, as shown in section in Fig. 541, p. 219, " Mech. Diet."; but in the pres- ent, each section is tubular. Ball and Sock'et Truss. (Surgical.) One, the pad of which is attached to the strap by a ball and socket joint which allows the pad to adjust itself to the surface of the body. Ballast Ham'mer. A track-layer's hammer, having two Fi 190 rounded faces, and used in packing the bal- last beneath ties, and also, on occasion, in driving spikes Ballast Hammer . Ball-cock. 1. One in which a globular valve takes the place of a disk, spigot, sliding plate, etc., which are other forms of devices for closing an aperture in a pipe. 2- One opened or closed by a lever attached to a floating ball. See Fig. 234. See also p. 220, " Mech. Diet." Ball valve, Br. Jefferies . . . * "Engineer,'' xlvi. 377. Ball Grind'er. A pulverizer for minerals. It depends upon the attrition of spheres rolling in- side a rotating cylinder, the periphery of which is provided with a cast-steel ring, perforated with Fig. 191. Brueckner's Ball Grinder. small holes. The heads of the cylinder are made of heavy cast iron, lined with steel. It is rilled with steel balls from 2" to 5" in diameter, in quan- tities of 1,000 to 1,200 Ibs for a 48" cylinder. The steel ring is the crushing plate upon which the balls, by a combined stamping and grinding action, break up the material to a size varying from a powder to the size of the holes of the ring. The broken material which has passed through the holes of the steel plate, is sorted by the first wire- screen, all that are larger than the mesh being re- turned to the grinding chamber by the passage shown on the right hand. This process is repeated on the second outer screen, which regulates the size of the final product, all stuff not coming up to the required degree of comminution also being returned to the grinding chamber. " Iron Age, r February 20, *xxiii., p. 1. Ball Hy'drant. One having a metallic box containing a self-acting globular valve of gutta- percha or material relatively lighter than water, so as to be normally closed against its seat by its levity, and more firmly by the pressure beneath it. The top of the box has two L lugs so as to form a bayonet-joint with the portable stand - pipe to which it is attached. Ball'- joint Hinge. One having a flexible knuckle. In the form illus- trated it is a hinge for a stern-post shut- ter ; when made on this principle each can be adjusted, in fixing, to the bevel of the post, so that hinges from one pat- Fig. 192. Ball Hydrant. tern will answer for all the different rakes and bev- els of the various posts. See Fig. 193. Ball Mounting. (Manege.) A pattern of harness mountings having a ball at the point where the ring is attached to the base. Fig. 193. Ball-joint Hinge. Bal-loon'. Hartness's sectional balloon, the parts resembling the lobes of an orange, was pat- ented May, 1874. This is a substitute for the gores of which the balloon is ordinarily made, and pre- vents the puncturing of a section from being fatal to the whole. It is like making a ship's hull or a life-preserver in compartments. See the following notices : Balloons " Scientific American >'/>.," 792. Giffard's Captive . *" Scientific American,'' xxxix. 130. Paris, 1878. 154. * " Engineering," xxvi. 106, 231, 127, 214. *" Scientific American Sup.,' 1 * 726, 2021, *2320. " La Presse Jllustree," ix.. No. 539. Captive " Pioneer " . " Scientific American,' 1 ' xli. 32. Captive, Badgley . *" Scientific American,'' xii. 18. Military, Eng. . . " Scientific American," xxxix. 326. Military, sectional . " Iron Age,'' xxiv., July 31, 1. Voyage to North Pole, proposed, Eng. * " Scientific American," xxxvii. 375. * " Scientific American," xli. 183. On Aeronautics, Gerner " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xix. 439. Bal-loon' Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) A form of Daniell's or Meidinger's battery in which an in- verted flask forms a reservoir of crystals and liquid, the mouth of the flask being beloV the surface of the liquid in the cell. Niaudet. American translation, *101. Bal-loon' Mus'ket. One for perforating bal- loons of observation. As specially made by Krupp for the German army it was designed to pick off the postal balloons from Paris during the siege of that city. It was a heavy rifle swiveled on a stand- ard upon an artillery wagon. " La Nature." Its range enabled it at times to pick off balloons at 3,200 .feet elevation. "Scientific American Supplement ," * 638. BALLOON TORPEDO. 71 BAND SAW. Fig. 194. Bal-loon' Tor-pe'do. A torpedo elevated and floated over an enemy by a balloon, and dropped by time arrangement (fuse or clockwork), or by means of electric connection through wire reaching from the point of dispatch. " Scientific American,'' xxxvi. 404. Ball'-peeu Ham'mer. One whose peen is round, or ball-shaped. See PEKN, "Meek. Diet." Ball Probe. (Surgical.) A urethral sound ; a slight staff' with a ball on the end. The olivary bougie or bougie n hoitle are of similar character but different proportions. Page ii., Part III., Tiemann's Arnm- nii-ntiiriinii Chirnrgicum." Ball Seat'er. A tool used in loading metallic shells, to place the axis of the ball accurately in line in its seat in the shell. See RELOADING TOOLS. ( Cartridge - making. ) The Ball-peen Hummer. a. Hand-hammer. b. Riveting Hammer Ball Trim'mer. balls after they come from the bullet machine are trimmed botli side and end by this machine, work- ing on the principle of the lathe. Bal'us-ter Lathe. A lathe for turning arti- cles of wood which have to be frequently repeated, such as ornamental stair-balusters, the legs of ta- bles or chairs, bed-posts, etc. Between the head- stocks a sliding-frame is arranged and fixed to suit the dimensions ; this slide contains two knives, both the entire length of the article, the one knife to rough-out nearly to size in advance of the one to finish ; both are set on the skew in order to take the work in detail ; the first blade merely brings the piece of wood approximately to form, while the other blade is cut out exactly to pattern with all the irregularities of the required article. One pas- sage of the slide with its two instruments in mov- ing past the revolving article finishes the work. Barn-boo'. A plant of the grass family. The tubular stem is of great use in the mechanic arts, and the splits therefrom are used in making mats, baskets, etc. Bamboo, uses of . . " Scientific American, 1 ' xl. 279. " Scientific American,'' xlii. 240. Band. The metallic cap on the outside of the hub or nave of a vehicle. Made of many fancy pat- terns for carriages of luxury. Ban'dage. (Surgical.) A wrapping, support, or dressing of various kinds and uses. For instance (the figures refer to " Tiemann's Armamentarium Chirurgicum," Part IV.) : Abdominal, bandage, for supporting the abdomen after parturition, etc. Figs. 40-44. Suspensory, for the scrotum. Fig. 46. Umbilical, a truss for the umbilicus. Fig. 16. Fracture, various in kind, material, and mode of application. Figs. 122, 123, 125-127. Esmarch's tourniquet. Fig. 184. Rubber, vulcanized gum cloth. Roller, cloth in strips. Plaster-of- Paris, cloth saturated with a thin paste of gypsum, placed on a part of the body to harden in situ. Carbolized, saturated with solution of carbolic acid. See also p. 225, " Mech. Diet." Ban'dage Shears. Curved-tip shears for trim- ming and cutting bandage cloth ; or in cutting away portions of a plaster-of-Paris fracture ban- dage for inspection. f Figs. 165, 189, 202, 203, 204, Part IV., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." Ban'dages, Flas'ter Spread'er for. device, Fig. 195, is ]?ig. 195. for simply rolling bandages, or to ap- ply silicate of soda, dextrine, or plaster simultaneously with the winding process. The Greene's Bandmff Winder and Plaster Spreader. " Medical Record," October 13, 1877. Baud Cut'ter. A tool for cutting the bands of sheaves, when feeding to the threshing machine. In the latest practice the band is of wire or string. Graham, and Haines . * "Iron Age," xxv., April 8,9. Cliadbourne .... * "Iron Age," xxii., July 11, 20. In some British threshing machines, the band is cut by a revolving knife in the floor of the hopper down which the sheaf slides into the throat of the threshing concave. Ban'de-role. The flag formerly known by that name was a company color. Band'ing Ma-chine'. (Hat Making.) A form of hat-body blocking machine specially adapted to make the band, the term used in the trade for the sharp angle at the junction of the side-crown and brim. See BLOCKING MACHINE. Band'ing Ring. (Hat Making.) The circular band which grips the hat at the band ; the angle formed by the side-crown and brim. It is used in hat-blocking machines. Band In'stru-ments. See report on band in- struments by H. K. Oliver on Group XXV., in vol. vii., " Centennial Exhibition Reports," p. 50. Band Mount'ing. (Mane'ge.) A pattern of harness the ring of which is broad and flat, with square edges. Ban'do-leer'. A case containing a musket charge and fastened to the shoulder belt. Band and Jig Saw Combined. ( Wd Working.) A machine by Western & Co., of Lon- don, in which are provided alternative band and jig saws, each furnished with its own pulleys fixed and loose. The band is adapted to saw wood up to 10" thick, and the jig up to 6". Band Saw. The band saw, consisting of an endless steel ribbon with serrated edge, is the in- vention of William Newberry, of London, Eng land, and was patented in 1807. M. J. L. Perin, of Paris, France, overcame the difficulty which long prevented the invention from becoming of general utility, and his celebrated blades are yet unsurpassed. " Analyzing the peculiar principles of action of the band saw, it may be said to have a blade of superior thinness, capable of tension in varying degrees, moving in right lines through the material, at a speed that is almost unlimited, and capable of exceeding that of circular saws ; operating too by machinery consisting only of rotating parts, and of the most simple construction, the sawdust all carried down through the timber, offering no obstruction in following lines. " Add to this the peculiar adaptation of the band saw to curved line?, and its advantages cannot be over-estimated. The speed of sawing, or the cost of sawing, which is much the same thing as the movement of the teeth, is with the band saw almost unlimited. Its performance, contrasted with reciprocating saws for cutting plain sweeps or scroll work, shows a gain of time, or cost, of three or four to one, with the important advantage of being easier to operate." Richards. The latest form of band saw is shown in Fig. 196. The machine has a planed iron table pivoted for bevel sawing ; a shipper with frictional brake, for arresting the motion of the saw ; a vertical guide bar with retracting spring, for instantly adjusting it to the desired height ; an elastic steel upper BAND SAW. 72 BAND-SAW HOLDER. wheel ; cast steel shafts, with self-oiling boxes and adjustments to take up the wear; and methods of n> Clement Fay 4" Co. . Kesawiug Machine, Fay . * Hand power, Frank . . * * For timber, Furness . . * Foot power, Kiniball . . * London, Berry (f Orion * Margeilant . . . . * Xewbeny (1808), Br. . * Perin, Fr * Ptriti, Pauchard et dr. * Poll/blank, Br. . . . * Hiuisome, ting. . . . * Kicharcts, London if Kelly * Rogers * Whitney * Worssam, Br. ... * "Man. * Builder," xi. 184. "Thitrslon's Vienna Kept.." iii. 259. "Engineer," xli. 463. " Sc. American,'- xxxvii. 310. "Sc. American,'' xxxv. 31. ".Sc. American,'- xliii. 387. 'Man. if Builder,'-' xi.58. 'Engineering," xxvii. 235. 'Iron Age," xxiii., May 29, 1. 'Sc. American," xl. 1. 'Sc. American," xxxiv. 70. 'Engineering," xxix. 43. "Thwston's Vienna Rept." iii. 284. "Engineer," xlvii. 293. "Engineer,'-' xlvii. 171. " Tliitrston'x Kept.," iii. 2ti6. "Tkvrfton's Kept.," iii. 254. Knuinefr," xlvi. 134. " Tltiirxton's Kept.," iii. 253. "Engineer," 1. 245. Band Saw. keeping the saw at its proper tension, allowing at the same time flexibility to the parts, to compen- sate for any sudden impact, and prevent breakage of the saws by buckling or friction on the back or Fig. 197. Horizontal Hand Saw. sides. The weighting device gives positiveness to the amount of tension the saw is receiving, at the same time compensating for any variation in the length of the saw by change in temperature, or strain. Friction guide-wheels receive the back thrust of the saw, and wooden guides are provided at the side. The following references to Baud Saws may be consulted : Bentel, Marpedant fr Co. * "Engineer," xli. 409. * "Man. Sf Builder," 1 viii. 129. Band Saw'-mill. The, band saw has been ap- plied to the sawing of logs into boards, and the re- sawing of timbers. Three illustrations are given <>f English, French, and American machine* respect- ively. The horizontal baud saw of Western & Co., of London, is shown in Fig. 197. It is shown as splitting into heavy balks a log already squared and mounted on a horizontally moving carriage. The saw wheels are simultaneously adjusted for height by a single wheel: for tension, by adjustment of the right-hand wheel. The saw guides are sepa- rately adjustable to the vicinity of the log. 1'late III. shows the band saw-mill of Arbey, of Paris. It has a continuous roller feed, pivotal table for bevel sawing, and the various adjustments for tension of the blade, elevation of the guide, ap- proach of the feed rollers, etc. Fig. 198 shows by side and end elevations the baud-saw mill of Richards, London & Kelly. It has wrought iron wheels 72" in diameter, re- ceives blades 45' long to 5" wide, and is shown ope- rating upon a small round log. The wheels are covered with wood and faced with leather or gum : the upper one has an adjustment of 18", the supports resting on springs which equalize the tension of the blades. The Perin saw blades are used. The wheel is carried on a steel shaft 85" in di- ameter, with brass bearings. The guide stem is 3" diameter, of wrought iron, counter-balanced, and supported in iron brackets bolted to the main column. The lower guide is also mounted on an iron bracket, connected to the main column, and has no attach- ments to the floor. The lower or main shaft is 4-i" diameter, with bearings 12" long. The ti<:ht aud looSe driving pulleys are 30" in diameter, 10" face. Thermatic oilers are applied to the bearings. Baiid'-saw Hold'er. An apparatus (Fig. 199) used in brazing band saws. It consists of a holding device and brazing tongs. File a taper for, say \" on each end of the blade, so that when brought together the ends will be of even thickness with the rest of the saw. When ad- justed properly, so that the teeth will match, clamp in the scarfing frame, so that the ends will be pressed together. Wash the saw and solder with acid, place a slip of solder between the laps of the saw, heat the welding tongs, grasp the joint, and when the solder is melted allow the saw to cool gradually. PLATE in. BAND SAW-MILL, BY ARBEY OF PARIS. See page 72. BAND-SAW SETTER. 73 BANK-NOTE ENGRAVING. Fig. 198 The machine is wholly of metal, ex- cept the rims of the wheels. The vise is arranged to close in- stantly for a length of 24" ', by means of cams on the front. Fay & Co.'s baud- saw setter is a ma- chine of similar char- acter, the saw being strained upon the wheels and passing between the jaws of the setting machine. The feed pawl feed two teeth at a time. Band '-s a w S h a r p'e n-i n g Frame. A frame in which band-saws are stretched, and each portion of the blade clamped in turn, in order that it may be sharpened. When the clamp is slack- ened, the rotation of the crank brings a new portion of the blade within the loos- e n e d jaws o f the clamp. See Fig. 201. Band'-saw Tongs. A pair of flat-lipped Band'-saw Set'ter. Fig. 200 is Richards' tongs which are heated sufficiently to melt silver Saw-mill. baud-saw setting machine and riling frame. The setting is done by a hammer in the hand of the operator. The saw is Fig. 199. solder, and then clasped over the scarfed and Fig. 201. strained and passes between two steel blocks, feed is imparted to the saw by a pawl, operated by the hammer handle. Every blow of the hammer sets a tooth, and the setting can be done at the rate of about 6' per Fig. 200. minute. The feed is adjustable to any pitch of tooth in an instant. Band Haw Brazing Device. Frame for Sharpening Band Saws. ' matched ends of a band saw, to melt the film of solder placed between the lapping edges. Shown in BAND-SAW HOLDER, Fig. 199. Band Set'ter. A tool for setting bands on carriage wheels. It operates as a plane. Cutter B, Fig. 202, pares off the surface on which the band is driven ; A cuts shoulder. The end of the axle should be raised so that the wheel can be made to Fig. 202. Band Setter. Band-saw Setter and Filing Frame. revolve rapidly, and then, while the wheel is in mo- tion, hold the plane to the hub until it is shaved off sufficiently to drive on the band. Bank'-note En-grav'ing. The subject is considered on pp. 228, 2368, 2369, " Mech. Diet." Mr. George W. Casilear, Superintendent of En- graving in the United States Treasury, Bureau of Engraving and Printing, describes an improved method for engraving denominations or lettering upon lathe-work counters, used on bonds, bank BANK-NOTE ENGRAVING. 74 BARB WIRE. notes, and other securities, by the transfer pro- cess : " Instead of proceeding as heretofore by hardening the die laid down from the shell, and taking up a roll for cutting out the white figures or letters, and then hardening the roll and laying down a second bed-piece for finishing with the graver, then in turn taking up a second roll called the finished roll. My improvement consists as follows, in taking the original die as made from the shell, and transferring with my numeral or alphabet rolls directly upon the face of the lathe work the required denomination or lettering. The parts of the lathe- work appearing over the face of the figures is then scraped and burnished away and a new surface gained, by having the die or plate set up from the back in the usual manner known by engravers and trausferrers, using the precaution to have a bit of paper between the anvil and plate to protect the lathe-work, the paper only to cover those parts of the lathe- work which are to appear intact. By this improved process a roll is saved, also a bed-piece, and the lathe work is purer and sharper, being transferred direct from the shell while there is no engraving of the de- nomination or figures on the die or plate, as the work is all done by the transferrer. The result being more perfect, and a great saving of cost."' Bank'-iiote Pa'per. See SAFETY PAPER. Bank'-note Press. One for pressing and packaging bank notes. It has grooves for cords in the bed and follower, so that the notes may be tied up before the platen of the press is raised. B a n ' n e r. Formerly, the small, square flag of a knight, and charged with his arms. B a n ' n e r Net'ting. For painted signs or ban- ners to be hung across a "street. The open work avoids injury by the wind. Bar. Bars of furnaces are bearer bars, and grate bars : the former hold up the latter, and these the fuel. Bar and Open Bead (Rifle.) A Fig. 207. 208. Fig. 203. Bank-note Press. Fig. 206. Fig. 206 Fig. 204. Sight. form of sight in which the aperture is supported on a segment plate in the ring. Fig. 204. Bar and Slit Sight. (Rifle.) A form Bar and Open of sight having a plate Ear and Slit ead Sight. w ; tn a vertical slit. Sight. Also called a slit-bar sight. See Fig. 205. Barbed Shot. (Life-saving Apparatus.) A ball having grap- nels attached and intended to be fired from a mortar to carry a line be- tween a shore and Barbed Shot. a Branded vessel, or vice versa. Otherwise known as an ANCHOR-SHOT, or GRAP- PLE-SHOT, which see. Barbed Sca'ler. An instrument. Fig. 207, designed to pass between and around the necks of teeth which are loosened by old deposits of tartar. Being in pairs, with the barbed edges on opposite faces, they admit of application right and left, and on proximate surfaces. While holding the tooth with the finger upon it firmly in the socket, they can be used either by pushing to scale with the chisel edge, or hy making the draw-cut with the barbed edge. Dentist's Sealers. Barb'ing Pinch'ers. A tool especially adapted for closing and clinch- ing wire staples upon fence-wire. Barb Wire. Wire with iron spikes or points clinched upon it, to prevent breaking by cattle when strung between posts as a fence. Fig. 209. Barbed Fence-wires. Fig. 209 shows the prominent features in the history of the barb wire. The tipper illustration, a, shows the Hunt wire, a rough and incomplete invention, but involving the bottom idea, i. e., a fence wire provided with spurs or barbs. Spur wheels or single spurs are shown attached to the wire. b. Shows the next step, Kelly's patent, in which pointed spurs are strung on the wires and held to place by twisting a second wire around the first. Glidden, c, substituted for the sheet-metal spur, a barb of wire twisted about one strand and held in place by the pressure of the other. The number of modifications of this idea is extremely large. Haish, d, is the pioneer in that form in which, BARB WIRE. 75 BAROMETRIC BALANCE. with specially wrapped wires, the conjoined ends are hooked together and form projecting spikes. Frentress, e, is probably the pioneer in that class in which separate sheet-metal plates, so cut as to have projecting barbs, are wholly fastened to the rod by twisting the wire. In f, Allis's, the material is a rod with two flanges, one of which is cut into spurs and spaces, and the whole, being twisted, presents the barbs on all sides. Fig. 210. Two-spur and Four-spur Barb Wire. Fig. 210 shows the barb wire in two forms, two- pointed and four-pointed. Each is shown in per- spective and in cross-section. The cable consists of two strands twisted together, and the barbs are fast- s ened between and around both strands, and their points stand out at right angles to the cable. The wire is painted, galvanized, or japanned. Bar'-cut'ting Ma-chine'. A heavy shears for cutting bar-iron. Ba-rege'. (Fabric.) A French worsted dress goods, woven on a gauze or open taffeta loom, and having a cotton warp and an English wool weft. Usually printed. Bar'-i-ron Test'er. A form of machine for testing bar-iron. See TESTING MACHINE. Bark'ing Ma-chine'. Forsaith's barking ma- chine for rossing logs for the making of wood pulp is au annular plate, set with plane bits, and revolv- ing in a vertical plane. " Manufacturer and Builder," *xii. 193. Nomaison, Fr. . * " JSnfinerring,'" xxii. 299. Decorticator, Fr. * "Scientific American Sup.," 2478. Bar'ley Fork. A four-pronged light-tined pitching fork, especially adapted for pitching un- bound gavels of cut grain. Bar'ley Hum'mel-er. A machine for taking the awns off the grains of barley. Fig. 211. Barley Hummeler. The barrel is made of iron, and in it is a rapidly revolving spindle, furnished witli knives so shaped as to feed the grain towards the exit. Barm. Yeast. Sometimes used in the prepa- ration of core-sand, to make it adhesive. Barn-door' Hang'er. A suspending device for sliding-doors. Sec Fig. 1687, p. 721, " Mech. Diet." Anti-friction. Brown Sf Curtis. * "Iron Age," xx. p. 9, July 26. Barn-door' Rail. The rail on which the sheave of a barn-door traverses. See Fig. 1687, p. 721, " Mecli. Diet." Bar Net. (Fishing.) The intercepting por- tion of a net set across a stream to direct fish into a wing pound. See STAKE-NET. Ba-rom'e-ter. An instrument for determining the weight or pressure of the atmosphere. In Dexchanel's "Natural Philosophy,'' Part I., may be found illustrations of the following barometers on the pages noted. (American edition.) Torricelli's .... 110 Sympiesometer . . 156 Fortin's .... 147 Aneroid .... 157 Tripod 149 Counterpoised . . 159 Siphon 154 Fahrenheit's . . . ItiO Wheel 155 The " Farmer's Weather-case," or Indicator, and direction for its use, furnished in the circular of the United States Meteorological Signal Office, is shown in "Harper's Weekly," supplement of September 21, 1878. ^The following references may also be consulted : * "Manufacturer and Builder," ix. 61. Valton ... Glycerine, Kew Martotti . . Optical. . . Kedier * Registering, Barnes * Water ' Scientific American Sup.," 742. 'Scientific American," xliii. 134. ' Engineering," xxiii. 314. 'Scientific American," xxxiv. 148. 'Scientific American Sup.," 574. 'Scientific American,'" xxxiv. 308. 'Manufacturer If Builder," viii. 37. Barometer and Thermometer combined. * "Scientific American," xliii. 246. Barometric Governor for Ventilating Fan. * "Engineering," xxviii. 354. Works on the subject : * Plympton's " The Aneroid Barometer : Its Construction and Use." Williamson "On the Barometer." Ba-rom'e-ter Flow'ers. Ar- tificial flowers col- ored with chloride of cobalt. When exposed to sun and dry air the leaves become deep blue ; when the air is satu- rated with mois- ture they become pinky. Interme- diate shades are easily observed. Ba-ro-met'ric Bal'ance. An invention of M. Redier, of Paris. It has a long in- dex-needle h a v- Redier's Barometric Balance. ing an arc of vibration of large amplitude, 30 to 60 centimeters, which makes it visible at a considera- ble distance. B B B are three aneroid barometer cases. To the first case to the left is attached a frame which BAROMETRIC BALANCE. 76 BARREL-BORING MACHINE. carries the counterpoises M and E. On the same frame is fixed the large index needle. The whole apparatus pivots on a knife blade, T, and the counterpoises M and E being movable, the appara- tus can be balanced in such a way as to cause the index to point to any division desired. The cases are attached to a second frame, V. When the pressure increases, these cases are expanded and the two counterpoises move toward the right. The equilibrium is thus broken and the needle moves toward the same side. When the pressure dimin- ishes the contrary effect is produced, and the nee- dle moves to the left. Ba'ro-mo'tor. A portable hand and foot power invented by Bozerain (France). It has two treadles connecting with cranks on a fly shaft. " Manufacturer and Builder " . . . * ix. 280. "Scientific American" * xxxvii. 242. Bar'o-met'ro-graph. (Add.) Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," iv., ed. 1877, article "Mete'orographes," Figs. 1-7, gives de- scriptions of those of * Breguet. * Hipp. *Gros- Claude. * Seccki, Bar'on Steel. (Metallurgy.) Steel made by the Mackintosh process, for which " Baron " is an adopted name. See MACKINTOSH STEEL. Bar'rage. A movable dam. Views of the bar- rages used in the river improvements between Paris and Auxerre, and a description of the substitution of a continuous navigation upon the upper Seine and Yonne by the aid of movable dams, for the in- termittent navigation by flashes, are to be found in the report of Dr. Watson, "Civil Engineering, Pub- lic Works and Architecture ; " " Vienna Exposition Reports," vol. iii., section C, chapter V. Poiree's movable dam or barrage, at Basseville, at the crossing of the Yonne over by the Nivernais canal, is shown in Plate IV. " It consists of a succession of iron frames called fermettes, placed parallel with the current, and turning around their bases in bearings which are firmly attached to a carefully- prepared bed. The fermettes are united above by bars, hav- ing jaws or catches at their extremities. Against these fer- mettes, thus united, rests a screen, placed vertically, and composed of a number of wooden battens about 0.075 meters square and 2 meters long, called needles ; the bottoms of these needles are placed against the sill, and their tops rest against the fermette bars placed near the level of the water, which the barrage is intended to maintain. Each fermette is trapezoidal; the two bases are horizontal. The lower base is terminated by gudgeons, which are received by two cast-iron bearings. The upper bases support a foot-bridge, used by the lock keeper to work the barrage. The details of the hooks, bars, washers, etc., which serve to unite the fer- mettes, are shown in the lower portion of the plate. When it is required to open the barrage, the lock-keeper and his assistant remove the needles one by one ; the bars, planks, hooks, etc., are removed, and the. fermettes, turning on gud- geons at their basen, fall into a recess prepared for them be- low the level of the sill. When it is required to raise the barrage, the lock-keeper lifts the fermettes by grappling for them under the water, reconstructs his foot-bridge, and re- places the needles. The time required to raise the fermettes and place the needles, is about one and a -half minutes per running meter; and the time to open the barrage thirty seconds ; for the complete opening and lowering of the waters fifty seconds." Poirce. Formerly, during the low water season on the Yonne, the navigation was intermittent, and took place by a system of flashing, which may be thus described : In the upper parts of the river, the water was accumulated by movable dams ; a part of one of these dams being suddenly removed, an artificial flood called an e'clnse'e, or flash, was formed. Barges and rafts, previously collected above the dam, were carried by the flood down the river with a velocity of from 0.50 m. to 1.50 m. per second. In Plate IV. the upper figure shows the plan of the crossing of the Yonue River by the Nivernais canal at Basseville. Next beneath is an elevation of the Bassevillo barrage, showing half the barrage closed with the fermettes raised, and the other half closed with the fermettes lowered. Next, a plan of the same. Next, a transverse section on a much enlarged scale, showing the needle, the fermette and its bear- ings. On the left, at the bottom of the plate, an eleva- tion and plan of the details for uniting adjacent fermettes. On the right, beneath, transverse section and plan of the gudgeons and bearings of a fermette. Plate XIV. of Dr. Watson's report above cited, gives details and drawings of Chanoine's bar- rage dam at Port a 1'Anglais, on the Seine, near Paris. See also article " Barrage," vol. iv., Laboulaye's " Diciionnaire des Arts el Manufactures,''' cd. 1877. Barrage, Godavery, India, * "Engineering," xxi. 340. Barrage, Nile .... * "Engineering,''' xxi. 40. *" Engineering" xxi. 101, 143, 218, 245. See, also, references under DAM. Bar'rel. 1. A cask. The following references may be consulted : Barrel for shipping bottled liquors. Strauss * " Scientific American,'''' xl. 103. Barrel head making machine, Eng. Worssam .... *" Engineer," xlviii. 397. Barrel-hoop, corrugated. Eiselein .... Machine, Holmes . , Charring, McNurtrie . Machine, Monroe. . . Machine, Ger., Guelpk Machine, Ransome Barrel machinery, on. Windlass, Holmes . " Scientific American," xli. 291. " Engineer," xli. 431. " Scientific American Sup.," 1072. "Scientific American Sup.," 1299. '' Engineer," 1. 266. " EnginKring" xxi. 453, 502, 547. " Engineering ," xxi. 95. " Engineer." xli. 431. Cask washing machinery, Brewery (3 Figs.). Austria. * " Engineer," iii. 404. 2. A description of the mode of manufacture and the proving of rifle barrels may be seen in "Scien- tific American Supplement," * 386. Bar'rel Bolt. A form of door-bolt. One with a round bolt moving in a cylindrical case. Bar'rel-bor'iiig Ma-chine'. (Fire-arms.) A Fig. 213. Holmes's Barrel-chamfering, Crazing, and Hoioeling Machine. PLATE IV. POISE'S BARRAGE, AT BASSEVILLE, RIVER YONNE, FRANCE. Seepage 76 BARREL-CHAMFERING. 77 BARREL-HEAD ROUNDER. lathe specially adapted to boring out gun-barrels. See RIFLING MACHINE. Bar'rel-cham'fer-iiig, etc., Ma -chine'. This machine is designed to chamfer, howel, level, and croze a cask of imperfect periphery, and to finish both ends of the cask at once. See Fig. 213. To accomplish this, the three tools are placed in one revolving head, which, while revolving with high speed inside of the cask, is controlled by the rest upon the outside, compelling a uniform thick- ness and depth of chine, while it levels the same in a perfect manner ; the rest and cutting head oscillat- ing to conform to the outside irregular form of the cask while the latter makes one revolution ; it hav- ing been placed within the chuck rings for that purpose. All kinds of barrels, such as turpentine, oil, whis- key, pork, syrup, cement, sugar, flour, and other barrels, are made upon this machine, and it will finish any size desired by using the proper sized chuck rings. Rings for different sized barrels will n't the machine. The performance is 1,200 tight or 2,000 slack barrels per diem. "Engineer,"'' *xli. 431. Bar'rel Clamp. A hoisting clutch or sling for barrels. The Yale barrel-clamp, "American Miller," vii. 275. Bar'rel Cock. A faucet. The one shown is for racking, or draw- ing off the contents by P'P C tne uter end of the faucet having a screw coup- ling. Bar'rel-cro'zing Ma-chine'. A ma- chine for making the Barrel Cock ' wlth "'/''"y which it is removed. Jacob Reese's Patent, 1866. Thomas's British Patent, and United States Patent 216,910, June 24, 1879. Ba'sin Cock. A faucet to a wash- basin. See Fig. 232. Fig. 233 shows the posi- Fig. 233. live self-closing cock, which has a spring to force the disk on to its seat, and is removable by pressing to- ^? gether the two horns. The pressure withdrawn, the spring recloses the valve-way. Fig. 234 shows the Ful- ler-Meyer basin cock, in which a couoidal plug of caoutchouc is forced into a conical opening while Fiji. 234. Barrel Washer. In the Thomas furnace a basic calcareous or magnesian lining is used in the converter, and lime, or lime and oxide of iron, is added to the Fig. 232. Basin Cocks. a. Telegraph basin-cock : on account of the shape of the trigger, resembling the key of the telegraph instrument. b. Bracket basin-cock. c. Combination basin-cock ; for hot and cold water. d. Ground basin-cock. e. Combination basin-cock, with rubber tube and sprink- ler, for shower-bath or shampooing. Basin Cock. Basin Cock and Ball Cock. the pressure of the water tends to confirm the joint. Fig. 234 also shows a Fuller-Meyer ball cock, simi- lar to the basin cock Fig. 235. Fig. 236. i n the special feature mentioned. Basin Grate. Basin Plug. Basin Stopper. Ba'sin Grate. A grated opening to the waste- pipe of a basin or bath-tub, opened by screwing up, and closed by the reverse motion. Fig. 235. Ba'sin Plug. The stopper of a standing wash- bowl. Fig. 236. Ba'sin Stop'-per. A plug, Fig. 237, for the waste-pipe of a standing wash-bowl. Ba'sin Trap. A seal against sewer-gas in the waste-way of a standing wash-bowl. The arrangement shown in Fig. 238 excludes sewer-gas, whether water is in the trap or not, BASIN VALVE. 82 BATH HEATER. the porcelain valve seating itself upon the upturned cud of the pipe. Fig. 238. Ba'sin Valve. A plug for the aperture at the bottom of a stand- ing wash-basin. Sec BASIN STori'KK. Ba'sin Waste. A pipe at the bottom of a standing wash-basin for the discharge of water. Stopped by a valve. Fig. 239 is a substi- tute for the usual chain and plug for stopping the waste of wash-ba- sins. Touching the knob on one side of the bowl opens or closes the valve. The figure also shows a trap provided with check-valve to prevent passage of sewer-gas. B a's i 11 Wrench. A plumber's wrench with the nipper-jaws presented laterally to enable screws, nuts, and collars to be reached in peculiar situations. Fig. 239. Basin Trap Weaver's Basin Waste. Bas'son-Quinte. (Music.) A double-reed iu- strumeut, the diminutive of the bassoon, its pitch being one fifth higher. Ba-ta'vi-a "Weave. (Weaving.) SeeTwinasD AKMUKI:. Bath. 1 . For bathing the person. See p. 246, "Meclt. Diet." Arrangement oi building for Turkish baths. * "Manufacturer and Builder,"' ix. 184. Swimming Hath, London. *" Scientific American Supplement" 1348. Roman Bath. * "Plumber and Sanitary Engineer," ii. 67. Fig. 241. Bas'ket. (A:>. See also " Scientific American,''' * xxxix. 165. Beet'-root Sli'cer. The centrifugal root cutter of the " Union Iron Works," San Francisco, " is composed of a stationary drum, in the form of a truncated cone, provided with six grooves, into which are fastened as many grooved-toothed knives. To this drum is attached the feed hopper. A horizontal shaft which is keyed to the head pulley, carries at one of its ends a cast iron disk, armed with two flyers, turning in the stationary drum, and leaving a working space between the edge of each and the inner wall of the drum. The beets come from the washing machine through a channel into the hopper, and thence to the drum. Here the flyers of the disk drive them violently against the blades of the stationary drum, where they are cut into slices of a uniform thickness of one six- teenth of an inch, and a width of about three eighths of an inch. The stationary drum is surrounded by a thin casing of sheet iron, the object of which is to direct the slices thrown out of the machine, downward. This casing is mov- able, so as to give access to the knives, and allow them to be taken out. This machine can cut three tons of beet-root in half an hour, with the shaft moving at the rate of 350 revolutions per minute. A single horse power is all that is necessary to actuate it. The blades are fastened into the grooves by screw bolts, and can be adjusted and set at any desired dis- tance apart within given limits." Beet'-root Su'gar Ap'pa-ra'tus. For a recent Grating or pulping machine. Hydraulic press. Lump breaking machine. Monte-jus. Sugar-mixing machine. Vacuum pan. Vapor pump. Vivifying kiln. be found under the following Beet-seed drill. Bone black revivifier. Cane cutter. Cane mill. Carbonatation. Centrifugal filter. Charcoal washer. Concentrating apparatus. Condenser. Cube-sugar machine. Cultivator, Beet. Defecator. Diffusion process Evaporator. Filter. Filter press. Hand drill Hydraulic press. Malaxator. Ridging plow. Root cutter, Beet. Root digger. Heet. Seed drill Silo for beers Sugar diffusion process. Vacuum |>;tn. Beet-seed' Drill. A machine for drilling beets, usually upon a ridge listed up. Fig. 268 is a drill for beet-seed or turnips, made by Corbett & Peele, of Shrewsbury, England. It is specially adapted for sowing on the summits of ridges. The machine drills two parallel rows. On each side of the machine is a concave ridging-roller, a hollow share which receives seed from the box above, and an iron roller for covering the seed. The seed-wheels are of the usual English form, having little hemispherical cups which dip up seed and drop it into hoppers, from which conductors lead to the hollow shares which open the furrows. The beet-seed drill of Smyth & Sons, of Peasen- hall (Suffolk), England, has a range of 5 hoes with a distance apart of 0.45 meter, but the machines vary in the number and interval distance of the hoes and in price. ^ The seeding is performed by its own set of con- ductors and hoes, in such manner that the fertilizer is covered with earth in advance of the deposit of the seed, which is not placed in contact with the fertilizer, so that the special nourishment to the roots of the young plant is not furnished until they Beet rasping machine. Beet-root digger. Beet-root slicer. Beet-root sugar apparatus. BEET-SEED DRILL. 92 BELL AND HOPPER. Fig. 268 Beet-seed or Turnip Drill. have attained a certain development. The concave- faced rollers, which are independent of the hoes, fol- low in the rear and make a little ridge over the seed and fertilizer, which compacts the soil and makes the row of plants more conspicuous in the earlier stages of their growth. Fig. 269. nots," to give the signal for the massacre. The bell refrain in " Les Cloches de Cor- nouai/les " is familiar to most of us. Sets of bells are used in military music, a number being fixed one above another on a frame of iron, and ranged diatoni- cally in the order of their sizes. They are made to vibrate by a little hammer. See GLOCKENSPEIL, GONG, PA VILLON CHI- NOIS, "Meek. Diet." The bells in Japan are not gounded with clap- pers, but with suspended levers of wood, used like u battering-ram, striking the bell on the outside. ,-^ee Report on Bells by H. K. Oliver, in Group xxv., vol. vii., "Centennial Exhibition Rfports,"- p.68." Casting .... * "Manufacturer anil Builder," viii. 54, 228. Clapper and Hammer, Br. Mackenzie * "Engineer,'' xlix. 268. Kiggs . . *" Scientific American," xxxiv. 230 .... "Iron Age,'' xxii., Dec. 26, p. 13. 2. The enlarged end of a pipe which receives the smaller end of the next pipe in line. The joint is usually packed with lead or cement. The other usual mode of connection is by flange, which see. 3. The cover in the hopper of a blast furnace top. See BELL AND HOPPER. Bell and Hop'per. (Metallurgy.) The charg- Fig. 271. Mending Church Bells for Mains. Beet-seed Drill. The device shown in Fig. 270 is for attachment to the ordinary drills of this firm to adapt them to drilling beet seed. The roller has flat, concave, or convex face, as may be ordered. Fig. 270. a. Bell T-Pipe. b. Double Bell. c. Bell and Reducer. cl. Flanged Bell. e. Saddle-flanged Bell. ing device on top of a blast furnace. The bell is dropped to al- low the contents of the hopper to fall into the shaft. A is the hopper in which the stock is placed to feed the furnace. B is an extension of the hop- per, called the mouth-piece. C is the bottom of Fig. 272. Beet-seed Planter. English and French beet-drills are shown in Dr. Mc.Mur- trie's Report No. 28, Special, Dep. of Agriculture; and in Dr. Knight's report, " Paris Exposition Reports,'' * v., 115-117. Bell. (Music.) 1. An instrument in an orches- tra, used for dramatic effects. According to tone they are known as high bells or low bells. Berlioz quotes the use of the former in the graceful chorus in the second act of "Guillaume Tell," of which the burden is " void la nuit ; " and of the bell in low F, in the 4th act of Meyerbeer's opera, the " Hugue- the hopper called a bell, which is lowered a suit- able distance when feeding the stock to the fur- nace. D is an apron or fender, attached to the BELL CHUCK. 93 BELT CLAMP. mouth-piece B, to prevent the stock from striking the walls of the furnace. The apron is secured to the hopper by straps d d. Bell Chuck. Whitworth's lathe chuck, made bell-shaped, with set-screws by which the object is clamped. Fig. 273. Bell Cord. (Railway.) A cord running continuously through the cars, and leading to a signal bell on the en- gine. It forms a means of communi- cation between the conductor and en- gineer. For all the parts and fittings, see " Car Build- ers' Dictionary," pp. 8-10, and illustrations cited, pp. 392 et seq. The inventor of the bell cord on cars was Capt. Ayres, who, 'in 1842, introduced it on the train of which he was conductor. Paterson (N. J.) Press. Chuck. Fig. 274. Bell Mag'net. An audible alarm. A clapper is caused to strike the bell by completing the electric circuit, the connecting wire leading from t h e apartment whence the call proceeds. Electric bells are now extremely common in de- partments, offices, manu- factories ; placing a pro- prietor or superintendent in connection with any office or department in his building or abroad. Bell Met'al. An alloy which does not tarnish nor crack, has a good sound, and relatively moderate weight, is prepared as fol- lows : Nickel 1 pound, copper 6 pounds, are melted and cooled. Add zinc 1 pound, alu- minum ounce. Melt and cool. Melt .and add ounce quicksilver and 6 pounds melted copper. Other recipes : Sell Magnet. Copper. Tin. Lead. Iron. Zinc. Useful bell metal . 144 53 3 Useful bell metal . 53.5 10 2.13 _ llcnisc bells . . . 16 4 _ _ _ Soft musical bells 16 3 _ _ _ Common bells . . 50 15 _ _ _ Bells of Rouen 40 5 2 _ 3 Chinese gongs . 40 10 - An imitation silver, having sonorous quality : Take one part of pure pulverized manganese, one part of copper filings, and two parts of animal charcoal. Intimately mix these substances and expose the mixture to a high tem- perature in a graphite crucible. After cooling, will be found at the bottom of the crucible, a substance having the appearance and sound of silver. This substance is ductile, malleable, and easily takes the finish of silver. Bel'lows Steam-en'gine. A form of engine invented by Reilley, in which steam extends longi- tudinally an expansible bellows-sided chamber, the head of which carries gudgeons which connect by rods to the crank shaft. The moving head, the equivalent of a piston, is in fact placed between two such chambers, which act upon it in succession. "Scientific American Supplement," *181. Bell Pump. A bell-shaped pump ; used in cleaning gas and service pipes. Harris, Grifftn & Co., in "American Gas-light Journal," * July 3, 1876, p. 9. Bell Punch. A hand-punch, for perforating a ticket or trip slip. It secures the piece punched out, and rings a bell ; in some instruments it also registers the fares collected. Bell Ring'er. Reese's bell-ringer, for ringing the bells of locomotives, is an application of steam to a small piston, which acts upon a sliding bar connected to the bell crank. "Railroad Gazette," * xxiv. 415. Bell Rope. See BELL-CORD. Bell Strap. A signal strap hi a street car, reaching along the ceiling to a bell at the forward end. It forms the means of communication be- tween the conductor and the driver ; or, in some cars, the passengers and the driver. Bell Tel'e-graph. An indicator for hotels, steamers, etc. A series of plates in- scribed with the numbers of the rooms; the ordinary wants of the guests, etc., are connected by wires with the various apartments, and are displaced so as to attract the attention of the clerk in waiting, by touching appro- priate knobs in the various rooms. In the illustration the. apparatus is an alarm telegraph, in Fig. 275. Bell Telegraph. which an indicator for each of six apartments may show where the entrance of unauthorized per- sons has taken place. Bell Tel'e-phone. The articulating telephone of Alexander G. Bell. See TELEPHONE, TRANS- MITTER, etc. Bel'ly-pipe. A flaring blast-pipe nozzle for blast furnaces. In Vielhaber's patent, 182,621, the belly-pipe nozzle is hollow, and has inlet and outlet pipes for the circulation of water there through. See, also, WATER BREAST. Belt. (Mining.) 1. A body strap with chain at- tached by which miners draw corves in the work- ings. 2. A strap for transmitting motion. The following dimensions and weights of large belts are given in the journals : New Jersey Zinc Co., Newark, N. J.. 102' lone, 4/ wide, 2,200 Ibs. weight. J. B. Hoyt, New York, 186J' long, 5' wide, 2,212 Ibs. weight. P. Jewell & Sons, Hartford, Conn., 147*' long, 3' wide, 1,130 Ibs. weight. N. Y. Belting and Packing Co. (Makers), 331' long, 4' wide, 4,000 Ibs. weight. For use in N. Y. Central and Hudson River Railroad Elevator, Sixtieth Street, New York. Sampson & Co., Manchester, England, 90' long. 38" wide. Said by "British Trade Journal'' to be "the largest ever made in England." Belt Clamp. A device for approaching the ends of belts in position in order to lace or other- wise attach them. Fig. 276 has two wooden vises clamped fast to the respective belt-ends, and drawn together by cords and pulleys in order to approach the ends of the belt and hold them while being laced. BELT CLAMP. 94 Fig 276. Fig. 278. Spiers'* Belt Clamp. Belt Coupling. A device for attaching the ends of a belt. See BELT FASTENER. Belt Fast'en-er. In addition to the examples Fig 277. of means for attaching the ends of belts, and shown in Fig. 649, "Mech. Lincoln's Belt Fastener. Di ^ Bevcral others are here shown. See also BELT SCREW. In Fig. 278 a row of holes being made i n each end of the belt, the staples are inserted there- in, and the ends turned down and clinched. Fig. 279 shows Greene's belt-fastener and the tool for inserting the headed pins. In Fig. 280, in addition to the security of the usual method of attaching the cord to the coupling, screwing it in and then riveting, a gimlet- Fig 279. Clinched Staple Bell Fastener. BELTING. Fig. 280. McEricie's Coupling for Round Belts and Cords. teeth and hammer it on. Hepeat the operation, with the other end of the strap 011 the remaining set of teeth. The 9R , curve of the plate ives the hooking position to the teeth. The following notices may be re- ferred to : Greene's Bell Fastener. pointed screw, of the same pitch as the threads in the coupling, penetrates the center of the cord. Harris's belt fastener is a shield-shaped piece with hooking studs. It is applied as follows : Lay the casting, teeth uppermost, on something solid, place one end of the strap on one of the sets of Harris's Several belt coup- lers, Scholl's "Me- chanic's Guide," 483- 485. Ends of belt scarfed, glued, pressed, and fastened with shoe pegs, Cooper's "Belt- ing," 183. Dried eel-skin lac- ings, Cooper's "Belt- ing," 183. Wilson' 6 belt hooks,* Cooper's "Belting," 184. Blake's belt studs,* Patents April, I860, March, 1861. " Champion '' belt hook,* C ooper 's "Belting," 186. Mclntosh If Sons, Scotch, machine riveted,* Cooper's "Belting;," 186. Linco/ne, belt fastener,* "Engineer," Jan. 27, 1870. Belt coupling,* Howarth, "Mech. Mag.," xciv. 289. J. B. Hoyt 4" Co., Cooper's "Belting," 188. Belt fastener, Badger, Br., * "Engineer," 1. 119. Belt'ing. Rnhrer's " Improved Union Belting " is made by cementing between two or more thicknesses of leather, one or more layers of heavy duck, and then riveting or stitching through- out the entire length. Walrus hide belting is manufactured from these hides, which are from 0.5" to 1.25" in thickness. "London Min- ing Journal.'" Holbrook's folded-twist belting is a round lathe belt. Pa- tented June 18, 1872. Alexander Bros, patented belting. June 15, 18i5, concerns the mode of cutting the hide and making the belt, so as to put the firmest portion of the leather on the edges of the belt, to prevent them from becoming convex on their edges. Sheep intestines (which average 55' in length) have been used for belting. Cooper "Belting," xv. Eel skins, for bands and ropes, "Journal Franklin Insti Gut bands, Clark's "Exhibited Machinery of 1862," Lon- Steel belting, "American Artizan," Aug. 2, 1865, p. 201. Round belts of catgut or hemp, Fairbairns' "Mills and Millwork," ii. 1. Round belts in multi-grooved pulleys, *Newton s Jour- nal, " 1857, N.S.vi. 163. Comparison of rubber, gutta-percha, and canvas, with leather. J. B. Iloyt, quoted in Cooper's "Belting," 97 ; Ran- kine's "Machinery and Millwork." Gut woven into ribbons, Edwards, Eng., Cooper's Belt- ing." 128. Woolen bands, Heywood, Eng., Cooper's "Belting, 1 Gutta-percha with wire-gauze core, Rattier, Eng., Cooper s "Belting," 129. Raw hide, "Engineering," June 19, 1874. Russian sheet-iron, Spiers, Cooper's "Belting,' 1 Alexander, Wide leather belting,* Patent June 15, 18 ing up galleys; beveled (tapered) pieces of wood or metal, less than type high. Bev'eled Wash'er. A washer with an upper face oblique with the base, so that a nut with oblique pre- sentation may seat itself squarely Beveled Washer. upon it. Bev'el Fel'ly-pla'-ner. A machine for dress- ing the sides of fellies or bent rims, either square or beveling. It has a strong feed, easily regulated, and is adjustable for different sizes of fellies, and Fig. 303. Bevel Fell i/ -planer. (Fay fy Co.) from square to bevel work. It bevels the rims be- fore they are rounded inside, ready for finishing by the sand belts. Bev'el-gear' Cut'tiiig Ma-chine'. Corliss's bevel-gear cutting machine was shown in the Ma- chinery Hall, Philadelphia, 1876, near the great beam-engine. See "Centennial Report," Grub's bevel-gear cutter was shown in the Ger- man section of the same Exhibition. See GEAR CUTTER. Corliss * "Engineering," xxv. 288. Corliss * "Engineer,'' xlii. 364. Corliss * "Sc. American Sup.,"' 783. Corliss. *"Sc. American Sup.,'' 369. Anton, Fetu If Deliege, Belg. * "Engineering," xxvii. 195. Bev'el-head Bolt. A carriage bolt with a truncated conical head, as seen in Fig. FJB . m 304. Bev'el Hub. A form of bent pipe connection. See HUB, BEND. Bev'el-ing Ma-chine'. 1. (Stereo- typing.) A machine for dressing off and beveling the edges of stereotype and elec- trotype plates equally on all sides, and parallel to the matter. The edge of the printing matter is placed against an ad- justable side gage, secured in this posi- tion by clamps, and passed quickly be- fore the revolving cutter, a stationary cutter at the same time taking off the sharp corner from the under edge of the plate. The table can be adjusted in height and also inclined to give a bevel more or less acute, and the revolving cutter-head is adjustable horizontally to suit the position of the table. A brass cover over the cutter prevents the chips from flying, and drops them into a box be- low. 2. (Bookbinding.) A clamp for holding binders' boards while being beveled by the knife. In Sanborn's machine, Fig. 305, the board is placed between the jaws, and the upper jaw brought down by the treadle to clamp and hold the board. The board is adjusted by back and front gages. The paring knife has the two metallic edges to guide it. Fig. 306 is Hoe's machine for the same purpose. BEVELING MACHINE. 100 BEVEL SAWING MACHINE. Foot Beveling Machine. It is of metal. The plane runs in an oblique chan- nel so as to use the whole edge of the knife, and give a shearing cut to the board. The table is Kig. 306. Beveling Machine for Binders' Boards. adjustable to give any required bevel. The front gage or stop is formed by the farther edge of the groove ; the end gage is movable on the table. Fig. 307 Bev'el Jack. An intermediate gearing between a prime motor and a machine to be driven, when the motion of a tumbling rod is to be communi- cated to a band, and thereby to the machine. In the bevel jack the gearing is by bevel-wheel and pinion. In England called an intermediate motion. Bev'el Joint. A miter or sloping joint, the faces being dressed to an angle, usually of 45. Bev'el Pla'ter. A mill for rolling bevel-edged circular plates. The thickness is decreased from a center circle to the edge; such plates being used for shingle and veneering saws. Jepson "Scientific American' Sup., r * p. 89. Pedder if Abel . . . "Scientific American Sup.," * 714. Bev'el Pro-tract'or. A drafting instrument Fig. 308. Bevel Protractor. with a pivoted sliding arm, which has a semi-circle divided to degrees. Fig. 308. Bev'el Rest for Band Saw Cut'ting. A Fig. 309. Rest for Bevel Cutting with Band Saw (Arbey, Paris.) holder for stuff on the band-saw table, capable by arc adjustment of being inclined so as to present the stuff obliquely to the table base to be split at any angle by the saw. Fig. 310. Bevel Jack. Bevel Sawing Machine. Bev'el Saw'ing Ma-chine'. A machine the table of which has underneath sector adjustment, BIARETZ. 101 BINOCULAR TELESCOPE. so as to be set at any inclination, and present the stuff to be split obliquely by tbe saw. See also BAND SAW, Fig. 196 supra, and Plate III., opp. p. 76 ; also BEVEL SCROLL-SAW, p. 279, Fig. 669, "Mech. Diet." Bi'ar-etz. (Fabric.) A French goods, warp and weft of merino wool, and woven with a corded or cannel armure. Bi'as Meas'ure. A graduated measure with Fig. 311. Bias Measure. ends at angles of 45 with the base, to assist in measuring and marking off or cutting goods to be " cut on the bias." Bibb. A bent-nosed faucet. Plumbers catalogues cite many varieties : three are shown in Fig. 672, p. 280, "Mech. Diet.' 1 Others are known as Plain Bibbs, Compression Bibbs, Hose Bibbs, Telegraph Bibbs, Wash-tray Bibbs, Bath Bibbs, etc. Biche'roux Fur'nace. (Metallurgy.) One form of GAS-GENERATING FURNACE, which see. May consult : "Engineering and Mining Journal,'' * xxi. 55 ; xxiv. 362. "Scientific American Supplement," * Ixxxviii. 1331. "Iron Age" ........ * xvii., Jan. 13, p. 24 Age "Engineer . . xvii., Jan. 13, p. 24. Jan. 29, p. 1. * xlvi. 91. Bi-chro'mate Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which bichromate of potash with dilute sulphuric acid is used as an exciting fluid. Grenet's is a familiar instance, having a zinc ele- ment between two carbons. Prescott's " Electricity " ..... * p. 72 "Niaudet," American translation . . 211, * 223. "English Mechanic" ...... xxiii. * 12, *466. Simple form of. "Sc. American Sup.," * 2263. Erck, " Scientific American" . . . xl. 169. Ergstrom, "Sc. American Sup.," . . 3791. McCarty. "Sc. American Sup.," . . 3791. Bi'cy-cle. A two-wheeled vehicle, the ultima ratio of the old velocipede. . The " Paragon " may serve as an example. The spokes are of wire, and on the spider-web princi- ple, each spoke having an independent tension. The fellies are of angle iron, the angle holding the round hoop of caoutchouc, " diameter, which is secured by cement. The backbone is tubular ; the front wheel runs on conical bearings. The pedals are of two kinds : wooden blocks with steel bushes and pins, and oval or triangular pedals composed of steel pins, mounted in brass, and cov- ered with India-rubber. The handles are of rosewood, ebony, or ivory, upon a steel rod, the support of polished gun- metal, level with the top of tbe socket, an arrange- ment found to render it easier to mount and dis- mount, and giving more command over the ma- chine generally, both in ascending hills and on the level. Leg-rests are of two kinds, one of which is fixed to the front fork, folding up when not in use, and the other over the front wheel. The saddle is placed as near the wheel as practi- cable, to enable a rider to use a machine with wheels as high as possible. Turner, Eng * "Sc. American Sup.," 1999. English ....... *"Sc. American Sup.." 856. "Sc. American Sup.," 1283. "Columbia" * "Sc. American," xl. 35. * " Sc. American Sup.," 2585. Garrood , * "Sc. American Sup." 1569. Manufacture * "Sc. American," xlii. 181. Otto * "Sc. American," xxxix. 42. "Paragon," " Ariel," etc. * "Sc. American Sup.," 1160. Bi-cus'pid For'ceps. (Dentistry.) Forceps Forceps for Upper or L with moderately narrow curved beaks, adapted for the extraction of bicuspid teeth. Bi-det'. A wash-pan, having special uses. Bid'i-ri. (Fine Art Metal Worltinff.) A species of damascening or inlaying upon an object made of an alloy of copper, lead, and tin, blackened by dipping in a bath of sal-ammoniac, saltpeter, salt, and blue vitriol. Named from Beder in Hyder- abad. Big'gin. 1. A hood or cap. 2. A percolator or strainer for holding coffee while boiling water is poured through it. 3. ( Welsh, pigyn; Gaelic, pigean.) A small earthen pitcher or pot. Bil'let. (Harness.) 1. A short strap punctured with holes and attached to various parts of the har- ness ; used for connecting by a buckle different straps and portions. 2. (Metallurgy.) A bloom or loup of iron in the furnace or mill. Billiards. See Billiard cushion rail. Coltender. * "Sc. Am.," xxxvii. 147. Billiard table . . . Collender. * "Sc. Am.," xxxvii. 22. Billiard table leveler May.. . * "Sc. Am.," xxxv. 211. Billiard table manufacture . . * " Sc. Am.," xl. 302. Bind. (Mining.) Derbyshire: indurated clay. Biiid'er. 1. A binding reaper. See REAPER; REAPER AND BINDER. 2. A machine for binding gavels left in the swath by a reaper. Fig. 315 shows a one-horse machine, having a gathering-rake in front which passes beneath the gavel, raises it by the assistance of a rake reel, and discharges it on to a rear platform, where it is bound, and from whence it is discharged. The machine follows in the wake of a self-raking reaper. 3. An implement to assist in hand-binding of sheaves. See SHEAF BINDER. 4. (Mining.) A piece of iron attached to a truck or barrel, and to which the pit rope is fastened. Bind'ing Post. (Electricity.) A device with a Fig. 314. screw, which secures the end of an elec- Fig. 313. trie wire. The examples are a double table binding- post, Fig. 313, and a binding-screw, Fig. 314. Bi-noc'u-lar Tel'- e-s cope. Ponti's (Venice) portable bi- nocular telescope con- sists of two conjoined parallel telescopes of Binding-post. equal power and length of focus. The object-glass and tube Binding-screw of each are square, and each tube has a micrometer screw for the adjustment of the BIOSCOPE. 102 BI-SULPHIDE OF CAKBON. Johnston's Sheaf Binder. focus. The square form permits the eye-pieces to be brought to the same distance apart as the axes of the eyes of the observer. Binocular microscope. Molera If Cebrian Binocular vision *"Sc. American Sup.," 3869. . "Sc. American,'' xxxvi. 20. Bi'o-scope. A double-vision instrument. In a recent invention of M. Eugene Simmonar, a por- trait is shown with the eyes sometimes open, some- times shut. The illusion of the same person alter- nately awake and asleep is very perfect. To obtain this effect, the inventor takes a double photograph of a sitter in exactly the same position, only in the first the eyes are open, in the second closed. From these two negatives prints are taken, one on the right side, the other on the reversed side of the same sheet of paper, in such a way that the two images, when viewed by transmitted light, accu- rately coincide ; this can easily be done by the car- bon process. By means of a small instrument ar- ranged for the purpose, the light and reversed sides of the paper are alternately illuminated, and the face is seen with the eyes successively open and shut. Thus the illusion of a person rapidly wink- ing can be perfectly produced. Bird Foun'tain. A drinking vessel for birds, on the principle of the fountain inkstand. Bis'cuit Ma-chine'. A machine for making crackers, biscuit, etc. See CRACKER MACHINE. Bi-sec'tor. (Suryical.) A lithotomic instru- ment used in connection with a grooved staff in cutting the prostate gland in operating for stone in the bladder. Fig. 133, p 38, Part III., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Ckirurgicum." 1 Bis'muth Al-loy'. A careful statement of the character and uses of various bismuth alloys is to be found in "Guettier's Metallic Alloys." Copied into "Polytechnic Review," and also into "Engineer- ing and Mining Journal," xxii., p. 137. Bismuth extraction process. Painter's "Report Vienna Ex- position,-' iv. 94. Bis'muth Bronze. An alloy composed as fol- lows : Hard Bronze. Soft Bronze. Bismuth 1 1 Lead 3 5 6 12 Nickel 15 30 25 52 50 " London Mining Journal.'' See also " Mining and Sc. Press " . xxxv. 339. Said to withstand oxidation, and to be particularly suit- able for the preparation of lamp reflectors. Bi-soc'. (Agriculture.} The French name for a two-furrow plow, or gang plow with two bodies. See GANG PLOW. Bis'tou-ry. (Surgical.) A small surgical knife. Fig. 692, p. 287, "Mech. Diet." The figures ensuing refer to the pages in Tiemann's "Ar- mamentarium Chirurgicmn." The bistoury cache has a concealed knife. Fig. 49, Part II., and Figs. 76, 584, 591, Part III. Stap/iylorrhaphy Bistouries, pp. 66,67, Part II., and p. 10, Part V. Tenotome, p. 61, Part I. Sharp-pointed Bistouries, pp. 6, 46, 56, Part I. Probe-pointed Bistouries, pp. 6, 46, 56, Part 1. Hernia Bistouries, pp. 6, 46, 56, Part I. Finger Bistouries, pp. 6, 46, Part I. Ear Bistoury, p. 46, Part II. Bi-sul'phide of Car'bon Ap'pa-ra'tus. In addition to the reference to the Ellis engine, p. 287, "Mech. Diet.," consult Engl. Pat. 11,615 of 1847. Two engines, one worked by steam, the other by vapor of ether, etc. The exhaust steam of one en- gine vaporizes the ether of the other. No. 11,625 additional thereto. No. 96 of 1854, uses bi-sulphide of carbon. Pecoi/l, No. 1,008 of 1855, spiral tubes containing steam are coiled in each end of the cylinder. Sulphuric ether is injected into each end of the cylinder alternately and vaporized in the tubes. 2,768 of 1853 mixes vapor of ether with air. See also : Bi-sulphide of Carbon Apparatus. * "Mining and Scientific Press," xxxvi. 337. Bi-sulphide of Carbon Engines. " Manufacturer and Builder," xii. 110. Bi-gulphide of Carbon Motors, Eng. "Iron Age," xxv. February 5, p. 15, March 25, p. 1L 103 BLACK MORTAR. Bit. (Mini('//f.) The variety of bits used in England much exceeds our knowledge of the ma- ne'ge. The following- are those on sale : Breaking bits. Spring hooks and snaffles. Van and cab bits. Regulation officers' tee pa- \Vilson snaffles. droons. Snaffles and bits, polished, Slabbering bits. tinned, or galvanized. Ladies' riding bits. Ilackney bits and bradoons. Hanoverian bits. Pelhams. Australian ring snaffles. Cig; bite. Indian snaffles and bits. Buckstone. or fancy-cheek Hackney curbs. carriage bits. Carriage curbs. Carriage swivel bradoons. Gig curbs. Stallion bars and chains. A French electric bit is thus arranged : The coachman has under his seat an electro-magnetic apparatus, which he works by a little handle. One wire is passed through the rein to the bit and carried to the crupper, so that a current (nice set up goes the entire length of the animal along the spine. A sudden shock will, it is stated, stop the most vio- lent runaway. Bit Brace. A crank handle for working a bit. Figs. 856-858, p. 353, "Mech. Diet:' Hit-stock . . De Bert . . * "Sc. American," 1 xli. 18. Bit'-brace Die. A screw-cutting die get in Fig. 316. Bit-brace Die. the end of a bit to be worked by a brace. Fig. 316. The tool is use- ful for re-dressing bolts, clips, sta- ples, etc., that have lost nuts, when set in wood- work where it is de- sirable to cut them without re- moval or marring paint ; also, for cutting stove rods and small bolts, in tin-shops and elsewhere. The collets, of malleable, iron, measure in their largest diameter l". The dies are made of one piece of steel, split on one side, held in position in the collet and adjusted by three screws. Bit Stand. A turned piece of wood with perforations in which bits may be stuck to keep them in order and ready for use. For dentists' purposes principally. Bit Strap. (Mnne'ije). A' short strap used to attach the bit to a short cheek bridle, or to a halter. Bit'ting Har'ness. (Afan&je.) A harness con- sisting of a plain halter, a girth with wooden up- rights placed in the center of the pad and set at an angle, and leather reins with, rubber web ends. Kings are attached to the uprights and sides of the girth, into which the ends of the reins are buckled after being passed through the ring of the bit. Used for breaking colts to the bit. Also called breaking harness. Bi'valve Spec'u-lum. (Suryical.) One hav- ing two leaves or flaps. The figures refer to Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirur- gicum." 1 Bivalvular Anal Speculum, p. 118, Part III. Bivalvular Ear Speculum, p. 34, Part II. Bivalvular Nasal Speculum, p. 55, Part II. Bivalvular Vaginal Speculum, pp. 60, 66, Part III. Black-ba'salt Ware. (Ceramics.} One of the contributions of the admirable Wedgwood to the Ceramic art. Invented by him in 1766. It is a fine black ware, choice, and an article de luxe. Black Brick. Bricks colored by heating red- hot, and dipping the exposed surface into a pan containing half an inch or so of melted coal-tar. Soft bricks are the best. "American Architect.''' Black Flux. Composed of 7 parts of crude tartar, 6 parts of saltpeter, 2 parts of common bot- tle ulass, and by some a small amount of calcined borax is added. These ingredients are first finely pounded and mixed, and then gradually heated in an iron pot or ladle so as to burn them together. Care should be taken to not overheat the mixture, and as soon as it is thoroughly melted and mixed together it should be removed from the fire and allowed to cool. After it has cooled it is finely pulverized and sifted, and is then ready for use. Black Glass. The black glass made in Venice is famous for the intensity of its color. M. Kay- ser, a Nuremberg chemist, has ascertained by anal- ysis that manganese is the substance used. To confirm this result, he melted in a small furnace a mixture of sand and sulphur, in which he intro- duced 15 per cent, of peroxide of manganese. He thus obtained a glass of a deep black color; in very fine threads or thiu splinters it was of a sombre violet. Black'ing. 1. For Iron Castings : Common. Coal tar. Finer. Japan varnish. Work exposed to heat. Graphite. Work exposed to weather. Black varnish, dusted with dry graphite, and brushed. Ornamental Castings. Heat to blue annealing heat, coat with black copal varnish, and dry at same heat. To polish, give another light coat, and heat moderately. Mantels. Enamel varnish. Lead-color Paint. Oxide of lead heated in a pot, and flower of sulphur and oil stirred in. 2. For Leather : Harness and Bridle Leather. A decoction of iron-rust and vinegar, or iron-rust and sour wine or sour beer, ap- plied to the grain side of the leather after it has been stained. The vinegar solution is the best. After this application the leather is said to be blacked on the grain. Wax Leather, - A compound of lampblack and soft soap, laid on the flesh side with a brush. The skin is now said to be blacked on the flesh, or waxed. 3. (Founding.) Charcoal in fine powder dusted from a bag on the mold or applied as black wash. Black'ing Bag. (Founding.) A linen bag from which ground charcoal is dusted on to the sur- face of a mold. Black'ing-box Press. A sheet-metal press expressly for cutting and drawing blacking-boxes and covers. See STAMPING PRESS. Black'-land Plow. A light, one-horse, 7" cut, steel plow. The model of its mold and share Fig. 317. Avery's Black-land Plow. is low, long, and narrow, and it is designed ex- pressly for^ the black, waxy prairie lands of the south. Black Lead. Properly, graphite. It is used sometimes for mixing with sand, and for blacking molds ; also frequently for polishing patterns to prevent adhesion. It exceeds all other carbona- ceous matter in incombustibility. Thf uses of graphite are multifarious ; for pencils, crucibles, polish, lubricant, electrotyping, etc., see GRAPH- ITE, page 1010, "Mech. Diet." Black Mor'tar. Take good fat lime, and use no sand, but mix it with fine coal-dust instead of sand. Merely to paint the joints black, mix lamp- black with boiled linseed oil. In the first case it is put in place with the pointing tools ; in the second BLACKSMITHS' CHISEL. 104 BLAST FURNACE. case, it is applied by the particular kind of brush u-cd by house-painjfers for that purpose. Black'smiths' Chis'el. tool with one sharp edge, and used in cutting iron by a blow delivered with a hammer. Black'smith's Lathe. A lathe of moderate size, adapted especially for per- forming repairs in workshops and factories. A special lathe for this purpose turns 12" in diameter over shears, is arranged to be driven by steam, water, horse or hand- power, is self-acting, with means of varying the feed, and can be employed for turning, boring, or drilling, as occasion may require. Black'smith's Sledge, wielded by the blacksmith's helper, and having a cross or straight peen. Black Wash. (Molding.) A fluid application to the sur- face of dry sand molds, loam molds and "cores, consisting of very thin day wash, with an ad- dition of powdered charcoal. When dried it forms a thin layer, which prevents sane? burn- ing, and gives a clear skin to the casting, performing the same function as blacking dust on green sand molds. It is also vised as a parting in loam mold- ing. Blad'der In-ject'or. An instrument to wash out the A hammer-shaped Fig. 318. JilnrLnnithx' Chisels, (a.) Gouge chisel, (h.) Hot chisel. A heavy hammer Fig. 319. Blacksmith's Oross- peen Sledge. Fig. 320. bladder. It consists of a soft rubber catheter, with injection apparatus and valves. The instrument may be described by a detail of the man- ner in which the patient uses it. He prepares eight ounces or more of the injection fluid at a temperature of 110 F. The bag, filled with the warm fluid, is hung up about 6' from the floor. The stopcock is now turned on till all the air is forced out of the tube and a jet of water follow?. The instrument is now charged for use, and no subse- quent disturbance can make it possible for any air to be thrown into the blad- der. Now, standing before a stool bear- ing some receptacle, the patient elowly introduces his catheter, dipped in vase- line, and already attached to the large metallic mouth-piece. As soon as the urine begins to flow, he immediately couples the large nozzle of the stopcock and the large metallic mouth-piece with which his catheter has been provid- ed, and the urine flows promptly through the short rubber tube into the vase on the stool be- fore him. When the urine has escaped, he turns the stopcock and ' Injector. soon V as'the organ begins to feel distended, he turns the stopcock again. The simple motion of turning a stopcock does not communicate the slightest jar to the neck of the bladder while the water flows in and out of the body, obey- ing the natural law of gravitation, so slowly and quietly that the patient scarcely perceives it. He may thus wash his bladder very thoroughly four, five, or six times, without any change of the instrument or its adjustment, except the simple turning to and fro of a stop- cock ; and this he does until the water flows comparatively clear from his bladder. Blad'der In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) These are of various kinds, not including those for ope- rating for stone in the bladder, lithotomic, lithotri- tic, lithoclastic instruments. The figures refer to Tiemann's "Armamentarium Cltirur- gicum.'' Bladder evacuating apparatus . . . pp. 37, 44, Part III. Extrophy (inverted bladder) apparatus p. 47, Part III. Puncturing apparatus ; trocars . . . p. 30, Part III. Tapping apparatus ; aspirator . . . p. 30, Part III. Washing apparatus ; syringes, cathe- ters, etc p. 44, Part III. Blan'ket Riffle. A blanket is taken and cut into strips, and these strips sewed together so as to fit into the sluice under the settler. The edges of the strips of blankets then form a series of riffles for catching quicksilver, gold, and sulphurets. The blanket riffles are about 6" apart. Under the blanket are several half oval bars of iron flat side down, which extend longitudinally through the sluices, and are fastened together. A bell-crank motion moves these bars laterally back and forth under the blanket riffles, and they serve to keep the material gently stirred up so that the tailings will flow off readily. By this lateral mo- tion of the bars under the blanket, the pulp is pre- vented from packing. The edges of the blanket riffles are of the best form for catching gold and quicksilver, and the blankets can be taken out and washed, or eventually burned in the usual way. Blank Flange. * A round plate to be bolted on the flanged end of a pipe to close the aperture. Blank'ing Press. A stamping press for sim- ply cutting out blanks. 'Blank'-work Fold'er. A paper-folding ma- chine, especially adapted for folding blank-work in sections, quires, or single sheets. Blast Fur'nace. (Metallurgy.) One depend- ing upon a column of air driven into it by mechani- cal means, as distinguished from an air furnace or wind furnace, which depends upon chimney draft. Plenum and not vacuum. "The number of blast-furnaces *in the United States is now 700, of which not quite 300 were in blast in 1877 and 1878." Morrell. See the following references : Blast Furnaces. At Bessemer. 111. . *" Engineering," xxi. 462, 486. j-> a tty " Scientific American Sup.," im. Bethlehem, Pa. . . * "Iran Age,'' xx., Nov. 8, p. 1. * "Scientific American Sup., 14(5. * "Engineering," xxiv. 159, p. 163. Buttgenbach, Prussia * "Blake's Report, Vienna Exposi- tion,'' iv. 82+. Carinthian . . . . * Kid., * iv. 21, f seq. Cedar Point ... * "Engineering, xxiv. 465. Clausthal .... * "Engineering," xxiv. 1 Durham, Pa. . . . * "Engineering," xxvii. loO. Hof, Bavaria . . . * "Engineering' , xxiv. II Japanese .... "Iron Age, ' xyu. Apr, JO, p. lo. Lonsdaie, Br. . . . * "Engineering, - xxu. 402. " Lucy Iron Works " * "Engineering,' 1 ' xxvi. 410. " Lucy " Ironton . * " Engineering S' xxvm. 162. Maria-ell, Styria . * "Blake's Report, Vitnna Exposi- tion,' 1 '' iv. 43 +. Meier Iron Co., 111. . * "Engineering,"- xxvii. 315. Of Great Britain . . "Scientific. American Sup 28.. On the form of . . "Iron Age," xvii., April IS, p. I. Stephens .... * "ton Age,''' xx , Nov 15 .p. 5. Warwick .... "Iron Age,' ' xxii., July 11, p. 26. Weimer ... * 'Engineer,'' xlii. 235. Furnace Charger . . * "Scientific American Sup.,' 19<. Weimer If Berkenbine * "Engineering,' xx. 9.. * "Polytechnic Rev.," n. iW. Williamson, Br. . . "Iron Age,'' * xi --- ruly ' 26 ' 1! P^ ; Furnace Feeder, Moore * "Iron Age,-' xx., October 1, p. &. Furnace Fuel, Anthracite. . Lebanon, Pa. . . . * "Engineering, xxiv. 286. * "Scientific American Sup.," iwo Hydro-carb., Cassell * "Iron Age," xix., Feb. 22, p. 5. BLAST GAS FURNACE. 105 BLASTING GELATINE. Liquid Fuel . . . Natural gas . . . Petroleum in, Belg. Furnace Hearth. Lmmann .... Furnace Linos. Hartman .... Blast Furnace Plant. Crown Point, N. Y. . Cumbria Iron Works. "Scientific American Sup.," 47. "Iron Age,-' xxvii., Feb. 17, p. 1. "Scientific American,'" * xxv. 83. ''Eng. and Min. J.," xxi. 128. "Iron Age," xxv., March 4, p. 1. ; "Engineering,' 1 ' xxv. 220. " Engineering," xxvi. 154. Blast Gas Fur'nace. An apparatus used for the fusiou of refractory metals, etc. Fig. 321. of 0.5" of water, and the blast of air about ten times that pressure. The quantity of gas used in an hour is about 100 cubic feet. When the gas is lighted and the blast of air is put on, the name produced by the gas-burner is quite blue and free from smoke. It is 2" in diam- eter and 3" high, and the point of greatest heat is about 2" above the flat face of the gas-burner. Above this steady blue flame there rises a flicker- ing, ragged flame, several inches in height, varying with the pressure of the gas. In the blue flame, thin platinum wires fuse readily. Blast Gate. The stop-cock or vulved aperture of a blast-pipe. Fig. 324. It lias a particular form of gas-burner, which is supplied with gas at the usual pressure, and with a blast of common air, supplied by bellows or a blow- ing machine, at about ten times the pressure at which the gas is supplied. The furnace is built up round the flame that is produced by the gas-burner, and the crucible that is exposed to ignition. Fig. 321 shows the arrangement of the apparatus, Fig. 322 a vertical section of the burner, and Fig. 323 gives a horizontal section of the burner. The gas burner is a cylindrical iron reservoir, constructed as shown in Fig. 322. It contains two chambers, which are not in communication with one another. Into the upper chamber, gas at or- dinary pressure is allowed to pass by the tube m:\rked GAS. Into the lower chamber, air is forced by the Fig. 323. Kurnn- of Btusi Gas Furnace. Section of Blast Gas Furnace. tube marked AIR. The upper part of the burner is an inch thick in the metal. Through this solid roof holes are bored for the escape of the gas. The air passes from the lower chamber through a series of small tubes placed in the center of the gas- holes, and continued to the surface of the burner, so that the gas and air do not mix until both have left the gas-burner, and then a current of air is blown through the middle of each jet of gas. The bottom of the gas-burner is made to unscrew, and the division between the two chambers, which car- ries the air-tubes, is removable, for the purpose of being cleaned. The gas has usually had a pressure Blast Gate. Blast-heat'ing Stove. A stove or oven for heating air for blast furnaces. Durham, Pa. Lonsdale, Br. * "Engineering," xxvii. 161. * "Engineering, ,'' xxxii. 480. Blast'ing. Rending by exploding substances. Blasts "Sc. American," xl. 391. Blasting Cartridges Blasting Explosives . Blast at Hell-gate . . Blasting, Principles of Dynamite under water "Sc. American,'' xxxiv. 391. ":. American Sup.,"' 2018. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xv. 476. * "R. R. Gazette," xxii. 217, 229. * "Engineer,'' xliii. 261. Noted effective blasts : Glendon Iron Quarry, Easton, Pa., 12,000 Ibs powder, dis- placing 60,000 tons of rock. Reservoir Ditch Co., Yuba Co., Cal., 50,000 Ibs. Judson powder, displacing 250,000 tons of gravel. Consult : Drinker's "Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, etc.," New York, 1878. Andre's "Rock Blasting," London, 1878. General Newton's Annual Report " On Removal of Obstruc- tions at Hell-gate,'' 1873-76. Williamson 4" Heuer's "Report on Removal of Blossom Rock.'' General Burgoyne's" Blast ing and Quarrying of Stone and Blowing-up of Bridges.'' Blast'ing Com'pound. Huetter's gun-cotton and nitrate of baryta. " Chemiker Zeitung.'' "Scientific American Supplement," 2800. See, also, list under EXPLOSIVES. Blast'ing Gel'a-tine. A new explosive agent, discovered by M. Nobel. This substance, called in England, " Blasting Gelatine,'" is formed by dis- solving collodion cotton in nitro-glycerine in the proportion of 10 per cent, of the former to 90 per cent, of the latter. The result of the solution is a gelatinous, elastic, transparent, pale-yellow sub- stance, having a density of 1.6, and the consistence of a stiff jellv. The new explosive is in itself much less easily affected by blows than ordinary kiesel- guhr-dynamite ; but it may be rendered far more insensible to mechanical impulse by an admixture BLASTING GELATINE. 106 BLIND-LATH PUNCHING MACHINE. of a small proportion (from 4 to 10 per cent.) of camphor. Experiments have been carried out, the result of which is to prove that 'the new explosive possesses, weight for weight, 25 per cent., and bulk for bulk, 40 per cent, more explosive power than ordinary dynamite. With moist gun-cotton, gel- atine compares nearly as favorably. See article by II. Baden Pritchard in "Nature;" repro- duced in "Scientific American Supplement," 2869. See, also, "Engineering ami Mining Journal," 1 xxvi. 271. Blast Lamp. One with an artificially pro- duced draft of air to aid combustion. Lavender, * "Engineer,'- xlii. 309. Blast Noz'zle. The opening of the blast-pipe at the foot of the smoke-stack of a locomotive. Annular, Mallet, Fr * "Engineering," 1 xxv. 221. Annular, Brown, Winterthur . * "Engineering," xxv. 170. Noise suppressor, Aveling . . * "Engineer,'' xlii. 41. Shaw ... * "Engineer," xlii. 41. Blast-Re-cord'er. An instrument for keeping a record of the time a hot-blast oven is in blast. The ovens, of the Whitwell class, for instance, are used alternately, the work of each being intermit- tent, as is the case also with the Siemens' and Ponsard regenerators, and the punctual shifting of the blast to the respective sides of the twin stoves is important. See REGENERATOR, GAS GENER- ATING FURNACE, etc. In the illustration, Fig. 325, the recorder is adapted to indicate the performance of twenty-one pairs of ovens, each of which has its iron pencil which records the performance on the paper, in manner following : A pipe leading from the blast pressure termi- nates at a cross-bar opposite the drum, to which the pencil mechanism is fastened ; when the blast comes on a small piston is caused to project for- ward forcing the pencil upon the paper; the joint Fig. 325. Bailey's Blast- Recorder. is made air-tight by means of an elastic diaphragm, about an inch in diameter. The diagram completes a revolution by clockwork once a week, and the number of hours worked by each oven can be at once seen by the length of the stroke which its pencil has made upon the paper. See " Enginee r " .... * xlv. 30. " Scientific American, ' * xxxviii. 131. Blast Reg'u-la'tor. Hoge's blast-governor, for grain separators, has a blast-regulating valve, automatically adjusted by means of another valve or piston suitably connected to it, the latter being actuated by the difference in pressure of the blast and the external air. Patent, No. 138,563. Bleach'e-ry Boil'er. The blcachery boilers of Lawrie, of Glasgow, are shown in Fig. 241, Ar- ticle " Blcmchiment, ' Laboitlaijf'ti " Diclionnaire des Arts tt Manufacture*," Tome iv., ed. 1877. See also KEIH and BUCKING KEIR in " M-lt. Diet." Blende. (Mining.) An ore of zinc, consisting of zinc and sulphur. Blind. A window screen. Made in several forms : a series of slats strung upon cords ; a win- dow shutter with slats in the panels ; a shutter of iron slats wound upon a roller and letting down in front of a store window to protect it at night. Blinds, metallic. Hayes. .... . *"Man>tf. and Builder," ix.161. *"Manuf. and Builder,'' x. 102. Blind Clamp. A machine on which the parts of a blind are brought together and pressed into shape. In the example, Fig. 326, this is done by a single motion. Vis. 326. Blind Clamp. Carpenters' and joiners' clamps and similar de- vices for boxes, sash, doors, etc., are mentioned uuder their respective heads. Blind'-fast. The fastening of a blind or shut- ter. Blind Ink. Invented by Edison. An ink which at first makes a grayish-white mark, but soon swells up into relief on the paper, so as to be traced by the touch of the fingers. Blind'-lath Punch'ing Ma-chine'. A ma- chine for perforating the slats of Venetian blinds for the running cord by which they are adjusted. Fig. 327. Venetian. Blind-lath Punching Machine. (Eng. Beneath the lever is a curved cutter, oblong in sec- tion, like the opening to be punched. See Fig. 327. BLIND-RELISHING MACHINE. 107 BLIND STITCH. Blind'-rel'ish-ing Ma-chine'. See SASH- RELISHING MACHINE. Blind'-slat Crimp'ing Ma-chine'. A ma- Fig. 328 chine used for compressing the ends of stationary blind slars so as to tit and till the mortises. It may be operated by hand or power. The slats are placed in a hopper, or receiver, at the top of the machine, and the rotary motion given to the bal- ance wheel operates the dies by a combination of cams, and this motion will drop a slat, carry it to the dies, compress both ends, and throw it oft. Bliiid'-slat Pla'ner. A planing machine for finishing sluts for window-blinds, doing the work on both sides, and rounding the edges simultane- ously. / / are hand-wheels by which the edge- cutters G are re-^tilnted to any width of slat. The table is regulated by screws underneath. C D are the pulleys of the upper and lower cylinders, each of which has four cutters. The machine has four sets of feed-rolls. F E are bands from pulley B, leading to the edge-cutter arbors. Fig. 329. Blind'-slat Ten'on-ing Ma-chine'. A ma- chine which operates upon long rods which have been dressed to the shape for slats. The slat is fed endwise through rotating chucks, the shoulder be- ing pressed against an adjustable gage for reg- ulating the length of slat. By the peculiar con- Fig. 330. Blind-slat Planer. Blind-slat Tenoning Machine. struction of the revolving cutting tools, two tenons are cut and divided with one cutter head simulta- neously at one operation. A pressure upon the treadle causes a rotation of the slat and at the same time depresses the chucks carrying the slat against the cutting tools, enabling them to form a perfect tenon on each end. By releasing the treadle the chucks are instantly stopped, in order that the slat may be fed to the gage, at the same time the driving belt is slackened, so as to slip and not drive. It will work any length of slat from 1|" up to 24", and will make any size of tenon desired. See also Blind Machinery on pp. 298-300, "Mech. "Die/.'" Blind'- stile Bor'er and Mor'tis-er. This machine acts upon two stiles at once, and will make mortises of any length, from >\ round hole up to 2-J" ; or it will bore stiles with round holes for rolling blind slats. See Fig. 331. Blind'-stile Rout'er. A machine for cutting the recesses for blind-rods ; in fact, a boring machine for the tenons of slats which occupy each an oblique mor- tise in the stile. See Fig. 332. Blind Stitch. (Har- ness.) An ornamental stitch placed upon the outside cover to a blind or strap, the under side of which is covered by the lining. A stitch that is shown on one side only of the leather. BLIND-WIRING MACHINE. 108 BLOCKING HAMMER. Blind-wir'iiig Ma-chine'. This machine (Fig. 333) has guides for conducting the staple to the rod ; a device for feeding the staple between the guides, a driver for forcing them into the rod, and Fig 331. the fourteenth century. See BLOCK-PRINTING, p. 303, "Mech. Diet." S. (Arch.) A plainer enriched projecting divis- ion in an entablature. Blind-stile Borer anil a device for moving the rod forward any required distance as each staple is driven. It is mounted on a substantial iron column and worked by foot, leaving the operator free with both hands to manipulate his work. It will space off, and set and drive at the rate of 80 staples per min- ute. Fig. 332. Blind-stile Router. Blis'ter Steel. (Metallurgy.} Another name for cement steel ; made from wrought iron in a cementation furnace. Figs. 1197, 1198, p. 509, " Mech. Diet." Block. 7. (Add.) An engraved wooden stamp, used for printing fabrics before the invention of the roller printer. Block-printed linen was produced in Flanders in (Pulleys.) Bouc/ie, the metallic bushing of the Channel, the opening in the shell to hold the sheave. Cheeks, the sides of the shell. Coa/c, the bushing of tin; sheave. Gorge, the groove uround the sheave. I'in, o r Pintle ; on which the sheave runs. Score, the grooves on the body to hold the strap. Sheave, the groove- edged wheel for t h e rope. Shell, the body. Strap, or Strop, the band of iron or rope which goes around the block. Sw all ow, the space be- -jjjg?.-^ tween the 5j=s^ sheave a u d w^ _ ^ shell i 11 which the rope runs. Block-mak- ing machin- See p. 303, *"Mec/i. Blocks and R o p e'-l e a d-e r s. See under the follow - cheeks. ing heads : Angle block. Anti-friction block. Awning block. Becket block. Boom-sheet block. Bull's eye. Buntline leader. Cargo block. Chain pulley-block. Clothes-line block. Davit block. Dead eye. Deck block. Differential block. Differential pulley block. Dock block. Eye block. Gin block. Heart. Hoisting block. Hook and swivel block. Horse hay-fork block. Iron strapped block. Jib-sheet block. Lizard. Loose-hook block. Blind-wiring Machine. Man-rope eye. Match-hook block. Open-sheave block. Parrel-truck. Peak halliard block. Power hoisting-block. Pulley block. Roofing block. Rope eye. Rope-strapped block. Sheave. Sister-hook block. Snatch block. Stiff-hook block. Swing-block. Swivel-block. Swivel-hook block. Tackle block. Thimble. Thimble-eye block. Top-mast truck. Traveler rope. Truck. Well-wheel block. Wire rope thimble. Block'er. (Hat Making.) A hat blocking ma- chine. See BLOCKING MACHINE. Block'ing Ham'mer. 1. A steel hammer from one to two pounds weight, used in breaking masses of flint to form blocks from which flakes can be detached by the flaking hammer. Called also a quartering hammer. Evans' "Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain," 17. 2. A hammer used Kig 334. in straightening sawvS. The face at A is slightly rounded, and its shape, com- bined with its line of motion, gives it a sort of draw blow, which spreads the Blocking Hammer. BLOCKING MACHINE. 109 BLOCKING MACHINE. force of the displacement of material iii a given direction, and not merely equally on all sides. " Scientific American," * xxxvi. 259. Block'ing Ma-chine'. A machine in which the crude cone-shaped hat-body is brought to shape. The operation consists in pulling out the edge to develop the brim, and widening out the upper part to form the tip and the side crown. It is necessary, in order to stretch the hat, to soften the felt in boiling hot water, and the han- dling is exceedingly difficult. The first machine for the purpose was invented by D. Beard, of Guilford, N. C., and patented May 28, 1816. It was a blocker made of a number of pieces hinged at their lower ends to a bench and spread from the center by a treadle, while the hat body was held on the block by the operator. This was the only invention in this part of the hat manufac- ture until that of \V. A. Fenn, of Danbury, Conn., patented April 21, 185T. In Fenn's machine, two pairs of conical rollers were put into a frame so arninjred that the upper pair could be pressed upon the lower ones. The forward pair of these rollers re- volved at a slightly faster speed than the other pair, and, Fig. 335. Eickemeyer's Hat-stretching Machine. when the edge of a hat body was clamped between the lower and upper rollers, that part of it which was between the two pairs was drawn out, and the hat body thus gradually stretched around the edge until sufficiently flattened to form the brim. See also his patents, April 14, 1857 ; January 19, 1858. A number of machines of this kind came into use, but, their action being slow and doing but part of the work, the machines did not prove of sufficient advantage to bring them into general use. The first machine which performed the stretching of a hat body successfully, on wool as well as on fur hats, was the corrugation stretcher invented by R. Eickemeyer, and this machine in its various modifications to suit the different Fig. 336. kinds of work is now almost exclusively used in the hat fac- tories of this country. The machine illustrated in Fig. 335 represents a stretcher now in use in the wool hat factories. A ribbed and recessed former is mounted upon an up- right spindle, which receives motion through a walking-beam and connecting-rod from the crank-shaft. Upon the cast- iron side frames the head of the machine is supported : in this head the stretching devices are suspended. The de- tails are more clear in some respects in the sectional view, Fig. 336. A series of levers, L, cor- responding in number with the recesses in the upper part of the fanner, D, is sus- pended upon bearings and held in position by a plate, H, upon which a rubber spring, G, is pressed by a screw-wheel, G 1 . In the lower ends of the forked levers smooth rounded roll- ers have their bearings. Another series of rollers, M, with levers, N, and cor- responding in number with the ribs in the lower part of the former, is also sus- pended from this head, and these latter levers are adjustable by a hand- r wheel, F, nearer to or Head with Stretching Levers farther from the center of (Hat-stretching Machine). the machine, as shown in dotted lines on one side of the sectional view. A hat body properly wetted with hot water, or by steam, is placed upon the former while the machine is in motion. The former moving upward brings the hat body in contact with these rollers which enter the recesses between the ribs of the former, and the hat body is thus readily stretched. Five or six upward motions are required to develop the tip and brim fully, the operator shifting the hat body around the center every time the former is at its lowest position, to pre- sent other parts of the hat body for contact. The hat hav- ing been stretched, it now remains to make what is called in the trade the band, namely, the sharp angle formed by the junction of the brim and side-crown. This operation is performed on the blocking machine, of which Fig. 337 is a perspective view, while in Figs. 338, 339, Fig. 337. Wool-hat-body Blocking Machine. BLOCKING MACHINE. 110 BLOMARY. The block-carrier t, Bawling Machine. First Position. w ;th the block rf, has in the mean time also moved up to position shown in Tig. ooo GOO. Fig. 339. Fig. 340. and 340 the action of the machine upon the hat is illustrated. The machine consists of a frame, in which an upright slid- ing-spindle is centrally mounted. Upon this spindle, which is ope- rated from the crank- ., shaft by the walking- J be.iui, is the block d (Fig. 338, etc.), upon which the hat to be drawn is placed. A supporting plate, e, which receives motion through two rods from a lever, r-, from the ad- justable crank on the side of the machine, receives the hat. When the plate e is raised, a plate, f, which rests upon brackets on the frame, clamps the hat brim, and the two, con- tinuing to move up, draw the hat body over the banding shell h. The block-carrier 1 Fig. The clamping plates e f now commence to de- scend, while the block rf continues to move up, and enters the banding shell, drawing the side- crown over the round edge of the shell h, as seen in Fig. 339. These motions continue until the plates e f rest upon the flange of the block-carrier /, and the hat is drawn perfectly- smooth upon the block d, as shown in the last of j the sectional diagrams, j Fig. 340. The spindle now begins to move down, when the Second Posi- upo^u'i^H-ac'kets 'of the """ frame, the hat and block are removed, and the operation repeated on the next -hat. With the use of the stretcher, Fig. 337, and one of the block- ers here described, 20 dozen of wool hats can be stretched and blocked per hour by two opera- tors. To adapt the principle of stretching by corruga- tion to fur hats, a num- ber of modifications were required. It was found advantageous to separate the brim-stretcher from the tip-stretcher, and to substitute round-edged bars for the round-edged rollers. See BRIM-STKETCHER, TIP-STRETCHER. For the finishing- blocker, see HAT-SHAPING JlUWm MACHINE. Banding Machine. Third Posi- -_, , tion. Block Plane. A plane, the bit of which is set at a very acute Fig 341. " Victor "Block Plan' angle to the working surface, to enable it to plane across the grain of the wood : as distinguished from a smooth plane, which see and compare. Block Sys'tem. A system used to prevent more than one train from occupying a given space between stations at the same time. By this system a train is not allowed to leave station A until the signal-man at A learns from the signal-man at B that the preceding train has reached B, or that the line is clear between .1 and B, The system is confounded in some cases with the interlocking system of switches and signals; the latter, however, is used only in connection with switches at stations, junctions, etc , and has noth- ing to do with the movements of trains between stations. See the following references : Block signaling . . * "Telegraphic Journal, " iv. 21. * ll Teligraphir Journal," iv. 33, 69. "Telegraphic Journal,"' iv.173, 208. Automatic .... * "Eiufiim rinu, '' xxi. 428. * "Railroad tln-.ttr," xxii. 113. "Engineer," xli. 359. Needle disk signaling instrument. Spagnoletti . . . * " Telegraphic Journal,"' iv. 34. Semaphore three-wire signaling instrument. Preece * " Telegraphic Journal,'''' iv. 54. Preece's single wire instrument. * " Telegraphic Journal,'' iv. 82. Saxby fy Farmer . * "Railroad Gazette,"* xxii. 341. Tyer If Norman . * " Telegraj/liic Journal," iv. 129. Walker's semaphore * " Telegraphic Journal," iv. 115. Whyte "Amer. Railroad Jour., xlix. 861. " Van Nostrand's Man.," xxii. 457 " Scientific American $up.," x. 1. Block Truck. A small strong four-wheeled truck for single ^ig. 342. heavy packages. Blom'a-ry. (Met- allurgy.) 1. A form of furnace for the extraction of mallea- ble iron from ore. The term may be held to include the various Uotk Tmck - native processes not yet disused entirely in Europe, ;md practiced from time immemorial in Asia and Africa (see Km. 5220, p. 2221, "Mfch. Diet.'')- These furnaces me on a small scale, open at top, and are frequently made of clay or earth, with openings below for the tuyeres of the rude bellows used to urge the fire. Iron sand, or rich pulverized ore. are heated with charcoal, and the metal agglutinates into a lump (loup), which is hammered to remove dross, and then forms a bloom. The heat of the furnace is not sufficient to melt the metal. The Catalan furnace is a notable example (see Cata- lan Furnace, Fig. 1185, p. 502, "Mtch. Diet") ; but the same form is found in Silesia and Bohemia, as well as in other iron countries of Europe, as a ready method of working rich ores where wood is abundant, and without much ex- pense for plant. The description by Diodorus Siculus of the process used in the island of Elba in his time is quite lucid, and his state- ment that it forms an iron sponge brings him in technical accord with the metallurgists of to-day ; or us with him, let us say. In the Catalan furnace the ore is principally deposited upon a sloping wall of the furnace opposite the tuyere, and the rest of the cavity filled with charcoal. The iron sinks to the bottom, and the agglomerated mass is removed at intervals of time. In the German blomary the furnace is filled up with burn- ing charcoal, and the broken ore is placed on top, being re- newed from time to time as it sinks down through the fuel ; until enough has gathered at bottom to form a loup, which is withdrawn and forged into a bloom. The German blomary has been somewhat extensively in- troduced into the United States, and the names it is known by, the Champlain forge, Jersey forge, indicate the places and classes of ores upon which it has been successfully used. The Northern New York blomaries furnish large amounts of metal for the Pittsburg steel maker.-. The original forges among rude nations were small pits or clay-walled structures ; refractory stone was then used, but iron boxes are now frequent, lined with refractory bricks. The French Catalan forge is about 40" X 32", 24" deep. The German blomary forge is about 21" X 14",. 15" deep. The Northern New York, 28" X 32", 36" deep. BLOMARY. Ill BLOWER. The figures vary very much, but these are approximate. At the Moisic works, on the Lower St. Lawrence, the mag- netic iron sands are worked in a German bloniary, with a hot blast at 600 Full., and the slag is withdrawn from above the iron by tapping. Pig-iron is converted into blooms in 58 bloinaries, which are mainly located in Pennsylvania. Blooming mill, Springfield, 111. * "Engineering," xxix. 372. 2. A furnace iu which pig-iron is purified, and made fit to be forged into a bloom of malleable iron. A puddling furnace. Bloom. (Leather.) A yellowish deposit upon the grain-side of a hide or skin derived from the bark used in tanning. Its ease of removal de- pends upon the hardness of the water used by the tanner. The softer the water the more readily can the bloom be removed. Bloom Truck. A small iron truck on two Fig. 343. Bloom Truck. wheels, for carrying blooms or fagots of iron from the furnace to the hammer or squeezer. Blot'tiiig Pa'per. Description of the grades, makes, and methods of manufacture of various blot- Fig. 344. Disston's Pressure Blower. ting papers. "Paper Trade Journal," reproduced in " Scientific American Supplement," p. 266. Fig. 345. Baker's Pressure Blower. Blow. (Founding.) A casting is said to blow when, in consequence of the dense nature of the sand or the inadequate vent provided by the molder, Fig. 346. Root's Pressure Blotvtr. the gases and steam force their way through the molten metal instead of passing quietly off. This Fig. 347. takes place occa- sionally with great violence and noise, masses of the fluid metal being thrown from the mold. Blow'er. 1. Additional to the forms of duplex rotative pistons (shown on p. 1985, " Mech. Diet.") act- ing in concert and forming what are known as pressure blowers, inas- much as the air in- closed is absolutely Mackenzie's Pressure Blower. driven, are some (Smith, Sayre $ Co.) other forms, which do not need specific detailed de- scription, as the sectional views will be readily com- prehended. Root's miim ven- tilator is a form of blower. See " Sci- ent ifi c A merican Sup.," x. 1588. The terms blow- er, blowing engine, blowing machine, though perhaps readily d i s t i n- guishable, are used somewhat i n d i s- criminately. The blowing engine i s properly a ma- chine having the power within itself, and in this respect the air-compress- i n g machine / ? i , allied' The ** P "'" ^, v , (French). are all forms of air-pumps, and mechanical ventila- tors are congeners. Insufflators, injectors, ejectors, atomizers, aspirators, also have many features iu common with blowers. Bellows, perhaps, are the most common examples of the class. BLOWER. 112 BLUE GLASS. Fig. 349. Emery's Report, "Centennial Reports,' 11 vol. vi., Group XX., contains notices of Sturtevant * p. 41. Root *p.41. (Gas exhauster) * p. 42. Baker * p. 42. Weimer (piston) * p. 44. Fig. 348 is a French form of blower, the rotative motion of the hand-wheel being converted by crank and pitman into a reciprocating motion of the pis- ton in a cylinder. It is double-acting. Fig. 349 shows a blowing machine for the labo- ratory or assay office, to be used in connection with a blast gas-furnace (which see), or similar appa- ratus. 2. (Mining.) A strong discharge of gas from a hole or fissure. Blow'-guii. A tube with a missile propelled by the breath. Blow'ing En'- gine. The recip- rocating piston- blower, driven by b e a m-engine, i s shown in Figs. 3, 4, article "Ma- chines Sufflantes," tome ii., Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufac- tures," ed. 1877. The same article has the trompe, bellows, tympanum, helix, etc. ^ See under the fol- ^_ lowing references ~~- also : Blowing engine. Baker * " Eng. fy Min. Jour., " xxii. 282. Bethlehem, Penn. . . * "Engineering," xxiv. 199. Beverley If Atkins, Eng. * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2253. Cambria Iron Co. . . * "Engineering," xxvi. 233. Crown I'oiut, N. Y. . * "Engineering," xxv. 208. Disston * "Eng. $ Min. Jour.," xxii. 298. Georgshiitte, Ger. . . * "Engineering," xxvi. 28. Knowles * "Iron Age," xvii., Feb. 10, p. 1. Knowlts * "Eng. $ Min%Jour.," xxii. 247. Lebanon, Penn. (See Weimer). Lonsdale, Br. ... * "Engineering,'' xxii. 498. " Lucy Iron Works" . * "Engineering," xxvi. 411. * "Engineeiing," xxviii. 161. Morris, vertical ... * "Engineer," xlii. 95. "Iron Age," xvii., April 20, p. 3. * "Engineering," xxii. 128. * "Scientific American," xli. 322. * " Scientific American Sup. ,"610. Pribram, Austria . . "Iron Axe," xvii.. May 11, p. 16. Reading Hyd. Works . * "Iron Age," xviii., Oct. 12, p. 1. Root * "Eng. 4' Min. Jour.," xxii. 268. Weimer Works, Penn. * "Engineering," xxii. 294. * " Scientific American Sitp.," 799. * "Iron Age," xviii., Oct. 9, p. 1. * " Iron Age," xx., Sept. 30, p. 3. * "Iron Age," xxv., June 3, p. 1. Blower. Boston Blower Co. . * "Man. If Builder," x. 1. "Keystone' 1 . . . . * " Iron Age." xviii., Dec. 21, p. 7. " Cyclops,'' Rownson, Drew Sf Co., Br. * "Engineering,'" xxi. 8. Steam, for smithy, Korting. * " Scientific American Sp.,"616, Reversible, Sturtevant * "Manufac. If Builder," xi. 102. Root *" Scientific American Sup." 800. Forge, Roof .... * "Iron Age" xix., June 28, p. 1. Rotary, Aland ... * "Manuf. if Builder, ix. 76. Blower and exhauster. Brakell, Br * "Engineer," xlii. 239. Braked , * "Scientific American Sup.," 839. Blow-pipe furnace. Brustltin, Fr. . . . * "Iron Age," xxii., Aug. 15, p. 15. French Circular Bellows. Blow'iiig Fur'nace. (Glass.) One from which the melted glass is worked, after having been previously fused in a melthuj furnace,' and then transferred to the blowing furnace ; the con- tents of the melting-pots being transferred in suc- cession. This is the preferable practice when fuel is cheap. In America the glass is usually worked direct from the melting furnace. Blow'iug Ma-chine'. See BLOWER ; BLOW- ING ENGINE. (Mining.) A small set of Blow'ing Tools. blasting instruments. Blow'-off Cock. A faucet to allow a part of Fig. 350. 'Sc. Amer. Sup.," 204. ' Sc. Amer.," xxxiv. 115. 'Sc. Amer. Sitp.," 698. 'Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1510. 'Sc. Amer.," xlii. 99. Blow-off Cocks, a. Blow-off bib-cock. b. Blow-off hose-cock. the contents of a boiler to escape to get rid of mud, sediment, or saturated salt water. Blow'-pipe. The following references may be consulted : Dodge $ Gushurst " "Sc. Amer. Stfp.," 896. Bellows, Casamajor .... * "Sc. Amer. Sup." 2081. Dodge *"Sc. Amer.," xxxv. 374. Landauer * 'Sc. Amer ,'^xxxiv. 131. Pocket, Casamajor .... Rumley And spectroscope .... And gas generator, Thomson Foot power, Burgess . . . The blow-pipe for glass working is described in Laboulaye's "Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," tome iii., Article " Souffler le Verre." Blow-pipe of combustible vapors. Ibid. Fig. 398, tome i. , Article " C/ialumeau." See, also, Planner's "Blow-pipe Analysis;" Plymptoji's "Blow-pipe Analysis." Blow'-pipe Furnace. One in which the air, combustible, and sometimes steam therewith, are blown into a metallurgic furnace for smelting, re- ducing, or vaporizing metals. Duryea's blow-pipe ore-furnace is an example. Blow'-through Cock. passage to steam from a cylinder or other chamber in the process of heating the same and expelling the air b y blowing steam through it. Blub'ber M i n'- cing M a - c h i n e'. Slow-through Plug Cock. A machine for cutting up whale blubber for trying out. Patent 3,290 Soule # Carsley. 9,478 Ricketson. 28,179 Hunter. The blubber knife, blubber hook, and blubber fork are used in preparing and handling the blubber. Blue Bronze. A blue powder for dusting on a prepared adhesive surface. Mix powdered mica with a blue pigment, add the mixture to varnish, and lay on with a brush. See "Manufacturer If Builder," vi. 299 ; viii. 263. Blue Glass. Glass colored with cobalt, man- ganese, etc. Has some peculiar effects on vegeta- A faucet to allow Pig. :ir,l. BLUE PROCESS FOR COPYING. 113 BOAT. tive growth, and the same is claimed to be true iu respect of animal growth. Sec Gen. A. J. Pleasanton's Patent, September 26, 1871. "Scientific American," xxxvi. 113. "Iron Age,'' xix., February 22, p. 3. Mang. and Chrome . "Sc. American Supplement," 2080. Blue Pro'cess for Cop'y-ing. A mode of copying tracings in lieu of re-tracing them. On a board as large as the tracing lay two thick- nesses of blanket to give a yielding backing ; lay on this the copying paper, sensitized side upward, and upon this the tracing, which is covered by a glass plate to hold all smoothly. Expose in sunlight for from six to ten minutes, or under a sky-light for thirty minutes. Remove the paper, drench it with water, and hang by one corner to dry. For tbe sensitizing solution, take iu vessel: If oz. citrate of iron and ammonia. 8 oz. clear water. In another vessel : I 1 , oz. red prussiate of pot:is-,-i. 8 oz. water. Mix solutions, and keep in yellow bottle or away from light. The solution is applied with a sponge, and the paper laid aw:iy in the dark. VVhen dry, the paper is yellow or bronze ; after exposure, a darker bronze ; after washing, the blue tint appears with lines in white. Blu'ing. A fine blue tint is obtained by boiling in ni or steel articles in the following mixture: Dissolve 4 oz. hyposulphite of soda in 1| pint of water, and then add a solution of 1 oz. acetate of lead in 1 oz. of water. Bluii'ger. (Ceramics.) A revolving bar in which the materials for pottery are incorporated. The materials, with sufficient water to form a slip, are agitated by paddles, on a horizontal axis which revolves in the box. The slip is run off to the strainer or consolidator (which see). Blunt Gor'get. (Surgical.) A lithotomic in- strument for forcing an opening through the pros- tate gland, in place of cutting. Fig. 139, Part III., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Ckirur- gicum." Blunt Hook. (Surgical.) One for grasping Fig. 352. and bed are made of cast iron, the shears and shaft of cast steel. The board is first cut into long strips, and then, by the adjustment of a latch, the bed carries in the strips for cross-cutting. Fig. 354. Obstetric Blunt Hook. without piercing. Used in various operations. The figures refer to Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chiruryicinn." Staphylorraphy hook .... Page 10, Part V. Trachea hook Page 93, Part II. Obstetric hook . p age 112, Part III. Vesico-vaginal hook Page 68, Part III. Board Clip. A device for holding paper on a board. Especially intended for tele- graph dispatch blanks which are written upon the top blank of a pile and then torn off. Board Cut'ter. 1. (Bookbinding.) A machine with circu- lar shears for cut- Board Cl,p. ting binders' board into sizes for use. The frame Fig. 353. Board Cutter. Board Cut'ting Ma-chine'. 2. A machine for cutting thin boards from balks or squared logs. A powerful machine of this character, invented by Bartlett, has an oblique knife the length of the log, and the boards are shaved off in the manner of a veneer. "Scientific American,''' * xxxviii. 143. For the various machines used in Veneer cutting and working, see Figures 6937-6952, pp. 2699-2702, "Mech. Diet.' 1 Board'ing. (Leather.) Doubling the leather with the flesh sides together, and driving the fold forward and drawing it backward by the graining- board. It makes the leather supple and raises the grain. Board'ing Knife. ( Whaling.) For cutting the blanket piece of blubber ; the long piece which is flensed or peeled from the sides of the whale. Board Scale. A weighing balance for assort- ing, and for ascertaining the number of sheets of pasteboard to make up bundles of 50 pound^. Board Sea'son-ing Ma-chine'. A machine in which boards are subjected to heat and pressure in order to dry them straight. A large machine of this character has large, flat, steam-heated boxes, which are in vertical series, and pressed together by hy- draulic power. Pfeffer * "Scientific American," xxxvii. 143. Boat. For boats, parts, fittings, etc., see Back board. Boat lowering apparatus. Bottom board. Canoe. Cat boat. Cat rig. Center board. Clamp (for mast). Collapsible boat. Davit. Ducking boat. Folding boat. Grapnel. Gunwale. Head sheet. Ice boat. Kyak. Launch. Launch engine. Lazy painter. Life boat. Life raft. Mast hinge. Nautilus. Oar. Painter. Poppets. Portable boat. Portable raft. Rowing gear. Rowlock. Rudder lanyard. Skiff. Slings. Sneak box. Steadying line. Step. Stern benches. Stern sheets. Stretcher. Surf boat. Thwarts. Well sneak. Yawl. BOAT. 114 BOGIE. See, also : Building * "Scientific American Sup.," 1066. Cheap *" Scientific American Sup.," 1088. Collapsing, Bert/ion, Br. *" Engineer," xlviii. 162. " Van Noxtranii's Mas.," xix. 94 *" Engineer,'' xlviii. 162. Folding, OsgoorJ . . . * "Scientific American," xl. 38. Bert/ion ... * "Scientific American Sup.," 1327. Duplex, Bert ho n . . . * "Engineer," xlix. 438. Collapsible, Crispin . . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 343. Folding "Iron Age," xx., July 19, p. 1. Murray Baker *" Scientific American," xliii. 98. Ancient Lacustrine . . *" Scientific American," xxxix. 41. Lowering apparatus. Brief *" Scientific American," xxxv. 150. * '-'Scientific American," xli. 412. * '-'Engineer," 1. 401. *" Engineer, 1 ' xliv. 430. "Engineer," 1. 281 * "Engineer," xlii. 165. 'Scientific American Sup.," 2817. Engineer," xlii. 357. Donovan, Br. . . Lawrence, Br. . . Lawrence . . . Hydraulic, Pinker Model, " Sharpie " . Non-heeling . . . Propeller, Fetherston Rigs Fig. 355. ' Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 166. 'Scientific American Sup.," 2586. 'Scientific American Sup.," 2085. Sectional, Bert/ion . . * ' Scientific American Sup.," 3823. The "Nautilus- crossed the ocean in 1878 in 45 days. She was 19' long, 6' beam, '2? 3" depth, and drew 6" water. "Scientific American Supplement,'' *23UO. Boat Hook. One used in navigating a boat among other craft, or at a landing. Boat Knot. (Nautical.) A hitch, shown at 23, 26, Fig. 2777, p. 1240, "Mech. Diet." Boat Low'er-ing Ap'- pa-ra'tus. Davit appara- tus for launching a boat from on ship-board. The apparatus for detaching boats from their davits, invented by Albert Magnus, of Gothen- burg, is shown in "Scientific American Supplement," *2543. The apparatus of E. G. Law- rence, of Dundee. Britain. Ibid. , * 1728. See, also, Shaw's apparatus, patented April 1, 1873, and Figs. 745-749, pp. 313, 314, "Mech. Diet.,'" and p. 678, Ibid. Also DAVIT, infra. Boat Plug. Removed to allow rain-water to pass out of the boat which is se- cured on deck. The plug is Fig. 356. Boat Plug. Boat Hooks. a has an indicator on the staff which shows how the hook stands when in the water out of sight. b c are two modes of making the hook of usual form. d is a double hook. replaced before swinging the boat by the davits to launch it overboard. The two flanges have holes for securing the socket to the outer and inner skin of the boat. Many a boat's-load has been swamped by the loss of the'boat plug in the hurry of launch- ing. Boat'swain's Tog'gle. A pin of wood, cross- wise, at the end of a rope ; acting instead of a hook when the object to be attached has a loop or bight through which the toggle may be rove. Boat Yoke. A tiller secured on top of the rudder, and having holes for attaching the steering ropes. See Fig. 357. Bob'bin Wind'er. A machine for winding conical bobbins. The yarn guide is on a carrier KiR. 357. Steering Yoke, which has a certain range of vertical motion to build up the shape ; when the set size is reached a cone on the sleeve which carries the guide is brought into contact with the cap, and raises the guide so as to bring its excursions to a higher level. Dornan Bros. See, also, KNITTING MA- CHINE. Body Loop. The iron which secures the body of the vehicle, to the running gears. Fig. 358. Body Loops, a. Single-lip body loop. c. Double-lip body loop b. Ordinary body loop. d. Strap loop. Bo'gie. 1. A wheeled swiveling truck beneath a locomotive. The terms Double bogie locomotive (two pair wheels), Single bogie locomotive (one pair wheels), Leading bogie locomotive (bogie in front), Bogie tank locomotive (bogie under tank or tender), indicate the character of the position of the t-wiveling truck. See Bogie and axle boxes, oscillating. Haswell, Austria . . . . * "Engineer," xli. 13. Oar truck. Gt. Western Railway, Br. . * "Engineer,'' xlii. 432. Tank locomotive, N. E. Railway * "Engineer," xlii. 46. Truck, Japanese *" Engineering," xxix. 143. 2. (Saw Mill.) A small carriage running on a transverse track on a log carriage, to shift the po- Kig. 350. Log Bogie. sition of a log relatively to the saw in cutting on a line not coincident with that of the main track. See SAW MILL. BOHEMIAN GLASS. 115 BOILER SHELL DRILLING MACHINE. Bo-he'mi-an Glass. (Glass.) Consists of a silicate with potash and lime base ; a small quan- tity of alumina, from the pots, aud of oxide of iron impurity from the materials. Potash is often re- placed for common ware by soda, owing to the lower cost of the latter. Carbouate of potash, as pure and as rich as possible, is preferred, free from soda. It is chiefly extracted from wood ashes, but in Austria the refuse of the beet manufacture yields a good deal. Also known as Lime glass. Boil'er. See the following references to boilers, setting, attachments, etc. : Air and steam injector. Matthews * "Scientific American,' 1 ' xl. 227. Casing and setting, Reilly *" Scientific Amer. Sup.," 682. Cleaner, Cronin .... *" Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 130. Hotctikiss . . . *"Manufac. Builder," xii. 247. *" Scientific Amer.," xliii. 291. Kemp . . . . *" Mining $ Sc. Press," xxxiv. 1. *' Scientific American," 351. Clothing " Scientific Amer. Sup.,"' 266. Corrugator. See FLUE CORRUGATOR. Covering, Ashcrnft . . . *'-Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 163. Beamic/i . . . "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 292. Burgess . . . *" Scientific Amer.,-' xlii. 182. Drilling and turning machine Butterfield,Kr. . . .* "Engineering," xxix. 398. Drilling machine. Garvie, Br * "Engineering," xxx. 167. Harvey * "Engineering," xxviii. 136. Twei/'tell, Br * "Engineering," xxvii. 340. Bowker *" Scientific Amer. Sup.," 4105. Bowker, Br * "Engineer," 1. 307. Kendall Gent, Br. . . * "Engineering," 1 xxix. 434. *" Scientific Amer. Sup.," 1047. Economizer, Reilly, Br. . *" Engineering," xxii. 18. Explosions in 1877 . . . *"Iron Age," xxii., Nov. 28, p. 15. Feeder, self-acting. Cohnfeld * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2209. Feeder, automatic. Fromentin * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 3880. Feed regulator, Pope, Br. *" Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2050. Feeder, Rice Flue corrugator, Fox * li Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 6. *" Engineer," xlv. 213. * " Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 67. *" Engineering," xxv. 260. *" Engineer," xlii. 32. *" Scientific Amer. Sup.," 606. *" Scientific Amer.," xlii. 323. "Scientific Amer. Sup." 917. Flue tester, Hr. . . Fountain, Hamper . Pontifex, Br. Furnace, hot blast, Pilce High pressure. Adam son, Br. . . . Indicator. Let/iuillier If Pinel, Fr. "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2751. Making machines, Centennial. "Iron Age," xviii., Aug. 3, p. 5. Setting, Reilly, Br. . . . * "Engineering," xxii. 18. Shell tester, Tangye, Br. . *" Engineer," xli. 10. Smith, Campbell (f Hunter * "Engineer," 1. 229. Stays, machinery for fixing. Allan, Br "Engineer," 1. 193. Tester, Howard .... * 'Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 246. Tube cleaner, Titcomb . . * "Scientific Amer.," xlii. 294. Washer, Hayes . . . . *" Railroad Gazette," xxxiii. 364. Boil'er Clamp. A form of clamp for holding parts i n apposition while v - q fin being drilled or riveted. That shown opens 4" in the jaw and runs back 4|". Boil'er Cov'er-ing. The Chalmers-Spence covering has a dead air chamber of one inch or more between, the covering aud the surface covered. This is secured by taking a wire cloth to which "is fastened every 4" or 6" a stud of an inch or more in length which keep the wire that distance Le Count's Boiler Clamp. from the surface of the object covered. A non- conducting composition is plastered over the wire. Patents, 80,709, Aug. 4, 1868 ; 96,738, Nov. 9, 1869. Asbestos fiber in sheets, or mixed with some cement, is used with advantage. Sawdust mixed with flour paste. " Textile Manufactu- rer." See also references under BOILER, supra. Boil'er Peed'er. Cook's automatic boiler- feeder is operated primarily by the uncovering of the open lower end of a vertical pipe which pro- jects downward into the boiler. The water sinking below the open end of the pipe allows steam to pass upward and operate the devices which supply water until the level rising closes the pipe opening. The boiler feeders of Pratt & Whitney, of Hart- ford, Conn., and Macabie's Alimentateur Automoteur, made by Voruz, of Nantes, France, act by means of a head of water and a float in a chamber gov- erning the valved steam passages. See also : Self-acting, Colmfeld . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2209. Automatic, Fromentin * "Scientific Ameri can Sup.," 3880. Regulator, Pope, Engl. * "Scientific American Sup.," 2050. Rice . . * "Scientific American," xxxviii. 6. See also FEED-WATER HEATER, etc. Boil'er Fer'rule. A tubular bushing for a hole in a domestic heating boiler, af- F j g ggj fording means of attachment for a pipe of supply or discharge. Boil'er Fit'tings. Those por- tions or attachments which are addi- tional to the mere shell. The term includes the following, but they may not all be present in every boiler : Bearers. Blow-off cock. Damper. Dead plate. Economizer. Feed valve. High water indicator. Injector. Low water indicator. Man-hole cover. Mud-hole cover. Safety valve. Boiler Ferrule. Fi Feed-water apparatus. Steam-pressure gage Furnace front. Stop valve. Fusible plugs in tubes. Tube plate. Gage cocks. Ventilator. Grate bars. Water gage. Boil'er In'di-ca'tor. The electric boiler in- dicator of Lethuillier Sf Pinel, of Rouen, shown in Paris in 1878, consists of a float and stem, the lat- ter-making electric connections at various heights, which are communicated by wire to an indicator- tablet, like an annunciator, fixed anywhere, say in an office, or at the rooms of the boiler inspector. "Scientific American Supplement," * 2751. Boil'er Patch Bolt. A peculiar form of bolt for securing a patch to a boiler. It is threaded into the boiler, the chamfer rests against the patch and the square is for the application of the wrench. Boil'er -plate Clip'per. A shears specially arranged for sheet- iron. In that of Fisher, the plate lies upon a table traversing a track, and the shears work at such an angle as to give the proper calking bevel to the edge of the sheet. The tail of the lever which works the movable shear is worked by a cam. Eoiler Patch Bolt - Boil'er Shell Drilling Ma-chine'. A ma- chine for drilling rivet holes in boilers. An ap- proved form drills on both sides of a boiler verti- cally suspended above the standing headstocks. The shell is rotated for presentation to the piercing and countersinking drills. Kendall (f Gent, Br. Bowker, Br. Tweddell, Br. . . Harvey, Br. . . , Garvie, Br. . . Butterfielfi, Br. . 'Iron." ' 'Scientific American Sup.," * 1047. 'Engineering," xxix. 434. 'Engineer," 1. 307. ' Scientific American Sup. ," 4106. 'Engineering," xxvii. 340. 'Engineering,'- xxviii. 136. 'Engineering," xxx. 167. Engineering," xxix 398. BOILER SMITH. 116 BOLT CLIPPER. Boil'er Smith. A machine for flanging boiler plates. Campbell (( Hunter, "Engineer,'' * 1. 229. Boil'er Test'er. A machine for proving boil- ers. See Flue testing, Br * "Engineering," xxv. 260. Shell testing, Tangye, Br. . . * ''Engineer,''' xli. 116. Testing machine, Howard . . * ".Ve. Amer. ," xxxiv. 246. See also p. 320, Fig. 763, "Mech. Diet." Boil'er Wash'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. The sys- tem of washing locomotive boilers of S. J. Hayes, Superintendent of Motive Power, of the Illinois Central Railroad, is shown and described in "Rail- road Gazette," * xxiii. 364. A 2" pipe hung from the roof trusses of the round-house is carried completely around it in a line directly over the back dunes of the engines as they stand in the pits, and pro- vided with a stop valve at each pit. A steam pump supplies water under heavy pressure. Each engine has a crown wash- pipe and an attachment for washing the cylindrical part of the boiler. The operation is performed after every round trip. Bo-la'ta Gum. A substitute for gutta-percha, It is the milky sap of the bully tree on the banks of the Orinoco and Amazon rivers in South Amer- ica. The operation of winning the gum is similar in every respect to that employed with caoutchouc and gutta-percha. It much resembles gutta-percha, but has, however, some superior qualities. It is tasteless, has an agreeable odor on being warmed, can be cut like gutta-percha, is tough and leathery, is more elastic than gutta-percha, and consequently more flexible. It becomes soft, and may be joined together at about 120 F., but requires 270 0> F. be- fore melting, higher than gutta-percha. It is com- pletely soluble in benzole and carbon bi-sulphide in the cold. It becomes strongly electrified by fric- tion, and is a better non-conductor of heat and elec- tricity than gutta-percha. Also known as batata. Bol'ster-plate. A plate in a wagon where the front bolster turns on the axle or the sand board. Bol'ster Spring. 1. (Railway.) One (80, Fig. 364) inter- ^r~ &J&^?* "> posed between the transverse beam (43) of a truck and Solster Plale - the truck-bolster (30) which receives the weight of the car on the center plat (63). Fig. 354. needle-gun which drives home the cartridge, and carries in its axial recess the firing pin. Fig. 365. Railway Truck Bolster Spring. 2. ( Wagons.) a. A caoutchouc spring between the bolster and axle to give a degree of elasticity to the bed. 6. Fig. 365 shows a steel spring interposed be- tween the wagon-bed and its bolster to absorb the jar and make the riding more easy. "/row Age," * xxii., Dec. 5, p. 9. Bolt. (Fire Arm.) 1. The sliding piece in a Wngoti Bolster Spring. 2. The part which in a snap-gun passes into the lump of the barrel, to hold the barrel into the ac- tion when the gun is closed. 3. (Mining.) A passage leading from the gate road into a side of work. For machinery and hardware bolts see, Acorn-head bolt. Machine bolt. Bevel-head bolt. Plow bolt. Bridge bolt. Railway-truck bolt. Boiler patch belt. Ring bolt. Button-head bolt. Round countersunk bolt. Carriage bolt. Round countersunk square Clip king bolt. head bolt. Cone-head bolt Safety bolt. Countersunk - head square Shackle bolt. shank bolt. .Shaft bolt. Cultivator point bolt. Ship ring-bolt. Elevator bolt. Shoe bolt. Elliptic-head bolt. Sink bolt. Eye bolt. Sleigh-shoe bolt. Felly-joint bolt. Square countersunk bolt. Flour bolt. Square head bolt. Flush bolt. Square shank bolt. Guard bolt. Steeple head bolt. Hanger bolt. Step bolt. Key bolt. Stove bolt. Key-head bolt. Tap bolt. King bolt. Tire bolt. Knob screw. Track bolt. Lag bolt. U-bolt. Loop bolt. Whiffletree bolt. Bolt Clean'er. A machine or attachment for cleansing the bolting cloth of mills of the adhering flour and offal. Collins's automatic cloth cleaner is applied, not to bolts precisely, but to the sieves of middlings purifiers. It has beaters of soft leather arranged in spiral form on a shaft beneath the sieve-cloth, so as when revolving to slap the cloth lightly. "American Miller," * viii. 369. The Cogswell & Finn flour-bolt cleaner has a brush suspended over the reel by arms secured to a shaft which projects through the side of the chest, so that the brush can be lifted and dropped as desired. A coil spring pre- vents the brush jumping when passing over the ribs of the reel. Bolt Clip'per. A double lever tool for cutting off the superfluous length of bolt beyond the nut. The nut E lies in a square of the jaw D, and the bevel edge of the jaw C is brought against the bolt. The tool is of cast steel except the handles, A, B, and the catches in the arm Fgive different ran<] of leverage. Bolt Clipper. Fig. 366. BOLT CUTTER. 117 BOLT FORGING. Bolt Cut'ter. A machine for threading bolts. Fig. 367 is Pratt & Whitney's baud bolt-cutter. Hand Bolt-cutter. The bolt is I it-Id in the vise, which has a right and left-hand screw, and is tightened by the hand-wheel. The die is revolved to cut the thread, and the bolt is advanced by the lever, which moves the vise slide in the shears. The machine is placed on a bench, and is intended for carriage and jobbing shops. The crank is lengthened or shortened at will ; for tapping, the collet on the spindle is re- placed by a tap-chuck, and the nuts are held in the vise. Schlenker's stationary die bolt-cutter is shown in Fiy-. 368. The bolt is held and revolved in the Fig. 3HS. ary Die Bull-cutter. head chuck, which is hollow, so that a rod can be advanced axially to have a thread cut on its end. The arrangement of the dies is such that as soon as they begin to cut they will close as far as the stop will allow them, and a series of bolts may thus be cut of the same size. As soon as the bolt is cut the required length, the dies are opened by the lever and the bolt taken out without running the die off the thread. The action of the dies is simi- lar to that of a lathe tool. The " National " double head bolt-cutter is an open-die machine in which the bolt-cutter head is advanced to the bolt, the latter being held and ro- tated in the hollow lathe-head and chuck. The bolt is instantly released when threaded ; the die blocks contain chasers made on the interchangeable system, See the following references : Revolving die. Pratt (f Whitney Nut tapper, Schlenker. * . * "Engineer," xlii. 42. 'Am. Manuf.,'* Oct. 31, 1879, p. 12. ' Iron Age.'' xvii., Jan. 29, p. 1. 'Iron Age," xxii , Nov. 7, p. 1. Wiley 4" Russell . . * 'Scientific American,'' xxxviii. 54. * 'Iron Age," xxi., April 11, p. 3. Wood fy Light . . .* 'Manufacturer Builder," xi. 5. Trimmer, Butler . . * 'Scientific American,'' xli. 310. Table of preparations of nuts and. " Scientific American," xxxv. 53. Bolt-cut'ter Chuck. A chuck for holding a Fig. 369. - -si..._ bolt to be cut in a tur- ret-head machine. I n these machines the bolt is held in a chuck and advanced alternately to one or other of the dies in the turret head. See Fig 6824, p. 2665, "Mech. Diet." Bolt-cut'ter Head. Fig. 370 shows the die of the Schlenker bolt cutter. It is stationary, the bolt being revolved and advanced to the cutter, see Fig. 368. The chasers are simultane- ously advanced or receded in the head by means of a lever which has an adjustable stop, so as to t'ig. 370. limit their penetration in .^^j.^^^ making a number of bolts "^^ of similar size. Bolt-cutter Chuck. Bolt-cutter Head. Bolt Die. Fig. 372. Bolt Die. A nut with a thread chased in it, used for cutting threads on bolts and rods. Fig. 371. Bolt Dog. Used in chucking bolts to be turned or chased. It is bolted to the face plate, spans the center, and has a. square to engage the bolt head. Made in sizes from -fa" to 2' inclusive. Fig. 372. Bolt Feed'er. An apparatus to feed the meal to the flour bolt in equable quantities. D, Fig. 373, is the case, E the spout lead- ing to the bolt, and B the lever for lifting the screw A. Bolt Fpr'ging Ma-chine'. A machine for forging iron bolts. -^^^^^ Burdict's bolt - forging ma- Bolt Dog (Le Count's). chine is operated without clutch gear, cam, or springs, the main shaft, slide, and forging dies are in constant motion, and the blank is advanced to the dies h- means of a connecting-rod, pawl, shaft, and toggle, and the blank is automatically dis- charged when headed. The blank rests against a stop, and is only guided centrally by the holding dies while being forged, thus leaving them full size under the head. The machine is capable of making from 3,000 to 8,000 square head blank bolts in 10 hours, according to size. The Abbe bolt forging machine is a machine of similar capacity and quality BOLT-HEADING MACHINE. 118 BOMB LANCE. Bolt-head'ing Ma-chine'. Another name for the bolt-forging- machine, which sec. The Brit- 373 Bolt Feeder. ish machine of Greenwood $ Batley, Leeds, is ver- tical in its action. A vertical fast-moving screw, with three square threads, raises the work-holder to the die, the latter being stationary. The hot bolt-head is thus brought into tlie die, and swaged to form. The bolt-holder has a dwell at its upper position, and, as it de- scends, a pin beneath pushes out the bolt. Bolt Hook. (Manage.) A check-rein hook; the base or point by which it is attached sets flat upon or passes between or under the plates of the saddle-tree, and is secured by a bolt. Bolt Holder. Bolt Hold'er. A clamping tool to hold the head of a bolt to prevent its turning while the nut is being screwed on. It is a frame containing a sliding bar, having on one of its sides a rack which is engaged by a sector lever. It is shown as ap- plied to put on a tire bolt. B o 1 1 ' i n g-c loth Clean'er. See BOLT CLEANER. Bolt'ing Mill'stone. A French invention by M. Aubin. The lower millstone has panes with screening cloth of wire gauze, to allow the meal to escape before reaching the skirt. The device is shown at Fig. 375. Starting from the bosom of the stone, every other furrow is sup- pressed, and a metallic box inserted containing the wire gauze. A knocker is suspended in the box to hasten the sifting. Anoints. Safford's Report " Centennial Exhibition Re- ports," * Group I., vol. iii., p. 180. Bolt'ing Saw. A machine in which stuff is sawed out of the log or balk to bolts or pieces of a size, adapted for working into the object required. Bolt-point'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for pointing or shaping the ends of bolts of from 4" to 1" diameter. Fig. 375. Bolting Millstone. The bolt to be pointed is held in the vise, which is adjustable on the column of the machine and is op- erated by a lever and riyht- jnid left- hand screw. 37t>. Bolt-pointing Mac/tint. The head, arranged to slide on the column, is brought to the bolt by action of the foot-lever, the bolt passing through a bushing to steady it while the revolving cutter is doing its work. Bolts too short to reach from the vise to the cutter in the head may be held in a socket. Bolt-turn'ing Lathe. A lathe specifically adapted for cutting large bolts; smaller machines, on the lathe principle, are bolt-cutters. Bom-bar'don. (Music.) A low wind instru- ment without keys, and with three cylinders. The quality differs but little from the ophicleide. Bomb Har-poon'. A harpoon with an ex- plosive, to be ignited inside the whale. See list of U. S. Patents under HARPOON. Bomb Lance. A lance containing a bomb to be exploded in the whale. It is generally, but nut always, projected from a gun. See list of United States Patents under HARPOON Bomb lance, Pierce. * "Scientific American,' 1 ' xliii. 403. BONE BLACK. 119 BONE MILL. Bone Black. for sirups, etc. Calciued boues, used iu filters See : Testing, Bartlett. . . . Washer, Automatic . . Revivifier, Fr., Schreiber " Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 260. * "Scifniijic Am. Sup.,- 1 *4052. "Dept. Agric., Special Report,'' xxviii., PI. XXXI. See also ANIMAL CHARCOAL, supra. Fig. 377. .1 is the top breaker fitting on the vertical mill-shaft K. The breaker is varied with the kind of work to be performed. B is the nut which secures the breaker. C, circular grinder or middle breaker with holes for stud bolts, to tighten the grinding sections DD on cone /. F, stationary grinding plates. G, lower cylinder sectional plates, held by nuts HH. O, lighter lever, etc., for adjusting upward pressure of cone /and its plates DD, against the concave G. JJ, wipers to dischai-ge ground stuff. L, feathers on upright shaft K. M, step. N P, driving gear. R It, fast and loose pulleys. S, fly-wheel. TT, bolts holding cover. Bone Black, Ar'ti-fi'cial. Woody matters impregnated with phosphate of lime dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The phosphates are thus dis- tributed as they are in natural bones. The mass thus prepared is ignited. The difficulty consists in obtaining products of a sufficient density and min- eral richness, and free from foreign salts. The charcoal obtained has to be washed in excess of water to remove chloride of calcium, if poor copro- lites have been employed. M. Melsens. Bone Glass. A semi-translucent glass used for lamp-shades and globes. A proportion of bone dust is added to the frit, and it is supposed that the phosphate of lime remains suspended in the glass. Philip Fischer in " Glashutte." The result resembles the cryolite glass, otherwise known as fused porcelain. See CRYOLITE. Bone Hold'er. (Surgical.) A bone-grasping forceps, in some ca.ses combined with a ronyeur, or bone-gnawer. Dr. Darby's, Fig. 79, p. 24, Part I., Tiemann's "Armamen- tarium Chirurgicum." Bone In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) Those used iu osteotomy, and in some ca.ses of fracture and necrosis. Among them are the following, which see : Bone drills. Periosteotomes. Exsection instruments. Saws : Amputating, exsecting, subcutaneous, bow, circu- lar, lley : s, metaoarpal, bead, trephine, antrum drill, etc. Osteophor ; forceps of various kinds and sizes. Bone cutters, bone staffs, hooks and levators. Trepanning elevator and raspatory. Bone Mill. A machine for crushing bones for use, as animal charcoal in sugar processes, or for a fertilizer. Fig. 377 is a vertical sectional view of Baugh's mill for crushing, grinding, and pulverizing bones, phosphatic rocks, minerals, ores, slags, etc. Fig. 378 is a French bone mill on the Chilian principle. It resembles some forms of oil-mills, amalgamators, and cement mills, having an edge Fig. 378. Jannotftls, Treil (Seine et Oit>e). stone and scrapers. It lias also an elevating device which lifts the stuff from the annular pan and dis- charges it down a screen and in front of the stone. In the machine of Picksley, Sims & f!o., of Manchester, England, the bones intended to be ground are thrown into the hopper, and after falling upon the cutting bed, they are pressed by feed rams against the teeth of a revolving cylin- der in rapid motion. The reduced boues fall into an oscillat- ing or revolving riddle attached to the mill, which separates them into two qualities, namely, dust, and half-inch bones. At the first operation the following proportions are obtained : Dust . ........... 45 per cent. Half-inch bones ........ 30 per cent. Coarser sample (to be re-ground) . . 25 per cent. Davids' bone-mill is a disintegrator on the same principle precisely as the disintegrator (Carr's), Fig. 1655, "Meek. Diet." See the following references : HuU, Br ......... * " Engineering," xxx. 57. Saville St. Foundry Co., Br. . * "Engineering," xxvi. 295. See also article "Engrais," Lnbonlnye's " Dictionnaire ties Arts et Manufactures,'' Figs. 766, 767. Tome ii., ed. 1877. See also FERTILIZER MILL ; GRINDING MILL ; ORE MILL ; DIS- INTEGRATOR ; CHILIAN MILL, etc. BONE SAW. 120 Stohlmann's Bone Saw. Bone Saw. Stohlmanu's bone saw, for surgi- cal purposes, F . 379 shown at 1< ig. 379, is a substi- tute for tlie chain saw, and consists of two handles connected by a wire of cast steel, on which is strung a series of steel beads with sharp cutting edges. Bone Por'- ce-lain. ( Ce- ramics.) A ware into the composition of which enters phosphate of lime in the form of bone dust. Bone'si-late. A compound with a base of bone dust and an aggregating cement ; used in place of ivory, real or artificial, or hard rubber, for buttons, door-knobs, billiard balls, etc. It can be polished and colored, and is harder than celluloid. It is much like the French material known as EBURINI-;, which see, refer to " Scientific American ' .... xlii. 345. " Manufacturer and Buililer ' . . xii. 111. " Iron Age" xxv., May 20, p. 26. " Van Nostrancl's Eng. Mas;.'' . . xxiii. 263. Bone Staff. (Sin-ijical.) A director or re- tractor instrument with a curved end : serving to hold a bone while o erating subcutaneously, or to replace fragments. Figs. 63, 63 b, Part I , Tietnann's "Armamentarium Chirur- gicum."' Book Back'ing Frame. (Bookbinding.) A frame or vise in which a. sewed book is placed to Fig. 380. BOOK KOLLIXG MACHINE. Fig. 381. Book Backing Frame. (Pierron et Dehaitre, Paris.) have the back rounded before being cased or cov- ered. The jaws are brought together by pressure on the treadle, and the book back is rounded by the beating-hammer. The machine shown is French. Book Back'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for rounding the backs of books before casing or cov. Power Book-barking Machine. ering. An improvement on the hand-roller ma-* chine in respect of obviating the labor attached to the process-of backing, excepting the placing of the book between the jaws ami bringing a moderate pressure upon the treadle ; the power then tightens the jaws, the roller pa>ses over till the backing is completed, the jaws relax, and the book is taken out. Book'bind-ing. Bookbinding machinery con- sists of sheet folding, signature sewing, edge cut- ting, back-rounding machines, presses, etc. See list on pp. 330, 331, "Mech. Diet." See references : Schmitz * "Sc. Amer.," xxxvii. 19. Corner protector, Way ff Rankin. * "Sc. Ainer.,'' xl. 131. Book factory * "Sc. Amer.," xliii. 207. Sewing machine. Sinner . ... * "&V. Amer ," xxxv. 223. Sulsberg * "Relievre," " Laboulaye's Diet., "m., Fig. 2331. Stitching machine, Neirllinger . *"Sr. Am. .*)/;).,'' 1748. See Nicholson's "A Manual of the Art of Book-binding. '' Book'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for making up tobacco leaves into piles and packages. Book Roll'ing Ma-chine'. A machine f r Fig-. 3S2. Book Rolling Machine. rolling folded sheets instead of pressing them. The folded signatures being laid upon the platen are run between the rollers. The upper roller is ver- BOOK SAWING MACHINE. 121 'BOOM. tically adjustable, equally at both ends, by means of the hand-wheel and bevel-gearing. Book Saw'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for sawing channels in the hack of a pile of signatures Fig. 383. Book Sniping Machine. to hold the cords to which the separate signatures are sewn. See SEWING PRESS, Fig. 4884, p. 2124, "Mech. Diet." The machine, Fig. 383, has a frame of cast iron, and a spindle of cast steel running in composition boxes. It has 5 saws adjustable on the mandrel to any length of book, and tlr-re tirmly held by nut. The bed is planed smooth and hung on journals at one end, the free end being elevated to such degree as to give the required protrusion of the saws through the slots in the table. The fence or guide is adjustable, and held by set screws. Book Sew'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for sewing signatures on to a band or cord for binding. The book sewing machine of the Swiss inventor, Sulzberg, is described under article " Reliure," tome iii., Fig. 2231, Laboutaye's "Dictiounaire des Arts et Manufactures," ed. 1877. It folds by successive action between rollers in pairs, as in the ordinary folding machines ; then pierces and sews the signature. The Singer book-sewing machine takes sheets already folded and stitches them along the line of the final fold which is given them by a pair of roll- ers between which they are passed. " Scientific American '' . . . * xxxv. 223. It is adapted for the stitching of signatures, but docs not appear to be adapted to sewing them to- gether to common bands or cords. Smyth's >ewing machine has as many stitches as cords, each being independent. The signatures are hung upon the horizontal arms of a four-arm reel which presents them, then drops, makes a quarter revolution, rises, and presents the next signature which hangs upon the next arm in succession. The signature is clamped, the row of needles come into operation, secure the signature, and the arm then drops away, and another is presented as before. The Wheeler & Wilson book-sewing machine produces a book, the signatures of which are firmly united by loops of the band-thread, secured by a metallic pin within the center of each folded signa- ture, each loop being so formed as to completely encircle the metallic securing pin. To operate the machine, the table in front of the bed is raised to its full height, the driving-wheel turned until the needles are above the throat-plates, the signature (opened) is then placed upon the needles, the pressers then force the sig- nature firmly to the throat-plates, the needles recede, form- ing loops into which the material to form the securing pin is passed and severed ; the needles now recede quickly, and by the loops of thread draw the securing pin down to the cen- ter of the signature, and the signature firmly upon the table in front of the bed. During this operation the arms above the bed recede far enough to permit that part of the signa- ture which lay under them to be closed by means of a folder (placed in the rear of the needles), upon the part already drawn upon the table. This folder is provided with a pro- jection from its lower front edge, which forces down the table upon which the signature is folded to a distance equal to the thickness of the signature last closed upon it, so that the top of the last signature is always in the same relative position to the bed and needles as was its predecessor during the time of sewing. To secure firmness of stitch, each thread is provided with tension devices, as is common to all sewing machines, and operates in a similar manner. Book Stitch'ing Ma-chine'. Neidbruger's stitching machine for bookbinders is shown in "Sci- entific American Supplement," * 1748. It operates on single signatures. See also WIUE BOOK-SEWING MACHINE. HevTs machine for fastening signatures to bands by means of wire staples. Book Trim'mer. A machine for squaring the Fig. 384. Book Trimmer. top, bottom, and front edge of a pile of books un- bound. In the machine, Fig. 384, two of such piles are shown in the clamp, the backs of the books towards each other, so as to expose the other edges of each of the piles. The carriage being pushed up to position, the foot is pressed upon the treadle, when the knife quickly descends, making a draw- cut, and then at once returns to its starting-point. The pile is then withdrawn, rotated 90 to bring a new face to the knife, the cutting action repeated, and so on for each of the four faces. The Standard Machinery Co.'s Steam Power Automatic Book Trimmer operates as follows : Books are placed on the table, and clamped as with other trimmers ; upon moving the shipper, the ta- ble advances to the knife, and the cut on one side is made, thereupon the table recedes, makes a quar- ter turn, advances again to the knife, again recedes, and so continues in operation till all four sides are cut, when the machine stops, the books can be re- moved, and a fresh lot substituted. As the table works perfectly free while cutting, and needs no attention, the operator is at liberty to get ready another lot of books, thereby saving a large pro- portion of time. Boom. (Lumbfrmg.) An artificially inclosed bay, in which logs are collected to prevent their drifting away by a current or tide. BOOM. 122 BORING BAR WRENCH. The boom is usually made of spars or timbers chained together at the ends, and so anchored or staked as to inclose an area of water. A boom is found at each end of a slide, which is a chute to help logs over falls, rapids, or shoals. See, also, SHKER-HOOM. Boom Sheet Block. Tin; block through which the sheet of the boom is rove. In the example, Fig. 385, the block is double. Boom Tack'le. (Nautical.) A tackle consisting of a double and single block and fall, used in rigging out or in a studding-sail boom. Boot. 1. (Surgical.) Juuot's dry cupping boot is a gum boot with an air-tight band on its upper border, and an air-pump to ex- haust the air from around the leg. See DEPUKATOR, " Meek. Diet." ; and AKROTHEKAPY APPARATUS, supra. 2. (Mane'(je.) A covering for any portion of a horse's leg ; made of leather, or of felt and leather. Boot Clean'ing Ma-chine'. A machine with expansible, last to snit different sizes of boots, and Double Block for with means for rotating the boot Boom sheet ' while the brush is briskly reciprocated upon it. The motions are obtained by turning the handle, Fig. 386. Boot Cleaning Machine. and the position of the boot is modified by the motion of the lever. Kent's Boot cleaning machine. "English Mechanic. 1 " "Sc. Amer. Sup.,'- 6( Boot Sew'ing Ma-chine'. See SHOE MA- CHINERY ; SOLE ; HEEL, etc., and pp. 335-337, " Mech. Diet." Bor'der Knife. A knife for cutting the edges of grass plats, of grass borders to walks, of beds cut out of sod. Fig. 387. B o r ' i 11 g An'chpr. A method of setting piles for foundations or for anchorage by giving them a screw point or shoe, Fig. 388, which is sunk into the earth by rotation. See SCREW-PILE, "Mech. Diet.'' B or 'ing and Turn 'ing Fig. 387. Border or Edging Knife. Mill. A machine-tool which has its operative tools above while the work is chucked on a revolving bed below. It is a vertical drill or boier, or a hor- izontal lathe. The boring bars operate at all an- gles and have a quick return motion. Bohlken's Boring Anchor. The counterweight acts on a line directly through the cen- ter of the tool-holding bar. The swing of the large sized ma- chines is 120". The feeds are automatic in every direction ; a disk drivinga friction wheel, operates them, the rapidity of the feed is controlled by moving the friction wheel in or out on the surface of the disk, and the greatest or least change can be made instantaneously ; and by removing the friction wheel across the center of the disk, the feed is re- versed. The tool-holder admits of the tool being set in any way ; it can be removed from the bar and any other form substituted. The face-plate rests in an annular bearing un- der its extreme outside edge ; it has also a center spindle, 12" in diameter, and 5' long, provided with a steel step ; a taper key passes beneath this step, and the amount of vertical strain on the outside bearing can be regulated by turning a screw (the head of which is seen at the bottom of bed-plate), this is quickly accomplished, and is a valuable provision for setting work, boring and turning on smaller pieces, etc. ; when a heavy or large piece of work is once set, a quarter turn of the screw communicating with the taper key brings the face-plate to its outside bearing, and the machine works with all the steadiness of a heavy planer and all the precis- ion of the'most accurate lathe. The pulley turning attachments consist of the extra head, the equalizing driving plate with the two carriers (shown on the table), and the tail stock (shown on the cross rail). Fig. 389 Boring and Turning Mill. (Niks' Tool Works.) Bor'ing-bar Wrench. A wrench with a hook to fit the square of the boring bar or boring rod. It is to rotate it, and to hold it on occasion, as the Fig. 390. Boring-bar Wrench. collar of the rod may rest on the wrench which lies upon the platform. See WELL-BORING TOOLS, pp. 2757, 2758, and Plate LXXIV. "Mech. Diet." BORING HEAD. 123 BOTTLE GLASS. Bor'ing Head. vig. 391 A collet or head shod with black diamonds, and used i n drilling b o r e- holes in rock. Sec DIAMOND DRILL, "Meek. Diet." Bor'ing Ma- chine'. Fig. 392 shows a boring ma- chine which has three different speeds for large, medium, and small holes ; can be adjusted to any angle or position, raised, lowered, and turned on its axis, inclined or revolved. Fig. 392. Annular Boring Head. Universal Horizontal Boring Machine. The following notices of machines may be consulted : Lathe attachment . . * "Scientific American," xl. 404. Rice ...... *" Scientific American,''' xxxix. 86 Drilling, etc., Bement . * "Engineering,''xxii. 270. * "Railroad Gazette,'' xxi. 15. Universal, Bentel Co. * "Engineer,'' xli. 412. Horizontal, Fay If Co. " Tkurston's Vienna Kept.," 1 iii. 264. Neil', Br ..... * "Engineering,' 1 '' xxii. 397. Carpenter's, Phillips . * "Iron Age,'' xxi., May 2, p. 42. Richards if Atkinson. * '' Iron Age," xxiv., July 31, p. 1. Jig-saw. Robinson, Br * "Engineer," xlv. 276. Vertical, Walker Bros. * "Scientific America!}" xxxvii. 326. And spacing, Co/burn. * " Manuf. and Builder," xii. 235. Tapers, boring . . . * "Scientific American,' 1 '' xxxvii. 389. And turning, Bement . * "Engineering,'' xxiv. 254. Bement ..... * "Scientific American,'' xxxvii. 306. And grooving, Alork Cylinders, vertical "Scientific American Sup.,'' 356. Laboulaye's "Diet, des Arts et Man- itf.," i., Fig. 86, article " Alesoir." Bor'ing Rod. The rod which carries the drill in deep boring. Usually in sections united by screw-coupling or by socket and key. The illus- tration, Fig. 583, shows the latter method. See Plate LXXIV., opposite p. 2759, "Merh. Diet." DEEP BORES AND SHAFTS. Artesian well, Pottsdam, Mo ....... 5,500 feet. Salt spring, Sperenberg, Prussia .... 4,175 feet. Coal shaft, Viviers-Kemus, Belgium . . . 3,542 feet. Adelbert shaft, Pribram, Bohemia . . . 3,280 feet. See the following references: Food carrier for imprisoned miners, British ..... * "Engineer," xliv. 69. Electric, Plants . . . " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 120. Europe, deep, Jefferson . " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'" xix. 310. Drawing rods .... *' Scientific American Sup.," 1153. Rod grapnel, Allison, Br. * "Engineer,' 1 '' xliii. 165. Bor'ing Tool. See AUTOMATIC BORING-TOOL, for the Persian drill. An expansion boring tool, in which a cutter is thrust out laterally for under-cutting, coring-out boxes, sweeps and curves, is showii In " Scientific American,'" *xxxviii. 181. Van Haagen's expansion tool, instead of extending laterally at right angles, as in the one just mentioned, has a sweep upon an axis at right angles to that of the _. stock in which it is held. Bor'ing Tools. See under the following heads : Angle boring machine. Expansion hollow- Angular bench-drill. Angular bit-stock. Antrum trephine. Auger. Auger bit. Automatic boring tool. Barrel busher. Bench drill. Bit. Bit brace. Blacksmith's drill. Bodkin. Boring tool. Bow-drill stock. Brace. Breast drill. Bung-hole borer. Chisel. Churn-drill. Clutch drill. Combination auger. Corkscrew. Countersink. Crank rachet brace. Dental drill. Differential rachet brace Drill. Drill bench. Drilling press. Earth borer. Equilibrium tool. Excavator. Expanding drill. Expanding reamer. Expansion bit. auger. Fluted tap. Gas-main drill. Gimlet. Gimlet bit. Gouge chisel. Hand drill. II drill. Hollow auger. Lip auger. Marlinespike. Nerve canal reamer. Nerve cavity instru- ment. Perforator. Pin-bush. Plugger. Post auger. Post-hole auger. Post-hole digger. Pricker. Pump auger. Quick-speed hand-drill. Katchet brace. Ratchet drill. Reamer. Ship's auger. Sinus probe. Slot borer. Spiral auger. Tap. Taper tap. Track drill. Treenail auger. Twist-drill. Worm auger. Bo'som Staff. An instrument used in testing the straightness of the faces of mill-stones. The bosom of the mill-stone is a central depression, and the staff is adjust- . , able to test the sym- metry of the concavity. Fig. 394. Bosom Staff. French Wine-bottle Carrier Bot'tle Car'rier. An appliance used in wine cellars in carrying uncorked bottles. A teat above enters the mouth, and the cup-shaped depression in the bottom of the bottle rests on the spring-pad. Bot'tle Glass. (Glass.) French Recipe : River sand from the Rhdne 100 Slacked lime 24 Sulphate of soda . . 8 Belgian Recipe : Sand from near Charleroi 10 Peat ashes from Holland 20 Sulphate of soda 15 Limestone 5 Gullets (broken glass) . .... ... 50 100 France produces annually 100,000,000 to 120,000,000 bot- tles, representing a value of $4,000,000. The price is from $2.50 to $3.50 per 100 bottles of from 21 oz. to 2 20 pounds. Champagne bottles having to bear the pressure of the wine, cost from $4.60 to $5.60, according to quality. BOTTLE GLASS. 124 BOWER. The operation of blowing the bottle is as follows : A piece of metal (melted glass) is gathered on the end of the ponty, is blown, swung, and rolled till brought to a given size (according to the description of bottle) and shape : then placi'il in a two-part mold (generally of iron), and by means of a compressing piston expanded against the inside of the mold which shapes it. When withdrawn from the mold the bo; mm is /iiis/ieil (for some kinds of bottles); is detached from the ponty by cracking the glass by means of a piece of cold iron. The bottom of the bottle is put in a spring-tool ; the neck is re-heated and the mouth properly shaped by a piiiri'rs which has forming blocks and fits the inside and out- side of the mouth. Sometimes the bottom alone is formed in the mold. A furnace in France generally consumes about 374 pounds of coal for every 100 bottles of 28.80 ounce weight, or 1,320 pounds of coal for 220 pounds of bottles. Bot'tle Hold'er. A stand for holding bottles, either iii the bin or the rack full or empty. Fig. 396. Bottle Holder. ( Vins Moussewx.) Fig. 396 is a French bottle-holder for holding the champagne bottles before wiring (tourniquet porte bouteilles). Made by Tricout & Cie., Reims. Bot'tle Jack. A portable screw-jack in form of a bottle. Fig. Fig- 393. 397. Also known as a cotton screw, from being used in packing bales on board ship. Tig. 397. . Bottle Jack. Scale Bottoms. a. Folding bottom, for weighing goods in sacks. 6. Plain bottom. Bot'tling Ap'pa-ra'tus. See Ae'rated water. Hayward. Taylor S( Co., Br. * "Engineering,"- xxvi. 351 Spencer if Giilman, Br. . . * 'Engineer, 1 ' xlix. 235 Stopper, Pochtler, Austria . *".S'c. Amer.,' 1 ' xxxix. 405. Hart . . '. * "Sc. Arner.," xliii. 310 Washer, Cody *"Sc. Amer.,'' xliii. 374. Bot'tom. 1. The support in a scale for the matter to be weighed. See Fig. 398- 2. (Nautical.) That part of a ship or boat below the wales. Bot'tom-ing Tap. One for carrying the thread of full size to the bottom of tin 1 hole. See Tap c, Fig. 6211, p. 2495, "Mech. Diet."' Bot'tom Plate. (Paper-making.) The gang of knives forming the concave or bed beneath the Fig. 399. Paper Mills. cylinder of a rag-grinding machine or pulping en- gine. See Fig. 4020, p. 1824, " Mech. Diet." Bot'tom-set Line. (Fishing.) A line an- chored at the ends. See TRAWL LINE, for in- stance. Bouche. (Nautical.) Of a block. The bush- ing for the pin, in the cheeks of a block. The coak is the sheave bushing. Bou'gie. (Surgical.) A smooth dilating in- strument for meati. See Fig. 838, p. 346, "Mech. Dict., r and accompanying de- scription. For varieties Bee the following, the figures refer to Tie- mann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum : '' - Bougie a boule page 9, 11, Fart 111. Bougie a trois noeuds .... page 9, 11, Part 111. Bougie conique page 9, Part 111. Bougie conique a ventre .... page 9, Part III. Bougie filiform page 9, 11, Part III. Bougie olivaire (olive shaped) . . page 9, Part III. Bougie olivaire a ventre .... page 9, 11, Part III. Bougie, oesophageal page 84, Part III. Bougie ointment ....... page 21, Part II. Bougie tOtis's) a boule page 11, Part III. Bougie, pile page 124, Part III. Bougie, rectal page 117, Part III. Bougie, urethral page 6, 1'art III. The terms probe, dilator, rlivulsor, catheter, etc., relate to thrusting instruments of various forms used for a variety of purposes. See list under SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS Boul'der Crack'er. A heavy iron rod used in boring deep wells, to drop upon a bowlder which may be accidentally encountered in the boring, in order to crack it and allow the boring to proceed. Bou-liii'i-kon. A floor covering ; a substitute for carpet or floor-cloth. It is constituted entirely of animal and vegetable fibre, animal hair and wool entering largely into its construction, and the whole being bound together by means of the skin of the buffalo, reduced to its natural fibre. These materials are formed into a thick cloth, and afterwards saturated with a solution of vegetable oxide and coloring matter, by means of which boulinikon is made almost as noiseless as carpet, while from the non-conducting nature of its elements, it is warm and comfortable to the feet. Bow Ab-dom'i-nal Sup-port'er. (Surgi- cal.) One having a bow-shaped spring to compress the abdomen, iii place of obtaining the pressure by cincture. Fig. 37, p. 16, Part IV., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chi- rurgicum." Bow'er. (Nautical.) One of the large work- ing anchors at the bow. They are called best bower BOWL. 125 BOX HOOK. and small bower ; not on account of size, but posi- j tion. The best bower is starboard. The small bower is port. Bowl. (Fis/tiny.) The poiuul, pot, or crib of a weir or pound net. See POUND NET. Bowline Knot. (Nautical. A combination of the reef-knot and can-irk bend used for fnrnish- Fig. 400. Fig. 403. Bowline Knot. ing ;v bight that will hold upon a rope's end ; as a bight on a boat's painter, to be throwu over a post on a wharf. A running bowline-knot has the knot made on the bight, in- stead of on the standing part, and makes a bight that travels upon the standing part. Bow'line on a Bight. (Naut- icai.) A form of knot or bend. See 17, Fig. 2777, p. 1240, "Mech. Diet." Bow'sprit Shrouds. (Nautical.) Ropes or chains from the outer end of the bowsprit to the luff of the bow, giving lateral stay to the bow- sprit. Bow I'ron. One of the bow-shaped straps at- tached 'to the sides of a wagon body to hold the Fi S- 40L end of the bows on which the tilt is stretched and supported. Bow Joint. One of the pieces concerned in the Bow Iron " folding members of a carriage top. Box Bar'row. A capacious, four-sided barrow, such as is used for carrying coke, saw-dust, etc. "Scientific American '' . . . * xxxix. 322, Fig. 7. Box Coil. (Heating.) A steam or hot-water coil of many members, occu- pying a cubical space compara- ble in its pro- portions to a box. BoxEn'giiie. A peculiar form of engine in which the parts are all in com- pression, and which has but two joints. It is singularly com- pact, as a 25 horse-power engine, with steam at 65 pounds, occupies a space 14" X 32" X 13?", and weighs 364 pounds. The engine consists of a cast-iron casing forming a cylin- der traversed at the middle of its length by the crankshaft. The piston is formed of two rings connected by means of dis- tance pieces, while a plate is secured to each end, and be- tween these plates the sectors, which act as connecting rods move freely. The use of these sectors or quadrants in place of the ordi- nary connecting rods forms one of the features of the engine. The rectors roll on the inner faces of the piston plates, and . 402. Box Coil wit/i Return Bends. Outridge's Box Engine. are supported by bridle rods of wrought-iron, the wearing parts are case-hardened, and the pins on which they move are of steel. In the ends of the sectors are fitted the crank-pin brasses, so arranged that they may easily be set up until they are completely worn through ; the motion of the arcs of the sectors being a rolling motion, there is practically no fric- tion. The brasses of course are under the same conditions as those of an ordinary engine. The valves used are of cylindrical form, having passages for the inlet and outlet of the steam, one valve being placed at each end of the cylinder. They are held between centers of hardened steel (as they do not bear on the shell there is very little if any wear) and are actuated by an eccentric at- tached to a rod connected to both by means of short levers ; the motion of the eccentric causes the valves to vibrate. The engine is solely under the control of the reversing lever, and may be stopped, started, reversed, or linked up with the greatest ease, the valves always being in equilibrium. The clearance spaces are small, the amount being only one fortieth part of the cubic contents of the cylinder, as com- pared to one twelfth part, which is the general practice in small engines of the ordinary type. This object is gained by the use of very short steam ports, the general practice being to make the ports f " in length. A lubricator is fitted on the steam-pipe and the oil is car- ried past the valves into the interior of the cylinder in the usual manner. An oil cup is also fitted to the hand-hole door, by means of which oil is introduced between the inner faces of the piston -plates ; in this the crank-pin is partially submerged at each revolution, the splashing caused by the passage of the crank through the oil thoroughly lubricates all the working parts inclosed within the diameter of the cylinder, and oilways are cut in the bearing brasses, through which the oil constantly trickles and thereby reduces the chances of hot bearings. When once the lubricator has been charged and a proper quantity of oil placed between the pis- ton-plates, the engine will run for twenty-four hours with- out attention. See the following references : *" Engineer '' xlv. 55. * "Engineering ' xxv. 52. *" Scientific American Supplement " . . 1805. Box Form'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for forming sheet-metal boxes, such as those for con- diments, baking powder, cocoa, etc. "TronAge" * xx., November 22, p. 1. Box Hook. 1. A hook used in handling boxes ; somewhat like a cotton-hook, which see. 2. A hook made on the plan of a cant-hook ; used in closing boxes packed full of fish. BOXING MACHINE. 126 BRACKET CUTTING-OFF SAW. 3. Hooks used in pairs in Fig. 404. swinging boxes from a lifting- tackle. Fig. 404. Box'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for boring out the boxes of hubs. Fig. 405. It is adjustable to bore either a straight or taper hole. The upper figure shows the chuck for the larger end, with the device for varying the ta- per of the hole. The lower figure shows the chuck for the smaller end, and also shows the interior, a portion of the hub being broken away to expose it. The adjust- ing rule, shown between the figures, enables the operator to set the bits for cutting a straight hole or one with any required taper. Fig. 405. Box Hooks. Double-chuck Hub-boxing Machine. Box Man'gle. One of which the weight is formed by a box containing stones or blocks. Fig. 3043, p. 1383, "Mech. Diet." Box Fack'ing. Fibrous waste saturated with oil for the packing of axle boxes. Box Re'lay. (Electricity.) A portable relay instrument which is inclosed in a box. Box Scra'- per. A tool for scraping names off boxes for re-addressing. The illustra- tion shows a double handle scraper, a sin- gle handle scraper, and an adjustable scraper with plane bit. Box Valve. A box section in a pipe con- taining a valve, and having a cover for ac- cess. Fig. 407. Box Scrapers. Bra-bant' Plow. A peculiar form of plow, made either single, double, or turuiug-mold-board. It is named from Brabant, in Flanders, and is rapidly sp r e a d i n g over the North of France. What ever may be the peculiarity of the mold - board, one or more, the plow hits always its beam adjustable in the standard of the avant- train. Greenhouse Box Valve. See Knight's "Report, Paris Exposition,''- * v., Figs. 4,25-28,49. " Scientific American " * xxxix. 163. Fig. 408. Brabant Single Plow. Brace. 4. (Add ) A revolving tool-holder, of which three forms are shown in Fig. 409 : Straight, v\>s. ion. Braces. Ratchet, Angular. An extension brace is one wirli a lengthening section for very deep holes. 8. (Mining.) (Add.) b. The platform over the mouth of the shaft or winze, and to which the tackle is hooked. Brace Tre-pan'. (Surgical.) A trephine saw mounted on a brace : in effect, an annular bit in a brace. Fig. 72, p. 20, PartT., Tiemann's "Armamentarium C/iirur- Brack'et Cock. One projecting from a wall in manner of a bracket, as distinguished from one on a post rising from the basin slab. Fig. 410. Brack'et Cut'ting-off' Saw. A cross cut- ting saw mounted on a projecting bracket, its arbor traversing to and fro so as to carry the saw across BRACKET CUTTING-OFF SAW. 127 BRAIDING MACHINE. the stuff which lies upon the table beneath. Fig. 411. The table has rollers to facilitate the end- ways motion of the timber between cuts. Fig. 410. combined with the latter a braiding apparatus which presents the braid to the needle always in the direction of the feed, so that it will stitch it to the cloth in its center. Fig. 412. Bracket Basin Cock. The machine is specially de- signed for car and bridge shops, ship-yards, etc. The bracket is adjustable vertically on the wall- plate, to compensate for the wear of the saw. The saw carriage is gibbed to the ways, and the trav- erse movement is by rack an*' pin- ion connected with the hand-wheel in front. The traverse is 38" ; saw- ing capacity for boards is 30" wide, and for timbers 12" X 24". Brad Driv'er. An instrument, Fig. 413, especially designed for nailing moldings to the panels of doors. It has a brad-holder and a plunger driven by a mallet. Bra-doon'. (Man#/e.) A small bit having loose rings ; used as a second bit for bearing reins in curb bridles. Gag bradoons have holes in the rings through which a strap is passed, the ends of which are connected with the reins ; when made in this way they are very severe, and are used only for riding bridles. Link and T bradoons are bits having links or T-s attached Fig. 411. Bracket Cutting-off Saw, with Traversing Arbor. to the rings, by which the head collar is attached ; they are used only for military purposes ; bradoons are made with stiff and with jointed mouths. Braid'ing Ma-chine'. A machine which sews braid on to cloth. A species of embroidering ma- chine. Coraely's braiding machine (Paris) is founded upon the Bonnaz embroidering machine, having Comely s Braiding Machine. The braiding apparatus consists of a braiding disk a, which is fitted within the rim or crown of the large wheel A. Upon turning the crank handle E, the wheels B, C, D turn the wheel A and the braiding disk a, which presents the braid to the needle always In the direction of the feed. To use the braiding apparatus a braiding guide must be selected, through which the braid can slide easily. Braid- ing disks are adapted for the respective sizes of braid. Withdraw the slide c, raise the plate d by inserting the curved point of the hook knife into the hole, lift the end of the braid by means of the wire-hook through the slot Z, in wheel A, and draw it through the braiding guide. Place the spool F on its spool-holder, g, and the India-rubber washer upon the end of the spool-holder to prevent the spool from sliding off. Set the braiding disk a upon the rim of the wheel A and in such a manner that its projection m enters into one of the recesses of said rim. Fig. 413. Thorndike''s Brad Driver. It is very important that the guide from which the braiil issues should always be in a true radial line with the feed lever r of the machine, and that the braid should fit nicely in said guide, or else it will not be stitched in its center ; it should, however, not be too tight in the guide, as in that case it would draw and ruffle the material. In case it should be necessary to adjust the braiding guide it can be done by adjusting the position of the wheel A. To accomplish this, raise the lever h, and push the wheel to BRAIDING MACHINE. 128 BRAKE-SHOE VALVE. the right, thus the wheel C becomes free, and the wheel A can be turned independently of the crank handle E ; adjust the braiding disk to its true position, push the wheel B against the wheel Cand lock it by means of the lever h. The braid should always pass from below the spool F into tlii> passage Z, as shown in dotted lines, ami never from above the spool, as it will bear against the side of the passage Zand thus draw or ruffle the material. For embroidering purposes a plate, H, is supplied with each machine, and is to be used instead of the plate d. To change the needle-hole in plate o, loosen the screw k, push the disk o out of plate H, turn it until the needle-hole to be used will be in the center of plate H, and push it home into the plate H, taking care that the tooth 4 enters one of the notches in the circumference of disk o, and tighten the screw k. The Wheeler Sf Wilson new No. 10 sewing-machine is a per- fect braider. Brain Knife. (Surgical.) A knife used in making sections of the brain in post-mortem exam- inations and for microscopic purposes. Fig. 326, p. 95, Part I., "Tiemann's Armamentarium Chi- rifgicnm." 1 Braize. Charcoal powder. It accumulates around charcoal works at furnaces, and is a source of danger. Suggested to be blown into the fur- naces of the hot blast. " Mining Journal." Brake. 1. (Railway.) Sec AIR BRAKE, VAC- UUM BRAKE, etc. For details of various car- brakes, see Forney's "Car-builders' Dictionary." 2. In casemate and ships' guns : a compressor to check the recoil of a gun. See description on pages 500, 501, "Ordnance. Report.," 1877. 3. (Manege.) A severe bit, formerly used in England. It is referred to by Nares. 4. A form of testing device. See DYNAMOME- TER ; DYNAGRAPH, " Mech. Diet." et infra. See, also : Automatic friction Becker, Austria Car (for tests). Westinghouse . , Car lor testing. Westinghouse . , Continuous . * " Scientific American Sup.," 3996. . *" Engineer," xlv. 380. *" Engineer," xlv. 402. . * "Engineering,'' xxv. 470. . * " Engineering," xxiv 262, 363, 369. Sanden * "Engineering,'' xxi. 241. Railway, Massauge , *" Van Nostrand : s Mag.," xxii. 9. For locomotives. Hickey * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1600. Brake Beam. {Railway.) The suspended beam to which the brake shoe is immediately at- tached. Forney. Fig. 414. Trussed Brake Beam, Hanger, and Carrier. The parts concerned are as follows : 2. Brake-block. 11. Brake lever. 4. Trussed break-beam. 13. Brake lever-stop. 7, 9. Brake hanger and link. 15, 16. Parallel brake. Brake Cyl'iii-der. (Railway.) The air cylin- der of a brake arrangement ; containing the piston against which the compressed air works to move the brake lever. Forney. Fig. 415. r Westinghouse Car-brake Cylinder The parts are as follows : 2. Cylinder. 3. Piston, 3" piston-rod. 8. Follower-plate. 9. Packing leather. 10. Packing expander. 11. Follower bolt. Brake Hose-cpup'ling Valve. (Railway.) In the clutch-coupling of the Westinghouse brake. A puppet-valve which is contained in a chamber in a coupling-case to prevent the escape of air from the hose when the latter are uncoupled. Forney. Fig. 416. Brake-hose Clutch-coupling. 3. Coupling case. 4. Coupling cap. 5. Coupling valve. 6. Valve spring. 7. Packing ring-washer. 8. Packing-ring. Brake Pur'chase. A lever power for work- ing a windlass. A pair of pivoted sockets receive Fig. 417. Fig. 418. Amazeen " Beam. the handspikes and act alternately upon the central lever, which has rod connection to the clutches 011 the windlass beneath the deck. Brake'-shoe. The rubber in a car-brake ar- rangement. The Congdon brake-s hoe has pieces of wrought] iron cast into the) general surface of the cast iron shoe, to give it greater adherence. Brake'-s hoe Valve. A valve arranged to be operated by the BRAKE-SHOE VALVE. 129 BRASS COLORING. brake shoe when the friction on the brake-shoe ex- ceeds the amount sufficient to skid the wheels. Fig. 419. H". stinghouxe's Brake-shot Value. The shoe A is suspended by a link B from the end K of the lever C, con- nected with a valve F, which is so con- structed that when the friction of the brake-shoe, or rather the strain which it exerts on the link .B, exceeds an amount assumed to be sufficient to skid the Wheels, the valve will release some of the air in the brake cylinder, and thus reduce the pressure on the piston and on the brake-shoes When the car is running in one direction the strain on the link _Z> will of course be downward, and when running in the opposite direction the strain will be upward. " Kailroail Gazette'' * xxiii. 99. Branch. A bi- furcated pipe, known as a Y, from the similarity of form to that letter. a. Branch or Y. b. Double Y. c. Reduced Y; one o f the arms being of smaller di- ameter. d. Reduced double Y; both the subsidi- ary pipes being of smaller d i a m e ter than the main stem. e. T-branch. When it leads to lateral water-closet hoppers, it is known as a soil branch, which see. See also BEND, HUB, etc., and list Pipe Branches. on page 1708, " Mech. Diet." Bran Ma-chines'. For clearing- flour from bran, for packing, baling, etc. See the following references : Baler, Kennedy .... * "American Miller,'' viii. 198. Cleaner, Davario, Switz. . * "Engineering,'' xxx. 250. Mills * "American Miller,'' vii. 209. Dresser, Lanton fy Arndt . * "American Miller,'' viii. 197. "American Miller,'' viii. 832. "American Miller," vii. '188. Duster, Bradfield $ Oliver . * "American Miller,'' v. 54. Dresser "American Miller," vi. 108. Duster, Hughes * "American Miller," vi. 77. "American Miller,'' vi. 144. Rakes * "American Miller," viii. 115. Package "American Miller," viii. 377. Packer, " Eureka," Mattison * "American Miller,'' v. 93. "American Miller," v. 88. Brass. An alloy of copper and zinc. See pp. 358, 359, "Mech. Diet." A native brass is found on the south fork of the Yuba River, California, analyzing as follows ( Stillman) : Copper 85.02 Zinc 11.02 Antimony 3.82 Iron 0.09 99.05 " The specimens are in the form of small, somewhat flat- tened, concretionary masses, from j toj centimeters in diame- ter, and destitute of apparent crystalline structure. Color, from dark reddish-brown to yellowish-white ; streak, faint 9 yellowish-white; specific gravity, 8.33; somewhat brittle; slightly incrusted with green carbonate of copper." ' Min- ing Record." See Larkin's "Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide " 12mo. Recipes : Tin. Zinc. Copper. Lead. Hard. Chantrey's .... 5 5 16 32 32 3 2 33 65 "Malleable" 43 57 15 24 White 1 2 16 Red 1 9 Red. Hegermuhl 2 11 Nails 16 20 2 2 9 oldbr 3 32 2 4 32 3 3 1 32 Sheathing and bolts .... 4 6 6 16 - On brass, Kirk .... Blackening Brassing, Electro .... Coloring Thurston's expts. in ... Furnace * Filings separator .... Malleable Manufacture, Benedict, et al. * Coloring and finishing . . Works, Scoville Co. . . * Brazing furnace . . . . * Brazing burner . * 'Iron Age," xxi., Mar. 14, p. 5. 'Sc. American,-' xxxiv. 386. 'Iron Age," xxii., Dec. 5, p. 3. 'Scientific Amer.,'' xxxiv 276. '' S:. American," 1 xxxvii. 65. 'Iron Age,'' xxi., Mar. 28, p. 5. 'Eng. If Min. Jour.,'' xxx. 91. 'Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2662. " Scientific Amer.," xlii. 271. 'Scientific Amer.," xli. 281. 'Scientific Amer..'' xli. 375. "Sc. American," xxxviii. 404. "Iron Age," xxv.,May 27, p. 3. Brass Black'ing. A dead black color; used freely with French optical instruments. Make a strong solution of nitrate of silver in one dish, and of nitrate of copper in another. Mix the two and plunge the brass. Remove, and heat evenly until the required dead blackness is ob- tained. Brass Col'or-ing. Surface coloration by lac- quer or chemical action. To obtain Browns of all shades, immerse in solution of nitrate or per- chloride of iron, the strength of the solution determining the depth of the shade. Clean the brass, leave in damp sand, then polish with a dry brush. Violet : Dip in solution of chloride of antimony. Chocolate : Burn on the surface of the brass moist red oxide of iron, and polish with graphite. Olive Green : Make the surface black by means of a solution of iron and arsenic in muriatic acid, polish with a black- lead brush, and coat, when warm, with a lacquer composed of one part of lac varnish, four of turmeric, and one of gamboge. Green and light coating of Verdigris: Dilute acid, followed by spontaneous drying. Orange, inclining to gold : Polish, and plunge for a few sec- onds in a warm, neutral solution of acetate of copper. Grayish Green : Dip in a bath of copper. Moire : Solution of sulphate of copper. Steel-gray Bronze : Dilute boiling solution of chloride of ar- senic. Blue Bronze : Strong hyposulphite of soda. English Brass Color: Heat to redness, dip in sulphuric acid, then in dilute nitric acid, wash, dry in saw-dust. Black Bronze: Coat with solution of platinum, or chloride of gold mixed with nitrate of tin. Japanese Bronze : Solution of sulphate of copper, alum, and verdigris. Black : Polish with tripoli, wash with solution of nitrate of tin, 1 ; chloride of gold, 2. Or, dip in bath obtained by dissolving copper filings in nitric acid ; then heat over charcoal ; repeat to develop color. Or, mix a strong solution of nitrate of silver in one dish and nitrate of copper in another, mix the two, plunge the brass, heat to develop color. The following is a recipe which gives to brass a variety of shades, according to the length of the exposure or the amount of the application. First appears a light color, then all shades successively from red, dark blue, light blue, and finally brown : Dissolve 60 grains bitartrate of potassa in a liter of BRASS COLORING. 130 BREAKING DOWN MACHINE. water, to which add 30 grains tin salt (protochloride of tin) dissolved in u fifth of a liter, heat to boiling, and allow the resulting precipitate to settle. The clear liquid is now to be poured, under constant stirring, into a solution of 180 grams of hyposulphite of soda in one fourth liter of water, and again heated to boiling, during which operation a quan- tity of sulphur will be separated. The resulting clear solu- tion is then ready for use. Old German Recipe: The sulphide of copper produces similar effects. Brass Fin'ish-ing. See article from "Ironmongers' Review 11 ' (Br.) on Brass Finishing, including Turning. Bronzing. Spinning. Lacquering. Burnishing. Etc. Coloring. Reproduced in "Iron Age,'' xxi., May 9, p. 7. Brass'ing. Electro-brassing is done by first washing in hot potash bath, then pickling the ar- ticle to obtain a clean metallic surface, free from oxide, and removing the black scale by scouring, and then exposing in the depositing bath with strong battery power. The methods employed for brassing cast iron, zinc, steel, are detailed by Mr. Alex. Watt, and reproduced in "Scientific American Supplement," 2610. Brass Lac'quer-ing. A means of preserving brass from tarnishing without giving it an artificial color. (For the latter see BRASS COLORING.) The brass is pickled, scoured, and washed ; dipped in ni- trous acid for an instant, washed in clean water, dried in saw-dust. Then dipped an instant in nitric acid, washed in a weak solution of argol, and dried in warm saw-dust. " So prepared, the goods are conveyed to the lacquer room, where they are heated on a hot plate and varnished. " The varnish used is one of spirit, consisting, in its sim- ple form, of one ounce of shellac dissolved in one pint (im- perial) of methylated spirits of wine. To this simple varnish are added such coloring substances as red sanders, dragon's blood, and annatto, for imparting richness of color. To lower the tone of color, turmeric, gamboge, saffron, Cape aloes, and saudarach are used. The first group reddens, the second yellows the varnish, while a mixture of the two gives a pleasing orange. " A good pale lacquer consists of three parts of Cape aloes and one of turmeric to one of simple lac varnish. A full yellow contains four of turmeric and one of annatto to one of lac varnish. A gold lacquer, four of dragon's blood and one of turmeric to one of lac varnish. A red, 32 parts of an- natto and eight of dragon's blood to one of lac varnish. " Lacquers suffer a chemical change by heat and light, and must, therefore, be kept in a cool place and in dark vessels. The pans in use are either of glass or earthenware, and the brushes of camel's hair, with no metal fittings." Iron- mongers- Review Lacquer for small arms and bright work of ordnance is made of turpentine, oil, and beeswax, sometimes with the addition of li- tharge or of resin. In the latter cases the compound is really a paint or a varnish, and the term lacquer is a misnomer. Brat'tice Cloth. A cloth used in a mine in place of a brattice of plank. Proposed to be made of wire cloth, so as to prevent being burned by explosion or other accident. "Min- ing Journal." "Scientific American Sup- plement,'' 948. Bray '-plank (Grain Mill.) The beam supporting the 'adjustable end of the bridge-tree. Bra'ziers' Hearth. An open fire used by braziers. Brazing Blow-pipe. Fig. 421. k Braz'ing Blow-pipe. A brazing blow-pipe used by Dr. Cryer in his lectures on continuous gum and other dental work, is shown in Fig. 421. In this bench apparatus the blow-pipe attach- ment is connected with the main tube by a swivel- ing gas-joint. The air is admitted at A, passing through a small tube enclosed in the gas-pipe B. The supply of gas is regulated by the stop cock C. See article by Edward Kirk, "Iron Age,'' xxi., May 9, p. 3. Braz'ing Tongs. A flat, heavy jawed tongs used in brazing baud-saws. The tongs, being heated in the furnace, is clapped upon the scarfed ends of the saw, between which a slip of solder is laid. See Fig. 199. Bread Sli'cer. A guillotine knife, working in a guide, to cut slices from a loaf. The BEEF SHAVER (which see) is a similar implement. At/iearn's bread slicer descends in oblique guides so as to make a draw-cut. Anderson's is a detached knife with guides, whiqh merely direct it vertically. Break. 4. (Architecture.) (Add.) b. A part of a wall projecting, to destroy the continuity and di- versify the line. (Add.) 7. (Mining.) A fissure or crack found in the vicinity of old workings, caused by the sub- sidence of the strata. 8. (Electricity.) An opening in the circuit, pre- venting the passage of electricity. Break'-cir'cuit. (Electricity.) An arrange- ment on an electro-magnetic or magneto-electric instrument, by which an operator can open or close the circuit at pleasure. Break'-down Van. A British name for a wrecking car, sent to clear and repair the track after derailment of a train or cars. Break'er. A plow adapted for breaking new ground, as distinguished from a stubble plow or sod plow. The timber laud breaker and prairie breaker are Fig. 422 Deere ' "Prairie Queen" Breaker. essentially different, the former more nearly ap- proximating the normal plow. The latter is shown in Fig. 422. In construction it is light and strong, and, like plows of its class, turns a flat furrow. It has a slip-share, wrought frog, and adjustable 3- horse clevis. Break'er Card. The first carding machine which receives weighed quantities of cotton upon its feeding apron and forms it into a lap. The sec- ond carder is the finisher. Break'ing-down Ma-chine'. (Gunpowder.) A machine used in the manufacture of gunpowder to break the lumps of crude powder into a fine state of division, to facilitate the operation of pressing. The breaking-down machine consists of a pair of gun-metal, cylindrical rollers, grooved longitudi- nally. They are placed side by side, their axes horizontal and parallel. The journal boxes of one roller are adjustable, and held in position by a weight. They revolve in opposite directions, and BREAK LATHE. 131 BRICK KILN. break the powder into a meal. A second pair com- pletes the operation. See "Ordnance Report," 1879, Appendix I., Plate III., Fig. 6, and description on p. 102. * ''Engineering,'' xxv. 95. Break Lathe. (Much.) Oue having a gap in its bed to increase the swine/, or capacity for turning objects-of large radius. In the Whitworth self-acting break-lathe, a very large face plate is used, and the tail stock is mounted on a supple- mentary bed, and has the usual adjustments. See also GAP-BED LATHE. Break'wa-ter. See the following references : Block Island . . " Scientific American," xl. 342. Brm;x< I O-H . . * " Scientific American Supplement,'' 397. St. Michael, Azores "Scientific American Supplement,-' 210. Breast Rope. (Nautical.) A band fastened between the shrouds for the safety of the man in the chains when sounding. He leans against it when reaching over to let the lead swing clear. Breath Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) A thermo- electric battery adapted to be used as a transmitter in a telephone circuit. "Scientific American Supplement " .... * 2552. Breach'-loaoVing Fire'-arms. Norton's re- port in quarto on American breech-loading fire- arms, contains notices of the following arms (* il- lustrated) : Breech loader. Temp. Henry II., of France. Matchlock revolver. Temp. Henry II., of France. Snap-hammer self-loading -petronel. Temp. Charles I., Britain. Breech-loading rifles. Temp. Henry VIII., Britain. Breech-loading arm. Hall, Britain, 1664. Breech-loading arm. Hall, United States, 1811. Breech-loader, Breech-loader, Ferguson,* 1776. Earnest.* Remington.* Milbank.* Peabody.* Spencer.* Ward-Burton.* Maynard. Springfield.* Hammond.* Joslyn-Tomes.* Roberts. Berdan ,* converted. Ball-Lamsou Berdan,* bolt. Broughton. Whitney.* Meigs.* Revolver, Smith & Wesson.* Machine gun, Gatling.* Colt. The following guns were subjected to the tests of the Board of Ordnance. See Ordnance Memoranda, No. 15, where they are described and illustrated. LIST OF ARMS. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Wooden model . Musket, cal. .50 . Carbine .... Magazine-carbine Musket, cal. .50 . Wooden model . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .433 Carbine, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .42 . Carbine, cal. .42 . Musket .... Musket . . . . ' Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, caJ. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Carbine, cal. .50 . Carbine, cal. .50. Musket, ca). .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Musket, cal. .50 . Edwin Sleeper. B. S. Roberts. W. T. Scott. W. R. Evans. Sharps' Rifle Co. F. W. Worrell. I'eabody Rifle Co. Peabody Rifle Co. I'eabody Rifle Co. K. Whitney. 10. Whitney. E. Whitney. E. Whitney. .1. D. Greene. William Morgenstern. Frederick Wohlgemuth. Frederick Wohlgemuth. John Broughton. E. Remington & Sons. E. Remington & Sons. E. Remington & Sons. E. Remington & Sons. E. Remington & Sous. W. II. Elliot. A. T. Freeman. Ward-Burton. Ward-Burton. B. S. Roberts. C. M. Spencer. E. Remington & Sons. W. S. Smoot. Oscar Snell. 34. Musket, cal. .42 . 35. Musket, cal. .52 . 36. Musket, cal. .50 . 37. Musket, cal. .50 . 38. Musket, cal. .50 . 40. Musket, cal. .50 41. Musket, cal. .43 . 42. Musket, cal. .50 . . S. F. Van Choate. . W. II. Robertson. . Capt. J. M. Whitteuiore. . John L. Kirk. . Smith & Chamberlain. . B. F. Joslyn. . E. Remington & Sous. Updegraff. 43. Musket, cal. .50 (Ryder extractor) E. Remington & Sons. 44. Musket, cal. .50 . . . . James F. Thomas. 45. Musket, cal. .50 . . . . John Broughton. 46. Musket, cal. .42. . . . Wesley Richards. 47. Musket, cal. .50. . . . Schofleld-Remington. 48. Musket, cal. .50. . . . Springfield, mod. 1870. 4S. Carbine, cal. 50 . . . Springfield. 49. Wooden model .... Alfred Beals. 50. Musket, ca!. .50. . . . J. M. Milbank. 51. Musket, cal. .50 . . . . J. M. Milbank. 52. Magazine-musket, cal. .44 Stetson. 53. Musket, cal. .50 .... James Lee. 54. Musket, cal. .50. . . . James Lee. 55. Wooden model . . . . G. R. Remington. 56. Revolving carbine . . . Helm . 57. Musket, cal. .42. . . . Berdan-Russian. 58. Magazine-carbine, cal. .45 Ward-Burton. 69. Musket, cal. .50. . . . A. T. Freeman. 60. Musket, cal. .58 . . . . Mont-Storm. 61. Musket, cal. .50. . . . James Lee. 62. Musket, cal. .50 . . . . Oscar Snell. 63. Musket, cal. .50 . . . . Peabody. 64. Musket, cal. .50. . . . B.S.Roberts. 65. Musket, cal. .50. . . . Earnest. 66. Musket, cal. .50 . . . . Springfield-Stillman. 67. Musket, cal. .50 . . . . Remington-Ryder. 68. Musket, cal. .50 . . . . Springfield-Alliu. 69. Musket, cal. .50. . . . Springfield. 73. Carbine, cal. .50. . . . Springfield. 74. Wooden model .... J.B. Rumsey. 75. Carbine, cal. .50 . . . B. S. Roberts. 7i>. Musket, cal. .50. . . . A. T. Freeman. 77. Carbine, cal. .50. . . E. Whitney. 78. Repeating musket, cal. .45 Winchester. 79. Musket, cal. .42. . . . John Broughton. 80. Carbine, cal. .50. . . . W. II. Elliot. 81. Musket, cal. .50. . . . Sharps' Rifle Co. 82. Locking rifle, cal .50. . Remington. 83. Musket, cal. .50 . . . . Merrill. S4. Musket, cal. .50. . . . William Conroy 85. Navy rifle, cal. .50 . . . Remington. 86. Musket (Ryder extr.) .45 Remington. 87. Magazine-musket, cal. .42 William Gardner. 88. Musket, cal. .45 . . . Springfield. 97. Magazine-musket, cal. .46 Ward-Burton. 99. Musket, cal. .45 . . . . Springfield. Brew'ing. Consult arrangements in the fol- lowing references : Australian * "Engineer,'' 1. 346. Fountain, Pontifex if Wood, Br. . * "Engineering," xxix. 34. Machinery, vats, coolers, etc. ,Br. * "Engineer,"' xlviii. 259. Austrian brewery plant (48 figs.) * "Engineer," 1 1. 266, 303, 404,458,462. Sectional view, Cannock Co., Br., * "Engineer,'' xlix. 63. Steam "Phoenix," New York . . "Sr. Am. Sup.," 952. See Byrn's " Tlie Complete Practical Brewer.''' Erne's " Theoretical and Practical Chemistry of Fermenta- tion." ScMilzenberger "On Fermentation.'''' Brew'er's Fau'cet. A faucet with two brass cocks. A double faucet : that is, two faucets from a sin- gle stem which enters the barrel or vat, and a small faucet at the fork for sampling. A RACKING FAUCET, which see. Brick Bar'row. A flat-bottomed, sideless, high front board wheelbarrow, for off-bearing bricks, and conveying baked bricks to the kiln. The wheel is set farther back than usual, and the bricks piled in ranks on each side. Brick, Hollow. A brick with cells, for ven- tilation or to prevent passage of moisture. See Figures 897-899, "Mech. Diet." French hollow bricks are made by Gaillon, Levallois-Per- Brick Kiln. Two systems of continuous kilns for burning bricks, tiles, etc., have come into prac- BK1CK KILN. 132 BRIDGE. tical use the French system of Colas, also known as that of Borie (Fig. 901, p. 371, "Mech. Diet.") ; and the German system of Hoffmann, the well- known annular kiln or Ringoven (Fig. 903, Ibid.). Brick Barrows. The principle of the kilns of Colas, Borie, and their imi- tators, consists in placing the air-dried bricks on small rail- way trucks forming a long train. This is slowly moved through an arched chamber, provided in its center with fixed fireplaces for burning the bricks ; the fire in these kilns is stationary, while the bricks are moved forward. The princi- ple of the Hoffmann kiln is just the reverse ; here the bricks are stacked in an annular burning chamber, and remain stationary while the fire travels through them, leaving burnt bricks in the rear and advancing into and among the green bricks. The annular shape of the burning chamber allows a continuous operation of the kiln, the fire progressing in the circuit without interruption, while the burnt bricks be- hind the fire are continually replaced by green bricks. The first-named system is also worked continuously, the train being supplied in the rear with trucks containing green bricks, at the same rate as trucks with burnt bricks are with- drawn in the front. On the Colas principle is the Dueberg kiln described in "Engineer " * xlvi. 191. "Scientific American Supplement " * 2358. The Foster kiln, for which see 'Engineer'' * xlvi. 385. " Scientific American Supplement . * 2071, 2546. Of kilns on the Hoffmann principle are the Lancaster, "Scientific American Supplement, " * 2357. Hoffmann, " Vienna Exposition Report,'' 1 vol. iv., p. 20. Hoffmann, Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire," i.,art. " Briques ." See also "Continuous Brick Kiln" (Br.), "Engineer and Mining Journal," xxv. 348. Hamilton's perpetual brick kiln has a number of compart- ments arranged in a line and divided by a sheet-iron door, capable of being raised or lowered, so as to let the heat pass from one to the other. Adams' Brick kiln (patent July 21, 1868) has steam intro- duced into the furnaces to distribute the heat through the interstices of the stack of bricks. Bricklay-ers' Fis-. 424. Ham'mer. A hammer for trimming bricks for caps, lin- tels, quoins, etc. The art of ornamental brick-work can be scarcely said to exist in the United States. Such edifices as exist in Turin and other cities in Northern Italy have no parallel on this side of the Atlantic. Bricklaying machine. Bricklayer's Hammer. Franke . "Sr. Amer. Sup.," 149. Brick Ma-chine'. A machine for molding bricks. See Report of 'Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, "Centennial Exhibi- tion,'' voL iii., Group II., p. 184. The subjects are divided into : Dry clay machines. Tempered clay machines. Crude or moist clay machines. Slush or mud machines. Includes description of the machines of Garretson * p. 186. Morand *p. 187. Chambers Bros If Co * p. 188. Tiffany *p.!93. Durand If Marais * p. 195. Schlickeysen * p. 197. Gard * p. 200. Gregg * p. 204. " Peerless ; ' * p. 206. " Combination '' ( Gregg) * p. 212. " Excelsior " ( Gregg) * \\. :i!4. " Triple Pressure "( Gregg) * p. 215. Aiken 220. See also Figures 908-920, pp. 371-378, " Mech. Diet.," where brick machines of three classes and six sub-varieties are described and illustrated. Branches of the subject are also considered under PUG-MILL, CLAY-MILL, TILES, etc. A short resume is in "Scientific American," xxxviii., 202. See also " Guide du Briqitetier," par M. E. Lejeune, Paris. Ancient bricks, "Builder," "Van Nostrand's Mag." xix., 353, and page 368, Figures 895, 896, "MecA. Diet.-- See also Wilkinson, Rawlinson, Lepsius, etc. See " Brick and Tile Making," Dobson. "Bricklayers' Tables,'' Laxton. The following references to Brick Machines may also be consulted : * "Iron Age," xxi., February 14, p. 1. English .... * "Scientific American,'' xxxvii. 399. Allemand .... * "Scientific American Sup.," 3869. Armitage Sf liter, Br. * "Engineer," xlix. 342. Boulet Bros., Fr . * "Scientific American," xli. 50. Bradley if Craven, Eng * "Scientific American Sup.,'-' 2176. Brownhill, Br. . . * "Engineer," xliii. 299. Brownhill . . . . * "Scientific American,'' xxxviii. 211. Brownhill, Eng. . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 1236. Craven. Eng. . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 627. Durand (f Marais . * "Engineering," xx. 261. Durand fy Marais . * "Scientific American Sup.," 172. Gard * "Scientific American," xxxvii. 287. Gregg * "American Manf.," April 4, 1879, p. 7. Gregg, Br. . . . * "Manufacturer and Builder," xi. 76. * "Scientific American Sup.," 627. * "Polytechnic Review," April, 1876. Gregg Represser . * "Scientific American," xl. 243. Mar/ten Rotary . . * "Scientific American," xxxvi. 271. Newbold, Fr. . . * "Iron Age," xix., March 29, p. 1. Peerless Brick Co. . * "Manufacturer and Builder," ix. 53. Pfnfold, Eng. . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 1059. Stubbs,Br. . . . * "Engineering," xxii. 251. Talcott * "Scientific American," xlii. 406. Vanier * "Scientific American," xxxviii. 115. Warner If Lee, Br. . * "Engineering,"' xxvi. 302. Bridge. See the following data and reference to technical journals of the period, 1876-80 : Tay Bridge, Scotland, commenced 1871, finished 1877. Par- tially destroyed by a gale. Total length, 10,321', 85 spans ; the 13 over the channel 245' each, and 88' above high water. Syzran and Orenburg Railway Bridge over the Volga. Total length 4,732' feet ; 13 spans of 364' each. Piers 80/. high above the water. Ice cutters 35' high. Cost $3,500,000. Forth Bridge, Scotland (projected). Total length, 7,860' Two suspension spans 1,600' each over deep channels. These are united by 2 spans of 165' each, and each by 3 spans to anchorage towers, which are connected respectively to the north shore by 9 spans, and the south by 14 spans. Total spans, 33. The channels are 186' and 210' deep. The highest towers, 597' high. The suspension spans 150' above high water. Railway Bridge in British India. Total length, 9,300', 64 spans of 142' each. Brick and iron. Poughkeepsie Railway Bridge over the Hudson (building). 4 piers, two of which are founded, respectively 112' and 97', below the surface. Piers 130' above the water; depth of truss 60'. Railway track 190' above the water. Cincinnati Southern Railway Bridge, over Kentucky River. Total length, 1,125'. Three spans300', 375', 300'. Shorespaus, 150' each. Height above water, 275'. The height of the Niagara Railway Bridge track above the water is 250'. A Swiss bridge with a span of 154' is 254' high. One on the Andes has a span 125', and is 252' high. " Albert,'' Montreal, St. Lawrence (proposed), 15,000', nearly 3 miles ; one span between 500' and 600' ; height, 130' above high water ; estimated cost, $4,000,000. " Victoria," St. Lawrence, Montreal. Tubular. Total length, 10,380'. Two abutments and 24 piers ; 25 spans Channel span, 330' ; the others, 242' each. 60' above summer level of water. Cost, $1,250,000. Commenced 1854, finished 1859. Wesel Bridge, over the Rhine, has a total length of 6,220'. including 4 spans of 313' each. The Graudenz Bridge, over the Vistula, has 12 spans of oxx. BRIDGE. 133 BRIDGE. Mech. Diet.''' ipans of the iron Tay Susquc hanna River . . . Vistula, (iraudenz Rhine, Wesel Lessart, France .... Ohio River, Steubenville . St. Lawrence River . . . Ohio, Parkersberg . . . Rhine, Mayence .... Volga, Orenburg Railway . Ohio, Louisville .... Kentucky River .... Ohio, Louisville .... Vistula, Dirscb.au . . . Con way, N. Wales . . . Ohio, Cincinnati .... Inn, Passau Saltish Menai Straits Hudson, Poughkeepsie . Lek, Holland .... Ohio, Cincinnati ... 245 307 300 313 314 319 330 342 345 364 368 375 396 397 400 415 420 455 460 500 515 518 Phoenix Bridge Co J. H. Linville. Rob't Stephenson. J. II. Linville. Qerber. Albert Fink. C. S. Smith. Albert Fink. Lentze. Rob't Stephenson. J. H. Linville. I. K. Brunei. Rob't Stephenson. G. Van Diesen. J. H. Linville. To this may be added the list of bridges over the Missis- sippi, between Winona and St. Louis. At When built. No. Spans. Longest Span, feet. Draw. 1871 16 240 Ifift La Crosse Prairie du Chien . . . 1876 1875 1868 10 8 240 Pontons 240 160 Clinton 1865 14 180 1871 7 250 Burlington Keokuk 1868 1870 1868 10 12 24 200 240 160 160 160 160 1871 3 940 1873 ]1 256 200 St. Louis 1874 3 515 one The following notices may be Arched Masonry Ashtabula, Railway Ashtabula, Railway Bascule Beaver, Penn., Truss . . . . Belgium, Revolving Black wall, Railway Bosphorus, Eads $ Lambert . . Brisbane, Australia, Truss . . Brooklyn, " Clefbridge," Beaton Chinese, Suspension . . . . Canada, Credit Valley . . . . Derwent, England, Iron Arch . Douro, Portugal, Truss Arch consulted : "Sc. Am. Sup.," 664. *"R. R. Gaz.," xxi. 86. "Sc. Am. Sup., "961. *"Man. 4- B.," xi. 29. * "R. R. Gaz.," xxiv. 540. * "Engineer." 1. 498. *"Sc. Am. Sup.," 744. * "Engineer," xli. 408. " Technologists," xl. 38. * "Engineering," xxi. 553. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 152. * "Man. 4" S.," x. 29. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 691. * "Engineering," xxx. 154. *"Sc. Am. Sup.," 2830. *" Eng' ing," xxi. 110, 149. * "Engineering," xxv. 457, 463, 485. * "EngHng" xxvi. 39, 416. * " Engineer, "x.lv. 409, 446. * "Engineer," xlvi. 39, 94. * "Sc. Amer.," xxxix. 103. *"Sc. Am. Sup.," 1425. * "Eng. 4- Min. J.," xxv. Dublin, Arch * E. River, N. Y., Suspension, Cost * Footway * Serving the cable .... * Cable drums, etc * * East River, Black well's Island . * Forth, Railway, Proposed, Bouch * 1600' span * Hamburg & Harburg Ry . . . * Hudson River Iwakuni, Japan * Kennebec, Me 'Sc. Am. Sup.," 1264. 'Sc. Amer.," xxxvi. 64. ''Sc. Amer.," xxxvi. 143. "Sc. Amer.," xxxix. 287. ; 'Sc. Am. Sup.," 754. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 899. 'Sc. Am. Sup.," 1172. ' Engineer," xlviii. 314. 'Eng'ing," xxix. 153, 173. ' Engineer," xlix. 104. 'Sc. Am. Sup.," 627. 'Sc. Amer.," xxxvii. 151. 'Engineering," xxvi. 8. Kentucky River, Bouscaren . . * Kuilenburg, Holland, Truss . * Laughery Creek, Ind., Truss . * Lee, Cork, Lifting Span . . . * Louisville * Manawater, New Zealand . . . * Manchester, Eng., Fowler . . * Salford, Eng * * Manchester, Br * Marseilles, Swing * Matina River, Costa Rica . . . * Medway, Engl * Montreal, " Royal Albert " . . * Nile, Kohe * Orange Riv., Cape of Good Hope * Oxley Creek, Queensland . . . * Penn. Railway, examples . . * Freight transfer * Philadelphia, Callowhill St. . . * Carriage, 40th St * Girard Avenue * Lansdowne Valley, Fairmont * * Over Penn. R. R * Pittsburg, Arched truss ... * Iron * Monongahela, Wilson . . * Suspension * Plattsmouth, Neb., Mo. . . . * Portage, N. Y St. Charles R. R * St. Louis & Illinois * St. Maurice, Can * Sarpsfos, Norway * Severn, England, * Susquehanna, Penn., Railway . * Sutlej, India, " Empress " . . * Tay, Scotland, Entire, broken . Site * Piers . * Piers 10,321' Thames, New, London . . , Old, London, history, etc. Proposed, Tower . . . High level London Vescorali, Rome, Treatise on Volga, Syzran, Rus., Railway . * Wear, Eng., Railway . . . . * Yardleyville * Zwartkops River, S. Africa . . * Also : American iron On historical, "Building News " Military * 3 iers on, Smith warge span Railway .... Spar Temporary, Bouilliant, Fr. . Hetallic arches for tunnels . Ton bridge of long span . . "R. R. Gaz.." xxi. 403, 413, 423, 433. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1503. " Technolosiste ." xxxix 119. "Am. Manuf." June 25, 1880, p. 8. "Engineering," xxix. 222. "Engineering," xxix. 450. "Engineer," xlii. 360. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1542. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1094. "Engineer," xlix. 442. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1204. "Engineer," xliii. 148. "Engineer," xliii. 233. "Engineer," xlvi. 206,222. "Eng 1 ing," xxix. 24, 48. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1540. "Engineering," xxi. 256. "Engineer," xli. 149, 174. ; 'Sc. Am. Sup.," 17. 'Engineering," xxviii. 132, 144. 'Engineering,' 1 ' xxvii.371. ^Engineer ," xlii. 414. "Engineering," xxiii. "Eng'ing," xxiv. 22, 28. "Sc. Am.," xxxiv. 271. "R. R. Gaz., "xxi. 75, 109. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 28, 49. "Engineering," xxi. 90. "Se. Am. Sup.," 674. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1055. "Engineering," xxi. 528. "Sc. Am.," xxxv. 143. "Eng'ing," xxx. 274,290. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 533. "JR. R. Gaz.," xxiv. 640. "Sc. Am. Si/p.,"458. "Sc Am.," xxxiv.. 162. "Sc. Am.," xli. 379. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 125. "Eng 1 ing,'' xxvi. 175, 182. "Eng'ing," xxv. 10,26, 61. "Engineering,'" xxxviii. 314, 322. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1490. "Engineering," xxx. 490. "Eng'ing," xxvi. 454,486. "Engineer," xlix. 1. "Engineer," xlix. 21. "Engineer," xlix. 26, 30, 230, 264. "Iron Age," xxv., Jan. 29, p. 1. "Man. (f B.," ix. 120. "Engineering," xxii. 531. "Engineering," xxix. 88. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 713. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1541. "Sc. Am.," xxxviii. 329. "Sc. Am.," xxxviii. 361. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 290. "Engineering," xxiii. 467. "Engineer," xlv. 217,220. "Engineering," xxvii. 411. "Engineering," xxviii. 50. ' Van Nostrand's Mag., 1 ' xxiii. 434. 'Van Nostrand's Mag,," xxiii. 331. 'Engineering" xxx. 4. 626, 30, 52, 72. "Engineer," 1. 368. "Sc. Am. Sup., 1 ' 615. "Eng'ing," xxviii. 477. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 500. " Van Nostrand's Mag..'' xxii. 425. "Sc. Am. Sp.,480. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 310. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 2436. "Sc. Am. Sup., 1 ' 1128. "Sc. Am. Su,p.," 3802. "Sc. Am.," xxxviii. 70. "Sc. Am.," xlii. 53. The following works may be consulted : Haupt's " Theory of Bridge Construction." Fairbairn's "Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building Purposes." New York, 1864. Fairbairn's "Britannia and Cornvay Tubular Bridges," T iondon, 1849. BRIDGE. 134 BRIQUET. McMaster's "Bridge and Tunnel Centers." Cain's "Maximum Stress in Framed Bridges." Dempsey's " Tubular and Iron Girder Bridges.''' (Weale's Series.) Buck's "Practical and Theoretical Essay on Oblique Bridges.' 1 ' 1 Buck's "Modern American Bridge Building." 1 Haskall's " Railway Construction for the East.'' London. Haskall's " Examples of Bridge and Viaduct Construction.' 1 ' London. Humber's "Practical Treatise on Cast and Wrought Iron Bridges and Girders." 1 58 plates. Imperial 4to. Humber's " Complete Treatise on Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction. 1 ''' 2 vols. 4to. London, 1870. Humber's " Record of the Progress of Modern Engineering." 4to. Bfnder's " Proportions of Pins used in Bridges." Bender's "Continuous Bridges." New York, 1876. Merrill's "Iron Truss Bridges." New York, 1875. Shreve " On Bridges and Roofs." New York, 1873. Whipple "On Bridge Building." New York, 1873. Roebling's "Bridges." New York, 1869. Chanute's "Kansas City Bridge.'' New York, 1870. Jenken's "Bridges, Treatise on Construction of." Edin- burgh, 1878. Collum's "Military Bridges." Haupt's "Military Bridges." New York, 1864. Pope's " Treatise on Bridge Architecture." 1811. Gaudard's "De divers Systemes de Ponts en Fer." Paris, 1865. Baker's "On Long-span Raihvay Bridges." Philadelphia, 1867. Boilers "Iron Highway Bridges." New York, 1876. Unwinds " Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs." 1869. Woods's " Construction of Bridges and Roofs." New York, 1876. Conrolle's "Les Pont de V Amerique du Nord." Paris, 1878. 2. A plank to cover the gap between the plat- forms of two connected cars. Bridge, safety, Frazer . . * "Scientific American," xxxv. 5. 3. An arrangement for measuring the resistance of an element in the circuit, Fig. 1840, p. 779, " Mech. Diet." Meter resistance, Hockin . . . * " Teleg. Journal" v. 239. W/ieatstone . . * " Teleg. Journal,'' v. 288. Bridge Guard. A suspended system of ropes used to warn train-men of bridges which are not high enough to permit them to stand on top of the cars. To a horizontal arm which projects over the track wires are attached, and to these pieces of rope. The height from the top of the car to the lower end of the wires is sufficient to allow a man to stand upright, but if he does so in passing under the guard he is struck by the ropes, which warn him that the train is approaching the bridge, which without such warning he might strike. "Railroad Gazette'' * xxiv. 627. Bridge'pot. (Milling.) T^he socket of the mill spindle carried by the lighter-screw which adjusts the vertical height of the runner to grind close or coarse. Fig. 425. Arch Bridgepot. The arch bridgepot, shown in Fig. 425, is in- tended to be used for straddling the driving-shaft where bevel-gear is used. On bridgepots used in portable mills the fnlerum is so arranged as to al- low of placing the lighter-screw to the right or left of the meal spout at will. Bridge Sad'dle. The block which rests upon the summit of the pier of a suspension bridge, and over which the wires pass, and upon which they rest. See Fig. 4519, p. 2011, "Mech. Diet." Bridge Test'ing Car. A car with a tank ca- pable of being loaded to the required strain in situ. A car said to be owned by the State of Connecticut, and used in testing railway bridges, is thus described : " The car is to be used on every railroad bridge in the State at least twice a year. It consists of an iron tank resting upon three trucks, the tank being capable of holding eighty tons of water. On the center truck are four hydraulic j.-icks, operated by one lever, and by these the entire weight of car and contents can be thrown upon the center truck. In rase a weakness is discovered, the floodgates are opened 1>3 P a sin le lever and the water instantly let off, relieving the bridge of 80 tons weight. The car will weigh about 60 tons, -md when the 80 tons of water are added, the full test will be 14U tons. This weight may be lessened, of course, if desired." Chicago Railway Review. Brim-poun'cing Ma-chine'. A machine for shaving hat brims, to remove the shaggy fibres. See POUNCING MACHINE. Brim Stretch'er. A machine for stretching the brims of felt hats, developing them out of the edge of the crude cone. See Fig. 427. The brim-stretching ribs which support the brim are mounted upon a vertically reciprocating spindle which is operated by the treadle, and these ribs are provided with a spreading mechanism and are operated by the hand lever on the side of the machine. An adjustable metallic block sup- ports the crown, and by its position determines the height of it. The upper stretching devices consist of a series of auto- matically reciprocating brim-stretching ribs, arrayed in a horizontal plane, equidistant from each other, in a circular line ; each operating from a common center in a different vertical plane'. A crank-shaft which has its bearings in the framing receives motion through the belt from a counter- shaft, and should make 500 revolutions per minute. Through the connecting rod a reciprocating motion is given to the rocking shaft and the rods which cam the ring to which the outer ends of the vibrating stretching ribs are at- tached. The hat body to be stretched, having previously been drawn out on the tip by a tip-stretcher, is placed upon the former of this machine and the treadle depressed, bringing the two sets of stretching ribs in working position. The hand lever is now gradually raised, and the hat-body thus spread to cause the vibratory ribs to act upon it. When the hand lever has been raised sufficiently high to bring the spreading ribs to their full extension, the former is lowered, the hat-body shifted slightly upon it and the opera- tion repeated until the brim is perfectly flattened out. The rapid motion of the vibrating ribs enables the operator to stretch the hat while it is hot and injury by tearing is there- by prevented. Machines made on the same principle for use in factories where all the work is done by hand are now very generally used, and but a very small percentage of all the soft wool and fur hats are now blocked in the old manner. The finishing of fur hats is done upon a fur hat blocking machine which has an oval former, and acts upon the crown and brim simultaneously. See HAT-SHAPING MACHINE. Brine-for'cing Pump. A pump for inject- Fig. 426. Ham Pump ing brine around the bone of hams and shoulders to insure the curing. Bri-quet'. Fuel compressed into brick-like blocks. A product of increasing economic value, composed chiefly of inferior coal or coal waste, to which is added coal-tar as a cement. BRIQUET. 135 BROADCAST SEEDER. France, Belgium, Germany, and even Great Britain manu- facture this new fuel, France obtaining part of her supply of the raw material from Wales; and finding a market for the sale of a portion of the manufactured product in Italy, where it is used as fuel for locomotives. Machines for the manu- Fig. 427. Eickemeyer's Power Hat Brim Stretcher. facture of this fuel are numerous, and several forms are shown under PEAT MACHINE, p. 1646, "Mech. Diet.' 1 ' France annually produces about 700,000 tons of briquets and Bel- gium about 500,000 tons; Germany and Great Britain, re- spectively, manufacture large quantities. At present the use in Europe is mainly upon steamships and in locomotives. In the United States a successful attempt to manufacture compressed fuel from anthracite coal dust has been made on a large scale at Fort Ewen, near Rondout, N. Y., and to-day the enterprise is firmly established, the fuel, which is in large lumps, being supplied to steamships and locomotives. Loi- seau's apparatus has attracted and deserved marked attention. Two large manufactories of patent fuel are running in Wales, one the Crown Preserved Coal Company, of Cardiff, under the II. Walker Wood Patent, having a capacity for 600 ,000 tons annually. The process has been worked there since 1857. Another, the Coal Company of Merthyr, Swansea, produ- cing 200,000 tons annually. The composition is small coal and coal-tar pitch. The process has been carried on there for twenty years. See FUEL, ARTIFICIAL, p. 921, "Meek. Dict., r - et infra. Marseilles. Engineering,'' 1 xxvi. 367. Bris'tle Pro'bang. (Surgical] A probang having on a section of its length a number of bris- tles arranged lengthwise, so as to catch over and include fungoid or other matters, and furnish a means for the withdrawal of the same. There are several forms, either a bunch of bristles tied at each end, or a frame upon which cords are strained so as to form a sort of cage. Fig. 336, p. 83, Part II., and page 5, Supplement, Tiemann's " Armamentarium Chirurgicum," Brit'ish Gum. Torrefied starch ; used in calico manufacture. Dextrine. See p. 691, "Meek. Diet." or enlarging fig. 428. Broach. A reamer, for rouudiu a drilled bore. Broach'ing Press. A ma- chine designed to make holes by the planing action of a ver- tically moving tool ; especially useful in making holes of such diametrical form that they can- not he finished by any rotary motion, as by drilling or boring. It may be used as a slotter, and also for finishing the outside of work. The pitman which car- ries the slide is attached to a worm-wheel that runs in a pan of oil ; a heavy balance-wheel and the Pratt friction-clutch furnish the means for a steady equable motion, and for stop- Broack " 1 ^ f f or Rock ' ping and starting instantly at any point of the stroke, which is from I" to 1" ' . Fig. 429. Broaching Press. (Pratt Sf Whitney.) Broad'cast. (Printing.) Matter set up to run the long way of a page, and having its top along the left-hand edge. Broad'cast Seed'er. A machine for scatter- ing seed upon the ground, as distinguished from one which sows it in drills. Broadcast seeders are power and hand, and each of those kinds has as representatives two varieties : those which scatter widely, imitating the human hand in throwing, and those which sow a breadth equal to the width of the implement. Of the power machines : The Cahoon machine acts upon a scattering principle. The seed hopper is carried in a wagon and discharges on to a wheel rotated by chain connection from a sprocket wheel on the hind-wheel axles. The rota- tion of the scatterer disperses the seed widely, from 16 to 36 feet in total width, according to the seed ; timothy and wheat being at the opposite ends of the scale. The scattering wheel revolves in a vertical plane. In Buist & Alden's machine the wheel is horizontal. In the hand form of the scattering kind, the Cahoon drill consists of a bag carried in front by a neck strap, and a scat- tering wheel rotated by hand. In a French form of the same implement, shown in Fig. 430, and made by Pernollet, of Paris, the scattering wheel is vertical as in the Oahoon, and the width of wheat sown is 7 to 8 meters. Fig. 431 shows on a larger scale the apparatus detached BROADCAST SEEDER. 136 BROMINE APPARATUS. Fig. 430. \\\ iN/j^y/x *///, Sowing with the Pornollefs Centrifugal Broadcast Sower. Fig. 431. from the person. An index on the side shows the condition of the opening which graduates the passage of seed according to the quantity desired to be sown. In regard to machines for sowing widths equal to the track machines, such | are both power and hand. Of the power machines there are at least three va- rieties : The convertible drill, in which the shares and seed tubes are replaced by spouts which .scatter the seed upon \ the surface of the ground, ' each of the eight spouts covering with seed its pro- portionate width of the track of the machine. Many of the American seed drills are thus convertible. In France the same practice ^^_ is pursued, a broad casting ,, . spout of sheet metal being Centrifugal Broadcast Sower, substituted for the see(1 B conductor. See Fig. 124, p. 113, Knight's report, "Paris Ex- position Reports," vol. iv. Another form of broadcaster is represented by the " Buck- eye " 11-foot broad-cast sower. This has a force-feed at each of 7 openings, and has conductors which lead the seed near to the surface of the soil ; but, instead of dropping it in the rear of the shares, none of which are present, the seed drops on a scattering plate from which it bounces on to the ground. A third form of the machine broadcaster is that common in England and on the Continent of Europe. The seed, Fig. 432. issuing from the series of spouts, falls down an inclined board, whose length is equal to the width of the bout, and, striking against triangular studs, arranged in quincunx fash- ion, is dispersed over the whole space of ground between the wheels of the machine. The machine illustrated. Fig 432, is Danish, made by Kamussen & Co., of Stubbekjobing, but resembles in all material respects that made by Smyth & Sons, of Peasenhall, England. The Danish machine, how- ever, is so constructed as to be capable of being whirled Kamussen's Broadcast Seeder on its Cross-a.rlf. around so as to travel upon a cross-axle, in order to ;illo\v it to pass along narrow roads and through gateways. 'The mo- tion of the seed-distributor is obtained from the rear wheel, seen in Fig. 432, on the ground, and in Fig. 433, as mounted on the cross-axle. Broad'-tread Wheel. (Railway.} A wheel with an extra-wide tread to enable it to travel safely, varying within a range of say \\" difference of gage. Also known as a compromise wheel. Broil 'er. 1. A gridiron. 2. A hearth for broiling steaks, etc., on a large scale. It is heated with charcoal, has a gridiroii Fig. 434. Ram ussen's Broadcast Seeder. Charcoal Broiler. sliding on ways, a canopy to conduct the fumes to the chimney, a pit beneath for draft and ashes, and a sliding cover, to contract at pleasure the open space above the gridiron. B r o k ' e n Ashlar. (Masonry.) A form of cut- stone work in which I he continuity of courses is not maintained. See ASHLAR. Brok'en Range Work. (Masonry.) A form in which the level of courses is not strictly maintained. See RANGE. Bro'mine Ap'pa-ra'- tus. The source of bro- mine in the United States is the mother liquor which BROMINE APPARATUS. 137 BRONZE COLOKINO. remains after the extraction of salt. The following description of the process is condensed from the " Moniteur Scientijique " : " The saline liquors, when first pumped up from the pit, mark 9 Baume. They are evaporated in long iron boilers to 15 Baume, allowed to settle, then farther evaporated to the crystallizing point in wooden tubs heated by steam. The first crystallization forms the salt of commerce. The tubs, five in number, are placed side by side, and every day the liquor is decanted from one to another, from No. 1 to No. 2, then to No. 3, and so on to No. 5. The crystallized salt is removed from each tub after draining off the liquid. When the brine reaches tub No. 5 it has become mother liquor, and consists principally of chlorides of calcium, magnesium, so- dium, and a little chloride of aluminium, with varying pro- portions of bromides of sodium and calcium. Tub No. 1 is filled every day with fresh brine, so that the process becomes continuous, the mother liquor, marking 30 to 38 Baume, is evaporated to 45, thus separating a new quantity of salt. The liquor is then decanted into stone stills ; materials for the production of chlorine are added ; and heat is applied in the form of steam injected directly into the still, until all the bromine has been eliminated and evaporized. It then passes into a condenser, and thence into a receiver." See ';> -ntijir American,'' xli. 240. Dr. Jenkins' report in "Paris Exposition Reports,'' 1878, iv. 54, .V.. Bromide of Ethyl Apparatus, "Manufacturer If Builder," xii. 157. U. S. liliOMIMC PATENTS. No. Invento 5,658. Alter & Cillespie. 12,077. E. Stieren. 62,464 I). Alter. 62,988. D. Alter. 82,309. 93,099. G. A. Hageman. H. Leruer. 103,253. Stieren & Nesbet. No. 110,662. 132,296. 137,222. 137,512. 181,617. 217,076. 219,004. Inventor. J. J. Juhler. Leruer & Harpold Leyert & Winter. D. C. Turner. V. W. Arvine. J. N. J. Dubreuil Miiller & Bockel. Bronze. An alloy of copper and tin : the most ancient artificial alloy. The molds for casting bronze articles are found in many European countries, as are also pieces of runners and sprues made in running the metal into the mold. In general, the proportions are Hi) copper, II) tin: but tables in Wilson's 1 Prehistoric Man,'' pp. 310, 312, and vol. i., p. 388, of the "Mechanical Dictionary,'' indicate various proportions and additions, in many cases, doubtless, unsuspected impurities. The addition of a small quantity of iron, insisted upon of late as so valuable in the constitution of brasses and bronzes is seen by table on p. 61, "Mech. Diet.," to have been antici- pated in the ancient bronze weapons of England and Ire- land, the coins of Rome, weapons of South America, and the Chinese packfong. Herrera specifies "crucibles to melt copper," as contained in the canoe met near one of the Guanaja isjands, manned by a Yucatan cacique, his wives, children, and 25 rowers. See also Worsaal, " Primeval Antiquities of Denmark," pp. 13 1 , loS. In addition to the compositions given on pp. 387-389 Mech. Dirt ,'' the following may be noted. Patentsof Double'Jay, No. 160,885. Copper, glass, antimony, tin, spel- ter, and lead. No. 201,536. Copper, tin, arsenic. AUSTRIAN STATE RAILWAY BRONZES AND BRASS. Copper. Tin. Zinc. For locomotive bearings, slide valves, valves, etc 84 1ft For coach and car bearings . . For cocks .... 85 90 15 ift - For boiler tubes 70 Article on casting of bronze figures in built molds ; cire perdue ; zinc molded in copper molds (imitation or French S5 OI !??J ' J lth the subs equent finishing and mounting, from toe "N. Y. Tribune." "Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 1601. Various alloys known as bronzes are considered under the following; heads ; though many are not true bronzes (copper-tin), being destitute of tin. The word " bronze " is a favorite, and, though pro- miscuously applied, protest is useless. See: Aluminium bronze. Antique bronzing. Bismuth bronze. Bronze blacking. Bronze coloring. Bronzed glass. Bronze paint. Bronze steel. Bronzing. Carbon bronze. Cupro-manganese . Deoxodized bronze. Electro-bronzing. Inlaying bronze. Japanese bronzes. Malleable bronze. Manganese bronze. Manganese copper. Mildew bronze. Nickel bronze. Orugo . Patina. Phosphide of copper. Phosphor bronze. Tungsten bronze. White bronze. See also under the following references : "Iron Age." For machinery . xxii., Dec. 19, p. 13. Artistic castings . xx., Nov. 22, p. 24. Properties of . . xxiv., Nov. 27, p. 9 : Dec. 4, p. 15 ; Dec 11, p. 9: Dec. 18, p. 3. Malleable . . . xxv., Feb. 25, p. 26 ; May 13, p. 17. Coloring .... xxiv., Dec. 25, p. 1. Casting .... xxiv., Dec. 11, p. 16. Bronzes .... xvii., May 4, p. 23. Antique bronze . xvii., March 23, p. 9. Electro bronzing . xvii., May 18. p. 16. Bronzing metals . xxiv., Dec. 18, p. 7. Bronze stem for corvette, Br. . . xix., March 8, p 15. "Manufacturer and Builder. 1 ' 1 Colored x. 264. Blue viii. 263. Ornaments ....'... xi. 235. Japanese xi. 83. Patina xii. 263. Bronzing iron xii. 204. "Mining and Scientific Press." For valves xxxv. 147. Alloys xxxvii. 39. French imitation xxxvii. 358. For machinery xxxviii. 19. Malleable xl. 135. "Scientific American." Experiments . . Thurston. xxxvii. 65. Japanese * xxxv. 255 ; xl. 249 ; xxir. 385: xl.24; xli. 217. Malleable xlii. 178. Cleaning xxxvi. 203. Bronze steel & guns Uchatius. * xxxvii. 403. Vienna * xl. 10. On bronzes xl. 122. "Scientific American Supplement. 1 ' 1 Finishing 620. Art-working in ... Vors. 77. Japanese 1831, 389, 442. Composition 3341. Casting 1601. French 2690. Bronze steel . . . Uchatius. 1299. "Engineer.''' Bronze steel . . . Uchatius. xlii. 331 ; xliv. 254, 310. "English Mechanic.'' Cleaning xxvi.292; xxvii. 76. " Van Nostrand's Magazine." Bronze age . . . Burnouf. xix. 502. Bronze Black'ing. A concentrated solution of R R B methyl violet in a boiling solution of 4 parts shellac and 1 part of borax, in 15 to 20 of soft water. Bronze Col'or-ing. " The soft bronze color of medals is obtained by rubbing with a mixture of blood-stone and graphite, applied with a brush. "Antique green effects are reached by dipping the metal into a solution of 10 parts by weight of salt, 10 parts of cream of tartar, 10 parts of acetate of copper, 30 parts of car- bonate of soda in 200 parts of vinegar. " Satin finish is produced by green vitriol or copperas and subsequent treatment with wax. " Olrl gretn is obtained by several coats of acid and a final coat of wax. " Grayish green is produced by sal-ammoniac.'' M. Gri- nanrl, in Paris " Technologiste." In the Japanese practice, the coloring is done in many dif- ferent ways, each manufacturer having his own particular process, which he modifies according to the composition of BRONZE COLORING. 138 BRONZING. the alloy and the color he wishes to produce. The chemicals used for this purpose are very few in number, and limited to vinegar, copper sulphate, and verdigris as the principal substances; other materials used less frequently, consist of iron sulphate, red oxide of iron, lacquer, and an infusion of Eryanlhus tinctorius. See BRONZING ; see also PATINA, OROGO. Bronzed Glass. A new kind of ornamental glass, so called from its dark metallic appearance, like old bronze. It is a dark green glass, which has been subjected to corrosive vapors in such a way as to bring out the iris hues and give the appearance of great antiquity. This effect is enhanced by the classical shapes in which the vases are blown, re- sembling the ancient Roman glass of the museums. Viewed by transmitted light this glass is dark green, like glass colored by oxide of copper. See IRISATED GLASS. Bronze Paint. Recipe : For iron. Ivory black, 1 oz. Chrome yellow, 1 oz. Chrome green, 2 Ibg. Mix with raw linseed oil, adding a little Japan to dry it. It gives a bronze green. Gold bronze may be put on the prominent parts of the object, rubbing on with a piece of plush before the paint is quite dry. Another : To one pint of methylated finish add 4 oz. of shellac and J oz. benzoin ; put the bottle in a warm place, shaking it occasionally. When the gum is dissolved let it stand in a cool place two or three days to settle, then gently pour off the clear mixture into another bottle, cork it well, and keep it for finest work. The sediment left in the first bottle, by adding a sufficient quantity of spirit to make it workable, will do for the first coat or coarser work when strained through a fine cloth. Next take J Ib. of finely ground bronze green the shade may be varied by using a little lamp black, red ocher, or yellow ocher ; let the iron be clean and smooth, then take as much varnish as may be required, and add the green color in sufficient quantity ; slightly warm the article to be bronzed, and with a soft brush lay on it a thin coat. When that is dry, if necessary, lay another coat on, and repeat until well covered. Take a small quantity of the varnish and touch the prominent parts with it ; before it is dry, with a dry pencil lay on a small quantity of gold powder, and then varnish the whole. Bronze Steel. Name given by Uchatius to his gun-metal alloy. The Rosthorn gun-metal, Austrian Navy brass, Parke's British gun-metal, and Overman's bell-metal, contain notable quanti- ties of iron in their composition. "Scientific American,'' xxxvii. 403 " Scientific American Supplement," 1299. "Engineer," xlii. 831 ; xliv. 254, 310. See also list of "Brasses and Bronzes with the addition of Iron^ table, p. 61, "Mec/t. Diet." Bron'zing. Giving the appearance of bronze to a surface by a covering of metallic dust. The surface, if of metal, is usually covered with oil varnisli, and when almost dry the bronze powder is dusted upon it. BRONZE COLORS. Real Gold. Made of scraps of gold leaf, mixed with honey or gum, ground on a tablet, washed and dried. Dif- ferent shades are obtained by alloying with silver and cop- per : red, reddish, deep yellow, pale yellow, greenish. Gold powder may also be obtained by dissolving in aqua regia, and drying. Imitation Gold. Obtained from the waste of Dutch leaf, triturated in gum, washed and dried. The color depends on the proportions of copper to zinc. Violet and green shades are obtained by heating with oil, parafftne, or wax. Mosaic Gold. Tin 64.63, sulphur 35.37 ; soluble in hy- drochloric acid, aqua regia, or boiling caustic potash. Used for bronzing plaster casts, copper, and brass, by mixing with 6 parts bone-ash and rubbing on wet. Mosaic gold may also be obtained by heating sulphur 6 and tin amalgam 16 with mercury 1 and sulphur 4. Or, stannic acid 8, sulphur 4. Or, fuse pure tin 12, mercury 6, to an amalgam, and mix with flowers of sulphur 7, and sal-ammoniac 6. Heat in a retort, and after the vapors escape the mosaic gold will be found at the bottom. Silver Bronze. Scraps of silver foil triturated in oil. Imitation Silver Bronze. Imitation silver leaf similarly treated. Mosaic Silver. Amalgam of tin 60, bismuth 60, and mer- cury 25. The metals being melted and stirred and the mer- cury added. When cold, grind with a muller on a stone. Copper Bronze. Copper foil rubbed fine and ground. Bronze Powder or Antique Bronze. 16 copper and 1 tin beaten into leaves and ground. Bright yellow, copper 83 parts, zinc 17 : orange, copper 90 to 95, zinc 6 to 10 ; copper red, copper 97 to 99, zinc 1 to 3. Greenish Copper Bronze. Copper bronze mixed with acetate of copper (verdigris). Imitates the antique Patina. Patina Powder. Bronze treated with different salts : Vin- egar, nitrate of copper, sal-ammoniac, oxalate of potash, etc. Brownish Gold Bronze. Iron rust mixed with any of the copper bronzes according to color. Gold-colored Copper Bronze. Boil together an amalgam of zinc 1, mercury 12, some hydrochloric acid, a solution of tartar crystals, and copper bronze precipitated from the ni- trate by iron. The color is varied by shorter or longer boil- ing. Or, boil the copper bronze with a solution of 1 part gold in aqua regia : evaporate, dissolve in water 8 parts, and add part ignited magnesia, then boil. The precipitate of oxide of gold is filtered, placed in a flask, and 8 parts cyanide of potassium poured over it. Blue Bronze . White bronzes colored with aniline blue. SUBSTITUTES FOK BRONZING. Tungsten Bronze. Tungstate of soda and tungsten form- ing gold-yellow crystals ; magenta or violet bronze, a tung- state of tungsten and potash. Chromium Bronze, or violet chromium chloride. Titanium Bronze, Crystallized Iodide of Lead, etc. Coal Tar Bronzes, such as acetate of rosaniline, murexine, and green hydrochinon. Mica Bronze. Mica pounded into fine flakes, assorted in fineness and dusted on to a prepared or varnished surface. Colored, . Pink, by cochineal. Carmoisin, by bluish fuchsia. Violet, by Hofmann's violet. Blue, by prussian blue. Violet-blue, by logwood. Green, in shades, by turmeric and aniline blue. Golden, by turmeric. Sih-er, pure mica. Black, by logwood and litmus. A ground of proper color must first be laid on, and the mica powder dusted on before the ground is quite dry. Excess of mica is brushed off. For Cast Iron, without the use of metal or alloy. The arti- cle is cleansed, coated with a uniform film of some vegetable oil, and then is exposed in a furnace to the action of ;t high temperature, which, however, must not be strong enough to carbonize the oil. In this way the cast iron absorbs oxygen at the moment the oil is decomposed, and there is formed at the surface a thin coat of brown -oxide, which adheres very strongly to the metal, and will admit of a high polish, giv- ing it quite the appearance of fine bronze. Process for producing a Green Bronze on Iron. One part of sylvate of silver is dissolved in twenty parts of oil of lav- ender, forming a sort of varnish, which imparts a beautiful and permanent green bronze appearance to cast and wrought iron, sheet iron, and wire. The surface to be bronzed is cleansed and dried, but need not be polished. The varnish is thinly applied with a camel's-hair brush, and the object heated quickly to 30u Fah. The proper temperature is in- dicated when the article shows an even bright green color. Paul Weiskopfin "Dingler's Journal.'' For Cast Iron.~- Coat the surface of the iron (cleaned by acid and well etched) with fcrrocyanide of copper, applied with linseed oil. Before this coating is entirely dry, apply bronze powder by means of a fine brush, and then polish with a burnisher. When the surface is entirely dry, wash and etch to the color desired. The use of the alkaline sul- phides for the etching produces olive-green and black colors, which closely resemble those on the Japanese bronzes. For Rifle Barrels, to Prevent Rusting. A modification of the Barff process. Pass the current of air slowly and at a high temperature over the articles to be covered, care being taken to secure an entirely free circulation about the articles. Articles exposed for five hours at a temperature of 536 Fah., resisted the action of emery paper and dilute sulphuric acid. See various recipes and processes, p. 389, " Mech. Diet." See, also, BRONZE PAINT. For giving Bronze Color to articles of Copper, Brass, or Zinc. Roncou's process : Treat with a composition of Sulphate of potassium 6 A salt of lead fl Ammonia 12 Acetic acid 8 Hydrochloric acid 3 Antique Imitation. Apply alternate washes of dilute acetic acid and exposure to the fumes of ammonia. A quicker method : Immerse the articles in a solution of BRONZING. 139 BROOM TRIMMER. 1 part perchloride of iron in 2 parts of water. The tone as- sumed darkens with the length of immersion. Or the articles may be boiled in a strong solution of nitrate of copper. Or they may be immersed in a solution of 2 ozs. nitrate of iron and 2 ozs. hyposulphite of soda in 1 pint water. Wash- ing, drying, and burnishing complete the process. Chinese Process of Bronzing Copper. The following ingredients ai-e pulverized and mixed : Verdigris .............. 2 Cinnabar .............. 2 Sal Ammoniac ............ 5 Alum ............... 5 Beak and liver of duck ......... 2(!) Make into a paste with vinegar and spread over the scraped surface of the copper. The object is exposed an instant to the fire, cooled, and the operation repeated until the re- quired tint is attained. Addition of sulphate of copper gives a browner tint, and borax a yellower shade. The color is durable and not affected by air or rain. Bronzing Wood, Leather, Paper, etc. : Dissolve gum lac in four parts by volume of pure alcohol, and then add bronze or any other metal powder in the proportion of one part to three parts of the solution. The surface to be covered must be very smooth. In the case of wood, one or several coats of Mendon or Spanish white are given, and the object is pol- ished with an iron of proper shape. The mixture is painted on, and when a sufficient number of coats have been given, the object is well rubbed ; the coating obtained is not dull, but can be burnished. A transparent varnish is applied to preserve the metallic appearance thus obtained. Soluble Glass in Bronzing. "Bottger varnishes objects of wood, porcelain, glass, or metal with soluble glass, and then shakes bronze powder over them." Dingler's Journal. Plaster Casts. The casts receive first several coats of a rapidly drying linseed oil varnish. When the surface has been thickly and evenly covered, and the varnish is com- pletely hardened, another coat is given with a varnish com- , - posi-d ;is follows : Linseed oil varnish, 1 part : copal varnish, 1 part ; oil of turpentine, 1-15 part. The copal varnish must be free from alcohol. This varnish will be dry enough in from 18 to 24 hours ; the coat must be quite glossy and ad- here slightly to the fingers. Powdered gold, silver, or cop- per bronze is now applied with a soft brush. The surface is then rubbed with cotton wadding, by which a very beautiful finish is imparted to it. The most important point is that the linseed oil varnish is perfectly dry before the other var- nish is applied, and the latter must be of the proper con- sistence before bronzing it. Chern. Xeitung, Sec the following references : "Iron Age. . ique ..... xvii., Mar. 23, p. 9 : xxi., June6, p. 19. t-iron ..... xxi. March 7, p. 1. tro-bronzing . . xxii., Dec. 5, pp. 3, 18 ; xxiii., Feb. 6, p. 17. Antique Cast Elec . . On wood, paper, etc. . xxiii., March 13, p. 17. On metals .... xxiv., Dec. 18, p. 17. "American Manufacturer and Iron World.' 1 ' On metals .... xxv., Dec. 26, p. 12. " Van Nostrand's Engineering Magazine.'-' On iron ..... xviii. 103. "Mining and Scientific Press." On iron ..... xxxvi. 3. On leather, paper, etc. xxxviii. 215. Bronze green . . . xxxviii. 319. Plaster statues . . . xxxviii. 231. "Manufacturer and Builder." On leather . . . . ix. 77. Antique ..... x. 148. On iron . . . . . xi. 96; xii. 204. Plaster statues . . . xi. 24. Bronze varnish . . . xi. 120, 287. "Engineering (f Mining Journal.' 1 Soluble glass in . . xxvii. 204. "Scientific American." Iron ...... xxxiv. 243 : xxxv. 76. Paint ...... xxxiv. 312; xxxvii. 118. Plaster casts . . . . xl. 122. Compound .... xxxvi. 87. Powder ..... xxxiv. 243 ; xxxvii. 363 ; xxxviii. 28. Aniline ..... xxxvii. 213. Liquid ...... xxxix. 75. Size for ..... xli. 331. "Scientific American Supplement.''' On iron . . . 3748, 1510. On plaster casts . . . 2686. On feathers . . 2591. Electro ...... 2610. "English Mechanic.'' On plaster casts . . xxv. 470, 494 ; xxvi. 342 ; xxvii. 533. Florentine .... xxv. 189. Dull black .... xxvii. 659. Powders ..... xxv. 341, 367 ; xxvi. 463, 487. On brass xxvi. 368, 389. On zinc xxv. 470. 494. Relacquering . . . xxvii. 274, 425. On copper .... xxiii. 527. Antique xxvii. 177. Fluid aniline bronze . xxiv. 309. "Engineer. 1 ' Castings xlvi. 431. Bron'zing Ma-chine'. A machine for apply- ing bronze-powder to paper, foil, or cloth previously printed with size. See United States Patents, Nos. 161, 734; 175,450. In addition to what has been said and shown on pp. 389, 390, "Mech. Diet.,'' the French method may be consulted in the article " Poudreuse. on Bronzeuse Meranique,"' * Labow- laye'.t " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," iv. ( ed. 1877. Brood'er. A chicken protector. In some cases a coop of remarkable neatness and extent. Again : a protector with artificial warmth, on the principle of the incubator, but allowing ingress and egress. See, also, ARTIFICIAL MOTHER. Broom'-corn Scra'per. A rotary toothed cylinder is operated Fi 435 through its multiply- ing gearing by either hand or power, and is used for clearing broom-corn brush of its seed. The ripple has been used for 4,000 years in Egypt in removing the seed of dlmra from the stalk, and is yet used in hand processes with flax. See Fig. 4341, p. 1946, "Mech. Diet." B r o o m'- corn Siz'er. A machine for sizing or prepar- c y hnfler Broom-corn Scraper. ing the corn to regular lengths, for the various sizes of brooms as required. Broom Ma-chin 'e-ry. UNITED STATES PATENTS. Broom-making machines. Clamp, Day 69,780 Day 59,977 Day, reissue 2,495 Cutting and assorting machine, Bradley . . .' . 80,443 Sizing machine, Truair 33,968 Sorting machine, Grosvenor 7,892 Cutting and separating machine, Walrath # Snell . 131,138 Sizing machine, Walrath, 165,458 Blood Topping 166,065 Handle socket, Anderson If Houghton 156,324 Rowe 18,770 Anderson Houghton 150,669 Anderson If Houghton, reissue 6,275 Warner 5,444 Lyon 4" Hopkins 62,548 Beaman 3,219 Allen 167;051 Hinton 3,483 Spooner 718 Sherman 38,341 Split brooms, Crum $ Lanvitt 6,233 Walker 11,451 Needle, Cowardin 119,745 Press, Thomas 6 717 Boyer 162,997 Sewing machine, Stackpole 91,784 Tying machine, Congdon 118,845 Winding machine, Walrath. (f Branson 168,814 Broom Sew'ing Ma-chine'. A species of vise, with clamping jaws operated by a screw so as to firmly hold the broom while it is being sewed. Broom Trim'mer. A rack with a bevel-slot- BROOM TRIMMER. 140 BRUSHING MACHINE. ted aperture, on the end of the rear post that sur- mounts the table, and holds the broom with the assistance, of the adjustable clamp on the table, while the pivoted knife trims it off. Fig. 436. Broom Trimmer. Broom Vise. A clamp in which the round bunch of corn brush is flattened and held while be- ing sewn. They are made to work with levers or with screws. Fig. 437 shows the former. Fig. 437. Fig. 438. Broom Vise. Broom Winder. Broom Wind'er. A machine for winding corn brush, and tying it with cord or wire into a round bunch preparatory to flattening it in the vise and sewing. Fig. 438. Broth'er-hood En'gine. A popular form in Britain of a THREE-CYLINDER ENGINE, which see. See, also, DYNAMO-ELECTRIC ENGINE, infra. Brown'ing. To confer a brown tint on iron or steel, dissolve in Water 4 parts. Crystallized chloride of iron 2 parts. Chloride of antimony 2 parts. Gallic Acid ' 1 part. Apply the solution with a sponge or cloth to the article and dry it in the air. Repeat this any number of times, ac- cording to the depth of color which it is desired to produce. Wash with water and dry, and, finally, rub the articles over with boiled linseed oil. The metal thus receives a brown tint and resists moisture. The chloride of antimony should be as little acid as possible. Bruis'ing. (Leather.) Doubling the grain side of a hide together, and rubbing it on the flesh with a graining-board. Brush. Machines for making brushes have been adapted to manufacture certain kinds. The majority of kinds are hand-made. See pp. 392-394, "Mech. Diet." Brush binder, for clamping the bristles to the handle, Blair, * "Scientific American, xxxiv. 118. Brush machine. Woodbury, * "Manufacturer Sf Builder," x. 198. Woodbury, * " Vienna Exposition (1872) Report," vol. Hi. p. 309. Woodbury, * "Scientific American,'' xxxviii. 351. In the making of artists' brushes the following bristles and hair are employed : Hogs' bristles, varnishing brushes. Bears' fur, varnishing brushes. Badger hair, graining and gilding brushes. Sable tail hair, finest artists' brushes. Camels : hair, second only to the sable. Ox hair (from the insides of the ears), striping and letter- ing brushes. Askworlk's brush-comb, for the hair or the manage, has steel wires attached to an elastic caoutchouc membrane on the handle. Brush Dike. A device for causing deposits to take place, and for deflecting the current in locali- ties that are to be built out. The floating brush dike is made by taking saplings from 20' to 30' long and from 4 X/ to 6 or 8" in diameter, and nail- ing, or fastening to them with wire, scraggy brush of any kind obtainable in the locality. This forms what is known as the weed. Instead of the saplings rope may be used to hold the brush. To one end of this weed is attached an an- chor of sufficient weight to hold it in position against the current ; to the other a buoy to hold up the downstream end and prevent it from going to the bottom under the pressure of the current against it. These weeds are placed from 10 to 20' apart, thus forming the floating dike. Their action is to check the current gradually without producing that scouring effect to which the solid dike gives rise. This done, a portion of the material that is rolling along the bottom or being carried down in suspension is de- posited, and causes a rise in the bed of the river, which changes its channel to the direction desired. See DAM ; DIKE ; FLOATING BRUSH DIKE, etc. See list under HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. Brush Hold'er. (Surgical.) A staff for a brush for applying medicaments to the larynx, ossophagus, conjunctiva, etc. Figs. 97,343, 344, 349, 349 b, Part II., Tiemann's "Arma- mentarium Ckirurgicum.' 1 ' Brush'ing Ma-chine'. 1 . A machine used to brush up the nap on woolen under-shirts, jackets, drawers, or stockings, and put a good surface on the goods. It consists of a framing of cast-iron, with two fluted roll- ers for drawing in the goods, also a pair of wooden rollers clothed with teazles or wire cards, according to the quality of the goods to be operated on. The fluted rollers revolve slowly and take in the goods whilst the covered rollers re- volve at a great speed, brushing the goods as they are passed through. 2. Curtis & Marble's machine for dressing and cleaning the surfaces of piece goods, has calender- ing rolls and dampening box attached. It is ar- ranged with one brush and two card rolls for cadi side of the goods, and is intended to finish them by once running through. It is entirely covered in, and has a fan-blower arranged underneath to carry off dust and lint. 3. A wheat-cleaning machine. In some cases combined with a smutter, so as to have the scour- ing quality of the latter with the polishing action of the former. In the Becker brush the concave jacket is of punched iron and steel wire, between which and the brush the wheat passes, polishing and scouring and taking the dust out of the crease, and the fuzz off the end of the berry, without dis- turbing the bran. The brush may be raised or lowered while in motion. A suction fan removes offal. Fig. 439. The " Victor " brush has a series of annular inclined trays and brushes, through which the wheat passes in succession. It is known as a double-brush, the grain passing moving and stationary brushes, while a blast of air is drawn by an aspi- rating fan in the reverse direction. Fig. 440. The brushing is done by a series of concave circular brushes attached to an upright shaft, which act against an opposed series of convex brushes, c, which remain fixed to the case. The surfaces of the brushes coalesce when at the closest adjustment, but when at work are separated by a suf- ficient distance to give passage to the wheat. The grain BRUSHING MACHINE. 141 BUCKSKIN LOOM. /alls upon the upper surface of the fixed upper brush, gravi- tates to the center, and is caught by the upper revolving Fig. 439. Becker Cone-brush. brush, driven up the incline by centrifugal force, and dropped again to have the same operation twice again re- Fig. 440. " Victor" Brush Scourer. r Each set of brushes has an independent ventilator which carries the dust upward to the suction fan, whence it is expelled from the machine. e is the final discharge spout ; n the driving drum ; g, ven- tilator shaft ; k, cover of brush chamber; I, fans and fan- case. Brush Jack. (Hydr. Engineering.) A tool for grasping brush and confining it while being bound into fascines for dikes or dams. The sap- lings are pinched between two hooks. It is also used in making mats : the saplings and brush being placed in layers, the hook is thrust through, engaging the lower pole, and the upper hook thrust down, pinching between them a mass of limbs, which are then tied to the pole by the aid of the needle. The handle has two hook- clutches which are slipped over the upper end of the rod, and the upper hook is worked down by using the handle in the manner of a pump-brake. See BRUSH NEJBDLB. Fig. 441. Brush Nee'dle. (flydr. Engineering.) A nee- dle for passing a wire around a bunch of brusli in a mat. Fig. 442. The wire is passed through the eye of the needle-bar and pushed through the mat. A man below removes it, and on the needle being pushed through on the opposite side of the pole replaces the wire in the eye to be drawn back. The wire is cut, the two ends twisted together, and the jack released by prying or hitting the lower or hook clutch on the back end. Brush Flow. A strong plow, the land side welded to the share, which latter is of hard-rolled untempered steel. Adapted for plowing among roots and brush in new ground. Fig. 443. Buckt>oard. A spring- board wagon, Fig. 444, in which the yielding of the board gives the elasticity to the seat. In the illustration the buck- board is combined with thor- ough-brace springs, F, G, which add to the ease of the rider. Side bars, B, connect the front bolster, A, with the rear axle. C C are side braces. "Sc. American," * xxxviii. 166. Brush Jack. Buck'et. 1. A vessel for holding or lifting water. Fig. 442. Brush Needle. 2. A valved plunger in a pump-stock. Bucket plunger pump, Wright * "Engineering," xxi. 420. Rubber bucket for chain pumps. Kenyan * "Sc. American," xxxvi. 310. Bucket ear, Darkin . . . . *"Sc. American," xxxv. 206. Fig. 443. Brush Plow. Buck'et Lift. (Mining.) A set of iron pipes attached to a lifting pump. Buck'-horn Sight. A fowling- piece sight with a branching horn on each side of the sight-notch. Buck'skin Loom. A German pattern-chain loom, with certain pe- _^_, culiarities, and named from the dense ... .... Buck-horn Satta. and soft character of its product. ' Zeitschrifl fur Textil -Industrie." Reproduced in "Sci- entific American Supplement,'' *2705. BUCKWHEAT HULLER. 142 BUFFING MACHINE. Buck'wheat Hul'ler. A machine for re- moving the hull of buckwheat before grinding, by Fig. 444. Sheffield, England. Other forms are shown on p. Buck-board Spring Wagon. issing between sandstones, adjusted by tram-studs, he upper stone is stationary, and can be turned over to use either surface and utilize nearly the whole thickness of the stone. A riddle removes foreign matters from the grain before it reaches the stone. Fig. 446. The machine has a separating trunk and fan by which the hulls are separated from the grain, and the former blown into a refuse trunk. Cransori's * "American Miller viii. 336. Buck'wheat Shuck'er. Another name for the buckwheat huller, which see. Bud'dle. A species of ore-separating device, using water on an inclined surface. See Fig. 962, p. 398, " Mech. Diet." Hichards's huddle is on the principle of the Bar- ker mill, the water and slime escaping at the ends of hollow arms projecting from a hollow and ro- tating shaft, and received on a circular table which has a slightly convex surface. " Mining and Scientific Press " . . . * xxx v. 153. Buffer. 1. A block of India-rubber placed on furniture to prevent the defacement of walls by contact of the furniture. A door-stop. 2. A spring block or pad to receive the impact of connected or colliding railway carriages in a train, to absorb the jar. Fig. 447 is a British form, made by Ibbotson, of 399, "Meek. Diet." rig. 447. Turton's Wrought Iron Spring Buffer. The following references may be consulted : Thomas, Br * Tijou, Br * Turton, Br * Garey * London $ S. W. Railway . * ' Engineer,'' xlix. 358. 'Engineering,'' xxx. 294. 'Engineering," xxx. 568. ' Railroad Gazette,'" viii. 87. 'Engineer,'' xlvi. 7, 167. Buffing. (Leather.) Taking off thin shavings from the grain side with a buffing-slicker until the skin is very thin ; the object being to make cow- hide imitate calfskin. The operation is finished by whitening. Buffing Lathe. A polishing lathe used by 448. silver and nickel platers, etc. The buffer of leather, cotton, walrus hide, or other material, is placed on the end of the arbor, which is shown empty, and secured by the screw-nut. The buffer is used with emery, crocus, rouge, rotten stone, putty powder, etc. Buffing Ma-chine'. A machine with a wooden roller covered with sand-paper and used Fig. 449. Shoe-sole Bufftr. for buffing shoe-soles, etc. A suction blower runh upon the same shaft and draws the dust into the partially enveloping sheath and discharges it by a duct. BUGGY SPRING. 143 BUILDER'S HOIST. The paper is held by a clamp, dispensing with nails. Bug'gy Spring. The Brewster spring has half-springs interposed between the axles and the side bars, and other half -springs between fig. 450. and facing millstones. See MILLSTONE DRESSER ; FURROWING AND FACING MACHINE. Buhr Dri'ver. The stud or projection on the millstone spindle which acts upon the bail of the millstone to drive the latter. The ordinary device is shown at G, Plate XXII., "Mech. Diet.," article "Grinding Mill." The bail is also called a balauce- rynd. Fig. 453 shows several forms of drivers. Fig. 453. Brewster Side-bar Wagon Spring. the body and side bars, giving the effect of a full elliptic spring, while retaining the modern and stylish appearance of the half-spring wagon. They can be made lighter, hung lower, and are as suitable lor country roads as the full ellip- tic spring wagon. The "Dexter" spring consists essentially of two "Con- cord," or side springs on each side ; one spring above the Fig. 451. Dexter'''' Spring. other and parallel to it. The two springs are rigidly con- nected at their centers, and pivoted at their ends to spring links above or on either side of the axle and spring-bar. The spring-links are rigidly attached to the head block and rear axle respectively. The parallel motion of the springs prevents rocking of the axles. One spring being above the other prevents side motion and the settling of the body to one side. The absence of a reach allows either wheel to pass over an obstruction almost independently of the other wheels. The elasticity of the springs takes much strain off the fifth wheel, and cushions the stroke when striking an obstruction. Patents, June 16, September 15, 1874, June 15, 1875. The Stiver's circular combination spring has a circular Fig. 452. Stiver's Circular Combination Spring. spring used in connection with end half springs, securine the effect of the full elliptic spring. Bu'gle. (Add.) The simple bugle or clarion is written on the G clef like the trumpet. It pos- sesses 8 notes. There are bugles in B h, C, and in E p. The keyed bugle has 7 keys which traverse chromatically a compass of more than two octaves from B # beneath the stave up to C above. The bugle with pistons or with cyliuders has a lower compass than the keyed. Buhr Dress'er. An implement for channeling Bukr Drivers. a, is the Duvall central- cross mill-buhr driver. 6, is the "Universal" buhr-driver. c c', show Sergeant's back -lash bail mill-buhr driver. Each of them aims to have a perfect drive free from rattle and with such a degree of freedom that the runner stone shall ad- i just itself to the face of | the bed-stone. See "American Miller ,'' * vii. 300, and elsewhere. Buhr Rub'ber. A block composed of emery and a cement ; used in cleaning, sharpening, and facing down buhrs. Millstone levelers, Furrow dressers, are synonyms or analogous devices. Build'er's Hoist. A form of steam-hoist used in lifting stone, brick, mortar, lumber, etc., in con- structing buildings. The cage, the barrow, or the material, as the case may require, is suspended by a rope from a tackle, the Fig. 454. fall passing to the drum. Of a larger size, but of the same general construction, are hoists for railways, docks, and harbors, for lifting up to three tons. More powerful engines assume a substantially different form. When employed for hoisting build- ing materials, the en- gine is usually put down in a central po- sition, and the chains or ropes are carried away in opposite di- rections to the two extreme ends of the Appleby's Double-cylinder Builder's Hoist. works, and there hoist the bricks, mortar, etc., in barrows on to the scaffolds, along which they are wheeled to serve the bricklayers. BUILDER'S HOIST. 144 BULLET SEEKER. The hoists are usually made with two speeds : one for or- dinary building work, and a slow speed for hoisting columns and girders, timbers, stones, etc. The weight lifted direct from the barrel is about 1,500 pounds, and for heavier loads blocks and falls are used. The size employed for lifting bar- rows is 3-horse power nominal, but they are made up to 12- horse power, and with single or double cylinders. Fig. 454. The euds of the shafts are extended, so that a capst.m. :i pump arm or pulley may be fitted for transmitting power for other purposes, and each engine has reversing gear and all the usual appliances. Build'er's Knot. A form of knot shown at 27, Fig. -2777, p. 1240, "Mech. t)ict." Build'ing Block. Material shaped into blocks for building. See Clayton ...... . * "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxv. 242. Hollow concrete .... "Scientific Amer.," xxxv. 406. Stone, marble, cement, etc. "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2020. See also BETON ; CONCRETE ; STONE, ARTIFICIAL, etc. Build'ing Iron. Fig. 455. (Electrotyping.) A heated iron applied to a strip of wax to cause it to flow down from the point on to the blank of the model in order to make Building Iron. corresponding de- pressions in the plate in the larger spaces where there is no type. Build'ing Wax. Wax used in building u the blanks in the molds for electrotype plates. is cut in strips 8" to 10" long- by f " wide, and must be kept dry. Bulb Syr'inge. A dentist's syringe used for blowing debris from cavities after excavating. Fig 456. ffi Bulb Syringe. A valve in the base end of the bulb admits the air instantaneously. Bulk'head Door. A door in the bulk-head of a ship built in compartments. It is to be capable of instant closure, and self-fastening. Some are closable from the deck in emergencies. See Hartley, Br * "Engineer,'' xlviii. 144. Simey, Br * "Engineer,'' xlviii. 268. Device for closing, Simey, Br. * "Engineer,''' xlvii. 453, 473. English * "Sc. American Sup.," 2398. Bulk'head Union. A pipe coupling where the pipe passes through a v - lr bulkhead or partition. Bull'dog For'ceps. (Surgical. ) Forceps with pointed teeth for fistula, for grasping an artery, etc. Figs. 131, 343, Part I., Tie- tnann's ''Armamentarium Chi- rurgicum." Bull'en Nail. An up- holsterer's nail, with a round Bulkhead Union, with Fly- head and short shank. Carmoy's machine (Fr.) * Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures,'' vol. iv., ed. 1877, article "Clous de tapissier.'' Bul'let. 1 . A missile for a fire-arm. Bullets with wings, the counterpart of rifling : boulets tournants. Systemes Cavalli. Gras. Systemes Tamisier. Burnier. Bullet. * Laboulaye's "Dictionnaire. des Arts et Manufactures," vol. iv., article "Boulets," Figs. 3426 it serj. 2. (Nautical.) Or jib-sheet block; the latter name indicating the purpose. Made ?,_ 45$. of lignum vitre. Bul'let For'ceps. (Surgical.) An instrument to be introduced into a wound to grasp and extract a bullet. See BULLET EXTRACTOR, Fig. 970, p. 402, "Mech. Diet." The I'nited States Army bullet forceps has scoop-shaped ends. Fig. 115, p. 40, Part I., TII in it mi's "Armamentarium Chirur^iri/m." Ilinni/toii's bullet forceps is a long-nosed pincers with toothed jaws. Fig. 124, p. 42, Ibid. It resembles the sequestrum forceps, Fig. 4834, p. 2094, "Mech. Diet.'' Thomasin's has scoop and claw. Fig. 128, Tiemann. Gross's has loop and claw. Fig. 1236, Ibid. Bul'let In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) Instru- ments used in exploring for and extracting bullets from the person. They are known by names which are expressive of their uses and application : Bullet forceps. Bullet extractor. Bullet scoop. Bullet screw. Bullet seeker. Bullet probe. Bullet Ma-chine'. (Cartridges.) Lead is fed in bars, which are 2' or 3' long, and have the diameter of a bullet ; the compressing and shaping dies cut off pieces, compress and shape them. British, "Ordnance Report," 1877, Appendix L., p. 563 and Figs. 97z-97z. The process is about as follow* : At Woolwich : The melted metal is poured into a receiver, and as soon as it solidifies, but before it is cold, it is forced by hydraulic pressure through cylindrical holes in the form of long strings. This process is to prevent the formation of air bubbles in the bullet, which would cause it, when fired, to swerve from its course. The leaden strings are thence car- ried to the bullet-molding department, where they are cut into lengths and roughed ; then shaped in one machine, and finished in another. They have now to be plugged. These plugs were formerly made of wood, but are now prepared from a special powder, which solidifies after being pressed into form. Bul'let Patch'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for enveloping the cylindrical portion of rifle bul- lets with paper, to prevent the " leading " of the grooves of the barrel. In Borchardt's machine, the operating arrangements are on a circular table, supported by a hollow standard, through which an upright shaft passes from the actuating pulley that runs under a false floor. The connection is made !>y friction wheels, which insures the instant stoppage of the machine in case of any impediment. The bullets are led to the machine by hand, and the patch is presented to the bullet and secured by a minute drop of mucilage, fed auto- matically, and is rolled closely around the bullet by the fric- tion of flexible rolls, at the rate of 45 or 50 per minute, or about 20,000 per day of ten hours, including stoppages. Two operatives are required to run the machine properly. The action of the machine is easily controlled by means of a foot- lever and clutch. The machine may be adapted to all sizes and styles of rifle projectiles. The bullet-patches are cut out with dies. The patches require damping to insure neat and uniform folding. Bul'let Scoop. (Surgical.) An instrument with a scoop-shaped end, to be used as a bullet ex- tractor, the scoop being passed behind the bullet. Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum," Part I., p. 40, Fig. 116. Bullet Screw. (Surgical.) An instrument with a fine gimlet-screw point, to be screwed into a bullet as a means of withdrawal. Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurificum," Part I., p. 40, Fig. 119. Bullet Seek'er. (Surgical.) An instrument of the nature of a probe with an enlarged head, to introduce into a wound to find the bullet, either by BULLET SEEKER. 145 BUNG MACHINE. the jar of impact or by the coloration of the bulb- ous head of the instrument. The references are to Part I. of Tiemanri's "Armamenta- rium Ckirurgirum. 1 ' Tiemiuin'x bullet seeker has a burr head which acts as a rasp upon the bullet and shows traces of contact. Fig. 117. Nelalon's has a rough porcelain head which is marked by contact with the lead. Figs. 120, 126. Ti, itiiain's bullet seeker, Fig. 121, Fig. 459. has ;i flexible stem. ^nyre's instrument has a vertebrated stem, and follows the windings of a deflected bullet. Fig. 122. Sec, also, Bullet Probes, pp. 40, 42, as above, and p. 403 of "Meek. Diet.'' Bull'-head Axe. A poll- axe. One with ;i small poll for stunning a bullock, by striking it on the. forehead. Bullion Point. ( Class. ) The thick portion at the center of a disk of crown glass. Bull Net. (Pishing.) A large hoop-net, worked with ropes and blocks. Bull'-nose RabTaet Plane. A plane with the hit at the end, in order to enable it to work up close into corners. Named from a fancied resem- Fig. 460. Fig. 461. Bull-head Axe. Bull-nose Rabbet Plane. blance to the muzzle of a bull. It is made open or close by a screw on top. Bull's Eye. 1. A strong round Bull's Eye. glass in a metallic frame let into a deck or side of a vessel to give light to a cabin. Fig. 461. 2. A form of rope-leader (Fig. 462) without a Fig. 462. sheave. Known by other names also, lizard for instance. Fig. 463. Bull's Eye. a. Floor bull's eye of lignum vit.T ft. Lignum vitae bull's eye for iro c. Bull's eye for wire or hempen u , , rope Bull's-eye Condenser. Bull's-eye Con-den'ser. (Optics.) A means for condensing the light from a lamp, or of obtain- ing parallel rays from diverging ones. It consists of a plano-convex lens of deep focus. Fig. 463. Bump. (Fire Arm.) The corner of the stock at the top of the heelplate. 10 Bung. Several forms of automatic vent, the Fig. 464. siphon, gravitating ball, and sepa- rated chamber and ball, are shown in Figs. 2554-2556, Laboulayvs " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufac- tures," tome iii., ed. 1877, Article "Vin." Tulley's bung has a vent in a recess, so that the bung may be driven flush with the outside of the cask. The vent has side openings and a piston valve. Bung Buck'et. Also known as a vel.inckc, water thief, thief-tube, etc. See Fig. 6925, p. 2696, "Mech. Diet." A sampling tube. A tube open at both ends is inserted at the bung-hole ; the upper end being closed with the Fi _ 465 finger, the tube with, its contents is with- drawn. Bung Bush. More correctly, bung- hole bush. The bush is tapering inside and outside, the outer sur- face having a screw thread for screwing into the bung-hole. The wrench for screwing the bush into place consists of a shank and a conical plug or core ; the core has an irregular base, around which are loosely fitted a series of sections, which press equally in all direc- tions against the interior of the bush as the core is rotated. Bung'-hole Bor'er. An auger and annular reamer. It bores a complete round hole, regular taper, and holds its own chips. Fig. 466. Bung'-hole Brush. A tool for cleaning the insides of bar- ' rels. The illustration, Fig. 467, shows it in position for entering, and for operating, respectively. Bung Lathe. A lathe for turning taper bungs. Fig. 468. That shown is by Arbey, of Paris. It is a small special lathe with an oblique tool on the rest which slides transversely in cut- ting down, and in adjusting for bungs of different diameters. Bung Ma-chine'. In Kirby's bung-cutting machine the square blocks are placed in a vertical ;?., / / K pile in the hopper, and fed automatically one by one to the plunger, by which they are forced through Fig. 467. Cornell's Screw Bung Bush and Wrench. Fig. 466. Bung-hole Brush. BUNG MACHINE. 146 BUN SEN BURNER FURNACE. the circular cavity of the cutter, and formed into cylindrical blanks. Each block as it is fed into the machine serves as a cutting-board for the next preceding block. The bungs are subjected to a great pressure so as to condense the wood. Arbey's Bung Lathe. Bung Spout. An the bung-hole - to form a lip for the latter, and enable the contents to be dis- charged without drib- bling. Especially in- tended for heavy oils and molasses. Bung Start. An instrument to start a bung by beating 'the bung stave of the cask. Kflogger. Bun'ion Ap'pa- ra'tus. (Surgical.) attachment to a cask at Fig. 469. Bung Spout. An apparatus which permits Fig 470. Bung Start. freedom of motion in the vertical plane while the malposition of the toe is gradually rectified by con- stant lateral traction. The apparatus consists of a delicate lever of spring steel, with an oval ring in the center which is provided with hinges at its anterior and posterior margins. It is attached to the instep by a laced band, and the toe to the ex- tremity of the spring by a piece of webbing. Fig. 78, p. 39, Part IV., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chi- mrgicum." Bun'sen Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One hav- ing amalgamated zinc in sulphuric acid and carbon in nitric acid, with an intervening porous cell. Prescott's "Electricity," * p. 66 ; Qanot, * 687, 688. Noad, London, 1859, * 281. Du Moncel, Paris, 1850, 69. De la Kive, London, 1853, * 46. Shaffner, New York, 1859, * 95. " Scientific American," * xxxix. 139. Niaudet, American translation, *158. "Engineer," xlv. 268. Azapis' 1 improvement consists in replacing the acidulated solution of the Bunsen by the cyanide of potassium, etc. "Scientific, American,' 1 '' xxxviii. 266 ; xliii. 266. Fitzgerald, mod. of Bunsen ; depolarizes by a secondary current, calcic dihydro-chromate is substituted for the nitric acid. " Scientific American Supplement,' 1 ' 764. Bun'sen Burn'er. A form of gas burner, the invention of Bunsen, and especially adapted for heating. Its performance depends upon the proper admixture of gas and air. See 14 Figures, pp. 241 1 , 2412, "Mech. Diet." " It can be made of glass. A tube of glass, 4 /x or 5" long by i" to J" wide, is taken, and by blowing out the glass, heated at two points by the pointed flame, the air holes at the bur drill when operating ; designed for the protection of the hand and the easy operation of the in- strument. Bush Ham'mer. (Stone Working.) A square prism of steel, with ends cut into pyramidal points. The cutting face is from 2" to 4" square. One end has some- times the form of an axe. The tool, Fig. Bur Thimble. 481, is used in dressing and stunning. The various forms and methods of stone working are con- sidered under their special heads, and collections of the terms may be found under MASONS' TOOLS, etc., page 1405, " Mech. Diet.'' and STONE WORKING, infra. See also lists under HAND TOOLS ; MACHINES, infra. Bush-ham'mered Stone Work. (Stone Cut- ting.) Work in which the roughnesses of the stone are pounded off with the bush-hammer. The se- quence of operations with limestone is (1) rough- Fig. 481. ary ice chambers saving a great deal of inconvenience in filling the chamber with ice or removing unnecessary ire and Fig. 484. Bush Hammer. pointing; (2) tooth-axeing ; (3) hush-hammering. Sandstone is seldom bush-hammered, as the stun- ning makes it scale. Bush Hook. A brier hook ; bramble hook ; Fig. 482. Bush Hook. bill-hook. A hook-ended cutting tool for cutting bushes, grubs, briers, etc. Bush'ing. (Nautical.) The metallic reinforce Fig. 483. of the cheeks of a tackle-block, where the pin passes. The bushing of the sheave is the coak. See, also, BUNG-BUSH. But'ter Pr infer. A double-hinged mold that, ad- mits of opening out freely, and detaching itself from the butter without marring it. The butter is weighed and placed in the mold, when it is forced by a plunger on the block at the bottom of the mold that contains the impression. The plunger is operated by a lever in connection with the main frame, and, when the pressure is removed, is retired by the action of a spiral spring. Fig. 484. " But'ter Tub. A tub in which butter is stored and shipped, especially the latter. Fig. 485. Koehler's butter tub is oval, of white cedar, bound with galvanized iron or brass hoops. Within the tub is fitted the tin cooler, having a removable chamber for ice at each end which is a great improvement on the old style, with station- Block Buskins;. liiitter Printing Apparatus. water therefrom. On the tin are constructed a series of ledges, on which rest the shelves for supporting the print butter, being used without shelves for roll butter. The Fig. 485 Butter Tub. hinged cover having a fixture at one end and a hinge hasp at the other can be locked for shipping. Hinges, hasps, and fixtures are tinned to render them rust-proof. But'ter Work'er. A tray with roller to press the butter-milk from the butter. The illustrations show three forms with rollers. In Fig. 486 the roller is pivoted at the end and rolls in a sector. Fig. 486. Whipple's Butter Worker. In the rotary butter-worker, Fig. 487, vhe butter is placed on a rotary circular table and is confined by a rim. The crank shaft which revolves the table also rotates the frusto- conical presper that works the butter. As the presser turns, the paddles as they leave the butter slightly raise it, which allows the passage of the buttermilk to a groove around the periphery whence it passes by a tube to the well in the cen- ter of the table. The butter-worker, Fig. 488, consists of a tray, and a roller with paddles which is turned by a crank, ;md traverses from end to end of the tray. The roller is removed from the tray by turning the long end of small buttons on the side of the tray, which admits of the roller coming nearer to the end of the tray, and allows the clamps which hold the BUTTER WORKER. 149 BYE-PASS. Embrie's Butter Worker. roller down to be raised from the rack underneath, when the roller can be lifted out. Fie. 488. Reid's Butter Worker. May refer to Butter, Artificial, Mott. "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 760, 774. "Scientific American,'' xxxv. 337. Packing, Semis . . . * tl Scientific, American,'' xxxvii. 66. Worker, Sands ... * "Scientific American" xxxvii. 5. Butt Hinge. A door or casement hinge adapted to be fastened to the edge of the object, and hidden when the latter is closed. Differs from the hook strap, T, and other long-membered or ornamental hinges which are displayed upon the door. Tig. 489. Single and Double Action Spring Butts. Geer's butts, shown in Fig. 489, exhibit several points ol value. The figure on the left is for a single door of the usual action, but with a spring to close the door automatically and having it- givitest power at the point of closure, the least when opened to a right angle ; and also holding the door in open position. The double action hinge allows the door to swing either way. They are not rights and lefts, but adaptable to either edge of a door. Loose-pin * "Iron Age," xxi., April 11, p. 9. Spring, Geer .... * "Iron Age," xxi., Feb. 7, p. 1. Butt Lathe. A stock-turning lathe, invented by Blanchard. A gouge 18" in diameter, that makes from 3,400 to 3,600 revolutions per minute, is guided by an iron pattern the shape of the stock required. The stock goes through a set of these machines before it is ready for polishing. But'ton. (Surgical.) A species of clamp for holding the suture, iu operations for vesico-vaginal fistula. The invention of Bozeman. See Figs. 268-271, Part III., Tiemanri's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." The button-adjuster and button-shaper are accessories. But'ton Fas'ten-er. A clasp which hooks over the eye of a shoe button and is then clinched to the shoe. Fig. 490. Heaton's Button-setting Instrument. The illustration shows the article, its attachment, and the tool. It is applied without previous pier- cing of the leather ; has sufficient freedom of mo- tion ; can be removed by unclinching the points. Button apparatus, Covered . . * "Sc. Amer.,'''' xxxvii. 176. Button sewing-machine, Fries. * " Sc. Amer.,'" xxxv. 6. But'ton-head Bolt. A carriage bolt with spheroidal head. Fig. 491. Fig. 491. But'tress. (Add.) Buttresses are Close, like extended pilasters. Open, with perforations in the pro- file. Flying, with half an arch suspended, bearing against the clerestory or a wall. But'ty-gang. A word used among English contractors to signify a gang of from 10 to 13 men, who do a piece of work for a given sum divided equally Button-head among them, except a small additional Cama sum to the head of the gang. Helps's "Life of Thomas Brassey." Buz'zer. 1. A small, rapidly-revolving wheel, used in grinding or polishing small objects. It is plied with emery, crocus, rouge, etc., according to requirements. Named from its whirring sound. 2. A telegraphic call in which a vibrating ham- mer strikes a sounding piece and gives out a buzz- ing sound, which, in certain cases, is preferable to a bell. Buzz Pla'ner. A small planing machine for wood. It is named from the whirring hum of its rapidly revolving knife-cylinder, and is used to take out of wind and smooth up small stuff. Bye'-pass. 1. A cut across furnished by an extra pipe of smaller dimensions, leading around a certain chamber, valve, or apparatus which is temporarily cut out of the circulation. The by t -pass is found in : Mackenzie's surface condenser. * "American Gas-light Journal," July 3, 1876, p. 12. Smith If Sayre's gas exhauster. *" American Gas-light Journal," Ibid., pp. 10, 11. Woodbury Merrill's hot-air engine. Infra. The illustration shows Farmer's hydraulic main, with dip- pipe and bye-pass. "American Gas-Light Journal," Julys, 1876, p. 20. See GAS COMPENSATOR ; GAS EXHAUSTER. BYE-PASS. 150 CABLE CARRIER. Fig. 492. Fanner's Bye-puss Dip-pip 2. A protecting pipe around the tip of a gas- burner to prevent the light being extinguished bv a gust of wind. Used in lighthouses. See Major Elliot's Report, U. S. Engineers. The top of the bye-pass is pierced with holes supplied with gas from a source independent of that of the main flame, and will relight the former immediately, should it be extinguished. gee, also, paper by Wigham, Mechanical Science section of British Association, 1878, reproduced in "Scientific Ameri- can Supplement," * 23S9. Byrne Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) A form of pneumatic battery. The negative electrode consists of a copper plate, coated with lead on one side, and the other side faced with platinum. Two of these are used, be- tween which is a zinc plate. The exciting liquid is agitated by injection of air. "Niaudet," American translation, 226. " Scientific American Supplement " . . * p. 2526, Fig. 36. " Telegraphic Journal" *vi.222, 269. "Engineer" * xlv. 279, 406. "Scientific American'' * xxxviii. 293. Dr. J. H. Thompson's Report, "Centennial Exhibition Re- ports," vol. vii., Group XXIV., p. 53. o. Cab. 1. A city passenger vehicle for hire by course or hour. 2. The shelter on a locomotive for the engineer and fireman. See notices : Chariot cab, Murch Murch Heretic Locomotive cab. Pa. Railway . * "Scientific American," xliii. 191. Patents 147,421, 152,244, 154,572, 151,240, 149,779. ; " Scientific American Sup," 1 3901. . * "Engineering," xxiv. 105. Cab'in. A saloon for officers or passengers on board ship. Swinging cabin, Bessemer, " Van No-strand's Mag.," xvi. 569. Cab'in Car. (Railway.) A car carried at the rear of a freight-train to accommodate the con- ductor and train-hands. Known also as a caboose. Pennsylvania Railway . . * "Engineering," xxiv. 413-417. Cab'i-net Ma'ker's Clamp. A species of vise for bringing parts of a frame together and Fig. 493. Cabinet Maker's Clamp. holding them. The heads are adjustable by stir- rups on the rail, which has a notched lower edge, and one of the heads has a screw for clamping the object. Ca'ble. A large rope, warp, or hawser. The catenary of a suspension bridge. East River Suspension Bridge. * 'Scientific Amer. ," xxxvii. 63. * ' Scientific Amer.,'' xxxviii. 303-6. Fastening . . . . * Making ..... * Gear, wire. S. S. "Moewe," 1 Br. * Grapnel ...... * Grappling, Capt. Stead * 'Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 79. ' Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' 755. 'Engineer," 1. 494. ' Scientific Amer. Sup.," 979. 'Iron Age," xxi., June 6, p. 8. Hauling gear, telegraph. Johnson $ Phillips,^. * "Engineering," xxix. 205. Making for suspension bridges. HMenbrand . . . * " Van Nost. Mag.," xvii. 171, *193. Towing * "Scientific American," xli. 143. Ca'ble Car'ri-er. A means of transporting rough materials; stone, sand, lime, coal, earth, by a suspended bucket traveling on a wire cable. Fig. 494. Fig. 494. lirowti's Cable Carrier. While filling the tub, the carrying bail 2 is turned back, and when filled the bale is turned upright, and there locked by the dumping bail 4. The bail is then attached by hook 3 to block 5, through which the hoisting rope 6 passes, thence CABLE CARRIER. 151 CAGE. over the and pass over the block, falling together beneath it. The block is then lowered and rests upon them, transferring the load from the rope to the hooks. These hooks are attached to levers 19 pivoted at A and having a limited movement, the weight depresses their inner and raises their outer ends, unhooking them from pin 18 on the holding block 15. Simultaneously with the transfer of the weight to the hooks, the hoisting rope and drum are released from the power and the carriage with its load descends the cable 17 ; and when it reaches the point where it is desired to deposit its load, the drum is again thrown into connection with the power, arresting the outward progress of the car- riage, and starting it simultaneously upon its return. The hoisting rope, passing under roller 21, between the two parts of dumping hook 13, is by it deflected downwards as the car- riage passes out, and when the drum is thrown into gear the straightening of the rope raises the hook which is pivoted upon levers 11 and 12, brings its point, 13', in contact with the dumping: bale, unlocks the tub, which capsizes, ejects its contents, attains its upright position, and relocks itself while upon its return. When the carriage reaches the holding block it is stopped, and the tub is raised until the block, acting upon projections 26 on the inner sides of the hooks , forces them apart sufficiently to allow of its passing down between and clear of their points. A notch on lever 14 retains them apart until the block has passed their points and strikes the jointed lever 25, which, through rod 24, raises lever 14, releasing and allowing them to fa'l together. The tub is then lowered and the operation repeated. By the use of this machine (hoisting power being fur- nished) material can be conveyed a thousand feet, and piled to any height, with the labor of one man. See, also, WIRE-WAY, Fig. 7006, p. 2798, "Mec/i. Diet." Ca'ble Screw. A fastening for boot-soles ; a wire in shape of a twisted cord. Ca'ble Screw Ma-chine'. One for putting screw pe.ys into boot and shoe soles. It goes round the sole in 15 seconds, putting in 80 to 85 wire pegs. Ca'ble Test'ing Ma-chine'. The machine shown in Fig. 495 is made in accordance with the Fig. 495. troduction used on our Western plains. Properly Cabestro : Cabresto in Portuguese. Ca-ca'o Grind'er and Sort'er. A machine for grinding the cacao nut and sorting the result Fig. 496. French Cacao Machine. into different finenesses. The distance between the cylinder and its concave is adjustable in order to determine the fineness of the result. The ground cacao is sorted into six sizes, and refuse. In the cacao mill of De Batiste, Paris, France, the cacao is put in a hopper having at the bottom a screw which partially grinds the nut and feeds it into the center of a pair of stones, similar to a pair of grist-mill stones. These grind it into a liquid which collects in a pan surrounding the lower stone. Cacao manufacture "Sc. American Sup.,-' 1014. Chocolate machinery, Menier . "Engineering ," xxv. 443. Cocoa " Sc. American," xxxv. 278. Fig. 497. (.'/lain Cable and Anchor Testing Machine. "Board of Trade" (British) regulations, operating by medium of dead levers upon an active weight. The series of levers is similar to that in compound beam scales, the strain being given by a hydraulic ram of 8' stroke. The great length of stroke is for the purpose of taking up the stretch of the cable when testing lengths of 20 fathoms at a time. 1 he machines are made to test up to 200 tons. A hydraulic gage indicates upon a scale the strain upon the levers. For chain-testing establishments, in addition to the testing chines there are required steam-pumpingapparatus, cable- shears for cutting out defective links, capstans for hauling he chains, a hydraulic anchor crane, and a blacking appara- it is usual also to add a more powerful short machine to test a few links of the largest cables to destruction , e 1 1*o e " testin g apparatus of Giffard's captive balloon iris, 1878, was a hydraulic press mounted above a frame so o bring a strain upon a section of the cable which had two eye-splices to the holder and puller respectively, the lat- ter depending from the piston of the press. An accumulator is arranged to prevent any shock from the rupture affecting tne manometer which registers the tension. " Scientific American " * xxxix. 194. CaTDres-to. A halter. A word of Spanish in- Cafe-ti-ere'. A French apparatus for making infusion of coffee. The apparatus has two bulbs and connecting neck with ejector tube. As shown in Fig. 497 the lower bulb contains water which is in pro- cess of being heated by the alcohol lamp. When steam forms above the water, the latter is Cafeti&re. raised in the central tube and poured down upon the ground coffee in the npper vessel. The lamp is then re- moved, the steam soon condenses and the water is drawn down through the coffee so as to have the grounds as dry as fresh sawdust. The Etzenberger steam tea and coffee filter is on larger scale but involves the same principle of action. Cage. (Add.) 6. A prison of iron bars. Iron cages are now frequently made for prisons in the South and West, to be used when there is no conveniently available material except wood. CAISSON. 152 CALENDERING MACHINE. Cais'soii. An iron-liued shaft ; or a shaft used in pneumatic subaqueous excavation. Pages 49, 420-42^, "J/ec/t. Diet." Arsenal of Nagasaki . . . . *" Engineer," xliv. 60-64. Air-lock, Hudson lliver Tunnel * "Engineer " 1. 327. Subaqueous, Antwerp . . . *" Engineering," xxviii. 280. Cake Griud'er. seed oil cake for food f o r stock. The cake is dropped into the hopper edgewise, is broken in pieces, and these ground by passing be- tween toothed rollers. Cake Ma- chine'. A ma- chine for cut- ting dough into cakes. Ruger's soft cake and jumble machine takes the dough previously prepare d in a dough mixer, spreads it on an A machine for breaking lin- Fig. 498. Oil Cake Grinder. apron, and cuts it into cakes of the required size and shape ; cakes, snaps, jumbles, drops, fingers, bars, etc. The cakes are taken from the apron with a peel. There is no automatic scrapper as in some forms of cracker machines. See CRACKER MACHINE. Cake Steam'er. A machine for washing cakes, snaps, and crackers. It has an iron frame having an endless chain apron for carrying the pans of cakes underneath a dome where steam and water are sprayed upon the cakes, causing them to spread, and then by filling the dome with hot steam a thin skin forms over the cakes, by which, when baked, they acquire a rich, cracked top, and glossy color. Cal-cim'e-ter. An instrument invented by Scheibler, and modified by Pellit & Salteron, for making volumetric analyses of bone-dust, meer- schaum, and other compounds containing lime. " Scientific American Supplement : ' . . * x. 4002. Cal'ci-mine. A superior kind of wash for walls. See also KALSOMINE, "Mech. Diet.," p. 1222. Cal-cin'ing Fur'nace. A furnace for roasting ores. In the Gestenbrofer furnace, named after the in- ventor, was first introduced the feature of burning the sulphur of pyritic ores to accomplish the calci- nation. In practice, the sulphurous fumes are used to make sulphuric acid, which is used to make soda from common salt. SOP paper by Holloway read before the " Society of Arts," London, February, 1879, "Ore a New Application of a Process of l\npid Oxidation by which Sulphides are Utilized for Fuel,' 1 ' referred to in " Engineering and Mining Journal,'' xxvii. 201 ; xxix. 423. See also Dr. Jenkins's report, "Paris Exposition Reports" 1878, vol. iv., pp. 9 et seq., 74, 80 et seq., etc. Boston and Colorado Works * "Engineering," xxii. 290. Borrie, Br * "Iron Age" xxiii., June 12, p. 1. Howson Wilson, Br. . * "Iron Age,'' xxiii., June 12, p. 1. Cal'ci-um Light. An improved form of the calcium light has been invented by Khotinsky, a Russian naval officer. A. thin pyramidal crayon of Jime or magnesia is supported (adjustably) in a vertical position, with its thinner end facing the orifice of the burner below, which surmounts two tube.s, for coal-gas and oxygen, both controlled by one stop-cock! The two gases only mix at the mouth of the burner. The crayon, immersed iu the flame, is successively heated from below, without any sudden difference of temperature occur- ring in its several parts. The same crayon will last fifteen days, with daily use. The burner consumes about 0.014 cub. meters of oxygen per hour, and as much coal-gas, giving a light equal to about 1.5 Carcel burner. Cal'cu-la-ting Ma-chine'. An arithmometer. "Mech. Diet.," pp. 143, 144. Circle, Boucher . . . * "Engineering," xxvii. 498. Grant * "Engineer," xliv. 12. * "Scientific American," xxxvi. 295. Babbage's and Scheutz's * machines, described, article " Culculer, Machine a,'' Laboulaye's "Diet, dts Arts et Manu- factures, vol. iv., ed. 1877. See also pp. 423-24, " Mech. Diet.' 1 ' 1 Stamm's "Machine d equations,"' * Ibid. Cal'en-der-ing Ma-chine'. 1. (Laundry.) A machine for smoothing clothes or linen. A man- gle. Much used in France. Machines of this character are made by Pierron & Dehaitre, Paris. See LAUNDRY. 2. Machines for smoothing piece goods in course of manufacture after washing, dyeing, bleaching, etc. See Fig. 1026, p. 426, "Mech. Diet." Also Fig. 262, article "Blanchiment, : ' Laboulaye's " Diet ion na ire des Artset Manu- factures," tome i., ed. 1877. 3. A machine fov giving lustre to stuffs by press- ure, which may be accompanied by heat. The French calendering machine has rollers of plane tree wood or paper alternating with cast iron. See Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," article "Calandre," Fig. 498, tome i., ed. 1877. Fig. 500 is a French machine of two cylinders, of which the lower one is paper covered. The iron roller is adapted to be heated by steam or gas. Machines of the same class, with three cylinders, are made, adapted for cloths or linen, for the use of dressers, dyers, laundries, etc. See also BEET- LING MACHINE. Fig. 499. Poole'f Super-calender Rolls. 1'1.\TE VI. CALICO PRINTING MACHINE. (In four colors.) See page 153. CALENDERING MACHINES. 153 CALICO-PRINTING MACHINE. Fig. 500. French Calendering Machine Small machines are made for watering or moir- ing ribbons, etc. 4. In paper-making for expressing the moisture from the felted web, and giving a surface to the in- cipient paper. Poole's calender rolls are shown in Fig. 499. The figure represents a stack of super-calenders for a paper machine, but their rolls are adapted for various uses, working in paper, rubber, gutta-percha, brass, copper, flour, etc. As shown, the rolls A A', etc., are of chilled iron, B B', etc., are puper. The number and dimensions are varied to suit the work required of them. They are put in motion by a friction pulley, and the strain is carried by large wrought iron rods, connecting the caps of the upper with the lower bearings of the lower roll. The gearing at the side belongs to the winding arrangement. 5. A machine for running rubber into sheets, or spreading it upon cloth. \Vhon the rubber has been thoroughly mixed, it is, by means of large iron calender rolls, " run into sheets of the required thicknesses three to four feet wide and then rolled or cut into various shapes and sizes, and .made up by the workmen into the various articles required, ready for vul- canizing. Cotton fabrics are combined as a base of strength with the sheets intended for belting, hose, and other articles requiring it. " Kn^ineirin^ ami Mining Journal," * xi. 1. Machine, Voitli, Ger. . * "Eit-f'nifering," xxviii. 392. * "Engineering," xxx. 68. * " Scientific American Sup.," 3899. Rolls, Poole ....*" Scientific Awer. Sup.," ii. 659. Of paper *" Sc. American," xxxvi. 360. Grinding. Ponle . . . * " Sc. Amer. Sup.," vij. 2769. Calf Pail. A pail for feeding a young calf. The teat in the center is hollow, and the milk Fi S- 501 - is drawn through it by the natural action of sucking. Calf muzzle, Miller, * "Sc, Amer.," xxxvi. 386. Cari-co-print'ing Ma-chine'. A ma- chine for printing tis- sues. It was originally designed for cotton prints or calicoes, but has more lately been applied to a very great variety of fabrics of French Calf Pail i 4" Dehaitre, Paris.) wool, linen, silk, and other materials, and of various mixtures of these and others. The modes of printing are various, but the greater number concern the chemical side of the question and are described on pages 426-429, "Mech. Diet." Plate VI. shows a machine for printing in four colors which will give a clearer understanding of the construction and operation than one for print- ing in twenty-four colors, which might have been selected. The latter has a larger central cylinder so as to make it possible to arrange around it a series of twenty-four different impression rollers, each having its own paraphernalia of color-roller, color-trough, doctor, and the necessary means for adjustment. The plate shows a transverse vertical section of the machine. A, is the frame of the machine on which the various parts are mounted. B is the impression cylinder, and around it are four .en- graved cylinders, c c c c, which receive their color from felt-covered copper rollers which revolve in the color-troughs, E E E E. Each of the graven cylinders has two doctors, D D, one to remove su- perfluous ink in advance of the impression being delivered, and the other one to catch and remove any fluff or fibre which might adhere to the cylinder and so be carried into the color. The doctor is a steel blade held by an adjustable screw against the cylinder and having a back and forth movement in the direction of ils length. The plate shows three webs passing around be- tween the impression cylinder and the engraved cylinders. That passing from Q is the fabric to be printed. It passes over several wing rollers and flat surfaces which spread it evenly and remove folds and wrinkles; the tension being maintained by a weighted strap, s, which acts as a brake upon the axes of the cloth roller and prevents its paying out too fast. Next to the tissue to be printed is a cloth called a don bier (doublier) which unrols from R and has the same smoothing devices and brake weight s as previously mentioned. The doubler lies at the back of the fabric to be printed, and is itself liacked by an endless blanket, which is shown coming past the roller T and the CALICO-PRINTING MACHINE. 154 CALLAUD BATTERY. spiked roller H ; this lies next to the impression cylinder, the doublet' and blanket together acting just as the blankets of an ordinary copper-plate printing-press, to form tin elastic spongy backing to the fabric and force it in to the graven lines from which it absorbs the colors. Each graven cylinder, as has been said, has its own set of devices, color roller, and trough, and these, with it, are mounted upon a carriage which can be set towards or from tlie impression cylinder B. A system of gearing, M N o L K, actuates these altogether, but individual adjustments of any one set are made by a screw G, which acts upon its own set. The cylinder is rotated by a gear-wheel on its shaft, and the graven cylinders by the planetary gears H H H H. On the right are shown the tissue, with the doubler and the felt proceeding toward the drying chamber. The Monteith (Glasgow) hydraulic press, for calico print- ing from flat plates, is shown in article "Impression sur Stoffet^'ftg. 43, Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire lies Arts et Man- ufactures, tome iii., ed. 1877. Machine for printing in 24 colors. Ibid, Fig. 63. Cf. "Sketch of the History of Calico.'' Paper read before a literary society of Melrose, Mass. " Boston Journal," re- produced in "Scientific American," xli. 401. Copper facing calico rolls. "Iron Age," xix., June 14, p. 20. Cf. O'Neill's "Chemistry of Calico Printing," etc. O'Neill's "Dictionary of Calico Printing and Dyeing." Cal'i-f or'ni-a Sight. A hind sight for a gun ; Fig. 502. California Sight. capable, by elevation of the rear portion on one or other of the steps of the fin, of adjustment for ranges of varying distance. Fig. 502. Cal'i-pers. Standard calipers are made for T,. ..no outside and for a iff. Ovo. _ . inside measure- ments; the prongs answering for the former, and the bar for the latter. They are preferred to plugs and rings for some p u r- poses. See CYL- INDRICAL GAGE. They are both Standard Caliper Gage. light and strong. They are used as standards in i of these gages is arranged in a case, and con- i \" to 2J" diameter, varying by _L/'. a "shop, to which all workmen's measurements must conform. Each full set tains sizes from Form and use of * "Sic. Amer.," xxxvi. 3. Manufacture of * " Sc. Amer.," xxxviii. 85 Micrometer, Brown If Sharpe * "Sc. Amer.,'' xxxvi. 9. Gages and caliper machines, "American Manufacturer," 1879, March 28, p. 13, and April 4, p. 13. Cal'i-per-ing Ma-chine'. A machine, Fig. 504, used in a shop for testing work. A sort of stationary caliper, with capacity for fine adjustment. It is on the principle of the Whitworth measuring machine, Fig. 3104, p. 1414, "Afech. Diet.." It has a fine screw, with a larsre graduated wheel, and a tangent screw for fine adjustment. "American Manufacturer," * 1879, April 4, p. 13. "Iron Age " xxiii., Jan. 30, p. 3. Kig. 504. Cal'i-per Rule. One with a sliding member which protrudes at the end ; the foot may be used to measure outside dimensions, in the man- ner of calipers. Fig. 506. Calk'ing I'ron. A chisel by which oakum is driven into the seams between the planks of a wooden ship. The chis- els vary in form accord- ing to the size or position of the seam. Fig. 507. Calking Joint. One tightened by a calk- ing tool, as in some riv- eted boilers. Fig. 505. IBM Calipering Machine. Connery's method of calking is with a round ended ( tool in- stead of one with an angle edge. The advantage is that it does not cut the iron, making incipient cracks, but simply drives the metal in between the two sheets, wedging it tight. The dark parts in the cut represent the portions disturbed by the tool. Cal'lan B at'te-ry. (Electricity.) A modified Cannery's Method of Calk- form of Grove battery in tn - which the platinum and ni- tric acid are replaced by platinized lead and a mix- Fig. 506. Caliper Rule. ture of sulphuric and nitric acids, and saturated so- lution of nitrate of potassium. "Dela Rive," London, 1859, 283. Fig. 507. Calking Irons. Call An-nun'ci-a'tor. An audible call device which has, in addition to the gong, a board on which are arrows (or what not) which indicate the source whence the call proceeded. Such are used in hotels and elsewhere. See ANNUNCIATOR, "Mech. Diet." Cal'laud Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) The orig- inal gravity battery, invented by Jean Armand Callaud. See p. 430, "Mech. Diet." Prescott, "Electricity," 79. Niaudet, American translation, * 118. Plush, imp't on Callaud, * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 2655, * 2751 * "Engineer," xlvii. 333. "Journal Franklin Institute." CALL BELL. 155 CALORIE. Call Bell. A bell situate to be sounded by the distant closing of an electric circuit. Such are used constantly on telegraph and tele- phone circuits The illustration, Fig. 508, shows the latter. Above is the transmitter, below are two call-bells ; Fig. 508. Magneto Call Bell. Call But'ton. A small stud which is pressed to close an electric circuit and sound a gong at a distant station ; an office, guard-room, servants' quarters, or what not. Fig. 509 shows one which is stationary in a wall ; another pendent at the end of a cord. Cal'li-graph'. A writing machine. Cal'o-ric En'gine. The narfle given by Eric- sson to the heated-air engine. His earlier form of engine was given in Fig. 84, p. 40, "Mecfi. Diet.," and accompanying description. His device was fol- lowed by a host of others. See Figs. 85-94, pp. 41- 45, lbl,f. The illustrations below show the latest and a very compact form of the Ericsson engine. Fig. 510 is a perspective, and Fig 511 a sectional view of the Fig. 510 on the left hangs the receiving j instrument; on the right is the j crank of the magneto-electric j instrument. A buzzer is sometimes used instead of a bc-ll to call a clerk without making a noisy alarm. Fig. 509. Delamater's Ericsson Caloric Engine. (Perspective View.) engine pump and furnace. The engine is specially intended for domestic use in lifting and forcing water from wells and cisterns, or from city mains, to tanks on upper floors of buildings. No steam is employed, and any kind of fuel will answer for this engine, but coal-gas is preferable, the consumption being 15 cubic feet per hour for average house use. The action of the engine is> to alternately heat and cool the air confined below the air-piston b in cylinder cl, the heating of the air generating a pressure which acts on the air-piston, causing it to move through its upward stroke, actuating the pnmp r and fly-wheel by means of beam a and links j h g. The momentum of the fly-wheel and contraction of the air cause the return stroke. The office of the transfer piston c, by its movement derived from the crank through link / and bell crank k, is to displace the air from the lower or heated part of the cylinder d to the upper or cold part, and vice versa. Fig. 511. Delamater's Ericsson Caloric Engine. (Sectional View.) u is the gas furnace, t the vacuum cylinder, x the water jacket, e fly-wheel bracket, /beam center bearing. The Brown caloric engine has the furnace separated from the working cylinder, has valved connections between the two, and uses the hot air expansively. The inlet and outlet valves operate independently of each other. The furnace is supplied with coal by a cut-off bottom hopper while the ma- chine is in motion The steam siren fog signal at the Centennial was operated by one of these engines. See FOG TKUMPET. Compound, Beaumont, Br. * "Scientific Amer.,'- xliii. 385. Brown * "Manuf. If Builder " x. 97. * "Eng. * Min. ./.," xxvi. 349. * "Iron Age,"* xx., Dec. 6, p. 1. Ebert. # "Scientific Amer. Sup., '^ 1412. Roper * "Manuf. $ Builder" xi. 177. Van Rennets .... * "Sc. American,'' xxxix. 307. "Tom Thumb" .... * "Sc. American,"' xlii. 373. Pumping engine, Ericsson * "Manuf. Sf Builder," xii. 150. Wilcox * Laboulaye's "Diet.," etc.,iv., article "Air Chamber." Compression engine, Rider. * "Polytechnic Review," ii. 195 * "Am. Artisan," No. 12, 1874. Cal'o-rie. The amount of heat required to raise CALORIMETER. 156 CAMERA OBSCURA. the temperature of 1 kilogram of distilled water 1 Centigrade ; about equal to 2.2 pounds raised 1.8 Fab. Caro-rim'e-ter. An instrument for meas- uring the quantity of heat given out by bodies in parsing from one temperature to another. For Keynaulfs, see Laboulaye''s "Dictionnair?," etc., arti- cle, " Chaleur Specifiijue," tome iv., ed. 1877. For sugar, * Ibid., vol. iii., Figs. 75, 76, article, "Sucre." Hare's * "Scientific Amur. Sup.," vii. 2627. Ericsson's * "Scientific Amer. Si///." iii. 1103. Liquid "Les Monties," . "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 185. VioUt,r * "Scientific Amtricatt,'' xli. 53. Massachusetts Inst. . . "Scientific American,' 1 xxxv. 164. Cal'va-ri-an Hook. (Surgical.) A post- mortem hook, used, as its name indicates, in work- ing upon the skull. Ca-ma'cho Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) A per- fluent battery in which the cells are arranged in steps. The exciting liquid (solution of bichromate of potassium) is contained in a reservoir, and con- ducted from cell to cell by means of siphons. Niaudft. American translation * 231. "Engineer" * xlii. 203. " Scientific American Supplement " . . . * 749. Cam'ber-ing Ma-chine'. A machine for giv- ing a vertical curve to a railway rail. Such rails are used at the summits and feet of inclines and at the junction of grades of varying inclination. Also used to curve a rail to such a degree that it will be straight when cooled. See Figs. 8, 9, and pp. 372, "Engineering,''' xxix. Cam Cut'ter A special machine-tool made to cut and finish cams of all curves up to 5" diameter. It is made with either single or double heads. The carriage for reception of the blank is gibbed to the bed, and has sufficient traverse toward or from the cutter-spindle to cut to any required depth. The cones of the cutter-spindles carry 2" belts. The feed is by worm and gear, and has variable speeds. Machines are built for cutting either periphery and face or periphery alone. Cam'el. (Hyd. Eng.) A float for raising a vessel. Ships over shoals. Clark if Standfield, Br. . . * "Engineering,'' xxiii. 370. See, also, DEPOSITING DOCK : DOCK ; FLOATING DOCK, "Mech. Diet.," et infra. Cam'el's Hair Pen'cil. A small brush used by artists, the tuft being made of the hair of the camel. Similar brushes of differing degrees of elasticity are made of fitch, badger, squirrel, goat, and sable. Cam'e-o Cut'ting. In the process of cameo- cutting the method in Italy is as follows : The shell is first cut into pieces the size of the required cameo by means of diamond dust and the slitting mill, or by a blade of steel fed with emery and water. It is then shaped into a square, oval, or other form on the grindstone, and the edge finished with oil stone. It is next cemented to a block of wood, which serves as a handle to be grasped by the artist while tracing out with a pencil the figure to be cut on the shell. The pencil-mark is followed by a sharp point, which scratches the desired outline, and this again by delicate tools of steel wire, flattened at the end and hardened, and by files and gravers for the removal of the superfluous portion of the white enamel. The cameo cutter selects from the shells which possess the three layers : (1) those which have the layers strongly ad- herent to each other ; (2) those in which the middle layer is thick ; (3) those in which there is a good distinction of color between the layers ; and (4) those in which the inner layer is of the color suited for his purpose. The central layer forms the body of the relief, the inner layer being the ground, and the outer the third or superficial color, which is sometimes used to give a varied appearance to fhe surface of the figure. See, also, article in "Scientific American," xlii. 69. A fictitious cameo is made from lava or from steatite. In the case of the latter, after the cutting is finished the cameos are inclosed in an air-tight crucible, heated at a reddish glow for several hours, and allowed to cool slowly. They are then flint-hard. Color is given by immersion for several hours in dyes, saffron, gumboyl, canipeche, dragon's blood, etc. Cam'e-o Glass. Glass cut in imitation of cameos. Cups and bowls for this purpose are formed of an inner body or layer of dark blue glass, with an outer coating or layer of even thickness of opaque white glass, in which the design is wrought by carving or grinding down to the dark- colored sub-layer, or foundation. This outer white layer is about \" thick, and is chiseled in high relief, in a similar manner to that by which the Portland Vase in the British Museum was formed, and also the Pompeiian Vase in the museum at Naples. It is a difficult task to get glass mixtures that have exactly the same degree of shrinkage on cooling. The two differently colored pastes must shrink exactly alike, or cracking would result, especially when the outer layer is chiseled away in forming the design. Blake. Cam'e-o In'crus-ta'tion. (Glass.) A fig- ure, say a small porcelain bust, is introduced into a small cylinder of glass, which is then closed upon it. Cam'e-o Press. A small screw-press for giv- ing a convex roundness to photograph portraits. The bed and platen are in cameo and intaglio re- spectively, and the object is pressed between them. Cam'e-ra. A chamber used in obtaining pic- tures. See p. 433, "Mech. Diet." Scientific American Sup.,'- 2079. * " Scientific American Sup.,'' 2506. ' Scientific American," xxxix. 181. 'Scientific American Sup.," 2243. 'Scientific Am. Sup.," 2505, 2507. Scientific American Sup.," 455. Scientific American Sup.,'' 212. Scientific American Sup.," 2505. Manvfact. and Builder,'' ix. 1. Scientific American," xxxix. 73. Scientific American Sup.," 2506. Cam'e-ra Lu'ci-da. A glass prism, attached to the eye-piece of a micro- y\%. 512. scope. Describe^ and shown at Fig. 1043, p. 434, "Mech. Diet." The instrument shown at Fig. 512 has a lens to magnify the pencil point ; a very important adjunct in making drawings of micro- scopic objects. Beck ' s Camera Lucida. Cam'e-ra Ob-scu'ra. The camera obscura shown at Fig. 1044, p. 434, "Mech. Diet.," was for a long time but little more than a toy. Though its development into the photographic camera now Fig. 613 1'ig. 514. Enlarging, Edwards Field Lucida, Hofmann, Fr. Multiplying . . . . * Obscura, Kettett . . . * Obscura * Obscura, sketching . . * Photographic, Basham * Portable * JT -> r~~3 The Camera Obscura. Bowditch's Camera Stand. removes it far from this criticism, yet it has only lately been adapted in a worthy way to its original use : the throwing of an image on a piece of paper, to facilitate making sketches, drawings, and views. CAMERA OBSCURA. 157 CANDLE BALANCE. The camera obscura, shown in Fig. 513, has a reflector and a lens, by which the magnified image is thrown upon the paper in the camera, the only light entering at that point. A curtain at the back of the draftsman occludes other light. The lens is in a sliding tube, which may be raised or lowered to adjust the focus. The height of the box must not be less than the focal length of the lens. The mirror is hinged to adjust its direction. Cam'e-ra Stand. A table to support the photographic camera, having adjustments for height and inclination. Cam Loom. One in which the harness is ope- rated by cams instead of by pattern chain, jac- quard, or other device. Cam Press. One in which the action of the punch or shear is due to the rotation of a cam : as distinct from a screw, lever, or pendulum press. Cam Pump. A steam pump, the motions of which are obtained by the media of cams ; as dis- tinct from other mechanical means. Fig. 515. Dayton Cam Pump. In the case illustrated in Fig. 515, the steam valve is a plain slide valve, worked by means of a cam bolted on the piston- rod, and moving with it, and by the shape of the cam the stroke is slowed down at each end, giving ample time for the water cylin- der to fill, and water valves to close before the return stroke. This insures a full stream every stroke, and prevents the pump piston from striking against the water when the cylinder is but partly filled, it being impossible for the steam valve to be thrown into such a position as to shut off steam and stop the pump. Cam/py-lom'e-ter. An in- vention of M. Gaumet. A pocket instrument capable of giving at one reading the metric length of any line, straight or curved, on a map or plan ; and the natural length corre- sponding to the graphic length on maps, with a scale of one 80,000th or one 100,000th, or multiples or sub- multiples of these scales. "Manufacturer and Builder," xii. 157. Ca-nal'. See following notices : Boat propulsion, Legouge . . . * "Sc.Amer.," xxxiv. 278. Boat propeller (jet), Bugbfe . . * " Sc. Amer. Sup.," 89. Boat propulsion, Hetzler . . . * "Manuf. If B.," xii. 128. Lift, hydraulic, Br "Engineering," x\i. 227. Lock working, Marq. Caligny, Fr. * " Watson's Vienna Ex- pos. Rept.," iii. 64. Lock, Aubois, Loire, Watson . . " Van Nostrand's Mag., 1 ' xix. 85. Locks, Barrage of the Nile . . * "Engineering,'' xxi. 41. Hydraulic canal lift at Anderton on the river \Veaver : Paper read before the " Institute of Civil Engineers "' (Lon- don), by Mr. Duer. Reproduced in " Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 295. Canal-boat lift by caisson and inclined plane, from Poto- mac River to Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, by William R. Ilutton. "Proceedings of Am. Soc. of Civil Engineers.'' The invention of M. Girard for avoiding a part of the waste of water in the descent of a boat from a superior to a lower level, is described in Laboulaye's " Dir.tionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," Paris, 1877, cap. "cluse." Can'al-ic'u-lar Iii'stru-ments. (Surgical.) For operating upon the lachrymal duct. Jaeger bistoury cached Beaumont's concealed canalicular knife. Greenslade's concealed canalicular knife. Agnew's canalicular knife. Petit's Fistula lachrymalis knife. Lachrymal canula, etc. Page 10, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Ckirur- gicitm.'' See, also, CANALICULAR SCISSORS, a Fig. 4672 p 2054, "Meek. Diet." Can Bod'y Form'er. (Sheet Metal Working.) A machine for forming the bodies of cans. The locks for the seams being first formed on the blanks, and they placed in position, a single movement of the lever presses the former into the mold and two hinged side-pieces spring forward and clasp the ends of the blank around the back of the former. Can'dle. (Electricity.) An arrangement of carbons in an electric light. The carbons are placed parallel, and as the waste of the two must be equal, they are fed by alternating currents. See ELECTRIC CANDLE. The Jablochkoff electric light is the most noted of the class ; in this the carbons are separated by a material known as columbin. Caudles without columbin are the Wilde, Janim, and Debrun. The Jablochkoff combines the characters of the candle and the arc. Can'dle Bal'ance. An instrument for indi- Bude in Cornwall . . . "Sc. Amer.," xxxv. 340. " Teclinologiste," xl. 389. "Sc. Amer.," xxxv. 55. ".V. .-tmer.,"xxxix. 296. "Sc Am Sup "2752 Darien, d'Aoust .... Du Midi. Ir. ... Florida ship . . . Inter-oceanic Obi & Jenissei, Sidoroff Suez, history of " Technologiste'," xl. 291. "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 93. "Sc. Amer.," xl. 240. *"Sc. Am. Sup.," 1729. " Technologiste," xii. 606. [ "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 44. * " Van Nostrand's Mag.." xv. 385, 481. * "Sc. Amer.," xlii. 402. U. S. Consul Farman's Rept. on Bridge, Bl:ickburn, Engl. . . . St. Petersburg, Momma . . . Tug. steam, St. Clare Byrne . . Works, Sooukesala Canal, India . Boat elevator, Clark $ Duer, Eng. Goodwin's Candle Balance. eating when a candle has consumed a set amount of the material of which it is composed. The instrument is shown in Fig. 516, G being at zero, the weight, B, is made to counterpoi-e the candle. The weight, G, being then shifted to the mark indicating the amount to be consumed, the candle is lighted. When the amount is con- sumed, the balance-lever falls, an electric circuit is completed at E, and the armature is drawn to the magnet //. "American Gas-light Journal " . . * July 3, 1876, p. 6. CANDLE LAMP. 158 CANDLE-POWER JET PHOTOMETER. Candle Lamp. Can'dle Lamp. A lamp, the stem of which holds a candle forced upward by a coiled spring. Used in railway cars and traveling carriages. Can'dle-mold'ing Ma- chine'. A candle-molding machine, made by Wunch- manii of Leipzig, was shown at the Centennial Exhibition, 1876. It is constructed of iron, and designed for molding either paraffine, stearine, or tallow candles. The molds, 100 in number, stand in two double rows in a close cast- iron box, where they are made steady in the upper and lower walls, but so that they can be taken out, one by one, with Each of the molds is a tubular structure open at both sides. In it moves a piston that constitutes the mold for the apex of the candle, and is itself attached to a slender iron tube. At the lowest stage the piston shuts the somewhat conically shaped mold close and tight. All the pistons are secured to a frame by means of long slender tubes, and are raised and low- ered simultaneously, by a crank, pinion, and notched bar. In the lower part of the machine is the wick-box, which can be closed. It con- tains a hundred wick spools, the wicks passing through the box-cover into a pis- ton tube traversing the piston itself, but by means of a simple contrivance shutting it up so closely that the liquid mass can- not permeate. Above the two troughs that inclose the double row of molds at the top, is an apparatus called the clasper, that serves the purpose of holding the candles on their being raised from the molds. It can be turned on hinges back over Fig. 518. to the side of the machine till it rests against two supports. It is opened and shut by means of small levers and eccentrics. There is a simple attachment to centralize and hold fast the wicks immediately over the molds. The procedure in operating is as follows : When the wicks have been introduced, they are in the first instance made fast to a little piece of wood laid crosswise over the clasper. The centralizing apparatus is then applied, and steam is ad- mitted into the compartment containing (he molds, which are thus quickly heated by its playing around them. The liquid is then admitted.into both troughs, and the mold thus filled. The centralizing apparatus is then withdrawn, and cold water introduced into the compartment. As soon as the liquid surface over the molds has become sufficiently firm, it is cut off by a shovel adapted lor the purpose. When the candles have cooled Ihev are raised out of the molds by turning the crank, and draw the wick from the spools along with them. The candles pass through the open claspers, and, on reaching the highest stage, are there made fast. The crank is then turned backward till the pis- tons shut up the lower ends of the molds. In due time the wicks are cut and the caudles removed. The cut, Fig. 618, shows the candles in raised position, as held by the claspers. Can'dle Pol'ish-ing Ma-chine'. Fig. 519 Fig. 519. Machine/or Clipp.ng, Polishing, and Marking Can', which receives the belt when the motion of the cutters is to be stopped. The axis i', turns in brass boxes in the pillow-blocks b b' cast with a cisti-rn, D', which receives the sliced cane from the cutting-mill, and which serves at the same time by its Fig. 523. Mitt. large extent to afford a seat for the elevating screw. The whole is bolted to the stone columns in masonry M, in Fig. 524. Cane-cutting Levigator. common with the two hoppers C C' t into which the cane is thrown by armfuls. Four slicing-knives a, are fixed on the face of each disk, inclined in their seats like the bits of planes, The slices of cane obtained by the action of the cutters, and arriving at the bottom of the cistern, are subjected to lev- igation. The bottom of the cistern corresponds in shape with the Archimedean screw D, the lower end of which re- volves in a step, d, with an adjusting screw, while the upper end rotates in a bronze collar in the cap whjch closes the upper end of the inclined cylinder of translation. The endless screw receives rotation from a hclicoidal gear whose axis carries the pulley E. On the top of the inclined trunk are two boxes which cover the orifices by which the liquid arriving by the pipes F F is distributed in the interior over the blades of the screw. The endless converger is, so to speak, the instrument of levigation of the slices which readily traverse the trunk in- closing the screw, imbibing the liquid and undergoing osmo- sis more or less complete. When the slices arrive at the summit, they fall into the hopper G of the rotary press, which consists of a cylindrical shell G, cast with a bed- plate, and with ends in which are bearings of the arbor, H, on which is keyed the hollow drum 7, which is eccentric with the shell G. The pressing is done by six palettes of bronze, j, carried by the drum, which catch the mass of slices from the hopper and carry them into a more and more confined space be- tween the drum and the concave shell, finally arriving at the discharge spout g, placed at that part of the envelope where the slices escape from the point of greatest pressure. The drum /is cast iron, and its periphery is pierced with a multitude of small openings leading to parallel circular channels covered with perforated steel plates, so that the juice expressed from the slices escapes into the interior of the drum from whence it is discharged laterally at an open- ing in the central vertical line. Thence is taken by a pipe, J, and pump, j, and elevated, to be poured again by the pipe F' into the trunk where the elevating screw operates. CANE MILL. 160 CANNON. Fig. 525. Fig. 526. Cane Telrscope. Can Fill'er. A machine for filling cans with fruit, etc. In Bucklin's can-filler, to- rn a t o e s, for instance, which have been previously peeled, are separated from the juice with a sieve, and then go forward into the hopper and roll thence to the gradu- ally tapered end of the cylin- der. The can is placed on the rests and is pressed down, which brings the can opening directly opposite the cylinder. The treadle is now brought down and the plunger forces The six bronze palettes are cast hollow, and are connected in pairs diametrically across the wheel. Each pair has a yoke in the mid-length, and they slip radially, the ends of the palettes keeping their places against the interior periph- ery of the concave shell. The drum / turns slowly, the power being applied by a pinion on the axis of the wheel R to the spur-wheel B. The concentration of the juice is performed by means of a author is indebted for the basis of the foregoing account. The process bears some relation to the Roberts diffusion process, which also employs water to dissolve the sugar of the cane, a substitute for the ordinary cane mill. Cane-juice bleacher, Lescale . * " Sc. Amer.,"' xxxiv. 86. See also DIFFUSION PROCESS, page 702, "Mech. Diet., 1 ' et infra. Cane Tel'es-cope. An instrument with seats for the eye and object glasses upon a walking stick. The object-glass is adjustable for focus and may serve as a microscope on occasion. See Fig. 526. the tomatoes into the can. Canning fruits, etc., Cutting Co., Cal. " Sc. Am.,'' xli. 148. Can opener, Wilson "Sc. Am.," xlvi. 307. Can LaTDel-ing Ma-chine'. In Bigelow's la- beling machine, the can is placed at the head of the incline ; rolling down which it passes over a padded roller rotating in a reservoir of paste, and thence over the label, taking it up as the pasted surface on the can adheres to it, rolling itself in it. In passing down, the can strikes a lever which by its connection with a second reservoir pastes one end of the next label, at the same time acting on the feed screw and raising the labels the thickness of one. Can'nel. 1. ( Weaving.) A style of weaving; making a corded or rep tissue. 2. A variety of coal : candle-coal, highly bitu- minous. Can'iion. The cannon shown in Figure 527 is 527. KIKHT OP SHELL JOOO IBS Armstrong 100-ton Gnu. one of eiirht made by Sir W. G. Armstrong & Co., of Elswick ordnance works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, for the Italian government, to be placed on board the turret-ships "Duilio" and " Dandolo." One of these ships was built at Spezzia and the other at Castellamare, and each is of 7,000 tons burden. The gun is made on the well-known Armstrong principle, having 27 grooves and as many bands of about equal width. The rifling is an increasing spiral on the parabolic development, winding up with a twist of 1 in 45 calibers. The depth of the grooves is " throughout. See p. 158, "Mech. Diet." The weight of the gun is 227,360 pounds. Extreme length, 32' 10J". Length of bore, 30' 6". Diameter of bore, 17". Outside diameter of gun : muzzle, 29". Outside diameter at breech, 77". The barrel is in two pieces made into one in the building up. There are three layers of coils over the thickest end of the gun. The weight of the projectile is 2,000 pounds. Work developed at the muzzle, 39,000 foot pounds. Velocity 1,400' per second. The loading gear is hydraulic. Albini ........ * "Sc. American Sup.," 2734. America's contribution to modern artillery . . . "Sc. American," xxxix. 353. Armstrong 100-ton, Br Sc. American Sup.." 1125. "Engineer,' 1 ' xlii. 102. "Iron Age," xvii., June 1, p. 1. CANNON. 161 CANULA. Armstrong . .... * "Engineer,'' xlviii. 255. Laboutaye's "Dirt.,'' iv., ar- ticle "Boulets." "Engineer,'' xliii. 355. "Engineer," 1 xlix. 187. * "Engineer,'''' xliii. 355. etc., iv., article "Boulett." Woodbridge, Apparatus for measuring pressure . . * "Engineer," xlvii. 134, 170. Dean's field-piece made by a peculiar process for condens- ing and hardening the metal of the bore ; "Ordnance Report," * 1877, Appendix S. See also FIELD-PIECE. Thompson's 12" breech-loading rifle gun, "Ordnance Re- port," 1876, Plate I., p. 96. Sutcliff'e 9" breech-loading rifle, Ibid., 1876, p. 108. 10" Rodman converted to 9" rifle Ibid., 1876, p. 134. 10" Rodman converted to 8" rifle. Ibid., App. K, p. 142. Woodbridge 10" rifle, breech-loader. Ibid., 1876, Appen- dix N, Plates I. to XI. Illustrated Papers on construction of rifled cannon. 11" m. 1. rifle, converted from 15" Rodman. "Report of Chief of Ordnance," 1879, * p. 61. 3" b. 1. rifle. Ibid., 1879, * p. 67. 3.16" m. 1. rifle. Ibid., 1879, * p. 71. 3.17" m. 1. rifle. Ibid.. 1879, * p. 73. 4.5" b. 1. rifle. Ibid., 1879, * p. 77. i "Report on the Manufacture of Life Saving Guns." Ibid., 1879, * p. 270, with 7 plates. Frazer System (British), Cols. Barnard and Wright's report, U. S. Engineer Dept., 1871, pp. 84-90. Krupp, system compared. Ibid., p. 90 et seq. Plates XIX.- XXI., and p. 102. Krupp, breech loading field-piece. Ibid., Plate XXXI., p. 104. Krupp, breech loading heavy guns. Ibid., Plates XXII.- XXV. Muzzle-pointing-gun carriages. Ibid., page 182 et seq. Frazer, 35-ton gun. Ibid., * Plate XXXVI. Moncrieff carriages. Ibid., * Plate XXXVII., p. 200. App. XI. Moncrieff, hydro-pneumatic carriage. Ibid, * p. 215. App. XII. Cf. Butler's "Projectiles and Rifled Cannon." Benton's "Ordnance and Gunnery." Holley's " Ordnance and Armor." Can'non Car. (Railway.} a. A car especially constructed for transporting heavy pieces. 6. A car with carriage for mounting a gun, and usually provided with a screen for the gunners. Can'non Re-vol'ver. See MACHINE GUN ; GATLING GUN ; GUNWALE GDN. Ca-noe'. The canoe " Maria Theresa," designed by Rev. Baden Powell of England, built by E. Waters & Sons, of Troy, N. Y., and rowed by N. H. Bishop of Lake George, N. Y., from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Gulf of Mexico, has the following dimensions : Length, W. Weight of Canoeist, 130 Ibs. Beam, 18". Weight of outfit, 90 Ibs. Depth amidship, 9". Total weight, 278 Ibs. Weight, 58 Ibs. Cruising 'Sc. Am. Sup.,''2G07. Fijeau 'St. Am. Sup.," 1778. Folding, Berthon, Br 'Engineer '' xlvii 333. "Sc.Am. .SW/7.,"*759; *614; * 1314 ; 4073. 81-ton "Iron Age,'" xvii., Jan. 6, 11. "Engineer," xlii. 183. "Engineering,'' xxi. 536. "Sc. Am. Sap.," Iv. 760. Trials, 80-ton . . . . * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1 1046. * "Engineer," xlii. 235. "Iron Age," xix., May 24, 16. Trials . ... *"Sr.Am Sup "1237 Tests * "Engineer," xliii. 73,91,317. Woolwich * "Engineer," xlix. 187. 9.2"-gun. Woolwich . * "Engineer," xlix. 453. 40-toa, Armstrong . . "Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xvi. 478. 38-ton carriage, lir. . . * "Engineer,'' xlii. 411. 38-ton, Engl "Sc. American," xxxv. 324. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 501. 12-pounder, field, Br. . * "Engineer," xlii. 251. Mountain, Armstrong . * "Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 254. 13-dr field-piece, Br. . * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 4087. ' Duilio," bursting of . "Sc. American," xlii. 272. Elephant * " Sc. Am. Sup. ''2534 Klsurck, 39-ton br.-loader * ''Engineer," xliii. 200. 38-ton. Target, etc. . *" Engineer," xliii. 200. Kssen, making at .... "Iron Age,'' xxiv., Aug. 21, 3. etc., iv., art. "Boulets." ffaidier, Cast Steel . . . "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1543. Heavy ... ... "Sc.Am. Sup "2698 2735 Hotclikiss revolver . . . *" Sc.Am, Sup.,'' 735. Illuminating Shell . . . * "Sc. American," xxxvii. 79. Italian, 100-ton .... "Iron Age," xxii., July 4, 18. Working, SS. " Italia :> * "Engineer,'' xlvii. 153. Albini, Ital * "Engineer,'' xlvii. 156. Tests 100-ton, Spezzia . * "Engineer," xlii. 445, 448. And targets .... * "Engineering," xxii. 426, 431. * "Sc. Am. Sup.,'- 982. * "Engineer," xliii. 1. Johnson, Br. loading attach. * "Sc. American," xl. 230. Breech-loading field gun * "Sc. Am. Sup .," 1968. * "Engineering," xxiv. 443. Krupp and Woolwich . . " Van Nostrand's Mag," xxii. 172. Krupp, Works "Sc.Am. Sup "638 Field * "Engineer," x'viii 121 Making "Iron Age," xx., Nov. 29, p. 6. Construction .... "Sc. American,''' xl. 250. 126-ton "Iron Age," xvii., Apr. 6, p. 7. 72-ton " Van Nostr. Mag.," xx. 522. "Iron .dsT," xxiii., M'ch 27, 7. 71-ton ) Meppen ... * "Engineer," xlviii. 119, 128. 52-ton ) and others (20 figs.) 16" gun ... . . "Sc Am Sup -"2580 14" gun, mounted . . * "Engineering," xxiii. 44. Heavy * "Sc. American Sup.," 2656. Masked * "Sc. American Sup.," 931. Protected non-recoil . . * "Engineer," xliv. 295. Folding, Berthon ' Sc. Am Sup "2873. Mode of working heavy * "Engineer," xlvii. 24. Line throwing, Eggers Sf Life boat, " Evangelist," Australia. 'Sc. Am. Sup.," 1778. Racine ' Sc Am " xlii 231 Steam, " Nina " 'Sc. Am. " xl 142. Maquaii breastwork . . . * " Sc. American," xxxvii. 200. Mniici -ifff carriage . . . . " Sc. American Sup.," 76. Molt, submarine .... "Sc. American Sup.," 2015. Mule-back. Jointed for . . "Sc. American," xxxix. 40. Palliser, Br. Breech-loader, . * "Engineer," 1. 361. * "Engineer," xlix. 169. Powerful " Sc American " xli 265 See, also, BOAT. _ Cant. (Saw-milling.) A log slabbed on two sides and ready to turn down to be sawed the other way. Cant'ing TaHble. In a band sawing machine a table capable of inclination so as to present the stuff to the saw in such position as to saw beveling. Such a table is shown in Fig. 553, p. 226, " Mech. Diet." Cant Splice. (Nautical.) A loop splice ; also known as cut splice. See k n, Fig. 5435, p. 2279, " Mfch. Diet." Ca-nu'la. (Surgical.) A tube. Its uses are various, and construction adapted to special pur- pose. The references are to Tiemann's "Armamentarium C/ti- rurgicum." The epistaxis canula of Belocq, Fig. 246, Part II. Gooche's canula for ligating hemorrhoidal tumors ; a Prussian field-gun . . . . Laboulaye's "Diet.," etc., i., article "Bouche a feu." Russian, heavy ... * "Engineering " xxiii 179 Carriages, cyclads . . * "Engineer," xivii. 336. Foundry "Iron A"e '' xix May 24 19 Span, navy breech-loading . * " Engineer,'" 1. 79." Sto mi !,'ear for, Br. ... " Van Nostrand's Magazine," xviii. 286. " Thunderer, "Br. Exploded * "Engineer,'' xlvii. 244. * "Engineer," xlviii. 45. Sister of expl. gun, Br. *" Engineer," xlix. 97, 117 153, 261. * "Sc. American," xli. 130. Uc/iatius, Aust. Bronze steel * "Sc. American," xxxvii. 403. "Sc. American Sup.," 1299. * "Engineer," xliv. 255. Vavasseur, 13.5-ton . . . * " Engineer," 1. 11 CANULA. 162 CAPSTAN. double canula for conducting the ligature to a deep-seated part, the loop projecting at the end. Fig. 592, Part III. lachrymal canula, Fig. 57, Part II. Nasal polypus canula, double like the hemorrhoidal just cited, Fig. 245, Part II. Double canula and obturator. Fig. 389, Part II. Trachea canula for preserving an opening in a divided trachea, Fig. 381, b, Part II. Can'u-la-ted Nee'dle. (Surgical.) Fig. 528. A hol- Currie's Canulate low needle which affords a passage for the ligating wire or thread throughout its length. Such is Tiemann's hollow needle for wire sutures, in which the silver wire passes through the length of the handle and issues near the needle-point. Currie's double canulated needle is a means of introducing a wire or silk. The views show it closed and open. Being closed upon the opposite edges of a wound, for instance, the wire is passed through the canal, issuing at the op- posite member of the instrument. The upper figure shows a mode of drawing through a silk by means of a fine flexible hook. Caout'chouc. An elastic gum obtained from the siphonia, ficus, urceola, etc., of South America and tropical Asia. See the following references : < Cf . Articles, manufacture of, Longden. * "Scientific. American," xxxvi. 150. Factory and machinery * "Scientific American,'* xliii. 15. * "Eng. 4' Mining Journal," xi. 1. Gathering and manufacture. Bolas * "Scientific American Sup.," 3958. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 3991. *' Scientific. American Sup. , : ' 4008. Gathering and preparation . "Scientific American Sup.," 2288. Uses and manufacture. Pavoux * " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xiv. 369. Manufacture . . . . * ''Scientific American," xxxv. 262. * "Scientific American," xxxix. 105. Caout'chouc Ar'ti-fi'cial. To a thick solu- tion of glue add tungstate of soda and hydrochloric acid. A compound of tungstic acid and glue is precipitated which, on cooling, may be drawn into sheets. Caout'chouc Ce-ment'. Pulverize shellac; soften in 10 times the quantity of ammonia. This will become liquid in time, and will dissolve the surface of caoutchouc, rendering it easy to unite it with glass. Caout'chouc Sol'venta. Of the solvents of caoutchouc, its distillate caoutchoucine may be placed at the head of the list ; the others best known are pure chloroform, carbon disulphide, rosin, oil, and coal naphthas, rectified oils of turpentine, gutta-percha, tar, lav- ender, sassafras, ocoten, rosemary, amber, ambereupion, ter- ebene, benzine C 12 HB hydrochlorate of terebene, ben- zole Ci 4 H,;. Anhydrous oil of turpentine dissolves 49 per cent, of caoutchouc. A mixture of 6 to 8 per cent, of abso- lute alcohol and 100 of carbon disulphide is an excellent solvent. Sulphuric ether, which alone is but a poor solvent, dissolves rather more, if about 5 per cent, of anhydrous alco- hol be added thereto. Hot alcohol dissolves out about 4.712 per cent, of a soft resin. It is sparingly soluble in hot fused oil hydrate of amyl C 10 H n HO ; readily at a gentle heat in melted hog's lard, or in very hot whale oil. After swell- ing up in oil of turpentine or in naphtha it is soluble, in hot linseed oil. Cap. (Add.) 14. (Fire-arm.) The metallic cov- ering placed on the end of a pistol-shaped handle. 15. A short terminal section of a pipe, with a re- movable stopper called a plug. 16. (Mining.) a. A vein is "in the cap " when it is much contracted. 6. A flat piece of wood placed between the top of the punch and the roof of the mine. 17. (Man&je.) A small crescent-shaped piece of leather placed on top of a collar. Not the pad which is sometimes of metal and goes below it on the neck of the horse. Ca'pel. (Mining.) A rock composed of quartz, schorl and hornblende, occurring in connection with tin and less frequently with copper ores. Cap'il-la-ry BoVtle. A dropping bottle con- taining a liquid used in mounting microscopic ob- jects. Capillary electrometer. . . . * "Engineering," xxiii 453. Capillarity Instrument, Romilly * ''6'c. Amer.," xxxvi. 306. Cap'per. A tool Fig. 529. Fig. 530. used in placing the priming cap on its seat in the rear end of the metallic shell. Cap Screw. A ma- chine screw with a cu- bical head, used for screwing on the cylin- der head. Cap Shore. (Nau- tical.) A .supporting spar between the cap and the trestle-tree. Cap'stan. The Brotherhood engine, which has three cylin- T . . ; Cavil ary Bottle. ders, and pistons at 120 working to a common three-throw crank, is es- pecially adapted to direct circular movement and is shown in Fig. 531. It is more direct and less ex- Fig. 531. Cap .V Dock Capstan with Brotherhood Engine. pensive than the multiple geared hydraulic cap- stans. In the size shown, the capstan has a capaci- ty for a three-ton pull upon the hawser, the capstan head being 26" diameter. The engine is reversible. The capstan has sockets for hand-spikes, and is fitted CAPSTAN KNOT. 163 CARBONATATION PAN. with pawls for hand work. The lubrication is all from above. Portable Steam Capstan . * ''Scientific American,''' xxxvi. 4. Cap'staii Knot. ( Nautical. } A form of knot, shown at 11, Fig. 2777, p. 1240, '/ Mech. Diet." Cap'sule. A cover, cap, or sac. The word has many uses ; all allied. See page 457, " Mech. Diet'." Filling of Wafer Capsules. Capsuling medicines, Limousin 'Sc. Amer. Sup.,'' 1484. ' .S'c. American,-' xxxiv. 259. Car. A wheeled vehicle. Specially : a railway carriage. Bullet proof ....... Coal, Pennsylvania Railway . * Rhenish Railway, Ger. . . * 4-wheeled, N. Y. Central . * Composite Bogie, Festiniog, Br. * Director's, Penn. Railway . . * Dump, Dai-is ...... * Elevated, Metropolitan, N. Y. * Freight, on construction of, Br. W. Railway of France . . * Austrian State Railway . . * (i ravel, Penn. Railway . . . * Iron, Kellogg If Nearer ... * Painting, paper by Robertson . Passenger. K. Hallway of Fr. . * 1st class, E. Railway of Fr. . * 3d class, K. Railway of Fr. . * 1st class, Austrian State Ry. * 2d class, Austrian State Ry. * 3d class, Austrian State Ry. * Eastern Railway of France . * 1st class, W. Railway of Fr. . * * 3d class, W. Railway of Fr. . * Western Railway of France . * Bogie, Buenos Ayres R. R. . * Western Railway of France . * Composite, W. Railway of Fr. * 2d class, W. Railway of Fr. * ' Southern Railway of France * Pennsylvania Railway . . * Cost of ......... * Saloon, S. W. Railway, Br. . . * 6-wheeled truck, Midland R. R. Br ......... * Sleeping, Austrian State Ry. . * ' Door fastener, Buser if Shaw . * drain door, Susemihl if Milltr * Van Lieuw ....... * * Hibbert ........ * ' Lock, Jelly 4" Jones, Br. . . . * Maxwell, Br ...... * L&mf, Westingfiouse, N. Br. Ry. * Lamp step ....... Lighting, IT- .\iiiiif house . . . *' Spring tester, Riehl&'s . . . * ' Seat spring, Delessert, Fr. . Se it. llfl/iriin/t Starrer, I'/ilr/iard's . . Step, .S'iv rrilt ...... * ' Window. l),/i'i>i.t ..... * ' MnclaiU ....... * ' Flexible blind, Wilson . '. . *' For varieties of car-lamps, see Dictionary, p. 94. R. R. Gazette," xxi. 181. 'R. R. Gazette," viii. 149. 'Engineering,'* xxx. 430. 'R. R. Gazette," viii. 391. 'Engineer," xlix. 338. Kiigini f/Mir," xxiv. 460. R. R. Gaz., "xxii. 489. "Sc. Amer.," xxxix. 310. "Van Nostrand's Mag.," xvi. 135. "Engineering," xxix. 30. "Paris Exp.," 1878, iv. 448. " Kii^/iieering," xxiv. 469. "R. li. Gaz.," xxiii. 43. "Sc. Amer.," xxxix. 357. "Engineering," xxvi. 69. ' Kinfiiurr,'' xlvi. 278. " Kiiifineir," xlvi. 314. "Paris Exp.," 1878, iv. 44". "Paris Exp.," 1878, iv. 448 " Paris Exp.," 1878, iv. 448. ' Knifineering," xxvi. 192. l-:>i^ineer," xlix. 160,248. " Purls Exp.," 1878, iv. 446. "Engineering," xxxvi. 406. "Engineering,'' xxx. 22. " Engineer," xliv. 220, 224, 238, 246. "Engineering," xxvii. 341. "Engineering," xxviL 433. 'Engineering," xxviii. 170. "Engineering," xxvii. 230. "Engineering," xxiv. 404, 458. "Sc. American," xli. 209. "Engineer," xlv. 111. "Railroad Gaz.," viii. 368. 'Paris Exp.," 1878, iv. 448. "Sc. Amer.,-' xlii. 179. "R. R. Gaz.," xxiii. 481. "K. R. Gaz.," xxiii. 411. "R. R. Gaz., "xxi. 527. 'Sc. Amer.," xliii. 226. "Engineer," xlviii. 206. 'Engineer," xliii. 293. "Engineer," xlvii. 388. "R. R. Gaz.,'- xxiv. 264. 'Engineering," xxvii. 264. 'R. R. Gazette," xxii. 64. 'Engineering," xxx. 196. 'R. R. Gazette," xxi. 200. ''Min. Sf Sc. Pr., " xxxvi. 1. ''Sc. American," xliii. 99. 'Sc. American," xli. 414. ''Sc. Amer.," xxxix. 168. 'Sc. American," xlii. 195. 'R. R. Gazette," xxii. 184. Forney's " Car Builder's Car Ax'le. At the Centennial Exhibition (1876) were shown several axles which had for their object to allow the wheels of each pair to re- volve independently of each other. In the S. L. Harrison axle, each wheel is fixed to a sheath which extends to the center of the axle, and which revolves with the wheel to which it is attached, upon the axle. The Attchinloss axle is divided in the middle, and there held in place by a sleeve about two feet long, in which the parts can revolve separately. In this case each wheel revolves with its own half of the axle. " The axle of the Miltimore Car Axle Company was applied to one of the trains running in the Centennial grounds, and with a notable diminution of the friction in passing round the very sharp curves on this railway. In the construction of the Miltimore axle, the wheel A is mounted on, but not fixed to, a sleeve, C D, which revolves round the fixed axle B, upon whk-h the ear rests ; the sleeve being kept in place by the axle boxes H, which are fixed to the main axle ; the 532. Miltimore Car Axle. wheel A can, moreover, revolve round the sleeve D, when, by reason of a curve or inequality in the road, one wheel is required to move with more rapidity than the other.'' - ('apt. Gallon. See, also : Standard * "R. R. Gazette," xxiii. 555. Frame * "R. R. Gazette," xxii. 133. Tests, Chamberlain . Boxes, European, on, Brotvne * Tomlinson * Trunnion, Hill * 'Scientific Am. Sup.," 1793. 'R. R. Gaz.," xxii. 389, 399. 'Scientific Am. Sup.," 1875. 'Scientific Am.," xxxix. 358. 'R. R. Gazette," xxi. 443. Journal bearing, Pullman Journal box cover, Hewitt . * "R. R. Gazette," xxiii. 448. Carnbo-az'o-tine. An explosive : Nitrate of potassium .... 61.04 Sulphate of iron 0.73 Lampblack . ' 24.65 Sulphur 13.58 100.00 Car-bol'ic Ac'id Pa'per. Used for packing fresh meats, in order to preserve them. Prepared by melting 5 parts stearin at a gentle heat, and then stirring in 2 parts carbolic acid, and afterwards 5 parts melted paraffin. The mass is well stirred until cool, and is then applied with a brush to the paper. Paper saturated with other tar or petroleum products is also used for defending clothes, furs, etc., from moths or ants. U. S. Patents 88,519; 105,160; 94,357. Car'bon-a-ta'tioii Pan. (Sugar.) Carbon- atation is the saturation of the defecated beet-juice with carbonic acid gas. " The carbonatation pans in which the defecated and the scum juices are treated, are furnished at the bottom with & pipe, pierced with three parallel rows of small holes, \" in diameter, through which the carbonic acid is forced into the liquid. There are also coil pipes or double bottoms, for heat- ing by steam while the process is going on. When foaming has ceased, the carbonated juice is drawn off into large re- ceivers or settling tanks, where it is allowed to settle, after which the juice is ready for the filters, unless, as is often done, it is subjected to a second carbonatation. In many works, the carbonic acid gas is produced from the calcination of limestone, instead of the combustion of charcoal. " In the Perier if Possoz process of defecation and car bonation, the milk of lime which is used must be finely di- vided through a close metallic sieve, and must contain two per cent, of lime, indicated by 10 on Beaume's areometer. One measure of this solution is gradually added in eight or ten successive additions, to every forty measures of the juice which is to be operated on. During this the tempera- ture of the juice is raised from 138 to 168 Fan. Carb.-acid CARBONATATION PAN. 164 CARBON PROCESS. gas is now turned into the juice, while it is being stirred, and at the same time a small stream of milk of lime is con- tinuously fed into it. This lime is quickly dissolved and precipitated, carrying down with it most of the coloring matters and the impurities contained in the liquid. The proper moment for arresting the carbonatation is indicated by a chemical test of the juice. When this point is reached, the juice is drawn into settling tanks and allowed to settle for about twenty minutes. From these tanks it is run into a second set of defecating pans, where more lime is added. The carbonic acid is at once turned on, and continues to flow into the juice until complete saturation is effected, which is known by a chemical test, nearly the same as be- fore. The juice is now brought to the boiling point, to drive out the free carbonic acid, and is then run into a sec- ond set of settling tanks. In these tanks it remains until it has cleared itself sufficiently, when it is ready to be con- veyed to the charcoal filters for further treatment. " In Jelinr.k's process, defecation and carbonatation are simultaneous, and terminate in a single operation, instead of two successive ones, as in the previous method. " The pans which are used are furnished with a carbonic acid coil-pipe, and are deeper than the ordinary defecating pans. The juice, as it is admitted to them, is comparatively cold, and must never exceed a temperature of 140 Fah. " At least two per cent, in weight of lime is added to the juice, in the shape of milk of lime ; and carbonic acid gas being admitted, the heat is gradually increased until the precipitates form rapidly and tall to the bottom. " This process is based on the tkeory of acting on cold juice at first so as to produce a solution of saccharate of lime, out of which the carbonic acid gas precipitates the lime as carbonate of lime, which carries with it a certain amount of organic matter, freeing at the same time, the sugar, which re- combines with a portion of the lime, to be again freed by asec- ond decomposition of the saccharates and a consequent pre- cipitation of carbonate of lime, and so on for an indefinite number of times during the period of a single operation." Car'bon-a'ted Bev'er-age Ap'pa-ra'tus. Apparatus for impregnating liquids with carbonic acid gas. In the apparatus, Fig. 633, a corrugated agitator is em- ployed in a stationary fountain. The beaters G are of tinned copper attached to a tinned bronze frame, and the bearings Fig. 53a Matthews' 1 Corrugated Agitator. E F and the agitator itself are covered with tin to avoid con- tamination of the beverage. The agitator is revolved by the handle O, which passes through the stuffing box E. The corrugated beaters carry up the liquid into the gas space and also submerge the gas in the liquid, bringing the two into intimate contact and causing the rapid absorption of the gas by the water. See also pp. 2235-2237, "Mecti. Diet." Aerated water machinery, Hayioard, Tyler Sf Co., Br. * "Engineering," xxvi. 287, 349. Car'bon-a'ted Stone. An artificial stone in which carhonic ncid and steam are used artificially as re-agents in the composition. The object is to hasten the carbonation beyond that incident to the exposure to the air, by exposing the compound sand and cement to an atmosphere of carbonic- acid and vapor of water. Car'bon-ates. (Minim/.} Soft carbonates ; salts containing carbonic acid, with a base of lead. Hard carbonates : the same, with iron for a base. Car'bou Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which carbon replaces the copper element. The original and most important of this class is that of BUNSEN, which see. See also FAUKE BAT- TERY, see also Jablochkojf', "Tec/moloyiste," xl. 3 ; LECLANCHE BATTERY. Car'bon Bronze. An anti-friction alloy in- vented by Baldwin & Weisman. Its basis is copper, and it is made in Pittsburg. See " Iron Age" . . . xvii., May 4, p. 24 : xxii., Sept. 19, p. 23. " Mining and Sc. Press,'' xxxviii. 227. Car'bon But'ton. A variety of lamp black compressed by a screw press in steel dies to form a disk about -fa" long and \" diameter. It is used as a portion of an electric circuit, as an electrical resistance. In practice it is placed in a small case, into which is dropped a little disk faced with pla- tinum. Contact is made at the top and bottom with wire. It may be adjusted to any resistance within the range of its own limit which may be chosen. The limits mny be varied also by the pressure employed in making the carbon button. If the pressure be increased the sensitiveness of the button is very materially augmented. Edison. See CARBON TELEPHONE. Car'bon Clamp. (Electricity.) The metallic connector for the carbon element in the battery. It is screwed to the carbon, and a binding screw affords attachment for the wire. See Fig. 534. Car-bon'ic Ac'id. See the following notices : Fig. 534. Industrial uses of. * " Sc. American," xxxiv. 386. Production of, for sucre- ries. Fig. 40, article "Su- cre," tome iii., Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire ilf.s Arts et Manufactures" ed. 1877. See also CARBONATATION PAN ; CARBONATED WATER APPARATUS. See also Dr. McMurtrie's , rin^rT report, special, No. 28, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Car'bon In'di-ca'tor. See CARBON TESTING INSTRUMENT ; CARBUROMETER ; F i R E-D AMP DETECTOR; GRISOUMETER, etc. Car'bon-i-za'tion. The car- bonization of wool and woolen cloth, as is commonly called, is a misnomer ; it is the vegetable refuse which is found in the wool of Australia and South America, which is carbonized as a means of removal from the animal fibre. See article from " Textile Manufac- turer" reproduced in "Scientific Ameri- can Supplement,''' vi. 2335. See also SEPARATOR, 5, p. 2094, "Meek. Diet." Carbonization of coal for the production of illuminating gas is considered under GAS, COKE, etc. See also apparatus on p. 2292, *" Scientific American Supplement.'' See also CHARCOAL FURNACE, . . * p. 527, "Mech. Dirt. Hugon's furnace for conservation of wood by carbonizing the surface. * Laboulaye's "Dictionnaire des Arts et Manu- factures," vol. iv., ed. 1877, article "Conservation des bo/s. Carbonization pits for charcoal, * Ibid., tome i., article, "Carbonization," Figs. 367-370. See also COKE FURNACE, GAS AND COKE FURNACE, infr", and COKE OVEN, Fig. 1384, p. 593, "Mech. Diet." Car'bon Fro'cess. (Photography.) A photo- CARBON PROCESS. 165 CARBURETOR. graphic process in which prints are obtained in car- bon, either in lamp-black or in ink. See CARBON PROCESS, p. 461, "Mech. Diet." Kmun's Curium Process (Doruach, Alsace-Lorraine). The method is as follows : A negative is obtained by the ordinary collodion process. Paper covered with a mixture of gelatine, coloring-matter, and bichromate of potassium is exposed to light behind the negative. On removal from the copying- press, a layer of caoutchouc is placed on the gelatine. This is then washed in lukewarm water, and the paper and part of the gelatine thus remove J. \Vhen the remaining gelatine is dry, it is attached to the paper backing by means of a thin layer of gelatine spread on the latter, and the caoutchouc is dissolved off by benzine. .Must beautiful carbon prints are thus obtained. The process requires nice manipulation and great care, but does not necessitate an outlay for presses and their appurtenances. Obe.riiKtt.T's process (Munich). This is very similar to that of Albert (p. 57, "Meek. Diet."). The first part, viz : the preparation of the two coatings, is almost identical. After the exposure behind the negative, however, Obernetter covers the gelatine with impalpable zinc-powder, and then heats it in an oven to 200 C. The plate is then subjected to the action ot dilute hydrochloric acid and washed, and it is thus rendered capable of receiving an ink on those parts where no zinc is attached. Obernetter thus obtains a plate from which more impressions can be taken than from even that of Albert. The grain produced in the picture is also of great advantage See, also : Farguier " Sc. American," xxxiv. 242. "Manufacturer if Builder, ' x. 240 Brit. Jour, of Photograph //, ",S'c., American Sup.," 1642. Car'bon Tel'e-phone. That form of tele- phone invented by Edison, in which a piece of com- pressed carbon is placed iu a galvanic circuit, the vibrations of the diaphragm causing by pressure variations in the electrical resistance of the carbon, resulting in the production of an undulatory cur- rent capable of producing in the receiving instru- ment sonorous vibrations similar to those which were made at the transmitting end of the wire. "English Mechanic " * xxvii. 381. In Fig. 535, the ferro- Fig 535. type diaphragm of the mouth-piece lies upon 7>, which is a piece of rubber resting on an ivory disk, C, beneath which is a piece of platinum, D. The block of compressed or gas-car- bon is represented by E, and beneath that is a plate of platinum, If, with a screw to attach it to the stem. The latter can be advanced or withdrawn by means of the screwed emi- piece, sO as to bring tin- ivory disk, and conse- quently the carbon, with more or less force au iin>i the diaphragm. Car'bon Testing In'stru-ment. An instrument for the de- Edison ' s Carbon Telephone. termination of the relative quantity of carbon in steel. See, also, CARBON INDICATOR, supra; and CABBUROMETER, //!. Wheel tire lathe, Collier, Br. . * "Engineer," xlvii. 187 Car Mor'tis-ing Ma-chine'. A class of large mortising machines, for working ou sills and other parts of car frames See Fig. 3237, p. 1482, "Meek. Diet." The bed of Fay's machine will receive timber up to 17" square, and the chisel will cut a mortise to the center 16" long and 8" deep ; or by changing the face of the stick it c:in be made to work clear through. It has two boring attachments, one on a line with the chisel to bore for the mortises, which will bore to 10", from the center of column ; also, an adjust- able auxiliary boring attachment, for boring bolt holes, which will borfe 17" stuff. See also CAR-SILL MACHINE. Car'pet. A cloth or rug to cover a floor. Loom, Gates *"Sc. Amer.," xxxvii. 102. *"Sc. Arntr. Sup.," 1254. Manufacture of, Philadelphia . "Sc. Amer. Sup.,'' 947. Brussels, manufacture of . . "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 613. Rag looper, Wyckoff ... *"Sr. Amer.," xxxiv. 118. Sewing machine, Hesse (Singer) * "Sc. Amer. Sup.,'' 3802. Smyrna and Persia, manuf. of . "Sc. Amer.," xxxix. 264. Thread dressing Machine . . Short . . Patent, 139.521. Carpet printing machine . . Crossley 95,777. Printed piled carpet .... Crossley 139,706. Loom . .' Murkland .... 123,037. Matching machine 149,956. History of the rise and development of carpet- weaving in America : Hayes in " Centennial Report," v. 70-75. See also page 475 et seq., "Mech. Diet." Car'pet loom. The Dornan ingrain carpet weaving needle loom is arranged for 16 colored wefts, the vertical lifters being arranged in two ranks and the threads being passed through holes in them so that the thread appropriate to the pat- tern is lifted into the path of the carrier needle and carried into the middle of the shed where it is met by a hook which catches the weft thread and retires with it to the other selvage where it is knit in by a latch-needle. The Jacquard mechanism determines the selection of the colored weft thread by raising the weft-lifter. The spools of yarn are placed on skewers on a frame upon the floor. A part of the pattern is given by the warps of solid color, being due to the concurrence of the same colors in the warp and weft. The warp is laid double in the shed. A forked temple is combined with the jaw temple and a finger extending over the lay holds the several weft-threads in position. The lay operates the let-off and take-up, and the connection with the lay is controlled by a pivoted piece. The Jacquard has a counterpoise motion, having one top-board and two trap-boards. The journals are operated by hooked bars placed in and out of gear with the slides which support the trap-boards. See, also, NEEDLE-LOOM. The Murkland power carpet loom is also for weaving ingrain carpets and operates by Jacquard and by shuttles. It carries 20 shuttles and weaves 16 colors. The shuttles are carried in boxes on each side and the selection of color is controlled by the Jacquard, which also governs the warp so as to float the required weft colors in accordance with the pattern. The loom is perfectly automatic. Car'pet Match'ing and Meas'ur-ing Ma- chine'. Carpets which are woven in patterns for matching often vary in the distance from center to center of the figure from various causes, although the greatest care be taken to have them alike. The variations being sufficient to prevent some of them from matching properly, it is customary to measure each piece with a measure corresponding to the length of the figure, and note the difference, whether over or under the standard, on the tag, so that the pieces which agree in length of the figures may be put together. Short's machine for matching and measuring carpets has an endless belt with divisions of its length corresponding CARPET MATCHING MACHINE no CATl SEAL. Kig. 546. with the distance from center to center of the figure of the car- pet to be matched: also mechanism in connection therewith for drawing the goods over a table alongside of the belt in unison with its movement, by which the variatioYi of each piece, in the distance from center to cen- ter of the figures if any, is shown in the aggregate at the end of each piece, where it can be accurately measured with a rule, to be noted on the tag at- tached to the piece when rolled. Combined with the mechanism employed for drawing the goods along the match- ing device, and operating the lat- ter, is mechan- ism for measur- ing, singeing, Carpet Winder. brushing, and rolling the goods at the same time they are matched, by which one movement of the goods answers for all these several op- erations. Car'pet Wiiid'er. A machine on which car- pet is smoothly wound in rolls from the pile or from the floor. In Fig. 546 the axis is horizontal, and in Fig- 557, the roll is verti cal, being a wheel with ^ a vertical spike revolv- ing on a stand placed Carpet Winder. on the floor of the car- pet room. Car Push'er. A lever for moving a car by making a fulcrum on the rail and lifting against the wheel. See PINCH-BAR, Fig. 3725, p. 1706. "Mech. Diet." 1 Blakeslee. * " Scientific American." 1 xliii. 38. Fexsenden. U. S. Patent, December 31, 1878. Car-re' Bat/te-ry. (Electricity.) A Daniel bat- tery using parchment paper for the porous parti- tion. "Niaudet," 1 American translation, 108. Car Re-pla'cer. A device for replacing de railed cars. Newcnmb * "Railroad Gaz.," viii. 191. Northern Railway of Fr. . . * "Engineering," xxvii. 459. Car'riage. Specifically : a four-wheeled vehicle for passengers and capable of being closed. See list of various vehicles on pages 2695, 2696, " Mfch. Diet.," and parts of, appliances and tools for, Ibid., page 2696. Axle, Hendry .... * "Iron Age,'' xviii., Dec. 14, p. 1. Building, history of the art, Thrupp, Engl. . . * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 901, 920. " Sc. American Sup.," 1178. Factory, Brewster . . . * "Scientific A?ner., r xl. 79. Springs * "Am. Manuf., r . Feb. 7, 1879, p. 13. Dexter * "Iron Age,", xviii., Aug. 10, p. 1. Car'riage and Wag'on Hard'ware. See under the following heads : Anti-rattler. Anti-rattler fifth wheel. Apron fastener. Axle block. Axle clip. Axle lubricator. Axle saddle. Axle yoke. Back-stay end. Band. Billet. Body coop. Bolster plate. Bolt. Bow iron. Bow joint. Carriage bolt. Carriage spring lock. Clip king-bolt. Clip plate. Clip yoke. Coach clip. Coach door handle. Coach lock. Corner iron. Dash. Dash foot. Dash frame. Dash lamp. Door handle. Drive knob. Eye. Eye ferrule. Ft-i'd-box hasp. Shaf<; loop. Shaft rubber. - haft tip Shifting carriage rail. Shitting rail. Side bar. Side bar spring shackle. Slat iron. Sleigh shaft coupling. Spring bar clip. Spring block. Spring butter. Spring clip. Spring coupling. Spring shackle. Standard brace. Stay-chain hook. Stay-end. Stay-end clip Stay-eud tie'. Step. Step pad. Step shank. Stump joint. T brace. Thimble skein. Top brace. Top joint Top prop Top prop nut. Tufting button. Wagon-box rod plate. Wagon coupling. Wear iron. Whiffletree brace. IVhiffletree circle. \Vhiffletree coupling. Whiffle ree Imok. Whiffletree plate. Whiffletree tip. Whiffletiee tongue. Whip socket. Yoke. Felloe holder. Felloe plate Fifth wheel. Foot rail. Front stay end. Full circle. Gridiron step. Hammer strap. Hand plate. Head-block plate. Joint end. Joint eye. King bolt. King bolt tie. King bolt yoke. Loop head. Loop yoke. Neck yoke socket. Offset, Perch loop. Perch iron. Perch plate. Perch stay. Platform-spring shackle. Pole coupling. Pole crab. Pole eye. Pole socket. Pole tip. Pole yoke. Prop. Prop-block washer. Prop nut. Reach. Reach plate. Reach socket. Reckaway band. Rub iron. Saddle clip. Safety loop. Seat fastener. Seat lock. Shaft coupling. Shaft eye. Car'riage Cut'ting-off Saw. A cross-cut- ting saw, mounted on a table which has a sliding carnage on which the work is placed to be pre- sented to the saw. See CUTTING-OFF SAW. Car'riage Spring. The spring shown in Fig. 548 consists essentially of two semi-elliptic side springs upon each side. The two springs arc rigid- ly attached to each other at their centers, and are pivoted at their ends to spring-links above, or on either side of the axle or head-block. The spring shackles are rigidly attached to the head-block and rear axle respectively. The parallel motion of the springs prevents rocking of the axles. One spring being above the other, prevents side motion and the settling of the body to one side. The absence of a reacli allows either wheel to pass over an ol>- Fig. 548. Carriage Spring struction almost independently of the other wheel. The elasticity of the springs takes much strain off the fifth wheel, and cushions the stroke when strik- ing an obstruction. See, also, BUGGY SPRING. Car Seal. A disk of lead or pewter inclosing the ends of a piece of wire which has been rove in a hasp or ring in a car-door fastening. The disk is stamped so as to prevent the opening of the door CAR-SILL DRESSING MACHINE. 171 CARTRIDGE. Fig. 549. Ransome's Car-sill Mar /line. without the cutting of the wire or defacing the device. Car'-sill Dress'ing Ma-chine'. A traverse planer especially adapted for trueing and bringing ont of wind the timbers for car-sills. These are planed to absolute shape by being dogged to stiff bed, and not merely dressed to thickness. The Daniel Is or traverse planer is used, Fig. 3796, p. 1728, "Mech. Diet." Car'-sill Ma-chine'. A machine having ar- ranged upon it all the various tools for preparing the sills or sole plates of railway cars. The bed has rollers on which the sills move longitudinally to present them to the various tools for mortising, boring, gaining, recessing, etc. See Fig. 549. Car'-ten'on-ing Ma-chine'. A large sized tenoning machine, adapted for working on sills and parts of framing of cars. Such a one is the Gap-bed Tenoning Machine, Fig. 6305, p. 2532, ".IfrcA. Diet." See. also, CAB-SILL MACHINE. Car'ti-lage Knife. (Surgical.) A stout, scal- pel-shaped knife for severing cartilage. Used in dismembering, post-mortem, dissection. Figs. 146, 314, 350, Part I., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chinirgicum." Car'ti-lage Scis-sors. A heavy pair of scis- sors for dividing cartilages. Fig. 550. Cartilage Scissors. Car Trans'fer Truck. See CAR-TRUCK SHIFTER. Car'tridge. (Fire-arm.) A loaded capsule or case. The case is made of paper or metal ; the former, until of late years ; now almost universally of metal, copper or brass. Cases are cylindrical or bottle-nosed : in the latter, the portion containing the powder is one or two bores larger than the actual bore of the piece, the chamber being reamed ont for that purpose. By this means a shorter case may be used and the proper charge of powder retained. In cartridge-making IS different machines are used : 8 to form the ease. 3 for the bullet, 5 to make the anvil or cap. and 2 for loading the cartridge. Tin- first process is called cupping, which is done with a '!'< working inside a cutter. A sheet of copper 3" wide is fed under the cutter by the attendant and a circular blank 1J" in diameter is cut, and then pushed through a ttaring- mouthed die by the punch, thus making it into a cup-shape about 1" in diameter and J" deep. In the next machine, called the first draw, the cup is fed over the die by the revolving plate and an automatic move- ment, which takes one at a time off the plate and places it over the die, which is somewhat smaller than the one in the cupping machine. It is then pushed through by the punch. It passes subsequently through four more drawing nuichines. each one making it longer and narrower, until it becomes 2" long and J" in diameter. After the third draw it is annealed, having become hard by working. After passing through the fifth draw it is put in the trim- ming machine, and the edge made even by a revolving cutter which reduces it to a certain size. The capsule is next put into a machine called the hender, which spreads the closed end into a head by pressing it into a mold. The ninth process, anvil-cupping, is the same as the first, except that it produces a cup about %" diameter and J," deep for the cup to hold the fulminate. The anvil is then trimmed In another machine ; in the next, called a venting machine, two small holes are punched in the head to afford passage for the fire of the fulminate to reach the charge. It next has an impression made in the outside of the head for the wafer of fulminate, and is next put in the priming machine, where it receives the fulminate. The practice with central tire and rim-fire cartridges diverges at this pojint ; in the lat- ter case the fulminate is secured by crimping thy case from the outside, the same machine tapering the open end of the case to receive the bullet. The bullets are made by a machine which cuts about 1" from a rod of rolled lead \" in diameter, and presses the leaden blank in a mold, which gives the shape and makes the three circumferential grooves. The next machine trims the bullets, which then pass through the lubricator which fills the grooves with Japanese wax, the object of which is to keep the barrel of the gun lubricated. The last machine is the cartridge loader: the cases come successively under a powder reservoir where a charge of 72 grains is dropped into each, after which the bullet is put in, and the shell pressed around it to hold it firmly. The following is a list of the machines included in the exhibit of the War Department at the Centennial Exhibition, 1876, under the orders of Lieutenant Metcalfe, in the Gov- ernment Building ; several machines are practically dupli- cated, as the successive drawing machines for instance : Priming machine. Loading machine. Drawing machine. Clamp milling machine. Bullet machine. Heading machine. Milling machine. Rifling machine. Bedding machine. Cupping machine. Anvil cupper. Lubricator. Case trimmer. Impression machine. Butt lathe. Barrel-boring machine. Barrel-turning lathe. Straightening machine. Tapering machine. See account in "Scientific American Sup., 1 ' *369 Norton's report on "American Breech-loading Fire Arms," N. Y., containing a description of the following cartridges : Boxer, British, central fire. Daw, British, central fire. Chassepot, French. CARTRIDGE. 172 ZmiditaiJclgewf/ir, German. lUeigt. V. S. Cartridge Co. See report on " Performance of Metallic Cartridges,'' at Frankfort Arsenal, Penn., by Major Treadwell, U. S. Army, 1873. Notices and illustrations are given of the following (* illustrated) : . * 1860. . * 1860. . * 1864, rim primed. . *1864. . * 1865. . * 1866, center primed. . * 1866. . * 1865. CARTRIDGE SCALES. Fig. 552. Burnsicii Maynard . Spencer . . Primitive . LaiUley . Novelty Bar-anvil Galling . . Canister . . Benton . Tibbal . . Benet . . Service . . Benet . . Crispin . . Coll . . . Martin . . Corliss . . Prince . . Milbank Milbank, et al. ReTnforeed . Frankford . . * 1867, cup reinforce. . * 1869. . * 1868, cup anvil. . * 1868, blank cartridge. . * 1866, center-primed. . * 1867, combination : paper and metal. . * 1868. . * 1869. . * Front ignition. . * Front ignition. . * 1870, reloading. . * Primer. . * Gas check. * Attached head. Rodman- Crispin * 1863, wrapped metal. Boxer-Henry . . * 1872, wrapped metal. Frankford ... * 1872, cast base. Hotchkiss ... * 1868, solid head. Benet .... * 1868, solid head. U. S. Cartridge Co. * 1868, solid head. Dutch musket . * Reloading shells. Dutch carbine . * Reloading shells. Farringlon ... * Solid head. Navy .... * Front lubrication. Frankford ... * 1865. See report of Major Bell to Colonel Craig, Chief of Ord- nance, May 16, 1856, on the firing of Dr. Maynard's breech- loading rifle charged with a metallic cylindrical water-proof cartridge. Cartridge, Tyler .... * "Scientific American,'-' 1 xli. 246. Making * "&"c. American Sup.,'' 2670. Center fire, Saget . . . * ^Scientific American,-' xllii. 36. Cartridge shot, Schleber . * "Scientific American,''' xl. 212. The Russian small arm cartridge factory near St. Peters- burg is described in " Ordnance Report,' 1 ' 1 1877, pp. 519 et seq. Car'tridge Block. A wooden block, bored to receive 8 cartridges, and having attachments b\ r which it is secured to the gun in convenient posi- tion for loading. It is shown in Fig. 552 as at- tached to a Peabody- Martini military rifle. Car'tridge Cap'per. An instrument for se- curing caps on cen- Fig 551 t r a 1 fire cartridge- cases. The pivoted lever has a stud be- neath, which presses the cap firmly upon its seat. Fig. 551. Car'tridge- head'ing Ma- chine'. A machine for forming the head or rim of a cartridge case. It consists of ahorizontal die, countersunk at one end for shaping the head ; a feed punch, to insert the tubes Parker Bro -' s Cartridge Capper. into the die; and a heading punch, to flatten the closed ends of the tubes into the countersink. The tubes, which are a little longer than the completed cases, are fed into the inclined trough of the machine, whence thev are taken up on the feed-punch. A shoulder on this punch, at a distance from its extremity equal to the inner depth of the headed case, prevents it from penetrating to the full depth of the tube, and a surplus of metal is thereby left at the closed end of the tube for the formation of the head. Metcalfe's Cartridge Block. The feed-punch inserts the tube into the die and holds it while the heading punch advances, presses and folds the surplus end of the tube against the countersink die, thus shaping the head or rim. The headed case is left in the die as the feed-punch retreats, and is expelled by the next case. The rate is 65 per minute. Car'tridge-head Test'er. A hydrostatic press invented by Col. Treadwell, U. S. Army, for test- ing strength of cartridge heads. Plate XXIII., Ordnance Report, U. S. Army, "Metallic Car- tridges," 1873.- Plate XXIV. et seq. of the same, show the powder test by eprouvette. Car'tridge Load'ing Ma-chine'. 1 . A ma- chine for loading powder and bullet into a car- tridge case. It consists of a revolving circular plate with holes, and a hopper and powder measure. The powder is placed in a brass hopper above the machine, and is fed to the cases through a paper tube : the whole in- side of a conical shield of boiler iron. The cases and bullets are fed on revolving plates : the former lifted into the receivers, passed under the hopper and measure fora charge of powder, and then under the bul- let-feeder to receive a lubricated bullet. The edge of the case is crimped on the bullet by lifting the former into a contracted space of the receiver around the neck of the bul- let. A bell indicates any failure in the supply of a full charge of powder, and the rate is 35 per minute. 2. On a smaller scale, a machine for reloading cartridge shells. Fig. uo3. The machine is clamped to a table, leaving the crimper crank 10 free to turn. The reservoir 7 being furnished with powder, the changer 9 is set to the num- ber of drams required . Hold the shell under the aperture of 12 in the lower shelf of charger, and dump the powder therein. Hav- ing loaded the shells with pow- der, remove the funnel and re- lease the rammer ; put the shell in the receiver 2, place the wad on the powder and ram home. Fill the reservoir with shot, set the charger at the gage desired, drop the charge, place a wad on the shot and ram as before ; or crimp the shell, placing it in the cradle 6, and rotating the revolv- ing hub by the crank 10. The shell may be shortened before crimping by placing it on 5 and rotating it while the knife 4 is pressed upon it. Car'tridge Scales. A machine for automatically verifying the weight of car- tridges ; invented by Goot- koffsky, of the ordnance works, St. Petersburg, Rus- sia. WeW>s Cartridge Loader, CARTRIDGE SCALES. 173 CARVING. " The scales are composed of eight balances, slung to the tyre of a small fly-wheel which is brought into action by the main shafting. The cartridges placed by the workmen in the box are caught up by the scales themselves and are placed in the balances. The cartridges are equipoised by a reacting weight placed on the opposite ends of the balances ; on the farther rotation of the fly-wheel, the balance gradu- ally comes to an equilibrium, upon which the cartridges of a normal weight, and heavier than the normal weight are declined along with the outer end of balance down ward, and are thus pushed off by the scales themselves into the re- ceiver, from whence they fall into a box placed on the floor. The cartridges which are of less than the normal weight, are raised upward and are thrown off by the scales themselves into another receiver, from whence they fall into a locked- up box. The fly-wheel with the balances makes 7J revolu- tions per minute, that is, performs 3,600 weighings per hour, or 30,000 per day, allowing for subsidiary work and chance stoppages." Car'tridge Var'nish-ing Ma-chine'. A ma- chine to coat the interior of metallic rifle shells with an impermeable elastic varnish, to prevent chemi- cal action between the salts of the gunpowder and the material of the shells. The shells are placed in a hopper, several hundreds at a time, and fed singly into a wheel, with which they revolve, while they are also rotated in the chucks which hold them ; this in order to spread the varnish. Forty of them are in different stages of the process at the same time, and the work is done at the rate of 2,000 per hour. The machine is per fectly automatic. The shells are subsequently dried in a sheet-iron furnace. Cart Roller. A roller which has a cart body mounted upon it. Used in some parts of France for transporting manure on soft prairie ground. Car Truck. The wheeled frame beneath the body of a railway car. Iron, Challender . . . *" Railroad Gazette,'' xxi. 198. English * "Sc. American,-' xxxviii. 226. Passenger, Ramapo Co. * "Railroad Gazette,'' 1 xxi. 257. 42-inch, Ramapo Co. . *" Scientific American Sup.." 1298. Pennsylvania Railway . * "Engineering,'' xxiv. 366, 375-378. Safety device, Root . . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 142. The principal forms are shown in Forney's "Car-builder's Dictionary.''' Car'-truck Frame Drilling Ma-chine'. A multiple drill machine, for drilling at one op- eration the different holes required in car truck frames. The frame 'to be drilled is laid upon the table, which is then fed up to the drills, either automatically or by hand through the gearing. The drills are mounted on an upper frame, at the standard distance apart, and are driven by I gearing from the coned pulleys. The drill spindles slide in the vertical holders, which are tubular, and they can he j locked in any desired position by set screws at' the ends of ' the holders. The drill spindles can be adjusted on the cross frame to different distances apart so as to suit different pat- terns of car frames. Car'-truck Shift'er. An invention, for chang ing the trucks of cars on roads having differ- ent gages, as well as for changing trucks when repairs or new trucks become necessary. AA represent level outside tracks along the depressed main tracks ; EE represent trucks on the outside tracks, and F the cross-bars or beams for carrying the car boilv. To separate trucks from a car body, the car is run to the incline of the pit B, and tho small truck E placed - Carrinff Chad, Carring Tools. Carv'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for pro- ducing carvings and recessed or relieved panels on the surface of work ; for making edge-molding, ornamental, fret, or bracket work, etc. Fig. 556. A hollow iron column supports the cutter spindle and the table, which latter is adjusted and regulated to form the required depth of moldings or carvings by means of a hand- wheel and screw, and has sufficient vertical movement to admit of working stuff of 4" thick and under. The table is elevated by a notched treadle to bring the material in con- tact with the cutter, and the piece, after being carved, is re- moved by an auxiliary treadle which disengages a pawl and allows the table to drop to its original position. The cutter may be driven in either direction. And molding, Boult . . * "Engineer,' 1 ' xli. 430. * "Scientific American Sup.,"bSO. And paneling, Fay . . * " Scientific American," xxxiv. 393. Pantograph principle. Blackman . . . *" Scientific American,'" Aug. 14, 1875. Arbey, Fr *" Scientific American," xli. 243. Carv'ing Tools. Figs. 557, 558 show a num- ber of carving tools, each with its name subscribed. Selected from a still greater number, these yet show considerable variety. Car'-wash'ing Ma-chine'. An invention of Lord Caithness for washing the sides of carriages. It consists essentially of two large vertical brushes driven by a steam engine. A number of dirty carriages, making up a train of any length, is passed slowly between these revolv- ing brushes ; water is thrown upon the side of each railway carriage, 2' in advance of the brush, from a vertical iron pipe pierced with small holes, placed at an average distance of 8" from each other. A second water pipe, pierced with similar holes, directs another series of small jets of water di- rectly upon the brushes. The whole arrangement is not very dissimilar in principle to that of hair brushing by ma- chinery. Car Wheel. Car wheels, cast, wrought, com- pound, and compressed are shown on pp. 493, 494, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 559 shows two forms of car wheels, the Rad- din and the Bryant. The former, on the left, is an elastic wheel. Being cast in three parts, rubber cushions are in- terposed between the web Fig. 659. an( j ti ie hub, so that iron does not touch iron, and jars and concussions are ab- sorbed by the rubber. Fig. 660. Raddin's Elastic Car Wheel. Bryant's Self-lubricating Car Wheel. LobdeWs Car Wheels. The Bryant wheel, on the right, runs on, not with, the axle, and has a large chamber for oil which oozes through a sponge to the axle. Fig. 560 shows two of Lobdell's wheels : the hollow-spoke wheel, and the combination double- plate wheel. The Atwood railway car-wheel is another elastic in which hempen packing is interposed between the rim and the tire. Hemp is packed into the chamber K, between the rim D and the tire A. The latter is held to the wheel by a lock Fie. 561. Carving Tools. Atwood Railway Car Wheel. CAR WHEEL. 176 CAtt WHEEL GRINDING MACHINE. joint F G, and a dovetail ring 31 N. C Care the spokes. H bolts to secure plate. .F grooves in rim. " Hrrr Kritpp has lately patented an ingenious mode of manufacturing car wheels. A skelp is first formed of a long flat plate of iron, with a central rib above and corresponding groove beneath, and wide at each end. One end is secured to a rotating mandrel and is coiled on itself, forming the hub ; the coiling being continued, the narrow portion of the skelp is wound on itself, forming the web ; the coiling of the outer wider end forms the rim. The blank thus formed is placed in the furnace, heated to a welding hear, and welded under pressure into a homogeneous mass of the proper shape, forming the completed wheel. Apart from the facility of manufacture, the invention results in the produc- tion of an article of very superior merit, as the fibres of the iron are all arranged parallel to the periphery instead of being tangential or radial, as in wheels constructed by pro- cesses hitherto pursued." "Railway Review," xiii. 172. The endurance of some cast-iron car wheels is very great. Some of the Salisbury wheels of Barnum, Richardson & Co., have made the following record on the Lake Shore and Michi- gan Southern Railroad : 4 wheels averaged 185,049 miles. 2 wheels averaged 220,528 miles. 2 wheels averaged 196,967 miles. 3 wheels averaged 189,397 miles. Lobdell showed at the Centennial wheels which had been 25 years in service on the New York & Erie Railway. Austrian car wheels by Ganz & Co., Buda-Pesth, made on the American style, were shown in Paris, 1878, one having run 329,400 miles, and another 380,000 miles. " The paper car-wheels of the Pullman Palace Car Co., are calculated to run 450,000 miles/' " Chicago Railway .Re- Stevenson, 1826, Bonney, 1829,Elgur, 1833, etc., including Truscott, Wolf, and Dougherty, * 1838. Bonney, Bush & I,obdell, * 1838. Bush & Lobdell (double plate.) * G. W. Eddy, * 1845. Whitney. Washburn, * 1850. Lobdell (single plate). * Lobdell (combination). * Forney's " Car-builder's Dictionary," gives the following list with descriptions. See Figs. 181-184 : Broad-tread. Combination Plate. Combination. Compromise. Double-plate. Elastic. Hand-car. Hollow-spoke. Narrow-tread. Open-plate. Pair of Wheels. Paper. Plate. Sax and Rear. Single-plate. Spoke. Steeled. Steel-tired. Steel Street-car. Washburn. Wrought-iron. The parts of a car-wheel are, according to its construction ; Flange. Plate. Tread. Ribs. Rim. Spokes. Face of Rim. Center. Tire. Hub. Retaining Rings. Axle-seat. See also PAPER CAR-WHEEL. Wood-centered, Clemirtson, Br. Lurge vs. small * for collieries, Had field . . . * Disk, Handyside, Br * * Mold * Securing to axles, Jessop If Sons * Tire fastening, Kuaelowsky, Ger. * Wooden disk, Kitson, Br. . . * Turned chilled, Lobdell . . . Paige Paper Balancing, Paris, Lyons if Medit. * Foundry, Penn. Railway . . * * Tires, fracture of. Paper on . Self oiling, Phillips . . . . * Steel-tired . Large rs. small. Wallis . . . * Swedish wrought iron ... * "Iron Age," 1 xxv., .Ian. 1, p.I. "Railroad Gaz.,'' xxi. 96. "Sc. Amer. Sup.,'- Io65. "Engineering," xxii. 392. "Engineer," xlii. :ill!l. "Iron Age," xxiii., May 15, p. 1 . " Sc. American,'' xliii. 70. "EnginefritiK,'' xxx. 80. " Eiigiiftrinx." xxii. '271. " Sc. American Su/i.," 227. "Railroad Gaz.," xx. 229. '.S'r. Ann rinui NII/I.,'' 2. ''Iron Atff," xviii., Sept. 21, ii.li. "Railroad Gaz.," xx. 317. /,'. A 1 . "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 2794. "Engineering,' 1 '' xxiii. 358. "Engineering," xxiv. 104. "Sr. American Sup.," 917. '.V. American,-' xxxix. 8. "A". R. Gaz.," xx. 653-554. "Sr. An/er. Sup.," 1057. "Railroad Gaz.,'- xx. 280. Car Wheel Bo'rer. A machine tool for boring true the axle holes in car-wheels. It is a form of boring machine of special adaptation. The wheel is chucked centrally and horizontally on the bed and the boring tool brought upon it axially. The car wheel lathe, Fig. 1172, "Meclt. Diet.," is adapted for similar work, while it is capable of other duties also. Car Wheel Chuck. A chuck adapted for hold- ing a car wheel centrally upon a face plate for bor- ing or trueing the rim. fforton. It is a form of universal chuck in which the jaws are simulta- neously and equally approached by a single move- ment, so as to maintain exactly equal radial dis- tance from the center of the chuck. Car Wheel Grinding Ma-chine'. A ma- chine for trueing worn car wheels by dressing the rim and flange. In Gowan's machine, shown in Fig. 562, the pair Fig. 562. Paper, Allen Tire-fastening, Atherton, Br. Steel tired, Atwood . . . Atwood Hamilton Baltimore Car Wheel Co. . Barnum, Richardson tf Co. . Cast and wrought .... Composite, Cleminson, Br. . "Iron Age,-'- xxi., Jan. 31, p. 18. . * "Engineer," xlv. 198. . *" Railroad Gaz.,'' xxi. 446. | * "Engineer," xli. 463. . * "Railroad Gaz.,'' xxi. 464. . * "Railroad Gaz.,'' xxi. 516. . * "Railroad Gfiz.," xxi. 307. . * "Engineer,'' xlviii. 427. Gowan'x Car Wheel Grinding Machine. of wheels is chucked in a lathe, and two emery- wheel", mounted on tool rests, are applied to them. The object is to dress them to absolute roundness and normal shape of tread and flange, eliminating all flat places and every irregularity. The chilled car wheels revolve the reverse way to the ordinary lathe, at a rate of l revolutions per minute. The abrading wheels are of No. 16 corundum, strong and porous, running at 600 revolutions per minute, 18" wheel. A pair of 18" X \\" wheels will true up 200 pairs of new 33" chilled wheels, provided they are truly fitted to the axle. An ex- haust fan withdraws the dust from both wheels. " Railroad Gazette "........* xxiv. 625- CASE. 177 CAST PORCELAIN. Case. Add. (Mining.) b. A vein of quartz, not containing ore, and forming an angle with the lode. 8. (Founding.) The cope. 9. (Fire-arms.) The capsule of a cartridge. Case'mate. A vault with an embrasure. The Gnison chilled iron casemate (German) is shown in I'hites XXV1.-XXX. , Barnard & Wright's report on " Fabrica- tion of Iron for Defensive Purposes," U. S. Engineer Depart- ment, Washington, 1871. Casemate carriage for British 10-ton and 25-ton guns. Same report, p. 99, and Plate XVIII. Casemates. Addendum to Supplement 21 of same report. Case Trim'mer. (Cartridges.) An implement or machine, one or the other, used for trimming the mouths of shells for cartridges. These are fed by a funnel to the too], which has a knife to cut them to an adjusted length. Case Smoothing Ma-chine'. (Bookbind- Fig. 563. Sanborn's Case Smoothing Machine. ing.) A machine for smoothing cloth cases for books ; an efficient substitute for the bone folder. The cases are passed between the rubber rollers, two at a time, insides face to face. The top roller is adjustable by means of set screws, to suit any thickness of cover. Cash'mere. (Fabric.) 1. A fine-wool French dress goods, woven with a twill on one side and piece-dyed. Merino has both sides twilled. 2. A mixed fabric with cotton warp and XX. merino wool weft, made in imitation of the Cash- meres d'Ecosse, which are all wool. This goods is called Coburg in England. Cashmere shawls. Hayes in " Centennial Reports,'' 1 v. 75, 76. Cash Re-cord'ing Ma-chine'. A machine on which is made and kept a tally of sums received or recorded. A given sum being received by a salesman, for instance, he touches the knobs corresponding to (say) $, 1,2, ., 4, 7, and the record $12.47 appears at a slot, and is at the same time printed on a slip (along with the date and name of the firm) which serves as a receipt, and on a second strip the series of sums which constitute a record of the day's re- ceipts. "Scientific American" * xxxviii. 95. Cas'ing. (Add.) 4. (Glass.) Enclosing a blown object in another blown piece of similar shape and different color, and then blowing the inner one so that it expands against its envelope, 12 when they may be firmly united by firing, and then finished as one piece. 5. (Mining.) A plank partition. Cask. See BARREL. Cask Stand. A support or stillion for casks, having an ad- justable back Fig- 564. support to tilt the cask when necessary. The lift is by a square chased screw, in order to give a steady movement to avoid disturbing the liquor. Cas'se-role. A small pan, like a French stew-pan, used Cask Stand. in laboratories. ( Cas-so-lette'. A pan or tray for perfumes. Cas'ter. A rolling foot. Martin * "Iron Age,'- xxii., August 8, p. 1. Glass ball, Adigate . . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 374. Ball, Konz * "Scientific Amer.,"" xxxviii. 6. Anti-friction rollers. Gardner * U. S. Patent, 111,193. Cas'ter Rol'ling-col'ter. A wheel colter mounted on a swivel, so as to present in any direc- tion the plow may be guided. Fig. 1391, p. 596, " Mech. Diet." See COLTER. Cast Gate. (Founding.) The channel through which metal flows into a mold. Ingate. Cast'ing. References to devices may be found as follows : Preventing honeycombs in . . . . "Sc.Am. Sup.," 1842. Small objects, Hopkins .... * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 272. Steel, Wright, Smith fy Butler, Engl. "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 904. Case hardening "Sc. Am. Sup.,'' i. 353. Cast'ing Net. (Fishing.) A net in extensive use in the West Indies, Florida, and elsewhere on the southern coast. It consists of a circle of netting, varying in diameter from 4 / to 15' or more, to the circumference of which are attached, at short intervals, leaden weights. There is a ferrule of bone or metal at a central opening in the net. One end of a long rope passes through this ferrule, and to it are attached numerous cords extending to the lead rope. The net is used by gathering up the casting-rope in a coil on one arm, and taking the net itself on the other. By a dexterous fling of the arm containing the net, this is thrown in such a way as to spread out completely, and it is hurled so as to fall per- fectly flat on the surface of the water. The leads sink im- mediately, forming a circular inclosure, and imprisoning any fish that may happen to be under it at the time. The rope is then hauled in from the other end, causing the entire circumference to pucker inwardly, and the leads and puck- ered portion come together in a compact mass, in which the fish are entangled. Cast Por'ce-lain. 1. A milk-white, somewhat translucent glass made from pure cryolite. 2. A uniformly colored or marbled variety of opaque glass made from impure cryolite. The mixture for the milky variety is : 1 part of oxide of zinc, 4 parts of cryolite, and 10 parts of sand ore, fused in a common pipe-clay crucible, developing a large amount of fluosilicic acid. The pipe-clay is, however, not attacked much by it. This development continues throughout thl 1 fusion, and even after it, during the working to a small ex- tent. This glass possesses a considerable hardness and power of resistance ; even as a powder it is not attacked by strong acids. According to an analysis of Mr. Hagemann the com- position is as follows : Per cent. Oxide of zinc 6.50 Silicic acid 63.40 Alumina , . . 3.67 Soda 585 Oxide of iron and manganese 4.40 Undecomposed cryolite , . . 16.14 CAST PORCELAIN. 178 CATION. The properties of this glass probably depend upon the presence of the uudecomposed cryolite ; for glass of the above composition, without any combinations of fluorine, is transparent and not colored. Glass with a small amount of cryolite has a milky-white, translucent color, and great bril- liancy, refractive power, and strength. With a higher pro- portion it becomes opalescent, and with more cryolite, opaque ;uid like porcelain. Cat'a-lan Forge. (Metallurgy.) See Fig. 1185, p. 502, "Mech. Diet.," and BLOMARY, supra. See also Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufac- tures," tome ii., article "Forges Catalanes," Fig. 1035. " Catalan forges for smelting iron ore and blomaries for refining pig-iron are largely used in Italy, their number being about 200. Charcoal is the principal fuel used in the furnaces, forges, and blomaries, the Appenine forests fur- nishing the most of it. " In the island of Elba they are of unsurpassed richness. The iron ores on this island, and in other parts of Italy, were used long before the Christian era. There are three princi- pal iron districts in Italy additional to Elba Lombardy, Piedmont, and Tuscany. In all Italy there are about 40 blast furnaces, many of which, owing to the scarcity of fuel, have not recently been in operation . " There are yet in operation in the United States 64 Cata- lan forges, for the direct conversion of iron ore into wrought iron ; these forges are mainly in New York and Tennessee, and in the former State they are wholly engaged in the pro- duction of iron for the manufacture of steel." Morrell. Saranac "Iron Age,' 1 ' xviii., Sept. 1, p. 9. * " Scientific American Sup.," 628 See also TROMPE. Cat' a-ma-raii'. 1. A fishing raft used on the Coromandel coast of India. The name signifies " tied-trees," and correctly describes the raft made of 4 or 5 pieces of timber 6' or T long lashed to- gether to form a width of 2-J', narrowed to a point at one end. The fisherman kneels, and sits on his heels, as shown at Fig. 1186, p. 502, "Mech. Diet." 2. The name has been applied to other craft, es- pecially used on the Hudson River, and in New York harbor. These vessels have twin hulls united, and carry a cloud of canvas, being remark- ably staunch. 3. A steam twin vessel similar to the last de- scribed, except in the means of propulsion and the necessary appendages of each respectively. '"Scientific American Sup.," ' "Scientific American Sup.," * "Harper's Weekly," July 27, 1878. 3911. 1860. Malay rig Herreshojf . N. Y. Yacht Club, " John Gilpin. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1 1661, 1679. Steam . . . . * "Manufacturer if Builder," xii. 177. Cat'a-ract In'stru-ment. (Surgical.) Knives, needles, scissors, forceps, scoops. Specifically, The Figures refer to Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirur- gicum," Part II. Figs. Cataract knife 113-115. Cystotome, for lacerating the capsule ,. 116, 117. Linear knife 118, 129. b, c. Tractor 119. Lens scoop 120, 125, b, c. Lens spoon . . . 121. Hooked needle 122. Cataract scissors 126. Bistoury, for enlarging the section . . 127. Iridotomy scissors 127, b. Keratome scissors 128, b. Forceps needle, for false membranes . 129. Iris forceps 130. 131, 141, c. Knife needle 182. Iris knife 134,135,141. Iris scissors 137, 139, 141, b. Canulated forceps 140. Stop needle 142. Cataract needle 143-145. Grooved needle, for soft cataract . . . 147. Tattoeing needle, for coloring white spots on the cornea 148-150, b. Soft cataract exhauster 151, 152. Canulated needle 138. Lens forceps 140, b. Ca-tarrh'al Douche. (Surgical.) A syringe for irrigating the fauces. Fig. 364 d, p. 90, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarnnn C/iinir^icum." 1 See, also, Fig. 3297, p. 1512, "Mech. Diet." Cat Boat. A small boat, with a triangular sail, without yard or gaff. A very common rig of fishing-boat, but also known among pleasure-boats of small and medium size. They may have one or two masts. See models Nos. 12,099, 25,026, 29,537, 26,585 iu the U. S. Fishery Museum. See, also, "Scientific American Supplement,'' * vi. 2114. Catch'all. A tool, Fig. 565, for withdrawing from drilled wells broken tools or bars which may have fallen in. Several forms are shown in Plate LXXIV., p. 2756, "Mech. Diet." Catch Hook. Fj g . 505. A tool used in hauling pipe. It is pushed into the pipe, the tongue Fig. 566. Catch Hook. Catchalls. lying flatly on the shank. When the team is hitched to the stem, the tongue is lifted to catch against the inside and prevent retraction. Fig. 566. Cath'e-ter. (Surgical.) A tube for drawing off a liquid. The word is principally applied to nrethral and Eustachian instruments. See Fig. 1190, p. 504, "Mech. Diet." The specific names refer to shape, material, application, etc. Compound. Soft rubber. Double current. Velvet-eye. Eustachian. Vulcanized. Prostatic. Sigmoid. The surgeon's case also contains catheter holders, catheter syringes. The insulated catheter electrode is for electriza- tion of the male genital organ. Fig. 379, Part I., Tiemann's " Armamentarium Chirurgicum." " The flexible metallic catheter is without eyes. The base is a hollow silver tube which continues for 4" ; the metal is then twisted spirally, diminishing gradually till it terminates in a point not more than 1-32" diameter. Through the cen- ter a strong wire is passed, the point terminating in a small steel bend which is riveted to the wire. When the instru- ment is to be introduced, the wire is drawn tight, bringing the bend up to the point and protecting the membranes as the catheter passes through. After the bladder has been entered, the wire is pushed forward, and the urine can flow freely through every portion of the spiral tube.'' Dr. J. H. Thompson's Report on Group XXIV. , p. 63 ; vol.vii. " Cen- tennial Exhibition Rfpons." Tiemann's " velvet-eye " catheter has a perfectly smooth eye, avoiding the irritation due to the use of Nelaton's and those of Jacques ', the eyes of which are punched. Cath'e-tom'e-ter. An instrument invented by Dulong % Petit, and employed in physics to measure the vertical distance between two points. Described on page 504, "Mech. Diet." 1 An illustration may be found, if desired, on page 146, Deschanel's "Natural Philosophy," 1 Part I., American edition. Prof. Mayer's cathetometer, * " Sc. Amer. Sup.," iii. 1221. Ca'tion. (Electricity.) The product which is CATION. 179 CELESTIAL INDICATOR. evolved at the zinc pole in a voltaic battery. The positively charged molecules in a voltaic battery. Gordon. Anion is the product which is evolved at the cop- per pole of a voltaic battery. The neg- atively charged molecules in a voltaic bat- tery. Gordon. Cat'ling. (Surgical.) A delicate con- cave-curved amputating knife. Cat Rig. (Nautical.) See CAT BOAT. Cat'tle Car. (Railway.) A car for live stock. A stock-car. Among the vari- ous kinds may be mentioned : Double deck, for sheep and hogs. Single deck, for cattle and horses. Combined cattle and box car, convertible into either. _ Box cattle-car, with grated windows, closing in cold weather Slat cattle-car, open sides fur air in warm weather. Feeding en route, Tingleij . * "Railroad Gazette," xxiv. 436. " Mnnitf. Sf Builder,'' xii.172. * "Scientific. Amer.," 1 xliii. 374 Walter * "Scientific American,'' xl. 407. Caun'ter Lode. (Mining.) A lode which forms a considerable angle with others in the vi- cinitv. Caus'tic Hold'er. (Surgical.) A staff or cup to hold and apply caustic to a deep-seated part. Caustic probes, and caustic syringes arc in-tru- ments for the like application in specific manners. The use of the electric cautery has to a large extent super- seded the devices used in potential cautery. The figures refer to Tiemanns "Armam. Cliirurgicum.'' The caustic holder may be like a porte-crayon to hold the stick of luna caustic, Figs. 154 6, 159 b, 155, Part I. ; Fig. 45, Part III. Or a scoop . . . Fig. 200, Part II . Or a brush . . . Fig. 349, Part 11. Or a tube . . . Fig. 345, Part II., 49, 365, Part III. Or a probe . . . Fig. 346, Part 11., 310, Part III. Or a forceps . . Figs. 286, 297, 298, 577, Part III. Or a syringe . . Figs. 54, 366, Part III. Cau'ter-y. (Klertn'city.) A burning instrument usually consisting of an electro-resisting wire or band of platinum, used in surgical operations in- stead of the heated spatula. See also ELECTRIC CAUTERY. Fig. 567 is Dawson's universal electrode for galvanic cau- tery operations. The various attachments constitute it a Fig. 567. Dawson's " Universal" Cautery Electrode. cautery e'craseur, cautery knife, needle, applicator, etc. As an e'craseur in the principal instance, Fig. 567 A is a solid hard rubber handle, through which pass the conducting rods CC, connected with the conducting wires at B. The rods CC, being hollow half their length, admit of the rods running from the ivory tip E to slide in and out like a telescope, which they are made to do by turning the small wheel F. This telescoping of the rods keeps up perfect current connec- tion, and at the same time causes a slow contraction of the wire cautery loop at E, the ends of the wire being secured in the ivory clamps G on the rods CC. The current is regu- lated or cut off and on from the batterv bv the screw D. Fig. 568. Fig. 569. Schroter's Lari/ngeal Cautery Electrodes. and, being heated by the battery, cuts the tumor off gradually. The instrument is applied cold, it be- comes heated instantly at the moment the circuit is completed, which is done by attaching the wires in the socket at the extremity of the handle. Fig. 569 shows Schroter's electric cautery, for removing laryngeal polypi. No. 1 is a snare of platinum wire ; 2 lancet; 3, porcelain burner: 4, knife; 5, Vottotini's knife; 6 blunt cautery. Hard rubber handle, sea-horse mounted. A galvanic battery of Fig. 570. Galvano-cautery Sling. Either of the three smaller instruments is used by with- drawing the tip with its rods and adjusting the substitute into the open ends of the rods CC In Fig. 568, the loop is formed of flexible platinum wire. By turning the wheel on the handle, the loop is contracted, Cau'te-ry Bat'te-ry. relat i v e ly la rge electro-motive force and low internal re- sistance, to be used to heat the platinum wire of a cautery electrode. Cau'ter-y In'- stru-ments. (Sur- gical.) The appli- cation of actual cau- tery by the battery has many media ; among these are gcraseurs. Moxas. Scoops. Knives. Olives, etc. See CAUTERY, etc. Cautery Battery. Cav'al-ry Bit. One having an extended S check-piece, with a loose ring at the lower end, and a loop above the mouth-piece for receiving the bridle-strap. The check and mouth are solid, the latter being made with or without a port. Ca'ves-son. (Manege.) A portion of the ap- paratus used in breaking a colt, the main feature of which is the nose-piece, which is buckled around the nostrils, having a long rein attached, and by which a colt is controlled until he be- comes accustomed to the bit. Cav'il. (Stone Working.) A heavy stone hammer with one blunt face and one pyramidal or pointed peen. It is used ,,, ,., j? i i f in a quarry for rough dressing stones for transportation. Weighs from 15 to 20 pounds. Cav'i-ty Dry'er. (Dental.) A syr- inge for drying dental cavities with warm air, and removing cuttings and bur-dust from excavations. The rubber air-bulb is covered with silk net- ting. The other bulb is metallic, and heated over a spirit lamp. In using, the air is ex- pelled, the bulb heated, and the air is then heated by inspiration, and again by expiration as it passes to the tooth. Ce-les'tial In'di-ca'- tor. An apparatus by which the relative positions of the constellations and principal stars tire indicated, so as to enable a person to find them by setting the in- strument so that its meridian is in ;i line with the observer and the north Cavity Star. Dryer. Cavil. CELL. 180 CELLULOID. Invented by Mauperin, * "La Nature,'' reproduced in "Scientific American Supplement,'" * 622. See also COSMOGRAPH. Cell. 1 . ( Optics. ) A little frame or shallow box to hold or surround a microscopic object ; lying sometimes on a slide, and surmounted by a glass cover. They are made of glass, block-tin, ebonite, etc., and are of many shapes and sizes. 2. (Electricity.) A jar or vessel containing the exciting fluid of a battery. See GALVANIC BAT- TERY. Cel'lar Crane. A device used in confined sit- uations in streets and warehouses. The jib of the crane is fixed in the cellar and is made telescopic, so that the load is first lifted from any point within the radius of the crane, and is af- terward lifted and carried in a diagonal direction through the doors or flaps until it is high enough to be deposited in the street or on a truck. Cel'lar Lift. A hoist for raising or lowering Fig. 573. Appleby's Cellar Lift. goods to or from the pavement and the cellar. It works vertically in guides, or on the incline of a ladder, according to convenience. It is shown in the act of lowering, the man hold- ing the brake. Cell Cut'ter. A tool for cutting cells out of thin wax : it resembles a wad cutter ; any circular tube with a sharp edge will answer the purpose. Cel'lu-loid. A product having pyroxyline or soluble gun-cotton as its base. A substitute for hardened caoutchouc. Inflammable and dangerous. Parkesine. Pyroxyline incorporated with linseed oil. Used for knife handles, etc. Named after the English inventor, Mr. Parkes. Celluloid. Pyroxyline and camphor : A solution containing about equal parts of camphor and tetrachloride of carbon, dissolves or softens pyroxyliue very readily ; and if sucli a solution is incorporated with a suf- ficient proportion of the soluble nitre-cellulose, a dough-like mass is obtained, which hardens ou the evaporation of the tetrachloride of carbon ; but the material may be again made plastic and workable by being heated to a temperature between 100 and 125 Centigrade. Or: the materials may be mixed mechanically at a regu- lated temperature. Or : the camphor may be dissolved in carbon di-sulphide, liquefied sulphurous acid, or other solvents. Parkes process: Nitro-cellulose softened in alcohol and forced into molds under pressure. The business in this country is understood to be practi- cally under the Hyatt patents, and celluloid made of fine tis- sue paper and camphor treated with chemicals by the pat- ented process. The material is made by the company and sold to parties to make into various articles, the price being graduated according to the ability of the article to stand a given price. The material, while of one quality, is, for in- stance, 60 per cent, cheaper for umbrella-handle making than for jewelry. Celluloid may be any color, or mottled. Imitation^ of ivory, coral, ebony, horn, tortoise-shell, porcelain, malachite, amber, are easily made. Celluloid, in its use as a substitute for ivory, has already exercised a great effect upon the ivory industry. This composition is used for : Billiard balls. Combs. Backs of brushes. . Hand mirrors. Toilet articles. Whip and cane handles. Umbrella handles. Harness trimmings. Foot rules. Chessmen. Knife and fork handles. Pencil cases. Dental plates. Jewelry. Pocket-books. Mouth-pieces for pipes. Cigar-holders. Musical instruments. Doll heads. Porcelain imitations. Hat bands, Neckties. Optical goods. Shoe tips and insoles. Thimbles. Emery wheels. Shirt cuffs. Collars, etc. The French process is thus given in the "Bull, de la Soc. Industrielle de Rouen : : ' " Paper is treated by a continuous process with 5 parts of sulphuric acid and 2 of nitric acid, which convert it into a sort of gun-cotton. The excess of acid is removed by press- ure, followed up by washing with abundance of water. The paste when thus washed, drained, and partially dried, is ground in a mill, mixed with camphor, ground again, strongly pressed, dried under a hydraulic press between leaves of blotting-paper, cut, bruised, laminated, and com- pressed again in a special apparatus suitably heated. It is said to be hard, tough, transparent, elastic, fusible, becom- ing plastic and malleable at 125 C. It ignites with difficulty, is decomposed suddenly at 140 C. without inflammation, and gives rise to reddish fumes. It is inodorous, and doe.s not become electric on friction." Other compositions of various materials may be found ag follows : see also list under COMPOSITIONS. Bone-silate. Ebonite. Bois-durci. Eburine. Boulinikon. Ebony, artificial. Coral, artificial. Ivory, artificial. Cellulose. Hemacite. The following list includes the United States Patents, 1867, to January 1, 1881, on celluloid and allied compounds : col- lodion, pyroxyline, xyloidine. Processes, apparatus, and ap- plications : 65,267 Pierson, Plastic compound of vegetable fibres. 77,304 McClelland, Plastic for dental plates. 79,261 Seely, Solidified collodion. 81,089 Hulbert $ Follett, Fabric coated with collodion. 86,841 Kendall $ Tresterl, Coating of fabrics with celluloid. 85.228 Streeter, Veneering articles with pyroxyline. 88.229 Streeter, Dentists' flasks. *88,260 Streeter, Compound for dental plates. 88,624 Hyatt, Coating billiard balls. *88,633 Hyatt, Compound for artificial ivory. *88,634 Hyatt, Coating billiard balls. 89.253 Streeter, Dental plate. 89.254 Streeter, Treating pyrole, pyroxyline, etc. 89,582 Hyatt If Blake, Ivory dust, etc., compounded. *90,765 McClelland, Celluloid dental plate. 90,766 McClelland, Treating collodion. 91,341 Hyatt If Hyatt, Solid collodion. 91.377 Spill, Xyloidine compound. 91.378 SpM, Telegraph wire insulator. 91,393 Whitehouse, Xyloidine insulator. 90.765 McClelland. Dental plate. 90.766 Me Clellaml, Machine for treating collodion. 93,076 Hill, Dental plate. 96,132 McClelland, Forming collodion articles. CELLULOID. 181 CELLULOSE. 3.777 (Reissue) McClelland, Collodion compound. 3.778 (Reissue) McClelland, Material for dental plates. 97,454 Spill, Dissolving pyroxyline. 101,175 Spill, Manuf. of xyloidine, etc. 105,338 Hyatt $ Hyatt, Molding pyroxyline. (Reissue, 5,928 ) 105,823 McClelland, Coating objects with collodion. 113,055 Hyatts (f Perkins, Pvroxyline dental plates. 113,272 Deitz, Wayne If .Stone, Billiard balls. 113.735 Brockway, Molding apparatus. 113.736 Brockway, Dental plates. 114,242 Winsborougli, Pyroxyline for dental plates. 114,915 Hyatt, Billiard balls, handles, etc. 119,710 Hyatt, Inlaying. 120,130 Troutmtin, Attaching teeth to plates. 121,522 Hyatt if Hyatt, Molding dental plates. 125,979 Newton, Attaching pyroxyline base to teeth. 126,575 Pursell, Apparatus for attaching teeth to base. 127,656 Smith, Composition for dental plates. 128,729 Hyatt if Hyatt, Enameling, checkers. 133,229 Hyatt If Hyatt, Apparatus for making pyroxyline. 133,969 Dietz Sf Wayne, Manufacture of pyroxyline. 135,918 Hyatt Hyatt, Toilet combs. 136,735 Jones, Truss pads. 138,254 Hyatt, Manufacture of pyroxyline articles. 143,772 McClelland, Collodion compound. 143,865 Anthony, Preparing soluble cotton. 150,722 Smith, Artificial coral. 152,232 Hyatt, Apparatus and process celluloid. 153,196 Hunt, Molding celluloid for dentists. 156.352 Hyatt Sc Hvatt, Solidified collodion. 156.353 Hyatt if Hi/all, Manufacture of celluloid. 156.354 Hyatt if Hyatt, Factitious ivory. 162,128 White, Dental pots. 162,752 Hunt, Softening and molding celluloids. 165.234 Hyatt Sf Hyatt, Grinding mill. 165,303 Cannon, Treating celluloid for dental vases. 172,995 Greening, soluble gun cotton . 173,865 Reagles, Composition for dental plates. 177,153 Pitman, Celluloid boat. 184,481 Sweeney, Graphite and collodion lubricant. 195,010 Hyatt, Brushes. 199.908 Hyatt, Celluloid, sheets of. 199.909 Hyatt, Celluloid combs. 200,939 Satiborn, Cult's, collars, etc. 201,348 Hyatt If Hyatt, Imitations of celluloid. 202,441 Hyatt, Coating with celluloid. 203,631 Lockwood, Martingale rings, coated with celluloid. 203,838 Hyatt, .Shoe-tips. 204.227 Hyatt, Covering cores and tubes of celluloid, etc. 204.228 Hyatt, Tubes, etc., of celluloid. 204.229 Hyatt, Apparatus for coating bars with celluloid. 205,271 Hyatt, Sheets of celluloid, etc. 205,880 Lockwood, Strips for coating articles. 208,584 Fontayne, Ornamenting glass. 210.611 Hyatt, Apparatus manuf. nitrocellulose. 210.612 Hyatt, Apparatus for washing pulp. 210,780 Hyatt, Piano keys. 212,948 Kanouse, Sweat band for hats. 214,665 Kai/s if Hulsey, Lathe for turning celluloid. 216,474 Tribouillet if Besaucele, Solid collodion. 217,111 Johnson, Molding celluloid, etc. 217,232 McCaine, Treating pyroxyline. 218,019 Halxey, Neckties and bows. 218,122 Hyatt, Cards and labels of celluloid. 219,218 Carpenter, Celluloid taper tubes. 219.235 Edson, Drying celluloid. 219,279 Lefferts, Pitchers and vessels. 220,386 Kanouse (f Sanborn, Collars and cuffs. 220,502 Spencer, Frames for optical instruments. 221,070 Hyatt, Manufacture of celluloid. 221,977 Sanborn, Collars and cuffs. 222,229 Benin if Thomas, Handles for cutlery, etc. 222,678 Dobbins, Celluloid dental vases. 223,311 Booth, Combs from celluloid. 224,682 Halsfy, Thimbles, blanks of celluloid. 229,477 Sckmerber if Arrault, Grinding and mixing. 230,216 Arrault if Schmerbcr, Nitro-derivatives from cellu- lose. 232,037 Hyatt, Applying veneers of celluloid. 232,095 Whiting, Celluloid boxes. 233,076 Corvin, Celluloid ornamentation. 233,414 Hni/s if Hays, Celluloid wearing belt. 233,558 Schmerber, Treatment of nitro-derivatives of cellu- lose. 233,558 Srhmerber If Schmerber, Treating pyroxyline. 233,604 Dfutsch Sf Kanause, Drumhead of celluloid. 233,824 Whittemore, Crutch top. 233,851 Hart if Bacon, Decorating celluloid. 233,878 Stinborn, Elastic pressing die. 233,898 Villiers, Die for molding thimbles. 234,665 Fox, Cuffs and fronts. 234.823 Treated, Faucet and gage-cock. 235.932 Carpenter, Celluloid tubes. 325.933 Carpenter, Celluloid doll.s. 235.953 Lefferts, Syringes. 235.954 Lefferts, Spoons and forks. 235.958 Otto, Bougies, pumps, etc. 235.959 Otto, Pessaries. See also the following references : Man. & uses . . "Iron Age,'' 1 xxiii., May 22, p. 7; xxiv., Dec. 25, p. 13. Applications . . " Iron Age,'' xxvi., July 29, p. 7 ; Aug. 19, p. 13. Explosions . . " Iron Age," xxiv., Dec. 11, p. 20. Patent decision . " Iron Age," 1 xxv., June 24, p. 5. Incendiary . " Iron Age," xix., May 3, p. 15. Uses, etc., . . "Manuf. if Builder,'' vii. 219 ; viii. 206- 208'; ix. 47 ; xii. 7, 73, 95, 144. Emery wheels . ' Manuf and Builder,'''' viii. 233 ; ix. 125. Printing plates . ' Manuf. and Builder," 1 xii. 255. Paper celluloid . ' Manuf. and Builder,' 1 '' x. 18. Preparation of . 'Eng. and Min. Jour.,'' xxiv. 208. Uses, etc. ..." Eng. and Min. Jour..'' xxvii. 279, 409 ; xxviii. 300 ; xxix. 50. Printing Plates . " Eng. and Min. Jour.,' 1 ' xxx. 125, 141. "Mining Sf Scientific Press,'' xxxii. 166, xxxviii. 23. Chute .... "Technologiste," xxxviii. 346. Uses. . . . "Am. Man. If Iron World,'-' xxv., May 23, p. 8; xxvi., Jan. 23, p. 13. Veneers ..." Am. Man. If Iron World," xxvi., July 23, p. 8. Stereotypes . . "Am. Man.Sf Iron World," xxvi., Sept. 3, "LeffePs Mill. Sf Mech. News," ix. 119, 138. Applications. . "Sc. American," xxxvii. 147, 204 ; xl. 225. "Sc. American Supplement,'' 1101, 3617. "English Mechanic," xxiii. 416. Parkesine . . "English Mechanic," xxvi. 223. Apparatus . . "English Mechanic," S. S. White's Den- tal Catalogue, * ed. 1878, pp. 56, 335. Cellu-loid Heat'er. A small oven for pack- ing while heating celluloid plates. It has an inner Fig. 574. Heindsmann^s Celluloid Heater. and outer chamber, the latter affording a contin- uous circulation of heated air. The bottom is ribbed, and the intercostal space filled with plaster to prevent too rapid heating. The door is hinged. The flask containing the teeth and plate is set in, and a clamp screw set through the top of the heater impinges upon the top of the flask. The plaster of the bottom is heated, and the evaporation produces the moist heat which is desirable in the earlier part of the process. Cel'lu-lose'. The fiber of vegetables ; useful especially in the industrial arts as the foundation material for paper; but also of importance as in- gredient in the group of objects of which pyroxy- line, celluloid, etc., are examples, and as a material which is saturated with nitro-glycerine to produce explosives, under various names. Refer to ... "Manufacturer Sf Builder," x. 231. "Scientific American," xxxv. 41. "Scientific American Supplement," 3341. Miturherlich . " Terhnologiste," xxxvii. 76. CEMENT. 182 CEMENT. Ce-meiit'. A material for uniting objects or protecting their surfaces. The compositions differ greatly, and the term is of so wide a signification that it includes mortar, building cements, sticking compositions of gum or resin in solution, pastes, and badigeon for stopping cracks or hiding faults in M r ork ; luting for glass or ceramic tubes and vessels. See also CEMKNT, pages 507-509, " Mech. Diet." Besides the recipes and directions found in the following list, there are numerous varieties known uncUr special names, such as BADIGEON, BETOX, BRECCIA, CONCRETE, HYDRAULIC CEMENT, MOR- TAR, POZZUOLANA, SCAGLIOLA, STUCCO, etc., in " Mech. Diet." et infra. See list on page 1405 of the work cited. Arid proof: Melt caoutchouc, and add 6 to 8 per cent, of tallow ; stir : add dry slaked lime to bring it to the consist- ency of paste ; then add 20 per cent, of red lead. Or To a solution of caoutchouc add twice its weight of raw linseed oil ; then an equal weight of pipe-clay. As a lining of cells to make them acid proof : line them with slats of barytes joined with a cement of Caoutchouc 1 Turpentine 2 Pulv. barytes 4 To protect a cork from nitric acid : Soak it in a solution of silicate of soda ; when hardened, insert cork, and cover with a paste of silicate of soda and pounded glass ; wash with so- lution of chl. calcium. Good for luting. For protecting wood from acids, alkalies, and corrosive gase* : 6 parts colophony, 3 wood tar, fused together, and 4 parts of brickdust stirred in ; apply warm. To unite metal to glass : Powdered litharge ... 2 Dry white lead .... 2 Mix; and work up with linseed oil (3) and copal (1) to a dough. The cement is attached to the metal, the glass pressed on, and superfluous cement scraped off. Or take Thick solution of glue 2 Linseed oil varnish 1 Boil and stir. Or Rosin 3 Caustic soda 1 Water 5 boiled and mixed with half the weight of gypsum. For fastening letters on glass : Dilute white of egg with water, and add carbolic acid to prevent decomposition ; fil- ter : paint the glass with a badger brush ; apply the gold or silver leaf ; dry ; mark the letters with a stencil ; put in a warm bath, and remove with the nail superfluous metal. To stop cracks hi glass : Dissolve casein in cold saturated solution of borax ; with this solution paste strips of softened bladder on the cracks ; dry. Strong transparent cement, for glass, wood, porcelain, stone. Rub together in a mortar Nitrate of lime 2 Water 25 Powdered gum arable 20 For glass : 1 part India-rubber, dissolved in 60 parts chlo- roform : 34 mastic ; digested at a gentle heat. Another: Orange shellac, bruised 4 Rectified spirits 3 Put in a warm place, and shake occasionally till dissolved. To attach wood to glass : Solution of isinglass in acetic acid. To attach tin to metal : Mucilage tragacanth. . 10 Honey of roses ... 10 Flour 1 Mix. Waterproof cement : Gelatine . . 5 Soluble acid chromate of lime 1 Cover the broken edges, press together, and expose to sunlight. To attach wood to wood, or to make, cracks in wood water- tight : Lime clay, and oxide of iron ; kept dry till wanted, then mix with water and use. To stick paper, leather, or wood to metal: To a gill of glue dissolved in water add a tablespoonful of glycerine. To stick leather to metal : Powdered nutgalls dissolved in 8 parts of distilled water ; settle 6 hours and filter. Apply this to the leather. Then take a similar quantity of water and add to it 1 part (by weight) of glue. Let it remain in solution 24 hours. Apply to the metal, which should be roughened and heated. Lay the leather on the metal and dry under pressure. Rubber Cement : 1 part India-rubber dissolved in 2 parts linseed oil ; add quantity sufficient bole, say 3 parts. For tortoise-shell, amber, etc. : Equal parts mastic and lin- seed oil, gently warmed, make a good cement, applied warm. For uniting wood to wood : Shellac dissolved in alcohol. It is well to interpose gauze or thin fabric between the two surfaces. Or shellac, mastic, and turpentine heated, to which isinglass, in small pieces, is added, may be employed. Attaching small articles to hard surfaces: Colophony tur- pentine, yellow wax, with a small proportion of pulverized sealing wax. For bone, ivory, mother of pearl, etc. : Glue, dissolved in water and quicklime ; pulverized chalk may also be em- ployed. For ivory: Place pure gelatine in a strong solution of alu- mina. When penetrated by the latter withdraw and use im- mediately. When dry polish. For porcelain : White of eggs mixed with solution of glue. Or : 4 parts pulverized oyster shells, and 2 gum arabic ; preserve in a tightly stopped bottle and when required for use mix with white of eggs or warm water to a doughy consist- ency. Or: 8 parts well-burnt alabaster gypsum, 2 parts fine gum arabic, mixed with water into a thick paste and 40 to 50 drops oil of turpentine added to each ounce of the compound. Caseine Cements, for glass, porcelain, stone, and wood: Old cheese rubbed fine and mixed with water, forming a paste to which ^ part of pulverized lime is added. Or: 1 part quicklime in water, f pulverized lime or sand- stone, 1 pulverized cheese. Caseine water glass : The caseine is separated from skimmed milk by adding acetic acid, filtering and washing, and is mixed with 6 times its bulk of concentrated water glass. For artificial meerschaum, coating artificial Jtoicers, etc.: Two to 4 parts of the above is rubbed up with cold borax so- lution till a thick liquid is obtained that becomes clear on standing. This is useful for stiffening and waterproofing goods. Water glass cement. For glass, porcelain, earthenware, etc. : Rub together 1 part finely pulverized glass and 2 pulverized tiuor spar, add water glass solution till the proper consistency is attained. For the joints and edges of stone and marble slabs : Water glass, mixed with hydraulic cement to form a thick dough. For cementing stone, and filling up crevices previous to painting ; fresh blood, slaked lime, brick-dust, coal ashes, hammer-slag, and sand in various proportions. For the joints of water-pipes, etc.: 2 parts fine brick-dust, 2 quicklime, and 2 hammer-slag, made into a dough with lye or hot oil. For rendering Hessian clay retorts impenetrable : Fresh slaked lime rubbed into concentrated solution of borax ; the solution is applied with a brush and after drying- the retort is heated until the glazing begins to fuse. German cement for closing joints of stoves : Clay mixed with water, fresh warm blood, and quicklime ; it is applied while hot. A compound of wood ashes, fire clay, and salt mixed with water is also employed. Iron cement: 5 parts clay, 1 salt, and 15 iron filings. Good to resist heat. White marble cement : Take 8 parts of resin and 1 of wax, to which, when melted together, add 4 parts of plaster of Paris. This is used while hot. Apply only a thin coating. Or: Mix 12 parts of Portland cement, 6 parts of slaked lime, 6 parts of fine sand, and 1 part of infusorial earth, and make up into a thick paste with silicate of soda. The object to be cemented does not require to be heated. It sets in twenty-four hours, and the fracture cannot be readily found. For wood, porcelain, or glass: To a strong solution of gum arabic, 8i fluid ounces, add a solution of 30 grains sulphate of aluminium dissolved in of water. For outside brick-work: Mix 20 parts clean river sand, 1 of quick lime, and sufficient linseed oil to form a thin paste. This is also useful as a cement for broken stone. Oil cements. 1. For porcelain and for luting chemical ap- paratus : Fine brick-dust mixed with an equal quantity of red lead and rubbed or ground with old boiled linseed oil ; after being applied, sand is strewn upon it. 2. 6 litharge, 4 pulverized fresh burned lime, 2 parts white bole, mixed with cold linseed oil. 3. For iron water-pipes: 12 parts Roman cement, 4 white lead, 1 litharge, J colophony pulverize, mix. and triturate 2 or 3 pounds with old linseed oil, in which 2 oz. colophony has been boiled. Or : Equal parts lime, Roman cement, and potters' clay, finely ground, sifted, and well mixed with linseed oil. 4. Common lead luting is made of litharge and red lead mixed with old boiled oil. Another is composed of 2 parts red lead, 5 white lead, and 5 fine clay mix with boiled oil. 5. For wood : 1 part pulverized slaked lime and 2 of rye flour, mixed with linseed oil varnish. 6. To make water-holders tight: Pulverized slaked lime and cod-liver oil : chemical apparatus may be made tight by oil cake or pressed almond cake, rubbed up with water. 7. 10 parts red lead, 25 white lead, 20 pipe-claymix with boiled oil. Water cement : 10 parts slaked lime, 19 brick-dust, 16 sand, 5 blacksmiths' dross, 5 powdered quick lime mix with water. Iron and blood cement: 100 parts pulverized lime, tritu- rated with bullocks' blood, 200 parts cement, and 5 to 10 parts iron filings. CEMENT, PLASTER, GLUE, ETC. 183 CEMENT TESTER. Ce-ment', Flas'ter, Glue, etc. See under the following heads : Alabaster, imitation. Amber cement. Asphaltum, artificial. Belting cement. Bdton. Black mortar. Caoutchouc cement. Carbonated stone. Cement (see list). Cement cask. Cement mill. Clay mill. Clay tempering mill. Concrete. Cutler's cement. Distemper. Floor cement. Glass cement. Glue. Glutine. Glvrerine cement. Hammond artificial stone. Hydraulic cement. India-rubber cement. Insoluble cement. Iron cement. .le\vclcrs' cement. Lamp cement. Leather cement. Lime cracker. Lime kiln. Lime mill. Lime screen. Marble, artificial. Marble cement. Marbleuing iron. Marine glue. Mixing machine. Mortar. Mortar machine. Mortar mill. Mortar mixer. Mouth glue. Mucilage. Plaster. Plastering. Plastering machine. Plaster mill. Portable glue. Portland cement. Pozzuolana. Rust cement. Sand dryer. Sand screen. Sand sifter. Screen. Slag cement. Stamp mucilage. Steam proof cement. Stone, artificial. Stone, carbonated. Stucco. Water-proof cement. Whitewash. See the following references to cements : Acid proof Architectural, "Engineer' Bottle sealing Caoutchouc to metal . . Calcimine Cement-making plant. Michele Cutlers' Castings, holes in . . . Cast iron Glass . Hydraulic, American . Iron Insoluble Manufacture, Goodridge . . Metallic to non-metal, articles Metals to glass Metals to glass windows . . Ornaments Philadelphia, 1876, at ... Pipes Portland (tests) Making * Faija Adulteration of i ... "Building News" . . . Sewage dryer, Wilson, Br. Tester, Fairbanks . . . . * Holste, Ger * Jacob, Br * Adelaide water works . . * Valuation of, Michaelis . . Waterproof "Scientific Am.," xxxvi.213. " Van Nost. Mag.," xix. 498. " Scientific Am.,'' xxxix. 231. "Scientific Am. Sup.,'' 454. " Scientific Am.,'' xxxiv. 394. "Engineer," xlvii. 186. "Scientific Am.," xxxvi. 214. "Scientific. Am.," xxxix. 197. "Scientific Am.," xl. 182. Scientific Am.," xxxvi. 213. 'Scientific Am.," xl. 184. Iron Age," xxv., June3,15. Scientific Am.," xxxiv. 181. ' Scientific Am.," xxxix. 399. Man. $ B.,:' ix. 282. Scientific Am.," xxxv. 23. Sc.Am.,"x\. 104,243. Scientific Am.,'' xxxvi. 25. 'Scientific Am. Sup.," 692. Scientific Am. Sup.," 1011. Engineering," xxii. 408. Scientific Am.,'' xxxv. 209. Man. if Builder," ix. 32. Van Host. Mag.," xxii. 463. Van ffost. Mag.," xxiii. 27. Van Nost. Mag.," xxii. 156. Engineering," xxviii. 378. Man. If .,' xii. 280. Engineering," xxvi. 163. Engineer,'' xlviii. 397 ; * xlviii. 438. Engineer,'' xlix. 100. Scientific Am. Sup.,'' 1813. Scientific Am.," xxxvi. 199. Scientific Am.," xxxv. 353. Scientific Am. Sup.," 1105. Q. A. Gillmore, " Centen- II., vol. iii., p. 147 et seq. Vicat's cement. Hydraulic lime. Artificial stone. Phoenix stone. Wooden baths .... See Report on Cements by Gen nial Exhibition Reports," Group Including Puzzuolana. Trass. Roman cement. Portland cement. See also : Gilmore's Practical Treatise on Limes, Hydraulic Cements, and Mortars." Gillmore's " Cpignet Beton and Other Artificial Stone." Reid's "Practical Treatise on Manuf. of Portland Cement." Reid's " Pract. Treatise on Concrete, and How to Make it." Austin's "Practical Treatise on Calcareous and Hydraulic Limes and Cements." Dobson's "Foundations and Concrete Works.'' 1 Burnell's "Rudimentary Treatise on Limes, Cements, Mor- tars, Concretes, Mastics, Plastering," etc. Ce-ment' Cask. Casks, or rather cisterns of cement have been used in Zurich since 1871, by M. Bollert, for storing wine. First coat selected portions of the cellar walls roughly with cement-mortar, and then with the best pure Portland cement form the other portions of the vessels by ponring the material into suitably constructed wooden molds. The fin- ished vessels may be similar in external appearance to the wooden ones if desired. After the interior is sufficiently har- dened, fill with water for 10 days, to ascertain whether they are tight, and also to extract the caustic ingredients of the cement. The latter object is, however, better accomplished with a solution of carbonate of ammonia and subsequent rinsing with water. Ce-ment' Mill. 1. A mill for crushing the au- riferous gravel cemented with clay found in the placers of California. One belonging to the New York & Calaveras Mining Com- pany is cylindrical in form, 41' long and 6J' diameter, set on an incline of J" to the foot and revolved. Interior flanges break the cement in passing, water being supplied freely and spaces left to allow the crushed cement to pass out. The bowlders and blocks of cement grind against each other in transitu and the cement is degraded. 2. A mill for grinding cement stone to powder suitable for making mortar, be'tou. etc. The machine of Jannot fits, of Triel (Seine-et-Oise), France., has a Chilian edge-stone traversing in an annular Fig. 575. Cement Mill. (Jannot fils, Triel, France.) pan, and with various scrapers which lift the cement and throw it again and again into the path of the stone. A horse is hitched to the horizontal axis of the stone. It is used for grinding plaster for building, pozzuolana, charcoal, etc. (Dentistry.) Fig. 676. An instru- Ce-ment' Flug'ger. ment for plugging carious teeth with oxychl o r i d e ce- ment. Ce-ment' Steel. (Metal- lurgy.) Steel ob- tained b y piling bars of wrought iron in a furnace Atkinson's Cement Pluggers. interstratified with charcoal and exposure to heat without access of air. See Figs. 1197, 1 198, p. 509 ; also p. 2364, "Mech. Diet.," Blister Steel. Ce-ment' Test'er. A machine for ascertain- CEMENT TESTER. 184 CEMENT TESTER. ing the breaking strain, or the crushing resistance of cement. Fig. 577. Michaelis' Cement Tester ( German). Fig. 577 shows the apparatus devised by M. Mi- chaelis, of Berlin, and which is largely used in Germany. Tt has a standard 15" high, to which are attached two levers, the power of the upper one being 10 to 1, and the lower 1 to 1. The lower lever carries one of the jaws for holding the briquette, while the other jaw is attached to the base plate of the machine, and is vertically adjustable by means of a hand-wheel and screw. From the end of the long limb of the upper lever is suspended a weight-pan, with hooks at the lower end of its framing for carrying a receiver for hold- ing shot. When at rest, the knife-edges of the levers should be on a level, their adjustment being effected by means of the counter-weight on the short limb of the upper lever. In operating ith this apparatus the briquette is placed in the ho) ling jaws, which are then adjusted by means of the hand- wheel and screw. Fine shot is then poured into the sus- pended receiver until the fracture of the briquette takes place. The receiver with the shot is then weighed by an ordinary p:iir of scales, or it may be weighed on the appara- tus itself by hanging it on the hook of the connecting link between the two levers, the weights being placed in the weight-pan. Weighing by independent scales, however, is more expeditious. The weight of the receiver and shot, multiplied by 50, represents the tensile strength of the bri- quette per square inch of sectional area. The apparatus is portable and does not require to be fastened down for use. It is about 28" high and 25" long, and only weighs a little over 50 pounds. Fig. 57& a small reservoir or the summit of the machine. A graduated glass tube indicates the weight of the liquid in the can, and when the cement is broken, a trigger closes the tap and stops the flow of water. The cement tester of M. nerve JMangoii, con- structed for the Laborutoire cles Fonts et CliatiKxe't'S of France, is shown in Fig. 579. The block of cement, molded into the form shown at B, is held between two clasps, the upper one of which is .Sus- pended from the short arm of the beam and the lower cme retained by a rod fastened to the frame of the machine, and capable of adjustment as to length by a hand-wheel. D which screws on the thread of the rod.' Weights, A, prox- imately sufficient for the purpose, are placed on the swinging platform, which is suspended from the end of the long lever, and the smaller weight P is then advanced along the grad- uated beam by means of the hand-wheel ( ' and the worm, or, for still more delicate movement, by the wheel (,'', which moves the worm by pinion and cog-wheel. M. Mangon remarks that mortar formed of cement 1, and sand 2, should not be subjected to test in less than (> to 10 hours ; and that a test-block 0.04 m. on each side at the nar- rowest part, or 0.16 m. square in cross-section should support, after five days at least, 70 kilos before breaking. The machine made by Paupier, of Paris, is adapted either for traction or crushing. M. Herv6 Mangon speaks as follows of the Portland ce- ment : " The applications of Portland cement are extremely nu- merous. Mortar of cement is about as easily employed as that made from hydraulic lime. Mason-work in Portland cement has a solidity, proof against all tests, and resists even the action of sea-water. With this cement are erected the light and bold arches and vaults which are among the aston- ishing constructions of the day. It serves to build and line the great reservoirs of the cities. It gives surfaces as fine and moldings as delicate as plaster, with absolute unaltera- bility. It furnishes flagging stones of a durability equal to stone, and a much cheaper rate. It enters into the compo- sition of the belong agg/omere's of M. Coignet, employed so extensively in the public works of Paris, and particularly in the construction of the grand aqueduct for conveying the water of the Vanne to Paris." The hydraulic lime of Teil, France, is said to contain 66 per cent, of silicate of lime, and to form one of the strongest cements known. It is used by the "Fire-proof Building Co.'' of New York. The following references may be consulted : Holste '. * "Engineering,'' xxvi. 163. Fig. 579. Bailey $ Co.'s Cement Tester (English). Another machine, on the same principle, is made by Bailey & Co., of Salford, England; but the weight consists of a can, into which water flows from Michaelis Richie . Fairbanks Bailey , Herve Mangon' s Cement Tester (French). u Scientific American Supplement," 3748, 2335. " Van Nostmnd's Engineering Mas.," xvii.17. "Manufacturer and Builder,'' xi. 108. "Manufacturer and Builder,'' xii. 280. "American Railroad Journal,'' xlix. 667. "Scientific American," xxxviii. 130. CENTER BEARING. 185 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP. Cen'ter Bear'ing. (Railway.) The bearing for a car on the center of the truck frame. The body center-plate rests on the truck center-plate d, Fig. 1159, p. 488, "Mecli. Diet.," and A 7 , Fig. 1161, p. 489, II>i See also list on page 1779, "Mech. Diet." CEPHALOTRITE. 187 CHAFF CUTTEli Fig. 584. Excavating and Deodorizing Apparatus. scissors, smooth or tooth-edged, for amputation of the cervix. Ceph'a-lo-trite. (Surgical.) An instrument I Cer'vix U'te-ri Scis'sors. for crushing the fetal skull in obstructed labor. Lvsk's cephalotrite is shown at Fig. 1219, p. 516, "Mech. Diet." ; Braun's and Simpson's nre shown at Figs. 534, 534 b, Part III., "Tiemanti's "Armamentarium C/u'rurgicum." The Cra.niot.omy forceps (Meigs and Thomas), and Simp- son's Cranioclast, are crushing instruments of a more dis- tinctly forceps-shape. Ce-ram'ic Kiln. One for baking, burning, and firing pottery. The term baking is applied to the comparatively moderate heating of green ware to bring it to the biscuit condition. Firing and Iniriiliii/ are optional terms, referring to the final heating where the glaze is melted and the colors vitrified. See various terms in list on page 186. See PORCELAIN KILN, POTTERY KILNS, etc., "Meek. Dirt."' Also Report by Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, " Centennial Exhibi- tion Ke/iorts," vol. iii., Group II., p. 222 et xeq. Including the kilns of Momml * p. 222. Gregg *p. 225. Mfnhehii ((ins) * p. 229. See also BRICK KILN, supra. Cer'a-tome. (Surgical.) A knife to divide the iris. Kemtome. Cer'e-sin. A mineral or fossil wax, the puri- fied product of ozocerite, found near the extensive coal-beds of lower Germany and Austria. A sub- stitute for beeswax. Amber, kauri, ozocerite, are fossil gums. See list of gum resins and gums, p. 1921, "Mech. Diet.," and list of fossil resins, etc., p. 51, supra. Cer'vix U'te-ri Di-la'tor. (Surgical.) The Fig. 583. Dr. John Ball's Cervix Uteri Dilator. internal os is expanded by the instrument, which is introduced while closed, and then expanded with parallel jaws by pressure upon the lever. Dr. Hauk's dilator is of hard rubber. Dr. Vussdorff's of tupelo wood ; a species of Nyssa, grow- ing iu Florida. Figs, on p. 81, Part III., Tiemanris "Armamentarium Chi- rurgicum . ' ' Cess'pool Pump. An apparatus for empty- ing cesspools by means of pump, hose, and wheeled reservoir. Fig. 584. A 600-gallon tank is mounted on wheels, and has inlet and outlet valves. A 4" smooth-bore rubber hose, with imbedded spiral to prevent collapse, is used in lengths of 15' for suc- tion and discharge, having the usual couplings. The air in the tank, as displaced, is driven through a deodorizing can shown in front of the tank, on the rear of which is an indi- cator. A force-pump connects by suction hose with the vault, and by force hose with the tank. A peculiar flexible rubber tube forms the valve. Cess'pool Trap. A water joint made at the entrance to a cesspool or pipe leading thereto, to prevent reflex current of fetid gas. See SEWER TRAP. C. Gr. S. (Electricity.) (Centimeter-gramme- second.) An abbreviated expression for one dyne. Gordon. Cha'fing Plate. A metallic plate interposed between two objects to take the wear. Instances are to be found, in the transom c/ia /ing-plate and the truck-bolster chafing -plate of a car truck. Chaff Sift'er. A machine used to separate seeds and dust from the chaff which comes from the thresher. Chaff Cut'ter. The machine, with the Ed- wards (Br.) improvement, for preventing accident, is perhaps the safest machine extant. One can stop the machine, change the direction of feed, or change the length of cut, by a sin- gle lever. This is shown at the right of the machine, and is convenient to the left hand of the person who might find his right hand about to be nipped by the rollers. Fig. 585. Another machine places the shifting lever in such position that a simple pressure oven of the body in leaning against it, will stop and reverse the machine. In another British machine, the same handle which alters the length of cut also acts as a stop-motion, instantaneously arresting the progress of the rollers. Should any hard sub- stance get into the feed when working by power," the attend- I ant moves the handle, which at once stops the rollers and CHAFF CUTTEK. 188 CHAIN LOOM. Fig. 585. Ed wards' s Chaff Cutter. throws back the feed about f " from the knives,, so that the hard substance cannot be struck again. To draw the feed quite back into the hopper the attendant has only to pull round the wheel at the end of the machine, which can be done while the fly-wheel is running at full speed. Fig. 586. Albaret's Chaff Cutter (French). Albarefs Chaff Cutter (French), Fig. 586, shows the favor- ite French feed motion, by chain. The knives have the same disposition as the British, the best principle as it appears to the writer, that is, a curved knife (or knives) revolving in a plane across the direction of feed. See ENSILAGE CUTTER. Chain. See the following references : Belt * "Scientific American Sup.,' 1 89. Brake, railway automatic, Park If Webb, Br. "Engineering," xxx. 73. 'Engineer,'' xxv. 46, 104. 'Sc. American Sup." 677, "Engineering,'' 1 xlix. 190. "Scientific Am. " xxxviii. 393. "Am. Manuf.,'' Jan. 17, 1879, p. 13. See also CABLE TESTER, supra. Chain Bit. mouth-piece. L. & N. W. Railway, Br. Making, hand Coupling, Vitiat, Br. . . Pump, Wattis Testit machine, Richte . Chain Bucket. Chain Hook. (Add.) 3. (Surgical.) A chain with claw-hooks at the ends, used in post-mortems and dissecting to keep parts distended. Figs. 317, 319, Part I., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chi- rurgicum.'' Chain Tag. A steam vessel Fig- 587. which moves by winding on a chain laid in the bed of the stream. Probably derived from taglia, It. , a pul- ley ; a word adopted into English and rec- ognized by Brande ; now but little used. See TOWAGE, p. 2605, "Mech. Diet.*' CHAIN TOWING, p. 521, Ibid. Chain Buck'et. The valve on the-chain of a pump. It is elas- tic, fills the pipe in ascending, and lifts and discharges the water. See CHAIN PUMP. Chain-Ca'ble Shear. A heavy shear with jaws specially fitted for cutting iron for links of chain cables. The knife is made stepped, so as to cut only on one side of the Fig. 588. cable at once, which re- duces the diameter of the cylinders. Tweddell's hy- draulic chain-cable shear is made double, to suit cables varying from 3" to l|" diameter. The water works under a pressure of 1 ,500 pounds per square inch in the cylinder. Chain Dog. A chain with a driving dog at each end, to be driven into ad- jacent logs in a raft to hold them together. Chain Guide. A di- recting course for a lifting chain in a tackle-block of chain Gtlide - the differential class. See DIFFERENTIAL PULLEY- BLOCK. Chain Har'row. A laud harrow made of chain net-work, with teeth at the intersections. Fig. 589. (Manege.} One having a chain Chain Harrow. Drawn over the ground, it laps upon and into all inequalities and makes a very efficient implement in certain conditions of the ground. Chain Hoist. A lifting tackle in which the power is communicated through the medium of a chain which runs over an indented wheel of the tackle. In Figs. 590, 591, the chain is continuous, and operates a wheel, on the shaft of which is a worm which gears into a cog-wheel on the shaft of the lifting pulley over which the hoist chain runs. When one hook of the latter is elevated the other is down, and the hoist chain is used back and forth alternately. Chain Loom. A loom in which the harnesses are controlled by patterns on a chain ; as distin- guished from those operated by cams, or by Jac- quard. CHAIN PUMP. 189 CHALLIS. Fig. 590 Chain Pump. Ki , r 591 Pulley Blocks. In which the buckets are at- tached to a continuous chain. See Figs. 1228-1231, pp. 520- 522, "Mech.Dict." Murray's chain pump is spe- cially adapted for hydraulic con- structions, drainage, sewage works, etc., having no clacks nor Fig. 592. Chain Stop'per. A tunnel with a pivoted flap to engage a link of chain to prevent the paying out of the latter. Chain-tap'pet Loom. A loom for fancy weaving, in which the harnesses are operated by tappets upon a pattern-chain. Chair. (Add.) 4. (Glass.) The bench of the glass-blower at which he sits, rolling the ponty to the end of which the glass under treatment is at- tached. Fig. 2243, p. 980, "J/ecA. Diet." While thus being rotated, rolling by the left hand, the right has the pucellas, shears, battlt-i/ore, to shape or trim; and the swinging, rolling, reheating-, blowing, and shaping by tools constitute the manipulations by which the workman, principally guided by his eye, gives the form desired to the plastic mass. Compasses, calipers, a rule, and a marver com- plete the equipment. The cage, and the forked slick for re- moving the articles, belong to the boy who runs with them to the annealing oven, technically known as the leer. Chair Mor'tis-er. Fig. 594 is a machine adapted to all kinds of chair mortising, straight or round work ; also as a horizontal boring and miter- ing machine. The principle of the machine is rotary ; the fixed end of the boring bar moves in a ball-and-socket joint, allowing the bar to revolve and the vibrating end to be moved in any di- rection desired. The variations from straight to mortises of different curves, are produced by the position of the curved bar, upon which the bearing of the movable end of the boring bar slides ; when the bar is placed with the curve horizontal the mor- tises are straight, and changed to its greatest curve when perpendicular. Fig. 594. Chain Hoist. Murray's Contractor's Chain Pump. valves proper to be obstructed by mud, sand, or weeds. The lift is pivoted and slung to the chain, and assumes its position in the up-shaft. If any obstruction enters, a back turn of the chain im- mediately releases it, the lift folding up, and allow- ing the obstruction to be carried up in the stream. Fig. 593. Chain Stopper. Lfmman's Chair Mortiser. The range in length of mortise is, from boring a hole to a length of mortise equal to the greatest travel of the cutting bit, and is changed by the stroke of the crank pin being made greater or less, and also by the arrangement of a handle moving the end of the connecting rod, to any position desired, upon a curved rod which produces a greater or less length of the connecting rods, giving any length of mortise desired within the capacity of the machine. The depth of the mortise is regulated by moving the table, holding the stuff, by a lever in connection with a pinion and rack. The table is raised vertically, by a screw and hand wheel, and provided with three clamp?, of different forms, for holding the stuff in the position required for the work. Chair-stretch'er Lathe. A lathe with a hol- low head ; like a broom-handle lathe. It has four feeding rolls, two forward and two back of the hol- low cutter, and heavy gearing with reversible feed. Chal'lis. (Fabric.) A French worsted dress CHAMBER. 190 CHARCOAL GRINDING MILL. roods woven upon a gauze or open taffeta loom. It has a silk yreye warp, and merino-wool weft. It is generally printed. It differs from bar&je in the material of the warp, which in barege is of cotton. Cham'ber. (Add.) 10- (Fire-arm and Ord- nance. ) The space, enlarged or otherwise, occupied by the charge. Cham'ber Kiln. A brick or tile kiln in com- partments ; sometimes capable of being heated in succession as with Hoffman's, Fig. 903, p. 371, "Meek. Diet.'" Johnson, Br * "Engineer," xlix. 210. See also BRICK KILN. Chair Bal'ance. A chair suspended from a spring balance to weigh per- sons. Cham'oied. (Leather.) Shamoyed. See TAWING, p. 2500, " Mech. Diet." Champ-le-ve'. (Fine Art Metal Working.) A species of enameling on metal. Lines are engraved on the metallic surface and are filled with enamel. It is allied to Niello. Differs essentially from clois- onne', which see. See also INLAY- ING. Cham'fer-ing Ma-chine'. 1. A machine for beveling the ends of staves after being set in a cask. See BARREL-CHAM- FERING MACHINE. 2. A machine for rounding or cornering timbers, preparatory to putting on the sand-belt ; es- pecially used in carriage and implement work. In the cornering and rounding machine, Fig. 596, the several heads of the spindle are each pro- vided with differently shaped cutters. The amount of corner to be taken off is governed by the dis- Fig. 596. Chair Balance. Cornering or Hounding Machine. tance the bevel-guards are set apart, they being adjustable and retained in position by a set screw in the foot of each. A chamfer of any bevel may be made by having the guards of a bevel to cor- respond to it. Also known as a radial planer. Cham'pagne Do'sing Ma-chine'. An ap- paratus for dosing, that is, adding to the wine a portion of sirup, which produces the sparkling ebullition peculiar to this class of wines. Fig. 597. The bottle of champagne being uncorked, the mouth is placed against the cork-covered mouth of the spout, the bot- tom of the bottle being pressed by a spring-pad. The handle of the interior faucet is then turned and replaced, a jet of sirup being injected into the bottle. The faucet is of silver, moving on glass, and the pipes all of silver, polished in- side, in order to prevent oxidation or lodgment of foreign matters. When the bottle is removed, it is ready for final corking and wiring. Chang e'a- ble-speed Gear. A nest of gearing placed between the mo- tor a n d t h e driven object and so arranged that the speed of the latter can be varied .at will by the motion of a lever. The illustration. Fig. 598, is the changeable g e a r of the " Climax ' mower. By moving the shifting lever to the left, the double clutch is thr.own into gear with the slow or ordinary motion. By moving it to the right, this same clutch is thrown into gear with the fast mo- tion. By moving this lever on to the pin in the center of the shifting lever- holder, the machine is thrown out of gear entirely. Fig. 597 Mac/lined dose r. Tricourt fy Cie., Reims. (Bridye.) In long truss Chan'nel Span. (Ltnaye.) in long truss bridges over shallow rivers, the trusses of the spans Fis. 598. Changeable-speed are frequently placed i below the grade, to save height ; but over |R the channel the truss is above the grade to per mm rait passage of boats. Such are seen at Cincin jjj nati and Louisville, for instance. Chan'nel-ing Machine'. A machine for mak- ing channels or grooves in stone in the quarry to make a line of separation. Vermont Stone-cutter Co. . . * "Engineering," xxii 267. Chap'let. (Add.) 2. (Founding.) A wrought iron stud for holding a core in position within the mold. Also called a qrain. Char'coal Grind'ihg -Mill. (Gunpowder Making.) Shown in "Ordnance Report," 1879, Appendix I., Plate I., Fig. 1, and description on pp. 98, 99. It is in the style of a bark mill, a conoidal grinder in a case of corresponding shape. British * "Engineering," xxv. 37. CHARCOAL PENCIL. 191 CHECK VALVE. Char'coal Peii'cil. The charcoal crayon of Heilmanu is made from the saw-dust of willow, lime, or poplar, pressed in molds, dried in air, charred in a retort. The crayons are rubbed smooth, cased in paper, packed for sale. "Papier Zeitung." " Scientific American " xxxviii. 326. Char'coal Wash'er. A machine for washing bone-black for sirup filters. See ANIMAL CHAR- COAL WASHER, supra, and BONE-BLACK CLEAN- ING-APPARATUS, p. 327, "Mech. Diet." Kluseman . Dept. As;ric., Sp. Report, xxviii., Plate XXIX. Schrieber . . Dept. Agric., Sp. Report, xxviii., Plate XXX. Char'ger. An instrument for measuring pow- der and shot, and loading into a fowling-piece. One is shown at Fig. 1250, p. 528, "Mech. Did." Dougall's char- ger is a dipper, Vougall Charter. gruduatable b y slide for quantity, and discharging the contents into the gun by pressing the lever with the thumb. - 599 - Char'ging Bar'row. Charging Barron>. A double-wheel barrow, for use in iron furnaces for conveyance of coal, coke, lime- stone, and ore, to be dumped in at the tunnel- head of the blast furnace. It is made of a height in ac- cordance with that of the curb of the furnace mouth, in order to insure the charge being properly dumped. See BELL AND HOP- PER, p. 92. Cha'ser. (Add.) 3. A. billet. A short strap on the curtain of a carriage, fastening to a buckle on the back-stay of the top. Made raised and creased. See BILLET. Cha'sing. 1 . ( Fine Art Metal Working. ) A mode of ornamenting silver ware. It ordinarily follows the snarling tool used in repousse work. The vessel being filled with a resin composition is placed on a pad, and the surface indented by punches of various forms according to the pattern, and the texture of surface required. Fig. 1256, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 11, p. 290, vol. xxxvi., "Scien- tific American." 2. Thread cutting on a lathe, by slide rest tool or by comb. See Fig. 1256, above cited. See also admirable collection of tools, " Scientific Ameri- can," * xl. 223. Check Chain (Railway.) A chain connect- ing the car body with its truck, and intended to keep the truck from swinging cross-wise of the track if the truck should become derailed. Check Guard. A means of preventing tam- pering with bank checks, raising the figures, etc. Check-testing apparatus, bank, Grafelman. * "Scientific American,' 1 xxxvii. 227. Fig. 601. Check protector, Adah. D. S. Patent, March 5, 1872, perfo- rates amounts, both figures and words. Check'ing. Engraved cross-hatching on cer- tain parts of a rifle, gun or pistol stock, to increase the security of grip in handling. Checking machines are used in armories for cross-hatching the swivel keys of rifles, etc. Check Row'er. 1 . A "corn planter. 2. An attachment to a corn planter by which it is made automatically to drop the seed corn at reg- ular intervals of distance across a field ; dispensing with the furrowing out of a field previous to cross- ing it with the planter, and dispensing also with the assistant at the dropping lever. Ilaworth. See CORN PLANTER. Check Stop. A device used in dredging. The light line c breaks when the dredge fills or is foul, brings the slack of the drag-rope d on the davit A into play, and gives time for the check slop a drum of rubber to come into play. See DREDGE ; also AC- CUMULATORS, p. 3, supra. See also DREDGE. Check Strap. (Manage.) a. The strap of a harness whereby the collar is connected between the fore-legs to the belly-baud, to keep the collar from riding up when the horse is hold- ing back in descending a Check Stop for Dredge Lines. hill or backing. b. A strap which couples back the bit of the off- horse to the gears of the one on the near side, to hold back the off-horse when hitched on the single- line method, common in the West. A hold-back strap. Check Valve. A valve to prevent reflux of a liquid. The most familiar instance is the valve below the plunger barrel of a pump, which prevents the return to the well of the water in the stock. The most familiar distinction of check valves arises from Shape. Position. Purpose. Globe. Upright. Injector. Disk. Horizontal. Pump. Flap. Angle. Sewer gas. Ball. Oblique. Trap. Butterfly. Swinging. Brake. Piston. Alarm. Cone. Back pressure, etc. (Railway.) In the Westinghouse driving-wheel brake ; a valve which is placed in the pipe which connects a driving- wheel brake-cylinder with the air-reservoir. The pressure in the reservoir causes the valve to seat itself or close. The air must then flow through a small hole which is drilled in the valve, which prevents the brakes from being applied too Fig. 602. Fig. 603. Sewer-gas Check Valve. Boiler Check Valve. CHECK VALVE. CHEILOANGIOSCOPE. Pump Check Valve. Cushion-seated Check Valve. Fig. 605 shows Shaw's cushion-seat check valve, designed to prevent hammering on the seat. A portion of the pumped liquid is confined in the annular space around the disk, which in falling seats itself upon a cushion of liquid. Ball, Hay If Bassett . *" Scientific American,'- xxxvii. 182. Swinging * "Manufacturer $ Builder," x. 220. Check. (Add.) 13. (Mining.) The side or wall of a vein. 14. (Manage.) That portion of a bit outside of the horse's mouth. 15. (Nautical.) Of a block; one of the pieces forming the sides of the shell. These have scores on the outside for the strap, and holes with bushing for the pin. Cheek Re-tract'or. (Surgical.) A smooth flat hook to hold the cheek retracted and mouth dis- tended when operating for cleft palate, staphytorra- phy ; or in grafting in cases of deficiency of the soft palate, uraniscoplasty . See Figs. 298, 2986, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgir.um.-' Dr. Roe's mouth-gag and cheek retractor is a modification of the instrument of Luer, in respect of the addition of a Fig. 606. Hoe's Cheek Retractor. triangular or wedge-shaped block to the external surface of the cheek retracting portion of the instrument, this portion passing between the teeth and distending the jaws. A cord is passed through the hole in the handle and tied behind the head. Cheese Box Ma-chine'. A bench used in making cheese boxes. A horizontal stem holds the former on which the box is to be built. The box is in fact a cage of slats and hoops which are put to- gether on the former, the latter acting as a core for the frame during construction. Fig. 607. Cheese Knife. A device for cutting a given weight of cheese in retailing. Fig. 608. The cheese is weighed and placed on the platform, which is rotatable by the small crank at the side. By referring to the table on the column supporting the knife, there is found opposite the number representing the weight of the cheese the number of revolutions or fractional parts thereof the small crank has to be turned to measure off a pound. Then by turning the large crank, the knife blade descends, cutting off the required sector by a single stroke. Cheese-box Machine. Cheese Press. A press for squeezing the curd in the hoops to expel the whey and form cheeses. See pp. 533, 534, " Mech. Diet:' A cheese press for acting upon a whole row of cheeses in their hoops, is shown in Fig. 609. The hoops (and contents) are placed Fig. 608. Retailer's Cherse Knife. in a horizontal frame, and advanced by a screw. The screw device is adjustable on such part of the length of the frame as may suit the number of cheeses to be operated upon. The crank handle being then turned gives the first pressure ; the power is increased by the use of the lever, a ratchet on which acts upon a Frazer Gang Cheese Press. wheel upon the screw. A trough beneath receives the ex- pressed whey. Compound lever cheese press . * "Sc. American Sup ,' 2468. Chei'lo-aii'gi-o-scope. An apparatus designed by Dr. Huber, of Greifswald, to enable the circula- tion of blood of a person to be examined. The previous methods of ocular demonstration of the circulation have been, by placing the foot of a frog on the stage of the microscope, exhibiting the circulation in the CHEILOANGIOSCOPE. 193 CHLORIDE OF LIME BATTERY. web. Ptrkinje's experiment, by which an observer is enabled to observe the circulation in his own retinal blood-vessels, is ill so familiar. Dr. llulier fixes the head of the subject to be examined in ii frame not unlike that used by photographers, on which is fixed a holder for the microscope and a lamp. He then draws down the lower lip of the subject upon the stage of the instrument, with its delicate inner surface upward for in- spection, throws a strong lighten the same with a condenser, and focuses the microscope, provided with a low-power objective, down upon the delicate net-work of blood-vessels, which can be seen there even with the naked eye. By this simple means the circulation can be observed with the great- est case and perfection. Chem'i-cal Fire En'gine. A fire extinguisher which depends upon the evolution of carbonic acid gas, alone or in company with water, for the ex- tinction of fire. See FIRE ANNIHILATOR, "Mech. Diet." Che'iiot Steel. (Metallurgy.) A peculiar iron is carbonized with such matters as fat, resin, tar. Chick'eii Feed'er. See EPINETTE. Chick'ley. A gum resembling gutta-percha, obtained from one of the sa/iotecc, in Guiana. Chif'ney Bit. (Manege.) A curb-bit having a movabJe short arm attached to the cheek-piece, just above the mouth-piece, for receiving the check- straps of the bridle, the gag-rein or strap being at- tached to the short arm of the cheek-piece. Chill. 1. The hardened part of a casting: as the tread of a car-wheel. 2. A portion of a mold against which the molten metal is sud- denly cooled in order to harden the castino-. Chilled Plow. A plow the mold-board of which is cast on a chill to harden it and in- crease its wear- ing and polish- ing qualities. Chilled Roll. See CAL- ENDER ROLL. Che m'i s t 's Forge. A lab- oratory forge. That shown in Fig. 610 is by Fi - 61 - lantern bellows in the cylinder, worked by a treadle and lever. It is primarily intended for lamp or gas blow-pipe, but has many convenient applica- tions. ( >ther forms are shown under LABORATORY FORGE, BLOWPIPE, etc. Chime. 1. (Music.) A succession of bell sounds. Bells are usual ; wires or bars are occa- sionally used. Evelyn mentions a chime of porce- lain dishes. Electric chime for clocks . . " Sc. Amer. Sup., 1 '' * ii. 702. Chiming ~clock, Bombay Univ. "Si:. Amer. Sup.," * iii. 946. Centennial chime ..... "Iron Age,'' xvii.,.Tune 29, 3. French carillon ..... "Sc. Amer. Sup.,' 1 ' * 2093. Carillon ........ "Manuf. and -Su/Wer,'' x. 252. See also CARILLON. 2. (Casks.) See CHINE. Chim'ing Ma-chine'. The chiming machine consists of a drum studded with pins and turned by a crank, after the manner of a barrel-organ, whereby the ropes of the bells are pulled so as to produce particular tunes mechanically. See CA- RILLON. 13 Chim'ney. 1. A flue. Climbing apparatus, Ger. * "Engineer,'' xli. 23. Exterior * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 149. Construction, Bancroft . " Scientific American Sup.,'' 1841. Climber * "Scientific American," xlii. 386. Glasgow (454 feet) . . " Van Nostrum!'.* Mag.,-' xvi. 91. Cowl, Engl * "Scientific Amer.," xxxv. 69. See Armstrong's "Chimneys for Furnace, Fire- places, and Steam-boilers." 2. (Mining.) Chimneys are the richer spots in lodes as distinguished from poorer ones. Chi'na Grass. A fiber resembling the Rhea. It is prepared for manufacture by treating with a hot solution of carbonate of soda. Chine. 1. The end of a stave at the head of a cask or tub. 2. The edge formed by the ends of the staves. Chi'nese Pa'per. Commonly known as rice paper. This is prepared by the Chinese from the stems of a leguminous plant, Aralia papyrifera ; these are cut so as to form a continuous spiral film, which is then pressed flat, and afterwards dyed or otherwise prepared. They also make a true paper from bamboo stems by pulping and forming into sheets. The Egyptian papyrus was also a pith paper, but the de- scription of its manufacture by Pliny does not convey (as translated) the right impression as to the mode. The stem is a triangular prism ; the sides were pared off, and the slips thus obtained united by their edges while yet damp, by means of pressure. The Japanese and Chinese make pa per also from Brousso- netia papyrifera. See p. 1606, "Mech. Diet.-' This source yields also the tapa cloth of Hawaii, the masi of the Fijians. See "Atlantic Monthly," xxxi. 233. Chin-chilla. (Add.) (Fabric.) b. A camel's hair French goods. Chintz. (Fabric.) From Hindu, chint or chete, " variegated " or " spotted," whence cheta, the hunt- ing leopard. Chip Syr'inge. A rubber bulb syringe used by dentists to wash away detritus from a tooth under treatment. See BULB SYRINGE. Chip Break'er. 1 . A plate on the back of a plane bit, to bend up the chip and prevent splitting of the board. 2. A clip or piece on the side cutter-head frame in a matching machine ; breaking the chip prevents splitting of the edge of the board. Chis'el. (Surgical.) An instrument driven by a mallet for cutting bone. The gouge is a chisel with a curved edge, and has a similar use- Used in osteotomy, post-mortems, and dissecting. Chisels are edge or end sharpened, and some have specific names. The figures refer to Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirur- gicum.'' Knife chisel Fig. 86 b, Part I. Chisel Figs. 86, 331, Part T. Gouger Figs. 84,84 b, 85, 86 c, Part I. Rachitome Fig. 321, Part I, Costotome . Figs. 322, 333, Part I. MacOwen's bone chisel is used in operations for bow-legs and knock-knees. Chis'el Tooth Saw. A saw tooth which ex- poses a chisel edge to the wood in sawing, aiming rather to cut than to tear. Fig. 611 shows the Hoe insertable tooth saw, two only of the teeth of a cir- cular saw being included in the cut. Behind the saw is the tool with two studs, by which the tooth is set in or removed from its socket by a movement of rotation. See INSERTABLE TOOTH SAW, Fig. JDfet." 6, p. 2035, "Mech. Chlo'ride of Lime Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) Niaudet. The positive electrode is a plate of zinc, and the negative a plate of coke, surrounded with CHLORIDE OF LIME BATTERY. 194 CHROMOMETER. Fig. 611. Chisel-edged Intertable Tooth, Saw. coke fragments. The zinc is in a solution of chlo- ride of sodium, and the coke surrounded with chlo- ride of lime in a vessel of biscuit ware or parchment paper. Niaudet . " Scientific American Sup.," 3341, 3359, *3490. Chlo'ride of Sil'vei Bat'te-ry. (Electrici- ty.) Marie-Davy appears to have been the first to use chloride of silver in batteries. It has become more important since improved by De la Rue. A positive element of zinc and a negative element of chloride of silver are suspended in a solution of chloride. "Niaudet,'' American translation . . . 201, * 206. " Telegraphic Journal' 1 '' * vi. 50. Gaiffe " Telegraphic Jour.,'' 1 * vi. 398. " Scientific American Supplement " . . * 2490, * 1829, 1922. "Jour. Soc. Tel. Engineers " .... * vii. 54. Chlo'ride of Tin Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) Invention of Adolph Gutensohn. One in which a salt of tin, preferably the chloride, is used in the chamber containing the negative plate. " Scientific American Supplement " .... 3791. Chlo'ri-na'tion. (Metallurgy.) A solution pro- cess in extracting metals. See p. 542, "Meek. Diet." Copper process . "Painter's Report, Vienna Exp." iv. 130. Furnace, O'Harra, * "Mining $ Scientific Pres.s," xxxiv. 297. Chlo'ro-form In-ha'ler. (Surgical.) An in- strument for administering this anaesthetic. See INHALER, "Mech. Diet." Chock. (Add.) (Nautical.) 4. A block with recess and horn- j-j g . 612. shaped projections, between which a cable or hawser is rove when being hauled on or in. Chock ' Chock Block. A scotch for the wheels of Fig. 613. Chop'ping Mill. A mill for coarse-grinding grain for stock. In France it is an a/ilatisseur, con- casseur, or broyeur. In England a kibbling mill, grinding mill, etc. Chop Sep'a-ra'tor. (Milling.) A machine for treating the meal coming from the roller mill, to separate the flour from the cracked grain. Lampert * "American Miller,'''' vii. 385. machinery to be used without dismounting, such as threshing machines. See "Engineering" * xxii. 161. Chro'ma-trope. A device in a stereopticon to illustrate color effects ; kaleidoscopic patterns, etc. Morton . . * "Scientific American,'' 1 xxxiv. 5 ; xxxiii.344. Chrome Leath'er. Hides tanned by means of chrome. Invented and patented by Dr. Hein- zerling, in Germany. " Chemical Review,'* Eng. . "Scientific Amer. Sup. ," 4057. Chro'mic Ac'id Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which a solution of bichromate of potassium takes the place of nitric acid in the Bunsen bat- tery. Scientific American Supplement "....* 2525. Chro'mo-graph. An apparatus for reprodu- cing maps, plans, etc. It consists of a shallow zinc box containing a white gelatinous composition. The writing is made with a special ink, laid face downward on the composition, and the hand passed lightly over it ; about one minute is required to secure a transfer. A number of copies, from 10 to 40, may be obtained, according to the condition of the ink and the composition, by laying the sheets successively upon the transfer and lightly pressing by the hand. The writing may be washed off the composition. Also known as HECTOGRAPH, and by many other names. Chrome Steel. An alloy of iron and chrome. It is made by melting in a crucible of refractory material a mixture of Bessemer or Siemens-Martin steel, and of pig or refined iron with an addition of chrome iron and of calcined and ground lime- stone. Kern. "Iron Age," xvii., June 8, p. 11. "Iron Age" xvii., Aug. 17, 1876. Chromeisen .... "Scientific American Sup.," ii.692. See also Baur's U. S. Patents, Nos. 47,510, 49,495, 99,624, 123,445. See also CHROME STEEL, p. 2366, "Mech. Diet." Chro'mo-li-thog'ra-phy. Picture making by successive impressions in various colors from stones. See pp. 545, 546, "Mech. Diet. 1 ' History and Technics, "Silcox's Vienna Exh. Rep." 1873. Chro-mom'e-ter. An instrument designed by Professor Koenig for making delicate determina- tions of the amount of metals in ores. It is based upon the optical fact that complementary colors extinguish each other if mingled in proper propor- tions. Professor Koenig has applied this principle to the colors which certain metals as iron, man- ganese, copper, etc., produce when fused with borax. He prepares glasses or beads containing known quantities of a metal in one hundred parts, and observes how thick a glass of the complementary color must be to produce extinction. To accomplish this the instrument is furnished with a glass wedge of a green or red color, cut at a very acute angle. By moving this wedge before the glass bead, with the help of a suitable rack movement, a scale moves at the same time, and when the point of extinction of color is arrived at, the reading of the scale refers to a table showing the percentage of metal contained in the examined substance. By this method of analysis a correct determination of man- ganese in an iron ore can be made in 15 minutes, or a copper estimation in 30 minutes CHROMOPHOTOGRAPHY. 195 CIDER PRESS. Fig. 614. Fig. 615. Chucking Machine. Chro'mo-pho-tog'ra-phy. Photographing in colors. Processes "Scientific American Sup., '' 2079. "Scientific American," xli. 260. "Scientific American," xlii. 33. Chro'mo-strob'o-scope. An instrument in- vented by Prof. A. Ricco, with colored glass and various designs. It is one of a class of scientific toys depending for its effects upon the persistence of visual impressions. * "English Mechanic," xxiii. 168. Ricco * "Scientific American," xxxiv. 212. See ANORTHOSCOPE, STROBOSCOPE, CHROMATROPE, THAUMATROPE, PHENAKISTOSCOPE, ZOETROPE, in "Mech. Diet." Chron'o-graph. The British test of powder is by the velocity of the projectile, a given quantity with a service projectile from a proof-service gun. The Boulengd chronograph is used. The first target is 45' from the gun, the second 165'. The pressure in the bore is determined by the crusher-gage, a modification of Rod- man's pressure piston. See INTERNAL PRESSURE-GAGE, CUT- TER, DYNAMOMETER, PIEZOMETER. The Boulenge chronograph used at the arsenal of Spandau, Prussia, is shown at Fig. 36, Appendix L., "Ordnance Re- port," 1877, and p. 533. See Laboufai/e.'s "Dictionnaire. des Arts,'' etc., tome iv., article "Instruments d'Optique," ed. 1877. "Scientific American Supplement ," 417. See also ELECTRIC CHRONOGRAPHS AND CHRONOSCOPES. Chron'o-scope. An instrument for measuring small intervals of time. The following electro-chronoscopes are described by Dr. Barnard in his Report on the Paris Expo- sition of 1867 : mometer is ob" served to be get" ting ahead of the watch, the light under the water- bath is slightly lowered (this be- ing easily effected Breton Churn. Col. Benton. Capt. Martin de Brettes. Prof. Bashford. Prof. \Vheatstone. Prof. Henry. Capt. F. P. E. Schultz. Capt. Navez. Dr. C. W. Tiemens . . "Scientific American," xxxv. 328.' See also ELECTRIC CHRONOGRAPHS AND CHRONOSCOPES. Chro'iio-ther-mom'e-ter. An instrument, the invention of Mr. R. P. Wilson and used in the testing room of the petroleum association of Lon- don. The design is to raise the temperature of the oil at the rate of 20 in 15 minutes. The invention consists of a watch movement in conjunc- tion with a circular thermometer. The watch is provided with but one hand, and the balance-wheel is so adjusted that this hand moves through 20 of the thermometer scale in 15 minutes. It is, therefore, merely necessary, in making an experiment, to set the hand when the mercury reaches 80, and to regulate the lamp so that the quicksilver and the watch-hand travel round the dial pari passu. If the ther- by the mechanical arrangement in the wick-holder), and, of course, vice versa. The inner line of degrees marked on the thermometer scale represents minutes (1 to 15), and the outer line, degrees of Fahrenheit's scale, 20 of which (80 to 100), it will be observed, are equivalent to the 15 minutes, though, of course, in the construction of the instrument, any other desired rate of heating may be provided for. " English Mechanic "..... * ' Scientific American Supplement" * 181. Chry'soid. A name given by Farmer to his alloys of aluminum which resemble gold and are adapted for watch-cases, chains, and jewelry. Four series of formulas, Cu. Al. Ag. Cu. Al. Fe. Cu. Al. Zn. Cu. Al. Ni. are given with varying proportions, on p. 71 of "Mech. Diet." Chuck'ing Ma-chine'. A form of machine lathe. Fig. 614 shows a revolving-head drilling or chucking machine with 8 spindles. Instead of a common tail-stock there is a revolving or rocking head, revolving in a vertical plane, with several spindles, for facing, drilling, reaming, and counter- boring small work. By this means a piece may have several opera- tions performed upon it without being removed from the chuck or face-plate. The several tools are brought forward as desired or in turn by the hand- wheel. Churn. The Breton churn is shown in Fig. 6 1 5. The cream jar is clamped upon its stand and the dasher reciprocated vertically and rapidly by hand crank and gearing. Churn Drill. A form of drill, the earliest type of which is in one of the forms of implements for obtaining fire by friction of one piece of wood on another. For an improved form see HAND DRILL. Ci'der Press. The Boomer & Boschert cider press, Fig. 616, has a special grinder with an iron cylinder furnished with 8 steel knives placed in planed grooves across the face of the cylinder and held in place by iron bands ateach end. Five con- caves of flat steel springs are adjustable to any re- quired distance from the cylinder, and each regu- lated to any degree of stiffness, but giving way to any foreign matter, such as stones. The power press has a double platform which runs on rol- lers so that one cheese may be building while another is pressing. CIDER PRESS 196 CIRCLE. In running down the press the right-and-left screw is ro- tated approaching the knees of the pair of toggles, passing through nuts in the knees, and rotated by the hand wheel at first but by means of the pulley, gearing, and chain as the work proceeds and more power is required. The movement Fig. 616. Power Cider Press. becomes relatively slower as the toggles straighten, and the power increased in a like proportion. The follower is permanently attached to the end of the toggle arms so that it does not require placing and repla- cing. The cheese consists of regular successive layers of pomace, each about 4" thick, completely enveloped in cloth, each being shaped in a square frame which is raised, leaving the Fig. 617. Press of David of Orleans. same in position. Racks of wooden strips are laid between each layer of poinace. The press, Fig. 617, made by David of Orleans, is one of the screw-presses of a type so common in France. Its general features will be readily understood from the illustration : The nut is revolved upon the screw and pushes down the follower or upper member of the press. What is notable is the compact mode of obtaining the three powers. Quick motion and relatively small power at the first, the motion deci easing in rate and increasing in power at each subsequent stage. The first motion is by the central wheel, which has handles projecting upward. The next power is by the hand wheels at the ends, pinions on the wheels engaging the crown wheel. Third and lastly, the brake 1 ever s which -act by pawl and ratchet upon the pinion shafts in the manner of windlass brakes. The cider and wine hand-press made by Nains, of Terrel des Chenes, is shown in Fig. 618. It has an exterior and interior crate, so that the pomace is in a compara- tively thin body, rendering the es- cape of the juice more ready and complete It may be said to have two powers ; that is, in the first stage the master wheel is ro- tated by the crank arm, and subse- _ quently by swing- g ing the weight up 5 on the spokes. The follower, it will be seen, is guided up- ^ on the standards _^_____ and descends in the _ _ ' annular space be- tween the crates. Wine See also WINE Cider Hand Prt-xs. (Ruins, Terrel del Chenes. ) PRESS ; OIL PRESS ; OLIVE PRESS. Mill, portable, Sikes . * "Scientific American,'' xxxviii. 86. Press, toggle motion. Boomer If Boschert . * "Scientific American," 1 xlii. 242 Ci-gar'-box Tel'e-graph. Named from the compactness and portability of the instrument. " Scientific American '' xxxvi. 20. Cig'a-rette' Ma-chine'. French cigarette machine, * "Scientific Amer.,' 1 ' xxxviii. 344. Cil'i-a For'ceps. (Surgical.) Tweezers for removing the eyelashes. A species of depilating forceps. Figs. 7, 9, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgi- cum." 1 Cin'der Notch. (Metallurgy.) A notch on the top of the dam of a blast furnace, to allow the slag to run off. Cin'der Wool. A fibrous glass obtained by the action of a jet of air or steam upon molten slag as it issues from the blast furnace. See SLAG, 10; MINERAL WOOL. Cin'na-bar. (Mining.) Sulphuret of mercury. Ci'pher-wri-ting Frame. A writing frame, paneled or otherwise, arranged for writing secret messages on a preconcerted plan. Eerghold . . . * "Scientific American," xxxvi. 406. Cir-cas'sienne. (Fabric.) A French dress goods woven on a taffeta, loom ; it has a silk grege warp, and a mohair or silk-and-mohair warp. Llanov has a cotton warp. Cir'cle. A traverse-circle. An arc-shaped track on the terre-plein or gun platform, on which the CIRCLE. 197 CIRCULATING BOILER. wheels beneath the chassis of a gun traverse as the gun is horizontally adjusted. Two such circles are shown beneath the Krupp gun-carriage, Plate VIII., p. 448, "Mech. Diet." In British practice known as racers. Cir'cle Cut'ter. An optician'? The lumber is fed to the saw by four rollers, which are expansively geared in pairs, so that at whatever point they may be placed, the gearing Fig. 621. Fig. 619. Circle Cutter. tool with a diamond on the arm, for cut- ting circles in thin glass for covers for objects on slides. Cir'cuit. ( Eli-.c- tricity.) The path along which the cur- rent travels. Cir'cuit Break'- er. (Electricity.) A device by which the circuit is closed or opened at pleasure, or automatically. See TELEGRAPH KEY. Cir'cuit Clo'ser. A key, for instance, for making a contact to complete a circuit. The breaker and closer are usually one, the alternate motions of the key closii and opening the circuit. See TELEGRAPH KEY. Ktre ir/inger Doerflin . * "Engineer,-'' xliii. 153. For torpedoes, Abel, Br. . * "Engineering," xxi. 96. Matftisson,Bi * "Engineering," xxi. 96, 224 McEvoy, Br * "Engineering."' xxi. 96. For torpedoes, Livermore . Cir'cu-lar Bal'ance. a pointer which traverses a graduated and num- bered dial. Cir'cu-lar Com'pass. An instrument in- vented by M. Duchemin, in which an annular piece of metal is substituted for the needle. The annulus has its N. and S. poles at opposite points of the same diameter. The advantages claimed are greater sensibility and less disturbance from the vessel's motion. Cir'cu-lar Knit'ting Ma-chine'. One with a circular race, making 'a tubular knitted fabric. See Figs. 2769, 2771, pp. 1236, 1237, "Mech. Diet." Cir'cu-lar Loom. One for weaving tubes, hose, etc. United States Patents in circular looms. No. 16,248 17,353 26,585 32,461 39,197 41,466 43,937 44,902 "Engineering,'' xxi. 404. A spring balance having No. 51,040 52,718 53,372 59,138 72,362 81,438 91,305 98,738 * 124,288 Inventor. Greenough. Hull. Danby. Slayton et ul. Buser. Wagner. Brooks. Bryant. Reed. Inventor. Nelson. Carney. Grunwald. Bonard. Darker. Slayton. Veerkamp et al. Walton et al. 45,208 Slayton. 45,629 Palmer. * Reissued. Cir'cu-lar Plane. A plane with a flexible steel face, capa- ble of adjustment to t h e arc re- quired, within spe- cific limits. Cir'cu-lar Re-saw'ing Ma-chine' . A machine for mak- ing bevel-siding and weather- boarding from "Victor" Circular Plane. thicker stuff. Fig. 620 Circular Re-sawing Machine. has the same effective feeding force. The rollers are hung upon ball-and-socket joints, which gives them an adjustment for bevel-sawing, and presents the center of the stuff to the saw, however the thickness may vary. The saw arbor has a lock attachment to keep it from moving while the saw is being sharpened or replaced. There are three speeds of feed to accommodate different widths of lumber. Cir'cu-lar Rib'bing Ma-chine'. A knitting machine having a circular race, and adapted for rib-work, such as Cardigan jackets and sleeves. The machines of Gimson If Coltman, of Leicester, Eng- land, are described in G. W. Gregory's report on knitting ma- chines, Group XXII., "Centennial Exhibition Reports." Cir'cu-lar Saw. (Add.) 2. (Surgical.) A round saw used in osteotomy in deep-seated parts. A substitute for Hey's saw. Grcefe's Fig. 66, Part I. Tiemanri's Fig. 57, Part I. Tiemann's "Armamentarium C/iirurgicum." Cir'cu-lar Spring Bal'ance. See CIRCULAR BALANCE. Cir'cu-lar Slide Valve. A species of fau- cet valve. A cylindrical valve with ports made by depressions in its periphery, bringing the respective ends of the cylinder in alternate connection with the steam chest and exhaust port. The term is not a Fi 622 peculiarly happy one, and will apply as well to the valves of the Corliss and Wheelock engines. See CUT OFF. Cir'cu-la't ing Boil'er. A boiler in connection with a heater, through which latter the water circulates to become heated. Circular Slide Valve. Fig. 623 shows a heater for a domestic range, connected by circulating pipes with the boiler. CIRCULATING DRUM. 198 CLAMP FORCEPS. Fig. 623. A circulating boiler, one of the very earliest of Us class, is shown under INCUBATOR, "Mech. Diet.,"' which see. The in- vention of Bonne-main, 1777. ; ; co system of steam-heating, Fig. 2473, p. 1089, "Mech. Diet." Cir'cu-la'ting Drum. 1. A chamber belonging t o some forms of steam-boilers, i u 1 o which the water, heated by the immediate proximity of the fire on the grate, is caused to flow to give place to other bodies of water, from the feed, or from portions of the boiler less ex- posed to the urgency of the fire. 2. A chamber above or around a stdve into which the heated gases pass in order to radiate heat. 3. A water-cham- ber in a hot-water heater into which passes the hot water from the coil exposed Circulating Boiler. t o the fire. Cir'cu-la'ting Pump. 1. One for supplying water for the condensers of engines. The speed should be in proportion to the temperature of the circulating water and the working conditions of the engine. 2. The air and circulating pump is specially adapted for marine condensing engines. It is a direct-acting pump, and the two pumps are driven from the same steam cylinder. Cir'cu-la'ting Steam Boil'er. One consist- ing of two portions unequally exposed to the heat of the furnace, and with connecting pipes or pas- sages by which the water rises from the over-heated and descends from the relatively colder, maintain- ing a circulation. Stead's ... * Scientific American," xxxviii. 243. Other illustrations may be found in Plate LXI., opposite p. 2326, "Mech. Diet." 1 Cir'cu-la'ting Tube. In a steam boiler; a tube leading from one part of a boiler to another to establish a circulation in a given direction, as from the hotter to the portions more removed from the direct contact with the furnace or flue plates. There are numerous illustrations of this feature. See Plate LXI. and pp. 2327, 2328, "Mech. Diet." 1 See also O/ce, "Engineering,"' * xxii. 328. See list under STEAM, "Mech. Diet.,'" et infra. Cir'cum-cis'ion In'stru-ment. (Surgical.) An instrument for excising the projecting portion of the prepuce beyond the glans in cases of phi- mosis. Phimosis instruments, Figs. 1-7, Part III., Tiemann's ''Ar- mamentarium Chirurgicum.'' Dr. Baruth's circumcision scissors have a guard finger upon one blade which acts to prevent the clinging of the prepuce to the other blade when the blades are parted. The phimosis instrument of Dr. Levis is for the excision of the inner inelastic membrane of the prepuce, or a partial ablation of the preputial integument, instead of complete re- moval. Cire Per-due'. Bronze casting in wax. A model in wax is inclosed in a plaster mold, the wax melted out and bronze poured in. Thus the wax is perdue, or wasted. The plaster being re- moved the bronze object appears. See JAPANESE BKOXZES; also pp. 500 and 1462," Mech. JJict." Cis'tern. Filtering, Moscucri, Fr. . . * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2305. "Scientific Amer.," xliii. 340. Day * "Scientific Amer.," xliii. 403. Rainwater '' Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2393. Filter , . "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 1748. Clam'mer. A forceps closed by a weight, used as a tongs in deep-sea soundings to obtain speci- mens of the bottom, shells, or of living occupants thereof. Clam'ond Bat'te-ry. A thermo-electric bat- tery. See p. 2545, " Mech. Diet." An improved form consists of an alloy of two parts of an- timony and one of zinc as the negative metal, ami ordinary tinned sheet iron an the positive element the current at the heated junction flowing from the iron to the alloy. This alloy is cast in the form of a flat bar, broader in the middle than at the ends, and measuring from 2" to 2|" in length by " to I" in thickness. The sheet iron, properly stamped out, is placed in a mold into which the melted alloy is poured : before the alloy has cooled, the mold is opened and the bars are removed. This alloy melts at 500 Fah., and expands considerably on cooling. It improves on re- castiug, but is always very brittle. The bars are arranged radially around a temporary brass cylinder, a thin slip of mica being inserted between the iron and the alloy to pre- vent contact except at the point of junction. Eight or ten of these bars form a ring, and the several rings are placed one above another, insulated from each other by a circle of asbestos. The inner ends of the bars are heated by a Bun- sen burner, the name issuing in small jets in the annular space between the burner and the bars. See also THERMO-ELECTRIC BATTERV. Clamp. (Add.) 8. (Surgical.) A jawed holder, to maintain parts in apposition, to prevent circula- tion on a line of excision, etc. Harelip clamp Figs. 252, 253, Part II. Nasal clamp ( Epistaxis) . . Fig. 239 c. Part 1 1 . Ovariotomy clamp . . . Figs. 439-444, Part III. Pile Fig. 579, Part III. Scrotal Figs. 175, 176, Part 1IF. Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." 9. (Boat.) An iron brace to hold the boat's mast. 10. (Leather.) A wooden bench-screw, carrying two checks, used to prevent the leather from mov- ing during the operation of stoning or slicking. 11. A stirrup-shaped metallic piece and bind- ing screw to hold one of the elements of a battery and make the electric connection. See CARBON CLAMP. Clamp Coupling. A means of uniting the adjacent ends of two shafts in a thimble. The Fig. 624. Fig. 625. Clamp Coupling. coupling is formed from one casting', combining the inner clasps with the outer casing, between which are inserted lengthwise fine thread taper screws. The clamps are divided across the center of the coupling, and are independent, embracing the ends of the respective shafts, which may thus differ slightly from each other without im- pairing the bite. See also COMPRESSION COUPLING. Clamp Dog. Used for finished work and many other purposes : a means of holding them in the lathe so as to par- take of the motion of the head spindle. Clamp For'ceps. (Den- tistry.) A forceps for holding the little sheet-metal clamp Le Count's Clamp Dog. CLAMPING TOOLS, ETC. 199 CLEANING HOLE. which holds the rubber dam in position on the tooth. See DAM CLAMP. Clamp'iiig Tools, Vises, Wrenches, etc. See under the following heads : Adjustable vise. Laryngeal forceps. Alveolar forceps. Main-spring vise. Anvil vise. Matrix pliers. Arrow-head forceps. Molar forcep;. Artery forceps. Needle forceps. Backing boards. Nose compress. Band-saw brazer. Nut wrench. Band-saw holder. Parallel vise. Band-saw tongs. Basin wrench. Bench cramp. Bench screw. Bench stop. edge as will he exposed to the weather ; and the exposed edge jointed or molded. The frame of the clapboard planer is of iron, and 626. Biscuspid forceps. Boring bar clamp Pinchers. Pine-litter's vise. Pipe grip. Pipe tongs. Pipe vise. Pipe wrench. Placenta forceps. Boring bar wrench. PI ite nippers. Brazing tongs. Pliers. Burner pliers. Plug plie:-s. Cabinet-maker's Polypus forceps. cl:imp. Ratchet wrench. Calking vise. Rigger screw. Cant hook. Root forceps Carpenter's clamp. Rubber-dam forceps. Castrating clamp. Chemist's tongs. Clamp dog. Clamp forceps. Clamp screw. Clevis tonjrs. Cock wrench. Condensing forceps. Cork presser. Cow-horn forceps. Craniotomy forceps. Crow. Crowded teeth forceps. Dental forceps. Dentes-sapientise forceps. Die dog. Die holder Dilating forceps. Door clamp. Double-jaw vise. Double-screw vise. Dressing forceps. Drilling clip. Ear forceps. Excising forceps. Floor cramp. Foot vise. Frame clamp. Gas-tube vise. Hand clamp. Hand vise, llorse-shoers' vise. Hose wrench. Incising forceps. Incisor forceps. Joiners' clamp. Sash clamp. Saw cramp. Saw filing clamp. Saw-filing vise. Screw clamp. Screw forceps. Screwing stock. Screw wrench. Scrotal clamp. Seizing forceps. Separating forceps. Shackle jack. Spanner. Spicula. Sudden grip vise. Swan's-neck needle forceps. Swivel vise. Tape forceps. Tap wrench. Tenaculum forceps. Tire-bolt clamp. Tire shrinker. Tire upsetter. Tongs. Trachea forceps. Tube chuck. Tube tongs. ' Upending tongs. Upright vise. Uterine forceps. Vesico-vaginal clamp. Vise. Vise clamp. Wrench. Wrench handle. Y. Clamp Mill'ing Ma-chine'. (Fire-arms.) A machine used for special parts of the Springfield rifle, such as the firing-pin, etc. Clap'pers. Two thick plates of iron, between which thin steel springs are placed while hot to be hardened. Clap Net. One having hinged sections ; used in bird-catching. Clap'per Stay. A detent for the clapper in a bell. Used in silent practice on tower or church bells ; a substitute for muffling with pieces of rope. "Engineer ".... * xlvii. 243. Clapboard Pla'ner. A machine for planing clapboards. This, in the Eastern States, means sid- ing or outside weather-boarding for houses. In the West, the term is applied to a 3' or 4' board used for roofing- Referring to the first meaning, as the machine under consideration is of Vermont manufacture, the practice is to saw clapboards directly from the log, towards the center, making a thick and a thin edge. Such boards are 4' or 6' long, subsequently planed to a thicknesfe as far back from the thicker Fig. 627. Clapboard Planer. the feed-rollers have a length for taking two clap- boards at a time, sticking a molding on the edge of each while running through. The countershaft and pulleys are shown on the floor alongside of the machine. Clar'i-net. (Music.) A reed instrument hav- ing a compass of three and a half octaves written on the G clef. Four registers are reckoned on the clarinet : the low, the chaluineau, the medium, and the high. There are four clarinets in general use. The small clarinet in E [>; the clarinets in C, B \>, and in A. The alto clarinet is one in F (low) ; the bass clarinet an octave below the B y clarinet. See also CORNO DB BASSETTO. Clasp Bend'er. A dentist's tool, for making clasps for teeth. It is a simple pliers in which the respective prongs are con- vex and con- cave so as to bend to a cir- cular form any- thing pinched between them. Claude Lor-raine'. (Optics.) A landscape mirror. It condenses or diminishes the view into a true perspective effect. Clav'i-cle Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical) Braces, supporters, splints, and bandages for dislocation and fracture. Figs. 66, 123-127, 147, 150, Part IV., Tiemann's "Arma- mentarium C/iirurgicum." Clay Heat'er. A heater for houses and halls in which baked clay is substituted for iron in order to avoid the disagreeable or injurious effects of the " burning of the air." It is a rude return to brick stoves, the ultimate quality of which is porce- lain. See PORCELAIN STOVE. Crary clay-heater . * " Manufacturer and Builder,'' xi. 139. Clay Tem'per-ing Wheel. A \yheel for working clay with water to develop the plasticity. See CLAY MILL, p. 563, " Mech. Diet." Mill, Hind, Br * "Engineer^" xli. 247. Mill and Engine, Jackson, Br. * "Engineering,''' xxiii. 154. * " Sc. American Sup.,'' 1105. Tempering mill * "Manuf. $ Builder,' 1 '' ix. 33. Clean 'ing Hole. (Locomotive.) A term ap- plied to the means for cleaning ; cleaning plugs Dentist's Clasp Bender. CLEAR. 200 CLIP CHAIR. being placed in the corners of the fire-box, and blow off cock in front. Clear. (Glass.) Said of glass, ware or window, which is free from dcpolish, etching, or other pro- cess which dulls the surface. The dcpolishing may be made by grinding, acid, sand-blast, etc. Half-dear is applied to objects which are partly dcpolished. Clear'ing Bat'te-ry. (Brewing.) A device used in straining the wort from the vat ; operating to moderate the flow when the depth of wort is considerable. Austrian . "Scientific American Sup.,'' Fig. 6, * 4077. " Engineer," * 1. 266. Clear'iug Ring. (Fishing.) One to lower down the line to detach a hook from a root or other obstruction : or from the mouth of a fish. The lat- ter is known also as a disgarger. Clear'ing Stone. (Leather.) A fine whetstone, used to remove from the currier's knife the scratches made by the rub-stone. The Water-of-Ayr and Welsh clearing-stones are generally octagonal slips, 4" thick, and from 6" to 8" long. Clear Sto'ry. (Railway.) An upper row of windows in a passenger car, above the main-roof, and on the side of the raised or monitor roof. Clear Way. Said of a valve, hydrant, etc. One which lifts its valve entirely out of the way of obstructing the flow ; not compelling the water to flow around it. Also called full-way. the figure a guard is placed in the interior of the thimble to fit loosely over the body of the clew to prevent the rope from chafing against the upper portion of the eye to which it is attached. Cli'ma-tom'e-ter. An instrument for indi- cating the fluctuations in the conditions of sensible temperature. See instrument of Mr. J. W. Os- borne, called also Esther moscope, Fig. 6368, p. 2550, " Mech. Diet." Professor Forbes's instrument, described in a paper, " Ob- servations relative to the Temperatures to which the Human Body is exposed," 1 is intended to determine the " M-nsible warmth of the air," by which is meant, not the physical temperature which would be measured by an ordinary ther- mometer, but what might be termed the physiological tem- perature or warmth of the skin, as it is estimated by nervous persons. The questions of humidity, evaporation, movement of the air enter intimately into the question. The apparatus consists of a cylindrical can filled with hot water and covered with a non-conductor. In this a copper rod is plunged, its upper end expanding into a cup which incloses the bulb of a thermometer. The heat of the can be- ing assumed as constant, the rod, the lower portion of which is plunged in the can, parts at the exposed portion with its heat, and this rate depends upon the length of rod exposed and the atmospheric conditions. The length of the rod is made variable by sliding in and out of the heated vessel. The length is adjusted to give a constant thermometrical reading, and the length required to give the constant is the measure of the sensible warmth of the air. 1 [In a letter by Prof. George Forbes, dated May, 1879, and published in the "Journal of the Scottish Meteorological So- ciety," vol. v., p. 273.] Climb'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. See CHIMNEY. Fig. 630. Clevis Tongs. Clev'is Tongs. A form of pipe tongs with a swinging jaw like a cant-hook. Fig. 629. Clews. a. Heart clew. b. Clew thimble. c. Ear-ring clew d. Clew-bow. e. Clew-bar. f. Spectacle clew. Clew. (Nautical.) A loop and thimble at the corner or clew of a sail. The means of attachment of the hook of the clew-tackle to the sail ; the hook engaging with the loop, and the lashing passing around the thimble and the sail rope. Clew Thim'ble. A metallic guard or sheath, (shown at b, Fig. 629,) over the rope forming the eye of the sail, in order to prevent chafing. In Clinical Thermometers. Clin'i-cal Ther-mom'e-ter. A thermometer for ascertaining the temperature of the person. It is common to place the bulb in the axilla, and the bulb of the lower instrument, in Fig. 630, is curved for that purpose. The next instance above Fig 631 t ^ iat ' s a straight thermometer, with a con- ' traction in the stem at A, to prevent the index slipping down into the bulb. The pencil-case thermometer is peculiarly con- venient. The bent stem thermometer, Fig. 631, has also an evident provision against loss of index. In the best form of thermom- eter the front surface of the tube is made in the form of a cylindrical lens, the focus of which is in the col- umn of mercury, thus magnifying it, ren- dering it easily read off. Bed;. Bent Stem Thermr. Clinometer Level. Cli-nom'e-ter Lev'el. An improved form of hand-level, having also an arc divided into angles of elevation and divisions for slopes. Clip Chair. A form of chair used on some rail- ways in England, to fasten the rail to the metallic sleeper. The sleeper is an inverted trough, and through square holes punched in this trough a clip chair of rolled wrought iron or cast steel is slipped from the under side. The clip chair is of horse-shoe shape, one side forming a hook about CLIP CHAIR. 201 CLOD CRUSHER. 2J" wide, and the other side is like one jaw of an ordinary railway chair for taking a wooden railway key. The wooden key fastens the rail tightly upon the sleeper, as well as holding the clip chair in its place. r 1ST Clip King'-bolt. (Vehicles.) A clip which embraces the forward axle, and the upward extension of which forms a king-bolt. Clip'ping Ma-chine'. A machine in which the clipping shears (Fig. 1330, ]>. 567, "Mech. Diet."} is driven by power; to clip horses. Similar ap- paratus are used to cut hair, and to shear sheep. Fig. 4942, p. 2139, Ibid. Horse clipper, Casey, * "Sc. Amer.," xli. 210. Spring Saddle Clip Plate. Clip Plate. (Carriafjf. Hardware.) A plate lying upon the spring of a carriage, and having channels above for the bows of the clip which at- tach it to the axle. Clip Pul'ley. A pulley arranged for a wire rope. The perimeter Fj gg 5 of the pulley is made up of pivoted clips in pairs, and these close in upon the rope and grasp it, which p r e- vents its slipping upon the wheel. The nip- ping action of the clips is xipon at least half the diameter of the pulley, so that the wear of the rope is al- most nil, the nipping action ceasing imme- diately and automat- ically the moment the rope begins to diverge from the circumfer- ence. Clip Swage. (Blacksmithing.) A A-PPM"?* Clip Pulley, for Wire swage inserted in the Rope Transmission. hardy- hole of the anvil, used in finishing the clips on horse-shoes. -^. ggg Clip Yoke. A small plate through which the ends of a stirrup- shaped clip pass, and against which the nuts are screwed. Clock. See the following, which refer to instances of curious or other- wise remarkable clocks. cli P Century, Hile # "Sc. Amer. Sup. ," 688. Curious, Engle "Iron Age," xxi., Jan. 24, p. 3. Lovelace, Br "Iron Age," xix., June 14, p. 3. Gin/met * "Sc. Amer.," xxxv. 371: xxxv. 401 ; xli. 132. Remarkable "Sc.Amer," xxxiv. 17. Gas, EngI "Sc. Amer.," xxxix. 325. Maker's hand-turning tool . . * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1381. Monster, Dent "Sc. Amer.," xxxvi. 31. Mysterious, on, Lockert . . . " Tec/mnlogiste," xl. 79. Rosset *"Sc. Amer.," xli. 226. Theodore * "Sc. Amer.," xli. 297. " Technologiste,' 1 xl. 207. Caclot, Fr. ...... . * "Sc. Amer.," xxxvi. 214; xxxvii. 194. "Technologiste," xxxix. 318. "Sc. Amer.,'' xxxvi. 405. "Man. Bui/tier,'' xi.38. " Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1711. " Sc. Amer. Sup.,-' 212. "Sc. Amer.," xxxiv. 133. "Iron Age," xxi., March 14, p. 9. "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 440. "Sc. Amer.,'' xli. 191. Secrets of mysterious .... * Dials, luminous Self-winding Three-wheeled . * Westminster Washington Observatory . . . Without hands, Gillett If Bland * Wonderful, Meier * See also DIAL ; ELECTRIC CLOCK. Clock Reg'is-ter Ther-mom'e-ter. A means for enabling the meteorologist to ascertain the temperature of any given hour of either day or night at will by automatic registration. Negretti Zambra provide for this need in a very inge- nious way, \vhich they term their " patent recording ther- mometer." The tube of the thermometer is bent at the mid- dle so as to form two parallel vertical arms, and it is con- tracted at its union with the bulb, so that when it is turned over and upside down, all the mercury which is in the arm above the contraction runs round into the other branch of the tube, and there measures exactly the same length, and indicates the same number of degrees on the scale that it did in the first branch in the original position. The clock which carries the thermometer is set like an alarum. It turns the thermometer over, and so secures the register of the temper- ature at the hour at which its mechanism and hands are set. "Journal of the Society of Arts " 1877. "Scientific American Supplement " 935. Clod Clear'er. A French machine to remov 6 clods from grain. The tray has a rocking motion on supporting bars, the crank making 115 turns per minute. The foul grain, etc., entering at A is divided to each side, bounced from side to side, and sorted according to gravity ; the slope is toward to* apex. Fig. 637. Aspirating and Vibrating Stone and Clod Clearer. (Hignette, Paris.) Stone and clods leave at the point V, the grain passes into the aspirator, where it is sorted by quality : D second qual- ity, .E heavy waste, P second waste ; the good wheat has it* discharge on the other side (not shown). See Knight's Report Paris Exposition 1878 . . * v. 199. Clod Crush'er. A rough-faced roller for break- ing clods in the field. Dr. Knight's report on Class 76 at the Paris Exposition of Fig. 638. Clod-crusher and Compressor. (Demarly, Origny-Sainte- Benoite, France.) CLOD CRUSHER. 202 CLOTH MEASURING APPARATUS. 1878, contains views of the following (see "Paris Exposition (1878) Reports," vol. v., pp. 99-lul) : Clod-crusher, Lowcoclc if Burr, Engl. ''Excelsior '-clod-crusher, Pickxley If Sims, Engl. Crosskill clod-crusher, Puzennt, Fr. Clod crusher and compressor, Demarly et Cie, Fr. Fig. 638 shows the Demarly implement. Besides the un- equal sizes of the roller sections, in alternate order, they have an ability to slip transversely upon the axis. By this means, though of varying size, they may present themselves in straight line upon a level surface ; either may lift in yield- ing to a large clod ; and, as the surface rotation of each is equal, the rate of motion of the larger ones on the common axis is slower than that of the smaller rings, and, therefore, any clods g-etting between them are ground to powder, and the spaces between them are not choked. Kaiidell's clod crusher, Br. . * "Engineering," xxviii. 35. Cloi-SOii-ne. 1, (Fiw Art Metal Working.) A pattern is raised on a metallic surface by means of wire or strips welded on to it, and enamel spread in the spaces, doisons, between the raised metal. A species of inlaying resembles it in this respect, that the lines are engraved, wires laid into them and the surface burnished down to hold the wire in position. Champ-leve has lines engraved in the metal and filled with enamel. Shushikuiva.il " Technologists, ' xli. 519. See lists FINE ART METAL WORKING ; ART IN VARIOUS MATERIALS ; CERAMICS. 2. A coin on which a subsequent impression has been imposed on the previous one. Clos'ing Ma-chine'. A sewing machine for boot-closing, stitching soles to welts, and for light harness work. The machine makes a lock-stitch with two threads, botli sides alike. Cloth-cut'ting Ma-chine'. Of the three power cloth-cutting machines shown at the Centen- nial Exhibition in 1876 : Albin Warth's machine employs a reciprocating cutter blade in a turning head at the end of a pivoted arm guided on a track or rail at the side of the table on which the cloth rests. It operates bet- ter than n rotary knife on curved lines and corners. Sanson's machine is a spring-arm band-saw ma- chine, accurate and swift. Fenno employs' a rotary cutter at the end of a universally movable arm. See the following references : Cutter band knife, Powis Bale $ Co., Br. . . * "Engineer," xlix. 235. Cutting machine, Sanson, Br. * "Engineer,'' 1 xli. 393. Cutting machine, Sanson, Br. * "Sc. American Sup.,'' 4312. Warth "Thurston's Vienna Kept." Hi. 820. * "Engineer," xliii. 320. Cloth finishing machine, Pierron .if Dehaitre, Fr . . * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 4023. Folding machine (Fr.) . . . * "Sc. Amer.," xxxiv. 178. Inspector. Bolting cloth, Deal. *"Sc. American," xl. 326. Press, Boomer If Bos.che.rt . . * "Scientific Amer." xlii.242. Testing machine, Riehl . . . *"Manf. if Builder," xi. 178. Hausner * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1236. Clothes Dry'er. An application of the cen- trifugal machine to the partial drying of clothes, preliminary to the drying closet, which see. The essoreuse shown in Fig. 639 is made to go by hand or by power, being one of the smaller sizes. Brooks "Scientific Am.," xxxiv. 99. Clothes wire-fastener, Almont* "Scientific Am.,'' xxxv. 166. Clothespins * "Scientific Am.," xxxvi. 227. Clothes Pin. The machinery used in making clothes pins consists of Bolting-up saw for working log into slabs. Splitting-saw for working slabs into rods. Cross-cutter or cutting-up machine. Lathe for rounding. Slotter. Cloth In-spect'ing Ma-chine'. A machine in which the cloth is exposed in a smooth, inclined Fig. 639. French Clothes Dryer. (Beaitme a Boulogne.) surface to the view. It may also be brushed, burled, or trimmed during momentary stoppage of the au- tomatic motion. Fig. 640. Cloth Brushing, Trimming, and Inspecting Machine. Cloth Meas'ur-ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. A wind- h'ig. 641. ing machine winch takes the cloth from the bolt or pile, runs it over a meas- uring roller, then over stretching rollers at the back of the machine, and from thence to the wind- ing jaws which bold the board on which it is wound. The measuring roller has a worm which operates the vertical shaft, on the top of which is a dial which indicates the length wound, and the pointer is set to zero for each operation. In the cloth-measuring ma- chine of White, Child, $ Co., of London, the cloth runs upon a smooth and level table and underneath a wheel of known circumference, the revolu- Cloth Measuring and Winding tionsof which are counted by Machine. CLOTH PRESS. 203 CLUB-FOOT APPARATUS. worm gearing and dial. It is adapted for measuring and rolling cloth m salesrooms. " Scientific American' 1 ' ... . * xxxix. 54. Cloth Press. A machine for pressing cloth in transitu or in bolt. Nussey $ Leachman, Leeds, England, make a powerful automatic machine, in which the woolen cloth is fed inter- mittingly between steam-heated platen and bed-piece. These are driven together with a force of 1 ton to the square inch, by a steam-pump acting as a hydraulic press. The whole surface i.s such that the aggregate pressure is 153 tons, and the pressure is maintained for lo' 7 . The platen then retreats, the cloth is automatically advanced, bringing a fresh position between the pressure surfaces, which are again advanced, and so on. The cloth at the fee;l-cnd is fed over smoothing rollers. The machine was shown at the Centennial Exhibi- tion. In the continuous cloth press of Harwood $ Quincy, of Boston, Mass., the cloth goes direct from the shearing ma- chine to the press where it is brushed and pressed simul- taneously. The cloth to be pressed passes over bars and friction roll- ers, then over the upper part of a brush, and thence between a roller and concave bearing, and finally over another roller and the plaiter. The bearings are heated or not, as desired ; the pressure may be brought up by the lever to 6 tons. When no pressure is required, the machine may be used as a brushing frame only. For the purpose of steaming the fab- ric it is necessary to heat the roller, and to cover it with a thick felt. " Textile Manufacturer.'' The machine of M. Hirst is described in Laboulaye's "Dic- tionnaire ties Arts,-' 1 etc., article "Laine," 1 *vol. ii.,ed. 1877. Boomer if Boschert . . "Scientific American,'' * xlii. 242. "Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' * 2326. Cloth-shear'ing Ma-chine'. A machine to cut the nap of undressed cloth. See pp. 575, 576, and Figs. 4922-4924, p. 2135, "Mech. Diet." For French woolen cloth-shearing machine, see Figs. 1339- 1351, article " Laines," Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire ties Arts et Manufactures," tome ii., ed. 1877. Machines of Lewis $ Davis Figs. 1339-1343. Vai-is Figs. 1344-1348. Pouixtrt Figs. 1349-1351. Cloth Stretch'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for stretching and softening fabrics. In the machine of Devilder (France) several cylinders and rollers are supported by a cast-iron frame, and operated by power transmitted by a belt and gearing. The necessary pressure on the goods is produced by a weight, pulleys, and levers. The goods, rolled on the lower cylinder in the rear part of the machine, are carried between a zinc cylinder and a wooden roller situated directly above the lower cylin- der. The zinc cylinder runs in a trough filled with water. By this means the necessary degree of moisture is imparted to the goods. They are next taken up by a bar at the top of the machine, which may be regulated so as to increase or lessen the tension of the goods. From this bar the goods pass to the stretching cylinder, which is composed of sixteen copper plates revolving around, and alternately approaching to and receding from, a common axis. The approach takes up the first half of the revolution and the return the sec- ond half. The goods, by this means, are well stretched ; they are afterwards rolled on a wooden cylinder below the stretcher. * "Revue Industrielle." 1 " Scientific American " * xl. 227. Cloth Test'er. A machine for testing the strength of cloth by direct pull. Richie Brothers' cloth-testing machine is shown in Fig. 642. One end of the sample of cloth, paper, or twine is inserted in a clamp attached to the weighing mechanism and the other end wrapped around a roller. The strain is put on by turning a hand-wheel, and the beam kept in equipoise by shifting the running weight. The strain is con- tinued until the sample breaks, the result of the test being indicated on the scale in pounds. The scale levers are inclosed in the box in the upper part of the frame. Yarn, fiber, and paper testers operate in a similar manner. See list under MEASURING, ETC., INSTRUMENTS. " The official test of resistance of tissues and cordage shows the nature of the yarn and the quantity of matters contained thei'eiu by the following triple method : "a. The weight of the tissue per square yard is taken after the samples have been well dried in the stove or in the sun. Fig. 642. Riehle Brothers' Cloth Tester. " b. The number of threads in warp and weft is ascertained by the ordinary thread counter of a quarter-inch field. " c. The resistance to traction of either tissues or cordage is measured by means of an apparatus which has two jaws, be- tween which the tissue or cord is fixed, one jaw being station- ary and the other connected with a lever, which is loaded until the sample breaks. In France the apparatus used is the dynamometer of Perreaux. For tissues the trials are made with bands 16" long and 2" wide, one cut lengthwise and an- other crosswise of the stuff "The following are the conditions required by the navy and public offices for the following principal tissues : Resistance per centi- of a band Kind of Tissue. meter. Weight per 5 cm. wide. o) a square ji "S ** $& meter. bo 5] * f? S Hand loom cloth k. 435 k. 32,~33 22 10,11 18 345 540-560 330-370 550 130 270 200 275 140 330 290 410 Tilt cloth Double yarn hammock cloth . Sail cloth, No. 1 Sail cloth. No. 6 Sail cloth, No. 8, single yarn . 24, 25 16-18 10 13, 14 350 2711 170 135 255 200 " After experimenting on samples well dried at a tempera- ture of about 30 C., the same should be repeated with oth- ers damped with water, which, of course, generally offer greater resistance than dried samples.'' The cloth tester of MM. Chavin and Marin-Darbel, of Paris, is shown in ''Scientific American,''' * xxxix. 211. The cloth tester used by M. Oiffard in testing the fabric of his captive balloon, Paris, 1878, is shown in "'Scientific Amer- ican,''' * xxxix. 194. See also Riehle . * "Manufacturer and Builder," xi. 178. Hausner . * " Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' 1236. Cloth-Wind'ing Ma-chine'. See CLOTH MEASURING AND WINDING MACHINE; CARPET WINDER. Clouds, Ap'pa-ra'tus for Meas'ur-ing heights of. John Harmer of Wick, near Arundel, Britain, has invented a method of estimating the height of clouds by photography and the stereoscope. Described in "Nature," Dec. 30, 1880, pp. 145, 195. **tt * ^_ r f-t - i. A Fig. 643. Clov'er Leaf Sight. A rear gun-sight having side lobes, which slightly resemble two foils of the clover leaf. C 1 u b'-Foot Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) Apparatus to bring a constant pressure upon the foot to bring it to symmetrical position. Q The talipes apparatus varies according to the nature of the deformity. CLUB-FOOT APPARATUS. 204 COAL ELEVATOR. The figures following refer te Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." For talipes varus Fig. 63, Part IV. Kor talipes valgus Figs. 64, 65, Part TV. <<'or talipes cafcaneus 1'igs. 67, 68, Part IV. Artificial muscles Fig. 76, Part IV. Appa; atus to evert the feet .... Fig. 77, Part IV Apparatus for contracted tendoachillis, talipes equinus Fig. 62, Part IV. Shoe tor partial paralysis of the foot . Fig. 143 a, b, Part IV. Club foot extension apparatus . . . Fig. 23, supplement. MacOwen's chisel for bow legs, etc. . supplement. Clus'ter Spring. (Railway.) One formed of a number in a group. A group spring. See Fig. 1 143, p. 483, "Meek. Diet." " Clump. A thick outer sole attached by springs or cement to the ordinary boot sole. Clutch. (Nautical.)" The reentering angle at the junction of the arm and shank of an anchor. The throat. See d, Fig. 191, p. 96, " Mech. Diet." Clutch Coupling. Fig. 644 shows a clutch Fig. 644. Clutch for Countershafts. coupling as applied to countershafts. It has no shock in starting or reversing, nor any sudden ten- sion of the belt. The shipper slide slips the cone against the clutch jaws, expanding them and bring- ing the surfaces in contact to produce motion. See also FRICTION CLUTCH. For rolling mills, Beauresard * "Min. le Se. Press' 11 xxxvii. 65. Gear, Burrett, Br * "Engineer," xlvi. 442. Pulley, Hunter * "Scientific Amer.," xl. 275. Clutch De-tach'er. 'A device for throwing off the clutch in a rolling mill train. Lloyd . . . . * "Iron Age," xxv , June 17, p. 11. Clutch Drill. A drill the motion of which is obtained by a lever which binds upon the stock in the forward motion and runs free on the backward Fig. 645 Friction Clutch Drill. motion ; pins on the lever head traveling inclines on tlie hub of the drill stock. The head can be moved from end to end of the stock, a feather traveling in a slot. The strain is divided on three points around the spindle. Clys'ter Ap'pa-ra'tus. An enema syringe. Coach. 1. (Railway.) A first class passenger car, as distinguished from a drawing room car, or second class. 2. A passenger vehicle plying for hire. Herdic . . ^Scientific American Supplement" 3901. Murch. Patents 147,421. 151,240. 152,244. 149,779. See also CAB. 154,572. 7,166. 7,445. 3. A private close carriage of size and preten- sions. Coach Bit. (Manege.) One having large scroll or straight checks made stationary on the mouth- piece, loops for the driving rein being placed at dif- ferent distances from the mouth-piece, by which the leverage is increased or diminished. Fig. 646. Coach Lock. Coach Lock. A spring latch operated either by the cross-bar handle on the exterior, or Fig. 647. by a lever from within side the carriage. Coach Screw. A peculiar form of screw, with a V-thread and a square head like that of a machine bolt. Coach Whip. (Nautical.) Another name for the pennant. Coak. (Nautical.) The metallic strengthening piece in the middle of a block-sheave ; pierced for the pin. Coal Dust Burn'ing Grate. A grate peculiarly constructed to burn the anthracite slack, which has accumu- lated to such an enormous extent in the anthracite coal regions of Pennsylvania and Wales. The grate has usually a large surface and moderate intervals be- tween bars, and the dust is distributed by a fan-like motion of the shovel. In some Co cases it is introduced in a gentle and constant shower by mechanical means. See WASTE-BURNING LO- COMOTIVE. Coal-dust fuel .... 'Scientific American?' xxxv. 179; xxxviii. 33. Loiseau "Scientific Amtr." xxxiv. 163; xxxviii. 116. Furnace, Stevenson, Br. *" Engineer," xliii. 335. * " Scientific American Sup.,''' 1295. Locomotive, Woollen . . See WASTE-COAL LOCOMOTIVE. Coal economizer . . . See ECONOMIZER. Coal El'e-va'tor. The projecting track C supports a carriage B, over which and through the running-block A, the hoisting rope runs, the end being fastened to the carriage B. When the hoisting engine starts the rope in motion, the running-block A, with the loaded tub attached, rises verti- cally from the hold of the vessel until the block A strikes the carriage B. The engine continuing in motion, draws both the carriage and the bucket of coal up the inclined track C, until the bucket is over the bin or car, where it is dumped. The rope is then slackened and the carriage and empty bucket run back on the track to B, when the carriage is stopped by an adjustable chock and the bucket descends to the hold of the vessel to be refilled. The running block A is hooked to another tub already filled and ready to be hoisted. When not in use, the whole track C swings on hinges back against the side of the building entirely out of the way. The performance is usually 25 to 30 tons per hour. In Mariller's hydraulic coal-hoist, used at Hull, England, COAL ELEVATOR. 205 COAL-TESTING APPARATUS. 4 I Fig ^^ ^^ fc . 648. ^ __ cutting out all the four faces of the drift by revolving the head of the machine in a vertical plane so as to present the jib below, above, or on either side. The machine has two cylinders, 6" diam., 12" stroke, and works by compressed air. Motion is given to the cutters by bevel gearing, and the shaft driving the cutters is capable of being revolved in a vertical plane about the horizontal shaft. The Payton & Holmes machine (London, England) has a species of saw jib having a number of teeth to which a pe- culiar pecking motion is given by means of short curves or eccentrics. The jib (or saw) has a swinging motion in cutting in or out and when sunken in the face to its full depth the machine is traversed on rails along the face of the breast. See notices under the following references : Report on coal-mining machinery by A. Jottrand. " Cen- tennial Exhibition Reports,'' Group I., vol. iii., p. 338 in- cluding McDermott's coal-drilling machine * p. 340. Gledhill's coal-cutter p 341 Holmes $ Payton's coal cutter * p 342 * b , m Coal j tie coal wagons are hauled b. He rising platform, and are tie required level, when thev Elevator. f a Brothe loisted by are run o rhood capstan on to a hydraulic ram to a to the middle plat- Brown's coal cutter * p 347 Coal-breaker, Hull, Br. . * "Engineering," xxix. 135. Chute for tenders . . * "Railroad Gazette," xxi. 275. Coaling * "Railroad Gazette,'' xxii 193. " Monitor," Brown . * "Eng. if Min. Jour.," xxi'v. 365. * "Scientific Amer. Sup. ," 1702. Lilienthal * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2587. form over the hopper, and are discharged by opening 1 the hopper doors and by tipping with special hydraulic apparatus for end-tip wagons. While the wagons are being discharged, the lifting platform is descending, and is lifted again with another wagon by the time the previous one is empty. The empty wagon passes on to the second moving platform, and, by means of its weight, controlled by a hydraulic brake, is lowered to the ground level, and passes out on to the empty siding. The brake ram, being connected to the hydraulic main, is of sufficient power to raise the lowering platform ag;iin to the top without the expenditure of any power be- yond that obtained from the empty wagon in its descent The tipping arrangements allow of the wagon being tipped in either direction, and the hoist is fitted with the usual ap- pliances for adjusting the hoppers and coal chutes. With properly hoppered wagons, constructed to discharge the coal freely, 300 tons of coal per hour can be shipped by the hoist. Colliery hoist at Epinac, France * " Engineering," xxvii. 367. Coal Gas Test'er. See GAS-TESTING APPA- RATUS, infra. See also Fig. 651, next page. Coal Miii'iiig Ma-chine'. The coal under- cutting machine of Lechner protrudes into the coal a horizontal shaft, armed with cutters and driven by chain-leaving. It advances straight into the breast of coal. The Brown machine traverses along the breast and under- cuts to a depth of 4'. It uses cutters on an endless chain protruded into the coal . The Gledhill machine (British) also advances along the breast. The endless chain of cutters passes over a jib which extends into the coal, and the jib has a capacity for a swing- in;: motion in a horizontal plane so as to cut out at the end. Fig. 649 Shipping, Smith, Br. Tipping. Rigg . . Truck, Penn. Railway Washing, Robinson If Son Stutz Hurd's Coat-mining Machine. The machine of Hurd & Co., of Wakeford, Britain, has also a jib which protrudes into the coal and around which the chain of cutters passes ; but the machine is capable of *f-J * "Engineering," xxvi. 498. Lechner * "Engineering," xxix. 78. * "Eng. 4" Min. Jour.," xxvi. 130. * " Scientific American," xlii. 81. Payton if Holmes . . * "Eng. if Min. Jour.," xxi. 288. Discharging, B.uvry, Fr. * "Engineering,'' xxvi. 98. Getting, Scotland . . . *" Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' 3754. Handling, Sugar Refinery * "Eng. $ Min. J.," Aug. 23,1879. Hoist, Nuneaton, Br. . * "Engineer," xliv. 184. Hydraulic, Br "Iron Age," xx., Aug.- 16, p. 7. Hydraulic hoist ... * "Engineering,'' Ivii. 231. Mining, Schuylkill, Pa. *"Eng. Sf Min. Jour." xxiii. 40, .56,72,88. Screen, spiral, Schmitt . * "Engineer," xlvii. 416. * "Engineering," xxviii. 373. * " Scientific American," xli. 290. * "Engineering," xxv. 8. "Iron Age," xix., June 7, p. 1. "Am. Manuf ,'' Feb. 7, 1879, p. 11. . * " Iron Age," xxi., June 13, p. 1. Evard,fr * "Engineering," xxix. 42. Molicres,J?i * "Engineering," xxix. 84, 96. Bessiege, Fr * "Engin'g," xxix 122, 201, 260. Washing, Osterpey, 111. . * "Eng. if Min. Jour.," xxii. 88. Coal Oil Fur'nace. See PETROLEUM FUR- NACE. Coal Sledge. A peculiarly formed hammer of from 5 to 8 F j g . 559 pounds weight, used in coal min- ing and break- ing lumps. Coal Test'- ing Ap'pa-ra'- Coal Sledge. tus. An apparatus by which the director of a gas- works may readily ascertain the quality of coal. Fig. 651 shows an apparatus, designed by M. Andouin of Paris, by which can be deter- mined, in less than an hour, the quality of coal from the point of view of the production of gas, the quantity of gas and coke, the lighting power of the gas produced, and whether the purification of the gas is easy or otherwise. This apparatus serves not only to deter- mine the value of different coals, "but also to assist in judging of the conditions under which the gas-works is operated day by day, in com- paring results under diverse treatment. It also enables the director to determine whether the difference in results is due to change in ^^ the nature of the coal or to changes in the mode of operation in the gas-works. The mode of operating the apparatus is as follows : An average sample of the coal being selected, is crushed and charged into an iron crucible. The weight of a charge is 100 to 200 grams, or more, according to the size of the ap COAL-TESTING APPARATUS. 206 COFFEE COOLER. Andouiri's Coal-testing Apparatus. paratus. The iron tube which has the function of the retort is raised to the required temperature by means of the special means indicated in the figure. The furnace is heated by gas, which allows the requisite degree of temperature, a bright red, to be maintained steadily by means of a gas regulator which determines the pressure, shown by a manometer communicating with the tube f, which brings the gas. As soon as the required temperature of the furnace is attained (in about half an hour after lighting the gas), which is determined by a pyrometer, the tubular retort is introduced and the opening A closed. The gas, as it is disen- gaged, passes to the gas-holder G after parting with its tar and ammoniacal water ; the holder has a capacity of about 60 liters and maintains a pressure at 0. The distillation ter- minated, the gas, which is measured in the holder, is con- veyed to the purifier and then to the photometer to be tested for quality. The retort is withdrawn from the chamber and rapidly cooled, and the weight of the coke is readily ascertained. The right-hand portion of the apparatus shown in Fig. 661 is ordinarily at some distance from the retorts, but they are shown close together for convenience of illustration. The break is visible near the arrow s . B is the washer ; D the con- denser ; the cooled gas escapes by the pipe s to the gas-holder 6, thence by the purifier E and the meter to the photometer. 1 1 are the chambers in which cold water circulates around that part of the retort outside of the furnace, c is a screw to close the tube. Coal-still, Clements, Engl. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 85. Coal-tar still " Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2895 "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 213. Scotland * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2740. Coal-tip'ping Ma-chine'. One for discharg- ing the corves or mine cars down a grated incline into railway cars or boats. The screen removes grades of dust and small coal which fall into cars or receptacles beneath. Riggs * "Scientific American,'''' xli. 290. Coal-whip'ping Ma-chine'. A form of hoist- ing apparatus for quickly lifting the large loaded buckets out of a ship's hold. It was formerly done by a set of men called coal-whippers, who used the simple form of apparatus known as a whip. De- scribed on page 2770, "Mech. Diet." Tn the coal-whippers' machine the cylinders act directly upon the barrel, and an up-and-down rope is used ; the en- gine and boiler are made separate, and are as light as possi- ble, so that they can be taken in a boat alongside a sailing ship, and readily hoisted on board by the ship's tackle. In some cases the whole of the winches required to work the cargo in and out of the ship are driven from one engine placed amidships by means of a high-speed cord carried along the deck, and protected by wooden casings. Co'ap-ta'tion Splint. (Surgical.) A stiff cradle bandage to hold the broken ends of bones in apposition. See SPLINT. Cobalt Pla'ting. Cobalt electro-plating is done in a bath of a neutral solution of the double sulphate of cobalt and ammonium ( Gaijfe), or the chloride of cobalt combined with the chloride of ammonium and magnesium, or the sulphate of co- balt with sulphate of ammonium or sulphate of magnesium (Adams). See also ELECTRO-PLATING. "Engineering and Mining Journal'' " Scientific American Supplement " Cob Stack'er. An attachment to a power corn sheller to raise the cobs from the machine and pile them at a distance. See CORN SHELLER. Cock Al-loy'. The Society of Mechanical Engineers, of Vienna, have decided upon the fol- lowing alloys as best suited for cocks and valves. No. 3. xxvi. 136. 207. No. 1. Copper 84. Tin 22.9 Zinc 8.4 Lead 4.3 Iron . ... .4 No. 2. 83 17 100 100 Total 120 The freshly cast alloy to be cooled rapidly with water. Cock valve, Mayer, Austria * "Engineering,'' 1 xxx. 259. Coffee Clean'er. 1. A machine for rubbing the parchment envelope which incloses the asso- ciated seeds. 2. A machine for cleaning mold, dust, and trash from raw coffee. Stafford's coffee cleaner (Br.) has a magnetic nail detector to remove nails. The inclined sieve removes dust. " Scientific American, xl. " Scientific American * "Scientific American *" Scientific American * "-Scientific American * "Scientific American xxxvi. 83. xxxvii. 182. xxxix. 168. xxxvi. 83. Cleaning .... Dryer, Guardiola . Pot, Sherwood Place Huller, Guardiola Washer, Guardiola . Coffee Cool'er. An apparatus for cooling coffee after being roasted or kiln-dried after treat- ment to clean it. The machine consists of a large blower or exhaust, 26" in diameter, and a large double-bottomed box, the false bottom being of heavy wire cloth. The box is supported on two wheels, so that it may very readily be moved to receive the material from the roaster or dryer ; and so arranged that, when the open end is attached to the open side of the blower, the air is exhausted from between the bottoms, and so drawn down through the material, and cooled, without dust or smoke entering the room ; the same being blown into any chimney or flue, or out at any convenient opening. Burns. COFFEE HULLER. 207 COILING MACHINE. Coffee Hul'ler. A machine for operating upon the coffee berry to remove the husk, or parch- ment envelope of the grains. In Lombard's coffee huller the coffee is placed in a hopper that discharges 011 an endless chain apron which carries it in contact with a system of elastic pads. The pads treat each berry according to its size, retiring and returning read- ily as the grain of varying sizes pass under them. The coffee, as it leaves the apron, is riddled by a screen below, being at the same time cleaned by a fan working in connection therewith, and falls into a well, from which it is elevated by buckets on an endless belt, and discharged on to a second endless chain apron that draws it under a stiff brush, by which the berries are polished. The berries then fall on a second riddle that separates them according to size, and they are discharged at their separate spouts. Coffee Mill. In the granulating coffee-mill, Fig. 652. Fig. 653. Granulating Coffee Mill. Fig. 652, the berries are cracked by a coarse roller, and the grains removed by the revolving sieve as soon as they attain a certain degree of fineness, the object being to obtain uniformity df size. The sieve revolves on flanged friction-wheels, the toothed roller and concave do not touch when the machine rnns empty. The sieve is made up of 6 semi-c i r c u 1 a r divisions, which successively return their quotas of coarse stuff to the grinder. Fig. 653 is a retail- er's mill, the roller axis shifted, one cover removed, and the cut- t i n g disk exposed. The coffee from the hopper above passes between the attrition surfaces and falls into the tin vessel. Coffee Roast'er. A multitude o f small domestic and larger warehouse cof- fee roasters are in the market. A French c o ff e e roaster has a spheri- cal chamber of glass, rotating over a special .small furnace. Coffee MM. Kig. 654. The coffee roaster of Hignette (Paris) lias a globular vessel C, in which the coffee is roasted by the heat of a brazier D. which is placed beneath it during the operation , but retired, as shown in the figure, and a funnel sub- stituted when the coffee is to be discharged from the roaster into the cylindrical sifter, where the dust and pellicles are removed from it. The globu- ^ lar roaster re- ceives the coffee from above when the open- ing is brought into temporary apposition with the flue hole in the cover, J, of the apparatus. Fig. 655 shows Smith : s portable coffee roaster, adapted to be placed over a stove or range. It is automatic, revolving by steam pressure. C o f f e r Dam. (Hydraulic Engineer- c ff ee Roaster and Sifter. ing.) An inclosure ( ignette, Pans.) from which water is pumped, to expose the surface of the ground or bottom. Fig. 655. Portable Coffee Roaster. The coffer dam at dam No. 4, Kanawha River improve- ments, is shown in "Report of Chief of Engineers. V. S. Army," 1878, * ii. 467. Conn. River, Burrall . * " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xiv. 366. Harlem River . . . "Iron Age," xvii., May 11, p. 15. Portable, "Centennial" * "Iron Age," xix., Feb. 22, p. 1. Walsh, New York . . * "Scientific American," May 8, 1875. Coil. (Heating.) 1. A convoluted pipe used as a heater, evaporator, condenser, as the case may be. The names of coils are derived from their construction, shape, purpose, and application. See the following : Bell. Manifold. Box coil. Pipe stand. Branch. Radiator. Circular tank coil. Return bend. Coil hanger. Return bend coil. Coil heater. Ring plate. Coil plate. Sleeve. Coil screen. Soap coil. Coil stand. Spiral tank coil. Condensing coil. Square spiral tank coil. Cone joint. Square tank coil. Double cone coil. Taper screw joint. Flat coil. Tee. Flat square coil. Trunnion coil. Heater coil. Tuyere coil. Helical tank coil. Tymp coil. Hour-glass coil. Vertical tube coil. See also instances under CONDENSER, REFRIGERATOR, RADI- ATOR, FEED-WATER HEATER, etc., etc. 2. (Electricity.) a. The bundle of soft iron wires in the center of the helix, b. The wrapping of in- sulated wire around the core of an electro-magnet. Fig. 2672, "Mech. Diet." Coining Ma-chine'. The ovens and machine for coiling bars, for making tubes for cannon, is shown in Plate II., Appendix I. d, "Report of Chief of Ordnance, U. S. A.," 1877, pp. 400, 412. See also Appendix L, Fig. 75, and p. 549, same report. COIL PLATE. 208 COLD SHUT. Coil Plate. A plate with hooks or rings to support the horizontal coils of a radiator ; a steam or hot-water heater, evaporator, or condenser. Fig. 656. Coil Plates. a. Ring plate. 6. Hook plate. r. Corner plate. rf. Rosette plate. e. Movable-hook plate. /. Wall plate. Coil Stand. A pair of coil-plates (which see), arranged to stand upon a floor and to support the various coils or convolutions. Coil Screen. An ornamental open-work of wire concealing a coil, but allowing passage of ra- diated heat through the openings. Coil Steam Boil'er. One in which the water in coiled iron pipe is exposed to the heat of the furnace. See Fig. 5636. Plate LXI., p. 2317, "Mech. Diet."; also, Fig. 2686, p. 1191, Ibid. A double coil steam generator was shown in Paris, 1878, by M. N. Roser, St. Denis (Seine). Coin Al-loy'. An alloy for coins, prepared by Johnson, Matthey, & Co., of London, is Aluminum 98 Nickel 2 Jt is light (Sp. gr. 2.75), does not tarnish; and is too light to be mistaken -for silver. See also supra. * " Manufacturer and Builder,''' ix. 118. " Iron Age,'' 1 xxi., March 28, p. 7. * "Scientific American,' 1 '' xxxviii. 355. "Scientific American Sup.," 2892. * Laboulaye's "Dictionnairf desArts et Manufactures,'' article "Monnaie,' 1 ' 1 vol. ii., ed. 1877. Bar'row. A large, semi-cylindrical Detector, Sutton Silver dollars Tester, Doherty . Philadelphia mint Apparatus . . Coke Coke Barrow. sheet-iron two-wheeled barrow used about coke ovens and furnaces. French . ; . . . "Scientific American, 1 " * xxxix. 322. Coke-con-sum'ing Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) The coke is imbedded in melted nitrate of potas- sium or sodium ; the former being burned at the expense of the oxygen of the latter. Tin- negative electrode is cast-iron. Invented by Jalilnclikoff. Niaudet, American translation '1 in. " Scientific American Supplement," 1759. "English Mechanic" * xxvi, 109. Coke Fork. A ten-tined fork for shoveling coke. Coke Fur'nace. See the following refer- ences : Oven, Aiken .... . *" Scientific Am. Sup," 1026. Carre, Besseges, Fr. ... * "Engineering," xxix. 399. Stove, article, " Chntiffage '' Laboulaye's "Diet, ties Arts," etc., iv., Fig. 3458. Self-coking, Fr-rrie . . . "Iron Age," xix., May 24, 16 System, Carve "Iron Age," xxii., Oct. 17, 11. From anthracite dust, WisUr "Iron Age,'' xxi., May 30, 9. Crusher, Thwaite If Carbutt * "Engineer," xliii. 159. Furnaces, Br. ...... * "Enginee ring,'' xxiv. 227. Self-coking, Ferrie, Ironton * "Iron A^i ." xvii.. Feb. 3, 1. Manufacture *"/>. Ann rimn," xxxiv. 34. Ovens, Bennington .... * "Iron AW, ": xxiii. ,.Iune 26, 1 Oven, Ait ken * "Iron Agr, J ' xix., Jan. 11, 1. See GAS AND COKE FDRNACE, infra. Cold Air Ma-chine'. See AIK REFRIGE- RATING MACHINE. Also "Scientific American Supplement ," 4011. Cold'-i-ron Saw. A circular saw for removing the fag end of a rolled rail. It saws through a cold steel rail 5J" deep in 18 minutes. The cold saw used at the Landore Siemens Steel Co. is shown at Figs. 18, 19, p. 14, vol. xlii., "Engineer." Also used for cutting bar iron into lengths for piling, re- heating, and re-rolling. Sellig, Sonnenthal (( Co., Br. * "Engineer" xlviii. 472. For rails * "Engineering," xxr.8&&. Cold-press'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for Cold-pressing Machine. finishing by cold drawing, or for pressing forgings. It has a pressure of from 300,000 to 400,000 Ibs. ; stroke 1" to 6". It stops and starts instantly by means of Pratt's friction clutch. Cold Shot. (Foundry.) Small globules of iron found in chilled portions of a casting. Cold Shut. (Add.) 2. (Founding.) An im- perfection in a casting owing to the cooling of the metal while flowing. COLD SOUND. 209 COLORED GLASS. Cold Sound. (Surgical.) Psychrophor. In- vention of Dr. Winternitz, of Vienna. An instru- ment for treating pollutions, spennatorrhea, and chronic gonorrhea. Fig. 659. Cold Sound A double current catheter without eyes, the two canals communicating near the point of the instrument. It is in- troduced into the urethra until its point has passed the pars prostatica, and it is then attached by rubber tubing to a res- ervoir containing water of the desired temperature. On turning the stop-cock, the water flows into one canal and out through the other. In this way the caput gallinaginis and the entire mucous membrane, are exposed to the mechanical action of pressure and the sedative action of cold. See also Fig. 56, Sup., Tietnann's "Armani. Chirurgicum." Co-li-fi-che. (Ceramics.) A little prism or tri- pod of refractory clay, used in a faience or porce- lain kiln to support the enameled or decorated ware in the second firing. They are known as stilts and s/iurs in England. See SEGGAR, Figs. 4815- 4816, p. 2089, "Mech. Diet." where rings, ridges, and studs are shown supporting the ware in the seggars. Col-lap'si-ble Boat. One capable of folding for convenient transportation. Crispin's . . . * " Scientific American,' 1 xxxviii. 343. Bert/ion's, Br. . * "Scientific American Supplement,'' 1327. * "Engineer," xlviii. 162. * " Van Nostranri's May., 1 ' xix. 94. Osgood . . . * "Scientific American,'' xl. 38. "Iron Age,'' xx., July 19, p. 1. See also BOAT : FOLDING BOAT. Collar. (Nautical.) 1. A bite at the end of a shroud or stay, to go over the mast-head. 2. A rope formed into a wreath, with a dead-eye in the bight, to which the lower part of the stay is secured. 3. The neck of a bolt. 4. A circular enlargement on a rod. Col'lar-laun'der. The pipe or gutter at the top of a lift of pumps by which water Is conveyed to the cistern. Col'lar Ma-chine'. Vapey's horse-collar block- ing machine consists of a former, which can be va- ried in length, and a tightener rope to draw the leather close to the former or mold by means of lever and screw. Collar stuffing machine, Lichliter * "Sc. Amer.,'' xxxvii. 38. Collar Nail. A nail used in blind-soling boots iind shoes. Field Sons. p,. ggg The nail being driven into the heel (or sole) as far as the collar, the outer lift (or sole) is driven on to the projecting pin, and thereby held, without the head of the nail appear- ing upon the outer surface. Col'lar Swage. (Blacksmith- int/. ) A swage set in the hardy hole of an anvil and used in swaging a collar on to a rod. The depression in the swage is equal to one half the size of the rod and collar ; a top tool laid upon the iron completes the CoUar Nail - form, the piece being swaged between the two by the blows of a hammer. See also FULLER, SWAGE, etc. See Fig. 661. Col-lo'dion. Gun-cotton dissolved in ether or chloroform. It is used for many purposes. See PYROXYLINS, p. 1831, "Mech. Diet'" ; GUN COTTON, p. 1036, Ibid. See also CELLULOID, supra. 14 Col'lo-type. (Photography.) A name given to the process in which the image is taken upon a sensitive colloid film. The first attempts were made on metallic plates, and the adhesion of the film was effected by the oxydation Flg - 661> of the metallic surface. Albert introduced the use of glass plates, Obernetter used very thin zinc plates. Description of his process in " Photographisch.es Wochen- blatt." Reproduced in " Scientific American Supplement," 2671. Col'o-phene. A viscid colorless oil, obtained by distilling oil of turpen- tine with sulphuric acid. See Clarke's Patent, No. 6,001, June 2, 1849. Col'or Com-par'a-tor. An ap- paratus by Dr. Leeds, of the Stevens Institute, for making comparisons of Collar Swage. tints of color. A rack holds ten comparison tubes of equal caliber and contents. An adjustable mirror reflects the light downward through these comparison tubes, and the light, after passing through slits ( j" long and \" wide), cut in a stage beneath, is reflected outward to the eye by a similar adjustable mir- ror placed below. In the original apparatus, the supports of the upper mirror are placed at the front corners, so as to make the axis of the mirror in front of the upper row of holes, and permit the tubes to be lowered into their places from the top. Later, it was found more convenient to slip the tubes in from below, which can be done without rising from one's seat, and in this case the axis of the mirror was put directly over the centers of the line of holes, and the mirror made somewhat narrower (3")- A black cloth, hung from the back upper corners, prevents any light reaching the eye except that reflected from the lower mirror. The comparison is effected by a prism nearly filled with a suitable colored liquid. The prism is constructed by ce- menting within four straight walls of plate glass the inclined top and bottom sides of the prism It is 10" long, 1J" wide, 2J" at the base of the prism, narrowing to 3-16" at the apex. The prism is cut off in this manner at the apex, because, when filled with liquid of the most suitable intensity of color, the graduations beyond this point are too inconsiderable to be of value. The liquid is introduced through an orifice in the base, over which is afterward cemented a glass cover. " Scientific American Supplement " .... * 2135. Col'or ed Glass. (Glass.) Glass colored in the pot ; as distinguished from enameled, which has a surface of verifiable color baked on. It consists commonly of two layers, white and colored melted into junction, or one laid upon the other : in some instances, white glass overlaid with three or four colors. There are, however, other modes. See list under GLASS, "Mech. Diet." et infra. The oxides of the different metals form the col- ors: For blues: oxide of cobalt or safre, oxide of iron, etc. Shades of blue, such as violet or celestial: different propor- tions of cobalt. Light blue, for spectacles : a mixture of cobalt and red oxide of iron. London smoke : a mixture of oxides of copper, iron, and manganese. Black: by increasing proportions of the last mentioned. Purple: oxide of manganese. Potash glass with manga- nese gives a bluish purple ; soda glass verges on the red. The color is made of a deeper blue by the addition of cobalt. Brown purple : a mixture of oxides of manganese and iron. Ancient purple : a mixture of oxide of manganese and red oxide of iron. Yellow : a mixture of oxides of iron and manganese ; char- coal is supplied in the shape of wood sawdust, an increase of which gives an orange, or in excess red. A mixture of ochre and silver applied to the surface and baked in. Green : a mixture of black oxide of copper and oxide of iron ; or replace a part of these oxides by one third of their weight of bi-chromate of potassium. Blue green : add oxide of cobalt to the above. Yellow green : add yellow oxide of uranium to the recipe for green. Red or ruby : brown oxide of copper, oxides of lead and COLORED GLASS. 210 COMBINATION LOCK. tin, scales of iron, and borax, are added to the batch in the pot and melted. The glass is dipped out, broken or ground, and remelted, with additional quantities of the oxides and borax. The color is not developed until repeated heatings. Opal : calcined bones are added to the batch of glass in the pot. Cryolite, ID; white sand, 20: oxide of zinc, 20 : iu:\k<> an opal glass, called Hot cast porcelain. >>ee also CRYOLITE. Fluor spar added to the batch. Laboulaye's "Dictionnaire ties Arts et Manufactures," Arti- cle " Verrr." "Scientific American " xxxiv. 263. "Scientific American Supplement "... 129. Fig. 062. Colters. a. Rolling colter b. Caster colter. r. Knife colter. d. Standing colter. Fig. 663. Col-o-rim'e-ter. Dr. Scheibler's method con- sists in a number of parallel tubes in which solu- tions of sugar and syrups are examined for relative depths and qualities of color. Nanquette," Terhnologiste," xl. 362. See also DIAPHONOMETER, infra. Col'or-ing Met'als Prepare a solution of sul- phide of lead by dissolving \ oz. of hyposulphite of so- dium in 1 11). of water, aud adding | 07.. of acetate of lead dissolved in 8 o/. of water. Heat to 200 Fall., and the sulphide of lead is precipitated in brown flakes. Metals exposed to the solution become colored Brass in the following order, according to the time of exposure, and consequent thickness of the coat: gold, copper-red, carmine, dark red, blue, blue-white, red- dish white. Iron becomes steel blue. Zinc becomes brown. Copper, the order of brass, ex- cept that the gold color does not appear. If, instead of the acetate of lead, sulphuric acid be added to the hy- posulphite of sodium, the brass becomes red, green, brown, with green aud red iris glitter. See also BRONZING, etc. Col-peu-ryn'ter. (Sur- gical.) An inflatable bag in- troduced into the vagina to / ^ in cutter IT. Sword cut prevent prolapsus uteri. . g-. Sword cutter. Fig. 664. Col'ter. The sward cutter in advance of the plowshare and mold-board. See Figs. 662, 663. Rotary colter grinder . * ''Scientific American,''' xlii. 198 Co-lum'bin. (Electricity.} The non-conduct- ing material placed between the parallel carbons of the ELECTRIC CANDLE, which see. Col'umii. Built wrought iron columns, so much used in modern engineering, are made in segments, which are bolted together. The construction of two prominent forms is evi- dent at a glance. Figs. 664, 665. Col'umn Bat'- te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which the ele- ments are formed into a column. See VOL- TAIC PILE. Comb. (Add.) 8. (Fire-arms.). The to]) corner of the stock, where the cheek rest.- iu tiring. Comb making, * " I\ln factnrer and Buililtr," x. 129. Com'bi-na'tion Au'ger. An auyer used in well or shaft boring. It has a long barrel, inclined throats at the lower end, and de- tachable horizontal cutters. Used in clay, sand, and other soft or friable strata. Fig. 665. Built Iron Column. Braun's, Fig. 420, p. 90 tarium Chirurgicum." , Part III., Tiemann's "Armamen- Pheenix Iron Co.'s Wrougkt-iron Column. Com'bi-iia'tion Ba'sin Cock. A shampoo- ing arrangement in ^.vhich the tube and sprinkler connect with hot and Fi cold water faucets, so as to receive a min- gled stream of the re- quired warmth. C o m'bi-na'tion Lock. 1. A bank or safe lock, the mechan- ism of which is ope- rated by two gradu- ated dials, whereby one bolt, common to both, is controlled by either of the two inde- pendent dials, which latter may be set on two different combi- nations, thus giving the control to either o persons. 2. A aentafatvm lock: see Figs. 3646-3648, p. 1669, "Mech. Diet." Combination Cock. COMBINATION PLANE. 211 COMPARATOR. Com'bi-na'tion Plane. A joiner's plane, ca- pable, by adjustments and attach- ments, of assuming various capaci- ties : such as plow, fillister, dado, rabbet-p 1 au e, m at c h i u g - plane, etc. The in a i n feature of the plane is that it has a fence or guide which is Bai/e " S Combmatwn Plane. made to change to one side or the other, as the nature of the work requires, the fence being also vertically adjustable. Com'bi-iia'tion Plow. A plow having a number of optional shares, so as to be convertible to a number of different uses. Combination plows are generally those of the smaller class, sucli as are used in tending crops, rather than those for breaking ground ; many are found in the varieties adopted for special culture, such as beets, grapes and garden crops. Horusby's (English) plow has a number of mold boards ; also potato diggers, hoe frames, etc., either of which can be attached to the beam. Fig. 668. Combination Plow. Farquhar's convertible plow, Fig. 668, has double shovel, single shovel, subsoil, bull-tongue, ridging shares and bodies. Com'bi-na'tion Open and Peep Sights. A species of gun-sight, Fig. 669, hav- ing several sights for different distances. When the leaf is down, a low slit-sight is exposed. When the leaf is lifted, the peep sight may be slipped up and down on the graduated stem, according to the distance of the object. Com'bi-na'tion Spring. One made by the multiplica- tion of several similar parts In elliptic springs for rail- ways see numerous examples in Fig. 1144, p. 483, "Mech. Diet ' Instances of the spiral kind in Fig. 1148, same page. Combination Open Peep Sight. Combinations of steel and caoutchouc : Figs. 1142-1144, pp. 482, 483, Ibid. Com'bi-na'tion Scale. A scale with several beams. . A dairy scale beam which admits of weighing the milk brought by a number of farmers, at the same draft, keeping the weight of each on its own beam. See CREAMERY SCALE. b. A postal-scale having separate beams and poises, the graduations in grains and ounces (and fractions) on each respectively. c. A weighing scale with one beam for the cart, and another for the load ; with the addition of a third beam for small weights, the second being for the thousands. d. A furnace scale for charging the barrow with the respective quantities of ore, coke, and limestone, to be dumped into the hopper of the blast furnace. See FURNACE CHARGER. "Engineering and Mining Journal'" . . . * xxvi. 313. Com-bined' Car. (Railway.) One with sepa- rate compartments for different purposes, as a com- bined bagyaye and express car, or a combined mail and passenger car, etc. Or : one capable of being converted to distinct uses ; as a combined box and cattle car. Comb'ing Ma-chine'. The cotton combing machine of Heilmann, of Alsace, is a marvel of in- genuity in preparing cotton for fine counts of yarn. The machine has been somewhat simplified by Dobson & Barlow, of Bolton, England. The action is intermittent, by means of nippers and combs. In the Dobson & Barlow machine the nipper holds the cotton to be combed against the fluted feed roll- ers. The cotton is drawn up into the top comb by the detaching rollers, which draw it in a straight line from the grip of the two feed rollers. Some of the following references concern flax, and other cotton : Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures." Girard, French . . . . * ii., art. " Lin," Figs. 1424-1429. Worstwortk. Engl. ... ii., Figs. 1430, 1431. Fairbairn, Engl. ... ii., Figs. 1432, 1433. Wtsttey 4" Lawson, Engl. * ii., Figs. 1450-1452. Heilmann * iy., art. "Peigneuse." * ii., art. "Laines.'' Linen, Homer * " Technologiste," xxxvii. 24. Ward *" T^chnologiste," xxxvii. 27. Stephen, Cotton (f Co. * " Technologiste,'' xxxvii. 30. Combe if Harbour . . * " Technologiste ," xxxvii. 41. VanoutryvK .... " Technologiste. ," xxxvii. 215. Heilmann, Lille . . . . * "Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' 3896. Pierrard *" Scientific Amer . Sup.,'' 1 2581. Com'fit Pan. For making comfits and all ixiuds of confections known as pan goods. The pan i< heated by steam conveyed through an india- rubber tube. Another tube conveys away water of condensation. It does not revolve, but has a pecul- iar rocking motion. See CONFECTION PAN. Com'mu-ta'tor. (Electricity.) An instrument or arrangement used to change the currents from primary to secondary, or the reverse ; to change the polarity of a current ; or to change from one to more cells in a constant battery. Mercury, Lartigue . " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 153. Com-par'a-tor. a. An instrument for com- paring measures of length together. The objects to be compared are laid on an iron bed, and micro- scopes with micrometric eye-pieces placed vertically over the bed for observation and comparison. In the comparator of M. Tresca but one microscope is used ; the bars to be measured are placed side by side upon the bed, which is movable both laterally and longitudinally. One end of the standard is first brought under the micro- scope, and afterward, the corresponding end of the scale to be tested is by a lateral movement similarly brought into the field of view, and by the slow movement of the scale itself, if necessary, its terminal mark is brought into coin- cidence with the cross-wires of the microscope. The whole system is then moved longitudinally until the opposite ends of the bars come under observation, when without disturb- ing the microscope the mark on the standard rule is first brought into coincidence with its cross-lines, and subse- quently that on the rule to be tested, the difference in length, if any, between the two being measured by the mi- crometer. b. Saxton's comparator consists essentially of a mirror, which reflects a beam of light over double the angle through which the mirror is revolved, and this beam acts as an index by being caused to sweep over a graduated scale, having for its center the center of the axis of the mirror. It will be obvious how measurements may be made bv this ;in-ange- ment. It is applied by Prof. A. F. Mayer to the observation COMPARATOR. 212 COMPOUND ENGINE PUMP. and measurement of the changes in the dimensions of iron and steel bars on their magnetization. See "Fneniific American Supplement ,'' * 1519, * 1595. * 1(537, * lt>94. f . Lissajous" comparator " consists of a diapason, to one limb of which is attached the object-glass of a compound microscope : the body of the microscope being detached and supported by an independent stand. If the diapason be thrown into vibration, the image of any small object seen through the microscope will appear to have a similar motion , which will be magnified by all the power of the instrument. Let the object be itself a point in a vibrating body, having its direction of vibration at right angles to that of the ob- ject-glass, and the combination of the two motions will pro- duce figures, from the analysis of which the character of the vibration of the body observed may be deduced. When the vibrating body is a string, or other object without conspicu- ous points suited to be used in the comparison, it is necessary to mark it in some manner. Different observers have adopted different expedients for this purpose ; but in order to avoid loading the body or altering its condition by adding coloring matters, Mr. Lissajous, in the case of strings, has employed a cylindrical lens to throw a sharp line of light across the object. This creates a brilliant point moving with the string without in any manner disturbing its mode of vibra- tion.'' Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, "Paris Exposition Reports,''' * iii. 508, 509. See also ELECTRICAL DIAPASON. Com'pass. Mi-ch. Diet." See list under COMPASS, p. 599, ' Scientific American,'' xli. 81. 'Scientific Amer. Sup.," 760. 'Scientific Amer. Sup.," 255. 'Scientific American,'' xxxv. 67. 'Telegraphic Journal,'' iv. 75. "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 568. Alarm Correction, Thompson Differential, lie . . . Japanese Nickel needle, Fr. . . Sir William Thompson See also AZIMUTH, etc. Com-pen'sa-tor. (Gas.) An aid to the gov- ernor of the gas-exhauster engine, in order to maintain equal pressure in the main when the ex- hauster may be working in excess of the produc- tion of gas. The object is to limit the vacuum, to prevent its reaching a dangerous degree. The raising of a bell in the compensator opens a valve in the bye-pass, i'n(Vr.) brake, " Sc. Amer. Sup.," *2814. C o m-p r e s s e d' Air Eii'gines and Ma- chin'e-ry. The following references may be ex- amined : Lamm's patents are : . . No. 105,581. No. 121,527. December 5. 1871. No. 124,495. March 12, 18?2. Tellier ....... No. 121,909. December 12, 1871. See also Air and Gas Engines for propelling cars. Bo in pas' English patent . No. 5,644, 1828, compressed air. Stewart if Kershaiv,Eng. pat. No. 1,092, 1863, compressed air. S. Carson, U. S. patent . . December 9, 1856. N. H. Barboitr, U. S. patent March 14, 18o5, carb. acid gas. Stewart Sf Kersliaw, cited above, compress air by water- power at stations along the road. The engine has small res- ervoirs disposed along the center of its frame. Air is first used in high-pressure cylinder, then in low pressure. Harrison's Air Engine, 3,034, is a turbine, driven by com- pressed air. See also reaction wheel worked by compressed air, 1,451 of 1866. See also AIR ENGINE and COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE, "Mech. Diet." 1 Beaumont, Woolwich, Bngl. . . "Sc.Amer. Sup.," 1041, *3943. "Brit. Trade J.," June 1, 1880. * "Scientific Amer.," 1 xl.51. * -'Paris Expo. 1878 Kept.,-' vol. iv., p. 462-464. *"Sc. Am. Sup. ,"216. . "Polytechnic Rev.,'' Dec. 23, 1876. Schneider, St. Got hard tunnel . *"Sc. Am. Sup.,' 1 ' xvi. 20. Bushnell, New York ..... " Sc. Amer." xxxix. 129. Haupt's Report on the use of compressed-air motors for streetcars ....... "Sc. Am. Sup.," 2795, 2813, 2891. Lamm ff Franrq, Paris tramways *" Paris Exposition (1878) Repts ," iv. 465. Zakner's " Transmission of Power by Compressed Air." See also Air Car ...... "Sc.Am. Sup.," 789. Air compressor. Burleigh . . . " Technologiste,'' xxxviii. 389. Air engine, Beaumont .... "Sc. Am. Sup.,' J xxxvii. 84. Air locomotive, Beaumont, Engl. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 966. "Engineer"' ...... "Van Nostrand's Mag.,' 1 ' 1 xxiii. 225. Mfkarski, Paris Polytechnic college, Phila. Air machines "Sc.Am. Sup.," 2448. Air in mines, Johnson, Engl. . " Sc. Am. Sup.," 1 2223. Air motor, Fallart, Brussels . . "Mining anil Sc. Press," xxxvii. 307. Lecauchet " Technologiste," xxxvii. 116. Air-pump and condenser. Tangye, Br * "Engineer," xlii. 40. Air pump, " Hartford " . . . * "Engineer," xlii. 298. Air receptacles, Siemens . . . "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1 19U6. Air (etc.) reservoirs, Siemens . * "Engineer,'' xlv. 287. Air street car, Mckarslci . . . * "Engineering," xxii. 142. Air, Transmission of power by. Zahner " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xix. 446, 481. Corn-pressed' Fuel. Fuel made of materials artificially compounded and pressed into blocks. See BRIQUETTE ; FUEL, ARTIFICIAL. In the works of the " Crown Preserved Coal Co.,'' at Car- diff, Wales, the fine coal from the colliers is tipped from the wagons, pulverized, mixed with pitch automatically, passes to the heating furnaces to be made plastic, and is thus deliv- ered to the molds, each of which receives 60 tons pressure, forming the block and stamping the name on it. An end- less band carries the blocks to the stacking ground. The blocks are regular in shape, weigh 26 Ibs. each, and are made at the rate of 40 per minute. Corn-pressed' Glass. A process by Siemens, of Dresden, Saxony. The glass is tempered by being cast or pressed in chilled molds. It is claimed to lie stronger than the glass tempered in oil by the De la I-Jastie process (see TEMPERED GLASS] in the proportion of 5 to 3. The fracture is fibrous ; the glass may be bored and wheel polished ; is fractured by the diamond. Siemens " Technologiste," xxix. 342. Corn-pressed' Air Pump. A windmill works an air compressing pump, and the air is conducted by a pipe to the submerged apparatus shown in Fig. 671. Two merged chambers rest upon a frame, pivoted to allow them a certain amount of rocking motion in a vertical plane. Fig. 671. Compressed Air Pump. (Hurt ford Pump Co.) Each cylinder has a valved inlet at bottom, and a discharge pipe at bottom on the inner side, the respective pipes pass- ing to a common upright main. An air valve above deter- mines the access of compressed air to the chambers alter- nately. This valve is operated by the rise and fall of the chests: the compressed air being always directed to the lower chest. As soon as a chamber is emptied it becomes relatively lighter than the other, ascends, works the lever and valve, and directs the air into the other. COMPRESSED GAS GOVERNOR. 216 CONCAVE MIRROR. Corn-pressed' Gas Gov'er-nor. See GAS GOVERNOR. Corn-pressed' Steel. (Metallurgy.) Steel con- densed by hydraulic pressure, while yet fluid, to give it density, tenacity, and freedom from blow holes. See WHITWOKTII STEEL. ^W*D IU^IA cipfMicu. JLIIC cucut 10 t>ij< uuncuuiai iu uujjjjci, but on brass the result is just the contrary. Whitwortk . . "Iron Age." xxiv., Dec. 4, p. 15. " Van Nostrand's Mas;.," xv. 536 ; xvi. 184. Steel-press, Fig. 5747, p. 2369, "Mee/t. Diet.,'- Com-pres'sioii Cock. One with an elastic Fig. 672. Fig. 674. Compression Faucet. valve, which is compressed in seat- ing itself, the pressure of water being also toward the seat, Com-pres'sion Coup'ling. A means of unit- ing adjacent ends of shafts. The compression rings, B, are forced up the inclines of the sleeve from Fig. 673. Compression Coupling. each entl by a flange at one end and a screw thread at the other end of the cover, C, which is rotated by a spanner. See also CLAMP COUPLING. Com-pres'sipn Hpt'-air E 11 ' g i n e. The terms hot-air engine, air engine, caloric engine, are somewhat arbitrarily given. The Rider engine, Fig. 674, is shown as a pump- ing engine. Cold air admitted to cylinder A is compressed to one third its normal volume by the descent of compression piston C, the air being transferred through the regenerator H into the h<-ater F without appreciable change of volume. Heated by the passage through the regenerator and then by the tire, the expansion of the air raises the power-piston/), in turn depressing the compres- sion piston C, and so on. "Scientific. American,' 1 ' 1 . . . * xxxiv. 66 ; * xxxviii. 131. "Railroad Gazette' 1 ' 1 .... * xxiv. 189. See also AIR ENGINE ; CALORIC KXGINE : HOT-AIR ENGINE. Rider's Compression Engine. Com-press'or. 1 . A device on the stage of a microscope by which an object is compressed be- tween glass plates. 2. (Surgical.) An instrument for grasping a uterine turnor and severing the pedicle. An Ecra- seur. Com-pres-so'ri-um. A compressor for micro- scopic objects. Microscope, Holman . "Manuf. if Builder ," xii. 205. Com'pro-mise Wheel. (Railway.) One adapted by an extra breadth of tread to run upon tracks of gages varying say 1 \" in width. A broad-tread wheel. Con'cas-seur. A French coarse-grinding mill for grain or feed. A corn cracker. Con'cave Mir'ror. A mirror, M, attached to a microscope to throw oblique rays upon the object. It is adjustable in any direction, as, besides swing- ing in a rotating semicircle, N, it is attached to a bar, 0, with a joint at Fig. 675. each end, allowing a lat- eral movement. Fig 676. Concave Mirror. Concave Saw. CONCAVE SAW. 217 CONDENSING COIL. Con'cave Saw. A dish-shaped saw for saw- ing out bowls or curved stuff. See Fig. 676. Con-cen'tra-ting Ap'pa-ra'tus. Aii appa- ratus for eliminating extraneous, refuse, or diluting matter. The term has many applications. See p. 604, "Mech. Diet." and list under METALLURGY, p. 1424, Ibid., for the names of those machines con- cerned in mining. Ore, Richards . . . * "Mining 4" fie. Press,' 1 xxxv. 161. Tnltes *" Mining If Sc. Prm*," xxxiv. 17; * xxxiv. 237. Buet sugar process, Fr. " De/it. Agri. Sp. Report," 128, PI. XXVI. Laboulaye' l & ''Diet.,'' "Sucre," Hi. ''Meek. Diet." 1 For syrups . . . . See also CONDENSER. Con cer-ti'na. (Music.) An instrument of the accordeou family. It is a small elastic box, held horizontally between both hands It is played by knobs pressed by the points of the fingers, and which, raising a valve, cause to pass over the reeds of brass the column of air supplied by the bellows between the two sides of the box. The sides hold the knobs on the outside, and, on the inside, the vibrating piates. The bellows has no valves, but tills and empties by means of the reed valves, which inspire and expire, each in turn, the air necessary for the vibration of the reeds. The bass concertina has the compass of the violoncello ; the alto that of the viola ; the soprano that of the violin. Con'crete. A mixture of mortar with gravel or spawls. Architectural treatment Blocks . Wonilhouse, Eng. Building Bell, Engl. .... Block lowering, Jersey. Concrete and iron, Hyatt Dwelling house .... House building .... b'ire-proof Foundation, Matthews Mill Mixer, Messent. Eng. Day If Lamparrl, Br. . Tank' "Scientific American Sup.," 683. 1 "Manuf. 4' Builder," ix. 112. "Iron Age,,'' xix., Feb. 1, p 24. "Scientific American Sup.," 408, 534, 1524. " Scientific American Sitp.," 899 ' "Engineering,'' xxiii. 282. " Scientific American Su/>.," 1939. '' Scientific American Sup.," 1895. " Scientific American Sup.," 1767. "Scientific American Sup.," 1 921. "Scientific American >S'i//>.," 245. "Mining if Sc. Press," 1 xxxv. 273. "Scientific American," xxxvii. 97. "Engineer,'' xlv. 354. "Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' 1 3742. See also BETON, CEMENT, etc. 2. (Sugar.) Sugar boiled down to a solid mass; to be worked up subsequently in factories provided with superior machinery. See CONCRETOR. Coii-cre'tor. An apparatus for evaporating sugar, bringing the whole juice of the cane to a solid mass, to be subsequently treated with superior machinery. Fryer's process. The apparatus consists of three parts : 1st, a rectangular pan of cast-iron, made in sections, and in all 25' or 30' long by 6' wide and 6" deep, with a number of partitions running across, extending alternately from each side nearly to the other, and set with a slight inclination, so that the juice runs in at one end, and in a stratum of not more than i" in depth, by a long, zigzag course, escapes at the other. The pan is heated by direct fire from below, and in passing through it about two-thirds of the water is evaporated. The juice, now of syrupy consistence, goes thence to the interior of a hollow cylinder of sheet-cop- per, heated on the outside by the flue gases from the fire under the pan (or by the vapor from the juice therein), while through the inside a cur- rent of air is driven, heated by the exhaust steam of the small engine, which furnishes power. This cylinder is 20' long by 3? 6" in diameter, open at the ends, with the exception of a little rim to retain the syrup, set with a slight incli- nation from the horizontal, and made to revolve slowly about 6 or 8 times per minute on its axis. Thence the syrup, now of thick consist- ence, passes to the exterior surface of a copper- faced iron cylinder of 4' in diameter by 4' long, over which it, is evenly distributed in a thin layer. This cyl- inder is heated from within by exhaust steam, revolves upon its axis twice per minute, and receives on the outside a steady blast of heated air, by which the evaporation is rapidly com- pleted and the syrup brought to the consistence of a soft solid, which is removed by a scraper, and can be molded while warm, but on cooling sets into perfectly hard slabs, ready for storage or shipment. The time required for the passage of any given portion of sugar from end to end of the whole apparatus is only about 15 minutes, and with the above dimensions of parts the product is about half a ton of concrete per hour. Of course the arrangement may be used to produce crystallized sugar, but it is specially adapted to its intended use of rapidly putting the crude juice into a condition in which it may be kept free from alteration and in small bulk for shipment, to go in due time into the hands of the refiner. Mallet's report on Group III., in vol. iv. , "Centennial Ex- hibition Reports,'' 1876. Coii-cus'sioii Ta'ble. a. An ore-sorting table to which concussion is imparted in order to sepa- rate the broken ore by gravity. A percussion table. Rittinger's double concussion table, * "Mining and Scien- tific Press," xxxiv. 217. b. A species of grain cleaner. See CLOD CLEARER, supra. Con-den'ser. A word with several applica- tions, referring to the concentration of volume of an object, as of a solution, a syrup, a gas, an ore, or slime mixed with ganyue or impurities. Pelouze 4' Andoin's condenser for the mechanical separation of vapor held in suspension by gases. Smedberg's improve- ment. "Mining 4* Scientific Press," * xxxvi. 393. Dahlgren's fume condenser, "fie. American Sup.,'" * 629. Me Carter's steam-engine condenser without air pump. " Scientific American Sup.," * 643. Rice's condenser for pharmaceutical stills. ''Scientific American Sup.," * 1511. Deane's independent condensing apparatus is a circulatory . pump attached to any non-condensing engine, and made at Holyoke, Mass. Fontenay's marine condenser, Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire r/es Arts et Manufactures," article "Bateau a Vapeur," tome i., Figs. 7, 8. * "Engineer,'' 1. 1192. * "Sc. American," xl. 374. *" Engineer," 1 xlii. 112. * "Engineering," xxi. 34. * "Engineering," xxx. 133. * "Engineering," xxx. 454. Brassard Steam, Brassard .... Steam engine, McCarter, Br. Air pump. Separate. Hathorn, Davis 4" Co., Br. Exhauster, Rodger, Br. Exhausting and boiler feed. Candlisk ft Norris, Br. . Feed-water heater. Robertson Sf Henderson, Br. . * " Sc. Am. Sup.," 2094. Streetcars. Surface, Rowan . * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 488. Surface, Craig * "Eng. if Min. J.," xxvii. 89. Expansion engine, JVb/eJ,Belg. . * "Engineer, 1 - xlvii. 222. Horizontal engine. Rusten Sf Proctor, Br. . . . * " .SV. Am. Sup.," 206C. Paris, 1878 * "Sc. American," xxxix. 4. Socicte Swiss * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 2084. A portion of a cotton-gin which acts upon the lint from the gin and presses it into a sort of fleece, in a compacted condition to place it in con- venient form for handling, and save room. See GIN, COTTON. Con-den'sing Coil. A coil in which steam is condensed. In Fig. 677, which represents a con- densing flat return-bend coil, the sectional area of Fig. 677. Condensing Coil. pipe decreases as the steam 4 progressively con- denses. CONDENSING FORCEPS. 218 CONSOLIDATOR. Con-deii'sing For'ceps. Dental forceps for Fig. 678. Condensing Forceps, condensing plugs situated between the teeth, near their necks or their lingual or palatine edges. Con'duc-tiv'i-ty. (Electric.) The conveying po*er of an object. Opposed to resistance. Con'duc-tom'e-ter. An instrument for illus- trating the comparative power of different objects for conducting heat, electricity, etc. Con-duc'cor Head. A funnel spout and lead- Fig. 679. Conductor Head. ing pipe, to conduct a liquid into a reservoir horizontally or nearly so. Used in creameries in pouring the milk from the cans of the collecting wagons into the can on the scale inside the receiving-house. Con-duc'tors' Valve. (Railway.) A valve connecting with the Westing-house automatic brake, and placed at some convenient point in a car, and operated by a cord extending through the car within reach of the conductor. Cone. (Spinning.) One of the taper drums in the headstock of a mule, and known as the backing- q/fand drawinq-up cones respectively. Cone Gear. (Add.) Conical gearing for va- rying motion was described in Bramah's planing machine. English Patent, 1802. Cone and Cra'dle Mill. A mill which has a conical muller or grinder, reciprocating in a semi- cylindrical concave. Cone Joint. A pipe joint. The abutting ends of the pipes are conical, and are drawn by a screw- sleeve against a leaden gasket, and thus make a tight joint. Fig. 680. Cone Joint for Hydraulic Pipes. Con-fec'tion-er'y Stove. A sheet metal stove with holes to fit a variety of sizes of confection pans, one at a time. Steam confection pan, Brown . . * "Engineer,'' xli. 226. French confectionery "He. Am. Sup.," 194. See also Fig 1428, p. 611, "Mech. F j g 682 Diet. Fig. 681 taking the shape of the head at the hat band. Used in shaping hats to fit the head. Hat conformator and shapes of heads of many distin- guished persons, "Scientific Aitierican,'' * xxxviii. 143, 146 Con'ic-al Bear'ing. A compensating bearing for the spindles of shafts in wood machines. The bearing passes through the shell, and the end abuts against the end of an adjustable screw of hard brass having a core diameter equal to that of tliu spindle. Surrounding the bearing between the end-thrust screw and the spindle is an annular cavity for oil and fibrous packing. Fig. 682. Con-junc'ti-va In'stru-ments. (Surgical) Instruments for operating upon the mucous mem- brane of the eye and lid. Scissors curved on the flat Fig. 96, Part II. Pterigium scissors (for removing excres- cences from the internal canthus of the eye) Fig. 97, Part II. Caustic holder Fig. 97 ft, Part II. Brush . . . Fig. 97 c. Part II. Of Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." Con-nect'ing Rod. A rod intervening be- tween the piston rod or cross-head and the wrist of a crank or driving wheel. Fig. 682 shows a connecting rod forged in a single piece and mortised for the reception of the brass boxes, which are curved on their backs and fit the cheek-pieces between which Fig. 683. Connecting Rod. LOCKS ana set screws. Connecting rod with solid ends on Brown engine at the entennial, "Scientific American." * xxxvi. 20. Confectionery Store. Con-form'a-tor. Richards' Conical Bearing. An instrument used in they can turn to adjust themselves to the pins, in the plane of the axis of the rod. The adjustment for wear is by wedge- blocks and set screws. Co Ceu Con'ning Tow'er. The pilot bouse of an iron clad, usually forward of Fig 6 84. the funnel in the British practice, and having no sight holes. A reflecting mirror may be exposed above its open top. Con'sole. A bracket on a wall ; in the present case for supporting a hydraulic motor or other object. Con-sol'i-da'tion. (Lo- comotive.) A type of freight locomotive, the name of the engine, the first in its class, built in 1866, at the Bald- win locomotive works, on the plans of Mr. Alexander Mitchell, to operate a grade of 1 in 40 on the Lehigh Valley Railway, and spec- ially for the Mahouy plane, which rises 133' to the mile. It had cylinders 20" -f 24'' four pairs of 48" diameter (pony) driving wheels, connected : and a two-wheel swing truck in front equalized with the front driving "TT wheels. The weight of the engine C'onsolt. at work was 90,000 pounds, of which u.11 but 10,000 was on the driving wheels. Con-sol'i-da'tor. (Ceramics.) A system of strainers in which slip is filtered through a series CONSTANT BATTERY. 219 COOLING CUP. of bags. The consolidate! of Neeclham and Kite is used in England. Con'stant Bat'te-ry. (Galvanic Battery.) One in which the energy is kept constant by prevention of the polarization of the negative element. That is to say : the polarization of the negative plate is prevented by surrounding the same with a liquid which unites with the hydrogen which is given off from the positive plate. The Daniell's battery, for instance, has an inner vessel of porous clay in which is a rod of zinc with a solution of sodium chloride, or dilute sulphuric acid; the outer cell has a solution of copper sul- phate maintained at saturation by crystals on a shelf. The action is as follows : when the circuit is closed de- composition of the dilute acid takes place in the inner cell ; the oxygen of the acid combines with the zinc to form oxide, which is dissolved by the acid to form zinc sulphate. The hydrogen, set free by the decomposition, is liberated on the surface of the copper element, but instead of remaining meets the copper sulphate solution which is also being de- composed Into (1) oxygen, with which it combines to form water ; (2) copper, which is deposited upon the plate of the same metal ; and (3) sulphuric acid, which permeates the po- rous cell, replacing that with which the zinc was dissolved, and so automatically refreshing the inner cell. The depolarizing liquid is usually separated from the ex- citing liquid by a porous diaphragm or cup, but in the grav- ity battery the separation is effected by the differing specific gravities of the liquids themselves. Becquerel's oxygen gas battery was the first constant bat- tery. It was the first to employ two liquids or a porous cell. See MKCQ.UEREL MATTERY. Sec also Constant Mattery, depolarizing by secondary cur- rent, u Scientific Ami rinui f*itp/>lfmc:it," 764. The following buttons conic within the definition of Con- stant : Hunsen battery. Leclanche 1 battery. Daniell battery. Ponci battery. Gravity battery. Smee battery. Grove battery. Some of which are synonyms. The following diagram will explain the reactions that take place in a Uaniell's cell when the circuit is closed : Zinc. j 7.n 7nSO. Zinc sulphate in inner cell. ISu 1 ph uric acid , ready to dissolve more zinc. [ Copper ; de- posited in outer ( cell. pi- TT 2 SO 4 < Sulphuric J acid iso 4 - Copper ( Ou Sulphate I ar . Copper j C'u fin. In this diagram the water is not considered, as the reac- tions are explainable without including it in the statement. Sec also list under GALVANIC MATTERY. Con-su'mers' Test Me'ter. (Gas.) An ap- paratus for testing the accuracy of the indications of gas meters in situ. It is usually a 5-light diaphragm meter with a circular dial, the outer circle showing 1' divided into lOths, the second circle 10', and the third 100' per revolution. The pointers are all adjustable. Unions and gum hose connect the meter with a pedestal and burners. The test-meter is verified by the METER PROVER; which see. Con'tact Break'er. An arrangement or de- vice to interrupt a circuit. The feature of making and breaking circuit is the essence of numberless telegraphic inventions. One invented by Herr F. Niemolleris thus described : ' To the middle of a wire stretched horizontally is attached a platinum point which touches the surface of mercury held by a small vessel. The current passes through the wire, and over that part of the wire through which the current passes when all the apparatus in its normal state is a small magnet. This magnet, acting on the current, causes vibra- tions in the wire, and o breaks and makes contact. The number of vibrations can be readily modified by changing the length of the wire, and as high a number as 1,000 breaks per second can be obtained. My passing an intermittent cur- rent over the wire, it can be set in vibration without the in- tervention of mechanical means. This happens when the fundamental note of the string is in unison with the pitch of the breaker." Con'tact-vein. (Mining.) A vein along the contact plane of, or between two dissimilar rock masses. Con-tin'u-ous Brake. (Raihony.) One which is attached to each car of a train, and by connec- tion of the several cars can be operated upon all simultaneously, and from points on the engine and each car. The systems are various : Air compression. Hydraulic. Vacuum. Mechanical. Steam. Electric. Con-trol'ling Valve. A supplementary steam valve adjustable to the maximum amount of steam which the foreman thinks proper to carry, while another valve is used to reduce this quantity, more or less, at the discretion of the workman. Nosh's "Scientific American," xlii. 166. Con-trolling Noz'zle. A means of control- Fig. 686. Controlling Nozzle. ling the size of a stream issuing from a nozzle, by means of a cone valve F, which, by rotation of the sleeve M, is projected forward or retracted so as to partially (or entirely) close the opening, or leave the water full scope. By this means the pipe- man is able to control the size of the stream ac- cording to the abundance and pressure of the wa- ter. Con-trol' Watch. A time-piece used as a watchman's time detector. See Figs. 7083, 7084, p. 2734, " Mech. Diet." Con-ver'sion. Changing the bore or fitting of a gun, as 1. The conversion of a smooth-bore to a rifle. 2. A muzzle-loader to a breech-loader. A report on the fabrication of wrought-iron tubes at the West Point foundry for conversion of Rodman 10" smooth- bore guns into 8" rifles, is contained in the "Report of Chiff of Ordnance, U. S. A.,'~ 1877, iii., pp. 400-412, and Plates I. -VII. accompanying. Small arms, French system, Tabatifre, Ibid., App. L, Fig. Small arms, English system, Snider, Ibid., App. L, Fisr. 92. 10" smooth-bores into 8" and 9" rifles, Ibid., 1876, App. H, p. 55. 15" smooth-bores into 11" muzzle loading ritle. Ibid., 1879, Appendix II, p. 61. Con-vert'or. The vessel used in the Bessemer process. See p. 613, " Mech. Diet." Furnace, Ponsard, * "Engineering," xxv. $&6. Furnace, Crescent Steel Works. Pittsburg * "Engineering." xxiv 394 Appr. for working * "Engineering,' 1 ' xxv. 99. Ladle, Catpersson "Am. Manuf.," Dec. 31, 1880, p. 12. Cool'ing Cup. An invention of Toselli. It is described in " Les Mnndes," and consists of a cylindri- cal cup for holding any liquid into which may be plunged an inner goblet shaped like an inverted truncated cone, and hav- ing a lid which rests on the outer cup. Putting 150 grams COOLING CUP. 220 CORKING MACHINE. of nitrate of ammonia in the inner goblet, filling it with cold water, and stirring it so as to hasten the solution, the tem- perature of the outer liquid is soon reduced to j,-j a sufficiently low temperature for a beverage. The salt may be used for an indefinite period, by spreading it on a plate after each trial, and exposing it to the sun until it crystallizes anew. Coop'er's Punch. A lever punch for makiug rivet holes in iron hoops. It punches two holes at a time. Coo p'e r - a g e Ma-chine'. See list under BARREL MACHINERY. Cop'per. See the following refer- ences : Ore working "Sc. Amer.," xxxix. t- 209. Process, Roessler, Ger. "Eng. IT Min. J.,'' xxx. 369. Hunt 4" Douglas Smelting process, Altenare Cooper's Punch. . * "Engineering," xxii. 419, 437. "Painter's Rept., Vienna Exp.,'> iv. 106. Bukowina proc., 176, Lower Harz. Ibid., iv. 129. Hungarian proc. ,195, Mansfield . Ibid., iv. 133. Tyrolese Ibid., iv. 165. Smelting furn., Swed., Norw.,Ger. Ibid., iv. 21. Cop'per Bolt. A copper bit ; a soldering tool. Cop'per Cast'ing. Copper highly heated and cast under water, acquires a very beautiful and persistent rose color. A Japanese art. Dr. Percy. Cop'per-plate Print'ing. Cylindrical system by roller and scraper, Godchaux (Fr.). Flat plate system, Robert Neale (Patented in England, Jan oary, 1853). Hydraulic pressure, Silbermann. Described in article "Imprimerie,'' Laboulaye's "Diction- naire des Arts et Manufactures," tome iv., ed. 1877. Cop'y-graph. Writing done on paper with a peculiar ink, preferably aniline, is allowed to dry, and then laid upon a slab of gelatine and glycerine which absorbs the ink and parts with it to paper laid upon it. It yields a large number of copies, if promptly taken. The following is the recipe for making the slab : Best gel- atine or glue, 1 part, soaked over night in cold water and the excess of water poured oif ; the glue is then warmed in a water bath with from 10 to 12 parts of glycerine, to which is added 4 to 6 parts of freshly precipitated sulphate of baryta and 1 part of dextrine, well mixed with constant stirring. During the summer less glycerine should be added than in winter, as the glycerine softens the mixture, while the glue and dextrine harden it. While soft it is poured into a zinc box and cooled. For ink, the aniline ink called Violet de Paris, is best. The lithogram, chromograph, copygram, hectograph, and numerous other processes are substantially the same. It is the invention of Stein, of Vienna. Cop'y-ing Lathe. A lathe which reproduces a pattern. This may either be a templet, in which case the slide-rest works against the templet, which thus governs the distance of the tool from the axis of rotation of the stuff. The result is symmetrical. The work may consist of table-legs, billiard-cues, etc. Another form has a capacity for irregular shapes, the pattern revolving and governing the position of the revolving cutter. See SPOKE-LATHE, Figs. 5451, 5452, p. 2283, "Mech. Diet." 1 See LAST LATHE, Fig. 2825, p. 1259, "Mech. Diet." 1 See LATHE . . Figs. 2836, 2837, p. 1264, "Mech. Diet." Arbey's (Fr.) copying lathe for lasts, etc., *"Engineer" ilvii. 262. Cop'y-ing Pen'cil. Composed of graphite, kaolin, and blue violet aniline. Gum arabic may be substituted for the kaolin. See also Ink "Sc. Amer.," xxxvi. 386: xxxvii. 327. Pad "Sc. Amer.," xli. 325. Paper "Sc.Amer. Sup., " 2438. Pencil "Sc. Amer.," xxxix. 344. Process, Adler, Gelatine . . . ".Sc. Amer.," xlii. 1. Alisoff, Polygraphic paper . "Sc. Amer.," xlii. 339. Blue "Engineer," xlv. 279. Gelatine "Sc. Amer.," xli. 284. Hannot "Sc. Amer.,"-' xxxvii. 259. Holtzman "Patent," May 8, 1880, No. 227,629. Ridout "Sc. Amer.," xlii. 100. Sars, Lithographic .... "Sc. Amer.,'' xxxvii 326. See BLUE PUCK KSS ; GELATINE COPYING PRO- CESS ; HECTOGRAPH, etc. Cop'y-ing Tel'e-graph. See Chemical. D'Arlincourt . Lines " Rept. Vienna. Exp.," 1873. Writing Laboulay^s "Dictionnaire,'' ii. art. "Bcritvret," See also AUTOGRAPHIC TELEGRAPH : FAC-SIMILK TELEGRAPH. Cor'al, Ar'ti-fi'cial. Yellow rosin, 4; ver- milion, 0.2 ; melt and mix carefully. Cord Car'ri-er. (Suryical.) A means of car- rying a ligating cord to a deep-seated part. Obstetric cases Fig. 496 b, Part III. Knot-tyer Fig. 92, Part I. Ligature Needle Figs. 94-96, Part I. Compress for seminal cords . Fig. 206. Part. IV. All in Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicitm." Cord-mak'ing Ma-chine'. Binns' cord-mak- ing machine (Bradford, Eng.), automatic machine for making silk cord, trimmings, fringes, etc. " Manufacturer if Builder " xi. 203. Core. (Add.) It is oftfen made of green saud, but usually of core sand, molded in a core box, or of loam struck up upon a spindle or core plate ; it is dried and black washed. It must be sufficiently strong to bear the flow of metal around it, and suf- ficiently porous to allow free vent for the gases. There are many varieties : Dry sand. Flour. Steam flour. Loam and sand. Rosin. Molasses water. water. Sour beer. Brickbat. Charcoal. (Electricity.) A bundle of wires in the center of the helix, made of soft iron, so that it may mag- netize and demagnetize as rapidly as possible. Core Lift'er. A collar or thimble lowered into a bore, made by an annular rock drill, in order to bring up the core left by the drill. The collar is of the size of the bit, and has on its interior periph- ery a catch which, on the retraction of the collar, engages the core and lifts it to the surface. Core Wheel. A wheel with recesses which answer as the interspaces of cogs, or into which wooden cogs may be driven. Fig. 687. Such a wheel is made with cores, which are placed in the mold to form the openings in the wheel. Cork Arm'-board. (Leather.) A graining- board, made of the outer or dead bark of the cork- oak. It has no grooves. Cork Board. Ground cork incorporated with paper pulp in mixing machines and with powerful presses. The material is springy, light, a poor conductor of heat and sound. A French inven- tion. Cork'ing Ma-chine'. The form of corking machine used at Bordeaux is shown in Fig 688 The bottle is placed on its stand, a pan being placed around it to catch the wine in case any bottle should break. The cork is in the sleeve imme- diately about the mouth, and is forced into the bottle by the piston operated by the lever. It is simple and efficient. CORK LEATHER. 221 CORN CRACKER. Core W/ieet Cork Leath'er. Fine slices of cork placed be- tween and attached to layers of leather. De Beer- eski $ Co., Fr. Slices of cork coated on each side with India- rubber solution ; on one side a sheet of cloth can- Fig. 088. French Corking Machine. (Syst&me Gervais.) vas or thin leather is laid, and on the other a cot- ton or linen fabric. The laminated fabric is then pressed between rollers. To be used for trunks, driving belts, etc. Veneered with wood for panels. Block, En o-l. Cork Ma-chine'. Armstrong's machine for making corks is shown in Fig. 689. The upper figure is the machine for cutting the slab of cork into strips. The cork-slab is laid 011 the iron table A, which is secured by lugs D E to a wooden table. C is the revolving knife and B the gage. In the lower figure, A is a hollow spindle driven by the pul- ley B, and capable of slipping back and forth in its bearings in the standards C C. On the right-hand end of the spin- dle A is the flange D, the edge of which runs in a groove in the lever E, the latter giving the spindle its end motion. On the other end of the spindle A is the tubular cutter /, which has parallel sides, and an edge produced by beveling Fig. 689. Fig. 690. Cork Machine. off the outside. F is a long, stationary rod, which runs from the set screw H through the spindle A, and nearly through the cutter 7. A piece of cork being placed against the block of hard wood'fi, resting on the gage L, the lever F is moved, bringing the spindle A to the left, and forcing the cutter through the cork. Being retired, the central rod F forces the cork out of the cutter. AT is the mode of adjustment for the abutment J. The cork is tapered by presentation to a steel disk, while itself is slowly rotated Armstrong *" Scientific American Sup.," 528. Procuring cork . . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 2649. C o r k ' s c r e w. Fig. 690 shows the lever for lifting the corkscrew and the cork out of the bottle without jarring it or disturbing the c o n- tents. A collar on one arm rests on the flanged lip of the bot- tle, and the other arm has its bearing under a collar on the cork- screw stem. Cork'screw Ma- chine'. A machine for twisting steel wire into corkscrews. Clough & Williamson. Cor'liss En'gine. A form of engine described under CUT-OFF, which see. See also references as follows : At Centennial * "Engineering," xxii. 12. "Iron Age," xvii., April 13, p. 11. *" Harper's Weekly," 1 May 27, 1876. "Scientific Am. Sup. ,"402 And boilers * "Scientific Am. Sup. 29* Horizontal, compound, Bombay * "Polytechnic Rev.," ii. I. Harris- Corliss . .... . * "Sc. Amer.," xxxv. 95. Corn Clean'er. A machine with a combined rolling screen and suction fan, for the separating of cobs from shelled corn, and the cleaning of the corn for shipment. Corn Crack'er. A farm or plantation mill having an outer iron shell with a corrugated inner surface, and a core or cone with sharp projections which, rotating within the shell, coarsely grin^fc the corn for stock feed. Used for grinding on the cob. The British corn-mill is for grain of any kind for feed ; corn being generic there, not maize. Lever Cork-screw. Ransomt's, Br * "Engineering,' xxvii. 319. A pair of conical rollers on a horizontal axis rotating and revolving in a flat pan. Cruardiola Grater, Wood *" Scientific American,'' xxxvi. 83. . * "Scientific American,'' 1 xlii. 324 CORN CULTIVATOR. 222 CORNET. Corn Cul'ti-va'tor. See CULTIVATOR. Corn Cut'ter. A large form of straw-cutter, adapted by size and power for cutting maize stalks. Corn fodder is thus prepared by some, and with great advantage, but the principal use of the ma- chine is for cutting the green corn stalks for ensi- lage. See ENSILAGE CUTTER. Corn-cutting machine (barn). Dick * " Mining Sf Sc. Press," xxxv. 225. * " Scientific American" xxxvii. 115. Silver 4" Deming . * "Iron Age,'" xix., Jan. 4, p. 5. Corn Drill. A machine for planting corn in drills. The machine for planting it in hills is called a CORN PLANTER, which see. Drills and planters are made for either one or two horses, and also to be worked by hand. In the Campbell corn-drill a slotted solid wheel acts as a roller iu breaking clods, and helps to prepare the seed-bed for the corn. It also is the drive-wheel which through its pitman rod and geared connections automatically operates the force-feed of the seed from the hopper, which, dropping down through the hollow share that has just provided its bed, is followed by the adjustable covering shares that Fig. 691. Fig. G93. Corn Drill. complete the work. A fender in front curving back to the point of the seed-share clears the track. There are three circles of cogs on the drive-wheel which give three dif- ferent rates of feed, dropping a grain of corn at greater or lesser intervals, say from 12" to 20". Cor'ne-al In'stru-ments ( Surgical. ) This includes para- centesis, and cataract instru- ments. The former are needles and trocars. The latter are enumerated under CATARACT IN- STRUMENTS, which see. See also IRIS INSTRU- MENTS. Cor'ner Cut'ter. 1. A machine for cutting the corners off cards or books. Pass-books have the corners removed in order to avoid dogs-ears. The machine makes a round corner. Some cards are also rounded on the corners to .suit the fancy or prevent bending too readily at the corners. Some play- ing cards are thus trimmed. The machine works by a treadle, or by power ; "in r h e former manner in Fig. 692. Rountl-carntr Cutter. The spring clamp descends upon the object and holds it while the cutter descends, and cuts through the book to the wooden block beneath it. 2. A machine for cutting out notches from blanks of card- board, intended to be bent up to form boxes. The making of a cor- ner notch, and the scoring par- tially through at the bending places, prepares the blank for be- ing bent into shape- Fig. 693 shows a treadle motion corner cutter. The blank is laid , on the table and the desceudru;. cutter makes an . entering angle, differing in this respect f r o m r h e machine, Box-maker's Corner Cutter. Fig. 692, which merely rounds the salient ane'le of the book or card. See PAPEH- HOX MACHINE, page 1616, " Mech. Diet.," where various methods and forms of cut- ting are represented. Cor'ner-ing Ma-chine'. A ma- chine for rounding off the corners of stuff; especially used in implement and carriage work. See CHAMFERING MACHINE. Cor'ner Valve. A valve at a corner, or bend in a pipe. See ANGLE VALVE. Cor'net. (Music.) The cornet with three pis- tons and with cylinders has a compass of two oc- taves and two or three notes. Its mechanism al- lows of its giving all the chromatic degrees within its range. Cornets are of many varieties as to key, and some have lengthening" pieces by which the tone is lowered, but the facility of modulating by the pis- tons renders this mode of variation less needful. The " Four-in-one " cornet of Conn ty Du- pont, patented January 22, 1878, is a sliding valve instrument, so constructed that it may be changed from a higher to a lower key by the introduction of additional piping. Quot- ing from the inventors : The principle is this : First build a cornet in E-tiat, which may be lowered in pitch to the keys of C, B-flat, and A. Now, that the valve may be tuned to correspond with open or main pipes of the horn, on each valve is placed a bend, through which the air-current when the open tone is used. Precisely the same length of pipe is added to the valve- slides. This enables the player when he low- ers the pitch of the cornet, to draw out the valve-slides, that they may be in tune with the lowered pitch This bend on the valves is a part of the body of the instrument when the open tone is used, but is cut off and its equivalent trans- ferred to the valve-slides when the valve tones are produced." 8ee also cornets and horns, Fig. 2564, page 1122, and pages 1500-1501, " MrcA. Din.," 1 where musical instruments are listed and classed in order of their nature and also alphabetically. See also Fig. 3263, page 1498, Ibid, for table of the compass of instruments and voices, showing the place whih each occupies on the scale. CORN HOOK. 223 CORN PLANTER. Corn Hook. A hand implement for cutting corn on the stalk. It is used by a draw motion, pulling upward. Fig. 694 shows the corn knife and corn hook. See also CANE KNIFE ; MACHETE, infra. Corn Husk'er. A machine for husking ears on the stalk. Across the end of Hie frame near the top are placed two picking rolls provided with spiral grooves between which the stalks are fed, so that passing through the rolls they are divested of the ears both large and small. The stalks then drop upon an elevator and are taken away. The ears, as they arc severed from the stalks, drop upon the husking rolls that are placed lower down in the frame, at right angles to the picking rolls, and in an inclined position. Upon the sur- tuce of these rolls are spiral grooves for the purpose of allowing spikes to be put on the surface of the opposite roll, and ^^Sijjv.-, also to allow the ear to settle down be- tween the rolls, so that the hold upon the husk may be more certain. These depressions and spikes being arranged spirally upon th rolls, holding the husks at one end of the ear, and continu ing the grasp to the opposite end, make the process of strip pini: the husk very similar to husking by hand. Fig. 695. lire of the air, acting upon the top of the piston. should depress the latter and with it one end of Fig. 696. Corn Husker. As the ears slide down over the rolls, the husks, being torn off by the steel spikes, are dropped upon the elevator, while the ears pass on to the end of the rolls, and are there received into a basket, thus delivering the stalks and husks in front, and the corn in the rear of the machine at the rate of from 25 to 50 bushels per hour according to the condition of the corn, etc. Cor'nice Ma-chine'. 1 . A machine for shap- ing sheet metal into sham cornices for buildings. 2. A machine for planing wood into shapes for interior wall cornices. Hayes * "Manufacturer awl Builder,' 1 ' xi. 217 * "Iron Age," xxii., May 15, p. 7 : May 22, *p. 3: *xxiv., Oct. 2, p. 7. Sheet metal . . . * "Iron Age" xviii.,Sept. 7, p. 17 ; Oct. 26, * p. 1. Cor'nish Boil'er. A boiler formerly made wagon-shaped (A, Plate LXI., opp. p. 2326, " Mech. Diet."} hut now of a stronger form, cylindrical, high- er pressure being required than in the atmospheric engine, where steam was only used to fill the space below the piston, in order that by its condensation a partial vacuum might be produced, and the press- Applebi/'s Cornish Boiler. the walking-beam, lifting by consequence the pump- rod at the other end of the beam. Fig. 698 shows two of a batlery of Cornish boilers of the form built by Appleby Brothers, of London, for the locomo- tive shops of the East Indian state railways. The fittings consist of a furnace front with ventilator, grate bars, bearers, dead-plate, and damper, man-hole and mud-hole, with mud- hole cover and bridge, stop-valve, safety-valve, feed-valve, gage-cocks, glass water-gage, Bourdon's steam-pressure gage, blow-off cock, fusible plug in the crown of each tube, and high and low-water indicator. Cor'ni di Bas-set'to. (Music.) A reed in- strument like a clarinet in F (low), excepting that it has a brass bell-mouth, which elongates its lower extremity and descends to a lower note. Cor'no In'glese. (Music.) A double reed in- strument, the alto of the oboe, with a compass of 2i octaves. It is written on the G clef. Corn Plant'er. Walking, riding, and hand corn planters are shown on pp. 626, 627, " Mech. Diet:' Fig. 697 shows a complete machine, with Pig. 697. Corn Planter and Marker. the driver, dropper, and marker. The weights of the operators practically balance each other. The shape of the runner makes a distinct channel in the ground for the reception of the seed. Th# depth of the channel is regulated by shoes orer the faces of the runners. By projections on the wheels conforming to the width of the channels the earth is pushed over the corn, and the furrows are rolled by the broad-faced wheels which support the machine. The planter can be thrown out of the ground when turning at the end of the row and held in position by a catch, until the point of starting on a new bout is reached, when, by a move- CORN PLANTER. 224 COSMOSCOPE. merit of the foot of the driver, the machine is again placed in working position. The machine is used principally for planting in check- rows by placing a boy on the machine to move the lever when crossing the check-marks, or is made to act automat- ically as a drill or hill-planter when check-rows are not de- sired. The marker shown as projecting from the off-side is to mark the ground as a guide for the next bout ; when re- turning, the marker will be shifted to the near side, and so on alternately as the machine goes to and fro across the field. Jn the bottom of each hopper is a round dropping-plate with a circle of pockets : into these the grain falls, aud the rotation of the plate brings the hole over the tube and the corn passes by the tube to the open furrow at the heel of the runner. The motion of the dropping-plates is derived from the wheels, and different dropping-plates are used for differ- ent quantities of seed, 1, 2, 3, or 4 kernels . optional pinions used for dropping in drill-rows are of sizes for dropping at 19", 15", 10", 7", distance respectively. The single row planter has the appearance of the walking cultivator, Fig. 1468, p. 62~,"Mech. Diet., "'or of the machine shown at CORN DRILL, supra. Check row planter, Graetzel, * "Scientific Amer.,'' xlii. 243. Corn planter, Du Souchet . * "Scientific Amer.," 1 xl. 99. Hand planter, Noel ... * "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxiv. 86. Corn Plow. The principal corn plow is a cul- tivator, and is considered under that caption. There are, however, special plows made for corn and for cotton cultivation, some of them adapted for either. Those with shifting shares, for oper- ating upon the growing plant at different stages of its growth, are considered under combination plow. , Single and double plows and several other forms, men- tioned in the list under AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS, belong to this order. Corn plow and marker, Burns, * "Sc. American," xxxix. 99. See also CULTIVATOR. Corn Shel'ler. A machine for removing corn from the cob. See "Mech. Diet.," p. 628. Goddard * "Scientific American," xxxvi. 134. Hutchison * "American Miller," v. 6. Livingston (f Co. . . * "American Miller," 1 v. 16. Cor'po-ra'tion Stop. A stop cock in a gas or water main, outside of a house, to he used by official parties only. Cor-rect'ive Gage. A correct standard gage, kept in a shop to try the calipers by, in order to preserve both exactness and uniformity throughout the establish- ment. Fig. 698 shows a good form of the instrument. It has the appearance of a step gage, but is ac- tually made up of a series of disks slipping upon a mandrel, and inclosed in a case with a hinged lid. The disks are independent, and ground separately to size, the same as cylindri- cal gages ; their limit of accuracy is -g^Q-Q ov Fig. 698. As a cutting agent, Jenks Occurrence and distribution Corrective Gage. !_ according to the precision required, and the limit of expense. The sizes are from \" to 2i" by 16ths ; from 2" to 4J" by 8ths, making 49 sizes. Cor-ru-ga'ted Boil'er. A form of house- heating or greenhouse boiler, which occupies a po- sition inside a furnace, and the shape of which ex- poses a large surface to the fire. Cor'si-can Fur'nace. Another name for the Catalan furnace. See CATALAN FORGE. Co-run'dum. A crystalline alumina used as an abradant. . "Sc. Am. Sup.," 972. . "Sc. Am.,'' xxxix. 193. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 672. Wheels, paper on, by Bntcman, Engl. "Sc. Am. Hup.,*' 1989 See Report of J. M. Sajford, " Centennial Exhibition Re- port, Group I., vol. iii., p. 189: Localities, Varieties, M ode of preparing. See also EMERY ; EMERY WHEEL. Co-ruii'dum Points. (Dental.) A grinding and abrading tool used on the end of the spindle of Fig. 699. A grinding tool made of Fig. 700. Millstone Facing Tool. Dentists' Corundum Points. a dental drill ; either in mechanical or operative dental operations. The set consists of wheels, olives, points, cher- ries, cones, etc. Co-run'dum Tool, a block compounded with emery, or faced with the same. The term is somewhat generic, a multitude of tools deriving their vir- tue and usefulness from degraded corundum; but the specific applica- tion of the term, in the present case, is to a tool for dressing the surface of millstones, restoring the natural grit ; the flat for trueing the face, and the angles for the furrows. See MILLSTONE DRESSER. Co-si'na. A dye produced by Dr. Carr of Stuttgart, Germany. Its solutions in alcohol are of a delicate rose color in transmitted, and a pure yellow in reflected light. Prepared from fluorescin, by treatment with bro- mine in combination with potash. " Scientific American " xxxiv. 130. Cos'mo-graph. An instrument resembling an armillary sphere for pop- u 1 a r i z i n g astronomical knowledge, erected as a public monument. The long rod indicates the earth's axis, and points to the polar star ; the vertical circle is the meridian ; the circle at ri;ht angles thereto the equator ; a vertical point shows the zenith ; others mark the tropics and po- lar circles. See also ARMILLARY SPHERE, Fig. 336, p. 149, "Mech. Dirt.,'' and TELLURIUM, * p. 2^25, Ibid. Cos'mo-scope. An instrument to demonstrate the positions, relations, and movements of the sun, earth, and moon. A form of orrery. Lexr.ellcnl., " Tecfinologiste," * xl. 125. Riviere's Cosmograpk COSMORAMA LENS. 225 COTTON PRESS. Cos'mo-ra'ma Lens. (Optics.) A large-sized double or plano-convex lens. Cos'to-tome. (Surgical.) Rib-cutter. A post- mortem chisel or shears for opening' the thoracic cavity. Chisel costotome, Fig. 322 ; shears costotome, Fig. 68 ; Parti., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Cfiirurgicum.'' An elevated oven range Fig. 702. Cot'tage Range. with dividing hori- zontal flue, making a direct draft around the lower and upper ovens. Cot'ton Cul'ti- va'tor. A three- share, expansible- frame, wheelless cul- tivator. Cot'ton Cyl'in- der. A roller used in drawing libers or slivers in cotton ma- chinery. See DRAW- ING, I) R A w i N G- F R A M K, '' .)/ 6C k. " Osgood'ssub- Cottage Range. stitute for the ordi- nary cylinder, covered with cloth and leather, is gelatine treated with bichromate of potassium. "Scientific American Supplement " 223. Cot'ton Gin. See GIN. Cot'ton Hold'er. (Surgical.) A staff to hold a pledget of cotton or lint for application to a wound or cavity. Cot'ton Ma-chin'er-y. The following list gives the series of machines shown by the Willi- mantic Linen Co. in their complete exhibit of ma- chines, from the bale of cotton to the spool thread ; working upon sea-island cotton. Atlanta Exhibi- tion, 1881. Lynch Smith * "Scientific American Supplement." 240. U. S. Patent, April 10, 1877. Cot'ton Plant'er. A machine which opens a furrow, drops the cotton seed, and then covers it There are many machines for the purpose. A force feed is useful on account of the fibrous cling- ing quality of the seed. Conner's cotton planter, Fig. 703, has a tooth in front, fol- lowed by the disk wheel, which makes the seed-bed. The drive wheel, through an endless chain, operates the force feed in the hopper that furnishes the seed, and is followed by a coverer that is pivoted to the frame of the planter, and adjusted and held in position by a rod to the handle frame above. Fig. 703. Cotton gin. Cotton picker. Three FOBS & Pevey cards. Railway head. Comber doublet. Comber. First drawing frame. Second drawing frame. Slubbing frame. Intermediate frame. Roving frame. Ring spinning frame. Bobbin spooler. Two-ply doubler.. cotton First twisting frame. Spooler. Three-ply doubler. Second twisting frame. Reel. Skein spooling machine. Winding machine. Ticketing machine. Automatic spool turning ma- chine. Color card winding machine. aner . Figs. 1485, 1486, pp. 633-634, " Mech. Diet. 1 " . . . "Scientific American Sup .," 1749. New cotton machinery * "Engineering," xxx. 484, 512. * "Engineer," 1 383, 437. Vobson if Barlow . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 2756. Copping apparatus . . * "Engineering," xxx. 484. Cot'ton Op'en-er. A machine in which bale cotton is picked to pieces, opened, shaken, and blown, to make it separate and light, and remove dirt. It is delivered in a fleecy condition in a sort of lap. Cotton cleai Buckley Cot'ton Parch'ment. A material made in sheets by the following process. Cotton fiber, cleaned, digested in a solution of sulphuric acid, glycerine, and water. Rolled into sheets. Xi/lvestre . . " Technologiste,'' xliii. 170. Cot'ton Pick'er. A machine for picking cot- ton from the boll, in the field. Fig. 1488, p. 635, "Mech. Diet." See also : Powell .... *" Scientific American," xxxviii. 86; xxxv'i. 84. 15 Cotton Planter. The "Globe" cotton planter gave the best satisfaction at the Atlanta Exposition. It has a barrel which rolls over the ground, being supported by end wheels. Around the equa- tor of the barrel are round holes for the seed to issue. A hoop closes them or opens them to any extent. A spiked shaft in the middle remains stationary while the roller and contents revolve. This keeps the seed stirred. It has the opening share and covering board respectively in advance and rear of the seed cylinder. Seymour * "Scientific American,'" xxxiv. 64. Cot'ton Plow. A form of cultivating plow differing but little from that employed in tending other crops which are planted in rows and plowed during growth. Avery's combination cotton plow has adaptations for various duties in cotton tending, as turning plow, scraper sweep, shovel-plow and bull- tongue ; five Fig. 704. Combination Cotton Plow. implements with one stock. The half-shovel and scooter may be added if desired. The rudder wheel acts as a guide, and as a ful- crum in turning or regulating depth, and .prevent- ing the implement from dodging and shotting into the line of plants. See also COMBINATION PLOW. Cot'ton Pow'der. See TONITE. Cot'ton Press. See BALING PRESS, " MecJi. Diet.," et supra. Also : Compress, Burr . * "Scientific American,'- xxxvii. 159. Hydraulic, Taylor * "Engineering," xxv. 190. * "Scientific American,'' 1 xxviii. 15. COTTON PRESS. 226 COUNTER-SINK. Watson, Br. . . . * "Engineer," xlv. 38. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1808. Wilson .... * "Engineer,"- xliv. 329. * ''Scientific American Supplement," 39. Seft list under PRESSES ; and HEPRESSING PRESS, Fig. 4624, p. 1919, "Mech. Diet:- Cot'ton. Scra'per. A cotton cultivator for scraping the earth to or from the plants, as may be required at different periods of the cultivation. The scraper share is shown attached to the stock in COTTON PLOW, which see. Cot'ton Spin'ning. The Clement process for spinning cotton direct from the seed cotton is men- tioned in man} 1 of the journals of the day. " Engineering and Mining Journal' 1 ' .... xxviii. 423. Louisville "Ecening Post and Press " . . . . Dec., 1879. The machine is a combined gin and card, making slivers from seed cotton. It consists of a 3Q" top-flat self-stripping card ; the attach- ment (which is a diminutive gin 18 X 18 X 36"), is substituted for the licker-in and feed rollers of the card ; its saws are '" in diameter, with fourteen teeth to the inch, and revolve from 100 to 200 times per minute. The brush connected with the saws is a cylinder covered with bristles : its periphery re- volves a little faster than the saws, and has also a traverse or horizontal motion. The periphery of the card travels a little faster than the brush ; a feed table is placed above the card and connected with the attachment by a chute, and gives a regular supply of seed cotton to the attachment. A stop- motion is used to save waste in case of accident. These, with a small drawing roller between the doff er and calender rollers, to reduce the sliver to the ordinary working size, and a cam motion to receive said sliver, are all the changes and addi- tions made to the card. The seed cotton is spread upon the endless apron of the feed table, and passes thence through the chute into the at- tachment, where the lint is removed from the seed, and while on the fine saw teeth (after passing the ribs) passes through a set of combir.g plates, which removes all extraneous mat- ter, and delivers the filaments to the brush, which delivers them to the card, and thence through the doffer, small draw- ing and calender rollers ; being delivered as perfect sliver into a revolving can. Cot'ton Stalk Pul'ler. A machine for pulling out of the ground the old cotton stalks preparatory to chopping or making into windrows and burnmg. Brown . * "Scientific American, 1 ' xxxiv. 358 ; * xxxvii. 230. Cot'ton Sweep. (Agric.) A form of plow used in cultivating the balk between cottou rows : also used in corn cultivation. Fig. 705. Cotton Sweep. Cot'ton-tie Fast'en-er. An apparatus to draw together the ends of cotton-bale ties, in order that they may be riveted or buckled : generally the latter, though the buckle is really but a square loop, around which the ends are bent. See BALE TIE, Fig. 540, p. 218, " Mech. Diet.," where 30 kinds are illustrated. Fig. 706. Cotton-tie Fastener. The Greenle of cotton-tie fastener is a clamp, the two mem- bers holding each a tie and approached by means of a crank pinion and rack. Cot'ton Truck. A two-wheeled truck, the sides ending in flat points instead of the usual loop. Cot'ton Worm De-stroy'er. Apparatus for destroying the cotton worm. There are numerous forms : some adapted for rose, potato, vine, and melon bugs. Comstoek's "Report upon the Cotton Worm,'' U. S. Agric. Depart., 1879, gives varied information on this subject and shows the following apparatus : Whitman, fountain pump sprinkler .... * p. 239. Daughtry, spraying machine * p. 242. Willis, atomizer * p. 243. Johnson, sprayer * p 245. Young, sifter * p. 246. A/l.tn, duster * p. 247. Willis, sifter * p. 248. Davis, sifter * p. 249. Levy, sifter * p. 250. Etdridge, sifter * p. 251. Robinson, sprinkler and duster * p. 252. Helm, brush and collector * p 253. Ewing, brush and collector * p. 255. Heard, moth trap * p. 262. McQue en, trap-lantern * p. 265. Garrett, trap-lantern * p. 266. Duke, trap-lantern * p. 267. S/e.phens, trap-lantern * p. 267. Pitman, trap-lantern * p. 268. Dudley, trap-lantern * p. 269. Cranston, trap-lantern *p.270. Pugh, trap-lantern *p.271. Byrne if Strunk, trap-lantern * p. 272. Kigel, trap-lantern * p. 273. Stlth, trap- Ian tern * p. 274. Couch'ing Nee'dle. (Surgical.) An instru- ment for depressing the opaque lens in cataract. See Needles. Spuds, Spatulas, Curettes, etc., p. 27, Part II., Tiemann's " Armamentarium Chirurgicum." Cou-lomb'. (Electricity.) A term for a unit in electricity. It was suggested at the Electrical Congress in Paris, 1881, that the name coulomb shall be given to the quantity of electricity defined by the condition that an amp&re gives one coulomb per second. At latest advices the matter of no- menclature of units is yet unsettled. Coun'ter-bal'ance Crane. One having a load on its frame opposite to the jib to partially counterbalance the object lifted and remove strain from the pintle, or prevent oversetting in the case of movable cranes; j, Fig. 1507, p. 643, " Mech. Diet." is an instance. See also LOCOMOTIVE CRANE. See also BALANCE CRANE, Fig. 176, p. 66, supra. Coun'ter-bore. A cylindrical counter-sink, usually made with a pin-drill. Coun'ter Brace. A member in a frame which transmits strains in an opposite direction to a main- brace. Coun'ter Cock. A faucet upon a counter for drawing beverages. See Fig. 707. Coun'ter Gear. Driving gear, for lathes, for instance, attached to a ceiling or post, and connect- ing by band with the machine or machine-tool to be driven. "Engineer 1 '' * xlii. 258. " Scientific American " * xxxv. 342. Coun'ter Pump. A pump beneath a counter for drawing liquids from barrels in a cellar be- neath. See Fig. 708. Coun'ter-sink. 1. (Fire-arms.) The recess in the rear of the chamber in which the rim of the cartridge fits. 2. (Blacksmithing.) A tool with a conical point to punch a tapering enlargement to a hole to re- ceive the head of a screw. COUNTERSINK. 227 COUPON TICKET MACHINE. Fig. 707. Fig. 708. Counter Cock Counter Pump. 3. (Metal Workinrj. Fig. 709 Fig. A tool for chamfering the meta l- Fig. 709. 4. ( Wood Working.) Barber's counter- sink, Fig. 710, is a gun-metal block which is screwed fast to the shank of the bit and car- ries an oblique steel cutter which chamfers the edge of the hole. Fij:. 711 is another counter- sink, with adjustable gage. Countersink for Metal. Welles . Countersink Countersink and Gage for Wood. for Wood. . * "Scientific American,'' xxxiv. 119. A countersunk head-bolt is one the head of which is buried in a depression in the object so as to be flush with its surface and not project. Coupled Steam Eii'gine. An arrange- ment in which two steam engines net in concert upon a single object ; the term is more particularly applied, perhaps, to twin engines. The term coupled is perhaps a lit- tle astray in character- izing a grouping of a larger number, but the three-cylinder engine of Brotherhood, or the six-cylinder engine of West are coupled, in one permissible application of the word, i. e., connected. This obtains in the aryan Round Countersunk Head- screw. Square shank Countersunk Head-bolt. Fig. 713. Coupled Steam Engine. coupler, which connects two or more of the ranks of keys. The instance adduced, however, refers to a pair only in the twin cylinder engine of Bernays, of London, in which the crank is rotated by the in- tervention of a triangular connecting rod, made practicable by an ingenious arrangement of eccen- tric and valve-gear. The two upright double-acting cylinders are placed with sufficient space between them to receive the crank -shaft. The pistons are connected to one crank by means of a triangular con- necting-rod, which causes them to move as if con- nected to two cranks at right an- gles to each other. The steam dis- tribution in the two cylinders is governed by one ordinary eccentric and its connections, in a munner anal- agous to that by which the main crank governs the motions of the two pistons. Two eyes are pro- vided on the eccen- tric-ring, carrying rods or levers, through which the valves are acted upon. The posi- tion of, and distance between, these eyes bear the same re- lation to the throw of the eccentric as the measurements of the main connecting-rod bear to the throw of the crank, reproducing on a smaller scale the triangular connection between the crank and the two piston-rods in the eccentric and valve-rods, and the steam is correctly distributed. The eccentric is loose on the shaft and is thrown to the right or left for the purpose of reversing the engine. The position of the crank-shaft in relation to the cylinders may be varied in height to suit any required purpose. In this engine there is no dead point, for the reason that the two pistons can never be at the ends of their respective strokes at the same time, since they reach their limit of movement when the crank-pin passes a point in line closest to the pin of the triangle to which either engine-piston at- taches. "Iron Age" * xxiv., July 10, p. 1. Sweeney's Report, "Paris Exposition (1878) Reports," 1 * iv. 382. Couplet. Two united, acting together, as of two elliptic springs, side by side, acting as a single spring. Coupled springs are shown on p. 483, "Mech. Diet." Triplet, quadruplet, etc., express still multiplied combinations of the same order. Coupling. See under various heads, COM- PRESSION COUPLING ; CAR COUPLING ; CLUTCH, etc. See list on pp. 638, 639, ''Mech. Diet." Locomotive coupling rods, Hose, * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 490. Safety coupling chain . . . * R. R. Gaz.," xxiv. 428. Coupling Valve. (Railway.) A valve con- tained in the case of the hose-couplipo 1 of an air- brake arrangement. See BRAKE-HOSE COUPLING VALVE. Cou'pon Tick'et Ma-chine'. Hoe's modifi- cation of the cylinder press for this purpose prints railway coupon tickets at the rate of 1 ,200 per hour. The paper, laid by the operator sheet by sheet upon the feed table, is delivered automatically to the cylinder, printed, numbered, perforated, brought back and laid down printed side up upon the rack COUPON TICKET MACHINE. 228 CRADLE. under the eye of the attendant. The form and numbering wheels are on the same bed, and receive their ink from the same rollers. The impression cylinder gears into the bed, turning forward and backward with it, and, instead of fingers, has cords that run around in the spaces between the coupons. A numbering plate is arranged for each different spacing of coupons, so that no time is lost in ad- justing the wheels. Cou'pon Num'ber-ing Ma-chine'. The French machine, for numbering coupons, checks, lot- tery tickets, stock-books, etc., is made by Pierron et Dehaitre, of Paris. It is worked by a pedal, and advances the sheet of paper at each stroke of the pedal a regulatable distance. Cou-ronne' de Tasses. (Electricity.) The first cell battery. Invented by Volta, the author of the first pile, which the Couronne is said to have preceded. (Niaudet.) It consists of a series of glass cups placed in a circle, and each containing a zinc and a copper element, connected to the adjoin- ing one of opposite polarity in the next cup. Court Plas'ter. Soak isinglass in a little warm water for 74 hours ; evapo- rate nearly all the water by gentle heat, dissolve the residue in a little proof spirits of wine, and strain the whole through a piece of open linen. The strained mass should be a stiff jelly when cool. Stretch a piece of silk or sarsnet on a wooden frame, and fix it tight with tacks or packthread. Melt the jelly, and apply it to the silk thinly and evenly, with a badger-hair brush. A second coating must be applied when the first has dried. When both are dry, apply over the whole surface two or three coatings of balsam of Peru. " Scientific American '' xl. 182 ; xlii. 105. Cov'ered Sight. (Fire-arms.) One having the sight inclosed in a ring or tube. See BAR AND BEAD SIGHT ; BEACH COMBINATION SIGHT ; GLOBE SIGHT, etc. Cove Plane. A molding plane, making a quarter round or scotia. See j, Fig. 3194, p. 1465, " Mech. Diet." Fig. 714. Cow-Horn Forceps. Cow'-Horn For'ceps. (Dentistry.) Forceps for the extraction of molar roots when the crowns are decayed below the process. They are made in pairs, right and left, for upper and for lower jaw. Fig. 715. the machines are usually known as crackers in this country, while they are called biscuit (bis cuit) in Europe. Lately, in this country, products called by the names oyster, butter, soda, milk, are known as crackers ; while sweet goods, such as lemon, sugar, cream, tea, albert, etc., are called biscuits. The machines, besides the generic names of bis- cuit or cracker machines, are known as cutting ma- chines when they simply cut out the crackers from the blanket of dough, and cutting and scrapping ma- chines when they automatically remove the scraps of dough from between the crackers. A short cut- ting machine is one with a short apron beyond the cutter, and may be a two-peel machine as holding on that portion of its apron, the peel-end of the ma- chine, but two-peel lengths of crackers. A three- peel machine has an apron of one half greater length beyond the cutter. The complete cracker machine rolls and dusts the dough, cuts into crackers, biscuits, cakes, and snaps, separates the cracker from the scraps, and places the work on pans. The process of cracker-making by machinery is as fol- lows : In the first place, the flour is run through a sifter, then put into troughs, where all the ingredients are mixed in by hand and left to stand until the chemical process is com- pleted. The material is then run through the dough mixer, and from thence several times through the dough brake. It is piled up on a table, covered with cloth, and left to stand until it is properly proved, or gets light, then run again through the brake several times, being doubled over each time, and finally rolled out in a long strip the proper width for the machine. It is then placed on the hopper board of the machine, and goes through the rollers, where it is re- duced to the proper thickness, falls on the apron or carrier, passes under a revolving brush, then to the cutter, which is changed to cut different shapes. After the crackers or bis- cuits are cut, the sheet of cut dough passes to the fingers and scrap apron, where the scrap is run over the upper apron, and the crackers pass below and drop into pans placed on the lower or third apron, and the pans are then placed in the oven and baked, which requires from 7 to 15 minutes, according to the kind of goods being baked. The largest set of machinery and oven will bake from 50 to 70 barrels of flour into crackers in ten hours. See also Prof. Horsford's "Report on Vienna Bread," " Vienna Exposition Reports," vol. ii., B. Crack'ing Ma-chine'. (Milling.) A machine for fine-lining the surface of a millstone. The scores increase the grinding efficiency. See MILL- STONE DRESSING MACHINE. Crack'le "Ware. 1. (Ceramics.) Fr. craauelle. Ware, the enamel of which has a multitude of fine cracks, making a sort of reticulated surface. The art is Chinese ; but as an actual effect, .though not designedly so, many wares overbaked have a cracked glaze. The Chinese had the art of giving the crackle to definite portions of the surface, so as to produce ornamental effects, and to vary the openness of the patterns. 2. (Class.) Glass with a finely cracked exterior surface, for ornamental effect. Cra'dle. (Railway.) The bed- frame of a freight car. For instance, Turton, *" Engineer,-' xlii. 328. Ruger's Cracker Cutting and Scrapping Machine. Crack'er Ma-chine'. A machine for cutting crackers from dough. The names of the machines, as also of their products, differ. The products of CRADLE. 229 CRANK PLANER. 2. The infant's rocking crib. Automatic, Vandevort . * " Scientific American,'" xxxiv. 99. Attachment for bedsteads. Robertson * "Scientific American," xxxvi. 230. .'3. (Miitiii;/. shafts. Cran'dall. A suspended scaffolding used in (Stone Working. Eig. 716. Crandall. A hammer made up of a gang of pointed steel bars occupying a slot ) 3" X 8" in the head of the bar. There are 10 bars in the gang, pointed at each end, " square, and held by a key. Used for putting a certain kind of dressing on ashlar. See list of tools under STONE WORKING. Cran'daled Stone Work. (Stone CuMiny.) An ;tshlar dressed by dotting its surface with rows of points, made with a crandall. When other rows at ri^-lit angles to the first are introduced the stone is said to be cross craiidaled. Crane. A lifting apparatus with a neck or jib from a planted post. The points which distinguish the crane, derrick, winch, sheers, whin, gin, etc., respectively, are given on p. 63 and elsewhere, and a list occurs on pp. 1110, 1111, " Mech. Diet." The cranes for handling the steel ingots at the Krupp works are shown in Fig. 41, Appendix L, " Ordnance Report," 1877. Austrian hydraulic cranes for handling heavy guns. Ibid., Fig. 35. The new crane of Woolwich, England, which has occupied four years in construction, exceeds 1800 tons in weight, and is capable of lifting 1200 tons. See also RAILWAY CRANE ; BALANCE CRANE. See Automatic, Watson, Br. Crab bucket, Wilson, Br. . . Locomotive, Dubs if Co., Br. . Black, Hawthorne If Co., Br Appleby ...... Coaling locomotives, Wendt, Ger Portable, Wilson, Br. . . 70-ton, Taylor, Dundee, Br. 100-ton, I Creusot, Fr. . . 160-ton, ) Creusot, Fr. . . Traveling (Belgium) . . . Traveling ...... Steam, Paris Exposition . "Engineer,'- xlv. 53. "Engineer,'' 1. 279. "Engineering,'''' xxiii.510. "Engineering," 1 xxii. 312. ".Sc. Amer.," xxxiv. 147. "Engineer," xlix. 120. "Engineer," 1. 279. "Sc. Am.," Nov. 6, 1875. "Engineer," xlv. 335. " Sc. Amer. Sup.," 2051. "Sc. Amer'. Sup.," 744. "Sc.Amer. Sup.," 658. "Exposition tie Paris," No. 54, Mar., 1878. Crane Steel/yard. One suspended from the jib of a crane to weigh objects in transitu. Ro- maine en I'air. Fig. 717. French Crane Steelyard. Cra'iii-o-clast (Surgical.) A forceps for crushing the fetal skull. Simpson's, Fig. 532, Part III., Tiemann's "Armamenta- rium Chirurgictim." Cra'ni-ot'o-my For'ceps. (Suryical.) An Fig. 718. Dr. Meigs' Craniotomy Forceps. alligator forceps for crushing the fetal skull in cases of obstructed labor. Fig. 719. Crank. See the following references : Axles, modes of forging, Me Lean * " Iron Age," xxiv., Sept. 25, p. 1. Bending appa. hyd., Clarke, Br. * "Engineer," xlv. 438. Pin driver, Shaffer ..... * "Am. Manuf ," Mav 23, 1879, p. 13. Pin turner, Webb, Br ..... * "Eng'ing," xxviii. 260. Shaft, " Trenton, ' ..... * "iS'c. Amer. Sup.," 415. Shaft repair, " Colima " . . , *" Sc.Amer. Knp." 491. Crank and Fly'wheel Steam Pump. A form of steam pump, as distinct from the direct act- ing. A crank shaft and rods is interposed between the steam cylinder and pump cylinder. Crank'-pin Cup. A lubricator for the crank of an engine. The instance in Fig. 719 is one for a propeller. The great and constant strain renders special provision neces- sary ; as it was aforetime with the paddle-wheel shafts, which lifted at each revolution a quan- tity of oil and poured it on the journal. Crank'-pin Jack. An ap- 1 plication of the hydraulic press to the pressing on or off of the crank pins of locomotives. The press is supported on a barrow, and is shown as supported by tie bars from the wheel in the act of pressing in a crank-pin. "Railroad Gazette " . . * xxi. 550. Crank'-pin Turn'er. A machine for turning crank-pins in position, and while the wheels are under the engine. Crank-pin Cup for Propeller Engine. It is fastened by means of scroll and self-centering jaws at one end, to the collar of the crank pin, upon which there is no wear. It is then clamped in position by bolts passing through the spokes of the driver. The tail-stock center is then run up, and if the pin is not bent will fit in the old center, and the machine is ready to operate. The cutter is driven and fed either way by the crank and intermediate gearing which gives motion to the screw. The cutter is bent and fastened by a set screw in the extreme end of the cutter bar. " Iron Age," "Mini-rig If Scientific Press " * xx., Nov. 29, p. 1. * xxxvi. 278. Fig. 720. Dudgeon^s Crank-pin Jack. Crank Pla'ner. A metal-planing machine, in which the tool stock is moved on ways above the bed by pitman attachment to a wrist on a crank wheel. A special machine, for planing cranks, having a short and rapid or variable stroke, is made by Hull & Belden. It has the usual horizontal bed on track ; 12" at full stroke, and Whitworth quick re- turn motion. Cross and angular, or cross and down feed, as desired. The screw runs the length CRANK RACKET BRACE. 230 CREOSOTING APPARATUS. of the bed, enabling the operator to change position of stroke. Crank Ratch'et Brace. A ratchet brace in Fig. 721 Crank Ratchet Brace. form of a crank ; the upper member has the drill ; the lower has the bear- ing in apposition, and is screwed up as the drilling proceeds. The ratchet is in the upper head, so that the drill moves only during the effective stroke. See RATCHET BRACE. Crate Hasp. Hinged hasp and staple for se- curing the lids of jig. 722. boxes and crates. C r a y ' o n Cut'ter. For pointing cray- Crate Hinge. ons : two circular rasps on a lathe arbor set obliquely so that their interval gives the required chamfer to the crayon point. The chamfering machine for wood, though on a very much larger scale, may give an idea of the apposition of the rasps. Cray'on Mold. A hinged mold in two parts, each containing a series of semi-circular depres- sions, the corresponding parts of each, when the mold is closed, form cylinders, in which the crayon material is molded. Cream'e-ry. An apparatus or closet, with fa- cilities for cooling or heating, in which to place milk jars under favorable conditions for cream- raising. The Ferguson bureau creamery is a large press with shelves for cream, inclosing doors, and with a cupboard above for ice, and one below for the heater which is used in winter. U. S. Patent, August 22, 1876. The Moseley creamery has deep cans suspended in a closet, Fig. 723. Moseley Creamery. and with means for drawing off the milk beneath, in lieu of skimming the cream. The SroviUe creamery has a wooden box designed to be set Fig. 724. Hcovdle Creamery. in the ground, and has pipes for entry and discharge of spring water. ' The deep tin pails have cream gages in inches at the sides. Scovill Creamery . Cream raiser, Plumb Weldon . scale with several Fig. 725 . * "American Inventor,'' iv. 173 . * "Sc. American,''' xli. 7. . * "Sc. American,'' xl. 134. Cream Ware. ( Ceramics. ) a. A name given by Wedgwood to a fine, light, yellow paste, invented by him in 1762. He also called it queen sware, a compliment to Queen Charlotte. b. The ordinary queensware of the present is stone ware. Cream'e-ry Scale. A beams, each having a sliding poise, specially adapted for creameries and cheese facto- ries. Such scales are made of from 600 to 1 ,000 Ibs. capacity, and are intended to weigh at a single draft the milk brought to the factory by sev- eral different persons, that of each being weighed upon a separate beam. Furnace charging scales are made with the same functional arrangement for weighing re- spective quantities of ore, coke, and limestone in the same charge. C r e e p'e r. A spiral inside a revolv- ing cylindrical grain screen to pass the grain towards the dis- charge end. A con- veyor or a spiral on the inner surface. Creamery Scale. Cre-ma'ting Car. One for burning bodies in transitu to the Columbaria, disposing of the corpse en route. Decrescit eundo. Kuborn $ Jacques. Furnace 'Sc.Amer. Sup.,"24~. Temple * 'Sc. Amer.," xxxvi. 49. Turner, Temple at Woking, Br. * ' Tec/mologiste,'-' xli. 367. In Japan * ' Technologiste," xli. 108. Lisaagaray, superheating . . . * ' Technologiste," xli. 496. Moist system * ' Technologiste,'' xli. 508. Cre-mom'e-ter. A specific gravity instrument of the hydrometer form, invented by Chevalier. The scale shows percentages in mixtures of water and pure milk. Cre'o-so-ting Ap'pa-ra'tus. Apparatus for saturating timber with a solution, to prevent decay. CREOSOTING APPARATUS. 231 CROSS HEAD. Fig. 75 Bethel's English Patent, 1833. The works of E. II. Andrews, South Boston, Mass., under llayford's patent method of creosoting timber, are shown in "Railroad Gazette" * xxiv. 267. See also cut 7337, p. 2811, "Mech. Diet." "Iron Age,'' xx., Dec. 27, p. 7. See " Treatise on Dry Rot in Timber,' 1 ' by T. A. Britton, Spon. Crest'ing. The ornaments or finials on the summits of iron posts, or along the rails of an iron fence, a balustrade, or on the crest of a roof. Cre-torme'. (Fabric.) A French dress goods woven on a taffeta loom : it has a doubled and twisted cotton warp, and a woolen weft. The close spin- ning of the war]) gives a peculiar elasticity to the goods. Crib. (Add.) a. (Mining.) A circular frame of wood, used as a foundation for brick- ing in a shaft, or for a pneumatic caisson. b. A timber lining to a shaft, or the plank re- vetment of a wall. Cribbing. c. (Fishing.) The bowl or pound of a POUND NET, which see. Crib Break'- wa-ter. One made of logs or timbers notched into each other Jamison's Crimping Machine. in the manner of a log house. See instance in Breakwater at Michigan City, Ind. "Report of Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army,'- 1879, * ii., Crib Dam. One made log-house fashion, sup- porting a bank of earth which holds the water. See plans and sections of a dam at New Harmony Cut-off, on the \Vabash River. " Report of Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army," 1879, * ii., 1440. Kanawha River, Ibid., 1878, * ii. 467. Rock Island, 111. "Report of Chief of Ordnance, U. S. A.," 1877, * 354, and Plate XII. Fox River, Wis. Ibid., 1876, vol. ii., Part II. Appendix x. 4, p. 416. Crib Muz'zle. (Manege.) A muzzle used to correct the equine habit of crib- bing. Crimp Brake. See CRIME ING MA- CHINE. Crimp'ing Ma- chine'. 1. (Sheet Metal Working. ) A machine for crimping the tops and bottoms on can bodies. 2. A machine for crimping the ends of stationary blind slats. An effective machine swages the ends of 150 slats per minute. 3. A machine for / crimping uppers of boots and bootees. Makepeace Crimp Brake. The piece of leather is forced over a curve-edged board to give it shape. The Jamison machine, Fig, 726, has a pair of descending cheeks which slip over the sharp edge of the bent former, crowding the leather over the latter and pressing it at all points, to prevent wrinkles, and to produce regular thickness. It is driven by power. The Makepeace machine, Kig. 727, is driven by hand, and the action is the reverse of the other machine, the bent former descending and crowding the leather into the slit between the two cheeks, which press forcibly against it and smooth out all wrinkles. The French cambreuse, of Pilon, Mans. France, operates in yet another way, the jaws ascending to press the leather over the suspended and rigid former. It is specially intended for making upper and back in one piece, and joining at the back (bottes d'officier, dites "jointure derriere '). Croch'et. (Surgical.) An obstetric hook for withdrawing the fetus. Fig. 728. Crochet, or Blunt Hook. Crooke's Mill. Another name for the radi- ometer of Professor Crooke. See RADIOMETER. "Manufncturer and Builder " . . , * ix. 229, 241. Crop'per. A powerful hand machine for shear- ing off bolts or rod iron. It has holes of varying diameters for different sizes of iron, and the shears operates by a long lever. Cross. A quadrangular pipe coupling. Fig. 729. Pipe Crosses. a. Grose ; two bell ends. r . Four-flanged cross. b. Reducing cross ; two bell d. Reducing globe cross, ends. e. Corner-fitting globe cross. Cross'-bar. (Fire-arms.) The small bar in a break-joint breech-loader, which, when the barrels are falling, presses out the extractor. Cross'cut Saw. Hand. Crosscut saws are one or two-handled, see p. 649, "Mech. Diet." Power. The cross-cutting sawing machine, for the woods, is usually a drag saw, of which one instance is given in Fig. 1522, p. 649, "Mech. Diet." Cross-cutting machines for the factory are described under CUTTINO-OFP SAW, which see. See also BRACKET CUTTING-OFF SAW. Cross File. One having curved faces un- equally convex. Cross-gam'mg Ma-chine'. A machine for cutting gains or slots in timbers crosswise of the grain or stuff. See Fig. 2144, p. 935, " Mech. Diet." Cross Head. 1. The cross-bar on the end of a connecting-rod or piston, having gibs on each side to fit the slides. In the instance given, the cross-head has adjust- able gibs on each side, turned to fit the slides, which are cast solidly in the frame, and bored out exactly in line with tha cylinder. This permits it to freely turn on its ?rxis, and in connection with the adjustable boxes in the connecting-rod, allows a perfect self-adjustment to the line of the crank- pin. Fig. 730. 2. (a.) A cruciform-shaped four-handled bar, at the upper end of a drill-rod or earth-auger, and by which the latter is turned ; used for drilling or sounding wells or shafts. Fig. 731. CROSS HEAD. 232 (/>.) A sleeve witli hooks for the suspension tackle of a well-drill. Fig. 731. CROWN TELEPHONE. Fig 730 Fig. 731. Cross Head of Steam Engine. Well Drilling Cross Heads. Cross-head, locomotive, Alexander. * "Sc. Am.," xxxv. 246. Cross-peeii' Ham'mer. One the peen of which is crosswise of the direction of the handle. Cross Rais'ing Ma-chine'. A Fig. 732. machine for cross raising the nap of cloth. In cotton machinery a machine for this purpose carries bands of cards by a circular motion in one direction over the face of the cloth. In Delamare & Chandelier's machine (Rouen, France), the cloth is carried by and is stretched across a pair of rollers ; over the suspended part of the cloth, rollers covered with metallic cards Cross-peen revolve in a direction at right angles to that of Hammer. the traverse of the fabric ; these rollers have at the same time a to-aud-fro motion across the piece, so as to insure their action upon the whole width of the piece. "Bulletin of the Industrial Society of Rouen,' 1 ' reported in the " Textile Manufacturer " and " Scientific American Sun..'' 8681. Cross Tube Boil'er. Fig. 733. In the usual vertical form, this boiler has one or more horizon- tal cross tubes, 6" to 8" in diameter, placed across the fire-box. See VER- TICAL BOILER. The water circulates in these while the heated gases pass around them, and are then conducted by a straight flue to the chimney. Fig. 733 is another form in which the tubes are smaller and more Appleby's Cross Tube Hotter. (British.) Cross Valve. numerous. The upper and lower portions of the shell are Fig. 735. connected by flanged joints bolted together, and the up- take is secured to the crown-plate in a similar manner. The lower part of the fire-box is circular, but above the fire- door it is worked into a square form to receive a square upper box, into which are fitted a number of parallel tubes of such diameter as may be most suitable for the si/c of boiler and the heating surface required These traverse horizontally the flame space, the volatile products pacing upward among the tubes and escaping by the vertical cen- tral flue. The tubes connect the water-space which forms a jacket around the fire-box and flue. Cross Valve. A valve at the crossing or rectangular divari- cation of a pipe. Fig. 734. Croup Ket'tle. (Surgical.) A small kettle and alcohol lamp for quickly raising a steam for in- halation in cases of croup. Crow. An imple- ment for gripping be- neath a main and holding a tapping- brace above it, when tapping street mains. Crowd'ed-teeth For'ceps. (Dentist- ry.) A narrow-beaked full-curved forceps for removing superfluous teeth which mar the symmetry of the row. Fig. 736. Crow. Crowded Teeth Forceps. Crown Arch. An arched plate over a furnace supporting the crown sheet. Darby's crown-arch for locomotive fire-boxes replaces the ordinary crown bars by an arched plate, 5-16" thick, with a rise in the center of 6J". This is riveted at each end of the crown sheet and then stayed in the ordinary way between the ends, with 7-8" bolts spaced \\" from center to center. Angle iron is riveted to the top, to which suitable sling stays are attached. "Railroad Gazette" 1 * xxii. 356. Crown Bar. (Locomotive.) One of the bars supporting tlie crown sheet of a boiler. Crown Poun'cing Ma-chine'. (Hat Mak- ing.) A machine for pouncing the crowns of hats. The name is derived from pounce or fine sand, and the operation consists in sand-papering the surface of the hat body, or the hat after it has been blocked. See POUNCING MACHINE. Crown Tel'e-phone. An instrument consist- ing of two magneto-electric crown telephones united. Each of these consists of a coil, diaphragm of iron, and six permanent magnets, which latter are placed with their like poles together in the center of the coil, the other poles being bent round, into con- tact with the periphery of the diaphragm. Thus the diaphragm forms the other pole to that within the coil, and in this way the magnetic field is in- tensified. In the double-crown form the two dia- phragms are separated by an air-chamber, with a mouth-piece or orifice, into which a person speaks. The coils are so connected in circuit that the vocal currents generated in each coil strengthen one another. Phelps. " Telegraphic Journal," vi. ', * vi. 476. See also Hinkley's, Ibid., CROWN TREPHINE. 233 CRYOLITE. Crown Tre-phine'. (Surgical.) A crown saw used in removing sections of the cranium, b, Fig. 6647, p. 2624, "Mec.h. Diet." Cro'zing Ma-chiiie'. A machine for making the grooves in casks to receive the edges of the heads. The work when done by machinery is usually combined with chamfering and howeling and some- times with leveling. See BARREL CROZING MACHINE ; CHAMFERING MACHINE ; see list under BARREL MACHINERY. "Manufacturer if Builder," 1 .... * xi. 55. Steel if Munxon's machine .... Patent Nos. 160, 966. Cru'ci-ble Fur'nace. One of the most nota- ble departures in crucible furnaces is that of M. Fiat, of Paris, in which the crucible and furnace are moved together to the place where the casting is to be made. The crucible is fixed within the furnace wall, the weight of both coming upon trunnion.-: when thi-y are lifted from the Fig. 737. Fiat's Crucible Furnace on Movable Carriage. lower furnace wall. The space between the crucible and the refractory lining of the furnace wall is filled with combusti- ble, the ashes from which fall through holes in the furnace into the ash-pit when the crucible is over the draft. It is moved on a car or by crane to the place of casting, and tipped on its trunnions to pour the metal. Fletcher's annular hot-air furnace for melting metals has no fire-bars, but a dished bottom se- cured by a lever. The draft from the fan is admitted at A, and courses through the ducts around the fire-clay lining F. The cru- cible stands on a fire-clay pillar and is surrounded by fuel, the gaseous products escape at B. C is the hinged cover or lid with fire-clay lining D. E is the hinged bottom with lever G and detent H. I is the outer case or lining, K the legs of the stand. The French cale- basse, a form of Hot-air Crucible Furnace. crucible used in Europe in melting quantities of iron below the usual duty of a cupola, is shown in Laboulaye's " Dic- tionnaire," etc., i., Figs. 355-357, ed. 1877, article " Cale- basse." On Crucibles, Kirk . . "Iron Age," 1 xxi., May 9, p. 3. Furnace * "Sc. American,'' 1 xlii. 35. Annular, Fletcher, Br. . * "Engineer," xlvi. 74. * "Sc. American Sup.,'- 2271. Tilting, Piat "Iron Age," xxii., Aug. 29, p. 9. * "Sc. American Slip..'' 2111. Making crucibles . * "Sc. American," xxxvii. 242. Cru'ci-ble Steel. (Metallurgy.) Steel made in crucibles. The Indian plan for making wootz. The invention of Huntsman, of Sheffield, England. Cast steel. Cruik'shank Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) The original trough battery invented by Cruikshank. The partitions forming the cells in the trough were composed of two plates of copper and zinc soldered together and the spaces filled with acidulated water. Niaudet, Am. trans * p. 14. Crush'er. A machine for degrading rock, fos- sil manure, etc. See STONE CRUSHER, DISINTE- GRATOR, etc. See Blake * "Min. $ Sc. Press," xxxiv. 257. (New) * "Sc. American,' 1 ' xlii. 210. Stone, ore, etc., Blake . . * "Sc. American," xlii. 210. mil, Walker * "Sc. American,-' xxxix. 341. Baus/i * "Eng. if Min. /.," Nov. 4. 1876. Crush'er Gage. A registering instrument ex- posed in the bore of a gun to measure the pressure developed by the explosion of a charge. See PIE- ZOMETER ; CUTTER. To illustrate : a 16-ton steel gun of Vavasseur, fired at Woolwich, had a projectile of 400 pounds, 70 pounds of peb- ble powder made up into a cartridge 25" long. The charge being fired at the center, the crusher gage at the rear of the charge showed a pressure of 21 tons to the square inch, the gage at the base of the shot, 18 tons ; initial velocity of the shot 1412' per second. The charge fired at the. base, the gage gave pressures of 45.1 and 50.1 tons respectively at the rear of the charge and base of the shot. "Engineer" Sept. 16, 1870. " Scientific American . '' xl. 133. " Scientific American'' xlii. 393. Cry'o-lite. Greek kryos, "ice," lithos, " stone," from its beautiful snowy appearance. This mineral is a double fluoride of sodium and aluminium, and has long been known in cabinets, and to chemists, but has but lately assumed commercial importance. It has been found at Miask, in the Ural Mountains, in limited amounts, but its great source is the west coast of Greenland, where it is procured in immense quantities at Ivigtout, on Arsuk Fiord, between Julian's Hope and Fred- erick's. The main deposit here forms a mass, according to reliable authority, 600' in length, and 200' in width, and de- scending to an unknown depth. The mineral occurs in partially translucent masses of a snowy white color, having very much the appearance of snow ice, whence its name. It is frequently associated with galena, blende, iron and copper pyrites, and spathic iron ore. In 1850, Julius Thomson, a Danish chemist, discovered a cheap method of rendering cryolite available for the manu- facture of soda and alum. The employment of Greenland cryolite in the manufacture of aluminium is attributed to Rose, of Berlin. It is also used in the later Deville aluminium process. See ALUMIN- IUM. Cryolite is largely used by the Pennsylvania Salt Manufac- turing Company at Natrona, Penn., and a number of cryo- lite products are there made. It has been used also in making what has been variously called " cryolite glass,'' or " hard porcelain," a vitreous semi-translucent material, well fitted for some purposes. The proportions used are about, cryolite 1, sand 3 ; the i - e- sulting glass is easily molded and cut, and is noted for its tenacity. See CAST PORCELAIN. For the milky variety a mixture is employed consisting of the following materials : One part of oxide of zinc, four parts of cryolite, and ten parts of sand, fused in a common pipe- clay crucible, developing a large amount of fluosilicic acid. The pipe-clay is, however, not much attacked by it. This development continues throughout the fusion, and even after it, during the working, to a small extent. " The utilization of cryolite depends upon Thomsen's ob- servation, that the mijreral may be completely decomposed by treatment with lime, either in the wet or dry way, the products of this treatment being, generally speaking, caustic soda, aluminate of sodium, and fluoride of calcium. The ease with which this decomposition can be effected, and the nota- ble percentage (35 per cent.) of soda which the mineral thus yields, renders it a very valuable commercial source of soda and its compounds. The alumina which it contains is used for the production of alum salts. " Where the dry process is employed, the cryolite is dried, ground to a fine powder, and mixed with slaked lime, or CRYOLITE. 234 CULTIVATOR, with pulverize' 1 chalk, in such proportions that for each equivalent of cryolite there shall be about six of lime. This mixture is then calcined in a furnace at a dull red heat, not sufficient, however, to fuse it. After a charge has cooled, it is lixiviated, and the dissolved soda and aluminare of soda drawn off from the insoluble residue (fluoride of calcium). By passing carbonic acid gas (obtained from the combustion of coke) through this solution, the soda is converted into the carbonate, and the alumina is precipitated. u In the wet process, the cryolite is boiled with milk of lime ; and according to the proportions of lime employed, the resultant products are caustic soda and aluminate of so- dium, or, where the proportion of lime is greater, caustic soda and aluminate of lime, fluoride of calcium being formed of course in both cases. The latter process gives all the soda of the cryolite in the caustic state, the only operation required being evaporation to dryness. " The aluminate of sodium produced in the operation above described is used in the manufacture of soaps, in place of soda and potash lye. It is completely decomposed by pass- ing carbonic acid gas through it, and the resulting alumina which is precipitated is converted into sulphate of aluminium and alum. The fluoride of calcium, which is a by-product of the treatment of cryolite, is used as a flux in the reduc- tion of gold, iron, and other metals." Polytechnic Review. See the following references : "Iron Age,'' xx., Sept. 13, p. 7. " Scientific American,'''' .... xxxv. 375. "Scientific American Sup.," (uses). 990. "Manufacturer $ Builder," . . . ix. 215 ; xii. 192, 256. "Mining If Scientific Press'' . . xxxviii. 177. Cryp'to-graph. An apparatus designed for secret correspondence. A metallic plate is perforated with holes. A tablet is marked off with squares. A plate of the same size and rulings is perforated at a number of the squares in an irregular manner. The plate being laid on the tablet, the message is written, the letters in the consecutive holes as they may run in the line and succeeding lines. The plate is then rotated one quarter round and the message continued, so on for the other two positions of the plate. The result is a confused lot of letters with breaks of continuity. It may be read by a similarly perforated plate laid on the paper, and moved successively as by the writer. Crys'tal. (Glass.) Another name for flint qlass ; a silicate with a base (usually) of lead and potash ; but the Bohemian has a base of lime and potash. Cube Pow'der. Large grained gunpowder for slow burning in large charges in heavy ordnance. Prismatic powder. . . . Sept. 16, 1870 : March 17, 1876, p. 185. Foot Meas'u-rer. An apparatus "Engineer" 1 Cu'bic used in estimating and testing gas. Goodwin . * "Am. Gas-lis;/it Journal," July 3, 1876, p. 4'. Cuff Frame. A knitting machine specially constructed for knitting cuffs for cardigan jackets and underwear Campbell & Clute. Cul'ti-va'tor. Fig. 739 is the turning cultiva- Fig. 739. Steam Turning Cultivator. (Fowler if Co., Leeds, England.) tor, adapted to he worked by all systems of steam- plow machinery. It may carry from 5 to 13 tines, and rests on 3 wheels, one of which is the steering- wheel. The axle of the two hind-wheels is cranked, so that by its being turned the frame is raised or lowered, and by this means the penetration of the tines adjusted. The long end of a draft bar or turning lever is provided with two arms to which the two ends of the rope are at- tached. The arms are set at an angle for keeping the tail rope clear of the implement. The lever itself is held by a vertical stud fixed to the frame considerably behind the steering-wheel. This position of the draft-stud gives the necessary liberty and power to the steering-wheel and en- ables it to lead the implement at almost any angle out of the line of the pulling-rope. On the short end of the turning-lever is a chain commu- nicating with a quadrant on the crank-axle, and as the lever is pulled round, the chain, acting on the quadrant, turns the axle, lifts the frame, and raises the tines out of the ground. The plan of operation is as follows : As soon as the culti- vator is brought up to the headland, the reverse pull brings the lever around, turns the quadrant, rotates the bent axle, and lifts the tines out of the ground, in which position the cultivator frame is held up by a catch ; when lifted the re- quired height, the lever strikes against a stop, and the im- plement turns into new ground. The man, w-ho never leaves his seat, releases the catch, the tines drop into the ground, and the implement is re-drawn across the field. This, after the plow, is the most important and efficient implement of the series. Its size is only limited by the power of the engines, which are thus used up to their capa- bility. It pulverizes the soil, working steadily to a uniform depth. The largest machines require but one man in at- tendance upon them. Fig. 740 shows the steam cultivator for very deep working, say 16". It may have 3 or 5 tines, which lift the soil and leave it loose. It has a strong flanged steel frame, shares of various widths from 2" to 13", and oblique wings to lift the soil. The tines rock on the frame, so that when the iniple- Fie. 740. Double Action Steam Cultivator. (Howard, Bet/ford, Eiii;/and.) ment is to return across the field the points at work ar slightly depressed and the hinder points raised. The Deere walking cultivator is shown in Fig. 741. It has the usual two double-shovel plows, attached to a two-wheeled frame with a tongue alongside of which are hitched the two horses which travel on the respective sides of the row under cultivation. It is peculiarly open and clear, not obstructing the view of the crop, and the spring coupling lifts the plows on their pivots to any adjustable extent, so that a part of the weight is carried and they bear with any desired force upon the ground to turn a moderate furrow when the corn is small, or a deeper one when the crop is more matured. The pitch of the shovels is also adjustable by vertical adjustment of the end of the beams. The distance apart of the shovels is ad- justable. One of the wheels is broken to expose the parts more fully. Cultivators are classed as : Ordinary, Disk, Wheeled, Walking, Rotary, Riding, Straddle-row, Vineyard. Parallel. Expanding. Besides these characteristic names, several of which apply to single implements, as for instance the popular Western im- plement, the Walking, Straildle Row, Wheeled Cultivator, there are several other classes of implements which naturally fall under so general a caption as cultivator : such are known as scarifiers, extirpators, shovel plows, horse-hoes, etc. Which see in "Mech. Diet.," el infra. The author's report on Class 76 at the Paris Exposition shows the following ("Paris Exposition (1878) Reports," vol. v., pp. 90-93): French horse-hoes. French scarifiers. English lever cultivator. French extirpator. " Peerless " cultivator, U. S., American riding cultivator- CULTIVATOR. 235 CURD KNIFE English Five-tine horse-hoe and grubber. Also: French vineyard cultivators, Figs. 221-231, pp. 216- 240. English steam cultivators, Figs. 84-88, pp. 83-86. Ibid. Fig. 741. Fig. Walking Cultivator. Cultivator for beets, "Depi. Agric. Spec. Rept.,'' No. French, Bertel. 28, Plates V., VJ. Cultivator with saws, Stone * "Scientific Amer.," 1 ' xxxv. 4. Cul'ti-va'tor Plow. Fig. 742 shows an Eng- lish single-row horse- hoe or cultivator plow, made for cultivating root crops in drills. The imple- ments can be adapted either for flat or ridge culti- vation. The share with lateral wings precedes, and is followed by cultivator shares, these by harrow tines, and lastly by a chain harrow. Fig. 742. Cultivator Plow. (Corbelt if Peale, England.) Fig. 7 Cul'ti-va'tor-point Bolt. A bolt of peculiar form used to connect the shares of cultivators with their standards or sheths. The head has two flat sides and two straight bevels, as shown in Fig. 743, to adapt it to the two- sided countersink of the shovel. Cup. An oil cup. See CRANK CUP; OIL CUP; LUBRICATOR. Cup An'vil. A cup-shaped re- inforce inside the head of a cartridge to strengthen it. Fig. 744. See also DISK ANVIL, U. S. Ordnance " Re- port on 'Metallic Cartridges,'" \%- 3 1 Cultivator-point Plates XXIX., XXX. Bo " Cup Leath'er. A leather to fasten around a pump plunger or bucket. Cups are made like sleeves for buck- ets and with solid bottoms for plungers. Quilted cups are used for hot liquors. Cu'po-la. A melting fur- nace in a foundry. See p. 658, "M-li. Diet." And tuyere, Lawrence. Cup Anvil. * '-Iron Age," 1 xviii., Oct. 5, p 1. Return Hue, McKenzie, straight. * "Iron Age,-' xx., Oct. 18, p. 16;* xx., Nov. 8, 19. Furnace, Voisin, Fr *"Iron Age." xvii., May 18, p. 6. Fig. 744. Cup'ped Sound. (Surgical.) A urethra] syr- inge with cup-like depressions on its surface. Van Buren's, Fig. 52, Part III., Tiemnnn's " Armamenta- rium Chirurgicum." Cup'ping In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) Di- vided into bloody and dry. liUiody cupping. See Fig. 1552. p. 659, " Mech. Diet.," and SCARIFICATOK, Fig. 4662, p. 2052, Ibid. Cupping glasses are shown in Roman tombs as emblems of the profession of the deceased. Dry cupping. See DEPURATOR, "Meek. Diet. ; " AEROTHERAPY APPARA- TUS, p. 8, supra. For Junot's arm and boot, see ARM ; BOOT. Cup'ping Ma-chine'. (Cartridge.) The first machine in bullet- making. It has two stamps or dies, one working inside the other; the outer one cuts the blank out of a sheet of copper, and the next draws it into a cup-shape, making it ready for subsequent draw- ing in other machines. Cup'ping Tool. A blacksmith's swage of cup shape, used in pairs. The one with a square shank stands in the hardy hole of the anvil. The other has a handle, and is struck by a hammer, the piece of iron under treatment being between the two cups. Cu'pro Man'ga-nese. See MAN- GANESE BKONZE. Curb. (Mining.) See CRIB. Curb Sen'der. (Telegraphy.) An instrument, the joint invention of Sir Wm. Thomson and Prof. F. Jenkin, designed to gain speed in the working Blacksmiths or telegraphic cables by overcoming the Cupping Tool, tailing out of the signal. The object is, that as soon as the receiving end has received sufficient current to move the indicator, the charge remaining in the cable should be imme- diately removed ; that is to say, instead of putting the line to earth immediately after making contact with the battery, as is done liythe ordinary sending key, the curb-sender automatically puts the line to the other pole of the battery, i. e., the removal of the residual charge is effected by the application at the sending end of an electro-motive force opposite in kind to that by which the signal had been pro- duced. "Telegraphic Journal'' * v. 27. Sir W. Thomson, "Engineering" 1 .... * xxiii. 103. Thomson if Jenkin. Well illustrated paper in "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng. . , * v. 213, 248. Fig. 746. Curd Knives. Curd Knife- A cutting implement passed through the cheese curd in the vat in order to di- vide it into small cubical blocks, to facilitate drain- age from it of the whey. CURD KNIFE. 236 CUSHIONED AXLE. The knives shown are perpendicular and hori- zontal respectively, and by suitably using each in turn the curd is equally and rapidly divided. Fig. 747. Knife Curd Mill. Curd Mill. A cutting machine for dividing cheese curd into small fragments. In use the hop- per (shown removed) is placed over the knives, which are rotated at a rapid rate by means of mul- tiplying gewr. Cu-rette'. A scoop, loop, or finger, for remov- ing foreign matter from a cavity. For instances : Fig. 78 b, p. 22, Part I. Fig. 194 a, p. 44, Part II. Fig. 201, p. 45. Part II. Fig. 92, p. 27, Part II. Fig. 105, p. 13, Part V. Fig. 57, p. 120, Part III. Figs. 295, 299, p. 74, Part III. Fig. 294, p. 74, Part III. Tiemanns "Armamentarium Ckirwgicum." 1 Quires' nasal and ear curette, "Medical If Surgical Re- porter,'' July 3, 1880. See also ENUCLEATOR. Hebrews bone scoop . Buck's ear curette . Speir's ear curette . Daviel'x eye curette Emmet? s curette forceps Tiemnn's rectal curette Hitmen's uterine curette .SVwi's uterine curette . Cu-rette' For'ceps. (Surgical.) A long, nar- row forceps, with hollow prongs to grasp and con- tain foreign substances in the process of extraction. See reference in CURETTE. Curl'ing Stick. A slightly tapering hot-water tube, around which to curl the hair. Oppenheimer. Cur'rent. [Electricity.) The supposed flow or passage of electricity or electric force. It originates at the zinc surface in contact with the solution, and passes from the zinc to the copper or other negative metal in the lii/uid of the battery, and from the neg- ative metal through the connections externally to the zinc. The quantity of current flowing through a given conductor is measured by the heat generated, by its influence on a neighboring permanent mag- net, or by the amount of gas set free by its electro- lytic action. Cur'rent Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Hydraulic Engineer- ing.) Devices used to ascertain the strength, rate, etc., of a current. See CURRENT METER. Cur'rent Cool'er. (Brewing.) One for cool- ing a liquid in transitu. Fig. 631, p. 264, "Mech. Diet.'' Also, for Austrian forms, "Scientific American Sup.,-' Fig. 8, * 4077. Also forms of condensers, "Mech. Diet.,'' pp. 507-609. Cur'rent Me'ter. The subject of current me- ters has been very carefully considered, and the apparatus tested in determining the velocity of the Connecticut River. See "Report of the Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army," 1878, * ii. 304 and Plate VII. The plans adopted were by surface floats and the Waltman tactiometer. Cur'rent Reg'u-la-tor. An apparatus for regulating the motion of dynamo-electric machines. That of Hospitaller is composed of a resistance bobbin, formed of insulated wire wound on in a single layer, and having each turn stripped of its insulating covering for about 0.4 of an inch at the same spot. A curved lever, con- trolled by an electro-magnet at one end, and by an adjusta- ble spring on the other, moves forward or backward on the bare portion of the bobbin if the current weakens or strengthens, until the resistance is adjusted by the decreased or increased number of tums in the circuit, and equilibrium is produced. Hospitaller Maxim " Telegraphic Jour.," 1 vii. 153 ; * 216 "Scientific American,' 1 ' xliii. 255. Cur'rent Slide. A device used in microscopy for the examination of blood. The slide is a slip Fig. 748. P! Holman's Current of glass with two basins ground in it, ami covered by a thin glass plate. A small canal unites the two cups, and the blood, which only partially fills the cups, is driven from one to the other by press- ure of the finger on the cover, being examined in a thin film in transitu. " Manufacturer 4 Builder " ...... * xii. 205. Cur'rent Wheel. One driven by the force of an open water current. Cleaveland ...... * "Am. Miller" vii. 41 : * 307. Submerged, Hill ..... * "Sc. Amer.," xxxiv. 131. Cur'tain. (Hydraulic Engineering.) A woven curtain of willows, used to reduce a current and promote deposit of silt. See WILLOW CURTAIN. Cur'va-ture Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) Ap- paratus for correction of spinal or other curvature. The Figures refer to Tiemann's "Armam. Chirurgicum." 1 Shoulder brace .......... Fig. 3, Part IV. Spinal caries apparatus ....... Fig. 14, Part IV. Potts' curvature brace (posterior) . . . Fig. 4, Part IV. Lateral curvature brace (scoliosis) . . . Figs. 7, 9. Tibia brace for anterior curvature . . . Fig. 75, Part JV. Knock-knee brace ......... Fig. 74, Part IV. Weak leg supporter ........ Fig. 69, Part IV. Bow-leg brace .......... Fig. 73, Part IV. Torticollis brace ......... Fig. 11, Part IV. Wry neck brace ......... Kig. 13, Part IV. See also CLUB-FOOT APPARATUS. See also under various heads, in "Mech. Diet.," and list under SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS. Curve. A bend in a pipe, less than a quarter. See BEND. Curve In'stru-ment. Instruments for mak- ing curves by means of a pen connected with two pendulums swinging in planes at different angles to each other, or a pen to one pendulum and the paper platform to another ; with discussions of the meth- ods of Donkin, Tisley, Spiller, Knoblauch, Peaucil- lier, Lissajou, Woodward : "Scientific American Supplement," * 505, 726, 727. Delineator, Schejfler . . . * "Railroad Gaz.," 1 xxii. 491. Measurer, Dale, Br. . . . * -'Engineer, r xl\i. 223. Curvograph, Curve Scribe Co. * "Man. 4" Builder^" viii. 136. * "Iron Age, 1 ' xvii. May 25, p. 9. Curved Mat'tress Nee'dle. (Hydraulic En- gineering.) A needle for sewing brush mats with No. 13 wire. The brush is laid in two layers, with a stratum of hay between, and sewed in seams 4' apart, and then "diagonally ; or the brush may be laid in two layers at right angles, and sewn diago- nally at right angles. Fig. 749 shows the curved needle on a much enlarged scale ; the form of stitch, and a piece of mat with portions of one cor- ner removed. Cushioned Ax'le. One with a rubber cush- ion interposed between the axle-box and the wood of the hub, in order to absorb the jar. See AXLE, Fig. 141, p. 62, su/>ra. Miller's ..... "Iron Age," * xx., Aug. 2, p. 18. CUSHIONED HAMMER. 237 CUT-OFF. Kig. 749. Mattress ]\'eedle. Cushioned Ham'mer. A hammer with cush- ions interposed between the power and the hammer helve. See Bradley' 's, Fig. 6449, p. 2571, "Meek. Diet." Cus'pa-dore. A slop jar, or spittoon of vase- shaped pattern. Cutch'er. (Pnprr.) The cylinder around which passes the endless felt in a paper machine. Cii'ti-pmic'tor. An instrument for punctur- ing the skin to introduce medicament. See Acu.- PUNC'rriiAToR, Fig. 27, p. 12, "Meek. Diet.' 1 ' Dr._fhern-firx .... "Medical ' Record," * Jan. 3, 1880. Ef'iott'x ...... " Scientific American," * xxxv. 22. Cut'lers' Ce-meiit'. For fastening blades of to the cylinder, the advantage of which arrange- ment is apparent and would be considerable. There were several instances in which an addi- tional valve on the back of the main slide had some form of trigger release for working expansion, which, controlled by a governor, can close sud- denly, while some few others used four separate slides two for admission and two for exhaust placed at the ends of the cylinder. Some of the compound engines had a single slide for both cylin- ders. There wero some examples of receiving- valves, double-beat, above the cylinder, with slide valves for their exhaust placed below the cylinder. The usual practice in horizontal engines is to place at least the exhaust valves underneath the cylinder, in order to al- low : ready escape for water, the receiving valves being on top of the cylinder; but there were examples where all four of the valves were below the cylinder or were arranged on its side. In engines having Corliss valves the usual ar- rangement was maintained of placing the valves above and below the cylinder. The Wheelock engine valves are all beneath the cylinder. Valve movements were in large variety in Paris, the most important being those having an automatic variable cut-off controlled by the governor. This point receives more atten- tion in Europe than any other single feature in steam en- gines. -Many novel methods are in use, but all those using pi>ton or double-beat valves employ some arrangement for tripper- gearing, by the introduction of a detent, or the alteration of the position of a wedge or incline. In some cases the mo- tion is taken from the pitman, but generally from an eccen- tric on the main shaft or on a lay-shaft alongside, the gov- dinner knives in ivorv handles; rosin, 4 parts; ernor controlling the position of the device for deteriniu- beeswax, 1 part ; brick-dust. 1 part. Fill the hole I iu the P int of cut-off. in the handle with the cement heat the tancr nf tho Several automatic cut-off arrangements are in use in Ku- an, neat tnt tang Ol the | rope witn g ii de . va ive engines, but the larger portion of them nlarfa 'iurl i.i-d^v if IY-*-J^ (-ho liater. (Brown p. 109. If Sharpe.) 2. (Ayr [culture.) An instrument attached to the plow to cut the sod or weeds in advance of the share or the breast of a plow. There are several kinds ;iml modes of attachment. See COLTER. 3 . ( Ma ch inert/.) A c u 1 1 i 1 1 g tool in a lathe, planer, or milling machine. Figs. 754, 755, 756, show several forms of rotary in milling machines and some forms of special ma- chinery of cognate character. Fig. 754 shows two forms of mill- ing cutters : the upper one is for Milling Cutter. cutting the teeth of gear wheels, Fig. 755. CUTTER. 240 CUTTING AND DRAWING PRESS. Fig. 756. Fig. 758. Fcrew-slotting Cutters. a. For making twist drills. b. For grooving taps and reamers. r. (irooving and milling cutter. it. Angular cutter. and can be sharpened by grinding without changing their form. The lower cutter in the figure is for milling sewing ma- chine and e;un parts of irregular form. Fig. 755 is a screw-slotting cutter. Fig. 756 shows four cutters. Cut'ter Grind'er. Is a tool for shops and man- ufactories in which rotary cutters of any style are used for gear-cutting, milling, or slotting. A col- umnar support, with a broad base, sustains the spin- dle-head, the cutter-holder and guide. The platen to which the holder and guide are attached may be adjusted in height to suit the diameter of the cutter to be operated upon. The guide rests against the tooth that is being ground, thus gaging the work accurately, even though there may be irregularity in the size of the teeth. The machine is adapted to cutters of all sizes and styles of teeth, whether straight, beveled, or spiral. Fig. 757. Cutttr Heads. ing sash, door, straight-cap, slotted combination molding, panel, -matching, grooving, gaining, bead- ing, coping, etc. Cut'ting and Draw'ing Press. A machine made iu various sizes for different grades of work in cutting a blank out of sheet-metal and forming it into shape at one operation. The machine shown is adapted for articles not exceeding 8" in diameter and I " deep. . The die A is secured to the bed of' the press and the cut- ting punch B, which also acts as blank-holder, to the adjust- able plate ('. The pressure of the punch upon the blank is regulated by the screws F F, which are bored out to receive the casing GG, on the lower end of which are rubber wash- ers to allow for difference iu the thickness of the tin. The Fig. 759. Cutter Grinder. (Smith $ Coventry, British Either small grindstones or emery wheels may be- attached to the spindles. Cut'ter Head. ( Wood Working.) A rotary cutter stock in a planing, grooving, matching, or similarly-acting machine. The illustration shows a variety of heads, includ- Cutting and Drawing Press. cams H H force down the cutting punch and blank holder and a central drawing punch forces the blank into the shape required. The slide is kept against the cams by a weight. The Bliss cutting, drawing, and stamping press performs atone operation, the cutting of the blank, drawing it into CUTTING AND DRAWING PRESS. 241 CYCLOSCOPE. shape and embossing any required design upon it. It is par- ticularly designed for work that is lettered, beaded, counter- sunk or embossed, such as sardine and blacking boxes, cov- ers and bottoms of cans and lard pails, etc. Cut'ting and Screwing Ma-chine'. A machine especially adapted for ctittiug off wrought- iron pipe and tapping the ends for coupling lengths. The pipe is held in the hollow head which has a universal chuck, and the dies are held on an adjust- able pillar. The chuck-head is revolved by crank and fly-wheel or by power. Fig. 760. Cutting-off saws are of several kinds : single and double ; the latter may be double-aiders, for sawing boards toa length, cutting off both ends at once. 1. In the railway cutting-off saw the saw arbor is on a carriage which traverses on planed guides, to and fro. Fiz. 4134, p. 1867, "Meek. Diet." 2. The bracket cutting-off saw traverses on a bracket above the table upon which the staff lies. See BRACKET CUTTING- OFF SAW, supra. 3. The siring cutting-off saw is pendulous from the ceil- ing, Fig. 6127, p. 2471, "Mtc/i. Diet.-' 4. The carriage cutting-off saw has a carriage in which the stuff lies and which moves on ways transversely to present the stuff to the saw. Fig. 7<32. Mf Machine. Cut'ting Ma-chine'. A machine for cutting crackers from the blanket of dough. See CRACKER MA CHINK. Cut'ting-off Lathe. A machine with which rods, bars, and pipes are cut to length. The ob- ject is passed through a collet at the rear end of the spindle, and held in front by a concentric chuck. The steadying collets are changed to fit various sizes of bars. The feed is automatic or by Fig. 761. Cutting-off Lathe. hand and the speeds variable. The Slate cutting- off tool is used, the stock of which receives the cut- ter in a channel on its side, and the cutter is held in place by flanges on the stock and two hook- headed bolts, allowing the cutter to be advanced as it is ground for sharpening. * " Engineer " xlii. 42. Cut'ting-off Saw. The cutting-off saw is a cross cutting machine adapted to the shop. The cross cutting machine for the woods is a draa-s&vf. Fig. 1739, p. 738, "Mech. Diet." 16 Carriage Cutting-off Saw. Cut'ting-off Shears. A bar shears for cut- ting bar or rod iron to lengths. Fig. 586, p. 241, "Mech. Diet." Cut'ting Punch. A circular-edged punch used for cutting grommet holes in sails, cutting wads from cloth or paper, disks or planchets from leather or metal, making tongue-holes in straps and in va- rious other uses and connections. See WAD-PUNCH, Fig. 7001, p. 2717, "Mech. Diet." Oval or oblong cutting punches are used for some purposes, for settiug-iu oblong grommets, for instance. Cy'clad. A circular iron-clad. A style adopted in several vessels of the Russian navy, as the " Nov- gorod," " Admiral Popoff." "Engineer " . ' * xli. 75, 93, 244. Cy-cloid'o-graph. An instrument invented by Dr. S. Zmurko, for the practical drawing of cy- cloids. " Scientific American Supplement '' 505. Cy'clo-graph. An instrument invented by Worthiugton (Eng.), for drawing arcs of great ra- dius. It is a rolling instrument having two wheels of different diameters on a single shaft, one being ca- pable of adjustment towards or from the other. The nearer the two are in relation to each other, the smaller will be the radius of curve described by a pencil attached to the shaft near the larger wheel. " Scientific American Supplement" * 3907. Cy-clom'e-ter. An instrument for counting revolutions. Shown as adapted to a bicycle in "Engineer" * xlv. 234. " English Mechanic " * xxvii. 321. "Mining fy Scientific Press xxxvi. 403. Cy'clo-scope. An instrument invented by Professors McLeod and Clarke of the Royal Indian Engineering College. Its purpose is to measure the velocity of revolu- tion, and enable it to be determined at the moment of observation. B, Fig. 763, is the cylinder with its ruled paper covering. The wheel R serves to put it in communication with the machine, the rotary speed of which is to be measured. The movable box contains a reed or vibrating lance, which per- forms the functions of a tuning-fork, and to which is fas- tened a small plate of zinc, in which there is a slit about equal in width to the breadth of the lines traced upon the cylinder. The lance vibrates 60 times per second. The CYCLOSCOPE. 242 CYLINDER GLASS. small-toothed wheel T, and the wheel D, being situated upon the same axis with the box Aj the latter can, by sim- ply turning the wheel D. to the right or left, be moved to any position in front of the cylinder. At S is an opening through which the lines are examined ; it contains a lens for the purpose of magnifying the images. When the appa- ratus is to be operated the plate is caused to vibrate by means of a small bellows, the tube of which is seen at C C'. The box A carries an index by means of which the speed is we meet witn tne stationary wave wnicn nas serveu 10 ueter- mine the divisions ; the index O will then point to the fig- ure that indicates the speed. The idea of the machine is founded upon the observation that if a series of objects (points, for instance) are moving with a certain velocity, the eye loses their outlines and Fig. 76. Diagram of Ruled Paper for Cycloscope. blends them together into a line. The ruling of the paper on the cylinder is such that the lines are much farther apart at one end than the other, and this is conveniently accom- plished by cutting an oblong piece sufficient to wrap the cylinder, out of a piece ruled as in the figure. It will be evident that when the cylinder is revolving at a given rate the number of repetitions of the line, which, as viewed through the slit, is equivalent to a dot, will be much greater at one end of the cylinder than at the other. The device is much more fully described in "Proceedings of the Royal Society," in "Popular Science Review-' and "La Nature,'' and copied into the "Scientific American,-' xli. * 131; "Scientific American Supplement,' 1 ' 1 1188, 1366. See also "Engineer,'' xlviii. * 225. Cyl'in-der Bor'ing Ma-chine'. A cylinder borer, portable, and adapted to the reboring and refaciug of locomotive cylinders while the cylinder is attached to the engine, is made by the New York Steam Engine Co. under Chapman's patent. The machine is so arranged that it can be attached to an engine standing on the track, and is driven or worked either by hand or power to bore the cylinder and turn and face the edges of the flanges. The boring head slides upon a bar 4" in diameter, one end of which is placed in a bushing fast- ened in a stuffing-box, and the other end runs in a bearing bolted to the cylinder-flange. The boring head has three tool-holders, which will receive either boring, facing, or turning cutters, and each or all of the cutters have an auto- matic and a hand feed. These machines will bore a cylinder as small as 15" and as large as 20" in diameter, with an ex- treme traverse of head of 32". Boring machine. Sharpe, Stewart $ Co., Br. "Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 2094. Portable * "R.R. Gaz.,-' xxii. 355. Flanders * "Min. $ Sc. Pr.," xxxvi. 289. Measuring instr., Giegly . * "Engineer,'' xlix. 259. Holding, Tuck * ".Sc. Amer.,'- xxxv. 51. Cyl'in-der Car. A cylinder with wheel-ends adapted to run on a railway track. The cylinder is loaded full, and rolls, the load not being supported on axles. There have been many patents on this idea. Prosser's . . " Scientific Amtrican," 1 xli. 293. "American Mannf.," March 26, 1880, p. 12. Cyl'in-der Cock. Figure 765 shows a cock operated by pressure of an eccentric against a valve normally closed by the pressure of ssteam in the cylinder. he tube A is the seat ot valve ( . Ine eccentric of the lever D is pivoted at f, and is moved by the rod E, pressing the eccentric against the stem 5 of the valve, g is the exit for the steam or the water of condensation, as the case may be. "Railroad Gazette," i * xxiii. 436. Cyl'in-der For'- ging Mill. Blakey's forging mill for mak- ing tubes consists of a rotating mandrel, op- erating in combination with a series of sur- rounding rolls, which Hayes SrMtirk'* Locomotive first bend the blank, then weld it, and, by continued rolling, impart a finish to the welded article. " Iron Age. " * xviii. July 27, p. 1. Cyl'in-der Glass. (Glass.) This method of manufacture is much older than is generally sup- posed. It is so much superior to the crown-glass process that it has at length almost entirely super- seded it. The Venetians and Bohemians blew cylinders for the win- dows of the 12th and 13th centuries. Cylinder blowing was introduced into France from Bohe- mia'in the beginning of the 18th century. France now manufactures it in great quantity. La Com- pagnie des Verreries de la Loire produces annually 590,000 square yards of white, and 89,000 yards of colored glass. In the north of France 25 to 30 furnaces of 8 pots produce 4,500,000 to 5,000,000 square yards. Annual production value : 1873, $4,400,000. 1878, $3,000,000. Composition of French window glass : White sand 100 Sulphate of soda 35 to 40 Lime 25 to 35 Powdered coke 1.5 to 2.0 Binoxide manganese 0.5 Cullets in variable quantity, usually the same quantity as the sand. Arsenic is sometimes added to refine the glass ; vaporizing in the pot, it passes through the glass, stirring the mass, and refining it. Green sticks of wood are used for the same purpose, and, in Bohemia, a potato at the end of an iron bar. It is the steam in each case which escapes through the metal, as the melted glass is termed. A workman usually blows during 20 hours and averages from 16 to 17 per hour, making sheets 22" X 21". The cylinders are split with a diamond on the stick, guided CYLINDER GRINDER. 243 CYLINDER MILL. along the edge of a wooden rule laid inside the cylinder. See FLATTENING OVEN. Cyl'iii-der Grind'er. A machine tool with automatic traverse feed, for finishing cylindrical gages, such as those for gun-bores, etc. See CY- LINDRICAL GAGE. Cyl'in-der LuHbri-ca-tor. An apparatus for supplying a regulated and constant quantity of oil Fig. 766. to a cylinder. The cup being empty and the valves closed, the top is removed and the cup filled with oil up to the hole in the central pipe. The cover replaced and the steam valve opened, the con- densation of steam in the chamber above the oil, and collecting be- neath it, causes the overflow of the oil down the central pipe to the cylinder. Adjustment of the pipe vertically increases or diminishes the size of the chamber of condensation, and so regulates the quan- tity of oil passing to the cylinder. Cylinder Lubricator. Cyl'in-der Mill. A grinding mill in which' the action of rollers is substituted for that of face stones. (Milling.) The cylinder or roller mill, the Wal- zenmuhle of the Hungarians, consists of two small parallel horizontal steel or porcelain cylinders placed near to each other, arranged for adjustment and revolving from above towards each other. In the great mill of Pesth the rollers are about 5" in diameter, the surfaces of some having sharp lon- gitudinal furrows. Fig. 767 shows a mill with three pairs of rollers and an F - - fi ~ intervening space between the pairs. The action depends upon the distance of the rollers from each other and the character of their surfaces. Smooth, and revolving with uniform speed, the action is to crush soft wheat or split hard Fig. 768. " Wegmann's Porcelain-cylinder Cylinder Grinding Mill. Mill. wheat into fragments ; or, if far apart, to split the berry lengthwise. ^ Smooth and revolvin^i'ith unequal velocities, the action is to mash the grain. Grooved cylinders, with equal velocity, indent and crack the grain ; with unequal velocities tear it. The product is not heated ; no dust Hour is produced. In the Pesth mill the wheat, before attaining its last disinte- gration, passes between from 18 to 24 pairs of rollers. Its effect is a grade between high milling and low milling (which see). It is claimed to render grits and middling purifiers un- necessary. That it is impossible to injure the quality of the flour in milling. To secure a larger proportion of clean, pure flour. Fig. 768 is a sectional view of Wegmaiui'f porcelain-cylin- der mill, aa are the feed cylinders ; bb, the porcelain cylin-. ders : cc, scrapers with glass edges to clean the cylinders. Fig. 769. Fig. 770. Buchkolz Cylinder Grinding and Boltin See also GRITS MILL. Figs. 769, 770, show the Bmhholz roller mill. The cylinders revolve with unequal velocity and are all set in motion by a single large cog-wheel M. The pointed and purified grain is fed in between the highest pair of roll- ers L L, to be cracked, as it passes through, into coarse fragments, and more or less flour, grits, and bran, which are received upon the in- clined shaking-sieve N, where they are sorted ; the grits and fine flour passing through to the trough P, to be discharged into the upright receiver K. The groats and bran pass on to the next pair of rollers, to be further reduced to finer groats, grits, flour, and bran. Falling upon the second sieve the flour and grits pass through to the trough P, while the bran and groats pass on to the next pair of rollers, and so on until the groats having been reduced to grits and flour, all the bran is collected in T T, and all the flour and grits in 5 S. The screw conducts the flour and grits to a bolt, where the flour is bolted off, and the remaining grits graded in the centrifugal machine. Beyer , * " Technologists, ! ' xxxix. 348. The whole system of mill- ing has undergone great al- Buchholz Roller Grinding Mill. terations within a few years (End View.) past, and the new processes, which have given a name (new process) to the flour produced are largely used at the prin- cipal flour centers of the United States, Minneapolis, for ex- ample. Some of these improvements concern the method of grinding, high or low ; others the principle of grinding, at- CYLINDRICAL GAGE. 244 DADO PLANE. trition (stones), or mashing (rollers); others the mode of j handling the result, bolting and purifying. Cy-lin'dri-cal Gage. A gage for measuring Fig 772. the external or internal diameter of cylin- ders. The plan was initiated by Whit- worth, of England, and the system is often referred to under his name a s ' Whitworth " gages. They are made in sets, arranged in a box, of sizes from -j'g" to 2", varying by sixteenths of an inch. They consist of steel cylinders and rings hard- ened and ground very accurately to standard sizes. These fit into each other. The first is used for measuring the size of holes, and the last for measuring the outside of cylindrical objects, and they are called internal and >.<- ternal cylindrical gages. They are generally used as standards alone, from which other tools and gages are made of the proper size. Cy-liii'dri-cal Glass. 1. A form of glass made to correct astigmatism ; i. ris E-vac'u-a-tor. (Surgical.) An in- strument for removing powder and fragments of calculi after crushing, in the operation of lithot- rity. The following may be found on pp. 44, 45, Part III., Tie- mann's " Armamentarium Chirurgicitm " : Nelaton's evacuating apparatus. Van Buren's debris syringe. Glover's evacuating apparatus. Tiemann's debris tube and obturator. Van Burni's evacuating catheter. Tiemann's double current catheter. Nott's double current catheter. See also SYRINGES in same work. See also CHIP SYRINGE, supra and list under SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS. De-carco-ma'nie. The art of ornamenting by transfer. De-can'ter. 1. An apparatus designed by Evrard, of St. Etienne, for sorting the tailings of coal washings. AHhan's report in Group I., " Centennial Exhibi- tion Report," * vol. iii., p. 297. 2. A glass bottle to contain wine at table. 3. An apparatus for transfusion of wine. The machine by Tricout &Co., of Reims, is constructed of unoxdizable material, and, being for the champagne cel- lar, operates without the loss of gas. A machine with 4 faucets operates on 1,500 pint bottles per day. The full bot- tles being beneath and the empty ones above, a turn of the handles reverses the relative position, and the wine passes into the other bottles. See Fig. 787. DECAPITATING HOOK. 248 DEEP WATER BOTTLE. Fig. 790. Deck B'ock. Machine a Transvaser. De-cap'i-ta'ting Hook. (Surgical.) A curved instrument, sharp in the concave, for beheading the fetus in cases of obstructed labor. Fig. 527, Part III., Tiemann's "Armam. Chirurgicum." Dec'i-mal Meas'ur-ing Ma-chine'. A lever scale in which the weight and the object weighed are as 1 : 10. The bascule-dec imale is much used in France. Made by Paupier, of Paris ; Duru, of Bordeaux. Ken, Br * "Engineer," 1 xliii. 162. Deck Block. (Nautical.) One attached to the deck, as in the illustration, in which a small block is pivoted to a base-piece, which is bolted to the deck. Other deck blocks are connected by beckets to deck-hooks, or by hooks to deck-eyes. Deck Hoist'ing E n ' g i n e. (Nautical.) A hoisting apparatus on deck, used for getting in and out cargo and stores, getting guns, etc., aboard. It is also used on the deck of a lighter for pile-driving, or snag-lifting. As shown, Fig. 790, it is intended for working from two different points. The drums are worked independently of each other by friction, and the operations of hoisting, lowering, and stop- ping are controlled by the use of levers on the side of the engine, no foot-brake being needed. Deck Pipe. One lead- ing through a deck, affording a passage for a smoke-pipe, wind-sail, etc. Deck Pump. One ar- ranged to screw into a me- tallic deck-plate when r e - quired for use, and to un- ship the whole working gear when not required ; a cap covering the opening in the plate, and leaving the deck perfectly clear. Deck Pipes. a. Plain deck pipe. b. Water deck pipe. Bacon's Deck-hoisting Engine, De-com-pos'ing Fur'nace. A chemical fur- nace. Used in the soda industry in decomposing chloride of sodium with sulphuric acid. Jones if Walsh's decomposing furnace, Middlesborough, England. Paper read before Newcastle Chemical Society, March 23, 1876. Reported in "Scientific American Sup.," 305. See also Professor Jenkins's Report, "Paris Exposition Reports,'" 1878, iv., pp. 44 et seq. De-cor'ti-ca'tor. An instrument or machine for removing the skin, such as the bran of wheat or other grain ; the surplus bark or moss from neg- lected fruit-trees, etc. Glove and bow, Sabate, * "Scientific American,' 1 ' xxxvi. 182. De-coy'. When artificial, a wooden, tin, or real-plumaged bird to induce wild birds to settle within range of the ambushed gunner. Ducks, brants, pigeon, plover, curlew, snipe, are among the commoner kinds. Decoy duck, Redmond * "Scientific American,'' xli. 247. Deep Sea Ther-mom'e-ter. One for ascer- taining the temperature of the sea at any required depth. It has in some respects the features of a sounding instrument, as the knowledge of the depth is one part of the problem. See SOUNDING APPARATUS, pp. 2247-2249, " Mech. Diet." The thermometer is contained in a heavy brass frame, finished at the bottom by a propeller-like spiral fan. The fan revolves as it passes through the water, and a registering device put in motion. The required depth being reached, the motion is stopped, by which action the thermometer is turned over and the temperature registered. Subject discussed in a paper by Dr. Mann, read before the Society of Arts, and reproduced in " Scientific American Sup- plement," 934, 935. Net*retti if Zambra . . * "Scientific American,'' xxxix. 83. Deep Wa'ter Bot'tle. A bottle for fetching up sea-water from determinate depths to ascertain its saltness, aerial contents, and temperature. Four Swedish instruments for this purpose were shown at the Philadelphia Exhibition in 1876. They are all grounded on the same principle. The water-specimen is drawn up in a cylindrical vessel, the walls of which form a separate piece, which, while the instrument is sinking in the water, is raised above the bottom and top of the vessel, but falls and unites with these at the depth from which the sample is required. Thus during the descent the water passes freely through the cylinder, but at the depth required the differ- ent parts of the vessel come together and inclose therein the water, which is thus obtained altogether unmixed with the water of the upper strata. The instrument of Ekman of Stockholm, is shown in Fig. 791. a is the open cylinder, sliding on two bars b b : before the instrument is immersed in the water, the cylinder is raised and suspended by the hook c. Attached to the cylin- ' der is a horizontal flange, rf d, the size of which is so calcu- i lated, that its resistance against the water, when the instru- DEEP-WATER BOTTLE. 249 DENSIMETER. ment is descending at the rate of about 6 decimeters per second, is equal to the combined weight of the flange anc cylinder. As the instrument really sinks faster than that, the cylin- der, as soon as the descent begins, is immediately raised somewhat more, and the hook c falls aside. The cylinder nevertheless still continues raised in consequence of the water's resistance to the flange, as long as the instrument continues to sink ; but as soon as the line to which it is fastened is hauled in, the cylinder falls. Its under and upper (down-turned) edges then enter into the ring- shaped grooves m m and n n in the bottom and top, which are filled with a compound of wax and tallow, in which marks have been previously made with the cylinder. The cylinder contains the last body of water which oc- cupied it ; that at the level where its downward course was arrested. Def'e-ca'tor. An appa- ratus for removing the fecu- lencies of juices and sirups. See p. 683, " Mech. Diet." Vibrans (sucre). " Technologiste," xxxvii. 323. Fig. 791. 2^V\_JE? * s '. The gears C C and D D are loosely set on the shaft F. The gear marked E, enters into C and D, and is loose on a stud which is fastened to the shaft F. The shaft carrying the pulley A has upon its end a small gear (not Mown in the engraving) which communicate! motion to the Fig 819. Weaver's Differential Cfovernor. gears C C. Upon the end of the shaft carrying the pulley B is a similar small gear (not shown in the engraving), which gives motion to the gears D D. Motion is communicated to pulleys A and B by a belt running in the direction indicated by the arrows. On the lower end of the governor shaft, G, is a small gear, which receives its motion from the gear D. 17 When the belt is running in the center of the two pulleys A and B, the speed of both is the same, as their diameter in the center of face is the same. Consequently C C and D D run at the same speed, and have an equal action on the gear E : and hence the stud upon which the gear E revolves is held stationary. Now, upon the addition of a load, the speed will be checked, and the balls of the governor will fall. By this act, the belt on pulley A is, by proper connections, moved towards the larger end of the cone, thus causing the gears, C Cand D D, to revolve with unequal velocity. This mo- tion of the gears causes the gear E to be carried around on the gears C C, which, by means of connections with the shaft, opens the gate. Upon the decrease of the load, this operation is reversed, and the gate shut. The purpose of the lever H is to throw the governor out of gear by means of the flange O, and tha clutch /. The flange is held out of gear by the latch marked S. The object of this arrangement is to enable one to hoist the gate, and when the proper speed is attained to throw the governor into gear by lifting the latch S. Dif'fer-en'tial Move'ment. For the princi- ples and illustrative instances of the transference of a movement at different rates in other directions, conversion of movements, etc., see "Differential," Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufac- tures,'" Paris, 1877, vol. i. Dif'fer-en'tial Press'ure Reg'u-la'tor. A contrivance to enable steam to be taken from a Fig. 820. Hand's Differential Pressure Regulator. boiler or steam-pipe at any initial pressure and de- livered equally at any pressure for which it is set Steam is taken from pipe A and passes Fig. 821. to the chamber where it acts equally upon the apposed surfaces of B and C, being so far balanced. The steam, however, passes by duct D beneath the piston Cand exerts an upward pressure ; this is balanced by the weight on the lever which tends to de- press C. If the steam pressure should rise above that for which the lever ball is ad- justed, the steam will raise Cand partially close duct D, so that the quantity of steam passing to the object to be heated is di- minished in proportion to its increased pressure and heat. Dif'fer-en'tial Pulley Block. Fig. 821 show the Moore's im- proved form of differential pulley block as manufactured by the Prov- idence Tool Co. It has the following features : The lifted weight cannot run down of itself when suspended ; both chains take an equal share of the load, so that the block hangs plumb ; a hook can be attached to each end of the lifting chain so that when one load is raised the -^^ other hook is in position ready for rj ifferential Pul , Work - ley Block. Weston Western , . . Weston ..... * "Min. If Scientific Press," xxxvi. 226. Cherry ..... * "Engineer," xlii. 33. Differ-en'tial Pump. In Davey's steam pump (Hathorn, Davis and Davey, Leeds, Eng- land), the slide valve derives its motion both from the main cross head and from a rod connected with a * "Iron Age," xxi., Jan. 17, p. 1. * "Scientific American," xlii. 851. DIFFERENTIAL PUMP. 258 DILATOR. cataract piston moving with a uniform velocity, the two motions being so connected that the cut-off de- pends upon the velocity of motion of the main cross-head in other words, upon the resistance encountered or work to be done by the piston. In the differential pumping engine the cataract piston is connected with a subsidiary steam piston working in a separate cylinder fitted with a small slide valve. The invention is shown and described in "frit nt ific American Slip." 1 . . * 2369. Hat/writ, Dni'is If C'o.,Br. . . * "Engineering," 1 xxvi. 197. Dif'fer-en'tial Ratch'et Brace. One on the principle of the differential screw (Fig. 1649, p. 701, "Mech. Diet.") in which while the bit rotates by impulses in one direction, it is ad- vanced in the line of its axis at each revolution in a degree the difference in the pitch of the two screws. Fig. 822. Differential Rac/iet Brace. See also RATCHET-BRACE, RATCHET-DRILL, p. 1882, "Mech. Diet." Dif'fer-en'tial Reg'u-la'tor. (Electricity.) A means of regulating an arc voltaic light, in a polvphote arrangement, by the differential action of the main current that produces the voltaic arc and of a highly resistant derivation established be- tween the two carbons ; thus, their distance apart depends both on the intensity of the current and on the difference of potential at the base of the two carbons ; and equilibrium is established for each lamp, when the intensity and the difference of po- tential have reached the point requisite for the good working of the lamp. "Electrician." The Siemens' differential lamp has two solenoids that work on one rod. The Brush and the Weston have one electro-magnet on which are coiled two wires that act in inverse directions. Dif'fer-en'tial Screw Pipe Joint. A pipe 003 joint, the invention of M. Brurry, of St. Gallen, Switzerland. The ends of the pipes to be connected are threaded with screws of a different pitch and respectively right _. , . . and left handed. A Screw Pipe Joint. ^^ correspond . ingly threaded, screws on to them simultaneously and draws them together with great force. Bourry, Switz. . . * "Engineering," xxiii. 388. * "Scientific American Sup.,''' 1272 invented by Graham to ascertain the rate at which diffusion of gases among one another takes place. A glass tube of \" caliber, 1' in Fig. ^-1. length, is stopped at one end with a po- rous plug of gypsum or graphite. The tube is filled with hydrogen, for instance, the open end plunged in a bath of mer- cury, and diffusion takes place through the plug. The law that the diffusibility of gas is in proportion to the square root of their densities is illustrated by the intercharge of hydrogen and atmos- pheric air, at the expense of the latter, and the tube is eventually emptied. D i f-f u ' s i o n. ( Electricity. ) The power of a galvanic current to extend its influence in all di- rections, that influence being never limited to the two elec- trodes. Dif-fu'ser. A portion of the apparatus in Clamond's thermo-electric battery, con- sisting of a series of plates 'of copper placed all round the battery, and which effect the removal and rapid dispersion of the heat of the solderings by means of the great surface which they present. Described in "La Nature,'' 1880. Also in "Manufacturer and Builder,' 1 ' *xii. 86. Dif-fu'sion Pro'cess. The Roberts diffusion process is mentioned and illustrated on p. 702, " M-h. Diet." It has been very elaborately ex- tended in some European sucreries. See Roberts, Fr. . "Dept. Agric. Sp. Rep.," No. 28, Pi. XXTTI. Rotative, Ger. . " Dept. Agric. Sp. Rep.,'' So. 28, PI. XXIV. Continuous process. ' Scientific American Sup.," 4109. Dif'fer-en'tial Steth'o-scope. (Surgical.) A double stethoscope with elastic tubular branches and bells capable of being applied to different por- tions of the thorax so as to compare the indications at different points. Allison, Fig. 268, p. 83, Part I., Tiemann's "Armamentari- um Chirurgicum." Die Dog. A lathe dog adapted to hold a screw cutting die. Fig. 824. Dif-fu'si-om'e-ter. (Gas.) An instrument Die Uug. Dig'ger. A spading machine. Steam, Darby, Eng. . Knight, Br. . . . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 2458. . * "Engineer," xli. 394. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 83. * "Scientific American Sur.," 455. Dike. 1. A levee, bank, or dam. In Japan the dike is formed thus : A kind of strong cylin- drical bag, often eight yards and more in length, is made o1 split bamboo, with wide meshes, and is then filled up with big stones. A certain number of these bags, arranged on a wooden grating, form the foundation of the breakwaters or dikes. When the current is very strong, the ends of the bags are allowed to pass the gratings and to hang down into the sandy bed of the river ; gradually they sink deeper and deeper, and finally, being entirely buried in the mud, form a solid mooring. The object of the bags is to keep the stones together, till all the interstices are filled up with sand and mud, when the construction is transformed into a solid mole. The bamboo is said to be of great durability ; stems of this tree are also used for weirs and the temporary surroundings of breakwaters. The exterior parts of dikes are often covered with grass matting, so as to prevent their being washed away. 2. (Mining.) A wall-like mass of mineral mat- ter filling fissures. Di-la'tor. (Surgical.) An instrument for di tending a natural or artificial opening. The term is specially applied to certain instruments, but really includes speculi. See Figs. 5360-5363, p. 2260, " Mech. Diet." See also list of DILATORS, p. 703, Ibid., and LN- DOSCOPE, infra. The subject may be pursued by reference to the following figures in Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum ' : DILATOR. 259 DIPPER EAR-TRUMPET. Lithotrity .... Page 43, Part III. Meatus uriuarius . Pant- 2, i'art III. Esophageal .... Page 84, Part II. Krrtal Page 118. Part III. S] ..mite Page 14, Part V. Tracheal Pages 93-94, Part II. Tupelo Page 11, Supplement. Urethral Page 23, Part III, Uterine Pages 77-79, Part III., 13, Supp. Vaginal Page 66, Part III. Di-la'tiiig For'ceps. (Suryical.) Forceps the prongs of which are used to expand a passage or meatus. The cervix uteri dilator, for instance, Fig. 1220, p. 516, " Mech. Diet." et infra. Di-men'sion Saw'ing Ma-chine'. One adapted to sawing stuff to a given size for manufac- turing purposes. Kii'/mrifs" ... . . * "Engineering," xxv. 151. Preston's * "Scientific American,'' xl. 403 Di-men'sion Stone Work. (Masonry.) Said of masonry when the dimensions of the stones en- tering into it are fixed by specification. See list under MASONRY. Di-min'ish-iiig Valve. A valve to regulate high pressure steam so as to give out a constant and uniform supply of low pressure steam. The valve is shown by section in Fig. 825. Its operation is a> follows : A is the inlet for high pressure steam; BBis Diminishing Valve. a double beat valve, with a hole through the stalk C, and which shuts against the brass seatings SD : E is a connecting roil, si'cured with nuts and washers to the bottom of the valve BB, and also to the circular corrugated metallic disk F, which is held in position betwixt GG. Suppose there is a pressure of 60 Ibs. per square inch at the inlet A, and 10 Ibs. per square inch is required at the outlet K, set the weight H on the lever Jat 10 Ibs., which pressure will raise the corru- fpiteil metallic disk F, thereby shutting off the excess of steam over and above the 10 Ibs. required. The pressure at the outlet may be varied by moving the weight H on the lever J. Diii'gy. (Fishery.) A small fishing boat. See list under BOAT. Bert/ion's duplex dingy, Br. , . * " Engineer, 1 ' xlix. 438. Di-o-nys'i-us' Ear. An aural instrument for the very deaf. It has a capacious pavilion swiveled on a stand which is planted on the floor, and an elastic tube with a nozzle to be applied to the ear. Fig. 227, Part II., Tiemanris "Armam. CMmrgicum.'' Di-op'tric Ap'pa-ra'tus. The refraction sys- tem of lighting as distinguished from catoptric. See p. 704, "Mech. Diet." See also following in- stances : Little-Basses, Ceylon .... * "Sc. American Sup.," 945. For electric light, Henderson, Br * "Engineer," xlix. 246. Flashing apparatus, Little-Bas- ses light * "Engineering,"* xxii. 355. For light-ships, Sautter, Lemon- nier If Co., ?r. . . . * "Engineering,''' xxvii. 211. Revolving light, Sautter, Le- monnier, $ Co., Fr. . . * "Engineering,'' xxvii. 269. Di-or-rex'ine. An explosive analyzed by M. Fels. Consists of Picric acid, 1.5 Nitrate potassium . ) gQ Wood charcoal . . 7 Nitrate sodium . . ) Birch sawdust . . 10 Sulphur 12 Water 9.5 Made principally at Brunn and Trieste. "E/iif. # Mining Journal," xxviii 263. Another published recipe gives : Nitrate of potassium 50 Nitrate of sodium 25 Sulphur 12: Hard wood sawdust 13. 100 .; Di-plei'o-scope. An instrument invented by Bloxam to determine true meridian. Dipleido- scope, p. 704, "Meek. Diet." The instrument is represented in Fig. 826, the upper view showing it in position for observa- tion, and the lower a di- agram illustrating the principle of its opera- tion, which is founded on the property of pol- ished bodies, to reflect rays at an angle equal to that of their inci- dence. The instrument is o n a horizontal base, and its an- terior face is perpendicular to the meridian of the place. It is an equilateral glass prism with one face exposed, the others being opaque and constituting mirrors. D C Fig. 826. Dipleioscope. represents the exterior face of the instrument, and D B, B C are mirror planes. Suppose that the ray 1 striking DC at E be reflected towards the eye in the direction 1', the image of the sun will appear, as time lapses, to advance in the direc- tion from D towards C. The ray 2, traversing D C, is re- flected by CB on to D B, and thence towards the eye in the direction 2', and the second image of the sun has an appar- ent motion in the direction from C to D, and as the sun cul- minates the two images mutually approach. Supposing that the ray 1 shall arrive at 3 and the ray 2 impinge upon 4, it is evident that they will be each reflected in the common direction 3' and 4' ; that is to say, that the two images will coincide at the instant of true meridian. The moment passed, the rays continuing to advance, the im- ages again separate themselves, changing their relative posi- tions and mutually recede. Dip'lo-graph. A writing apparatus for the blind, invented by M. Recordon, of Geneva, Swit- zerland. Speaking in general terms, it has lettered disks rotated by the blind writer so as to bring letter after letter in position to imprint upon a paper which moves along before the writ- er. It is simple but clumsy, far inferior to a type writer, which it would be easy to furnish with raised letters on its plungers : it is hardly worthy of the praise bestowed by "La Nature.'' Shown in "Scientific American," 1 * xxxvii. 210. Dip'per. A form of dredging machine which has a large ladle on the end of a spar. This is plunged under water, scoops along the bottom, and then rises to the surface, and discharges its load into a lighter. The principle is shown in Fig. 1896, vol. i., "Mech. Diet.," though the machine there shown is not aquatic. Dip'per Ear'-trum'pet. An aural instrument with a dipper or cup-shaped pavilion. The sound waves entering the flaring mouth are reflected by the parabolic bottom towards a common center, and thence conducted by a tube to the ear. DIPPING WHEEL. 260 DISINTEGRATOR. Figs. 226, 226, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarium C/ti- rurgicuin.'' Dip'ping Wheel. (Fishing.) A contrivance used in Southern rivers to meet local demand for fish. Fig. 826. Dipping Wheel. It is set in the stream so as to be turned by the current, and has a number of dip-nets which raise the fish and tumble them out at the axis in the manner of the scoop-wheel. The inclination of the nets is toward the catching-box at the side. Dip'ping Vat. ( Ceramics.) The trough con- taining fine glazing slip in which biscuit ware is dipped to be covered with the material which, baked on, forms glaze. Dip Reg'u-la'tor. (Gas.) A device used in gas works for regulating the seal of the dip-pipes in the hydraulic main, and for drawing off the heavy tar from the bottom of the main without disturbing the seal. See Fig. 1660, p. 705, " Mech. Diet." Di-rect'-coup'led Steam En'gine. A form of engine in which the piston-rods of two engines are coupled directly to the same crank. The term is held to include the form shown in Fig. 713, in which the crank is rotated by the in- tervention of a triangular connecting-rod. Di-rect' Fire. 1. (Fire-arms.) That kind of action in which the plungers lie and strike the ig- nition in a line parallel with the axis of the barrel. 2. (Glass.) A glass furnace with no artificial draft other than derived from the chimney or stack. Di-rect' I'roii Pro'cess. A process for pro- curing directly from the ore an iron which is prac- tically pure chemically, although mechanically mixed with certain impurities. The Catalan, the most ancient of processes, employed to produce charcoal blooms. The modern direct methods arc discussed in a report by A. L. Holley, Group I., "Centennial Reports," vol iii., p. 40. Blair's and Siemens's processes are considered : " Blair's consists in deoxidizing the ores rapidly by gas and solid fuel, but without fusion, and then withdrawing the iron-sponge cold, without allowing it to tixidize again. The sponge is compressed and charged into the open-hearth furnace, or it is reheated or charged, or it is melted in a cu- pola and then treated in the open hearth . The best manner of using the sponge does not appear to be fully settled. Siemens's process consists in melting ore, together with coal and limestone enough to reduce it, in a rotating furnace, tapping off such slag as will run, squeezing the remaining slag out of the ball, and charging the ball hot in to the open- hearth furnace. The radical trouble in all direct processes has been the waste of iron in getting it from the sponge into merchantable form. The addition of the open-hearth pro- cess greatly relieves this difficulty. ' Holley. See also ROTATOR ; SPONGE. Di-rect'or. (Surgical.) A grooved instrument to serve as a guide to a knife, probe, scissors, bis- toury, herniatome. Exploring director Fig. 135, p. 44, Part I. Exploring director Fig. 184, p. 61, Part 1. Al/ni^/min's anal scissors director Fig. 589, p. 121, Part III. Anal and rectal director .... Fig. 591, p. 122, Part III. Ltvis, hernia director .... Fig. 629, p. 126, Part III. Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." Di-rect' Pro'cess. (Metal/imft/.) One by which a metal is obtained in working condition by a single process from the ore. It is said of malle- able iron obtained in loups for blooms by open- hearth process, in contradistinction to the double operation of obtaining pig iron by blast furnace and converting pig into malleable iron by puddling and hammering. See DIRKCT IRON PROCESS. Dis-gorg'er. (Fishing.) An implement used in discharging a gorged hook from the mouth or stomach of a fish. It is pushed down along the line, pushes back the barbed point, and thus assists in retracting the hook. Dis'iii-fect'ing Stove. A stove with adja- cent drying chamber provided with bars on which to hang the' clothes while exposing them to a heat of 159 C. In the Chemical Department of Public Health of Dresden the following is given as the relative value of the articles stated, as disinfectants, chloride of lime and sulphuric acid being 100 : Chloride of lime, with sulphuric acid 100 Chloride of lime, with sulphate of iron .... 99 Luder and Liedloff's powder 92 Carbolic acid disinfecting powder 85.6 Slaked lime 84.6 Alum 80.4 Sulphate of iron 76.7 Chloralum 74.0 Sulphate of magnesia 57.1 Permanganate of potash, with sulphuric acid . . 51.3 Dis-in'te-gra'tor. A pulverizing machine op- erating by percussion. The success of Carr's disintegrator, shown at Fig. 1665, p. 707, "Afcc/i. Diet ,'' has been the incentive to the invention of a large class of machines which go by the name of disin- tegrators, the common feature of which consists in pulveriz- ing by percussion, in the breaking by blows of rapidly re- volving arms, spokes, or cages, as distinct from the grinding by attrition between surfaces. The range of material to which the disintegrator has been Fig. 828. Vajiart Disintegrator. DISINTEGRATOR. 261 DISPLACEMENT APPARATUS. adapted has also been very much extended, and includes breaking and pulverizing Asphalt rock. Bark. Bones. Cement. Grain of all kinds. Graphite. Guanos. Minerals. Coal for patent fuel and coke Mixing chemicals, clays, col- making, ors, fertilizers, sugars. t'oprolites. Oilcake. Fertilizers. Ores. The Vapart disintegrator consists of three horizontal plat- forms keyed to a vertical shaft. The platforms are fitted with vanes placed radially. The shaft is supported below by a foot- step, and above by an ordinary bearing. The platforms are inclosed in a cast-iron cylindrical casing, fitted with two doors to give access to the interior. Between the platforms, and attached to the casing, hoppers are fixed to deliver the ma- terial to the center portion of the platforms, and opposite the platforms serrated segments of chilled cast iron or steel are attached. The shaft and platforms are made to revolvo rapidly, and the material is first delivered into the machine near the cen- ter of the first platform, where the velocity is low. It is then guided by the vane, and by centrifugal force is pro- jected violently against the first series of segments. The broken material falls by its own weight down the first hopper to the center of the second platform, and is again thrown violently against the second series of segments, and after- wards against the third, when the material finally falls out of the machine in a thoroughly disintegrated state. Two arms fixed under the last platform serve to keep the machine clear. The pulverized material can then be led away on a belt or otherwise, as may be convenient. \arious forms of disintegrators are found in the columns of '-Engineering," October 18, 1878; and proximate dates including : * Carr-s. * Wilson's, * Sheririii's, * Vapart. * Carter's, The machines of Hnwksley and of Western ({Co., of Lon- don, and Bir/wit 4- OV., of Paris, have been prominent at late expositions. Carr * -Sr. Am. Sup.," 2496. ' Coin. Trade Jour.,"' Br., June 8, 1878. Cnrt,r . . . .* 'Engineering," xxi. 135. * 'Sc. Am. Sup., 240. Sherwin, Br. . . * 'Engineer," xlv. 354. Vapart, Fr. . . . * ' Engineering,'' xxiii. 448. 'Iron Age,,'" xxii., Aug. 1, p. 1. * "Scientific American, xxxvii. 67. Disk An'vil. A strengthening plate or rein- Fig. 829. Fig.. 830. Disk Anvil. force placed inside the head of a cartridge to support the impact of the striking pin which explodes the fulminate. See also CUP AN- VIL. Disk Car'ri-er. (Dentistry.) A device for holding a cutting, grinding, or separating disk at the end of a handle while it is rotated by a flexible shaft driven by the dental engine. It is used in sepa- rating the teeth, cutting out lin- gual and buccal fissures, and fin- ishing fillings and rough surfaces. Disk Cut'ter. An instru- ment for cutting circles of thin glass for covers of microscopic objects on slides. A diamond is on the end of the arm', which is adjustable^ suit the ra- dius of glass cover required. See CIRCLE CUT- TER. Disk E-lec'trpde. (Electricity.) An elec- trode for telegraphic instruments in which the con- nection is secured by the contact of the peripheries of two disks, the axes of which are at right angles. Dr. Hickman's Disk Carrier. The contact is a mere point or dot. The disks are of brass with platinum wires let into grooves on their peripheries, the densely-drawn hard wire per- mitting a fine and small contact Gumming. See TELEGRAPH KEY ; also Fig. 847, p. 266, infra. Disk En'gine. A form of steam engine in- vented by Dakcyne in 1830. Improved by Bishop, Ericsson, and others. See Bishop, c, Fig. 1666, p. 708, "Mech. Diet.- (Wab- bling). Ericsson, A, B, same figure (revolving). Taylor and Davis, 1886, 1838. (Br. patents.) Gorsage, 1838. Geiss, 1870. See Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire," etc., tome iv., article " Machines a VapeurJ' Figs. 3644-3646. See also FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE, SIX-CYLINDER ENGINE. Disk Har'row. (Agric.) A harrow having a triangular frame, with a driver's seat mounted Fig. 831. Nishwitz's Disk Harrow. upon it, and carrying a number of sharp-edged and concave disks, set at such an angle in relation to the line of draft that in revolving they pulver- ize the soil, cutting, lifting, and turning it over in small furrows. A scraper is provided for each disk, so as to keep it constantly free from dirt. La Dow . . * "American Manuf.," July 16, 1880, p. 13. Fig. 832. Fowler's Disking Machine. Disk'ing Ma-chine'. (Agric.) A steam-cul- tivating implement to be drawn by an engine over sod or plowed sod, to renew the ground, or to pre- pare for seeding. Circular steel disks are pre- sented obliquely to the line of draft so as not merely to cut into the ground but make a slight furrow. Dis-place'ment Ap'pa-ra'tus. G u e r i n ' s continual displacement apparatus consists of a ver- tical series of vessels ; at bottom a flask in a sand bath, a percolator, receiver, and condenser, verti- cally in the order stated. The vapor of the lower member condenses in the upper one, is received in the next below it, and thence flows intermittingly into the percolator, from whence it reaches the flask at bottom. "Scientific American '' * xlii. 180. DISLOCATION APPARATUS. 262 DITCHING MACHINE. Dis'lo-ca'tion Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) This includes buudiiges, splints, apparatus for reducing, and fur maintaining restored parts in situ, and for prevcn ting recurrence. The figures refer to Tieman.ri's "Armamentarium Ckirur- gicum" 1'art IV. Ilumerus Figs. 55, 131. Clavicle Figs. 56, 150. Hip figs. 87-89, 132, 133. Knee Figs. 93, 146. Phalanges Figs. 134-137. Elbow Fig. 148. Radius and ulna Fig. 151. Dis-sect'ing Hook. A fine two-clawed hook used as a prehensor in imikiiig dissections. Fig. 833. Dissecting Hook. Dis-sect'ing In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) The list embraces a variety of instruments, post-mor- tem and dissecting, the larger number of which may be found under their specific titles. See list under SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS, infra and " Mech. Diet." Among them are the following : the figures refer to Tie- mann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum," Part I. Anatomical syringe .... Fig. 313. Cartilage knife Fig. 314. Dissecting hook Figs. 315,316. Grappling hook Fig. 318. Chain hook Figs. 317, 319. Reamer ......... Fig. 320. Rachitoine Fig. 321. Costotome Figs. 322, 323, 333. Scalpel Fig. 325. Brain knife Fig. 326. Euterotome Fig. 327. Calvarian hook Fig. 328. Saws Figs. 329, 332, 333. Hammer and chisel Figs. 330,331. Scissors Fig. 151. Dis-sect'ing Ta'ble. One with arrangements devised for the convenient presentation of the sub- ject, the disposition of the disjecta, etc. A table with arrangements for disposition of effluvia is shown in Laboulaye's ' Dictionnaire rles Arts el Manufacl.,''' Figs. 3630-3632, article "Insalubres,'' tome iv., ed. 1877. Mcllroy's table, shown at the Philadelphia Exposition, 1876, is of convenient size and height, is supported on a stem connecting with a scale beam in the stand, affording the means of weighing the subject ; it is dished to the center to collect the liquid of ablution or effusion ; has means for the exhibition of disinfectants, etc. Dis-sue'ing. ( Mining. ) Breaking away the rock from off the walls of a small and rich lode, in order that the ore may be moved without the ac- companying worthless gangue. Dis'tance Meas'ur-er. An angulometer, te- lemeter, etc. (which see) : The instrument invented by Lieutenant Unge of the Swed- ish service is a stop watch to measure the interval between flash and sound. The pointer is placed at XII., and when the flash is observed a button is pressed, and the pointer be- gins to traverse. When the sound is heard the knob is re- leased and the distance observed. The dial is divided into special peripheries according to the seasons. Distance indicator, Watkin . "Scientific Amer.,''' xxxvi. 22. See also TELEMETER, Figs. 6255, 6256, pp. 2513, 2514, "Mech. Diet." Dis-til'liiig Ap'pa-ra'tus. Baird's distilling apparatus for making potable water by condensa- tion of steam from the boiler is used on board ves- sels of the United States Navy. Fig. 834. It consists of an aerator, condenser, and filter. The aera- tor is at A ; the steam passing towards the coil draws in air at a number of circumferential holes, and the air and steam pass together into the flat coil of copper twined inside. Sea water enters the condenser fat Band passes off at E. The water of condensation then passes by pipe to a filter, F. of purified granulated animal charcoal to deprive it of organic matter and oils which come over with the steam. See also STILL, "J/ccA. Dice." Dis-trib'u- ting Ta'ble. A table on which let- ters are collected and from which they arc distrib- uted into mail bags suspended around it in a horse-shoe form, the distribu- tor standing in the middle. Fig. 835. Ditch Clean'- er. A square-end- ed scoop set at an angle with the handle to reach the bottom of a ditch while stand- ing on the surface of the ground. Two kinds are shown : one to push and the other to pull. Fig. 836. Ditch'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for digging or plowing ditches. Fig. 835. Band's Distilling Apparatus. Distributing Table. The ditching machine of Theodore F. Randolph is shown in Fig. 837. The digger share operates in the grooved periphery of a rotary flanged wheel, and has an adjust- ing attachment that regulates the depth of penetration. The flanged peripheries of the wheel penetrate and its rotation ele- vates the loosened soil, depositing it on the slide-way or apron that sheds it clear of the ditch on either side, optionally. A chisel- shaped cleaner attached to the slide - way works between the flanges of the wheel, cleansing it of its load, and guiding the dirt to the apron. The large machine requires an eighteen horse-power engine operate it : and it is calculated ] that it will dig eight cubic yards a minute in clay soil ; equal to a man's work for a day, per minute. The machine has adjustments for depth, and means for guiding under the control of the man who stands upon the platform. See also, Machine, Gonfllaz . . . . * "f-riftitific Amer.,'' xxxv. 159. Plow, locomotive, Buchanan * "Engineering,' 1 ' xxx. 166. Ditch Cleaners. DITCHING MACHINE. 263 DOCK. Fig. 837, Randolph's Ditching Machine. Plow, Snyder * " ScientificAm.,'' xxxviii. 185. Plow and scraper, railway * "Railroad Gaz.,'' xxiv. 513. Di-vid'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for divid- ing a circle, bar, or slip into equal parts. Used in graduating rules, scales, etc. See Mass. Institute Technology * "Scientific Am." xxxv. 195. Linear, Stevens Institute . *" Scientific Am. Sup,?' 704. P. Ditmovlin-Froment . . Wolcott Gibbs' report, "Vienna Exposition (1873) Reports," 1 vol. ii., F, p.'6 Perreaux 7'/>V/,-p 6. P. Dumoulin-Froment . , Prof. Barnard's report, "Paris Exjiosition Report," 1 1867, vol. Hi., p. 613. Perreaux Ibid., p. 613. Div'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. Sub-aqueous appurte- nances and machinery for the protection and assist- ance of divers. See Signaling apparatus. Protheroe, Br * "Engineering,"' xxiv. 127. * "Scientific Am. Sup.," 1478. Diving apparatus, Richardson * "Scientific Am. Sup.," 3848. Improvised apparatus, Magilalena River . . . * "Scientific Am. Sup.,'' 1952. Bell, article "Plongeur," Laboulaye's "Diet, des Arts et Manufactures," iv., ed. 1877 ; describing apparatus of: Smeaton. Cave. Rennie. Hallett if Williamson.* Coulomb. Dress, article "P/otifffiir,' 1 ' section "Scaphandres,'' Ibid , iv., ed. 1877 ; describing apparatus of : Leonardo ila Vinci. Hnnquayrol-Denayroiize.* Dean fy Siebf. Heinke. Bridge of Tarascon. See also Figs. 4272, p. 1923; 6025,6026, p 2437, "Mech. Diet." ; Figs. 359-361, pp. 155-157, Ibid. Di-vis'ion Cath'e-ter. (Surgical.) A double current catheter, allowing liquid to be injected and withdrawn by distinct ducts in the same instru- ment and simultaneously. Fig. 1190 e, p. 504, "Mech. Diet." Di-vis'ion Reg'u-l^'tor. (Electricity.) A regulator adapted to aHow several or many lights on one circuit. Usually called a polyphote or many- light regulator. They are of three kinds : Differential. Derivation. Fixed interval (Regulators a fcart fixe). See POLYPHOTE REGULATOR, and the above. Di-vul'sor. (Surgical.) An instrument to rend asunder the walls of a constricted passage. The urethral divulsor for obliterating strictures is the most notable instance. See STRICTURE DILATORS, Fig. 5995, "Mech. Diet." The term dilator in one sense includes divulsors and in another direction speciili ; the latter use being to expose, while in the former case it is to expand. Thompson's, Gouley's. and Hott't stricture divulsors are shown at Figs. 64, 67, 66, Part III., Tiemnnn's "Armamenta- rium C/iirurgicutn,'* in company with other instruments called dilators, but the use of which is practically the same. Anal divulsors and dilators on p. 119, Part III., Ibid. Dob'by Ma-chine'. ( Wearing. ) A loom for weaving fantastic patterns ; such a loom for instance may contain from 12 to 30 blades. The mechan- ical principle is similar to that of the Jacquard, of which it might be termed a simplification. In the dobby machine the pattern is obtained by means of little pegs, which according to the requirements are placed in the holes of the bars of a lath work. The bars correspond to the cards of the Jac- quard. Ainswortli's . . * "Scientific American Supplement," 3896. Dock. (Hydraulic Engineering.) a. ( Wet.) A basin to contain vessels for loading or discharge. b. (Dry.) An excavation into which a vessel is admitted, inclosed, and exposed by pumping out the water contained in the dock. A graving dock, Fig. 2308, " Mech. Diet." c. A caisson which is sunk in. position beneath a vessel and then floated therewith by pumping out the water contained in the caisson, Plate XIX., p. 884, " Mech. Diet." d. A depositing dock, which raises a vessel by means of sunken and subsequently floated caissons or camels and then shifts it to a staging which it may occupy for any required time, while the float- DOCK. 264 DOOR SPRING. ing apparatus repeats the process on other vessels. See DEPOSITING DOCK, supra. See the following references : Air cushion for dry dock . . . * " Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1328. Avonmouth, Bristol, Engl. . . " Van Nostr. Mag." xx. 179. * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1124. Ayr, Scotland * "Engineering,"' xxvii. 196, 242. Bombay " Princes " * "Engineering,' ' xxiv. 266. Clyde, (New) "Iron Age," xxi., May 9, p. 5. Dry Docks "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 2070. Ilolyhead Liverpool . . . Nicolaieff , Russia . Philadelphia, Crump . . . Portable dock-engine, Mundy Thames, " Victoria Extension . * "Engineer," 1. 86. . * "Sc. Amer.," xxxvii.150. . * "Engineer?' 1 xlvi. 64, 75. "Sc. Amer. Sup ,' 399, 661. "Iron Age," xvii., May 25, p. 15. . * "Iron Age,"' xix., May 10,1; xviii. Sept. 21,9. * "Engineer,'' xliv. 20 ; xlix. 457 ; 1. 10. * "Engineering," xxv. 246 * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1956. Tubular " Man. Sf B.," xviii. 180. Woolwich, " Royal Albert :> . . * " Sc. Amer. Sup.," 3838. Consult : " The Dockyards, Shipyards, and Marine of France." P. Barry. London, 1869. " The Naval Dry Docks of the United States. Charles B. Stuart. Illustrated with 24 fine steel engravings. New York, 1870. Dock Block. A tackle-block secured on a Fig. S38. Fig. 839. pump, for use when the major engine is not in op- eration ; or for specific purposes at any time ; fire, bilge-water, washing decks, etc. 'Engineer," xliii. 328. ' Engineer," xliv. 50. 'Engineer," xliii. 441. 'Sc. American," xxxvii. 83. 'Engineering," xxvi. 162. Door. See various references to doors and ad- juncts, as follows : 'Scientific American." xl. 198. ' Scientific Amer." xliii. 310. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 356. Kristin, Br * Gillett, Br * Lfupotd, Br * * Sulzer, Switz * Door bolt, Hoesly . . . Double, Brachmann . . Door-check, Collins . . . Perkins Door for fastening barn . Double-handle. Lock-nut. Harland, Br Door-knob, Whipple . . Door-knob screws . . . Door-spring, concealed. Barker .... Door-spring, Torsion rod. Gray "Iron Age," xxi., May 2, p. 42. Door Clamp. (Car.pen.tnj.) A bench and frame on which the various parts of a door are as- sembled and .then pushed together and held by clamps. 'Scientific Amer.," xl. 131. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 402. 'Engineer," xliv. 395. 'Scientific Amer." xxxv. 153. 'Scientific Amer." xxxvi. 275. "Iron Age," xix., May 17, p. 18. Dog Head. Dock Block. dock or wharf to change the Direc- tion of a rope passing to a cargo-lifting tackle. It has a universal ball-and-socket joint, to permit the block to swing in any direction. Dog'-Head. A hammer used by saw makers in stretching the blade, that is, in removing a ten- sion. The weight is about 3 pounds and the length 5". The handle, 14" long, stands at an angle of 85 with the body of the hammer. Its face is rounding and of an even sweep. Fig. 839. Do-mes'tic Mo'tor. One adapted for house- hold use, to run sewing or knitting-machines, pump water, etc. Many small forms of steam engines have been specially invented and offered for this purpose. Gas, hot-air, and caloric engines are specially well adapted. Hydraulic motors, operated by water from the mains, have an aptitude for this use. Also spring and electro-magnetic motors. See under the various heads. Also p. 2123, "Mech. Diet.,' 1 and list of 72 patents of SEWING-MACHINE MOTORS, on p. 2115, Ibid. fig. 841. See also " Revue Scientifique " Ti/son ...... * Ericsson ..... Domestic steam-engine. Landis ..... * Van Nostranrl's Mas;.," xxiii. 6. Ens:. $ Min. Jour.," xxvi. 365. Eng. If Min. Jour.," xxx. 91. Scientific American" xxxvi. 22. Dome'-top In'stru-ment. (Surgical.) Said of hollow instruments of introduction, such as a speculum or trocar, which has a rounded end. Don'key Pump. A supplementary steam- Door, Sash, and Blind Clamp. each end of the tenon of each rail, the side-pressure being, given by treadle while the end-pressure is given by hand. Door Piece. The valve chamber of the stock of a Cornish pump-lift. A section containing a door or cover, which may be re- moved to admit examina- tion of the valve and seal, or removal for repairs. See Fig. 1467, page 626, " Mech. Diet." Door Rel'ish-ing Ma- chine'. (Carpentry.} A machine for trimming a tenon. See SASH RELISH- ING MACHINE. Door Spring. An at- tachment to a door to close it. In some cases the spring operates to keep it open after it has passed 90 of rotation on its hinges. See BUTT HINGE. One form of door-spring is shown at Fig. 1688, p. 721, "Mech. Diet:' Six other forms are shown in Fig. 842, pneumatic, spiral, and caoutchouc, arranged in various forms. Door Piece. DOOR SPRING. 265 DOUBLE CURRENT CATHETER. Door Spring. a. " Boss " door-spring. b. Snbin's lever door-spring, with a maximum when the door is closed. c. " A. B. C.,' : india-rubber door-spi'ing. fl. "Centennial." e. Geer's air-cushion door-spring ; the greatest pressure at the point of closure. f. " Hercules " door-spring ; the same action as the pre- vious one, but not pneumatic. Dor'mant Scales. Warehouse scales, the platform of which is let in even with the floor, so as to roll a truck upon them. Do'ry. (Fishing.) A small flat-bottomed fish- ing boat. Do-sim'e-ter. An instrument for measuring prescribed quantities. The term is frequently ap- plied to a drop-meter such as that of Prof. Thurstou, which consists of a steel wire tapered to a r . ,, c 1 :,, 0,10 point and affording a means of obtaining small drops of equal quantity. The dosimeter, Fig. 843, is a glass tube with a taperend and graduated to indicate drops, min- ims, and other measures according to the require- ments of any given purpose or capacity. In the top is fixed a syringe with a rod which has an adjustable stop to limit the stroke of the piston to any required extent. By this means any de- sired quantity may be drawn into the syringe and the traverse of the piston is watched to ob- serve the quantity ejected if it be less than the whole. See BURETTE, PIPETTE, DROP METER. Dou'ble Act'ing Pump. One which is effective at each stroke, to and fro. See references : Amos if Smith, Br. * "Engineering," xxx. 462. Citrr . . . . *"Manuf. If Builder," x\\. US. Dou'ble Bass. (Music.) A stringed musical instrument, the largest of its class. It has three strings tuned in 5ths, or four strings tuned in 4ths. The compass is two octaves and a quarter. To this instrument belong the lowest sounds in the harmony. Dou'ble Bas-soonJ. (Mimic.) A wind musical instrument of lowest pitch in its class. A double reed instrument which bears the same relation to the bassoon that the Colmar ' s double-bass does to the violoncello. Dosimeter. Dou'ble Beam Bal'ance. One with two beams graduated in two systems ; the postal bal- ance, for instances, in grams and ounces : the creamery or dairy balance for weighing successive portions of cream or milk at a single draft ; the furnace scale for weighing respective portions of ore, limestone, and coke at a single draft. See under the above heads. Dou'ble Bell Pipe. One with a cup-shaped enlargement at each end to receive the ends of those in line with it. See h in BEND. Dou'ble Blast Forge. One with two tuyeres acting upon the same bed of coals. Enjer, Paris. Dou'ble Bo'gie. One with a bogie at each end. A DOUBLE ENDER. See BACK TRUCK LOCOMO- TIVE, Fig. 168, supra. Car, Midland Railway, Br. * "Engineering,'' xxi. 533. Locomotive, Fairtee ... * " Scientific American Sup..'' 72. * Anderson's report, "Paris Ex- position (1878) Reports." vol. iv., p. 452. < Dou'ble Bor'ing Ma-chine'. A machine with two augers, bits, drills, as the case may be. Boring and facing, Bede et Cie., Fr. . * "Engineer,'' xli. 5. See also DOUBLE-TRAVERSE DRILL, infra ; MULTIPLE DRILL, etc. Dou'ble Cal'i-pers. Two calipers upon the Fig. 844. u Double Calipers. same bar graduated respectively on each side of the central zero abutment. Useful for making two separate measurements of an object, as the width and thickness of a quadri- lateral steel bar. Dou'ble Car'-axle Lathe. A lathe in which the axle is passed through the center-head and turns on dead centers at the respective ends. Each end of the axle is operated upon at the same time and finished without turning end for end. An equalizing driver attached to the side of the driving wheel distributes the driving force uniformly through the whole axle, overcoming the tendency to lateral strain. Changes of feed for roughing and finishing without changing wheels. Fig. 845. Dou'ble Coil Garva-nom'e-ter. A refine- ment of the astatic galvanometer, invented by Sir William Thomson. It has two coils, one above the other, exactly alike in their effect upon the compass- needle, situated in the middle of each. A bar magnet above serves to give direction to the needles and may be moved up and down so as to nearly neutralize terrestial magnetism if desired. The connections at the base serve to keep the coils in combination, either as acting together or counteracting one an- other. Used in submarine telegraphing. "Manufacturer and. Builder " ..... * xi. 276. Dou'ble-cone Lamp. A lamp the glass of which consists of a cylindrical equatorial zone, and conico-frustal zones above and below. Dou'ble-cone Re-flect'or. A form of ven- tilating reflector for the ceilings of auditoriums. Made in various sizes, diameter 25" and upward, with from 6 to 150 burners. Fig. 846. Dou'ble Con-nect'er. (Electricity.) A con- necter with two binding screws for 'as many wires. Dou'ble Cur'reiit Cath'e-ter. (Surgical.) A catheter with two tubes or a divisional tube, so DOUBLE CURRENT CATHETER. 26G DOUBLE DOOR. Fig. 845. Niles' Double Car-axle Lathe. as to permit a current to be injected into the blad- der through one duct, while the washing of the bladder passes out through the other duct. See c, Fig. 846. Double-cone Reflector. Fig. 1 190, p. 504, "Medi. Diet:' Also known as a Division Catheter. See also DEBRIS EVACUATOR. Dou'ble Cur'rent Key. (Electricity.} A tel- egraph key with points or contacts at each end, the two legs being insulated and a third (middle) con- tact being connected with the base. For data see DISK ELECTHODE. Fig. S47. axes at right angles to each other ami having fine platinum wire inserted in grooves on the peripheries. Kisc/i * " Telegraph Journal," 1 vii. 93. Dou'ble Cut Saw. A mill saw having one half the teeth turned towards one end of the saw and the other half the other way, each way from the center. Intended to cut equally up and down and discharge the saw-dust on top and bottom. The latter, of course, is not an object but an inci- dent. Davis. Dou'ble Cut'ting-off Ma-chine'. 1 . A two- headed lathe for railway axles and shafts up to 8" diameter. Tool slides work at either end .simulta- neously, feeding together or separately. 2. A double cut-off saw, used by box-makers to square off both ends of dimension stuff at the same time. Dou'ble Deck'er. Said of two-story or two- tier arrangements. . A ship with two decks above the water-line. b. A railway car or street car with seats on the roof. Common in Europe. c. A hog or sheep car with two decks. d. A steam-boiler furnace with two tiers of firing chambers. Fig. 848- Double Current key. Of the two points with which the ends of the key connect, one leads to a battery with its positive pole to the line and the other to the corresponding negative pole. The right hand of the key (as shown) being depressed, makes a contact with the point below, and the current passes (say from the positive of the battery) through these contacting points, the trunnions of the key and to the base. When the lever is raised, the reversed current from the negative of the battery flows through the other arm of the key to line by the middle connection. The three points on the base are insulated from each other and are connected only by the depressing and raising of the key lever The special device shown is that of Oumrnings, Nichols' Double Edger. ., .. . Dou'ble Door. a. A door in two portions, kev lever The special device shown is that o umnnngs, i;j;^, ir,rl ^n,ln,,f1,- which has contacting disks for contact, the disks being on upper and lower, swinging or sliding independent!) . DOUBLE DOOR. 267 DOUBLE-JAW VISE. used in express and mail cars. A pair of half doors in fact. /). A pair of doors swinging or sliding, mutually approaching or receding, to close or open the door- way. Dou'ble Edg'ing Ma-chine'. 1. (Wood Wnrk-itKj.} A machine having a pair of circular rip saws at a regulatable distance apart, to dress both edges of a hoard at once. The Nichols' double edge r is particularly designed for edg- ing boards in saw-mills, and sawing plank and boards from the mill into joists, scantling. Mooring, battens, shingle- lath, etc. Fig. 848. It has a feed roll in front, composed of small saws and ((.liars alternately, and has a fluted roll behind the saw>, over which is a weighted flanged press-roll, which serves to keep the board straight. For edging, one saw is made sta- tionary and the oilier saw adjusted to any width. For rip- ping, an adjustable gage is provided with a lever running to the operator and a screw on the front feed-roll, which keeps the stuff to the itage. 'Iron Aue " * xx., November 22, p. 1. 2. (Sheet Metal Working.) A machine for fold- ing the edges of blanks for pieced tin-ware prepara- tory to seaming. It is arranged to fold the paral- lel edges of rectangular blanks to form cans from 6" to 22" in length". Dou'ble End'er. 1. (Wood Workint/.) A cross-cut sawing machine, which has a pair of cir- cular saws at a regulatable distance apart to cut off both ends of a hoard at once. Staves are brought to a length in a similar manner by sawing both ends. The box-board double cut-off saw machine of Richardson, Mfrriam, if Co. is for equalizing stuff, squaring off both end- of box stuff at the same time. It has a frame with a light sliding carriage OH which the stuff is fed to the pair of circular saws which are upon the same arbor but regulatable as to distance apav r . 2. A file with two points, either end capable of being placed in the handle. 3. (Nautical.) A ship capable of moving in ei- ther direction, having bow and rudder at each end. A frequent form in ferry-boats. On double-ender ships "Engineer," xli. 431. 4. (Railway.) A locomotive with -pilot at each end. A switching locomotive. See BACK-TRUCK LOCOMOTIVE, Fig. 168, p. 65, supra. Anderson's report, " Paris Exposition, 1878. Rep.," *iv. 452. "Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' . * 72. Dou'ble-faced Ham'mer. 1. An engineer's hammer, with two flat faces; as distinguished from the hammer with one face and one peen. The lat- ter may be square, cross, or pointed. 2. The stonemason's double-faced hammer has two square faces ; is a heavy tool, weighing from 20 to 30 pounds, and is used in the quarry in the roughest work. Dou'ble-face Mil'ling Ma-chine'. A ma- chine tool suitable for milling pieces that have pivots on opposite sides, such as main-spring stirrups or swivels for guns. A geared shaft, with cone pulley of three grades, drives a face-plate which revolves the piece to be finished. The feed is accomplished by means of rack, pinion, and levers, which move the foot-stock spindle, carry- ing one mill against the revolving- piece, and press the pirfce against a mill held in the head-stock. Pratt f jr Whitney. Dou'ble-face Valve. One- coming fairly against a seat on each side of it. The valve jams between two faces, an element of security j) ou blf.face Valve. and support. (Section.) Dou'ble Fire'-cock. One having two connec- tions, bv Y-branch, for two hose, operated by a sin- gle screw valve. Dou'ble Fluid Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One having the elements in different fluids to secure depolarization. A constant battery, which see. Becquercl's oxygen jar battery was the first to use two liquids, or a porous cell, and was, the, first constant battery. See BECQUEREL BATTERY. Dou'ble Fur'nace Boil'er. One having two firing chambers, either double-tier, parallel, or at opposite ends. Roivan, Br * "Engitmr," xliv. 413. .Saltaire Mills, Br * "Engineer,'' xli. 274. Dou'ble-fur'row Plow. (Agric.) One for plowing two furrows at once. A GANG PLOW ; the invention of Lord Somerville, the latter portion of Fig. 850. British Double-furrow Plow. the last century, but much improved of late. The original form was of two plows locked in parallel position. That form is scarcely found now, except an implement made at Nancy, France. Dou'ble-gate Valve. A valve for gas or wa- ter mains, having on each side a face which fits against its own seat. I shell. See DOUBLE-FACE VALVE. Dou'bled Glass. (Glass.) A glass made of several colors superposed. See FLASHED GLASS. " It is worked in a different manner from plain glass. Col- ored glass when first made is generally drawn into sticks of a certain length and annealed. Suppose we now wish to blow an article made of white glass with a thin sheet of outside colored glass. A stick of colored glass is taken and heated gradually ; the workman now takes up this stick on the end of his pouty and heats the glass in the glory-hole. When this is sufficiently plastic a quantity is cut off and at- tached to a blow-pipe also having a small lump of hot glass at its end. The colored lump is now heated again and blown in the usual way into a hollow ball. This ball is opened and formed into the shape of a cup. In the mean time an- other workman has gathered and blown another sphere of white glass of a suitable size. This sphere is now put into the cup-shaped colored glass, blown, and rubbed together while hot so as to make them adhere. We now have a ball of white glass inside and colored glass outside. This may be finished to any shape desired, in the usual way, with molds or tools. ' Colnc. Dou'ble Har-poon' Fork. A hay-elevating fork having two harpoons forming a pj-shaped im- plement with barbs on the points. A duplication of the harpoon fork, Fig. 2409, p. 1065, " Mech. Diet." Dou'ble Hook. (Surgical.) a. A tenaculum with two claws. l>. A two-clawed hook for fixing the eye during operation. Double tenaculum, Fig. 79, Part II., Tie- mann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." c. A prehensile two-armed instrument with two claws on each arm to grasp the eye in operation for extirpation. Fig. 78, Ibid. d. See, also, Extirpation and Fixation Forceps, Ibid., p. 25, Part II. Dou'ble Im'age Prism. (Optics.) A prism of Iceland spar giving a double image of the object of complementary tints, and also used by revolving the images to measure the angle of crystals exam- ined under the microscope. Dou'ble-jaw Vise. A vise having two pairs of jaws, either of which may be brought into play. See ADJUSTABLE VISE, p. 5. * "Engineer " xlii. 182. DOUBLE-LENS LANTERN. 268 DOUBLE-TEA VERSE DRILL. One having a lens Fig. 851. Double-lens Lantern. Dou'ble-leiis Lan'tern. on opposite sides to throw rays in opposite directions. Used as a tail side-light for trains, throwing light forward and aft. Dou'ble-lip Safe'ty Valve. One with two circular concentric ave- nues of egress for the steam as the valve rises. Dou'ble-nose Piece. (Optics.) A means for using two object-glasses without unscrewing, whereby either is brought into the optic axis of the instrument. Dou'ble P i s't o n Baranced En'gine. A form of engine in which two pistons of equal area reciprocate in a cylinder, mutually advancing and retreating. See next arti- cle. Dou'ble Pis'ton En'gine. One having a pair of pistons mutually advancing and retreating in the same cylinder,* each traversing half the length of the cylinder, the steam being alternately admitted between the pistons, to force them apart ; and at their ends to force them together. W ells. "Manufacturer and Builder '' * xi. 49. See also BALANCED ENGINE. Dou'ble Pit'man Press. A heavy stamping press for sheet-metal work, the slide being operated by two pitmaus having eccentric connection with the same shaft. A measure of strength and steadiness. Dou'ble Plan'ing Ma-chine'. (Metal Work- ing.) A large planing machine having two pairs of independent heads on opposite cross-slides movable to any position on the bed. The two slides swivel to any angle and have variable automatic feed in all directions. The movement of the table is by screw and gearing driven by two belts separately shifted. Dou'ble Plate Wheel. (Railway.) A car wheel which has two plates connecting the hub and the rim. The plates are generally corrugated in cast car-wheels, but are flat in the compound wheels. The Washburn wheel has a double corrugated plate next to the hub, about half way to the rim, and a single corrugated plate beyond it. a a' Fig. 1170, p. 493, "Mech. Diet." Dou'ble Flow. (Agric.) a. A double furrow plow, or one turning two furrows. See GANG PLOW. b. A plow adjustable to turn a furrow to the right or to the left. A side-hill plow ; a turning mold- board or reversible plow. There are four forms of this implement ; see under the various heads. The illustration is the Brabant double plow, which is per- haps the prime favorite in France at the present time. It has Fig. 854. Brabant Ijoui/it fuiw. the skim share or jointer, and to reverse the plow and throw the furrow to the left, it is unlocked at the rear and revolved 180. Double plows, French and American, Knight : s report, "Paris Exposition (1878) Report," * vol. v. See also "Scientific American " * xxxix. 163. Dou'ble Pur'chase. (Nautical.) A form of tackle also known as gun-tackle purchase with two single-sheave blocks, c, Fig. 6159, "Mech. Diet." The reef tackle is also a double purchase. Dou'ble Rach'i-tome. (Sun/teal.) An in- strument with two parallel saws for making an ex- section of the spine. Fig. 333, Part I., Tiemann's "Armam. Chirurgir.um.'' Dou'ble Rud'der. A pair of rudders. Very common on our Western rivers, and on ferry-boats there and elsewhere, but not so much so on sea- going vessels. Twin screws and twin rudders are however, becoming more common in some classes of war vessels. And movable propeller, Sadler . "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1922. Dou'ble Safe'ty Valve. A pair of safety valves on the same steam-pipe or dome. A meas- ure of safety in case of one becoming rusted fast, or otherwise inoperative. Fig. 853. Dou'ble Screw. Said of a vessel with two screw-propellers. Tug-boat, Howden, Br. . * "Engineering," 1 xxi. 253. " Scientific American Sup.," 1 363. See also TWIN SCREW. Dou'ble Screw Up'right Vise. A parallel- leg vise. A screw above and one be- Fte- 853. low being operat- able by the same handle maintain a perfect parallel- ism of the jaw faces. The upper screw is connected by chain to the lower one so as to make their motion si- multaneous and equal. Dou'ble Shap'ing Ma-chine'. A shaper, the heads in duplicate, so as to act upon two por- tions of an object dogged to a common table. Wood, Robinson, Br * "Engineer," xlv.276. Dou'ble-shear Steel. (Metallurgy.) Blister steel, heated, rolled, and tilted to improve the qual- ity, and the process repeated. Dou'ble Steam-ket'tle. One kettle within another, the joint steam-tight, and steam occupy- ing the interval. Dou'ble Sur'fa-cing Ma-chine'. A wood- planing machine which acts upon the upper and lower surfaces of the board simultaneously. Dou'ble Ten-ac'u-lum. (Surgical.) An in- strument with two claws apposed by pivoting, in the manner of scissors. Figs. 454, 461, 462, Part III., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum.'' The double-claw tenaculum, Fig. 21, Part I., Ibid. Dou'ble Trans-mis'sion T e l'e-g r a p h. (Electricity.) A form of duplex telegraph. Sieitr. . . * "Telegraphic Journal," vi. 375. Dou'ble-trav'erse Drill. A machine-tool for boring holes simultaneously, at both ends of a bridge-link, for instance, to insure exactness where Double Safety Valve. DOUBLE TRAVERSE DRILL. 269 DOUBLE WHIP. mauy pieces of precisely the same size and propor- tions are required. The double-traverse drill has right and left-hand boring machines, sliding on a solid bed, and adjustable to or from each other to suit the required length of links. The boring machines are so placed as to permit the links to be put in place from one side, and, when done, passed out Sellers' Double Traverse Drill. on the other side of the machine. The driving is effected by horizontal belts passing over guide- pulleys, and around a drum on the spindles. The cutters are kept cool by water fed ti> them through the center of the spindle. The two he.-nl.- are united by bars of wnmglit-iron, and can slide freely on the cast-iron bed. The expansion of the wrought- iron bars being the same as the expansion of the link being bored, insures uniformity in the length of the finished work. Dou'ble-truck Lo-co-mo'tive. (Railway.) A form of locomotive in which a leading pony truck is added to the driving. See instance in ''Railroad Gazette," * vol. xxiv., p. 8, and full-page plate; a locomotive of the Denver, South Park, and Pacific Railroad. The pony truck in this case is to carry the overhanging weight of the cylinder and to pro- tect the front driving-wheels from wear. Dou'ble-tub Press. A cider or wine press which has two concentric cylinders, the pomace or Double-tub Press. (Boomer if Boshert.) marc occupying the space between the two, the piston or follower of the press being annular. A French press is shown in Dr. Knight's report, "Par- is Exposition (1878) Reports," *vol. v., p. 232. The double tub gives two surfaces at which the liquid may exude, and the arrangement is verv effective, inasmuch as it is especially difficult to drain the interior of the mass of pomace. In the instance shown the power is applied by means of a toggle which is particularly suitable, the force increasing as the knees become more and more extended. To put the press in action the platen is depressed by means of a small hand-wheel placed at the end of the screw. When the press- ure thus obtained is not sufficient, a stronger force may be obtained by the lever and ratchet-wheel. See also Fig. 618, p. 196, supra. Dou'ble Tur'bine. a. A pair of turbine wheels on the same shaft, one receiving the water from the other. A doubtful expedient. b. A pair of turbines on the same shaft, receiving the water between them and each discharging out- wardly. A double-head wheel. c. A turbine with a partition in the middle of the tier of buckets, dividing the wheel. More cu- rious than useful, and the name a misnomer. d. A combination of two kinds of turbine on the same shaft, one a vertical and the other a central discharge. Leffel. Each receives its water from the same set of guides at the same time, half the water passing to each wheel. This is believed to afford a freer escape for a large volume of water than if the same area of opening were employed in a single wheel on either the vertical or central system of discharge. D p u'b 1 e Turn'ing-mold'-board Plow. (Agric.) A double-furrow plow, having the addi- tional capacity for turning the furrows either to the right or to the left. A gang-plow adapted for hill-side work. The instance shown is the Brabant double bisoc, a favor- ite French form. It may be mentioned that the adaptability for mold-board turning is not (in France) for the purpose of plowing side-hills, but to enable the plowman to begin at the Fig. 866. Brabant Double Tut nine -mold-board Plow. Dou'ble Wheel'-lathe. A lathe adapted to receive a pair of wheels while on their axle, as in the wheel-lathe, Fig. 7 1 85, Fiir. 857. p. 2767, "Meek. Diet." Dou'ble Whip (Nautical.) A whip is a 1 rope wove through a sin- gle block ; in a double whip the rope passes through a lower or hook block, and the standing end is secured to the upper block or other point of attachment. See Double Y Branch. also Fig. 6159, p. 2480, "Meek. Diet." DOUBLE Y BRANCH. 270 DOWEL POINTER. Dou'ble Y Branch. A triple pipe connection, one central and two branching, from ;i single main. Dpu'bling Wind'hig Ma-chine'. A machine used in thread manufacture to double and at the same time wind the doubled yarn, ingenuity being displayed in securing uniform winding speed not- withstanding the increasing diameter of the wound yarn. Boyd's doubling winder, *" Textile Manufacturer^ 1878; reproduced in "Scientific American Supplement,'' *2179. Douche. (Surgical.) A syringe constructed for special applications and deriving its name there- from, as, Catarrhal. Eye. Ear. Nasal. See Fig. 1727, p. 732, Uterine. Vaginal. Hemorrhoidal. Rectal, etc. 'Meek. Diet." Dough Brake. A bakery machine for knead- ing dough. It takes the material from the mixing machine, and makes it ready for the cracker ma- chine. Dough brakes are simple or return. In the former case the dough is laid upon a table, passed between rollers, and discharged on to a lower shelf whence it is picked up and laid on the upper table for the repetition of the process. In the return dough brake the labor of lifting the dough is saved. Fig. 858. Dough Brake. The dough is placed on the table, taken by the roll- ers, passed between the rollers, and carried over the upper one back to the table ready to be doubled and passed through again. Dough Cut'ter. A circular cutter for stamp- ing out cakes from a sheet of dough. A spring piston ejects the cake from the cutter. Collins * "Scientific American," 1 xxxiv. 356. Dough Knead'er. A machine for incorpora- ting dough : violent and repeated pressure is neces- sary. See DOUGH BRAKE. The name of the brake is from the pivoted lever upon which the weight of the man was formerly swung in the old method of preparing cracker dough. The Durand dough kneader is an annular trough driven by steam, and with stirring devices which revolve in the trough while the latter revolves. Pfleiderer, Br. . * "Engineering," xxviii. 483. "Scientific American," xl. 246. Dough Mix'er. A bakery machine for com- pounding the ingredients of bread, cake, crackers, as the case may be. The machine illustrated is for mixing soft cake dough, beating eggs, and preparing the dough for the machine which rolls Fig. 859. the paste, and cuts and pans the cakes. See CRACKER MACHINE. The dough mixer is a hori- zontal cylinder with an axis provided with arms which cut, stir, and intimately incorporate the ma- terials. It is discharged below when the gate is opened. The hard dough-machine is on the same princi- ple, but the discharge of the much more solid dough is by a spout in the manner of a sausage- stuffer. Doul'ton Ware. (Ceramics.) A ware with an ordinary clay body and the salt glaze of stone ware, made by Doulton, of London. Thu pieces are thrown, not molded, and are highly artistic, being cut, carved, and incised, with small ornaments in body of another color, added in lines or bands. Some col- ored slips are used, and a few metallic oxides contribute to the richness of coloring which the final glazing in the open salt-glaze kiln imparts. . 860. Dovetail Clutch-coupling. Dove'tail Clutch'-coup-ling. A device in which the interlocking parts are formed of dove- tails which, when the driving strain is brought to bear, draw together instead of pushing apart. Dove'tail-ing Ma-chine'. A machine for cutting fan-tail tenons and corresponding mortises. Armstrong .... " Thurston's Vienna Rejiort,'' iii. 265. Tight-Hamilton, Br. * "Engineering," xxix. 386. Hamilton, Br. . . . * "Engineer,'' xlvi. 47. * " Iron Age,'' xvii., Jan. 6, p. 11. Stengel * "Engineer" xlv. 435. * "Scientific American," xxxviii. 246. Dow'el Ma-chine'. A machine for turning dowels ; the smnll cylindrical pegs wherewith jointed boards, table-leaves, or staves are connected. It is like a rod lathe, the stuff passing through the hollow head and turned by a chisel or by a special tool, a sort of hollow auger. A rod, pin, and dowel machine. Fig. 4394, p. 1961, "Mech. Diet." Dow'el Point'er. A hollow cone wi with a bit DOWEL POINTER. 271 DRAIN CLEANER. Dowel Pointer. projecting inward- 1 y , into which a dowel is thrust to point or chamfer the end to facili- tate its entrance in driving. Draft Chain. A chain by which the draft of a plow- team is thrown bark on to the part of the beam near the standard, in- stead of hitching direct to the forward end of the beam. A draft rod answers the same purpose, and is shown in Fig. 3826, p. 17-ki, "Mtch. Diet." 1 Draft'ed Stone. (Stone Cutting.) Ashlar stone the face on which is surrounded by a chisel draft, the space inside the draft being left rough. Draft'ing In'stru-ments. See list on p. 736, "Mech. Diet.," also the following references: Templet, Dam- * "St. Am. Sup.," 3757. Easel, Boudriot, Ger * "Sc. Ai.," xlii. 338. Table *"Sc.Am., : ' xxxviii. 114. Instruments and pens .... * "Engineer," xlvii. 453. Pen, Faber * " Engineering,'' xxx. 168. See also list of DRAWING, WRITING, COPYING INSTRUMENTS AND PROCESSES on pp. 272, 273 infra. Also list under GRAPH, p. 1009, "Mech. Dirt.'' Draft Reg'u-la'tor. A means of governing the energy of a fire by means of limiting the access of air thereto, or the egress of air therefrom : by devices, that is to say, which control the admission of air to the tire, or govern the sectional area of the chimney. Such is a d(tni)>er. The subject is con- sidered under DAMPER REGULATOR, which see. Woodruff's draft regulator arts by pressure of steam on a diaphragm, excess of pressure closing a damper in the chim- ney to a regulated extent. The '' acme ; ' draft regulator acts by displacement of water by steam. Patent, October 11, 1875. For stoves, Andrews . . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 339. ' Aeme " * "Scientific Amtr.," xxxv. 179. Franklin * 1; . Scientific Amer.," xlii. 231. T,ir( * ".Mam//, if Builder," xii. 76. Draft Tug. (Harness.) a. A trace. b. A short section attached to the draft eye of the hame, and to which the trace proper is buckled. c. A spring section in a trace to relieve the horse from sudden jerks. Smalley's .... * "Scientific American,'' 1 xlii. 100. Drag. (Spinning.) A device to act as a gentle brake upon the rotation of a bobbin in throstle spinning and doubling frames. "Textile Manu- facturer." " Scientific American Supplement " * 2705. Drag Chain. A chain dragged by a plow in Fig. 862. Right Hand Plow with Rolling Colter and Drag Chain. such a position as to gather and turn weeds and trash over into the furrow to be covered by the plow. Fig. 862 shows the mode of attachment. Not to be confounded with drajl chain, which is a means of drawing the plow without hitching to the nose of the beam. Drag Mill. (Metallurgy.) Another name for the arrastra. Blocks of porphyry are dragged around in the pan. See Figs. 367-371, pp. 159, 160, "Mech. Diet." See also AMALGAMATOR, Ibid. Drag Saw. A cross-cutting saw for logs. The fact that the cut is upon the draw and not upon the thrust motion is the occasion of the name. See Fig. 1 522, p. 649, "Mech. Diet." Alters (f Basington . . * "Scientific American,'' xli. 21. Giles * ''Scientific American," xli. 230. Drail'ing Tack'le. (Fishing.) A trawling tackle, the line with bait, real or artificial, being towed over the surface by the moving boat. Drails. A jig or artificially- baited hook, used in trawling. Drain'age. See notices under the following : Haarlem Mere * "Mech. Diet.,'* pp. 116, 739. House, * "Scientific Am. Sup.," 2850. Willett *" Scientific Am. Sap.," 509. Lac Fetzara, Italy, Sure . . "Technologiste," xli. 802. Lac Fucino, Durant-Claye . " Technolog-iste ," xl. 32-38. * "Engineering." xxi. 17, 33; xxii. 517; *xxvii. 249. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xviii. 437. "Sc. American,'' 1 xl. 10. Mines, 16 figures, Br. . . * "Engineer," xliv. 332. Pipe machine * "Eng. and Min. Jour.," 1 xxvi. 419. Pipe making *"Sc. Amer.," xxxviii. 31. *"Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1048. St. Germain sluice . . . * "Engineer," xlvi. 127-130. Zuyder Zee * "Engineer," xli. 2. Engines "Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 126, 127, 136, 137. Plat *"Eng. $ Min. J., xxvi. 133, 151. "Sc. American," xxxiv. 193 "Sc. Am. Sup., 1232. Consult: Klippart's "The Principles and Practice of Land Drainage." 1 Cincinnati, 1868. Dempsey's "Draining Districts and Lands." "Drainage and Sewerage of Towns and Buildings." Elkington's "A Systematic Treatise on Draining Land," London. French's " The Principles, Process, and Effects of Draining Lands, etc." Drain'age In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) Spe- cifically, tubes placed in a wound to withdraw pus. Inclusive also of trocars, canulae, and aspirators in one of their functions. See Fig. 6665, p. 2629, "Mech. Diet."; and Figs. 120, 121, p. 52, supra. Instruments for paracentesis abdominis are given on p. 162, Part III., Tiemann's "Armam. Chirurgicum," including : Drainage trocar. Clamp Forceps. Drainage tubing. Trocars. Drainage spiral. Aspirator needles, etc. Instruments for paracentesis cornece, Ibid., p. 29, Part II. Instruments for paracentesis thoracis, Ibid., p. 131, Part I. Drain'age Tent. A dilating instrument intro- duced into the cervix uteri. The uses and value of sponge, sea-tangle (laminaria], tu- pelo, and solid and tubulous tents, discussed by Dr Sussdorf, "Richmond if Louisville MedicalJournal,' 1 ' May, 1879. Drain'age Tube. A tube introduced into a wound to form a means of discharge of matter. Dr. J. B. Hamilton's drainage-tube carrier consists of a stylet, with a hook at the end within a canula ; the stylet is moved by a button over a side slot in the canula. Drain Cock. A faucet attached to a cylinder to draw off water of condensed steam. Drain Clean'er. A long-handled spade, the blade set on at an angle in order to be able to reach the bottom of a ditch when standing on the surface of the ground. See DITCH CLEANER. DRAIN GAGE. 272 DRAWING, ETC., PROCESSES. Drain G-age. A device to measure the perco- lation of moisture rain, liquid manure, etc. through soil, and involving elaborate apparatus, is erected at llothamstead, England, and a descrip- tion is given in "Scientific American Supplement," * 1607. Drain Grate. A grid at the entrance of a sewer in a yard or street. Fig. 863. Draw Bar. (Railway.) An open-mouthed bar at the end of a car to which the coupling-links are attached, and with which the car is drawn. The draw-bars are usually provided with springs to give elasticity to the connection between the cars, and arranged so as to resist both the tension and compression to which the draw-bar is subjected. Forney. These springs are shown in the longitudinal sectional view of the draw gear for freight cars of the Pennsylvania Railroad, Fig. 864. Figs. 8(35 and 866 are respectively the bolt draw bar, and the three-link, or Potter draw bar. Fig. 866. Steam Draining Plow. (Fowler if Co.) Drain'ing Plow. (Steam Culture.) A plow for opening furrows or drains for water. Fig. 863 shows the Fowler draining plow, adapted to be drawn by the plow-engine, which is applicable to various duties of steam husbandry. It is drawn by the winding engine and rope ; see Fig. 5706, p. 2354, "Mtch. Diet.' 1 '' It is used either as a mole plow, or to put in drain tile, and is worked to a depth of 42". The wire rope passes over the sheave, and so draws the plow at but half the rate that it would were it hitched directly to the front of the implement. See also DITCHING MACHINE, and items in lists of AGRICUL- TURAL IMPLEMENTS, "Mtch, Diet.,'' and supra. Drain Tile Lay'er. a. A long handle with a piece projecting at right angles from the lower end, to place in position drain tile at the bottom of a trench. 6. Some forms of draining machines also lay tile. Some are noticed on p. 741, "Meek. Diet." Drain Tile Ma-chine'. See TILE MACHINE. Fig. 864. tuna Draw Gear for Freight Cars. (Pennsylvania Railroad.) Drain Trap. A device at the opening of a drain or sewer to allow passage to liquids by pre- venting emission of gases. Banner, Br * "Engineer," 1 xli. 51. Fig. 865. Bolt Draw Bar. Three-link, or Potter Draw Bar. Fig. 867 is a safety draw bar, which accommodates itself to draw heads of varying height. Fig. 867. 1. Coupling-link Rivet. 2. Fast Coupling-link. 3. Fast Coupling-pin. 4. Draw-bar Bolt. 5. Draw-bar Face-plate. Kafford's Safety Draw Bar. Continuous, Griffith Sf Patterson *"R. R.Gaz.," xxi. 559. Hibbert * " Sc. Amer.," xliii. 226. Safety, Potter *"A'. K. Gaz.," xxii. 315. S-ifford *"fi. 11. 6'02.,' : viii. 164. Drawbridge. A bridge capable of being moved to leave a free channel for vessels. They are lifting, swing or turning, bascule, rolling. See pp. 241,742, 1721, 1965, "Mech. Diet.," and references; also list on p. 380, Ibid. Harlem * "Man. (f Builder," xi. 6. Lifting * "Man. y Builder,'- xi. 29. Thames, proposed . . * "Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' 290. Draw'ing. (Add.) 5. (Glass.) Glass is drawn into tubes or sticks by attaching a ponty to the end of a bulb held on the blowing tube, find running away with it ; so that the glass is elongated be- tween the polities held by the respective men. In drawing tubes, the glass is blown to a globe, so that a* the workman runs off the stick is hollow ; the thickness of the glass and bore of the tube are regulated by tht> quantity of metal in the globe, the size of the latter, and the rate of the motion of the retreating workman. The stick or tube is constantly rotated, and when the workman has attained his distance the glass is laid on the floor to cool straight. It is divided into lengths by cold tongs. Such tubes furnish the material for beads. Draw'ing, Writ'ing, Cop'y-ing In'stru- ments and Pro'ces-ses. See under the follow- ing heads : Albertype. Blind ink. Autographic process. Blue process, for copying. Autopolygraph. Brush. Bank note engraving. Camera lucida. Beam compass. Camera obscura. Bevel protractor. Carbon printing. DRAWING, ETC., PROCESSES. 273 DRAWING PRESS. Carbon process. Charcoal pencil. Chromophotograph. Composite portraits. Copygram. Copygraph. Copying devices. Copying ink. Copying pad. Copying paper. Copying pencil. Copying press. Copying processes. Crayon cutter. Crayon nioM. Curve delineator. Curve instrument. Curve scribe. Curvograph. Cyclograph. Cycloidograph. Diagraph. Dividers. Easel. Electric pen. Ellipsograph. Engrat Kii.ni-jtx inir, Electric Knuraving and chasing ma- cliinc. Engraving machine. Ktrhinjr liquids. fountain pen. Galvanoplastic process. Gelatine process. Hectograph. lleliogravmv. Horograpli. India ink. Ink. Ink eraser. Ink marks, Removing. Ink pencil. Ink powder. Ink, Restoring faded. Inkstand. Ink, Sympathetic. Lithogram. Lithographic crayon. Lithographic ink. Manigraph. Mirni.-cnpic-drawing appara- tus. Mucilage brush. Odograph. Pantograph. Papyrograph. Pen. Pencil. Pencil, Indelible. Perspective. Perspective linead. Perspective ruler. Perspeetograph. Photo-collograph. Photo-collotype process. Photo-engraving. Photographic printing sur- face. Photographic relief process. Photolithography. Photo-mezzotint engraving. Photo-printing process. Phototype. Photozincotype. Planigraph. Pneumatic pen. Point finder. Polar pantograph. Poly type. Porotype. Profilograph. Proportional dividers. Protractor. Pyrostereotype. Quill. Quill manufacture. Radiograph. Reducing squares. Reflecting drawing board. Relief process. Shading pen. Short-hand writing machine. Sketching frame. Slate pencil. Steel pen. Stencil paste. Stencil pen. Stenochrome. Stylographic pen. Sun engraving. Tablet. Tracing apparatus. Tracing copying. Tracing table. Voltaic pencil. Woodburytype. Writing multiplier. Writing, Restoring faded. Zincography. . Fig. 868. Fig. 869. Draw'ing Hook. A clutch-hook used in lifting well-rods. Draw'ing Ma-chine'. (Add.) 4. (Cartridye Making.) In making fixed ammunition iu the United States factories there are five draws to the shell, coming in consecutive course. These machines elongate the shell and lessen its diameter by means of verti- cal dies descending into depressions beneath. The shells are fed into each Drawing machine on a horizontal wheel. Hook. Drawing machine for cutters, Figs. 1-5, "Engineering, 11 xxx. 484. Draw'ing Press. A machine for cutting and drawing sheet metal into hollow ware. In making articles of moderate size it cuts the blank and forms the article at one operation. The work ranges from lantern bottoms, rim-covers, patty -pans, pie- plates, etc., up to 30-quart dish-pans and equally large work of other descriptions. Power is communicated to the large pulley on the right, which, by means of a simple clutch, operated by the treadle shown under the bed^s thrown into or out of gear at will. From this pulley power is transmitted to a horizontal shaft passing through the lower portion of the frame, on which shaft is a heavy cam, A, and also two cranks B. The cam, in its revolution, acts upon a roll above it, and so elevates the carrier C, of the cutting and drawing dies, which carrier travels in slides in the frame. To the cranks are connected pitmen, D D, which connect with a wrought-iron yoke, to which is secured the drawing punch-rod, E. At F is a cross- 18 Double-acting Drawing Pi-ess. piece between the two sides of the frame, through which piece operates the cutting-punch. When the cam-shaft is rotated, the cam raises the die car- rier, and the cranks, pulling down the pitman, force the cutting-punch against the metal and into the die below. This will be more clearly understood from the section a, Fig. 870, in which G is the drawing die, H the cutting die, / the cut- ting-punch (stationary ), and J the drawing-punch. As the die carrier rises, the metal is first pressed against the cutting- punch /, between the outer edge of which and the cutting die Hit is quickly cut, and the punch /, entering the die, then holds the edges so cut out as in a vise. At this point the drawing-punch J comes down and forces the metal into the drawing die G, thus completing the operation. To obviate the difficulty incident to working in sheet metal not of uniform thickness, in which case the metal will be im- perfectly held between the rising die and the stationary cy lin- Fig. 870. Sectional Views of Drawing-press Dies. der I, the lower portion of the drawing die G is made hemi- spherical so as to form a ball-and-socket joint, which enables the upper face to correspond with the face of the cutting- punch /, notwithstanding some slight difference in the thick- ness of the intervening sheet-metal. The device shown in section a, Fig. 870, is especially intended for small ware. The arrangement shown at 6, the same figure, is intended for large pans and like objects. In this there is no cutting of the metal by the machine, this having been previously done ; there is, therefore, no cutting-die nor punch in this style of machine. The drawing die is a simple concavity DRAWING PRESS. 274 DREDGING TUBE. without peculiar features, the essential points of the device being found in another means of holding the edge of the blank. The punch K passes directly through the ball por- tion, L, which is confined by a ring, M, held by the screw bolts, one of which is shown on the left. The edges of the blank are compressed and held between the surface of the die and a lower ring, N, which is upheld by another set of screw bolts, one of which is shown on the right. These bolts pass through a large bore in the ball portion, L, thus allowing the latter its free play and shoulder in said ball, as shown, so that the latter and the ring are closely united. The ring N, therefore, follows the play of the spherical por- tion, and consequently automatically adapts itself to the thickness of the metal. The punch then descends in man- ner similar to that already described. e, Fig. 870 is a section of a simpler form of drawing press without cutter, but possessing' the adjustable feature of a. Referring to Fig. 869, it will be observed that the lower slide C is carried up by the cam A on the main shaft, and the shape of the cam is such that the slide dwells after cut- ting the blank, while the die on the lower end of the plun- ger E forces the sheet-metal into shape. The upper slide is Drought down by the yoke G, operated by the pitmen D D, from cranks B on the main shaft. Thus it will be seen that the strain at the critical moment comes on the main shaft, pitmen, and yoke, all of steel or wrought iron, relieving the cast-metal frame. The frame bows at the point where the drawing takes place, thus affording a slight spring and a wider space in which to manipulate the blanks and the ware. See the following references : Bliss If Williams . . . * "Iron Age,'' 1 xvii., April 13, p. 1. * "Iron Age," xxv., May 6, p. 1. * "Scientific American Sup.S' 546. Deep work * "Iron Age," xxiii., Mar. 13, p. 1. * "Iron Age,"" xxiii., June 5, p. 1 Double-crank .... * "Iron Age," xix , Feb. 8, p. 1. Inclined * "Iron Age," xxi ; March 7, p. Ferracute Machine Co. . * "Iron Age," xviii., Sep. 7, p. 1. * "Iron Age" xxv., April 8, p. 1. Draw'ing Splice. (Nautical.) Used for ca- bles. Made by unlaying several fathoms of the two ropes to be joined, making a short splice, then tapering the ends of the strands and laying them along in the contlines of the rope, where they are secured by seizing. Draw Stop. (Music.) The mechanism in an organ, by drawing out which the organist makes such and such a stop speak. See STOP, " Mech. Diet." Draw Tube. (Microscope.) A means for in- creasing the magnifying power of the microscope by lengthening the dis- tance between the ob- ject -glass and eye- piece without changing for lenses of different power. Fig. 871 shows the draw-tubes D E of a binocular microscope. Draw'-up Press. A small domestic press for jelly, fruit, or what not, in which the platen is drawn up by a screw, and presses the mate- rial against the lid, leaving a space beneath in which the liquid ex- pressed may collect. Fig. 872. Dredge. A ma- chine for excavating the bottom of a river or channel to increase the depth and facilitate navigation. The Eads dredging machine is a sort of plow with a throat, comparable to a carpenter's plane, 4' in width, and with arrangements for limiting the depth of its cut on the silt of the river-bottom, so that the silt and water shall bear a quantitative relation, the silt occupying so much of the 16" of throat as the nature of the plowed-up material shall Draw Tube. Draw-up Press. warrant. An Andrews cataract pump of 27" di- ameter suction is the lifting apparatus, and the dis- charge is into tanks of 1,000 tons capacity, with overflows for water as the silt settles to the bottom. The dredge-boat is 200' in length, propelled by horizontal high-pressure engines, each 7' stroke and 21" diameter, turning paddle-wheels 28' diam- eter. It is designed to move at the rate of from 10,000' to 15,000' per hour. Adelaide, Australia. Simons * " Engineer," xli. 460. "Scientific American," xxxv. 146. "Scientific Amer. Sup., "2688. Antwerp * "Engineering,''' xxviii. 389. " Atlanta Dredging Co." "Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Engi- neers," vii., No clxxiv. Buckets, Kinipple, Br. . * "Engineer," xliv. 273. *" Scientific Amer. Sup.," 1583. Simons, "Rt * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2683. Calcutta, dredge and fire- engine boat ... * "Engineering," xxviii. 265. Carr * " Scientific Amer.," xxviii. 390. Danube improvements . *" Engineering," xxvi. 147, 235. Davis * "Scientific American," xxxvi. 50. Dennison, " Ingurgitator " (suction) .... * "Min. if Sc. Press," xxxv. 121. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1488. Eads, Mississippi . . . "Manuf. If Builder," x. 35. * " Iron Age," xx., Aug. 9, p. 1. Holland, Reitscholen etal. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 259. Kurrachee, India . . . * "Engineering," xxix. 341. Lake Fucino .... * "Enginer.ring,'' xxi. 17. * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 120.. Newton (suction) ... * "Min. (f Sc. Press," xxxv. 241. * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 1583. Patna Canal, India. Fouracres * "Engineer," xlviii. 199, 202. Pneumatic * "Scientific American," xxxvii. 371 ; xxxiv. 179. 432. See also EXCAVATOR, infra, and figures on pp. 747-749, and 814, "Mech. Diet." (Add.) 2. (Fishing). A rake or scoop, with a net attached, drawn with open mouth in the wake of a vessel to gather oysters or flat-fish, coral, or other objects. See TRAWL NET. Fig. 873 shows the dredge and tangles of the ex- pedition ship " Challenger." Dredg'ing Tube. A tube which is lowered from a vessel or scow and bun owing in the silt re- moves it by means of a connected steam-pump which draws up the solid portions together with water. This is a feature common in pneumatic dredgers ; see list of references under DREDGE. See also Figs. 1(62, 1(6.3, p. 749, "Mech. Did." One form is a closed tube which is lowered into position and then filled by exhausting the air by pump ; after which the tube is lifted and discharged, shown m *" Scientific American," xxxvii. 371. DRESSER. 275 DRILLING SCOW. Kig. 873. Dredge and Tangles of the " Challenger." Dres'ser. 1. (Mining.) A heavy pick used for preparing the large bunches of ore for loading on the skips. 2. A plumber's wooden mallet, or rather paddle, for closing sheet-lead joints. Dres'sing For'ceps. (Surgical.) An instru- ment used in applying and removing dressings. Bayonet-curve Dressing Forceps. Dress'ing Tat>le. 1. (Stereotyping.) A ma- chine for straightening and trueing the edges of stereotype plates ; and for beveling and cutting off curved plates for newspaper work and for perfect- ing presses. See figures on pp. 2378-2381, " Mech. Dirt." 2. A brickmaker's table on which bricks are dressed, to make them symmetrical for house-front courses. Fig. 1764, p. 749, "Mech. Diet." 3. A bench on which copper or other ores are hammered, and sorted into qualities. Drift Net. (Fishing.) A gill net suspended from a cork line and having leads at its lower edge. A float at each end carries a lantern and it floats with the tide or current. Such a net is usually 300 yards long, and a number of such are cast parallel with an intervening space of 50 to 80 feet. The gilling ground of the Chesapeake Bay is famous. Drill. 1. (Surgical.) A boring instrument in operations in osteotomy. Brainard's, Tiemann's, Hamilton's, Howard's, and Buck's drills are shown on p. 8, Part I., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." See list under Surgical Instruments, "Mech. Diet.-' et infra. Drill for ununitud and oblique fractures, Ibid., Fig. 61, Part I. 2. (Dentistry.) A boring tool used in mechani- cal or operative dentistry. See DENTAL DUILL, supra, and Fig. 1609, p. 685, "Mech. Diet." 3. (Machinery.) A boring tool for metals. See pp. 750-752, "Mech. Diet.," and the following refer- ences : Boiler work, Adamson, Br. * ' Allan, Br * ' Brown, Br * ' Buckton Sf Co., Br. . . * Buckton if Wickstead, Br. * Dickenson, Br * ' Hall, Br * Hutchinson, Br * Jordan, Br * ' Kennedy, Br * ' McKay, Br * ' Thorn, Pr * ' Welch, Br * Car truck frame, Bement. * ' Chuck. See DRILL-CHUCK. Chucking, Pratt Qr Whitnuj * Cleaner, Prenliss . . . . * ' Forms and principles . . * ' Machine, Aitt * ' Bement * ' Ferris if Miles ....*' Notes on early, Br. . . ' Pratt if Whitney . . . * ' Sharpe, Stewart If Co., Br. * ' Treatise on ...... ' Hall ....... *' Multiple, Br ...... * ' Oil wells ....... * Power, Pratt If Whitney . * ' Press, Ferris if Miles . . . * ' Recessing mach., and, du- plex, Kershaw, Br. . . * ' Self-feeding, Combs if Bawde Pratt Sf Whitney . . . * ' 'Engineering," xxvi. 434. Engineering,'' xxvi. 434. 'Engineering," xxvi. 434. 'Engineering," xxvi. 414. 'Engineering," xxvi. 414. Engineering," xxvi. 434. 'Engineering," xxvi. 434. 'Engineering," xxvi. 414. ' Engineering," xxvi. 414, 434. Engineering," xxvi. 434. 'Engineering," xxvi. 414. 'Engineering," xxvi. 434. 'Engineering," xxvi. 414. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxvi.226. 'Engineer," xlii. 42. Scientific Amer.," xliii. 85. ' Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 387. Iron Age," xxii.,0ct. 24, p. 1. Engineering," xxi. 552. 'Scientific Amer. Sup.," 582. 'Engineering," xxi. 437- Engineering," xxvii. 534. 'Engineer," xlii. 24. Kii^imiriii!;." xxvi. 518. Iron Age," xix., Feb. 1, p. 7. 'Engineering," xxvi. 414. Scientific Amf.r.," xxxiv. 191. ' Scientific Amer. Sup. ,"1644. 'Manuf. if Builder," xii. 16. 'R. R. Gazette," xxi. 119. 'Engineer," xlii. 429. Slotting mach., and, Lowry Square hole, Hall ... . Scientific Am.," xxxvii. 278. Iron Age," xx., July 12, p. 11. Engineer," xli. 122. Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' 248. M. if Sci. Press," xxxvii. 291. * "Scientific Amer,," xxxix. 311. Stone working *"Sci. Amer. Sup.," 1796, Fig 18. Drill Bench. See BENCH DRILL. Fig. 874. Cushman's Drill Chuck. Drill Chuck. A lathe-drill holder. Figs. 874, 875, 876, show various drill-chucks. * "Sc. American," xxxv. 6. * "Polytech. Rev.," Jan. 27, 1877. " Planer chuck . . Pratt, " Victor " . Self-centering . . Sweetland if Horton Almond .... Brown if Sharpe .,_,.. _, ..,,..,. Chucking, On .... * "Scientific American," xl. 52. Horton * "Polytech. Rev.," Jan. 27, 1877. * "Scientific American," xlii. 383. * "Sc. American," xxxviii. 245. * "Iron Age," xxi., Feb. 28, p. 1. * "Sc. American," xxxv. 210. * "Sc. American," xxxvi. 406. * "Iron Age," xxiv., Nov. 6, p. 1. Drill Hold'er. A lathe rest or fork-attach- ment, or both, to hold a drill in position, or steady it, while held up to its work by the tail center. "Scientific American" * xl. 164, Fig. 22. Drilling Clip. A vise or clamp to clasp a gas or water main, and having an arm on its upright shaft to form the upper bearing for a brace or ratchet drill. Fig. 877. Drilling Scow. A vessel fitted up with ap- paratus for subaqueous drilling. DRILLING SCOW. 276 DRIVING PULLEY. The drilling scow, built for excavating lie channel for the improvement of the Des Moines Rapids, is shown in the Fig. 875. Drill Chucks. " Oneida " chuck. c. Whiton chuck. b. " Danbury " chuck. Fig. 876. Drill Chucks. a. Beach chuck. b. Adjustable drill chuck. c. " 1876 " chuck. d. Center drill chuck. e. " Acme " chuck. Report of the Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army," 1880, 1556. See also drilling plat- brm and scow, Ahnepee -larbor, Wis. ; "Report of Chief of Engineers," 1879. i. 1510. The United States dril- ing scow, East River, N. is shown in "Scientific American," * xli. 131. See also Report by Sir John Hawkshaw on the lydraulic Engineering jroup, British Reports on ;he Centennial Exhibition, 1876. Drip Pump. A Cumber's pump for amoving drip or col- Fig. 878. Evarts' Drive Chain. Drilling Clip. lections of water incident to accidents to pipes or in clearing up after work. Drive Chain. A detachable link chain used in connection with sprocket wheels, to drive machin- ery. Each link has a hook and bar at its respective ends, and these may be connected in certain rela- tive position, but cannot be detached when stretched. Fig. 878. Drive Well. A tube driven into an aqueous stratum, and forming the stock for a pump at- tached to its upper end. Dri'viiig Pul'ley. One receiving motion from a belt, and concerned in driving machinery : as distinguished from a loose pulley, which runs free on the shaft, and does not communicate motion. The belt is shifted from the loose to the driving pulley when the machine is to be started, and vice versa. Fig. 879. Hafner's Equilibrium Driving Pulley, for Millstones. DRIVING PULLEY. 277 DROPPER. Hafner's equilibrium driving pulley, designed for driving mill-stones, is intended to prevent the side draft of the belt on the pulley from putting the stone out of tram. The hub A of the pulley works in the bearing B, which rests on the bridge-tree H, by means of the step G. C is the spindle of the stone resting on G, and E E are drivers on the hub, which project upward into the jaws D of the coil spring. The arms of the pulley are curved down, so that the strain of the belt is on the center of the bearing B, and the side strain does not communicate to the spindle, ae the drivers E have a freedom of motion in the jaws of the spring. Dri'viiig-wheel Brake. (Railway.) One ap- plied directly to, usually between, the driving- wheels of a locomotive. Fig. 749. Forney's "Car- builder's Dictionary," p. 475. Drogue. A drag-anchor, thrown overboard from a vessel to keep a ship's head to the wind when drifting. See DRAG ANCHOR, * p. 737, "Mech. Diet." Drop and Traiis'fer Ta1>le. (Railway.) An arrangement for taking out the wheels of car trucks without removing the trucks from under the car. Kirby's arrangement is shown in Fig. 880, which gives a side elevation of the truck rind a section of the pit, which is transverse to and below the line of rails. The drop table is a truck, C, which runs on wheels on a rail under and trans- Terse to the main line of rails, A, and has a screw-jack, E, which is brought beneath the axle of the pair of wheels, F, to be removed. These being lifted, a hinged section, B, of the rail is swung open, and the pair (E} of wheels lowered into the pit, as shown by dotted lines, the transfer moved off, and a new pair introduced in a corresponding manner. Fig. Drop Bot'tle. One for using in small quan- tities iodine, creosote, acids, etc., in the laboratory. Warm the bulb over the flame of a spirit-lamp, or in warm F j g- 331. water, to expel the air, immerse the point of the pipette in the liquid, and the latter will ascend as the air condenses. When cool, place in the bottle, which should have enough of the liquid to cover the point of the pipette. When required to be used take it from the bottle, and the warmth of the hand on the bulb will force the liquid out a drop at a time. See also DOSIMETER; BU- RETTE ; PIPETTE, etc. Drop Cut'-off. (Steam.) That form of cut-off in which a weighted bar is released at a regulatable point, and by its fall closes the valve. The Corliss ar- Dr P Bottle - rangement is a familiar instance. Drop For'giiig. One made in that form of press in which the blow is by impact instead of by mere pressure. A forging made by a drop ham- mer. Parts of sewing machines, watches, guns, pistols, drill-chucks, spinning rings, wrenches, clinch rings, JTL shuttles, locks, thumb-screws, etc., are thus made. Drop Glass. (Surgical. A tube like a pipette for drop- ping a liquid into the eye. __ Figs. 27, 354, Part II., Tiemann's : "Armamentarium Chirurs;icmn.' See also DROPPER ; DOSIMETER, infra. Drop and Transfer Table. Drop Ham'mer. A swaging hammer having a vertical motion in guides, or suspended by spring connection from a reciprocating portion. See DEAD STROKE HAMMER, DROP PRESS, " Mech. Diet." See following references : Haase, Br * "Engineering," 1 xxviii. 396. Hill * "Scientific, American," 1 xxxv. 67. Hotchla'is If Stiles . * " Tkursion' s Vienna Report,''- ii. 237. Peek *"Iron Age.,'' xxi., May 2, p. 41; xxii., Dec. 5, pp. 24,29. Pratt 4- Whitney . . * "Eng. $ Mining Jour.," xxi. 298. Drop-lev'er Scales. A weighing scales with a lever to raise the platform entirely off the working parts of the scale while it is being'loaded. Drop Light, A gas-light vertically adjustable to bring it from a chandelier to convenient table- height. Taylor * "Scientific American Sup.," 1363. Drop Net. (Fishing.) A net suspended over the water, and dropped vertically over a passing school of fish. See Fig. 3317, p. 1522, "Mech. Diet." A very common device in the Oriental and Malaysian seas. Drop Me'ter. See DO- SIMETER ; PIPETTE ; BU- RETTE ; DROPPER, etc. (Ar/ric.) A form of reaper in Drop'per. 1. which the grain falls backward from the knife on to a slatted frame which is dropped at intervals to discharge the gavel. As the rear-end of the frame drops to the ground the heads of the cut grain catch in the stubble, and the gavel is pulled off in a compact bunch of a width equal to the length of the knife-bar. The dropping is done automatically at regulated intervals, or can be operated at the will of the driver. When the dropper falls, a hori- zontal rod descends temporarily to arrest the fall- ing grain so that it shall not trail off at the rear of the gavel. When the dropper rises the rod also as- cends and allows the grain to fall freely and collect on the dropper. See middle figure, Plate XLVI., p. 1892, "Mech. Diet." 2. A pipette. A tube with a small aperture at its lower and an elastic bulb at its upper end. Fig. 882. By compressing the bulb, and plunging the lower end into a liquid, the tube is rilled, and the liquid ejected in drops by gentle compression of the bulb. CHOPPING TUBE. 278 DRYING CASE. Drop'ping Tube. A pipette, burette, or dosim- eter. See DROPPER. Drop Shut'ter. (Photography.) An arrange- ment for giving a very rapid exposure to a plate in instantaneous photography. It is essentially constructed of Fig. 882. two heart-shaped disks, A A, revolv- ing on one axis, which is attached to the lower part of the mount of the lens. These two plates, when released by the trigger, have a re- ciprocal motion imparted to them by means of the weight F, which hangs suspended from the upper part of each. The apertures in each plate are thus simultaneously brought in front of the lens, and the exposure rapidly effected. The exposure commences and termi- Fig. 883. Dropper. Duplex Drop Shutter. nates at the lower side of the center, E, of the lens, so that the foreground will get slightly more light than the upper por- tion of the picture, an advantage which will be readily appre- ciated by photographers. D is a ring adapter fitted to the mount of the lens. G is a trigger with cord attached, fitting into notches H. When the exposure is completed the stop at / comes in contact with an overhanging hook near the trigger G. Drop Tube. A PIPETTE. See DROPPER; DOSIMETER. Drum. (Add.) (Surgical) A circular frame over which a membrane is stretched as an object on which are tested the delicate edges of eye instru- ments. See Fig. 35 6, Part II., Tie-matin's "Armam. Chirurgicum.' 1 '' Drum Bar 'rage. (Hydraulic Engineering.) The invention of M. Desfontaine, late chief engineer of the navigation of the Marne. "The drum barrage consists of a system of hausses of a height a little more than double the difference of level in the upper and lower bays, and movable around an axle, a, placed in the middle. They are curved below the axle and have the form a b c. The axle is fixed to the upper lip of a cast-iron box. This box is partly open to allow the motion of the hausse, and has the contour a efg k, with a curved por- tion from/ to d, which stops at d, thus allowing the hausse to move from the position b a c d to the position 6' a 1 c' d', leaving the two orifices I and k, outside of its path. The upper part of the box is flat, one portion below the other, so that the hausse, when lowered into the position a b', is a little below the level a e, and thus hidden by it. " Each hausse is fitted to a special box or drum, but all Fig. 884. Desfontaine' 1 s Drum Barrage. the boxes are pierced with oblong holes, I and k, so that they communicate when arranged side by side. The drums are fitted together by flanges around these holes, thus affording a communication along the whole line of the barrage, both before and behind the hausses, with the water in the upper bay. "It is now evident that if, by means of sluice-gates or valves, the tube I is put in communication with the upper bay and the tube k with the lower bay, the difference of pressure on the face of the hausse will cause it to rise and take the position b a c d. If, on the other hand, the tube k is by a second system of sluice-gates put in communication with the upper bay and I with the lower bay. the system is reversed and the pressure forces the hausse to take the posi- tion b' a 1 c' d 1 ; i. e., lowers the hausse. The simple turning of a valve thus opens the whole bar- rage. The time for opening is one and a half minutes ; the time for closing four and a half minutes. I; Prof. Watson, in " Vienna Exposition Reports.'' 1 See also " Van Nostrand's Engineering Mag.," *xvii. 253. Drum Guard. (Agric.) A British invention, to prevent a man while feeding a threshing machine from falling into the throat, and being mutilated by the cylinder. In the British practice the feeder is on top of the machine. Fig. 6395, p. 2557, " Mech. Diet." In the American practice, no such attach- ment is used. Clayton if Shuttleieorth, Br. . * "Engineer," xlix. 2S55. * "Engineering,''' xxviii. 477. Fison, Br * "Engineering," xxviii. 36. Hunt * "Engineering," xlviii. 81, 100. Fison Ruston 4" Proctor . . Gibbon Robey , Marshall, Br * "Engineer," xxvii. 580. Nalder, Br I* "Engineer," x\vi. 424. Ransome, Br f Robey, Br * "Engineering," xxvi. 471. Ruston 4" Proctor, Br. Wallis $ Stevens, Br. . * " Engineering," xxviii. 446. Engineering," xxvi. 27. Drum Weir. The drum barrage of M. Des- fontaine. See DRUM BARRAGE. Dry Cup'ping Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) An apparatus in which a limb is placed while the pressure of the surrounding air is withdrawn^ For Junod's apparatus see ARM ; BOOT. See also DEPURA- TOR, "Mech. Diet.," and AEROTHERAPY APPARATUS, supra. Dry Dock. (Hydraulic Engineering.) A ba- sin, structure, caisson, etc., in or by which a vessel is exposed clear of the water, for examination, cleaning, or repairs. See list on p. 715, "Mech. Diet.," and DEPOSITING DOCK, supra. Also GRAVING DOCK, FLOATING DOCK, "Mech. Diet.," et infra. Dry E-lec'tric Pile. A name applied to a hermetically sealed pile ; not that there is no ex- citing liquid, but it is inclosed in insulated and air and water-tight envelope. C. L. Van Tenac, Paris, *" Scientific Amer. Sup.," 913 Dry'er. One form of dryer is that operating by centrifugal action in a wire cage, and is largely used with sugar, wringing clothes, etc. It has va- rious names : centrifugal machine, centrifugal filter, hydro-extractor, or sugar dryer, wringer, etc., under some or all of which heads it is noticed in the " Mech. Diet." See the various heads supra et infra. Fig. 883 shows a drying machine of a size to be driven by hand, and such as is used in French laun- dries. See also list of DRYERS, page 758, "Mech. Diet." Dry'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. See the following : Hot air, Redfern, Br * " Sc. American Sup.," 1014. Oven, Rohrbeck * "Sc- American," xlii. 180. Dry'ing Case. (Optics.) A copper case sur- rounded with a chamber containing hot water, for drying tissues and hardening balsam preparations for the microscope. DRYING CHAMBER. 279 DUBBING. Fig. 885. 1'niir/i Launiiri/ Dryer. Dry'ing Chani'ber. The closet in which printed stuffs are artificially dried ; the tissue, ac- companied by its doublier, passes in a zigzag man- ner over a large series of rollers near the ceiling and floor respectively of the room. After a certain course the lates and tail stocks and separate driving gear ; ilso a hollow head spindle, which admits of the mssage of a car axle so as to present the ends of he axle or the wheels thereon for simultaneous iction by the various tools for turning, boring, or tey-way grooving. Atock "Engineering,' 1 ' 1 * xxi. 310. Du'plex Ma-chine'. One capable of perform- ng similar operations upon two pieces of work ilmultaneously. Instances are given under two leads ; supra et infra. Du'plex Plan'ing Ma-chine'. One having duplicated parts capable of acting upon two faces of the same piece, or two pieces independently, etc. The adjustments are according to construction and purpose. Adamson's is furnished with two tables, 3ach provided with independent driving gear, the ar- rangement being such that the tables may be worked either together or separately. The machine can thus be used as one large planing machine with in- dependently set cutters operating on two faces, or as two smaller independent machines. Or a piece may be bolted to one, and operated by a tool car- rier on the other. "Engineering' 1 * xxi. 291, 294. Du'plex Slide Rest. A lathe with a tool- rest on either side of the object being turned. See DUPLEX LATHE, Fig. 1803, p. 763, "Mech. Did." Du'plex Tel'e-graph. An instrument for sending two messages over the same wire simulta- neously. See p. 764, * "Mech. Diet." "Engineering," xxiv. 74. "Jour. Soc. 2W. nV'vi.205. "Scientific Am. Sup.," 2737. " Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 82. Br. Patent, 2,575 of 1855. "Telegraphic Jour.," vi. 292. " Telegraphic Jour.,'' 1 iv. 23. " Scientific Amer. Sup.," 80. "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," v. 473. " Telegraphic Jour.," iv. 45. "Telegraphic Jour.," iv. 290. "Rept. Vienna Exp.," 1873. "Eng. IfMin. J.," xxvi. 166. " Teleg. Jour.," vii. 160, 177. "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," vi. 360; * 534 ; vii. 104. "Engineering," 1 xxvii. 169. Lines' 1 "Rept. Vienna Exp." 1873. " Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 163. " Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 227. "Engineering," xxix. 448. "Scientific Am er. Sup. ,"1053. Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 149 Du'plex Wheel Lathe. (Machine Tools.) A double wheel lathe. See WHEEL LATHE, Fig. 7 1 83, p. 2767, "Mech. Diet." Dust Col'lar. (Railway.) A ring or flange around an axle to keep dust from entering the axle box. See AXLE Box. Dust Col-lect'or. A device in flouring mills or factories to collect the dust which furnishes the material for explosion or is injurious to the health of the operatives. Aillhaud, Fr * * Banker * * Berstein Multiplex . . Dennett, Translator . . * fPInfrevitte * Electro-mechanical . . * Fahie, Paper by ... * Hafkins * Koch. * Lines, history of early . * Morel Muirhead * Schwendler, on Theory of Sieur, Fr * Stearns (submarine) . . * The.iler * Treatise on * Vianixi * PLATB X. DYNAGRAPH. See page 281. DUST COLLECTOR. 281 DYNAGRAPH. Blower, Norcross, Stover . * Fairbanks .... Conductor, Stover ... * Fairbanks .... * Stur levant .... * Flour mills, Smith ... * "Manuf. If Builder,' 1 ' 1 xi. 150. "Mantif. 4- Builder,'' ix. 126. "American Miller,'' vii. 311. Dust'er. (Add.) 3. A machine for sifting dry poisons upon plants to destroy insects. . Allen's duster for destroying cotton worm, "Comstoclc's eport on Cotton Insects," 1 1879, *p. 247. See also COTTON-WORM DESTROYER, p. 226, supra. Rep 4. A dusting brush. Feather brushes and tails of animals were anciently used. Dust Guard. A device to prevent dust from entering the journal-box of a car-axle, and the oil from escaping thence. See p. 459, " Mech. Diet." Balch if Heintzelman, * "Railroad Gazette," viii^p. 307. Dust'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for remov- ing the dust from crude granulated gunpowder. "Ordnance Report," 1879, Appendix I., Plate IV., Fig. 9. and description on pp. 106, 107. Dusting reel, Br ..... * "Engineering,'''' xxv. 138. Dy'na-graph. (Railway.) A machine for recording the phenomena occurring to a train in traveling upon a railway track. Pambour, in his book on Locomotive Engines (edition of 1836, p. 83), discusses the question of determining the friction and resistance of railway rolling stock, and details the difficulties which ac- companied the attempts to solve the problem. The interposition of a dynamometer between the engine and the car or cars was the means applied. The apparatus of Prof. P. H. Dudley is placed in a car and uses 14 recording pens which make diagrams of the various phenomena. The dynagraph track inspection record is traced on a continuous roll of profile paper wound in a length of 150' upon a drum. The paper has va- rious groups of rulings and the tracings are made by glass tube-pens filled with eozine. The following diagram gives the nature and order of the indications on the record, the broad paper ribbon which is shown in Plate X., as passing be- neath the pens and wound upon a roller at the left of the machine. The places of the tracings and explanations are shown in the column, which is not &fac-simile but merely an explanatory statement in columnar form. NORTH TRACK. x f North rail. l.S I ' Tracing.) ! Horizontal scale 50' to 1" of paper. 8 Jj 1 Vertical scale full size. South rail. f North rail. (Tracing.) Alignment of joints. ( Tracing. ) South rail. Distance by instrument. X- Mile posts and stations. Oscillations of car. ( Tracing.) 10 seconds. Seconds. ( Tracing. ) Representing elevation of rail on curves. The machine as represented in Fig. 1, Plate X., is placed in an eight-wheeled car, 50' long, constructed especially for the purpose. The draw-bar of this car is connected with a pis- ton which works in a cylinder under the floor, and which is filled with oil. (Figs. 2, 3.) These are so arranged that if the draw-bar is subjected to strains of either tension or com- pression they are resisted by the oil in the cylinder, and the former is therefore subject to the pressure due to the strains on the draw-bar or the resistance of the train. The cylinder is connected by a pipe,/, Figs. 1, 2, and 3, with a smaller cylinder a, 7-16" in diameter at the top of the machine. This has a piston fitted into it which is connected by a rod with the parallel motion bed. This latter carries a pen, e, which draws a diagram of the resistance of the train on a roll of paper, A A, 30" wide. Part of the diagram drawn by this pen is shown at gg. The roll of paper is placed in the drum C, and is drawn over the table A A by feed-rolls, D D, and is wound up on the drum B. These drums and rolls are driven by a worm-gear on the axle, shown in Figs. 4 and 5, which operates the vertical shaft E E, Fig. 1. The worm- gear, being on the axle, is underneath the floor of the car, and is not shown in Fig. 1. The shaft E has a miter-wheel at the upper end which gears into a pair of miters, FF, which are loose on a horizontal shaft, G F. A clutch collar N is attached to the shaft by a feather and is arranged so that it can engage with either of the miter wheels, so that the machine can be used in running in either direction. The shaft G F has a pinion on it, not shown in the engrav- ing, behind the pair of change gear wheels G. This pfnion engages with one of the wheels G and that with the wheel H on the horizontal shaft L I. On this shaft are four worms, L, K, J, and /. / and L are keyed to the shaft, but /and /Care attached to sleeves which are loose on the out- side of the shaft. Either J or K can be driven by the clutch M, which is attached to the shaft by a feather. The worms / and L drive the worm-wheels O and P. which are con- nected to the shafts of the drums by the friction produced by springs (one of them shown at h) against disks, i, i, the purpose of the drums being simply to wind and unwind the paper, and keep it taut ; which is effected by the friction arrangement. The paper is fed over the table uniformly for the distance traveled by either pair of the feed-rollers D or D'. Only one of each pair of these rollers is shown, the other being below the surface of the table. These rollers are 2.472" in diameter, and are made of steel and ground with the utmost precision, so as to be 0.003" larger in diam- eter in the center than at the ends, the object of this being to draw the paper through evenly. If the rolls were made perfectly straight they would be liable to seize the paper on one side more than on the other The paper can be wound by the mechanism in either way, that is, from Con to B, or from B on to C, so that the instrument can be used while running the car in either direction. As stated before, the pen e draws a diagram of the resist- ance of the train. A stationary pen, _;', draws a straight base line on the paper as it is rolled across the table. When there is no tension or compression on the draw-bar and cyl- inder underneath the car, and consequently no pressure on the fluid in the cylinder a, its piston is drawn back by the springs , and with it the lever be, so that the position of the pen e corresponds with that of j and the base line which the latter draws. So soon as there is any pressure in the cylinder a its piston is forced outward against the tension of the springs * s, and consequently the pen e is carried away from the base-line a distance proportional to the pressure, and the diagram thus indicates the tension on the draw-bar. The speed of the train is recorded by means of an electri- cal attachment with the chronometer clock Q. This is ar- ranged so as' to break an electrical circuit every second, which releases an armature of an electro-magnet at R, with which one of the pens, shown at k, is connected. This moves the pen 1-16" horizontally, which produces an in- dentation in the line which is drawn on the paper. The dis- tance between these indentations indicates the space trav- eled over in one second. The next pencil to k is arranged so as to make a similar record every ten seconds. Still an- other pen can be used to record minutes. A pen is also arranged so that by an electrical connection it records each revolution of the driving-wheels. Another records the mile-posts as they are passed, which is done by an assistant, who touches an electrical key at each post. The alignment of the road, that is, the curves and straight lines, are recorded by a pen in a similar way. A pen next to this is connected with a water-meter attached to the feed-pipe of the locomotive, and records the quantity of water consumed at different times and places. Still another pen is arranged so that an assistant on the locomotive records every shovel- ful of coal as it is put on the fire. The same pen has been used to record the time that black smoke escaped from the chimney. A pen is also provided which records the distance run by the car, and another records the indications of an anemometer on top of the car. At z is the fourteenth pen, which records the surface of the track. This is done by a small vessel or cylinder about 3" in diameter, which is at- tached to the equalizing lever immediately over the journal- DYNAGRAPH. 282 DYNAMO-ELECTRIC ENGINE. box. This vessel is filled with oil and covered with a thin metallic diaphragm, which is pressed down by a spiral spring. The chamber containing the oil is connected by a pipe with a gage, m, which also has a similar diaphragm which acts against a compound lever carrying the pencil z. The jolting of the car over inequalities of the track produces pulsations in the diaphragm over the journal-box, and con- sequently more or less pressure on the liquid, which pres- sure is communicated to the upper diaphragm at m, and thus recorded by the pen z. An integrating apparatus is also attached to the instru- ment at S. This consists of a plate, .S', which is attached to the end of a vertical shaft driven by the gear-wheel O and a worm, not shown in the engraving. The speeds are so ar- ranged that the plate makes three revolutions per mile run by the car. A small wheel, n, which is attached to a rod, g, connected with the piston in the cylinder a, bears on the plate S. When there is no pressure in the cylinder, the small wheel n is exactly in the center of S, and conse- quently the revolution of .S' does not cause the wheel n to re- volve. When the piston is forced out by the pressure, the small wheel is carried beyond the center of the plate S, and consequently the movement of the latter then causes the small wheel to revolve. Of course the greater the pressure in the cylinder a the farther will the wheel n be carried from the center of Sand the greater will be the path on which it rolls, and consequently the larger the number of its revolu- tions. At each revolution of the wheel it breaks an electrical circuit, and connecting by a wire with one of the electro- magnets at R operates a lever which carries one of the pens shown at k. It is obvious from this that the greater the pressure on the cylinder a. the larger the number of revolu- tions which will be made by the small wheel n, and there- fore that they will be a measure of the work done ; so that multiplying the number of revolutions by a known constant will give the number of foot-pounds. The disk S is graduated on the edge, and has a vernier at- tachment with which very minute measurements can be made of the distance run. The battery jars for working the electrical apparatus are carried underneath the car in a locker, and are connected with the magnets by the wires shown at r. The pens consist of small glass tubes, which are drawn to a fine point and filled with eozine, one of the products of coal-tar distillation. A half grain of this is dissolved in an ounce of water, and makes a beautiful red color. The draw -bar cylinder B is shown in plan in Fig. 2, and in section in Fig. 3, and is 4" in diameter, and has a pair of large pistons, A A, which fit into it at each end. Into these an auxiliary pair of pistons, (' C', are fitted. These are used in making experiments with light loads. The packing is of the ordinary kind used in hydraulic rams. D is the draw- bar which is connected with the pistons by a frame, E E. In drawing a train the cross-bar G presses against the piston C', and in pushing the bar F presses against C, so that in either case the strain on the draw -bar produces a correspond- ing pressure on the liquid (oil) in the cylinder. The pipe L connects the main cylinder B with the smaller cylinder a, Fig. 1, on the dynagraph above, the working of which has already been described. Figs. 4 and 5 represent the worm gear on the axle by which motion is transmitted to the mechanism above through the shaft. See account of Bavarian experiments by Baron M. M. Von Weber, "Transactions of Am. Soc. C. E.,'' February, 1879, and reference to same in "Railroad Gazette," *xxiv. 375. See also the following references to dynagraph cars : E. Ry. of France . . . "Engineering," *xxvi. 290, *307, *"330. Dudley ..... "Eng. if Min. Jour.,'" xxii. 37. "American R. R. Jour.,'' 1 liii. 619. "Scientific Amer. Sup," 131,1145. "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 264. "Railroad Gazette," xx. 317. * "Railroad Gazette," xxiii. 494. "Engineer," xliii. 380. * "Engineer," xliii. 402. * "Engineering,^ xxv. 470. In connection with this, subject the following references will be useful, the number of .United States patent, the name of the inventor, and the subject matter of the patent being given : SPEED, COURSE, GKADE, AND DISTANCE RECORDERS. No. Inventor. Subject. 16,902 Adams Sf Clark, Grade delineator. 27,764 Billings, Speed register. 32,959 Bogardus, Grade recorder. 30,528 Collier, River course delineator. 155,605 Crawley, Velocimeter. 205,844 Dorpmiillrr, Speed recorder. 196,643 Dunlap if Magill, Speed and distance recorder. 202,433 Gobel, Distance and velocity recorder. Brake car for tests. Westinghouse . 231,799 Hergenroder, Surveyor and plotter. 179,200 Kettett, Station indicator and speed recorder. 36,411 Krausrh, Engine recorder. 222,293 LioJers, Shock recorder. 183,479 Manger, Recording surveyor. 15,017 PfVfrlfii, Ship recording-compass. 229,456 Pelri, Speed indicator and recorder. 147,021 Rankiii, Ship's course recorder. 138,437 Richardson, Locomotive recorder. 219.527 KirhnnJsoii, Speed and time recorder. 47,906' Schon, Recording surveyor. 118,160 Sheltman, Speed recorder. 176,584 Simonds, Time and distance recorder. 37,650 Van Horn, Profiler. River bed. 20,908 Wampler, Graphod'ometer. 153,470 Wi/the, Railway speed recorder. 173,251 Wythe. Railway speed recorder. 198,232 Wythf, Railway speed recorder. (Pencil carrier. ) 203,865 Wythe, Railway speed recorder. See also English patents : - 2,692 of 1855. 581 of 1867. 2,141 of 1860. 890 of 1858. 11,619 of 1847. 8,645 of 1840. 2,892 of 1856. 1,673 of 1857. 1,407 of 1863. 2,285 of 1863. See also United States Patents : Lfwis, 1867, Velocimeter. Horn, 1868, Mileage register. Guebharcl if" Tronclion, 1873, Cab register. Keeler, 1864, Speed indicator. Bowsher, 1868, Speed indicator. Bilgram, 1871, Speed indicator. Speed 4" Poage, 1874, Speed indicator. Liernur, 1858, Speed recorder. Bewcktrt, 1857, Speed indicator. Brown, 1874, Revolution indicator. Elliott, 1874, Tachometer. See also Figs. 5366, 5367, 5372, 5373, 5374, and pp. 2261- 2264, "Meek. Diet.-' 1 See also under the following heads in this and former vol- umes : Delineator. Log. Grade recorder. Odometer. Sounding instruments. Surveying instruments. See also specific indexes, METERS, p. 1427, "Mech. Diet.;" MEASURING and RECORDING INSTRUMENTS, infra. Dy-iiam'ic E'lec-tric'i-ty. Electricity in a state of action. The opposite of static. Dy'nam-ite. A mixture of iiitro-glycerine and infusorial silica. See p. 767, " 1; <"* A Tl! " f " Mech. Did.' See also the following references : Rovx 'Iron Age," xvii., May 18, p. 7. Apparatus * " Engineer,'' xli. 171. In agriculture . In Germany In plowing . In clearing . Nobel . . Manufacture Sobrero . . . Pile driving. Paper by Lockert Scientific American Sup.," 2136. "Scientific American,' 1 ' xxxv. 242. " Technologiste,'' 1 xxxviii. 17. "Iron Age," xviii., Nov. 2, p. 11. "/row Age," 1 xviii., Nov. 30, p. 1. " Technologiste," 1 xli. 94. "Scientific American," xlii. 276. "Scientific American,' 1 ' xxxiv. 83. " Scientific Arner.,' } xxxviii. 58. "Scientific American Sup.," 692. " Technologist ," xxxvii. 161. " Van ffostrand's Mag.," xv. 480. "Teclinologiste," xl. 37. Dy-na'mo-e-lec'tric En'gine. A steam-en- gine adapted for driving a dynamo-electric ma- chine. While many forms of steam-engine have been used for this purpose, the direct acting has some more peculiar features of compactness and special adaptation. Fig. 890, Plate XI., shows the adaptation of the Brother- hood three-cylinder engine to driving a Gramme machine. The engine consists of three steam cylinders arranged n dially around a framing at equal angular distances .ipart. their axes converging in a point : within the central space around this point revolves a crank axle, which is kept m rotation by the successive impulses of the three pistons which are ' connected to its crank-pin by connecting r the heads of which are provided with brasses bearing agams it ; and a circular distributing valve revolving with tl shaft regulates the admission of steam to each cylinder i succession and determines the position of the cut-oft, and, therefore, the period during which each cylinder is being worked by the expansive force of its imprisoned steam. Brotherhood Engine with Gramme Dynamo-electric Machine. FIG 893. Gramme $ Ivernois Magneto-electric Machine FIG. 892. Lontin Dynamo-electric Machine. FIG. 894. Gramme Electric Light Machine. (Elevation.) FIG. 891. Pacinotti Magneto-electric Machine. PLATE XI. DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINES. ' See pages ZS3, 284 DYNAMO-ELECTRIC ENGINE. 283 DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. The shaft and armature spindle lie in the same line and are coupled direct to one another, thus avoiding the use of belting or gearing. The apparatus represented was con- structed for the British government for torpedo work, the current being utilized in a Serrin lamp. The machine ab- sorbs 13 horse-power, rv.nning at 500 revolutions per minute, when it produces a light of 43,000 normal sperm candles. The consumption of steam, which is worked at 80 Ibs. to the square inch, is 41.1 Ib. per indicated horse-power per hour. The weight of the whole apparatus is 4,256 Ibs., of which the Gramme machine represents 2,240. Dy-na'nio-e-lec'tric Ma-chine'. Speaking generally, the term dynamo-electric machine is ap- plied to any one which produces a current of elec- tricity, by the conversion of dynamic or mechanical energy into electric force by the movement of some of its parts in the neighborhood of others. More definitely, " An electro-voltaic generator whose magnetic field is derived from an electro- magnet, in contradistinction to a magneto-electric generator whose magnetic field is derived from a permanent magnet." Sawyer. In the still more modern terminology, a machine for translating motion into electricity, in which the magnetic field in which the armature rotates is formed by electro-magnets having their coils con- nected in a circuit with the coils of the armature and the main line, whereby upon starting the ma- chine with a minimum of magnetism in the cores of the field magnets, an inter-reacting cumulative action takes place, the initial magnetism creating an initial current in the armature, which, flowing around the field magnets, increase their force, in turn reacting on the armature coils, and so oil un- til the maximum current is produced when the field cores attain saturation. The discovery of electric induction by Prof. Faraday, in the year 1831, drew the attention of the scientific world to the possibility of utilizing motive power as a means of gene- rating a current of electricity. " Faraday demonstrated before the Royal Society that if a magnetized bar of steel be introduced into the center of a helix of insulated wire, there is at the moment of introduc- tion of the magnet a current of electricity set up in a cer- tain direction in the insulated wire forming the helix, while on the withdrawal of the magnet from the helix a current in an opposite direction takes place. " lie also discovered that the same phenomenon was to be observed if for the magnet was substituted a coil of insu- lated wire, through which the current from a voltaic ele- ment was passing : and further, that when an insulated coil of wire was made to revolve before the poles of a permanent magnet, electric currents were induced in the wires of the coil. It is on these discoveries that are based the action of all magneto-electric machines.'' "Journal of the Society of Arts.'' Pixii was the first to construct a magnetic machine. His machine had a revolving permanent vertical horse-shoe mag- net above which was fastened an electro-magnet, and the poles of the two brought into close proximity. As the poles of the permanent passed those of the electro-magnet, a series of re- versed currents were set up in the wires of the latter. A small circular commutator was placed below the horse-shoe magnet and revolved with it. Saxton placed the permanent magnet horizontal, and the axis of the revolving electro-magnet in corresponding posi- tion, lie also increased the relative size of the horse-shoe magnet. Clarke placed the axis of the electro-magnet at the side of and at right angles to the permanent, so that its poles were made to pass those points of the latter where the greatest strength was to be obtained. A commutator placed on the spindly of the electro-magnets corrected the reversal of the currents generated. In the Niaudet machine the current is continuous. A number of bobbins with soft iron cores are fixed parallel to an axis with which they revolve. The poles of these bob- bins turn between the poles of the permanent horse-shoe magnets, one magnet being at each end of the bobbins ; a sort of duplication of the Clarke machine. The bobbins are joined in series, with connection made at the point of junc- ture to a commutator. Two contact springs make the con- nections to the terminals of the machine. The Nollet (" Alliance ") machine (1850)was originally in- tended by its inventor for the decomposition of water, the hydrogen gas to be carbureted by passing through camphene, and used for lighting purposes. It contains a number of gun-metal disks running on a horizontal shaft, and carrying near the circumference of each disk a series of 16 bobbins with soft iron cores, arranged equidistant and parallel to the shaft, and free to turn with the disks between the poles of 8 horse-shoe permanent magnets, the poles of which are placed radially to the shaft. The faces of the magnets are pa.rallel to the disks, so that in each circumference there are 16 poles corresponding to the 16 bobbins. The bobbins are connected in series, one end of the wire being connected to the shaft, and the other to an insulated ring upon the shaft; to these are connected the terminals. The machine has been largely used for light-houses in France : at La Ileve and Grinez, for instances. The Holmes machine (1856) differs from the Nollet in the arrangement of the bobbins. They are held between two brass disks in two or more concentric circles, the bobbins rotating in front of the poles of a number of permanent magnets fixed on the frame, and arranged radial to the axis. This gives a quicker succession to the contacts. A commu- tator directs the alternating currents so as to pass off in the same direction. The South Foreland light, and afterwards the Dungeness lighthouse, were lighted by means of this machine. In later machines, the magnets are made to turn while the bobbins are fixed. In the Siemens-llalske machine (1854) the electrical mag- net was replaced by a cylindrical bar of soft iron with four longitudinal grooves X section, in which insulated wire is wound parallel to the axis, so as to form a complete cylin- der. One end of the wire was soldered to the axis, and the other to an insulated ring at the extremity of the axis ; these connected to the respective terminals. The poles of a per- manent magnet were so formed as to embrace the cylinder without touching. The \Vheatstone machine is in general use for private wires in Great Britain, applied to the ABC telegraph. At- tached to the poles of a permanent compound magnet is a set of 4 bobbins, the soft iron cores of which are fixed per- manently to the magnet, two to each pole. In front of these cores is a soft iron revolving armature. The cores of the bobbins being fixed to the poles of the magnet, receive po- larity from them and form 4 poles, 2 North, and 2 South. The turning armature passing in front of these poles induces currents in the bobbin wires, which by connections actuate the needle of the telegraph instrument. The original dynamo-electric machine, or accumulative generator, is described in the English patent of Soren Hjorth, of Copenhagen, No. 2,198, October 14, 1854. It is perhaps the most remarkable, from one point of view, of the series. It describes and illustrates a " Magneto-electric Battery,'' so constructed that " the currents induced in the coils of the revolving armature are allowed to pass round the electro- magnets ; consequently, the more the electro-magnets are excited in the said manner the more will the armatures be excited, and more electricity of course be induced in the re- spective coilings ; and while a mutual and accelerating force is thus produced in this manner between the electro-mag- nets and the armatures, an additional or secondary current is at the same time induced in the coiling of the electro- magnets by the motion of the armatures, the said current flowing in the same direction as that of the primary current after having passed the commutator. The direction of the current induced in the coils of the armatures will of course be reversed according to the change of the respective polari- ' ties, and the commutator is therefore applied for the pur- pose of causing the same to flow constantly in the same di- rection." The cores may be cast-iron, or steel magnets. It would seem that the invention of Soren Hjorth and the English patent of 1854 had been entirely overlooked by the British, German, and French experts ; and the claim of Dr. Siemens and Sir Charles Wheatstone to the invention of the accumulation generator, in 1867, was made in apparent ig- norance of the claims of the Swedish inventor of 13 years previous. The latter claims are now revived, and the history of the dynamo-electric machine must be re-written : e. g., the account in "Engineering," xxiv. 307 : xxviii. 63, etc. " Early in 1867, an announcement was made to the Royal Society simultaneously by Dr. C. W. Siemens and Sir Charles Wheatstone, of the discovery made independently by Dr. Werner Siemens and Sir Charles, of the reaction principle of magnetization, by which a very powerful electric current may be generated through the building up of the- effects of action and reaction taking place between an electro-magnet and a magneto-electric inductor revolving in its magnetic field, and included in the same circuit." It appears that the discovery was announced by Dr. Wer- ner Siemens to the Berlin Academy of Science a month be- fore its announcement to the Royal Society. Mr. S. A. Varley and Mr. M. G. Farmer were also working on the same invention apparently about the same time. The Wilde machine (1866) is one of the foundation ma- chines, using a Siemens-Halske armature between the poles of a field electro-magnet, which is excited by a small hand magneto-electric machine. It may be compared to one small Siemens machine placed on top of another of larger DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. 284 DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. size. The current from the smaller one is used for mag- netizing the two powerful electro-magnets of the larger one : the latter replacing the permanent ones ordinarily used in the Siemens. The first machine for the production of an electric current constant in direction and intensity was the electro-magnetic ring machine of Dr. A. Pacinotti, of Pisa, Italy, I860, and described in ".// Nuovo Cimento," June, 1864. The peculiarity of the machine was the movable electro- magnet in the form of a circular iron ring in which the mag- netic poles were movable, instead of remaining stationary, as in the previous machines. The machine as shown in Kig. 891, Plate XI., and the description following, have reference to its application as an electro-magnetic machine, but Paci- notti indicated, in the Italian publication referred to, a way in which, by the use of the same annular armature, the electro-magnetic may be converted into a magneto-electric machine capable of producing, by the constant use in con- nection with it of a permanent or electro-magnet, a continu- ous current of a constant direction. " This movable ring of iron had the shape of a spur-wheel of 16 teeth, and was firmly secured to the axis of the ma- chine by means of four strips of brass. Small wooden wedges were placed upon the teeth of the ring, and the space so formed between each two of the wedges filled up regu- larly with insulated copper wire. These spools were all wound in the same direction, and the terminal end of each was soldered to the beginning of the one succeeding it, so that the whole system of 16 spools virtually formed a single coil of wire surrounding the ring in a regular manner, and returning upon itself. " Wires were soldered to the separate points of juncture and were led, parallel to the axis of rotation, to an equal number of insulated pieces of brass, mounted in two rows upon, and slightly projecting from, the surface of a disk firmly secured to the axis. " The iron ring, with the bobbins wound upon it in the manner already described, was mounted in a horizontal posi- tion between the two legs of a powerful upright electro- magnet, the distance of which from the ring could be ad- justed at pleasure by- means of a set screw and a slot in the lower connecting cross-piece. Contact rollers kk were made to press, one on each side of the axis, against the lower wooden disk carrying the strips of brass, so that during the rotation of the ring all of the latter were brought succes- sively into contact with them. When, therefore, the termi- nal posts h h' are placed in connection with the poles of a galvanic battery the current will pass, supposing it to enter at A ( + ), by way of the binding-post / to the roller k, and through the strip of brass on the disk against which the rol- ler may happen to press at the time, up to the two wire coils of the armature whose point of juncture is in connection with the strip of brass. The current here divides, each portion passing in an oppo- site direction through the spools surrounding each half cir- cumference of the ring, to meet again to form one current at the left contact roller k, whence the reunited current passes to the second binding-post I'. From here the current proceeds to the leg A of the electro-magnet, circulates around it, and, after acting similarly with regard to the other leg, B, passes back by way of the binding-post h' to the negative pole of the battery. Magnetic poles thus became developed in the iron ring at the points N S, the position of the con- tact rollers having been so chosen as to bring about this ef- fect, and the actions of attraction and repulsion taking place between them and the poles of the stationary electro- magnet gave rise to the rotation of the ring. " In order to turn the action of the electro-magnet upon the magnetized iron ring to the greatest possible account, Pacinotti provided the two poles with armatures, A A A, B B B, of soft iron, which were made to surround the ring very closely for over two thirds of its circumference. Strips of brass, E E, F F, attached, served to give them greater security. In the elevation of the machine here given these armatures have been omitted in order not to conceal the ring and its surrounding spools." Prof- Hfnrt/ Morton. In the Lontin machine, Fig. 892, Plate XT., the revolving armature is in the form of a central boss, P, into which are fixed 10 or more radial bars, D, of soft iron, circular in sec- tion, and slightly conical, and each wound with a coil of in- sulated copper wire, the ends of which are connected to- gether in series and to a cylindrical commutator. The armature wheel revolves in the field of two powerful elec- tro-magnets, A A, fixed vertically into an iron base-plate, by which they become the two limits of a horse-shoe electro- magnet. The cores of the radial magnetic inductors as they revolve approach very close to the poles of the inducing magnets A A, being at their point of closest proximity when in horizontal position. When the machine is revolving in the direction of the arrow all the radial bobbins above the horizontal line are receding from the left hand, the South pole of the magnet, and approaching the North pole, and the bobbins below the horizontal line vice-versa, the currents in the upper half of the circuit are in one direction, and those below are inverse. The coils are coupled together in series, and each pair of contiguous coils is connected to a sector, C, of the cylindri- cal commutator, there being as many sectors as bobbins, and insulated from one another by strips of vulcanized rubber. Against the surface of this commutator collectors are pressed by springs, the one taking off the positive current and the other the negative, and the currents so induced are trans- mitted through the coils of the large vertical electro-mag- nets, the machine being on the dynamo-electric or reaction principle. The figure shows a Lontin machine with 4 induction wheels fixed on the same shaft, each wheel carrying 10 bob- bins. The bobbins are monnted helically on the shaft, so as to avoid any interval of inaction. Up to the period of the invention of the Pacinotti machine the armature had its magnetism reversed as it rotated, in- volving a loss (mil waste of power. The Italian inventor de- vised the idea of the ring, and rotating the ring between the poles of a magnet in such a way that there should be no re- versal of poles, but merely the traveling of the poles around in the ring. This ring was surrounded with wires from which the induced current was taken. The idea involved was embraced in the Gramme machine, and accepted by electricians only after much dispute and opposition. Gramme appears, however, to have been an independent and original inventor. The Gramme machine, Fig. 893, Plate XI., consists of a permanent field magnet, between the poles of which are ar- matures of peculiar construction, formed by coiling around a soft-iron core a wire of copper, forming the entire coil into an endless bobbin, in the shape of a cylinder or ring ; the wire being provided at suitable intervals with metallic rods or conductors for allowing the proper exit of the electric cur- rent generated. These rods extend axially of the core, and at'their ends on diametrically opposite sides of said axis con- nect with two rolling commutators which lead to line. It must be said, however, that neither Pacinotti nor Gramme originated the ring armature ; for Elias, in 1842, constructed an electro-magnetic motor, the armature of which was an annular coil surrounding a ring core, having 6 polar protuberances at equal distances apart, and which revolved within a similar ring, forming the field-magnet. In Kig 893, Plate XI., H\ the permanent electro-magnet, having additional poles, h h' , of a circular shape, so as to cor- respond with that of the cylinder or endless large bobbin, A, The poles are kept insulated from each other by means of the non-magnetic portions,! i',and the large bobbin or cylinder A is composed of a continuous series of small bobbins con- nected end to end, the junctions being each connected to a conductor, C, which conductors are kept insulated from each other ; on the free ends of these conductors act the rubbers or connecting rollers, S S', for carrying the cur- rents respectively to the posts X X'. The cylinder, or large bobbin, A. revolves by means of the shaft D in standards />'. and motion may be transmitted to the shaft D by means of the crank /, anil pulleys, or other mechanical contrivances. A" 1 represents the soft iron coreof the cylinder or large bob- bin A. In the earlier form of the Gramme machine the inventor mounted three rings upon one spindle, each revolving within the magnetic field of two very large rectangular electro-mag- nets. One of these rings supplied the current by which all the electro-magnets were excited, and the others were united so as to produce the external or useful current. But in the newer and far more powerful machines this arrangement is superseded, there being but one induction ring, and the coils of the electro-magnet are included in the circuit, the whole of the current traversing them. Fig. 894, Plate XI., represents the modern Gramme machine, such as is used for illumination purposes. The ring is mounted on a horizontal shaft which is revolved at a speed of 900 revolutions per minute within the electric field of the four horizontal elec- tro-magnets shown in the cut. The two upper magnets are united to a common pole-piece, which embraces about three- eighths of the circumference of the ring, and the two lower magnets are connected to a similar pole-piece opposite in polarity to that attached to the upper magnets. The Siemens machine, Fig. 895, Plate Xll., has a cylin- drical armature, the " longitudinal induction bobbin : ' re- volving between two double poles of two pairs of electro- magnets. The armature consists of a metallic cylinder with copper wires wound axially over its surface. The peculiar system of winding is the invention of Von Alteneck,who was thus associated with Dr. Siemens in the device. The system of winding and the possible variations are the subject of an elaborate article by M. Breguet, published in "Engineer- ing^ and reproduced in " Van Nostrand's Engineering Mag- azine," * xxii. 375- These longitudinal coils of wire completely envelop the iron cylinder or armature, each section being wound paral- lel to a different plane passing longitudinally through the axis of the cylinder, there being as many of such planes as there are sections to be wound, and at equal angular dis- tances from each other around the circumference of the (Longitudinal Section) FIG. 898. Weston Dynamo-electric Machine. (Cross Section.) Kiu. 896. Brush Dynamo-electric Mac/tin H, 900, Sdison Dynamo-electric Machine. FIG. 897. Wallace-Farmer Dynamo-electric Machine. \laxim Dynamo-electric Machin KIG. 895. Siemens' Bros. Dynamo-electric Machine. PLATE XII DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINES. See pages 284, 285. DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. 285 DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. cylinder. The ends of these coils are connected to a num- ber of copper sectors insulated from one another, which to- gether build up a cylindrical commutator rigidly attached to the armature spindle with which it revolves ; and the cur- rents are collected in a similar manner by conducting brushes pressing against the commutator as it revolves. This system, consisting of the iron cylinder with its en- veloping coils, is rotated at a high velocity within a power- ful magnetic field produced by a series of electro- magnets, the coils of which are included in the circuit of the rotating armature through the brushes, and are magnetized thereby. The curved bars, seen above and below the revolving arma- ture, are of soft iron of rectangular section, and are the pro- longation of the cores of the powerful electro-magnets, shown on each side of the armature, the cores of which are long Hat bars wound with insulated wire. The magnet cores, instead of being flat continuous plates, are divided longitudinally into several bars having air spaces between them, the object of which is, firstly, to prevent cross-currents being induced in the magnets ; secondly, to maintain the lines of magnetic force parallel to the length of the bar : thirdly, to permit of a circulation and escape of air between the revolving armature and the magnets, so as to reduce the accumulative heating of the machine ; lastly, for convenience of manufacture. Of the curved portions of the magnetic cores, each sur- rounds two sixths of the entire circumference of the induc- tion cylinder, so that two thirds of it are embraced by the magnets, and the coils of each set of magnets are so wound as to produce a point or pole in the center of the length of the cores, a North consequent pole being produced at the mid- length of the upper set of magnets, and a South consequent pole being produced at the corresponding point in the lower set of magnets. Thus a very intense magnetic field is formed within the cylindrical space included between the upper and lower sets of magnet bars, and within this space is revolved at a high velocity the induction cylinder or armature, which u described. In the Brush machine, Kig. 896, Plate XII., the wires are wound in slots in the revolving cylinder, and the projecting parts between the slots are brought nearer to the faces of the poles of the field magnets than in the Siemens machine. Keferring to Fig. 896, the machine is seen to consist of two large horse-shoe electro-magnets placed with their similar poles facing each other, the armature revolving between them. The currents are generated in the coils of copper wire wound upon the armature. The coils are 8 in number, opposite ones being connected end to end, and their termi- nals carried to the commutator, which consists of segments of brass, secured to a ring of non-conducting material carried on the shaft. The commutator is so arranged that at any instant 3 pairs of coils are interposed in the circuit of the machine. The current is conveyed from the commutator by means of brushes made of strips of hard brass joined to- gether at their outer ends and connected with a binding screw on the base. The Wallace-Farmer machine, Fig. 897, Plate XII., has a magnetic field produced by two electro-magnets, with the poles of opposite character facing each other. Between the arms of the magnets, and passing through the uprights sup- porting them, is the shaft, carrying at its center the rotating armature. The latter consists of a disk of cast-iron, near the periphery of which, and at right angles to either face, are iron cores wound with insulated wire, thus constituting a double series of coils. These armature coils being con- nected end to end, the loops so formed are connected in the same manner on to a commutator of the same construction as that of the Gramme. As the armature rotates the cores pass between the opposed North and South poles of the field magnets, and the current generated depends on the change of polarity of the cores. In the Weston machine, Fig. 898, Plate XII., the rotating magnet is inclosed in stationary coils in an annular station- ary iron shell. The coils are wound in cylindrical form upon a skeleton frame of non-magnetic material, within which the electro-magnet rotates. The latter is mounted upon a neutral axis, and its periphery moves in close prox- imity to the surrounding coil. Apertures at the end of the cylinder admit air into the space within the coils. The skel- eton frame is divided into 8 segments, and each of the three coils traverses the entire exterior of the skeleton frame, ex- tending across the ends of the cylinder, from the segment on one side to the segment diametrically opposite, and the free ends of the coil are respectively connected with two station- ary brushes bearing upon directly opposite sides of the cy- lindrical commutator. In a late patent of Weston, the skeleton core is rendered discontinuous by a series of deep transverse grooves, and by a longitudinal slit from end to end of the armature, and cur- rents of air are passed through to counteract the heat pro- duced by the resistance of the current, and which might de- stroy the insulation and does increase the resistance. Maxim's dynamo-electric machine, Fig. 899, Plate XII., has an armature of soft-iron rings with the wire wound par- allel with the axis, both plates and wires being so arranged that a free circulation of air is admitted through the arma- ture to prevent dangerous heating. The commutator is large and heavy, and the sections curved in a right and left spiral, so as to avoid any break in the current. Maxim's current regulator, a governor for dynamo-electric machines (Patent No. 228,543), is automatic in case of an over-current to cause the operation of electro-magnetic de- Fig. 901. Edison's Dynamo-electric Machine. (Field Magnet, Horizontal.) vices, releasing or bringing into action mechanism for shift- ing the position of the brushes, and thus reducing the cur- rent. The Edison magneto-electric machine, Fig. 904, Plate XII., and Figs. 90 1 . to 905, has a revolving armature, Fig. 902. of wood with two iron heads, and around the cylinder and between the heads fine iron wire is wound. At the ends of the cylinder, outside the iron heads, are disks of hard rubber, and the wires form- ing the induction helix are wound lengthwise of the cylinder into notches in the edges of the disk. The Edison machine exhib- ited at the Electrical Con- gress, Paris, 1881, is shown in Figs. 904, 905, and is thus described by Comte Th. du Moncel : " The field magnets were Fig. 903. (Top View.) (Transverse Section.) Edison's Dynamo-electric Machine. arranged as a derivation taken from the commutator, put- ting it into the induced circuit, as in Wheatstone and Sie- mens' systems. Then the armature was arranged on Sie- mens' principle, so that the wire consisted of bars of copper. These bars lie close to each other around the cylinder which forms the armature, and they generate the current. Their Fig. 904. Revolving Armature of Edison's Dynamo-electric Machine ' (Detached). extremities correspond to disks of copper (at right angles to them) laid one against the other at the ends of the cylinder, and insulated from each other. Each bar is fastened to its corresponding disks in such a way as to form a single circuit enveloping the cylinder longitudinally, and which is made perfect through the coupled bars two and two with the com- mutator blocks (made after the Gramme pattern). Figs. 904 and 905 give an idea of this new arrangement. The cen- ter of the cylinder itself is occupied outside of the rotating DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. 286 DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. axle by a cylinder of wood, which, in its turn, is surrounded by a thick tube made of a series of very thin disks of iron', separated from each other by tissue paper. This arrange- Fig. 905. Gramme Revolving Armature of Edison's Dynamo-electric Machine (Longitudinal Section). ment facilitates the rapid changes of polarity in the plates. This tube is terminated at its two extremities by two thick clamping disks which are made to compress the others lat- erally, and the copper disks of the working coil occupy the two compartments at the extremities ot tne cylinder, as seen in Fig 905. Under such conditions as those the resistance of the generator is small, and permits of great subdivision of the current in multiple arc ; nor is there any insulation to be burned, and it is even possible, in case of deterioration of the bars, to renew them easily, for they are simply screwed against the upper disks corresponding to them. Jn another arrangement adopted by Mr. Edison, the field magnets lie horizontal instead of being placed vertical ' Seeley's disk armature is an amplification of the idea of " Arago's disk." The disk is constructed of insulated wire revolving in a magnetic field arranged radially with reference to the axis of the armature. The disk consists essentially of wire wound in radial direc- tions, so that the radii on entering may be moved before magnet poles of the same name, while the radii oiitg ling move before the opposite poles. The whole mass of the itisk, so far as it is practicable, is filled out or made up of the ra- dial winding, and the sectors of out and in wires are equal in number and symmetrical in form and arrangement. See the following references : Allan * "Journal Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 236, pi. 6. >lra^o, Ball *"La Lumicre Electr. ,"\. 219. " Alliance," Nollet . . * "Engineer," xliv. 401. * "Engineering," xxvii. 513. * LabouJaye's "Diet.," iv., ed. 1877, art. "Equivalent de rElectricitc." * "LaLumiere Electr.," ii. 259. * " Van Nostr. Mag.," xxii. 403. Ayrton, Prof., Electricity as a motor . . . . "Scientific American," xii. 213. " Van Nostr. Mag.," xxi. 478. Breguet * "Engineering," xxix. 1. "Sc. Amer. SMp.,"1814, 1974. Breguet- Gramme . . . * " App.de rElectricite," v.523. Brush * "Eng. If Min. Jour.," xxvi. 240. * " Engineer," xlv. 447. * " Van Nostr. Mag." xxii. 416. * "Iron Age," Jan. 9, p. 7. *"La Lumiere Electr.," ii.343; * iv. 6. Burgin "La Lumicre Electr." i. 89; * ii. 209. Cance * "La Lumicre Elec.," ii. 388. Ckataux "Scientific Amer. Swp., :; 605. Clark * " Van Nostr. Mag.," xxii. 402. Demoget * "La Lumicre Electr.," i. 75. de Meritens * Van Nostr. Mag.," xxii. 444. * "Engineering," xxviii. 372. *"La Lumicre Electr.," ii. 135, *190: iii. 23: * iv. 175. die Moncel, paper by . . * "App. de I'Electricitc,'''' v. 537. Edison * "Scientific Amer.,"x\i. 242. * "La Lumicre Elec.," i. 169; * v. 1, * 88, * 205. Elias (1842) "Dingler's Jour.," 1842, p. 395. * "Sc. Am. Sup.," Jem. 14, 1882. Farmer. See Wallace-Farmer. Fein * "La Lumiere Electr.," iv. 59. Fitzgerald * "Engineer," 1. 284. Gary * "Sc. Amer.," xl. 144, 145,151. Gramme * "Engineering," xxviii. 63, 327, 412. ^"Engineer"' xlv. 447 ; * xlix. 174. * "App. de I'Electricite," v. 522. * "La Lumiere Electr." i. 114 ; * ii. 87 ; * iv. 117 ; * v. 336. "Iron Age," xxv., Mar. 11, p. 1. * "Engineering." xxix. 134. Gramme-tV Ivernois Giddier Hefner-Altenek . . Hopkins .... Hopkinson-MuirAea/l Lackaussce * Lachinojf * Ladd * Lambotte * Leblanc * Lontin . . . * . "Van Nostr. Mag..'' xv. 49; * xxii. 412-414, 418. *" Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2468. * "Journal Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 239, pi. 7. * "La Lumiere Elec.tr. S' v. 371. * "La Lumiere Electr.," iii. 431. * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2553. * "La Lumicre Ett-ctr." v. 51. Hospitalier * "La Lumicre Electr." ii 151, *171. Houston- Thomson . . . *" Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2708. Hjort/i * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng." viii. 229, pi. 4. Jablochkoff * " Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2187. 'La Lumicre Electr.," iii. 348. 'La Lumiere Electr.," iv. 387. 'La Lumicre Electr." iii. 360. ' Van Nostr. Mag.,'' xxii. 405. 'La Lumicre Electr.," iv. 387. La Lumicre Electr.," iv. 72. 'Engin eering," xxv. 49 ; xxviii. 174. * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1223, 1814. * " Van Nostr. Mug.," xxii. 443. * "App. de I ' Electr. ," v. 534. * "Jour, Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 237, pi. 8. * "La Lumicre Electr.," i. 15 ; ii. 21. Maxim * "La Lumicre Electr." ii. 412, 418. * " Manf. If Build.," xii. 196, 223. * "Scientific American," xliii. 130, 150, 262. * "La Lumicre Electr. ." v 15. Maxim (Governor) . . . * " Scientific Amer.," xliii. 255. Meritens. See de Meritens. Millward (1851) . . . . * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 255, pi. 1,2. Morton, Prof., paper by . * " Van Nostr. Mag.," xxii. 397, 441. Nelson, Br " Telegraphic Journal," iv. 104. Niaudet * "Engineer," xliv. 401. Niaudet- Breguet . . . . * "App. de I' Electr. ," v. 525. Nollet. See ' ' Alliance . ' 'j Pacinotti * " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 217. * " Van Nostr. Mag.." xxii. 406. * "La Lumicre Electr.." v. 434. * " IlNuovo Cinxento" June, "64. "Kept. U. S. Lighthouse Board,"- 1879. Pixii * "Engineer," xliv. 383. * " Van Nostr. Mag.," xxii. 402. "La Lumicre Electr.," ii. 270. * ' Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng., "viii. 242. pi. 9. * "Die Magnet- unil Di/namo- electrisc/ien Mac/iinen," Koln, 1879, p. 79. * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng., "viii. 228, p. 3. Schuckert * " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 119. * "La Lumiere Electr.," ii. 45. Siemens . . . * "Engineering," xxviii. 63, 101, 327 ; xxiv. 307. * " Telegraphic Journal," v. 273. * " Van Nostr. Mag.," xxii. 405. Lighthouse .... * "Engineer," xliv. 401. Siemens-Halske , . . . * "La Lumicre Electr.," v. 369. Siemens- Hefner-Altenek . * "App. del'Electricite," v. 526. Societe V Alliance. See "Alliance. " Transmission of power by electricity. "Engineer" xliv. 451. " Van Nostr. Mag.," xx. 334. Siemens * " Scientific Amer.," xlii. 127. Trouve * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 4131. Treatise on, from "Engi- neering" #"Van Nostr. Mag.," xviii. o55, 375 : * xxii. 340. Wallace- Farmer .... * "Engineer," xlv. 447. * "Iron Age," xxiii , Jan. 9, p. 7. * "La Lumiere Electr.," ii. 343. Western Union Telegraph * "Scientific Am.," xlii. 63. Weston * " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 157. * "Iron Age," xix., Jan. 11, p. 19 ; * xxiv., July 17, p. 1. * "Manuf. if Builder," ix. 246. *" Scientific Amer.," xxxv. 150. * "La Lumiere Electr.," i. 172; iv. 311. Factory * "Scientific American," xii. 399. Ude . . . *" Van Nostr. Mag.,' ' xxii. 404. Journal Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 235, pi. 5; *240, pi. 8. Rapieff . Roberts . Schellen's Schottlander Wilde DYNAMOGRAPH. 287 DYNAMOMETER. Dy-nam'o-graph. (Surgical.) An instrument for registering the muscular power of the hand of an individual applied to the compression of an el- liptic spring. See DYNAMOMETER. Dyn'a-mom'e-ter. 1. (Suryical.) An ellip- tic spring with indicating ringer and graduated arm, to be collapsed by the grasp of the. hand, as a measurer of the muscular power of the hand of the individual. Fig. 283, Part 1, Tiemanii's "Annum. Chirurgicum." An- other instrument has a bulb to be compressed by the hand, ejecting a liquid which rises in a tube against a graduated scale. Fig. 285, Ibid. 2. A machine used for testing the lifting streneth of persons. See HEALTH LIFT ; LIFTING MA- CHINE ; EXERCISING MACHINE. 3. An instrument for measuring the compression exerted by a charge of powder in explosion. Such an instrument is also known as an internal-pressure gage, or a piezometer : each of which see. Lieut. -Col. Bfnton's dynamometer is designed to be used in connection with the Rodman pressure gage, for the pnr- pose of determining tho pressure per square inch exerted within the bores of cannon and small arms by the ignition of powder, It may also be used for testing the strength of materials, or for measuring their compression within certain limits. The apparatus is described in the " Report of the Chief of Ordnance, U. S. A," 1877, * 374 and Plates I.-V Lieut. Metcalfe's dynamometer for measuring the recoil of fire-arms, measures the recoil by means of a cut made in a material of uniform resistance, such as copper or lead, by a Rodman knife interposed between the metal and the butt of the gun. See Appendix N and plate, "Ordnance Report." 1 1878, p. 109. 4. An instrument for measuring tractile force exerted by an engine or team. A simple form is that of Miller. It is self-registering, and v . w,, consists of an ordi- nary dynameter spring, a a, with needle, b, and grad- uated scale, c. A strip of paper carefully ruled t o correspond with the graduated scale is caused to pass under the needle at a uni- form rate, by means of rollers moved by a train of gearing, Miller's Dynamometer. with a fly to regu- late the motion. This mechanism is inclosed in a box beneath the graduated scale. Every impulse of the power is accurately noted upon the graduated paper by a pencil attached to the needle, ena- bling the operator to determine, not only the mean and extreme draft, but also the unsteadiness of draft as indicated by the range of vibration of the needle. The instrument is connected to the object, the draft of which is to be tested, and to the power used, by a hook and clevis. The dynamometer of Berg, Kjobenhavn, Denmark, is shown in Fig. 907. Draft upon the double-tree condenses a Fig. 90 spring and causes a pointer to traverse a graduated sector and show the force exerted. Attached to the pointer arm is a rod which moves a traversing pencil, the point of which rests on a traveling band of paper, which is rotated by a small trailing carriage. The dynamometer of Baldwin fy Eickemeyer was used at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876 in testing the mowing machines. It differs from other dynamometers in so far as it compounds the average draft applied to the machine for a Fig. 90S. Berg's Dynamometer Baldwin 4 Eickemeyer's Dynamometer. given distance, say, 100 feet, and thus facilitates the tests very materially, as all calculations of diagrams are avoided. Two coiled springs, C O, united by cross-bar D, and at- tached by clevis D 1 to the double-tree of the team, form the connection between the draft-power and the pole of the ma- chine to which the apparatus is hooked. The cross-head D is the forward end of a T-shaped bar fitted into the frame on the extreme end of which the belt-guide E is fastened. The position of the belt-guide thus depends upon the amount of power applied to the clevis D', as the springs lengthen or contract by variations in the said force. To record and average the draft so applied is the function of the recording mechanism. The base-line of 100' is meas- ured by a tape line 100' long, wound up in the tape case F, which is drawn out through a slot and passes between the rubber friction roller G and the driving pulley H. One end of a string is fastened to the ring in the end of the tape line and the other end of the string to a peg in the ground As soon as the team starts, the tape line begins to pay out, turning the driving pulley H until the 100' is expended, and setting in motion the recording mechanism which ceases when the tape is expended. A pair of bevel wheels connects the shaft of the driving roller H with the conical roller /, giving it a determined number of revolutions during the expenditure of 100' of tape Above the conical roller 7 is a parallel roller K, which is sustained on conical end screws, and its shaft carries a worm K, which engages the gear on the periphery of the drum of the indicator dial. An endless cord passes between the roll- ers I K, issuing through a guide F, carried by the post E on a stem of the T-bar D. When no strain is applied to the clevis D', E is at the rear position shown in the cut, and were the apparatus even in motion by means of the strain upon the tape line, the end of which was fast to the ground peg, no indication would be given upon the recording dial, because as the endless cord is on the point of the roller it gives no motion to the roller K, and, through the latter, to the dial. When, however, strain is brought by draft on the clevis D', the endless cord is drawn forward, and the cord passes between rollers IK at such point between the apex and the base of roller J as the draft may have occasioned. The heavier the draft the larger the portion of the roller 1 traversed by the cord and in exactly the same proportion is the motion of the roller K and accordingly of the dial. Any fluctuation in the draft exerted is immediately manifest by the creeping of the cord toward the point or toward tho base, as the power exerted diminishes or increases, and equally, the indicator travels more or less slowly. The ex- tent of the motion of the indicator is tho sum of all the effects, and it is set to zero at the commencement of each trial. The reading of the indicator is the perfected record, and no calculations of diagrams are necessary. Emerson's dynamometer, in one form, is shown at 5, Fig 1813, p. 768, "Mech. Diet." Quite a variety of lever dyna- mometers, fixed and portable, are now made on this princi- ple. These dynamometers are graduated by applying the DYNAMOMETER. 288 DYNAMOMETER. O Mean of work by the four reap- ers. d.8155 kilos per sq. meter = 8,155 kilos per hectare. Mean of work by the four mow- ers, 1.355 kilos per sq. meter -= 13,550 kilos per hectare. ! ? ' iD QC Weight of Wheat cut per Square Meter. CD 1- CO O M -^ ^ CM O 'A o O O O = (2 Estimate of Power re- quired to cut ; t One Hectare of Wheat. JOne Hectare of Lucern. IE g | S {g~ I OS 1 -*< O i < *O O 'X> CD CO O H- -H- -H- -H- eakor sjiriiiirs a short stulili s Arts fi Mcti Price of Machine. u QOO OOO 000 000 C OOO O O O C iO >O -7? > - > 7* 53 OOO OOO 1 I I OOO C-l C>l c3 1 I- 1* 1 1- I I 1 1 1 CCCDCO CDCDCDCD CCCDCD CCCCCP = It - ^ *- IM'cMC-f CMCM'CM rni-HrH i-TrH rH 5 tt |i Total Weight. J2 CO CO CO CO CO CO Cvl 3 M iO^CtC SS5 llii 888 IIS t. S ? * 6 S S aj o ^=O Weight of Driver. CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM (M CM CM - '~. ~. ~. OiO^Oi O2 O5 O5 Ol Oi Oi M > s*. 73 St Weight of Machine. ^O _-_-*. ._*,}, oj CO CO lO O 'O ^ 8g BiS 5+; ^ _. a "3 ^2 - ? >.. a *. S _0 3 fl ^-i cuff O5 Oi O5 I 1 1~ I I t-- C 1C 1C SSrH SSrH 000 000 i^2S SSi^S SSS Lssag *35^S ood odd ddo" odd OOO OOOO OOO OOO s's-sii 5f 3 i Rate of Motion per Sec- ond. OwlC^i O CM OO O O5 *C COOI *2 T^ICMCO OiOiCM TjH^Tt* CM CO CO 8O5 OO OS 1 CO O C4 1 3i t'-OSOi i-Hr- C^ iC t^- -: 'M e ta " ^ I? C fcjo Length of Trace on Pa- T^OOtD C^OSCO COCD iCC^^O slrl ill! ls ! o as rH ^^ - .H.H^ rHCOrH rnrHrH rH rH rH rH O ^ " -SI Surface of Diagram, measured by the Planimeter. 5^ OOO OOO O*CO OOO CO t' CO "^ I Oi CD -^ O " ~- ' .7 .| CMiO^i CMCOrH CMr-rH rH S ^ ~ II X fi " 3 Ills t- 1 fcJD^j g;ooC 1. At work. 2. Moving ; in gear but not cutting. 3. Moving ; not in gear. 1-HOqCO -HCCO rHCMCO I-HCMCO -t- +H- 4 4-f i ICMCO rH (N CO rHCMCO rH CN CO a -l! 8 - S a; rH ti 1 Hi = ~ H - *H o if i II 11 11 11 S.S s=g S| >S" -So - " s ^i ti !*i I's 111 ?l S S! |s O ^ ft ^ |- S | g SI 1 o J 3 - o 2 g cJ^gO ^"g pt ll ^ & r g-| TL\\. 36,276 Froude, Propellers * "JSng-'m^," xxiv. 67, 90. Propellers * "Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 1407. Giffard, Balloons, Paris, 1878 . . " Sc. Am.," xxxix. 179. Hausner, Fabrics * "Sc. Am. Sup.,' 1 1236. Killiches, Locomotives, Ger. . . " Van Nostrand's Mag." xix. 560. Maxim * "Mantif. if Builder,'' xii. 223. Reaper trial, Br., 1876 .... "Sc. Am. Sup.," 681. Prony brake *"Sc. Am. Sup.," 704, Fig. 7. "Sc. Am.," xxxviii. 130. Electric currents, Weber ... * "Sc. Am. Sup.,' ; 3985. Dynamometer for threads and tissues, article Dynamom- Ater, Laboulaye' 's "Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," tome iv., ed. 1877. Dynamometers of Tresca, Morin, Bentall, Ibid., tome i., article, Dynamometer. See also TESTING MACHINE, and list tinder MEASURING IN- STRUMENTS, infra. Dyne. (Electricity.) The unit of force, namely : A force which, acting on a mass of one gram, for one second, imparts a velocity of one centime- ter per second or increases or diminishes the initial velocity of such mass by that amount. Gordon. Dy'si-ot. A German alloy, a whitish brass, readily fused. Copper 62 Lead 18 Tin 10 Zinc 10 100 E. Ear For'ceps. (Surgical.) An instrument for extracting foreign bodies from the external meatus. Fig. 909. The prongs are fine, and come into complete appo- sition in the mode of some bullet forceps. Dr. Francis H. Brown. Ear In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) These are of three kinds : 1 . For exploration and diagnosis. 2. For operation. 3. For prothesis. See : 1. Otoscope. Reflector. Diagnostic tube. Ear probe. Explorer. Tuning fork. Specula. 2. Curette. Hook for foreign bodies. Polypus knife. Polypus forceps. Polypus snare. Eustachian catheter. Meatus knife. Eustachian canal inflator. Ear spoon. Powder blower. Port acid glass. Mastoid process knife. Ear syringe. Eyelets and eyelet forceps. Angular forceps. Tympanum perforator. Nose clamp. Tensor tympani instr. Air-bag. Ear forceps. Capillary spray instru- ment. Maryngotome. Bistoury. 3. Auricle. Apparitor auris. Ear trumpet. Cornet. Ear Lift'er. (Harvesting.) A long projecting guard finger on the knife bar of a reaper, to insinu- ate itself beneath the grain which has been storm beaten, or laid in the field. A row of lifters is placed in advance of the regular guards. Hornsby. 19 Ear Pow'der-blow'er. An instrument to introduce powder into the ear by the way of the Fig. 910. Ear Insufflator. external meatus. One section of the stem has a sliding cap, which is withdrawn to allow the pow- der to be introduced. Compression of the bulb ejects the powder at the nozzle. A form of syr- inge. See AUTO-INSUFFLATOR AND ATOMIZER, Figs. 128, 131, pp. 55 and 57 respectively, supra. Ear Spout. A trough which hangs by a wire to the ear and conducts outflow water to a basin, while syringing. Earth Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which the elements are imbedded in the earth to be acted upon by the moisture of the ground. Cerpaux's earth electric battery consists of a combination of plates of zinc and copper, separated by slats and blocks of wood, inserted in moist earth or sand. " Scientific American , Supjrilement " 452, * 2489. Sabine's "Electric Telegraph " 230. "Scientific American Supplement'' * 774. "Scientific American'' 1 xxxiv. 296. Earth Flax. Amianthus. See ASBESTOS. Earth Pit. A sunken trench or pit, Fig. 911, in which to protect plants during winter, using the heat of the earth below and around, and exclud- ing the cold above by means of sashes, and any necessary shutters or matting in very cold weather. A cold pit. Earth'quake In'di-ca'tor. An instrument to indicate, and in some instances record, the per- EASEL. 290 EBONY, ARTIFICIAL. Fig 911. Earth, Pit. turbations of the ground in case of earthquakes. See SEISMOMETER, "Meek, Diet." et infra. Ea'.sel. A frame or tripod on which a board, canvas, or other object is supported at a convenient angle for drawing, plotting, or painting. That shown is by Boudriot, of Hague, Germany. The drawing board is suspended from two sliding frames by ropes passing over pulleys on the top of the easel, and it Fig. 912 table, and the hand-rest adjusted to a convenient height and position to bring the hair pencil to bear upon the object, which is chucked on the table by means of centering pins in the flanged rim. Eas'ing Valve. A small valve in the center (say) of a large valve, the former being lifted by a moderate power, to equalize the pressure before the large valve opens. Draftsman's Easel. is balanced by a ball weight attached to the ropes. The board can be inclined at any angle by means of adjustable telescoping struts. The easel has adjustable arms, carrying sliding carriages, from one of which a lamp is suspended, and a small table for the instruments from the other. The easel can be adjusted to suit persons of different heights, and to accommodate different kinds of work. Fig. 913 shows Brownell's easel for painting and striping pottery. The vase is placed on the turn- Fig, 913. 'Engineer," xlv. Porcelain Painter's Easel. format** 188. McNaught, * 297. Borsig, *297. Eb'o-nite. Another name for hard black rub- ber. The inventor, Charles Goodyear, between 1840 and 1850, made a number of finely molded articles in this material. It is produced by the process of vulcanization, the heat, quantity of sulphur, and time employed being in excess of the ordinary vulcanization. The hard and fibrous rubbers of the Malayan Archipelago are preferred to the Para or the African rubber for this purpose. The carefully washed and dried rubber is mixed by means of heated rollers with from 25 to 50 per cent, of sulphur (which must be free from acid), according to the hardness required. 3 per cent, of lampblack may be added to improve the color, and calcined magnesia is sometimes added. The material becomes plastic while hot, and non-elastic when cold. The ebonite is cured in steam at 135 C. during a period of from 6 to 10 hours, according to the thickness of the article. At a heat of 140 to 150 C. the process is shortened. Ebonite in its plastic state is molded in tin, type metal, or tinned brass molds. A very slight application of oil, fol- lowed by black-leading, prevents adhesion. Ebonite works like horn or ivory, and can be turned, but requires a high rate of speed. It is dressed down by flour- glass paper and fine emery, and polished by cloth charged with fine brick-dust and water, oil, or paraffine ; subse- quently by rotten-stone or tripoli. When heated, it may be bent to shape, so that articles such as bracelets are made flat, heated to 100 C., and bent to shape. Junctions are easily made in the vulcanizer when the ebonite is not at its hardest condition. The uses of ebonite depend largely upon its properties of hardness, elasticity (in certain grades), electrical non-con- ductivity, compactness, inertness toward most chemical products, capacity for shaping by molds, turning, polish- ing. Gutta-percha, shellac, asphalt, graphite, are added to some compositions, and sulphur as high as 60 per cent. An ap- proved formula is Rubber .100 Sulphur Gutta percha 10 Combined under heat. Molded in a material not affected by the sulphur ; exposed to a heat of 315 F. in a steam pan, at a pressure of 12 pounds to the square inch. Eb'o-ny, Ar'ti-fi'cial. Boil oak wood for 48 hours in a solution of alum, and then brush over with a decoction of logwood, prepared as follows: Boil 1 part of logwood in 10 parts of water ; filter, evaporate to one half. To each quart of this solution add 12 drops saturated neutral solution of indigo. After the application of the dye rub the wood with a satu- rated filtered solution of verdigris in hot, concentrated acetic acid, and repeat till the required black color is attained. Or. Boil 2 quarts of water with pound of logwood and add 1 ounce pearl-ash ; wash the wood with this first, and then with the following wash : 2 quarts of water boiled with J pound of logwood, J ounce sulphate of iron, ounce of acetate of copper, and i pound rusty steel filings. Or : Dip in a solution of logwood. When dry, rub clean, dip in a solution of bichromate of potassium ; dry and rub again. Or : Wash repeatedly in a solution of sulphate of iron. Dry ; then wash repeatedly in hot solution of logwood. Dry ; wash with sponge and water. Dry : rub with linseed oil. See the following references : "Iron Age?' xxiii., April 10, p. 1. "Manufac. Sf Builder,"- ix.96, 120. Ebonite "Scientific American Sup.,'' 4008. "Mining if Sc. Press," xxxii. 23. "Eng. Mechanic,'' xxv. 142, 165. Ebonizine wood . . . "Manufac. $ Builder,' 1 '' x. 240. "Mining If Sc. Press," xl. 263. "Scientific American,'''' xxxviii. 191/219,251; xxxiv. 40. " Scientific American," xxxyii. 137. 145. EBONY, ARTIFICIAL. 291 ECCENTRIC LATHE. "English Mechanic,'' xxv. 644. Imitation "English Mechanic,-' xxvii. 135. Polishing "English Mechanic,-' xxiii. 363. E-bul'li-o-scope. (Add.) The cbullioscope of M. Malligand, of Paris, is an instrument for ascertaining the quantity of alcohol present iu liquids. U. S. Patent, No. 173,128. It was found by the Abb6 Brossard-Vidal that alcohol hold- ing certain matters in solution, such as sugar, resins, citric Malligand's Ebullioscope. and tartaric acids, gives a different result, the presence of these matters in moderate quantities not affecting the boil- ing-point of the alcohol in which they are dissolved. This fact led to the method of estimating the proportion of alco- hol present in wines and other alcoholic liquors by compar- ison of their boiling-points with the boiling-points of differ- ent mixtures of alcohol and water in known proportions. hi using the apparatus, pure water is placed in the boiler until it reaches the lower ring/, or mark, in the boiler. The water is then boiled, the boiling-point being noted by bring- ing the zero of the movable scale E opposite the degree in- dicated by the mercurial column C. The water is then re- placed by the liquid to be tested, care having been taken to rinse out the boiler with some of the same, so that no water is allowed to remain. The boiler is then filled up to the upper ring g, or mark, in the boiler, and cold water supplied to the condenser-vessel b, attached at the top of the instru- ment. The lamp is then lighted, and as soon as the mercurial column becomes stationary in the stem, then, by means of the mercury above the scale E, the degree of the boiling is at once indicated. The peculiarities of the instrument consist in the con- densers a b for returning the vapors of the liquids under test, so as to keep them at normal strength ; in heating the liquid in detail by pipe F through the flame, thus insuring circulation and proximate equality of temperature through- out the boiler B. See HYPSOMETER, for the instrument for ascertaining alti- tudes by the observation of the boiling point of water. E'bur-ine. Dust of ivory or bone compounded with gum tragacanth or albumen, by pressure and heat ; colored at pleasure. The name adopted by the French inventor, Latry. A cement is usually added, but the organic matter in the bone seems to answer if the heat be carefully regulated. The material is a grayish-white, but may be colored by pigments, an addition which renders albumen necessary. It is used in connection with bois-durci or wood concrete (made of sawdust and bullocks' blood). Eburine may be colored and molded, and made to imitate jasper, malachite, lapis-lazuli ; to form moldings, seals, cam- eos, ornaments of various kinds. Latry " Technologists," xxxix. 221. See list under COMPOSITIONS, p. 212 supra; also EBONITE, p. 290. Etmr-ite. See EBCKINE. Ec-cen'tric Chuck. An oval and eccentric lathe chuck of considerable range and variety of work is shown in "English Mechanic," and repro- duced in ''Scientific American Supplement,''' * 1413. See also Penney * "Engineering," xxv. 308. Ec-cen'tric Clamp, stone monuments, col- umns, pillars, etc., which should not be defaced by leaving holes or by clamps which mar the bin-face of the object. The lifting of the load turns the eccentrics and binds the rubber-faced plates firmly against the object. The size is ad- j usted by the t u r n- buckles at the sides. Ec-cen'tric Geared Press. An iron-shear- ing and punching twin- power press in which the power is transmitted through eccentric gear- A lifting arrangement for Fig. 915. Eccentric Clamp. The middle shaft receives a uniform velocity by its large spur-wheel driven by a pinion below. On this shaft is an elliptic gear hung eccentrically, which alternately imparts to the eccentrics on the right and left respectively a slow mo- tion during the penetrating dowu-stroke and a rapid motion Fig. 916. Eccentric Geared Press. during the up-stroke, increasing the power two-fold in the former case and the speed two-fold in the latter, proximately. The greater part of the upward stroke is in fact accom- plished in one-sixtti of the time occupied in the revolution of the shaft carrying the shear or punch, as the case may be. Ii-ens $f Brooks . * "Engineer," xli 450. Ec-cen'tric Lathe. A lathe with a compound face plate or sliding frame with guides by which the object is so presented that the tool works an ovnl upon it. Maxwell of Cincinnati, in 1866, made an important im- provement in so arranging the lathe that the amount of ponderable weight was at all times the same on every side of the axis, independent of the piece being turned. This pre- vented the very serious vibration incident to rapid running of eccentric lathes not thus arranged. The machine shown in Fig. 917 is made by Arbey of Paris. ECCENTRIC LATHE. 292 EDGE SETTER. Fig. 91T. Eccentric Lathe. Ec-ceii'tric Mill. In the Bogardus eccentric mill, both plates revolve in the same direction (with nearly equal speed), on centers, which are apart from each other one or two inches, more or less; the center of the one, or the axis thereto affixed, resting on, or revolving upon a stationary bearing ; whilst the prime mover, by means of a belt or gear- ing, causes the motion of the other plate. The driven plate communicates motion to the Fig. 918. Bogardus Eccentric Mill. other, the circles which are cut in the plates acting as a revolving shears. The faces of the plates are variously formed for different purposes. Ec-ceii'tric Valve. A stop valve moved by an eccentric upon the valve stem, or, as in the case cited, by an equivalent motion of a short-throw- crank. See Elliott $ Burnett, Br. . . * "Engineer,'' xliv. 193. * "Engineering," xxiii. 98. * "Sc. American Sup . ," 1570. Ech'o-scope. (Surgical.) An instrument in- vented by Dr. Speir to intensify sounds produced by percussion of the thorax. Fig. 267, p. 83, Part I., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chi- rurgicum." % E-con'o-mi'zer. An apparatus for heating the feed water by the waste heat from a boiler or fur- nace. See FUEL ECONOMIZER. E-cra'seur. (Surgical.) A flexible loop for cutting, or tearing loose a tumor, polypus, etc. The following figures sefer to Tiemann's "Armamentarium Ch irurgicum.'' The ecraseurs of Chassaignac, Edwards, Emmett, Tiemann, and Barnes, for uterine and ovarian tumors, are jointed chains. Pages 92, 93, Part III. Of the same class, is Sims' porte chain e'craseur, Fig. 470, Part III. The instruments of Smith, Braxton, Hicks, and Van Bu- ren for tne same purposes, are of wire. Ibid. The galvano-cautery sling or ecraseur, Ibid., p. 100. See also, Ibid., p 113, Part I. Gibbs' Laryngeal ecraseur, Ibid., Fig. 338, Part II. Some (Scraseurs are shown under CAUTERY INSTRUMENTS, supra. The Ecraseur of Dr. J. Harry Thompson is designed for the rapid removal of uterine polypoid growths. It enable* Fig. 919. Dr. J. H. Thompson's Ecraseur. the operator to readily pass the chain around the tumor, the steel springs keeping it taut until the tumor has been com- pletely encircled. Dr. Nott's rectilineal e'craseur is especially intended for the removal of hemorrhoids, and division of the pedicle of ovarian tumors. It is a species of clamp with screw fast- ening handles, the jaws being respectively a blade and a slit. See Fig. 6, p. 64, vol. vii., Dr. Thompson's report of Group XXIV., * "Centennial Exhibition Reports.'' E-de ma-glot'tis Tube. (Surgical) A flat spring ring to be introduced into the glottis to pre- vent its being closed by swelling. Edge Grind'stone. One the peripheral edge of which is the portion utilized ; as distinguished from surface grindstone. Edge Key. A tool used in boot-making for rubbing and burnishing the edges of soles. The disks are made of patterns : plain, convex, scotch edge, fluted, etc. Edge Laid Belt. One made by cutting up the hides into strips of the width of the intended thick- ness of the belt, and setting them on edge. These strips have holes punched through them about " diameter and \" apart. Nails, made of round wire, clinched up at one end for a head and flattened at the other, are used for fastening the leathern strips together. Edge Mold'ing Ma-chine'. One for cutting moldings on the edges of boards, the latter lying upon a table and presented to a revolving cutter which projects upwardly through a hole in the table. Fig. 3200, p. 1468, " Mech. Diet." Bentel, Margtdant if Co. * " Manuf. and Builder," xii. 153- * "Engineer ," xli. 412. Edge Pla'ning Ma-chine'. A planing ma- chine specially arranged and adapted for planing the edges of boiler and armor plates. Sir Joseph Whitworth's machine operates on plates up to 15' length. Edge Rolled Spring. A flat bar laid spirally as in v, Fig. 1143, p. 483, "Mech. Diet." Edge Set'ter. A small lathe for burnishing the edges of boot soles. In the Tayman edge setter the shoe is carried on a jack and the burnisher held in the hand. Fig. 920. Edge Setter. EDGE TRIMMER. 293 ELECTRICAL DIAPASON. Edge Trim'mer. (Boot-Making.) A small ma- . chine for paring the boot sole. The boot is held on a, jack, moving automatically, and the knife trims the edge and takes out the feather. Tayman. Edg'ing and Di-vid'ing Bench. A circular aaw of special adaption for sawing block* into vous- soir shapes, used in one form (Mausel's, Br. ) of car- wheels. The bed is moved to and fro by a screw, and the travel of the bed is adjusted and determined by the movable projec- tions attached to the bed, which, by communicating motion to the system of levers, throw the strap on to one of the three pulleys for stopping, or for motion in one or other direction. The table has a fast return motion given it by means of a double ring of cogs, on the crown wheel fixed to the screw. Robinson, Br * "Engineer,'' xlv. 216. Edg'ing Ma-chine'. (Machine-tool) A ma- chine with horizontal adjustable bed, and one or more cutters on vertical spindles : used for milling' around the inside or outside edges of irregular shapes, and for surfacing and inside milling. A profiling machine. Jones, Lamson & Co. The Pratt ff Whitney edging machine has an accurate au- tomatic movement for cutting circles of less than 3" diam- eter, and their tangents. Made with one, two, or three spindles. Edg'ing Saw. A circular saw arranged upon a bench for ripping boards to make strips or straight- edges. The board is placed on a movable table and fed past the saw. Sec also DOUBLE EDGER. Eel Spear. (Fishing.) A spear, Fig. 921, with 3 or more barbed prongs for catching eels by thrust- ing it into the mud they inhabit. See also GRAINS. Patents : S. Hedges No. 172.312. C. M. Knowles 218J540. Egg Beat'er. The Dover egg-beater has two revolving flat loops on . , different shafts, each passing alternately in- side of the other, gath- Fig. 921. Eel Spear. Dover Egg-beater. ering the egg towards the center of the bowl and whirling it in cross currents. The following references may be consulted : arr Mnnn * ' Scientific American," xlii. 1 15. Scientific American,' 1 '' xxxviii. 354. 'Scientific American," 1 xxxv. 195. 'Se. Am.," xxxvi. 275, 408; xl. 88. 'Scientific American,-' xli. 399. 'Scientific American," xxxv. 131. 'Scientific American,'''' xxxix. 328. 'Scientific American,' 1 xlii. 83. Egg'-end Steam Boil'er. A form of stenm boiler with hemispherical ends. When of large size, the longitudinal seams are double riveted. When dished ends are used, the larger sizes have longitudinal or gusset stays, or both. Beater, Mann Boiler * Paper cup, Washburne, * Dessicated . Holder, Birch I'linili' nult . Opener, Kry Tongs, Koska Tester. Egg'-shell Ware. (Ceramics.) A name ap- plied to very thin porcelain, resembling the egg- shell in its extreme lightness. Made in Japan, and imitated in Europe. See Prof. Wurtz, Report (Centennial) on Japanese Porce- lain. Egg Test'er. A dark lantern, having an open- ing at which an egg is Fi 923 placed in order to ob- serve the condition of its contents ; the traus- lucency of a fresh egg, or the condition of the embryo chick observed. The fertility of the egg can be determined after being under heat for 48 hours. Used for com- mercial purposes in test- ing freshness of eggs, and in connection with incubators in observing the fertility of the egg and progress of the embryo. E-ject'or. A form of pump. See p. 775, "Mech. Diet." Frierlmann' l s .... * "Scientific American" xli. 319. Nagel If Kaempt . . . *" Scientific American Sup.," 1 292. Vacuum brake ejector . * Forney's "Dictionary,"' 435. E-las'tic Wheel. (Railway.) A car-wheel in which some elastic material is interposed between the tire and the wheel-center or hub to resist the concussions. Different substances are used, such as paper, wood, india-rubber, oakum, etc. See Figs. 1170, 1171, pp. 493, 494, "Mech. Diet." El'bow. A bent pipe coupling or L joint. See also BEND. El'bow Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) 1. An ap- paratus for the gradual extension of contracted muscles of the arm ; false anchylosis of the elbow. Fig. 53, Part IV., Tiemann's "Armam. Chirurgicum." 2. A splint for luxated elbow. Hamilton's elbow splint, Fig. 148, Part TV., Ibid. Andrews' elbow splint, p. 123, Part IV., Ibid. El'bow Scis'sors. (Surgical.) Scissors bent in the blade or shank for convenience in cutting. See several instances in Figs. 4671,4672, p. 2054, "Mech. Diet." El'der Brake. (Raihi-ay.) A brake for eight- wheeled.cars, with a horizontal lever having a fixed fulcrum under the car-body, at its center, and pul- leys at each end, over which a chain passes, which is connected with the brake-levers of each truck. One lever on each truck also has a pulley or sheave at its end, over which a chain runs which is con- nected with the opposite lever, and also with the central lever. The latter is connected by rods and chains with brake-windlasses by which the brakes arc applied at each end of the car. Forney. E-lec'tri-cal Di'a-pa'son. An apparatus in- vented by George M. Hopkins, for compounding rectangular vibrations, so as to produce both sounds and figures. Sir Charles W/ientstone contrived a small machine for the purpose, vising tuning-forks ; Prof. Do/bear used mirrors on a whirling table to describe curves upon a screen; Lissajou drew curves by means of two pendulums. In each of these there was a certain incompleteness ; the forks lacked continu- ity of action, the mirrors gave no sound, the pendulums (as arranged without sustaining power) had neither continu- ity nor sound. It must be said, however, that Lissajoti has, since his first invention, applied electricity to maintain the vibration of the diapason. Hopkins' apparatus has two reeds or tongues vibrated by an electric current and connected with a single mirror, the latter receives a beam of light from a lantern and reflects it ELECTRICAL DIAPASON. 294 ELECTRIC CHRONOSCOPES, ETC. through a lens upon a screen. The steel tongues are pivoted at one end and are arranged relatively so that they vibrate in planes at right angles to each other. They are thus the equivalent of the Lissajou pendulums. The jmage upon the screen is the resultant of the two rectangula'r vibratory mo- tions. If only one tongue vibrates a straight line will appear on the screen, which will be inclined at an angle of 45 from the horizontal. The line produced by one of the tongues forms a right angle with the line produced by the other, and when both tongues vibrate simultaneously the two motions combine, and the reflected pencil describes a more or less complex curve, the form of which depends on the number of vibrations of the two tuning-forks in a given time. The tones of the tongues are varied by moving the slide so that any possible combination of tones within the given com- pass (in this case an octave and a half) may be produced. "Scientific American" 1 xxxix. 223. See also COMPARATOR, Prof. Barnard's Report Paris Expo- sition, 1867, * pp. 507-509. E-lec'tri-cal Gen'er-a'tor. See DYNAMO- ELECTRIC MACHINE ; ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MA- CHINE. E-lec'tri-cal Ma-chine'. Franklin's electri- cal machine is in possession of the Franklin Insti- tute of Pennsylvania, and was shown at the Cen- tennial Exhibition. Fig. 925 is the Toepler lloltz electrical machine. The sta- tionary glass plate e is held in rubber supports upon the platform, with the armatures c c at the back. The inner Fig. 924. Holtz Electrical Machine. circular revolving-plate e is attached to the axis, the metal- lic disks outward. The arms a a' are attached to their sock- ets in such away that the metallic brush just touches the brass disks when the plate is rotated, but does not touch the plate, i i are the condensers. To operate the machine place the balls close together, turn the wheel in the direction of the arrow until the sparks pass between the balls, then separate them gradually ; the wheel- plate being rapidly revolved, a torrent of brilliant sparks will discharge between the balls. The small brass disks on the anterior surface of the plate e, when revolved rub against the metallic brushes, on a a', a small quantity of electricity is carried around to the armatures c c', upon the back of the large stationary plate, the initial charge is thus given to the outer plate e, this in turn reacts on the revolving plate. See the following references : Holtz ) Carre > * "Scientific American," xxxvii. 261. Thomson . . . . ) Gramme .... * "Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' 6"4. Holtz "Scientific American Sup.," 1058. Military, Fr. . . . *" Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 4055, 1456. Frictional. Marum $ Winter . * "Manufac. $ Builder," viii. 204. Induction, Holtz . . * " Telegraphic Journal,'' v. 126. Battery, Onimus . . * "Scientific American," xxxv. 67. Plante, Paper by Ni- audet .... * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," vii. 75. Paper on Wiesendangir * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 4028. E-lec'tri-cal Sold'er-ing I'ron. A tool for use in tin-shops and at the jeweler's or mechanical dentist's bench. It consists of two metallic conductors placed side by side, laying electric cables (French). " L( trique," reported in " Scientific An, with a small space between them for insulation, and joined at the end by a small piece of platinum or other refractory substance having a high electrical resistance. A handle is provided, having the proper insulation and binding screws for the wires. A simple form of switch is also provided for regulating the current. When the current flows through the tool, the platinum point is raised to a high tiniperature, and may be used to melt gold or silver solders. E-lec'tric Bat'te-ry. 1. (Static.) The Ley- den jars. 2. (Dynamic.) The battery consisting of a se- ries of galvanic elements. See GALVANIC BAT- TERY, and list, infra. E-lec'tric Brush. 1. A brush with wire bris- tles, and having metallic plates in the handle which cause a galvanic action, especially when the brush is dipped in water or used in brushing the damp hair. Dr. Post. 2. A brush included in an electric circuit, and used upon the hair or flesh as a therapeutic. 3. A circuit closer consisting of a bunch of wire used in telegraphic instruments using perforated slips. E-lec'tric Bul'let-probe. (Sure/teal.) An instrument which indicates contact with the bullet by a sound induced by the completion of an electric circuit between the points of the forceps and through the bullet. Fig. 3966, p. 1 803, " Mech. Diet.' 1 E-lec'tric Ca1>le. Plow for trenching and La Luitiiere Elec- nerican,'* * xlvi. 246. E-lec'tric Call. An audible signal communi- cated by electricity. An annunciator, call-bell, buzzer, etc. E-lec'tric Can 'die. (Electricity.) A form of electric light in which the carbons are placed paral- lel ; as in the Jablochkoff light. The waste of the two must be equal, and they are therefore fed by alternating currents. 1. Candles with co/umbin ; that is, a material which separates and insulates them, the Jabloch- koff, which combines the incandescent and the arc. 2. Candles without columbin are arc lamps. The Wilde, Jamin, and Debrun are of this class. The distance apart of the carbons is permanently fixed (a tfcartjixe ). The Clerc and Burean lamps, known as solar lamps (lampe-soliel) have nearly parallel carbons, and are allied to the incandescent class by the in- terposition of lime between the carbon points made incandescent by the passage of the current across them. See Co/inc, Eng "Scientific Am erican, r xli. 265. Regulator, Heinric/i, Br. * "Engineer," xlviii. 413. Jablochkoff .... * "Eng. fy Min. Jour.,'-' xxviii. 45. "Min. If Sc. Press,"* xxxv. 42. "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 339. " Scientific American Sup.,'' 1240, 1249, 1337, 13S6. Plant^ "Manufact. Builder,''' ix. 205. "Manufact. 4" Builder," 1 x. 14. Scaife "Scientific American Sup.," 1720. E-lec'tric Chro'no-scopes and Chron'o- graphs. References to the following ^electric chronographs and chronoscopes with electric actu- ation are to be found in Comte du Moncel's " Ex- pose des Application de I' filet-Incite," tome iv., Paris, 3d, edition, at the pages noted : Page. * Atwood machines 298 * Bash ford 240, 266 Bond 237 * Breguet 20' * Breguet If Konstantinoff . . 2U * Breguet K Marcy 232 * Cornu 245 Digney ' Figure. Plate. 9-10 vi. 51 11 vi 8 Ti. 49 55 ELECTRIC CHRONOSCOPES, ETC. 295 ELECTRIC GOVERNOR. Page. Figure. Plate. * Fleurais 242 52 Page. Figure. Plate. Gondola et Ferret 56 * Grasset . . 141 13 III Gloesner . . 218 * Hardy & Strange . . 227 44 * Hipp 52 13 Hipp 207, 238 147 27-30 * Italian 42 16 I Hirscfi & Plantamour . . .201, 208 Hughes 260 * Kaiser 58 2 IV 58 15 * Kerikuff 166 35 * Liais 234 50 * Laguerenne 61, 94 7 IV 234 19 yi. * Lctwy 287 57 * Lasseau 72 6 IV 145 12 V. 145 20 * Leclanche (f Napole .... 8 1, 2 37 7 * Liais, E 11 4 TV. * Marcel Deprez 228 45 * Martin de Brettes 216, 261 6, 7 vi. 220 42 Pouillet 208 254 120 24 31 16 III. 19 15 I. 117 1 II. * MUd& 34 6 Sc/iultz " Lissajous .... 225, 267 Siemens 220 Tkalen 281 Vignotti 225 * Villarceau 190 41 158 3 IV. 158 33, 34 100 22, 23 * Mouilleron 154 11, 12 II. * Wfieatstone 206, 252 1 vi See also * Walkins, "Jour. Soc. Tel. -.," ix. 121. E-lec'tric Clock. (Horology.) The first clock, the pendulum of which received its impulse from electricity, was probably that of Mr. Bain. The bob was made with a hole through it, and passed over two soft-iron cylinders, alternately magnetized by an electrical current at each beat o"f the pendulum. An accurate regulator may control a number of subsidiary clocks, either upon the foregoing plan or by electricity operating upon their escapements, so as to cause their pallets to move the escapement wheel, the pinion of which drives the wheels to which the hands are connected. In Shepherd's gravity escapement the pallet is raised by a temporary magnet, and then acts on the pendulum when swinging in one direction. Subsequently he made his mag- nets to attract and repel alternately. Carpenter & Martin . . . * " Telegr. Journal,^ vi. 221. Electrical clocks are made by Autenreith & Himmer, New York. ,T. B. Kerz, Mayence. E. Deschiens, Paris. .T. Ferucci, Udine, Italy. Dumontin, Paris. B. Egger, Vienna. E. Barbier, Paris. M. Illitsch, Vienna. A. Postel & Co., Paris. A. Gerard, Luttich, Belg. Matt Hipp, Neufchatel. Paul Miller, Cologne. Arzberger, Brunn. References to the following electric clocks and time mark- ers may be found in Comte du Moncel's "Expose des Appli- cations fie I'Electricite,'" vol. iv., Paris, 3d edition, at the pages noted : Page. Fig. Plate. * Ant/ioine et Langreynay . . . 155 51 * Bain 43 68 * Nollet 48 10 I. * Paris Observatory 87 21 * Regnard 46 8-10 81 20 * Robert-Houdin 28 6, 6, 13 I. 135 11 V. 127 5-10 II. 127 25 See also du Moncel, ii. 118. * Royer 139 13 II. Perpet. calendar .... 169 36 * Vcrite 86 124 3 II. * Volcke 45 1 IV. 12 2 IV. Weare 115" * Wheatstone 13, 64 16-18 E-lec'tric Disk. A concave hollow pan, filled with hot water and included in an electric circuit, used upon the flesh therapeutically. Electro-Mas- seur. E-lec'tric Egg. An electric manifestation in an egg-shaped glass vessel exhausted of air, and having conductors above and below. The connec- tion with the induction coil being made, the tuft of light between the rods assumes an ovoidal form and becomes more nearly spherical as the air be- comes more rare. Hopkins .... * "-Scientific American Sup.," 1 2645. E-lec'tric Fur'nace. An invention of Dr. C. W. Siemens for melting in a guarded crucible highly refractory metals. It has the advantage of compactness, obviates the need of chimney, is more economical in the concentration of the effect of the energy of coal, and excludes the atmosphere from the object. In Siemens' furnace, exhibited before the Royal Society, the positive electrode, which was made of iron, entered from below the crucible containing the metal to be melted, whereas the negative electrode, which was a rod of carbon, was at- tached by means of a lever to a solenoid regulator. The crucible was surrounded by charcoal contained in a copper vessel to prevent loss of heat, and so intense was the heat accumulated that in about 20 minutes two pounds of broken files were completely melted. E-lec'tric Gov'er-nor. A device to limit the passage of an electric current. There are many forms and purposes ; some are referred to subject- ively as in connection with the electric light. Siemens' electric current governor is founded upon the stretching of a wire by the heating incident to the passage of the electric current through it. This idea is the foundation of some of the devices in electric arc-lamps for regulating the distance between the carbons, and also one or more of the Edison regulators for limiting the passage of the current in the process of subdivision of current for the multiplication of lights. Siemens' device for giving sensitiveness and promptness 115 17 I. * Breguet 49 11 12 I 51 4 v'. 55 14 68 5V. 152 7-10 III. * Callaud 15, 156 32 See also du Moncel, 2d ed., i. 317. * Caselli 33 5 27,64 3 * Collin-Wagner 70 19 Combines 138 * Detouclie 52, 127 89 I 8 IV. 78 1-6 III. 14 V. Elec. Chr. Strikers .... 91-108 11, 12 III. * Everts . 16 5 IV Faye 20 * Foucault 12 14 I * Froment 126 4 II See also du Moncel, ii. 120. 20 41. * Gamier 20 13 I 13 9, 10 II. * Gamier fits . 143 67 V Gerard 161 Gloesner . 13. 67 ELECTRIC HAMMER. 296 ELECTRICITY, TELEGRAPHY, ETC. "Electrician," reproduced in "Scientific American," *xl. Byrne battery. Electrolysis. 184. Callan battery . Electrolyte. See also DIFFERENTIAL ; REGULATOR. Call annunciator. Electro-magnet. E-lec'tric Ham'mer. An apparatus consist- Callaud battery. Call bell. Electro-magnetic brake. Electro -magnetic machine. ing of three hollow coils of insulated wire having a Call button. Electro-magnetic telegraph. movable core or rod of soft iron which is free to Camacho battery. Electro-medical apparatus. move up and down under the axial attraction of the coils when a current circulates in them. The Caudle. Carbon battery. Carbon button. Electrometer. Electromotograph. Electro-motive force. central coil is traversed hy a constant current which Carbon indicator. Electro-motor. magnetizes the rod or hammer, and the two ex- treme coils are traversed hy alternating currents Carbon telephone. Carbon-zinc connector. Electro-motor copying press. Electro-motor printing tele- from a dynamo-electric machine in such a manner Cathode. graph. Electro-plating. that they alternately attract and repel the magnetic Cation. Electroscope. rod up and down so as to make it beat like a ham- Cautery. Electro-semaphore. mer. The range of blow is limited on one side bv Cautery battery. Cell. Electro-silicic light. Elements. a spiral spring placed within an elastic cushion. C. G.S. Engine-room telegraph. Siemens $ Halske. Chloride of lead battery. Erg. The apparatus is primarily intended for working Chloride of silver battery. Chloride of tin battery. Exchange. Exchange switch. a rock drill. Chromic acid battery. Extra current. The idea is familiar in dental pluggers. Fig. Circuit. Fac-simile telegraph. 3837, p. 1750, " Mech. Diet." Circuit breaker. Farad. E-lec'tric Hose. An arrangement by which the fireman at the nozzle may communicate with Clamp. Clamond battery. Coil. Faradaic generator. Faure battery. Filar suspension. the engineer at the fire-engine. Coke consuming battery. Filings separator. A wire runs along in the cotton or rubber part of the hose, continuing the connection as each sec- tion is attached, and over this passes electricity, Column battery. Commutator. Compound plate battery. Conductivity. Fire alarm. Fire-alarm telegraph Fixed interval regulator. Flowing battery. generated by one of the fly-wheels of the engine. Conductor. Friction machine. Connected with the nozzle is a little contrivance bv Connection. Frommhold cell. which the engineer can be directed to turn on, cut off, slack up, or what not, by signals upon a gong Constant battery. Constant current. Contact breaker. Fulgurata. Fuller battery. Gaiffe battery. attached to the engine. Core. Galvanic battery. Couronne de tasses. Galvanic current. " Manufacturer If Builder " xii. 18. Cruikshank battery. Galvano-caustic. E-lec-tric'i-ty. Electrical nomenclature set- Curb sender. Current. Galvano-caustic battery. Galvanometer. tled by the Electrical Congress in Paris, 1881 : Current regulator. Gas battery. 1. The fundamental units to be centimeter, Curves. Gas-lighting by electricity. gram, and second (C. G. S.), as heretofore. 2. The practical units, ohm and volt, to retain Cut-out. Cyclograph. Cycloscope. Graphite battery. Gravity battery. Grenet battery. their present definition. Daniell battery. Grove battery 3. The unit of resistance, or ohm, to be repre- De la Rue battery. Harmonic telegraph. sented by a column of mercury of a square milli- Density. Dentiphone. Harmonograph. Helix. meter section at the temperature zero centigrade. Derivation regulator. Hill battery. A committee to ascertain and report height of Detector galvanometer. Hydraulic electric machine. such column in millimeters. Dia-magnetic. Hydrostat. 4. The name ampere to be given to the current Dianemoscope. Dielectric machine Incandescent light. Inconstant battery. produced by a volt in an ohm. Differential regulator. Induced current. 5. The name coulomb to be given to the quantity of electricity defined by the condition that an am- pere gives one coulomb per second. Diffuser. Diffusion. Division regulator. Double connector. Induction apparatus. Induction balance. Induction coil. Inductophone. 6. The name farad to be given to the capacity Double-fluid battery. Inductorium. defined by the condition that a coulomb in a farad Dry electric pile. Inker. Dry pile. Insulated. gives a volt. 7. The French carcel-bec given the preference Duplex telegraph. Dynamic electricity. Insulator. Intensity. over the English "candle-power," and over the Dynamo-electric machine. Interrupted current. German and other standards, as the arbitrary stand- ard of illumination. But this to b^. considered only provisional and subject to revision. Dyne. Earth battery. Electrical apparatus. Electrical machine. Interrupter. Inversion battery. Ion. Jack-knife. E-lec-tric'i-ty, Te-leg'ra-piiy, etc. Electric battery. Latimer-Clark battery. Electric call. Leclancht^ battery. See under the following heads : Electric candle. Ley den battery. Aerated battery. Automatic switch. Electric clock. lightning rod. Aerophone. Bagration battery. Electric diapason. Linkage. Agglomerated battery. Base. Electric governor. Local action. Alternating current ma- Battery. Electric hammer. Lock switch. chine. Bequerel battery. Electric hose. Log. Alum battery. Balloon battery. Electric lamp. Magazine battery. Aluminium battery. Bell magnet. Electric lantern Magnet. Amalgamation. Bell telephone. Electric light. Magnetic battery. Anderson battery. Bichromate battery. Electric light engine. Magnetic inclination, etc., Anode. Binding-post. Electric light regulator. apparatus. Aphongoscope. Bi-polar telephone. Electric measurement appa- Magnetic induction. Armature. Board clip. ratus. Magnetic instruments. Articulating telegraph. Box relay. Electric pen. Magnetic scale. Audiphone. Break. Electric railway. Alagneto call-bell. Autograph telegraph. Break circuit. Electric switch. Magneto-electric machine. Autographic printing tele- Breath battery. Electric telegraph. Magneto-printing telegraph. graph. Bunsen battery. Electro ballista. Magneto telephone call. Automatic repeater. Burglar alarm. Electrode. Magnophone. Automatic signal telegraph. Buzzer. Electro-harmonic telegraph. Many-light regulator. ELECTRICITY, TELEGRAPHY, ETC. 297 ELECTRIC LIGHT. Marie-Davy battery. Marine battery. Maynooth battery. Mechanical battery. Megalographe. Megaphone. Meidinger battery. Menotti battery. Mercury battery. Micro-battery. Microfarad. Microphone. Microtasimeter. Micro telephone. Moist battery. Monophote regulator. Motographic receiver. Motophone. Mouse-mill. Muirhead battery. Muncke battery. Musical telegraph. Needle annunciator. Negative. Niaudet battery. Nickel battery. Non-conductor. Rheometer. Rheostat. Rheotome. Sal ammoniac battery. Sand battery. Sea battery. Secondary battery. Secondary coil. Secondary current. Security hook. Seismophone. Seuiatrope. Short circuit. Shunt box. Siemens-Halske battery. Single-fluid battery. Siphon recorder. Siphon telegraph recorder. Siren. Skeleton bell. Smee battery. Soldering pot. Sounder. Speaking electric telegraph. Spiral battery. Standard battery. Static electricity. Octoplex printing telegraph. Stock reporting and printing Ohm. telegraph. One-light regulator. Storage battery. Oxidation. Submarine electric light. Pantelephone. Sulphate of lead battery. Paper clip. Sulphate of mercury battery. Para-magnetic. Switch. Paratonnere. Switch-board. Pencil holder. Switch-loop plug. Perchloride of iron battery. Switch table. Perrtuent battery. Tangent galvanometer. Peroxide of lead battery. Target, electric. Peroxide of manganese bat- Tasimeter. tery. Telautograph. Phonautograph. Telectroscope. Phoneidoscope. Telegraph. Phonic apparatus. Telegraph cable. Phonic wheel. Telegraph cable apparatus. Phonograph. Telegraph inker. Phonomotor. Telegraph instruments. Phonophone. Telegraph key. Phonophote. Telegraph pole. Phonoscope. Telegraph wire. Photophone. Telemachon. Pin switch. Telephone. Plunging battery. Telephone call signal. Pneumatic battery. Telephone exchange appara- Pneumatic telegraph. tus. Pneumatic tube. Telephone exchange table. Pocket relay. Telephonograph. Poggendorf'battery. Telephote. Polarized relay. Tension. Polarization. Thermo-electric battery. Polemoscope. Thermo-electric pile. Poles. Thermo multiplier. Polyphote regulator. Thermophone. Ponci battery. Thermotelephone. Porous cup. Thomson battery. Positive. Tom Thumb battery. Potassium-chlorate battery. Topophone. Primary coil. Translator. Primary current. Transmitter. Printing telegraph. Tray battery. Prism battery. Trembler. Private-line instrument. Triple fluid battery. Private-line printing tele- Trough battery. graph. Trouve battery. Proof plane. Tyer battery. Pseudophone. Under current. Pulvermacher battery. Underground telegraph wire. Pyrophone. Urine battery. Quadrant electrometer. Vacuum shunt. Quadruplex telegraph Varley battery. Quantity. Vibrating armature. Quicksilver battery. Volt. Register. Voltaic pencil. Regulator. Voltaic pile. Relay. Walker battery. Repeater sounder. Weber. Replenisher. Window tube. Reservoir battery Wire resistance. Resistance. Wollaston battery. Rh(5 electrometre. Writing telegraph. Rheophore. Consult : Althouse's "Medical Electricity, Theoretical anil Practical," London. Arnold's "The Electrician." London. Beard and Rockwell "Practical Treatise on the Medical and Surgical Uses of Electricity.'' Bliss 1 ! "Condensed Manual of Photography." 1 Latimer Clark's "Electrical Measurement.'' London, 1868. Clark and Sabine's "Electrical Tables and Formula.''* Lon- don, 1871. Culley's "Handbook of Practical Telegraphy." Davis and Rae's "Electrical Diagrams." Aug. De la Rive's " Treatise on Electricity." London, 1853. Comte du Moncel's "Expose des Applications de I'Elec- tricite." Paris, 1872-1878. Comte du Moncel's " The Telephone, Microphone and Phono- graph.'' London, 1879. Ganot's "Physics " (Atkinson). New York, 1877. Gore's " Electro-metallurgy." J. E. H. Gordon's "Physical Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism." London, 1880. ffaskins' "Galvanometer." P. Rings' 1 " The Electric. Light." London, 1879. Jenkins' "Electricity and Magnetism.' 1 ' New York, 1873. Loring's " Handbook of the Electro-magnetic Telegraph.'' J. Clerk Maxwell's "Treatise on Electricity and Magnet- ism." London, 1875. Niaudet's " Electric Batteries." Translation, New York, 1880. H. M. Noad's "Manual of Electricity." 1 London, 1859. Pope's "Modern Practice of the Electric Telegraph." G. B. Prescott's "Electricity and the Electric Telegraph." New York, 1879. G. B. Prescott's "The Speaking Telephone," etc. New York, 1879. Preece and Sivewright's "Telegraphy." Roseleur's " Galvano-plastic Manipulations." Philadel- phia, 1872. R. Sabine's " The Electric Telegraph." London, 1867. Sawyer's 'Electric Lighting." New York, 1881. Tal. P. Shaffner's "The Telegraph Manual." New York, 1859. "Journal Society Telegraph Engineers." London. John T. Sprague's "Electricity: Its Theory, Sources, and Applications." London, 1875. S/ioolbred's "Electric Light." London. " Telegraphic Journal." London. " The Journal of the Telegraph." See also list of works under ELECTRIC LIGHT, infra, E-lec'tric Laii'tern. A glass envelope for an electric light. Ground and opal glasses have been used with the Jablochkoff light, but the result is the absorption of from 30 to 50 per cent, of the light. M. Clemandot stuffs the double glass envelope with glass wool. The transparent part of the lantern is conical in shape and tapers downward. The walls are made of united glass tubes, like Pandean pipes, each filled with glass wool, and closed at top and bottom to exclude dust. Not more than 15 per cent, of the total light is absorbed by this process ; the opacity can be varied at will by introducing less or more wool into the tubes ; and the light can be tinted any desired color, either by the stain given to the spun glass, or the tubes which build up the wall of the lantern. E-lec'tric Light. The history of the electric light commences with the discovery of Galvanism by Galvani, of Bologna, and Volta, of Como; and the voltaic arc was first produced by Davy, in 1813, between the charcoal points of two conducting wires. He used for the purpose a trough battery of 2,000 elements. The invention had not emerged from the domain of expensive experiment until the discovery of magneto-electricity by Faraday, in 1831. The mag- neto-electric machines of Pixii, Saxton, Clark, Ni- audet, Siemens-Halske, Holmes, and Nollet, fol- lowed, and the light was adapted to and used in lighthouses: at Dungeness, in England, in 1862; and at La Heve, in France, in 1863. See DYNAMO- ELECTRIC MACHINE, supra, and p. 781, "Mecli. Diet." The history of the electric light has two branches, the generator and the applicator : the machine, and the light proper. A great improvement upon the Holmes and " Al- liance" (Nollet) machines was made by Dr. C. W. Siemens, who invented a peculiar form of armature known as the inductive cylinder. This was fol- lowed in 1866 by the machine of Wilde, who made ELECTRIC LIGHT. 298 ELECTRIC LIGHT. the remarkable discovery that if a current from a small magneto- electrical machine was made to pass around the coils of a large magnet, the attractive power of that magnet would be immensely greater than the force of the magnets in a small machine. Thus, by working a small machine, passing the currents through the electro-magnets of a large one, and then taking from the armature of the large one the current to be used, great electric power was obtained in a small compass. The discovery of the reaction principle of mag- netization by Hjorth, of Stockholm, Sweden, in 1 854, was a remarkable one in the history of the art, but it seems to have slumbered unnoticed until the announcement by Wheatstone and Siemens, in 1867. By this principle of action a powerful elec- tric current may be generated through the building up of the effects of action and reaction taking place between an electro-magnet and a magneto- electric inductor revolving in its magnetic field and included in the same circuit. The subject has, however, been considered on p. 283, supra. Leaving machines (pp. 283-286, supra), it may be said that the electric lights naturally divide into two groups : Incandescent. Arc. The Werderman is a sort of cross, having an in- candescent point with an arc around it. " The voltaic arc is a portion of the electric circuit, pos- sessing all the characteristics of other portions of the circuit. The molecules entrained constitute between the two points a movable chain, possessing more or less conductivity, and more or less heated, according to the intensity of the current oil one hand, and the nature and distance apart of the elec- trodes on the other. What occurs is precisely as though the electrodes were united by a wire or a carbon rod of very small section, and thus it may be said that the light produced by the voltaic arc and the light produced by incandescence are results of the same cause, namely, the heating of a bad con- ductor interposed in the circuit." Fontaine. Each plan has its own class of difficulties to contend with. The arc is formed by the passage of the current between two separated carbons. These burn away gradually, the positive twice as fast as the negative carbon. It is necessary that they shall preserve an exactly equal distance, and this brings the necessity for automatic regulation. It is this feature that has given rise to the greater number of the pat- ents on the arc class of electric lights. Various inventions in this department are due to Arc/iereau, Lacassauge-TMers, Gaiffe, Foucaull, Ditboscq, Hefner- Alteneck , Serrin, Brown- ing, Siemens, Brush, Thomas, Jamin, Thomson-Houston, Sawyer, etc. The other side of the question, the incandescent class of lights, has also had its own class of difficulties: the neces- sity for finding a material which shall not appreciably waste when heated to the violent degree necessary. Platinum, iri- dium, and carbon, are the principal substances employed. Platinum leaf was preferred to indium by Starr, in his English patent of 1845. (King, Scotch Patent, Nov. 26, 1S45, communication.) He afterward used gas retort carbon in a vacuum. In the case of the carbon, it is of course necessary to ex- clude oxygen. This has been done in a satisfactory degree by exhaustion, absorption, and exclusion. By exhaustion, as in Edison's, by means of air-pump. By absorption ; by exposure of chemicals which absorb oxygen in the globe. By exclusion : filling the globe with nitrogen gas, as in Kosloff's, Sawyer's, Farmer's, etc. ; or filling the globe with hydro-carbon vapor, as in Maxim's. The exhaustive process, and the exclusion by nitrogen, were used by Depretz, in 1849, in his incandescent lamp, consisting of carbon in a sealed glass globe. The Jablochlcoff candle of two parallel carbons separated by insulation material, belongs to another class. The multitude of devices is now so great that it is neces- sary, in the present abridged resume^ to do little more than cite the inventions and give references in the cases of over 100 inventors of electric lights, cited in the list below (pp. 301,302). The electric light is now used in lighthouses in Britain, France, Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Egypt. The usual limit is machines equal to 200 carcel burners. The introduction of the electric light into streets, works, and factories, is treated of in an article reproduced in " Van Nostrand^s Magazine," xx. 70-84. Plates XIII., XIV., show the principal electric lamps. Brush's electric light mechanism consists of an arrangement by which the carbon sticks are automatically adjusted and kept in proper relation. See Fig. 925, Plate XIII. The movable pencil is surrounded by an annulus which binds it and prevents its descent, until, by the increase of distance between the carbon pencils, the current is so far weakened as to cause an electro-magnet to lower its carbon- holding armature and release the bind of the annulus upon the pencil, which slips downward until, by the proximity of the carbon, a current of sufficient force is established to re- store the electro-magnetic device to its former position. A is a helix of copper wire through which a current flows, making an electro-magnet of the soft iron axial core which carries the carbon-holder B. The current passes from point P to point N, embracing the coil, armature carbon-holders, and carbons F F' in its passage. . away, the increased length of the electric arc increases its resistance and weakens the magnetism of the helix, and, therefore, the rod and carbon move downward by the force of gravity, until, by the shortening of the arc, the magnetism of the helix is strengthened and the downward movement arrested. An enlarged view, Fig. 926, Plate XIII. , shows the annulus D, the armature, carbon-holder B, lifting tongue O of. the core C, clamp B', carbon F, set-screw D'. The Maxim arc lamp Figs. 927, 928, Plate XIII. , has a pair of vertical carbons, the holders of which are so connected by gearing or rolling contact in the case beneath, that they mu- tually approach and establish the current. Thereupon a current passes, an electro-magnet is excited, and its arma- ture draws downward a cord and separates the carbons, the result of which is the establishment of the voltaic arc. As the carbons waste the arc becomes larger, the resistance greater, the electro-magnet feebler, and the carbons are again gradually approached. Siemens'! is an arc lamp ; his improvements concern the regulator by which the degree of proximity of the carbons is automatically accomplished. The upper carbon B, Fig. 929, Plate XIII., passes through the core of an electro-mag- netic regulator F. The lower carbon, A, is continually pressed upward by the action of a weight, a, and restrained by a clamp, c, which loosens as the carbon consumes. The upper carbon is, by the release of a wheel, /, allowed to de- scend as it wastes, and the tube carrying the upper carbon is kept floating in balance by the action of the solenoid E on its core P 1 , automatically adjusting the distance of the car- bon points to suit the voltaic arc. The Skinner (( Thomas arc electric light, Fig. 930, Plate XIII., employs (preferably ) for the negative electrode an ind- ium-tipped rod N" with the negative rheophore. The action is as follows : The shunt wheels Q Q', having, with their supporting frame o R R', been, by means of set-screw .;', fixed at their proper height relatively to the core K. and the counterpoise M having been so loaded as to diminish the virtual weight of core and adjuncts to that which just insures their descent at any relaxation of the coil-magnetism, connection of the wires P N, with the generator, causes the current to flow as indicated by the arrows, and thus to impart magnetic prop- erties to the helix B, which, in turn, results in elevating the core and its attached electrode H, so as to create an arc- interval. Disintegration of the carbon tip increases the arc-interval and consequent tension and decrease of current, with corre- sponding reduction of coil-magnetism. This permits the FIG. 932. Wallace- Farmer Arc Electric Light Fio. 925. Brush Electric Light. KIG. 930. Skinner If Thomas Arc Electric Light KIG 931. Thomson $ Houston Arc Li%ht Fio. 926. Brush Carbon Regulator FIG. 929. Siemens Electric Light. Fio. 928. Maxim Regulator. PIG 927. Maxim Arc Lamp PLATE XIII. ARC ELECTRIC LIGHTS. See pages 298, 299. ELECTRIC LIGHT. 299 ELECTRIC LIGHT. weight of the positive element to prevail over tho upward drag of the coil-suction until the two opposing forces, gravity and magnetism, being restored to equilibrium, the normal arc-interval is reestablished. These movements are so prompt and delicate that a sensibly uniform light is ob- tained. The right-hand portion of Fig. 930, Plate XIII., shows the device for the equalization of arc electric lamps in se- ries, and is termed the " differential." 1 It is well known that no two arc electric lamps, employed in series, behave precisely alike. In one lamp the magnetic lift, incident to increased current-flow, takes place more promptly, and with greater facility, with a consequently greater arc-interval than in the others. Such dispropor- tionate increase of arc-interval in one lamp necessarily weakens the current throughout the series, and thus de- tracts from the lifting power of all, but most so from those of the most sluggish movement. The heavier working lamps, thus dwindling in illuminative action, cease, one by one, to respond to the continually waning magnetic energy. In strong contrast with and at the expense of this enfeebled action of the weaker lamps, the arc of the most susceptible or easiest working lamp continues to expand until it prac- tically monopolizes the effective activity of the entire cir- cuit. The remedy for such unequal action lies in a provision whereby when the arc-resistance of any given lamp be- comes higher than normal the current is automatically di- verted from the arc of that lamp to the next lamp of the series or to " line ? ' or generator, as the case may be, to sufficiently reduce or counteract the " helix-suction " of the lamp thus regulated, to restore its arc-interval to normal length, and at the same time, by diminution of its arc-resist- ance, to secure resumption of normal current-flow through- out the series. Skinner If Thomas's device for this purpose is shown in the right-hand portion of Fig. 930, Plate XIII. On the core K is wound a helix n of fine wire, which communicates from a point in the positive element (above the electrode) directly with the negative rheophore jv, so as to shunt the arc. The portion Q of the differential wire, which communicates from the differential helix to the rheophore if, is convoluted so as to permit the free descent and ascent of the core. By the expression "differential" is meant that the said helix s is so wound as to induce on the core magnetism of opposite polarity to that induced by the main helix, whose magnetism (when a current is passing through the differen- tial), being thus more or less neutralized, operates with di- minished suction so as to permit the descent of the electrode until the normal arc-interval is resumed. The prime and the differential coil-magnetisms consequently preponderate alternately at each respective change of arc-interval above and below the normal one. Proper adjustment of the parts is had when the resistance of the differential is such that, in the normal condition of the arc, the magnetism induced in fhe core by the prime helix minus the counter-magnetism induced in the core by the differential helix just balances the surplus weight of core and adjuncts over that of the counter-balance. By aid of this system of regulation a current can be al- most indefinitely divided and the double benefit be secured of preventing excessive activity of any individual lamp, and of insuring to each lamp in the series its proper share of illuminative action. See also REGULATOR, infra. The T/iomson- Houston, Fig. 931, Plate XIII., is an arc lamp, and the invention particularly concerns the regula- tor. The carbons are fed by mechanical means controlled by electro-magnetic detent in a shunt of the main circuit. One of the carbon electrodes is attached to the armature of an electro-magnet, and, on the passage of an electric current, said armature is attracted to said electro-magnet, and then held in a fixed position in respect thereto, thus effecting sep- aration of the electrodes. The motion of the other electrode is under the control of a separate electro-magnet, whose coils are in a shunt-circuit around the arc between the elec- trodes. When the distance between the electrodes is in- creased by their consumption, the shunted current operates an escapement, which allows the slow approach of the elec- trode. Said approach ceases when the distance between the electrodes has reached the normal. This cessation of feed- ing occurs when the escapement above referred to is thrown out of action from the weakening of the current in the shunt-magnet. These actions are independent of consider- able variations in the current strength. In the Kapieff light the voltaic arc is produced between four carbon rods arranged in pairs, each forming the letter V. The apices of the V's meet in a common center. A reg- ulator is attached which keeps the carbons at an invariable distance. One of the carbons at a time can be detached without interrupting the current. In the Wallace, lamp the light is produced between the edges of two carbon plates, which last 100 hours. The edges gradually consume, and the light flies to the point where the plates are nearest in contact. The lamps of WrigM, 1845, Molt, Lontin, and Reynier em- brace the plate, disk, or roller principle. The Wallace- Farmer electric light is shown in Fig. 932, Plate XIII. Like the one just mentioned, the frame carries two gas carbons, forming the electric wick. These slats are 9" x 3", the positive (upper) J" thick and the negative (lower) " thick. The lower is fixed, the upper adjustable. In the absence of current the upper rests on the lower ; but as soon as a current passes, the armature by which it is sus- pended is raised in the coil, and separates the carbons ^". The electro-magnet is contained in the box, and the sectional view shows clearly its construction. The arc chooses the nearest points of the carbon edges and gradually wears them away, the electro-magnet being adjusted to keep an equal distance between the nearest points of the carbons at any one time. The Reynier lamp has assumed two forms, arc and incan- descent respectively : the former has two carbon disks re- volving in planes inclined to each other, so that the edges approach and a voltaic arc spans the interval. The Jamin electric light is an arc. It has at least two nearly parallel carbons and in some cases not less than three groups of two each ; one member in each case is adjustable towards its fellow. The candle has thus two vertical rods which differ from the Jablochkoff in that there is no insula- agnet controlling distance between the two ends. Fig. 933, Plate XIV. The carbon pencils are surrounded with an elliptical coil of wire, through which passes the current that gives the light. The coil is in the same vertical plane as the carbon rods. A more elaborate arrangement is shown in " Plumber if Sanitary Engineer," * iii. 400. The IVeston is an arc light, having two erect nearly paral- lel carbon rods, the positive twice the bulk of the negative. They are supported in sockets, the negative being pivoted so that its upper end can be adjusted towards and from the positive, towards which it is inclined by a spring. As soon as electric connection is made, the armature of an electro- magnet withdraws the movable carbon from contact and the voltaic arc is established. Jablochkofs invention is an electric caudle : his object is the "absolute suppression of any mechanical regulator."' In- stead of automatically feeding them towards each other he fixes them parallel at a short distance from each other and separates them by an isolating substance which is consumed at the same time with the carbons. Fig. 934, Plate XIV. The separating substance is an earthy infusible powder put around the carbons in a closed envelope of asbestos. The electric stream gradually dissipates the intractable substance, clearing it away from the carbons and exposing them, some- what as the wick of a candle is exposed by the burning away of the tallow. a b are the carbons, e the asbestos case, rf/metallic sheath, hj jaws, k tightening screw, p n terminals. The Lontin lamp and the Reynier keep a slender rod of car- bon in contact with a slowly revolving wheel, touching it on the outer rim and keeping a certain length of the rod incan- descent. The Reynier lamp, Fig. 935, Plate XIV., has a slender pen- cil of carbon, c, which is traversed through a portion of its length by the current (from I to B), and is impelled axially against a revolving contact which carries off the ashes of the carbon. The portion of the pencil between the upper con- tact I and the lower revolving contact B becomes incandes- cent, and burns, tapering away towards the end, the rod being continually fed forward. Kosloffs (1875) is an incandescent light, the current passing through sticks of carbon in a globe filled wfth nitrogen gas, the carbon is mounted on an inserted metallic conductor and placed-between two insulating supports of porcelain, clay, or other material. The carbons are in a globe, hermetically sealed, filled with nitrogen gas. In the Sawyer electric lamp the feeding of the carbon pen- cil to the contact piece is effected by a spring and cord run- ning over pulleys. The pencil of carbon is heated to incan- descence in a hermetically sealed glass globe filled with nitrogen gas or exhausted of air. The summit of the upper carbon is pressed between grooved rollers. The base of the lamp-globe is imbedded in a cup having an annular space, and the base of the lamp is in two sections, for facilitating the renewal of the carbon. Fig. 936, Plate XIV. The Sawyer-Man is an incandescent lamp. The incandes- cent strip is automatically fed through one conductor and against another, the part between the two conductors giving a light. The two conductors are supported by spiral stand- ards, the length and extent of surface serving to dissipate the heat and thus preserve the insulation. The whole is incased in a glass globe filled with nitrogen. Fig. 937, Plate XIV. Edison's carbon-arc lamp is an incandescent lamp. The arc F is attached by clamps G G' to the platinum wires u r , which are sealed in the summit of the interior glass dome. At ELECTRIC LIGHT. 300 ELECTRIC LIGHT. a lower point is an enlargement E E' upon which sits the lower end of the tube, the upper portion of which is the de- vice A around the incandescent arc. The patent No. 230,255 particularly concerns the mode of sealing the wires in the foot, and the mode of exhausting and sealing the dome, to secure entire freedom from oxygen in the interior. B is the pillar of the lamp and D D' binding posts for the wires. Fig. 938, Plate XIV. In one form of the carbon arc lamp the carbons are of slips of paper or cardboard cut to horse-shoe shape and charred, then mounted by platinum clamps on the sealed wires. One of Edison's regulators is an automatic shunt fitted to the lamp, by which a portion of the current is diverted from the circuit of the light producing portion of the apparatus whenever its temperature approaches an injurious limit. Edison's expansion, pneumatic, and vibratory regulators are described, illustrated, and compared in an article by F. R. Upton, in "Scribner's Monthly,'* vol. xix., pp. 531-544. In another of Edison's electric regulators he makes use of a coil of wire with a pyro-insulating material between the coils, and a surrounding case rendered incandescent by the heat of the coil. In the same lamp, which is adapted to be used in multiple arc, a thermal circuit is arranged so that the amount of light can be varied at pleasure by an adjust- ing-screw that regulates the point at which the thermal reg- ulator acts to open the electric circuit and lessen the cur- rent, so that the incandescent case can be more or less lu- minous. The claim for a thermostatic regulator is, however, held by Maxim in his patent, No. 247,380, Sept. 20, 1881. Edison's safety device, for preventing an abnormal flow of current through any branch, consists of a piece of very small conductor interposed in the main conductors of a house or in the derived circuit of a lamp. It is preferably interposed between the line wires and every lamp, limiting to the latter the amount of current designed for it. Farmer's is an incandescent lamp, the globe of which con- tains a vacuum, or an artificial atmosphere say nitrogen. From the stopper of the globe rise two uprights, between which is held a removable carbon slip, which, upon passage of the current, becomes incandescent. Fig. 939, Plate XIV. The Maxim is an incandescent lamp, the light being pro- duced by a strip or conductor of low conductivity, forming a part of the electric circuit. Fig. 940, Plate XIV. The illumination takes place in a glass chamber deprived of oxygen, but instead of excluding the air by exhaustion, or filling the globe with nitrogen, the air is displaced with a hydro-carbon, preferably gasoline, and such liquid then ex- pelled by heat, so as to leave in the globe a hydrocarbon partial vacuum, or a highly -attenuated atmosphere of hydro- carbon vapor surrounding the conductor or light-giving part of the lamp. The continuous incandescent conductor is mounted upon electrical connections of platinum. Edison's carbon coil lamp is an incandescent ; a filament of carbon either in arc or coil shape, that is, of "carbon wire or sheets coiled or arranged in such manner as to offer great resistance to the passage of the electric current, and at the same time present but a slight surface from which radiation may take place." The electricity is conducted into the vacuum bulb through platinum wires sealed in the glass. In Fig. 941, Plate XIV., a represents a carbon coil attached to platinum conductors '/ //' by a plastic composition of lamp- black and tar. c c', k are clamps. Khotinsky (French patent, No. 107,307, of March 19, 1875) shows an incandescent carbon lamp, having in its base resist- ance coils and a switch whereby the current can be passed wholly through the carbon or wholly through a resistance equal to the resistance of the carbon, or if a partial light is desired, then partly through the carbon and partly through a resistance, the arrangement being such that the total re- sistance is always equal to a certain amount. The current is shifted automatically to another carbon in same lamp when one breaks. The Werr/ermann lamp has a vertical rod of carbon which impinges at its upper end upon a disk of carbon, Fig. 942, Plate XIV. The upper end of the rod becomes incandescent, and a voltaic arc is also formed. The upper part only of the carbon rod is in the circuit, ami the length of this portion can be increased or diminished by shifting the collar which transmits the current. The rod is kept pressed against the disk by a cord and weight, and con- sumes very slowly. The disk is negative ; 1" in diameter, 1" thick, encircled by a band of copper, which is prolonged to a terminal. The positive carbon is a round pencil 3 mm. in diameter, and slides in a tube. " Dr. Tyndall and Mr. Douglass, chief engineer to the Trinity Board, in reporting lately to the Elder Brethren upon the power of these machines and their applicability to light- houses, give a table showing that a machine weighing not more than 3 cwt. is capable of producing a light equal to 1250-candle power per horse-power expenditure of mechani- cal energy. Assuming that each horse-power is maintained with an expenditure of 3 Ibs. of coal per hour (which is an excessive estimate), it would appear that 1 Ib. of coal suf- fices to maintain a light equal to 417J normal candles for one hour. The same amount of light would be produced by 139 cubic feet of gas of 18-candle power, for the production (if which 30 Ibs. of coal are consumed. Assuming that of thrs quantity, after heating the retorts, etc., 50 per cent, is rc- ratio ot lo to l in tavorot the latter. Add to the advantages of cheapness in maintenance, and of a reduced capital ex- penditure in favor of the electric light, those of its great su- periority in quality and its freedom from the deleterious effects of gas in heating and polluting the atmosphere in which it burns, and it seems not improbable that it will su- persede before long its competitor in many of its applica- tions.'' Dr. C. W. Siemens, Address, January 23, 1878. The annual report of the United States Light-house Board contains the details of some recent tests with electric lamps, made at the Stevens Institute of Technology by Prof. Mor- ton. The results of these experiments are embodied in the following table, in which the term hand-lamp is employed to signify that the distance between the carbons was regu- lated by hand : > > | | Sc?| OK ff c ^ n Machine. Lamp. 3 n 5 rf? P. ~ '-^L i 71 n Maxim (ordinary type) .... Maxim . . . 3,297 5.483 729 Maxim .... Hand lamp 3,930 5. 585 704 Siemens .... Siemens . . 4,651 4.863 956 Siemens .... Siemens . . 4,548 4 742 969 Weston .... Hand lamp 8,585 4769 1,800 Weston .... Maxim . . . 7,787 4.683 1,668 Weston ..... Siemens . . 7,262 5056 1,436 Weston .... Weston . . . 6,063 4552 1,332 Maxim (with mag- nets of low re- sistance) . . . Maxim . . . 7,524 7.400 1,017 Brush .... Brush . . . 4,365 2.8467 1,533 Brush .... Siemens . . 3,532 29573 1,194 The results of the attempts at the " Division of the Elec- tric Light,'' may be divided into four classes, seiies, multiple arc, multiple series, and the commutator system The serifs system, i. e., with the lamps all arranircd in suc- cession in one unbranched circuit, was the first one emplciyiV,, and is still found to be the best when arc lamps arc iiM'd. In the multiple arc system the conductor is divided into numerous branches, in each of which is placed one lamp. Two main conductors are run out from the generator ami di- vided and sub-divided while still remaining in pairs, and at various points the lamps are connected so as to bridge the said pair. A ground return is sometimes substituted for one of the conductors. The first mention of multiple arc light- ing appears in du Moncel's "Erpose des Application! de I'Electricite,'' Paris, 185". It has the advantage over the se- ries system, that the extinguishment or breakage of one lamp does not materially affect the others, but as all the lamps are in parallel branches the total external resistance is exceedingly small, and for this reason the system is more particularly adapted for incandescent lamps which are made of such high resistances as 100 and 200 ohms on that ac- count. The multiple series system is a combination of the first and second. The circuit is divided as in the multiple arc, but more than one lamp is placed in each branch, so that the re- sistance may be made such as desired. This system seems to have been first described in a patent to Sawyer and Man, 205,303. June 25, 1878. Brush (patent. No. 261,077, July 11, 1882) shows and claims a multiple series system, in which the different branches are connected by cross connections between the lights in such a manner that the breaking of circuit at one lamp will have no appreciable effect on any of the other lamps in the system. In the fourth system a commutator is employed which so divides the current among different branch conductors each having one or more lamps, that each lamp is traversed by the current for a small fraction of a second. By means of a sufficiently rapid commutator the impulses to each light follow each other in such quick succession as to give the ef- fect of a continuous light. Secondary batteries were described by Jablochoff in his French patent of 1876, as in a branch or shunt around each light. Fox, in his English patent of 1878, shows a network of conductors between which and the ground return are connected up in multiple arc incandescent lamps and secon- dary batteries. FIG. 935. Reyniu Incandescent Electric Light. FIG. 934. Jnblochkoff Electric Candle. PLATE XIV. ELECTRIC CANDLES AND INCANDESCENT LAMPS. See pages 299, 300. ELECTRIC LIGHT. 301 ELECTRIC LIGHT. E-lec'tric Light. Notices of the various Elec- tric Lights in the technical journals of the period, 1876-1880 inclusive, may be found as follows : Abney, Capt. W. r/eW. paper by "Scientific Am. Sup.,' 1 ' 2087. Adams, W. G., paper by . "Jour. Frank. Ins.,' 1 Oct. '81. Andre- Brougham . . . * "Scientific Amer." xlii. 245. * "La Lumiere Electr.," ii. 175. Andrews * "l.a Lumiere Electr.," v. 6U. Archereau (1849) * "Engineer," xliv. 365. * "Scientific Am. Sup.,' 1 ' 2575. * "App. de rEltctricite," v. 477. Atl.'is Co., steam engine for . * " Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 139. BaUiache "App.de fElectricite," v. 611. Barkt r, paper by Btrgot * Berlin, at Blooker, railroad cars . . . Bolton, Col., historical notes * 'T(dino!ogiste,"xl\. 86 ' LaLu/tiicre Electr.," iv. 294. ' TerJinologiste," xlii. 201. ' Teck*ologistt,"jLU.44Q, 401. 'Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 213-281. Bouleguine "App. del'Etectricite," v. 514. Bourne * " Telegraphic Jour.,'' vii. 656. Brain, " Pyramid " . . . . * "Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 184. friges *"Sc. Am. Sup.," 2451-52. At Washington . . . . " Technologiste," xli. 40. British Museum " Technologiste," xlii. 154. Brockie * "Engineer," xlix. 268. * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng." ix. 151. "La Lumiere Electr.," ii. 294. Brougham-Andre .... * "Engineer,' 'xlix. 190. * "Iron Age," xxv., Ap. 8, p. 1. Brush *"Am. Man/.," Jan. 10, 1879. p. 12. "Engineering," xxix. 13. "Eng. 4" Min. Jour.." xxvi. 240. * "Iron Age," xxiii., Jan. 16, p. 7 ; xxv., Feb. 26, p. 1. * "Min. 4" SC' Press," xxxvii. 201, 217. "Scientific Amer.," xl. 296. * "Sc. American Sup.," 2572. * " Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 21. *"La Lumiere Electr." iii. 121 ; iv. * 6. " Van Nostr. Mag.," xxi. 395. " Technologiste," xlii. 442. " Technologiste," xlii. 48, 483 "Mfr/i. Did." p. 782, Fig. 1845. Brussels " Technologiste," xlii. 429. * " La Lumiere Electr.," ii. 243. * "La Lumie're Electr.," v. 251. "App. del' Elec.," v. 466, 500. "Technologiste," xli. 99. *"Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng." viii. 213-281. * "La Lumie're Electr. ,"iv. 37. * "Engineer," xlix. 323. * "Engineering," xxviii 17. * "Engineering," xxix. 340. * "La Lumiere Electr.," ii. 269. Crookes * "Engineering," xxviii. 189. Daours " Technologiste," xxxix. 4. Debrun "LaLumicre Electr.," iii. 206. Deleuil * Laboulaye's "Diet.," ii , ar- ticle "Eclairage." App. de I'Electricite" v. 489, *555. de Mcritens. See Mcritens. de Mersanne. See Mersanne. de Moleyns * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng. " viii 250, p. 10. Denayrouze * "Iron Age," xix., April 19, 1. Duboscq (1850) * Laboulaye's "Dict.,"ii., ar- ticle "Eclairage '' * "Sc. American Sup.," 2674. " App. de I'Electricite," \. 483, *508. * "Mech. Diet." Fig. 1844, 781. "Technologiste," xli. 156. "App.de I'Electricite," v. 549. "App. de I'Electricite,' 1 '' v. 558-581. * "Engineer," xlvii. 113. * "Engineering,," xxix. 38. "Iron Age," xxiv., Aug. 14, p. 6 ; xxv.. Jan. 1, p. 1. * "Manuf. if Builder," xii. 1. " Tec/iHologiste,"x\.338 ; xli. 42, 785; xlii. 103,442. "Telegraphic Jour.," vi. 414. In mines Browning . BOrgin Cance Carre Cernosson, report on . . Chronology of Bolton, Col. Clerc 4" Bureau .... Grampian Regulator .... Ducretet . . . . . du Moncel, Divisibility Applications . . . Edison Edison Paper in . . Far/o, portable . Fa/irig, burner . Farmer . Use in 1S59, letter by Fernat Fontaine Foucault (1848) . . . Foucault- Duboscq French application of . Fuller ', Gaiffe . Gauduin German navy Girouard . Gordon . Gramme Guest Gukher . . . Harrison (1856) Hedges . . . Hfihnann Sf Steinlen Heinrich, , . Hickley .... Higgins . . . Hippodrome, Paris Holcombe . . Hopkins . . . Hospitalier Hughes, paper by, action sonorous vibrations in . Jablochkoff Jablochkoff-Dtnayrottze Jackson Jacquelain Jamin . Paper by . Jamin-Krupp . Jaspar . . . . . *"La Lumiere Electr.," i. 8; * ii. 12, 29; * iii. 124; * v. 1 ; * v 359. *" Scientific Amer." xl. 185; xlii. 19. * " Teleg. Jour.," vii. 165, 230. . . * "Engineering," xxvii. 513. . . " Scientific Amer.," xxvii. 70. . . * "Scientific Am.," xxxix. 327. * "Sc. American Sup.," 2576. . . * "Scientific Amer.,'' xlii. 131. " Technologiste," xlii. 442. . "Technologiste," xl. 17. . . "App.derEtectricite,"v.5lQ. . . "App. del'Etectricilc," v. 515. * Laboulaye's "Diet.," ii., arti- cle "Eclairage." *"&. American Sup.,'' 2574. "App. del'Etectricite','' v. 482. . . * "Engineer," xliv. 365. * "App. de l'Eltctricitc,''\. 485. . . "Sc. American," xxxvii. 116. . . * "Scientific Amer.," xl. 212. * "Scientific Am. Sup.," 2832. "La Lumiere Electr.," i. 39. " Telfg. Jour." vii. 117, 130. . . * "App. de I'Etectricitc." v. 480. . . "App. de I'Electricite," v. 467. . . *" Scientific Am. Sup.," 4130. , . * "App. de I'Electricite," v. 495. "LaLumicre Electr.," iii. 27. , . * "Engineering," xxvi. 382. * "Engineer," xliv. 435, 436, 457. * "La Lumiere Elec.,'' iii. 363. * " Scientific Am.," xxxvii. 195. . . * "Scientific Amer.,'' xliii. 5. "La Lumiere Elec." ii. 311. . * "La Lumiere Elec." v. 571. . * "App. de I'Elfctricitc," v. 500. , . * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng." ix. 147. * "La Lumiere Elec., r v. 200. , . * "Engineer," xliv. 457. . * "Engineering," xxix. 163. "Iron Age," xxiv., Dec 25, 1. * "La Lumiere Elec.," iii. 211. . * "Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 229. "Iron Age." xxiii., June 19, 1. ' " Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 199. . * "Sc. Am. Sup.," xxvii. 71. . * "Scientific Amer.," xlii, 371. . * "Sc. American," xxxix. 200 ; xli. 274. * "Scientific Am. Sup.," 2363, . * "Sc. American," xli. 101. of . * "Scientific Am. Sup.," 2024. "Engineering," xxiii. 384 ; xxvi. 125, "364. * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," vi. 303; ix. 135. *"La Lumiere Electr.," i. 13. "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 64; xxxix. 326. " Technologiste," xxxviii. 22; xxxix. 70,369. *"Sc. American, Sup.," 2089, * 2573, * 2654. * " Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 11. "App. de I'Electricite'," v. 472, * 515 " Scientific Am .." xxxvi. 368. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xvii. 15. , *"Jour. Soc. Tel.Eng."\iii. 265, p. 18. "App. de I'Electricite," v. 465. "Engineering," xxix. 457. * "Plumber & Sanitary Eng.," iii. 400. * "Manuf. 4" Builder," xii. 182. *" Scientific American," xli. 4. "Technologiste," xli. 355; xlii 343. "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng., 1 ' ix. 323. "La Lumiere Electr.," i. 17 ; Ii. 234, 236. . "Scientific Am. Sup. ,"2098. "IronAge," xxiv.,July3, 15. . * "App. de rjSlectricitc," v. 479. ELECTRIC LIGHT. 302 ELECTRIC LIGHT. Joel "La Lumiere Elec.," ii. 461. "App. fie I'Electricite," v. 512. "App. de I'Electricite," v. 512. "App. de I'Electricilc,"?. 475. * "Engineer," xlvii. 167. * "Sc. American,'' xl.,402. * " Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 199. "App. de 1'Electricitc," v. 505, * 556. * "La Lumiere Eleetr.," v. 25. "App. de I'Electricite," \. 500. "Technologiste," xli. 273, 289, 305, 353. "Technologiste," xlii. 119. "Technologiste," xlii. 109. " Technologiste," xlii. 154. " Teehnologiste," xlii. 201. "Technologiste," xxxix.47. "App. de I'Electrintc," v. 475. "App. de VEle.ctricite," v.480. "Sc. American," xl. 51. * "Engineering," xxvi. 362. " App.de I'Electricite," \A9"i. " Technologiste ," xxxix. 213. " Sc. Amer.," xxxix. 197. "Sc. American," xlii. 121. * " Telegraphic Jour.,' 1 ' vii. 147. * "Engineer," xliv. 451. * "App. de I'Eleclricite," v. 508. * "Engineering xxvii. 364. * " Technologiste," xli. 691. *" Scientific Am. Sup.," 2846. * "App. deTElectricitc," v. 518. * " Manuf. $ Builder," x. 222 ; xii. 196, 223, 249. *" Scientific Amer.," xxxix, 175; *xl. 184; *xliii. 127, *151 ; * 242, * 255. * "Sc. American Swp.,-'2572. * "Scientific Amer.,"' xliii. 255. * " Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 96. * "La Lumitre Elec.," ii. 212. * "Engineer," xliv. 451. * " Telegraphic Jour.," vi. 393. "App. de I'Electr.," v. 498. * "La Lumiere Eleetr.," v. 189. * "Scientific Amer.," xl. 383. * " Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 231. * "Plumb. 4" San. Eng.," ii. 1. * "Sc. American Sup.," 2404. * "Kept. Lighths. Bd.," '79-80. * "Sc. American Sup.," 1575. * " Telegraphic Jour.," v. 305. "Sc. American Sup.," 1563. * "La Lumiire Eleetr.," ii. 11 ; in. * 38, *57, * 75; iv. *326. * "Mach. Eleetr. a Cour. cant." Paris, 1882. * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," vii. 184. "App. de I'Electr.," v. 608. "Technologiste," xlii. 119. * ii * 11 * " * " * " # ' * L * 11 * ti * " * 11 * 11 # >> * 11 * 11 * ii * ii *I # 'i * * ii * ii * !> # II # 1' * II * " * 1' * II # " # * " * II * 11 * II * II * II # II * 11 * " Kosloff Shuckert Sergueeff Lane-Fox Lemolt (1849) Lockert, paper by .... In Paris Regulator British Museum . . . Shoolbred, paper by ... Applications of . . . . Lodygine Siemens, influence on vegeta- tion Paris, Lyon Railway . . At Berlin Siemens et Hafner-Altenek . Silliman, in Paris, paper by Souter point lighthouse, Br. South Foreland lighthouse . Spinning mill (Ricards) Sguire, for surgical operations Sta?>e(1846) Magasin du Louvre . . Marfais Marshall, portable engine for Martin de Brettes .... Current regulator . . . Sf anton Iron Works . . . Starr ("Journal of Science ") Early history of ... Street lamp lighting . . . Swan On subdivision . . . Tchikoleff Tests, U. S. Lighthouse Board Thiers, Lacassange et T. . Thomson- Houston . . . Trant, paper by , " Nature " . Trowbridge, paper by ... Tynriall, paper by .... Report by Meritens, de Mersanne, de Morton, paper by . . . . Munro, paper by .... On development of . . N. Railway of France Van Malderen In "Scientific Amer.," xl. 164. * "La Lumiere Elec.," iii. 141. * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 259, pi. 14. * "La Lumiere Elec.," ii. 295. "App. de I'Electr.," v. 554. " Technologiste, " xlii. 320. *" Engineer," xlvi. 389. * "Sc. American Sup.," 2793. * "Engineering," xxvii. 16. *" Engineering,'' xxvii. 51. * "Scientific American," xl. 4. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 2132, 2575. " Technologiste," xl.337 ; xli. 152. "Telegraphic Jour.," vi 334, 360, 430, 497 : * vii. 43. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 34; * xxxix. 11, 228; *xli. 166, 194. " Technologiste," xl. 122. "La Lumiere Eleetr. ," i. 16; * ii. 248 ; ii. 311, * 459. *"Sc. American Sup.," 1318, 2152, 2183, * 2576. * "App. de I' Eleetr.," v. 502. * " Telegraphic Jour.," vi. 49. * " Van Nostr. Mag.," xxi. 88. * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 262, pi. 17. * " Teleg. Jour.," vii. 63, 103. " Technologiste," xxix. 1. "Technologiste, xlii. 429. Partz Van Nostrand's Mag., ed. Resum^ Pilleux if Qufsnot .... Railway, Paris, L. & Med. . Runsomes portable engine for For railways .... Rapieff Way "Moderator" . . . . Werdermann Westingho/t}.t, uu lly. cars . Regulator Roberts .... . . Wilde . Woolwich, . Wright (1845) Robey, steam engine for . . Rubuen, at Brussels . . "Engineer," xlix. 358. "Scientific Amer.," xlii. 230. " Telegraphic Jour.,'' vi. 477. "La Lumiere Elec.," ii. 176. " Technologiste," 1 xli. 85, 309. "Engineer," xlvii. 5. "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 304, * 350 , xl. 145. "Scientific Am. Sup." 2577. "Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 7. "La Lumiere Elec..'' iv. 125. "Technologiste," xxxix. 113. Laboulaye's "Diet.," ii., art. "Eclairage " "La Lumiere Elec.," i. 217. "Eng'ing," xxvi. 363, 365. "App. de I'Electr.," v. 490. "Scientific Am. Sup.," 2574. "Enginrering," xxvi. 362. "Sc.Am. Sup.," 9451, 2514. ''Iron Age," xxiii., Feb. 13, 9. ' Technologiste," xlii. 196. " Engineering,'' xxvii. 163. '' Technologiste," xlii. 254. 'La Lumiere Eleetr.," ii. 36, * 95 ; iv. * 68. "App. de I'Electr.," v. 494. '' Telegraphic Jour.," ii. 292 'Sc. Am. Sup.," 2261, 2269. I Scientific Amer. Sup.," 947. "Engineer," xliv. 302. "Engineer," xliv. 451. "Engin?(ri.ng," xlvii. 230. Laboulaye's "Diet.," ii., art. Eclairage." "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 259, 261, pi. 12, 13, 16. "Technologiste," xlii. 105. ' Van Nostr. Mag.," xx. 298. " Scientific American," xl. 40 "Technologiste," xlii. 234. "'Sc. American Sup.," 1249. "Engineering," xxx. 377. 'Scientific Amer.," xlii. 182. 'La Lumiere Elec.,'' ii. 486 ; 111. 26; v. * 1. 'Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," x. 339. 'Scientific Amer.," xliii. 116. "La Lumiere Elec.'' ii. 165, *274. 'Scientific Amer.," xlii. 170. App. de I ' Eleetr., v. 505,556. 'Engineer," xlvi. 295. 'Iron Age," xxiii., Jan. 16, 7. Sc. American Sup.,'' 2469. ' Telegraphic Jour.," vi. 415. "Scientific Am. Sup.," 2514. ' Scientific American," xl. 25. 'Scientific Amer.," xl. 180. 'Scientific Am. Sup." 1643. 'Pop.Sc. Monthly," Mar. "76. "App. de I'Electr.," v. 512. 'Van Nostr. Mag.," xx. 70. Engine.er," xlvi. 295. Scientific Amer.," xl. 54. 'Sc. American Sup.," 2572. ' Telegraphic Jour.," vi. 431. 'Technologiste," xli. 344; xlii. 443. App. de I'Electr., v. 549. App. de I'Electr.," v. 510. "Engineer," xlvi. 312. 'Iron j4^e,''xxii.,Nov.21.15. ' Scientific Am.," xxxix. 373. Technologiste," xli. 164 Scientific. Am. Sup. ,"2576; 2491, 2492. Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 259, pi. 15 ; * ix. 149. 'La Lumiere Eleetr.,'' i. 16, 112, * 203 ; * iv. 232. Telegraphic Jour.," vi. 455. II Technologiste," xli. 294. "Iron Age,"xx\v., July 17,1 "Manuf. 4- Builder," xi. 145. "Scientific Am. Sup.," 2574. La Lumiere Elec.," iv. 311. Engineer," xlvii. 385. Telegraphic Jour.," vii. 47. Technotogiste," xlii. 109. App. de I'Electr.," v. 500. Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," *viii. 256, pi. 11. ELECTRIC LIGHT. 303 ELECTRIC RAILWAY. Adams, W. G. " Scientific Principles Involved in Electric Lighting.'' "Journal of Franklin Institute,'' Oct., Nov., Dec., 1881. (Cantor lectures before London Society of Arts.) Alglave tt Boulard. "La. Lumicre Electrique." Paris, 1882. Armengand, Ainc. "Manuel r/e I' Edairage Electrique." Paris. 1881. (Complete abstract of French patents on elec- tric lighting.) "Blue Book.' 1 " Report on Lighting by Electricity." Tes- timony of Siemens, Thomson, and others. Printed by order of House of Commons, June, 1879. Boltar, Colonel. "Some Historical Notes on Electric Light." "Journal Society of Telegraphic Engineers,''' No. 27, vol. viii. (1879), contains abstract of English patents. Fontaine. H. "L' Edairage a I' Electricite" 2ded., Paris, 1879. Hedges, Killingworth. "Hints on, Electric Lighting.'' London, 1882. Higgs, Paget. "The Electric Light.-' London, 1879. Higgs, Paget. "Candle Power of the Electric Light." London, 1882. Higgs, P. "Electric Transmission of Power.'' London, 1879. Hospitalier, E. "Les Principales Applications de I'Electri- citc." 2d ed., Paris, 1882. Moncel. Comte du. "Expose des Applications de I'Electri- citc.'' Paris, 1876. Morton, Prof. "Report of the Lighthouse Board." United States. Washington, 1879, 1880. Niaudet, A. "Machines Electriques it Courants Continue." 2ded., Paris, 1881. Prescotl, G. B. "The Speaking Telephone, Electric Light, and Other Novelties," New York, 2d ed., 1879. Schellen's "Die magnet- und dynamo-electrischen Mas- chincn" Koln, 2d ed., 1882. Sawyer's "Electric Lighting." New York, 1881. Tyndall, J. "Electric Light." "Popular Scientific Monthly," March, 1876. Urquhart, J. W. "Electric Light : Its Production and Use." London, 1880. " Van Nostrand's Magazine," Reports from. "Incandes- cent Electric Lamps, etc." No. 57 Van Nostrand's Science Series. E-lec'tric Light Meter. An invention of Edison for measuring the quantity of electric cur- rent passing to a light or to a house. A part of the system of divisional current arrangement for public lighting. The current goes from Hue by the house-wire to the apparatus, passing through two contacting pla- tinum points and thence to a magnet. The device is to cut a house out of the circuit if too great a flow of electricity should occur. In the latter case the magnet will draw down a lever and sever the con- tact of the platinum points, thereby breaking the circuit. E-lec'tric Light Reg'u-la'tor. An appara- tus or device : 1. To determine the amount of current passing to the electric lamp. 2. To adjust the carbons of the arc light so that they shall preserve their exact relative distance. Of these there are two orders : a. The monophote, or one-light, regulator. ;. The poluphote, many light, or division regulator. The poli/p/wte has three classes : a. Differential. b. Derivation. c. Fixed interval, or regulator a teartfixe. The Serrin* Mersanne* Jablochkoff, Lontin, Rapieff reg- ulators are described on pp. 362-365, "Engineering,'' xxvi in a paper read by Mr. Shoolhed before the British Associa- tion at the Dublin meeting, 1878. See also list under ELECTRIC LIGHT. Many of the objects there cited are regulators, as upon that feature of the appara- tus more ingenuity has perhaps been expended than on other excepting generators. E-lec'tric Meas'ure-ment Ap'pa-ra'tus. An apparatus consisting of a box of graduated or cumulative resistances, and a galvanometer for de- termining the electro-motive force, resistance and strength of batteries, and resistance of conductors : for locating faults, breaks, and crosses on telegraph lines or cables ; for measuring *he amount of any metal deposited in a given time in electro-plating ; and for determining the specific conductivity of metals. E-lec'tric Pen. The electric pen consists of a small electro-magnetic engine, mounted upon the top of a tube pointed at the end. Within the tube is a needle to which is given an exceedingly rapid vertical motion by cams upon the rotating engine- Fig. 9i3. Editon's Ei/ectric Pen. shaft. This needle is projected from the small end of the tube at the rate of 50 times per second. If the pen be held in writing position upon a sheet of writing paper placed on some soft substance, a letter i may be written as fast as with an ordinary pen, but | the characters, unlike the ink mark formed by the ; ordinary pen, will be composed of innumerable holes ! punctured in the paper by the rapid projection of ; the needle from the tube. The result is a perforated , paper, which, treated as an ordinary stencil, will give similar result. The motive power used to drive the engine of the pen is derived from a voltaic , battery of two Buusen cells, shown in Fig. 943. See references : | Edison . * "Engineering," xxii. 511 " Technologiite," xli. 544. "Manufacturer (r Builder. E-lec'tric Pho-tom'e-ter. Goodwin's electric photometer extinguishes candle and gas, and stops meter and clock by electricity. "American Gas-light Journal " . * July 3, 1876, p. 5. E-lec'tric Plow. A substitution of a dynamo- electric machine for the steam traction-engine, for the purpose of working the plows. The same ar- rangement of plow, rope, and installation is used (see STEAM PLOW, "Mech. Diet."), but the power is conveyed to the winding drum on the head-lands of the field by wire from the central station where the engine, boiler, and current generator are situated. The apparatus was invented by Chretien & Felix, of Sermaize (Marue), France. The Gramme ma- chine is used. * "Revue InJustrielle." * "Engineer'' xlvii. 434. * " Scientific American " July 17, 1879 E-lec'tric Rail'way. The car travels on in- sulated rails which form a part of the circuit, and the current works the dynamo machine on the car to rotate the wheels. Siemens' electric railway at Berlin, between the suburbs Lichtenfeld and the Cadetteuhaus, is one and a half miles long with a gage of 3', the rails of the ordinary pattern. A single car is propelled at 9 miles per hour, but might travel much faster ; the car holds 20 persons ; the dynamo machine is under the car; one rail positive and the other negative. The dynamo machine transmits its movement to the wheels by spiral steel springs. In addition to the ordinary brakes, means are provided to short cir- cuit the machines on the carriages and to cause them to act as powerful brakes. Large stationary engines are used. ELECTRIC RAILWAY. 304 ELECTRIC WRITING APPARATUS. In the earlier experiments a central rail brought the cur- rent from the generator, the current returning by -the outer rails A copper brush on the car collected the current from the central rail. Several forms have been assumed from time to time. See references, infra Chutter't engine, "English Mechanic,'' has also the feature of the positive and negative rails. " Scientific American Supplement '' * 301. The attention directed to the matter has unearthed a num- ber of old devices. The Lilly if Cotton electric locomotive described in the "Scientific American " for Sept. 25, 1847 ; Bone's French patent, 1848. The Edison railway has a current conveyed to the track by two copper wires, one for each rail. The armature of the locomotive makes 4 revolutions for one of the wheel Fig. 944. Gross- LichterJ 'Me Electric Railway Car. There are six systems of electric traction at present in use, or being experimented with, namely : 1. The small traction machine of Siemens with an isolated center rail, which was worked at the Berlin and Brussels Ex- hibitions. 2. A self-moving carriage on isolated rail and elevated road. This is an idea of Siemens, which has been tempora- rily abandoned. 3. The Gross-Lichterfelde Railway. An auto-mobile car with isolated rails, running since May 16, 1881. 4. The tramway shown at Electric Exposition in Paris, 1881. Auto-mobile car, with road on ground level, and con- ductor suspended above the way. 5. Electric tramway with accumulators. System of Philip- part, Faure, and Reynier, Auto-mobile car having in it its own electric store. 6. The tricycle built by M. Trouve'. It is worked by the secondary piles of Gaston PlanttS, and by a Siemens' coil motor with Trouv^'s improvement Car, Siemens .... * "Engineering," xxix. 487. * " Scientific American Sup., "301. " Van Noatr. Mag , -1 xxiii. 515. " Telegraphic Journal,'- vii. 222. * "Mariuf. & Builder," xii. 228. * " Sc. Am. Sup.,- 3743, * 3850. Edison ...... * "Manuf. if Builder,' 1 xii. 123. *"Sc. American," xlii. 354, 368. E-lec'tric Reg'is-ter. An automatically re- cording apparatus in which electricity is the mov- ing agent. The applications are very numerous, and a number are stated in the list following. Cooley's electric register for rapid vibrations is an electro- chemical instrument in which the vibrating body closes an electric circuit at each vibration and makes an autographic record on a traveling band of prepared paper, through which the current is caused to pass. The number of dots within a given length of the paper, which travels at a calculated speed, indicates with great delicacy the number of vibrations in a given time. * " Scientific American Sitp.," 1563. Various forms of electric registers are to be found in Comte du MoncePs ''Expose des Applications de I'Electricite," tome iv., Paris, 3d edition, at the pages here noted : Page. Figure. Plate. Anemographs, History of 303 Anemograph. . . . * du Moncel . . 805 1-3 VIII. , .. Locomotive, Cliutter Railway, on, Edison Siemens f Halskt Siemens . Anemograph Anemoscopes . . Anemoscope . Barometrograph . nerve Mangon * One wire . . . * Hardy . . . Hough . . , * Wheatstone . . Barometrograph et Thermometrograph . Distance Measurer . . Electr. Phys. Registers Flexion Registers . Galvanomerograph . Mareograph .... Max. & Min. Register Melodiograph . . . Holograph . . . . Meteorograph . . . Yates . . * Hardy . . * HOUK/I . Riatti . . Hipp . . * du Moncel * Boeck * Mart/ foy . Rcgnard . du Moncel Liais . * du Moncel 329 331 68 332 69-71 340 342 14 343 344 352 15 354 72 359 V. Oscillograph . . . . Reservoir depth reg'r Seismograph . . . . Thermometrograph Udometrograph . . , Vianieter (navy) Berttlli , . . Guiot .... * Hough . . . Rcgnard . . . Schubart . . * Secchi .... * Theorell . . . * Van Baiimhauer Van Rysselberghe * Wiieatslone . . Wilde .... Berlin .... Deschiens . . Palmieri et al. . Morin .... Wlieatstone . . * Salleron . , . * Bain .... 422 85-88 437 91 441 92 445 430 364-7 15 VI. 446 !)3-95 452 373 351 392 84 350 412 381 74-83 402 2 VIII. 420 408 371 12 396 435 431 367 352 346 362 72 433 89 3-6 VIII. VI. * Salleron 305 58-61 325 62-67 See also in lists, GRAPH, METER, SCOPE in "Meek. Diet.," and list under MEASURING, ETC., INSTRUMENTS, infra. E-lec'tric Ro-ta'tor. An instrument opera- ting through electrical devices to demonstrate the earth's rotation. Fouville 4 Lontin . * "Scientific American." 1 xliii. 52. * " Sc. American,'' xxxix. 1, 37, 100. See also GYROSCOPE, p. 1045, "Mech. Diet.,'' and references to Foucault's Pendulum, pp. 1045 and 1662, Ibid. E-lec'tric Switch. A device for turning on the current to lights, etc., which gradually changes the current from an outside path to a path through the light by cutting out successively resistances in the lamp circuit and simultaneously cutting in re- sistances in the by-path circuit. E-lec'tric Writ'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. The autographic telegraph of Casclli is described on p. 191, lve on the horizontal spindle B B, a metallic strip C \ ameter, and firmly fixed by its Fig 949. circumference. The cylinder is connected to the copper ele- ment of a battery, and the strip Fig. 950. Cto the zinc pole, with a transmitting telephone included in the circuit. If, when no current is passing through the in- strument, the cylinder be rotated at a uniform ^peed away from the diaphragm, the friction between the cylinder and the strip (/causes the diaphragm to be drawn inwards, i. e., towards the cylinder, and the diaphragm would take up a fixed position dependent upon its own rigidity and the fric- tion between the cylinder and the strip. The instant, how- ever, that a current is transmitted through the instrument that friction is reduced and the diaphragm flies back by its own unopposed elasticity, the variation of friction being pro- portional to the variation of the strength of the electric cur- rent : and so extremely sensitive is this combination that the variations in the strength of the electric current caused hy the human voice speaking against a carbon transmitting tele- phone instantly produce their corresponding variations ot friction, and the diaphragm repeats the words, but very much louder than they were originally uttered at the distant station. Of the other parts : H H is the cast-iron bracket holding the principal parts of the apparatus G is a shaft by which the forked lever L may be raised occasionally to bring the damping roller /; from the trough T against the roller A. "Engineering"'' . . * xxvii 239. E-lec'trode. (Electricity.) 1. A pole of a bat- tery. 2. An instrument used in the application of elec- tricity usually attached to the free extremities of conductors or cords. Sometimes called rhfo/iho7-e. 3. (Surgical.) Electrodes for various applica- tions in electro-therapeutics are made of shades appropriate. Among them may be mentioned : Plates for the feet, throat, temple, ankle. Belts for the waist, wrist, arm, leg, knee, etc. Insulated for rectum, vagina, urethra, bladder. In form of needles, pessaries, forceps, plugs, balls, plates, sponges, brushes, pads. 50 forms are shown in the catalogue of the " Western Elec- trir Manufacturing Company.'* 4. One of the carbons (in some cases metal) in the arc electric light E-lec'tro-dy-na-mom'e-ter. A measurer of the force of an electric current. Fig. 951. Electro-chemical Tflephone. (Sectional diagram.) Electro-chemical Telephon". ( Detached view of dia- phragm and roller.) Electro-dyn amometer. The electrical current traverses the two large spirals of copper ribbon, and also the smaller spi- ral, whose bifilar suspension keeps it at right an- gles to the larger spirals when no current passes. The smaller spiral carries a small mirror, and the readings are taken from a distant scale, the light spot serving as an index. The circuit is completed through the smaller spiral by means of mercury cups kept cool by water running through their hol- low walls. Invented by Trowbridge and improved by Edi- ELECTRO GILDING. 307 ELECTRO-PHYSICAL REGISTER. E-lec'tro Gild'ing. See ELECTRO PLATING. B-lec'tro-graph. An instrument used for en- graving the cylinders of copper or brass employed in the printing of woven fabrics and paper-hanc:- insrs. Voltaic electricity is used to communicate the necessary movements in advancing the cutting tools at the appropriate times. The cylinder to be engraved is first coated on its outer surface with a film of varnish. The required number of copies are then scratched through the ground by a series of diamond points arranged on the axis of the machine paral- lel with the axis of the cylinder. The metallic surface is thereby exposed in certain parts and is "bitten in "with acids. Each diamond point is in connection with a small temporary magnet, and the entire series is so arranged en riipport with the original design, that intermittent voltaic currents are established, which result in the diamonds being withdrawn from action at proper intervals. E-lec'tro-har-mon'ic Tel'e-graph. An in- vention of Kli.sha Gray, of Chicago, by which nu- merous musical tones or a number of messages may be sent by telegraph simultaneously, on a single wire. Figs. 6266-6269, pp. 2516-2518, "Merh. Diet." Gray " Iron Age," xvii., Ap. 13, p. 3. Papers by F. L. Pope . *"Sc. Am. Sup.," 2088, 2097. * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.,' 1 vii. 356. E'lec-trol'y-sis. (Electricity.) The process of resolving compound substances into their con- stituent elements by voltaic action. Ktitk's apparatus E-lec'tro-mag'net. references : Magnets, Bessin. .... F/ndlcntr forms of "Engineering and Min. Jour.,'' xxvi. 26, 37, 59. See under the following Penning Papc;r by Trowliriilge . Electro-inag. engine, Camacho engine motor, D'prez, Fr. Exxes, Austria .... machine, Gramme . . . testing machine, Herring motor, Lndwig .... engine, Pixii engine, Saici/cr . . . machine, Varley . . Werdermann .... "fir. Am.," 1 xxxix. 104. "Sc. Am. Sup.,'' xxxii. "Sc. Am. Sup.,"> 2897- 2899. " Telegr. Jour.,'' iv. 139. "Sc. Am. Sup.,' 1 ' 367. "Sc. Am.," 1 xxxv. 310. " Iron Age," xxiv., Aug. 7, p. 15. "ftr. Am. Sup , 1240. "Engineer," xlvi. 329. " Van No*trand's Mag.,'' xx. 4'05. "Sc. American," 1 xlii. 1. "Engineer,'' xliv. 383. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 301. "Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 1892. "Teleg. Jour.,'' vi. 22. E-lec'tro-mag-net'ic Brake. A railway brake operated through electric devices. Af/iard * "Scientific American," xliii.18. N. Railway of France . * "Engineer," 1 xlv. 456. Spottiswooil .... *"Sc. Am. Sup.," SOT. "Manuf. and Builder,'" xi. 228 E-lec'tro-mag-net'ic Mal'let. An instru- ment for plugging teeth. The plunger is recipro- cated by a small electro-magnetic engine. See PLUGGER, p. 1750, * "Mech. Diet." E-lec'tro-mag-net'ic Tel'e-graph. The his- tory of the magnetic telegraph, and the intimate connection of Prof. Joseph Henry therewith, with an account of the origin and development of Prof. Morse's invention, are so well told in a " Historical Account " of the same by William B. Taylor, of Washington, D. C., that it relieves the author from adding to that which he has said on the same sub- ject in "Mech. Diet.," pp. 787-789. The " Histori- cal Account" is published in the "Smithsonian Re- port for 1878," and as a brochure. See "Biograph- ical Memoir of Joseph Henry," p. 158, et seq. The "Handbook of Electrical Diagrams and Con- nections," by Davis & Rae, New York, 1876, gives an excellent description and series of cuts, showing the instruments, connections, and arrangements of various kinds and systems. Telegraphy, Thomasi, Fr , " Scientific American," xxxvii. 40. German historical collection of Instruments Description and history, "Lines' Report, Vienna Exposition," 1873. See list under ELECTRICITY for various systems and instru- ments. E-lec'tro-mas'sage. See ELECTRO-MASSEUR. E-lec'tro~mas r seur. An instrument for appli- cation of electricity to the human body. A small hollow metallic roller filled Fig. 955. with hot water, and connected with a Gaiffe battery ; it is rolled over the surface of the body. Electro-masaaye. It is also made in other forms. E-lec'tro-med'i-cal Ap'pa-ra'- tus. See CAUTERY INSTRUMENT, ELECTRIC BULLET SEEKER ; BAT- TERY ; GALVANIC BATTERY ; and list under ELECTRICITY. See also list under SUR- GICAL INSTRUMENTS, pages 2459-2461 "Mech. Diet.," et infra. E'lec-trom'e-ter. An instrument for measuring the force of an electric cur- rent, p. 789, "Mech. Diet." See also ELECTRO-DYNA- Post's Electro-masseur. MOMETER, supra. * "Engineering,'' xxiii. 179, 201, 259, 319. * "Manufacturer Sf Builder," xi. 253. Hopkins * Sc. American," xli. 99 ; xxxix. 185. Absolute, Physical Society, London . "Scientific American Sup.," 1690. Capillary * "Scientific American Sup.," 1319. Reflection, Maxrart . * " Scientific American Sup.," 4103. Reversing key. Lodge * " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 208. E-lec'tro-mo'to-graph. (Electricity.) An in- vention of Edison by which to obtain mechanical effects with an exceedingly small electric force, and upon long circuits, without the intervention of any electric organ. It is based upon the principle, that if a sheet of slightly roughened paper, dipped in certain solutions, be laid upon a platinized metallic plate, and there be passed over it a strip of sheet metal (lead, thallium, or platinum), on the passage of a current a certain slipperinessof the surface is produced, which makes the friction much less. A metallic bar, held by a spring, is dragged onward by the friction of the travel- ing paper, but springs back each time a current passes. " Telegraphic Journal" * vi. 382. " Scientific American ' * xxxix. 17. "Lines' Report, Vienna Exposition." 1873. See also ELECTRO-CHEMICAL TELEPHONE. E-lec'tro Mo'tor. See DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE; MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. E-lec'tro-phone. A telephonic instrument de- vised by M. Louis Maiche', consisting of an ordinary Bell receiver and a special transmitter. The lat- ter lias a glass imbedded in wadding, and placed with its concavity opposite to the mouth tube of the transmitter. Upon the upper edge of the dish rests a ball of carbon, and upon the latter a second ball. When the sound waves set the glass dish in vibration the carbons will be sensible of varying de- grees of pressure, and their conductivity will be thereby varied. The corresponding variations of resistance to the current, and consequent variations of potential in the circuit, are revealed as soon at the receiver. "Electrician." Maiche * "Scientific Am. Sup.," 4098. Pfeiffer, de Courbetles . * "Scientific American,'' xlii. 161. E-lec'tro-phys'i-cal Reg'is-ter. The sub- ject of registering phenomena of life is considered in da Moncel's "Expose" des applications de VElec- tricite'," * iv. 439. The memoirs on this subject, by Helmholtx, are referred to, and the apparatus of Boeck, called by him the Kymographion. ELECTRO-PHYSICAL REGISTER. 308 ELECTROTYPE MOLDING MACHINE. SPHYGMOGRAPH. PNEUMOGIIAPH. CHEILOANGIOSCOPB. See CARDIAORAPH. MYOGRAPH. PLETHYSMOGRAPH. and references passim . E-lec'tro Pla'ting. On porcelain : In France the object is painted with a mixture to form a basis for the electro deposit This is made by dissolving sulphur in oil of lavender to a syrupy consistence and mixing it under a gentle heat with chloride of gold or chloride of platinum dissolved in sulphuric ether. This is evaporated to the consistence of paint and applied with a brush to the pa its of the china on which the plating is desired. The objects are baked to a biscuit before being plunged in the bath. "Scientific American flip.,'" 626. "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 177. " Scientific American , v xxxv. 47. 'Scifntific Amer.," xxxvii. 127. 'Iron Age,'' xix., .Ian. 25, p. 1. 'Scientific Amer.,''' xxxv.312. Cf.: Prof. Wright . . . Leaves, etc. . . . Machinery . . . Machinery and plant Originator of ... Aluminium, etc. Bertrand . . . Iron 'Iron Age,' 1 xix., Jan. 26, p. 27. Van Kostr. Mas;.," xvii. 285. 'Manitf. and Builder," ix. 143. For aluminium. Bath of double chloride of aluminium and ammonium ; use a strong battery. For magnesium. Bath of a double chloride of magnesium and ammonium in aqueous solution gives strongly adherent layer of magnesium on copper. For cadmium. Use the bromide to which a little sulphuric acid has been added. An acidulated sulphate gives good re- sults. For bismuth. Deposited upon copper or brass from a solu- tion of the double chloride of bismuth and ammonium by the current from a Bunsen element. For antimony. Use double chloride of antimony and am- monium. For palladium. Use double chloride of palladium and am- monium, with or without the battery. "Comptes Renting" 1 xxxiv. 227. Gilding. Prepare bath of Potassium cyanide 14 to 16 ozs. Water 1 gal. Gold oxide J oz. The gold oxide is made by digesting in a capsule over a water bath, Gold 1 Aqua regia 20 The aqua regia consists of Nitric acid 1 Hydrochl. acid 3 When the gold has dissolved, the solution is digested with calc. magnesia and the precipitated gold oxide washed. Articles of copper, brass, or german silver are boiled for a few minutes in a solution of caustic potash, washed in clear water, plunged for a few minutes in an acid dip : Nitric acid 6 1-5 pounds. Water 1 gallon. ''Scientific American Sup." 2540. E-lec'tro-scope. The electroscope of M. Ra- meaux consists of two fine fibres of white silk, each fixed at one end by means of a little wax to any support, and free to oscillate in any direction under their point of attachment, and the respective fibres so separated that they cannot foul each other during their swing, or influence each other reciprocally. One of the threads is charged by means of a glass rod wirh positive electricity. The other is charged by means of a stick of resin with negative electricity. Every body which attracts one of the threads so charged and repels the other is necessarily electri- fied. Its electricity is of the same sign as that of the thread which it repels. The sensibility of these electroscopes is greater within certain limits as the threads are made finer, longer, and less conducting. " Telegraphic Journal " vi. 73. " Scientific American Sup " xxxviii. 183. E-lec'tro-sem'a-phore. (Railway.) A sem- aphore worked by electricity to give signal to ap- proaching trains. In the block system of railway management, for instance, the road is divided into sections and elec- tric semaphores placed at their termini. They are also used in the interlocking system which has attained such a great development in the railway termini of the large capitals. The electro-semaphore is described and represented in "KailroarJ Gazette," * xxiii. 93. E-lec'tro-si-lic'ic Light. A modification of the electric light arrangement in which one elec- trode is applied to a glass tube, or wall of a glass vessel containing a saline solution. A white vapor is given off, having a slight alkaline reaction. The glass is strongly attacked and devitrified. The spectrum indicates the silicic character of the light although the intense brightness renders it difficult to perceive the lines. Contact with pure silicon in the shape of crystal of hyaline quartz affords the same character of light. Plante. E-lec'tro-ther 'mo-pile. (Electricity.) A battery in which a current is produced by the sub- jection of an element or group of elements to heat. See TlIERMO-ELECTRIC BATTERY. E-lec'tro-typ'ing. A substitute for stereotyp- ing. See page 791, " Mech. Diet." The bath for depositing an iron surface on electrotype plates consists of a concentrated solution of sulphate of iron and ammonium ; the battery of four Meidinger cells. The anode is an iron plate with a surface eight times that of the cathode ; the latter is of copper. On leaving the bath the iron is brittle and hard, but when heated to a cherry red it be- comes malleable and soft. Klein. Or : Take 100 parts of ferrous-ammonia sulphate, together with 50 parts of sal-ammoniac ; dissolve in 500 parts of pure water, a few drops of sulphuric acid being added to acidulate the solution. The copper plate is connected to the negative pole of a battery of 2 or 3 Bunsen elements, an iron plate of equal size being employed as an anode. The solution is main- tained at 60 to 80. The deposit of iron is of a hard, steel- like quality. Bottger. Statue, 12' high "Se. Amer.," xxxviii. 338. Plates from drawings, Brown, Br. "Sc. Amer.Sup.,'' 2242. Iron electro " Sc. Amer. Sup. ," 1457. "Sc. Amer.,' 1 xlii. 184. Article " Galvanoplastiqite," Laboulayejs " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," tome iv., ed. 1877. E-lec'tro-type Mold'ing Ma-chine'. A hydraulic press for taking a wax impression of a form. The platen has a projecting table upon which the form and mold are placed before being placed in the press. The pump is supported by a frame-work on the cistern below the cylinder, and has a safety-valve graduated to give any re- quired pressure. Fig. 953. Electrotype Molding Machine. ELECTROTYPE MOLDING MACHINE. 309 ELEVATOR ENGINE. The molding case having been warmed is placed on a level table, and the melted wax poured in to make a level surface. It is tlien black-leaded with a soft brush ; the form is put on the platen, and the molding ease in reversed position on the head of the press, immediately over, but not touching the form. The bed is then raised to give the proper impression. El'e-ments. (Electricity.) In a galvanic bat- tery, the metals or carbon acted upon by the ex- citing fluid. See various materials iu list of bat- teries iu GALVANIC BATTERY. El'e-va'ted Rail'way. An urban railway above the line of street travel. See Figs. 1856- 1858, pp. 792,793, " Mec/t. Diet." New York . . * "Engineering,' 1 ' xxix. 10, 50, 210, 240. * "Railroad Gazette," xxi. 234 ; xxii. 125. * "Scientific American," xxxiv. 25 ; xxxviii. 18, 62, 66, 175, 178, 367, 370 ; xli. 255, 310, 338. Early examples "Scientific American,'' xliii. 281. New York . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 1 1933. El'e-va'tor. 1. The elevator belt with cups is the invention of Oliver Evans, of Philadelphia, 1780. 2. The elevator, as a building for the shipment, transhipment, and storage of grain is described on pp. *794, 795, " Mech. Diet." See also the fol. ow- ing references : El'e-va'tpr Chain. A chain used with ice-el- evators. It is flat, runs over pullevs above and be- low, and has jogs or bars upon it which form rests for the ice as the chain mounts the incline. Figs. 956 and 957 show several forms and detached parts. See also ICK ELKVATOK. Fig. 956. Engine, Cooke if Beggs Stokes if Parrish . Dai-is ...... Freight, endless chain. B'ttes Grain, Canton, Mil. . ) N. Y. Central 11. R ) St. Louis, Mo. . . . Erie, Pa Hoist, Mason If Co. . Hydraulic, Bunion . Howard Lou Works Lane (f KorJ.'ey . . Stokes Sf Parris/i . Passenger. Cooke if Be.zgs . . Potter . .'. . . Emus Trocadero, Paris . . Stciiiii, Baron . . . . Transfer of grain by , Water Power, Hale . . * "Manufacturer If Builder,'' xi. 9. * "Iron Axe," xxi., May 2, p. 18. * "Iron Age," xxi., May 2, p. 41. * "Builder $ Woodworker,'' xvi. 233. * "Engineering.'' xxii. 485. 539, 523, 519. * "Scientific American,'' xxxvi. 390. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1256. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 73.". * "Iron Aft,'' xviii., July 2-1, p 1. * "Iron Age,'' xxi., May 16. p. 39. * "Manuf. Sf Builder," ix. 121, 146. * "///! Age," xx., Nov. 1, p. 1. * "Iron Age,'' xix., May 24, p 1. * "Iron Age,'' xx., Sept. 20, p. 1. * "Iron Age," xxi., Jan 3, p. 1. * "Scientific American Sup.," 156. * "Scientific American,'' xliii 24. * "Scientific American Sup ," 2236. * "Afanufact. if Builder,'' viii. 217 * "Scientific American,'' xli 207. * "Mnnufact. if Builder,'' viii. 49. 3 (Surgical.) a. An instrument for lifting an ex- cised or depressed portion of the cranium in tre- panning. b. An instrument for replacing the uterus. c. A forceps or screw for lifting a tooth or root. El'e-va'tor Bolt. An iron bolt with a pecul- . !i;,4 Fig 955. Elevator Bolt. iar flat head which is countersunk by pressure into the working face of the belt, while the threaded end and the iiut secure the bucket to the belt. El'e-va'tor Boot. vator leg. Fig. 955. See Fig. 1863, p. 795, " Mech. Diet." It is of iron and holds the lower roller, around which the elevator belt runs. Elevator Boot. Fig. 954. The lower end of an ele- Ire Elf i-a tor Chains. El'e-va'tor En'gine. One used in connection with a passenger cage, or platform for hoisting merchandise. Fig. 957. Hawkins * "American Miller," vii. 8. Ice Eevator and Carrier Chains. The "Metropolitan" elevator, shown in Figs. 958 and 959 comprises (1) a double cylinder and reversible steam engine; (2) a winding drum im- mediately connected with the engine ; (3) a safety drum placed over the hatchway; (4) guide-posts extending from cellar to roof, faced with safety- locks, ratchets, and between which (5) the safety platform is raised and lowered by a wire lifting- rope, suspending it from the safety drum, while another wire rope connects the safety drum at the top of the hatchway with the drum at the foot of the hatchway and immediately connected with the engine. The speed of the platform is optional, from 60' to 200' per minute, and wherever it is stopped it is immovably held by a strong brake, combined with the engine and winding drum. The brake is so arranged as to be brought into and released from action simultaneously with the stopping and starting of the engine, but pausing no friction, while the engine is running. The platform is fitted with safety-lock- ing pawls, combined with a steel spring, and mechanism for forcing the pawls into contact with the safety-lock ratchets on the vertical guide-posts in case the rope should break. The greatest possible distance the cage should fall is 3", the pitch of the ratchets. The safety-drum is the medium through which the motion of the engine is communicated to the platform. Its duty is to limit the rate of motion of the platform, and to stop it if any portion of the engine-gear should break. A governor, P, and tripping gear, K I H, will in the latter case bring the break F into action and stop ELEVATOR ENGINE. 310 ELLIPTICAL MOLDING MACHINE. the platform. An automatic stop-motion limits the distance the platform can traverse to the space between the upper Fig. 958. Elevator Engine. and lower landings, automatically shutting off steam at those points. Fig 959 Safety Drum. El'e va'tor Scales. Large scales weighing 100 bushels of wheat at a time, and placed in the upper s'orv of an elevator to weigh incoming grain before discharging into the storage bins. See GRAIN WKKJHING MACHINE, infra. Ell. An L-shaped pipe coupling, at a bend of the circulation. An elbow. See BEND. The ell is plain, huhbed, or flanged. El-ler-hau'sen Steel. (Metallurgy-) Steel made by adding iron ore (magnetic) to the bath of pig-iron, to reduce the carbon, relatively. El-lip'so-graph. An instrument for describing ellipses. Toulmin's ellipsograph is a frame placed upon the pnper on the drawing-board in a certain relation to the axes of the ellipse to be drawu. A description of the mode of using will explain the con- struction : Place the center points upon a line drawn through the minor axis and equidistant from the center of the ellipse. Set the pen point at the extremity of the major axis, and clamp it by means of the binding screw on the arm, then turn the arm 9(J to the minor axis and set the pen to its extremity by loosening the binding screw between Ellipsograph.. lipses, see that the pen point is set perfectly square with the arm D. When the pen is set immediately under the arm F, the pen will draw a straight line. When the arm F is out- side the pen point, the motion of the pen is n -versed. First start the pen on a slip of paper laid on top of the paper, then when it runs off the slip on to the paper, stretched and pre- pared for drawing, it will draw a figure complete, and the lines will join. Toulmin .... li Patent i fir Amtriran Sup.,'' 689. Balcli * "Scientific American," xl. 324. The latter is an attachment to ordinary compasses, and has a double leg, which is used in rotation around the angle of a rectangular triangle laid on the paper. El-lip'ti-cal Mpld'ing Ma-chine'. An at- tachment to a molding for sticking elliptical or cir- cular moldings on any radius, or, when molding el- lipses, to work on a changing radius ; as in finishing arches, window and door heads, and architraves. The Boult elliptical molding attachment is shown in Fig. 961, and is used in connection with an upright spindle. The Fig. 961. Elliptical Molding Machine. parts of the attachment are erected upon an independent bed-plate. The work is attached to a pattern of the desired shape which has adjustable pressure plates for holding the work to the proper position. It has an automatic worm- feed, controlled by a friction clutch matching into a loose pulley. A is the pulley that drives the feed-works, and receives :ts motion by belt from a pulley on the counter-shaft that drives ELLIPTICAL MOLDING MACHINE. 311 EMBOSSING PRESS. M;vde by Louis Miiller, the main spindle. B is a friction clutch that connects the cinnabar) of its natural color. Thereafter desiccation corn- pulley with A, and drives the screw-shaft. C is a screw pin- meuces, and it indurates so as to last for any time. Modifi- ion that meshes into a worm on shaft above, by which means j the feed roller D is driven. E shows the upright cutter head. F is the form or pattern used with the work at- tached : ///fare adjustable pressure plates or guides for holding the work in place. K is an adjustable gage or fence governing the thickness of the work. G is a piece of the work finished. The machine will run in either direction tor feeding the stuff and working the molding, and will work moldings of any width from I" to 5", and up to 1.75" in thickness. E-mail' Ink. Leipzig. Colored inks black, white, red, blue used with a quill on glass, porcelain, ivory, marble, bone, mother of pearl, or metal. Cannot be re- moveil by any liquid. E-maille'. (Fine Art Mttal Work- ing.) The process of inlaying metal with metal ; an oriental process of great labor and patience, consisting of engraving, in- laying the metal which is secured by un- dercutting, and burnishing. Modern sci- ence has much simplified the methods. The object to be inlaid is entirely covered with varnish, portions of which are removed by a pr.iviT so as to form the design; and thus pre- pared, it is subjected to the action of a galvanic bath of gold or silver, which deposits the metal in the places laid bare by the graver. Or: after the removal of the varnish, according to the pattern made by the graver, the object is plunged into a solution of cyan! Je of silver. The salt is deposited on the lines from which the var- nish lias been removed ; the object is heated in a muffle furnace, and the metal appears on the black patina. Inlaid patterns of gold and silver may be obtained, either of their natural bright- ness or with a dead surface, the latter being effected by different processes of oxidation ; so that, on the same object, by making use of the protecting varnish, de- signs in gold and silver of various degrees of luster may be combined. Morin. Em-balm'ing Pump. Tiemann's embalming pump, shown in Fig. 962, is made of brass nickel- plated, and with metallic valves. Gaurel injected the veins with sulphate of alumina. Fal- coni injected into the body sul- phate of zinc. Chloride of zinc and sulphate of soda are also sometimes used For temporary preservation of bodies for anatomical investiga- tions the following requisites arc necessary. The body should re- main in a soft and flexible condi- tion for a period of at least three months, the tissues should not change color, the material should not be injurious to the health of the operator, nor spoil the instru- ments used in the operation, and it must be either free from or have an agreeable odor, and be cheap. Dr. Wywodzoff, of St. Peters- burg, Russia, recommends thymol diluted with water and glycerine: R Thymolis . . . sc. ij. Glycerine . . . Ibs. iv. Aq Ibs. ij. The Brunelli process : 1. Cleanse the circulatory system with cold water till the latter is- sues clear. Time required, 2 to 5 hours. '2. Inject alcohol to absorb water 15 minutes. 3 Kther to abstract fat. 2 to 10 hours. 4. Solution of tannin to form insoluble compound with the tissues. 2 to 10 hours. 5. Dry the body in a current of air previously passed over heated chloride of calcium. 2 to 5 hours. The Tranchina method: Eight decigrams of arsenious acid, combined with a little cinnabar, are dissolved in 9 kil- ograms of spirits of wine, and injected, secundum artem, into the carotid artery. For more than two months the body remains fresh, inodorous, inflexible, and (thanks to the Embalming Pump. Hoe's Embossim* Press cations by Gannal and others have improved upon Tran- china's method. "Lancet." Ancient Egypt ... . "Sc. Am." xxxvii 117. Embalming injector, Richardson * "Sc Am. Sup.," 813,2472. See also History and Kecipes : page 797, "Mech.. Diet.'' 1 Em-bank'meiit. See Thames " Van Nostrand's Mae;., r xviii. 569. French railways, Laboulaye, " Dictionnaire cles Arts, etc.,'' "Cheminx tie fer,'' i., Fig. 31. Em-blem'a-ta. (Fine Art Metallurgy.) Orna- mental figures in relief, which are large and de- tachable from the object. Em-boss'ing Ma-chine'. (Add.) 3. Emboss- ing machine for stuffs, Fig. 1869, p. 798, " Mech. Diet." See also Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire ctes Arts, etc.," article, " Impressions sur e'toffes," tome ii., Figs. 61,62. Steinlein's machine for embossing fabrics, * "Sci- entific American Supplement," p. 229. Em-boss'ing Press. 1. (/3ookbindinf>.) A press used in embossing or gilding on card-board, leather, book covers, etc. The bed is guided by the frame, so that it does not tilt in giving pressure at the corners. The feed guides or bed are adjustable in either direc- tion. The toggle is driven by a crank within and by means of a friction clutch ; the bed can be started or stopped without reverse or jar. The bed is constantly in motion and it has sufficient travel in order to allow the operator time to take off and place the work. An ink fountain and ink- ing attachment are affixed when necessary 2. A press which takes the place of a drop-press in embossing the handles of silver spoons, forks, ladles, etc., and for stamping medals. The press will give a pressure of 1,000 tons and receive dies 2" X 12" or 4" round dies. The upright steel col- umns that take the principal strain are 5" diame- ter and the large nuts have worm gear on their EMBROIDERING MACHINE. 312 ENAMEL. sules, operated by hand wheel, giving very delicate adjustment. Em-broid'er-ing Ma-chine'. The Bonnaz Fig 904 Embroidering, (J'.'tr^eaining, and Braiding Machine tnachine is adapted to embroider cloth with a chain- stitch, and to stitch braid or chenille upon the cloth in fancy patterns. A hooked needle is supplied with thread at each descent below the material by a rotary reciprocating thread-carrier, and the thread is drawn above the cloth. The loop so formed is held above and upon the surface of the material until the needle descends within and draws a new loop up through it. The fabric-feeding foot is universal as to the direction of its movement, and consequently moves the fabric, in any desired direction from the needle, thereby per mitting the stitching to follow any pattern or design printed or stamped on the fabric. A crank-handle controlled by the operator changes the direction of the feed according to the design upon the fabric to be embroidered Kose . . . . * "Manufacturer and Builder," ix. 118 Heitmann . . * Laboiilaye's " Dirtionnaire des Arts, etc ,' tome i., article, "Brouitrie " Em-bry-ot'o-my In'stru-ments. (Surgi- tiitl.) Instruments for cutting a foetus into pieces within the womb in cases of obstructed labor. In- cluding those instruments which are fatal to the fe- tus, though they do not sever the parts, the follow- ing is an approximate list : Perforators Craniotomy forceps. Forceps of various kinds ("ephalotrite. Blunt hook. Placenta forceps. Crochet Vectis. Decapitating hook Saw forceps. Representatives of each of which are placed under their al- phabetical heads, and more in ertfnso in Tiernann's "Arma- mentarium Ch intrgicitm." 1 pp 103-114, Part III Em'e-ry Board. Card-board pulp mixed with 30 to 50 per cent, emery of the required grade and poured into cakes. 'Manufacturer and Builder" ix. 269. Em'e-ry G-rind'ing Ma-chine'. Fig. 968 is a machine for sharpening chisel-bits. It has a trav- ersing way for grinding on the fl;it. and a swinging rest for the face of the wheel, together with adjust- able nippers. See list following : Band ... Band polisher, Slack Board .... Grinder. Brrthon if Bell, Br Dexter .... Tanite Co * * "Scientific American," xl. 278. * " Engineer," xlvii. IS". "Manufact if Builder, r ix. 269. * " Engineer," xlvi. 248. * "Iron Age," xviii., Nov. 30, p. 1. Manwf. If Builder," viii. 26, 36. Thomson if Sterne . * "Eiig'ins,'" xxiv. 500 ; xxv. 447. * "Scientific American Sup." 1854. Union Stone Go. . . * " Scientific Am.,''' xxxiv. 70, 210 Fig. 965. Bit-grinding Machine. Lap machine, Thomson, Sterne, If Co., Br. . Vulcanite wheel . . . Wheel cushioned. Harding Butler, Br. . . . . Lehigh Kansome, Br. . . . Manufactory. Tanite Co. . . . Wheels, paper on, by Bateman, Br. . . . Wheel stand Shoener 4" Allen . . Wheel-balancing . . Bateman Wheels, celluloid . . Wheels, on Report of J. >I Safford, 1876, Group I., vol. iii., p "Engineer," xlix. 386. "Eng. if Mm Jour.,' 1 ' xxiii 86. "Scientific American," 1 xxxiv. 86. "Engineering," xxi. 26. "Scientific Amer ," xxxviii 265. "Engineer," xliv. 4. ' " Scimtific American," xlii. Ill > "Scientific American Sup.," 1 1989. * "Scientific American," xl. 294 "Scientific American,' 1 ' xxxvii. 65. " Van tiost 's Mag ," xviii. 502. "Manufacl. if Builder,'' ix. 125. "Iron Age," xx , Dec 13, p. 68. "Centennial Exhibition Reports," 189. Em'e-ry Pla'ner. A machine tool with a trav- ersing bed, and an emery wheel which takes the place of the cutter or chisel of an ordinary planer. Newman. Em'e-ry Stone. A mixture of gum-shellac and emery. Soluble glass is substituted for the shellac in Germany, with apparent advantage. "Rente Indttstrielle." Em'e-ry Wheel Dres'ser. A tool to replace diamond tools in dressing emery wheels to shape. Fig. 966. Paris, 1878 . * "Scientific American, " xxiix. 67. Huntington's Emery Wheel Dresser. The head of the tool has independent loosely- jointed sharp-toothed cutters on a steel mandrel. The hooks on the under side of the tool are for catching upon the rest when applying the tool to the rotating corundum wheel. The Union Stone Co.'s emery dresser is a dia- mond mounted in a stock. E-nam'el. (Fine Art Mftal Working.) Enamel- ing on metal is of several kinds : 1 Simple overlaying of vitreous colors which are fused in a muffle. 2. Translucent enamel colors laid over a design which has been etched on (engraved), or hammered out (repousse), of the metal. 3 Cloisonne Pattern raised on the surface by means of wire or strips of metal welded on to it, and enamel spread in the spaces between the metal. 4. Chamfi-Ieve. Lines and surfaces cut out of the metal and filled with enamel. Allied to niello 5. Enamel is coarsely laid on, then outlined with strips of copper or gold. A Japanese imitation of true cloisonne. 6. A thick coat of enamel is meited on and covered while still hot with a network or shape* of thin gold which imbed in the enamel Finished with the graver. A Bengalesc art. ENAMELING. 313 ENGINE. E-nam'el-ing. Enameling was practiced by the Egyptians, Persians, Etru. cans, and Greeks. The practice was to cut out the figure t receive the enamel which was burnt in. It was practiced in Italy as far back as the time of Porsenna, and, later, Faenza and Castle Durante were famous for it. James Tontin, o Chasteauilun, in 1630, invented the opaque enamel ; Mortiere used it in rings and watch cases ; Chartier in flowers : Peti tot and Uordier in portraits ; Louis Guernier in excellen miniatures. See article "Emailla%e,'' tome iv., ed. 187", Labouliye\ " Dictionnairc i/ex Arts et Manufactures,'' on iron, porcelain * For composition, Ibii/., tome ii., article "Email." ( Ceramics.) The enameled steatite figures of the Egyptian pantheon are among- the earliest examples of the use o: enamel. The colors are white, yellow, blue, green, and pur- ple, and the blue especially is of unsurpassed quality. The base is probably stanniferous. Bricks found in the ruins of the Mesopotamian cities are also found with stanniferous glaze. At Wurka have been found great numbers of earthenware coffins, many glazed and some decorated. The Saracens during their occupancy of Spain made greal advance and the llispaiio-moresque vases and dishes, as wel! as the tiles known as Azulejos, testify to the tafte and skill oi this remarkable people. The colors were brilliant ; red, blue, green, yellow, and white, and the decorations in the style familiarly known as arabesque. The convent of St. Paul, at Leipsic, is perhaps the earliest surviving instance in Christian Europe of the use of enameled tiles. The monument of Henry IV., of Silesia (d. 1290), in the Kreuzkirche of Breslau, is a fine instance of glazed pot- tery with a life-sized figure of the deceased. The stanniferous enamel of the Saracens was rediscovered by Luca della Kobbia, of Florence, in the 15th century, and largely superseded the lead glaze. Luca della Kobbia orna- mented with bassi-rilievi the Campanile of the Duomo, of Florence The process was again rediscovered by Bernard Paliss.v in the middle of the Ifjtti century. At the Vienna Exhibition in 1873 specimens were shown of the beautiful tea set presented to Lord Dudley on his mar- riage. The decoration consists of turquoise blue enamel put on in drops near together, so that the surface appears to be thickly set with turquoise. Each cup and saucer is care- fully mounted in a stuffed morocco case. The small set of 6 pieces was valued at $6,'K)0. (Gto.) Wares or panes with vitrifiab'e colors baked on the surface. Glass euaniel contains lead, oxide of tin, or ar- senious acid, besides metallic colors. Among other modes of enameling glass, the following is the practice with etchetl enamel: The enamel in paste is laid with a brush upon the glass, dried, etched in patterns or designs by tools, and the glass fired to vitrify the enamel and cause it to adjiere to the glass surface. Flocked enamel is when the surface of the glass has previ- ously been deglazed, giving it a dull semi-opaque surface. Among the most celebrated specimens of glass enamel are the sapphire nuptial goblet, the work of a Muranese artist of the loth century and novv in the museum of Venice : and the Tazza, of St. Mark's Treasury, Venice, blown in black glass, enameled in various colors and gold, with medallions and Coptic inscriptions divided in zones. The tazza is of the llth or 12th century, and, though not over 6" high, is valued at 80,000 francs. It was taken from Venice to France by Napoleon, but afterwards restored. (Cast Iron.) Si lesian process : After pickling and cleaning the vessels, they are covered with a ground made as fol- lows : Quartz, 50 ; fluorspar, 7.5, and borax 22.5 parts fused together. Of this, 16 parts, 6.5 to 12.5 of quartz, 4 to 6.5 of clay, and .5 of borax, are ground in a wet mill, with an ad- dition of 2.5 clay and .66 borax. This is laid on and burned, forming a yellowish-brown mass. For the outer coating 2 5 powdered fluorspar, 1 zinc-white, 4.75 tin oxide, .75 bone-ash, and .08 to .5 smalt are well mixed. Of this 9 kilograms are mixed with 16 of finely-ground fluorspar, 9.5 borax, 3 25 soda, and 1.25 to 1.5 niter, and the whole fused together The product is powdered, and 30 kilograms of it are wet ground with six cups of about 140 c. c. of white clay, and .3 of zinc oxide. This is laid on and burned, completing the work. Hinth in "Dingler's Journal.'" See also ENAMEL, p. 800, ENAMELED WARE, p. 801, "Meek Diet.'-' See also GRANITE WARE, infra. "Manufacturer fy BuiMer," ix. 269. "Manufacturer Sf Builf/er,'' ix. 245. Cooking vessels . . . " Scientific American Sup.," 749. " Scientific American,'' xxxvi. 21. Hardware "Iron Age," 1 xix., June 7, p. 9; xix., June 28, p. 1. Hollow-ware. . . . "Am. Manufacturer,'' July 23, 1880 p. 12. Leather Laboiilaye's "Diet.," 1 article " Cuirs Vernis.'' Fig. 967. E-nam'el-ing Forge. The enameling forge and table of Enfer et sesjils, Paris, is shown in Fig. 967. Beneath the table is the Chinese lantern bellows worked by the foot. The air jet is on top, the lamp or fur- nace is not shown in position. En-caus'tic. Wax bleached in sea-water and steeped in natron dye was the basis of *he classical encaustic painting. Encaustic tiles were first made in England by Italians set- tled there. Enfer's Enameling Forge. French. Article "Peltries, 1 " Figs. 3700, 3701, Laboiilaye's "Diction- naire iJex Arts el Manufactures," iv., ed. 1877. Article "Encaustique," tome ii., Ibid. End'less Belt Grind'er. A grinding or pol- ishing machine having a belt running over pulleys and payed with emery, crocus, putty-powder, or what not, to grind or polish objects held against it. End'less Bed Pla'ner. A wood-planing ma- chine which has a roller bed, or an endless slat bed traveling on rollers. Goodeli 4" Waters . * "Manufacturer $ Builder,"' ix. 271. End'less-chain Horse'-pow-er. One, the inclined track of which passes over pulleys, as in A B, Fig. 2568, p. 1125, "Mech. Diet." En-der'mic In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) In- struments for the administration of medicine, etc., through the skin. See HYPODERMIC SYRINGE, Eig. 2630, p. 1160, "Mech. Diet." Also called DER- MOPATHIC INSTRUMENTS. See also ACUPUNCTU- RATOR. En'do-scope. (Surgical.) A speculum; for examination of the urethra, bladder, rectum ; spe- cifically applied to the urethral speculum; the lat- ter is also known as a meatoscope. See the following from Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chi- urgicum : "' Figs. 9, 10, 11 b p. 2, Part III. Fig. 548 p. 117, Part III. Fig. 59 p. 17, Supplement. The instrument has three parts : a glass tube with flaring Tig. 968. Dr. Skene's Endoscope. mouth ; a mirror with handle attached ; a hard rubber sheath, with a fenesti-a, by which application can be made to diseased points. Light is thrown into the tube by means of a concave mirror. End Play. The allowance made for end-mo- ion in an axle-shaft, etc. End-shake in watch- making. En'gine. A motor. See STEAM ENGINE, AIR INGINE, GAS ENGINE, etc. See references as follows : - Coupling, Haswell, Austria * "Engineer," 1. 279. Hotter, Austria .... * "Engineer,'' xlvi. 161 ENGINE. - 314 ENSILAGE CUTTER. Jack, Tai/lor . . Lathe, weighted Pratt if Whitney . * " Scitntific Amer.,"* xxxv. 83. * "Engineer.'' xlii. 24. . * " Thurxt oil's Vitnna Report,''' 1 ii. 227. Turning lathe, Tour a. guillocher * in art'.cle " Tours Com- poses,'' Laboutaye's "Dirt.,'' iv. See also ROSE ENGINE, p. 1983, "Meek. Diet." ; GEOMETRIC LATHE, 963, Ibid. En'gine Coun'ter. A register for keeping ac- count of the revolutions of a shaft, the pulsations of a beam or what not. Usually on the principle of the gas meter ; a train of wheels. Illustrations may be found under AIUTHMOMETKK, pages 143, 144, "Aleck. Diet." % Fig 969. Engine Counter. The instrument shown is used for indicating the speed oi engines, pumps, machines, shafting, printing presses, brick machines, etc. The dials register up to 100,000,000. En'gine Cup. An oil cup for an engine shaft or cylinder. See LUBRICATOR, Fig. 3011, p. 1361, "Mec/t. Diet." En'gine Reg'u-la'tor. A governor. Specifically : an invention by Sterberg, of Mag- deburg, in which the centrifugal motion of glycer- ine in a bowl-shaped vessel on a vertical shaft is made to lift a disk, and so operate a stem and gov- ernor valve. "Scientific. American" 1 * xl. 195. En-gi-neer's' Ham'mer. A hammer with one flat, round face, and a transverse edge peen. Fig. 970. Engine-room Telegraph. (British Navy.) En'gine-room and Steer'ing Tel'e graph. A means of communication between the officer on the bridge and the engine-room or wheel-house. Fig. 9 TO shows the engine-room telegraph, which consists of a brass pillar on the bridge, with a com- municator dial, index handle, and lamp. The figure also shows the pillar dial, and engine- room dial, and a portion of the bevel-wheel and shaft arrangement for communication. The steering telegraph is similar, with the neces- sary variation in the dials, showing the compass- points. English Knot. (Nautical.) A form of knot shown at 39, Fig. 2777, p. 1240, "Mecli. Diet." En-graved' Glass. Glass-cutting and engra- ving are described on pp. 978, 979, " Mecli. Diet." A late process of great beauty is as follows : Upon a groundwork of milk-white or opal glass thin coat- ings of blue and rose-pink glass are spread successively. The pink colors are especially remarkable for their delicate gradations and shades of color. A great variety of small objects for decoration are made in this manner. They are handed over to the engraver, who with his wheel cuts through the outer coats of color down to the groundwork of white glass. Extremely fine lines and delicate effects may be so produced. The process invites and requires careful drawing and skilled designing. At the Paris Exposition, 1878 were exhibited services in Egyptian, Celtic, Indian, As- syrian, Persian, Arabian, Greek, ar.d Byzantine designs. Among the purely decorative objects were a pair of vases, each about 15" high, upon which portions of the group upon the frieze of the Parthenon are copied by cutting in minia- ture, on one vase in intaglio and on the other in relief. Two years were required for the engraving. They are valued at about $2,000 each. One two-handled vase, about 20" high, is a most elaborate work, representing Pluto and Pros- erpine in intaglio on the body of the vase, with Grecian and Pompeian ornamentation on the handles and neck. En-gra'ver's Glass. A lens placed in a small horn tube, and held by the muscles of the eye orbit. Similar to a watchmaker's glass. Fig. 708, p. 2734, "Mech. Diet." En-gra'ving Ma-chine'. See p. 804, " Mech. Diet." And chasing, Atchison. * " Scientific. American," xxxiv. 274. Electric "Scientific Am. Sup.,' 1 ' 448, 2434. Bellet " Telegraphic Journal," 1 vii 100. Machine, Konigslow . * "Am- Manufact.," Jan. 3, 1879^ Photographic, Scamoni Process Cleaning engravings . "Scientific American," xxxix. 82. "Scifntific American," 1 xxxv 134. "Scientific American,'' xxxvii 339. "Scientific American Sup.," 1 1975. Transferring to glass . "Scientific American,'' xxxvii. 342. Barrere, Laboulaye's "Dictionnaire ties Arts et Manufac- tures,'' tome iv., ed. 1877, article "Epicycloides." See also article " Grown," Ibid., tome ii., Figs. 110* , 1107 bis. Also article " Tours Composes," Ibid., tome iv. Barrtre. Gallet. Perkins. Perreauz. Contc. Collas. See also ELECTEOGRAPH, supra. En'si-lage Cut'ter. A machine for cutting green corn stalks or other green feed, to be stored in pits (silos) for winter feed. The process of keeping reminds one of sawer krovt, the material being cut small, pounded, pressed, and placed in a vessel, the sides and bottom of which are air and water- ti"ht. The corn-stalks gathered at the time of i-ilkini: are cut to a length of say 4-10", deposited at once in the silos, spread, tramped, covered with boards upon which a heavy weight is placed to condense the ensilage. In winter it taken out in such a way as to expose but moderate surface to the air, operating in the manner indicated by Fig. 9 The pit becomes charged with carbonic acid, and excludes air when there is no agitation. The process is the invention of M. Auguste Gojfart, ot Burtin, Sologne, France. See Dr. Knight's report on agricultural implements at Paris Exposition, in 1878, vol. v., pp. 243-254, cuts of Go/ fan's silos. The best cutter for the purpose is that of the New iorl Plow Co., the President of which, Mr. J. B. Brown, has translated M. Goff art's pamphlets and been chiefly iristru- ENSILAGE CUTTER. 315 EPINETTE. Fig. 971. Brown's Ensilage Cutter. mental in introducing the ensilage of maize to the American farmer TliH cutter shown in Fig. 971 has three curved blades on a wheel, rotating in a pl:im j across the throat of the machine. The knives have a long draw-cut, so arranged that the cut is cnnrinnons and steady, a following knife commencing to cut before the previous one concludes its cut. The ma- chines are adjusted to cut jj" or \* , or to J" and 1". The feed is stopped ami started instantly by a lever. The cover over the knife is not shown. The curve of the knife Fig. 972. Emptying a Silo. is such as to slip away any stones. The steel cutting-plate is separated from the face-plate. The rollers are combed. An endless band elevator raises the cut stuif and drops it into the silo. The cutting power is from 2 to 10 tons of green stalks per hour, according to size of machine. The speed of wheel, 300 to 400 revolutions per minute. The power, from 2 to 4-horse. Ensilage pits, Fatter . . " Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 3846, 3861, 3926. The British llache-mais, for the French market, is made by Richmond & Chandler, and French machines are also made for the same purpose. See CHAFF CUTTER, page 158, sufira. En'to-mo-log'i-cal Pin. A delicate thin pin for impaling objects. E-nu'cle-a-tor. (Surgical.) An instrument, the name of which is derived from the act of uncov- ering and removing, as a nut from its kernel. The figures refer to Tiemann's "Armam. C/iirurgiciim." Fig. 973. l - , A " ins , tru - ment with a loop end for removing uterine and ova- r i a n tumors, Sims', Fig. 467, Part III. 2. A sharp comb or claw attachable in manner of a thimble to the end of the finger, to detach and remove a sac or tumor. Emmett's, Fig 102, Part V. In Yarrow'*, Fig. 55, Supplement, the thimble carries a loop to place over the object: it is practically a serrated scoop on an extension of the index finger. See Fig. 973. 3. An instrument to grasp and extract the eye-ball in the operation of extirpation, p. 25, Part IT. See ECRASEUR for an instrument for a somewhat similar purpose, but of different construction. Dr. Yarrow's Enucleator. En/vel-ope Ma-chine'. The machines of Cohen, Lockwood, and Kaynor & Co. were shown in operation at the Centennial Exhibition. Cohen's uses blanks previous^' made on cutting press. It folds, gums, and finishes 48 envelopes per minute. Loc/civoor/'s machine works from the web of paper, wast- ing very little stock and making the square pocket envelope, pasted up each side, and with a gummed Hup. It cuts from the roll, folds, gums, and counts 120 per minute, delivering in bunches of 25 each, equal to 72,000 per day. It has worked to 160 per minute. liaynor if Co.'s machine gums and folds envelope blanks, previously cut upon a press. Bali's patent ; making 48 per minute. " Scientific American" ........ xxxvi. 281. Ep'i-cy'cloid-al Mining En'gine. A ma- ; chine for forming templates to be subsequently used as guides in shaping the cutters for gear cutting ma- chines. In these machines it is essential that the contour of the milling cutter conform precisely to that of the space between two teeth. The machine is somewhat intricate, very ingenious, and is made by Pratt $ Whitney. " Ep'i-glot'tis Pin-cette'. (Surgical.) Along, delicate forceps, having curved prongs with hooked ends for introducing into the epiglottis to remove foreign substances. Brim's, Fig. 330, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirur^irum.'' Throat forceps, laryngeal forceps, and probangs for the same purpose, are shown on pp. 82, 83, Ibid. Ep-i-nette'. A chicken-feeding arrangement used in France. A cylinder with 5 stories and 14 faces, with 3 Fig. 974. Kpinette (Jardin d'Acclimatation), Paris. compartments each, is mounted on a vertical axis, so that either face may be presented towards the attendant. The box of the attendant (yaveur) is connterweighted so that he can bring himself and his feeding apparatus opposite either of the stories. The capacity is 210 fowls. On the box of the operator is the feed cylinder, the contents of which are ejected by pressure upon a pedal ; a dial shows the amount of food passing. The gfireur seizes a chicken by the head, presses upon each side of the beak to open the mouth, introduces the nozzle of the feed pipe, presses upon the pedal and injects the required quantity of food, keeping his eye upon the dial. He then takes th next fowl, completes EPINETTE. 316 EQUILIBRIUM SCALE. the round by turning the cylinder one face, winds himself up to the next story, and so on. Duty : 400 chickens per hour. The time required for fattening: chickens, 18 days ; geese, 20 ; ducks, 15 ; turkeys, 25. Food is a thin paste of barley and corn meal mixed with milk and water. Quantity from 10 to 20 centiliters = 0.7 to 1.4 of a gill at a feed, the maximum being gradually reached. Epinette on a smaller scale . . *"Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 1295. Ep'i-la-tiiig For'ceps. (Surgical.) The in- strument for transplanting hairs in the skin-graft- ing process. Piffard's, Fig. 85, Part V., Titmann's "Armamentarium diirurgieum." E-pi-stax'is In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) In- struments to avert bleeding of the nose. Among such are the following : Nasal clamp. Epistaxis plug. Nasal douche. Canula. Rubber tampon (inflatable). Laryngeal and posterior uares syringe. Rhinoscope. E-prou-vette'. An instrument for testing strength of cartridge heads by explosion of powder, is shown in Plate XXIV., Report on "Metallic Cartridge/!, 1 ' by Major Treadwell, U. S. Army, 1873. See also article Poudre, Figs. 2194, bis el ter, Laboulaye's "Diclionnaire,'' iii. E'qual-bar Nest Spring. (Railway.} A multi-coil spring in which each coil has a resistance proportioned to its diameter. S, Fig. 1143, p. 483, " Mfch. Diet." E'qual-i-zer. 1. A three-horse evener, to throw the strain equally upon three horses abreast. The illustration, Fig. 975, shows American, Brit- ish, and French forms, in the order named. "Expose" des Applications de L'Electricite'" iv. 294, 3d edition. Professor Langley's apparatus for eliminating personal equation by suitable devices during the act of observation, is described in the "American Journal of Science and Arts," and reproduced in "Scientific American,'' xxxvii. 170. E'qua-tp'ri-al. A telescope mounted for ad- justments in altitude and azimuth; clock-work gives the motion in right ascension. Reflector (mirror 0.80 m.), by Foucault, at Marseilles, * Lnboulaye' 's " Dictionnaire dm Arts ft Manufacture*," iv., ed 1877, article "Instruments d' Opiiqiif," Fig. 37. Telescope, 8", Grubb, Br. . * "Engineering," 1 xxviii.278. Vienna * "Engineering," xxx. 425. 27", Vienna * "Engineering," xxix 7,200, 310, 391, 409, 467. Stand, home-made, Simonton * "Sc. Amer. Sttp.," 1241. E'qui-bus. A name applied to a proposed form of carriage, which spans the horse, and has two wheels. " Scientific American '* * xxxviii. 265. "Manufacturer and Builder " .... * x. 115. E'qui-lat'e-ral Prism. (Optics } An equal angled prism mounted upon a stand, and used for throwing oblique light upon an object under exam- ination with the microscope. E'qui-lib'ri-um. Equilibrium cock. See EQUI- LIBRIUM VALVE. Equilibrium balance. See EQUILIBRIUM SCALE. Equilibrium couch, Anderson, Br., * "Engineer," 1 xliv. 42 E'qui-lib'ri-um Scale. A scale which keeps itself in constant equilibrium, and records all changes in the weight of the object, such as the growth of a plant, the evaporation of soil or of Fig. 976. Bascule a ct/uiUbre constant. (Redier. Pans. Equalizers. 2. An arrangement to divide the strain on all the levers of a horse-power; connecting all the horses together, so that if one pair should make a sudden pull, it draws upon the other horses instead of upon the power, and so does not transmit the ir- regularity of motion to the machine driven. E'qual-i-zing Bar. (Railway.) A bar, the ends of which rest upon the upper boxes of the axle bearing, and upon which rest the springs sup- porting the truck frame, seen at/, Fig. 1159, p. 488, "Mech. Diet." E-qua'tion Ap'pa-ra'tus. Electric appara- tus for determining the personal equation of astro- nomical observers is described in Comte du Moncel's plants, the waste of tissues on the living subject in breathing, reading, etc. On a stand next to the platform are placed the registering cylinder, the clock-work, which rotates slowly, and the double wheel-work, which determine the state of constant equilibrium. The principle by whith the equilibrium is re- stored, as soon as it has been disturbed by some cause or other, is this : If we place on an ordinary balance a glass full of water, counter-balanced by a weight, and if we dip into that glass a mass, whatever it may be, hanging from a thread, the equilibrium will be destroyed ; in proportion as the plunger penetrates more or less into the liquid, it will more or less disturb the equilibrium. It is such a plunger which Mr. Herve' Mangon has made use of to establish the state of constant equilibrium on the platform scale in ques- tion. Under the little platform of the instrument is a cylindri- EQUILIBRIUM SCALE. 317 ETCHING. cal vaj-e, three fourths filled with water; a cylindrical plunger, of which the supporting thread is rolled over a pulley, is lowered or hoisted by the wheels of the pulley as soon as the large platform experiences any augmentation or diminution of weight. The equilibrium restores itself im- mediately, and the motions of the pulley are transmitted to the lead pencil which passes over the surface of the register- ing cylinder, leaving on the unrolled paper traces of all its movements. The wheels of the pulley are the same as those used in the registering barometer of Kedier ; the one goes constantly to the right, with an escape ; the other to the left, with twice the speed of the first, and the extremity of the balance, by its motions, determines the freedom of the fan of the second wheel-work, which makes the pulley turn in the desired direction. " Manufacturer and Builder " * x. 205. E'qui-lib'ri-um Tool. A drilling or boring tool for metals; having a center steadying pin and a ring of cutters which make an annular groove. The case holding the cutters is a hydraulic cylinder which is fitted into the drilling-machine spindle socket, being, in fact, au annular ram carrying But- ters, inside of which is a steadying pin, with a piston at its upper end working in the cutter rain. The cylin- der is charged with soapy water, and when the tool is at rest the cutter ram is kept up by two exterior springs, and the center pin is full out. When the center pin is placed on the center-pop the pressure is transferred by the piston to the outer ram with the cutters, and when the pressure is with- drawn the cutters ngaiu re- tire, being elevated by the springs. E'qui-lib'ri um Valve. 1. A valve in which the pressures on ,'. . , Equilibrium Tool. th'j respective sides are in equilibrio ; this much decreases the labor of moving them, especially in large stop valves of water mains. lin^nkaw 4" Sons (Br.), equilibrium sluice valve has bal- ancing pressures above and below, the escapes being bi-lat- eral. "Scientific American Supplement'' * 1472. Booker's (Br.), equilibrium blow-off cock, has a small valve in the center of the larger one. The former being easily and promptly lifted by a quick screw, the water above the valve Fig. 978. Equilibrium Valve with Flanged Inlet. esciipes and reduces the pressure so that the water from the boiler forces the valve up- ward and opens the outlet. Conversely, by closing the small valve the operation is reversed. " Scientific American Supplement" * 1441. Fig. 978 is an equilibrium ball valve for boilers with equal pressure upon the inner faces of the two valves upon the same stem. 2. The equilibrium valve in the Cornish engine opens a communication between the top arid bottom of the cylinder, to render the pressure equal on both sides of'the piston, Fig. 1884, p. 808, " Mech. Diet." See also article " Tiroirs Equilibrist * Laboulaye's "Diet, des Arts et Manufactures,'' iv., ed. 1877. E-quip'ment. (Railways.) The running stock to make up a train. The passenger train equip- ment includes the baggage, mail, ex- Fio . 9 - 9 press cars, and passenger coach ; with parlor coach or sleepers in many cases. E-rect'ing Glass. (Optics.) A tube with lenses placed in the draw tube of the microscope to erect the image of the object under view. See DRASV TUBE. Erg. (Electricity.) The unit of work done by one dyne. Gordon. Es-cape'ment Reg'u-la'tor. A contrivance of Breguet in which the escapement is controlled by a tuning- fork. Li ster's Erect- ins; Crtass. The tuning-fork is about a foot long, and gives one hundred vibrations in a second. About midway upon one of the prongs there is a sliding-weight, by which the number of vibrations can be regulated. Projecting from the end of the prong is a small pin, which acts in the fork of a lever. The lever makes one hundred vibrations in a second, correspond- ing to the tuning-fork. Attached to this lever is a pair of pallets, which act upon an escapement-wheel having ten teeth, and making four revolutions in a second. The tuning-fork in this case regulates the speed of the train. The pallets and escapement-wheel act in a manner similar to the escapement of the striking-train in arepeating-watch. It was found by experience that the vibrations of the fork should be confined to about one degree to give the best results. These vibrations are so completely isochronal that an increase of power, from 4 pounds to 60 pounds on the train, made no difference in its time-rate. The second-hand made a complete revolution in one second. The dial being divided into one hundred parts, with a proper contrivance for starting and stopping, it might be of service in recording time to the hundredth part of a second. Carpenter. E'so-pha'ge-al Ins'tru-ments. (Suryical.) The term includes : Throat forceps Throat lancet. Throat scoop. Dilator, etc. Probang. Sponge holder. See list under surgical instruments, "Mech. Dict.^'et infra. E-soph'a-gus Bou'gie. A spiral flexible instru- Fig. 980. Esophagus Bougie. ment for dilating strictures of the esophagus. Made in a variety of sizes. Dr. Crawcour. Es'pou-line. (Fr.) The pecu'iar India tex- ture of the Cashmere shawl. Es-ther'mo-scope. An instrument invented by J. W. Osborne, of Washington, D. C., a ther- moscope of peculiar construction to {rive expression to the aggregate of the climatic influences which tend to affect the normal temperature of the body. See Fig. 6368, p. 2530. "Mer/i. Dirt." Also paper by Mr. Osborne in the " Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,'' Detroit meeting, August, 1875. See also CLIMATOMETER, p. 200, supra. Es'the-si-om'e-ter. See ^ESTTTESIOMETER. Etched E-nam'el. (Glass) A process of or- namenting glass by laying the enamel on the sur- face in the form of pa'ste, and then etching it into designs or patterns by means of tools. Etch'ing. (Glass.) Etching on clear and dead white ground is done by means of hydro-fluoric acid. Combined with modern photographic processes which allow copies of prints to be thrown upon grounds, reproductions may be made at slight ex- pense and of remarkable beauty. Etching on glass 'Srient/fic American," xxxv. 199- "Scientific American," xlii. 149. ETCHING. 318 EVAPORAMETER. A fluid made by Kesfler of Paris, is used with a common pen hi etching on glass. Shown at Paris in 1878. Kessler is said to be the inventor of etching on giass in depolish with flu- oric acid. For steel : concentrated acid 40 Absolute alcohol Nitric acid 10 ~~60 Or : dissolve soda . . . Iodide of potassium In water . . . . 20 50 400 470 For copper: fuming nitric acid 100 Water 700 Add a boiling solution of chloride potassium . . 20 In water 200 For zinc : crushed galls 40 Water 660 Strain and add nitric acid .... 2 Hydrochloric 3 Hen-burger. For Fichtntr's etching proc., see"Sc. American," xxxiv.200. ( Ceramics.) A mode of ornamenting ware in which the glazed surface is covered with a varnish, the pattern etched with a point, the exposed glaze " bitten "' with fluoric acid, the varnish removed, the etched lines filled with some strong color or gold, and, finally, the piece re-fired ; the glaze soft- ening covers and holds the color. Practiced by Mr. W. Goode, and exhibited by Minton, at Paris Exposition, 1878. E'ther In-ha'ler. (Surgical.) For administra- tion of the vapor of ether as an anaesthetic. Squibb's, Allis's, Chisolm''s, Cheatham's, Speir's, Morton's, Junker's, Figs. 400-406, pp. 115 118, Part I., 'fiemann's "Ar- mamentarium Chirurgicum." See also p. 1184, "Mech. Diet.-' 1 Fig. 981. Ether Inhaler. Fig. 981 is Dr. Morton's ether inhaler. It has a gaping mouth-piece, A, and valves B C to allow air to pass through the sponge chamber Also valves D E for direct passage of air through the instrument without being impregnated with ether. This valve is used when the breathing becomes ster- torous, and obviates the necessity of removing the instru- ment from the mouth. Eu'di-om'e-ter. A giis testing npparatus. See EUDIOMETER, p. 810, "Mech. Diet." Gas testing apparatus, or eudiometer test. "American Gas-light Journal " . .* July 3, 1876, p. 3. See also FIRE-DAMP TESTER; GRISOUMETER, infra; COAL GAS TESTER, supra, and references passim. Eus-ta'chi-an Ca-nal' In'stru-ments. (Sur- gical.) For treating- the canal. Air bag for inflating the canal. See AIR BAG. Inhaler for forcing vapors into the canal. Eustachian spray instrument. Eustachian catheter. Nose clamp for holding the catheter. Eus-ta'chi-an Tube Cath'e-ter. (Surgical.) A tube for following the course of the eustachian tube, acting as a dilator and discharger. E-vac'u-a-tiiig Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) An instrument for discharging the debris of calculi after lithopaxy, Fig. 982. Bigelow's instrument consists of a large catheter, preferably straight with a distal orifice, the extremity of which is shaped to facilitate its introduction and during suction to repel the bladder wall. The elastic exhausting bulb acts partly as a siphon. Below the bulb is a glass receptacle for debris. Fig. 983 shows Dr. Joseph j.j_ gg2 Warren's vermicular pointed evacuating tube. Its shape facilitates introduction, as it rotates when passing through the urethra. E-v a p'o-r a m'e-t e r. An instrument for deter- mining the evaporation at a given place. It consists of a flat ves- sel of known urea and ca- pacity, in which rain, etc., is collected, and which is either measured or weighed to determine the loss by evaporation. The apparatus shown at Fig. 1892, p. 813, "Mech. Diet.,'' is perhaps better adapted for reservoir, river, or tide gage and recorder, than strictly for the purpose of an evaporameter. Erlcman, of Stockholm, Swe- den, showed at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876 a portable evaporameter and a fixed one Bladder Evanm ting Appa- resembhng that in use at the ratuv Karingo Station in the Skager Rack, where the wind has free access from all quarters. These evaporameters are circular, shallow, straight-sided cisterns of Portland cement, showing a surface of 50' square (Swed- ish). The observer has to register not only the linear sink- ing of the surface, but also the quantity of water wLich in Fig. 983. Evacuating Tube. the course of the year is poured into or drawn off from each evaporameter. A small channel at the bottom is provided Fig. 987. Ragona's Registering Evaporameter. EVAPORAMETER. 319 EXERCISING MACHINES. for the latter purpose. The tests for height of water are by a graduated tubular glass stem, or a plunger rod. The registering evaporameter of Sig. Kagona, director of the Modc-na Observatory, consists of a glass vessel, K, Fig 984, containing water : it is placed on the platform of a balance of which the arm is represented by B. A counterpoise sus- pended by the cord C holds the vessel in equilibrium ; bat this equilibrium is equitable, as the contents of the vessel are continually diminishing by evaporation, so a second counterpoise, adapted to an eccentric, is disposed (as shown in the figure) in such a way as to support the vessel while it diminishes in weight. This counterpoise does not prevent the vessel containing water from rising with the rod M, which supports it, in proportion to its diminished weight. While ascending, the rod M carries with it a lead pencil, which traces a curve on the surface of a paper cylinder, which is rotated slowly by means of the clock-work O. E-vap'o-ra'tor. See illustrations of many forms in "Mech. Diet.," * pp. 811-813. Badoux's evaporator has a wheel made of circu- lating tubes and carrying series of coils which dip into the liquid and raise it to be evaporated by the air. It exposes a greater surface than Schroder's, shown at D, Fig. 1887, p. 81 1, "Mech. Diet." They both act upon the same principle. The Badoux evaporator is used in sugar and glue work. Fig. 985. Badoux's Evaporator. Conk's,* with portable furnace. J\Ial/ft's Report on Group III., vol. iv., "Centennial E.r/iibition Reports," p. 55 Bndoux's evaporator, Ibid., p. 56. tiillieux's and ('ail's apparatus for sugar-house, see La- bnulaye's " Dietionnaire des Art* et Munufartures," article "EKaporateur," tome iv., ed. 1877. App. for salt, Piccard, Fr., * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 2336, 2448, 3982. Moistening air, Parmenter, * "Iron Age," xix., April 12, p. 7 3'ven Scales. Scales, the beam of which is suspended at mid-length, so that the poise and the object are of equal weight. 3-ver'sion Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) 1. Feet eversion apparatus. See CLUB-FOOT APPARATUS ; CURVATURE APPARATUS. 2. Entropium force/is ; also called Trichiasis for- ceps. Fig. 1877, p. 805, "Mech. Diet." Ex'ca-va'ting Pump. 1. A form of dredging machine in which the water pumped draws up with it silt, mud, sand, etc., from a bar or shallow river bottom. See DREDGE. 2. A vault emptier, Fig. 584, p. 187, supra. Ex'ca-va'tor. A dredge, digger, scoop, borer, pump, as the case may be. See p. 814, "Mech. Diet." See also the following references : Batt "Min$Sc. P>-.," xxxvi. 49. Calais Harbor * 'Engineer,"* xlix 406. * 'Sc. American Sup ,' r 3787. Chaplin, Steam, Br. . . . * 'Engineer,'' xlii. 378. * 'Sc. American Sup.," 1009. ' Van Nostr. Mag.,'' xyi. 288. Cniirreux, Danube . . . . Diaclc, borer and bag, Japan "Sf. American Sup ,'' 314. "Engineer,'' xliv. 291. ".Sc. American Sup.,'' 1631. Dunbar If Ruxton, Steam, Br. * "Engineering," xxiii. 360. * "Sc. American Sup.," 1378. Fourarres, India * "Engineering," xxviii. 153. Fowler, scoop, Br. . . Kiml-Chaudron, Belgium Ghent ship canal . . * " Engineering, '' xxv. 446. * "Sc. American," xxxix. 51. *"Sc. American Sup.," 1296. * "Engineering," xxvi. 314. * "Sc. American," xxxix. 367 ; xl. 54. Price *"A/in. if Sc Pr.," xxxiv- 347. Priestman, Br * "Engineer,' 1 ' 1. 74. Reeves, pump * ".Sc. American," xxxviii. 8. * "Sc. American Sup.," 1 1617. Ruston Sf Procter, Br. . . . * "Engineer," 1 xliii. 80. * "Sc. American Sup.," 1075. Ex-change'. (Telephone.) A central office in which the wires of any two telephone stations are connected, on call of either. Ex-ci'sing For'ceps. (Dental.) Gnawing for- Fig. 986. Straight Beak Excising Dental Forceps. ceps, for cutting off projecting parts of carious teeth. Ex'er-ci-sing Ma-chines'. The Centennial Exhibition of Philadelphia, 1876, and the Paris Ex- position of 1878, had remarkable, varied, and inge- nious appliances for the exercising of the muscles of the body. The Mechanico-Therapeutic Institution, of Stockholm, es- tablished by Dr. G. Zander in 1836, led the way in the vari- ety of its apparatus, a part only of which was shown in Philadelphia. The full set consists of 67 machines. 17 machines for active arm movements. 18 machines for active leg movements. 9 machines for active body movements. 23 machines for passive movements. The passive movements are worked by a steam-engine, and consist of movements as follows, applied to body, head, limbs, abdomen, etc. : Shaking. Rubbing. Chopping Swinging. Tapping Balancing. Kneading Expansion of the chest. The Mechanico-Therapeutic Institution is open from the 1st of October to the 1st of June, 4 hours daily for gentle- men, and 2 to 3 hours for ladies. Every patient receives a prescription in which the movements to be performed are enumerated, and the number of the graduated scale of the machine corresponding to the force or the need of the pa- tient is fixed. 12 movements are generally performed daily ; after 12 days all or a part of the movements are changed according to the nature of the case treated. The following is from a spectator- "One machine, when its handles are grasped by the patient, twists the arms ; an- other exercises the flexor and extensor muscles of the wrist, a third pulls the arms back; a fourth exercises the knee muscles; a fifth exercises the muscles which carry the leg outward : and a sixth exercises the ankle muscles. On the seventh the patient lies down and is shaken up so that the extensor muscles of the back are exercised. Another ma- chine is very complicated, and calculated to excite some dismay in the patient, whose 'thorax is pulled upward by means of two levers, while a pad makes a horizontal pressure on the back. The trunk is thereby elongated a few inches, and the spine and walls of the chest are stretched.' There is something about all this dismally suggestive of the rack. In another machine the patient is put through all the mis- ery of horseback riding without any of the accompanying pleasures. He is seated on a saddle, and the latter then be- comes possessed of a desire to shake him off. ' This causes the abdominal viscera to be kneaded and rubbed together against each other and the abdominal walls.' There is still another machine, consisting of a couple of wheels having peripheries of padded bars. These, when revolved, serve to warm the feet, the latter being pressed against them. Lastly there is a hammering machine, which has a number of verti- cal beaters which are set in rapid vibration, so as to hammer the patient in the small of the back or at any desired point." Another elaborate display in Paris was from the Grand Qymnase of Eug. Paz. The apparatus is very complete, each EXHAUST CHAMBER. 320 EXPANSION VALVE GEAR. of the 14 machines being capable of many different applica- tions (Eugene I'az, 34 Rue des Martyrs, Paris). Ex-haust' Cham'ber. A chamber in the smoke-box of a locomotive, so placed as to prevent the unequal draft of the tubes. A modification of the petticoat pipe. Pollock $ Williams. " Scientific American Supplement" * 2236. Ex-haus'ter. An aspirator, exhaust-fan, suc- tion-fan, known by many names according to con- struction or purpose. For plauing mills . * "Manvf. and Builder," ix. 125-129. Ex-haus'ter Gov'er-nor. (Gns.) An ar- rangement for governing the speed of a gas-ex- hauster engine by the pressure of the gas within the. governor, i. e., the governor is self-acting, the make of gas being made to regulate the speed of the engine. When the charges are being drawn from the retorts the production is small and the speed of the engine reduced. When the gas is generated rapidly the pressure of the gas increases the speed of the engine. See GAS EXHAUSTER, and ci rations passim. Ex-haust' Noz'zle. Shaw's quietiug arrange- ment for exhaust nozzles of locomo- tives is shown in Fig. 987. The lower end is screwed to the safety-valve pipe, the upper is closed with a cap ; the sides are bored for numerous small tubes to equal in their sum the total outlet required. The effect is to pre- vent the loud sound of escaping steam. Brainerd's exhaust nozzle for locomotives has a sleeve upon the nozzle pipes to confine the steam to issue axially and create full draft through the cone beneath or by opening side ports to deflect the relief steam into the cone chamber and decrease the effectiveness of the draft. "Scientific American '' . . * xxxviii. 98, 262. Fig. 987. I Ex-haust' Pu'ri-fi-er. A machine for sorting grain, or purifying mid- dlings by a suction draft, as distinct from a blower. An aspirator, which see. Ex-hi-bi'tion. The following fig- ures are given as to the number of ex- hibitors and visitors on the occasions named : London . .. 1851 Paris . . . 1855 London . . 1862 Paris . . . 1867 Vienna . . 1873 Philadelphia 1876 Paris . . . 1878 Exhibitors. 13,917 23,954 26,653 50,236 20,205 I IB j j P Visitors. 6,039,195 5,162,330 6,211,103 8,805 969 Quieting 6,740,500 Blast Nozzle. 9,857,625 16,159,719 Ex-pand'ing Chuck. A chuck, the jaws of which are opened or closed to admit objects of va- rying sizes. See DRILL CHUCK for instances, though other chucks have simi- lar adjustment. Ex-pand'iiig Cul'ti-va'- tor. One with hinged bars, ca- pable of being spread apart at the rear, so as to adjust the width of tilth. Ex-pan'sion En'gine. A steam engine working steam ex- pansively. The invention of Wolff. See CUT-OFF; EXPAN- SION VALVE. Ex-pan'sion Hang'er. A suspended hanger for radiator pipes, permitting the changes in length due to expansion by heat. Ex-pan'SlOU Joint. A slip Expansion Pipe Joint joint, to allow the contraction or extension of tubes incident to the changes of temperature. Applied to coils or lines of steam, hot water, or condenser pipes. In ordinary instances, it has a cast-iron body, with brass sleeve and screw ends. Ex-pan'sion of Met'als Ap'pa-ra'tus. An instrument devised by Prof. A. M. Mayer, of Ste- vens Institute, for the purpose of determining ex- perimentally the co-efficient of expansion of metals and alloys. The bar, whose co-efficient of expansion is to be deter- mined, is supported on standards in a brass tube, which is made about ^" shorter than the bar. Against the ends of the bar are placed rubber washers, which are perforated so as to allow the ends of an abutting screw and a rod connect- ing with the moving mirror of the comparator to come in contact with the ends of the bar. Arrangements are pro- vided which hold the washers perfectly water and steam tight against the ends, while the bar is perfectly free to ex- pand or contract in the tube. Inside the tube are support- ing springs, which relieve the standards in some degree from the weight of the bar. "Scientific American " * xxxvii. 351. See also DEFLECTOMETER, p. 249, and reference there cited. Ex-pan'sibn Valve Gear. An automatic apparatus to cut off live steam from the cylinder at any required portion of the stroke. The Corliss system has been very largely adopted in this country and in Europe, and, to follow the words of M. de Wilde, may be defined "As consisting of an assemblage of parts, acting as one upon the cylinder valves under the impulse of an eccentric or cam, while the governor of the engine at the desired mo- ment causes the separation of the assemblage into two dis- tinct portions, of which one continues to obey the action of the eccentric or cam, while the other, which is in immediate contact wj0h the valves, escapes from its influence and closes the steam-port. ;1 Hartnell's expansion-valve gear consists of a sensitive gov- ernor acting through a link and die upon an expansion cut- Fig. 989. Hartnell Sf Gut/trie's Expansion-valve Gear. off valve working at the back of the main slide valve, the or- dinary throttle valve is dispensed with, and the speed of the engine controlled by means of the expansion valve which rctrulates the admission of steam into the cylinder exactly in proportion to the duty performed by the engine. See also CUT-OFF, supra. Ashivorth * " Sc. Amer. Sup.," 438. Bt rx h of, Hungary * "Engrniering,'' xxix. 35. Brown, Br * "Engineering,'' xxx. 271. Calow, Ger * " Engineering," xxx. 483. Crohn, Br * '' Engineering," xxi. 616; * xxx. 179. Collmnnn, Ger * "Engineering,'' xxiv. 472. De Negri * "Engineer," xlviii. 451. EXPANSION VALVE GEAR. 321 EXPLOSIVE BULLET. Galloway, Br * "Engineer,' 1 ' xlvi. 241. Guinotle,Vi * ThurMon's ''Vienna Kept.." iii. 63. Hartnell,Er * "Engineering," xxii 474. Joy, Br * "Engineer," 1. 114. *"EHginetri*g,>- xxx. 179. Kaiser, Br * "Engineering, 1 ' xxx. 271. Knuttel * "Engineering," xxx. 848. Marshall, Br * "Engineering," xxx. 127. 271. Melvin, Br * "Engineering," xxx. 149. Proell, Ger * "Engineering," xxix. 416. Wi^f, Br * "Engineer," xlvi. 423. Thompson, " Buckeye '' . . . * " Engineer,'' xlii. it>2. Winding engines, Essen . . . * "Engineering" xxx. 258. Walsc/iaert, ttelg * "Engineering," xxx. 159. Weatherkogg, Br * "Engineering," xxii. 3H2. * "Sc. American .Si//?.,' 1 962. Zimmermann-Walilmann, Ger. * "Engineering," xxx. 205. Lemounier iS: Vallee (Fr.) * Laboulai/e's " Dictionnaire dfs Arts et Manufactures,' 1 vol. iv., ed. 1877, article "Detente, Soupape a." Ex-pan'sive Hol'low Au'ger. One having an adjustability for cutting round tenons of vary- ing sizes. See page 185, "Aleck. Diet." Ex-plor'iiig In'stru-ment. 1. (Surgical.) A diagnostic instrument, various in kinds and ap- plications. For instances : Eustachian canal Fig. 189, Part II. Exploring trocar Fig. 181 c. Part III. ; 288-290, Part I. Small trocar and acupuncture for rectal explorations Fig. 60S, Part III. Uterine probes and sounds . . . Page 73, Part III. Bougies for exploring urethral stric- tures Page 9, Part III. Exploring director for bistouries . Page 135, Part I. All in Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirmgicum.'' See also BULLET SEEKRR ; PROBE ; SOUND : BOUGIE, etc. ; see List under SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS, " Mecli. Diet.,'' et infra. 2. (Dentistry.) A fine-pointed probe, right, left, straight, bent, bayonet-shaped, etc., for testing the depth or existence of cari 1 s in teeth. Ex-plo'sion Ma-chine'. A motor which depends for its force upon the explosion of sub- stances generating a gas which is used under pres- sure in an engine or apparatus. Several gunpowder engines are noticed on p. 1041, " Mech. Din ' The gunpowder pile driver on same page. The gas engines on pages 'J48, 949, Ibid. See also GAS ENGINE, iiifni. Lnboulayr' l s " Diction inure," 1 ii. , article "Explosion,"' men- tions Brown's machine, 1830, and that of Selligne, 1834; the latter for moving boats without the intervention of mechanism, the gases issuing at the stern and impinging on the water. Ex-plo'sives. These may be classed general! v as follows : Gunpowder. Gun cotton. Nitro compounds: Nitre-cellulose. Nitro-gliicose. Nitro-starch. Nitro-glycerine and its compounds. Picric acid : A trinitro-phenol. Fulminates : Fulminating mercury". Fulminating silver. Chlorate of potassium and sulphide of antimony ; needle- guns of Germany. Sulphur and chlorate of potassium. Red phosphorus and chlorate of potassium. Armstrong' 1 .':. The mixture of nitro-glycerine with dry pulverized ab- sorbent substances has given rise to a variety of explosives of which the name dynamite is perhaps generic. The fol- lowing names have been given to various compositions, or the article furnished by various manufacturers. Many of these names are found in their alphabetical places in the present volume. The difference between the articles is largely in the proportions of the materials : Dualin. Giant powder. Hercules powder. Jupiter powder. Lignose. Mica powder. Neptune powder. Titanite. Potentia powder. Titan powder. Rendrock. Vigorite, etc. Sebastine. Vulcan powder. Thunderbolt powder. The report of the United States Board of Army Engineers presents the following table as the result of two years' trial of the relative efficiency of the various modern explosives, taking ordinary dynamite as the standard : Dualin Ill Hercules powder, No. 1 106 Dynamite, No- 1 100 Rendrock 94 Gun cotton 87 Dynamite, No. 2 83 Hercules powder, No. 2 8cJ Mica powder 83 Vulcan powder 82 Nitro-glycerin 81 To which may be added for comparison : Blasting gunpowder, No. 1 30 See also table by Bertholet on p. 818, "Merit. Diet." Explosive by Prof. Emerson Reynolds, Dublin : Chlorate potassium 75 Sulphurea 25 The latter is a product of gas manufacture. The articles may be stored and carried separately without any danger, and the article produced instantaneously by a comparatively rough mixture of the components. See Abbot's report "Centennial Exhibition Reports,'' vol. vi., Group XVI., p. 52 et seq. Including : Nitrates. Pebble and pellet powder. Chlorates. Nitro-glycerine. Gun cotton. Picrates. Fulminates. Dussauce's "Treatise on the Fabrication of Matches, Gun- cotton, anil Fulminating Powder." Burgoyne, "Blasting and Quarrying of Stone, and Blow- ing-vp of Bridges.'' 1 iSc. Amer.,'' xxxiv. 2, 102 ; xxxviii.210; xxxix. 191, 360 ; xl. 259 ; xlii. 276. "Sc. Am. Sup.,-' 134, 2018, 3874. "Eng. * Min. J.,' 1 ' xxv. 346, 361. See under the following heads : Azotine. Nitro-glycerine. Blasting gelatine. Papyroxyline. Breaking-down machine. Pebble powder. Carbo-azotine. Pebble-powder machine. Cube powder. Pellet powder. Diorrexine. Pellet-powder machine. Drying house. Petralite. Drying stove. Potentite. Dualin. Poudre brutale. Dusting machine. Powder dusting machine. Dynamite. Powder paper. Explosive gelatine. Powder-pressing machine. Gelatine, blasting. Priming machine. Glazing barrel. Prismatic powder. Granulated-wood powder. Pyrophore. Granulating machine. Pyrophorus. Gravel powder. Pyroxyline. Gun cotton. Saltpeter and sulphur-grind- Gunpowder. ing mill. Gunpowder machine. Saltpeter, sulphur, and char- Ilerakline. coal mixing mill. Jelly powder. Sehastine. Johnite. Squib. L. S. G. Tonite. Lignose. Vigorite. Nitro-gelatine. Vulcan powder. Ex-plo'sive Bullet. Two explosive bullets are mentioned under BULLET, p. 401, "'Mech. Diet." These were intended for war, but the military service of civilized nations has not been dis- raced by their use to any extent. The Dougall explosive bullet for heavy game is made thus : in pouring the bullet a small copper bottle is suspended in the center of the mold, so that it is inclosed by the lead except at the front where a tige holds the bottle and forms the fu- v ,_/. ,-. vh ,,, ture charging opening It is charged P W Fig. EXPLOSIVE BULLET. 322 EYE BAR. with pqual parts of sulphuret of antimony and chlorate of potassa, or with common powder, and primed with a, fulmi- nate. It is used for elephant, lion, tiger, and alligator shoot- ing especially. Ex-sec'tion Iii'stru-ments. (Surgical.) In- struments for removing sections of bone by sawing in two places, or by circular incision. Special bow saw. Trephine. Metacarpal saws. Elevator. Chain saw. Kaspatory. Interosseous saw. Sequestrum forceps. Circular saw. Antrum drill. Chisels. Kongeur. Hone drills. Retractors. Bone forceps. Subcutaneous saw. Ex'sic-ca'tor. A dessicator, wliich see. Ex-ten'sioii Ap'pa-ra'tus. To extend a fractured limb in order to maintain the coaptation of parts. See COUNTER-EXTENSION APPARATUS ; EXTENSION APPARATUS, "Mech. /Jict." Dr. l*vi ! s adjustable-weight leg extension apparatus. "Scientific American Sttpplmie.iit " * ^101. Ex-ten'sioii Meas'ur-ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. An instrument for measuring minute extensions, deflections, and compressions by means of a multi- plying optical arrangement. A A is the test-piece ; EB clips on the test-piece carrying Fig. 991. Willis's Measuring Apparatus. pins : C C, weighted drop pieces forming connecting rods ; D, a telescope fitted with a cross hair : E E, two mirrors turning on axes These have each a line across them for ad.ju.-t- . inent. F Fare two scales carried on rails on a beam fixed to the roof, so that they can be adjusted to zero for any length of specimen. In looking through the telescope both scales are seen at once reflected in E E, and the figure on each covered by the cross hair is that which is read oif for each strain. If both readings alter, the sum of the change is the extension of the bar. The short scale is for the end of the specimen next the lever of the machine, which should not move sensibly, but which does move small amounts due to the take-up of collars, and to differing positions of the steel-yard. The distance from the scales to the mirrors is about 11'. The radius of the levers (t G, which cause the partial rotation of the mirrors as the specimen lengthens, is about \l" with the doubling of the angle caused by reflec- tion ; this gives a total magnifying power of about 140 to 1. The extension between certain definite points only on the bar is measured which eliminates errors due to the taking up of the bearings of collars, etc. The reading is, by estimation, up to l-4l)uO". See also TASEOMETER. Extension measuring upp., Willis, Br. *" Engineer,'' xlvii. 385. See also EXPANSION OF METALS APPARATUS, p. 320, supra. Ex-ter'nal and In-ter'nal Gages. Stand- ard caliper, ring, plug screw, and nut gages made to exact size and used for measurement and testing accuracy of tem- plates, taps, etc. The system may Vie said to have originated with Whit- worth, but is now carried to great accuracy in several countries. In one case the instruments are of 3 classes, on a scale of precision. Class A guaranteed to 1-25,000". Class B guaranteed to 1-10,000". Class C guaranteed to 1-5,000". Class A adjusted at 75 Fah. ; B and C, 60 to 80 \ " to J" in length ; are ar- Fig. 992. Standard Caliper Gage. They have a parallel fit from ranged by sixteenths of an inch from {" to 2J" ; by eighths to 4" ; by fourths to larger sizes. Made also in millimeters. Kig. 992. External caliper gage for turn- ing: crescent pattern. Kig. 993 is the Hat- bar pattern, internal gage : for boring. Plain external and internal gages are shown under CYLINDRI- CAL GAGE, Fig. 772, p. 244, supra. Kig 994 shows screw- Standard Internal Gage. thread gages, external and internal. Ex'tir-pa'tion For'ceps. (Surgical.) For- Fig. 994. ceps having on each arm double claws for reaching around and grasping the eye-ball in the op- eration of extirpa- tion. Blitz's, Fig. 80, /, Part II., Tiemann's "Annn- mentarium Chirurgi- cum.'' Ex-tract'or. (Fire-arm.) The device which with- draws the spent cartridge capsule in the motion of uncovering the breech for reloading. Ex'tra Cur'rent. (Electricity.) The appreci- able current in the primary coil, which is due en- tirely to induction. Eye. (Add.) 1. (Nautical.) A sheave for a rope ; sec DEAD- EYE ; Bui- L'S EYE; HEART. "Mech. Diet." 2. ( Vehicles.) The socket on a shaft or pole which connects with the clip on the axle. Eye, Ar'ti-fi'cial. A false eye for per- sons, stuffed animals, etc., and dolls. Pole and Shaft Eyes. Scrtw-lhrfail Gages. Fig. 995. a. Pole eye. b. Shaft eye. c Shaft eye plain. rf. Completed coupling. The material for the arti- ficial eye is a rod of ejlass about the size of a pencil. On the end of this a bulb is blown of the size of the eyeball with which it is to match, and having a slight ovality. At the place for the iris and pupil the little sphere is flattened, and a circular patch of black pigment placed in the center to form the pupil. The painting of the iris is a very delicate matter, and the colors and proportion are studied from the sound eye of the patient. With enamel colors from a palette the zone around the pupil is colored, and then a bulb of clear crystal glass is placed over it to form the cornea, flat side down, and is fastened by fusing its edge by the blow-pipe flame. The red veins of the ball are imitated from the sound eye, being fine films of red glass laid on, and subsequently fused. The fitting to the slump, as the remaining portion of the ball is termed, is a matter of great nicety. Eyes for birds, etc., are made in great quantity, both for museums and for the dressing of ladies : hats. Finch, hum- ming-bird, partridge, pheasant, blue creeper (African), ami scarlet tanager, are among the most common. Eves for foxes, stags, rocking-horses, wax figures, prize animals ami winners, trophies of the chase, dolls, are also made in large quantities, varying from 1 cent per dozen to 75 cents per Siemens' sensitive artificial eye, * " Sc. American,'' xxv. 374. Eye Bar. An iron bar, with a round eye at each end usually. Much used in iron bridge bnild- ing. Machine for drilling eyes; Fig. 854, p. 269, sujira. EYE BLOCK. 323 FABRIC. Eye Block. A tackle block with an eye or loop above, for shackle or lashing. Eye Douche. (Surgical*) An apparatus for sending a fine shower of water upon the eye. Ag- new's has an elevated pan, hung upon a hook, and a caoutchouc tube with spray nozzle. Fig. 95, p- 27, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Cki- rur^icum." See also EYE CUP, p. 819, "Meek. Diet.'* Eye Fer'rule. A thimble with an eye loop. Used with swingle trees, and for f . g9g many other purposes. Eye Glass. (Add.) A single myopic or presbyopic glass worn in the eve. A double glass with a spring in a pince- nez. See Fig. 1909, p. 819, "Meek. Diet."' Also SPECTACLES, Fig. 5355, p. 2258, Ibid. Bletken's eye-glass. * "Scientific American,'' xlii. 6. Eye ferrule. Eye In'stru-ments. (Surgical.] These are for diagnosis and exploration, operation, prothesis. See under the general heads, l>, e,f, g, h ; and un- der the special titles in following list : a. Instruments for operating on the lids and lachrymal ducts : Entropium forceps. Depilating forceps. Triehiasis forceps. Eye speculum. Eyelid tourniquet. Eyelid retractor. Cilia forceps. Lachrymal duct dilator. Eyelid compressor. Drop glass. Cai:tlicula dilator. Lachrymal syringe. Prohe. Suhpalpebral syringe. Kyo syringe. Lachrymal gouge. Conjunctiva forceps. Fistula knife. Cauterizing canula. Canalicula syringe. Bistoury cache. Needle forceps. b. Strabismus instruments. c. Fixation and extirpation instruments : Fixation hook Extirpation forceps. Fixation forceps. Double hook. Tumor Forceps. Ophthalmostate. Pamard's pique. Lid forceps. d. Instruments for removing foreign bodies from the eye: Spud. Spatula. Needle. Curette. Gouge. Spoon. Hook. Eye douche. Couching needle. Forceps. Fig. 997. e. Conjunctiva instruments. f. Corneal instruments. g. Cataract instruments. h. Iris instruments. Itidectomy Instruments. Eyelet Grom'met. A worked hole in a sail, reenforced by an eyelet. See GROMMET. Eye'-piece In'di-ca'tor. A small pointer with lateral movement in the eye-piece of the top lens, for pointing out any partic- ular portion of an object under view. The eye-piece microme- ter is adjusted across the line of sight, and its cross markings divide the field into squares of known size. Eye-piece, microscopic. * "Manuf. 4" Builder," xi. 37. Telescopic, Nystrom. * "Sc American Sup.," 101. a. Kye-piece Indicator. 6. Eye-piece Micrometer. Eye Pro-tec'tor. Glasses, goggles, or gauze worn over the eyes. Smoke, or other colored glasses, to moderate the light ; goggles to exclude side light; gauze, to exclude dust and cinders. See SPECTACLES, p. 2358, "MecA. Diet." 1 The coquille glass is egg-shell shaped. Millers' and turners' glasses are merely white panes of glass or mica, to protect the eyes from chips. See also GOG- GLES, Fig. 2263, p. 991, Ibid. Also IRIS DIAPHRAGM, Fig 2697, p. 1195, Ibid. hood or vizor (Optics.) a. A Fig. 998. Eye Shade. over the eyes to protect from up- per light. b. A hood fixed on the eye-piece of a microscope to prevent lateral rays from enter- ing the eye. c. A piece fitted around the cap of the eye-piece of a microscope, and intercepting the view of that eye which is not in use ; in order to prevent the distraction of the attention, or obviate the necessity for the muscular closing of the unused eye. Eye Shade (c). F. Fab'ric. (Falric.) A woven or felted goods. The character depends upon the material and the armnre or character of the weave. Varieties of armure : 1. Taffeta with 2 harnesses. 2. Twilled with 4 harnesses. 3. S&f/e with 3 harnesses. 4. Satin with 5 or more harnesses. Different effects are produced By derivatives from these fundamental tissues. By greater or less torsion of the threads. By the direction in which the yarns are twisted. By variations in the relative sizes of the warp and weft threads. By causing the weft to pass alternately over two threads and one thread of the warp ; making a rep or corded tissue. By different materials of warp and weft. By colors. By mixtures of materials in the yarn. By printed threads making hit-or-miss, or mix- tures. By looping threads, to make pile fabrics ; and cut- ting or non-cutting the loops. By printing. By dyeing. By floating the weft to make dots, spots, stripes, or figures. By character of material, as of soft and fine wools or of hard and lustrous combing wools. By two or more warps which are brought to the surface as required by the figure. By setting up bands of colors or varying yarns in the warp to form stripes. By adding to the last mentioned a similar ar- rangement in the weft to make checks or plaids. By combinations of the crossing threads which occur at variable places. See Aino cloth. Algerine. Alpaca. Alpaga. Alpine. Anacostia. Armure. Arras. Australian crape. Baize. Barege. Basket. Batavia weave. Baudekin. FABRIC. 324 FAIENCE. Biaretz. Bolivar. Bomba/ane. Bourdalisandre. Brilliuntine. Brocade. Buckiaun. Burlaps. Calico. Cambric. Camel's hair. Cannel. Cashmere. Cashmere de beige. ChalliR. Chambery gauze. Chinchilla. Chintz. Circassienne. Cordwain. Cotton. Cramoisy. Crape of Spain. Cretonne. Cypresse. Damask. Debeige. Delaine. Diagonal. Diaper. Dimity. Drap d'AIma. Drap d'Alpes. Drap d'Nationelle. Drap cl'lSte. Drugget. Duck. Km press. ^pensjline. Eplngle. Frieze. Fustian. Gauze. Gingham Grenadine. Grisaille. Henrietta cloth. Hernani. Imperial silk serge. Jean. Jupon. Kerseymere. Knickerbocker. Lindsey-wolsey. Llanos. Luster. Manteau. Metelasse. Melango. Merino. Merino tulle. Mexican cloth. Mohair. Mohair glac6. Moire. Moulleton. Mousseline. Mou.sselin de beige. Mozambique. Muslin. Nankeen. Palampore. Paramatta cloth. Pongee. Poplin. Punjam. Kayne. Hep. S.ilampore. Sarsnet. Satin. Satine. Satin weare. Si-ndal. Serge. Serge armure. Sicilienne. Siclatoun. Sindon. Taffeta. Taffetas. Taffetas armure. Tamise Tamise rep. Tars. Tissue. Toile de Saxe. Turenne cloth. Turquoise. Tusser silk. Twilled armure. Valencia. Velours. Veloutine. Velvet. Vigogne. Vode. Worsted. Face. (Mining.) The end of a drift or tunnel. Face Ham'mer. (Masonry.) One with one blunt and one cut- ting end. The lat- ter used for roughly squaring stones pre- paratory to the use, of finer tools. Face Lathe. 1 . A pattern-maker's lathe for turning bosses, core prints, and other face work. The instance shown works up to 16" di- ameter, and stands on 2' X 2' on the floor. The spindle is of steel, with brass bearings. 2. A lathe with a large face-plate and a slide rest adiust- , , . t J .. Face Lathe. able in front on its own shears. Transverse usually but not necessa- rilv. Fetu If Deliege, Fr. * "Engineering," xxix. 117. Face'-plate. ( Add.) 2. A covering plate for an object to receive wear or shock. Fa'cing Ma-chine'. (Milling.) A machine for dressing the faces or lands of mill stones; that is, the spaces between furrows. A furrowing ma- chine. See MILL-STONE DKESSEK. Fa'cing Tool. See COKUNDUM TOOL; MILL- STONE DKESSER. Fac-sim'i-le Print'ing Pro'cess. A term including the various systems of printing from a pad usually of glycerine and gelatine upon which the original writing in aniline ink has been transferred. See COPYOHAPH ; COPYING PENCIL; HECTOGRAPH ; and other titles there cited. Fac-sim'i-le Tel'e-grapt. One reproducing autograph messages. Sawyer 11 * autographic telegraph ; also called copying tele- graph, pantelegrnpk, panlograpkir telegraph, was described and illustrated in "Telegrapher,'' 1876; reproduced in "Sci- entific American Sup ," *3i)2. See also "Iron Age," xviii., July 20, p. 3. It operates by placing the thin plate containing the trans- ferred message upon a cylinder at the transmitting end and a sheet of chemically prepared paper around a similar cylin- der at the receiving end. As the cylinders are moved along by threads, the synchronous styles are carried around the cylinders and make the synchronous contacts as the trans- mitting style crosses the lines of writing. See AUTOGRAPHIC TELEGRAPH, " Merh. Diet.,'' et sui/ra. See nlso ELECTRIC WRITING APPARATUS, supra, and PANTELEGRAPH, infra. D'Arlincourt . . "Jour. Soc. Telegr. Eng'rs.," viii. 15. Fa'ger-sta Steel. Steel made by the partial decarbonization of crude cast iron containing a con- siderable portion of manganese, by running the molten iron direct from the blast furnace into a Bessemer converter, where the carbon and man- ennese are partially removed by being burned out by the oxygen of the air used in the Bessemer pro- cess This leaves in the metal the required amount of carbon and manganese to render it suitable for use. The usual Bessemer practice is first the re- moval of all the carbon and afterward to recarbon- ize with spiegeleisen, which is a compound of iron, carbon, and manganese. "Iron Age " xix., Feb. 1, p. 15. Fag'got-ed Ax'le. One made of a pile of bars or rods tilted. Faience (pr.fa-ian-s). (Ceramics.) Enameled pottery. There are two species of faience . the common faience (fa fence commune) which is a soft paste, and the tine faience (J'a'ience Jine) which has a hard paste. 1. COMMON FA'I'ENCE is supposed to have originated in Per- sia, having been brought thence by the Saracens and intro- duced into Africa and Spain. The stanniferous glaze which distinguishes fa'i'ence (pot- trie emaillces) from the ordinary pottery with plombiferous glaze (poterie. ttnrJre rernissee*) was known to the Egyptians and to the Mesopotamiun nations ; but the art of enameling ceramic ware and tiles seems to have been again invented by successive persons. The stanniferous enamel ware of the Saracens of the 12th century is very famous, being in extremely brilliant colors. The tiles known as Azulejos, and the Hispano-Moresque pliquesand vases are also celebrated. The Saracenic pottery of the island of Majorca gave a name to the ware majolica. The mezza majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries had a leaden glaze. See MEZZA MAJOLICA. The name faience comes from Faenza, in Italy, a town celebrated for its wares, and the most famous potter on the peninsula is Luca della Robbia, of Florence, who flourished about the middle of the 15th century. He rediscovered the stanniferous enamel which soon largely superseded the pre- viously used lead-glaze, which still, however, held its place for common ware, as it does to this day ; the third order in the first class of Brogniart's classification. See POTTERY. French faience took its rise with the admirable Bernard Palissy, of Saintes, about 1535. His work had raised deco- rations, principally of aquatic subjects, such as fish, lizards, shells, and water plants. He died in the Bastile for his faith. Common fa'ence has a soft body (pate tendre), and a tin glaze, colored with various metallic oxides, and is twice fired. The body is composed of plastic clay, argillaceous marl, and sand. The clays are washed. The following proportions are those of M. Bastenaire d' Audeuard : FAIENCE. 325 FAIENCE. Silex .... Ferruginous clay Carbonate of lime White Faience. Brown Faience. ! 0.35 0.38 0.58 0.57 0.07 0.05 1.00 1.00 The fashioning is done by molding or on the wheel, ac- cording to the character of the object. The baking of the green ware is done in a kiln at a temperature from a cherry -red to a black-red, and the subsequent tiring after enameling at a somewhat higher temperature. The first firing is fre- quently done in the same kiln at a point more remote from the ingress of the flame. The ware in the kiln is inclosed in some way ; the modes diil'er. The style known in France as Penfourntment en echap- jini/i , cmisists in building up within the kiln a series of stories with refractory Hat tiles and perpendicular supports, the ware being thus in cells, where it rests on the tiles directly, or on the points or edges of little prisms, or tripods (colijich.es) of refractory clay. See SKGGIR. See Figs. 3SS2, 3i*26, 3^27, "Meek. Diet.'' Also, Figs. 2169, 2180, Lahoulaye's "Dictioniiairt," ed. of 1877, tome iii., cap- tion "Poicrie." For the system of inclosure iu the kiln, see SEGGAR, p. 2089, "Mec/i. Diet." Another system is called I'tnfoiirnement t.n cazette a per- ne'ies, and consists of a seggar in which the dishes or plates are supported by shifting ledge pieces which tit into grooves around the inside of the cazetle, or tire-cUy box. See SEGGAR. The enamel for brown faience is composed of : Minium 52 to 0.53 Peroxide of manganese 0.07 to 0.05 Common brick, pulverized 0.41 to 0.42 l.i 10 100 The enamel for white fa'.'ence is of two kinds, differing principally in the proportion of tin in the metallic oxides which form an ingredient in the frit. Hard Enamel. Soft Enamel. Oxide of lead I NO 1 I ' 77 No 2 I ' 82 Oxide of tin | ' ' ' :No<1 -{u.23 No ' J 0.18 1.00 0.45 1.00 Take of : No. 1 No. 2 Minium 0.02 Washed quartz sand . . 0.45 Marine salt 0.05 Soda of Alicante . . . 0.03 0.45 0.45 0.07 0.03 1.00 1.00 Color is given by Naples yellow, lazuli, manganese, or cop- per scales. The ingredients are brought to an impalpable powder and then to a fine creamy condition in which the slip is aspersed over the object, or the latter is dipped into it. Common fa ence is much employed for wall and floor tiles, stoves, chimney plaques, etc., for which purpose any ten- dency to crack with the heat may be avoided by giving more fusibility to the paste by the addition of lime or alkali, but the addition of lime in any great quantity makes them apt to split with sudden variations of temperature. 2. FINE F.UENCK, otherwise known as English faience, or Enx/is/i i-hiiui, is a ware of MM en'irely different description from common faTcnee : it is an English discovery, and the best qualify is still made there. It is the invention of \Vil- liam \Vedge\vood, born at liurslem, in Staffordshire, in 1730. Fin r ^hii-nre is characterized by an opaque white paste, ii leiise texture, and sonorous quality. It is essentially composed of a washed plastic clay, calcined flint, or finely ground quartz. The glaze is a fritted compound of silex, soda, oxide of lead, with the addition sometimes of boracic acid There are three principal compositions, the names of which nignify the use of notable quantities of certain ingredients in the respective pastes. a. Calcareous or pipe-clay faience. (Schumann.) Pipe-clay 0.854 Silex 0.130 Chalk 0.016 1.000 b. Flint faience. (Oppenheim and Hastenaire.) Pipe-clay of Montereau or Dreux . . . 0.87 Silex 0.13 1.00 Or : (Oppenheim and St. Amans.) English pipe-clay 0.87 Silex 0.13 1.00 c. Feldspathic faience. (St. Amans.) English pipe-clav 0.62 Kaolin ..." 0.16 Silex 0.19 Feldspar 0.03 1.00 Or: for " Cream color." (St. Amans.) English pipe-clay 0.82 Silex 016 Feldspar 0.02 1.00 Or: (AiUcn.) English pipe-clay 0.64 Kaolin 0.16 Silex 0'16 Feldspar 0.04 1.00 Chalk is present, however, in all the pastes, as it is an in- cident to the clay and the flint. The materials are washed, ground extremely fine, sifted, made into a slip which is strained, the pulp condensed by heat, and laid in cellars to ripen: after the manner of the Chinese, who use the clay prepared by their fathers, and prepare a new batch for the coming generation. The paste is fine, plastic, and easily worked, and the pieces are made on the wheel with templets, gage slips, etc. ; but many parts, such as handles, are made in molds and at- tached. Objects not symmetrical are either molded, or, as in convoluted work, thrown and then pressed to form. The green ware is baked in the faVence kiln, and the bis- cuit is treated with the glaze slip either by immersion or sprinkling. The following are some recipes for the glazes of the respective wares cited above as a, 4, c. a. Glaze for pipe-clay fa'.'ence. (Schumann.) Calcined feldspar 0.07 Sand 0.31 Minium 030 Litharge 0.27 Borax 003 Flint glass 0.02 1.00 Or: (Bastenaire-d'Audenard.) Quartzose sand 0.36 Minium 0.45 Carbonate of soda 0.17 Niter 0.02 Cobalt blue 0.00001 1.00 (Aiken.) (Bastenaire.) 40 0.42 Minium 0.23 0.26 Borax 023 0.21 Carbonate of soda . . . f.14 0.11 Cobalt blue . . . . 0.00001 000001 b. Glaze for flint fa'i'ence. Feldspathic sand . 1.00 1.00 c. Glaze for feldspathic fa'i'ence. " Cream color/' (Aiken.) Flinty kaolin 0.25 gilex 0.13 Oxide of lead 0.52 Flint glass 0.10 1.00 For printed fa'i'ence. (Shaw.) Flinty kaolin 0.28 Silex 016 Carbonate of lime 04 Oxide of lead 0.30 Boracic acid 0.06 Carbonate of soda 016 1.00 The small quantity of cobalt blue in some of the above glazes is merely to correct the yellow color. The decree of heat in the final firing of the three classes of fine faVence above noted are respectively : Pyrometric. a. The pipe-clay biscuit and glazed ware . 26 to 30 b. The flinty biscuit 60 The flinty ware 12 c. The feldspathic biscuit 100 The feldspathic ware 20 to 30 The setting of the green ware or the glazed article in the kiln is by the same means as described under common fa'i'- ence (2). See SEGGAR. The fa'i'ence kiln of Staffordshire, Fig. 3926, p. 1779, "Mer.h. Diet.,'" is inclosed in a large dome, which serves to conduct FAIENCE. 326 FARE WICKET. Fig. 1000. upward the smoke anJ flame issuing at the openings of the kiln proper. The furnaces are d alundier, so called, proba- bly, from the way the fuel is supported on the grate. The furnaces are placed around the base of the kiln, and the draft is downward through a furnace hole into the fire, and thence by ducts below the floor and chimney to the kiln chamber. See Fig. 36, p. 20, supra. Faience d'Oi'ron. (Ceramics.) Also known as Henri Deux ware. Attributed to a private pot- tery establishment, the atelier of Helene cle Ilan- ge>t-Genlis, widow of Arthur Gotiffier, and after- wards carried on by her son. Evidently a labor of love and art devotion. Biscuit of fine clay is graven and the lines filled in with colored clays, the object glazed and fired. It is very rare. See HENRI-!)EUX WARE. Faience Stan'ni-fere. (Ceramics.) Ware with glaze of oxide of tin. Fake. A coil or disposition of rope in zig-zag, so as to run free when let go, or when a shot attached to one end of the line is fired, as in life-saving apparatus for stranded vessels. Fak'ing Box. (Life-snv- ing Apparatus.) A box to contain the lines for shot fir- ing to communicate with stranded vessels. A fake is a coil of rope; it is usually a helix, and anumberof such built one upon another form a tier. In the faking of ropes, however, in the life- saving apparatus the fakes assume another form to en- able the rope to pay out with the least impediment, so as to allow good range of the projectile without excessive charge and also avoid break- Fan Forge. A transportable form of forge and fan is shown in Fig. 1001. It has tool-chest, two vises, and weighs 800 pounds. See BLOWER ; FORGE ; BELLOWS, etc. a. French faking. 6. Whale faking. c. Chain faking. el. Fake basket. age of the shot line. ''Ordnance Report," 1878, Ap- pendix P, p. 200 et seq. Also, p. 260. Fall'er. (Add.) '2. A vertical stamp in a full- ing, milling, or stamping machine ; usually lifted by cams and allowed to drop vertically and endwise. See STAMPING MILL. See also BEETLING MA- CHINE, supra. Fuller motion (spinning), see page 824, "Mech. Diet." Faller motion (mule) * "Engine>ring," xxx. 511, Figs. 13 to 17. Fall'er Ma-chine. A machine with vertical stamps or fallers, used in milling goods. False Joint Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) Ap- paratus for un united fractures. Femur, Smith's Figs. 170, ISO. Humerus Figs. 51, 172. Tibia Figs. 80, 171. Forearm Fig. 173. Tiemann's " Armamentarium Chirurgir.um ," Part IV. Fan. A form of blower or ventilator. See the following references : Automatic, Meyer * "Sc. Am." xxxix. 38. Blower, " Eclipse," Lanclis . . . * "Iron Age,'' xix., May 17, p. 3. Slurtevant * "Iron Age,'' XXT., Feb. 12, p. 1. Kxhibition (Liverpool) "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1559. Guibal, Sucre Mwiame Colliery, Fr. " Engineer," 1 xlvi. 368. Japanese, mode of making . . . " Sc. ^4w.."xxxvii. 138. Mill and elevator, Engl *"Sc. Am Si/^.,''2476. Foot bellows * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1382. Fan'cy Broad Loom. An efficient loom for weaving fancy goods, worsted coatings, fancy cassi- meres, etc. It is made up to 92" wide, 27 harnesses, and 4X4 shuttle- boxes. Crompton. 1001. Fig 1002. Fan Forge. Fun Jet. Fail Jet. A form of nozzle for watering-pots and engines having a fan or spoon shaped lip which deflects the stream of water into a wide and thin expanding film. Far'ad. (Electricity.) The capacity of a con- denser which holds one weber at a potential of one volt. Gordon. Far-a-da'ic Cur'rent. (Ehctricit;/.) An in- duced current, as contrasted with a voltaic or direct constant current. Far-a-da'ic Gen'e-ra'tor. A generator of elec- tricity named by its inventor after Prof. Faraday. The armature below revolves between the iron blocks on which theeloctro-magnets stand. It consists of a cylinder of \\ ood which is wound around with iron wire (see DYNAMO-ELEC- TRIC MACHINE, Fig. 900, Plate XII.), like a spool. Around the w.iole spool are numerous loops of insulated copper wire run- ning lengthwise of the armature. The ends of these loops are takeii to the cylindrical commutator which is on the armature shaft, and from this brushes made of copper wire take the current from the machine to line. EJison . . . *" Scientific American," xli. 239, 305. Fare In'di-ca'tor. 1. A device for counting and registering fares. The wicket-gate, ticket- punch, conductor's passenger register, etc., are fa- miliar instances. 2. A device for indicating distance traveled. See ODOMETER, p. 1544, "Mech. Diet." See FARE PUNCH ; TICKET PUNCH. Fare Reg'is-ter. A device to keep a record of the number of passengers carried in a public vehicle. The conductor's ticket-punch is one form. Fig. 1003. Fare register, Johnson . Sketch of various devices "Monitor'''' Fare Register. The register, shown in Fig. 1003, is a form in which the partial rotation of a rod rings a bell and advances the hand on the dial one figure. 'Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' 3. 'Scientific Amer." xxxvii. 144. Fare Wick'et. 1 . A gate at which the passers- by are counted and registered, as at toll-bridges, exhibition grounds, etc. A turn-stile. The turn-stiles used at the Centennial grounds, Philadelphia, 1876, are shown at pp. 576, 577,* vol. i., " Report of the U. S. International Exhibition, 1876." FARE WICKET. FEEDER. Fig. 1004. Purler's Farm Locomotive, 2. An opening in the door of a street-car for Eurchasing tickets of the driver, or for passing of ires to the conductor. Fa-ri'iia Boil'er. A saucepan with double chamber, the inner portion being in a bath of wa- ter. A double boiler. Farm Lo'co-mo'tive. A traction engine, with adaptations to the operations of plowing, threshing, etc. See Fig. 1004. See TRACTION ENGINE ; ROAD ROLLER ; PORTABLE ENGINE ; STEAM PLOW, etc., " Mech. Diet.,'" et infra. Aveling & Porter, Br * "Sc. Am.," xxxvii. 162 Farm machinery, on, Knight . . * " Sc. Am.," xxxix. 244. Steam culture machines, Knight, * "Paris Exposition Re- ports,' 1 v., pp. 53-89. Farm Mill. A mill for coarse grinding feed for stock. See GRAIN MILL, and various other titles, pcutM, Fas-cine'. (Hydraulic Engineering.) A bun- dle of brush, bound into a cylindrical bundle, and secured with withes. Used in fortifications ; in revetments for river-banks ; in making mats for dams, jetties, etc. The fascine for mat-making is about 10" in diameter, 12' long, and bound with 3 withes. Six of such fascines are secured by poles to form a mat. See MAT. For fascine making, see " Report of Chief of Engineers of U. S. Army,'' 1876, vol. ii., Part II., p. 404, and Fig. 2. River-bank protection. (.'h'tplin * Van Nostrand's Mag.," xix. 129. Fast and Loose Pul'leys. The loose pulley has a smaller diameter than the fast pulley, in order that the belt may run slack when shifted to the loose pulley. Crafts $ Filbert. Shinn, Philadelphia, Cooper's "Belting," 1 168. Fau'cet. See " Mech. Diet.," *p. 827, and fol- lowing references : Lemper t * " Sc. American," xxxvii. 351. And vent, Talley . . . . * "Sc. American," 1 xxxiv. 198. Bushing, Mantey . . . .* "Sc. American,'' xxxiv. 38. Hose attachment, Trembley * "Scientific Amer.," xxxv. 182. Faure Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which the carbon is made in form of a cell filled with nitric acid and closed with a stopper; the pressure due to the evolution of the fumes in the vessel forces the acid through the walls of the cell, which thus per- forms the double function of a porous pot and a negative pole. Niniirlet. American translation 174. See also SECONDARY BATTF.RV. Feath/er, Ar'ti-fi'cial. Artificial ostrich feathers are made in New York of celluloid, rattan, and silk, and are an excellent imitation of the orig- inal. Patented machines make the silk, the flue, the quill, and combine the flue and silk. The quill- making machine takes an ordinary piece of rattan or celluloid and produces the quill in 15 seconds; the material is drawn between two grooved rolls. In the manufacture of the flues, the .-ilk is stretched between two machines 75 feet apart, which wind, twist, cut, and spin it into a flue. Feath'er Plush. A French fabric in which the down of feathers is mixed with wool to form a warp to be interwoven with similar weft or one of wool alone. "Scientific American,' 1 ' xlii. 232. Fig. 1005. "Textile Manufacturer" Feed Boil'er. See AGRICULTURAL BOIL- EK, su/>ra. Feed Crush'er. A mill for flattening grain f> render it more easily masticated. A substitute forgrinding. The a/ilutisseur of the French. See GRAIN CRUSHER. Feed Cut'ter. A straw or chaff cutter. Straw, Silver If Demins. *"Iron A%e," xix., Jan. 4, p. 5. Fodder, Dck. *"Sc. Amer.,'' xxxvii. 115. * "Minim *ft. ft-M*," Feed crusher. xxxv. 225. See CHAFF CUTTER, ENSILAGE CUTTER, STRAW CUTTER, etc. Feed Door. A furnace door for entry of coal. For automatic feed, see FURNACE DOOR, "etc. Feed'er. 1 . A portion of an apparatus at which the material enters to be treated. In many machines the feeder is merely a hopper FEEDER. 328 FEED WATER HEATER. such as in various mills. In other cases the feeder is a definite portion of the machinery which con- ducts the ma'erial in regulated quantities. See BOLT FEEDER ; GIN, COTTON. 2. (Minim/.) A small vein adjoining a larger one. Feed'ing Tube. (Suryicai.) These have va- rious applications : for use in cases of lock jaw, mania, choking pare tics, paralysis of the throat, fractured jaw. The instruments are introduced by the mouth, nose, or anus. The mouth instruments are gags, spoons, and tubes The nasal operation may be by a simple funnel, a tube in the pharynx, a tube directly into the stomach. The latter introduced by Dr. Tuke. A soft rubber Nelaton catheter is now used. The rectal administration is by enema. Feed Mill. See GRINDING MILL Feed Pump. A boiler supply pump. It as- sumes many forms. See list under PUMP; STEAM ENGINES AND APPARATUS, " Mech. Diet." See the following references : Clegs; * "Scientific American,'' xl. 358. Garrett, Br * "Engineer,''' xlviii. 430 " Kclipse," Schiiltz . . * -'Iron Age," xxi., May 16, p. 1. " Economic, 1 ' Danx . . * ''Iron Age,'' xxii., Dec. 12, p. 11. * "Scientific American," 1 xli. 150. Feed Reg'u-la'tor. A device for graduating the feed to the necessity of the object, as of fuel to a furnace, witter to a boiler, material to a machine. See FEED WATER REGULATOR. Feed Wa'ter Clean'er. See FEED WATER HEATER. Feed Wa'ter Heat'er. An apparatus to use escaping steam or flue heat in raising the tempera- ture of the water destined to feed the boiler. These apparatus are of many forms, but of two general classes : 1 . Those in which the stenm comes in direct con- tact with the feed water, as in the common open heater. 2. Those in which the feed water circulates through pipes which course through a cham- ber heated by the exhaust steam, or through a flue heated by the vol- atile products of combustion. 1. The feed water an d e x- haust steam min- gled. The Stilhvell combined lime- extracting heater and feed-water ni- ter is shown in Fig. 1006. Steam enters the heater at A, is divided into two currents, upward and downward, and escapes at B. Cold water enters at C, pours over the edge of the over-flow cup D upon the corru- gated depositing BtillwtU Lime-crtmcting Feed Water shelves, aud then Heater. passes through Fig. 1007. chamber E, which is filled with a filtering material, and issues at a side opening. The bottom cock is for drawing off sedi- ment. The theory of operation is that the boiling of the feed wa- ter liberates the car- bonic acid, sets free the salts in solution, and precipitates them upon the removable shelves. In the Armstrong water heater, Fig. 1007, lime catcher, and pu- rifier, the water enters at 17, overflows at the central opening of the Armstrong's Feed Water Ueattr. pan, thence into the second pan, over the margin Fig. 1008. Green Feed Wattr Heater. FEED WATER HEATER. 329 FEED WATER HEATER, of which it drips, am] so on through the series of six pans, eventually reaching the settling chamber b. The water then passes upwardly through a fil- ter, and then through an oil absorbent, k, made of burlaps, m is the outlet hot-water pipe, e inlet steam pipe, and G outlet; A, movable caps, to allow examination and cleaning ; i, mud valve. In the Jasper apparatus, instead of catching the lime and other impurities on shelves or in pans, these matters are detained in the mass of char- coal in the niters. In the Green feed water heater, Fig. 1008, the water entering by the cold-wa'er pump passes through a valve-way, the position of the valve being regulated by a float below operating through levers, its own position being determined by the water level which corresponds to that in the boiler. The exhaust steam is admitted below, and parts with its heat to the water which trickles in rain through the perforations in the plate beneath the valve. The surplus steam then passes to the sep- arating box above. The Waters heater operates also by bringing the spray of exhaust steam in contact with a shower of water in a cham- ber. The feed water heater of MM. Legris & Choisy, Laboulaye's " J)ictio*naire," iv., Fig. 3453, article " Chaleu'r Perdue,'' ed. 1877, is also founded upon the principle of introducing the water of alimentation in a fine spray in a pipe traversed by the exhaust steam of the engine. 2. The other class of feed water heaters consists of appa- ratus in which the heat of the exhaust steam is transferred by conduction through metallic walls to the feed water. This is an old form of condenser ; also long common on Fig. 1009. Feed Water Heater. the Western rivers for heating feed water for boilers of non- condensing engines. In VVetherill's, Fig. 1009, the iron exhaust steam cylinder has bonnets at the ends, and the feed water is heated by passing it through numerous coils of copper pipe 1" in diameter. It is used directly in non-con- densing engines, and in condensing engines occupies a position be- tween the cylinder and the condenser. The Ilawksley & Wilde (Br.) apparatus is similar in princi- ple. In Atkinson's appa- ratus (lir. ) the steam passes by a circuitous route, ascending and descending in vertical pipes surrounded by water in a cylindrical chamber. The Berry man heater is also of this class. The apparatus is placed between the engine and condenser, B being the exhaust steam -pipe from the engine, and A the steam-pipe to the^on- denser. Cold water from the pump enters the lower part of the cylinder surrounding the pipes, and departs at the upper end to the boiler. The number of pipes is such as to exceed by 20 per cent, the area of the exhaust steam-pipe JB. In another form of feed water heater the system of coils con- taining feed water is placed in the chim- ney. Such are some of the arrangements where the departing heat of a blast furnace is caused to heat the boiler driving the blast-engine. Fig. 1010. Berryman Feed Water Heater. Fig. 1011. ffi Green's Fue', Economizer. Of this class are the Twibill, Babcock & Wilcox and Green fuel economizers: the last mentioned of which is shown in Fig. 1011. A number of upright water-pipes are placed in the main flue, beyond the boilers, and have scrapers or cleaners which move up and down the tubes to prevent the deposit of soot, which acts as a non-conductor. See FUEL ECONOMIZER ; FIRE Box. Heater, Atkinson, Br. . * "Engine-?,'' xlvj. 5". * " Rnginerrinsf,'' xxv. 436. * "Scientific American Sup.,"* 2239 Filter, Babcock if Wilcox * "Iron Age,'- xxiii., May 1 p 9 Heater and purifier. Baragwanatk (f Pirn * "Am. Manufacturer. 1 ' 1 Oct. 3,1879, p. 12. Heater, Berryman . . * "Iron Age," xxi., Jan. 31, p. 1. * "Engineering," xxix., Feb. 6, p. 188. Carvalho Dnvies $ Dawson, Br. Green Hayes Hawksleylf WWe,Br. Lime catcher, locomo- tives, 111. Centr. Ry. Heater and purifier. Lovegrov .... Heater, Martin. Locomotives, Mazza, It. Northcott, Br. . . . Norton "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 467. 'Manufacl. (f Builder," xi. 6". 'Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 118. ' Scientific American Sup..," 1777. ''Engineer," xliv. 454. ; ' Scientific American,' 1 '' xxxv. 358. ' Scientific, American,' 1 xxxiv. 242. 'Engine-ring,'' June 11, 1880. 'Engineer,-' xlviii. 466. 'R. R. Gazette," xxiii. 279. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 319. 'Scientific American Sup.," 2519. 'Engineering," xxvii. 24. 'Engineering," xxi. 169. 'Scientific American Sup.," 293. 'Engineering," xxii. 103. FEED WATER HEATER. 330 FELLY ROUNDING MACHINE. Norton * "Scientific American Sup.," 244. Purifier, Paucksk . . . * "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxiv. 130. Heater, Poole if Hunt . * " R. R. Gazette," xxi. 5. * "Manufact. $ Builder," x. 31. (7 Figs.) * "Engineer," xlvii. 161. Robertson if Hentria . . "Eng and Min. Journal," xxi. 418, 419. Manufacture . "Eng. and Min. Jour.," xxiii. 217, 398, 451. Carbon in . . "Eng. and Mining Journal" xxiii. 457. At Terre Noire "Eng. 4 Min. Journal," xxiii. 109 ; xxv. 41. American . . "Eng. and Mining Journal," xxiii. 215. In France . . "Eng. and Mining Journal," xxv. 63. "Mining and Scientific Press," xxxvi.99. Uses . . . . "Engineering," xxi. 253. Mauuf. in U. 8. "Engineering," xxv. 235. Uses . . . . " Van Nostrand's Eng'ing Mag.," xiv. 529. "Scientific American," xxxv. 367. In Italy . . "Scientific American," xxxvii. 197. " Scientific American Sup.," 323, 1121. Paper by Lock- ert . . . . " Technologisie," xxxviii. 322. A compound : iron asso- Fer'ro-phos'phide. ciated with phosphorus. At the Horde Works in Germany, instead of blowing gray pig rich in silicon, it was found possible to treat white pig, if it contained a sufficient amount of phosphorus. Far from being afraid of phosphorus, about 2 per cent, of that body is required in the pig, in order to give a sufficient degree of heat to the bath. Horde has begun to make ferro-phosphide with 20 per cent, of phosphorus, and will presently make this alloy to contain 50 per cent, phosphorus. This will be sold to mix with white pig, since the crude metal must con- tain phosphorus or silicon enough to carry up the bath to the heat required At Horde all sorts of pig, even cinder pig, with 3 per cent, phosphorus and 0.5 per cent, silicon are treated. The presence of 0.2 to 0.3 per cent, sulphur could also, it was found, be tolerated. The steel made contained under 0.1 phosphorus and no silicon. "Journal de Liege." 1 Fer'ro Si-li'ci-um. A metallic compound used in steel processes, the Bessemer, for example. The use of silicon, iron ore, and silicon-pig, is mentioned in a whole series of patents by Nes, of York, Pa., Numbers 104,873, 108,287, 109,752, 112.068, 123,191, 145;005, but not under the name of ferro silicium. See also SILICON STEEL. Fer'rule. A tubular coupling in a service pipe. Fig. 1018. a and c have ground union joints tinned for lead pipe. a, c, d, e, have screwed joints for iron pipe. Fig. 1019 has a screw plug in the upper part of the stern, and this may be screwed down into the part k, in which posi- tion it acts as a e f op valve. FERRY-BOAT. 332 FIBER TESTER. Fer'ry-boat. See the following references : Fulton's "Sc. Amrrican," xli. 132. * " Transactions, Am. Soc. of Civil Engineers," clxxiv. p. 71, et Sf(j. Thames * "Engineer," xlii. 210. Thames * "Engineering," xxi. 165. Steamers, Br * " Engineering," xxix. 252. " Solano,'' San Francisco . . "Sc. American,'' xli. 82. Fer'ry Push-car. A platform car which is Fie 1018 made very long and used for pushing or pulling other cars on or off a ferry-boat when the latter must be approached by a ~^r " an incline which is too strep for locomotives. The ferry cars are used to connect those cars which are to be taken on or off the boat witli the loco- motive, so that the latter can push or pull the cars on the Fig. 1019. Pipe Ferrules. a. Straight ferrule. b. Driving ferrule. c. Elbow ferrule. d. Three-way ferrule. e. Four-way ferrule. Morris's Stop-valve Ferrule. boat without running on the incline. Forney. Fer'til-iz-er Mill. Fig. 1020 shows a mill for grinding and mixing materials for artificial fer- tilizers. It is constructed on the principle of the Carr disintegrator. Fig. 1020. Fertilizer MM. The double operation may be performed with advantage in the machine shown, which is formed of two cylindrical cages of iron bars, which are rotated rapidly in contrary di- rections. The materials thrown in fragments in at the cen- tral opening issue mixed and in a fine powder at the circum- ference. See also BONE MILL. Fer'til-iz-er Sow'er. The machines for sow- ing dry fertilizers resemble those for sowing grain, and in many cases are combined therewith. See GRAIN DRILL, pp. 1002, 1003, and WHEAT DRILL, Fig. 7163, p. 2761, "Mech. Diet." When the fertilizer is long and damp a different mode of Fig. 1021. discharge becomes necessary. British and French fertilizer sowers are made on the principle of the machine shown in Fig. 1021. It is made by M. Joxxr, of Ormesson, France, and is particularly adapted to dump and deliquescent, fertil- izers, which are discharged by endless revolving chains pass- ing through the hopper and drawing out, the pulverulent material which is disengaged and dropped upon the ground. See also LIQUID-MANUKE CART, p. 1326, "Mech. Diet." Fi'ber-faced Pa'per. A means of security against the restoration of the surface of check or draft-paper after it has been tampered with. It consists in imbedding in the pulp, on one or both sides thereof, a layer of fibers, the outer ends of which are then raised in the form of a nap, confused or intermingled by rotary brushes or other suitable means, and sized to form a surface for printing or writing. Anderson. Fi'ber Test'er. A means for determining the strength of fiber by dynamometer. See CLOTH TESTER, supra; YARN TESTER, "Mech. Diet." Fischer " Technologiste,'' xli. 533 IrlanUe " Ttchnologiste,' 1 '' xxxvii 28. Methods of testing to distinguish jute, phormium tenax, flax, hemp, etc., are devised to determine purity of sample. The method of M. Vetillard requires a good microscope, and is as follows : The object being a piece of the fiber, is colored according to its nature by means of two solutions : one of iodine, dis- solved in a solution of iodide of potassium ; the other glyc- erine, mixed with sulphuric acid, and the process is as fol- lows : a. From the tissue, perfectly washed, lixiviated, and cleared of all impurities, threads are drawn from warp and weft, and are observed separately. b. Dip the thread in the iodic liquid, and dry it with a piece of linen, or, better still, white blotting or filtering paper. c. Lay it on a piece of glass, such as is used for microsco- pic observation, and divide and spread out the fibers with the aid of the point of a needle. d. Place another glass on the fibers, set the whole in the microscope, and then introduce a single drop of the sulphu- ric solution between the two pieces of glass, and observe the color which the fibers assume when the acid touches them: flax turns blue, mixed more or less with yellow; hemp, green, mixed with gray ; jute and phormium, yel- low ; China grass, gray ; flat-rib of gray-blue color. U'ith a little practice of this method it is easy to see the difference between jute and phormium on the one hand, and flax and hemp on the other, which is of itself of great importance when there is a question of adulteration ; but it is very diffi- cult, to distinguish jute from phormium and flax from hemp, as, according to the manner in which they have been pre- pared, they assume each other's tints, or so nearly as to de- ceive the eye. By means of nitric acid, in which the fibers are steeped, the distinction between flax and hemp and jute and phormium is clearly shown, the former not being af- fected at all, while the latter takes a fine red tint. Testing Mixed Silk and Wool. If a piece of tissue of mixed wool and silk is plunged in hydrochloric acid, the silk is soon dissolved, while the wool remains, so that by careful weighing before and after the FIELD CAMERA. 333 FILTER. operation, the proportion of the two fibers is easily ascer- tained. See also SEPARATOR, 5, p. 2094, "Meek. Diet.'' Field Cam'e-ra. See CAMERA. Field Gun. A transportable gun for opera- tions in the field. See CANNON ; also : French breech-loader, Fr. * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2178. Steel, Fr * "Engineer," xlv., 421. Breech-loader, 13 dr., Br. * "Engineer," 1. 323. Moffhtt breech-loading field-piece, Plates I., II., III., p. 86, "Ordnance Report,'* * 1876. Sutcliffe breech-loading field-piece, Ibid. , * 94. Field Rol'ler. See CLOD CRUSHER ; ROLLER. Field Tel'e-graph. A military telegraph, for use in field operations. " Tilegrnphic Journal," viii. 121. " Scientijic Amtr. Sup.,'' 1815. Fig. 1022. Wire wagon and barrow Fifth Wheel. A wheel or seg- ment above the fore-axle on which the bed swivels in turning the car- riage. Fig 1022 shows two forms : one full-plate and one part-plate. Fig. 1023 is the Dex- ter fifth wheel, which is so constructed as to steady the axle by three centers : one un- der the upper spring bar, one about the clip king-bolt, and one un- der the axle. Fifth'-wheel True'ing Plate. A swage-plate with a number of circles of varying diameter on which fifth wheels are made true by hammering. See Fig. 1024. Fig 1023 a. Larkin's anti-rattler fifth wheel. b. Full circle fifth wheel. Dexter Fifth Wheel. a. Spring link. b. Spring bar. c. Head block, rf. Axle. e Lower center Fight'ing Lan'tern. A lantern for ships of war, having a revolving shade to instantaneously screen the light, if required. That shown in Fi.,"888. Press Laboulaye's "Diet.,'- Hi., art "Sucre ," Figs 36, 56. Rapid (Laboratory), Hindley . . *"Sc. Am. Sup.," 1786. FILTER. Rapid, Holthof Filtration, on, "Inst. Civil Eng.,' 1 Br. Higgm * System, Jennings * Cloth stretcher, Johnson . . . * Floating well, LjimJtay . . . . * Water (Montreal) Kotary, Perrttt, Br * Universal, Plait * Kotary clearing, Pitlsometer Co. . * Engl * Sugar Water, Snook * Filtering Apparatus * Stock . . * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1363. " Sc. Am. Sup.," 1671. " Van Nostrand's Mag.." 1 xxii. 72. "Man. If Uuild.," 1 x. 169. "Sc. Am." xxxviii. 65. " Engineer," 1 1. 265. "Sc. Am.," xlii. 20. "Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 472. "Engineer," 1 xiii. 101. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 2581. "Engineer,' 1 ' xlviii. 124. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1 1060. Laboitlaye, ' ' S u c r e , ' ' Fig. 50, vol. iii. "Mia. 4" Sc. Press," 1 xxxvi. 321. "Sc. Am. Sup., "2471. "Sc. Am. Sup., 1 ' 2689. FIRE ALARM. Fine Art Met'al-work. See under the fol- lowing heads : Antique bronzing. Incrusted work. Applique. Inlaying. liidiri work. Irisation. Bronze coloring. Japanese bronzes. Champ leve. Kuft-work. Chasing. Milling. Cire perdue. Niello. Cloisonne 1 . Orugo. Damasceening. Parcel gilt. Damasking metals. Patina Electro-bronzing. Pearl inlaying. Emaille. Repousse. Enamel. Satining. Flat chasing. Snarling. Frosting. S|iimiint;. Fin'ger Mir'ror. A small mouth-mirror at- Fil'ter Press. (Suyar Manufacture.) One in which the liquid is pressed from a mass beet-root- pulp in the present instance and the solid portion retained by a straining device. The Farinaux press, shown in Paris, 1878, has a series of gridiron-shaped frames, the faces of which are covered with a filtering surface of linen or jute cloth. These frames are arranged parallel to each other upon a strong support, and are brought into close contact by means of a .screw-press fixed to one end of the support. The material to be filtered is forced between the frames through a passage along the side or through the center, and distributes itself over the filtering surface ; the liquid portion, finding its way into Fig. 1026. Farinaux Filter Press. the interior of the frame, is drawn off at the bottom by means of a stop-cock attached to each one, while the solid portion is held back between the filtering surfaces. When the press is fully charged, the pressure holding the frames together is removed, the frames separated, and the pulp al- lowed to fall into a recipient underneath. If necessary, the cloth is cleaned by means of a rush. Press, Fr Farinaux . . "De.pt. Agrir. Sp. Kept ," xxviii. Plate XXV. Centrifugal Ibid., xxviii., Plate XXIX. Beet-press, Poizot . . . Ibid., Plate XVI. Lebee Ibid., Plate XVII. Dujardin .... Ibid , Plate XX , and page 141. Champannois . . . * p. 87, supra. Manuel et Socin . . * p. 87, supra. Pieron * p. 88, supra. Find'er. (Optics.) a. As applied to the tele- scope, a small low-power glass fitting on the side of the large one for finding an object. b. As applied to the microscope, a means for registering the position of an object on a slide so that it can be readily found again. The Maltwood finder. tached to a finger clasp ; used by dentists. Fin'ger Steel. (Leather. ) A steel instrument like a skewer or awl used for restoring the edge of the currier's knife while in use. Fin'ger Tray. A small pan attached by a clasp to the finger; used by dentists for carrying amalgam or plastic filling. Fin'ish-ing Press. A machine for pressing fabrics. A and B are steam drums having toothed wheels acted upon by cam wheels on the shaft n, which is turned by an endless screw and toothed wheel, receiving their motion from a belt and pulley. The cam wheels turn the drums in oppo- Fiir. 1027. Houston's Cloth Finishing Press. site directions ; one cam wheel only works at a time, the drum not acted upon by the cam wheel being carried along by the friction pulley. Thus the operator is enabled to change the motion of the drum as often as necessary. From the drum A to the drum B a long sheet or band of copper or steel extends, and alternately winds ;,nd unwinds round both drums, carrying the goods along. The fabric is unrolled from a cylinder, T, moved solely by the tension of the goods as they are rolled on the cylinder B. The copper band is heated on the cylinder A and catches in descending the sheet of fabric, and rolls up along with the same on the cylinder B. Thus the entire surface of the goods comes in contact with the heated metal, and is equally exposed to the pressure ex- erted by the concentric sheets of copper. The goods a re imt strained, but subjected to heat and pressure only, removing all folds. Musce del' Industrie. Fire A-larm'. Sec the following references : Indicator, electrical, Bright Electric, Gaulnier And bell pull, electric, Gaulnier, Gong, German And water indicator, Geraid . Ships holds, Higgins . . . . Telltale, Electric, Leblanc, Fr. Signals, London Telegraph, Spanish * " Ttleg. Jour.," vii. 56. * "Sc. Amer.," xxxv. 246 * "Sc. Amer.," xxxvi. 4. * "Sc. Amer.," xxxviii. 4C3. * "Sr. Amer.,''' xl. 102. * " Teleg. Jour.," vi. 271. * 'Engineering," xxvi. 445. "Sc.Am. Sup.." xxiv. 34. * "Engineering," xxiv. 135. "Teleg. Jour.,' 1 ' iv. 199. FIRE ALARM. 335 FIRE-ARMS, ORDNANCE, ETC. German * " ~lBf3S~ ' -~i~-Jp-^ ^taBSS*** ' r ,- .... t ' Disk anvil. Mountain gun. tffil Drawing machine Mountain howitzer. ^j-' '- ""-"J^. Lu-v. T5!y^.^u_ Mar., 1876, p. 18. Chemical, Babcock * "Amir. Man.," Apr. 18, 1879, p. 6. Chemical, Clapp * ".Ve. Amer.," xxxvii.lll. Floating, Edwards ff Symes, Br. * "Engineering," xxiii. 125, 127. English " Sc. Amer.," xxxv. 255. Engine pump, Br "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1906. Steam, Engl * "Sc. Amer.,'' 1 xxxix. 246. London * " Sc. Am. Sup.," 1747. Gould *"Sc. Amer. *'/>.," 419. * "Polytechnic Rev.," Mar., 1876, p. 19. * " Engineering," xxi. 432. Injector hydrant, Greathead,Br. * "Engine>ring," xxviii. 80. Iland.JfwW . * "Sc. Amer.," xxxv. 127. Steam, Moor/en * " Sc. Amer.," xxxix. 319. Steam, Rumble, Engl * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 2447. Steam, Shaiid $ Mason, Br. Fire-engine, rotary, Sttiby Silsby 22 "Engineer," xliv. 423; xlvi. 165. "f!c. Amer.,' 1 ' 1 xxxv. 115. " T/nirston'x Vienna Re- port," ii. 104. Reports of trials, "Centennial Exhibition Reports,'' vol. vi., Group XX., includes the following : GouU * p. 283. Clapp if Jones * p. 285. Silsby *p. 289. Amoskeag * p. 292. Fire Es-cape'. Figs. 1033, 1034, show re- spectively French and American forms of clutches to run on ropes when person, suspended to either of them, is descending from the window of a burn- ing house. FIRE ESCAPE. 338 FTRELESS LOCOMOTIVE. In Fig. 1033, the rope being firmly attached iu the room, the person is suspended from the hook below, and the rope Fig. 1033. Fig. 1034. French Fire Es- cape. Rope Clutch. being roven through the grooves, the friction opposes its rapid motion ; the friction is increased by grasping the rope while descending. In Fig. 1034, the rope runs through a fair leader groove in a hinged box ; the two parts of which compress the rope in any required degree, so as to prevent too rapid descent of the person suspended therefrom by the hook D ; A is the pul- ley-wheel, and C the pinch screw. See the following : Allen * Clutch * Portable, mounted, Davis . , * Portable ladders, Falk . . . . * Portable, Falk * Portable, Hydraulic, Gerard . . * Hydraulic, Gerard If Turnbull . * Houghton * Automatic, Leavitt * Lescale * Net on poles * Shishmanian * Ladder, Winter * "Sc. Amer.,'' xxxvii. 163. " Sc. Amer.." xxxvi. 335. "Iron Age," xxii. , Dec. 12, p 7. "Manufact. Builder,'' ix. 150. "Iron Age," xx., Aug. 2, p. 9. "Iron As;e," xxii., Oct. 81, p. 7. "Ens;, if Min. J.," xxvii. 150. 11 Sc. Amer.," xxxvi. 294. "Sc. Amer.," xxxvii. 255. "Sc. Amer.,'' xxxix. 169. "Sc. Amer.," xxxix. 19. "Sc.Amer.," xxxviii. 147. "Sc. Amer.,"xli. 230. Fire Ex-tin'guish-er. The subject of the portable or fixed apparatus, for projecting carbonic acid gas and water upon a fire, is considered on pp. 866, 867, "Mech. Diet.," including a reference to Sir William Congreve. The larger apparatus, mounted as fire engines, are now in use in our cities, known as the Babcock Fire Engine. Fig. 1035. See also the following : Apparatus. Atlantic Fire Annihilator Co. . . . * Compound, Reec .... Portable, Douglass . . . * On shipboard, Granger . * # Shipboard, Thompson . . * Automatic, Tenner . . . * Apparatus, " Tribune,' 1 "Man. $ Suilciir," viii. 145. "He. Ainer.," xxxvi. 2'28. " Iron Age," xxiii., June 26, p. 5. u Emf. $ Min. /.,' xxiii. 454. "S, . Amtr.,'' xxxvi. 383. 'Man. $ Builder,'' viii. 16. '&:. Amer.," xxxviii. 101. "Sc.Amer.," xxxvii. 246. " Sc. Amer." xxxiv. 146. Fire'-hole-ring Riv'et-er. The portable hy- draulic riveter, for fire-hole-rings, originally de- signed by Tweddell for the special purpose of riv- eting up locomotive fire-hole door rings at Crewe. The gap is 3.5" when intended for locomotive work, and 6" to 6" when used for riveting on marine boiler front and back end plates. This riveter is centered in a toothed wheel, which is put in Fig. 1036. Fire Extinguisher for Mills. The Anderson & Proctor apparatus, shown in Fig. 1035, is especially intended for mills, and is automatically operated through the medium of electricity, as described in c, Fire Alarm, p. 849, "Mecti. Diet." Thermometers are placed freely at different parts of the establishment, and the raising of the mercury in either to a certain height completes a galvanic circuit, and opens a valve connecting by pipes with the spe- cial department from which the alarm proceeded and flood- ing it with steam. Fire-hole-ring Riveter. motion by a pinion, and the machine thus revolves in a ver- tical plane on its own center and in a very small space. A swivel joint between the outer rock and the suspending chain allows the riveter also to revolve freely in a horizontal plane. The machine exerts a force of 33,000 foot pounds at each stroke, weighs 400 pounds, and can make 20 to 30 strokes per minute. Fire'less Lo-co-mo'tive. A locomotive for street railways. That shown was designed for the Crescent Citv Railroad Company, of New Orleans, by Schemer." Plate XV. pressure of 220 pounds per square inch 390 Fah. With this charge it runs about 6 miles, the pressure being down to about 40 pounds at the end of the run. The driving wheels are 30" in diameter, and the leading wheels 20", with a wheel base of 5' 7". The cylinders are 4J X 10". The valve gear consists of a main valve, which works full stroke at all times, and controls the exhaust, with a steam valve on top worked by a link, which governs the admission. Both valves are, however, worked by the same link. The weight of the engine, with the tauk full of water, is 8,700 Ibs. The L'imin & Francq motor, used on the Paris Kalways, has a reservoir containing 1,800 liters of water at 400 Fah. .Franc?, Fr "Manufacturer If Builder," xi_. 9. ' "rancq, Fr. * "Engineering,"' xxviii. 306, 375. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1760, 2125, 2521, * 2766. * Andt rson : s Report, "Paris Exposi- tion Reports," iv. 466. * Ibid., iv. 462. "Iron Age,'' xxiv., Nov. 27, p. 7. * "Railroad Gazette," xxi. 383. * "Scientific American," xxxvii. 239. * "Engineer," xliv. 220. Lamm ff Fro, Mekarski, Paris Scheffler, N. 0. Figure 1031. SILSBY FIRE-ENGINE. See page 337. SCHEFFLEK FIRELESS LOCOMOTIVE. ( Crescent City Railroad Co., New Orleans.) See page \ FIREMAN'S AXE. 339 FISH CULTURE. Fire'man's Axe. A chopping axe with a talon on the poll. Fire'place Stove. A description of heater in which a close stove occupies the position of a parlor Tate, has a protruding front and doors with mica panels. Also known as a latrobe. See Fig. 1998, p. 869, " Mech. Diet." Fig. 2843, p. 1205; Fig. 5909, p. 2410, Ibid. " Alhambra " Ventilating * "Scientific American,'' 1 xxxix. 261. * " Scientific American Sup.,'' 1747. Fig. 1037. Fire Plug. A device for connecting street mains with suction pipe of fire engine, or with hose for street watering or tire purposes. Used also in factories and large estab- lishments of various kinds. See also FIRE COCK. Fire Pot. A solderer's fur- nace. Fire-proofing. See follow- ing recipes and references : Wood: Follarhi's plan. Place the wood on gratings and separated in a close vessel. Pump in following solu- tion and boil. Sulphate of zinc, 55 Ibs.; potash, 22 Ibs.; alum, 44 Ibs ; oxide of manga- nese, 22 Ibs.; sulphuric acid of 60, 22 Ibs.; water, 55 Ibs.; all of the solids are to be poured into an iron boiler containing the water at a temperatnre of 45 C., or 113 Fah. As soon as the substances are dissolved the sulphu- ric acid to be poured in little by little, until all the substances are com- pletely saturated. Theatrical scenery: boracic acid, 5; sal ainmon., 15: potassic feldspar, 5j gelatine, 1.05; size, 50 ; water, 100. Fabfics: In 14 parts of water, heated to ISO 3 Fah., dissolve 101 lo - gelatine and 21 Ibs. castor-oil soap. Then add 10J Ibs. gum lac, shaking Fire Plug (section). the liquid until the last is completely dissolved. Remove from the fire, and add in small quantities 21 Ibs. powdered alum until the alum dissolves. This forms an insoluble alumina soap, closely incorporated with the gelatine and the gum lac. Apply with a brush. Cloth : Apply tungstate of soda. Or : a solution of 4 parts borax and 3 of sulphate of mag- nesia, which precipitates an incombustible and insoluble compound, the borate of magnesia, in the fibers. Or : phosphate of ammonia, 6 per cent solution. Or : solution of acetate of lime and chloride of calcium. Or : sulph. amm. and sulph. calcium. Or : 5 per cent, phosphate of amm. and 5 per cent. alum. Requires reimpregnation after washing. Or : for cloth, 8 parts, by weight, of sulph. amm. ; 2.5 parts carb. ammon.; 3 parts boracic acid ; 1.7 borax ; 2 parts starch in 100 water. Canvas or cordage, wood, or straw : 6 parts boracic acid ; 15 parts sal amm.; 3 parts borax in 100 parts water. Paper: 8 parts sulph. amm.; 3 parts boracic acid ; 1.7 parts borax. Applied at 122 Fah. Paper : made from a pulp of vegetable fiber . 1.00 asbestos . . . 2.00 borax .... 0.01 alum 0.02 The ink is made of graphite . . . 85.00 copal varnish . . 0.08 copperas . . . 7.50 tinct. nutgalls . 30.00 indigo carrn. . . q. s. Buildings, "Engineer " Cloth Concrete, "Architect " . Construction, Bayless . Hutton "Van Nostrand's Mag.,''' xvii. 439. "Man. if Builder,'' 1 ix. 1. " Eng . $ Min . J. , ' ' xxvi . 333. "Sc. American," xli. 218. "Sc. .4m.," xxxiv. 103, 405. " Van Nostr, Mag.," xvi. 237. "Iron Age,'' xix., Apr. 26, p. 22. * "Iron Age,'' 1 xxv., Jan. 15, p. 3. "Sc. American," xxxvi. 104. "Sc. American," xxxviii. 43. * "Sc. American Sup.," 1363. "Sc. American Sup.," 158. Northcrnft, Kngl. . . Paper by Schumann . Curtain "Sc. American Sup.," 1 973. "Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 2174, 2209. "Polytechnic Review,'' Dec. 23, 1876. "Sc. American,'' xxxvi. 277. "Iron Age," xix., April 5, p. 7. "//ore Age," xxii., Aug. 1, p. 18. "Sc. Amtr.," xxxv. 127 159. " Sc. American Sup.,'' 1110. " Van NostratuJ's Mag.," xvii. 475. "Sc. American," xli. 86. "Sc. American," xxxix. 290. "Sc. American,'' xli. 218. "Sc. American Sup.," 557. " Sc. American," xxxvi. 307. "Iron Age,'' xix., May 10, p. 24. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xxi. 477. "Sc. American,'" xli. 103. "Sc. Aine.rican Sup.,'' 702. Fig. 1038. Dress Flooring, Evans ' Swain . Floors, roof, Noitncrofl . . Paper Shutter, Pollock .... Theatrical scenery . . . Tower Walls Wooden buildings . . Wood, "Building News " . Folacci .... Fire Pump. A pump designed to be used for extinguish- ing fires. The Stone pump, shown by two sec- tional views taken in planes at right an- gles to each other (Figs. 1038, 1039), is the favorite pump in several European na- vies. The pump has three pistons, opera- ting one above an- other in a single cyl- inder placed on the deck of a vessel and worked by hand cranks. The opera- tion of the pistons is by a two-throw crank, and the suc- tion pipes connect with either of six different parts of the vessel. The same pump may be used to draw water from the ship's reservoir ; from a barge alongside to replenish reservoir ; from the sea to wash , , , , . . , Ship s Fire Pump. British Navy. decks or extinguish fire ; bilge water from the hold, etc. Fire Reg'u-la'tor. An apparatus which regu- lates the draft by governing the area of the air- duct or flues. In the instance shown in Fig. 1040, the pressure of steam in a chamber beneath the lever has the effect of turning the butterfly valve on its axis, and so increases or decreases the area of the duct. When the pressure of steam increases, the lever rises, partially closes the damper, and thus moderates the briskness of the fire : and vice versa. Le Van. Fish Cul'ture. A number of the devices used in modern fish culture may be reached by means of the following list of United States patents : No. Inventor. Invention. 68,871 Green, A wire bottom box anchored. Inclined, to keep water flowing in at bottom. 72,177 Drexter, A pen to inclose crabs, turtles, etc. 78,952 Furman, Spawn chamber and receiver for young fish. 80,775 Smidtk. Air pumped through the sea water in chamber. 105,176 Collins, A collecting screen beneath the spawning box. 116,112 Stone, Box carbonized on inside. 116,995 Sabin, Fish nursery. Spawning boxes. FISH CULTURE. 340 FISH HATCHING APPARATUS. No. Inventor. Invention. 136,834 Motion, Spawn trays with upward current. 148,035 ('/ark. Hatching trays with artificial current. 149,198 Clark, Eggs preserved in layers of moss in refriger- ator. Fig. 1039. Ship's Fire Pump. Ifil ,080 Bryan, Floating anchored hatching box. 160,002 Bond, Spawning trays and egg collectors. 166,413 Roth, Egg basket and containing box in current. Fig 1040. Fire Regulator. 173,262 Brackett, Hatching box with wire-netting bottom. 180,085 Wilmot, Ova suspended in receptacle by upward flow. Iff.) ,527 Ferguson, Ova in vessels mechanically agitated. 207,333 Wright, Hatching box floats and its agitation lifts valves in the bottom and causes upward flow of water. See also reports United States Fish Commission, and Plaster casts of fish .... "Sc.Amer. &ip." 2003 breeding apparatus .... *" Sc.Amer. Sup.,' 1 ' 177. Culture, Pennelt * ".St. Amer. Sup.,'' 177. Fish skin, numerous uses of . "&>. American," xlii. 88. Fish hatching (Havre de Grace) " Sc. Amer.," xxxviii. 1^9. Transporting carriage, Austrian * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 367. Fish'er-mau's Knot. The knot made in net- ting. Fig. 1041. It is the same as Fig. 1041. used in the neo- lithic age of Eu- rope, as is proved by the fragments of nets found in the lake villages of the Swiss re- Fisherman's Knot. gion. Fish Flour. Fish flesh dessicated and ground into a flour of varying fineness, according to taste. Largely used in Norway. Fish Hatch'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. The most practical and instructive collection of this descrip- tion of apparatus is in the Museum of the United States Fish Commission, Washington, D. C. It contains Models of hatching houses at Bucksport, Me., and Grand Lake Stream, Me. Hatching apparatus of Green. Stillwttt If Atkins. Brackett. Holton. Williamson. Bannister. Furman. Roth. Clark. Bryant. House. Coste. Ferguson. Mather. Spawning screens of Ainsworth. Bond. Collins. Transporting tanks and cans of Mather. Stone. Stone If Hooper. Clark. Rogers. Wilmot. Atkins. Green. Slack. And numerous accessories. See list under FISH CULTURE. Wilmot's apparatus, Fig. 104, dispenses with a pcreen to prevent the loss of eggs with the overflow water and substi tutes a regulation of the force of the water-flow so as to float off worthless matter, imperfect eggs, and prevent deposit of sediment on the ova. The water from the reservoir A, Fig. 1042. by a connection of pipes passes through the tube E downwardly into the bottom of the hatching basin 1>, or upwardly through the tube /, in each case the water being discharged into the basin at or iy ing i lottom, glancing off around the slant- of the basin, and ip with it the ova or eggs O; the ova following the cnrrent, roll toward the tube E; the heavy or sound eggs fall to the bottom of the basin at the sides of the jacket or tube to be again moved by the circulation of water, while the light or imperfect eggs, together with sedimentary sub- FISH HATCHING APPARATUS. 341 FISHING AND WHALING. stances in the water, pass up the outside of the jacket by 190,222 King, A pair of spring-hook claws. the upward flow, and are carried off with the waste water 191,165 Miller, A supplementary pivoted spring-hook. through the spout H. 196,648 Edgar, A tongue or mousing extending to the barb. " Scientific American Supplement " .... * 629. 199,926 Mitchell, Plunger driven into the mouth of the fish. Fish Hook. The general run of the line of 208,581 Falvey, Rubber crawfish bait on an adjustable hook. invention in this class may be gathered from the 211,996 Hill, Arrangement of movable spoon guide and following list of United States patents : rod. 218,345 Wakaman, Artificial revolving minnow, with hooks. No. Inventor. Subject of invention. 223,194 Vachc, Trigger and spring to jerk the hook. 6,2^7 Johnson, Spring-hook : 21 kinds of hook and modes of attachment. Fish'iiig and Whal'ing. The following list 7,709 Warner et al. Spring-hook. embraces the heads under this class : 8,853 Buels, Trolling-hook. 10,771 Buels, Spring-hook. Accumulator. Fish preparing and preserv- 10,761 Siglers, Combination spring-hook. Anchored net. ing. 13.081 Cook, Spring-hook. Aquarium. Fish slide. 13,' 68 De Saxe, Trolling-hook. A spring shield covers Axe. Fish spear. the point of the hook when fishing among weeds. 13,649 Johnson, Spring-hook. Babiche. Fish transporting carriage. Bag. Fish trap. 14,706 Buels, Fly or trolling-hook. Bag-net. Fish-way. 17,803 McLean, Self-setting trap-hook. Bait, artificial. Flitehing knife. 25,507 Haskels, Trolling-hook. Bait box. Float. 31,396 Morris, A spring draws the bearded points together Bait cutter. Fly-hook. into the fish. Baiting needle. Folding net. 43 694 Leinhart, A trigger raises hooks which transfix the Bait knife. Fyke net. fish. Bait mill. Gaff. 44,368 Gardner, Spring-hook. 50,799 Crandell, Combination double-lever hook. Bait-mill knife. Gear. Bait net. Gill-net. 51,051 Dans et al., Spring- hook. Baleen. Grains. 59,814 Kins:, Spring-hook. Baleen knife. Grapple hook. 59,893 Crosby, Fish-hook (flattened in bend). Banner netting. Grappling gear. 51,951 Livermore, Wire loop to prevent fish from stealing Bar net. Grappling tongs. the bait. Bar weir. Gun harpoon. 54,251 Johnson et al., Spring or spear-hook. Becket hitch. Gunwale winch. 64,684 Chapman, Trolling-hook, with spring and fly. Blubber fork. Half-round spade. 58,404 Goodwin, Spiral spring around the hook to press Blubber hook Hammock net. the bait down to point. Blubber knife. Handle net. 60,786 Rhodes, Spring-hook, spinner. Blubber mincing machine Hand Line 62,042 Lee, The shank made in form of spiral spring. Boarding knife. . Harpoon. 68,027 Angilard, Lever-hook, and striking-hook to fasten Boat hatchet. Harpoon gun. the fish. Boat knife. Hatching box. 70,868 Lciiihart, Spring-hook. Boat spade. Haul seine. 70,913 Sterling, One hook on swivel to hold bait, the other Bob. Head axe. to grapple the fi~h while pulling from the water. Bomb harpoon. Heading knife. 69,221 Kidders, Spring-hook Two hooks, separate when Bomb lance. Head knife. the fish bites. Bottom-set line. Head spade. 77,365 FfV<, Hook. Bowl. Heart. 79,446 Christian, Trolling-hook, with artificial bait. Bull net. Heart net. 80, I'll Dennett, Spring-hook. Casting net. Heart seine. 86,154 Heltz, Ilook, with an eye to attach hook. Cast net. Hook. 94,893 Krmlo, Lock-hook. Check stop. Hook net. 94,X'.Ji Kemlo, Lock-hook. Check knife Horse net. 94,S95 Kemlo, Grapple-hook, with guard to prevent fish Chopping knife. Ice chisel. from getting loose from barb. Clam hook. Ice chopper. 95,755 Angers, Three hooks. When the middle hook is Clam knife Ichthyocolla. pulled, it loosens the outer hooks, which expand Clamms. Isinglass. in the mouth of the fish. Clap net. Jack-lamp. 104,93'") Chapman, Propeller or trolling-hook. Clearing ring. Jerk net. 111,898 Arnold, Mode of attaching hook to line. Collecting seine. Junk hook. 115,434 Chapman, Propeller or trolling-hook. Cork line. Lance. 117,719 Arnold, Mode of attaching hooks to lines. Crab net. Lance hook. 121,182 Mann, Trolling spoon-hook. Crib. Landing gaff. 123,844 Sinclair, Trolling-hook. Cutting spade. Landing net. 129,053 Pitcher, Hook, with double spear, to thrust into Dip net. Land line. fish. Dipping wheel. Leader. 139,180 Mtdlaly, Artificial fly, hook concealed by the wings. Disgorger. Latch. 141,910 Allen, Hook has quadruple bends. Drailing tackle. Lever hook. 143,146 Harper et a?., Trolling-hook with oppositely revolv- Drails. Lily iron. ing spoons. Dredge. Line (varieties, see list). 146,443 Fitzgerald, A squid jigger, with a ring of prongs. Dredging tube. Line-hook. 146,764 James, A spinning-squid, with fins which revolve it. Drift net. Lint. 148,926 Cahoon, A mackerel jig, the hook secured in a Drop net. Lip hook. socket. Eel bob. Lock hook. 149,123 Hazzard, A trolling-spoon fish shaped. Eel pot. Mackerel latch, 151,394 Huard ft al. A spring fish-hook is inclosed in the Eel spear. Mackerel plow. artificial fish. Fatting knife. Mesh. 153,854 Skinner, The spoon is corrugated to make it more Finning knife. Meshing net. attractive Fish-breeding apparatus. Meter. 157,480 Perry, Hooks spring outward when bait is touched. Fertilizer. Mincing knife. 163,930 Dunlap, Secondary spring-hook strikes the fish. 167,784 Pierce, Two spoons, position controlled by springs. Fish apparatus and processes Mincing machine, for oil and manure. Mincing spade. 171,697 Place, Squid jigger, with a circle of prongs. Fish cutter. Minnow propeller. 171,768 Buel, Duplicate spoon fishing-tackle. Fisherman's knot. Net (varieties, see list). 171,769 Buel, Spinning-tackle ; adjustable spring-hook on Fish grapple. Net machine. sliding ferrule. Fish-hatching apparatus. Net-maker's knife. 177,639 Hill, Spoon can move along the wire. Fish hook. Oyster culture. 181,308 Brush, Float attached to the shank of the troller. Fishing line. Oyster dredge. 184,627 Jones, Swivel attachment for lines. Fishing line reel. Oyster knife. 185,914 Gregg, Artificial worm of rubber. Fishing net. Oyster rake. 186,134 Jahne et al., A leader swiveled to the line and having Fishing rod. Oyster tongs. two snoods. Fishing torch. Pew gaff. 189,805 Smith, A circular system of pivoted hooks sprung Fish knife. Pisciculture. inward. Fish nursery. Pocket net. FISHING AND WHALING. 342 FISHING ROD. Tackle. Throating knife. Throat spade. Throwing line. Tilting net. Toggle line. Tongs. Torpedo. Towing net. Trailing net. Trammel net. Trap. Trap net. Trawl. Trawl-boy swivel. Trawling hook. Trawl line. Trawl line roller. Trawl net. Trolling bait. Trolling spoon. Trot line. Tunnel. Vat net. Weir. Whalebone. Whaling apparatus Whaling gun. Whaling rocket. Whaleman's knife. Whaleman's tools. Whiffing tackle. Wide spade. Wing. Wing net. Worm. Pot. Pound. Pound net. Probing awl. Projectiles. Propeller. Purse net. Purse seine. Reel. Kipping knife. Rocket harpoon. Scaling knife. Scoop net. Seaming. Seine. Seine windlass. Set line. Sheath knife. Sheave block. Sinker. Skim net. Slivering knife. Snood. Spade. Spawning screen Spear. Spilliard. Spinner. Splitting knife. Spoon. Spoon bait. Spring hook. Spring net. Squid jig. Squid line. Stake net. Swivel. Fish'ing Line. See LINE. Fish'ing Line Reel. The following con- densed description of United States Patents will give an idea of the general tendency of invention in this line : No. Inventor. Invention. 854 Tiffany, Rollers for seine line on rail of vessel. 15,466 Bailey, Crank wheel thrown in or out of gear with reel. 16,626 Deacon, Crank wheel thrown in or out of gear with reel. 24,987 Biilingkurtt, Line winds on a skeleton ring. 27,305 Palmer, Reciprocating line guide, to wind evenly. 41,494 Dougherty, Friction brake to control unwinding. 43,460 Van Gieson, Frictional instead of positive connec- tion between crank and reel. 43,485 Ellis, Crank wheel can be disconnected from reel. 43,546 Cummings, A spring catch and hook to connect reel and rod. 49,663 Stuart, Reel in the handle; line passes through rod ; arrangement for winding snug ; disconnect- ing crank and reel. 55,653 Hatch, Skeleton spool for line. 56,937 Hartill, Mode of hanging spool and " drag " on pay- ing out of line. 71,344 Vom Hofe, Arrangement for reel gearing. 78,546 Stacy, An elastic gum nipper for hand lines. 82,377 Bradley, Reel with two concaved disks. 83,740 Stetson, A screw clamp holds the line sheave on the boat's gunwale. 87,188 Mounier, A pivoted clamp holds the reel for the set line. A bell alarms when bait is taken. 88,026 Foster, A mackerel latch ; a button and line chan- nel. 95,839 Ross, A skeleton ree.l. 96,652 Altmaeir, Reel set between two sections of the rod. 103,668 Skeletons, Reel like a kite-string holder. 112,326 Decker, Mackerel latch; a pinch grip beneath a cleat. 121,020 Terry, Frictional device for angler's reel. 128,137 Fowler, Annular reel of hard rubber. 134,917 Mooney, Mode of attaching to rod and operating reel. 135,283 Noe, Fan regulator connected to reel gear. 147,414 Mac Caret, One reel may be quickly substituted for another. 150,883 Orvis, Perforated disks to allow line to dry. 161,314 Winans et al., A friction brake to prevent overrun- ning. 162,845 McDonald, A roller with several grooves on the gunwale. 166,241 Winslow, Reel in the handle of the rod with an outer movable cylinder. 175,227 Winans et at., Reel cover and spring brake. 177,544 Noe, Brake to prevent overrunning of the line. 191,813 Philbrook, Reel with thin metal sides, and click mechanism. 195,578 Copelanet, Reel in the handle, with bevel gears and exterior crank. 214,495 Dickson, Multiplying gearing in the cap. 216,243 Voss, A crank and shaft in the dory to wind trawl lines. 219,328 Vom Hofe, Construction of reel and control of mo- tion. 220,776 Wart/well, Crank can be disconnected from reel ; a reciprocating guide for winding line. Fish'ing Nets. The following condensed de- scription embraces the principal features of the subject : 647 Evarts, Floating seine extended from boats. 763 Hale, A square net alongside drawn into bag form, to inclose school of fish. 932 Tracy, Seine with bottom and semi-circular sides. 3,004 Cook, Gill-net, submerged Small floats on seine line, and larger on surface of the water. 3,056 Downs, Form for making nets for taking eels. 3,741 Can, Shannon If Co., Fyke for eels. 10.794 De Saxe, Landing-net with expansible frame. 20,125 Hall, Seine with bag attached. 20,725 Merritt, Net rigged overboard by booms. 34,887 GooeJwin, Leading nets and funnel entrances to slat trap. 39,676 Randolph, Guide nets leading to pounds or shoal water. 55,635 Fielet, A bag net. 56,917 Ftrl Larkin, A drop net, Fig 3317, "Mec/i Diet." o9,429 Maxwell, Net. double, with rigid mouth, the inner being a funnel entrance. 62,481 Grossman, Net, attached to side of boat, so as to be lowered or raised. Fig. 3318, "Meek. Diet." 66,669 Arnold, Net fabric 72,177 Drexel, Securing and feeding crabs. 76,284 Will, Gill-net, with rings for sinkers. 76,387 Bell, Net-attachment for boats, with guys to mast, to hoist or lower. 78,716 Arnold, Mode of making nets 80,274 Cotlines, Perpendicular wooden braces extend below the sinker line. 82,490 Cartwright, Set-net, to be anchored ; the boat t? at- tached about midway of the net, and a line is at- tached to small end of bag, and can be raised and emptied. 82,913 Allen, Eel-pot. 83,493 Harper, Bottom of seine longer than top, large sink- ers. 83,429 Wilcox, Pound net or trap 87,740 Ward miller, Dip-net 99,713 Sabins, Purse-net, with bait-box, the net stretched on wires similar to umbrella. 113,292 Hammond, Fish-trap net with two hinged Haps. 113,572 Rider, Net-supporter, to swing with the tide 113,817 Tierman, Pound-net. 117,957 Alexander, Bottom seine, with pursing linos. 120,974 Jeffrey, Seine, with pursing lines. 124,635 Smith, Purse seine, with a portion of its circumfer- ence depressed below the surface. 132,476 Liraitdais, Umbrella-shaped purse-net. 137,930 Kelcham, A leader and heart conducting to a pound. 144,888 Campbell, Stake for seines. 155.140 Breivster, A leader heart and pound towed abaft a vessel. 167,189 Nason, A landing-net. 194,434 Howes, A bottom-net or pocket. 197,313 Bates, A dip-net set on bottom. 215,031 Webb, Pound net. See NET. Fish'ing Rod. See the following list of United States Patents : 10.795 De Saxr., Hollow rod contains all the tackle ; float has a trigger to jerk the hook. 20,309 Underwood et al., Tip has a sheave at the end. 25,693 Pritckard, Line leaders on adjustable ferrules on rod. 35,339 Vom Hofe, Sheave on the end of the rod. 58,833 Isejiacs, Enamel surfaces to line guides. 72,667 Montrose, Rod has hinged sections and slipping fer- rules. 100,895 Hubbard, Parts of the socket are attached to each section, and screw together. 119,251 Tout, Rod of lamina} of wood and whalebone. 137,015 McHarg, Mode of securing the reel plate. 140,655 Smith, Mode of locking the foot of one section in the socket of the other. 142,126 Senieur, A post and socket to hold the foot of the rod. 154.141 Hill, A mode of jointing the sections ; a trigger and spring to jerk fish. FISHING ROD. 343 FISHWAY. 164,828 Graves, Line passes through center of rod. 169,181 Leonard, Mode of constructing the socket ferrules. 170,183 Perry, Fishing rod case of light wood, canvassed. 173,534 Encticott, Expansible guide and reel bands. 198,879 Fisher, Tip formed of a wire helix coilt-d into tubu- lar shape. 206,264 Robertson, The butt is in two parts, one in the other. 207,665 Leonard, Split stay strips, to reinforce rod. 208,500 Van Altena, Reel contained in slot of rod. Line check. 222,681 Earle, The entering action has a cap which in- closes the socket over which it slips. Fish'ing Torch. Hamline; a ball of cotton is fed by a spout from a reservoir behind the re- flector. Wilson & Keagle ; a wire gauze tube filled with asbestos, which forms the wick. Fijh Knife. A great variety of knives is found in use among fishermen, cleaners, curers, and pack- ers of fish; for ripping, heading, crimping, and trimming offish. Among them are the following: some of them are synonyms : Bait knife. For cutting up flesh for bait. Bait-mill knife. Used on the rollers of bait-mincing ma- chines. Cfiet/c knife For trimming cod-fish. C/iofifiing knife. For mincing bait Clam knife For opening clams. Fatting knife Used in creasing the sides of inferior mackerel, to make them resemble No I mackerel. Finning knife For removing the fins of large fish. Ftitching knife. For slicing halibut, etc., into steaks or flirches, in preparation for salting and smoking Hearting knife. For cutting off the heads of halibut, or other large fish Mackerel Plow Also known as a fatting knife, for creas- ing the sides of lean mackerel to improve their appearance. Net-maker's knife. A blade (2") without a handle, and the heel of the blade curved so as to fit the finger like a ring Oyster knife A stout knife for opening oysters. Rijjping knives. For splitting the fish to remove the vis- cera. fiira 'mi,' knife For removing scales. Sometimes has a saw edge. Sheath, knife. The fisherman's knife, worn at the belt Slivering knife. For slicing the flesh from the sides of fish to be used as bait. Splitting knife. For ripping, and for halving the fish be- fore salting. Throating knives. For opening behind the gills, and then ripping the fish. Frequently double-edged. Fish Nurs'er-y. A place where spawn is gath- ered and the young fish protected from the ravages of their natural enemies. See FISH CULTURE. Fish Slide. (Fishing.) An inclined box set in a stream at a small fall or ripple to catch fish descending the current. The open end of the box is presented up stream and the bottom being slippery the fish are dashed to the upper end of the box and scooped with a landing net Used in the southern rivers of the United States to supply local demand for fish. Fish Spear. A lance for bleeding captured whales, etc., or, on a small scale, a leister or gig for spearing fish from canoes or in holes of streams. See also GRAINS. Fish Trans-port'ing Car'riage. The trans portation of fish and of fish ova is an important consideration in fish culture, and many devices for packing ova and removal of fish from 'place to place have been devised. Fig 1043 shows a fish transporting carriage by llammerle, of Austria It consists of a large tank mounted, and with devices by which the running gear is caused to work the bel- lows and drive a continuous stream of air through the tank to aerate the water. The lever F, rod E, and spiral spring D operate the bellows B, forcing air through pipe T and dis- tributor O into tha tank Mis an ice tray and Pa filter. N, draw-off cock. G, handle for working the bellows when the wagon is at rest. "La Nature.'' 1 See collection in United States Fish Commission Museum, AVashington, D. 0. Cans, barrels, tanks, force pumps, si phons, aerators, aquaria, bellows, dippers, etc. 3,056 7,709 16,014 16,217 20,343 22,644 23,154 75,075 76,489 Fish Trap. A device set to catch fish. Snares, pounds, grapples, etc., come under this class. See also NKT. See also, DIPPING WHEEL, supra. List of United States Patents. Downs, Forming blocks for making eel baskets. Warner et el., frpring grapple. Horton, Spring grab hooks. Van Hosen, Spring jaws and bait trigger. Garl, Baited detent and spring nippers. Gray, Slat cage, with expansible opening slats. Bowman, Dark chute entrance to trap. Talbot, Angler's tackle to signal when the fish takes the bait. McCaughan, Set line with trigger and weight to strike and hook the fish. Koehler, Set line with trigger and spring. Allen, Eel pot with funnel of perforated sheet rub- ber. Beach, Baited trigger and falling cage. Hammond, Folding net of basket sections sprung by a line. Puller, Float with spring lever to strike when the baited hook is pulled. Harcourt et al., Self-closing trap door to cage. Livautlais, An umbrella-shaped net closed by trig- ger and springs. Ketcham, Pound of net has a funnel entrance and a door to close the entrance. Pavonanus et al., Cylinder with semi-circular door sprung by trigger. Peck. Spring arm to throw baited lines. McKoberts ! Gravitating door lifted by entering fish. Davis, For fishing in ice-holes ; hooked fish makes signal. McBryr/e, Swinging gates and mirror for decoy. Davis, Fish approaching bait press on spring fingers and enter cage. Hesse, A spring lever to strike fish at the bait. Robertson, A spring lever to strike fish at the bait, 85,199 113,292 123,164 131,439 132,476 137,930 141,588 156,648 Juu' 37 o 188,5u3 198,894 201,504 2^2,818 202,962 with reel to wind in line. 204,538 Ctarlcetal., Sunken cage with baited trigger and fall- ing door. 215,031 Webb, Anchored seine with flaps and pockets. 218,737 Henderson, A glass vessel in a trap to hold live bait. Fishing Electric light under water, Fr. "Teleg. X,"iv. 32. Fishing boats, Berlin Exposition *"Sc. Am. Suj>.,"' 3835 Fish'way. The museum of the Fish Commis- sion, at Washington, D. C., affords the best oppor- tunity for study of this subject ; and the catalogue of the collection contains detailed information. The devices are capable of classification, as Gap. Groove. Step Box or pool. Inclined plane Tunnel. Compartmental. Spiral. Moving. Partitional. 55,929 Steck, A series of inclined planes in vertical series. 57,159 Livermore, Inclined series of chambers with tubular connections. Fig. 2003, "Mech. Diet.-' 126,257 Brewer, Zigzag way in bottom of chute. 132,349 Brackett, Zigzag chute. 154,216 Brewer, Offset boards on bottom of chute. 208,408 McDonald, Force of water directed up the chute. 218,299 McDonald, Chambers and inclines in chute McDonald Rogers * "Scientific American," xli. 275. * "Scientific American," xliii. 22. FISSURE KNIFE. 344 Fis'sure Knife. (Stugical.) A bistoury used in operations for anal fissure. Figs. 586, 587, p. 124, Part III., Tiemann's "Armamenta- rium Chirurgicum.'' Fis'sure Vein. (Mining.) A fissure or crack in the earth's crust filled wiih mineral matter. Fis'tu-la Knife. A probe-pointed knife for fistula in ano. Dr. Kelsey. Fig. 1044. Fistula Knife. Delicate knives are also made for fistula laclirymalis: bis- touries also : CANALICULAR INSTRUMENTS are mentioned un- der that caption on page 157, supra. Fit. In car-axles, that part upon which the wheel is forced. Five Cant File. One for filing M-toothed saws, it has one angle of 108 and two of 3ti each. Fix'a-tion In'stru-ment. ( Surgical.) A hook or forceps with delicate sharp claws lo hold the eyeball steady during an operation. Figs. 78-80 d, Part II., Tiemann's " Armamentarium Chi- rurgicum.'' Fixed In'ter-val Res'u-la-tor. (Electricity ) A form of polyphote legulator for f . 1Q45 voltaic arc lamps in which the regu- lation of the carbons is effected au- tomatically at definitely recurring intervals of time. Rupicjf's and IBi-okies 1 lamps are of this order. Fixed Fis'ton Pump. One in which the cylinder moves, the pis- ton being relatively fixed. Fig 1045 represents the pump Donnadieu in which the valved piston De is on the summit of the induction pipe E L K, on a base M. H is an outer cylinder in which the skirt P attached to the chamber ABC G, moves up and down d is the eduction valve. Flake Stand. The cooling tub or vessel of a still-worm. Flak'ing Ham'mer. A steel hammer, bluntly pointed at each end and used in striking flakes from a flint nucleus. See Fig. 2, .p. 18, Evans" "Anrient Stone Implements of Great. Britain." Flam'beau-let. A small torch, an alluinette. Flame'less Lamp. A lamp with incandescent spongy platinum. lamp. Fig. 1046. Fixfd Piston Pump. An auhlornsti Koenig's Flame Manometer. Flame Ma-nom'e-ter. An instrument to ob- tain graphic representation of the condition of the human vocal organ. The invention of Koenig. FLANGING HAMMER. Fig. 1047. Flume Pictures of Healthy and Diseased Voices. Ij is composed of a large cube whose four vertical sidc ure covered with mirrors, and which is revolvable about a vertical axis ; of a gas jet, burning with a small flame : and of a mouth-piece which terminates in a lenticular box or cap- sule. A very thin, tense, and impermeable rubber mem- brane divides this capsule into two compartments, in one of which the sounding tube terminates, while the other serves as a passage-way for the gas from the conducting tube to the jet at which it is burned. On singing or speaking into the mouth-piece, pound waves are produced by the alternate condensation and rarefaction of the air within the tube ; the rubber membrane acquires a corresponding rate of vibration, and so modifies continuously the rapidity of the delivery of the gas to the burner, causing the gss flame to leap up and down in unison with the sounds transmitted. On rotating the prismatic mirror this but slightly perceptible motion is rendered distinctly obvious, persistence of vision spreading out the image of the flame into a broad serrated band of light. These serrations vary with the char- acter of the tones produced, as well as the degree of the diseased condi- tion of the vocal chords. In the latter case especially the difference in appearance of the image becomes so striking that a skilled observer can very readily form a correct idea as to the actual state of the vocal organs. The flame pictures shou n in Kig. 1047 give some idea of the results : Series 1-4 are healthy notes in different pitches ; highest above and the others successively lower. Series 5-8 are the same in pitch, but with a voice slightly hoarse. Series 9, 10 are the result of severe hoarseness. Series 11, 12 are the result of dis- ease, the voice being almost inaudi- ble, glottis open, and the chords scarcely vibrating. Flange. A plate for cover- ing, or partly closing, the end of a pipe or cylinder. Flange Bush/ing. A flange Fig. 1048. a. Flange 4 ]!(>> c, hold the plate about to be flanged against the block ('and prevent buckling, and as the table F is raised by the ram of the press, the plate to be flanged is pressed to the shape of block C'by the passing ever it of the ring A. Brown, Br * "Engineer," 1 xlix. 173. Flan'nel. 1. The first stage in the manufac- ture of plain cloth. 2. A class of woolen goods of various qualities an, I finish. Domett flannels have a cotton warp and wool filling. American blue flannel, for coating, is sheared and finished like cloth, but retains the lightness and pliability of the llunnel texture. French plaid is a fancy flannel ; it consists of plaids, or broken plaids and checks, dyed in the wool. See liayes' " Centennial Heport,'' v. 49-52. Flap Hold'er. (Surgical.) A delicate pre- Fig. 1055. Dr. Turnipseed's Flap-holder. hensile instrument for holding flaps of sutures in confined situations; in operations for vesico-vaginal fistula, etc. Flashed Glass. (Glass.) Also known as doubled -glass. A glass- made of several colors su- perposed ; it is worked in a different manner from plain glass. Colored glass is drawn into sticks of a certain length and annealed. A piece of this glass is heated, attached to the end of a blow-pipe, blown into a hollow ball. The ball is opened, and formed into a cup. A ball of white glass is blown by another workman and introduced into the cup. The two are blown and rubbed together while hot, to make them adhere. The two are then treated as a single piece, and finished in any ordinary way by molds or tools. Flash'ing. (Hydrnilic Engineering.) Artifi- cial assistance to navigation by ponding a river, and suddenly removing the harrier, to carry barges and rafts over shallow places in the stream. "Mech. Dirt.," p. 87b'. See also "Ban-aye.." System on the Yonne, etc., Fr. " Vienna Exposition Reports,' 1 Watson's Report, iii p. 27. Flash Light Ap'pa-ra'tus. A device for au- tomatically giving sudden flashes of light at spe- cific intervals as a signal. Flash lights are used in lighthouses as a means of varying the character of the lighting. See LIGHTHOUSE, "Mech. Diet." The menus adopted are large and small govern- ors ; the small one giving gas enough to keep the light going, and the larger one acted upon by a time- piece through the medium of electric arrangements. "Journal of Gas Lighting." Peebles .... Flash light on car 1 " Scientific American Sup.,'' 1287. "Scientific American Sup., 1 '' 979. "Mechanical Dictionary,'' p. 877. Flask Clamp. A dentist's clamp, for holding the flask in which the denture is exposed to heat in the muffle. Fig. 1056. Flat Bar Spi'ral Spring. One made by bend- ing a flat bar so that its wide face is radial to the axis of the core or mandrel on which it is wound. s, t, v, Fig. 1143, ]>. 483, " Mech. Diet " Flask Clamp. Flat Cha'sing. (Fine Art Metal-wo>kig.} mode of ornamenting sil- ver ware, producing figures by dots and lines made with a punching tool. Flat Coil. A heater coil, in steam or hot-water arrangements, the pipes of which are coiled so as to lio in a plane. Such are used against walls, for heating buildings, and on the bot- tom of evaporating pans. Flat'-foot Ap'pa-ra'- tus. (Surgical.) A curved steel sole worn inside the shoe to correct the ab- normal flatness of the sole. Flat Mir'ror. (0/>tics.) One for reflecting parallel rays; as distinguished from a condensiixj mirror, etc. Flat Rib Knit'ting Ma-chine'. A machine for making shirt cuffs, bottoms for drawers, etc. Campbell & Clute. Flat'ten-er. (Blacksmith ing.) See FLATTER. Flat'ten-ing. (Leather.) The same as shaving, except in some cases the skin after skiving is shaved across (i. e., nearly at right angles to the skiving), and then flattened by being shaved again in the same direction as the skiving. Flat'ten-ing Ov'en. (Glass.) A heated cham- ber in which split-glass cylinders are flattened for window glass. See Fig. 2014, "^/ech. Diet." The usual style of oven has flattening, cooling, and piling- up sections. The flattening stone, supported on a small truck, runs on rails into the oven. Regard, of Auxin, France, has two stoves carried on car- riages, running on rails at different elevations, so that one can be returned while the other is going, one passing under the other. Work performed : 600 cylinders in 24 hours. In another form of oven the cylinders are introduced into a compartment when they are heated, then flattened upon a stone carriage ; the carriage is pushed into a compartment at the head of the leer (oven) and from the carriage the sheet is pushed upon iron bars which run longitudinally of the leer, and lie in channels sunk in the stone floor The bars run upon rollers, and are lifted by a system of levers so as to raise the glass from the floor to move it along in the leer when another sheet is to be laid down. The sheets thus ad- vance, step by step, till they reach the cool end of the oven, the bars after each forward motion being lowered and re- turned to their original position. The oven con tains 9 sheets, which make the course in from 20 to 30 minutes. Another form of leer has a rotating stone and compart- ments. A form of flattening oven much used in France for baking colors on enameled glass consists of a leer, with compartments attached, for heating and flattening the glass. The flattening compartments contain the usual flattening stone mounted upon a carriage traveling b;;ck and forth upon rails from the heating to the flattening chamber. The Ifer contains a number of rollers mounted on cross shafts, and near enough to one another to give a sufficient resting support for the sheets of glass. These rollers receive a slow rotary motion. The cylinder being heated, flattened on the stone, run into the chamber opposite the mouth of the leer, the sheet trans- ferred to the rollers which take it gradually and continu- ously to the discharge end of the leer. Both sides have a chance to cool. See Cnlne's Report, "Paris Exposition Reports," 1878, vol. iii., p. 239. Flat'ten-ing Stone. (Glass.) A flat stone carried by a small truck running on rails, and car- rying the cut-glass cylinder; the stone is run into the flattening oven to allow the glass to flatten out. See FLATTENING OVEN. Flattening table, Laboulaye's "Die tionanj," article" Verre,*' iii., Fig. 2544, ed. 1877. Flat'ter. (Blacksmithing.) A swaging tool or fuller, a. Fig. 2124, p. 922, "Mech. Diet." Flesh'er. (Leather.) Or Fleshing Jen iff. A long, two-handled and somewhat blunt-edged knife, FLESHER. 347 FLEXIBLE WHEEL BASE. curved to fit the sloping rest of the beam. Its cross-section is concave downward. It is used to scrape off the hair, scarf-skin, loose flesh, and cel- lular tissue. Flesh'ing Knife. (Leather.) A currier's knife used iu removing cellular tissue, etc., from the hide. See FLESHER. Flesh Side. (Leather.) The side of a skin or hide next to the flesh. As opposed to grain side. Flex'i-ble Coupling. An angle joint for transmitting motion. A substitute for the yimbal. Fig. 1057. Flexible Mandrel. Clement' Mechanical Movement. The coupler arms are carried in pairs in their jaws by their hinge-jointed hubs on the pivot-pins E. The outer ends of the arms are coupled together by ball-and-socket joints. The weight preserves the balance. * "Scientific American," xxxv. 230. Flex'i-ble Man'drel. A device for bending metallic tubes regularly and quickly, without flattening. 1 1 is a stout spiral of closely laid steel wire, pref- erably flattened so as to give extended bearing surface. Being introduced into a tube, any desired curve may be made ; and by rotating the helix against its leading direction, it is made smaller, and may be withdrawn without difficulty. Flex'i-ble Pipe Coupling. A connection for pipes which allows them to be laid out of line without leaking, ;ind to expand longitudinally without impairing the joint. A tubular section with flanged ends fits in the bells of the respective pipes. Fig. 1059. flexible Pipe Coupling. Flex'i-ble Shaft. A pliable power transmit- ter. A coil of steel wire is overwound with an- other spiral in a reverse direction, this by a third, and so on. The ends of the wires are brazed, and the whole covered with a hose. Its uses are nu- merous. Thirion'g flexible coupling was shown in Paris in 1867. Fig. 106Q. Fig. 1061. Stowe Flexible Shaft. *" Engineering " xxii. 40. * "Engineering and Mining Journal " xxii. 75. * "Mining and Scientific Press " . . xxxiv. 81. * "Iron Age ' . . .' xxi., April 25, p. 1. * "Scientific American Supplement " . 816. Flex'i-ble Sole Plane. See CIRCULAR PLANE. Flex'i-ble Valve. Perreaux's valve (French) of india-rubber opens as it de- scends, by the pressure of the water beneath, but closes against a n v pressure from above. It is used for lift pumps, especially in cases where it is required to pump liquids which corrode metals. They shut quickly, are durable and retentive. The upper figure shows the form of valve, the lower one its applica- tion. It is so designed that, in addi- tion to being a bucket valve, it forms a cup to keep the bucket tight in the barrel. Similar valveg have been made in the United States for deep oil-well pumps. Flex'i-ble Wheel Base. , T) ; \ A r Perreaux^s flexible (hallway.) A system of arrang- Valve. ing car trucks, which consists in mounting the axles with their axle-boxes, guards and springs in frames separate from the main under-frame of the carriage. The end frames have central pivots, around which they swivel freely, while the middle frame is so arranged that it cnn slide transversely. The three frames are connected together by articulated radiating gear, so that they act sympathetically, and each axle assumes a posi- tion coincident with the radial lines of the curve, instead of remaining parallel to each other, as in FLEXIBLE WHEEL BASE. 348 FLOGGER. Fig. 1002. Flexible Wheel Bate. the ordinary construction, in which the wheels grind their way along the sides of the mils. The wear and tear of ties and rails is thus greatly re- duced, because the flanges of the tires are always parallel with the rails. Flint Brick. A fire-brick made of powdered silex, w ith a sufficient flux to assist it to agglutinate at practicable temperatures. Flint Glass. ( Glass. ) The use of cnlcined flints, to furnish silica for the glass, is the origin of the name. In England, a glass containing lead. Called by French and Belgians crystal. Germans call all white glass crystal, whether or not lead enters into it ; the Bohemian, for example, which has H potash and lime base; and ground quartz furnishes the silex. The equivalent of what is called in England white ijlass is here known as lime glass, and is not equal in brilliancy to flint glass, which is an Eng- lish invention, and that country produces the best specimens. 165,867 Quinn, Board float loaded at one edge : for trawl lines. | 179,490 Sunder, Net float with attaching slot. 18t!,i32 Davis, Glass floats for gill-net. 188,755 Redfield, A spiral coil of wire at each end. 2. For raising sunken vessels. A camel or cais- son. See those heads: also Fig. 4148, p. 1874, "Meek. Diet." Fig. 1617, p. 688, and list under HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING, Ibid., et infra. C:ark (f Stand field * "Scientific American Sup.," 2071. 3. A ball on a lever, floating in a cistern to ope- rate a faucet. Benton .... * "Scientific American,'' xxxiv. 310. 4. A wooden trowel, to smooth a mortar surface. 5. (Mining ) Loose rocks, or such detached from the original formation. Float'ing Board. A cast-iron plate, ribbed beneath and planed true on top, for " floating up "' tin cans; i. e., soldering the ends inside, the can standing upon the heated plate till the solder runs. Float'ing Bridge. The landing platform of a ferry-boat; so called by Fulton in his description of the Hudson River ferry, started August, 1812. See FERRY-BOAT. Hoogly, Calcutta . "Van Nostrand's Magazine," xviii. 475. "Scientific American Sup.," 1897. Float'ing Brush Dike. (Hydraulic Engi- neering.) A device to check the current of a stream and form a deposit. It is said to have originated in this way : When wood began to be scarce, and coal was substituted as a fuel, it was i necessary to cover the glass pots to keep out impurities which j colored the glass. As this diminished the heating power, it I was difficult to melt the frit, and red lead was added as a | flux. Materials usually employed : Carbonate of potash ........... 1 Ked lead ............... 2 Sand .......... . ..... 3 Oxide of manganese in small quantities acts as a corrective of color. ISoracic acid has been used, and permits of the substitu- tion of oxide of zinc for red lead, and of lime, soda, or baryta for potash. The result is a beautiful glass suitable for table-ware or optical purposes, remarkable for limpidity, whiteness, and brilliancy. Flitch Beam. A beam made in layers of ma- terial pinned together. The invention of De Lorme. "Nouvdles Inventions pour bien Bastir," 1561. The beam, specifically known as the filched beam, is shown in Fig. 313, p 139, "Mech. Diet.,''' and differs from the laminated, which is of thin and bent material, as in Figs. 312, 316, pp. 138, 139, Ibid. See also "Scientific American Supplement,' 1 '' * 2035. Flitch'ing Knife. (Fishing.) For slicing hal- ibut. etc., into steaks or flitches, in preparation for salting and smoking. Float. '(Fishiny.) 1. A ncjling line floats are of cork, quill, or light wood. Xet floats are of cork, cedar, glass globes, rubber tubing, etc. Harpoon-line floats are empty kegs, bladders, in- flated seal-skins, etc. The floats of the gill-nets of Lake Michigan are splinters of cedar, 30" X J" X 1". Glass floats are very common in Europe, having been used in Norway, Sweden, and elsewhere. Were shown in quan- tity at the Centennial in the Scandinavian department. See the following patents : No. Inventor. Subject. 86,609 Terrell, Made of hollow glass. 99,572 Ingram, A wire loop above and pin below, lock the line. 127,218 Brown et al., Vulcanized rubber with projecting ears. 128,885 Jewell, The float body has a longitudinal wire pro- longed into a spiral at each extremity. It is made by taking saplings from 20' to 30' long and from 4" to 8" diameter, and nailing or wiring to them scraggy brush of any kind. This forms what is known as the weed. Instead of the saplings rope may be used to which to fasten the brush. One end of the weed is anchored and the other supported by a buoy. Th3 weeds are placed in the river 10' to 20' apart, and check the current gradually without giving rise to the scouring action produced by a solid dike. A willow curtain acts in a similar manner See "Report U S. Engineers,'' 1880, * ii. 1452. Ibid., 1878, * ii 655, sketches Nos. 1, 2. Float'ing Dam. An anchored dam. Floating dam in the Dorran Canal, Vienna, * "Engineer,'' xli . 190. Float'ing Dock. One which is floated beneath a vessel to raise it. See "Bermuda," Plate XIX., opp. p. 884, "Meek. Diet." See also DEPOSITING DOCK, supra, and the following references : Float, Clark $ Standfield . *"Sc.Amer. Sup.,'' 352, 2070._ "Marine Engineering Neivs,'' 1878. * "Engineering,-' xxvi. 119. Paper on, Clark .... * "Engineering," xxvii. 382. Pouton, Lauria, Italy . . * "Engineer,'' xliv. 188. "Scientific Am. Sup ," 1507. Depositing, Nicolaieff, Rus. * "Engineer," xli. 293, 294. * "Engineering,"' xxi 311. * "Engineering," xxvii. 28. * "Scientific American,'" xl. 147. * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 392. Victoria Docks, Br. * " Engineer," xlv. 272, 279. Wheeden * "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxiv. 182. Float'ing Lev'er. (Railway.) A name applied to the horizontal brake-levers beneath the car-body. Float'ing Wire Dike. (Hydraulic Engineer- ing.) An open wire screen anchored at its lower edge and sustained by buoys along its upper. Its object is to arrest matters floating in the stream and by causing an obstruction obtain a deposit of sediment. "Report of U. S. Engineers,'' 1880 .... p. 1452. Flocked E-nam'el. (Glass.) Enamel orna- mentation on glass whose surface has been previ- ously dulled by grinding or acid. Flog'ger. A bung-starter. An instrument for beating the bung stave of a cask to start the bung. FLOOR ARCH. 349 FLUE. Floor Arch. An arch with a flat extrados. Floor -boring Ma-chine'. One with a large and heavy bed-plate to which the work may be dogged while the drill press is moved to position to work upon it. Floor Ce- Fig. 1063. ment'. A concrete for cellar Hoors and walks. Broken stone or gravel and sand . 4 Lime 1 Hydraulic cement . 1 Mix the ingredients dry excepting the lime. Slack the lime sepa- rately and add it to the remainder Work thor- oughly and MS dry as Floor Cramp. possible. A p p 1 y a thickness of 6". When set add a coating of cement 1, sand 2. Fig. 1064. Floor Hanger. Floor Cramp. A device for closing up the joints of flooring boiirds previous to nailing. Fig. KK>3. " Crown,'' "Engineer," xlv. 417. Floor Fend'er. A knob fastened to a floor, to receive the im- pact of an opening door and thus protect the wall of the room. Floor Hang'er. A shaft bearing fas- tened to the floor. Used for running countershafts and lines when it is not convenient to suspend them from ^i&- 1065. the ceiling joists. Flooring Tile. Ceramic ware for paving. See TILE. Floor Light. A frame with glass panes in a floor. Flour Bolt. Fig. 1005 shows an Austrian arrange- ment for bolting meal. Each of the various cylinders makes a simple di- vision of its con- tents and the ulti- ni ite division of the numerous grades is made by successive actions : Each cyl- inder rotates in a tight chamber, and has beaters inside to expedite the pas- sage through the cloth of the finer particles. It is par t ic ularly in- tended for roller mills in which the work of grinding Hole's Bolting Chests. (Vienna.) is by numerous suc- cessive actions, each detaching portions of flour from the material under treatment. See CYLINDER MILL, p. 243, supea, and HIGH MILLING, infra. Fig. 1066 represents a form of flour-bolting chest made by Ruston, Proctor, & Co. (Br.) The cylinder is of hard wood, covered with wire gauze of varying fineness. The shaft has horse-hair brushes ; the feed is automatic, and the issues for the various grades of fineness discharge into separate sacks. Fig. 1066. English Flour Bolt. The numerous successive process methods, and in the have much increased the us See the following : Alger Rathbun Shulllfworth Sf Morse . . Chest, Smith " Troy," Campbell If Sitisher Dresser, " Victor " . . . Martin, Austria . . . " Victor'' Sifter, Thomas . . . . boltings in the high-milling new roller and cylinder mill processes es of the bolt. ' Scientific, Amer.," 1 xxxv. 306. 'American Miller," v 124. 'American Miller," viii. 39. ' Scientific Amer. ," xxxiv. 166. ' American Miller," iv. 62. 'Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2754. 'Engineer,'- xlvi. 105. 'Engineer,*' xlvi. 434. 'Scientific Amer.,''' xlii. 50. Flour Core. A dry-sand core in which flour has been used for the purpose of increasing the ad- hesiveness and strength of the sand when dried. Flour Mill. See the following references : Detwiler Oliver Evans Haxall, Richmond, Va. Large, Minneapolis . . '' Washburn, A." . . Portable, Munson . * "American Miller," vi. 101. . * "American Miller," 1 vii. 1. * "American Miller," viii. 114. . * "Scientific Am. up.,'' 1731. . * "Scientific Amer.,'' xli. 291. . * "Scientific Am. Sup.," 1 3913. . * "American Miller," vi 209. Mills in U.S * "Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' 589. Roller mill * "Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' 617. See also GRINDING MILL, ROLLER MILL, CYLINDER MILL, and list under MILL. Flour Fack'er. A machine for barreling flour. A flour-chest and spout are made in accordance with the size of barrel to be packed by the machine. The horizontal shnft communicates motion by mi- ter-wheels to the vertical shaft and auger which presses the flour into the barrel, the tube receding as the barrel fills. The machine is started by a simple movement of a lever, and stops automatically when the barrel is filled. By change of auger and spout ic is adapted for any of the usual sizes of pnckajres. A cut-off valve holds the flour in the bin when changing sizes. See Fig. 1067. Flow'ing Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) Or per- fluent battery. One in which the battery is kept constant by "the flowing of the exciting liquid through the cell or cells. See PERFLUENT BAT- TERY. Flue. A duct for heated products of combus- FLUE. 350 FLUTED GLASS. Fig. 1067. Flour Packer. tion ; a chimney. Fig. 1068 shows Fox's flue (Br.), in which the metal receives greater strength by corrugations. Fig. 1068. Corrugated Boiler Flue. Flume. A long artificial channel or chute for conveying logs or lumber from an elevated situa- tion to distant mill or works. A chute for conveying water for use in hydraulic or placer mining. "Cherokee" gravel mines *"Min. $ <%. Prrs*," xxxv. 313. Lumber . .... * "Min. $ ST.. Press,'' xxxiv. 161. California * "Se. Am. Sup.," 1840 * 1509. Smartsville Cal * "Mech. Dictionary,' p. 891. Flume Car. A car to travel in a flume ; wheels rest on the sides of the flume, and the water runs a paddle wheel. " Engineering and Mining Journal " .... xxi. 223. Flue Cut'ter. A tool for cutting out a faulty flue or tube, to be replaced by a perfect one. Fig. 1069 shows a section of boiler with flue cutter in po- sition for use, and the same in detail. The mandrel and tool carrier A is inserted in the flue to be cut off, and held in position by the clamps B B. The shaft is attached by means of the hand-piece F, which is also the means of start- ing and stopping the cutter when in use. The cutters D are forced out against and through the flue as it is cut, by means of the feed-screw E. Fig. 1069. Flue Culler. Flush Box. A cistern for especial use in dwellings where the supply of water is intermittent. The action of Morris's waste preventive flush box is follows : Fig. 1070. Waste Preventive Flush Box. When the lever is pulled, it first closes the communication between the large cistern and the Hush box, and then opens the outlet or discharge-valve, and is so arranged that in no case can the valve communicating with the large cistern and the discharge-valve be open or partially open at one and the same time ; so that no more than the contents of the flushing- box (about 2 gallons) can by any possibility be used at one operation. Flush Deck Pump. One the upper surface of which is even with the deck, the chamber de- pending beneath. It has a hinged Fig. 1071. cover and the plunger is removable. Fig. 1072. Flush Deck Pump. Flush Tank. Flush Tank. Field's flush tank is a cistern with a siphon which latter comes into action when- ever the liquid attains a certain height in the cis- tern. It is adapted for the automatic periodical emptying of the cistern. May be useful apparatus in the periodical flushing of drains. ' Manufacturer and Builder '' . * x. 280 ; * xi. 187. Flu'ted Glass. (Glass.) A mode of treating glass to render it a perfect transmitter of light but prevent observation throngh it. Used in partitions, doors, and windows. It is much used in Europe, and has semi-circular Outings pressed into it. FLUTED GLASS. 351 FLYING SOUNDER. It is made by blowing a pear-shaped piece which is then introduced into a brass mold having a number of deeply channeled flutings inside. The glass is now blown, as usual in cylinder blowing, and retains the imprints of the flutings. It is finished in the usual manner, care being taken not to rotate the peaty, as that would distort the flutings The cylinder in expanding and lengthening reduces the depths of the flutes, but the flutings in the mold are sufficiently exag- gerated to meet the flattening of the subsequent operation. Flu'ted Tap. A tap for making screw Longitudinal grooves in the sides, F - 10 constitute the thread cutting edges. See Fig. 6211, p. 2495, "JAr//. Dirt." Flu'ting Iron. A laundry iron for fluting clothes. There are many form*. See Fins. 2044, 2046, pp. 893, 894, " Mec/i. Diet." The d a in p cloth is pressed be- tween the two sur- faces of the heated Fluting Iron. iron. Flutes may be nickel- plated. holes. Fluter, Knnx * "Iron Age," xviii., Sept. 21, p. 19. Flu'ting Ma-chint . One for grooving balus- ters, table-legs, etc. The stick is placed on centers Fig. 1074. fluting Machine. as in a lathe and passed beneath the circular cutter which is mounted on a mandrel and rotated by band-pulley. See also FLUTING LATHE, Fig. 2045, p. 894, "Mech. Diet:' Flu'ting Scis'sors. An instrument for fluting linen, etc. One member is hollow to hold a heated iron rod. Fly. (Add.) 13. The fore flap of a Flutmg Scissors. bootee. A strip of leather which overwraps the front vamp and receives the strings or other fasten- ing. Fly Hook. (Fishing.) One arranged with an artificial fly. Fly'ing Ma-chine'. See references : Machine "Scientific American Sup.,'- 1838. Man, Ignazio, Italy . * " Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 232. Machine, Ritchell . . "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxviii. 405. * "Manufacturer Sf Builder j' x. 166 Simonds . . . . "Scientific American Sup.,-' 96. Fly'ing Sound'er. A name applied to Sir William Thomson's deep-sea sounding apparatus. It consists of a glass tube lashed to a length of line above the sinker and connected to a line of piano- Fig. 107 forte wire wound upon a reel from which it is payed out when sounding. By worm on the reel shaft, actuating gearing on a counter, the length of line payed out is shown, but the principal determination, of depth is, after the tube has been hauled on board again, by means of the observed condensation of air in the tube when compared with a scale graduated to fathoms according to the known law of compres- sion of air at given depths. The interior of the glass tube is lined with a preparation upon which the entering sea-water or a liquid contained in the enveloping metallic tube acted upon by the sea- wafer shall mark the distance that liquid has been forced into the glass tube, which may be said to con- stitute a pressure-gage. The intention is to measure the depth of water below the ship at any time without reducing her speed, but it is equally well adapted for taking soundings when ly- ing to. As a matter of observation, in sounding from a steamer running at 14 knots in water of 70 fathoms depth, the sinker has been found to draw about 195 fathoms of wire off the reel and to take about 40 seconds of time to reach bottom. The counter driven by the wheel indicates the length of line payed out when bottom is reached and the depth may be instantly de- clared, if there has been sufficient experi- ence in similar circumstances of apparatus, speed of ship, currents and weather, but the observation of the gage tube when brought on board again after sounding af- fords the more definite determination. The glass tube, Fig. 1076, is of sufficiently small bore to obviate the splashing of water within it during sounding. It is guarded by an outer metallic tube, o, which is attached by a length of hempen line to the wire. The lining of the tube is chromate of silver mixed with gum to enable it to adhere to the tube, and the mark is made by the chem- ical action of the sea-water which is forced out of the sheath into the tube as the appa- ratus descends. The action is to induce a double decomposition. The chlorine leaves the sodium of the common salt and com- bines with the silver, while the chromic acid and oxygen leave the silver and com- bine with the sodium. The chloride of sil- ver, white and insoluble, remains on the glass in place of- the yellow chromate. The tube o, shown with its case o, and the graduated comparing stick in Fig. 1076, is closed at the upper end and open at the other (x), and slips within a metallic case o, the lower end resting upon a piece of vul- canite, r, to prevent shocks on reaching the bottom. The upper endp is removed for the introduction of the tube and then closed, the openings q allowing sea-w^ter to enter as the apparatus descends. The Thomson's Deep lower end of the case o has a screw plug re- flea Sounding movable for purpose of cleaning. Tube. Figs. 1077, 1078 show the apparatus in side and end elevations. On the bed A are the standards C L which hold the reel B and the brake-drum K respectively. The reel is rotated by handles D, and on its axis is a worm, F, which actuates gear- ing a b h i, to revolve index fingers ff on the dials II to indi- cate amount of wire payed off. H is a brake rope which takes a turn round the drum G and is fastened at its respective ends to the brake-weeel K , and the pivoted weight I. N is a weight which exercises, in the position shown at x, a retarding force of 6 ot 8 pounds on the drum, but which, when elevated, allows the brake rope to slacken so that the wire can be readily wound back on the reel after a sounding is had. n n show the position of the sounding lead and n' its arm- ing. When it is desired to obviate the necessity of previous chemical or other preparation of the tube, a pressure-tube is used, open at each end and provided with valves, one at the lower end, to let sea-water enter when the sinker is going down, the other at the upper end to let air escape when it is drawn up, each of these valves remaining closed except when urged in its opening direction by a small definite amount of force. Using this apparatus, the White Star steamer " Britannic " now takes soundings regularly, running at 16 knots over the Banks of Newfoundland and in the English and Irish Chan- nels, in depths sometimes as much as 130 fathoms. rTI FLYING SOUNDER. 352 FOG TRUMPET. Fig. 1077. Fi , - 9 S<> William Thomson's Flying Sounder. (Side E'ei-ation.) The steel wire weighs about li pounds per 100 fathom? and bears when new from 230 to 240 pounds without break- ing. Its circumference is 0.03 inch. See address of Sir William Thomson, Royal Society, Feb- ruary 4, 1878. See also SOUJ.DING APPARATUS. Fig. 1078. Sir William Thomson's Flying Sounder. (End Elevation.) Fod'der Cut'ter. A machine for cutting corn stalks for feed. See ENSILAGE CUTTER; CHAFF CUTTER; STRAW CUTTER. Fod'der Mill. 1. A mill for coarse grinding of graiu for feeding stock. 2. A mill for grinding corn fodder, to render it more easy to feed in mangers, and more readily mixed with bran, or other enriching matter. A substitute for a fodder cutter. "Manufacturer and Builder," * xi. 70. Fog Bell. The fog bell of Zaf- farini, of Ferrari), Italy, is rung bv a rocking air-tight float, which car- ries a pair of erect hammers with pliable stems. See illustrations, p. 898, "Mtch. Diet." Fog Gun. A signal gun, fired as a warning to mariners during foggy weather. Explosive gas is sometimes used. See GAS GUN. Major Elliott's ac- count of the fog sig- 11 si 1 experiments at Dover, England, U found in his lleport U. S. Engineers, "European Lixlit- hou>e Systems.-' Referred to in " Van Fax t-ixmit. JVos/rand's Magazine,'' xiv., pp. 109-111. \Vigham "Technologiste," xxxix 3C9. Fog Sig'nal. Nearly allied to the gun is the fog signal, made by the discharge of a ball of com- pressed gun cotton in the focus of a parabolic re- flector. See FOG BELL ; FOG GUN ; FOG TRUAIPET, etc , "Mech. Diet." et infra, and the following references : Acoustic signals * "Engineer,"' xli. 37, 46. *"Sc.Am. >'.," 183, 184. Automatic, floating . . . . * "Sc. An/er.,'' xxxvii. 118. Horn, Barker * "Engineer," xlix. 411. Horns, guns, whistles, etc. . * "Engineer,"' xli. 46. Compressed air, Sautter, Lemonnier Sf Co., Fr. * "Engineering."' xxx. 366. Fog signals, paper by Wigham * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 2398. Whistle, Leighlon . . . . * "Sc. Amer ," xlii. 1. Fog Trum'pet. The siren is a stiam trum- pet. See Fig. 5114, p. 2191, " Mech. Diet." The sound is caused by the passage of steam at 70 Ib. to the square inch through the openings made by the revolution of one cli>k with radial slits cut in it in front of a similar disk fixed in the trumpet. The most effective rate of rotation is ! from 2400 to 2800 revolutions per minute. The trumpet is of cast-iron. Fig. 1080 shows Brown's siren fog signal, the trumpet, valve, and rotating mechanism being mounted on a semi-portable steam boiler. Steam is generated in A and passes to the valve B, which is a perforated disk mounted on an axis and rapidly rotated by a belt from the engine-wheel D, in apposition to a sta- tionary disk similarly perforated, so that the steam passes when the holes come in correspondence, and thus causes a series of puffs. The degree depends on the pressure, the pitch on the rapidity of the succession of the puffs, the dura- tion upon the time the throttle is left open, the quality upon questions relating to the material of the trumpet, shape of opening, etc. The fog trumpet of Amadi, of Trieste, was exhibited at Vienna in 1873. It consists of a trumpet, formerly operated by compressed air, but now directly by steam ; is provided with an automatic distributing steam- valve, and with a special valve, with fin- ger-board, to produce sounds of varying pitch. This trumpet, set up on Point Salvore, Istria, is operated by an 8-horse power steam boiler, at 25 Ibs. pressure ; can produce 30 blasts in 30 seconds, and is audible at 15 nautical miles distance in clear weather. Report of Major George H. Elliott, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. Van Nostrand. See also " Van Nostrand'.i Magazine," xiv. 105. The ordinary fog-horn is a brass trumpet 8' 6" long, 3" di- ameter at the mouthpiece, and about 23" at the mouth. It FOG TRUMPET. 353 FOOT WARMER HEATER; Urown'f Siren Fog Signal. h-is a steel reed, 10J" 3" wide, \ thick, which is adjusted to suit the fundamental note of the trumpet, and made to vi- brate by air at 18 Ib. pressure. Fog Whis'tle. For data on fog whistles and fog horns see "A Summary on Researches in Sound by Professor Henry during 1865-1867," "Smithsim- ian Report," 1879, and "lUfech. Diet.," p. 898. Leighton's whistle, shown partly in section in Fig. 1081, is intended to ree'uforce the sound of a steam whistle. It con- Fig. 1081. Fig. 1080. of receiving the most various colors and forms, will have many uses in decorative art. i'rof. Litlegg. See DAMASKING METALS, p. 245, fupra. Fold'er. (Sheet Metal Working.) A machine for turning locks or tapping edge s of cans. Being adjustable, it will turn narrow or wide locks, or round edges for wiring. Fold'ing Boat. See list under Boat, p. 114, supra, and Fig. 2057, p. 899, "Mech. Diet." Fold'ing M a - c h i 11 e'. (Sheet Metal Working.) A ma- chine for folding the edges of blanks preparatory to seaming. Generally called a double-edging machine. (Printing.) A folder attached to a perfecting printing ma- chine. (Bookbinding.) A machine for folding sheets, signatures, or quires. Quire, Richmond, Br. * "Engineer," 1. 314. Folding and perforating, Lawrence, Br. * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 2096. * "Iron," 1878. Fold'ing Net. (Fishing ) One made to shut together to inclose the prey. A purse et is a variety. Food Car. One used in a hospital or asylum to convey rations or food to the wards. Foot Ap'pa-ra'tus, (Surgical.) Includes: Whistle. sists of a fog-horn containing a stoam whistle, behind which there is an adjustable resonance chamber. The whistle has straight parallel sides and straight orifices. Foil Car'ri-er and Plug'ger. A species of pliers for grasping foil or "other filling and with curved ends which, when brought into apposition, form a plugging tool. Foil, Va'ri-e-ga'ted. Japanese: Thirty or forty thin plates of gold, silver, cop- pi 1 ]-, and various alloys, are laid one over the other in a given order, and soldered together at tlie edges, so that the whole forms a stout plate of metal Punches of various shapes, conical, pyramidal, with triangular, square, or pentagonal sides, are now used to make a pattern of perforated figures, which exhibit on their inner sides concentric circles, trian- gles, and other forms, corresponding to the punches used. The plate so prepared is hammered and rolled until it has become quite thin, the holes disappear, and the figures have spread out, preserving, however, their parallelism. A num- ber of broken, straight, and curved lines are thus produced, which, as in a Damascus blade, are free of each other, though consistent in themselves in the same metal, their ef- fect being further enriched by the use of acids to modify the colors. It will easily be understood that thin plates pre- pared in this way, having an extremely flexible nature, ad- mitting relief, with stamped or engraved designs, and capable 23 Apparatus for eversion. For club-foot(talipes). Apparatus for flat feet. Splints, bandages, and slings, for fractured or luxated parts. Artificial feet. Support for weak ankles. For short leg. Contracted tendo achillis. For over-riding toes, for bunions, etc. Foot power, Lane . . . Foot drill, Pratt (f Whitney Foot lathe, Cornell Vnie. Shepherd , Fig. 1082. Foot Pow'er. The baromotor of Gaston Bo- zcrain, of Pan's, is a combined treadle and hand- lever motor. Shown at the Paris Exposition, 1878. "Man. (f Builder," ix. 280. ".v. Am.," xxxvii. 242. "Sc. Am.." xxxix 294, 370. "Iron Age," xviii., July 6, 1. "Engineering," xxv. 240 "Iron Age," xx., Aug. 2,28. Foot Vise. A device used in the smaller op- erations of black- smithing; making calks on horse- shoes, heading bolts, etc. Foot Wall. (Mining.) The layer of rock im- mediately under the vein. Foot Warm'er Heat'er. Appa- ratus for warming the contents of the foot-pans which are used in the railway cars of Continental Europe to warm the feet of the pas- sengers. In the ap- paratus on the Par- is, Lyons, and Mediterranean Railway the injec- tion of steam has foot Vise. FOOT WARMER HEATER. 354 FORGE. and refilling with hot substituted the emptying water. The apparatus at a station will heat 240 foot-warmers per hour to a temperature of 185 Fah. Paris, Lyonf, if Med. Ky. . * "Engineering,"' xxvii. 111. * " Scientific A iner. Hup., V 2794. Verloop, Ger * "Engineering,-' xxx. 208. W. By. of France .... * "Engineering,'' xxviii. i25. For'age Cut'ter. A chaff cutter. See ENSI- LAGE CUTTER; STRAW CUTTER, "Mech. Diet." Russian military ration of forge : Biscuits of oatmeal, pea flour, rye meal, ground linseed ; 28 small biscuits a ration. The nutriment equal to LJ IDS. oats, at one-fifth the bulk. For'age Press. See BALING PRESS, Fig. 184, p. 69, supra. Force. The upper die in a stamping machine. In zinc stamping the workman has various irregu- lar shapes to manage. See description in " Iron Age," xxiii., March 6, p. 27. For'ceps. (Surgical.) A grasping tool, having two parts hinged scissors-fashion. The names are generally descriptive of the purpose, or of the part to which they appertain. The list following is de- rived from " Tiemann's Armani. Chirurgicum." See also list on p. 903, "Mec/t. Diet." The larger num- ber of the instruments here cited are to be found under their alphabetical captions in this volume or in the "Mechanical Dictionary." List of surgical forceps : Alligator. Arrow extracting Artery. Bone-cutting. Bone-holding. Bull-dog. Bullet. Canulated. Caustic. Cilia. Clamp. Conjunctiva Craniotomy. Curvilinear. Dental. Depilating. Dilating. Dissecting. Dressing. Ear. Embryotomy. Entropium. Epiglottis. Epilating Extirpation. Eye. Eyelet. Fenestrated. 1'ixation. Gouge. Gullet. Hare lip. Hemorrhoidal Iris. Laryngeal. Lens. Ligating. Lithotomy. Luxation. Microscopic. Midwifery. Nail extracting. Nasal. Necrosis. Needle holding. Obstetrical. Phymosis. Pile. Placenta. Pol}- pus. Punching. Kongeur. Root. Sac. Saw. Seizing. Self-holding. Sequestrum. Slide catch. Spring catch. Spicula. Splitting. Sponge. Strabismus. Tenaculum. Throat Tissue. Tongue. Tooth. Torsion. Tracheal. Trepanning. Trichiasis. Twisting. Urethral. Uterine. Vulsellum. AVire cutting. Wire twisting. Wisdom tooth. Tig. 1083. Fore Car'riage. The frame and pair of wheels on which the front end of the beam rests in many forms of European plows. Fore'-end. (Firearm.) The wooden piece under the Imrrel forward of the guard. Fore'-hearth. (Metallurgy.} The forward extension of the hearth of the hlnst-furnace ; it is closed by the dam. Fig. 704, p. 293, "Mech. Diet." Forelock. (Nautical.) The wedge passing through a mortise in the shackle of an anchor. Forge. (Metallurgy.) a. A form of furnace Fore Carriage. for obtaining iron by direct process from the ore. See BLOMARY ; DI- RECT IRON PRO- Fi - 1085 - CESS ; IRON PRO- CESS ; HEARTH, etc. Fig. 1084. Portable Forge. Portable Forge. b. A blacksmith's fire-place. Figs. 1084, 1085 show English forms of portable forges. Many other forms are noticed under BLOWER; JEWELERS' FORGE ; LABORATORY FORGE, etc. Buffalo Forge . . . . Patterson Thwaites If Carbutt, Br. Hammer, Longworth, Br. Rowlings Tangye, Br Alker '. 'Iron Age,' 1 ' 1 xxii., Dec. 5, p. 19. ' Scientific Amer. " xxxviii. 3'A, 'Man. S( Builder," 1 x. 57. 'Engineering,' 1 '' xxvi. 35. 'Engineer," xliv. 4. 'Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' 1363. 'Engineer,'' xlii. 378. 'Scientific American," xl. 166. Forging Machine. FORGING MACHINE. 355 FOUR SPINDLE DRILL. For'ging Ma-chine'. Masey's forging ma chine (Hr. ) is intended for a class of forgiugs, such as spindles, bolts, studs, rollers, pins, files, and a great variety of other articles in common use. It has four pairs of blocks or hammers, 3y diameter. The lower blocks can be set up or down while the machine is running. The eccentric shaft **S- 1087. is steel, running in very large white -metal '" "'"" bearings. The machine can be worked from both sides, so that two or more men can use it at the same time. Speed, 7oO revolutions per minute. Weight 7,000 Ibs. Power required to drive, about one horse. Floor space required, 4' 3" by 3' 9". Height over all, 6' 6". See STEEL PRESS, Fig. 5747, p. 2369, "Meek. DictS' Also, paper on the ' Systdme Haswetl," 1 at Vienna, by Butler, of Leeds, England. De- bate by Paget, Sir Joseph VVhitworth, and others. "Scientific American Sup.," 1 712. Fork'ing Spade. A bifurcated dig- ging tool. The tool with several tines is a digging fork. Forin'ing Iron. Fig. 1088. (Forging.) A spe- cies of swage block, used by the black- smith in rounding rods. The grooves of various radii to forming Iron. suit different requirements. Form'ing Ma-chine'. 1. (Sheet Metal Working.) A machine for bend- ing tin plate to circular form. The di- ameter of the circularly bent plate depends upon the relative proximity of the three rollers be- Fig. 1089. 'tween which the plate passes. See also STAMPING PRESS, Figs. 5643-5545, pp. 2304, 2305, "Meek. Diet." 2. The forming ma- chine, Fig. 1039, is adapted for felt, buck- ram, straw, tin, and what not. See also HAT-FORMING MACHINE. 3. A machine for laying up strands into rope, Fig. 1090. It is on the same principle as Fig. 4442, p. 1981, Forming Machine. "Mec/i. Diet." For'no-con-ver'tis-seur. A French name, familiar to English speaking metallurgists as the title of the Ponsard furnace for the manufacture of steel. Fig. 1090. Forking Spade. See article by J. Sylvain Pe'risse', member of the national jury in Paris, 1878, published in the "Journal of the British. Iron and Steel Institute,'' 1 and reproduced in "Fore Nos- trann^s Engineering Magazine," 1 xxi. 252. See also PONSARD FURNACE. The Ponsard furnace, like the Siemens-Martin and others, whether applied to metallurgic or other purposes, is a gas geuerat:ng furnace and has a peculiar regenerator. See GAS GENERATING FURNACE; Siemens', Figs. 1159, 1160, and Pon- sard's, Figs. 1161, 1162, pp. 386, 387, infra, both of them as applied to gas works. Forty'five De'gree El'bow. A pipe coupling equal to bend. See BEND. Foun'dry Fur'nace. System of Piat, Paris -. Reverberating and blast furnaces. The furnace of sheet-iron containing the crucible is on trunnions, or can be unshipped and moved by crane or by hand to the flask. See CRUCIBLE FURNACE. * "Scientific American Supplement ' 2857. Foun'dry La' die. One for carrying molten metal from the cupola to the flnsks. See LADLE ; SHANKS, "Mech. Diet." et infra. Aikin 4" Drummond's mounted ladle is supported on two wheels at a point on the shank, which enables a stout boy to counterpoise and push it, holding by the crotches. Pintsch's ladle, Fuerstenwalde, Prussia, is of wrought iron, and the iron flows from a partitioned channel riveted along the side of the kettle. and opening into the same near the bottom. This excludes floating dross. Fig. 1091. French foundry ladle, Lnbou- laye's "Dictionnaire," ii., Figs. 930, 931, 947, article " Fonderie de fer." Foun'tain Pen. One carrying a supply of i n k, fed gradually to the point of the instrument. The pens shown in Fig. 1091 have abandoned any attempt at graceful writing, being merely hollow handles with tubular points. A fine needle inside governs the flow of the ink in the Stylographic pen, the two figures on the right. In the McKinnon pen, the tubu- lar point is fine, and yields < ink when pressure is applied. Foun'tain Pump. A gar- den or syringing pump, for watering flowers, or applying wet poisons to the cotton worm, etc. Oomstock's " Report upon Cotton Insects," 1879,* p. 239, and Fig. 51. -* See also SPRAYING MACHINE ; Fountain Pens. SPRINKLER ; INSECT DESTROYER, infra. Four-cyl'in-der En'gine. See the follow- ing : Brown, Winterthur . . * "Engineering." xxi. 126. 177. Vosper, Br ..... * "Engineering," xxvii. 569. Compound, Watts, Br. * "Engineering," xxvi. 118. Four-high Mill. A rolling mill with four rollers in tier. "Iron Aye," xxii., Dec. 5, p. 3. Four Screw Chuck. A lathe chuck in which the object is cen- tered by the use of four screws quadrantically disposed. See DRILL CHUCK, p. 276, supra. Four Spindle Brill. A gang drill with four spindles. Rope-forming Machine. Pratt $ Whitney, Thurston's Vienna Report," ii. 224. FOUR STRANDED SPLICE. 356 FRESNEL LENS. Four-strand'ed Splice. (Nantical.) A splice made in a four-stranded rope, or four cant rope. Four Valve Spec'u-lum. A urethral, or other, speculum which has four expanding fingers as in several of the instances, Fig. 5360, p. 2260, "Mech. Diet." Certain speculi are always referred to under their specific names, as otoscope, rhinoscope, etc. See list under SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS and SCOPE, p. 2056, " Mech. Diet." Four'-way Cock. 1. (Railway.) A faucet J7i the air-brake arrangement with two passages in it, and used for opening and closing communication between the brake cylinder reservoir, brake pipe, and triple-valve. See TRIPLE- VALVE. 2. A bath tub cock with index, " Hot," " Cold," " Waste," " Shut." Frac'ture Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) The li>t includes splints, bandages, swings, extension apparatus, bedsteads, etc. The distinctions are also drawn from the part affected. See SPLINT, EX- TENSION APPARATUS, COUNTER EXTENSION AP- PARATUS, etc., in "Mech. Diet." See list under SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS, pp. 2459-2461, "Mech. Diet." The following references are to Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum,'' Part IV. Femur Figs. 102, 103, 105-111. Fracture bed ... Figs. 104, 158, 159, 168, 169 Patella Figs. 112-118. Lower leg .... Figs. 119-121. Lower maxillary . . Fig. 122. Clavicle Figs. 123-127. Lower arm Fig. 128. Suspending apparatus Figs. 102, 103. 120, 130, 140, 154, 156, 167, 1(4. Frame Clamp. A device for putting picture Fig. 1092. and looking-glass frames together. To a single lever A mov- ing over a rack D, four stretchers are connected each to one of the corner clamps C so as to draw them equally. The clamps C are adjustable on the stretchers, as seen in the detached view, according to the size of the frame. Frame Drilling Ma-chine'. A ma- chine, Fig. 1 093, with several self-act- ing drilling h.ead stocks for operating on different parts of a locomotive frame Frame Clamp. at the same time. Whitwarth. Frameless Spec'ta-cles. Those in which the nose-piece and temples are attached directly to the lenses ; bows being dispensed with. Frame Pla'ning Ma-chine'. A machine with independent self-acting cross slides and tools, for planinsr different parts of a locomotive frame at the same time. Frame Slot'ting Ma-chine'. A machine for working on locomotive frames, having several self- acting head-stocks capable of being independently operated. Franklin Spec'ta-cles. The lens in ench bow is divided on its major axis ; the upper section for far, and the lower for near observation ; for distance and for reading. Freezing Ap'pa-ra'tus. (SwyicnL) See ATOMIZEK; SPRAY APPARATUS, etc., Fig. 181, p. Frame Drilling Machine. 93, "Mech. Diet.," and Fig. 128, p. 55, supra. See also ICE. Freezing mixtures, "Mechanical Dictionary," p. 1167. "Scientific American Supplement," 142D. Freight Car. One for carrying freight, as dis- tinct from passenger, express, mail, etc., cars, on the Fig. 1094. Box Freight Car. one hand, and gravel, coal, and construction cars on the other. Fig. 1094 shows a box freight car with frame made of tubular iron. See the following references Light Iron Metallic N. Y. Central Lake Shore and Mich. S. . * Standard box, N. Y. C. . . * Freight stock car, Chalender * Hoist and conveyor . . . * "Se. American Sup.,'' 847.* " Iron Age,'' xxiii., Feb. 20, 7. "Iron Aye" xxi., Jan. 24, p. 7 ; May 14, p. 7. "Engineering,-' xxi. 444. 'SV. American Sup.,'' 285. "Railroad Gazette," xxii. 610. ' liailroad Gazette,'' 1 viii. 119. 'Railroad Gazette," xxii. 261. 'Iron Age," xvii., March 16,1. Freight Truck. A hand-truck, for moving heavy packages, known as a freight tarrow-truck or freight woe/on -truck according to whether it has 2 or 4 wheels respectively. Fresh'et Sig'nal. An apparatus to give an alarm upon the occurrence of a rapid rise in a stream. Gros's freshet signal apparatus, used in the Lot. Aveyron, France, indicates auto- matically, by electrical means, any vari- ations in level from a higher to a lower point. A float at the higher point com- municates its upward and downward move- ment, by means of a batteiy and wire, to a needle pointing on a graduated scale. When the rise is such that, there is danger, a bell is rounded which sets in action a number of bells in the houses of inhabit- ants along the banks and warns them of the coming flood. Fres-nel' Lamp. One with a cylindrical lens formed of prismatic zones above the equatorial region. Fresnel Lamp. Fres-nel' Lens. (Optics.) A lens consisting of a central portion of spherical sec- FRESNEL LENS. 357 FKICTION MACHINE. Fig. 1096. Fresnel Lens. tion and surrounding rings, so adapted as to direct the rays practically parallel, and preveut their loss by radiation in useless directions. The Fresnel is the third in the series of the great improvements which are now universally adopted in light- houses, using the dioptric system. These three inventions are French, and are the Argand burner (1774), the mechanical lamp (Carcel), and the Fresnel lens (1810). The light is in the focal center of a series of lenses, which assume what may be roughly called a barrel-shape, around the burner. The equatorial portion of the series is a sort of cylindrical hoop, the vertical section of the band of glass showing such lines that the rays passing through it are diverted to a horizontal plane ; the rays striking above or below the central zone are intercepted by rings of prismatic section, and are so refracted as to assume a direction parallel to those proceeding from the equato- rial region of the glass envelope surrounding the burner. See DI- OPTRIC LIGHT, Fig. 1657, p. 704, "Aleck. Diet." Fret Saw. A jig or band saw, for bargeboard, bracket, and Sor- rento work. MrChrsney, Br. * "Engineer '' xliii. 55. *" Manufacturer if Atifcfer," xi. 220. Rogers. * "Engineer,'' 1 xlvi. 14 Fric'tion Brake. 1. t Clutch.. Proni/'s brake. A form of dynamometer. Fig. 2102, p. 915, ' Mech. Diet." Richards "Iron Age,'' xx., Aug. 30, p. 11. 2. A measurer of the lubricity of oils. See FRICTION METER, OIL TESTER. Fric'tion Clutch. A device by which a pullev is made fast to a shaft so as to partake of the mo- tion of the latter ; or one shaft made to partake of the motion of another Fig. 1097 shows Friable g clutch, which fastens by the hub. The cone is moved by the shipper expanding the lev- ers and so locking the parts together that the frictional adherence ig equal to the duty of transmitting the motion of one part to the other. Mason's clutch, Fig 1098, operates by expanding the Fiiction C\a ck. friction segments against the inner rim of the wheel : a longitudinal sliding movement of the sleeve towards the pulley effects this ; and fice versa. A Belgian friction clutch operates by contact of two disks with interlocking face grooves. See the following : Arldyman * " Engineer," xlix. 268. Am. Clutch Co * "Iron Age" xvii., June 8, p. 5. Coupling, Bags'iaw, Br. . * "Engineering," xxx. 100. Belgian * " $c. American,'' xxxvi. 147. PJierer,Rr * " Engine ring," xxvii. 243. Drum, MM iid y . . . .* "Scientific Amer.." xxxvi. 338. Pulley, Bean * "Eng. if Min. Jour.," xxi. 250. Brown . . . . "Merit. Dirt.,'' Fig 2103, p. 916 : Fig. 1351, p. 578. * "American Miller," viii. 225. 1099. Fric'tion Drum Hoist. A hoisting engine operated by friction from a constantly moving shaft. Fig. 1099 shows Mundy's friction drum hoisting machine, used for pile drivers and der- ricks. It is a portable engine and hoist, but the drum can be locked to or freed from the shaft by means of a lever. Thus, the weight may be lifted and the drum then sud- denly freed, allowing the weight to fall instantly ; or, by partially freeing the drum the load may be lowered gradually. Fric'tion Gear'ing. A power transmit- ting device which de- Friction Drum Hoist. peuds upon the frictional adherence of the allied parts. In Van Haagen's, the wheels have Fig. 1100. square grooves in their peripheries which interlock so as to form inti- mate bearing surfaces. See also Fig. 1601, p. 680, "Mech. Diet.," where friction gear is shown as working the feed of a sawmill. French * Art. "Engrenage," La/ioiifm/f's "Diet." iv., Figs. a526, 3527. Round belt in multi- grooved pulleys * "Neii'ton's Jour- nal, -157, N. S., vi. 163. Paper by Wicklin. * Cooper's "Belt- ing." 288. Friction Gearing. Pump driver, Hind, Br * "Engineering,'' xxii. 118. Gear * "Engineering," xxiii. 147. Fric'tion Heat'er. A device for obtaining heat from friction. A cylinder of water has an iron end plate, against which revolves a disk, and the friction of the two generates heat, which is communicated to the water. The latter is con- ducted in any usual way to different parts of the house. Prof. Wills. Fric'tion Ma-chine'. An electric machine, generating electricity by contact with amalgamated silk. FRICTION METER. 358 FRUIT DRYER. Fric'tion Me'ter. A test for lubricators. The block A is pressed against the periphery of the wheel by :m arm C, which is a segment of a roller, balanced and pivoted on the short arm of the bell crank D 1), the long end of which is connected by a link to the lever F, which has a weight, E, on the outer end of it : and a chain con- nects the friction block A to a sprinir balance. The wheel is to be made to turn to the right at any desired velocity of circumference, by means of a band from a lathe, or otherwise, w hen the friction of the wheel on the fric- tion block will tend to curry the latter along with the former : but it is prevented from doing so by the chain to the spring balance, which in- V dicates the amount _ _J of the tendency of Friction Meter. tlle block to move along the wheel, or, in other words, the total amount of friction on the rubbing (surface. Napier. See also OIL TESTER ; LUBRICANT TESTER. Fric'tion Roller Drop. An arrangement for working a drop hammer. Hotehkiss & Stiles. See Fig. 2104, FRICTION HAMMER, p. 910, "Alech. Diet." Fric'tion "Wheel. One operating by the fric- tion of its surface ; as in some ca:-es a large buff- covered wheel driving a number of spindles by frictional contact. See some notices in Cooper's "Bflting,'' 206. See also FRICTION GEAR : FRICTION CLUTCH, supra ; and FRICTION WHEEL; FRICTION HAMMER, "Mech. Diet." Friez'ing Cut'ter. A rotative bit for making friezes, moldings, etc. Friez'ing Ma-chine'. An edge-molding ma- chine. The vertical cutter projects up through the table of the machine and works molding on the stuff fed up to it. It is called a friezing machine, as it is adapted to making frieze moldings for ceil- ings. See Fig. 3200, p. 1468, "Mech. Diet." Frit. (Ceramics.) The material for glaze of pottery. A frit for stoneware glaze : Ground feldspar 25 Ground quartz or flint 25 Sal soda 25 Clay 15 Boracic acid 10 100 After being fused in a frit fitrnacr, it is run into a stone vat, cooled, broken into fragments, and ground into a fine paste with water in a frit mill. The result is a fine slip to which white lead as a i'use and cobalt as corrective of yellow are added. The porous biscuit is dipped in this slip. Frit Fur'nace. ( Ceramics.) A reverberating furnace in which frit for glaze is fused. Frit Mill. (Ceramics.) A tub mill, with huhr- stones in which the material for glaze (see FRIT) is ground into an impalpable slip. Fromm'hpld Cell. A single liquid battery having a platinized leaden plate clamped between two zinc plates with intermediate insulation. Im- mersed in dilute sulphuric acid. See Slater & Watson's English Patent, 1852. Frost Valve. Front Cyl'in-der Head. That head which is opposite to the piston. The back end has the stuffing box for the piston-rod. Front Sight. As distinguished from rear or hind-sight. The sight on a gun near the muzzle. It may be y/obe, aperture, open, or pin. See SIGHT. Frost Cog. A toe or projection on a horse shoe to keep the animal from slipping on ice or frozen ground. Frost'ing. (Fine Art Metal-iforkinfj.) Making a dead surface on the metal so as to give a sombre tint; or it may be done over a part of the surface so as to throw the bright portions into greater prom- inence and so obtain variety. Frost Valve. A valve which opens to allow water to escape from the portion of the pipe or pnmp where it is lia- ble to be frozen. F,g. 1102. Stone's frost valve is so arranged that the act of screwing down the hydrant to close it opens the small frost valve and al- lows the hydrant to free itself of water. Fruit Dry'er. The Reynolds fruit dryer is a shaft iu which the shelves are hori- zontal. The trays of fresh fruit are put in at the bottom, the pile of trays beiny; lifted temporarily for that purpose by means of the lifting bottom D. crank shaft C B, and handle A. From 12 to 20 trays are used ; the heat is Fig. 1103. about 200 Fah., and the fruit iu the upper trays is bathed in the steam and aroma of the fresher fruit more im- mediately exposed to the fire. The point of delicacy in management consists i n prompt drying after cutting to avoid discoloration. It is a good plan to sub- ject the freshly cut frui' to the fumes of sulphurous acid gas, obtained by burn- ing sulphur in a chamber or ca?k in which the cut fruit is exposed. This is a plan used from time immemorial to prevent acetic fermenta- tion in wine and cider casks, and also to delay the vinous fermentation with wine or cider. The trays with the finished article are removed from the rop one at a time In Fig. 1103 the apparatus has a supplementary cham- ber above for finishing the operation when a tray of doubtful completion has been removed. Gold medal at Paris, 1878. In a California machine the trays are similarly dis- posed but hung on a carrier-, chain. The Williams ma- chine has a high tower with a furnace at the bottom, and endless chains with wire trays which revolve slowly, causing the fruit last put in- to pass first through the Fruit Dryer hottest part. Bleaching with sulphur is used. The Alden process is somewhat similar. FRUIT DRYER. 359 FUEL, ARTIFICIAL. The Jones dryer (Farquhar, York, Pa.) is made in three forms, horizontal, portable, riouble-flue upright. In the Horizontal fruit dryer a current of heated air is drawn through the two horizontal fruit chambers by an ex- haust fan. The chambers are one above the other with side doors for the introduction and removal of fruit trays. In the portable the trays are in vertical columns in a sheet iron box at bottom of which is a furnace. The trays are put in at bottom, the pile being raised for that purpose, and the trnys with finished fruit removed from the top. The trays are covered with netting. The /loiib/e-Jiue is larger, parts are duplicated, and it occu- pies the height of two stories, or a cellar and one story Dietz California fruit dryer has a number of sloping cham- bers one above another The fruit in wire trays is put in at front and pushed back from time to time as new trays are ready , and the dried fruit removed at the back. The fire-heat circulates in all the chambers, the fresh fruit being exposed to the hottest part. Al'len * "Mining anil Sc. Press," 1 xxxviii. 26". BosweU * "Mining and Sc, Press,'' 1 xxxvii. 281 ; xxxviii. 268. Blower * "Mining ami Sc. Press," xxxvi. 249. Harris * "Mining and Sc. Press,-' 1 xxxvi. 289. Mieinbrue .... * "Scientific American," xlii. 162. On drying fruit . . * "Scientific American," xl. 146. * " Scientific American Sup.," 1 2103. "Scribner's Magazine, 1 ' June, 1878. Fruit Pit'ter. A device to remove the stones of fruit, such as peaches and plums. Hatch's pitter splits the fruit and F "g- 1104. removes the pit. Each half of the tubular opening carries its own sec- tion of the knife, and the two are hinged together so as to expaud to any necessary size. See also CHERRY, PEACH, etc. "Mech. Diet." Fruit pitter, Lillie *"Min. # Sc. Press," xxxiv. 289. Fruit Press. Cider, wine, and oil presses are considered under their own captious. Figs. 1105, 1 106 show domestic presses for small fruit, and useful also for stuffing sausages. See also DRAW-UP PRESS, Fig 872, p. 274, supra, and list under PRESSES, infra. Fruit (or Seed) Sep'a-ra'tor. A machine which separates and grades cran- . berries, beans, and seed. ' Fig. 1105. Fruit Pitter. Fruit Press ( Open Fruit Press ( Closed). The detachable feeder runs on top, and has a trembling motion, combined (optionally) with lat- eral motion. The sieves are lettered for kinds of grains and seeds, and numbered for places where used. Brown. Fruit Sli'cer. An open-bottomed box with a follower, to contain fruit, aud slipped back and forth in grooves over a knife fixed like that of a slaw-cutter beneath. Wliarry. Specific Gravity. Pounds of Water Evaporated. Com par. Values. Welsh coal .... 1.315 9.051 1.000 Newcastle coal . . . 1.256 8.01 0.885 Derby and York coal . 1.292 7.581 0.837 Lancashire coal . Scotch coal .... 1.273 1.260 ?;$(. By trial 0.877 0.851 British average . . . 1.290 8.13 1 0.898 Irish anthracite . . . 1.590 9.85 1.088 Patent fuels .... 1.167 9.20 J 1.016 French coal (average) . 1.310 8.00) 0.884 Lignites (average) . . 1.198 6.661 0.736 1.300 4.52 ! , 0.500 Coke (average) . . . Oak 0.750 . 0.930 y. (lU !-Approx. 4.52 0.995 0.500 0.660 2.50 J 0.276 Fu'el. The table gives the comparative evapo- rative value of fuels. The feed water being 212 Fan. when it enters the boiler, the following results were obtained from the consumption of 1 pound of the undermentioned fuels. The first eight give the average of many samples tested by Messrs. Delabeche and Playfair : Wood for Fuel as compared with Coal. It is safe to as- sume that 2J Ibs. of dry wood is equal to 1 lb., average quality, of soft coal, and that the fuel value of the same weight of different woods is very nearly the same, that is, a pound of hickory is worth no more for fuel than a pound of pine, assuming both to be dry. If the value be measured by the weight, it is important that the wood be dry, as each 10 per cent, of water or moisture in the wood will detract about 12 per cent, from its value as a fuel. The weight of one cord of different woods (air dried) will be found to be about as follows, for an honest cord of split wood : Hickory, or hard maple 4,500 Ibs. White oak 3,850 Ibs. Beech, red oak, and black oak .... 3,250 Ibs. Poplar (white-wood), chestnut, 'and elm . 2,350 Ibs. The average of pine 2,000 Ibs. The fuel value as compared with coal is about as fol- lows : 1 cord air-dried hickory or hard maple equal to 2,000 Ibs. coal. 1 cord air-dried white oak equal to . . 1,725 Ibs. coal. 1 cord air-dried beech, red oak, or black oak equal to 1,450 Ibs. coal. ' 1 cord air-dried poplar, chestnut, or elm equal to 1,050 Ibs. coal. 1 cord air-dried average of pine wood equal to 925 Ibs. coal. Buckeye Engine Co. Fu'el, Ar'ti-fi'cial. The artificial fuel of Loiseau is made under Patents 78,982, 104,471, 147,663-147,666, 167,913, 167,914. 1868 Patent : coal dust, clay, saleratus, and shellac made into a paste, formed in molds and dried. 1870 Patent : a protecting covering. 1874 Patents : 1. a mixing apparatus. 2. Clay is dried, reduced to powder, mixed with the coal dust, moistened with milk of lime, kneaded, molded into lumps, the lumps waterproofed with a resinous material. 3. Mixing and molding apparatus. The coal dust with clay, and lime-water is placed .in a pug-mill, delivered to com- pressing rollers in a broad sheet, and the compressed lump falls upon a conveying apron. 4. A machine for coating the artificial fuel with a water- proofing composition. An apron dipping into a tank. 5. Molding. The balls are formed by two hemispheres, which are fastened together by bolts. Wire cloth aprons are confined between the hemispheres. 1875 Patents : 1. Mixing and molding. Stirrer blades on revolving shafts feed the composition to the molding cylin- ders. 2. Coal waste mixed with pulverized clay and diluted rye and lime paste. See the following references : Dixon "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 1. In France, etc "Engineering,' 1 ' xxvi. 379. Paper on, Loiseau . . . "Man. If R," x. 178, *202. Loiseau "Iron Age,'' xvii., Ap. 20, p. 7. Loiseau "Report Juries of Group I., Paris Ex. Rep.," 1876,p.55. Loiseau " Van Nost.'s Mag.," xix.544. FUEL, ARTIFICIAL. 360 FULLER BATTERY. Loiseau "Scientific Am.,'' xxxviii. 339. Compressed "Scientific Am. Sup.,''- 24(59. Amianthine coal." . "Scientific Am.,'' xxxix. 149. . "Scientific Am.," 1 xxxix. 273. Rocker, Fr. . Fuel, gas, Strong . Fuels, liquid. Paper by Aydon . Tan-bark fuel, Fr. Press, Grant, Br. . "Scientific Am. Sup.,'' 1890. . *" Scientific Am. Hup.,'" 3895. "Iron Age," xxii., July 11, p. 20. See also BRIQUETTE. See Siemens' "Fuel." Fu'el E-con'o-mi-zer. An invention of Twi- bill, of Manchester, England. A feed-water heater by the waste heat escaping at the chimney. Fig. 1107. Furl Economizer. Statement : " There are two sources of waste in all steam boilers which may in a measure be made to neutralize each other. The gases going to the chimney carry off on an aver- age, according to good authority, 31 per cent, of the fuel, and in the most economical boiler this cannot be reduced below 12 per cent. The feed-water, on the other 'hand, has to be heated from the normal temperature to that of the steam before evaporation can commence, and this generally at the expense of the fuel which should be utilized in mak- ing steam. This temperature at 75 Ibs. pressure is 320, and if we take 60 as the average temperature of feed, we have 260 units of heat per pound, which, as it takes 1151 units to evaporate a pound from 60, represents a loss of 22.5 per cent, of fuel. All of this heat, therefore, which can be im- parted to the feed-water from the waste heat iu the escaping gases is just so much saved." The economizer is placed parallel to the battery of boilers* between them and the chimney shaft It consists of 36 transverse rows of vertical pipes, there being 12 pipes in each row, connected at top and bottom by transverse hori- zontal pipes. The pipes are of cast iron and cylindrical, the lower end turned slightly conical and pressed into a socket in the transverse pipe beneath, in which it is planted. The trans- Terse pipes communicate at their ends with transverse longi- tudinal pipes, and to these the inlet and outlet for the feed- Fig. 1108. TwMWs Fuel 'Economizer. water are attached, the arrangement being such that the cold water admitted at the bottom circulates upward, ex- posed to the heat of the pipes, which are surrounded by the flame and the heated escaping gases passing from the furnace to the chimney. The water is led off to the boilers at. a heat of 280 Fah. A scraper is provided for each pipe to remove foot from the exterior to keep the heat-conducting character of the iron intact. These are coupled in groups, and kept contin- ually moving up and down by means of gearing, pulleys, and scraper chains. The Bttbcoclc (f Wileox fuel economizer holds a similar place between the furnace and chimney. The tubes are connected at top and bottom with horizontal tubes, the lower row of which are connected to a mud-drum, and the upper row are connected together at the end diagonally op- posite to the mud-drum. The feed-water enters at one end of the mud-drum and passes out at the opposite end of the upper connecting pipe. The hotter gases, filling the upper portion of the chamber, come in contact with the water at its highest temperature, so that it is possible to heat the lat- ter very nearly to the temperature of the escaping gases before it flows to the boiler. Ample provision is made for cleaning the interior of the vertical and horizontal tubes, and the mud-drums, by means of hand-holos with metallic joints opposite the ends of each tube. This is important, as in most hard waters sediment will form in the economizer more readily than in the boiler. By means of a direct flue to chim- ney, the economizer may be cleaned wi'hout stopping the boilers. Mechanical scrapers worked from above are provided for removing de- posits of soot from the exterior of the tubes, the soot falling into a chamber below, from which it may be re- moved at convenience. The Miller economizer con- sists of rows of tubes lining the sides of the fire chamber be- neath, and partially alongside of the boiler. The system of pipes connects with the lower and upper portions of the boiler and causes a circulation, as well as adding a large amount of heating surface. Mason if Alcock, Br. * "Engineering,'' xxix. 261. Wavish, Br. ... * "Engineer," 1 xlviii. 451. Babcock If Wileox . * "Eng. S{ Mm. Journal,'" xxviii. 109. * "Manufacturer and Buildtr," xi. 1. See also list of references under FEED WATER HEATER, pp. 328-330, supra. See also HOT-BLAST APPARATUS, infra, for a device of somewhat similar construction but for the purpose of heating air for metallurgic furnaces. See also REGENERA- TOR and GAS-GENERATING FURNACE, for other methods of util- izing escaping furnace heat. Fuel Feed'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. In Jucke's de- vice the fuel is placed on an endless chain curried by two rollers and driven by the engine. This end- less chain forms the fire-bars, and moves so slowly that the fresh fuel placed upon it at the furnace month is gradually carried backward, consumed, and delivered at the rear in the form of ashes and clinkers. The rollers and chain are carried on a sort of trolly, so that the whole can be drawn out when necessary, and the rate of motion is made ad- justable to regulate the supply of fuel. See al>o STOKER, MECHANICAL. Ful'gu-ra-ta. (Electricity.) A spectro-electric tube in which the decomposition of a liquid by the passage of an electric spark is observed. In that of M. Duboscq, the vertical tube has a pair of plati- num wires : the upper one extends nearly to the lower end, and the lower one is surrounded with a short conical glass tube, which by capillary attraction continually supplies the fluid under examination which covers the point of the lower electrode. "Telegraphic Journal," 1 * iv. 285. Full Cir'cle. A form of FIFTH WHEEL, q. v. Fuller Bat'te-ry. (KUctricity.) One having a zinc element, which is permanently amalgamated by placing its enlarged base in mercury in the po- rous cell, which is otherwise rilled with water. The carbon plate is placed in the outer vessel in a so- lution 01 sulphuric acid and bichromate of potas- sium. The thin portion of zinc is covered with wax, parafftne, caoutchouc, or the like. "Telegraphic Journal'' * v. 9, * 53. Niaiitlet, American translation .... 218. "English Mechanic " * xxiii. 321. " Scientific. American Sup." * 628, * 1127. FULLING MILL. 361 FUNNEL BOX. Fulling Mill. 1. The old fulling mills were generally of wood, and the n ;ssity for weight gave rise to their being of ei.ormous size. The beating mill, which the nearest resembles the an- cient tramping, practiced in Asia with camel's hair for thousands of years past, is shown iu Figs. 2125, 2126, p. 923, "Mech. Diet." The roller mill, which is mure compact, is shown in Figs. 2127, 2128, Ibid. ; but a still more improved form is the Rodney Hunt, shown in Fig. 1109. In this mill, the shape of the box answers to the require- ments of the work, to avoid useless quantity of suds. The Fiji. 1109. Rotary Fii'lin 2523. Helix, Smith, Br. . * ' Engineering," xxv. 514. ' ' Scientific ^American Sup.,'' 1 2193. * 'Iron Age,'' xxiii., April 17, p. 1. Grate, H'tnler, Br. . * 'Engineering," 1 xlvii. 408. Hoist and drop, Lonsr/ale, Br. * "Engineering,' 1 ' xxii. 497, 549. The " helix ' furnace of Smith (Br.) has a long screw conveyor which removes coal from a hopper and has subsidi- ary screws, one for each furnace, which continuously bring their portions of coal and deposit it in the lower stratum of fuel. Fur'nace Scales. See FURNACE-CHARGING SCALK. Fur'nace Shield. A heavy iron door lowered in front of a puddling furnace to shield the men from the intense radiated heat. McDonald's Furnace Shicl/. Fur'nace Slag Glass. (Glass.) See SLAG GLASS. Fur'ni-ture Plush. (Fabric.) Also known as Utrecht velvet. A fabric with a mohair weft in the commoner qualities, hut, in the hest, of mohnir entirely, the warps being cut in the same manner as the silk warps in velvet. See MOHAIR. Fur'row Dres'sing Ma-chine'. A machine for cracking and dressing the furrows of millstones. See MILLSTONE DRKSSING MACHINE. Fur'row G-age'-staff. An instrument for ga- ging the furrows in millstones. The middle bar has a face the ^hape of the bottom of the furrow, and the side pieces B B are adjustable for the required depth of furrow and are set by bolts. In using, the face of the portion A is painted, so as to indicate when it touches any protruding point in the fur- row. Tuft. Fig. 1120. Fit:. 1119. Furrow Ga%e-*taff. Furrow Rubber. Fur'row Rub'ber. An emery tool for dressing out the furrows of millstones. Fur'row-ing Ma-chine'. A machine for making or dressing the furrows of millstones. See MILLSTONE DRESSER. Fu-run'cule Knife. (Surgical.) An instru- ment with a small triangular lateral blade on its end for lancing boils in the meatus auditorius. Fuse. An exploder, time or percussion, applied to shells or other explosive charges. " Mech. Diet." Fig. 2132, p. 928. Official trials of fuses, " Ordnance Report,'' 1878, Appen- dix S, 2, p. 399, et ,<*?. Hotchkis.i, percussion fuse . . . Plate I , p. 399. Sckenckl, percussion fuse . . . Plate II., p. 400. Ahsterdam, percussion fuse . . Plate III., p. 401. Eggo, percussion fure .... Plate IV., p. 402. German, percussion fuse . . . Plate V., p. 403. Pettman (British), percussion fuse Plate VI., Fig. 1, p. 404. Royal Laboratory (British), per- Plate VI., Fig. 2, p. 405. cussion fuse. Lissberger, percussion fuse . . time percussion fuse German, time percussion fuse . M'Intyre, time percussion fuse Gill, combination fuse (No. 1) Gill, combination fuse (No. 2) O'Reilly, combination fuse Thompson, combination fuse . Ware, combination fuse (No. 1) combination fuse (No. 2) Trtailwett, combination fuse Ruben & Fornerod, combination fuse . . . = .... . Plate XVII., XVIII., p. 416. . Plate VII., Fig. 1, p. 406. . Plate VII., Fig. 2, p. 407. . Plate VIII , p. 408. . Plate IX., p. 409. . Plate X., p. 410. . Plate XI., p. 411. . Plate XII., p. 411 Plate XIII., p. 412. Plate XIV., p. 413. . Plate XV., p. 414. . Plate XVI., p. 415. FUSE. 364 GADDING CAK. M'Intyre, combination fuse . . Plate XIX , p. 418. Plumaciier, percussion fuse . . Plate XX]., p. 420. Stateham * "Sc. Am. k'lip., v 2644 French, time Laboutaye's" Diet.," art. u Artifices de guerre," i., Fig. 171- percussion Ibirl., i., Fig. 169. Prussian, percussion Ibid. , i , Fig. 170. Fu'si-ble Met'al. An alloy with a determi- nate fusing- point, and placed in a position to melt and allow escape of steam or to sound an alarm when the slated temperature is exceeded. A number of tallies of alloys with indicated melting points are given on p. 62, "Mech. Diet." To these may be added, Bismuth. Lead. Tin. Anti- nuiny. Melting Point, Degrees, iah. D'Arcet . . 8 5 3 _ Below 212 2 5 3 _ Below 212 Valker . . 8 5 4 1 - Jnion . . 5 3 2 - Below 197 Fig. 1121. By adding to the last given, mercury 1 part on taking the metal from the fire, an alloy will be obtained, which is liquid at 170 J Fab., and only solid at 140. Used for anatomical injections. French cliche; molds are made of the Walker alloy. .Electrotype molds of d'Arcet's and Walker's. Also for metallic pencils and laboratory baths. Fu'si-ble Plug. ( >ne placed on a steam boiler or in an electric circuit (tire alarm), which mel;s when subjected to a heat exceeding the point for which the alloy is constituted. See FUSIBLE ALLOY. Fu'sing Disk. An invention of Jacob Reese, of Pittsburg, for cutting round steel bars. It consists of a disk of soft steel 3-16" thick and 42" diam- eter, making 240 revolutions per minute, which gives a travel of about 2500' to the edge of the saw. The round bar travels in rhe same direction '/CO revolutions per minute, so that the edge of the disk and the surface of the bar move in opposite directions. A round bar of steel 1|" in diameter is fused in two in 10 seconds without being at any time in contact, the kerf being 5-16" wide. The disk remains cool ; the bar is heated. "Engineer'- * 1.259. " Scientific American Supplement"' . . . 4138. The circular saw for the removal of the fag ends of rails and bars while yet hot from the rolls is an apparatus used in many rolling mills. See HOT IRON SAW, injra. Fyke Net. (Fisliimj.) A bag net with dis- tended mouth and succe.-Mon of funnel-shaped com- partments. In the upper part of the illustration a long li r is shown conducting the fish along shore into the fyke net. The netting of the wings is not shown, but extends from the stakes to the mouth of the fyke, and the end of the leader enters between the displayed wings', which are perhaps 5' high and 20' long. The leader, 100' long, 5' deep. The fyke has 5 hoops, 9' to 15' in circumference. Under NET will be found a list of names of various pounds and traps, some of which embrace the same feature. Fig. 1122. The plug shown is covered with fu- sible metal and the spaces filled with the same. Water from the boiler cir- culates in the tube around the plug : the latter being screwed into place is readily removed, re- filled, and replaced. Fu* Tyson Fyke Net G. GaHbi-on. A basket, or frame of open work, used in hydraulic and harbor works to form a bar, dyke, or jetty. Cognate contrivances, as fascines, mats, etc. (which see), have a similar purpose; forming a nucleus for the holding of broken stone, gravel, or sand ; or for the collection of sand or silt brought by the current, tides, or waves. See list under HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. The gabions of the Galvpston jetty works are thus made : A bottom of 2" planks is bored for the reception of upright pine poles, which have the bark left on them and these are held in position by a frame fastened to their tops. They are then wattled with the southern cane, which is so abundant. The gabions are stayed with cross braces internally, a bal- last of concrete laid over the bottom and rammed, the top stayed by planks, the stakes nailed to the planking above and below, and the top and bottom planks tied together with f" iron bolt rods. The gabion then receives two coats of cement and is allowed to dry for two weeks ; such a gabion is 12' X 6' and 6' high. The gabions are sunk upon a foundation mat of canes wattled on a frame of wood, and fascines of cane are thrust into the intervals between the standing gabions, which are planted by means of guide poles and are sunk by pumping them full of sand. Mats, fascines, and concrete blocks are arranged upon and around the group of gabions by divers. See JETTT, infra, where the system adopted by the Dutch is represented. See also * "Scientific American Sup.," 245. Ga'bi-oii-ade'. A structure consisting of a number of gabions filled with sand or stone and sunk in lines upon fascines or hurdle mats, as a core for a sand shonl in harbor improvements. See " Works in Galveston Harbor." 'Engineering'' * xxiv. 235. Gad'ding Car. (Quairyinr/.) One arranged to carry a drilling machine so as to present it to drill a series of holes in line. Used especially in getting out dimension stone. See also CHANNELING MACHINE, Fig. 1246, p. 526, " Mech. Diet.;" the latter, however, works with chisels and makes a groove instead of a series of holes for as many gads, by driving which the stone is riven on the line of holes. Fig. 1123 shows the drill mounted on car for gad- GADDING CAR. 365 GAGE GLASS. ding. It may be presented horizontally for heading, and lowered or raised ou the column so as to make the horizontal holes at any altitude or at any angle. The name is derived from the gads, or wedges which are used to rive the block after the row of holes has been drilled or jumped. The #w/is shown in Fig. 2140, page 932, " Meek. Diet.'' Another mode of splitting dimension stone upon the line of a row ol holes is by means of the plug-and- feather, Fig. a, 3834, p. 1749, Ibid. In this case a wedge is driven between two oblique-faced plugs previously introduced into the hole. Each hole of a linear series being thus furnished, the wedges or gads are tapped in order down the line, again and again, until the stone parts on the line thus weakened and strained. Fig. 1123. Gail fling Car and Drilling Mac/line. Gaff. (Fishing.) A hook on a staff used in landing heavy fish ; for salmon, halibut, cod, dory, etc. The pewgaff is used in handling and pitching Fig. 1124. fish. Gaff-top'sail Hook. (Nau- tical.) A mousing hook for a gaff topsail with rope sheet. Gag. (Surf/leal.) An appara- tus for distending the jaws during examination of or operation upon the month, fauces, etc., or in re- ducing lock-jaw. S/ieculum oris. Figs. 259, 264, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarium C/iiritrgicum." See also Fig. 3245, p. 1487, "M'ck. Dirt.,'' and CHEEK RETRACTOR, Fig. 606, p. 192, supra. Gage. A tool for measurement, inside or outside. Gaff-topsail Hook. See CALIPER ; CYLINDRICAL GAGE ; MEASURING MACHINE ; CORRECTIVE GAGE, etc., supra, infra, and in "JMech. Diet. ; :: also list under GAGE, p. 933, Ibid. See also list under MEASURING AND CALCULATING INSTRU- MENTS, infra. Gaging and measuring imple- * "Am Manufact.,'' Mar. 28, ments. 1879, p. 13. Gages and Calipers, Standard * "Journal Franklin Inst.,"* March, 1879. * "Engineering," xxvii. 407. * "Iron Age," xxiii., Jan. 31, p. 63. Gaging appa., Barrel, Aust. . * "Engineer,'' 1. 404. Gage, Carpenter's, etc., Stoner * "fie. Airier.," xxxvi. 406. Gages * "Sc. Amer.," 1 ' xxxvi. 373. Gaging casks, etc Keene.'s "Handbook of Practi- cal Gauging.'' Gage Cock. A trycock to ascertain depth of water in a steam boiler. Borden .... Me Cool Elliott . * " Scientific American," 1 xxxvii. 294. * "Iran Age,'' xxi., April 18, p. 5. * "Iron Age," xvii., March 30, p. 1. Fig. 1125. Gage Cocks. a. Gage valve; wooden d. New York gage cock, wheel. e. Mississippi gage cock. b. Gage cock ; lever handle, f. Gage cock. c. Gage cock. Gage Glass. A glass placed on a boiler to show the water level therein. Fig. 1126 shows the gage glass of Damourette, Paris. The instrument on the left is intended to be placed directly upon the boiler and has a float operating an alarm whistle when the water sinks below a given level. The dotted lines show the position of the glass tube. The instrument on the right communicates with the boiler Fig. 1126. French Gage G'ass. by two pipes for water and steam, and has all the fittings, gage cocks, glass, tube cocks, sediment cock, etc. The interposition of the chamber makes a slack-water be- tween the boiler and gage glass which prevents the effect of ebullition manifesting itself in the latter, and the cham- ber also acts as a sediment catcher, keeping the glass clean. Gage glass fittings, Blake, Br. . * "Engineering," xxix. 186. GAGE LATHE. 366 GALVANIZING FURNACE. Gage Lathe. A lathe for turning work to size : handles of all kinds, chair legs, pillars and rounds, bedstead rails, beaded work and nulled spindles are turned to patterns also, but this speciality consti- tutes the machine tool a nulling lathe. In the more perfect forms of gage lathes for turning excep- tional shapes, three cutting-tools are used : one for turning the stick to a rough cylindrical form ; a second to rough out the irregular outlines wanted ; and a third to smooth-finish it. The second cutter is caused to approach or recede from the line of centers by a templet, against which the tool-holder rests and along which it slides. The roughing-tools are of the usual V-shape. The finishing-tool is a long blade, set at an angle with the center line of the lathe in order to take a smooth shaving. Its edge is given such a shape that it fin- ishes the work accurately . The piece to be turned is supported between centers by a ring, and the workman is thus enabled to turn a compara- tively long and slender stick. The movement of the slide- rest which actuates the cutters is checked at the end of its throw by a self-acting stop. Gage Saw. A hand saw with a gage bar ad- justable to determine the depth of kerf. Fig. 1127. Gage Wheel. (Agricultural.) A wheel on the forward end of plow beam, to limit the depth of furrow. Fig. 850, p. 267, supra, shows a plow with a pair of gnge wheels. Gage Ta'ble-shears. A machine for cutting straw and mill hoards to a regulated width, for book covers, box making, etc. See BOARD CUTTER, supra, and Fig. 739, p. 31 1, " Mr-ch. Diet." Gag'ger. (Molding.) A piece of iron in a mold to hold a core in place. A chap/et. Gaiffe Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) There are several forms of batteries by this inventor. a. Chloride of silver battery, "Niaudet,'' American trans- lation, * 206 ; " Telegraphic Journal,-' * vi. 398. b. Sulphate of mercury battery, "Niaudet," * 147. (Else- where credited to Man 't- Davy.) c. Improvement on Leclanche, " Scientific American Sup.,"> 3189 ; " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 185. rf. Chloride of zinc, " Technologists,'' xli. 43. A number of holes are drilled into a porous carbon cylin- der, and filled with a coarse powder of manganese ore. The cylinder is connected with a rod of amalgamated zinc, and the whole plunged in a solution of 20 parts of chloride of zinc in 100 parts of water. " Comptes Renrliis." See also * "Scientific American Sup.," 129. Gain. A notch, as made in the side or edge of a piece of timber to receive another bar of the frame. See illustration in SCARF, Fig. 4660, p. 2051, "Mech. Diet." See also GAINING MACHINE, Fig. 2044, p. 935, Ibid. Gal'ley Knot. (Nautical.) A form of knot. See 10, Fig. 2777, p. 1246, " Mech. Diet." Gal-van'ic Bat'te-ry. See under the follow- ing heads : Aerated battery. Agglomerated battery. Alum Battery. Aluminium battery. Anderson battery. Bagration battery. Balloon battery. Becquerel battery. Bichromate battery. Breath battery. Bunsen battery. Callan battery. Callaud battery. Camacho battery. Carbon battery. Carre 1 battery. Chloride of lime battery. Chloride of silver battery. Chloride of tin battery. Chromic acid battery. Clttmond battery. Coke consuming battery. Column battery. Compound plate battery. Constant battery. Couronne de tasses. Cruikshank battery. Daniell battery. De la Rue battery. Double fluid battery. Peroxide of manganese bat- tery. Plunging battery. Pneumatic battery. Poggendorf battery. Ponci battery. Potassium chlorate battery. Prism battery. Pulverniacher battery. Quicksilver battery. Reservoir battery. Sal ammoniac battery. Sand battery. Secondary battery. Sea battery. Siemens- 1 lalfke battery. Single-fluid battery. Smee battery. Spiral battery. Standard battery. Storage battery. Sulphate of lead battery. Sulphate of mercury battery. Thermo-electric battery. Thomson battery. Tom thumb battery. Tray battery. Triple-fluid battery. Trouvti battery. Trough battery. Tver battery. Urine battery. Varley battery. Voltaic pile. Walker battery. Wollaston battery. Dry pile. Earth battery. Klectric battery. Faure battery. Flowing battery. Frommhold cell. Fuller batiery. (iiiiffe battery. Galvano-caustic battery. Gas battery. Graphite battery. Gravity battery. Grenet battery. Grove batter v. Hill battery. Inversion battery. Latimer-Clark battery LeclanchtS battery. Ley den battery. Magazine battery. Magnetic battery. Marie-Davy battery. Marine battery. Muynooth battery. Mechanical battery. Meidinger battery. Menotto battery. Mercury battery. Micro-battery. Moist battery. ' Muirhcad battery. Muncke battery. Niaudet battery. Nickel battery. Perchloride of iron battery. Perfluent battery. Peroxide of lead battery. See also the following : Ersslrom. Howell. } McCarthy. Stater. "Scientific American Siif.," 1 3791. Giilfnsohn. ) Plush ''Scientific American Sup.," 2761. Watson * "Scientific American Flip.," 524. The lists commencing on the next page include all that is important in galvanic batteries up to date, so far as covered by patents. Gal-van'ic Cur'rent. (Electricity.) The di- rect current from the galvanic battery. The pri- mary current. Gal'van-i-zing. Treated on p. 939, "Mech. Diet." " Pickle the article six or eight hours in water containing about 1 per cent, of sulphuric acid held in wooden vessels ; the acid requires to be renewed from time to time, according to the quantity of iron pickled. After pickling, scour and wash well in clean water. Keep the article under clean water (in which a little freshly burnt lime has been stirred) until ready for the next process. Immerse in chloride of zinc for one or two minutes until a skin of fine bubbles is formed on the surface. Chloride of zinc may be formed by satura- ting hydrochloric acid with metallic zinc until effervescence ceases, then decanting and adding a little sal-ammoniac. Dry the article on a heated iron plate, then immerse it in a bath of molten (not glowing) zinc until it acquires the tem- perature of the zinc bath. The surface of the molten zinc should be protected by sal-ammoniac, or some other sub- stance. In some cases there is a partition at the surface of the bath, one portion of the surface being protected with sal-ammoniac, the other with a layer of charcoal. Beat the article while hot, to remove the excess of zinc.' ; Moles- worth. Galv. electric bath, Potin . . * "Scientific Am.," xxxiv. 54. A carefully written and full article on the zincing of iron surfaces, "Scientific American Supplement,'' 2798. Iron "Iron Age,' 1 ' xxiii., Jan. 16, p. 9. l( - 'Manufacturer if Builder," ix. 157. Bath * "Scientific American Sup.," 1 2560. Gal'van-i-zing Fur 'n ace. The bath of molten zinc in which iron is plunged to coat it. The galvanizing furnace of Thum, of Laubach, Germany, is a reverberatory in which the zinc bath is heated from above. It has a fireplace and a chimney at each end, the part of the hearth connecting the two being arched over. The rest of the rectangular hearth is perfectly open above, so that the heat-conducting power of the metal is relied upon to keep it at the proper temperature in that part of the hearth. The slabs of fresh zinc are introduced through doors communi- cating with the hot ends. GALVANIC BATTERY. 367 GALVANIC BATTERY. h" ~ 3 s , . |i HI ifi^ii in *!sfjfi! JH! fit l 11 " 1 k 3 'c.a 3l 1 i !? ! 6 1 2 a S S' S "o : 5.S S. 5 S U3 6. S. 6. e B c. - cuK.= :2Ti o, o. c. a ^ o^ c ^!= 5 o cos _ B. i S. & o, cs o. a. O H ^S ='S llilli t| xO. e. o a. 73 - li'i a .5 c s 5 = c '- O CU-- ^ '- > : ' '-^ - Jl4i s?l^"ll ^"2-t^ sd 5111! f HIM Ii i Ss3ll(fi(2gia5l^la53 fills H GALVANIC BATTERY. 368 GALVANIC BATTERY. C __iiSiii>i .11 *> e a *j S3 CSrt -2 a. . i .Ei.o..! 'o.. ' o. t s e s ^ ^ s 5 s s s il C ^ d (9 t! h < S a B t! gocca i = .r ceo S5 -3oo Sigccc* : &-S : .-- Cs Sctrt COO ft.c5O lll|S|lll|lll.| T" 1 d t3 O-lO-lojIllll llll-S egC^oOO S o,-, ' p. p. i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i . . i -5 i o. i i i i i -a 2 hfj 1 "3 1 a ' o. a ' . gfi l' =1 '' ' cc . - , I.E5.5.S .E.E.S .= .5.2 . o.S -5.S.E.S ..= =.S.S.5.S fe .S^as2g.,vs .*-Sl5A*||^J3S^-gl5.s^.2S^i=la5 : ig^*59 GALVANIC BATTERY. 369 GALVANIC BATTERY. fc S 3 _s' a | 's s g o "a | _ i 4) &..-. O. w w ^ g^ "3 03 15 ^c 2 .a <* " t" N -5 S " _: to * - o a S o 3 g' o -*J ;3 . S-e 2 > 3 a? o Eisi sg|s. *: 2 a jgiil- "S^ o> J fa 1 3 > 7! * p. .i s i "i.iii' | ifi a I -I i 1-2 . 5 g a^ -a 'S ^ S o 3; g|| Ijlc a o * . . o> 3 Tl "~ _ i( G ^>jJ E .2 IS al" o S o .2* 38 .2-S a^ g-s-S Z"~ O .8 ^^ li PI 3 iS S -SHO h a = E c 3 111 S.&&& |. 8.3. ? 9. -.^ cog . o o S j;^2O. wJ2j3.~g- XX S t.^t.-"Q, ?5SO J)oJo3 = S S i 111 S 2 a' h a .a !; '1st es an, 3 8.=- 2" 1 i I 1 s^i' ' fj-' ' ' ' 'ii jp ' ' ' ' &' * ' i " " j= " . v . s^-si 33 S- a 3 3 ^_; > * K2 33C33 3 JSJS-~X 3 'cO n w x ccao w BO 2 , 5 0.0 "is. i "3, i i i i i i ii i i i i ! ifl i d ^3 6 H . = .25R3 o o o M S o -^ I l^l I I -g 1 '!?! Lg5 :S i O. -) i & ' S .5 o 2 1 "rs J '2 2 S- ~ g-3 x 3 S-a 2- S " ' i ig.a ' ' ' 'I P.= ' i old Mail s s i If 5111 as . . . o o 9.9 '3 3 i 1 g-s o. i * g a ; a c c c c s a 1 '3 -3 '3 '3 UV -*-=WO * C Q C? C) W ^UOOCJU .S .5 o .S .2 g . .2 .S .S .S S . .S .2 .5 .S . 0005-- OOI-C - 1 * . ^5 i i i r. i '- ?*i ."t i - ?o O - - i^co * ao^c^ccjx^i^o^o^ CD o c^i co c 1 ^ Ol C-1 (M tM iM (M C-1 (M ^ tM ;M C-l 4<1 C 1 c oS co CM C"l OJ C^l GALVANIC BATTERY. 370 GALVANIC BATTERY. GALVANIC BATTERIES. LIST OF BRITISH PATENTS. Name. Date. Number. Positive. Partition. Negative. Metal. Liquid. Liquid. Metal. Kemp Becquerel .... 1828 1829 1836 1836 1839 1839 1840 1842 1842 1842 1842 1849 1841 1842 1843 1846 1847 1847 1848 1848 1849 1849 1849 1850 1850 1861 1852 1852 1852 1852 1852 1852 1852 1853 1853 1853 1853 1853 1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1854 1855 1855 1855 1855 1856 1856 1856 * * * * * * * * * * * 9,053 9,374 9,745 11,448 11,576 11,776 12,039 12,212 12,772 12,847 12,899 12,959 13,142 13,613 13,963 14,198 14,330 14,346 595 595 169 634 944 1,785 2,003 2,361 2,486 629 713 1,575 1,714 1,920 2,455 2,555 2,556 1 148 1,649 2,662 755 987 1.5i6 fluid amalga zinc. zinc amalg. zinc, zinc amalg. zinc, zinc, zinc amalg. platinum, zinc amalg . iron, zn. lead, mer. zinc. zinc or plat. zinc, zinc amalg. zinc, perf. zinc, zino amalg. zinc, liq zn. amalg. in a bag, lead. -{ zinc. I Wire gauze zinc amalg. zinc. zinc. gold, zn. U-shaped. tin. lead. ^ zinc. Decomposa- [ zinc. zinc, zinc, lead, zn., tin. lead alloys, anti., zn.. tin. zinc, zinc, zinc. Antimonic, zinc, zinc. uses spoiled sodium, zinc, and mercury, zinc coated with mercury, tin, and lead, iron and zinc zinc, zinc, cast iron, zinc, zinc. iron, mercury. zinc. iron. m of zinc, sulp. acid. sulp. acid, chloride am. sulp. acid, sulp. zinc, sulp. acid, sulp. acid, oxygen, sulp. acid, dil. sulp. acid, sulp. acid ammon. chl. bye-products nitric acid, earth, sulp. ac. , salt water. ammon. salt, nit. or act. ac. hydro chl 'ate am., nitr. pot. or punctured sulp. acid, sulp. acid. alum; soluble earthy sulph. (dry pile.) aq. regia. nit. ac. or salts, sulp. acid. sulp. acid, ble nitrogen- ferrocy. pot. sulp. acid, chrom. pot. nit. sulp. ac. cyanogen or chrom. salt, salt. sulp. acid. II. Cl. phosphoric, or salt. or impure acid hypochlorous acid, carb. gulp, or partly covered sol. of zinc, water. H. Cl. chl. sod. acid, iodid. pot. nit. .(. &' H. Gyps., porcel. clay with sea salt, ox gullet, membrane, membrane, brown paper, thin earthenware, porous cup. acid, water. porous cup. sycamore, porous cup. earth, porous cup. sand, sponge, sand. porous cup. plates, thread, asbes., gyp. clay, graphite and sal. amm. sand, sponge, etc. thin paper. fabric, ous matter. arsenic acids with glue, paper, porous cement, sponge, partly impervious conden. graphite. s, etc. asbestos. phos. sod. permang. or arsen. pot. with caoutchouc. layer of cloth, sand, paper. paper gun-cotton. SO..1 salt of copper. sulp. copper, sulp. copper, nitr. acid, sulp. copper, sulp. copper, nitr. acid, hydrogen. strong nit. ac. suln. iron, nit. am. sulp. acid, sulp. pot., etc. earth, nitric acid. chl. calc. amm. salt. nitric acid. bichr. pot. nitric acid. chl. calc. (dry pile.) nit. ac. or ni- trates, nitric acid. nitr. silver, nitric acid, chrm. pot. nitr. iron, nitric acid. chl. gas. powdered glass acet. lead. sulp. iron. pyrolig. mang. acid, neg. salt, sulp. cop. hypochl. lime, nitr. soda and H 2 S0 4 . H. Cl & crys. nitr. soda, acid, iod. pot. and iodine. copper. copper. copper. platinum, copper, lead or cu. coke, platinum, cast iron, iron. cast iron, platinum. platinum. copper, charcoal. copper, cop. coke. copper, carbon, platinum. copper. elec. copper, plumbago, carbon on iron plates, platinum. glass plate graphited. iron. platinized lead iron. antim. alloys, rare metals, carbon and plat, gauze, powd. graph, charcoal, carbon, or starch, lead. platinum and iron alloy, cast iron. copper, copper, coal, carbon, carbon. copper, granL platinum, carbon, carbon. cast iron, carb Mulling Grove Spencer Roberts Wohler & Weber . . de Moleyns .... Bain Brett & Little . . . Weare Staite Petrie & Staite . . . Petrie & Staite . . . Pulvermacher . . . Highton Greenough .... Jackson Petrie Slater & Watson . . Slater & Watson . . Slater & Watson . . Desvignes & Kukla . Straite Fuller Fontainemoreau . . Fontaiuemoreau . . Archereau .... Archer Callan Callan Fontainemoreau . . Fontainemoreau . . Puls * Not patents, but discoveries. GALVANIC BATTERY. 371 GALVANIC BATTERY. GALVANIC BATTERIES. LIST OF BRITISH PATENTS (Continued). Name. Date. Number. Positive. Partition. Negative. Metal. Liquid. . Liquid. Metal. Fontair.emoreau . . Cumins & Hunter . . Pulvermacher . . . Burleigh & Danchell . R'eare 1856 1867 1857 1857 1858 1858 1858 1858 1858 1858 1858 1858 1858 1859 1859 1859 1859 18bO 1860 1860 1860 1860 1861 1861 1861 1861 1861 1861 1862 1862 1863 1865 1865 1865 1866 1866 1866 1866 1866 1866 1868 1868 1868 1869 1869 1869 1869 1870 1870 1871 1871 1871 1871 1871 1871 2,290 680 2,411 3,164 165 282 296 805 2.187 2,439 2,818 2,888 2,937 1,696 1,896 2,503 2,922 211 486 994 1,515 2,047 1,147 1,503 2,127 2,298 2,464 2,656 340 1,550 1,732 619 2,213 2,421 338 670 947 966 1,637 2,623 2,836 1,258 3,129 1,250 1,441 2,003 3,324 1,055 3,308 974 1,535 1,643 2,219 2,759 3,366 rolled zinc, zinc, zinc. zinc. aluminium, lead, zinc, zinc wire, zinc, zinc amalg. zinc wires, insulat. amag. on zinc, plates of an zinc. zinc, zinc. imbedding car zinc, earth battery, zinc. uses chlor-hy zinc. zinc in mere. zinc wire, iron, zinc, lead, carbon, zinc, zinc. zinc, zinc, zinc, covers liquids zinc. the cells are zinc. zinc. magnesium, mercury. aux. zinc, zinc. zinc, zinc wire. zinc, zinc. zinc, zinc, zinc. sulp. pot. bi'-hr. and bi- sulp. pot, salt. chl. calc. sulp. acid, sulp acid, chl. ziuc. sulp. zinc, sulp. mercury, sulp. acid. earth battery bon in the sur sulp, acid. sulp. acid. drate and oleic gulp. acid. sulp. acid. acid, sulp of alk. and earths, water, chl. or nitr. pot. 11 2 S0 4 . persulp. mer. with grease or hydrochl. am. lined with resi hydrochl. am. hydrochl. am. sulp. magn. hydrochl. ac., chl. pot. saline sol. Na.cl.or NH 4 cl. am. NH 4 cl. the sea. bichr. pot., lime, H 2 S0 4 . bich. and nit. pot. water. board, graphite cell, cup. cup. sawdust. earth, cup, partly imper- vious, in deliquescent salts, paper pulp ; saw- dust. carbon pot. coated inside with platin. gum and gypsum, faces of glass vessel sawdust. acid, wood or bar thread, double porous cen. sand, charcoal and tan. oxi. or carb. zinc, chl. calc. oil. sand. nous cement and ac porous cell and sand, sawdust. porous cell. clay and ox. zinc, binox. mere, sal am. porous cell partly vanished. clay and powdered graphite, sawdust. paper or plaster, porous cell. chloride cop. nitric acid. nitric acid, nitric acid, sulp. cop. sulp. cop. bichr. pot. nitric acid. sulp cop. sulp. lead, nitr. ac. in oxygen. s. sulp. cop. sulph. of pro- tox. mere. chl. nat. sod. acid, acids charged with chl. gas. sulp. cop. nitr. ac. sulph. cop. oxide of cop. carb. cop. id sawdust, perox. mag. hydrochl. am. perox. mag hydrochl. am. sulp. cop. H 4 So 4 . bichr. sulp. iron chloride lead. perox. mang. lead binoxide, copper oxide, silver chl. sal. mum . binox. mang. sulp. mere, bl. ox. mang. copper, steel, carbon. carbon, gum- my cement, copper. carbon, carbon, copper, copper wire. copper, metalized car- bon, copper wire, two platinum plates copper. tin. platin. coke. copper, carbon. oxide copper, copper ore. rough copper electro silv'd. copper wire, sub-sulp. cop. platin. iron, copper, cast iron or carbon, copper, carbon, carbon. copper. carbon and parafflne. graphite, graphite, copper. copper. pot : proto. sulp. sod. calcined car- bon. brass or sil- ver vessel. copper, etc. graphite. carbon or plat, with broken cinders, carbon. carbon, platinum. Hunt Meidinger .... Beardmore .... Silver & Barwick . . Morris fr Mupple . Thomson & Jenkiu . Callaud Tolhausen .... Morris etal Pulvermacher . . . Cook StilW Varley Piggott Horwood & Brumfit . Leclanche .... Martin & Varley . . Leclanch^ .... Leclanch^ .... Gedge Lyttle Lyttle Abel Webers Fitzgerald .... Lyttle Highton Lake GALVANIC BATTERY. 372 GALVANIC BATTERY. GALVANIC BATTERIES. LIST OF BRITISH PATENTS (Continued). Name. Date. Number. Positive. Partition. Negative. Metal. Liquid. Liquid. Metal. Highton 1872 1872 1872 1872 1872 1873 1873 1873 1874 1874 1874 1S74 1874 1875 1875 1875 1876 1876 1S76 1876 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1878 1878 1878 1878 1878 1879 1879 1879 1879 1879 1879 1879 1879 485 807 1,596 1,638 3,672 1,270 2,232 2,956 3,943 1,255 3,222 3,420 4,453 807 1,169 4,289 52 524 1,900 3,782 492 1,116 1,702 2,194 2,313 2,892 2,997 4,803 719 1,522 3,367 3,713 4,348 477 1,015 2,905 3,410 3,436 3,858 3,943 4,346 zinc. zinc, zinc, zinc. zinc, zinc, zinc, iron wire. zinc, zinc, zinc. zinc. zinc, zinc, zinc, zinc. iron, zinc. zinc, zinc, mere. zinc, zinc. zinc 8, mere. 1. zinc. amag. iron, zinc, iron. nickel, zinc, mere, zinc, zinc, zinc. zinc. nitr. sod. sulp. zinc, feces. bisulp mere. chl. ;u n in. sulp. zinc and H 2 S0 4 . bichr. pot. II Cl. sod. and pot. hydrate alkaline chlo. arid hydrates. amm. salt. sulp. acid, sulp. pot. hydrate or protox. pot. urine, Na. ch. pulv. salt of .iiiiiii. salt. II. cl. chl. am. II 2 S0 4 . sea water, bichr. pot. Na. cl. sulp. ,-1111111. Na. cl. nitr. and sulp. sod. acid. amm. hydro, sulp. chl. amm. or bichr. vinegar. II 2 S0 4 . biehr. pot. parchment paper, lime or plaster. porous cell, capillary siphon. porous cell partly varnished, porous cell. diaphragm. wood ; sand. paper, felt, cloth, tinder, carbon vessels. parchment paper. iron ore in flannel bag paraffined, porous cell. hard sandstone, water-proof fabric. sand, chlorates, pot. nitr., ox. mang. , in porous cell. porous cell. sesquicarb. of amm. in porous cell, sulp. or nitr. acid in porous cell, paper, felt, flannel. water in porous cell. salt of amm. & bi-tart. pot. sulp. cop. carbon mang. perox. sulp. cop. amm. carb. 111:1111:. chrom. ac. crys. carbon and carburet iron, sulp. cop. sulp. iron. monohydrate sulp. ac. urine nitric acid, caustic soda, perox. mang. hydrated ses- qui-ox. iron. carb. mang. nitr. cobalt, pyrogallic ac. bichr. pot. sulph. cop. perox. mang. chl. of silver or chl. plati. fused nitr. sod. or pot. acid. granular graphite oxide mang. bichr. pot. ox. iron ag. cl. powd. carbon, perox. mang. H,So 4 . pulv. mang. chl. lime. sulp. nickel and amm. white mang. perox. mang. oxal. ac. bichr. pot. and acid or salt. acid, sulp. nitr. chl. or chrom. tin. sulphur II cl. perox. mang. copper. copper or lead, copper, carbon sulph. carbon. iron, copper, iron, coke. graphite, carbon. clay and saw- dust charred, pt. c. au co. ag. ni. fe. copper, broken graph, copper. platin. black, carbon. carbon, carbon, carbon. carbon, carbon. copper, carbon. carbon . carbon, charcoal, copper. iron filings, graphite, carbon. carbon. Weber Varley Bennett Smith Clark Bonneyville .... Elcock Fulvermacher . . . Pulvermacher . . . Jablochkoff .... De Sussex & Brasseur Watte ville .... Wilson . . . Grabinger Fuller & Higgins . . Wilson Slater Morgan & Brown . . Gutensohn .... Anderson GALVANO CAUSTIC. 373 GANG. Fig. 1128. Gal-va'no Caus'tic. (Electricity.) An elec- tro-cautery. See p. 179, supra. Gal-va'no-cau'te-ry Bat'te-ry. (Surgical.) For performing cautery by means of the heated platinum wire. Fig. 1128 is Dr. Dawson's depolarizing battery, which is com- posed of two cells, in each of which arc two positive (zinc) and one negative (plati- num) plates, all meas- uring 44" by 6". The zincs (A) are perfo- rated, and adjusted \" apart, and between them a platinum plate is placed and held in position by uprights (B). On each side of the plat- inum plates are hard rubber or celluloid pumps or agitators ( C), worked by means of a small knob. D and E are the con- necting screws, and F a knob for lifting the elements out of the cells. The bat- tery requires 2J pints of fluid, the action being prolonged by the moving up and down of the pumps ( C), more or less quickly, according to the intensity of the heat desired. By this action the old and exhausted fluid be- tween the plates is Galvano- Caustic Battery. thrown out through the perforations, and fresh fluid is made to take its place. See CAUTERY ELECTRODE. See also Dr. J. H. Thompson's report on Group XXIV., vol. vii., "Centennial Exhibition Reports," p. 63 et seq. Gal-va-nom'e-ter. An instrument for meas- uring the force of an electric current. The reflecting galvanometer of Sir William Thomson is used in working submarine cables. In the astatic form it is used as a receiving instru- ment, placed in a box or curtained apartment, and the receiver calls off each word to an attendant who writes it down. The spot of light wanders over the scale in an apparently aimless manner, but the operator, by practice, interprets the motions. The siphon recorder is a substitute for the reading of the vibratory pencil of light. The recording galvanometer of Hopkins, shown in Fig. 1129, proceeds by the application of a dis- ruptive spark from an induction coil. The helixes are wound with rather coarse wire (No. 22). The needle is astatic, the inner member swinging in the Fig. 1129. Recording Galvanometer. central opening in the helixes in the usual way, the outer member being located behind the helixes. The arbor sup- porting the needle has very delicate pivots, and carries a long aluminium index, which is counterpoised so that it assumes a vertical position when no current passes through the helixes, and the needle is unaffected by terrestrial mag- netism. The upper end of the index swings in front of a graduated scale, and is prolonged so as to reach to the middle of the cylinder carrying a sheet of paper upon which the move- ments of the needle are to be recorded. This cylinder is of brass, and its journals are supported by metal columns pro- jecting from the base upon which the other parts of the instrument are mounted. The scale is supported by vul- canite studs projecting from the columns, and to one of the latter is attached a clock movement provided with three sets of spur wheels, by eirher of which it may be connected with the arbor of the cylinder. One pair of wheels connects the minute-hand arbor of the clock with the cylinder, re- volving the cylinder once an hour ; another pair of wheels connects the hour-hand mechanism with the cylinder, so that the latter is revolved once in twelve hours ; while a third pair of wheels give the cylinder one revolution in six days. This instrument is designed especially for making pro- longed tests of different batteries in order to determine the characteristics. It is provided with four binding posts, one of which connects the wires of the batteries under test with the helixes. The other binding posts are connected respectively with the posts supporting the needle and with the journals of the recording cylinder. These posts receive wires from an induction coil capable of yielding a spark from " to \" long. The induction coil is kept continuously in action by two Bunsen elements and a stream of sparks constantly pass between the elongated end of the index and the brass cylin- der, perforating the intervening paper and making a perma- nent record of the movement of the needle. The paper upon which the record is made is ruled in one direction into degrees and in the other into hours and min- utes. Refer to : Internal current, Cooke * Mirror, Delajield ... * Deprez * Edison * Astatic, Faraday . . * Reflecting, Thomson . * * Lantern, Niftier . . . Recording, Hopkins . * Paper on * For testing lightning- rods, Buclintr . . " Technologist," xxxvii. 327. Gal-va'no-plas-tique'. 1. (Bronze.) A par- ticular kind of bronze work produced by depositing a heavy coating of bronze by the galvanic process upon a plaster of paris model, and afterward re- moving the model. 2. (Glass.) M. Alexander's process rests on the application of electro-metallurgy to the decoration of glassware, mirrors, etc., either for the exterior or interior decoration of houses, furniture, etc. The substance which serves for tracing the design on the glass is a metallic paste of good conducting power, mixed with a solvent and thinned with an essential oil. The de- sign once executed on the glass, the latter is submitted to the action of fire in either a muffle or a furnace, and is not withdrawn until perfectly cold. The glass is then immersed in a metallic bath and a gal- vanic current passed over it ; by this means the metal in sus- pension in the bath is precipitated on the design. The glass is withdrawn as soon as the coating becomes as thick as re- quired. Finally, if necessary, the metallic design is finished up by chiseling or other means, and is left thus ; or, indeed, another layer of a like or different metal may be deposited on it. "Moniteur dela Ccramique : > See also ELECTROTYPE. Laboulaye's "Diclionnaire des Arts et Manufactures,'' cap- tion " Galvanoplastic,'" vol. ii. "Scientific American, 1 " xxxix. 136. Gang. (Sawing.) Round and live gang are sy- nonymous, one being the Eastern and the other the Western term for the same thing. It means such an arrangement of the saw-mill as causes the whole log to be cut up into boards at one operation. A slabbing gang is one by which from onlv the two sides, of a log slabs are cut off, while the middle part remains as a thick beam. When the log is 'Engineering^' xxiii. 91. 'Engineering," xxiii. 62. '* Sflf.ntlfif Ainetirn-n Ktm '' GANG DRILL. 374 GANG PLOW. carried forward on a carriage termed a saddle, it is called a saddle slabber. After a beam has been flattened by passing through the slabber gang, it can be sawn into boards of equal width in the flat gang, when it will be straighter than if sawn only on a round or live gang. A pony is a single or small flat gang, used for sawing thin boards out of the best quality of timber. Fig. 1130. saw ; the guides have site ends of a yoke. The stuff is fed be- the former being ad- thickness of stuff. * ''Manufacturer If adjusting screws at the oppo- tween upper and lower rolls, justable to admit varying . xi. 53. Gang liritt. Gang Drill. A machine-tool having a number of vertical drills in a single head, each with its own belt and pulley from a common shaft, and with speed pulleys common to the gang. The Pratt & \Yhitney gang drill is shown in Fig. 1130, without bands to the drill spindles, which are three in number. The counter shaft is shown detached, lying in inverted position upon the floor. The bench has vertical adjustment, and a certain amount of traverse by means of a treadle. * Thvrston's " Vienna Report," ii. 223. Gang Edg'er. A machine with ; number of circular saws on a common mandrel, and adjustable as to relative dis- tance, so as to split wide planks, etc., into boards or scantling of the desired width. The saws are from 3 to 6 in number. In the Lane & Bodley gang edger the saws are not held on the mandrel by grooved collar and fork but by guide fingers on opposite sides of the 1131. Moline Gang Plow. Fig. 1133. British Gang Plow. Fig. 1134. Gang Eclger. Ransomed Multiple Plow. Gang Plow. A plow with two or more shares and mold-boards. That shown in Fig. 1132 is the Deere gang-plow (Moline), which is all ot iron and steel. The plows are rigidly connected, rock upon the axle, and a operated by one lever. It is run by either three horses abreast, or four horses strung out in pairs, or any large number in pairs, one wheel in the furrow. The plow is oper- ated entirely by one lever, which locks the plows m the ground at various depths ; and the same lever, in connection with a lug on the hub, lifts the plow clear of the ground for turning at the ends, without any effort of the operator The tongue and clevis are attached to the beams by a swivel bolt, GANG PLOW. 375 GARDEN NET. Fig. 113r-. Meixmoron de Dombaxle's Gang Plow. giving it a free vertical motion, relieving the horses' necks of all pressure, and affording a natural draft from the ends of the beams, and from the end of the tongue. It received a gold medal at the Paris Exprsi- tion of 1878, after the trial at Marmont, near Paris, the same summer. Fig. 1133 is a British gang-plow, shown in two positions ; the lower one illustrates the means for allowing it to travel on the surface of the ground without penetrating, in moving to and from the field and turning at the ends of the lands. Of its threw wheels, one is for gage of depth ; one to run in the furrow and support the plow behind the share, reducing the friction ; and the third is only used to support the fore end of the plow in turn- ing, while the rear end is supported by the stirrup- sll:lped piece. Fig. 1131 is Ransome's multiple plow with three shares. The body is of the usual British type, an open frame of bar iron to the beams of which the plow standards are bolted. A single handle projects at the rear, and the depth of the furrows, or the complete removal of the plows from the soil is accomplished by a lever which governs the crank-axle of the carrying wheels, elevating or depressing the plow frame and bodies simul- taneously. Fig. 1135 is Uie bisoc of Meixmoron de Dombasle, of Nancy, France. It is composed of two plows attached to a single frame (avant train), which is supported by wheels, and car- ries the clevis, which has adjustments for land and for depth. The axle of the fore-carriage carries a long lever, projecting upward and rearward, and by the depression of the upper end the crank axle is rotated, throwing the wheels forward and lifting the front end of the plow, so that the shares leave the ground. This is used in turning at the end of a furrow, and also as a means of setting the plow for any given depth, pins on the vertical post holding the lever at any inclination. It received a gold medal at the trials at Marmont, near Paris, Exposition of 1878. American, British, and French, * Knight's Report, "Paris, Paris, 1878 Expos. Repts.,'' v. 28-49. *"Sc.Am., xxxix. 163. Trials, Dynamometrical table . "Sc. Am.," xxxix, 180. Steam (4-f iirrow), Fowler, Br. . * " Kng'ing," xxii. 485. Howard, Br * "Eng'-ing," xxvi. 471. * "Sc. Am.," xxxviii. 409. /tatuom,Br * "Eng'ing," xxvii. 436. Stanley * "Sc. Am.," xlii. 306. Gang Press. One for operating upon a pile or row of objects in a gang. Seen in some forms of oil and stearine presses ; see also FILTER PRKSS, where the cases are in gangs. See also CHEESE PRESS ; HOT-PRESS ; HYDRAULIC PRESS. Gang Saw. Several saws in a frame or on a spindle, acting simultaneously, either gate or circu- lar. See Fig. 2157, p. 942, "Mech. Diet." See GANG. " The vast systems of roller gang mills in America have no parallel in the world." Richards. "A circular saw for edging and squaring, with a gang for slitting the stocks at one operation, is the equipment of a modern saw-mill. This outfit is, of course, duplicated many times in a large mill. At St. Anthony, in Minnesota, there are as many as 12 such mills in a single establishment." " The speed of the teeth, or the number of teeth that oper- ate in a given time, is the exponent of the performance of saws. The rate of feed varies with the timber ; and saw- mills, like other machinery, are governed by mechanical laws which admit of theoretical demonstration. " A single reciprocating saw of 30" stroke, 180 a minute, has a cutting movement of 450' in the game time. In a gang of 20 saws, making in a minute 150 strokes of 24", the cutting movement in the aggregate is 6000' per minute.'' Richards. Marston . . . * "Scientific American,'-' xxxvi. 6. Snyder ... * "Manuf. if Builder," xi. 175. Gan'try. (Gawntree.) A scaffolding or frame, carrying a crane or other structure. See TRAVELING CRANE, Fig. 6623, "Mech.Dict." OVERHEAD CRANE, Fig. 3451, "Mech. Diet.'' STEAM CRANE, Fig. 5052. "Meek. Diet.' 1 ' Gap'-bed Lathe. One with an open- ing in the bed or shears to allow a larger object to be turned. Technically : to in- crease the swing. With traveling crane, Watson . * "Engineering,' 1 xxvii. 154. * "Iron Age,'' xx., Aug. 9, p. 1. *"Sc.Am.," xxxvi. 255. Fig. 1136. Gap-bed Engine Lathe. A self-sealing pail for Fig. 1137. Gar'bage Burn'er. holding kitchen garbage. It is sus- pended within an outer cylinder adapted to be placed on a stove, so that the garbage may first be dessi- cated and then dumped into the stove. Pavement garbage box, Jon ax, Br., * "En- gineer,'' xlix. 190. Garbage furnace, Foote, * " Scientific American," xl. 198. Gar'den En'- gine. A pump for watering the gar- den. See AQUA- PULT, H Y D R O- Garbage Pail. NETTE, IRKIGATOU, etc. Pump, Eiclcford . . . . * "Iron Age,'' xxi., April 11, p. 5 Sprinkler, Hoilel if Stauher * " Sc. American,-' xxxix. 3/0. Fig. 1138. Garden Plow. Gar'den Net. One placed over fruit trees or vines to guard against depredation by birds. GARDEN PLOW. 376 GAS. Fig. 1139. French Garden Tools. Gar'den Flow. A small hand plow for culii vating vegetables in rows. It has a variety of hoes. See Fig. 1138. Gar'den-ers' Tools. Fig. 1139 shows a vari- ety of French garden tools : for digging, cultivating, trimming, pruning, and transplanting. Gar'den Syr'inge. See AQUAPULT ; IRRIGA- TOR; SPRINKLER, etc. Gas. See under the following heads : Air-gas apparatus. Back log. Bye-pass. Carburetor. Coke fork. Coke manufacture. Compensator. Consumers' test meter. Double-gate valve. Exhauster. Exhauster governor. Fire-damp detector. Fire-damp photometer. Fire-damp test. Gas absorber. Gasalier. Gas analyzer. Gas and coke furnace. Gas apparatus. Gas bag. Gas bath. Gas blow -pipe. Gas burner. Gas burner regulator. Gas compensator. Gas compressing pump. Gas condenser. Gas detector. Gas drip pump. Gas economizer. Gas engine. Gas exhauster. Gas exhauster governor. Gas-fitter's torch. Gas furnace. Gas generating furnace. Gas governor. Gas grate. Gas heater. Gas holder. Gas indicator. Gas lantern. Gas lighter. Gas light governor. Gas lighting. Gas lighting torch. Gas liquefaction apparatus. Gasing machine. Gas machine. Analyzer, Goodwin . . Orsat, Fr Schwackkoefer , Austr. Apparatus, Lowe . . . Chandler Melville Balloon, Giffard, Paris, 1878 Battery, Grove . . . Paper by Niaudet . . Burner Me George . . . . Argand, Sugg, Br. And Ian tern, Sugg, Br. Heating, Ehret . . . Paper on, Patlinson . Regulator . . . . Self-lighting. Stockwell . . "Engineer." xiv. o. "Min. If Sc. Press," xxxvii. 137. *"Eng. $ Mm. J.," Nov. 20, 1875. "Iron Age," xxvii., Jan. 13, p. 24. * "Amer. Gas-light Jour.," July 3, 1876, p. 9. * "Scientific American Sup.," * "Scientific American Sup.," " Galv. ba'teries," Am. trans. * "Scientific American Sup.," * "Scientific American," xliii. "Engineer," xlvii. 106. "Engineering,'' xxvii. 142. "Scientific American Sup.,'' " Scientific American Sup.," "Scientific American Sup.," "Scientific American Sup.," 2430. 2526. , 242. 2772. 312. 3963. 460. 291. 2291. Gas-main drill. Gas making. Gas meter. Gas meter cock. Gas oven. Gas pipe. Gas pipe connection. Gas pipe valve. Gas pressure gage. Gas process. Gas producer. Gas prover. Gas purifier. Gas range. Gas regulator. Gas soldering apparatus. Gas stove. Gas tar pump. Gas tester. Gas trap. Gas tube vise. Gas valve. Gas verifier. Grisoumeter. Illuminating power meter. Jet photometer. Nitrogen gas apparatus. Nitrous oxide apparatus. Overflow gage. Oxygen gas apparatus. Ozone apparatus. Ozonizer. Photometer. Pressure and vacuum gage. Pressure and vacuum register Red litmus paper. Retort furnace. Scrubber. Siphon gage. Specific gravity apparatus. Station meter. Steam jet exhauster. Sulphur and ammonia test. Tell tale. Tempering Gas heater. Test meter. Thermometer. Turmeric paper. Water gas. Self regulating. McMillan . . . , Check Cloth, Gas tight, Hirzel Coke oven .... Compressing pump. . Bouvet Brush. Condenser, Cross . . Pelnuse Sf Andouin Herring Floyd . Mackenzie . . . Engine, Paper on . . Armengaud . Barber Bischoff .... Brayton . . . . Clayton, Br. . . . Clerk, Br. . . . Gilles, Ger. . . . Gilles 4" Humboldt Hugon, 1858 . . Hard, Br. . . . Labon, 1799 . . . Langen, Otto . . Leavitt . . . . Lenoir Mead, 1794 . . Otto . . . . . Refer to the following : Absorber, Gore . . . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2031. Utto-Langen Papin, 1688 Havel . Simon, Br. Stre-t, 1794 . . . Exhauster, Beale, Br Root Prosper (f Ray . Smith If Sayre . Mackenzie . . Korting . . . Exhauster governor, ten * Telegraphic Journal,'' vi. 243. * "Scientific American," xxxiv. 211. * "Engineer," xliii. 170. * "Scientific American," xxxv. 4. * "Engineer," xlvi. 439. " iron Age," xxii., Aug. 1, p. 19. " Scientific Artier.,'* xxxix. 838. "Scientific American Sup.," 107. . * "Engineering," xxxiii. 397. * "Scientific American, xxxviii. 73. . *" Scientific American Sup .," 300. . * "Scientific American,'' xxxix. 22. . * "Engineering," xxv. 489. . *"Am. Gas-light Jour.," July 3, 1876, p. 13. . * "Am. Gas-light Jour.," July 3, 1876, p. 12. . * "Manufact. if Builder," x. 188. *" Scientific American Sup.,'' 1507. . " Techno'ogiste," xl. 84-90. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xx. 148. " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xx. 148. "Iron Age," xxii.. Feb 6, p. 11. * "Scientific American," xxxix. 390. * "Engineering," xxvi. 331. . * " Vienna Exp. Reft.," "i. A., 165. * "Scientific American Sup.," 339. . * "Engineer," xlviii. 26. . * "Engineer," xlviii. 24. . * "Scientific American Sup.," 691. . * "Scientific. Amer.," xxxvii. 178. * "Engineer," xliv. 39. . " Vienna Exp. Rept.," iii. A , 167. * " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xx. 148. . * "Engineering," June 25, 1880. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 356. " Van Nostrands' Mag.," xx. 148. . * "Polytechnic Review,'' May, 1876. * "Scientific American Sup.," 420. . " Vienna Exp. Kept.," iii. A., 163. . " Vienna Exp. Rept.," iii. A., 163. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xx. 148. . " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xx. 148. . " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xx. 148. * "Scientific American Sup.," 339; * 1853, * 2323. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 195; xxxix. 386.' * "Iron Age," xxii., Oct. 31, p. 1. * "Polytechnic Rev.," May 1816, 49. * "Engineering," xxvii. 665 ; * xxvi. 155. " Van Nostrand's Mas," xviii. 66. " Mining $ Sc. Press," xxxvii. 211. . *" Vienna Exp. Rept.," iii. A. ,168. "Van Nostrand's Mag .," xx. 148. "Deschanel's Nat. Phil.," i. 491. * "Eng. tf Min. Jour.," xxvi. '-05. " Vitn Nostrand's Mag.," xx. 148. .' " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xx. 148. * "Scientific American Sup.," 28b9. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xx. 148. * "Engineer," xlvii. 43. " Van Nostrand's Mag.,"' xx. 148. . * "Engineer," xli. 227. . * "Am. Gas-light Jour.,' July 6, 1876, p. 17. . * Ibid., p. 11. . * Ibid., p. 11. , . * Ibid., p. 11. * "Eng. 4" Min. Jour.," xxi. 464. Al- * "Scientific American,'' xli. 15. GAS. 377 GAS. Exhaust gov., Goodwin Fuel, gas as a, Strong . on, Muir Furuace, Bicheroux Bocliits Brook 4" Wilson . . Cttxsnn . . . . Casson-Bicheroux . . Casxon-Dormoy Crotl .... * "A/it. Gas-light Jour.,'' July 3, 1876, p. 4. " Sc. American," xxxix. 346. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 2833. ' Vint, Nostrand's Mas;.," xix. 39. * 'Eng. .," 88, 1331. * -Iron Age," xxvii., Jan. 13, p. 24. * 'Iron Age," xxvii.. Jan. 20, p. 1. * 'Engineer,'' xlvi. 91. * 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 1346. * 'Engineer," xliv. 5. * 'Scientific American Sup ," 4000. * 'Engineering,' 1 ' xxx. 200. * 'Engineer,'' 1. 192. * 'Scientific American Sup.," 596. * 'Iron, Age,'' xxv., May 6, p. 1. * 'S'-ienlific American," xl. 22. * 'Manuf. if Builder," viii. 198. * 'Engineer,"' xliv. 454. * 'Engineer," xlv. 234. * 'Engineering," xxx. 200. * 'Engineer," 1. 192. * 'Scientific American Sup.," 4000. * 'Iron Age," xxvi., Oct. 7, p. 3. * 'Iron Age," 1 xxii., Dec. 19, p. 3. * 'Engineering," xxix. 2. * 'Engineering,- xxix. 2. * "Iron Age,- xxv., March 11, p. 1. * "Man. | Builder," viii. 166, 169. * "Engineering," xxx. 200. * 'Engineer," 1. 191. * 'Engineering," xxx. 200. * 'Scientific American Sup.," 4000. * 'Engineer,'' 1. 192. 'Engineering," xxix. 2. * "Iron Age," xxvii., Mar 16, p. 5. * "Engineering," xxv. 450. * 'Iron Age,'' xxv., March 25, p. 7. * 'Engineer,'' xlvi. 231. * 'Scientific American Sup.," 2355. * ' Van Noslrand's Mag.," xxi. 252. * 'Iron Age," xxii., Dec. 12, p. 1. * 'Engineer," 1 1. 191. * 'Scientific American Sup.," 2176. * 'Engineer," xlv. 457. * 'Iron Ag"," xxvi., Oct. 7, p. 1. * 'Eng. if Min. Jour ,'' xxvii. 93; xxix. 151, 372. * "American Manuf.,"' xxvi., May 7, p. 5. * "Iron Age," xx., July 12, p 5. "Iron Age,'' xx., Dec. 20, p. 3. "Iron Age " xxv., April 22, p. 13. "Manuf. if Builder," xii. 270. 'English, Mechanic," xxvii. 657. * 'Engineer,'' xlii. 62. * 'Eng. $ Min. Jour.," xxx. 315. * 'Iron Age,'' xxiv., Aug. 14, p. 1. * 'Engineering," xxviii. 458. * 'Engineering,'' xxix. 318. * ' Scientific American Sup.," 3820. * 'Am. Man.." xxvii., Aug. 8, p. 12. * "Iron Age," xxiv., Oct. 23, p. 1. * 'Am. Man.," July 16,1880, p. 12. * "Engineer," xlv. 110. * "Scientific American Sup.," 2889. "Iron Age," xxii., Aug. 1, p. 19. "Scientific Ami-rican," xxxix. 338. * "Scientific American Sup.," 2645. * "Scientific American," xxxix. 42. * "Am. Gas-light Journal," July 3, 1876, p. 6. * "Engineering," xxix. 308. * "R. R Gazette," vii., opp. p. 138. * "Appleton's Encyclopedia," vii., "Furnace." Griffin's " Technical Handicraft." * "Engineer," xlviii. 404. * "Scientific American Sup.," 616. * "Manufact. Builder," x. 4. * "Engineering," xxiii. 49. * "Engineer," 1. 175. * "Scientific American Sup. ," 2739. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xx. 318. * " Scientific American Sup.," 1615. * " Gilmore's Centennial Exhibition Report," ui. 231. * "Engineer," xlix 210. Lighter, automatic, Fox, Br * " Engineer," xlv. 29. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 137. "Scientific American, xxxiv. 88. "Scientific American," xxxv 341. * 'Engineering," xxv. 325. 410. * 'Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 111. 'Scientific American," 1 xlii. 249. * 'Manufact. if Builder," x. 61. ' Telegraphic Jour.," vi. 38, 152. * ' Scientific American Sup.,"Zi2S. * "Scientific Am. Sup.," 2030,2031. * "Scientific American Sup.," 901. * "Manufact. If Builder," x. 132. * "Scientific Am." xxxviii. 64, 71, 147, 186. "Scientific American Sup.," 1 1783. ' Technologiste," xl. 2. * 'Eng. if Min. Jour.,'' xxv. 112. ' Van Nosl.'s Mag.," xviii. 251. 'Scientific American Su/t.," 2485. ' Scientific American," xxxiv. 386. 'Iron Age," xxi., March 14, p. 7. 'Am. Man.," Feb. 14, 1879, p. 12. 'Scientific American," xliii. 1. 'Scientific American," xxxv. 86. "Manufact. Sf Builder," 1 viii. 88. "Iron Age," xxi., Jan. 31, p. 7. "Scientific American Sup.," 1273. "Scientific American Sup.," 1301. "Am. Gas-light Jour.," July 3, 1876, p. 10. * "Am. Gas-light Jour." July 3, 1876, p. 16. "Scientific American Sup.," 2227. * "Am. Gas-tight Jour.," July 3, 1876, p. 7. * "Am. Gas-light Jour.," July 3, 1876, p. 8. * "Scientific American," xlii. 403. "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 168. Lnboulaye's " Diclionnaire," art. Eclairage, tome iv. "Scientific American," xxxiv. 41. * "Scientific Amtr.," xxxvii. 290. * "Amer. Gas-light Jour." July 3, 1876, p. 3. * "Amer. Gas-light Jour.," July 3, 1876, p. 6. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1201. * "Manufact. $ Builder," ix. 220. * "Scientific. American Sup.," 29. * "Amer. Gas-light Jour." July 3, 1876, p. 19. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1553. * "Scientific American," xxxix. 42. "Min. If Sc. Press," xxxvii. 23. * "Scientific American," xxxix. 15. "Iron Age," xvii., Jan. 13, p. 24. * 'Iron Age," xvii., May 4, p. 1. * 'Scientific American," xxxiv. 63. * 'Manufact. if Builder," ix. 262. 'Scientific American," xxxv. 31. * 'Eng. 4" Mining Jour.," xxv. 74. * 'Min. 4" Sc. Press," xxxvii. 137. 'Scientific American," xxxv. 266. 'Scientific American Sup.," 836. * 'Amer. Gas light Jour.,' 1 ' July 3, 1876, p. 19. "Scientific American Sup." 1811. * "Scientific American Sup.," 29. * "Scientific American Sup.," 197 * "Scientific American Sup.," 1176. * "Amer. Gas-light Jour.," July 3. 1876, p. 19. * "Manufact. if Builder," ix. 220. "Iron Age," xxiii.. May 1, p. 15. "Scientific American Sup.," 1617. * "Iron Age," xxvii., Jan. 20, p. 1. * "Iron Age," xxvii . Mar. 16, p 1. * "Iron Age," xxiv., Aug. 14, p. 1. * "Engineering," xxix. 318. * ' Scientific American Sup.," 3820. * 'Engineering," xxviii 457. * 'Iron Age," xxiv., Oct. 23. p. 1. 'Am. Man.," July 16, 1880, p. 12. * 'Engineer," xlv. 110. * 'Amer. Gas-light Jour.," July 3, 1876, p. 4. * "Scientific American Sup ," 2757* * "Engineer," xlix 350. * "Scientific American Sup. t " 914. Lighting of London . . Lighting, origin of . . Liquefying, Caillettt Determining volume . Pictet-Cailletel . . . Le Blanc, Fr. . . . Mn . Fig. 1167. 3. A substitute for a forge in tempering drills, punches, and other small tools. Put on a sufficient head of gas to pre- vent the flame from descending into the tube. For heating larger pieces, the flame should be nearly 3" wide. The upper ends of the curved side pieces should not be more than J" apart. The articles to be heated should be held in the upper part of the flame, above the central blue part and parallel with it. The larger the piece to be heated the further it should extend into the flame. The heater should be located in a dark place, and supports may be provided for greater convenience in heating heavy articles. * "Scientific American,'' xxxv. 275. And boiler, Br. . * "Engineer,'' xlviii. 404. For motor, Hill . * "Scientific American Supplement,'- 616. Gas Hold'er. The receptacle for gas in gas works. See #, Fig. 2161, p. 944, "Mech. Diet." Gas Heater. GAS HOLDER. 389 GAS MACHINE. Gas holder, large * "Man. !f Builder," x. 4. Berlin * "Engineering " xxiii. 49. 5,680,00') cubic feet, London . * "Engineer," 1. 175. Receiver, Liquid * "8. for conducting the air supply to the burners : 2 represents the circle of six flat-flame burners : 3 is a single jet which is lighted after midnight, or when the circle of burners is not needed ; 4 is a flash light, which is kept lighted and by which the gas in the burners is ignited when turned on : 5 represents the reflect- ors. A is the lever by which the gas is turned on, and when in this position the gas passes to the circle of burners. When turned in the direction shown by the dotted lines, -fc', the gas passes only to the single jet in the center. It consumes about 40' of gas per hour when doing its full duty. "Phare" Burner. Gas Light'ing. See the following references : Electric, Eogart * " Sc. American Sup.," 698. French chambers, Gaiffe . . * "St. American Sup.,'' 456. Automatic electric, Fox, Br. . * "Engineer,'" xlv 29 *"Se.^i.,3ttZTm.l87. Burner, Slockwell * "Engineer," xliii. 170. Lantern and burner, " Phare," * "Engineer,'' 1 xlix. 210. Gas Liq'ue-fac'tion Ap'para'tus. For the liquefaction of gas by pressure and cold. Cailletet's apparatus is shown in Fig. 1169. A tube, T of very fine bore toward its upper extremity, P, and capable' of supporting a pressure of 500 atmospheres, is partly filled with the gas to be liquefied. The lower portion of the tube expands to form a capacious bulb, T, which is filled with mercury, and inserted in a reservoir containing mercury and water. The walls of the reservoir, B, are of steel and sufficiently thick to allow pressures of 800 atmospheres to be used with perfect safety. The water is forced in by a strong pump, and, according as it enters, the mercury rises in the capillary tube compressing the confined gas at the same time! A pressure of 200 atmospheres is attained by a few strokes of the pump, and is recorded by a me- tallic manometer, E, M. By means of a plunger, V, the pressure may be very gradually increased up to 500 atmospheres. Meanwhile the capillary tube may be surrounded by a freezing mixture, or by water at any desired temperature. In the case of most gases, the manometer re- mains stationary when a certain pressure has been reached. This phenomenon, which is at variance with Boyle's law (a law absolutely true only fora perfect gas), occurs as soon as liquefaction begins. When an appreciable quantity of the gas has been . liquefied, upon gradually diminishing the pressure the liquid begins to boil, and returns to the gaseous condition. But if the valve V be suddenly opened, the gas will as sud- denly expand, and, undergoing a very considerable reduction of temperature, a portion of it will be liquefied, filling the upper part of the tube with a sort of cloud or mist. These effects are readily seen with nitrous oxide and acetylene. The proceedings of Pouillet, Faraday, Thilorier, and Cag- niard-Latour, and the results of their experiments are related by Laboulaye, "Diet, des Arts et Manufactures," tome iv., cap. "Liquefaction des Gaz." ed. 1877. Fig. 1169. Cailletet's Apparatus for the Liquefaction of Gases. See the following references : CaiUetet * "Engineering, " xxv. 325, 410. * "Sc. American," xxxviii. 111. Paper on "Sc. American," xlii. 249. * "Manuf. $ Builder," x. 61. l; Telegr. Jour.,"- vi. 38, 152. Pictet, CaiUetet ... . * "Sc. Am. Sup.," 2030, 2031. High pressure apparatus for determining volume. CaiUetet . . . . * "Scientific Am. Sup.," 2728. And solidification, "Iron" " Van Nostr. A/ag-.,' : xviii.25l. Le Blanc, Fr * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 901. Magnus * "Manuf. Sf Builder,", x. 132. Pictet "Sc. Am ," xxxviii. 64, 71. ~ 'Sc. Am.," xxxviii. 147, 186. 'Scientific Am. Sup.," 1783. Densifying Solidification of gas Tec/inologiste," xl. 2. 'Eng. fr Min. J.," xxv. 112. 'Scientific Am. Sup.," 2485. 'Sc. American," xxxiv. 386. Iron Age," xxi., Mar. 14, p. 7. Gas Ma-chine', a. An apparatus for carbu- reting air or gas. See CARBURETOR, " Mech. Diet." Fig. 1170 shows the " Victor '' Gas Machine, which has some points of safety over those previously described. The air pump C is in the cellar ; the air passes by pipe D to a Fig. 1170. Go* Machine. vault at a distance from the house, and there circulates through the carburetor A, returning by another pipe E to the house service. K. is an air escape valve ; D, gasoline supply pipe ; /, weight to run the air-blower. GAS MACHINE. 390 GAS PROCESS. b. A gas motor. See GAS ENGINE. Carburetor * "Am. Ma.,"Feb. 14, 1879, 12. Ketort, Kannel $ Towsley . * "Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' 2. Carburetor, Maxim ... * "Scientific American,'' xliii. 1. Motor, Otto, Ger * "Min. if Sc. Press.'' xxxvii. 211. Motor, Langen if Otto . . * "Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' 420. Laboulaye's "Diet.,-' iv., " Air chuud." Carburetor, Springfield . . * "Manuf. if Builder,'- viii. 88 Coal, Domestic, Thomas . *" Scientific Amer.,'' xxxv. 86. Carburetor, " Victor " . . * "Iron Age,-' xxi., Jan. 31, p. 7. Gas Main Drill. A tool for boring holes in mains to attacli service pipes. Fig. 1171. Gas Pipe Valve. In Root's bye-pass valve, the case consists of two semi-spherical pieces, in which the seats for the doors or valves are cast in Fig. 1173. Bye-pass Valves for Mains. solid, and being circular, the seats and joints can be adjusted and finished on a lathe at one opera- tion. Gas Pipe Wrench, Con-iiec'tions, etc. Fig. 1174. Gas Main Drill. Gas Main Valve. Preferably a double- seat valve of large size for mains. IsbtU's double gate gas main valve. l ' American Gas-light Journal," *JUy 3, 1876, p. 10. Chapman's gas valve, ibid., p. 16. Gas Me'ter. Goodwin's Experimental Gas Meter, with minute- clock and gas-index combined. "American Gas lig/it Journal,'- * July 3, 1876, p. 7. Goodwin's wet-test meter, Ibid., p. 7. Goodwin's 'experimental meter, Ibid. American Meter Co., various forms of gas-me- ters, * Ibid., p. 8. Gas meter indicator, Price . * "Sc. Am.," xlii.403. Hopper's double-action meter is a two-diaphragm meter, on the principle of the Glover meter, with it? rigid disk and flexible leathem hinge. The two diaphragms are geared together on each side of the partition. Gas admitted in the usual way to the inside and the outside of the dia- phragms alternately gives them a reciprocating motion, fill- ing and discharging. Gas Me'ter Cock. One end screw, the other end solder. Gas'o-line. A product of the distillation of petroleum ; the lightest capable of remaining un- vohitilized at common temperatures. Gas Ov'en. One heated by gas jets. See also GAS STOVE. Fig. 1172. -i i r Gas Oven, or Summer Range. Gas Pipe. The following is the London rule for gas pipe sizes : For 200 lights, 1" iron tube; 120 lights, 1J"; 70 lights, IV ! 50 lights, 1" ; 25 lights \" ; 12 lights, J" ; 6 lights, 4" ; and 2 lights, V- Gas Pipe Connections, etc. 1. Tube. 10. Flange. 2. j bend. 3. J bend. 4. Socket. 5. Tee. 6. Cross. 7. Plug. 8. Square elbow. 11. Stopper. 12. Nut. 13. Cock. 14. Sleeve. 15. Reducing socket. 16. Flange. 17. 19. Holdfasts. 9. Bend with bell. 18. Pipe wrench. Gas Pres'sure Gage. (Gas.) An instru- ment for measuring and indicating the pressure of gas in the apparatus or mains. There are several forms, one being a bent tube, V-^haped, in which pressure in one leg causes the liquid in the bend to ascend in the other leg, which is graduated; or, conversely, vacuum causing it to descend. See PRESSURE AND VACUUM GAGE. King's gas pressure and vacuum gage. "American Gas- light journal,'' * July 3, 1876, p 3. King's pressure gages and register, * Ibid., p. 4. Goodwin's pressure gages and register, * Ibid., pp. 6, 7. * "Scientific American Supplement,- 1201. Gas Pro'cess. Adams A'lams * Mains, meters, Chindler Apparatus (coal), Eichkolz. * Making, Eichotz . . . . * Generator (simple) . . . . * Hydrogen appara., Giffard . * Apparatus, illunii., Kidd . Lowe * Lowe- Strong, series of pa- pers * Lowe * 'Min ![ Sc. Press," xxxTii. 23. Scientific Amer. '' xxxix. 15. 'Iron Age,'' xvii Jan. 13, 24. ' Scientific Amer. " xxxiv. 63. 'Iron Age," xvii. May 4, p. 1. Scientific Amer. '' xxxix. 42. Manuf. If Builder,'' ix. 262. ' Sc. American,'' xxxv. 31. '&c. American Sup.,'' 1551. 'Eng. 4" Min. Jour.," xxv. 'Eng. If Mm. Jour.,'' xxv. 74. GAS PROCESS 301 GAS, STEAM, AND AIR ENGINE. Lowe ....... *''Min. If Sc. Press," \\x\-\\.\31. * "Sc. American," xxxv. 2(56. Petroleum, Lowe ... * ".S'c. American Sup.." 29. ".Sc. American Sup.,'' 836. "^w. Gns-tig/it Jour.,'' * July 3, 1876, p. 19. Baltimore.' ...... "Sc. American Sup.,'' 1811. " Sc. American Sup.," 654. O'.nty ....... * " Sc. American Sup.,'- 197. Notes on, by Patterson . * "Sc. American Sup.," 1176. Petroleum gas, Palton. . * "Am. Gas-light Jour." July 3, 1876, p. 19. * "Manuf. if Builder., "i*. 220. Pintsch ....... "Iron Aye," xxiii., May 1, p. 15. Sh ilr oil-works .... "S-ientific A>ner.,>' xxxiv. 112. Wood ...... "Min. If Sc. Press,'' xxxvii. 98, 215. Symes, coal gas, "Scientific American Sup.," 1617. Wrenn process for making :i permanent gas from petroleum, * " Scientific Amerirriii Sup.,'' 1553. See "Htdairasfe an Gaz,'' by Mallet, " Dictionnaire. dts Arts et Manufactures,'' Paris, 4th ed. Gas Pro-du'cer. A description of furnace in which gas is produced from coal, to be conducted to a furnace where it is mixed with air and burned. The t/ns producer is the first of the three essential parts of a Siemens' furnace, and is illustrated under GAS-GENERATING FURNACE, which see. See also, B'chernur. .... * "Iron Age," xxvii., Jan. 20, p. 1. Pnrkex, Kng. ... * "Iron Age,'' xvii., March 16, p. 5. Tessic, Lorraine . . * "Engineering,'' xxix. 318. * " Iron Age,"' xxiv., Aug. 14, p. 1. Tessii ..... * "Engineering," xxviii. 457, * "Scientific American Sup.," 3820. Wilson ..... "A'ner. 'Manuf.,'' July 16, 1880, p. 12. * "Iron Age," xxiv., Oct. 23, p. 1. Ziebarth S( Putsch . * "Engineer," 1 xlv. 110. Gas Prov'er. (Gas.) a. A means for testing the quality of gas. This is a chemical operation, (1.) turmeric or red litmus paper, or (2) acetate of lead paper being used to detect ammonia and sulphurated hydrogen respectively. See GAS TEST- ING APPARATUS ; SULPHUR TESTING APPARA- TUS ; GAS VERIFIER. b. A test for pressure of fire-damp in mine*. See GRISOUMETER; CARBUROMETER; FIRE-DAMP DE- TECTOR. c. A means for measuring accuracy of meters. See METER PROVER ; CONSUMERS' TEST METER. d. A means for testing the illuminating quality of gas. See JET PHOTOMETER ; PHOTOMETER ; TEST METER. e. A means for testing the levity of gas. See SPECIFIC GRAVITY APPARATUS. Goodwin, "American Gas-light Journal," * July 3, 1876, p. 4. Gas Pu'ri-fi'er. In Mackenzie & Isbell's appa- ratus and process for reviving and deodorizing the material in the purifying boxes of gas-works, the air is drawn through the openings in the covers, and through the material in th.e boxes, by the ac- tion of a steam-jet exhauster. No steam engine or rotary device of any kind is needed. The air pass- ing through the purifying material takes up the ammonia and sulphur compounds; mingles with the steam ; passes through a condenser or washer, where the steam is condensed and the foul matter removed ; the air escaping practically pure. "American Gas-light Journal," * July 3, 1876, p. 12. Braiin ...... * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2757. Pelanze Sf Audouin, Fr. * Engineer." xlix. 350. Still ....... *" Scientific American Sup.," 914. Gas Reg'u-la'tor. GOVERNOR, which see. equal quantity of gas the area of the passage qnent rate of passage - Adams .... Borrodaile . . . "Imperial" . . Another name for the GAS An apparatus to cause an to pass a gate ; contracting as the pressure and conse- increases ; and conversely. " Scientific American." xxxix. 303. "Engineer," \. 2'8. "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1713. For steam boilers, Martin * "Sc. American," xxxvi. 262. Xcluiotey * "Engineer," xlviii. 153. Ktutt. Br * "Engineer," xlix. 210. * "Man. and Builder," x. 181. Gas'si-ot's Cas-cade'. (Electricity.) A beaker, internally coated with tin foil to within a short dis- tance from the top, is placed on a glass disk resting on the plate of an air-pump. The whole is covered with the glass receiver, from the top of which de- pends a glass-covered conductor reaching nearly to the bottom of the beaker, the end of the conductor being exposed. Upon passing a high-tension cur- rent from the saiil conductor to the plate of the machine, and exhausting the receiver, a continuous electrical discharge takes place, passing up out of the cup, and in a cascade form, to the supporting plate. "Philosophical Magazine" vii. 854. Gas Range. A form of cooking-stove heated bv gas jets, and having the conditions of the range Fig. 1175. Gas Range. as distinct from the stove. It is fitted with 2 ovens, with thermometers attached; also with 5 burn- ers on top for boiling, preserving, stewing, and broiling. See also GAS STOVE, and references passim, Gas, Steam, and Air En'gine. An aero- gas engine with steam added. The gas is not used explosively but for the rapid expansion of atmos- pheric air previously compressed in a cylinder form- ing part of the engine. A small steam generator is heated by the combustion of the gas and the hot exhaust gases from the power cylinder, the steam being used in the latter to increase the power of the engine. Simon's engine has two cylinders, one in which air is com- pressed in mixture with a determinate quantity of gas, and the other into which the mixture passes and is ignited by a constantly maintained flame, the air reexpanding from the pressure due to its compression, aud under the influence of the heat of combustion of the gas and partial combustion of the air. Fig. 1176 is a perspective view, and Fig. 1177 a sectional elevation of the engine. In Fig. 1176, A is the pumping or compression cylinder ; B the piston working therein ; C the connecting-rod, con- necting it direct with the crank shaft G, on which is the fly- wheel H, and bevel wheels Y, which by means of the shaft X work the governors O, connected with which is a sliding cam, D, sliding on a feather in the shaft X, and connected with the governors, so as to be drawn xipwards when, owing to the increased speed of the engine, the balls fly ap: rt. The effect of this is to allow the runner at the end of Nhe slide valve E to fall on the narrower part of the cam D, ana thus to open the air passage f, and the gas passage A', for a shorter time, admitting less gas and air until the pressure falls, and the speed of the engine is reduced, when the run- ner of the slide valve E again rides on the wider part of the cam D. A spring, not shown in the drawing, gives the re- turn motion to the slide valve E, and maintains the runner in contact with the cam D. After passing through F and K respectively, the air and gas pass into the chamber L, GAS, STEAM, AND AIR ENGINE. 392 GAS STOVE. Fig 1176. Gas, Steam, and Air Engine. whence they are drawn through the valve Minto the cylin- der A by the down-stroke of the piston B. By the return stroke of the piston B the gas and air are compressed and discharged partly through the pipe R into the combustion Fig. 1177. Gas, Steam, and Air Engine. ( Vertical Section.) cylinder, and partly into a receiver, Q, from which the inter- mi constant flame at T is supplied ; TV is a back-pressure valve : P is a stop valve. When this is screwed down the compressed mixture cannot pass into the pipe R, and the motion of the engine is arrested ; R being a tube through which the compressed contents of the air-pump A pass to the slide valve S, worked by the rod g, and which admits the mixture through perforated brass disks and wire giuze at T into the interior of the working or combustion cylinder W. A small pipe, Z, also proceeds from the receiver, Q, to the in- terior of the cylinder W, opening at the point indicated by the black spot under T; b is the piston in the cylinder W, and r the rod connecting it with the crank shaft G ; d is the outlet for the exhausted gases to the slide valve e, actuated by the connecting-rod /, which admits them to an arrange- ment of tubes in the water chamber h from which they are afterwards led away through the exhaust port indicated into the center of the tube space. The water in h is in commu- nication with the water in the jacket or casing, k, surround- ing the cylinder W. This water is also in communication with a similar casing or jacket, I, surrounding the cylinder A. The heat of the combustion in the cylinder and the heat of the exhausted gases generate steam in the chamber h, which passes by the pipe n, opened or closed by the stop valve p, and a port, V, in the slide-valve S, into the passage r, and thus into the cylinder W. The water employed is first admitted into the jacket of the compression cylinder, where it keeps that cylinder sufficiently cool, and is at the same time slightly heated. From this jacket it passes to that of the working cylinder, and gains in temperature while it cools the cylinder, and thence passes to the steam generator h. To start the engine it is first turned a few revolutions so as to compress air and gas in the cylinder A, some of which passes into the space Q. A small cock in the pipe Z is then opened, and a plug opposite the spot under Tis withdrawn and the gas ignited. The plug is then replaced, and the pipe Z sustains a constant flame in the interior of the cylinder W at T, through which flame the mixture of gas and air com- pressed in A passes, and in thus passing is ignited. The con- sequent expansion causes the piston b to make a down- stroke, imparting motion to the crank shaft G, and at the same time the piston K of the cy Under A compresses and dis- charges into the pipe R and the receiver Qa fresh supply of gas and air. The momentum acquired by the fly-wheel brings the piston b of the cylinder W back to its highest po- sition, and the above described action is repeated. Gas Stove. Fig. 1178 is a parlor or office stove. It is of cylindrical form, and is fitted with a highly polished co| per reflector, and is designed to use illuminating jets only. The heat is thrown into the room by reflection from the copper re- flector, also by radiation from the hot-air chamber, the heated air passing into the room through out- lets in top of stove. This stove is designed for use in bath and hall rooms where a connection cannot be made with flue. A stove 27" high, 8" diameter, requires 8" cubic of gas per hour. Fig 1179. Fig. 1178. Parlor Heater. English Gas Stove. Fiir. 1 179 is a view of an English office gas-stove, partly in elevation and partly in section. It has an annular pipe pierced with numerous holes for the exit of gas, and situate in an ornamental cylindrical casing to which the air has access. This circle of lights is surmounted by a system of cylinders in cast-iron which ab- sorb the heat developed by the combustion of the gas, and part with it to the surrounding air. Fig. 11FO shows an adaptation for cooking- stoves. The joint is in the roasting oven, and the heat is reflected from the congeries of gas jets above it. GAS STOVE. 393 GAS VALVE. The baking oveu is heated from below and by the heat passing through the flues around it, to the boiler plate above. Fig. 1180. Gas Couk Fig. 1181 is a combined furnace and sub-flame broiler ; requiring no special description. Gas heaters of various kinds are described and shown un- der specific heads, such as BUNSEN BURNER; BURNER; GAS BLOW-PIPE; GAS HEATER; GAS BOILER; BATH HEATER, etc. Fig. 1151. Furnace and Broiler. Gas Tar Pump. A device to enable the tar Enmp to be constant in its stroke and actiou, but initing the amount of tar raised to the quantity running into the well ; keeping a constant level in the well, though the product of tar be irregular. "Scientific American Supplement ? ' * 1412. Gas Test'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. a. The test for ammonia in illuminating gas is to allow a jet of the gas to blow upon a piece of turmeric or reddened litmus paper ; for the detection of sulphureted hy- drogen use similarly acetate of lead paper. Hugh Young's apparatus is founded upan this method, pieces of turmeric and acetate of le id papers being suspended in a snjall glass receiver over an inlet of gas passing to a burner. This testin;; apparatus is only qualitative. Dr. Letheby's quantitative sulphur testing apparatus has a meter, governor, and tube leading, to a Leslie burner, under which is a beaker containing the requisite quantity of stand- ard liquor ammonia, over the beaker is a glass funnel pass- ing up through the burner, and covering the burner is a trumpet-shaped glass tube which discharges into a large glass condensing cylinder with bent glass tube at an angle of 45 at its farther end. The Gas referees' apparatus, London, has points of similarity tn the Letheby apparatus, but uses carbonate instead of liq- uid ammonia, and its condenser is vertical and contains mar- bles and has a sealed discharge pipe for liquid of condensa- tion. See SULPHUR TESTING APPARATUS. The apparatus for taking the specific gravity of illumina- ting gas is a modification of the Bunsen method (Knwfjiirh, IS >7, p. 237) by efflux through a fine opening in a thin plate of metal. See SPECIFIC GRAVITY APPARATUS. In the use of Goodwin's apparatus for the analysis of coal gis, the proceeding is first by qualitative analysis to deter- mine the presence of certain gases : this will decide the order of precedence iu their removal. See GAS ANALYZER. The apparatus consists of graduated glass tubes through solutions in which the gas is bubbled. The re-agents, for mulse for making them, and the directions for procedure in analysis, are iu a pamphlet. W. tV. Goodwin, Philadelphia, 1877. b. The gas tester used by the city of Paris is an arrangement of meter, time counter, balance, and photometer. A given amount of gas, passing in a given time, and having a certain gravity, is lighted at a burner imd this is compared with a carcel burner of given power, the two lights being simul- taneously observed through a tube, the field of vis- ion of which is divided by a vertical plate. See PHOTOMETER. Analysis and Apparatus Testing (Edinburgh) . Tests, on, Harcourt, Br. " Scientific, Am. Sup.,' 1 ' 2757. "Scientific Am. Sup.." 44. Giroud ' Man. if Builder,' 1 ' viii. 162. * " Scientific Am. Sup.,'' 639. " Van Nostr. J/ng-.,'' xv. 361. * "Engineer," xlv. 240. Transmitter, Nucman (f Dues- bitry, Engl * "Scientific Am. Sup," 2177. New York "Sc. Amer.," 1 xxxvii. 163. Analysis apparatus, Orsat, Fr. * " 2763. " Van Nostrand's Mag.,' 1 ' xxii. 431. Copying process . . . * "Scientific American," xl. 104. Printing "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2868 Manufacture of gelatine * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 402. See also COPYGRAPH ; HECTOGRAPH ; MANIFOLD ; COPYING PENCIL, and references passim. Gems, Ar'ti-fi'cial. The base is strass ob- tained by melting together Carbonate sodium 6 drachms. Burnt borax 2 drachms. Saltpeter 1 drachm. Minium 3 drachms. Pure white sand 1.5 oz. To color, add : for the gems named Sapphire 10 gr. carb. cobalt. ( 10 gr. ox. cobalf. Opal < 15 gr. ox. mang. ( 25 gr. protox. iron. Amethyst 6 gr. carb. perox. mang. Gold topaz 30 gr. ox. uranium. Emerald . \ 20 S r - protox. iron. ( 10 gr. carb. copper. Composition, see "Manufact. Sf Builder,'' xii. 240. u Scientific American," xxxvii. 149 : xxxiv. 276; xxxviii. 2, 47. "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1593. Ge'nu-vaPgum Brace. (Sim/ical.) Leg braces, to correct or support knock-knees. See LEG SUPPORT, infra. Figs. 74, 197, Part IV., Tiemann's "Armam.Chirurgicum.'' 1 Ge'ode. (Mining.) A cavity studded with crystals or mineral matter ; a rounded stone con- taining such a cavity. Fig. 1195. Ge'o-log'i-cal Ham'mer. One for hewing hard rocks, or for extracting fossils from rocks. The larger sizes are for breaking and crushing, and the smaller for trimming. See Fig. 1195. Ge'o-met'ric Lathe. Elaborate illustrated ar- ticle on geometric lathes, the applications to en- graving, medaling, and turning, 43 illustrations, article "Tours Composes," Figs. 25, etc., Laboulaye's ''Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," tome iv. See also GEOMETRIC LATHE ; ROSE-ENGINE LATHE, "Meek. Diet." Ge'o-scope. An instrument to demonstrate the movement of the earth. Mancel de Percival. "Tec/in oloq isle," xl. 470. See also ARMILLARY SPHERE ; COSMOSCOPE ; ORRERY ; TELLURIAN, etc. Ger'man Sil'ver. The recipes given vary greatly in proportions, while still generally pre- serving the trinary composition. Kirk gives the following ; which compare with recipes on pp. 63, 964, "Mech. Diet. : " Copper. Nickel. Zinc. Iron. German silver . . Better 80 100 20 50 33.5 50 - White copper ) Chinese packfong j Hard 41 8 17 2 13 4 1 1 Harder 16 16 4 8 8 7 3 Analysis " Scientific American," xxxv. 166. Compositions .... "Iron Age," xxi., March 14, p. 5. Ger'man Steel. (Metallurffy.) A metal ob- tained from spathose or bog ore by treatment with charcoal. Ger'mi-na'tion Ap'pa-ra'tus. An appara- tus invented by M. Gruber, in which the malting of grain is conducted ; including the steeping, couch- ing, and flooring; the kiln drying is a subsequent process. See MALT DRYER; MALT MILL, etc. The new apparatus is intended to conduct and control the Geological Hammers and Picks. Germination Apparatus. process by mechanical appliances, so as to altogether dis- pense with manual labor in turning the grain over on the germinating floor. An artificial ventilation is effected by means of a current of humid air passing downward through the grain. This ventilation keeps the mass at a relatively low degree of temperature (54 J F. to 56 F.), and at the same time draws off the carbonic acid gas as fast as it is produced. Moreover, the thorough turning over of the grain, and its complete division by the periodical rotation of the cylinder, in which the germination takes place, insure a most regular and uniform development of both rootlets and plumule. Fig 1196 shows the apparatus. It consists of an iron cyl- inder, which by means of an endless screw receives a slow rotatory movement. The letters refer to the following parts : b. Longitudinal openings for charging and emptying the apparatus. b'. Handle for opening find closing the above. c. Sheet-iron gratings for admission of moistened air. d. Mechanical appliances for giving motion to the cylinder. e. False bottom of perforated sheet-iron supporting the grain, and through which the air is drawn downwards. f. Pipe for drawing out the air. GERMINATION APPARATUS. 398 GIN. f. Tap for admitting and drawing off the steep water. . Exhaust chest. i. Fan. k. Chamber for moistening the air by filtering it through porous substances kept constantly saturated with water. 1. Shower of water on the moistening chamber. f>. Valve for regulating the draft of air. p. Rake for dividing the layers of grain during the rota- tion of the cylinder. Gruber . . . . *" Scientific American Supplement," 2SSG. * "Scientific American," xxxvii. 152. Ges'ten-ho-fer Fur'nace. One in which the burning of tlie sulphur from the powdered ore ac- complishes its calcination. '1 he sulphurous vapor is used to make sulphuric acid, tiud the acid employed to make soda from common salt. See noticss under CALCINING FURNACE, p. 152, supra. Gibbed Lathe. A lathe the carriage of which has a bar which grips beneath the overhang of the bed, beneath which it is secured by a wedge known as a gib, to prevent the riding up of the carriage. In a weighted lathe, on the contrary, the carriage is held down upon the shears by a weight suspended beneath the carriage. Gif'fard In-ject'or. See INJECTOR. Gild'ing Press. A book-binder's press, for gilding covers and edges of books. The edges of books, and hand-work on backs and covers, is done while the book is clamped in a press, 3, Fig. 1578, p. 668, "Meek. Diet." On a larger scale the full-arch or half-arch press is on the principle of 1, Fig. 1577, Ibid. Gild'ing. Attaching an overlay of gold. Gilding by dipping. Dissolve 10 grams of gold in 40 grams of hydrochloric acid, and 15 grams of nitric acid ; throw down the gold as fulminating gold by means of spirits of ammonia ; filter, and wash. In the mean time dissolve 100 grams of cyanide of potassium in as small a quantity of water as possible, and then dissolve the gold upon the filter with the cyanide solution. Pour this (olution again and again over the filter until all the brown particles are dis- solved, when the gilding solution is prepared by the addition of 1 liter of distilled water. Into this solution, while warm, dip the metallic object to be gilded, and when drawn out it will have all the appearance of polished gold. Ebtrmeyer. Gilding on Glass. Gold, chemically pure, is dissolved in aqua regia ( 1 part nitric, and 3 parts hydrochloric acid). The solution effected, the excess of acids is evaporated on a water-bath till crystallization of the chloride of gold takes place : it is then taken off and diluted with distilled water of such quantity as to make a solution containing 1 grain of gold to 200 cubic centimeters of liquid : a solution of caustic soda is then added until the liquid exhibits an alkaline reac- tion. The solution of gold is now ready for reduction. Asa reducing agent, an alcoholic solution of common illumina- ting gas is used. This is prepared by simply attaching a rub- ber tube to a gas-jet and passing the current of gas for about an hour through a quart of alcohol. This liquid (which should be kept in a closed vessel) is added in quantities of from two to three cubic centimeters to 200 cubic centimeters of the alkaline solution of gold before mentioned : the liquid soon begins to turn to a dark green color, and at length pro- duces the metallic layer of gold of known retlecting power. Dodon in "Monitettr de Ceramique.'' Designs or ornaments of any kind can be produced on glass or ivory, by painting, with a very fine camel-hair pen- cil, nitro-muriate of gold over the designs. Hold the glass or ivory thus painted over a bottle, in which hydrogen is being generated ; in a short time the design will shine with considerable brilliancy, and will not tarnish upon exposure to the air. The thickness of the coating of gold is not more than the ten millionth part of an inch. Another method, in which the use of hydrogen is dispensed with, is to mix gold powder with borax and water ; then paint the lines and or- naments with it. When quite dry, the glass is to be put into a stove, heated to a high temperature. The borax is vitrified, and cements the gold with great firmness to the glass. "English Mechanic." See : Glass . . "Scientific American," 1 xlii. 42 ; xxxix. 104. Dod*on . . "Min. and Scientific Press,'' xxxvii. 407. Iron Work . . "Iron Age,"' xvii., April 20, p. 15. "Scientific American," xxxvi. 291. Gill Net. (Fishing.) A flat web net fastened at one or both ends, and arranged by floats and weights carefully proportioned to float near the surface of the water, at an intermediate depth, or at the bottom. When it lloats with the tide it is called a drift net. The gill-net captures a fish by entangling it in its meshes. The gill-net of Lake Michigan, and salmon-net of the St. Lawrence, are shown on pp. 25(3, 257, " Report of U. S. Com- missiant-r of Fish unit Fisheries," vol. i., Part I., 1873. The stake-net is a form of gill-net. The gill-nets for white fish, used on the Great Lakes, may serve as an instance. " The gill-netting in use on the Great Lakes is knit from linen thread, two and three ply (25-4, 2-cord, and 3'>-'>0, 3- cord), from eleven to twenty-two meshes in depth, 8JJ to 5" mesh. The nets, when hunt; or mounted for nsr, contain from one to three pounds of webbing, and range in lemrfh from 60 to 120 yards, and in depth "from 4J' to 6'. They are set in gangs of from three to five nets, and three to five gangs are laid out in one setting usually by aid of sail- boats or steamers. " For floating the iipper line, round or octagonal float- of bark, or wooden pickets about 21' in length, are used. Sink- ers are of lead or stone. The nets are set in from 2<> to 100 f.ifhoms of water, the lead-line resting upon the bottom. They arc taken out once a week and dried. " They are used principally for the capture of the white- fish ( Coregnnus a!bus, etc.). and the lake trout ( ah>io nttmay cus/i), though most of the common lake fishes an* laken in these meshes. Sea-Island cotton (3, 4, 5, and ti thread) is being largely substituted for linen in their manufacture. " The weight of the twine preferred by fi.-liermcn varies in different localities, that used in Green I'.ay being the finest, that in Lake Erie next, then J^akes Michigan and Superior, and heaviest in Lake Huron. Lake Ontario consume- .1'" ut 5.000 pounds of netting annually, Erie 7,500, Huron 6,000, Michigan 20,000, Green Bay 2,500, and Lake Superior 5,000. The aggregate length of this netting is probably about 4,575,000 yards." Bulletin U. S. National Museum. Gin. Cotton gins are of four principal kinds, the roller, comb, saw, and needle gins. The comb is Spanish (almarraes), and has mechanical impor- tance. The roller gin is found throiighout India, Malay- sia, and China, and has received its proximately perfect development in the Macarthy gin and its relatives. The Macarthy double roller gin made by Platt Bros., of Oldham, England, has, as its name im- plies, two rollers instead of one, the feeding hopper being between the two. In the familiar Macarthy gin a reciprocating blade is employed in conjunc- tion with a fixed blade and roller, but, in this later form of gin, two reciprocating blades come into action alternately. A simple confrivance regulates the feeding, making it uniform, and another regu- lates the pressure of the knifes, called in the Ameri- can Macarthy gin, stripper blades, so as to adapt them to the work of the moment, and allow an obstruction to pass through without clogging or ar- resting the machine, or breaking the knite or strip- per- I iar. The rollers are covered with walrus leather, far more dura- ble, and, from its peculiar texture, superior to sole leather. Each roller rotates in contact with a fixed knife, dragging by its roug'.i surface the fibres of cotton between itself and the knife. Besides the=e parts there are moving knives, to each of which is attached a grid, or series of fingers. At each ele- vation of the moving knives, which rise alternately, the grids attached thereto lift the cotton to the elevation of the fixed knife edge and of the exposed surface of the rollers. On the descent of each moving knife the seeds which have been separated from the fiber are disentangled by the prongs of the moving grid passing between those of the lower or fixed grid about 750 times per minute, and are, by this ra- pidity of action, flirted out. The turn-out is from 120 to 190 pounds of cleaned cotton per hour. The machine was shown in operation at the Paris Exposition of 1878. It was there stated that 10,000 of the double Macarthy gins were in use in India : and 5,000 of the single Macarthy in Egypt. The double action knife roller gin is made by Dobson and Barlow, of Bolton, England. It is entirely self-feeding and self-acting, and the motion for detaching the cotton from the seed ditfers from that in any other make of gin. The leathern roller is solid, being GIN. 399 GIN. composed of round disks of walrus leather with a square sha't through the center. These di-,ks are pressed together mechanically with so much force that when withdrawn from the pressure they form a perfectly solid body. The knife-roller consists of a number of disks fitted obliquely on a wrought iron sh:ift ; it revolves continuously in one direction, the knives gently moving the seeds to and fro while the leathern rol- ler draws the cotton from them until the seeds are perfectly stripped, when they f,ill unbroken into a receptacio provided for them on one side of the machine, while the cotton is delivered in a continuous fleece at the other side. When worked at the prescribed speed, a 40" knife-roller gin is capable of gin- ning the following quantities of seed cotton per hour . Dhollerah, 300 Ibs. Candeish, 333 Ibs. Madras, 307 Ibs. Dharwar-American, 230 Ibs. American uplands, 329 Ibs. Egypiian, Cotton-gin. GIN. 400 GLASS. The cotton is fed into the outer breast and drops upon the huller roller (B), and is carried by it constantly to the saws. The hulls are stopped by the projections from the ribs and the cottou is carried between them and into the inner breast, where it is ginned. \\ hen the gin is fed by hand the inner breast is kept cov- ered with a hinged Hap so that the cotton may be pulled over it from the top of the gin. When a feeder is used, as in the perspective view, Fig. 1198, the flap is turned back so as to leave the breast open. The Clement gin cards from the boll without breaking or tangling the fiber ; avoids the separate ginning, and passes the lint from the seed to the condition of thread. Much stress is laid upon the avoiding of twisting and mixing the fiber heterogeneously, and the damage due to pressure in the bale. The Gullett " Magnolia '' Gin claims as a specialty a sta- tionary beater consisting of 6 parallel bars in close prox- imity to the brush. This beater consists of thin straps of steel, running the whole length of the saws, and to which the cotton is carried, after leaving the saws, and over which it is thoroughly whipped and cleaned of dust and dirt by the brush. The Scattergood needle-gin has needles instead of saws. The circles of needles consist of 10 segments, each removable for replacement. Gill Block. A simple form of tackle-block, having one wheel over which a rope runs. It has local names, such as whip-sin, rubbish-pulley, mon- key-wheel. See i'ig. 2225, p. 969, li Mtch. Diet." Ging'ham Loom. A typical form has 2 har- nesses and 4 boxes at each end of the lathe. Works pick and pick, and from 1 to 7 colors of filling; any shuttle can be brought into action, and any box can be skipped. Shuttle-boxes can be op- erated 135 to 145 picks per minute. Stop motion devices on each end stop the loom when any filling is exhausted. Crompton. Gin Pow'er. An adaptation of the horse-power to the working of a cotton gin. Usually in a story below the gin-house floor. Gin Pul'ley. See GIN WHEEL. Gin Wheel. (Mining.) A pulley for the lift- ing cord of the bucket used in sinking shafts. It has a swivel hook and wrought-iron frame. Gi-raffe'. (Mining.) A form of cage or truck used on inclines in mines of the Pacific slope. Gird'er Riv'e-ter. A form of riveting ma- chine, preferably hydraulic, and suspended so as to work along the girder. See RIVETING MACHINE, infra. Also, Fig. 4351, p. 1949, "Mech. Diet.' 1 ' See KEEL RIVETER, infra. *" Scientific American Supplement : ' . . 2225. Girth Stretch'er. A frame in which saddle girths are suspended and held taut " to take the stretch out of them," as it is called. Spring saddle girth, Br. . . * "Engineer," xliii. 73. Gla'ci-a'ri-um. ficially frozen. That at Chelsea. London, is described, with the refrigera- ting apparatus, in "Engineer" * xli. 378, 331. Gla'cis. A glancing defense on the deck of a monitor or turret vessel to de- Fig. 1200. fleet a ball. See TURRET. Plate XXIV., Barnard] If Wright's "Report on Fabrication of Iron for Defensive Purposes,'' U. S. Engi- neers, 1871. Glacis and turret of " Inflexible," *" Scientific American Sup.,'' 122. Gland Cock. A faucet held in place by a gland which can be removed to get at or pack the plug. Glass. Subjects in GT.ASS are considered under the following heads : A skating rink, with ice arti- Glanil Cock Aggry. Glass press. Annealing. Glass shade. Aventurine. Glass silk. Battledore. Glass silvering. Bead. Glass, Tempered. Black glass. Glass tile. Blowing furnace. Glass, Toughened. Blow-pipe. Glass type. Bohemian glass. Half-clear. Bottle glass. Half-crystal glass. Bottle making. Hardened glass. Bronzed glass. Hot cast porcelain. Bullion point. Jlyalithe. Cameo glass Illuminated sign. Cameo incrustation. Iridescent glass. Casing. Iridiated glass. Cinder wool. Lime glass. Chair. Marbleized glass. Clear. Marver. Colored glass. Melting furnace. Compressed glass. Metal. Crown glass. Metalized glass. Cryolite glass. Mineral wool. Crystal. Mositie glass. Cullets. Mousseuine glass. Cuvette. Murrhiue glass. Cylinder glass. Muslin. Deglazing. Airkel plating. Devitrification. Onyx glass. Diamond, artificial. Opal glass. Direct fire. Optical glass. Doubled glass. Painting on glass. Drawing. Paper-weight. Enamel. Patent plate. Enameled glass. Pencil. Enameling. Pincher. Engraved colored glass. Plastic crystal. Engraving. Plastic etching. Etched enamel. Plate-glass. Etching. Platinizing glass. Etching ink. Ponty. Filigree glass. Pot. Flashed glass. Pressed glass. Flattening furnace. Pucellas. Flattening oven. Punty. Flattening stone. Rolled plate-glass. Flattening table. Rose glass. Flint glass. Ruby gl/jss. Flocked enamel. Safre. Fluted glass. Shade. Furnace-slag glass. Shears. Gas furnace. Sheet glass. Gems, artificial. Silicate cotton. Gilding on glass. Silvering glass. Glass-blower's pump. Silver glass. Glass-blower's tools. Slag glass. Glass blowing. Slag wool. Glass carving. Poap. Glass coloring. Soluble glass. Glass cutter's frame. Spring tool. Glass cutting. Spun glass. Glass cutting machine. Strass. Glass decorating. Table. Glass drilling. Tempered glass. Glass, enameled. Tissue glass. Glass engraving. Tongs carriage. Glass etching. Toughened glass. Glass flooring. Vulcanized glass. Glass furnace. Wheel engraving. Glass milestone. White glass. Glass mold. Window glass. Glass polishing machine. Zaffer. A glass has lately been made with phosphate of lime, by M. Sidot. He states that it is perfectly transparent and very refrangent (its index of refection is 1.523, that of com- mon glass being 1.525); and it can be worked like ordinary glass. It does not, like ordinary glass, dissolve all metallic oxides, but it dissolves very well oxides of cobalt and chro- mium. It is attacked by boiling acids, as also by potash : it is not attacked by hydrofluoric acid ; and this property may render it valuable in connection with telescope gla.-ses, fin- workmen who are exposed to these vapors, and who have to work in the art of engraving on glass. According to Mr. Robert Hunt's experiments, on the effect of colored glass upon plants, the germination of seeds is prevented and young plants soon die when exposed to yellow light. With careful attention, red glass induces a sickly growth, but the leaves become partially blanched. Young plants seem to avoid the red by bending away from it, but as they arrive at the flowering stage, prefer it to blue or .\ el- low. Blue promotes the germination of seeds and the growth of young plants, but after a certain time seems to increase the bulk rather than the strength. Oxide of manganese when present in glass tends to correct the coloring action of the iron usually found in the sand, but GLASS. 401 GLASS. allows a greater amount of heat to pass than does common f lass and is consequently injurious. Mr. Robert Hunt, there- i>re recommended that glass be tinted with oxide of copper, which was done in the case of that employed for glazing the palm-house at Kew, with advantageous results. "Cu- riosities of Art and Literature.'' liefer to Annealing, Albert $ Meyer . . "Iron Age," xxi., June 6,9. Blowers' tools, nickel plated, Clcmanilot "Man. (f Builder," viii. 253. China, glass in, colored . . . " Sc. American" xxxiv.26'3. Compressed, Siemens . . . " Technologist," xxxix.342. " Telegr. Journal,'' vi. 106. "Iron Age,'' xxii., July 25, p. 1. Cutting "Sc. American," xxxiv 223. Depolishing, Matthewson . . " Ter.hno'.ogiste,'' xl. 7. Paper by Lockert .... " Technologiste,'' xl. 5t. Drilling "Eng. & Min. Jour..'' xxvi. 207. Egyptian "Sc. American,' 1 xli. 248. Engraving, Mattheivson Electricity, Plant i. . . Sand blast, Tilgliman Etching Fluor spar in, Hegemann . i'urnace : crystal glass, ~ tigs. 2646, 2547, French, f ... ,- O . on i> i \ rllTS. M Oo( ^ Ooy, iM'iirian, ( Bohemian . . Fig. 2515, Greek, Ancient .... Hardened . . .... De la Bastie and Siemens "Tec/inologiste," xl. 7. * ".Sc. American," xlii. 390. " TeltgrapAic Jour.,'' vi. 32. * "Sc. Amer.,'' xxxvii. 120 "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 103, 702. " Technologiste," xxxviii. 214. iMboiilai/e's "Dictionnaire," tome iii., cap. " Verre.'' " Sc. American,'' xxxv. 80. "Sc. American Sup.," 1480. " Sc. American," xxxvii. 177. "Man. 4" Builder,'' xii. 38. * "Sc. American," xli. 18. " Technologiste, 1 ' xl.68, 117. Holder for lamps, Ereeden, Br. Irisited, paper by Lockert . Irisation, Fremy if Cicmandot. "Technologiste," xxxviii 373. Lined iron pipe * "Man. S( Builder," viii. 162. Making, Sc/intt .V. Amer. Sup ,' )008. Making, curiosities of . . . * "Sc. American," xxxvi. 146. At Centennial * "Sc. American," xxxv. 303. Melting Oven, Greefey . . . "Sc. American Sup.," 1 1838. Millstone "Eg. if Min. Jour." xxvii 297. "M'n. 4" Sc. Press," xxxvi 387. "Sc. American Sup.," 1940. " Technologiste," xl. 51. * "Sc. American Sup.,'' "49. * "Engineering,'.' xxviii. 272. "Eng. 4" Min. J. '' xxviii. 225. "Iron Ae," xxiv., Sept. 11, p. 7. " Technologists ," xxxviii. 217. "Sc. American," xxxiv. 262. " Technologiste,"' xl. 26. Mousseline, paper by Lockert , Printing on, Weils. . . . Railway sleepers, Wood, Br. Scissors for cutting, Martin Silvering Soluble, paper by Lockert . Spinning "Sc. American," xliii 1?S5. Staining "Am. Manufact.," April V3 1880, p. 6. Tempered * "Sc. American," xxxvi. 18. Paper by Bourrce .... "Engineering," xxii. 299. Siemens process .... " Van Nostr. Mag ," xiv 512. L-tger " Technologiste," xlvi. 68. Bourrce " Te.chnologiste," xxxvii 182, 194. Toughened " Sc. Amer.,' 1 xxxviii. 119. Wood, Br * "Engineering," xxviii. 272 Tube making "Sc. American," xli. 361. J.vpe "Mm. f( Builder, "x\\.\&. Vase, Barbenni," (" Portland ;) ) * "Sc. American, 11 xli. 311. Weaving "Sc. American," xliii. 385. Vool, Glass, Austria . , . "Iron Age,' 1 xix. Feb 22 p. 3. Works, Sunderland, Br. . . * "Sc. American Sup.," 1570. Writing on "Builder and Woodworker ." xvi. 33. Colne's report on glass at Paris, 1878, is in vol. iii. of "Paris Exposition Reports," p. 311, et seq. It includes notices of Classification and properties p. 311 Materials p' 312 Crystallization and dentrification .... p. 316 Action of acids and alkalies p. 319 Analysis p' 331 Pot-making-bricks p 394 Fire-bricks p 826 Plate glass .... P p. 328 Tempered glass p. 337 Compressed glass p. 340 , Soluble glass p. 341 Window glass p. 344 Flattening oven p. 348 Fluted glass p. 350 Enameled glass p. 3^0 Colored sheet glass p. 350 Glass shades p. 352 Glass furnaces p. 3j2 Bottles p. 358 Tableware p. 360, Glass cutting p. 3(j8 ' Glass engraving p. 370 Sand blast process p. 3 ( Lime glass (Bohemian) p. 37i Slag glass p. 374 Mechanical tools, molds, presses . . . . p. 3i7 WRITERS ON GLASS. C Plinius Secundus, History, lib. xxxvi., ch. xxvii. Tacitus. History, lib. v. Strabo. Geography, lib. xvi. .losephus. Jewish Wars, lib. ii., ch. x. Galen, Plutarch, Seneca, Vitruvius, Vopiscus. Eraclius, XI. or XII. ceut., "De artibus et caloribus Roma- norum." Theophilus, XII. or XIII. cent., "Diversarium artium SchtEilula." Agricola, XVI. cent., "De re metallica." Garzoui. 1587, "Ln Piazza Unicersale di tutti le profes- ione del Mundo,'' describes beads and fancy articles in niurano style Neri of Florence, 1612, "Traite de I' Art de la Verrerie," describes mixtures for white and colored glass ; choice and preparation of metallic oxides and fluxes. llandicquer de Blancourt, 1697. " L' Art de la Verrerie." Henri de Valois. " Traite de t'origine du Verre " (MS) (Men- tioned in "Les Memoires de I' Academic dts Inscriptiones)." Buonarotto, 1716, in his work ,011 his discoveries in the cata- combs of Rome, mentions the oldlegends of the art, cites Aris- tophanes as the first author to write on glass-making ; and Democritus as having melted flints to form artificial gems. Middleton, 1745, published on the history of glass. Hamberger, " Hisioria Vitri." Leviel, "Art of Painting on Glass,"- 1774, cites history, and speculates on the antiquity of the art. Glass-making became a scientific art XIX. century. Loysel of St. Gobain. Bastenairc d'Audenart. "Art of Vitrification." Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, "Manners and Customs of Anrient Egyptians," 1836, describes ancient Egyptian glass objects, going back to B. c. 2000. See notices of the same * page 972, "Meek Did." Later Works on Glass, or Containing Articles on Glass: Dumas, "Chemistry Applied to Arts." 1 Mu^pratt, " Chemistry." Peligot, " Lefxnns on Gtats." Bontemps' Works. Lobmeyr s Works. Also the following authors: R. E. Raspe. Beneton de Perrin, Jean. David Michaelis. Fougeroux de Boudaroy. Chevalier de Jaucourt. Alliot. Bosc-Dantie. Porter. Apsley Pellatt. Dominique Bussolin. J. Labarte. F. de Lasteyrie. Winston. II. de Fontenay & Bulliot. Anicherat. 26 Consult the following : "Art of Glass," trans. Blancourt, 1699. "Curiosities of Glass-making."' Pellatt. London, 1849. " Guide du Vcrrier.'' Bontemps. Paris, 1868. " Chemistry of Porcelain, Glass, and- Pottery." Shaw. London, 1837. "Manufacture of Crown (e Sheet Glass." Chance. Lon- don, 1856. "L'Art de la Verrerif." Peligot. Paris, 1862. "Les Grandes Usines de France." 1 Turgan. Paris, 1862- 1870. "Les Manufactures des Glaces," etc. Cochin. Paris, 1865. "Action of Sunlight on Glass," "American Journal " Gaffleld. New Haven, 1867. "La Verrerie." Sauzay. Paris, 1868. "Rapports du Jury, Paris Exposition," 1867, vol. cxi. Paris, 1868. " Report of United States Commissioners, Paris Exposition," 1878. Blak'e & Colne. Washington, 1880. Various articles, pp. 971-984, " Alech Diet." GLASS BAKKEL PUMP. 402 GLASS ENGRAVING. Fig. 1201. Glass Bar'rel Pump. A pump made by Ap- pleby, aiid used iu breweries for raiding hot wort, in gas works for ammouiaeal liquor, in tan-yards for tan liquor, in drainage works or farms for sewage, in paper-mills for paper pulp and bleach, and in chemical works for strong acids, etc. To suit the various circumstances under which it has to work, the mountings of the pump are made either of cast iron, lead, or gun metal, whichever may be best suited to the liquor to be dealt with. The glass work ing- barrel is accurately bored and highly polished. The mountings are arranged with flanges for coupling up to the suc- tion and delivery pipes, and are held together by wrought-irou screwed bolts or stretchers, with double nuts at each end. The valves are solid India rubber, with lips which open and clase. When it is intended to pump hot liquids it will be necessary to place the pump below the liquor, otherwise the steam evolved will prevent the creation of a vacuum in the cylin- der. For thin liquids the pumps may be run at a high speed, but for dealing with thick fluids it is advisable to adopt a low speed. Glass-blow'ers' Pump. A device for inject- ing air into a glass glebe or cylinder while being formed ; a substitute for the breath and the power of the lungs. It was invented by Robinet, of Baccarat, and is shown in Fig. 1202. It consists of a small cylinder of sheet brass, closable at one end, in the interior of which is a steel spring ; Fig. 1202. Glass Barrel Pump. Glass-blowers' Pump. at the lower end is a wooden piston, with an opening faced with leather, and held by a bayonet-joint thimble. The mouth of the ponty, the pump being held vertical, is placed in contact with the piston, the air contained in the cylinder is by a sudden blow injected through the ponty into the piece of glass being fabricated, and expands therein by the heat of the glass. Glass-blow'ers' Tools. (Glass.) Ponty (blow-pipe), pinchers, shears, calipers, marver (iron plate), bench, and a few other primitive tools. Glass tools, nickel plated, CUmandot, "Man. J3.,'' viii.253. Glass Carv'ing. A mode of ornamenting gLiss by etching and chiseling. The most remark- able instance is the " Portland," otherwise known as the " Barberini," vase. Long supposed to be an onyx, then considered ceramic. A modern remarkable success in the same line is the " Den- nis Vase," by Webb & Sons, shown nearly complete, at the Paris Exposition of 1878. See "Report on Paris Exposition,' 1 ' 1 1878, vol. Hi., pp. 237, 274. Mr. Northwood, is the Triumph of Ualatea and Aurora. The cover represents a winged horse, not yet finished. The two handles represent horses' heads, one of which is finished. The subjects shown upon the sides, the base, and foot, are ornamented with leaves in opal. The immense difficulty of producing such an article will be understood when it is considered that all the designs in relief have to be carved and chiseled out of the white outside coating ; the artist is required to produce a semi-translucid effect, showing the blue glass through the opal, carving out this glass and mak- ing it thin enough to show the blue through and yet retain perfect and correct relief forms. This beautiful effect was reproduced in several parts of the vase. The blowing of the vase itself must have been a difficult piece of workmanship, since the horse on the cover and the horse-head handles must have been so put on as to enable the artist to carve correct subjects and introduce the semi-transparent tints 1 have alluded to. This glass carvir.g is necessarily a very slow work ; the vase is not yet finished, some parts being polished and others yet in the rough slate. The artist lias already devoted two years to the vase, and it is estimated it will be worth $15,000 when finished. It is simply a ' tour deforce.' " Co/we (1878). Glass Ce-ment'. See Eecipes, CEMENT, p. 182, supra. Glass Cut'ting. (Glass.) There are four kinds of wheels used in cutting or engraving glass : 1. Cast or wrought-iron wheel. 2. Stone wheel of close grain. 3. A wooden wheel. 4. Cork wheel. The iron wheel, being mounted in a frame, is rotated, and over it is a drip hopper containing sand and water, which run on to the glass object being cut. The sand cuts away the glass roughly. The glass is then applied to the stone whetl, which removes the asperities caused by the rough- ness of the previous process. Next the glass is applied to the wheel of poplar or willow wood, treated with wet pumice-stone powder. This removes scratches. The polish is given by the cork-wheel, with tin putty (p. 1836), or colcothar (p. 593), " Mech. Diet." A simple way of cutting glass is to crack it with a very fine needle-like gas flame. Start the crack with a file, and then apply the flame, which may be produced through a mimtte perforation in a glass connected with some rubber piping so as to allow of the flame being conveniently carried from point to point. The crack will run before the flame in any desired direction. Glass Dec'o-ra'ting. Carving. Incrusting. Coloring. Painting. Cutting. Platinizing. Enameling. Silvering. Gilding. Etc. See list under GLASS, p. 400, supra; also pp. 975, 976, "Mech. Diet." See also Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts," etc., article " Verre," 1 vol. iii., ed. 1877. Glass En-grav'ing. The Figs. 1203, 1204, show the lathe and manner of using in lining and lettering glass ware, respectively. As to the former, a wooden gage is placed behind the cut- Fig. 1203. Glass Engraving. (Lining.) ting wheel to regulate the distance of the line from the edge of the vessel. A little washed flour emery, mixed with olive GLASS ENGRAVING. 403 GLASS FURNACE. oil, is applied to the periphery of the wheel, the latter being revolved at a moderate speed. By pressing the goblet against the gage, and at the same time holding it lightly against the wheel and turning it slowly, a line will be formed around it. The wheel is occasionally retouched with emery and oil. In lettering and ornamenting, the design is first drawn with a pen or brush, charged with a mixture of gum-water Fig 1204. Glass Engraving. (Lettering.) and whiting ; the lines are then followed by the appropriate wheel charged with emery Hour and oil. Small wheels are used for small work and for short curved lines, while the larger wheels will be used in making large curves and straight lines. The engraved work may be polished with leaden wheels, applying pumice-stone audoil. " The surface of a plate of glass or crystal having been covered with a concentrated solution of nitrate of potash, and a horizontal platinum wire, connected with one of the poles of an electric battery, being placed in the liquid along the edges of the glass, any design may be easily drawn on the glass by touching it with the point at the other end of the platinum wire. The wire forming the ' pencil ' is insu- lated, the tip alone remaining uncovered, and by simply using the wire as an ordinary pencil and tracing imaginary lines on the surface of the glass, the design is permanently repro- duced and distinctly engraved thereon. Flat surfaces in iy be easily treated in this manner, but the difficulty of keep- ing convex surfaces covered with the nitrate of potash i.> likely to prove an obstacle to the general adoption of the sys- tem. By means of a specially constructed bath, however, it may be possible to overcome the difficulty." Planti. Engr. by electricity, Plants . " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 32. Sand-blast, Tilzkmnn . . * "Scientific Am.," xxxvii. 120. And depolishing, Mntthetvson "Technologiste," xli. 7. Glass Etch'ing. A ground, or invisible alco- hol v;irnish is laid on glass on which designs or scales may be drawn by means of points : Alcohol . Mastic . Sandarac 101 7 3 by means of a blow-pipe, he gathers from it sufficient for his purpose, on the end of a wire. This first gathering is generally of white or colorless glass, to form the white of the eye. He then takes the rod required to form the iris, and gathers from it on the white, and lastly, a little spot from a black rod is added to form the pupil. During the process the bulb on the end of the wire is rotated in the flame of the blow-pipe and occasionally pressed against a smooth surface to obtain perfect evenness of outline. Glass Floor'ing. Glass tiles Flags or slabs of rough-cast glass are manufactured in pieces 6" broad. Ijf" thick, 11" long, and weigh 165 Ibs. per square meter; the upper surface is generally molded in diamonds. Pavements of glass are made in the same style as the slabs, with the upper surface molded in diivOionds, but are much thicker, anil are intended for slabs for carriage-ways. They are made of cubes of about 6" X 65", and weigh each 19.80 Ib- 1 . Rough slabs are also made of 6.56' X 2.65', varving in thickness from 9-16" to 1" ; weight, from 213 to 492 Ibs. Glass Fur'nace. The use of Siemens' fur- nace in glass furnaces has proved a great success. The principles of the furnace are described under GAS-GKNERATING FURNACE and KEGENERATOR FUKNACE. Fig. 1205 shows the application to glass-making. A is the furnace, on the siege of which the pots B B are placed. C are the openings through which the contents of the pots are reached. Under the furnace floor are disposed 4 regenera- tors, of which but one, D, shows in the longitudinal section These, as is explained under the heads cited above, are used in pairs alternately : (1) heated by the gases passing from the furnace to the chimney, and (2) serving to heat the in- flammable gases from the gas producer, and the incoming air, which mingle just before reaching the pot furnace A. The vaulted roof of the regenerator is the floor of the pot furnace, and is traversed by the longitudinal flues H I H I, which communicate on one part by conduit F with the open air, and in the other with the flue G. Speaking as to any one of the four regenerator chambers, that shown at D, for instance, when it is to be heated the waste gases from fur- nace A discharge into H H and pour downward through the cellular brick structure D, through the grated Moor into E, and thence by TV AT to the chimney ; when the regenerator has been sufficiently heated, the valves O P are moved and the conditions are changed ; the heated gases in M coming from the gas producer descend into E and pass up through the heated regenerator, to be united with air entering at G and passing through a similarly heated regenerator, the two being ignited at their point of junction and filling the fur- nace A with flame. As one pair of regenerators become heated and the other cooled, the valves wnich transpose the course of the currents are changed by the motion of a lever, and the functions of the regenerators are changed, and so on alternately. b b are the grates of the -as-producing furnaces ; d ft, the pipes of ascension for the g.ises; ef, flues communicating with chamber M, whence the gases fire emitted to one or the other regenerator, as the case may be. See GAS-GENERATIKO FURNACE. In th works of Lloyd & Summerfield, Birmingham, Eng- land, the application of the Siemens furnace to glass-works was first made, with the result of changing the consump- tion of fuel from 35 tons of superior coal, to 16 tons of infe- rior coal, per week. Fig. 1205. lerquem, "Journal de Physique." An elaborate article on grounds transferring and etching was repro- duced from " Dingier' s Polytechnic Journal " in the " Scientific American Supplement," p. 103. The fluoric acid pro- cess is described in La- boulai/e's " Dictionnaire rif.t Arts et Manufac- tures,-' cap. " Verre," 1 tome ii., ed. 1877- Glass Eye. The workman is pro- vided with a number of thin glass rods, of the colors required Heating the end el one of theu< Siemens Furnace as applied to Glass Works, GLASS FURNACE. 404 GLASS RING. Fig. 1206. Siemens Regenerator, nace. Glass Fur- Fig. 1205 is a vertical section through one furnace in a line at right angles to the view given iu Fig. 1206. " The Siemens fur- naces have been used quite extensively in m e t al 1 u rgy with great success ; in this country we find but three glass-houses using them, viz., Bur- gin & Jons, of Phila- delphia, the Lenox Plate Glass Company, and the Crystal City Plate Glass Works. In Europe we find quite a number of firms using them ; in England, five plate- glass works, twelve window and bottle houses, and one Hint house ; in France, seven plate works, ten window and bot- tle works, and nine Hint factories ; i n Germany, three plate works, eight window and bottle houses, and twelve flint works ; in Belgium, four plate works, one window house, and one flint factory. These furnaces have also been introduced in Ru.s.sia, Portugal, Hun- gary, and Austria." Colnc. The Boetius gas furnace, without the regenerating princi- ple, has been introduced among European manufacturers. It is much simpler in construction than the Siemens. The gas generator is somewhat similar to that of Siemens, but the gases, instead of passing through regenerators, are conducted directly to the furnace with a sufficient quantity of air, and there ignited. The air, by passing through passages under the bottom of the furnace, serves to cool the bench , and thereby receives a certain degree of heat extracted from the hot bricks. The furnaces do not cost as much to con- struct as a regenerating furnace, they are easy of manage- ment, and the heat can be readily regulated. The Ponsard furnace is also used in glass works, and has been described elsewhere. See GAS-GENERATING FURNACE, Figs. 1158-1162, pp. 385-387, infra. In it the heat escaping from the fire-chamber, after having done its work, is conducted to a regenerator under the fur- nace, made somewhat in the same style as the Siemens. In- stead, however, of one of the regenerators receiving the gas from the generator and the other the air to be mixed in the furnace, and having four regenerating chambers, the Pon- sard system uses but one chamber. This regenerating cham- ber is made up of a number of passages adjoining one an- other, one series of which receives the hot gases after com- bustion, and the other receiving the air to be heated by the absorption of heat from the adjoining hot canals. This sys- tem is, therefore, continuous, and simpler than the Sie- mens. The Siemens compartment furnace is a substitute for the bench with pots, the furnace being a tank divided into thr^e compartments by means of transverse floating bridges. In the first compartment the batch is melted, in the second compartment it is refined, while the third compartment is the leceptacle for the thoroughly purified glass, from which it is worked out continuously. " The principal advantages resulting from the use of the continuous melting furnace are : " 1. Au increased power of production, as the full melting Fig. 1207. by cooling and settling the metal, the working out of the same, and the re-heating of the furnace. "2. An economy in working, as only one half the number of men are required for the melting operations. "3. A greater durability of the tank or furnace, owing to the uniform temperature to which it is subjected. "4. A much greater regularity of working, and more uni- form quality of the product than in other furnaces. "5. For the manufacture of window glass, the compart- ment may be so arranged that the blowers can work without interfering with the gatherers : this does away with ths .*ep- arate blowing furnace now in use. " The reason of the greater durnbility of the tank is not only due to the uniform temperature maintained, but also to the circumstance that the batch is filled in, in such quanti- ties as not to come into contact with either the sides or the bottom of the tank, which consequently are not suddenly cooled or eaten away by the mixture ; also to the fact that each compartment of the tank is subjected only to the requisite amount of heat necessary for the purposes carried on therein. " The difference in the specific weight of the irlass at the different stiiges of melting is used for keeping the metal separate in the several compartments, and the operation of charging the melting compartment with raw material causes the necessary onward pressure." Siemens Atterbury's tank furnace is shown in Fig. 1207. The tank is shaped like an oval dish, and the arch has the same form : in order to expose a large surface of the glass, relatively to the quantity, and secure a favorable reverberatory form to the arch. The division enables different colored glasses to be worked from the heat and furnace. Duryee's glass furnace is a revolving cylinder with a blow- pipe flame fed with petroleum and steam jet. Franke's glass furnace is a revolving cylinder having per- forated ends for the entrance of the flame from any desired form of fuel chamber, and for its exit to the chimney at the other end. The jacket is lined throughout with a lining of refractory fire-clay, and has openings on its sides for the purpose of access to the glass, and through which the work- men gather the glass for the different articles to be pro- duced : another opening is provided, through which the batch of materials of which glass is made is introduced. All these openings are provided with doors lined with clay, and which are bolted shut during the melt or period when the melting is being done. The cylinder is mounted on anti- friction rollers, and is rotated on its axis by a rack secured to its outside surface and a pinion driven by steam power. This rotation causes the entire mass to be uniformly exposed to the flame traversing the cylinder, also causes the constant reglazing of the sides and ends of the furnace, and prevents the undesirable action of the gall, which has proved so detri- I mental to stationary tank furnaces. See also Colnc's "Report on Glass at the Paris Ezposition,'" 1878, vol. iii., 352 et seg. Also Siemens * "Scientific American Supplement." 2176, * 3966. Greeley * "Scientific American Supplement,'' 1838. Crystal glass furnace, French and Belgian, Bohemian, La- boulai/f.'s " Dictionnaire ties Arts," etc., cap. " Vene," tome iii.. ed. 1877. Glass, Hardened. See GLASS, TEMPERED. Glass'ing. (Leather.) Smoothing and polish- ing a side of leather by means of a plate glass slicker or glassing jack. Glass'ing Jack. (Leather.) A machine in which is fitted a plate glass slicker for polishing ami smoothing leather. Glass Mill'stone. Blocks of glass of from 6" to 12" wide are cast in a shape similar to the panes of the French htihrs, hut more regular and uniform. They are united with cement in the same way, and dressed and furrow-cut witli picks, pointed hammers, and diamond- dressing machines. xxvii. 297. xxxvi.387. 1910. ' Engineering and Mining Journal " . 'Mining and Scientific Press : ' . . '' Scientific American Supplement " . Tank Furnace. heat may be employed without interruption, whilst, with the old method of melting, nearly one half of the time is lost Glass Press. The subject of the prin- ciplcs and practice involved in the making of r glass objects by pressure in molds is carefully = and lucidly treated by M. Colne' in his He- port on Glass at the Paris Exposition of 1878, vol. iii., pp. 378 et seq. The various require- ments of special forms and complicated structures are there given in extenso. Glass Ring. (Microscope.) A circle of glass GLASS SILK. 405 GLAZE. for forming a cell in which a thick object is mounted. Glass Silk. A product obtained by winding fine threads of glass iu fusion on rapidly rotating and heated cylinders. In the microscope the threads are as fine as those of silk or the fibrillae of cotton. They break more easily than the lat- ter, but are excessively supple Krom the inalterability of the substance, it is very well suited for filtering acid or alka- line solutions, even concentrated, and various other sub- stances, such as nitrate of silver, albumen, collodion, Fe fi- ling's liquor, etc. It affords great rapidity of flow, with good filtration. It is preferable to amianthus, which from the arrangement of its parallel fibers cannot be formed into a flexible ball, and which lets fragments pass that float in the liquid. For analysis it is very advantageous, allowing of a ready determination of insoluble matters deposited; also, by calcination and fusion of the glass may be found the volatile principles fixed in the passage of the liquid, uumixed with empyreumatic products. Glass is capable of extremely fine filiation either by the winding process, cited above, or by means of a blast, in which latter case it assumes a fiocculent quality. See MINERAL \Voot. Glass Sil'ver-ing. Silvered plate glass is pro- duced by causing a slight coating of mercury to adhere to the glass. To obtain this result mer- cury must be retained by a metallic medium ; it is, therefore, amalgamated wiih tin. Mercury has been chosen owing to its power of reflecting light very briyhtly. The process has been described on pp. 982, 983, "Mech. Diet." See also pp. 2184, 2185, Ibid. A solution of silver has been largely substituted for the mercury amalgam. The Pettitjeau process is as follows : " The operation is very similar to silvering with mercury. The table, instead of being a stone, is a hollow sheet iron table, made quite smooth on its upper surface, and contain- ing inside water capable of bring heated by means of steam, to bring the temperature to 95-104. Preparatory to silver- ing the glass it should be thoroughly cleaned. The table being ready, a piece of oil-cloth is spread over it, and upon this is laid a piece of cotton cloth. The plates arc now put singly upon these cloths, and the following solutions are poured over them : "Liquor No. 1. Dissolve in a liter of water 100 grams of nitrate of silver: add 62 grams of liquid ammonia of 0.880 density ; filter and dilute with 1C times its volume of water. Then pour in this liquor 7.5 grams of tartaric acid dissolved in about 39 grams of water. "Liquor No. 2. This liquor is precisely the same as the other, with the exception that the quantity of tartaric acid is doubled, say 15 grams. " First pour liquor No. 1 upon the plates, as much as will remain upon the surface without running over. The heat of the table is now increased gradually to 95- 104 Fah. , and in about thirty minutes the glass is covered over with a metallic coating. The table is now inclined and the plates washed with water, which carries off the surplus silver. The table is again raised, and liquor No. 2 is now poured over ; in about a quarter of an hour another coat is deposited, which covers the glass completely. The plates are again washed ; then they are carried to a slightly heated room, where they are gradually dried. " This operation, as will be seen, is quite simple, and is generally performed by women. The silver carried off in washing and that contained in the cloths is recovered again. Since glass silvered by this process is liable to be altered when exposed to the air, and the coating may become easily detached if not covered over with a protecting coat of paint, the silver pellicle is covered with an alcoholic copal varnish, put on with a brush, and when this is dry a coat of red-lead paint is put on. " Plates silvered by this means have more brilliancy than with mercury, but as there is a slight tinge of yellow given to objects reflected by these mirrors, they were at first ob- jected to. This objection has passed away, however, to a great extent, and the yellow reflection has been obviated by giving a slight coloration to the glass. The new silver pro- cess costs about 36 cents per square meter. Inasmuch as such works as the St. Gobain have adopted it, and as the ter- rible disorders caused by mercury may be thus avoided, there should be no hesitation in adopting this new process everywhere." Colne. Glass Slip. (Microscope.) For mounting ob- jects : usuallv 3' X 1" in size, made of crown or plate. See Fig. 1208. Fig. 1208. Glass Stage. (Microscope.) A platform in the microscope, used instead of brass on account of cleanliness. Glass, Tem'p e r e d. Siemens' process consists in heating, then suddenly cooling the glass to be har- dened and tempered ; but ' when the articles are such as are usually molded, the hardening and tempering are accomplished at the same time as the press- ing that is. the molten glass is run into suitable molds, and while still highly heated, is squeezed ; the molds having the effect of giving the necessary cooling without resorting to the liquid bath of M. Bustie. Glass The material employed for these molds depends on the na- ture and thickness of the glass. In ordinary practice, however, it is found that cast-iron molds maintained at a temperature of about 212 Fah., and earthen- ware molds kept quite cool, yield very satisfactory results. The liquid glass may be con- veyed direct to the molds, or may be taken from the melting furnace on the blower's pipe, and shaped in the mold, but it is preferable to heat the articles after shaping, before pressing and cooling them. Slips. a. Glass slip with ledge. b. Glass slip with hollow ledge and lip. e. Glass slip with hollow. d. Weber's slip with con- vex cell. Siemens Paper by Bourree . Com p. of De la Bustie if Siemens " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xiv 572. ' " Scientific American," xxxvi. 18. "Ens;, fin I Mining Jour .," xxiii. 206. "Engii r.e-:ng,'' xxii. 299. "Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' 1480. Fig. 1209. "Scientific American," 1 ' xxxvii. 177. "Manufacturer and' Builder," xii. 38. "Scientific American,'' xxxviii. 119. For railway sleepers, "Engineering," "Eng anil Mining Jour.,'' xxviii. 225. Wood, Br. . . . * "Engineering," xxviii 272. "Iron Age," xxiv., Sept. 11, p. 7. Glass Tile. A roofing plate made of glass pressed in imitation of the clay article. The French glass tiles are molded in such "a shape that they can be laid alongside of one another, making tight-fit- ting joints without cement or mortar; 13 tiles cover a square meter ; each tile weighs about 5 pounds. Glass Trough. (Microscope.) A means for keeping aquatic objects in a film of their natu- ral fluid for observation. A division plate and wedge admit of forcing them to one side of the trough so as to be con- venient for observation. Glass Type. Glass cast into type form and toughened by the De la "^ Bastie process. Said to have remarkable wearing quality and to be unaffected by acid, inks, and colors. Montcannont fy Dumas, of Paris. "Manufacturer Builder" xii. 145. Glau-com'e-ter. An instrument for measur- ing the density of must. The degrees of the glau- cometer show the density of the (grape) must, de- ducting 1 in 1 2 for foreign matter. Glaze. For earthenware : Silicate of soda 100 Powdered quartz 15 Mention chalk 25 Glass Trough. GLAZE. GLUE. With an addition of borax 10 when it is desired to be more fusible. Copper for green color. Manganese for brown. Constantine. Rendle, Br "Engineering.'" xxii. 9. " Scientific American,' 1 '' xxxv. 353. Glazed Me'ter. (Gas.} One with glazed front and top in order to expose the working of the appa- ratus ; showing the motion of the diaphragm and valves, also the gearing and registering index. In- tended for exhibition to persons unacquainted with the working of meters, in order to demonstrate the fairness and correctness of the indications of meas- urement. Gla'zing Bar'rel. ( Powder Makinq. } A re- volving barrel in which powder is glazed with graphite. A barrel holds 400 pounds and makes 40 revolutions per minute, an addition of 0.5 oz. of graphite being made for each 100 Ibs of powder. 40 minutes is required for each charge. gee "On/nance Report," 1879, Appendix I., p. 108. "Engineering" * xxv. 138. Globe. 1. Sphere representing the earth, or the celestial objects. A skeleton globe with inflated fabric made with gores was shown at the Paris Exposition, 1878. The skeleton is of jointed meridional sections stiff- ened with zonal rings and revolving on a vertical axis. JZnrico, Italy. Artificial, Broicne . . . . * "Scientific Amrr. Stip ," l r l. Fr. Nat. Library, Estr~es . *" Scientific Amir. Sup.," 48. Lyons Museum, A. D. 17u8 . "Fc. American," xxxix. 209. Time, Jouvet * "Fc. American," xlii. 22. "Tecknolosuste," 1 xxxiv.319. 2. A spherical glass for a lamp or burner. " It- is not generally known what a very large proportion of light is obstructed by the glass globes or moons so fre- quently used over gas names. From experiments, all made with a light equal to fifteen standard candles, I find the following results : Illuminating Power. Percentage of Light lost. 1500 Clear glass globe .... Ground glass globe . . . 12.80 1140 900 14.05 24.00 40.00 Another opal globe . . . Another opal globe . . Another opal globe . . . Another opal globe . . . Another opal globe . . . 8.16 800 6.64 8.00 7.48 45.60 46.70 55.90 46.70 50.10 The advantage arising from the u?e of these moons is that they diffuse and soften the glare of the naked light, which is sometimes oppressive to the eyes. Of the opal globes the dead white semi-opaque one should be avoided. A very good form of globe is that with a wide opening at the bot- tom, which allows a considerable amount of light to be re- flected downwards from the white surface of the inside of the globe.' 1 Pattison. Gas-globe holder, Lnrrtt, Br. Globes. Effect of on gas-light "Engineer," 1 xlv. 419. " Sc. American," xl. 160. Globe Oil Cup. A lubricator attached to a piece of machinery and having a globular oil cham- ber. See Fig. 3011, p. 1361, " Mech. Diet." Globe Sight. (Rifle.) a. A circular sight; when spherical and upon the muzzle, also called a bend sight, or pin-hall sight. b. When open, it is also called an open bead sight. Sec BEAD SIGHT, supra. The illustrations in Fig. 1210 are open globe sights of various constructions. Globe Valve. One, the chamber of which is spherical. Such may have a poppet or ball valve Fig. 1210. and mny be for steam, water, gas, air, or other liquid or fluid. The name concerns the shape. A >'', S-. The quadrant Q is so fixed upon the weight A- as to form an angle inclined to its path of mo- tion, by sliding through the swiveled pivot P, and acts as an incline to shift the eccentric, which it does in correspond- ence with the movement it derives from the governor weights as they fly out or come in, giving more or less eccentricity to the eccentric, and consequently more or less stroke to the slide valve, and steam to the cylinder. The construction of the Allen governor, Figs. 1226-1228, Plate XIX., is as follows : \Vithin a corrugated cylinder, which has small projecting ribs on its interior periphery, and which is partially filled with oil, a paddle-wheel is caused to revolve by a spindle passing through one end of the cylinder, driven by a belt communicating with the fly-wheel shaft. The tendency of the revolving paddle-wheel is to cause the cylinder to move in the same direction. On the opposite side to the revolving spindle is a trunnion or short spindle fixed to the cylinder, attached to which is a wheel carrying a set of movable weights suspended by a chain, the speed of the engine being regulated by the number of weights. Attached to the wheel and keyed on the end of the short spindle is a pinion re- volving with the cylinder, and working in a toothed sector, the arm of which, being fixed on the spindle of the throttle- valve, opens or closes it as the oil cylinder moves with the paddle, according to the variation of load thrown on the en- gine. When used with variable cut-off engine, the arm is attached direct to the cut-off. Fig. 1229 shows the engine governor by Runqvist, of Sweden. Its principle is to develop a pressure produced by frictional resistance depending upon the velocity. To the rapidly revolving main spindle of the governor is rigidly attached a bracket which carries on one side a set screw, and on the other a segment of an iron ring, C, in which are mounted three blocks of hard wood. This seg- ment is so attached to the bracket that the faces of the three wooden blocks can readily adjust themselves to form one plane with the point of the set screw, however the latter may be adjusted This plane is not at right angles to the revolving spindle, but is more or less inclined A heavy ring, B, is so attached to the body of the governor by a universal joint that it cannot revolve, but can freely oscillate. This ring is adjusted closely against the wood- blocks and set-screw mentioned before ; and the latter form- ing a plane inclined to the spindle, rotation must transmit an oscillating movement to the ring B. This oscillation brings into play the inertia of the mass of the ring, reacting against the wood blocks, and producing, by friction, a re- sistance against the rotation of the shaft, evidently increas- ing with the speed. The governor is driven from the engine by the pulley A, whence the motion is transmitted by the pinion L to the wheel G, which revolves loose on the main spindle of the governor. This wheel gears into a pinion fastened to a spin- dle, to which the wheel H is keyed : and this wheel finally transmits the motion to the main spindle by the pinion K. The lever F is forked at its fulcrum, that is formed by the main spindle, and it is extended beyond this fulcrum, carry- ing the spindle of the wheel H From this it will be seen that the combination of wheels forms a differential gear ; and here is where the resistance offered against the rotation of the main spindle meets its opponent the tension of a vertical spiral spring that will be elongated more or less according to the speed The lever /'carries on its front end an adjustable saddle, to which the valve rod can be attached. Fig 1230 is Heebner's speed regulator, for railway horse- powers The rim or circle is fastened to the power behind the belt wheel, and leaves the shaft exactly in the center. The hub with its attached arms, weighted balls, and friction blocks, has a stud with small coiled brass spring secured by a thumb- t crew at the end to regulate the amount of speed. As the speed increases the balls are thrown out by centrifugal force, and press the friction blocks against the rim, thus act- ing as a brake ; but as soon as machinery is applied, and takes the power, the balls fall back and relieve the braking. 2. (Gas.) a. An instrument or apparatus to regulate the flow of gas. See GAS GOVERNOR ; GAS REGULATOR. b. An attachment to a gas exhauster which causes the pressure in the main to determine the speed of the engine running the exhauster. See GAS EXHAUSTER GOVERNOR. Refer to - Allen . . * "Iron Age," xvii., June 15, p. 1. * "Polytechnic Review,'' ii. 82. *"Min. Sc. Pr.,'- xxxviii. 81. * "Afanu/. Builder, " xii. 129. GOVERNOR. 410 GRAIN CLEANER. Allen Audrade, Fr Throttle. Bagnall, Br. . . Batchetor, Br Chase. " Buckeye engine " . . Hartivett High speed, Bourne, Br. . Cosine, Buss, Ger. . . Clark Air compressor, Clayton Klectric, Hill Marine, Jenkins if Lee . . Matteson Marks Deckin Sf Parker, Br. . Marine, Fotrle ..... Cosine, Plambeck Sf Darkin Penney ....... Porter ....... Marine, Rankine .... Rigby Shire Equilibrium, Shanks, Br. . Tabor Tracy True Varying speed, Wattis if Stee Waters . . . Westinghouse Ring, Wile, Br See also MARINE GOVERNOR "Sc. American," xxxiv. 335. "Am. Manuf." Aug. 13, 1880, p. 13. "Engineering," xxiv. 443. "Sir. American Sup.,'' 1824. "Engineering," xxviii. 5. "Engineer,'' xlvi. 241. "Sc. American," xxxix. 35. "Sc. American, 1 ' xxxviii.310. "Sc. American Sup.," 896. "Sf. American Sup.,'' 1806. "Engineer," xliv. 395. "Engineer," xliii. 58. "Sc. American," xxxv. 70. "Iron Age," xxii., Sept. 19, 1. " Trleg. Journal,'' iv. 325. "Sc. American Sup.," 4137. "American Miller," viii. 38. "American Miller," vii. 65. "Sc. American Sup.,'' 440. "Engineer," xlvii. 5. "Engineering,'' xxv. 131. "Engineer,'' xlvi. 190. "Sc. American,'' xxxviii. 38. "Engineering," xxiii. 99. "Engineering," xxv. 229. "T/iurston's Vienna Report," ii. 32-34. "Sf. American Sup.," 2162. "Min. Sf Sc. Pr.," xxxvi.385 " Manuf. and Builder," viii. 6 "Engineering,'' xxviii. 28. "Sc. American," xxxvii. 150. "Engineer,'' xlviii. 431. "Sc. American," xxxv. 354. ens, Br. "Engineering,'" xxix. 322. "Iron Age," xviii., Sept. 21, 1. "Sc. American," xxxix. 339. "Am. Man.," May 2, 1879, 9. "Engineer," xlvi. 248. "Engineer," xlvi. 423. TACHOMETER. Gra'der. 1. (Railway.) A temporary track is laid, and from a platform and caboose car on this track a double plow is rigged out to throw up a track. Harden. 2. An earth scraper. 3. (Milling.) A machine for separating grain into lots of varying qualities. Barnard & Lea's wheat grader acts by the combination of sieves and suction blast. The wheat is received on a broad inclined sieve, B, and thence to a second or cockle sieve, and passes to the separa- ting trunk C, where it meets the up-blast of air which enters at D'. The force of the blast is regulated to perform the separation required : the heavier grain falls at D', second- grade grain is carried up and deposited in E, whence it reaches a second separating trunk F with up-blast of air, and parts with the screenings, which falls into G while Fig. 1231. the dust goes to the fan and is blown out. See also GRAIN SEPARATOR. Gra'di-ent'or. A form of surveyor's compass especially adapted for leveling and grading. Gra'ding Flow. A heavy and strong plow used in road-making and road- working ; plowing Fig. 1232. Grading Plow. up the neighboring sod or soil to be removed by the scraper. . Gra'diiig Scra'per. An earth scraper. See SCRAPE*. Grad'u-a'ted Spring. (Railicay.) A round- bar single-coil spiral-spring, with two conical india- rubber springs on the inside, one attached to the spring-seat and the other to the spring cap. When i he spiral spring is extended, there is some space between the two rubber springs. The weight is first supported by the spiral spring until this is compressed far enough to bring the two' rubber springs in contact, when they support part of the load . Forney. Grad'u-a'ting Sight. (Fire-arms.) One grad- uated for distance, wind, etc See VERNIER SCALE SIGHT, for the former; WIND GAGE SIGHT, for the latter. Graf'i-to. (Fine Arts.) Italian Sgraffito. A style of picture in which a thin light ground is cut, chipped, or scraped away to expose a, dark under surface. See Fig. 1 233. It is principally used in artistic ceramics, paterrr, etc. See Prof. Blake's Report, " Paris Exposition Reports," 1878, vol. iii., for numerous examples, in which the designs nrc incised in a thin layer or covering of white slip over a dark red-col- ored coarse clay body. In grafito, the figure is outlined by a sharp steel point, and then for the background and shadows the slip covering scraped away to give various depths of color. The design is thus left upon the surface in Hat relief, being a mere film not much thicker than a card. The whole surface is then enameled with a fusible hard glaze which incorporates itself with the body and slip, and gives a mellow softness and finish to the work. Graft'er. A fine-toothed, pointed, narrow- bladed hand saw, used in sawing off limbs and stocks for the insertion of grafts. Grafting tool . . . * "Scientijic American," xl. 212. Graft'ing Scis'sors. (Surgical.) A skin grafting scissors, for cutting off and holding a piece of skin. Fig. 87, Part V., Tiemann's " Armani. Chiruryicum." Grain Car. (Railway.) A box car, with light door, used for conveying grain in bulk. Grain Clean'er. A device to remove imperfect or blasted berries, chaff, weed teeds, dirt, dust, or other trash from grain. The grain separator does as much, hut also sorts the grain into qualities. As the cleaning and sort- Ing belong to the separator the subject is there con- sidered. See GRAIN SEPARATOR; GRAIN SCOURER; SMUT MILL; BRUSHING MACHINE, etc. GRAIN CLEANER. 411 GRAIN CLEANING AND GRINDING. Commercial wheat is rarely pure. Besides dust, sand, sticks, clods, chaff, and straw, there are numerous seeds, etc., which must be separated from the wheat before grind- ing. Such are several varieties of wild onions, vetches, peas, parsley, beans, radishes, mustard, chess, oats, grass- seed, cockle ; besides blasted kernels of wheat, rust, ergot (smut). Shriveled or blasted berries are in milling resolved into bran, and the flour discolored and rendered less nutritious. Some foreign seeds impart unpleasant taste, some are un- wholesome, others discolor the Hour. Many mechanical devices are used to separate the offal from the pure grain ; acting by gravity, meshes of varying size, rolling over a surface, exposed to a blast, a percussive impulse, pockets of varying size and shape, etc. See GRAIN SCIIKEN ; GRAIN SEPARATOR ; SMUT MILL. Also list under GRAIN, etc. Fig. 1233. Grafito Tile by Solon. Grain Clean'ing and Grind'ing. der the following heads : See un- Army mill. Aspirator. Back-lash spring. Bag holder. Bail. Barrel bolt. Bolt cleaner. Bolt feeder. Bolting cloth cleaner. Bolting mill-stone. Bone mill. Bosom staff. Bran baler. Bran duster. Bran packer. Bray plank. Bridge pot. Brush-finishing machine. Brushing machine. Buckwheat huller. Buckwheat shucker. Buhr. Buhr dresser. Buhr driver. Buhr rubber. Chop separator. Corn cleaner. Corundum tool. Cracking machine. Creeper. Cylinder grinding machine. Cylinder mill. Damsel. Decorticator. Degermmator. Disintegrator. Driver. Dust collector. Elevator. Elevator boot. Exhaust purifier. Facing machine. Facing tool. Flour bolt. Flour bolting chest. Flouring mill. Flour packer. Furrow-dressing machine. Furrow-gage staff. Furrow rubber. Furrowing machine. Grader. Grain cleaner. Grain damper. Grain dryer. Grain mill. Grain scourer. Grain screen. Grain separator. Grain sifter. Grain smutter. Grain sorter. Grain steamer. Grain toller. Grain washer. Granulating process Grinding mill. Grist mill. Grits-grading machine. Grits mill. Grits purifier. High grinding. High milling. Hominy mill. Horse gears. Hurst. Husk frame. Kibbling mill. Leveling screw. Lighter staff. Low milling. Maize mill. Malt crusher. Meal cooler. Middlings. Middlings grinder. Middlings mill. Middlings purifier. Middlings softening machine. Mill bush. Mill driver. Mill feeder. Milling. Milling process. Mill pick. Mill spindle. Millstone. Millstone alarm. Millstone bush. Millstone crane. Millstone curb. Millstone dresser. Millstone driver. Millstone exhaust. Millstone facing machine. Millstone feed. Millstone hoist. Millstone leveler. Millstone lift. Millstone spindle. Millstone ventilator. Mixing machine. Molarimeter. New process milling. Oatmeal machine. Oat mill. Oil bush spindle. Pearling. Pointing. Portable mill Process milling. Proof staff. Purifier. Red staff. Kiddle sorter. Holler mill. Sack filler. Sack lifter. Sack packer. Sack truck. Scalping. Scourer. Sectional mill. Semolina machine. Semolina separator. Semolina sifter. Separator. Shoe. Sifter. Sifting machine. Smut machine. Smut mill. Smutter. Stone clearer. Stone separator. Toller. Tolling machine. Tomkin post. Tram pot. Tram staff. Unbranning machine Vertical mill. Vertical-stone mill. Wheat brush. Wheat cracker. Wheat damper. Wheat grader. Wheat heater. Wheat magnets. Wheat scourer. Wheat separator. Wheat steamer. Winnowing machine. Yoke lever. Fig. 1234. Bodin's Grain Crusher (French}. GRAIN CRUSHER. 412 GRAIN DRILL. Grain Crush'- er. A machine for mashing grain for feed, in order to render it in ore easily digested. It is largely used in Britain and in France, especially with beans; oats are, however, roughly broken or ground in many cases. The bean crusher is known as a kib- bler in England ; the grain crusher as a concassew or au aplatisseur in France. Fig. 1236. Fowler's Combined Drill and Harrow (Stiam Culture.) Grain Dress'er. A machine for cleaning Fig. 1235. Grain Crusher. (British.) Fig. 1234 shows the aplatisseur of Rodin, of Rennes. The grain issues from the hopper in quantities regulated by the feed-wheel, and falls between the flat surfaces of the two large rollers (0.70 me- ter diameter), one of which is driven by hand or pulley, while the other is moved by contact. A set-screw regulates the distance between the two rol- lers, and a spring per- mits them to separate should a stone or for- eign body intrude be- tween them. The work by hand is 22 gallons per hour. The grain crusher of Richmond & Chandler, of Salford, England, is shown in Fig. 1235. The rollers are ridged so as to make it a rough grinding operation. It is used for beans, peas, oats, barley, maize, flax-seed, or malt. The "set-' of the rollers is regulated by means of two thumb- screws in front of the machine, so that the grain may be crushed to the required degree of fineness. The feed of the grain to the rollers, accord- ing to the force applied to the machine, is determined by a small regulating wheel. Machines for crush ing oil-cake for cattle and sheep feed are very commonly used in Europe. See Fig. 498, page 152, supra. Grain cutter (feed), Pini, Ger * "Engineer," xlvi. 434. Wi/helm, Austria . . . . * "Engineer,'' xlvi. 434. Crusher, Von Horde, Austria * "ositwn Reports" (1878), v 87. The Gautreau drill (Fr.), Fig. 1237, has a fore carnage (avant-train), which is controlled by ihe workmen at the rear of the machine, and serves to guide the drill. The steering-lever is seen trailing backward and resting on the top of the seed-box. lu the English drills tlii.s duty is frequently allotted to a man in advance of the hopper-box, walking be- tween it and the fore carriage. The European shovels, for the English and French agree in this, are nearly vertical, trailing a little backward in fact, and are forced into the soil by means of a weighted lover of the second order attached to each. One or more cast-iron weights are placed on the end of the lever, according to the hardness of the ground, and the result is no small addition to the weight of the machine, and would be needless were the shovels made hooking so as to draw into the soil, the Fig. 1237. Gautreau 's Grain Drill, (fr'renc/i.) GRAIN DRILL. 413 GRAIN DRYER. point ranging forward in the manner of the ordinary plow, which keeps itself in the ground by virtue of the mode of presentation of its point. Smyth's telescopic drill-tube (Br.) shown in Fijr. 1238, is a substitute for the caoutchouc tube, which is not so popular in Europe as it deserves to be. Fig. 1238. It consists of three parts, slipping easily one within the other. The material is sheet-iron, and the conductor proper may be said to consist of two tubes, b l b-, dis- charging into a spheroidal cup, c, which rests on the bar rf, and discharges behind the share which opens the furrow The tube fr 5 suspended by chains g- g, is merely an envelope to prevent the entry of raiu, clods, or wind into the tube, to clog it or disturb the fall of the grain from the spout a. See also CORN DRILL, Fig. 691, p. 222, supra; GRAIN DRILL, 5 figures, pp. 1002-1004, "Mecn. Diet.," 1 and WHEAT DRILL, pp. 2761, 2763, Ibid. The English garden plow and drill, Fig. 1239, consists of one light steel shovel, for marking out rows to plant, or for loosening up the ground after the plants are up. Also a drilling attachment ; a small steel plow for hilling up the rows ; a cutter for extermi- nating weeds, and a rake for pulverizing the ground. The tools being optionally at- tached to the stock. Dr. Knight's report on Class 76 at the Paris Exposi- tion of 1878, contains notices and views of the following : See "Paris Exposition (1878) Tube Repots,'' vol. v., pp. 103-119. Grain drill Gautrewi, France. Grain drill Smyth, England. Kiihn's grain drill, "Farmer's Friend ; ' . United States. Siiiftable feed-movement of grain-drill . France. American change wiieel arrangement . . United States. Telescopic seed-tube Smyth, England. Fig. 1239. Broadcast seeding barrow . . . Hunt if Tawell, England. Broadcasting plate France. Broadcast seeder Pernollet, France. Combined drill and fertilizer . . " Farmers Friend," U. S. Fertilizer sower Josse, France. Combined beet seed and fertilizer drill . . Srn i/th, England, Beet seed planter England. Cup feed England. Brush-wheel feed England. Provencal plow-drill Mngnan, France. Uayonneur or marker Boa/in, France. Seed planter France. Seed planter France. Hand seed-drill France. Garrett, Br * "Engineer," xlvii 467. Fig. 1241. English. Garden Ptow and Drill. Turnip and beet seed drill . . . Cnrbett if Peak, England. Grain and seed drill Guilletix, France. Broadcast seeder Smylh, England. Seed sower Rasmussen, Denmark. Fig. 1240. o Roper's Grain Dryer. ( Vertical Section.) Roper's Grain Dryer. (Plan.) Grain Dry'er. An apparatus or machine for artificially drying damp or heated grain. Figs. 1240, 1241 show Roper's apparatus. A is the frame of the dryer, supporting the drying-pans B B', through the center of which passes the driving-shaft f', carrying the rakes E, the teeth of which are so inclined as to carry the grain inward and outward on alternate pans. The grain is carried inward on one pan and discharged through a central opening, b, and is carried outward in the next pan of the se- ries and discharged over the edge into the pan beneath. H is a coil of steam-pipe, one of such coils being provided for each of the pans. The grain or other material is supplied to the upper pan near its periphery, and carried inward to the central dis- charge, where it drops on to the pan B' beneath, on which it is carried outward and drops from the periphery of the pan on to the flaring edge G, and top of the pan beneath. On the estate of 15aron Horsky, in Bohemia, is a granary, provided with an elevator for the purpose of carrying the grain to the uppermost of a series of perforated floors or shelves, by means of which the grain can be made to fall in numerous slender streams through successive air spaces to the hopper at the bottom, from which the grain is again carried in the buckets of the elevator to be discharged on the upper shelf, and so made to go round and round until the desired dryness is attained. Coignet's apparatus is designed to dry grain and seeds without destroying the life of the germ. For this purpose the articles to be dried are placed upon perforated stages and traversed by a current of air from above, downwards, heated to the proper temperature, from 104 to 122 Fah., which he finds best to answer his purposes. A still higher tem- perature (namely, from 300 to 310), applied in the same apparatus, enables him to dry cer- tain animal matters, intended as manures, with- out causing the loss of their nitrogenous ma- terial ; but, as such a temperature of dry air would be apt to cause combustion, he replaces this by superheated steam. There are many typical forms of grain dry- ers ; fan, pans, screens, chutes, traveling aprons, etc. See several instances, pp. 1004, 11)05, "Mech. Diet." Steam, Cutler. * "Amfriran Miller,'' vi. 93 : x. 161. Starry . * " Srientijic Anif-riran Sup.," 1 240. Standing * "American Millrr," iv. 105. Wallace . * "American Miller," iv. 6. GRAIN ELEVATOR. 414 GRAIN SCALE. Grain El'e-va'tor. An apparatus for lifting or transferring grain. See ELEVATOR. '' The pneumatic grain elevator of Renhaye consists of a centrifugal ventilator, the suction pipe of which is carried to a receiver placed upon the level to which the grain is to be carried. From the same receiver the supply pipe runs to the place from where the grain is to be lifted. Between the openings of the suction and the supply pipe of the receiver is an inclined plane, which throws the grain downward. A screen prevents the grain from entering the suction pipe, through which only the dust is carried off. A piston regu- lator at the lower end of the supply pipe acts in such a uian- ner upon an adjustable nozzle that the proper proportion between the amounts of air and grain admitted is automati- cally maintained. The principle upon which this pneumatic elevator acts is that when solid particles in movement in a pipe are mixed with air, a semi-fluid is formed in which the pressures vary in accordance to the laws governing ordinary fluids.'' " Revue IiulustrtMe." 1 Metmie,Ki * "Engineer,'' xlix. 28. Grain Fan. See FANNING MILT, ; WINNOW- ING MACHINE. Grain'ing. (Leather.) Giving to leather a granular appearance on the grain side by either the graining board or pebbling machine. The term originally meant raising the mitnral grain or mark- ing of the leather on the hair side ; but now is also applied to making artificial markings in imitation of morocco, hog-skin, etc. Grain'ing Board. (Leather.) A rectangular piece of wood, the upper surface a plane ; the lower one is convex, and fluted with parallel grooves, which run perpendicular to its length. The grooves are coarse or fine, as occasion require*. Grain Meas'u-rer. See GRAIN REGISTER; GRAIN SCALE. Grain Mill. See GRINDING MILL. See also CYLINDER MILL; DECORTICATOR ; GRAIN- CRUSHER ; CORN MILL ; FLOUR MILL ; MILLING, and list under GRAIN, "Mtch. Diet.,'' et supra. Grain Reg'is-ter. An apparatus to keep count of half-bushels moved away from the delivery spout of a threshing machine. The half-bushels are moved consecutively under the spout, and as an empty one replaces the full one removed the register tallies one. The count is kept by the usual system of wheel, as in the gas meter. The shutter of the tally chamber is shown down, but the count may be observed through the windows of the closed shutter. Fig. 1242. Grain Scale. A machine for weighing grain in commercial quantities and keeping tally of drafts. The machine shown in Fig. 1244 is by Fig. 1243. Baxter, of London. It is placed under a chute or spout, which delivers the grain with regularity. Having determined the quantity that >h:ili be registered at each tip of the cylinder, and adjusted the weight accordingly, the operation of weighing may commence. The grain being led into the hopper, descends into the compartment beneath, until the quantity nearly equivalent to the weight indicated on the steelyard has fallen ; the diminishing valve then reduces tin.- stream of falling material to such an extent that its momentum is not sufficient to influence the beam ; the actual weighing here com- mences, and as soon as a correct balance is attained the cut-off instantly stops the supply to the cylinder ; at the same moment the cylinder is released; it then turns and discharges its load. Being lightened, it rises, presenting the next compartment to be filled, opens the cut-off (letting out the grain collected therein), and the diminish- ing valve actuates the index, and the operation is re- peated. Fig. 1244. Grains. Grain Register for Threshers. Grains. An eel spear. One is shown with five prongs. Fig. 1243. Baxter's Grain-weighing Machine. The "Standard" grain-weighing machine is shown in Fig. 1245. held in position to receive grain by means of gravitating latches, pivoted to the suspenders which hang upon the knife-edge bearings and sustain the bucket. From the op- posite end of the beam is suspended the balancing weight. The balancing weights are so arranged that the lower or main weight, in conjunction with the small weight on the supplemental beam, exactly balances the empty bucket, and the grain weight balances the weight of the grain to be taken in the bucket at each dump. Immediately above the grain bucket is placed the spout, which is gradually tapered to the mouth at the lower end, through which the grain is de- livered into the bucket. Mounted upon theside of the spout are two long, narrow plates, the larger of which is known as the main, and the smaller as the supplemental cut-oil, which are operated by means of fixed clutches upon the shaft. When the grain-bucket is at the highest point of it both the cut-off and the drip-plates are entirely withdrawn from under the mouth of the spout, and the grain flows freely into the bucket. When so much grain as is repre- sented by the difference between the supplemental weight and the grain weight is taken into the bucket, the bucket and forward end of the beam descends a shorr distance, until the supplemental weight rests upon the beam, when the GRAIN SCALE. 415 GRAIN SEPARATOR. Fig. 1245. " Standard '' Grain Scale. bucket lacking grain to the extent of the supplemental weight is checked in its downward movement, and pauses until the requisite quantity to complete the load has been taken. The main cut-off plate is now closed, leaving open only a narrow slit, through which passes the final quantity of grain, necessary to complete the load. The bucket then descends until the latches holding it in position are released by check-pieces on the frame of the machine, when it turns on its shaft, discharges the weighed load of grain, and re- turns to repeat this operation as long as grain is supplied to the scale. The discharge of the grain from one compartment of the bucket presents the opposite compartment for the re- ception of grain as it rises under the spout. Compare : Meter, Barnard .... * "Scientific American,'' 1 xliii. 259. Scale, Cherry * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 66. Weighing machine, auto- matic, Kaiser, Austria . * "Engineer,' 1 '' 1. 404. Weighing and measuring mach., Austria . . . * "Engineer,'' 1. 458 (Fig. 43). Standard '' * "Iron Age," 1 xxv., April 15, p. 1. . . * "Scientific Amer ," xxxvi. 227. Sampler, Gent . . Grain Scour'- er. A machine for removing the fuzz from, and polishing the ber- ry. Used for wheat, rye, and buckwheat. The grain follows a circuitous passage ; falling down a fun- nel to the center, it is caught upon the rough sandstone disk ;ind thrown out centrifuzaUy, to re- peat the action again and again till it reaches the bottom and the discharge spout. The blast which carries off the fuzz ascends through the machine, passing in a contrary direc- tion to the grain. Fig. 1246. In Ingraham's machine, Fig. 1247, the wheat descends between the brush cylinder and the rough concave, and is delivered with all the fuzz and offal into the chamber, where it is exposed to the current of air passing to the aspiration fan, and is sorted into two grades while the dust is carried up and blown out. See also BRUSHING MACHINE, p. 141, supra. Fig. 1247. Id" 1 Neil's Grain Seovrtr, Iiiifraham's Grain Kcourer. Richardson * "American Miller,'' vi. 22. Insrakam "Excelsior." . * "American Miller,'' vi. 22. T/iroop * "American Miller,' 1 viii. 454. Knox * "American Miller,'' viii. 223. Trimmer. . .... * "American Miller,''' viii. 321. Grain Sep'a-ra'tor- 1. The more common form of machine for ridding grain of chaff, husks, dirt, and dust is still the fanning-mill or winnow- ing machine, but late years have introduced a number of more speedy and excellent methods. The French especially have attained a degree of accuracy in sorting grades of grain, different grains, and grain from offal and dirt. Both in Britain and in France the farmer's implements for cleaning grain are in great variety. In milling implements our variety is the greater. These machines may be summarized as acting by a. Blast. d. Adjustable cylindrical sieve. b. Aspiration. e. Perforated and dented plates. c. Graduated sieve, f. Percussion. g. Projection. a. (Blast.) See FANNING MILL, p. 825, "Mech. Diet." WINNOWING MACHINE, p. 2787. Ibid. b. (Aspiration.) See ASPIRATING WINNOWING MACHINE, Fig. 119, p. 51, supra. Also, GRADER, Fig 1231, p. 410, Ibid. The "Eureka" separator, Fig. 1248, acts in large degree upon the aspirator principle, although it embraces many other features, shaking screens, etc. It has zig-zag arrangement of screens, com- bined with a lateral shake movement, and is in- tended to rid wheat of oats and other impurities. The wheat is first fed into a suction separator, which re- moves the dust and light impurities, the dust passing to the fan, while the chess (cheat) and such other seeds as are of some value for food are discharged separately. The wheat then falls on to a shaking screen and distributor, which throws off straws, heads, sticks, etc , and distributes the grain evenly the entire length of the upper screen. It then passes over a series of screens which rid it of oats. It then passes to .a cockle-screen which also rids it of sand and small seeds, and thence passes to a separating leg, where the op- eration is completed. c. (Graduated Sieve.) An instance of this is afforded in Fig. 1249 of Plate XX., whicli repre- sents the grain cleaner and separator of Boby, Bury St. Edmund's, England. Tiie machine has a wooden frame and a long inclined GRAIN SEPARATOR. 416 GRAIN SEPARATOR. Fig. 1248. "Eureka " Separator. Move, which receives at its upper end the grain from a hop- per. The grain issues in a thin sheet from the hopper, and first falls upon a separator, which arrests stones and large trash, allowing the grain to pass down and be discharged in a sheet as wide as the Inclined sieve beneath. This sieve re- ceives a longitudinal agitation by means of a pitman from a crank on the horizontal axis, which is revolved by hand- crank or belt, as the rase may be. The longitudinal wires of the shaking sieve are carefully stretched, and are spaced so as to retain plump grains and allow broken or thin grains to pass, and the meshes are kept open by thin blades, which also rectify the positions of the passing grains and bring them into parallelism with the wires along which they pass in their descent from the stone- separator to their point of ultimate discharge. The machine is particularly intended for the cleaning and sorting of barley for malting, and the necessity of a perfect action in this respect is set forth in the statement following: 1. It is essential that, in advance of the payment of the impost duty (internal revenue or excise tax) on the steeped malt, the entire mass must be rid of matters which produce deficient quantities of saccharine extract. 2. Jt is necessary to separate all light grains before mak- ing the malt, for otherwise they will become too damp or saturated in the time necessary for the sufficient steeping of the good grain. 3. The thin or light grains must be absolutely separated from the full-sized grains before making the malt, for other- wise the thin grains pass unbroken between the rollers in the process of crushing the plump grains. The operating surface of the Boby sieve is stated to have six times the area of the usual rotary sieve, and, the grain being spread over so great a surface, each light grain is sifted out in passing from the hopper to the discharge: in the rotary sieve the acting surface is only at the lower side, estimated as only embracing, at any one time, one ninth of the peripheral. d. (Adjustable Cylindrical Sieve.) A peculiar character of sieve, of cylindrical form, and capable of having the meshes made of any desired interval, within certain limits. The machine of Penney & Co., of Lincoln, England, is shown in three Figs., 1250, 1251, 1252, of Plate XX. It is made of various sizes and prices, and there are also special constructions for certain purposes, such as the clean- ing and grading of malt, the cleaning of peas and beans, etc The latter-mentioned articles require such a very different range of adjustability that the machines cannot be econom ically made to suit the wide ranges of work. The machine can be adapted lor all species and qualities of grains (within profitable limits, as stated) by means of varying the distance between the wires. The cylindrical screen may be said to consist of one con- tinuous wire laid spirally around the longitudinal bars which form the skeleton of the screen. One of the heads is adjustable longitudinally of the axis of rotation, slipping thereon, and as it is drawn toward the extremity, the spaces between the laps of wire become larger, and, conversely, the intervals are diminished as the heads are approached by the reverse adjustment. Spiral springs mounted upon the ex- terior rods, as in Fig. 1251 (ressnrts extcrieurs), or within the cylindrical screen, as in Fig. 1252 (ressorts interieurs), keep the screen extended longitudinally. The different kinds of brushes used for cleaning the meshes of the screen are shown in Figs. 1251, 1252. Regularity of passage through the length of the screen is secured by a spiral Mange or rib projecting inward from the cylindrical surface, which tumbles the grain along until it pushes it out at the end. Dry and broken grain U retarded, while damp grain is expedited in its passage, the rate being thus made uniform, though the condition of the graiu may vary. The machine shown in Fig. 1250 is composed of two parts, of which the second and lower has screen open ings of greater interval than the first part. It is intended for grain which contains stones, ordure of vermin, or other matters larger than the wheat or the grain to which the machine is for the time adjusted. The stones and other large matters pa?s clear through the screen and into a spout, which ejects them at the side ; the good grain passes over the meshes of the first part of the cylinder and is divested of the small and broken grains which pass the meshes ; it then itself falls between the meshes of the second portion of the cylinder, and is discharged by a spout at the end, while the stones pass on, and so to the side spout as stated. e. (Perforated and Dented Plates.) The riddle- sorter of Pernollct, Paris, shown in Fig. 1253, Plate XX., is made in several forms, some adapted for the ordinary uses of the farm in cleaning grain, and others for special service, such as cleaning green peas, beans, lentils, coffee, cacao ; for sorting different kinds of barley for brewers, etc. The machines, in some cases, are specially con- structed for a given purpose, but in others the change of the perforated iron plates for others of larger or smaller apertures is sufficient to adapt the machine to the required purpose. The grain is placed in the hopper, its rate of feed depend ing upon the slide in the bottom. An oblique spout con- ducts the grain fairly within the rotating cylinder, whose four compartments, being clothed with punched iron screens of different apertures, sort the different kinds and drop them into boxes beneath. The respective screens have round holes of different sizes, or long holes, to detain or to allow to pass, as the case may be, seeds of varying sizes and shapes Marot's grain cleaner, shown in section in Fig. 1254, Plate XX., shows a new feature in gvain- cleaners, namely, indented plates, which form pock- ets to carry up seeds on the inside of the cylinder and. drop them into a tray, which carries away the seed thus segregated from the other contents of the rolling cylinder. The indented plates, of which detached portions are shown in Fig. 1255, Plate XX., are sectional cylindrical jackets, like the perforated covering of the Pernollet machine just de- scribed, but instead of holes they have pockets or cups, made by punching or drilling, and form cylinders around the axis of rotation. As in the cage of the Pernollet machine, and others of its class, the enveloping cylinder has perforations in its four sections, of varying sized apertures, according to the special work to which it has to be applied ; so in the case of the Marot machine, the indented jacket, with its recesses facing inward, has pockets of such size and shape as to catch and hold special kinds of grain or of seeds which it may he re- quired to abstract from the mixed or foul material fed into the machine. The new mode of screening compels the long grains to pass through round holes equal in size to their diameter, a result vainly sought until now, and which can he readily understood in looking at the perforated cell, the entrance to which is three times as large as the perforation, being in fact funnel shaped. It will be well to enter into a detailed statement of the functions of the different parts for the better understanding of the process and operation, and the perfection attained. The grain-sorter is composed of a dented cylinder inclosed in a wooden frame, which is surmounted by a hopper, T, and in prolongation thereof is a double inclined riddle, agi- tated by connection with a wheel. The upper riddle, g, retains all the impurities and large round grains ; the lower riddle, g', allows passage to the rye- Dented Perforated Plate. Plate. FIG. 1254. Double-action Grain Sorter. FIG. 1249. Grain Cleaner and Separator. IG. 1256. Barley Sorter for Brewen FIG. 1250. Adjustable Rotary Screen (with Stone Separator FIG. 1252. Adjustable Rotary Screen (dismounted). FIG. 12o!. Adiustable Rotary Screen (dismounted) FIG. 1257. Sifling-sorting Separator. FIG. 1253. Kiddle Sorter. FIQ. 1258. C'eaning and Separating Machine. PLATE XX. GRAIN CLEANERS AND SEPARATORS. (FRENCH, BRITISH, AMERICAN.) See page 416. GRAIN SEPARATOR. 417 GRAIN SEPARATOR. grass seed, small seeds, and refuse, which fall into a tray, h, placed athwart the frame. The wheat falls off the end of the riddle into a hopper, E, and thence into a spout, which conducts it into the interior of the cylinder C. In a central position in the cylinder be- neath the axis.;' is a trough, R, in which is a conveyor, r, ro- tated by a pinion, i, from a wheel, ;', on the axis ;'. The first part of the cylinder Cis studded with indenta- tions (concave interiorly, but nnt perforated), as shown in the left portion of Fig. 1255, Plate XX., which is a portion of one of the plates. These depressions are of such diameter that the wheat and round grains may lodge in them, and in the movement of the cylinder their contents are lifted and dropped into the trough R, while the barley and oats are prevented, by their length, from lodging in the cups, and, following the slope of the cylinder, are discharged at the opening o, at its mid- length. The wheat and round grains, carried up the cups and caught in the trough R, are carried along by the conveyor r, an I fall into the cylinder through an opening, s, at a p'.int beyond the discharge, o, of the oats and barley. Here they come under the action of the second part of the cylinder, the inner surface of which has depressions of smaller diame- ter, suitable for carrying up the round grains, such as tares, but rejecting the wheat. The tares, etc., are dropped into the trough R', which is a continuation of R, and, being pushed by the conveyor, are forced out at the end and led by a spout (not shown) into the box 1. The wheat, deprived of oats, barley, and round grains (tares, mustard, rape, etc.), follows the slope of the cylinder to the point t, where it falls into the cylinder C'. It passes backward along the whole length of the cylinder, pushed by the helicoidal wings which forma conveyor on the periphery of cylinder C. At the point u>, beneath the place of first entry into the cylinder, the wheat, with some other grains not yet elimi- nated, falls into cylinder C", which consists of plates both dented and perforated, concavity inward. The grain is caught in the cups and carried up, and, while the diameter of the holes is not sufficient to allow good wheat to pass, the shrunken grains, cheat , rye, rye-grass seed, etc., pass through the openings indicated by the lower row of vertical arrows, and fall upon the iloor, while the clean wheat is discharged at the end into box 2. Another machine is especially constructed for the separa- tion of rresciite from clover or lucern seed. me same leiirurcs in rne main, our, in addition, it lias tnree circular riddles at the delivery end of the machine, to sepa- rate tin; barley into three grades according to the diameter of the grains Tbe object of the separation is to secure an even germina- tion, as it is found that the different development or condi- tion of the grain causes the sprouting to be more or less rapid; and, consequently, to mix different grades of barley i.< to obtain an uneven quality of malt, as the plumules and radicles are unevenly developed, indicative of different stages in the resolution of the components of the grain. The sifting-sorting separator (cribleur-trieiir-dlvi- senr) of Carainija-Mauge, of Paris, is shown in Fig. 1257, Plate XX. It acts in the same general way as that of Marot, Fig. 1254, previously described, but carries the principle of separation to a fuller extent. It is intended to separate mixed wheat, barley, rye, oats, peas, vetches, cockle, cheat, etc. The grain in the hopper on the left passes through a gate and by a tube to the interior of the rolling-screen. The first pection removes small seeds and waste (dechftx), and then the dents in the first portion of the cylinder raise the wheat and round grains and drop them into the interior tray, where the spiral blade drives them toward the second section of the cylinder. The long grains, oats and barley, are pushed along in the first section of the cylinder until they reach the ex- terior holes, at which they issue. The wheat and round grains being conducted into the sec- ond section of the cylinder, as stated above, the round grains are picked up by the dented surface and raised so as to drop into the second interior trough, wherein a spiral works to thrust them out at the end, where they fall into the box shown at the right. The second section of the cylinder has portions of differ- ing fineness of mesh, sorting the wheat into qualities for seed and for market. . The result of the operation is five grades ; reading from the left to the right, they are as follows: Waste, oats and barley, seed wheat, merchantable wheat, round grains. Fig. 1258, Plate XX., is the separator of Pernol- let, of Paris. It consists of a winnowing machine 27 above and a cylindrical screen below, discharging the grades of grain and offal into separate bags. The cleaning is done above and the separating below, the latter differing in no essential respect from some of those previously described. The machine is also by special ad- justment adapted for sorting coffee, the product of the ground cacao, etc. f. (Percussion.) This machine seems to be used but little out of France. Several ingenious forms of it are made by Hignette, Paris. It is especially intended to remove clods, and is shown under CLOD CLEARER, Fig. 637, p. 201, supra. The tray has a rocking motion on pivoted legs, at the rate of 115 double strokes per minute. Grain falls from a hopper into the tray, and is bounced from side- to side, angular blocks directing it to different discharge apertures. 17. (Projection.) A machine used in Austria, for the separation of round seeds from grain, is shown at Fig. 1257, in which advantage has been taken of the spherical form of certain of the foreign seeds to effect their removal. The wheat, with its mingled mustard-seed, wild pease, and other round grains, is discharged through a tube upon the Fig. 1259. Conical Grain Separator. apex of a varnished wooden cone, the slopes of which are inclined to the perpendicular at an angle of about 55. The elongated wheat-grains slide to the bottom within a certain time, being retarded by friction The round grains, how- ever, rolling down the side of the cone, acquire very much greater velocity, and leap across a narrow opening at the base of the cone : while the wheat-grains, moving much more slowly, fall into the opening, and are received into a separate receptacle. The spout a is adjustable. The round grains, striking the slender ledge at the base of the cone, bound or leap across the openings c c, while the long grains of wheat, moving at a slower rate, fall through and descend the incline to b. The Vienna steam-mills have an endless apron stretched upon two equally inclined cylinders. The apron has a trans- verse inclination, and receives the grain at one end in a thin stream. The round grains roll off while the wheat grains travel to the end and are discharged into a box. The principle of projection is also used in grading products of milling. See MILLING, infra. 2. A threshing machine, which see. Dr. Knight's report on Class 76, Paris Expositi gives views and description of the following. Exposition (1878) Reports,'' 1 vol. v., pp. 187-199. Aspirating winnower, Girardin France. Grain-cleaner and separator, Robert Boby . . England. Adjustable rotary screen, with stone separator, Penney (f Co., and others England. Kiddle sorter. Prrnnllet France. Grain sorter. Marot France. Grain sorter, dented plate France. Grain sorter, dented and perforated plate . . France. Barley-sorter for breweries France. Sifting-sorting-separator, Caramija-Mauge . France. Stone-clearer, Hignette France. Aspirating stone-clearer France* on of 187S, See "Paris GRAIN SEPARATOR. 418 GRANULATING PROCESS. Refer also to : Cleaner, Johnson MiUot .... Richmond . Seek " Triumph, v S'ater Dresser, Vungelder . Dryer, steam, Cutler Stacey .... Standing . . . Wal'ace .... Scourer, Knox . . In%raham tf Beard "Excelsior" . . Richardson . . Throop . . . . , Trimmer . . . , Screen, Barnard . . Separator, Booth . , JeWlll . . . . , Kurth " New Era " . . , Taylor Sorter and smutter. Rose, Switz. . . . Stone clearer . . . . * "Scientific American,'- xxxiv. 262. * "Scitntlfic American Sup.," 1 27U2. * "American Miller," viii. 195. * "American Miller," vi. 128. * "American Miller.'' iii. 183 * "Scientific American Sup.," 1 1620. * "American Miller,"' vi. 93, 161. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 240. * "American Miller," iv. 105. * "American Miller," iv. 5. * "American Miller,'' 1 viii. 224. * "American Miller,'' vi. 22. * "American Miller,'' 1 vi. 22. * "American Miller,'' vi. 22. * "American Miller,'- viii. 454. * "American Mill/r," viii. 321. * "American Miller,' 1 iv. 115. * "American Miller," v. 38. * "American Miller," iv. 47. * "American Miller," viii. 356. * "American Miller," iv. 24. * "American Miller," vii. 3. * "Engineer," xlvi. 258. Fig. 637, page 201, supra. Grain Side. (Leather.) The side of ji skin or hide from which the hair has been removed. Grain Sift'er. See GRAIN SCREEN; GRAIN SEPARATOR. Grain Sort'er. See GRAIN SEPARATOR, p. 415, et seq. ; GRADER, page 410. Grain Steam'er. See WHEAT HEATER. Grain Tol'ler. A device for taking from a grist the miller's portion or toll. See TOLL COLLECTOR, p. 2587, "Mech. Diet." * "Mining and Scientific Press" .... xxxvi. 297. Grain Wash'er. An apparatus for washing grain previous to Fig. 1260. Grain Washer. grinding. Fig 1260 shows a French apparatus for this purpose H H is a sheet-metal cage revolving on the vertical axis R ; the latter also carries a spiral brush, F F, in the neck of the hopper D, down which the wheat and water are passed. Traversing together through the neck the wheat is washed, and both are d i s- charged into the cage H H, which, being in rapid motion, re- jects the water at its circumference and retains the wheat. The course of water being stopped, the revolution is kept up till the wheat is sufficiently dry, and it is then discharged into the hopper O O. Rebel's system, French also, is an in- clined cylinder. Rose, Switz. * "Engineer" xlvi. ~ Grain Weigh'ing Ma-chine. See GRAIN SCALE, pp. 414, 415, supra. Gramme Ma-chine'. The dynamo-electric machine of M. Gramme, celebrated in the history of the art. Fig. 893, Plate XL, supra. See * "Iron Age," xxiii., Jan. 2, p. 9. * " Scientific American Sup.," 2404. Grand Feu. (Ceramics.) A French term, but frequently used in English treatises, signifying that the articles are baked in very highly heated kilns or muffles. Gran 'ite Ware. 1. (Ceramics.) A trade name (;. y., white granite) of a kind of stoneware. 2. An enameled iron ware made by the St. Louis Stamping Company. It has a stone-like enamel of a gray color and remarkably adherent to iron, free from poisonous qualities and very durable. Gran'u-la'ted Steel. (Metallurgy.) Melted pig-iron is run into a cistern of water ; the grains put in a crucible with sparry iron ore, which yields oxygen to remove the carbon. The fragments are melted, and cast in ingots. Uchatius steel. Gran'u-la'ting Ap'pa-ra'tus. An apparatus for the granulation of metals is shown in Fig. 1261. The object is to reduce the metal to fine powder or small particles so as to multiply the surfaces and facilitate oxidation, in their attack by acids. The apparatus shown in Fig. 1261 is used for iron, copper and its alloys with zinc, lead, and tin. It consists essentially Fig. 1261. Granulating Apparatus. of a vertical axis E put in movement by shaft Hand gearing, the molten metal being poured through funnel b, upon the revolving disk a of terra-cotta, and dispersed centrifug:illy into the air (or water if necessary) which surrounds the cast- iron casing, S. Gran'u-la'ting Ma-chine'. ( Gunpowder Mak- ing.) The granulating machine works upon the broken pieces of powder cake, to reduce them into the proper size of grains. It consists of two bronze side frames supporting four pairs of bronze toothed rollers placed on different levels and hav- ing their axes parallel and liorizontil. The first set is at the top of the machine, about 20' from the floor, and the press cake, broken up between them, falls on to an inclined screen which conducts the fragments to a second pair of rollers. A succession of vibratory screens sorts the powder into grades and dust. In the Petersburg arsenal the powder cake is broken into grains by placing it in sieves which contain a certain num- ber of bronze balls. These sieves are attached to a vibra- tory frame, crushing the cake, the pieces falling through the bottom of the sieve into drawers beneath. The grains are subsequently dusted, glazed, and assorted. See Fig. 19 accompanying Appendix L, "Ordnance Report," 1877. See also, Ibid., 1879, Appendix I, Plate IV., Fig. 8, and description on pp. 104, 105. Br., "Engineering " * xxv. 138. Gran'u-la'ting Prp'cess. (Millina.) The system of milling consisting in the repeated crack- ing of the grain and its fragments between rollers, instead of tearing it to pieces and reducing it to flour and offal between stones. The diagram, Fig. 1262, shows the gradations of the process. See CYLINDER MILL ; ROLLER MILL ; MILLING, etc. Middlings Mill, Mills ... * "American Miller," v. 177. Middlings mill, Mills . . . * "American Miller," vi. 93 : vii. 277. GRANULATED WOOD POWDER. 419 GRAPE MILL. Fig. 1262. CI/E/VJVED WHEAT. ISOLLERS. nette's (Paris) machine, for crushing, press- ing, and de-stalking grapes. Fig. 1234. JTonr. Diagram of Wegmann's Granulating Process. Gran'u-la'ted Wood Pow'der. .The inven- tion of Captain Schultze, of the Prussian army. Wood is sawed into fine veneers across the grain. These veneers are chipped into small cubes. The acids and solu- ble substances are removed, and the little cubes are treated with a mixture of 40 parts by weight of nitric acid (of 1.48 to 1.50) and 100 parts sulphuric acid (of 1.85), and set aside to cool. Six parts of wood is added to 100 parts of the acid, stirring constantly for 3 hours. The grains are dried in a centrifugal machine, washed in running water, boiled in a weak solution of carbonate of soda ; again washed and dried. The grains are then heated with potash or baryta ni- trate, dried at a temperature of 90 to 112 Fah. for 12 hours. Grape Mill. Figs. 1263, 1264 show Chava- Fig. 1263. It is intended to do the whole duty of crushing the grape, expressing the juice, and re- moving the stalks, skins, and pip*. Great stress is laid upon the perfect separation, on the supposition that the effect of fer- mentation upon the seeds and stalks is injurious to the wine, and the relative quan- tity of the skins in the fermenta- tion-vat should be under control, as it is the ferment- ing skin which confers the color upon the wine. Chavanette : s Egrappoir. The value of the (Transverse Vertical Section.) degrappage, h o w- ever, is disputed. In the C6te d' Or. for instance, it is claimed that the rafle (stalk of the bunch) con- tains the ferment, bitartrate of potassa, and tan- nin in notable quantities, and its presence in the fermenting vat adds quality to the wine and assists in its conservation. The machine is driven by hand or by power ; in the former case the product is from 80 to 100 gal- lons per hour, and 8 to 10 times the quantity when driven by an engine of 1-horse-power. A is the hopper into which the grapes are thrown . From this they fall between two cylinders, B B', the outer surfaces of which have conical-headed nails, which move in close proximity, but without contact. The cylinders are separated by a distance of 5 to 6 millimeters. The crushed mass falls upon a pair of cylinders covered with sheet caoutchouc, which has a uniform thickness of 7 millimeters. The pips, stalks, and skins are drawn through, but deprived of juice, which passes out through perfo- rated plates, O, at the ends of the cylinder-box, and then, by the inclined plate Q and spout T, is discharged into a funnel and barrel. The pips, skins, and stalks drop into a chute, P, and then into a long cylindrical horizontal chamber, Chavanette's Egrappoir. (Longitudinal Vertical Section.) in which is a revolv- Fig 1265. ing helical brush, F F' , which drives the contents against the exterior, the lower part of which is cov- ered with wire cloth, while the upper is of wood or sheet metal. The meshes of the portion from E to m are of such a size as to let the grape seeds fall through ; from m to E' the skins pass out and the stalks are ' ejected at the end, n, of the cylinder. G, Grape Crusher. H, 1, K, L are gear- wheels for transmitting motion derived from the crank Z or pulley y. V is the fly-wheel. The crushing of the grape is still performed by the feet in many parts of France. Earnest efforts are making to induce the small proprietors to adopt the ccrase-rai.tin orfouloir. The grape-crusher, Fig. 1265, of Meixmoron de Dombasle, of Nancy, is a light machine, driven by hand, and placed above the vat. It has two wooden rollers, and rods upon them which act as teeth to draw in and crush the grapes which are thrown into the hopper. The keys allow the juxtaposition of the rollers to be regulated. The work per- formed is 2,000 kilos of grapes per hour. The American grape-mill is upon the same principle as that shown in Fig. 1265, a pair of rollers ; toothed or spiked, to tear and crush. The grape mill of Mabille Freres, of Amboise, is shown in Fig. 1266. The teeth on the rollers are spiral, and the ac- tion is one of tearing as well as cutting. It is the " usage du Midi," a great and important grape region. See WINE TRESS. GRAPHITE BATTERY. 420 GRAPNEL. Fig. 1266. Grape Mill. Graph'ite Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) I. A term used in England in reference to a battery, having platinized carbon plates and amalgamated zinc plates in dilute sulphuric acid. 2. A battery in which mineral graphite is used as the negative element. See instance in list under GALVANIC BATTERY. Graph'o-scope. (Optics.) A mounted glass for viewing pictures or photographs. The lens mounting is usually hinged to a frame which forms the picture holder. Fig. 1267. Graphoscopt. Graph'o-ste're-o-scope. (Optics.) A frame with mounted lens, for viewing stereoscopic pic- tures. Grap'nel. 1 . A boat's anchor with four claws. 2. A grappling hook, for recovering submerged property. Fig. 1268 shows Toselli's (taupe marine) for directing the search for objects of value at the bottom of the sea. Sus- pended in the vicinity of the diving-bell is a spring grapple and an electric light with reflector, directing a bright light over a circular area of the bottom. Also used in coral, pearl- oyster, and sponge fishing. 3. A grapple for submarine cables. The kind of grapnel ordinarily employed in pick- ing up submarine cables for repairs is that known as the centipede grapnel. It resembles a compound fish-hook in shape, the stem or shank being set round with several prongs or flukes which catch the cable as the grapnel is dragged across it over the sea bottom. The flukes are rigidly welded to the stem, and one disadvantage in this form oi grapnel is its liability to have its flukes broken off if it catches in submarine rocks or other obstruc- tions on the bottom. To prevent the escape of the cable from the claw a fluke has been designed to lose upon the cable and prevent its jumping out again. Jamieson's cable grapnel, shown in Fig. 1269, is self-re- ieving when it conies in contact with rock or other obstruc- Fig. 1268. Fig. 1269 Toselli's ( Taupe Marine). tions on the bottom, and closes on the cable when once en- countered. At the lower end of the grapnel shank, 1, there is fixed a boss, 2, for containing a spring, 6, which exercises a pressure upon the inner ends of the grapnel toes, 4, as the outer portions of the nukes, 8, are called. The toe portion of each fluke is free to move round a cen- ter or fulcrum carried by the joint of the fluke, which is rigidly fixed to the boss, so that when the toe encounters a rock or other obstacle of the kind it yields to it, turn- ing round on its fulcrum, 7, and thereby exercising a compression upon the spring until the obstruc- tion is cleared, when the recoil of the spring re- stores the toe to its for- mer position. When, - however, the grapnel meets the cable, the lat- ter, 18, lies in the joint of the fluke, where it is attached to the boss, and it is retained there by a spring, 5, which juts out from the boss and arches over it so as to hold it in. The grapnel operates in the following man- ner: The toes when i-n- f-'~ gaged by rocks or other ' obstructions are pressed outward and rotate round their respective fulcra, their inner ends bearing against the movable piston 13 on the reduced portion 15, of the shank, which com- presses the spring up the boss ; a movement which may con- tinue until the toes move round to the angle shown by dotted lines on the left hand, an angle amply sufficient to relieve the toes from the obstruction. As soon as the toes are released, the piston is forced down again by the reaction of the spring, and, bearing against the toes, restores them to their initial working angle. This angle is fixed for each grapnel by the shoulders 17 on the boss 2 which act as stops between the boss and toes, preventing the latter from bend- ing in toward the shank. The fragmentary view shows a grapnel with an arrangement of cutting shears for severing a cable or torpedo line. In this figure A and B are two steel knives or shears mounted on respective fulcra, C and D, and capable of rotating round Submarine Cable Grapnel. GRAPNEL. 421 GRATE. them. These knives are ground sharp in their upper edges, on which the cable 18 rests. When a strain is produced on the cable by hauling in the grapnel, these knives shut on each other and shear the cable in two. The upper shackle 10 is the means of attachment for the grapnel line, and 11 is for the length of chain which is al- \\.-i\s trailed after a grapnel to keep it from skidding and jumping. For telegraph cables. Jamitson If King . Submarine cable. Paper by Jamieson * " Telegraphic Journal,''' vi. 483. * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 1779. * "Engineering,'" xxiv. 431. Grap'pling For'ceps. (Surgical.) A tweez- ers with double claws on the end of the prongs. Used in skin-grafting. Pijffard. Grap'pling Tongs. (Fishing.) Broad-mouthed tongs for gathering oysters. Oyster tongs. Grass-burn'- ing Stove. A Fi s- 127L stove for burn- ing prairie grass where coal and wood are scarce. It is built of brick, stone, or concrete. Grate. 1. An open fire as in the open stove, Fig. 5009, p. 2410, "Mech. Diet." 2. The iron bars containing the fuel in a f ur- n a c e or fire- box. A collec- tion of grate bars. A grid. Fig. 1272 Mennonite Stove. A. Furnace door to fire-box. B. Draft. C. Pipe. F . Chamber with iron shutter (hinged) to let out heat. This chamber has doors on both sides of furnace. . Oven or cooking place on kitchen shows the Kyder side of furnace, reciprocal grate. Fig. 1272. Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.,'' vii. 393. Lambert * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.,'' vii. 417. Grap'ple. 1. A tool with spring jaws which are closed by striking the fish. UNITED STATES PATENTS. 7,709 Warner et al. 16,014 E. Ilorton. 20,343 J. Garl. 141,110 J. W. Knapp. 168,335 M.Jincks. 2. A pair of claws grasping a beam or rafter as a means of suspension of a tackle for hoisting hay in a barn, or merchandise in a warehouse. See GRAP- PLE, p. 1011, "Mech. Diet." Grap'ple Dredg'ing Ma-chine'. A dredge with hinged jaws or claws which inclose or clasp the object. Grap'ple Hay Fork. That form of fork with hinged jaws which mutually approach to clasp the hay ; a form of horse hay-fork. Figs. 2027, 2080, p. 907, "Mech. Diet." Grap'ple Hook. 1. (Fishing.) One with guard to prevent fish from getting loose from the barb. See Fig. 2000, p. 872, " Mech. Diet." Also list of U. S. Patents, 1846-1872; Report of U. S. Fish Commissioners, Part I., 1 873. 2. (Hoisting.) A pair of hooks to clasp the ob- ject to be hoisted. See BALE HOOK, Fig. 181, p. 68 ; and BARKEL HOOK, Fig. 221, p. 78, supra; and c Fig. 2302, p. 1011, " Mech. Diet." 3. A grapple attached to a beam as a means of suspension of hoisting tackle, etc. See a, b, d, e, Fig. 2302, p. 1011, "Mech. Diet." Grap'ple Shot. A shot used in the life-saving service on the sea-coast. Being fired across a ship, it cntches in the rigging and serves as a means of establishing communication with shore. The flukes Ryder Reciprocal Grate. lie parallel in the barrel, but spring out when the cable is hauled in. The grate consists of a series of alternate movable and sta- tionary bars. The movable bars are moved backward and for- Fig. 1270. ward several inches by a lever in front of the boiler, through the ash- pit door. The movable bars, resting on friction rolls, are raised above the stationary bars a little, and have a corrugated surface for friction, which disturbs the coal, destroys the clinkers, and removes the ashes, thus opening up a uniform draft over the fire surface. Fig. 1273 shows Schmitz's French furnace, having grate- bars which are hollow to allow passage of air, and turn on their axes to prevent burning out or having clinkers attached to them. Fig. 1274 shows the Tupper Life-saving Service Grapple Shot. (Lyle-Emery.) sectional grate for steamboats, locomotives, and furnace s. The sections are laid on truss bars, but not fastened, Grap'pling Gear. (Fishing.) Used to re- cover lost trawls. See GRAPNEL ; GRAPPLE. Grap'pling Hook. (Surgical.) An instru- ment with a pair of claws at each end, used in post-mortems and dissecting to retain an opened flap in position. so that they can expand and contract without strain. The openings in the bars are V-shaped. Fig. 1 275 shows the Hawley-Adams grate. The ^shaking grate-bars are rocked back and forth bv a lever, so as to break up the slag or clinkers which would block them. GRATE. 422 GRAVITY INDICATOR. Fig. 1273. Furnace, with .Turning Grate-bars. Fig. 1276 shows the grate of the " Calorific " cooking-stove. It has a sliding grate which is Fig. 1274. Tapper Grate. pulled forward to allow the clinkers at the back of the fire to drop out, and the clinkers in front are then picked out. Fig. 1275. Rocking Grate-bars. Fig. 1277 is Bissell's radiator shaking grate, the bottoln made of a number of parallel bars, which Fig. 1276. Anti-clinker Stove Grate. are shaken in concert by means of the handle on the side. Numerous examples are shown under GRATE, GRATE BAR, on pages 1012, 1013, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 1277. Radiator Shaking Grate. Refer to : Grates at Centennial, shakin Rider, Smith, Adams . ' Denny (f Ruth . . . * ' Errlmans * ' Peat-burning, Domestic . * ' Revolving * ' Rotary, Denny if Ruth . * ' Shaking, W Farlane . . * ' Water-bar * ' Revolving, Barber, Engl. * ' Ten Brink, Switz. . . * ' Iron Age," sviii., Aug. 3, p. 1. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 390. ' Scientific Amtr.,"* xxxiv. 22. 'Engineer," xlii., 348. 'Iron Age,'' xviii., Dec. 28, p. 5. 'Min. If Sc. Prfss," xxx vi. 177. 'Am. Man.," Mar. 21, 1879, p. 8. 'Scientific Amer.,'' xxxv. 68. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 855. 1 Engineering ," xxviii. 175. Gra'ted Door. A door of open slatted-work for cattle cars in warm weather, arid for other pur- poses. Grate Ring. A ring surrounding the tip-grate of a heating stove. Grate Sha'ker. The lever for agitating the grate of a heating stove, to drop the ashes. Grav'el Pow'der. Coarse gunpowder, other- wise known as pebble powder, which see. Gra'ving Dock. Clark's elevating dock in the repairing basin of Black wall, River Thames, is a depositing dock ; but instead of depositing the vessels on a grid, as in the Clark & Stand field dock at Nicolaieff, on the Black Sea, the vessel is placed on stocks on a large barge, of the nature of a camel. The lifting is by means of two paralb-1 ranges of hydraulic presses, between which the ship is floated to a position over the cradle and camel on which it is to be lifted, and on which it eventually floats, clear of the water, to be repaired. A general view of the whole apparatus is given in Plate IX., opp. p. 252, supra. Refer also to Birkenhead, Br * "Engineer," xliv. 152. Green, Blackwall, Br. . * ^ Engineering," xxvi. 110. Caisson, Poplar, London . * "Engineer,' 1 ' xlvii. 892. Toulon, Fr * "Engineering,'' 1 xxvi. 398, 503. Grav'i-ty Bat'te-ry. The invention of Cal- laud or Varley, 1854. A battery "in which the different fluids range themselves ",-it different heights in a single jar by virtue of their differing specific gravities. The zinc element is above in sulphuric arid, and the copper below in sulphate of copper. The crys- tals of the latter may be covered with a layer of sawdust or sand, to prevent mixing the fluids by accidental agitation; as in Minolta's battery, Prescotfs "Electricity,'" p. 60. Siemens- Hal she has interposed paper pulp, Prescott, * p. 52. See also Meidinger ... Prescott, p. 53. Daniell * Prescott, p. 59. Sir William Thomson . * Prescott, p. 62. Vbicini " Telegraphic Journal," v.265. See also CALLAUD BATTERT ; GRAVITY BATTERY, "Mech. Diet." Grav'i-ty In'di-ca'tor. An invention by M. Lebourg, for experimental verification of the laws of falling bodies. " A flattened cylindrico-conical weight, guided in its fall, like that of General Morin's apparatus, carries, instead of a style, a vertical tuning-fork, furnished with a short and stiff metallic wire. The weight falls down a rule, graduated on one of its edges, and covered with smoke black. The tuning- fork is set in vibration automatically at the commencement of its fall, and it inscribes on the fixed rule a sinuous line, inspection of which affords an easy demonstration of the GRAVITY INDICATOR. 423 GRID. 1278. laws of the fall of bodies. By mounting on the apparatus several tuning-forks one may com pare together their number of vibrations, and even determine the absolute height of the sound produced/' "Journal de Physique.' 1 Grease Box. The axle-box of a railway truck. Grease cup, automatic, Fr. * "Sc. American," xxxiv. 230. Greas'er. A name for oil-cup, lubricator, oiler, etc. See under the various heads. Grease Trap. A cistern in the course of a sewer. An inlet pipe discharges into the cistern, and the orifice of the outlet is a bent pipe so far beneath the surface as to avoid removal of the floating scum of grease. fraring't "Sanitary Drainage." Gree 11 'house Furnace. The boil- er for hot water heat- ing apparatus for conservatories is usu- ally a ribbed or cor- rugated iron, or sec- tional ring boiler, set in brick-work, and having departure and return pipes in which the water circulates through the green- house. Burbidge & Healy's greenhouse he at IT is shown in Fig. 1278 ; three views, a combined half- vertical section, and half- front view ; a front view and a transverse vertical section. The bells for the attachment of the pipes are shown on the left in the upper of the three views. "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2250, 2394. Gr een'house Syr'inge. A hand i r r i g a t o r. See AQUAPCLT ; HAND PUMP ; IEKIGATOR, etc. Green'houso Ven'ti-la'tor. A window-lifting appa- ratus for the glazed roofs of conservato- ries. Green "Ware. ( Ceramics. ) Articles just molded or other- wise shaped, before drying and baking. Gre-nade'. The modern hand-torpe- do, used in the Brit- ish navy, is a com- Grunhone Furnace and Boiler. pressed t ball of gun- cotton, attached to a long cord, by means of which the torpedo is exploded with a force sufficient to shatter a five-ton block of granite when it has been pitched into position. Gren'a-dine. (Fabric.) A French worsted dress-goods, woven with a gauze or open taffeta ar- roure, and having a silk grege, organzine or cotton warp and au English combing-wool weft, which is highly twisted and gas-singed. It is a kind of close barege. Gre-net' Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) A single- fluid bichromate battery. A bottle-shaped vessel has a stopper from which two carbon plates depend into the liquid. A zinc plate, Z, between the car- bons K K, by means of a rod passing through a cen- tral aperture in the stopper, can be immersed at will in the liquid, to set the battery in action. Niauslet, Amer. transl., *222. Trouvti's improvement on Gre- net compounds a number of pairs of removable elements. Niaudet, ut supra, *224. Grid. 1 . A grate, grate- bar, or furnace bottom. 2. A grille or grated opening. 3. (Hydr. Eng). A struc- ture of beams lying iu parallel open order they re- s e m b 1 e a gridiron on which a ship rests in building, lifting, or repairing. Fig. 1280 shows a hydraulic grid of Clark, Standfield, ft Co., whose depositing dock is a grid of the largest and most ad- mirable construction, and is shown in Plate IX., DEPOSITING DOCK, supra. In using the dock the grid and presses are lowered to the bottom, and the keel of the vessel is brought directly over GniM Fig. 1280. \ Hydraulic Grid. the center and secured in position by the bilge blocks and side shoring frames, the presses are then worked and the vessel lifted till the grid is above high-water mark. When in this position a number of struts or swinging frames (which were previously held up in a horizontal position under the grid) are liberated and allowed to hang in a verti- cal position. The grid is now lowered a few inches until the whole of these struts rest on raised bearings cast on the head of the presses, and the whole weight of the vessel and !?rid rests on them. The rams are now allowed to sink down into the presses, where they remain in fresh water, and arc consequently less disposed to rust. The supports are hinged or swung at the top so as to fall accurately into their places, ind suitable means are provided for raising and lowering them simultaneously by means of chains and shears. These Frames are of considerable breadth, and some of them swing transversely and others longitudinally, so as to obviate any tendency of the grid to move in either direction. There are also, iu addition, strong cast-iron columns, with guides, GRID. 424 GRINDING MILL. against which the grid slides as it rises and falls. The pumps, pipes, and valves are similar to those used in ordi- nary hydraulic docks. See also HYDRAULIC HOIST, infra. Hydraulic. Clark if Standfield, Br. A panel of metal open-work in a * "'Enginttrittg" xxvii. 203. * "Scientific Amer.,'- xl. 291. Grille. wall. Grind'er. 1. (Caoutchouc Manufacture.) A pair of large iron rolls revolving at a moderate speed, between which the rubber with the sulphur and other substances to be mixed with it are repeatedly passed and ground together until they are thor- oughly combined, and form one homogeneous mass of about the consistence of ordinary putty. 2. A machine for sharpening, as a grindstone or emery wheel : which see. 3. A machine for dressing to form, using abra- ding materials as a substitute for a planer, etc. See GRINDING MACHINE. Grinding and Pol'ish-ing Tools, etc. See under the following heads : Agate burnisher. Buhr dresser. Buhr rubber. Bur. Burnisher. Burring engine. Cabinet file. Cherry. Corundum point. Corundum tool Cross file. Dental file. Dental grindstone. Dental polisher. Double ender. Emery band. Emery board. Emery stick. Emery stone. Facing tool. File. File-card. File carrier. File guard. File holder. Finger steel. Five cant file. Float. Furrow rubber. Furrowing machine. Knife cleaner. Knife grinding machine. Mill-file. Millstone dresser. Pillar-file. Plug-finishing file. Polisher Polishing disk. Polishing iron. Porte polisher. Rasp. Reaper. Kifflor. Round iron. Saw filing clamp. Saw filing vise. Scraper. Scraper plane. Scratch brush. Scratcher. Shave hook. Six-canted file. Tripoli. Tube brush. Tube cleaner. Tube scraper. Veneer scraper. Wall scraper. for the execution of circular grinding, such as the grinding of hardened plugs, arbors, spindles, ream- ers, standards, cutters, etc. It will grind straight and tapering, either inside or outside, and is es- pecially useful in grinding out holes in hardened cast-steel boxes and bushings. Brown & Sharpe's grinding machine. Fig. 1281, operates by a solid emery or corundum wheel. The work can be re- volved upon dead centers or otherwise. The grinding wheel can be moved over the work at any angle, by which means any taper can be produced. Wheels from \" to 12" in diam- eter can be used either with or without water. The feed- works and slides of the machine are protected from grit and dust. The grinding of taper holes and angular cutters is provided for by graduated arcs. A special chuck is pro- vided, for holding work to have holes ground. An additional movable table, capable of adjustment by a tangent screw and graduated arc, admits of straight and curved taper grinding with the centers of the machine always in line. Refer to : Ventilators for, Br. * "Ending," xxii. 19, 169. Lathe, Pratt If Whitney ... * "Engineer," xlii. 24. Machine, metal, Bollmann, Fr. * "Sc. Amer.,' 1 ' xxxvii. 214.. * "Iron Age," xxi , May 2, 1 ! Tools, On grinding. Rose . . * "&V. Amer.," xxxvii. 405. Universal, Thompson, Sterne if Co., Br. * "Engineer," xli. 187. Grind'iiig Mill. The subject is considered under many heads assembled in list under GRAIN CLEANING AND GRINDING, p. 411, supra. The purposes and construction of machines differ greatly ; they are adapted for grain, ore, fertilizers ; are made vertical or horizontal; edge rolling (Chil- ian) ; grinding on the flat ; upper, under, or both stones moving ; made of iron, buhr, glass, etc. ; are made like cages, working by impact; grind by a tearing action between two surfaces, or a crushing between a roller and concave, or flattening between two rollers, etc. See numerous examples of forms and principles, Plate XXII., "Mech. Diet.," opp. p. 1020. The principal heads under which they will be found are : Grind'iiig Lap. A grinding machine with a revolving wheel for cutting surfaces. See LAP, p. 1252, "Mech. Diet." Grind'ing Ma-chine'. A machine adapted Fig. 1281. Aplatisseur. Aspirator. Bean mill. Bone mill. Cake grinder. Cement mill. Concasseur. See also list under MILLS, Infra. Corn mill. Cylinder mill. Fertilizer mill. Granulating mill. Kibbler. Ore mill. Roller mill. Fig. 1282. Grinding Machine Grinding MM- (Elevation.) GRINDING MILL. 425 GRISOUMETER. Figs. 1282, 1283, show the Harrison portable mill with a pair of stones, one being a runner. Fig. 1282 is an end or face view. The case and pedestal are cast iu one piece. The heads containing the bed and runners are bolted to the rim of the case. Fig 1283 shows the pedestal and case, with a dressing- fr.une bolted on and the buhrs turned out upon it for dress- ing. The frame is made in two parts, and fastened, one on i-ich side of the case, by tap bolts, and when the dressing is done the frame is removed. Fig. 1283. Grinding Mill. ( Open for Dress.) Refer to : Brefsen $ Co., Fr. . * " Scientific American," xli. 243. Bitkr * "Scientific American,'' xl. 178. Portable, Clayton If F/uit- tleworth, Engl. . . * "Scientific American," xli. 70. * "Engineer," xlvii. 423. Harrison * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 291, 310, 323. Mitnsnn * "Scientific American,' 1 '' xli. 54. Nicholson * "Engineer," xlvii. 408. Obencham * "American Miller,' 1 ' vii. 239. Iron upright, Phillips . . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii 328. Rniifomes * "Engineer," xlvi. 403. Koss * "Scientific Amer. ,'' xxxvii. 339. Walling * "Scientific American," 1 xli. 83. Upright, Straub . . , . * "Scientific Amer.,' 1 ' 1 xxxvi. 86. * " Scitntific American," xl 34. For gunpowder, Br. . . * "Engineering," xxv. 37. See also GRAIN MILL. Both stones running . . * "Scientific Amer.,'" xxxiv. 35. Corn Mill, Ransome, Br. * "Engineering," xxvii. 319. Garlic extractor, Millot, Switz. . . * "Enginefr," xlvi. 255. Floating mills, Balaklava "American Miller,"' vi. 101. Dr. Knight's report on agricultural machinery at the Paris Exposition of 1878 contains views and descriptions of the following feed mills See "Paris Exposition (1878) Reports," TO! v., pp. 200-205: Grain flattener Bodin, France. Grain crusher, Rirlimonil (f Chandler, England. Bidiiell's oats and beans kibbler. Malt/on Iron Works, Ene- land. Oil-cake breaker. Corbet t Sf Peale, England. Consult: Hughes'' "American Miller and Millwright's As- sistant.' 1 Dixon's "Practical Millwrights' if Engineers' Gui/fe." Pallett's "Millers', Millwrights' if Engineers' Guide." Grind'ing Wheels. Grinding wheels are known as stones, laps, glazers, rubbers, etc., accord- ing to material, fineness, etc. Including the finer ones which are polisliing wheels, they are made of stone, emery solidified by cement, wood, leather, paper, lead, rags (cut in disks), brush. For the materials forarming the surface, see GRINDING AND POLISHING MATERIALS, p. 1017, "Mech. Diet." Grind'stone. J. M. Saffbrd's report in " Centennial Exhibition Reports," Group I., vol. iii.,p. 183, etseg. Grinding wheels, on, Rose . * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 640. Fig. 12S4. Making and uses, Mitchell . * "Iron Age,'' xviii , July 6, p. 9 ; July 20, p 7. Trough, Brown 4' Sharps . * "Sc. American," xxxviii. 271. Grind'stone Dres'ser. See TRUEING TOOL, Fig. 6682, p. 2632, "J/ecA. Diet." Gris-aille'. (Fabric.) A French fancy dress goods woven on a taffeta loom. It has a cotton chappe or fancy warp and an English combing wool weft. Warp is printed or chine. Gri-sou'me-ter. (Fr. grisou, fire-damp.) A fire-dam]) detector invented by M. Coquillon. It is based on the property of palladium wire when heated, to burn the last traces of hydrogen con- tained in any carburet when supplied with sufficient oxygen for its combustion. The reduction in volume resulting from this combustion is proportionate to the quantity of the protocarburet, so that a properly graduated gage furnishes at once the proportion of gas consumed. The same principle is found in Coquil- lon's Carburometer. The portable grisoumeter consists of a central tube, A, called the burner, narrowed in the middle and graduated into spaces of equal capacity ; the lower end is open, the top closed by an india-rnbber stopper carrying two holders for the con- ducting wires, and the lower branches of which press down the palladium wire. A third opening is left in the stopper to receive a small wooden plug or a glass rod. This first tube is surrounded by a glass sheath or cylinder, B, closed at the top by a rubber disk having an orifice which closes by means of a plug. To the lower portion is adapted a diaphragm containing water, which is elevated or de- pressed by means of a screw, on the principle of the Fortin barom- eter. Next to this first portion of the instrument is placed a second one, which consists of a Plante's condenser, the poles of which are attached to the two holders of the burner. A lateral screw acting by pressure starts the current and heats the wire at the desired mo- ment. When an aualysis is to be made, the inner tubes being full of water, the screw is lowered, so , that as the liquid descends it is replaced by the air of the mine. The volume is so adjusted that the levels of both the tube and sheath are on the same horizontal line opposite the zero of the scale. The burner is now closed while the outer sheath is left open. The electric current is started and the wire heated to redness. The gas is rapidly burned, and after giving time for cooling, the water is seen to rise more or less in accordance with the quantity of gas burned. The two water levels are readjusted by means of the bottom screw to equalize the pressure ; and the division of the scale opposite the surface level read off. This instrument gives in one reading the amount of protocarburet in hundredths, but does not apply to quantities of the same exceeding five to six per cent. This would be useless practically, as at this point the miner's lamp is full of fire and he himself in the midst of a detona- ting compound. M. Coquillon has since replaced the palladium byplatinum. The principle of the- stationary grisoumeter is based on Professor Deville's double flash, and is shown iu Fig. 1285. It comprises, first, a vertical glass tube, A, or gage, the top of which is branched in T shape, two cocks being adapted to the horizontal branches of the T. The lower portion of this tube is constricted and carries ten divisions, each of which may be subdivided into ten others ; it is bent at right angles and attached to a rubber tube fastened to a flask used as an aspi- rator or blower. The capacity of the tube measured from the cock is 25 cubic centimeters, and the zero of the scale is indi- cated at the bottom. This is the point that must be reached by the gaseous volume when no protoearburet is contained in the instrument ; 10 is marked near the bulge, each division being equal to i cubic centimeter. The second portion of the apparatus is the burner B, formed by a small thimble-shaped tube closed by a rubber stopper pierced by two holes into which are introduced the holders for the palladium wires. Portable Grisoumeter. GRISOUMETER. 426 GRITS PURIFIER. Laterally are adapted small capillary tubes which by means of rubber tubing allow of an attachment on the one side to the gage, on the other to the following bell glass. This last, C, is capped by a capillary tube bent at right angles and sur- rounded by a glass cylinder or sheath closed at the bottom and filled with water. The whole apparatus, as well as the corks, is in glass, and is mounted on a stout wooden board so as to protect it from accident. A small box containing 10 small tubes filled with water is accessory to the apparatus, these being filled when desired with the air collected in the various levels of the colliery and destined for analysis. The use of the stationary grisoumeter is very simple. The bell glass surrounded by its cylinder is filled with water to a Fig. 1285. Grits Mill. The grits mill with one cylinder is used in the St. Georgeu manufactory of St. Gallen. Wis the cylinder with steel shell and >5 the steel concave. It is used for the cracking of wheat and the production of grits, leaving further milling to be done with a run of stones. Fig. 1286. Stationary Grisoumeter. determinate or fixed point : the gage tube is also filled with water. The burner and capillary tubes are left full of air. One of the small tubes from the box is now attached in such a manner that one end plunges into a tumbler full of water while the other or taper end is connected by means of a rub- ber tube to the anterior end of the gage. One of Mohr's for- ceps closes this rubber tube at the desired height In order to introduce 56 centimeters of eas into the gage, the left cock is opened and the forceps pressed by the right hand, while the left hand holds the flask so as to be able to raise or lower it at will. The gas passes from the conico-cyl- indrical tube into the gage, and must be made to coincide with the zero of the scale as indicated by the water level. This being done, the left cock is closed and the right opened, and at the same time the palladium wire is heated to redness. The gas is made to circulate two or three times over the pal- ladium by the motion given to the flask. After the burner has cooled down, the gas is returned to the gage, and the scale read off. This last is so graduated as to indicate at sight hun- dredths and thousandths of protocarburet or of bicarburet. Portative, Coquillon .... " Technologiste," xl. 435. Regnarrl " Technologiste," xxxix. 375. Lamp, Mallanl et al " Technologists,'' xli. 348. Dissipating fire-damp, Delaurier "TfchnologisteJ' xli. 647. Coquillon * "Engineering,' 1 '' xxiv. 317. * "Manuf. $ Builder,''' xi. 158. * "Engineer,- xlix. 53. See also PHANARO-GRISOUMETER, infra. FIRE DAMP DE- TECTOR, supra, and references passim. Grist Tol'ler. This machine operates through the periodical presentation of a toll spout with its attendant valve. Each time the spout is presented under the falling grain it takes in a portion which is carried down and out of the machine as toll. The amount of toll taken is governed by a de- vice in which the position of a wrist in a slotted crank regulates the amount taken. Grits. (Milling.) Cracked fragments of wheat smaller than groats. An incident to the HIGH MILLING process, which see. See also GUOATS. Grits Gra'ding Ma-chine'. (Milling.) A centrifugal apparatus for grading grits after the separation of the fine flour by the process of bolting. The grits passes by a spout to the top of a rapidly revolv- ing wheel, A, and is projected centrifugally ; the larger particles fly to a greater distance and fall at C, while the others reach E F respectively, according to relative levity. Grits Grading Machine. Grits Pu'ri-fi'er. A machine for separating bran scales from grits. It is of Austrian origin, the originator being Ignaz Paur, the inventor of Fig. 1287. Cylinder Mill of St. Georgen, St. Gallen, Switzerland. the high-milling process. Paur's and Escher Wys's grits-purifiers are shown by Kick in his report on Group IV. to the Austrian Government, 1873, and in Prof. Horsford's report, "Vienna Bread," Vienna Exposition, 1873, vol. ii., B. The machine, Fig. 1288, acts by a blast of air upon the materials of different gravity. The bran is a thin flat scale of the wheat shell. The grits are irregular fragments from the interior of the grain, rela- tively heavier than the bran. a is a supply tube introducing the mixed bran and grits. b is a hopper with a slit at the bottom. At I) a current of air enters and encounters the falling stream of bran and grits. The grits being heavier fall into division /, the bran is carried to V, and the intermediates fall into / /. A sec- GRITS PURIFIER. 427 GROWING CELL. ond current of air entering at c subjects the matters to a farther separation. Another form is shown in Fig. 1289, and is used at Pesth. A is a hopper receiving the Fig. 1288. meal ; B a cylinder fitting the spout from the hopper, and ad- mitting of raisin;; and lower- ing ; b in a circular smooth me- tallic plate revolved by a ver- tical shaft attached below. The meal as it ii-sues from the Fig. 1289. Paur's Grits Purifier. Grits Purifitr. (Pesth.) foot of the hollow cylinder is carried to the periphery and shot outward into the current of air produced by suction through spout H. The rounded grits, having pi-enter weight in proportion to the extent of surface, reach the space LI ; the bran-flakes, having least material to surface, are drawn to F ; and the fine flour falls between to the receptacle H. Griz'zly. (Col. Hydraulic Mining.) Grizzlies are heavy iron grates which catch the bowlders and through which the gravel is sifted ; they are placed at the point where the washings fall into the sluice. Groats. (Milling.) a. Bruised or cracked frag- ments of wheat with bran attached ; larger than grits. An incident to the process of HIGH MILL- ING, which see. This is the technical meaning of the word ; adopted in the search for specific words to indicate conditions of fineness or quality. b. Hulled and broken grain, used as an article of food. May be of wheat or oats. This is the do- mestic meaning of the word groats (pr. grits). Groom'er. An application of the flexible or Fig. 1290. Horse Groomer. jointed revolving shaft to rotate a brush used in the grooming of horses. The flexible shaft is thus used in drilling, by den- tists, for sheep shearing, horse clipping, hair cutting and brushing, and horse grooming. Groov'er Head. A circular cutter used on a wood-planing machine to cut the grooves on one edge of matched boards. The cutters have spurs, and are held in slots by tapered compression bolts. Fig. 1291. Groover Head. Groov'ing Ma-chine'. A form of lathe for making grooved or scroll work, such as table legs, balustrades, etc. Ground Cock. A basin cock, ground into its seat, as distinguished from compression cock. See Fig. 672, p. 216, supra. Grounding Ma-chiiie'. (Wall Paper.) A machine for giving the requisite body to receive the colored pattern. While passing over a roller the paper is covered with a mixture of clay (that used contains about 18 per cent, of alumina), glue, and water, and if the surface is to be finally polished or satin finished a percentage of lard oil is added. After the mixture is applied it is evenly distributed over the paper, first by two reciprocating brushes, then by a rotating brush roller, and lastly by two brushes like the first. See cut, Fig. 1, p. 226, "Scientific American,' 1 ' vol. xxxvii. Group Spring. Railway. One formed of a number of separate springs in a cluster. See u, Fig. 1143, "Mech.Dict." Grous'er. (Hydraulic Engineering.) A heavy iron-pointed oak timber which passes through the hull or down the side of a boat for the purpose of anchoring. "Report of Chief of Engineers,'* 1876, vol. ii., Part II., p. 403, and A, Fig. 1. Grout Wall. One made of be'ton or similar material. " Grout (or concrete) as building material, is composed of lime and coarse gravel mixed with water, in the same man- ner as ordinary mortar, and of about the same consistency. " A small proportion of cement say, one tenth may be mixed with lime, and will add to the strength, durability, and finish of the walls. " To give solidity, quarry chips can be used by being im- bedded in the composition while forming the walls. " The walls of buildings are formed of this material by making boxes or molds of 2" plank, of uniform width, placed on edge horizontally, as wide apart as the desired thickness of the walls, and held in place by cleats. Into these boxes or molds thus formed the grout is put, and allowed to remain a sufficient time to harden ; when the boxes are removed, and again placed at the top of the layer just formed, and again filled with gravel and stone ; and so on until the wall is of the required height. " If the planks of which the boxes are made are, say, 12" wide, the grout will harden in about 24 hours sufficiently to allow the boxes to be removed without injury to the wall. " The gravel used may be mixed with a moderate propor- tion of sand advantageously. ' The partition walls can be built more cheaply and rap- idly of lumber than of gravel ; as where inside walls are constructed it is difficult to fit and manage the boxes without injuring the outside walls." The boxes and method of construction are similar to thore used in pis6 walls. The difference is only in the material used. Report of Lieut. Rogers, U. S. A. Grove Bat'te-ry. The nitric acid battery, the invention of Mr. Grove, now Justice Sir W. R. Grove. It eliminates the hydrogen by oxidizing it so as to form water, and so prevents the polariza- tion of the negative plate. It has the amalgamated zinc in sulphuric acid, and its platinum in nitric acid, with an intervening porous cell. Prescott," Electricity" * 64 ; Ganot * 686. De la Rii-f, London, 1853 . . . . * 44. NoarJ, London, 1859 * 276. de Moneel, Paris, 1856 69. Shaffner, New York, 1859 . . . . * 97. Niaudei, American transl * 155. "English Mechanic ; ' * xxiii. 77. Poggenctorfs modification, Niaudet, American transl. * 155. Grow'ing Cell. (Optics.) Beck's. A plate of glass into which is fitted an annular zinc trough upon the upper surface of which a cover of plate- glass is screwed. On the top of this glass the ob- ject to be kept alive is placed, and over it is laid a thin glass cover. The action of this growing cell is as follows : The trough GROWING CELL. 428 GUN BARROW. is filled with water, the plate-glass is screwed down, the thin cover placed upon it. The plate-glass cover has two holes pierced in it, one of which conies under the covering glass, and through which the water will now by capillary attrac- tion, feeding the object. The other hole is outside and will admit sufficient air to replace that lost by the capillary ac- tion under the covering glass. Grub'ber. An implement for deep cultivation. An implement for tearing through soils infested with grubs, stumps, stones, aud roots. A clearing plow. The steam grubber, Fig. 1292, is one of the set of steam cultivation implements. Jt is especially intended for work- ing in stiff clay land, to stir and aerate the subsoil without Fig. 1292. Fowler's Steam Grubber. materially disturbing the surface. For this purpose it is made with 1, 2, or 8 tines, and i.< worked 2' deep. It is also used for stirring up the subsoil of old grass lands, and, with 1 or 2 tines, to a depth of as much as 30" in removing stones or tree-roots. It is known as a " knifer." It may be called a renovating or reclaiming implement, and under all circumstances of its use is a powerful assist- ant in the matter of drainage in strong soils. GrubTbing Ma-chine'. A special gun-tool. The work has a semi-rotary motion against a fixed tool. In the special grubbing machine the tool has a motion on a segment of a circle, and an automatic feed. Pratt fr Whitney. Grub Break'er. (Agric.) A form of heavy plow used in recently cleared land, and having a strongly braced colter and share for uprooting grubs and breaking roots. Grub Hoe. An implement something between a hoe and an adze, used in cutting and digging up brush, saplings, etc. Grub Hook. An implement drawn by a team and used in rolling out stones aud tearing out roots, stumps, and logs. Fig. 1293. A grating to a window to preserve it from blows. (Fire-arms.) The bow which protects the trig- ger. Guard Bolt A flat-headed screw-bolt, fully counter-sunk, for fastening the guards of mowing machines to the bars. Guard'ed lu'stru-meiit. (Surgical.) Said of an instrument the point or cutting edge of which is concealed or guarded during introduction, and uncovered when at the place where it is to become effective. As guarded blunt-hook, guarded bistoury, guarded trephine. Bistoury cache expresses the same idea. Gui'bal Fan. A ventilating wheel on tbe exhaust principle, receiving the air around its axis and forcing it by wings centrifugally to the exit shaft. Guide. (Surgical.) A stiffening stem, withdrawable, in a soft rubber catheter. A cannulated stem affording a means of I direction to a flexible instrument. A di- rector. Gui'don. The flag of a commander of horse ; generally of damask and fringed, 3' broad on the staff, and lessening towards the bottom, where it is divided into two peaks. Guil'lo-tine In'stru-ment. (Surgical.) An instrument for excising the tonsil or uvula. It has a cutter sliding in guides and a loop to hold the object. See TONSILOTOME, e, Fig. 6525, "Mech. Diet." ; UVULATOME, (t, Fig. 6886, Ibid. Grub Hook. Grum'met. (Nautical.) See GROMMET, p. 1025, " Mech. Diet." Guard. A fence, fender, screen, canopy, etc., as the case may be : A dash-board, or step-guard in cars. A fender in grates. A piece to receive the jar of an opening door. A screen to keep the heat of a fire from a person, wall, or furniture. Home-made "Scientific American,-' 1 xlii. 295. Gui-tar'. (Music.) An instrument played by the hands, having 6 strings tuned in fourths and thirds. The three lower strings are of silk, covered with silver wire ; the three upper of catgut. The three former are usually played by the thumb ; the three latter, G, B, E, by the fore, middle, and third fingers respectively, the little finger resting on the instrument. Gum De-pres'sor. A dentist's tool, used in holding the gum down from the tooth in filling cavities close to or under the gum. Gum Lan'cet. (Surgical.) A pocket lancet in shell handle. See a, Fig. 2795, p. 1249, "Mech. Diet." Gum'mer. A tooth for gulletiug saws. See SAW GUMMER. Gum'mer Grind'er. A tool for holding the cutter of a saw gummer while being ground. Gum Spring. One made of caoutchouc in- dia rubber. Gun. See CANNON ; RIFLE, etc. "Duilio," Armstrong gun. Bore 17.72". Shot 201S Ibs. Maximum charge powder 511 Ibs. Ordinary charge powder 355 Ibs. See CANNON, RIFLE, etc., and various specific heads. Sporting and whaling guns. Blow-gun. Syringe gun. Galling gun. Anit.ttrdHt; pun. Whitwortli gun. Rifle-barrel in shot-gun bore. Stevens * "Scientific American,'- xl. 263. Gun-lock concealed. " Climax," Holland . * "Scientific American," xli. 411. Gun tool, Karthel . . . * "Scientific American," xl. 181. Hammerless, Guener, Br. * "Scientific American," xliii. 274. Gun Bar'row. The brouette mil/taire of M. Bazin. The butts of two rifles are attached to a pair of small wheels; the barrels form handles; the barrow supports the soldiers' knapsacks and other impedimenta. GUNBOAT. 429 GUNPOWDER. Gun'boat. Gunboats ready for launching, Portsmouth, Eng. * "Scientific American Sup.," 2034. Chinese " Scientific American Sup.," 983. " Delta," China . . . *" Scientific American t>up.," 1087. "Epsilon," China . . * "Engineer," xlviii. 144. Gun Brush. A spiral cylindrical brush with stiff bristles ; used for cleaning gun-bores. Gun Car'riage. The "Report of the Chief of Ordnance, U. S. A," 1877, Appendix K, contains notices and views of the following : Austrian field carriage .... Plate IV. Austrian 3 .42" gun and caisson Plate V. English 9-pounder field carriage Plates VI., VII. German field carriage .... Plate VIII. Engelkardt's field carriage . . Plate IX. Swedish field carriage .... Plate X. Swedish traveling forge . . . Plate XI. English field traveling forge . . Plate XII. English 7-pdr. mount'n carriage Plate XIII. Gruson's 21-pdr. coast carriage . Plate XIV. Krup/i's 12" gun and carriage . Plate XV. Krupp's 14" gun and carriage . Plate XVI. German naval carriage . . . . Plate XVII. German turret carriage . . . Plate XVIII. Prussian gun-lift Plates XIX., XX. Krupp's gun-lift Plate XXI. Hydraulic buffer Plate XXII. Traversing and running-back gear 11" gun Plate XXIII. English 10" casemate carriage . Plate XXIV. English 10" casemate carriage (high) Plate XXV. English 11" C. P. carriage . . Plate XXVI. English 35-ton carriage . . , Plates XXVII., XXVIII. MnncriffTs 7" depressing car. . Plate XXIX. Varassfitr's carriage .... Plate XXX. Hydro-pneumatic ship-carriage . Plate XXXI. Swedish 27-cm. gun-carriage . Plale XXXII. Austrian siege carriage . . . Plate XXXIII. Prussian siege carriage . . . Plate XXXIV. Krupp's 21-cm. siege carriage . Plates XXXV., XXXVI. Krupp's 15-cm. siege carriage . Plate XXXVII. English 40-pdr. siege carriage . Plates XXXVIII. Moncriffs hydro-pneum. siege carriage Plate XXXIX., XL. Austrian mortar carriage . . . Plate XLI. German mortar carriage . . . Plate XLII. Krupp's 28-cm. mortar carriage Plate XLIII. Russian mortar carriage . . . Plate XLIV., XLV, English sling wagon .... Plate XLVI. Li.\chim-'s hospital tent . . . Plate XLVII. English "Armstrong " 10" on casemate carriage, same re- port, Fig. 46, Appendix L. French sea-coast carriage 27 cm. rifled gun, Fig. 67, Appen- dix L, "Or/tnance Report," 1877, and p. 544. American carriage for 8" rifle. Ibid., Appendix P. American carriage for 12" rifle. Ibid., Appendix T. American carriage for 12" rifle. Ibid., 1876, p. 96, PI. III. American carriage for 9" converted rifle. Ibid., 1871, Ap- pendix I., p. 134. Flank-defense carriage for Catling gun. Ibid.. 1879, Ap- pendix !.", p 163, and Plates I., II., III. Moncrieff " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xv. 375. Orerbank, Mac/uay, Br. * "Engineer," xliv. 88. Gun truck, Penu. Ra'y . * "Engineering," xxvi. 492. Report on depressing gun-carriages, by Board of Ordnance Officers U. S. Army, Washington, 1873. Refers to 58 sys- tems, parts, and accessories, pp. 19, 20. And illustrates Service barbette carriage, 15". Bfxton's apparatus for maneuvering guns. Euffington's counterpoise carriage. Capt. j. Wall Wilson's device for checking recoil. Capt. W. R. King's counterpoise carriage. Capt. W. R. King's depressing carriage. See also HYDRAULIC COMPRESSOR, infra. Gun'-cot'ton. Cotton rendered explosive by treatment with sulphuric and nitric acids. See p. 1036, "Mech. Diet? Modes of manufacture and considerations of its stability, in "Report of the Chief of Ordnance, U. S. A.," 1877, p. 458, et seq. See also Ibid., 1879, Appendix I., pp. 130-132. On cannon, effect of . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 2618. Punchon's improvements in the manufacture of gun cot- ton are thus described : " The cotton is first thoroughly cleansed by boiling it in an alkaline solution and exposing it to a current of air, and then again boiling it in clean water. After the second boil- ing it must be again thoroughly dried, first by a centrifugal machine, and afterward by being passed over a current of hot air, the wet meeting the cold current, and as it dries ris- ing to a temperature of about 120 V. The cotton, in charges of one pound each, is then steeped for five minutes in a bath containing three parts of sulphuric acid and one part of nitric acid, after which it is taken out and placed in an iron cylin- der, and a perforated piston, about 8" in diameter, is forced down upon it by hydraulic pressure. The excess of acid pressed out of the cotton passes through the perforations in the disk and is pumped off. The cotton is then placed in glazed earthenware jars, which are covered in order to pre- vent any heating taking place, the jars being placed in a current of cold water, where they are allowed td remain for 24 hours, after which the cotton is taken out and again thor- oughly washed, and while yet damp is passed between roll- ers until it is reduced to a very fine powder ; this process being gone through while the compound is damp, prevents any possibility of its explosion. The powder is then mixed with a certain quantity of sugar, nitric acid, and water, into a pulpy mass, which, after being strained through a fine sieve, is carefully dried in a temperature never exceeding 120 F. The manufacturing process is finally completed by passing it through rollers under very high pressure, by which means it is compressed into a hard substance and ren- dered almost impervious to damp. The gun-cotton intended for blasting purposes is made into thin cakes, broken and ir- regular in size, but for rifle cartridges it is made in small pellets, similar inform and size to rape seed.'' " Univer- sal Engineer." Gun Hand'-tools. Ball seater. Breech wrench. Burgoyne. Capper. Cartridge capper. Cartridge loader. Countersink. Extractor. Gun brush. Intrenching spade. Loading plug. Primer. Primer extractor. Re-capper. Re-loading tool. Re-primer. Uncapping knife. Gun Har-poon'. A harpoon projected by a gun. Used in whaling. See HARPOON. Gun Lift. A hoisting arrangement for mount- ing and dismounting cannon. Ordnance Report, 1877, Plates XIX., XX., gives views of Prussian gun lift. Plate XXI., Krupp's gun lift. Gun Ma-chines'. Barrel boring machine. Breaking down machine. Bullet machine. Bullet-patching machine. Butt lathe. Cartridge heading machine. Cartridge varnishing ma- chine. Charcoal grinding machine. Clamp-milling machine. Coiling machine. Cupping machine. Drawing machine. Dusting machine. Glazing barrel. Granulating machine. Gun stocking machine. Gun stock lathe. Impression machine. Incorporating mill. Lead wire apparatus. Loading machine. Mixing machine. Pebble-powder machine. Pellet- powder machine. Pistol rifling machine. Powder dusting machine. Powder pressing machine. Priming machine. Rifling machine. Tapering and crimping ma- chine. Gun'pow-der. See references : "Compensators,' 1 Totten . . * " Sc. American,'' xxxvi. 305. Incorporating mill, Br. . . * "Engineering," xxv. 37. Manufacture of, Hay ... * "Engintering." xxv. 1, 37, 95. Mixing machine, Br. . . . * "Engineering," xxv. 37. Modern history of, "Jour. Soc. of Arts.'' '" Van Nostr. Mag.," xxi 203. Pebble-powder machine . . * "Engineering," xxv. 236. Densimeter * "Engineering," xxv. 236 Manuf. "Revue Industrielle " " Van Nostr. Mag.,'' xvi. 305. Sifting reel, Br * "Engineering," xxv. 37. Breaking-dpwn machine . . * "Engineering," xxv. 95. Charcoal grinding mill^Br. . * "Engineering,'' xxv. 37. * "Engineering," xxv. 138. * "Engineering," xxv. 138. "Engineering," xxv. 138. * "Engineering," xxv. 198. * "Engineering," xxv. 198. "Engineering," xxv. 37. Granulating machine, Br. Dusting reel .... Glazing barrel . . . Drying stove .... Pellet powder machine Grinding apparatus, Br. Work: Dupont "Amer. Artizan," xvii 369 Hydraulic pressure apparatus * "Engineering," xxv. 95. See also list under " EXPLOSIVES.'' GUNPOWDER. 430 HALF-ELLIPTIC SPRING. Systems and modes of manufacture of gunpowder are de- tailed in Appendix K, "Report of Chief of Ordnance U. S. A., 1877, p. 437, et stq. British .... p. 438. " KruppV . . p. 454. Russian .... p. 445. French .... p. 455. " vViener r ' powder p. 451. "VVetteren !: . . p. 457. German .... p. 452. Austrian ... p. 457. Materials, proportions, processes, machinery, tests, packing, storage, etc., Crispin If Baylor's report, "Ordnance Report,"- 1879, * pp. 91-134. See also report on cannon powders of the following shapes, etc. : Fig. 1294. Hexagonal. Sphero-hexagonal. Octohedral. Polyhedral. English pebble. Progressive. "Ordnance Report," 1879, Appendix II., 7, * p. 85, et seq. Ibid,., Appendix I., * pp. 122-130. See also : "Ordnance Manual," 1861. "Handbook on t/ie Manufacture of Powder." (British.) Btnton's "Ordnance and Gunnery.'' Coolce's "Naval Ordnance, and Gunnery." Marvin's " Granulation of Powder.'' Gun'pow-der Pa'per. A substitute for gun- powder. Powder-paper consists of paper impreg- nated with a mixture of potassic chlorate, nitrate, prnssiate, and chromate, powdered wood-char- coal, and a little starch. The powder-paper is rolled into the shape of a cartridge of any required length or diameter. It is said that no explosion can t;ike place except by way of contact with fire. Also that the powder paper leaves no greasy residue on the inside of the gun, produces less smoke, gives a less violent recoil, and is less impaired by humidity than gunpowder. With equal charges, by weight, of gunpowder and powder-paper, the penetrating power of the latter is 5-16ths greater than that of the former. "Pop. Science Monthly," x., p. 253. Gun Stock'ing Ma-chin'e-ry. Includes machines for Bedding the barrel. Bedding the lock. Bedding the guard. Placing the butt plate. Turning the stock, etc. Gun Stock Lathe. See GUN STOCK, p. 1042, "Mech. Diet." also LATHE, p. 1264, Ibid. Gun'-tack-le Pur'chase. (Nautical.) A form of tackle, also known as a don ble purchase, hav- ing two single-sheave blocks. Fig. 6159, 'Mech. Diet." Gun'wale Gun. A light Galling gun fixed upon the gunwale, and so adjusted that it may be depressed 30. Fig. 1294. With this power of depression, combined with the swivel mounting, the weapon may be made to command the whole range of approach of boats for the purpose of boarding. Gun'wale Winch. (Fishing.) A roller with hand crank, mounted on the boat's gunwale, to haul in a fishing line. Gut Belt'ing. Lathe or machine belting made " Galling " Gunwale Gun. of cat-gut. Treatise on gut belting, "Iron Age," xix., March 15, p. 1. Gut Hook. A coupling hook and eye for round gut belts. Gut'ta-per'cha Soft'en-er. (Dentistry.) A small pan in water-bath over an alcohol lamp ; used in bringing gutta-percha to a molding temperature. Gutta-percha product. E. Indies " Scientific Am. Sup ,'' 2415. Provision and uses, Solas . . "Scientific Am. Sup.," 4009, Gut'ter Plane. A molding plane with a semi- cylindrical sole, and a bit of corresponding shape. Used in planing out gutters in stuff for eave-troughs. Gym-nas'tic Ap'pa-ra'tus. See EXERCISING MACHINE; HEALTH LIFT, etc. Gyn'ee-co-log'i-cal In'stru-ments. (Surgi- cal.) Those for operating in cases peculiar to fe- males. See list under SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS. Gynaecological table, Foster* "Med. Record," May 24,1879. Gy'ro-pig'eon. A flying object simulating a pigeon in flight. Used as a flying target in shoot- ing matches. Projected by a spring trap. Fig. 3708, p. 1700, "Mech. Diet." Gy'ro-scope. Electro-magnetic apparatus to demonstrate the revolution of the earth. Du Moncel's "Expose des Applications de I'Elec- tricitc," iv. 176. Gyroscope, Deane . . * "Scientific American,-' xxxiv. 244. Fesset * "Manuf. if Builder," ix. 133, 157. Gruey,fr. . . . * "Scientific American," xl. 41. Electrical, Hopkins . * " Ti-legrapluc Journal,'' vi. 276. 331. * "Scientific American," xxxviii. 335. H. Hai-tha'o. A species of gelatine used in giving body to tissues and paper. It resembles Irish moss, and may be derived either from the Gehelntm corneum, a seaweed of Java, or from the Phearia lichenoides, peculiar to Mauritius. It is treated with hot acetic acid, afterwards with water, and finally with ammo- nia. The residuum dissolved in boiling water furnishes, on cooling, a jelly which is dried, and forms the commercial article. It was first used for alimentary purposes, and is now used as a size, and also as a substitute for gold-beater's skin. When placed in water it takes up about 600 times its own weight of the fluid. It is only soluble in boiling water, and insoluble in weak or diluted acids, alkaline solutions, and ether, but is attacked by sulphuric and other concen- trated acids. Half Back Saw. A hand-saw having a back stiffened to a distance about half the length of the blade from the handle. Half Clear. (Glass.) Said of glass, a portion of the surface of which has been depolished by any means, such as acid, grinding, etc. Half-crys'tal Glass. (Ghss.) A French term for ///we-glass. Crystal answers to the Eng- lish flint glass. Half-el-lip'tic Spring. A carriage spring composed of one set of plates, like a half ellipse. See Figs, on p. 143, supra. HALF HATCHET. 431 HAMMERLESS GUN. Fig. 1295. Half Hatch'et. A hatchet with one straight side, all the projection of the bit being on the side toward the hand. A shingling hatchet. Half Hose Coup'- ling. A coupling hav- ing at one end a corru- gated tubular portion on which the hose is bound, and at the other a sleeve internally threaded to receive an iron pipe. r Und '- a Half-round-bar Spiral Sprin Fig. 1296. , , Spi'ral Spring. ( Rail- way.) A coil spring made of half-round steel rod. Pig. 1295 shows it in a double nest form. Half-r o u n d' Spade. ( Wlml- iwf.) Used in cut- ting the blanket- piece free from the carcass as the lifting tackle and blubber hook draw upon the piece in flaying. Half-S Hop'- per Trap. A sewer trap with a single bend ; half the letter S in form. P'ig. 1296 shows the form, and also a man-hole with cover. Half-shov'el Plow. (Afjn'c.) A plow in- tended for rooty land. The blade is of steel, and Fig. 1297. Flanged Half-S Hopper Trap. Half-shovel Plow. has one straight side ; it is braced by a lay to pre- vent its being broken or bent. A broad iron plate is attached to the beam, and the colter may be changed from a jumping to a cutting colter. Half Spring. A spring with but one set of leaves; like a half-elliptic spring, shown at d, Fig. 1136, p. 480, "Meek. Diet.," and Figs. 450-452, p. 143. supra. Half Trap. A sinking bend in a sewer pipe, like a half-S, not having the rising portion. See Fig. 1296. Harne. A curved piece of wood or metal, two of which are fitted to the collar ; they have draft eyes to which traces and chains are attached. The attachments are : Hame clip ; a metallic link by which the tug is attached. Hame link ; at the lower end of each hame, for the hame strap to pass through. Hame ring ; on the hame, for the rein to pass through. Hame strap ; to couple the hames around the collar. Hame terre.t ; a rein ring in coach harness. Hame tug ; the forward loop on the trace ; attached to the clip. Ham'mer. (Stone Working.) Stone hammers are of various kinds, with faces or edges, plain or notched. Sometimes one end has a point (the peen) which is practically a pick, and used in poi/it- imj ashlars. See STONE DRESSING. See Bush hammer. Cavil. Crandall. Double-face hammer. Face hammer. Hand hammer. Mallet. Patent hammer. Peen hammer. Pick. Stone hammer. Tooth axe. (Surgical.) Used in osteotomy. The percussor used in auscultation is also a hammer or mallet. See under the following list, which includes also other striking tools, including sledges, mauls, hatch- ets, axes, and picks : Adze. Mason's hammer. Axe. Mattock. Ballast hammer. Mill pick. Ball-peen hammer. Miner's pick. Beating hammer. Nail gun. Bench hatchet. Nail hammer. Blacksmith's sledge. Napping hammer. Blocking hammer. Patent hammer. Brad driver. Pavior's hammer. Brad hammer. Pavior's rammer. Bricklayer's hammer. Peeling axe. Broad axe. Peen hammer. Bull-head axe. Percussing hammer. Bung start. Pick. Bush hammer. Pick-axe. Calking beetle. Pick hammer. Calking mallet. Pick mattock. Carpet hammer. Plugging mallet. Cavil. Quartering hammer. Claw hatchet. Railroad axe. Coal sledge. Rammer. Crandall. Ring mallet. Cross peen hammer. Riveting hammer. Dental mallet. Set hammer. Dog-head. Sharp-peen hammer. Double face hammer. Shingling hatchet. Drift hammer. Ship's axe. Driving hammer. Sledge. Electro-magnetic mallet. Spalling hammer. Engineer's hammer. Spike maul. Face hammer. Steak hammer. Farrier's hammer. Stone axe. Fireman's axe. Stone-cutter's hammer. Flaking hammer. Stone pick Flanging hammer. Straight-peon hammer. Geological hammer. Striking sledge. Half hatchet. Swaging mallet. Hammer pick. Tamping pick. Hand-drilling hammer. Tinner's hammer. Hand hammer. Tooth axe. Hatchet. Top maul. Hawsiug beetle. Trimming hammer. Horse-shoe hammer. Turning hammer. Knapping hammer. Turning sledge. Lathing hatchet. Welding hammer. Mallet. Wood chopper's maul. Refer to : Cushioned hammer, Bradley. * "Scientific American Sup.," 737. * "Engineer,'' xlii. 221. Helve hammer, Cuyahoga Iron Works. * "Amer. Manuf.," Dec. 12, 1879, p. 7. Pneumatic hammer, Shall, Br. * "Engineer," xliii. 369. Power hammer, Hasse-Simon, * "Engineer,'' xlviii. 412. Ham'mered Ar'ti-fi'cial Stone. An arti- ficial stone compacted by means of blows. The ingredients and proportions vary with the facilities of the place of manufacture. Bc'lon, as made by M. Coignet, is made of sand 5, lime 1. hydraulic lime 0.25, which are mixed with a shovel, water being sparingly used, and the com- pounded materials violently ground in a tempering mill and rammed in molds. See p. 278, "Mech. Diet." The material to which the name of hammered artificial stone has been given is made by the application of the stroke of the steam hammer upon properly mixed proportions of hydraulic and common limes, hydraulic cements, pulverized iron slag, sand, broken stone, marble or granite, clays and minerals, inclosed in properly constructed molds and dies. It is made by proper disposition of the ingredients, to imitate marble, and, by carving the interior faces of the molds, to assume any ornamental configuration. Ham'mer-less Gun. One without exterior hammer; usually fired by concealed spring-pin. The term may include the needle and bolt guna. HAMMERLESS GUN. 432 HAND CLAMP. That shown in Fig. 1298 is by Greener, of Birmingham, England. It is shown by longitudinal section. The barrels are hinged to the breech-frame in the usual manner, but iu- Fig. 1298. Hammerless Gun. stead of the ordinary gun lock with outside hammers, the tumblers A are made nearly in the form of an elbow lever. These tumblers have their upper ends curved forward, and are provided with a small rounded point, which is arranged to strike through a small hole at the center of the breech piece instead of the ordinary firing pin. The lower front portions of the tumblers A are extended forward in the form of a Hat arm, and these arms are curved laterally inward, so that their inner ends nearly meet at the center, each arm terminating with a small rounded projection on its lower side. The tumblers are in a recess which also contains the mainspring. (Referred to in the plural, as the gun is double barreled.) To one of the projections in rear of the joint is pivoted a pendant C, which plays loosely in a vertical slot in the cen- ter of the front arm of the breech frame, directly in front of the converging arms of the tumblers. This pendant has a hook-shaped projection which engages under the front ends of the arms of the tumblers, so that when the rear ends of the barrels are raised the hook raises the arms of the tum- blers far enough to permit the dogs -6 to engage in a notch in the tumblers, thus automatically cocking the arm, To hold the hook C back far enough to engage with the arms of the tumblers, a pin extends through a projection on the under side of the barrels. The triggers operate upon the rear arms of the dogs for firing the arm. Ham'mer Pick. A stone-mason's tool having a hammer face and pointed peen at the respective ends of the head. A pick-hammer. Ham'mer Strap. An iron strap stapled at its rear end ou a wagon tongue, and having an eye at Fig. 1299. British Navy Hammock. its forward end which rests on the double tree. The handle of the hammer, so called, goes through Fig 1300. Lawn, or Tourist's Hammock. the eye, the double-tree, and the tongue, and bears the strain in pulling. Ham'mock. A suspended netting for reclining or sleeping. Fig. 1299 is Stone's (Br.) portable swinging bedstead with canvas sacking. It is capable of being folded up and stowed, Fig. 1301. Ashantee" 1 Hammock. being especially intended for a customary hammock arrange- ment on board ships of war. Fig. 1300 is the Gwynfe (Leycester,~R\:.) self supporting hammock tent which stands by itself independently of ropes, trees, or pegs. The awning can be moved to any position. Elastic suspension, d'Ancora, Italy * "fic.Amer. Sup.,'' 1682. Mosquito net frame, Voile . . . * "&. Amer.'' xxxviii. 339. Fig. 1301 shows the " Ashantee " hammock on slinging apparatus. Ham 'mock Clews. (Nautical.) The gath- erings at the ends of a hammock formed i>v a yrommet and knittles at each end, and by which it is suspended. Ham'mock Cloth. (Nautical.) Canvas to protect the hammock from wet when stowed in the nettings on deck. Ham'mock Net. Open-work or netted ham- mock. Ham Try'er. A long bodkin for probing a ham, to detect by smelling the condition as to soundness around the bone. Han'cock In'spi-ra'tor. See INSPIRATOR. Hand. (Fire-arm.) The part of the stock gripped by the hand, and which may be either straight or pistol-gripped. Hand Blow'er. A blower or bellows worked by hand. See Figs. 347, 348, pp. Ill, 112, supra. Also Fig. 3891, p. 1768, " Mech. Diet."; also list under BLACKSMITH'S TOOLS, p. 291, Ibid.; and list of AIR APPARATUS, pp. 25, 26, Ibid. Hand Bolt'-cut-ter. A bolt-cutting machine, worked by hand-power. See Fig. 367, p. 117, supra. Hand Car. (Railway.) A light car, driven by hand-crank and gearing, operated by those riding Fig. 1302. Fig. 1303. Inspection Hand-car. Three-wheeled Hand-far. on the car. See various kinds in Forney's "Car- builders' Dictionary," Figs. 43-47. See also IN- SPECTION CAR. Penn. Railway . . . Phila. & Reading R. R. * " Engineering ,'' xxv. 44. * "Scientific Amer. f-'up.,' 1 ' 2754. * "K. R. 'Gazette," 1 xxiii. 107. * "R. R. Gazette,'' xxiii. 123. Sheffield. . . Hand Clamp. A species of vise for hold : ng parts in apposition while nailing, glueing, or fast- HAND CORN-PLANTER. 433 HAND MILLING MACHINE. ening by other means. See Fig. 1310, p. 560, " Much. 'Diet." See list of CLAMPS, p. 199, supra. Hand Corn-plant'er. A hand implement forced into the soil and dropping corn into the opening. See Fig. 1470, p. 627, "Mich. Diet.," lig ^.'183, p. 1057, Ibid. Hand Cul'ti-va'tor. A garden cultivator, which runs with a wheel in front, and carries a Fig. 1304. Hand Cultivator. hoe, the penetration and direction of which are governed by means of the, handles. Hand Drill. 1. A drilling machine or tool run by hand. See instances, Fig. 2374, p. 1055, <; Meek Diet." Refer to : Quick speed * "Engineer,''' xliv., 454. Ii'llnmii * "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 115. Wiley Russell . . . * "Iron Age," 1 xxi., April 11, p. 3. 2. A mnchine for drilling seed in rows. See HAND SEED-DRILL, infra. Hand-dril'ling Ham'mer. (Stone.) One used with the chisel in jumping holes in rock for blasting or splitting by plug and feather. The hammer is of steel, and weighs from 3 to 8 pounds. Hand Hoist. A lifting apparatus worked by hand, as in some species of winch. Specifically, an arrangement of pulley-blocks known as the differ- entia!.' See Fig. 821," p. 257, supra, and' Fig. 1647, p. 701, " Mech. Diet." Hand'-hole Trap. A sewer-trap, made with a hand hole, through which may be reached any ob- struction which has caught iu the beiid. See HALF- S HOPPER TRAP, supra. Hand Joiiit'er. A small machine for trueing the edges of boards or staves. A buzz-planer. See HAND MATCHER. Han'dle Net. (Fishing.) A dip-net stretched on a hoop, with a handle. Han'dlers. (Leuther.) The vats in which the hides brought from the beam house are first placed, hanging lengthwise and parallel to each other. The vats have a weak infusion of oak bark. Oth- erwise known as stri>ii/ers. Hand Line. (Fishing.) A line, hooked and baited, and held in the hand, a trawl line, for in- stance ; in contradistinction to a set line, or a./7/y line. The hand-line has one or two hooks baited and sunk near to the bottom, or thrown to any desired distance by means of a weight, and managed from the shore or a boat. Or, it is drawn rapidly over the surface of the water behind a boat, either with a bait attached or a shining olject, such as a spoon. Han'dling. 1. (Leather.) Taking the sides or skins out of the vats into tho air, smoothing them out, and piling them on one side to drain, after which they are returned to the stringers. Each time they are handled they are returned to a stron- ger ooze. (Ceramics.) The operation of putting handles on ware, such as ewers, etc. The handles are molded separately. Hand Mag'ni-fi'er. (Optics.) A series of 3 lenses giving various magnifying powers, whether used separately or in combination, and usually made to carry in the pocket. See LKNS HOLDER. Hand Match'er. A machine for tongueing and grooving short stuff for boxes, furniture, vvagou boards, etc. That shown has two heads, one for tongueing and one for grooving, running on the same arbor below the platen, which is raised or lowered to suit the required depth of work. Fig. 1305. Hand Matcher. The platen is furnished with movable fence and spring rollers, which are adjustable for different thicknesses of stuff which is passed over the heads edgewise, between the rollers and guides, both edges of the stuff being worked without change in the position of the operator. Hand Mil'ling Ma-chine'. A machine tool, small of its class, the slide adapted to be run by hand. Fig. 1306 shows a hand machine which is adapted for tak- ing short milling cuts. The adjustment screw for the table passes down through the bed-plate, and is operated from the Fig. 1306. Hand Milling Machine. HAND MILLING MACHINE. 434 HAND THRESHER. under side. The cross-slide is adjusted by a screw that pro- jects in front. The sliding table on which the work is placed is operated by a hand lever, and the motion is gaged joy an adjustable stop. The spindle is steel, having guu- inctal boxes and a taper-hole to receive the shanks of arbors. Tlie motion of the cutter is by power, that of the work by hand. In a somewhat larger machine of this class, by Kelly, Huw- ell, if Luiliciff, and to which power-feed may be applied, the i-lidc lias a tool-post attached for the purpose of cutting up stock, facing nuts, or shaping up work from the solid bar or single pieces to be held in the chuck. The tool-post can be removed from the sliding table, and index centers, milling vise, or any milling fixture put on, required for milling, taps, reamers, nuts, splitting shafts, and any milling suitable to be done on a machine with a screw and level feed The table has a rack-and-pinion feed, opinted by a hand-lever attached to the pinion shaft for a quick motion, and a screw feed so attached that either can be used when required ; it also has a cross feed for adjustment or butt milling, drilling, etc The body of the machine is a large cupboard base with shelves for tools. Pratt 4" Whitney . . * " Tkwston's Vienna Rep.," 1 ii. 225. Hand Mor'tis-ing Ma-chine'. A machine in which the force of the blow of the chisel is given by hand. Fig. 3'234, p. 1481, "Meek. Diet." Hand Pla'ner. 1. ( Wood.) See HAND MATCHER. 2. (Metal.) A planing machine, small of its class, and adapted to he worked hy haud. Hall's hand planer is shown in Fig. 1307. The vise is Fig 1307. Hand Planer. made expressly for the planer, which latter is attache by a socket, and has various adjustments to suit the tool to the piece held in the jaws of the vise. The pinion may be set to suit the length and convenience of the stroke. The tool- head swivels on its center, and may be set forward or back by the adjustable joints. The tool has a perpendicular feed of '21". The motion of the lever rotates the pinion, and gives rectilinear motion to the rack which carries the tool-head. Wood-planer, hand-feed, Richards, * "Eng'ing,"' xxiii. 274. Hand Pump. A pump for use in conser- vatories, washing car- riages, etc. Specifical'v a light implement held in one hnnd and worked hy the other. See AQUAPULT, Fig. 104, p. 44, supra, and HYDBONETIK, infra. , Fig. 1308. The proof pump and gas-drip pump of the plumber are other instances. Carr * "Manuf # Builder," ix. 177. HoUnnd * "Iron Age," xxiii., June 5, p. 1. ' Heliance," Br. ... * "Engineer," xliii. 170. Hand Rake. (Agric. ) A term applied to that class of harvesters in which the gavel is re- moved from the platform by a rake in the hands of a man who rides on the machine. The automatic or self-rake has superseded the hand rake in this country, but not yet in Europe. Hand Rock Drill. A smaller form of stone drilling machine, differing but little except in size from the Hock drills, pp. 1956-1958, and Diamond drills, p. 697, "J/ecA. Diet." Hand Seed Drill. A gar- den tool, for planting seeds iu rows. The seed is deposited in the hopper, and by simply, pushing the drill along the ground, the traveling wheel gives a motion to a slide at the bottom of the hop- per, and the seed at once falls through a tube situate behind the colter and drops into the soil. The seed . ceases to run through, the moment the drill is lifted off the ground. Two forms of the broad-cast seeder are shown in Figs 430, 431, p. 136, supra. Beet-drill, Figs. 132, 133, 135-137, Knight's Keport, "Paris Exposition Reports," 1878, v., 118 et seq. Beet-drill, Fr., "Dept. Agric. Sp. Report," No. 28, Plate III. Hand Stock Dies. Cutters for making screws, bolts, and threading pipes. See DIE, p. 256, supra ; and Fig. 4739, p. 2069, "Meek. Diet. ; " Fig. 4754, p. 2074, Ibid. Hand'-strap Ap'pa-ra'tus. The de- pendent lever of the counter shaft gearing, by which the strap is run from the loose to the tight pulley, or vice versa. A belt-shift Bent trimmer. Claw hatchet. Five-cant file. Hose wrench. Bevel. Clevis tongs. Flagging iron. Husking glov. Beveling instrument. Clipper. Flaking hammer. Ice chisel. Binder. Clip swage. Flauging hammer. Ice hook. Bit. Clutch drill. Flat iron. Ice tools. Bit brace. Coal sledge. Flat tener. Intrenching spade. Bit- brace die. Cock wrench. Flatter. Jeweler's rest. Bit-brace tap. Cocoa-nut grater. Flesher. Joiner's clamp. Blacksmith's chisel. Cold chisel. Fleshing-kuife. Jointer plane. Blacksmith's drill. Collar swage. Flexible sole plane. Key-hole saw. Blacksmith's sledge. Combination auger. Float. Knapping hammer. Blocking hammer. Combination, plane. Floor cramp. Kneading machine. Block plane. Compass saw. Floral tools. Knife. Boat hook. Concave saw. Flower and fruit gatherer. Knife cleaner. Bodkin. Cooper's punch. Fluted tap. Knife guard. Bolt cutter. Cork arm-board. Fiuter. Lacing cutter. Border knife. Cork presser. Fluting iron. Lathing hatchet. Boring-bar clamp. Cork screw. Fluting scissors. Lily iron. Boring-bar wrench. Corn hook. Foot vise. Lip auger. Boring tool. Corn knife. Fork. Loading plug. Bosom staff. Corundum tool. Forking spade. Lock bedder. Bottoming tap. Cotton hook. Forming iron. Machete. Bow-back saw. Countersink. Foundry ladle. Machinist's tools. Bow-drill stock. Crandall. Fountain pump. Mainspring vise. Bow saw. Crank ratchet-brace. Frame clamp. Mallet. Box hook. Cross-file. Friezing cutter. MandreL Box scraper. Cross-peen hammer. Fruit cutter. Mangle. Brace. Crow. Fruit pitter. Manure drag. Brail driver. Cupping tool. Fuller. Marking gage. Brad hammer. Curling stick. Furrow-gage staff. Marking iron. Bramble scythe. Currier's knife. Furrow rubber. Marlinespike. Brazing tongs. Curry-comb. Furrowing machine. Mason's hammer. Bread knife. Curved mattress needle. Gage saw. Mat hook. Bread slicer. Cutting nippers. Garden fork. Mat pole. Breast drill. Cutting punch. Garden plow. Mattock. Breech wrench. Dado plane. Garden roller. Meat cutter. Bricklayer's hammer. Darby. Garden tools. Meat rocker. Brick trowel. Dental tools. (See SUR- Garden weeder. Meat stuffer. Broad axe. GICAL APPARATUS, etc.) Gas-main drill. Microtome. Broadcast seeder. Die. Gas tube vise. Mill file. Brush jack. Die-dog. Geological hammer. Mill pick. Brush-jack needle. Die holder. Gimlet. Millstone dresser. Buck saw. Die stock. Gimlet bit. Millstone leveler. Buhr dresser. Differential ratchet brace. Glass cutter. Mincing knife. Buhr rubber. Ditch cleaner. Glossing iron. Mineral dresser. Bull-head axe. Dog head. Grafter. Miner's bar. Bull-nose rabbet plane. Door clamp. Grafting tool. Miner's pick. Bung-hole borer. Double clamp. Grains. Mining wedge. Bung start. Double cut saw. Grater. Miter. Burgoyne. Double e'nder. Grommet knob. Miter box. Burner pliers. Double-face hammer. Grub hoe. Miter box saw. Burnisher. Double-jaw vise. Grub hook. Miter jack. Bush hammer. Double screw vise. Gun brush. Molder's tools. HAND TOOLS. 436 HANOVERIAN BIT. Moon knife. Red staff. Swivel tool. Tube cleaner. Movable-back saw. Reloading tool. Swivel vise. Tube cutter. Nail anvil. Re-primer. Table brush. Tube expander. Nail gun. Reversible saw. Tack claw. Tube fastener. Nail hammer. RifHer. Tamping pick. Tube semper. Nail puller. Rigging screw. Tap. Tube stopper. Nail selector. Ring cone. Taper tap. Tube tongs. Napping hammer, ' Ring mallet. Tap wrench. Turning hammer. Needle threader. Rip saw. Tenon saw. Turning sledge. Nest. Riveting hammer. Tinner's hammer Turning steel. Nicking saw. Round iron. Tinner's snips. Turn pin. Nut wrench. Round moon knife. Tire bender Turpentine tool. Pallet knife. Round swage. Tire bolt clamp. Twist drill. Palm. Sardine shears. Tire setting platform. Uncapping knife. Panel flaw. Sash cramp. Tire xhrinker. Upending tongs. Parallel vise. Sash tools. Tire upsetter. Upright vise. Paste jagger. Sausage chopper. Toggle iron. Upset. Patent hammer. Sausage stuffer. Tongs. Vegetable cutter. Pavior's hammer. Saw. Tongue and groove plane. Veneer scraper. Pavior's rammer. Saw clamp. Tool holder. Vine shear. Peach Parer. Saw file guide. Tooth axe. Vise. Peat knife. Saw filing clamp. Tooth chisel. Vise clamp. Peat spade. Saw-filing vise. Top maul. Wall scraper. Peeling axe. Saw rummer. Track chisel. Washer cutter. Peen hammer. Saw set. Track drill. Weather-boarding saw. Perforator. Scissors. Tracklayer's tools. Weed scythe. Pick. Scoop. Tram. Welding hammer. Pick hammer. Scraper. Tram staff. Well-hook. Pick mattock. Scraper plane. Trenail auger. Wire bonder. Pillar file. Scratch brush. Trimmer. Wood-chopper's maul. Pin bush.' Scratcher. Trimming hammer. Woodworker's clamp Pinchers. Screw clamp. Trowel. Worker. Pipe cutter. Screw driver. Trust hoop. Worm auger. Pipe die. Screwing stock. Tryer. Wrench. Pipe fitter's 'rise. Screw making tools. Try square. Wrench and pipe cutter. Pipe grip. Screw plate. Tube header. Wrench handle. Pipe-layer's tools. Screw wrench Tube brush. Wringer. Pipe threader. Scuffle hoe. Tube chuck. Y. Pipe threading diev Pipe toirgs. Seed drill. Set hammer. Hand Wheel. 1. The brake-wheel on a car Pipette. Setting die. platform. TPipe vise. Pipe wrench. Shackle jack. Sharp peen hammer. 2. The throttle-wheel of a large marine or pump- Pitching, chisel. Fitter. Shave hook Shearer. Hand Winch. A hoisting apparatus worked Plane. Shingling hatchet. by hand. See pp. 2776, 2777, "Mech. Diet." A Plane bit holder. Ship auger. crab. Fig. 1499, p. 640, Ibid. Plane ivoo. Planter. Ship axe. Shoe stretcher. Hang'er Bolt. A screw-bolt, coarse-threaded Plant sprinkler. Short-hair knife. at one end to enter wood, and threaded at the other Plasterer's brush. Shovel. end for a nut. Plasterer's trowel- Shunting bar. Hang'ing Block. (Nautical.) A block through Plow. Plug. Sieve. Six canted file. which the top-sail tye is rove, then through the tye- PI u g-and- feather. Sledge. block on the yard, and the standing part made fast Plug tap. Slot borer. to the mast head. Plumb and level. Plumber's chiseL Pocket level. Sluice fork. Smoothing iron. Smooth plane. Hang'ing Cut'ter. A colter depending from the plow -beam. See COLTER, Fig. 662, p. 210, su/mi. Pod auger. Snip. Hang'ing-leg Boil'er. The Galloway boiler, Point. Soldering iron. which may be called a form of Cornish in which Pointer. Polishing disk. Polishing iron. Soldering tool. Sour kraut cutter. Spade. the large single flue is traversed by vertical water- pipes, which are thus exposed to the horizontal Porte polisher. Spanner. course of the products of combustion. Post auger. Post-hole auger. Post-hole digger. Spawling hammer. Spice mill. Spike extractor. See Fig. 5626, Plate LXI., opp. p. 2326, "Mech. Diet." Also p, Fig. 5621, p. 2327, Ibid. Post-hole spoon. Spike maul. Hang'ing-tube Boil'er. One having water- Potato hook. Pressing irons. Primer. Primer extractor. Spiral auger. Splitting chisel. Spoke pointer. Spoke-shave. tubes depending in the flame space ; closed at the lower ends and the upper ends secured in the crown- sheet of the fire-box. The flame circulates among Pritchell. Spoke trimmer. these tubes, sometimes directed in its course by a Proof staff. Sprinkler. baffle-plate, and passes to the chimney through a Pruning saw. Square corner swage. straight central flue. Pruning shears. Stamp punch. SeeVigs. 5629, 5633, Plate LXI., opp. p. 2326, "Mech. Diet." Pump auger. Staple fastener. Also Figs. 2684, and JS, Fig. 2685, Ibid. Putty sieve. Steel mortar. Hang'ing Wall. (Mining.) The layer of a Quartering hammer. Stock and die. rock or wall over a lode. Quick-speed hand drill. Rabbet plane. Rag looper. Railroad axe. Stone axe. Stone-cutter's hammer. Stone pick. Stone-worker's tools. Hank-dry'ing Ma-chine'. The hanks are placed on perforated rotating rollers or winches, and the lower ends hang in the dye of the beck. The Rammer. Straight peen hammer. yarn is thus alternately steeped and aired. "Tex- Rasp, ilatchet brace. Ratchet drill. Straw knife. Striking sledge. Stuffing brush. tile Manufacturer." See also WINCING MACHINE, "Mech. Diet." and Ratchet wrench. Sudden-grip vise. * " Scientific. American Sup.,'" 1763. Razor. Surgical instruments. Han'o-ve'ri-an Bit. (Manege.) A straight or Reamer. Reaper. lie-capper. ( See separate list. ) Swage. Swage block. curved cheek bit, with two or more loops for reins upon the lower or long arm ; also a loop at the end HANOVERIAN CHIFNEY. 437 HARDWARE, ETC. of the short cheek, for receiving the leather cheek, anil a rein-ring at the cheek-piece. Han'o-ve'ri-an Chif'iiey. (Manage.) This differs from the regular Hanoverian by having short movable arm attached, in the same manner as the Chifney ; the curb-chain is attached to the stationary check. Har'bor Gas'ket. ( Nautical. ) A broad gas- ket, one on every other seam of the sail, to show a well-furled sail when in port. Har'dened Glass. Glass treated by the pro- cess of M. Siemens, at Dresden. It is formed under hydraulic or other pressure which gives the desired hardness independent of any tempering. By means of this process larger glass panes can be formed than was possible before. The glass is stronger than the tempered glass of De Bastie in the proportion of 5 to 3. The fracture is fibrous, not crystalline like the ordinary glass. At an ex- amination instituted by the " Gewerbeverein," a leaden bul- let, weighing 120 grains, was dropped upon plates of ordi- nary and pressed glass, supported at the four corners. The ordinary glass was fractured by a fall of the bullet from a height of 300 millimeters, while the pressed pane fractured at a height of 2,000 millimeters. A second specimen of the latter was subjected to a fall of 3,000 millimeters without breaking. See GLASS, TEMPEEED, supra, for references. Hard'en-ing Ma-chine'. A machine for rub- bing and pressing hat bodies in order to felt the materials, increasing the density, diminishing the size, and making the material hard and compact. The machine for hardening wool hat bodies operates by means of a reciprocating rubbing board. It is placed upon a strong wooden frame which serves as a table on which the hat-body rests. Into this table is fitted a steam box which is perforated on top to allow the steam, which is admitted by a pipe, to penetrate the hat bodies to be hardened. Fig. 1308 shows a machine with two rubbing boards which receive a rapid reciprocating motion from two adjustable wrist-pins fitted to the fly-wheel disks on each end of the driving shaft. One of these rubbing boards, the nearer one, is shown thrown back and out of work. The other one is in operation. Fig. 1310. Hat-body Hardening Machine. The hat bodies are built into a pile and laid upon the steam- box, coarse hardening cloths being sandwiched between each and pieces of cloth of suitable size and shape being laid in- side each hat body. The object of these interposed cloths is to prevent the adherence of the hats, one to another. Two of them laid in immediate contact and rubbed while hot and wet woulil soon coalesce and be impossible to divide. The rubbing board, which is also covered with coarse cloth and is somewhat smaller than the hat-body, is then lowered upon the hat bodies and held down by a post which is hinged to a spring on the ceiling of the room and has a yielding pressure upon the rubbing board. Three to five hat bodies are thus partially hardened at one operation ; the projecting portions, however, not having been acted upon, the hat bodies are removed and so disposed as to brin.? under the rubli.n; board at the next operation the por- tion- which were formerly the edges. This operation completed, the hat bodies are ready for the tizing kettle, or battery, when to be made by baud, or to be fulled in a fulling mill if they are to be farther treated by machinery. In some factories a separate machine is used to harden the tips of hat bodies. It consists simply of a rubbing board which acts upon a round steam chest of suitable size, upon which the hat body is placed after the sides have been hard- ened in the ordinary hardening machine. Hard'en-ing Tongs. A tool to hold steel ar- ticles during the process of tempering. A pair of tongs having T-shaped jaws is provided with pointed pins which bear upon opposite sides of the article, and prevent it from twisting out of shape when it is plunged into the water to cool, while it allows the water to coin- Fig. 1311. Hardening Tongs. pletely surround the article. One of the jaws is movable and is capable of adapting itself to tapering surfaces. Hard Paste. (Ceramics.) A name applied to the material of real porcelain, which abounds in silex, and is so vitreous as to break with a fracture like glass. See PORCELAIN. Hard'ware, House, Car'riage, Wag'on, etc. See under the following heads : Acorn-headed bolt. Anchor shackle. Ankle shackle. Anti-rattler. Anti-rattler fifth wheel. Apron fastener. Awning cleat. Awning foot. Awning hinge. Awning slide. Awning slide-rod. Axle block. Axle clip. Axle lubricator. Axle saddle. Axle yoke. Back spring. Back stay end. Ball-joint binge. Band. Barn-door hanger. Barn-door rail. Barrel hook. Bench sail-hook. Beveled washer. Bevel-head bolt. Billet. Hit. Blind-fast. Body loop. Boiler-patch bolt. Bolster plate. Bolster spring. Bolt (varieties, see list). Row iron. Bow joint. How spring. Bracket. Bridge bolt. Bridle bit. Buggy spring. Bull's eye. Butt. Butt-hinge. Button-head bolt. Jan hook. }ap screw. 'ar-door hanger. Carriage bolt. Carriage spring. Carriage spring-lock. Car seat spring. Caster. Cattlo tie. Chain stay. Chain swivel. Clip king-bolt. Clip plate. Clip yoke. Coach clip. Coach-door handle. Coach hinge. Coach lock. Coach screw. Collar holder. Collar nail. Combination lock. Cone head bolt. Corner iron. Countersunk head screw. Countersunk head square shank bolt. Crate hinge and hasp. C-spring Cultivator point bolt. Dash. Dash foot. Dash frame. Dash lamp. Dead lock. Deck hook. Door handle. Door hanger. Door spring. Door stop. Double washer. Draft tug. Drawer lock. Drive knob. Elevator bolt. Elliptic-head bolt. Elliptic spring. Escutcheon. Eye. Eye bolt. Eye ferrule. Feed-box hasp. Felloe holder. Felloe joint bolt. Felloe plate. HARDWARE, ETC. 438 HARMONIC TELEGRAPH. Fifth wheel. Pole eye. Spring shelf. Top joint. Fifth wheel trueing-plate. Pole socket. Spring stud. Top prop. Flange bushing. Pole tip. Spring washer. Top prop nut. Flush bolt. Pole yoke. Square countersunk bolt. Track bolt. Foot rail. Port hinge. Square head bolt. Triangular washer. Front stay end. Prop block. Square shank bolt. Trip hook. Full circle. Prop block washer. Stall ring. Triplet spring. Gaif-topsail hook. Prop nut. Stanchion. Tufting button. Gate latch. Railway track bolt. Standard brace. Turnbuckle. Gridiron step. Reach. Stay chain nook. Vault light. Gromuiet. Reach plate. Stay end. Vault ring. Guard bolt. Reach socket. Stay-end clip. V-bolt. Gut hook. Ring. Stay-end tie. Vehicle spring. Half elliptic spring-. Ring bolt. Steeple-head bolt. A'entilating grate. Half spring. Ring boot. Step. Wagon box. Harue stud. Ring handle Step bolt. Wagon-box-rod plate. Hammer strap. Rivet Step pad. Wagon coupling. Hand-rail bracket. Riveting burr. Step shank. AVagon lock. Hanger bolt. Riveting knob. Stool swivel. AVasher. Hanger screw. Bockavvay band. Stove bolt. AVear iron. Harness bracket. Rope clamp. Strap hinge. AVhiffletree bolt. Harness snap. Round countersunk bolt. Strike. Whiffletree brace. Hasp. Round countersunk square Stump joint. AVhiffletree circle. Head-block plate. head bolt. Surface box. Whiffletree coupling. Hexagon head cap screw. Round-head cap screw. Swivel Whiffletree hook Hinge. Rub iron. Swivel hook. AVhiffletree plate. Hinge nail. Rudder brace. Tap. Whiffletree tip. Hod. Rudder gudgeon. Tap bolt. AVhiffletree tongue. llook. Saddle bracket. T-brace. Whip-socket. Hook and eye screw bolt. Saddle clip. Thimble skein. Window button. Hook and eye turnbuckle. Safety bolt. T- hinge. AVindow latch. Hound plate. Safety hook. Thorough-brace brace. Window quadrant. Hungarian nail. Safety loop. Threshing machine tooth. Window sector. India-rubber spring. Sash lock. Tile Wire nail. Jail lock. Sash spring-catch. Time lock. AVood screw. Janus- faced lock. Scandinavian lock. Tire bolt. Yale lock. Joint end. Screw eye. Top brace. Yoke Joint eye. Screw-head key. Joint holder. Screw hook and eye hinge. Harelip Iii'stru-ments. (Surgical.) For Joint washer. Key. Key bolt. Screw hook and strap hinge. Screw knob. Scuttle. trimming the edges, approaching the lips of the su- ture, securing the parts in position. Key fastener. Seat fastener. They consist of Key-head bolt. Keyless lock. Key ring-. King bolt. King- bolt tie. Seat lock. Seat spring. Self-locking hook. Self-mousing hook. Set screw. Scalpel. Ligature instrument. Scissors. Plastic pin. Clamp. Pin conductor. See pp. 59, 60, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chi- King-bolt y ok . Sewer entrance. rurgicum." Knob sorpw Sewer trap. Lacing hook. Shackle. Har-mon'ic An'a-ly'zer. An integrating Lag bol t . Shackle bolt. machine, invented by Sir William Thomson, for Lag screw. Lap ring. Lariat swivel. Letter lock. Shackle flap. Shaft bolt. Shaft coupling. Shaft eye. producing mechanically the harmonic constituents of meteorological, tidal, and other curves, in order to obviate the large amount of work involved in Lining nail. Shaft loop. their calculation by the ordinary methods. Lock (varieties, fee list). Shaft rubbers. ^Vloff tlT\ Locking baggage check. Locking plate. Lock nut. Loop bolt. jonait up. Shank spring. Sheet slip. Shifting carriage rail. Har-mon'ic En'gine. A small electro-mag- netic engine, by Edison. A diapason with weighted Loop head. Shifting rail. arms vibrates between electro-magnets, and works Loop yoke. Ship ring bolt. a small water or air-pump. lx)ose pin hinge. Ship spike. \faphfno bnlf Shoe bolt. Machine screw. Side- bar. Maiden nut. Side-bar-spring shackle. Har-mon'i-con. A musical instrument with Hatch hook. Metallic chain. Mousing hook. Side scuttle. Single screw turnbuckle. Sink bolt. bars which are beaten with mallets. The bars are made of wood, metal, stone, glass. Nail. Skein screw. For stone, see LAPIDEON, p. 1253,."JVfecA. Diet.'" Neck-yoke socket. Sky-light guard. For slats, see HARMONICA, p. 1061, Ibid. Needle. Sky-light lift. For wood, see WOOD HARMONICON, p. 2809, Ibid., and refer- Night latch. Slat iron. ences passim. Nut. Nut lock. Offset. Oval point set screw. Sleeve nut. Sleigh-shaft coupling. Sleigh-shoe bolt. Snap. Also "Atlantic Monthly," vol. xxxix., pp. 523-525, where, in an article by the author on the " Crude and Curious Ini-fn- tions at the Centennial," 1876, are described and represented Pad bracket. Socket washer. the Pad lock. Perch loop. Perch iron. Spike. Spiral spring. Marimba of Central Africa .... pp. 524, 525. Gamban^x of Siam and Malaysia . . pp. 526, 52i. Perch plate. Sponge basket. See also references passim. Perch stay. Picket pin. Spring band. Spring-bar clip. Har-mon'ic Tel'e-graph. A telephone which Pin. Pipe hook. Spring block. Spring buffer. sends messages by audible musical tones. Gray. Plate hinge. Spring cap. See Figs. 6266-6269, pp. 2516-2518, "Meek. Diet." Plate washer. Platform spring. Platform spring shackle. Plow bolt. Pole coupling. Pole crab. _ Spring clip. Spring coupling. Spring hanger. Spring hinge. Spring seat. Spring shackle. "Jour. Am. Electrical Society,' 1 ' i. 1. ."Scientific American," Ixiii. 368. Papers by Pope . . * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2088, 2i'9T. *"Jour. Soc. Telrg. Eng.," vii. 356. "Iran Age," xvii., April 13, p. 3. HARMONIUM. 439 HARPOON SHUTTLE. Har-mo'ui-um. An English name for the parlor reed-organ. Distinguished from the liar- Htonicoii, which has bars. Har-mon'o-graph. An instrument invented by Mr. Tisley, l>y which Lissajou's and Mdde's figures may be drawn upon paper by a capillary glass peii containing a colored ink. The ingenious instrument^ which was originally employed merely to make curious curves, far exceeding in variety and eccentricity those of the rose-engine lathe, has now attains d great use and interest in producing graphic representations of sound vibrations from tuning forks or the voice. Accord- ing to the circumstances, the curves are traced on a paper, smoked glass, or traveling ribbon, or are merely projected by mirrors upon a screen. In asimple form the harmonograph consists of two pendu- lums vibrating in planes at right angles to one another, :ind having their rods continued above their centers of oscillation. One of these rods carries a small flat table upon which is fastened the paper upon which the figure is drawn, and the other actuates a rod which carries the pen. The center of gravity, and therefore the time of oscillation of the latter pendulums, can be altered to any required amount, so that the proportions between the periods of vibration of the two pendulums can be brought to any desired ratio to represent harmony, unison, discord, or indeed to illustrate all the har- monic combinations of waves of sound and music. The curves and figures traced out by this instrument are of great beauty, and by a recent addition to it, whereby the paper may be slowly rotated by a clock-work movement, while the vibrations are going on, very extraordinary figures are pro- duced, some of which illustrate in a remarkable degree the laws of interference and of the polarization of light. "Scientific American Supplement 1188. See also references under CURVE INSTRUMENT, p. 236 ; and ELECTRICAL DIAPASON, p. 293, supra; and LISSAJOU'S CURVES, PENDULUM INSTRUMENT, infra. Har'ness. Diagrams, showing the principles of the disposition of heddles and harness for various kinds of weaving, may be found in Ltibonlai/^s "JJic- tionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," article " Tis- sage," vol. Hi., edition 1877. Har'ness Grease. Whale or neat's-foot oil 3 quarts. Castor oil 1 pint. Ivory black pound. Kosin \ pound. Beeswax \ pound. Burgundy pitch ' \ oz. Prussian blue J oz. Mix. Boil for half an hour. Harness blacking . . "Scientific American,'' xxxvi. 81. Har'ness Hitch. (Nautical.) A kind of hitch for securing harness casks. See h, Fig. 2513, p. 1105, " Mech. Diet." See also LIFTING TACKLE, infra. Har'ness Snap. See SNAP HOOK, ^3 illus- trations, Fig. 5246, p. 2229, " Mech. Diet." Harp. (Music.) A stringed instrument played by the hand and having a compass, formerly, of 5 octaves, but increased by Erard to 6|. It is" written, on two lines for the two hands. The lower line usually has the F clef, the upper the G. Erard's double-tiction harp is tuned in C b; it has 7 pedals by \vhich the strings may be raised a semi-tone or a whole tone. See Berlioz's "Treatise on Modern In- strumentation and Orchestration," p. 62, et seq. Har-poon'. A barbed javelin. The harpoon employed in the capture of the sword-fish off the New Kngland coist consists of a barb with jointed ears, ami fastened to one end of a rope of several hundred feet in length, to the other end of which is attached an empty, well- bunged b-irrel, to serve as a buoy. The end of a long handle carries a pointed iron stem, over which the socket of the har- poon head referred to, usually called the lily-iron, is slipped. The fisherman stationed at the end of the bowsprit of a sloop drives the harpoon into the back of the neck of the fish : and if the lily-iron is fastened in the flesh, it slips off from the stem of the handle, which is pulled out as the fish darts away, and the rope and buoy are thrown overboard. The fish swims off, but becoming fatigued by the drag of the buoy, t, imes again to the surface, when it is drawn up by the rope aud killed by a lance. List of patents on harpoons, projectiles, rockets, bomb lances, etc., used in fishing and whaling : 2,195 Carsley, Twisted flukes. 3,490 Moore, Vial of explosive mixture in the harpoon. 4,764 Allen, Bomb lance. 4,866 Holmes el a/., Harpoon with movable flukes. 4,872 Kaiifta/l, Pivoted expanding flukes. 6,949 Alien. Gun harpoon. 7,410 Brown, (jlun harpoon ; mode of attaching line. 7,572 Brown, Gun lance ; mode of attaching line. 7,610 Bro ic H, Harpoon ; mode of attaching line. 7,777 Albertson, Harpoon with hinged shank. 8.703 Hurt, Exploding harpoon. 8,843 Sonnenberg et at , Electric whaling apparatus. 8,862 StiUman, A lance in a harpoon. Movable flukes. 9,047 Brand, Gun harpoon or bomb lance Wings on shank. 15,577 Scholfitld, Gun lance, spiral wings. 16,819 Sclw(field et at., Bomb lance, spiral wings. 17.173 Sib/ey, Gun lance with wings taken from the gun. 17,312 Branil, Bomb lance with folding spiral wings 17.370 Grudchor el al., Bomb lance with percussion ar- rangement. 17,40" S:ble.y, Gun lance with wings. 18,848 Kelly, Harpoon with movable flukes. 18,568 Bates, Bomb lance with spiral tail. 18,824 Scholfield, Gun lance with wings. 19,363 Harkness, Harpoon with lance. 21,219 lyibteif, Bomb lance with wings. 21,278 Fcho'tfield, Gun lance with barbs. 21.949 Doyle, Harpoon with pivoted head. 22,054 Andrews, Bomb lance with interior fuse tube. 23,827 Comins, Bomb lance with folded wings. 24.371 Brown, Bomb harpoon, expanding flukes. 25.020 Goodspe.td, Bomb lance with wings. 80,869 Brings, Bomb harpoon with expanding flukes. 31,190 Hoys, Shoulder gun for harpoons and lances. 32,830 Goodspefd et al., Guide for bomb lance. 35,474 Hoys, Rocket harpoon and bomb. 35,476 Roys, A whale raiser. A barbed instrument led down the harpoon line to a sunken whale. 3^,207 Adams, Harpoon, with semi-revolving head. 40,387 Allen, Bomb-lance, with perforated fire-proof dia- phragm. 46,437 Barker, Exploding harpoon. 49,548 Pierce, Harpoon and bomb lance. 64,211 Roys et al., liocket harpoon. 64,045 Smith, Gun harpoon, grooved head, to receive the pivoted barb. 71,763 Kelley, Gun harpoon with pivoted head. 78,675 Kelley, Bomb harpoon, pivoted flukes. 90,868 Pierce, Bomb lance. 97,693 Rechtens, Harpoon with bombs. 126,388 Freeman, Bomb harpoon. 171,553 Cunningham, Bomb lance. 201.793 Kelleh.tr, Gun and bomb lance. 201.794 Kelle/ier, Bomb lance. 206,694 Taylor, Harpoon with expanding flukes. 211.777 Pierce, Harpoon gun. 211.778 Pierce, Bomb lance. 214,707 Roys, Bomb lance. 222,003 Brand, Bomb lance. Har-poon' Gun. A small cannon, or a shoul- der gun, for hurling harpoons or lances. See list, supra. Har-poon' Shut'tle. (Hydraulic Engineering.) The standard tool for sewing mats for hydraulic dikes and jetties. Fig. 1312. Harpoon Shuttle. Its weight is about 10 pounds. It is wound with 200 feet of No. 14 wire, and in op- . ,.. eration is used by three men, two above and one below the mat. Two men pass the shuttle back and forth and around the pole in stitches 12" to 18" long, while a third tramps down the brush and holds the wire while the next stitch is being made. The Shuttle Fastening. shuttle may also be used in making an overhand or back stitch, the pole being omitted. HARPOON SHUTTLE. 440 HARROW. It was also the method employed in sewing to a wire ; 2 shuttles were used in the haruess-stitch, and a short shuttle in the chain stitch, and in combination with a hook needle it is used as a bobbin in making the lock-stitch. Of these methods the sewing to a wire and the lock-stitch turn tbe wire too short; the chain-stitch is of difficult manipulation, and the harness-stitch is expensive to make, and has great backslip when broken. Har'ris-Cor'liss Engine. A form of Covli>s engine. See Fig. 5666, p. 2341, "Mech. Diet." Engine works * " Sc. American,'' xli. 175. Har'row. (Aijric.) An implement with teeth, lying flatly upon the ground, over which it is drawn to level the soil or cover seed. The following are shown on pp. 1067, 1068, "MecA. Diet.' 1 ' : Brush harrow. V-harrow. Jointed harrow. Double harrow. Folding harrow. Share harrow. Rotary harrow. Spiked-cylinder harrow. See also Chain harrow, Fig. 589, p. 188, supra. Disk harrow, Fig. 831, p. 261 , supra. Disking machine, Fig. 832, p. 261, supra. Geddes harrow, Fig. 1194, p. 396, titpra. The " Penn '' harrow is a Protean instrument consisting of a rotary portion revolving in a V-shaped section, and adapt- ed to be used either single or double, and in various forms : (a) the rotary portion with one V, or (6) with two V's, form- ing a square ; (c) upset and resting on its sled during removal from place to place (Fig. 1314) ; (rJ) the single V, or (e) the Fig. 1314. Fig. 1317. II I.U French Articulated Harrow. three wheels, by the forward one of which it is guided. It carries two spiked rollers, the depth of penetration of which is adjusted by means of a screw, operated by a crank from ''Penn " Harrow. ( In position to moi-e on its sled.) double V, without the rotary ; (f) the single V upset, the Fig. 1315. 'Perm'' 1 Harrow. (As a Gang.) three sled-bows acting as a corn-marker ; (g) the complete tool (Kig. 1315) with the two V ; s and two rotary portions. Fig. 1316 shows the Norwegian harrow. It is carried on Fig. 1816. Norwegian Harrow. French RiJgt Harrow. the rear, the effect being to raise or lower the sleeve at the apex of the frame upon the pillar of the caster- wheel The spikes are in fact star-disks, slipped upon an axial rod, and free to move thereon independently The French articulated harrow (i'uzenat, Bourbon-Lancy) has an equilibrium bar, and is made in jointed sections, from 3 to 6 in number, according to the breadth re- quired. The arrangement of the teeth is such that with a given line of draft the surface of the ground is marked by equi- distant lines. Fig. 1317. Fig. 1318 is the French herse a. billons (Soitchou-Pinet a Langeais), or ridge har- row ; so called from its flexibility enabling it to lap over a ridge or upon the sides of a cleaning-out furrow ; serving to break clods and level minor inequalities upon un- dulating ground. The chain harrow, Fig. 589, p. 188, supra, has the same adaptation. Fig. 1319 shows the adjustable bar spring-tooth harrow, in which tiie teeth are permanently seated upon and coiled around the round bars of the frame ; the bars being held in position by friction clamps, but adjustable therein so as to give the required presentation of the tooth to the soil, to regulate the depth of tilth. This without changing the po- sition of the tooth on the bar. By rolling the bars to which the teeth are attached, forward or backward, the faces of the teeth are placed on an angle with the line of draft, by which they more readily scour, and also produce when at work a vibratory motion in addition to the coil motion, by which they more perfectly pulverize the soil, and free themselves from rubbish. The two frames of the harrow are connected by a swivel coupling, so that the bars can be changed in either direction without affecting the working of the coupling. Nishwitz, "Acme" pulverizing harrow is intended to combine the action of a clod-crusher, leveler, and harrow in one implement. A diagonal leveling bar runs upon the ground and carries at its rear edge a series of eword-ghaped projecting colters. To the rear of the leveling bar is hinged another bar. from the rear of which projects another row of spring-steel colters, curved in form, beveled to an edge, and set at an angle with the line of draft and also at an angle with the horizon. A lever within reach of the driver (who rides) HARROW. 441 HATCHING BOX is held in position by a ratchet, and enables the operator to control the angular position of the crusher and at the same time raise or depress the colters on the hinged bar at the rear. Fig. 1319. Adjustable The " Albion '' harrow is also a riding implement, but has wheels and shafts. It has spring teeth depending from a bar jointed to the axle. These are curved like those of a horse-rake, but are Hat, and their angle of presentation is adjustable to regulate the depth of penetration. This comes very closely to the class of cultivators. In Europe, Britain and France especially, there is quite a variety of implements embraced in the general class of har- rows, and used for cultivating or renewing the surface of ground. They may fairly be called harrows with handles, and are especially used for dragging out the twitch-grass which is such a nuisance in wheat-fields. See Fig. 1322. Fig. 1320. rope clear of the implement. The lever itself is held by a vertical stud fixed to the frame considerably behind the steering-wheel. This position of the draft-stud gives the necessary liberty and power to the steering-wheel and en- ables it to lead the implement at almost any angle out of the line of the pulling-rope. " On the short end of the turning-lever is a chain communi- cating with a quadrant on the crank-axle, and as the lever is pulled round, the chain, acting on the quadrant, turns the axle, lifts the frame, and raises the tines out of the ground. " The plan of operation is as fol- lows : As soon as the cultivator is brought up to the headland, the re- verse pull brings the lever around, turns the quadrant, rotates the bent axle, and lifts the tiues out of the ground, in which position the imple- ment is held up by a catch ; when lilted the required height, the lever strikes against a stop, and the imple- ment turns into new ground. The man, who never leaves his seat, releases the catch, the tines drop into the ground, and the implement is re-drawn across the field.'' Knight's "Paris Exposition(UlS) Reports," * v., 85,87. Old English harrow . . * "Engineering,'' xxvii. 533. Norwegian, spiked . . * "Engineering," xxvii. 533. Combined with roller. Campbell * "Min. If Sc. Press," xxxviii. 169. Dobbin * "*"<:. American,'' xxxviii. 199. Green .... * "Min. If Sc. Press,'' xxxv. 249 Flexible, Howard, Eng. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 939. Nicholson, Br * "Engineering," xxviii. 36. Duplex, Rogers ... * "Iron Age,'' xxv., April 8, p 11. Dr. Knight's report on Class 76, at Paris, 1878, contains views and descriptions of the following, "Paris Exposition (1878) Reports,'' vol. v., pp. 95-98 : Flexible harrow . . . Puzenat. France. Harrow with handles . . Picksley, Sims, if Co. England. Harrow with handles, tine, and frame. England. Chain-harrow .... England. Flexible chain-harrow . Howard. England. Steam Harrow. Figs. 1320 and 1321 show the adaptations of the harrow to Steam cultivation. The ordinary steam-harrow (Fig. 1320) covers a breadth of from 12' to 18', so that from 40 to 60 acres may be gone over in a day. The harrow moves in either direction, and can be driven at high speed. The under frames can be removed and roll- ers or clod-crushers substituted for them. The machine, Fig. 1321, has a light cultivator or heavy harrow in front of the seeding-colters and a light covering harrow following the same. The seed-drill itself, even of the largest width, requires but so small a fraction of the power of the engines, that it has been combined with the harrows. The drill has a width of 9'. In turning around, the heavy harrows are lifted by the power of the engine, and the whole implement moves at once on to new ground. The lifting and turning action is automatic. Fig. 1321. Har'row Cul'ti-va'tor. An im- plement like a harrow, but supported on wheels which limit the penetration of the tines. The distance apart of the tines suits the width of rows of the drilled crop. It is used in Europe in cultivating the intervals of drilled wheat, and in killing the weeds in summer fallows. The frame is vertically adjustable by means of the lever at the rear. (Fig. 1322.) Steam Grain Drill and Harrow. " The long end of a draft-bar or turning-lever is provided with two arms to which the two ends of the rope are at- tached. The arms are set at an angle for keeping the tail- French Harrow Cultivator. Harvester. For results of dynamometric trials of harvesters at Paris Exposition, 1878, see DY- NAMOMETER, p. 288, supra. Also "Paris Exposition Reports," 1878, v., pp. 134, 135. The table on p. 442 gives a func- tional classification of harvesters. Har'vest-er Cut'ter. The sickle of a gruin or grass cutting machine. See digest of principles, Plate XXX., p. 1489, "Mech. Diet." Hat Block'iiig Ma-chine. See BLOCKING MACHINE, * p. 109, supra. Hat Brim Stretch/ing Ma-chine.' See BRIM STRETCHER, p. 135, suprn. Hatch'ing Box. For hatching fish ova. See FISH CULTURE, p. 339, supra. HARVESTERS. 442 HARVESTERS. CLASSIFICATION OF HARVESTERS: BY STRUCTURE. S -a 1 To main frame. o % ^ 75 Teeth upon endles. s belts or aprons. "? ,?" 2 To hinged coupling frame. 76 Teeth upon heads hung on belts. 3 .2 S 3 To vert iually slu n gf I'auie. _; J2 1'eeth upoi recipi oca- 1 1 Str; light path. 4 To flexible coupling arms. S J-S a ting heads. 78 Curved path. S3 "r"" o 0-3, 7 9 i Superj osed heads on ei idlei s bel t. p< 5 To arm s rigid with main frame. 34 Irre .rular s ^ 11 To coupling frame vibrating on main axle. , S a 1 o fci 2 12 To sliding arms. 85 Upon horizontal a To pinioned shaft moving in vertical rack-ways. -a * i! "o. Endless belt. 86 pulleys. Upon vertical O M A . & ^ pullc ys. ^| 14 Endwis e. " g Axially. 43 O K 87 Horizontal. t,. 16 By simple gearing. g o About an axis. 88 89 i Vertical. Inclined. S 17 By friction gea ing. "3 c 18 By planetary gearing. By gyrating gearing. ^ 90 91 Reciprocating and rotary combined. Hand rakers. v-S 20 By screw geurii ig. = 21 rt 22 5 23 <=> 24 By changeable-speed gearing. By cams. By belts. By piston moved by compressed air. . 92 3 93 S 94 ^ 95 Hevolving beaters on horizontal axis, devolving beaters on vertical or inclined axis. Revolving beaters carried on endless belts. Reciprocating rising and falling beaters. 21 Si nsrU) blade. j Longitudinal. 26 Transversely divided blade. 96 Cord. 97 Wire. C 27 Double blades. . 98 Wooden withes. a -. a 9 T iper band. si 1 ^8 Inclined. 5 100 Straw rope. .S " 29 Transverse. tb S 101 Gavel. a 1 (U sn Curved bla.de. d '5 102 Twisted band. ^ -f 0- Long - 31 tudinal. Blade hung upon hinged arms. ci From the fields. 103 104 Simple wisp. Loop stitch. o P^ Q 82 Series of pivoted knives. t^ c ^o 105 Ends twisted. R a 33 34 Inclined. Transverse. .i From prepared S material 106 107 108 Knds tied. Ends tucked. Ends twisted and S 1 (corn , wir e, etc.! . i i 35 Cutters upon single vertical shaft. (*> 36 Cutters upon single horizontal shaft. B (5 109 Ends clasped. 8 37 Cutters upon series of vertical shafts. "o 38 Cutters upon endless chain or belt. ^ 39 Cutters upon horizontal worm. i By manner. o 110 111 112 In sheaves. In connected bundles. In perpetual twist. Style of finger-bar, ,1 Stiff. Flexible. "S 113 Through a funnel. 42 Rigid. |-3 114 Between jaws. || 45 Adjustable. ^ Vibrating. Vertically. Horizontally. m 115 Transversely, llfi On endless belt. On jaws. compressor 6 46 Vertically. Yielding. 47 Horizontally. M , Ga vel revolved beneath 117 Endwise. 48 Axially. ^g tying mechanism. 118 Axially. 49 "Riffid .2c"3 IVlglll. 50 Front to rear. ts 2 K d rf ^ S 111 Tying mechanism rotated around gavel. 2 Yielding. 61 Side to side. 2M 12( Both stationary. 1 C 52 Up and down. fcft-fl 121 121 Both moving. Gavel swung in semicircle. s Adjustable, g^ Vertically. Horizontally. . 123 Tables rigid. 55 Vibrating. a 124 Tables hinged. 56 Rigid wi . 57 th cutter frame. Upon main axle. i 125 B 126 Tables swinging. Tables revolving. 1 I Upon cutter frame of axle. in rear 58 Above. 59 Below. Reapers and Threshers. 127 H I 60 Upon cutter frame in front >-5 of axl 12 5 J -leeis. 61 Independent of tongue. Tedders. 129 130 J Dickers, indless belts. a 62 Rear delivery. 'H x O p-T it p. Side delivery, g^ On a level. Elevated. in uj Wheeled. 131 Revolvin T ; f .: . .- ; 132 By rider. t 3 Surface movement of 65 Rollers. ^ "^ jjun "6- 133 By draft. platform. 66 Screw conveyors. M ii 134 Revolvine. Dra r 135 Lifti nt?. o O C 1 TilfSn/v G7 To one side. ft 5 a JJ d "B- 68 To the rear. 136 HayC ockei s. 2 o. I 69 Swinging and tilting. "S & ( O "o '" ^ Swin King - 37 Harpc on. U. . S | a "7i Revolving. 1 DO 2 Horse Hay Forks, jgj Grapple. Corkscrew. 72 Vi jmr n j. a .40 Tiltin Receivers. 73 Ro rath 1U 74 Dumping. ^ 141 Hay loading rakes. HATCHWAY. 443 HAT-FORMING MACHINE. Hatch'way. The opening in a floor through which goods are lifted or lowered. Fig. 13^3 shows automatic hatch doors in connection with a hand- Fig. 1323. Automatic Hatchway, power elevator. The doors are always closed ex- cept while the platform is passing through, the platform in its ascent or descent opening the doors which close of themselves when the platform has passed. This is a guard against accidental falling down the hatchway, and also against the spread of fire by the elevator shaft. The risinir rods lift the doors in ascending, and the platform actuates levers to lift the doors in descending. Automatic cone ... * "Manufacturer if Builder,'' viii. 53. * "Scientific American," xlii. 358. Hat-fin'ish-ing Lathe. A machine intro- duced by John T. Waring. It has a chuck fitted to a lathe spindle and carrying the hat, which, while rapidly revolving, is rubbed with sand or emery paper held against it. This is regarded as a very great advance in the art of hat-making ma- chinery. Previous to this time the wool hat-body, after being sized, was rubbed with pumice-stone and then put on a block to be ironed off and touched up with sand-paper. The finishing-lathe illustrated in Fig. 1324 is one of the forms yet in use, although in its first purpose, that of sand- papering hats, it has been superseded by later invention,;. It Fig. 1324 Hat-finishing Lathe. is now used to retouch the hat after it has been put on the finishing-block, and also to lay the nap with a piece of ftlt pressed by hand upon the surface while the hat upon the chucked block is revolving. The spindle has its bearings in an adjustable frame which is held up by a helical spring. The lathe spindle is driven by a belt from a pulley above, and when the spindle is eleva- ted by the spring, the loose belt slips on the spindle pulley. When the spindle is depressed by the foot of the operator on the treadle, the pulley is tightened against the belt, and the spindle receives rotation. When wool hats came into more general use, oral blocks conforming more closely to the shape of the head took the place of the round blocks before in use, and this change made it necessary to use a lathe which turned in an oval path, to be able to finish the oval part of the side crown. Fig 1326 shows the Eiekemeyer oval hat lathe, the ma- chine in most general use An oval chuck, adjustable for various ovals, is placed in Fig. 1325. Eickemeyer's Oval Hat Lathe. front of a lathe spindle, and is provided with a screw to re- ceive the chuck in the hat-block, while an adjustable nut on the chucking screw is used to bring the hat-block into proper position to the oval. This lathe is used to finish the side crown and brim while the tip is still finished on a roun 1 lathe. Hat-form'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for setting up hat-bodies. The wool and fur body ma- chines are essentially different. The first improvement in hat-making over the ancient hand processes wns the hat-forming machine of Mason, followed by the patents of Grant. These machines consisted of a conical block upon which a web of wool was wound as fast as it was delivered from the carding machine. Fig. 1326 is a front view of a wool hat former with a double cone upon which the web is wound. This double cone a is supported upon four conical rollers, 6, two of which only are seen in the view. The rollers are pivoted upon a frame c, which is supported on a step in the bed-plate ti, and is also pivoted on the upper end of the standard f. The pivot line of the frame c is coincident with the pitch line of the two bevel wheels g g' ; it is at right angles with the crank-shaft t, and in a position close to the front of the double cone a. HAT-FORMING MACHINE. 444 HAT-LINING SEWING-MACHINE. Wool Hat Forming Machine. The cone pulley j is driven from the carding machine, and gives rotation through the gears gg' to the rollers b b, and thus to the double cone a. By means of a cone and pinion on a suitable countershaft, motion is given to the bevel-wheel k, shaft i, and crank /, which give to the supporting frame and forming cone a vibratory motion in a horizontal plane while the cone is revolving slowly on the rollers, the web from the carding machine winding on to the cone. When a sufficient quantity of wool has been wound upon the double cone to make two hats, the bat is cut in two by the operator, who sets one blade of his shears into the equa- torial groove which serves as a guide, and separates the two bodies while the cone is revolving. It is of the utmost importance to lay the woolen web evenly upon the cone, and also to cross the wool fibers so as to make the hat body of equal strength in every direction ; and it is also necessary to be able to adjust the supporting rollers to form cones of various shapes, and to adjust the speed to the different sizes of hats to be formed. All the woolen hat formers are therefore made adjustable in these various ways, and answer the requirements in greater or less degree, as the mechanism is more or less perfect. The hat-forming machine for fur bodies is very different from that used for woolen bodies. Instead of a tine fleece from the carding machine wrapped upon a revolving former, the fur body former is a perforated cone with an interior exhaust blast and a fur picker which sends a fine cloud of hairs tow- ard the cone on which they collect in a bat. The machine is the invention of Henry A. Wells, who ac- complished for the fur hat-body trade what Grant had pre- viously done for the woolen hat-body Wells's machine, improved by Taylor, Burr, St. John, and others, has dis- posed of the hatter's bow for ever. With an improved Wells machine 400 hat-bodies of superior quality can be made per day, and these, by dipping in a suitable bath, are made sufficiently firm to be sized into proper shape. The machine is shown at Fig. 2431, p. 1075, "Mech. Diet." As now used it consists of a feeding apron and a suitable picker which throws the fur upon a perforated cone. The feeding apron and feeding rollers are upon a frame which furnishes also support for the bearings of the picker cylinder and the main driving shaft. A trunk or covered way is closely fitted to the frame and the cover which en- closes the upper part of the picker cylinder. The trunk or conductor has a sectional shape corresponding somewhat with the shape of the former cone, and is adjustable in height by a supporting screw. The former cone is placed centrally upon a revolving table which has an opening in its center communicating with the inlet of .the suction blower. The operator who weighs out the quantity of fur required for each hat-body places it evenly upon the feed apron, which is then started ; the fur is delivered to the picker and guided by the conductor to the cone, where the fur is held by the pressure of air created by the tan which ex- hausts the air from the inside of the perforated cone; When the fur for a hat has all been deposited upon the cone, a wet cloth is thrown over the tip, another cloth wrapped around the sides, and a hol- low cap corresponding with the former cone is placed over the whole. The cone, with the hat-body thus held be- tween it and the cap, is removed, anoth- er cone placed on the turning-table, and another hat-body formed as before. To make the fibers adhere to each other the cone with its cover is then put upon a platform which is sus- pended by balancing weights over the dipping-tub, and is gradually sub- murged in hot water. The outer cone is now removed, the cloths taken off, and the hat-body slipped from the cone ready to be sized. To avoid the dip- ping of the hat-bodies, a sprinkling-pipe which blows hot water upon the revolving hat-body has been to some extent used, bvit with indifferent success, as more time is required to accomplish the object by the last-mentioned method, and the work of the machine is to this extent diminished. Hat-li'ning Sew'ing-ma-chine'. A ma- chine for sewing the sweat-leathers into hats ; in- vented by Eickemeyer. It differs from the ordinary sewing-machine in the arrangement of the work-plate, which is curved to receive and support the side crown on one of its faces while the brim is supported upon a narrow strip. In the presser-foot is a gage which guides the edge of the sweat-leather to the needle. The machine itself is pivoted to the table and can be turned around its driving shaft to enable it to be ad- justed at the will of the operator in such a manner that the hat is held up without any further assis- tance after it has been put under the prcsser-foot. The feed is an ordinary four motion which acts in the cor- ner formed by the junction of the brim and side crown, Fig. 1327. Hat-sweat Sewing-machine. while the presser-foot is of a right angular shape and presses upon the exterior of this angle. The hat is thus carried around, guided by the angle, which insures a perfectly even stitching of the sweat near the edge. In most cases the leather is stitched fast to the hat, leaving the stitches visible, while in other cases the edge is stitched fast and the sweat turned over to hide the stitches. By a change of the prosser- foot either style can be sewed on the machine. To make a perfectly smooth edge on the sweat-leather where it touches the forehead, it is desirable to turn the edge of the sweat in a sweat-rolling machine, which is com- posed of two rollers geared together and supported in a HAT MAKING. HAT MAKING. frame, the upper one held down by a rubber spring to al- low it to yield to the varying thicknesses of the leather. After the introduction of the hat-sweat sewing-machine, an- other improvement in the same direction, namely, a machine to make the hat linings, was invented by Eickemeyer, and improved by Judson. It consists of a table having a round or oval motion, upon which a piece of silk or other material to make the tip is secured, while another piece is put in a folding gage in such a way that the stitchiug will fasten the edge of the piece that forms the side crown in a circular or oval line to the Hat tip Judson added to this attachment a pair of rotary shears, and arranged the turn table upon a swinging lever, which enabled him to trim the tips before the side crown was sewed fast. The use of the pouncing machine has, however, done away with the necessity of lining the hat crown inside, both the outside and the inside being now pounced and presenting a smooth, finished surface. Hat Ma'king. The manufacture of felt hats in the United States has, by the introduction of improved machinery and methods, reached a high degree of perfection and importance. Fifty years ago the business was carried on in small estab- lishments iu towns and cities and in very small shops, even in villages. In the latter case the implements were almost as simple as those of the shoemaker, and a boss hatter, with one or two apprentices, made the hats for the surrounding district Wool and fur, with other hatters' supplies, were furnished by city merchants. The wool was simply carded, ami the hatter, with his bow, shaped it into a hat body and then fin- ished it. The best machinery for making felt hats is of American origin and much of it has found its way into Europe, super- intendents and workmen having come to this country to gtuiy the American method and become acquainted with the uses of the machines which have been exported to Europe. This invasion of American machines reminds one of the complaints of the hatters of London, nearly 150 years since, in a memorial to the British Board of Trade, at the extent to which the manufacture of hats was carried on in New Eng- lan I and New York. Beaver fur hats were formerly considered the best, but as that animal became scarce other furs were substituted for the body, which was covered with beaver fur on the out- side. This mode of manufacture has now disappeared, and both soft and stiff felt hats are made of wool or of fur as two distinct branches of manufacture, which are carried on in different establishments and use almost entirely different machinery. In the wool-hat factories are used all those, machines Which are ortlinirily employed in cloth manufactories to prepare the wool for spinning ; while the fur-hat factories have a set of special machines. The hatter of 50 years ago laid the fur or wool, which had been previously prepared, on a hurdle made of wood or wire, with openings to let the dirt fall through. He then, by mexns of his bow, scattered the fur in all directions. The bow was usually made of ash, 6' or 7' long, with a catgut string stretched between the two ends. With a stick this string was caused to vibrate, and the fur driven from one end of the hurdle to the other. The layer of fur was called a. but, was made in a triangular shape, and formed one half of a hat body. It had to be carefully joined to another piece of the same shape, the edges overlapping each other, and the two portions, so united, with a cloth of the right shape between them, were patted on a hot-plale, while water was sprinkled upon them until th fur became par- tially felted and the cone-shaped hat-body had become tol- erably firm. The hat-body was now taken to the battery to be felted. This process consisted of rolling the body between cloths, continually changing its position in the cloth, while it was kept as hot as possible by dipping it into acidulated water kept boiling in the sizmg-kettle by a small fire underneath. Special care was taken to shrink the hat body alike all over, and to reduce it from the size of a conical hag almost three tigies the dimensions of the finished hat-body. When the body was made of wool, and was to be napped, a cone of fur, bowed as described, was laid over it and wetted down with a brush until the fur adhered to the body firmly enough to continue the rolling between the sizing cloths, the body be- ing kept hot by dipping it into the sizing liquor, as before, anil this was continued until the loose fur had penetrated and formed a part of the body. To give the hat-body its shape was the next operation, and this was also done on the battery. Having been thoroughly soaked in hot water, the operator laid the hat body on the plank which forms the margin of the battery, with that part of the body which was to form the brim turned up, and while turning it around on the plank pulled out the tip to form the flat portion of the hat crown. The body was now pulled on to a block of the size and shape of the fin- ished hat crown, a cord slipped over the crown, and drawn tight at the junction of the side crown and the brim. In this condition the brim was pulled out flat and smoothed with a piece of metal called the trencher. While firmly se- cured on the block the hat was put in the coloring liquid, and after washing, trying, and stiffening, it was finished by carding the outside when a long, flowing nap was wanted, or it was rubbed over with pumice-stone, when a smooth finish was desired. After the trimming had been put on, the hat was ready for use. All the various manipulations were done by one man who had learned the hatters' trade ; and the separation of these, and the division of the hat-makers into makers, blockfrf, and finishers, did not become general until the forming machines had come into general use. The first improvement in hat making was made by Mason, whose wool hat-body former consisted of a conical block upon which the web of wool was wound as fast as it was de- livered from the carding machine. This machine was im- proved by Grant. See HAT-FORMING MACHINE. At about the period of the introduction of the wool-hat forming machine, the hat-body hardening machine, with reciprocating rubbing board, came into use in hat factories See HARDENING MACHINE. It consists of a cloth-faced rub- bing board, which is rapidly reciprocated upon a pile of hat- bodies lying flatly beneath it, each hat-body having within it a hard cloth, and a cloth also interposed between each body. The pile lies upon the perforated top of a steam box, so that the whole of them are kept saturated with hot steam. Sometimes a special machine is used to harden the tips of hat-bodies. It consists of a rubbing board acting upon the top of a steam chamber of such shape that the hat-body can be slipped upon it after the sides of the body have been har- dened in the ordinary machine. WW/.s' machine, improved by Taylor If Burr, is described under HAT-FORMING MACHINE. It may be simply stated hero in a general way that it consists of an apron to feed the fur, a picker cylinder to loosen and scatter it, and a perforated revolving former or cone, beneath which is an exhaust fan. The fur fed in regulated quantities is finely divided by the picker and sent whirling in the direction of the cone, upon which it collects as the air passes through the interstices and the hairs collect on the outside. With the more extended use of the machine for forming fur hat-bodies, it became necessary to have better appliances to separate the fur from the hair and to prepare it for the former. This was accomplished in Raich's fur-blowing ma- chine, in which the fur and hair are separated and other impurities removed. This consists of a feeding apron, pick- ers, and a screen. The fur is presented by feed-rollers to the picker, which combs it out and scatters it, the lighter part into an upper chamber, and the heavier into a lower one, where a screen separates the tussocks of imperfectly treated matter from the hairs and dirt. The latter are removed while the former are passed back to be re-treated. See FUR- BLOWING MACHINE. Fig. 1112, p. 352, supra. After the forming of hat-bodies, both fur and wool, had been successfully accomplished, the sizing or fulling of hats received the attention of inventors, and numerous attempts were made to full hats, but only a few machines proved of any value. James S. Gaylor, of Danbury, Conn., however, invented and patented a four-roller sizing machine which came into general use in wool-hat shops. The hat-bodies were rolled up in a piece of cloth and put between four rol- lers, which were placed in a hollow casing with their axes at an angle with each other. This position of the rollers caused the roll of hats, which was introduced into the ma- chine at one end, to travel slowly along while turning be- tween the rollers, two of which have, in addition to their rotary motion, a slight vibratory motion sideways, and thus the hats were slowly felted. As stated above, this machine was extensively used in wool-hat factories, but it was super- seded finally by the fuller mill, which is now universally used. The first successful attempt at fulling hat-bodies was in the factory of the Seamless Clothing Manufacturing Co., Matteawan, N. Y., where the manufacture of wool hats was commenced about 1860. Various styles of mills are now in use. One will be found under FULLING MILL. The batches of hats are placed in the bed of the machine, and are subjected to the blows of a beater driven by a crank, or to the pounding action of falling stocks, which are lifted by cams or trips, as the case may be. In some cases acidu- lated water is used in the bed to facilitate the felting, but generally fullers' soap is used. The fulling of hat-bodies in the mill is confined to hats of wool. Fur hats are sized on the battery. Following in due sequence of history, we cannot omit no- ticing the advent of Kossuth in the United States, which made soft hats and flowing beards fashionable. The demand for soft fur and wool hats increased very rapidly, but the latter could not compete with the former until T. Waring intro- duced the hat-finishing lathe. Before this time the wool hat-body, after it had been sized, was rubbed off with pum- HAT MAKING. 446 HAT PRESS. ice stone, and afterwards put on a block to be ironed off and touched up with Band-paper. Waring made the hat- block with a chuck which fitted to a lathe spindle, aud the operator, while the hat was revolving rapidly on the lathe, held wind or emery-paper on the hat, aud thus finished the hat. The advances made in the manufacture of wool hats date from the introduction of this improvement. Prior to this time wool hats were made of the lowest grades, and could not compete wirh fur hats, but, by the use of the fin- ishing lathe, it became possible to give hats made of the finer grades of woolafiuisli closely assimilating theapije.irance of the lower grades of fur hats, and from this time the wool- hat trade began to rival the fur trade. See HAT-FINISHING LATHE. Shortly after the introduction of the finishing lathe, sew- ing-machines were first introduced to put the lining on the brim of the hat. See HAT-LINING SEWINU-MACIMNE. . Consequent upon this came the hat-sweat rolling machine, which turns the edge of the leather sweat-liuiug in order to prevent its marking or hurting the forehead. Next in order came a machine, invented by Eickmeyer and improved by Judson, to make the hat-lining. The tip is secured upon a table having a round or oval motion, while another piece is put in a folding gage in such a way that the stitching will fasten the edge of the piece that forms the side-crown in a circular or oval line to the flat tip. Judson added to this a pair of rotary trimming shears, and arranged the turn-table upon a swinging lever. The pouncing machine, however, now finishes the insides of hats almost equal to the outsides, and crown-lining is al- most discontinued in felt hats. Another addition to the machinery in the manufacture of hats is that used to put the stiffening into the hat-bodies. To give the bodies a permanent shape, some stiffening mate- rial is generally put into the body ; in the better class of hats a solution of shellac ; in those of cheaper character, Irish moss, glue, etc. The solution is put into a trough under a pair of rollers which are geared together and driven by a belt from a line-shaft. Two troughs and two rets of rollers are generally mounted on one frame, one trough con- taining a thin solution into which the whole hat is plunged, and the surplus matter pressed out by passing up the hat- body between the rollers. The other trough contains a heavier solution into which is dipped that part only of the hat which is to form the brim. The troughs are heated by steam to keep the stiffening in a fluid state, and the hat- bodies, after being stiffened, are ready to be blocked. Up to this time the hat-body is yet of a conical shape : forming, hardening, fulling, and stiffening have followed each other seriatim ; this series is in the case of the wool hat-bodies only. It has been already explained that the operation with fur bodies is upon a special set of machines. The blocking of the hat-body is that part of the manufac- ture in which the cone-shaped hat-body is pulled out around the edge to develop the brim, and the upper part is widened out to form the flat tip and the side-crown. This is described tinder BLOCKING MACHINE, pp. 109, 110, stipra. The machine of Fenn may be described in brief to have had two pairs of rollers, one pair traveling somewhat faster than the other. The edge of the conical hat-body being nipped between the rollers, the pair in advance pulled upon it faster than it passed through the hind pair and so stretched it. It was thus gradually flattened out so as to form a brim, but did not act upon the crown or tip, and as its action was Blow and incomplete it only came into partial use. The first complete machine for stretching hat-bodies, wool or fur, was the corrugation stretcher of Eickemeyer, and these machines, in various modifications to suit the different kinds of work, are now used almost exclusively in the hat fxctoriesof this country. Described and illustrated under BLOCKING MACHINE (Fig. 335, p. 109, supra), it need not be considered at length here. It has a ribbed and recessed former which rises vertically and pushes the hat-body into a cap which han a number of yielding levers corresponding in number with the recesses in the former. The edge-rol- lers on the ends of the levers push the felt into the recesses of the former and stretch it. This is repeated again and again, the hat being moved on the former between each operation. The brim and tip are thus developed. Next in order comes the blocking machine to make the band, as the sharp angle formed by the junction of the brim and side-crown is known in the trade. This is done by a rising spindle which carries the hat on its block, in the first place against a clamping plate which holds the brim flat and then pushes the crown into a cylindrical banding shell whose lower edge forms the band or angle. See BLOCKING MACHINE, Fig. 337, et seq. To adapt the principle of stretching by corrugation to fur hats a number of modifications were required. It was found advantageous to separate the brim stretcher from the tip stretcher, and to substitute round-edged bars for the round- edged rollers. These machines are considered in their places. Sep BRIM STRETCHER, Fig 427, p. 135, supra; TIP STRETCHER, infra. Eickemeyer's finishing blocking machine, known as a hat- shaping mac/iine, is considered and illustrated under SHAPING MACHINE. The hat placed upon an expansible block (which has been previously contracted to its smallest diameter) and a circular series of 38 tongs is made to grasp jj" of the edge of the brim all round. The banding ring is thrown over the hat and locked fast. The edge of the brim being firmly held by the tongs, the operator raises the block and expands it to the desired size. The hat is then cooled aud taken oft, and the operation repeated on the next hat. All the adjustments size of band, height and diameter of crown, and width of brim are made by gages attached to the different levers, so that the operator can set each part in a few moments, and all sizes of hats can be shaped on the same machine. A good operator will block from four to six dozen per hour. See SHAPING MACHINE. The introduction of these machines for the stretching and blocking of hats has had a marked effect both upon the qual- ity and facility of production of the hats so treated. When but imperfectly done, hats will in a short time lose their shape and " go to seed,'" as it is called in the trade, but when properly blocked on a machine, the felt is so well and equally stretched and shaped that the hat is much more durable. Next in importance to the machine for blocking and shaping are the pouncing machines, for rand-papering the surface of the hat-body or the hat after it has been lilm ked. The hat-finishing lathe, ured in the wool-hat factories, was never successfully introduced in the fur-hat manufac- tories, owing -to the fact that fur hats were usually made in small shops where power was not used, and also on ac- count of the difference in the material. The pouncing machines now in general use are constructed on two principle*. A rapidly rotating cutting or rubbing cylinder, which op- erates upon the hat-body or hat while it is fed along upon a yielding bed, is used in one class of machines. In the other class, a reciprocating motion is given to the cutting surfaces to rub in two directions. For wool hats, and the lower grade of fur hats, the rota- ting cutter machines are exclusively used. Under their own captions are described machines for poun- cing hat-bodies, special machines for pouncing the brims, and for the crowns of the common grades of blocked hats, and also the reciprocating machine for the finer classes of felt hats. See POUNCING MACHINE. The foregoing account comprises the most important ma- chines used in the hat factories of the United States, but mention may be made of some machines used in the final finishing of the hat. Joyce's hat-brushing machine is frequently used to re- move the dust left in the hats by the pouncing machine. Stewart's sewing-machine, adapted to few ribbons on hats, has lately been extensively used in wool-hat factories. Hydraulic presses to press hats into molds of proper shape, so extensively used in Europe, have not proved successful in this country, although a great many attempts have 1 ecu made, and many machines patented by different inventors. India-rubber blocks, made in the shape of the hat-block, have, however, been used in molds which surround the crowns only of the hats. See HAT PRESS. Various styles of ironing machines are also in use, one of which is shown under IRONING MACHINE, which see. But little improvement has been made in the finishing processof fur hats, and although many different machines have at times been used, and some with considerable success, none have been able to supersede hand labor. The use of the fulling mill to felt fur hats has also been frequently attempted, with but moderate success. cee ; Back, Dorr * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 360. Felt * "Scientific American,'' xl. !it>. Fireman's, De Celis . . "'"Scientific Amer.," xxxviii 407. Forming machine ... * Laboulaye's "Diet.," etc., cap. " C/iapeau." Making machinery . . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv., 50. Press * Laboulaye's "Diet.," iv. , cap. "Apprcts." g w eat "Scientific American," xlii. 3. Hat-trade of America . . "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2414. Hat Press. A machine in which pressure is brought against the inside of the hat to canst- the latter to expand while hot and soft against the in- side of a mold of the required shape. Hydrulic presses are used in Europe for this purpose, but have not proved so satisfactory in the United States for some reason. India-rubber blocks, however, made in the shape of the hat, are used in molds which surround the hat-crown only. Fig. 1328 is OsttrheM If Eiekemeyrr's machine for that pur- pose. Three wrought-iron columns which support a cross- head are fitted into a metallic bed-plate, which is hollow and is heated by steam. A mold of brass of suitable shape is HAT PRESS. 447 HAWSING IRON. Fig. 1328. Hat Press. put under a plunger operated by a hand-lever. When the mold is heated to a certain degree a hat is put into the mold, and a rubber die provided with two handles is placed inside the hat. The plunger, which has an oval flange fitting the mold loosely, is now lowered and by means of a toggle lever, which presses against the upper cross-head, the rubber is compressed, and thus the hat pressed against the hot mold. In the illustration one hat is shown as under pressure while the other is ready to press down the lever. The hat is left in this position for from 8 to 5 minutes, and it has, when removed, a smooth and glossy finish. Hat Sha'ping Ma-chine'. See . SHAPING MACHINERY. Also Figs. 2438-2441, page 1078, "Mi-di. Diet." Hat Sha'ving Ma-chine'. See SHAVING MA- CIIINK. Hat Stif'fen-ing Ma-chine'. See STIFFEN- ING MACHINE. Hat Stretch'ing Ma-chine'. See BLOCKING MACHINE. Fig. 335, p. 10'.), supra. Hat Sweat. That part of the lining of a hat which comes in contact with the head. Ventilating, Smith, . . .*" Scientific American," xlii. 5. See HAT LINING SEWING-MACHINE, supra. Haul'ing En'gine. An engine for drawing cars or loads in mines or on ways or inclined planes. Underground, Engl. . . * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 2373 ; * 2476. Drum for traction engine. Avtling if Porter, Br. . * "Engineer," 1 xlviii. 430. For slips, fiayward, Ty- ler 4" Co., I5r. * "Engineering," xxiii. 362. San Domingo mine, Spain * "Engineer,' 1 ' xlvii. 316, 321. Horizontal, Tangyf, Br. . * "Engineer," 1. 103, 119. Haul Seine. (Ft'shiny.) A long net depend- ing from a cork line and leaded at its lower depend- ing edge, used to sweep large areas of water. The ends of the land line are carried ashore and being hauled upon the beach, the net assumes a V-shaped form ; the bag of the net in the bend is the last to come ashore. See also SEINE. Haul-up' Gear. 1. A portion of the saw-mill machinery devoted to drawing logs up from the yard or bay to be sawn. pstan or other machinery Used on the Chesapeake for hauling in the and Potomac. Fig. 1329. Hausse (Small Leaf Lifted). Fig. 1330. 2. Ca seine. Hausse. A lifting breech- sight of a gun. Figs. 1329, 1330, 1331, show that of the Mauser r i H e, the piece adopted by the German government. It is short and at the same time adapted for long range fir- ing. It comprehends the following disposi- tions and range : Nick on the breech, 200 meters. The small rear leaf lifted (Fig. 1329), 300m. The small leaf folded down and the forward Imusse raised : the bot- tom nick (Fig. 1330), 400 meters. The slider raised so that its lower end corre- sponds with figure " 5 " on the left, 500 meters. Slipping to mark " 6,'' 600 meters. And so on up to " 10 " (Fig. 1331), 1,000 meters. The signt then shifts ,, to the upper opening in Hausfe (forward Hausse Raised). the slider, the latter be- ing slipped down. The bottom of the up- per opening, 1,100 m. The top of the hausse, 1,200 meters. The slider lifted to ex- pose " 13 " on the right, 1,300 meters. And so on up to " 16 " 1,600 meters, which is the position shown in Fig.1331, which is shown as set for 1,000 or 1,600 meters, by using the lower or the higher notch, for the respective distances. Other forms are given under SIGHT. H a w ' s e r. A cable. The steel hawsers of the large British ships I of war are 8" in circum- ference, doing the duty of hempen hawsers of 25". 120 fathoms of 24" hempen cable weighs 7 tons 16 cwt. 8" wire cable 2.5 tons. The wire rope is equal in strength to a 2 5" chain, the weight of which would bo 16 tons. Haw'ser Bend. (Nautical.) A kind of hitch shown at I, Fig. 2513, p. 1105, " Meek. Diet." Haw'ser Pipe. (Nautical.) A lining or hush- ing for a hawse-hole, through which passes the chain cable. Haw'sing I'ron. A calkine: chisel. -.. . looi. Hausse ( Slider Raised). Hawsing Iron and Hawing Beetle. IIAWSTNG MALLET. 448 HAY RAKE. Haw'sing Mal'let. A hawsing beetle used with chisels, known as irons, in driving oakum into seams. Fig. 1332. Hay Car'ri-er. A device used to suspend the horse hay-fork in a barn and travel along a bar to remove the load to a distant position, where it may be dropped. See Fig. 2449, p. 1081, " Mech. Diet.'' Hay Fork. (Add.) 3. A horse hay-fork for elevating large bundles of hay into a mow or on to a rick. See FORK, pp. 907, 908, " Mcvh. Diet." HARPOON FORK, Fig. 2409, p. 1065, Ibid. Hay Load'er. A rake with continuous eleva- tor attached at the rear of a wagon and traveling along a windrow to load the hay on to the wagon. Foust's hay -loader is shown in Fig. 1333. It has a wheeled frame attached by eye-bolts to the wagon and having an incline- on which continuously travels a slatted Fig. 1333. Hay LoafJer. belt having prongs which gather the hay collected by the rake. The belt is traversed by means of a sprocket wheel on the revolving axle of the trailing frame. See also Figs. 2456, 2458, p. 1083, " Mech. Did." Hay Ma-chine'. See the following refer- ences : Dryer and curer, artific., Gibbs, Eng. * ' Elevator and carrier, Smith, . . . * ' Fork, horse, Ckaffin *' Fork, Harrison * Harpoon, Grant * ' Loading machine, Loader, Br. . . * ' Making machine. See HAY TEDDER. Press, Deilerick * Press, Dodge, Pilter, Paris . . . * ' "Hercules,''' Lever Jack Co. . . * Hydraulic, Woolwich Dockyard, Br. * ' Ricking App., Hill * ' Tedder, Howard * Reading Iron Works, Br. . . . * ' Sc.Amer.," xli. 353. Sc. Amer.," 1 xxxv. 67. Sc. Amer.J' xxxv. 38. { Min. 4" W.' Head Ear'ings. (Nantiral.J The laniards to haul out the earings, which are ropes to fasten the upper corners of sails to their yards. Head'ing. (Mininy.) The vein above the drift. Head'ing Chip'per. A machine for jointing head-staves. See HEADING" JOINTKK. Fig. 1341. Heading Jointer. Head'ing Joint'er. A machine for planing the edges of pieces for heading. On a heavy iron frame is mounted a large iron wheel in Head'ing Knife. (Fishinri.) For cutting off the heads of halibut and other large fish. Head'ing Ma-chine'. 1. (Carfridr/e.) A ma- chine which presses the cartridge shell and ex- pands the head to form a flange, which keeps the cartridge from slipping into the barrel. 2. (Cooperittg.} A machine for getting out stuff for heads of casks or barrels; dressing, turning, etc. See under various heads. Fig. 1342 shows Lane's heading machine and jointer, in which the carriage, carrying the balk of wood to be sawn, slides on ways, and is moved by a compound erauk motion, which gives a relatively slow forward motion and a quick return stroke. The feed works are driven by a single belt running from a cone pulley on the saw man- drel to a corresponding pulley on a counter- shaft carrying a paper friction pulley that in turn drives the iron friction pulley of the com- pound crank. The length of the stroke can be varied according to the width of the heading or shingles. The performance is 40 cuts prr minute. The blocks are held in a perpendic- ular position and are pet toward the saw be- tween toothed rollers, the saw cutting into the side of the block. In front of the carriage is a round plate or table on which to rest the block while taking out the slab. Attached to this horizontal and partly revolving plate arc the shipper handle, for starting and stopping the carriage, and an upright guard of wrought iron, that swings around in front of the saw whenever the carriage is at rest. The upper roll is raised by a treadle, enabling the operator to use both hands in taking out slabs and putting in new blocks. The saw mandrel is made of 2J" steel, with long bearings the full Fig 1342. Heading Machine. size of the mandrel. The set rolls are adjustable to take in blocks from 11" to 20" long. The block is set while the carriage is moving about 1" in passing the dead center. The iron box for catching the shingles is adjustable to the saw by screws and springs, so that should a splinter wedge be- tween the saw and box, the box will spring away and let it pass through. A wheel-jointer, 40" in diameter, is attached to the machine in such a position that the sawyer can stand at the saw and joint the shingles without turning bis body. The jointer has two plces for jointing, so that two prrsons can work at the same time, and it can be detached from the machine, and set in some other place, if d' sired The jointer wheel is covered with an iron case, so as to prevent injury to the hand* of workmen, and at the same time keep the shavings from flying. Greenwood * "Man. $ Bxildrr," xi. 55. Dressing machine, Holmes . . * "Engineer," xli. 430. Turner, Holmes * "Engineer," 1 xli. 431. * "jVan. 4" Bui/cl>r,'- xl 55. Head'ing Pla'ner. 1. A machine for dres- sing down heads of casks, barrels, etc. See Fig. 217, p. 77, supra. HEADING PLANER. 451 HEAD TURNER. Fig. 1343. Head Light. Fi-r. 1344. 2. A small form of planing machine for dressing head staves, or made-up heading. See also STAVE DRESSER, p. 2314, "Mech. Diet." Head 'ings. (Mining.) In pla- cer mining, the m ass of g r a ve 1 above the head of the sluice. Head'ing Saw. ^ . A stave s a w . One for sawing head staves from tho log or bulk. See STAVE CUT- TER, p. 2313, "Mech. Diet." 2. A saw for trimming heads to circular form Fig. 219, p. 78, supra. Head Knife. (Whaling.) For cutting off the head of the whale. Head Light. In the locomotive head-light, Figs. 1343, 1344, the re- flector, oil tank, burner, ere., rest on a revolving table of cast iron, and the engineer is en- abled to clean both reflector and glass without removing the slide. The burner, being screwed to the oil chamber, can be removed without unsoldering a n d repairs made with- o u t sending the lamp to the shop. Head Li'ning. ceiling-cloth of a car. Head Ma-chin'e-ry. See HEADING MA- CHINE and cognate captions. Head Rest. 1. (Surgical.) a. Used in torti- collis, Fig. 6567, p. 2603, " Mech. Diet.'' b. A tri- pod head-rest is used in post-mortem operations. _ 2. A support for the head on chairs used by den- tists, photographers, barbers, etc. Head Round'er. See BARREL-HEAD ROUND- ER, Fig. 219, p. 78, supra. Head Sheet. (Nautical.) A sail before the mast, or the foremast, in case of those vessels hav- ing more than one mast. Head Spade. ( Whaling.) Used in cutting off the head of the whale. Head'stock. 1. That part of the lathe which carries the live spindle on which the work is chucked. Fig. 1345 is offered as a specimen of good prac- tice. " The spindle A A is of hardened cast steel, ground per- fectly cylindrical, after having been hardened, to avoid dan- ger of change of form in the process of hardening, to secure isolute truth in size and shape, and to obtain perfect Locomotive Head Light. (Railway.) The enameled abso steel, fitted approximately to finished size, hardened, and finally ground to exact form and to fit. The spindle bearing, C C\ where it turns in the box, is conical, and capable of adjustment longitudinally, to take up the looseness occa- sioned by the wear, which takes place even with hardened steel journals running in hardened steel bearings. End-play is prevented by the nut D D and the set screw E E, which hoid the spindle snugly in a position such that it may turn freely without either side or end-play. The back-end of the spindle is carried in the journal F, its box being held by the cap-screw Of G. The cone-pulley HH turns loonelv on the spindle when the back-gear is in action, and is clamped by the sliding-block / and screw J, when the spin- dle and the cone are to move together, the cone driving the gear K K directly, and the latter carrying the spindle, to which it is secured by keys. The pinion L L, on the cone- pulley, drives the back-gear. A spindle, MAI, carried on the rear plate of the head-stock N N, carries the feed-cone pul- ley O. The belt-cone H H and the back-gearing are given broad bearings." I'rof. Thurston. Fig. 1345 u n sze an sape, an o oan perect smoothness and the desired hardness. The box B, carrying this spindle, is subjected to all the strain thrown upon the latter, whether by the weight of the piece or by the force exerted by the tool. Here it is made of a single piece of Lathe Spindle and Headstock. ( Worcester Free Institute.) 2. (Spinning.) The stationary portion of a mule, containing the mechanism for effecting the differ- ent changes necessary in spinning. The other sta- tionary portions are the creels for the bobbins and the rollers and roller-frames for reducing the thick- ness of sliver. See MULE. Head Turn'er. A machine for rounding and beveling barrel-heads. Fig. 1346 shows a machine made by Holmes. Before the unfinished head is put into the machine to be rounded, its center is found and marked by an apparatus for that purpose When the head is put into the machine, the centering pin, which is jointed to the hand-lever beside the standard, is pushed forward by the use of the lever, and is brought in contact with the center mark on the head, thus centering it between two disks, one of which, that on the right in the illustration, ig provided with a number of spring Fig. 1346. Cask-head Turning Machine. HEAD TURNER. 452 HEATER. pins near its periphery, which press the work against the opposite disk. The pin-disk is not connected with the driv- ing machinery. Its spindle enters the standard on the right, in which is placed apparatus by means of which the disk is thrown forward and locked in that position, firmly holding the work. Through the rotation of the opposite disk, the pin-disk is also carried around, but for only one revolution, at the end of which stop-mechanism, in rear of the standard and not shown in the engraving, is actuated to unlock the clamp, so that the pin-disk springs back and allows the work to fall out. The disk ou the left is rotated by mechanism by the driving pulley, which is thrown into or out of gear by the horizontal handle shown. It will make round or oval heads. See also fig 219, p. 78, supra. A French form is shown at UARUEL-HEAD TUKN- ING AND JiEVKUNG MACHINE. J?ig. 220, p. 78, fllpTU. Health Lift. A machine in which the patient or exerciser lifts upon handles against a gvadu- atable weight or spring. It originated with Dr. Windship, who devised a system of graduated yoke-lifting. Several forms have been devised : the dead-weight center-lift, the side-lift or reactionary. The Mann reactionary lifter, shown in Fig. 1347, is adjust- able from a power of 20 Ibs. to 1,200 Ibs. The handles are at Fig. 1347. Reactionary Lifter. the side, and fall down to secure compactness of the ma- chine. It has a series of compound levers lifting against the weight of the operator. The Marsk and Knight health-lifts have an elastic re- sistance which reaches its maximum at the end of the lift when the knees are about straight. See also Figs. 2939-2930, p. 1306, "AfccA. Diet.' 11 Hearth. (Metallurgy.) 1. A form of furnace in which malleable iron is obtained by direct pro- cess from the ore. A form of BLOMARY, which see. 2. An open hearth furnace in which pig iron is converted into malleal li iron. The open hearth is in contradistinction to the reverberatory, which is domed in. The process in each is the same, it be- ing to expose the melted iron to air to oxidize the silicon, manganese, carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, etc., present as impurities. In the hearth process the blast of air is driven upon the surface of the iron by inclined tuyeres in the side of the hearth, the iron gradually "loses its impurities and is con- verted into a loup which is carried to the hammer or squeezer. The Walloon, Franche-Comte, and Lancashire are all modified forms of this idea. 3. The lowest part of a blast-furnace, generally cylindrical. It is lined with fire-brick, and the part below the tuj'eres is the crucible, in which the iron and slag accumulate. The prolongation of the hearth towards the front of the furnace is the fore- hearth. The inclosure is the dam, covered by the tywp-arch. See Fig. 704, p. 293, " Meek. Diet." 4. A form of steel furnace as distinct from the Bessemer converter process. See OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE. Heart. 1. (Fiskhig.) A net inclosnre, into which fish are conducted by the leader, and from which they pass to an inner inclosure known as the pound, bowl, pot, etc. Fig. 1348. See POUND NET. 2. (Nauticnl.) A dead-eye with but one eye, and having scores for a lanyard. Heart Net. (Fishing.) rig 1348 A net with a leader and a boid or pound, between which is a. heart-shaped funnel. See POUND NET. Heart Seine. (Fish- ing.) A species of seine, with a leader, heart, and pound secured by stakes so that the upper edge is float- ed at the surface and the lower touches bottom. Heat'er. A name ap- plied to a stove or furnace arranged to effect the warm- ing by convection, as with warm air, steam, hot wa- ter. The slave, contrariwise, heats by radiation. The term heater is a very inclu- sive one, and the subject is con- sidered under various heads. See the list under HEATING AND LIGHTING APPLIANCES, p. 1309. and also STOVE, pp.2409, 2410, "Mech. Diet.'' Also list, p. 453, infra. See also MAGAZINE STOVE, Figs. 5914-5922, p. 2411, "Mecti.ltict.," and VENTILATING STOVE, Fig. 5909, p. 2410, Ibid. The French furnace shown in Fig. 1349 is designed for domestic Heart Seine purposes and for conservatories, to be heated by circulation of hot-water pipes. The boiler is in rolled sheet-metal with riveted joints, and contains Fig. 1349. French Green-house Heater. the furnace, ash-pit, water-legs, and the longitudinal re- turn flues. The boiler is in a brick structure, a space be- Fie. 1350. "Simplex" Hot-air Heater. HEATER. 453 HEATING AND LIGHTING. tween the two forming the re-return flue to the chimney. The water connections are shown in the perspective view. Fig. 1350 shows Chase's "Simplex '" furnace, in which the heating surface is a rectangula' box, inude of sheet-iron 1-10" thick, and riveted. Its size for domestic purposes is 50 X 33", height 52" and heating surface 83 square fet;t. The top and bottom are of single plates, bent so as to rive :o the side sheets. The fire-box occupies a position in the boiler, being lined with fire-tiles, and so supported as not to touch the heating surface. Fig. 1351 is a sectional view of what is known as a port- able heater, from the fact that it is removable as a whole, Fig. 1351. Air-tight Healer. the brick erection forming no part of the arrangement. It has a riveted sheet-metal c is 1.1 t a necessary concomitant of the method of using the fuel shown in GAS-GENERATING FURNACE, pp. 384-888, siifira. See also HEATER, and list under HEATING APPARATUS. Heat'ing Pan. (Oil.) A pan for heating flax or other seed which yields oil by expression. The pan has a steam bottom for heating by steam. Hori- zontal stirrers driven by vertical shafts, and balanced so that they can be lifted clear for charging or discharging, keep the charge continually stirred. A gate is provided to each pan, through which the charge is drawn. The seed, after having been heated, is filled into bags, which are placed separately between horse-hair bags, covered with leather. The same kind of bags and hair are used whether the oil is expressed by stampers, screws, or hydraulic presses. Other forms of pans for use in various other industries: sugar, confections, etc., are found under their appropriate heads in the "Mech. Diet.," and herein. See EVAPORATING PAN ; CONFECTION PAN ; VACUUM PAN ; CLAY HEATER ; DES- SICATOR ; DRIP PAN ; FRUIT DRYER, etc. Hea'ton Steel. (Metallurgy ) Steel produced by air-blast through molten pig-iron ; crude nitrate of soda, with other material, being used. See p. 2365, " Mech. Diet." A bar used as a lever. Fig. 1353. Hea'ver. 1. 2. (Nautical.) The tool, Fig. 1353, used by the sail -maker and sailor in marling, serving, etc. Hec'to-graph. A process of dry- copying of writ- ings or plans by reversing the freshlv-written copy upon a gelatine film and sub- sequently applying clear sheets seriatim, to the gel- atine. See OOPYGRAPH; COPYING PENCIL; and GELATINE PROCESS, supra. Hed'dles. The cords governing the disposition of the warp-threads iu the tissue. See, for disposition of heddles and harness for various kinds of weaving, article "Tissase," Labaii/aye's "Dictionnuire des Arts tt Manufactures," iii., ed. 1877. Sail-maker's Heaver. HEDGE CUTTER 455 HELIOTROPE. Hedge Cut'ter. A hedge pruner. See Fig. 2479, p. 1093, " Mech. Diet." Hnrns'ty, Eng. ... * "Paris Exposition Reports," v. 239. Watk-fr, Br * "Engineer, xlvi. 22. Uedge knife . . . . Fig. 2483, p. 1093, "Meek. Diet." Heel At-tach'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for forcing on and securing heels to shoes or boots by pressure. McKau. * Heel Build'ing Ma-chine'. A machine in which are associated, and compressed while being tacked, the lifts which form the heel. Heel Ma-chine'. See under boot, shoe, sole, heel, etc., and other captions. Machinery, Bigeloio Stiffoner, Lyon . . Cleaning machine . Knit, Br. . . . Heel-spring, Pease . * "Tlwrston's Vienna Rep.," Hi. 309- 318. . * "Iran Atfr," xxii.. Dec. 26, p. 1. "English Mechamc.-' "Scientific American /Si/;).," 660. . * "Scientific American,' 1 ''- xl. 8b'. Heel Plate. (Fire-arm.) The solid or skel- eton plate at the butt-end of the stock. Sometimes the top and bottom are merely tipped. Hel'i-cal Nee'dle. (Surgical.) A needle with a helically twisted stem to introduce a ligature around an artery or in case of ruptured peri- neum. Hel'i-cal Tank Coil. A steam or hot-water heating coil of helical or flat-spiral form Heli-o-gra'vure. The systems of heliogravure, or sun-engraving upon copper, as employed in the Austrian Military Geographical Institute", are thus referred to in Pelermann'a "MtUheilunyein" : " The sheets of the new Austrian Ordnance tmp are care- fully drawn on paper, on a scale of 1: 60,000. They are then minced photographically to a scale of 1 : 75,000, trans- ferred upon copper, touched up, and printed. In this man- ner each sheet of the map can be produced in nine months, While the same amount of work engraved in the usual man- ner requires nearly 46 months for its completion. The whole of the Austrian staff map, consisting of 715 sheets, will thus be completed in 10, 11, or 12 years. No less than 271 have been published since 1874. The advantages of this process, as regards cost and rapidity of publication, are evident, and they fully compensate for any slight inferiority in the ap- pearance of the work." See also HELIOTYPE, p. 1097, "Mech. Viet." He'li-o-scope. An instrument for viewing the sun. The instrument shown in Fig. 1354 is the inven- tion of Herr Alerz, of Munich. It is based on the law of polarization of light. If a ray of light strikes at an angle of 36 D 26' on a mirror which is mounted so that it may be turned on its axis, and the re- flected ray is thrown on a second mirror placed at right an- Merz Helioscope. gles to the first, the light is polarized. The polarized ray is perfectly bright if the two mirrors are parallel, but it becomes more and more faint when the upper mirror is turned, until at a right angle it disappears altogether, so that the field of vision in the second mirror is perfectly dark In the two cases, A and B of the apparatus, are mounted four heavy mirror glasses, a, b, c, and I about 18" apart upon a strip of wood forming a base, and screwed or nailed fast. A hole about 1" in diameter should be cut through each screen, the one in rear being a little larger than the other, and across each there should be drawn two fine wires or threads, so as to intersect each other. About 6" in rear of the screens there should be placed a small mir- ror 3" in diameter would be sufficient so mounted as to have the two motions horizontal (or in azimuth) and vertical (or in altitude). The crude instrument is then ready for operation. To throw the ray upon any given object visible to the unaided eye, turn the mirror down out of the way or remove it altogether, and sight across the wires, moving tho base until the line joining the intersections of the cross wires passes through the object. Then replace the mirror carefully, so as not to disturb the line of sight, and turn it in either or both directions until the shadow of the edge of the hole in the first screen is concentric with that in the sec- ond. The reflected rav will then be visible to an observer at the given point. Haupt. The heliotrope is known to the British military world as the heliograph, which is a misnomer. Tho word 'trope is the more appropriate, as it turns to the sun like the helianthus and the pretty little heli- otrope (H.peruviannm) called also turnsole or gira- Role are supposed to. The word heliograph and its cognate he/ioyravure have reference to writing or drawing. The word heliometer lias its use also, indicated by the termi- nation. The word heliostat lias also' its specific meaning, which is true of each of the following : 'erraph. 'scope. 'trope. 'meter. 'stat. 'type. HELIOTROPE. 456 HERAKLINE. The apparatus used with the British army is known as Mance's heliograph. " The signals made by it, under favorable conditions of position and atmosphere, have been read as far as 80 or 100 miles. It consists of a specially prepared mirror, with in- geniously-constructed adjusted mechanism for reflecting the sun's rays with absolute precision to any required spot, not- withstanding the sun's apparent movement. By the pres- sure of a finger-key the Hashes are made of short or long duration, thus adapting the instrument to the Morse code of telegraphy. A second mirror is provided to permit of sig- naling being carried on irrespective of the sun's position. The instrument intended for field service weighs from 6 Ibs. to 8 Ibs., and is mounted on a light tripod stand. The working parts are protected from injury during transit, and the complete apparatus admits of being easily carried, as it is also efficiently worked, by one man. "The apparatus has been in use for some time in India, where its working has been attended with very great suc- cess. In the winter of 1877-78 the Jowaki-Afridi expedi- tion gave the Indian Government an opportunity of sub- mitting it to the test of war. The two columns, under General Keyes and General Ross, operating in the Afridi hills were supplied with volunteer signalers. The instru- ments were simply invaluable, and helio[tropes] were sup- plied to each division of the subsequent Afghan expedition With Gen. Donald Stewart's column telegraphic communica- tion was maintained by means of these instruments from the Khojak Pass to Girishk. General Roberts, ^rom Khost, flashed his messages to the fort at Bannu, a distance of 6U miles ; while Sir Samuel Browne, from the heights above Ali- Masjid, announced the capture of that fort to the expectant garrison of Peshawur by means of the Mance helio[tropej. r) London ' Times. " Permanent heliotrope stations are now established between Tangier, Tarifa, Ceuta, and Algeciras, and between certain W. I. Islands. It is used in the armies of the United States, France, and Belgium. Refer to : Heliograph, Anderson, Br. * "Enginffring,'' xxx 221. Heliograph, pocket, Maj. * "Scientific American Sup.," 4106. Macgregor. Ileliometer, Anderson . * "Faentijic American Sup.," 4030. Heliograph, Wynne . . " Van Noxtr. Mag.,'' xxiii. 479. Lesuerre * "Jour. Soc. Teteg. Eng.," vii. 351. Mirror telegraph . . . "6'c. American,'' xxxix. 310, He'lix. (Electricity.) The coil In electro- magnetic or induction machines the helix is com- posed of two or more coils. The inner or primary coil being of coarse wire and connected direct with the battery, and the outer or secondary coil being finer wire wound upon but completely insulated from the primary coil, and receiving its electric in- fluences by induction from the core and inner coil. Help'er Ring. A ring on the edge of a street- car platform for the attachment of the hook of the single-tree of the helper horse during the ascent of a grade. Hem'a-cite. Bullock's blood mixed with finely comminuted mineral and vegetable substances; dried, molded under pressure, varnished. Uses for knobs and ornamental articles. Dibble. See BOIS-DCRCI, "Mech. Diet." p. 320, and list of COMPO- SITIONS, p. 212, supra. "Iron Age" xxiii., Feb. 20, p. 9. Hem'i-ple'gi-a Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Sur'cal.) Supporting apparatus for a partially-paralyzed limb. Paraplegia, for both limbs. Page 34, Part IV., Tiemann's "Armam. Chirurgicum." Hem'i-plun'ger. A proposed form of sea-go- ing vessel, in which the habitable or righting por- tion is supported by posts upon an entirely sub- merged portion, which is supposed to be below the level of wave-agitated water. Tomassi, Paris . . * "Scientific American" xxxvi. 115. Hem'or-rhage In'stru-ments. ( Surgical. ) Acting to prevent effusion Of blood. The term may include epistaxis instruments, compresses, tourni- quets, hydro-hemostats, ligating instruments, etc. Bates's instrument for arresting urethral hemorrhage after operation consists of a thin, soft rubber pouch, f" wide, and 8" long. The outer end has three openings, two of which are furnished with stop-cocks. The center is trav- ersed by a gum elastic catheter, the end of which, after piercing the lower extremity of the pouch, is fastened, and then cut off ; over which part of a soft rubber catheter is passed and secured. A stylet passes through the catheter, and renders introduction easy. The apparatus measures 25 mm. in its flaccid state, and admits of any desired disten- tion. It is used as follows : After the division of the stric- tures, the instrument is introduced so that the end of the catheter rests in the bladder, or just outside, if preferred; the st>let is then withdrawn and a plug inserted hi the end of the catheter. The instrument is then tied in. To one stop-cock is attached a fountain syringe ; to the other is at- tached rubber tubing for the purpose of conducting the refuse water to a receptacle at the bedside. Hem'or-rheu'mo-scope. (Surgical.) An in- strument for observing the flow of blood in a vein. The bowl of the instrument resting firmly upon the trunk of a superficial vein the peculiar move- ment of the stream of Hood beneath the bowl sets the sensitive fluid column within the graduated tube into sympathetic action. Fig. 282, Part I., Tiemann's "Armam. Chirurgicum.' 1 ' Hem'or-rhoid'al Clamp. (Surgical.) An invention in which a clamp is combined with a cau- tery. The invention of Amusut. Shown in Fig. 579, p. 121, Part III., Tiemann's "Arma- mentarium Chirurgicum.'" Other pile-clamps are shown in Figs. 6C7-568, Ibid. Hem'or-rhoid'al In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) These consist of clamp, syringe, dilator, tenaculum, artery and needle forceps, insufflator, cautery, bis- toury -cache", suppositories, etc. See under the va- rious heads. Hem'or-rhoid'al Syr'inge. A fine, punc- turing syringe, with graduated glass barrel, like a hvpodermic syringe, for introducing medicaments to suppress hemorrhoids. See Fig. 622, p. 123, Part III., Tltmann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum ." Hem'o-stat'ic In'stru-ments. (Snrglcal.) Those acting as styptics to prevent effusion of blood. See EPISTAXIS INSTRUMENT: HYDKO- HEMOSTAT, etc. Hemp Knife. A hooking knife, shaped like a pruner, and having a long handle so as to reach the lower portion of the stalk without stooping. Hemp Sof'ten-ing Ma-chine'. A hemp brake, operating upon the rotted and subsequently dried stalks. One made recently by the Mohawk & Hudson Manufac. Co. has two fluted rolls: the lower one is 12" in diameter and 6' long. The upper one is 24" by 6'. The lower one is driven by gearing from the back shaft, and in turn it drives the upper. The shafts are 6" in diameter. The upper roll and shaft weighed about 8,500 Ibs., and the complete machine about 15,000 Ibs. Henri-Deux Ware. ( Ceramics.) Otherwise known as faience d'Otron. Fig. 1355. The ware was made at OVron, in the southwest of France, in the time of Henry II., of France, and is now vei \ rare, but 37 pieces being known in France, according to M. Brong- niart The emblems of Diane de Poitiers appear on the " Bib- eron, v which was sold in March, 1865, to Mr. Malcolm, for 1,100. It >s a little over 10" in height. The ware is very hard, quite white, and the ornamentation is inlaid, filling incisions or depressions in the body, though flush with the surface. The filling is generally ochery brown or yellow on the white back- ground, though black, blue, pink, and green colors are known. Hen'ri-et-ta Cloth. (Fabric.) A silk and wool French dress goods. Her'a-kline. A blasting powder, invented by Dickerhoff, and used in the coal mines of France and Austria. It is composed of picric acid, salt- peter, nitrate of soda, sulphur, and sawdust. The gases produced by its combustion are said not to be injurious, and it burns comparatively slowly, so IIERAKLINE. 457 HIGH MILLING. fig. 1355. Henri-Deur, Ware (Faience d' Oiron). that it tears apart the masses blasted, without hurling them violently about. "Scientific American " xxxiv. 329. "Scientific. American Supplement" . . 134. Her-ba'ri-um Press. A portable press con- sisting of a pair of boards with rising screws and Fig. 1356. Soft Ileveenoid. Hard Ileveenoid. 2 parts. 3 parts. Camphor .... 2 parts. 1-16 part 2 parts. Glycerine .... Sulphur .... i part. J part. 8 parts. Yale Botanical Press. hand-nuts. The parts nre all detachable so as to pack conveniently in one's valise. Her'ni-a In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) For operating upon rupture ; the protrusion of some part from its natural cavity, usually the abdomen. The instruments are numerous for reduction or operation. For the former see TRUSS, figs. 6700-6703, pp. 2636, 2637, " Meek. Diet." ; and page 9, Part IV., Tiemann's "Armamen- tarium CkirvrgicumS' Instruments for operation are needles, knives, directors, syringes, etc. See p. 126, Part III., Ibid. ; Fig. 134, p. 44, Part I., Ibid. ; Fig. 144, p. 48, Part I., Ibid. Dr. White's instrument for the radical cure of hernia pro- jects a pair of ligature needles. Dr. Warren's hernial ring injector is a graduated barrel with piston and with a needle which is a flat oval in section and twisted throughout its length. The needle is pierced with 10 openings on its side. Df Gamin's hernial syringe has a screw -piston and a dome trocar needle. Her'ni-a-tome'. (Surgical.) A knife for op- erating in cases of rupture of the bowels. Dr. Allis's herniatome is a probe-pointed instrument with cnncc'iiled blade, which is uncovered by turning the nut, after the constricting band has been reached. The Fig. 1357 represents th'e instrument when taken apart : a, the blunt- pointed blade; b, the nut that controls the movements of the shield ; c, the shield that may be made to conceal or expose the blade by turning the nut 6. Fig. 1357. Herniatome. Dr. Warren's concealed bistoury for dividing the hernial rinir has a saw concealed by a sheath and projected when the ring has been reached, the instrument serves as its own director. He-veen'oid. Caoutchouc or its analogue compounded with camphor and sulphur, and vul- canized. Addition of lime or glycerine is some- times made. Gerner. The proportions of the constituents to make a soft and hard heveenoid may be approximately given as follows : Para caoutchouc is best for hard heveenoid, while Nica- ragua rubber answers very well for soft heveenoid, and, in fact, is somewhat better adapted. Hib^bard Spring. (Railway.) A spiral nest spring made of flat bars coiled one within another concentrically, to the number of four, wound in right and left directions, alternately. High Grind'ing. A process of gradual reduc- tion of the wheat by a succession of partial crush- ings, alternating with sifting and sorting the prod- uct. See HIGH MILLING; CYLINDER MILL. High Loom. (Fr.) Haute lisse, A tall tapes- try loom of considerable size. At the top and bottom of the framework composing the loom are horizontal cylinders. Around the upper one, the threads composing the warp are rolled, and around the lower one the tapestry, as it is completed yard by yard, is wound Between these two cylinders is stretched the warp, upon the threads of which the artist marks in white chalk the outlines of the picture. To these he adds, for the pur- pose of fixing the light and shades, tracings from the pat- tern. Then, with this latter conveniently placed for refer- ence, he stations himself against the back of his tapestry, and, with his many-colored worsteds and silks, commences the weaving of the picture. The vertical threads of the warp are divided by a heddle or cross stitch, which keeps half of them in advance of the rest; but those behind can be brought forward by means of small cords or lisse s, one of which is attached to each warp thread. Between the two sets of threads the workman introduces his left hand and takes up as many of them as is necessary. Through these he passes his curiously-shaped wooden needle from left to right, and with its point piles the stretched thread, which in turn is passed back in the contrary direction through the space opened by shifting the front and back threads. The manipulation of the threads, the combination and proper use of the many colors and shades of worsted and silk, and the working out of the design, require a skill and delicacy only attained by long practice. High Milling. (Milling.) The whent is re- duced by a succession of crackings or of slight and partial crushings, alternating with sifting and sort- ing the product. In low milling the reduction is effected in a single HIGH MILLING. 458 HOGSHEAD MACHINERY. crushing, the usual manner. The velocity is relatively high. In high milling the velocity is low ; the grinding surfaces at first remote, and made gradually to ap- proximate, in successive griudings, as the products become smaller. In high milling the reduction of the wheat is step by step, and the separation of the products is^not alone according to the magnitude of the particles but also by specific gravity. See MIDDLINGS Pu- KIFIKK. Kick, Mehlfabrikation, Leipsic, thus describes " If one rubs grains of wheat gently between mill-stones, which at first are 1-12" apart, then one quarter less, and then one half less, and so on, there is obtained successively a finer and finer product. By the first operation, which we will call clipping, or pointing, a part of the shell or outside coat, .the brush, and more or less of the germ, will be re- moved, and there will be produced grains, from which al- ready many little particles which should not appear in the Hour have been separated. The outer bran and Lulled ker- nels coming together from between the stones may be sepa- rated from each other by passing them through a cylindrical sieve. The hulled grains, by passing them next through the stones brought nearer together, yield a cracked wheat, a product consisting of various finer particles, which may be graded by sifting. The products obtained are called groats (bruised or cracked fragments with bran attached), grits (smaller fragments), and finer particles, flour. The flour obtained consists for the most part of cells and particles from the outer portion of the grain, fragments of the bran, and of the gluten-coat, which make the flour dark. It is called pollen." 1 Kick. " The grits will consist also of a mixture of fragments of outer and inner parts, and bits of bran of the same size, which go through the sieve with the grits. A product, corre- sponding with this somewhat, vued to be called r.onnell, and is now known as middlings. " The groats freed from the finer particles will be again ground, and this produces a second groats, grits, and flour ; the second groats yield also groats, grits, and flour. Parti- cles which are smaller than groats and larger than grits are called ' solutions ; ' such as are between flour and grits are called dust ; and these must obviously be produced by cracking. By each succeeding cracking, the flour and grits produced will consist more of particles from the interior of the kernel of wheat, and as the interior cells, that is, the starch-cells, yield a whiter product, so the flour and grits will become more and more fair and white ; and this, until the groats after the fourth grinding will possess the form of disks, having only a thin layer of starch-cells. In flour this phenomenon is very striking. The flour from the third groats is much fairer than that from the second or from the first groats ; this is less striking in the grits, in that it is still largely mingled with particles of bran. The bran-particles are much lighter than the grits, and this property is taken advantage of to purify the grits by means of a current of air directed upon a thin sheet of falling grits. This work is accomplished by the grits-purifying machine, in which the air operates either by blast or suction. " In the gradual grinding and purification of the grits lies the essence of the high or grits milling. This can be effected by various modifications. The wheat may be three, four, or five times cracked or bruised ; the grits, which have been separated according to their size, may be more or less puri- fied ; and finally the purified grits may be either rapidly or slowly ground to flour. " When the last traces of bran have been separated from the grits and the still finer dust, one obtains by grinding the pure grits and dust, the fairest, whitest flour, a product which it is impossible to obtain in any other way. Of this product there are several grades. 7 ' Hnrsfnnl. See also * CYLINDER MILL, p. 243, supra; HOLLER MILL, in- fra. See also diagram under GRANULATING PROCESS, p 419, supra. System "Am. Mi'Ier," iv. 81 ; Table of processes. Hungary . . "Am. Miller,'' vi. 287. Mill, Higfinbottom & HutMnson . * "Am. Miller," viii 117. * "Sc. Am. Sitp., 2179. High Wines. Crude alcohol of higher proof than tinglingt. Hill'side Plow. A plow with reversible mold- board and share for turning all the furrows down- hill in plowing hill-sides. ANo known as a turning mold-board plow, and in Britain as a turn-wrest plow. See illustrations and remarks, p. 2173 "Mech Diet." There are 5 systems : 1. Two complete sets of mold-boards and shares, right and eft-hand respectively, and revolvable on the beam to bring ither to working position. The Brabant system, known as brabant double, see Figs. 854, 856, pp. 2G8, 269, supra, and Figs. 25-28, vol. v., pp. 31-33, Knight's Keport, "Paris Expo- sition (1878) Reports.'' 2. The old Scotch form : also known as the French tourne- treille, or charrue Wasse. The sole and share are permanent ; he mold-board is both right and left, either being brought nto action as may be desired by means of a lever, the other one shifting into the line of draft on the land-side. The same colter serves for either. The share, mold-board, and and-side are made in one piece (or to move as one), and this 3 journaled on a horizontal axis at the lower edge. This is unlocked and partially rotated at the end of a furrow, con- Verting what was the land-side into a share and sole, and presenting the mold-board in the other direction. See Fifr. 22, p. 29, vol. v., Ibid., and Fig. 6814, p. ?663, " Mtrh. Diet." S. A form used also in France, in which two mold-board*, which are united on a horizontal axis on the median line, are unlocked, and then turned half around, which brings ;he one now uppermost to the underneath position, both the mold-boards being then presented to the right hand as they are now to the left. Fig. 23, p. 30, vol. v., "Paris Exposi- tion (1%'^) lieports." 4. A form which has a right-handed and a left-handed body placed back to back ; that is to say, one presented forward ind the other rearward. The beam and handles turn on a vertical pivot in the center of the body, and either the right or left-handed portion can be uted by turning the beam and bandies and prercnting tium in the appropriate direction. The rear portion of eacli mold-board is hii ged, which allows the one in use to lap ever the other, which lies lm< k ; this avoids the necessity for making the body the sum of the lengths of the two bodies. An old English turn-wrest plow, known in its day as Ilays's, was constructed on the tame principle, but without the hinged wings to the mold-boards. See Fig. '24, p. 30, vol. v., "Paris Exposition Reports.'' 5. A system in which two sets of mold-board and share are used, right and left-hand rerpectively ; the one in uro lowered into the furrow while the other is elevated clear of the soil without deranging its position other than thr dear vertical movement. A British form shown in Fig. 2509, p. 1103, "Mech. Diet." Hind Sight. The rear sight of a gun ; open, California, peep, vernier, etc., which see. See also HAUSSE, and li-t under SIGHT. Hinge. Sec under the following heads : Awning hinge. Ball-joint hinge. Butt. Butt hinge. Coach hinge. Crate hinge and hasp. Hasp. llook-and-eye hinge. Loose-pin hinge. Platt; hinge. Port hh:ge. Screw hr.ok-nnd-eye hinge. Screw hook-and-strap hinge. Spring hinge. Strap hinge. T-hinge. Hinge Burn'er. A burner the chimney ring of which is hinged to the lamp-top. Hip'-joint Splints. (Surgical.) See MOK- BUS COXARIUS SPLINT. Hitch. A fastening made by passing a light line around a rope, or a rope around a mast or post, so that the line, or rope, crosses its own body and binds. For list of hitches see KNOT. Hob. A hardened steel mandrel with a threaded portion which is fluted. Used in cutting screw tools and chasers. See HUB, *Fig. 2600, p. 1139, "Mech. Diet." Hodge Brake. (Railway.) A lever car-brake, invented by N. Hodge, for operating upon all the wheels of a" car simultaneously from a single wheel. Fio- 642, p. 426, Forneys " Car-builders' Dictionary." Hoe'ing Ma-chine'. (Agric.) See HORSE HOK. Hog Ring'er. A special instrument for pla- eins anti-rooters in the snouts of hogs. The riny is usually a wire or plate, with prongs which :m> thrust through the cartilage of the nose, and bent over to prevent retraction. The ringer is a pincers which holds the ring and thrusts it into place. Hogs'head Ma-chin'e-ry. See list under BARREL MACHINERY. HOISTING, SHAFTING, ETC. 459 HOISTING, SHAFTING, ETC. Hoist'ing, Shaft'ing, Gear'ing, Grap'pling, Knocking. Shaft coupling. etc. See under the following heads : Ladder. Shaft hanger. Lathe hoist. Shafting. Abutment crane. Eccentric clamp. Lever jack. Shafting cup. Accumulator. Edge-laid belt. Lifter. Sheave. Anchor fish-hook. End play. Lifting jack. Sheave bushing Angle block. Elevator. Lifting tackle. Ship jack. Angular belting. Elevator boot. Liquid bearing. Ship's hoist. Anti-friction block. Elevator bucket. Lizard. Single-rail crane. Anti-friction press. Elevator chain. Locomotive steam-crane. Sister-hook block. Anti-friction roller. Elevator engine. Loose-hook block. Skew-bevel wheel. Awning block. Elevator pulley. Loose pulley. Snatch-block. Ball-and-socket coupling. Endless chain horse- Lost motion. Socket gudgeon. Balance crane. power. Man-rope eye. Spiral conveyor. Baromotor. Expanding pulley. Mast hoop. Split wheel. Barrel clamp. Eye. Match-hook block. Speed regulator for horse- Barrel skid. Eye-block. Monkey wheel. powers. Beeket block. Fast-and-loose pulleys. Motion. Steam capstan. Belt Fire escape. Mounted power. Steam crane. Belt clamp. Flange pulley. Open-sheave block. Steam winch. Belt coupling. Flexible coupling. Overhead crane. Stone lifter. Belt fastener. Flexible mandrel. Overhead traveling crane. Strap shifter. Belting. Flexible shaft. Overhead work. Stiff-hook block. Belt-lacing. Floor hanger. Overhung head. Swing block. Belt-shipper. Foot power. Overwinder. Swivel block. Belt-tightener. Foundry crane. Overwinding check. Swivel-hook block. Belts, tool for putting on. Frictional gear. Parrel truck. Tackle. Bevel gearing. Friction clutch. Parting pulley. Tackle block. Boom-sheet block. Friction clutch pulley. Peak halyard-block. Telescopic elevator. Brake purchase. Friction drum. Pedestal hanger. Tension roller. Builder's hoist. Friction gear. Pedotnotor. Thimble. Bullet. Friction pulley. Pillow block. Thimble-eye block. Bull's-eye. Friction wheel. Pipe turnbuckle. Tightening pulley. Buntline leader. Gantry crane. Pit-head gear. Tom. Bushing. Gear. Platform crane. Top-mast truck. Capstan. Gearing. Pony gear. Traction gearing. Cargo-block. Giuimal rings. Portable crane. Transfer elevator. Cellar crane. Gin block. Portable hand-crane. Traveler rope. Cellar lift. Gin power. Portable hoist. Traveling crane. Chain. Gin pulley. Portable steam crane. Traversing jack. Chain belt. Gin wheel. Post box. Tread power. Chain guide. Grain elevator. Post windlass. Tripod jack. Chain hoist. Grapple hook. Power hoisting-block. Truck. Chain pulley. Gun lift. Pulley Underground hauling en- Chain-pulley block. Gut belting. Pulley block. gine, Changeable speed gear. Hand hoist. Pulley lubricator. Underground winding en- Clew. Hand winch. Pulling jack. gine. Clip pulley. Hanger. Quarter-turn belt. Unloading apparatus . Clothes-line block. Haul-up gear. Quarter-twist belt. Universal joint. Clutch. Hay-fork pulley. R ick-aml-pinion jack. Variable speed attach- Clutch coupling. Heart. Radius bar. ment. Clutch pulley. Hod elevator. Ratchet coupling. Wagon crane. Coal elevator. Hoist. Ratchet motion. Wagon jack. Coal hoist. Hoisting and conveying Rawhide. Wall crane. Coal-hoisting tub. apparatus. ' Reversible winding en- Warehouse hoist. Coal-whipping machine. Hoisting apparatus. gine. Water bearing. Cog-wheel. Hoisting block. Right-and-left coupling. Well-wheel block. Compression coupling. Hoisting drum. Ring bush. Well windlass. Cone uear. Hoisting engine. Roller grip. Wharf crane. Cone pulley. Hoisting machine. Roofing block. Whelps. Conical bearing. Hoisting screw. Rope eye. Whip crane. Connecting rod. Hook-and-swivel block. Rope driving gear. Whip gin. Conveyor. Horizontal jack. Rope gearing. Winch. Core wheel. Horse-bar. Rope-strapped block. Winding engine. Counter-gear. Horse-hay-fork block. Rubbish pulley. AVindlass. Countershaft. Horse-power. Safety apparatus. AVire belt. Countershaft clutch. Horse-power jack. Safety catch. AVire rope. Crab. Horse-power speed-regu- Safety hatch, AVire-rope splice. Crane. lator. Safety hoist. AA'ire-rope thimble. Crane engine Hydraulic capstan. Safety winch. Wire-rope transmission. ('nine jib. Hydraulic crane. Scandinavian belting. Worm gearing. Cross-heid. Hydraulic elevator. Screw hoist. Woven-vvire belting. Davit block. Hydraulic hoist. Screw machine. AVrapping connector. Dead eye. Hydraulic jack. Self-dumping coal-tub. AVrecking crane. Deck block. Hydraulic lift. Self-oiling bearing. Z-crank. Deck-hoisting engine. Derrick. Hydraulic valve. Ice elevator. See references : Derrick winch. Detaching hook I^e elevator chain. Ice screw. Hoisting and sea-water distillery app. combined, Br. . * "Engineer,' 1 xlix. 334, 335. Differential block. Inclined plane. Apparatus . . * "Scientific American Sup '* 192 Differential movement. Inclined plane winding And conveying bucket . * "_En-. " Min. Jour.," xxi. 271. Differential pulley. apparatus. Fig. 494, p. 150, supra. Differential pulley-block. Intermediate motion. Fig 7006, p. 2798, "Mec.h. Diet." Dock block. Iron-strapped block. Clamp, Fr * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 179. Dog power. Door hanger. Jack. Jack press. Machinery Figs. 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, "Engineer," xlix. 334. Door roller. Jack screw. Machine, portable . . * "Scientific Amer.,' 1 xxxvii. 406. ]><>\e!Mil clutch coupling. Jetty crane. Engine, Bacon. ... * "Man. & Builder,'* ix. 175. Draft pole Jib crane. Engine, double cylinder * "Man. If Buililer," xi 103. Drive chain. Jib-sheet block. Self-landing and deliver- Driving pulley. Journal. ing, Barker, Br. . . * "Engineering," xxi. 389. Dumb waiter. Journal bearing. Hoist engine, mining. Dumb-waiter pulley. Journal box. Berry f Place ... "Mm. if Sc. Press,''' xxxiv. 225. Dumping bucket. Journal brass. Machine brake, Ckernj, Eccentric. Key. Br. . . *"Kwe-/neer.''lxv 180. HOISTING, SHAFTING, ETC. 460 HOLLOW SPINDLE LATHE. Hoist, Clem If Morse . * Cupelaiitl if Bacon . . * Engine, Davis .... * Machine, Johnson ... * Engine, Lidgerwood . . * Engine * Engine, rotary. Lidgeru'ood Man. Co. * Engine, Mundy ... * Engine * Machine, friction ... * Machine, portable . . * Engine for mines, Niles * Engine, Parlce 4" Lacy . * Horse-power for. Reynolds * And crane, self-sustain- ing, Thomas, Br. . . * Engine, portable. Williamson . . . . * * Engine "Yellow Jacket" ' 102. 'Man. if Builder," xi. 154. 'Man. $ Builder, 1 ' xi. 169. "Man. Sf Builder,' 1 ' viii. 265. 'K. R. Gazette,' 1 ' xxii. 64. 'Man. if Bi/ilcftr," ix. 129. 'Man. if Builder,''- viii. 78. ' Srientifir A>er.," xxxvi. 338. 'Min. if Sc. Press,'' xxxviii. 105, 145. 'Min. If Sc. Press,'* xxxvii. 401. 'Min. Sc. Press," xxxvi. 257. 'Engineer," xlix. 386. 'Scientific American Sitp., r 545. 'Engineering,'' xxii. 7. 'Engineerings' xxii. 117. ' Scientific American," xli. 117. Hoist/ing and Con-vey'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. A system for lifting and transporting buckets used in mining, grading, loading, and discharging ves- sels, transporting ores, minerals, etc., from posi- tions difficult of access Two forms are shown : one under WIRE WAT, Fig. 7006, p. 2798, "Meek. Diet.''; the other under CAULE CARRIER, Fig. 494, p. 150, supra. Hoist'ing Drum. A pulley on which the hoisting- rope winds. In Fig. 1358 it is shown in Fig. 1358. Friction Hoisting Drum. connection with a friction clutch which conveys the motion of the shaft to the drum. The cone slips on a feather on the shaft and so locks the parts together as to revolve the drum. Frisbie's device is also shown in section in Fig. 1097, p. 357, supra. Hoist'ing En'gine. Fig. 1359 shows Frishie's hoisting machine, operating by means of the fric- tion-clutch in Fig. 1358. As shown, it is especially intended for pile-driving. The rope is not detached from the hammer, l>nt unwinds from the drum, which runs free on t ie shaft when the friction is removed and the hammer descends to do its work- In the Lidgerwood hoisting machine, the engine is rotary and connected directly to the drum-shaft by spur-wheel and pinion. For platform elevators the machine has double or compound gearing, a brake which rests on the fly-wheel when the machine is stopped, and is lifted when the machine is started. The drum is large and has grooves for the wire cable. In the Carr hoisting engine the engine runs constantly in the same direction, and the connection with the drum is by internal friction gearing. See also FRICTION DRUM HOIST, Fig. 1009, p. 357 : CELLAR LIFT, Fig. 573, p. 180 ; and ELEVATOR EXCISE, Fig. 958, p. 310, supra. See also HYDRAULIC ELEVATOR; HYDRAULIC LIFT, "Mech. Diet.,' 1 ' 1 et infra. Fig. 1359. Hoisting Engine. Hoist'ing Screw. arrangement for liftin bed stone when it hecomes necessary to dress either of them. The bail engages studs on the side of the stone which is then re- volvable on t li e studs as centers in order to invert it and expose the working surface up- wardly. Hole Gage. A tapered metallic slip graduated to show the diameters of holes into which it may be thrust. See BAKREL,GAGE, Fig. 216, p. 77, supra. Hol'low Plun'- A .) An elevating the runner from off the Fig. 1360. Hoisting Screw. ger Pump. pump made for mining and quarrying purposes, to remove water from the workings. Plunder pumps are shown in Fig. 3845, p. 1752, "Meek. Diet." The tubular plunger is considered to have an ad- vantage in muddy water. Hol'low Bpin'dle Lathe. A lathe with a head stuck, the .spindle of which is hollow. p is the spindle ; H, the hole Ijj" diameter ; z and (i, the standards of the head stock which have tapering hole;* to Fig. 1361. Section of HoLow Swindle Lathe Head with Taper Boxes. HOLLOW SPINDLE LATHE. 461 HOOP. receive the round boxes, A and , the small gear on the cone. C is the feed-gear on the epindle. The end thrust is taken by a step held by the bracket /rand check-nut J. * "/row Ase,'~ xxii., Nov. 28, p. 1. * Fig. 2538, p. 1113, "Meek. Diet." Hollow Spoke Wheel. (Railway.) A car wheel with spokes cored in casting, Figs. 166, 167, Forney's "Car-builders' Diet." Hol'o-phote. ( Whole Li- which is to be Furnace for Heating Cannon Rin$ slipped on to a cannon on the building-up, or re- Uifurce principle. When the hoop has a blue heat it is removed and slipped into place on the gun, which has been turned to a size to receive it. See AK.MSTKONG GUN, "Mtch. Diet." Hoop-ma'king Ma-chine'. A machine for riving hoops from the pole and finishing them. It consists of a splitter and finisher. A large splitter is used for heavy, that is to say, for three, four, six, or eight-part poles (which will yield that number of hoops), and a smaller splitter for smaller poles. The split- ters cut through the center of the poles, and in a single rapid thrust divide at one operation each pole into all the ,-pliuts which it contains. The finisher, in one rapid operation, cuts off the knots, takes out the core, finishes the lace of the hoop, crimps it, and delivers it a perfect hoop, exactly even in thickness from end to end. The splitter will split 12 to 15 poles per minute. The smaller finisher will run through 12 hoops of 6' length per minute. The larger finisher will run through 10 hoops of 7^' length per minute. Hart. Hoop-punch'ing Ma-chine'. A machine having rollers for flaring, and punches for punch- ing and riveting respectively, the hoop-iron for making cask hoops. Hoop-shrink'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. An appa- ratus for shrinking a steel hoop which has been Fig. 1317. e ; Revolving Table. a. Crank and Gear. Apparatus for Coolin a. Watering Pot. c. Hoop. b. Hose Pipe. (I. Body of Gun. heated to " blue " and slipped on to the core of a cannon, in the building-up or reinforce method. It is a sort of circular watering-pot which bathes all portions of the exterior of the hoop equally. Hie system of reinforce rings is shown in the 100-ton gun, Fig. 526, p. 160, sn/ira. Hop'per. A funnel-shaped tank, spout, or ves- sel, either bottomless or with a movable door or flap beneath. A coal hopper, grain hopper, etc., for discharging into cars or otherwise. A soil hopper in a water-closet. A car hopper, or bottom discharge of a coal car. A weighing hopper ; the cistern holding the grain and dis- charging below. See GRAIN SCALE. Hop'per Barge. A barge used in dredging operations, to receive the silt from the dredger, con- vey it away, and drop it at any suitable place for deposit. Hawks, Craioxhay, $ Co. * "Engineering,'' xxix. 354. Dredger " U'illunga," Aus- tralia * "Engineer,'' xlvii. 60. Dredge, twin screw, New- haven, Br * "Engineer,'' xlviii. 84, 88. Hop'per Clos'et. A water-closet for public uses, in which the pan stands upon an S-trap and periodical flushing is depended upon for cleanli- ness. Hop'per Cock. A faucet belonging to the hopper of a water-closet, so arranged ns to give a wash when the seat is relieved of weight. See Fig. 1368. Hop'per Scales. Elevator scales. See GRAIN SCALE. HOP PICKER. 463 HORN. Hop Pick'er. Fig. 15'8. Hupptr Cock. A device resembling a clothos- wringer and p r o - pelled by a treadle. It consists of two rub- ber rollers, so c o n- structcd as to draw in the branch, while two steel rollers, having an opi osite action, pick tlie hops from it. From the picker the hops run into a sack, which, when filled, is taken to the separator, which so.-ts the hops from all leaves or stems which may have gone into the sack, and thence to the hop house. Cultivator, Howard, Eng. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 163. Knigiit, Br * "Engineering," xxiv. 98. Hor'i-zon'tal Bor'ing Ma-chine'. 1. A ma- chine with a horizontal table on which work is chucked for boring. See HORIZONTAL LATHE, Fig. 562, p. 1121, "Mech. Diet.," and Fig. 3Sj, p 122, supra 2. A machine with horizontal boring-tool stock. See HORIZONTAL DRILL, Fig. 2560, p. 1120, "Mech. Diet " PORING MACHINES, 811, 817, 818. 820, pp 340, 341, Ibid.: UNI- V,-:;ISAL BORING MACHINE, Fig 392. p. 123, supra; ANGLE CAR- BORIXG MACHINE, Fig. 75, p. 35, supra. Hor'i-zon'tal Check Valve. One arranged in a horizontal pipe, as in Fig. 609, p. 192, supra. Hor'i-zon'tal En'gine. One, the piston of which works horizontally. The following references may be consulted : Bertram * "Scientific American Sup.," 1472. B'andij * "Eng. $ Min. Jour.," xxvii. 2. Blymer Co * "Iron Age," xxi., Mar. 7, p. 1. 'Buckeye'' . . . . * "Engineering," xxii. 231. * "Sc. American," xxxviii. 310. * "Am. Miller," v. 126. Corliss, 1000 h. p., Br. . * "Engineering," xxi. 412. Cummer * "Am. Miller," vii. 349. Dallam Forge .... * "Engineer," xliii. 320. Deakin, Parker If Co., Br * "Engineer," xlii. 113. * "Engineer," xliii. 293. 'Eclipse" * " Sc. American," xxxviii. 214. Exeter Machine Works . * "Scientific American," xli. 51. Fenby, Br * "Engineering," xxvi. 189. Guild * "Engineer," xlii. 77. Gen. Eng. If Boiler Co. Br * " Engineer," xliv. 88. * "Engineering," xxiii. 341. Gibbons, Br * "Engineering," xxv. 123. Hampson,WhitefulltCo. *" Scientific American Sup." 404. Hums- Corliss .... * "Am. Miller," v. 112. Hindley,^ * "Engineer," xlix. 394. Marshall, Br * "Engineering." xxvi. 31. Norwalk Iron Works . * Thurston ! s " Vienna Exn Rep " ii. 25. Pickerm? $ Davis . . * Thurston, " Vienna Rfp. " ii. 35. Porter-Allen * "Mamif. Sf Builder," x. 217. * "Iron Age," xxii., Oct. 10, p. 1. Rm-lins Iron Co., Br. . * "Engineer," 1. 39. Robey, Br * "Engineering," xxvi. 466. Snyder, -'Little Giant" * " Sc. American," xxxix. 63. Sulzer Bros , Switz. . . * Thurston's " Vienna Exn Rep ," ii. 21. Tangye, Br * " Scientific American Sup.," 3943. * "Engineering," xxiv. 492. * Thurston - s " Vienna Exp. Rep." ii. 29. Turner, Br * "Engineering," xxiv 457. " Gippeswyk," Br. . . * "Engineer, ""xlviii. 4. * "Engineer," xliv. 422. Wa'schiert, Bel. . . . "Engineering," xxvii. 29. Watts *" Engineer," xliii. 409. * "Scientific American Sup." 1316. Condensing, Brown . . * "Engineering," xxv. 475. Cond. exp., Brown, Switz * " Engineering, " xxix. 75. Cond. exp., Bertram, Br. * "Engineer," xliv. 136. Cond., Brinlcmann,Qer. * "Engineering," xxx. 170. Cond. exp , Collmann, Ger * "Engineering," xxviii. 109. Cond., Deakin, Parker ft Co * "Engineer," xlvi. 461- Cond., Dick if Steven- son, Br * "Engineering," xxv. 184. Cond , Duvergier, Fr . "Engineering," xxv 425, 429. Cond. Fourlinnie, Belg * "Engineer," xlv. 350, 364. Cond. exp., Ltbrun,t't. * "Engineering,'' xxx. 246. Cond., Soc. Marcinelle, Belg * "Engineer," 1. 350. Cond high-pressure en- gine, Marshall, Br. . * " Engineer," xlvi. 446, 451. Cond., Marshall, Br. . * "Engineering," xxvi. 453. Cond. exp., Nolet, Belg. * "Engineer,"- xlvii. 226. Cond., Robey, Br. . . * "Engineer," xlvii. 452. Cond., Ruston ty Proctor, Br * "Engineer," xlvii. 470. * "Engineering," xxviii. 5. Surface cond., Rust on # Proctor, Br * "Engineer," xlv. 289, 292, 307. Cond., Soc. Suisse, Switz * "Engineer," xlv. 365. Cond. exp., Sulzer, Switz. ... . * "Engineer,' 1 ' xlvi. 150. Expansion, Bennie, Br. * "Engineer," xliv. 373. Exp , Collmann, Ger. . * "Engineer," xlv. 144. * "Engineering " xxx. 455. Exp., Corliss, Belgian . * "Engineer," xlv. 405. Exp., Darey, Par-man ff Co.. Br * "Engineer,' 1 '' xlviii. 5. Exp pumping, Escher, Wyss # Co., Switz. . * "Engineering," xxx. 348. Exp., variable, Gen. Eng. # Boiler Co. . . * "Engineering," xxi. 357 Exp., Ha/pin, Br. . .*"Eng ineering," xxvii. 480. Exp., Hay ward, Tyler Co., Br * "Engineer," xlviii. 145. Exp., Marshall, Br. . . * "Engineer," xlvi. 427. Variable cut-off, Porter- Allen * "Engineering," xxvii. 107. Exp., Reading Iron Co. Br * "Engineering," xxx. 41. Exp., Reading Iron Works, Br *" Engineer," xlviii. 17. Exp., Reusing, Ger. . . * "Engineering," xxx. 623. Exp., Ruston Proctor, Br * "Engineer," xlviii. 447. Exp., Corliss, Saltaire, Br * "Engineering," xxx. 111. Exp. gear, Shanks, Br. . * "Engineer," xlvi. 13. * ''Engineering," xxvii. 561. Exp., Socin $ Wick, Switz * "Engineer," xlvi. 350. Exp gear, Virck, Ger. . * "Engineering," xxviii. 187. Exp., Zimmerman, Ger. * "Engineering," xxx. 565. Non-cond., Ruston Sf Proctor, Br * "Engineering," xxviii. 465. Cond. pumping, Newent colliery, Br * "Engineer," xlix. 27. Pumping, St. Maur, Fr. * "Engineering," xxvi. 170-173. Reversing high-pres- sure, Galloway, Br. . * "Engineer," 1. 310. Hor'i-zon'tal Mor'tis-ing Ma-chine'. One, the anger and bit of which act in a horizontal di- rection. Fig. 3339, p 1483, "Mech. Die' " ; CHAIR MORTISER, Fig. 594, p. 189, supra. Hor'i-zon'tal Pump. One, the barrel of which is horizontal. Hor'i-zon'tal Saw Mill. One, the saw of which traverses horizontally : not a frequent posi- tion, but found in some special saws. Horn. 1. (Raihvay.} One of the projecting parts of a pedestal, between which the journal- boxes work. Horn-block in British parlance. See PEDESTAL, Fig. 3595, p. 1647, "Mech. Diet." Horn-block facing-machine, Lond. & N. W. Ky., * "Engi- neering," xxviii. 261. 2. (Music,) A brass wind instrument, with a mouth-piece, made in great variety. The name characterizes a family. Speaking in the most gen- eral terms, it may be said that they are of all sizes, and consequently of pitch, as the larger tubes vi- brate more slowly. The pitch is also varied by HORN. 4G4 HORSE POWER. movable crooks. Some horns have keys, other pis- tons, cylinders, or slides. They have also a ca- pacity for another variation of sound, known as the open or closed ; the latter produced by closing more or less the pavilion or bell by means of the hand. See CORNET, p. 222, supra. Also instances (11), Fig. 2564, p. 1122, "Mec/i. Diet." Horn Block. The casting with two dependent branches, between which the axle-boxes of a car work as the springs expand and contract. A ped- estal. Horn'er. A tool for breaking off the awns of barley. Awner. Horn Ma-chine'. A machine for sewing soles to shoes. The shoe being slipped on a horn, gives name to the ma- chine. A horn is shown in Plate LX., opposite p. 2102, "Mech. Diet." Horn Press. A power press for closing the side-seams of cans and boxes, which are for the purpose slipped upon a horn protruding from the standard of the machine. Ho'ro-graph. An instrument for making a multitude of perforations on a line, as guided, through a thin paper to be used as a stencil. It resembles the Edison electric pen in the re- sult, but the means of driving the Newton, Wilson & Co. horograph is a spring and clock-work. "Engineer" * xlvii. 313. " Scientific American '' * xl. 377. Horse Bar. The lever of a horse-power. A sweep. Horse Bis'cuit A food for campaigning horses; adopted in Prussia and Russia. Also known as oat conijit. It consists of : Oat flour SO Dextrinat>d pea meal 30 Ryeflou,.- SO Linseed meal 1 Or: Oat flour 40 Dextrinated pea meal 40 Linseed meal 20 Or: Pea meal "0 Wheat flour Corn ineal 20 Rye flour 2 Grated bread '0 Linseed meal 10 Or analogous mixtures. Fig. 1339. 3J Ibs. of the oat comfit are esti- mated to have a value equal to 12 Ibs. of oats. A daily ration is 3i Ibs. compris- ing, say 26 biscuits, 4" to 5" in diam- eter and 4-10" thick. The biscuits are fed broken, dry or wet ; 7 in the morning, 12 at noon, 7 in the even- ing. Horse Boot. (Mane/je.) An attachment designed to protect the hoof, pastern joint, and fetlock joint from being cut or injured by the over- reaching or interfering of the horse when being driven at high speed. The lower portion, A, covers the hoof, and is secured by strap -B, which passes around the heel. The portion a' covers the corona, and a tube, C on B, prevents the boot from slipping. D is the upper or speedy- cut boot, which is concaved in front Horie Soot to fit the portion a' of the hoof-boot, to which it is secured by straps E E. The pad D is secured by strap F. Horse Car. (Railway.} a. One fitted to carry horses. b. A street-car drawn bv horses. Horse-car heating Horse Fix'tures. Boot, Fennel * * ' Collar, hameless. F inker if Watson . . * Detacher, Ehret . . . * Driving by electricity, Fr. ' (j roomer, Newton . . . * Motions, science of . . * ' Tail clipper, Br. . . . * Holdback, harness. Knight if Hilliard . . * See " The Horse in Motion, Boston, 18S2. 'Scientific American,'' xli. 393 Min. if Sc. Press,-' xxxv. 81. Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 386. Scientific Amer.," xlii. 243. Scientific American Sup.," 460. Iron Age,'' xix., April 12, p. 1. Scientific Amer.,'' 1 xxxiv. 402. Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 239. Engineer," xliv. 424. Scientific Amer.," xlii. 195. ' Stillman, J. R. Osgood & Co , Horse Groom'er. See GROOMER, p. 427, su- pra. Horse Ham'mock. Used in shipping, trans- porting, and disembarking horses. In slingiii"-, the cativas hammock is carried beneath the body of the horse and the cringles of the ends are carried to rings which engage the tackle-hook. Breast and breeching bands keep the horse from plunging out of the hammock. On ship-board, the hammock is so suspended as to pass beneath the body of the horse, so as to catcli him when he loses his feet in rough weather, and hold him till he recovers fooling. Horse Hoe. An implement for cultivating the ground between crops drilled in rows. Fig. 1370 is a French horse hoe made by Meixmoron de Dombasle, of Nancy. It is a light foiin, :.n ;i]>i>n:;i>ri,ir M Fig. 1370. French Hor.^e Hoe. to the American, except in the shape of the hoes, which fol- lows the English. The wheel in front regulates the depth, and the double adjustment by means of the perforated burs and pins gives command of the level or inclination of the frame. The latter is adjustable for different widths. The implement shown in Fig. 1371 is also intended to fol- low drilled wheat, the hoes being carefully adjusted to the Fig 1371. French Home Hoe. proper relative distance in accordance with the shares of the drill. The whole row of hoes is lifted or depressed by means of the handles. See HOEING MACHINE, Fig. 2521, p. 1107, "Mech Diet." See also SCARIFIER. Horse Net. A net to protect a horse from flies. Horse Fow'er. An apparatus for transfer- ring the draft power of the horse to any machine. Figs 1372, 1373, 1374 show several French horse-powers, of moderate f-ize. See also Figs. 2568-2571, pp. 1125-112i, "Mech. Diet." HORSE POWER. 465 HORSE-POWER JACK. Fig. 1372 is a horse-power by Girardin, of Etampes ( Seine- tt-Oise). It is designed for two horses, and is. used without dismounting. Fig. 1372 Girardiii's Mounted Horsc-powr. The Fm ill horse-power with shafting, Fig. 1373, by Gau- trc:m, of Dourdan (Se.ine-r.t-Oise), France, is founded on a column, the connecting-shaft going; overhead. The horse- jiMwi-i- stan. Is on the outside of the building, and the power is transmitted by a bevel master-wheel and pinion, spur- Fig. 1373. Gau'.reau's One-horse Power. wheel, and pinion to the pulley-shaft, which -latter has a speed of IH) revolutions per minute with an ordinary speed of the hoL-se which is attached to the sweep. From the shifts in the building different instruments d' in- tirieur, as they are termed, are operated. Such are the straw- cutter, root-washer, root-cutter, grain-bruiser, etc. The column is simply bolted to afoundatioa-plate or pillar, and the wail-gearing and shafting to a wall-plate, with but lit'le expense of fitting, the work being simply to line and level the shafting in boxes already prepared and e-isily at- tached in place. Vis- Io74 is another form of columnar horse-power, adapted for one or two horses. It is one of the lightest and cheapest forms. The head is movable on the neck of the column, so as to direct the band-wheel in any radial direction from the col- umn as an axis. It may thus be made to do duty with either one in turn of a numerous series of machines in a circular arrangement around the horse-power as a center, such as a ch iff cutter, root-cutter, corn-sheller, cider-mill, churn, or whit not. Tiie speed-multiplier is an arrangement of spur-gears and piiiiims on the cruciform foot-frame, which is anchored or staked to the ground, or bolted to a floor. The pulley revolving in a vertical plane has one advantage over the horizontal pulley, as it allows the endless band to reich a machine whose driving-pulley is much below that on the column, whereas the horizontal pulley requires that the machines shall have a relative height. It is transported by sufficiently elevating it to enable wheels to be slipped upon the spindles, which are shown projecting from the ends of two opposite bars of the cruci- form frame. To one of the bars at right angles to the last stated is attached the tongue to which the team is geared for transporting the horse-power ; or the tongue is attached to the rear of the thrasher. The pulley-shaft may be prolonged by means of a coup- ling, so as to penetrate the wall of a building for the con- veyance of power. Refer to : *" Scientific American Sup.," 771. Crowley, Br * "Engineer," 1 1. 192. 30 Gautreau's Two-horse, Power. Turner, Br .... * 'Engineering," xxiv. 68. Pump, Haywanl . . * "Scientific American," xxxiv, 243 Pump, Hill . . . .* "Scientific American Sup.," 605 Radway, Emery . . . * "Am. Manuf.," July 9, 1880, p 12. Stable floor, Crawford * "Scientific American,' 1 '' xliii. 294. Dr. Knight's report on Class 76 at the Paris Exposition of 1878, gives views and descriptions of the following horse powers and thrashers. See "Paris Exposition (1878) Re- ports," vol. v., pp 167-183. One-horse overhead horse- power Gautreau .... France. Vertical horse-power with overhead-rod Gautreau .... France Overhead columnar horse- power with band-wheel . Gautreau .... France. Horse-power with ground- rod .... ... Gautreau .... France. Hand-thrashing machine . Terier Fils . . . France. One-horse-povver thrasher . Gautreau .... France. Portable thrasher and mounted horse-power. . Gautreau .... France. First-class thrasher . . . Ruston, Proctor ff Co., England Oblique-slotted beater for thrashers ... Gerard If Fils . . . France. Band-cutting and self-feed- ing apparatus .... Marsha'l .... England. Automatic feeder .... Huston, Prortor Sf Co., England. Plan of safety-feeder . . . Ruston, Proctor if Co., England. Straw-stacker, rigged for use . .... Marshall, Son* If Co., England. Straw-stacker, folded . . Marshall, Sons Sf Co., England. Complete English thrash- ing apparatus .... England. Section of straw-burning engine furnace .... Ransomes .... England. Straw -burning engine . . Ransomes .... England. Straw-burning portable en- gine Ruston, Proctor If Co., England. Huiler for clover, lucern, etc Brouhnt if Co. . . . France. Horse'-pow'er Com-pu'ting Scale. A pocket sliding scale for computing from the usual data, the indicated horse-power, size for power, etc. The instrument consists of a simple double slide-rule, and will give the power of any cylinder from 4" to 100" diame- ter, working at from 1 ib. to 100 Ibs. mean pressure, within about 4 per cent, of accuracy. By placing the scales in the necessary relative positions, they give, without calculation (1), the indicated horse-power from the usual data; (2) the size of engine for any given power ; (3) the piston speed due to any stroke and number of revolutions per minute : (4) the ratio the high and low pressure cylinders of compound en- gines bear to each other; (5) the proportion the mean bears to the initial pressure, with the steam cut off at any given point in stroke. The instrument is 4J" X 2J". Horse'-pow'er Jack. The intermediate mo- tion of a horse-power, wherehy the motion of the tumbling rod is transferred to a band-wheel shaft. See JACK ; INTERMEDIATE MOTION. HORSE-POWER PUMP. 466 HOSE TRUCK. Horse'-pow'er Pump. A pump driven by animal power, as at D, Fig. 2569, p. 1126, "Alecli. Diet." The Oriental and Spanish Norias (Na' Ura) are usually driven by cattle; the wheel with pots, as in Fig. 3333, p. "l 533, "Mech. Diet." ; or the wheel with rope and pots, a, Fig. 3334, Ibid. Horse'-pow'er Reg'u-la'tor. A device to limit the speed of the horse power when work is suddenly withdrawn. See GOVERNOR, Fig. 1230, Plate XIX. Horse Rake. See HAY RAKE. Horse Rough. A removable calk or stud to be attached to the shoe of a horse when traveling upon frozen ground or ice. The Fig. 1375 shows, on the Itft, the pieces detached; on Fig. 1375. Horse the right, the parts in position on the shoe. To be put on when leaving the stable. Another form is studs with screw shanks, which screw into holes tapped into the shoes. Horse Shoe. A horse shoe of raw hide is com- posed of three thicknesses of cow-hide compressed into a steel mold and then subjected to a chemical preparation. It is light, lasting, elastic, and re- quires no calks, even on asphalt. Refer to : 'Scientific American," xl. 53. 'Am. Man.,'* Mar. 7, 1879, p. 12 'Scientific American,'' xliii. 18. 'Scientific American Sup.,''' 240. 'Scientific Amer., : ' xxxiv. 355. 'Scientific American,''' xxxv. 51. 'Iron Ase," 1 xx., Nov. 8, p. 20. 'Scientific American !., ''2835. 'Scientific American,' 1 xl. 127. 'Scientific American,'' xli. 88. 'Iron Age,'' xix., April 19, p. 11. 'Scientific American," xlii. 102. 'Iron Age," 1 xxv., April 15, p. 9. Horse'-shoe Ham'mer. See FARRIER'S HAM- MER; TURNING HAMMER; TURNING SLEDGE, etc. See list under HAMMER ; SLEDGE. Horse'-shoe'er's Ma-chine'. A foot-vise with treadle and toggle. The shoe is gripped by Fig. 1376. Billings * McVien * Potvin * Thistlewoori . . . . * And swage, Stephenson . * Bender, Ray . . . . * Calk, Thistlewood . . * Hoof cushion . * Nails, manufacture of, " Globe " * Nail machine, Sheridan Steel, Williams . . . Weighted, Seixas . . . * Horse Yoke. placing the foot on the treadle, and the vise falls open when the foot is removed. The dies in the jaws of the vise are so shaped to give the right form to the calk as it is hammered. An anvil attachment is used for trueing up the shoe ; it carries a steel die with four different-sized slots for welding on calks. See ANVIL VISE, Fig. 97, p. 42, sn/>ra. Horse'-shoe Stud. A calk secured into the horse-shoe. Horse Yoke. (Ar/ric. ) A pair of names, A A, Fig. 1376, slipped upon the usual collars, and each consisting of two hinged portions to clasp upon the neck ; the two hames connected by sec- tions D B and a brace, C ; the latter having a ring to which the draft chain is attached. Practically, a return to the most ancient method of harnessing. See Fig. 1251, p. 528, "Mech. Did." Hose. Flexible pipe for conveying fluids. " Scientific American" xlii. 275. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 262. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 182. 'Scientific American," xli. 15. 'Scientific American.'' xxxv. 383. 'Am. Man.," July 25, 1879, p. 12. Hose-carriage, Aiken . Miller Coupling Hufmann .... Price Coupling, wedge; Galvin Nozzle, variable, Leggett Nozzle, Palmer . . . Pipe "Scientific American,''' xli. 320. Hose Cart. A two-wheeled vehicle for trans- porting hose. It has arrangements for winding the hose upon the drum, and allowing the hose to Fig. 1377. Balanced Hose-cart. pay off when required. It is shown in Fig. 1377, with a tongue for the fireman and a cord for the string of men by whom it is drawn. Hose Clamp. A band Fig- 137 8. which can be t'ghtened upon a hose to sustain a weak part or stop a leak. Hose Nip'ple. A short pipe, externally threaded at each end ; on to one end the hose is firm- ly bound by lashing, the other affords junction for another section of hose or Hose C tamp. for the nozzle. Hose Screw. The brass or gun-metal coup- ling for hose sections. See HOSE COUPLING, Fig. 2582, p. 1132, "Mech. Diet." Hose Sprink'ler. A rose on the end of a nozzle to give a fine spray of water. Hose Truck. A small hose-carriage for car- rying hose for domestic and garden use, washing carriages, etc. ^ee Fig. 2575, p. 1132, "Mech. Diet." HOSE UNION. 467 HOT-AIR ENGINE. Hose Un'ion. See HOSE COUPLING, "Mech. Diet.," Fig. 2582, p. 1132. Another name for the screw coupling. Hose Un'ion Cap. A cover to close the end of a hose ; a cap screwed upon the coupling at the end of the line of hose. Hose Wrench. A spanner for coupling and uncoupling sections of hose. Ho'sier-y Seam'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for sewing together knitted goods. The loops of the respective pieces are slipped on to holding pins and are sewn together by a chain-stitch. Tne recipro- cating eye-pointed needle puts a loop of yarn through the loops of the knitted fabric, the needle-yarn being caught by a reciprocating hook, which detains it while the needle re- tires ; the goods are then fed along the distance of a stitch and the needle repeats the movement. The feed is by a rack- movement Hos'pi-tal-bed El'e-va'tor. A truck, de- vised by Dr. Morton, for surgical wards especially. It is provided with elevating apparatus, and so arranged that it can be pushed underneath a bed, and then made to lift both bed and pa- tient and convey them from ward to ward, or to and from the operating room. The apparatus consists of a double truck ; the upper one is. elevated by a series of cams which Hospital Bed-elevator and Truck. run upon a narrow iron track ; a long right-and-left screw, worked by an endless chain upon a crank at one end. raises and depresses the cams 400 Ibs. can be lifted quite free from the floor in 4 seconds : and without difficulty a water- bed, which weighs about 700 Ibs., with patient, can be ele- vated and readily moved. The elevation of the bed an inch or so from the floor is all that is required. Invalid bed, Graff. . . * "Scientific American,''' xl. 403. Hos'pi-tal Ward Car'riage. An invention of Dr. Morton for conveying all the necessary ap- pliances for dressing the wounds or sores of the pa- tients in a surgical ward. It is a truck on 3 gutta-percha rimmed wheels, carrying a table, elevated water reservoir, and hose, the necessary pans, etc. On either side of the water-can appropriate places are partitioned off for the bandages, charpie, oiled sili, adhesive Fig. 1380. Hospital Ward Carriage. plaster, and jars for holding the lint soaked in the various solutions commonly used for ward applications ; drawers r placed in each end and serve as receptacles for towels, instruments, etc., etc. One large bucket, with a projecting lip, occupies one half the space under the table, into which all the refuse dressings, poultices, soiled water, and oakum, from each patient, are emptied. Another can, with two com- partments, adjoins the bucket ; into one of these the soiled bandages are thrown, while the other carries the fresh oakum, cotton batting, muslin, and old linen, used for the ordinary ward purposes. One good-sized basin serves for the entire ward or series of communicating wards, since it serves merely as the recepta- cle for the water and discharges flowing from the part dur- ing the process of dressing. A can for hot water, for heating the adhesive plaster, completes the appiratus, which is pushed to the foot of each bed ; the length of the gum-elas- tic tube and the elevation of the supply of water allow the stream to be carried to any part of the patient which re- quires cleansing, in cither the recumbent or sitting posture. Hot'-air En'gine. The subject of hot-air en- gines falls under several heads, as inventors have chosen names which have been accepted and be- come established. In the " Mechcmi&u Dictionary," 11 pages have been devoted to Am ENGINES, nearly nil of which work by inciease of pressure derived from increment of heat. The caloric enyine of Ericsson was described in pp. *40, 41, "Mech. Diet." and a Liter very com- pact form at Figs. 510, 511, p. 155, supra. See references passim. The compression engine of Rider is shown at Fig. 674, p. 216, supra. One of the earliest, and certainly simplest, though not im- portant, except as one may care to gather up all the items in the history of an art, is the English patent of Joseph llately, 1775 of 1790, in which he proposed to utilize the force of a current of rarefied air escaping from a chimney against vanes. A smoke-jack. Cooling arrangements for cylinder, Engl. Pats., Boulton, 1,636 of 1864 ; 501 and 827 of 1866. C. W. Siemens, Engl. Pat., 2,074 of 1860, uses 4 working cylinders with communication through regenerators. A mix- ture of air and inflammable gas is introduced into the cham- bers through pipes. Cylinders cooled by currents of cold water. See 326 of 1852 ; 1,363 of 1856. Woods-s Engl. Pat., 739 of 1859. Air heated by passing through pipes conveyed to a cylinder under pressure. See also Engl. Pat., Young & Kirk, 227 of 1864. Two dis- placing cylinders above the engine. The upper parts heated by steam jackets ; the lower cooled by water. The pistons drive the air alternately from one to the other. Mennon's, 218 of 1862. The piston of a single-acting en- gine is adapted on one side to draw in air and force it to the heating surface ; on the other side is exposed to the motive power of the heated air. The capacity of the cylinder on each side is proportioned. Wenham 's hot-air engine (English) The air is heated in a closed combustion chamber by direct contact with the fuel, and passes with the gases evolved into the cylinder. The cylinder is single acting, the upper part of it being ar- ranged to serve as an air pump, and there is the usual regen- erator for economizing fuel The feature of burning under pressure and sending the gaseous products of combustion to the cylinder is found in the U. S. patents of Bennett, 1838, aud Washburn, 1865. In fact it was the feature of Oliver Evans's "volcanic engine,' 1 about 1786. The hot-air engine of Woodbury, Merrill, Patten & Wood- bury is shown in elevation in Fig. 1381 and in vertical section in Plate XXI. The essential features are a heater, regenerator, and cooler, which three, in combination, are termed a reverser, and in conjunction with a working cylinder, constitute a single- acting engine. The illustrations represent a double-acting engine, with two reversers and two working cylinders. These in a machine of the size represented are of the following sizes : Working cylinders . . 10" diameter . . 2' stroke. Reverser cylinders . . 20" diameter . . 1' stroke. The air is heated and cooled on each revolution ; and the rapidity with which this is effected is one of the chief objective points in machines of this character. The cooling process ij performed by the circulation of water around small thin copper tubes through which the air passes. The following statement explains the principle of the ma- chine in the words of the inventors : In a machine of the size above referred to, " the displacer pistons or reverser pistons change 4,000 cubic inches of air from the hot end to the cold end by one displacer, and 4,000 cu- bic inches from the cold end to the hot end by the other dis- placer, each stroke of the engine, the engine being a double cylinder, or practically a pair of engines. In this way 8,000 cubic inches are heated and cooled by each stroke of the en- HOT-AIR ENGINE. 463 HOT-AIR ENGINE. Fig. 1381. Hot-air Engine. gine, or 16,000 cubic inches moved at each revolution, and of this amount 8,000 is heated and 8,000 cooled at each revolu- tion, or at 100 revolutions per minute, which was the speed o r the engine in its regular work in the Institute Fair jMass Manuf. & Mech. Inst. Fair, Boston, 1881], 800,000 cubic inches are heated to a differential temperature of at least 400 Fab , and this is probably lower than actual practice. It is well known that atmospheric air at 30" barometric pressure requires 13 cubic feet to weigh one pound avoir- dupois, hence 800,000 cubic inches equals 470 cubic feet ; 470 divided by 13 equals 36 Ibs., which are heated to 500 Fan. every minute when working under 1 atmosphere of pressure, and at 4 atmospheres pressure 144 Ibs. of air are heated to the same temperature. Actual experience with this motor has proved that the actual consumption of coal lias not exceeded 400 Ibs. in 10 hours, or 40 Ibs. per hour. Per minute the consumption is one sixtieth of forty or two thirds of 1 Ib per minute, and 144 Ibs. of air is heiited to a differential temperature of at least 400' Full., with the com- bustion of two thirds of 1 Ib. of fuel. It may take some- what more heat to heat the air working under 4 atmospheres density, but it has not been realized in actual practice, or in practical work, and this practical experiment has proved that so ling as the air is confined in a given space the rapid- ity and facility of its heating is not approximately differ- ent whether 1 atmosphere is worked or 4 atmospheres are worked ; but the power developed by 4 atmospheres is enor- mously different in dense air from that obtained by using air under simply the natural atmospheric pressure. With 1 atmosphere the engine indicates 8 horsr-power ; with 4 atmospheres it indicates 26 horse-power, and in either cae three quarters, at least, of the indicated horse-power is transmitted by the fly-wheel, the balance being absorbed in the friction of the engine, passing the air through the parts and running the water and air pumps. The cooling requires Fomel5 gallons of water per minute, the water weighing 8 Ibs. 3 oz. per gallon ; 15 gxllons weigh 123 Ibs., and this amount is required to cool 36 Ibs. of air when working 1 atmosphere, and in working 4 atmospheres' density 144 Ibs. of air are re- quired, and the cooling water is raised in temperature about 20 Fah. above its normal temperature in passing through the coolers/' In Fig. 1381, which is a side elevation of the engine, the working cylinders (the smaller) are seen in front and the re- verse cylinders behind. In Plate XXI. the section passes through one working and one reversing cylinder, the connections, fire pit, bridge wall, and flue being one half of the engine as shown in Fig. 1381, the other half being precisely similar, making up a full double-acting engine with 4 cylinders having 2 working cyl- inders and 2 reversers. A is the fire-box or furnace mouuied upon a bed plate and provided with the grate, ash-pit C, and the usual fire door. The fire-box casings extend to the reiir of t.ie combustion cham-' ber, sufficiently far to rerve as supports for the working cylinder, D ; the rear portion being partially sepa- ra'ed from the ccm- bustion chamber by the bridge wall E, above which the prod- uctg of combination pass through the flue E', across the chamber F, and thence escape into the chimney through the ]>iiss:ige /".' The working c> 1- inder D is cast open at both ends and pro- vided ;it its lower end with broad flanges, the outer portion of which rests npon and is securely bolted to the casing A, while .to the inner portion, of the same flange of the cylinder is bolted the fire-pot or heater. The lower portion of ;he cylinders, D, is made of s o in ew h a t greater diameter than the upper portion, ami has lit ted thereon the short secondary cylin- der or shield f, the lower end of which ex- tends down into the heater to within about an inch of the bottom, leaving space sufficient for the air to pass by under the piston in the working cylinder. The object of this is to force the air against the surface of the heater. The head at the upper end of the cylinder D has an opening for the pas- sage of the piston-rod /, and two cupped packing riu^s to prevent the escape of air around said rod, the upper end of which is connected by the link J to one end of the beam K, which is also connected to the crank upon the driving shall, mounted in bearings upon standards carrying the driving pulley L. The two chambers above the pistons are connected by the pipe H*. A' is the cylinder of the reverser. provided with a broad flange, j, at its lower end, the outer portion of which rests upon the furnace casing A ; to the lower end of the cylinder is bolted a curved heater, O, which is placed directly over the fire-grate for the purpose of receiving the direct radiation of the fire against its sides and bottom. P is the reverser cylinder, made of somewhat less diameter, and placed within arid concentric with the cylinder N, with its lower end ex- tending down into the curved heater within about an inch of the bottom, in such a manner as to form an annular cham- ber between the cylinders A'and P, to serve as a regenerator. The upper ends of the cylinders A 7 and Pare closed by the head Q, which is firmly bolted to the cylinder A', and rests upon a rubber packing ring placed in a groove in the upper end of the cylinder Pto form an air-tight joint and allow for unequal expansion. The head Q has, set therein and projecting upward there- from, a series of ("l-shaped pipes, one end of each of which communicates with the space between the cylinders A 7 and P, and the other end with the inteiior of the cylinder P, above the reverser piston K, and is al.-o provided with a cen- tral upwardly projecting tubular hub through which the pis- ton rod K' pa.'ses, and to the upper end of which is secured the upper end of the cooler casing ', the lower end of which is firmly bolted through the head Q to the cylinder K, thus forming a cooling chamber inclosing the n- f hnped pipes, which chamber is to be filled with circulating cold water The upper end of the piston rod K' is connected by the link Tto the beam V, upon one side of the standard, in which said beim has its bearings, while said beam is connected upon the opposite side of said bearing by another link and piston rod to the reverser piston in the second reverser cyl- inder, which is constructed in all respects like the one just described. The pistons Hnud K, of the working and reverser cylin- ders respectively, are each cast in two parts and screwed to- gether so as to form hollow air-tight chambers therein, the lower portion of each of which is filled with fire-brick r', and the upper portion with asbestos, r'. Th* beam center PLATE XXI. HOT-AIR ENGINE. (WooDBCfcY, MEBRIU, PATTEN & WOODBURY.) Seepages 467-469. HOT-AIR ENGINE. 469 HOT-BLAST STOVE. has firmly secured to its outer end the pendent arm V, pro- vided with a pin V f , by means of which the beam and the reverser pistons may be worked by hand to Starr the engine, or by means of a hook connecting-rod and crank the beam and pistons may be worked by the power Air may pass freely by pipe p q from the interior of the reverser cylinder to the annular space, in the working cyl- inder and down against the heater of the working cylinder, to the space beneath the working piston H, and viie versa, as the motion of the piston may be either up or down. An automatic b.e-pass valve in a pipe, the ends of which open into borh reverser cylinders, is used to equali/e the pressure between the two reverser cylinders, and regulate the motion of the engine in proportion to its load. An eccentric on the main shaft of the engine drives a small air-pump for the purpose of compressing air up to any den- sity required ; and connecting by means of r*, with two ver- tical check-valves self-operating, which admit the air un- der pressure into the engine as required. The water for circulation in chamber S to cool the air in the n-sh'iped pipes, is driven by a plunger pump, shown erect over pipe p. It enters S by means of pipe ', and issues by pipe o to an annular chamber around the cylinder Z) at n-, where it serves as a cut-off for the heat ascending tlie working cylinder, above that point against which the piston moves. The operation is as follows : The beam being in motion, the effect is that the pistons in the reversing cylinders dis- place the air contained therein, by driving the air in the cold end of one of the said cylinders through the n- s 'iaped tubes in chamber .V, and the regenerator space between cylinders P ami .Yinto the heater; at the same moment driving the air in t'.ie hot end of the other reverser cylinder through the heater and the regenerator space into the tubes n, thereby greatly increasing tlie pressure on one reverser cylinder; and in the lower end of one working cylinder, and correspondingly di- minishing the pressure in theother reverser cylinder and the lower end of the other working cylinder with which it com- municates. The increase of pres-ure beneath one of the work- ins; pistons causes it to be worked upwards till it reaches the extreme of its upward stroke, when the reverser pistons change their position, thereby diminishing the pressure be- neath the working piston which has just completed its up- ward stroke, and increasing it beneath the one that has just completed its downward stroke, thus creating a differential pressure beneath the two working pistons, by means of which the engine is driven, the pressure alternately changing from one cylinder to the other. The power of the engine will be determined by the differ- ence in the pressure alternately created in the reverser cyl- inders by the movements of their pistons, heating the air in one reverser cylinder and cooling it in the other, thereby at each stroke of the engine increasing the pressure beneath one working pistou and diminishing it beneath the other working piston. fee also : Hock If Martin . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 6. Pumping, Rider .... * " Scientijic Am.," xxxviii. 131. * "Scientific Arner.," xxxiv. 66. RiJer * " Engineering," xxii. 33 * "Scientific Amer. Sup.,''' 768. * "Polytechnic Review,'' ii. 175. * " Manvf. and Builder,'' ix. 7. * "Railroad Gazette," xxiv. 189. * "Amer. Artizan," No. 12, 1874. SachsnAerg * "Scientific. Amer. Sup. ," 2579. "Tom Thumb"' * '' Scientific, American,' 1 ' xlii. 3; 3. Vtn Remits, Holland . . "Iron Axe,'' xxii., Sept. 5, p. 15. Van RrniifS * '' Scie ntijic Amer. Sup.,'' 331. Woodbury, Merrill Sf Patten * "Engineering," Jan. 13, 1882. Hot'-air Pump'ing En'gine. The applica- tion of the hot air engine to pumping is the particu ];ir purpose of some of the small motors of ihis class. See Fig. 510, p. 155, and Fig. 674, p. 216, stt/ira. See also HOT-AIR ENGINE. Hot'-air Reg'is-ter. A valve, usually a cen- trally pivoted circular plate with openings, moving upon a perforated plate at the opening of a hot-air flue. By bringing the openings in the two plates into correspondence or otherwise, the air is allowed to pass, or is shut off, respectively. Hot'-air Stove. See HKATER; STOVE. Hot'-air Syr'inge. A syringe with a cham- ber which heats the passing air. Used to dry cavi- ties in teeth before filling. See CAVITY I)RYEE, Fig. 572, p 179, supra. Hot'-blast Blow'-pipe. A substitute for the ordinary blow-pipe.. The gas tubing is attached at A, allowing the gas to pass into both the upper and lower tubes, B c, and the supply can be regulated by the stop-cocks D E. The burners .Fheat Fig. 1382. Hot Blast Blow-jiipe. up the wire coil y M. Evrard, of St Eti- enne. It consists of a vertical, hollow prism, either cylindrical or rectangular, 3 meters deep, the bottom of which is formed Fig. 1407. . Ei-rard's Coal Drifting Machine. by a movable piston-like inclosing rim, covered with a per- forated plate, which can be raised to any height desired, as far up as the rim of the vessel, by means of a piston-rod at- tached to the under side and an upright hydraulic cylinder working upon it. The vessel is prolonged beneath the piston in nn open pipe of the same width and about 4 meters long, and both arc sub- merged in a wider water-cistern, closed above and below and (steam-tight, the cover being closely riveted to the outer cov- ering of the vessel, and provided with a steam supply-pipe. P.y means of an intermittent supply of steam from the boiler, through the cover, into the upper part of the outer holder, the water therein receives an oscillating jerking motion, and works upon the minerals which are fed into the vessel and become neaped about 1 33 meters high upon the piston-sieve, just as with a jig-sieve. The only difference is, that the hy- draulic strokes are much stronger at the start, being given with a lift as high as 20 centimeters, and then decrease to a few millimeters so that the action which follows at first just as with a slime separator, changes gradually to the action of a. fine-jigging machine. In this way a pause of cne or two minutes is given, in order that the finest siime may properly settle on the piston-sieve, and then this piston is raised intermittently to the upper edge of the inner vessel, in order to scrape off the jigging-stuff over the edge in different layers, according as they lie upon the piston after sorting, and to obtain them separately as special products. The whole operation .lasts about five min- utes. Hy-draulic Coal Mi'ner. An apparatus for breaking down coal in situ, The breast of coal is undermined as usual and a hole drilled in it to hold an expanding plug of a cylindrical form worked by means of hydraulic pressure The plug is composed of two halves, which have a little wedge-shaped space between them, and ate jointed at the end to the extremity of a hy- draulic cylinder, and receive between them a wedge-shaped extension of the hydraulic mm or plunger, fitting exactly the widest part of the wedge-shaped ppace, and extending about half its length when the ram is withdrawn into the hydraulic cylinder. When the pressure is applied to the ram, the wedge-like extension is driven further along the space between the two halves of the plug, which are forced apirt, so that the plug is expanded in one direction beyond i l s orig- inal diameter, anil by lifting breaks off the mass of coal. See HYDRAULIC BORIXG MACHINE, supra. Hy-drau'lic Com-pres'sor. A device in a gun carriage to check the recoil of the piece l>y re- ceiving the impact upon a piston which condenses air in a chamber. See PNEUMATIC SPRING, * p. 1755, "Merh. Dirt.'' See also GUN CARRIAGE; HYDRAULIC BUFFER, supra. Krupp -I Kendel \* "Engineering," xxviii. 37. Vavasseur ) Hy-drau'lic Crane. One in which the ele- vating chain is wound by hydraulic power. The first crane worked by hydraulic power was put up on the quay of Newcastlc-upon-Tyne by Sir William Armstrong, in 1846. Fig. 1408 gives two views of a British crane of this kind. It is shown by side and end elevations, and is fixed againr.t the wall of a warehouse in connection with a swing crane jib on the outside. The apparatus is used in connection with an accumulator, which is a vertical cylinder, propor- tioned in diameter and height to the number and power of the cranes or other machines to be employed. This cylinder is fitted with a leathern collar or gland, through which v.-orks a rain or plunger with a massive cross-head on the upper end, to which is attached an annular weight-case surror.nd- ing and sliding; over the above-named cylinder. The weight- case is filled with ballast until the total weight on the ram is equal to (usually) 700 Ibs. per square inch; water is then forced into the cylinder or accumulator by the hydraulic pumps, until the ram, loaded as above described, reaches the top of the accumulator. At this moment a self-acting ar- rangement arrests the motion of the engines, but imme- diately the ram begins to descend, in consequence of some of the stored power having been used, the engines and pumps are set in motion automatically, and the ram is again lifted. The water passes from the accumulator to the cylinder of the ram, and, driving out the piston, draws vipon the chain and lifts the load. The princ pie is shown also in Fig. K, Plate XXIV., p. 1157, '' Merh.. Diet" The jibs are frequently of greater sweep than that shown, built up of plate and angle- iron, and fixed in a central position between two tiers of doors, one crane being thus made available for borh sets of doors. The top pair of cylinders, shown in Fig 14C8, are used for slewing or turning the jib, and the bottom cylinder and ram for lifting the loud. See: Armstrong, "Engineer" "Scientific Amerirnn Slip" 305. 1611-ton *" Engineer, " xli. 168, 170. Fielding fy Plait, Br. . * " Engimer," xliv. 88. * "Scientific Amerirnji Si/p.," 305. Mills, Br * "Engineering,'' xxiv. 134. Tweddell, Br * "Engineer," xliv. 93. Hy-drau'lic Dump'ing. A tip for coal wag- ons to discharge them on to the chute. As in similar constructions, the car or wagon is rolled on a platform, which, in most cases, rests with one end on the edge of the quay and swings around a horizontal uxis, HYDRAULIC DUMPING. 478 HYDRAULIC ELECTRIC MACHINE. Fig. 1408. negative electricity by contact with a piece of rubbed gutta-percha, hard rubber, sealing-wax, or equivalent substance. The cylinder /is called the inductor. These charges are indicated by the and -f signs. The falling drops of water be- ing positive electric, communicate their charge to a funnel placed in the metallic cylinder R, which therefore, alfo, becomes )>o.-itive electric, and is called the receiver. As electric charges aiwiiys go to the outer surface of cylinders, the water flowing out of the funnel will be neutral, and all the positive electricity left behind in the outer cylinder R. Its charge increases continually, Fig. 1409. Hydraulic Crane. situated at a distance from the quay of about one third of the entire length of the plat- form . The other end rests on a piston, moving in a cylin- der filled with water, the re- sistance of which must be overcome during the down- ward journey of the platform, by which the water is forced from the cylinder into an ac- cumulator. As soon as the car has reached its proper position on the platform, the front wheels act on a system of le- vers, which raise two clutches engaging the front axle of the car and holding the same in position. The car is then also secured at the rear end. The platform exerts now on the piston a pressure of about 25 atmospheres ; by opening a valve, communication is opened with an accumulator of a pressure of about 20 at- mospheres. The difference in pressure of five atmospheies forces the accumulator up- ward ; this upward motion in- creases in rapidity as, by the change of position of the center of gravity of the car, the pressure in the cylinder is gradu- ally increased to 40 atmospheres. As soon as the platform has attained an inclination of 45, the accumulator has risen high enough to touch a lever, by which communication be- tween itself and the cylinder is interrupted. Meanwhile the contents of the car have been dumped over the scoop-shaped end of the platform into the hold of the vessel below and the pressure in the cylinder has been reduced from 40 to 16 atmospheres. Connection with the accumulator having now been restored, the platform is brought into its original posi- tion by the overpressure of 20 16 = 4 atmospheres. Should the cargo of the car not weigh enough, a little water may be drawn from the accumulator by a separate stop-cock. Hereby the pressure is reduced and the platform lowered far enough to produce the necessary pressure by a change of position of the center of gravity of the car. Glycerine may be sub- stituted for water when the apparatus is exposed to very low temperatures. The principle involved in this apparatus is the storage of the weight of the cargo in an accumulator, and its employ- ment for raising the empty car and platform after discharg- ing the load. See also references under DUMP CAR, p. 280, supra. Hy-drauaic E-lec'tric Ma-chine'. A ma- chine in which electricity is excited by a flowing stream of water. Machine Hl.< ctrtque a tfcoulement. The principle is illustrated in the small figure to the left In Fig. 1409, in which 2" is a metallic tube with a stop-cock, through which a small stream of water runs in drops from a reservoir, while it is electrically connected with the earth. It is surrounded by an isolated metallic cylinder, I, which induces a positive electrical conduction in the tube Tand in the stream of water, by being itself once for all charged with until the charge of the drops of liquid fal ing from Tis in equilibrium with the loss, or until electric sparks fly over between the lower cyl- inder R and the upper one /, or until the drops from the tube T no longer fall down in the fun- nel R, being repelled sideways and thrown out- ward by the equally positively charged cylin- der R. If nothing more were added to this nrrange- went, it would be necessary to renew the nega- tive charge of the cylinder /frequently ; but Fig. 1409 rep- resents a double apparatus on this principle, invented by Thompson, and so arranged by duplication of parts, one Fet next to the other, that the electricity of the lower cylinder R of one charges the upper cylinder / of its other, of which then the electric charges will be reversed, the upper cylin- der / will be positive, and the lower one R negative. The reservoir R of the nearest set of cylinders is connected with the inductor /' of the farther set, while the receiver A'' of this set is connected with the inductor / of the nearest Fet. The drops falling from the second inductor /' are then negatively charged, and give this charge to the second re- ceiver R', which increases the charge of the firrt inductor /. Added to the connections, of which, of course, one is always positive and the other negative, are two Leyden jars, A and />. The jars are truncated cones, of flint glass of good iso- lating quality, coated exteriorly with tinfoil, and interiorly containing a quantity of strong sulphuric acid, into which dip the lead rods, which at their lower ends have lead plates ; the rods are surrounded by a glass tube and pass through the center of a cover of hard rubber. This is done to fecure for the interior of these jars a perfectly uniform dry atmos- phere. The dynamic value of the electricity thus produced is de- rived from the power of the falling liquid : it would be equal to the work performed by gravitation on the drops of liquid during their downward route, if the drops arrived in the funnels after having lost all their velocity, and it corre- sponds exactly to their loss in vis viva. The loss of elec- tricity is so weak in this apparatus, that the charge can be kept up for years by means of an insignificant discharge of liquid ; a single drop, for instance, falling f.-om each stop-cock every three minutes, has been found sufficient to keep up a constant charge. The matter is considered more at length iu "Manufacturer and Builder," * ix. 262. HYDRAULIC ELEVATOR. 479 HYDRAULIC ENGINE. Fig. 1410. Hydraulic Elevator. seur Edoux avoidance of the use of a lifting cable, it must be acknowl- edged that it has one weak spot, and that is the parting of the connection between the cage and the lifting tube, in which case the counterbalance carries the cage violently upward and breaks the connection at the top, allowing the cage to drop. This was the cause of the fatal accident at the Grand Hotel in Paris, in 1878. See: Water elevators . . * " Mech. Diet.," Figs. 7101 , etc , p. 2738. * "Scientific American Sup.'' 105. Burden . . . . * "Manu'fart. $ Builder,'' x 265. Water lifter, Cranston * "Mm. Sf Se. Press," xxxvi. 305. Elevator, disking . * "Man. $ Builder," xii. 198, 232. Otis *" Mann fact. If Builder ," xi. 221. Lift, river Weaver, Br. * "Engineer," 1. 157, 160. Lift, TrocadtSro, Paris * "Engineer," 1 xlvi. 377. TweddeU . . . . * "Engineer," xliv. 98. See several previous articles under HYDRAULIC CRANE, Fig. 1403, p. 478 ; GRID, Fig 12SO, p. 423. Illustrated article in Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," article " Treuil Hydrautirjue," Hi., ed. 1877. Hy-draulic En'gine. An engine operated by pressure of water. Two forms of hydraulic engines are made by Pratt If Whit- ney. One with a rotary movement ; it is a simple recipro- cating engine worked under a water pressure of 20 pounds to Hy-drau'lic El'e-va'- F 'g- 141 ' tor. A lift operated by hydraulic pressure. Several methods of application of hydraulic force to this purpose are given in Plates XXIV., XXV., pp. 1150-1157, "J\Iech. Diet.'' ; and WATER ENGINE, Figs. 7101, 7102, p. 2733, Ibid. See also references at ELEVATOR, p. 309, Ibid., and ROPE ELEVATOR, Fig. 4437, p. 1979, Ibid. The Ascenseur Edoux is shown in Fig. 1410. It is regarded as the safest of all methods, and is remarkably smooth and noiseless in action. It consists of a hydraulic cylin- der equal in length to the height of the desired lift (sometimes 70' and upward), placed vertically in a well or bore-hole, and a ram of area proportionate to the work to be done and the pressure of water available. The cylinder is fitted with a gland or leathern col- lar, and on the head of the ram icsts the cage or ascending room, which is guided by suitable guide timbers. The motion is regu- la e il by an equilibrium valve, ad- mitting the water into the cylin- der or letting it run to waste. The valve can be controlled from a rod which passes down one corner of the lift, and only re- quires a gentle pull to stop at any desired floor or to start again . The.^e lifts are always fitted with compensating counterbal- ances, exactly equal to the weight of the cage and the ram, insuring the utmost economy of water in working. The water pressure is obtained in various ways, from an accumulator, from the city main, or from an elevated cistern, as in the illustration, Fig. 1409, in which is a steam pump to keep the cistern supplied. Fig. 1411 is Halt's hydraulic el- 'evator, in which the ram B in the cylinder C is made to draw upon a pulley, A, and so wind up the suspending rope of the cage. D is the pump, F water sup- ply, and E pipe leading to ram cylinder C. While it is impossible to elimi- nate all chances of danger in lift- r-ltr^-^^^P^: S^r.-l~ ing machinery, and preference " has been expressed for the ascen- Hydraulic Elevator. on account of its the square inch or upward. It is intended for furnishing limited power for working printing presses, for small shops, etc., and the stroke is adjustable from 4" to 10". The hydraulic engine for blowing pipe-organs works noise- lessly and without thump, as the stroke of the piston con- nects directly with a partially rotary movement. It works under all pressure with equal facility. See HYDRAULIC BLOWER, supra, and Figs. 3426, 3427, p. 1576 "Meek. Diet." The Stannard hydraulic engine resembles a small horizon- tal steam-engine, and is intended to be used, in any locality where a head of water can be obtained, to act as a light motor. The length of the stroke is adjustable at will, from 4" to 8", according to the quantity of water available, or power re- quired. Diameter of cylinder, 5". White's dental engine is shown in Fig. 795, p. 250, supra. The Valley Machine Co.'s engine is a small compact upright form for a domestic motor, or use in small shops. See Figs. 2614, 2615, pp. 1145, 1146, "Mech. Diet." fee also WATER-PRESSURE ENGINE, Figs. 7120-7124, pp. 2743, 2744, Ibid. See : Motor, Knecht . Engine, Richardson Hubbard if Allen . . Hydrant, Root . . Kotary, Root . . . Motor, Schmid, Swltz. Schmid, at Paris Exp. * " Scientific American," xli. 278. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 262. * " American Artizan," xix. 6. * "Iron Ate," xx., Oct. 25, p. 1. * "Min. If Sc. Press," xxxvi. 353. * "Sc. American," xxxviii. 150. "Engineer," xlvi. 210. Fig. 3. * "Scientific Amir.,'' xxxix. 827. HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. 480 HYDRAULIC JACK. Hy-drau'lic En'gi-neer'ing. followiii"; heads See under the Air camel. Air lock. Apron. Aqueduct. Barrage. Boom. Boring anchor. Breakwater. Brush dike. Catuil. Canal lift. Canal lock. Coffer dam. Crib breakwater. Crib da in. Curtain. Dam. Dike. Dipper. Draining. Dredge. Dredge boat. Dredging machine. Drilling scow. Drum barrage. Drum weir. Dry dock. Embankment. l' seine. Flank. Floating brush dike. > touting derrick. Flo.itinjj dock. Flouting wire dike. Flume. Gabion. Gabionade Grapple. Grapple dredging machine. Consult : fituarfs, "Naeal Dry Dock*.'-' Foster's, "Submarine Blasting.'' Graving dock. Grouser. Hopper barge Hurdle. Hydraulic grading. Jetty. Lighthouse Lock gate. Mat. Mat boat. Mattress. Mattress boat. Movable dain. Navvy. Overflow basin. Pier. Pile dam. Pile driver. Pneumatic excavator. Pneumatic pile. Revetment. llevetment mattress. Hip-rap. Sabot. Sand fence. Screw pile. Sheer boom. Shutter dam. Shuttle. Slide. Sounding. Sub-aqueous excavator. Submarine excavator. Submarine gr; pple. Submarine tunnel. Towing. Tubular foundation. Tubular pile. Weir. Willow curtain. Hy-drau'lic Force Pump. The pump used in connection with ;i hydraulic press. Such are shown in Plates XXV., XXVI., "Mech. Z>W.,"opp. pp. 1150, 1156. See also BOILER PROVER, Fig. 763, p. 320, Ibid.; HYDRAULIC PRESSURE PUMP, infra. Hy-drau'lic Forge A pjjpss operated by hy- draulic power, as a substitute for the hammer. Reference has been made under STEEL PRESS, * p. 2369, " Mfc/i. Diet.," 1 to the method adopted by Revolier & Co., and others. The Woolwich Arsenal gun carriage department has a hy- draulic press for forging iron. The machine is capable of ex- ert ing a force of 3,000 tons, and it will probably supersede the steam hammers to some extent. The llaswell system is described by Prof. Blake in his re- port, * " Viennn Exposition (1873) Reports,'' 1 iv., pp. 257-262. Prof.Thitrxton'x report, Ibid., iii. 335. See also "Engineering Sf Mining Journal?' xxiii. " Manufacturer (f Builder,'' ix. 179. Hy-drau'lic Gage. The manometer applied to register the pressure in a hydraulic engine, press, or pump. Hy-drau'lic Gra'ding. Views and details of experiments in grading steep river banks by means of hydraulic nozzle, preparatory to placing woven mattress work upon them as a revetment, are shown ill "Rep. U. S. Engineers," 1880, * ii., pp. 1444-1449. Hy-draulic 'Grid. The gridiron or platform on which a vessel is lifted by hydraulic pressure, or by camel. See GRID, p. 423, and DEPOSITING DOCK, Plate IX., supra. Hy-drau'lic Gun'-car-riage. A piece pro- vided with hydraulic apparatus for elevating into battery, depressing, and working. See "also HYDRAULIC COMPRESSOR. Raskazoff, Russia ... * "Engineering,' 1 xxiii. 305. Hy-drau'lic Hoist. An arrangement for lifting vessels clear of the water, on inclines or ver- tically. See J, Plate XXV., opp. p. 1150, "Mech. Diet.'' Also GRID, Fig. 1280, p. 423, supra. Marine slips .... * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 130. Docks, Engl, . . . .*" Scientific American Sup.," 1696. Mariilier, llull, Br. . . * "Engineir, " xliv. 850. See also HYDRAULIC CRANE: HYDRAULIC ELEVATOR: HY- DRAULIC JACK. Hy-drau'lic Jack. An application of the hy- drostatic press to a portable lifting or pushing in- strument. Several forms are shown at M, M', M", M"', O, Plate XXV. p. 1157, "Mfrh. Diet.'' Kig. 1412 shows a jack for forcing crossheads out of piston rods, bolts from engine frames and cylinders, crank pins out Fig. 1412. Hydraulic Jark of locomotive driving-wheels, and for performing similar work in which it is necessary to employ a tool of large poA\er in a small space. It consists of a long tube, A, in whiSc. Am. Sup.'' 1234. Hy-drau'lic Ram. 1. A water- raising device, * p. 1150, "Mech. Diet." 8 figures . . . . * ' Efficiency, etc. . . De Colicky ... * Easton fy Amos . . * Fox . . . . * Fyfe * Heise . . Hett . . Hypsydre . Miliington Montgolfier Whitehurst Fig. 1417. Engineer," xliv. 455. Scientific American Sup.,"2S&. Engineer,' 1 ' xli. 30. Engineer," xli. 30. Engineer," xli. 130. "Engineer," xli. 160. Scientific American," xli. 262. Scientific American Sup.," 1762. Engineer, ," xli. 30. "Scientific American," xxxviii. 166. "Engineer," xli. 30. ''Engineer," xli. I 2. The piston of a hydraulic press. The span of the Rock-island draw-bridge is rotated by two hydraulic rams, each of 10' stroke and 5" diameter of pis- ton. These are placed over the circular girder of the turn- table, one on each side of the span in a vertical position, and are worked by a double-cylinder engine, each cylinder 6" x . The force-pumps are four in number, each with 1J" piston. The rams are reciprocal, each being the reservoir for the other, and the office of the pump is to transfer the liquid (water .50, glycerine .50) from one ram to the other. Both the rams are thus under the same pressure at all times, and hold the span in equilibrium, except during the process of turning. The power of the rams is transferred to the pier by means of a wire rope 1J" diameter, arranged as in an Armstrong crane. See HYDRAULIC BRIDGE OPERATOR. 1418 Hy-drau'lic Riv'et-ing Ma-chine. A ma- chine riveter worked by hydrau- lic power. See Figs. 4351,4354, p. 1949, "Mech. Diet." See also RIVET- ING MACHINE. Hy-dra u ' 1 i c Shears. Shears "" worked by hydrau- lic power. 0, Plate XXIV., p. 1157, "Mech. Diet." See also SHEAR- ING MACHINE. Hy-drau'lic Steer'- ing Gear Apparatus for working a rudder by means of hydraulic power. As seen in La- fargue's steering gear, the vertical action of the plunger contained in the power cylinder gives mo- tion to a crosshead fitted with a nut having a screw cut of a quick pitch, the collar working in this be- ing firmly keyed on to the upper end of the rudder, gives the circular motion required. * "Engineer," La/argue'i, Hyrhaulic Steering * " Sc. Am. Sup.," 2253. Gear. Hy-drau'lic Tip. A device for discharging coal wagons. The invention of D. Thomson, of London. A vertical skeleton frame is provided with arrange- ments for lifting and tipping the wagons. A sin- gle hydraulic cylinder is used, the tipping being done by a chain attached to the end of the rising platform, that end of the platform being detained during the latter portion of the hoisting movement. Thomson, Br * "Engineering," xxviii. 204. See also HYDRAULIC DUMP. Hy-drau'lic Fig. 1419. Valve. The valve for control- ling the flow of water to and from the cylinder in hy- draulic elevators ; starting, stopping, and holding the car at the different floors. A wire shipping cable runs inside the hatchway from top to bottom, passing around the wheel on the valve stem, for opening or closing the valve, and the cable is under control of the attendant i n the cage or on the platform. The valve is moved by pinion and rack and discharges below. Dennis, Br * "Engineering," xxviii. 13. Hydraulic Valve. HYDRO-ACCUMULATOR. HYDRO EXTRACTOR, Fig. 1420 lli/dro-carbon Engine. Hy'dro-ac-cu'mu-la'tor. See ACCUMULA- TOR , HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATOR, supra. Hy'dro-car'bon En'giiie. An engine in which mixed petroleum and air are burned to fur- nish power by the expansion due to combustion. Fig. 1420 shows Brayton's single-acting hydro-carbon en- gine. A is the working cylinder of the engine, which is jack- eted by a water cylinder. B is an air-pump actuated by the working cylinder, and employed to compress air into the two reservoirs C C, constituting the base of the frame. D is a pump, which supplies the petroleum or other suitable fuel, as fast as it is needed for combustion. The double-acting en- gine is furnished with a beam, the column carrying the beam center being employed as the reservoir for water. The air- pump is also double-acting, and is placed over the motive or working cylinder ; the latter having a diameter of 10" and 15" stroke. The engine is constructed to stand a pressure of 100 Ibs. on the square inch, and to make 200 revolutions per minute. The oil reservoir is formed in the frame supporting the crank shaft ; but if the use of a reservoir of oil is objected to, the oil pump can draw its supply through a pipe from an oil tank placed at any convenient distance. One volume of crude oil can be burnt with 25 volumes of highly compressed air. The action of the engine is as follows : The oil pump feeds a few drops of liquid fuel through a small tube into an annular chamber containing felt ; here the petroleum en- counters a supply of compressed air by which it is vaporized, the mingled air and vapor are forced in proper proportion into the working cylinder, where the combustion takes place, communication with the annular chamber being cut off and the products of combustion being left to work expansively, driving the working piston downward; towards the end of the stroke the compressed air supply to the working cylinder is cut off, thus extinguishing the combustion therein ; the opening of the exhaust valve permits egress to the products of combustion, and the stroke is completed. An independent jet of hydro-carbon, burning continuously in a suitable chamber, lights the hydro-carbon in the working cylinder at the commencement of each stroke. The supplies of air and oil are adjustable, thus giving to the engines all the advan- tages of a variable cut off, and effecting an important saving in fuel when the engine is not re- quired to work up to its full capacity. Ordinarily but one of the compressed air reservoirs (' C is employed, the other being kept charged in order to allow of the immediate starting of the engine at any time. The engine is made in sizes for small factories, for yai-hts. and launches : 8 to 10 horse power. In the small horizontal petro- leum engine of Julius Hock, of Vienna, the oil is pumped into one end of a cylinder, mixed with air, and then exploded, the piston is driven outward and re- turns by the momentum of the flywheel, forcing the gas out of an exhaust valve in the back- ward stroke. One end of the cylinder in open, like the Otto gM-engine. Brnyton. * u Ensineer,"< xli. 485. * "Engineering," xxiii. 124. * "Sc. Amer. Sup., 1 ' 916. * "Sc. Amer.," xxxiv. 303; xxxvi. 15. * "Sc. Am. Xi>>. Am.,'^ xxxviii. 104. Super-heated steam, naphtha, and lime process, Tessic /lit Malay * " Sc. Am. Sup.,'' 3831. Hy'dro-hem'o-stat. (Surgical.) A bag through which cold water is passed, and which is pressed against a surface to arrest hemorrhage. Gouley's hydro-hemostat for arresting hemorrhage after lithotomy, is shown in Fig. 157 c, Part III., Tiemann's " Armamentarium Ckirurgicum.'' Hy-dro-mere'. An artificial mother, or hoverer, heated by hot water, and designed for young chick- ens received from the incubator. Hy-dro-mo'tor. An application of steam to pumping water, ejected at the stern as a mode of propulsion. Hydro-propulsion \vas adopted by Rumsey, of Virginia. See p. 2322, "Merh. Diet." The subject is considered under HYDRAULIC PROPELLER, p. 1150, Ibid. * "Scientific Amerirnii. " xli. 223. Hy-dro-nette'. A portable force-pump for sprinkling gardens, flowers, and vines in conserva- tories, etc. A syringe. See also AQUAPULT. Fig. 1422. Hyilronelte. Hy'dro-pneu-mat'ic Ac-cu'mu-la'tor. An apparatus in which compressed air is made the res- ervoir of power ; especially adapted for using in connection with hydrostatic presses and lifts. See ACCUMULATOR. Hy'dro-pneu-mat'ic Gun. One in which the recoil is used to compress a volume of air, which, being subsequently brought to act upon the gun, shall raise it to the firing position. The inTention of Capt. Jas. B. Eads. Independently in- vented or adopted by Major Moncrieff. See description, pp. 606 et seq., "Ordnance Report," 1877, and Plates XXXIX., XL. Moncriejf's system. Described and illustrated in Barnard & Wright's report on " Fabricating of Iron for Defensive 1'itrpoxes," Engineer Department, U. S. A., 1871. Hy'dro-py-rom'e-ter. One in which the temperature is ascertained by exposing to the ac- tion of the heat which is to be measured a definite weight of some metal, as platinum, steel, copper, etc., and then quenching the same in a known weight of water, and noting the rise in temperature of the latter. ( The plan was first adopted by Olement Desormes & Schwartz for the measurement of heat in furnaces ; then by Regnault in the determinations of the specific heat of various substances, and by Dr. Siemens in experiments upon the varying electrical conductivity of telegraph wire under dif- ferent degrees of temperature. Bystrom's( Swedish) hydro-pyrometer, " Ordnance Report," 1878, Appendix R, 3, Plates IV., V., and p. 375. Hy'dro-rhe'o-stat. An apparatus to vary the intensity of the electric current by passing it through water. Fig. 360, Part I., Tietnann's "Armam. Chirurgicum ." Hy'dro-stat. (Electricity.) Water stopper. The cell cover, which prevents the spilling or slop- ping of the exciting fluids, and which makes the battery portable, anil enables the operator to con- vey it from place to place safely, without removing the liquid. Hy'dro-stat'ic Joint. A leaden joint for mains, calked by hydrostatic pressure. A circular groove inside the bell of the main is occupied by a ring of lead. A threaded hole is made on the exte- rior, leading into the groove. Tar is poured in around the ring and force applied, which drives the lead into every crack. The hole is then fitted with a screw plug. *" Scientific American Supplement" .... 1725. Hy'dro-stat'ic Reg'u-la'tor. 1. The hy- drostatic regulator, as applied by M. Cheret to the arming press (bulancier) of the French mint, is de- scribed in Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Man- ufactures," i., art. '' Balancier," Fig. 189 bis. 2. An apparatus for controlling the water pres- sure in the mains and pipes of water-works in the Holly system of water supply. The hydrostatic regulator is provided with a piston, placed within an upright cylinder, and having a rod extending up- ward which is connected to a cross-bar, having heavy weights, which by means of suitable contrivances bear down upon the piston with a force that increases as the piston rises. A small pipe connects the water mains with the cylinder be- low the piston, and any change in the water pressure (which , utilized to operate on the steam-valves of th perm e pressure o vary ony wn e ms neee two or three pounds to reverse the action of the cut-off moving mechanism of the regulator. " Scientific American Supplement'' .... 2220. Hy'dro-stat'ic Weigh'ing Ma-chine'. An apparatus for ascertaining the weight of an object in transitu, during the operation of hoisting. Figs. 1423-1425. The upper loop is placed over the hook of the crane chain, and the object slung to the ring be- neath. To the upper loop is attached the cylinder, HYDROSTATIC WEIGHING. 486 ICE BAG. Hydrostatic Weighing Ma- chine. (Front View.) Fig. H25. Hydrostatic Weighing Ma- chine. (Section through Suspending Strap.) and to the ring the piston moving in the cylin- der and tightly packed therein. The space in the cylinder is filled with castor-oil. When a weight is suspended from the ring, the piston presses on the oil, which passes by a channel to the gage which indicates the weight, in tons and pounds. Hy'dro-the-ra-peu'- tic Ap'pa-ra'tus. A shower-bath. In the form invented by Bozerain, of Paris, it is a compact fold- ing arrangement. It may all be contained in a pan with a lid, and when erect- ed for use, has a stem fas- tened to the slatted floor, and holding a reservoir Hydrostatitic Weighing Ma- and a perforated ring for ^. ( Section through discharging u p o n t h e Ga ^ e Connectwn.) shoulders, the water being raised from the pan by a hand-pump. *" Scientific American " xliii. 148. Hy'dro-ther'mal Mo'tor. An engine in- vented by Tomassi, in which the dilatation and con- densation of oil, caused by the action of heat, trans- mits motion to mechanism which actuates a piston at the rate of 100 strokes per minute. The chief proposed application of this motor is in the utiliza- tion of the heat of the exhaust of steam engines, something after the manner proposed for the bi- sulphide of carbon and ammonia machines. "Les Mondes," " Scientific American,'" xxxiv. 89. Hy'dro-tri-met'ric Pu'ri-fier. A name given by M. Le Tellier to his apparatus for removing the hardness from water by throwing down the lime, which is afterwards intercepted by filtration through charcoal. A jet of liine-water is made to mingle with the stream from the supply-pipe, and the precipitated lime is afterwards ar- rested by filtration. See "Proceedings of Soc. of Engineers ' (Br.), March 4, 1878, in a paper by J. W. Pearse, reported in " Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag.," 1 xviii., p. 472. See also FEED-WATER HEATER AND PURIFIER, Figs. 1006-1011, pp. 328, 329, supra; also LIME CATCHER, infra. Hy'dro-tro'- Fig. 1426. phe. The Eng- lish name of an apparatus for raising water by means of con- densing steam in chambers, simi- lar in principle to the pulsonieter, aquometer, etc. Steam is admitted to the chambers al- ternately. The con- densation of steam causes the chamber to fill from a source below. Steam ad- mitted above the water forces it to any reasonable height ; so on alter- nately of the cham- bers. A revival of the so-called steam-en- Hydrotrophe. gine of Captain Sa- vary. Fig. 6657, p. 2337, " Mech. Diet.' 1 ' Hodgkin, Neuhaus, & Co. . * "Engineering," xxiv. 27, 33. Hy-grom'e-ter. A measurer of moisture. See instances and descriptions, Fig. 2628, p. 1 159, "Mech. Diet." "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 227, * "Scientific American Sup , : '212. * "Scientific Amer.." xxxvi. 35. "Scientific American Sup.,' 1 '' 1974. Laboulaye, i., Fig. 5, cap. "Agri- culteur." Laboulaye, ii.. "Hygrometre." Simple * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2469. Wagner * "Scientific American Sup.," 808._ Hygroscope, natural . * "Scientific American," xxxvi. 67 Hachenberg . . Hair, Koppe, Zurich Uerve Mangon . Hy'gro-scope. (Gunpowder.) An air-tight box in which powder is confined, subjected to a damp atmosphere at uniform temperature for 12 hours, in order to test its capacity for absorbing moisture. See " Ordnance Report," 1879, Appendix I., Plate X. b, and description, p. 116. I. Ice. Refer to : Ice boat, possible velocity Tower St. Lawrence . . . " Whiff " . . . . * " Icicle " . . . . * Ice blasting .... Ice breaker, Creasey . * Ice. cream beater, Wise . * Ice-cream freezer. Dexter * Ice creeper, Austin . . * " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xxi. 514. "Scientific American," xli. 288. "Iron Age," xviii., Nov. 16, p. 15. " Sc. American Sup.," 996. 1107. "Sc. American Sup.," 967 ; * 12. " Scientific American," xxxvi. 152. Scientific American Sup.," 917. Scientific American," xli. 58. 'Iron Age," xxv., April 1, p. 13. ' Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 102. Scientific American," xxxvi. 6. Scientific American," xl. 113. Ice house, cheap . . . * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1570 ; * 1851. Ice house and cold room * "Scientific American Sup., 1 ' 939. Ice plow, railway. Augamar * "Scientific American," xlm. 38<. Ice tongs, Euler . . . * "Scientific American," xxxvii. 38, See also ICE MACHINES. Ice Bag. (Surgical.) A means for cold appli- cation specially made for the spine, the eye, etc. Ice broken in pieces is put into a caoutchouc bag of the proper size and shape. Head-dress, ice water . "Scientific American," xxxv. 342. Ice hat, medical . . "Scientific 4werican,"xxxix. 345. ICE BALANCE. 487 ICE MACHINE. Ice Bal'ance. A spring- balance registering to 200 or to 400 pounds, by 5's. Ice Cap. An ice bag for the head. See ICE BAG. Ice Car. (Railway.) 1. One with double sides, floor, ends, and roof ; the interstices filled with saw- dust or other non-conductor to prevent the ice from melting. 2. See also ICE LOCOMOTIVE, Fig. 2624, p. 1163, "Mech. Diet." Ice Chop'per. (Fishing.) A tool used in chopping ice for packing fish or bait. Ice Hook. See ICE TONGS, g, j, k, Fig. 2658, p. 1171, "Mech. Diet:' Ice El'e-va-tor. Fig. 1427 is an inclined plane for endless chain elevator. I'ig. 1427. manifest advantages for this purpose. Perhaps the most convenient agent known is ammonia. Machines may conveniently be divided into two classes : Absorption machines; in which gas (ammonia) is set free from its watery solution by heat, is con- densed, refrigerated, worked, and then reabsorbed by the water. Compression machines ; in which the gasses are forced to make the circuit by means of pumps. The absorption machines are those of TeUier Boyle. Carre. Reece. Rankin. Krupp. Stanly-Reece. Mignon if Rouart. Kropff. The following materials have been used in compression machines for the manufacture of ice : Ammonia. Ether. Methylic ether. Bi-sulphide of carbon. Sulphuric acid. Nitrous oxide. Sulphuric ether (ethylic). Naphtha. Anhydrous sulphuric oxide. Chy mogene ( petroleum ether). Atmospheric air. Gasoline. Carbonic acid. Alcohol. Ethylo-sulphurous dioxide. Rhigoline. Ice Elevator. It is so placed that its foot is in the water of the ice-pond and its several chutes connect with the stories of the ice- house, or successive elevations of the ice stored therein. An endless chain provided with slats runs over -pulleys at the angles of the triangular frame : the foot, vertex, and at the angle of the right-angled triangle. The inclined planes con- sist of a series of gratings, filling its various panels, and the block of ice caught by one of the slats on the continuously moving chain, slips up the grating as far as the latter ex- tends, which may be to any required distance according to the elevation acquired by the stored ice at any given time. On attaining this elevation, which, in the illustration, has been assumed to be at the second chute, say 20' from the base, the grating having been removed, the block, no longer supported on its slippery track, passes between the inclined beams on to the chute, which, being inclined, conducts it to the ice- houso. Another form of inclined plane ice elevator is shown in Fig. 2641, p. 1163, "Meek. Diet." See also ICE SCREW, infra. See also ICE ELEVATOR CHAIN, Figs. 956, 957, p. 309, supra. Ice Ma-chine'. All artificial refrigeration proceeds upon the general principle of compressing a gas, removing from it when in this compressed state the heat generated by compression, by means of running water, and then permitting the ree'x- pansion of the compressed gas in a series of pipes or chambers so disposed as to abstract heat from the water to be frozen. Three cubic feet of atmospheric air at the nor- mal pressure of 15 Ibs. per square inch and a temperature of 75 F., being compressed into an iron vessel containing one cubic foot, will show a temperature say of 225 F. Being cooled as above, until its temperature is 75, and then permitted to expand, the result will be say 3 cubic feet of air at 25. Various gases are substituted for air as being more powerful refrigerating agents. Such gases as can be liquefied by pressure possess The ammonia machine of Ferdinand Carr6 is shown in Plate XXVI., opposite p. 1164, and described on p. 1165, "Mech. Diet." The name _ of absorption machine has been given to ma- chines of this class from the manner in which the gas is man- aged, being alternately distilled and reabsorbed. A charge of ammoniacal water or aqua-ammonia having been placed in a boiler or still, the gas is driven from the water by the direct application of heat ; the gas being retained by valves in a receiver or series of pipes, pressure re- sults precisely as in a steam boiler. While under is pressure, running water passes around the re- ceiver or pipes, and the temperature of the gas is sufficiently reduced, so that it liquefies under the pressure which is derived directly from the still. This liq- uefied gas, after expanding in a cham- ber or in a series of pipes, for the pur- pose of reproducing refrigeration by absorbing heat from substances sur- rounding the pipes, is then reabsorbed by the water which originally held it in solution. In these machines mechanical force is dispensed with, ex- cepting in the slight power required to pump the water back into the still pipes, after it has reabsorbed the ammoniacal gas. Plate XXIII. shows a small Carr6 ice machine of domes- tic size in which an ammonia solution serves indefinitely. It requires for operation nothing but fire and water, and, as soon as one block of ice is congealed it is ready to commence another. It is specially intended for ices, caraffes, sorbets, etc., but has its uses also in the laboratory. In the Rankin Ice Machine, shown in Plate XXIII., the distillation of ammonia is effected by passing the aqua-am- monia through a series of 6" or 8" pipes, and finally taking the weak water from the lowest pipe, that is, the last one of the series of small still pipes. The number of these pipes varies from 3 to 18, according to the capacity of the machine. The ammonia passes from each still pipe at the rear end at the same time that the water passes from the front end to the next pipe below. A small pump forces the exhausted water back from the absorber into the still pipes. The absorbers are made of 3" or 4" pipe, jacketed for the cooling water to pass the reverse way of the heat. The same arrangement is applied in the construction of the condensers, equalizers, and cooling coils, so that the hottest meets the hottest and the cooler the cooler, in all the interchanges of the machine. Steam-pipes inserted in the still pipes is the preferable mode of heating. In the Rankin machine the parts are numbered as fol- lows : 1. Still front. 2. Boiler. 3. Water pump. 4. Ammonia pump. 5. Still pipes 6. Weak water receiver. 7. Stand pipe. 8. Equalizer. 9. Gas receiver. 10. Strong water receiver. 11. Pipe from absorber to strong water receiver. 12. Gas expansion pipes. 13. Pipe to cooling coil. 14, 15. Pressure gages. ICE MACHINE. 488 ICE MACHINE. 16. Header. 17 Pump suction. 18. Gas conductor to condenser. 19. Gas conductor from condenser to gag receiver. The apparatus of Mignon & Rouart, Paris, is also on the Carre" principle. Pictet reduces temperature by expansion of anhydrous sulphurous oxide. The liquid, contained in a refrigerator, is vaporized under the ordinary atmospheric pressure by a double-acting pump, furnished with conducting pipes, and which compresses it under a maximum of three atmospheres after circulation into a condenser, where it is liquefied anew to be brought back to the refrigerator. The heat produced by liquefaction is absorbed in the condenser. The circula- tion of a solution of magnesium chloride, between and around ice-molds, is effected by the motion of a helix, which revolves constantly in the bath. The heat of the tropics and that of the aretic regions are found contiguous to each other in the conducting pipes of the pump. The machine of M. Pictet, shown in perspective and sec- tion in Plate XXIII., uses anhydrous sulphurous acid. In the use of this, there is the advantage that at 80 Fah. its tension does not exceed four atmospheres, while it may be liquefied at 26, and its tension then is only equal to the pressure of the atmosphere. It has no action upon metals when kept free from water ; and in order to obtain it in a perfectly anhydrous condition, M. Pictet prepares it by the action of heat on a mixture of oil of vitriol and sulphur, the gas being dried by oil of vitriol. The condensing and re- frigerating apparatus consists of tubular vessels similar to those employed with other liquids, such as ether. A machine capable of producing 550 pounds of ice per hour is thus described : "A cylindrical tubular copper boiler has a, length of 2 meters and a diameter of 35 centimeters ; 150 tubes of 15 mil- limeters traverse its entire length, and are soldered by their extremities to the two ends. This first boiler is the refrig- erator. It is placed horizontally in a large sheet-iron vat, which contains 100 tanks of 20 liters each. An incongeal- able liquid, salted water, is constantly circulating in the interior of the refrigerator by means of a helix. This liquid is re-cooled to about 7 C. in a normal course, and it licks on its return the sides of the tanks which contain the water to be frozen . " In the space reserved between the tubes of the refrigera- tor, the sulphurous acid liquid is volatilized, and its vapors are drawn up by an aspirating force-pump, which compresses them without the condenser. This condenser is a tubular boiler, the same as the refrigerator ; only a current of ordi- nary water passes constantly into the interior of the tubes to carry off the heat produced by the change of the gaseous into the liquid state of the sulphurous acid, and by the work of compression. A tube furnished with a gage-tap, adjusted by the hand once for all, permits the liquefied sulphurous acid to return into the refrigerator to be subjected anew to volatilization. " Sulphurous acid has the exceptionally advantageous prop- erty of being an excellent lubricant, so that the metallic pis- ton which works in the cylinder of the compressing pump requires no greasing. Thus the introduction of foreign mat- ter into the apparatus becomes entirely impossible. " The work necessary to manufacture 260 kilograms of ice per hour is at the most seven horse power. A cold of 7 C. in the bath is amply sufficient to obtain in the tanks a rapid and in every way economical congelation. The cost of pro- duction is about 10 francs per ton of ice." ''Nature.''' The perspective view represents a machine on a small scale. A larger apparatus is shown in " Scientific Ameri- can," *xxxvii. 336. Beneath is a diagrammatic view of the Pictet machine. At A is the compression pump, the valves of which are so arranged that at one stroke the gaseous oxide is aspirated through the tube B, and on the return it is compressed through the tube C. Tube B connects with the refrigera- tor D ; tube C with the condenser E. The oxide is intro- duced at the plug lock F, and is drawn by the pump in the direction of the arrow into the copper tubular refrigerator D, the liquid filling the space between the tubes. Here va- porization and consequent production of intense cold takes place, and the temperature of the non-congealable mixture of glycerine and water which surrounds the refrigerator is so far reduced that water placed in the metal boxes H, im- mersed in the tank, becomes rapidly frozen. The propeller wheel, shown on the right, determines a current of the gly- cerine solution through the tubes, and thus hastens the refrig- eration. The vapor of the oxide is drawn out of the refriger- ator, as already noted, by the pump, carried through the lat- ter, and forced into the space between the tubes of the condenser E. Through the tubes a cold stream of water is constantly pumped, which determines the condensation of the vapors, and the reliquefied oxide passes into the admis- sion pipe and once more enters into circulation as already described. Mignon If Rouart, Paris, use in the domestic machine the solution of ammonia, requiring but the addition of water . and heat, alternately. In their larger machine a pump is added. Sulzer Freres (Linde), Winterthur, Switz., operate by the evaporation and recondensation of ammonia, produced by the action of a double-acting suction and force pump. Siddeley (f Co. (Br.) use sulphuric ether. This ether is vaporized in a partial vacuum, and absorbing heat from brine during its vaporization, the vapor thus produced is subse- quently condensed and liquefied, to be again vaporized, and so on. The water-vessels are exposed in the brine bath. The excess of heat in recondensation of the ether is carried off by contact of surface exposed to a flow of water. Harrison, in his original apparatus, used ether. Prof. Twining used sulphuric ether. Liebe (Br. ) used sulphuric ether. Tellier, methylic ether. Prof. Paersh, chymogene (petroleum ether) and carbon bi-sulphide. Prof. Vander Weyde, chymogene. Prof. Lowe, carbonic acid. Prof. Seely, liquefied sulphurous acid. du Motay Sf Rossi employ ethylo-sulphurous dioxide ob- tained from ordinary ether by saturating the latter wUh sulphurous gas. du Motay 4" Beckwith, ethylo-sulphurous dioxide. Boyle, ammonia. Atlas Engine Co. (Br.), ether. Duvallon if Lloyd, ether. Holden, .ether, methylic ether, chymogene, etc. (optional.) Linde ( Sulzer Freres), ammonia. Kropjf, ammonia. Edmond Carrij sulphuric acid. Johnston Sf Whitelaw, ammonia. Kirk, air condensed and then expanded. Winhausen, air condensed and then expanded. Gorrie, air condensed and then expanded. Vincent, methyl-chloride. Toselli's machine for domestic uses, uses sub-carbonate of sodium or nitrate of ammonium, with an equal weight of water, in the interstices between tubes in a nest. Glaciere Delpy employs hydro-chloric acid and sulphate of soda. Mansfield uses a deliquescent salt. The principles involved in the various orders of procedure : vaporization, radiation, liquefaction, and reduction of pres- sure, have been considered on pp. 1164-1169, "Mech. Dirt." See machines in . . "Chem. News," Jan. to Sept., 1876. "Sc. American Sup.," 1348, * 1440. "Scientific American," xliii. 277. Ammonia .... "Scientific American," xl. 405. Atlas Engine Co., Br. * "Engineering," xxviii. 13. "Technologiste,'-' xli. 714. Boyle * "Scientific American." xlii. 246. Carre, Edmond . . * "Mech. Diet.," p. 1164, Plate XXVI. Carre, Ferdinand . * "Mech. Diet.," p. 1164, Plate XXVI. * Laboulaye's "Diet.," iv., ed. 1877. Cap. "Production dufroid," Figs. 3707, 3708 bis. du Motay & Beckwith * "Scientific American," xlii. 118. du Motay if Rossi . * "Engineer,'-' 1. 144. * "Scientific American Sup.," 3794. "Scientific American," xliii. 277. Duvallon if Lloyd, Br. * "Scientific American,"- xxxviii. 387. Gesner * "Mining Sf Sc. Press," xxxvi. 65. Gorrie * "Mech. Diet.," p. 1169. Harrison "Mech. Diet.," p. 1166. Holden * "Scientific American," xxxvii. 95; xxxviii. 159, 162; xl. 166; xlii. 322. * "Manufacturer Sf Builder," ix. 198. Johnston * Whitelaw "Mech. Diet.," p. 1167. Kirk ...... "Mech. Diet.," p. 1168. Kropff * "Manufacturer tf Builder," xii. 201. Paper by Ledoux. "Anna'es des Mines " * " Van Nostr. Mag.," xxi. 89, In, 314. Linde, Ger * "Scientific American Sup.," 2713. * "Engineer," 1. 211. Lowe , "Mech. Diet.," p. 1169. Lugo Sf McPherson . "Mech. Diet.," p. 1169. Manchester (Br.) Ice Co. See Siddeley if Mackay .' Portable, Mansfield . * "Mining Sf Sc. Press," xxxvii. 184. Pictet . . . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 425. * "Sc. Am.," xxxvii. 335 ; xxxiv. 403. * "Manuf. Sf Builder," x. 100. * "Mining % Sc. Press," xxxvi. 321. Reece "Mech. Diet.," p. 1167. Seely "Mech. Diet.," p. 1167. Siebe "Mech. Diet.," p. H67. Siddeley Sf Mackay, * "Engineering," xxiii. 481. Br. "Iron Age," ^ii., Sept 19 ,P.24. * "Sc. American Sup.," 1159, * 1439. Skating Rink, London " Scientific American Sup.," 550. Tellier ..... "Mech. Diet.," p. 1167. Toselli *" Scientific American Sup.," 507. Twining . . . . . "Mech. Diet.," p. 1167. P/rt't lee Machine. Pictet Ice Machine ( Sections). F. Carri Small Ice Machine. Rankin Ice Machine. PLATE XXIII. ICE MACHINES. See page 488. ICE MACHINE. 489 ILLUMINATION. Tuttle if Lugo . . . "Mec/i. Diet.,' 1 ' p. 1169. Van der Weyde . . . "6'c. American," xxxiv. 177, 228. "Mec/i. Diet.,-' p. 1167. Methylchl. Vincent, Fr. * "Scientific American," xli. 123. West * "Mining If Sc. Press," xxxvii. 337. Windhausen .... * ''Mech. Diet.," p. 1168, Fig. 2406. See LeDoux's "Ice-making Machines.'' (From the French.) Ice Mold. A metallic case iii which cream or custard is frozen so as to acquire a certain shape, which it retains for a while when deposited upon a dish. Ice Screw. A machine for elevating ice from the pond to the ice-house, or from one level Fig. 1428. to another. The block of ice rests against verti- cal bars, and, as the screw revolves, is pushed up, rising vertically till it reaches the level where it is wanted. Here the block is no longer detained by the vertical bars, and slips off on to the chute which has been disposed to receive it and conduct it to the window of the ice-house. Ich'thy-o-colla. The preferable name for isinglass. Classification by Danilewski in " Technologiste,^ xli. 515. Jan. , 1834 2,474 5,978 29,596 40,933 53,636 78,016 i' 14S,dl7 149,165 167,123 1 1 1 , 1 64 219,667 LIST OF UNITED STATES PATENTS. , Norwood et al., Sounds are cut, digested, run into strips and dried. Paulsen, Boiling under pressure. Rowe, Rollers cooled by circulation of water Hunter, Glue from whale-blubber scraps. Herreshoff, Menhaden fish-water as a dye Lewis et al., Purifying the materials by boiling. bteart, A pure " bath of digested fish in treat- ing fiber. Robinson, Gelatine from fish-heads. Rowe > Cooling rollers in isinglass manufacture. Manning, Cooling rollers in isinglass manufacture. Muller, Sturgeon sounds ; solution saltpeter fol- lowed by sulphur fumes. Stanwood, Alcohol and isinglass. Rogers, Fish-skins scaled, de-salted, digested. Stanwood, Fish-skins soaked, dried, digested, dried. Alsing, Albumen from fish spawn. Il-lu'mi-na'ted Sign. The number-signs of houses in Paris are in numerous cases illuminated by the following contrivance : " It consists of a hollow triangular prism 9" long, two of whose sides are formed of panes of blue glass, on which the number of the house is picked out in white. This prism- Fig. 1429. shaped lamp-glass rests against the front of the house, so that the two sides with the numbers on them can be plainly seen by the passers-by. In the interior of the prism is a gas jet, fed by a pipe from the house/' " Telegraphic Journal.'" Phosphorescent signs and dials have been used to some extent. See DIAL, p. 254, supra, where are several recipes, and numerous references. See also DIAL, Morton, "Scientific American," xl. 180, 232. Il-lu'mi-na'ting Pow'er Me'ter. (Gas.) An instrument, by Sugg, of London, designed as a ready means to ascertain the exact illuminating value of gas, in terms of sperm candle values ; it can be used in the office or any desired place, as it does not require a darkened room. After adjusting the height of flame to 3", the correct read- ing of any test can be made by an observation of one minute. It occupies a space of about one foot square, and consists of an exper- imental meter and clock. The dial of the meter is 12" diameter, its outer circle being divided into spaces of varied lengths, each representing one candle, these spaces be- ing subdivided iuto tenths of candles. Above the center of dial is a circle having 60 divis- ions, each representing one second of time, i. e., one minute the whole revolution. A long hand traverses the outer circle and a shorter one the small one. On the side of the meter is a water- box with glass, showing true water-line, and o n the top is a governor, three-way cock, pedestal, a quadrant with 45 equal divisions, an a r g a n d burner with chimney, and a sighting frame to enable the operator to adjust the name to ex- actly 3". To operate the instrument, star t tin- clock, then adjust the height of flame to 3", when the gas is passing through the meter, stop the hand at 16 by turn- ing the cock so that the gas passes to the burner without going through the meter, then wait till the clock-hand moves to 60, at this instant turn the gas through the meter and let it pass through till the clock-hand again reaches 60, at this instant turn off the gas from the meter, and the long hand (or pointer) will indicate the quality of gas. Il-lu'mi-na'ting Tile. One with glass bull's eyes for sidewalks over cellars and areas, or pave- ment over basements. Il-lu'mi-na'tion. The following is a London test of the illuminating value of the materials named : Illuminating Power Meter Material. Value. 24 cents equal 1 shilling. Duration of 1 cent's worth in one sperm candle values. Standard sperm candles, per Ib. . Best wax candle, per Ib Sperm oil in moderator, per gal. . Belmont sperm candle, per Ib. . . Stella or Burmese wax, per Ib. . . $0.48 .48 2.28 .30 .30 36 h. m. 1 7 1 6 1 12 1 27 1 37 2 15 Composite candle, No. 1, per Ib. . Composite candle, No. 3, per Ib. . Common dip candles, per Ib. . . Almond oil, in moderator, per gal. .22 .16 .12 2.22 1 20 2 5 2 45 2 52 3 - 4 37 Paraffine oil, in lamp, per gal. . . Common London gas, per IjOOO 7 . .72 .90 9 35 26 - ILLUMINATION. 490 INCLINED PLANE. It may be noted that the price of gas, 90 cents per 1,000" is scarcely more than one third of the exorbitant prices usual iu the United States. Il-lu'mi-na'tor. 1. (Surgical.) a. A lamp with lens used as a means of directing a strong light, in examination by the laryngoscope, ophthal- moscope, speculum, etc. Pages 78, 79, Part II., and Fig. 545, Part III., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." b. An instrument for illuminating an internal cavity by means of incandescent platinum in a glass envelope. 3. A glazed opening; such as floor-light, deck- light, side-light, bull's-eye, etc., which see. 4. (Microscope.) A special attachment for throw- ing light upon an object under view. See list under ILLUMINATOR, * 2660, p. 1171, "Mech. Diet." Im-pe'ri-al Silk Serge. (Fabric.) A silk and wool French goods. Im'preg-na'tion. (Mining.) Metallic depos- its having undefined limits and form. Im-pres'sion Ma-chine'. (Cartridge.) A machine for making an impression in the head of the cup, which is done by a horizontal die pressing it into a pattern, so that, when vented, the holes will not be on the top but on the side of the impres- sion. Im-pres'sion Stitch Ma-chine'. (Leather.) A machine for crimping the upper edge of welts of a boot or shoe to give it the appearance of sewed work. 1430 Impression Stitch Machine. The machine shown in Fig. 1430 makes a stitch impression of any desired width or size. Im-pres'sion Tray. A tray of Britannia metal to hold the gypsum in pjg. 1431. taking impressions of the mouth for the mak- ing of dentures. They are made of various sizes, and specifically for upper and lower jaws. They are light enough to allow of alteration by pliers or mallet to suit peculiar formations of the maxil- lary. lucaii-des'cent Light. (Electricity.) A form of electric light Impression Tray. as distinct from the voltaic-arc light. In the incan- descent light a strip of carbon or platinum is heated to whiteness, in vacua, or in a rarefied atmosphere of an inert gas, nitrogen, for instance. In the voltaic-arc light, the current leaps the space between two pencils of carbon. " The incandescent systems are far less numerous than those which employ the voltaic arc, aud hence their classifi- cation is less complex. They are divided into ' 1. Incandescent lamps with combustion. " 2. Lamps purely incandescent. "The former are represented by Reynier's, Weidermann's (NapoUVs modification), Joel's, and Tommasi's apparatus. All of these consist of a carbon rod resting lightly on a lump of carbon or an irregularly-shaped piece of metal, thus pro- ducing imperfect contact. " Pure incandescence is represented in four systems : those of Edison, Maxim, Swan, and Lane-Fox. In all of these we have incandescence of carbon, and this carbon consists of a very fine thread placed in vacuo or in a highly rarefied atmos- phere of some inert gas. " The nature of the current is a matter of indifference with incandescent lamps ; they work with either continuous or with alternating currents. Those lamps in which there is incandesence with combustion require a great volume of cur- rent, and rise in tension, while those with pure incandescence require small volume, and usually rise in quantity. " To pure incandescence we must also refer Jablochkoff's, Kavlin's, Trouv5's platinum wire polyscopes and Geissler's tubes ; but properly speaking these are not electric-light ap- paratus at all, but only objects to be used for study or for experiment." " Electrician.'- Inch. The " miner's inch " is the amount of water that will flow in 24 hours through a hole 1" square with 6" pressure about 2,000 cubic feet. In effective hydraulic mining there should be at least 1,500 inches, each one of which will move from 3 to 5 cubic yards of gravel per day. See statement by Mr. Thomas, re- ported in "Scientific American,''' xl. 314. In-ci'sing For'ceps. (Dental.) An instrument for separating, cutting between teeth, splitting and excising salient prongs or parts. Fig. 1432. Incising Forceps. In-ci'sor For'ceps. (Dental.) An instrument with narrow single prongs for extraction of the in- cisors. Fig. 1433. Incisor Forceps. In'cli-na'tion Com'pass. A magnetic needle with vertical circle to indicate the inclination or dip, one of the three elements of magnetic force regis- tered at the observatories. The invention of Nor- man, of London. Fie- 1434 See DIPPING NEEDLE, Fig. 1669, p. 705, "Mech. Diet." The illustration, Fig. 1434, shows the instrument with a leveling stand and horizontal circle with magnetic needle. In-clined' Plane. An artificial slope for ascent of vehicles or objects ; the term in its most important signification concerns rail- way grades. Many of them, traversed by loco- motives, are very bold ; some are only surmounted | by means of stationary en- ^ giues and cables. Inclination Compass. The subject is treated on pp. 1174-1177, "Mech. Diet.," references being made to the in- clined planes of From 1 to 2 T>y line of road. 5 miles ' airline, 1}$ " -A to B horizontally, 935 ft, " -vertically, 625 " Above sea level, E, 9843ft. " " F, 10400 " % E to F vertically, 535 ft. " horizontally, 465 " MAP No. 2. T> S f f A to B hori zontally, 570 feet, /-'""*' " by Hue of road. 4 miles C to D horizontally, 495 feet " vertically, 360 " Above sea level, A, 6562 " " " " B, 7470 " MAPJ[p. 5. Scale: 1 : 50.000 - C to D, hor. 7.10 ft. " vert. 570" A to .B, by line of road. 4%miles, " " "by air line, 1% " A to B lias an average of 30:2 of cnrvaturu lo the mill 1 . Above sea Jevel, A, 12.04-! ft. " " " B, 12.907" I C^ **" wt *^/._ 1 ^ *- -s SanBanolonie Above sea level A, 4905 ft. B, 5450" MAP No. 6. Scale: 1 : 100.000 A to B is 16% miles by line ol C i3 near 1200 ft. above T)otU Grades of 4% or 211 ft. to th< employed for most of the Curves of 400 feet radius. GALER.i : TUXXEL - 15.645 feet aljove sealevel. Passes under Galera Pass at the summit of the Andes. The pass is 16,300 feet aoove sea level. tjfflS Above sea level; A, 11,417 feet, B - U ' 780 " MOLENDO & AREQUIPA R.R. Development of Line in the Quebradaof Quehuintala. PLATE XXIV, DEVELOPMENTS OF INCLINED PLANES ON PERUVIAN RAILWAYS. Reduced from the Surveys in the Office of Senor Henry Meiggs, Lima. See page 491. INCLINED PLANE. 491 INCLINED PLANE. Mount Oenis. Morris and Essex Canal, If. J. Holidaysburgh (former) route Callao, Lima, and Oroya Rail- of Pennsylvania Railway. way, South America. Portage, Pennsylvania canal. Furka pass, Switz. Mahanoy, Pennsylvania. Konkan, Bombay. Mount Washington. Eighi, Switz. The publication of some engineering data of the Callao, Lima, and Oroya Railway, South America, (Fig. 2664, p. 1175, "Mech. Diet.") coming to the notice of Mr. Henry Meiggs, of Lima, Peru, Mr. ^no. McGee of his staff was so obliging as to send careful reductions of the maps of the most interest- ing developments of the road, which have been re- produced in Plate XXIV. These have all been completed and are numbered in the order the lo- calities are reached in going from the sea. The descriptions are printed in the panels with each map. In regard to the summit development, No. 6, it may be said that a 60-ton engine takes 60 tons, net load, over the road at 12 miles per hour with ease. Near the beginning of p. 1176, " Mech. Diet.." it was stated that " the longest inclined plane on an artificial road is said to be that from Lima to Callao, which is about 6 miles, and has a descent of 511', or about 1 in 60." It must now be added from information furnished by Mr. McGee that " the Oroya railway has an average incline for 75 miles of about Iin30." The map of a development on the railway from Molendo to Arequipa, Peru, shown also in Plate XXIV., exhibits the approach to the pampa of Islay, which has a general level of 4,000' to 5,000' above the level of the sea. The subject of inclined planes ascending by cogged gear on locomotive is considered incidentally under INCLINED PLANE, "Mech. Diet.''; also RACK KAIL, p. 1852, Ibid. Righi Rail- way, * Fig. 4124, p. 1862, Ibid., and various systems curso- rily mentioned on p. 1861, Ibid. The following high grades in Switzerland are mentioned In the journals : " A road recently opened up Mt. Uetliberg, Switzerland, overlooks, at a height of 1,800', Lake Zurich. The total length is 5J miles. The lowest grade is 232' per mile, but 59 per cent, of the whole exceeding 264' per mile. The curves are 500' and 450* radius, the latter coinciding with a, grade of 327'. The track is standard gage, and the rails, of iron, weigh 60 Ibs. There are three tank locomotives of the Krauss pattern, with six drivers coupled, each 38" diameter, and with a wheel base of 6' 8". They weigh 41,800 Ibs. empty, and in service, from 52.800 to 55,000 Ibg. The heat- ing surface is 770' square, diameter of piston 12|", stroke 21^". At the first ascent the engine pushed up three cars with gross load of 80 tons, at from 8 to 10J miles per hour, with steam pressure of 170 Ibs. The descent is made with compressed air, by means of an apparatus used on the engines of the Righi road j speed 15j to 18 miles per hour. " Another Swiss mountain road, the Righi Kulm and Lake of Zug, is 7 miles long ; 6 miles are worked with a peculiar cogged wheel arrangement, by which grades of 1,056' per mile are surmounted ; radii of the curves, which are uni- form, 600'." ^ PENNSYLVANIA IRON REGION. Mount Auburn. Price's Incline, Mill Creek. Vertical height . . . Length of track . . . Angle of incline . . . 275 feet. 840 feet. o 346 feet. 758 feet. 24. Minch. Wire rope weight . . . tons. 9 feet Actual strain on rope . Number of winds . . Time in winding . . . 27 1 to 1J minutes. 6 tons. 1' 12" to 1' 15" \ stroke diameter ..... Made by John Cooper 24" 12" Company, Mouut | Same. Vernon, Ohio. small driving-wheels which are upon the same axles with the big drivers, they being only about 30" in diameter ; this inside track is raised about 15 to 18" above the outer one, and so high that the big drivers do not touch the track at all ; the engine rests now upon the small drivers, and is in- dependent of the outer ones ; then in the center of the track is placed a wide cogged rail, which meshes into the cog- wheel, which is between these small drivers, directly under the center of the locomotive. By applying power to the big drivers, in the ordinary way, the power is applied to the cogged-wheel, which does the climbing. The cogs are about 3" from tip to tip, and the wheel is 8" wide.' : CINCINNATI INCLINED PLANES. The inclined plane of the Jeffersonville, Madison, and In- dianapolis Railway at its landing on the Ohio River, has an ascent of 300' in a mile, or 1 in 17. Wire rope is used. When a locomotive ascends a grade and then winds up the train to its own level, either of two means may he em- ployed. In each, a rope and winding drum is employed. 1. The winding drum is attached to the engine, which is detached from the train at the foot of the incline, attaches the rope to the forward car, and mounts the incline alone, is anchored to the rails, and then draws the car up after it. It may be anchored part of the way up, draw the cars to itself, the cars be anchored at this point, and then the en- gine ascend and repeat. 2. The winding drum is at the summit* the engine as- cends and so places itself that its driving-wheels are over other wheels of the winding drum. The engine being an- chored, its wheels in motion wind the drum, and draw upon the rope. In each case the train is let down the grade by a brake on the drum. The locomotive of Henry Handiside, of Bristol, Br., is con- structed for this purpose. It has a gripping lock which holds the rails, and a drum beneath, operated by another cylinder, for winding the wire cable which connects to the front coach of the train. The locomotive ascends a piece, paying out the cable : then locks itself and hauls up the cars. These are then locked, and the locomotive makes an- other ascent and repeats. On a level, the locomotive acts in the ordinary manner : shown In Paris, in 1878. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF DESIGNA- TING GRADES. Planes. Total Length of Planes. Height of Head above Tide. Height of Foot above Tide. i i* a-ra as, if H Ft. 2,900 5,105 5,225 1,550 o bstsbsisi Diameter of *_*. 3 j Mam Rope. ft II aj^l Us. Engineer English. American R. R. .5 in 100 1 in 100 1.5 in 100 2 in 100 2.5 in 100 3 in 100 3. 5 in 100 4 in 100 4.5 in 100 5 in 100 5.5 in 100 6 in 100 6.5 in 100 7 in 100 1 in 200 1 in 100 1 in 66 2-3 Iin50 Iin40 1 in 33 1-3 1 in 28 4-7 Iin25 1 in 22 2-9 Iin20 1 in 18 2-11 1 in 16 2-3 1 in 15 5-13 1 in 14 2-7 26.4 feet per mile. 52.8 feet per mile. 79.2 feet per mile. 105.6 feet per mile. 132 feet per mile. 158.4 feet per mile. 184.8 feet per mile. 211.2 feet per mile. 237.6 feet per mile. 264 feet per mile. 290.4 feet per mile. 316.8 feet per mile. 343.2 feet per mile. 369.6 feet per mile. Mahanoy Gordon, 1 Gordon, 2 Big Mine Run. . Ft. 2,410 4,650 4,755 1,245 Ft. 1,478.42 1,519.00 1,206.00 1,274.3 Ft. 1,124.70 1,200.50 802.00 1,013.8 Ft. 353.72 318.50 404.00 20.65 The Mahanoy has steel wire rope 2J" diameter with inde- pendent steel wire rope center. The others 2J'' diameter iron wire rope (Big Mine 2") with independent iron wire rope center. A new locomotive for use on Ithaca Hill, N. Y., is thus described : " The incline has five tracks, of which the outer two are of the usual width, used in the ordinary manner. When the engine starts up the hill it rests upon a pair of rails just within the usual track and unon a set of double-flaneed Refer to t Be Bhor, India Callao, Lima & asemer 111. . * "Eng . . . 'Sc. ineerins;," xxi. 462. American Sup.,'' 919. ''ing-," xxviii. 46,104. American Sup., r 1905. 'ineer.'" xliv. 462. Oioya By. . * "Ent . " Sc. Tramway, fortress of Glatz, Silesia. . . *"Ent INCLINED PLANE. 492 INCUBATOR. Grand Combe mines, Fr. . . Hyd. hauling machine for Hayward, Tyler & Co. . . Pittsburg Passenger Ry. . . Winding engine, Gordon . . Safety trucks, Mahanoy . . Woottens, patent ... * "Engineering,'' xxvii. 36. * "Engineering,'' xxiii. 362. * "Scientific Am., '~ J xliii. 175. * "Engineer," xliii. 77. * "Engineer," xliii. 78. No. 57,423, Aug. 21, 1866. Table showing the proportions between an engine's maxi- mum load on grades up to 350 feet per mile, and its maxi- mum load on level, the latter being 100 per cent. Grades. Per cent. Grades. Per cent. 100 130 11.6' 6 82.8 140 10.6 10 68.1 160 9.8 20 60 160 9.2 30 39.3 170 8.6 40 32.3 180 8 50 27.3 190 7.5 60 23.6 200 7.1 70 20.7 225 6.1 80 18.3 250 6.3 90 16.4 276 4.7 100 14.9 300 4.2 110 13.6 360 3.3 120 12.4 In-clined' Plane Car. (Railway.) One for ascending inclined planes ; the support of the bed being so arranged that the bed shall be level when the car is on the incline. The Righi, Mt. Wash- ington, and others afford examples. See INCLINED PLANE, "Mech. Diet.," et supra. RAILWAY, " Mech. Diet.," pp. 1061, 1062, and references passim. In-clined' Press. One of which the bed and die are inclined, for convenience of insertion of the blanks. Cutting, drawing, and stamping presses are sometimes thus built, and sometimes are adjus- table so as to have either level or inclined table. In-cline' Drift. (Mining.) An inclined pas- sage under ground ; still known as a level, but hav- ing an inclination to carry off water, or following the dip of a strata. In'com-bus'ti-ble Wood, etc. See FIREPROOFINC, p. < Wood. Theatrical scenery . Fabrics. Cloth. 9, supra, for preparations for Canvas. Cordage. Straw. Paper. In-con'stant Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) A sin- gle fluid battery is usually termed inconstant, to distinguish it from a two-fluid battery. In-cor'po-ra'ting Mill. (Gunpowder.) A mill on the Chilian principle ; two-edge wheels re- volving in an annular pan. The materials are ground in water ; say 1 gallon to the batch of 50 pounds from the mixing-mill. See "Ordnance Report,'' 1879, Appendix I., Plate II., Fig. 6, and description on pp. 99-101. For gunpowder, Br * "Engineering,'" xxv. 37. In-crust'ed Work. (Fine Art Metal-working.) Relief work in metal : from the crustce of the Ro- mans ; small ornaments in relief attached to ves- sels. Distinct from repousse', in which the relief is by beating out the metal. When the figures were large they were remov- able and called emblemata ; like instances seen in Swami work, of the Madras Presidency. India shows many varieties of the work, as silver incrusted on brown copper, copper on brass, tracery, diapering, designs in one metal on another ; engraved, chased, or stained by ox- idation : tin soldered on brass and incised through in flori- ated patterns, the ground being in part filled with lac, some- what like niello. The modern French incrusted bronze, is a, copper or bronze with gold and silver ornamentation. The objects are first painted in water colors, the principal ingredient of which is white lead. When several articles are to receive the same drawing, it may be printed in the same manner as in porce- lain painting. The places which remain unpainted are var- nished. The article is then laid in dilute nitric acid, which dissolves the color and bites the metal on the painted places to the required depth. After washing the article, it is placed in a silver or gold bath, where the free surfaces are electro- typed in silver or gold The varnish is then removed, and the whole surface is polished so that the gilded and silvered parts are not unduly prominent. The article can then be bronzed. A fine effect is produced with black bronze by sul-- phuret of copper in the spaces between the gold and silver. An apparatus for the artificial In-cu-ba'tor. hatching of eggs. The Egyptian egg-hatching ovens, and the apparatus of M. Bonnemain, of France, are shown and described in the "Mech. Diet.,'' p. 1178. Several late apparatus may be noticed. Probably each of the following patents has added some- thing to the present approximately successful result . Axford. Dennis. Baker. Meyer. Day. Halsted. Cantello. Higgins. Carbonnier Graves. Corbett. Samuels. Weston. Thick. Fig. 1435 shows the " Reliance ' incubator. A steatite radi- ator is placed over the egg-drawer and heated by hot water pipes imbedded in the steatite. The quantity of water is but Fig. 1435 ^ "Reliance- Incubator. 6 quarts for a 300 egg machine. The egg-drawers are separate, each has its ventilator, and receives moisture from an evapo- rating pan which gives an atmosphere approximating the con- dition of the natural nest ; heat above, and cool, moist air beneath the eggs. The " Florence/' oil-stove is used and the burner is so arranged as to obviate the need for other regu- lator or thermostat. Halste&s " Centennial ' ; incubator is shown in Fig. 1436, has a boiler, B, from which hot water passes to the tank, over which is the reservoir R with a glass water-gage. At O is the vent for air in filling, and at F the faucet for discharge of water when emptying. V is the ventilating flue opening into the egg chamber, the glazed door of which is at N. The egg drawer is of parallel bars just near enough together to keep the eggs from falling between them. A thermosfatic bar in the chamber projects at Sand operates the foot of the escape lever at/, the upper part of which is a spring wire with a narrow opening at H. E is a reel around which is wound a cord which passes over the pulley P, and is attached to the weight W. This reel carries four projecting arms, in pairs, the oppo- site ones of equal length, and a little shorter than the other pair. The ends of these are bent at right angles, so as to catch upon the curved wire section of the escape-lever 1. This reel is firmly fastened to a shaft passing through to the venti- lator flue, and there attached to the ventilator. On the back of this reel-plate are pins which raise or depress the lamp- lever C; this is connected with the lamp-trip by the con- necting rod D. The thennostatic bar is set or regulated by a set-screw in INCUBATOR. 493 INCUBATOR. the opposite end of the machine. When regulated, the ther- mostatic bar, affected by the heat, acts upon the lever I, bringing the opening Hover one of the ends of the arms, the force of the weight causes it to pass through and the next arm to catch, thus opening the ventilator and allowing the hot air to escape, anil turning down the lamp. When the 1436. Fig. 1438. Halsted'x Incubator. drawer has cooled down one or two degrees, the reverse action of the thermostat again releases (he end of the arm, and the ventilator closes and the name is turned up. This is repeated automatically until the weight runs down. Fig. 1437 shows the Thirk incubator, which has a water res- ervoir of 10 gallons, heated by kerosene lamp. Air-carrying pipes pass through the heated water, and carry warm air to Fig. 14157. all parts of the hatching apparatus : hot-water boxes form part of the reservoir, under which the chicks, when hatched, are placed to receive the heat necessary for their health. The boxes are covered with a lamb skin, or a " wool mother," the cool, graveled flooring affords for the feet of the chick- ens a surface similar to natural conditions. 50 eggs are placed in each drawer. The heat of the water reservoir is about 120 Fah., which keeps the eggs at about 103. The eggs are turned daily and left exposed for 15 minutes, and their relative positions in the drawers changed. In Voitellier's apparatus, shown at the French Exposition of 1878, the heat of the reservoir is kept up by occasional re- newals of hot water, and steam is occasionally allowed to es- cape to keep the atmosphere moist around the eggs. An improvement on the incubator of Carbonnier (Fr.) is shown in Fig. 1438. The apparatus consists of a box, with a zinc case A filled with hot water fixed in the top, and un- derneath a drawer, B, to put the eggs in, and in which is Carbonnier' s Incubator. to become warmed to a temperature of 105 or 104, to show which a thermome- ter is laid on the top of the eggs The upper A is a pipe for supplying the basin with water and to receive the thermometer, which is immersed in the fluid, and shows the temperature. D D D are three iron rods fixed in from back to front of the box as a support for the zinc case. E is a layer of sawdust, suspended by a piece of muslin (or some such thin ma- terial ) fastened by a few tacks to the in- ner side of the box, through which the heat passes. The drawer is opened once or twice every day to turn the eggs, during the in- cubation of 21 days. The "Leviathan " incubator, used in Africa in the artifi- cial hatching of os- trich eggs, was exhibited in the Cape of Good Hope section at the Centennial Exhibition. The apparatus consists of a middle steam chamber of metal, which is kept constantly hot by a lamp or furnace beneath. Below this are drawers in which the eggs are first placed, and these, by means of the screws shown below, may be raised until the eggs are brought almost in contact with the warm surface above. In these receptacles the eggs are kept for two weeks at a temperature of 102 Fah. They are then removed and placed in the inner pair of compartments, shown above, for another fortnight, at a temperature of 100. At the end of this period the eggs are carefully extracted, and a small hole is chipped in each shell at the point opposite the chick's head. They are next replaced and kept in the same compart- ments for two weeks longer at 98, when the hatching takes place, and the young birds are placed in the outer upper re- ceptacles, and there remain for two days. The compartments above have bottoms of lamb's wool, which come in contact with the steam chamber below. Fig. 1439. Ostrich Egg Incubator. Tilt egg is about 7" in length, and the hatched chick about 13" In height. The chick is fed on rice, and when it reaches the age of seven days is worth $50 in gold. Nearly 20,000 birds, it is said, have been hatched at the Cape of Good Hope by apparatus of this description. The machine is frequently made of sufficient size to hold 115 eggs at a time. Day's machines are made for 220 and 320 eggs respectively. They are warmed by coal or gas, and the heat is regulated by a thermostat of two unequally expanding metals. This regulates the flame or the draft, as the case may be. An alarm is rung if a given heat be exceeded. Halsted's "Acme" incubator is entirely of metal, is self- regulating as to heat, and has trays in which the eggs are simultaneously turned, without handling. It is a hot-air machine without boiler or tank. A copper drum is heated by oil lamp, and the warm air radiates from the drum, passing upward through the hot-air chamber where the evaporating INCUBATOR. 494 INDEX MILLING MACHINE. trough divides the current and charges it with moisture. A plate deflects the air over the eggs in the drawers. A cool, moist air is retained beneath the eggs. The regulator is a thermostatic bar. Axford's incubator has a lamp near the floor ; circulation from above among the eggs, and exit downward ; an electric thermostat and a turn-table holding the trays of eggs ; and a special egg-turning arrangement. Myer's " Perfection ; ' Incubator is heated by the ordinary house-stove. The Corbett incubator is placed on a pile of fermenting horse-manure, and more manure piled round if necessary. It is a cylindrical box with trays, each of which has a tier of eggs. The cover is removed and the trays lifted daily and the eggs turned. The apparatus subsequently acts as an artificial mother. See also : Carbonnier, Fr. French . . . . Ostrich, Douglass * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 849. . * "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxiv. 213. Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts,' 1 ' etc., iii. " Regulateur.' 1 ' . * "Min. if Sc. Press,'' 1 xxxvii. 57. * "Sc. Amer.,''' xxxiv. 226 : xxxv. 297; xxxviii. 294,295. ''Scientific American Sup.," 884. " Manufacturer if Builder,"' xii. 95. Fig. 1440. Ostrich farming . Thermostat for In'de-pen'dent Air Pump. One having no mechanical connection with the main engine : as distinct from a connected air-pump, which is a mov- ing part of the engine. Being a steam-pump, op- erated independently, a vacuum can be formed for the engine before the latter is started, and the speed regulated according to the temperature of the injection water and the requirements of the engine. In'de-pen'dent Car Wheel. One running free on the axle ; as distinguished from the usual railway car wheel, which is chilled or keyed fast to the axle. One form of inde- pendent car wheel, in which the two wheels are not essentially fast together, so that they can move indepen- dently in turning curves, is the Milti- more wheel, Fig. 532, p. 163, supra. See also CAK-AXLE, pp. 458, 459, "Mech. Diet.," and AXLE, pp. 198- 201 , Ibid. In'de-pen'd e n t Drill. A machine tool intended for work re- quiring four drills to finish a hole. Each spindle has indepen- dent automatic $eed , so that one operator can attend to several machines. The four drills may be respect- ively a starting drill, through drill, enlarging drill, and finishing drill or reamer. The piece to be drilled is secured in a holder, indexed P e .^ ectl y "rier * J e Independent Drill. drills and finished he- fore removing from its fastening. (Pratt $ Whit- ney.) In'de-pen'dent Jaw Chuck. A chuck in which each jaw is separately adjustable ; as distin- guished from the universal, in which the jaws move in concert. Fig. 1441. See also LATHE CHUCK, infra. Independent Jaw Chuck. In'de-pen'dent Truck. (Railway.) One of the 4 or 6-wheeled trucks beneath a railway car on the American system. The car Fi &- 144L rests on the center pins of the trucks, which can there- f o r e follow the track, swiveling by their own motion while the body of the car takes the position of a chord. In the European practice the pairs of wheels are independent and their boxes work in hangers or pedestals on the main sill of the car frame. See Fig. 4126, p. 1863, "Mech. Diet." In'de-pen'dent Wheel. A term sometimes applied to a car wheel which runs free on its axle, in contradistinction to the customary wheel, which is chilled, or otherwise tightly fastened to its axle, in the usual railway practice where the wheels are rigidly attached to the respective ends of the axle. See also a compromise arrangement in which the axle is divided, and each part carries its own wheel, Fig. 532, p. 163, supra. In'dex Milling Ma-chine'. A machine tool adapted to cutting rotary cutters in all varieties, spur and bevel gears, etc. It receives ordinary work up to 6" diameter, but will cut spur or bevel gears much larger. The index-plate is attached to the bottom of a hollow spindle having a graduated disk. Fig. 1442. The spindle is pivoted to a vertical slide, and with its attach- ments, as vise or centers, may be moved to and secured at any angle in a vertical plane of 180, or 90 on either side of an'upright position. This slide, carrying the index, spindle, etc., has a perpendicular traverse of 2". The upward and down- ward movement of the main slide, to which the vertical is attached, is 6", and its side traverse 12". The centers are shown in the engraving as attached to the index-spindle. They will receive work 3J" diameter and 8|" in length. The cone spindle is of steel, and slides in a cast-iron sheath or shell, which runs in cast-iron boxes lined with babbitt- metal. The horizontal movement of the cone-spindle and the vertical movement of the slides is made by adjustable hand-levers, and limited by check-nuts. (Pratt Sf Whitney.) INDEX. 495 INDIA INK. In'dex The following scheme for the tiling The scheme is for a book of 602 pp. The position of the away of valuable suggestions or data, of a miscella- sli P or item determined by its initial letter and next suc- neous description, or appertaining to any study, science, or what not, was devised some time since by Mr. M. T. C. Gould. ceecling vowel, for instances : Cyrus, C. y., pp. 145, 146. Steam, S. e., pp. 462-477. INDEX BERUM. : | 4 60 So 1 1 I S* o< & a a. S a. 1 la C 'S. 1 B e a 5" 6 S3 a 3 "S. a a S "S I i ts i "S to g j to w OQ 1 00 M 03 O o CO N 34 a i 6 18 a 229 6 32 a 319 16 38 a 510 8 7 8 e 235 4 e 335 2 e 518 4 A 15 10 G j 239 4 M ^ 337 4 T ^ 522 b 25 6 o 243 2 o 341 8 528 14 u 31 2 u 245 1 u 349 1 u 542 4 y 33 2 y 246 1 y 350 1 y 546 2 44 35 12 22 a 247 6 16 a 351 2 6 a 548 2 47 10 e 253 4 e 353 4 e 550 2 B i 57 4 H i 257 4 N i 357 4 U i 552 I o 61 10 261 6 o 361 4 o 552 | 71 6 u 267 1 u 365 1 u 553 J y 77 2 y 268 1 y 366 1 y 553 ! 68 a, 79 24 11 a 269 2 11 a 367 2 11 a 554 6 e 103 6 e 271 4 e 369 4 e 560 .1 C i 109 6 I i 275 2 ^ 373 2 V l 561 ] 115 24 o 277 1 o 375 1 562 1 u 139 6 u 278 1 u 376 1 u 563 1 y 145 2 y 279 1 y 377 1 y 564 1 26 a 147 6 10 a 280 2 44 a 378 14 28 a 665 fi e 153 6 e 282 1 e 392 10 e 671 4 D i 159 4 J i 283 1 P i 402 8 W i 577 It o 163 4 284 4 o 410 6 587 4 u 167 4 u 288 1 u 416 4 u 591 ] y 170 2 y 289 1 y 420 2 y 592 1 28 a 173 10 11 a 290 2 28 a 422 4 2 a 593 e 183 8 e 292 4 e 426 6 e 593 E i 191 6 K ^ 296 2 R i 432 4 X i 593 , o 197 2 o 298 1 o 436 10 o 594 . u 199 1 u ' 299 1 u 446 2 M 594 y 200 1 y 300 1 y 448 2 y 594 20 a 201 4 18 a 301 4 60 a 450 12 2 ' a 595 e 205 6 e 305 4 e 462 16 e 595 F i 211 6 L % 309 4 S i 478 20 Y i 595 217 10 o 313 4 o 498 10 596 u 227 1 u 317 1 u 508 1 u 596 y 228 1 y 318 1 y 509 1 y 596 Q u 597 4 Z a-y 601-2 2 In'dex Plate. For gear cutting machines. The face has a number of circles each with a certain num- ber of holes so that any required number of teeth may be made on a wheel, the circle being divisible by that number. SIZES OF BROWN & SHARPE'S INDEX PLATES FOR GEAR CUTTING MACHINES. "5 8J 1 5 |J 1 1 Is "o s h of 1P S A !s II is 11 il ii IB 01- 36 > 3 5 S i SIB s g S' 2 S* 12 in 25 52 100 1,900 50 100 16 in 38 76 150 4,294 75 150 20 in 60 102 200 7,550 100 200 24 in 63 126 250 11.844 125 250 28 in 75 152 300 16'950 150 300 32 in 90 182 360 24,390 180 360 In'dex Wheel. 1. A graduated plate marked in circles of holes, for spacing in the cutting of gears. See INDEX PLATE ; INDEX MILLING MACHINE. 2. A graduated wheel in an instrument for di- viding or measuring angles, or in some forms of calculating instruments. An index wheel in the set works of a saw-mill is shown in Fig. 1442. 1 is the index wheel. 2 and 3, pointers. 4, coupling to which the set rod for working the knees is connected. 6, cog for working the index wheel. 18, support for the index wheel. The object of the device is to tell at any time the exact number of inches in any log on the carriage, between the knees and the saw. Also, to tell how much slab must be taken off the first cut, in order to have the lumber in the re- mainder of the log all come out of the required thickness. In'di-a Ink. The best India ink is still made in China, although its quality has deteriorated since glue made of buffalo instead of stag's horn has INDIA INK. 496 INDUCTION BALANCE. Index Wheel for Saw-logs. been employed as the vehicle for the lampblack. Its first invention is reported to have been between A. D. 220-419. '' Scientific American," xxxvi. 26. In'di-a Rub'ber. See CAOUT- CHOUC. In'di-a Rub'ber Spring. 1. (Rail- way.) A block of caoutchouc, usually cylindrical, and used in connection with steel springs, either as truck springs or for buffers and draw-springs. See Figs. 1142-1144, pp. 482, 483, " Meek. Diet." 2. ( Carriage. ) A spring used in connection with the ordinary elliptic springs in the running gear, or as a bumper spring between the bolster and bed of a wagon. 3. A strap of rubber used for a return motion in many species of light machinery. In'di-ca'tor. A marker of phenomena ; time, place, number, distance, recurrent position or pres- ence, etc. There are many instruments cited as (IRAPHS, METERS, SCOPES, etc. (see said titles in "Meek. Diet."), which are indi- cators ; such as, to cite one class of limited area, a Gas Indica- tor, of which Fire-damp Alarm, Grisoumeter, Carburometer, are specific titles. See list of MEASURING, CALCULATING, AND INDICATING IN- STRUMENTS, infra. A list of speed, course, grade, and distance indicators and recorders is given on p. 282, supra. Steam, electric, and other indicators are shown on pp. 1180, 1181, "Mech. Diet.,'' 1 and the same work contains in their alphabetical places notices of the following indica- tors: Door. Shoal. Stream. Leak. Speed. Street. Leeway. Station. Weather. See also : Channel depth, Echebarn If Durgos, Brazil . . * "Scientific American Sup.^ 1522. Diagrams, Martin . . * "Railroad Gazette," viii. 65. Bye-piece of microscope * Fig. 997, p. 323, supra. Gas *" Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' 1615. Guiding pulley for. Stanek, Aus. ... * " Engineering, " xxv. 65. Motion, Bowsher . . . * "American Slitter, '' iv. 30. Station "Scientific American Sup.,'' 865. Steam, detent for. Darke, Br * "Engineer," xli. 69. Steam engine, Thompson * " Scientific Amer.,'' xxxv. 278. Iii'di-rect' Point/ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Ord- nance.) The piece being once ^suitably adjusted by means of direct observations, the graduation of certain plates is observed, and subsequently the piece being marked, the piece is adjusted accord- ing to the graduations. See POLEMOSCOPE. See cut and description of the Prussian apparatus used in the sieges of the war 1870, 1871, at Strasbourg and elsewhere. "Revue d'Artillerie," iii. 2, and translated in "Ordnance Re- port,' 1 '' 1878, Appendix L, p. 107. See also ALTISCOPE, *l'ig. 136, p. 69, "Mech. Diet.'' 1 In-duced' Cur'rent. (Electricity.) A current of electricity generated in a coil of wire by induc- tion. In-duc'tion Ap'pa-ra'tus. See infra, also Apparatus { * p%?* y } " Scientific Amer. Sup.,-' 742. Balance. Edison .... * "Engineer,"* xlvii. 284. U. S. Pat. 203,019, Ap. 30, 1878. Hughes * "Engineering,'' 1 xxvii. 219,419, 458. * "Scientific American,'' 1 xl. 244. Coil, Hopkins *" Scientific Amer. Sup..'' 2548. Inductorium, Apps . . . * " Teleg. Journal," * v. 31, 151. (Large) * "Scientific Amer. , Sup.," 3647. * "Engineering.'' xxiii. 303. Eng *" Scientific Amer. .S'i/p.," 1173. In-duc'tion Bal'ance. An instrument for the eradication of induction currents in telegraph lines. Edison's induction balance, patented in England in 1877, and in the United States in 1878, was de- signed, in the terms of its specification " To compensate, neutralize, and destroy the extraneous or induced currents from contiguous circuits, so that the messages will not be in any manner interfered with by false Fig. 1444. currents. The invention consists, in the combination with the telephonic circuit, of an induction coil, connected with the contiguous circuits in such a manner that a reactionary induction is established in the telephonic line of a power corresponding and similar to the primary inductive action, but opposed to the same, so as to neutralize the action of the game." Fig. 1444 is " a diagram representing one of the forms in which the compensation is effected. The large coils, c c', are included in the telephonic circuit at each end of the lino. In the coils are iron cores, surrounded by a primary coil, the ends of which may or may not be connected to- gether, according to the compensation desired. " The iron core extends outside of the coils some distance. The circuits, No. 1 and No. 2, running in close proximity to the telephone wires, induce a momentary current in it every time the circuits are opened or closed, the strength of which is proportionate to the proximity of the wires to each other and the number of miles that they run side by side. These induced currents are in one direction in closing the circuit, and the opposite direction on opening the circuit. To neu- tralize the induced current from, say, No. 1 circuit, electro- magnets, e e', are placed at each terminal in the circuit of No. 1. " These magnets are then adjusted to approach the iron cores, k k f , until the induced current thrown into the coils, c and c', and telephone line by the action of the magnets, e and e', is equal, but opposite to, the induced current from the circuit No. 1 thrown into the telephonic wire by running parallel to it. Thus a perfect compensation is attained. " If the two lines run parallel for long distances the two ends of the primary coil on c and c' are connected together, and thus retard the magnetization and demagnetization of the cores, k k', and consequently lengthen the induced currents thrown into c and c f by the action of ' and e. " Having thus compensated for circuit No. 1, the compen- sation for circuit No. 2 is exactly similar. If the latter cir- cuit does not affect the telephone circuit as strongly as No. INDUCTION BALANCE. 497 INJECTOR. 1, the electro-magnets, ./"and/', are placed a greater distance from k and k' ; the latter may be elongated, and compensa- tion attained from many circuits by employing separate magnets in each circuit which affects the telephonic circuit." Fig. 1445 shows Prof. Hughes' apparatus. It consists of coils of wire, a telephone, a microphone, a three-cell Daniell battery, and a galvanometer, and was constructed by Prof. Hughes, to practically demonstrate his principle of compensation. The subject is carefully described, and the principles of the apparatus well treated in "Engineering," March 14, 1879. " The five rings of insulated iron wire attached to the board on the right, in the perspective view, Fig. 1445 represent three lines of telegraph running parallel. The Fig. 1445. Hughes' Induction Balance. two coils of each of the outside pair are joined so as to form one circuit, consisting of one black ring and one white one, each pair representing one line of a certain length, and be- tween them is a single coil representing an intermediate tele- graph line of a shorter length ; this difference of length was adopted by Professor Hughes in his experimental model in order to represent a somewhat complicated case, and to show that no matter what the relative lengths and distances apart of telegraph lines, their mutual induction may be compen- sated by suitably constructed and adjusted compensating coils. The compensation portion of the apparatus consists of three rings whose distances apart can be adjusted by slid- ing in or out the cylinder to which each of the outer coils is attached. On the left front corner of the board is the com- mutator, consisting of six stiff elastic wires, which can be sprung against twelve brass nails, and the connections are so arranged that the battery circuit may be sent through any one of the lines, with or without the balance in the cir- cuit, and each line can be made either a primary microphone circuit, or a secondary line in connection with a telephone, by simply placing the commutator wires against their proper contact pins. The microphone, and the clock (not shown), which is the source of sound, were, in the professor : s experi- ments, placed in a distant room, and the direction of the currents throughout the whole apparatus was under perfect control by means of the commutator to which we have re- ferred." "Engineering." In'duc-tom'e-ter. An invention by Dr. O. J. Lodge (England). A modified form of induction balance fitted for electric testing. "Engineering''' * xxx. 134. In-duc'to-phone (Electricity.) A sounding instrument in which vibrations transmitted through the primary are reproduced by a plate and mem- brane. Adams. " Telegraphic Journal " vi. 30. "Journal Society Telegraph Engineers " . . . . * vi. 476. In'duc-to'ri-um. The carrier of an induced current. Ganot. Subject considered,* with notices of Ruhmkorff, Br6guet, Masson, Fizeau, Neef, De la Rive, Verdu, Savart, Moncel ; Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures,'' article "Induction,''' tome iv., ed. 1877. Hopkins . . * Scientific American Supplement," 2548. In-fer'nal Ma-chine'. A name applied to Fieschi's battery of gun barrels with which he at- tempted to assassinate Louis Philippe. Thomasson . . * "Engineer,'' xli. 28. "Scientific American,*' xxxiv. 66. * "Scientific American Supplement," 149. 32 In'fil-tra'tion. (Mining.) The theory that vein filling was introduced as mineral water. In'fu-so'ri-al Earth. A species of earth, the remains of microscopic animals. It is used as an ingredient in dynamite. See p. 767, "Mech. Diet." Infusorial earth, uses of , " Scientific American," xxxv. 240. In'grain. As applied to carpets, ingraining is the union, according to the necessity of the pattern, where an interchange of yarn occurs between the plies or webs. The more frequently this occurs the better the fabric is ingrained. The ingrain carpet may be two-ply, three-ply, etc., according to the number of webs. In-jec'tion. (Mining.) The theory that vein filling was introduced by an igneous fluid and solidified. See IMPREGNATION. In-ject'ing Syr'inge. (Microscopy.) An instru- ment for injecting the mi- nute arteries of animal tis- sues with colored chemical substances, thus filling the small blood-vessels and ren- dering them visible under the microscope. In-jec'tor. 1. (Surgical.) An instrument of the na- ture of a syringe. The size and shape and the form and proportions of the noz- zle vary with the object. They may be classed as Bladder. Rectum. Embalming. Uterus. Hypodermic. Vagina. Dr. Parker's injection tubes for the urethra are bulb- pointed, soft rubber, velvet-eyed. Many other instruments with specific names have the same function, such as Eustachian Canal Injector, Double-current Catheter, Bladder-ivashins; Apparatus. Syringe, douche, irrigator are near'v synonymous. The embalming of bodies by thymol injection is the subject of a pamphlet by Dr. Wywodzoff, of St. Petersburg, Russia, Philadelphia, 1876, and the recipe has been cited under EMBALMING, p. 311, supra. 2. The injector as a device to feed water into boil- Friedmann Injector. INJECTOR. 498 INJECTOR. ers has been described on pp. 1185, 1186, Giffard's, and Seller s improvement on Gif- 'Mech. Diet." fard, are there shown, Fig. 2679. Various modifications and applications of the de- vice are now found. Fig. 1446 shows the Friedmann (Nathan & Dreyfus) non- lifting injector for locomotives. It is to be placed below the water line and can be used as a heating cock for the tender and water-tank by closing the overflow valve, the handle of which extends into the cab. His the handle of the overflow valve, to be used to close the overflow altogether or when the injector is to be used as a heater-cock to heat the water in the tender. G is the han- dle of the water valve ; the latter is seen to the right in the sectional view. On the left, in the sectional view, is the in- termediate nozzle by which the water supply is conducted in two annular streams to the condensing chamber of the in- jector when the steam jet is subjected to the action of both at separate points. The result is effective condensation of steam and the transfer of its velocity to the water. Fig. 1447 is the "Keystone > ; injector. The form shown is used when the supply water is received from a pressure, such as street main or elevated reservoir. It is placed in a hori- zontal position, the steam pipe attached to highest part of the boiler, an ordinary globe valve being placed on the steam pipe, and a valve or water cock on the water pipe. Fig. 1447. "Keystone '' Injector. Method of working : Open the steam valve to drive out any condensed steam there may be in the pipe, and close it again. Then open the water cock, then the steam valve, and move the plug B slowly forward with the handle b, until the water ceases at the overflow. If, while the injector is working, water should escape from the overflow, move the plug for- ward to reduce the supply of water. If steam escapes, move the plug backward, to give it more water. When the lever b is set so the injector works perfectly dry ; if you wish to stop feeding, close first the steam valve, then the water cock. Rue's " Little Giant " injector has an adjustable combining- tube moved by a lever. The motion to the left, as exhibited in the cut, Fig. 1448, gives more water, and contrariwise, less. The injector cannot be worked while the combining-tube is closed at either end. The injector lever should be in such posi- Fig. 1448. " Little Giant''' Injector. tion as to allow a sufficient quantity of water to condense the steam when the valve is full open. The combining-tube be- ing open at each end slides in stuffing boxes C C, on the left towards the steam supply pipe which projects into the water chamber, and at the other end the tube projects into the dis- charge chamber to meet the discharge tube which leads to the boiler. The space around the tubes, what may be called the second chamber, has an overflow valve which allows escape of water in the direction of the arrows, when the force of the steam has not sufficient force to cause the water to open the check valve in the boiler supply pipe beyond the discharge plug. When the water has sufficient momentum to open the check valve it causes an indraft at the overflow pipe which closes the valve against the ingress of air". Fig. 1449 shows the " Little Giant " injector attached to a stationary boiler. The parts arc indicated in the cut. Fig. 1449. " Little Giant '' Injector attached to Stationary Boiler. Fig. 1450 shows the arrangement of the Rue " Little Giant" injector as applied to locomotives. Directions for operating will sufficiently explain it in connection with what has been previously stated. Fig. 1450. Rue Locomotive Injector. To start the injector : Open lever valve from 1 to 2 ; when water shows at overflow R, open valve to 3 where it must re- main while the injector is at work. Regulate water by the combining-valve lever M. To stop the injector, close the valve A. To use as a heater : Close overflow by moving lever M to A. Then open lever valve on the left to 2 or 3 to admit steam re- quired. See also INSPIRATOR. See Austrian * "Engineering," xxvi. 86. Condenser, Bulkeley ... * "Engineer," xlvii. 332. Friedmann * "Sc. American Sup.,'" Gob. * Thurstori's "Vienna Expo. Rept.," ii. 138. Hydrants for fire extinction. Greathead, Br * "Engineering," xxviii. 80. GreshamSc Craven (16 Figs.), Br * "Engineer,-' xliii. 134. Gresham If Craven, Br. . . * "Engineer," xlix. 35. Hall * "Sc. American Sup.," 2436. Hart, Engl *" Sc. American Sup." 1779. Steam, Irwin * "Man. If Builder,'- xii. 132. "Iron Age," xxv., Mar. 25, 1. Locomotive, Korting, Br. . . * " Van Nostr. Mag.," xvi. 419. Korting, Engl * "Sc- American Sup.," 897. Korting, Br * "Engineering," xxii. 474. INJECTOR. 499 INK GRINDING MACHINE. " Clipper," Lynde . . * Locomotives, Mazza, Italy * Hot water for locomotives. Mazza Steam, on, Pocket .... * Principles Sam, Br. . Sellers . . Steam, Westley "Eclipse," Wilde 'Scientific Amer.," 1 xl. 37. 'Engineering," xxvii. 24. 'Iron Age,'- xxiii., Feb. 13, p. 9. ' Van ffostrand's Mag.,' 1 ' xvi. 209 ; * 341. 'Sc. American,'' xxxviii. 325. 'Engineer,'' xlviii. 462. 'Railroad Gaz." xxi. 323. 'Iron Age," xix.,June 7, p. 26. ' " English Mechanic " . . . xxvi. 172. I'ris-a'ted Wire, etc. An invention of No- bile, improved by Becquerel and M. Helouis, of France, in which metallic threads, lace, and rib- bons are irisated by means of binoxide of lead, pro- ducing delicate fibers of binoxide in concentric rings, with varied colors, like those of soap bubbles. Nobile used electro-chemical means. Becquerel devoted time to its elucidation, and substituted a solution of oxide of lead in potassa or soda. M. lle"louis has succeeded in irisating ribbons, threads, and bands, objects in some cases of such tenuity as to have a length of 32,800 feet to the pound. I'ris-a'tioii. Conferring the tints of nacre. To produce rainbow tints on metals : Dissolve 3 parts hy- posulphite of soda in 30 of water and mix in 1 of sugar of lead. The mixture is precipitated on being heated to 70 or 80 Re'aurnur, depositing sulphuret of lead. In the presence of any metal this deposit is made upon it. According to the thickness of the deposited layer various iridescent colors appear on the surface of the metal. To produce this colora- tion uniformly the object should be heated throughout. Helouis ....... "Technologists," xli. 444. Of glass ...... " Technologiste," xxxviii. 373. Frcmy If Cle'mandot . " Technologiste," xl. 68, 117. Paper by Lockert . . " Scientific American Sup.,"' 1382. I'ron. The history and divisions of the subject are given on pp. 1195-1206, "Mech. Diet." See also lists under FURNACE, p. 926, Ibid. ; and MET- ALLURGY, pp. 1424, 1425, Ibid. See also references : Art work ..... "Iron Age,'' xvii., May 11, p. 13. Assaying, Bruno Kerl . * "Scientific Amer. Sup.,-' 252, 340. Bridge, Kuilenberg, IIoll. * "Scientific American,'' xlii. 387. Building ...... " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xvi. 470. g News " . " Iron Age," May 3, p. 7 ; May 10, p. 3. "Scientific American Sup.," 1123. * "Iron Age," xix., Feb. 1, p. 1. * "Iron Age," May 3, p. 11. B ing uildin "Iron Age," xix.. Mar. 29, p. 23. "Scientific American Sup.," 1969- * "Engineer," 1. 101. pearl . . "Iron Age," xxv., Feb. 12, p. 5. . . . . " Scientific American," nxxiv. 358. exm. . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 2620. Cutter, " Old Colony " . Fence pickets .... Fortifications. Sheerness, Br. . . . House, Manchester, Br. Ingot press, Jones, Br. Inlaying with pea Japanese . Microscopical ex Nail works, Sable. Zuy if Co * "Iron Age," xix., April 5, p. 1. Pavement, Paris . . . " Scientific American," xxxiv. 242. Ships, American . . . " Scientific American," xxxvi. 273. Steel and iron, Siemens "Scientific Am. Sup.," 1112, 1121. Holley if Smith . . . "Scientific American Sup.," 1184. Steel and iron, advances, Akerman, Switz. . . '' Van Nostrand's Mag.," xix. 459. Work, ornamental . . "Iron Age," xix., May 10, p. 1. Works, Creusort plan . * "Engineering," xxvi. 275. I'ron A-mal'gam. Sideraphthite : composed of 65 parts iron, 23 nickel, 4 tungsten, 5 alumi- num, 5 copper. It resists sulphureted hydrogen, is not attacked by vege- table acids, and only slightly by mineral acids. It is useful as a substitute for standard silver, while it can be produced at a cost not exceeding that of German silver. For alloys which have to be silver-plated to prevent oxidation, the in- oxidizable iron, as the above is called, is stated to be a suc- cessful substitute. IRON BARROW. 505 IRON CUTTER. Ir'on Bar'row. A wrought-iron wheel barrow for moving iron in pig, sheets, or bars. I'ron Ce-ment'. Dried and powdered brick earth 4 Peroxide manganese 1 Fine iron filings (free from rust) 2 Common salt 0.6 Horax 0.5 Mix, grind, and make into a paste with water. Apply when freshly made. Warm, and then expose to a nearly white heat. Another : Sifted peroxide of manganese .... 1 Triturated zinc 1 Rub up into a pasty condition with common water glass. Apply while freshly made. See also recipes, p. 182, supra; and pp. 507-509, "Mech. Diet." I'ron Clad. The Italian iron-clads are at pres- ent the most formidable. "The new twin-screw double-turret vessel 'Dandolo,' belonging to the Royal Italian navy, excepting in the omis- sion of the internal torpedo deck, resembles the sister ship ' Duilio ' in her general arrangement, but has considerably surpassed her in speed. The ' Dandolo ' was built at the royal naval arsenal at Spezzia, under the supervision of Di- rector Borghi, at whose suggestion the whole of the bow plating is worked flush, instead of the plates overlapping as usual. The length of the vessel is 337' 8", the breadth 62' 3J" ; the mean draft at the trials with armament on board was 28' 9", giving a total displacement of 11,225 tons. The battery is heavily armored, and is placed in the middle of the vessel ; the two turrets rise above the weather-deck, and are placed diagonally in the battery, so as to enable all four guns to be fired fore and aft. The armor of the turrets is impene- trable to all except the heaviest modern artillery. Each tur- ret contains two 100-ton Armstrong guns, made at Elswick, having a bore 17.72", throwing a shot 2,018 pounds, with a maximum of 511 pounds of powder, the ordinary charge being 355 pounds. The turrets and guns are moved and worked by a complete system of hydraulic gear, made at Els- wick. The loading is also done by the same means, the ram- mers being below the weather-deck, and arranged to enter the gun when the muzzles are depressed for the purpose. Between the turrets is situated the mast, which really as- sumes the function of a look-out tower, as there are no sails. " The ' Dandolo ' carries four large steam launches and eight other boats, all hung upon hinged davits which are worked from the steam capstan, and which will hoist them right on board. The ' Dandolo ' is propelled by twin screws \\cirked by two independent pairs of engines, which were contracted for to indicate a maximum power of 7,500 horses. These engines, together with the pumping and blowing en- gines, were constructed by Messrs. Maudslay Sons & Field, of London. Each set of engines is placed in a separate water- tight compartment, one at each side of the vessel ; instead of being side by side, they are situated one in advance of the other, the alternate spaces being occupied by the magazines, which are placed immediately below the turrets. Each pair of engines has one high-pressure cylinder, 64" in diameter, ami one low-pressure, 120" in diameter, with a stroke of 4'. Steam of 6;") pounds pressure is supplied by 8 large oval and double-ended boilers, having 32 furnaces in all. Four boil- ers aro placed forward of the engines, and the other 4 aft ; but each pair of boilers is contained in a separate water- tight, compartment. The chimneys, which are ample in size and height, are built of 1" plate from the main deck to the flying deck above the turrets, so as to enable them to with- stand the great shock produced by the discharge of the guns. "The 'Dandolo' ran to Genoa and back without stop- ping, in 6 hours and 28 minutes, with a mean indicated horse-power of nearly 7,200, and a maximum of 7,415 horses, and the speed obtained was 15J knots, with a consumption of 51J tons of coal. On the measured knot trial a speed of 15.55 knots was obtained with 8,050 horse-power. No steam blast was used on any of the trials. The engines worked with perfect regularity throughout, giving a maximum num- ber of revolutions of 74 per minute, the pitch of the screw being Wf 6"." London " Times." See the following references : " Abyssinia," Br. . . . * Barnard Sf Wright's "Rept. U. S. Engineers," 1871. " Alexandra " . . . . * "Scientific Am.," xxxvi. 258, 261. "Iron Age," xix., March 8, p. 1. Australian, " Cerberus " * "Scientific American," xxxiv. 143. Austrian * "Engineer," xli. 243. * "Scientific American Sup.," 379 " Cerberus," Br. . . . * Barnard $ Wright. "U. S. Engi- neer's Report,'" 1871. Circular, Russian . . "Iron Age," xvii., March 23, p. 7. "Engineering," xxi. 112,284,299. 307. Circular, Russian Cyclads . . . . " Devastation " . . " Dreadnaught," Br. " Duilio," Italian "Foo-so," Japanese . . " Hamidieh," Turkish . " Huascar," Peru " Huascar," after conflict " Independencia," Braz. " Inflexible," Br. . . "Italia" . . . "Li-Ki," Japanese " Magdala," . . "Scientific American Sup.," 1487. page 241 supra. * "Engineer," xli. 75, 93, 244. * Barnard $ Wright's "Rept. U. S. Engineers," 1871. 'Scientific Am. Sup.," 959, 2012. ' Engineer," xli. 359. 'Engineer," xlvi. 78. 'Iron Age," xvii., June 1, p. 1. ' Engineer," xliii. 162. ' Van Nostrand's Mag.," xxii. 437. 'Scientific American," xxxvi. 57. 'Engineering," xxiv. 371. 'Scientific American," xxxvi. 370. 'Engineering,-'' xxviii. 455. "Engineer," xlviii. 439. "Scientific American Sup.," 1861. * "Engineering," xxv. 107, 110. * "Engineer," xlv. 195. itific American," xxxix. 5. * Barnard If Wright's ''Kept. U. S. Engineers," 1871. " Memdouhiye," Turkish * "Engineer," xliii. 65. " Nelson," Br. . . . * "Engineering," xxii. 434. "Scientific American Sup.," 804. " Novgorod," engines of * "Engineering," xxi. 275. " Payki Shereef," Turk. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 119. Peruvian " Polyphemus," Br. " Redoubtable," Fr. Swedish gunboat . . "T^me'raire " . . . "Thunderer,". . , " Vanguard," sunken " Vasco de Gama, ' f "Engineering," xxviii. 12. "Iron Age," xxiv., Aug. 28, p. 3. " Scientific American," xli. 306. "Scientific American Sup.," 660. * Barnard ff Wright's "Rept. U. S. Engineers," 1871, Plate XXIII., p. 120. "Engineer," xli. 359. * Barnard $ Wright's " Rept. U. S Engineers," 1871. 'sunken . "Scientific American Sup.," 1088. ama," Port. "Engineering," xxii. 17. "Scientific American Sup.," 570. See ARMOR PLATING, Figs. 337-358, and Plate IV., "Mech. Diet.," pp. 150-155 ; also ARMOR PLATE, p. 47, supra. See also comparison of iron clads, Fig. 2703, p. 1202, "Mech. Diet. ; " also Clark's U. S. Patents, No. 231,899. I'ron Cut'ter. 1. A machine for cutting iron in bar or sheet. See SHEARS, Figs. 4929-4934, pp. 2136,2137, "Mech. Diet." 2. A circular saw for cutting hot iron. A number of the supporting brackets are fitted on a rod, 3' to 4' long, so arranged as to be set up in the position shown, or dropped down out of the way, as the length of the iron being cut may require. Adjustable gages for determi- ning the length of the pieces cut are provided on the oppo- site side of the machine from the one shown in the engra- Fig. 1463. Iron Cutter. IRON CUTTER. 506 IRON PLATING. ving. The belt coming down from a shaft above becomes slightly tightened as the saw is pressed forward to the iron, and loosened again when the saw returns to the position shown. The purpose of this arrangement is to avoid un- necessary strain tipon the saw spindle when the machine is not in use. and to permit it to run continuously, a matter of convenience when a number of workmen use the same ma- chine, as it saves stopping and starting each time a piece is to be cut. Richards. See also IRON SAW. I'r oii-ing Ma-chine'. A machine for press- ing clothes, fabrics, or hats, to smooth and polish the surface. Sanson's machine, Fig. 1464, is a pressing machine for tailors' use. By means of the swivel Fig. 1464. frame moving on friction roller, the iron can be moved in any direction. The lifting and depress- ing is parallel and evenly distributed over the surface of the board. The pressure is by treadle which is counterbal- anced, and is adjust- able up to 1,000 pounds. The ma- chine has wide and narrow pressing boards, for optional use. The iron is moved by hand, and heated by gas from a flexible tube. Thurston''s polish- ing machine for a laundry obtains the pressure by a spiral spring communica- ting with the iron by means of universal joints and levers. The table is stationary, and the pressure of the iron can be regulated by a lever to suit the work. Walker's machine for tailors' use has an iron swiveled at the end of a double-jointed arm, free to turn about a ver- tical shaft, and raised or lowered by a spring and foot-lever. The iron is moved by hand and has an inserted iron heater. In the Starrs presser, the goose may be turned in any di- rection at the end of an arm, connected by a pivoted link with the upper end of a D-shaped arm supported on a hori- zontal bearing. The pressure is by a foot-lever ; the iron is heated by an inserted hot plate and is moved by hand. In Leopold's ironing and polishing machine the article is laid upon a horizontally reciprocating and automatically reversible board. The iron is heated by steam, and has a short, rapid reciprocating movement by means of a short vertical shaft, rotated from a horizontal shaft held in an arm adapted to be vibrated horizontally. The iron support has a ball-joint and a handle which is grasped by the opera- tor, and is moved over the material on the bed while being reciprocated mechanically. Tyler's machine has a small polishing iron with a con- cavity in its upper surface, and is pressed down on the ma- terial by means of an adjustable spring on a hinged arm, pivoted at the outer end of a swinging frame. The table is adjustable. Fig. 1465 is Osterheld Sf Eickemeyer's machine for ironing the sides, crowns, and tips of wool hats. An iron frame is Fig. 1465 Sansoii's Pressing Machine. secured on the edge of the finishing-bench ; on it is a re- volving table which supports the block on which the hat is drawn. The iron is heated by a Bunsen gas-burner fed by a flexible tube, and the lever which connects the iron with the joint is a wrought-iron pipe, and serves as a leader to the upright pipe and forms a chimney which produces suf- ficient draft to carry off all the gases and prevent the forma- tion of soot and the soiling of the hats. Fig. 1466 is a block ironing machine. The iron is of a Fig. 1466. Block Ironing Mac/line. shape to suit the object which is blocked, and the object is rotated beneath the counterbalanced lever which carries the iron. The pressure is by means of a treadle. Kig. 1467. I'ron-ing Stove. A stove specially adapted for heating smoothing irons. Fig. 1467 is a French four- neau d repasser, a cast-iron stove, adapted for 7 irons. I'ron-ing Ta'ble. A ta- ble specially adapted for use in ironing clothes. Gilbert's table is capable of be- ing folded, and when extended, af- fords a long board for use in ironing dresses, shirts, and trousers, which may be conveniently slipped on to it. (See Fig. 1468.) Fig. 1469 showe a French steam- heated table for pressing pantaloons or coats. It is a. hollow iron arm projecting from the wall, and hav- ing the necessary pipe connections for steam and condensed water re- spectively. See also LAUNDRY. Hogin . *"Sc. Amer., r xl. 194. I'ron Fla'ting. For coating copper plates with French Ironing Stove. iron : Ten parts of f errocyanide of potassium and 20 parts of tartrate of soda are dissolved in 220 parts of distilled water, adding a solution of three parts of sulphate of iron in 50 parts of water. Caustic soda solu- Fig. 1468. Hat-ironing Machine. Ironing Table. IRON PRESERVING PROCESS. 507 IRON STEEL. Fi<>l- shaped. Ker'a-tome Scis'sors. (Surgical .) Another name for iridectomy scissors, a, Fig. 4672, p. 2054, "Mech. Diet." See KERATOME) p. 1223, IRIDEC- TOME, p. 1195, "Mech. Diet. ' Keg Leveler and Trusser. Ker'o-sene. ( Wax-light.) From Kypfc, wax, and a customary termination, as in camphene, par- affine, gelatine, etc. The trade-mark name of the hydro-carbon oil, made for lighting purposes by the " Downer Kero- sene Oil Company." The distillation of petroleum gives a large number of prod- ucts, which are known in a practical way by their gravity and flashing points. Gravity Beaume. Gasoline ............ 90- 80 Benzine ............ 74 68 Naphtha ............ 65 -62 Kerosene ........... 59-38 Between th chemical treat suitable for burning in ordinary flat-wick lamps. The fire- test of the 59 B. is 90 Fab., and that of the 38 B. = 200 Fah. ; between the stated limits are numerous grades capa- ble of segregation, but for practical purposes they are com- bined, with a result of a fire test quality for the whole of 150 Fah. The lighter grades of petroleum, having the gravity 90 -80 B., are used in the apparatus for carbureting air and gas. The grade known as benzine, 74-80 B., is a substi- tute for turpentine in paint, and is largely used in scouring and cleaning. Naphtha, 65-62 B., is used in paints and varnishes, and also as a solvent for caoutchouc. The kerosene oil known as Mineral Sperm (Downer Kero- sene Oil fo. ) has a specific gravity of 36 B. , and a fire test of 300 Fah. It is as safe as fatty oils, and is burned in lamps of special construction. The still heavier products, 32 to 22 B., making in the mixture 24-26 B., are lubricating oils, and yield from 20 to 25^ of paraffine wax, which has to be removed in order that the oil may remain fluid. Ker'o-sene Stove. See PETROLEUM STOVE, Figs. .3664, 3665, p. 1676, "Mech. Diet." Ker'o-sene Test'er. See PETROLEUM TESTER, Fig. 3666. p. 1676, " Mech. Diet." Ket'tle. A boiler. That shown in Fig. 1504 is a compact form of double-bottomed boiler, the he ranges 59-38 the oil, when purified by- atment, is sufficiently mobile and colorless to be space being heated by steam introduced through the trunnion on which the kettle may be tipped to discharge its contents. Used as an agricultural or laundry boiler. Kier, boiling and bleaching, llr. . "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1684. Fig. 1504. Double-bottomed Bascule Kettle. Key. A fastening piece to secure parts ; a gib or spline, a forelock, a pin, a cotter, as the case may be. See the above definitions in " Mech. Diet.," and Fig. 2742, p. 1225, Ibid. Fig. 1505 shows a number of forms : headed, plain, taper, stud, bracket, split, etc. Keys. See also : Ancient, Munich . . * "Scientific American,'' xli. 25. Fastener, Johnson . . * "Scientific American," xliii. 54. Screw-headed , Oliver . * " Scient ific Am erican , " x x xix . 121 . Keyways, cutting, Rose *" Scientific American Sit//.," 1255. Drilling, Sharp, Stewart if Co., Br. * "Engineer,'' xli 187. Fitting, Rose .... "Scientific American Sup.," 888. Key Grind'ing. An application of the emery wheel to the dressing of keys, cotters, splines, gibs, etc. See reference to many machines of the class, p. 312, supra ; and Fig. 6083, p. 2458, "Mech. Diet." Key'-head Bolt. One with a protuberance 06 on the chamfer of its head, to prevent ' its rotation when the nut is revolved. Key'-seat Rule. An instrument by the aid of which parallel lines on shafts for key-seats, mortises, etc., can be readily and accurately drawn. Kig. 150 Ken-head Bolt. Key-seat Rule. Key'-way Cutter. A species of planing ma- chine for cutting seats in the center holes of wheels and pulleys. See Fig. 2748, p. 1227, "Mech. Diet:' See also French . . . * " Engineering,'- xxi. 88 On cutting and fitting . * "Sc. American Sup., SSS, Lax>. Drilling, Sharji, Steicnrl if Co.,Br. * "Engineer," xli. 187. KIBBLING MILL. 519 KNEE-JOINT APPARATUS. KibTaling Mill. A hand grinding-machine f r mashing grain for stock. By it oats, etc., are flat- tened and broken, so as to insure more perfect di- gestion. Kiln. A furnace for F 'g- 1508 - baking, fritting, calcin- ing, firing, etc. See Brick. Malt. Fai'euce. Pipe. Porcelain. Pottery, etc. King'-bolt Plate. 1. (Railway.) A plate on the floor of a car con- cealing the head of the king-bolt, which may be withdrawn when the cover is removed. 2. (Carriages.) A plate on the fore axle of a vehicle bushing the hole through which the king- bolt passes. King'-bolt Tie. ( Vehicles. ) A s a d d 1 e piece on a king-bolt, having opening at the ends for clip bolts. Kite. A form of kite for lifting a person from the ground in order to reconnoiter an enemy's po- sition, has been tried at Chatham, Br. The inven- tion of Mr. J. Sirnmonds. A series of kites of rela- tively increasing size are flown, one attached to the other in series, the first assisting in flying the scrond, and so on. "Iron," viii. 300. Knap'ping Ham'mer. A soft steel hammer, disk shaped or sharp edged, for breaking flint Hakes into lengths for gun flints. See Evans- "Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain," p. 17, et seq. See GUN-FLINT. Knap'ping Ma-chine'. A form of stone- breaking machine in which the stone is broken by a sudden blow, rather than \>y a sustained pressure, which is said to have the effect of more evenly cubing it, and producing less chips and dust. The motion in the Baxter (Br.) machine, Fig. 1509, is ob- Fip. 1509. Kibbling Mill. Knapping Machine. tained by a crank radius-link and lever. The blow is given by a quarter revolution of the fly-wheel shaft, the jaw re- mains stationary half a revolution, and retires during the remaining quarter. Knead'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for in- corporating the ingredients of dough. See DOUGH BRAKE, Fig. 858, and DOUGH MIXEK, Fig. 859, p. 270, supra. Boland's kneading machine, shown in Pig. 1510, is an en- deavor to approximate in machinery the action of Innniui arms. The hand process has a dividing and rolling action ; the hands in contact, and the arms bowed, a sweeping mo- tion is made obliquely down through the mass of dough, which is divided, turned over, and thrown on top of the re- mainder. Until the mass attains a certain amount of solid- ity the action is prinei pally as described, and may be corn- Fig. 1510. French Kneading Machine. pared to the beating of eggs with a spoon in a bowl, the mass being divided, and one portion flirted on top of the re- mainder. The action of the machine is a very close imita- tion of the human arm method. The subsequent pommeling of the tough dough can be dis- pensed with in great measure, as the capability of the ma- chine for cutting and- mixing the dough and slapping the masses together is much greater than that possible with large quantities by the human arms. Knee Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) Apparatus for fracture, luxation, weakness or deformity of the knee. See ANCHYLOSIS APPARATUS, Fig. 202, p. 99, "Meek. Diet." ; PATELLA APPARATUS, Fig. 3567, p. 1636, Ibid. Also, KNOCK-KNEE BRACE, BOW-LEG BRACE, etc., referred to under CURVATURE APPARATUS, supra. See, also, GENU-VALGUM BRACE, p. 397, supra. See, also, Patella Apparatus, Figs. 119-121, Part IV., Tie- mann : s "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." 1 Anchylosis Apparatus, Ibid Figs. 90-92. Sayre's knee-joint apparatus, Ibid. . . Figs. 93-97. Sayre's knee compressor, Ibid. . . . Fig-. 195. Andrews' splint, Ibid^ Fig. 188. Andrews' straightening apparatus, Ibid. Fig. 190. Holth.ouse' 1 s extender, Ibid Fig. 145. Hooper's extender, Ibid Fig. 806. Hutchinson's apparatus, Ibid Figs. 94. etc., Sup. Stittman's splint, Ibid. ...... Figs. 95i etc. Sup. Knee Cap. (Surgical.) A water or ice-bag for topical applications to the knee. Knee'-i-ron. An angle-iron at the junction of timbers in a frame. Knee'-joint Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgioal.) See KNEE APPARATUS, where a diversity of devices are referred to ; including those for curvature, deformity, reduction, straighten- ing, etc. Dr. Hooper's knee-joint apparatus, shown in Fig. 1511, is an extension de- vice to prevent the articu- lating surfaces from com- ing in contact, pending the suppression of inflammation of the parts. To prevent false anchylosis of the joint flexion is permitted. The loss of extension during flexion is overcome by placing a helix spring in curved tubes fastened on each side of the in- strument shown, three inches below the joint. At the same distance above the joint are fixed rods, curved to the same arc as the tubes. The free ends of the rods fit into the tubes and rest upon the upper end of the springs. By this arrangement extension is increased Knee-joint Apparar by flexion. The play of the joint al- tus. Fi.*// the specific gravity. t The centesimal galactometer is the in- ; vention of Dinocourt. It has two scales : one for pure milk, and colored yellow ( on the staff of the instrument ; the other for skimmed milk, colored blue on the $ instrument. " The first degree on the top of the ^ scale is marked 50, which corresponds to 3 the sp.gr. 1.014. The marks following T extend from 50 to 100 (sp. gr. 1.029), fc and over. Each degree starting from n 100, in mounting up to 50, represents a hundredth of pure milk ; the degrees formed by a line are equal, as 50, 52, 54, etc. ; the degrees formed by a dot are unequal, as 81, 83, 85, etc. To illustrate by an example : If the galactometer is sunk to the 85th degree, that will indi- cate 85 hundredths of pure milk, and consequently that 15 hundredths of wa- ter has been added to this milk ; if sunk to 60, that will indicate 40 hundredths of water, or four- tenths of water added. " The skim-milk scale is, like the first, divided into hundredths (100), of which the first 50 have been cut off as useless, as in the case of the other scale, each degree commencing from 100 to 50, and mounting upwards represents a hundredth of pure skimmed Centesimal Galac- tometer. Fig. 1522. Lacto-densim- tt er. milk, consequently the manner of estimating the quantity of water added to skim milk is absolutely the same as for pure milk with cream." u Mott.'~ The instrument of Bouchardat fy Quevenne is shown in Fig. 1521. It differs from that Fig. Io21. o f Dinocourt in the division of its scale. The shaft bears three graduations. The middle one comprises the figures between 14 and 42, answering to 1.014 and 1.042 specific gravity. For instance, if the instrument be sunk in a liquid up to the figure 29, this signifies that a liter of this milk weighs 1.029 grams, and that its density is consequently 1.029. The instrument has been graduated for the temper- ature of + 15 C. The scale on the right is employed when it is certain that the milk acted on is not skimmed. This scale shows what are the vari- ations of the density of milk in proportion as water is add- ed, and the figures .1, .2, etc. , indicate that the liquid ope- rated upon has been mixed with this proportion of water. The scale on the left contains the same indications relative to skimmed milk. Milk is marked pure on this instru- , f i m . ment, between the specific , ^ v i T , ' gravities 1.030 and 1.034; (N. T.) Laetom- skimmed milk is marked pure between the gravities 1.034 and 1.037. In graduating the Board of Health lactometer, shown in Fig. 1522, the 100 is placed at the standard 1.029, and at 1.000, the gravity of water, the intermediate spaces being divided into 100 equal divisions. The point to which the lactometer sinks in the milk under examination indicates the percentage of milk in 100 parts. Thus, if the lactometer sinks to 80, the milk must consist of, at least, 20 per cent, of water and 80 of milk. This assumes the original milk to have had ,a specific gravity of 1.029 ; but if the milk had originally a gravity of 1.034. it would require 16.67 per cent, of water to bring it down to 1.029, and 20 per cent more water to lower it to 80 on the lactometer. The temperature at which examinations are made with the lactometer should be 60 F. The following is the rapid method of chemical analysis of milk, devised by Prof. Lehmann, of Munich. A weighed quantity, say 9 or 10 grams of milk, is diluted with an equal weight of water, and poured out in a thin layer upon a porous plate of burnt clay, very dense and fine- grained. The water of the milk, as well as the milk sugar, albumen, and a portion of the salts dissolved in it, are ab- sorbed by the clay plate, while the total amount of fats and caseine in the milk remain on the plate in the form of a thin skin or film. This film is easily removed with a horn spat- ula, and then dried and weighed. If it is desired to deter- mine the fats alone, this film may be extracted with ether, and thus the two most important constituents of milk very quickly determined. In many cases it is sufficient to know the total weight of the principal solid constituents of the milk, hence also the amount of water, for which scarcely two hours are required. This method also possesses the ad- vantage that a great number of samples can be tested at once without much trouble. It also does away with the use of numerous costly platinum dishes and troublesome water baths, which are always getting dry if not carefully watched. The operation is so simple that it can be used by any person who possesses an accurate balance and set of weights. Comparing the milk of the cow, mare, and sow by compo- sition, the latter is found very much the richest, as the fol- lowing analyses show : Cow. Mare. Sow. Water 8700 90 310 81 760 Fats Albuminoids . Sugar .... 4.00 4.10 428 1.055 1.953 6 285 5.830 6.180 5 335 Mineral matter . . 0.62 0.397 0.895 100.00 100.000 100.000 LACTOMETER. LAKE. Rich as sow's milk is, it is remarkable that the lactometer shows no cream. Drying on the water-bath, it exhales the odor of roast pork, and on putrefying, that of putrid bacon. See Horsley " Tecknologiste, r xxxviii. 172. * "Scientific American,'' xxxiv.203. Banks- Schubler . . . Laboulaye "s "Dictionnaire, etc.,' 1 ii., cap., "Lait." Lactoscope, Huesner "Scientific American,'' xxxvi. 21; xxxvii. 244. Paper by Dr. Mott . .* "Sc.Am. Kvp.," 1050, 1131. And analysis .... "Scientific American,'' xxxiv. 3. Refer to "Jour. Phar. et Che.m.,"' 3d series, 1844, t. v. p. 137 ; "Jour. C/iem. Medic.,'' 4th series, 1856, t. 11, p. 342- 401. See "Die. Ency. Set. Med.," p. 144 Lait. "Repertoire de Pharmacie," Juillet. 1856. Tilloch's "Philosophical Magazine*' Nos. 57, 58, p. 241. See also PIOSCOPE. Lac'to-scope. The lactoscope of Dr. Heus- ner of Barman is based on the opacity of pure milk. It consists of two round plates of glass about the size of a watch crystal, placed parallel and held about \" apart by a metal strip, which passes between them, dividing the space between them into two sections. In the lower section is placed and secured some pure milk, or, better, some perma- nent white fluid of precisely the same opacity as pure milk. On one of the glass plates are some fine black lines. The up- per section is filled with the milk to be tested, and secured by an elastic band. On holding the apparatus between the eye and the light, the black lines being on the side opposite the eye, the black lines will be seen more distinctly through the less opaque medium. If the milk to be tested is less opaque than the normal liquid, as shown by the lines being more distinctly visible through it, the milk has probably been watered or skimmed. Compare DIAPHONOMETER, p. 255, supra. Lac Work. A very ex- tensive industry in India. - There are many styles : The surface of furniture, box- es, or triiiquetry are covered with the lac, and this is laid on in colors, and the designs cut through to expose lower colors. The surface thus prepared is etched or painted. A drab ground, ornamented with geometrical flower forms, in colors. Kig. 1523. These are but a few. The subject may be pursued in Dr. George C. M. Birdwooil's "Handbook to the British, In- dian Section.'" Paris, 1878; pp. 73, 74, 1st ed. Lad'der. A portable frame with steps. A list is given on p. 1244, " Mech. Diet." A protean step-ladder is shown in Fig. 1523. It is shown closed, extended, on stairs, on winding stairs, etc Covert. Lad'der Truck. A vehicle for carrying fire- ladders and hooks. A hook-and-ladder truck. Fur- nished with (say) 5 ladders, 6 hand-hooks, 2 axes, 2 picks, 4 lanterns, rope-reel, drag-rope, and sidc- ropes, etc. La'dle. (Founding.) A pan or kettle with a handle, to hold molten metal for pouring. Fig. 1524. Protean Step-ladder, Balanced Foundry Ladle. The smaller are known as bullet or plumber's ladles, etc. ; the larger, as shanks. The glass ladle is a cuvette. Fig. 1524 shows a balanced foundry label of large size, with a capacity up to 8 tons. It pours from either side, and is tipped by gearing from the hand-wheel. It is slung by the bail above from the chain of the crane, and turns on pivots. A nickel-plated concave disk may be attached to the han- dle of a foundry ladle to protect the workman from heat and reflect light upon the mouth of the flask. La'dle Fur'nace. A gas furnace in which the metal to be melted is contained in a ladle over the Bunsen jet. Its capacity is (say) ladles of 6" diameter, to melt 6 or 8 pounds of zinc, tin, lead, etc. See Fig. 1525. Lag'ging. (Mining.) The timber over and upon the sides of a drift. Lag Screw. An iron screw, driven by :i wrench, but screwing into wood ; securing the lag- ging around a cylinder or other object. See Fig. 1526. It has a square or hexagonal head, a wood screw-thread out on it, and is round under the head. Lake. A precipitate of hydrate of alumina, formed in a solution containing an organic color- ing matter : as madder lake ; cochineal lake, etc. LAKE. 525 LAMP FURNACE. Ki2. 1526. Fig. 1525. Screw. Yellow lakes for dyes are produced from quercitron bark, yellow berries, yellow wood and annatto. Blue lakes are furnished by litmus derived from lichens found in Southern Europe, Africa, South America, and the Kast Indies, and indigo. lied and violet lakes are obtained from cochineal, madder Brazil wood, lac dye, and safflower. Lam'i-na-ted Beam. One of the methods of forming a curved beam. They are as follows : The Scarfed, Flitched, Bent, Laminated. The latter is made of thin planks or boards, bent to shape laid together and secured to form an integral beam as in Figs. 312-316, pp. 138-139, "Meek. Diet." Lamp. A device in which a liquid oil or grease is burned in a wick. Kendall's hydrostatic safety lamp is shown in Fig. 1527. The water is shown by horizontal shading, the oil by oblique! The water forms a seal for the oil, and forces the latter up the wick tube. Lavendar'x steam lamp (Br.) for collieries consists of a lantern 18" square, with a fun- Fig. 1528. nel 24" high. Into this is introduced a jet of steam, about 1-16" in diameter, the object of which is to create a par- .ii'iium in the lan- Kiir. 1T.27. tern. The consequence is, that the surrounding air is forced through the burner of the lamp, causing almost complete combustion of the oil. A very brilliant light is thus pro- duced, the increase in brilliancy being partly owing to the products of combustion being continuously removed and a volume of fresh air introduced. The results obtained from a 4" wick have been calculated as equal to a light of upward of 600 sperm candles. See Jobard, Fr., * Laboulaye's "Dictionnaire," etc., iv., cap. "Eclairage," Fig. 3518. Zimmerman's hydro-electric self-lighting light is shown in Fig. 1528. The lamp has a Dobereiner apparatus and gal- vanic battery combined with any form of burner or kind of illuminating' liquid. The Dobereiner lamp A serves as the pedestal, and contains the acid, water, and zinc. The gas ascends the vertical tube B, passes through the valve at C, and escapes at an orifice just below the burner. is a galvanic battery, which is normally out of action, but set in activity by pressing a knob, and has wire connecting with the hydrogen outlet near the burner, heating an electrode red-hot at the same moment that hydrqgen is allowed to escape. The hydro- gen is iuiiamed and the wick lighted by the single pressure on the knob. Blast lamp, Br. . . . * "Engineer," xlii. 309. Cleaner "Scientific American Sup^,'' 773. Electric, Rapieff . "Teles;. Journal," vi. 333, *! *430. * "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxix. 358. * "Mining if Sc. Press," xxxv. 41. "Iron Age," xx., Aug. 9, p. 11. Hyd HyiJro-tlectric Light. Extinguisher, Hale . Mining, Boesc/t . . Safety-valve, Lewars . Self-lighting time lamp Covert * "Scientific American,'' xl. 182. Steam lamp for collieries. Lavenciar, Br. . . . " Scientific American Sup," 764. Wick trimmer, Banni/ir, * "Scientific American," xxxv. 131. Dissertation on lamps. Report of Azel Ames, Jr., "Cen- tennial Reports," v., Group. XIV., pp. 23-31. Lamp'black Ap'pa-ra'tus. A black pigment obtained from the smoke of burning resin, fat, or gas. See p. 1247, " Mech. Diet." See Mallet's report, " Centennial Exhibition Reports," vol. iv., Group III. Lamp-black apparatus, * p. 110 ; Nejfs, * p. 111. Lamp'black. United States patents on Lamp- black apparatus : Number. Chater, N 1,358 Mini, J. G .... 3,824 Clark, E 6,001 Mortimer, C 7,266 Oriswold. G. W 11,326 Jaeger, \V. G. W 11,331 Both, J. A 17,519 Child, R. S 32,753 Lundgren, J.E 42,257 Weisman, J 43,444 Prenatt, A 50,493 Millochan, A 72,068 Perlee, R. N 72,078 Matlack, M 75,943 Millochan, A 84,131 Vander Weyde, P. H 87,382 O'Reilly, P 91,038 Brenton,J 95,977 Farrar, A 96,409 Howarth, J 131,446 Wilson, G. F 90,327 Rogers, J 146,961 Tait, A. H 148,778 Bottenberg, J. H 153,234 Farrar, A 154,467 Neff, P., & L. S. Fales 159,440 Neff, P 160,785-160,789 Neff, P 162,492 Neff, P . . . 162,679 Neff, P 163,027 Neff, P 166,936 Lamp Ce-ment'. For attaching the brass col- lar to the glass socket on the reservoir of a petro- leum lamp : Boil 3 parts resin with 1 part caustic soda and 5 parts water. Mix with half the weight of gypsum. It sets in 45 minutes. Zinc white, white lead, or precipitated chalk may be substi- tuted for the gypsum, but harden more slowly. Lamp Fur'nace. One in which a lamp in contradistinction to a gas jet, Bunsen burner, or charcoal is used as a means of heating. LAMP FURNACE. 526 LAPPER. Used in laboratories: Griffin's for instance ; see "Chemi- cal Handicraft," * p. 123. Lamp Jack. (Railway.) A hood over a lamp chimney on the roof of a car. Lamp Stove. See PETROLEUM STOVE, Figs. 3364, 3365, p. 1676, "Mech. Diet." Laii'ca-shire Bpil'er. The long horizontal two-flue boiler is an improvement upon the inven- tion of the illustrious Smeaton, the originator of the flue traversing the boiler. Smeaton's boiler had a single flue ; the common boiler used on our west- ern rivers has two ; but in neither case is the fur- nace or course of draft the same as in the Lanca- shire boiler, as it is called in England. The front of each flue in the latter boiler, shown in Fig. 1529, constitutes the furnace, and the volatile products of combus- tion pass backward through the flues into a back chamber, revert along each side, dive under the front, and then pass underneath the length of the boiler and escape by a sub-Hue to the stack. The Cornish boiler has but a single flue and is sometimes mounted with side reverting flues ; it usually carries a lower pressure than the Lancashire boiler and is of larger diame- ter. The Lancashire has some advantages, especially where great power is required. In large boilers, the two flue tubes form good stays for the flat ends ; the fire grates can be made of the proportions which give the greatest economy. If the Fig. Fig. 1530. Forms of La The next two are straight spear and curved probe bistouries. The next two are a tenaculum and a gum lancet. The next are sharp and blunt point teuotomes Next, tenotome and scalpel. Land'ing Gaff. (Fishing.) A barbed spear for landing fish. Land'ing Net. (Fishing.) A bag-net with hoop mouth for landing a hooked fish. Land Line (Fishing.) Line passing from the end of the seine to the shore. Land Roller. An implement for leveling land and breaking clods. See ROLLER. See also CLOD CRUSHER, Fig. 638, p. 201, supra. Land'scape Mir'ror. A mirror which condenses or diminishes the view into a perspective effect. A Claude, Lor- raine. Lan'tern. (Founding.) A per- forated core-barrel, generally short, and of large diameter. A portable case for protecting a light. Miller's, Coogan * "Amer. Miller," vii. 167. White Slides . Vertical Magic lantern Painting . . Reflecting, Knight Appleby Bros. Lancashire Boiler. (English.) flues are stoked alternately a more even temperature is main- tained ; the heat in one furnace is always at its highest when the other is at its lowest, and the two flues meeting in one combustion chamber, it follows that the gases from the hot- test furnace ignite and consume the thick smoke from the other which is being stoked, so that no unconsumed products need escape from the chimney. A range of large boilers is often fitted with lifting bridges, a flue connecting the two furnaces in the front, and, after a furnace has been newly fired, the bridge is lifted by a lever in front of the boiler, and the whole of the smoke is made to pass over the fire of the other furnace. In all large works there is at least one boiler more than is required for daily use, so that any of the boilers may be laid off for periodical ex- amination and repair when it is required. Lance. (Fishing.) A fishing spear used in killing captured whales, sword-fish, porpoises, etc. For list see HARPOON. Lance Hook. (Fishing.) These are fastened on the boat's side to hang the lances upon. Lan'cet. (Surgical.) A delicate cutting in- strument which often bears a special name derived from its form or the place of its application. Fig. 1530 shows several forms : Those on the left, in a handle, are a scalpel and spear bis- toury. "Iron Age," xix., Jan. 11,5. "Sc. Am. Sup.," 1650, 2757. * "Sc. Am. Sup," 704, Fig. 3. * "Man. $ Builder," ix. 46. * "Sc. Amer.," xxxvii. 355. iiciic^i-iii 6 , i,.. 6 ... . * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1389. Slides . .~. . . "Sc. Amer.," xxxvi. 229. Mast-head, Stone, Br. See infra. Fighting, Br. . . . Fig. 1025, p. 333, supra. Lap. 1. A wheel or disk used in grind- ing or polishing. Usually on a vertical nxis. See p. 1252, "Mech. Diet." (Watchmaking.) Grinding and polishing laps are made of emery, copper, tin, boxwood, ivory, and Arkan- sas oil stone, of various dimensions. The various kinds of wheels, and the abradants for grind- ing and polishing, are mentioned on p. 1253, "Mech. Diet." Their relative hardness is given in a table, p. 1617, Ibid. Japanese lapidary . . "Scientific American," xli. 298. 2. A fleece of wool or cotton. See LAPPING MACHINE. Lap-doubling Ma-chine'. A machine which winds two fleeces of cotton upon the roller by means of two sets of rack gear and a top plain roller, which rests on two fluted calender rollers, and is lifted as the lap is formed. Platt Bros. (Br.) Lap Scale. A scale with a pan in which a given quantity of wool or cotton is weighed to be spread upon a given length of the traveling feeding apron of the lapper or carding machine, as the case may be. Lap'per. Primarily, a machine for taking cot- ton from the opener and making it into a lap. Fig. 1531 is a machine receiving bale cotton, to open, clean, and make it into a lap. The machine, as shown in the figure, has in fact two open- LAPPER. Kitson Cotton Opener and L ers, each separate and complete in itself, both delivering the cotton on to one pair of screens, when the two quantities unite and pass through the rest of the machine to form the lap. The aprons run slowly, and a draft of 12 to 1 is ob- tained. A second operation may take place upon n finisher tapper. Clarke and Pelham's three-roll sectional evener is used on the Kitson finisher lapper to vary the speed according to the varying thickness of the cotton passing into the machine. This evener has two fluted bed-rolls above which are eight sec- tional rolls which are saddled in pairs. Kach pair of saddles lias a single saddle, and above there is one which thus bears upon the whole system beneath. In the center of the main saddle is a rack operating a pinion attached to a quadrant which communicates by a chain with the belt shipper on the concave and convex cone pulleys, so as to affect the rate of feed. Lap Ta'ble. A sewing or cutting-out table, supported in or over the lap ; a lap-board. Lard Press. A domestic press for squeezing lard from cracklings. A screw-down press is shown at Fig. 2811, p. 1255, " Meek. Diet.'" A ilraw-up press at Fig. 872, p. 274, supra. Toggle motion, Boomer Sf Boschert, * "Sc.Am.," xlii. 242. Lark's Head. (Nautical. ) A form of bend; see 24, 25, Fig. 2777, p. 1240, "Mech. Diet." Lar'i-at Swiv'el. A coupling link for a lariat and picket pin, pre- venting the twisting of the rope as the an- imal wanders arouix" the picket pin. L a r-y n ' g e - a i Por'ceps. An in strument for the ex- Fig- 1532. traction of laryngeal tumors. Lariat Swivel. The method of using the instrument is as follows : After the vertical portion c, being temporarily made as short as pos- sible, has been introduced into the larynx, it is lengthened by the lever I pushing both rods (' and f into the tubular por- tion b r, which causes both the smaller tube t and the forceps /to descend. As soon as the length desired is attained, the sernitfil rod /' is arrested by pressure made on the hook- Rumbold's Laryngeat Forceps. LARYNGOSCOPIC LANTERN. shaped projection r' with the thumb, causing the claws to grasp and retain it. The forceps are closed by continu- ance of the pressure on the lever I, causing the rod *' to push the smaller tube t over the base of the forceps and close them upon the tumor. Lar- y n' g e - a 1 In's tru-ments. (Surgical.) This includes a number of instruments, n o t a- bly: Caustic carrier. Powder blower. Scoop. iScraseur. Electrode. Forceps. Lancet. Inhaler. Scissors. Syringe. Tonsilotome. Laryngoscope. Lantern. Mirror etc. Lar-yn'go Fhan'tom. An apparatus devised by Dr. Isenschmid, of Munich, and intended to fa- miliarize medical students and practitioners with as many of the details connected with the use of the laryngoscope as it is possible to learn before the ap- plication of the instrument to the living subject. The phantom consists of three parts : first, there is a mouth of thin metal, with tongue and uvula made of red velvet. This is fixed on a laryngeal tube of metal, which has a slit by which the thirty painted images of different views of, and different conditions of the laryngeal tract can be introduced. The laryngeal tube is movable on a second tube, which is tightly fixed on a peg in the middle of a small box in which the whole apparatus can be packed. The anatomical dimen- sions are taken from nature. When in use the phantom is placed like the head of a patient who is about to be examined, one or two feet in front of the lamp, but aside from it, so that the rays coming from the lamp and passing the right ear of the patient on to the mirror fixed at the forehead of the obser- ver, are reflected into the mouth of the patient. Tiemann. Lar'yn-go-scop'ic Lan'tern. A light con- centrated for use in lar- yngoscopic examination and operation. Fig. 1534 shows Dr. Oliver's, which is de- signed for direct light, though the frontal de- flector shown in Fig. 2815, p. 1257, "Meek. Diet.," may be used if desired. It is an attach- m e n t to an ordinary lamp. The lantern is made up of three main portions the front piece A, and two wings which hinge upon the front piece, and by which the di- ameter of the lantern may be increased to suit the diameter of the glass chimney. The wings are locked together at the desired point, as at a a. As the lens must be on a level with the flame, the tube con- taining it is attached to a slide .B, which, moving in grooves in the front main piece, may be raised or low- ered, as found necessary. Fi ? . 1534. Laryngoscopic Lantern. The lens is also movable within the tube, in order to admit of its being retained at its focal distance from the flame, when the diameter of the lantern is changed. The movement is made by the sliding of a knob on each side, b, in an elongated opening in the tube. The lantern is made firm upon the LARYNGOSCOPIC LANTERN. 528 LATHE CHUCK. lamp by a cord. At c is seen the little mirror for use in an to-lary ngoscopy . La-ryii'go-stro-bo-scop'ic Ap'pa-ra'tus. A method by Dr. Oertel, of Munich, of observing the vibrations of the vocal cords during the produc- tion of sounds. The apparatus consists of a laryngoscope mirror, a strong light, and an arrangement by which the light shall be rapidly interrupted. The effect of the interruption of the light is to prevent the impressions made by the vibrations upon the re- tina from being modified before they can be perceived. The interruption may be conveniently produced by means of a perforated diaphragm revolving rapidly, and at a rate propor- tioned to the rapidity of the vibrations of the sounding cord; or it may be by a tuning-fork of the proper note. The inter- rupting apparatus must be placed between the light and the mirror, or behind the mirror, between it and the observer. By this means it is possible not merely to observe accurately the vibrations of one of the vocal cords, but also to compare the vibrations of one with those of another. Lar'ynx, Ar'ti-fi'cial. A metallic instrument provided with vibratory reeds and attached to the upper surface of the tracheotomy tube. The re- moval of the natural larynx by dissection from the .surrounding parts, and the invention and placing of the substitute were by Prof. Billroth, of Vienna. Lash/ing. (Nautical.) For list of whipping, seizing, lashing, etc., see SEIZING. Lash'ing 'Eye. (Nautical.) A spliced loop in the end of a rope by which it may be lashed fast to an object. Lower staj's, block straps, etc., are thus fitted. Lash'iiig Knot. (Nautical.) A form of bend ; see 31, Fig. 2777, p. 1240, "Mech. Diet." Latch. (Fishing.) A clamp for the inboard end of a fishing line. Stacey, June 2, 1868 Patent, No. 78,646. See also MACKEREL LATCH. Lat'er-al Branch. A pipe with .side connec- tions. See several forms in Fig. 420, p. 129, supra. Lat'er-al Cur'va-ture In'stru-ments. (Sur- gical.) A name applied to knock-knee and bow- leg braces, to some species of talipes instruments, wry neck, etc. See enumeration under CURVA- TURE APPARATUS, p. 236, supra. Lat'e-ral Scis'sors. (Surgical.) A scissors Fig. 1535. Dr. Turnipseed's Lateral Scissors. the blades of which approach like those of cutting pliers. Used in vesico-vaginal fistula, etc. Lathe. See account and enumeration of 136 varieties, pp. 1261, 1263, "Mech. Diet." See also : amateur's . . " Scientific American," xxxix. 370. Chuck, Cushman . . . "Am. Man.,''' Jan. 16, 1880, p. 12. "Scientific Amer.,' 1 '' xxxviii 226. Thitrsto'n'fs" Vienna Kept,," iii.337. 11 Iron Age.,'' xxi., June 13, p. 1. "Scientific American,'' xxxv. 148. "Railroad Gazette," viii.53. "Mm. 4" Sc. Press," xxxiv. 361. "Engineer,'' xlvii. 258. Horton Pratt $ Whitney . . Cornell Univ. foot . . Dog, Clements, Br. . . Driver, Harris .... Driver, Timmins, Br. . 100-ton guns. St. diamond . . . Overhead motion, Green- ivood $' Battey, Br. . * "Engineering,' 1 '' xxvi. 16. Scroll saw, etc., Stevens * "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxvii. 374. Sf/lers * Thurston's" Vienna Kept.," ii. 209. To test a, Rose . . . "Scientific American,'' xxxix.213. Universal, Koch If Miller * "Scientific American Sup.," 157. * '''Scientific American,'- xxxvi. 118. 'Scientific American,"' xliii. 225. See Campin's " The Practice of Hand Turning in Wood, Ivory, Shell, etc." "The Turner's Companion.'' Watson's "Manual of the Hand Lathe." Lathe and Saw. A combination for light Kig. 1536. Lathe and Saw. work, for amateurs and juveniles. The mandrel has a face plate with a wrist to which the lower end of the saw is attached ; the upper end is con- nected with a spring arm. Lathe Car'rier. A piece secured to the object in the lathe, and having a projection which collides with a stud on the face plate to cause the object to rotate in concert with the mandrel and face plate. Fig. 1537. Fig. 1538. 1539. Lathe Carrier. Lathe Chuck. A device screwed to the mandrel of a lathe and grasping the ob- Instde Jaw Ch " ck ' ject to be turned, bored, ground, polished, or what not. Figs. 1538, 1539, show Horton'.t lathe chuck. The jaws are moved by geared screws and circular rack. The circular wrought iron rack is inclosed in the deep groove or recess in the back plate, the center faces of back and front plates are then turned true, which, when bolted together, makes a tight casing for the gearing, ex- cluding dirt, chips, etc. When the rack is taken out, it makes an independ- ent jaw chuck. The jaws are made solid, and forged of one piece of metal, and case-h ardened . Figs. 1540, 1541, show Johnson's universal chuck. Fig. 1540 is a face view, and represents the chuck ready for use. Fig. 1541 has a section through the edge of the body parallel with its face, the back part being removed to LATHE CHUCK. 529 LATHE HOIST. show the internal arrangement. Figs. 3, 4, 5, are details of construction ; the jaw E revolves upon a steel pin in the arm of wheel B. to which it is also tongued and grooved, but Fig. 1540. Johnson's Universal Chuck. which when turned to a certain position can be removed therefrom at will. The toothed ring c has a solid feather, and is accurately fitted and forced to its seat upon B. The Fig. 1541. Vie. 1542. Universal Chuck. ( Section and Details.) screw and plate D secure B in place. The worm shaft S is of cast steel. The toothed rings c c c, and jaws E E E, are of hammered iron, aud case-hardened. Westfott'i combi- nation lathe chuck is shown in Figs. 1542, 1543. The jaws are rever- sible, can be made to act independently, or concentrically and simultaneously. May hold round, oval, or irregular shapes. Fig. 1542 is a face view of the chuck with one jaw re- versed. Fig. 1543 is a verti- cal section, showing the manner in which the ring Z> engages in box C; also show- ing the position of the screw B. The figure also gives a section of the chuck showing the end of the screw and box C; also the manner in which the parts are secured to the body of chuck. In Cushmans lathe chuck, Fig. 1544, the jaws slide in ra- slots m the face, and have several shoulders or steps, rising m height, and capable of reversal. One of the jaws i shown reversed in Fig. 1544. By a reversal of all the s small objects may be grasped, or by partial reversion irregular pieces may be grasped. That portion of the jaws which enters the body of the chuck is cut into a half nut, A, that engages with a screw b, the square head of which projects through the face or rim of the chuck to receive a wrench. Below this project- ing head is a bevel pinion inside the rim that engages with circular rack or toothed ring C C. Turning any one of these screws will actuate the rack and every other screw, and so it is simply a concentric-jawed chuck. But the chuck is capable of transformation into one of eccentrically-placed The toothed ring rests upon a plain ring, D. D. the periphery of which is a screw-thread that engages with a 34 similar thread on the inside of the shell, so that by turning the ring in one direction it is moved forward toward the face Fig. 1543. of the chuck, and by turn- ing it the other way it is carried towards the back of the chuck. By this means the circular rack may be meshed in gear with the pinions in the screws, or disengaged from them. Should it be required to move one or more of the jaws farther from the cen- ter than the others, the spring catch is released by thumb-pressure, the sup- porting ring is turned out by a knob at the back of the chuck, and the circular rack unmeshed. In this condition it has the charac- teristics of an independent jaw-chuck. Then the jaws, one or more, may be moved -y_____^ singly into the position re- Westcotfs Lathe Chuck ( Section) quired, when the circular rack and the screw pinions may be again meshed, forming Fig. 1544 a cnuc k with eccen- trically-placed but simultaneously mov- ing jaws. See also DRILL CHUCK, pp. 275, 276, supra: and Fig. 2833, p. 1263; Figs. 1287, 1288, pp. 548, 549, "Mech. Dict.^ Fig. 1545. Cushman^s Lathe Chuck. Lathe Dog. Lathe Dog. A piece to be attached to an ob- ject in a lathe to cause it to revolve with the lathe spindle. A lathe carrier. See also CLAMP DOG, Fig. 625, p. 198, supra. Lathe Head. The working part of a jeweler's or laboratory lathe ; attachable to a lathe or stand, and driven by a cord from any pedal motor. The illustration is White's dental lathe with burs, extension pieces, cone chucks for polishing cones, etc. Fig. 1546. Lathe Hoist. Lathe Head. A device to lift work to the LATHE HOIST. 530 LAUNCH ENGINE. height of the lathe centers in order to be placed in the lathe. See AXLE-LATHE HOIST. Thomas, * '''Railroad Gazette,''' Tiii., p. 239. Lath Mill. A gang-saw, for sawing lath from the bolt. The gang of saws in Smith's lath mill occupies a space 10" in width, so that in cutting %" lath 16 saws may be em- ployed. Plank of any width may be passed. The feed Fig. 1647. Smith's Lath Mill. works consist of four rollers which may be started or stopped at will ; the two upper rollers are weighted and driven by power. The rates of feed are 35' to 45' per minute. To pre- vent the lumber from springing and binding the saws a steel comb is attached to the bed, with teeth projecting up- ward, directly in the rear of the saws. In the Leonard if Silliman machine the annular saws are separated by rings on a cylinder keyed on to the main shaft. The interior of the cylinder has spiral wings, which make a draft, and draw away the dust. Lathing machine, Trimble * "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 131. Lat'i-mer-Clark Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) A battery designed as a standard, having a perfectly constant electro-motive force. It consists of a combination of zinc in sulphate of zinc, and mercury in sulphate of mercury. This battery has an electro-motive force of 1.4573 volts in absolute measurement. "Phil. Trans. Royal Society,'" June 19, 1875. Niaudet, Am. transl., 148. Lat'rine. A water-closet for public use; the hoppers are flushed periodically. Jennings .... * "Manufacturer Sf Builder," viii. 154 Lat'tice. A form of screen made of intersect- ing overlaid slats. A form of girder having series of flat bars laid crosswise and riveted at the intersections, or at the junction with the upper and lower members, or both. See IRON BRIDGE, p. 120, "Meek. Diet." Launch. Formerly : the largest of the suit of boats attached to a man-of-war. Now : a large boat with steam power. The Thorneycroft (Br.) launches have acquired most dis- tinction. One of these attained at Cherbourg a speed of 19 knots per hour ; and 18 knots for two consecutive hours, develop- ing 220 horse-power. The dimensions were Length, 63.W. Beam, 8.53'. Draft, 2' (average). Displacement, 15 tons. Weight of hull, 9,900 pounds. Weight of engine boilers and water, 16,060 pounds. Power at speed of 18J knots, 220 horse. Weight of machinery, 72.6 pounds per horse power. The engines are condensing, two cylinder, on the compound system. The boilers are of the locomotive type, with the dif- ference that the tubular surface is reduced about one half. This is the only sacrifice which has been made for the eco- nomic production of power ; and it was necessary in order to reduce the weight of the apparatus. The safety valves are loaded to 132 Ibs. The engine makes 480 revolutions per minute, which requires great mechanical excellence of the mechanism, and especially of the air-pump. The consump- tion of coal per horse power per hour is 3.52 Ibs. The grate surface is 11.19 square feet. An artificial blast is conducted directly to the fire chamber instead of to the ash-pit. The screw shaft is placed on a level with the keel, instead of being at a point half way between the keel and the water- line, as is usually the case. The screw then projects below the keel for nearly half its diameter, and consequently it acts upon a section of vein greater in area than the greatest sec- tion of the vessel. This arrangement doubtless contributes materially to the speed ; while a sharp bend of the keel pro- tects the propeller from damage. Launch, steam * "Scientific American Sup.,"' 2715. For Africa, Br. . . . * "Engineering,'' xxix. 475. Sectional for Africa . . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 3802 "Barrancas," .... * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 371. "Cinderella,"'. . . * " Scientific American Sup.,''' 1423. Herreshojf " Scientific American Slip.," 4121. Lewin * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1567. Maxim *"Sc. Amer. Sup.,'' 1279, * 2516. Passenger, Neva . . . * "Engineer," xlii. 272. N. Y. Safety Steam Power Co * "Manufatt. if Builder," viii. 152. Russian, Crichton . . * "Scientific American Sup.,-' 1186. 2. A slip. See MARINE SLIP, "Meek. Diet." Launching slip, iron- clad Kaiser, Br. . . * "Engineer,'' xliv. 170. Launching iron-clads . * "Scientific American Sup.," 1539. Launch En'gine. A relatively small engine, for use in launches, large boats acting as tenders, police boats in harbors, etc. A small class of sur- veying and pleasure steamers are also called launches. The engine and boiler of the New York Safety Steam Power Co. are shown in Fig. 1548, and a section of the boiler in Fig.- 1549. The engine is upright, having the cylinder mounted on Fig. 1548. Launch Engine and Boiler. LAUNCH ENGINE. 531 LAUNCH ENGINE. Fie. 1550. Launch Engine Boiler. UClilg ilt U11C uu,?c, BWlUtm c\tCi*UllH2OO. AAAC tugiii^ UdB 0> plain slide-valve, and the slides are concave and cast with the frame. In Fig. 1648 the engine is shown combined with the boiler, both being placed on a cast-iron base which forms the ash-pit, and also contains the heater. An up- right tubular boiler, Fig. 1549, is used, and, to prevent prim- ing, a baffle-plate is introduced, through which all the tubes pass at or about the water-level. A large tube hangs from the center of this plate nearly to the crown of the furnace, and an annular space is left around the outside of the baffle and between it and the outer shell, sufficient for the easy escape of the steam and water. The effect of this arrange- ment is to stop the current of steam and water tending to shoot up between the tubes, and compel it to flow outward and escape between the baffle and shell, at which point the steam and water separate, most of the water flowing down the side of the shell, while the remainder of the water falls on the top of the baffle-plate and flows through the tube in its center, thus keeping up a current over the center of the crown sheet and among the tubes. It will be observed that the steam is taken off from the center of the boiler ; and as the steam is delivered at the outer edge of the baffle it must flow inward between and around the tubes on its way to the engine and become dried and slightly superheated. When designed for a steam launch the engine is provided with a link-motion for reversing, and notches for working expansively. The feed-pump is driven by an eccentric on the shaft. Fig. 1550 shows the engine as detached from the boiler, and having the provisions just cited. Figs. 1551 to 1555 show the launch engines ^Bjl of a United States cutter, having a length of 33' ; beam, 8' I"; and depth, 3' 9". Launch Engine. The boiler is of the ordinary multi-tubular type, and con- sists of a shell 3' 4J" in diameter outside, with a furnace 20J" in external diameter, all the plates of the shell and furnace (including the tube-plates) being \" thick. The boiler is provided with 60 return tubes 3' 1J" long over tube- plates, 58 of these tubes being 2" in diameter outside and Fig. 1551 times the stroke in length, and its height from center of crank-shaft to top of upper cylinder cover is 38" or 3.8 times the stroke. As will be seen from Fig. 1555, the piston-rod, instead of being coupled direct to the connecting-rod, is screwed into a Fig 1552. United States Launch Engine. ( Cross Section of Boiler.) the other two 1J" in diameter. The fire-grate area is 4.5' square, and the total heating surface 125' square. A dome 20" in diameter, and 13|" high, is fixed at the top of the boiler, and the latter is fed by a donkey pump bolted to it at the back end. The details of the boiler and its fittings will be readily understood from the figures, and the weight of the boiler complete, as shown, is 2,350 Ibs. The general arrange- ment of the fittings is neat. The cylinder is 8", stroke 10", and the engine weighs 725 Ibs., the weight being rather heavy, owing to the somewhat singular arrangement adopted to obtain a long connecting- rod, and still keep the cylinder down tolerably close to the crank-shaft. The engine has a connecting-rod 26" or 2.6 Launch, Engine. (Longitudinal Section of Boiler.) cross-head from which a pair of side rods extend upward terminating in blocks working in guides formed at the sides of the cylinder. The connecting-rod is made with a wide fork, and takes hold of pins forged in one piece with the side rods and blocks just mentioned. The link motion is used only for reversing and not for expansive working, the link being made with a straight slot, and provision being only made for fixing the block in ex- treme position by the arrangement shown. The valve is driven through the intervention of a rocking shaft and. levers. Cf. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 371. Hayes, Br * "Engineer," xlvi. 155. LAUNCH ENGINE. 532 LAWN MOWER. Fig. 1553. Herreshoff . Kingdom, Br. Lewin, Br. . Messenger If Churchward N. Y. Safety Steam Poivtr Co. . . . . Outridge, Br Steam, U. S Wigzell Sf Halsey, Br. . Fig. 1554. Launch Engine. (Elevation.") "Engineering,'' xxviii. 264 "Engineering,' 1 xxix. 495. "Engineer,''' xliv. 267. "Sc.Am. Sup.," 156". "Sc.Am. Sup., ''1838 Fig. 1556. Troy Laundry Stove. The Troy laundry heater, shown in Fig. 1556, heats at one time 40 sad-irons or 80 polishing irous. Another form has less capacity for irons, but has a large belt around it in which water is heated and whence it is con- ducted by pipes to the tubs. See also IKONING STOVE, Fig. 1467, p. 506, supra. Lawn Hose Cart. A small vehicle for gar- den and yard hose. See HOSE REEL, Fig. 2585, p. 1132, "Mech. Diet.'' Lawn Mow'er. A machine for cutting sward. Hill's archimedean lawn mower is mounted on a roller, the shaft of which has a spur pinion en- "Man. ^K," viii. 151 " Engineer,'' xlix. 439 "Engineering,''' xxi. "Engineering,'' xxii Launch Engine. (Link Motion.) Launch Engine. ( Section of Engine. ) dean Mower. pony. Some American and British forms .have rup.-i- cious boxes to catch the mown grass. Ohmer^s machine has crank and reciprocating sickle. 1668. Laun'dry Ap'pa-ra'tus. Plate XXV. shows the interior of a French steam laundry with the ap- paratus in position and their names indicated be- neath. It comprises the fittings made by Pierron & Dehaitre, of Paris. Laun'dry Boil'er. A water heater for laun- dry purposes. See figure in Plate XXV. ; also KET- TLE, supra. Lav'a-to-ry. A wash-room. Jennings . . * "Manufacturer If Builder," viii. 259. Laun'dry Stove. One for heating water and smoothing irons for laundry purposes. Pony Lawn Moiver. LAWN MOWER. 533 LEADEN SEAL. Fig. 1558 shows one of the larger sizes adapted to be drawn by a pony. It has a shaft and scat, also a pair of handles to be used when a seat is not desired. The cut is 30". " Ajax," * 'Iron Age," xxi., May 23, p. 7. 'Iron Age," xxi. ? April 25, p. 9. 'Scientific American," xlii. 147. 'Iron Age," xxi.. March 28, p. 1. 'Scientific American,''' xl. 211. 'Scientific Amtr.," xxxviii. 249. Fig. 1559. " Buckeye," Hanley . . . " Pennsylvania, ' : " Phila.'' . . Lawn Sprinkler. A garden and lawn irriga- tor. Fig. 1560. The water being pro- jected at an angle all around the swivel collar, falls like rain, sprinkling the ground evenly from the center outward, its capacity being across a diameter of from 30' to 45', varying according to the head of water. Peck * "Iron Age," xvii., June 8, p. 5. Revolving * "Min. If Sc. Pr.," xxxvii. 153. Lay'ers. (Leather.) Or Layaicays. Vats or pits in which the sides are laid away or stratified with ground oak-bark after coming out of the stringers. The sides are laid flesh down, to prevent the hook scratching the grain in taking out. The layers con Journal-box metal. Organ-pipe metal. Pewter. Pot metal. Sabot metal. Sheathing metal. Shot. Solder. Stereotype metaL TABLE OF LEAD ALLOYS. 9 B ^ d _a '3 1 S a 1 a < H s Sheathing lead 94 6 Journal box metal 24 4 _ _ _ Soft bearing metal 20 4 _ _ ' Organ pipe metal . 5 5 _ _ Shot 100 _ _ 2 _ Expanding alloy . Type metal from { 18 6 4 2 - 1 to ) 14 2 _ _ _ Stereotype metal 40 8 2 _ _ Coarse solder . 6 - 2 _ _ Fine solder . 2 _ 4 _ _ Soft solder ,. . 4 _ 2 _ :_ Bismuth solder 5 - 3 . - 7 'Charter Oak" Lawn Mower. Lead'en Seal. (Rail- way.) A leaden disk made with two holes, through which pass the ends of a twisted wire se- curing two objects: a hasp and staple, or other car-door fastening. The l.nii-ii Sprinkler. tain the strongest infusion of oak- bark. La'zy Cock. See JET VALVE. La'zy Paint'er (Boat.) A small temporary boat rope, for fine weather. Leach'ing Vat. A tub or tank in which hxiviation of soluble substances is performed. M^^^Tm e plant) by Vinton > Lead Al-loy'. This cheap and ductile metal enters into the composition of many al- loys which are known by various specific names, id which themselves vary greatly in the pro- tions of their ingredients, and even in the number of elements thus associated. Among these alloys may be named Albatu Fusible alloys. Biddery. German silver. Lead Pipe Making. LEADEN SEAL. LEAD SHEET. lead is then pressed down by a stamp and the fas- tening cannot be detached without cutting the wire or defacing the seal. Lead'er. (Fishing.) A net so placed .as to in- tercept fish and lead them into a pound, weir, trap- net, etc. See POUND. It is a net fence that guides the fishes which attempt to get round it into the heart. It is usually made in pieces 10 rods in length. See HEART SEINE, supra. Lead Pipe. The lead pipe press is shown in perspective in Fig. 1561, on page 533. Lead pipe is made by forcing the congealed lead through a die, in the axis of which is a mandrel, as shown in Fig. 1562. The hydraulic press is used. Fig. 1562. Lead Pipe Die. The die A is a metallic disk which fixes the out- side diameter of the pipe, and is adjustable by get screws B Bio bring it in line. The lead receptacle C is heated by steam. D is the press plunger and from it depends the core or mandrel E, which oc- cupies an exactly axial po- sition in the die and deter- J-Jti mines the bore of the pipe. ^j~, The plunger being raised, a charge of metal is run into the chamber ; the plunger is then depressed ind forces the metal out in the annular space be- tween the core and the die. The pipe is reeled up as made. Tin-lined pipe is made by a modified process. Before the lead is run into the chamber, a mandrel is inserted^rhich closes the die aperture and extends up through the recepta- cle. This mandrel consists of a central stem, around which are grouped dovetailed sections, so that when the central portion is removed the sections are easily taken out, leaving a hollow space in the lead, which is run in while the mandrel is in place. The sides of the mandrel are tapered, or rather crenelated, there being three or four shoulders and a differ- ent taper from each. The object of this is that after the mandrel is removed, the tin which is poured into its place may have several purchases against the lead which surrounds it. Before the tin is let in the core is inserted. Afterwards the pressure is applied in the usual manner, the result being that the pipe emerges with a thin lining of tin. Protecting from corrosion by water : Treat for 15 minutes with a 2 to 5 per cent, solution of sulphuret of potassium or sodium at 212 Fah. Dr. Schwartz, Breslau, No. 1,519, British Patent Reports, 1863. A boiling solution of sulphur in caustic answers the same purpose. Or, " by causing a warm concentrated solution of sulphide of potassium to flow through the pipe for 20 minutes.' 1 "Revue Industrielle." Lead Pro'cess. See the following : VHtntvf f icp*i rwnnu AMT.| iv. -LUC. 'ainter's "Rept. Vienna Exp.,'' iv.169. 'ainter's "Rept. Vienna Exp., r iv. 101. "Engineering,'' xxv. 19, 57. Clausthal Clausthal Clausthal . . . . * "Engineering, 1 ' xxv. jy, 5*. Clausthal furnace . * "ng^necnn^,"xxiv.,259,319,383,428 Crosby, lead bath . Fig. 2855, p. 1270, "Mech. Diet." Desilverizing process. Kazan. Fr. . . . Blake's "Rept. Vienna Exp.." iv.10. 99. Kig. 28B4, p. 13W, "Mech. JJict.' 1 Painter's "Kept. Vienna Erp.,'' iv. 179 Silver-lead furnace Fig. 5094, p. 2183, "Mech. Diet." Stolberg, furnace . Painters "Rept. Vienna 353.," iv. 59, 149. Styrian Painter's "'Rept. Vienna Exp.,'' iv. 172. Tyrolese .... Painter's "Rept. Vienna Exp.," iv. 165. Lead Sheet. Sheet lead is made by running a flat ingot of lead repeatedly through a rolling mill until the required thickness of the sheet is reached. The lead is run into a flat cake weighing about 4 tons, and having a size 7' 10" X 5'. After cooling in the mold, which takes some days, it is lifted out by the crane and carried by the overhead tackle to the mill, where, after the edges have been adzed true, it is passed and repassed between the rolls some 150 times, till it becomes 30' X 7' 10", the original longer dimension being maintained, while the narrower di- mension of 5' has become 30', more or less, according to the original thickness and the degree of tenuity or thinness of the rolled sheet, say a weight of 30 pounds to the square foot. The sheet is then cut up by vertical knives actuated by a screw, in a frame which is adjusted .so as to cut across Fig. 1563. Melting the Lead. the bed of the mill, and between two of the supporting rol- lers shown in Fig. 1564. The sections of lead are again rolled into 18' lengths, varying in weight from 2 to 10 pounds per square foot, according to the purpose for which they are required. The mill has a cylinder 30" diameter and 9' long, and the bed is a double series of parallel rollers upon which the lead traverses. The vertical adjustment of the ends of the roll are performed simultaneously by hand-wheel at one end, corn- Fig. 1564. Sheet-lead Mill. mencing by gearing with the boxing of the roller at the re- spective ends of the latter. Chinese sheet-lead for lining tea-chests is made by pressing between tiles faced with several thicknesses of unsized pa- per. These plies act as a non-conductor. Lead foil with tin surfaces is made by rolling an ingot of lead with layers of tin run upon each side, so as to sandwich the lead between the two. The compound ingot is rolled and re-rolled until the required thinness is attained. LEAD SOAP. 535 LEATHER CEMENT. Lead Soap. An insoluble oleatc of oxide of lead ; spread on cloth to form diachylon plaster. Lead Wire. The apparatus for makiiig lead wire is a copy in miniature of the lead-pipe appa- ratus. Fig 1565. Splits. Mixed leather. Skirting leather. Latigo. Lace leather. Bellows leather. Belting. Calfskins. Lead Wire Apparatus. a. Hydraulic press. b. Piston perforated with a hole for emission of the lead wire r. f. Pipe for conducting melted lead from furnace d to com- pressor e. g. Force-pump that supplies water to the hydraulic press. h. Grate bars. The lead is heated in a pan, conducted to the cylinder of the hydraulic press, forced thence in a wire having the size of the aperture through the plunger, and coiled ou a shaft. Leaf Sight. A form of sight having a hinged plate, known as a leaf, and erected for use, but lying 'flatly on the barrel for safety at other times. The leaf is graduated for distance. say for from 100 to 1000 yards, and the slider with the sight notch js raised so that the upper surface coincides with the required graduation. See also HAUSSE, Figs. 1329-1331, p. 447, supra. Leak'age Valve. A small valve used between the triple valve and the brake-cylinder in the Westinghouse car-brake ar- rangement, to prevent the leak- age from the pipes from opera- ting the triple-valve, and thus ap- plying the brakes. See TRIPLE VALVE. _ Leak Stop'per. An appa- s . Lmf Sihf ratus tor the forcible application of a tampon against the side of a leaky shaft. See * "Engineer" xlv. 373. A segment is forced against the breach by means of a hydraulic jack, then keyed up and wedged. Leath'er. Tanned or tawed skin. The principle of tanning: " Take the skin of an animal, remove from it the hair, fat, loose flesh, and other impuri- ties, and immerse it in a dilute solution of tannic acid ; the cellular and elastic tissues will gradually combine with that substance, as it penetrates toward the interior, and will form a compound perfectly insoluble, and which will completely resist putrefaction: this compound is leather." Lieut. Lyle. The treatment of hides and skins to make the various kinds of leather, including the work of the tan-yard and cur- rying shop, is succinctly told in Lieut. Lyle's appendix K to "Ordnance Report,-' 1878, pp. 61-89, under the following heads : Leath'er, Tan'ning, etc. See under the fol- lowing heads : Sole leather. Harness leather. Bridle leather. Collar leather. Buff leather. Grain leather. Wax leather. Polish leather. Oil-pebble leather. Trunk leather. Abating. Alligator leather. Astringents. Beam. Blacking. Bloom. Bruising. Boarding. Buffing. Chamoied. Chrome leather. Clamp. Clearing stone. Closing machine. Dampening. Daubing. Dubbing. Enameled leather. Flattening. Flaying knife. Flesh side. Fly. Glassing. Glassing jack. Glove cutter. Glove sewing machine. Graining. Graining board. Grain side. Handlers. Handling. Impression-stitch machine. Jack. Junk vat. Layers. Leather. Leather dressing. Leather finishing machine. Leather furniture. Leather glazing machine. Leather grease. Leather punch. Leather whitening machine. Liming. Mill. Pebbling. Pebbling machine. Polar oil. Polishiug jack. Rolling mill. Rosin oil. Rub stone. Scouring. Scouring table. Screw soling machine. Screw press. Screw wiring machine. Set. Shaving. Shoe embossing machine. Shoe sewing machine. Sizing. Skin-beating machine. Skiver. Skiving. Skiving machine. Slicker. Slicking. Soft boarding. Sole. Sole molding machine. Sole riveting machine. Sole rolling machine. Sole screwing machine. Splitting. Staining. Stock stone. Stoning. Stoning jack. Stringers. Stripper. Stuffing. Tanner's knife. Tanning. Leather raising and creasing Tawed-leather dresser. machine. Leather rolling machine. Leather scourer. Leather splitting machine. Leather stretching machine^ Leather waterproofing. Unhairing machine. Vat. Wax-thread sewing machine. Welt machine. Whip making. Whitening. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 849. 'Scientific American Sup.," 845. ' Scientific American,'''' xxxiv. 134. 'Scientific American" xxxiv. 259. ' Scientific American,'' xxxvi. 7. ' Scientific American,'' xli. 407. 'Scientific American,''' xl. 386 'Man. if Builder,- viii. 191 'Scientific American,'' xxv 210 'Scientific American,' ' xxxvi 356. Elaborate tests of leather by The.ron Skeel, pp. 13-34, Re- port on Leather, Group XII., in vol. T., "Centennial Re- ports." Cf. Artificial leather . Birch-oil for Rus. leath. Dressing machine. Rosensteel .... * Enameling machine . . * Human skin leather Manufactory . Morocco Preparing kid skins . . Scourer, Lockwood . . * Stamping mach., Urner. * See LEATHER, IMITATION, and lists, pp. 1275-1276, '-Meek. Diet." Leath'er, Ar'ti-fi'cial. A material made to resemble leather ; it sometimes consists of leather waste and scraps agglutinated ; or of paper or cloth treated with paints, resins, etc. See LEATHER, IMITATION, and references passim. Leath'er Board. Leather scraps and manilla of old rope, ground into a pulp, made up in the manner in straw board, and calendered. An arti- cle in very great use, not alone in the soles of cheap shoes, but for making drums, chair-seats, toys, etc. Leath'er Ce-ment'. Molesworth. Gutta percha 16 India-rubber 4 Pitch 2 Shellac 1 Linseed oil 2 melted and mixed. LEATHER CEMENT. 536 LEATHER, IMITATION, Water-proof Cement : Chase. Ale 1 pint. Russia isinglass 2 ozs. Dissolve, and add common glue, 4 ozs. ; then add slowly, linseed oil, 1 ozs., stirring well. Dilute in ale, put on hot with a brush, and weight the objects united. To fasten Leather to Iron : Steep the leather in infusion of gall-nuts. Spread hot glue on the metal. Apply leather tinder forcible pressure, and allow it to dry without reliev- ing pressure. For joining pieces of leather : Bisulphide of carbon 10 Turpentine 1 Add gutta percha to thicken the composition. Free the leather from grease, and press the joint till the cement is dry. Water-proof Cement. Moore : Gutta percha dissolved in bisulphide of carbon. Warm the parts, and maintain the pressure till dry. Leath'er Cloth. An imitation leather. See LEATHER, IMITATION. Leath'er Dress'ing. Castor oil. An adhesive : printer's ink. For belts : Beef kidney tallow 1 Castor oil 2 An adhesive, powdered chalk. For belts : Fish oil 4 Lard or tallow 1 Colophonium 1 Wood tar 1 Or: Tallow 2 Bayberry tallow 1 Beeswax 1 Heated to boiling, and laid on with a brush, and the bees- wax driven into the belt by holding a hot iron plate against it* See also HARNESS GREASE, p. 439, supra. Leath'er-ette'. An imitation of leather. A compound of fiber and some agglutinating mate- rials, finished by passing between leather-covered rollers to give the surface imitation. See LEATHER, IMITATION. Fig. 1567. Leath'er Fin'ish-ing Ma-chine'. A ma- chine for giving the texture and surface finish to leather by means of a vibrating slicker or roller, according to the requirement. Graining, glossing, glassing, slicking, polishing, pebbling, dicing, are all terms within the definition of finishing. The machine shown in Fig. 1567 has tools revolved by ma- chinery, the pressure being due to a spring at the back of each tool-stock. The leather is upon a table on casters, so that a fresh surface of leather can be brought within the range of the tool by moving the table. The tool-head is a hexagonal frame, like a six-spoked wheel, and as it revolves each of the six slickers (for instance) in turn presses upon the surface of the leather. A hand- wheel adjusts the pres- sure by raising or lowering the boxing of the wheel. Leath'er Gla'zing Ma-chine'. One for giv- ing a surface gloss to leather. The glassing tool is reciprocated over the skin, compacting the surface, giving it a polish, and raising the grain. The reciprocating tool, in imitation of the hand, is shown in LEATHER, FINISHING MACHINE, "Mech. Diet.," et stipra. The Baker machine, shown at Fig. 1668, is a more compact form, Fig. 1568. French Leather Finishing Maetiii, Leather Glazing Mai-hint. and has all the strain within itself. It is shown without the table on each side on which the skin lies. The machine oc- cupies a narrow space between two tables, and the skin pass- ing across the interval rests on a bed, and its upper surface is subjected to the pressure of the glass which reciprocates above it, being effective on one stroke, and the pressure re- lieved on the return. Leath'er Grease. See LEATHER DRESSING ; HARNESS GREASE. Leath'er, Im'i-ta'tion. See the following recipes : Paper treated with dilute sulphuric acid, so as to become toughened. Parchment paper. Leather parings and caoutchouc worked by a machine into a homogeneous fibrous mass, gelatinized with ammonia water, and rolled into sheets, or pressed in molds. Soren Sorenson, "Deutsche Industrie Zeitung." Leather fibers from leather offal, treated like paper stock ; made into a pulp, mixed with flax fiber, and then treated as in paper manufacture. Rice, Kent/all Sf Co. Sheets of carded wadding placed on polished heated metal- lic plates, and then saturated with a decoction of pearl-moss, fucus, or laminaria, and dried. The metal gives a polished surface to the material, which is then rolled between heated rollers, to give it compactness and the required thinness. It is then coated with boiled linseed oil and dried by artificial heat. When dry, coat with vegetable wax, and soften by passing between fluted rollers. It is then surfaced by rol- lers, which give it the appearance of morocco, pig-skin, or what not ; or is varnished, bronzed, enameled. Thicken decoction of fucus with cotton waste, and treat as paper pulp, or papier-mache'. Cocoa-nut fiber or waste of rope, hemp, or flax, treated with fucus, or any mucilage, and rolled into floor cloth. Cork powder and caoutchouc. See CAMPTUIICON, p. 435, "Mech. Diet." Cork powder incorporated with paper pulp. See COKK BOARD, p. 220, supra. Caoutchouc or its analogue compounded with camphor and sulphur, and vulcanized. Gerner. See HEVEENOID, p. 457, supra. LEATHER, IMITATION. LEATHER SCOURING MACHINE. Heavy cotton cloth treated with dilute sulphuric acid, and then saturated with resinous compounds or paint. Asbestos treated with guins, pigments, etc. Leather ground into fiber, mixed with vegetable fiber ; sat- urated with gummy solutions and paint. See BOULINIKON, p. 124, supra. A number of compositions are given under LEATHER, ARTI- FICIAL, pp. 1276, 1277, and LEATHER PAPER, p. 1278, "Mtch. Diet." : they consist of various materials compounded or associated : fiber, gums, resins, oils, gelatine, leather scraps, clay, gypsum, oxides, pigments Some compositions resemble leather in its more solid as- pects as molded, but have not the pliability which is an or- dinary characteristic of leather. Such are Bois-durci, p. 320, "Mech. Diet." Bonesilate, p. 130, supra. See also other titles under COMPOSITIONS, p. 212, supra. "Manuf. $ Builder" iv. 143 ; vi. 73, 192, 339 ; vii.275. Millwood, " Tecknologiste ," xli. 243. "Scientific American Supplement,' 1 ' 135, 227, 692. See also LEATHER BOARD ; LEATHERETTE ; LEATHER CLOTH ; LEATHEROID ; LEATHER WASTE. Leath'er-oid. An artificial substance resem- bling leather in appearance, and serving as a sub- stitute for it for some purposes. It is made in two varieties : one soft and flexible, the other like vul- canized rubber, and susceptible of a polish. See LEATHER, IMITATION. Fig. 1509. Raising and Creasing Machine. Leath'er Raising and Creas'ing Ma- chine'. A machine for ornamenting straps, leather reins, saddle skirts, etc., by raising a ridge, giving a molded or wavy edge, or what not, according to the pattern of the rollers, between which the damp- ened leather is passed. Fig. 1569 shows a machine with a numerous assortment of passes of varying widths and patterns, adapted to raising, creasing, stretching, polishing, and waving. Leath'er Rolling Ma-chine'. A machine to compress and harden leather, as a substitute for the hammer and lap-stone. The one shown in Fig. 1570 is a small-sized machine, Fig. 1570. Leather Rolling Machine, adapted to be run by hand or by power. The pressure, is given by the weight of the operator on the treadle, trans- ferred by levers to the upper roll. Leath'er Scour'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for working tanned and curried skins, bringing the pressure of a reciprocating tool upon the hide in successive strips as the skin is moved beneath it from time to time in a direction transverse to the motion of the tool. The texture and elasticity, as well as the surface appear- ance of the leather depend upon this intermittent pressure, which glazes the surface and raises the grain, while also af- fecting the body of the leather. The machine simulates the Fig. 1571 Leather Scourer and Hide Worker. LEATHER SCOURING MACHINE. 538 LEECH, ARTIFICIAL. hand processes in reciprocating a comparatively narrow tool in direct lines over the surface, a strip at a time. Under LEATHER FINISHING, and LEATHER GLAZING, machines similarly actuated are shown. See also LEATHER MACHINERY, pp. 1277- 1282, "Mech. Diet.'' Lockwood's machine. Fig. 1571, is capable of any required pressure, is universal in its movements, and so far automatic that the strength of the fingerwill guide its movements. It will scour, set out, or gloss ; will take a slow or quick, a long or short stroke. Leath'er Stamp'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for producing ornamental designs on leather for saddle flaps, carriage aprons, chair and sofa seats and backs, books, portfolios, etc. Urner's machine is shown in Fig. 1572. The upper revolv- ing shaft, C. works the stamp rod D, which moves in a guide in the arm B, and is acted upon by a band spring, E. Fig. 1572. Leather Stamping Machine. The spring may be adjusted by the clamp screw E'. The shaft C raises the stamp rod by means of a cam, a, which engages with a friction roller. 6, on the rod ; on being re- leased from the cam, the rod is brought down forcibly by the spring. Either of the variously-shaped stamping bits may be clamped into the lower portion of the stamp rod D. The leather is fed by a vibrating feed mechanism, F, and retained by a presser wheel, G, which is attached to an arm on a presser rod, G 2 , which is pushed down by a coiled spring, and raised or lowered by the lever e. A piece of leather, as marked by the machine, is shown at the side. The mechan- ism is operated by the belt wheel and gearing on the right. Leath'er Waste. Utilized in the making of imitation leather by various processes. That of Sorenson, of Copenhagen, is as follows : The leather waste is first washed, after which it is reduced, liy tearing, stamping, cutting, rasping, or rubbing, to a uni- form and fibrous condition. When reduced to this finely di- vided condition, the leather is treated with ammonia water, by which it is converted into a gelatinized mass, which, when pressed into molds, or rolled out between rollers, and dried, makes a very hard and stiff product, having considerable co- hesiveness, but without elasticity and soluble in water. To make an elastic and water-proof fabric, the material is treated with caoutchouc dissolved in benzine, the mass kneaded, and then rolled or pressed into shape. " Bay. Industrie u. Gewerbe Blatt " ..... viii. 140. Leath'er Wa'ter-proof'ing. MacKenzie. Mixture of drying oil and oxides of lead, cop- per, or iron ; or gummy resins in place of oxides. Or : Caoutchouc shredded into and dissolved in warm copal varnish. Or: Glue, 12 ozs., dissolved in water. Add Rosin, 3 ozs. Melt, and add Turpentine or benzine, 4 ozs. Leath'er Whi'ten-iiig Ma-chine'. (Leather.) A machine for doing the work otherwise performed by the knife at the beam ; F j_ cleaning the hide by pass- ing the knife with a fine edge lightly over the flesh side to bring it to a clean and fit condition for wax- ing. Le'clanche B a t'- te-ry. (Electricity.) One having its amalgamated zinc in a dilute solution of chloride of ammonium, am the carbon plate in a mix- ture of peroxide of manga- , nese and coke. Fig. 1573.; In the Leclanch6 improvement ~~ the positive pole is composed of -- -^ a plate of carbon inserted be- LtdanM Battery. (Porous tween, and in connection with Cuv ) two compressed prisms of perox- ide of manganese and carbon (with a small cylinder of bi- sulphate of sodium in the center of the electrode), the three being held firmly to- gether by rubber bands. The object of the acid salt is to prevent the forma- tion of the oxychlo- rate of zinc. The negative pole is composed of a pen- cil of amalgamated zinc. The two poles are set in a solution of sal-ammoniac and water contained in a glass jar, with a cover through which the carbon head and the zinc project. As the zinc is in- definitely preserved without alteration in the sal ammo- niac, and as the per- oxide of manganese is insoluble in this liquid, no internal chemical action takes place when not in use. Ledanchc Battery. (Prism.) Niaudet, American trans., N. Y., 1880 * 180, 181. Prescott's "Electricity " . . . . * 75. "English Mechanic. " . ' Scientific American,'" 1 . * xxiii. 157. . * XXXT-. 115 : " Scientific American " * xlii. 198. "Scientific American Supplement '' * 2728. " Technologiste " xxxvii. 140. Improved, " Telegraphic Journal " . * yi. 223. " Telegraphic Journal :) . . . . iv. 213. xxxix. 195. Telegraph " Scientific American Supplement" 3033,3238. "Iron Age " xviii., Sept. 21, p. 19. Electro bronzing, "Teleg. Jour. ' . vii. 234. Gaiffe's impt., "Sc. Amer. Sup.'' . * 129 : 3187. "Telegraphic Journal' 1 '' .... vi. 186. In Clark if Muirhead's improvement the carbon electrode as well as the carbon fragments are platinized to reduce po- larization. Niaudet, American translation, 193. " English Mechanic " * xxiii. 191. Howett's modification, "Sc. American Sup.'' . . 3791. Leech, Ar'ti-fi'cial. A form of uterine leech and aspirator by Dr. Reese, for depleting the en- gorged neck. of the uterus, is a graduated glass cylinder 1\" long and \" diameter, with a piston, through which is conducted a metallic rod with a LEG, ARTIFICIAL. 539 LEVEL. spear point. The point is retracted by a spring after puncturing, and the blood aspirated by with- drawing the piston. Tiemann. Leg, Ar'ti-fi'cial. See Figs. 2894-2898, pp. 1284, 1285, "Mech. Diet." Dr. J. H. Thompson's report on Group XXIV., "Centen- nial Exhibition Reports," vol. vii., gives account of the fol- lowing : p. 31. Verduin (Paris, 1696), Martin, French . Charriere, French . Bechard, French . Matkieu, French . Palmer, U.S... Palmer, U. S. (1873) 33. p. 33. 'p. 33 T>. 33. '.37. : p. 41. Fig. 1575. And mention of numerous others exhibited. Leg Boot. (Manege.) A horse-boot which extends from the hoof to the knee ; it is made of soft leather, closely fitted to the leg ; its principal use is to protect the horse's leg from injury by ice or mud. Leg Sup-port'. An ap- paratus to modify the effects of, or cure bow-legs, knock- knees, weak ankles, shortened limbs, and other deformities and deficiencies. Fig. 1575 shows right and left apparatus for several parts. See Fig. 6084, p. 2459, "Mech. Diet." 1 See also references under CURVATURE APPARATUS, p. 236, supra. Lem'on Squeez'er. One for pressing the juice from lemons. Fig. 1576 shows several forms of the Sammis lemon squeezer. Fig. 1576. Lfiiwn Squeezers. 1. For half lemons. 2. For cutting and squeezing whole or half lemons. 3. Large size, lever power for hotels and bars. Length. (Mining.) A certain portion of the vein when taken on a horizontal line. Lens For'ceps. (Surgical.) An instrument for withdrawing an opaque lens in the operation for cataract. Critchet's and Graefe's lens scoops and spoons and others of silver, hard rubber, and shell, as well as lens forceps, are shown on pp. 30, 31, Part II., Tiemanri's "Armamentarium Ckirurgicum." Lens Hold'er. A support for a lens or com- bination of lenses, while an object is adjusted to the focus on an adjustable sliding forceps or a stage be- neath. Fig. 1577. For history, forms, and manufacture of lenses, see p. 1286, et seq., "Mech. Diet." Fig. 1577. Periscopic. Photographic. Picture. Piano concave. Piano convex. Polygonal lens. Spherical. Spot lens. Stanhope. Stereoscopic. Achromatic. Aplanatic. Bull ; s eye. Coddington. Concavo-convex. Condensing lens. Convex. Convexo-concave. Crossed. Cosmorama lens. Cylindrical. Demonstration lens. Diacaustic. Diamond. Double-concave . Double-convex. Doublet. Eye glass. Field lens. Fluid lens. Fresnel's. Immersion objec- tive. Lunette. Meniscus. Multiplying. Object glass. Objective. Orthoscopic. Lenses and lens-making. Chevalier * Grinder * Manufacture of . . . * Photograph., Voigtlander * Variable focus, Dr. Cusco * Lens Holder. 'Scientific American Sup.," 2203. ' Scientific American," xliii. 51. 'Scientific American,' 1 '' xli. 159. 'Scientific American Sup.," 1849. 'Scientific American," xliii. 131. Len-tic'u-lar Knife. (Surgical.) A scraper used in osteotomy. A sharp-edged disk is attached to the end of a staff, in a plane at right angles to the handle. Let'ter Bal'ance. Scales graduated for letter postage. Usually in two sizes : one varying from ounce to 8 ounces ; the other from ounce to 4 pounds. The latter to include printed matter. One form of letter balance has two beams, one graduated to ounces and fractions, and the other to metric weights. Lev'ee. See JETTY. Lev'el. 1. An instrument for determining hori- zontality. The subject is treated on pp. 1293 et seq., "Mech. Diet." _ The machinist's level is shown in Fig. 1578. It has brass side-views, brass top and end plates, and corners, protected by \" square rods extending the entire length of the rosewood staff. Fig. 1578. Machinist's Level and Plumb. 2. A level, used by Prof. Aita in the survey of Padua, for drainage, and water service, was devised to overcome the difficulty of leveling in tortuous streets. It consists of two glass tubes, doubly clamped to grad- uated staffs, and connected by a caoutchouc tube of any desired length. The two clamps are movable, the glass tubes being partly, and the connecting tubes wholly filled with water. The observers at the respective ends bring the clamps to the levels of the water in the respective tubes, and each enters the scale-reading in his note book. When the books are compared, the difference of readings give the dif- ference of altitudes. 3. Attached to a gun to indicate its exact posi- tion. Latta, Patent No. 181,530 Haskell, Patent No. 175.702. Several forms . . . . * "Scientific American Sup..'" 211(X Aita, Italy . . . * "Engineer," xliv.39. LEVEL. 540 LEVER PLATER. 'Railroad Gazette," viii. 131. 'Railroad Gazette,' 1 '' 191. Apparatus, Ecroyd . . * Land, Lowe * Rod, Wkitehouse ... * Target, Cleseler . ' . . * Allen * See Simms' " LEVELING. " Lev'el-ing Plow. One for plowing down ridges thrown up in some forms of row culture ; beets, for instance. Fig. 1579 is a French form by Delahaie- Tailleur Sf Bajac, ol Liancourt, which is adapted for a still greater breadth. The shares are thrown into or out of the soil by a single lever, and their working depth is regulated by the two rear levers, Fig. 1579. French, Leveling Plow. which actuate the bent axles of the hind wheels, so that the plows may penetrate the depth desired, or, as in the figure, be lifted clear of the soil in moving from place to place. Lev'el-ing Screw. (Milling.) One in the hurst of a mill, acting against an iron plate in the back Cbeneath) of a bed-stone in order to adjust it vertically and bring it to an exact level. The run- ner is then trammed in accordance therewith. Lev'er. (Steam Engine.) A hand-rod for mov- ing the valves in the starting or reversing of an en- gine. Fig. 1580. Kno ivies' Steam Pwtip. Fig. 1580 shows the hand-power lever of a steam-pump, and the lever detached. (Fire-arm.) The piece by which the gun is opened or closed in some forms of breech-loaders. It may be top, side, or under lever. Examples are found in the Douglas, Henry, Maynard, and other rifles. Lev'er and Cam Valve. A form of valve for gas or water mains. The gate A moves on guides B f>, which are arranged to Fie. lol. Lever and Cam Valve. (Perspective.) prevent friction by keeping the gate, when moving, from contact with the seat and wall of the valve chamber. The gate is opened and closed by means of the lever arm C at- tached to the rock shaft D and working in the Kiir. 1582. slot E. When the gate is nearly down, the cam F forces it forward and down to its seat. One quarter turn of the wheel, which may bo replaced by a straight arm or lever, opens or closes the valve. Lever valve, Young, Br., * "Engineer,'' 1. 494. * "Se. Am.," 1 xxxix. 19. Lev'er C o m- pres'sor. (Optics.) A means for apply- ing pressure to an object whilst under examination with the microscope. A screw is attached to a lever carrying a piece of glass and working on another plate in which a second glass is fixed and upon which the object is placed. Fig. 1583. Lever -and Cam Valve. (Section.) Lever Compressor. Lev'er Drill. A machine tool in which the tool spindle works with a spline in the socket of the wheel which rotates it, and is projected axially by a lever to bring it toward or away from its work. The spindle is counterbalanced and has a vertical movement of 7|". Fig. 1584. The table is revolvable, and is also vertically adjustable by rack and pinion. Lev'er Fau'cet. One opened by a lever and closed by a spring. See a Fig. 232, p. 81, supra. Lev'er Hand'-car. (Railway.) One worked by levers connected to cranks. Lev'er Han'dle-cock. A faucet, the handle of which projects as a lever on one side only- See Fig. 234, p. 81, supra. Lev'er Hook. (Fishing.) One so arranged that when the fish pulls at the bait, another hook strikes it and makes it fast. See list on p. 341 , supra. Lev'er Pla'ter. A form of calendering ma- chine in which the force of compression is applied through the instrumentality of levers. See PLATER. LEVER PRESS. 541 LIFE BOAT. Lever Drill. Lev'er Press. ing tin ware, for instance, in which the punch or stamp is worked by a foot-lever ; as distinct from a pendulum, c a m, screw, or fly press. Lev'er Shears. A metal shears in which the power is applied by means of a lever ; as in Fig. 1585, which is a French sheet metal shears having spur teeth on the contacting- cams by which the motion of the lever is applied to the jaw. Lev'er Valve. One moved by ;i lever. A press for cutting or stamp- Fig. 1585. Lever Shears. See LEVER ; LEVER AND CAM VALVE ; LEVER COCK. Lev'i-ga-ting Ma-chine'. The porcelain levigating machine consists of a Thuringian porce- lain mortar, a, with a fla t-b o 1 1 o m e d grooved pestle, b. This is attached to an iron crank, c, which is mounted in a strong wooden frame. There is a -spout at the bottom of the mortar for running off the mix- ture when suffi- ciently ground. Fig. 1586. Fig. 1587. Ley'den Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) A combi- nation of Leyden jars presenting single positive and negative poles. L. G. R. Large Grain Rifle powder. Lid In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) See EYE INSTRUMENTS ; also Entropium forceps, Fig. 1877, p. 805, " Mech. Diet." Lieb'er-kuhn. A silvered cup, which slides or screws upon the front of the object- glass ; light thrown upward by the mirror will be reflected by it down upon the object ; by slightly vary- ing the inclination of the mirror, every necessary alteration in the di- rection of the illumination can be obtained. Life. The endurance of a ma- chine, or a part. Compiled from the returns of 26 Illinois R. R. companies : Years. Years. Lieberkuhn. Locomotives . . . 15V Passenger cars Stock cars . . . Freight cars . . Iron rails . . . Steel rails . . . Oak ties . . 153 . 10 '. 14 7 Cedar Truss bridges . . . Trestle bridges . . . Pile bridges .... Joints and fastenings Fencine . Levigating Machine. " Locomotives 201, 202, 203, and 204 were placed on the Erie road in the months of June and July, 1854, and have run respectively 635,169, 532,548, 658,548, and 639,186 miles. The engines were equipped with new boilers in 1871, and are still considered good for 8 years more of good service. The locomotives are from the Rogers Works, Paterson." Hor- nettsville (N. Y.) Times. For endurance of car wheels, see p. 176, supra. Life and Cur'rent Slide. (Microscope.) A slide in which are two oval cells with shallow con- necting channel. By pressure on the cover the contents of a cell are caused to traverse the strait and the thin film is observed in transitu. See CURRENT SLIDE, Fig. 748, p. 236, supra. Life Boat. Fig. 1588 represents a number of life boats in section and one in plan. They are de- rived from a lecture by Mr. Charles H. Beloe, read before the Liverpool Polytechnic Society. Beginning at the left, above : a is the Greathead boat. A A are air-tight compartments, and B a water-tight deck discharging by tubes into the sea. b is the Yarmouth sailing life boat, with air cases A A, and exterior cork fenders outside the gunwale. They are launched empty and the water then admitted to the well to the level of the water outside. c, h, i, are views of the Royal National Life Boat. It is self-righting, and is the result of the experience in building the present fleet of life boats, numbering 235. It has side and end air chambers C, D, ballast ', relieving tubes B for the deck load of water. e is Lamb If White's life boat. It is built of two thick- nesses of plank with prepared waterproof material of an ad- hesive nature interposed. f is Woolfe's boat. g, j, are boats on the tubular principle. k is Hamilton If Co.'s metallic life boat, which rids itself of deck water by discharge from the end of the boat which may be highest into a space between two bulk-heads, and then lowering it to outside level by means of a plug. I is Combe's cork and cane life boat. It consists of two baskets, one placed within the other, secured to a deep wooden keel, and the intervening space filled with cork. Fig. 1589 is the Royal Institution self-righting life boat, mounted on its carriage, and Fig. 1590 shows respectively a longitudinal section and a plan. The boat has end and side air cases f, g, b. A water-tight deck with relieving tubes a. Spaces beneath the deck lon- gitudinally amidships of the boat are packed with cork, form- ing a portion of the ballast. The extra buoyancy is obtained by_the air-cases. t th , _ rr flow out through these tubes, which are f urnished r with very simple self-acting balanced valves, that afford no obstruction to the free egress of water, but, closing by the pressure of the sea outside, effectually prevent the admission of any. The actual time occupied by one of these boats in freeing it- LIFE BOAT. 542 LIFE BOAT. Fig. 1588. British Life Boats. self from water is about 30 seconds. A large portion of the ballast is composed of cork or wood. The really distinguish- ing feature of these boats is the property which they possess of self righting. The best proof of the safety of the boats is- the fact that during the last 22 years the Institution has only lost from all causes, | 29 persons from its own life boat crews, and many of these lives were lost by the men being crushed against wrecks, falling over- board, etc. The method by which this peculiar prop- erty is obtained is by attaching a heavy iron keel to the boat, and other- w i s e providing a sufficient weight of ballast, by giving a considerable amount of sheer, and by inclosing the bow and stern by air-tight cham- bers. These cham- bers have sufficient buoyancy to s u p- port the whole weight of the boat when upset, with the keel at a con- siderable height above the water ; it is then floating on two points, with the ballast far above the center of buoyancy, thus forming an Royal Institution Life Boat. unstable equilibrium. In this position the boat cannot re- main : and as soon as the keel falls to one side or the other of the center of gravity, the weight of ballast drags the boat round, the water escapes through the relieving tubes, Royal Institution Life Soot. (Longitudinal Section and Plan.) o, Delivering tubes ; b, Air-cases ; c, Well ; rf, Air-cases : e, Empty air-cases under deck ; /, Fore air-compartment ; g, Af- ter air-compartment ; A, Air-cases ; k, Mast-thwart ; s, Scuttles for air. LIFE BOAT. 543 LIFE-SAVING APPARATUS. and she IB again ready for service. The following are the requirement srequisite to insure self-righting: (1.) Ballast. (2.) Inclosed air chambers at the bow and stern, placed suffi- ciently above the center of gravity. (3.) Limited breadth of beam. (4. ) Limited side buoyancy. Life Buoy. One thrown to a man overboard. The one in Fig. 1591 is Eoutourier's. It has two inflated canvas globes, a connecting strap, and winding-in line. Fig. 1591. Routouritr's Life Buoy. Fig. 1592 is Stone's improved form of Lieut. Cook's buoy (Br.). In this night life buoy, the act of throwing it over- board sets light to a port fire, which burns steadily on the surface of the water, and shows the situation of the life buoy to the party requiring its aid, as well as lighting the boat to the seaman in the water. This life buoy is in general use in the British navy. Fig. 1592. Stone's Night Life Buoy. Life Fre-serv'er. An inflatable pillow, cush- ion, jacket, or what not. Fig. 1593 shows a num- ber of forms. Life-sav'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. A lengthy and admirable report on life-saving apparatus, guns, projectiles, etc., by Lieut. D. A. Lyle, is to be found in " Ordnance Report," 1868, Appendix P pp. 177-334, and Plate LIV. Fig. 1593. Life Preservers. History of life-saving ap- "Ordnance Report,'' 1868, Appen- paratus dix P., pp. 285-300. Hunt's apparatus . . . Ibid., p. 305 and Plate LI. Boxer's life-saving rocket Ibid., p. 314, and Plates XL., XLI. Guns and projectiles for throwing shot-lines . Ibid., Plates I. to XXX. Faking boxes .... Ibid., Plates XXXI. to XXXIV. Manby's shot, etc. . . . Ibid., Plate XXXVIII. Parrot's projectile . . . Ibid., Plate L. Fakes Ibid., Plates XLVIII., XLIX. See also ANCHOR SHOT ; BARBED SHOT ; GRAPPLE SHOT. "Report on the Manufacture of Life-saving Guns," "Ord- nance Report," 1879, *p. 270, with 7 plates. Cf. Life Boat, Atkin . . "Scientific American Sup., 1 '' 192. Boat, Chapman . . .*" Scientific American Sup.," 9Q. Globular, Manes ... * "Manuf. and Builder," is. 185. Spherical, Manes ... * "Scientific American,'' xxxvii. 54. Jackson * "Scientific American Sup.," 1568. Stockwett *" Scientific American Sup.,'' 458. Tubular, Br * "Engineer," xliv. 404. Buoy, Pocket .... " Scientific American," xxxix. 192. Preserver, Beck . * " Scientific American," xxxvi. 274. Cavalry and eques- trian's inflatable saddle cloth . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 1161. Delhommer . . * "Scientific American," xlii. 115. Preserving cap. McCarthy ... * "Scientific American," xxxv. 242. Preserving stool. Nask .... Preserver, Rose Preservers, stuffed with deer hair Bafts, "Engineer " . . Rocket, Atkinson . . . Saving apparatus. Cummerford . . . Bow Devices "Scientific American," xxxiv. 87. Saving app. U. S. Marine * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 575. "Scientific American Sup.," 2778. Saving line shot, Hunt . * "Scientific American," xl. 376. Saving mattresses . . " Scientific American," xl. 146. Saving rocket, buoyant, Br * "Engineer,," xlix. 70. Saving vessel, Stoclcwell * "Engineer," xl. 395. Saving app., cannon for line shot * "Engineer," xlvii. 212. See also LINE THROWING GUN, infra. Article " Porte- Amarres," Laboulayt's "Diet, dex Arts et Manufactures," iv., ed. 1877, has notices of Manby, Delvigne^ Tremblay. * "Scientific American," xxxiv. 291. * "Scientific American," xlii. 294. " Manuf. and Builder," x. 232. " Van No-itrand's Mag.," xiv. 308. " Scientific American," xxxvi. 207 1 "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 182. "Scientific American," xl. 376. LIFE-SAVING SUIT. 544 LIFTING HITCH. Life-sav'ing Suit. An inflatable dress to buoy up a swimmer or shipwrecked person. Boyntoii'g rubber life-saving dress is in two parts, tunic and pantaloons* The latter contains an air-chamber in each leg, which extends to the tops of the boots, while the waist is 1594 Boynton's Life Suit. girdled with a resisting steel band, on which is mounted a flange or ridge of heavy rubber. The jointure is made by lapping the tunic over the band, and a similar ridge drops into the groove formed. A belt thrown over the whole makes a tight joint. The tunic contains three air-chambers ; one in the breast, back, and head respectively . When the latter chamber is inflated through the tube, it forms a pil- low, raising the head of the occupant sufficiently to give him a complete range of vision. The suit is of delicate construc- tion, and yet it will resist severe breakers and seas. The face is the only portion of the body exposed. Fig. 1594 represents the swimmer in full outfit, and a sec- tional view to illustrate the construction. Life Sig'nal. A provision on a life-saving buoy by which an inextinguishable light is given as soon as the buoy touches the water. These chemical lights are now made in a variety of forms, and serve a useful purpose in giving a bright light upon the water when thrown overboard. One of the best of these contains chemicals that will not burn at any application of heat, but touched by water will evolve a bright flame. A small cylindrical box, ending above in a soft copper nib, is weighted below to keep it upright in the water, and filled with phosphate of calcium. When thrown into the sea, after the copper nib has been cut off, the water penetrates into the box, and the phosphureted hydrogen evolved escapes through a perforated tube leading to the open nib in a bril- liant jet of light. Rain and spray only increases its bril- liancy. Lieut. Cook's safety buoy is described under BUOY, p. 407, "Mech. Diet." See also Flg^925, page 1301, Ibid. Life Slide. See LIFE AND CURRENT SLIDE; CURRENT SLIDE. Fig. 748, p. 236, supra. Lift. 1. The pump stock, or a portion thereof, of a deep well-pump. Perhaps especially one be- longing to the Cornish system. Fig. 1595 shows a portion consisting of a working barrel (11'), a door piece (6') fitted with valve-seat and valve, an egg-ended wind-bore (9') and the door-piece which has lugs for suspending it when the. valve is to be examined. 2. A hand-hold attached to a window or window- blind, by which to raise or lower. Cf. Lift Hydraulic on ca- nals " Van Nostrand's Mag.,''' xiv. 92. Morris and Essex canal Fig. 2665, p. 1176, "Mech. Diet." Great Western canal. Br. Fig. 2932, p. 1304, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 1595. Working Barrel of Cornish Pump. Lifting Bridge. Scheldt, Antwerp Brussels Peronnet Bascule Lifting chock for thresh- ers, Clayton If Shuttle- worth ...... Lift, double, Weston . Lifting Jack, Cornell " Magic " ..... Rowland ..... Smith ...... Vibert . * "Engineering," xxv. 139. Fig. a, 2935, p. 1306, "Mech. Diet." 1 Fig. b, 2935, p. 1305, " Mech. Diet." * "Mech. Diet.," p. 241, Figs. 588, 489. 'Engineer," 1 xlii. 57. 'Iron ,dg^,''xxiii., March 20, p. 9. 'Scientific American," xxxiv. 166. 'Iron Age," xxii., Sept. 5, p. 9. 'Scientific Amer.,'' xxxviii. 297. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 355. ' Scientific American ," xxxiv. 274. Lift'er. 1 . The device on top of a drop press by which the hammer is raised, and which becomes detached to allow the hammer to drop. See DROP PRESS, " Mech. Diet." 2. A form of extractor for tubing or boring bars in oil-wells. See Plate LXXIV., p. 2758, Ibid. "American Manufacturer" . . . May 30, 1879, p. 16. Lift'ing-back Saw. (Surgical.) One which has a hinged back to stiffen the blade when in use. Lift'ing Gate. 1. A farm gate vibrating up- wardly, being hinged to a horizontal pintle on the post. " See instances on p. 958, "Mech. Diet." 2. A form of water-gate used in the penstocks of water-wheels. Lift'ing Jack. A portable contrivance for raising weights. See pages 1305,1306, "Mech. Diet." Among other forms may be found the following, which see : Bottle jack. Hydraulic jack. Lever jack. Screw jack. Wagon jack. Jack screw. See list of jacks on p. 1208, "Mech. Diet." Vig. 1596 shows several forms of hydraulic lifting jacks. Fig. 1596. Hydraulic Jacks. a. Lifting jack with low-down claw. b. Wide base jack. e. Ordinary hydraulic jack. Lift'ing Hitch. A mode of slinging an article by a rope so that the object may be raised. Fig. 1597 shows a number of hitches appropriate to the objects. LIFTING HITCH. 545 LIGHTHOUSE. Fig. 1597. Fig. 1598. Lifting Hitches. 1. Half-hitch. 5. Hammock hitch. 2. Timber hitch. 6. 'Cask sling. 8. Half-hitch and timber hitch. 7. Bale sling. Clove hitch. 8. Butt sling on end. Lifting Ma-chine'. A form of dynamometer used in ascertain- ing the strength o f a person i 11 lifting 1 ; or ly gradual ly in- creasing 1 the load, to develop great- e r strength b y exercise. See also EXEK- C I 8 I N G M A- CHINE; HEALTH LIFT. Lift Jig'ger. (Nautical.) A light tackle for swaying on the lifts of the yards. Lift Latch. A lock in which the latch is lifted, not slipped. Li-ga'tor. (Surgical.) An instrument to plac and fasten a ligature. t*(.-u Fig. 2944, p. 1308, "Mech. Diet." See also "Bcraseur,-' Fig. 1823, p. 773, Ibid., and Fig. 919, p. 292, supra. Fig. 1599. Li/ling Machine. Dr. Crocker's ligator for the gradual removal of tumors is shown in Fig. 1599. The spring is re- tained in a compressed state, until the ligature has been passed around the tumor, and its free ends secured to the cross-bar ; it is then released, and the removal of the tumor is accomplished gradually and with little danger of hemorrhage. Lig'a-ture Car'ri-er. Ligature car- riers, knot-tyers, and ecraseurs are shown in Fig. 2944, p. 1308, "Mech. Diet." Helmutk's elastic ligature carrier, adapted for the treatment of complete or incomplete fistula, has two buttons, A B, Fig. 1600, close up to the handle of the instrument. By pushing forward the button A, the blunt end of the instrument, as seen at F, opens. The elastic ligature is then put upon the stretch, and, while thus drawn out, is slipped into the notch, and the button A drawn back to its place, and the needle (if the case is one of complete fistula) is ready for use. If the fistula be incomplete, the blunt end is passed firmly up to the end of the sinus, the but- ton B is pushed forward, which protrudes the sharp point D; in other words, transforms the blunt into a sharp point. The fistula is then made complete by piercing the tissues ; as soon as this is done, the point is retracted again within its sheath, thus leaving a rounded extremity in the rectum. By elevating the handle with the left hand, and drawing the blunt end down by means of the index finger inserted within the rectum, the ligature is brought out at the anus, taken hold of and held, while the button A is pushed up, which entirely liberates the thread. The instrument is then with- drawn, the ends of the ligatures are passed through a leaden ring, which is slipped into position and clamped by forceps. Light. See the following references : From mechanical force. Barker Lighting devices . . . Apparatus, Dorscher . . Lime light Electro chemical . . . Index of refraction. Mode of determining . Intermittent light. Sir W. Thomson . . Light registering appa. Prof. Koscoe Oxygen apparatus . . Oxygen retort .... Oxhydrogen light . . "Scientific American," xxxiv. 181. "//on Age,'' xix., May 3, p. 18. ''Scientific American,'' xli. 339. [ 'Iron Age,'' xxi., May 9, p. 24. "Scientific American,' 1 ' xxxviii. 58. 'Scientific American,'' 1 xxxvi. 200. 'Scientific American Sup.,'- 1366. '' Van Nostrand's Mag.," xiv. 107. 'Scientific American Sup.," 460. 'Scientific American,'' xxxix. 73. 'Scientific American Sup.," 1227. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 93. Dr. Croaker's Ligator. See also Artery Ligators, pp. 26-28, Part I. Tiemann's ' Armamentarium C/i irurgicum . ' ' Also Ovarian Ligators, pp. 92, 93, Part III., Ibid. ' aand Hemorrnoid Ligators, pp. 122, 123, Part III., Fig. 100. Helmut h's Elastic Ligature Cam, Light'er Staff. (Grain Mill.) A lever sup- porting and controlling the adjustable end of the bray-plank or bridge-tree, to which it is connected f* " e nd ty a stirrup while its other end receives the lighter screw, or sometimes, a counterbalance weight. Light'house. The new Eddystone lighthouse i to be erected on the south rock of the group about 120' south of the present lighthouse, .erected by bmeaton in 1757. The present lighthouse man- ssts no sign of weakness, but the "'House Rock" on which it stands has been worn and probably un- dermined by the waves. a be , E( ^ d y stone lighthouse is described on p. 1311 of the Mech, .Diet." The new structure will be built to con- ,,_ tain a light of more extensive radius and greater power. The old tower is 72' above the level of high water ; the new one is designed to be 130' above the level of any spring ide, so that no matter what storm may rage, the light will 771 n ? " ^" ger f being ecl 'P sed - will have a range of miles and is expected to overlap the electric light at the U/ard. Beside th.s, the tower will be considerably enlarged giving nine rooms in place of the existing four, thus adding o the comfort and convenience of the keepers. The struc- years C Thl *'" C St 7 ' 000 ' and be C V^ four The same process of dovetailing the stones will be adopted but ; granite is substituted for Portland stone ane abundance and cheapness of petroleum oil, and the whiteness and brilliance of the flame it gives when con* sumed in properly constructed lamps, more than twenty years ago suggested its use for light-houses. The colza-oil lamps in use in light-houses have one wick for reflectors and small dioptric apparatus, and two, LIGHTHOUSE. 546 LILY IRON. three, four, and even five wicks adapted to the different or- ders of dioptric apparatus, and the flames developed in these lamps are of t'i;;. KiOl. greater size and brilliance than that of the four-wick lamps ; for ex- ample, being nearly 4" in di- ameter, by about the same in height, emit- ting a light*- ciiii-il fn iipwvlv '. (5 j| J^f 260 standard W^ sperm candles. The heat generated by the four cylinders of brilliant flame is very great, and would soon destroy the burner and melt the glass chimneys, but the wicks and burners are kept cool, and the oil prevented from volatilizing by being con stantly flooded with fresh oil to the extent of about three or four times what the lamp can properly consume. Captain Daly's improved burner, which permits the burning of petroleum in the lighthouse lamps of 3, 4, and 5 concentric wicks, is thus described by M. Colin, a French lighthouse engi- neer : "It is by a happy choice of proportion in different parts of the burner, and by the application of an exte- rior cylinder which sur- rounds the wick-holders, and is arranged in such a manner as to project a cur- rent of air upon the flame, that Capt. Doty has been suc- cessful in producing a bril- liant and regular flame with burners containing two, three, four and even five wicks. The wicks are dis- tributed similar to the Fresnel system. A small central adjustable disk, combined with an exterior air cylinder, to regulate the currents of air in the flame, forms a combustion cham- ber which produces a long and very lively flame. A simple appliance permits the application of his sys- tem of burners to the ordi- Funck's Float Lamp. nary overflow lamp, i. e., the mechanical and moderator lamps." This invention at once places within the reach of light- house authorities lamps which do not require any struc- tural rearrangement of the apparatus or lamps at present in use ; new burners only require to be screwed or sol- dered on to the existing lamps, and the lighthouse manage- ment goes on as formerly, but with this difference, that the flames of the Doty burner show greater illuminating power. Funck's float lamp for lighthouses is shown in Fig. 1601. The float is in the chamber which is seen parallel with the burner and regulates the supply which descends from the elevated oil-chamber. The overflow passes into a lower chamber from whence it is again pumped into the elevated chamber, by means of a pump, the handle of which is shown protruding to the right. Cf. Architecture. "The. Builder " Burners . . . " Chickens," rock " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xviii. 17. "Iron Age," xix., March 8, p. 18. * "Engineer," xlvii. 356. Chipiona, Spain . . . *" Scientific American Sup., "2699. Dhu heartach, Scotland "Scientific American Sup.," 373. Eddystone (new), . . * "Engineering," xxiv. 209. "Iron Age," xxiv., Sept. 4, p. 5. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xix. 379. " Scientific American," xli. 145. Maj. Elliot's Rept. . . * " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xiv. 97. Eng'ing, "Engineer," . "Van Nostrand's Mag.,' xxi.205. Sein near Finisterre, Fr. . "Scientific American Sup.," 1125. Illuminating .... "Scientific American," xxxv. 154. Illumination, Engl. . . On lighthouses, Wigham Little-Basses, Ceylon . Iron, Mexico . . . . Kennie Roche Douvres, Fr. "Scientific American Sup.," 2338. "Engineering,'' xxvi. 185. Souter Point, Engl. . Stevenson * "Engineer," xlvii. 353. Tampico * "Iron Age," xxv., March 25, p. 1. Stones, Weymouth, Br. . * "Engineering," xxx. 399. Ships and shore Teleg. Communication . . " Telegraphic Journal," iv. 113. _ Walder Laboutai/e-s "Dictionnaire," iii. Cap. Serrurrerie, Fig. 100. Cf. Elliot's Report on "European Lighthouses." "Lighthouses," by David Stevenson, Edinburgh. Light Met'al. One having a specific gravity less than 5 : water being 1. Aluminium 2.6. The metals of alkaline earths : Barium 4. Strontium 2.5 Magnesium' 1.74 Calcium 1.6 The lightest are : Potassium 0.86 Sodium 0.8 Lithium 0.6 Kubidium ? Caesium ? Light Mod'e-ra-tor. (Optics.) Two circu- lar pieces of flat glass are mounted on a stand, one blue and the other red, so combined as to give a white light when using the microscope with artifi- cial light. Light'ning Rod. See arrester, Eggington * Investigations of, Plantc * ' Conductor. "English Mechanic '' . ' Galvanometer for testing * ' Discharger, Kymer Jones * ' Protector, Telegraph . * ' Vases * ' Rods Rod discharging point.j Weston Rods, on, Kirchoff . . Rod, nickeled .... Rods, principles of . . Telegraphic Journal" v. 192. Scientific Am. Sup.," 971, 1052. ' Van Nostrand's Mag.," xxii. 102. ' Telegraphic Journal," iv. 279. ' Telegraphic Journal," vi. 489. 'Scientific American Sup.," 14. 'Scientific American Sup.," 456. ' Telegraphic Journal," iv. 79. 'Scientific American Sup.," 6. 'Scientific American,"' xxxv. 164. 'Scientific American," xxxiv. 230. ' Van Nostr. Mag.," xxiii. 491. 'Scientific American Sup.," 48. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 385. Light Reg'is-ter-ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. An au- tomatic device by Prof. Koscoe to keep a record of the amount of light that falls at any particular spot during small fixed intervals. Clockwork drives the apparatus, photographic paper is the sensitive agent used, and by mechanical arrangements cer- tain small portions of the paper are exposed to the action of light for fixed intervals, which can be regulated at pleasure. The tinted photographic paper is compared by the eye with a conventional scale of tints. Lig'nose. A Silesian blasting powder made of woody fiber charged with nitro-glycerine. It is very light ; burns slowly in a loose state ; does not explode in contact with open fire ; is three times as strong as an equal weight of black blasting powder, and less than one third the price. Mentioned in the "Deutsche Industrie Zei- tung." Made at Kieltsh by Baron von Trutzschhler Falken- stein. Lil'y I'ron. (Fishing.) The harpoon head, de- tachable from the stem, used in capturing sword- fish. See also HARPOON. Fig. 1602. Lily Iron. LIMBER. LIME KILN. Fig. 1603. Kig. 1605. Limber for Gatlinx Hun. The ammunition carriage to which the trail of a field-piece is attached when in march- ing order. Fig. 1603 shows the limber for the Gatling gun. The drawers hold cases of ammunition, 20 or 40 in a case ; the case is slipped into the feed hopper of the gun, and the car- tridges fall into the loading grooves of the gun as they suc- cessively present themselves when the barrels are rotated. lame Catch'er. A device placed between a feed-water pump and the steam boiler to intercept the lime. Fig. 1604. Feed-water Filter and Lime Catcher. The device shown is in use on the Illi- nois Central Rail- way, and its purpose is to prevent the de- position of scale. Instead of admit- ting the feed-water intothe-boilerin the usual manner (that is, on the side of the boiler, below the water level), the feed-water pipes are carried from the pumps, or injectors, to the top of the forward dome, either inside or out- side of the dome, and deliver the water near the top of the dome from a rose, C, in the form of spray or thin sheets. From this point it falls into the body of the boiler by its own gravity, and in its descent is compelled to pass over and among pieces, D D, of metal, wood, charcoal, tile, oys- ter shells, etc., which are placed in ace n e dome and are heated to the same temperature as the steam which surrounds them, and upon which the lime magnesia, and other mineral impurities in solution in the water will deposit themselves. These pieces of metal etc are supported by a grating, G, over which is laid, if neces- sary, a piece of wire netting, F, to prevent the charcoal, E, m being washed through into the boiler. The pieces of metal, etc., are renewed occasionally *ee also FEED WATER HEATER, Figs. 1000-1011, pp. 328, 329, Lime Crack'er. A mill for rough-grinding crude plaster and calcined limestone. The teeth Lime nn intormr 77* rtf Mm fiirnafo at. Mio fvnnt purl nf fhft Fig. 1617. Load'ing Ma-chine'. (Cartridge.) A ma- chine for loading the shells of cartridges. The shells are' fed in on a revolving wheel ; 72 grains of powder are let in from above by a funnel from the can, and on revolving farther the bullet is pressed into the neck of the shell. Loam and Sand Core. A dry-sand core, composed of sharp sand, loam, and horse manure. In these cores the loam is used in place of flour or other substances for giving strength and adhesive- ness to the sharp sand. Lpb'ster Claw. rigging. Soe RIG- GER SCREW. Lo'cal Ac'tion. (Electricity.) This takes place when the zincs require amal- gamation. A hiss- ing sound in the cells when the poles are not connected indicates a waste of battery material. It is remedied by re- amalgamating the zincs. Lock. See for A screw jack used in setting . 1618. Lobster Claw. history and varieties, pp. 1338, 1342, "Mech. Diet." A list'is given on the last-mentioned page. The Yale double-dial lock, Fig. 1619, is a double combina- tion bank or safe lock having two dials, each operating its own set of tumblers and bolts, so that two persons, each in possession of his own combination, must be present in order to unlock it. It is evident that the two dials may be set on the same combination, or one person may possess the two combinations, if the double security be not desired, tempo- rarily. The Time Lock has a chronometer movement inside by which the bolt is permitted to unlock at predetermined times. ' Set to lock at 4 P. M., and to open at 9 A. M., for in- stance, the door being closed at the stated time (4), the un- locking mechanism cannot be operated until the 17 hours have elapsed. By a Sunday attachment, the recurrent 7th days an additional 24 hours is added to the 17 (= 41 hours), during which the lock cannot be operated, nor the door opened. Fig. 1620 shows the appearance of the lock, and enables its principles to be sufficiently explained. The only parts of the lock which are not visible are the two chronometer movements which are concealed by the plate, and which cause the two dials to move in the direc- tions indicated by the arrows. These dials are constructed with 24 pins representing the 24 hours, and colored white and black, to indicate the day hours and night hours. When these pins are pushed in they form a track on which the rollers of the yoke ride. The movement of the yoke up and down moves the lever, to which the yoke is pivoted, up and down also. It is necessary that both sides of the yoke should be pushed up by the revolution of the dials, in order LOCK. 553 LOCK. Fie. 1619. usual, so that the projection from the bolt work is in the hole of the lock case when the hour conies at which the lock is set to lock, the rollers of the yoke will be raised, but the only effect will'toe to separate Fig. 1621. Yale Double-dial Lock. to push up the lover. When the pins of the dials are pulled out, the track on which the rollers of the yoke ride is broken away, and the yoke and lever are allowed to drop by gravity. At the left-hand end of the lever, as you look towards the cut, is shown a counterbalance weight, while the other end of the lever works in a slot in a movable dog or bolt. The sole object of the time lock is to cause this bolt to move up Yale Time Lock with Sunday Attachment. ( Cover Removed.) and down at certain regular intervals. When the bolt is moved up it closes a hole in the case into which a projection on the string piece of the bolt work passes, when the bolt work is retracted. When the bolt drops the projection can pass freely into the hole and the bolt work be retracted. The construction of the bolt is such that pressure upon it causes no pressure whatever on the lever, but the pressure is resisted by a solid block backed up by the case of the lock. The operation of the lock is therefore as follows : The user Yale Lock. the yoke at the center, and to cause a spring which holds it together at that point to spread. When the bolt work is thrown forward, and the lever and bolt are free to rise, the spring will contract and push them up in the locked posi- tion. The lock is provided with what is called a Sunday at- tachment, that is, with a segment or track which comes under the rollers every seventh day and keeps the lock in a locked position over Sunday, during the hours when it will unlock on other days. This can be adjusted so as to lock up over a holiday also. To prevent the lock running down in the locked position so as to cause a lock-out, a supplemental un- locking device is provided, and consists of a coiled spring situated back of the lever. This is held coiled by two triggers which extend over the wheels, which indicate the number of hours that the movements are wound up to run. As the movements run down these wheels revolve with them, and just before either movement com- pletely runs down a pin trips the trigger, and releases the spring which pushes down the lever and bolt, spreading the yoke apart. Yale's pin lock, which is operated by a flat key, was a new departure, seen in position in the lock in the sectional view, Fig. 1621. In the Yale lock the escutcheon or tum- bler case, inclosing the pins upon which the bits of the key operate, is placed near the surface of the door, projecting slight- ly, so that a long key shank is dispensed with, the bow and bits brought closely together, and the depth of the escutcheon decides the length of the key, without regard to the thickness of the door. The escutcheon cylinder is an exterior shell, containing in its lower part a smaller cylinder, from which rises a rib of metal containing the pin chambers, and within which is the plug, attached to the inner end of which is the cam that imparts mo- tion to the bolt. This plug also contains the key hole. The escutcheon contains five holes, or pin chambers, each formed partly in the shell and partly in the plug, therefore a pin which filled one of these holes would prevent the rota- tion of the plug, but, if the pin were cut in two, the joint corresponding with that between the plug and its hole, the plug could revolve freely, carrying with it one half of the pin, and leaving the other half in that part of the pin-cham- ber contained in the shell. Such is precisely the construc- selects the hour at which he wishes the lock to lock up, and i tion of the lock and its great element of security. The line pLi.-lii>s in that pin, and pushes in all the succeeding pins up I of junction may be seen in the upper view, Fig. 1621. to the hour when he wishes the lock to unlock, doing this on I Each pin is in two parts, the upper termed the driver, both dials, and setting the dials to the proper hour of the day by the pointer at the top of each. Now, so long as the movements are running, the pins, which are pushed in, will support the yoke, lever, and bolt, and keep the lock locked, while it will remain unlocked during all the hours repre- sented by the pins which are pulled out. These periods can be varied at will. If the safe door is left open longer than the lower the pin, and above each driver is a light spring, tending to press drivers and pins downwards. In this posi- tion the drivers intersect the joint between the shell and the plug, completely preventing the rotation of the latter. To open the lock, therefore, all the pins must be raised simul- taneously to just the proper height, which can be done only by the right key, since a variation of one-fiftieth of an inch LOCK. 554 LOCK SWITCH. in the elevation of either of the pins will prevent the opening of the lock. The width of the key admits of ten different billings, or depth of notches, therefore a lock with but one pin could be variously set up, so as to be opened by ten different keys. In a lock with two pins the number of changes, or varieties of keys, will be 100 ; three pins, 1,000 ; four pins, 10,000 ; five pins, 100,000 ; six pins, 1,000,000 ; seven pins, 10,000,000. The least number of pins contained in any of the Yale locks is 4, as in drawer and desk locks : the night-latches have 5 ; the post-office, heavy store-door locks, etc., 6 ; and the "safe-deposit' 1 locks for inside doors of safes, vaults, etc. have 7 pins. The new Yale corrugated key consists of the original plate key altered by having its blade, or portion which enters the lock, corrugated in longitudinal lines. By special machines ol great ingenuity, the lock has formed in it a key-hole of sin- uous cross section conforming to that of the key. The key and its hole are interlocked throughout their entire length, and tilting of the key in its hole is impossible. The lock can- not be operated by any key but its own, nor can it be picked except by some tool which will raise the tumblers. The shape of the key-hole renders it impossible for any tool to raise the tumblers, because, even if one be made small enough to be inserted in the key-hole, it cannot be moved up and down See under the following heads Carriage spring-lock. Coach lock. Combination lock. Dead lock. Drawer lock. Gate latch. Jail lock. Janus- faced lock. Keyless lock. Letter lock. Night latch. Nut lock. Padlock. Sash lock. Scandinavian lock. Safe lock. Seal lock. Seat lock. Time lock. Window latch. Wagon lock. Yale lock. Lock Bed'der. A machine for sinking a re- cess in a gun-stock for the lock. The general appearance of this machine is similar to a re- volving head gang drilling-machine containing five spindles with their cutters. The rifle stock is chucked in a fixed posi- tion ; to the right of it, and also fixed, is an iron section of that part of the stock into which the lock is bedded ; the iron section is used as a guide or former. The machine being started, the first operation is to drill two holes, the position of which is regulated by a pin which reaches the iron former a little in advance of the drill reaching the rifle stock, so that the position can be accurately determined. One hole being drilled, the spindles carrying the drill and the guide pin, which spindles are in the same frame and operate together, are raised, the machine head is swung one fifth of a revolu- tion, and the first cutter comes in position to operate. On lowering the cutter spindle there descends with it, and slightly in advance of it, a guide pin in the iron former, and when the guide pin is well within the iron former the cutter reaches the surface of the wood, and is guided by the opera- tor moving the head so that the guide pin travels all around the edge of the recess in the former. The motion of the guide pin and of the cutter being laterally identical, the op- erator has but to enter the cutter as far into the rifle stock as a stop provided for the purpose will admit, and then to move the frame carrying the guide pin and cutter so that the guide pin moves and touches all around the sides of the recess in the iron former. The recess in the rifle-stock will be then the exact counterpart, in size, form, and depth, of that in the pattern. The whole operation is but a repetition of the above, with the remaining cutters swung one after the other into position, the one iron former answering to regulate the lateral movement of them all. The speed at which the cut- ters revolve is about 8,000 revolutions per minute. As soon, however, as each drill or cutter is swung out of position, it stops running, which prevents wear and tear. Lock Chain. A short chain by which a pad- lock is fastened to a door or car so as to be irre- movable. Lock Fau'cet. One the spigot of which can only be turned by a removable key. Lock Gate. The gate of a bay in a canal lock. Designs for hanging lock gates, and valve for locks. See Plates III. (a), III. (ft), IV., "Report of Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army,' : 1876, vol. ii., Part II., p. 416 et seq. A report " On the Construction of Iron Lock Gates for the Harbors of the Weser River, Germany " (translation), repro- duced by the Corps of Engineers, TJ. S. Army, forms a quarto brochure, Washington, 1873. Lock Hook. (Fishing.) A supplementary hook to spring upon and secure a fish which draws on the bait. See "Report of U. S. Fish Commissioners," p. 275 Part I 1873, and Fig. 2000, "Merh. Dirt." See also FISH HOOK p.' 341, supra. Locking Plate. A nut-lock ; see 45 illustra- tions, Fig. 3350, p. 1538, " Mech. Diet." In Finney-s (Br.), a small pin is fixed a short distance be- yond the nut. A circular plate, divided equally by 17 notches, fits easily over the nut in any of its six positions. The principle of the invention is the same as that of the vernier scale. As there are 17 notches in the plate it follows that three of them represent just one-seventeenth of one side of the hexagon nut ; so that if the plate be moved round three notches, it will not fit unless the latter be moved round a distance equaling one-seventeenth of one side of the hexagon, or a distance which equals the one hundred and second part of a whole turn. "Iron Age,'' xxii., August 1, p. 19. JWlf ' 8tc CUVATIO Lock-up Safety Valve. Lock'-jaw In'stru-ment. (Surgical.) Ap- paratus for forcing open the jaws. Goodwillie's operates by a screw which acts upon two hinged valves, introduced, wedge-fashion, between the teeth. Westmoreland's has two parallel plates expanded by a screw. Some of the heavier forms of specuti oris may be similarly used. Lock Mor'tis-ing Ma-chine'. A machine for boring holes in the edges of doors to hold mor- tise locks. The machine is clamped to the door, spanning the edge at the height desired to set the lock ; a bit of the width of the lock bod} 7 is placed in the bit-holder, which works in guides ;o secure verticality, and is rotated by hand-crank and gear- ng. An adjustable stop on the bit-stock determines the depth. Lock Nut. See Fig. 3350, p. 1538, for numer- ous varieties, ocking plate. Finney,"Br * "Engineer,'' xlv. 464. Lock nut, Ibbotson, Br. * "Engineer,'' xlvii. 352. Stouffer *"Iron Age,"- xxi., Feb. 28, p. 1. Wile, Br. .....* "Engineer,'' xliii. 276. * "Engineer," xlvii. 78. Lock Seal. A piece of glass, lead, or paper over the key-hole of a padlock, so that the latter cannot be tampered with without defacing the seal. Used on cars containing goods in transitn, in bond, ;tc. Lock Switch. A form of switch board used n telegraphy. LOCK SWITCH. 555 LOCOMOTIVE. Two sets of brass bars are arranged at right angles to each other on opposite sides of a wooden frame. The connection is made between any two intersecting bars by a metallic peg, provided with a spiral spring, which, when the peg is in- serted and secured in its place, presses against the two bars, forming an electric connection. See PIN SWITCH. Lock'-up Safe'ty Valve. One in which the weight or spring is in a closed chamber which can- not be tampered with, or changed, except by Figi 1623 - one having possession of the key. Kifr. 1622 is Wilson's im- provement on Klotz's safe- ty valve. The springs are not accessible, although the engineer can ascertain by lifting the trying lever, whether the valves are in good order. Valve and seat are of gun-metal, having the same ratio of expan- sion. Kig. 1623 is Stone's looked-up safety valve (Br.), in which the lever operates in a yoke on the valve-stem, being efficient in lifting, to prove the condition of the valve, but powerless to add pressure thereto. See also Fig. 2983, p. 1343. "Mer/i. Diet.,' and Fi<:. 4544, p. 2019, Ibid. Lo'c o-mo'ti v e. See " Mech. Diet.," pp. 1343-1348. Plate XXVI. gives a view of a first-class, Lark-up Safety Valve. fast engine of the ordinary American type, with four connected driving wheels and a four-wheeled truck. It was built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works, for the Central Railroad of New Jersey, for fast passenger service. The special points of improvement in construction and proportion are carefully and elaborately detailed, accompanied by sectional views, in the " American Machinist," * v., pp. 1-3, January 7, 1882, to the publishers of which journal the author acknowledges his indebtedness for the plate. " The train usually consists of five cars, viz., one baggage, one express, one Pullman drawing-room coach, and two or- dinary passenger coaches. With this train, notwithstanding the fact that the smoke-stack is well inclosed within the smoke-box, to prevent throwing fire, plenty of steam is gen- erated at all parts of the road. The regular schedule time between Jersey City and Bound Brook is 37 minutes. This listance has been run by No. 169 in 33 minutes. Three miles upon the route have been run in 2 minutes and 24 seconds, - the same distance frequently covered in 2J minutes. The quickest mile ever run bv this locomotive was in 45 seconds timed between mile posts with a stop-watch." "Ameri- can Machinist." The following are some of the principal dimensions : Gage of road fy 8J" Weight (running) 93,000 Ibs. Cylinder diameter 18" Stroke 24" Driving wheel, diameter 68" Wheels, diameter 32" Boiler, thickness, steel |" Diameter . 52" Fire-box, length 125" Width 43J" Tubes, number 200 Diameter 2" Length \\i // Grate, area, sq 38' Heating surface, box, sq 145' Tubes, sq 1175' Total, sq 1320' Steam power, normal 140 Ibs. A freight locomotive by Rogers, having four pairs of coupled drivers, is shown in Fig. 1624. The original " Consolidation " locomotive was built in 1866 from the plans of Wm. Alex. Mitchell, at the Baldwin Works in Philadelphia. This type of locomotive has four pairs of drivers and a two- wheeled pony truck in front. It was originally built to overcome some steep grades on the Lehigh Valley Railway, and specially for the Mahoning Plain, which rises 133' to the mile. Plate XXVII., for which the author acknowledges indebt- edness to the "Railroad Gazette," gives a view of locomotive 5000, built at the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, for the fast train between New York and Philadelphia on the Bound-Brook route. A careful description with sections and elevations is in the journal mentioned, * vol. xxiv., 246, 315. " This new locomotive has a single pair of driving wheels 6' in diameter, in place of coupled drivers of 6J' in diameter. In the latter form of engines run at high speed there is dan- ger that, the coupling rods connecting the driving wheels will be broken by centrifugal force. The larger wheel also re- duces the number of revolutions per mile of run. In the new locomotive the boiler has 1400' square of heating sur- face and about 56' square of grate surface. The dimensions are as follows : Diameter of cylinder, 18". Length of stroke, 24" Diameter of driving wheel, 78". Wheel base, 21' 1". Distance from center of driving wheel to center of trailine wheel, 8' Boiler, 7-16" steel . . 52" in diameter. No. of tubes, 198 . . .2" in diameter and 12' 2|" long. Fire-box 9gl// by 84". Capacity of the tender 3,800 gallons. When filled with water and coal, 70,000 pounds. " The weight of the engine is 85,000 Ibs., and is so disposed that by an alteration of fulcrum points additional weight can be thrown on the drivers at the time of starting. " At a trial trip on May 14th, the engine was attached to a train of four cars, each weighing about 42,000 pounds, mak- ing the weight of the train complete, about 148 tons. The run was made at rates ranging from 27 miles an hour, be- tween Ninth and Green and Wayne stations, to 62 miles an Fiji. lf,24. LOCOMOTIVE. 556 LOCOMOTIVE. hour, between Trenton Junction and Bound Brook, the time from Ninth and Green to Jersey City (89.4 miles) being 98 minutes, or at the rate of 542 miles per hour. On the return trip the run was made in 100 minutes. In a former trip the engine developed a speed of nearly 79 miles an hour. In these trial trips the engine consumed 36 gallons or 300 pounds of water per minute." Le Van. Dimensions of Mogul Passenger Locomotive, No. 600, Built by Baltimore and Ohio R. R. Co. Gage of road 4' 8J" Driving wheels, number 6 Diameter 60" Truck wheel, number 2 Diameter 31" Total wheel base 2% 11" Cvlinders, diameter 19" "Stroke 26" Steam ports 1J" x 15J" Exhaust 2J" X 16*" Throw of eccentrics 5J" Boiler, diameter 60" Fire-box, length inside 99 7-16" Length outside 9/ Width on top 451" Width on bottom 34|" Depth in front 4' 8" Depth in back 3' 4" Grate surface 23.7' sq. Heating surface in fire-box . . . 122' sq. Flues 1150' sq. Total 1272' sq. Flues, length 11' 10" Number 165 Diameter 2J" Weight on truck wheels . 13,850 Ibs. Driving wheels . . . 76,550 Ibs. Total weight, running . . 90,400 Ibs. Locomotives for steep gradients are of several kinds, among which may be noticed the following : 1. The Fell system, so called, in which a pair of horizon- tally rotating wheels or rollers embrace a central rail. This was used by him on Mt. Cenis and Mt. Washington. See also Vignoles and Ericsson's central rail (Fig. 1210, "Mech. Diet."). This was patented by these parties in England in 1830, which is doubtless much older than Fell's invention. Kollman's English patent of 1836: Sellers' United States pat- ent of 1835. 2. The Eighi railway (Fig. 4124, "Mech. Diet."'), which has central rack engaged by spur wheel on the locomotive. This was patented In England by Blenkinsop in 1811, Snowden in 1824, Easton in 1825. 3. Coleman's (English patent 1845), in which a screw be- iieath the locomotive works into a line of rollers laid down midway between the rails. 4. James' (English patent, 1825), converting each wheel of the train into a driver. A horizontal shaft extending beneath the carriages from the locomotive throughout the train, ro- tated by the locomotive and having bevel wheel connection with the axle of each car. See p. 1861, "Mech. Diet.' 1 '' 5. Handy side's system, in which the locomotive, provided with a winding drum and wire rope, proceeds up the incline in advance of the train, and, after being anchored to the rails, draws up the train after it by the wire rope. 6. Appleby's system, in which a chain is laid between the rails and passed over by a chain wheel of the same diameter at the pitch-line as the wheels of the locomotive. The engine hauls by adhesion on the level and lays hold of the chain when going up or down steep grades. For most of these engines vertical boilers have been used on account of the small foundation space they occupy, and because there is less uncovering of the flues when the boiler is on a heavy grade. The locomotive attachment of Wootten Hazel is designed to enable a locomotive on one track to impel an engine or car on another. A ram is pivoted to the locomotive and may be folded against the same or extended by an adjustable spring-brace rod, to a position to engage the car on a side track to move it forward. The fast trip from New York to San Francisco was made in 83 hours, 34 minutes. The "Uncle Dick" locomotive for the Atchison, Topeka and Santa F6 railway weighs 65 tons, and is 60' long from the head-light to the rear of the tender. Boiler, length 21' Cylinder, diameter 20" Stroke 26" Drivers (8), diameter 42" Restraining force of brakes 75 tons. The largest locomotive at Vienna weighed 70 tons, and could draw 1000 tons at 30 miles per hour. See also under various heads : Back-truck. Mining. Coal-dust burning. Mogul. Compound. Narrow gage. Compressed air. Plantation. Consolidation. Pony-truck. Farm. Portable engine. Fire engine. Steam plowing. Fireless. Switching. Geared. Tank. Ice. Traction engine. Logging. Tramway. Mahovo. Waste burning. See the following references : Air locomotive . . . page 16, supra. Anthracite dust, Wootten * ' R. R. Gazette,'" xxiii. 155 * "Engineer," xxvii. 67. * " Scientific American Sup.," 4012 : " Technolngiste," xxxix. 88. * "Engineering,'' xxvi. 86. * "R. R. Gazette," xxii. 454. Thurston's " Vienna Report." ii. 72-77. * "Engineering,'' xxvi. 150, 230. Automobile, Brunner . Austrian Austrian boiler . . . Austrian State Railway. (6 types) Austrian, details of . . Austrian boiler. Nord-Bahn .... * "Engineering," xxvi. 274. Austrian State Ry. . . * " R. R. Gaz~," xxii. 537, 549-559. Aveling if Porter, Road and farm * "Scientific American," xl. 102. Baldwin *" Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 695 American '' " Consolidation " . . " Mogul " .... Belgian, Carel .... Camp, de Fives-Lille . Belgian State Ry., com- bined with car . . . Boiler, Funiack . . . Boilers, Verdeiber, Hung. * "R. R. Gazette,'- viii. 214. * "R. R. Gazette," viii. 249. * "R. R. Gazette," viii. 261. Thurston's " Vienna Rept.," 1 ii.70. Ibid., ii. 62. * "Engineer,'' xlvii. 1. 'Railroad Gazette," xxiii. 263. Brazil, Dom Pedro Ry. . 'Engineering," xxvii. 114. 'Railroad Gazette,'' xxiii. 110. Scientific American Slip.," 2736. 'Engine'g,'' xxii. 155 : xxiii. 90. ' Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' 659. Bait. & O., No. 6, 1835, Gillingliam if Winans * "Engineering," xxii. 24. British and Am. comp. "Scientific American Sup.," 962. Central Railway, N. Y. * "Engineering," xxii. 98. Centennial, at, (18) tables "Engineering,-' xxii. 10. Centennial, at, old time "Scientific American Sup.," 324. Charts and cuts ..." Scientific American Sup.,'' 548 Chinese, first, Ransoms * "Engineering," xxii. 29. if Rapier, Br. . . . * "Scientific. American Sup.,'' 583. Collision, embrace of . * "Railioad Gazette," viii. 254. Compared with horses . " Scientific American Sup.,' -2001. Compound, Mallet, Fr. . * "Engineering" xxvii. 516 : xxviii. 17, 58. "Teciinologiste," xxxvii. 114. (21 Figs.) * "Engineer," xlviii. 85. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xv. 379; xxii. 6; xxiii. 418. * "Iron Age," xxiv., Aug. 7, p. 15. "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 260. Compressed air. "Scientific American Sup.," 966, Beaumont, Br. . . . 1041, * 3943. " Van Nostr. Mag.," xxiii. 225. See COMPRESSED AIR ENGINES, p. 215, supra. Consolidation, Baldwin " Scientific American Sup.," 371. * "Engineering," xxx. 189. * "Railroad Gazette," viii. 249. * "Railroad Gazette," xxi. 28, 35. Atchison, Topeka, if Santa Fe Ry. . . Pa. Railway . . . . Contractor's, Soc. St. Leonard, Belg. . . . Crane, Black, Haw - thorne if Co., Engl. . Chretien Smith, Br Cross-heads, Borsig . . Cylinder borer, Sharpe, Stewart ft Co., Br. * "Engineer," xlvii. 258. "Scientific American Sup.," 847. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 34. * "Engineering," xxix. 491. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1297. * "Engineering," xxv. 345. Danforth Co. .' . . . * "Engineering," xxii. 25. Ditching plow, Buchanan * "Engineering," xxx. 166. Double bogie. Fairlie, Festineog,(35J" gage) "Engineering," xxix. 453. Double bogie, Fairlie . * "Engineering," xxv. 511. * Anderson's "Report Paris Exp.," 1878, iv. 452. Economical, Old Colony Ry "Scientific American," xxxix. 181. Eddy * "Scientific American Sup.," 1536. Elevated Ry. Grant Works, N. Y. . * "Railroad Gazette." xxii. 495. Forney * "Railroad Gazette," xxii. 517,535. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 319. Elevated Ry., N. Y. . . * "Engineer," xlvi. 333. Forney * "Engineer," xlvi. 443. Express, Alta-Italia Ry. * "Engineering," xxviii. 414. LOCOMOTIVE. 557 LOCOMOTIVE. Express Austria ... * "Engineer," 1. 178, 200. British ..... * "Railroad Gazette," xxiv. 426. E. Ry. of France . . * "Engineer,"' xlv. 379: xlvi. 244. * " t^cie.nlific American Sup.,'' 2413. Gt. Western Ry.,Br. . * "Engineer,''' xlii. 186, 202, 224. Hungarian State Ky. * "Engineer," xli. 337, 356, 398. Bogie, L. C. Sf D. Ry. "Engineer," xlvii. 64. Midland Ry., Br. . . * "Engineer,-' xli. 230, 250. N. Ry. of Trance . . * "Engineering," xxix. 303. * "Engineer,"' xlv. 442. Paris If Orleans Ky. * "Engineering,''' 1 xxvii. 390. Sharpe, Stewart fy Co. Br ....... * "Engineering," xxv. 411. Six coupled, Br. . . *" Scientific American Sup., " 2302. S. Ry. of France . . * "Engineer," xlvi. 26. Farm and road * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 162. Aveling 4" Porter . . * Supra, p. 327. Fireless, street. "Manufacturer Sf Builder.'' 1 xi. 9. Francq, Fr ..... " Technologists,'' xxxvii. 149. HohenzollernWks,Ger.* "Scientific American,''' xlvii 240. Lamm If Francq, Fr. * "Engineering," xxviii 306, 375. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1760, 2125, '2521,* 2766. * Anderson's Report, "Paris Expo- sition Reports,' 1 iv. 465. Mekarski, Paris . . * Ibid., iv. 462. '' Scfieffler, N. 0. "Iron Age,'' xxiv., Nov. 27, p. 7. * " Railroiul Gazette,' 1 ' 1 xxi. 383. * "Scientific A/er.,'' xxxvii. 239. * "Engineer," xliv. 220. * page 338, supra. Freight, Baldwin . . *" linilroad Gazette," viii. 519-521. Narrov ml Hi/., Swed. * "Engineer,''' xlvii. 152. Gt. Eastern Ry., Br. . * "Engineering," xxix. 66. Irisk ...... * "Rni/rond Gazette,,"' xxiii. 519. Lehigh Val. Ry. . . * "Engineering," xxii. 22(i. London &BrightonRy. * " Engineer,' 1 ' xliii. 373. London & N. \V. Ry. . * "Engineering," xxx. 294. London, Chatham. 4" Dover Ry. . . . *" Engineer," xliv. 242, 259. Noni-Bahn, Austria . * "Engineering,"' xxvi. 271. N. British Ry. ... * "Engineer," xliii. 7. Paris # Orleans J\y. . * "Engineering," xxvii. 455. 8-coupled, Paris if' Or- * " Engineer," xlvi, 161, 168. leans Ri/ ..... * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2356. S-ccmplcd. Paris, Ly- uns. If Med. Ri/. . * "Engineer," xlvi. 293. I'urix, Lyons, $ Med. * "Engineering," xxviii. 30, 65, 72. Hi/'. ...... *" Engineer," Nov. 2, 1879. *" Engineer t " xlix. 10. 1'enn. Ry ..... * "Engineering," xxii. 400. French, C/aparade . . Thurslon's " Vienna Rept.," ii. 62. Sr /i ii eider (f Co. . . Ibid., ii. 61. At Paris Expo., 1878 . * "Engineer,'" xlv. 322, 341. ri-cant Al-loy'. An alloy of zinc, 7 ; copper, 4; tin, 1, resisted all turning tools till the edges were moistened with petroleum. The alloy then yielded readily. "Les Mondes." Lu'bri-cant Test'er. A machine to test the quality of oil used for lubricating purposes. Most of the machines are founded upon the same principle. The better the oil, the less the frictional adherence of two surfaces moving relatively and in contact with a given pressure upon them. This may be evidenced in either of several ways : By the power required to produce the motion. By pressure in the nature of a Prony brake to bring the motion to a halt. By heat generated by the friction. Deprez & Napoli's apparatus gives for the various oils a distinctive trace on properly ruled paper. It has a lower revolving plate and an upper one supported upon it in such a manner that when oil is placed between the points of support of the upper plate and the lower plate, the tractile force upon the upper draws upon a steel ribbon connected to a pulley mounted on points, and to the axis of which is secured a pendulum. The rod of the latter carries a roller which engages upon a vertical piece attached to a carriage mounted on wheels which traverse rails. The car- riage carries a sheet of paper against which is pressed a pen- cil which has a very slow motion of translation proportioned to the number of turns of the lower plate before mentioned, and the direction of the said motion is perpendicular to that of the carriage. The curve traced on the paper by the composition of these two movements is the curve representing the value of the friction in terms of the number of turns made by the said lower plate. The tractile force is so much the greater as the lubricating quality of the oil decreases. See "Scientific American," xxxvi., 214. A still better view of the same, or of a machine with similar functions, is given on p. 360, vol. xl., *" Scien- tific American.'' It appeared in " Engineering, ' ' and repre- sents a machine employed by the Eastern Railway of France to ascertain the value of various lubricants, and was shown at the Paris Exposition of 1878. An apparatus used by the Paris, Lyons, & Mediterranean Railway is shown at page 2794, * tl Scientific American Sup- plement." Two pairs of wheels on their axles are mounted in a frame, one above the other. Axle-boxes having been charged with the lubricant to be tested, the springs are raised by an arrangement of screws and worm wheels so that the axles of the upper shaft are lifted from the load. The wheels being rotated the springs are brought down, and that lubricant is the best which allows the heaviest pressure without heating. Ashcroft's lubricant tester, Fig. 1638, consists of a shaft mounted on centers, so as to rotate freely, upon which shaft a drum is fixed, and revolves with the shaft. To this drum Fig. 1638. Ashcroft'i Lubricant Tester. brasses are neatly fitted, and held in position and pressed against the surface of the drum by levers and weights ; and between the surfaces of the drum ar>d of the brasses the oil is tested. Upon the upper brass 1 , is a cup, which communicates with the surfac-e of the drum, and into which the oil is dropped. The shaft is rota'ed by a belt and pulley, and the number of revol utions is registered by >t counter device operated by gear- ing from the shaft. Attached to the upper brass is a reser- voir of mercury, into which a thermometer is adjusted, which indicates the heat generated by the frictional surfaces as the trial of the lubricani proceeds. The principle upon which this machine is based is that of submitting a given quantity of the lubricant to be tested to a frictional action between cylindrical concaved and con- vexed surfaces under a fixed pressure, and then measuring the quantity of motion required to use up the given lubri- cant, determining the time when this is accomplished by the temperature of the frictional surfaces, which increases rap- idly as the lubricant becomes exhausted. Four drops of the lubricant to be tested are dropped into the cup from a glass dropping-tube, the temperature noted, the machine set in motion and allowed to run until the ther- mometer indicates a given degree of temperature at which it would be safe to run the machine say 200 Fah. as a standard ; when it is stopped, and the number of revolutions taken. The better the quality of the oil, the longer the machine will run before reaching that temperature. After each ex- periment the machine is taken apart, thoroughly cleaned, and allowed to cool to the surrounding temperature. In order to test the "gumming" qualities F:.g. 1639. of the oil, it is al- lowed to cool before cleaning. The speed is about 1.400 revolutions per minute. On tests of various kinds of oils, the revolutions given varied from 11,250 to (3 -V 16,300 before reaching fie given tempera- ture. In Professor Thurs- , on a standard, D, mounted on a base plate, E. The shaft is driven by a pulley, C, at any desired speed. A counter may be placed at the rear end of the shaft to in- dicate the number of revolutions. The shaft is usually driven at a fixed speed, corresponding to the velocity of rubbing surfaces approximating that of journals on which it is pro- posed to use the oil. In the inventor's practice, a standard speed of 760 feet per minute is adopted. The test journal, F, is grasped by bearings of bronze, G G', and with a pres- sure which is adjusted by the compression of a helical spring. This spring is carefully regulated, .and the total pressure on the journal and the pressure per square inch are both shown on the index plate by a pointer, M. Above the jour- nal is a thermometer, Q, of which the bulb enters a cavity in the top brass, and which indicates the rise in temperature as wear progresM's. The brasses, thermometer, and spring are carried in a pendulum, H, to which the ball / is fitted ; and weights are adjusted in such a manner that the maximum friction of a dry but smooth bearing shall just swing it out into the horizontal line. The stem, K K', of the screw, which compresses the spring, projects from the lower end of the pendulum and can be turned by a wrench. A pointer. O, traverses an arc, P. , and indicates the angle assumed by the pendulum at any mo- ment. This angle is very large with great friction, and very small with good lubrica- ting materials. This arc is carefully laid off in .such divisions that dividing the reading by the pressure shown on the index gives the corresponding coefficient of friction. The machine can also be arranged to give the friction directly. In practical use, a standard quantity of oil is placed on the journal. The bearings are slipped on and set up to the Tfiurston's Lubricant Tester. LUBRICANT TESTER. 563 LUMBER DRYER. proposed pressure ; the machine is started at the speed deter- iniiicil upon, and the observer notes the time, speed, pressure and temperature. These observations are repeated and re- corded at regular intervals, and cease when a rapid rise of temperature to an objectionable or dangerous extent indi- cutes that the lubricant has become destroyed. See also Fig. 6330, p. 2539, "Mech. Diet." Another form, made by Bailey, of Salford, England, has a pendulum with a block on the end of a jointed arm, the block moving to and fro on a plate as the pendulum swings. The block and plate having been daubed with a definite amount of the lubricant, the pendulum is started in its os- cillations, and the number of movements counted before it comes to rest. These will be fewer when the lubricant is the poorer. Still another apparatus by Bailey is for testing the con- sistence of oils at given temperatures. A drop of oil is placed on the upper end of a slanting glass plate covering a heated tank. The distance which it will come down the glass is the measure of its consistence. The form and size of a drop which drops from a pipette is an indication of quality at a given temperature. Refer to : fee Lubricant . . . Van Phul 4" Groat Lubricating oils . . A. tilt-raft * llailiy * Bailey (2) * Comparison of methods * Crossley * Deprez if Napoli ... * Eastern Ry. of France . * Electric tests .... Evaporating point . . * Flushing point . . . . * Friction brake . . . . * Hatcher * Hodgman liigitnm 4" Stapfer . . * # McNaught * Metcalf, paper by Lieut. * Napitr * Paper on * Paris, Lyons & Med. Ry. * * Pease Regray, E. Ry. of France * Tagliabue * Test for acids .... Tests for safety . . . Thermometrical . . . * Thompson * Thurston . * "Railroad Gazette,'' x. 511. "Engineer,'' xlv. 372. "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2541. "Engineer,"* xlv. 372. "Engineer,"- xlv. 372. "Scientific American," xl. 360. "Scii-ntific American," xxxvi. 214. "Engineering," xxvii. 234. "Kai/ru/i'J Gazette,' 1 ' xii. 242. ''Min. 4" Sc. Press," xxxviii. 351. "Englifh Mechanic, " xxiii. 86. "V ' xlv. 372. > r. " xlv. 372. "Engineer," xlv. 372. "Railroad Gazette,'' xxii. 24. "Railroad Gazette,-' xxii. 24. 11 ICngint-cring," xxiii. 28, 33. "Railroad Gazette," xxii. 24. "Ord. Report,-' 1878, App. No. 2. "Railroad Gazette,'- xxii. 24. 'R. R. Gaz.," ix. 266, 492 ; x. 23. ''Mining if Sc. Press," xxxiii. 7; * xxxv. 177. '''Am. Railroa/l Jour.," li. 397. ^'Engineering,'" xxvii. 110. i( Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 2794. 'Scientific American,'" xlii. 223. 'Engineer," xlvi. 315. 'Iron Age," xxiii., Nov. 21, p. 15. 'Railroad Gazee, : "xxii. 23. 'Man. Buildfr," ix. 240. 'Manufact. If Builder," xii. 206. 'Engineer," xlv. 372. ''Engineer," xlv. 372. ''Engineer," xlv. 372. ''Railroad Gazette," xxii. 23-25 "Meek. Diet.,"* Fig. 6330, p. 2539. "Manuf. $ Builder," ix. 59, 131. * "Engineering," xxiii. 176. Trickling * "Engineer,"~xlv. 372. Bailey * "Scientific American Sun.." 2541. Withycomb, L. S. & Mich. Southern . . "Railroad Gazette," xxi. 266. For exhaustive information on this subject reference is made to a lecture by Professor Thurston reported in "Rail- road Gazette," xxii. 23, and well illustrated. Lu'bri-ca'tor. ] . A device for greasing a jour- nal, piston, or other moving part. Instances are given of steam lubricators, Fi, 1881. Paint or composi- tion of sulphide ol calcium, and a vehicle consisting of a varnish made with gum mastic or other resinous body, and turpentine or other spirit, or gelatine. May be mixed with various colors ; is translucent and phosphorescent, and is intended to be applied to windows, to emit during the night the light stored up during the day. nl main's paint is a preparation of sulphide of calcium. See "Engineering rind Mininif Journal," xxix. 408. On photographic paper weights. See "Scientific Ameri- can,'' xlvi. 249. See also DIAL, p. 254, supra. Lump. (Fire-arm.) The iron piece soldered ou. to the barrel, and which descends into the ac- tion (in break-joint breech-loaders) where there is a recess prepared for it. Lu'na-tel'lus. An orrery showing the astro- nomical relations of the earth and moon. Lung Test'er. A spirometer : an instrument for testing the capacity of the chest. Fig. 5431, p. 2279, "Mec/i. Dirt:' Burt * "Scientific American,'' xxxv. 242. Lus'ter. 1. (Ceramics.) Lusters are thin me- tallic surfacings to pottery which require no burn- ishing and in some cases have iridescent effects. They are placed on the ware with camel's hair pen- cil and the ware is fiml in a muffle. They offer a cheap and brilliant effect with but little permanence. The following are the more usual : Gold luster is prepared by precipitating with ammonia the regal solution of gold, diluting the humid precipitate with turpentine and applying it without flux. Platinum luster is obtained by a concentrated solution of chloride of platinum mixed witli an essential oil. Mothfr-of-ptttrl lustfr is obtained by precipitating by a weak acid a double sulphate of gold anil potassium and grinding the precipitate with a little flux and essence of lavender. The copper luster of Spain is supposed to be produced by the silicate of the protoxide of copper ; it is conjectured that the oxide is thrown into the furnace when the ware is fired. Cantharidex luster is obtained with a mixture of lead-glass and a little oxide of bismuth and chloride of silver. It is put on with the brush, the ware fired in the muffle from which it is withdrawn while red hot. 2. (Fabric.) A taffeta woven goods with cotton chain and long luster wool weft. A grade of alpaca. Ly'ra. (Music.) An instrument with jingling plates. That shown in Fig. 1645 has two sets of steel bars, embracing two chromatic octaves. For references to the various instruments which have bars in series sounded by percussion, and consisting of wood, metal, glass, stone, etc., see MARIMBA. Ly'sim'e-ter. A rain g a;g e ; pluviameter ; om- brometer; udometer. See pp. 1871-1873, and Figs. 4145, 4146, "Meek. Diet." The lysimeter is designed to determine the amount and quality of the water which per- colates through a certain depth of soil. By it a certain body of soil is so isolated without disturbing its natural condition that all the water percolating can be measured, and the heavy Conn's Lyra. rains which in part flow over the surface of the soil may also flow over the lysimeter and not enter into the measure of effective rain. It consists of a box inclosing an undisturbed cube of earth, and a light bottom with a slant which directs the water to a measure placed below the drip, in a pit excavated at the side of the box. This method is in use at Rothainstead, England, and at " Houghton farm, ''Orange Co., N. Y. Gage for temperature of rain, Colladon . . . * " Scientific American Sup.," 2746. Rainfall * "Scientific American Sup.," 1606. Rain gage * "Scientific American,''' xxxvi. 257- M. Ma-chine'. As distinct on the one hand from an engine : An instrument which fashions, or operates mechanically upon, objects or materials, and does not contain its own motor. It is driven by an engine or other motor, or by hand. As distinct from a tool : It contains its own guide for operation. A tool is a manual instrument depending for its efficiency upon the strength and skill of the opera- tor. A machine-tool is one which supersedes the hand tool formerly employed. Instrument is a qualitative term, applied to tools and apparatus of delicacy and precision. Some irregularities exist in the placing of these terms. See under the following heads : Accumulator. Arbor. Adding machine. Arbor, expanding. Adjustable bed press. Arch screw-press. Air compressing machine. Arm-boxing machine Air pump. Army mill. Air refrigerating machine. Artesian well machine. Amalgamator. Aspirator. Angle car-boring machine. Aspirator winnowing mach. Angle cutting saw. Attrition mill. Angle-iron bending machine. Atmospheric hammer. Angle shear. Axe-handle lathe. Angle shearing machine. Axle lathe. Annealing machine. Bait mill. Anvil. Balance-wheel turning mach. Aplatisseur. Baling press. Apple grinder. Ball grinder. Balling machine. Ball trimmer. Baluster lathe. Band and jig saw. Banding machine. Band saw. Band-saw mill. Band-saw re-sawing machine. Band-saw setter. Band-saw getting machine. Band-saw setting and filing in. Band-saw sharpening frame. Bar cutting machine. Barking machine. Bark-mill. Bark-rossing machine. Baromotor. Barrel-boring machine. Barrel-chamfering machine. Barrel crozing machine. Barrel facing machine. Barrel head. Barrel head rounder. Barrel hoop. Barrel leveling machine. Barrel leveling and trussing m. Barrel machine. Barrel pitching machine. Barrel saw. Barrel setting-up machine. Barrel trussing machine. Barrel turning lathe. Barrel turning machine. Barrel washer. Barrel windlass. Bar shear. Beader. Beaming machine. Beam mill. Bearing feeler. Beating-out machine. Beetling machine. Beet grater. Beet press. Beet-root digger. Beet-root machines. Bell chuck. Bench drill. Bench-drilling machine. Bending and straightening m. Bending machine. Bevel felly planer. Bevel-gear cutting machine. Bevel-gear wheel cutter. Bevel rest for band-saw cut'g. Bevel sawing machine. Bevel-wheel cutter. Binding machine. Binding reaper. Biscuit machine. Blacking-box press. Blacksmith's lathe. Blank-work folder. Blanking press. Blind-lath punching mach. Blind-relishing machine. Blind-slat crimping machine. Blind-slat mortising mach. Blind-slat planer. Blind-slat router. Blind-slat tenoning machine. Blind-stile borer and mortiser. Blind-stile boring machine. Blind-stile mortising mach. Blind wiring-machine. Blocking machine. MACHINE. 566 MACHINE. Block ironing machine. Canting table. Cloth press. Cutting-off shear. Block-making machine. Capstan. Cloth pressing machine. Cut-off saw. Blower. Car-axle lathe. Cloth shearing machine. Cutting press. Blubber mincing machine. Car boring machine. Cloth stretching machine. Cylinder boring machine. Board -cutting machine. Car-box drill. Cloth testing machine. Cylinder boring and facing m. Board-seasoning machine. Car-box grinding machine. Cloth wind'g and measur'g m. Cylinder fixing apparatus. Boiler-plate clipper. Carburetor. Clover huller. Cylinder forging mill. Boiler prover. Card and ticket cutter. Coal cutting machine. Cylinder grinding mill. Boiler-shell drilling machine. Cardboard cutter. Coal mining machine. Cylinder saw. Boiler smith. Cardboard machine. Coal testing machine. Cylindrical saw. Bolt clipper. Card grinder. Coal tipping machine. Darning machine. Bolt-cutting machine. Cardigan-jacket machine. Coal washer. Dead-stroke hammer. Bolt die. Carding machine. Cockle separator. Decorticator. Bolt-forging machine. Car gaining machine. Cocoon winder. De-gumming machine. Bolt-heading machine. Car-journal-bearing boring m. Coffee cleaner. Dental engine. Bolt holder. Car mortising machine. Coffee cooler. Diagonal planing machine. Bolt-pointing machine. Carpet loom. Coffee dryer. Diamond drill. Bolt-trimming machine. Carpet match 'g & meas'g m. Coffee huller. Dielectric machine. Bolt-turning lathe. Carpet winder. Coffee grinder. Die-sinking machine. Bone mill. Carriage cutting-off saw. Coffee mill. Diffusion apparatus. Book-backing machine. Carrier. Coffee roaster. Dimension saw. Bookbinding press. Car sill dressing machine. Coiling apparatus. Dirt scraper. Book-sawing machine. Car sill machine. Coiling machine. Disintegrator. Book-sewing machine. Car tenoning machine. Cold air machine. Disking machine. Book trimmer. Cartridge heading machine. Cold saw. Ditching machine. Boot-cleaning machine. Cartridge head tester. Collar machine. Dividing engine. Boot machine. Cartridge loading machine. Combing machine. Dobby machine. Boot-sewing machine. Cartridge varnishing machine. Composing machine. Domestic motor. Boring-and-turning mill. Car-truck-frame drilling m. Compound cotton press. Door and sash tenoning mach. Boring machine. Carving lathe. Compound lathe. Door clamp. Boring mill. Carving machine. Concasseur. Door mortising machine. Bottle washer. Car-wheel balancing apparat. Cooperage machine. Door relishing machine. Bottling machine. Car-wheel borer. Cop reel. Double cutting-off machine. Box-board machine. Car-wheel chuck. Cop winding machine. Double edging machine. Box-board matching mach. Car-wheel grinding machine. Copying lathe. Double-face milling machine. Box-forming machine. Car-wheel press. Copying machine. Double pitman press. Boxing machine. Car washing machine. Cord-making machine. Double planing machine. Bracket cutting-off saw. Case trimmer. Cork-cutting machine. Double seamer. Braiding machine. Cash recording machine. Corking machine. Double surfacing machine. Bran duster. Cask leveling machine. Cork machine. Double traverse drill. Brass-finisher's lathe. Cement chuck. Corkscrew machine. Double-tub press. Breaking-down machine. Cement mill. Corn cleaner. Double wheel lathe. Break lathe. Cement testing machine. Corn cracker. Double winding machine. Brick machine. Centering chuck. Corn cutter. Dough brake. Brick press. Centering lathe. Corn drill. Dough kneader. Brick re-pressing machine. Centering machine. Corn husker. Dough mixer. Brim-pouncing machine. Centering tool. Cornice machine. Dovetailing machine. Brim stretcher. Center plate. Corn mill. Dowel machine. Broaching press. Center sawing machine. Corn planter. Drain-tile machine. Broadcast seeder. Centrifugal machine. Corn sheller. Drawing frame. Bronzing machine. Chaff cutter. Corn stalk cutter. Drawing machine. Broom-corn scraper. Chaff sifter. Corset loom. Drawing press. Broom-handle lathe. Chain cable shear. Corundum wheel. Dredging machine. Broom-sewing machine. Chain loom. Cotton gin. Drill grinder. Broom trimmer. Chain testing machine. Cotton opener. Driller and slotter. Broom winder. Chair mortiser. Cotton picking machine. Drilling machine. Brush-finishing machine. Chamfering machine. Cotton planter. Drill press. Brushing machine. Change wheels. Cotton press. Drop hammer. Brush machine. Charcoal grinding mill. Cotton seed huller. Dropper. Buckwheat huller. Charcoal washer. Coupon numbering machine. Drop press. Buckwheat shucker. Chaser. Coupon ticket machine. Drug mill. Buffing lathe. Chasing lathe. Crab. Drying machine. Buffing machine. Cheese press. Cracker cutting machine. Duplex boring and facing m. Bull en nail machine. Chemical fire engine. Cracking machine. Duplex boring and turning m. Bullet machine. Chilian mill. Cranberry picker. Duplex planing machine. Bullet patching machine. Chocolate machine. Crane. Duplex punch. Bung lathe. Chocolate mixer. Crank lathe. Duplex slide rest. Bung machine. Chopping mill. Crank-pin driver. Dusting machine. Burring engine. Chop separator. Crank-pin jack. Dye-wood cutter. Burring picker. Butter worker. Chromo-lithographic machine. Chucking lathe. Crank-pin turner. Creeper. Dye-wood grinder. Dynamo-electric machine. Butt lathe. Chucking machine. Crimp brake. Dynamometer. Buzzer. Cider mill. Crimper. Earth borer. Buzz planer. Cider press. Crimping machine. Earth scraper. Cable-testing apparatus. Cigarette machine. Cross-cut circular saw. Eccentric chuck. Cacao sorter. Cigar mold. Cross-cut saw. Eccentric lathe. Cake breaker. Circular knitting machine. Cross gaining machine. Eccentric mill. Cake grinder. Circular resawing machine. Cross raising machine. Economizer. Calculating machine. Circular ribbing machine. Crown pouncing machine. Edge molding and shaping m. Calendering machine. Circular saw. Crozing machine. Edge molding machine. Calender rolls. Circular saw mill. Crusher Edge planing machine. Calico-printing machine. Clamp milling machine. Crushing mill. Edger. Caliper machine. Clapboard machine. Cube sugar machine. Edge setter. Cambering machine. Clay mill. Cuff frame. Edge trimmer. Cam-cutting machine. Clipping machine. Cultivator. Edging machine. Cameo press. Clipper. Cupping machine. Edging saw. Cam loom. Clod crusher. Cushioned hammer. Electrical machine. Cam press. Closing machine. Cut-off saw Electro-magnetic machine. Cam-body former. Candle machine. Candle-polishing machine. Candy-rolling machine. Cloth cutting machine. Cloth dressing machine. Cloth drying machine. Clothes wringer. Cutter grinder. Cutting and drawing press. Cutting and screwing mach. Cutting and stamping press. Electrotype molding machine. Embossing machine. Embossing press. Embroidering machine. Candy slicer. Cloth finishing machine. Cutting-off lathe. Emery grinder. Cane mill. Cloth folding machine. Cutting-off machine. Emery planer. Can-labeling machine. Cloth measuring apparatus. Cutting-off saw. Emery wheel. MACHINE. 567 MACHINE. Emery wheel dresser. Gang saw. Heel filing machine, Lard press. Endless- bed planer. Gap-bed lathe. Heel jack. Lathe. Endless belt grinder. Gap lathe. Heel machinery. Lawn mower. Endless saw. Gas machine. Heel scouring machine. Lead-pipe machine. Engine lathe. Gate saw. Heel trimmer. Leather finishing machine. Engraving machine. Gear cutter. Helve hammer. Leather glazing machine. Ensilage cutter. Gear-wheel dresser. Hemp softening machine. Leather pebbling machine. Envelope machine. Geometric lathe. Hoeing machine. Leather raising, etc., mach. Envelope printing pros-. Gibbed engine-lathe. Hogshead machinery. Leather scouring machine. Epicycloidal milling engine. Gilding press. Hoisting apparatus. Leather splitting machine. Evaporator. Gingham loom. Hollow spindle lathe. Leather stamping machine. Excavator. Girder riveter. Hominy machine. Leather stretching machine. Exercising machine. Girder tester. Hominy mill. Leather whitening machine. Exhaust fan. Glass-polishing machine. Honey extractor. Lever drill. Expanding mandrel. (ilass press. Hoop. Lever press. Expansion boring tool. Glove making machine. Hoop and splint machine. Lever punch. Face lathe. Glove sewing machine. Hoop banding machine. Levigating machine. Facing machine. Gorse cutter. Hoop making machine. Lifting machine. Faller machine. Grader. Hoop-pole river. Lime cracker. Fancy broad loom. Grading plow. Hoop punch 'g, flar'g,etc., m. Lime mill. Fanning mill. Grain cleaner. Hoop punching machine. Lithographic press. Farm mill. Grain crusher. Hop picker. Lithographic stone dresser. Feed cutter. Grain cutter. Horizontal boring machine. Lithog. stone polish'g mach. Feed mill. Grain drill Horizontal boring mill. Litter cutter. Feed regulator. Grain dryer. Horizontal mortising mach. Loading machine. Felling saw. Grain mill. Horizontal saw mill. Lock mortising machine. Felly bending machine. Grain scourer. Horizontal slot boring mach. Log butter. Felly boring machine. Grain screen. Horn press. Log frame. Felly-rim planing machine. Grain separator. Horse groomer. Log roller. Felly rounding machine. Grain sifter. Horse hay-fork. Loom. Felly saw. Grain smutter. Horse hoe. Lozenge machine. Felting machine. Grain sorter. Horse power. Lubricant tester. Fencing machine. Grain steamer. Horse rake. Lubricator. Fertilizer distributor. Grain toller. Hosiery seaming machine. Magneto-electric machine. Fertilizer mill. Grain washer. Hot curving machine. Main tapping machine. Fertilizer sower. Grain weigher. Hot-iron saw. Maize cutter. Filter press. Granulating machine. Hot press. Maize mill. Finishing press. Grape crusher. Hot saw. Malaxator. Fire engine. Grape mill. Hot straightening machine. Malt crusher. Fire-hole ring riveter. Grape press. Hub boring machine. Mandarining machine. Fire pot. Grapple dredging machine. Hub boxing machine. Mandrel press. Fish dressing machine. Grinder. Hub mortising machine. Mangle. Flanging machine. Grinding lap. Huller. Marking machine. Flat rib knitting machine. Grinding machine. Howeling machine. Masticator. Flax braking machine. Grinding mill. Hydraulic bender. Matcher and jointer. Flax loom. Grinding wheels. Hydraulic boring machine. Matcher setter. Floor boring machine. Grindstone turning device. Hydraulic coal miner. Matching machine. Flour bolt. Grist mill. Hydraulic crane. Match-making machine. Flouring mill. Grits grading machine. Hydraulic electric machine. Matrix rolling machine. Flour packer. Grits mill. Hydraulic elevator. Meal cooler. Flue cutter. Grits purifier. Hydraulic engine. Measuring machine. Fluting machine. Grooving and beading mach. Hydraulic forging. Meat chopper. Flying sounder. Grounding machine. Hydraulic punch. Meat stuffer. Fodder cutter. Gummer grinder. Hydraulic press. Medal lathe. Fodder mill. Gumming machine. Hydraulic riveter. Metal saw. Folder. Gun stocking machine. Hydro-extractor. Middlings grinder. Folding machine. Hand bolt cutter. Hydrostatic weighing mach. Middlings mill. Folding and perforating m. Hand loom. Ice machine. Middlings purifier. Foot band-saw. Hand mortising machine. Impression machine. Middlings softening machine. Foot die machine. Hand planer. Impression stitch machine. Milk skimming machine. Foot drill. Hand rock-drill. Inclined press. Mill. Foot lathe. Hand-strap apparatus. Incorporating mill. Mill dog. Foot press. Hand milling machine. Incubator. Mill grinder. Foot punching press. Hand plan. Index milling machine. Milling machine. Forage cutter. Hank dyeing machine. Independent drill. Milling rollers. Forage press. Hardening machine. Ink grinding machine. Mill-pick sharpener. Force. Harvester. Insect destroyer. Mill-stone dresser. Forge. Forge hammer. Hat blocking machine. Hat finishing lathe. Inside molding machine. Intermediate spinning frame. Mill-stoneifacing machine. Mineral dresser. Forging, hydraulic. Hat forming machine. Iron cutter. Mining machine. Forging machine. Hat lining sewing machine. Iron cutting saw. Mitering machine. Forming machine. Hat press. Ironing machine. Mixing machine. Forming press. Hat shaping machine. Iron saw. Mixing mill. Foulard machine. Hat shaving machine. Iron shears. Molding machine. Four-high mill. Hat stiffening machine. Jacquard loom. Molding-iron grinder. Four-spindle drill. Hat stretcher. Jigging machine. Molding, shaping, etc., mach. Four-screw chuck. Hay loader. Jig saw. Monogram machine. Frame drilling machine. Hay press. Joiner. Monogram press. Frame planing machine. Hay rake. Jointer. Monte-jus. Frame slotting machine. Hay tedder. Jute machinery. Mortar mill. Fret saw. Head beveling and turning m. Keg jointer. Mortar mixer. Fret scroll saw. Friction machine. Heading clipper. Heading dresser. Keg leveling and trussing m. Keg machine. Mortising chisel. Mortising machine. Friction-roller drop. Heading jointer. Key grinder. Mouthing machine. Fruit press. Heading machine. Key seat cutting machine. Mulay-saw mill. Fruit separator. Heading planer. Key way cutter. Mule. Fulling mill. Fur blowing machine. Heading rounder. Heading saw. Kibbling mill. Kneading machine. Multicolor printing press. Multiple drilling machine. Fusing disk. Gage lathe. Heading turner. Headstock. Knife-grinding machine. Knitting machine. Multiple wheel tool grinder. Nail picker. Gage table-shears. Gang drill. Heel attaching machine. Heel breasting machine. Labeling machine. Laboratory lathe. Nail polishing cylinder. Nap meter. Gang edger. Gang plow. Heel building machine. Heel burnishing machine. Lag machine. Lap doubling machine. Navigational sounding mach. Needle making. Gang ripping saw. Heel cutter and shaper. Lap machine. Needle straightener. MACHINE. 568 MACHINE. Net machine. Plow-handle bending mach. Riveting press. Shaft straightener. Notching machine. Plow-handle lathe. Road locomotive. Shaper. Nut tapping machine. Pneumatic excavator. Road roller. Shaping machine. Oat mill. Pointing machine. Road scraper. Shaving machine. Oat separator. Polishing machine. Rock borer. Shawl loom. Oil-cake breaker. Portable cider press. Rock breaker. Shearing machine. Oil cake mill. Portable circular saw mill. Rock crusher. Shear, punch, and upsetter. Oil press. Portable drilling machine. Rock drill. Sheep-shearing machine. Oil testing machine. Portable grist mill. Rocking saw-table. Sheet calender. Olive press. Portable mill. Rod machine. Shingle machine. Open back press. Portrait lathe. Rod, pin, and dowel machine. Shingle and heading machine Open die machine. Positive motion loom. Rod planer. Shingle buncher. Opener-tapper. Post drill. Roller mill. Shingle sawing machine. Opening machine. Potato bug destroyer. Rolling machine. Ship-timber saw. Ore breaker. Potato digger. Rolling mill. Shirt frame. Ore crusher. Potato planter. Root cutter. Shirt knitting machine. Ore dryer. Potter's wheel. Root grinder. Shoddy machine. Ore grinder. Pottery mill. Root puller. Shoe embossing machine. Ore mill. Pouncing machine. Root pulper. Shoe sewing machine. Ore separator. Powder-pressing machine. Root shredder. Shoe nail machine. Ore sifter. Power press. Root slicer. Shoe pegging machine. Ore washer. Power shears. Root washer. Shoe soling machine. Organ blower. Press drill. Rope molding machine. Shoot board. Outside molding machine. Pressing machine. Rosette cutter. Shuttle race milling mach. Outside tacking machine. Pressure bar. Rosette lathe. Sickle grinder. Oval lathe. Pressure block. Rossing machine. Side planing machine. Oval tenon machine. Pressure blower. Rotary-bed planing machine. Sifting machine. Overpick loom. Priming machine. Rotary mortising machine. Silk de-gummin<; machine Overshot separator. Printing machine. Rotary shaper. Silk dyeing machine. Pail and tub machinery. Printing press. Rotator. Silk loom. Painting machine. Print washing machine. Rounding machine. Silk reel. Paint mill. Profiling machine. Routing machine. Silk softening machine Panel-board molding mach. Proof press. Roving frame. Silk spinner. Panel machine. Puddling machine. Rule and lead cutter. Silk spooling machine. Panel molding machine. Pug mill. Ruling machine. Silk stretching machine. Panel planer. Pulley boring machine. Sabot machine. Silk testing machine. Panel raiser. Pulley grinding machine. Sail sewing machine. Silk washing machine. Panning machine. Pulley-head mortising mach. Sand-papering machine. Silk winder. Pantographic cutter-former. Pulley lathe. Sash machine. Singeing machine. Pantographic engrav. mach. Pulley turning machine. Sash molding machine. Single speed drilling mach. Paper bag machine. Pulverizer. Sash mortising machine. Skein setter. Paper calendering machine. Pulverizing mill. Sash relishing machine. Skein torsion machine. Paper clipping machine. Pump. (Varieties, see list.) Sash sticking machine. Skin-beating machine. Paper collar machine. Pump joint machine. Satinet loom. > Skiving machine. Paper coloring machine. Punch and shear. Sausage stuffer. Slabbing machine. Paper cutting machine. Punching machine. Saw filer. Sleeper recessing machine. Paper cutter and winder. Punching press. Saw gummer. Sleeve machine. Paper glazing machine. Pusher. Saw gumming emery wheel. Slitting mill. Paper knife grinder. Quick-speed drill. Saw gumming press. Slitting saw. Paper press. Race. Sawing and boring machine. Slitting shear. Paper pulp machine. Rack cutting machine. Sawing engine. Sliver lap machine. Paper rolling machine. Radial drilling machine. Sawing machine. Slot-boring machine. Paper testing machine. Radius cross-cut sawing m. Saw jointer. Slot-drilling machine. Pasteboard cutter. Radius planer. Saw mill. Slotting machine. Pattern maker's lathe. Rag duster. Saw sharpening machine. Slubbing frame. Peat machine. Rag and waste picker. Saw toothing machine. Smashing press. Pebble-powder machine. Rag picker. Scarifier. Smoothing machine. Pebbling machine. Rag washer. Scrap-cutting machine. Smut machine. Pellet-powder machine. Rail bender. Scraper. Smutter. Pegging machine. Rail borer. Scraping machine. Snap machine. Pendulum press. Rail shears. Screw and nut machine. Soap machine. Perambulator. Rail slitter. Screw cutting lathe. Soda water machinery. Perfecting press. Railway crane. Screw cutting machine. Soil pulverizer. Perforating machine. Railway cutting-off saw. Screw finishing machine. Solder cutter. Picket heading machine. Railway speed recorder. Screw hoist. Soldering machine. Picket sawing machine. Ramie fiber machine. Screwing machine. Sole cutter. Pig-iron breaker. Rand breasting machine. Screw machine. Sole cutting press. Pile driver. Rand turning machine. Screw nicking machine. Sole forming machine. Pile driving engine. Ratchet drill. Screw polishing machine. Sole -leather roller. Pillar drilling machine. Pillar shaper. Reciprocating planing mach. Reducing press. Screw press. Screw shaving machine. Sole-leather stripping mach. Sole molding machine. Pin making machine. Pipe bender. Pipe cutting machine. Pipe elbow-bender. Relishing machine. Re-pressing brick machine. Re-pressing machine. Re-sawing band saw. Screw slotting machine. Screw soling machine. Screw-thread forging mach. Screw-wire soling machine. Sole press. Sole riveting machine. Sole rolling machine. Sole screwing machine. Pipe prover. Re-sawing machine. Scroll lathe. Sounding apparatus. Pipe screwing machine. Revolving head screw mach. Scroll saw. Specific gravity machine. Pistol rifling machine. Revolving tool-head screw m. Scrubbing machine. Speed indicator. Pitman press. Rheostatic machine. Sculpture machine. Speed lathe. Pivot polisher. Rib fabric knitting machine. Seal-embossing press. Sphere-turning lathe. Plaiting machine. Rib-top machine. Seaming, etc., machine. Spice mill. Planing machine. Rice drill Seaming machine. Spinning head. Planing, chamfering, etc., m. Rice huller. Sectional mill. Spinning lathe. Planishing hammer. Rice thresher. Seed drill. Spinning machine. Planter. Riddle sorter. Seeding machine. Spinning mule. Plastering machine. Plaster mill. Ridge-stone cutting machine. Rifling machine. Segment saw. Self-acting drilling machine. Spiral spring coiling machine Splining machine. Plate-bending machine. Plate machine. Rim planer. Rim-saw machine. Self-acting lathe. Semolina machine. Splint cutting machine. Splitting machine. Plate pickling machine. Ring and traveler frame. Semolina separator. Splitting saw. Plate press. Plate shearing machine. Ring saw machine. Rinsing machine. Separator. Serpentine molding machine. Spoke driving machine. Spoke facing and jointing m. Plate welding hammer. Plow. (Varieties : see list.) Ripping saw. Riveting machine. Sewing machine. Shaft boring apparatus. Spoke lathe. Spoke polishing machine. Plow grinder. Riveting machine, hydraulic. Shaft excavator. Spoke setting machine. MACHINE. 569 MACHINE GUM. Spoke tenoning machine. Spoke tenon trueing uiacb. Spoke throating machine. Spoke turning lathe. Spooling machine. Spool printing machine. Spool winding machine. Spraying machine. Spring adjuster. Spring shaping machine. Spring steam hammer. Spring testing machine. Square arbor lathe. Squa ring-off saw. Squaring shear. Squeezer. Stalk cutter. Stamping and cutting press. Stamping machine. Stamping mill. Stamping press. Staple machine. Starching machine. Stationary bed planer. Stave cutter. Stave dressing machine. Stave ending machine. Stave bolt equalizer. Stave equalizer. Stave jointer. Slave machine. Stave planer. Stave saw. Steam capstan. Steam crane. Steam hammer. Steam plate press. Steam plow. Steam reaper. Strain riveting machine. Steam stamp. Steam winch. Stearine press. Steel hammer. Stereotype beveling machine. Stiffening machine. Stock turning lathe. Stone boring and facing m. Stone breaker. Stone channeling machine. Stone clearer. Stone cleaving machine. Stone crusher. Stone cutting machine. Stone dressing machine. Stone drill. Stone molding machine. Stone planing machine. Stone sawing machine. Stone splitting machine. Stoping drill. Stove-plate dressing mach. Straight cutter planing m. Straightening machine. Straw cutter. Street sweeper. String binder. Stripper. Stripping machine. Stud turning lathe. Stuffing machine. Stump extractor. Submarine excavator. Sugar-cane mill. Sugar dryer. Sugar evaporator. Sugar filter. Sugar-top cutter. Surface grinding machine. Surface molding and edg'g m. Surface planing machine. Surfacing lathe. ' Surfacing machine. Sweat-rolling machine. Sweat sewing machine. Sweeping apparatus. Sweet potato digger. Swing saw. Tack machine. Tacking machine. Tailor's pressing machine. Talc mill. Tanite machine. Tan press. Tapering and crimping mach. Tap groove sharpening mach. Tap grooving machine. Tapping machine. Tea preparing machine. Teaseling machine. Tedder. Tenoning machine. Tentering machine. Testing machine. Thatch-making machine. Thread cutting machine. Thread dressing machine. Threading machine. Thread waxing machine. Three-spindle drilling marli. Threshing machine. Tile machine. Tip stretcher. Tire bender. Tire grinding apparatus. Tire grinding lathe. Tire setter. Tire shrinker. Tire upsetter. Tobacco-cutting machine. Tobacco granulating mach. Tobacco press. Tobacco spinning machine. Tobacco stripper. Toggle press. Tolling machine. Tool-grinding machine. Tool-sharpening inachiue. Tooth cleaner. Track-laying machine. Transfer lathe. Transverse planing machine. Traveling-bed planer. Traverse drill. Traverse planer. Traverse slotting machine. Traversing sawing machine. Treadle circular saw. Treadle drilling machine. Tread power. Trimmer. Trip hammer. Truss-hoop driver. Trussing machine. Trying-up machine. Tube drawing machine. Tunneling machine. Turbine. Turning mill. Turning-off machine. Turn-over gear. Turret lathe. Turret screw machine. Twin power press. JL'wist drill grinding machine. Two-box loom. Two revolution press. Two spindle shaper. Tying-in machine. Type machine. Type making and setting m. Type writer. Unhairing machine. Universal borer. Universal emery grinder. Universal lathe. Universal milling machine. Universal wood-worker. Upright drill. Upright molding machine. Upright shaper. Upsetting machine. Valve rentier. Valve-seat planer. Vanning machine. Vegetable cutter. Veneer cutter. Veneer sawing machine. Ventilator. Vertical boring machine. Vertical-buhr mill. Vertical car-boring machine. Vertical car tenoning mach. Vertical drilling machine. Vertical mill. Vertical molding machine. Vertical re-sawing machine. Vertical-stone mill. Wall drilling machine. Wall paper machine. Wall-paper polishing mach. Wall-paper sticking mach. Warping machine. Warp tying machine. Washing machine. Waste picker. Watchmaker's lathe. Water aerating apparatus. Water motor. Wave molding machine. Wax-thread sewing machine. Web printing press. Wedge cutter. Weighted-carriage lathe. Welding press. Well drill. Welt machine. Wheat brush. Wheat cracker. Wheat damper and dryer. Wheat grader. Wheat heater. Wheat scourer. Wheat separator. Wheat steamer. Wheel-cutting machine. Wheel hoe. Wheel jointer. Wheel making machine. Wheel molding machine. Wheel press. Wheel-turning lathe. Wheelwright's machine. Whitening machine. Ma-chine' Bolt. A bolt with a thread, and a square or hexagonal head. A machine screw is similar except as to the head, which has a slit for the insertion of the screw-driver. Ma-chine' Gun. One in which the loading and firing are executed by mechanical means ; the power being usually applied by means of a hand- crank. The subject is considered under BATTERY GUN, *pp. 249- 251, "Mech. Diet.," where the following are described or referred to : Hardy. Townsend. Natcher. Dodge. Fieschi. Gatling. Hedrick. Requa. French mitrailleur. *Puckle. Milburn. Taylor. See also MITRAILLEUR, *pp. 1454-1456, Ibid., where are no- ticed those of *French army. *Taylor. *Abbertini. Hotchkiss. B. B. Hotchkiss's revolving cannon consists of 5 steel bar- rels of 1.5" caliber, grouped about a horizontal shaft, and Fig. 1647. Wig-wag. Windlass. Windmill. Wine press. Winnower. Wire covering machine. Wire cutting and forming m. Wire forming machine. Wire handle machine. Wire metis., form, and cut. m. Wire-rolling mill. Wire-spring machine. Wire straightening machine. Wire testing machine. Wiring press. Wood bending machine Wood facing machine. Wood lathe. Wood rasping machine. Woodworker. Wool burring machine. Wool combing machine. Wool oiler. Wool scouring machine. Wool washing machine. Worm gear hoist. Wringing machine. Yarn nocking machine. Yarn printing machine. Yarn reel. Yarn washing rollers. Yarn winder. Yucca grater. revolving in front of a breech-block, which has openings to receive the cartridge and empty shell. The gunner, by turn- ing a crank extending from the stationary breech, causes the shaft and barrels to revolve, and, while this rotation is in progress, mechanism is operated which shoves fixed ammu- nition into the rear of each barrel, and then, as the loaded barrels continue their revolution, a spring plunger strikes each cartridge in succession, and each barrel is thus discharged in turn. The projectiles affe percussion conical shells, weighing about one pound each, and the rapidity of fire has exceeded 100 shots per minute. As each shell on striking bursts into an average of 17 effective pieces, the above vol- ley is equal to 1,700 bullets striking within an area of 260 square feet in the above period of time. The range far ex- ceeds that of any small arm. The revolving cannon is made MACHINE GUN. 570 MAGAZINE GUN. by the inventor for the French government at St. Denis, near Paris, and is stated to be effective and accurate at 5,000 yards. The Gardner machine gun (Fig. 1648) is mounted upon tripod or upon carriage ; is automatic, transferring the car- Fig. 1648. Gardner Machine Gun. tridge from the feed-port to the barrel, firing, extracting, and ejecting the empty shell, consecutively to each barrel. The barrels are stationary. The mechanisms for feeding and firing each barrel are independent ; those for loading cartridges and ejecting shells are positive. The cartridges are fed automatically from a vertical magazine : the move- ments are derived from a hand-crank. The gun has trav- erse motion on its vertical axis in the stand, and adjustment for altitude by hinge and screw. The Taylor machine gun has 12 barrels of 2" caliber, each having a magazine capable of holding 12 cartridges. The Fig. 1649. Taylor Machine Gun. magazines revolve, the loading is automatic, and the gun worked by one person by means of the lever on the tail- piece. The Bailey gun has a circular cluster of parallel barrels, and is worked by a revolving crank, the cartridges descend- ing in a case which is stuck, into the hopper so as to feed automatically. It has one lock, made in two pieces, which works all of the barrels. See also ParkkursPs machine gun. Patent No. 228,777. Coloney's patents : 225.401 . 225,462. 225,465. 225,466. 231,652. 231,653. FarweWs machine gun consists of 10 steel barrels of .45" caliber, arranged parallel to each other in a metallic frame. From center to center of the outer barrel is 3'. Each barrel is charged separately from a magazine containing 50 rounds of ammunition. The charging, firing, and extraction of ex- ploded shells are all accomplished by the turning of one crank, at each revolution of which the whole 10 barrels are discharged, emptied, and reloaded. A system of cog-wheels connects the firing crank with an automatic traverse. It differs from the Gatling gun in the simultaneous load- ing and firing of 10 barrels, the latter loading each barrel through the same magazine aperture and firing but one shot at a time, though with almost incredible swiftness. The Requa battery has 25 barrels lying horizontal and parallel on a carriage. It is a breech-loader, and the barrels are fired simultaneously. The arrangement of the barrels is similar to that of the "infernal machine ;> of Fieschi, with which he fired upou Louis Philippe and his stall, killing several persons, but miss- ing the king. In Fieschi's device the barrels were separately loaded, laid on a bench, clamped, and a train of powder laid over the touch-holes In Requa's battery the paper cartridges are driven into all the barrels simultaneously by a sliding breech-block trav- ersing at the rear of the whole platoon, and operated by a lever. Priming leads to each of the cartridges, and the charges are fired by a cap. Two forms of the Taylor battery gun have the horizontal parallel (or converging) arrangement of barrels. Lowell battery gun. " Ordnance Report,'' 1878, Appendix S, p. 375. Hotchkiss, Revolving cannon, Ibid., 1877, Appendix O, and p. 609 et seq. Taylor, Battery gun, Ibid., 1878, Appendix S, 1, p. 389, et seq. Trial of Hotchkiss' revolving cannon, Ibid., 1877, Appen- dix 0. Trial of Hotchkiss' revolving cannon, Ibid., 1879, p. 143, with 17 plates. Trial of Gatling gun, 5" (English model), Ibid., 1879, Ap- pendix I 12 , p. 190, with 15 plates. See Gardner "Iron Age,'' xx., Aug. 30, p. 11. Hotchkiss * "Engineer,"' xlii. 299. Nordenfelt, Br. ... * "Engineer," xlvii. 416. See also REVOLVING CANNON. Ma-chine' Twist. A kind of silk thread, made three-cord, and twisted from right to left. Made specially for use in the sewing machine. Sewing silk is two-cord, and twisted from left to right. See account in J. L. Hayes' "Centennial Report,' 1 '' v. 96, 97. Mack'in-tosh Steel. (Metallurgy.) Steel made from malleable iron by a stream of carbureted hy- drogen directed upon the bath of metal in a furnace, C. Mackintosh patent, 1825. Also known as the Baron process. Mack'e-rel Latch. (Fishing.) A cord-clamp which holds the in- board end of a mackerel line. Mack'e-rel Plow. (Fishing.) Also known as a fatt ing-knife, for creasing the sides of lean mackerel to make them resemble No. 1. Mag'a-zine' Bat'te-ry. (Elec- tricity.) One in which a magazine contains the crystals which are sup- plied to the liquid as exhausted, to keep the liquid saturated : As in the Darnells' battery, which has a magazine of sulphate of copper crystals ; and the Anderson, which has a magazine filled with bichro- mate of potassium crystals. Anderson's battery, U. S. Patent, "Scientific American,'' * xliii. 115. Mag'a-zine' Gun. A gun containing a sup- ply of cartridges, mechanically furnished to the chamber of the barrel, seriatim. The subject is considered on pp. 1367-1369, "Mech. Diet.," where the following systems are described or referred to : *Winchester. *Callen. *Ward-Burton. Swiss. Spencer. Meigs. Also on pp. 853, 854, Ibid., and Plate XVIII. MAGAZINE GUN. 571 MAGAZINE GUN. The Hotchkiss repeater is a holt and needle mag- azine gnu. The magazine in the butt contains six cartridges which are forced forward by a spring. The gun is shown in Fig. 1650. The cartridges are inserted one at a time, to the number of fire, pressing each backward into the chamber until a click Fig. 1650. firing pin. The breech mechanism is simple, and the opera- tion requires merely a forward and back motion of the hand. See also Trabue's magazine gun, patents Nos. 223.414 : 223,660. Report of trial of magazine arms for the French navy : " The French authorities have recently made acaref ul trial of repeating arms with a view to adoption should one be found which, while serviceable in other respects, fulfilled the following conditions, which were put forth in March, 1877 : " (1.) To fire the regulation metallic cartridge of the army. " (2.) To have the Bame trajectory and the same accuracy as the rifle model, 1874. " (3. ) So constructed as to be used as an ordinary single shot arm, or, in other Hotchkiss Repeating Arm. is heard, due to the head of the cartridge passing the car- tridge stop. A sixth may be placed in the chamber. To load, turn the bolt and retract it. The bolt engages a car- tridge, and the return motion forces the load into the cham- ber and cocks the piece. The piece has the usual 4 motions : Twist, draw, return, lock. The cocking being automatic-, the piece i.v ready to fire. Lieut. A. H. Russell's (U. S. Army) magazine gun is shown in Figs. 1651,1652. The magazine is at the side and can he filled whether the piece be loaded or unloaded, the opening for insertion of the cartridge being accessible at all times. TIic loading is on the bolt system, but no turning of the bolt is required. Fig. 1651 shows the bolt pushed forward Fig. 1651. liusstU's Magazine Gun. (Elevation.) slightly, forcing before ita cartridge just introduced into the receiver from the magazine L, which holds 5 or 6 cartridges, side by side. The magazine is at the side of the receiver and extends downward to the bottom of the trigger guard. The mouth of the magazine is at the side of the receiver, and the cartridges are forced upward by a spring so as to bring them in succession to the action of the bolt. A spring-gate pre- Kig. 1652. Russell's Magazine Gun. (Section through barrel ami bolt.) vents the escape of cartridges except to the receiver, while it allows them to be inserted sidewise into the magazine from without. They may be inserted singly, or the magazine may be filled quickly from a cartridge-box applied to the mouth of the magazine, the cartridges being forced in by the finger, the gate of the magazine yielding to the pressure from above and closing after the cartridges have entered. The action of the bolt is rectilinear. It is drawn out by a handle which unlocks a pivoted catch-piece, C, to free the bolt, and relocks the piece C when the bolt in thrust home in loading. The forward motion of the bolt compresses the firing spring and the trigger catches in the hook of the words, to admit of passing quickly and simply from single shot loading and firing to repeating, and vice versa. " (4.) To be strong, not requiring too tender care, not to be exposed, from a breaking down of the repeating mechan- ism, to unserviceableness as. a single shooter ; to be dis- mounted, cleaned, and remounted without difficulty. " On March 28, 1877, the minister approved of this pro- gi-amme, and on September ]4th he sent orders to Cherbourg to experiment with three types of repeaters, with detailed in- structions as to the trials. These three arms were : "(1.) The Hotchkiss. " (2.) The Kropatschek. " (3. ) The Krag. " To these three the board confined themselves. " The result of these trials showed that the magazine of the Hotchkiss was most quickly charged. The Hotchkiss also fires most rapidly ; both in repeating and single shot fire the Kropatschek was not far behind it . The Krag does not seem to have been well understood and manipulated by the men. The Kropatschek modified with eight cartridges in its magazine beat the Hotchkiss which had only six, while the Krag with nine cartridges was best of all. The time neces- sary to discharge this latter arm's magazine of nine rounds was 24.85 seconds, in which time the Kropatschek had on an average fired 8.9 cartridges per arm, and the Hotchkiss 7.9 starting with the magazine closed ; with the magazine open 25 seconds were occupied, in which time the Krag fired 9, the Kropatschek 9.3, and the Hotchkiss 8.25 rounds on an average. Single shot fire proved better than recharging the magazine and repeating continually. The minimum times taken to fire off the magazines, at the conclusion of the ex- periments, when the men were expert, were as follows : Hotchkiss, 6 rounds, in 10 seconds ; Kropatschek, modified, 8 rounds, in 14 seconds ; Krag, 9 rounds, in 17 seconds ; giying an average time per round of 1.66, 1.75, and 1.88 seconds re- spectively. " Finally, it was concluded that the Hotchkiss rifle is the easiest and quickest in charging the magazines ; then the Kropatschek : and last, Krag. As to rapidity of fire, the Hotchkiss and Kropatschek are about equal. Large maga- zines have a great advantage ; the magazine once empty, it is best not to attempt to refill it till leisure gives the opportu-. nity." "Engineer.'' The following United States patents may be consulted : 184,285 Hotchkiss, adopted by Springfield Board, U. S. Army. 213,538 Wetmore, Attachments to above. 202*613 I w hite, Magazine for charging revolver. 210^091 ) 210,181 \ Burgess Gun, As built by Martin. 213,866 ) 221,079 Livermore # Russell, Impt. on Hotchkiss magazine. 221,328 Lee Gun, Recommended by Miles equipment board. Built at Sharp Works, 'Bridgeport, Conn. 230,823 Russell's magazine fire-arm (new bolt system. ) Appendix T to the " Report of the Chief of Ordnance," 1878, describes the official trials of magazine small arms for the United States service. It gives drawings and descriptions of the following magazine guns : No. Name. Plate. Descriptive Page. 9. Hotchkiss I. 27 19. 17. Hotchkiss Remington II. III. 31 (adopted) 33 Remington (modification) IV. 8. Sharps V 39 1. Franklin VI 40 2. Ward-Burton VII 42 11. Burton VIII 44 4. Hunt IX. 45 13 Winchester X. 46 22. Burgess XI. 49 MAGAZINE GUN. 572 MAGNESIA LIGHT. List of Magazine Guns at trial (continued). The tests were as follows : Preliminary text, for safety ; fired by the exhibitor. No. Name. Plate. Descriptive Page. 1. Rapidity with accuracy. 21. Tiesing XII. 52 2. Rapidity at will. 2t;. Chaffee xin. 53 3. Endurance, by continuous firing 500 rounds without 7. Buftington XIV. 54 cleaning. 15. 24. Miller Clemmons X.V. XVI. 56 59 4. Firing defective cartridges. 5. Exposure to dust and firing without cleaning. 6. Lewis-Rice XVII. 58 6. Exposure to rust by sal-ammoniac and two days sub.-<'- 14. Lewis-Rice XVIII. 00 quently in the open air. Russell, magazine for 7. Excessive charges. Hotchkiss gun XIX. 63 Supplementary tests of various kinds. Guer, modification of The following classification give the peculiar points of each Ilotehkiss bolt. XX. relatively to the method of feeding the cartridge. CLASSIFICATION OF MAGAZINE ARMS. FOUNDED ON THE METHOD BY WHICH CARTRIDGES ARK FED FROM THE MAGAZINE. ( Ilotchkiss. ( 1st, direct ] Lewis-Rice. ( Spencer. , 1st, by a spring \ ( lst > b y Rotating barrel about axis ] j 2d, indirect . Clemmons. parallel to it into line with magazine. 2d, to position opposite receiver Scott and Triplet. 1st, butt-stock lst ' \ 2d ' -sfchi, 1 * Chet ' ISCpSedV) ( hand. ] 3d, by a spiral cam (screw motion) . . Chaffee. Springfield-Miller. Evans. 2d, tip-stock | by a spring Ion a carrier which is (Winchester. Hunt Vetterly. ( Burton. | 1st, to position oblique to j Ward-Burton. . . . .1 Sharps. I axis of bore 2d, rotating [ Remington. 2d, to position parallel ( Tiesing. with axis ( Burgess. 3d, sliding and) ..... | Bufflngton. rotating J 3d, magazine ) , t pos j tion para ii e i to axis of ) and by I into line with ) k]i barrel P j ~ ' *" and * b Ve recdTer " ' |Wi ^ ' axi8 f b re ' ' 4th, magazine ( by a spring (ver- ( to position opposite center) j^ e below bolt. ) tically) [ of chamber. ) ' . . > Hodges. , revolving ) .......................... | Colt's repeating rifle chambers Revolving pistols. FOUNDED ON THE MOTIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL PART BY WHJCH THE BREECH IS OPENED AND CLOSED. Hotchkiss. Remington. Burton. Ward-Burton. Franklin. Lee. Sharps Rifle Company. 1st, sliding. i in line of axis of barrel - 1 by 1st, direct action, t. e., bolt-guns 4 having 1st, concealed locks 2d, center locks Hunt. Winchester. 2d, indirect action, J { Winches t. e,, moved by S below < Burgess. levers from ) ( Tiesing. 2d, sliding and rotating ( Buffington. ) Chaffee. 11st, above axis of 1 . t 1 Springfield-Miller, barrel, and in ) ' I Springfield-Clemmi 2d, below axis of ( front, moved ) below (by ) T_ w i g p ice barrel, and in ( from | a lever) ) The following detachable magazines, etc., are described in "Ordnance Memoranda," No. 15, Washington, 1873: those of Col. Benton'8, Springfield, R. T. Hare, Elliot. Ira Merrill, C. B. Norton's "Appendix to American Inventions ; Small Arms and Heavy Ordnance," Osgood, Boston : 1882. Mag-ne'si-a Light. A modification of the Drummond Light, in which a ball or crayon of car- bonate of magnesia is substituted for chalk. See DRUMMOND LIGHT ; LIME LIGHT, " Meek. Diet." The magnesia light is not to be confounded with the mag- nesium light, in which latter the metal is burned, either in MAGNESIA LIGHT. 573 MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. strips or powder. See MAGSESIUM LAMP, p. 1370, " Mech. Diet." The substitution of magnesia for chalk is the invention of Sig. Cnrleyaris, an Italian physician. In the apparatus of M. Tessie du Motay, as at first devised, a c.ylinilrical crayon of compressed magnesia, prepared by Fig. lu';V!. Teasti tin Motny'x 'fin Light. I lie >i/sti'ie Caron, was placed vertically above the burner, at which issin-s a melange of oxygen and ordinary illuminating I'he design was afterwards modified, a change being made in the burner, so that the carbureted hydrogen arrived by two opposite pipes, n a, while the oxygen issued from the orifice of a vertical pipe, b, at a slightly lower level. Fig. It.i.jS shows the burner complete : on the right the re- spective oxygen and carbureted-hydrogen tubes, A B, with cock C D and the stem t of the holder 1, from which the crayon c of magnesia is suspended, and by which it is verti- cally adjusted in the cluster of pipes F. On the right hand of the figure the her. (lit Matin/ is shown on an enlarged scale, and the arrangement of the pipes is also shown in a diagrammatic manner. Mag-ne'si-um Light. A light made by burn- ing the metal. See p. 1370, " Mech. Diet.," aud Fig. 3684, p. 1689, Ibid. Prof. Thurston's lamp is made by the American Magne- sium Co. The strips of magnesium are rolled up on cylin- ders in the upper part of the apparatus. These strips are unrolled by clock-work in the lower part of the apparatus, and are carried between two small rollers, the uniform motion of which feeds them regularly into the lamp, where they are ignited. The ashes are cut off at intervals by means of eccentric cutters, and collect in the bottom of the apparatus. A small chimney is added, which is very important, as pro- ducing a draft of air directly through the flame. A portion of the products of combustion is thus carried away, and the flame becomes very intense, while it is less so without a draft. This lamp has been found very efficient, especially for ma- rine signals. Ac trials made at sea, on two vessels stationed eight miles apart, the signals could be readily distinguished. Larkin's lamp is based on a different principle. The mag- nesium is not employed as wire, or in strips, but as a powder. By this means the clock-work, or other mechanical device, has been dispensed with. The metallic powder is contained in a reservoir, which has a small opening in the bottom. The magnesium powder flows through this like the sand in a sand-clock. It is intimately mixed with a certain quantity of fine sand, in a manner diluted ; first, in order to be able to make the opening sufficiently large ; furthermore, to pro- duce a continuous flow of the material. The mixture falls into a metallic tube, through which the illuminating gas is * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 19. * "Scientific American," xliii. 370. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 312. * "Scientific American Sup.,"' 620. * "Scientific American." xxxiv.244. "Scientific American Sup.,'' 753. led from the upper end. The light is very brilliant, and the remaining sand falls into a vessel placed belo.w, while the smoke passes away by a chimney. Mag'net. See history and application, pages 1370-1374, "Mech. Diet." See Camac/id .... Prof. Henry's . . Jamm, to make Loan Collection, Br. Spectrum Nrcille in iron ore, Searching The chess board with magnetized pieces, for use in railway traveling, is a Prussian invention. Mag-net'ic Bat'te-ry. (Magnetism.) A num- ber of magnets joined together by their similar poles. Mag-net'ic In-duc'tion. (Electricity.) The influence of a magnet through space, either to pro- duce other magnets or to induce electric currents in metallic circuits. Mag-net'ic Scale. A table or diagram ex- hibiting the para-magnetic and dia-magnetic metals in the order of their strengths respectively. The order given is from Gordon's " Treatise on Elec- tricity," London, 1880. The diagrammatic illustra- tion, in two hypothetical curves tangential to a neutral line, is by G. H. Knight. The dia-mag- netic curve requires, it may be added, great exag- geration to make it visible. Gordon, ii. pp. 15-17. In para-magnetic bodies the magnetism is strong and po- lar. In dia-magnetic bodies the magnetism is weak and equatorial. For example, the polar magnetism of the strongest known para-magnetic substance (iron) is estimated to be forty thousand times that of the equatorial magnetism of the strongest dia-magnetic substance. MAGNETIC SCALE. Para-magnetic. Iron. Nickel. Manganese. '.'|\ Chromium. '-.\ Cerium, '-^j Titanium.' 1 * Palladium. \ Platinum. '. Osmium. Dia-magnetic. ^. Bismuth. ^/ Antimony. -> / Zinc. jjv Cadmium. ?/ Sodium. ?/ Mercury. V Lead. .-' Silver. Copper. (Jold. Arsenic. Uranium. Rhodium. Iridium. Tin. Mag-net'ic Sep'a-ra'tor. An instrument or apparatus for separating iron from other matters : as iron filings from those of brass ; scraps of nails or wire from wheat, etc. ; iron particles from ore in powder. To remove wire from * "American Miller,' 1 '' vii. 106. wheat. *" Scientific American Sup.," 2781. "Scientific American, 1 ' xlii. 194. "Eureka," * "American Miller," viii. 368. Fawn, Fr " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xix. 21. See also ORE SEPARATOR. Mag-ne'to Call'-bell. The sounder of a telephone circuit. See Fig. 508, p. 155, supra. Mag'ne-to-e-lec-tric'i-ty (Electricity.) Elec- tricity produced by magnetic induction. Mag'ne-to-e-lec'tric Ma-chine'. The mod- ern accepted definition of this is about as fol- lows : That class of devices for translating motion into electricity in which the magnetic field is formed by permanent magnets or electro magnets energized by a current of electricity independent of the cur- rent generated by the machine itself. Under DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE, pp. 283- 286, Figs. 890-905, and Plates XL, XII., the sub- MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. 574 MAGNETOMETER. ject is considered. The dis- tinction between Dynamo- electric and Electro-magnetic represents a real difference in action; but this differen- tiation of terms is compara- tively recent. See definition of the DYNAMO-ELECTKIC MACHINE, p. 283, supra, The Gramme & Iveruois and Pacinotti electro-imig- netic machines are shown in Plate XI., opp. p. 283, supra. Fig. 1654 is an illustration from the " Practical Magazine " of a powerful magneto-electric machine, built at the Siemens & Halske telegraph works in Berlin, and intended for a port- able electric light apparatus for field, military, and exhibi- tion purposes. The machine is a locomotive magneto-electric induction engine, in other words, a very powerful electrical battery, mounted on a carriage, to which horses may be harnessed in order to transport it from place to place. The fore part of the vehicle is occupied by the magneto-electric apparatus, which is driven by a small vertical steam-engine located in the rear. Currents of electricity are induced in coils of insulated wire wound upon a metal drum, by causing the latter to rotate rapidly around an iron core placed between powerful magnets. The electric current is conducted to any desired point, by means of insulated wires connected with the mag- netic poles. When used for illuminating and signaling pur- poses, the conductors are led to an electric lamp, which is provided with a special arrangement for regulating the inten- sity of the current. The steam boiler is vertical, made of steel plate, with a fire-box suspended below : there are twin cylinders, which set in motion a couple of driving wheels, connected, by means of belting (omitted in the figure), with the drum of the induction apparatus. The engine works up to 200 revolutions per minute, pro- ducing 450 revolutions per minute of the drum of the induc- tion apparatus, The latter is of thin gcrman-silver plate, Portable Magneto-electric Machine. covered with eight separate coils of copper wire of 0.28" gage, and rotates between two very powerful horse-shoe mag- nets. At full speed, tbe current induced is sufficiently in- tense to heat a copper wire, 0.04" in diameter and 38' long, to redness, and, photometrically, is equal to 14,000 wax can- dles. The draft of the apparatus is about 2 tons. See Barker . . . Ereguet, Fr. . . Chutaux, Belgium de Mcritens . . . Dubosq . . . Fitzgerald, Br. Gramme . Ladd Lontin Continuous current. Niaudet . Paris Exp. Gramme . Portable, Engl. . . Siemens . . ' Scientific American," xxxiv. 195. 'Engineering," xxii. 182. 'Scientific American Sup. " 682. ' Telegraphic Journal,'' iv. 181. ' Telegraphic Journal,'' vi. 393. ' Scientific American,'' xxxix. 341. 'Manufact. Builder," x 85. 'Engineer,'- ]. 284. 'Engineering," xxi. 147. 'Engineer," xliv. 435, 461 ; xlvi. 329. 'Engineering, 17 xxvi. 65. 'Telegraphic Journal,'- iv. 322. 'Engineer,'- xliv. 401. 'Manufact. (f Builder," x. 109. 'Scietlti/tc Amer.," xxxvii. 184. ' Telegraphic Journal," iv. 100. 'Scientific American Sup.," 129. ' Engineer," xliv. 401. 'Manufact. If Builder," x. 85. 'Sc. Amer. Sup.," 257, * 2237. ' Scientific American," xxxiv. 239. 'Manufact. (f Builder,' 1 '' x. 108. Siemens * "Engineer," xliv. 401. Soc. V Alliance .... * "Engineer,'-' 1 xliv. 401. Varley * " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 160. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1995. "Scientific American Sup.," 621. Mag'net-pm'e-ter. The furnishing of a mag- netic station includes instruments for dip or incli- nation, variation or declination, and intensity. The subject of the discovery of the variations of the com- pass by the Chinese, and subsequently by Columbus : the detection of the dip, and the invention of the dipping nee- dle by Norman, of London ; the determination of the ny/niie lines, eastern and western ; various voyages of observation for the determination of magnetic phenomena ; and the world-wide system of magnetic observatories, are referred to on pp. 1873, 1874, "Mech. Diet." " There are two forms of unifilar magnetometers in use: those with a complete astronomical theodolite, or alt-azi- muth, mounted to the magnetic north or south of the box in which the collimator-magnet is .suspended, and on the same stand with it ; and those which have the box with sus- pended magnet mounted centrally over, and firmly connected with an azimuth-circle, the reading-telescope being mounted eccentrically on supports. The first form (devised by Gauss) is the preferable one in field use ; it admits of greater expe- dition, allows of greater ease in observing, and is almost in- dispensable when the astronomical meridian has to be deter- mined. With the magnet to the south of the theodolite, it MAGNETOMETER. 575 MAIN SPUING VISE. Fig. 1655. United States Coast Survey Magnetometer. readily admits of observations of the sun, for the determina- tion of time mid azimuth (also of latitude, if required) with- out interfering with the magnetic work proper. Deflections are read oft' on the scale of the collimator magnet, and must be converted into angular measures. The second form (see Fig. I'i55), by Dr. Lainont . is capable, perhaps, of greater ac- curacy, and is better suited for a fixed observatory, especially when declination disturbances also are to be observed, or at stations where there is a large daily range in the declination. The angles of deflection wve at once read off. In order to observe the azimuth-mark, the magnet and box have tempo- rarily to lie removed, which is unnecessary in the first form of the instrument. When observing deflections, the bar, and consequently the deflecting magnet, remain fixed in the magnetic prime vertical, in the magnetometer, with attached theodolite : but in the second form of the instrument the de- flecting and dellei ted magnets always remain at right angles . i other. Improvements have been made at the Coast Survey Office in the construction of magnetometers, with a special view of making them more portable than the older instruments, which were found unnecessarily large and heavy. A 3" Casella theodolite was utilized for this pur- pose. The magnet (3" long and \" in diameter) and light box, with glass tube, were first attached to the upper frame of the theodolite ; afterward to its stand, by which greater steadiness was secured. The relative horizontal intensity only could be measured by means of oscillations. Subse- quently, a similar instrument was fitted up with 2 magnets, inertia ring, and deflecting bar for absolute measure, the magnets being only about \\" and \{" in length. Several instruments were constructed with 4'' theodolites and mag- nets, 1.50 and 1.84" in length, respectively ; diameter, 0.3". One of these instruments is presented in Fig. 1655. The upper part of the theodolite can be removed, and the mag- net-box placed on its azimuth-circle." Prof. Hilgard. See: Hopkins . . . . * "Scientific American," xli. 99. "Manufact. (f Builder" xi. 222. Mag. inclin. apparatus . * "Scientific American Sup.," 2551. Mag'ne-to-print'ing Tel'e-graph. A print- ing telegraph actuated by magneto-electric ma- chine. In that of Anders, the machine is driven by a treadle. See Fig. 3960, p. 1802, "Mech. Diet." ' Mag'ne-to-tel'e-phone Call. A small mag- neto-electric machine with bell attached, acting as a call signal for a telephone. Fig. f>08, p. 155, supra. Numerous examples, Hopkins, * " Sc. Am. Sup.,''2o~Q, 2571. Mag'no-phone. A name applied by W. L. Scott, an English investigator, to what is now gen- erally known as the microphone. "Manufacturer and Builder '' .... x. 151. "Engineer" xiv. 374, 408. Maid'en Nut. The inner one of two nuts on the same screw : the outer is the jam-nut. Mail Car. (Railway.) A postal-car. One for Fig. 1656. c a. r r v i n g mail b a g s ; frequently fitted up for sort- ing letters in tran- situ, and for receiv- ing and delivering bags en route. When thus fitted, such a car is spe- cifically known as a post-office car. Mail Catch'er. (Railway.) A de- vice on a postal car to catch mail bags at a station with- out stopping the train. It usually consists of a bent iron bar on the car to catch into the loop handle of a mail bag, ex- posed on a platform post for that purpose. French "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 835. Bag fastening, Mertz Sf Worman * "Sc. American,'' 1 xli. 310. Mail'ing Tat>le. A table at which mail mat- ter is distributed to the mail bags for the various routes or stations. On three sides of the table are tiers of boxes, each having a swinging door at the rear, and conveniences for fastening Fig. 1657. Mail Catcher. Mailing Table. a bag at the rear of the box when the door is opened. Mail may be thrown into the box at any time, and the door opened when the bag is ready. See also DISTRIBUTING TABLE, Fig. 835, p. 262, supra. Main Keel. (Nautical.) As distinguished from the false keel, keelson, etc., which are adjuncts or appendages. Main Spring Vise. A compressing tool for condensing the main spring of 'a gun-lock in order to put it in the lock. Fig. 1658. MAINTAINING WHEEL. 576 MALT DRYEB. Main-tain'ing "Wheel. (Horol- ogy. ) A wheel act- uated by a spring, to keep a watch going while being wound. A going wheel. Maize Cut'ter. A large form of chaff cutter. More especially one for cutting green, corn for ensilaging. See ENSILAGE COTTER, Fig. 971, p. 315, supra. Fig. 1658 Main Spring Vise. French machine, by Duprez, of Rheims, which has an ingenious mechanical arrangement to throw out stones and nails. By the rapid motion of the ma- chine the fecula of the malt is completely divested Fig. 16tJ( Ma-jol'i-ca. (Ceramics.) A species of tine pot- tery with opaque enamel and brilliant colors. The name is derived from Majorca. See p. 1376, "Mech. Diet." See also MEZZA MAJOLICA, a ware with a leaden glaze in which the colors run so as to give a soft- ened or mezzo effect. Mal'le-a-ble Bronze. A simple method of rendering bronze as malleable as copper or iron, has been announced by Dronier. It consists in the addition of \ to 2 per cent, of mercury. The mercury seems to act mechanically rather than chem- ically, and may be combined with one of the metals of which bronze is made, before they are combined, by pouring it into j . the melted metal and stirring well, or it may be put into the Of its natural envelope, which secures complete melted copper along with tin, or just after the latter has been added, or an amalgam of tin is stirred into the melted cop- per. Mal'le-a-ble I'ron Pro'cess. (Metallurgy.) A process of decarburizing cast or pig iron by heating in an ordinary oxidizing atmosphere below the fusing temperature. It proceeds gradually from the surface to the center. Articles are packed in oxide of iron in boxes and exposed in ovens to a red heat for 5 or 6 days. See pp. 1376-1377, "Mech. Diet." Malt Clean'ing Ma-chine'. A machine of the nature of a grain cleaner, in which barley is freed from all extraneous matters, such as seeds of other grain, grass and weed seeds, dust and foul matters. This is a preliminary to malting. See also Fig. 1256, Plate XX., opposite p. 416, supra, and other machines of the same group. Fig. 1659. maceration and perfect in filtration in the vat during the mashing process. Fig. 1661. Reynold!:' Malt Dryer. Malt Dry'er. A machine or apparatus in which malt is artificially dried in order to arrest the pro- Fig. 1662. Malt Cleaning Machine. Malt Crush'ing Mill. A machine for grind- ing malt preliminary to mashing. Fig. 1660 is a Noback's Malt Stirrer. MALT DRYER. 577 MALT TURNER. Fig. 1663. Malt Dryer. Noback Freres. cess of germination and the chemical change in the constituents of the grain. The malt-kiln is the older form of apparatus and exposure in the oast succeeded the previous opera- tions of steeping, couching, and flooring. See Fig. 3036, p. 1380, "Mech. Diet." Reynolds' machine, Fig. 1661, has a vertical series of wire- bottom trays on which the malt is spread, and furnaces be- neath, which send a heated current of air upward through the chamber in which the trays are placed. A is it sectional chamber, with three compartments ; each section contains rollers on which the trays C move back- wards and forwards througli the hot and co'ld air alternately as desired, the center being only partially heated by the two heaters B B; C are folding trays, twice the length of the chambers ; D crank and gear wheels attached to movable frame F by chains, which serve to raise the entire sectional chamber and trays 10", to admit a fresh tray when desired. Below is shown a table with rollers, showing the manner of discharging the malt from the trays when finished. The malt kiln of Briider Noback and Fritz, Prague Bohe- mia, is shown in Figs. 1662, 1663, 1664. Fig. 1662 shows two floors in the upper section of the tower, Fig. 1664. The malt is spread evenly on the floor, the latter being made of slats, of wires or wire cloth, so as to allow of the passage upward of the heated air from the stove shown at the lower apartment of the tower. Some differences of arrangement of the heating apparatus in the towers will be noticed in the Figs. 1663 and 1664 respectively. Each has a stove in the lower story, a flue which has a rectangular deviation to a flue built in the wall and a return to the chimney which crowns the whole. The heat generated by the stove suffuses the 37 chamber and passes up- Fig. 1664. wardly through the per- forated floors, and the layers of malt, and es- capes by the annular space around the central smoke flue in the chim- ney. In one of the fig ures, two malt floors are shown, and in the other as many as six. Each has the traveling stirrer, shown more in detail in Fig. 1662. This is a shaft which is armed with pad- dles and extends across the width of the malt chamber and has at the same time a movement of translation lengthwise of the chamber ; so that it moves along the floor, stirring up the malt the whole wiillli of the floor. The two movements are by gearing and rack in the covered fide chambers which run lengthwise of the floor. When the stir- rer has reached the end of its course, the belt is automatically shifted and the return course com- mences. See MALT TURNER, Fig. 1666, infra. Malt Ma-chine'. See cleaner, Aust., Fig. 1 * "Sc. Amer. Sup.." 4076. Duprez, Fig. 1, Fr. * "Engineer," 1. 266. *"Sc. Amer. Sup." 1795. Crusher, Austrian, Fig. 2. *"&. Amer. Sup..' 1 ' 4076. Neubecker, Fig. 2, Qer. . * "Engineer,'- 1. 266. Damper, Austrian, Fig. 3. * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 4076. Neubecker, Fig. 3, Ger. * "Engineer,'' 1. 266. Kiln, Fig. 44, Austria. * "Engineer," 1 458. Screen, Nalder, Br. * "Engineer's "-Kiwi. 479. *" Engineer," xlvi. 443. Malt Rake. A hand tool used in stir- ring malt on the kiln floor. The hoe por- tion scrapes the floor and allows no grains to escape being raised, and the fingers at the rear allow the grains to escape as the object is simply to stir and not to give a move- ment of translation. (Fig. 1665.) Malt Screen. A device for cleaning ex- Malt Tower. (Noback, Prague.) traneous matters from barley or from malt. See Fig. 1248, Plate XX., op p. page 416, supra. Malt Turn'er. A mechanical arrangement for turning the malt while being heated in the kiln. (Fig. 1666.) The floor of the kiln is made of wire, and the turning ap- paratus consists of a shaft having four arms projecting ra- dially from it, on the ends of which are wire brushes clamped between two scrapers. This shaft has two motions, one rotating and the other longitudinal. When it arrives at MALTWOOD'S FINDER. 578 MANGANESE BRONZE. Fig. 1665. Fig. 1668. Malt Rake. the end of the floor it shifts the driving belt, and returns over the same course. Malt'wood's Find'er. (Microscopy.) A means for registering the position of aii object on a slide. Fig. 1666. Bergner's Malt Turner. Fig. 1667. It is a glide with numbered rulings, 100 X 100. A slide con- taining an object of considerable area, and a point of special interest in the field being observed, the slide is removed and the finder substi- tuted ; the exact square is noted, and this being marked upon the slide of the object, the par- ticular point of in- terest in the field of the slide can be at once brought Maltwood's Finder. into view, by pla- cing the finder on the stand and bringing the number square into the field, and then substituting the slide with the object. Man En'gine. An apparatus for raising and lowering men in mines. Two forms are shown in Fig. 3042, p. 1382, "Mech. Diet." A more elaborate and capacious apparatus is used in the collieries of the Socictcs des Charbonnages de Mariemont et Bascoup. These large corporations own an area of some 500 square miles of coal fields, and employ 9,000 men, produ- cing, from 14 mines, 7,000 tons per day. The apparatus for lowering and elevating the miners to and from their work is shown in Fig. 1668. A and Bare two steam cylinders, con- nected by the pipe C, and containing water in the spaces below the pistons. The latter are attached to platforms D and E. A miner about to descend will step upon upper plat- form, E, when it is at the top. Steam admitted above the piston in cylinder A will drive the piston down the length oi one stroke, and bring it even with a platform, D. Steam is then admitted above the piston in cylinder B, forcing said piston down, and hence driving the water into the other cyl- inder. This of course lowers D and raises platform E, and as is evident, again brings two platforms on a level, wher the piston in A is at its highest, and that in Bat its lowest point. The miner now steps from platform D to a lower platform, E. Steam is again admitted, this time above the piston in A ; platform E sinks, and eventually comes on a level with a third platform, D, and so on. This operation is continued, the workmen entering at the top and stepping from one platform to another until the bottom is reached The ascent is by the inverse method. Ma-neu'ver-ing Wheel. One of the wheel: on the top carriage of a gun, on which it runs in and out of battery on the chassis. Man Engine. Man'ga-nese' Bat'te-ry. A galvanic battery using the peroxide of manganese. See LECLANCHE BATTERY. Man'ga-nese' Bronze. An alloy made by P. M. Parsons, England, in 1877, by adding from 1 to 2 per cent, of manganese to the proper propor- tions of copper and ziuc, as used in making brass. The average tensile strength of the metal when forged or rolled is 30 tons per square inch, with an elastic limit of from 11 to 18 tons, and an elongation of from 20 to 45 per cent, when in the annealed state. When cold-worked, the breaking strength in bars or plates rises to 40 tons per square inch, with an elastic limit of over 30 tons, and an elongation of about 12 per cent. \Vhen drawn into wire, the strength goes up to 70 tons per square inch. The effects of forging are remarkable, raising the strength to such high limits, and practically giving a new and most valuable metal to the world. In some respects, indeed, it resembles aluminium bronze, but is superior in resistance to this alloy, which does not exceed 22.6 tons, and is also infe- rior in elongation and elasticity. Manganese bronze will find an application wherever gun-metal is used, while the facility and benefit of forging will render it still more useful in construction. It is already much used in armor and sheathing lor ves sels, the making of torpedo boats and launches, bearings, pins, brasses and piston rings of steam engines. It is said to be 60 per cent, stronger than gun-metal, and wears 3 or 4 times as long. Parsons' manganese bronze : trials at the government gun factories, Woolwich, Eng., in comparison with Muntz-metal and gun-metal, gave the following. "Engineering." MANGANESE BRONZE MANIFOLD WRITER Material. Strain per sq. inch. Vltimate elon- gation 2". Manganese 30 loo It is used as an addition to brass, bronze, etc., for increas- ing the density, tensile strength, and ductility of the metal, as the formation of oxides of tin or copper, which impair the physical properties of the material, is prevented by the great ease with which manganese is oxidized. For bearings the following is recommended : Copper go Elastic Limit. Breaking Strength. Mang. bronze, cold rolled Forged and anne;iled . Hot rolled and annealed Cold rolled and annealed 1 lot rolled ( mild quality ) Munt/ metal, rolled and tons. 34.4 16.6 15.2 14.5 11.0 7.8 7.0 tons. 89.6 30.7 27.4 89.1 2'J.O 24.0 10.0 in r r, nt. 11.6 20.7 12.8* 18.3 45.6 54.6 1G.6 Manganese copper 9 Tin o Zinc 5 100 Larger amounts of manganese for instance, 2.3 to 6 per Gun-metal. Cast. . . . * JJroken, owing to a fault in turning. that bronze can be made in this manner to assume a hard- ness approximating that of steel. In carrying out the invention, the copper should be lirst melted in a crucible or other vessel in the ordinary manner, and the spiegeleiseu or ferro-manganese, either with orwith- out the addition of wrought-iron scrap as sometimes practiced, should at the same time be melted in a separate smaller fur- nace capable of generating a high temperature in a graphite crucible under powdered charcoal, and when it is completely fused. and the copper is also fused, and at a boiling heat, the ferro- manganese should be poured into the copper and the t\vo \vi>ll mixed together by stirring with an iron rod previ- ously made red-hot ; the tin, or zinc, or both, should then be added in the usual way and in the requisite proportions, ng tn the kind of alloy it is desired to produce. After the tin and zinc are added the metal should be again well .stirred with a red-hot rod and skimmed ; it may then be either poured into ingot molds for future use, or it can at once be cast in molds to produce any articles required. Four kinds of manganese bronze are at present manufac- tured, van ing somewhat in their qualities : 1. For forging and rolling into plates, sheets, and drawing into wires and tubes. 2. For casting into bars and plates subjected to strain. 3. For casting into bearings and brasses. 4. For casting into valves, faces, piston rings, slide blocks, top and end connecting rod brasses, etc. The following U. S. Patents may be consulted : 203,266 Hate, May 7, 1878. 206,604 Parsons, ,'luly 30, 1878. 178,490 Ward, June 6, 1876. Prof. Qenti publishes an analysis or a specimen of man- ganese bronze from a Transylvania factory. It is nearly of the color of brass, is tenacious and ductile under the ham- mer, and contains sulphur, manganese, copper, zinc, iron, with traces of silica, tin, and carbon. The essential ingre- dients are 15 parts of copper, 4 of manganese, and 1 of zinc. "Revue Indust." See also MANGANESE COPPER, which is also known as CUPRO-MANGANESK. The subject may be pursued by reference to the follow- ing:^- "Scientific American " . . xxxiv. 356 ; xxxv. 259 ; * xxxvii. 345 ; xli. 21. Scientific American Sup." 489, 807, 226, 1635,2440, 2971 3345. "Iron Age" ..... xvii., March 30, p. 3; May 4, p. 1 ; March 16, p. 3 ; May 6, p. 17. xviii. Nov. 2, p. 7 ; xxi.,June 13, p. 15; xxiv., July 10, p. 11; Sept. 18, p. 1; xxv., May 20, p. 24. viii. 104 ; x. 24 ; xii. 111. xiv. 541 ; xviii. 287. 'Eng. $ Mining Journal . xxi. 277,306; (U. S. Patent, 206,- 604, July 30, 1878); xxiv. 441; xxviii. 55,360; xxix. 221 ; xxx. 54. xxi. 152; xxvii. 523; xxii. 280 ; xxiv. 330. . xxxii. 195; xxxvii. 3: xxxviii. 347. Am. Man. (f Iron World " xxv., July 25, p. 8 ; xxvi., Jan. 16, p. 7; xxvi., Feb. 13, p. 8. Engineer" ..... xl. 123; xlii. 274 ; xliv. 301. Telegraphic Journal " Copper, 15. ) Manganese, 4 \ vi. 86. Zinc, 1 ) English Mechanic " . . xxvii. 475. Technologiste " . . . . xxxvii. 168 ; xli. 489. Man'ga-nese' Cop'per. An alloy made at Isabellenhuette, near Dillenburg, Germany. Manufacturer If Builder " Van Nostrand's Mag. Engineering" . . . Min. (f Scientific Press Man Hole. An opening by which a city sub- way or sewer is reached from the street. Fig. 1669. The sub-ways of London and Paris are spacious and far-extending. See Fig. 6040, p. 2462, "Mech. Diet." The man-hole and man- hole cover in Figs. 1669, 1670 are those used in Lon- don, carefully built in ma- sonry, with standing iron ladders and with elm blocks in the cover rim, or an iron plate, in the respective fig- ures. Batten, Br., * "Engineer," 1.343. Man'i-fold. 1. (Heating.) The cham- bers with nozzles into and from which the pipes of a radiator lead. Fig. 1671 shows two manifolds, a set of bent tubes with couplings, and a pair of coil plates to hold up the system. Manifolds are : back outlet, side outlet, double, etc. 2. A method of mul- tiplying copies of a writing. Man'i-fold Writer. One French manifold writer consists of a metallic slate cov- ered with tallow, mixed with one of the purple or red coal- tar colors. A sheet of tissue paper is laid thereon and writ- Fig. 1670. London Man Hole. Stone's Man-hole Cover. (London.) ten on with a hard pen without ink. On taking up the tis- sue paper the writing reversed is found upon the other side. The tissue paper is now laid (inky side up) on several folds of wetted blotting paper ; the writing paper intended for the reception of the impression is moistened (sponged over) with an aqueous solution of gum tragacanth, laid upon the MANIFOLD WRITER. 580 MANURE SPREADER. Fig. 1671. tiii'liator for Wall, with Manifold* and Coil Platen. matrix, and placed for a few seconds in a copying press. By these means 20 or 30 good copies can be obtained. Another method hits sheets of varnished paper to write on. with an ink by which the varnish is destroyed and the paper rendered porous. This is then placed on an ink pad, and the writing paper to be employed upon the top. On squeez- ing, ink is forced through that portion of the paper from which the varnish has been dissolved, and an impression is produced. An indefinite number may be so obtained. E. De Zuccato's facsimile process for multiplying MSS. by chemical means is as follows : A sheet of thin paper is first prepared with a resiuous var- nish and dried. Upon one side of this the writing is exe- cuted with an ink consisting of a colored solution of potash or soda. The soluble compound formed by the alkali and resin is next removed by water, leaving the paper pervious to fluids where the ink lay upon it. This sheet is now placed face down upon a pad damped with a solution of persulphate of iron, and upon its back or upper side is laid the sheet to be printed upon, stamped with a dilute solution of ferrocy- anide of potassium. After the pressure of a copying press has been applied, the facsimile writing will be found in blue (Prussian blue) upon the blank sheet. By substituting other sheets similarly prepared a large number of copies may be obtained from the same matrix. Man'i-graph. A name for a method of multi- plying copies of writing. See COPYING PROCESS ; GELATINE COPYING PROCESS ; HECTOGRAPH, etc. Ma-nip'u-la'tor. 1. An intermediate contri- vance for handling plates without exposing the hands to injury. Useful in working with photo- Fig. 1672. Negative Manipulator. graphic plates and negatives. At the end of the handle is a suction disk of caoutchouc. 2. A machine for shampooing or pummeling the body; rubbing the arm, legs, back, kneading the abdomen, etc. A substitute for exercise with the bed-ridden ; and a useful adjunct in gymnastic training. See EXERCISING MACHINE. Ma-nom'e-ter. An instrument for measuring the elastic force of a gas or of steam. See Fig. 4039, and references to Boyle and Ramsden, page. 1684, "Mech. Diet.," Koenig's flame manome- ter Figs. 1046, 1047, page 844, supra. Hopkins, flame manom- eter * "Scientific American," xxxix. 135. Electric " Scientific American," xxxix. 74. * Brr^iiefs. Vidi's, Galy-Cazalat's, Article "Manometre,'' Laboulayt's "Diet, des Arts et Manufactures," iv., ed. 1877. * Bourdon's, Ibid., "Manomdtre," ii., Figs. 4, 5. * Journeux's, Ibid., "Manomctre," ii., Figs. 1, 2, 3. * Richard's, Ibid., "Manomctre," ii., Figs. 6, 7. See also, Ibid., "Eclairage an Gaz," ii., Fig. 96 et seq. Mariotte's tube, Deschanel's "Natural Philosophy,''' Am. ed., Part I., p. 171 ; Depret's apparatus for proving Boyle's law ; Regnault's, for the same, and Pouillet's, for showing unequal expansion of different gases, are also shovrn on pp. 172-174 of same work. Man-te'an. (Fabric.) A fine French worsted stuff made of carded wool, both warp and weft ; taffetas armure, which see. Man'te-let. A bullet-proof screen to protect gunners serving a piece from the fire of the enemy. It is usually woven of rope. Fig. 1673 shows "a mantelet in an embrasure of the Malakoff tower, before Sebastopol, in the Crimea. Fig. 1673. Mantelet, in the Malakoff Battery. Mantelets are also used in front of rifle-pits ; also to pro- tect pioneers and sappers, and those working or passing in the trenches and approaches of an invested work. Ma-nure' Drag. (Add.} 2. A fork with bent tines to unload manure by dragging it off the wagon. Ma-nure' Spread'er. A cart having a bed of traveling slats, and a spiked roller at the tail gate, to distribute the load while the vehicle is moving over the surface of the ground. It can be attached to the fore-wheels of any ordinary farm wagon. The floor of the cart, is a revolving apron, which is Fig. 1674. Kemp Manure Spreader. carried backward by the gearing, brin^inc: its contents apinst a rapidly revolving beater, which breaks up and distributes the manure. It is thrown into gear by a single lever at the left hand of the driver's seat, and throws itself out of gear when the load is spent. In running to and from the field none of its machinery is in motion, and it may be used through the season the same as an ordinary cart. MANY-LIGHT REGULATOR. 581 MARINE BOILER. Maii'y -light Reg'u-la'tor. (Kl<-<-fn'citi/.) An order of regulator for voltaic-arc lights which allows a number of lights on one circuit. Sec POLYPHOTE REGULATOR. Mar'ble, Ini'i-ta'tioii. See recipes, p. 1390, "Meek. Did." Statuary: Co;it. ;i !>iiisriri>/t . May be veined with a deli- cate blue pigment between the coats. To give to sdiulstoiif I/if uppmrtinee of marble : Impregnate the well dried stone with soluble silica and alumina. For colors, add mineral pigments to the liquid. Marblfizing limestone : Work the stone to form and then put it in a boiler, submerged in water and bring a strain pressure of 75 to 100 Ibs., according to the size of the object. Allow the objwt to cool ; remove the object and submerge it in an alum b i'h, colored or otherwise. Hosmer. Artificial. /,'.~. Sawing machine, Carrara, It. "Min. If Sc. Press," xxxvi. 211. Working machine .... "Scientific American,' 1 '' xlii. of). Report on m-'i-bic-. i'.n-cign and native, by /. S. Ntwberry, "Centennial Reports,'' vol. iii , Group I., p. 137, et $eq. Mar'ble-ized Glass. ((Unas.) Made by im- mersing hot glass in water, reheating and expand- ing by blowing. The incipient fractures become joined but show in the article like veins in marble. Mar'ble-iz-ing I'roii. First coat with a thin layer of plaster-of-paris and alum, made to adhere by previously roughening and oxidizing the iron. This coat being well leveled and ground smooth, the paint used will readily adhere. Mar'bling Pa'per. " Described on p. 1391, "Meek. Diet. Elaborate description and directions from "Paper World," produced in 'Muniiftt.rttifr anil Industrial Gazette," iv. 2, ugh . . . "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1889. Marc. The residuum of grapes after pressure therefrom of the must. Corresponds with the pom- ace of apples, the- fj rains of malt. Ma'rie-Da'vy Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which the zinc stands in pure water and the car- bon in a paste of moistened proto-sulphate of mer- cury in a porous cup. See MERCURY BATTERY. Sabine, London, 1867 229 Niautlet, American translation, * 140 Ma'ri-graph. A registering tide gage ; by an extension of the meaning it may be held to mean an instrument for registering the fluctuations of height in sea, harbor, river, or canal. Other terms are used for some of these : such as JIuvioyraph, etc. See also, TIDE GAGE. Fig. 6426, p. 2566, "Mech. Diet." The French Marigraph shown in Fig. 1675 is operated by an endless cord which connects with a float located in a suit- able reservoir, into which the sea water enters. The changes of level of the water are registered on a large horizontal cyl- inder which is rotated by clock mechanism once in 24 hours. The cylinder is covered with a sheet of paper, changed fort- nightly or monthly, and which is divided into longitudinal divisions, giving, on a reduced scale, the heights of the tides in meters and centimeters. A carriage, mounted on rollers upon a steel rule above the cylinder, carries a pencil which is pressed against the paper by a spring. The carriage com- municates by an endless cord with a small grooved wheel mounted on the shaft of the larger wheel which receives the motion of the float previously referred to. On a third wheel, of medium diameter, is wound a cord, which is drawn by a weight in an opposite direction to that of the cord of the float. When, therefore, the float rises, the effect of the weight is to remove the shaft so as to take up the slack of the cord so that the latter is always kept taut. The pencil carriage is similarly actuated, and traces on the cylinder a mark of which the extremity i. the maximum height of the water. If the level is constant, the carriage remains motionless, and the pencil traces on the cylinder a line parallel to the transverse divisions. rep PP Fig. 1675. Knrigraph A dial placed above the mechanism shows the hour, and at the same time serves to regulate the changing of the paper, and to indicate the moment at which the apparatus should be started on its daily motion. An electric indicator serves to give warning of any desired level being reached by the water. The indicator is movable, and is set on a special rod on the rule at the point corresponding to the height of water to be noted. When the carriage, on reaching that point, comes in contact with the indicator, the effect is to sound a bell. Ma-rim'ba. A musical instrument of percus- sion, consisting of bars which yield various tones when struck. A sticcatfo (from the Italian). The instruments are frequently called by names which in- dicate the material of which the bars consist. Marimba is Portuguese, and the instruments of Angola have been introduced into European museums under that name. The instrument is common over a large part of the African Continent, and also in Malaysia. It is found in Guatemala but is probably of negro introduction. One from Central America is in the National Museum, Washington, D. C. See author's article on "Crude and Curious Inventions at the Centennial," 1876, 'Atlantic Monthly" *vol. xxxix., pp. 523-525, where may be found the marimbas of Angola, Cen- tral Africa, of Malaysia (gambang) and Siam (Ra-nakt-ake). The subject may be pursued by reference to DULCIMER; HARMONICA ; LAPIDEON : * WOOD-HARMONICON ; XYLOPHONE ; "Meek. Diet.-' Also, STEEL-BAR PIANO, * Fig. 3689, p. 1695, Ibid. Also, * LYRE ; METALLOPHONE, supra et infra. All the above have bars in series arranged according to a musical scale. The scales vary ; diatonic, pentatonic, and those of the African and Asiatic, not quite in harmony with either. See also, MARAMBA, p. 1389, "Mech. Diet." Ma-riiie' Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which the plates are immersed in the sea, to be acted upon by the salt water. Ma-rine' Boil'er. See under the following references : S3. " Arizona," Br. . . * High pressure, Boyer, Br. * Water tube, British Navy * Furnaces, tug " Grinder," Br * Herreshoff * And engines. " Hohen- zollern," Ger. Navy . * Passman, Br * ' High pressure, light weight, Scott . . High pressure, Scott . Shaw . . . , . "Thunderer," British Navy 1 Engineering," xxx. 192. ' Engineering, ." xxvii. 410. ' Engineering,'''' xxi. 318, 349. 'Engineer,'" xlv. 23. 'Engineer,'' xlvii. 259. 'Engineering," xxiii. 308, 314. 'Engineer,-' xlvi. 358. ' Scientific American Sup.," 1886. 'Engineering," xxiv. 412. ' Scientific American Sup.," 1410. 'Engineer," xlii. 133. MARINE DRAG. 582 MARINE ENGINE. Ma-rine' Drag. A drag-anchor. A floating anchor ; thrown overboard in a storm .to keep the ship's head to the wind when disabled or lying to. Fig. 1676. Capt. Beats' Marine Drag. See DRAG-ANCHOR, Fig. 1738, p. 737, "Mech. Diet." Ma-rine' En'gine. The engines of the steam- ships of the American line, " Pennsylvania," "Ohio," "Indiana," and "Illinois," were built by the Wil- liam Crump & Sons Ship and Engine Co., of Phila- delphia. The vessels . are of 3,030 tons, have a length of 355' over all, and a beam of 43'. The en- gines are shown by longitudinal and transverse ver- tical sections in Plate 'XX VIII., and by plan in Fig. 1677. " The engines are independent, compound, and surface con- densing, with the crank set at right angles. The cylinders are 57J" and 90J" in diameter, respectively, and the stroke of pistons is 4'. The main slide valves are on the outside of the high and low-pressure cylinders, which are both inclosed in a jacket connecting them together, and forming a receiver. The high-pressure cylinder is also steam-jacketed, but the low-pressure cylinder is not. The pistons are 16|" deep ; the rod for the high-pressure cylinder is 8", and that of the low-pressure 8j" in diameter, and both are carried upwards through the cylinder heads. The cross-heads are of wrought iron, with cast-iron slides bolted to their ends. The main slide valves have double ports, each is fitted with an inde- pendent cut-off valve on the back, no provision being made for counterbalancing the pressure on the valve faces. The weight of the main valves is counterbalanced by the steum pressure in a cylinder on the top of the steam chest. Both main valves are driven by motion of the double bar-link type. " The engines are reversed by direct-acting steam gear, the reversing cylinder being 20" in diameter, with a slide valve on top, which is thrown open by hand, and closed by the motion of the piston-rod in any position. A screw is also provided which can be clamped to the piston-rod of the cylinder so as to move the links by hand if there is a want of steam. " Relief valves are fitted at the end of each cylinder with gear to use them as starting valves. The connecting rods are forked by the cross-heads arid are fitted with strap ends. The cross-head journals are 10J" in diameter and 1'H" long, and the crank-pins are of steel 15J" in diameter and 20'"' length of journal. The crank-shafts are built up in two lengths, and are made interchangeable ; the main journals are 15J" in diameter and 30" long, except the forward journal, which is 24' / long. The cranks are counterbalanced. " The bed-plate is made in two parts and is bolted up to the condenser. This latter is in two pieces and contains 1,492 tubes, " in diameter and 14' long, the surface exposed being thus 4,786 square feet. The water from one circula- ting pump passes through them three times and from the other twice. The pumps are worked from the main cross- heads through -wrought-iron levers as shown. Each air and circulating pump is cast separately and bolted to the con- denser. A feed and a bilge pump are bolted to each air pump. The latter are 26" in diameter, tin- circulating pumps are 18" in diameter, and the feed and bilge pumps are each 6". The stroke of all is 26". " A vertical turning engine is bolted to the side of the con- denser and gears into a worm-wheel fastened to the interme- diate shaft coupling between the two cylinders. The propel- ler shaft is 15J" diameter, and is sheathed in the stern pipe. The propeller is four-bladed, with the blades cast separately and bolted to the bars ; the diameter is 17' and the pitch 24'. " The boilers are double-ended, three in number, and fired fore and aft. The diameter of each is 12' 3" and the length 17'. There are three furnaces in each end 2' 10" in diame- ter, with grate bars 5' 4" long. There are 316 tubes 3" in diameter and 7' long in each boiler/' The compound has become the most popular, as it is the most economical, of marine ons-ines. Reference hits been made to 52 examples in COMPOUND STEAM ENGINE, p. 215. ?ig. 1677. Plan of Engines, " Ohio,'" '' Indiana,'- etc., of the American Steamship Line. MARINE ENGINE. 583 MARINER'S COMPASS. " The running of the Ohio during the voyage from Queens- town to Delaware Breakwater on her second voyage, was as follows : Knots Knots Run Date. Run by Screw. by Observa- tion. Running Time. Oct , 1873. 17 * 246.8 226.0 hours, min. 18 59 18 323.8 280.7 24 23 19 338.5 3220 24 15 20 335.7 294.0 24 23 21 331.0 No obser. n* n ( 15 minutes u j detention. 22 341.5 No obser. 24 24 23 336.7 946 in 3 days O a ,.) A stiff- bar bit, hav- ing a spoon-shaped port, from 4f" to 6" long and y wide ; the top is convexed and polished; when in use, this long piece rests against the roof of the horse's mouth, and when necessary it becomes un- usually severe, yet it does not injure the mouth as much as other port bits. Mar 'tin Steel. (Metallurgy.) Steel made by adding malleable iron to a bath of pig-metal in a rcvi'i-beratory. P. and E. Martin, Patents, 1865- !si>7. A Siemens-Martin ingot, Weighing 120 met- rical tons, was cast by the Terre Noire Company, in 187*. Ma-ryn'go-tome. (Surgical.) A fine hastate pointed instrument of incision ; used iu operations on the ear. Bnclc. Mash Ma-chine'. A machine for pulping mash before discharging it into the tun where it is steeped. Siebel's device, shown in Figs. 16S3, 1684, is a sparger used to soften and pulp the mash on its way from the hopper to the Fig. 1683. Siebfl's Malt Pulper. tun. Fig. 1683 is au exterior view of the apparatus, and Fig. 84 a view of the interior sparger. It consists of a hopper, sparger chamber, and spout, and a pipe and worm with perfo- rations to eject water to suffuse the passing malt. The gate valve at the bottom of the hopper being withdrawn, the ground malt in the hopper commences to descend ; hot wa- ter is admitted to the sparger by turning the spigot. The Fig. 164. Sparger. vertical portion and the spiral of the latter are hollow and perforated, to discharge jets of hot water arriving by the pipe. The descending malt is spread by the cone, and, passing down the face of the spiral is reduced to a soft pulp before being discharged by the chute into the tun beneath. In Trageser's self-acting mashing machine the malt en- ters from the hopper A, strikes the cone If, and passes down Fig 1685. Trageser's Sparger. an annular space / between two cones J K. Water from pipe B surrounds the outer cone and fills the inner one, and is sparged through perforations upon both sides of the malt passing downwards into the tun. Mash Tun. A vat in which ground malt is steeped and stirred to make wort. See Figs. 3077- 3080, pp. 1402, 1403, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 1686 is Bobifs mash-tun (Br. ), which is adapted for mashing at a low temperature, and subsequently increasing the heat, avoiding the use of successive amounts of hot wp,- ter ; called in England piece liquors. Fig. 1686. Baby's Mask Tun. In the figure A . Pipe provided with stop-cock, to convey wort from bot- tom of tun to pump. B. Pump with rigger, to be driven by means of a strap. C. Pipe which conveys wort from pump into copper cistern with coil D. Copper cistern containing coil for heating wort. E. Tube from coil cistern to sparge. G. Tube with cock for the purpose of emptying pump and pipes after the operation. J. Sparge arms. K. Thermometer, indicating temperature of wort in tun. The peculiarity of Feiderlein's mash tun (Fig. 1687) is in the mechanism. It has a strong perpendicular driving shaft, by which the whole system of rakes is revolved in a horizon- tal plane The rakes revolve in vertical planes, and are journaled upon a horizontal shaft which itself has a rotary sweep in addition to its axial rotation. The double-armed rake lifts the malt on both sides of the tun at once. Fig. 1688 shows Sc/iimper If Immen's mash machine, a portion of the side of the tun being broken away to exhibit the apparatus and interior The stirrer consists of a spiral which rotates with its horizontal shaft, and partakes with the latter of a sweeping movement in a horizontal plane around the vertical axis to which it is attached. The move- ment of rotation of the screw is given by the meshing of a pinion on the horizontal shaft with a bevel wheel on the floor of the tun. The mash is heated by a steam coil above MASH TUN. 586 MAST. Fig. 1687. Feiderleiti'.t Mask Tan the agitator. The arrangement prevents the accumulation of the solid contents at the bottom of the tun ; the currents created by the compound motion of the screw of trans- lation about the vertical axis and of rotation about its own horizontal axis maintains a constant circulation between the center and the perimeter of the bottom of the tun ; a vertical circulation taking place at the outer walla of the tun and also in the center. Fig. 1688. The mash tun of Noback, freres, of Prague, is shown in Fig. 1689. The figure shows the boiler, pump, tun, and mechanism for stirring ; also the pipe and band connections. er has a revolution of translation in a horizontal The stirre plane around the vertical axis. The arms on the sides of the 1089. axis have respectively rakes revolving in horizontal and ver- tical planes so as to leave no corner or surface of the mash tun unvisited. Ma'son-ry. under The various kiuds may be found Ashlar Dimension stone. Random. Range. Rubble. Squared stone. For list of masonry, varieties, tools, etc., see list under STONE-WORKING, infra. Also, list MASONS AND BRICKLAYERS" TOOLS AND WORK* p. 1405, "Mech. Jjirt." 1 The column of Trajan is of Parian marble, constructed of circular blocks placed one above another, like so many im- mense mill-stones, so large and high that each makes the circumference of the pillar. th;re being but 17 in the shaft of the column ; in all, 24, including the base and the capital, reaching 24 toises of elevation, 1&2 feet. The windows and the steps of the spiral staircase are carved out of each block. " The most valuable pillars about Rome, for the marble of which they are made, are the " Four columns of oriental jasper in Ste. Paulina's chapel in Ste. Maria Maggiore. " Two of oriental granite in Ste. Pudenziana. " One of transparent oriental jasper in the Vatican library. " Four of Nero-Bianco in Ste. Cecilia in Transtevere. " Two of Brocatello and two of oriental agate in Don Livio's palace. " Two of Gallo-Antioo in St. John Lateran. " Two of Verdi Antique in the Villa Pamphilia. " These are all entire and solid pillars, and made of such kinds of marble as are nowhere to be found but among an- tiquities, whether it be that the veins of them are undiscov- ered, or that they were quite exhausted upon the ancient buildings." Addison. See also paper on "Ancient Roman Works," 1 by Nash, read before the " Architectural Association '' of England. Pub- lished in " The Buil'/er " andrepublishedin " Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag.,'' xvii. 464-472. Cf. Gillinore's "Building Stones." Ma'son's Ham'mer. A steel hammer weigh- ing from 3 to 8 pounds, having a square face, and an edge peen, the line of the latter in the plane of the sweep of the handle. Mast. The following list gives the full height of the masts of a number of vessels, excluding those under 130': Mash Tun. (Noback, Prague.) HEIGHT OF SPARS FROM KEELSON TO TRUCK. Ships. Alexander Marshall 156 Great Western 1 Young America 206 Black Hawk 172 C. II. Marshall 154 Three Brothers 203 Invincible 190 Australia 170 .lohn Bright 1 Cultivator 176 Baltic 174 .lames Foster, Jr 159 xl. 123. Meal Cool'er. A process in which the meal from the millstones is conducted along a passage in which is a current of air induced by a fan, in order to remove the heat generated by attrition between the stones. Seen in Vallod's French patent, 1836. J)>-iii-/i/i,/il'.y means of mechanical contrivances the point of view may be changed as occasion demands. " Scientific American " xxxv. 345. Meg'a-phone. An instrument for assisting hearing, invented by T. A. Edison. It consists of two large funnels 6' 8" long and 27.5" di- ameter at the pavilion, with elastic conducting tubes from their apices to the aural orifice. Conversation in moderate tones has been heard and understood at a distance of one and a half miles. 11 Manufacturer and Builder " . . . . x. 278. "Mm. 'and Sc. Press'' * xxxvii. 230. "Scientific American" *xxxix. Ill, 114. "Telegraphic Journal" * vi. 297, 383. Meg'a-scope. A species of camera-obscura for throwing a reflected magnified image upon a screen. In one invented by Dr. Curran, the image is pro- jected by a large compound objective lens 1" in di- ameter. The light from the lantern is thrown upon the object itself and is thence reflected to the screen. In a French form of the instrument, represented in Fig. Fig. 1704. Megascope 1704, especially designed for making enlarged copies of de- signs, medals, statuettes, and engravings, the instrument consists of a screen, a magnifying lens, a shelf to hold the object, and a mirror to project the light upon the surface presented towards the lens. The object is placed on the shelf at such distance from the mirror that the reversed image on the screen shall have the desired size. The image being magnified will have less bril- liancy than the object, since the rays reflected from it are spread over a larger surface. To avoid this, the mirror re- flecting solar light, or a pair of calcium lights, as used by I)r. Cresson, are employed to illuminate it. The screen is of glass, and the draftsman places himself behind it, and fol- lows u ith a pencil the lines of the image. * "Scientific American,'' xxxv. 57. " Manufacturer and Builder,' 1 '' x. 72. Cresson " Scientific American," xli. 63. Morton " Scientific American," * xxxv. 57. Knight " English Mechanic," * xxv. 250. " Journal Franklin Institute.''' Me-gass' Dry'er. See BAGASSE DRYER. Mei'din-ger Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) A mod- ification of the Dan- p . 170 - iell battery, having * no porous cell. /^ The glass vessel, A, has a shoulder, b, on which rests the zinc ele- ment, Z. In A is placed a small glass cup, tl, lined with copper, e, on the lower end of which an insulated copper wire, g, is riveted. A glass cylinder, A, having a hole at the lower end, is sus pended from the wooden lid, and contains the sul- phate of copper crystals, which keeps the liquid in the cup '/ saturated with that salt. The re- mainder of the space in vessel A is filled with a solution of sulphate of magnesium. Prescott's "Electricity " Sabine Mi i 'linger Battery. . . . *p.53. 225. Niaudet, Amer. transl * 124. The Meidinger balloon battery has a flask magazine for supply of crystals. Niaudet * 127. Meg-ohm'. (Electricity.) A measure of elec- trical force or resistance equal to 1,000,000 ohms. Me'-lange'. (Fabric.) A French dress goods of cotton chain and woolen weft. Me-lan'o-scope. Invented by Lommel. It consists of a pair of spectacles, made of two kinds of glass, one on top of the other; the first glass is dark red, the second light violet. This combina- tion admits only red rays, so that all green plants appear black. It may thus be used to recognize the flames of substances which show red lines in the spectroscope, such as potash, strontium, etc. ; its use is limited to substances which give red lines. Me-lan'o-type. A photograph on a back- ground of japanned metallic plate. Invented by Smith & Neff. The name was originated by Peter Neff. Me-lo'di-o-graph. A contrivance to record the notes of tunes played upon an instrument. In the melodiograph of Zigliani, a double flat spring placed under each key is connected with a battery and with a recprding apparatus, which consists of a comb provided with insulated teeth gently resting on a copper cylinder. A strip of ruled and chemically prepared paper is drawn over this roller by clock-work, and receives the impressions or marks of the teeth of the comb. This clock-work can be regulated so as to cause the paper to move in conformity with the time kept by a person playing the instrument. Every lime a key is depressed the circuit is closed, and the elec- tricity, passing through one of the teeth of the comb, makes a mark corresponding to the key that has been depressed. That of M. Carpentier is described in * "La Nature," and the account is reproduced in "Scientific Canadian," * x. 106, 107. It was exhibited at the International Exposition of Electricity, Paris, 1881. The subject has been considered in the "Mech. Diet.," Music WRITER, p. 1502, where the following instruments are referred to : Creed, Br., 1747. Hennersdorf, Ger., 1748. Freke, Br. Unger, Ger. Hohlfield, Br. See also MUSIC-RECORDING INSTRUMENT, Ibid., same page. Besides the use of the melodiograph for composers and transcribers of music, the purpose of Carpentier's apparatus is the perforating of sheets for melophones and other appara- tus for the automatic playing of music. See also "Scientific American," xli. 166. In the apparatus of M. Carpentier the harmonium is one part and the melodiograph another. 50 wires concealed be- neath the floor put the two instruments in communication. 50 keys of the harmonium are provided with devices, so that the depression of each makes contact with the corresponding wire. The currents operate a series of perforators, which act upon a baud of paper, each one being operated by the MELODIOGRAPH. 593 MESII. movement of it? appropriate key. The band of paper is car- ried along in the melodiograph by clock-work. In the use of the perforated paper band for playing, 50 small brushes of silver wire placed in the instrument make contact through the holes with a cross-piece against which they press the paper. When a contact is made by the con- tact of a brush, through a hole, with the cross-piece, a cur- rent circulates in it, operates the opening machine of the conv.-iiiimiliiig key and causing the reed to speak, sustaining the sound so long as the brush makes its contact through the hole, which may be long or short. Mel'o-graph. See MELODIOGRAPH. Melt'iiig Fur'nace. (Glass.) A furnace in whicli the frit for glass is melted, being then trans- ferred to a blowing furnace from which it is worked. This is the better practice. In America it is most frequently worked from the melting furnace direct. Melt'ing Point of Al-loys'. See ALLOYS, ''Mtr/i. l>i<-t." ]i. (>6, it siijira. Melting points of gold and silver alloys : Silver 100 (pure) ........... 954 C. Silver 80, Gold 20 .......... 975 Silver 60, Gold 40 .......... 995 Silver 40, Gold 60 .......... 1020 Silver 20, Gold 80 .......... 1075 Gold 100 ..... .... 1095 Platinum 5, Gold 95 ......... 1100 Platinum 2f>. Gold 75 .... ..... 1225 Platinum 40, Gold 60 ......... 1320 Platinum 60, Gold 40 ... ...... 1460 Platinum SO. Gold 20 ......... 1600 Platinum 100 ............ 1775 "Annalen der Physik." Mem'bra-iia T y in - p a ' 11 i In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) Instruments for operating on the ntembrana tympani include: Tympanum perforator. Artificial tympanum. Polypus knife. Tensor -tympani instrument. Simn>rk"s scissors. ustachian catheter. :er holder. Moatus knife. Otoscope. See also EAR INSTRUMENTS, p. 289, sripra. Me-not'to Bat'ter-y. (Electricity.) A form V\g. 1706. of gravity battery having its copper-plate imbedded in the sulphate of copper crystal at the bottom of the jar, above which is a layer of wet sawdust on which rests the zinc element. \^ WJi Pwscott's "Electricity," * p. - *- |,i Mmetto't Battery. '^ Sc ' t A " l '^ p "'L- ;*?$ Niaudet, "Am. Transl.," 111. 'is/i Mechanic " xxvii. 506. Mer'cu-ry. See following references : Commutator, Lartigue, Fr. . * "Engineering," xxvii. 273. Condenser, Cnstle $ Long . *"Min. if Sc. Press," xxxv. 209. Condensers, Cal * "Engineering," xxviii.482. Almaden * Laboulaye's "Diet.," ii., ed. 1877, article, " Mercitre,"' Figs. 1749-1752. T, Berrens . . . . "Iron Age," xxii., Oct. 17, p. 11. Idna * Laboulaye's "Diet.," "Mer- cure," ii., Figs. 1753-1756. Sarrebriick * Laboulaye's "Diet.," "Mer- cure," ii., Figs. 1757-1759. Obermoschel * Laboulaye's "Diet.," "Mer- cure," ii., Figs. 1760-1762. Purification * " Sc. Am. Sup. ," 2897. Reduction works, Cal. . . . * "Engineering," xxviii.408. Safety valve * "Sc. Am. Stip.," 2193. Apparatus for testing pressure of; Teubner,Ger *"Sc. Am. Sup.," 3833. Ite occurrence, mining, smelting, etc Report of D. dt 38 Cortazar, " Centennial Exhibition Reports," Group I., vol. Hi., p. 196. Mer'cu-ry Bat'te-ry. Fig- 1707. (Electricity.) 1. One hav- ing a shallow trough of vulcanite with a partition. Ou the bottom of each cell is a carbon plate ; the zinc is supported a short dis- tance above it, and both submerged in proto-sul- phate of mercury. The MARIE-DAVY BATTERY. 2. Another form has the zinc in brine, and the car- bon in sulphate of mercury in a porous cup. "Ganot's "Physics" (1877), * p. 689. Sabine's "Electric Tele- graph," London, 1867, 229. , . n ,, Bedels' sulphate of mer- Mane-Davy Battery. cury battery has a solid depolarizer. "Telegraphic Journal'' . . . . *vi.397. Mercury chromate battery, Fuller * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1127. Mer'cu-ry Fur'nace. The mercury furnace of M. Hippolyte Berreus, at Barcelona, Spain, is thus described in the " L'orrespondance Scientifique : " " It consists of a horizontal or vertical furnace, charged periodically, as its action is not continuous. It connects with a transmission chamber, from which the gases pass into condensers, 17 to 25 in number, the shape of which resem- bles that of two cones united at their base. The lower cone is buried in the ground, the upper, made of sheet iron, is cooled by a continuous stream of water. Each condenser has a capacity of about 30' cubic. They communicate with one another at their lower parts. The last one of the system is connected with a chamber containing charcoal, destined to remove the last traces of mercury from the gases. There is no chimney, but an aspirator instead, which permits accu- rate regulation of the furnace. The walls of the apparatus are coated with a layer of a mixture of equal parts of char- coal powder t and cement. The furnace at Barcelona was charged with 1 15,717 pounds of 2.76% ore. Theoretically, therefore, the yield should have been 455.39 pounds of quick- silver, but in fact it was 450.96, which proves a loss of 0.79%, although the carbon of the last receiver was not examined. Gold leaf placed at the end of the apparatus did not show the least trace of amalgam. In a second trial, made in sum- mer, at a time when work at Almaden is entirely suspended on account of the too heavy loss of quicksilver, the ex- hauster was run at so high a speed that the ore in the fur- nace was glazed ; the time of the operation was decreased by 25 hours, and yet the yield from a charge of 15,790 pounds of _2.82%. ore was 434.51 pounds, the loss amounting to 3.67%. A horizontal furnace is now building at Anfonde- guilla capable of working 20 to 30 tons of 1% ore per day." See also references to Mercury furnaces under MERCURY, supra. Mer'cu-ry Hold'er. (Dentistry.) A vnlcan- ite cup with cover, for the convenient preparation of amalgam. Me-rid'i-an Cir'cle. Refer to : Fauth Sf Co *" Scientific American," xli. 111. Paris Observatory . . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 1, 4. Laboulay 1 s "Dirtionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," iv., ed. 1877, article "Instruments d? Optique," * Fig. 36. Meridian instrument, Ibid., Fig. 29. Me-ri'no. (Fabric.) A fine wool French dress goods woven with a twill on both sides. It is made from 8 to 50 picks to the inch, and is piece-dyed. Cashmere resembles it, except in the respect of being twilled on one side only. Me-ri'no Tulle. (Fabric.) An all-wool French goods. Mesh. The loop in the texture of a net. The measure is stated by the width of the mesh stick on which it is made ; or by the length of one side of the quadrilateral loop. Fig. 1708. MESHING NET. 594 METALLURGY. Fig. 1708. Mesh. Mesh'ing Net. (Fishing.) One which entan- gles the fish by their gills in the meshes. Seines, and many other nets with specific names, are in- cluded with the term meshing. See NET. Mes'sage Cop'y-ing Press. (Telegraphy.) A press for taking a copy of a message received be- fore remitting to the sendee. A duplicate is taken, for filing, by laying a sheet of damp- ened unsized paper upon the message, and passing the two through a copying press. The latter consists of a pair of rollers, which are turned by steam power, an electro-motor, or by hand, according to circumstances. In large offices, usually by a Phelps electro-motor. Manifolds are used for press news, of which a large num- ber of copies are required. Met'al. Cf. .- Alloys, facts about . . " Sc. American," xxxvii. 217. Coating with oxides . . "Scientific American Sup.," 1672. Coloring p. 210, supra. Flow of * "Scientific American Stop., "1885. Mining leases, etc., Engl. "Scientific American Sup.," 857. Packing, Jackson, Br. . * "Engineering," xxv. 34. Preserving compound . " Scientific American," xxxvi. 388. Protecting "Scientific American Sup.," 1763. Met'al-ine. A material for the making or the lining of journal boxes. See METALINE, p. 1423, "Mech. Diet.," and JOURNAL Box, p. 1220, Ibid. One analysis gives : Parafflne 4.98 Carbon 18.89 Silica 6.44 Lime 3.96 Magnesia 1.90 Ferric-oxide 3.94 Alumina 2.53 Lead 32.40 Zinc 20.07 Tin 1.55 Copper ,...., 2.75 Moisture 0.51 10.01 "Engineering " xxix. 53. "Scientific American" xxxiv. 390. Met'al-ized Glass. An ornamental glass hav- ing flakes of gold, platinum, mica, etc., distributed through the glass. It is made by the " Aurora Glass Co.," of London, but much resembles the Aventurine (which see), of which it is perhaps but an imitation. The metals used are principally white and yellow. It is presumed these metals are reduced to powder or thin leaves, and when the article is in process of manufacture the glass is rolled in this metallic dust, which then adheres to the glass, and, by re-heating, the article is finished in the usual way A piece of broken glass of this variety showed the metals to be near the outer surface and slightly sunk into the glass. Another mode of working imprisons a metalized surface between two layers of glass. An object is first blown in glass of the desired color ; me- tallic flakes are then rolled on to it, and a new layer or en- velope put on this. The flakes are thus inclosed between two layers of glass. Vases shown in Paris, in 1878, had black interior covered with white mica, others with golden flakes. Me-tallic Chain. The chain of square iron links with clasps. Invented by Vaucanson. Me-tal'lic Pack'ing. Tubes of lead, or some soft metallic alloy, filled with hemp, cotton, or some other suitable vegetable material. These tubes can be prepared of great length and cut to fit any given requirement. The ends may be either soldered together or forced into close contact. The convenience, durability, and cheapness of this pack- ing are especial recommendations. Strieder, "Din- yler's Pol. Jour." Me-tal'lic Shin'gle. A plate of metal with ridges on the face for ornament, and beneath the overlap for joint ; a substitute for shingles, tiles, or slate. Me-talli-kon. An English architectural sur- face decoration for consoles, brackets, casings of pillars, etc. It consists of ornamental glass, or ceramic slabs, or forms mounted by cement on glass plates which are secured in place. "Building News, " 1S76. " Scientific American Sup- plement," 745. Me-tal'lo-phone. A keyed instrument with outside resemblance to a piano, but having metal- lic bars instead of strings. See Fig. 3689, p. 1695, "Mech. Diet." The subject 'of musical instruments of percussion possess- ing bars tuned to a scale is considered under MARIMBA. See also references passim. Met'al-lur'gy. Subjects in Metallurgy are considered under the following heads : Aero-hydric blow-pipe. Air furnace. Alloys : Aluminium alloys. Aluminium bronze. Anti-incrustation alloy. Anti-fracture alloy. Applique". Bell-metal. Bismuth bronze. Brass. Bronze. Bronze iron. Bronze steel. Carbon bronze. Champ leve". Chasing. Chromeisen. Cloisonne". Cock alloy. Cupro-manganese. Damascecning. Damasking. Dysiot. Electro-silicon. Ferro-manganese . Ferro-phosphide. Ferro-silicium. Fusible metals. Gold alloy. Lubricant alloy. Manganese-bronze. Manganese copper. Metallikon. Melting point of alloys. Nickel-bronze. Phosphor-bronze . Phosphide of copper. Silver alloy. Solder. Spence's metal. Tungsten-bronze. White bronze. Aluminium. Aluminium alloys. Aluminium bronze Aluminium gun-metal. Aluminium gold. Aluminium silver. Aluminium solder. Amalgamator. Amalgam retort. Amber bronze. Ammonia-ore process. Angle-iron Annealing. Annealing machine. Annular furnace. Anti-friction metal. Anti-incrustation alloy. Antique bronzing. Applique". Atwood steel. Axe tempering. Axle-box metal. Baron steel. Basic lining. Bell. Bell and hopper. Bell-met;il. Belly-pipe. BtSrard steel. Bessemer steel. Bidiri work. Billet. Bismuth alloys. Bismuth bronze. Black flux. Blast furnace. Blast furnace charger. Blister steel. Bloom. Bloomary. Blowing engine. Blow-pipe. Blow-pipe furnace. Blue bronze. Bluing. Brass. Brass alloys. Brass black-finish. Brass blacking. Brass finishing. Brass coloring. Brassing Brickbat core. Bronze. Bronze blacking. Bronze casting. Bronze coloring. Bronze iron. Bronze paint. Bronze steel. Bronzing. Browning. Burning. Calcining furnace. Carbon-bronze. Carbonizing furnace. Case hardening. Cast steel. Catalan forge. Cementation furnace Cement steel. Champ-leve". Chaplet. Charcoal core. Charcoal iron. Chasing. Chenot steel. METALLUKGY. 595 METALLURGY. Chill. Shaft furnace. Gold. Siemens furnace. Chromeisen. Siemens furnace. Hardness of metals. Siemens-Martin steel Chrome steel. Siemens-Martin furnace. Iron. Silicon steel. Cinder notch. Slack-burning gas-furnace. Nickel. Silvering. Clappers. Smelting furnace. Platinum. Silver alloy. Cloisonne^ Steel furnace. Preserving metals. Silver process.. Cobalt electro-plating. Tempering furnace. Tin. Silver steel. Cock alloy. Terrace furnace. Micolon steel. Silvering iron. Coin alloy. Turf furnace. Mildew bronze. Silver ware. Coke furnace. Turning furnace. Milling. Single shear steel. Coke oven. Washing furnace. Molasses-water core. Sintering. Cold shot. Wind furnace. Molding machine. Skewback. Cold-shut. Zinc furnace. Monnier process. Slack-burning gas-furnace. Compressed steel. Furnace charger. Mosaic gold. Slag. Copper. Furnace door. Muck iron. Slag wool Copper furnace. Furnace shield. Mushet steel. Smelting furnace. Core. Fusible metals. Natural steel. Snarling. Cowican furnace. Gagger. Nickel. Soft-center steel. Crucible. Galvanizing. Nickel-bronze. Solder. Crucible mold. Galvanizing furnace. Nickel-plating. Soldering. Crucible furnace. Galvanizing process. Nickel steel. Soldering furnace. Crucible steel. Gas conductor. Niello. Soldering iron. Cupellation furnace. Gas furnace. Niello silver. Sour-beer core. Cupola. Gas-generating furnace. Nugget. Speigel. Cupro-manganese. Gas producer. Open hearth furnace. Spelter solder alloys Damasceening. Gate. Open hearth steel. Spence's metal. Damascus steel. Gestenhof er furnace. Ore breaker. Spiegel iron. Decomposing furnace. German silver. Ore crusher. Spiegeleisen. Deoxydized bronze. German steel. Ore dryer. Spinning. Desilvering lead. Gilding. Ore furnace. Sponge. Direct process. Glass furnace. Ore grinder. Sponge, metallic. Double shear steel. Glue- water core. Ore mill. Sponge process. Dry-sand core. Gold. Ore separator. Spongy platinum. Dysiot. Gold alloy. Ore sifter. Sprue hole. Electric furnace. Gold-colored alloy. Ore washer. Squeezer. Electro-bronzing. Gold lacquer. Ormolu. Staining metals. Electro-plating. Goldsmith's work. Orugo. Steel : Electro-silicon. Gold substitute. Osmium crucible. Atwood steel. Ellerhauseii steel. Granulated steel. Oxidized silver. Baron steel. Emaille. Hardening tongs. Parcel gilt. Be'rard steel. Emblemata. Hardness of metals. Patina. Bessemer steel. Enamel. Hearth. Pattinson's kettles. Blister steel. Enameling. Heating furnace. Pattinson's pots. Cast steel. Fagersta steel. Heaton steel. Pearl inlaying. Cement steel. Ferro-chrome. Homogeneous steel. Peat steel. Chenot steel. Ferro-chromium steel. Hot-blast oven. Pernot steel. Chromium steel. Ferro- manganese. Hot-blast stove. Petroleum furnace. Compressed steel. Ferro- phosphide. Incrusted bronze. Phosphide of copper. Crucible steel. Ferro-silicium. Incrusted work. Phosphor-bronze. Damascus steel. File tempering. Indian steel. Phosphor-copper. Double sheer steel. Fine art metal-working. Inlaying. Phosphor-tin. Ellerhausen steel. Flat chasing. In wall. Phosphor-zinc. German steel. Flour core. Irisation. Phosphorus steel. Granulated steel. Foil. Iron. Plating. Heaton steel. Fore-hearth. Iron amalgam. Platinizing metals. Indian steel. Forge. Iron furnace. Platinum. Iron steel. Forno-convertisseur. Iron plating. Platinum alloy. Mackintosh steel . Foundry furnace. Iron preserving process. Platinum plating. Martin steel. Foundry ladle. Iron processes. Ponsard furnace. Micolon steel. Frosting. Iron steel. Producer. Mushet steel. Furnace : Ivory silvering. Puddled steel. Natural steel. Air furnace. Japanese bronze. Puddler. Open-hearth steel. Blast furnace. Knobling fire. Puddling furnace. Peat steel. Bloomary. Knurling. Puddling machine. Phosphorus steel. Blow-pipe furnace. Kuft work. Puddling, mechanical. Puddled steel. Calcining furnace. Labyrinth. Quicksilver furnace Rie'pe steel. Catalan forge. Lacquer. Recuperator. Semi-steel. Cementation furnace. Ladle furnace. Reducing furnace. Shear steel. Coke furnace. Lead alloys. Reduction process. Siemens-Martin steel. Copper furnace. Lead-roasting furnace. Refinery. Silicon steel. Corsican furnace. Light metal. Regenerative stove. Silver steel. Crucible furnace. Cupellatiou furnace. Liquid fuel furnace. Loam and sand core. Regenerator. Regenerator furnace. Single-shear steel. Terre-Noire steel. Foundry furnace. Lubricant alloy. Repousse'. Tungsten steel. Gas furnace. Mackintosh steel. Reverberatory. Uchatius steel. Gas-generating furnace. Malleable bronze. Ri6pe steel. Vickers steel. Gas-producer furnace. Malleable iron process. Roasting furnace. Whitworth steel. Hot-blast stove. Manganese bronze. Rosin core. Wootz steel. Heating furnace. Manganese copper. Rotator. Steel chest. Iron furnace. Martin steel. Rust, preserving iron from. Steel furnace. Ladle furnace. Matting machine. Salamander. Steel-heating furnace. Lead furnace. Mechanical firing. Satining. Steel-iron. Mercury furnace. Mechanical puddler. Saw tempering. Tasting hole. Open -hearth furnace. Mechanical stoker. Scab. Teeming. Ore furnace. Mercury furnace. Scaf. Tempering. Osmium crucible. Metal furnace. Scaffold. Tempering furnace. Pattinson's pots. Metaline. Scar. Terrace furnace. Petroleum furnace. Metallikon. Semi-steel. Terre-Noire steel. Ponsard furnace. Melting point of alloys. Shaft furnace. Tilted steel. Puddling furnace. Metals : Shaking table. Tin. Reducing furnace. Alloys (see list). Shear steel. Tinfoil. Refinery. Aluminium. Sheet iron. Tinning metals. Regenerator furnace. Charcoal iron. Sheet lead. Trommel. Reverberatory. Coloring. Sideraphthite. Trompe. Roasting furnace. Copper. Siemens-Cowper furnace. Tula. METALLURGY. 596 METER PROVER. Tulas silver. White bronze. Tungsten bronze. Whitworth steel Tungsten steel. Wind furnace. Turf furnace. Wire plating Turning furnace. Wootz. Tuyere. Zinc. Uchatius steel. Zinc coating. Vermeil. Zinc coloring. Vickers steel. Zinc furnace. Washing furnace. Zinc plating. Water box. Zinc powder. Welding tubes. Met'al Saw. The handsaw scierie a ruban lias been adapted in France and England for cutting thin plates of metal into curved forms, for ornamental or constructive purposes. Such plates form escutcheons, hinges, overlays, and inlays. Met'al Seal. See Flg - im LEADEN SEAL. M e ' t e - o r'o-graph. An instrument for ma- king a record of meteoro- logical phenomena. " Meteorological observations are shown by this instrument on tables printed on a slip of paper. Of the six tabular col- umns, the first gives the hours ; the second, the velocity of the wind ; the third, the direction of the same ; the fourth, the temperature; the fifth, the degree of humidity, accord- TheoreWs Printing Meteorograph. (Swedish.} ing to August's method ; and the sixth, the atmospheric pressure, which is given in millimeters. The degrees of the thermometer employed are those of the Centigrade scale, and negative degrees are expressed by their complements of 100. The direction of the wind is indicated by figures from 1 to 32. The numbers expressing the velocity of the wind sig- nify meters in a second. " The registration takes place by means of electrical cur- rents, which are closed in the barometer and both the ther- mometers by contact between the quicksilver and steel wires that descend into their tubes, and at the weather-cock and anemometer by contact between a metal knob, which is put into motion by the current, and a wheel which is in a direct mechanical combination with each of these instru- ments. " The steel wires in the barometer and in both the ther- mometers are connected, each by its respective system of trass wheels, with numerical types engraved on the edges, in such a manner that the rotation of the wheels causes an upward or downward motion of the steel wires, so that the point of the scale on which the lower extremity of the wire is situated is necessarily that indicated by the number ap- pearing at the same moment uppermost on the correspond- ing wheels. The two other brass wheels with engraved fig- ures are likewise combined, by means of electric currents, with the above-named metal knobs in the weather-cock and the anemometer, in such a manner that the figure which is uppermost on the periphery of the wheels at the moment it is about to be registered indicates the direction of the wind at the same moment, and its mean force during the preceding quarter of an hour. " The wheels containing the figures are governed by an electro-magnetic motor, which for each observation sets the five systems successively in motion until the corresponding wires have reached the quicksilver in the barometer and the two thermometers, and caused a contact between the above- named metal knob in the weather-cock and the anemometer, and the wheels, which are in a mechanical combination with each of these instruments. " The numbers, therefore, that are uppermost on the num- bered wheels are just those which indicate the height of the barometer and of the two thermometers, as well as the direction and velocity of the wind. And now the .same electro-magnetic motor operates vipon a printing apparatus, which, after having deposited color on the types, presses the above-mentioned slip of paper against them. " This being done, the steel wires are drawn up again by the motor, which stops as soon as a certain distance from the quicksilver is attained, and all is ready for the next ob- servation. The interval between the observations is a quar- ter of an hour. " As the clock which determines the time of the observa- tions does not require winding up, the instrument itself restoring the tension of the mainspring every quarter of an hour, it continues going as long as the impellent force, i. e., the electric current, is maintained ; and as the slip of paper applied lasts for fully three months, that is the period for which the instrument may be left to itself. : ' M. Sorenson. In the meteorological recording instrument of Yon Baum- hauer, of Utrecht, Holland, shown at the Centennial, the instrument was run by weight and clock-work, the stylus making its marks or dots upon a revolving vertical cylin- der with blackened surface. See also "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 591. * "Engineering," xxvii. 6. Printing, Theorell, Sweden See also ANEMOMETER, supra. Me'ter. ' (Fishiny.) The strengthening line of a seine or gill net, to the upper one of which the floats, and to the lower the weights, are at- tached. The seaming is the marginal line of the net, to which it is seized by meshes, and the meter is an outside line seized at intervals of a yard. Me'ter and Am-mo'ni-a Sat'u-ra'tor. (Gas.) An experimental instrument, used in the proving of the quality of gas. Goodwin. Me'ter Frpv'er/ ( Gas. ) A holder of known capacity used in testing the accuracy of the indica- tions of a gas meter. The prover is accurately counterpoised and adjusted so as to give a uniform pressure from top to bottom. The water Fig. 1710 Mfttr Prover. must be uniform in temperature with the air of the room in which the experiment is conducted. The meter is con- nected to the holder, and a small quantity admitted to bring the pointer on the index to any figure desired. Next adjust the pointer on the holder to 0. Turn on the gaw and make one or more complete revolutions of the pointer on the dial. The quantity registered by the meter should MKTKK. 1 SYTEM. 597 MICKOMETER CALIPEK. correspond with the indications ou the vertical scale of the holder. Per centage of error is readily calculated. Met'ric Sys'tem. In addition to the remarks on page 1428, "Mech. Diet." METRIC SYSTEM, in regard to the constitution of the French commis- sion of 1798 to report upon the selection oi' a natural standard of measurement; and on p. 1554, ODOM- ETER; p. 173, ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS, in reference to early measurements in Egypt and Mes- opotamia of an arc of the meridian, and by Fernel, physician to Catharine do Medici, 1550 : Cassiui (b. 1(J2") ; il. 17121, thr discoverer of the diurnal periods of Jupiter. Mar*, Vciius,n.iHl the Sun ; of four satel- lites uf Saturn, of which Ihnghens had previously discovered one, and the first observer of /odiacal light, gave great atten- tion to the measurement of an arc of the meridian. Ca-sini was invited to Paris by Colbert, and he and his descendants of three generations presided over the Observatory of Paris. President de Urosses, " En Italie " (1739), tome i., p. 237, et seif. (l)idiur, Paris, 1358), mentions the church of San Petro- nio in Bologna and its curiosities : " Mais ce qu'il y a de principal est la fameuse ligne merid- ienne tracee sur le pave par Cassini, laquelle, tant qu'elle :, servira de regie auxastronoiues a vener pour meas- urer 1'obliquittS de 1'ecliptique Elle est muuagee fort adroit- meut dans la plus grande longeur de 1'eglise, passant avec obliquite entre deux piliers. La longueur de cette ligne fait ultierne partie de la circonference de la terre. ' Kile est de marb re, devisee dans sa longueur en deux par- es, par un lilet de cuivre qui marque pr5cisement le meridieii : cr sur le niarbre sour crr.r, res touted les chose qui peuveitc avoir rapport ;'i 1'ouvrage pour le reudre parfait. L'einlroit de la voute oil est le petit trou par ou 1'image du soleil va se porter a midi precisement sur la ligne de cuivre s'etant un pen affaisstS, on fut oblige, sur la fin du siecle dernier, de restaurer 1'ouvrage. Jl ]>;isse maintenaut pour le plus parfait de tous ceux qui sont en ce genre, et ses bonne inscrites sur une pierre incrustee dans lemur. ,)';ii cte clioque de voir qu'on la foulait aux pieds sans respect, ce qu'eii efface beaucoup les caracteres." New .standard "Sc. Am. Supplement,' 1 '' 764. To approx. yards and meters . "Scientific Am.,'' xxxviii. 41. Me-tror'ga-non. (Surgical.) A uterine knife with a guard blade. Newman. Mex'i-can. Bit. (Maneye.) A stiff cheek bit, having a high port, to which is attached a large ring, which, wln-n the bit is in the horse's mouth, encircles the jaw. The, cheeks are long," and have rein rings at the lower ends ; they are also wide and quite ornamental ; chains and small drops are attached to various parts for the purpose of orna- mentation; it is the most severe bit in use. Mex'i-can Cloth. (AV^Vs.) A silk and wool French goods. Mez'za Ma-jol'i-ca. (Ceramics.) Pottery with a lead glaze and decorated with colors, in which the running together of the glaxe and color gives a mingled or softened appearance to the out- line of the ornamentation. The Italian mezza majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries was made in great quantity, and some pieces were of great beauty. It may be said that it preceded the stanniferous glaze (used by the Saracens in Spain and Majorca) and that the secret of the tin glaze was rediscovered by Luca della Robbia, who thus initiated the majolica ware. Mi'ca. Some of the mechanical and ornamen- tal uses of mica are enumerated on p. 1430, "Meek. Diet." Spectacle glasses of mica, used in Germany, are concaved in the slvipe of watch glasses, and are about 1-25" in thick- ness. They are mounted in simple brass wire frames, and are made sufficiently large to fit closely around the eye sock- ets. The advantages gained by this utilization are very great. Murray's ornamental process for treating mica : The mineral is first cut to the desired thickness, then coated with a thin layer of fresh isinglass diluted in water, and the gold or other surface applied, after which it is allowed to dry. A copper pattern of the desired design is next placed on the reverse side of the sheet, and any super- duous parts of the gilding are removed by means of a small brush, the design remaining on the parts not brushed. Colors are then laid on as desired, and the whole is coated with a solution of liquid glue, diluted in alcohol. The sheet is then fastened with glue permanently in position. Pusc/ier's process, Nuremberg : Treat thin plates with strong sulphuric acid and then silver as with glass. Cut into shapes for inlaying. Heat to redness to give a dulled look ; for inlaying, Scatter powdered mica on sheets of gelatine and varnish. Mix powdered mica with dissolved gum arabic for a silver paint. Powdered mica, boiled in hydrochloric acid, washed, and sorted for fineness : used in dusting over artificial flowers, fancy papers, passementerie ; articles of wood, metal, glass, paper, papier-mache, gypsum, etc. The articles are painted in bronze colors ; then receive a binding coat of gelatine, and the mica is dusted on. colors, etc., BRONZING, p. 138, supra. Ousted over articles coated with asphalt varnish imitates granite. See also MARBLE, ARTIFICIAL, supra. Mi'co-lon Steel. (Metallurgy.) Steel made by the process suggested by Re'aumur, 1722, by adding wrought iron to cast iron to reduce the mixture to the proportion of carbon to form steel. Martin's process is a successful application of the same suggestion. It may be applied either in the crucible or the cupola. In the former, the proportions of iron and steel are placed in the crucible with such an amount of spiegeleisen as may consist with the character of steel required. The cupola process, in which coke alone is used as fuel, proceeds in the same way, but the proportions chosen by the inventor have been preferably such as to give a good cast- ing steel for bells, but one which will not weld. M. Debette thinks " that we have heard the last of this." Mi'cro-bat'ter-y. A very small galvanic bat- tery, used in testing the delicacy of instruments ; as, for instance, a cell of thimble size, with a frac- tion of a teaspoonful of exciting liquid. Mr. Collet wrote from Heart's Content, Newfoundland : " I have just sent my compliments to Dr. Gould, of Cam- bridge, who is in Valencia, Ireland, with a battery composed of a gun cap with a strip of zinc, excited by a drop of water the size of a tear.' ; See also Micro-battery for telephone, "English Mechanic,' 1 '' * xxvii. 602. Mi'cro-far'ad. (Electricity.) The millionth part of a farad. The practical unit of capacity; being the trillionth part of the absolute electro- magnetic unit = J^VTOIF Gordon. Mi-crom'e-ter. (Microscopy.) A piece of glass ruled into lOOths and lOOOths of an inch, and used to measure objects in the field. See statement on pp. 1430, 1431, "Mech. Diet." Cf. Burch * " Scientific American Sup. ,"2413. Davidson * "Mining If Sc. Press,'' 1 xxxiv. 265. Govi "Iron Age,'' xxii., Nov. 21, p. 16. Caliper, Victor Co. . . * "Iron Age," xxi., Feb. 28, p. 1 Screw, and applications. Meyer * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 911. Measurements .... * "Manuf. $ Builder," 1 xi. 14. Microscope * "Scientific American Sup.," 1007. Mi-crom'e-ter Cal'i-per. A pocket instru- ment for delicate measurements of thickness. Its range is usually up to 25 millimeters, beyond' which the Vernier caliper, Fig. 6968, p. 2707, Fig. 1711. MICROMETER CALIPER. 598 MICROPHONE. "Mech. Diet.," is regarded as the preferable instru- ment. The micrometer caliper is graduated to read to 40ths of millimeters, but SOths are readily obtained. Binding and adjusting screws furnish ready means for compensating for any wear resulting from use. The instrument is also made to read in fractions of inches. The one shown has a capacity of 1", and can be set to J and J thousandths. Mi-crom'e-ter Screw Con'tact Cal'i-per. Mr. A. S. Kimball describes a method used by him to detect the contact of micrometer screws. In the case in question the micrometer screw had 60 threads to an inch, and its head was graduated to 300 parts, so that the unit of measurement was the l-18,000th // . The iron bar, micrometer screw, and a telephone, were put in the circuit of a weak Leclanche" cell. When the screw was turned up to loose contact with the bar, the familiar boiling sound of a too sensitive microphone was heard, which ceased the instant firm contact was made, the change to silence being abrupt and sharply denned. Mi'cro-phone. An instrument which is sim- ply a telephonic transmitter of peculiar form, but which owes its name to the fact that it plays the same part in acoustics in regard to feeble sounds that the microscope does in optics in regard to small objects. It is an amplificator of mechanical vibrations of weak intensity, which it changes into undulatory currents. Its action depends upon the property possessed by some substances of varying their electrical re- sistance under varying physical conditions; stress, temperature, division, etc. The name was given by Mr. Hughes, whose in- strument is shown in Fig. 1712, and a view of Du- cretet's model is given in Fig. 1713. Fig. 1712. " it is formed of a small charcoal crayon, A, pointed at both ends. It is lightly held in a vertical posi- tion between two cups hollowed out of two small carbon blocks, c c, which are fixed to a thin sounding-board. This last is laid on a firm plate. The blocks c c are con- nected by wires with the pile, and the line wire that leads to the telephone. "Not only words and musical notes, but the faintest v i b r a - tions, and even im- perceptible sounds, are converted by it into sonorous repe- titions. The slightest stroke on or touch against the plate will produce a loud, grating sound in the telephone." " Electrician.'' Fig. 1713. Hughes 1 Microphone. Ducretet's Model of Hughes' 1 Microphone. Referring to the question, Hughes vs. Edison, in re micro- phone, the "Electrician " remarks : " It is now easy to understand the slight differences that exist between Edison's carbon transmitter, and the micro- phone in the simple form given to it by Mr. Hughes. The telephonic or microphonic action is produced in both instruments by the variations of electric resistance, which re- sult from the vibrations that are communicated to the trans- mitter " In Edison's carbon telephone these vibrations act on *^*vii ID uiv/ii< o^cviAij auupicu IUJL r-i i ii imu levuic buuiltl. " There has been every reason, therefore, from the begir ning to consider the inventions of Edison and Hughes as perfectly distinct, both as regards the methods employed, and the effects produced. A whole series of instruments have since bridged over the dividing line between the two original inventions. It is not easy to draw distinctions be- tween the two systems, with the new transmitters of Blake, Boudet, Paris, Ader, etc., before us, but all the microphones and microphonic speakers can be designated under the ge- neric name of carbon transmitters.^ " The small model of a microphone by Ducretet, Fig. 1713, reproduces most of the experiments. A small graphite or coke crayon is pointed at both ends, and kept in a vertical position between two coke carbons, D D'. The bearer of the luceu, ana consequently tne sensitiveness of tne mic The two cups are in direct communication with the two boundaries, B B'. The whole is fixed to a small board and A pile of two or three Daniell or Leclanch6 elements, and a telephone, T, placed at a distance, form a complete circuit, in which is comprised the crayon C, with imperfect con- tacts." "Electrician." Edison discovered that carbon varied its electri- cal resistance with variation of pressure, and upon this is based his articulating telephone. Subse- quently, this property was found to be inherent in other instances, even the atmospheric medium it- self. Edison's plan was to use several pieces of semi-conductor Fig. 1714. Edison's Microphone. instead of one. One of his earliest may be seen in Fig. 1714. Some pieces of charcoal are supported each by an upright spring Fig 1715 has two carbons sep- arated by a plate of metal. Another Fig. 1715. form has 10 plates of silk prepared by saturation iu dextrine and lamp-black. Edison's pile telephone has alternate plates o /inc and copper with a bibu- lous medium between pairs. Prescott's "Speaking telephone, Elec- tric light,'' etc., gives many forms, in- cluding the above, and also luding tne above, ana also -^ The condenser, in which the plates are 2K rranged, as in the ordinary form of arran condenser. The microphone, with graphite rods. Microphone with pendants. Microphone without carbon. The name microtelephone was given by Julian Ockoswicz. See also STETHOSCOPIC PENDULUM, infra. Coke microphone : Blyth. Articulate sounds can be received, as well as trans- mitted, by an instrument made of an ordinary earthenware jar, about 3" in diameter and 4 // deep, half filled" with Microphone with Carbon dinks. PLATE XXIX. BECK'S "INTERNATIONAL" MICROSCOPE See page I MICROPHONE. 599 MICROSCOPE. gas coke broken into coarse fragments The electrodes are two strips of tin about 2" wide, slipped down on each side between the pot and the coke, bent over the edges, and fastened with a cord. When a pair of these are put in circuit with two strong Grove cells the arrangement is complete. "Nature.''' Pocket microphone: Trouve. It resembles a small dark lantern, with a carbon crayon substituted. Even when a person speaking stands from 75' to 100' from the microphone, it transmits his voice very well to a receiving telephone. The instrument can be used for revealing the movement of a clock, the heart or lungs "La Nature." The instrument is sensitive to the slightest noises in a building : a whisper, a footstep, a creak, mice, the ticks of clock, and what not A watchman with ;i most delicate ear. Pendulum telephone : An upright bar of carbon suspended from a support, so that its lower end rests gently against a sharp contact piece of carbon Hughes "Engineering,'' 1 * xxv. 370 ; * 384, 475, 481, 518. Hughes-Edison . . . "Engineering,"xs.vi. 12, 49. Receivers * Sedlaeclc, Hungary . . * As a seismometer . . Blyth Coke Pocket, Treuve, Fr. . . Pocket, Trouve . . . * In diagnosis .... Hughes * Hughes 'Engineering,'' xxvii. 289 'Engineering,'^ xxviii. 205. 'Engineering,'' 1 xxix. 498. 'Iron Age,-' xxii., July 25, p. 7. 'Iron Age,-' xxii., Dec. 26, p. 15. ' Imn Age,'- xxiii., Jan. 9, p. 13. 'Manuf. if Builder," x. 151, 195 M-i it itf. Jf Builder,-' xi. 63. Mining if Sc. Press," xxxvii. 19. 'Eng. if Min. Jour.,'' xxvi. 186 ' Telegraphic Journal," 1 vi. 225. Hughes- Edison (by Pope) " Telegraphic Journal,'' vi. 300. Vereker Millar (Receiving) As a seismometer . Crossley- Hughes . Pendulum . . . Hughes . . . . 'English Mechanic," xxvii. 493. 'Scientific American," xl. 324. 'Sc. American," xxxix. 313. 'Sc. American," xxxix. 233. ' Scientific American,' 1 ' 1 xl. 53. * " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 312. " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 389. " Tr/egraphic Journal,'- vii. 68. " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 144. " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 170. "Engineer,'' xlv. 343, 405, 461- 463. Lancaster ..... * "Engineer,'' xlv. 422. Barker on ..... "English Mechanic," xxvii. 517. du Moncel ..... "English Mechanic,''' xxvii. 485. Microphone ..... "Iron Age," xxi.. June 6, p. 1 ; June 20, p. 9. ' "Mining If Sc. Press," xxxvii. 83, 99, 403. "Eng. Sf Min. Jour.,'' xxv. 441; * xxvi. 8, 119, 440 ; xxvii. 77, 129. * " Sc. American," xxxviii. 388, 404 ; xxxix. 16, 20, 63, * 250. Hughes ..... * "Eng. Mechanic," xxvii. 235, 256. Lancaster .... "Eng. Mechanic,'' xxvii. 347, 428. Microphone pile. Lancaster ..... "English Mechanic," xxvii. 343. Microphone relay. Houston 4" Thomson . * Bowling ...... * Hopkins ...... * Stethoscopic . . . .* Tait ....... Hughes ...... " Technologiste ," xl. 198. As a Teleg. transmitter. Preece ...... "Journal Soc. Tel. Eng.," ix. 69. Ockoswicz, on the . . "Sc. American Sup.," * 3296. Muscular contraction . * "Sc. American Sup.," 3646. Receiver, Millar ... "Sc. American Sup.," 2832. Detecting diffusion of gases through a septum "Sc. American Sup.," 2320. In surgery ..... "Sc. American Sup.,'' 2261. Lancaster ..... * "Sc. American Sup.," 2183. Gaiffe- Edison . . . .* "Sc. American Sup.," 2187. Hopkins ...... * "Sc. American Sup.,'' 3032. Preece ...... * "Sc. American Sup.," 2591. General re'sumg . . . * " Sc. American Sup.," 2591, 2592. Modifications, Hopkins . * "Sc. American Sup.," 2593, 2594. Simple ...... *" Sc. American Sup.," 2594. Stethoscopic . . . . * "Sc. American Sup.,'' 2594. Musical, Varley . . . * "Sc. American Sup.," 2594. Mi'cro-phone Relay. A delicate microphone attached to the plate of the receiving telephone as a relay. As contrived by Houston & Thomson. See " Telegraphic Journal," 1 * vi. 343. The microphone as a relay for itself. * " Telegraphic Jour- nal," vi. 361. Mi'cro-scope. Beck's "International" Mi- croscope, shown in Plate XXIX., has a tripod, a, for its base, upon which is placed a revolving fitting 6, graduated to degrees, by which means the micro- scope can be turned around without its being lifted from the table, and the amount of such rotation registered ; upon this fitting two pillars are firmly fixed, and between them the limb c can be elevated or depressed to any angle, and tightened in its po- sition by the lever d. The limb carries at one end the body e (binocular or monocular), with eye- pieces and object-glasses ; in its center is the com- pound stage f, beneath which is the circular plate, sliding on a dove-tailed fitting, and moved up and down by the lever s, and carrying the supplement- ary body or sub-stage g; and at the lower end a triangular bar carrying the mirror h. The binocular body consists of two tubes, the one fitted in the optical axis of the microscope, and the other oblique. At their lower end and immediately above the object-glass there is an opening, into which a small brass box or fitting, i, slides ; this box holds a prism so constructed that when slid in it intercepts half the rays from the object-glass, di- verts them from their direct course, and reflects them into the additional or oblique tube. When the box is drawn back to a certain distance the prism in no way interferes with the field of view, and all the rays pass up the direct body, and the microscope is converted into a monocular one. The upper or eye-piece ends of the tubes are fitted with racks and pinion for varying the distances between the two eye-pieces, to suit the differences between the eyes of va- rious persons. This body is moved up and down with a quick movement by means of the milled heads k, and with a very delicate and fine adjustment by the milled head I. The compound stage is of new construction ; the object is most frequently merely placed upon it, but, if necessary, it can be clamped by carefully bringing down the spring-piece m; the ledge will slide up or down, and the object may be pushed sideways ; this arrangement forms the coarse adjust- ment. Finer movements in vertical and horizontal direc- tions are effected by means of two milled heads, n and o. The whole stage revolves in a circular ring by the milled head p, or this can be drawn out, and then it turns rapidly by merely applying the fingers to the two ivory studs q q fastened on the top plate, which is divided into degrees to register the amount of revolution. The stage is attached to the limb on a pivot, and can be rotated to any angle, which angle is recorded on the divided plate r, or can be turned completely over, so that the object can be viewed by light of any obliquity without any interference from the thickness of the stage. Beneath and attached to the stage is an iris diaphragm, s, which can be altogether removed, as shown in the illustra- tion, from its dove-tailed fitting, so as not to interfere during the rotation of the stage. The variations in the aperture of this diaphragm are made by a pinion working into a racked arc and adjusted by the milled head t. Beneath the stage are two triangular bars, u v, the one revolving around and the other rigid in the optical axis of the instrument. On the former the sub-stage g, carrying all the apparatus for illumination and polarization, fits, and is racked up and down by the milled head w ; the mirror also, if desired, slides on the same bar ; the revolving mo- tion to this bar is given by the milled head x, and the amount of angular movement is recorded on the -circle y, while the whole of this part of the stand is raised and low- ered concentric with the optical axis of the instrument by the lever z, and the amount of such elevation or depression registered on a scale attached to the limb. This bar can be carried around and above the stage and be thus used for opaque illumination. The lower triangular bar v carries the mirror h, or a right- angle prism, when the illumination is required to be con- centric with the optical axis of the instrument, and inde- pendent of the movements of other illuminating apparatus. The mirror-box contains two mirrors, one flat and the other concave ; it swings in a rotating semicircle attached to a lengthening bar, which enables it to be turned from one side to the other, and revolves on a circular fitting for giving greater facilities in regulating the direction of the beam of light reflected, the whole sliding on either of the triangular bars, and made to reverse in the socket so as to bring the center of the mirror concentric with the axis of the microscope in either case. As the mirror alone is insufficient for many kinds of illu- mination, some provision has to be made for holding various pieces of apparatus between the object and the mirror. For this purpose a supplementary body, or sub-stage, g, is mounted perfectly true with the body, and is moved up and down in its fitting by rack and pinion connected with the milled heads w. This sub-stage is now regarded as one of the most important parts of the achromatic microscope ; in it all the varied appliances for modifying the character and MICROSCOPE. 600 MICROTASIMETER. direction of the light are fitted But a few years since it was considered sufficient for this part of the stand to be constructed so as to move up and down perfectly coincident with the optical axis of the instrument, and for that purpose it WHS racked in a groove planed out on the same limb as that on the upper end of which the optical portions were earned. But lately inicroscopists have shown the desirability of af- fording every facility for lateral angular adjustments ; and this has led to the sub-stage being attached to an arc work- ing in the circular plate //, and moved by a rack and pinion, x, while the amount of such angular movement is recorded on the upper surface of the plate y. Having once fixed the angular direction of the light, the focusing of it depends upon the lever z, which moves the circle up and down, and with it the arm carrying the illuminating apparatus, in the optical axis of the instrument. See Microscopy, Gulliver Microscope, Waechler . * Attachment, Woodward * Binocular, Taylor . . * Cheap # In chemistry, Sorby . . Drawing apparatus . . Exhibition of .... Galileo' 's * Gas * Home-made, Hichels . Images on screen Janssen's .... Leewenlweck's . . . Life slide, Holman . Mussclienbroeck' s . Objective, Russian, 32' Object-finder, Bardeen Slide, Broeck . . . Test plates, Roger's . Vision, Slephenson . entific American Sup.," 1496. entific American," xxxiv. 37. entific American Sw/i.," 1976. entific American Sup.,'' 440. ' Scientific American," xxxvi. 209. 'Scientific American Sup.," 742. 'Scientific American,'' xxxv 328. * "Pop. Science Man.," Nov , 1875. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 101. * "Scientific American Sup.," 727. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1 727. \ "Scientific American Sup.," 1650. * "Scientific American Sup.," 727. "Sc. Am.," xxxvi. 273; xli.249. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 100. * "Scientific American Sup.," 510. "Scientific American," xxxv. 154. *" Scientific American Sup.," 1288. Fig. 1716. Gosse's "Evenings at the Microscope." Micro- photog., Roc/i . . " Scientific Am. Sup.," 1324, 4139. Microscopic photography "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 226. Mi'cro-scope Il-lu'mi-na'tor. (Optics.) A convenient form of lamp adapted to the use of the microscope. The metallic chimney is telescopic, the condenser fits into the cell in front. The reservoir is of brass. The lamp slides vertically on a pillar, and may be inclined to direct the rays. The chimney is lined with gypsum. Mi'cro-scope Lamp. (Optics.) A lamp for con- venient use with the micro- scope. Several have been invented, the great deside- rata being : 1. Ease/ of elevation or depres- sion of the lamp by attachment to a long upright rod. Microscopic Illuminator. 2. A flat wick, so as by turning either the edge or broadside of the flame to get intensity or Tolume. 3. Absence of great heat. In a special form of lamp, on a bull's-eye stand, the lamp is attached to a bull's-eye lens, the position of which can be varied at pleasure for varying the character and direction of the rays. Mi'cro-scope TaTsle. (Optics.) A pillar and claw table, employed in connection with the microscope which stands upon it. The top is mounted on a strong iron center which enables the observer to revolve the microscope at pleasure without vibration. Mi'cro-spec'tro-scope. (Optics.) See SPEC- TEOSCOPIC EYE-PIECE. Mi'cro-ta-sim'e-ter. An instrument, by Ed- ison, for the detection and measurement of infini- tesimal pressure. The instrument consists essen- tially of a rigid iron frame for holding a carbon button, which is placed between two platinum sur- faces, one of which ia fixed and the other movable, and in a device for holding the object to be tested so that the pressure resulting from the expansion of the object acts upon the carbon button. The instrument is represented in Fig. 1717 by perspective, sectional, and plan views. A B are posts rising from plate C. To post A a vulcanite disk is attached by the platinum-headed screw E, which rests in ii cavity in the disk. On the head of the screw ia the carbon button F, and upon its outer face is a disk of plati- Fig. 1717. Edison's Microtnxinteter num foil which is in electrical communication with the bat- tery. A metallic cap, G, receives one end of the liar to lie tested, the other end being in a cup, /, on the end of a screw, H, on the other head, B. The post A is in connection with a galvanometer, in turn connected with the battery. After the strip has been subjected to a small initial pressure, which deflects the needle of the galvanometer, the slightest expan- sion or contraction of the strip will be indicated by the needle. The warmth of the hand held a few inches from a hard rubber strip caused an expansion which was indi- cated by a deflection of a few degrees of an ordinary gal- vanometer, which was not affected in the slightest degree by a thermopile facing and near a red-hot iron. The principle of this apparatus is to be applied to delicate thermometers, barometers, and hygrometers. Fig. 1718 shows the apparatus as constructed for more delicate operations. The instrument is connected with a Thomson's reflecting galvanometer, and the current is reg- ulated by a Wheatstone's bridge and a rheostat, so that the resistance on both sides of the galvanometer is equal, and the light pencil from the reflector falls on of the scale. The principle is illustrated in the plan view in Fig. 1717, where g is the galvanometer, i the instrument. At a b c the resistance is the same. An increase or diminution of the pressure on the carbon button by an infinitesimal expansion or contraction of the substance under test is indicated on the scale of the galvanometer. The carbon button may be compared to a valve, for, when it is compressed in the slightest degree, its electrical conduc- tivity is increased, and when it is allowed to expand it partly loses its conducting power. The heat from the hand, held 6 // or 8" from a strip of vul- canite placed in the instrument when arranged as last described is sufficient to deflect the galvanometer mirror so as to throw the light-beam completely off the scale. A cold body placed near the vulcanite strip will carry the light-beam in the opposite direction. Pressure that is inappreciable and undiscoverable by other means is distinctly indicated by this instrument. See also TASIMETER, infra. Of. "Eng. 4" Mining Journal " . . . * xxvi. 186. "Engineering " * xxvi. 99. "Iron Age " xxi., June 20, p. 15 " Telegraphic Journal . . . . * vi. 314 ; * vi. 458. MICROTASIMETER. 601 MIDDLINGS. Fig. 1718. Microtasimeter with Reflecting Ga/vnun/iti Fig. 1719. 'English, Mechanic " * xxvii. 414. ' Scientific American " * xxxviii. 385. 'Engineer,'' Edison * xlvi. 99. 'Tnshneter ' * xlvi.. Fig. 3, 425. ' Journal Society Telegraphic Ens;." . * vii. 379. Mi'cro-tel'e-phone. The name given by its inventor, Julian Ockovowicz, of Lemberg, Gallicia, ("Telegraphic Join-mil," vii. 132) to a Bell telephone in which the current generated by the vibration of the diaphragm is caused to pass through the dia- phragm as well as the core before it enters the line. The communication of the current with the vibrating plate is effected by means of two small springs which are lightly pressed by the mem- brane, and which act as a microphonic contact. 3 mm. above the iron diaphragm is a membrane of caoutchouc, so that the two inclose a film of air between them. Dr. Hopkins' instrument con- sists essentially of two springs secured to a small base piece, and each supporting at their upper end a piece of ordinary battery carbon. These two pieces of carbon are placed in light contact, and the two springs are put in an electrical circuit in which there is also a receiving telephone of the Bell form. In Fig. 1719 it is shown as secured to a small sounding-board. The two car- bon supporting springs are fastened to a single base by the binding posts which receive the battery wires. An adjust- ing screw passes through one of the springs at or near its center, and bears against a rubber button projecting from the other spring. This simple device when placed on a table indicates in the receiving telephone the slightest touch of the finger on the table or on the instrument. Blowing on it makes in the receiving instrument a deafening roar ; drawing a hair or a bit of cotton across the carbon is dis- tinctly audible in the receiving instrument. Cf * 'Iron Age," xxii., Sept. 26, p. 15. 'English Mechanic, " xxvii. 511. 'Scientific Amer.,'' xxxix. 170. Trouve * 'Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2481. Hopkins * ' Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2693. Hopkins' 1 Microphone. Theory of " Scientific American Sup.," 3806. Luedtge " Scientific American Sup.,'' 3078. Refer to CARBON TELEPHONE, Fig. 535, p. 165, supra. Mi'Cro'tome. An instrument for cutting very thin sections of soft substances for microscopic pur- poses. * " Sc. Am. Sup.," 1321. Rivet ... * " English Mechanic.'' 8. Mid'dlings. (Milling.) Coarse particles of the kernel from immediately adjoining the skin of the berry, and now appreciated as the most valuable part because consisting largely of gluten, while the interior of the kernel is composed of the starch, which, when dry, readily becomes a pearly powder. Under the method of straight grinding almost universally practiced until within a very few years, the prime object of the miller was to make as few middlings as possible, consid- ering them only fit to be ground into an inferior grade of flour, or high grade of feed. Consequently the grinding was done very close with keen, sharp burrs; shaving into powder as far as practicable all this compact horny part of the ker- nel, which thus became incorporated with the interior or starchy part, and through the bolt was separated from the bran or skin of the berry. The coarser particles, known as middlings, remained mixed with small particles of bran and other foreign substances, also a fine fuzz, which is found on the skin of the berry. The new process consists in manufacturing a flour out of the middlings, having larger and more uniform granules than the flour which is made from the central part of the berry, and free from the fine impurities mixed with the first grinding. The middlings are passed through a machine called a puri- fier, so arranged that a properly regulated current of air may be sucked or driven through them, separating all the fuzz . and small specks, which have less weight than the particles of the kernel thus freed of impurities. The purified mid- dlings are then reground, with care, so that the grinding may be even and the angular shape of the particles retained. After grinding, it is bolted as usual through proper numbers of cloth, and the larger particles passing over the tail of the reel are returned to the purifier and stone. This is a general synopsis of the process, which is of course varied to suit the judgment and experience of skilled millers, some using many purifiers for frequent separations and dif- ferent methods of manipulating the returns and re-grinding. The middlings flour being sought after as superior to the straight grade, it is desirable to grind high, and make as much middlings as practicable, frequently 35 to 40% is made into middlings flour. See also HIGH MILLING, p. 458, supra ; and references passim. MIDDLINGS PURIFIER. 602 MILK CAR. Fig. 1720. Mid'dlings Fu'ri-fi'er. The separation of middlings by air currents and by shaking are old devices. The employment of the hand sieve and natural current of air, as in the ancient mode of winnowing (Fig. 7256, p. 2786, "Mech. Diet.'-), but on a smaller scale and in more confined situation, was the natural resource before reels and bolting chests came into use. The mid- dlings purifier proper is something more than a mere bolt ; properly speaking, it is a machine for sepa- rating minute bran scales from grits by causing a broad stream of air either by blast or suction, to pass through a slightly-inclined plane sieve of meshes sufficiently large for both the bran and grits to pass through ; the force of the blast be- ing so gentle as to permit the grits to drop, while the particles of bran are kept afloat to be discharged at the lower margin of the sieve. The sieve is sometimes disposed around a cylinder, and the action promoted by a brush acting upon the surface of the sieve in connection with the blast or suction. Of this class, sev- eral of most ingenious construction, under the name of middlings-pu- rifiers, have been recently invented ana brought into use in this coun- try -3 r- ml '\Q/ Principle of Middling Purifier The accompanying figure illustrates one of the simpler forms. a a, is the slightly -inclined sieve, through which the air is carried upward by the exhaust-fan, by which the fine bran is prevented from passing through, while the heavier grits are dropped to the trough below. The subject has been considered on pp. 1436, 1437, "Mech. Diet.,'' where the machines of * Lacroix, * Huntley Holcomb, * Smith, * Wilson, * Mowry, have been adduced as illustrating five modes, having certain points of difference in operation . Several systems of grading middlings and bolting are de- scribed in Rollet's French work on milling (Paris, 1847), including those of * Lanturelu, * Benoist. Reference is made to the above also in "Scientific Ameri- can Supplement,'' where are also shown the apparatus of * Westrupp, Br., 1864. * Cabanes, Fr., 1855. * Perrigault, Fr., 1862. A slight, general sketch of the distinctive methods may be given, and reference for particulars can be made to the publications cited in the subsequent list : La Croix's device consists in the combination with the reciprocating screens of traveling air tubes under the screen placed 5" on centers, and moving backward and forward o". These tubes are supplied with air at high pressure by means of two small but powerful blast fans. The air is discharged in thin sheets the entire width of the cloth, which cleans the meshes, and raises the light fibrous matter from the middlings so that it may be readily drawn off by the suction fan, which is employed on top of the machine as usual. Walker. A distributing feed shoe ; an inclined, shaking, suction blast separator suspended and vibrated upon links, and divided into sections, each of which consists of a series of slightly inclined shelves, extending to the side-boards of the suspended separator ; a brush and concave arrest the middlings at their mid-passage, and they fall upon a shaking sieve where they are sorted and certain portions returned for re-dressing. Collin's " Garden City." A succession of inclined sieves of gradually coarser quality, and suction blast of increasing strength in the descending order. The matter passing through each sieve is spouted away to its own receptacle. Smith. Has feeding rollers, shaking bolt, traveling brushes to clean meshes of the cloth, and upward current of air to carry off impurities. Reel (f Seyler " Champion." Has a spout and rotary reel for separating the finer particles ; thence to a chute where the fuzz is withdrawn by a suction fan ; then to a series of grading sieves with upward blast. Huntley, Holcomb, If Heine " Excelsior." Middlings are fed through tubes to disintegrators, two in succession ; the dust and fiber are carried off through wind-trunk, and go to a feed hopper and reel to be sorted ; the middlings pass to shaking sieves with upward draft. Hunter. A blast machine with percussion sieve. " Phoenix '' has suction fan, sloped sieves, and a succes- sion of hoppers for graded product. " Keystone." Succession of zigzag inclined sieves and suction draft. Affleck. The middlings are subjected to a current of air before going on to the sieve, where the purification is finished and the floury matter drawn off into a suitable bolt. Cochrane's patent, of so much interest in regard to the suits at law in this matter, is No. 37,318, January 6, 1863. See "American Miller,'' vi. 11. Eefer to Bauer . . . * "American Miller," iv. 101. Benoist * "Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' 1 * 1602. Buehlmann .... * "American Miller,'' v. 181. Cabanes * " Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' * 1602. Cabanes, Purifier . . * "American Miller," v. 197. Case ... * "American Miller,'- viii. 370. " Champion '' . . . * "American Miller,'' v. 66. Cochran (Patent No. 37,318. Jan. 6, 1863.) * "American Miller,-' 1 vi. 11. Collins, Garden City " * "American Miller," iv. 89. Currier, Mill .... * "American Miller," vii. 267. * "American Miller.'-' viii. 29. Dell, Br * "Engineer,'- xlvi.' 403. Downton * "American Miller,'- vi. 21. Electric "Scientific American," xlii. 209. Elwell, Separator . . * "Scientific American,''' xxxiv. 342. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 166. Fender, " Standard . * "American Miller," v. 83. " Garden City " . . * "American Miller," v. 69. " Helvetia " . . . . * "American Miller,-' 1 viii. 157. Hunter * "American Miller," vi. 21. Huntley, "Excelsior :I * "American Miller,''- iv. 137. Jones, " Paragon " . * "American Miller," iv. 93. Keller * "American Miller," viii. 316. Lacroix . . . . * "American Miller,'' v. 83. * "American Miller,'" vii. 103, 266. Lanturelu .... *" Scientific Amer. Sup.,"- * 1602. Millot, Switz. . . . * "Engineer," xlvi. 258. Ohio Midd. Purif. Co. * "American Miller," iv. 90. Osborne * "Scientific American Sup.," 3744. "Paragon" .... * "Scientific American Sup.," 431. * "American Miller,'' iv. 37. Perrigault . . . .* "Scientific Amer. Sup.,'- * 1602. Pyne * "American Miller,' 1 ' 1 vii. 338. Redfield * "American Miller,-' viii. 3. Reelj " Champion " . * "American Miller," v. 65. Smith * "American Miller," iv. 140. Schoonover .... * "American Miller," viii. 29. Suits, arguments . . * "American Miller," vii. 70. " Summit "... * "American Miller,"' viii. 316. Sutcliffe * "Engineer,'' xli. 391. * "American Miller ," v. 72. Walworthj'Bi. ... * "Engineer," xliii. 416. Westropp * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 1602. Wolf * "American Miller,'' viii. 183. Mid'ship-maii's Hitch. (Nautical.) A kind of hitch shown at i, Fig. 2513, p. 1105, "Meek. Diet." Mil'dew Bronze. An imitation of the patina or surface effect obtained by lapse of ages and ex- posure of ancient bronzes. Dissolve equal weights of nitrate of iron and hyposulphite of soda in eight parts of water ; immerse the articles in this until of the right tint, then well wash with water, dry, and brush : one part chloride of iron and two parts water im- parts to brass a fine antique green. Brush well and lacquer with pale gold lacquer, or polish with oil. Mil'i-um Nee'dle. (Surgical.) A fine nee- dle with curved hastate point used in skin grafting. Piffard. Milk. See the following references : Analysis apparatus. Von Baumhauer . . * " Scientific American Sup.,'' 1162. Condensed * "Scientific Ameri can Sup.," 2482. Cooler, Austrian . . . * "Scientific American," xl. 292. Milking apparatus Blurton, Engl. . . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 2346. Milker, Mollen . . . * "Scientific American^ xxxvi. 102. Skimmer, centrifugal. Wannieck, Austrian . * "Engineering," xxviii. 21. Stool and strainer. Valentine * "Scientific American," xlii. 100. Milk sugar manufacture "Scientific American," xxxvi. 56. See LACTOMETER, LACTODENSIMETER, GALACTOMETEB ; Pio- SCOPE ; CREAMERY, CHEESE, CHURN, etc., and references pas- sim. Milk Car. (Railway. ) One for carrying milk in cans. It is usually made with end platforms like a baggage car, and has the springs of a passenger car. Forney. MILK COOLER. 603 MILK STRAINER. Milk Cool'er. An apparatus for removing the natural warmth of fresh milk. Two forms are shown. Fig. 1721 is Lawrence's capillary refrigerator (Br.), which is also adapted to cooling wort. Milk as soon as milked is poured into the strainer A, whence it passes into a chamber Fig. 1721. the cooler chamber is removed to expose the interior The Austrian cooler, Fig. 1722, is very simple, and consists of a vat or tub through which cold water is constantly cir- culating. On the surface of the water floats a circular Fig. 1722. Vienna Milk Cooler. wooden plate, provided with a number of round holes into which are inserted the vessels containing the milk. These arc made of sheet zinc, two feet long, and each, according to the u Wiener Landw. Zeitung,'' contains a little over a gallon of milk. It takes about fifteen minutes to cool the milk down to a temperature slightly above that of the surrounding water. When not in use the cylinders are turned upside down on a wooden rack to drain and dry. Milk Glass. A semi-translucent glass used in some graduated glass instruments to contain the scale in order to render it more legible. See also CRYOLITE ; HOT CAST PORCELAIN, etc. Fig. 1723. French Milk Heater. Milk Heat'er (Dairy.) A furnace arrange- ment for heating milk for cheese-making. That shown in Fig. 1723 is a French form in which the deep cans set in a water bath ...^ above a furnace. The furnace and tank are of sheet iron. See also MILK PAN. Milk'ing Tube. A tube inserted into the via lactea of a cow's teat in order to overcome the muscular contraction and allow the milk to flow without the use of the hands. The tubes are of silver, four to a set, and are telescopic to suit vary- ing lengths of teats. Milk Pan. A pan in which milk is set to allow the cream to rise ; or in which it is heated or cooled as the circumstances may require, for churning or for cheese- making. Figs. 1725, 1726 show the " Iron Clad " milk proceeds from an elevated reservoir and is sup- pUed to either or all of the pans by means of faucets. In Fig. 1726, A is the pipe from the boiler leading to pans. B, the hot water pipe spigot. F is the waste-water pipe, G the sour milk pipe. HH&Te thermometers for indicating tempera- ture. Fig. 1725. Milk Pans with Water Flow. Milk Scale. See CREAMERY SCALE, Fig. 725, p. 230, supra. Milk Strain'er. A funnel-shaped pan with wire gauze in the bottom to strain foreign matters MILK STRAINER, 604 MILL BUSH. Fig. 1726. "Iron Clad" Milk Pans with Heater. from milk. That shown in Fig. 1727 has a pyram- idal strainer which gives a much increased surface and correspond- ing efficiency. Milk Test. A lac- tometer or lacto-densim- eter, which see. See also CREMOMETER. Milk Test 'ing Tube. A form of lac- tometer in whicli vari- ous milks or milks of d i ff e r e n t cows are placed under exactly the same conditions, in graduated tubes of the same ' measurements. Fig. 1728 Pyramidical Milk Strainer. WlllllilWiillliiiil'llliillliliiiiliiiiriiiiiiiNiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiitiiliiHiiiiiiiiiliiiiilrlii 1 !;! 1 "!:' BilBlJHHn Milk Testing Tube Mill. See under the following heads: Aplatisseur. Feed mill. Apple grinder. Fertilizer mill. Army mill. Flouring mill. Aspirator. Fodder mill. Attrition mill. Furrow-dressing machine. Bean mill. Grain crusher. Bone mill. Grain mill. Breaking down machine. Grain scourer. Buckwheat huller. Grain smutter. Cake breaker. Granulating process. Cake grinder. Grape mill. Cement mill. Grinding machine. Charcoal grinding much Grinding mill. Chilian mill. Grist mill. Cider mill. Grits mill. Clay mill. High grinding . Clover huller. Hominy machine. Coffee mill. Hominy mill. Concasseur. Hone. Corn cracker. Huller. Corn mill. Incorporating mill. Corn sheller. Kibbling mill. Cotton-seed huller. Lime cracker. Cracking machine. Low milling. Crusher. Maize mill. Crushing mill. Malt crusher. Cylinder grinding machine. Middlings mill. Cylinder mill. Millstone dresser. Decorticator. Mixing machine. Degerminator. Mortar mill. Disintegrator. Mortar mixer. Drug mill. Oat mill. Eccentric mill. Oat crusher. Facing machine. Oil-cake breaker. Farm mill. Oil-cake mill. Ore crusher. Paint mill. Paint mixer. Pearling. Plaster mill. Portable mill. Powdering machine. Process milling. Pulverizer. Pulverizing mill. Rice hu Her. Rock breaker. Rock crusher. Roller mill. Root grinder. Root pulper. Salt mill. Saltpeter and sulphur grinding mill. Saltpeter, sulphur, and charcoal mill. Scourer. Sectional mill. Semolina machine. Smut machine. Smut mill. Spice mill. Stamp mill. Stamping mill. Stone breaker. Stone crusher. Talc mill. Vertical-stone mill. Wheat lmi-h. Wheat cracker. Wheat scourer. Yucca grater. See also : Mill feeder and tell-tale, Teter ... * "American Miller," v. 123. Middlings machinery. Gent " Scientific American Sup.," 2578. New process .... "Scientific American St/p.," 397. " Scientific American Sup., ' 2589. "Scientific American,- xxxix 70. Scientific American,''' xli 243. Oliver Evans Portable, Munson French . . See also MIDDLINGS ; MIDDLINGS PURIFIER ; CYLINDER MILL ; PROCESS MILLING; HIGH MILLING, and reference.- //U.VMJ/I. Books on inill-wrighting : Box. ''Practical Treatise on Mill Gearing." London, 1867. Croak, "Practical American Milhorig/it and Miller.'' 8vo. Phila., 1870. Dixon. "Practical Wheelwright and Engineer's Heady Reckoner." Evans. "The Young Millwright and Miller's Guitli " Hughes. "The American Miller and Millwright's Assist- ant.^ Pallet. "The Miller, Millwright, and Engineer's liniile." Templeton. "Engineers, Millwrights, and Mechanics' Pocket Companion." Mill Board Cut'ter. A machine for cutting to size mill and card boards for binding, etc. They are made wit'u pivoted, or with circular knives. See BOARD CUTTER, Fig. 354, p. 113, supra; MILL BOARD CUTTER, Fig. 3149, p. 1440, "Mech. Diet."; CARD BOARD CUT- TER, Figs. 539-541, p. 166, supra. Mill Bush. The lining box in the eye of a millstone. Fig. ] 729 shows the parts in the bed stone and those attached to the spindle making a Fig. 1729. Mia Bush. MILL BUSH. 605 MILLING. joint, by means of the parts B F c, and c D E H, to give a snug fit, and prevent flour from working downward. The balance-rynd (not shown placed on the cock-eye of the spindle, and supports the run- Fi g- 173 * ner. Mill Dri'ver. The appara- tus immediately concerned in giving motion to the runner millstone. The figure shows the spindle, slip- driver, set-screw, tram-pot, lever, lighter screw, bail or balance-rynd, damsel, back-lash spring, fulcrum, pinion and pinion jack. See glossary, pp. 1019, 1020, "Mech Diet.'- Mill Feed'er. The customary feed of a mill-stone is by a damsel on the spindle which a g i- tates the shoe be- neath the hopper and causes the grain to dribble into the eve of the runner. Fig. 1731 shows a self- regulating silent mill feeder which also gives an alarm by the ringing of a bell when the feed runs short. The device Mill Driver. rests by four legs upon the husk and has an arrangement of compound levers sup- porting the funnel which acts as a feed hopper and discharges into the lower funnel which distributes the grain around the eye of the buhr. Fig. 1731. Mill Feeder. MU1 File. A thin flat file used in machine shops for lathe work and draw filing. Mil 'ling. 1. (Grain Grinding.) In the com- parison of the advantages of high and low milling respectively, it is stated by J. J. Wyngaert, editor of the German journal "Die Miihle," that the Aus- tro- Hungarian process of high milling, consisting of a disintegration of the tissues by successive crack- ings, is especially adapted to a hard and brittle wheat, such as that in the markets of Vienna and Pesth, and not to the softer varieties, more abun- dant in North Germany, Britain, and the United States, and which have a tougher shell and friable interior. " The advocates of high milling rest upon the claims of the scientific solution of the problem : the reduction of the wheat-grain by a succession of alternate crackings and sort- ings, in which disintegration is effected by successive steps of such slight individual advance, and the graduations of the successive products are so fine that the heat produced is inconsiderable, and the ultimate product of flour free from specks and of absolute fairness is much larger than by the low-milling process. The significance of this peculiarity of the process cannot be easily over-estimated. It leaves the integrity of the cells of gluten unimpaired. They have, therefore, their natural investment of cellular tissue to pro- tect the sensitive nitrogenous constituents of the interior from the oxygen of the air, and from the spores of micro- scopic vegetation always afloat in the atmosphere. Having escaped destructive crushing, they have also escaped the heat attendant upon it, and the loss of water and chemical decomposition due to it. As the chemical changes conse- quent upon this exposure of the gluten bring with them prod- ucts of disagreeable taste and smell, the flour produced by the high milling has escaped the deterioration consequent upon the destruction of the texture of the gluten-cells." 'The physical impracticability of producing lumps from the friable interior of the soft wheat shows at a glance the inferior adaptation of this kind of wheat to the production of the numerous grades of grits which characterize the Aus- tro-Hungarian milling. The toughness of the shell of the soft wheat makes it practicable to obtain a product in low milling in which the fine particles of bran are relatively few, and from which a flour of high order of whiteness may be obtained. The dry, brittle Hungarian wheat, subjected to the low milling process, would, by reason of the brittle- ness of the shell, yield a product in which the small parti- cles of bran would be numerous, and, being of the same size, would pass through the bolt with the flour, and make it impossible to produce a flour of perfect whiteness." Prof. Horxford. "By the processes of low milling, we have the following scheme of low milling treatment : Cleaning. Clean wheat. Pointing. Refuse. Pointed wheat. Poorest flour. Coarse bran. Grinding. co (No. 1. No. 2. Dust. No. 3 Fine grits ground. Hulls ground. Flour No. 2. Dust. Flour No. 6. Bran Dust ground. Flour No. 1. Black dust ground. Flour Nos. 4 or 5 A much more elaborate table, by Wyngaert, may be found in Prof. Horsford's "Report on Vienna Bread ," " Vienna y- , position Reports,'' ii., B, table opposite to p. 56. The scheme of treatment of the " Fife " spring Minnesota is shown in the same report, p. 57. . . spring wheat of In the process of high-milling, which is a step by step re- duction of the grain, started with the pointed kernels, three products are obtained at each grinding : Coarse fragments with much bran attached Less coarse fragments with less bran attached. Minute fragments with little or no bran. These are separated from each other by the sifting and purifying machine. Each of the several products is again subjected to grinding, and the product in each again sorted into grades, and so on until the last traces of the white in- terior of the berry have been separated from the dark hull and graded. See MIDDLINGS. The table on the following page exhibits the products yielded in a comparatively primitive high milling establishment : MILLING. 606 MILLING MACHINE. HIGH MILLING PROCESS. 1) Cleaning. 2) Pointing. Pointed wheat. ! 3a) First cracking. Bran. Black flour, No. 6 Groats flour. Dust (flour). Grits. 1. Groats. 3 b) Second cracking. Groats flour, Nos. 3 and 4. Dust (flour). Grits. 2. Groats. 3c) Third cracking. Dust (flour). Grits. Hulls. 5) All the dust (flour) purified and ground gives 4) All the grits purified and ground to dust (flour) give Flour No. 1. Flour No. 2. Black dust flour No. 5. Dust (flour). ) Grinding the hulls. Flour Nos. 6 and 6. Bran. A very much more elaborate scheme may be found in Prof. Hereford's report above quoted, table opposite to p. 69. There were produced from wheat of average weight. 83 to 84 pounds per metze. A B C I n m IV V VI VII VIII IX X F G B per cent. 4.25 5.53 5.76 5.51 6.48 7.12 13.30 11.85 9.95 4.36 6.32 8.94 6.87 3.76 Table-groats, coarse f Extra fine flour Extra roll or semmel flour . . . Common roll or semmel flour . . Second pollen flour First dust-flour Brown pollen flour Chicken-feed, loss, and dirt . . . 100.00 The terms to indicate certain results or conditions of the material in the process of grinding grain have been multiplied since the introduction of the high-milling process. Prof. Horsford in his "Report on Vienna Bread,'' 1 Washing- ton, 1876, uses the following : Groats (Ger. Schrot). Broken and bruised kernels. Middlings (Ger. Ueberschlag). Unpurified grits. Grits (Ger. Gries). Purified groats. Besides these are many terms known in the trade, such as farina, semolina, cracked wheat, etc. Farina. A kind of grits, finely purified. A number of terms have comparatively lately come into milling: Low milling is the ordinary system of mashing and re- peated scraping and squeezing and a single bolting. It is at- tended with heating of the product, which injures the flour. The high milling is a system of successive crackings with alternate removal of the finer particles and the bran as fast as produced. It is attended with but little heating of the product. There is some cracking in low milling and some mashing in high milling. The half-high milling, as its name imports, partakes more of the cracking than low milling, and more of the scraping and squeezing than high milling. The cylinder milling is a system of pressing and cracking, and, where the cylinders are grooved and move with unequal velocities, of tearing. Like the high milling, it produces lit- tle heat See under each head. Disintegration : A system in which there are neither stones nor cylinders, but iu which the pulverization is effected by means of the friction of the grain upon itself, being kept in motion by beaters revolving at a high velocity in a hollow cylinder. Carr's process, Fig. 1665, p. 707, "Mech. Diet." See also under the following heads : Aspirator. Exhaust purifier. Cylinder grinding mill. Grain cleaner. Cylinder mill. Grain dryer. Grain separator. Granulating process. Grits grading machine. Grits mill. Grits purifier. High milling. Low milling. Middlings purifier. Mill stone. Pointing. Purifier. Roller mill. Smut machine. Stone separator. Unbranning machine Wheat cracker. Wheat scourer. Wheat separator. 2. (Fine Art Metal-work-ing.) Giving an orna- mental ridged or ribbed surface to an object by holding it against a ribbed tool which revolves in a lathe. 3. (Metal Working.) The cutting of metal, etc., by means of revolving cutters. See MILLING MA- CHINE, "Mech. Diet.," et infra. 4. (Leather.) Treatment in a large wooden drum or cylinder, about 8" in diameter, and 4' in height, water-tight, and having wooden pins projecting ra- dially from the interior concave surface towards its horizontal shaft. The drum is revolved by a pin- ion, from 8 to 20 times per minute. The mill is used for stuffing light leather, and for other purposes. After stoning, skiving, and shav- ing, the sides are put in the mill with some tan liq- uor to soften them and make them porous. 5. A mode of finishing some descriptions of goods by means of vertical fallers. See BEETLING- MACHINE. Milling Ma-chine'. The subject is consid- ered on pp. 1441, 1442, "Mech. Diet.," Figs. 3151, 3152. The form shown in Fig. 1732 is Lawrence's Combined Index and Plane Milling Machine. On the circular portion of the standard is a sleeve capable of being clamped in any position, and carrying on one side the index cutting arrangement, and on the other the plane- milling table. By this arrangement of the sleeve the index can be swung round to the opposite side from the cutter, and this movement carries the milling-table under the cutter in position to be operated on, and only a moment of time is re- quired to make the adjustment. From the top of the sleeve, upward, the front of the stand- ard is flat with beveled sides, and on this top part the spin- dle-carrier is fitted, with spindle and lateral adjustment of spindle, gears and pulley for driving the spindle, and rack- gear and handle on the back side. The cutter-spindle carrier has a traverse of 9", and can be operated either by a screw and hand-wheel at the top or by the lever and rack behind. On the left-hand box of the cut- ter-spindle is a pipe-box, bored tapering, and into which a composition-bush is fitted. Through this bush the spindle passes. On the outer end of the bush a check-nut is fitted for drawing the bush in on the taper and contracting the hole. By this method the wear of the bearing is taken up The index is 16" in uiameter, and is drilled to cut all num- bers up to 80, and all even numbers up to 150. Spur, bevel, or right or left worm-gears can be cut. It will cut gears up to 16" diameter accurately, and by swinging the index away MILLING MACHINE. 607 MILLSTONE DEESSER. Eig. 1732. Combined Index and Plane Milling Machine. from the cutter will cut 24" diameter. The number of de- grees in a circle are cut on the edge of the index-plate. The plane-milling table is dovetailed and gibbed into the top part of a knee-piece, which knee-piece is gibbed to one side of the sleeve, and has a traverse of 5" on the sleeve. It is operated up or down by a hand-wheel with bevel-gears and screw. The table is 18" X 10", and has T-slots running both ways in the top. It has a longitudinal traverse of 18", with a lateral adjustment of cutter-spindle across it of 5", obtained by a screw and hand-wheel at the right hand of the cutter-spindle. It has self-adjustable, automatic feed. The extreme distance between the top of the table and the cen- ter of the cutter is 14". The table can be set at any angle with the cutter, and, with the help of a pair of rotary cen- ters, twist-drills or spiral-cutters can be milled. By means of the swinging sleeve true circles of greater or less diameter can be milled on the face of the work. See also : Gun work, Bement . . Brainerd Universal, Britannia Co. Br " Universal,'' Brown S/iarpe Brown Sf Sharpe . . Steam chest seats. Campbell Steam chests, Campbell Universal, Greenwood fy Batley, Br Greenwood fy Batley, Engl Hand Lawrence 1'or lathes, Main . . . Newton Sf Co. . . . Pratt If Whitney . . Tanite Universal, Br * "Engineering,-' xxii. 179. * " Scientific American Sup.," 675 * "Scientific American Sup.," 723. * "Engineer,'" xlviii. 344. * "Iron Age," xx., Oct. 11, p. 1. * Thurston's " Vienna Rep.,'' 1 ii. 234. * "Scientific American," xxxv. 15. * "Mining Sc. Press,-'' xxxv. 73. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 322. * "Engineering," xxvii. 375. * "Scientific American,' 1 '' xl. 386 Fig. 1306, p. 433, supra. * "Engineer,-' 1 xlii. 364. * "Scientific American,'' xli. 38. * "Scientific American," xxxv. 271. * "Am. Man., "Jan. 31, 1879, p. IS. * Tkurston's " Vienna Rep.," \\. 223. * "Sc. American,'' 1 Oct. 31, 1874. * "Engineering," xxix. 155. Mill'-run. (Mining.) A test of a quantity of ore run, after reduction. Mill'stone. A report on millstones was made by /. M. Safford, " Cen- tennial Exhibition Reports," Group I., vol. iii., p. 176 et seq. See elaborate article * by Prof. Ilorsford in his report from the Vienna (1873), Exhibition, pp. 36-42, vol. ii. See also : Truax ... * "American Miller," iv. 21. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 198. Bolting, Aubin ... * "American Miller,'- iv. 120. Dress, Jones .... * "Scientific American Sup.." 1824. Suavely * "American Miller,' 1 '' v. 53. Walker * "American Miller," iv. 29. Theory of grooves . * "Scientific American Sp.,''2829. 30 illustrations ... * Figs. 3156, 3157, pp. 1443, 1444, "Mech. Diet." Dresser, diamond, Harris * "American Miller,' 1 '' viii. 189. Ellis * "American Miller," viii. 106. Benton * "American Miller," viii. 187. McFeely * "American Miller," viii. 408. Dresser. Three Rivers Man. Co. * "American Miller,-' 1 iv. 70. Harris * "American Miller ," iv. 71, 91 ; v. 39. Griscom 4 Co. . . * "American Miller," v. 121. Exhaust, Howland . . *" American Miller," iv. 95. Exhaust and condenser * "American Miller," v. 63. Swartwout .... Glass "Scientific American Sup." 1940. Millstone Lift .... * "American Miller," viii. 490. SettJBg, Woodbury . . * "American Miller," v. 89. Mill pick, Lemoine . . * "Scientific American," xlii. 374. Mill'stone A-larm'. A device to give notice when the supply ot grain to the stone runs out or runs short. See Fig. 3150, p. 1441, "Mech. Diet." MILL FEEDER, supra. Mill'stone Bush. See MILL BUSH, supra. Mill'stone Crane. A device for lifting the runner off the bed-stone. See HOISTING SCREW, Fig. 1360, p. 460, supra. Mill'stone Curb. The covering of the stones. A husk or hurst. Mill'stone Dres'ser. 1. A machine for form- ing millstones ; bringing them to shape. A species of stone-turning lathe. Figs. 1733-1736 show a Rogers' diamond tool millstone dressing machine, illustrated in the "Bul- letin de la Societe d' Encouragement pour Vlndustrie Nationale." A is a face plate, to which the stone B is secured by the four clamps a. C is the bed, resting upon a masonry foun- dation. D is the rotary tool, carrying eight diamonds and revolving 3,500 turns per minute. It is mounted on a car- riage, E, which travels across the face of the stone on slides G, on the support F. The movement of translation of the carriage is effected by the screw H, the rate of motion of which is proportioned to that of the stone's revolution. The diamond tool is actuated from the pulley 7 by the belt I'. K and K', respectively, are fixed and loose pulleys im parting motion to the drum by means of a belt passing over the pulley L of the main shaft M. A lever, P, acting on pinions P' and P", which engage in racks Q and Q', en- ables the whole tool-carrying apparatus to be moved toward or from the stone, as desired. N is a shaft placed against a wall, which serves to set the lathe mechanism in motion, as described hereafter. On this shaft is a pulley, T, which transmits motion by friction to the disk U mounted on a shaft which is belted to the lathe arbor below. A lever, U>, having a counterweight, U", always gives the necessary pressure to cause the contact of disk f/and pulley T. This mode of transmission by friction pulley and disk imparts to the lathe arbor a variable velocity according as the tool operates upon the stone at a portion nearer to or farther from the center, so that in this way whatever part of the stone is presented to the tool, the velocity is nearly constant. The position of the wheel Twith relation to the disk Fis regulated by means of the lever S, operated by cords a, which are attached to the ends of the tool carriage. A ven- tilator, V, operated by the special gearing V , removes the dust produced through the tubes v. The air from the blower is led into a water reservoir X, and thence, after depositing its dust, escapes by the pipe v". The traveling tackle Z serves to adjust the stone in the machine. The diamond tool is separately represented in Figs. 1735 and 1736. A is the tool, P the driving pulley. Eight dia- monds are mounted on the surface of the cylinder in sleeves, MILLSTONE DRESSER. 608 MILLSTONE DRESSER. Fig. 1733. 2. A machine in which a millstone is placed while being faced. The French machine for dressing millstones by the revolving traversing diamond is shown in Fig. 1737. The cutter lias a rotary motion, and also a movement of translation, on the face of the stone, parallel with the furrows ; the lining being parallel on each pane. The cutting pitch of the diamond Fig. 1735. Section of Diamond Mandrel. is regulated by an inclined slide H, fixed to the cast-iron framework of the machine J / by the bolts K K. The incline of the slide is in the di- rection of the center of the stone, which secures uniformity in the cut- ting, and the inclination is regulated by means of adjustable wedges ; an and in such a way that they may be caused to project more . arrangement which secures mathematical exactness in the r means of a regulating screw. B B' are lubricating depth of the cut The action of the machine is similar to Fig. 1734. Fig. 1736. Rogers' Millstone Dressing Machine. (Front Elevation.) cups, and U\s the conduit whence dust is drawn by the ven- tilator from the chamber E, as shown by the arrows. Ac- cess is had to the tool by lifting the cover C. Millstone Drei Mandrel. ) that of a milling cutter, and the course of the diamond is from the circumference to the center, and vice versa, the face produced on the millstone by means of the machine being partially granulated. The movement of the platform is by automatic intermittent feed connecting with piuion and master wheel D. E E are leveling screws in the plate B. The Hodgeboom millstone dresser is shown in Fig. 1738. The post of the machine is keyed in the eye of the millstone ; whereas, in the last-mentioned instance, ttie stone is pluml on the rotatable table of the machine. The Hodgeboom ma- chine, however, uses wheels of 8" diam. made of corundum with a cementing material. The wheel makes 2,000 revolu- tions per minute. The cross head carrying the wheel runs in covered slides with sti-el gib and friction rollers, and so constructed as to be impervious to the dust. The idle pul leys run on hollow spindles which are self-lubricating. The standard is in the form of a tripod and easily trammed. The cross bar is fastened to the standard by means of a face plate collar and may be raised or lowered at will. The automatic feed is a rack bar and pinion, driven by belt, and is strong, simple, and accurate. The machine of Hignette, of Paris, shown at the Paris hx- position of 1878, is similarly supported on the stone, but has a rotative diamond. Coplin's machine is ou a similar principle. MILLSTONE DRESSER. 609 MILLSTONE DRESSER. Fig. 1737 Dupety's Dia moil /I Millstone Dressing Machine. 3. A portable machine which is laid upon the stone, and the tool reciprocated thereon to dress the working face of the stone. The Harris machine employs one or more revolving dia- mond cutters, which .are run at ;i speed of :ihout 3,000 revo- lutions per minute, making 125 cuts to the inch the entire width of furrow, leaving the natural grit of buhrs, and the furrow true and smooth. Provision is made for dressing furrows in buhrs that run either with or against the sun, and at any angle or pitch of furrow required. The automatic feed can be set to cut any number of cracks to the inch, from 8 to 125. The Larrr dressing machine has also a diamond on a car- riage moving on guides. Orjpx and McFteley' l s machines for facing and furrowing n-e the diamond in reciprocating carriage. The Gri.wii liuhr-dresser, Fig. 1739, shows a, method of operating the diamond, which is in a carriage moving on a track, which latter occupies a segment panel in a frame which lies flarh upon the face of the stone, and is fastened Fig. 1738. by a bolt passing through the eye of the stone. Any panel on the face of the stone can be reached by the adjustment of the frame on the central bolt, and the track can be brought into parallelism with the furrow by adjustment of the central end, as a tangent to a larger or a smaller circle of which the axis of the stone is the constant center. Benton's diamond millstone dresser, t'ig. 1740, is designed to furrow, face, or crack, and its carriage moves in guides on a platform which is laid upon the face of the stone. The Harris dresser, shown in i'ig. 1741, has a carriage carrying a mill pick. This, being hinged, will make a row of cracks as the car is pushed along, and a parallel line is made by readjusting the base-piece A. The fore-arm of the op- erator rests on the pusher, and the hand grasps the pickhandle at K. 4. A hand tool used as means of sharpening the furrows, clear- in"; the surface of gloss or gum, restoring the cutting quality of the buhr, etc. A facing tool. Frequently a block of cemented co- rundum. See CORUNDUM HAND-TOOL, Fig. 701, p. 224, supra ; FURROW RUB- BER, Fig. 1120, p. 363, Ibid. See : Benton, Diamond . * "American Miller,'' viii. 358. Coplin, emery wheel Deal, corundum block Am. Miller," vi., May 1, 1878. * "American Miller ," viii. 494. Fig. 1739. Diamond Ruhr-ilresser. Duptty, diamond. . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 1 ' Ellis, diamond tool . . * "American Miller," viii. 495. Harris, " IXL.," Dia- Emery-wheel Millstone Dresser. 39 Diamond Buhr-dresser. MILLSTONE DRESSER. 610 MINERAL DRESSER. Miller, rubber .... * American Miller,'' viii. 490. Millot, diamond ... * "Scientific American," xxxv. 3 Roger, diamond . . . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 5. Suggestions American Miller,'' viii. 435- Teter If Allen, corundum block * "American Miller," viii. 496. Fig. 1741. Millstone Pick. Milestone Dri'ver. That device on the mill- stone spindle which impinges against the bail of the runner to drive the latter. Fig. 1742 shows the Dane driver, which has notches to clasp the arms of the bail. Fig. 1742. Dane Mill-buhr Driver. Fig. 1743 is the Forrest balance driver, which has lugs, A A, working on knife-edged pivots ; these are smaller than the Fig. 1743. Forrest Driver. holes which allow the Ings to move without friction against the sides of the apertures . C is the plate secured on spindle B. See BUHR DRIVER, Fig. 453, p. 143, supra; BALANCE RYND, Fig. 503, p. 216, "Mecfi. Diet. :> , GRINDING MILL, Plate XXII., opp p. 1020, Ibid. ; MILL DRIVER, supra. Mill'stone Ex-haust'. A means for with- drawing the air from the husk, around the periph- ery of the stone, in order to cool the meal, prevent choking, and expedite the work. See Figs. 3165- 3167, pp. 1445, 1446, "Mech. Diet." Brubaker * "American Miller," vii. 157. Mill'stone Feed. A means of regulating the quantity of grain fed into the eye of the millstone. The device rests by three legs upon the husk, and the con- Fig. 1744. Noyes' Millstone Feeder. ductor leads downward into the eye. The gate is adjusted by a regulating screw. See MILL FEEDER, supra. Mill'stone Fur'row-ing Ma-chine'. A ma- chine for cutting the furrows in the face of a mill- stone. These are of peculiar shapes, and various contours. See Fig. 3156, p. 144, "Mech. Diet." Some machines both cut and dress, furrow and face. See MILLSTONE DRESSER. Mill'stone Hoist. See HOISTING SCREW, Fig. 136, p. 460, supra. Mill'stoue Spin'dle. See MILL DRIVKR, supra. Mill'stone Ven'ti-la'tor. A device for for- cing a current of air in at the eye of a millstone and carrying it out at the skirt. See Figs. 31 ('>.'!- 3167, pp. 1445, 1446, "Mech. Diet." Min'cing Knife. ( Whaling.) For cutting the blubber into small pieces. Domestic ; disk blade . . * "Iron Age," xix., Feb. 22, p. 11. A machine with knives Fig. 1745. Min'cing Ma-chine'. on a roller, used in cutting blubber small for trying. Min'cing Spade. ( Whal- ing.) Used in cut- ting up the blubber for trying out. Mine Car. (Railway.) A Mine Car. small four-wheeled car for carrying minerals in mines. Mine Lo'co-mo'tive. See MINING LOCO- MOTIVE. Min'e-ral Dres'ser. A little machine consist- ing of a pair of chisels, one of which is adjustable and the other movable ; used to split geological 1746. Mineral Dresser. MINERAL DRESSER. 611 MINING LOCOMOTIVE. specimens with certainty, in removing superfluous portions, or exposing crystals or fossils. The bad, A, has a chisel head, B, fastened by a link ; the other chisel is on a head, K, moved by bar H and lever L, The screw, M, gives a shearing action. Canfield . * "Engineering ami Mining Journal," xxii. 188. * u lron Age,'- xvii., June 8, p. 1. Min'e-ral Hold'er. (Microscopy.) A means for holding :i rough piece of mineral so that it can Fig. 1747. be readily revolved while under examination with the microscope. Mill 'e-ral Wool. (Glass.) Filamentous slag made by a steam blast on a falling stream of melted slag from an iron furnace. The "hair of Pele 1 ," the effect of the eddying gusts of wind upon the spray pellets of the masses of slag ejected from the crater of Kilauea, is a natural and constantly produced ma- terial of the same character as the artificial slag wool. The manufactured article is used as a non-conductor, to prevent freezing of water-pipes, tanks, etc. ; to prevent cool- ing of steam-pipes, boilers, cylinders, etc. ; to prevent damp- ness, to keep out vermin, and to prevent the spread of fire, it being incombustible. It is formed by allowing a blast or jet of air or steam to impinge upon the surface of molten slag, which is thereby blown into filaments, producing a light material having a glassy fiber. Player's U. S. Patent, May ol, 1870. Re-issued February 1, 1876. The method of manufacture at the Krupp Works, Essen, Prussia, is as follows : The pig-iron furnace is provided with a tap an inch in diameter, out of which a continual stream of slag is allowed to flow, and to fall a distance of 2' 6", at which point the falling stream of slag is met by a strong blast of cold air, the effect of which is to separate the slag into myriads of hair-like threads, as white as snow, resem- bling the finest wool. Fig. 1748 shows the method adopted at the Clove Furnace, Orange Co., N. Y. The wool-house is 100' from the furnace. Fig 1748. Mineral Wool Apparatus. The slag is run into box cars, rolled to the wool-house, and e tapped. A small stream issues on to the runner, falls Ji", and is then encountered by a jet of steam which scat- ters it in threads into the house, which is 30' X 40' and 21' c> the comb. A sheet-iron extension 1(V long reaches to the slag car. The size of the nozzle has an important bearing upon the formation of shot, as the pellets of slag are termed | ee ; "Man. 4" Builder," ix. 42 ; * x. 6. Roof lining ..... "Iron Age," xxi., May 16, p. 18. _. . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 278. Usesof "Am. Man.;" March 19,1880, p. 7 ; April 2, 1880, p. 12. Mi'ner's Bar. A crow-bar with narrow and relatively wide chisel ends at the respective ex- tremities. Mi'ner's Forge. A portable forge for use in a mine, to dress picks, etc. See PORTABLE FORGE, and references passim. Mi'ner's Inch. The term is somewhat arbi- trary, the value varying in different localities. Customary : The amount of water flowing in one second through an orifice an inch square, under a head of 6", measuring from the upper line of the orifice. Approximately, 9 to 10 ounces by weight per second. " In round numbers, the miner's inch is equivalent to a discharge of 95 cubic feet per hour : one, cubic foot is 7i gallons. A miners inch would equal a discharge of 712.5 gallons per hour." "Mining anil Scientific Press." 1 xxxvii. 152. See also Ibid., xxxv. 297. Mi'ning. See : Cages, wire-rope connections for, Baumann, Ger. . * "Engineering," xxx. 118. Comstock Code . . . *" Scientific American Sup.," 1158. Miner's inch .... "Min. Sf Sc. Press," xxxvii. 152. Deep " Scientific American Sup.,'' 2681. Dial, Davis If Cochrane * "Engineering," xxii. 111. Engine, Portable, Gar- rett, Br * "Engineering," xxrii. 573. Tuyford, Br. . . . * "Sc. American," xxxvii. 134. Dump, Lee Bros. ... * "Iron Age," xxiii., May 1, p. 11. Locomotive, narrow gage. Lewin, Br * "Engineering," xxv. 45. Locomotives, Austria . * "Engineering," xxv. 507. Mach., Dubois Sf Francois * "Iron Age," xxii., Sept. 26, p. 1. "Scientific American Sup.,'' 980. Machinery, heavy . . "Scientific American Sup.," 1859. Machine, Lec/mer . . *" Scientific Arner.," xxxix. 102. Pump, Blake . . . . * "Manufacturer if Builder," x. 193. * "Scientific American Sup.," 994. * "Mining If Sc. Press," xxxvi. 17. "Min. If Sc. Press," xxxiv. 266. * "Scientific American," xxxiv. 51. * "Scientific American,'' xlii. 338. * "Scientific American Sup.," 353. "Scientific American Sup.," 1041. "Iron Age," xix., June 14, p. 1. Ing.) " Scientific American Sup.," 107. "Scientific American Sup.," 346. Cope If Maxwell . . Gould & Curry mine Knowles Pumps, mode of opera- ting, Moore If Dickey . Pump, Silver .... Shafts, sinking. Kind- Chawlron . . Depth of European Ventil.( Cleveland, E: " Scientific American Sup." 1112. Hoot * "Scientific American Sup." 1315. Wedge * "Scientific American Sup. ,"1907. Treatise on the applications of electricity to the firing of charges, mines, torpedoes, etc. Comte du Moncel's "Expose ties Application de I'Electricite," v. 582-638. Paris, 1878. Mi'ning En'gine. 1. A hauling engine for subterranean work in drifts and adits. 2. A hoisting engine in shafts. 3. A pumping engine to clear mines of water. 4. A mining locomotive. Many instances are given under special names. Mi'ning Lo'co-mo'tive. A narrow-gage lo- comotive built compactly, and of moderate height, to traverse the drifts of mines. While there is much variation as to gage, number of dri- Fig. 1749. Mining Locomotive. vere, weight, power, etc., the size of that shown in Fig. 1749 is within the ranges Cylinders, diameter 5" to 9". Stroke 10" to 14". MIXING LOCOMOTIVE. 612 MITE KING MACHINE. Diameter of drivers 22" to 28". Wheel base 4' to b.ZV. Length over all W to lo.l'. Height 5' to 0.5'. Weight (running) 7.000 to 20,000 Ibs. Hauling capacity on level . . 175 to 500 tons. Se&list under LOCOMOTIVE ; NAREOW-GAGE LOCOMOTIVE. Mi'ning Wedge. A gad for driving into a natural seam, or a channel cut or bored, to split off a mass of coal 1 , or what not. A wedge for bring!]);; down coal, on the principle of the plug-and-feather, is shown in "Scientific American ^itj/jile- ment," 1907. Min'now Pro-pel'ler. A bait for trolling-, having a bright spoon which rotates by contact with Fig. 1750. Minnow Propeller. the water. Behind the propeller is a feather bait with hooks. Fig. 1750 shows Chapman's minnow propeller. Min'ute Clock. A stop clock used in making tests of gas. Goodwin's " Amer, Gas-light Journal, ^ * July 3, 1876, p. 7. Minute clock, comb, with meter and gas index, Ibid., p. 7. Mir'ror. See pp. 1452, 1453, "Mech. Diet." (Surgical.) To reflect light into a cavity, as the larynx, the meatus auclitorius, the eye, the rectum. The laryngoscope, endoscope, ophthalmoscope, etc., use mirrors. See also : Mirror barometer . . Folding, McEvoy . . . Holder, Webb $ Myrick . Japanese magic, Mallet . Japanese Japanese magic . . . Manufacture, silver . . Mercury Mirror telegraph . . . See also POLEMOSCOPE. * ' ii-ntific American VlAUllJNJi. Mpr'tis-ing Ma-chine'. Mortising machines are divided into reciprocating and rotary. 1 . Reciprocating : 2. A form of ordnance, p. 1488, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 1764. Mortar. a. Projectile in section. b. Mortar. e. Powder chamber. d. Bed. Fig. 1764 is a section of a small Austrian rifle mortar in which the projectile covers the outer part of the inortar. The embraced portion is a hexagonal spiral, like a Whit- worth bolt, and the projectile is of cor- responding shape, and iits it like a cap, and slips off when fired. The counterbalance, l>, is to give preponder- ance to the rear of the trunnions. Prussian rifled mor- tar of 21 cm. "Ord- nance Report,' 1 ' 1878, Appendix L., p. 93, and Plate VII. a, Fig. 8. Mor'tar Car'riage. (Military.) The distinc- tion between cannon and mortar carriages has been less marked since the mortar has been lengthened, rifled, and used for direct and curved fire, with solid and hollow shot, as well as shell. Mortar carriages of modern form, Austrian, German, Krupp's, and Russian, are to be found in Plates XLI.-XLV., "Ordnance Report," 1877. Russian rifled mortar and carriage, Ibid., p. 521, and Fig. 12. See also: " Scientific American Supplement " . . 514. Mor'tar Mix'ing Mill. A mill for intimately mixing the ingredients of mortar. Figs. 3230, 3231, p. 1480, "Mech. Diet." Reynolds, London, portable mortar mill is shown in Fig. 1766- It is hand-worked, and is moved to the building spot. Fig. 1765, Mortar- Mixing Mill ( Englts/i). The hopper being filled with the materials, the spindle in the center of the cylinder, having 14 wrought blades, is set in motion by the handle, and the mortar is ready for use when discharged from the outlet. Mortar machine at Dunkerque and Gra,velines. " Vienna Exposition Report," chap, viii., Plate XVII., vol. in., C., p. 69. See also B&TON, CEMENT, CONCRETE, MORTAR, etc., "Mech. Diet.,'' et supra. Mor'tis-ing Chis'el. The chisels used in mor- tising machines are known as follows : 1. Core punch. 2. Ordinary chisel. 3. Sash chisel. 4. Lip chisel. 5. Blind stile chisel, with, removable cutters. 6. Hollow chisel, for mak- ing sash and door pins. Corner chisel (not shown). Mortising Chisels. a. Graduated Stroke. The chisel bar has a graduated re- ciprocating motion commencing from a still point, and pro- gressing downward into the timber, returning to the start- ing point at each return stroke. This differs from a vari- able eccentric inasmuch as it requires a stroke but little longer than the depth of the mortise. \ 'unable crunks and eccentrics that operate the chisel-bar by an increased throw in both directions, also come under this category. b. The chisel has a continuous motion, and the recipro- cating parts, including the crank wheel, chisel-bar and con- nections, are brought down tnwards the timber, the chisel having a continuous motion, with a uniform range and posi- tive eccentric. c. The chisel-bar or its connection is elongated to give th; stroke, the bar and chisel having a continuous reciprocating motion, but capable of being extended to the required depth of mortise. d. Machines in which the wood is moved up to the chisel, which has a continuous reciprocating motion. The latter is the most simple when the work is light. 2. The European machines are usually rotary, the action being a species of routing, the auger cutting on the side. The car mortising and boring machine of H. B. Smith is shown in Fig. 1767. Tt has an auxiliary boring attachment, rig. 17(17. Reciprocating Car-mortising Machine. and is intended for car and other heavy work, being capable of making a 2J" mortise through 12" X 12" stick of timber. The head-stock, carrying the crank-shaft and chisel-bar, is fed down to the work by power, and has a quick return movement. Power for this purpose is taken from the crank- shaft, a lever at the base of the machine serving to apply the power for starting a screw in either direction for raising or lowering the head stock. The head-stock is stopped auto- MORTISING MACHINE. 617 MORTISING MACHINE. matically when it reaches its highest point, and an adjusta- a strong, heavy machine, especially adapted for railway-ear hi .., ! ,.ni-;,is.,i tn,. isn.u: ;* ,i j j.: . work and similar duty. It receives chisels to any width, and epth cutting has two boring spindles, one fixed and the other to traverse 12" The feed movement is operated by treadle, and may fitting. i be locked to avoid jarring the foot of the operator. The The table is adjustable vertically by means of a powerful joints are compensating and operated without noise. The jrew and double ratchet lever. A rack and pinion feed is crank-shaft is placed in the base of the column, and the ! machine stands upon its base without top bracing. See aiso HUJ-MOUTISIXO MACHINE, Fig. 1391, p. 472, supra. Figs. 171.19, 1770 aiv respectively side elevation and trans- verse vertical section of one of the rotary chisel class of monUing machines built by Ilii-luirds, London, $ Kdley, and adapted for boxing, facing, recessing, and mortising. In machines of this class no laying out of the work is needed. A templet is placed upon the machine, and the stops are set for the position, length, and width of each ' mortise : after which any number of pieces aiv worked with- Kig. 1768. Reciprocating Car mortising Machine. provided for moving the lumber horizontally under the chisel, an adjustable clamp holding it securely to the table. The table also adjusts to and from the machine and tilts for bevel work. The reciprocating mortising machine of Richards, London, if Kelley is shown in Fig. 1768. It has also a boring spindle and auxiliary boring attachment for joint bolt-holes. It is Rotary Chisel Mortising Machine. ( Transverse Vertical Section. ) out a single mark of any kind on the timber, and without any danger of mistakes. The boxing, or facing, can be done at the same time, and with the same tools. Fig. 1771 is an end elevation of another machine of this class, built by Ransomes (Br.). The work is clamped in a carriage which has a longitudinal reciprocation on ways for length of mortise. The chisel is a router with side-lip, and the chisel spindle passes through the driving pulley, which is splined thereon. The motion of the timber carriage is by means of the lever, which is shown erect in the view, and that of the chisel is effected by the hand-wheel which is brought conveniently near to the work. Fig. 1772 shows a combined mortising and tenoning ma- chine. The work is dogged, as in the last-mentioned ex- ample, to a bench, which has, however, in the present case, an adjustment in either of two directions, longitudinally or transversely ; the latter for the especial purpose of bringing the work within the range of the rotary tenoning cutters. Fig. 1769. Rotary Chisel Mortising Machine. (Side Elevation.) MORTISING MACHINE. 618 MOUNTAIN GUN. Fig. 1771. Horizontal Mortising Machine. (Rotary Movement.} These rotate on horizontal spindles in the upright frame, be- ing capable of a movement of vertical translation to adjust their distance apart for making tenons of varying thickness. The lever shown in front is that by which the chisel is pro- jected and withdrawn. The lever on the right of the one mentioned gives the longitudinal traverse of the carriage for length of mortise ; or, for traversing the work past the tenon cutters, as the case may be. Fig. 1772. Combined Mortising and Tenoning Machine. See: car, Lane If Bodley * "Engineer,'' xli. 450. And boring, Qoodell Co.* ' Manuf. and Builder,''' viii. 57. Robinson, Br * 'Engineer,'' xlv. 276.' And tenoning, Carter, Br. * ' Engineer ? :? xlii. 258. Car, Ransome, Br. . . * 'Engineering," xxvi. 174. Green * 'Scientific American,'" xxxix.311. Smith * ' Scientific American," xxxv. 114. Mo-sa'ic Gold. 1 . A yellow metal for cheap jewelry. A factitious gold. See recipes, MOSAIC GOLD, p. 1484, "Mech. Diet.," and ALLOYS, JEW- ELEHS, p. 63, Ibid. 2. A sulphuret of tin used in bronzing frames and as a gold color for printer's work. Two reci- pes for the dry process are : Tinfoil 40 Sulphur 35 Sal ammoniac 25 Zinc putty 80 Sulphur 60 Sal ammoniac 30 Fig. 1773. In the wet process a solution of chloride of tin is treated with sulphurated hydrogen gas. Moth'er. The hen-mother at Baker's Cresshill poultry farm is of hollow zinc, filled with hot water and lined on the under side with blanketing. Mo'tion In'di-ca'tor. An apparatus to indi- cate upon a dial the rate of revo- tion per min- ute, for example of the ma- chine to which it is attached. It does away with the element of time in observa- tion, in this re- spect differing from the mere counter. The finger on the Motion Indicator. dial stands at the figure representing the beats per the unit of time for which it is calculated and constructed. Fig. 1773 shows the Bowsher motion indicator. See's motion timer, a modification of the metronome, * "Scientific American Supplement," 181. Mo'to-graph'ic Re-ceiv'er. An invention of Edison, by which the volume of sound is increased in a telephonic receiver. Called also ELECTRO-MOTCGRAPII, which see. The vibrations of a mica diaphragm are communicated to a metallic rod, one end of which rests on a revolving cylin- der with a chemically prepared surface. The contact of the cylinder and rod gives rise to friction which draws upon the diaphragm, but when an electric current passes, the friction is lessened and the diaphragm moves towards its normal po- sition. The current is governed by the sound waves and the mo- tion of the receiving diaphragm also, and thus the sound waves are reproduced by the receiving instrument in aug- mented force. See ELECTRO-CHEMICAL TELEPHONE, Figs. 947-950, pp. 305, 306, sitpra. See * "Engineer," Nov. 23, 1877. *" Engineer," xlvii. 213. * "English Mechanic " xxv. 276. Mo'to-phoiie. A name given by its inventor, T. A. Edison, to a small machine driven by the voice. The phonographic vibrations of a dia- phragm are caused to rotate an axle by means of a stylus and ratchet wheel. Mo'tor. A prime mover. An engine. See under various heads: AIR; STEAM; ELECTRO; HOT-AIR, etc., etc. See: Small " Simplex." Dat>ey,'B-c * "Engineering," xxx. 2ol. Hydr. steam, etc.,Knecht. * "Scientific American,'' xli. 278. Transmitting, paper on. Robinson, Engl. . . "Scientific American Sup.," mm. Mo'tor Frint'er. A small electro-motor run- ning a press for copying messages. ^An electro- motor printer. "Scientific American Sup.," 367. Moul'le-ton. (Fabric.) A fine wool French dress goods, with a satin weave. Moun'tain Gun. (Ordnance.) A light can- non capable of being transported on mule back. For this purpose it is detached from its carriage and the weight distributed among several animals. The Ashantee gun is shown in Fig. 3242, p. 1485, "Mech. Diet.' 1 The new Woolwich mountain guns, made from the designs of Sir William Armstrong, instead of weighing merely 200 Ibs., like the mountain gun used in Abyssinia and Zululand, will weigh 400 Ibs. each. As, however, an essential condi- tion of mountain artillery is that every part of it shall be carried on the backs of mules, these guns are made in two pieces, screwed together, and strengthened at the joint by a MOUNTAIN GUN. 619 MOUTH PIECE. third piece in the .shape of a ring or collar. The breech end of the gun when disjointed weighs 2001bs.,and the barrel with collar amounts to about the same weight, which is re- garded as a fair burden fora mule over hilly country. These guns, like their sma lie r namesakes, are of the small caliber adopted for 7-pounder projectiles, but their greater length and weight enable them to do much more effective work. * "Scientific American Hup.'' 2521. Moun'ted Pow'er. A horse power adapted to be used without dismounting. See HORSE POWER. Mount'ing In'stru-ment. (Optics.) An in- strument for pressing down glass covers on micro- scope slides. Fig. 1774. Mounting Instrument. Mount'ing Stand. (Optics.) A small table sliding up and down on a brass rod or stand, or in- dependently on its own legs, and supplied with a chamber below for holding sand for equalizing the temperature when the lamp accompanying it is ap- plied beneath. The stand shown in Fig. 1775 has folding legs, so as to go in a microscopist's travel- ing case. Fig. 1775. Mounting Stand. Mouse Mill. A small electro-magnetic en- gine and electro static induction machine used in the siphon recorder. Sir William Thomson, "Jour- nal Soc. Teleg. Engineers," * v. 185. It is propelled by a battery and its purpose is two-fold : (1) to generate statical electricity by means of induction wherewith to highly electrify the ink so that it may flow through the delicate capillary siphon pen. To generate the necessary electricity the drum is caused to rotate by electro- magnets, and this rotation is taken advantage of to (2) draw the paper past the point of the siphon. Fig. 1776. Mous'ing Hook. A hook having a member which normally closes the opening. In the Raines mousing hook a draft upon the hook brings the mousing-arm in apposition with the point of the hook. The parts Ji D slide on each other, being respectively at- tached to A and c. The cut shows the device closed and open. Mousse-line'. ( Fabric. ) A fine wool French goods, taffeta woven. Moulleton is woven with a satin arinure. For muslin see "Report of East Indian Section,' 1 ' Paris Exposition, ' : p. 84. Mousse-line' de Be'ge. (Fabric.) A French dress goods. Mousse-line' Glass. (Glass.) A very thin blown-ware with ornamentation resembling the pat- terns of lace or printed goods. The process is as follows : After carefully cleaning the surface of a plate of glass, an even layer of vitrifiable color is laid over it, with the aid of gum water. The glass is then submitted to a gentle heat until the water has evaporated, when a stencil of the de- sired pattern is laid over the surface, and with a stiff brush the pigment is removed from the parts which are to be trans- parent. The glass is next inclosed in a frame, and above it is extended a piece of tulle, or, if desired, embroidered lace, the embroidery in the latter case being so disposed as to har- monize with the ground pattern previously made. The whole is then hermetically closed in a box which contains in its lower portion a reservoir holding a certain quantity of dry color in the form of an impalpable powder. This is blown evenly upon the glass by an air-blast, adhering to it wherever the surface is not protected by the threads of lace. In this way the pattern of the latter is defined. In order to fix the powder the sheets of glass are exposed to steam, which moistens the gum and causes the powder to adhere. The color is then burnt in a special furnace. M. Aubriot. Mousseline glass was exhibited in Paris in 1878, in great beauty and variety by the " Cristallerie de Clichy," and by Bandoux, of Lodelinsart. Lockert, on ... ..." Technologists," xl. 61. Mous-tache' Pro-tect'or. 1. (Dentistry.) A shield to keep the moustache out of the way of the operator during operations on the teeth. 2. A shield on a drinking cup, to keep the mous- tache from dipping in the liquid. Mouth Gag. (Surgical.) For holding the mouth open during operations. Speculum oris. Fig. 1777. Sflf-lockini* Hook. Dr. Weir's Mouth Gag. Dr. Weir's gag has two leaves with a spring catch. It is operated by two detachable handles. The . jy-g illustration shows all parts and positions. See GAG, and references passim. Mouth'ing Machine. (Sheet- metal Working.) A machine for crimping bottoms and swaging or mouthing the tops of open-top cans, to receive the covers. Mouth Mir'ror. (Dentistry.) A small mirror to introduce into the mouth, to enable the observa- tion of parts which have a rear presentation. Mouth Piece. The lip of a wind instrument. That shown in Fig. 1778 is so constructed as to enable the performer to enlarge or contract the opening in the throat, Conn's Mouth-piece. MOUTH PIECE. 620 MOWER. or bottom of cup, at will, while playing, thus facil- itating the reaching of the higher notes, and re- quiring less pressure of the lips to produce them. It has two metallic pieces with an interposed elastic ring. Mov'a-ble-back Saw. A saw, the stiffening back of which can be removed so as to convert it from a tenon saw to an ordinary hand saw. 1779. Hand Saw, witli Movable Back. Mov'a-ble Dam. A barrage. The Davis Island Dam, on the Ohio, near Pittsburg, is the first attempt to introduce the movable dam system into this country. The system is known as the Clianoine, and is in use on the rivers of France, especially the Seine and Loire. It consists of a dam formed from wickets, and so arranged that when the water is high the wickets are lowered, and boats can pass over the dam freely. When the water is low the wickets are raised, a pool is formed, and the boats pass through the locks. See BARRAGE, supra. The entire length of the dam is 1200', and two stone piers divide this into three sections of 400' each. That section nearest the lock is called the Pass, and this, besides the other two sections, is to be closed by the movable wickets whenever the stage of water in the river is less than 6'. Each wicket is a little dam by itself, hinged so as to lift up and oppose the water, or lie down and permit the river to flow over it. Each wicket is 13' long and 3' 8" wide, made of oak. They are to stand on end, side by side, across the river, with a space between each of 4". One by one they are raised, and when raised, they are retained in rigid posi- tion by the pressure of water above and A wrought iron prop below, until a tripping bar is brought into play and the en- tire dam falls down flat on the sill. The lock has a clear length of 600' between the gates, and a clear width of 110', and can hold 12' depth of water. The gates that shut off the water at either end of this lock are each in one solid piece, 118' long, 10]' wide, 14' high, and weigh 80 tons. The openings in the lower part of the gate re- cesses, and for filling and emptying the lock, are 4J' in di- ameter. The filling culvert, a lofty, arched water-way, takes the water from these openings and conducts it to the lock, which is filled through 10 inlets, each & X 3J 7 , and 17' below the coping. The lock has required over 11,000 cubic yards of cut stone and rubble, and 10,000 barrels of hydraulic ce- ment. The gates of the lock slide back into the gate recesses in the shore wall, and when in position across the lock, rest on a shoulder built in the river wall. They are operated by turbine water wheels. It is estimated that the gates can be closed or opened, and the lock filled or emptied m four min- Description of the new system of wickets adopted fpr the La Mulatiere dam on the Sa6ne, at Lyons, by A. Pasqueau, Engineer des Ponts et Chausse'es. Translation in "Report of Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army," 1880, * ii., pp. 1753-1762. See also the same for 1879, * ii., p. 1338. The movable dam at Poses, France, on the system of M. Garner^, is shown in the last-mentioned report, * p. 1342. See BARRAGE, p. 76, supra, and Plate IV., opposite said a ft Port-a-VAnglais, on the Seine. "Report of Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army," 1 1876, Appendix R, * p. 14 et seq.: in connection with the works on the Davis Island dam on the Ohio. French ... " Van Nostrand's Magazine," xxii., 11. Poiree system * " Van Nostrand's Magazine,'' xviii., 339. Chanoine . . Ibid, xviii., 459-481. Fig. 1780. Mov'a-ble Point Plow. One which has a long bar the forward end of which forms the plow- poiut, and can be thrust forward as it becomes worn. Made by Guilleux, Segre, France. Mow'er. The subject of mower has been con- sidered and the history detailed on pp. 1487-1493, " Mi-ch. Diet." Plate XXX. has diagrammatic views of 40 principles of cutting; and Plates XXXI.- XXXIII., have 36 illustrations. The classification of mowers is given on p. 1488, Ibid. The McCormick iron mower is shown, in company with the McCormick single-wheel reaper, in Plate XXX. opposite. The mower is a front cut, jointed bar, iron frame machine, with inclosed gearing. The smaller size, 4' cut, weighing 580 pounds. The frame is of cast and wrought iron, and the gearing inriii-c'il iii a cast-iron case. The draft is directly upon the cutting apparatus through a draft-rod connecting the douliie- tree strap to the finger-bar brace. The cutter-bar has a rolling motion given to it by a roller on the end of the long connecting pin, which works up and down in the front end of the inside shoe ; by this device the liar conforms itself to the uneven ness of the ground, and always cuts a close stub- ble By means of the tilting lever, the points of the guards can be thrown up or down ; and with the lifting lever the bar may lie raised bodily from the ground, in order to pass over rocks or other obstructions ; thus, through these two levers, the cutting apparatus is entirely under the control of the driver, and may be instantly changed, as occasion may de- mand, to suit the necessities of grass or ground. The pitman box is light, strong, and durable : has no bolts, and yet can be quickly taken oft' and put on ; the wrist pin has a screwed cover ; the crank shaft box is bored large, so that a babbitt metal bushing is inserted, in which the shaft works ; when worn, the bushing can be easily removed and replaced by a new one. The Whiteley machine, " New Champion," is shown in Figs. 1781-1783. It is a front-cut ma- chine, in respect of the cutter-bar being in ad- vance of the gearing and carriage portion. The peculiarity of the machine is in the gearing. There are practically but two pieces between the axle and the knife, one being a small bevel cog wheel secured to the axle, and the other a similar wheel made to gear into the former. This second wheel, or disk, does not rotate, how- ever, but being hung on what is called a gimbal joint, like a ship's compass, it begins, on starting the machine, a suc- cession of rapid serpentine vibrations around the face of the other wheel, much as a dinner plate or coin will act when rung down upon a table ; and an arm extended from this vibrating disk down to the knife, gives it the required rapid, reciprocating motion. There is only one rotating bearing besides the axle on the machine, and that is not a part of the movement proper, but belongs to a small fly-wheel, which only assists in giving the required regularity and Fig. 1781. Movable Point Plow. "New Champion'' Mower. (Gearing.) steadiness of motion. There are always 11 teeth in contact, and thus the wear is distributed over a large surface. The finger-bar is operated and controlled by two levers, one for foot and the other for hand, and by the use of t, levers either end of the finger-bar may be thrown up at any angle or to a vertical position without throwing the machine out of gear or stopping the knife. The finger-bar may also be folded and secured for transportation by the driver with- out leaving his seat, and by the use of the tilting lever th height of cut may be changed and controlled instantly. By the use of this lever the cut may be lowered and the points MOWER. 621 MUFFLE. Fig. 1782. of the guards turned dewn for picking up badly lodged grass, or the cut may be raised and the points of the guards turned uji so us to ciit high or readily pass over obstructions ; or when desired, the tilting lever may be so arranged as to allow the finger-liar and guards to oscillate and perfectly follow the uneven surface of the ground. The gearing is inclosed within itself. The draft of the team is not upon the pole, but through a draft-rod directly connected to the Fig. 17 A r . i" Champion '' Mower. {Plan.) cutting apparatus in such a way that a portion of the weight of the finger-bar is carried or suspended by the draft of the team. Wilbur's ' Kureka" mower is a direct draft front-cut, which rut,-, the irrass behind the horses and in front of the running jreai-s of the machine. One horse walks in the grass and the other upon the stubble, the double-tree being long, in order to throw one horse outside the swath, which is 6' wide. The machine, being center-cut, is, of course, reversi- ble, and may cut back and back, throwing the off and the near horse alternately upon the stubble. Fig. 1784. Eureka. The peculiarity of the mowing machine motion of Goodwin \e the method of converting the rotary motion of the driving wheels into the reciprocating movement of the knife without the intervention of spur gearing and without crank. On the axle are two circular plates. These are fast to the axle, and have on their inner faces a series of inclined faces which may be termed star-cams. Between these two wheels is another star-cam which has faces on each side' facing those of the respective cams between which it is sandwiched. When the machine is in motion the wheels rotate and give a reciprocating motion to the cam in a direction parallel with its axis, as, notch by notch, it slips past the cams which impel it from either side, all the faces bearing equally around its circumference. The cam is prevented from rotating by a cross-head. This cross-head is pivoted. At its butt-end it is fulcrumed on the main frame of the machine cross-head, which is a lever of the third order : fulcrumed on the frame of the machine, the power exerted by the cam and the outer end of the lever attached to the reaper knife. Dr. Knight's report on Class 76 at the Paris Exposition of 1878 gives views and descriptions of the following. See ri> reversed by a two-way cock for each pair of cylin- ders, placed behind the ports, and which, by mov- ing a certain distance, re- Three Cylinder Engine. verses the steam current from the top of one pair of cylin- ders to the top of the other pair, or )>y sliding an inclined key fixed on a sleeve along the shaft within the eccentric. Payton $ Holmes, Br. * "Engineer," xlvii. 385. Bacon * "Scientific Am. Sup.,' 1 ' 349. Mul'ti-flue Boiler. The horizontal multiflue boiler has its principal exemplars in the boilers of locomotives and portable enoincs. See Fig. 2927, p. 1346, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 5638, p. 2329, Ibid. See also A B C, Fig. 5628, Plate LXI., "Mech. Diet." Observe the distinction between flue and tube. The vertical multiflue boiler has flues or flame pipes trav- ersing vertically the boiler space above the fire, being secured in thoir respective ends in the crown sheet or lower flue plate and the upper flue plate. Tire Lowe if Watson multiflue boiler is shown by part ele- vation and part section in Fig. 1790. The furnace is beneath the front ends and the products of combustion pass from them by side openings into a combustion chamber which occupies a portion of the end of the boiler, then rearward by flues similar to those of a locomotive, and then beneath the boiler, and so to the stack. SS. " Jason," Cochrane, Br. * " Engineer," xlix. 279. Piedtxeuf, Ger * "Engineer,'- ' '& Mul'ti-fur'row Plow. (Agric.) One having several bodies for plowing two or more furrows at once. See GANG PLOW. Mul'ti-ple Drilling Ma-chine'. A machine tool with a multiplicity of drills adjustable as to dis- tance apart and adapted for drilling holes at a reg- ulated distance apart on a number of bars which require exact conformity in all respects, as in bridge, trestle, and car work. The London "Engineer " shows a machine especially adapted for drilling plates in position, on straight or hog- backed girders. The drills may be adjusted at any distance apart, and to suit varying pitches of holes, and while they may be brought together within 3|", the driving wheels, by passing each other upon different levels, may be nearly 6" iu diameter. The feed is automatic or independent at will. See: Buckton .... * "Engineer," xli. 116. Fetu $ Delicge, Fr. . . * "Engineering,''' xxviii. 195. Boring mach., Richards * "Engineering," xxvii. 506. Mul'ti-ple Tel'e-phone. A form of tele- phone by M. Trouve', intended to increase the ca- pacity of the Bell and render it available for long distances. It has beeii adapted to M. Trouve''s mil- itary telegraph. Fig. 1791 Multiflue Boiler. Multiple Drilling Machine. " Instead of the single vibrating diaphragm used by Prof Bell, M. Trouv6 substitutes a cubical chamber, each face of which (with one exception) is a vibrating membrane. Each of these membranes, being thrown into vibration by the same sound, influences a fixed magnet and electric circuit, the same as in the Bell arrangement. By associating all these currents, a combined current of single intensity pro- portional to the number of magnets influenced is produced. Instead of the cube, a polyhedron having an indefinite num- ber of vibrating membranes may be used, and thus intensity augmented as desired. " Suppose now a line established on which is disposed a telephone constructed as above described, the membranes and magnets of which are divided into two series, and the circuits so arranged that, by pronouncing a word, currents are produced on the same wire in opposite directions. When a dispatch is received to be transmitted further on, the oper- ator talks in the telephone in the usual way ; and his speech, by the arrangement of circuits above noted, is heard both at the station to which he is forwarding the message and also at the one from which the message was sent, so that the possi- bility of error is thus rendered nil. M. Trouv6 has adapted this apparatus to his military telegraph." Mul'ti-ple Wheel Tool Grind'er. A grind- ing machine furnished with a variety of wheels, of differing qualities, fineness, size, shape, or what not, to suit varying requirements. MULTIPLE WHEEL TOOL GRINDER. 624 MUSIC. Fig 1792 is a tool grinder made with six emery wheels, by Thomson, Sterne & Co., of Glasgow, Scotland. The wheels have different shapes and width of face, four being for gouges of varying -!/< and tor molding irons : one jtiare face for straight edged irons (plane irons) ; one is a flue emery hone to replace the " water-of-Ayr " stone. Fig. 1792. Fig. 1793. Multiple Wheel Tool Grinder. It is especially designed for the use of joiners, pattern- makers, and other workers in wood. The water drip is from branches of a vertical pipe which rises behind the machine, the water being lifted by a small rotary pump driven by cord from the emery wheel shaft. Mul'ti-pli-ca'tor. In galvanometers: a flat coil of conducting Avire, for multiplying the effect of the current upon the needle. That the needle tended to place itself at right angles to a galvanic current was the discovery of Oersted ; that the effect was multiplied by increas- ing the number of convolutions of the conducting wire, was the discovery of Scliwdggtr. Mul'ti-ply-ing Cam'e-ra Box. (Photography.) A chamber with nu- merous lenses all focalized by the same adjustment. For instance the nine-tube multiply- ing camera box will take 72, 36, or 18 gems on a 7" by 10" plate. 9 on a 5" by 7" plate, and so on . Mul'ti-tu'bu-lar Boil'er. One having a num- ber of water tubes traversing the flame space- A term unfortunately applied to those boilers having a number of small flues traversed by the name and surrounded by water. For these, see MULTIFLUE BOILER. The boiler is usually vertical ; the water circulates through the tubes between the space above the crown sheet and that below the steam dome while the flames are beneath the crown and around the tubes and pass thence to the exit flue. See also from Figs. 5629, to 5631, and Figs. 5634, 5635, Plate LXI., opposite p. 2326, "Mec/i. Diet." Also see SECTIONAL BOILER. Ormerod, Grierson $ Co., Br. . * "Engineer," xlii. 379. Mun'cke Bat'te-ry, (Electricity.) One in which the elements are of horse-shoe shape, one arm copper and the other zinc, soldered together at the bow. These are laid mutually interlocking on a frame which is lowered into the trough of acidu- lated solution. Niaudet, * Am. trans., p. 18. Multiplying Camera Box. Mur'rhine. The agate cups of the ancient Cambay and Broach in India. Glass, and glass vases, in imitation of murrhine vases, are cited by Arrian in his Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, as exported by the Egyptian traders to southern Af- rican Red Sea ports. Mur'rhine Glass. (Glass.) An imitation in glass of the celebrated ancient drinking cups, made probably of onyx or agate. The reference by Pliny, "Album et murrhina aut hyacin- thiis sapphirosque imitntuiii et omnibus aliis coloribus," is be- lieved to describe the various kinds of glass so highly valued in his time. At the Paris Exposition of 1878 were specimens of Roman murrhine glass, thus described : 1 There were silver goblets, or cups, with elliptical perfo- rations half an inch long at the sides, through which an in- ner lining of sapphire or ruby glass protrudes like gems. The whole surface seems set with rouud cut and polished sapphires or rubies. The glass lining of the silver is perfect throughout, but bulges and protrudes through the openings. It is evident that the silver goblet is first made and polished, with the openings left in the sides, and then, being warmed, is lined with glass by blowing a bulb inside of it, the lining protruding through the spaces. These linings were, of course, very tight and close fitting, and could not be removed without breaking or melting the silver. These cups are copied from an original in the British Museum. Sapphires, emeralds, amethysts, and rubies were thus imitated. " A cup in imitation of onyx a copy of one in the treas- ury of St. Mark : s was mounted in silver gilt by Signor Oastellani ; another, also copied from one in St. Mark's treas- ury, and mounted in silver by Castellani, has the colors of topaz and emerald. A paterce in murrhine colors, white, blue, and yellow, is a facsimile of the original in the Na- tional Museum at Naples." Prof. Blake. Mus'cle, Ar'ti-fi'cial. (Surgical.) An elas- tic caoutchouc band connecting two parts of an ap- paratus to draw them together, as in the case of club-foot apparatus, where a continuous strain is applied to correct deformity. Mush'et Steel. (Metallurgy.) Steel made by fusing malleable iron with charcoal, graphite, or other carboueous matters in crucibles. Mush 'room. (Electricity.) An excrescence formed on the end of an electric-light carbon elec- trode. Such form from time to time, and becom- ing detached fall to the floor, or are caught in the glass globe. Also called tack-heads. Mush'room Strain'- er. An inverted dish strainer for cistern pumps, so named from its resemblance t o a mushroom. It will draw water from a level within 3" of the bot- tom without disturbing the sediment. It screws on to the bottom of the pipe and is intended to rest 011 the floor of the cistern. Miii/iroom Strainer. Mu'sic. See under the following : Agraffe. Angelophone. Autophone. Bell. Call bell. Carillon. Chimes. Citole. Clapper stay. Clock-chime. Cornet. Diapason clock. Gong. Harmonic engine. Harmonicon. Harmonium. Harp. Horn. Marimba. Melodiograph. Musical condenser. Octave coupler. Organ. Organ blower Organ pipe. Parlor organ. Pedal. Pianoforte. Piano mover. Pitch. Reed. Resonator. Sounding board. Tremolo. Transposer. Tuning fork Violin. Xylophone. MUSIC. 625 NAIL. See : block for printing. Eckhartji * "Scientific American," xxxv. 274. Octavo coupler . . . * Labmildye's "Diet.," iii.,ed. 1877, "Orgues," Fig. 8770. Opera House, Paris . . * "Scientific American Sup., ; ' 1501. Paper punched for organ. Needham * " Scientific American," xxxix. 134. Printing plates . . . "Scientific American Sup., : > 1418. Tone, Photography of. Stein " Scientific American ^up.,-'%8. Condenser (telephone). Varley "Scientific American," 1 xl. 6. Musical tone telegraph. Gray *" Scientific American Sup.," 92. La Cour * "Scientific American Sup.," 145. Mu'si-cal Con-den'ser. A sort of telephone, invented by Varley, for the conveyance of musical sounds. It consists of receiving and transmitting ap- paratus. See description in "L' Electricity" repro- duced in * "Scientific American," xl. 6. Mu'sic Print'ing. Alisoff's (St. Petersburg) method of preparing cliches for music is as fol- lows : The staffs, notes, and all signs are printed on fine paper, and kept in cases, like type. A glass ruled with vertical and horizontal guide lines on the reverse side, is used on which ,ip the music. The gum on the face of the glass ren- ders the paper transparent, so that the guide lines can be seen. When a pairo is sot up it is removed, and is repro- duced by photographic relief process. The cliche is made much larger than the negative required, to give facility in setting and sink small inequalities by reduction. Mus'lirr Glass. (Glass.) French, mousseline. Glass blown very thin. See MOUSSEJLINE. Muz'zle-piv'ot-ing Gun. A cannon which admits of firing through a very small embrasure, as the piece traverses upon a pivotal point at the muzzle. Instance, Austrian piece, p. 537, and Fig. Ordnance Report," 1877. 3, Appendix L, Krupp * "Engineer," xlviii. 122. Eads * Fig. 3411, p. 1566, "Mecti. Diet.'' Muz'zle Sight. (Rifle, etc.) A front sight near the muzzle of the piece. It may be globe, open, etc. See list under SIGHT. My'dri-a'sis Spec'ta-cles. Mydriasis is an exaggerated and f . 1795 chronic dilation of the pupil. Spectacles for its relief are black- e n e d disks, pierced with small holes, which con- tract the area of Mydriasis Spectacles. light admitted. An affection just the opposite the pupil being contracted to an exaggerated de- gree is called myosis. My'o-graph. An instrument for recording mus- cular movement. M. Helmhol* appears to have contrived the first instru- ment of this character. One end of a muscle of a frog he fixed to an immovable point, and the tendon of the other end to a lever whose movements, excited by electricity, were traced on a turning cylinder. See Fig. 1, p. 51, "Scientific American," xxxvi. 51. M. Marey, in his myograph, has replaced the weight which was placed on the muscle by a spring. The registering ap- paratus is substantially similar to that shown in M. Marey's cardiograph, which see. For other physical recording apparatus, see PNEUMOGRAPH ; SPHYGMOGRAPH ; PLETHTSMOGRAPH. * "Manufacturer and Builder " . xi. 205. Laboulaye's "Diet, des Arts," etc. iv., cap. " Graphiques. 1 ' Nach'et's Prism. (Microscopy.) A means for throwing and revolving an oblique pencil of couvt'rgiuir rnys upon an object under examination by the microscope, a Fig. 3963, p. 1803, " Mech. Diet." Nee'vus Nee'dle. (Surgical.) A cauterizing dermal needle for obliterating a naevus or birth- mark. Heated by blow-pipe. Nail. See, for historv, and for list of varieties, pp. 1505, 1506, "Mech. Diet." The Paris pointes, nails made from round wire, are now made channeled or polygonal by drawing or rolling. Chelot. The economy is 12 per cent, in material, and the efficiency is mrivMsed 20 to 35 per cent, according to the wood into which they are driven. INDEX TO FIGS. 1796, 1797. \Vrnitykt and Cut, Copper, Zinc, and Cast Metal Nails and Rivets used in Dockyards. 1. Rose-head copper boat nails (dumps or clench). 2. Rose-head copper flat points. 3. Deck-head copper flat points or spikes. 4. Cut copper clasp nails. 6. Cut copper brads. 6. Cut copper rose-head boat nails. 7. Cut copper flat-head boat nails. 8. Wrought copper lightning-conductor nails. 9. Wrought copper stem nails. |V > Copper rose-burrs or round roves. 12. Copper square roves. 13. Wrought copper clench nails, countersunk flat-heads, round points. 14- Wrought copper clinker nails and washers. 16. Cast composition butt bolts. 16. Cast composition dowels. 17. Cast composition stem nails. 18. Cast composition spikes or flat points. 19. Cast composition dumps or boat nails. 20. Cast composition sheathing nails. 40 21. Cast composition slating nails. 22. Wrought copper hose and strap rivets. 23. Tinned copper hose and strap rivets. Fig. 1796. Ship Nails. NAIL. 626 NAIL SELECTOR. Fig. 1797. Ship Nails. 24. Cut copper slating nails. 25. Cut copper or brass tacks. 26. Cut brass brads. 27. Cut zinc slating nails. 28. Wrought copper tacks. The following varieties bear names indicative of material, application, shape, size, character of head, etc. Band nail. Copper-plated nail. Barbed nail. Copper tack. Barrel nail. Countersunk-head nail. Basket nail. Cut nail. Bessemer-steel nail. Cut tack. Black nail. Deck -head nail. Blued nail. Diainond-head nail. Blunt nail. Double-pointed tack. Boat nail. Drive nob. Brad. Dump. Brass nail. Escutcheon pin. Brush nail. Felting nail. Brush tack. Fencing nail. Card tack. Fine nail. Carpet nail. Finishing nail. Carpet tack. Flat-head nail. Casing nail. Flat-head tack. Chair nail. Flat nail. Channeled nail. Galvanized nail. Channel nail. Gimp nail. Charcoal iron nail. Gimp tack. Cheese-box nail. Glaziers point. Chisel-point nail Hame nail. Cigar-box nail. Heel nail. Clasp nail. Hob-nail. Clinch nail. Hook-head brad. Clinker nail. Hungarian nail. Clout nail. Japanned nail. Coated nail. Lace tack. Coffin nail. Last nail. Coffin-lining nail. Leathered tack. Collar shoe nail. Lightning conductor nail. Concave-head nail- Lining nail. Conical nail. Lining tack. Cooper's tack. Looking-glass tack. Copper nail. Machine finishing nail. Miner's tack. Nugget-head nail. Oval -head nail. Pail tack. Picture-frame nail. Plated nail. Riveting knob. Roofing nail. Rose-head nail. Saddle nail. Serrated head nail. Shank tack. Sheathing nail. Ship nail. Shot-head nail. Shoe nail. Shoe tack. Silver nail. Slating nail. Smooth nail. Spike. Steel nail. See also ; English hist, and meth. Nail driver Nail driver (under water) * Stem nail. Swedes-iron nail. Tack. Tinned nail. Tinned tack. Tobacco nail. Trimming nail. Trunk nail. Tufting button. Tufting nail. Twopenny to Twenty- penny. Upholsterer's nail. Upholsterer's tack. White-metal nail. Window-glass point. Wire-nail. Wrought nail. Zinc nail. Zinc-shank nail. Zinc shoe nail. Scientific American" xxxvii. 73. Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 280. 'Min. If Sc. Press,'' xxxvii. 209. 'Scientific American,'' xxxv. 258. ' Iron Age,'' xxii., Dec. 5, p. 7. 'Iron Age," xix., March 29, p. 9. ' Scitntific Amer." xxxvii. 210. 'Engineering," 1 xxiii. 480. "Iron Age," xix., June 7, p. 3. ' Iron Age,'' xxii., Nov. 7, p. 1. Extractor, Tinker Machine, self-feeding. Grant . . . \ . . Haddock * Forging machine, Tay- lor if C/iallen, Engl. . * Taylor $ Cfiallen, Br. * Picker Selector * Works, Birmingham, England "Scientific American Sup.,'' 89. Nail Gun. A device for nailing down flooring boards. The nail is placed on the end of a tube and a rod slipped down within drives the nail home. Nail In'stru-ment. (Surgical.) The list in- cludes : Nail nippers. Spring for inverted nails. Splinter forceps. Nail extracting forceps. Sequestrum forceps. Scalpel. Nail cleaner and file. It embraces the instruments of the chiropodist and the manicurist. Nail Pol'ish-ing Ma-chine'. A tumbling box. A hexagonal chamber 19" in diameter and 30" long, with heads. In it the nails are placed and tumbled about against each other, points on the inside of the chamber displacing them and prevent- ing their aggregating in masses. Fig. 1798. Nail Selector. Nail Se-lec'tor. A machine, or an attach- NAIL SELECTOR. 627 NARROW GAGE LOCOMOTIVE. merit to a nail machine, to pick out perfect nails from headless and ill-formed nails, slivers, and first cats. It consists of two pairs of parallel plates set at angles to each other and inclined to the floor, forming a sort of trough with a slot running the entire length of the plates. At the top and immediately under the bed plate of the nail machin- ery is a pan or receiver to catch the nails as they drop from the machine. The bucket is attached to the rear of the bed plate, while the upright rod is in the path of, and receives a stroke from, the griping lever. Thus every movement vi- brates the selector and feeds the nails into these troughs, the plates of which are so set as to allow the points to drop into the slots, but not to permit the heads to pass through ; that is, the nails are held by their heads as they are conducted down the slots in Indian file. The dirt and headless nails and slivers fall through the slot under the machine, into a receiver, while the perfei-t nails, held by their heads, slip to the lower end of the trough where the slot expands to a large oval, allowing the perfect nails to fall into the pan for re- moval. The same plan is used in machines for feeding wood-screw- blanks. Nap Me'ter. An instrument invented by Prof. Kittary and used for testing the wearing quality of cloth, by the Russian war office. The instrument consists of a double-flanged wheel, faced with leather between the flanges, and having two rasps hung and weighted so as to bear upon that face ; also an ordinary set of counting-wheels and dial-plates, to show the number Fig. 1799 Russian Nap Meter. of revolutions of the flanged wheel. The cloth to be tested is wound in a narrow strip around the leathern face and se- cured, a light brush is provided to remove the dust, the rasps brought to bear upon the cloth, and the number of turns of the crank required to wear the cloth threadbare and smooth gives a comparative test of its durability and wearing qual- ities. Nap'per. A machine for cleaning, napping, and surfa- cing hosiery goods. It consists primarily of a roller on which the goods are flatly stretched, and a brush, consisting of card cloth- ing, applied to the cloth. The ma- chine takes in any width of cloth, from 24" down, brushes the cloth in a flattened web, works on both sides at once, cleans off the specks, burrs, seeds, etc., raises a nap, restores the pliancy and softness of which the washing has deprived the goods and leaves the web in a smooth roll ready for the cutter. The goods are smoothly stretched both in length and width over a roller having a firm and true surface. The brush cards are attached to a wooden roller, the bearings of which are adjustable parallel with the cloth roller. A lever on the left allows the pressure to be relaxed when a seam occurs. Fig. 1800. Napper and Brusher. A stoue- Nap'ping Ham'mer (or Knapping). breaker's hammer, Fig jgQi as for macadamiz- ing, for instance. Naph'tha. A grade of petroleum obtained by distil- lation, and having a gravity from 65 to 62 Beaume. Napping Hammer. It may be consid- ered the third in the series of products as practically util- ized. Gasoline, gravity 90 to 80 B. Benzine, gravity 74 to 68 B. Naphtha, gravity 65 to 62 B. Kerosene, gravity 59 to 38 B. See also KEROSENE ; PETROLEUM. Nar'row Gage Lo'co-mo'tive. Fig. 1802 shows a narrow-gage freight locomotive. These engines are equalized between rear and center dri- vers ; they also have a cross equalizer at front drivers. The center drivers are without flanges. They are easy on the track, and curve well up to a speed of 15 to 20 miles per hour. Having all their weight on drivers, and a short wheel base, they are specially adapted to hauling heavy loads on steep grades and short curves. They are made of varying sizes and powers. Fig. 1802 Narrow Gage Freight Locomotive. NARRROW GAGE LOCOMOTIVE. 628 NARROW GAGE LOCOMOTIVE. Fig. 1803. Locomotive for 20" Gage Rai/rortcf. Arizti< Cylinders, diameter 10" to 12" Stroke 16" to 16" Drivers, diameter 33" to 36" Wheel base 28' to 29' Weight working 28,000 to 36,000 Ibs. A locomotive for 20" gage, built by Porter for the Long- fellow Mining Company of Arizona, is shown in Fig. 1803. The following is a description : Gage of track 20" Cylinders, diameter 6" Stroke 10" Wheel-base 45" Diameter of boiler at smoke-box end .... 23" Number of flues 29 Diameter 1J" Length 72" 1'ire-box, inside measurements, length . . . 28" Width 19" Depth 27|" Driving wheels, diameter 22" Fig. 1804. 'Engi; also structii Ba British. 18" Gage Locomotive. Water supplied by one full-stroke pump and one number two injector. Tank capacity, 200 gallons. Fuel, wood; fuel room for about one fourth of a cord of en- gine wood. Weight in working order, about 9,000 pounds. Extreme width over all, OS" at back bum- per, 46" at cylinders. Extreme height, 100". Extreme length, 158". \Vidtli in clear be- tween frames, 13". '1'ii row of eccentrics', 2". The railroad is 5A miles lung. \\ith maxi- mum grades of 4J y>er loO and m i n im u m curves of 90' radius, with 16-lb. rails, and is used for the transpor- tation of copper ore, the loaded cars coming downgrade. The loco- motive boiler is set on a slight incline, so that the water will lie level when it is on an average grade, and the engine is intended to back up the grade The loco- motive was taken apart and boxed for ship- ment : as it had to be prepared for hauling by wagons several hundred miles from the railroad terminus. The frames, with cylinders and entire link motion, were all placed in a box about 8 X 4 X 3', and weighed about 2,000 Ibs. Fig. 1804 shows a yard engine used on an 18" railway in the Ore we Works of the London and North Western Railway, England. The boiler is cylindrical, and is traversed by a hexagonal flue strengthened by small cross-tubes, which present very efficient heating surface. From the flue three chimneys pass up through the steam dome, each chimney being provided with its own blast nozzle. The flue is fixed on the barrel by bolted joints so that it can be readily taken out for cleaning j the cross-tubes when necessary. The cylinders are 5.5" diameter, 6" stroke ; wheels 15" diameter. The effective pull estimated at 1,089, steam being 90 Ibs. A regulator handle as well as a reversing lever is pro- vided at each end of the engine so that the latter can be driven from either foot-plate. The water is carried in tanks between the frames, and the boiler is fed by a simple kind of injector. The engine is carried on four cushion springs, which are simply placed in recesses cast in the top of the axle-box guide, and bearing directly on the axle-boxes. ring. ' ' 10 other heads descriptive of special features of on or adaptation : k truck. Plantation. "ng. Pony truck. ig. Switching, ul." Tank. See : Billerica, track * "R. R. Gaz.,'' xxii. 1. Cars * "R. R. Gaz.," xxii. 50, 37. Locomotives . . * "R. R. Gaz.," xxii. 11, 19. Switches and frogs* "R. R. Gaz.,'' xxii. 65. Ribeauville, Alsace * ".<*. American,' 1 ' xlii. 228. Canada " Van Nostrand's Mag-.," xvii. 560. Locomotive, Festi- *"Sc. Amer. Sup.,'- 1535, niog, R.E., Wales. * 1619. Progress .... "Se. Am. Sup.,'' 993. Rostoken, Hungary " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xvi. 475. Hungary, etc. . . " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'- xxii. 7. Locomotive for In- dia, British . . * "Se. American Sup.,'' 835. In India .... " Van Nostr. Mag.,'' 1 xv. 68. General subject & " Van Nostr. Mag.,'' xviii. statistics, Morandiere 168. The report of M. Jules Morandiere shows that the narrow gages vary between 1.5' and 6', and NARROW GAGE LOCOMOTIVE. 629 NAUTICAL. cites 20 different gages between these limits, in 17 coun- tries. The following are the statistics of the narrow gage railways in 24 countries cited, at the date of the report (1878). Number of Miles. Name of Country. Open to Traffic. In Con- struction. 26 France 43J 20J 89J 155J Belgium 77 192i 163" - 208V 52 18J 20 Italy 7i _ Island of Sardinia 18* 22 - 64 820 1,902 328 244 Cape of Good Hope 67 457 373 United States 2040 7552 ' 371 155 Peru 171 Chili 118 Bolivia ... . . 155 Brazil 20 411 Java 34 "Mfnwirx de la Soci6t6 des Ingenieurs Civ its," 1878. " On the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad it is stated that 16 cars on the 4' 8J" gage unload and fill 20 cars on the 3' gage. Thus, say Empty Cars, Weight. Paying Load. Total Dead Weight. Total Paying Load. Total Cars and Load. 16 cars, wide gage, 8J tons. 10 tons. 136 160 296 20 cars, narrow gage, 5 tons ..... 8 100 160 260 Saving in total weight - - - 36 tons. Which is equivalent to 22 tons additional freight, or 23 per cent, more, assuming the cars loaded to the full capacity, and the comparison is more favorable when the cars are not filled. Ca.pt. Gallon's report, "British Reports on Centen- nial Exhibition.''' Na'sal Fee d'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. One of the alternatives in case of lock-jaw, mania, choking paretics, paralysis of the throat, fractured jaw, etc. The nasal operation may be by a simple funnel, a tube in the pharynx, or a tube directly into the stomach. Dr. Newington'.s feeding device with two nasal tubes, used in Bethlehem Hospital, London, is described in * "Lancet." See also * "Scientific American Supplement,' 11 2648. Na'sal In'stru-ments. the following : Nasal speculum. Nasal douche. Nasal clamp. Ep is taxis tampon. Laryngeal syringe. Posterior nares syringe. Nasal electrode. (Surgical.) Includes Polypus forceps. Polypus canula. Epistaxis canula. Rhinoscope. Rhinoscopic mirror. Nasal syringe. Nasal feeding tube. Na'sal Spec'u-lum. A bivalvular speculum for distending the alee of the nose. Nasal Speculum. In Dr. Shurly's nasal speculum one valve is a ring; the her a shell ; they See also a, b, c c, other a shell ; they are made in pairs, rights and lefts. , Fig. 5361, p. 2260, "Mech. Did." Na-trom'e-ter. An instrument for estimating the quantity of soda contained in salts of potash and soda. Pessier has invented a standard form. Nat'u-ral Steel. (Metallurgy.) 1. Steel made directly from the ore by the blomary process. 2. Steel obtained by the finery process ; the car- bon being removed from the molten cast iron by a blast of air directed upon the metal, which is cov- ered with a layer of charcoal. Nau'ti-cal. See under the following heads : Anchor. Beacon. Anchor and cable, parts of, Bees. and appliances. Anchor lift. Anchor shackle. Arm. Bill. Blade. Bower. Bull-rope. Buoy rope. Cable shackle. Capstan. Cat. Cat back. Clutch. Compressor. Controller Deck stopper. Devil's claw. Dog stopper. Fish. Fluke. Forelock. Grapnel. Kedge. Kevel. Link. Messenger. Mooring swivel. Nippers. Palm. Passing nippers. Pawl. Pee. Point. Racking turns. Ring. Shackle. Shank. Sheet anchor. Slip stopper. Spare anchor. Square. Stock. Stopper. Stream anchor. Stud. Swifter. Swivel. Throat. Warping. Whelps. Wing stopper. Anti-racer. Arm. Armor. Armor compound. Armor plate. Artificer's knot. Back board. Ball-joint hinge. Bench-hook. Bench sail-hook. Binnacle. Block (varieties ; see list un- der "TACKLE"). Bouche. Bushing. Channel. Cheeks. Coak. Gorge. Pin. Score. Sheave. Shell. Strap. Swallow. Block-hook. Boat. Back-board. Boat launching apparatus. Boat lowering apparatus. Bottom board. Canoe. Cat boat. Cat rig. Center board. Clamp. Collapsible boat. Davit. Ducking boat. Folding boat. Gunwale. Head sheet. Ice boat. Kyak. Launch. Launch engine. Lazy painter. Life boat. Life raft. Mast hinge. Nautilus. Oar. Painter-1 Poppets. Portable boat. Portable raft. Rowing gear. Rowlock. Rudder lanyard. Skiff. Slings. Sneak box. Steadying line. Step. Stern benches. Stern sheets. Stretcher. Surf boat. NAUTICAL. 630 NAUTICAL. Thwarts. Floating dock. Twist knot. Reversing gear. Well sneak. Flush-deck windlass. Wall and crown. Rigger screw. Yawl. Fog alarm. Wall knot. Rigging stopper. Boat hook. Fog bell. Weaver's knot. Ring splice. Boat knot. Fog horn. Kyak. Roband. Boat launching. Fog signal. Lacing. Rosette. Boat lowering apparatus. Fog trumpet. Lanyard. Rose lashing. Boat plug. Fog whistle. Lark's head. Round scuttle. Boatswain's toggle. Folding boat. Lashing. Round seizing. Boat yoke. Forelock. Lashing eye. Rowing gear. Boom tackle. Four-stranded splice. Lashing knot. Rowlock. Bouche. Gaff-topsail hook. Laiznch. Rudder. Bower. Galley knot. Launch engine. Rudder brace. Bowline knot. Gasket. Lazy painter. Rudder gudgeon. Bowline on a bight. Gin block. Life boat. Rudder screw. Bowline tackle. Gorge. Life buoy. Sailing car. Bowsprit shrouds. Goring cloth. Life preserver. Score. Box. Grafting. Life raft. Screw propeller. Brace-block. Breast rope. Grapnel. Grommet. Life-saving apparatus. Life-saving suit. Screw steering apparatus. Scuttle. Builder's knot. Gun-tackle purchase. Lift jigger. Self-mousing hook. Bull's-eye. Gunwale. Lizard. Seizing (varieties, see list): Buntline leader Half hitch. Lobster claw. Cross seizing. Buoy. Hammock clew. Long rolling splice. End seizing. Bushing. Hammock cloth. Long splice. Eye seizing. By-pass. Hanging block. Loop knot. Flat seizing. Cable shackle. Harbor gasket. Lubber's mark. Gasket. Calking-iron. Harness hitch. Luff tackle. Harbor gasket Canoe. Hawser. Luff tackle purchase. Fox. Cant splice. Hawser bend. Luminous buoy. Lacing. Capshore. Hawsing beetle. Main keel. Laniard. Capstan. Hawsing iron. Marine drag. Lashing. Capstan knot. Head earrings , Marine governor. Lashing eye. Carrick bend. Heaver. Marine signal. Mat. Catamaran. Hitch : Marlinspike. Nettle stuff. Cat boat. Clove hitch. Marlinspike hitch. Parceling. Cat rig. Half hitch. Mast. Puddening. Center board. Harness hitch. Mast-head. Puss. Chain pipe. Marlinspike hitch. Mast-head pendant. Quarter seizing. Chain stopper. Midshipman's hitch. Mast hinge. Racking. Chain tag. Hook : Mast lining. Roband. Channel- Bench hook. Mat. Rose-lashing. Cheek. Block hook. Match hooks. Round seizing. Chock. Gaff-topsail hook. Matthew Walker knot. Sennit. Cigar steamer. Match hook. Midshipman's hitch. Serving. Clamp. Self-mousing hook. Mooring swivel. Spanish fox. Cleat. Sister hooks. Mousing hook. Splice. Clew. Horse hammock. Nautigon. Throat seizing. Clew-thimble. Hydraulic steering gear. Nautilus. Whipping. Clove hitch. Ice boat. Nettle stuff. Worming. Clutch. Ice yacht. Nippers. Sennit. Coach whip. Illuminator. Oar. Serving. Coak. Iron clad. Outrigger hoist. Setting die. Collapsible boat. Iron strapped block. Overhand knot- Shackle. Collar. Jib hank. Painter. Shaft. Companion ladder. Jib head. Palm. Sheath. Composite. Jumper stay. Parceling. Sheave. Compound armor. Kedge. Passing nippers. Sheave-hole. Conning tower. Kedging. Pawl. Sheepshanks. Cut-splice. Knot : Paunch mat. Sheet anchor. Cutting punch. Artificer's knot. Pendant tackle. Sheet slip. Cyclad. Boat knot. Pin. Sheet traveler. Davit. Bowline knot. Pinkie. Shelf piece. Deck hook . Bowline on a bight. Point. Shell. Deck light. Builder's knot. Ponton. Ship. Deck plate. Capstan knot. Popofka. Ship ring-bolt. Deck pipe. Carrick bend. Poppets. Ship scraper. Deck stopper. Clove hitch. Portable boat. Ship's spike. Devil's claw. Diamond knot. Portable raft. Shore. Diamond knot. Dog-shank. Port hinge. Shortening knot. Diving apparatus. Double knot. Post. Short splice. Diving bell. English knot. Pressure log. Short stay. Diving dress. Figure-of-8 knot. Preventer fid. Shroud knot. Dog shank. Flemish knot. Preventer stay. Side scuttle. Dog stopper. Gallev knot. Pricker. Single whip. Double knot. Half-hitch. Prolonge knot. Sister block. Double purchase. Harness-hitch. Propeller. Sister hooks. Double-rail stancheon. Hawser bend. Propeller coupling. Six-fold knot. Double whip. Hitch. Propeller mechanism. Skiff. Drawing splice. Lark's head. Propeller shaft. Sky-light guard. Dredge. Lashing knot. Puddening. Sky-light lift. Dredging machine. Loop knot. Pudding splice. Slings. Drilling scow. Marlinspike hitch. Purlin. Slip stopper. Ducking boat. Matthew Walker knot. Quarter. Snatch block. English knot. Midshipman's hitch. Quarter tackle. Sneak box. Eyelet grommet. Overhand knot. Racking. Sound house. Eyelet bole. Prolonge knot. Racking turns. Sounding. Eye seizing. Reef knot. Raft. Sounding apparatus. Eye splice. Rosette. Reef earrings. Spanish fox. Fake. Sheep shanks. Reefing apparatus. Spanker gaff. Faking box. Shortening knot Reef knot. Spare anchor. Ferry boat. Shroud knot. Reef-tackle purchase. Spider hoop. Fid hole. Six-fold knot. Reeving line. Splice : Figure-of-8 knot. Sprit-Rail-sheet knot. Reliever. Cant splice. Flemish knot. Tack knot. Relieving tackle. Cut splice. NAUTICAL. 631 NEEDLE CARRIER. Splice : Drawing splice. Eye splice. Four-stranded splice. Grafting. Long rolling splice. Long splice. Pudding splice. Short splice. Tapered splice. Sprit-sail gaff. Sprit-sail sheet knot. Stanchion. Steamboat. Steamer. Steam ferry. Steam tug. Steering apparatus. Step. Stern benches. Stern sheets. Stern walk. Stopper. Storm valve. Strap. Strap-bound block. Stream anchor. Stretcher. Stud. Submarine armor. Surf boat. Swallow. Swimming apparatus. Swivel. Swivel block. Sword mat. Tack knot. Tackle: Block. Boom tackle. Bouche. Bowline tackle. Brace block. Bushing. Channel. Cheek. Coak. Double purchase. Double whip. Gin block. Gorge. Gun-tackle purchase. Hanging block. Iron-strapped block. Lift jigger. Luff tackle. Luff-tackle purchase. Mast-head pendant. Pendant tackle. Pin. Quarter tackle. Reef-tackle purchase. Relieving tackle. Score. Sheave. Shell. Single whip. Sister block. Snatch block. Strap. Strap-bound block. Swallow. Swivel block. Tail jigger. Threefold purchase. Top burton. Top-burton tackle. Top tackle. Treble purchase. Truss tackle. Two-fold purchjui-. Whip-on-runner. Yard tackle. Tail jigger. Tapered splice. Thimble. Three-fold purchase. Throat seizing. Thrum mat. Thrust bearing. Thwarts. Tiller. Top burton. Top-burton tackle. Top lining. Top maul. Top rim. Top tackle. Towing. Treble purchase. Trip hook. Truss tackle. Try -sail gaff. Turnbuckle. Twice-laid. Twin boat. Twin steamer. Twist knot. Two-fold purchase. Upper deck. Wall and crown. Wall knot. Warping. Water ballast. Water-deck iron. Weaver's knot. Wedge. Well sneak. Whip-on-runner. Whipping. Whisker gaff. Wing stopper. Wire-rope towage. Withe. Worming. Yacht. Yard-arm. Yard-tackle purchase. Yarn. Yawl. distance between these points. Spherical triangles may also be solved with it. For a detailed descrip- tion see the "Comptes Rendus" of the Academy; and for an abstract, London "Nature." Nav'vy. A species of excavator, which see. Steam navvy "Scientific American," xxxvi. 399. Nau'ti-cal Alarm. See under various heads : BUOY ; FOG TRUMPET ; SIKENE, etc. See also MARINE ALARM. Nau'ti-gon. An instrument invented by Dr. Hill, of Harvard, for solving by inspection, without the use of tables, any problem in spherical trigo- nometry, with sufficient accuracy for the principal problems of practical navigation. " Scientific American " xxxvi. 85. * " Scientific American Supplement "... 314. Nau'ti-lus. A name for the diving bell. See cap. "Plongeur," Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts, etc.," Figs. 3686, 3687. Nav-i-ga'tion-al Sound'tng Ma-chine'. A machine for taking soundings en route. The inven- tion of Sir William Thomson. See FLYING SOUNDER. Nav'i-sphere. A nautical instrument, by M. de Magnac. It is designed to indicate, without cal- culation, the names of the stars above the horizon at a given moment (with altitude and azimuth), the angle of route for going from one point to another by the arc of a great circle, and the approximate Neb'u-li-zer. (Surgical.) A spray instru- ment. See ATOMIZER. Ne-ces'saire. (Optics.) A circular base of polished wood, in which 6 re-agent bottles are ar- ranged with ground capillary tube stoppers, and the whole covered with a low bell-glass to exclude dust. Ne-cro'sis For'ceps. (Surgical.) An instru- ment for gnawing away portions of diseased bone. They are of various shapes: front cutting, side- cutting, curved on the flat, serrated, knee-curve, gouge-shaped, etc. See list under FORCEPS. Nee'dle. The process of needle-making in 35 operations is described under cap. "Aiguilles," La- boulaye's "Diet, des Arts et Sciences" L, ed. 1877. The following is the series of operations in the works of the National Needle Co., Springfield, Mass. : Blank. Brass brushed. Reduced blank. Eye-polished. Reduced and pointed, blank. First inspection. Grooved. Hard straightened. Eye-punched. Finish-pointed. Hardened and tempered. Finished. Hard-bur dressed. See Dr. Knight's Report on "Sewing Machine Needle Ma- chinery," at the National Needle Co.'s works, Springfield, Mass., "Centennial Exhibition Reports,' 1 ' 1 vol. vii., Group XXII., p. 59, et seq. Open-eyed needles for threading without reeving ; numer- ous instances, Fig. 3305, p. 1517, "Mech. Diet." (Surgical.) The uses of the needle in surgery, for operation and suture are numerous. The names signify the material, construction, or application. Among them are the following, the greater num- ber of which may be found under their alphabetical heads in this or former volumes : Acupuncture. Hypodermic syringe. Aneurism. Iris. Angular. Ligature. Artery. Milium. Canulated. Naevus. Cataract. Open eyed. Couching. Paracentesis cornea. Discission. Perineal. Eye. Seton. Fistula. Staphylorraphy. Harelip. Stop. Helical. Suture. Hernia. Tattooing. See also Acus, supra ; also NEEDLE. 2. SURGICAL, p. 1517 "Meek. Diet.; " NEEDLE FORCEPS, Fig. 3306, p. 1518, Ibid. See : Clamp for sewing machines, Morton . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 182. Sewing machine needle making ..... *" Scientific American Sup.," 644. Machinery ..... * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 130. Cap. " Aiguilles " . . * Labonlaye, i., ed. 1877. Making ...... *" Scientific American Sup.," 856. " Scientific American,' 1 '' xxxv. 403. Nee'dle An-nun'ci-a'tor. 1 . A form of opti- cal telegraph in which a finger moving on a dial indi- cates a letter or a message. See DIAL TELEGRAPH, Fig. 806, p. 254, supra. Fig. 6238, p. 2506, " Mech. Diet.," Fig. 1667, p. 708, Ibid. 2. A form of annunciator in which several mes- sages, numbers of rooms, or office departments may be placed on a board and a needle caused to point to either, at the option of the sender. Nee'dle Car'ri-er. A porte-aiguille. A nee- dle forceps. In the instance given, Dr. Turnip- seed's clamp needle-carrier for operation in vesico- vaginal fistula, the needles clamped in the enda of the arms have a mutually approaching transverse NEEDLE CARRIER. 632 NERVE INSTRUMENTS. Fig. 1806. Clamp Needle-carrier. motion as the loops of the handle are partially ro- tated by pressing together. Nee'dle For'ceps. An instrument to hold a needle in sewing up wounds. In the instance, Fig. 1807, Dr. Thornton Parker's, the threaded needle is held by a screw clamp, and may have any Fig. 1807. Dr. Parker's Needle Holder. convenient angle of presentation. The hollow handle holds needles. Dr. Wight's needle forceps has serrated jaws ; and a catch Fig. 1808. Dr. Wight's Needle Forceps. on each bow to lock the forceps shut. Used also in remov- ing pieces of necrosedbone, in arresting arterial hemorrhage, etc. Fig. 1809 shows the needle forceps of Dr. Anatole de Gaine, Fig. 1809. Dr. De Gaine's Needle Forceps. of St. Petersburg. The needle is held at any angle, and the handles are locked by link and ratchet. Dr. Turnipseed's needle holder, needles, and clamps, for uterine operations, are shown in Fig. 1810. The needles pro- Fig. 1810. Dr. Tiirnipseed's Needle Forceps. jecting transversely to the line of the handle, are thrust through the lips of the wound by a partial rotation of the handle, and the ends of the needles received in clamps, which are pressed down upon the needle, preventing retraction. The clamp closer is shown below. Nee'dle Loom. A loom in which the weft is thrust through the shed by a rod, known as a needle. Fig. 1811 shows a four-harness Jacquard loom of Dienelt & Eisenhardt, for weaving ingrain carpets. It has a capacity for 16 weft threads of varying colors. The pattern mechanism acts upon separate lifters, through which the 8 colored threads of the weft respectively pass. The colored yarn which is required for the next throw is Fig. 1811. Fig. 1812. Ingrain Carpet Needle Loom. elevated so as to be caught in the slot of the reciprocating needle and carried half way through the shed, where it is caught by a hook which has advanced from the other sel- vage to meet it, and the loop is drawn back to the selvage by the hook, laying two threads in the shed. The loop of the weft is then caught by a latch-needle, which is moved in a direction across the path of the weft and is knit in with the former loop. See also CARPET LOOM, p. 169, supra. Nee'dle Lulni-ca'tor. A form of lubricator consisting of a strong globe of glass having a neck or outlet fitted with a stopper of wood, through which is a coiii- cal metal tube, forming the only exit for the oil. In or- der to regulate the supply of oil, a metallic feed-rod (nee- dle) passes through the tube, and rests upon the shaft to be lubricated. Neg'a-tive. 1. (Electric- ity.) In the battery, the copper, carbon, or platinum plate. See list in Negative col- umns, tables of Galvanic Bat- teries, pp. 367-373 supra. 2. (Photography.) The cliche or picture in reverse ; from it the positive is printed. Neg'a-tive Rack. A frame for holding glass negatives to drip. See Fig. 1813. Nerve In'stru-ments. (Dentistry.) Instru- ments for broaching, cleaning, filling, etc., the nerve cavity. Fig. 1814. a. Spring tempered nerve bristles, for removing pulp, cleans- ing pulp-canals, introducing medicaments in the treatment Needle Lubricator. NERVE INSTRUMENTS. 633 NICKEL. Fig. 1813. Folding Negative Rack. of alveolar abscess, etc. Some are roughened, some have minute hooks at the end. There are 10 in a set. Fig. 1814. Nerve Instruments. b. Nerve-canal reamers, for cleansing and preparing nerve canals. A set consists of 14 triangular and 3 4-sided reamers. c. Bur drills, used in drilling fangs preliminary to filling. d. Nerve-cavity pluggers. e. Nerve extractors. Barbed bristles. Neurotome ; excision of dental nerve * l 'Sc.Am, Sup. ,' ; 4114. Nest Spring. A spiral spring of several con- centric coils, s. t., Fig. 1143, p. 483, " Mech. Diet." Net. For list of U. S. Patents, fishing nets, pounds, traps, seines, eel pots, etc., see FISHING NET, p. 342, supra. See also : Anchored net. Bag. Bag net. Bait net. Bar net. Bar weir. Bowl. Bull net. Casting net. Cast net. Collecting seine. Crab net. Crib. Dip net. Dipping wheel. Dredge. Drift net. Drop net. Eel pot. Float. Folding net. Fyke net. Gill net. Handle net. Haul seine. Heart. Heart net. Heart seine. Hook. Hook net. Jerk net. Landing net. Leader. Line. Lint. Meshing net. Meter. Pocket net. Pot. Pound." Pound net. Purse net. Purse seine. Scoop net. Seaming. Seine. Seine windlass. Sheave block. Skim net. Stake net. Tilting net. Towing net. Trailing net. Trammel net. Trap. Trap net. Trawl net. Tunnel. Weir. Wing. Wing net. Also : Garden net, over fruit trees. Fly net. Horse net. Poultry netting, to limit their range. A sort of fence. Spring net ; one closed by trigger and spring ; used iu catch- ing rabbits. Banner netting, for painting signs or banners, to be sus- pended across a street, and avoid carrying away by the wind. Clap net ; one having hinged sections ; used in bird-catching. Hammock net ; open-work netted hammock. Vat net, for a strainer. Quail or partridge net, for catching those birds. Lawn-tennis net ; used in the game. Net'ma-ker's Knife. (Fishing.) A blade (2") without a handle, and the heel of the blade curved so as to fit the finger like a ring. Net'tle. (Nautical.) A small cord used for seizing or grafting, as the nettles (knittles) of a hammock. Net'tle Stuff. (Nautical.) Small line used for seizings, worming, etc. New Pro'cess Milling. See CYLINDER MILL; ROLLER MILL; HIGH MILLING; MID- DLINGS PURIFIER, etc., and "American Miller," vi. 2. Ni-au'det Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) Other- wise known as the chloride of lime battery. The positive electrode is a plate of zinc in a solution of chloride of sodium ; the negative element is a plate of coke surrounded by coke fragments and chloride of lime in a vessel of biscuit ware or parchment paper. Nic'ol's Prism. (0/itics.) A prism of Ice- land spar so constructed as to transmit but one of the two rays into which light is divided in passing through this substance polarizing the same. Used in connection with the polariscope for the microscope. See POLARISCOPE. Nick'el. Sec data on p. 1525, " Mech. Diet." The alloys of nickel are of considerable importance. It unites readily with iron, cobalt, copper, antimony, zinc, tin, etc. The alloys of nickel with copper and zinc form German silver or albata (Eng.), Argentan (Fr.) Packfong (Ch ). See list, p. 63, "Mec/i. Diet." Britannia metal is principally copper, tin, and antimony. French recipes : Copper. Nickel. Zinc. 1. Common argentan . . . 2. White argentan .... 16 16 16 16 16 4 6 8 12 6 7 7 7 7 11 Solder for argentan ; argentan (No. 1), 5 parts ; zinc 4 parts. NICKEL. 634 NEEDLE. Nickel "Scientific American," xxxv. 149. And cobalt at Centennial. Wharton "ng. if Min. Jour.," xxiii. 13. Battery, Slater . . . * " Scientific American Sup.," 3341. Bronze " Manuf. (f Builder," xii. 197. Furnaces "Eng. If Min. Jour.," xxv. 326, 346, 424 : * xxvi. 24. Plating, Slolba . . . "Sc. American,''' xxxvi. 295. Plating, Wharton . . "Iron Age," xxv., April 8, p. 9. Litigation .... "Iron Age,''' xxv., April 29, p. 9. At Krageroe, Norway, magnetic pyrites, holding on an average 1.25 percent, of nickel, are worked by the following process : " The raw ore is smelted with slag from refining in a 13-foot 3-tuyere shaft furnace, the slag made being thrown over the dump while the raw matte, holding 3.5 per cent, of nickel, is roasted in stalls. This roasted matte is smelted in a low furnace with one tuyere, 4' high. The slag, holding 1 to 1.5 per cent, of cobalt, goes to the ore smelting. The matte made contains 30 per cent, of nickel and 15 per cent, oi copper, and is returned to the same furnace, which con- centrates it to 60 per cent of nickel and 30 per cent, of cop- per. The sulphur is only 10 per cent. This matte is ground and roasted completely in a small reverberatory furnace, and the oxides are reduced with charcoal powder in graphite cru- cibles, yielding 68 per cent, of nickel and 30 per cent, of cop- per. By the addition of copper this product is smelted into an alloy of one of copper and one of nickel, which is mar- ketable.'' Frinlr. Bode in "Dingler's Polytechnic Journal." In Plazanet's nickel-plating process a bath is used of 87.5 grams of sulphate of nickel, 20 sulphate of ammonia, 17.5 cit- ric acid, and two liters of water. A bath much used in France is formed of a solution of 4 parts of nitrate of nickel in 4 of liquid ammonia, and 150 water, in which 50 parts of sulphate of soda have been dissolved . Using a moderately weak current, the operation is at an end in a few minutes. There is no need to interrupt it by taking the objects out and brushing them. When the film of nickel is of sufficient thickness, the ob- jects are withdrawn from the bath and dried with sawdust. A new nickel-plating solution, said to yield beautiful re- sults, is prepared by mixing the liquid obtained by evapora- ting a solution of J oz. nickel in aqua regia to a pasty mass and dissolving it in 1 Ib. aqua ammonia, with that obtained by treating the same quantity of nickel with a solution of 2 ozs. cyanide of potassium in 1 Ib. of water. More cyanide renders the deposit whiter, and more ammonia renders it grayer. Nick'el Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) Slater. One form consists of a vessel with two interior porous concentric cells. In the central one is placed the plate of nickel with its excitant, dilute sulphuric or other acid ; in the middle space is a solution of sesqui-carbonate of ammonia ; in the outer space is a solution of sulphate of nickel, or the double sul- phate of nickel and ammonia, together with sus- pended prisms or plates of carbon. The deposited salts are of commercial value- Slater . . " Scientific American Supplement," * 3341, 3790. Wenzel . "Scientific, American," * xxxix. 150. Nick'el Bronze. An alloy named from M. Jules Gamier, the inventor. The garnierite, an ore of nickel found in great quantity in New Caledo- nia, is worked in Noumea, and the regulus shipped to Septemes, near Marseilles. Here the pure metal is mixed with various proportions of copper, zinc, and tin, forming nickel bronze. Twenty per cent, of nickel suffices to give the desired tint, and to secure inoxidizability. All articles now made of brass or copper, nickel plated, can be produced in solid bronze by the same processes and with the same plant, and at practically the same cost. So made they are 20 per cent, stronger, and may generally be much lighter. Its great strength and the prop- erty of non-oxidization make this alloy eminently suitable for mathematical and musical instruments. It is used for: Builders' fittings. Harness trimmings. Chains. Arms. Scientific instruments. Clocks. Art-metal work. Bells. Journal bearings. Propeller journals. See: "Iron Age" xxiii., Jan. 16, p. 13; xxiv., Nov. 27, p. 13; xxv., May 20, p. 19. "Eng. and Min. Journ." . . xxv. 26 ; xxvii. 76 ; xxix. 389. "Am. Manuf. and Iron World." xxvi., May 28, p. 7. " Scientific American" . . . xlii. 288. "Manvf act. and Builder" . . xii. 144, 197. Gw.llem.in " Technologiste," . xl. 364. Nick'el-ine. The term given by Guillemin to nickel bronze. "Technologiste," xl. 364. Nick'el' Plat'ing. Nickel galvanoplasty for electrotypes and reproductions of works of art, has been much advanced by Boudreaux (pere et fih), of Paris. The great difficulty attending the de- posit in any considerable thickness, is owing to the tendency to exfoliate and curl, which is ascertained to be due to the absorption of hydrogen. " This mode of accounting for the phenomenon will be readily accepted, if it be borne in mind that in this case the nickel crystallizes ; that it is very porous as compared with ordinary cast nickel ; and that in 12 hours it condenses 160 times its own weight of hydrogen, when it is attached to the negative pole of a rather powerful galvanic battery, in the electrolysis of water." "Electrician,'-' Feb., 1882, p. 24. The advantage of nickel for type plates and art reproduc- tions is evident from the fact that with about the same den- sity (Cu., 8.90 ; Ni., 8.57) the resistance of nickel to mechan- ical pressure is about 3 times that of copper. Nickel is also much less affected by colored inks. Prof. Stolba's Process: To a dilute solution of chloride of zinc ('5 to 10 per cent.) enough nickel sulphate is to be added to impart a decidedly green color to it, and the solution is then to be heated to boiling in a porcelain vessel. The clouding of the liquid from a separation of a basic zinc salt need not be heeded, as it will not interfere with the effective- ness of the bath. The articles to be nickel-coated first carefully cleaned of oxide or grease are to be suspended in the solution from 30 to 60 minutes, the bath being kept at a boiling temperature. When articles are observed to be uniformly coated, they may be removed, washed in water in which a little chalk is suspended, dried and finally polished with chalk or other suitable material. By the substitution of a cobalt salt in place of the nickel, objects may be simi- larly coated with cobalt. U. S. Patents since list pp. 1525, 1526, "Mech. Diet." : 121,383 .... Keith 1871 125,868 .... Whitman Sf Neal . . . 1872 128,166 .... Parmalee 1872 129,881 .... Beardslee 1872 130,362 . . . . de Lobslein .... 1872 136,634 .... Adams 1872 154,435 .... Adams .... Aug. 25, 1874 155,884 .... Normandeau 1874 6,313 (Reissue) Adams .... Mar. 2, 1875 6,402 (Reissue) Adams ... . Ap. 27, 1875 172,862 .... Adams .... Feb. 1, 1876 228,390 .... Pomeroy . . June 1, 1880 228,921 .... Perry .... June 15, 1880 See also "Elements d'Electro Chimic," Paris, 1864, p 325. (Glass.) Recommended by M. Cle'mendot, a French glass manufacturer, to nickel-plate all pon- tys and molds for glass-making, to prevent colora- tion of the glass by oxidation of the iron tools. Steep the objects for a few hours in a plating bath of sulphate of nickel and ammonia. Lockert, on " Technologiste," xii. 392. Stolba "Technologiste," xxxviii. 66. Kayser " Technologiste," xl. 89. "Scientific Amer.," 1 xxxvi. 408; xxxviii. 209. Stolba "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 295. Wharton "Iron Age," xxv., April 8, p 9. Litigation .... Ibid., xxv., April 29, p, 9. Nick'el Steel. An alloy of cemented iron and nickel. Boussingault. Nick'ing Saw. A small circular saw, used in nicking screw-heads, etc. Fig. 1815. Nicking Saw. Ni-ello. (Fine Art Metal-working.) Formerly, a metallic plate was engraved and the lines run full of an alloy which became black by heat. The surface being scraped down, the effect was of a drawing in black on the gold or silver plate. NIELLO. 635 NITROUS OXIDE APPARATUS. On a larger scale, brass monumental plates were similarl v ornamented, and the alloy formerly used, which was of copper, silver, lead, etc., was substitu- ted by enamel, and then by black wax. The latter style lives in the shop and door-plates of our streets. Artistic work is yet produced in this line, black enamel and red copper being used, the latter deposited in the electro- bath. See also p. 1523, "Meek. Diet." One beautiful form of niello is a sort of enameling upon silver; with a paste consisting chiefly of the sulphide of the metal itaelf. The process is as follows : Take 4 drachms of silver, 2 oz. and 4 drachms each of cop- per and sal-ammoniac, 3 oz.and 4 drachms of lead, and 12 oz. of flowers of sulphur. Make a paste of the flowers of sul- phur and water ; put it into a crucible ; afterwards melt the metals, and pour them into the crucible which contains the paste ; re-cover this vessel in order that the sulphur may nut take fire, then calcine over the fire until all the superfluous sulphur is driven off ; afterwards finely pulverise the IIDISS, and make, with the addition of a solution of sal-ammoniac, a paste, which introduce by means of rubbing, into the parts intended to be enameled ; then clean the article, and place it in a furnace, where it is sufficiently heated to melt the paste which fills the engraved parts and makes it adhere to the metal. That done, moisten the article with a solution of sal-ammoniac, and heat it in a muffle to redness; after which you may rub and polish the article when ' it has become cold without fear either of altering or of detaching the enamel ; it remains always of a very tine black color. Dr. Percy. Ni-el'lo Sil'ver. The composition of the Russian tula, or Niello silver, long kept secret, has been announced to be as follows : It consists of 9 parts silver, 1 part copper, 1 part lead, and 1 part bismuth, which are melted together and saturated with sulphur. This mixture produces the gorgeous blue which has often been erroneously spoken of as steel blue. "Berliner Tagblatt" Night Latch. A lock operatable by key only from the outside, by handle from the inside ; but capable of being fastened by a catch so that the holt becomes immovable. Fig. 1816. Night Latch. The illustration shows a mortise lock, adjustable to right or left-hand doors. Nip'pers. (Nautical.) An elastic hank made of strong yarns, laid parallel and marled from end to end. It is used for binding the messenger to the cable. Nip'ple. A pipe coupling of reduced size, frequently threaded on the outside to allow the wire binding to compress the attached hose into the depressions of the thread. a. One end screw, the other solder. b. Screw, and screw socket ends respectively. c. Double screw. d. Shoulder. e. Close. Ni'tro-gel'a-tine. An explosive agent invented by Nobel ; formed by dissolving gun-cotton in nitro- glycerine, with camphor added in varying propor- tions, nominally 4 per cent. See BLASTING GELA- TINE, p. 105, supra. Ni'tro-gly'cer-ine. The subject is discussed and numerous references given on pp. 1529, 1530, "Mech. Diet." See also "Scientific American,^ xxxiv. 341; xxxviii. 58; "Scientific American Supplement," 3874. Ni'trous Ox'ide Ap'pa-ra'tus. This com- prises a strong cylinder containing 100 gallons of gas compressed to a pressure of 80 Ibs. to the square inch at. 60 Fah. The case is provided with an iron ring and set screw, by which the iron cyl- inder is held in place during use, and its valve pro- tected from injury ; also, a rubber bag with rubber Fig. 1818. Surgeon's Cane. tube at one end for admission of gas ; and a tube, terminating in an inhaler, at its opposite end. See also Figs. 3331, 3332, p. 1530, "Mech. Diet." Nitrogen gas apparatus, B'air, * "Sc. American," xxxix. 21. NON-CONDUCTOR. 636 NUT WRENCH. Non'-con-duct'or. (Electricity.) Anything that does not freely transmit the electrical current, such as glass, hard rubber, dry wood, etc. No'ri-a. (Arabic, Na' Ura.) A water-raising device consisting of a chain of pots or buckets. A very ancient device, still very crude in Syria and Egypt. See Figs., p. 1533, "Mech. Diet." " Fig. 1819 shows a modern French f/>rm in which the main features of the ancient contrivance are preserved, but with Fig. 1819. Modern Nona, the aid of improved construction and materials. The ani- mal, an ox usually, travels in the accustomed route ; the inter- position of a single pair of gears transposes the motion from the vertical to the horizontal, and upon the shaft are iron chains and buckets, the substitutes for the ropes and pots. Pinchers for the Fig. 1820. nose, Nose Compress. Nose Com'press. when administering gas from a mouth-piece, and not from a face-piece. Nose Glass. (Op- tics.) A. pince-nez, or folding eye-glass, sup- ported by grasping the nose instead of the temples. No'sing. The keeper of a lock, into which the latch or bolt engages. No'sing Mo'tioii. Refers to appliances for the perfect winding of yarn on the noses of the spindles, by an accelerating motion, to secure tightness of the yarn on the reduced diameter of the upper end of the mule spindle. See article by Mr. Eli Spencer, of Oldham, in "Engineer- ing," xxx. 510, Figs. 8 to 12. No'sing Plane. A plane with hollow-rounded sole, for dressing the front edges of wooden treads of stairs. Notch'ing Ma-chine'. 1. (Sheet-metal Working.] A machine for cutting the corners and notches for square boxes, hinges, etc. It has adjustable gages, Fig. 1821. Nosing Plane. works with a foot-treadle, and will cut several thicknesses at once : 12,000 notches in 10 hours. 2. A machine for cutting notches in blanks for paper boxes or envelopes. See Fig. 693, p. 222, su- pra. Noz'zle. A discharge-pipe or ventage. The nozzles of the placer mines in California are shown in Fig. 2616, p. 1149, "Mech. Diet.,'- and the subject also considered under HYDRADLICKING, p. 481, supra. With the introduction of iron pipe, the nozzles were grad- ually enlarged, and the " Little Giant," a large cast-iron noz- zle working on a swivel joint, was introduced. Craig discovered that by rifling the Little Giant, the jet, instead of whirling and expanding, shot out straight, re- taining its full force. Then Hoskins invented the second joint to the " Little Giant," which enables the raising or low- ering of the nozzle, and under several inventions a nozzle has been perfected, the largest of which can be moved in any direction by a child ; one of eight inches, with 200 feet head, capable of moving 3,000 cubic yards per day, being operated by one hand with ease. Thus one man, with perfect ease moves as much gravel in a day as 1,000 men could with shovels and cars. Controlling nozzle, Clemens, *Fig. 685, p. 219, supra. Nut Lock. A device to keep a nut from turn- ing on the bolt. See Fig. 3350, p. 1538, where 46 illustrations are given. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 244 Conical, Atwood ... * "Railroad Gazette," viii. 34. Grubb * "Scientific American,'''' xli. 86. Fish-plates, Skinner, Br. * "Engineer," xlvi. 146. Ativood * "Scientific American," xliii. 386. Whitmarsh .... * "Scientific American^' xxxix. 230. Nut-tap'ping Ma-chine'. A machine for cutting threads in punched nut blanks. The machine shown in Fig. 1822 consists of a solid cast- iron platform, iipon which rests a bowl which is kept nearly full of water ; on the top of this bowl is a solid six-armed plate upon which rest six nut chucks ; above this plate there Cleveland Nut-tapping Mach is a top plate supported by iron columns, in the center of which there is a vertical driving shaft, on the head of which there is a cog-wheel. Around this cog-wheel at regular dis- tances apart are six spindles. The tap goes in at the lower end of the spindle, each spindle being over a nut-chuck on the bottom plate. The top and bottom plates being securely bolted together, have a rotary motion, and at the same time the gearing is so constructed that the six vertical spindles, being propelled by cog gear at the top, perform the work of tapping nuts as they pass around. One person can manage the machine. The water in the bowl comes up to the sur- face of the nut chuck or seat, and about a quarter inch of oil floats upon the water, coming over the nut (one quart of oil being sufficient for the tapping of a ton of nuts). Each tap will hold from 8 to 12 nuts, which, fast as they are cut, rise to give place to the next one. When the tap is full, the attendant releases it, removes the nuts, and re- places the tap, which is feady to operate as before. See : Cold punching . . * "Iron Age,' 1 ' xxii., Aug. 15, p. 1. Forg. mach., Horsfall . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1491. Horsfall, Br. ... * "Engineer," xliv. 148. Boring, tapping, facing, & slotting, Hartnell,~Br.* "Engineering," xxi. 364. Nut Wrench. A tool to be used in an ordinary brace, for the screwing on or off of bolt-nuts. Especially useful in carriage work. Fig. 1823. Nut Wrench. Nut and washer gage, Fig. 7048, p. 2727, "Meek. Diet." OAR. 637 OBSTETRIC FORCEPS. o. Oar. The early notices of, and terms employed in, the handling of oars, are given on p. 1541, " Mich. Diet." The Lyman oar is a compound lever arrangement by which the oars are manipulated by a rower facing forward. Fig. 1824. Sec also ROWIXG GEAR. Hg. 1S24. Lyman Facing Oat Mill. A machine I'm- i-< nirse-grinding oats. The machines arc of two diameters ' 1. For grinding horse-feed ; these are known as feed-mills or kibbling mills in England, and as concasseurs d'avoine,oi aplntisseurs, in France. Their action is usually rather a crushing than a grinding operation. 2. Machines for the grinding of oats for gruel or porridge. The proper plan is to hull the oats, and then to pass them Ti-. 1825. Oat Mill. {French through a pointing machine which removes the fuzz on the point of the berry. This fuzz is said to produce an irritation of the skin which Byron mockingly calls "Sawney's vio- lin." The French oatmeal machines (Beyer, Paris) proceed, however, directly upon the oats, by a double operation. The oats are passed between cylinders which simply flat- ten the grain without discharging any of the farina, and this product is then passed through the mill, which grinds it and discharges it into the sieves beneath, which sort It into qualities. See also * " Scientific American,'' xlii. 261. A British form of oat-mil!, Birfdell's, is also double, but its duplicate parts are for simultaneous operation upon two grains for feed, say oats and beans. Oat Sep'a-ra'tor. A machine for removing from wheat the oats which are so frequently pres- ent in merchantable grain. The grain is poured on to the slanting rollers which con- tinually rotate and keep the berries in line ; the thinner oats escape in the intervals between the rollers. Fig. 1826 Rotary Oat Separator. See also GRAIN CLEANER, Plate XX., opp. p. 416, supra, where a number of devices for this purpose are shown. Ob'e-lisk. The obelisk, to be erected to Gen. John E. Wool, near Troy, N. Y., is to be 59' height, 5.5' square at base, 3' square at top. To be erected on a pedestal 15-5' high, on a foundation of 16'. Total 90'. The following may be referred to for data on obelisks : Alexandria & N. Y. Paper on Egyptian. Cooper .... Paper by Donaldson . Elevating .... Launch of Cleopatra's needle Launch of the . . . Abandonment at sea . ^^^in.ij^ ^r/i^'., -\.\**n. '. For the root of the tooth, place the instrument as indicated in No. 1, and in the Table for the Roots of Teeth, which is the number nearest to that required, and in the column for 3" pitch, will be found 37. This point must be pricked off at g, and the arc d e described. This gives the proper form for the root of the tooth. The in- strument is then moved into the position indicated by the dotted lines No. 2 ; and 25 being the number given opposite to 60 in the column for 3" pitch in the Table for Tops of Teeth, this point is pricked off as above described, and from the point A the arc / d is described. This gives the proper form for the top or face of the tooth. When fixing the points ganiih, it must be remembered that they will be found on opposite sides of the radial arm of the instrument. Internal Gear. In setting out internal gear the rule is inverted, the curve for the root becoming that which is given for the top in the foregoing instructions for using the Instrument. Rack Gear. For setting out racks the pitch line becomes a straight line, and the instrument is applied to perpendicu- lars drawn on it equal to the pitch. The numbers for pitches not given in the Tables may be found by doubling or dividing the numbers of a given pitch. As examples, if 4" pitch is required, double the number given for 2" pitch ; or if " pitch is required, take half that given for V pitch. The diagonal scale, at the lower part of the figure, gives the proportions of the various parts of wheels. These pro- portions give good results for wheels of ordinary dimen- sions ; but modifications are required for very small or very large wheels. Appleby. CENTERS FOR THE ROOTS OP TEETH. No. of Teeth. Pitch in Inches. 1 U 1* 1! 2 24 2i 3 13 129 160 193 225 257 289 321 386 14 69 87 104 121 139 156 173 208 15 49 62 74 86 99 111 123 148 16 40 50 59 69 79 89 99 191 17 34 42 50 59 67 75 84 101 18 30 37 45 52 59 67 74 89 20 25 31 37 43 49 56 62 74 22 22 27 33 39 43 49 54 65 24 20 25 30 35 40 45 49 59 26 18 23 27 32 37 41 46 55 30 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 49 40 15 18 21 25 28 32 35 42 60 18 15 19 22 25 28 31 37 80 12 15 17 20 23 26 29 35 100 11 14 17 14 22 25 28 34 150 10 13 16 19 21 24 27 32 Rack 10 12 15 17 20 22 25 30 CENTERS FOR TOPS OR FACES OF TEETH. Pitch in Inches. No. of Teeth. 1 11 li If a 2i 3 12 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 15 15 5 7 8 10 11 12 14 17 20 6 8 9 11 12 14 15 18 30 7 9 10 12 14 16 18 21 40 8 9 11 13 15 17 19 23 60 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 80 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 26 100 9 11 13 15 18 20 22 26 150 9 11 14 16 19 21 23 27 Rack 10 12 15 17 20 22 25 30 PROPORTIONS OF WHEEL SHOWN IN FIG. I = Depth of tooth below pitch line K= Height of tooth above pitch line L = Breadth of tooth above pitch line M Width of space between teeth . D = Thickness of rim below the teeth E = Depth of rib of rim F =r Width of arm from feather . . . G H= Thickness of metal . . . f* p ' ::2: Robinson * "Min. and Sc. Press," xxxiv. 105. "Scientific American," xxxv. 181. Willis * " Van Nostrand's Mag.,-' 1 xv. 1. O'dor-less Ex'ca-va'tor. A pnmp, tank, and consumer of odor, to remove inoffensively the con- tents of cesspools. See CESSPOOL PUMP, Fig. 584, p. 187, supra. " Scientific American Supplement' 1 '' 978. CE-de'ma Glot'tis Tube. (Surgical.) See EDEMA GLOTTIS TUBE. Off '-bear-ing Bar'row. The barrow in a brick yard, plying between the molding bench and the hack. See Big. 2351, p. 104fi, "Me.ch. Diet." Office Watch'man. An instrument to keep record of the periodical visits of a watchman in a building or yard. See WATCH CLOCK, Fig. 7080, p. 2733; WATCHMAN'S TIME DETECTOR, i'igs. 7083, 7084, p. 2734, "Mec/i. Diet." Offset. (Carriage Hardware.) The fork at the point in the back-stay where the branches sep- arate to reach the hind axle at two points. Fig. 1831. Fig. 1832. Offsets. a. Round offset. b. Point octagon offset. c. Oval offset. Offset Glass. A journal oiler having a glass globe, the bulge of which is on one side in order to allow the glass to stand iu a place close up to the side of an object. Offset Pipe. A pipe to pass an obstacle, bending aside, and then resuming the original direction. Several examples may be seen in Fig. 295, p. 97, supra. Ohm. (Electricity.) A measure of electric force or resistance equal to 1,000,000,000 centimeters per second. Ganot's " Physics," p. 832. Named from the electrician Ohm, a German savant. The law govern- ing the relations of current, electro- motive force and resistance is known as Ohm's law. Offset Glass. The Electrical Congress in Paris, 1881, determined that the ohm should be represented by a column of mercury of a square millimeter section at Centigrade. A committee was appointed to ascertain and report the height of such column in millimeters. Oil Box. (Railway.) The 'journal-box, or axle-box of a car-wheel. Oil Bush. A socket in which an upright spin- dle works, and which holds a quantity of oil, so OIL CAKE BREAKER. 640 OIL-LINE PIPE. Fig. 1833. that the spindle runs in oil, as in the Noves oil- bush spindle for mill-stones. Oil Cake Break'er. A machine for grind- ing oil cake as food for stock. See CAKE BREAKER, Fig. 498, p. 152, supra ; OIL CAKE BREAKER, Fig. 3369, p. 1547, "Mech. Diet." Oil Cans, etc. See : Cabinet, Tkayer . . , * "Scientific American," xli. 382. Can, Moran * l ' Scientific American,' 1 ' xl.150. Can nozzle, Hasenritter * "Scientific American, ''xxxiv. 274. Can, suspended, Graves * "Scientific American" xxxvii. 54. Car "Scientific American Sup.,'' 737. Cleansing app., Koeltner * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 4108. Cotton-seed oil . . . "Scientific American,'' 1 xxxvi. 229. Cylinder, Siebert . . . * "Amer. Manuf.," July 11,1879, \>. 16. Cup, High *" Scientific American,"- xxxv. 194. Engine * "Manufact. Builder," x. 9. Feeder, " American . * "Iron Asc," xix., June 14, p. 5. Lubricants "Scientific American,'''' xliii. 404. Oiler, Eason .... * "Scientific American," xl. 85. * Laboulaye's "Diet.," ii., " Grais- saye," 1 Figs. 1001-1007. Backus * " Scientific American," xxxiv. 291. Tank protector . . . * "Scientific American," xliii. 308. Storage, Shaiv . . . * "Manufact. ' Builder," xii. 175. Testers. See LUBRICANT TESTER, supra; OIL TESTER, infra. Wells, Baker .... "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 107. Of Bunnah, Robertson " Scientific American Sup.," 4049. Process of sinking . . '"Scientific American Sup.," 1969. Oil Cel'lar. (Railway.) A cavity in the lower part of a journal box for collecting the oil and dirt which runs off the axle at the dust-guard. For- ney. Oil Cup. A lubricator placed over a journal or on a cylinder to oil the piston. The forms are various and may be found under : NEEDLE LUBBICATOR ; OILER LUBRICATOR; TALLOW CUP, etc , in "Mech. Diet.," and herein. The form shown in Fig. 1833 is a glass cup mounted on brass, provided with a hollow tube, inside of which is placed a loose-acting, solid or hollow wire, which rests upon the journal and acts as a feeder and regulator. Oil En'gine. A name for the HYDRO-CARBON ENGINE, which "see, Eig. 1420, p. 484, supra. Oil'er. A LUBRICATOR. See TALLOW COP ; OIL CUP ; OIL GLOBE, etc. The oiler for wool is attached to the first breaker card. Oil Gage. An instrument usually of hydrom- eter form for ascertaining the specific gravity of oils, and thereby obtaining data by which to "esti- mate their purity. Plunge the instrument in the oil, give it time to acquire the temperature of the oil, and then observe the degree of the thermometer, as well as the degree of the hydrometer. If the. thermometer is at x degrees above zero, an equal number of degrees must be deducted from the hydrometer degree. If the thermometer is at x degrees below zero, an equal num- ber of degrees must be added to the hydrometer degree. The range of the hydrometer scale is from 22 to 50, and the following table shows the degree of certain common oils : Purified rape oil 38-39 Common rape oil 37-38 Olive oil 37-38 Dotter oil 32-33 Poppy oil . . . . , 32-33 South sea train oil 33 Nut oil 32-33 Hempseed oil 30-31 Linseed oil 29-30 Mixtures of oils show a mean density. Oils that have been purified are rendered lighter, and show about 1 more on the instrument. Oil Globe. A form of oiler having a globular oil chamber. In the instances shown, the devices Oil Cup. have three cocks : one between the funnel and the chamber, one between the chamber and the steam cylinder, a third allows air to escape from the chamber when filling. Fig. 1834. Oil Globes. Oil Line Pipe. A pipe laid for conveyance of petroleum. It was first introduced by S. Vansyckle, who laid a 2" tube, 6 miles in length", in 1865. The United Pump Co. laid a 3" pipe in 1873. The following is the total mileage of iron pipe used for con- veying oil in the oil regions of Pennsylvania : Lines. Size of Pipe. Total Miles. 2-in. 3-in. Atlantic Pipe Co miles 80 50 j' & 71 5 9 120 5 82 30 52 16! 40 5 20 33 380 2* 2 3 100 30 5 !' 40 11 10 300 276 miles. 10 22 51 1 j 1 3 2 24 90 72 136 ? 128 5 10 120 U 82^ 30 53 16| 40 5 20 33 380 2 1 2 3 100 40 5 9 40 13 10 300 300 American Transfer Co. Ant. and Oil City Pipe Co. 's . . . Brady's Bend Iron Co Church Run Pipe Co Charley Run Pipe Co Cherry Tree Run Pipe Co. ... Columbia Conduit Co Cohewango Pipe Co Franklin Pipe Co Grant Pipe Co Hunter & Cummings Pipe Co. . . Karns Pipe Co Keystone Pipe Co Milton and Sandy Pipe Co. . . . McKean County Pipe Co New York Pipe Co New York and Alleghany Oil Co. . Octave Pipe Co Olean Pipe Co Pennsylvania Transportation Co. . Prentice, F. & Co Private Pipe (Foxburg) Richard Jennings Pipe Co. Relief Pipe Co Rochester and Oleopolis Co. . . . Shaffer Run Pipe Co Smith's F'y & I. Run Co Titusville Pipe Co Tidioute Oil Pipe Co Taf t & Payne Pipe Co United Pipe Co - - 2,081} The following is the mode of collecting the oil by means of the pipe lines and loading it into the cars : The pipe used is of wrought-iron lap welded, usually two inches in diam- eter, put together with a screw-sleeve joint. The main pump- ing line or lines are run from the center of production by the most direct route to the railroad station. The pipe is laid along the surface of the ground, except at road crossings or where protection is necessary. At the railroad large iron receiving tanks are erected varying from 5,000 to 20,000 bar- rels capacity each. These tanks are placed at a sufficient OIL LINE PIPE. 641 OLEOMETER. elevation above the railway to permit their contents to be run by gravity through pipes to the loading racks where the cars stand in sidings ndjiu nit. At the necessary intervals along the pipe line, pumping stations are established for the reception and forwarding of the oil. The equipment of the main station-, consists of a pump house, with two or more powerful pumps worked by steam : two tanks of from 500 to 2,000 barrels capacity each in a tank house ; a telegraph office anda building to accommodate the employee in charge. From each such station, branch connecting lines lead off in every direction to the hundreds of wells that are tributary to it. At each well accurately gaged storage tanks are fixed to which the pipe line branches are attached Before com- mencing to draw oil from these tanks their contents are measured and recorded ; another measure and record is made after the pipe line ceases taking oil from them, and the difference in inches between the two measures forms a basis of credit to the well owner in the company's books. A memorandum receipt, known as a gager's ticket, is given to the well owner at the time the oil Is run into the pipe line, and becomes a negotiable certificate. All petroleum received goes into a common store, from which deliveries are made in accordance with orders received from the own- ers. " The average capacity per 24 hours or a single main of two- inch pipe may be considered as about 40,000 gallons. From 1866 to March 31, 1876, the oil passed through the Empire Transportation Company's pipes amounted to 376,810,551 gallons of c^'ude petroleum. The quantity of petroleum held in store iu tanks located in the Pennsylvania oil region may be stated as averaging from 80,000,000 to 120,000,000 g-allons. In case of the conflagration of an oil tank the loss is shared by the owners, in the ratios of the relative quantities of the oil held for them at the time. From Karns City to the Alle- ghany Valley Railway the charge made for the use of the pipe line was 30 cents per barrel, an allowance of a little over two per cent, being made for leakage and waste." Capt, Gallon. Pipe lines, statistics of . "Ens;. If Min. Jour.," xxii. 299. "Scientific American?' xxxv. 130. "Sc. American Sup.,' 1 737, 796. Lire pump * Fig. 5725, p. 2359, "Mech. Diet.-' Oil Press. A press for extracting oil from seods, fruits, fatty matters, etc. See : LARD PRESS, Fig. 2811, p. 1255, "Mech. Diet.''; HYDRO- STATIC PRESS, p. 1156, Ibid. See OLIVE PRESS, infra. See also HOT PRESS (stearine), Fig. 1386, p. 471, supra; OIL 1'iiEss, Figs. 3383, 3384, pp. 1534, 1535, " Meek. Diet." ; STEAHINE PRESS, infra; SCREW PRESS; WEDGE PRESS, "Meek. Dirt." Oil Pump. 1. A pump for oil wells, usually very deep. See DEEP WELL PUMP, Fig. 1604, p. 683, "Mech. Diet." ; EJECTOR, Figs. 1833-1835, p. 775, Ibid. ; WELL APPARATUS, Plate LXXIV., p. 2758, Ibid. 2. A pump for oil pipe lines. Fig. 5725, p. 2359, Ibid. Oil Stone. A report on whetstones and oil- stone was made by J. M. Saffbrd ; "Centennial Ex- hibition Reports," Group I., vol. iii., p. 172, et seq. Oil Stove. A stove heated by petroleum. Fig. 1835. Single Oil Stove. Figs. 1835, 1836, show two forms, heated by lamps burn- ing kerosene. One has a three-hole top on a single stove, and the other has two stoves on a common base. Fig. 1836. Double Oil Stove. Refer to : Adams $ Westlalce . * "Eng. 4- Min. J.," Aug. 2, 1879. p. 10. Cooking, " Summer com- fort " . . . .' . . * "Iron Age," xix., April 5, p. 5. " Faery Queen " . . . * "Iron Age," xix., June 7, p 24. Whitney $ Hatt . . * "Iron Age," xix., June 28, p. 9. Oil Test'er. 1. A machine for testing the lu- bricity of oils. See LUBRICANT TESTER. See also Fig. 6330, p. 2539, "Mech. Diet." 2. Apparatus for testing explosive points of burn- ing oils. See PETROLEUM TESTER. See also Fig. 3666, p. 1676, "Mech. Diet.," Figs. 6317, 6318, p. 2536, Ibid., and memorandum on p. 1558 Ibid. A simple test for the presence of free acid in machine oils consists in pouring the oil to be tested over a layer of cu- prous oxide contained in a glass. (The ash of the copper- smith answers the purpose, since it contains this oxide.) If the oil contains either free, fatty, or resinous acid, the same will attack the oxide and color the oil green in a very short time. Slightly heating accelerates the action, which mani- fests itself in less than half an hour. This test is said to be very delicate, and more satisfactory than any hasty test here- tofore devised. Testing mach., Ashcroft * "Railroad Gazette," xxii. 511. Testing for acids ._ . . "Iron Age," xxi., May 23, p. 15. A pp., Ingram (( Stapfer * 'Scientific American Sup.," 1073. ' Engineering,' 1 ' 1 xxiii. 28, p. Mead * l Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 402. Millspaugh .... * 'Scientific Amer.,'' xxxiv. 182. Pease 'Scientific American,'''' xlii. 323. Tkurston * ' Engineering, " xxiii. 176. * -Manufact tf Builder," ix. 59. Cleveland, Withycombe . * "Railroad Gazette," xxi. 266. See also LUBRICANT TESTER. Oil'-well Pump. A pump for deep wells of narrow bore. See references under OIL PUMP, supi'a. In the Douglas pump, Fig. 1837, the stuffing box head has a branch pipe on which to connect the discharge pipe that leads to the tank. Forked metallic connections are screwed on to the short connecting-rod in the stuffer head and to the piston, and are themselves connected by a wooden rod to which they are attached. The piston has a brass ball valve. Threads are cut on the stuffing box head, and the lower cylinder, so as to screw on iron pipes between to lengthen out the pump to suit wells of any depth. O-i'ron-ware. (Ceramics.) See FAIENCE T/OIRON ; HENRI-DEUX WARE, supra.. O'le-o-jec'tor. A name adopted by the in- ventor, Mr. Royle, for a new form of cylinder and slide valve lubricator. The apparatus has an elevated reservoir from which the oil drips, drpp by drop, into the cup. A valve closes against internal pressure, and at each recurrence of low pressure a jet of steam drives the oil in a spray into the chamber or cylinder. " Engineering " xxx. 294. "Engineer" 1.281. O-le-om'e-ter. An instrument on the Gay Lussac hydrometer principle, for testing the rela- tive gravity of oils. OLEOMETER. 642 OLIVE PRESS. It has a weighted air bulb and graduated stem, and does not differ from other meters of its class, except in propor- tion and the index of graduations. Another test of the purity of oils proceeds by observation Fig. 1837. Jig. 1838. Oil-well Pump. of the tints of oils by adding a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid to 10 or 15 drops of the given oil on a glass plate, Oleometer. covering with white paper, and observing the tints produced : the method of M. Ileydenreich, of Stras- burg. The results obtained are affected, however, by the age of the oil ; in some degree by the mode of its extraction ; some oils give the same indications, and mixtures give curi- ous combined results difficult to read. LEFEBVRE'S TABLE OF DENSITIES OF OILS, FRESHLY PREPARED, TEMPERATURE, + 15 C. Oils. Density, Water, 10,000. Weight. Per Hecto- liter. Per Liter. 8.840 9.003 9.150 9154 9.157 9.160 9.167 9.170 9.170 9.180 9.207 9.210 9.235 9.240 9.253 9.270 9.270 9.270 9.282 9.306 9.350 Kilos. 88.40 90.03 91.50 91.54 91.57 91.60 91.67 91.70 91.70 91.80 92.07 92.10 92.35 9240 92.53 ' 9270 92.70 9270 92.82 93.06 93.50 Grams. 884. 900.3 915. 915.4 915.7 916. 916.7 917. 917. 918. 920.7 921. 923.5 924. 925.3 927. 927. 927. 928.2 930.6 935. Winter colza .... Winter turnip seed . . Summer turnip seed . . Neats' foot Summer colza .... Earth nut Olive Sweet almond .... Beech nut Grape seed . . . . . Sesame Whale Poppy seed Hemp seed Cod liver Skate liver Cameline Cotton seed Flax seed A Lie ianfr is grauuateu lur ueiisjutw comprised between 9,000 and 9,400, which includes the principal oils of commerce. The figuration on the scale comprises actually only the two middle figures, the units and thousands not being shown. For example : colza oil shows "15" on the scale. It is necessary to read 9(15)0 for the density; or 91.50 kilos for the weight per hectoliter ; or 915 grams per liter. On the left of the line of the graduations are the names of the oils. Thermometrical corrections are made by table. Adulterations give indications between the two oils so com- bined, according to their relative densities, and proportional quantities. The test is much complicated by the settling of the heavier oil to the bottom as the mixtures are unstable. Poppy-seed oil, mixed with olive oil, will form a lower stra- tum in 8 days of repose. Earth-nut and olive oil have the same weight ; hemp seed and cod-liver oil are also equal. The oleometer of Laurot, of Paris, is for testing by means of ascertaining the density at the boiling point of water in a bath of which the vessel of oil is placed. At the temper- ature 100 C., the oils differ more in relative densities The instrument of Gobley, Ela'ionietre, is designed simply to test the presence and quantity of poppy-seed oil in olive and almond oils. See Laboulaye's "Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," Hi., "Olcomelre." Ol'ive Press. A toggle-press for olive pressing was exhibited at the Paris Exposition, in 1878, by Samain, of Blois, France, and is shown in Fig. 1839. It is capable of being worked by hand or steam, though the pulley is not shown in the cut. It is an eminently compact arrangement, even in that land of fruit and presses. For the lower power the machine is worked by the crank, but when the higher power is required the upper handles are used to extend the arms of the toggle-levers. This nexor and extensor movement is found in some of our own presses, and is both powerful and compact. A sheet-iron barrel is shown in the press, and the tampon is of a corresponding shape. Fig. 1840, however, shows a cast-iron square box or caisson for containing the olives ; the wooden plug or tampon which en- ters the box and expresses the oil towards the side as well as down- ward ; also the sheet-iron barrel with perforated sides. Fig. 1839. ,,. ,,,. See also tables and lists, pp. 1551-1553, "Mech. Diet.' Toggle Press for Olives. (Samain of Blois.) Samain's Caisson. Tampon, and Barrel for Oil Press. A very compact combination of the screw and hydraulic press is made by Cassan Fils, of Jal- lieu, near Bourgoin (here), the hydraulic mechan- ism being in the sole of the pressure-block beneath the nut on the screw of the press. The vertical fixed screw has two nuts, L and /. AVhen high pressure is to be applied, the tank H is filled with war OLIVE PRESS. 643 ONE-RAIL RAILWAY. Vis. 1841. Combined Screw anrl llydruslatic Press. ( Gossan, fits, Jattieu.) ter, the valve of egress closed, and the lever E of the pump worked. The sole B descends as the water from the cistern His driven by the pump D into the cylinder 1 beneath the piston C. As soon as the circular mark O O appears, the course of the piston is complete. To sustain the pressure, the props M M are brought be- neath the nut L, which is adjusted in height to suit the occasion The exit-valve of the cylinder is opened, and the water returns into the tank H. The nut Jand the piston 6' then descend until the latter is at the bottom of the cylin- der. The valve is then closed, the pump worked, and the sole B driven down again as before. The follower enters the basin, which is on the summit of the piston of the hydraulic press. The pistons are worked alternately by a single pump. The press is adapted for wine, for the extraction of the oils of seeds, nuts, olives, and fish, and also for use in sucreries, paper, and soap factories. Its power varies according to the purpose for which it is con- structed, from 1,000 to 200,000 kilos. Fig. 1843. Hydraulic Oil Press (Mannequin, Troyes.) Fig. 1842 shows a compact hydraulic press by Mannequin, of Troyes, France. It is intended for nut oil, colza, rape, and turnip seed. Pig. 1844 " Clipper " Mower. Press ivit/i Gearing. (Mabille, Freres.) Fig. 1843 is a press operated by gearing, either by hand or power. The press has two speeds : First by levers in the pins of the master wheel, and secondly, by the hand-wheel and system of gearing. The capacity is stated as yield- ing from 15 to 20 liters each filling, requiring 20 minutes for perfect extraction ; 30 trips per day at 20 liters = 600 liters per 12 hours without reheating the cakes. Olives "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1912. One'-horse Mow'er. A mower of rela- tively small size, adapted to be drawn by one horse. That shown in Fig. 1844 has driving wheels 80" high, and cuts a swath 3.5'. One'-legged Rail'way. A railway sup- ported on a single row of posts, adapted to be traversed by a saddle-shaped car. Used in the Bradford oil region. One form was shown in operation in Fairmount Park, at the Centennial. See also Figs. 1856, 1857, pp. 792, 793, "Meek. Diet.," "Scientific American," xxxviii. 22. See also ONE-RAIL RAILWAY ; UNO-RAIL KAILWAT, infra. One'-light Reg'u-la'tor. (Electricity.) An order of regulators for voltaic arc lights, adapted to a single light ; as distinguished from a many- light, or polyphote regulator. Usually called a mo- nophote regulator. One'-rail Rail'way. One in which the car travels saddle-fash- ion upon a single rail. Instances are given in Fig. 1856, p. 792, "Mcch. Diet." See also ONE- LEGGED RAILWAY. A one-rail railway in the oil regions of Pennsylvania is 6 miles long. The car is not unlike an ordinary pas- senger car in appearance. It is 28' long, 8/ 2" wide, with seats running length- wise of the car, as in street cars. Under- neath the car, and running its entire length, are two sections or boxes, flush with the outer sides of the car, with suffi- cient space between them for the wheels and the rail they travel on. The sections serve to balance the car upon the rail, and also for the carriage of baggage. Transversely, below the floor at each end of the car are the axles of the 34" double-flanged wheels, the upper por- tions of the latter being boxed in, while the lower rest on the rail. The rail is ONE-RAIL RAILWAY. 644 OPEN HEARTH FURNACE. laid upon piles about ^ high Along the piles, on each side, about ;i foot below the running rail, are flat guide-rails. The inner sides of the two sections that come below the rail have friction rollers that run snugly on the guide rails. There are several points of similarity between this and the instances given on p. * 792, "Meek. ~Dict." See also Fig. 6872, p. 2683, Ibid. O'nyx Glass. A revival of the art to which we are indebted for the Portland Vase, which is formed of a dark "lass for the body and a white opal glass for the raised figures overlying it, but all in one piece. To produce such vases it is necessary to first envelop the whole surface of tin; vasr with a thick coating of white or opal glass, and then to cut nuay, down to the groundwork or body of darker glass, all that is not required to form the raised figures. These figures are sculptured and engraved in minute detail by steel points used as gravers, as stone cameos are wrought out of the solid onyx. The effects are the same. Pieces of onyx glass were shown in the Paris Exposition (British section) in 1878. See Prof. Blake's Beport, "Paris Exp. (J878) Reports,'' Hi. 28C. O'pal Glass. (Glass.) Calcined bones are added to the batch in the glass pot. A Philadelphia company made a sort of opal glass under the name of Hot-cast Porcelain. It consisted of Cryolite 10 White sand 20 Oxide of zinc 20 The dark discolored oxide answers the purpose very well. Fluor spar has also been used in making opal glass. O'pal Glass Slip. (Microscopy.) An attach- ment placed on the stage of the microscope, under the object, to modify or diffuse the light passing through the latter. O-paque' Disk Re-vol'ver. (Optics.) Beck's. A means for holding an object under a microscope so that five sides of a cube can be examined seri- atim while under investigation. The object being attached by gum to the surface of a small blackened metallic disk, this is fitted by a short stem pro- Fig. 1845. Opaque Disk Revolver. jecting from its under surface into a cylindrical holder ; the holder carrying the disk can be made to rotate round a ver- tical axis by turning the milled head on the right, which acts on it by means of a small chain that works through the horizontal tubular stem, whilst it can be made to incline to one side or to the other until its plane becomes vertical by turning the whole movement on the horizontal axis of its cylindrical socket. The supporting plate being perforated by a large aperture, the object may be illuminated by a lieberkuhn if desired. The disks are inserted into the holder, or removed from it with a pair of forceps constructed for the purpose. O-paque' Il-lu'mi-na'tor. (Optics.) Beck's. See VERTICAL ILLUMINATOR. O-pei'do-scope. A phonoscope. An instru- ment for making sound visible. A mirror on a membrane vibrated by the voice throws a ray upon a screen. "Scientific American," xxiv. 5. O'pen Back Press. One with standards set apart so that work can be put in or withdrawn, forward or rearward, and objects placed beneath the plunger, their length extending through the opening. O'pen Bead Sight. (Rifle.) Also known as aperture sight. See BEAD SIGHT. O'pen Die Ma-chine'. A screw-threading machine with open die on the traveling head. Open Back Press. When the bolt or tube is threaded, the halves of the die are undamped and the object removed. The die head is constructed to receive finished blocks or cases, with inserted chasers, forming the dies, thus doing away with the labor of fitting each die or chaser to the head. . H47. Open Die Mac/line. The machine can be quickly converted into a nut tapper by removing the case dies and putting in their place a steel block to which is secured a universal chuck for holding taps. The locking device is positive and requires but one move- ment of the lever, by hand, or automatically, for unlocking and opening the dies, when the desired length of thread has been cut, or closing and locking. The hollow spindle allows a piece to be threaded any distance desired. O'pen-er Lap'per. A machine for taking bale cotton, picking it, extracting dirt, and bring- ing it into a relatively clean and fleecy condition in a continuous lap, fit for feeding to the carding ma- chine. See LAPPER. O'pen Hearth Fur'nace. (Metallurgy.) 1. A form of furnace for obtaining iron by direct pro- cess from the ore. See BLOMARY ; HEARTH. 2. A form of furnace of the nature of a puddling furnace ; in the improved practice it has a remova- PLATE XXXI. THE " PERNOT " OPEN HEARTH FURNACE, SPRINGFIELD IRON WORKS, SPRINGFIELI., ILLINOIS. ( General plan of open hearth plant.) OPEN HEARTH FURNACE. 645 OPEN PLATE WHEEL. ble hearth and is worked by the Siemens' regenera- tive furnace. This regenerative furnace is shown in Figs. 1159, 1160, p. 888. *npra; and the 1'onsard regenerator in Figs. 1161, 1162 p. 387, Ibid. The materials employed are various : melted or uiiiiielted li ore, and \vith or without scrap : pig iron purified from silicon and phosphorus, with or without scrap; pig iron and scrap, renielted together in a cupola, or charged ho't or cold, together or separately, into the steel furnace ; a pig- inn: lia.th. and hot or mid steel or iron scrap, direct sponge or Catalan or puddled blooms charged into the bath. The operation is, to a U UUUllllg .... Process, Heath (1845) Full plant O'pen-hearth Steel. (Metallurgy.) Steel made by open-hearth process, as contradistinguished from blister, puddled, Bessemer, cast, etc. O'pen-ing Ma-chine'. See OPENER. The wolf (Fr. loup, the action being known as louvetage), or Erench opening machine, is shown in Figs. 1322, 1323, article " Laines," Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," ii., edition 1877. O'pen Plate Wheel. (Railway.) A cast- OPEN PLATE WHEEL. 646 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. Open Plate Wheel. iron single-plate wheel for street-cars, with openings cast in the plate between the ribs. O ' p e 11 Re-turn' Bend. A (J -shaped pipe-coupling having the branches open or distinct as in the letter U, and not close, or united by a fin. O'pen Sheave. One having spokes, or mortised openings ; in contradistinction to one turned solid, or with perfect web. O'pen Sight. A sight, through which the object is viewed. See list under SIGHT, where many examples may be found, as also pin, fin, and globe sights which are not open. Op'e-ra Flan'nel. A name given to a light flannel more highly finished than the ordinary ar- ticle, piece-dyed uniformly in many fancy colors, and not pressed. Oph-thal'mo-scope. 1. An instrument for the examination of the interior of the eye. The invention of Dr. Heltnholtz ; denoted on p. 1562, "Mech. Diet." Dr. Knapp's auto-ophthalmoscope is Fig. 3403, p. 1563, Ibid. 2. An instrument for testing the form of the eye. The metrical system of numbering the glasses has been adopted in preference to the statement by length of focus. The dioptric unit, propped by Proi. Bonders at the con- gress of oculists in 1876, is a lens of 1 meter focal distance ; and the following derivation : 2 d (dioptric) . . . . =r 0.5 meter focal length. 1 (I := 1 meter focal length. 0.5 d =2 meters focal length. The lens 2 d bears its relation to 1 d as having double the refracting power of the latter, and a lens of 5 d has one fifth the length of focus, or 5 times the refracting power of the lens 1 '/. and so on. The oculist's instrument for testing the focus of vision is a convenient arrangement of a series of lenses in a disk with numbers attached, so that after diagnosis the reading can be observed and the pre- scription for the optician readily given. Dr. Loring's ophthalmoscope is shown in Fig. 1850. The single disk contains 16 glasses on the metric system, the plus being numbered in white, and the minus in "red. The first Fig. 1850. row of numbers, or that just beneath the glass, shows the real value of the glass ; the second or inner row allows the result of the combinations when the quadrant is in position. The quadrant rotates immediately over tin 1 disk ami around the same center, and contains four glasses, 5, 16, and + 5, + 16 When it is not used the quadrant is beneath its cover The instrument then represents a simple ophthalmo- scope with 16 perforations, the series running with an inter- val of 1 rf, and extending from 1 to 7 plus, and from 1 to 8 minus. This is ample for all ordinary work, as the inter- val of 1 d is as close as even an expert usually desires, and can, with a little experience, be used for even very minute discrepancies For if in a given case the fundus is seen dis- tinctly with 1 d, and a little to spare, while 2 d blurs the picture, we know at once that the refraction must be between the two, or 1.5 d. If, however, for any reason we wish to prove this conclusion, we can bring up 5 d From this glass we get successive half-dioptric from 1 to 8 plus, and from 1 to 9 minus. If the higher numbers are desired these are obtained by combinations with those of the quadrant These progress regularly up to 16 '/, every dioptric being marked upon the disk ; above this, up to -f- 23 d, and 24 d, we have to simply add the glass which comes beneath the 16 d, turning always in the same direction. The mirror shown in the drawing is the tilting form. See also OPTOMETER, infra, and AMETROMETER, Fig 48, p. 29 supra. Op'ti-cal Glass. (Glass.) A flint glass of great density, owing to the quantity of lead it con- tains. See also STRASS. Op'ti-cal In'stru-ments, etc. Subjects con- cerning optical apparatus are considered under the following heads : Achromatic condenser. Achromatic right angle prism. Adapter. Adjusting cone. Air pump. Ametrometer. Amici prism. Amplifier. Analyzer. Anamorphoscope. Aplanatic searcher. Astrolabe Astronomical mirror. Aurora tube. Binocular body. Binocular telescope. Bioscope. Bull's eye condenser Burette. Camera. Camera lucida. Camera obscura. Camera stand. (Jane telescope. Capillary bottle. Celestial indicator. Cell. Cell cutter Chromostroboscope. Circle cutter. Claude Lorraine. Coddington lens. Collecting bottle. Compound spectacles. Compressor. Concave mirror. Condenser. Condensing lens. Cosmorama lens. Current slide. Cylindrical glass Dancing flame. Dark tent. Dark well. Demonstration lens. Diaphragm. Diatom prism. Dichroiscope. Disk cutter. Dissecting hook. Dissecting knife. Dissecting scissors. Double image ;>rism. Double nose piece. Draw tube. Dropping tube. Drying case. Elbow scissors. Engraver's glass. Entomological pin. Equatorial. Equilateral prism. Erecting glass. Eye glass. Eye piece. Eye piece indicator. Eye piece micrometer. Eye protector. Eye shade. Field camera. Field glass . Finder. Fishing tube. Flat mirror. Flower microscope. Focussing glass. Forceps. Frameless spectacles Franklin spectacles. Frog plate. Glass ring. Glass slip Glass stage. Glass trough. Glazier's diamond. Goggles. Goniometer. Graphoscope. Graphostereoscope. Growing cell. Hand magnifier Heliostat. Heliotellus. Heliotrope. Illuminator. Immersion objective. Indicator, eye-piece. Injecting syringe. Insect pin. Iris diaphragm. Kaleidoscope. Knife. Lamp. Landscape mirror. Lens. Lena grinding. Lever compressor. Lieberkuhn. Life slide. Light moderator. Linen prover. Live box. Live trap. Lorgnon. Louchettes. Loupe. Lunatellus. Maltwood finder. Mechanical finger. Megascope. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 647 ORE MACHINERY. Melanoscope. Meridian circle. Meridian instrument. Micrometer-microscope. Micrometer. Microscope. Microscope lamp. Microscope table. Microtome. Micro-spectroscope. Mineral holder. Mirror. Mounting instrument. Mounting stand. Mural circle. Mydriasis spectacles. Nachet's prism. Necessaire. Needle, dissecting. Needle holder. Nichol's prism. Nobert's plates. Nose glass. Nose piece. Object glass. Objective. Observatory. Opal glass slip. Opaque disk revolver. Opaque illuminator. Ophthalmoscope. Optometer. Orrery. Orthoscopic eye-piece. Pankratic microscope. Parabolic illuminator. Parabolic reflector. Parallel compressor. Photodrome. Picture lens. Pipette. Plane table. Planisphere. Pocket microscope. Polariscope. Polarizer. Polarizing apparatus. Polymicroscope Polyzonal lens. Prism. Prismatic glass. Projector. Pulpit spectacles. Quadrant. Quadruple nose-piece. Range finder. Optometer. Reading glass. Reflector. Repeating circle. Resonator. Reversible compressor. Revolving diaphragm. Right-angle prism. Sciopticon. Scissors. Screw live box. Section cutter. Section knife. Seed microscope. Selenite. Selenite stage. Shade. Shell piece. Side condenser. Side reflector. Siderostat. Siphon slide. Siren. Solar camera. Solar microscope. Spectroscope. Spectroscopic eye-piece. Spectrum scale. Spot lens. Spring compressor. Stage. Stage forceps. Stage micrometer. Stand. Stereopticon. Stereoscope. Strabismus spectacles. Student's lamp. Sun spot instrument. Syringe. Table. Telemeter. Telescope. Telescope clamp. Tellurian. Temples. Test plate. Test tube. Theodolite. Tightening key. Time globe. Tourmaline. Transit instrument. Trial sight. Trial spectacle frame. Trinopticon. Triple nose piece. Triplet. Tripod stand. Trough. Turn-table. Valentine's knife. Vertical illu- minator. Water lens. White cloud il- luminator. Window mirror. Writing diamond. Op-tom'e-ter. ( Optics. ) I . Badal's. A means of ascertaining the focal distance at which perfect vision is obtained. It consists of a tube containing a lens, and a scale movable at the other end of a graduated tube for registering the amount of varia- tion. 2. Risley's apparatus, Fig. 1851, is for the detection and measure- ment of astigmatism. The instrument consists of a stand, with solid foot, on the top of which is fixed a pair of semicircles, with their concavity upward, for the reception of trial-glasses, stenopaic slit, etc. They are graduated to correspond with the Nachet trial-frames. In front of the holders is a square horizontal bar, 20" long, gradu- uated in fractions of an inch. Upon this bar is adjusted a freely-moving carrier, Fig. 1851. designed to bear a series of cards containing test-types, and test-figures for astigmatism, including the system of radia- ting lines of Dr. Green, of St. Louis. The whole set is in- tended for use at 12" instead of 20". Some of the tests are cut in thin brass disks, and are to be used over an illumi- nated background, which is furnished by a plate of ground glass. A plate fitting the carrier has a central opening de- signed to receive these disks, and to permit their free rota- tion over a graduated scale corresponding to that upon the holders. One of this series of test-objects is a wire optoin- eter, consisting of a brass rim, with two groups, each con- taining five wires, stretched one millimeter apart, the two groups crossing the center at right angles. There is also an adjustable perimeter, which can be re- moved when not in use. See also OPHTHALMOSCOPE, Fig. 1850 p. 646 ; AMETROMBTER, Fig. 48, p. 29 ; ASTIGMATISM APPARATUS, Fig. 124, p. 53, supra. O'pus Con-su'tum. Cut cloth-work or ap- plique. O'ral In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) See EAR INSTRUMENTS. Or-ches'tri-oii. (Music.) An instrument con- structed on the principle of an organ, except that the tubes are caused to speak by means of a me- chanical arrangement similar to that used in a mu- sical box, instead of being operated by means of a key-board or manual. They frequently contain, in addition to the reed stops, metal pipes, bells, drums, etc., etc. ; in fact, anything that will give forth a sound when you strike or blow it; but no strings. See p. 108, Class XVI., vol. ii., Official Catalogue British Ex- hibition, 1862. Ore Car. (Railway.) A small, narrow-gage car, with four wheels, used on tracks in mines for transporting minerals to daylight. Ore Dry'er. A machine in which a vibrating screen furnishes the sand and metallic particles to the hopper, from which it is discharged in a regular stream, under the influence of the rotary agitators, into the drying cylinder below, that is kept heated by a furnace in the basement of the machine. As the sand dries and becomes less cohesive, the rotary heated cylinder discharges it through its spout into a receptacle beneath. Ore Ma-chin'er-y. See the following refer- Breaker, Blake Tin ore Lead ore Classifier . Wengler Sf Lowe Conceutrating-table . Concentration, Krom Crusher, Altien . . Baugh Sectional crush., Blake Blake Brown ..... Laboulaye's "Diet.," ii. (ed. 1877), Art. "Mctallurgie," Fig. 1770. Ibid., Fig. 1771. Ibid., Fig. 1772. 'Engineering,'' xxii. 329. 'Min. * Sc. Press,''' xxxiv. 73. 'Eng. If Min. Jour.," xxii. 139. 'Mm. If Sc. Press,'' xxxiv. 161. 'Eng. Min. Jour.,'' xxii. 284. ' Sc. American," xxxviii. 54. 'Eng. & Min. Jour.," xxiv. 419. 'Am. K. R.Jour.," Ii. 287- 'Man. Sf Builder,'' x. 241. 'Eng. 4; Min. Jour.," xxii. 296. 'Scientific American," xli. 306. "Eng. 4" Min. Jour.," xxii. 311; xxviii. 393. "Scientific American," xl. 194. "Eng. # Min. Jour.," xxvi. 184. "Eng. if Min. Jour.," xxviii. 53. "Eng. 4 1 Min. Jour.," xxiii. 294. "Eng. if Min. Jour.," xxviii. 134. "Engineering," xxi. 35, 64, 102, 106, 167, 209, 249, 298, 303. Dressing : " Report on Mechanical Dressing of Minerals," by E. F. Althans; "Centennial Exhibition Reports," 1 Group I., vol. iii., p. 207. Von Sparre Laboratory ore dresser . . . * p 228 Blake's Ore crusher * p. 238 Marsden's Ore crusher * p. 239 Krom's Roller crusher * p. 242 Coxe Bros. $ Co.'s Anthracite breaker . . * p. 246 Dingey, Horizontal mill * p. 248 Althan's Stamp cams * p. 251 Bairs Steam stamp * p. 258 Ball's Stamp null * p. 261 Phelps Dressing app., Allouez, Lake Superior . . . Dressing works, Clausthal ORE MACHINERY. 648 OSCILLATING ENGINE. Sievers If Co. Sorting drum * p. 269 Coal dressers p. 273 Concentrators p 279 Blei-scharley, Silesia Fine grain jig . . . * p. 288 Kasalorsky's Double jig * p. 289 Lake Superior, Copper jig * p. 290 Evrard's Decanteur * p. 297 Evrard's Hydraulic classificator . . . . * p 299 Krom's Dry ore concentrator * p. 303 Settling apparatus p. 307 Sluice tables p. 306 Electro magnetic concentrators . . p. 313 Evrard's Rotary picker and sorter p. 322 Feeder, Hendy . . . * "Min. (f ISc. Press,'' xxxiv. 271. Tulloch * "Min. if Sc. Press," xxxiv. 319. Stevenson .... "Min. If Sc. Press," xxx. 323. Tultoch * "Min. If Sc. Press,'' xxxv. 401. Furnace, revol., Bruckner* "Iron Age," xvii., Jan. 13, p 1. Eames *" Scientific American Sup.,'' 714. Mill, Paul "Scientific American Sup ," 596. Process, ammonia. Clarke 4" Smith, Br. . " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' 1 xv. 108. Hallway "Iron Age," xxiv., July 24, p. 3. Monnier *" Scientific American Sup.," 771. Stewart "Min. & Sc. Press,'' xxxiv. 266. Davis * "Min. if Sc. Press," xxxviii. 137. Roasting furnace, Fryer * "Scientific American Sup.," 172. Shaft, Ramage ... * "Iron Age," xxii., Nov. 28, p. 5. Separator, magnetic. Babcock if Swell . . Magnetic, Edison . . *" Engineer," 1. 6, 91.' Sifter * Laboulaye's "Diet." ii , ed. 1877. Lalande * Ibid., Fig. 1776, "Metallurgie," Fig. 1773. Stamp, Ball .... * "Iron Age," xxi., May 9, p. 1. Direct act., pneumatic Shall, Br * "Engineer," xliii. 96. Washing mach., Curson Iron Works, Fr. . . * "Engineering," xxvi. 80. * Laboulaye's "Diet.," ii. ed. 1877, Art. "Metallurgie," Figs. 1765- 1769. . * "Scientific American Sup.," 2227. . * "Scientific American Sup.," 1322. . * "Eng. if Minnig Jour.," xxi. 247, 295, 303, 319, 345, 415, 439. Or'gan. See the following references : History of the organ in report of H. K. Oliver on group XXV. in vol. vii., "Centennial Exhibition Reports," p. 35. Parlor organs, Ibid., p. 45. Blower . . . * Figs. 3426, 3427, p. 1576, "Mech. Diet." Backus *Fig. 7120, p. 2743, Ibid. * Hydr. Blower, Fig. 1401, p. 475, supra. Electricity, applied to . * " Telegraphic Journal," iv. 84. * " Manuf. Sf Builder," viii. 64. "Scientific American Sup., 1 ' 724. Electric & pneum. appli. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 117. Cincinnati Music Hall compared with others " Sc. American," xxxviii. 324. Pipes * Laboulaye's "Diet.," "Orgues," ed. 1877. Reeds, Garde: French . . , Taylor . . Works, Clausthal s, manufacture of . "Scientific American," xl. 110. en City Cathedral . "Scientific American," ~s.li. 385. Or'gan, Au'to-mat'ic. See ATJTOPHONE, p. 57, supra. Or'o-graph. (opos, a mountain.) An instru- ment for mapping undulating or mountainous sur- faces. As constructed by M. Schrader, the instrument consists of a circular paper-covered plate with central vertical axis car- rying a sleeve which can turn round freely. On the top of the sleeve is a telescope on a frame, the movements of which in altitude are communicated to a pencil, and transformed by gearing into to-and-fro movements. If the telescope re- volves in azimuth, the style describes a circle on the plate ; a motion in azimuth compounded with one in altitude, gives an oblique line, an outward or inward curve ; the trace pro- duced being farther from or nearer to the central axis, as the movement in altitude increases or diminishes. A spirit- level is fixed to the telescope, and graduated scales give the value in height of any point on the tracing. Or'o-heli-o-graph. An instrument invented by M. Noe, and described in a memoir to the Pho- tographic Society of France. Oroheli It consists of a camera, the sensitive plate forming the nuer horizontal floor, and the lens looking up perpendicu- arly to the sky. Over the lens s placed a silvered mirror, half Fig. 1S52. lobe-shaped, completely circu- .ar on its plan and parabolic :hrough its vertical section. The p result is that an image of all sur- rounding objects reflected from this half-ball-shaped mirror is received by the lens, anil tr;in~- mitted thereby to the sensitive plate underneath, with its sur- face forming a right angle with ;he axis of the lens and circular mirror. By this means a circular . panoramic view of the horizon is jbtained, as seen from the station ;he oroheliograph occupies. This instrument is described in "Scientific American,' 1 xxxviii., 40, * 116. See also PHOTOGRAPHOMETER, infra. Or'tho-pe'dic Ap-pli'an-ces. Apparatus [or talipes, eversion of the feet, etc. See Report by Dr. J. H. Thompson, of Group XXIV , * in vol. ii., "Centennial Exhibition Reports." Darrach't raw- lide appliances, *. Dr. Stillman's "Contributions to Orthopeedic &> "Medical Record," August 30, 1879. See also CLUB-FOOT APPLIANCES AND SPLINTS, pp. 203. 204 ; URVATURE APPARATUS, p. 236, supra. Or'tho-scopic Eye'piece. A combination of lenses used in an eye-piece, giving a very large Held of view. Kellner's orthoscopic eye-piece is achromatic, and has the advantage of an actually flat field and a straight, flat image of any object, correct in perspective, distinct in its whole ex- tent. It consists of three lenses, the bi-convex col- lective lens C, the flatter _, curve of which is tow- ard the object-glass, and the achromatic lens O, which is composed of two lenses, similar to the Fig. 1853. Orthoscopic Eye-piece. achromatic object glass. b b is a diaphragm. O-ru'go. From Latin Auriic/o, the jaundice, referring to the yellow color induced by oxidation. The peculiar oxidation seen on ancient bron/.os, and which gives character to the antique medals and statuary in that alloy. See PATINA. Os'cil-la'ting En'gine. Engines with oscil- lating cylinders are shown in Figs. 3430-3433, pp. 1578, 1579, " Mech. Diet. "; Screw Propeller En- gines, *p. 2073, Ibid. See also MARINE ENGINE, supra. The type of paddle engine, shown in Figs. 1854, 1855, has been more used in Great Britain than any other on account of the large power which can be provided in a very limited space ; the piston rods working direct on to the crank pins, there is little loss by friction except that due to the friction of the trunnions. The steam enters the cylinders through the outer trunnions, and, when it has done its work, passes through the inner trunnions to the condenser. The air- pump is driven from a crank central between the two cyl- inders, and the two feed-pumps are driven by eccentrics on the paddle shaft. The bearings for the paddle shaft are car- ried on a strong entablature, which is supported on wrought iron stays or columns from a massive base plate. Such engines are employed on the English channel and river steamers, and the form of the framing is such that, while light, it has strength to resist the strain caused by the work being suddenly thrown on one paddle, while the next moment the deep immersion is sufficient to greatly retard the normal speed of the engine. Oscillating cylinder eng., " Lord of the Isles " . * "Scientific American Sup.," 1458. Penn Laboulaye's "Diet.," "Bateau a Vapeau," IV., Figs. 3415, 3416. Oscillating steam engine. Roberts * "Man. Sf Builder," x. 145. For light draft steamers. Wilson, Br * "Engineering," xxiii. 341. Wheel, feathering. Williams *" Scientific American," xxxvi. 374. OSCILLATOR 649 OUTSOLE TACKING MACHINE. Oscillating Paddle Engine. Os'cil-la'tor. A machine, the principal or an important functional portion of which vibrates in a curved track ; e. g., the oscillating-cylinder steam- engine, the oscillating-shuttle sewing machine. Os'cil-lom'e-ter. An instrument for measur- ing the angle through which a ship rolls at sea. Clark. *" Engineering," xxvii. 406. 1855 Oscillating Paddle Engine. (Side Elevation.) Os'mo-gene. An osmotic apparatus of M. Dubruiifaut, adapted to the refining or fabrication of sugar. Described in Labonlaye's "Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," tome iii., article " Sucre," Figs. 78, 79, " Osmose." Os'te-o-phor. (Sui-f/ical.) A powerful bone forceps with long serrated jaws. Hamilton. Fig. 53 c, p. 12, Part I., Tiemann's "Armani. Chirurg." Os'te-ot'o-my In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) See BONE INSTRUMENTS, p. 119, supra. Os'te-o-trite. (Surgical.) A conoidal-shaped bone-drill. Marshall. Fig. 78 c, p. 22, Part I., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." Os U'te-ri Di-la'tor. See CERVIX UTERI DILATOR, "Mech. Diet." et supra. O-the'o-scope. A form of radiometer devised by Mr. Crookes, which revolves, even though desti- tute of a glass envelope. " The first form of otheoscope described by M. Crookes consists of a four-armed fly, each carrying a vane of thin clear mica. At one side of the glass bulb which incloses the apparatus there is a vertical plate of mica blackened on one f;ico, and so placed that each vane closely approaches it as the mill rotates. If light be allowed to fall only upon the clear vanes, no motion is produced ; but if the light shine upon the black plate the vanes instantly begin to ro- tate, as though repelled by a molecular wind blowing from this surface. The movement is therefore produced by pres- sure generated on a fixed part of the apparatus, by which the movable portion is propelled. As this driving-surface is stationary, it is not restricted in weight, size, or shape; and hence the modifications of which the otheoscope ad- mits are well-nigh endless." "Chemical News," May 4, 1877. Out'crop. (Mining.) That portion of a vein appearing at the surface. Out'er-hung Brake. (Railway.) One in which the brake shoes and beams are attached out- side of the wheels. Out'rig-ger Hoist. A hoisting apparatus rigged out from an outer wall ; as distinct from the hatchway hoist. * " Scientific A mer." xxxviii. 223. Out'side Mold'ing Ma-chine'. That form of wood-planing machines in which the cutter is on an overhung spindle ; in contradistinction to the inside molding machines, in which the cutter is be- tween the bearings of the spindle. See Fig. 3198, p. 1467, "Mech. Diet." Out'sole Tack'ing Ma-chine'. One which drives a headed nail with a clinching point, which buries itself in the insole, to secure the outsole to the insole for future sewing or pegging. OVAL TENONING MACHINE. 650 OVERWINDING CHECK. O'val Ten'o-uing Ma-chine'. A machine for making oval tenons, on the ends of spokes where they enter the felly. The diameter of the tenon is longer with the grain of the wooil in the felly than across it. This form of tenon reduces the risk of splitting the rim in driving it on the tenon, and dis- penses with wedging. The wheel is held between the chucks, which receive the ends of the hubs, and the chucks are supported on a sliding frame, which can be adjusted to cut the spokes to the de- sired length. The spoke being operated on is held between Fig. 1856 Oval Tenoning Machine. two geared clamps, which open and close simultaneously, bringing the center of the spoke to the center of the revolv- ing disks. The upper part of the machine in which the disks revolve has a vibrating motion given to it by the weighted hand lever. By depressing this lever the cutter-head is brought forward, the saw cutting off the end of the spoke and bring- ing the cutter-head up to the spoke, cutting the oval, which may be varied in size to suit the work required. Oval lathe .... Heckendoii 1 s patent , No. 222.901. O-va'ri-ot'o-my In'stru-ments. (Surgical.} Instruments for the extirpation of ovarian tumors. The list includes : Ligator. Ecraseurs. Clamps. Vulsellum forceps. Vulsellum hook. Tenaculi. Blunt hook. Tissue and sac forcep Tenaculum forceps. Pedicle forceps. Polypus forceps. Uterine fixator. Polyptome. Pages 92-99, Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." O'ver-flow' Gage. (Gas.) An attachment to a station gas-meter. It performs a double pur- pose : (1.) it maintains a true measuring water line on the inside of the drum, insuring accurate registration; and (2) it produces a, constant change of the water contained in the meter to keep it free from impurities, especially ammonia. See STA- TION METER. O'ver-hand Knot. (Nautical.) A form of knot shown at 1, Fig. 2777, p. 1240, "Mech. Diet." O'ver-head' Trav'el-ing Crane. These are of five descriptions : 1. Those with the engine and boiler moving with the load. 2. Travelers having the engine and boiler flxed at one end of the beams. 3. Travelers driven by a line of shafting. 4. Travelers driven by a high-speed cord. 6. Travelers driven by a slow-speed wire rope. See Fig. 3451, p. 1585; Fig. 5652, p. 2335 ; Figs. 6623, 6624, pp. 2618, 2619, "Mech. Diet." Traveling crane, 50 ton Alcoclc, Br. . . . * "Engineering,'" xxv. 85. Woolwich, Br. . . "Scientific American Sup. ," 838. Laboulayt's "Diet.,"' iv., " Bchafait- dage," Fig. 21. O'ver-head' Work. Countershafting and gearing, when overhead. O'ver-hung' Door. One supported from above, as the sliding door of barns and cars. O'ver-hung' Head. A cutter on a spindle outside of the bearing, as in outside molding ma- chines. Fig. 3198, p. 1467, "Mech. Diet." O'ver-pick' Loom. One with a picking or shuttle driving arrangement above ; in contradis- tinction to under or side picking motion. O'ver-pres'sure Valve. A valve which opens when a predetermined pressure in a boiler has been reached. A SAFETY VALVE, which see. A special form by Hopkinson at Paris Exposition, 1878. * "Scientific American Supplement," 2192. O'ver-shot' Sep'a-ra'tpr. (Agric.) One in which the sheaf grain is fed into the threshing ma- chine above the cylinder. O'ver-wind'ing Check. A device to cast loose a cage from the hoist when a certain height is attained, to avoid accident by carrying the cage over the drum. In the device shown in Fig. 1857 a bar connects the cable with the chain attached to the cage in such a manner that Fig. 1857. Overicimling Check. as the straight bar is drawn over the pulley or sheave, in case the cage is hoisted too high, this bar will sopa- rate and the cage be held in place by the safety clutches, while the rope or cable may pass over the sheave without taking the cage with it. This bar is formed in two pieces, having at one end a hook and at the other a socket into which the hook engages. Light rivets are driven through both hook and socket. As long as the cage is held by the cable the bar will remain as one piece ; but as soon as the cage is raised too high and the bar is drawn partly over the sheave, the bending action of the straight bar passing over the circular sheave breaks the rivets and throws the hook out of the socket. In Lane's apparatus the hand of the dial does all the work of stopping the cage. When it moves round to the point which indicates that the cage is nearing the mouth of the shaft, the hand comes in contact with the end of a lever, which moves a second lever attached to the end of a rod which reaches to the engine, and there moves a third lever that gradually shuts off the steam and stops the machinery. In the overwinder check at the Justice mine on the Corn- stock, at the depth of 100 feet below the top of the shaft, the cage moves a lever and half the steam is shut off at the engine. The cage then ascends at a moderate speed, passes the proper stopping-place, and moves on upward toward the sheaves. Just before it reaches the point of danger, how- ever, the cage presses another lever, a powerful brake is ap- PLATE XXXIII. FRKNOII OYSTER IMPLKMKNT3. See page 051 OVERWINDING CHECK. 651 OYSTER RANGE. plied to the hoisting reel, and the cage, with its load, is in- stantly stopped. See DETACHING HOOK, Fig. 802, p. 253, supra. For mine cages . "Min. & Sc. Press,'' xxxvii. 369: xxxvi., 326. "Iron Age," 1 xxii., August 1, p. 19. Laboulaye's "Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," iv., ed. 1877, article "Parachute," 1 treating of safety apparatus for cages in mines, etc. Ox'i-dized Sil'ver. " The color of so-called oxidized silver depends on sulphurization. The silver goods are dipped into a boiling-hot solution of calcium sulphide or hyposulphite of soda, or into ammonium sulphide, until they have taken the proper color. ' Old silver ' is a coloration pro- duced by laying on a mixture of graphite and oil of turpentine, or some fatty matter, and cleaning off with blotting paper until no more color conies awav. Copper acquires a handsome look if treated in the same manner. If it is desired to varnish oxidized silver, take 18 parts alcohol, 3 red ar- senic, and 1 castor oil, and a non-transparent var- nish can be made, which rnay be diluted with its own volume of alcohol, if a particularly thin coat- ing is wished." "Engineering and Mining Jour- nal." Oys'ter Cul'ture. LIST OF UNITED STATES PATENTS. 125, 470 Oyster basket of galvanized metal strips. 127,903 Oyster nursery . 130,631 Hoisting bucket, bottom of angle iron and bars. 149,921 Sunken net to keep off star-fish. 212,389 Tank for fattening oysters ; may be lowered into the wafer. 217,558 Oyster lloat to keep oysters submerged. 22 1. 326 Oyster feeder ; two tanks with inclined bottoms. Oys'ter Dredge. LIST OP UNITED STATES PATENTS. 25,680 Dredge rope runs over a pulley ; landed over roller. Reissued February 4, 1868. 27,213 Rake runs on sled runnel's. 35,324 Guards or fenders on dredge head. 38,436 Conical wheels to roller on gunwale. 45,904 Fenders rods to aid getting dredge over roller. 55,228 Flange on roller to aid in getting dredge aboard. 59,812 Davit on gunwale to raise dredge. 65,442 Screw roller on gunwale. 74,^57 Aids in getting dredge aboard. 78,509 Construction of dredge head. 81,304 Adjustable rake, and clevis. 85,936 Guides for dredge rope to roller. 89,323 Guide bars on dredge head. 97,420 Wire basket behind dredge rake. 109,104 Winding apparatus for dredge rope. 120,463 Adjustable rake. Float to keep it vertical in sink- ing. 121,227 Open-arched cage to dredge. 121,249 Windlass. 122,423 Construction of dredge. Automatic adjustment of rake. Automatic adjustment of rake. 138,164 Construction of rake. 141,439 Bottom opens to discharge oysters. 144,169 A dredging scoop, with angular blade and prongs. 178,493 Windlass. 197,341 Windlass. 217,031 Hoisting drum and shaft. 220,827 Dredge winder. Steam dredge, Graces. . "Scientific American Sup.," 3947. Oys'ter Im'ple-ments. These are of vari- ous kinds, and the practices of countries and dis- tricts differ materially. See under the heads: OYSTER TONGS, RAKES, etc. Plate XXXIII. is a collection of the implements used in France, in the parks of St. Brieuc, Arca- chon, and the Island of Re on the coast of Bre- tagne : 1. a, Wooden rake for cleaning oyster park. 6, Rake for moving oysters, e, Rake for cleaning oyster parks. 2. Wooden rake for removing o\>ters from the parks. 3. a, Shovel for lifting oysters from the inud. 6, Shovel for use in the parks. e, Wooden shovel for washing collectors after removal from the parks. d, Wooden rake for cleaning parks and basins. e, Iron shovel for lifting oysters from the mud. 4. Fork for hunting and destroying eels. 5. Shovel for throwing water on oysters after they have been taken from the beds. 6. Wooden rako for removing oysters from the parks. 7. Two-pronged hook for raising oyster basket. 8. Shovel to select oysters in boxes, taking only the large ones. 9. Knives for breaking up bunches of grown oysters. 10. Sifter for separating different sizes of oysters. 11. Trap for taking crabs. 12. Shovel for raking oyster beds. 13. Double hook for raising bunches of oysters. 14. Knife for breaking up bunches of grown oysters. 15. Tool for boring holes in tiles. 16. Tool for boring holes in tiles. 17. Knife for breaking up bunches of grown oysters. 18. Lock for letting water in and out of the parks. 19. Knife for breaking up bunches of grown oysters. 20. Caisson for raising oysters. 21. Caisson for breaking oysters after being taken from the tiles. 22. Iron rake for raking oyster beds. 23. Drag net with rake. (Prohibited in France.) 24. Galvanized wire basket for washing oy.-ter.-. 25. Drag-net, used only under surveillance of the maritime guard. 26. Stationary nippers for separating the oyster from the tiles by breaking the tiles. 27. Hand-barrow for carrying oysters. 28. Crab-trap made of wood and galvanized wire. 29. Machine for separating oysters of different sizes. 30. Rotary rake for removing clay and slime from oyster beds. 31. Crab or lobster trap made of galvanized wire. 32. Sifter for separating oysters. 33. Machine for separating oysters and scraping them from the slates. Oys'ter Rakes and Tongs. v LIST OF UNITED STATES PATENTS. 19,516 Grapnel jaws, with locking catch. 44,634 Barrel used as a drum in hoisting rakes. 58,426 Pair of rakes, with handles and lever catch. 75,550 Pair of rakes, with lazy tongs. 76,697 Hinged rake-heads. 105,495 Grapple tongs. 107,740 Grapple tongs. 135,167 Construction of rake. 201,559 Construction of tongs. Oys'ter Range. A cooking arrangement, with the various appurtenances for stewing, broil- Fig. 1858. and Chop-house Range. OYSTER RANGE. 652 PADLOCK. ing, roasting, frying, baking of oysters. To cite the possibilities would be to copy a page of a pos- sible bill of fare. Oys'ter Tongs. A pair of hinged claws which are approached to gather the oysters, and then form a tray in which they are contained' while be- ing lifted on board. Fig. 1869. Oyster Tongs. O'zo-ke'rite. A fossil gum, found in Africa. Cire fossil, Weil Refined . . " Tectinologiste,'' xxxviii. 3 " Technologists, 1 ' xlii. 430. O'zone Ap'pa-ra'tus. In M. Bertholet's ap- paratus for the thermic formation of ozone, the gas is produced by means of the silent electric dis- charge. It consists of a glass tube to which are connected two smaller tubes. A fourth tube is placed in the large tube. The apparatus is filled witha conducting liquid, water acidu- lated with sulphuric acid, and inserted in a test tube filled 'with the same. The electrodes communicate with the liquid in the interior tube, and with that in the test glass. The silent discharge takes place in the annular space between the tubes and acts on the oxygen which enters at one of the smaller tubes and escapes at the other. The gas is thus trausfonucd into ozone through the influence of the current. Ozone Machine, liartlftt * L ' Si-it ntijir American,''' xxxv. 33. Apparatus * tl Scientific American Slip.," 727. Leeds *" Scientific American Sup.," 1 ^453. Ozonizer * "Man. If Builder," 1 xii. 133. Generator, Leeds . . . "Scientific American, 1 ' xl. 24'2. Ozonoscope " Scientific American Sttp.," L4C4. P. Pa-chym'e-ter. A Viennese instrument which determines the thickness of paper to the 1-1 000th of an inch. The micrometer caliper (which see) has much more delicate adjustment. Fack'ing. A Fig. i860, stuffing around a part to prevent leak- age of a fluid. Various materials and applications are given under PACK- ING, p. 1590; and PISTON PACKING (45 citations), pp. 1717, 1718, " Mech. Diet." The packing shown is that of Ottenson, Ham- burg. It is a wick- twisted hose stuffed with mineral and animal grease, and wound around the piston rod in a continuous coil. The gland being screwed Steam Parkins. down upon the packing expresses sufficient of the lubricant. Cf. Gun-metal, Paul I Metallic Jackson .... Katzenstein . . . Steam, Phillips . . Hemp and Soapstone Wire cloth & caoutchouc. 'Engineer,' 1 ' xlix. 439. ' Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' 2739. 'Scientific American Sup.," 1 1827. 'Iron Age," 1 xxv., April 29, p. 7. 'Scientific American,'' xlii. 150. 'Iron Age," 1 xx., Nov. 29, p. 9. Beardmore . . . . * "Iron Age, r xxv., April 29, p. 9. Pack'ing Ex-pand'er. A spring to spread the packing of a piston or valve against the surface upon which it traverses. See numerous examples in Fig. 3759, p. 1716, "Mech. Diet." Pack'ing Gland. An annular piece, the cover of a stuffing box, which is screwed or othenyise forced into the stuffing box to expand the packing against the piston. See PACKING, supra. Pack'ing Leath'er. A leathern ring on a pis- ton or plunger, traversing against the cylinder or barrel to make a tight joint therewith. Pack Sad'dle. The Spanish military pack saddle is shown in Fig. 1861. The saddle has an adjustment of the sides relatively so as to fit the width of shoulders of the pack mule. The pommel and cantle afford points of attachment for the breast, buttock, and belly bands, and also for the chains by which the load is fastened on to the saddle. The body is sheet iron, with a Fig. 1862. covering of leather sewed with wire. The lining is of thick- nesses of hair felt secured by clasps to the saddle and capa- l'ies not have successive folds, but its triangular stalks 3aper, wnicn nas no rice m ic uujuvuum shaving, made as just described (of the papyrus), from the pith of the Aralia papyrifera, which grows wild in Formosa. See p. 1938, '"Mech,. Diet." Materials for paper, shown or cited at the Centennial Ex- hibition, 1876: Common and Botanical Names. Exhibited from. Maguey, Agava Americana Mexico, etc. Maguey, Agava Mexicana Mexico. Spanish broom (Esparto), Macrochola tenacissima . Spain. Banana leaves, Mitsa Egypt. Haifa, Ligeum Spartium Africa. China grass (Bhea), Battimeria nii-ea \ictoria. New Zealand flax, Phormium tenax .... New Zealand. PAPER. 655 PAPER. Agave, Fourcroya gigantea Tropical America. Cow-itch tree, Lagunaria Pattersoni . . . Norfolk Island. Spanish bayonet, Yucca aloifolia Victoria. Spanish bayonet, Yucca filamentosa Victoria. Adam's needle, Yucca gloriosa Victoria. Adam's needle, S/iarinannia- Africana Africa. Adam's needle, Hibiscus heteropkyllus . . . Queensland. Queensland hemp, Si tin rttusa Queensland. Victorian hemp, Sida pulcliella Victoria. Queensland grass cloth, Pipturus propinquus . Queensland. Flame tree, Braehychilon anrifolium . . . . Queensland. Bottle tree, Stercu/id rupestris Queensland. Tree nettle, Laportia gigas Queensland. Mulberry (Kuwa) Japan. Wild cherry ( Hi-nn-ki) Japan. Sisal hemp, Agave sisilana Yucatan. Pineapple, Ananassa saliva Jamaica. Pineapple, Bromeliu, syli-fstris Mexico. Pineapple, Bronufia penguin Jamaica. Mohant tree, Hibiscus arboreus .... Tropical America. Okra, Malva Jamaica. Yercum, Calatropis gigantea . . Jamaica. Bow-string hemp, Sausfviern Zeylanica . . . . Jamaica. Ife tree, Sanseviera Angolensis . Angola. Fig tree, Ficus speciosa Brazil. Milk weed, Asclepias Brazil. Diss, Cyperus dices Egypt. Cat-tail, Typha latifolin Egypt. Neilgherry nettle, Urtira helerop/iylla India. Puyba (puya flax), BrzJimeria ptioya India. Kangra hemp, Cannabis satii-a India. Barriala, SitJa rhuijibuidu. India. Brown hemp, Hibisms rnnnabinus Bombay. Roselle, Hibiscus sab, tariff a India. Indian mallow, Abitlilon Indicuin India. Sun hemp, Crotalariajnncea India. Jubbulpore hemp, C'rotalaria tenuifolia India. Jute, Corchorus olitorius India. Nettle, Urtica incisa Queensland. Paper mulberry, Kroussonetia papyrifera . , Queensland. Hollyhock tree, Hibiscus splendens . . New South Wales. Hollyhock tree, Abutilon venosuin S. Amer Hollyhock tree, Abutilon mottis S. Amer Hollyhock tree, Abutilon Bedfordianum . Hollyhock tree, Abutilon striatuin 3. Amer S. Amer Ribbon tree (lace bark), Plagianthus bttulinus . N. Zeala id. Club rush, Scirpus Jiuciatilis Australia. Sedge grass, Carex appressa Australia. Gallingall rush, Cy/itnis titcidus Australia. Gallingall rush, Carex pseudo-cyperus Australia. Sword grass, Ga/inia psittacorum Australia. Sword grass, Cyperus vaginatus Australia. Sword grass, Lepidosperma elatius Australia. Coast sword grass, Lepidosperma gladiatum . . Australia. Slender sword grass (mat grass), Lepidosperma fiexuosa Australia. Black reed (cutting grass), Cfadium radula . . . Australia. Stringy bark, Eucalyptus obliqua Australia. Messmate, Eucalyptus fissilis Australia. Swamp tea-tree, Melaleuca ericifolia Australia. Swamp tea-tree, Melaleuca genistifolia .... Australia. Swamp tea-tree, Melaleuca squarosa Australia. Flame tree, Sterculia acerifolia . . . .New South Wales. Bottle tree, Sterculia diversifolia Victoria. Bottle tree, Sterculia lucida . . Victoria. Bottle tree, Sterculia frztida Malaysia. Lye plant, Commersonia Fraseri Queensland. Lye plant, Dombeya Natalensis Natal. Wire grass ; Elirhasta tenacissima Australia. Wire grass, Poa Australis Australia. Plume grass, Arunda conspicua . ... New Zealand. River rush, Isolepus nodosa Australia. Sea-coast rush, Juncus maritimus Australia. Sea-coast rush, Juncus vaginatus Australia. Sea-coast rush, Dianella luti folia Australia. Sea- coast rush, Dianella longifolia Australia. Dragon tree, Dracatna Draco Teneriffe. Spear lily, Doryantkes excelsa .... Eastern Australia. Bulrush, Typha angustifolia Australia. Jaggery palm, Caryota urens Queensland. Screw pine, Pandanus utilis Australia. Common rush, Juncus pauciflorus Australia. Tussock grass, Xerotes longifolia Australia. Currijong, Pimelia axiflora Queensland. Currijong, Dais cotinifolia Natal. Currijong, Pittosporum cranifolium .... . Natal. Manila hemp (abaca), Musa lextilis Philippines. Baobab, Adamsonia digitata Tropical Africa. Baobab, Strelitzia regina South Africa. Baobab, Heliconia gigantea Tropical America. Urania ( Ravenala), Madngascariensis .... Madagascar. Urania, Pterospermum acerifolium Mauritius. Urania, Guazama wtmifolia Mauritius. Urania, Meloc/iia liliacefolia South Africa. Sago palm, Sagus ruffia Mauritius. Sago palm, Sagus saccherifera Mauritius. Sago palm, Livistona mauritiana Mauritius. Sago palm, Sanseviera ztbriiia Mauritius. Sago palm, Sanseviera latifolia Mauritius. Sago palm, Sanseviera cylindrica Mauritius. Sago palm, Colocasia antiquorum India. Mulberry, Morus tartarica Tartary. Mulberry, A/pinia magnifica Tropical Africa. Mulberry, Cordiamyxa Egypt. Mulberry, Ixova corylifolia Panama hat-straw, Carludovica palmata .... Ecuador. Bamboo, Bambusa vulgaris Asia. Tho Victoria collection at the Philadelphia Exposition embraced samples of paper made from plants growing in Victoria, Australia, were as follows : PAPER MADE FROM BARK OF Paper mulberry tree, Broussonetia papyrifera. Satvin Canarietifis. Dais continifolia. Stringybark, Eucalyptus obliqua. Messmate, Eucalyptus Jissilis. Soft-leaved abutilon, Abutilon mollis. Veined lantern flower, Abutilon venosum. Currijong, Pimelia axiflora. Lye plant, Commersonia Fraseri, Queensland. Thick-leaved pittosporum, Pittosporum crassi folium. Queensland grasscloth plant, Pipturus propinquus. Common tea tree, Melaleuca ericifolia. Broom-leaved tea tree, Melaleuca genisti folia. Victorian bottle tree, Sterculia diversifolia. Flame tree, Sterculia acerifolia. Chinese grasscloth plant, Bce/imeria nitiea. Victorian hemp, Sida pulchella. Queensland hemp, Sida retusa. Victorian yellow-wood, Melaleuca squarrosa. PAPER MADE FROM STEMS OF Victorian nettle, Urtica incisa. Ehrharta tenacissima. Carex appressa. Carex pseud o-cyperus. Isolepeis nodosa. Few-flowered rush, Juncus pauciflorus. PAPER MADE FROM STEMS AND LEAVES OP Gahnia psittacorum , var. erythrocarpum. Tall sword rush, Lepidosperma elatius. Tall palm lily, Cordyline indivisa. New Zealand flax, Pliormium tenax. Pampas grass, Gynerium argenteiim. Plume grass, Arundo conspicua. Giant lily, Fourcroya gigantea. Cyperus sp. Coast rush, Juncus maritimus. Small sheathed rush, Juncus raginatus. Large sheathed rush, Juncus vaginatus. Coast sword rush, Lepidosperma gladiatum. Native bulrush, Typha angustifolia. Scirpus fluviatilis. Marica Nortfiiana. Native tussock grass, Xerotes longifolia. Screw pine, Pandanus utilis. Cyperus lucidiis. Swamp moss, Conferva sp. Dianella latifolia. Jaggery palm, Caryota urens. De Naeyer & Co., of Willebroeck, Belgium, showed at the Paris Exposition of 1878, paper manufactured from the fol- lowing materials, and furnished the statement of percentage of fiber yielded : WOODS. Common and Botanical Names. Yield per cent. Heath, Erica vulgaris 27.14 Filbert trees, Corylus avellana 31.50 Alder, Alnus glutinosa 34.30 Bamboo, Bambusa thonarsu 34.82 White pine, Abies pectinata 34.60 Horse chestnut, JEsculus hippocastanus . . 38.26 Oak, Qitercus robur 29.16 White poplar, Populu.v alba 35.81 Red pine, Pinus sylvestris rubra .... 32.28 Elm, Utmus campestris 31.81 Ash, Fraxinus excelsior . ' 32.28 Black alder, Rhamnus frungula 37.82 Fir, Pinus st/U-estris 35 17 Osier, Salixalba 29.50 Canadian poplar, Populus Canudensis . . . 36.88 Beech, Fagus sylvatica 30.90 Pitch pine, Pinus Australis 31.08 PAl'Kli. TAPER BURNISHING MACHINE. Walnut, Jug/ana regia 26.52 Willow, Salix alba 37.82 Birch, Betula alba 33.80 Italian poplar, fupulus Italira . ... 36.12 Acacia, liobhia pseudoacacia 34.10 Lime tree, Tillia Europea . . . . . . .38.16 Rattan, Calamus vtrus 29.19 Aspen tree, Populus tremvla 35.00 HERBACEOUS PLANTS, ETC. Camelina, Camelina saliva 29.16 Bent grass, Agrostis spica venti 45.82 Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum .... 30.60 Marsh rush, Scirpus palustris 41.70 Banana, Musa ensete 31.81 Mateva, Hypluzne Thebaica 26.08 (hits, Avena saliva 35.08 New Zealand flax, Phormium tenax .... 32.71 Asparagus .stalks, Asparagus ojficinalis . . 32.56 Marsh grass, Glyceria aquatica 38.80 Maize, Zea mals 40.24 Reed, Pliragmites vulgaris 41.57 Cauna, Canna 20.29 Rye, Secale cereale 44.12 Giant nettle, Urtica dioica 21.66 Sugar cane, Saccharum officinarum .... 29.15 Barley, Hordeum vulgare 36.21 Sedge, Carex > 33.86 Wheat, Triticum sativum 43.14 Fromenteau, Baldengera Arundinacia . . . 46.17 Blue flag, Enodium cceruleum 40.07 Hop, Humulus lupulus . 34.84 Canary grass, P/ialari Canariensis .... 44.16 Wild broom, Spartium scoparium .... 32.43 Dog's grass, Triticum repens 28.38 An astronomical tower 29' in diameter was constructed of paper at the Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y. A paper church near Berlin has a capacity for nearly 1,000 persons. It is circular within, octagonal without. The re- liefs outside and statues within, the roof, ceiling, the Corin- thian capitals, are all papier mache, rendered water-proof by saturating in vitriol, lime water, whey, and white of eggs. Bricks are made of paper pulp from rough materials in Wisconsin. Barrels of paper are made in numerous factories in the United States. Paper chimney-pots are made in Breslau, and are light and durable. Before the paper pulp is molded and compressed into the required shape, it is treated with chemicals which render it non-inflammable. See also asparagus . "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 313. Asparagus "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxvii. 52. Bagasse "Scientific American,' 1 ' xlii 50. Bamboo "Scientific Am.," xxxiv. 49, 88. "Scientific American Sup.," 288. "Eng. if Min. Jour.," xxviii. 128. Banana fiber .... "Scientific American,''' xliii. 66 Esparto grass .... "Scientific American,'' xl. 170. Grass "Scientific American," xli. 811. Palmetto fibre . . . . "Scientific American," xli. 35. Hop plant "Scientific American," xli. 87. Palm fiber "Man. if Builder," xii. 247. Photolithographic . . "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1323. "Scientific Amer.,'" xxxix. 134. "Scientific American Sup.,-' 2408. Poke-weed, Phytolacca Rice paper of China . . Woods & plants yielding paper, list "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 212. Yucca "Min. if St.. Press," xxxv. 289. Proteaux's " Practical Guide, for the Manufacture of Paper and Boards.'" Arrowsmith's "Paper Hanger's Companion.'' Pa'per, Print'ing, Books. See under the following : Agave. Albumenized paper. Asbestos paper. Backing pan. Bank note paper. Bank note press. Blank work folder. Blotting paper. Board cutter. Book backing machine. Book backing vise. Bookbinder's plow. Bookbinder's press. Book sawing machine. Book sewing machine. Book stabbing machine. Book stitching machine. Book trimmer. Bottom plate. Calendering machine. Calender rolls. Cameo press. Card and ticket cutter. Cardboard cutter. Cardboard machine. Chromo-lithographic mach. Color printing. Composing machine. Coupon ticket machine Cutcher. Damping apparatus. Distributing table. Electrotype. Electrotype molding machine. Electrotyping battery. Embossing machine. Envelope machine. Envelope printing press. Facsimile printing press. Fiber-faced paper. File holder. Mulshing stand. Fire-proof paper. Folding and perforating m. Folding machine. Gage table shears. (jilding press. Gold paper. Grounding machine. Inking pad. l.:u-., paper. Lettering stamp. Lithographic press. Lithographic stone dresser. Lithographic stone polish, m. Mailing table. Matrix-rolling machine. Mechanical printer. Mechanical quoin. Message copying press. Motor printer. Multicolor printing press. Music; printing. Numbering chase. Pantographic engraving m. Paper. Paper articles. Paper-bag machine. Paper barrel. Paper building. Paper calendering machine. Paper clipping machine. Paper collar machine. Paper coloring machine. Paper cutting machine. Paper cutting and winding m. Paper enamel. Paper glazing machine. Paper knife grinder. Paper making. Paper press. Paper pulp engine. Paper rolling machine. Pasteboard cutter. Perfecting press. Perforated board. Perforating machine. Photolithographic paper. Postage stamp. Printing machine Printing press. Proof press. Pulp boiler. Punching press. Rag boiler. Rag knife. Rag washer. Roller bar. Rounding machine. Ruling-pen holder. Safety paper. Sheet calender. Shoot board. Snatching rollers. Steel pen. Stereotype. Stereotype beveling machine. Stereotype dressing table. Stereotype melting furnace. Stop-cylinder printing mach. Striker. Taking-off apparatus. Technograph. Ticket printing. Tissue papei. Transparent paper. Two-revolution press. Type. Type composing machine. Type machine. Type-making and setting m Type writer. Typographic machine. Wall paper. Wall paper machine. Wall paper polishing mach. Wall paper sticking machine. Washer. Water proof paper. Wet printing press. Wet broke. Wood paper. Wood -paper-stock assorter. Wood pulp. Wood rasping machine. Wood stock boiler. Pa'per Bar'rel. Barrels are made from molded pulp, formed in sections, and then united ; or of paper in layers. The process of preparing the paper consists in subjecting three layers of paper (called straw-board), cemented together, to a hydraulic pressure of more than 100 tons. This pro- duces a compact, solid substance of great resisting power. These sheets are run through machinery which dovetails the ends, making them ready for joining, and turns the edges. It is passed through another machine, which gives the cylin- drical shape. This saves 25 per cent, in packing space over the usual barrel. The outside of the barrel, after being or- namented and rendered perfectly air and water proof, is ready to put together. One operator can easily manufacture 150 per day, while from 15 to 20 have been considered a good day's work in making wooden barrels. Either wooden or paper heads can be used. The former are turned, and the latter are pressed out and stamped in dies. The hoops are strongly united bands of paper Each part of the barrel, hoop, head, and cylinder, is made complete. Empty barrels can be packed the one within another, and put together as required. The weight of a paper barrel is about one-half that of a wooden one. Thompson. By another method straw pulp is run into a mold made in the shape of a half-barrel, cut vertically. The ends are of paper, but are protected by wood. The staves are three- eighths of an inch thick. See also "Manufacturer If Builder,'" xii. 149. Pa'per Bur'nish-ing Machine'. A machine for putting a polish on paper. The action is more energetic than that of the calender, which depends upon mere pressure. See CALENDERING MACHINE, Figs. 499, 500, pp. 152, 15.3, snpra. The substitution of glazed rolls for the burnishing of mar- bled and colored papers with polished agates, etc., has not equaled the previous result. Fig. 1867 is a machine by M. Alauzet, of Paris, for manipulating the burnishing stone, and thus economizing the cost without impairing the beauty of the imparted surface. This machine, which may be used for dyed and undyed paper, is double acting ; the sheets of paper PAPER BURNISHING MACHINE. 657 PAPER CUTTER. are represented by e, while a shows the burnishing stone guided and moved by the bar b d t and the rod g, which is Fig. 1867. Paper Burnishing Machine. connected with the crank /. The weights t and I may be in- nv:i><:d or diminished according to requirements. See also PAPER GLAZING MACHINE and PHOTOGRAPH BUR- NISHER. Pa'per Cal'en-der-ing Ma-chine'. Poole's super-calender rollers, Fig. 499, p. 152, supra. Pierron & Dehaitres French calendering ma- chine, Fig. 500, page 153, supra. See also PLATER ; SUPER CALENDER, infra. See also PAPER GLAZING MACHINE, infra. Fig. 186S. Paper Car Wheel. 2. Tire-bolt. 5. Tire. 3. Hub-bolt. 6. Compressed paper. Pa'per Carbon Lamp. A form of incandes- cent electric lamp in which a slip of paper reduced to carbon is used as the illuminated agent in a glass globe with an atmosphere of nitrogen. The car- bonized strip of paper is the substitute for other forms of carbon, such as rattan or bamboo bark, or the metal platinum. The mode of disposing the carbon arc and its connections is shown in Fig. 938, Plate XIV., opp. p. 300, supra. Pa'per Car'pet. Paper is rendered hard and tenacious by subjecting the pulp to the action of chloride of zinc. After it has been treated with the chloride, it is submitted to a strong pressure, thereafter becoming as hard as wood and as tough as leather. " A paper carpet is now made in .England, and designed to imitate parquet flooring, the paper being printed in patterns to imitate different woods from photographs, so that the re- semblance is perfect. The floor is first prepared by being made perfectly level, and the crevices filled up with plaster- of paris ; over the surface, as thus prepared, hession (paper treated with chloride of zinc), is stretched, and on this first lining paper, and then the patterned paper, is pasted, the whole being finished with a coating of a peculiar hard and wear-resisting varnish." "Furniture Trade Journal,-' Br. See also LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL, supra, and references there cited. Th, imitation of Japanese paper, for decorative purposes, i made by the Pavey Co., of London. It is made of hemp and jute, with a small percentage of animal matter. It is used for lambrequins, window and bed curtains, tapestry, blinds, valances, upholstery, etc. It is made and printed in imitation of silk, woolen, cotton stuffs, the brocades of Lyons, reps, woolen and silk damasks of Paris and Bordeaux, and the cretonnes of Mulhouse, while it retains the peculiar Japanese characteristics. The paper is first formed into an endless roll, and is per- fectly white in color. Afterward it is taken to an embossing 42 machine, which impresses it slightly, and then the design is printed from electrotype plates, first cast from the wood and formed upon a roller, as in wall-paper printing. Pa'per Car'-wheel. (Railway.) A car wheel with steel tire and a. web of compressed paper be- tween plates which are bolted to the hub and tire. It is shown by section, and also by elevation, in Fig. 1868. The central portion of the wheel is entirely of thicknesses of paper, united by paste and compressed by hydraulic ma- chinery to the consistence of wood, but without the liability to split, which wood has more or less ; the hub and the tires are of steel. One of these wheels, used under a Pullman car, has run for eight years, and for a distance of 302,900 miles. Pa'per Clip'ping Ma-chine'. A machine for trimming the edges of books, or of paper in piles. See PAPER CUTTER. Pa'per Collar Ma-chine'. See p. 1619, " Mech. Diet." The Lockwood machine works from an endless web of paper, or of cloth and paper, the width of the web being slightly greater than the length ot the collar required. The web passes over rollers, and then beneath an intermitting descending platen, which has two sets of dies by which the collars are cut, creased, button-holed, stitch-marked, and embossed with the name and number at the rate of 30,000 per day. The material is fed intermittingly and receives the button-holes, stitch marking, and embossed number by one set of dies, then is advanced beneath the cutting-out dies, both sets of dies descending at once, but operating consecu- tively upon the paper. When paper only is used for the collar, three strips of gummed cloth are fed from spools, so as to be exactly over the places for the three button-holes. The patches are cut from these and automatically damped, deposited upon and fastened to the web in the places where the holes are to be cut. A forming machine then bends the paper collar at the crease, taking them in endwise, and discharges them at the rate of 60,000 per day. Pa'per Cut'ter. A machine for cutting paper in pile. In the Sanford cutter, Fig. 1869, the knife is brought down obliquely upon the pile and re- turns by a quick upward stroke. The table has rules and lines for cutting to measure. The paper clamp is moved independently. Another form of paper cutter is that for scoring and cut- ting paper boards for boxes, notching the corners, and scor- ing the joints. Sanborn. Fig. 1869. Paper Cutter. *" Manufacturer and Builder '' , xi. 193. * " Scientific American '' xl. 310. See Figs. 3524, 3525, pp. 1620, 1621, "Mech. Diet." See also BOOK TRIMMER, Semple, Fig. 384, p. 121 ; BOARD CUTTER, Fig. 354, p. 113 ; CAED CUTTEB, Figs. 639-541, p. 166, supra. PAPER ENAMEL. 658 PAPER TESTER. Pa'per E-nam'eL Enamel for paper cards and papeterie. For white, and for all pale and delicate shades, take 24 parts by weight of paraffine, add thereto 100 parts of pure kaolin (China clay), very dry, and reduced to a fine powder. Before mixing with the kaolin the par- affine must be heated to fusing point. Let the mixture cool, and it will form a homogeneous mass, which is to be reduced to powder and worked into a paste in a paint mill with warm water. The enamel is then ready for application. It can be tinted to any desired color. Pa'per Gla'zing Roller. A ma- chine through which paper or card is passed to give to it a burnished surface. The machine shown in Fig. 1870 is that of Pierrin et De- ha'itre, of Paris. The paper is passed between two rollers, the lower one of which is driven, and the resistance of the upper one gives a sliding pressure which compacts the sur- face of the paper in the manner of a burnisher. Fi Fig. 1872. Paper Knife Sharpener. (Side Elevation.) Pa'per Ma-chin'e-ry, etc. Articles of, machinery for making "Sc. Amer.," xxxvi.339. Barrel "Man. If .Build.," xii. 149. Belting, Crane Cooper's "Belting," 198. Box Labonlaye's "Diet.," iv., ed. 1877, article ">>:." Carbon lamp, Edison . " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xxiii. 1. Carbon paper apparatus. Liebert,?! * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 2438. Coloring machine Cutting machine. Brown ([ Carver Feister *" Cutter, " Diamond.' SMenker . "Sc. Amer.," xxxv. 354. 525. "Engineering," xxi. 525 "Sc. Amer.," xliii. 178. *"Sc. Amer.," xxxix, 386; xl. 310. * "Man. $ Builder," xi 193. Dome, observatory . . " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xx. 448. Fire-proof "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 2511. Folding mach., Fnrmith * "Man. Sf Builder, 1 *' viii. 1. Hardening "Sc. Amer.,'' 1 xxxiv. 310. Japanese, on, Munroe . * "Engineer,' 1 xli. 415. Japanese, Ogi .... * "Engineer," 1 xli. 353. Leather " Sc. Amer.," xlii. 274. Making, Albion Paper Mills *"Sc. Amer." xlii. 207. Making, technology of. Arnot "Sc. Amer. Sup.." 1733L 1750, 1845, 1862, 1879, 1956. Machinery "Sc. Amer.," xxxvi. 339. Japanese " Sc Amer.," xxxiv. 339} xxxv. 100. Mill, Japanese, Ogi Maeh6 molds .... Negatives, pap. by Abney Papyroxyline .... French Paper-glazing Machine. Pa'per Knife Sharp'en-er. The machine of Bell, of Lucerne (Switz.), is shown in Figs. 1871, 1872; it is adapted for knives up to 1.5 meter in length. The emery wheel is in fixed bearings, and the knife, se- cured to a slide rest, trav- erses in front of it. The wheel is .45 to .5 m. in diam- eter and makes 600 turns per minute. The knife is advanced to the emery wheel by hand wheel and screw. The motion of the grinding wheel is communicated to Paper Kn,fe Sharpener. the gl ; de rest which pagses the knife to and fro by au. See GRINDING MACHINE. (End View.) alternate movement. "Engineering," xxi. 399, 422. "Man. 4" Builder," ix. 144. "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 18!> : " For cleaning streets, machine sweepers are employed drawn by a single horse, cleaning about 5,000 square meters au hour. ' The cost of keeping in repair is quite different for the different nvcniu-s. ' ' The asphalt roadways have a joint area of 225,120 sq. meters, to which should be added about 34,000 sq. meters for the walks through the macadamized streets. The price of construction varies from 12 fr. to 15 fr. per sq. meter. The repairing is done by contract for 1.10 fr. per sq. meter per year for the roadways, and 1.70 fr. for the walks. Tiic> niivin cost of repairing roadways in PaVis, which was 1.08 fr. in 1S70, has been reduced to 0.82 fr. This reduction is due especially to a change in many places from macadam to paved roadways. The mean cost of repairing pavement never exceeds 0.60 fr., while macadam roadways cost 1.80 fr. per sq. meter. The latter should therefore be replaced, ex- cept where they serve as promenades and ornaments, as in the boulevards and avenues. " The number of vehicles which pass daily through some of the principal thoroughfares of the city have been ascer- tained to be as follows : " Boulevard de Sebastopol 11,602 Avenue des Champs Elysees 11,734 Rue de Rivoli 13,898 Rue Royule 16,177 Boulevard des Capucines 19,043 " The paved roadways have an aggregate total area of 6,458,000 sq. meters ; their maintenance requires the con- stant service of 431 men (cantonniers). The cost per sq. meter varies from 15.90 fr. to 20.40 fr., according to the gage (.10 to .16 meter). " The cost of hand labor in keeping the pavements in order is 0.154 fr. per sq. meter. " The macadamized roadways cover an area which, al- though less than in 1870, is still 1,900,000 sq. meters. The number of cantonniers required for their mainte- nance i "The steam rollers em- ployed weigh about 30 tons each. The rolling is generally completed in a single night." ROAD-BOILER, "Mecti. Diet." 1 A new pavement, com- posed of 85 % fl ne ground granite, and 15% of bitumen, has been laid in Newgate St., Lon- don. It is stated to be free from slipperiness, and unaffected by the at- mosphere. It is laid in a heated, semi-fluid condition, 2" thick, upon a foundation of Portland concrete 9" thick. Frusto pyramidal blocks of asphalt are used at Dordrecht, Nether- lands. Abbott 'Iron Age," xxi., May 16, p. 5. Bituminous .... 'Scientific Amer.,'' xxxvi. 230. Couzens 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 593. Foot 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 1297. French . . ... 'Scientific Amer.,'' xxxix. 65. General Gilmore, on . '.Scientific American Sup.,''' 223. Iron, Hamburg . . . 'Iron Age," xx., July 19, p. 24. London . . . . 'Iron Age," xx., Aug. 23, p. 3. Pig iron 'Iron Age," xvii., April 6, p. 1. San Francisco . . . 'Iron Age," xviii., July 27, p. 7. Hammer, Johnson . * ' !*<~ientific American Sup.," 326. * 'Scientific American, 1 - xli. 2i)5. Street, "Inst. Civ. Eng." Deacon " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xxi. 35. Wood, Henson, Br. . . * "Engineer," xliii. 251. "Scientific American," xxxv. 183. Steam pavior .... * "Scientific American," xli. 166. Toronto, Mr. Shanley : s report of various sys- tems " Scientific American Sup.," 511. Washington, D. C., Lieut. "Evening Star," Washington, D. Greene's report . . . C., Oct. 30, 1880. "Paving and Roofing Compositions' 1 ' is the subject of a volume containing a digest of the United States and British Patents, by L. W. Sinsabaugh, Washington, 1875, and a sub- sequent supplement. Gen. Q. A. Gillmore's report of Pavements is in Group II., vol. iii., " Centennial Exhibition Reports," p. 239, et seq. Gen. Sir J.Burgoyne. "Road-making, and Maintenance of Macadamized Roads." Gen. Q. A. Gillmore. "A Practical Treatise on the Con- struction of Roads, Streets, and Pavements." W. M. Gillespie. "Manual of the Principles and Practice of Road-making." Fave'ment Pipe. A protection for a gas or water pipe rising to the pavement, or forming a well at the bottom of which is the square of a cock in a water or gas pipe. Pave'ment Ram'mer. A machine for per- forming the labor of ramming granite blocks in forming pavement for roadways. See references on p. 1642, "Mech. f)ict.," under PAVING MACHINE. The Johnson rammer is shown in Fig. 1885. The machine is self-propelling. The crane, which pro- jects forward, carries a steam cylinder containing a recipro- cating piston, the rod of which is attached to the rammer The piston reciprocates in much the same way as a steam hammer, and its movements are controlled by the attendant, who also moves the crane from one side to the other. Two persons are required to work the machine, which has a power to strike from 1 to 2,200 pounds, at a rate of 160 strokes per minute. Pav'ing. See PAVEMENT. Pearl. (Mother of Pearl.) FT. Nacre Fig. 1885. d e p er l es . The interior substance of many shells, used in manufactures. Johnson's Power Parement Hammer. PEARL. 664 PEBBLE POWDER MACHINE. The pearl oyster, avicula margaratiferu, of the Indian seas, yields some of the best. It is hard to work, and is cut with "fine saws and files, dressed with emery, and polished with calcothar. The Sanskrit name for a pearl, maracata, was conveyed by jjuipyapiTT)s and margarita to the French marguerite, the daisy. David Brewster was the first to explain the irisation of the surface of nacre, which is due to the fine ridges, which are more than 3,000 to the inch. This has been proved by taking a cast of the surface, reproducing the delicate in- equalities, and producing a similar effect. See PEARL IN- LAYING ; IRIDESCENT GLASS. Pearls and pearl culture . "Scientific Amer.," xl. 170. Artificial "Scientific Amer. Sup.,'> 156. See also CAMEO CUTTING, p. 166, supra. Pearl'ing. The decortication of barley ; strip- ping the pericarp, except that portion in the crease of the grain, " The pearling of barley is accomplished by means of small horizontal mills made of sandstone or wood and having a diameter of about eighteen inches and a thickness of four inches. They revolve at a speed of 400 revolutions per min- ute, and each of them is enveloped with a covering of sheet iron which is punched with holes like a grater, with the edges of the holes turned inward. Between the sides of the mill and those of the sheet iron is a space of about half an inch. On leaving the winnowing machine the grains of bar- ley fall, by means of a hopper, upon the upper surface of the mill, which, by reason of its rotary movement, throws them toward the circumference where they are rubbed al- ternately between the vertical surfaces of the mill and the covering of sheet iron. By this means they are pearled and are rounded off like balls of marble. The waste escapes without, and when it is seen that the grains are sufficiently nibbed by this action of the mill and its covering, they are made to pass out by a valve and are replaced by a fresh quantity of unpearled grain.'' Rollet. Pearl In'lay-ing. The kinds of pearl are : White pearl^ so called : obtained from the shell of the pearl oyster. ' Aurora shell, from the haliotis, sea-ear or sea-shell, as it is variously called, and is remarkable for its wrinkled ap- pearance and iris colors. Green snail shell, which has changeable colors of green, yellow, and pink. The shells are sawn, ground to thickness on a grindstone, cut to shape with scissors, punches, or dies, or a number of similar shape are made by glueing the films together, saw- ing them to shape, and then separating them by dissolving the glue. Pearl inlaying upon metal is scarcely true inlaying, as the pieces of nacre are varnished to the object and the spaces filled with varnish. This is laid on in several coats, each being dried in the oven. The varnish Fig. 1886. is then scraped away from the pearl, and the surface leveled with pumice-stone and then polished. Stems of leaves and veins of flowers are traced with varnish, flowers are colored, and gold added by placing leaf on varnished spots. The whole is then covered with white varnish. The process with papier-mache 1 is similar. Peat Char'coal Kiln. A species of oven in which peat in blocks is dried and carbonized. The ovens are brick arches, covered with sand to retain the heat, and are used in pairs, one being'heated while the other is cooling to a sufficient degree to allow the peat to be with- drawn ; if air be admitted too soon the peat will inflame. The peat is run into the kiln on trucks, the body being a sort of iron basket with wire netting bottom. The heating is by superheated steam and the heat required to carbonize the peat is 750 Fah. The flues are arranged to allow the diversion of the gases from the furnace when charring has been completed in a given oven. In some cases the peat is dried into blocks ; in others it is compressed into briquets and dried. The peculiar processes de- pend upon special conditions. Peat Spade. One having a side wing at an angle of 90, so that a cu- bical prism of peat may be cut from the bank at one thrust. Peat Spade, Fig. 1887. British I'mt Kiln. Charring app., Barff, Br. * "Engineer,''' xlv. 392. *" Scientific American Flip." 2175. Condensed, Britton . . "Iron Age," xix., April 26, p. 16. Machine, Hall If Bain- bridge, Br * "Engineer," xlii. 344. Peat steel . . "Iron Age," xviii., Nov. 16, p. 11. "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 1 962, 986. Leavitt's "Facts about Peat as an Article of Fuel. '' Peau d'ours. (Fabric.) A Moscow coating made in Germany. Peb'ble Pow'der. Gunpowder in large grains or masses, comparatively slow-burning. Cube pow- der; poudre brutale. Pebble powder is usually formed from dense cake " in thickness by breaking it into rectangular prisms and then into cubes, by consecutive operations, the length of the faces being equal to the thickness of the cake. It is also made as large as 11-16" to 2" cube. See "Ordnance Report," 1879, Appendix I., p. 128, and ENGINEER, September 16, 1870. Peb'ble Fow'der Ma-chine'. A machine for making cube gunpowder. The machine is composed of two fluted bronze rollers, each 6" in diameter, placed about 0.5" apart, their axes being hor- izontal and parallel. The teeth formed on the roller by fluting it are 0.5" apart. The rollers revolve in opposite directions, and the corresponding teeth of the two rollers pass the place joining the axis at the same time. The cake is 14" X 15", and is fed vertically between the rollers which break it into right prisms 14" long with square bases. These fall upon a board, and fed by strips on endless band to a second pair of toothed rollers which break it into cubes. The result is sifted to remove crushed fragments and dust. The cubes are dusted and are rounded off in the glazing op- eration, which is done in barrels holding 400 Ibs. each. The barrel makes 40 revolutions per minute, and 0.5 oz. French Pebbling Machin PEBBLE POWDER MACHINE. 665 PENCIL. Fig. 1889. black lead is added for each 100 Ibs. 40 minutes is required for the operation. Diagram of pebble-powder machine in "Report of Chief of Ordnance U. S. A.,-'- 1877, Plate I., accompanying Colonel Laidley's report, Appendix K. JJee also Figs. 70, 71, Appen- dix L., same report, and p. 546. See also Crispin & Baylor's report, " Ordnance Report,' 1 '' 1879, App. I., Plate VI., Fig. 13, and description on pp. 128, 1829. * "Engineering'' xxv. 236. Peb'bling Ma-chine'. (Leather.) A ma- chine in which a pebbling roller is attached to the jack or vibratory arm. The action is known as graining, glassing, glazing, finishing, etc., accord- ing to the tool presented. Ped'es-tal. A ground support for running shafting along a floor or through tunnels. (Add.) 5. A casting on an abut- ment to receive the ends of the main brace (or braces) of a bridge and support the strain. Pe-dom'e-ter. 1. An instrument for counting foot- shaft Hanger with Ground Pedestal. steps. A pace measurer, p. 1647, " Meek. Diet." See also ODOM- ETER, sii/rru. *" Scientific American " xl. 246. In a modern form it is an instrument looking like a watch, having a dial and a hand ; the latter is counter-weighted, so that at each motion of the person in walking, the weight pulsates and the hand advances one degree. 2. A name for roller skates. Philadelphia Exhibition . . "Sc. Amer.,'' xlii. 99 ; xl. 85. Pe'do-mo'tor. A means for the mechanical application of the foot as a driving power. The OPEN-BEAD SIGHT, Fig. 249, p. 84. supra, and the HAUSSE, Fig. 1329, p. 447, supra, are instances. See al-o GLOBE SIGHT, Fig. 1210, p. 406, for other instances, and list under SIGHT. Pedal action for small machines, Archer, Br. Bernays, Br. . . . Baromotor, Bozerain Bozerain .... Sewing machine motor * "Engineer," xlviii. 344. * "Engineer," 1 xlviii. 438. Stii/ m, p. 76. * "Scientific Amer.,'.' xxxvii. 242. * "Manuf. and Builder," ix. 280. "Mech. Diet." p. 2123, Fig. 4883. List of same .... Ibid., p. 2115. Peel. The portion of a. cracker or biscuit ma- chine beyond the cutter is known as the peel-end, and its capacity gives name to the machine, as two- peel machine. See CRACKER MACHINE, etc. Peel'ing Axe. A double-bitted axe used in barking trees. Peen Ham'mer. (Stone Working.) One which has two opposite cutting edges. It is used for making drafts around the arris or edge of stones and in reducing faces and sometimes joints to a level. Its length is about 10" and the cutting edge about 4". It is used after the point and before the patent hammer. See PEEN, p. 1647 "Mech. Diet." Fig. 1890. Peep Nick'ing Ma-chine'. A special gun tool which forms the peep in the leaf of a rifle sight. Peep Sight. A form of hind sight for~ rifles. It has an opening through which the muzzle sight is lined upon the object. Peg'ging Ma-chine'. A machine for driving pegs into boot and shoe soles. The subject has been consid- ered on pp. 1648-1649, Figs. 3602-3606, "Mech. Dirt." Fig. 1891 shows a late form of the Varney foot-power pegging ma- chiue which operates upon a peg-strip; cutting off the peg, punching a hole, driving the peg, and feeding the boot sole to its place of apposition for the repetitive action. Pellet Ppw'der. A form of British cannon powder in which each pel- let is molded of a given quantity of mealed powder. Various shapes have been tried : disks, prisms, and cylin- ders ; the latter preferred. " The shape is a right cylinder with a circular base and a small hemi- spherical cavity at one end. Size 0.5" long, .75" diameter ; weight, 95 grains. The molds are bored holes in a bronze plate in which a gang of bronze pis- tons work by hydraulic power. Pebble powder has superseded it, or largely so. In France the following are the adopted sizes : 14 centimeter gun from .275" to .3937". 19 to 24 centimeter gun from .51" to .63". Fig. 1891. 27 centimeter gun from .63" to .787". Peggmg Machine. See also "Ordnance Report," 1879, Appendix I., p. 126, and "Engineer," Sept. 16, 1870. Pellet-pow'der Ma-chine'. (Gunpowder.) A machine in which the powder is compressed into molds of determined shapes. " Ordnance Report," 1879, Appendix I., Plate V., Figs. 11, 12, and described on pp. 126, 127. Dr. John Anderson's machine for this purpose is shown at Figs. 11, 12, p. 198, vol. xxv., "Engineering." See also PEBBLE POWDER. Pen. Dissertation on pages 1650-1657, with specimens of writing in 105 languages. Plate XXXIX. Fountain, Perkins . . * "Scientific American," xxxv. 98. Solid ink pen .... "Sc. American, " xxxvii. 112. Gold pen factory, Faber * " Scientific American," xli. 303. Shading pen .... * "Scientific American,'' xlii. 278. See FOUNTAIN PEN ; STYLOGRAPHS PEN. Pen'cil. Historv and account of processes, pp. 1656, 1657, " Mech. 'Diet." Lead pencils are now made in Germany by rolling paper around the core of graphite to the required thickness. Paper treated to render Pencil Maries Indelible : Any ordi- nary drawing paper is slightly warmed and then rapidly and carefully laid on the surface of a bath consisting of a warmed solution of bleached colophonium in alcohol until the entire surface is moistened. It is then dried in a current of hot air. The surface of the paper becomes smooth, but readily takes the impression of a lead pencil. In order to make the lead pencil marks indelible the paper is warmed for a short time on a stove. This method may prove very valuable for the preservation of working drawings when it is not con- venient to finish them in ink. COLORED PENCILS, FABEK'S PROCESS. Black: Lampblack 10 White wax 40 Tallow 10 PENCIL. 666 PENDULUM INSTRUMENT. White : 'Line white ............ 40 White wax ............ 20 Tallow ............ 10 Light Blue : Prussian blue ......... 10 White wax .......... 20 Tallow ............ 10 Dark Blue : Prussian blue ......... 15 Gum Arabic .......... 5 Tallow ............ 10 YeUow : Chrome yellow .......... 10 Wax ............ '. . 20 Tallow ............. 10 The colors are mixed with the fats in warmed vessels. levigated with the same, and are then allowed to cool until they have acquired the proper consistency for being trans- ferred to the presses. In these the mass is treated and shaped similarly a? the graphite in the presses for ordinary pencils. COPYING. Walpuski : Aniline White clay Gum tragacanth Alcohol and water to dissolve. 100 50 10 Petit: Aniline. Graphite. Chalk. Gum. Dextrine. Water. Je n^,|u^ph. mercury Tannic acid ........... 7 Peroxide iron ........... 2 Dextrine ............ 1 Or: Graphite .............. 5 Violet aniline ............ 4 Dextrine .............. 1 Schwanhauser : Logwood chips, 10, boiled in water; add oxide of chromium till blue color develops ; evaporate to sirup ; add fatty clay and gum tragacanth. Indelible : Wax .............. 1 Spermaceti ........... 1 Graphite ............ 2 Vermilion ............ 1 Heat and grind. Add : Nitrate of silver .......... 3 ANOTHER. Clark: Glue .............. 2oz. Water ............ 3 oz. Nitrate of silver ......... 1 oz. Nitric acid ..... ...... 8 drops. Lampblack ........... 1 oz. Brown sugar ......... 0.25 oz. ANOTHER. Pruden: Alum .............. 4 Sugar .............. 4 Gum Arabic ........... 1 Colored ...... ''Scientific American," xli. 298. Drafting, Me Gee . . . * "Scientific American,'' 1 xxxix.338. Early making in U. 8. . "Scientific American Sup.," 2498. Indelible .... Lines & colors, fixing . " Scientific American," 1 xxxiv. 354. Manufact. of, Dixon's . Solid ink pencil, list of patents. "Scientific Amer., r - xxxvii. 112. See also ADDING PENCIL ; COPYING PENCIL ; INK PENCIL. Pen'dant Tack'le. (Nautical.) A tackle rigged from the masthead pendant. Pen'du-lum. Considered on pp. 1660-1663, " Mech. Diet." Compensation, Prof. Smith, . . Electric controll. , Smith * Electro-motor, Higgs . * Foucault * Toolin Horizontal, Zollners . . * Redier, Fr * 'Scientific American,'' xxxv. 133. 'Manufact. $ Builder," x. 204. 'Engineer," xlii. 395, 398. 'Scientific American Sup.," 913. 'Scientific American," xl. 338. 'Min. fSc. Press." xxxv. 275. 'Scientific American Si//).," 1774. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 79. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 1163. Pump, Stannah, Br. Stannah, Br. Regulator, Jacot . Regulator, Electric . Tisley Wooden Pen'du-lum In'stru-ment. An instrument for tracing the Lissajou curves. In the compound form it is known as Tisley's compound pendulum. In the illustration, Fig. ] 892, it is shown as adapted to use with the vertical lantern and reflector by which the effects are made visible and projected upon a screen to be viewed by an audience. Reference has already been made under CURVE INSTRU- MENT, p. 236, HARMOGRAPH, p. 439, and LISSAJOU'S CURVES, supra, to the instruments for making curves by means of a pen connected with two pendulums swinging in planes at right angles to each other ; or a pen to one pendulum and a paper platform to another ; also to the mode adopted by j M. Lissajou of combining rectangular vibrations to form fig- I ures, by means of two tuning-forks carrying small mirrors and vibrating in planes at right angles to each other. The peculiar curves, the resultants of two vibrations of tuning-forks, produce very instructive diagrams, illustrating definite acoustic relations, such as those corresponding, for example, to the ordinary musical intervals, making the har- monies of sound visible to the eye, and demonstrating visu- ally the relation of the sounds which, united, produce har- monies or discords. Lecture of Prof. Bracket, Stevens In- stitute. Under HARMONOGRAPH, p. 439, supra, Prof. Tisley 'g instru- ment is described. Hopkins has a method of producing the Fig. 1892. Tisley's Compound Pendulum, PENDULUM INSTRUMENT. 667 PER-CHLORIDE OF IRON BATTERY. vibrations by electro-magnet so as to maintain the rate and amplitude of the vibrations, removing the incident of the dying motion of the pendulum without sustaining power. The compound instrument shown in Fig. 1892 may thus be said to make visible curves representing the musical inter- vals, the gradual changes between unison and octave, octave and fifth, etc. The apparatus consists of two pendulums, P P', balanced on knife-edges at A A', and continued above their axis of suspension to c c', from which points project two brass arms, c p, c' p, which, when the pendulums are quiescent, meet at right angles, the apex being at p. Perfect freedom of motion is secured by connecting the arms to the pendulum at c c' by ball and-socket joints. Two threads, t t', are fastened at their upper ends to delicate springs, at- tached to the brass arms, c p, c' p, and at their lower ends to an adjustable screw, rf, by means of which the tracing point p may be raised and lowered without in any way af- fecting the vibrations of the pendulums. The brass plates, sliding upon the pendulums, are intended to receive the weights, which can thus be placed at different heights, and the relative rates of vibration of the two pendu- lums altered. The sum of the weights used should vary from 5 to 12 Ibs. TVis a weight sliding upon its pendulum, and counterpoised by a weight T. The object of W is to slightly change the rate of vibration while the pendulums are in 'motion. By this means the pendulums can be ad- justed very accurately, or if desired, one can be given a small fraction of a vibration in excess of the other ; it can be en- tirely removed, if desired. To exhibit these beautiful effects to an audience, a plate > blackened by burning camphor is placed upon the vertical lantern, as shown in the figure, the requisite weights arc udded to the pendulums, and these are set in motion. Then if we want a curve corresponding to an octave, one of the pendulums must make two vibrations while the other makes one. Having ascertained this we start the pendulums together, then lowering the pen, the beautiful curves will be traced. " It is not easy to imagine a more striking experiment than that afforded in the present instance, by the noiseless and gradually decreasing sweep of a pen-point gliding over its 1893. Stannah'.'i Pendulum Pump. sinuous path, in obedience to the oscillations of two con- joined pendulous bodies, and tracing, before the eyes of ad- miring spectators curves of maze-like intricacy and yet of faultless symmetry. As in music, the simplest harmony is the most agreeable to the ear, so with these figures, the sim- pler the proportions between the vibrations of the pendu- lums, the more pleasing are the resulting curves." See also FLAME MANOMETER, pp. 344, 580, supra. Fen'du-lum Press. A form of press for sheet- metal work, in which the swinging treadle actuates the punch. Pen'du-luni Pump. 1. A direct acting don- key pump in which the fly-wheels have an oscilla- tory motion in a vertical plane. Invented by Stan- nan, London. The steam and water pistons are fixed on the same rod, and the action is therefore direct. A rotary movement is Fig. 1894. Stannah's Pendulum Pump. (Section Elevation.) employed to work the valves aud limit the length of the pis- tons. The remarkable feature about the pump lies in the means adopted for causing the rotation of two fly-wheels, no dog link or connecting rod being employed. The crank-shaft is allowed to move sideways in slots carrying its bearings, and the crank pin is attached direct to a piston rod. In the pendulum pump the two fly-wheels are mounted on pins set in the ends of two hanging links, while a crank pin common being very moderate in range. Fig. 1893 shows the pump in perspective, and Fig. 1894 lows it on a smaller scale, in front view and section. Bb 2. A pump the handle of which swings each side of its center of suspension. Perch. A pole connecting the fore and hind gears of a vehicle. See REACH. The various irons, etc., are at the points of con- nection. Perch plates are head-blocks and bed plates, above and be- low the perch at the king-bolt. Perch iron is a term inclusive of the iron parts generally. Perch loop ; an iron attached to a perch, having loops for the straps which pass to the bed to limit the swinging of the latter. Perch stays ; side rods acting as braces, passing from the perch to the hind axle. Per-chlo'ride of I'ron Bat'te-ry. (Electric- ity.) Invented by Duchenin. Zinc in solution of sea-salt, carbon in solution of perchloride of iron. NiaufJet, American translation, 208. PERCUSSION FUSE. 668 PEENOT STEEL. Per-cus'sion Fuse. One which explodes on impact. The Russian pewter percussion fuse is described on p. 523, and shown in Fig. 17, "Ordnance Report," 1877. See also Br., *" Engineer,'' xlvii. 79. Per-cus'sion Ta1>le. (Ore.) A device for sorting ores by exposing them to agitation on a slightly inclined traveling apron in a stream of water. Frue's percussion table has a rubber belt 2' broad, con- stantly shaken from side to side with a regular slow motion. Pig. 1895. Concentrating Percussion Table. This belt is 27' long, and has projecting flanges of elastic rubber along its outer edges, to keep the sand and water from splashing over. The progressive motion is communi- cated to the belt by a driving drum, which is connected by a small rubber belt to the front-end roller. The driving drum dips into a tank of water through which the endless apron travels in passing around. On leaving the water tank the belt passes over the tightener and guiding roller. The ore sized, where the waste is present in larger size than the valuable material, being shaken with a small amount of water will divide evenly on the inclined plane, and the heavier and smaller ore particles will resist the down-flow- ing water sufficiently to be carried along by the belt over the upper edge into the water tank below ; and the waste (lighter and larger particles) will pass over the lower edge. It is successful only on material classified in funnel boxes and of the size of one half millimeter or less. Fer-fect'ing Press. A press which prints both sides of the paper at once, or at a single pas- sage. It acts upon a continuous web of paper, and is shown in several figures, pp. 1566-1568, "Mech. Diet:' See also, PRINTING PRESS, infra. Fer-flu'ent Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which the exciting liquid flows through the cells or cell to keep the battery constant. In one form of the nickel battery of Slater the exciting fluid Fig. 1896. Fig 1897. Slater's Nickel Battery. Direct-acting Perforator. is constantly renewed at C, passes into the inner cell B, overflows at D, and issues at 6. See also CAMACHO BATTERY. Russell's perfluent battery . "English Mechanic," * xxv. 664. Fer'fo-ra'tor. 1. For Postal Stamps. Cap. " Poinqonneusfs" Laboulaye, iv. 2. See ROCK DRILL. 3. (Telegraphy.) A machine for perforating Fig. 1898. slips for the rapid system of telegraph. The letters are represented by holes arrayed in special groups. The perforator has three keys. Per'fo-ra'ting Ma-chine'. 1. A machine for making the rows of holes which separate the individual postal stamps on a sheet. See p. 1668, "Mech. Diet." They are direct- acting or rotary. Fig. 1897 is of the former kind, and the gate carrying the punches is actuated by a treadle. Per'fume Burn'- er. A vase in which perfumes or pastilles are burned. Perfume bottle, Ward Recipes Perfume Burner. * "Sc. Amer.," xxxvi. 230. "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1031. Dussauce's "Practical Guide for the Perfumer;" Pradal, Malepeyre, (f Dussauce's " Complete Treatise on Perfumery.'' Pe-ri-ne'um In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) For adjusting the parts of and reducing the lacerations of the perineum. They are principally needles, forceps, suture stays. Askton's, Skeene's, Agnew's, Peaslee's needles. A^new^s forceps and adjuster. Brickell's and Munson's stays Sims' and Bodenhamer's forceps. Suture needles. Shot compressor. Pages 115, 116, 123, 124 Part III., Tiemann's "Armam. Chirurgicum. " Per'i-os'te-o-tome. (Surgical.) A knife for cutting or removing the periosteal membrane. Sands' 1 and Sayre'f, p. 8, Part I., Tiemann's "Armam. Chirurgicum.'' Whitehead's, Ooodwittie's, p. 66, 57, Part II., Ibid. Fer'i-os'te-um Le-va'tor. (Surgical.) An in- strument for lifting the periostea! membrane ; loosening it from the bone. References to Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum." Goodwillie's Figs. 70, 71, Part I. Sands' Fig. 37, Part I. See Fig. 3645, p. 1668, "Mech. Diet.-' 1 Pe-riph'e-ry Con'tact Key. A key having two disks, the peripheries of which come in contact to establish the electric connection. See Fig. 847, p. 266, supra. Per'nette. (Porcelain.) A little spur or stilt to place between pieces in the kiln. Also called (Fr.) Pattes de coq, or coliftchets ; Eng. stilts or spurs. Per'not Fur'nace. An open hearth revolving furnace. See OPEN HEARTH FURNACE, supra. Springfield, 111. . . * "Engineering," xxix. 374. * "Amer. Manuf.," April 25, 1879, p. 8. Per'not Steel. In each furnace is a pan that can contain 20 tons of steel, which is revolved by a connection with the engine employed for that pur- pose. After the pan is charged, the gas flames playing over and around it bring the contents to the desired state of fusion, while the revolving of the pan causes .the intimate intermixture of the ingredients, thus overcoming the objection to melt- ing steel in larger receptacles than crucibles. The operation is completed in a little more than five hours. See OPEN HEARTH FURNACE, supra. PEROXIDE OF LEAD BATTERY. 669 PHANARO-GKISOUMETER. Per-o^t'ide of Lead Bafte-ry. (Electricity.) An invention of De la Rive. The negative plate is imbedded in peroxide of lead in the porous jar, the salt acting as a depolar- izer. Xiaudet, Amer. transl., 179. Per-ox'ide of Maii'ga-nese' Bat'te-ry. ("AY, -rfn'city.) One in which peroxide of manganese .surrounds the carbon plate and depolarizes the same by oxydizing the hydrogen. The invention of Leclanche'. "Teleg. Jour." iv. 213. In one of Gaiffe's batteries, the positive pole has a carbon cylinder pierced with holes parallel to the axis filled with binoxide of manganese : a zinc rod forms the negative pole. The solution is formed of 20 parts chloride of zinc, free from lead, dissolved in 100 parts of water. " Teleg. Jour.."- yi. 185. Per-spec'to-graph. An instrument for as- sisting in making perspective projections. It consists of two fixed rulers, one horizontal and the other vertical, in form like a T-square ; a sliding ruler which has a lateral movement right and left along the fixed horizontal member, and a graduated quadrant, which is adjustable up and down the vertical member. The adjustments and mode of using are described by the inventor in "Engineering,"' *xxii. 223. Drawing apparatus, Rosquist i i ve linead . . . . Perspective ruler .... *"Sc. Amer.," xli. 307. "Man. Sf Build., "' x. 11. * "Sc. Amer. Sup.,-' 2506. Pes E-qui'nus Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) References under club-foot (Talipes) apparatus. Pe'tra-lite. An explosive: Nitrate of [votassa . , 64 Impregnated wood or charcoal 30 Antimonium condenser 6 loo Pe-tro'le-um. History and application, pp. 1672-1676, " Mech. Diet." PRODUCTS OF THE DISTILLATION OF CRUDE PETROLEUM. .a Gravity, Beanme. Name. = 3 Gases. _ Uncondensed and Lost. 115 B. to ( Cymogene . . ( Condensed by pump, for I ice machine, boils at 105 B. ) ( 32 F. 105 B. j ("Condensed by ice to 95 B. > Rhigolene . . - i and salt, used as an I anaesthetic, boils at 1. 65 F. 95 B. f Condensed in worm by to 80 B. Gasoline . . . 1* ! cold water, used in ! gas machines and gas . [ carburetors. For oil cloths, cleaning, 80 B. to 65 B. ! Naphtha 10 etc. ; cleaning oil wells ; for adultera- ting kerosene ; fraud- ulent use in so-called 65 B. ) "safety oils." to > Benzine . . . 4 For paints and varnishes. 60 B. ) 60 B. S Kerosene or ) to 38 B. refined petro- > leum . . . ) 56 Ordinary oil for lamps. {Semi-solid when cold. 38 B. j Chilled and pressed to 25 B. > Paraffine oil 19* to separate paraftine ; oil used for lubrica- Coke, gas, and loss 10 ting Total .... 100 Prof. Chandler. Se KEROSENE ; PARAFFINE, supra. Petroleum as fuel . Burner As lubricant in turning Rose ...... Burner for locomotives Urguhart, Russia . Engine Fire tests Puddling furnace. Caldwell Heating furnace. Ramsden Furnace, Salisbury . One heated by a coal-oil "Sc. American,'' xxxix. 304,352. "Scientific American," xli. 290. "Scientific American," xxxv. 36. . * "Engineering," xxiii. 9. . See HYDRO-CARBON ENGINE, supra. "Iron Age," xxii., Dec. 5, p. 7. . * "Scientific American Sup.," 125. . * "Scientific American Sup." 125. " Scientific American," xxxix. 336. "Scientific American Sup.," 47. See also LIQUID FUEL FURNACE, supra. Hydro-carbon retort for gas grates, Holland . * "Scientific American," xliii. 54. Naphtha, benzine, gaso- line " Scientific American,"' xxxv. 7. Storage (cellars) Donny * "Scientific American," xxxvii. 4. Stove Figs. 3664, 3665, p. 1676, "Mech. Diet." Tanks "Scientific American," xxxv. 223. * Fig. 6317, pp. 2536, 2537, "Mech. Diet." * Page 1558, "Mech. Diet." Tester * Fig. 3666, p. 1676, "Mech. Diet." * ''Scientific American," xliii. 42. Well, steam in, Hardison * " Scientific American Sup.," 141. History, geology, development of the industry and statis- tics, Brodhead's report in Group I., "Centennial Reports," vol. iii., p. 2, et seq. Prof. J. Lawrence Smith's report, Ibid., vol. iv., Group III., p. 121. Petroleum as fuel, Ibid., p. 161. Prof. Chandler's report to Board of Health, N. Y. His'tory, Prof. J. Sterry Hunt's, Smithsonian Report, 1861, pp. 319-329. Pe-trole-um Stove. lamp. See OIL STOVE, supra. Also PETROLEUM STOVE, Figs. 3664, 3665, p. 1676, "Mech- Dict." Pe-tro'le-um Test'er. 1. An apparatus to ascertain the flashing point of petroleum oils. See PETROLEUM TESTER, Fig. 3666, p. 1676, "Mech. Diet." 6317, 6318, pp. 2536, 2537, Ibid. See also OIL TEST, p. 1558, Ibid. See Prof. Chandler's "Report on Petrole tor," p. 37, "Sc. American," xl. 342. Mr. Holly modifies the apparatus usually employed by ar- ranging the poles of a battery within f " from the surface of the oil, so as to pass a spark between them, as the thermom- eter registers an increase of 1 in temperature. By this means the disturbing influences of a flame are avoided. 2. A lubricant tester, which see, supra. Pet'ti-coat Pipe. Shown at Fig. 3667, p. 1676, "Mech. Diet." Pollock Sf Wilkinson, Br. * "Engineer," xlvi. 57. * "Railroad Gazette," viii 23. Pew'-gaff. (Fishing.) A hook on a staff, used in handling and pitching fish. Pha'lan-ges Dis'lo-ca'tion Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) For reducing luxation of the fingers. Figs. 134-137, Part IV., Tiemann's "Armam. Chirxr^." Pha-na'ro-gri-sou'me-ter. An apparatus invented by M. Gossiaux, of Gardanne (Fr.), for indicating the presence of dangerous gases in fiery mines. A lamp of peculiar construction and a pyrometer make up the instrument. The lamp is covered with a cylinder of wire gauze. A wire spiral encircles this, and extends the entire length of the cylinder ; the wires are held in place by grooves cut in vertical bars forming a frame to the lamp, and are fastened at the top to a ring attached to the cap of the lamp. The wire at the lower end terminates in a tube closed at one end. As the wire dilates under heat, the end of the tube moves a small lever terminating in a sector gearing into a pinion, on which a needle moving on a graduated semicircle is fixed. Constant contact between the end of the lever and the tube is maintained by a small spring, the indicating arrangement being protected by a glass. The heat generated by the pres- Koenig llano . Edison's Phonograph. all kinds, were as accurately reproduced. A curious effect is produced by whistling, the apparatus giving forth every note clearly and fully; but more remarkable still is it to hear two voices at once come from the machine. The ex- hibitor first sanj; ii verse which was registered, and then running the cylinder back talked so that the indentations produced by the speech vibrations came over those made by the song. The instrument repeated both utterances simul- taneously, each, however, being clearly distinguishable. Another odd performance is turning the cylinder the wrong way, and making the machine talk the language backward." A modification of the phonograph is called by Mr. Edison the airophone. In this machine the vibrating plate, which in the phonograph moves a sharp point over the revolving cylinder, operates as a valve to shut off and open a flow of steam through the pipe which leads from the boiler to a peculiarly-constructed tube. By this contrivance the steam, instead of producing a discordant whistle, pronounces words with considerable distinctness, and audible at a great dis- tance. 2. A flame manometer which obtains graphic representations of the condition of the human vo- cal organ. Fig. 1046, p. 344, supra. Phonautograph, Tynciall, Leon Scott . . . . * "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxvii. 376. Phonograph, paper by dti Moncel .... " Technologiste," xl. 197. Pfiipson ..... " Technologists," xv. 183. Pree.ce ...... * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng" vii. 68. Phonograph, Edison " Technologiste," xl. 123. "Engineer ^ xlv. 438. 'Engineering," xxv. 187. 'Manuf. If Builder," x. 84. 'Harper's Weekly," Mar. 30, 1878. 'Eng. 4- Min. Jour.,' 1 xxv. 236. 'Harper's Weekly," Mar. 30, 1878. tific 'Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. !__ 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 636. 1 Teleg. Journal," vi. 782. ' Teleg. Journal," vi. 6. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 384. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 405. Automatic, Marey $ Rosaptlly . . . . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 304. Exhibition of it Its future, Edison . Lambrigot .... "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 327. Preece- Strok . . . . * "Engineering," xxvii. 201. Koenig "Scientific American Sup.," 636. Clock calling the hours, Edison . . " Teleg. Journal," vi. 142. Photographing sound "Man. If Builder,' 1 ' 1 Feb., 1876. " Scientific American Sup.," 616. Recording sounds of Levy's cornet . . Sixpenny Eng Working drawings Phonophone . . . . "Scientific American Sup.," 636. "Scientific American,'' xxxiv. 111. * "Scientific Amer.,''' xlii. 6. "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 384. * "Engineering," xxvii. 327. * "Scientific American,'' 1 xl. 356. * " Scientific American Sup.," 2112. "Manuf. (f Builder,'' i. 95. Pho-nom'e-ter. An apparatus designed to as- sist the signal-man on steamships in marking the intervals of time at which the fog-horn or whistle is to be blown, and to regulate the sounds in such a way as to cause them to announce the ship's course. It consists of a horizontal clock, placed, face up, in sight of the signal-man. The face is about 8" in diameter, and indicates seconds only, the minute and hour figures and hands being upon a small dial near one edge. The second- hand has four arms at right angles with each other, and above the face is a movable disk, or dumb card, that ob- scures about three-fourths of the whole dial. Around the edge of the clock face are painted sections or segments. One of these covers ten seconds' space ; four mark five seconds each, and between each are blanks of three seconds each. Outside of the clock is a flat brass ring, having the points' of the compass marked upon it. In using the phonometer, the disk is moved round till the open part comes opposite the ship's head and in line with her course. The segments on the dial that are then visible indicate the number of blasts to be given on the whistle. The second-hands, as they then come into view, give the duration in seconds of each blast and each pause. The sig- nal-man merely watches the hands as they traverse the seg- ments in sight, and sounds his whistle accordingly, announ- cing the ship's direction. For instance, one blast of ten seconds indicates that the ship is steering within the points north and east, quarter north. Two blasts of five seconds each, with an interval of three seconds between them, would announce the ship's direction as between east and south, ] quarter east. Three blasts, and two pauses of five and three seconds, would mean south to west, quarter south, while four blasts of five seconds, with the same pauses, would in- dicate the ship's course to be between west and north, quar- ter west, and so on. The disk employed is designed to pre- vent mistakes, and the four hands serve to save time in watching for their appearance and journey over the visible portion of the dial. Pho-no-mo'tor. The machine has a dia- phragm and mouth-piece similar to a phonograph. A spring which is secured to the bed-piece rests on j a piece of rubber tubing placed against the dia- i phragm. This spring carries a pawl that acts on a ratchet or roughened wheel on the fly-wheel shaft. A sound made in the mouth-piece creates vibrations in the diaphragm which are caused to propel a fly-wheel. "Scientific American ' xxxix. 51. Pho'ho-phone. A term proposed for the pho- nograph, as the latter term had been previously ap- plied to Scott's machine, which is of different char- acter, and invented many years since. See PHONACTOGRAPH, p. 1678, and TELEPHONE, pp. 2514, 2516, "Mech. Diet." Pho'no-phote. An apparatus for the transfor- mation of sound into light, devised by M. Coulon, Conservator of the Industrial Museum of Rouen. Two Geissler tubes are put in quick rotation on an axis. The induction coll of the first is worked by an ordi- nary interrupter, and gives the deviation of a luminous cross. The interrupter of the second is replaced by a tele- phone. The figure presented by the second tube projects on the first one, which is colored by uranoxide glass, and exhibits the most rapid changes according to the height of the tone delivered in the telephone trumpet. The sensibility of the changes are said to be startling and most interesting. "Nature.'" "Eng. if Mining Journal " xxviii. 147. Pho'no-scope. Au instrument invented by Henry Edmunds for producing figures of light from vibrations of sound. It consists essentially of three parts, an induction coil, an interrupter, and a ro- PHONOSCOPE. 672 PHOSPHOR BRONZE. tary vacuum tube. The action of the instrument is as follows : " Sounds from the voice or other sources produce vibra- tions on the diaphragm of the interrupter, which, being in the primary circuit of the induction coil, induce at each in- terruption a current in the secondary coil similar to the ac- tion of a contact-breaker or rheotome ; therefore, each vibra- tion is made visible as a flash in the vacuum tube. This tube revolving all the time at a constant speed, the flashes produce a symmetrical figure like the spokes of a wheel, as in the Gnssiot Star. The number of spokes or radii is ac- cording to the number of vibrations in the interrupter dur- ing a revolution of the tube, and the number of vibrations being varied to any extent, according to the sounds produced, the figures in the revolving tube will be varied accordingly. The same sounds always produce the same figures, providing the revolution be constant. In case of rhythmical interrup- tion being produced in a given sound, as in a trill, most beauti- ful effects are noticeable, owing to the omission of certain radii in regular positions in the figure. The uses of this instru- ment are the rendering visible of sounds, and showing the vibrations required in their production, and it forms a mode of confirming by sight an appeal to the ear." W. Ladd. * "Engineer" xlv. 421. "Eng. Sf Min. Jour." xxvi. 207. "Scientific American Supplement'' 1 . . 2182,2303. Phos'phide of Cop'per. See PHOSPHOR BRONZE. Phos'phor Bronze. Invented by Montefiore & Kiiuzel, the founder of the Val-Benoit nickel manufactory, near Lie'ge. " Phosphorus bronze is made by fusing phosphorus tin with copper or with phosphorus copper. It fuses at 1230 to 1250 ; the finished product usually contains 0.053 to 0.76 per cent, phosphorus and 4 to 9 per cent, tin.''' Dr. Stam- mer. The result of analyses and observations indicates that the phosphorus exercises a double chemical action over the metals which compose the alloys. While reducing on the whole the oxide of tin contained in the mixture, it at the same time forms with the metals it has thus purified a per- fectly homogeneous alloy, the hardness and resistance of which are subject to control by varying the proportion of phosphorus. Experiments have established the superiority of phosphorus alloys over ordinary bronze, copper, coke-iron, charcoal iron, and steel. Under the influence of strains exceeding the limit of elasticity, or of violent shocks, their texture does not be- come crystalline . They are completely free from metals easily liable to attack, such as zinc. Sea-water, or diluted solutions of sulphuric acid, have only a very feeble action upon them, and in all cases much less than on pure copper. One of their most valuable qualities is, that recasting does not occasion loss in tin. Moreover, their degree of liquidity, which may be compared to that of mercury, renders it possible to obtain them without blisters, and to have perfect moldings. Their degree of fusibility is nearly the same as that of ordinary cannon bronze. A number of phosphor-bronze alloys are now manufac- tured, varying in composition to suit the objects for which they are intended. The scope of their application is very great. For instance : The following shows the results of tests made by Mr. David Kirkaldy, of London : CAST METAL. Resistance in pounds . per square inch. Diminution of Rupture. Elastic. Absolute. Per Cent. Pounds. Pounds. Pure copper .... 3.30 4,400 : 6,975 On linary gun metal. containing 9 parts copper, 1 part tin . Phosphor-bronze . . Phosphor-bronze . . Phosphor-bronze . . 3.60 8.40 1.50 33.40 12,800 i 16,650 23,800 : 52,625 24,700 46,100 16,100 44,448 DRAWN METAL. Pulling Stress per Square Inch. Twist in 5 Inches. . J 1 sjj a 1 11 E " 151,119 64,569 15.8 60 42.8 Cop mr . (8,122 37,002 86.7 96 34.1 Steel 120,976 74,637 22.4 79 10.9 Iron, Galvanized best Charcoal E . . . 65,834 46,160 48.0 87 28.0 Bearings. Bell metal. Boiler tubes. Bolts. Buckles. Busts. Cannon. Cocks. Engraving plates. Fire-arms. Gun fittings. Hammers. Harness fittings. Keys. Locks. Locomotive fittings. Nails. Oil cups. Ornaments. Printing rollers. Rivets. Tools. Tubes. Tuyeres. Valves. Wire. Wire rope. Wrenches. Etc. The great features of phosphor-bronze are that it can be made to any degree of hardness, toughness, or elasticity. It can be rendered more ductile than copper, as tough as wrought iron, or as hard as steel. It possesses great fluidity, its homogeneity is complete, and its grain is as fine as that of cast steel. It may be controlled with ease and accuracy to suit the particular purpose for which it is intended, and can be remelted as often as may be desired without any ap- preciable loss or material alteration of its quality. The phosphor-bronze alloy made for rolling, drawing, or emboss- ing, will stretch more than copper or any of its ordinary compounds. Plates have been reduced by a single cold rolling to one fifth of their thickness, the edge remaining perfectly sound, and without cracks. N. B. The wire used for these experiments was No. 16, Birmingham wire gage. " The following analyses of specimens of phosphor-bronzes show that phosphorus enters into them in very small pro- portion, though it has a most useful effect : Copper . . 93.68 ! 94.11 90.86 94.71 90.34 Tin. . . . 5.82 i 5.15 8.66 4.38 8.99 Phosphorus . .17 j .21 .19 .55 .76 Zinc . . . .34 .23 " " " Phosphorus may be introduced directly into the alloy in a state of fusion. In this case a great part of it is lost ; only a small quantity combines chemically with the metal. The copper may also be melted in a crucible, lined inside with bone-ash, nitric acid, and charcoal. This mixture should surround the copper on all sides before the closing of the crucible." Revue Industrielle. See also the following United States patents : 118,372 Lavroff, Phosphor bronze. 115,220 Levi & Kunzell, Phosphorized bronze. 120,984 Levi 9 Kunzell, Phosphorized bronze. 125,549 Dick, Phosphorized bronze. 130,702 Dick, Phosphor bronze for telegraph wire. 209,240 Duplaine. Copper 100 Nickel 100 Arsenic Phosphorus 3 228,615 Dick, Wrought iron, tin, phosphorus ; lead, op- tional. The subject is considered on p. 1678, "Mech. Diet.," where a table is given showing phosphor bronzes from Parke, 1848, to Lavroff and Levi & Kunzell, 1871. The subject may be pursued by reference to the follow- ing : "Scientific American," xxxvii.267; xxxix. 71, 409. "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 91, 718, 756. Wire u Sc.Am. Sup., "283, 1250. 786, 796. "Iron Age," xvii.. Feb. 10, p. 23; March 23, p. 20. PHOSPHOR BRONZE. 673 PHOTOGRAPHOMETER. Applications .... "Iron Age," xix., May 24, p. 16. Wire ropes ..... "Iron Age," xx., July 12, p. 9; xxi., May 9, p. 14 ; May 16, p. 15. "Engineering,'' xxiii. 346. " Van Nostrund's Eng. Mag.," xvi. 572 ; xvii. 48. "Manufact. if Builder " viii. 167. "Am. Man. & Iron WorM. n xxvi., April 23, p. 11. "Eng. $ Mm. Journal," xxi. 293: xxii. 44; xxiii. 62, 378; xxvL 257.276; xxix. 317, 391. At Centennial .... "Eng. ff Min. Journal,'' xxiii. 14. " .l/i/i. # Sc. Press," xxxii. 99, 243; xxxv. 195 : xxxvi. 19. " Teleg. Journal," vi. 86. "English Mechanic,'' xxiii. 62, 467 : xxiv. 325, 352 ; xxvi. 173, 431. ' "Engineer," xlii. 26, 393, 431, 466 ; xliii. 8, 43, 59, 310 ; xlvii. 26. Phos'phor Cop'per. An alloy used in the making of phosphor bronze. " Phosphorus copper may be made by heating together four parts acid calcium phosphate, two of granulated cop- per, and one part of charcoal ; the copper must be pure.'' - Dr. Stammer. "A crucible is fettled with a mixture of bone ash, silicic acid, and carbon, granulated copper is laid in and covered with a quantity of the fettling mixture, and the whole is fastened down with a cemented cover. >Soda and glass can be added to promote fusion. At a fusing heat, the silicic acid acts on the phosphate, the phosphoric acid is reduced and taken up as freed by the copper." Dr. Schwarz. Phos'pho-res'cent Di'al. Usually made of paper or thin cardboard enameled like visiting cards ; covered with an adhesive varnish, or white wax mixed with a little turpentine, over which is dusted with a tine sieve powdered sulphide of ba- rium. Sulphides of strontium and calcium possess the property in a lower degree. The dial loses its phosphorescence after a while in darkness, but is restored by sunlight or burning magnesium wire. Pho Phosph Phosphorus manufactory "Sc. American Siip.," 2790. Dial, illuminated ... p. 254, supra. Illuminated sign ... p. 489, Ibid. Phos'pho-res'cent Pho'to-graph. A plate coated with a mixture of dextrine, honey, and bi- chromate of potash is exposed under a negative, the result being that those portions which are ex- posed to the effect of the light through the trans- parent portions of the negative harden, while those which are protected from the light remain adhesive. The lines of the image retain any fine powder which is dusted over it, while the hard portions will not retain it. A phosphorescent powder for instance sulphite of lime, is dusted over the posi- tive, and, after having been exposed to sunlight, or any strong artificial light, becomes luminous in the dark. Phos'phor Tin. By heating 6 parts phospho- rus with 94 parts moist "tin sponge prepared from the chloride by reduction with zinc, the substance formed is Sn 9 P, fusible at 370 C. Made at Graupen tin works at Mariaschein, in Bohemia. Useful 'in making phosphor bronze, as it removes the oxides, which tend to harden the latter. See "Iron Age " ........ xx., Nov. 8, p. 15. "Engineering If Min. Jour." . . . xxiii. 62; xxiv. 70. "Am. Manuf. $ Iron World " . . xxvi., Aug. 13, p. 13. " Scient ific American " ..... xl. 118. Phos'pho-rus Steel. Metallurgy. The in- vention of Tessie du Motay ; the steel contains carbon, 0.12 ; phosphorus, 0.25 ; manganese, 0.75. A. L. Holley . . . "Iron Age," xxii., Aug. 29, p. 7. "Eng. Sf Min. Jour.," xxvi. 217. Phos'phor Zinc. Zinc with an addition of phosphorus. The combination is, however, much 43 osphorescent time-piece "Sc. American," xxxix. 339. osphorescent bodies . . "Sc. American Sup.," 3887. more frequent with the bronze. See PHOSPHOR BRONZE. Pho'to-collo-graph. A photograph in natu- ral colors. On methods of obtaining natural colors in the camera, from London, "Photographic News." Captain Abney's process considered. Reference to Niepce and Becquerel. Albert's (Munich) process for printing photocollographs. "Scientific American," xli. 260. Fho'to-col'lo-type. in natural colors. A photograph printed Herr Albert's method . Mr. Bolas' method . . ' Scientific American,' 1 '' xli. 260. 'Scientific American ftup.," 2770. Fho'to-drome. A scientific instrument for producing optical effects by flashes of light. It consists of a strong rotator, carrying- three disks of de- vices, each 30" in diameter, painted on paper ; and a small rotator carrying a smaller disk of card-board, with openings in it, to allow the light from a calcium, magnesium, or elec- tric lantern to be thrown upon the first disk by flashes. Each rotator is revolved rapidly, producing curious effects upon the large disk. See PHENAKISTOSCOPB. Pho'to-graph Bur'nish-er. A little machine in which a brilliant surface is given to a photo- graph by passing it under pressure over the sur- Fig. 1903. Photograph Burnisher. face of a burnishing tool. The feeding roller is slightly roughened ; the picture is fed, face down- ward over the burnisher, which is heated by an al- cohol lamp beneath. Ewing . . . . "Scientific American Supplement," 809. Pho'to-graph'ic Ri'fle. A device to take photographs of birds in flight. Capt. Vassel proposes a small dark rifle chamber of 2.27" interior diameter, surmounted by a proper level and sight. By means of Muybridge's, Janssen's, or other contrivances for taking instantaneous pictures, he thinks that small views might be easily taken which could be subsequently enlarged. He also proposes a photographic revolver for taking a series of successive attitudes at a single operation " La Nature." Pho-tog'ra-phom'e-ter. An automatic ap- paratus to record the angular position of objects situated around a given point. The objective is mounted vertically on a circular platform capable of rotating, by means of clock-work, in a horizontal plane. The picture is formed, not in a vertical plane, as ordinarily, but in a horizontal ; the rays, passing in through the objec- tive, are deflected 90, by means of a reflecting prism so as to fall on the horizontal sensitive surface, which is collodion- ized g'ass, and is placed in such a way that its center corre- sponds with the point at which the center point of the dia- phragm would be represented. To prevent a number of confused images superimposed on each other being formed during the rotation of the objective, an opaque screen, hav- ing a narrow oblong opening, the medial line of which passes through the axis of rotation, is placed over the whole of the sensitized surface, and revolves along with the objective. The result of this arrangement is the production on the sensitized plate of images of the different points that lie around the observer ; the angles formed by lines joining the PHOTOGRAPHOMETER. 674 PHOTOPHONE. center of the plate, and the different objects being exactly the same as those formed by lines joining the center of the in- strument and the objects themselves. The position of the objects thus accurately obtained may be transferred to pa- per, etc., in the ordinary way. See also OBOHELIOGBAPH, supra. Pho-tog'ra-phon. A complete portable pho- tographic apparatus for field-work. Price's "English Mechanic xxvii. 141. Pho-tom'e-ter. A measurer of illuminating power. See instances pp. 1687, 1688, "Meek. Diet.'" The official gas-testing apparatus used in the city of Paris is the result of consultations of the Compag- nie Parisienne du Gaz, and MM. Dumas and Reg- nault, and is shown in Figs. 1904-1906. The table has leveling screws. One extremity of the table has a meter with a dial, one hand registering units of 1-20 liter of gas, and the other hand fixable in any position as a Fig. 1904. City of Paris Photometer. (Side Elevation.) mark at the commencement of an evaluation, and in connec- tion with the dial-hand of departure is a lever which sets in consentaneous movement the dial-hand of a seconds chro- nometer placed above the dial of the meter. Behind the meter is a hood beneath which the observer places his Fig. 1905. Fig. 1906. City of Paris Photometer. (Front End View.) City of Paris Photometer. (Rear End View.) head, and looks through the tube which is shown projecting to the right. In the tube is placed a glass plate on which is a thin film of starch, and behind this a vertical plate, set edgewise eo as to divide the field of view, and allow the light under evaluation and the standard light to be compared. The chemical photometer of Herr Eden, of Vi- enna, is based upon the observation that chloride of mercury is very easily reduced to insoluble chlo- ride in sunlight whenever it is mixed with organic substances. The sensitive solution consists of two volumes of a solu- tion of 40 grams of oxalate of ammonia in one liter of water, and one volume of a solution of 50 grams of sublimate in one liter of water. In sunlight turbidity is immediately produced, the action of the light being weaker as the so- lution is more dilute. Tables are furnished for the correc- tions necessary to allow for the influence of increasing dilu- tion and varying temperature on the quantity of the chloride of mercury separated by the photo-chemical process of de- composition. The pocket photometer of M. Schutte, of Paris, has the form of a small telescope. Putting the eye to the narrow end and looking through at a light, one sees a small luminous circle, on which is de- tached some figure in black. On turning the wider part of the instrument, successive numbers are seen, and the higher the number the weaker is the light perceived, and at length it quite disappears. This etfect is obtained by means of leavea of waxed paper, the number of which increases with the fig- ures. Thus a weak, luminous source does not allow one to see the same number as a strong one, and the variation between the figures increases with the difference in intensity. The instrument can be used for determining the time of ex- posure in photography. The same principle is involved in the actinometer, de- scribed on p. 11, "Mech. Diet.'- Chemical, Dr. Eden, Vienna. " Scientific American,'' 1 xlii. 137. Edgerton * "Eng. and Min. Jour.,'- xxv. 94. French * Laboulayt's "Dict., r ii., "Eclair- age.'' Letheby * "Plumb. i( San. Eag.,'' ii. 445. Lighthouse Board, U. S. " Scientific American Sup.," 467. Munzinger "Scientific American Sup.," 125. Napoli * "Scientific American Sup.," 3773. Phenakistiscope. Plateau * "Scientific American Sup.," 4031. Goodwin's electric photometer extinguishes candle and gas, and stops meter and clock by electricity. "American Gas-light Journal" . . . * July 3, 1876, p. 5. Goodwin's candle-power jet photometer* Ibid., p. 6. Portable photometer ... * Ibid., p. 7. See JET PHOTOMETER, Fig. 1483, p. 512, supra. Pho'to-met'ric Stan'dard. The carcel. A carcel lamp burning 42 grams of refined colza oil per hour, with a flame 40 millimeters high. Equal ( 9.5 British ) . to i m a fi f standard candles. (7.6 German ) "Popular Science Monthly" . . October, 1882, p. 864. Pho'to-phone. An apparatus devised by Alex- ander Graham Bell and Sumner Taiuter for the production and reproduction of sound by means of the undulations of light. Vibrations are conveyed between distantly separated diaphragms by a beam of light. It is founded upon the sensitiveness of matter to light vibrations, and selenium offers the most prom- ising results of the numerous substances experi- mented with. Professor Bell's description of one form of the apparatus is as follows : " The simplest form of the apparatus for produ- cing the effect .... consists of a plane mirror of flexible material, such as silvered mica or micro- scope glass. Against the back of this mirror the speaker's voice is directed. The light reflected from this mirror is thus thrown into vibrations cor- responding to those of the diaphragm itself." " The beam is received at a distant station upon a parabolic reflector, in the focus of which is placed a sensitive selenium cell, connected in a local cir- cuit with a battery and telephone." Articulate sentences have been conveyed 213 meters. See address by Professor Bell, at the annual meeting of the "American Association of Science," August 25, 1880. Re- ported in Boston "Daily Advertiser " of that period, and re- produced in " Sc. American Supplement " . . p. 3921. " Iron Age " xxvi., Dec. 2, p. 1. " Manufacturer and Builder" . . xii. 255. Fig. 1907 will illustrate an experimental instrument. " In order to obtain a beam of light, the illuminating in- tensity of which at a distance could be directly controlled by, and bear a relation to, the sonorous vibrations constitu- ting musical notes or articulate speech, Prof. Bell inter- posed in the path of a beam of sunlight a screen consisting PHOTOPHONE. 675 PHOTOPHONE. Fig. 1907. Photophone (Illustrative Instrument). of two thin plates of metal, perforated with a number of fine slits, one of these plates, B, being fixed, while the other, A, was attached to the center of a diaphragm, D, which could be thrown into vibrations by the human voice at c, so that the motions of the diaphragm would cause the movable screen to slide backward and forward over the fixed plate, and in so doing alternately enlarge and contract the orifices through which the luminous beam was transmitted." En- gineering. In the illustration the intervals are exaggerated, to render them more clearly visible. " The width of the slits, as well as their distance apart, are so determined with respect to the rigidity of the diaphragm that at no position in the ampli- tude of the motion is the passage of the beam entirely closed, a certain amount of light passing continuously to the re- ceiver, the opening and contracting of the orifices of the screen merely varying the intensity, for although a rapidly intermittent beam of light would by this means transmit musical notes, it would be powerless to convey even an ap- proximation to the complications of articulate speech." Ibid. The construction of the selenium cells of the receiver by Messrs. Bell and Tainter is one of the most interesting of the series of ingenious contrivances involved. There is but room here for a sketch of results ; the references appended will furnish details omitted here. Fig. 1908 is the cylindrical form of selenium cell employed by Prof. Bell. The sensitive portion is the cylindrical sur- face upon which the rays Fig. 1908. of undulatory light are thrown by a paraboloid reflector in the focus of which it is placed. It consists of a number of circular disks of brass about 2" in diameter strung upon a rod pass- ing through their com- mon center, and separated by a similar series of disks of mica of slightly smaller diameter. When the compound series is built upon the mandrel a number of grooves occur around the mica, owing to the relatively smaller diameter of its disks. These grooves are filled Bell's Photopile of Receiver. with melted selenium. The bolts which pass through the disks form the connecting screws for placing the instrument in circuit with a telephone and battery. Every other disk of brass is in connection with the upper bolt, and the alternate disks with the lower bolt. This alternate connection is shown by the diagram, Fig. 1909, the odd numbered disks being connected by wire M Fig. 1909 * 9*f Diagram of Photopile and Connections . with the telephone T, and the even numbered by the wire JVto the battery S, and thence to the telephone Tin circuit. Figs. 1910, 1911 illustrate the photophone, the former showing the transmitter, and the latter the receiver. The transmitting instrument of the photophoue (shown in Fig. 1910) consists of a long board, with suitable adjust- Fig. 1910. Transmitter. ments for directing it, within certain limits, in both alti- tude and azimuth. To the board are attached the various parts of the apparatus. O is the mouth-piece, with its re- flecting diaphragm, D, of silvered glass or mica, and M is the mirror by which a ray of light from the sun, or any other powerful source of light, may be projected on to the dia- phragm D by the condensing lens L, below which is fixed another lens, JS, for the purpose of parallelizing the beam after reflection from the silvered diaphragm, and projecting it to the distant station, where it is received by the parabo- loidal reflector of the receiving instrument shown in Fig. 1911, hi the focus of which is placed one of the cylindrical Fig. 1911. Receiver. photopiles, Fig. 1908, and in circuit with the latter Is placed a pair of telephones and a voltaic battery, which in Profes- sor Bell's experiments consisted of nine Leclanche" cells. The general arrangement and disposition of the whole in- stallation is clearly shown in the diagram, Fig. 1912, in which the portion to the left of the figure is the transmit- Fig. 1912. Y Diagram of Installation. ting apparatus, and that to the right the receiving instru- ment. The rays from the sun, or from whatever source of light is employed, after being reflected by the plane mirror M, are concentrated upon the face of the reflecting dia- phragm D by means of the lens L, and a small glass trough C containing a solution of alum is interposed in their path for the purpose of absorbing the heat rays which, by altering the figure of the diaphragm mirror and introducing other ir- regularities, might produce disturbing influences which are better eliminated. At L- is placed a second lens for the pur- PHOTOPIIONE. 676 PHOTO-PRINTING PROCESS. pose of either parallelizing the rays and projecting them to the receiving apparatus, or of rendering them divergent ac- cording to the particular circumstances of the experiment. K is the paraboloidal reflector, in the focus of which and co- axial with it is placed the cylindrical photopile P, which is included in the circuit of a battery, B, and telephone, T. When words are spoken into the mouth-piece O, the dia- phragm D is thrown into vibration, becoming thereby al- ternately more or less convex and concave with continually varying amplitudes of vibration, the effect of which is to confer upon the beam reflected from its surface a continu- ally varying illuminating intensity and, as this undulatory beam is projected by the reflector, R, upon every portion of ! the sensitive surface of the cylindrical photopile, the latter I is in the best possible position to produce by its varying ] electrical resistance the maximum effect in the telephone. ; ' ' Engineering. ' ' Fig. 1913 is a diagram showing an apparatus by Prof. Bell, used in Paris in photophonic experiments, with electric light as the source of illumination. Fig. 1913. Photophone with Electric Light Illumination. L is the electric lamp, the arc of which is in the focus of a paraboloidal silvered reflector, R, by which the divergent rays emanating from the arc are condensed and projected as a parallel beam to the reflecting diaphragm T, by which a certain small proportion of them is reflected to the receiving instrument through a distance of nearly 50', as shown in the figure. Fig. 1914 shows an apparatus devised by Messrs. Bell & Tainter in investigating the transmission of sounds from one Fig. 1914. Photophone without Electricity. station to another without the aid of electrical arrangement, cr of any thermopile. Almost all substances emit a sound when placed in the path of a beam of soniferous light, such for instance as is reflected from the vibrating diaphragm of the photophone in action, or as is produced by giving to the beam of light a rapidly intermittent character. In the in- strument shown in Fig. 1914 rays of solar light are by the lens L condensed, after reflection from the surface of the mirror M, to a focus on the D disk, in which is perforated an annular series of some forty holes, and which can be set into very rapid rotation by arrangements not shown in the figure. By this means a beam of light projected by the lens Name. Process. Abney, discussion of methods Bachrach, paper by Photo-engraving works Asser photolithograph Bowen wax-ground etching Oros . photolitho Gobert bichro. albumen bichro. albumen L on to the tube T can be interrupted from a hundred to six hundred times in a second, which corresponds to the rapidity of vibration of a musical note of high pitch. When such an intermittent beam is allowed to fall upon diaphragms of different substances placed at the end of the tube T, they, with doubtful exceptions, are thrown into vibration, and tne corresponding note is heard in the hearing-tube. When the hearing tube I is removed, the apparatus shown in Fig. 1914 may be used as a transmitting instrument for the sending of photophonic signals on the Morse or any other prearranged system to a distant station. In this case, while the disk is in rapid rotation, a shutter operated by a key (shown in the figure) is made either to obstruct the light or to allow it to pass for longer and shorter periods of time cor- responding to the dashes or dots in the Morse code. When the instrument is employed for this purpose a piano-convex lens is placed at Cfor parallelizing the beam of intermittent light. MM. Bell & Tainter have also devised an apparatus for bringing about the variation of the intensity of a luminous beam, by the application of Faraday's discovery of the ro- tation of the plane of polarization of a beam of light in its passage through a magnetized field. Rays of light emanating from a source of light are parallelized by a lens and projected to a receiving photophone, passing successively through a polarizing Nicols' prism, a hollow coil of insulated wire and an analyzing Nicols' prism. * "Engineering," xxx. Following in the same line of research is a new apparatus in which a beam o'f light from a lime light, or even a caudle, is thrown upon a common glass flask having a long neck. To this is fastened a rubber speaking tube that may be placed to the ear, so that any sounds in the flask may be heard through the tube. Between the flask and the light is placed a circular disk of metal, having narrow slots or openings, placed like the spokes of a wheel round the edge. When the disk is at rest, the beam of light may pass through one of the slots and fall on the flask. If, now, the disk is made to turn rapidly on its axis, the light will reach the flask in a series of flashes, as it shines through the slots one after the other. Here the curious dis- covery comes in. When the flask is filled with a gas or a vapor, say the vapor of sulphuric ether, common street gas, oxygen, perfumes like patchouli or cassia, or even smoke, and the beam of light is made to fall on the flask in a series of alternate flashes, the operator, listening with the speaking tube at his ear, will hear strange musical sounds inside the flask. The pitch of these tones will correspond exactly with the speed with which the disk is made to turn, and each kind of gas or vapor in the flask will give a different kind of note, some soft, some loud, and some very sweet and musical. " This shows that light may be made the means of making sounds audible at a distance, even when the eye can see no difference in the light. It even suggests the idea that we may yet be able to hear the sounds of the fires raging in the sun. It may, indeed, be only a hint to yet more wonderful and unthought of relationships between light and sound, which may be utilized as a medium of communication." Selenium, on. Bell . . "Engineering,'' xxx. 240. On the photophone . . "Engineering,'' xxx. 253 . * 407. Lecture and diagram . * "Engineering," 1. 285. * "Manufact. if Builder." xii. 255. "American Manuf.," Oct. 8, 1880, p. 9. * "Scientific American,'' xliii. 209. " Eng. 4" Min. Jour.,'' xxx. 222. See discussion by Bell, Latimer-Clark, Tyndall, etc., " Journal Soc. Telegraph Engineers," * ix. 2b'3, et seq. : 404, et ssq. Pho'to-priiit'ing Pro'cess. Numerous in- ventions, processes, and modifications are given in the " Mech. Diet." a list being appended on p. 1686. Notices of the following methods may be found in the references cited. There are so many systems, and they anastomose in so intricate a manner, that it is not easy within allowable limits to make even a digest. In the following list the term printing is used somewhat generally, including relief process, gelatine, and metallic, bichromate or acid processes ; also printing from negatives either to make cliches, positive pictures, or transfers. print from stone relief plate print from stone cliche^ on glass . clich on glass "Scientific Amtriran Sup.," 3774. " Scientific American Kip.." 1 2195. f "Scientific Amer.," 1 xxxvii. 386. " Scientific American >'/>.,'' 1514. " Scientific American," xxxvi. 231. "Scientific American," xxxvi. :"5. "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 117. "Scientific American Sup.," 1891. PHOTO-PRINTING PROCESS. 677 PICKET PIN. Name. Process. Result. Husnik photoznico relief plate . . . "Scientific American,'' xlii. 404. chr. gelatine glass plate . . . . "Scientific American" xxxiv.386. chr. gelatine .... ... glass plate . . . . "Scientific American,"' xxxv. 153. Jacobsm gelatine printing film . . . "Scientific American,'' xlii. 18. "Journal Photography" . . chr. albumen mezzotint plate . . "Scientific American Sup.,"' 1177. Ltnoir albumen printing film . . . "Scientific American,''' xliii. 360. Michaud chr. gelatine metal plate . . . "Iron Age,'' xxii., Aug. 1, p. 9. Rodrerigiiez collodion silver print . . . "Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' 1958. etching on gelatine and carb. lead glass negative . . "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2194. dissolved gelatine ..... relief block . . . "Scientific Amer.," 1 xxxviii. 26. swelled gelatine relief block . . . "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxviii. 26. Vidal carbon process film on artificial stone Volkme.r photolithograph '. Water/iouse gelatine copper plate . . . asphaltum relief 'Scientific American Sup. ," 2607. Albert ohr. gelatine cliche print ...... 'Mecli. Diet.,''' 57. Aubel fluoric acid on glass glass plate . . . . 'Scientific American Sup.," 1310. Baldus asphaltum copperplate . . . ' Sc. American Sup.,'' 1310,2509. Solas chr. gelatine . relief block . . . " Scientific American Sup.,'' 2663. photolitho : . . stone " Scientific American Sup.," 2276. photozincp relief " Scientific American Sup., ' 2276. chr. gelatine cliche " Scientific American Sup.,'' 2326. Bran/I glass negative ink print Despaqwis chr. gelatine cliche print . . ^^^^^^^^ ' ~ ' utific Fox-Tnlbot bichr. chr. gelatine print Mech. Diet.," 1686. Licht'lruck bichr print ' Scientific American Sup.J' 1310. Negre asphaltum . printing plate . . " Sc. American Sup., " 1319, 2507. Niepce asphaltum printing plate . . " Scientific American Sup.,-'' 1310. Niepce.de St Victor .... asphaltum printing plate . . "Mech. Diet.," 1 1686. Poitevin chr. gelatine transfer to stone . "Mech. Diet.,''' 1687. ' Scientific American,'' xli. 395. Poitevin chr. gelatine copperplate . . . " Scientific American Sup.," 1 1310. Pretsch chr. gelatine copperplate . . . ' :l Scientific American Sup.," 1310. Scamoni photo, print copperplate . . . ''Sc. Amer. Sup.," 1310, 1994. Schahl chr. gelatine cliche' print ^Scientific American," xli. 261. Warnerke . carb. gelatine metal plate . . . " Scientific American Sup.," 3775. Woodbury chr. gelatine metal plate . . . "Scientific American Sup.," 1310. silver print print on wooden block "Scientific American,'' xxxiv.36L Woolwich ....... photolitho: " Scientific American Swp.,"4092. Fig. 1915. Picket-heading Machine. See PHIMOSIS Fig. 1916. Phy-mo'sis For'ceps. STRUMENT. Phys'i-cal A p ' p a - ra'tus. See EXERCISING MACHINE; HEALTH LIFT ; and references pas- Hopkins' simple physical ap- paratus, * "Sc. Am.," xl. 35. Pick'et Ma-chine'. A machine for making fence pickets. Fig. 1915 is Snyder's picket- heading machine. Its action is a planing motion, the cutter being drawn down by the pit- man, operated by a shaft be- neath the floor. It cuts heads such as those shown 1916. On the arm is a series of checks which are IN- Fig. 1917. W /.' Picket Heads. in Fig. thrown Picket-heading Machine. back in a moment to change the length of picket or paling from 5' to 2.5' or any inter- mediate length. Fig. 1917 is another style of picket header, the cutters being on a revolving wheel. Fig. 1916 shows four styles of picket heads. Pick'et Pin. A pin to which an animal is tied by a lariat. Fig. 1918 shows one with swivel link on a sleeve ; to prevent kinking, and allow the animal to graze around the pin without wind- ing up the lariat. Fick'et-saw'ing Ma-chine'. One for sawing pickets or palings from the bolt. Zierden's iron-frame gang, lath, and picket sawing machine is shown in Fig. 1919. The illustration shows the cowl or iron cover thrown back. This, when in use, covers and protects the gang of saws, and prevents saw- dust being scattered over the mill. 1918. Picket Pin. PICKET-SAWING MACHINE. 678 PIKE POLE. Fig. 1919. Picket-sawing Machine. Pick Ham'mer. A miner's tool, which has hammer and pick 'at the respective ends. Fig. 1920. Pick Hammer. Pick Mat'tock. One with a blade at one end transverse to the line of the handle, and a point at the other end. Fig 1921. Pick Mattock. Differs from an axe mattock, a simple mattock, a pick, or a pick hammer. Fic'no-hy-drom'e-ter. A combination of the picnometer and hydrometer. Wiegand. Described in * " Scientific American," xxxiv. 340. Fic'nom'e-ter. A specific gravity glass. Pic'ture Lens. (Optics.) A large, double convex lens of very long focus, and mounted in a hand-frame ; for examining pictures or paint- ings when hung upon a wall. See also CLAUDE LORRAINE. Pier. The subject is considered under various heads in the "Mech. Diet." AIR LOCK, Plate II., p. 49 ; PIER, p. 1699, etc. See list under HYDRAU- LIC ENGINEERING, pp. 1129-1148, Ibid. See : Promenade, Aid- borough, Br. . . . * ' Ore shipping, Bilboa, Spain * ' Coney Island . . . . ' Staging, E. River Bridge * ' Tidal, Edgerton, Engl. . * ' Hudson bridge, Pough- * ' keepaie Ore shipping, Huelva, Iron , Lewes, Delaware Col. Kurtz .... Iron, Long Branch . . Omaha iron piers . . . Rio Tinto Ry., Spain Promenade iron pier. Skegness, Br. . . . Withernsea, Br. . 'Engineer," xlvi. 182. 'Engineer," xlviii. 409. 'Scientific American," xl. 344. 'Engineering," xxv. 129, 171. 'Scientific American Sup.," 898. 'Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vii. 336. 'Engineer," xli. 360, 363, 374. 'Scientific Am. Sup.," 1142, 1155. 'Scientific American,'' xl. 161. ; Trans. Am. So. Civ. Eng.," vii. 338. " Scientific Am. Sup.," 1971, 2018. 'Engineer," xlix. 44, 62. 'Engineer," xlv. 62. The report by Major Tumbull on the construction of the piers of the Alexandria canal aqueduct across the Potomac, at Georgetown, D. C. (1838-1841), was reprinted for Engineer Department, U. S. A., 1873. 4to. Pier'cing. The act of sawing a pattern or ob- ject out of a plate, in coutra-distinction to punching. Jig and band saws are used for the purpose. Pie'som'e-ter. See PIEZOMETER ; PRESSURE GAGE ; and references passim. Fi'e-zom'e-ter. 1. (Surgical.) An instrument to measure the sense of pressure. It consists of a spring in a German silver graduated tube. The spring is pressed by a rod, on the end of which is a hard rubber disk " in diameter. e the back of thigh and leg. Beard's Fig. 284, Part I., Tiemann's ' Armam. Chirurg.' 1 ' See also JESTHESIOMETER. 2. An instrument to ascertain the pressure set up in the bore of a gun when a charge of powder is fired. "Engineer," * Sept. 16, 1870 ; vol. xlvii., 83, 134, 170. See "Ordnance Report," 1879, Appendix M., pp. 228-256, and Plates I. -XI. See also CUTTER ; CRUSHER GAGE, supra; * PRESSURE GAGE infra. The piezometer of M. Sebert consists of a metallic rod of square section fixed in the axis of a hollow projectile, and which serves as a guide to a movable mass. The latter car- ries a small tuning fork the prongs of which terminate in two small metallic pens which leave undulating traces of their passage on one of the faces of the rod, which has been coated with lamp black. It is designed to determine the laws of motion of a projectile in the bore of a cannon in order to de- duce therefrom the law of the pressures developed by the combustion of the charge. " Scientific American" xl. 1811. *" Scientific American Sup." .... 4042. 3. The same principle is adopted in obtaining measurements of depth in sounding. In Thomson's navigational sounding apparatus, shown and de- scribed on pp. 351, 352, supra, the observed conden- sation of air in a tube attached to the sinker and registering itself by the contact of sea water with a preparation lining the tube, is made the meas- ure of depth. Bncfianan .... " Van Nostrand's Mag.," x.viii.61. Pig and Ore Pro'cess. (Metallurgy.) A process of Dr. C. W. Siemens. It consists in melting down a charge of pig-iron together with enough iron ore to make good the loss of pig-iron by oxidation. The ore facilitates the decarburization of the pig- iron. The pig and ore process is coming largely into use, and is in Great Britain, where it is well done on a large scale, a successful rival of the Bessemer process. Holley. Pig Met'al Scales. An iron truck to run on to a section of railway upon scale platform. Fig. 1922. Pig Metal Scales. Tlie car is intended to hold a furnace charge. The beam is concealed, but has an indicator which passes through the top of the beam box. Pike Pole. A tool used by lumbermen in driv- ing logs in rivers. See Fig. 1923. PILE DAM. 679 PILE DRIVER. Pile Dam. A dam made by driving piles and filling in with stones. It usually has planking to protect the surfaces. See Pile dam on the Little Kaukanna, Fox River improvements: "Report of Chief of Engineers U. S. Army,'' 1876, vol. ii., part 2, Plate II., p. 416. Pile Dri'ver. The pile driver as a ramming engine to force piles into the ground is shown iu Figs. 3717, 3718, pp. 1702, 1703, "Mech. Diet." See also PILE-DRIVING ENGINE, infra; PNEUMATIC PILE, "Mech. Diet." et infra, and references passim. The method of driving piles by aid of hydraulic jet has been very successful in sands and soils which are free of logs and bowlders. The operation is shown in Fig. 1924. It is a device of British engineers, used at Morecombe Bay in India, in build- ing a railway bridge crossing some treach- erous sands and also used in the construction of Southport pier, England. The pile is in hollow iron sections and has a bulbous shoe. " The columns, 9" in diameter and of |" metal, terminate in an extended base 18" in diameter, with a contracted opening of 2J". This disk is provided with toothed edges, and serrated flanges to scratch away any impediments, and cut through the layers of indurated mud and silt which here and there interpose and interrupt its progress. The column is clasped by moving guides on the face of an ordinary piling engine frame, and down the inside Fig. 1924. Pike Pole. Diclcson's Hydraulic. Pile Driving is run an iron tube 2J" in diameter, protruding a lew inches beyond the base. The upper end of this tube being brought round, is attached by screw couplings to a flexible hose, in connection with a steam pump. The whole being duly placed in position, a couple of men are told off to keep the column in reciprocating motion by means of a lever clasped round it, and all being ready the pumps are set to work. The issuing jet of water blows up the sand, which is thru kept continually agitated, and down goes the pile in the is attained, the pumps are stopped, and the tube rapidly withdrawn , and the whole in the course of a few minutes is firmly fixed. These columns, in the case cited at South- port, are all put down a depth of 15' to 20', the average time occupied in the actual process of sinking being but 20 to 80 minutes. Two or three were fixed in a tide, the bulk of the time being necessarily occupied in moving about the Fig. 1925. Section through Axis of Pile. apparatus and machinery. Some of the piles were sunk from a raft, the process answering equally as well under water as ashore. An experimental column with a reduced Fig. 1926 Plan of Bottom. disk, was sunk in less than 20 minutes to a depth ol W." "Engineer." Fig. 1927. Section through A-B. (Showing Plan of Bridge-piece and Arrangement of Gearing,) PILE DKIVER. 680 PILE DRIVING. Figs. 1925-1927 show excavating shoes to be added to the end of the ordinary tubular pile when the soil is of such a nature as not to yield to the mere impact of water. The cylinder itself is not rotated but is held upright over the spot it is to occupy and sinks as the earth is excavated be- neath it. The sole of the pile is shown in section in Fig. 1925 and in plan in Fig. 1926, steel cutters D being placed on curved blades R, and driven by means of gears p on shafts A supported in sockets JJ and bridge B. The gears P mesh into an internal cog-wheel A which is a part of the sole F. The shoe being rotated comminutes the soil which is driven away by a copious jet of water conducted down the interior of the cylinder. The required depth being reached, an air chamber is attached to the top of the pile and air forced in to empty the pile while the machinery of the bottom portion is all removed. The pile is then filled with concrete. Pile Dri'ving. The methods of sinking piles and caissons by pneumatic methods or by combined pneumatic and other methods have been considered under * PNEUMATIC PILE, p. 1754; * CAISSON, p. 421 ; *AiR LOCK, p. 49 ; * SUBMARINE EXCAVA- TOR, p. 2439, "Mech. Diet." See also PILE, supra. Figs. 1928-1930 show views of the subaqueous excavator of Pontez, used for driving piles or making solid foundations in quicksands or unstable soils. Fig. 1928. Pontez' Sub-aqueous Excavator. Pig. 1928 is a vertical section showing the excavating cylin- der in position, also the working apparatus. Beneath the view of the apparatus in situ are two detached figures : one a plan of the disk showing the central hole for the tubes, and other holes for piles which are to be driven through. On the right is a sectional elevation of the excavating cylinder, showing inteV-nal perforated tube C, and hydraulic jets D D. The excavating cylinder B is formed of sheet iron, connected at its upper extremity with a powerful suction pump or air- tight receiver. The lower section of the excavator is con- nected with another pump, a force pump, by the hose C which passing through the side of the excavating cylinder, then feeds a pipe perforated with a number of small holes. This pipe, leading down near the open end of the cylinder B bifurcates and then projects outside the cylinder at opposite sides, forming two external hydraulic excavating jets D D. The operation for sinking a disk is as follows : The exca- vating cylinder is passed through the central aperture, and rests on the mud beneath ; the connections are then made respectively with the force-pump and suction-puinp or vac- uum chamber. The first effect of the action of the suction- Fig. 1929. Elevation and Section of Pile Foundation. pump is to force the nozzle of the excavator, by atmospheric pressure, into the mud for some depth, thereby excluding the outer water. A column of permeable sand or mud now fills the cylinder ; under the power of the suction i'ig. 1930. it packs tightly, and the operation would cease, but simultaneously the force-pump ff sends into the column of mud nu- merous small jets of water ; the moment it becomes permeable it passes on in a contin- uous flow and is de- livered by the pump, holding the maximum of solid matter with the minimum of water, or air if forced in instead of water. The diverging hydraulic or air jets act- ing over and beyond the area covered by the disk, excavate beneath and undermine it, the mate- rial passing into the ex- cavator, the disk sub- sides. Bowlders or large stones encountered would be washed into the center of the excava- tion, where they could be broken through the aperture. Fig. 1929 shows two forms of piles sunken by these means. One has a Sheet Piling. series of disks with intervening concrete or rip-rap. The sec- tional view shows the disks with central tube, and the side piles in position. Fig. 1930 shows the plan as adapted to sheet piling. QT. Pile, Le Grand IfSut- diff .... "Engineer," xlvii. 183. Pile-driver * "Engineering," xxiii. 433. PILE DRIVER 681 PILLAR SHAPER. Pile-driver "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 388. * " Scientific American," 1 xli. 147. * "Engineer," xlii. 372. * "Engineering," xxi. 408. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 338. * "Manufact. # Builder,-' ix. 129. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," 2210. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," 2210. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2050. "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 340. * Fig. 1099, p. 357, supra. ''Sc. Amer. Sup.," 2238, * 3769. Machinery, Dresden . Gunpowder, Shaw Machine, Mundy . Engine, Mundy . Powder .... Steam, Lewicki Water jet, Calais . Water jet in 1863 . Friction drum hoist Pneumatic process, Glenn In .-ianil, water jet, Pontez " Scientific American," xxxix. 20. Kxplosive, Vugler . . . U. S. Patent, No. 137,514. Tubular, Grand # Sut- i-tij!' ....... * "Engineering," xxvii. 223. Jiinvier, * Laboulayc 1 !: "Dirt.," iv., ed. 1877, art. "Pilotis." * Bower. * Nasmytli. Austrian steam pile drivers, * " Vienna Exposition Re- ports," iii., Sec. II., p. 56, and Plate XVII. de Pilotis, Defontaine . . " Technolos;iste," xli. 793. Driving by hyd. pressure, Wieck . " Technologist e," xli. 206. Driving by dynamite ..... " Technologiste," xl. 64. Pile-dri'ving En'gine. An engine specially a: ii. Pin machine "Iron Age," xvii., May 18, p. 20. Pin machinery . . . . "Sc. Amer.," xli. 261. Fin'-ball Sight. (Rifle.) Another name for the bead-sight; also called pin-head sight. Left- hand illustration, Fig. 249, p. 84, supra. Pin Bush. A reaming or polishing tool for pin holes. Fi-. 1935. Fig. 1934. Pin Bush. A. Mohr's Pinchcock. B. Bunsen's Pinchcock. 3 Pinchcocks. Pinch/cock. A clamp on a flexi- ble pipe to regulate the flow of fluid or liquid, so as to keep up a con- stant action at a fixed rate. Finch'er. (Glass.) A nipping tool fitting the inside and outside of a bottle, in order to shape the mouth. (Metal.) Compound lever * "Iron Age,'" xxiv., Sept. 18, p. 7. Cutting, Hall . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 388. Pin'ion Jack. (Milling.) A jack for raising the stone pinion out of gear. This attachment works from below. Another and simpler device for raising the pinion from above has a shaft worked by a hand wheel with ratchet stop, and haviug short chains and hooks, which are caught under the arms of the pinion, and raised by the turning of the shaft. Pink'ie. A fishing vessel with a high, narrow- pointed stern. Used in the cod and coast fisheries. Pin Ma-chine'. 1. Toilet pin. See p. 1705, "Mech. Diet." 2. A machine for making wooden pins, for se- curing mortise and tenon joints, for dowels, etc. It is especially used in making the pins used in sash, blind, and door factories. The square stuff is fed into the machine, rounded by pass- ing through a hollow mandrel, and pointed by a rotary Fig. 1936. Wooden Pin Machine. pointing cutter. The machine will cut off the pins at any- desired length, and leave them round or square. Cuts and points 80 to 130 pins per minute ; length, $" to 4" ; diame- ter, i" to 5-16". Pin Sticking Ma-chine'. A machine for sticking pins in paper. The pins in bulk pass from a hopper into an inclined, slotted chute, down which they move, supported by their heads. At the bottom of the chute the pins are received singly between the projecting threads of a screw shaft, and are moved horizontally over a warped guiding and support- ing surface shaped to gradually change the pins moved over it from a vertical to a horizontal position. Each pin, after it is placed in a horizontal position, is released from the con- trol of the screw or feeding shaft, and is delivered under a spring presser or holder, and then a reciprocating driver strikes the head of, and projects the pin horizontally forward and through parallel, projecting, longitudinal ribs formed on a long strip of paper led from a suitable reel. The paper is ribbed or crimped longitudinally for the reception of the pins by the action of a foot and a wheel, between which the paper passes. The strip, with pins inserted, is then cut into proper lengths and wound on a mandrel to form rolls, which are then pressed between a concave and convex matrix into pyramidal form. Pin Switch. (Telegraphy.) A simple and ef- ficient method of connecting wires and loops with instruments, or changing from one line to another. The connections are made with pins or plugs, which give a rubbing or frictional contact when thrust into the holes on the board. See LOCK SWITCH. Pi'o-scope. A milk test by Prof. Heeren. It consists of a disk of black vulcanized caoutchouc, hav- ing in its middle a flat circular depression. A few drops of the milk in question, well mixed, are placed in the hollow and covered with the second part of the apparatus a plate of glass painted with six shades of color radiating out from a PIOSCOPE. 683 PIPE BENDER. small, uncovered, circular spot in the middle. The colors Offset pipe. Soldering nipple. range from white gray to deep bluish gray. The layer of Oil pipe. Stand pipe. milk is seen through the uncolored spot in the center, and Oil pipe line. Stand post. its color can thus be compared with the radiating colors, Open return bend. Starting valve. and its quality judged according to the color with which it Pantry cock. Steam trap. coincides. The whiter the color the more creamy the milk. See LACTOSCOPE and references j/assim. Pavement pipe. Steam valve. Pet cock. Stench trap. Pipes, Valves, and Plumb'ing. Apparatus included under the following heads : Pipe. Stop valve. Pipe connection. Straightway valve. Pipe coupling. Strainer. Adapter. Drop tee. Pipe covering. Strainer foot valve. Angle check-valve. Dudgeon expander. Angle cock. Earth closet. Pipe fittings. S-trap. Pipe joint. Street washer. Angle pressure valve. Elbow. Angle valve. Ell. Back-pressure valve. Equilibrium valve. Ball-and-socket pipe. Exhaust nozzle. Basin cock. Expansion joint. Basin grate. Faucet. Pipe-laying apparatus. Street washer screw Pipe line. Stuffing cock. Pipe reducer. Suction basket. Pipe stop. Suction butt. Pipe union. Swinging coupling. Pitcher nose. Swinging valve. Basin plug. Ferrule. Plug. Swing joint. Basin stopper. Filter. Plug basin. T. Basin trap. Filtering apparatus. Basin waste. Flange. Plug cock. Tail pipe. Plug valve. Tank check valve. Basin wrench. Flange coupling. Bath. Flange pipe. Bath-boiler union. Flexible valve. P-trap. Tank regulator. Quarter bend. Tank screw. Quarter-turn gooseneck. Tank valve. Bath cock. Floating board. Bath tuli Float valve* Racking faucet. Tap. Rain and well water stop. Taper screw joint. Bath-tub strainer. Flush box. Reducer. Tap-hole protector. Bell. Flushing box. Reducing coupling. Tasting cock. Bend. Flush joint. Reducing tee. T-brauch. Bevel hub. Foot valve. Reflux valve. Tee. Bibb. Forty-five elbow. Regulating valve. Telegraph cock. Bidet. Four-way cock. Retaining valve. Telegraph faucet. Bidet pan. Frost valve. Return bend. T-handle. Blank flange. Fullway valve. Blow-off cock. Gage cock. Return valve. Thimble. Ring valve. Three-quarter-S trap. Blow-off hose cock. Gas bath. Kose. Three-way cock. Blow-through cock. Gas drip box. Round way cock. Throttle damper. Bottle capsule. Gas pipe. Running trap. Tide flap. Bottle carrier. Gas soldering apparatus. Screw-down stop cock. Tip-up basin. Bottle holder. Gas trap. Screw valve. Trap. Bottle jack. Gas valve. Seal. Trap mold. Bottle stopper. Gate valve. Self-closing faucet. Tube. Bottle washer. Gland cock. Service cock. Tube valve. Bottling machine. Globe valve. Sewer-gas check. Twin safetv valve. Box valve. Gooseneck. Sewer-gas trap. Union. Bracket cock. Ground cock. Sewer-trap. Vacuum valve. Branch. Gulley trap. S-hopper trap. Valve gearimr. Bulk-head union. Half hose-coupling. Shower bath. Vertical check-valve. Bung. Half-S hopper trap. Sink. Wash basin. Bushing. Half-S trap. Sink pipe. Wash-basin valve. Can. Half trap. Sink plug. Wash stand. Cap. Hand hole trap. Siphon. Wash-tub waste. Carboy. Hawser pipe.' Siphon bottle. Waste. Centrifugal filter. H-branch. Siphon-cleaning box. Waste preventer. Cesspool trap, Hopper. Siphon filler. Waste stop-cock. Champagne apparatus. Hopper closet. Siphon pipe. Waste wav. Check valve. Hopper cock. Siphon trap. Water-back coupling. Chipping knife. Horizontal check-valve. Slab. Water closet. Clear-way hydrant. Hose. Slant. Water gate. Closet cistern. Hose cart. Sleeve. Water main. Coil. See varieties under Hose clamp. Slide valve. Water pipe. HEATING AND LIGHTING Hose coupling. Sluice. Water shoes. APPARATUS. Hose nipple. Sluice valve. Water valve. Combination basin cock. Hose pipe. Socket. Wedge valve. Commode. Hose screw. Socket pipe. Weighted gage-cock. Compression cock. Hose sprinkler. Soda-water apparatus. Wiped joint. Cone joint. Hose union. Soda-water fountain. Wiring stand. Conical valve. Hose union cap. Soda- water fountain cock. Y. Corking machine. Hose wrench. Soda-water machinery. Y-branch. Cork wiring. Hub. Soil branch. Y-cross. Corner valve. Hydrant. Soil pipe. Yoke. Corporation stop. Hydrant cock. Counter cock. Hydrant nozzle. Pipe Bend'er, 1. A mandrel consisting of a Cross. Hydrant suction. Cross valve. Hydrant valve. Curve. Hydrostatic joint Fig. 1937. Decanting apparatus. Injection check valve. A >^^HM ^SC" 6 **!^ Diaphragm valve. Inserted joint. .appj^^jps ^fiyJifr/gg^J Differential screw pipe- L. ^^ ^^^^^^^^- j^l^^B^H joint. Lateral branch. Double-bell pipe. Latrine. ^Sf^f^r EBTHJM.ATA. * j' "ffi~ Double-connecting section. Leaden pipe. mll^^ff Rrre>l!p*^k Double-face valve. Lever and cam valve. mjS^ff MAunRri_ji ^B IC"*** Double fire-cock. Lever faucet. BVf ^^"^^kfmfr ""^sS " Double-hub beud. Lever-handle cock. & j<** 1 ^^ Double valve. Liquor cock. I'^S 1 / Double- Y branch. Lock faucet. K^-rf^y Drain cock. Main. ffii^H Drain grate. Molasses gate. Pipe Bendir Mandrel. Drain pipe. Mushroom strainer. BW^I Draw-off cock. Nipple. Dresser. Nozzle. Drop elbow. Offset. strong closely-wound steel helix of uniform exterior diameter and somewhat longer than the pipe to be PIPE BENDER. 684 PIPES, TOOLS, AND MACHINERY. bent. This is thrust into the pipe and keeps it from becoming distorted. See FLEXIBLE MANDREL, Fig. 1058, p. 347, supra. 2. Miller's machine for bending stove-pipe elbows consists of sets of clamps in pairs which seize the pipe, and, turning on horizontal axes, force it to bend at each operation through a small angle. The pipe is then released and a new hold taken at a point a little farther along, and the operation re- peated until the pipe has been given the required bend. Pipe Coupling. A joint or piece to connect two pipes or a pipe with another object. See: Bell. Bend. Branch. Cross. Elbow. Expansion joint. Hub. Offset. Reducer. Sleeve. Tee. Y. Pipe Cut'ter. 1. A machine for cutting pipe into lengths or tracing the ends. Associated with a threader in Fig. 1744, p. 1712, "Meek. Diet." 2. A tool for cutting off pipes. Four forms are shown in Figs. 3735-3738, p. 1711, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 1938 is a form in which the body of the tool is threaded internally for the reception of the threaded end of the stem of the handle, and has at the rear a chamber for the recep- tion and guidance of the stem of the movable jaw. This stem has a screw thread cut upon it so that it can be moved Fig. 1938. Fig. 1940. "Acme " Pipe Cutler. in or out by means of a knurled nut. The pipe is cut by a chisel on the end of the handle stem which is fed into the pipe by means of the thread on the stem, while the tool is revolved around the pipe. Pipe Die. 1. (Ceramics.) Pipes of stone- ware are made in a press, in the usual manner of pressing the plastic clay out of an annular hole made by sus- pending a cone in the circu- lar exit. They are finished with a lead glaze and sec-' ond firing. 2. The threaded nut for chasing a screw on a pipe. See Figs. 812-815, p. 256, supra. Pipe Fit'ter's Vise. See PIPE VISE, infra, also Fig. 3752, p. 1713, " Mech.\ Diet." Pipe Fit'tings. See list under PIPE TOOLS, etc., infra. Also GAS PIPES AND CONNECTIONS, Fig. 1174, p. 390, supra. Pipe Grip. Toothed or stepped jaws, to be placed in a vise, to hold round objects, such as pipes and rods. In Fig. 1940 the device adjusts itself to any size, one jaw slipping between the two apposedones. A capacity for rota- tion in a vertical plane enables the jaw to grasp the pipe at any vertical angle. The dotted lines indicate the jaws of the vise. See also PIPE VISE, p. 1713, "Mech.. Diet." Pipe Kiln. The form of kiln used in France for baking clay pipes is shown in Fig. 1941. B is the furnace, A the chamber with pipe trays r of re- ( 'lay-pipe Dif. "Challenge'' Pipe Grip. fractory material on a central stem. JV is the chimney ; the walls ; E the aperture for charging and discharging. Pipe Line. A means of transporting liquids by pipes laid above the ground or be- neath the surface. See OIL PIPE LINE, supra. Description of pipe lines for transport of beet-root juice to fac- tories, Dr. MoMurtrie's report, 1880, in "Dept. of Agric., Special Re- port,'' No. 28, pp. 131 et seq. Pipe Mold. Primard's mold for iron pipe to be cast vertically is a metallic casing rolled in a spiral and capable of being expanded or con- tracted at will. " A plunger attached to the lower end of a spindle, and having a dp- ameter equal to the outer diameter of the pipe, passes through the in- terior of the casing, which is placed in the center of the mold. This spiral casing is placed in its con- tracted state into the center of the mold, and sand is run between them. The plunger, in passing Fig. 1941. French Pipe Kiin. through the spiral, enlarges it and compresses the sand uni- formly. When it is withdrawn the spiral contracts -.: ml may be easily withdrawn. The casting of the neck ami tianirr on one end of the pipe is provided by a simple contrivance." "Moniteur Itulustriel." Pipe O'ven. A hot blast oven in which the air passes through pipes exposed to the heat of the furnace. In centra-distinction to a fire-brick oven. See HOT-BLAST STOVE, supra. Pipe Re-du'cer. A pipe coupling which is larger at one end than the other, to unite pipes of different diameters, c, Fig. 271, p. 92, supra. Pipe Screwing. See PIPE THREADER, Fig. 3744, p. 1712, "Mech. Diet." Pipe Stand. A frame to support radiator pipes. See COIL STAND; COIL PLATE, supra. Pipe Stay. A device to hold a pipe in place ; or to hang a pipe. Pipe Stop. A spigot in a pipe. Pipe Test'ing Ma-chine'. See PIPE PROVER, Fig. 3741, p. 1711, "Mech. Diet." Pipes, Tools, and Ma-chin'er-y. See un- der the following : Bend and union, univer- sal, Royle, Br. . . . * ' Boring & turning lathe. Hind, Br * ' Coupling, adjustable, Fr. * Smith, Br * ' * ' Chapell . . . . - * ' Covering, Pierce (air chamber) . . . . * ' " Acme " * ' Pipe cutter and threader * ' Chase . . . . . . * ' Eaton * ' Roberts * ' Sanford *' Saunders * 1 Engineer,'' 1 xlix. 53. Engineer,"- xli. 60, 69; xliv. 42. 'Engineer," 1. 72. Engineer," xlvii. 388. 'Scientific American,'- xxxv. 118. Scientific Amer.,-' 1 xxxviii. 56. PIPES, TOOLS, AND MACHINERY. 685 PISTON PACKING. Fittings Gas and water . . . . Hydrostatic joint . . . .1 din is ;ni;(.< .... lunald . Thornton . . . Tongs, wrench, etc., blued, Statex Vise Wooilen, Wyckoff Wrench, " Climax.' lltt.'t if Mil- n . Tin/and * "Scientific American Sup.," 1273. *"Sc. Am. Sup.," 985, 1016, 1048, 1060, 1072, 1092. * "Iron Age,'' xxii., vol. xxiv., p. 9. * "Sc. Am. Sup.," Nos. 62. 64, 66, 67, 68, 69. * "Engineering,"' xxiii. 388. * "Engineer," xlix. 181. * "1-aboulaye," "Eclairage au Gas," ii., Figs. 69-72. * "Scientific American,'' xxxix. 88. "Scientific American Sup.," 396. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1109, *1137,* 1217. * l ' Scientific American," xl. 82. * "Iron Age," xxi.. May 16, p. 3. * "Scientific American Sup.," 2164. " Scientific American Sup.," 1920. Laboulaye. iv., "Poteries," Fig. 3693. ' * "Engineer," xliv. 454. * "Sc. Amer.," xlii. 246 ; xliii. 122. * "Iron Age,'' xxii., Nov. 21, p. 9. * " Scientific American," xxxiv.274. * "Iron Age," xx., Dec. 20, p. 5. * : p r n \ A ft Hand Pressure Pluggers. Fig. 1976 shows a right-angled plugger to be used on a ma- chine. Right-angle Plugger. See also DENTAL HAMMER, "Mech. Diet." ; DENTAL PLUG- GER SPRING, Figs. 3835, 3836, p. 1749, Ibid. ; DENTAL PLCG- GER, electro-mag., Fig. 3827, p. 1750, Ibid. Flug'ging Mallet. atious. A mallet for dental oper- PLUGGING MALLET. 695 PLY. The heads are lignum vitoe, soft steel, wood with metal core. See DENTAL MALLET, p. 251, supra. Plug Tap. One somewhat tapered at the end to facilitate its entrance in commencing to tap a hole. See PLUG, supra. Plumb. The suspending string is wound upon a reel concealed in the interior, and the friction of the reel will keep the bob suspended at any point. On release of the cord it rewinds. Fig. 1971 Fig. 1978. Plumb Bob. Flumb'ers' Chis'els. Va- r i o u s lengths and widths, for cutting walls of brick, plaster, and wood ; cold chisels for iron, long chisels for boring holes for pipes or wires, etc. Plumb'ers' Fur'nace. A Cold Chisel. Plumbers' Chisels. Pig. 1979. portable soldering furnace. That shown is heated with petroleum elevated from the reservoir below and burned in the tray. The handle forms a rest for soldering bits. Plumb'er's Tools. See list under PIPES, etc., supra. Plun'ger. (Fire- arm.) a. A pin struck by the hammer and exploding the priming by force of the com- municated blow. b. In other cases the plunger has the ex- ploding point on its own end, as in the bolt gun. Flun'ging Bat'te- ry. (Electricity.) One in which the positive Ambers Furnace. or the positive and negative elements may be with- drawn from the fluid to render the battery inopera- tive, or to prevent the consumption of the plates when the battery is not required. Crenel's bichromate battery is a familiar instance. Pres- COtt's "Electricity," * p. 72. c c', Fig. 2148, p. 938, "Mech. Diet." is an early form of plunging battery used by Sir Humphrey Davy. See also Fig. 14, p. 2490, * " Scientific American Sup." It may be added that there are three principal modes : 1. By plunging the elements into the liquid. 2. By raising the trough so that the liquid surrounds the elements. 3. By displacement of the liquid, raising it to the level of the elements. Plush. (Fabric.) Tbe fabric known as furni- ture plush is a mohair fabric known also as Utrecht velvet. It is of mohair filling with cotton warp, or, in the better qualities, of mohair entirely. See MO- HAIR. Plush Bat'te-ry. A modification of the Cal- iaud. Fr., * "Engineer" xlvii. 333. Flu'vi-am'e-ter. An instrument used to meas- ure the quantity of rain which falls over a given surface. A new apparatus by M. Herve' Mangon is shown in Fig. 1980. A cylinder, C, receives the rain water led from the receiver P. In the cylinder is a copper float F, which, by means of a very fine cord passing over the pulley N, is connected to the weight K which is a little the heavier. The weight K slides on two guides of tightly stretched pianoforte wire, and car- ries a pencil, the point of which comes in contact with the Fig. 1980. Pluviometer. exterior of the cylinder c. Inside the weight K, which is hollow, is a small electric interrupter, which, whenever the two copper cylinders A and B. Over these last a belt of paper is passed, as shown ; and the mechanism in H, which moves them, is provided with a regulating fusee M, so as to compensate for the difference caused in the diameter of the cylinder B, by the rolling thereon of several thicknesses of paper. / is a fixed pencil which traces a horizontal base- line on the paper. The latter, after first being rolled about the cylinder A, is carried over cylinder C and attached to cylinder B. In the middle cylinder sufficient water is then introduced to completely buoy up the float F. If rain falls, the float, by the addition of water beneath it, is lifted ; and the weight K following the movement, the pencil thereon traces a curve on the paper, which gives in millimeters the corresponding depth of rain. If, on the contrary, no rain falls, the line left by the weight pencil is straight and parallel to that made by the fixed pencil. Lysimeter p. 365,wpra. Pluviameter, Mangon . *" Scientific Ar Pluviametrograph, Sal- Lab leron . ... Pluviascope, Mangon Rain gage ... t>o, supra. ientific American," xxxiv, 150. toulaye's "Diet.," iv., Fig. 16, -J,p. "Meteorographs." Ibid., same article. Fig. 4146, pp. 1872-1874, "Mech. TVrt " Ply. 1. A web as of a carpet. Two ply means two webs, woven together so as to inter- change yarns at the points required to bring a PLY. 696 PNEUMATIC MACHINERY. color to the surface iu accordance with the pat- tern. 2. When the union of the two webs or plies oc- curs is the ingrain, which gives the name to this de- scription of carpet. Pneu-mat'ic Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which a blast of air is introduced to agitate the exciting liquids, and depolarize the elements. Dr. Byrne's is an instance. See AERATED BATTERY ; BYRNE BATTERY. Also . . . *" Telegraphic Journal,'- vi. 222, 269. * "Engineer," xlv. 279, 406. "Scientific American Supplement,'' 1922. * "Engineering," xxv. 417. * "English Mechanic,'' xxvii. 307. " Scientific American,'' xxxviii. 228. Paper by Preece * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," vii. 60 ; 82. Pneu-mat'ic Clock. A clock which is driven or regulated by air. In the Parisian system, handsome public illuminated time- pieces have been erected in the middle of the causeway of the leading thoroughfares of Paris. These are all in com- munication with the works of the new Pneumatic Clock Company, in the Rue St. Anne. By means of subterranean tubes this company receives the time direct from the Obser- yatoire every morning, and regulates all the timepieces in connection simultaneously. In future it will be possible to have the correct time laid on in any house, like gas or water, at the trifling cost of from three to five centimes per clock per day. To supply the whole of Paris, three or four central clocks are required, designated Directing Normal Clocks. These are placed at convenient centers, and connect with the ordinary or " Reception Clocks " of their system or district. Each of these central clocks is connected with a system of pipes, in- cluding, first, those running through principal streets ; next, those branching therefrom into the minor streets ; next, those running from the streets into the buildings ; and, finally, smaller ones running as required in the interior of the buildings. The central clocks are provided with a small engine, worked by steam or gas, which every minute sends a pulsa- tion of compressed air through the entire system of pipes and acts upon every clock in the circuit, advancing the hands 011 the dial of the clock by one minute. The clocks are of simple construction. See: *" Scientific American," xliii. 19; *xxxix. 207; xli.5. Paris * "Manufact. if guilder," xii. 217. Vienna * "Engineer,''' xliii. 448. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1331. Regulator, Mat/bridge . * "Scientific American,''' xl. 130. Regulator, Wenzell . . * "Min. If Sc. Press,'' xxxviii. 281. Pneu-mat'ic Con-duct'or. A fan blower and tube, to lead away air, foul air, fire damp, fumes, smoke, dust, shavings, etc. Such are used in connection with stones which grind dry, such as in some departments of cutlery. Shavings from a planing mill in Chicago are driven by air blast 700' through a 15" sheet-iron pipe to a distillery, where they are burned. See SHAVINGS CONDUCTOR, p. 2134, "Mech. Diet." ; FAN BLOWER, Fig. 1918, p. 825, Ibid. Pneu-mat'ic Dis-patch'. A mode of con- veying letters, parcels, etc., by sending them through a tube by force of air ; vacuum or plenum systems. See PNEUMATIC TUBE. Pneu-mat'ic Ex'ca-va'tor. A method of raising of sand, silt, or debris from a shaft in course of excavation. Several forms are given in the "Mech. Diet." under PNEU- MATIC CAISSON, p. 1752 ; PNEUMATIC PILE, p. 1754 ; CAISSON, p. 421 ; AIR LOCK, p. 49, and Plate II. ; SUBMARINE EXCA- VATOR, Fig. 6028, p. 2439, etc. The methods vary : 1. In the Potts system, the pile is a tube with the top closed, and the air being exhausted from within, the atmospheric pressure drives the cylinder into the sand. Used on the Goodwin Sands, England. 2. In the Triger system, the workmen are in the lower end of the chamber, and communicate with the exterior by air locks. See AIR LOCK, "Mech Diet.,' 1 '' p. 49. The system was used in sinking the caissons of the St. Louis and Brooklyn bridges. Pee references above quoted. 3. A mode of moving silt, mud, or sand by a pipe, the open end of which is exposed to the matter to be moved, and the air exhausted from the pipe. A vacuum system ; a form o dredging apparatus. 4. The converse of the last mentioned ; a pipe with blast of air, carrying with it detritus, silt, sand. Used in remov- ing the matters from the caissons of the Brooklyn and St. Louis Bridges. See AIR LOCK, "Mech. Diet. ; " PILE DIUVING, supra. A form of pneumatic excavator which comes under the first cited of the four methods, is used in British harbor im- provements. It is chiefly used for sinking the cylinders for the piers of bridges in sandy soil. The apparatus consists of a pair of cast-iron cylinders 4' in diameter, carried on a staging and placed in connection at their tops with an air-pump, driven by a small steam engine. The connections are so arranged that the air can be exhausted either from one cylinder singly or both at the same time. The bottoms of the cylinders are connected with a suction tube 3k" in diameter, which leads down to the sand. Here again it is so arranged that the cyl- inders can be worked, either singly or in combination, by means of self-acting valves. The soil is discharged from each cylinder by a trap door placed iu its front. The engine and air-pump are carried on the same framing, and the whole forms a very compact arrangement. In operation, the engine being started, the air is exhausted from one cylinder: the sand and soil rushing up into the vacuum thus created soon fill the cylinder, the fact being in- dicated by a tell-tale. The connection is then made between the air-pump and the second cylinder, and that is similarly filled, during which time the contents of the first cylinder are discharged, and it is ready for the air-pump by the time the second cylinder is full, and so the process continues al- ternately untfl the desired end has been attained. The ex- cavator has worked very successfully : a vacuum of 24" was maintained during exhaustion, and the cylinders were rap- idly filled with sand and water from a pit, the contents being quickly discharged. Pneu-mat'ic Ma-chin'er-y. See AIR EN- GINES, and list under AIR APPARATUS, p. 12, supra. Also : Elevator Grain elevator *. . Hoist in mines "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2889. "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2107. 'Iron Age,'' xxii., July 11. p. 9. 'Scientific Am>r.," xxxvi. 403. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 2324. 'JUm. 4- Sc. Press,'' xxxv. 147. 'Engineer,'' xliv. 99. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 260. 'Scientific American Sup.," 1058. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 774. 'Scientific American Sup..'' 3769. Epinac colliery, Fr. . . Excavator, Reeve, Br. . Mining appliances . . Ore stamp Pen Pile driving .... Rock borer (Minera, N. Wales) ._ * "Scientific American Sup.," 1461. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1329. Laboulaye's "Diet.," iii., cap. " Ventilation," Fig. 7. * "Railroad Gazette," xxiii. 55. Railway, London . Screw ventilator Signal, Chambers . Fig. 1981. Pneumatic Pen. PNEUMATIC PEN. 607 PNEUMATIC TELEGRAPH. Pig. 1983 gives two views of the transmitter, a front deration and a vertical section on the same plane, a little )ehind the dial, on the line a b, Fig. 1985. Pneu-mat'ic Pen. An instrument for obtain- ing a stencil for copying purposes. Fig. 1981. Nu- merous perforations are made through the paper by the instrument which follows the lines of the letters. See ELECTRIC PEN. The instrument is guided as an ordinary pen. The tube A contains the needle B, which is connected to a crank on the axis of the fan-wheel G. Rapid motion is imparted to the fan by means of a Mast of air either from the mouth of the writer or an air-bellow.-', through the flexible rubber tube D, connected with a foot-bellows or otherwise. On moving the point of the pen over a sheet of paper, it becomes pierced with very fine holes in lines of the desired pattern. Ink or color is then spread over the surface, which fills the holes, 368 through the stencil to as many sheets of paper as m:iy be brought successively in contact with it. Pneu-mat'ic Pile. See PILE DRIVING, supra. Fiieu-mat'ic Pile Dri'ver. See * PNEUMATIC I'II.K, p. 1 754, "Mech. Diet."; PNEUMATIC EXCA- VA'roit, supra;" sec also PILE, supra, and * "Sci- entijii: American Supplement" 3769. Pneu-mat'ic Pump. A pump in which the pressure of air upon a liquid is made the means of forcing or elevating. An application of the air pump. The pump shown in Fig. 1982 is used for the discharge of the contents of casks, carboys, etc. It is a caoutchouc bulb Fiir. 1982. /"N Pneumatic Pump. with valves. The pipe passes through the bung of the cask and condenses the air above the liquid in the latter. The liquid passes out by another pipe to the vessel placed to re- ceive it. Pneu-mat'ic Tel'e-graph. The pneumatic telegraph of Count Sparre, of Sweden, is shown and described on p. 1755, " Mech. Diet." It acts by the impulse given to a column of water by pneu- matic pressure. Under PNEUMATIC CLOCK, supra, is described the method of running all the clocks of a district by means of an impulse of air, at definite intervals, carried by pipes to each clock in the district, and moving the hand on the dial one step. The ilgraphe a air of M. Walcker, of Paris, is shown in Figs. 1983-1986, as applied to the vessels of the French navy and transatlantic service. Fig. 1983. Fig. 1984 Fig. 1985. Pneumatic Telegraph Trans- mitter. ( Transverse Sec- tion. ) Fig. 1986. Pneumatic Telegraph Receiver. ( Engine. ) Pnevmatic Telegraph Transmitter. (Engine and Compass.) Pneumatic Telegraph Re- ceiver. ( Transverse Sec- tion. ) Fig. 1984 has three views of the receiver, a front eleva- tion, a vertical section in the rear of the dial exposing the machinery, and a horizontal section giving a plan of the acting parts. Fig. 1986 is a vertical section on a plane transverse to the former. Fig. 1986 is a vertical transverse section of the receiver. The purpose of the apparatus is to convey to the engineer and to the steersman the directions of the captain or pilot on the bridge of the steamer. The apparatus is double or single ; in the former case, the dial has a full circle, the upper hemisphere concerns the engine, and the lower portion the rudder. In the single ap- paratus the engine or the rudder is alone concerned, one single transmitting apparatus for each being placed on the bridge. The operation of the apparatus is by compressed air, caused by a pressure brought upon the caoutchouc reservoir a, which is compressed between plates b c when the piston y is pulled. Air escapes to the chamber d and thence to pas- sages ef, which, by devices to be described, sound a bell and move a pointer respectively in the receiver, which may be in the engine-room or the wheelhouse, as the case may be. The operation is as follows : The needle being at zero, in the horizontal position shown in Fig. 1983, and the vessel supposed to be on her course, the officer on the bridge wish- ing to stop the engines, takes hold of the pointer (the han- dle is seen projecting to the right in Fig. 1985), and moves it to " stop," at the same time pulling the piston x and com- pressing the air in a. There are as many pipes to convey the air from the transmitter to the receiver as there are di- rections ; for the engineer there are 9, 1 for " so/> " and 4 each for graduations of speed in "forward," "astern," respectively. In the example cited, "stop," the air passes in two bodies, one to the bell in the engine-room which calls the alarm, and the other by the special pipe which actuates the needle in the receiver, Fig. 1985, to bring it from its hor- izontal (zero) position to "stop" on the dial. The position of the pointer on the transmitter governs the choice of pipe openings, which are shown in a circular series in the sec- tional view Fig. 1983. The transverse section, Fig. 1985, shows the lamp at the rear which illuminates the glass dial on which the various indications are pointed. The receiver is shown in Figs. 1984, 1986. It requires but a half-dial to hold its indications, and is but a single ma- chine which belongs to the engine room. The fellow ma- chine, which responds to the other half of the transmitter, is in the wheel-house. Taking the receiver in the engine- room : the pointer, when at zero, is horizontal, and the ae- PNEUMATIC TELEGRAPH. 698 POGGENDORF BATTERY. tion of the air is to cause it to make a sweep within the range of a semicircle. The 9 air-tubes from the transmitter load to as many levers in the receiver. As the levers are of different lengths an equal motion of the end of each will have a corresponding effect upon the axis m, with which they are connected, and upon the level gear p which actu- ates the needle. Thus the latter is moved less or more to bring it to the required place on the dial, which, in the example cited, "stop,'' is midway, that is, vertical. It stays at its indication until the engineer pulls on the button z and releases the air. The engineer then calls "Aye, aye, sir " through an acoustic tube. The same description, mutatis mutandis, applies to the steering. Pneumatic telegraphy . "Scientific American Sup.,'' 75. Pneumatic telegraph . "Scientific American," xxxiv. 19. "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi, 175. Signal, Chambers ... * "Railroad Gazette,'' xxiii. 55. Fneu-mat'ic Tube Dis-patch'. See the his- tory and details, pp. 1755-1757, "Mech. Diet." The tubes of the Western Union Telegraph Co., New York, are 2J" interior diameter, with a capacity for sending 4 boxes a minute. The pipes, which are 18' long, and joined by air-tight screw-joints, are laid 3' under ground. The curves have a radius of 12'. The engine in use is a 30 horse- power compressing engine ; and exhausting at the same time from two separate reservoirs. It has a capacity for 40 tubes. The pneumatic dispatch service, of Berlin, Germany, em- braces 26 kilometers of tube, and has 15 initial stations. The wrought iron tubes have a clear breadth of 65 millimeters, and lie about one meter below the surface of the ground. The letters and cards which are to be forwarded have a pre- scribed size, and are inclosed in iron boxes, or cartridges, each of which can hold 20 letters or cards. In order that they may pack closely, they are covered with leather. From 10 to 15 cartridges are packed and forwarded at a time ; be- hind the last cartridge is placed a box with a leather ruffle, in order to secure the best possible closure of the tube. At four of the stations are the machines and apparatus needed for the business. The forwarding of the boxes is effected either through compressed or rarefied air, or through a com- bination of the two. Steam engines of about 12 horse-power are used for the condensation or exhaustion of the air. Each main station has two engines, which drive a compress- ing and an exhausting apparatus, the steam for each engine being furnished by two boilers. Large reservoirs are em- ployed, both for the condensed and for the rarefied air. The former has a tension of about three atmospheres ; the latter of about 35 millimeters of mercury. The air, which is heated to 45 C. by the compression, is cooled again in double-walled cylinders which are surrounded by water. The velocity of the boxes averages 1,000 meters per minute, and a train is dispatched every 15 minutes. Each of the two circuits is traversed in 20 minutes, including stoppages. The service between Paris and the chambers where the sittings of the National Assembly were held at the Palais in Versailles, involved a line of 11 miles, and the packages were dispatched at an average of 8 minutes for the course. The tubes were 4" in diameter, and required three steam engines of an aggregate of 50 horse-power. An apparatus called a relay acts as an accumulator, and comes in aid of the origi- nal impulse at points along the route. The air is forced in at one end and exhausted at the other, the messages are in boxes forming a train, and the relays come into action imme- diately that a train passes a station. The French method of locating the position of an obstruc- tion in a pneumatic tube is by firing a pistol into the tube. The resulting wave of compressed air, traversing the tube at the rate of 1,000' a second, strikes the obstruction, and is then reflected back to its origin, where it strikes against a delicate diaphragm, and its arrival is recorded electrically upon a very sensitive chronograph, on which also the in- stant of firing the pistol had been duly recorded. Berlin " Telegraphic Journal,' 1 ' iv. 246. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 18. "Scientific American Sup.," 376. "Min. if Sc. Press,'- xxxvi. 51. New York * "Scientific American," xxxii. 223. "Scientific American,'' xxxv. 328. London * "Scientific American Sup.," 31. Postal, Vienna. . . . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1426. Western Union . . . " Telegraphic Journal," iv. 161. System, Culley . . . " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xiv. 111. Pneu'mo-graph. The cardiograph of M. Marey is capable of being used also as a pneumograph by an adaptation of the apparatus of exploration. This consists of a spiral spring inclosed in rubber and forming a hollow extensible cylinder of which the ends are closed. A lateral tube places the interior of the cylinder in communication with the registering apparatus, which is shown under CARDIAGRAPH. tach action of inspiration and expiration produces a movement of contraction or extension of the cylinder, which reacts upon the registering lever. The clastic cylinder is placed with its end on the breast of the subject, and is included within an inelastic band which encircles the chest. As the chest expands and contracts in the act of breathing, the cylinder is condensed and dilated respectively, the air passing by the tube to the registering apparatus. Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire,'" cap. " Graphigues." Pock'et. (Mining.) A rich spot in a vein or de- posit. Pock'et Mi'cro-scope. (Optics.) A porta- ble microscope, to be carried in the pocket for field purposes ; sometimes a set of single lenses ; some- times supplied with a compound body. Pock'et Net. (Fishing.) One with a rela- tively small compartment in which the fish are col- lected. See TRAP NET. See also TRAMMEL NET. Pock'et Relay. An instrument for making telegraphic connection at any point on a line, to Fig. 1987. Pocket R,iay. communicate in case of accidents, etc. Also known, from its use, as a wrecking instrument. Po-dom'e-ter. See PEDOMETER. Po'do-scaph. A foot boat; one in which canoe-shaped floats are attached to or support the feet. Fig. 1988. The one shown is that made by Mr. Fowler, of Bordeaux, and used by him in crossing the Straits of Dover. The dimensions are : length, 3 meters. Each podoscaph : width, 20 cm. Above water: height, 30 cm. Time of crossing : about 12 hours. Distance 21 miles. folders Podoscaph. Pog'gen-dorf Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) 1. A Smee battery, in which pulverized copper is de- posited upon the copper electrode. Niaudet, American translation p. 59. 2. A modification of the Grove battery, in which POGGENDORF BATTERY. 699 POLEMOSCOPE. the platinum is in the shape of an S, and is fas- tened to a porcelain stopper, which nearly closes the porous jar. Niaudet, American translation * p. 155. Point Find'er. An instrument for finding the vanishing point in making perspective projec- tions. "Engineering"' * xxii. 223. Pointing. 1. (Milling.) A preliminary in the preparation of grain for the mill in the modern process ; it consists in rubbing off the points of the grain, clipping the brush, and removing the germ end. This is done in a machine like a smut mill (which see), or by passing: the grain between uiill-stones separated from each other by a distance a little less than the length of the grain. The grain is only abraded when in a position verti- cal to the surface of the stones. This is the first operation in the high-milling process, which see. 2. (Metal Working.) A machine for finishing the ends of nails, pins, or wire. * ''Iron Age '' xxii., December 26, p. 1. Po-lar'i-scope. (Optics.) An instrument for analyzing the light thrown through an object, whereby, in accordance with its varied texture, va- ried shades of the spectrum are given to its dif- ferent parts. This is usually effected by two Nich- ols prisms of Iceland spar ; sometimes by means of tourmalines. See TOURMALINE. One of the prisms is placed beneath the object and above the mirror, and is called the polarizer. The other prism is Fig. 1989. Polariscope. above the object-glass, and is called the analyzer. By re- volving either of these prisms variations in the tints of the spectrum are produced. The polariscope is an invaluable adjunct to the micro- scope for detecting the structure of miner Is, animal tissues, vegetables, crystals, etc. Laurent's polariscope, used in determination of quantity of sugar in solutions, is described in Dr. McMurtrie's report on beet sugar, 1880, "Dept. Agric. Special Report,'- No. 28, pp. 84, 85. Polar clock . . . "Scientific American Sup.,'' 505. "Mech. Diet.," Figs. 3767-8769, p. 1759. Lockyer's "Spectrum Analysis." Schellen's "Spectrum Analysis.'-' Po'lar-i-za'tion. Broadly, the definition is thus given by a philosopher : " When a particle of a body possesses qualities related to a certain line or direction in the body, and when the body, retaining these properties, is turned so that this direction is reversed, then if, as regards other bodies, these properties of the particle are reversed, the particle, in reference to these properties, is said to be polarized, and the properties are said to constitute a particular kind of polarization." Clerk- Maxwell. 1. (Galvanic Batteries.) The accumulation of hydrogen upon the negative plate, followed by the deposition of zinc from the said plate, by which the current is weakened. 2. (Magnets.) The establishment of magnetic poles in a piece of steel or iron, as of a compass needle or the soft iron core of an electro-magnet by means of a generated circuit. 3. (Light.) The separation of a pencil of light into two rays, in planes at right angles to each other, known as the ordinary and extraordinary rays, which may be done by double refraction or by reflection. 4. (Heat.) A similar action with heat rays. Po'lar Pan'to-graph. An apparatus devised by M. Napoli for copying on paper the profiles of worn railway-wheel tires. The apparatus, shown in Fig. 1990, consists of a light frame, having mounted on it the toothed wheel A, into which gear the rack bars C a', the former of these being Fig. 1990. Napoli's Polar Pantograph. provided with a pencil-holder, B, while the latter is provided with a pointer, D. The arrangement of the parts is such that a line joining the center of the pencil at S, with the apex of the pointer at z>, passes through the center of the wheel A, and is bisected by that center. The racks c c> are kept in gear with the wheel A by rollers mounted on bell- cranks, these bell-cranks being provided with springs which tend to force the rollers against the rack bars. The effect of the arrangement is that any movement in the plane of the wheel A imparted to the pointer D is exactly reproduced by the pencil B, and thus if the pointer D be moved over the profile of a tire the pencil B will draw that profile on a piece of paper placed under it. The whole apparatus is so mounted that it can be readily attached to the tire of which the pro- file has to be taken, provision being made for supporting the paper under the pencil B. * "Railroad Gazette ' * "Engineering " . . . xxiii. 349. . . xxvi. p. 427, Fig, -3. Pole. (Electricity.) The wire, plate, or cord leading from the battery. Their names are the opposite of those of the plates from which they lead ; thus the zinc is the positive metal or plate of the battery, but the wire leading therefrom is the negative pole. Pole Chan'ger. An instrument for shifting a current from negative to positive, or vice versa. See, for instance, the key at Fig. 847, p. 266, supra. Pole Coupling. The connection of the pole or tongue with the front axle of a vehicle. On the left is the clip, not yet bent to clasp the axle. To Fig. 1991. Pole and Shaft Coupling. the right are the shaft-eye and rubber packing, shown com- plete and in sections detached. The rubber prevents rat- tling. Po-lem'o-scope. A reflecting apparatus con- sisting of a combination of two plane mirrors, so inclined to each other as to enable the spectator, by glancing into one of them, to see the images of objects separated from direct view by intervening obstacles. It is used during sieges to observe the position and movements of the enemy, while the soldiers may remain in shelter behind a parapet. POLEMOSCOPE. 700 POLYMETER. A simple frame-work of wood supports at the top a plane mirror, with its reflecting surface directed towards the scene to be observed, at an angle of 45 ; beneath this mirror is a second one, precisely similar, and with its reflecting sur- face inclined upward at the same angle as the upper one. Polemoscope. The reflecting surfaces of the two mirrors are, therefore, opposite to each other, and parallel. The image received upon the first mirror is reflected directly upon the second, from which it becomes visible to an observer. See *ALTISCOPE, Fig. 136, p. 69, "Mec/i. Diet.-' ; INDIRECT POINTING APPARATUS, p. 496, supra. Pole Rail'way. One, the way of which con- sists of two parallel poles, the cars having tires with concave tread. Used for temporary purposes in the lumber regions in getting logs of a tract to the saw mill. See LOG RAILWAY. Pol'ish-ing. Materials, tools, and machines are cited and described on p. 1762, "Mech. Diet." The forms of polishers are : Bands. Belts. Cones. Cylinders. Disks. Drums. Laps. Rings. Sticks. Threads. Wheels. Surfaces. Bristles. Brushes. Buff. Catgut. Cloth. Cotton. Felt, Leather. Metal. Stone. Thread. Walrus. Wire. Wood. Wool. Yarn. Materials. Borax. Chalk. Colcothar. Corundum. Crocus. Emery. Graphite. Oxide of tin. Pumice stone. Putty powder. Rotten stone. Rouge. Tripoli. Pol'ish-ing Disk. (Dentistry.) Small instru- ments carrying a fine powder and revolved by be- Fig. 1993. Polishing Disks and Points. ing placed in a drill-stock, to polish the surfaces of dentures, teeth, or fillings. DENTAL ENGINE, Fig. 795, p. 250, supra. Pol'ish-ing I'ron. A small laundry iron, sometimes curved on the face and used in putting the extra finish on shirt fronts, collars, cuffs, etc. Pol'ish-ing Jack. (Leather.) A machine armed with a lignnm-vitae slicker ; used for polish- ing leather when considerable pressure is required. Pol'ish-ing Ma-chine'. (Wood.) A machine having an emery wheel which dresses the face of the work applied thereto. See SURFACING MACHINE, Fig. 6083, p. 2458, "Mech. Diet." Speculum . * "Sc. Amer. Sup.," 699. Wheels, Rose * " Sc. Amer. Sp.," 489. Pol'y-chrome Print'ing. A process in which colors in blocks are built up together like type in a chase and themselves furnish the color to moistened paper laid thereon. A mosaic of color blocks. Johnson, Br. See also British patent 14,078, 1852, and United States patent, Laein- md, July 4. 1871. Pol'y-coii'ic Pro-jec'tion. (Geodesy.) A development of the earth's surface in which each parallel of latitude is represented on a plane by the development of a cone having the parallel for its base, and its vertex in the point where a tangent .it the parallel intersects a prolongation of the earth's axis. Fol'y-goii'o-scope. (Optics.) An optical in- strument for producing and displaying an infinite number of designs and patterns, which can be cop- ied or photographed, and may be used for art man- ufactures, for amusement, or for other purposes. The instrument consists of two mirrors fixed in a case and connected together by means of a universal hin^e, which is so arranged that the mirrors can be set and fixed at any angle to produce any required design. One of the mirrors is loose in its frame, and can be moved toward or from the other, so that at whatever angle they may be fixed the edges of the mirrors can be made to touch each other, thus preventing the pattern or design from being broken in the center. The apparatus can be closed up in a portable form, similar to an ordinary pocket-hook. Patterns having any number of an- gles or sides may be produced by varying the mirrors. The above has some resemblance to the kaleidoscope. Hatton, Br. Fol'y-graph. One of the names given to the gelatine copying pad. See GELATINE PROCESS ; HECTOGRAPH ; COPYGRAPH, supra. In one modification of the process, instead of the gelatine compound in a tray, paper is coated with the material. Sized or unsized paper is coated on one side with a composi- tion consisting of glue, or gelatine, glycerine, soap, and water, approximately in the following proportions, which have been found to give good results in practice : 80 ani- mal glue or gelatine, 20 glycerine, 20 soap, 200 water. The writing is made in aniline ink. Then take a sheet of the polygraphic paper, lay it on a damp flannel, sponge with water containing a little alum, lay the writing thereon, ink to the gelatine, back with a sheet of paper, and put the pile in the ordinary copying press. Alisoff. Fol'y-mi'cro-scope. An adaptation of the principle of the revolving stereoscopic camera to microscopic purposes ; the objects mounted on plates attached to a band are successively presented to the instrument. Prof. Von Lenhosstk, Buda-Pesth, *" Scientific American Supplement, 1 ' 2267. Fo-lym'e-ter. An apparatus used for testing the distance between railway rails, and detecting inequalities of elevation. An improved apparatus by M. Coutourier is mentioned in a paper in " Bimensuel de la Societe d' Encouragement," 1878, p 385, and republished in the proceedings of the "Institute of Civil Engineers,'' London. It consists of an iron triangular ruler 6J" in length, having the long side for its base, furnished with a movable arm POLYMETER. 701 PONSARD FURNACE. which is pressed against the rail by a spring. The arm com- muiiicates with a pointer, which stands at thezero of a finely divided scale when the rails are at their normal width apart (4/ 8J" = 1.447 meters). Any deviation from this, more or less, "is indicated on the scale. At the side, a pendulum is attached to the ruler, which, when vertical, points to the zero of a circular scale; any change in the inclination of the ruler is communicated to an index sufficiently long to reproduce on the scale the actual amount of the super-elevation or otherwise of the rail. This communication can be made either by a toothed wheel ni- by u scries of links from the pendulum to the index. See DYXAGRAPH, supra. Pol'y-phote Reg'u-la'tor. (Electricity.) An order of voltaic arc regulators, also known as a many-light or division regulator, which allows sev- eral or many lights on one circuit. Of this order are several forms, which see Differential. Derivation. Fixed interval (Regulators a. ccartfixc). Po-lyp'tpme. (Surgical.) A hook or e'cra- seur for cutting loose a polypus in uterus, ovary, nasal cavity, etc. Pol'y-pus For'ceps. (Surgical.) For re- moval of polypi by grasping and wrenching. Blake's polypus snares, Ibid., p. 45. Simrock's, Gross's, and other nasal polypus forceps, Ibid., p.J5T. Ecra; Pol'y-pus In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) Pre- hensile instruments for removing polypi from the nose, ear, uterus, etc. They are forceps, snares, e'craseurs, etc., for grasping, cutting, or tearing loose the sac or tumor, severing the pedi- cle, etc. Fig. 1994. Trouve's Polyscope. Pol'y-scope. Invention of M. Trouve. De- signed to illuminate cavities of the human body. It consists of a secondary Plante battery, with rheostat for regulating the flow of the current, and a galvanometer with two circuits, in which the elec- tro-motive force of the reservoir and that of the Trouve-Callaud battery, intended to charge it, are opposed. The instrument has a platinum coil and reflector fitted to a handle, and wire connecting it to the reservoir. Edison has proposed a small electric light in a glass bolus to be swallowed, in order to illuminate the stomach inte- riorly. " Telegraphic Journal " * vi. 313. " Scientific American " * xxxix. 182. An instrument to illuminate the cavities of the body has also been invented by Dr. Nitze, in Saxony. It consists of a platinum wire kept red hot by an electric current, and in- closed in a glass bulb. One form is made by Coxeter & Sons, England. Pol-y-zo'nal Lens. I. A lens having several zones, as in the Dioptric arrangement for lamps and lighthouses. See circular zones in Fig. 1096, p. 357, supra ; and cylin- drical zones in Fig. 1657, p. 704, "Mech. Diet." See also * "Seitntiftc American, xli. 53. 2. A combination of a number of segmental lenses arranged in zones. Fig. 1376, p. 1763, "Mech. Diet." Poii'ci Bat'te-ry. Invention of Prof. Ponci. It consists of a glass jar and porous pot, the former containing a solution of ferric-chloride, in which is immersed a carbon-plate, and the latter containing a solution of ferrous-chloride, in which is immersed an iron plate. Each solution 35 B. "Telegraphic Journal" vi. 425. Fon'sard Fur'nace. An open hearth fur- nace with a circular inclined and movable hearth, and considered to occupy an intermediate position between the Bessemer and Siemens in the range of its application to the raw materials. The regenerator, shown beneath, is still more clearly in- dicated in Figs. 1161, 1162, p. 387, supra, where the Ponsard regenerator is shown as applied to gas works, and where the distinction between the Ponsard and Siemens regenerators is pointed out, the latter being shown in Figs. 1159, 1160, on p. 386, supra. The open, circular, inclined and movable hearth of the Ponsard furnace is fitted with a pneumatic attachment, so arranged that the tuyeres can be plunged beneath the bath. Fig. 1995. Ponsard Furnace. of molten metal and the blast turned on, or again brought above it and the blast shut off by a simple half turn of the hearth, allowing the operation to be prolonged or shortened, or repeated at pleasure, without shutting off the heat or re- tarding the manufacture. The hearth of the furnace can be readily detached and run put from beneath and away from the heat, affording fa- cilities for repairing or renewing the lining as often as may be required. As the roof will generally outlast five or six hearth linings, the advantage of being able to have a second hearth ready to be run in without letting down the heat is great, particularly in the treatment of highly phosphoric pig by the new methods, in which the basic lining is rapidly destroyed by the reaction. PONSARD FURNACE. 702 PORCELAIN. Fig. 1996. Figs. 1996, 1997, are sections of a Ponsard furnace in which the hearth is on a carriage and is run in and out of furnace, and is capable of rotation on its inclined axis. A is the pro- ducer ; B, gas flue leading to hearth D; JE, chimney : K, re- generator, C F X, flues; &, heater furnace. Fig. 1997. Ponsard Metallurgic Furnace. Ponsard furnace ... * "Engineer," xlvi. 231. " Van Nostrand's Mag." xxi. 252. * "Iron Age," xx., July 19, p. 6 ; xxii., Sept. 16; Oct. 17; Oct. 31 ; * Dec. 12. Its work "Iron Age,'' xxiv., Sept. 4, p. 3; Sept. 11, p. 15. See also REGENERATOR FURNACE ; GAS GENERATING FURNACE, Figs. 1161, 1162, p. 387, supra, and references passim. Pon'ty. The glass-blowers' tube. M. Clemandot, of France, recommends nickel plating pon- Fig. 1998. tils and glass molds, to prevent coloration o f the glass by oxidation of the iron. It is adopted in several French fac- tories, the plan being to put the objects in a plating bath of a sul- phate of nickel and am- monia for several hours. Pony Truck. A truck with a single pair of wheels. Shown in Fig. 1998 as in advance of the drivers and just be- hind the pilot. In Fig. 168, p. Co supra, it is shown be- n6ath the rear of the lo- comotive. Po-ppff'ka. A circular ironclad, the invention of Admi- ral Popoff, of the Russian navy. The " Novgorod ;> and " Adm*. Popoff," described in "Iron Age," vol. xix., June 7, p. 26. See also references under "Iron Clad." Por'ce-lain. (Ceramics.) A. hard, partially vitrified, form of pottery, divided into two classes known as hard and soft, which names indicate the comparative hardness of the wares, due largely to the different quantities of silica in the composition. The porcelain of China (see p. 1765, "Mech.Dict.") is composed of kaolin and petunlze, one a peculiar clay and the other a feldspar. Silex (flint) is a form of silica commonly used in English porcelain, and entering as it does into some of the better forms of stone-ware and quecn's-ware, they partake largely of the porcelain character. Porcelain is translucent and breaks with a vitreous frac- ture, bright and clean, differing from the softer forms of pottery of which faYence forms the most attractive example. Brogniarfs classification, under the general head of "Pote- ries d Pate Translucent,'" enumerates three kinds of porce- lain :- 1. Hard porcelain : porcetaine dure. 2. Natural soft porcelain : porcelaine tendre naturelle. 3. Artificial soft porcelain : porcelaine tendre artificielle. 1. HARD PORCELAIN is distinguished by a fine, hard, trans- lucid paste ; it has a hard earthy glaze and a more vitreous character than other pottery, which accounts for its glassy fracture, and its sonority. The elements which enter into the composition of hard porcelain are kaolin, feldspar, chalk, and sometimes silicious sand, plastic clay, and powder of broken porcelain. Following in the description the practice at the manufactory at Sevres : The kaolin of St. Yrieix yields both the argillaceous, flinty varieties. The feldspar is taken from a rock of pegmatito at St. Yrieix. The silicious sand is from Auinont, near Creil. The chalk is from Bougival. The plastic clay from Abon- dant, near the forest of Dreux. The following is the composition at Sevres : Silex 0.580 Alumina 0.345 Chalk 0.045 Potash . . .... 0.030 Pony Truck Locomotive. 1.000 The preparation of the paste is by means of careful grinding, loviu i- tion, sifting, incorporation, dilu- tion, straining, ripening, and the subsequent operations upon the paste are by means of throwing or molding, or the two united much as in other species of pottery but with greater exactness and delicacy in proportion as the work is of a more delicate or elaborate descrip- tion. PORCELAIN. 703 PORCELAIN ELECTRO-PLATING. Owing, however, to the less plastic and tough character of the porcelain paste great care is necessary, and processes for condensing the paste by pressure in bags or wire cloth ves- sels have been employed, and are described by Brogniart and others as the invention of MM. llonore, Grouvelle, Alluand, de Caen and others. See under "Pottrie," 1 Laboulaye, vol. iii. The paste for articles of statuary which are not to be glazed but remain in biscuit form is composed of : Clay of the flinty kaolin 0.64 Feldspar 0.16 Sand of Aumont 0.16 Chalk 0.04 LOO The largest pieces are made of a much more plastic com- position bv M. Regnier : Clay of flinty kaolin 0.43 to 0.44 Pipe clay of Aboudant 0.21 to 0.25 Feldspar 0.16 to 0.17 Quartzose sand of Aumont .... 0.16 to 0.09 Chalk 0.04 to 0.05 1.00 1.00 The mode of fashioning is by throwing-wheel or mold, which see. After a slight drying in the air, the pieces are baked in the waste-heat chamber at the upper part of the porcelain kiln, (see PORCELAIN KILN), where they are carefully preserved from soot by encasing in casettes, which are boxes of refrac- tory clay like seggars, which see. The glaze (Fr. convene), is of the pegmatite of Saint Yrieix, fie moan composition of which is : Siiex 0.74 Alumina 0.18 Potash 0.07 Chalk and manganese 0.01 1.00 The articles are dipped in the slip, which is the result of the most careful grinding and straining, and the quality is judged by the rate at which it will descend in still water in a cylindrical graduated glass vessel, in which it has been agitated so as to be in a state of suspension. The filing of the ware is done at a high temperature so as to soften the compound, which is partially fu.-ed Fl K- 1999 - by the heat, giving it the vitreous and translucent character which belongs to porcelain. See POR- CELAIN KILN. The encasing of the pieces in the kiln is M carefully arranged mat- ter, and the accompany- ing figure shows two forms, one half of each being represented. In B A 'jars for Sevres Porcelain. each case the rings a have spurs projecting inwardly on which are laid rondeaux, 6, which serve to support the plates or dishes c c. The seggars (casettes) are of a special size and height for each description of ware. See PORCELAIN KILN. 2. NATURAL SOFT PORCELAIN. This is an English invention of which the Worcester porcelain may be considered the representative. The works at that city were started about 1751. The paste is a grade between fine faVence and hard porcelain. It is distinguished by having a base of kaolin and a large proportion of phosphate of lime obtained by the calcination of bunes. The following recipes show that great latitude of propor- tion is practiced : Saint-Amam. Aikin. Argillaceous kaolin, washed . 0.11 0.41 0.310 Flintv kaolin, crude andground - - 0.260 Pipe-clay 0.19 - Calcined flint 0.21 0.16 0.025 Phosphate of lime 0.49 0.43 0.405 1.00 1.00 1.000 The paste is very plastic and is fashioned after the man- ner usual with fine faience, yielding readily to the throwing- wheel or mold. The kiln is the same as that used for fine faience (see FAIENCE) having fires d alandier. The glaze is lead and boracic acid glass, harder than that for fa'i'ence, but not so hard as the convene of hard porcelain. It is laid on by immersion in the slip glaze. Xbe following is one example of glaze : Saint-Arnans. Feldspar 0.48 Silex or quartzose sand 0.09 Borax, crude 0.22 Flint glass 0.21 LOO The glazing materials are fritted, and after grinding 10 to 12 per cent, of minium is added. The firing of the glazed and decorated ware is at a mod- erate heat. 3. ARTIFICIAL TENDER PORCELAIN. The porcelain made at Sevres until 1804, when the difficulty of working in so little plastic a material caused it to be discarded. The paste is marly, fine, dense, almost vitreous, hard, trans- lucid, and fusible at a high temperature. The paste has but little adherence, and was always molded. After having ac- quired some little tenacity by the addition of a certain quan- tity of gum adragante, the dry pieces were finished on the lathe. The setting of the ware in the kiln or muffle was accompanied with great difficulty, as the objects required to be stayed and supported by pieces made in the same paste in order that they might exactly follow the contraction. The composition was eminently vitreous. A frit was made as follows : Niter 0.220 Grey marine salt 0.072 Alum 0.036 Soda of Alicante 0.036 Gypsum of Montmatre 0.036 Sand of Fontainbleau 0.600 1.000 The composition of the paste was : The frit, as above 0.75 Chalk 0.17 Calcarean marl of Argenteuil 0.08 1.00 The glaze was put on by sprinkling. It was composed : Sand of Fontainbleau, calcined 0.27 Calcined flint 0.11 Litharge 0.38 Carbonate of soda 0.09 Carbonate of potash 0.15 1.00 The materials are mixed, melted in a crucible, crushed, and again melted and crushed. The firing is at a lower tem- perature than that required for the biscuit. Care is taken to treat the interior surface of the seggars (caztttes) with the same glaze in order that the}' may not absorb that of the objects contained in them. History and development of the ceramic art, report of Hector Tyndale, " Centennial Exhibition Reports," Group II., vol. iii., p. 2. Chemistry and composition of Japanese porcelains and por- celain rocks, by Wurtz, Ibid., 114. Prof. Vfurtz, report on Japanese .... "Eng. if Min. Jour.," xxiii. 199. Painting, Joclet . . . "Scientific American Sup.," 2895. * "Man. 'if Builder,'' viii. 132. "Scientific American Sup.," 2706. Brogniarfs "Arts Ceramiques ." Marryatfs "History of Pottery and Porcelain. 1 ^ Birch's "History of Ancient Pottery.' 1 '' Por'ce-lain Ce-ment'. For mending china or glass ware. Gelatine 6 Chromate of lime 1 Anoint the edges, press together, and expose in the sun- light. Por'ce-lain Col'ors. (Ceramics.) Colored glasses which fuse upon the hiscuit surface in firing. Fluxes with metallic colors ; oxides generally. Cobalt Blue. Chromium Green. Oxide of iron Brown. Oxide of uranium Black. Oxide of titanium Yellow. Chromate of lead Yellow. Chromate of baryta .... Yellow. Oxide of manganese .... Black, violet, brown. Sesqui-oxide of iridium . . . Black. Oxide of cobalt Black, blue-grey. Proto-chromate, of iron . . . Brown. Purple of ca^sius Purple. Sub-oxide of copper .... Red. Oxide of copper Green. Oxide of chromium .... Green. Por'ce-lain E-lec'tro-pla-ting. Sulphur is dissolved in oil of lavender spike to a sirupy con- PORCELAIN ELECTRO-PLATING. 704 PORCELAIN MOLDING. sistence ; then chloride of gold or chloride of plati- num is dissolved in sulphuric ether, and the two solutions mixed under a gentle heat. The com- pound is next evaporated until of the thickness of ordinary paint, in which condition it is applied with a brush to such portions of the china, glass, or other fabric as it is desired to cover, according to the design or pattern, with the electro-metallic de- posit. The objects are baked in the usual way before they are immersed in the bath. Por'ce-lain Kiln. The porcelain kiln is a high cylindrical tower with a dome, built of re- fractory bricks. It has two or three vaulted stages and is flanked at its base by several furnaces, from which the flame reaches the lower kiln chamber by horizontal passages, thence the upper chamber by vertical canals, and eventually the chimney at the summit. See Plate XXXV. which is a representation of the porcelain kiln of Sevres, France. The upper chamber is for the baking of the green ware, bringing it to the biscuit stage, after which the objects re- ceive the glaze (couverte) and then take their final firing in the lower story. The pieces are placed in refractory clay boxes termed (cazettes) seggars (which see), which are piled in the furnace forming high columns which reach almost to the vaulted ceiling. The door of the kiln (laboratoire) is then closed and luted, and the fires lighted in the furnace. The fires burn about 36 hours. The chambers of the kiln are entered by arched openings which are bricked up when full and the kiln is ready to fire. The furnaces are 6 in number, around the base of the kiln, and the fire is direct, the air to support combustion entering by way of the ash-pot as usual. The couleurs de grand feu are required to support an equal temperature with the paste but they are not so numerous as the other class of colors, couleurs des moufles, which are fired in muffles divided into stories and celles. See PORCELAIN MUFFLE. Another form of porcelain kiln at Sevres has furnaces a alandier, with a diving draft. Fig. 36, p. 20, supra, shows a three-story kiln with furnaces around them, but the sec- tion cuts through only one at each stage. The two lower ones are a alandier. Por'ce-lain Mold'ing. (Ceramics.) In mold- ing porcelain, if the hollow object is to have two exterior faces, the mold is in two parts, which, when joined, present an interior surface correspond- ing to the relief of the object ; the paste is applied in each portion and smoothed on the exposed sur- face, which forms the interior of the vase (for in- stance). The parts of the mold are then brought together and the joint made by the hand, a spatula, or a smooth shell introduced into the interior. A hollow shallow object such as a dish or tureen, is made by another method, termed moulaye a la croute, the paste is rolled upon a marble table, in the manner of a pie-crust, hence the name, and is laid upon the mold, applying to the surface a sponge dipped in thin slip. See Plate XXXVI. For thin hollow objects, the moulage par coulage is adopted, the thin paste being poured into the mold, which has a plug at the bottom, which is opened after a time to allow the su- perfluous slip to run out ; the mold is porous, and the plug is withdrawn after a time determined by experience, when a sufficient thickness of the slip shall have adhered to the mold. The operation may be repeated for a greater thick- ness. For a cup it needs but to pour a thin slip into a cavity of the right shape in a block of plaster. The water passing through the pores of the plaster allows the paste to gather on the sides of the mold, and the superfluous paste is poured out. This is the way in which very thin ware is made. 'In making thin objects of large size by coulage, the aid of an air-pump is called for : either to compress the air inside the mold, or to remove the natural pressure of the air from the exterior of the hollow mold. See Plate XXXVI. In the former case (compression) the slip is projected into the interior of the hermetically closed mold by a tube of caoutchouc, and the superfluous slip withdrawn by a fau- cet below ; the compressed air introduced into the mold by another tube holds against the inter! or of the mold the paste which would be disposed to slip down. In the latter case (exhaustion), the upper part of the mold is open to give access to the atmosphere and all the remain- der of the mold is covered by a box of sheet-iron, as in Fig. 2000. The slip is injected and the excess drawn off by the Fig. 2000. Regnaulfs Apparatus for Molding ivith AirExhaust ( Section). faucet below. The air inside the box around the porous mold is withdrawn by means of the air-pump, and the at- mospheric pressure upon the paste adhering to the mold keeps the paste from slipping down, as mentioned in the previous case. The molding completed, by means stated, the object is allowed to dry in position, by absorption of its moisture by the mold and the action of the air ; the shrinkage renders it easily withdrawn and it is then finished. This may be upon the wheel, by scraping, by adding to or mending portions, hollowing out, stamping, adding molded portions, carving, and ornamenting in various ways with colors, designs, and what not. To resume at the point of withdrawing the green ware from the mold, the objects are dried in the air for several days, and then those which were fashioned upon the wheel are returned to it, and by means of sharp tools, of shapes and sizes, called tournassins, which have some resemblance to metal-turning tools, the object is retouched, the angles sharpened, hollows deepened, the protuberances and mold- ings smoothed, the foliation repaired, and the whole object brought to the detail and thickness required. This opera- tion is the tournassage. Scraping (grattage) is adopted with objects not fashioned on the wheel. The repairing' or refilling (remplissage) which follows, con- sists in stopping up with paste defects in the molding, or holes produced in the subsequent tournassage. The evidage, estampage, and moletage which follow, refer to the engraving, recessing, stamping, molding, and attach- ing molded ornaments, after which come the artistic sculp- turing and the garnissage, which last refers to the surface artistic ornamentation. The next operation is firing. See PORCELAIN KILN. Certain kinds of articles required in large numbers and of exactly equal size are molded by revolving wheel and templet, as in Fig. 7201, p. 2770. "Mech. Diet." PLATE XXXV. PORCELAIN KILN, SEVKES. (Section and Elevation.) See page 704. PORCELAIN MOLDING. 705 PORCELAIN PLATE MACHINE. The templet, having at its working edge the exact half figure of one face of the object, is attached to a plate which is adjustable on an arm which has a center of motion to permit adjustment. The plate is adjustable vertically and longitudinally on the arm, and a plate beneath the arm, secured by set screws, limits the downward drop of the arm, the latter is held down at the required distance by a set nut. By means of all these adjustments the required thickness is given to the plate, saucer, or other object, the top of the turning wheel giving the conformation to the interior surface of the article. The distance between the templet and wheel is the thickness of the article. Templets, for each different article required to be fashioned, are kept in stock, and are placed at pleasure on the arm ; a suitable wheel-head also being attached to the vertical spindle to correspond with said templet. For'ce-lain Muffle. A kiln in which por- celain is fired to fix the colors which will not bear the great heat of the porcelain kiln. The colors are divided on this line into couleurs de grand feu and couleurs dcs moufles. The muffle is a box of refractory clay, divided into stories and cells to contain painted porcelain, and is enveloped in the flames of the furnace, which, however, do not reach the interior, as the effect of contact of flame and smoke would Fig. 2001. Muffle for Firing Decorated Porcelain. (Sevres.) deface the objects. The inclosed ware is examined by means of peep-holes (visiires), which are closed by a removable plug of baked clay. The condition of the ware is ascertained by the color and by the effect of the heat on slips which can be withdrawn for accurate examination. Por'ce-lain Pate Ten'dre. (Ceramics.) Soft paste porcelain. Vieux Sevres: made there till 1804. Por'ce-lain Plate Ma-chine'. The machines shown in Figs. 2002, 2003, 2004, are those used in the making of porcelain plates by M. Faure, of Limoges, France. The hand process may be first described in brief : " To produce the plate, three distinct operations are neces- sary the forming, the molding, and the turning. The forming (tbauchage) consists in giving to the soft paste an approximate form. The workman taking a ball of the plas- tic mass places it on a wooden disk, the center of which co- incides with that of his wheel. He then flattens the mass 45 until it assumes a lenticular shape, the molecules being pressed to follow a spiral from the center outward. This is then put in a dry place for a short period. Molding consist); in forcing the mass formed as above into a mold, which im- parts to it the exterior form of the plate. By means of a dampened sponge the workman presses on the paste until it takes the imprint, working always from center outward, and leaving enough material wherewith to form the base portion. With a knife he removes the excess of material and then places the plate in a drying chamber, where it becomes suf- ciently solid to be removed from the mold. It is then about twice the thickness to which it ultimately must be re- duced. " The turning operation brings the object to its proper di- mensions. A cutting tool is used to remove the excess, and Fig. 2002. Plate-making Machine. Limoges. (Croute Making.) the diameter of the plate being traced with a compass, it is removed and finished by thinning the edges. The plate is then ready for baking. "The difficulty in the above is that peculiar to all hand- work variability. Fig. 2003. Plate-making Machine. (Molding.) PORCELAIN PLATE MACHINE. 706 POROUS CUP. Fig. 2004. " Fig. 2002 exhibits side and front Tiews of the apparatus for making crotites, or thin flat disks of paste. A is the lathe head made of plaster mortar, formed on the iron armature a. i B is a piece of sheepskin extended on a copper circle, c is I the calibrating tool which spreads the paste. O is the tool | arbor. This is lifted by a cord and pedal, and descends by : its own weight. E is a stop limiting the descent, which is also adjusted by the device at F. The plastic material is placed in ball-shape on B, and the lathe set in motion by i pressing a pedal. A second pedal-pressed tool descends ver- tically, with an accelerated velocity at the beginning, stops a few seconds for the operator to center the ball with the palm of the hand and hold it so as to resist the centrifugal force, and then continues its travel with slackened speed. At the end of its movement the tool has reduced the paste into a cake, of a surface and volume conforming to that which the plate ultimately is to possess. As soon as one cro&te is prepared the tool rises, and a second ball of paste is inserted, and so on. " The second apparatus, as shown in the front and side views in Fig. 2003, serves to replace the croute in the axis of the lathe without deviation of the center, when turned over to be brought in contact with the mold. A is a cast-iron frame carrying four collars, 1, 2, 3, 4, the axes of which coincide. The pair above guide the tool arbor ; those below, the lathe spindle. B is the lathe head surmounted by the mold, c is a platform to which is secured the sheepskin circle to which the croute is attached. By. carrying this platform down, the croute is brought in contact with the mold. When the croute is detached the platform and sheepskin is lifted by the counter weight a. D is a friction gear thrown into action by the counterweighted pedal b. This serves to throw the lathe into or out of motion at will. E is the motor. " The third apparatus, of which a front view is given in Fig. 2004, consists of a vertical frame carrying the lathe below, a calibrating tool in the center, and the mold- ing tool above. The croftte A coming from the second machine is secured to the lathe head. B is the molding tool moved by the handle c. D is an adjustable collar. E a carriage regulating the movement of the tool effected by the handle F. G is a gage for regulating the form of the plate. H is the calibrating tool. The croute being on the lathe head the tool is caused to descend, and lis meets the paste at the center, determin- ing its thickness. Being re- stricted in its motion by the guide or gage & which repre- sents the profile of the plate, and being submitted to a hori- zontal movement, it necessa- rily works the object according to the desired exterior form in- dicated by the gage. "It is evident that the tool should exercise, on the I bottom and rim, cer- tain relative pressures. These are, however, de- pendent on the section of the croute ; and this is perfectly regulated by the first machine. Regarding the shaping oi the edges, the tool acting at a de- termined angle and with heli- coidal faces cuts the paste while compressing it, and rep- resents the work of the hand regulated and perfected. " The calibrating gives the polish, and produces the raised portions which decorate the piece. The tool merely pol- ishes without pressing, and this terminated, a special tool removes the material which as well as stove. The former is heated by fermenting dung, and is a true hot-bed, while the Russian, one step, and a large one, in advance, is heated by burning wood. Fig. 2005. Fig. 2006. Plate-making Machine. ( Turning.) extends over the edges of the mold. The workman then lightly lifts the extreme edge so as to facilitate withdrawal, and removes the mold to a warm place for drying, as already explained. "With regard to production, by hand work alone about 100 plates per day can be made. A single workman, aided by two children, can by the above machine average 450 per day." "Bulletin de la Societe d> Encouragement pour I' In- dustrie Nationole.' 1 For'ce-lain Stove. The use of porcelain for stoves is very common in Germany, Austria, and Sweden. A number of such were shown in Paris, 1878. Figs. 2005, 2006, show two made by Joseph de Ceute, of Vienna. ^They are the artistic development of the Tartar kang and tb.e"JRussian brick stove, each of which, however, is bedstead German Porcelain Stove. (De Ceute, Vienna.) Porcelain Stove. (De Ceute, Vienna.) The advantages of the ceramic over the metal- 1 lie material are several.' 1. Not being good con- ductors of heat, they radiate it slowly and without sudden changes. 2. Being bulky, they hold heat equally and for a long time, even after the fire has burned out. 3. They do not scorch or "burn the air," or the floating particles of dust in it. 4. They have many of the advantages of the open grate. " The material is earthenware molded into tiles or hollow bricks, about 6" or 8" square and several inches thick. They are made in a great variety of ornamental forms, and are generally glazed on the outer or exposed face, either white which is most common or brown, red, green, or black. Besides the ordinary flat-faced tiles, they are made with in- cised or raised designs, or are molded in high relief, so that when combined they form recessed panels or projecting fil- lets and moldings, in a variety of architectural patterns. " The back portion of the tile exposed to the fire or heated gases rising from it is perforated and peculiarly shaped, so as to expose a large surface and make a series of tubular openings favorable to the absorption of the heat into the body of the tile. " The shape of the stove formed of these tiles varies with the taste of the fabricant and the demands of the consumer. They are generally from 6 to 8 or 10 feet high, with a breadth of 3 or 4 feet. Usually there is a deep recess above the fire- space, or an opening quite through, the stove being divided in that portion into the parts united above by an entablature and cornice. Cylindrical or columnar stoves are also made ; indeed, the modifications are numerous, to conform to the va- rying taste or fashion of the time. Lower and broader stoves are now coming into use with large openings in front, so that the fire may be seen and enjoyed as in an open fire-place, while the heat is much better utilized." PROF. BLAKE. Po'ro-type. A method of copying engravings. It depends upon the fact that the portion of the face of the print occupied by ink is non-porous. A gas which acts upon a certain chemical agent, and either bleaches or discolors it, is permitted to penetrate a copper- plate engraving or woodcut where possible, and, coming into contact, as it permeates, with paper which has been suitably prepared, brings about a reaction, that is to say, wherever the gas has found means to penetrate, the color of the pre- pared paper alters, and a copy of the engraving is in this way produced. " Photographisches Arc/iiv." Fo'rous Cup. An unglazed biscuit ware, used in batteries to prevent the mixing of two liquids, and yet not oppose the passage of the electric cur- rent. PORTABLE BOAT. 707 PORTABLE CRANE. For'ta-ble Boat. One capable of transporta- tion by laud ; over portages ; sometimes sectional. Fig. 2007 shows the sectional boat of the African traveler, H. M. Stanley, which he transported overland for the navi- Fig. 2007. Stanley's Portable Boat. gatiou of any rivers and lakes encountered during his re- searches. The boat is. when put together, 40' long and 6' 4" wide. It is composed of 5 water-proof sections, which may be firmly united by means of bolts and clamps. This craft, the " Liv- ingstone," is the largest that has yet floated in the rivers of interior Africa. Fig. 2008 is a boat, or rather raft, made of a number of in- flated pontons binui'l together and braced with bars. Fig. 2008. Ponton Portable Boat. Fig. 20u!l is an inflated matti-ess with gunwale, rowlocks, and thwarts. Inflatable Portable Boat. The United States Museum of Fisheries has models of port- able and folding boats. Co'.vin'.t. Fenner's. Hegeman's. Also of canoes, fishing-boats, coracles, etc. See list of references under BOAT, p. 114, supra, to collaps- ing, folding, and sectional boats. Also Fig. 2057, p. 899, "Mech. Diet." Ponton and rigging cutter, " Grosser Kerf urst " . . * "Engineer," xlviii. 375. Ponton steamer, Olsen . . * "Scientific Amer.." 1 xliii. 86. List of boats * p. 114, supra Folding boat . . . . * Fig. 2057, p. 899, "Meek. Diet.'" Port'a-ble Ci'der Press. A press on wheels ; much used in Normandy, where the apples are ground and pressed by machines taken from farm to farm, much as threshing is done in this country, and steam-plowing in Britain. The press shown in Fig. 2010 is one made by Samain, of Blois (Loir et Cher). A horse is hitched to the end of the sweep, and the press has three powers of gradually increas- ing force, being shifted from to each in succession as the pomace becomes more compacted. A dynamometer is at- tached to indicate the pressure. Fig. 2010. Portable Cider Press. Port'a-ble Crane. One which is transport- able upon its base. The traversing crane and over- head crane move on their bases. See RAILWAY CRANE, infra ; BALANCE CRANE, Fig. 176, p. 66, supra; PORTABLE STEAM-CRANE, infra; PORTABLE HAND- CRANE, Ibid. Contractor's hoisi, Chap- man (f Sutlon, Br. . . * "Engineering," xxiv. 304. Derrick, Lyons . . . . * "Man. Build.,'' xi. 33. Hoist, Pennypacker . . * "Iron Age," xix., Feb. 1, p. 1. Fig. 2011. Portable Drill. PORTABLE DRILL. PORTABLE FURNACE. Port'a-ble Drill. A drill capable of being- moved to its work, instead of the converse. See BENCH DRILL, Fig. 287, p. 95, supra. Also list under DRILL, pp. 750-752, " Mech. Diet.," and ref- erences under DRILL, p. 275, supra. The portable drill shown in Fig. 2011 can be placed as easily as a rachet brace, and will drill at any angle in any position, at any distance, and in any direction from the power. The driving apparatus is so arranged that the round belt which drives the machines passes through the center of a hollow stud, enabling the power to be taken off in any direction, while the weighted idler keeps the belt tight at whatever distance the machine is worked. The machine is intended to be bolted or clamped by its base to the piece being drilled. It can be adjusted in height by drawing the post out of the socket, and radially by screw and handle on the arm. The arm can be swung on the pil- lar as a center by means of a worm and tangent wheel, thus providing delicate adjustments in every direction. The spindle-frame swings in a ball and socket bearing to any angle up to 30 from the base, and is also provided with means of fixing it in a vertical position. The whole of themachine, including the post, can be drawn out of the socket, and the post passed into the horizontal hole in the socket for drilling in a direction parallel with the base. The feed motion is self-acting and variable. See also FLEXIBLE SHAFT, Fig. 1060, p. 347, supra. Thorne, De Haven If Co. * "Engineer," xli. 485. * "Enginetrins;,''' xxii. 110. * " Iron Age," 1 xx., July 19, p. 1. Port'a-ble En'gine. One upon wheels, either to be hauled from place to place or self-driven. See PORTABLE STEAM ENGINE. Among the portable engines may be classed Traction engines. Portable steam pump. Portable steam hoists. Portable steam cranes. (Which see.) Agricultural engines. Steam fire engines. Steam road rollers. Steam plowing engines. Railway crane. Port'a-ble En'gine and Pump. The port- able engine pump for irrigating purposes is shown in Fig. 2012, as used upon the Nile. It is the mod- ern substitute for the shaduf, mental, picotah, noria, wheel with pots, etc. The pump is fixed on a staging over a stream, and is driven by a portable engine. The boiler has a fire-box considerably larger than the ordinary portable engines, and where coal is expensive, as in Egypt, and there is an abundant supply of cotton stalks, maize, etc., great economy is obtained by feed- ing this vegetable matter into the fire-box by the straw- burning apparatus, driven by a strap from the crank-shaft, as shown in the engraving. The traveling wheels are made entirely of iron, and are not affected by excessive heat or the attack of insects. The pump shown in the engraving has double suction pipes. The pipes are made entirely of wrought iron, with a view of saving weight, and avoiding the incon- venience caused if a pipe is broken. The disk is accessible for examination without disturbing any of the joints. The apparatus has, however, various other uses, such as in drainage, sheep-washing, emptying docks and dams, etc. See also NORIA, Fig. 1819, p. 636, supra. See also CENTRIFUGAL PUMPING ENGINE, Fig. 1218, p. 516, "Mec/i. Diet.'' 1 Port'a-ble Forge. A movable forge to be used in the field, on the march by pioneers, in the vicinity of temporary works, etc. Two forms are shown in Figs. 2013, 2014. They are adapted to be driven by hand or power, having the necessary Fig. 2013. "Keystone '' Portable Forge. hand-wheels and power connections. The sectional view, Fig. 2013, shows the relation of the band-wheel K, band TRACTION ENGINB. PLATE XXXVIII. Seepage 712. PORTABLE STEAM ENGINE. 713 PORT WINDLASS. Garrett, Br. ... * "Engineering," xxviii. 25. Straw-burning, Clayton If Skultleworlk, Br. . * "Engineering,-' xxvii. 572. Garrett, Br. . . * "Engineering,''' xxvii. 573. * 'Engineering," xxiv. 36. Vertical, Baxter . . * 'Iron Age,'' xxi., May 2, p. 5. Blymm Co. . . . * 'Iron Age,'' xxi., Feb. 14, p. 9. * 'Iron Age," xx., Deo. 27, p. 1. Ercien . .... * 'Iron Age,'' xxi., May 9, p. 39. Farquhar * "Iron Age.," xxii., Dec. 12, p. 5. Shapley * "Iron Ag* .," xxii., July 25, p. 1. Por'ta-ble Winding Eii'giue. A movable hoisting engine used in many temporary works, either buildings or excavations. The forms vary with the purpose and the power required. The instance given in Fig. 2031 is a 12 horse-power, used in railway works. It is mounted on wrought-iron wheels, and fitted with shafts and locking plate. The engine is fitted with link reversing gear, so that an up or downcast cast or double rope can be worked, or lowering may be performed by steam or by the brake. The drum and gear can be read- ily removed when the engine is to be used for driving ma- chinery. Porte-ac'id Glass. (Surgical.) A small bu- rette to carry a caustic, for application in a deep- seated part. Porte Ai-guille'. A needle holder. Porte Aiguille. See NEEDLE FORCEPS, NEEDLE HOLDER, supra; and Fig. 3306, p. 1518, "Mech. Diet.'' Porte Pol'ish-er. An instrument for use with the DENTAL ENGINE, Fig. 795, p. 250, supra. It Tig. 2033. Porte Polisher and File Carrier. may be considered a kind of chuck ; a split screw, which allows the use of different sized points, and their retention by a turn of the sheath. Klump. Por'ter. Porters are wheeled supports placed along the line of the rope at intervals of 40 yards, to keep the rope off the ground in steam plowing. In another form they are mounted on three wheels, so as to allow them to be moved sideways by the rope. The Aveling and Porter's traveling rope porters are fas- Fig. 2034. Rope Porter. tened to the rope at intervals behind the plow or cultivator, as it leaves either headland ; they travel across the field with the rope, and are taken off as they return. Their release from the rope is instantaneous. They are much less trouble than porters on any other principle, and they save the boys the fatigue of running with the implement across the field. The one which immediately follows the plow or cultivator is pro- vided with a steerage, to prevent those behind from running on the plowed ground, and to keep the back rope clear of the furrow. See INSTALLATION OF STEAM PLOW, pp. 2354, 2355, "Mech. Diet." Portland Ce-ment'. A favorite hydraulic mortar made from the quarries of the hill of Port- land, South Britain. See HYDRAULIC CEMENT, p. 508 and 1144, "Mech. Diet." Also CEMENT TESTER, p. 184, supra. Tests of, Mann . . . " Van Nostrand's Mag. ," xvii. 17. "Sc. American Sup.," 1333. 1427. "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 227. Por'trait Lathe. A lathe adapted to copying busts. It is a species of lathe for turning irregular forms, and depends principally upon the primary suggestion first embodied in useful service by Bru- nei in his block-making machinery in 1804, and Blanchard's spoke lathe, 1828. See some data, pp. 1263, 1264, "Mech. Diet.,'' and discus- sion under article " Sculpture par precedes Mecaniques," vol. Hi., Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire desArts, et Manufactures," ed. 1877. Also Ibid., iv., "Tours Composes." Pos'i-tive. (Electricity.) In the battery, the zinc plate or element. POBtBox. A Fig. 2035. shafting box attached to a post, instead of to hanging or stand- ing pedestal. Post Drill. One supported on a stand- ard. See LEVER DRILL, Fig. 1584, p. 541 ; PILLAR DRILL, Fig. 1931, p. 681, supra. Post Mor'tem Table. One for au- topsy, dissections, etc. A table about 6J' X 2J' and slightly dishing p ost BOX. towards a perforated plate in the center, at which water and blood are carried off by a trapped pipe to the sewer. The same pipe carries off fetid air. The table revolves, also raises and lowers, and rests upon a scales in the pedestal which has beams reading to pounds and ounces. Mcllroy. Post Pumps. A form of donkey pump, at- tached to a port. See PENDULUM PUMP, supra. Post Windlass. A winding machine which is actuated with breaks or handspikes by a recip- Fig. 2036 Post Windlass. rocating movement. In the special case it is a wind- lass of small size and the mode of mounting accounts for the name. POT. 714 POTTERY. Pot. 1. (Glass.) The crucible in which frit is melted to form glass. Glass pots are open or closed, the latter to pro- tect fine qualities of glass, such us flint, from im- purities. In France and Belgium pots for cylinder glass usually con- tain 1,000 to 1,200 pounds of glass : in England sometimes as much as 5,000 pounds. Furnaces usually hold 8 pots. It is a common European practice, and not unknown in America, to make pots thin and replace them regularly at the end of the week ; instead of making them thicker to give them a longer lease of life. The batch is put into the pots in three lots, allowing each to melt before adding another. The allowance of melting time, with a class of large pots, is For the first charge . . 7 For the second charge 4 For the third charge 3 2. (Fishing.) The bowl, pound, or crib of & pound- net, which see. Po-tas'si-um-chlo'rate Bat'te-ry. (Electric- ity.) One in which potassium-chlorate with sul- phuric acid is used as the depolarizer. "Niaudet," American translation, 210. Potassimeter . . "Potassimere,"' Laboulaye's "Diet.," iii. Potassa, industry "Scientific American,' 1 xxxiv. 260. Po-ta'to Bug De-stroy'er. A device for sprinkling or dusting poison upon the beetles, or sweeping them off the plants into trays. See list, where the devices of this nature are de- scribed, COTTON-WORM DESTROYER, p. 226, supra. Po-ta'to Cov'er-er. A one-horse machine with flanged expanding sides that draw the soil from both sides and cover the potatoes, or other ridge crop. Po-ta'to Dig'ger. Three forms of machines for digging potatoes are shown on pp. 1775, 1776, "Mech. Diet." Those given in the accompanying Figs. 2037-2039, are re- spectively French (double effet.), American ( Speer), British (Permey). Fig. 2037. French Potato Digger. Their action is essentially different. One acts as a plow with lifting prongs to separate the tubers from the soil ; an- Fig. 2038. Fr. & Am., Paris, 1878 . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 165. Liedersleben, Ger. . . * "Scientific American,'' xli. 66. Strait * "Scientific American,'' xl. 67. Taylor Planter, Murray, Br. * "Scientific American,''' xlii. 166. * "Engineer," 1. 61. Fig. 2039. American Potato Digger. other plows up the tubers and soil and separates them by a dancing grating : the third has revolving forks which throw up soil and tubers against a dependant screen. The " Empire " potato digger, Allen fy Co., is a machine in which a plow is succeeded by bent revolving forks which work through the furrow slice and sort out the potatoes from the soil. Avery's is a shovel plow with prongs extending behind the share. Siedersleben, Ger. . . "Scientific American," xli. 66. Po-ta'to Ma-chin'er-y. Beetle destroyer, Bad on a. * "Scientific American Sup.," 57. Iske * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 446. Digger, Engl * "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 182. British Potato Digger. Po'tent. (Horology.) A journal plate or bear- ing in a watch.. Po'ten-tite. An explosive used in the Cum- berland and Furness mines, England. Pot'te-ry. (Ceramics.) Pottery is an inclu- sive term, and comprehends all the varieties of baked clay ware. Ceramics and ceramic art are the scientific terms which include the whole art of making and orna- menting objects of clay. Even bricks are a class of pottery and are only distinguished from tiles of a common order by their shape. Of the many millions of bricks of which the major part of ancient Rome was built, a large proportion would be termed tiles, if classed accord- ing to their shape. The saying of Augustus that he " found Rome brick and left it marble, " has its comment in the fact that the hordes who captured Rome " found it marble and left it brick," for the marble was generally but a covering of slabs which have generally disappeared. The baths of Caracalla and the basilica of Constantino, as examples, are enormous masses of brick walls, from which the,white and colored marble veneer- ing has disappeared. Pottery takes two grand divisions : soft and hard. Soft pottery may be divided into four kinds : 1. Unglazed ; simply made of baked clay, porous and with- out lustrous surface. 2. Lustrous, or semi-glazed, but imperfectly resisting wa- ter. 3. Glazed, having a shining surface which is proof against water and uncorrosive liquids. 4. Enameled, or having a vitreous and more incorrodible and impermeable surface. While the archaic and technical interest of the first-named three varieties is very great, the latter includes the principal objects of interest in modern soft pottery manufacture and embellishment. Soft pottery embraces faience and majolica, from Faenza (in Italy) and Majorca, two localities where the art of deco- rating pottery nourished in times past ; in the former, nota- bly in the sixteenth century, and in the latter during the Saracenic occupation of the island. Almost every nation in Europe is now struggling to lead in the making of faience, and the influence of the works of Asia, from China, Japan, India, Arabia, and Persia have sug- gested compositions, designs, forms, colors, and objects which have greatly increased the variety and beauty of European productions. Hard pottery, or porcelain, is of a more vitreous character than soft p.ottery. Its composition is materially different, and it approaches glass in its character. Porcelain, in break- ing, shows a vitreous character, usually white, though the color depends upon the material. Soft pottery has a rough fracture, exposing the porous clay body. Porcelain has a much sharper ring when struck, its material being hard and homogeneous. Pottery is translucent ; soft pottery opaque. Porcelain is divided into hard and soft paste, indicative of the relative compactness of the material. This may be stated in a general way to be due to the proportions of silica. See PORCELAIN, supra. Stone ware is practically a grade between porcelain and earthenware. See list under CERAMICS, p. 186, supra. Brogniart divides pottery into 3 classes and 9 orders : POTTERY. 715 POULTRY FEEDER. I. Tender paste; sandy clay, cal- careous; gene-- rally fusible in a porcelain fire. 1. Terra- co tta: bricks, tiles, and coarse earthenware. Sandy-clay ware, with dead surface, without glaze. 2. Lustrous pottery : thin silico-alka- line glaze. 3. Glazed pottery : lead glaze. 4. Enameled pottery (common faT- ence) : tin glaze. 5. Fine fai'ence : uncolored paste; lead, glass glaze. , . 6. Stone ware : colored paste, without III. Hard paste. Translucent ; argilo-sili-- c i o u s ; alka- line. glaze, or with silico-alkaliue glaze. 7. Hard porcelain : k aolinpaste, with feldspathic glaze. 8. Natural tender porcelain : paste ar- gilo-saline, phosphatic, kaolinic ; lead, glass, or boracic acid glaze. 9. Artificial tender porcelain : fritted marlaceous saline paste ; lead- [ glass glaze. I. 1. Fr. Terre Ciiite. The ordinary and coarser kinds of pottery are made of plastic clay or argillaceous marl tramped, or ground in a pug-mill, and mixed with sand, lime, or cin- ders, according to the quality of the clay. The drying of bricks is usually in the open air, but of other objects some- times in ovens. The produce is an article open and porous, usually not very hard, and the objects are miglazed. This class of pottery comprises : a. Bricks for building, not including^zre bricks (which see). 6. Tiles for roofing and paving, not including glazed, enam- eled, and decorated. See TILE. i . .^tcive and furnace pots ; though these are often of re- fractory material, and not of the material cited above. d. Drain tiles, water pipes, and hollow bricks. e. Common household pottery not glazed, such as the chafing dishes used in Europe. f. Flower pots and horticultural vases. g. Sugar molds. A. Alcarazzas, or cooling jars for water ; hydrocframes. I. 2. Fr. Potrriex tendres lustrces. The paste is fine, ho- mogeneous, opaque, and of a red or yellow color ; the sur- face covered with a luster or peculiar alkaline-silicious glaze, now of a reddish or a black color, very thin and resisting. The ware has a dull fracture, and was baked at a low tem- perature. The Greek, and some other ancient pottery, be- longs to this class, and it is not made now-a-days. I. 3. Fr. Poteries tendres vernissees. This class includes the ordinary pottery before the making of faience, and is still common in many countries. The paste is of plastic clay or argillaceous mavl and sand, with the addition of lime, when it is not present with the clay. The materials are ground, the objects baked under protecting hoods, the biscuit ware dipped in a slip of lead glaze colored with oxides of manganese or copper. I. 4. Fr. Poteries emailles. Common faience. Probably invented in Persia ; introduced by the Saracens into Spain and Majorca (majolica) ; rediscovered in Italy by Luca delli fully mixed and milled, the ware baked at two operations ; one for the biscuit, and the other for firing after glazing. This is frequently done in the same kiln, the crude being above, and the enameled ware below. The heat of the latter is r,, few degrees the hotter ; the upper from a cherry to a dark red. The enamel consists of a slip containing red lead, the ox- ides of lead and tin, fcand, salt, soda, and coloring materials, and the ware is completed in a second fire. See FA?ENCE. glass. The material is essentially a washed plastic clay and calcined flints, or quartz finely ground, sometimes with a little chalk. The material of the glaze is fritted, and is com- posed of silex, soda, oxide of lead, and sometimes the addi- tion of a little boracic acid. Three principal kinds are distinguished, named from the notable quantities of chalk, silex, and feldspar in their re- spective compositions ; though some chalk always accompa- nies the plastic clay, which varies from 62 to 87 per cent, in the various pastes of fine fa'i'ence. The clay or kaolin is washed, the silex broken and ground fine, the matters brought to a thin batter with water, strained, and consolidated by evaporation. The paste is placed in damp cellars to ripen. The baking and firing are at two operations ; the biscuit being glazed by dipping or sprinkling with a slip embracing more or less of the following : feldspar, sand, kaolin, chalk, 800*8,, boracic acid, ground glass, red lead, niter, and a little cobalt to connect yellow color. See FAIENCE. II. 6. Fr. Gres-cerame or poteries de grds. Stone ware. Stone ware is solid, very hard, sonorous, and opaque, with a paste more or less fine, and is distinguished as common or fine. a. The paste, of coarse stone ware, is of unwashed plastic clay and quartzose sand. The articles are molded or made on "the wheel, according to the character of their shape. They are glazed by throwing marine salt into the kiln and into the fire at the period of great heat, and the decomposi- tion of the salt covers the objects with a thin scale of silico- aluminate of soda. In some cases the unglazed articles are plunged in a bath of yellow ochre and fired ; the resulting color is a brown- yellow glaze. b. The composition and glazing of fine stone ware are es- sentially different. A feldspathic flux is added to the paste which makes it more vitreous, shown by its brilliant frac- ture. Kaolin, plastic clay, silex, pegmatite, sulphates of lime and baryta are used in the various pastes for stone ware. The glaze is sometimes by salt, potash, and red lead, placed in the seggars and volatilized in the kiln ; or the biscuit is dipped in a lead-glass slip. The articles are often ornamented by transfer-printing, or painting with metallic colors. See STONE WAKE ; PIPE. III. 7. Fr. Porcelaine dure. Hard porcelain has a fine paste, is hard, translucent, sonorous, semi-vitreous, with a hard, earthy glaze. It is the most beautiful and resisting of all kinds of pottery. The paste is composed of kaolin, feldspar, and sometimes of sand, plastic clay, and ground powder of pottery. The utmost care in preparing and compounding the materials is exercised. The mode of fashioning is according to character, the wheel, mold, and, in many cases, the art of the statuary. After a slight drying in the air, the pieces are baked in the upper chamber of the kiln, inclosed in seggars to prevent soiling by the combustion of the fuel. The glaze is of silex, alumina, potash, and chalk, made into a fine slip in which the article i,; plunged. The ware, after ornamenting in the biscuit stage, is burned at high temperature (grand feu) to vitrify the materials, giv- ing the translucency and sonority. See PORCELAIN. III. 8. Fr. Porcelaine tendre naturelle. English soft por- celain. This paste occupies a position between fine faience and hard porcelain, differing from the latter in having a large proportion of phosphate of lime. The paste is more plastic than that of the hard porcelain, and is fashioned like fine faience. It is baked, and the biscuit glazed, ornamented, and fired in seggars. The glaze is lead-glass, with boracic acid. See PORCELAIN. III. 9. Fr. Porcelaine tendre artificielle. French soft por celain. This was made at Sevres until 1804, and then the manufacture abandoned. The paste is fine, dense, almost vitreous, hard, translucid, and fusible at high temperatures. A peculiar glass, fritted, forms three parts, to one part of marl and chalk, making a composition of little plasticity, which was molded. The dif- ficulty of working it was extreme. The glaze was a glass : of sand, silex, litharge, potash, and soda. See PORCELAIN. CERAMICS. See : " Wedgwood and his Works.' 11 Meteyard : London, 1873. "History of the Ceramic Art.'' New York, 1875. " Ceramic Art at the Vienna Exposition." Blake: New York, 1875. "Report of Ceramics at Paris Eocposition, 1878." Blake, United States Report, 1880. "Two Centuries of Ceramic Art in Bristol." Champion: London, 1873. " History of the Ceramic Art ." Jacquenard : New York, 1873. "Keramic Art of Japan." Audsley Sf Bowes : 1875. "Pottery and Porcelain." Prime. History, Development, etc., of the Ceramic Art, by Hector Tyndale, "Centennial Exhibition Report^ 1 vol. iii., Group II., p. 2. On the Chemistry and Composition of the Porcelains and Porcelain Rocks of Japan, by Henry Wurtz, Ibid., 114. Sec : Alhambra American . . Ancient Roman . . . "Iron Age," xx., Aug. 9, p. 3. Gray pottery .... * "Scientific American," xl. 264. Greek ancient .... * "Scientific American," xl. 199. Japanese potters at work "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1830. Turkish pottery . . . "Scientific American," xl. 361. Potter's wheels . . . * "Scientific American,'' 1 xl. 226. Pottery and porcelain . "Scientific Amer.," 1 xxxiv. 403. Pou'dre Bru'tale. Coarse, or cube }io-der. Slow burning powder in blocks of determinate size, consisting, in some cases, of cubes 1.5" thick. See PEBBLE POWDER ; PELLET POWDER, supra. Poul'try Feed'er. A revolving cylinder with coops in stories and in circuit, holding fowls which . . . * "Scientific American," xl. 137. "Scientific American," xl. 57. POULTRY FEEDER. 716 POUND. are successively presented to the attendant, who crams each 111 turn. A French device. See EPI- NETTE, Fig. 974, p. 315, supra. Poun'cing Ma-chine'. (Hat Making.) A machine for shaving or rubbing the surface of a hat or hat-body to rid it of shaggy fibres. The abradant is usually sand paper. These machines may be considered as next in im- portance, in hat making, to the hat-blocking ma- chine, and are constructed on two principles. 1. A rapidly revolving rubbing or cutting cylin- der which operates on the object while it is fed along upon a yielding bed. This form is used on wool hats and the lower grades of fur hats. 2. A reciprocating motion is given to the rubbing surface or to the hat-body, to rub in two directions. Fig. 2040 represents Eickemeyer's machine, which is used in both fur and wool-hat factories to sand-paper or, as it is called in the trade, to pounce hat-bodies when in the conical form, or, when the hat has been blocked, to pounce the brim. It consists of a rotary cutting roller of conical shape which is driven from a countershaft above. This roller is covered with sand or emery paper, and on the opposite end of the roller-shaft is a fan, connected by a pipe which has a mouth- piece corresponding in shape with the cutting roller and di- rectly over it, to carry off the fur or wool pounced off the surface during the operation. Under the cutting roller is a pouncing bed which is adjustable in two ways, namely, so as to set that part of its upper surface exactly parallel with the face of the roller and to vary its position when desired ; and also to prevent its upward motion beyond a given point. Fig. 2040. tion the cutting-roller is shown as working upon the side- crown, and it is from that position slowly carried over the round edge and brought to bear upon the tip. Fig. 2041. II BBBHMaTW" 1 "" 1 "" 11 1' r __ F ^Eicfce i meyer' ! s Hat Shaving and Pouncing Machine. The bed is pivoted in the rear part of the frame and is op- erated by a treadle, to facilitate the introduction and re- moval of the hat. A pair of conical feed rollers, supported in an adjustable swinging frame, which are also driven from the countershaft, furnish the feeding mechanism. The pouncing bed is raised by the treadle, after the hat has been introduced and grasped by the feeding rollers, until the hat- body is in contact with the cutting roller, after which the hat is guided by the operator until its surface is properly pounced. To pounce hat-bodies of different shapes, the position of the feed rollers has to be varied, and for this purpose a swinging frame is introduced which admits of an adjustment closer to or farther from the cutting roller as also in a direction par- allel with the axis of the roller. An india-rubber spring presses the two rollers together, while the position of the feed-rollers relative to each other can be adjusted by a set- screw on the hinge joint of that part of the swinging frame which carries the tipper feed-roller. The cutting rollers are usually made of metal, and, in this case, have a spline to hold the sand-paper, but when of india- rubber the sand-paper is glued in the shape of a conical ring which is held on the roller by the expansion of the rubber by mea-us of a nut on the outer end of the spindle. In wool-hat factories this machine is the only pouncing machine used, as all hats, even such as have been previously blocked, can be pounced, all but a very small piece on the tip, which is pounced when the hat is completed on the fin- ishing lathe. In the crown-pouncing machine of Wheeler <5 Manley, the hat is drawn upon a block which is rotated upon a lathe- spindle. This cutting roller has its bearings upon the outer end of a long lever which is pivoted upon a countershaft with a gimbal joint which allows a free motion of the lever in all directions, and enables the operator to bring the cutting-rol- ler in contact with all parts of the crown. In the illustra- Fig. 2041 represents the Labeaux hat-crown pouncing ma- chine. It has two lathe spindles, supported upon two col- umns, in bearings which can be turned upon the center of the columns in a horizontal plane. The spindle which car- ries the hat-block has a slow motion while the roller spindle revolves rapidly. Both spindles can slide longitudinally in their bearings. The hat is held upon the block by an india-rubber band, and, as both the spindles can be turned in a horizontal plane, and also brought nearer together and farther apart, the op- erator can bring the cutting roller to bear upon all parts of the side-crown and the tip. These machines, as previously stated, are used for wool hats and for only the coarser grades of fur hats, and do not produce the fine surface required on the better grades of fur hat ; for these, machines having a reciprocating motion are required. In the Eickemeye.r-Rosecrans machine the hat is piiiri'il upon an upright spindle having a reciprocating rotative mo- tion. The spindle has its bearings in the frame of the inn- chine, and at its lower part is enlarged, forming a roller of sufficient length and diameter to receive two bolts which are each fastened to one end of the roller and one end to a (Toss- head which is supported in two slides, also fastened to the frame. The slide receives a horizontal reciprocating motion from a crank on the main shaft of the machine. Every rev- olution of the crank causes the cross-head to wind up and unwind the belts alternately upon and from the roller, and thus causes the block to make a revolution in one direction and then in the other. While thus in motion, sand-paper is held by the operator against the surface of the hat until the proper degree of fin- ish is attained. Cutting first in one and then in the other direction produces a very short nap, which cannot be ob- tained when the cutting is done in one direction, as on a machine with a continuously rotating cutting roller. The brim-pouncing machine consists of a pair of rubbing plates, to which sand-paper is attached. These plates are made to vibrate in a horizontal plane in opposite directions to each other, by two cranks 011 the upright shaft which receives motion from the main shaft of the machine by a half-twist belt. The roller and the upper rubbing plate are raised to allow the introduction of the hat-brim. While the feed-rollers carry the hat around, one plate pounces the un- der side and the other plate the upper side of the brim. The result is a very smooth surface, and although but one fifth the number of hats can be pounced on this machine that can be pounced on the rotary cutter machine, it is by the manufacturers of fine hats preferred to the former. The machine is provided with all the adjustments neces- sary to take up the wear of the working parts, and the upper plate and feed roller can be held up while in motion, so that it is not necessary to stop the machine to introduce and re- move the hats. Pound. (Fishing.) A wire or net inclosure into which fish are directed by a leader which in- tercepts their course along shore and conducts tin m to the first inclosure, known as the heart, from whence they pass through the tunnel to the more remote inclosure, the pound or bowl. In emptying the pound the bottom stay-ropes are cast loose, the tunnel guys pulled up, closing the tunnel, the POUND NET. 717 PRAXINOSCOPE. Fig. '2042. -, V bottom raised, driving the fish into one corner, when they are thrown into the boat by a scoop net. Pound Net. (Fishing.) The heart net or pound consists of three parts, the leader, heart, and bowl, or pound, and is variously con- structed. The leader (of which a portion only is shown) is 2 ( 'i5 yards long, reach- es from the shore to the mouth, aud directs fish passing along shore into the heart, whence they puss into the bowl. The bowl is emptied once or twice a day. For list of U. 8. Pa- tents, see FISHING NETS. See other forms in "Report of U. S. Fish. Commission," Part I., 1873, pp. 263, 264. Fow'der Blow'- er. (Suryical.) An instrument for blow- ing a powder upon a part. They are specially Aural. Laryngeal. Nasal. See AUTO-INSUFFLATOR, Fig. 131, p. 57, supra; INSUFFLATOR, p. 501, supra. Pow'der Dust'ing Ma-chine'. Gunpowder, whether pebble or granulated, is required to be clean, and the dusting operation intervenes between the pebbling or granulating and the glazing. Dusting is performed in revolving cylindrical reels, with clothing of canvas or wire cloth of a fineness to suit the strode of powder. A reel 8' long and 30" diameter will have 40 revolutions per minute. In Russia, the powder is dusted in bags. Fig. 26, accom- panying Appendix L, "Ordnance Report,'''' 1877. See also "Ordnance Report," 1879, Appendix I., Plate IV., Fig. 9, and description on pp. 106, 107. Fow'der-ing Ma-chine'. 1. A bronzing ma- chine. 2. A pulverizer which see. Fow'der Pa'per. A substitute for gunpow- der, invented in England. Paper impregnated with a mixture of potassic chlorate, nitrate, prussiate, and chromate, powdered wood charcoal, and a little starch. It leaves no greasy residue on the gun, produces less smoke and less recoil, and is less impaired by humidity, and it is 5-16 stronger than gunpowder. For a paper with fulminate, see Fig. 1151, p. 380, supra. Fow'der Press'ing Ma-chine'. A machine in which the powder meal from the breaking-down machin.e is made into cakes. It is a hydraulic press, the box of which is 30" X 14", lined with oaken boards. Pound Net, Wood's Holl, Mass. Urethral. Uterine. The powder has a thickness of \\" between each of the consec- utive plates, and is pressed to the determined extent. Pressed cakes, for breaking into pebble powder, are f" thick. For ordinary powder, the cakes are broken with wooden mallets, and pass to the granulating ma- chine. Details of the pressing ma- chine are given in Col. Laid- ley's report, " Ordnance Report,' 1 1877, p. 441. See also Ibid., 1879, Appendix I., Plate III., Fig. 7; and de- scription on p. 103. In the St. Petersburg arsenal, the incorporated mixture is pressed into cake in two ways : 1. By hydrostatic pressure. 2. By passing the mixture between two heavy iron rolls, while spread to a uniform thickness on an endless band of cloth. This is known as the Prussian method. Pow'der Spoon. A small paddle with which a modicum of powder is applied to a deep-seated part, the uterus especially. Pow'der Test'ing. In Britain, the chrono- graph is used to determine the velocity of the flight of the projectile, a given quantity of the powder under test being used in a service gun with a given ball. In France, the test is in firing to extremity a cast-iron gun of a given model, made of a particular iron, and treated in a given manner, with charges of a fixed weight of the powder to be tested. A new gun of exactly similar character is used for each powder. In Russia, the French densimetre d mercure is employed to test the gravity of powder. See DENSIMETER. The subject is considered, supra, under INTERNAL PRESSURE GAGE : PIEZOMETER ; CUTTER ; DYNAMOMETER, etc. In "Mech. Diet.," under EPROUVETTE; BALLISTIC PENDU- LUM ; ELECTRO-BALLISTA ; CHRONOSCOPE, etc. Drying stove for testing samples, " Ordnance Report,' 1 '' 1879, Appendix I. , Plate X a. HYGROSCOPE, Ibid. , Plate X 6. Fow'er. As applied to a machine, signifies that it is moved by power, and not by hand : as power press, power shears, etc. Prai'rie Flow. (Agric.) A plow with a broad, sharp share and long mold-board, for cutting a wide, shallow furrow, and completely inverting the fur- row slice. A prairie breaker. See Fig. 422, p. 130, supra. Fig. 2044. A California plow designed for work in the tules, which will cut Ci furrow 38" wide. The mold- board is 8' long from the point to the end, sweeping upward with a curve of about 4 / radius. At the end it stands 2' above the ground. The land side is 7' long. At the rear c, horizontal cutting plate is arranged to cut under the sod on the land side r, distance of 10". The furrow depth is from 3" to 4". The plow is at- tached to r, sulky, and requires n team of 12 horses. Prai'rie Ren'o-va-tor. (Agric.) An implement with tearing harrow teeth, drawn over the surface of grass land to loosen the roots and the soil, dislodge moss, uproot weeds, and break up the matted vege- 1 tation. Prax-in'o-scope. An j instrument which depends! for its effects upon the per- sistence of visual impres- sions on the retina. Reynaud. It however, differs structurally from a number of other instruments which depend also upon persis- Praxinoscope. PRAXLNOSCOPE. 718 PRESSURE GAGE. tent impressions. These are the ANORTHOSCOPE, PHENAKISTOSCOPE, STROBOSCOPE, THAU MA- TROPE, ZOETROPE. See under these titles in the " Mech. Diet." In the praxinoscope of M. Reynaud the pictures are placed on the inner perimeter of a polygonal box. These pictures represent the consecutive positions of a moving body and substitute each other incessantly, the series in the circle rep- resenting a cycle of movements. Turning around a common center there is a concentric polygonal prism formed of mir- ror plates, and having a diameter equal to the radius of the exterior polygon. The box carrying the pictures and the re- flecting prism is revolved at a moderate speed by means of a crank, pulley, and cord. In the evening the apparatus may be lighted by a lamp or gas flame, the light being reflected downward by a shade. The optical principle involved is explained by G. Fussandier, in "La Nature.'' Pre'puce In'stru-ments. (Sun/icaL) See PIIIMOSIS INSTRUMENTS. Press'es. See under the following heads: Jelly press. Lever press. Mangle. Olive press. Pebble powder machine. Pellet powder machine. Pendulum press. Portable cider press. Powder pressing machine. Pressing machine. Arch screw press. Baling press. Blacking-box press. Calendering machine. Cane press. Cheese press. Cider press. Compound cotton press. Cork press. Cotton press. Cutting, drawing, and stamp- Reducing press. ing press. Screw press. Double-tub press. Shirt press. Drawing press. Stamping press. Embossing press. Tan press. Forage press. Tan-yard press. Fruit press. Tincture press. Grape press. Tobacco press. Hay press. Toggle press. Herbarium press. Wire press. Horn press. Wiring press. Inclined press. Dr. Knight's report on agricultural instruments at the Paris Exposition of 1878, gives descriptions and views of the fol- lowing. See "Paris Exposition (1878) Reports," vol. v., pp. 223, 238. The list includes various kinds : Grape mill, Mabille Frdres France. Cider or oil press, Mabille Fr&res France. Constant movement for agricultural presses, Bodin France. Three-speed mechanism of apple-press, Mar- monier Fits France. Lever differential press, Marmonifr Fils . . France. Wine and cider press, David France. Hydraulic press, Mannequin France. Hydraulic oil-press, Mannequin France. Combined screw and hydraulic press, Cassan Fils France. Wine and cider press, Quillet France. Wine and cider hand-press, Quillet .... France. Toggle-press, Samain France. Toggle-press, caisson, tampon, and barrel, Samain France. Trussing-press, Guilhem France. Forage press, Guitton France. Ration press, Guitton France. Press Drill. A drilling machine largely used in gun and sewing machine work. In the form shown in Fig. 2045, it runs by belts, avoiding the noise of gears. The sizes of spindle pulleys give a variety of speeds for drilling holes from 1-16" to \" diameter, and the driving cross pulley has 4 speeds. The work is elevated by vertical motion of the table ; lever and treadle arrange- ments being provided for the purpose. Pressed Fuel. See FUEL, ARTIFICIAL, "Mech. Diet.," et supra. Loiseau; Newton; Anthracite Fuel Co. ; Prince's Report in Group I., " Centennial Reports," vol. iii., p. 54. Loiseau " Van Nostrand's Mag-.," xxiii. 41. Pressed G-lass. (Glass.) Glass made in a mold by pressure. This may be solid or with knobs, insulators, etc. ; or hollow, as with bottles, which are blown and pressed in a mold ; and some other things pressed hollow without blowing. Fig. 2045. Press Drill. Iron molds are generally used, but wooden molds are very common in France. Press'ing I'ron. A SMOOTHING IRON ; FLAT IRON, etc. See FLUTING IRON ; GAUFFERING ; IRONING MACHINE ; SMOOTHING IRON, etc. See also LAUNDRY. Pres'sure Bar. A device in a planing ma- chine for holding down lumber to be planed. The long suits of the Woodworth and the Woodbury Pa- tents were upon pressure bars and pressure rollers. Horton's " Iron Age," xvii., April 20, p. 11. The PRESSURE BLOCK or PRESSURE ROLLER have the same duty. Pres'sure Gage. An instrument used for in- dicating the pressure of an elastic material ; steam, air, gas, etc. See various forms in Figs. 3939- 3942, pp. 1736, 1737, Mech. Diet. ; " STEAM GAGE, Figs. 5674-5677, p. 2345, Ibid. Also GAGES, Figs. 5678-5683, pp. 2345, 2346, Ibid. 1. The gas pressure and vacuum gage is shown in Fig. 2046. It has a cast-iron case containing two brass tubes or wells ; in one of them is a float, to which is attached a small cord passing over a pulley ; this carries a pointer over the range of a dial. Such instruments are generally used near the hydraulic main, or in the exhauster room to indicate the pressure at any time. The pressure gage shows from 0" to 18" pressure, and the pressure and vacuum gage ranges from 9" pressure to 9" vacuum. See also A, Fig. 3939, p. 1786, "Mech. Diet." 2. An instrument used to detect the pressure in a cannon or fire-arm at the instant of explosion of the charge. See also CRUSHER GAGE ; PIEZOME- TER. Fig. 2047 shows Rodman's pressure gage as adapted to the Springfield service gun and car- tridge. " The usual breech arrangement of the gun should have added a projecting frame. A, specially made for strength and accommodation of the piston D, knife E, and copper and steel plates JP-and 0. A gas check B is used to prevent the escape of gas at the piston D. The cartridge c has a hole in its side the same size as the piston D (area 1-10 square inch) ; the edges of the hole in case are required to be made thin by a special operation, and lay snugly to the side of chamber to PRESSURE GAGE. 719 PRESSURE REGULATING VALVE. Fig. 2046. Gas Pressure and Vacuum Gage. prevent the escape of gus. No reliable results can be ob- tained if the gas is iilln\\e(.l to escape at this point. A slip of paper is inserted into (lie case to prevent the powder from falling out : the charge is ignited in the usual manner; the gas forces the piston n against 'the knife B into the cop] plate F, making a cut ; the knife and copper are removed a weighing machine, and a corresponding cut of equal len^ is made in the same copper. A record of 50 shots gave maximum of 14,000 Ibs., and a minimum of 12,000 Ibs. Mean 13,000 Ibs. per square inch for the service cartridge 70 grains powder, 450 grains ball." Fig. 2047. Rodman's Pressure Gun. Apparatus, Bouvet . . Pictet Gage, Allan, Br. . . . Allen, Engl Gage (theory), Bourden Gage, Shaw .... Gage, steam .... Gage, Snyder .... Indicator, electrical. Shaw Log Reducing valve, Alley, Br. For mains, Barton If West Register Regulator, Giroud . . Holly ' Ens:. # Min. Jour.," 1 ' xxv. 129. 'Ens:. # Min. Jour., 1 ' 1 xxv. 112. "Engineer," xliv. 193. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 258. 'Scientific American," xlii. 131. 'Scientific American Sup.," 1089. 'Engineer,*' xlviii. 104. 'Engineer," xlviii. 112. ' Laboiilaye' s ''-Diet.," iy.," Graph- iques," Fig. 16. 'Iron Age,'''' xx., Dec 13, p. 7. 'Scientific American?' xxxix. 95. Fig. 2048. body: steam, air, gas, etc. See RECORDING STEAM GAGE, Fig. 5083, p. 2346, " Mech. Diet." The gas pressure and vacuum register is an instrument used for recording the variations of pressure on street mains, at works, office, or any desired point of distribution, and is made with any required range of from 1" to 6" for 1" work- ing pressure, but is generally made for 5" pressure to give a range of 12". Attached to the clock is a vertical barrel which makes 1 revolution every 24 hours ; around this is a printed card di- vided horizontally, by lines, into 50 spaces, each repre- senting 1-10" pressure, and vertically into 24 spaces, each representing one hour, and so marked as to correspond with the clock. In the body of the register is a float, so constructed as to rise 12" for 5" pressure, with, brass rod carrying a pencil holder. When the water is adjusted to the proper height, the point of the pencil set at the zero line, and to a vertical line representing the hour corresponding to the clock, the ga.s is turned on, and the float will rise and carry the pencil up to the horizontal line indicating the gas pres- sure when the pencil makes its mark .on the barrel. The tracing is thus a pressure and time line. The pressure and -- - - hvacuuni register, ''Fig. 2048, is gov- erned by the same principles as the pressure register, and is designed to keep record also of the degree of vac- uum in the ex- The card is di- vided the same, ver- tically, but in the Pres'sure Reg'is-ter. An instrument elastic cording the fluctuations of pressure of an for re- Pressure and Vacuum Register. horizontal divisions it differs, as it is divided into sixty spaces each representing 1-10" pressure, the zero line being the twentieth from bottom, the space below the zero line representing 2" vacuum, and the space above 4" pressure. In adjusting the water line in this instrument, the point of the pencil is brought to zero line and to vertical line, cor responding to the hour of day shown by the clock. Gas then being turned on, any change of pressure or vacuum will be duly recorded, the cards to be changed daily and filed away as with Pressure Register. See also METER PROVER, supra. Pres'sure Reg'u-la'ting Valve. An appa- ratus to obtain a constant pressure of steam or air from a supply reservoir, wherein the pressure varies. The form of apparatus shown in Figs. 2049, 2050, is spe- cially intended for the abstraction of steam for heating pur- poses under pressure in a boiler much in excess of what is Fig. 2049. Pressure Regulating Valve. PRESSURE REGULATING VALVE. 720 PRINTING PRESS. demanded for the heating. The heating purposes referred to are for vacuum pans, heating apartments, drying rooms, bleacheries, paper machines, etc. Fig. 2049 is an exterior view of the apparatus with a low pressure gage attached, and a lever beneath, with a weight Fi-. 2050. Pressure Regulating Valve. by which the pressure is regulated. The sectional view, Tig. 2050, shows the casing A with a screw-cap a. c is the inlet-chamber, and D is a balanced puppet valve, the raising of which allows steam to flow upwardly and downwardly into the main chamber of the valve, and thence to the out- let. The degree of opening of the valve is regulated by a large, flexible, thin, sheet-brass diaphragm E, clamped by the bottom-piece 523, 2732. Brown * "Iron Age," xviii., Dec. 7, p. 24. Bystrom's (Swedish) " Ordnance Report,'' ISIS, Plates IV, V., accompanying Appendix R, 3, and p. 375. Hot blast, Hobson Kritulator, Hobson Main .... . * "Engineer," xli. 484. . * " Technologists," xxxvii. 221. . * " Technologiste," xxxvii. 220. Fy'ro-phore. The name of a body which has the faculty of inflaming by contact with air or water. See pp. 1838, 1839, "Mech. Diet." The self-lighting signal logs which are thrown overboard to rescue men in the water, inflame on contact with the water. This forms a guide for the man to swim to, and to the boatmen who go to his rescue. The self-luminous safety buoys of the French Marine Service have phosphide of calcium. See Buor ; LIFE BUOY. The property seems to be due to the rapid absorption of oxygen by the combustible body. Certain metallic oxides, that of iron, for example, reduced by hydrogen at a low temperature, become extremely pyrophoric. By calcining in a luted crucible 6 parts of lamp-black mixed with 11 of sulphate of potassa, a compound of sulphur and carbon is obtained which inflames with great facility by contact of the air. "Manufacturer Sf Builder" xi. 24. Py-ro-ste're-o-type. A process in which an intaglio is burnt in wood to serve as a mold in which a printing plate in relief may be cast. It is said to be used in France in making music plates, and the apparatus is figured in Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," tome iii., article " Stereotypie.'' A block of lime or linden wood, with the design traced upon it, is secured upon the table, and steel plugs of forms suited to the various signs, keys, or notes, and heated by gas. are brought down upon it, to burn out holes corresponding to the shapes of the tool. One tool at a time occupies the plunger-rod, and after all the required impressions have been made by it, another is substituted, and so on. Fy-rox'y-line. DION, supra. See GUN COTTON, COLLO- Q. Fig. 2074. Quad'rant E'lec-trom'e-ter. A form of electrometer invented by Sir William Thomson. It consists of four metal- lic segments supported in the same plane, but not in contact. They are con- nected alternately with two projecting knobs and balls (at the right). Over the segments hangs a strip of aluminium by a fine wire, from the inside of a Ley- den jar feebly charged (seen at the top). If now one pair of the sectors are charged, while the other are connected with the earth, the strip of aluminium will move towards i them if the charge is opposite to that of the aluminium rod and the jar ; Thomson's Quadrant Electrometer. but if the charge is of the same kind, repulsion will take place and the aluminium strip will move away from them and over the other segments that are not charged. In order to give a directive force to the aluminium strip a small compass needle is attached to it. In order to observe and measure slight motions of the aluminium strip, a small mirror is attached to it, and a ray of light reflected by it upon a scale placed against the wall ; the least turning of the mirror will cause this ray of light to travel side- ward in fact, it will act like a very long hand on a dial against the wall. It is evident that such a delicate instrument should al- ways be placed under a glass shade, in order to prevent dis- turbances by air currents, such as those generated by breath- ing near them. In this case the Leyden jar is also under the glass shade, so as to keep it charged longer ; it is charged by the curved rod seen under it, which is connected with its in- side covering, while the outside covering is connected exte- riorly with the earth, when it is charged, but after being charged the connection may be severed. The two knobs seen at the right side below serve to charge the segments. Bifilar suspension . . "Journal Soc. Tel. Eng.," v. 481. Thornton .... . * "Manufaci. Sf Builder," xi. 253. * Prescott's "Electricity," p. 947. * "Engineering,'- xxiii. 259. Quad'ri-cy-cle. A four-wheel vehicle adapted to be propelled by the feet. The bicycle and tricycle are respectively two and three- wheeled. 'Railroad Gazette" . . * xxii. 597. Quad'ri-form Group Flash'ing Light. A peculiar lighting apparatus for light-houses, in- vented by J. R. Wigham, and first erected at Galley Head, a promontory on the coast of Cork, Ireland, between Cape Clear and the Old Head of Kinsale. The quadriform arrangement consists of 32 lenses arranged in four tiers, with a gas-light in the focus of each. As the lenses touch each other the lights blend at a few yards distance and form a pillar of light 13' high and 3' broad. The group flashing denotes that the flashes from QUADRIFORM GROUP FLASHING LIGHT. 733 RACKING PUMP. the lenses instead of being single flashes, as usually exhibited at light-houses, are each of them, by the repetition, extinction, and reignition of the gas, broken up into four or five beams, which constitute a group of flashes recurring at regular intervals, presenting a distinctive appearance. The interval between the groups of flashes is 1 minute ; be- tween the flashes in each group 2 seconds. The flashing is accomplished by the same clock-work machine by which the lenses are caused to revolve. Quad'ru-ple Coil Spring. A car spring made of four coils; in a nest, as in s, Fig. 1143, p. 483, "Mech. Diet. ; " or merely associated in the manner indicated at u, same figure. Quad'ru-ple Nose Piece. (Optics.) An at- tachment to a microscope ; a piece having four ob- ject glasses of different powers, either of which may be brought into apposition with the body of the mi- croscope ; avoiding the trouble of unscrewing and attaching a different power. Double nose-piece, Fig. 3335, p. 1534, "Mech. Diet." Quad'ru-plet. Four united acting together, as of springs, s, Fig. 1143, p. 483, "Mech. Diet." Quad'ru-plex Tel'e-graph. An amplifica- tion of the duplex system ; by the quadruplex sys- tem, four messages may be sent over the same wire, simultaneously, two in each direction. See DU- PLEX TELEGRAPH, p. 764, "Mech. Diet." It was used by Prescott & Edison in 1874, by Nicholson of Cincinnati, Myer of Paris. Cf. * "Engineer,-' xlvi. 5. Fanner (185S) .... "Scientific American Sup.,'' 14. Muirliead fy Winter . . * " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 223. Paper on, Pope . . . * " Telegraphic Journal,'' iv. 2. Smith * " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 198. Working * ''Telegraphic Journal," iv. 231. Quan'ti-ty. (Electricity.) The amount of elec- tricity generated in a given time. Quar'ry-faced Stone. (Stone Cutting.) Ma- sonry stones, the faces of which are left untouched, as they come from the quarry. As distinct from hammer-faced, pitch-faced, tooled, etc. Quar'ter Bend. A curved section of pipe subtending an angle of 90. c, Fig. 295, p. 97, su- pra. Quar'ter-ing Ham'mer. A steel hammer of from 1 to 2 pounds weight used in blocking out masses of flint for flaking. See BLOCKING HAM- MER. Quar'ter-ing Ma-chine'. A machine for quartering driving wheels on their axles ; i. e., bor- ing the wrist pin-holes at 90 distance apart. Fig. 4067, p. 1844, "Mech. Diet." London and N. \V. Ry. . * "Engineering," xxviii. 260. Urquhart, Br * "Engineer,'' xlvii. 389. Quar'ter Sa'ver. (Knitting.) A device at- tached to a knitting machine to prevent the work from running off when the thread breaks or runs out. Cooke. Quar'ter Tack'le. (Nautical.) A tackle used in hoisting aboard water, etc. Quar'ter-turn Belt. One which has a twist of 90, transmitting motion between pulleys on shafts at right angles to each other. Nine dispositions of * Cooper's "Selling," Phila., 1878, p. Quar'ter-turn Goose'neck. A bent pipe coupling having a turn of 90, and connecting the discharge pipe with the nozzle. Quartz Mill. A machine for crushing aurif- erous quartz. See Figs. 4068-4078, pp. 1844-1846, "Mech. Diet." Hand power, Eaton Rotary, Hoivland . * "Min. 4* Sc. Press," xxxviii. 217. . * "Min. Sc. Press," xxxiv. 25. Queens'ware. (Ceramics.) 1. Queen Char- lotte's ware, now known by the contracted title. A celebrated cream-colored Wedgwood ware. It is of white clay and flint. 2. A form of stone ware also the invention of Wedgwood, and occupying a position between porcelain and pottery. See STONE WARE. Quick'silver Bat'te-ry. See MERCURY BATTERY. Quick'silver Fur'nace. See MERCURY FUR- NACE. Qui'et-ing Cham'ber. (Steam.) An arrange- ment to prevent the noise incident to bio wing-off of steam. The sides of the exhaust pipe have numer- ous small branch tubes, the sum of their areas equal to that of the main pipe. Shaw's See Fig. 987, p. 320, supra. * "Railroad Gazette " . . . . xxiii. 141. * "Min. 4- Sc. Press " . . . . xxxvi. 313. Quin'tu-plet. Said of springs when five of similar type are associated in a group. E. Ra'cer. The British name for a traverse circle beneath the chassis of a gun. See CIRCLE ; also Plate VIII., p. 448, "Mech. Diet. " Rack Car. (Railway.) A freight car with open slat sides, and a roof. Used for iron in pigs, pipes, and castings ; oil in barrels ; coke, etc. Rack-cut'ting Ma-chine'. A machine tool for cutting the teeth of racks. It is a modification of the nulling machine, standing on a column and having, in the size shown (Fig. 2076), a table 31" long, with a vertical adjustment of 6", and a trans- verse horizontal adjustment of 17". The spindle carries two cutters for blocking-out and finishing the tooth at the same time. Several racks may be cut at once or a single rack up to a width of 6". Any pitch and any length of rack can be cut. The feed is automatic, with self-acting, adjustable stop-mo- tion. The driving-spindle has a cone of two grades, and actuates the cutter spindle through the me- dium of gears. Rack'ing Fau'cet. A faucet for transferring wines or beer from vats to casks. Used in run- ning wines off _ Fi S- ~ their lees after fermentation o r fining ; also in fill- ing beer kegs from vats. The two noz- zles enable two kegs to be filled at once, keeping the racking-off unin- terrupted. The small spigot in the middle ena- bles the liquid to be examined at any time. Rack'ing Pump. A pump used in the trans- ference of wines from vats to casks and from cask Double-armed Racking Faucet. RACKING PUMP. 734 RADIATION THERMOMETER. Rack-cutting Machine. to cask when the difference of level prevents the use of siphon or faucet. Fig. 2077 shows a racking pump by Noel of Paris. It is a double-action pump, suction and force, mounted on carriage so as to be moved to any place in a cel- lar or cave. The suction and discharge pipes are of caoutchouc strengthened against collapse by a spiral of wire. It is shown as drawing water from a cis- tern for rinsing casks. Racking Turns. ( Nautical. ) Nippering consists in fastening seizings by taking turns crosswise between the Fig. 2077. French Racking Pump. parts to jam them ; and a racking turn is a round turn before each cross. Rack Rail'way. A form of railway having a rack between the rails, engaged by a gear wheel on the locomotive. See p. 1852, "~Mech. Diet." and references passim. See also : "Scientific American Sup." * 1106, * 1313. "Engineering " * xxiii. 413. " Van Nostrand-s Mag." . xxii. 9 ; xxiii. 230. Ra'di-al Ax'le Box. One which preserves its position radial to the track, even when the car is upon a curve. Widmark, Br. " The axle-box has planed parallel sides, and is free to slide in a direction which is rectilinear and horizontal, but inclined to the axle of the wheels. The box at the opposite end of the axle is inclined in the opposite direction, so that, when the wheels and axle deviate toward one side in conse- quence of the curvature of the road, the axle is simultane- ously set in an oblique position to the engine frame, but ra- dial to the road, one end being advanced in relation to the frame, while the other is drawn back by the inclined form of the axle-boxes and the intermediate guides. " As the sides of the axle-boxes are parallel planes, and as there are no flanges, the axle-boxes are free to turn round a horizontal axis which is at right angles to these side planes. Thus one axle-box may rise and the other fall in the guides, as required by the state of the road." "Engineer.''' Ra'di-al Drilling Ma-chine'. A vertical drilling machine, the operating portion of which is adjustable on a horizontal arm projecting radially from the vertical pillar. It is used for drilling a row of holes on an object placed on the table be- neath. Fig. 4099, p. 1852, " Mech. Diet:' See also the following references : Arqueth,BT * "Engineer,'' 1 xlv. 163. * "Engineering,"' xxiv. 16. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1347. Box If Co * "Iron Age," xviii., Nov. 2, p. 20. * "Iron Age," xxiv., Dec. 11, p. 1. Sharpe , Stewart If Co., ]ii. * "Engineering,'- xxv. 366. * "Scientific American," xxxix. 8. English * "Scientific Ame.r.," xxxvii. 111. * "Scientific American,' 1 ' xxxviii. 51. Ra'di-al Pla'ner. A machine for rounding off the corners of stuff, especially in implement and carriage work. Also known as a rounding machine, cornering machine, or chamfering machine ; see the latter. It performs some of the duties of a spoke-shave. It is used for forming pieces of hard wood in irregular shapes and Fig. 2078. planing smooth where the grain of lumber sets different ways on the same piece. With the adjustable top bed the machine forms a smooth plane for plane surfaces. With a side-joint- ing head it is adapted for squaring off the ends of hard wood pieces. Ra'di-a'tion Ther-mom'e-ter. One spe- cially adapted for marking the results of radiation from grass, and for ascertaining the direct heating powers of the rays of the sun. The former are termed terrestrial radial thermom- eters, and the latter solar radiation thermometers. The terrestrial instrument is a minimum spirit registering thermometer, with a forked tube taking the place of the bulb. It is graduated on its own tube, and inclosed in an outer glass jacket. When in use, it is supported with one end on a fork, and the bulb is placed resting on the grass. RADIATION THERMOMETER. 735 RAG BOILER. The solar instrument is a registering maximum thermometer, with its bulb blackened to facilitate the absorption of solar heat. The instrument is in- closed in a large outer glass tube from which all air has been removed, in order to prevent vitiation of the result, by the communication of its own heat by the air to the bulb. Ra'di-a'tor. A heating chamber or coil in an apartment. Various forms are shown in Figs. 4101-4104, p. 1853, "Mecli. Diet." Fig. 2079 shows a group of accessory parts. Fig. 2079. Radiator Attachments a. Radiator ell (or L). d. Cap. 6. Radiator socket. e. Separating piece. c. Radiator tee (or T). f. Ring packing. See also MANIFOLD ; RETURN BEND ; COIL Ra'di-o-graph. An instrument invented by Waistanley for the measurement and record of solar radiation. *" Engineering" xxx. 366. " Scientific American Supplement " .... 4081. "Scientific American'' xliii. 104. Ra'di-om'e-ter. An instrument invented by Mr. William Crookes for demonstrating the me- chanical action of light, and the conversion of radi- ation into motive power. According to Prof. Frankland, the movement is due to heat. The instrument consists of four arms of some light mate- rial, to the ends of which are fixed thin disks of pith with one side black and the other white, the black sides for the Fig. 2080. Radiometer four disks all facing the same way. These arms cross each other at right angles and are balanced at their center points on a hard steel point, a, resting on a jewel-cup, c, so that they may freely revolve in a horizontal plane. A thin glass globe, drawn out to a tube at the lower part so as to form a support, incloses the whole, and is exhausted to the greatest attainable vacuum and hermetically sealed. When this instrument is placed subject to the influence of light, the arms rotate with greater or less velocity directly in proportion to the intensity of the incident rays. _ Prof. Crooked "Lecture on Radiant Matter," British Asso- ciation for the advancement of Science. Sheffield Meeting Aug. 22, 1879. Queen, Phila. (20 Figs.), Br. (20 Figs.) . . Paper by Crooke Frankland Webster . Young . . Of. as a light measurer . " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 87. Principles of, Baldwin . * "Scientific American," xlii. 98. Barrett " Scientific American Sup..'' 1974. Crookes * "Engineering,'' xxv. 155, 195,253, 293. . * "'Engineer," xlviii. 170. . " Kiitfiiifrinx," xxviii. 165, 187. "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 313; xxxv. 23, 79, * 176, 242. . "Sr. Amer. Sup.," 408, 523, 582, 667,699,908,1187. "Scientific American Sup.," 809. "Scientific American Sup.," 1093. Ra'di-o-phoiie. A modification or applica- tion of the radiometer ; an instrument for the pro- duction of sound by radial energy. Ra'di-us Bar. A bar or pivoted link which permits any adjustment in which the link forms a radius. A bar or pivoted link which moves on a center at one end, and at the other is connected to an object to preserve its relative distance, and permit adjust- ment concentric to the object so connected ; i. e., any adjustment or motion relative to the said center while preserving the relative distance. See the parallel motion in the Cornish steam engine, Fig. 3548, p. 1630, "Mech. Diet." The hinged link is used in harvesting machines also. Ra'di-us Saw. A machine saw in which the circular saw is journaled on the end of a radial arm, pivoted below to a shaft, on which is placed the driving pulley. By a pedal or hand arrange- ment the saw is drawn forward so as to cross-cut the timber on the bench, and falls back by gravity when the work is done. Fig. 2081. Ransom's Radius Cross-cut Saw. It is a form of cross-cutting machine similar in duty, but not in construction, to the TRAVERSE SAW, Fig. 6626, p. 2619. "Mech. Diet." Ra-fa-elle Ware. (Ceramics.) A name given to Majolica owing to so many of Rafaelle's designs being found on that species of pottery. Raft. See Figs. 4105-4108, pp. 1854, 1855. Mech. Diet." Raft, Life, and Davits, Cramp . * "Engineering," xxii. 262. See also PORTABLE RAFT ; LIFE BOAT ; supra. Rag Boil'er. The rag-boiler is fixed or mov- able, heated by open fire or by steam ; is generally rotative, which gives a continual agitation to the contents. In the illustration, the boiler is spherical, turning on its axis. Water or steam is admitted at the ends for rinsing or boiling, as the case may be, and RAG BOILER, 736 RAG WASHER. Fig. 2082. Rag Boiler. at one end is the gearing for rotation, either to agi- tate the contents during the process while the cover is closed, or to discharge the contents into the tub when the operation is finished. The figure shows a spherical boiler, supported on hollow gudgeons, at which water and steam re- spectively are admitted. Elevated faucets at the right hand admit the alkaline solution or water, respectively. On the left are the steam valve and water- pipe, the latter for wash- ing out the tub. The process of boiling the paper material to make pulp, is for the purpose of disenga- ging the cellulose matter, and the details of the process, that is, the strength of the alkali, and the temperature and du- ration of the process, depend upon the character of the ma- terial under treatment, the object being to disengage the fiber, uninjured, from the cel- lulose and other matters which are associated with the fiber in the growing plant. The pec- tique principle which gives the parchment qualities which are found in some papers it is also desirable to preserve. Rag Knife. (Rag Engine.) One of the knives in the cylindrical cutter, operating against those in the bed, or bot- tom plate. See Fig. 4112, p. 1856, "Mech. Diet." Rag Loop'er. Used in splicing rags for rag- carpet. It loops them together without sewing. Both ends are impaled on the perforated knife and the end of the last attached piece rove through the hole in the knife and pulled taut. The knife is raised and as its lower end is a pair of prongs it allows the knotted strip to slip off. See Fig. 2083. Rag Pick'er. A shoddy machine for pulling to shreds woolen rags, stocking clip, hosiery, yarn, wool waste, old carpet, etc., and reducing them to cotton or wool staple, as the case may be. The material is fed from the table between a pair of rollers to the cylinder; this is 16" wide. Fig. 2083. Rag Looper. The face of the teeth is of steel and they are set in lags on the cylinder. The pressure on the feed roll- ers is adjusted by slipping the weights out or in upon the levers. The capacity is from 200 to 800 pounds per day, according to size. A lumping at- tachment throws out lumps and knots from the shoddy. See Fig. 2084. Rag Wash'er. A form of apparatus like the pulping machine in form and action, but differing from it in this, that, instead of having on the cyl- inder knives acting as shears against the blades of the concave beneath to cut the rags into fine shreds and eventually into pulp, the rag washer has a Fig. 2084. Rag Picker. cylinder with wooden or bronze bars which merely rub the material against a plate beneath, serving to disengage any dirt and traces of the coloring mat- ters or salts incident to the material or the remains of processes through which it has previously passed. In the center is the water supply ; on the left the cylinder case ; above is the gearing by which the cylinder shaft is raised or lowered so as to ad- just its position vertically. See Fig. 2085. BAG WHEEL. 737 RAILWAY. Fig. 2085. Rag Washer. Rag Wheel. (Add.) A polishing wheel made of disks of rags, rove upoii a mandrel and clamped tlu'reon. Such a wheel is from 4" to 8" diameter and runs at a speed of 7,000 per minute. For use on iron : use a polishing material of equal parts of Vienna lime, crocus, and beeswax. Boil these together, cool, cut into cakes. Dip a cake in oil and apply to the rag wheel occasionally. For brass, take crocus 2, wax 1, rouge | ; melt, mix, and apply as in the former case. For nickel, use rouge with water or oil. Rail Bor'er. A hand machine for boring the ivebs of rails for the passage of the bolts of fish-bars. Fig. 2086 shows a British form which is a substitute for the usual separate ratchet brace and drilling frame, both be- ing combined in one. Rail Borer. Rail Key. (Railway.) A wedge-piece driven in between the rail and its chair. Rail Ma-chin'er-y. Machines for rolling, bending, straightening, drilling, etc., railway rails. See the following references : Rail-bending machine. " Van Nostrand's ATog-.," xxi. 260. Schrabetz ..... "Iron Age," xxii., July 4, p. 19. Rail drilling machine. * "Engineering.'''' xxv. 383. Beland , ..... * "Engineer,'-' xlix. 412. Rail-paring machine. Landore Siemens Steel Works ..... * "Engineer,'' xlii. 25. . . Rail mill, Joliet Iron & , n Steel Co ..... * "Iron Age," xvii., Jan. 6, p. 1. Phila. & Reading Ry. * "Engineering,'' xxv. 147. Rails, rapid rolling . . "Scientific American, 1 '- xxxiv. 21. See also ROLLING MILL. Rail Shears. An application by Tweddel of the hydraulic power to cutting or squaring off the ends of rails. 47 It has one stationary and one movable abutment, the faces of which conform to the shape of the rail to be cut. It is used without the accumulator, which is usual with riveters, the complete plant consisting of a boiler, ram, and Fig. 2087. Tiotddett's Rail Shears. shears. The ram has a steam cylinder of relatively large diameter, the total pressure on which is imparted to a plunger of small diameter, producing a corresponding pres- sure on the water in the hydraulic cylinder. The machin- ery is entirely controlled by steam valves . Automatic cut-off gear is fitted to the steam cylinder so as to allow for expansion of the steam. This is effected by opening the tap at the point of cut-off required, and when the piston has passed the opening, the steam escapes through the tap, and closes a specially constructed throttle valve in the steam-inlet passage. Rail'way. History and development, pp. 1860 et seq., "Mech. Diet." See also the following references : Railways in China . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 710. In Japan ...... * " Sc. American Sup.,'' 691, 695. Peruvian, Meiggs ... * "Sc. American Sup." 1311, 1329. Rigi, Lucerne . . . . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 3897. In U. S., early .... "Iron Age."- xx., Oct. 18, p. 9. In U. S., 1877 ..... "Scientific American,' 1 ' xxxvi. 89. Vera Cruz, Mexico . . " Scientific American Sup.," 896. Vesuvius ..... "Iron Age,'-'' xxii., Oct. 17, p. 7. "Sc. Am.,'' xxxix. 327; xlii. 281, 309, 393. "Sc. Am Sup.," 373.5, 3 755) 3819. "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 114. VVetli mountain, Switz. Railways of the world. Stuermer ..... "Scientific American Sup.,' 1 421. Railway appliances at "Scientific American Sup.," 1988. "Iron Age," xix.. May 3, p. 11. "Scientific American,'' xxxvii. 37. "Scientific American," xli. 209. Phila., 1876, Gallon Car, bullet proof . . Cost of Derrick, Voruz, Paris, 1878 "Scientific American Sup.," 1989. Subst. for hand car. Noble ..... "Scientific American," xxxv. 79. Hitching while in mo- tion, Hanrez ... * "Scientific American Sup.," 4073. Iron, Kellogg $ Seaver "Min. Sc. Press," xxxviii. 163. " Scientifi Lighting . . . Metallic . . Sliding, Cox . . Spring propelled. Leveaux . . Steel .... Street . . . Two-story, Br. Velocipede . "Scientific American Sup.," 895. "Scientific American Sup.," 1811. "Scientific American Sup.," 772. ' "Scientific American," xliii. 70. ' "Scientific American Sup.," 740. ' "Scientific American Sup.," 596. hns, "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 101. "Scientific American Sup.," 2825. See Report on Railway Apparatus, Paris, 1878, by William A. Anderson; describes the Continental system of way and rolling stock. See "Paris Exposition (1878) Reports," vol. iv., p. 419, et seq. It contains the following illustrations : Page. First-class passenger car ; Western Railway of France 445 Austrian first-class passenger car .... 448 Austrian second-class passenger car .... 448 Austrian third-class passenger car .... 448 Austrian freight car . 44g Sleeping car ; Austrian State Railway '. . . 448 Decauville's tramway car 458, 459 RAILWAY. 738 RAILWAY APPARATUS, ETC. Crossing, Carey . . . *" Scientific American," xliii. 215. Early in U. S "Scientific Amer.," 1 xxxvii. 213. Elevated, N. Y. . . . "Scientific American Sup.," 2018. Field and military. Fell, Engl "Scientific American Sup.,'' 865. Travis * "Iron Age," xxiii., March 6, p. 1 Iron vs. wood, Weyers " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xvii. 525. Wood ...... * "Scientific American Sup. ," 1986. Track, Hall ... * "Scientific American " xl 98 Foster * "Am. R. R. Journal," lii. 591. Track sweeper, Olmstead "Railroad Gazette," xxi. 397. Underground, London . "Scientific American Sup,," 1793. Extension of London . * "Sc. American Sup.," 833, 886. Underground, Paris . . "Scientific American Sup.," 1971. Inspec. train, Penn. Ry. * "Railroad Gazette,'' xxi. 47. Interlocking signals and switches, Buel . . , * "Railroad Gazette," viii. 64,107. Bail joint, Acaster, Engl. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1988. * "Railroad Gazette,'' xxi. 371. Mead *" Scientific American,' 1 ' xxxiv. 22. Nicholl * "Sc. American," xxxvi, 358. Wheels, cast iron . . , "Scientific American Sup.," 490. The Vesitvian Railway has the double-rope system, a car traversing on each line of rails, one descending as the other ascends, mutually counterbalancing. Each carriage has two compartments each capable of holding 6 persons. The depot and engine arc at the bottom, and at an elevation of 810 meters above the sen, and 210 meters above the observatory. A carriage drive leads from the observatory to the railway. The angles of inclination are respectively 40, 63, and 50 in a hundred, at different parts of the ascent. The road is 800 meters long and terminates some distance short of the crater. The ascent is made in 7 minutes. Railway Elevations. A British journal gives the following as the highest elevations above the level of the sea, attained by any point on the railways named : Meters. Sandberg, Br. . . . * "Engineer," xlii. 325, 328, 340. Rail lock, Turl . . . * "Scientific American," xli. 118. Locomotive. See list on pp. 556-558, supra. Railway, military, Fell . " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' 1 xvi. 90. India "Iron Age,'' xvii. Jan. 20, p. 3. Haddan, Engl. . . . " Scientific American Sup.,'' 2084. Pioneer or military. Haddan, Eng. ". . . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2239. 10-inch Gage .... "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1668. Iron, Permanent way. Barlow. * Wood, * Potfl, * Hohenegger. * MacLellan, * T/wumen, * C. I. Borel Sleeper. Serres if Battie. Hilf. Black forest line .... 850 Harvey if Roe, Br. . * "Engineering," xxiii. 98. Newman * "Engineering," xxiii. 136. Mt. Cenis line 1,338 Liredey * "Engineering, xxiii. 164. Speilemann, Br. . . * "Engineering" xxvi. 242. Thomas, Br * "Engineering," xxiv. 135. Trevis iron, Br. . . * 'Engineer," 1. 183. Wood, iron, Br. . . * "Engineering,'' xxviii. 273. Wood, iron, 10 Figs., Br * "Engineer,'' xlv. 235. Northern Pacific 1,652 Union Pacific 2,513 Railway Speed. The following rates of regular train speed are given in the journals (fractions omitted) : BRITISH. " Flying Dutchman, " Great Western Railway, London to Exeter, 194 miles, with 4 stops, 4 hours 14 minutes ; 46 miles per hour. "Leeds Express," Great Northern Railway, London to Leeds, 187 miles, with 4 stops, 4 hours ; 47 miles per hour. 'Morning Express," Great Northern Railway, London to Edinburg, 395 miles, 9 hours ; 44 miles per hour. " Irish Mail," London and North Western Railway, 40 miles per hour. " Scotch Express, 1 ' Midland Railway, London to Glasgow, 425 miles ; 40 miles per hour. UNITED STATES. "Boston and New York Express," Boston and Albany Railroad, 234 miles, 6 hours, 12 stops ; 3" miles per hour. " San Francisco Express," Jersey City to San Francisco, (ending June 4, 1876), 83 hours ; 34 miles per hour. Jersey City to Pittsburg, 444 miles, 10 hours. See also LOCOMOTIVE, pp. 555, 556, supra. AVERAGE EXPRESS RATES. Per hour. Paris & Marseilles Express .... 66.3 kilometers Berlin & Cologne (Lelviter line) . . 60. kilometers. Spandan & Stendal (Lelviter line) . . 71.8 kilometers. Berlin & Magdeburg (Potsdam line) . 67.9 kilometers. Brandenburg & Magdeburg (Potsdam line) 69.15 kilometers. Pilot, Penn. Ry. ... * "Engineering," xxiv. 86. Portable, Bass . . . . * "Manuf. if Builder," viii. 32. Greig . . "Iron Age," xxiv., July 31, p. 1. Pioneer Works .... * 'Iron Age," xix., May 17, p. 1. Rack railings .... " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xxii. 9. Locomotives, Switz. . . * "Engineering," xxiii. 413. Agudio " Van Nostr. Mag.," xxiii. 230. Rail compound, Clark . "Iron Age," xviii., Oct. 19, p. 9. Rails, wear of . . . . * "Railroad Gazette,-'' xxi. 121. Tests of, Dudley . . * "Railroad Gazette,'- xxiii. 26. Rail sections, standard, Sandberg * "Railroad Gazette,'' xxiv. 327. Fish plate, etc., standard * "Railroad Gazette." xxiii. 643. Rail, Sutton . . . . * "Scientific American," xxxv. 35. Vaughn * "Scientific American," xlii. 296. Life of steel rails. Williams "Scientific American Sup.,'' 517. Railway resistances. Shinez Dudley . . "Scientific American Sup.," 541. Rolling stock, Paris, Lyons Sf Med. Ry. . * "Engineering,' 1 ' xxvii. 46. Penn. Railway ... * "Engineering," xxiv. 338. Single Rail, Stone . . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 511. Single track .... "Scientific American,'" xxxv. 402. Speed ... . . "Sc Amer " xxxiv. 354,393, 408; xxxv. 340. N. Y. &Phila. . . . "Sc. American," xxxix. 180. "Scientific American Sup.," 436. Splice * "Railroad Gazette," xxii. 410. Standard section. Raising a railway station. Chepstow, Engl. . . "Scientific American Sup.," 1668. Rail for streets. Aldrtd !( Spielmann . "Engineer," xlvi. 223. Beloe, Br * "Engineer," xlvi. 315. Edge, Br * "Engineer," xlvi. 341. Railway, street, Aldred Spiflmann, Br. . * "Engineer," xlvi. 21. Vignoles, Br. ... * "Engineering," xxvii. 265. Switch, Carey .... * "Scientific American," xliii. 214. Railway Term. (" North- ern "& France). . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 631. Ties, iron . . . * Blake's "Report Vienna Erp ," Great Western, Br 53 miles. London & Northwestern, Br. ... 47 miles. London, 'Chatham & Dover, Br. . . 45 miles. London & Southwestern. Br 44 miles. Refer to " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xxi. 439. "Scientific American," xli. 115, 119, 2G6, 277. "Sc. American Sup.," 3820, 3821. Rail'way Ap'pa-ra'tus, Ruii'niiig Stock, and Parts. See under the following heads : Air brake. Air pump. Air cylinder. Air strainer. Air gage. Anthracite furnace. iv. 66, 67. "Iron Age," xxi., Jan. 31, p. 20. "Iron Age," xix., April 19, p. 1. Preserving .... "Scientific American Sup.," 1146. Reese * "Scientific American," xli. 83. Iron, Schofield . . . * "Scientific American, " xliii. 101. KAILWAY APPARATUS, ETC. 739 RAILWAY APPARATUS, ETC. Ash pan. Compromise wheel. Grated door. Pony tank-locomotive. Atmospheric brake. Conductor's car. Gravel car. Portable railway. Automatic air-brake. Conductor's valve. Grease box. Portable-road locomotive. Automatic car-brake. Consolidation locomotive. Group spring. Post-office car. Automatic ventilator. Continuous brake. Guide. Prismoidal rail Axle. Couplet. Guide yoke. Pull iron. Axle box. Coupling. Gum spring. Push car. Axle box guides. Coupling bar. Half-round-bar spiral spring. Quadruple-coil spring. Axle collar. Coupling case. Hand car. Quadruplet. Axle frame. Coupling chain Hand strap. Quieting chamber. Axle packing. Coupling hook. Hand wheel. Quieting nozzle. Axle scat. Coupling hose. Hauling engine. Quintuplet. Axle stop-key. Coupling link. Hav car. Rack car. Hack-truck locomotive. Coupling pin. Head light. Rack railway. Haggage car. Coupling valve. Head lining. Radial axle box. Basket rack. Cradle. Heater cock. Rail. Bathing car. Crank pin. Helper ring. Rail chair. Bell cord. Cremating car. Hibbard spring. Rail key. Bell ringer. Cross-head. Horlge brake. Rail splice. Bell rope. Cross-tie. Hollow spoke wheel. Railway. Bell strap. Crown arch. Hood. Railway brake. Block signal system. Crown bar. Horn block. Railway car. Block system. Cushioned axle. Horns. Railway car brake. Boarding car. Cylinder. Horse ear. Railway crossing. Bob-tail car. Cylinder car. Hotel car. Railway gage. Bogie. Dash-guard. House car. Railway gate. Boiler. Dead-blocks. Housing box. Railway signal. Bolster spring. Dead-lock. Hub bolt. Railway speed. Bonnet. Dead weight. Hydraulic railway brake. Railway switch. l!i ix car. Derrick car. Ice car. Railway tie. Box cattle car. Diamond truck. Inclined-plane car. Railway track bolt. Box packing. Door apron. Independent car-wheel. Railway velocipede. Brake. Door guard. Independent track. Raised roof. Brake beam. Door strap. India-rubber spring. Reducing valve. Brake cylinder. Double-coil spring. Injector. Refrigerating car, Brake hose. Double-deck car. Inner-hung brake. Releasing lever. Brake hose coupling ralve. Double-ender locomotive. Inspection car. Restaurant car. Brake lever. Double-plate wheel. Intermediate floor Retaining ring. Brake pipe. Double-truck locomotive. Iron wheel. Reversible seat. Brake rod. Draw-bar. Janney coupler. Reversible street-car, Brake rubber. Draw-clevis. Jet valve. Reversing cylinder, Brake shoe. Draw-gear. Joint splice. Road locomotive. Brake shoe valve. Draw-hook. Journal bearing key. Rocker. Break-down van. Drawing-room car. Journal box. Rod. Broad-tread wheel. Draw-rod. Journal box cover. Roof-apron. Buffer. Draw-spring. Journal packing. Roofing canvas. Cab. Drilling. Journal spring. Roof light. Caliin car. Driver brake. Key-shaped spiral spring Roof step. Calile carrier. Driving-wheel. King-bolt plate. Round-bar spiral spring. Cannon car. Driving-wheel brake. Lamp jack. Rubber spring. Car. Car axle. Drop-and-transfer table Drop bottom. Lazy cock. Leaden seal. Rubber-center spiral spring. Rubber-center spring. Car brake. Dummy car. Leakage valve. Running board. 1 1 pier. Dump car. Lever hand-car. Safety chain. Car-door hanger. Dumping wagon. Life. Safety hanger. Car heater. Dust collar. Locomotive. Safety link. Car load. Dust guard. Locomotive crane. Sand brake. Car platform. Edge-rolled spring. Locomotive cup. Seal hook. Car pusher. Ejector. Lodging car. Seal lock. Car runner. Elastic wheel. Log railway. Seal press Car seal. Elder brake. Mail car. Seal wire. Car signal. Electric railway. Mail catcher. Seat lock. Car spring. Elevated railway. Main frame. Ship railway. Car transfer truck. Equal-bar nest spring. Milk car. Shunt. Car truck. Equalizing bar. Mine car. Shunting engine. Car truck shifter. Equipment. Mine car wheel. Side bearing. Car unloading plow. Exhaust nozzle. Mine locomotive. Single-coil spring. Car ventilator. Express car. Mogul locomotive. Single-plate car-wheel. ling machine. Face plate. Monitor car. Single-plate street-car wheel Car wheel. Faggoted axle. Muley axle. Single-rail railway. Cattle car. Feed. Multicoil spring. Slack-burning locomotive. Center bearing. Fender board. Narrow gage. Sleeper. Center draft draw bar. Ferry push-car. Narrow gage locomotive. Sleeping car. Center pin. Finish. Nest spring. Sliding-door lock. ('enter plate. Fireless locomotive. Oil box. Smoke-stack. Centripetal railway. First-class car. Oil car. Snow flanger. (.'hating plate. Flat bar spiral spring. Oil cellar. Snow plow. Cheek chain. Flat. car. One-legged railway. Snow scraper. Check valve. Flexible wheel-base. One-rail railway. Spark arrester. Cleaning hole. Floating lever. Open-plate wheel. Spark ejector. clear story. Flume car. Ore car. Spark netting. Clip chair. Fourway cock. Outer hung brake Spiral spring. Cluster spring. Frame. Paper wheel. Splice joint. Clutch coupling. Freight car. Passenger car. Spoke wheel. Coach. Freight truck. Pedestal. Spool-shaped spiral spring. Coal car. Front rail. Permanent way. Spring. Coal-dust-burning locomo- Furnace. Petticoat pipe. Spring-beam. tive. Furniture. Pilot. Spring block, Combination spring. Gage. Piston. Spring case. Combined car. Geared locomotive. Plate wheel. Spring plank. Compound locomotive. Gondola car. Platform. Spring saddle. Compound spring. Graduated spring. Pneumatic dispatch. Spring stud. Compressed air brake. Compressed air locomotive. Grain car. Grain door. Pneumatic tube. Pneumatic tubular dispatch. Square-bar spiral spring. Stake. Compressed air rail-car. Grate. Pole railway. Stake hook. RAILWAY APPARATUS, ETC. 740 RAILWAY CAR BRAKE. Stake pocket. Stake rest. Stake sleeve. Stanchion. Standard gage. Starting valve. Steam gong. Steam sled. Steam street-car. Steam valve. Steeled wheel. Steel-tired car-wheel. Steel wheel. Stock car. Stop plate. Stove-pipe jack. Stove-pipe ring. Street-car. Street-car locomotive. Swing-motion gear. Switch. Switch chair. Switching eye. Tail lamp. Tandem engine. Tank. Tank car. Tank dome. Tank locomotive. Telescopic tank car. Tender. Tender hose. Tie. Tip car. Tire. Tool box. Tool car. Towing. Towing locomotive. Track bolt. Track laying machine. Track laying tools. Track lifter. Track sweeper. Traction engine. Trailing-tank locomotive. Train brake. Train car. Tramway. Tramway locomotive. Transfer table. Traverser. Triple-coil spring. Triplet. Triplet spring. Triple valve. Truck. Truck bolster. Truck frame. Truck side bearing. Tube. Turntable. Twin locomotive. Undergear. Underground railway. Vacuum brake. Valve motion. Ventilator deflector. Ventilator hood. Volute spring. Waist. Warming valve. Washburn wheel. Washer. Water crane. Water supply for locomotives. Way. Wheel. Wheel box. Wheel center. Wheel flange. Wheel flange lubricator, Wheel plate. Wheel rib. Wheel seat. Wheel tread. Whistle. Wicket. Wide gage. Window opener. Wire rope conveyor. Wire tramway. Wooden rail. Wool-packed spiral spring. Wrought-iron wheel. Rail'way Bridge. See BRIDGE, supra, pp. 132-134, where are numerous references to railway bridges in different parts of the world, and tables of relative dimensions. See also list under BRIDGE, "Mech. Diet." See also the following references : Howe. Ashtabula . . Blackwell's Isl., E. River Lay span, paper by T. C. Clark Key, River Louisville Poughkeepsie .... " Scientific American Sttp. "Scientific American Sup. Sarpsfos, Norway, C.Phil Tay, Tests of .... Tay, Scotland . . . . River Tay "Scientific American Sup.. * "Scientific American Sup.. * "Scientific American Sup. * "Scientific American Sup., "Scientific American Sup.. * "Scientific American Sup.. " Scientific American Sup.. * "Scientific American Sup., * "Scientific American Sup.. " 895. ' ; 1876. " 2095. " 1044. " 866. 1043. 1794. " 1934. " 1877. " 1042. " 2107. Rail'way Car Brake. A means for bringing friction upon the wheels of a car to restrain rotation and slacken tbe speed of or stop the train. The subject is considered under AIR BRAKE ; CAR BRAKE ; PNEUMATIC BRAKE ; etc., "Mech. Diet." See references under RAILWAY BRAKE, p. 1862. Ibid. The Westinghouse automatic brake is shown in Plates XLL, XLIL, which, taken together, illus- trate the consecutive portions of the apparatus, The plates also show side and end elevations of a locomotive with apparatus attached, and a view of the under side of a part of a locomotive and tender, similarly furnished. The Westinghouse automatic brake consists of the following essential parts : The steam engine and air-pump, which produce the com- pressed air. These are shown to the right hand in Plate XLII., the steam engine above and the air-pump below ; the pistons and rods in line. The main reservoir, in which the compressed air is stored. The engineer's brake-valve, which regulates the flow of air from the main reservoir into the brake-pipe for releasing the brakes, and from the brake-pipe to the atmosphere for apply- ing the brakes. The main brake-pipe, which leads from the main reservoir to the eng-ineer's brake-valve, and thence along the train, supplying the apparatus on each vehicle with air. The auxiliary reservoir, which takes a supply of air from the main reservoir, through the brake-pipe, and stores it for use on its own vehicle. The brake-cylinder, which has its piston-rod attached to the brake-levers in such a manner that, when the piston is forced out by air pressure, the brakes are applied. The triple valve, which connects the brake-pipe to the aux- iliary reservoir, and connects the latter to the brake-cylinder and is operated by a sudden variation of pressure in the brake- pipe, (1) so as to admit air from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake-cylinder, which applies the brakes, at the same time cutting off the communication from the brake-pipe to the auxiliary reservoir, or (2), to restore the supply from the brake-pipe to the auxiliary reservoir, at the same time let- ting the air in the brake-cylinder escape, which releases the brakes. The couplings, which are attached to flexible hose, and connect the brake-pipe from one vehicle to another. The automatic action of the brake is due to the construc- tion of the triple valve, the primary parts of which are a pis- ton and a slide-valve. A reduction of pressure in the brake- pipe causes the excess of pressure in the auxiliary reservoir to force the piston of the triple valve down, moving the slide-valve so as to allow the air in the auxiliary reservoir to pass directly into the brake-cylinder and apply the brakes. When the pressure in the brake-pipe is again increased above that in the auxiliary reservoir, the piston is forced up, mov- ing the slide-valve to its former position, opening communi- cation from the brake-pipe to ^the auxiliary reservoir, and permitting the air in the brake-cylinder to escape, thus re- leasing the brakes. Thus it will be seen that any reduction of pressure in the brake-pipe applies the brakes, which is the essential feature of the automatic brake. If the engineer wishes to apply the brakes, he moves the handle of the engineer's brake- valve to the right, which first closes a valve retaining the pressure in the main reservoir, and then permits a portion of the air in the brake-pipe to escape. To release the brakes, he turns the handle to its former position, which allows the air in the main reservoir to flow into the brake-pipe, restoring the pres- sure and releasing the brakes. A valve, called the conduc- tor's valve, is placed in each car, with a cord running the length of the car, and any of the train-men, by pulling this cord, can open the valve, which allows the air to escape from the brake-pipe. Should the train break in two, the air in the brake-pipe escapes, and the brakes are applied to both sec- tions of the train ; and should a hose or pipe burst, the brakes are also automatically applied. The gage shows the pressure in the main reservoir and brake-pipe when they are connected, and the pressure in the brake-pipe alone when the main reservoir is shut off by the movement of the engineer's brake-valve. A non-automatic brake cannot be made to work satisfac- torily upon more than from 10 to 12 cars, while it is possible to work trains of 50 cars with the automatic brake without difficulty. AVith the non-automatic brake the air is stored upon the engine and transmitted back through the pipe, and consequently there is a loss of time both in putting on and taking off the brakes. With the automatic brake, the air is stored upon each car ready for use, and this supply is readily brought into action by a slight reduction of pressure in the main pipe, which reduction requires the movement of but a trifling quantity of air as compared with that used for set- ting a non-automatic brake. A modification of the axitomatic car brake adapts it spe- cially to freight cars. The operation is the same, but the triple-valve, brake-cylinder, and reservoir are bolted to- gether and avoid the pipe connections. The following brakes are described and illustrated in For- ney's "Car-builder's Dictionary." Tyler, lever. Creamer, lever. Hodge, lever. Smith, vacuum. Stevens, lever. Eames, vacuum. Tanner, lever. Westinghouse, automatic air-brake. Capt. Douglas Galton : s report, "Centennial Exhibition Reports,'' vol. vi., Group XVIII., p. 34, describes early de- vices and notices of continuous brakes : Westinghouse. Goodale. Henderson. Smith. Achard, electric, Fr. . . * "Engineering," xxiv. 395. * " Telegraphic Journal,'' vi. 327. "Railroad Gazette,'' 1 xxiv. 690. Barker, hydraulic, Gt. * "Engineer,'- xlvii. 409. Eastern Ry., Br. . . * "Telegraphic Journal,'' vi. 301. Becker, automatic Austria* "Engineer,"' xlv. 73. * "Railroad Gazette,'' xxii. 76. Clark $ Webb .... " Telegraphic Journal,'' vi. 300. Congdon Brake shoe . * "Railroad Gazette,'' xxi. 398. PLATS XLI. WESTINGHOUSB AUTOMATIC BRAKE. (CAR ATTACHMENTS.) See page 740. Tin IT AlRfUMf PLATE XLII. WESTINQIIODSE AUTOMATIC BRAKE. (LOCOMOTIVE ATTACHMENTS.) See page 740, RAIN-WATER STOP. 742 RATTLE BARREL. washed before turning the water into the cistern. Fig. 1572, p. 667, " Mech. Diet." 2. A three-way cock, as the divarication of a pipe which has branches leading to the cistern and well respectively. Raised Roof. A clear-story car roof. Rais'ing Ves'sels. See pp. 1874, 1875, "Mech. Diet." Air bags for, "Engi- neering" " Van Npftrand's Mag.,'' xiv. 122. "Edith,' 1 * "Scientific American Sup.," 1729. Tassey *" Scientific American Sup.," 690. "Vanguard" .... "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1089. Rake. See HAY RAKE, supra, and Figs. 4152- 4158, pp. 1876, 1877, "Mech. Did." Ram. 1. (Hydraulic.) Seepage 1150, "Mech. Diet." Ram, hydraulic ... * "Eng. If Min. Jour.," xxvi. 294. Bams for rural water works, Hett, Br. . . * "Engineer," 1. 174. Montgolfier, Jones . . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2463. 2. (Naval.) See page 1878, "Mech. Diet." Ra'mie Ma-chin'e-ry. Machinery for decor- ticating and reducing the rhea fiber or China grass; better known by its Malay name, ramie: the Bceh- meria nivea of the botanists. It is the material of China-grass cloths. Falconer ; Hooker. Shown in various stages of manufacture at the London Exhibition of 1851. See Report of Group VIII. , " Centennial Exhibition (Phila.) Reports," 1876, pp. 4, 5. Ramie mach., Favier Leger Jute, Loclcert . . . Ramie fibre .... Machines, Bouchard Coleman .... Lefranc $ Nagoua Bouchard .... Manufacture . . See also RHEA FIBER. "Technologiste," xli. 76. " Technologiste," xxxiv. 117. "Technologiste," xli. 171. "Scientific American Sup.," 1483. 'Min. Sc. Press." xxxyi. 3. 'Sc. American,'' xxxviii. 72. 'Scientific American," xl. 345. Rand Breast'ing Ma-chine'. A guillotine knife operated by treadle to trim the front face or breast of heel rands. See RAND, page 1879, "Mech. Diet." R a n ' d o m Stone Work. (Masonry.) Flat Fig. 2090. stone not laid in courses ; differing in this respect I 1 ^J from RANGE WORK, which see. Range Find'er. An ir distances by sight. See DISTANCE MEASURER, p. 2 6255, 6256, pp. 2513, 2514, "Meet Random Stone Work. strument for measuring 62, supra ; TELEMETER, Figs, i. Diet." 'infer," xlii. 109. ntific American," xxxvii. 20. American Sup.," 884, 2777. ineer," xlvii. 212. 'ineer," xliii. 179. Nostr. Mag.," xxiii. 437. ntific American Sup.," 1555. ntific American," xxxvi. 22. Fig. 2091. 'Scit * 'Sc. * 'Eng Lieut. Edwards ..." Van Watkins * 'Scit ' Scit See report on Range finders, "Ordnance Report," 1879, Ap- pendix X. , p. 373, et seq. , with 6 plates. Including Watkins'' range finder, p. 373, Plate I. Berdan telemeter, p. 3.9, Plate II. Berdan telemeter (improved) p. 384, Plate III. Nolan's range finder, p. 385, Plates IV.-VI. Range Stone Work. laid in courses. 1 III I I ' ' 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Range Stone Work. (Masonry.) Stonework' Range Work may have courses of different thick- nesses, but the level joint is preserved. In Broken range work the uniformity Fi - 2092 - is occasionally broken by thicker stones, as in Fig. 2092. Range work, -whether of squared stones, or of ashlar, is usually backed up with rubble masonry, which in such cases is specified as coursed rub- ble. -1-rJ Broken Range Stone Work. Ran'ging Rod. (Surveying.) The rod of the chain-man, which is held vertical while being ob- served by the transit-man. Heller's self-plumbing ranging rod, for transit field work, is described in * " Manufacturer r, in the case of shot-guns, the number of 48 pellets of a given size, which strike a target of a given area, the piece being at a stated distance. A Fig. 2124. Fig. 2125. Rest for Bevel-cutting with Band-saw. certificate of the firing of each barrel is furnished with all first-class guns. 2. A support or a guide for stuff fed to a saw. Re-tain'ing Ring. (Railway.) A metallic ring which secures the wheel-center to the tire. Re-tain'ing Valve. A check- valve, to prevent reflux of water or steam. Placed sometimes at the bottom of a pump-stock to prevent water leaving during cessation of pumping. Fig. 2125 shows a retain- ing valve for deep well-pumps. Fig. 2126 shows the position of a retaining p oot Valve of valve placed near to the air-vessel of a -Pump. heavy pumping engine to prevent any water leaking back through the pumps when the engine is stopped. It also admits of the pumps being examined without emp- tying the up-take. Fig. 2126, Retaining Valve in relation to Delivery Pipe. Re-tort'. Retorts for the laboratory, gas works, mercury distillation, for silver amalgam, and dis- RETORT. 754 REVERSING ENGINE, tillation of acids are mentioned in *pp. 1924, 1925, "Meek. Diet." Fig. 2127 is an illustration of a self-sealing gas retort for gas works. The lid is secured by a central screw plug to a Fig. 2127. Self-sealing Retort Lid. hinged frame, which also carries a latch-bar. The lid being swung shut and latched, the screw plug is rotated by the lever handle to tighten the closure of the lid and prevent leakage of gas. Furnace . . , . . 'Am. Man.," Sept. 12,1879, p. 12. Price * 'Eng. $ Min. Jour.," xxi. 156. Self -sealing lid, Collinson * Retort settings . * Retort setting, gas . . * Retort stoking machinery. Rowland, Br. Fig. 2128. 'Am. Gas Light Jour.,'" July 3. 1876, p. 14. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 1551. 'Scientific American Sup.," 678. 'Engineering,'" xxiv. 182. Retorts, vertical, distilling shale, Rennie, Britain * "Scientific American Sup.," 904. Re-touch'ing Frame. A desk with pane on which a neg- ative or positive is placed and viewed by transmitted light in order to repair defects, soften shad- ows, etc. The pane A has a ground-glass shade, B, and a mirror, c. The stand D has drawers for pencils, paint, and brushes. E is a sliding-board as a hand-rest. Retouching Frame. * "Scientific American' 9 ...... xxxvi. 226. " Scientific American Sup.' 2211. Fig. 2129 Radiator for Wall, with. Return Bends and Coil Plates. Return Bends. a. Side-outlet return bend. 6. Back-outlet return bend. c. Square return bend. d. Ordinary return bend Return Valve. Re-turn' Bend. A U-shaped pipe coupling for uniting the ends of pipes. It may be open or closed ; in the former the branches being some dis- tance apart, as in the letter U. See Fig. 2129. Re- turn' Fig. 2130. Valve. A valve in a main or pipe having two func- tions ; one as a re- flux or back-pres- sure valve to pre- vent the return of the contents of the pipe ; the other con- dition is when the valve is raised by the screw spindle to allow the re-flow of the contents. Also called an end valve. See also REFLUX VALVE, supra. Re-ver'ber-a- to-ry. A furnace with domed ceiling which reflects the flame and heat downward upon the metal on the hearth. See Fig. 4283-4286, pp. 1926, 1927, "Mech. Diet." * Laboul 1722. "Mech. i)i'ci.," p. 1935. Rib. (Add.) 1. (Fire-arm.) One of the plates above and below, which connect the two tubes, forming the double barrel. Ribbed Boil'er. One with corrugations or projecting ribs to add to the surface exposed to the fire. Used for greenhouse boilers. Rib Fab'ric Ma-chine'. A knitting machine adapted to make the rib stitch. It has peculiar ad- justments in the power and hand machines, and in some has various capabilities, for making polka rib, one-and-one rib, etc. See description by Mr. G. W. Gregory, "Centennial Exhi- bition Reports," Group XXII., vol. vii., pp. 53-59. Rib Shears. (Surgical.) See COSTOTOME. Rib'-top Ma-chine'. A knitting machine adapted to make rib-tops of hosiery ; with, in some cases, an adaptation to make broad-rib hose through- out. One by Gisuson and Coltman, of Leicester, England, was shown at the Centennial, capable of making from 200 to 250 dozen pairs of tops per week of 60 hours. It is arranged to make rib tops with welt and slack course, and is fitted with three carriers ; also a pattern wheel, which can be altered at pleasure to make any pattern. The length of top can be varied as desired, and the self-acting winding tackle for receiving the work is as effective as it is simple, only requiring the work of a few moments to take off the fab- ric and proceed with further productions. This machine can be changed in action, whilst running, to make the royal rib stitch; it will also make the two-and-one rib socks, with welt ; it can be worked by steam or by hand. A dial indi- cating the amount of work done is supplied. When making broad-rib hose a cylinder pattern wheel is fitted, and this is so adapted that the patterns can be varied through the whole length of hose. It will make 36 dozen pairs of hose legs in the week of 60 hours. Rice Drill. A force-feed machine for drilling rice. See GRAIN DRILL. WHEAT DRILL, "Mech. Diet." Rice machinery . . . Huller Decorticator, Coromandel "Scientific Amer.," 1 xxxvii. 137. "Scientific American Sup.," 1510. " Technologiste '' xli. 364. RIDGE HARROW. 757 RIFLE. Ridge Har'row. (Agric.) One hinged lon- gitudinally so as to be capable of lapping upon the sides of a ridge over which it passes. Fig. 1318, p. 440, supra. Riepe Steel. (Metallurgy.) Steel made by a process of adding to a bath of pig-iron in a rever- beratory, iron-slag, salt, clay, and oxide of man- ganese. The iron is worked below the scum and rolled into balls for the shingler. Riffle Blocks. (^ fining.) Wooden blocks set on end in a sluice with interstices for catching gold. Ri'fle. A fire-arm with barrel grooved spirally to give a rotation on its axis to the projectile. See history, pp. 1939-1943, "Meek. Diet.," and illustrations of * Sharps. * Maynard. * Creedmoor rifle range. See also FIRE-ARM, pp. 850-860, where are illustrations of Martini. Prussian needle gun. Merrill. Laidley. Snider. Peabody. Allen. Sharps. Chassepot. Maynard. Spencer. Berdan. See also REVOLVER. Richards. Roberts. Hall. Burnside. Puckles. Elliot. Springfield. Ward-Burton. Remington. Dodge. Swiss. Winchester. Fig. 2136 shows Stevens' plan for converting a shot-gun to a rifle by slipping a rifle barrel into that of the shot-gun. Fig. 2136. Hf. Converting Shot-gun to Rifle. Fig. 1 is a perspective view. Fig. 2 is a longitudinal section. Fig. 3 shows the breech of the rifle (enlarged). The rifle-barrel B slips into the rear end of the shot-gun barrel A, the flange formed on the end of it occupying the recess made in the shot-gun barrel for the reception of the Hange of the cartridge. The rifle barrel has a longitudinal recess for receiving the slide D on which is pivoted a lever E having at its rear end a short projection, o, extending in- ward. After the discharge the barrel of the gun is tilted down and the extractor starts the rifle barrel out of the shot gun barrel ; this operation moves the glide Z> slightly, and starts the cartridge shell. Should this prove insufficient the rifle barrel is drawn out far enough to admit of raising the lever E, which operation moves the slide D and ejects the shell. Statement of the number of machines, fixtures, small tools, and gages- necessary for the manufac- ture of 200 Springfield rifles per day of 10 hours : Names of Parts of Rifle. Barrel. Cam latch. Receiver. Thumb piece. Breech screw. Firing-pin. Breech block. Extractor. Breech-block cap. Extractor spring spindle. Cap with 2 rivets. 23 screws for parts. 5 springs. 2 pins. 2 studs. 2 washers. Stock. Lock plate. Hammer. Main spring. Sear. Sear spring. Main-spring swivel. Tumbler. Bridle. Hinge pin. Bayonet. Bayonet clasp. Cost. Guard plate. Guard bow. Trigger. Butt plate. Lower bands. Upper bands. Lower band-springs. Upper band-springs. Upper band swivel. Guard bow-swivel. Ramrod. Ramrod stop. Tip. Fronfc sight. Rear-sight base. Kear-sight spring. Rear-sight leaf. Rear-sight cap. 37 machines for making the stock 81 machines for making the barrel 54,000 51 machines for making the receiver 23,500 17 machines for making the breech screw .... 6,600 37 machines for making the breech block .... 13,100 5 machines for making the breech-block cap . . . 1,800 12 machines for making the cam latch 5,600 10 machines for making the thumb piece .... 3,800 3 machines for making the firing pin 1,060 9 machines for making the extractor 2,950 1 machine for making the extractor spring spindle 425 14 machines for making the guard plate .... 4,800 9 machines for making the guard bow 2,900 11 machines for making the trigger 3,600 13 machines for making the butt plate 5,400 10 machines for making the upper and lower bands 5,300 10 machines for making the upper and lower springs 3,300 10 machines for making the upperand lower swivels 3,000 7 machines for making the ramrod 2,570 8 machines for making the ramrod stop .... 2,735 5 machines for making the tip 1,535 4 machines for making the front sight 1,565 18 machines for making the rear sight base, and spring 6,650 34 machines for making the rear-sight leaf, cap, and pins 15,070 15 machines for making the lock plate 6,100 16 machines for making the hammer 5,800 12 machines for making the main spring .... 3,490 8 machines for making the sear 2,750 7 machines for making the sear spring .... 2,050 4 machines for making the main-spring swivel . . 1,225 12 machines for making the tumbler 4,500 8 machines for making the bridle 2,730 4 machines for making the hinge-pin 1,300 46 machines for making the bayonet 19,575 8 machines for making the bayonet clasp . . . 3,370 13 machines for making screws, pins, and studs . . 6,120 18 polishing machines, stands, wheels, etc. . . . 2,200 51 forging machines, drop hammers, and presses . 39,000 2 sets of forging dies 22,000 18 water-front forges 2,700 4 annealing furnaces 1,600 2 hardening furnaces 1,000 2 blowers (fan blowers) 400 2 sets of gages, 1 working and 1 inspection set . . 45,000 1 set of fixtures and 2 sets of small tools . . . 115,000 32 machines for tool-making, repairing, etc. . . 13,600 696 Total for machines, tools, and gages . . $532,770 For running the above machines and tools it would require a condensing engine of 32" X 60", 300 horse-power ; 4 tubu- lar boilers, 16' X S 7 ; 2 tubular boilers, 16' X 5', reserve. Cost about $25,000. Floor-space occupied by using all above machines, tools, etc., 125,000 square feet. Compiled for this work by C. J. EHBETS, of Hartford, Conn. Breech loading, Me Alpine * Browne & Sharpe, Shops * Greener, Br * Hair-trigger, Leonard . * Hammerless .... * Hammerless, Greener, Br. * Martini-Henry . . . Military * Military, French service. Gras * Needle, Fieri . . . . * * Repeating, French Repeating, French navy (20 Figs.) a treu. 1J "Scientific American,'- xxxv. 325. Fig. 1298, p. 402, supr<:. Fig. 1028, p. 335, supra. "Engineer," xlv. 334. engineer, xiv. tso*. ' "Scientific American Sup.," 2086. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xx. 449. ' "Engineer," xlvii. 223. RIFLE. 758 RING SAW. Revolver See infra. Rifling cannon, on Zalinski . . . . "Scientific American Sup.,- 410. Shot-gun See infra. Soper, Ger * "Engineer," xlv. 36, 46. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1825. Steyer, Austria. . "Iron Age," 1 xxiv., Sept. 18, p. 15. Whitwort/i . , . . " Van Nostrand' s Mag.," xiv. 199. "Report of Chief of Ordnance U. S. Army,' 1 ' 1877, has de- scriptions and drawings of the following foreign small arms. See Appendix L : Werndl Figs. 101, 102, pp. 537-570. Tnbatiere Fig. 9J, p. 558. Snifter Fig. 92, p. 558. Kntka Fig. 93, p. 558. Albini-Branrflin . . . Fig. 94, p. 559. Martini-Henry . . . Figs. 9/ to 97 w, p. 560. Werder Figs. 100 to lOOp, p. 568. Turwiirl/i Fig. 104, p. 572. Vetterlin Fig. 105, p. 573. Manser Fig. 106, p. -575. Chassepot Fig. 107, p. 577. Rtissian Fig. 108, p. 580. See also BREECH LOADER ; MAGAZINE GUN ; HAMMERLESS GUN : NEEDLE GUN ; REVOLVER, etc. Ri'fling Ma-chine'. A machine for making the spiral grooves in the barrels of guns. As used in the U. S. armories it is a machine in which the barrel is firmly held while a mandrel carrying a cutting tooth is drawn through it, the mandrel making one and a half rev- olutions (luring its passage through the barrel. The barrel makes a third of a revolution between each cut, anil the result is a barrel with three grooves and three lands. The groover is worked automatically, expanding to make the groove deeper as it repeats the cut in the same place, until the groove is deep enough. The barrel is drenched with oil all the time. The Pratt & Whitney rifling machine gives from one turn to the grooves in 20" to one in 36". The cutter-rod carries from 1 to 3 cutters, as the rifling is 4, 5, or 6 to the circum- ference. An adjustable feed-stop gages the depth of the rifling, and the racks, which are of steel, are double, to take up all back-lash, so that the cutters cannot ride on the lands. An oil-pump feeds automatically at each end of the stroke. The carriage is gibbed on the" outside of the long slide, allowing free access to its working parts. Rig'ging Cut'ter. An apparatus invented to cut the rigging of sunken vessels as a means of re- moving the masts, etc., which form an impediment to navigation. " Grosser Kurfurst" . . * "Engineer,'' xlviii. 375. Fig. 2137. Rig'ger Screw. A clamp for setting u p shrouds and stays, one portion being made fast, the part to be hauled taut is lashed to the other, and the parts then approached by means of the screw. Rig'ging Stop'per. (Nautical.) A hold -fast or preventer-rope acting as substitute when a s h r o IT d or stay is shot away or stranded in a gale. It may have a knot and laniard at each end, or dead-eyes and tails. Right-and-Left Coup'ling. A turn- buckle. The link having right-and-left nuts at ei- ther end, rods inserted are drawn together or apart by rotation of the link. See TURN-BUCKLI:, " Mech. Diet." Right'an-gle Prism. ment to the microscope stand for throwing light upon an object. It is rotatable on its horizontal Rigger Screw. Fig. 1694, p. 2659, (Optics.) An attach- Fig. 2138. Achromatic Right-angle Prism. axis, and also on a vertical axis, in order to direct the light in the requisite direction. Rig'id Sus-pen'sioii Bridge. A bridge with catenary suspension members, of such form and so braced as to form an unyielding truss. See Paper by Fuller . . * ''Engineering,'' xxi. 183. Rim Pla'ner. A machine for dressing the rims of carriage-wheels. See RIM-PLANING MACHINE, Fig. 4330, p. 1944, "Mech. Diet." FELLY PLANER, Fig. 1016, p. 331, supra. FELLY DRESSER, Fig. 1940, p. 832, "Mech. Diet." Rim Saw. A saw the cutting portion of which is annular and mounted upon a central cir- cular disk. See also RING SAW, infra. Fig. 2139. Rim Saw. Ring Boot. (Manage.) A caoutchouc or rub- ber ring on the fetlock to induce the horse to travel wider and prevent interfering. See INTERFERING STRAP, Fig. 2089, p. 1192, "'Mech. Diet." Ring Bush. A socket with anti-friction rings on its interior perimeter, as in some descriptions of rope blocks. See Fig. 263, p, 119, "Mech. Diet." Ring Mallet. One the head of which is strengthened by rings driven upon it. See y, Fig. 3032, p. 1379, "Mech. Diet.," where are also shown other forms. Ring Plate. A ring in a plate attached to a wall to support a steam radiator pipe or coil. See Coir, PLATE, Fig. 656, p. 208, supra. Ring Saw. A narrow cylindrical saw with ser- rated edge running upon guides which strain it and keep it in circular form. It Is a form of scroll saw. The clearance is effected by getting the teeth or making the blade thinner towards the back. RING SAW. 759 RIVETING MACHINE. Fig. 2140. 2141. Ring Saw Machine. The inside of the saw fits into a groove on the driver which revolves the saw, so that the greater the amount of work on the saw, the tighter the friction holds it ; and when the saw is not at work, the friction is only sufficient to revolve the saw. On the opposite end of the driving shaft from the friction wheel are two pulleys, tight and loose, to receive a 2J" driving belt. The saws can be used from J" to 1" wide. See Fig 4334, p. 1945, "Mech. Diet." See also RIM SAW, supra. Ring Splice. (Nautical.) A loop made in a rope bv splicing the end to the standing part as in /, Fig." 5435, p. 2279, "Mech. Diet." Ring Top Fur'nace. A charcoal furnace for smoothing irons, etc., having an annular top and cross bars, removable at pleasure. Ring Valve. A valve of cylindrical shape sliding in a chamber which has a similar form but has apertures which afford a through way when the valve is lifted. The valve has a ver- tical slit on one side and is expansible as the screw forces it down upon a wedge which oc- cupies an axial vertical position within it. Rins'ing M a- chine'. 1. A centrifu- gal machine in which clothes from the rins- ing tub are placed in order to remove the wa- ter as far as possible by mechanical means, be- fore placing the clothes in the drying closet. See LAUNDRY, Plate XXV., opp. p. 532, su- pra. 2. A machine for pass- ing calicoes, etc., through water to remove super- fluous color, etc., acquired in the dyeing or bleach- ing processes. Fig. 4336, p. 1945, "Mech. Diet." Rip'-Rap. Loose stone pitched around a sub- aqueous foundation to prevent erosion by water. Many of the most important railroad bridges have their piers founded on timber cribs filled in with stone, the timber work being carried up to within a couple of feet of lowest water mark before starting the masonry. On bottoms sub- ject to erosion, a plentiful supply of rip-rap is dumped around the foundation and replenished from season to season till well solidified. This is the usual system in America when the river bottom is of such a nature that a solid bearing on stone, hard-pan, or gravel can be insured. \Vhen a soft material overlies a hard bottom, loose stone, rip-rap, is thrown in to form a foundation for the crib work or masonry. Riv'e t. A short bolt the end of which is swaged to prevent retraction. Fig. 2142. Rivets. Fig. 2142 shows a number of forms, the greater number of which are distinguished by the shapes of their heads. Riv'et Clip'per. A tool like a bolt cutter for clipping the superfluous length of rivets before swaging the end. Fig. 4346, p. 1947, "Mech. Diet." Riv'et-hole Punch. (Dentistry.) A hand tool used in perforating dental plates for the re- ception of rivets. Fig. 2143. Rivet-hole Punch. Riv'et-ing Bur. A washer placed on a rivet and upon which the end is swaged down. Used only in small affairs, from 1-10" to " holes. Riv'et-ing Knob. A cup-faced swage for closing down the rivet end upon the object or upon the bur, as the case may be. Riv'et-ing Ma-chine'. Several forms of riv- eting machine are shown in Figs. 4349-4354, "Meek. Diet." operating by pitman, cam, steam, hydraulic power, etc. RIVETING MACHINE. 760 ROAD LOCOMOTIVE. Fig. 2144 Tweddell's Suspended Hydraulic Riveter. Fig. 2144 shows the Tweddell portable hydraulic riveter and crane, for riveting locomotive-boiler foundation rings, wheel-tires, girders, crane-work, boilers, etc. The riveter is suspended from a specially designed hydraulic crane by means of which the riveter is made to command a consider- able area without disconnecting a pipe-coupling or breaking a pipe-joint. A slightly modified form of the same is shown more iu detail in Fig. 2145. It consists of two levers or arms abutting at one extremity, and carrying at the other two cupped dies, used to form the head of the rivet. Upon one of these levers rests the bottom of a hydraulic cylinder, in which works a plunger, carrying a crosshead furnished with tension bars, which, after pass- ing through guides on each side of the cylinder, are fas- tened to the other lever, as shown in Fig. 2145. The ful- crum is not situated at the center of the length of the levers, but at a point distant about one third of that length from one end. The riveter may be adjusted in its hangings to act on seams, oblique, horizontal, or vertical. One man raises and lowers the riveter, adjusts it to the rivets, and then closes the dies on the rivets. Boys drop the red-hot rivets into place with the head of the rivet upper- most in horizontal work. With a skillful operator, as many as 6 to 10 red-hot rivets may be put in place ahead of him, Fig. 2145. Tweddell Portable Hydraulic Riveter and he can, on beam work, drive from 10 to It) rivets per minute. The machine is used with an accu- mulator which maintains an equable pressure adjustable from 250 to 2,000 pounds per square inch. See also FIRE-HOLE RING RIVETER Fig. 1036, p. 338, supra. Small riveting machines are used for closing rivets on small articles of wear and convenience, such as bro- gans, boots, shawl-straps, valises, etc. A hydraulic riveting machine driven by pump, and accumulator, is shown under ACCUMULATOR, Fig. 2, p.Z, supra. Adt . * "Iron Age," xxii., Oct. 24, p. 1. ' Allen * "Iron Age," xviii.,0ct. 5, p. 1; xxi., Apr. 18, p. 1. Pneumatic, Allen. * "Engineer," xlviii., 12 ; xlvi. 210. Bement. * "Iron Age," xxii., Oct. 3, p. 1. Arrol, Br. * "Engineer," xlvii. 32. Maccoll, Br. * "Engineer," xlv. 288. McKay if Me George, Br. * "Engineer," xlvii. 32. Muir, Eng. .... . * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2033. Steam, Pusey, Jones, if Co. * "Iron Age," xvii., .Tune 1, p. 1. "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 342. "Self utific Amer.," xli. 259. "Engineering," xxi. 493 ; xxi. 115 ; xxvi. 61-64. * "Engineer," xlvi. 230; xliv. 98. * "Railroad Gazette," viii. 563. * "Man. if Builder," xii. 105. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 226 ; xlii. 146. *" Scientific Amer. Sup.," 2225. Plant (hydraulic) at In- dret arsenal, Tweddell, Fr * "Engineering," xxii. 3. Suspended (hydraulic), Tweddell, Br. . . . Rivet -heating furnace, Fr *" Scientific Amer. Sup.," 1046. Portable. Setters . . . Hydraulic, Tweddell, Br. * "Engineering," xxvii. 66. * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 1527. Rivet -joints of steam boilers, Cawley . . . Rivet-making machine, Collier, Br. ,....* "Engineer,-' xliv. 57. * "Scientific Am.," xxxvii. 150. Road Grad'er. See ROAD LEVELER. Road Lev'el-er. A scraper for leveling heaps of dumped earth thrown up to form a road ; and for rounding the earth towards the center of the road. It is a board, steel-shod, and traversing obliquely with the line of the direction of the road. Shown in b, Fig. 4693, p. 2058, and Fig. 4365, p. 1954, "Meek. Diet." Road crossing, standard * "Railroad Gazette," xxiii. 655. Roadway of Kharran, Babylon to Egypt. Builder " Van Nostr.'s Mas." xxiii. 290. Road making .... * " Scientific American," xxxiv. 275. Road plane. Lafetree . * "Scientific American," xl. 390. Roads, Impt. of prairie. Nicholl * "Scientific American Sup.,'- 2399. Road Lo'co-mo'tive. Notices of the early road locomotives, which preceded the railway loco- motives, are given on pp. *1951, 1952, "Mech. Diet." The modern forms of road steamers, made by Thomson and by Ransomes (Br.), are also shown in Figs. 4360, 4361, Ibid. Fig. 2146 shows the Aveling & Porter road locomotive with two of the standard forms of wagons, made to carry 4 and 6 tons respectively. They are with iron or with wooden wheels and with sides and ends to let down or detach ; in the latter case to make a platform truck. See * "Mech. Diet.,'' pp. 1952, 1953. History, machines and * Prof. Thurston's report, " Vienna. results Exhibition Rep'ts,'' 1873, iii.,p. 83, et seq. Road locomotive. Marshall if Co., Engl. * " Scientific American Sup.," 886. Trials, Wisconsin . . . "Iron Age," xxii., Aug. 1, p. 24. Road steamer, Berlin . * "Scientific American," xliii. 406. ROAD LOCOMOTIVE. 761 ROCKING PIER. Fie. 214f Aveling if Porter's Road Locomotive. Road roller, steam. Aveling $ Porter, Br. * " Engineering," xxvii. 564. * "Engineer,'' xlviii. 30. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 162. Green, Br * "Engineer," 1 1. 245. Lindelof * "Eng. If Mining Jour.,'- xxi. 103. Road Ma-chine'. A scraper mounted on wheels .and used to excavate earth, transport it, and dump it in situ. Used in making road by ex- cavating ditches at the side and throwing the earth into a rounded ridge to form the road. Pennock. See EXCAVATOR, p. 814 ; ROAD SCRAPER, pp. 1953, 1954 ; Fig. 4694, p. 2058, " Meek. Diet." Road Plow. A strong plow used for throw- ing up embankments, excavating ground to be moved by the scraper, etc. Road Scra'per. 1. A horse shovel for mov- ing earth. See Figs. 4366, 4367, p. 1954, and Figs. 4693-4695, p. 2058, "Mech. Diet." 2. An implement with a long oblique blade which is drawn on the ground to level it, or to gently round it for a roadbed. Fig. 4365, p. 1954, and b, Fig. 4693, p. 2058, " Mech. Diet." Roast'ing Fur'nace. A furnace for calcining ores to remove sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic, as the case may be. The forms and names are various : subliming, reverberating, shaft, cylinder) etc. See descriptions and illustrations on pp. 1954, 1955, " Mech. Diet." See list of Furnaces, p. 926, Ibid. Brewster Brotlie Calcining furnace ore. Westman Reverberating, Mining, Cal Freiberg " Iron Age,'' xxii., July 11, p. 20. "Iron Age,'' xxiii., Mar. 27, p. 15. * "Iron Age," xx., Aug. 23, p. 1. Revolving, Manes . . Rotary, Bruckner . Rotary cylinder. HoweU-W/iite . . . Shaft, Gerstenhofer . . For silver ores, Bruckner Process, Holloway, Br. . * "Engineering," 1 xxviii. 464. Painter's report, " Vienna Exposi- tion Report,'' iy. 40. * "Scientific American," xxxiv. 79. * "Sag. If Min. Jour.," xxiv. 38. * "Min. Sc. Press,'' xxxvi. 209. Painter's report, " Vienna Exposi- tion Report," iv. 35. * "Engineering," xxii. 575. * "Engineering," xxviii. 38. Rock Drill. These are of two kinds, working by blows and by rotation. The former have steel tools and the latter black diamonds. See DIAMOND DRILL, Fig. 1631-1633, pp. 696, 697, " Mech. Diet." ; ARTESIAN WELL, Ibid. ; ROCK DRILL, Figs. 4375-4380, pp. 1956-1958, Ibid. ; ARTESIAN-WELL MACHINE, Fig. 114, p. 48, supra. Rock breaker . . . . * " Scientific American Sup." 605. " New Blake " . . . * "Iron Age," xxiv., Nov. 20, p. 1. American Diamond Rock Drill Co * "Eng. ((Min. Jour.," xxiii. 150. Barlow, Engl * -'Scientific American," xxxiv. 150. * "Scientific American Sup.," 770. Eartlett Labouldye's "Diet.,' 11 iv. "Perfo- rator." Rock boring machinery, hydraulic, Brandt, Gr. Brossman, Ger. " Kainotoman," Dryden $ Davidson, Br. . . Bryer Burleigh Cave . Diamond " Union " ..... Dubois # Francois, St. Gothard Cranston Fellot Ferroux, Fr Frolich, Ger. Ingersoll . . Rock Crusher, Gardner llaud power, Jordan, Br. Kainotoman . KnifJer, China . Leschot . Mershon Penrice Rand," Little Giant' Sach, Ger Shaw tf Clark, Br. . . Rock borer (St. Gothard) List of machines . . . Paper on, by Darlington Br " Van No strand's Mag." xvii. 567. * "Engineering,'' 1 xxx. 344. * "Engineer" xli. 209. * "Scientific American Sup.," 356. * " Scientific American," xliii. 179. * "Eng. if Min. Jour., xxviii. 416. * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 753, 1713. Laboulaye's "Diet.," iv., "Perfora- tor." * "Eng. * Min. Jour.," xxii. 233. * "Eng. if Min. Jour.," xxii. 327. * "Engineering," xxi. 44. * "Engineering," xxi. S5. Laboulaye's "Diet.," iv., " Perfo- rator." * "Engineering,''' xxi. 272. "Scientific American Sup.," 311. * "Engineering," xxvi. 381. *"Man. if Builder," viii. 153; xi. 153. "Min. Sf Sc. Press," xxxiv. 19. * "Engineer," xliv. 394. "Scientific American Sup.," 1857; 1761. * " Scientific American Sup.," 356. * "Engineer," 1. 230. Laboulaye's "Diet.," iv., "Perfo- rator." * "Scientific American," xxxvi. 358. Laboulaye's "Diet.," iv., "Perfo- rator." * "Scientific American," xxxvii. 319. * "Scientific American." xliii. 399. * "Eng. if Mm. Jour.," xxvi. 448. * "Engineering," xxx. 434. "Scientific American Sup.," 1538. * "Scientific American Sup.," 188, 374, 1392. " Scientific American Sup.," 2121. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1634. Rock'er. (Railway.) A curved iron casting on which the body of a tip-car rests and rocks in discharging. Rock'et. An illuminating or incendiary pro- jectile. The various kinds are cited and described on p. 1959, "Mech. Diet." Borer's life-saving, rope-carrying rocket, for communica- ting vvith stranded vessels, is shown and described in " Ord- nance Report," 1878, Appendix P, p. 314 and Plate XLI. Illuminating ' Scientific American," xxxviii. 72. The rocket harpoon is one projected, in whole or in part, by the issuing at the rear of the gaseous results of the explosive. See list of U. S. Patents, which also includes bomb har- poons and bomb lance, under HARPOON. Rock'ing Bar. A bar in a stove or furnace on which the grate rocks, and in some cases tips. Rock'ing Pier. A bridge pier for supporting a railway track or iron truss across a ravine or ROCKING PIER. 762 ROLLER. valley, its upper end having a motion longitudi- nally of the said truss as the same contracts or ex- pands. It is a substitute for supporting the end of the truss upon rollers on a rigid pier. It is used on the Dysdal Viaduct on the Chris- tiana & Fredrikshald Railway, Norway. The piers which support the superstructure are of wrought iron with lattice-work web. In the longitudinal direction of the viaduct, which is 603' in length, there is only a single column between each span, possessing no stability in itself, and the upper end is allowed to move along with the super- structure when the latter expands and contracts The lower end of each pier rests on a hinged shoe, so that breaking strains are avoided, and the load is always rendered central to the pier columns. The movement of iron work in a lon- gitudinal direction is transferred to the one abutment on which are the necessary bed-plates, provided with rollers ; on the other the superstructure is kept in place by a fixed shoe. Fig. 2147. Rocking Saw-table. Rock'ing Saw'-ta-ble. A form of cross- cutting machine in which the stuff is laid on a ta- Fig. 2148. ble which rocks on an axis. The table is counter- balanced by a pendulous weight, and the thrusting; forward of the table brings the stuff to the action of the saw, and conversely. Fig. 2147. Rod Ma-chine'. A machine for making round sticks, such as dowels, pins, stretchers, broonT- handles, etc. The revolving head is on the principle of a hol- low auger, and is mounted upon a column. A chuck of the proper size is fitted into the hollow- arbor on which is the pulley driven by band from the countershaft beneath. The feeding mechanism consists of two pairs of rollers ; the receiving rollers are grooved to receive the square stick ; the discharging rollers, circular grooved, to receive and feed out the finished rod. The rollers are geared and driven from one belt ; are adjusted to the required pressure for feeding the stuff, and removable for different sizes. The receiving rollers are turned out of the way when changing the chucks or clearing them of broken rods. It will turn from 15' to 25' per minute. Three sizes are made : to work 1" and un- der, 1J" and under, 2" and under, respectively. Fay * "Engineer,-' 1 xlv. 436. Rolled Plate Glass. Rolling glass has been to some extent substituted for casting on tables, in England, France, and Belgium. " Instead of being cast with the costly apparatus necessary for plate glass of large sizes, this glass is cast in a very sim- ple manner. A basin or dipper is introduced into the glass and filled up ; this dipper is suspended upon a hook placed in front of the pot, to enable the workmen to dip and with- draw it with facility when it is full. This dipper is carried over an iron table, and by giving a blow upon it all the cooled filaments and pieces attached to the outside fall off. The dipper is now emptied over the casting table, the thickness of the glass being regulated by metallic pieces or rules. The roller is passed over the mass by the workmen, back and forth. These plates are sometimes imprinted with quadran- gular ribs, very close to one another, in order to hide the de- fects or air bubbles which are likely to occur with this mode of dipping glass. These plates are usually cast about one eighth of an inch thick. They are used for covering hot- houses, for door panels, and for windows." Colnc. Roller. 1 . Land rollers and clod crushers are considered on pp. 572, 1962, 1963, "Mec/i. Diet.," and p. 201, supra. Fig. 2149 is the roller adapted to steam plow culture. The implement ha? a width of 15', and may be fitted with any description of roller, smooth, corrugated, or sectional. The suspended frame is hinged in the middle and can be readily taken to pieces, so that in moving from field to field the two halves are pulled one behind the other, and pass conveniently along an ordinary or a farm road or through gateways. The French Tombereait-rouleau (cart-roller) has a cart body on a pair of iron rollers, for use on soft and treacherous soiL Guilleux d Segre. Fig. 2149. Rod Machine. Fowler's Roller for Steam Plow Culture. The French roller, Systcme-Hoo'ibrenk, is scolloped and the ridges are sharp and penetrating. 2. Poole's calender rolls are shown in Fig. 499, p. 152, supra. Manufacture of chilled "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 533. Poole Sf Co *" Scientific American Swp.," 659. French calendering machine, Fig. 500, p. 153, supra. ROLLER BAR. 763 ROLLING MILL. Rol'ler Bar. The sharp-edge bar, or knife, in the bed of a rag-cutting machine. Rol'ler Bear'ing. A socket for a roller jour- nal, having anti-friction rollers on its interior pe- rimeter. Fig. 263, p. 119, "Mech. Diet." A ring bush. Higley , . * "Scientific American Supplement,'* 1412. Rol'ler Grip. The device for clutching the traveling rope in that system of traction of cars used on London and Blackwail railway in 1844. See ROPE RAILWAY, p. 1983, "Mech. Diet." ; IN- CLINED PLANE, Ibid. The plan adopted in San Francisco and Chicago, and pro- posed for the East River Bridge, N. Y., consists in grasping the rope between sheaves or grooved steel rollers and ap- plying brakes to the periphery of the rollers opposite the point where they come in contact with the rope. This per- mits perfect control of the movements of the car, as has been demonstrated on the Silver Street Railway in San Fran- cisco, where there is a two-mile cable on a steep grade. See \VIRE ROPE RAILWAY, Fig. 7293, p. 2795, "Mec/i. Diet." Rol'ler Mill. 1 . Specifically : a mill in which wheat is made into flour by a cracking process, by passing between rollers consecutively arranged in pairs. The wheat passes through five sets of rollers, each set closer than the former. These rollers are 3Q" long and 10" in diameter. After passing between each set of rollers it is bolted. The last rollers have hardly anything but wheat hulls and the waxy germs which do not crack up, but smash together. The first rollers crack the kernels of wheat into say six pieces. The starchy substance which rattles out drops Through the cloth sieves or bolting cloths. These six pieces are broken between the next rollers into thirty-six pieces. Then the white starch crumbs are sifted out again, and the thirty-six pieces are passed between still tighter rollers, which crack them into 216 pieces : another set of rollers multiply each of these particles into six more, making them aggregate l,29;j. Another set of rollers screwed together with tremendous pressure makes 7,776 pieces. The numbers of course are only approximate, and are given merely to make the description of the process more clear. See also CYUXDER MILL: HIGH MILLING, supra; ROLLER MILL, Fig. 4404, p. 19(34, "Mech. Diet.-' See the following references : On ........ All is If Co ...... Granite roll, Brinjes If Goodwin, Br. ... * "Engineer,'* xlvii. 4. Burlw/z ...... * "Engineer,'' 1 1. 90. Butla I'esth ..... "Scientific American Sup..'' 1891, 2179.' * "Engineer," xlvi. 403. " Scientific American,"' xlii. 265. * "Engineering,'' xxx. 250. * "Engineer,' 1 ' xlvi. 258. * "American Miller,' 1 ' iv. 48. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 617. * "American Miller,'' viii. 40. Gon- if Co. , Buda-Pesth * "Engineering,'' xxviii. 29. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2634. * "North, Western Miller," viii. 169. * "Engineer," xlvi. 105. "Engineer,''' 1. 90. * "Scientific American Sup.," 617. Stevens ...... * "American Miller," viii. 324. Wegmann ..... * "American Miller," v. 101, 105. Austria ..... * "Engineer," xlviii. 61, 64. Switz ....... * "Engineer," xlvi. 258. 2. Generally : the term includes various forms of mills for coarse grinding of grain for feed. See GRINDING MILL, supra, and references passim. See list under MILL, p. 604, supra. See also CANE MILLS ; OIL CAKE BREAKERS ; CALENDERING MACHINES, etc., and ROLLING MILL. Roller Skates. A long series of illustrated articles on this subject may be found in "Engineer," vol. xli., pp. 85, 102, 121, 129, 159, 167, 185, 208, 223, 241, 263,287. Roller skate, Plimpton . * "Engineer," xli. 121. Salarlee ..... *"Iron Age,'' xix., May 17, p. 1. Roller skate rink, N. Y. "Scientific American,''' xl. 112. Paris ...... * " Scientific American Sup.," 943. "Am. Miller," iv. 7, 23, 49, 61,84. "American Miller," v. 169. Carter, Br Controversy and suits. Daverio, Switz. . . Downton, middlings Esclier, Wyss if Co. . Frauent',/1/. 1'estli Graij Meckwart, Austria Namur Rolling Bridge. One whose roadway trav- erses longitudinally on piers as in the proposed Thames bridge. "Engineering," *xxi. 188, or on rails, as in Figs. 4407, 4408, p. 1985, "Mech. Diet." * "Scientific American Sup." ...... 312. Rolling Col'ter Plow. One having a cir- cular sharp-edged disk rolling in advance of the mold-board to cut the sod. Fig. 2150. Rolling Colter Plow. Rolling Mill. History, varieties, and patterns of rolled plates and bars, * pp. 1966-1969, "Mech. Diet." See also ARMOR PLATE, Ibid, et supra. A rolled turret armor plate 13' 10" long, 8' 6" wide, and 2' 7" thick, weighing 65 metric tons, was shown at the Paris Exposition, 1878. The rolling mill for sole-leather has a small brass roller, driven by steam-power and passing over a concave bed covered with brass, to which any degree of proximity may be given by a system of compound levers, thus giving any desired pres- sure. It is used for rolling sole-leather. Japlin's process for making flat rings for lamp-shade and similar purposes consists in passing a strip between tapering Fig. 2151. flailing Mill for Flat Rings. rolls which expand the exterior perimeter more than the interior, giving a play to the strip which results in a flat ring. This is subjected to pressure in dies to give it any required form. Rolling mill, first in Am. Mill and Engine, Bethle- hem, Pa * Rolling mill, Borisog- lebsk, Russia . . . * Carnegie Bros * Phoenix Iron Co. . . * Clutch, Weston, Br. . * Continuous, Jenkins . . * Eye bars, Kloman . . * Continuous, Lauth . . Eye-bars, Kloman . . * Engine, Brotherhood, Br. * Crewe, Br * Plate-rolling . . . . * Reversing engine, Br. . * Reversing apparatus. Christie, Br Reversing gear, Christie. * Reversing-engines, Cleve- land, Engl * Reversing engine. Eston, Br * 'Scientific American," xlii. 291. 'Engineering,'' xxiv. 320. 'Engineering," xxix. 6. 'Scientific American," xlii. 143. 'Engineering," xxix. 103. ' Engineer," xlviii. 159. 'Iron Age," xxiii., March 20, p. 1. 'Iron Age," xxiii.. April 24, p. 1. ' Iron Age," xxiii.. March 27, p. 20. 'Iron Age," xxxiii., April 24, p. 1. 'Engineering," xxh 341. 'Engineering," 359. 'Iron Age," xxv., Jan. 22. p. 1. 'Engineering," xxv. 388, 430. 'Iron Age," xix., May 10, p. 15. 'Engineer," xlii. 60. 'Iron Age," xix., Feb. 15, p. 1. 'Engineer," xliii. 41. ROLLING MILL. 764 ROOT DIGGER. Reversing, Farnley, Br. * "Engineering,-' xxii. 377. Engines, Farnley, Br. . * "Engineering," xxii. 381. Reversing, Kloman . , * "Engineering," xxvii. 19. Reversing engine. Kolpina, Russia . . * "Engineering,'' xxiii. 108. Three-high for steel ingots Eiltings * "Scientific American Sup.," 396. Wire-rod train. Cambria Iron Co. . . * "Engineering,'' xxvi. 41. Report by Holley, Group I., " Centennial Reports,' 1 ' 1 vol. iii., p. 42. Ti inner on " Roll Turning." Rol'ling-mold Flow. A plow in, which a curved-faced roller is substituted for the rear por- Fig. 2152. Rolling-mold Plow. tion of the mold-board. It is designed to lessen friction in turning over the furrow- slice. Ron'geur. (Surgical.) A bone-gnawing or gouging forceps. Post's rongeur is specifically for the mastoid bone. Roof. References to structure, Figs. 4420-4423, and Plates III., LIL, " Mech. Diet." Particulars of recent improvements : Bituminous "Manufact. If Builder," viii. 10. Corrugated metal. Brenton, Br * "Engineer,' 1 ' xlvi. 21. Iron * "Iron Age,'' xix., May 10, p. 7. For iron structures, zinc, lead, felt, glass ... * "Iron Age," xx., Aug. 30, p. 6. Lining, mineral wool . * " Manufact. fy Builder," x. 103. Materials, on .... "Iron Age," 1 xxiii., April 3, p. 7. (Northern Ry. of France)* "Scientific American Sup.," 663. (Liverpool St. Station, London) * "Scientific American Sup. ," 663. Wide span "Scientific American Sup.,'' Ik Wooden, Brown . . . "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 358. Roofs and roof-trusses: * Laboulaye's "Diet, cles Arts et Manufactures,'' vol. iv., ed. 1877, article "C/iarnente," Figs. "Paving and roofing compositions" is the subject of a volume containing a digest of the United States and British patents, by L. W. Sinsabaugh, Washington, 1875, and a sub- sequent supplement. Campin. " On the Construction of Iron Hoofs, a Theoret- ical and Practical Treatise.'' Hornsbys Root Cutter. Root Cut'ter. A machine for slicing roots for feeding to live stock. There are various types : conical, cylinder, and disk, plain, toothed, shredding cutters, stepped cutters, double sets of cutters. Several forms are shown in Figs. 4430-4432, pp. 1975, 1976, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 2153 is the Hornsby root cutter (British). It cuts the root into finger pieces the whole length of the root. By the disposition of the hopper and curve of the knives the roots are not rolled in the hopper, but drawn toward the center of the disk, the result being that the finger pieces are delivered unbroken. Fig. 2154 is Pinet's conical disk root cutter (French). The teeth of the knives project beyond the periphery of the cone and remove slices equal to the width of the teeth and of a thickness equal to the distance of their projection beyond the face of the cone. The weight of the roots in the hopper keeps them against the cone. The slices escape into the hollow cone. Variations in the knives for the purposes of feeding cattle, sheep, etc., are found in several f machines, otherwise similar in all features. Such machines are said to rasp, pulp, shred, mince, cut (nnincer, roper, couper, etc.), as the case may be. See *BEET-RASPIXG MACHINE, Figs. 262-264, supra. Decauville (Fr.), * for beets in alcohol factory. Fig. 2154. Pinet's Root Cutter. Laboulaye's "Diet, des Arts et Manufactures,'' vol. iv., ed. 1877, article "Distillation.'' See also Ibid., iii. "Sucre." Stammer, French *Dept. Agriculture, Special Report. No. 28, Washington, Plate XXII. See also Knight's report on Group 76, Paris Exposition, " U. S. Commissioner's Reports," vol. v., pp. 206-212, em- bracing those of Bodin France. Hunt Tawell England. Peckley, Sims, $ Co England. Maiden Iron Works England. Pinet France. Root Dig'ger. A machine for lifting roots from the ground. Specifically for beets and pota- toes. Dr. Knight's report of Class 76 at the Paris Exposition of 1878 contains views and descriptions of the following imple- ments ("Paris Exposition (1878) Reports," vol. v., pp. 49-52) : Potato-digger (simple effet) France. Potato-digger (double effet) France. Potato-digger, Penney England. Potato-digger, Spear United States. Beet-pullers, Delahaie-Tailleur France. Root-digger, Beet, Eveloy," French Dept. Agric. Sp. Rept.," No. 28, Plates VII., VIII. Dela/iaie-Tailleur, "French Dept. Agric. Sj). Rept.,'' No. 28, Plates VII., VIII. Wnhlkoff, " German Dept. Agric. Sp. Rept.," No. 28, Plate VIII. See BEET ROOT DIGGER, Figs. 265-267, supra; POTATO DIG- GER, supra. ROOT EXTRACTOR. 765 ROSE BURNER. Root Ex-tract'or. (Dental.) A fine pronged forceps. A gouge or claw. Root Fil'ler. (Dental.) A tool for plugging cavities of carious teeth. See PLUGGER, supra. Root For'ceps. (Dental.) An extracting for- ceps with narrow jaws. See list under FORCEPS, p. 354, supra. Root Ma-chine'. See under the various heads, ROOT COTTERS, HOOT' WASHERS, etc.; also BEET RASP; BEET ROOT DIGGER; POTATO DIGGER, etc. Dr. Knight's report on Agricultural Implements (Class 76), at the Paris Exposition of 1868, gives views and descriptions of the following machines for treating roots for food : Root-washer, Bodin France. Root-washer, Pernollet France. Potato-assorter, Penney if Co England. Root-cutter, E. Boilin France. Root-cutter, Hunt 4" Tawell England. Root-cutter, toothed knife England. Double-acting root-cutter, Picksley, Sims If Co. . England. Root-shredder, Mit/'lon Iron Works, Maldou . . England. Root-cutter, Pinel France. Root-cutter, frusto-conical cutter France. Portable cooking apparatus, Beaume France. Agricultural caldron, Fouchc France. Agricultural boiler, Bodin France. Steam-cooking apparatus, Richmond !f Chandler . England. Root Puller. 1. A machine for lifting roots from the ground. See ROOT DIGGER, supra. Fig. 2155. Root Puller. 2. A claw to which horses or oxen are hitched to drag roots from the soil in clearing land. Root Rasp. A machine for pulping roots. See BEET ROOT RASP, Figs. 262-264, pp. 89, 90, supra. Root Shred'der. A machine for reducing roots to shreds for feeding to stock. The machine shown in Fig. 2156 has a disk occupied by a multi- tude of tearing points in the sectors between the radial knives. The points tear the cut surfaces of the roots, and then the knife removes the ragged surface. Fig. 2156. Root Shredder. Albaret's root-cutter (Fr.), for slicing the beets used in the manufacture of sugar and alcohol, has six notched knives on a disk, and the slices of root pass into the case, and so to the floor below. Rope Clamp. A device to secure the end of a cord, as in the case of a round lathe belt ; or a con- nector for the signal rope of railway cars. The clamping jaws, as shown in the engravings, are formed by two semi-tubes, A and B, made with teeth on their inner faces to hold the rope and prevent its slipping out. A pin passes through lugs on each to form a hinge Fig. 2157. joint. This pin may be removed to attach the end of the rope by placing it ou one jaw, when the other is laid upon it and the pin inserted. An inclined groove is cut in the solid ends of the clamping jaws, above the hinge, to receive a wedge, z>, which is formed on the edge of the spirally threaded stem, on which is a nut, resting against a washer. E is a swivel ring on the end of the stem D, and F a hook on the ring for an attachment. The wedge is tightened by turn- ing the nut D-. Rope-dri'ving Gear. A means of transmis- sion of power from a driver to machinery. A sub- stitute for belting. In a notable case, in Manchester, England, the fly-wheel is made to serve as driving drum also ; it is 22' in diameter, and weighs about 20 tons. It is grooved for the reception of 12 hempen ropes, each 6" in girth, six of the ropes being intended to drive one line of shafting, and six the other. The rope drums or pulleys on the shafting are 5' in diameter ; the rims are made heavy and are grooved, as is the driving drum, but for only six ropes. The width of the grooves is 2 7-16" ; total depth, 3J" ; the radius of the bottom curve, J" ; and the inclination of the two sides to each other is about 49. It will be apparent from these particulars that the ropes do not, even when pressed somewhat out of shape when doing full duty, rest upon the bottom of the grooves, but on the sides, and the wear is, therefore, at the points of contact. The wear, after 18 months' use, was tolerably uni- form all around the section, thus indicating that the ropes do not present the same parts of their circumference to be continuously gripped in the grooves. See also CABLE CARRIER, Fig. 494, p. 150, supra. WIEE WAY, Figs. 7306, 7307, pp. 2798, 2799, "JVfecA. Diet." WIRE ROPE, Fig. 7291, p. 2795, Ibid. Gear "Scientific American,' 1 ' xxxvi. 42. Rope clamp, Page . . * "Scientific American," xxxv. 99. Rope driving gear. Goodfellow .... * "Scientific American Sup.," 1268. Smith, Br * "Engineer,-' xliii. 444. "Iron Age,'' xxi., April 25, p. 7. Ropes, power transmis- sion by * "Iron Age," xvii., Feb. 24, p. 1. Rope transmission in mills, Pearson ... * "Engineering," xxi. 76. Rope-mold'ing Ma-chine'.' A machine for scroll-turning stuff for balusters, stretchers, etc. The molding is cut by a revolving cutter head, with cut- ters to suit the style or size of work. The stick being first turned round by a rod) machine or lathe, is fed in, and at the same time revolved by the feed attachment, the feed and guides being adjustable to the different sizes. The machine works any size, from 3" down, making a very smooth fin- ished molding, requiring little or no after finish. By an arrangement for working the stick at an angle with the cut- ters, the style of the twist can be altered, and made close or open, as desired. Rogers. See also BALUSTER LATHE, p. 71, supra. CARVING ATTACHMENT FOR LATHES, Fig. 555, p. 174, supra. Rose Burn'er. Or Rosette Burner. A form of gas burner in which the gas issues at a circular series of openings, the jets resembling petals. See BUNSEN-BURNER FURNACE. See also b c, Fig. 5924, p. 2411, "Mech. Diet." The burner shown in Fig. 2158 gives a single flame for ROSE BURNER. 766 ROTARY PUMP. crucibles, and a circle of flames when liquids are to be heated in vessels of glass or porcelain. The burner a b is similar to Fig. 2158. Rose Gas Burners. Bunsen's ; c, a regulator to control the entrance of the air into a box, a, and thus prevent the flame from blowing down ; d, the rose, which divides and spreads the flame when put on the top of tube b, e shows the single or ignit- ing flame ; b, the spread or evaporating flame. Rose Glass. A celebrated French glass, pre- pared in a special manner. A certain quantity of auriferous glass is prepared before- hand, and run in thin plates, and fragments of these plates are used by the glass blower to fuse upon his work, and thus give it a superficial coloration. It often happens that the same composition of auriferous crystal gives plates of very different shades, some colorless, others tinged more or less deeply with rose or red, and some almost black ; these dif- ferences being due to two causes, namely, the temperature of the furnace in which the fusion has been effected, and the temperature of the mold into which the melted metal is run. For light colored plates the temperature of the fur- nace is made low, and the mold very cold ; blue plates are sometimes produced under the same circumstances, which, if reheated, take the normal color, as do also the colorless and very pale rose glasses. Crystal colored with gold is merely a vitreous matter, holding in suspension metallic gold in a state of very fine subdivision. It is stated that on attentively examining the red plates, it is easy to recognize in the mass a multitude of most brilliant specks of metallic gold, forming a sort of aventurine (which see). Ro-sette'. (Nautical.} A form of knot. See 32, Fig. 2777, p. 1240, " Mech. Diet." Ro-sette' Cut'ter. A steel cutter of inverse form for forming a circular ornament of wood. Fig. 2159. Boult's Rosette Cutter. Ros'in Core. A dry-sand core in which rosin has been used for the purpose of increasing the adhesiveness and strength of the sand when dried. Ros'in Oil. (Leather.) A compound of melted rosin and linseed oil. Ro'ta-ry-bed Pla'ning Ma-chine'. One with a continuously moving bed. See TRAVERSING- BED PLANING MACHINE, Fig. 6627, p. 2620, "Mech. Diet." Ro'ta-ry En'gine. See ROTARY STEAM EN- GINE. Ro'ta-ry Mor'tis-ing Ma-chine'. A form of mortising machine in which the cutter revolves and works by a routing action ; as distinct from the ordinary form, in which the cutting is done by a reciprocated chisel. Fig. 2160. Mortising, Routing, and Recessing Mac/line. The work is dogged or chucked to a table which has a compound movement and subjected to the action of a rotary router. Ro'ta-ry Plow. A rotary plow which acts as a spader is shown in Fig. 4464, p. 1988, "Mech. Diet." See also SPADING MACHINE, p. 3252, Ibid. The rotary plow shown in Fig. 2161. The piece acting an share and mold-board is a circular disk or conical frustum Fig. 2161. Rotary Plow. which penetrates the soil, lifts a slice and turns it over. The cut shows a double or two-furrow plow. Ro'ta-ry Pump. A pump which acts by a rotary, in contradistinction to a reciprocating ac- tion. Under the caption ROTARY PUMP, pp. 1988, 1989, "Mech. Diet.," 24 illustrations -are given of rotary pumps of various kinds : single and double pistons and centrifugal. In the illustration of the Douglas pump, Fig. 2162, the shaded portion with arrows indicates the water and its di- rection. The pistons are three in number, and operated by a scroll race in which the rollers of the pistons work. By this means the pistons are held against the inner perimeter of the cylinder in which they work, and withdrawn to pass the abutment. Passages through the slides balance the water pressure on their respective sides. Samain's pump (French) is shown in Fig. 2163. It has four palettes, arranged in pairs and moving in slots in the cross of the arbor. They are so arranged that when one is out, abutting against the interior perimeter of the chamber, the other is in, passing its lowest position in contact with ROTARY PUMP. 767 ROTARY PUMP. the abutment. The arrows show the direction of the wa- ter. Fig. 2162. Fig. 2164 is the Bagley a u d Sewall rotary pump in which an eccentric ring ro- tates in the cylinder. It is shown by verti- cal section. A is the main case or body of the pump in one piece, on the interior of which is the ring B ; the space outside of s being the cylinder o r water space. This cylinder is inclosed by a disk which is attached firmly to the shaft. To the disk is at- tached eccentrically a ring E, a portion of which is always in contact with the outside of casing A, and also with the ring B, at a point exactly opposite ; so that the eccentric ring E is really the piston of the pump ; the disk and ring being ro- tated by the shaft driven by pulleys. / is the suction port, and / the discharge. These ports are separated by the slid- Fig. 2163. Douglas Rotary Pump. Samain'f Pump (Fr.). ing abutment H, which moves back and forth on its seat with the throw of the eccentric ring E. The tumblers fit- ted to this abutment adjust themselves to the ring, and as the pressure is constant upon them from above, they effectu- ally pack the ring and prevent any escape of water below. The water enters at i, and as the piston ring rotates, it is Fig. 2164. Bagley $ Sewall's Rotary Pump. forced before and between it and the casing, around to the upper portion of the latter and out at the port J. As the ring rotates it opens a space between its inner periphery and the fixed ring B, into which space the water from port /en- ters, tilling the interior of the piston, to be forced out as be- fore. The center ring B is made enough deeper than the casing A, to exactly equalize the contents of the inside and outside of the piston ring E, thus securing a perfectly steady flow of water from the discharge. F is the cover or outside case. Holes are made through the disk D to allow the water to pass through and between it and the outer case, thereby balancing the working parts, and equalizing the pressure upon them. One end of the shaft has a closed bearing in this outer case ; the other bearing is in the case A. On the shaft, and being a part of the disk O, is a collar which is fitted to the seat K, making a perfect water-tight joint, by which all " packing " of the pump is avoided. In the center of the seat K is a circular groove, which connects by a drilled channel with the suction port. Should there be any tendency to escape of water at the seat K, the force of the suction keeps the port closely to the seat, and absolutely sealed against air or water. Fig. 2165 is the double wheel pump of Fales, Jenks & Co. The arrows show the direction of the water, and thus indi- Fig. 2165. Fales, Jenks 4" Co., Rotary Pump. cate the direction of rotation of the disks or wheels, the con- tact of the arms of which as they mutually rotate inwardly and downwards is the substitute for the abutment in the single disk machine. The Gould rotary pump, Fig. 2166, has a pair of pistons acting in concert, as in the last-mentioned case, but the arms Fig. 2166. Gould Rotary Pump. are but three on each disk, and the contact is made by the projection of the arm of one into a circular depression in the other mutually and alternately. The Greindl pump, Fig. 2167, consists of two disks revolv- ing at different velocities within a casing. One disk carries two fixed arms, which act as pistons. The other disk has a recess in it, which allows the arms to pass in revolving. Mo- tion is communicated to one disk by means of a strap or patent three-cylinder steam engine, and the other disk is driven by spur gearing. The Holly rotary pump is shown in Fig. 2168, which shows one side of the case removed, revealing its construc- tion and working parts. These consist of a pair of corru- gated cams working together within an elliptical case, the ends of the long teeth being packed by blocks of metal in- ROTARY PUMP. 768 ROTARY TUBULAR STEAM BOILER. serted into the grooves and pressed out by springs, thus in- suring a perfect vacuum Fig. 2167. and the taking up of any little wear there may be after years of pumping. The water enters at the I-'ig. 2169. Grcindl's Rotary Pump. bottom through the suction la, the stream dividing and filling the chambers made by the long teeth, past-ing around the cams O and P, and discharging from the top through the outlet JV. The motion of the pump is equable, continuous, and rotary, the cams work- ing together inwards from the top. Thus, when one chamber has just dis- charged, another is discharging, another one is on its way, and still another one is just filling, so that the stream is al- ways uniform and steady. The Silsby rotary pump is shown in Fig. 1031, p. 337, supra. Lift pump, Bamford (f Sons, Engl * " Scientific Americans' si. " Comet," Bartrum if * "Engineer," xlvi. 143. Powell, Br *" Scientific American Sup. Crocker *" Scientific American Sup. Doremus *" Scientific American Sup. Fig. 2168. " 2374. 182. 293. Holly Rotary Pump. GreindVs Nijni-Novgo- rod, Rus * ' Greindl ......*' Hongoux * ' Rotary steam circula- ting engine and pump, Manley, Br * ' Rotary pump, Newcomb * ' Force pump, Newcomb . * " Ortman * ' Engineering,'' xxx. 341. Eng. $ Min. Jour.,' 1 ' xxiii. 103. Scientific ^4jnen'can,"xxxvi. 182. Engineering, ," xxv. 451. Scientific American,''' xliii. 50. Scientific American,^ xxxviii. 358. Scientific American,''' xli. 6. Ro'tary Sha'per. See SHAPER. Ro'tary Steam En'gine. (Steam.) The name is applied not alone to the rotary piston en- gine, but also to those reciprocating engines of which there are numerous examples in water- works engines which have a fly-wheel and crank shaft. The class of steam engines ordinarily known as rotary, are exhibited in 28 illustrations, pp. 1690- 1694, "Mech. Diet." See also the following references : Apperley "Scientific American Sitp.,'' 1617. Beliren ...... Desc/Mmefs " Natural Philoso- phy^ i. 481. Coomber, Br. . , . . * "Engineer, 1 ' xli. 42. Coomber * " Scientific American Sup.," 1 165. De Groat .... . * "Scientific American," 1 xlii. 310. Dexter, Br * "Engineer,"' 1. 218. Gallahue "Scientific American,' 1 '' xxxv. 1. Hajni ...... "Engineering," xxvi. 491. Henderson High-speed, Hoason,Br. Lawrence Laivrence Lidgerwood Noteman Note-man Silsby Man. Co. ... Stiles Titus Weigho (Ger.) .... Laboulaye's "Diet, des cle "Machines d' vapeur, Watt. * Cochrane. (2) * Thomson. * * ' Scientific American,'' xl. 326. * 'Engineer," 1. 417. * 'Engineer,'' xlviii. 363. * 'Scientific American,'' xl. 259. * 'Scientific American," xxxv. 182. * 'Amer. Man.,- Dec. 31, 1880, p. 9. * " Scientific American,'' 1 xl. 406. * "Thurston's Vienna Report,'' ii. 105. * "Min. $ Sc. Press," 1 xxxvi. 401. "Scientific American Sup.," 292. "Manitfatt. If Builder," viii. 193. Arts et Manuf.,'' iv., ed. 1877, arti- : ' shows the engines of Behrens. * Pecquerer. * Hicks. * Girard. Ro'ta-ry Tutm-lar Steam Boirer. The Pierce rotary tubular boiler (Figs. 2169, 2170) is a cylindrical rotary tubular steam boiler, with two circular rows of tubes running from end to cud. The outer rows of tubes are surrounded by buckets or elevators which are so arranged as to nearly en- circle them, and to cover the inner surface of the Pierce Rotary Tubular Boiler. boiler-shell with water at each revolution. The in- ner row of tubes act as superheaters for drying as ROTARY TUBULAR BOILER. 769 EOTATOR. well as generating steam. The boiler is incased in brick-work and is supported upon trunnions at each end in such a manner that it is rotated by gearing actuated by the steam pump that supplies the boiler with water, or other motor power. The boiler is at all times one-quarter full of water, which amount is unchangeable, being regulated by an automatic feed- water regulator. The feed-water is introduced through one trunnion, and the steam withdrawn through the opposite trunnion. The grate has an area equal to the entire inner base of the brickwork surrounding the boiler. The flame and heated gases arising from the grate com- pletely surround the boiler, thence pass through the outer row of tubes to the opposite end, emerging into a chamber, thence returning through the inner or superheating row of tubes, en route to the stack or chimney. Ro'ta-ry Wa'ter En'gine. Behren's rotary water engine (English) is a simple form of motor having but few moving parts. It consists of a casing bored out to receive two piston blocks, which furnish an alternate abutment to each other. The pistons are connected by spur wheels, and their mo- tion is therefore perfectly uniform and continuous. Fig. 2171. Appleby Bros. Rotary Water Engine. Bekren's Patent. No power is lost in overcoming the inertia of recip- rocating, and no fly-wheel is required. It is the rotary engine common in the domain of steam, but in this case driven by water pressure. The same set of pistons moved by mechanical connection from an exterior motor may constitute a rotary pump. See pp. 1991 and 1988, 1989 respectively, "Meek. Diet." Ro-ta'tor. An apparatus for producing iron by the direct process. " The apparatus, or ' rotator,' Figs. 2172, 2173, consists of a revolving furnace, lined with oxide of iron. Gas from producers and air from one pair of regenerators enter at one end of the furnace, burn and reverberate within it, and pass out at the same end into the other regenerator. There is a large charging and discharging door at the other end of the furnace. " At Dr. Siemens' Works, at Towcester, the small rotator. OJ' long by SJ' in diameter, takes a charge of 30 cwts. of ore mixed with 8 cwts. of small coal. In about 2 hours the re- duction of the ore is completed ; the slag is tapped off, and the heat and speed of rotation are increased to form the mass into an elongated ball, which is hammered into a bloom. An average of 43 consecutive charges at Towcester gave the following results : Iron in ore charged, Ibs 1,274 Coal, Ibs 728 Time for operation 3.12 Blooms made, Ibs 1,113 Loss, per cent 12.6 Coal in producers per ton of blooms, tons . . 2 " The particles of iron forming the blooms, if perfectly sep- arated from the slag, are practically pure, however impure 49 Fig. 2172. Siemens' Rotator. the ore may be. The slag contains sometimes 6 per cent, of phosphoric acid and one to two per cent, of sulphur. The pure iron will alone remain in the open-hearth bath, al- though some few hnndredths of phosphorus may be taken up from the slag at the highest temperature. " The first trial of the process in the United States was at Park Bro. & Co.'s Works, in Pittsburg. There were no se- rious difficulties, except the oxidation referred to, in the man- ufacture of the balls into wrought iron. Within the last few months a large rotator, 11' long by IV in diameter, has been started at Tyrone Forges, Pa., by Mr, Robert J. Anderson, of Pittsburg, to make material for his open-hearth furnaces. Although the operations have purposely been experimental, with various ors and lining materials, enough has been done to show that a product of excellent quality may be got from any ore, and that linings (necessarily oxide) may be adapted to any ore, although a very silicious ore requires the use of so much lime that the repairs of linings are proportionally increased. Fig. 2173. Siemens' Rotator. " In an average week's work at Tyrone, with Robinson ore and the highly silicious Pennington ore, the mixture having about 50 per cent, of iron, the charges were : Ore, 4,000 Ibs. ; reducing coal, 600 to 700 Ibs. ; limestone, 260 Ibs. : scale and cinder, 800 Ibs. The yield of blooms was 1,600 to 1,700 Ibs. per charge, or 80 to 85 per cent, of the iron in the ore. The producer coal was 3,800 Ibs. per ton of blooms. The week's work was 19 operations, producing 14 tons of blooms. ROTATOR. 770 ROW MARKER. " The cost of bloom?, with ore averaging about $3 and coal $2.15, and with labor charged at the very high rate of $10 per ton, was a little over $25 per ton. Experimental labor is of course excessive, and in this case the men could have just as well run four furnaces as one. Labor should not exceed $2.50 to $3 per ton in a plant of four rotators. The output has been gradually increasing and has reached five operations per 24 hours. The producer coal has also been gradually decreased. Of course working costs can be only approximately determined from experimental costs, but it seems safe to say that blooms can be produced at a small ad- vance over the cost of pig from the same ore. " The cost of a plant of four rotators, ore crushers, hammer or squeezer, etc., exclusive of building, is about $40,000, and its output with existing appliances only, in regular rather than in experimental work, is estimated at 125 tons per week. This looks at first like a small output, but it must be remem- bered that the entire blast furnace plant is dispensed with. An obvious improvement, not in any way experimental, is about to be introduced. It is calcining the ores in any suit- able kiln and running them red hot into the rotator. As about half the time of the operation is now occupied in get- ting the charge up to a reducing temperature, it is obvious that the calcining a cheap operation will nearly double the output of a rotator plant. " Charcoal blooms are at present the best material in the market for making fine open-hearth steel ; they are used to- gether with the smallest possible bath of Bessemer pig for the finest fire-box plates. If Siemens direct blooms (even should they have more mechanical impurities) are not as good as charcoal blooms for open-hearth steel, the reason is not obvious. Such practice as there is seems to prove them equally good. As I have similarly stated in previous papers describing new processes, the object of these notes on the Siemens' process is not to compare it commercially with other preparatory processes, but simply to state its existing status and the probable course and means of its further de- velopment. 7 ' Hollty, Roth'er-nail. (Shipwright.) A large headed nail used for fastening the rudder-irons of ships. Rough'ing Hor'ses. A simple mode of rough- ing horses, practiced in Russia, consists in punching a square hole in each heel of the shoe, which, in ordinary weather, may he kept closed by a piece of cork. When the ground is slippery, the cork is re- moved, and a steel spike inserted. If this steel rough be made to fit the hole exactly, it remains firm in its place, and is not liable to break off short at the neck like some of the screwed spikes. Round Bar Spi'ral Spring. A spring of round steel coiled around a mandrel ; as distin- guished from & fiat-bar coiled spring. See illustra- tions of each in Fig. 1143, p. 483, "Mech. Diet." Round'ing Ma-chine'. 1. A wood-working machine, also known as a cornering machine, used in chamfering off the corners of stuff ; especially in implement and carriage work. See CHAMFERING MACHINE. 2. A machine for making round rods and spin- dles. See ROD MACHINE, PIN MACHINE, and DOWEL MACHINE. 3. A machine to round book backs. See BOOK- BACKING MACHINE, Fig. 381, p. 120, supra. 4. A machine for giving the rounded depressions in blanks for shoe soles. A sole-stamping machine. Rough Point'ed Stone. (Stone Cutting.) When it is necessary to remove an inch or more from the face of a stone, it is done by the pick or heavy points until the projections vary from j" to 1". The stone is then said to be rough pointed. This operation precedes all others in dressing limestone and granite. See POINTED WORK. Round Iron. The plumbers bulb- ous iron used in smoothing solder joints of lead pipe. Round Scut'tle. (Nautical.) A scuttle with a circular frame suitable for iron ships, with brass door for glass, brass screw fastening, painted iron frame, and hinged iron dead-door com- R(lunif Iron plete. Round Seiz'ing. (Nautical.) A loop made in rope by a single turn on itself, and seizing the crossing. See c, e, Fig. 4825, p. 2091, "Meclt. Diet." Round Swage. (Blacksmithing ) A form for shaping iron. Row'ing Gear. Outriggers and various de- vices to assist the oarsman. See OAR, Fig. 1824, p. 637, supra. Lyman ... * "Engineer," 1 xliii. 340. * "Iron Age.," 1 xix., April 12, p. 5. * "Scientific Amer." xxxiv. 343. Rowing sled, Dennis . * "Scientific Amer.," xlii. 387. Rowlock, Spelman . . * "Scientific Amer.," 1 xxxvii. 70 Davis rowing gear (Courtney's mysterious rig), Patents Nos. 231,016, 231,017. Fig. 2175. IN POSITION, OUT OF POSITION. Fig. 2174. "Acme " Rowlock. Row'locks. (Boat). Spaces in the gunwale for the oars to rest in rowing ; or contrivances on the gunwale for the same purpose. The Acme rowlock is used without a laniard ; and, instead Fig. 2176. of removing the horns from the sockets when along side of vessels or wharves, as is required with most other rowlocks, simply turn them half way around, and they fall of their own gravity below the gunwale, obviating the necessity of removal from the sockets, except when it is desired to do so. In Fig. 2176 the rowlock plate B C is firmly fas- tened on top of the gun- wale, and does not weaken it like the cutaway swivel rowlock, with sockets. Fig. 2177 shows an out- rigger rowlock wood-lined. The Navy rowlock, Fig. 2178, is instantly changed from its position to a hanging one, or can be detached from the boat. To detach, turn long horn aft, draw up, and turn out. It is automatic in its motion, adapting itself to the motion of the oar, and always in po- sition to receive it, i. e., " fore and aft " the boat. Row Mark'er. (Agric.) An im- plement for mark- ing out ground for planting in rows. See MARKER, Fig. Outrigger Rowlock. 1681, p. 584, supra. Fig. 2177. RUBBED STONE. 771 RULER. Navy Rowlock. Rubbed Stone. (Stone-cutting.) In dressing sandstone and marble, it is very common to give the stone a plane surface at once by the use of the stone saw. Any roughnesses left by the saw are removed by rubbing with grit or sandstone. Such stones, therefore, have no margins. They are fre- quently used in architecture for string courses, lin- tels, door jambs, etc., and they are also well adapted for use in facing the walls of lock chambers, and in other localities where a stone surface is liable to be rubbed by vessels or other moving bodies. Rub'ber. Caoutchouc ; a vegetable gummy substance obtained from a number of plants and trees, and entering as an element very extensively into mechanical productions. The coast region north and south of the Congo is becom- ing quite au important source of caoutchouc. It is produced by a giant tree creeper (lanrlolp/iia), which grows principally along the water-courses. It covers the highest trees, and frequently considerable extents of forest are festooned down to the ground, from tree to tree, in all directions with its thick stems, like great hawsers. Sometimes its stem is as thick as a man's thigh. Above, the trees are nearly hidden with its large, glossy leaves of dark green hue, and studded with beautiful bunches of pure white star-like flowers, most sweetly scented. Its fruit is of the size of a targe orange, yellow when ripe, and perfectly round, with a hard, brittle shell ; inside it is full of a soft reddish pulp of an agreeable acid flavor, much liked by the natives. It is not easy to obtain ripe seeds, as the creeper is a favorite resort of a vil- lainous, semi-transparent, long-legged red ant with a stinging bite, like the prick of a red-hot needle which is very fond of the pulp and the seeds distributed through it. Every part of the creeper yields a milky juice when wounded; but, unlike the juice of tha American rubber tree this milky sap will not run into a vessel placed to receive it. It dries so quickly that a ridge is soon formed over a cut, and the flow arrested. When collecting it, the natives make long cuts in the bark with a knife, and as the sap gushes out they wipe it off .continually with their fingers and smear it on their arms, shoulders, and breasts, until a thick covering is formed. Then they peel it off and cut it into small squares for transportation. A good cement, that will render india rubber in any form adherent to glass or metal, is oft-times a desideratum with photographers, and in the " Polytechnisch.es Journal" there is a simple recipe given for the preparation of such a compound. Some shellac is pulverized, and then soft- ened in ten times its weight of strong ammonia, whereby a transparent mass is obtained, which becomes fluid after keeping some little time, without the use of hot water. In three or four weeks the mixture is perfectly liquid, and, when applied, it will be found to soften the rubber. We are told that the rubber hardens as soon as the ammonia has evaporated again, and thus becomes impervious both to gases and to liquids. Tor cementing the rubber sheet, or the material in any shape, to metal, glass, and other such surfaces, the cement is strongly recommended. The use of the salts of barium for adulterating goods sold by weight is on the increase. Some rubber goods have been found with these salts in the material, which on combustion left as much as 60 per cent, of ash, pure rubber leaving only 2.5 or 3 per cent. The adulterated goods cracked and lost their elasticity. Hubber over-Sho* making . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxv. 262. Solvents "Scientific Amer.,'' XXXY. 326. Rubber stamps, making "Manuf. * Build.," ix. 119. * "Manuf. 4- Build.," ix. 143. Rub'ber Cen'ter Spring. A car or vehicle spring with a caoutchouc cylinder or block inclosed in a spiral spring, or otherwise associated ; as seen in several forms and instances in Figs. 1142-1144, pp. 482, 483, "Mech. Diet." Rub'ber Dam. (Dentistry). A shield of sheet rubber clasped around a tooth to exclude saliva during operation upon the tooth. See DAM, 3, supra. Rub'ber Dam Clamp. See DAM CLAMP, Fig. 776, p. 245, supra; DAM CLAMP FORCEPS, Fig. 777, p. 245, supra. Rub'ber Mop. The mop-head has a plate of thick rubber which is used as a scrubber or squeezer. Rub'ber Pack'ing Ring. An annular gas- ket acting as a packing in many forms of pistons. Rub'ber Spring. A spring of caoutchouc, in whole or in part. See instances in Figs. 1 142-1 144, pp. 482, 483, "Mech. Diet:' Rub'ber Tuning. Impervious rubber tubing ; may be made entirely impassable to coal gas by painting it over with a solution of silicate of so- dium ; otherwise known as water glass. Rub'ber Tread. A step covering of vulcan- ized caoutchouc. Rub'ber Wheel. A wheel with noiseless rub- ber tire. RubTsish Pulley. A simple form of tackle- block, used with a rope in hoisting materials from a foundation or excavation. A gin-block. Ru'by Glass. ( Glass. ) Red glass. Made by repeated meltings with the addition of brown ox- ide of copper, oxides of lead and tin, scales of iron, and borax. The color is developed by repeated heatings with added quantities of the above color- ing agents. Rud'der. The principles governing the pro- portions and the amplitude of the circle described during its evolution, considered in article "Gouver- nail," Laboulaye's "Diet, des Arts et Manuf.," tome iv., ed. 1877. Jury rudder, Cagliesi . * "Scientific American,'' xxxv. 297. Cagliesi's rudder (Ancona, Italy) is collapsible, and is made with fan-like sections. Rudder screw . . , * "Scientific American," xxxviii. 306. Rud'der Wheel. (Agric.) A wheel in the rear of the share, assisting in bearing the weight of the plow, and, in some cases serving as a ful- crum in directing its course. See Fig. 704, p. 225, supra. Ruler. Cousins' parallel ruler is intended for the purposes for which parallel rulers are commonly used, and for duplicating designs, curves, etc. Fig. 2179. AX ^*-*^ Cousins' 1 Parallel Ruler. The plate a, which forms the body of the ruler, has formed in it two oppositely disposed segmental openings, whose RULER. 772 RUST. straight sides form an angle of 45 with the beveled edges of the ruler. It has also several small circular apertures, which may be utilized in forming curved lines. Parallel with one of the edges of the plate a, a shaft, c, is journaled in suitable supports. On the ends of this shaft and outside of the bearings there are grooved wheels, (I, which do not quite touch the surface on which the plate a rests. To one of the wheels, d, is an arm, e, secured by the screw f, as shown in Fig. 2, and in the groove of the same wheel there is a pin that strikes the stop which is secured to the plate a by the screw i. This stop is arranged to engage the arm e also. On the shaft c is placed a spiral spring, k, which returns the pin in the groove of the wheel to the stop on the plate , as indicated in Tig. 8. The side of the wheel d is graduated so that the arm e may be adjusted at any required distance from the pin in the groove. This distance governs the space between the lines formed along the edge of the ruler. In drawing parallel lines the arm e having been adjusted as already described, the shaft c is pressed down until the wheels d touch the paper on which the lines are to be made ; this tips up the beveled edge of the plate a. The instrument is now moved forward, by rolling the milled portion of the shaft under the fingers, until the arm e strikes the stop on the plate a, when the plate is allowed to regain its former position and the line is drawn. In drawing the successive lines the operation is repeated. Section lining is done along the straight edges of the seg- mental openings, and curved lines are formed along the curved sides of the openings. Various designs may be du- plicated by fastening patterns to the plate a, so that they will move with it. Pattern makers use a rule whose divisions are made a cer- tain per cent, longer than standard measure. Iron castings shrink in cooling about 1 per cent, or ^ of an inch to the foot. The patterns require to be made proportionately larger. By using the rule ^ of an inch in a foot longer than the standard, every measurement of the pattern is made proportionately larger without the trouble of calculation. Desk rules are either flat, round, or hexagonal. The flat rulers have a beveled edge to avoid blotting the paper with ink flowing from the side of the pen. For adjustable and parallel rulers, see " Meek. Diet..''' Figs. 4497, 4498, p. 2001. An instrument for guiding a pen or pencil in drawing straight or curved lines. Rule, spiral, Fuller, Br. . , . * "Engineering," xxvii. 257. Parallel, Cousin ..... * ' Scientific Amer.," xl. 118. Kempe ........ * " Teleg. Jour,," v. 268. Ruling pen, Hoffman . . . * "Scientific Amer.." xl. 150. Drawing a straight line, Kempe * "Sc. Am. Sup.,' 1 ' 1340, 1352, 1364, 1383. for cutting to Fig. 2180 Rule Cut'ter. A machine lengths rules and leads used in the composition of rule, column, or ta- ble matter. The front gage is for cut- ting narrow strips or spaces, and the back gage is rever- sible, so that it may be set to cut to 9" in length. Ru'ling M a - chine'. William A. Rogers, of Cambridge Observatory, Mass, has a machine for rul- ing microscopic lines on glass. It will rule 80,000 parallel lines in an inch. Rltle and Lfad cutter. See paper by Prof. Rog- ers, in the "Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences," where Nobert's plates are considered and the method of their production discussed. Also the modes of preparing diamond ruling-points. See NOBERT'S PLATES, p. 1531, Mech. Diet." Run'ner. On the stick of an umbrella, the tu- bular piece to which the stretchers of the ribs are swiveled. Higgins" 1 automatic runner . . * "Engineer,'' xlii. 165. Run'ning Board. (Railway). A board placed Fig. 2181. over the ridge or center of a freight-car roof, and exteudiur the whole length of the car, and which is provided for train-men to walk or run on, in go- ing from one end of a train to the other. Forney. Run'ning Trap. A depressed bow-shaped sec- tion in a pipe, f o r ming a U, through which! water passes free- ly, but the de- 1 pression remain- ing filled with water, affords a seal. R u s ' s i a 11 I ' r o n. The glossy- sheet- Russia smooth, surfaced iron of has been imitated in many quarters with varying sue- Boii'er's Sewage Running Trap. AA Inlet pipe connecting directly C68S. Below we with the wash-stand, sink, or other fix- give one p r o- tures. r e s s furnished B Outlet pipe connecting directly 55'J U with the main waste-pipe, by M. Koullbine, C Cup-shaped chamber which al- a Russian engi- ways remains filled with liquid up to ueer . pipe B, thereby floating the hollow rubber valve D firmly to the mouth These polished of the pipe A, and making a perfect sheets are manufac- seal. tured from charcoal E Is a small lug on the cup, to en- iron, produced in able a person to screw and unscrew the finery fires and cup easily. brought into the F Is a rubber gasket to prevent form of blooms leakage from the joining of the cup to about one inch the body of the trap, thick. These blooms are heated to cherry heat and rolled into leaves. Each of these leaves is cut' into pieces corresponding to the weight of the sheets which are to be manufactured, and these pieces are piled upon one another and rolled together until the desired degree of thinness is attained. Thus the black sheets are manufactured. To transform these into polished sheets a certain number at a time are heated to red heat and piled one upon another, a black, impalpable powder, which is simply pulverized charcoal, being sprinkled between each two sheets. The bottom and the cover of each packet of sheets thus piled for polishing are formed by two sheets of greater thickness. This packet is then hammered for the purpose of reducing the sheets still further in thickness, under a hammer, the head of which weighs from 1,000 to 1,100 kilograms (say 2,200 to 2,400 Ibs.). For giving pol- ish and luster, the sheets, now almost cold, are brought under a second hammer with a large face, rounded at the edges and of the same weight. Finally they are allowt-.l to cool completely, and are then clipped and classified into three classes, according to the perfection of their polish. The sheets of the first class ought to be like a mirror, with- out a spot upon their surface. The action of charcoal pro- jected upon the red-hot surfaces, and inclosed between them without access of air, may be easily understood. It cements, and thus enables them to take a high polish, while rendering them at the same time less liable to rust. This cementation once having taken place, the sheet should not afterward be returned to the heating furnace Whether the non-oxidiz- able quality is due to a carburation of the surface by cemen- tation or by an oxidation which has been supposed to take place in the somewhat tedious process of manufacture, is not yet fully decided. The high quality of the iron used by the Russians has no doubt much to do with the merited pop- ularity their final product enjoys. In the same category is the fact that, while we make most excellent wire from our own iron, we have not yet been able to produce an arti- cle quite equal to the Swedish rods for certain purposes. We have no doubt but that in time the American product, or " imitation Russia," which is now perfectly adapted to many uses, will eventually be made equal in all respects to the genuine Russian and exclude it from our markets; but this result will only be accomplished by greater care and skill in manufacture. See "Meek. Diet.," p. 2005. Rust. It has usually been supposed that the rusting of iron depends principally upon moisture and oxygen. It would appear, however, from the late Dr. Calvert's experiments, that carbonic acid RUST. 773 SACCHAROMETER. is the principal agent, and without this the other agencies have very little effect. Iron does not rust at all in dry oxygen, and but little in moist oxygen, while it rusts very rapidly in a mixture of moist carbonic acid and oxygen. If a piece of bright iron be placed in water saturated with oxygen, it rusts very little ; but if carbonic acid be present, oxida- tion goes on so fast that a dark precipitate is pro- duced in a very short time. It is said that bright iron placed in a solution of caustic alkali does not rust at all. The inference to be derived is that, by the exclusion of moist carbonic acid from contact with iron, rust can be very readily prevented. To take rust out of steel place the article in a bowl con- taining kerosene oil, or wrap the steel up in a soft cloth well saturated with kerosene ; let it remain 24 hours or longer ; then scour the rusty spots with brick-dust. If badly rusted, use salt wet with hot vinegar ; after scouring, rinse every particle of dust or salt off with boiling hot water : dry thor- oughly : then polish off with a clean flannel cloth and a lit- tle sweet oil. Or brush with a paste composed of J oz. cyanide potassium, J oz. Castile soap, 1 oz. whiting, and water sufficient to form a paste. The steel should first be washed with a so- lution of oz. cyanide potassium in 2 oz. water. Rust Ce-ment'. Make a stiff paste with 2 parts of sal-ammoniac, 35 parts iron borings, 1 part sulphur and water, and drive it into the joint with a chisel ; or, to 2 parts of sal-ammoniac and 1 part flowers of sulphur, add 60 parts of iron chips, and mix the whole with water, to whicli one sixth part vinegar or a little sulphuric acid is added. Or mix 100 parts of bright iron filings or fine chips or bor- ings with 1 part powdered sal-amrnoniac, and moisten with urine ; when thus prepared, force it into the joint. It will prove serviceable under the action of fire. All the above parts are by weight. Rust, Preserving Iron from. Dode''s method is to coat the surface to be protected with a thin film of borate of lead, having a little oxide of copper dis- solved in it, and having also suspended in it bright scales of precipitated platinum. A red heat is employed to fuse the composition, which is applied by brush or bath The effect is to cover the iron with a thin, glassy coating of a bright gray tint, unaffected by sewer gases, dilute acids aud alkalies, and the heat of a fire. See article by Stoffel in "Jour. Soe. Arts," Br., 1879, re- published in " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xx., p. 13 et seq. Or, paint with melted caoutchouc, to which some oil has been added. The caoutchouc must be melted in a close ves- sel to prevent its burning, and should be frequently stirred. Dr. Sterling's plan is to iinpreginate the structure of the metal while heated with a non-oxidizable substance, say paratfine or mineral oil. Barff 's plan is to convert the surface into magnetic or black oxide. Journal Soc. of Arts. Barff . " Van Nostrand's Mag." xvi. 300 ; xviii. 350 ; xx. 450. "Iron Age," xxv. January 22, p. 7. Perry . " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xviii. 533. Bower . " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xix. 90, 378. Dode . " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xx. 178. See IRON PRESERVING PROCESS, p. 507, supra. S. Sa-bot'. The iron shoe or point of a pile. Sa-bot' Ma-chine'. A machine for making the wooden shoes (sabots) extensively used in Eu- rope. The machines of M. Arbey, Paris, complete the shoe in three operation?. The blanks first pass to tb.e shaping ma- chine, adapted to all sizes, where the shoe receives its shape. A second machine hollows the inside, while a third machine gives them the finishing touch and shapes the sole. Sabot mach., Arbey, Fr. * "Engineer," xlvii. 255, 262. Sac-char'i-fi-er. An apparatus for treating grain, and potatoes by steam under high pressure, for converting the starch into sugar previous to the alcoholic fermentation. The grain or potatoes are mixed in a boiler, with about three times their weight of water. Steam is then admitted in such a manner as to constantly stir the entire contents. When steam is admitted to the boiler, the air is allowed to es- cape through a valve. As long as the latter is kept open the water condensed within the boiler is allowed to run off. When the air has boen forced from the boiler, all valves are closed. The material is then subjected to the combined ac- tion of heat and pressure for three or four hours, samples being taken from places provided, for inspection. At the end of that time the liquid is of a dark yellow color, and the starch has been completely converted into sugar, although the grains on the pieces of potatoes retain their original shape. Care must be taken to introduce the steam slowly, and to regulate the pressure carefully, or a portion of the sugar will be converted into caramel, unfit for the forma- tion of alcohol. When this.operation has been finished the mash is blown out, under pressure, into the mill, the solid particles crushed and the mashed formed into a thin paste possessing all the qualities necessary for the formation of alcohol. Sac'cha-rom'e-ter. An instrument for deter- mining the value of sacchariferous juices. The method of determining these values by means of the specific gravity will always find wide application because of its simplicity and satisfactory results. The action of the saccharometer depends on the fact that ordinary light, when transmitted through or reflected by certain bodies, acquires certain properties which it did not before possess. Among other properties conferred upon the light is that of displaying gorgeous prismatic colors when caused to traverse certain liquids and crystals. These colors, when brought into view by means of a solution of cane sugar, are the more vivid as the solution is more concen- trated. In Laurent's new saccharometer the light from a fixed monochromatic yellow flame is passed through a diaphragm containing a plate of bi-chromate of potash, which absorbs the violet and blue rays. The yellow rays which pass it fall on a bi-refracting prism which turns on the longitudinal axis .of the instrument, and in which the second image is diverged to one side and intercepted by diaphragms. One of these carries a thin plate of quartz parallel to the axis, which cov- ers only one half of the diaphragm. Its thickness is one- half wave for the yellow rays. Between this diaphragm and a second one the testing tube containing the sugar solution to be tested is placed. In front of the second diaphragm is the Nichol analyzer, an objective and a concave eye-piece. Fig. 2182. Saccharometer. The latter three parts inclosed in a tube revolve, the angle through which they move being indicated on an alidade. In Fig. 2182 A is a yellow monochromatic name, placed at an invariable distance from the instrument. The burner is constructed so as largely to augment the intensity of the flame. B is a diaphragm containing a plate of bichromate of potash, which absorbs the violet and blue rays which exist in the flame, while allowing the useful yellow rays to pass. p is a bi-refracting prism, in which the second image is di- verged to one side and' intercepted by diaphragms. It turns on the axis o E. D is a diaphragm carrying a thin plate of quartz parallel to the axis, the thickness of which is one half SACCHAROMETER. 774 SACK PACKER. wave for the yellow rays. This is fixed and covers but the half of the diaphragm. E is another diaphragm : W, the an- alyzing Nicol ; H, the objective ; o, concave eye-piece. The system, O H N, is mounted on an alidade, which turns on the disk C around the axis p E. T is the tube containing the solution to be tested, cisa graduated disk having one or two divisions ; one especially for sugar, the other in half degrees of the circle for any rotary substances. L is a lens for reading the scale, si is a mirror throwing the light of the burner on the divisions and thus obviating the need of any Fig. 2183. Saccharometer. additional light. The new optical disposition consists in the polarizing system, which is composed of two distinct parts the bi-refracting prism P which turns, and the diaphragm n which with its half plate of quartz is fixed. In Fig. 2183 this diaphragm is represented enlarged, as it is seen on looking into the instrument. The left half is covered by the quartz plate, the axis of which is also parallel to the line of separa- tion O .4, and the right half being open allows of the passage without deviation of the polarized light from the polarizer P, Fig. 2182. Thore " Technologiste," xxxix. 38. Laurent * "Scientific .4m.,'' xxxviii. 408, 181. Dubosq * " Scientific American,''' xxxix. 389. Biotas polarizer ... * Laboulaye's "Dictionnaire," Hi., "Sucre,"' Fig. 3, etc. Saccharometer, Balling "Scientific American," xli. 329. Polarizing, Laurent, Fr. "Iron Age,'" xxii., July 4, p. 19. Sack'er and Weigh'er. A spout with slid- ing door admits the grain or material to be weighed from the receptacle above. The bag is clipped by a ring to the funnel which is suspended from the back end of a suspended steelyard. When the amount the steelyards are set for is received into the sack, the slide is closed and the flow cut off. Sack Hold'er. An inclined frame, braced against the floor, forms a rest for the sack in filling while a ring holds the mouth of the sack open and forms a rest for the vessel used in filling. Sack Emp'ti-er. A contrivance by means of which through a winch, ropes, and capstan, a frame which holds the sack in filling is elevated and tipped to empty the sack. Emptier * "Scientific Amer.," xl. 19, Fig. 6. Filler * "Scientific American," xl. 19. See also BAG FILLER. . - . * "Scientific Amer.," xl. 20, Fig. 8. . . . , . * "Scientific American," xl. 19. * "Scientific American,'' xxxix. 323. Sack Hold'ing Truck. One arranged to hold the sack in vertical position while being filled and having a hoop to hold the mouth open. Sack Lift'er. 1. A sliding frame on which the sack rests, is elevated by means of a winch to Holder Lifter . Truck the proper height to shoulder, when the sack is rilled. 2. A clutch on the rope to catch the gathered end of a filled bag, and lift it up into the mill. Sack lifters, emptiers, etc. . * "Scientific American," xl. 19. Sack Fack'er. A machine for packing flour in sacks. See Fig. 2184. The operator places the bag on the screw tube as shown in the engraving, and draws the piston head against the bottom of the bag. He then lifts the tumbling ball, by which move- ment the belt is shifted to the tight pulley starting the screw to packing the sack. While the bag is being filled the reced- ing piston changes the belt to the loose pulley by means of the shifting rod, and thus stops the screw, enabling the oper- ator to set the stop collar so as to put any amount of flour in the sack that maybe desired. When the screw stops, the operator places his foot on the treadle, dropping the sack into an upright position ready for removal, and by this means catching the spill. The sack being removed, a weight re- turns the turning board to a horizontal position. When this Sack Packer. device is used as a mixer, the conveyor flights on the screw pulverize the lumps and mixes in the passage through the horizontal screw tube, discharge being made into a bin be- low by means of muslin bag or hose. By the use of ree'nlorce rings on the end of the screw tube, bags of from 12 to 60 pounds' capacity can be packed without changing the tube. Its capacity is from 2 to 4 sacks per minute. Fig. 2186. SADDLE. 775 SAFETY BRAKE. Sad'dle. Fig. 2185 is a view of the saddle com- plete, with bag, used in the United States mounted service. No padding or raw hide is used. The round, smooth-cut pommel is made as low as pos- sible to escape the highest withers, and the seat is long and flat, the cantle rounding very little. The trees are made by machinery to avoid inequalities, and the bearing surface made as long as possible to distribute the weight over the back of the horse, the whole length of the saddle. Sad'dle Brack'et. A bracket shelf in a sta- ble or harness room to hold a riding saddle. Sad'dle Clip. A clip which straddles the spring and axle, and the legs of which are secured by bolt nuts. Fig. 145, p. 61, supra, Fig. 150, p. 62, Ibid. Safe. A receptacle where valuables may be deemed safe from attacks of fire, burglars, etc. Generally iron or steel cases, variously prepared. See "Mech. Diet.," pp. 2013, 2014, 2015. Figs. 2186, 2187. are sectional views of the Corliss spherical revolving safe composed of an outer and inner shell, the lat- ter revolving within the former, forming both the door and the receptacle for valuables. The outer shell forms about two thirds of a sphere, and is made in two parts, so that the Fijr. 2186. Fig. 2187. Corliss Safe, Open. inner part, called the safe, can be placed within it ; these parts are screwed together, as indicated in section, by a screw the whole diameter of the safe. The jointing surfaces of these two parts are ground to an accurate fit, and screwed together like hose coupling, leaving no space between them and making the shell practically one solid piece of metal. The interior swinging part is also one solid piece of metal about four inches thick. The outside diameter of this sphere corresponds with the inside diameter of the larger one, and the joint between the spheres is formed by a series of steps which increase in diameter towards the interior of the safe. The joint is circular and is made an accurate fit, the outside steps being made by grinding, and the inner ones bored and turned by machinery adapted to the purpose. To guard against accidents this safe is always provided with two locks, either of which will open it. The locks may be set on the same or different combinations, and in case either lock should fail from any reason to operate, the safe can be opened by the other. Either time locks, or the ordinary combination locks are employed. The drawings sufficiently explain the inside arrangement and workings. Corliss Safe, Shut. Safe, Marvin . . . . * Safe alarm, Koloseus . * Safe, fire-proof, sub- merged, Gray . . . * Safe, provision, Inman * Safes, history, invention, and manufacture of . Safes, marine . . . . * To blow open . . . * 'Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 82. 'Scientific American,'' xxxix. 99. 'Scientific American," xxxv. 338. 'Scientific American," xl. 344. 'Iron Age," xxi., Jan. 24, p. 5. 'Scientific American," xxxv. 179. ' Scientific American," xxxvi. 244. Safe'ty Ap'pa-ra'tus. For cages in mines, etc., article "Parachute," Laboulaye's "Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," iv., ed. 1877. Dobo. Claude-Perrault. Machecourt. Fontame * Nyst *. Safety cylinder cock . * Disk * Hook ......* Lamp, Coquillon Stephenson . . Davy .... Odling * Gildemeister $ Kampe Safety appar. for cages. Spitzberg Tunnel . . For mine cages. Cousin, Fr. . , . Leonardt, Br. Safety catch for mine cages, Cousin, Fr. . Elevator, Burdon . , Lamps, Dary, . . . Roberts ..... Mesnil "Scientific American," xliii. 35 "Scientific American Sup., ' 1A " Scientific American Sup., "Eng. 4- Min. Journal," 23 "Scientific American Sup.,' " Scientific American Sup., 1472. 4011. 742. ' 742. 2368. ., "Scientific American Sup., " Technologists,'''' xli. 567. "Engineering,''' 1 xxix. 395. "Engineering,' 1 '' xxvi. 389. "Engineering,''' xxix. 58. "Engineer," xlvi. 223. "Manuf. $ Builder," ix. 121. "Lamps de Surete." Laboulaye's "Diet.," ii. * 1375-76. "Lampe de Surete," Laboulaye's "Diet.," ii. * 1377. "Lampe de Surete," Laboulaye's "Diet.." ii. *1377. "Lampe de Surete," Laboulaye's " Diet.," ii.* 1377. "Lampe de Surete," Laboulaye's "Diet.," ii. * 1378. "Scientific American," xxxiv. 351. Laboulaye's "Diet.," iii. See SAFETY CATCH ; SAFETY HOIST ; CAGE ; ELEVATOR, etc. Safe'ty Bolt. One in which the pin is locked in position by padlock or other device. Safe'ty Brake. An attachment to a crane or other hoisting apparatus to control the rate of de- Mueseler Combes ..... Safety paper, bank checks Papier de Surete' . . Safety Winch . ... SAFETY BRAKE. 776 SAFETY PAPER. scent of an object. It usually consists of a band on a drum, which by pinching opposes the rotation of the latter. See SAFETY HOIST. Safe'ty Catch. A device to prevent the fall- ing of the cage in the event of the breaking of the rope. Safety catches attached to the cage are held away from the guides while the weight of the cage hangs on the rope, are released and spring against the guides as soon as the strain is taken from the rope, either by its being broken or otherwise. A safety hook detaches the cage from the rope if it is hoisted too far, and " lauding dogs " prevent it from being accidentally lowered or dropped into the shaft, when it has been once hoisted above them at the pit-head. See Figs. 4539-4541, " Mech. Diet." In Cousin's counterpoise catch, used in the Bernissat pits in Belgium, a wedge is forced into the loop encircling the ? aide-rope by a spring as soon as the hoisting-rope breaks, he wedge is made of wood, and is provided with steel points to insure its taking a hold on the guide-rope in case of an emergency. In ordinary hoisting the wedge is withdrawn and the loop slides freely on the guide-rope. In the coun- terpoise arrangement, the guide-rope is attached at the bot- tom of the shaft, but its upper end runs over two pulleys and carries at its end a series of counter-weights placed one upon another, attached by chains. As soon as the winding rope breaks the wedge seizes the guide-rope, which is drawn downward by the weight of the falling cage. This causes the counter-weights to be lifted one by one until the cage has come to a stop, thus avoiding any injurious tearing strain upon the guide-rope. Safe'ty Chain. (Railway.) A chain to at- tach certain parts to prevent their becoming en- tirely detached in case of the parting of the main connections. Among such are coupling chains of platforms, of the brake- rods, etc. Forney's ''Car-builders' 1 Dictionary." Safe'ty Cyl'in-der Cock. A safeguard against injury to a steam cylinder by an accumu- lation of water. The water of condensation is let out of the cylinder without waste of steam. Safe'ty Disk. A disk of light sheet-copper is placed across the boiler between the steam and an escape-pipe. An over-pressure of steam fractures the disk and allows the escape of the steam through the pipe. Safety disk for boilers, Rowan, Br. * "Engineer," xliv. 148. Safe'ty Hang'er. (Railway). A metallic loop to prevent the falling of a rod in case of breakage. Among such are those for brake- rods, etc. Forney. Safe'ty Hatch. A form of safety hatch for elevators, to close the hatchway when the cage is Fig. 2188. Safety Hoist. not in the act of passing. The doors are automatic, being pushed aside by oblique bars above the cage in ascending, and by similar bars beneath the cage in descending. The doors are returned by counter- weights. The safety attachment may be seen in detail in CAGE, ROPE ELEVATOR, SAFETY STOP. Safe'ty Hoist. In Fig. 2188 the safety brake is applied automatically by the governor within the rim of the sprocket-wheel, so that the load, once started clown, it is left to itself while the operator gets the next load ready. Safe'ty Hook. In mines, a hook arranged to clutch a support and hold the cage, should the hoisting rope break through overwinding. Safe'ty Lamp. A lamp to prevent explosions from lire-damp. See "Mech. Diet.," p. 2016. Coquillon utilizes the property possessed by palladium, of remaining red-hot in a mixture of gas and air at the expense of the compound, in the construction of miners' safety- lamps. The lamp cannot cause au explosion without tha palladium giving timely warning. Dubrulles has invented a lamp which cannot be opened without extinguishing the flame. Safety lamp. Boullenot, Fr. . . . " Van Nostranrl's Mag.,'' xiv.572. Safety lamps, on, Bagot "Engineering," xxvii. 423. Davy, * "Engineering,"- xxvii. 423. Clanny, Stepkenson, * . . . Mueseler, * . . . . Williamson, * . . . Clanny, * . . . . Davy, * Stevenson, *. , . , Mueseler, * . . . . Williamson * . . . Davy Dinant, Fr Hydrostatic, Kendall Odling, Br Shakespeare, Br. . . Williamson . . . . Williamson, Br. . . Miner's 'Engineering,'' xxvii. 423. Engineering,'''' xxvii. 423. 'Engineering,' 1 '- xxvii. 432 'Engineering,'* xxvii. 423. 'Engineer,' 1 ' 1 xlvii. 341. 'Engineer,'' xlvii. 341. 'Engineer,'-' xlvii. 341. 'Engineer," xlvii. 341. 'Engineer," xlvii. 341. 'Scientific American Sup.," 1720. 'Engineering,-' xxvi. 389. 'Scientific American," xxxvi. 210. 'Engineer,'' xlvi. 179. 'Engineer,'-'' xlix. 173. 'Scientific American Sup.," 2149. 'Iron Age," xxii., July 4, p. 19. ' Scientific American Sup.," 2718. Safe'ty Link. A device, a substitute for the safety or check-chains which couple cars to their trucks. Invented by Thompson. * "Railroad Gazette " viii. 117. Safe'ty Loop. One of the loops by which the body-strap of a vehicle is attached to the body and perch to prevent dangerous rolling of the body. Safe'ty Pa'per. In addition to what has been stated on page 2017, "Mech. Diet., 1 ' where about thirty distinctive processes are cited, an improve- ment in the manufacture of paper for bank notes, bonds, checks, etc., by Mr. Geo. W. Casilear, Super- intendent of Engraving, U. S. Treasury Depart- ment, may be mentioned. " This invention relates to the manufacture of bank-note and other commercial paper by coloring the pulp contained in separate compartments with different coloring matter, or by the use of different colored fibrous substances while iu the pulp, contained in separate compartments. " The pulp, having been prepared in the usual manner, is emptied into chests or tubs corresponding in number with the kinds or distinct colors of fiber desirable to be used in making the paper. From thence it is delivered into the com- partment vats, each compartment being assigned for a color or alternate color, silk fiber, or other suitable material desirable for making distinctive paper. At the top of the vat is a series of gates, by means of which the flow of pulp is regulated as it passes over the trough and lip and falls upon the endless wire or web. The trough and lip is also subdivided by using thin partitions of brass, to correspond in number and to connect with the compartment-partitions of the vat. The operation being now apparent, the pulp of two or more colors passes over the lip or ledge in separate streams, the colors be- ing divided by the thin partitions in their passage, and unite as they fall upon the endless wire, upon which it forms it- self into paper of colored stripes or other material, composed of whatever character of pulp is used in the compartmeut- vat, desirable for making distinctive papers/' Bank-note paper, Br. 'Scientific American Sup.," 1293 SAFETY PIN. 777 SAFETY VALVE, NOISELESS. Safe'ty Pin. 1. A temporary pin in a percus- sion fuse, to prevent the plunger from striking ac- cidentally against the percussion powder. It is held in place by a wire which is ruptured by a weight attached to it when the gun is fired. Fig. 17, p. 523, " Ordnance Report;' 1877. 2. A garment pin bent on itself, and having a loop which retains the point shut and prevents pricking. Safe'ty Valve. Fig. 2189 is a form of valve much used on leading steam- ships. The peculiarity of the valve consists in the grooved seat V) which has the ef- Fig. 2189. feet to augment the area at the moment the valve lifts. The result is the valve will blow off to its maximum capacity with an increase of but two or three pounds' pressure in the boiler, and will close tight the moment the pressure falls a couple of pounds below that to which the valve is loaded. In Fig. 2190 the outlet for the steam is carried through the center, and the pressure is always perfectly fair on the valve, there being no fide-action whatever, thus rendering the valve very sensitive, and equalizing the wear. Fig. 2191 is especially adapted to steam fire-en- gines, where quick stop- pages are necessary. Should the safety valve be set to blow off at one hundred pounds, and it be necessary to stop the en- gine with only fifty pounds of steam in the boiler, it will not be necessary to wait until the steam rise to one hundred pounds, but the wheel h is given a half turn up against the valve-spindle g, where it Safety Value, will remain and the steam blow off until the wheel k is turned back, and the valve resumes its seat again without derangement or altering the tension of the spring so that the steam will blow off at one hundred pounds, the same as before. Fig. 2190. Fig. 2191. Safety Valve. Ashcroft's valve has a hollow semi-circular ring on the conical part. The lower seat of the valve has a correspond- ing annulus at its top, somewhat larger than the one in the valve proper. When the valve is lifted to a slight extent, the steam is momentarily arrest- ed in this space, thus producing a greater pressure, and lifting the valve to a greater height, similar to Fig. 2189. Blake's safety valves are globular, and the orifices are annular. They require no guide- wings or pins, and can oscillate freely on their seats, and are not like- ly to stick, as they cannot wedge them- selves down in the seatings, whilst it is claimed they have nearly double the dis- charging power of an ordinary valve of the same diameter, and that with a lighter weight on them. The ' usual size of valve made by Mr. Blake has a 3J" outside seating and a 2f" inner one. Thus the dis- charging power of this valve equals an ordinary valve, 6|" diameter, while the weight required to load it to 60 Ibs. per square inch is only 220 Ibs., whereas a 6$" valve would re- quire 1,840 Ibs. to load it. Safety valve, 6 kinds . * "Sc. American," xxxvi. 99, 853 * "Manuf. # Builder," xi. 65. Steam Fire Engine Valve, Test * "Scientific American Sup.," 690. Wilson. .... . * "Mec/i. Diet.," Fig. 1622, p. 654, supra. Stone * Ibid., 1623. p. 555. See LOCK-UP SAFETY VALVE, * Fig. 2983, p. 1343, "Mec/i. Did. ; " SAFETY VALVE, Ibid. ; TEST SAFETY VALVE, infra. Cf. Buel's "Safety Valves." Safety valves, Adams, Br. * 'Engineer," xlii. 254. Blake, Br * "Engineer," xlii. 273. Japanese Corvettes, Penn * "Engineering," xxiii. 286. Klotz * "Engineer," xliv. 67. Safety valve, Ashcroft^s . * "Manuf. if Builder,-' 1 xi. 244. Eave,Br * "Engineer,-' xlvi. 57. * "Engineering," xxvii 466. Hudson * "Railroad Gazette," viii. 263 Klotz * "Engineer," xlix. 358. Martyn-Roberts, Br. . * "Engineer," xlviii. 163. Melting, Br * "Engineering," xxii. 510. Schmid * "Engineering," xxii. 214. Schmidt * "Scientific American," xliii. 386. Schmiilt, Switz. . . * "Engineer," xlvi. 209, 248. " Sentinel.'' Summerson, Br. . * "Engineer," xlii. 368. Turnbull, Br. ... * "Engineering," xxv. 522. Lock-up, Robey, Lond. * "Scientific American Sup.," 2050. Marine, Fletcher, Br. . * "Engineer," xlii. 147. Bailey, Br * "Engineer," xlii. 191. Spherical. Nasmyth, Br. . . * "Engineering," xxii. 393. Spring, Atcock, Engl. * "Scientific American Sup.," 855. Spring-loaded. Atcock, Br. ... * "Engineering," xxii. 363. Test, "Kover." Br. Navy . . . . * "Engineer," xlii. 145. Form and principles . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 314. Lubricator. Pickering, Br. . . * "Engineer," xlii. 145. Safe'ty Valve, Noiseless. Baird and Allen have patented an arrangement for obviating the noise of escaping steam. The devices are an expansion chamber and an annular nozzle placed in the locomotive chimney, the effect of which is to produce a regular noiseless escape of steam, instead of SAFETY VALVE, NOISELESS. 778 SAND BAND. an intermittent and sonorous one as at present. The steam ' from the cylinders, instead of passing directly through noz- , zles, is discharged into a chamber of ten times the capacity of the cylinders, which will allow the steam to expand in i volume and greatly reduce its pressure, so that the noise of puffing will not be heard more than ten feet away. The Ashton Noiseless Blow-back Safety Valve, is claimed to do away with the din of the steam escaping from ordinary locomotive pop valves, at the same time effecting a consider- able saving of fuel. It is so arranged that when the boiler is eased from overpressure, the escaping steam is conducted either to the feed water in the tender, to a muffler, or to the smoke-stack. Sa'fre. (Glass.) The usual French name for the crude oxide of cobalt used as a blue in glass- making. See ZAFFER ; COLORED GLASS. Sail Sew'ing Ma-chiue'. A large-sized sew- ing machine with extensive table for sewing widths of duck to form sails. Used also for sewing sack, bags, tarpaulins. Sews straight or zig-zag stitch, with dry or tarred twine. Is made single or double, in the "latter case to run two seams at once. Sal'a-man'der. 1. A mass of waste metal from a break in a metallurgic furnace. 2. A cooled mass of metal and cinder in a blast furnace in which the contents have proved refrac- tory and the fire has died out. Account of blasting a salamander with dynamite. "Iron Age," xvii., April 20, p. 9. Sal Am-mo'ni-ac Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which chloride of ammonium is used as an exciting liquid. See LECLANCHE BATTERY. A bagration battery is one in which the elements arc im- mersed in a jar filled with earth sprinkled with sal 'shnmo- niac. De la Rive. Sa-lam'pore. (Fabric.) A blue cotton cloth formerly made at Nellore in India, and largely ex- ported to the West Indies, where it was the usual slave cloth. Sail'ing Car. A car similar to a hand-car (mi- nus the operating devices), is rigged with sail simi- lar to that of an ice-boat and used on the railroads on the plains, by telegraph repair parties and others, have attained a speed of from 30 to 40 miles an hour. Sailing chariots were tried in Holland and other countries, more than two hundred years since, but labored under too many difficulties to come into common use. SaTi-nom'e-ter. An instrument for testing the strength of a brine or salt pickle. See " Mech. Diet.," page 2022. Sa-li'va E-jec'tor. An instrument for carry- ing off the accumulating saliva in dental opera- tions. In Fig. 2192, the end of the saliva tube f is inserted in the mouth of the patient, and a jet of water under pressure passed through the narrow throat of the instrument in the direction of the arrows, draw- ing the saliva into the vacuum chamber D, and out through the end. The check valve E, sets the water back in such manner as to close the throat to the external air and pro- duce a vacuum in the chamber above. Sa-li'va Pump. For with- drawing saliva from the mouth during dental operations. See "Mech. Diet.," p. 2023. Salt Man'u-fac'ture. The manufacture of salt and bromin is carried on very extensively Fig 2192. Saliva Ejector. in the Ohio Valley. The salt is shown by chemi- cal analysis to be the purest in America, and its perfect freedom from lime renders it very desirable for dairy use. The salt water is obtained by boring wells from 800 to 1,000 feet through a variety of soil, solid rock, and usually two strains of coal. It is first pumped into a wooden cistern to settle, then run into iron pans, and boiled until ready for crystalizing, then drawn off into wooden grainers, through which copper pipes of 3 or 4 inches in diam- eter, filled with steam, pass the entire length of the grainer, heating the brine to an equal tempera^ ture. The salt crystals form on the surface, and are prevented from adhering firmly by mixing a small quantity of butter or tallow, which separates them, and they gradually fall to the bottom of the grainer and become salt proper. It is then lifted on platforms by workmen, and left to dry for 12 hours, after which it is packed into barrels, weighed, and ready for market. The salt analyzed shows : Sodium chloride, 97.5; Moisture, 2.0; Foreign mat- ter, .5. From the waste, or mother- water of the salt works, bromin is extracted, and'forms an extensive article in trade, selling at one time for $9 per pound, the specific gravity being about three times that of water. There are six bromin factories in this locality, and when all are in operation they control the price of the foreign market. However, bromin, like all other merchandise, has shared in the decline, and is now sold for 34 cents per pound. The increasing demand for the article for medicinal purposes, and by chemists, dyers, and photog- raphers, has made it a source of immense profit. Large quantities are annually exported. For apparatus, see ''Mech. Diet.," 2023, and Labotdaye's " Dictionnaire lies Arts et Manufac.," tome in., article " Sel." Salt manufactory, Mich. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1621. Salt Mill. For pulverizing the coarse salt into table salt. Salt-pe'ter Man'u-fac'ture. The process of securing the saltpeter from the crude nitrate of potash. Saltpeter manufacture . "Scientific American,'' xxxiv. 6. Salt-pe'ter and Sul'phur Grind'ing MilL (Gunpowder.) A machine for grinding and incor- porating these ingredients in the manufacture of gunpowder. It consists of two edge wheels in an annular pan : the Chilian mill. See " Ordnance Report," 1879, Appendix I. : Plate I., Fig. 2, and description on p. 98. Salt-pe'ter, Sul'phur, and Char'coal Mix'ing Reel. (Gunpowder.) An inclined cyl- indrical reel, like a flour bolt, used to sift the com- bined materials. See "Ordnance Report,'' 1879, Appendix I., Plate I., Fig. 3, and description on p. 99. Sam-mi'er. (Leather.) A machine for press- ing water from skins in the process of tanning. Sam'ple Case. A case for carrying and dis- playing quality of goods to be inspected. Sample case, Davis * "Scientific American," xl. 372. Sam'ple Cut'ter. A species of rotary shears. A sharp edged disk on a table rolling against an edge and cutting narrow strips of cloth from the roll, to form tailor's or traveler's samples. Dartois, French. Sam'ple Scale. A finely balanced lever scale weighing one pound by i^Vo^'- Used f r weigh- ing articles in bulk by accurately weighing small proportional quantities. Sam'ple Spig'ot. A small faucet in the head of a cask. Sand Band. ( Vehicles.) A metallic ring on the inside of the hub, extending over a portion of the axle and designed to keep sand and mud from entering the axle-box. SAND BAR. 779 SASH TOOLS. Snnd Bar. A bank formed by the settling of sand or silt when one stream empties into another, or a river into the sea. Mode of removing, Bou- logne stir Mer, * " Scientific American Sup." 1554. Sand Ap-pli'ance. Sand auger * "Min. # Sc . Press,'' xxxvii. 305. Sand blast, Tilghman . * "Maiiuf. and Builder,'' viii. 160, * 181, * 205, * 229. Sand brake. Wiseman, India. "Engineer,"' xlviii. 78. Sand and cinder sifter. Chambers .... * "Manuf. if Builder," 1 ix. 5. Sand and gravel separa- tor, Chambers . . *" Scientific American,'' xxxv. 163. Sand distributor. Chambers * "Engineer,'' xlix. 438. Sand-drying furnace . * "Engineering," xxiii. 502. Sand-papering machine, Flexible, Fay ... "Engineer," xlv. 435. Sand Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) A battery in which the elements arc imbedded in colls filled with silicious sand saturated with dilute sulphuric acid. Sabine, London, 1867 228. Sand Brake. An automatic method of stop- ping a train when the speed exceeds a desired rate, or when cars are detached accidentally. In Wiseman's automatic sand brake on the axle of every wheel of the train is placed a cylinder, in which a circular plate, keyed to the axle and bearing a number of small blades, revolves whenever the train is in motion. The blade compartment surrounds a cylindrical compartment, which, being filled with sand, is called the sand-box. The upper and the lower portion of this box are in communication with the blade-box by a number of parts, of which the lower can be opened and closed by means both of an electrical mechan- ism and automatically, while the upper ones, which are smaller, are always open. A plate, keyed to the axle, opens the lower sand-ports with every revolution, but the sand thus escaping is so small in quantity that it is immediately swept back by the blades into the sand-box through the upper ports. As soon, however, as the electrical circuit, which also controls this sand valve by means of an electro- magnet, is broken, the sand flows from the box very quickly, and, packing the blade-box, stops the train. The same will occur as soon as the train moves too rapidly, or when one or more cars are left behind. It is therefore automatic, and its effect increases with the velocity of the train. Sand Dry'er. For evaporating the moisture. Two perforated cylinders, one inside of the other. The inner cylinder is perforated at an angle of 45, and inclosed with a conical top. The outside cylinder is perforated at about 40, and both cylinders set perpendicular. A blower forces hot air into the inner cylinder, which, striking the conical top, is forced through the perforations, and passes through the sand placed between the cylinders. The out- side perforations permit evaporation. Sand Fence. (Hydraulic Engineering.) An obstruction to a current, made of stakes placed A- shaped and driven, and having brush lashed or wired thereto. Sand-hold'er. A chamber in a pump-stock in which the sand carried by the water is allowed to deposit before reaching the pump-bucket or plunger. Sand-pa'per-ing Ma-chine'. 1. (Boot and Shoe Making.) A drum covered with sand-paper for giving the desired surface to shoe-soles. 2. ( Wood-working Machinery.) A machine for scouring, finishing, and polishing flat surfaces of wood. Sand-papering mach., Fay $ Co. * "Scientific Am.," xl. 89. Sand Pump. A pump for ejecting sand. The most notable instances are those of the great bridge pier caissons at St. Louis and New York. The discharge of the sand pumps at the east abutment of the New York and Brooklyn Bridge was over 346 cubic yards in 24 hours. The general arrangement consisted of a water jet dis- charging upward through the center of a hollow globe : this globe was placed in the caisson at the bottom of an iron tube which extended upwards through the masonry, and was connected with a flexible tube below ; the lower end of the flexible tube was kept submerged in the water below the level of the bottom of the caisson, and this water was drawn upwards by the inducing force of the jet, carrying with it a large quantity of sand ; the general arrangement was not * unlike that of the Giffard injector. In sinking the Pier No. 5 of St. Charles Bridge over the Missouri River, Eads : sand pumps removed 18 cubic yards of sand per hour each. They were found to work best with a three-inch discharge-pipe and 200 Ibs. per square inch water pressure. Three Cameron pumps, with 12" X 24" steam, 6" X 24" water cylinders were used to supply two ^f the saud pumps, and were worked up to their full capacity in so doing. Sand Screen. A sand sifter. San'i-tas. Russian turpentine and water are placed in huge earthenware jars, surrounded by hot water. Air is driven through the mixture in the jars continually for three hundred hours, the result being a decomposition of the turpentine, and the formation of a watery solution of the substance, to which Dr. Kingsett, the discoverer, has given the name of " Sanitas." After evaporation, the substance, as sold in tin cans, is a light brown pow- der, of a pleasant taste and odor, and capable in a very remarkable degree of preventing or arresting putrefactive changes. This new disinfectant has been in use for some time in England, and is highly spoken of. It is said to have a pleasant odor, is not poisonous, and does not injure clothing, furniture, etc. For household uses it would seem to be well adapted. Sa-pon'i-fi-er. An apparatus for the manu- facture of glycerine and the fatty acids, by the decomposition of fats and the isolation of their several constituents ; stearic, margoriuic, and oleic acids and glycerine. Droux *" Scientific American Sup.," 2562. Sap Spout. A device for holding the bucket to the tree and conducting the sap from the tree to the bucket in sugar-making. In the Eastern States the first flow of sugar-bearing sap which precedes the bursting of the leaf-buds, is specially called "sap." In Ohio and the West it is called "sugar water," and the later juices, which arise in the tree after the " sugar water " has ceased to run, are called the " sap." Lawrence * "Scientific American," xxxv. 325. Sar'dine Shears. A pair of strong scissors, with pointed blades for cutting open the tin boxes containing sardines, potted meats, etc. Sash Clamp. A clamp for squaring sash and tightening up the joints. See BLIND CLAMP, Fig. 326, p. 106, supra. Sash Cramp. A vise for holding sash while putting together. See FLOORING ; CARPENTERS AND JOINERS* CLAMPS, "Mech. Diet." and supra. Sash Lift. A handle on a sash for lifting it. Sash Tools. Fig. 219a Sash, Blind, and Pin Tools. 1. Blind slat chisel for stationary slats. 2. Hollow auger, for rounding slat tenons. 3. Double chisel, for sash bars. 4. Staple punch' to prick both rods and slats 5. Pin tool, for making pins. 6. Tool, for pointing pins. 7. Burr, for rounding slat tenons 8. Center bit, for blind boring. SASH TOOLS. 780 SAW JOINTER. Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 5 may be used in foot-mortising machines. Xoa. 2, 7, and 8 in the blind stile boring machine, and small boring shaft. Sash Rel'ish-ing Ma-chine'. A machine for forming that part of the shoulder of a tenoned piece which projects beyond the part which enters the mortise. This is done at one operation by si cluster of circular saws, part of them set longitudi- nally of the stuff, with smaller ones set transversely, the front teeth of the small ones being almost in conjunction with the front teeth of the two outside larger teeth, but a little in front. Sa-tine'. (Fabric.) An all-wool French goods with satin weave. Sat'in-et Loom. A loom designed for heavy goods, such as satinets, twills, jeans, satin stripes, checked cottonades, etc. It usually has 4 boxes at Fig. 2194. Satinet Loom. one end. An endless chain governs and moves the heddle levers and is readily changed to any pat- tern without the aid of cams. It is of the open-shed type. The cut shows a plain lathe, single shuttle loom. Sat'in-ing. (Fine Art Metal-working.) A mode of decorating silver-ware by abrading the surface with a wire brush, which is revolved while the ob- ject is pressed against it. Soapy water is dripped upon the surface under treatment, the minute scratches giving the sheen of satin. Safin Weave. (Weaving.) A style of weav- ing made on a loom with 5 or more harnesses. See ARMURE. Sau'sage Ma-chine'. See STUFFER, Figs. 1105, 1106, p. 359, supra. See CUTTEK, Fig. 4587, p. 2032, "Mech. Diet." See FILLER, Fig. 4588, p. 2032, Ibid. See STUFFER, Fig. 4589, p. 2032, Ibid. See MINCING KNIFE, Fig. 3168, p. 1446, Ibid. See MEAT CHOPPER, Figs. 3106, 3107, p. 1415, Ibid. See MEAT COTTER, Figs. 3109, 3110, pp. 1415, 1416, Ibid. See MEAT CHOPPER, Figs. 1699, 1700, pp. 590, 591, supra. See MEAT ROCKER, Fig. 1702, p. 591, supra. Saw. (Surgical.) A large number of varieties of surgical saws are included in the list of saws, p. 2035, "Mech. Diet." See under the following list, which embraces the more important m segregated form : Exsecting. Folding. Heine's. ] ley's. Interosseous. Lifting back. Maxillae. Metacarpal. Post-mortem. Itachitome. Rotating. Subcutaneous. 1. Circular saws were first used in Holland. Richards. The proper periphery velocity of a circular saw is 9,000* per minute, or 100 miles per hour. A saw 12 // in diameter should make 3,000 revolutions per minute. A saw-blade exhibited by Jessop & Sons at Paris, was KV 8" diameter, 9-16" thick, and weighed 2,638 pounds. See "Mech. Diet.,''- pp. 2033-2046. Saw, Simonds . . . . "Iron Age," xxii., Aug. 15, p. 5. Saw bench, Casson . . * "Scientific American,'' xxxix. 374. Casson, Br * "Engineering,''' xxvi. 342. Circular, Wardwell . * "Man. if Builder,*' xii. 79. Saw file guide, Roth . . * "Man. Builder," xii. 78. Saw guard, Garrett , Br. * "Engineering,'' xxviii. 446. Lakeman, Br. . . . * "Engineer,'' xlviii. 404. Circular, Dale, Br. . * "Engineer," xlix. 268; 1. 229- Saw guide, Roth . . * "Man. fy Builder," x. 225. Saw gummer, Densmore * "Man. (f Builder," xii. 25. Disslon * "Engineer,- 1 xii. 450. Tucker * "Scientific American," xii. 86. (Emery), Densmore . * "Scientific American,' 1 ' 1 xxxv. 54. Saw-mill, American . . * "Engineer,' 1 ' 1. 153. Portable. "Cana- dian 1 ' * "Scientific American,'' 1 xxxv. 318. Saw-milldog, StearnsCo.* "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 198. Saw, perforated blade. * "Engineer,'' 1 xii. 447. * "Iron Age," xx., July 26, p. 5. * " Scientific American,''' xxxvi. 259. * "Scientific American,' 1 ' XXXT. 294. Am. Sniv Co. Saw set, Jones . . . Saw straightening Saw tooth, Hoe . . Saw, insertable tooth. Am. Saw Co. . . Hoe Amputating. Bead. Bow. Capital. Chain. Circular. * "Engineer," xii. 447. * "Min. $ Sc. Press," xxxvi. 257. Schley * "Scientific American," xxxix. 406. Saws, Boynton .... * "Iron Age," xvii., June 6, p. 17. Disston * "Iron Age," xvii., June 6, p. 29. * "Engineer," xii. 447. Scroll saw, Bentel, Mar- gedant If Co. . . . * "Manufact. # Builder," yiii. 105. Trump * "Manufact. $ Builder," viii. 112. Beach * "Manufaci. if Builder,"' viii. 222. Bentel * "Scientific American," xxxiv. 179. Busk * "Scientific American," xxxv. 262. . * "Engineer," xii. 428. . * " Iron Age,'' xxii., Oct. 24, p. 5. 'Scientific American," xxxvi. 275. Beach . . . " Boss " . . "Dexter" Dexter * "Eureka," Woods . * Fay * Griffin * Lester * Lewis * Plummer * * "Stafford" . . . . * Stafford * Walker Bros . . . . * ' Iron Age," xviii., Nov. 30, p. 1. 'Manufact. & Builder," ix. 241. 'Manufact. (f Builder,'' ix. 217. 'Scientific American," xl. 150. 'Iron Age," xxi., May 2, p. 25. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 390. ' Iron Age," xvii., April 13, p. 3. 'Scientific American,'' xxxiv. 6. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 217. 'Iron Age," xxi., March 21, p. 20. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 227. Saw Bra'zing Forge. A forge for brazing the ends of a band or other saw, having an anvil piece with blowing furnace below. Saw Bench. The bench on which the material rests in being worked. Fig. 2195 shows the table of a combined cutting-off saw, rip saw, miter sawing, bevel sawing, and dado machine. The saw mandrel is placed on a carriage, and travels on ways. The saw is drawn toward the operator by the foot treadle, which allows the operator the use of both hands to handle the stuff. The mandrel is raised and lowered by means of rack and pinion to adjust the same and dado head to differ ent thicknesses of work. Saw Guide. An adjustable piece to direct the saw in cross cutting. Saw'ing Ma-chine'. One with power-driven saw. See under various heads in list of 160 kinds of saws, "Mech. Diet.," p. 2035. Saw Joint'er. A device to enable gang saw operators to obtain and retain a correct, parallel, and uniform rake and breast line upon their saws. In Pond's saw jointer the saw is placed in a frame having SAW JOINTER. 781 SCALES. Fig. 2195. Fig. 2196. Saw Bench. tracks for the swaging blocks and file holder to travel on. The proper swage and knock-down is given each tooth by two blows on the double swaging blocks. The ways can be run up or down to preserve the breast line of the saws per- fect when strained in the gate. Experience has taught that no matter how carefully saws are strapped, and fitted by hand in the ordinary way, they will, when strained, vary on the rake line from one eighth to one half an inch in the stroke. One of the most important objects to be attained is the keeping of the saws jointed on tion to the width of the saw and the distance of the strain from the center line. The flier should give the saw a con- cave that will, when properly strained, become a straight line. To give a concave, so far, the eye alone has been de- pended upon without any scientific application of instru- ments. The concave should be made from end to end of the saw teeth, at every point the true arc of a circle. Unless all saws in the gang are jointed exactly alike and exactly right, the result of their action will be to retard the work of the gang, as the saws not properly jointed will wear out first and keep the good saws from performing the work they should do. Saw Jump'er. A punch to shape the end of saw teeth. Sec SAW SWAGE. Saw Set. An implement to spread the teeth of a saw laterally, to regulate the width of the kerf. See " Mech. Diet.,"' p. 2843, 2044. In Fig. 2196 the plunger is operated by a treadle. The striking part and the anvil are star-shaped and similar in con- struction. The points are all of diflereut sizes, designed to set different sized teeth. Saw Ta1>le. A form of sawing machine adapted to trimming the edges of stereotype plates. See Fig. 5794, pp. 2079, "Mech. Diet." *" Scientific American " ....... xl. 340. Saw Tem'per-ing. The process by which the saw is given the necessary hardness and elasticity. See TEMPERING, "Mech. Diet.," p. 2562. When large saws are made red hot in tempering and then suddenly cooled, they are frequently bent and buckled. This is usually rectified by a skillful stretching of the rigid spots by hammer and anvil, which liberates the structure until at length it is a flat surface, and runs true as a saw. Saw Set. In the new American system no hammering is resorted to. The buckled saw is compressed in a mold between two flat surfaces, the operation being performed in an oven made on purpose, which is carefully heated up to the proper temper- ature required to give the saw temper. The oven is allowed to cool down with equal care, and when taken out of the mold the saw is found tempered without being buckled. Dr. Anderson. Saw Tooth'ing Ma-chine'. One for in- creasing the depth of saw teeth. See " Mech. Diet.," 4616, 4617 E, 4636. Saw Up-set'ter. A tool to turn over or dis- play the teeth of a saw to widen the kerf. See SAW SWAGK. Scab. (Founding.} A protuberance on a cast- ing formed by the washing away of the mold-wall. Scat. (Smithing.) The tapered extremity or feather edge of a weld-lap. Scaffold. In blast furnace practice, mate- rial which has been arched and refuses to melt down. Scaffold-ing. See Elaborate illustrated arti- cle, Labonlaye's "Diet, des Arts et Manufactures," vol. iv., ed. 1877, article "jZchafandage." Scaffolding, Paris Expo- sition, 1878 ... * "Engineering," xxviii. 108, 182. Iron, Hahn .... *" Scientific American Sup., " 2701. Screw (for chimneys). Lis/i * " Scientific American," xli. 134. Scales. Devices for obtaining the dimensions or weights of bodies. See "Mech. Diet.," pp. 2048- 2051, and supra, pp. 316, 414, 415. The American, French (metric), Charriere, and English gages of urethral instruments are given on pp. 6, 6, Part III., Tiemann's "Armamentarium, Okirurfisum." The Fairbanks was the original compound lever weighing scale, though most American scales are of this class. The principle of the platform scales consists in supporting a platform upon a system of four horizontal levers, which are placed in a shallow portable box or in a pit in the ground. These levers are iron bars set on edge, and each hanging upon a fixed knife edge of steel in one of the corners of the box or pit. On the original plan they all met under the center of the platform, their ends resting on the short arm of a fifth lever also of the second order, the long arm of which ex- tended beyond the margin of the platform and was sus- pended by means of a connecting rod to the short arm of a lever or index beam at a convenient height above the ground. This in all the scales receives the counterpoise and the SCALES. 782 SCARIFIER. weights. The platform was fitted to a box or to a recess around the edge of, the pit, resting there when not in use. Near each corner a foot projected downward terminating in a steel plate, and as the levers were raised a very little by the depression of the index beam, a knife edge fixed to each of them near the fulcrum reached this plate and together lifted the platform and its load. The weight, it is seen, was thus divided between the four levers resting upon them be- tween their fulcrums and the power, and several times nearer to the former than to the latter. Such proportion of the load was therefore borne by the four corners, relieving the scale beam of this, as the length of the long arm of one of the lev- ers to its whole length. The scale beam was still further re- lieved by the fifth lever, which was of the same order as the others, and received the weight a little within its fulcrum, which also worked upon a knife edge. In the scales of more recent construction the fifth lever is done away with, and two from the corners and at one end of the box or pit are ex- tended entirely across, meeting each other beyond the oppo- site end and directly under the scale beam, with which they connect. The other two levers meet the first pair and con- nect, one with each of them, just midway across. A steel ring at this point hangs upon a knife edge of each of the levers of the first pair, and into this is introduced the knife dge, facing downward, of one of the other levers. The adjustment of the bearing points is made with the ut- most precision, so that the results do not vary if the load is placed successively upon different portions of the platform. Considering the small proportion of the load that actually comes upon the scale beam to be weighed, in the largest ma- chines sometimes amounting to not .more than the one hun- dredth or even the one-thousandth part, the results are sur- prisingly accurate. At a test made in the Crystal Palace, New York, 52,600 pounds was weighed successively on every portion of the platform of a railroad track scale, and the greatest variation from the main weight was three pounds. The graduation of the beam is made very exact by machine work, and all the corresponding parts in the scale. Charnoroy's (Paris) invention is a weighing machine, made to register the weight ascertained, by printing it on tickets during the operation of weighing. This is accom- plished by arranging at suitable distances along the edge of the scale beam a series of punches, like those for stamping names or figures on wood or iron, with projecting figures: in a machine for weighing up to a thousand kilograms about a ton these figures represent hundreds. A movable plate is inserted in the sliding weight below the beam, and capable of being brought into contact with it by a lever. The ticket is introduced between the plate and the under edge of the beam through an aperture in the sliding weight. These figures print the hundreds ; but the tens figures following by a line are set on the under side of a short bar which works in the sliding weight like the bolt of a door. The tickets Fig. 2197. Chameray's Registering Scale. having been already printed with equi-distaut spaces num- bered to represent the units and divided by dots, when an article has to be weighed, the sliding weight is brought under whichever hundreds figure corresponds to the nearest ap- proximation to the weight, and equilibrium is obtained by moving the short bar, previously mentioned, from left to right in the sliding weight. The ticket is then inserted be- tween the movable plate and the beam, and a smart blow on the lever punches the tens and hundreds figures on the tick- ets, the position of the horizontal line following the tens fig- ure with respect to the dot and line already printed, per- mitting of the weight being ascertained and printed correctly to a quarter of a kilogram i Ib. "Scientific American Sup.," 2095. "Iron Age," xxiii., May 8, p. 24. "Scientific American," xlii. 276. "Scientific American," xliii. 287. "Scientific American," xliii. 371. "Scientific American Sup.," 498. Scale, Marquoi . . . Scale-beam, compound division, Weeks . . Scale board mach , Huey * ' Scale equilib., Rfdier, Fr. Scale factory, Fairbanks * " Scales, automatic, Stoner * '' Weighing, RieUe . . " Platform scale, constant equilibrium, Hedier, Fr. * "Scientific American," xxxix. 233. Fig. 976, p. 316, supra. Sca'ler. A dentist's tool for removing scale or tartar from teeth. Especially shaped and designed for removing deposits of salivary calculus from the necks and interspaces of the teeth. Fig. 2198. Dentist's Sealers. Scaling Knife. (Fishing.) A knife for re- moving scales ; sometimes has a saw edge. Scalp'ing. (Milling.) Brushing the hair or fuzz from the ends of wheat grain to prevent its getting into the flour. One of the refinements of the new wheat processes. Scan'di-na'vi-an Belt'ing. Cotton doth woven solid and treated with Stockholm tar. Pa- per by Cobbett, London Association of Society of Foreman Engineers, reported in " Scientific Ameri- can Sup.," 3800. Scan'di-na'vi-an Lock. A form of lock for securing hasps to staples. It is made heavy, both branches of the bow withdrawing from the lock. See JAIL LOCK, Fig. 1481, p. 511, supra. Scar. (Founding.} A weak or faulty part in a casting, due to an imperfection of the metal. Scarfing Frame. A holder in which a band- saw is placed while the scarfed ends are brazed to- gether. See BAND-SAW HOLDER, p. 72, and Fig. 199, p. 73, supra. Scar'i-fi-er. A cultivator having long, sharp teeth, with wheels to regulate the depth of cut. Fig. 2199 in a French horse-power cultivator of the largest class ; it is called a Scarificateur extirpateur, and is an effi- Fig. 2199. French Scarifier. (Breloux, Nevers, Prance.) cient implement when sufficient power is applied. Seven shares are fixed in the triangular iron frame, the front angle of which has a goose-neck in which the standard of the caster wheel is placed. A single movement of the lever raises or SCARIFIER. 783 SCORING MACHINE. depresses the frame at all points equally, so as to keep it in parallelism with the soil. It resembles some of the cultiva- tors in the series of steam-plow implements. Fig. 2200 is much like the preceding, but having four 2200. F/mr-W/iteled Scarifier. wheels instead of three, and teeth more for stirring than cutting. Fig. 2201 shows a turning harrow, between a steam culti- vator and steam harrow. It is fitted at will for either of two kinds of shares, a broad one for cutting and a square-pointed one for simply stirring the ground. The instrument is in three pieces to accommodate itself to uneven surfaces, and will take in a breadth of 12' to 15'. The steering frame is adapted to take different harrows, from the lightest seed- harrow up to cultivating tools. On the short end of the turn- ing lever is a chain communicating with a quadrant on the crank axle, and as the lever is pulled around the chain, act- ing on the quadrant, turns the axle, lifts the frame, and raises the tines out of the ground. Fig. 2201. Scissors, for glass. Martini . . . " Technologiste ," xxxvi Bruder-Johnson . * "Iron Age," xvii., Jan. Young * "Iron Age," xvii., Feb. Folding "Scientific American," - "*--- * "Scientific American,' 1 ' Scissors gage, Wiggins ii. 217. 13, p. 9. 3, p. 11. xxxv. 159. xxxv. 66. Fig. 2202, French, Cutting and Si Sci-en-tif'ic Ap'pa-ra'tus. Scientific apparatus, Lon- don exhibition of . "Engineering," xxi., various art. Loan collect. Engl. . "Scientific American Sup.," 505. London exhibition of "Engineering ," xxii. 4 and fol- lowing. Exhibition of . "Engineer,'-' xli. 341,352, 371,376, 389, 425, 481-486. Scientific logs .... * "Man. if Builder" viii. 36, 60. Scis'sors. (Surgical.) The following list of shears and scissors used in surgery embraces the more important : Amputating cervix. Angular. Artery. Canulated. Ceratome. Conjunctiva. Curved. Dissecting. Dressing. Ear. Enterotome. Harelip. Hemorrhoidal Hysterotome. Iris. Perforating. Pile. Phymosis. Plaster of Paris. Probe-pointed. Pterygium. Staphy lorraphy. Strabismus. Tonsil. Tonsilotome. Tooth-edged. Trachea. Uterine. Uvula. Wire-cutting. See many illustrations in Fig. 4671, p. 2054, "Mech. Diet.' 1 ' 1 Some others are shown in present volume under their alpha- betical heads. See also : Bankers' scissors. Barbers' scissors. Button-hole cutters Ladies' scissors. Nail scissors. Paper scissors Paper-hangers' shears Pocket scissors. Pruning shears. Sardine shears. Tailors' shears. Trimmers, straight and bent. Sci-op'ti-con. A form of magic-lantern for exhibiting photographic objects. Fig. 2202 shows Marcy's Oil light Sciopticon. The flame- chamber, a distinctive featu-re of the oil-light sciopticon, is a small dark-lantern in itself, with a front and back-glass, o o, suspended by cross-strips in a ventilated protecting shell. Two ilames, starting wide apart at v v, are deflected as close toward each other as they can be without interfering, over a rising current of air, which thoroughly oxygenates the inner surfaces. The chimney-cap is telescoping, and can be raised or lowered. The reflector H is outside the flame-chamber, and answers the purpose of door and reflector. Its bur- nished surface is kept from tarnishing by a protecting film. The condenser p q is sus- pended free from contact in a chamber sepa- rate from the flame-chamber. Its front band presents a good bearing for rests and slides, and the lenses are removable. The extension front is read- ily removable to give access to the interior of the instru- ment, and can be drawn forward to suit different lenses. Schist Oil. Article " Huile de Schiste" La- boulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," tome iv., ed. 1877. Scoop. 1. (Surgical.) A ladle or spoon shaped instrument used in removing objects from cavities. Among them are those having the following ap- plications : Bone. Laryngeal. Sessile tumor. Cataract. Lithotomy. Urethral. Lens. Rectal. Uterine, etc. Thomas's serrated scoop for the detachment of sessile uterine fibroids has a saw-shaped edge to the scoop. See also CURETTE. 2. A form of wheel used in lifting water. See Fig. 4677, p. 2055, "Mech. Diet." 3. A spoon-shaped capacious shovel. 4. A bowl-shaped pan on a weighing-scale. Weighing scoop . , . * " Scientific American," xxxviii. 23. Scoop, smooth back. Hussey, Burns (f Co. * "Iron Age,''' six., April 5, p. 11. Scoop Net. (Fishing.) A baling net for emptying the fish collected in a pound. Scor'ing Ma-chine'. The corner cutting and scoring machine is one used in making small boxes of card-board, to cut off the superfluous material from the blank and to make a score on the future angles of the box in order to make the stuff bend readily and accurately at such places. See PAPKR-BOX SCORING AND CUTTING MA- CHINE. SCORE. 784 SCRAPPING. Score. (Nautical.) The groove on the body of a tackle-block to hold the strap. Scour'er. A form of grain cleaner in which the berry is subjected to a rubbing action to remove all extraneous matters : smut, dust, mildew. See GRAIN CLEANER, SMUTTER, etc., and references passim. Scour'ing. 1. (Grain.) A process in which grain is rubbed and brushed to remove smut, dust, mildew, etc. 2. (Leather.) Scouring on the flesh. On being taken out of the water the skins are spread out and set on the scouring table by passing a steel slicker over the flesh side, which brings the grain in close contact with the table, and, being wet, it ad- heres to it. A bountiful supply of water is applied and rubbed briskly over the flesh side with a stiff brush, whereby the pulpy portions of the surface are scrubbed off, and the skin presents a soft, whitened appearance and the pores are opened. Scouring on the grain. The skin is set on a scouring ta- ble by a slicker, which stretches it and at the same time loosens the bloom. The grain side is kept uppermost, and is smartly brushed with a stiff hair brush, using at the same time plenty of water, when the slicker is again used to re- move the water and loosened bloom. A stock-stone is often used instead of the slicker to loosen the bloom. 3. (Fabric.) A process for renewing the surface of soiled stuffs, removing stains, etc. The de'grais- sage of the French. Laboulaye's "Dictionnaire" i.', "Degraisseur." Scour'ing TaHble. (Leather.) A large firmly built table, with a mahogany, bird's-eye maple, slate, or marble top. It is about 12' long and 4' wide, so constructed that the water used in scouring may pass off readily upon the side opposite to that on which the workman is engaged. Scow, Cheap. A small flat boat. Scow, cheap . . . * "Scientific American Sup., r 397, 410. Scrap Cut'ting Ma-chine'. A machine for cutting long metal scrap for bundling and rework- ing. See BAR CUTTER. Scrap shears. Parkjute Iron Works, Br. . * "Engineering," xxix. 284. Scra'per. (Iron Working.) 1. A tool used in getting a true face on a metallic surface after leav- ing the planer. 2. An arrangement for leveling or moving dirt, removing weeds, etc. A leveling attachment for dirt cars. Two spreading wings attached to the rear car of a construction train run outside therails near the ties, to level the dirt that has been dumped from the preceding cars. The Johnson wheeled earth scraper, Fig. 2203, is suspended from the axle by a hanger pivoted at the lower end in the center of the side of the scraper box. The axle being free at the top permits the wheels to roll forward when raising the back end to fill or dump, although the formation of the scraper will not admit of a horizontal position while filling. Earth car, Leveling attachment for. Andrews * "Scientific American,' 1 '' xliii. 271. Scraper, Earth . . . . *" Scientific American Sup.,''' 226. Pettier's scraper for cleaning in gardens and vineyards has a broad hoe-shaped blade, followed by a row of iron teeth. The blade cuts the weeds and grass off at the surface of the ground while the teeth gather up the grass and weeds, and loosen the soil. For different scrapers, see pp. 2057-2059, "Mech. Diet." Wheeled, Fig. 4694, p. 2058, "Mech. Diet.'' Revolving, Fig. 4695, p. 2058, Ibid. Oblique board, Fig. 4693 B, p. 2058 ; Fig. 4365, p. 1954, Ibid. Wagon mounted, Fig. 4696, p. 2059, Ibid. Scraper, earth, Doty . * "Engineer," xlii. 199. Revolving, Revolving Scraper Co. . . . * "Iron Age," xvii., Feb. 17, p. 19. (Wood Working.) Fig. 2204 shows Whitney's machine for giving a fine surface to hard woods, particularly where the grain is irregular ; a plan- ing machine, in which the wood is carried by rolls suitably placed against a stationary cutter. This cutter is a steel blade of sufficient length to extend across the machine, secured in a block of such -strength as to be safe against springing. This blade is exceedingly sharp, Fig. 2203 Enrth Scraper. and has the feather-edge which is generally considered essen- tial in a scraping-tool for wood. The blade is very carefully set to take the thinnest possible shaving from the surface of the wood, which is given an ordinary good finish on the plan- ing machine before it is sent to the scraper. A little machine accompanies the scraper, specially designed to sharpen the Wood Scraper. blade. It consists of a pair of emery-wheels, so set that one can bevel the edge of the cutter while the other squares up the face. The blade is clamped, during the operation, be- tween a pair of jaws, which hold it firmly and precisely in position. As the sharpened blade passes from under these wheels, a stationary steel bar touches the edge, and, sliding along it, turns it, producing the feather-edge. Scrap'ping. A device for carrying away the scraps of paste, the residuum .of the sheet after SCRATCHER. 785 SCREW DOG. stamping out crackers, biscuits, or cakes in the ma chine. See CKACKER-CUTTING MACHINE ; PAN- NING MACHINE. Scratch'er. (Plasterers.) The scratcher i; made of pointed slats, set 1" apart, and kept in position by cross pieces ; one slat is left longer than the others, and answers the purpose of a han- dle. Screen. A separator or partition. A screen for working ores by the wet process is made of Russian sheet-iron, the smooth planished iron being punctured with fine holes. Screens for working dry ores are made of wire, and vary in fineness from 900 to 10,000 meshes to the square inch. A protecting shield around radiators, t A sifting arrangement for sand, etc. A blind to intercept heat or light. A riddle or sieve. See GRAIN CLEANER, etc. A jigger, etc., for ore. See "Mech. Diet.," p. 2059. Screw. See under the following heads : Cap screw. Oval point set screw. Couch screw. Bound head cap screw. Countersunk head screw. Screw bolt. Hanger screw. Screw eye. Me \agon-head cap screw. Screw knob. Knob screw. Set screw. Lag screw. Skein screw. Machine screw. Wood screw. Screw-head key ... Screw-plate ..... Launch engine . . . Screw cylinder engine . Six cylinder engine . . Screw propeller, feather- ing, Moyse, Br. . . . Screw steerer . . . . * "Eng. If Min. Jour.," xxvi. 187. * "Iron Aife," xxii., Dec. 5, p. 9. Figs. 1549-1555, pp. 631, 532, supra. Infra. Infra. * "Engineer,'' xlv. 59. * "Scientific American Sup.,-' 2299. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2162. See article "Helice,"' Labaulaye-s "Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufact.," tome iv., ed. 1877. Number of arms ; diameter ; area; rate and recoil, etc. Sollier's and Mangin's systems. Screw-thread forging ma- chine * ' Screw propeller. Deane, Br * ' De Bay * ' De Bay, yacht " lo- lar," Br. . . . . * ' Eyre . . . ' . . . * ' Eyre. Engl *' Griffiths " Ressel (1812), Sweden * " S. S. " City of San Fran- cisco," Roach . . * " Thome ycroft . . . * ' Thorneycroft, Br. . . * ' Assistant. Mackenzie, XT. . . * ' Dynamometer. I' r nude., Br. . . . * ' Feathering. Kirk $ Hunt, Br. . * ' Moysey, Br * ' Raising, etc., Sadlier . * ' Testing apparatus . . *' Testing apparatus, Br. * ' Screw propellers. Hnwden * ' Screw cutting machanism. Engl * ' Screw cutting tools, kit of, Wiley if Russell . * ' Screw cutter and nut tapper, ScUenker . . * ' Screw collier " Fenton,'-' Austin Hunter, Br. * ' Screw cutting lathe . . * ' Brown $ Sharpe, . . * ' Ferris tf Miles . . . *' * i Goodnow * ' Johnson ... * ' Weise * Screw cutting foot lathe. Axtbury, Br * Screw driver, Abrams . * Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 114. Engineering," xxviii. 40. Scientific American,' 1 xliii. 193. 'Engineer," xlviii. 352. 'Engineering," xxiii. 236. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 1169. 'Scientific American Sup.," 2873. 'Engineering,' 7 xxvii. 13. 'Engineering," xxiii. 268. 'Scientific American Sup.," 1220. Engineering," xxi. 88. Engineer," xlviii. 198. 'Engineer," xliv. 77. Engineering," xxix. 225. Engineer,-'' xlv. 59. Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 120. Engineer," xlvii. 389. Engineer," xlyii. 124. 'Scientific American Sup.," 1599. 'Scientific American Sup.," 2463. 'Scientific American,'' xxxvi. 64. 'Iron Age," xxi., May 2, p. 26. 'Engineering," xxviii. 490. ' Scientific American," xxxvi. 118 'Man. $ Builder," xi. 199. 'Engineering," xxi. 372. 'Railroad Gazette," xxi. 71. 'Scientific American," xxxix. 53. 'Iron Age," xix. ; March 8, p. 5. 'Scientific American," xxxv. 291. 'Engineering," xxx. 321. 'Scientific American," xli. 358. 50 Screw engine (for propel- lers) Cramp . . . . * Screw hoisting tackle. Box if Co * Screwing machine. Pratt if Whitney . . * Barrow, Br * With releasing motion. Brown, Br. . . . * Screwing and tapping ma- chine, Pratt if Whitney * Bowker * Screw-jack, 6-ton. Maude, Br * Telescopic, Ball . . * Screw machine. Browne if Sharpe . . * Pratt if Whitney . . * Self-slotting, Habbel . * Screw shaft flexible coup- ling, Snoivden, Br. . * Screw shafts, flexible coupling for .... * Screw steamer of 1804. Stevens * Screw thread forging ma- chine, Bouchacourt if Deiille, Fr * Screw ventilator, Pelzer * "Engineering," xxi. 480. "Iron Age," xxiii., Feb. 13, p. 11. "Engineer," xlii. 24. "Engineering,'' xxx. 127. "Engineer," xlii. 349. "Engineering," xxi. 248. " Scientific American Sup.," 165. "Engineer," xlvii. 117. "Engineer,-' xlix. 286. Thurston's " Vienna Kept.," ii. 232. Thurston's " Vienna Rept.," ii. 225. "Iron Age," xviii., Nov. 30, p. 1. "Engineering," xxix. 474. "Scientific American Sup.," 3898. "Manufact. if Builder," ix. 190. "Engineer," xliii. 417. "Scientific American Sup.," 4071. Screw Burn'er. (Lamps.) a. A burner in which the wick is lifted and depressed by a screw. Found in Argand lamps. 6. A burner which fastens by screw thread to the socket of the lamp-top. Screw Cal'i-pers. In which the adjustment of the points is made by screw. See several forms in Fig. 1029, p. 429, " Mech. Diet." Screw Cut'ting Ma-chine'. A screw cut- ting machine takes a rod of iron, steel, or brass, and by an automatic series of operations drops screws at the other end of the machine. One tool cuts the point of the rod down to the dimensions of the screw, another cuts it off, having the head the full size of the rod, another takes it from the last and passes it on to have the thread cut, a cut- ter passes by and leaves it slotted, another with four iron fingers takes it and transfers it to a fifth cut- ter, where the head is finished, when still another tool comes to push it into the pan placed to receive it. No intervention is needed until another rod is wanted. See SCREW, supra. Fig. 2206 represents a machine for screwing and cutting off Steam and gas pipe. The belting and gearing are arranged for obtaining suitable power and speed for the varying sizes of pipes. The die and head to which it is attached are so constructed that pipe may be alternately screwed and cut oil without removing the die from the machine. See various forms on pp. 2065-2067, "Mech. Diet." A form of lathe as in Figs. 4725, 4734, pages above cited. See also BOLT-CUTTER, Figs. 367-371, pp. 117, supra; Figs 770, 771, 777, 778, pp. 324-326, "Mech. Diet." TURRET LATHE, Fig. 6824, p. 2665, "Mech. Diet." PIPE THREADER, Fig. 3744, p. 1712, "Mech. Diet." SCREW, supra. Screw Ma-chine'. In sheet-metal working, a machine for threading zinc or sheet-metal screws for can-tops, etc. Screw Dog. A clamp to hold the stuff firmly in the carriage, adjustable by a screw. Fig. 2205. Extra Screw Dog for Holding Dimension Stuff: SCREW ELEVATOR. 786 SCREW HOIST. Screw Cutting Machine. Fig. 2205 shows a feeding or tail screw hung in an iron box, let into the back end of the carriage, so as to come en- tirely below its surface ; on this screw is a nut with a trav- erse dog for holding the stuff, and operated by a hand- wheel on the outer end of the screw. The front dog for holding the stuff consists of a plate having teeth on one side and running across the entire width of the carriage, and which is held in its place by teeth on an iron plate let into the sides of the carriage, requiring no bolts or keys to hold it firm. Screw El'e-va'tor. 1. (Dental.) A staff with gimlet screw on the end to screw into a root as a means of withdrawal. Fig. 4730, p. 2066, " Mech. Diet." 2. (Surgical.) A hard rubber conical screw to force open the jaws of maniacs or lock-jawed. 3. A form of passenger lift in which a screw is used to elevate the cage. Screw En'gine. Engines of this type, for vessels up to 300 tons, have inverted steam cylin- ders carried on strong hollow standards, which also form the guides for the cross-heads. The slide valves are between the cylinders, and the valve-box cover is on the side, giving easy access to the valves for examination. The engines have case-hardened j link-motion reversing gear, and separate expansion valve. The condenser is fixed on one side ; the air-pump is driven by side levers from the cross-head of the engine. The stand- ards which carry the engines are fixed to a strong cast-iron base-plate ; the bearings for the crank-shaft, including the thrust bearing, are also sesured to this plate. The screw shaft is coupled direct to the crank -shaft, and passes through a stern tube, as shown. It is usually fitted with three- bladed screw propeller, but any other form may be adopted, and the propeller is made of malleable cast-iron, gun-metal, or cast-steel, as may be desired, the price varying according to the material employed. The boiler is of the ordinary cir- cular form, with an internal flue and return tubes, the up- take leading to the chimney being in front of the boiler and directly above the fire-door. The boiler is of the best material and workmanship throughout, and is furnished with all the steam mountings and furnace fittings necessary for its safe, efficient, and economical working. A donkey-pump feeds the boiler. M. Cavers (Fr.), *Fig. 3417, vol. iv., Laboulaye's "Diet, des Arts et Manuf.," ed. 1877, article "Bateau a Vapeur.' 1 ' Screw Eye. A loop with threaded shank, to be screwed into an object. Screw Fin'ish-ing Ma-chine'. Fig. 2207 is specially adapted for small hand-tooling, fin- ishing the heads of screws, pins, and a variety of similar work. A half-inch hole ex- tends through the spindle. Self-adjusting shell chucks are used in the spindle. These are opened by the knee of the operator without stopping the machine, thus saving the time of stopping and starting every time the work is put into the machine or removed. The boxes are self-oiling, running from two to three months without the necessity of oiling them. The machine is ar- ranged for a high rate of speed. Tight and loose pulleys are upon the spindle Either one or two counter-shafts accom- pany the machine, as may be desired. They are provided* with adjustable hangers, iron cones, and pulleys. First countershaft should run 450 turns per minute. Tight and loose pulleys 6" diameter, 2V face. Weight of machine with both countershafts, 425 Ibs. Screw for Boot Soles. Article " Chans- sures a Vis," * Laboulaye's "Diet, des Arts et Manufactures," vol. iv., ed. 1877. See SOLE-SCREWING MACHINE. Screw Gage. 1. A device for measuring the pitch of the threads of the screw. 2. For indicating the diameter. See SCREW THREAD GAGE, Fig. 4755, p. 2074, "Mech. Diet.," and WIRE GAGE, Fig. 7281, p. 2793, Ibid. A steel ring with internal screw of standard size and proportions, used for measurement and for testing accuracy of screws. See EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL GAGES. Fig. 2207. Machine. Screw Hoist. In Fig. 2208 the axle of the or- dinary large winding wheel has screw threads cut thereon which mesh with the gear on a smaller wheel set above the axle and transversely to the large wheel. On the opposite ends of the axis of the latter wheel are pulleys, over which chains pass which are attached to the swivel hooks below. It will sustain at any point, but will lower rapidly when started. SCKEW HOOK AND EYE HINGE. 787 SCROTUM COMPRESSOR. Fig. 2208. Screw Hoist, Screw Hook and Eye Hinge. A hook and eye gate hinge, each part of which has a screw shank. Screw Hook and Strap Hinge. A hook and eye hinge of which the hook part has a screw shank and the eye part a strap to be secured to the gate or door. Screw'ing Stock. A stock or handle which holds the threaded nut for making a thread on a bolt or bar. A screw plate. Fig. 4739. /, page 2069, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 4754, a, p. 2074, Ibid. Screw Knob. A curtain knob with screw shank. Screw Line Box. T)ne the cover of which is depressed by a screw. A spring line box is shown in Fig. 1615, p. 552, supra. Screw Ma'kiiig Tools. Taps, dies, stocks, <3tc. Figs. 4739, 4754, pp. 2069, 2074, "Mech. Diet." Screw Nick'ing Ma-chine'. One for cutting the nicks in screw-heads. See SCREW SLOTTING MACHINE. Screw Pile. (Hydraulic Engineering. ) The procedure in the setting of the screw-piles for the United States pier near Lewes, Del. (1877, 1878), is carefully shown in the "Report of Chief of Engineers U. S. Army," 1879, * i. 448. Mitchell, * Laboulaye^s "Dictionnaire,'' iv., ed. 1877 ; " Pi- lotis.'' Screw Pol'ish-ing Ma-chine'. See SCREW FINISHING MACHINE. Screw Press. A machine in which the pres- sure is given by means of a screw. The applica- tions are numerous and the examples are given under specific heads. See list under PRESS, supra, and p. 1784, "Mech. Diet." Some of the prominent are under CHEESE PRESS, Fig. 609, p. 194, supra. CIDER PRESS, Figs. 616-618, p. 196, supra. OLIVE PRESS, Figs. 1839-1841, p. 642, supra. PORTABLE PRESS. STEARINE PRESS. Screw Sha'ving Ma-chine'. A machine for turning off wood-screw blanks. It is furnished with ten spring collets, a cross-rest with two shaving tools, oil-tank, dripper, and countershaft. The col- lets are opened and closed in the spindle by a hand-lever, and hold screws \" to f " diameter, increasing by sixteenths ; |" to 1" diameter by eighths. The shaving tools are circu- lar, and may be sharpened by grinding without changing their form. Screw Slot'ting Ma-chine'. shown in Fig. 2209 The device Screw Slotting Machine. can be attached Fig. 2209. to an o r d i u a r y hand lathe, and is believed to be more e ffi c i e n t for the purpose than any machine hereto- fore made. An active boy can slot from ten to fifteen thousand screws per day. A single bolt fastens the platform A of this apparatus to the bed of a hand lathe, the long lever projecting in front at a right angle with the bed. An arbor carrying' a circular cutter is held in the center of the lathe. The long lever is moved horizontally to open the jaws for inserting and removing the screws, and downward to bring the screws to be slotted against the saw. The stop screw B governs its downward mo- tion, and thus regulates the depth of slot in the screw head. The working part of the apparatus can be raised or lowered on the platform front by means of the bolt c. In the Pratt & Whitney machine, the head-stock has a cone of 3 grades for a 2" belt. The stock holding the vise-jaws and dies may be adjusted toward or from the spindle and transversely across the table. The spindle carries a rotary cutter, against which the head of the screw is brought by a vertical movement of the vise, produced by a hand-lever, rack, and pinion. The same motion of the lever that closes the vise, also raises it with the screw to be slotted, and a weight under the table instantly opens the vise and releases the screw as soon as the pressure on the hand-lever is re- moved. The machine slots screws of 9-16" and less diameter. Weight of machine, with countershaft, 500 pounds. Screw Soling Ma-chine'. A machine for uniting the uppers and soles of boots and shoes by means of a brass screw made on the machine, oper- ating automatically, whereby it grasps the wire, car- ries it forward, cuts a thread upon it, screws it into the sole of the shoe and cuts it off in suitable lengths all at the same time. Tyson. Screw Steer'er. A device to assist the helms- man in holding the rudder at every point of its movement, to prevent the rudder kicking or run- ning down by surges. See STEERING APPARATUS, Figs. 5757-5760, p. 2372, "Mech. Diet., "and Fig. 4753, p. 2073, Ibid. ScriTDer. A marker. Scribing tools, Rose * "Engineering," xxi. 119, 139,330,521. Scrod'dled Ware. (Ceramics.) Ceramic ware, made by taking scraps and pieces of differ- ently colored clays, such as are left over in making vases and plaques, and laying them together, joined but not intermixed, so as to produce a marbled or mottled effect. Tortoise-shell icare had a similar origin. See also PATE CHANGE ANTE. Scroll Chuck. A lathe chuck in which the dogs are moved in concert by a scroll hidden in the body of the chuck ; as in Fig. 4767, p. 2077, "Mech. Diet." Several of the chucks shown in Figs. 874- 876, pp. 273-275, and Figs. 1540-1544, p. 529,swpra, are scroll chucks. Scroll Lathe. One adapted to turn spiral and scroll work, such as balusters, table and piano legs, etc. See Fig. 555, p. 174, supra. Scrp'tal Clamp. (Surgical.) A clamp for castrating or for amputation of redundant scrotum for the relief of varicocele Scrotal forceps. Scro'tal Com-pres'sor. (Surgical.) For mechanical pressure on the morbidly distended SCROTAL INSTRUMENTS. 788 SEAMING MACHINE. scrotum in orchids. A hard rubber globular bag with lacing holes. Scro'tal In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) Instru- ment for hydrocele, varicocele, etc. The list in- cludes : Canula. Depilating forceps. Injector. Varicocele clamp. Scrotal clamp. Suspensory bandage. Scrotal compressor. Trocar. Scrub'ber. A washing and brushing, cleans- ing apparatus. Scrubber gas, on. Hunt,T&T: "Engineering," 1 xxii. 43. Scrubbing machine, do- mestic, Stockley . . * "Min. If Sc. Press,' : xxxvi. 249. Scuffle Hoe. One having a push motion in- stead of the downward and pull motion. Scuffle hoe, Munsun . . * "Scientific American," xl. 389. Sculp'ture. Mechanical aids in reducing the labor of the sculptor and for copying. See article "/Sculpture," Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," vol. iii., ed. 1877. Article " Tours Composes," 1 Laboulaye's "Diet, des Arts et Manufactures" iv. , ed. 1877, Fig. 42. Scutch'ing Ma-chine'. One for separating the individual libers of cotton or flax, which have gone through the preliminary opening process. Scutching machine, LeFranc, "Iron Age," xx., July 19, p. 20. Scut'tle. 1. A small light aperture, closed by a hatch or shutter. 2. A coal bucket See SIDE LIGHT, "Mech. Diet.," p. 2174, et infra. Sea Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which the plates are immersed in the sea, so as to be acted upon by the salt water. Such are used in making luminous signals on buoys, etc. Sea Cock. One opening through the hull into the sea. Spence's improved sea cocks . * "Engineer,' 1 '' xli. 267. Seal. An automatic valve closing a pipe ; or a U-shaped bend in which water collects and prevents passage of air. See SEWER TRAP. The common siphon trap as used in most sinks and water- closets is subject to two objections : First, the sewer gases in the ascending branch of the trap are in constant contact with the water, and permeate it without hindrance, by which it becomes foul and gives off offensive odors in the other ascending branch of the trap ; second, when from some cause or other pressure takes place in the descending branch connected with the sewer, the sewer gas will bubble up through. The inlet pipe connecting with the washstand, sink, or other fix- , ture extends down about half way into the center of an enlarged U-shaped chamber two thirds full of water in which floats a rubber ball fitting tightly up against the end of the inlet pipe, forming a perfect seal. The outlet pipe is in the top of the U-shaped chamber, above the end of the inlet pipe. Fig. 2210. Seal. 6618 See Fig. 5766, p 2374, and Fig. e Fig. 5766, p 2374, and , p. 2616, "Mech. Diet." Seal Em-bos'sing Press. A press intended to emboss envelopes, or name or initials on note paper, or the stationer's card on any paper they print or furnish. It is worked by a cam and gear- ing ; is very powerful and speedy, and is readily ad- justed to any pressure wanted. Seal Hook. An iron hook which is inserted into the hasp of a freight-car door and to which a seal wire and metal seal are attached. Seal Lock. A lock in which a seal made of glass, paper, or other material is inserted in the lock in sucli a manner as to cover the bolt or the key-hole. The lock cannot be opened without breaking the seal. Seal Press. A pair of levers arranged like a pair of pincers and with two dies with which lead car-seals are compressed on the wire to which they are attached. The two dies leave an impression on the lead so that if the seals are removed or defaced it can be known. Forney. Seal'skin. (Fabric.) The imitation sealskin is made under a process invented by Crosland, of Huddersrield, England, in 1850, by w'hich the short hairs of the cow and calf could be used in the man- ufacture. The main feature of the process consists in boiling the fabrics for a long time in water, which develops the luster of the fiber. Seal Wire. Several strands of fine wire which are twisted together like a rope, and by which leaden seals are attached to car doors. Seam'ing. (Fishing.) The marginal line which surrounds a seine, and to which the meshes are seized. A meter is an outer strengthening line, seized at intervals of a yard. To the meter, on the upper edge, the floats are attached, and to the meter below, the weights. Seam'ing Ma-chiiie'. The Royer & Lincoln seamer for use in print works, bleacheries, dye works, and cotton mills trims woven goods neatly and evenly ; and joins the margin of cloth outside the seam so that it will pass through the shearing machine without raising the blades. In this machine the grooved points, on which are placet! the loops of the ends of the knit goods that are to be seamed together, are arranged radially and set in a brass ring, which is 16" in diameter, and is secured in a circular bed that is mounted to turn on an upright axis, and has on its bottom, or lower part, a concentric circle of gear teeth which gear into a pinion fast on a shaft with a ratchet wheel having teeth to suit the gage of the circle of grooved points. This ratchet is turned one step at each revolution of a driving shaft by means of a pawl connected with that shaft, and thereby the circle of points is turned a step equal to the dis- tance from one point to the next so as to bring the next point under the needle. A dog drops into the teeth of the ratchet and prevents the 'atterand the circle of points from turning backward. Fig. 2211. Seaming and Titrning-nff Machine. The needle is held by an arm which is mounted on a ful- crum and gets its to and fro motion by a cam on the driving shaft. The looper is held by a separate arm which receives SEAMING MACHINE. 789 SECONDARY BATTERY. its motion by a side cam connected to the needle cam, so that the points are fed forward ono step, as above described, and a stitch is made by the needle and looper at each revolu- tion of the driving shaft. The points are firmly held in their places by caps or seg- ments with three screws each. The gage can be changed by taking out the brass ring that holds the points and putting in another with more or less points to make the gage re- quircl. The ratchet must also be changed for another hav- ing the proper number of teeth to turn the circle of points with the necessary step by step movement corresponding to the change of gage. The main driving shaft should revolve 115 to 120 times per minute in order to give a good result. Search'er. (Surgical.) A flexible instrument or sound introduced through the urethra to explore for a stone by contact. Andrew's, Little's, Gouley's, BilrotWs, Thompson's, Otis's, etc. 2212 shows a clamp 2212. Seat Fas'ten-er. Fig. for holding a \vagon seat firmly in position, and for keeping the body from spreading. Seat Lock. A lock for holding the back of a seat so that its position cannot be reversed. Such locks are attached either to the seat-end, seat-back arm, or the seat-back stop. Se-bas'tine. A Swe- dish explosive made of nitro- glycerine, wood - charcoal, and certain explosive salts. Ignited by fire it burns readily but does not ex- plode. If confined in det- onating capsules it ex- .plodes with great force. Patented in Sweden in 1872. Sec'on-da-ry Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) In- vented by Plante. A battery having two plates of large surface immersed in an acid solution and charged from a primary battery, the polarization resulting from the primary current serving upon the breaking of the primary circuit and the closing of the secondary circuit to give a reverse current of great electro-motive force, which may be used for lighting, heating, or other effects. Planters secondary batteries may be considered as voltam- eters made of two sheets of lead rolled up in a spiral, so Fig. 2213. Seat Fastener. I as to give large surface and small distance of plates. They are charged with dilute acid, which is decomposed by a cur- rent passed into the plates, producing peroxide of lead 011 one plate and a film of hydrogen on the other. In this state the cell itself will furnish a current for a short time. By con- nections which unite the cells of the secondary for quantity during charging, two Bunseu cells arranged for intensity will produce the desired effect. By connection of the secon- dary in series for discharge, a very powerful current equal to that of many Bunsens in series may be obtained. Fig. 2213 shows a secondary element as now constructed. In a tall vessel of glass, gutta-percha, or ebonite, are placed two sheets of lead, rolled spirally, and parallel one to the other, and kept from touching by two cords of india-rubber rolled up with them ; these two sheets of lead are immersed in a solution of one part of sulphuric acid to nine parts of water. The vessel is closed by a sealed cover pierced with a small hole, through which the liquid can be poured in or ex- tracted, and which also allows the escape of any gas which may be generated during the charging of the battery. The apparatus is surmounted by a disk of ebonite, upon which are fixed two contact pieces in connection with the two elec- trodes ; two clips are also provided for the purpose of hold- ing metallic wires to be made red hot or melted by the sec- ondary current. Two Bunsen cells, or, in their stead, three Daniell cells, are required to charge this secondary element. During the operation of charging, one of the electrodes oxidizes, a brown coating of peroxide of lead soon shows itself, and the metal- lic appearance disappears entirely ; the other electrode also changes in appearance, its surface becomes covered with a, powdery gray coating. When the charge has attained its maximum that is to say, when oxygen commences to be given off by the brown electrode, it is well to disconnect the secondary element from the charging battery, for any further expenditure of the po- larizing current is entirely wasted. The secondary element once charged in this manner and left to itself will retain a portion of its charge for several days ; and even at the end of a week it is still far from being exhausted. The secondary element, when fully charged, has an elec- tro-motive force equal to one and a half times that of a Bun- sen ; it will redden a platinum wire of a greater or lesser diameter according to its size, or rather according to the size of the electrodes ; for it is of course understood that the quantity of electricity which the apparatus can furnish is in proportion to the extent of the surface subjected to the action of the polarizing current and covered with an active electro-chemical deposit. The spiral form of the electrodes gives an element having a large surface and a small resistance within a small space, so that one of Planters secondary elements is equal to an ac- tive or ordinary element of a very unusual size ; the small pattern has an active surface of 124 square inches, the large pattern of a surface of 620 square inches. The current furnished by the secondary element will effect chemical decomposition, act upon an electro-magnet, etc. A secondary element is all the better for having been charged and discharged a great, number of times; at first, when it is almost new, there is an advantage in polarizing the electrodes, sometimes in one direction and sometimes in ' the other, reversing several times the direction of the charge; but when the element is formed the greatest care must, on the contrary, be taken to charge it always in the same direc- tion. These secondary elements can be joined together, either for intensity or for quantity, and they form batteries capa- ble of producing all the effects of batteries of the ordinary Fig. 2214. Secondary Planters Secondary Battery. SECONDARY BATTERY. 790 SECONDARY BATTERY. form, and of the most powerful kind. Fig. 2214 represents a secondary battery as arranged by M. Plants*. Faure, observing that the lead plate of a good battery be- came coated with oxide of lead, applied oxide of lead to his plates and found that he could make a battery without charging and recharging for months. Brush claims the invention of a process of effectively pre- paring his lead plates without any oxide of lead at all. His method is a secret and he claims there is no coating of min- ium on the plates, the battery can be charged more quickly and discharged more safely, and the process of manufacture is no more prolonged or costly than in the case of Faure's apparatus. The batteries shown in Fig. 2215 are contained Fig. 2215. Brush's Secondary Battery. in a bos 8' long, 15" wide, and 16" high. Charged from an arc light circuit wire, they will feed 27 Swan lamps of 16- candle power, and run a small motor of one-horse power. A series of 20 cells, each cell consisting of two lead plates, about 16" square in size, is sufficient to supply from 40 to 60 Swan, lamps of 16-candle power, or as many lights as a good sized house would require. In connection with Swan lamps, one horse power, if used to run a dynamo connected with a battery, will store up sufficient electricity to run from 9 to 10 lamps. This current can be taken from an arc circuit without interrupting the burning of arc lights ; the batteries are placed in the cellars of each house where the light is fur- nished. Mr. Brush says that the batteries are indestrueti* ble, and improve with age, the only attention necessary be- ing the addition of water every few months to take the place of that which has evaporated. In 1801 Gautherot, a French physician, discovered that Elatinum or silver wires immersed in a saline solution, after aving been used for decomposing the salt, gave a current of their own of short duration upon being disconnected from the battery. In 1803 Bitter made the first secondary battery by super- posing a series of gold disks separated by pieces of cloth dampened with a saline solution. He also employed plati- num, copper, brass, iron, bismuth, and silver, and remarked that still better results were obtained with carburet of iron and peroxide of manganese, lie obtained no effect with lead on account of the solution which he made use of. He used common salt and sal ammoniac. In 1859 Plants published accounts of experiments made by him upon most of the metals, and many different solutions for the purpose of determining the best construction of ele- ments for secondary batteries. In 1860 Plante constructed a secondary battery of two plates of lead separated by cloth and rolled up into a spiral and immersed in a dilute solution of sulphuric acid. He af- terwards substituted for the cloth two thin strips of rubber. In 1861, Kirchhof, U. S. Patent, No. 31,545, February 26. Two roughened, perforated, or recticulated platinum elec- trodes in a solution of nitrate and acetate of lead, nitrate of potash, acetic and nitric acids and nitrate or acetate of iron or zinc, all suggested. Upon charging, one plate be- came covered with peroxide of lead, and the other with crys- tallized lead. He also described a switch whereby the cells could be charged, one after the other, while the others were discharging. Also a commutator for the dynamo whereby the charging circuit was always left open when the machine was not running. In 1866, Percival,U. S. Patent, No. 53,668, April 3. A box with two compartments separated by a porous partition, and filled with powdered carbon, granular lead, or other conducting powder moistened with acidulated water. Cop- per or lead plates immersed in the powder served as con- ductors. In 1867, Leclanche, U. S. Patent, No. 64,113, April 23. Two graphite plates in powdered charcoal saturated with potash water, porous partition. In 1869, Percival proposed to make the positive electrode of some more active metal, such as zinc, and then to use a neutral solution of the positive metal as with zinc, zinc sul- phate, with copper, copper sulphate, etc. Upon charging, per- oxide of lead formed on the lead plateand finely divided zinc on the zinc plate, sulphuric acid being set free. Amalgam- ated the zinc. In 1869, Varley, English Patent, No. 2,525, makes use of plates of paladium or arsenic on account of their capacity for storing hydrogen. These are used in connection with carbon plates rendered porous for the absorption of oxygen by dissolving out the silica from gas retort carbon by hydro- tluoric acid. In 1876, Jablochkoff, French Patent, No. 112,024, March 23 and October 2, in an electric lighting system places a sec- ondary battery in a shunt around each light. In 1878, Fox, English Patent, No. 3,988, suggests the use of plates of copper in a solution of bicarbonate of soda. The secondary batteries are connected in a lighting system be- tween the main wires and the ground, thereby serving to store up any surplus energy thrown upon the line. In 1879, Thomson & Houston, U. S. Patent, No. 220,948, October 28, and English Patent No. 4,400. A series of disks of copper or other suitable metal are arranged one above another, and separated by rings of earthenware, rubber, wood, or other non-conductor. Diaphragms of felt are in- terposed, and the whole is secured by bolts and end-plates. The solution may be zinc, sulphate, or other similar salt, and must entirely fill the spaces between the plates. When subject to motion the spaces between the plates are filled with sand, pumice-stone, sawdust, or the like. During charging, zinc is deposited on the under side of the plates while the upper sides dissolve to form copper sulphate. In the English patent negative plates of mercury, silver, or lead are proposed, which may be roughened, serrated, or coiled, or may be formed by a tray filled with fragments of the metal. The upper plate may be perforated and varnished underneath. Pieces of hard carbon may be placed upon the upper plate to receive zinc deposit, or spurs or projections may be formed on its upper surface for same purpo.-e. In 1880, Faure, French Patent, No. 139,258, October 20, applies a superficial coating of lead oxide, spongy lead, or similar active conducting material to the surface of the elec- trodes, and holds it in place by porous partition. In 1881, Faure, cert, of add to French patent, February 9, proposes red lead or minium for a coating. In 1881, Swan, English Patent No. 2,272, May 24. Lead plates, honey-combed, ribbed or cellular, for increasing sur- face and forming better support for the porous deposit. It has also been suggested that spongy platinum, amalga- mated lead, and zinc or lead wire may be used for elec- trodes. Almost any primary battery, whether it be galvanic or thermal, will serve as a means of storing up energy when a current is passed through it in a direction opposite to that of the current which it itself would produce. It should be remembered that the energy as stored is po- tential chemical (or in a thermal battery, heat) energy and not electrical ; and it is in this respect that it differs from a condenser which, although, like a secondary battery, it dis- charges a current, the reverse of the charging current, still it does not transform the energy from electricity. Plante ...... * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 313. "New York Times," May 13, 1882. * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 65,2527. Telt graphic Journal . . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 313. Niaudet, Am. transl. . * 243. Disser. on secondary Bat- teries . . . . . . " English Mfrhnnic,'- xxvii. 476. 2'21I5. SECONDARY COIL. 791 SEED PLANTER. The The Sec'on-da-ry Coil. (Electricity.} A coil of wire usually wound upon, but entirely separated from the primary coil by insulation. Sec'on-da-ry Cur'rent. (Electricity.) current emanating from the secondary coil. induced current. Sec'tion Cut'ter. An instrument for making very thin slices for microscopic pur- poses. Valentine's knife is two-bladed, but the most delicate instruments are Walmsley'? adaptation of Dr. Bevan Lewis's ether spray microtome. In Fig. 2216, some thick- _ ened gum water b e i n g g placed upon the top of the tube, a piece of tissue, say a portion of the spinal col- umn from a freshly killed animal, may be placed in it, and the nozzle of the freez- jng atomizer having been introduced into the tube beneath, the tissue will be solidly frozen in from one to three minutes. Ether may be used, but rhigoline is much better. A consid- erable portion of it will be condensed in the chamber, and can be drawn off by the tube shown in the illustration, for further use. The knife should be kept cold, by placing on a block of ice before using. Seed Drill. A machine for sowing various seeds in drills or rows. See GRAIN DRILL. Fig. 2218. Fig. 2217. Drilling Attachment to Seed Planter Beet-seed drill . . Figs. 268-270, p. 92, supra. Broad-cast seeder . Figs. 430-432, p. 136, supra. Corn drill . . . Fig. 691, p. 222, supra. Corn planter . . Fig. 697, p. 223, supra. Hand planter . . Fig. 2382, p. IQ37,"Mech. Diet.'" Seeding machines . Figs. 4808-4814, pp. 208S, 2089, "Mech. Diet." Wheat Drill . . Figs. 7163-7168, pp. 2761-2763, "Mech. Diet.'' Knight's Report, " Paris Exposition Reports," 1878, v., pp. 102119. Seed Drill (beet) French, McMurtrie's Plate I., Report, "Department of Agriculture Special Report,'' No. 28. Fier. 2219. Fertilizer Sowing Attachment. Seed Mi'cro-scope. A small hand magni- fier for examining seeds, or living objects, which are inclosed in a case with glass sides. Seed Planter. Seed Plant'er. An implement for planting in hills in contradistinction to drilling or broadcasting. In the Farmer's Friend Planter, of Dayton, Ohio, shown in Fig. 2217, the foot treadle and hand lever are pivoted and work together to raise or lower the runners, which are coupled to the frame with a treadle. Pressing with the feet on the rear of this raises the runners, while power applied to the other by means of an independent foot piece forces them into the ground. A hand lever, held by a spring catch, is pivoted to the treadle. The runners adjust themselves to uneven surfaces, and plant two rows at different levels, each the same depth. The entire weight of the machine can be locked on the runners. Gage plates regulate the depth. Fig. 2118 shows a drill- ing attachment for use in drilling corn. Fig. 2219, an attachment for sowing fertilizers. Fig. 2220 represents the drop- ping device, Fig. 2221 a, the same with the seed plate removed. The device consists of a slide resting on a bed plate, and pawls pivoted to the sides of the Fig. 2220. Fig. 2220 a. Dropping Device for Seed Planter. SEED PLANTER. 792 SEISMOGRAPH. slide for driving the star-shaped casting which carries the seed plate. When the slide is moved, the pawls come in con- tact, alternately, with the points of the star, moving it round, carying the seed plate with it, dropping seed at each motion of the slide. Seed'ing Flow. A single row implement known as a seeding barrow. It is made either with cups or brush. Some of these are intended to fol- low after a plow or in a furrow laid out, while oth- ers have a share which opens the furrow. The Plow Drill, Fig. 2221, shows an old form of drill of Hindustan, probably the one noticed in use in the watered Fig. 2221 Seeding Ploiv. rice fields of the East, by Aristobulus, one of Alexander's generals. These old drill plows are still in use in southern Asia, and were exhibited at the Centennial and the Paris Ex- positions from India, Java, and China. Seg'gar. (Ceramics.) A vessel of infusible fire-clay to hold ware while being baked or burned in the kiln. Seg'ment Saw. An annular saw which is made of segmental plates ; as distinguished from a solid plate-saw. A vibrating saw with a curved blade, that formed a segment of a cylinder, was some years since patented in England, but does not seem to have come into use ; its purpose was the same as that of the tubular saw. Seine. (Fishing.) This in its simplest form is si flat web of netting, with corks or floats at the upper edge and weights at the lower edge, used to inclose an area of water, and by bringing the ends together, either to a boat or on the shore, to secure the fish that may happen to be in the inclosure. The seine varies in length from a small minnow seine to a shad seine a mile long, hauled in by a windlass worked by horses, oxen, or by steam en- gine. A form of net used in sweeping areas of water. Divided into haul-seines and purse-seiues. A large haul-seine on the Atlantic sounds and bays is 1,000 fathoms in length, but one at Stony Point, on the Potomac, is 8,400 yards. The seine depends from a cork-line, and the lower edge is weighted with leads which sweep the bottom. A line known as the toggle-line is sometimes used, so called from its being secured to the seine at regular distances by toggles. At the ends of the seine are the land-lines, which go to shore and pass round the shears-blocks to the windlasses. At the mid-length of the seine is the bag of the net, which comes last ashore. The wings are the ends. Seine Windlass. (Fishing.) A winch to haul in a seine line. Seis'mo-graph. An instrument for recording shocks or perturbations. 1. The seismometer of Prof. Palmieri, p. 2091, "Meek. Diet." was for detecting earthquake shocks and recording their duration. M. Hattori, of the University of Tokio, gives a description of an tarthquake indicator invented by Choko, about A. D. 132. "It consisted of a copper vessel, the diameter of which was eight shaker or feet, and whose convex cover was ornamented with characters, mountain turtles, birds, and beasts. In this vessel there was one main piston in the middle with its eight branches, wires, and springs. On the outside of this vessel were eight dragon heads, each of them having a copper ball in its full opened mouth. Under each of the dragon heads there was a frog looking upward with its mouth fully opened. The wire works and springs were very skillfully arranged in tho vessel, but the cover was closely fitted, and they could not be seen. Whenever the earth shook one of the dragons dropped the ball, the frog underneath received it in its mouth, and produced a sound. By this means the direction of the shocks was ascertained. Once one of the dragons dropped its ball, but no person near it perceived any shock, and all the learned men of the capital doubted the trust- worthiness of the machine ; but after a few days a mail ar- rived from Rosei and reported the occurrence of an earth- quake there.' 1 Sig. Ignazio Galli's apparatus for registering earthly per- turbations at the Meteorological Observatory of Velletri, Italy, consists of six separate devices for observing and re- cording automatically : 1. The horizontal amplitude of earth tremors. 2. The vertical amplitude. 3. The direction of the earthquake movement. 4. The time of the shock. 5. The intensity of the attending magnetic disturbance. At one corner of the marble base is a short standard of metal, on the top of which rests au agate cup, balanced by a Pis. 52^ Seismograph. ring below, and carrying above a long, slender vertical rod, the whole forming a sensitive pendulum. At the top of the rod is a small silver mirror, carrying a fine needle, the move- ments of which are observed through a small telescope. Any movement of the base is so magnified at the upper end of the rod that the minutest tremors of the earth are thus made visible. The adjacent device is substantially the same, except that the vertical rod is shorter and carries at top a she*t of paper covered with lampblack. Resting on this blackened paper is the fine needle of a nicely balanced lever attached to the brass support which arches over the middle of the base. As the earth tremor causes the paper to move the relative ex- tent and character of the movement are marked by the nee- dle on its blackened surface. Behind this part of the appa- ratus is a weight suspended by a sensitive spiral spring. At the bottom of the weight is a lever, to the other end of which a needle is suspended by a hair, the point of the needle rest- ing on a sheet of blackened paper slightly inclined. This is for measuring the vertical height of the earth movement. The direction of the movement is marked by the needle of the lever attached near the upper right-hand corner of the frame, on the sheet of blackened paper on the top of the rod which rises from the middle of the base. To ascertain the quarter whence the movement proceeds and the time of the shock, a truncated metal cone is inverted SEISMOGRAPH. 793 SEISMOGRAPH. .and balanced on a horizontal metallic disk surrounded by a ring marked with the cardinal points. The instant the ap- paratus is moved the cone tips against that side of the ring whence the motion proceeds, and in falling acts upon a lever which stops the clock, thus indicating at once the di- rection of the source of the shock and the time of its occur- rence. The intensity of the accompanying magnetic dis- turbance is measured by the magnet and its attachments. This seismograph is inclosed in a glass case, is small, ex- tremely sensitive, and records the slightest tremors of the earth with great precision. The Bregnet seismograph, exhibited at the Paris Exposi- tion, 1878, is an instrument for measuring and electrically registering the deviations of a long pendulum under the iniluence of terrestrial movements or solar-lunar attrac- tions. It consists of a heavy pendulum suspended by a wire from a support above and carrying a pointer below which trav- erses in close proximity to a horizontal sheet oi white pa- per, traveling over a flat metallic plate, by the rotation of a pair of rollers in gear with the train of a clock. The pen- dulum and metallic plate are insulated from one another, and are respectively connected to the two terminals of a small induction coil, which is, by the movement of the clock, periodically placed in circuit for a few seconds with a battery. When this takes place sparks pass through the paper, be- tween the pointer of the pendulum and the metallic plate, causing a series of perforations on the paper band, forming a record. " Telegraphic Journal -' vi 499. 2. The name is also applied to an instrument, in- vented by Carlisle (England), for recording the shocks received by or the oscillations produced in a vehicle, a railway carriage for instance, when in motion. Its action depends upon the inertia of a suspended weight Fig. 2223. Carlisle's Seismograph. attached by an elastic medium to a point of support. If such a point be shifted suddenly in any direction, the sus- pended body, from its inertia, retains for a moment its origi- nal position, and only gradually recovers its relative position to the point of support, and that with an amount of force varying according to the distance through which, and the velocity with which, the point of suspension has been dis- turbed. By a mechanical arrangement this force is made to move a pencil at right angles to a straight line which the pencil when at rest is describing upon a strip of paper traveled at a determinate rate by clock work. By this means the time as well as extent of the oscillation is recorded. A is the base plate and a the standard, to the latter of which the weight C D is attached by gimbal-joint, allowing it to swing freely. The onter ring of the gimbal is piv- oted to the frame at F F and the inner ring to the outer, as usual. The weight c has a light barrel D both turned true to an axis, and the swinging end is supported at the point ff by springs H H suspended from an arm / secured at K to the frame B. At the end of the weight c is a hollow axial pro- jecting stud L which serves to limit the oscillation of the weight by contact with the ring M. When it is desired to lock the weight so as to put the instrument out of action, the lever P on shaft o is moved, throwing the pin If into the hollow of the stud L and holding the weight rigidly. The play of the stud L in the ring M is about 1.26" in every di- rection from the axis. The inner ring of the gimbal is turned out at the rear so as to form a flat annular surface against which a disk is pressed by the spring r, and this disk is supported by an arm projecting from the upright rod a, a portion of which shows in the figure. Near its upper end the rod a has another hor- izontal arm 6 which connects at point r with a rod c to move the arm d which carries the pencil e. Any movement of the weight swinging on its gimbal- joint produces a thrust motion upon the disk which is pressed against the rear of the gimbal ring, and this motion is transmitted to the pencil by the means just described. The pencil-arm d is mounted on the axis f, which is sur- rounded and moved by a spiral spring which brings the pen- cil back to the base line on the paper after each lateral movement, and an adjustment at r in the slotted end of the lever b permits the arm d to be so ad- justed as to show, either all the oscillations indi- cated b}- the weight, or only such of them as exceed a certain limit. An index finger q and a graduated arc, s, afford means for regulating this adjustment with accuracy. The strip of paper i is moved by rollers and clock- work. One of these rollers I makes a revolution once in 5 minutes marking minutes on the paper by 1 prick and 5 minutes by 2 pricks. The paper de- livered by one roller is taken up by roller m. To observe oscillations, both vertical and horizon- tal, the instrument is placed on the floor of the car, its axis parallel with the direction of movement. To obtain only vertical oscillations the axis of the weight is across the car and blocks are placed to restrain lateral move- ment. The time of starting be- ing noted on the paper, and the clock-work being started coincidently with the engine, the strip is a record of the trip. The instrument is used to test the condition of a track, the personal equation, so to speak, of the machine being known ; or that of the track being known or assumed, to test the rela- tive steadiness of different engines or cars passing over a specific portion of the road. Reference may be made to: * "Engineering.'' xxii. 160 ; xxvi. 426. * " Scientific American Supplement," 646. * "Railroad Gazette,''' viii. 411. U. S. Patent, 222,292, T. L. Luders, Shock or Jar recorder, Dec. 2, 1879 A very striking instru- ment for testing the road- bed of railways, the trac. SEISMOGRAPH. 794 SELENIUM KYE. tive force required on curves an d grades, and other similar data is the dynagraph car of Mr. P. II. Dudley. The indications of the instrumentare by no means confined to those given by the Carlisle instrument where the vertical and lateral oscillations of the car under inequalities in the road are interpreted as shocks or perturbations ; but it af- fords numerous additional data for calculations, all of which are drawn graphically on paper by pens which are interme- diately connected to the draw-bar of the car or worked by electricity. The draw-bar is connected with a piston which works in a cylinder filled with oil, the pressure is transmitted through a pipe to another cylinder over a table in the car, and a pis- ton is connected with a pen, which marks on a roll of paper the resistance of the train. Other pens indicate the space passed over each second, each 10 seconds, and each minute, each revolution of the driving wheels, each mile passed, the alignment of the road, the quantity of water consumed by the engine, the quantity of coal used, the resistance of the wind, etc. See DYNAGRAPH. Seismograph, Carlisle . * "Railroad Gazette," viii. 411. * "Engineering," xxii. 160. Eastern Ry. of France * "Engineering, " xxvi. 427. Seis-mom'e-ter. An instrument for measur- ing cosmic perturbations or shocks. See SEISMO- GRAPH. The application of the microphone as a seismom- eter is referred to in "Engineering," xxix. 498. Fig. 2224 shows the earthquake indicator of Count Malva- ria, of Bologna, Italy. The table is adjusted level by the set screws, which serve as feet. Upon it is a circular in- clined plane, K, surrounded by a rim, If, and carrying in its center a reversed hemispherical cup, \ / / 5L_ r-- diameter, and more than - 8' in length, getting stretched and pressed in the process. There are two needles at work with shuttles, and the shuttles can be removed from the bot- tom without disturbing the overlying plies or belting. The rollers between which the work passes are actuated by reversible worm and cam motions, and the machine hag, in addition to these roller feeds, what is known as a top-feed motion, suitable for a higher class of work. The stitch, as in the ordinary sewing machine, can be adjusted from one- eighth inch upward, and the pressure of the rollers on the work passing through the machine can be regulated at the will of the operator. Wilson Oscillating Sewing Machine. SEWING MACHINE. 799 SHADE. Fig. 2236. Wi/son Oscillating Seieing Machine. Pitt's circular feed machine is adapted to sowing elastics in old boots, stitching round goloshes and down the fronts and backs of boots, and other repairs. The operator has control of the stitching motion, and can change the direction without stopping the machine. Ilist'y of, Centen. Kept. "Scientific American," xx\vi. 3-0. Legal * " Technologists," xl. 70. A consecutive account of the various operations in mak- ing sewing machines, may be found in Fairfield's "Report Vienna Exposition." vol. iii. Fig. 2-87. Wilson Oscillating Sewing Machine. G. W. Gregory's Report in Group XXII., vol. vii., " Cen- tennial Exhibition Reports," gives the best history extant of the invention of the sewing machine and describes the fol- lowing : Howe . United States, Wheeler Sf Wilson . , United States. Singer United States. Weed United States. Wilson United States. " Domestic : ' ........ United States. Graver (f Baker ...... . United States. Remington United States. St. John . . United States. "Victor" United States. Whitney United States. " Florence " United States. " Lyall '' United States. Cole United States. " American Button Hole, etc., Co.'' United States. Johnson, Clark Sf Co United States. Goodes United States. Davis United States. McLean If Ben nor United States. Wardwell United States. De Laney United States. Wilcox I)' Gibbs United States. Willis United States. Walters United States. Baker United States. Pearson United States. " United States Sewing Mach. Co." . United States. Eickemeyer United States. Kimba.ll if Morion Scotland. Newton, Wilson Sf Co. . . .' . . England. "C. W. Williitnis Man u fact. Co." . Canada. Lawler Canada. Wanzer Canada. " Hus-qvarna Arm Mauufact. Co.' 1 . Sweden. Hedland Sweden. Muller Germany. Pollard Sf Schmidt Germany. Wilkie fy Osborn Canada. St. Amant Canada. Kiehle Germany. Htndrickson Denmark. Cornely France. Petit France. Turner Belgium. Factory, Wheeler If Wil- son * "Scientific American," xl. 271. Motor, electric, Edison " Telegraphic Journal" vi. 113. Howe * " Telegraphic Journal,'' vi. 145. Spring, Austria Sewing machine . * Howe. * Wilcox 4- Gibbs. * Secor. * Wilson. " Little Monitor '' Overhead, Lang * "Engineer,'' xlvi. 83. . * Fairfield's " Vienna Exposition Repl.,'' iii. * Weed. * Singer. * Wheeler if Wilson. . * "Scientific American," xxxiv. 265. . * "Scientific American.,'' xxxvii. Wilson * "Scientific American,'' xxxix. 278. Wheeler Sf Wilson, No. 6 * "Scientific American Sup.," 853. Treadle, Van Wyck . * "Scientific American," xliii. 198. Weed * "Scientific American," xlii. 175. Sew'ing Silk. A kind of silk thread, made two-cord and twisted from left to right. Sewing silk, manufact. of " Scientific American Sup.," 1 1958. Sgraf-fi'to. See GRAFITO. Shackle. A link by which Fig- 2238. portions of objects, or lengths of chain are connected. Sev- eral types are shown in Fig. 4888, p. 2125, "Mecli. Diet." The term includes also hinged or jointed links, open rings, many forms of loops, lap rings, etc. Fig. 2238 shows three forms of shackle or link : a is a "flat link ' : ; b b is a link in two sections to be laid upon each other and riveted ; c is a link closed by a side-piece fitting upon studs. See also PLATFORM SPRING. Shack'le Flap. A man- hole cover attached to the plate by a shackle. ' Shack'le Jack. A clamp to compress the anti-rattling rubbers while inserting in the carriage shackles. The operation of the jack shown in Fi^. 2239 is as follows : Place recess A on the back of axle feed, yoke the fork B on shaft or pole eye, turn the bolt C until the shackle bolts can be slipped easily through the clip hele ; the joint D accommodates itself to the bolt a. Shack'le Joint. A joint for coupling together the drilling rods in boring a well. Shade. 1. (Glass.) A dome, bell, or other shaped glass cover for protecting clocks, artificial flowers, etc. They are made in a similar manner to the blown cylinder glass, the glass being kept very evenly distributed by special care and reheating . Shackles. SHADE. 800 SHAFT EXCAVATOR. Fig. 2289. Oval cylinders are blown round and then passed be- tween two parallel pieces of wood to flatten them. Square shades are made by four pieces of wood instead of two. Round cylinders may be cut before Fig. 2240. Shackle Jack. Eye Shade. annealing, but other forms require to be first annealed. 2. A screen attachment to a lamp to throw the light on to the hook or work, and to protect the eyes from the direct rays. Fig. 2240 shows a form of hood on a magnifying glass to protect the eye from the upper rays. Shaft. (Mining.) The perpendicular, well-like excavation in mines, from which the levels are run. Twenty years ago the deepest mining shafts in the world reached only about 2,000' below the surface. The very deep- est, we believe, was a metalliferous mine in Hanover, which has been carried down to a depth of 2,290'. The deepest per- pendicular shaft to-day is the Adelbert shaft in a silver-lead mine in Prizibram, in Bohemia, which has reached a depth of 3,280'. The attainment of that depth was made the occa- sion of a three days' festival, and still further noticed by striking off a large number of commemorative silver medals of the value of a florin each. There is no record of the be- ginning of work on this mine, although its written history goes back to 1527. Quite recently an elegant commemora- tive volume has been written and printed, which is most in- teresting to those who have a taste for either the actualities or antiquities of mining industry. There are two other lo- calities, however, where a greater depth has been reached than at the Adelbert shaft, but not in a perpendicular line. These are : 1. The Rocksalt bore-hole, near Sperenberg, not far from Berlin, which, a few years ago, bad been bored to a depth of 4,175'. 2. The coal mine of Viviers Remus, in Bel- gium, where the miners, by shaft-sinking, together with bor- ing, have reached a total depth of 3,542'. Turning from these two mines, no shaft, in unbroken perpendicular line, has as yet exceeded the depth of 3,280'. Taking each singly, the deepest shafts in the world at the present moment, group themselves according to the following order : 1. The already mentioned Adelbert shaft, 3,280' deep. As the top of this shaft is 1,732' above the sea level, the bottom is, of course, 1,548' below it. 2. Two shafts near Gilly, in Belgium, are sunk to a depth of 2,847'. At this depth they were both connected by a hori- zontal drift, from there an exploring shaft is sunk to a fur- ther depth of 666', and from there again a trial hole, 49' in depth, is put down, so that the total depth reached is 3,542'. As they did not, in the bore hole, discover the sought-for coal seam, they have returned to the shaft at the 2,847' level. 3. The Eimgkerts shaft of the Lugauer coal mining com- pany, Rhenania, Lugau, in the kingdom of Saxony, is 2,653' deep. 4. The Sampson shaft of the Oberhartz lead and silver mining works, near St. Andreasberg, Hanover, has a depth of 2,437', and is at present the deepest shaft of Prussian mining. 5. The winding shaft of the Rosebridge colliery, near Wigan, Lancashire, England, has a depth of 2,458'. Coal is drawn from the " hanging on " at the 2,418' level ; the time of the cage running this distance being 55 seconds ; the winding rope has, therefore, an average speed of 44' per sec- ond. 6. A shaft at the coal mines of St. Luke, near St. Chau- mont, in the Loire department, Prance, reaches 2,253'. 7. The shaft of the Dunkirk colliery, near Dunkinfield, Lancashire, is 2,069' deep, but the mining is prosecuted to a further depth of 755' by shafts from the lower levels, mak- ing a total depth of the mine of 2,824'. 8. The deepest shaft of the collieries, near Ronchamp, in France, is 1,881'. A similar depth has been reached by the argentiferous mine near Kongsberg, in Norway. The mines belonging to the Roros copper works, in Norway, have worked to the depth of from 2,540 to 3,270'. The deepest bore-hole in the world is the artesian spring at Potsdam, in Missouri, which reaches a depth of 5,500'. The deepest coal shaft in the United States is the mammoth vein, Philadelphia and Reading Coal Co., Pottsville, Pa. ^ ""' deep. vein, 1,355' (Machinery.) Screw propeller shafts are some- times made of fluid-pressed steel and forged hollow, saving some 50 or 60 per cent, in weight. Shaft Bolt. See Fig. 4710, p. 2063. "Mech. Diet." Shaft Bor'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. See SHAFT EXCAVATOR. Belgian * "Scientific American," xxxv. 232. Kurd-C/iandsorif Belgian * "Eng. If Min. Jour.," xxiii. 434. Shaft Coupling. (Vehicle.) The connec- tion formed between the thills and the clips of a buggy- Fig. 2241 shows the clip with a straight ear, and sup- Fig. 2241. Round aola SoIH Square Hola'Boic Shaft Coupling. Sh.Tt Eye. FINISHED WITH WOOD. porting lug to hold up the shafts. The bolt may be either round or square. Fig. 2942 shows the same ear, but having a permanent pin Shaft Coupling. instead of the bolt. The thill eye is made in two pieces, held and tightened on the pivot by a set screw. A rubber packing surrounds the pin to prevent rattling. See 20 examples of machinery shaft coupling, Fig. 4896, p. 2127, "Mech. J>ic." 12 examples thill coupling, Figs. 6380, 6381, pp. 2553, 2554, Ibid. * "Scientific American," xxxv. 19. Paper on . . . * "Boston Journal of Commerce,'' xx. 171. Shaft Ex'ca-va'tor. A system of apparatus designed for sinking the shafts in coal mines. The machines are of colossal size and form, the most prominent feature of the vicinity. A trepan weighing 15 tons, is made of forged iron, and fitted with cutters secured by taper keys, so as to make a cut 6' long. The trepan is raised by steam power to a height of 3', and dropped. It is turned at each elevation so that a circle 6' in diameter is cut. The advance in soft sandstone is said to be 3' per day. The trepan being withdrawn, a massive iron bucket is fitted into the hole to remove the dtbris. After the first tool has pene- trated about 30', a second trepan, much heavier than the first and having a central guide working in the opening made by the first, is used, and, in the stone above mentioned, SHAFT EXCAVATOR. 801 SHAPER. it progresses at the rate of about a foot per day. A grapple for recovering broken rods, and a sweep to catch the sections of lifting bars, are also used. There is, besides, a grapple for stones, etc., which is an ingeniously constructed pair of double lazy tongs arranged so that the arms extend to the sides of the hole as the device is being lowered, and scour the bottom as it is being lifted. pressed uetween me nanges. JLIIIS Keeps me water out 01 the bottom. The second ring is convex beneath and floats on the accumulated water. Then, as ring after ring is added, the water is allowed to escape, the rings sinking gradually. Guides prevent the casing from tilting until it is secured to hard impervious strata, when the shaft is pumped out and is then ready for use. Shaft-sinking, Belgian system , " Van Nontrnnd's Mag.," xxiii. 504. Shaft Eye. The hole in the end of a thill or recess or hole in other shafting through which the coupling pin or key passes. Shaft Fur'nace. (MetaUuryy.) The stiickdfen or Wolfdfcn of Styria was considered the first rep- resentative of the high furnace, and the progenitor of the modern blast furnace for cast iron. The iron from a single turn of the furnace was taken away in a mass (stiick or icolf) at an opening made at the hearth, and weighed from 1,000 to 1,400 pounds. Some fluid carburized iron ran out, and here the cast-iron continuous process, doubtless, had its commencement, or suggestion. Such furnaces, shaped like two cones joined at their bases, and from 10' to 16' high, were common in Styria in thi' seventeenth century. In 1760 t\\e flo&sdfen was introduced; it was 25' high, and produced cast iron by continuous process. The blanofen succeeded it, and two tapping tools, for iron and slag re- spectively. Shaft Haiig'er. A swinging or stationary bracket to support the shaft. The drop hanger in Fig. 2240 is adjustable, vertically and horizontally, and self-adjusting to any angle, the box work- ing in a socket, and is self-lubricating. The post hanger is also self-adjusting to any angle, and is adjustable ver- Fig. 2243. Shaft Hanger. tically and horizontally, the box being moved to or from the post by means of check bolts, without disturbing the plate of the hanger, which is bolted to the post or timber. It also has the improved lubricating box, and both hangers are neat and ornamental in design. Shafting cup .... "Scientific Amer.," 1 xxxix. 100. Hanger * "Mech. Diet.," 1 p. 1059. * "Mech. Diet..''- Figs. 4899, 4901 T> 2129. Ball and Socket . . * "Engineer," xlii. 61. Bancroft Thurston? s " Vienna Kept.,'' ii. 215. Shafting adjusting line * "Scientific American," 1 xxxvi. 24. 51 Shaft'ing At-tach'ment. An adjunct to a lathe used especially in turning shafting. It consists of a heavy arch piece bolted on to the rest, car- rying three turning tools, two on the front and one on the back of shaft, and having a hole bored out in the upper part Fig. 2244. Shafting Attachment. of arch to receive bushes for steadying the shaft while turn- ing, or to hold fluted rings for finishing the shaft. The first tool on the front takes off the first chip, and the tool on the back turns the shaft to its proper size. After it passes through the busli the water polishing tool finishes the shaft, leaving it perfectly round and smooth. Each tool is adjusted by a separate screw operating the tool block that carries it. (See Fig. 2244.) Shaft'ing Lu^bri-ca'tor. A device for supply- ing oil to a bearing in which a shaft rotates. See LUBRICATOR, OILER, SELF-OILING BEAR- ING, supra. Shaft Rub'ber. An anti-rattler. One form is a rubber block with a concave face to fit round the end of the shaft, and hold it in place. See Fig. 4889, p. 2125, "Mcch. Diet.," and SHACKLE JACK. Shaft Straight'en-er. Straightening device or bender for shafting, axles, tubes, rails, etc. The accompanying cut, Fig. 2246, represents a wrought iron frame bound by the bands . 2379, "Meek. Diet." Power machines for the same purpose, p. 125, * R. Hoe & Co.'s catalogue, edition 1881. For shaving hats, in the finishing process. See POUNCING MACHINE, supra. Sheaf Bind'er. A hand implement for bind- ing the sheaf with cord. Fig. 2249 shows a French hand-binder. The string is strained around the sheaf by means of the stick. The band is composed of two cords knotted together, forming loops. The point of the tool is introduced through a loop at or near one end, and is thrust as far as the handle permits. The band being placed around the sheaf, ^the point of the tool is thrust through such one of the other loops as will give the tight- ness to the band, and the handle end of the tool is then car- ried over, describing an arc upon the point which is in the sheaf : the loop slips down from the handle to the point end, Fig. 2249. Sheaf Binder. and the loop caught in the notch is then drawn through the loop on the stick, and the latter is withdrawn, allowing the knot drawn through to catch in the loop, where it is held by the expansion of the sheaf. The cords are 5' long. At the Paris Exposition were shown various attempts to obviate the use of the bunch of straw taken from the sheaf to form a band. One man proposes to use the bark peeled from osiers, two or three twisted together ; these are sold very cheap. Another has cheap hempen strings cut to length and sold in bundles of one thousand each. It is estimated that the annual crop of France is about 4,000,000,000 sheaves of grain, and that 50 straw bands con- tain one franc's worth of grain, the whole representing 80,000,000 fr., most of which is lost by shelling out on to the ground or mildewing under the band. Add to this the loss of time in making and applying, and the injury to the grain in the size of the band, which causes dampness to the sheaf. The figures seem formidable, and the automalique band is presented to solve the difficulty. The estimate is French, and in the interest of the hempen-baud sellers ; it is probably somewhat exaggerated. Fig. 2250 shows a grain-band having a string attached to a block, and after passing around the sheaf rove through a ring. The mode of using it is evident from the en- Fig. 2250. graving; the wooden block being held in one hand, one knee of the operator is placed upon the sheaf to compress it, while the other hand draws the cord through the ring. The expansion of the sheaf pinches the cord between the ring and the block, and makes a perfectly tight fastening. The cord and block are treated with tar, and are smoked to render them indestructible by humidity and noxious to in- sects, rats, and lizards. See BINDING REAPER and SHELF BINDER, supra, and REAPER, "Mech. Diet.," pp. 1889-1898. Sheaf hand cutter, Wood * "Engineering," xxv. 182. Sheaf binder, Burgess, Br.* "Engineering," xxviii. 28. Lamlelle, Engl. . .. * "Scientific Amer., " xxxix. 146. Toulousain, Fr. . . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 179. Wood * "Engineering,' 1 '' xxv. 182. * "Engineering,'''' xxi. 68. See also BINDING REAPER. Shear'ing Ma-chine'. by power. Shears * "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 132. Hydraulic Shears, Tou- lon Arsenal . . . * "Engineer," xli. 208. Tweddell, Br. . . . * "Engineer," xliv. 98. * "Scientific American Sup.," 352. Cardboard, Figs. 539-541, p. 166, supra. Sheep. See Figs. 4942, 4946-4951, p. 2140, "Mech. Diet." Sheaf Binder. Apparatus for cutting SHEARING MACHINE. 804 SHELL. Surgical. See SCISSORS, Figs. 4671, 4672, p. 2054, "Mech. Diet.,'' 1 ft supra. See also BAR SHEAR. PLATE SHEARING MACHINE, Fig. 1962, p. 691, supra. PUNCH AND SHEAR. Shearing machine bar. Collier * " Scientific American Sup.," 467. Heavy, Collier, Br. . * "Engineering," xxi. 477. Plate, Sellers . . . * "Scientific American,'' xli. 259. Shearing & punching ma- chine, hydr., Twetldett * "Engineering," xxvi. 270. Double, Wagner . . * "Sc. American," xxxviii. 163. Shearing, punching and straightening machine. Wagner, Ger. ... * "Engineering," xxiv. 489. Shears. (Glass.) The scissors of the glass- blower to remove superfluous parts of the viscous glass under treatment, such as cutting of the irreg- ular margin of the mouth of the goblet, etc. Shears, Scis'sors, etc. See under the fol- lowing heads : Bent trimmer. Candy shears. Cartilage scissors. Clippers. Cutting nippers. Flower gatherer. Fluter. Fluting scissors. Horse clipper. Lateral scissors. Pruning shears. Revolving scissors. Shears, Double, Laws . * " Iron, Cleveland Hard- ware Co * " Power, Pratt If Whitney * " Pratt * ' Stiles . ... . . . * ' For brass, Hydraulic. Tweddell, Br. . . * ' Sardine shears. Scissors. Seizing scissors. Shearer. Snap. Surgical scissors. Tenaculum scissors. Tinner's snips. Trimmer. Vine shear. Vivifying scissors. Sc. American,' 1 '' xxxviii. 134. Iron Age," xxi., May 2, p. 25. Manufaet. 4 Builder," xii. 16. Am. Man.," August, 1879, p. 16. Iron Age,'- xxiii., Jan. 16, p. 5. Engineering," 1 xxvii. 67. Sheath Knife. The fisherman's knife, worn in a sheath. Sheer Boom. (Hydraulic Engineering.) The word is taken from the sheer-boom for logs, used by lumbermen, p. 2141, "Mech. Diet." A floating structure moored aslant in a stream to direct the current in a given direction to prevent erosion on a cer- tain shore, for instance. Such a boom 750' in length and furnished with 44 rudders, 20' long and 16' apart, is operated by wire ropes and crabs near Rock Island, 111. See "Report of Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army," 1878, * ii. 710. Anderson's booms are designed for gathering and storing away in an inclosure logs floating down with the current of a river ; and the nature of the invention consists in combin- ing, with a sheer-boom adapted to float upon the surface of the water, and to be pivoted to a pier-head, a number of hor- izontally-vibrating fins or blades pivoted to the said boom, whereby they are adapted to be vibrated outward for the pur- pose of utilizing the force of the current for placing the sheer-boom in position for work, or inward toward the ssiid boom, for the purpose of causing it to swing down stream out of the way when not in use, or to allow the passage of eteamers or other vessels in navigable rivers. Sheer Pole. One of the spars of a sheer, or a single one with guys and used as a substitute for regular sheers. Sheet Cal'en-der. A machine for pressing paper, rubber, etc., into sheets and giving it sur- face. See CALENDERING MACHINE, supra. Sheet De-liv'e-ry. Delivering the printed sheet from the form to the fly. CottrelPs air sheet delivery floats the freshly printed sheet down the gages, without the use of tapes, to avoid the blur- ring or smutting sometimes produced by these. Two pipes leading from the hollow piston of the air- plunger, one conveys the air to the governor, and the other to an air receiving cylinder located under the track. The air in this receiving-cylinder is permanently kept at the highest pressure, which is attained by a check valve in the pipe lead- ing to it. From the air cylinder is an upright pipe connect- ing with the perforated tubes. In the upright pipe is a trip- valve, operated by a cam, which opens the valve at the pre- cise instant the sheet comes over the wheels, inducing a puff of air sufficient to carry it down to the gages on the fly, and without touching the fingers. The exact amount of air required to float the sheet can be regulated instantaneously by the pressman, so that the printed sheet is always under perfect control. The Adams press uses a bellows for same purpose. Sheet-i'ron Work. See Blimps "Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, Sheet-iron, and Copper-plate Workers.'' Perkins Sf Stowe's "A New Guide to the Sheet-iron and Boiler Plate Roller." Sheet iron, thin . Russian . . . "Scientific Amer.," xxvxiv. 356. "Eng. 4" Min. Jour.," xxvi. 199. "Scientific American Sup.," 2449. "Iron Age,"' xvii., Jan. 20, p. 1. Sheet Lead. Lead made in sheets by ham- mering or casting. The making of sheet lead for the lining of tea chests, etc., is a somewhat important industry of Hong Kong. It is made principally in sundry establishments to the westward. On entering one, workmen will be seen with shears busily em- ployed iu cutting out the sheets of lead into the required sizes and shapes. The shears are simply a large pair of scissors, firmly fixed to a solid block of wood some 2' in height. The lower blade of the shears terminates in a square piece of iron instead of being pointed, as is the upper blade. The sheets of lead will also be observed to be of small size and some- what irregular in shape, and this arises from the method of manufacture, as will subsequently be seen. Going further into the shop will be seen an iron pan raised 12" or so above the ground and carefully finished off. Beneath this iron pan is a furnace, and at the side of the pan next the wall is the flue communicating with it. in this pan the lead is melted, and when judged to be hot enough, the workman takes two of the large square paving tiles, which may be seen almost anywhere in the colony, and these are then smoothly and carefully covered with several layers of unsized paper. Having placed these two tiles before him, one above the other, the workman raises the upper tile with his left hand, and, taking a ladle of the proper size in his right, he dips it in the melted lead and then pours its contents on to the lower tile. He then drops the upper tile and quickly presses the lead out into the form of a sheet. The paper being a bad conductor of heat, the lead does not solidify immediately it leaves the ladle, and, as by long practice the workman always ladles out exactly the same quantity of lead, the sheets made vary but little either in size or thickness. "Scientific American,' 1 ' xlii. 341. Sheet lead & pipe man. * "-Scientific American," xxxvii. 30. Sheet lead rolling mill . "Manufaet. $ Builder," ix. 172. Sheet Point'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for preparing printing sheets for cutting. The needles which project above the surface of the table are ad- justable to suit the perforations made by points in process of printing. When a sufficient number of sheets are placed the points are drawn down, leav- ing the paper accurately piled and ready for the cutting machine. Page 160, *R. Hoe & Co.'s Catalogue, ed. 1881. Sheet Trav'el-er. (Nautical.) A grommet punched from sheet metal, adapted to slide on a spar, rope, bowsprit, etc. Fig. 2251 Sheet Traveler. Shelf piece. (Nautical.) A strake of plank running internally in a line with the decks to re- ceive the ends of the beams. Shell. 1. (Nautical.) The body of a tackle- block. The groove outside is the score. The space occupied by the shears is the swallow. SHELL. 805 SHOE BOLT. 2. A metallic or paper cylinder, inclosing a cart- ridge. Shell truck . . , . * "Scientific American Sup.,'" 514. 3. A Russian tool for turning insides of hollow projectiles. Fig. 26 accompanying Appendix I., " Ordnance Rport," 1877, and page 528. Shell Piece. (Spectacles.) One of the shields of tortoise-shell or horn, used with spring eye-glasses which clasp the nose. Shell Re-du'cer. A device for reducing or ox; landing a cartridge shell. The instrument is held in the right hand, open far enough t(. allow the shell to be entered sideways into its seat, catch- ing the flange under a hook in a top piece and entering the open end of the shell into a die. The handles are then pressed together to reduce the shell at the mouth. By open- ing the handles the shell will be withdrawn from the die ; and as it then may be a little too small it can be brought to the exact size of the bullet by the repetition of the same process, using a plug instead of the die. Shift'ing Lo-co-mo'tive. A yard locomotive. See SWITCHING LOCOMOTIVE. Shin'gle Ma-chine'. Burt's 12-Block Rotary Shingle Machine has an iron frame carrying two horizontal circular saws at opposite sides of the iron frame, above which, mounted on rollers and revolv- ing above the saws, is a circular carriage divided by radial ribs or arms into 12 sectors of varying widths. At the inner end of each sector is a dog which ad- vances and retreats in the horizontal plane twice in each revolution ; this being effected by belt crank levers and inclined planes. A block being placed in a sector at a point midway between the saws, the dog holds it ; and the table, revolving, carries the block to the saw, which cuts a shingle off the bot- tom ; the dog then loosens the block and allows it to drop, again gripping it just in readiness for the next saw. The 12 sectors may all be filled at once, two shingles from each being cut at each revolution (or 24 in all). The shingles may have any desired taper, and may be either 16 or 18 inches long. The capacity of the machine is stated at 200,000 white pine or cypress shingles per day, 30 horse power driving the machine, drag saw, jointer, bolter, etc. Shingle cutting machine. Trevor If Co, . . .* "Scientific American," xli. 22. Shingle machine, Burt . * "Engineer," xli. 430. .Metallic * "Iron Age." xxii., Sept. 5, p. 5. * "Man. Builder,"' xi. 31 ; xii.269. Shingle sawing machine. Trevor if Co. . . . * "Scientific American," 1 xli. 22. Ship. A sea-going vessel ; especially a three- masted square-rigged one. Fairbairn, Win. "Treatise on Iron Shipbuilding, its His- tory and Progress.'' Fincham,J. "An Outline of Shipbuilding." Infourparts. Part I. Method of Constructing the Body, and instructions for Making Calculations ; with Examples. Part II. On the Actual Building of Ships. Part III. On the Principal Mate- rials used in Ship-Building. Part IV. A Vocabulary of Terms. Gran/ham, J. "Iron Shipbuilding." 5th edition. Lon- don, 1868. (\Veale's series.) Marett, P. R. " Yachts and Yacht Building." 1 Being a treatise on the construction of yachts and matters relating to yachting. 2d edition. London, 1872. Mea.de, Com. Richard W., U. S. N. "A Treatise on Naval Architecture and Ship- Building, or an Exposition of the Ele- innitary Principles involved in the Science and Practice of Naval Construction." Compiled from various standard au- thorities. Philadelphia, 1869. Murray. " Ship- Building in Iron and Wood,'"' by Andrew Murray, and "Steamships" by R. Murray. Nuslrom, N. W. " On Technological Education and Ship- Buiifling,for Marine Engineers." Nystrom, N. W. "A Treatise on Parabolical Construe lion of Skips and other Marine Engineering Subjects. Peake , J. " Naval Architecture . ' : ( Weale 'e series . ) Reed, E. J , C. B. " Our Iron- Clad Ships; their Qualities, Performances, and Cost. With Chapters on Turret Ships, Iron Clad Rams,'- etc. London, 1S69. Smith, Thomas, M. J. N. A. "The Hand-Book of Iron Ship Building." London, 1869. Sommerfeldt, H. A. "Elementary and Practical Principles of the Construction of Ships for Ocean and River Service." (Weale's series.) Ship, arrangement of ma- chinery, in sloops . * "Scientific American Sup.," 900. A Viking's, "Architect " " Van Nostr. Mag." xxiii. 320. Cord, self-trimming, Engl * "Scientific American Sup.," 1157. Despatch, " Iris, " Engl. " Scientific American Sup.," 1728. " Hussar 1 ' .... "Scientific American Sup.," 493. " Inflexible " and her armament. . . . *" Scientific American Sup.," 122. " Iris." Engl. . . . " Scientific American Sup. ,'' 1921. Raising apparatus, " Edith," Br. . . * "Engineer," xlv. 254. Railway, Eads . . . "Scientific American," xlii. 192. Keiffer "Iron Age" xxiv., Aug. 14, p. 7. Flad * " Railroad Gazette," xxiii. 429, 469. Steel, " Comus " . . *" Scientific American Sup.," 2841. Speed indicator. Normanville, Engl. * "Scientific Amer.," 1 xxxvii. 259. Solid timber war- . . *"Iron Age," xxi., Jan. 3. p. 16. Shipbuilding, Clyde . . "Scientific American Sup.," 951. Steel ( Clyde) . . . . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 85. London " Times " . " Scientific American Sup.,'' 1144. Steam, " Vera Cruz " * "Scientific American Sitj>.," 870. Ships of the'World, mer- chant "Scientific American Sup.," 1992. War, of Europe . . "Scientific American Sup.," 1729. War, report by Chief Engr. King, U. S. N. 1877. Cellular system for. Boolds * "Scientific American Sup.," 362, 363. Boold, Br. ... * "Engineer," xli. 246. Compartment, mer- chant and navy. Thompson, Engl. . *" Scientific American S!/p.,"2000. Japanese war, " Foo- So," " Kong-go " . * "Scientific American Sup.," 1677. Longitudinal girder and bulkheads. De Russett ... * "Engineer," xli. 311. Multifold shells. Egerton, Br. . . . "Engineer," xli. 265. Of British Navy, table of data . . . . . * "Engineering," xxv. 224. Ship's Lines, Jackson . *"Sc. American Sup.," 1231, 1523. Shipping of the world . " Scientific American Sup.," 1633. Ship Float. 1. A lighter. 2. The splashers of a paddle-wheel. * "Engineering " xxiii. 369-371. Ship Rail'way. A railway composed of sev- eral tracks, with a carrying cradle for transporting small coal-laden vessels overland from one body of water to another. Capt. J. B. Eads's plan of a proposed ship railway across the isthmus of Panama consists essentially of a series of some eight or ten tracks, having a carrying car or cradle consisting of some five sections. These to have 1,000 wheels. Estimating the weight of a large merchant ship and cargo at 10,000 tons, and distributing it over an area of 40 X 500' would give a pressure on the road-bed of about 1,200 pounds per square foot, cars and all, not half the pressure on the earth under each tie as there is when the driving-wheels of an ordinary locomotive pass over it. A ship railway across this isthmus has been the subject of much discussion, for more than thirty years, in fact. Eads, "Scientific American," xli. 64, 68, 97,144, 160 ; xliii. 303. Ship Scra'per. A triangular or square piece of steel, handled, and with sharpened edges for scraping the keels and decks of vessels. See SCRAPER, " Mech. Diet." Ship's Tini'ber Saw. A machine for giving the proper lines to ships' timbers. See BEVEL, SCROLL SAW, Fig. 669, p. 279, "Mecji. Diet." and SAWS, Ibid. Shirt Frame. A Guernsey, or shirt knitting machine. Shod'dy Ma-chine'. See RAG PICKER. Shoe Bolt. One with a countersunk head for cutter and sleigh runners. SHOE EMBOSSING MACHINE. 806 SHOT LINE. Shoe Em-boss'ing Ma-chine'. For em- bossing the vamps of boots. The stamp is heated by steam or lamp, and the boot, which is held on a goose-neck, is forced up against the die by a treadle. Shoe-ma'ker's Wax. A wax used in mak- ing the waxed ends used in sewing leather. Shoemaker's wax, when made for hand-work, is composed generally of equal quantities of pitch and resin, with 10 per cent, of tallow ; after boiling (if good wax), it is pulled until the wax assumes the color of pale resin. The pulling takes out, or, more properly, bleaches, the ingredient pitch, and thereby takes out the coloring all pitch contains. Wax used for machines has all of it too much pitch and tar for clean work ; the coloring matter in pitch and tar comes up through the grain ; once in it cannot be got out and wax boiled or heated again, unless in a perfectly clean vessel, and even then, partly recovers the coloring bleached out by hand- pulling. Wax that will work- up the pure bronze color so much liked by shoemakers may be made of 4 Ibs. resin, 1 Ib. pitch, 4 oz. beeswax, 3 oz. tallow the tallow to be re- fined, otherwise 3 oz. best sperm oil. The beeswax seems to destroy the coloring matter of the pitch when in that proportion. A good resin wax is superior to any other com- position for wear, because it decomposes on exposure and wear into a stony substance in appearance, an/1 looks not unlike pegs of amber when put under the microscope. Wax, with any tar in, or much pitch, when heated continuously, becomes only a dirty discoloring matter, as the oil evapo- rates, carrying with it all the valuable adhesive or glutinous properties of the pitch, and such wax will most readily soil or discolor the flange of the channel that is laid over it. The above recipe makes a wax which will give satisfaction. Shoe Pad. A cushion to lessen the shock 'on a horse's foot. Shoe Peg'ging Ma-chine'. A machine which takes the pegs in the strip, feeds and cuts them, and pegs on the sole. The preparatory ma- chinery, in getting out the pegs from the log, con- sists of the slabber, heading machine, boring ma- chine, pointer, splitter, bleacher, fan-blower, steam dryer, polisher, separator, winnower. See PEG- GING MACHINE, supra. Shoe Sew'iiig. A sewing-machine having a thread-carrying hook in the end of a horn small enough to be inserted inside of the shoe at all points. The hook, acting in conjunction with the needle, sews the sole to the upper with remarkable celerity. See "Mech. Diet." pp. 2162, 2163. Shoe Sol'ing. Fast- ening the soles to the uppers by machinery. See " Mech. Diet." pp. 462, 463, and PEGGING, supra. Short'-cheek Bri'- dle. A blind bridle hav- ing short cheek-pieces with rings at the lower _ ends, into which the bit- strap is buckled. Short Cir'cuit. (Electricity.} The com- pletion of a circuit by a shorter route or cross- way. Short'en-ing Knot. (Nautical.) A form of knot shown at 40, 41, Fig. 2777, p. 1240, "Meek. Diet." Short'hair Knife. (Leather.) A keen-edged knife used in the beam-house to remove short hairs (new growth) from the hides. Short Splice. (Nautical.) The junction of two ropes intertwining the strands for a relatively short distance. See i, Fig. 5435 ; also a, b, c, Fig. 5434, p. 2279, "Mech. Diet." Short Stay. (Nautical.) In weighing anchor, it refers to the position of the anchor when nearly under foot in heaving in. Shot Com-press'or. (Surgical.) A forceps to fasten leaden shot upon the ends of a ligature as a substitute for tying. The shot is partially split with a knife, put over the ligature threads close up to the suture, and the shot pinch-closed upon them. Shot Gun. Fig. 2252 is a breech loading shot gun manufactured at Colt's armory. The parts are interchangeable, and so accurately made that parts of different guns may be intermixed and a gun may be put together from parts taken haphaz- ard. The lock is of the rebounding style, and the firing pins are without springs. The action bolt which retains the barrel in its place is moved by a lever, back of the Imminer, through the medium of internal parts not shown in the engraving. This bolt en- Fig. 2252. Coifs Breech Loading Shot Gun. gages two hooks on the barrels and retains the barrels rigidly in place. The bolt carrying the shell extractors is engaged by a cam on the bolt, connecting the stock and the barrel, and when the barrel is released by drawing the action bolt and tipped as shown in Fig. 2252, the shell extractor is operated. Fig. 2253 shows that form of the Colt shot gun, having concealed hammers which are cocked by the breaking down of the barrels. The hammers can be locked in this position, to prevent accidents, by a forward motion of the trigger, and released at will by a forward and downward motion of a stop on top of the stock. The shield or shell-shaped piece formerly placed upon the Fig. 2253. Colt's Concealed Hammer Breech Loader. breech piece of muzzle-loading guns to prevent particles of the cap from being blown into the eye has been entirely dis- pensed with upon the Colt gun. It was a curious instance of the persistence of a form after its use has entirely de- parted. Colt * "Scientific American,'" 1 xlii.342. Shot Line. (Life Saving Apparatus.) The cord attached to a projectile fired from a piece to fall over a wreck or stranded vessel and thus es- tablish communication between ship and shore. SHOT LINE. 807 SHUTTLE. See pp. 200 and 251, "Ordnance Report," 1878, Ap- pendix P. Braided linen lines, Nos. 3|- to 7, are preferred. Shroud Knot. (Nautical.) A form of knot shown at 48, Fig. 2777, p. 1240, "Mech. Diet." The shroud knot is a species of splice that, instead of ly- ing smoothly, stands out boldly in an even, well-shaped knot. To make it, 'unlay the ends of the rope for a couple of feet or so, and then interlace them ; then make a single wall-knot with the ends on each part, and finish by laying away and tapering the ends as in a tack-knot. Shunt. When an elec- trical current passes by more than one path, that specially intended for its pussage is termed the main circuit, while the rest are termed derived circuits. The effect of introducing derived circuits is to dimin- ish the strength of the cur- rent flowing in the main cir- cuit, and when a single derived circuit is applied for this purpose, it receives the technical name of a " shunt." The law of shunts is as follows : The strength of current in any branch of a system of de- rived circuits, or " multiple arc," as it is termed, varies in- versely as the resistance of that branch. Hence by varying the resistance of the shunt we vary the strength of current flowing through the main circuit. The resistance of the shunt bears a mathematical relation to the current passing in the main circuit, and that by know- ing the one the other can be calculated. Thus, in the case of a galvanometer with a variable shunt interposed between its terminals, by observing the deflection of the needle when the shunt is in circuit, we can determine what the deflection would have been without the shunt, by multiplying the read- ing by a variable factor termed the " multiplying power ' of the shunt. Another fact worthy of notice in connection with this por- tion of the subject is that by means of a variable shunt the same deflection of the needle of a galvanometer may be re- produced by currents widely differing in strength, and hence all errors due to inequalities in the value of an' uncalibrated scale are entirely avoided. \V~hen an electro-magnet situated on a line of telegraph is shunted by a i-heostat or " simple shunt," that rheostat tends to become the path by which the extra currents are discharged, and so prolonged is the magnetization, that if the circuit be closed and opened \\ith any degree of rapidity, the armature sticks or remains permanently attracted a principle which has been employed in double current trans- lation. This retardation is at its maximum when the resist- ance of the shunt equals that of the electro-magnet. But should the shunt be a second electro-magnet, or, in other words an " electro-magnetic shunt," then the extra current formed in it opposes that formed in the electro-magnet, and both send a current back into the line. The current from the shunt, however, may be so exalted as to neutralize and even overcome that formed in the electro-magnet itself. So that by a properly arranged electro-magnetic shunt, the mag- netic retardation in the electro magnet itself may be reduced to a minimum, while a current is sent back into the line im- mediately after each signal, thus tending to increase the speed at which the line can be worked. Shunt Box. (Electricity.) An English term equivalent to a switch box or board. Rymer-Jones . . . * "Telegraphic Journal," vii. 128. Shunt'er. A hand propeller for cars. See PINCH BAR, etc., Fig. 3725, p. 1706, "Mech. Diet." The illustration, Fig. 2254, will give a general idea of the " Shunter," which is a wooden lever, 6' long, with a pair of side- plates fixed to it at one end, to which is attached a swivel, through which passes an iron rod, having a hook at one end which hooks over the axle. The other end has a screw with a loose nut, to shorten or lengthen the rod accord- ing to the size of wheel ; from a saddle which crosses the lever and binds the side plates to the wood, project two lugs, shaped to fit the flange of the wheel. When the shunter is in position with the hook over the axle, the lug comes in contact With the flange of the wheel. Upon raising the lever the lug is pressed against the flange in proportion to the force applied, and becomes fixed ; upon continuing to raise the lever, the wheel is caused to revolve in the same direc- tion, and the carriage is propelled forward; upon lowering the lever, it immediately becomes loose, falls again, and the action being continued every upward movement propels the carriage forward from 9" to 15". To adjust the shunter for working, drop the hook over the axle, and hold out the wooden lever horizontally, then regu- late the length of the hook by running the nut forward or back as may be required, so as to bring the projecting lug on Fig. 2251. Shunter. the side of saddle about 1" distant from the edge of the wheel ; the length of rod being once adjusted will suit all wheels that do not vary more than 1" in diameter. Shunt'ing En'gine. A British term for a yard or switching engine. See one type of such from " Engineering," reproduced in " Scientific American Sup.," *4071. See SWITCHING ENGINE. Shunting engine. London # iV. W. Ry., Br. . * " Engineering, "xxx. 184. Shut'ter Dam. A dam or gate operated by the water. Some recent improvements in France of shutter dams, worked by hydraulic pressure, have attracted much atten- tion among engineers, the system comprising first, a series of great wooden water-gates, movable around a horizontal axis working in a cast-iron shoe secured to the floor of the dam ; second, hydraulic presses applied on the down-river side of the floor, solidly anchored in the masonry and de- signed to work the gates the piston of each_ press bearing a cast-iron cross-head working in slides, to which cross-head three rods are attached, for communicating the pressure to a cross-bar fastened in the center of the movable gate ; third, a series of copper tubes which puts each press in communi- cation with the generator or reservoir of power destined to transmit water under the pressure of the hydraulic presses ; and fourth, hydraulic works built on the abutment of the dam these comprising a turbine with a vertical axis, a double force pump which receives motion from the turbine, and a reservoir of force. The pumps and the reservoir com- municate with each other, and with the presses, by means of three-way cocks, which let the water either into the res- ervoir or into the presses, or empty it into a discharging tube. The maneuvering of the gates is effected by simply moving these cocks. By putting in communication each press either with the pumps or with the reservoir of power under a sufficient pressure, an ascending motion of the pis- ton is effected, and in consequence the gate rises. By open- ing the cock into the waste pipe, the water escapes under pressure of the gate, the " corps de presse " is emptied, and the gate sinks. The reservoir force is a regulator of the play of the pumps and also permits the dam to be raised sufficiently, in case of need, to put the turbine in motion. Shut'ter Eye. An eye for hanging a shutter to, having a projecting flange or support, which is built into the wall. Shut'tle. A section of a movable dam in the SHUTTLE. 808 SIEMENS-MARTIN STEEL. modern system of movable darns. See Watson's Report, Vienna Exposition, vol. iii., " Civil Engi- neering." In M. Boule's design the shuttles are placed in tiers, be- tween slight wrought-iron upright supports, 3^ apart, car- rying the foot-path, so that the shuttles can be readily re- moved and replaced. In America shuttles hinged at the bottom, maintained in their places by props, and falling down flat on the apron of the weir when the props are re- moved, have been introduced. See BARRAGE DAM. Shut'tle Race. The inclosure in which the sewing-machine or loom shuttle travels. Si-cil'i-enne. (Fabric.) A silk and wool French good*. Sickle Grind'er. A clamp and rest hold the sickle on the grindstone in such a position that all the teeth receive the same bevel. See Fig. 3248, p. 1493, "Mech. Diet." ; Fig. 4205, p. 1898, Ibid. Side Ac'tion. (Fire-arm.) One in which the locking fast of the barrel when closed is by a side lever. Side Bar. A form of spring to give a buggy a sidewise, rolling motion instead of the forward pitching. Side Bear'ing. Supports which are placed on each side of the center-pins of a car, and intended to prevent too much rolling or rocking motion of the car-body. Usually there is a plate of iron or steel attached to the body-bolster on each side of the center-pin which is called a body side-bearing, and a corre- sponding plate, block, or roller on the truck-bolster which is called the truck side-bearing. Side Con-dens'ing Lens. A condensing lens, for the illumination of opaque objects, fitting into any of the holes on the stage of a microscope. A pair of stage forceps also tits into the holes to hold small insects. Side File. For trimming up the outside edges of the cutting points of saws after setting, to pre- vent setting. Side-pla'ning Ma-chine'. Designed for planing or jointing the edges of short boards where an accurate glue joint is required, such as cabinet and piano-forte work, and for trying out pieces for small frames, etc. It consists of a long, narrow frame with a self-feeding carriage on which the stuff is fastened by adjustable dogs, and a wing to hold a cutter head. These machines are usually made to work stuff 5' long, but can be made to work longer when or- dered, at an extra cost. The cutter head is ad- justable in all directions, has cast steel arbor, and patent self-oiling boxes. Fig. 2255. Fig. 2256. Si ami many northern States are well adapted to the rearing of the silk worm and its food, the white mulberry tree ; while a numberof parties like Virion Des Lauriers, of New York, and the Women's Silk Association, of Philadelphia, are sending silk worm eggs and mulberry trees to all parts of the country, and buying the cocoons produced. The care of a few silk worms for a month in the spring is both interesting and profitable work, and can be managed exclusively by women and children. Silk and silk culture in the United States, see Hayes' " Centennial Report,'-' v. 92-111. Silk culture, book on. Virion des Lauriers, 201 East 63d street, New York. See "Mech. Diet.,'' pp. 2179-2182. A long account of production and manufacture in Labou- laye's " Diet, des Arts et Manufact.," 1 tome iii., article "Soie." Culture in Alabama . . "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 391. Finishing machines. Buff and, Lyons . . * "Engineering," xxvi. 196. Buffand,l?r. . . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 2369. Industry of N. Italy . " Scientific American Sup.,' ; 2662. Europe * "Scientific American Sup.," Vfll. Man. in United States . Wycoff, 10th " U. S. Census." Manufacture of sewing. "Scientific American,'' xl. 100. Manufacture, American " Scientific American Kip.," 3864. Production * (t Scientific American Kiip.," 1 Reeling, etc .... * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 4779. Silkworm eggs, electric- ity in hatching . . . * "Scientific American,'' xxxiv. 2<1. Silk worm, treatment of * " Sc. American up.,'' 2773, 2779. Silk De-gum'ming Ma-chine'. A machine for treating the cocoons to deprive the filaments of their glutinous qualities, which, as first spun by the worms, cause the thread to adhere too closely. The thread of silk as it unwinds from the cocoon is value- less for manufacturing purposes, several of them combined going to make the staple of commerce. The degumming in the silk districts is accomplished as follows : The cocoons are plunged into water near the boiling point, and moved about so that the gum which fastens the threads becomes uniformly and thoroughly softened. They are then beaten with a small birchen broom, having the tips split, so that the loose threads SILK DEGUMMING MACHINE. 811 SILK SOFTENING MACHINE. readily fasten to them. After beating a short time, the op- erator gets all the cocoons fastened, and taking the bundle of threads, shakes the cocoons till each hangs but by a single one. She now takes up five or more threads (brins) accord- ing to the quality of silk wanted, unites them, and intro- duces the combined staple or strand (fil) into a little glass eye on one side of the basin. She then forms a second simi- lar strand and introduces it into a second eye on the other side. The strands are then brought together, twisted several times, separated above the twist, and introduced into two other glass eyes or ringlets, through which they are led, one to each end of the reel or tambour which is kept revolving in a steady, rapid manner, and to which is also given a certain back and forth side motion. The great object in reeling is to get the threads uniform, rounded, well joined, properly freed from moisture, and so crossed on the reel that they will not stick or glaze, as it is termed. These objects are attained by the twisting and the to and fro lateral movement of the reel, as also by properly regulating the distance between reel and basin. The uniformity of the thread depends on the skill of the operator, who must supply a new thread as soon as one be- gius to give out. This is called nourishing the .silk, and is done by dexterously casting, with the thumb, the new thread upon the combined strand, to which it immediately adheres. In this she must use much judgment, for the silk of a co- coon gradually gets lighter and finer as it approaches the end, and the uniformity of strand does not entirely depend on the uniformity in number of the individual threads form- ing it. Whenever the silk rises in locks the temperature of the water is known to be too hot, and when it unwinds with difficulty the temperature is, on the contrary, too low. The operator is supplied with a skimmer with which to remove all chrysalides and refu-c silk : also, with a basin of cold water in which to (Ool her fingers, which are being constantly dipped in the hot basin. This consti- tutes the whole operation of unwinding ; but before the skeins, as they come from the reel, are ready for the maiiu- , matter that may be adhering to it. It is then further cleansed and purged by being passed through four similar cleansers (piir^eiirf), then twisted about. ">00 times to the yard, then doubled and twisted about 400 times to the yard. It is finally run on reels about IV in diameter, and taken off and twisted in a peculiar knot or hank. Through all these op- erations the oscillating to and fro lateral motion is kept up, so as to produce the diagonal crossing of the strands, and it will be readily understood that each staple is, in the end, composed of 10 or more of the simple threads first spun by :he worm. Silk Ma-chiii'er-y. Danforth Locomotive and Manufacturing Co. (Paterson, N. J. ) use 1. Winding frame for singles. 2. Silk spinning frame for singles: the spindles meking evolutions per minute. 3. Doubling frame in which the twisted singles are laid together on spools. 4. Reeling mill for spinning doubles ; the spindles making 4,500 revolutions. The size of the thread is according to the number doubled together, for the term is used whether 3 or 20 may be so laid up. Organzine may be two. thread doubles ; tram may be 3 to 6 thread, or more. Spindle stop patent, March 24, 1876. Nonotuck Silk Co.'s (Florence, Mass.) machin- ery for throwing and finishing spool silk consists of 1. Frame for winding on to spools from the imported skeins of raw silk. Machine has a glass eye for the singles to pass through. Hill's patent. 2. For doubling several threads (from 3 to 20) together as required to obtain the required thickness. This machine has Dimock's patent detachable drop-wire to stop the winding on that particular spool if either of the individual strands should break. 3. For spinning, or twisting the threads together ; the ma- chine having a self-oiling spindle. 4. A machine for doubling several of these spun strands together. 6. For spinning these doubled threads, forming a finished cord. 6. For reeling into hanks. 7. Dyeing follows. s. A soft silk winding frame with Brown's patent rocking or oscillating motion to the top skein carrier to facilitate the work. A .^POOL PRINTER and SPOOLING MACHINE, which see. Silk Man'u-fac'ture. See manufacture of spun silk by Cheney Bros., Soutli Manchester. Hayes' "Centennial Reports," v. 100-102. Of Paterson, N. J., Ibid., 102-106. Of Horstman, Phila., Ibid., 107. In U. S., Wycoff, 10th Census Report. Silk Reel. A reel for winding the silk as it conies from the cocoons in the degumming process. The silk is passed through glass eyes, and through a guide having a transverse back-and-forth mo- tion. Silk, Sew'ing. See manufacture of sewing silk& and machine twist, Nonotuck Co., Florence, Mass. r and Danforth Manufacturing Co., Paterson, N. J., "Centennial Reports," v., 98100. Silk Soft'en-ing Ma-chine'. A machine for softening and polishing silk after dyeing. The skeins of silk are hung over two tiers of bobbins, the lower set free to move up and down, and are stretched by weights hung from the lower bobbins. This tier also moves faster than the upper ones, and has a reciprocating motion., horizontally, to twist and untwist the silk while revolving. See Fig. 2259. 2259. Silk Softening Machine. SILK SOLVENT. SILVER. Silk Sol'veiit. For dissolving silk fiber to be mixed with wool, cotton, or linen tiber for imita- tion silk goods. Schlossberger first suggested the use of an ammoniacal so- lution of protoxide of nickel for dissolving silk. Persoz proposed to use chloride of zinc, and Spiller used concen- trated hydrochloric acid. J. Loewe recently described a new solvent, the cold alkaline solution of copper with glycerine, which is not inferior to the above, and with great dilution surpasses them. In very weak solutions, the silk is acted upon slowly ; if moderately concentrated, the silk swells up on moistening it a short time ; and with a larger quantity it soon dissolves to a thick liquid, which can be filtered, al- though it filters slowly. By adding hydrochloric acid to the filtrate, the dissolved silk separates in the form of a white jelly ; frequently this separation is very slow, and the filtrate appears like a cold solution of gelatine. Wool, cotton, and linen, after being in contact with this solution for hours, is neither attacked by it nor taken up by it. It appears as if the solvent power of the alkaline glycerine and copper solu- tion only extends to the silk. In mixed fabrics, the silk may be readily detected, and even quantitative- ly determined. Silk Spin'ner. A machine for spin- ning and twisting singles for organ- zine. It has self- oiling spindles and steps. The latter are winged pieces which rest in cups, the wings prevent- ing the vertical mo- t i o n of the oil which might cause it to flow over the edge of the cup. A cover closes in the oil chamber and excludes dust. The spindles revolve 7,200 times per minute. Silk Spool'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for winding silk on to merchant spools. See SPOOL- ING MACHINE; SILK SPOOLING AND MEASUR- ING MACHINE. Silk Spool'ing and Meas'ur-ing Ma- chine'. A machine for measuring on to bobbins the exact quantity of sewing or machine silk thread ; say 100 or 200 yards, or other prescribed quantity. The one used by Holland Manufacturing Company of Wil- limantic, Connecticut, has a finger which rotates on a dial- plate, moved by contact of an impelling roller which rotates in contact with the spool. John D. Cutler & Co.'s (Paterson, N. ,T.) machine for spooling and measuring silk thread (Patent, March 3, 1874) has a friction wheel of determinate diameter resting against the thread, and communicates motion by worm-wheel to a train which actuates a printer on a graduated dial-plate. Silk Stretch'ing. A machine for stretching and polishing after dyeing. See SILK SOFTENING MACHINE and Fig. 2259. Silk Test'ing Ma-chine'. A spring balance has a bar graduated to a scale of weights for the purpose of testing the strength of the thread or filament. The thread is looped over the hook on the end of the spring-bar, and the ends being twisted around the finger, the thread is broken, a spring- catch detaining the bar so that the point at which it broke may be observed at leisure. Silk Thread. Sewing-silk is two-cord and twisted from left to right, and machine-twist is three-cord and twisted from right to left. Silk Wash'iiig Ma-chine'. One in which the cocoons are passed to rid them of dirt, worms, glutinous and other refuse matter. See DEGLU- TINIZING MACHINE above. Silk Wind'er. For reeling the silk from the cocoons. This apparatus, shown in perspective in the accompanying illustration, is double. Each half consists simply of a metal lined basin, S, supplied by a faucet, s, with cold water, heated to such temperature as may be desired, by steam from the pipe P. Immediately above aud back of the basin is a transverse bar, H, which bears projecting horizontally from it, two stems carrying the JUieres F, which are porce- lain disks half an inch in diameter, and each pierced in its center with a small vertical hole. The horizontal bar has a slight traversing motion. Above and across the machine is a transverse bar carrying the croiseur or twister C, which is a tiny reel with a vertical axis, and set in motion at will, by a train of clock-work. At each side of the croiseur is a trem- bleur or vibrator, r, which is a spiral spring bearing at its free end a loop fitted with a heart-shaped glass plate. Mid- way of the machine rise standards which bear a reciprocating cross-bar, fitted with a triangle of wire, apex downward. At the back of the machine are standards bearing a reel op- erated by a crank or by power, the belt being thrown into Fig. 2260. Silk Wintler. operation by a clutch actuated by the rod R. The cocoons (containing the dead chrysalides) being placed in a basin of hot water, are softened and rendered more easy to unravel. The free or outer ends of the cocoons are gathered by beat- ing the floating mass gently with a stiff brush of twigs. Two sets of six each of these being selected, are passed up- wards through the holes in the porcelain filicres F, are crossed, passed through the loops on the croiseur, through the niche in the glass bushing in the vibrators, then through loops in the triangle, and then to the reel. The machine being then set in operation by the hand crank or by the belts, the delicate threads are unwound from the bobbing cocoons, brought together, intimately twisted, and wound on the reel, which is seen to contain two hanks of the twisted thread. Silk'worm Nur'se-ry. A frame is made with light square vertical posts connected by hori- zontal parallel bamboo rods. The rods are placed at suitable distances to support a series of flat trays made of rice straw, in which the silkworms are reared. Sil'ver. Equivalent 108, symbol Ag. (anren- tum), specific gravity 10.5, point of fusion, 1873 Fab. Generally occurs as a sulphide, and is often associated with other metals. The ore is ground and the silver separated by amalgamation. "Mech. Diet." Alloy "Scientific American,'' xli. 103. Silvering glass, Draper . "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1670. Kiemfns " Scientific American Sup., 1 ' 1670. Petitjean " Scientific American Sup.," 16JO. Laval " Scientific American Sup.," 1670. Silvering iron .... "Scientific American," 1 xxiiiv. 276. Ware "Sc. Amer.,-' xxxvi. 287,291, 292. See "Mech. Diet.," 982, 983, 2182-2185, and 405 supra. Silver mill, Boss ... * "Scientific American Sup.," 2464. Cerro de Pasco ... * "Eng. if Min. Jour.,' 1 ' xxvi. 436. Silver plate works. Reed $ Barton . . . * "Scientific American,'- xli. 287. Silver smelting processes. Painter's "Report Vienna Exp." Andreasberg ... iv. 115. SILVER. 813 SINGEING MACHINE. Pilram, 163, Augustin . Painter's "Report Vienna E.rp.,'- iv. 13i. Schemnitz,179,Silesian Painter's "Report Vienna Exp.," iv. 136. Soldering. .... "Scientific American Sup.," 1 1302. Imitation .... * "Scientific American," 1 xxxiv. 368. Sil'ver Al-loy'. 65 parts of iron and 4 parts of tungsten are melted together and granulated ; also 23 parts of nickel, 5 of aluminum, and 5 of copper, in a separate crucible, to which is added a piece of sodium in order to prevent oxidation. The two granulated alloys are then melted to- gether. Both alloys resist the action of sulphu- retted hydrogen. See also "Scientific American," xli. 103. Sil'ver Glass. An ornamental ground and cut glass. This glass can be used in the place of plaster, marble floors, or wood inlaid work. Patented February 2, 1875, Jones. Sil'ver-ing. The formula for silvering by dip- piny is as follows : Dissolve 20 grams of silver in 60 grams of nitric aoid, and precipitate with a solution of 20 grams of caustic potash in water upon a filter, and wash with water; then redissolve upon the filter with a solution of 100 grams of cyanide of potassium in water; then dilute the whole to 2 liters with distilled water, and use like the gilding solution described in (iilding by Dipping, under GILDING, p. 398, supra. Silvering b// Cold /Inbliing. Make paste by thoroughly grinding in a porcelain mortar, out of the light Water 3 to 5 oz. Chloride of silver 7 oz. Forassium oxalatc 10J oz. Salt (common table) 15 oz. Sal ammoniac 3J oz. Or, Chloride of silver 3J oz. Cream of tartar 7 oz. Salt (common) 10 oz. Water, to form a paste. Keep in a covered vessel away from the light. Apply with a cork or brush to the clean metallic (copper) surface, and allow the paste to dry. When rinsed in cold water the sil- ver presents a fine frosted appearance, the brightness of which may be increased by a few seconds' immersion in di- lute sulphuric acid or solution of potassium cyanide. The silvering bears the action of the wire brush and of the bur- nishing tool very well, and may also be " oxidized." Should a first silvering not be found sufficiently durable after scratch-brushing, a second or third coat may be applied. This silvering is not so adhering on white or pure copper as upon a gilt surface. For the reflector of lanterns the paste is rubbed upon the reflector with a fine linen pad ; then, with another rag, a thin paste of Spanish white or similar substance is spread over the reflector and left to dry. Rubbing with a fine clean linen rag restores the luster and whiteness of the silvered surface. The paste is sometimes mixed directly with the whiting and left to dry, or until nearly dry, then rubbed down as de- scribed. Sil'ver-ing Glass. Prepare two solutions, says the "Jeweler and Silversmith" : 1. Argentic nitrate is dissolved in distilled water and am- monia added to the solution, till the precipitate first thrown down is almost entirely redissolved. The solution is filtered and diluted so that 100 cc. contain one gram of argentic nitrate. 2. Two grams of argentic nitrate are dissolved in a little distilled water and poured into a liter of boiling dis- tilled water ; 1.66 grams of Rochelle salt is added and the mixture boiled fora short time, till the precipitate contained in it becomes gray ; it is then filtered hot. The glass having been thoroughly cleaned with (1) nitric acid, (2) water, (3) caustic potash, (4) water, (5) alcohol, and lastly, distilled water, is to be placed in a clean glass or por- celain vessel, the side to be silvered being placed uppermost. Equal quantities of the two solutions are then to be mixed and poured in, so as to cover the glass. This should be done while the glass is still wet with distilled water. In about an hour the silvering will be completed. Then pour off the exhausted liquid, carefslly remove the glass, wash in clean water, rub off silver deposited where not required, allow to dry and varnish silver side with any thin varnish which does not contract much in drying. The time re- quired for the operation depends on the temperature. If the solution be warmed toabout30C., the silver U deposited in a few minutes, but it is safer to use them cold. The insides of test-tubes, bulbs, etc., are silvered by putting the solutions into them, no second vessel being then required. Through- out the whole operation the most scrupulous cleanliness is the grand essential. Furnace, Stetefeldl . . * "Min. if Sc. Press," xxxiv. 349. Silvering glass . . . . "Scientific American Sup. ," 1928. Lrival * l Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' 921. Ivorv "37ai. and Builder,''' xii. 167. Sil'ver-ing Mir'rors. Some time since the Academic des Sciences offered a prize of 2,500 f. for a method of satisfactorily and permanently silvering mirrors, and which should save the workman the danger of exposure to the effect of mercurial vapors. The prize has been awarded to M. Lenoir, whose process is substantially as follows : The glass is first silvered by means of tartaric acid and ammoniacal nitrate of silver, and then exposed to the action of a weak solution of double cyanide of mercury and potas- i slum. When the mercurial solution has spread uniformly over the surface, fine zinc dust is powdered over it which promptly reduces the quicksilver and permits it to form a white and brilliant silver amalgam, adhering strongly to the glass, and which is affirmed to be free from the yellowish tint of ordinary silvered glass, and uoc easily affected by sulphurous emanations. Silvering mirrors . . "Scientific Amer.,'' 1 xli. 232 ; xliii. 73. Sil'ver Pro'cess. The plan of Paul's dry- process mill, for working gold and silver ores, is 1. The calcining furnace : 2, the self-feeder ; 3, the stamp battery ; 4, dust casing : 5, elevators (these are not used when the ground admits of the battery being set on a level with the pulverizing barrel ; 7, hopper for pulverized ore ; 8, amalgamating barrel; 9. hopper for conveying ore to the settler ; 10, first settler ; ll, amalgam safe ; 12, hydrostatic settler ; 13, concentrator. The ore is reduced to powder by attrition of quartz, and the amalgamation is speedy. Ore is passed into self-feeders, and that is the last of the handling. The gold contained in it will be found in the amalgam safe, all ready for retorting. The machinery is ingeniously constructed, and works effect- ively. It is rendered perfectly automatic, so that, from the- moment the quartz is put into the feeder until the gold comes from the machine in the shape of amalgam, the stuff is not handled. Only two men are necessary to run a 10- ton mill. Sil'ver Steel. (Metallurgy.) A steel of fine quality with a slight alloy of silver. Sil'ver Ware. Table ware made from or coated with silver. See CHASING; REPOUSSE; SNARLING ; GILDING, etc. "Mech. Diet." Silverware . * u Scientific American,'' 1 xxxvi. 287, 291, 292. Singe'iiig Ma-chine'. A gas singeing machine intended for removing or dressing the nap on woven goods. In Fig. 2261, the workman has the work directly under his notice, and can vary at any time the intensity of the flame, or the speed at which the cloth is traveling. The burners are so arranged that the application of com- pressed air takes place at the moment of the combustion of the gas, and by varying the pressure of the air all the differ- ent degrees of heat can be obtained, and thick and thin fab- rics singed with equal facility. The upper part of the burner is open along its whole length, and cocks and othermeansare provided for regulating the line of flame, so as to make it perfectly even, or to reserve, if required, certain parts of the surface of the cloth from the action of the llame. The posi- tion of the line of flame can also be varied according to the effect which is required. Thus the flame applied directly under the roller singes the cloth thoroughly, and, it is said, brings out the grain, as is necessary in merinos, cashmeres, etc. ; but in the case of delicate tissues, where it is necessary simply to dress the cloth lightly as with a shearing machine, the line of the flame is placed tangentialiy to the roller, and only takes off the projecting fibers. The workman can, by means of a treadle, instantly stop the feed of the cloth, and at the same time reverse the line of flame so as to suspend its action ; thus fringed shawls can be singed and accidents easily avoided. SINGEING MACHINE. 814 SINGLE-KAIL RAILWAY. Fig. 2201. os Singling Machine. This system produces no smoke or soot, so that the most delicate tissues can be singed without altering the color, and after bleaching, dyeing, or printing, without changing the shade. The mixture of compressed air and gas is effected, so as to produce great economy in gas, and at the same time a great intensity of flame. The intensity of the flame is increased by augmenting the pressure of the air without varying at all the quantity of gas, which latter only becomes then more perfectly consumed. The general arrangement of the machine with a single flame, as usually made, is clearly shown in the above draw- ing, but machines are also arranged, when desired, with two or four flames so as to singe both sides of the stuff at one passage. Sin'gle Coil Spring. One made of a single spring wire, coiled upon itself, with same diameter throughout. Sin'gle Flu'id Bat'ter-y. (Electricity.} A term used for the battery with but a single fluid, in the double fluid battery invented by Paniell. See p. 2187, "Meek. Diet.," Air as a depolarizer in a single fluid cell is found in Pulvermacher's . . * " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 888. "Engineer,'' 1 * xlvi. 143. "Scientific Amer. Sup.,'- 2213, 2247. Puh-ermacher , Fr. * "Engineer," xlvi. 143. Sin'gle Plate Wheel. (Railway.) A car wheel which has a single plate between the hub and the rim. The plate or disk is sometimes fiat, or ribbed on one side, or corrugated. Sin'gle-rail Rail 'way. One in which the cars are supported and run on a single rail, and are braced or steadied by side-rails. Figs. 2262, 2263 show the details of construction of a new and improved car for single-rail railways, invented by David B. James, of Visalia, Cal. The invention consists of one line of broad-faced wheels in the center to carry the load, and guide wheels to run each side of the rail on vertical axles projecting down from the car, these wheels being to keep the carrying wheels on the track and to prevent the cars from overturning, for which they are contrived to gripe the rail with more or less force The wheels are connected with a platform which is carried only enough higher than the rail to clear it properly, and the car is mounted on pivots ar- ranged in the line of the wheels, and supported on the plat- form so that the load is balanced on the wheels, and the center of gravity is lowered as much as possible to prevent Single-rait Railway. . In the locomotive they may be geared with the power and have a lever contrivance for gripping the rail tightly for trac- tion on steep grades. Fig. 2262 of the engrav- ings is a longitudinal sec- tion elevation of the im- proved railway car, ^liou-- ing the guide wheels, ridged and running in a groove in the stringer. Fig. 2263 is a horizontal section, giving an end view of the car and track, stringer and ties, with side wheels, the ridges j n which fit into the groove in the stringer. y Single-rail Railway. one being, say from 2" to 3" thick. _B represents the ties, which may be of any suitable kind. C represents the SINGLE-RAIL RAILWAY. 815 SINGLE SCREW TURNBUCKLE. carrying wheels of the car ; D, the wheels for guiding it, and preventing it from overturning, the latter wheel? being mounted on vertical axles F, projecting down from the car body or supports, I, so that the wheels run against the edges of the rail, while the wheels Crun on top. The axles fare mounted in bearings G, which are movable toward and from the rail, and have springs to press them against it, by which they are accommodated to variations in thickness of the rail, and allow the car to turn curves readily, without requiring the wheels C to be mounted on a pivot or fifth- wheel. The car body J is mounted on the pivots A', supported on the platform L, which is .-usjieinied from the axles of the wheels T, the said pivots being arranged in the longitudinal plane of the wheel.- '', so the center of gravity of the load remains more on the wheels than it otherwise would, and the cur is more certain of keeping erect in case the load is not trimmed nicely, or the car is jarred or otherwise forced later- ally. But to prevent the car from rocking too much on the pivots, and also to prevent it from striking too hard on the platform in case it does rock, buffer springs M are attached to the under sideof the car body, sn as to strike the platform, or they may be applied so that the body may strike against them. The platform will always run level on account of using only one rail and employing the guide wheels to direct the car, which avoids the necessity of tilting the car as on the curves of the road of two rails, and thus the difficulty of carrying the cars upright on a single track is greatly dimin- ished. If considered necessary, the carrying wheels may be banded with rubber to prevent wear of the wood rails, and for run- ning smoothly, but it is believed that the broad surfaceswill wear so little as not to need it. By gearing the guide wheels of the locomotives with the driving wheels, and employing levers to cause them to gripe the rails, very steep grades may be ascended. Very abrupt curves can easily be overcome by means of this system, as well as steep grades. The en- gineering difficulties of a line in a mountainous country could therefore be overcome by it, as a narrow-gauge road overcomes the difficulties of a broad-gauge under such cir- cumstances. The stringer is fastened to the ties with iron knees. Figs. 2264, 2265 show a road that consists of a single bear- ing-rail, A, of the common T rail pattern laid upon a wooden stringpiece of about 4x8 timber, which rests upon the top of a row of posts, or piers, and is flanked by a pair of side rails, B B, which are dropped some 4 / 5" below the level of the bearing rail A, and are 3' 4" from out to out. A system Fig. 2264. Single-rail Railway of cross bracing from the main rail A to each of the side rails, supplemented by a similar set of braces between the rails B B, gives the whole the character of a triangular truss, of great strength. The locomotive used on this road, of which Fig, 2265 is a rear view with casing removed, runs upon two driving-wheels shown at C C, of 28" diameter ; the boiler, of the style known as " locomotive," 12' long and 34" in diameter, with 4J' fire-box, is dropped as low to the bearing-rail A as prac- ticable. The frame of the locomotive is made of angle iron, and drops to the level of the side rails B B on either side, carrying on each side two guide-wheels D D, of 28" diameter, which run upon vertical axes. Both the driving-wheels C C and guide-wheels D D are grooved, or, properly speaking, double-flanged, making it impossible for the locomotive to be taken off the track by any accident that does not first ac- tually take the wheels off, and then lift the machine bodily nearly 5', throwing sideways withal. The total length of the engine is only about IT'. The fuel and water tanks being below the level of the bearing-rail and upon the side- frames, assist in ballasting and steadying the machine. The engines proper are of the La France rotary pattern, the prin- ciple of which is that of two gear-wheels running in a tight Mute. The road, as shown here, is designed for city and rapid transit where the height above the ground, as well as the length of the span between supports, is necessarily great, but for country roads a much simpler and more economical style of construction is recommended, wherein the roadway con- sists of a single bearing-rail A of iron, the side-rails B B be- ing of hard wood , and the side-plates that support E B are brought together near enough to bolt directly to the posts, Fig. 2265. Single-rail Railway. which should be of cedar. A road of this kind, capable of carrying a load of four tons per bearing-wheel, is estimated upon as follows. For each mile in length the company esti- mates : Steel bearing-rail, 40 Ibs. per yard, at $65 per ton $1,242.00 Splice-plates and spikes . , 135.00 Stringpiece 8 X 10, side-plates 5x6, side-rails 3x4, all of hard or Georgia pine ..... 1,700.00 Lag bolts, plate bolts, and spikes 160.00 Cedar posts, 8" in diameter, 12' long, 550 per mile at$l . . , 550.00 Setting in concrete base, 25 cents per foot . . . 137.50 Mill work, squaring ends and boring bolt holes . 250.00 Contingencies 325.50 Total $4,500.00 The above figures are obtained with reference to the south- eastern part of New Jersey, where the soil is sandy ; but it is to be remembered that in no case is any amount of grading or earth work to be allowed for, no culverts to provide: the only difference required by small streams is a slight increase in length of posts perhaps (and this is the better rule for cross- ing all highways and railroads), also an increase of elevation and span, requiring only a little more lumber at such points to reenforce the stringer plates and posts, and no other extra expense ; swamps or peat-bogs may require some crib work, but again it is only a call for more cedar, and nothing else. Such a roadway should only need renewal in from fifteen to twenty years. The bridging of highways and streams adds little or nothing to the first cost. The single bearing-rail is about 5' from the ground as a minimum. Single rail * "Sc. American Sup.,'- 511, 694. Uno-rail *"Mech. Diet.,'" Figs. 1210, 6872, pp. 513, 2683. Palmer " Mech. Diet.," Fig. 1856, p. 792. Baker "Iron Age," 1 xix., Feb. 8, p. 15. Sin'gle Screw TurnTDUck-le. A link hav- SINGLE-RAIL CRANE. 816 SIPHON. ing a nut at one end and a swivel at the other, used in lightning-rods. See TURNBUCKLE, c, Fig. 6794, p. 2659, "Mech. Diet." Sin'gle-rail Crane. A single, mounted rail carrying a crane for shifting to different parts of a room. Fig. 2266. Sinking Pump. sinking new shafts mines. A vertical pump adapted to and recovering abandoned The pumps are of various capacity. The one here illus- trated (Fig. 2267) is next to the smallest made, weighs one thousand pounds, and has a capacity of about eighty gallons per minute. It is built on the bucket-plunger plan, adapting it to gritty water. The removable barrel admits of easy renewal when worn, and swing-bolts give access to both pump-barrel and water- valves. It is also through its attachments made adjustable to the water level. Kijr.2267. (NO iLCVATION Single-rail Crane. This form of crane, shown in Fig. 2266, is for hand- power, but the general form is the same whether the crane is worked by hand or is driven by a high-speed cord or tum- bler shaft. The under-carriage or bogey is fitted with two double-flanged wheels, one in front of the other, and trav- eling on a single rail, which is usually sunk so as to be Hush with the floor, in order not to interfere with the free circu- lation of foot or wheeled traffic in any direction ; the stabil- ity of the crane is maintained by the post being keyed se- curely into the carriage, its upper end being fitted with a horizontal wheel which works between a pair of guides fixed to the under side of a floor, or to the beams or columns ; these guides are fixed in the same line as the single rail on the flocr and plumb above it, and extend the full length that it is desired to travel the crane ; the jib is hung on a shoulder on the post ; the thrust of the jib being taken by a pair of friction rollers working against the post ; it therefore turns very freely entirely round the post. The gearing is worked from the floor by hauling on the endless hand-rope, and the barrel-shaft is fitted with a self-acting arrangement, which maintains the load suspended directly the hand-rope is released. One of the traveling wheels is geared up to the handle shaft on the carriage, which is the proper height from the ground for easily turning. . It will be evident from the engraving and the foregoing short description that these cranes occupy so little space that they are peculiarly adapted for running between two lines of lathes or machine tools, or for lifting the smaller parts of machines in the erecting shop after the heavy portions have been put in position by the overhead traveler. Cranes of this type have been constructed for many of the leading engineers ; they are also usefully employed in wool ware- houses or furniture stores where goods are packed from floor to ceiling. For the platforms of railway or dock goods sheds this system affords very great facility for concentrating the crane-power at any given point, and the heavy outlay is avoided for a number of fixed cranes which can neither be always employed nor cover the ground so completely as port- able cranes. These cranes lift a load and swing entirely round with it, or travel with it as readily as if it were on a truck on rails. Sin'gle Shear Steel. (Metallurgy.) Blister steel, once reworked by heating, rolling, and tilting to improve the quality. Sin'gle Whip. (Nautical.) A simple form of tackle formed by reeving a rope through a single block, a, Fig. 7196, p. 2770; a, Fig. 6159, p. 2480, "Mech. Diet.'" Sin'glings. The first to come over, the crude spirit of distillation. Sink'er Bar. A medium length section of a long boring rod or auger stem for sinking shafts. A still shorter section is called a substitute. Sinus Probe. Sinking Pump. Si'nus Probe. A vermicular pointed uterine curved probe, used in its peculiar branch of surgi- cal operations. Fig. 2268. Si'phon. A unique application of the siphon, to enable the transmission of water over higher levels than its source, is described as follows : The most remarkable illustration of this principle on a grand scale is to be found at the water works at Virginia City, Nev. The water is brought in an 18" flume, 4 miles long, to a spur overlooking the \Vashoe Valley 2100' above the Truckee Railroad track. There it is received into an iron pipe which after descending into the valley ascends on the other side to the height of 1,540'. The length of the inverted siphon is nearly 7 miles and conveys two million gallons of water per day. The leading of such a stream of water across such a valley has no paral- lel in hydraulic engineering. The pressure on the pipe is equal to a column of water 1,720' high. The orifice of the pipe is 12" in diameter, and the amount of rolled iron used in its manufacture is 1,150,000 pounds. A million rivets were used in its construction, and 50,000 pounds of lead in fastening the joints. The line of pipe is compelled to twist SIPHON. 817 SIPHON SLIDE. and curve to fit the inequalities of the ground and crosses 13 steep canons. At the bottom of each depression a blow- cock is useC. to remove the sediment, and at each elevation is an air vent. The water when received into the pipe from the flume passes through wire screens and charcoal. Stilhvell * "Scientific American," 1 xxxv. 307. Automatic, Taylor . . *" Scientific American Sap.,'' 2717. * "Scientific American" xl. 216. Condenser, Sault, Br. . * "Engineering," 1 xxii. 484. Lubricator, \Veatkerburn, Br * "Engineer,' 1 ' xlv. 170. Overflow, automatic. Taylor, Br * "Engineer," xlvii. 353. Recorder, Thomson, Br. * "Engineering," xxii. 115. Verdon canal, across val- ley of St. Paul, Fr. . * " Engineering,'' xxiii. 246. Si'phon, Au'to-mat'ic. A siphon the short arm of which being provided with a valve is ac- tuated and set in motion by the alternate vertical movement given to it. It is operated without withdrawing the air by suction, through the inertia and adhesion of the liquid. Si'phon Con-den'ser. An ingenious device for producing a siphon vacuum, profitably employed in a low-pressure engine as a substitute for the air- pump and condenser. The condenser is placed on top of a vertical tube (say 34' to 40' high) that has its lower end inserted in the hot well. Fig. 2269. Siphon Condenser. Connected also with the condenser are the tubes that con- vey the exhaust steam from the engine on the one hand and the ordinary injection of cold water on the other. Si'phon Gage. ( Gas.} A form of gage used in determining the pressure or vacuum in gas pipes. It consists of a convolved pipe in the U of which is a liquid acted upon by the gas admitted by a pipe. The zero in the graduated member is when no pres- sure is exerted and the liquid is at an equal height in each leg. Below and above this are graduations which indicate inches of water pressure or vac- 52 Si'phon Pipe. A curved pipe that on the prin- ciple of the siphon conveys liquids over inequalities in its track. Si'phon Pump. A device for raising water by the direct action of steam. It combines the powers of a force and lift pump without piston, plunger, valve, or any movable parts, so as to have little about it to wear or get out of order. Solid bodies of less diameter than the pipes of the steam siphon pass through it without obstruction, thus drawing up and ejecting mud, sand, cinders, fruit, grain, chips, coal, etc., that with a common pump would obstruct the valves. Fig. 2270. Fig. 2270. Siphon Pump. Si'phon Re-cord'er. A delicate recording in- strument for the receiving end of submarine ca- bles, the invention of Sir William Thomson. It has a large magnet with a small movable coil of wire (in the line circuit) suspended between its poles ; when a cur- rent passes the coil moves, and this movement in the mag- netic field is communicated to the siphon pen which there- upon writes the message. The letters consist of a codified series of right and left deviations from the right line, due to the movement of the paper by the mechanical feeder. "Engineering '' . . . * xxii. 115, 116. "Sc. American Sup.'* . * 205, * 909, * 4060. Paper by Ewing . . . * "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," v. 185. Si'phon Slide. A device for the retention of small aquatic animals in a position suitable for ex- periment and observation. In a slip of thick plate glass a chamber is excavated that has at each end fine perforations, too small to permit the es- cape of the animal under view, but sufficient to maintain a flow of water. These openings emerge into tubular mouths, to each of which is attached a tightly -fitting elastic tube ; one of these communicates with a reservoir of water, whilst the other acts as an escape conduit. SIPHON SLIDE. 818 SIRUP TANK. Fig. 2271. The position of the slide, when in use, must be slightly above the level of the reservoir, while the escape tube must rest below the game, insuring a siphon action in the apparatus. See Fig. 2271. Si'phon Tel'e-graph Re-cord'er. See SI- PHON RECORDER. Si'phon Trap. One in form of siphon to pre- vent the rising of gases from sewers, etc. See SEAL ; SEWER-GAS CHECK, supra, and Fig. 6618, p. 2617, " Mech. Diet." Si'ren. 1 . An apparatus for detecting the so- norous qualities of various kinds of wood and metals. 2. An instrument for producing musical tones and for measuring the intonations and vibrations of sound-waves. For comparison of the Daboll fog trumpet, siren, etc., see "Smithsonian Report," 1878, by Prof. Henry, pp. 455-559. In the grand siren of Lubec a strong system of clock-work keeps in motion a copper disk, pierced with holes at regular intervals. A common air-chamber communicates with a series of tube? that can be accurately adjusted in front of the revolving disk, at any required position. A registry gives the velocity of rotation. Four of the disks are intended to show the results obtained when the isochronism of the impulses is imperfect from any cause ; the fifth shows that impulses coming from different points can unite to form one sound ; the sixth serves for experiments on interference ; the seventh has eight series of holes, giving the gamut ; the eighth has eight series of holes Fig. 2272. upon the rapidity with which the puffs succeed each other, or upon the velocity of rotation of the disk, precisely as in the acoustic instrument called the siren, used in physical apparatus to illustrate the truth that the pitch of a sound depends upon the number of aerial vibrations produced in a given time. This steam siren has been experimented upon by Professor Tyndall in his recent investigations upon the propagation of sounds through fogs and under other atmos- pheric conditions, and has proved very far superior to artil- lery in signaling through fog. See Fig. 2272. Comparison of the Daboll fog trumpet and siren and other matters in "Researches in Sound,'' 1 "Smithsonian Report," 1878, by Prof. Henry, pp. 455-559. * "Scientific American Sup." 1 766. See SIREN, Fig. 5114, p. 2191, "Mech. Diet.' 1 ' See FOG TRUMPET, Fig. 1080, p. 353, supra. Siren * "Engineer," xli. 46. Buoy, self acting. Courtenay, Fr. . . * "Engineering," xxvii. 510. Compressed air, Saut- ter Lemonnier If Co., Fr * "Engineering,''' xxx. 366. Irish, Wighatn . . . "Scientific American Sup.," 2398. Sir'up Gage. The solid plunger sirup gage, illustrated in the accompanying cut, is a device in- ' Siren. ior the harmonics, and the ninth illustrates the phenomena of beats. See also Helmholtz's Double Siren and Oppelt's Siren. The Centennial Steam Fog Siren or Trumpet and the Aus- trian fog trumpet are different modifications of instruments intended to denote points of danger to shipping in times of dense fog. About seventy pounds pressure of steam is employed. As the rotating disk rotates rapidly puffs of steam escape, and as these vibrations quickly succeed each other a sound of great intensity is produced, the pitch of which depends Sirup Gage. vented by John Matthews, of New York, for deliv- ering a fixed quantity of sirup and carbonado into bottles at the bottling machine. The sirup is admitted to the pump through the inlet C and the carboriade enters through the inlet B, the mixture passing out to the bottling machine through the outlet A. The solid plunger D works in the cylinder of the pump E, and is operated by means of the handle F and the connecting rod K. The stroke of the plunger is regulated by means of the pin H, which en- ables the quantity of sirup de- livered to the bottle to be accu- rately gaged. / is a guide for the crank which operates the solid plunger. Sir'up Pump. A device for measuring sirup into soda-water bottles. The pump being secured to the bottling table, the bottles are charged with sirup and passed under the bottling machine. See Fig. 2274. Sir'up Tank. For soda water. In the cut (Fig. 2275) is illus- trated the portable measuring sub-lift sirup tank invented and introduced by John Mat- thews, of New York, for use in soda water dispensing appa- ratus. The glass tank E is provided at its lower extremity with a measuring chamber, S, and at its upper extremity, with two orifices. Through one of these orifices passes the rod Y: the other is intended for filling the tank. The rod Y is provided at its lower end with two valves, and at its upper end with a grooved cap, Z, into which fits the upper extremity of the lifting bar V. Through the rod Y runs an opening, U, for venting the measuring chamber. K is guide for the lifting bar, and X is a button on the lower SIRUP TANK. 819 SIX- CYLINDER ENGINE. Fig. 2274. Fig. 2276. Sirup Pump. extremity of the bar. The operation of the sirup tank is as follows : When the valve-rod Y is at rest, the lower valve on its extremity rests on the lower valve-seat of the measuring chamber. The sirup is now prevented j>j~ 2275 from escaping into the glass, but is admitted from the tank to the measuring chamber. If now the but- ton X be raised, either by the hand or by the glass, the valve-rod Y will like- wise be raised until the up- per valve is brought into close contact with the up- per valve-seat of the meas- uring chamber. This will allow the sirup in the meas- uring chamber to follow into the glass, and will pre- vent the further admission of sirup into the measur- ing chamber. The removal of the tank from the appa- ratus may be effected by raising the guide K and turning the lifting bar V. The tank can then be taken out as shown by the dotted lines. Six-cant'ed Pile. Has an angle of 120, and is used for hexago- nal nuts, wrenches, etc. S i x-c y 1' i n-d e r sirup Tank . En'gine. I he engine consists of a base- plate carrying a casting containing six cylinders arranged in a' circle. The axes of the six cylinders are all parallel to the main shaft, which traverses the middle of the casting. A light hollow piston works in each cylinder, each piston having a conical end that bears against a disk. The disk is mounted on a short shaft, having at one end a spherical bearing, while at the other end enters a brass bush fitted to the crank-arm that is keyed to the main shaft. The pistons are single-acting, the pressure of steam in the cylinders tending always to force them against the disk. The shaft makes one revolution for each complete double stroke of each piston, and as each acts during the same rev- olution, the six going into operation successively at Intervals of 60, it follows that three pistons are constantly acting on the disk. The strain thus thrown upon the crank and shaft is practically uniform, and there being no dead point, no fly-wheel is necessary. It balances itself. See Figg. 2276, Six-cylinder Engine. Fig. 2277. Six-cylinder Engine. Fig. 2278. Six-cylinder Engine. 2277, 2278, 2279, which with the description explain them- SIX-CYLINDER ENGINE. 820 SLACK GAS FURNACE. Fig. 2279. stock by diminishing the sec- tional area at that point. If sufficient heat gets above the fu- sion limit of a blast furnace to paste the stock and yet not fuse it, this stock jams on the bosh, forming a ring which if the stock above cannot push it down to the fusion limit, allows this ring to become permanently set and so ob- struct the flow of stock. * "Iron Age - 1 . xxv. , March 4, p. 3, Fig. 4. Six-cylinder engine, West * # West, Br * Applied to Qramm ma- chine * Six-coupled locomotive . * Six-cylinder Engine. 'Engineer,' 1 xlii. 411. 'Engineering,'' xx. 28. 'Engineering,'' xxii. 511. 'Engineer," xlv. 55. 'Engineer,'' xlvi. 135. * "Iron Age '' xxi., Feb. 21, p. 1. * "Scientific American Sup., 1 ' . . 923. See also DISK ENGINE, Fig. 1666, p. 708, "Mech. Diet." Six'fold Knot. A knot in which one part is wound 6 times around the other before jam- ming. Siz'ing. (Leather.) A paste made of flour, soap, beeswax, a little linseed oil, and water. It is applied to the grain side with a sponge. It fills the pores and serves to give a smooth finish to the leather. Sizing cotton goods. Thompson Sizing, history of. ' Scientific American Sup.,' 1 1269. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 2868. Skein Screws. A screw with a shallow open thread. Skein Set'ter. A machine for fitting metallic skeins to wooden axles. See Figs. 148, 151, pp. 61, 62, "Mech. Diet." Skein Tor'sion Ma-chine'. A machine for twisting silk while under tension. See SILK SOFT- ENING MACHINE. Skel'e-ton Bell. An electric call and alarm bell used on railroad trains and other places where such communication is desired from distant points. Such as are peculiarly adapted for railroad trains have a lock attachment preventing any movement of the bell-hammer till it is actuated by the mag- nets. One variety is made with a continuity at- tachment causing the bell to continue ringing sev- eral seconds after the current on the line wire has ceased, making it useful when a prolonged call is desired. Skel'e-ton Roller. (Agriculture.) An open ribbed roller used in France. The open bars of the drum enable it to answer in a degree the same purpose as the English clod crusher. Skew'-back. A casting on the end of a truss, to which a tension rod may be attached. It may form a cap, or be shaped to fit the impost. (Blast-furnace.) A ring formed on the inside of the wall of a blast furnace, opposing the descent of Skim Net. (Fishing.) A large dipping net. Skin Graft'ing In'stru- ments. (Sun/ical.) The prin- cipal special instruments which are used in the transplantation of skin are Skin grafting scissors. Cutisector. Kpilating forceps. ("!l:iss plrxiincter. Scarifying spud. Milium needle. Sharp spoon. Page 11, Part V., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgi- cum." Skit'tle Pot. A crucible taking the shape of a skittle, smaller below and bulging towards the top. again contracting at the rim. Ski'ving. (Leather.) The act of removing the rough fleshy portion from the inner surface of a skin by the currier driving his knife obliquely a few inches at a time, and keeping the right hand slightly in advance of the left in the downward motion. Skiver * "Scientific American Sup., 1 ' 101. Slab'bing Ma-chine'. A tool especially adapted to mill the flats of connecting rods and similar work. It is arranged with bed, tables, and uprights, like planer with a capacity of 25" X 25" ; table 12' long and operated by a spiral pinion. Spindle to carry cutter <\" diameter, 4" wide, strongly geared, and adjustable to height. The feed is variable between the extremes, and the table, which is adjustable by hand, has an automatic stop motion to throw out the feed at the end of the stroke. The fast and loose pulleys are 20" diameter, 3" face, and should make 114 revolutions per minute. Slack Bar'rel. One for flour, sugar, cement, fruit, and what not, of a dry character. In con- tradistinction to tight barrel. Slack Burn'ing Lo'co-mo'tive. See WASTE BURNING LOCOMOTIVB. Hunt, Br "Iron Age, 1 ' xx., Nov. 29, p. 20. Slack Gas Fur'nace. Casson's new gas and hot blast furnace is applied to puddling furnaces. The coal used screened slack is supplied into a hopper and drawn down into the grate. Through the back of the grate it is blown bv hot air drawn down from the increased sides of the nearest stack. Hot air is likewise taken in at both the top and bot- tom of the furnace, and makes ics way to the exit of the gas from the gas furnace before it passes over the bridge of the puddling furnace, and the hot air fires the gas. The supply of air is under the control of the puddler and regulates the fierce- ness of the flame. The puddling furnace is a double furnace having circular rotating beds that are actuated by mechan- ical rabbles. SLAG. 821 SLAT CRIMPER. Slag. Blast-furnace slags are usually double silicates of alumina and lime, but vary with the character of the ore, as when the lime is partially replaced by magnesia and oxide of iron, which colors the slag, and in excess is an indication of imperfect working of the furnace. The glassy slag produced in blast-furnaces is very abun- dant, and many methods of utilizing it have been proposed. In the Cleveland iron district of England, from three to four millions of tons of slag are made annually. Bricks, paving- stones, slabs, panels, tiles, etc., are made from this ma- terial. About 30 cwt. of slag is made for each ton of pig-iron. The annual accumulation of slag in England is estimated at 80,000,000 tons. Slag is too dark in color to be used for purposes requiring translureuey. At the Cleveland Slag Works, England, in accordance with Mr. Charles Woods's plans, the slag is run from the furnace into two different machines, one of which produces a coarse kind of shingle, and the other a fine sand. For making shingle the liquid slag is run direct from the furnaces onto a circular, horizontal, rotative table composed of thick slabs of iron, kept cool by having water circulated through them. The slowly revolving table carries the slag around to a cer- tain point, when having become solidified, it encounters a stream of water that further cools it, and soon after it comes in contact with a set of scrapers that break it up and clear it off the table, delivering it into wagons placed below that convey it away. For producing slag sand the slag is run from the furnace into a hollow wheel revolving upon a horizontal axis and fitted with iron buckets inside. A bath of water is main- tained inside the wheel at the bottom, and is kept in a state of violent agitation by the revolving action. As the molten slag enters the body of water, it is immediately disintegra- te I anil assumes the form of sand, the water taking up the heat from the molten slag and giving it off in the form of steam. A constant flow of water is maintained into the machine, and the sand is separated from it and elevated to the top by the bucket plates that are perforated. The slag sand is next dropped into a spout, and thence finds its way into wooden wagons, by which it is conveyed to the slag works for man- ufacture into brick, etc. See the following uses and applications : 1. Artificial Stone. The process of making artificial stone from furnace slag is carried on at the Cleveland Slag Works. It is composed of a wet mixture of Pulverized slag 2.5 Ground bricks 2.5 Portland cement 1.0 The mixture is run into molds for building blocks, man- tels, cornices, caps, sills, steps, balusters, etc. It sets quickly, and the blocks are ready for use in a week. 2. Bricks. Bricks are made by either of two machines. The slag sand is elevated from the tub, and, after screening to remove coarse pieces, is divided by a revolving measure on the outside and placed at tBe bottom of the hopper. From another hopper selenitic lime and iron oxide in powder is measured by a similar contrivance, and the two substances unite in the proportion of, sand, 10 ; lime, 1. The material then passes to a mill where it is incorporated, and thence to the 1 prick molding machine. The production of the machine is 11,000 to 12,000 per day. The bricks, after 4 months' exposure, are said (Kirkaldy) to resist a crushing pressure of 9 tons, and at 3 years of 20 tns. This shows that the chemical combination requires time. The Moss Bay Iron Works (England) also make slag bricks. The slag is ground under edge-stones, then passed through mill stones. The pouder is moistened, pressed, and molded into bricks, and hardened in the open air. :!. I'fiiifnt. The slags, rich in alumina, are preferable for cement, as the aluminate of lime is the principal hydrau- lic agent in cement. Mortar is a mixture of slag and 10 per cent, slaked lime. Cement has an addition of iron oxides. Ransome's cement consists of carbonate of lime, 2 ; slag sand, 1, burned to- gether. The result gives a cement said to be 30 per cent, stronger than Portland cement. Concrete is made of the coarse slag at a cost of about one fourth that of brick. 4. Glass. Slags rich in silcx are preferable for glass. At the Fenidon glass furnaces, in Northamptonshire, Eng- land, the slag is carried in tanks direct from the blast fur- nace to the glass furnace, there mixed with other materials and worked into bottles. The method pursued is that of Mr. Bashley Britten. The glass furnace is of the Regenera- tive order, and the tank receives a charge of 500 pounds of molten slag to a due proportion of sand and alkalies. The melted metal runs through a bridge to the working end of the tank, where there are five working holes. Ninety gross of wine and beer bottles are made per day. 5. Harbor Works anil River Walls. These can only be economically formed of slag when the works are near the- water. At the Barrow Works the slag is tipped into the sea to make fresh land for the works. At the Cleveland Works 600,000 tons of slag per annum are used in the continuation of a breakwater and river walls. 6. Paving Block*. The slag is run into heated molds, and the block is removed and annealed. They are heavy and wear well. Paving blocks and slabs are employed for paving streets, footpaths, stables, coach-house yards, crossings, breweries, curbstones, and channeling. 7. Pig Beds. Slag was formerly granulated and the sand used for pig beds, but this was discontinued for technical reason*. 8. Road Making. Slag was formerly broken up and used for road making in England, and is still largely so used in Silesia. Slag shingle, or coarsely granulated slag is used for road making and paths. 9. Stag Wool. Furnace slag blown while hot into fine threads or filaments has been made at the Clove Furnace, Greenwood Iron Works, Orange Co., N. Y. The slag is drawn from the furnace into an iron tank car- ried on a truck. The car is run on a railway to a position op- posite one of the apertures in the wool house, which latter is lined inside with thin sheet iron. The slag drops upon a re- ceiver in a small stream, steam is conveyed under the re- ceiver, and as the slag drops it is met by the jet which blows it with great force into the wool house in very thin filaments. The effect of the steam is to detach the slag in small shot which furnishes the basis of the filament. The smaller the shot the finer the filament, so the glass must not be too hot and liquid. By adjusting the heat of the slag and the strength of the steam jet the eventual size of the shot may be reduced to 1-16" and it is not necessary to separate it from the wool. The lightest wool ascends to the upper story, and is free from the residuary balls. This mineral wool being incombustible and of a fine texture is a good non-conductor of heat, and is employed as a coating for steam boilers, pipes, cylinders, etc. It is called slag \vool in England, and silicate cotton in Germany. It is used in Austria for making show cloths, laces, and fancy articles. It is also used in the man- ufacture of lanterns for electric lights. A patent has been taken out in Germany by Baatsch for the manufacture of prepared slag wool in order to prevent the generation of gases containing sulphur. The wool is placed in a wire nettingand rapidly drawn through a dilute solution of water glass (1.2 to 1.3 specific gravity) and emptied on a floor coated with grease. The object is to wet only the surface of the wool without moistening the interior. 10. Slag for Steam Pipe Insulation. Buttgenbach's method : Mix 150 parts of cinder dust, 35 parts by weight of fine coal dust, 250 parts of fire clay, and 300 parts of flue dust, with 10 parts of cow's hair, add 600 parts of water into which 10 to 15 parts of raw sulphuric acid has been poured, and make a stiff dough of the whole. This being applied in layers to the warm pipe hardens rapidly and is suc- ceeded with future layers according to the thickness required. By the action of sulphuric acid gypsum is formed, and the silica rendered free hardens. The mass becomes as hard as porcelain and is still porous. Slag, granulated for ce- ment, railway ballast, casting bed,' foundry molds, "'Iron " . Slag block apparatus. Woodward, Br. . Slag-brick machinery. Wood, Br. . . ". . Slag, uses of .... Britten Slag, granulated, Fr. United States . . . Slag and slag- wool pat. ' Slag paving blocks . . ' Machine for making . * ' Slag utilization, Iron Word, Middleboro' . ' Slag wool, Greenwood iron works . . . . * ' Machinery, Wood, Br. * Slag, furnace utilization ' " Van Nostrand's Mag." xiv. 476. ''Engineer,'' xliv. 5. 'Enginefring," xxiv. 246. 'Manuf. if Builder,'' ix. 127. "Eng.'fy Min. Jour.,'' xxx. 26. 'Engineering,'' xxii. 274,283,321, 349. p. 13. 'Iron Age," xviii., Nov. 2, p. 18. 'Scientific American Sup.," 1362. ' Scientific American,' ' xxxix. 345. 'Iron Age,''' xx., Nov. 22, p. 7. 'Scientific American Sup.," 713. 'Eng. (f Min. Jour.,'' xxv. 53. x 'Iron Age," xix., April 5, p. 7. 'Engineering," xxiv. 247. 'Min. 4 Sc. Press," xxxvii. 151. Slat Crimp'er. A machine tised for sharpen- ing, by compression, the ends of stationary slats to fit and fill mortises in the stiles. The slats are placed in the vertical guides, and SLATE ROOF. 822 SLIDE. are delivered sharpened, one with each revolution of the shaft. Slate Roof. An economical system of cover- ing buildings with large slates is as follows : The rafters are placed at a distance apart of 1 \" less than the width of the slates. Down the center of each rafter is nailed a fillet, thus forming a rebate on each side, in which the edges of the slates rest, being secured by putty or by a second fillet 2" wider than the first nailed over it, so as to cover the edges of the slates and hold them down. Each slate lays about 3" over the one below it. Only half the number is required in this as com- pared with the ordinary method of slating, and no boarding or battens are necessary. Slate dresser . . . . * "Am. Man.," Jan. 3, 1879, p. 12. Slate quarry .... "Scientific American,'' xxxvi. 83. Slate trim, and punching machine, Davis. . . * " Scientific American,'' xxxv. 34. Slate washer, Smith . . * "Scientific American,''' xliii. 5. Sla'ting. Black-board Slating may be accom- plished with the following mixture : 10 ounces pulverized pumice stone, 12 ounces lampblack, 6 ounces pulverized rotten stone, 16 ounces shellac, and 1 gallon alcohol. Mix the first three in enough alcohol to make a thick paste, and dissolve the shellac in the rest of the alcohol. Mix all together. It may be put on brown paper (such as surveyors use), as well as on walls or boards. Or, dissolve 2 ounces of gum shellac in 1 pint of alcohol, and after it is well dissolved, which will take about two days, add 1 ounce of lampblack and 2 ounces of powdered rotten stone or powdered emery. Apply with a flat brush. Slat I'ron. The iron shoe or termination of the bow or slat of a carriage top. The shoe is hinged to the stem by a pivot-pin and has an en- velope of leather. The illustration represents a three bow pattern made with a sleeve running through the slats to give them free action, and pre- vent their binding on the nut and turning it off. Fig. 2180. Slat Iron. Sleep'er. Iron Cross-tie. This tie is semi- elliptical in shape, resting simply on the ballast. The rail is fastened to the cross-tie by a jaw bone chair that is formed in two portions that hook into one another and hold the rail as in a vise. Half of the chair is fastened to the cross-tie by a bolt preferably on the outside of the track while the other half hooks into the first beneath the cross- tie and is immovable. An ordinary eye-headed bolt entering through the hole of the tie adapts itself to the end of this movable arm, and by its successive tightening compensates for any downward wear of the rail. Iron, Rock * Railway (of glass). Siemens * Preserving Iron Railway, Hilf, Ger. Macdonnell, Br. Hohenegger, Ger. Hensinger von Wai degg, Ger. . . Schejfler, Br. . Livesey, Br. . . "Mm. 4" Sc. Press," xxxvii. 393. "Scientific American,''' xli. 201. 'Engineering," xxx. 16. "Engineer,'-' xlviii. 359. 'Engineer,'' xlviii. 427. 'Engineer," xlviii. 427. "Engineer," xlviii. 427. "Engineer,' 1 ' xlviii. 303. "Engineer,'" xlviii. 195, 315. Maclellan, Br. . Vantkerin, Ger. Pole/, Belgium . Brunon, Fr. . . Acaster, Br. . . And permanent way Kirsck, Belgium Win. Kler, Ger. Sleeping car, Leighton Kellogg .... Sleeping car berth, Hills British "Engineer," xlviii 265. "Engineer," xlix. 115. "Engineer," xlix. 241. "Engineer,'' xlix. 241. "Engineer," xlix. 304. "Engineer," xlviii. 445. "Engineer," 1 xlviii. 446. "Railroad Gazette," xxi. 181. " Scientific American," xxxvii. 23. " Scientific American, >; xli. 307. "Iron Age," xxi., Feb. 21, p. 5. Sleeve. A short, relatively larger, pipe which receives the ends of two smaller ones and forms a coupling therefor. It may have bell or flanged ends. See, also, HUB, which has a similar purpose but somewhat different shape. Sleeve Nut. A double nut with right and left hand threads for attaching the joint ends of rods or tubes. Fig. 2281. Sleeve Nut. Slick'er. {Leather.) Steel. A rectangular piece of steel about 5" long. The edge is also a rectan- gle, and is sharpened upon the rub-stone by grind- ing it perpendicularly, and then upon each side, producing thus two edges (or rather right angles) by which the leather is scraped instead of being cut. It is used to remove excess of water, oil, etc., from leather. Its applications are various. It has a handle like that of a stock-stone. Glass or Ligmm-vitce. These are similar in form and dimensions to the steel slicker, but the blades are made either of thick plate-glass or lignum- vitse. The edges are rounded instead of being rectangular. They are chiefly used to smooth out and polish leather. Buffing. This slicker has a narrower, longer, and very much thinner blade than the others. Its edge ^^^^^^ has an acute angular longitudinal groove BBBDB running along it, thus forming two very ^^^^_ keen cutting edges, which are kept in HBB^MI proper condition by the finger-steel. It 9H9BI ' s used by placing one edge and the stock flat upon the leather, the latter being B ol stretched upon the table, and forcibly pushing it forward, taking off thin sha- vings from the grain surface. When one edge is dulled the slicker is turned over and the other side used until it loses its edge, when the finger-steel must again be brought into requisition. Whitening. This instrument has almost the same form and dimensions as the buffing slicker, but instead of a reentrant angle along the edge, it has a very narrow rectangular one, whose angles are kept sharp by the finger-steel. Slick'er-sides. (Mining.) Smooth, polished surfaces of walls caused by violent trituration. Slick'ing. (Leather.) An operation consisting in scraping the leather, to remove superfluous wa- ter or grease, and eradicate the marks left by the stock-stone. Slide. (Lumbering.) A chute for logs over rapids or shoals where such obstructions to floating logs exist in rivers. The slides of the Ottawa river extend at intervals for 200 miles above the city of Ottawa. On the river Saguenay there is a slide 5,840' long, with a boom 1,314' ; and dams, piers, and bulkhead. The works extend over a distance of about six miles. Slides are con- structed on the rivers St. Maurice, Gatineau, Madawaska, Petawawa, and Du Moine. On the rivers mentioned the SLIDE CUT-OFF. 823 SLOT DRILLING MACHINE. works iire said to comprise : Slides, 12,835' : booms, G7.799' ; dams, 17,791' ; bulkheads, 346^ ; bridges, '2,215' ; piers, 141. Slide Cut'-off. (Steam.) An independent sliding plate riding on the back of the main valve, of which Meyer's system of valve-gear is a familiar instance. Slide Rest. This rest has an ordinary cross- feed screw, but by a movement of the clutch, the Fig. 2282. Universal Slid screw becomes neutral and transfers its feed through beveled gears, to a screw working at an angle to the first, the upper slide being swiveled, for adjusting to the desired angle, Fj ^gg by means of a degree scale. The upper screw is also con- trolled by a friction feed enabling the tool to be quickly adjusted by band without disengaging the clutch on the cross-feed screw, See Fig. 2282. Shaws Co. , Engl. "Scientific American Sup.," 583. Slide rest lathe. * ''Scientific American," xl. 404. Slide Valve. This sliding valve is constructed so as to form part of the conducting pipe, in- stead of projecting from it :is usual, so that the outlet to which the hose is attached can be kept close to the wall. The sliding valve is worked by a rack and pinion arrangement ; the front or cover plate is of gun metal, with the out- let screwed to receive hose, and fitted with gun metal cap and chain, also hand-wheel or spanner or spindle for opening and closing the valve. * "Sc. American Sup.," 803, * 1527. Allen. * "Railroad Gazette," xxiv. 101. Ancona. * "Railroad Gazette,-' viii. 295. C/nirr/i. Hr. Slide. Valve. * "Engineer," xlii. 281. Erfrilt, Br * "Engineering," xxx. 27. Wilsnn * "Railroad Gazette,'' viii. 33. Aveling (f Porter, Br. * "Engineer," xlviii. 430. Balanced, Wisner . . . * "Scientific American," xxiv. 374. Taylor- Weather/iogg . * "Scientific American Sup.," 1 319. Weat/ierhosg ... * "Engineering," xxi. 168. Circular, Webb . . . . * "Engineer," xliv. 69. Diagrams, appa. for draw.* "Engineering," 1 xxi. 388. Expansion riding valve. Crohn, Br * "Engineering," xxv. 151. Indicator, Cooper, Br. . * "Engineering," xxii. 393. Locomotive, Volga Sf Don Ry * "Engineer," xlix. 376. Oiler * "Railroad Gazette," xxiii. 533. Setting apparatus . . * "Engineer," xlvi. 377. * "Scientific American Sup.," 193. Seat, WalJcey .... *" Railroad Gazette," xxiv. 390. Friction of , Rose . . . * "Scientific American," xxxvi. 264. Shifting for winding en- gines * "Engineering," xxv. 2i6. Sli'ding Door. One running on hangers, sheaves, rollers, or rail ; as distinguished from one swinging on hinges. Sli'ding-door Lock. A lock made especially for fastening sliding doors of cars, for instance. Such locks usually have a hook which engages in a corresponding catch attached to the door-post. The hook may be locked by a bolt operatable by a key. Slings. (Boat.) Ropes with hooks and thim- bles whereby to hook the tackles to the ring bolts of the boat in lowering or hoisting. (A hoisting device.) A pair of hooks for clasping a can or cask to be lifted. Sling Wag'on. A military wagon for carry- ing a cannon slung beneath the hind axle, which has a large pair of wheels. Plate XLVI., "Ord- nance Report," 1877. Russian gun sling, Fig. 27, Appendix L, same report. Slip Shave. A point or shave made to slip over the nose of the mold-board. Slip Stop'per. (Nautical.) A cable stopper so arranged as to be cast loose suddenly when re- quired. Slit'-bar Sight. (Rifle.) A form of sight having a plate with a vertical slit. See BAR AND SLIT-SIGHT. Slit'ting Mill. An English term for a gang of thin saws, used in ripping pine balks, known as deals, into thin boards. A resawing operation. See RESAWING. Slit'ting Shear. A machine for slitting sheet metal. In Bliss's machines, Nos. 104 and 106 of the 1881 catalogue, sheet metal up to 18 gage (Browne & Sharpe) is received in a roll, fed automatically, and the scrap coiled. Sliv'er-ing Knife. (Fishing.) For slicing the flesh from the sides of fish, to be used as bait. Sliv'er Lap Ma-chine'. A machine designed to unite in one broad sheet or lap a number of slivers or ends of cotton from the carding engine. The~sliver, when stripped from the doffer of the carding engine, passes to a coiler, by which it is deposited with me- chanical regularity into a can. A certain number of these cans are placed behind the sliver lap machine, and the sliver is drawn from them through guides to a pair of fluted rollers which press the fibers, and form them into a fleece. They are then wound on a bobbin revolving between two iron revolving plates. The slivers are made to pass over a num- ber of spoons, so arranged that if any of the slivers break the machine immediately stops. When cotton with short staple is used, two calender rollers are placed on each side of the table to assist the sliver in its passage from the can to the guide plate. Slot Bor'er. A tool used for opening the cut in connection with slotting machines. Slot-bor'ing Ma-chine'. A machine intended to supersede reciprocating mortising machines in which the wood had first to be bored so as to give clearance for the chisel ; this machine combining the two operations in one. In these machines the workman presses the borer in with his right hand, and moves the wood with the other.- The horizontal machines are especially adapted to usual mortis- ing. See ROTARY MORTISING MACHINE, supra. Slot Drilling Ma-chine'. Whitworth's self- acting slot-drilling machine has a sliding head-stock carrying the crank motion. The drill-spindle re- volves in conical steel bearings. It has a horizon- tal slide-bed and two tables adjustable vertically and longitudinally. Double, self-acting. Daglish, Br * "Engineering," xxx. 298. Slotting machine. Asqu ' ~ Colli, SLOT DRILLING MACHINE. 824 SMOKE CONSUMER. Reversible tool atta. for Garvie, Br. . . . * "Engineering," Oct. 15, 1880. Sellers * Thurston's " Vienna Exp. Rept.J 1 ' ii. 218. Skarpe. Steivart If Co., Br. * "Engineering,'' xxv. 488. Slub'bing Frame. A machine used in the process of cotton spinning next to the draw-frame, to reduce the thickness of the sliver and impart to it a little twist previous to its passage through the intermediate frame, the roving frame (and where fine counts are spun, the jack frame) which delivers it to the mule. The slubbing frame exhibited by Dodson and Barlow, at Philadelphia, had 36 spindles, 10" lift, 8" space, three lines of rollers, and single boss top rollers. It was claimed to possess the following advantages : 1. The differential motion is completely boxed up, so that no dirt or fly can get among the wheels ; there is only one place for lubricating this motion, and the oil cannot work itself out but travels to each bearing which requires lubrica- ting. 2. The swing lever which carries the carrier wheel that drives the bottom shaft, is firmly hung from the beam and has no vibration at whatever speed the spindles may revolve. In the swing there are also loose brackets or slides, which work on a planed surface, and when the wheel becomes so far worn as to be slack in gear with the bottom-shaft wheel, these slides can be loosened, and the wheels can be nicely adjusted by a few turns of a screw. 3. When the frame is doffing, the bottom cone drum is worked up by a screw either from back or front. Both ends of the bottom cone rising simultaneously, it is impossible for the cones to become unparallel. 4. The tapering motion, which is carried on a rail attached to two of the lifting slides, instead of by a bracket fixed to the lifting rail, is therefore much more rigid and not likely to get out of order. The taper is worked by a fine-cut square rack, which, being planed on all sur- faces, causes the rack to work very Fig. 2254. smoothly and con- sequently a regular taper on the bobbins is obtained. Sluice. A water way with valve or gate for controlling the flow of water. See " M e c h. Diet.," p. 2217. A water way with trap, stop-valve, or screen for the arrest of obstructive substances. For silver tailings, Nev. * "Engineering," 1 xxx. 395, 451. Ore, Evans "Min. If Sc. Press,'' xxxvii. 406. Valve, Equilibrium. Eagshaw, Br. ... * "Engineer," xliv. 148. Sluice Fork. A many tined fork for clearing obstructive substances out of sluice ways and water courses. Slui'ces. (Mining.) Boxes joined together, set Fig. 2285. Sluice. Sluice Valves. with riffle blocks, through which is washed aurifer- ous earth. Sluice Valve. A sliding valve made so as to be secured to the bulk-head by three bolts instead of by screwed shank and fly-nut. For vessels built in compartments, with gun-metal frame and valve. It passes upward through a brass hinged flap on deck above, so as to open valve without going be- low. Fig. 2285. Smashing Press. An embossing press. Smee Bat'ter-y. (Electricity.) A single fluid battery having a sheet of roughened platinum be- tween two plates of zinc in sulphuric acid. See "Mech. Diet." p. 2220. Prescott's "Electricity," * 74 ; Gauot, * 689. De Moncel, Paris, 186(5, 107. Nouii, London, 1859, * 274. Shaffner, N. ., 1859, * 93. Niaudel, American translation, * 54. Poggenilorfs improvement, Niauilet, 59. Smelt'ing Fur'iiace. A furnace for reducing ores. See "Mech. Diet.," p. 2220, et seq. Boston & Col. Smelting Works * "Engineering," xxii. 247, 317. Kony, India .... * "Scientijic American,'' xxvi. 151. Smoke'-burn-ing Fur'nace. M. Ten-Brink's smoke-burning furnace has the heater placed below with its major axis at right angles and horizontal to that of the boiler. One or two furnaces traverse the heater, making with the horizon an angle of 48. In these furnaces is placed the grate, formed of a table and bars, the latter resting on the table at one extremity and at the other on a support at the end of the furnace. The table has two lateral sides surmounted by a .cover so that a close four sided box is formed upon the door and grate extremities. The front piece to which this box is attached is a plate of cast-iron in which several different open- ings are made. A flue regulated by a hinged cover above the entrance to the furnace admits air in order to insure the complete combustion of disen- gaged gases. See also "Scientific American Sup.," 962. Smoke burning furnace. * "Scientific. Amer.," xxxvii. 232. Dumery * Laboulaye's "Diet., 1 ' iv., " Fu- mee," Fig. 3538. Smoke preventive . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 962. Smoke burning furnaces, On, Hill " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xxii. 62. Smoke-burning furnace. "Eng. fy Min. Jour.," xxvi. 422. Clark "Iron Age,'' xxii., Nov. 21, p. 20. Smoke burning grate. Jordan * "Scientific American," xxiv. 403. Smoke consumer . . . "Scientific American," xxxv. 18. Smoke-consuming furnace "Scientific American," x\xix. 138. Hoyt * "Scientific American Sup.," 1120. Smoke Con-su'mer. The methods proposed for consuming smoke are very numerous. Papin proposed the downward draft, making the smoke descend through the fire, as in Delasme's base burner, 1685 (Fig. 5911, p. 2410, "Mec/i. Diet."). In Papin's the draft was obtained by means of a blower ; the idea has never fructified into useful form. Watt had a wide dead-plate between the furnace doors and grate bars ; on this the coal was coked before beine pushed back and burnt. This plan is excellent, but requires careful attention. The smoke and gases evolved in combustion of the fresh coal are consumed while passing over the incan- descent mass of fuel at the back of the furnace. A given quantity of air has been introduced above the fire-bars, to insure the combustion of the smoke ; this is good in theory, but the regulation is difficult in practice, as, when coal is freshly introduced, a larger quantity of air is required than at other times. Henderson's mechanical stoker has hoppers above the fur- nace doors, and the coal is gradually dropped into the fur- naces by automatic devices driven by the engine. See STOKER. Prideaux's has fire doors, in which the air enters through a number of Venetian lattices, and is warmed by contact with metallic plates before reaching the furnace. SMOKE CONSUMER. 825 SMUT MACHINE. Fig. 2286. Murphy^s Smokeless Furnace. Richardson, C. J. " The Smoke Nuisance, and Its Remedy by Means of Water." With Remarks on Liquid Fuel. Lon- don, 1869. Smoke Con-sump'tion. A new device in smoke consumption on trial in Chicago has special adaptability to all kinds of boilers. A jet of steam is introduced, creating a vacuum into which the outer air rushes, and the commingled steam and air are delivered into the fire chamber. In this the proportions are one part steam to two hundred parts of atmospheric air. This creates an intense draft, and, it is claimed, the entire consumption of the carbon contained in the soot. Smoke'less Fur'nace. Murphy's smokeless furnace (see Figs. 2286, 2287) obtains its complete combustion by a natural draft, being fed automat- ically, and having a steady, uniform feed and there- fore an even temperature.' The fuel is put into magazines and pushed very slowly on plates, cooking it before it enters upon the grates. A cur- rent of air by natural draft passes over the heated arch above Fig. 2287. and down at the sides, supplying the mixture of air necessary for perfect combustion. Smokeless furnace, Beg-an* " Scientific American Sup.," 1363. Erskine, Br * "Engineer," xlvii. 79. Smoke preventer for strain boilers . . . *" Scientific American Sup.,'' 524. Smoke stack. Hewitt . * "Railroad Gazette,'' 1 xxiii. 459. \Vood-burning, Finley * "Railroad Gazette,'"' xxiv. 281. Locomotive, Turner . * "Scientific American," xl. 86. Penn. Railway . . . * "Engineering,'' xxiv. 123. Smoothing Fron. Pott's Cold Handle Double-pointed Smoothing Iron has a semi-circular handle that is made of a non-conducting material, so as not to convey the heat from the iron below, and is attachable to the iron by a spring catch that holds it in position while in use, and is readily detached through the" pressure by the finger of the knob above when it is desired to transfer it to another iron. See Fig. 2288. Enterprise Co . * "Iron Age.,^ xix., Jan. 4, p. 1. Sad iron, Hasen- ritter ... * "Iron Age," xvii., Jan. 26, p. 5. Sad iron and fluting roller. Kramer . . * "Scientific American," xli. 102. The gas-heating toilet smoothing iron (see Fig. 2289), it is said, can be heated in three minutes on any ordinary gas burner. They are especially adapted "for gentlemen to iron Fig. 2288. Murphy's Smokeless Furnace. Smoothing Iron. their silk hats, and for ladies while traveling ; also for dress-making and other general F '*' 2m uses. Smooth Plane. One the bit of which is set at a relative- ly more obtuse i angle than that ' of a block plane. The former is for planing with the grain ; the latter across it. See Fig. 2290. See BLOCK PLANE. See also SCRAPER PLANE. Smut Ma- chine'. A machine for cleaning from wheat the smut, and also dirt and the beard, the latter on the end opposite to the germ. By a certain vigor in the process the bran is also partially removed. The wheat is passed between sharply roughened or pointed iron Gas-heating Smoothing Iron. SMUT MACHINE. 826 SNUGGER. Fig. 2290. " Victor " Smooth Plane. surfaces, as teeth or wire brush, or beaten upon the surface of a cylinder or conical frustum, re- volving at high speed within a metallic case perfo- rated with holes or slits, serving the double pur- pose of permitting the dust to escape and presenting a rough surface. Howes, Babcock & Co.'s machine lor removing smut, point- ing, and cleaning grain is shown in Fig. 2291. The wheat enters at A, passes through the cylinder B B, comes through O to Z>, where it encounters the current of air produced hy the exhaust-fan, which conducts the light Fig. 2291. Wheat Grading and Purifying Machine. kernals to E, the bran to F, and the fan-chamber which leads to the dust and bran chamber. The air moves in the direction indicated by the arrows. The particles of dust, hairs, smut, etc., that pass through the walls of the cylin- der B B, are carried by the exhaust to F. The excellence of the work of this machine is indorsed by Professor Kick in his official report to the Austrian government. The Eureka smut and separating machine has a separator attachment above the shoe in such manner provided that the dust from the entire machine is all absorbed by the fan. The capacity of No. 2 is 40 to 60 bushels per hour, and like the Nos. and 1 has two separators, one before and one after the scourer. Motion, 625 revolutions per minute. Stand- ard size, pulley 10" with 5J" face. Snap Ac'tion. (Fire-arm.) As distinguished from a lever gun; one which as the hinged barrel closes is fastened by a spring catch. Snap Block. (Nautical.) A block with an opening in the side at which the rope may be laid in the sheave without the trouble of reeving it in. See Fig. 2292. Snap Ma-chine'. A machine for cutting a Fig. 2292. Snap Block. blanket of dough into snaps. A kind of biscuit ; ginger snaps for instance. See CRACKER MA- CHINE. Snarl'ing. A mode of producing repousse work upon any hollow ware of sheet gold, silver, etc., by blows delivered inside. The snarling tool is placed in a vise and the protruding end enters the object and rests against the inside. A blow delivered on the shank of the snarling iron is transferred to the object, and makes a dent which appears as a bulge on the exterior. See SNARLING IRON, p. 2229, "Mech. Diet." Snatch'ing Rol'lers. (Printing Machine.) A pair of rollers driven at a somewhat higher speed than the pair of holding rollers next in the rear of them, in order to snatch or break the paper on the lines of the perforations and thus make them into separate sheets. Sneak Box. The New Jersey sneak box is from 12' to 14' in length; the shelving or side- boards on the stern of the boat are used to hold the decoys while the hunter rows to and from the shooting ground. Used by gunners on Barncgat and Little Egg Harbor Bays, New Jersey. The Maryland ducking-sink is used by gunners" on the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay. Snood. (Fishing.) The short line which car- ries the hook and is attached to the fishing line. A snell, leader, or trace. Made of catgut, silk, gimp, wire, flax, silk- worm gut, etc. Snow Flan'ges. (Railway.) A bar of iron or steel attached to a car or engine to scrape away snow and ice on the sides of the heads of the rails so as to make room for the flanges of the wheels. See "Scientific American," xl. 372. Snow Plow. A plow-shaped apparatus mounted on wheels and propelled by locomotives, used in cutting a way through snow drifts. Those used in the vast drifts on the Pacific railroad are 13' high, 10 7 wide, and 30' long. They are mounted on two trucks and weigh 38,000 pounds each. The body of the plow is made of the best lumber, the furrow board of polished ash, run- ning back at an angle of 31 and up, in a half circle of 19" radius. The apron is of f" boiler iron and has steel shoes, clamped on the rail by clamps 3' long. The drifts sometimes become so compacted that they resi.-t the butting action of the plow for a long time, and as high as fifteen locomotives have united their combined power before they could push the plow through the drifts. Snow plow, Little . . * "Scientific American,''' xxxvi. 226. Snow plows, railway . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 731. Snow Scra'per. 1. (Railway.) A plate or bar of iron attached to an engine or car to scrape snow and ice from the rail. 2. An A-shaped plow made of two scantlings and a cross-piece, for cleaning snow off sidewalks. The driver stands on the cross-piece ; the horse is hitched to the point of the A. Siiug'ger. A device to impart a smooth and dense exterior and uniform thickness to twine. SOAP. 827 SODA ASH RECLAIMER. Soap. In the preparation of toilet or perfumed soaps, the blocks of rough soap are first cut into thin shavings in a planing machine, and the sha- vings are then ground with coloring matter, essen- tial oils, and scents, until they form a homogenous paste. The machine for grinding contains granite cylinders, which pass the paste automatically be- tween them, and finally into the upper portion of the hopper, so that the services of only one attend- ant are required for several machines. After the paste has been ground, it passes to a machine called the peloteuse, or mixing mill, which stretches and draws it out and prepares it for being molded and stamped. The peloteuse does instantly what at one time required several weeks of scraping, washing, and drying. It is a mortar, in which the soap paste is packed until it is freed of air, and from which it is then forced by increase of pressure, pass- ing through draw plates of any required cross sec- tion. A self-acting cutter divides the stream of soap, into blocks of any desired size or weight. Phosphate of soda is being used in a composition with the common soaps, as especially adapted for use in salt water, as well as fresh water. ( Glass.) Binoxide of manganese used to correct the greenish tinge in glass, due to the presence of iron in the sand. Glass made with potash is freer from this coloration but is expensive, hard, and difficult to work. Binoxide of manganese in excess turns the glass to rose color, purple, and even black, according to the quantity used. It is used in small quantities as a corrective. In the French practice the propor- tion is 0.5 per cent. Soap machinery, toilet . Soap making machinery Slicing Grinding ' Kneading "Man. if "Scientifi "Enginee ' "Enginee " Enginee "Enginee "Scientifi Builder," ix. 16, 40. American Sup.," 4107. ," 1. 280. ," 1. 289. , 1. 280. ,"1.280. : American," xli. 335. Soap works, Babbit . . Soap Cut'ter. An apparatus for caking or barring soap in manufacture. See SOAP BARRING AND CUTTING MACHINE, p. 2232, "Mech. Diet.," and SOAP CUTTING MACHINE, p. 2233, Ibid. Soap Coil. One fitting the interior of a soap boiling kettle, and through which the steam circu- lates to boil the ingredients. Sock'et. A tool used in well boring to recover and lift rods out of the well. They are of differ- ent shapes, screwing on to the top of the rod, at- taching by gripers, hooks, shoulders, collars, spreaders, etc. Sock'et Gud'geon. One in which the gud- g e o n shoulder s u r- rounds the wooden shaft, instead of being let into the shaft. In the illustration (Fig. 2293) it is shown as at- Socket tached to a conveyor or bolt-reel shaft. Sock'et Pipe. One having an enlarged end to Fig. 2293. Fig. 2294. receive the end of another pipe, and contain the lead or other cementing material used in joining the pipes. Sock'et Wash'er. A washer having a counter-sunk face into which the head of the bolt sinks. See Fig. 2294. So'da Ap'pa-ra'tus. Soda is Socket Waxher ' manufactured principally, now, from common salt. The manufacture of soda from kelp is comparatively un- important. The manufacture from the cryolite of Greenland, is lim- ited practically to that country. Extensive deposits of nat- ural soda, enough to supply the world's demands for centu- ries, are said to have been discovered in Wyoming territory. Large amounts of the sulphate of sodium are obtained in France and Germany from the mother liquors remaining af- ter the extraction of chloride of potassium. Jones & Walsh's furnace consists of a large shallow rrn, exposed to a free coke fire in which the entire reaction takes place. An axle above the pan having a series of propelling iron shovels agitates the salt. About four fifths of the neces- sary amount of sulphuric acid is admitted by leaden pipes, and the machinery is set in motion. The evolution of hydro- chloric acid is very regular. At the end of fifteen minutes a small quantity is taken out for test, and the rest of the sul- phuric acid added. Camack and Walker admit the chloride of sodium and sul- phuric acid at one end of a long horizontal cylindrical rota- ting furnace, which issues at the outer end in the form of soda. Hargreaves and Robinson attempt to shorten the process, and effect the formate of sulphate by bringing the gases from the pyrites burners, directly into contact with chloride of so- dium at the proper temperature. The finely powdered salt is pressed into small cakes about 1" inches thick, and placed in a series of from 8 to 14 cylinders, 15' in diameter and 12' high, so united that gas entering at one end of the series must pass through all. The cylinders are kept at a dull red heat for fourteen to twenty days. The current of sulphu- rous anhydride, air, and superheated steam entering the cyl- inder in which the reaction is nearest completion, passes on through cylinders containing less and less of sulphate until the mixture of gases and vapor is deprived of all or nearly all sulphurous anhydride when it reaches the last cylinder con- taining salt scarcely attacked, and issues thence laden with, hydrochloric acid to the condensing towers. As the action in one cylinder is completed, it is switched off and emptied and the next is advanced to its place. See Prof. Jenkins' report on chemical industries, "Paris Exposition (1878) Reports,'' vol. iv., page 32, et seq. And Kuhlmamrs report on The Chemical Acts. Group III., vol. iv., "Centennial Exhibition Reports,'-' page 93. Sodaappa. , * Lixiviating. Shank * "Scientific American," 1 xiii. 67. * Revolving furnace * "Scientific American," xlii. 67. Soda carbonate apparatus McClosky .... * "Scientific Amer.," 1 xxxvi. 226. Soda processes, Fr. . . "Scientific American Sup.," 1 2325.- Soda process, Solvays . "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxiv. 403. So'da Ash Re-claim'er. Fig. 2295 shows an ash furnace for reclaiming soda-ash, liquor after it has been employed to reduce wood to a pulp. The liquor is first placed in a tank of iron over the top of the furnace, and is generally from 7 to 15 in strength. From the tank it descends first into an iron tray that has a slight slant to allow the liquor to gradually drop on to the next pan or tray. The second tray is made of fire-brick plates, 42" wide ; the third tray is made the same way. The liquor is gradually pushed down over these trays until the incinerating hearth is reached. To reclaim liquid soda ash into black ash requires a long flame and high heat, as not only must the water be evaporated out of the liquor, but SODA ASH RECLAIMER. 828 SOLAR BOILER. the p.'irticles of wood must be burned. This requires soft or bituminous coal, waste wood or saw-dust; by discharging hot air on top of the fire the gas is ignited, and the flame is extended to the top pan or tray. So'da-wa'ter Ap'pa-ra'tus. The principle of making aerated waters by the American system is by charging a cylinder of water with carbon gas, under pressure evolved by the mixing of sulphuric acid and whiting or marble dust. As used in Eng- land and her colonies, and on the Continent, the gas is made in a leaden generator, and by its own force issues into a gasometer, where it remains until it is pumped, with the water to be bottled, into the condenser, and is here mixed together by an agitator. One of the first attempts to make artificial waters was made by Thurniessen in 1660, and from then to the present time the machinery for the manufacture has gradually been perfected. The system at present in use in the United King- dom and on the Continent, is identical. It is what is called the " continuous direct action process." The principle of this is as follows : The carbonic acid gas is made in a leaden vessel , the carbonate being placed in, generally mixed with water, the acid, which is contained in a continuous vessel, being poured on by a simple arrangement in just sufficient quanti- ties to generate the gas, no more being used than is abso- lutely required for the purpose, the waste product when exhausted being easily drawn off and a fresh charge in- serted. Various materials are employed as carbonates, these vary- ing, of course, with circumstances, depending entirely on their handiness and cost , whiting, marble dust, carbonates of soda and magnesia, and very many other substances being used. The marble is supposed to effervesce less violently than less compact forms of carbonate of lime. See "Mecli. Diet.," pp. 2236, 2237. Fig. 2296 shows a Fig. 2296 So'da-wa'ter Fountain. seamless fountain with glass reservoir inside a copper one, which withstands a pressure of 500 Ibs. There is no pressure on the glass, as it is balanced by the gas between the two shells. So'da-wa'ter Foun'- tain Cock. The coupling to which the pipe is attached passes into a square, hollow box, and by means of a thumb-screw is made tight ; avoids all twisting and break- ing of pipes, and requires no wrench. Sod Plow. Avery's plow turns the sod either to right or left, and lays it so as to put ordinary grass out of sight. So'fa Bed. A sofa whose seat is hinged to open out, the under side of the seat and the exposed part of the sofa, when unfolded, forming a mattrass. S o f t - board'ing. (Leather.) Boarding or bruising the leather on the flesh-side; it renders the skin very pliant. Soft Cen'ter Steel. A composition of iron and steel. A mold is divided into two or more sections by sheet or plate iron partitions. The metals are poured into their respective chambers, and the partitions, fused by the heat, weld the mass together. Used for safes, plows, etc. The character of the center, that is, whether it shall be "hard" or "soft," of steel or iron, depends largely upon the use to which it is to be put. U'here the use demands hardness on the outside for protection against wearing or abrasion, and at the same time considerable toughness in the center, as in plows, the center is soft or of iron. For ease of welding and toughness with rigidity, hard center or steel center is used. Iron Age. Seamless Soda-water Fountain. Soft Paste. ( Ceramics.) A name applied to the material of porcelain, which is semi-hard only. It is of fine clay, with proportions of silex and other substances. A name applied either to the Worcester paste of England or to the vieux Sevres. See PORCELAIN. Soil Branch. A sewer pipe, making lateral connection with the hopper of a water-closet. Fig. 2297. Soil Branches. a. Single soil branch. b. Double soil branch. c. Hospital soil branch. Soil Pipe. A sewer pipe serving a water- closet. Soil-pipe ventilator, Boyle, Br., * "Engineering,'' 1 xxix. 127. Soil Pul'ver-i-zer. An implement for tritura- ting the earth in preparing for seeding. See HARROW ; DISK HARROW ; CLOD CRUSHER ; ROLLER, etc. So'laire. An apparatus for using directly the heat of the sun's rays. The resolution of this dif- ficult problem has been attempted from the time of Hero of Alexandria, u. c. 100, by Baptista Porta, Martini, Kircher, Bclidor, Oliver Evans, Ericsson. The question is considered at some length in Laboulaye's "Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," tome iii., article " Solaire," where Mouchot's appa- ratus is described and represented. Solar Boil'er. An apparatus intended to utilize the heat of the sun's rays. Fig. 2298 shows Prof. Mouchot's solar boiler. A is a glass bell ; B is a boiler with a double envelope ; D is a steam- pipe ; E is a feed-pipe ; F is a conical silvered mirror ; O O is a spindle around which a motion is given to the machine from east to west ; H is the gearing regulating the inclina- tion of the apparatus on the spindle G &, according to the seasons ; / is a safety-valve : K is a pressure-gage, and L is a water-gage. The mirror has the form of a truncated cone, with parallel bases, and the generating line makes an angle of 45 with the axis of the cone. The incident rays striking parallel to the axis, are reflected normally to this axis, and give a heat area of maximum intensity for a given opening of mirror. The reflectors are formed of 12 silvered sectors. carried by an iron frame in the grooves of which they slide. The diameter of opening is 112.3" at the top and 39.3 // at the bottom, giving an effective mirror area of about 45 square feet. The bottom of the mirror is formed of a cast-iron disk to add weight to the apparatus. In the center of this disk is placed the boiler, the height of which is equal to that of the mirror. It is of copper blackened on the outside, and is formed of two concentric bell-shaped envelopes connected at their base by a wrought-iron ring. The larger envelope is 31. 5" high, and the smaller, 19.68" ; their respective diame- ters are 11.02'" and 8.66". The water is introduced between these two envelopes, so that it forms a cylinder 1.18" thick. The amount of water does not exceed 4.4 gallons, and about one third of the annular space is left as a steam-chamber. The inner envelope remains empty ; it is furnished on one side with a copper pipe leading from the steam-chamber, SOLAR BOILER. 829 SOLAR COOKING APPARATUS. Fig. 2298. Fig. 2299. Solar Boiler and connected with the motor by a flexible tube. At the foot of the boiler is placed the feed-water tube. The glass envelope or bell is 15.75" in diameter, and 33.46" high, the thickness of the glass being .2" thick. A space of nearly 2" is thus left between the sides of the glass and the copper envelope. The apparatus is mounted on an inclined axis, the angle of which can be made to change to correspond with the mo- tion of the sun, and a rotating movement of 15 per hour can also be given to it. To effect this double object, the apparatus is carried on trunnions resting on a shaft perpen- dicular to their axis, and this shaft forms, from north to south with the horizon, an angle corresponding to the lati- tude of the place. Two movements result from this ar- nni.iri'inent which permit the apparatus to follow the course of the sun, since by a half revolution it turns from sunrise t" sunset, whilst by an annual rotation of 46 at most on the trunnions, it is brought opposite the sun in all posi- tions. This double movement is effected by means of worm gearing, the first being repeated at half-hour intervals, the second every eight days. Experiments made with this apparatus at Tours showed that in 40 minutes 44 Ibs. of water were raised from a tem- perature of 68 to 252, and thence to a pressure of 5 atmos- phoivs. In less than 15 minutes, 33 Ibs. of water of 212 were raised to 307. Finally, in favorable weather, 11 Ibs. of water have been evaporated per hour. The steam generated WHS employed for driving a pump. The inventor of this apparatus points out various uses for which it may be employed, especially in warm climates, as, for example, for the distillation of water, either on ship- board or in rainless countries, for the manufacture of ice, in connection with the Carre apparatus for the distillation of alcohol, etc., and in the manufacture of sugar. So'lar Ca-lor f ic En'gine. Fig. 2299 repre- sents Captain Ericsson's new engine for the utili- zation of solar heat in the production of motive power. It is calculated that the heat radiated by the sun during nine hours per day, for all the lati- tudes comprised between the equator and the 45th parallel, corresponds per minute and per square foot of normal surface to the direction of the rays to 3.5 thermo units of 772 foot pounds. Hence, a surface of 100 square feet would give a power of 270,000 foot pounds, or from 8 to 9 horse-power. The engine illustrated is on the caloric system, and has run at 420 revolutions per minute with the sun near the zenith and during fine weather. Solar caloric engine. Ericsson * "Scientific American,'" xli. 67. Solar engine, Ericsson . * "Scientific American Sup.," 1104. Mouchot "Eng. if Min. Jour.," xxx. 26. Solar heat, applications of. Simonin "Iron Age," xviii., Sept. 14, p. 7 ; Sept. 21, p. 5. Solar Caloric Engine. Appn., Hlttellfy Dietzltr * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 18. Engine * "Man. Builder'- xii. 254. Sun engine, Mouchot. * "Engineer,'' xlvii. 39. Paris ...... * "Scientific American Sup.,' : 2655. So'lar Cook'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. A device for utilizing the heat of the sun's rays for culinary purposes. Fig. 2300 shows Adams's solar cooking apparatus used at Bombay. It consists of a conical k reflector, A, made of wood and lined with common silvered sheet glass. Inside there is placed a copper cylindrical vessel, B, covered by a glass cover, C. The cooking vessel is raised about 4" from the bottom, and the glass cover is b" longer than the vessel, and Fig. 2300. Solar Cooking Apparatus. 2" wider, which leaves an interval of 4" of hot air under the boiler and I" all round and at the top. The wedge under the apparatus is to keep it inclined, so that the rays of the sun may fall perpendicularly on the boiler. Glass being diathermajious to the direct or reflected rays of the sun, and non-diahtermanous to obscure heat, the rays pene- trate the glass, and, striking on the vessel, become trans- formed into obscure heat, when they are retained by the glass. The glass cover over the boiler is made octagonal, because, in that form common window glass can be used. The position of the apparatus requires to be changed about every half hour, to face the sun in its apparent course from east to west. The rations of seven soldiers, consisting of meat and vegetables, are thoroughly cooked by it in two hours, in January, the coldest month of the year in Bombay, and the men declare the food to be cooked much better than in the ordinary manner. Several people in Bombay and in the Deccan have tried it, and always with success. If the steam be retained the dish is a stew or a boil ; if it be al- lowed to escape the food is baked. The reflector is 2' 4" in diameter. The intensity of the heat is increased by increas- ing the diameter of the reflector. SOLAR LAMP. 830 SOLDERING FRAME. So'lar Lamp. 1. Another name for the argaud lamp. It has a tubular wick and central duct that admit air to the interior of the name. See ARGAND LAMP, p. 142, "Meek. Diet." 2. One of the fourth class of electrical lights. In all electric candles the carbons are placed paral- lel to one another, and as the waste of the two must be equal, they are fed by alternate currents. Some of them have an automatic arrangement for lighting and relighting. The candles without col- umbin are to be referred to the voltaic-arc class; Jablochkoff's caudles possess the characters both of the arc and of incandescence. The Clerc and Burean lamps are allied to the candle by the nearly parallel arrangement of their two carbons, and to the incandescence class by the nature of their light, pro- duced as it is by a piece of chalk raised to a vei-y high tem- perature, and made incandescent by the passage of the cur- rent across the voltaic arc established between the two carbons, and which grazes its surface. In the case of the candles, as in that of the lampe-soleil, a certain number of Apparatus can be placed in one circuit ; hence we might re- gard them as a fourth class of electric light apparatus by division (polyphote regulators). So'lar Fho-to-graph'ic In'stru-ment. An instrument for photographing the surface of the .sun. So'lar Ra-di-a'tioii Reg'is-ter. An appa- ratus to automatically register the period the sun shines. In Fig. 2301 the two bulbs of the thermometer T T' are covered with lampblack. The bulb T to the left is alone exposed to the open air, all the rest being inclosed in a box. When the sun shines the air contained in the bulb T dilates, and the mercury in the differential thermometer is driven into the tube, thus destroying the equilibrium of the bal- ance. The beam then inclines, and the point of the pencil, which is fixed to the support f, rests on a paper circle fas- tened to a copper disk. This disk keeps constantly revolving on its axis, carrying with it a paper dial. When the sun is Fig. 2301. A few solders, the metal to which they are applied, and their appropriate fluxes, are tabulated below. Solar Radiation Register. no longer shining the balance resumes its equilibrium, the pencil ceases to touch the paper, and the tracings made by it are thus broken. To complete the description of this ingenious apparatus we will add that the metallic balls A B are provided with screws, and serve to place the beam in equilibrium. The rods c D are made of metal, and are designed to prevent oscillation. Sol'der. A fusible metal used to join two less fusible metallic bodies. Jewelers will find the annexed list of silver spiders of con- siderable practical value. Hard solder : Pure silver 16 parts, copper 3J parts, spelter J part. Medium : Fine silver 15 parts, copper 4 parts, spelter 1 part. Easy solder : Fine silver 14 parts, copper 4 parts, spelter 1J parts. Common hard sol- der: Fine silver 12J parts, copper 6 parts, spelter 1J parts. Common easy solder: Fine silver 11J parts, copper 6J parts, spelter 2 parts. The fusing points of these solders are as .follows : No. 1, 1,866 Fah. ; No. 2, 1,843 ; No. 3, 1,818 ; No. 4, 1,826 ; and No. 5, 1,802. See "Mech. Diet.," p. 2239. Soft, coarse .... Fine Fusible Pewterer's .... Spelter, soft .... Hard Silver, fine .... Common .... For brass and iron . More fusible . . . Gold, for 18 carat gold More fusible . . . Platinum . . . Composition. Tin, 1 ; lead, 2. Tin, 2 ; lead, 1. Tin, 2; lead, 1; bis., 1. ,Tin, 3; lead, 4; bis., 2. I Copper, 1 ; zinc, 1. ' Copper, 2 ; zinc, 1. ; Silver, 66.6 ; copper, 23.4 ; zinc, 10. j Silver, 66.6; copper, 30. ; zinc, 3.4. i Silver, 1 ; brass, 1. Silver, 1 ; brass, 1; zinc, 1. Gold, 18 carats fine, 66.6 ; silver, 16.7 ; copper, 16.7. Same as above with a trace of zinc. Fine gold. Material to be soldered. Solder. Flux. Tin Soft, coarse, or fine. Rosin or zinc, chl. Lead Soft, coarse, or fine. Rosin. Brass, copper, iron, and zinc. Soft, coarse, or fine. Zinc, chl. Pewter .... Pewterer's or fusible. Rosin or zinc, chl. Brass .... Spelter, soft. Borax. Copper and iron . Spelter, soft or hard. Borax. Brass, copper, iron, steel .... Any silver. Borax. Gold . ... Gold. Borax. Platinum . . . Fine gold. Borax. To solder German silver, pour out some spirits of salt in an earthenware dish, and add a piece of zinc. Then scrape clean the edges to be soldered, and paint over with the spirit of salt. Apply a piece of pewter solder to the point and melt with the blow-pipe. Comp "Iron Age," xxi., March 21, p. 7. Sol'der Cut'ter. (Sheet-metal ^Working.) A machine for chipping solder into pieces convenient for use in soldering. A fly-wheel operated by hand carries cutting blades. The operator feeds the bars of solder down an incline, and they are sheared between a bead on the frame and those on the wheel. Sol'der-cut'ting Dies. Dies used in cutting out bars of solder in a press, eight in a block. Sol'der-ing Fur'nace. A new form is adapted to burning coal oil, and is being extensively intro- duced as a heater for tinners' coppers, taking the place of the charcoal furnace. Sol'der-ing Block. Used in soldering cans. Fig. 2302 consists of an inclined frame, A; lever and " knife," C; expanding cylinder, B; chain, fulcrum, F, etc. A slot in the frame allows the use of different cylinders, from 1 Ib. to 1 gallon, and their adjustment up and down, without changing the knife. A slot in the lever allows the knife to be set out for varying lengths of cylinders. Adjustments are also provided in the length of the chain, leverage of treadle, position of cylin- der around its center, and " set " of the knife. The latter has a groove to pre- vent " tinning. " The chain passes through the bench and hooks in at Z). The action of the foot then raises the knife and the spring does the holding down. E; treadle and Fig. 2302. Soldering Block. (Sheet-metal Working.) A clamp for holding the parts of a can in apposi- tion while soldering. Sol'der-ing Frame. SOLDERING IRON. 831 SOLUBLE GLASS. Sol'der-ing I'ron. One recently invented has a platinum receptacle in which heat is instanta- neously generated with air and petroleum vapor, or air and coal gas. The Gem soldering iron is adapted to fit on an ordinary gas burner, with the copper up. The handle and tool are hollow, allowing the gas to escape through the point, where it may be ignited and the copper will be speedily heated. Soldering iron, gas heated * "Scientific American Sup.," 1 4106. SoMering mach., Howe * "Scientific American,'' xxxv. 115. Soldering tool, Painter . * "Scientific American^ xlii. 178. Sol'der-ing Ma-chine'. (Sheet-metal Work- ing.) Howe's machine is for soldering the tops and bottoms of round cans. The cans roll along in an inclined trench, the edge passing along a shallow groove in which is melted solder. Page 108 of Bliss's catalogue (1881). For soldering tin cans. Fig. 2303 shows a machine especially suited for soldering the end seams of cans. A represents the frame of the ma- chine, to which is attached a track, B, along which the cans are to be rolled. The track is Fig. 2303. flanged along its side edges to keep the cans c in place upon it, and has a side inclination to cause the ends of said cans to rest upon the lower side flange b' as they are rolled along said track. The track B is slotted in the lower side of its middle part, along the flange b' to allow the end seam of the cans to project through into a solder bath D, placed beneath it in the frame, and in which the solder is kept . melted by a furnace. The bath D is of such a length that the cans Soldering Mac/line. ma y make at least one entire revo- lution with their end seams in the solder. The track s is made with an upward incline at one end, down which the cans are rolled in passing from the ma- chine. The cans c are rolled along the track B by an end- l<'ss I mid E, which passes around the pulleys pivoted to the frame, and to one of which motion may be given by hand or other convenient power. Sol'der-ing Pot. For making joints iii line wire. When the upright handle is moved back, it allows a wire to be slipped down the slots, the joint being inside of the pot, which is partly filled with melted solder. The wire is pressed down on each side until it finds a se- cure lodgment in the bot- tom of the slots. The clamp is shoved forward so as to hold the wire in place, the arms of the clamp at the same time covering the slots and preventing the solder from running out. The pot is then tipped forward so as to cover the joint with sol- Fig. 2304. Soldering Pot. der, thus making a neat and well protected joint. Sol'der-ing Tongs. A pair of flat nosed tongs used in brazing the joints of band saws. The saw is held in a scarfing frame, a film of sol- der placed between the scarfed edges which are lapped together, and then the heated tongs clamped upon them to melt the solder. See BAND-SAW HOLDER. Sol'der Mold. A mold for running solder into any shape desired. Sole. A recent inventor proposes to make boots with stone soles. A suitable quantity of clean quartz sand is mixed with a water-proof glue, and spread on a thin leather sole which is employed as a foundation. These quartz soles are said to be flexible and almost indestructible, while they en- able the wearer to walk safely over slippery roads. Fig. 2305. Sole Cut'ting Ma-chine'. The one shown in Fig. 2305 is adapted for cutting outsoles, in- soles, heeling, counters, shanks, etc., and can be used with dies having handles or without. It has a circular revolving block ; the die is fastened in a chuck over the block, and can be moved about as desired. The block is worn evenly by the constant re- volving motion ; the wear is taken up by raising the screw under the machine. Sole Form'ing Ma- chine'. One for rounding up shoe soles. A rounding up ma- chine can shape 100 pairs of soles per hour. The rounding is all done by one revolution of the knife, which at the same operation gives to the edge of the sole any desired bevel, and will work to patterns of any size or style, Sole Cutting Machine. the changes being handily made. Sole Leath'er Rol'ler. A machine for press- ing leather stock into firmness, by passing between spring rollers. See Fig. 5309, p. 2244, " Mech. Diet." Sole Leath'er Strip'per. Adjustable blades or skivers for stripping the rough side of the leather. Sole Mold'ing Ma-chine'. For shaping the cut sole to the shape of the last. Sole Riv'et-ing Ma-chine'. The McKay riveting machine automatically cuts a rivet of the proper length, drives it, and clinches the point on the inside of the shoe. It clinches the rivet on a rotating horn, and thus makes the clinching cer- tain. With the clinching rivet and the perfect length of the nail a thin insole can be used with safety. The rivets are corrugated so that they do not work up into the foot in wearing. Sole Tile. A flat or bellying tile, according to requirements, for the bottom of sewers, muffles, or other objects in which the whole circumference is not in one piece. Sol'id Plate Saw. A circular saw made of a single plate, as distinguished from a segment saw. Sole-noid. An electro-dynamic spiral, having the conjunctive wire returned along its axis, neu- tralizing that component of the effect of the cur- rent that is due to the length of the spiral, and reducing the whole effect to that of a series of equal and parallel circular currents. Sol'u-ble Glass. An alkaline silicate that is soluble in water, but remains unaffected by ordi- nary atmospheric changes. The silicates of soda and potash differ from the other sili- cates grouped under the general name of glass in being solu- ble in water ; hence they are known as soluble glass, liquid quartz, etc. While ordinary glass has been known from very ancient times, these peculiar compounds are quite new to us, having been accidentally discovered by the late Pro- fessor Fuchs, of Munich, in the year 1818, while experi- menting with a view to the preparation of pure silica. When soluble glass is applied to surfaces of plaster and limestone a chemical reaction takes place, resulting in the formation of silicate of lime. A vitreous surface is thus produced impervious to moisture and unaffected by at- mospheric agents. Soluble glass is also used as a vehicle for mineral colors in a kind of fresco painting, known as stereochromy. The famous frescoes by Kaulbach, in the museum at Berlin, were done in this way. It is also enter- ing into the preparation of paints for ordinary use. One method of making artificial stone is by moistening fine sand with a solution of silicate of soda, pressing the mixture into molds, drying it and exposing it to a high temperature. The silicate fuses and cements the grains of sand together SOLUBLE GLASS. 832 SOUNDING APPARATUS. into a mass resembling sandstone. Any desired color is imparted by the admixture of metallic oxides previous to molding. Thousands of tons of the .silicate are consumed for this purpose in England. Another important application of soluble glass is in calico-printing, where it is now exten- sively used as a mordant. It is even more in demand in soap-making, for which it has advantages over resin on ac- count of its alkaline character. It also enters into the com- position of fire-proof cements for stoves and iron-work, and especially for putting up iron fronts for buildings. Soluble glass, uses of . "Scientific American Sup.," 1 1417. Son'do-graph. A recording sounding appa- ratus, which see, specifically ; an invention of Lieu- tenant Pinheiro, of the Brazilian navy, to give a continuous delineation of the bottom of the sea along the line on which it is operated. See "Telegraphic Journal," vi. 426. Soude a Dart. (Surgical.) A cannulated lithic instrument, having a flexible sound projected through it and out near the apex to collide with the stone. See Fig. 153, Part III., Tiemann's "Armamentarium." Sound. Elliott's sound, modified by H. Leon- ard, is a new adaptation of a long surgical instru- ment, usually of metal, and partaking of the nature of a probe. It is used especially in making explo- rations in the bladder in search of stone. It is inserted through the urethra, and a peculiar click is heard when it comes in contact with a stone. Simpson's sound (No. 8) graduated, and his (No. 9) tele- scope, for convenience in carrying, are also new modifications of the same instrument. To which may be added Dr. Hel- mutt's instrument for supra pubis puncture. Skene's ute- rine sound, sonde de anal, sonde de belloc, sonde de Brisee, sonde a conducteur, sonde de saforest, and sonde or pinchers of Hunter. Sound Coii-cen'tra-tor and Pro-ject'or. Hopkins' acoustic apparatus is a portable and adjustable whispering-gallery, having many useful applications. An air-tight drum or reflector, one head of which is rigid and the other elastic, is mounted on pivots in a swiveled support, and is provided with a flexible tube having a mouth-piece and stop-cock at its free end. Two wires are stretched across the face of the reflector at right angles to each other, and support at their intersec- tion a small plane mirror, the office of which is to determine the position of the reflector in relation to the direction of the sound. A small ear- trumpet is used in connection with the re- flector, to increase the effect by gathering a portion of the sound that might escape the unaided ear. The reflector is adjusted by looking through the ear-trumpet toward the small plane mirror, and moving the sound-reflector until the source of sound is seen in the mirror. The reflector is then focused by exhausting the air from behind the flexible head until the required degree of concavity is reached, indi- cated by the ease with which sounds may be heard in the ear- trumpet. The air is withdrawn from the reflector by ap- plying the mouth to the mouth-piece. Sound'er. Sir William Thomson's apparatus for deep-sea sounding while the ship is in motion. See SOUNDING APPARATUS ; FLYING SOUNDER. Sound'er. (Electricity.) An alarm or call, made by closing an electric circuit. The system of telephoning by means of beat of drum, long practiced in Africa, and called by the Cameroons elliembic, proceeds upon the principle of signaling by varying the beats according to a code. It perhaps would be too much to call it an alphabet code, and travelers who have noticed it do not seem to have been curious as to the nature of the system. The sound under favorable circumstances may be heard 2 or 3 miles. The Mani-mani wooden portable signal drum known as the clincufo was shown at the Centennial in the Egyptian section, but the great drum manyunjee is a hollowed trunk of wood mounted on feet. It has sides of uneven thickness which give a different note aiding in giving variability to the signal. A similar drum from the Fijis is in the National Museum at Washington. See : Schweinf urth's "Africa," 1 * ii. 24, 113. Wiltiams's"Fiji," * 129. "Atlantic Monthly,'' * xxxix. 649. Cameron's "Across Africa,'' * 231. Duncan's " Western Africa," * 275. Livingston's "Zambesi," * 98. "Scientific American Supplement,'' 2737. Sounder, India wires . * "Scientific American," xl. 408. Theiler * " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 63. Simon Sf Son (gas) . * " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 205. Otto (gas) . . . . * " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 173. Deep-sea, Thomson . "Min. Sf Sc. Press," xxxv. 179. Sound'-house. A marine alarm station from which audible alarms or signals are given in foggy weather. The apparatus are usually fog horns or sirens. Sound'ing. Devices for sounding and gaging in surveys of the upper Mississippi ; including sta- dia, water-gages, sounding stakes on sand-bars and trees, etc. See "Report of Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army" 1880, * ii. 1518. See BATHOMETER in " Mech. Diet." Sound'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. A device for bringing up specimens of sea bottom. In Admiral Sands' device a box is screwed into the bottom of the sounding lead and is secured theretoby a key. It has a conical point and is surrounded by a flanged sleeve pressed downward by a weak spiral spring. On striking bottom the point penetrates the ground and the flange on the collar forces it upward, exposing an aperture through which the mud, sand, or other material enters. When the lead is drawn up the spring reacts, closing the opening so as to pre- vent the specimen being washed out. Admiral Sands has also invented an improved self-detach- ing sounding apparatus to be used in connection with the Fig. 2306. Self-detaching Sounding Apparatus. specimen cup. The sinker is composed of two semi-ellipsoi- dal pieces a a', having central grooves unitedly forming a tube through which the stem b, attached to the sounding line by a swivel, passes. A rod, c, carrying a collar, d, having downwardly projecting prongs, passes through the stem lon- gitudinally and is attached to the sleeve of the specimen box e. When a sounding is made the two pieces a a 1 are fitted on the rod, being held by the prongs d' d" and pens e e' on the cross piece,/, entering the grooves g g'. When bottom is reached the upward movement of the sleeve on e raises the rod c, lifting out the prongs d' d" on the collar d, and the pieces a a' are thrown off by springs h h' on each side of the stem b. In an instrument invented by Sir William Thomson for taking flying soundings while a ship is in motion, the essen- tial idea is to measure the depth by the pressure of the water at that depth, which is effected by lowering a pressure gage with the lead line. Of the two forms of gage the first and that chiefly in use consists of a narrow glass tube closed at one end and open at the other. When it is lowered into the SOUNDING APPARATUS. 833 SOUNDINGS WATER CUP. jtea, the water entering the open end of the tube compresses the air column, diminishing its length in proportion as the water pressure increases, according to Boyles' well-known law. The height to which the water rises in the gage tube marks the limit to which the air has been compressed. The indicating mark is shown in various ways, generally by lining the tube with a colored preparation that is removed as far as the water by pressure is driven up in the tube. The tube is of so narrow a bore that there can be no splashing of the liquid in it during the sounding process. The glass tube is guarded from shocks by a perforated metallic covering. The gage is provided at each end with a mounting contain- ing a valve that opens inward under a definite amount of force As the tube descends into the sea, the lower valve is forced open, and tin- water enters the tube. When the haul- ing in is commenced, the lower valve shuts and holds the water that has entered it. On the other hand the pressure of the sea acting upon the upper valve causes it to open, allow- ing the air within the tube gradually to escape, obviating the danger of bursting from unequal pressure. In order to ascertain the depth to which the tube has been e f>'ii-it>pns .... * "Scientific American Sup.," 368. 'loiitxiin * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 1632. s^octntre * "Scientific American Sup ," 3305. Fo> * "Scientific Amer.,'- xxxvi. 182. Housset * "Scientific American, 1 ' xliii. 310. tie L'lii'a e Cunha . . "Scientific American," 1 xlii. 32. Sir William Thomson . * "Engineering," xxiv. 329. Sounding, deep-sea . . "Scientific American Sup.,'' 728. Soundings instrument. Sir William Thomson " Telegraphic Journal,'' 1 v. 285. Souiid'ing Board. The sounding-board of pianos is made of spruce, which, with its. alternate soft and hard grain, is recognized and used as th;: best material for the purpose. The beauty and vol- ume of tone in an instrument depend materially upon the sounding-board, and mainly from its qual- ity to react against the molecular vibration of its most delicate inner fibers. This latter process puts the air column surrounding the sounding-board into that vibration that to the ear is perceptible as " tone." The pressure of these several particles of the sounding board against each other, more or less determine not only the power of tone, but its sus- ceptibility, and the singing quality also depends greatly upon it. Sound'ing Lead. The sounding lead of M Le.icentre, has a helical winged screw at the apex which rotates as the lead descends. On the axis of the helix is a bevel- wheel which transmits mo- tion to a system of gearing, and the hands of two dials registering tenths of meters and meters re- spectively. The helix ceases to move when the lead touches bottom, and is loose on its axis as it is drawn up. * "Sc. American Supplement, ' 3805. Sound'ings Ther-mom'e-ter. The electrical balance thermometer, invented by C. W. Siemens of London, is intended to ascertain the temperature of the ocean at any depth, and is based on the principle that, as the electrical resistance of any metal con- ductor depends on the dimensions and temperature of the latter, we have only to find the law of the increase or decrease of its resistance for high or low temperatures to be able to determine the re- sistance from the temperature, or the temperature from the resistance. The deep-sea thermometer, constructed by him on the above principle, consists of a " resistance-thermometer,'' to which the sound- ing-line is attached, and of a battery, electrical bridge, and "balance-thermometer," to" be used on hoard the vessel for determining the temperature indicated by the resistance-thermometer at any point of its "descent or upon its reaching the bottom. The law of increase and decrease being known, a table is made tip, by means of which to correct the deviations of the galvanometer into parts of a de- gree of temperature. 53 Trowbridge's deep-sea thermometer, " Coast Survey Re- port," 1858. Six's self-registering thermometer, modified by Miller* Casella, is made in London. Sound'ings Wa'ter Cup. A cup to bring water from the depths sounded. An apparatus, designed to bring up one pint of water, consists of the following parts : A stem or spindle 0.5" in diameter and 20" in length, terminates at its lower end in a ring for the at- tachment of the sounding-lead, and at its upper end, in a slotted head, in which is pivoted the detaching trigger. This trigger is 3.5" in length. It is pivoted at one end in the slotted head, and terminates at the other in a hook, curved upward, in which is placed one end of a rubber spring, as shown in the drawing. Near its middle the trigger carries a swivel for the attachment of the sounding-line ; two curved lugs project from its fig. 2307. lower side, and work, one on either side of the head of the spindle, so that If [I when either is closed against it, by III! raising or depressing the free end of ajv the trigger, the other will be open. For convenience of reference, the lug farthest from the free end of the trigger is designated the rear and the other the front lug. Below the slot- ted head, at a distance of 3" from, the pivot of the trigger, the spindle carries an arm 3" in length, project- ing in the plane of the trigger, and on the same sido*-of the spindle with it. This also ends in a hook curved downward, over which passes the lower end of the rubber spring be- fore mentioned. This arm slides on the spindle and is furnished with a set-screw, so that its distance from the trigger may be increased at pleas- ure. At a distance of 8.4" below this arm the spindle carries a fixed disk 2.6" in diameter, below this at a distaiice 4.5", another disk 3" in diameter. Passing freely over the former, and closing water-tight upon the latter, is a sliding cylinder 5.4" in length. This cylinder is open at both ends, the upper end being fur- nished with a cross-bar and collar, working smoothly on the spindle, to guide the cylinder in sliding up and Soundings Water Cup. down. Attached to this cross-bar is a wire sling, ending in a loop, and of such a length that when this loop is placed over either of the lugs of the trig- ger, the lower end of the cylinder will come flush with the lower surface of the upper disk, as shown in the left-hand figure. A spiral spring, coiled around the spindle between the projecting arm and the collar of the cylinder, tends to force the latter firmly down oil the lower disk. See " Coast Survey Jieport,-' by Lieutenant Collins, Appen- dix, No. 14. The method of securing the specimens with the apparatus, shown in Fig. 2307, is as follows : A lead of sufficient weight (10 to 50 Ibs., depending upon the depth of water and strength of current) is bent on close to the lower ring of the spindle, and a line, marked to fath- oms, to the swivel on the trigger. If, now, the bottom* specimen is desired, the instrument is prepared by sliding up the cylinder and placing the loop of the sling "over the rear lug of the trigger. A rubber spring is then stretched over the hooks of the trigger and projecting arm, this spring being of such a strength as to yield to the weight of the lead when the apparatus is suspended by the sounding-line, thus allowing the rear lug to close against the head of the spin- dle, preventing the cylinder from sliding down and closing on the lower disk. Thus prepared, the apparatus is lowered into the water. On reaching the bottom, the weight of the lead being taken off, the rubber spring draws the hooked end of the trigger downwards, thus allowing the wire sling to disengage itself from the rear lug. The cylinder, forced down by tjie spiral spring, closes over the disks, and thus the specimen from the stratum in which it rested is secured and drawn to the surface. For the intermediate specimens the apparatus is prepared by placing the loop of the sling over the front lug of the trigger, and supplying a rubber spring of sufficient strength to hold the free end of the trigger down when tire instru- ment is suspended by the sounding-line, thus keeping the lug closed. The line is then made fast to the rail of the boat or vessel, at such a place as will allow the mark indi- cating the number of fathoms from which the specimen is desired to be at the surface when the line has run out taut. SOUNDINGS WATEE CUP. 834 SPECIFIC GRAVITY APPARATUS. The instrument is then put overboard and allowed to descend freely. As it reaches the desired depth the line is tautened, the rubber spring yields to the shock of the ar- rested motion, and the cylinder closes instantly, as before. Sour Beer Core. This term is applied to a dry-sand core in which sour beer or ale has been used for the purpose of increasing the adhesiveness and strength of the sand when dried. Sour Kraut Cut'ter. A machine for cutting cabbage for kraut. A stationary hopper, has a sliding board with a double edge knife which runs with alternate action, cutting each way. Adjust- able screws regulate the thickness of the cut. A follower is used to feed the vegetables to the knife, and is also useful as a partition in cutting small quantities. The cutter is worked by a crank, with its accompanying gearing. Spade. A variety of spades are used by whale- men. Boat spade, to disable the whale by cutting its flukes. Cutting spade, to peel the blubber from the carcass of the dead whale. Half-round, spade, to cut the " blanket " piece to allow the blubber hook to enter. Head spade, to cut off the head of the whale. Mincing spade, to cut the blubber small for trying out. Throat spade, to cut off the head of the whale. Wide spade, to cut the blubber in the rough, before min- cing. Spade Gun. Invented by Buskett of St. Louis. A detachable spade may be fitted to a socket in the butt-plate and form an efficient implement in in- trenching. When not in use it is carried in a re- cess in the stock. See .... "Scientific, American Supplement,'' 1938. Spade gun, Buskett . "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1938. Spaii'drel. An inner frame or border for a picture. A mat. Spal'ling Ham'mer. An axe-shaped or chisel- edged hammer for rough dressing stone. Span'ish Fox. (Nautical.) A seizing made by hand-twisting several yarns together and rub- bing with hard tarred canvas. Spank'er Gaff. (Nautical.) The gaff of the fore-and-aft sail, which is also called the driver; the aftermost sail of a ship or barque. The spanker boom is the lower spar of the same sail. Span'ner. A hosemnn's .wrench. The Skin- ner spanner has two equal arms, of which the rigid one has a pushing point slightly curved, while the pivoted arm has a drag hook on its end. Spare An'chor. (Nautical.) An additional anchor, the size of the bower. Spar'ger. A three nozzle self-acting revolving instrument for sprinkling paper, clothes, etc. Spark Ar-rest'er. A wire or perforated screen to arrest the sparks that ascend smoke-stacks of lo- comotives, furnaces, etc. Spark arrester, Smith . *" Scientific American," xxxvi. 70. Dat'is * "Railroad Gazette," xxiv. 97. Graham, Br. . . . * "Engineer," 1. 41. Stamp "Man. Sf Builder," viii. 9. Garrett, Br * "Engineering,'' xxx. 539. Spark Net'ting. A wire cloth over the open- ing of a locomotive smoke stack, to arrest sparks. Spawri'ing Screen. A device used in pisci- culture to collect the spawn of fish. For list of United States patents, see FISH CULTURE. Speaking E-lec'tric Tel'e-graph. See TEL- EPHONE. Speak'ing Tube Whis'tle. A modification of an intonating modulating steam whistle. Spears. (Fishing.) Fish spears are barbed for securing the fish that are pierced thereby. They were used in very early days. Job speaks of them, as also do early Greek writers. They are of vari- ous makes adapted to the fish intended to be caujrht. Spear Head. Spear heads are multiform both in shape and in the material of which they are made. They were generally made of stone or quartz by the aborigines of this country ; although there was a notable exception with the (at least ) partially civilized people who once resided in the neighborhood of the ancient copper mines of Lakes Superior and Huron. They possessed the means of tempering copper, that was lost with them, and notwithstanding all the researches of modern times, has never yet been rediscovered. Spe-cif'ic Grav'i-ty Ap'pa-ra'tus. Fig. 2308 shows an apparatus for taking the spec! tic- gravity of coal and other gases by efHux through a fine opening in a thin plate of metal by Bunsen's method. The apparatus consists of a glass jar, z> />, having a perfo- rated top with a collar or sleeve, through which passes ;i glass tube, E E, about V diameter, open at the bottom, but closed at the top by a metallic cap having the connection and cock by which 'the gas is admitted at A ; a thumb M-IVW and place for thermometer, C, with the pillar cock B, on top Fig. 2308. Specific Gravity Apparatus. of which is the exit opening through the thin metal plate. The glass jar D D being filled with water to the proper height, the tube E can be filled with gas or air at pleasure, thus forming a simple instrument, and one easily operated. An- other form, equally simple, and very accurate, is Dr. Lethe- by's method; the apparatus consists of a glass globe about 6" diameter, having engraved upon it its exact weight when lull of air at mean temperature and pressure (a counterpoise weight being provided exactly equal to the weight of the globe when the air is exhausted) ; this globe is fitted with two cocks, one of which is attached to a gas pillar; to the other is attached a glass tube i" diameter and 7" long, to which is suspended a thermometer, the end of the glass tube being fitted with a jet for burning the gas. Goodwin's stop watch for density test of gas, "American Gas-light Journal," * July 3, 1876, p. 7. Goodwin's minute clock, * Ibid., p. 7. Let/ieby'.i specific gravity apparatus for gas, * Ibid., p. 7- SPECIFIC GRAVITY APPARATUS. 835 SPECTROSCOPE EYEPIECE. Goodwin's density and specific gravity apparatus, * Ibid., p. 6. Taylor .... * " Scientific American," xxxvii. 360. Spe-cif'ic Grav'i-ty Bal'ance. The instru- ment employed in the office of the Constructor of Ordnance (U. 8. A.) in the determination of the specific gravity of metals for cannon, is simply a form of the hydrostatic balance. It is shown in Plate I., accompanying Appendix I., c, to the "Re- /irf nf the Cliii-f of Ordnance, U. S. Army," 1877, and described on p. 394. The Troemmer instrument for obtaining the specific grav- ities of large grained powder is a mercury densimeter and is described on p. ;JSJtj of above volume, and accompanviu" Plate II. Description of the Du Pont, de Xemorirs & Co.'s machine, "Ordnance Report,' 1 1879, Appendix I., Plate VII., and pp. 113-115. Mohr's balance is for taking the specific gravity of liquids by a method which requires no calculation and "but a small quantity of the liquid. The apparatus is shown in i'ig. 5352, p. 2257, "Mer/i. Diet."- Spe-cif'ic Grav'i-ty Bot'tle. A slight blown glass bottle of known capacity for obtaining the specific gravity of liquids by weighing measured quantities. Spe-cif'ic Grav'i-ty Ma-chine'. A new den- simeter submitted to the Academy of Sciences, Paris, by M. Gosselin, is very simple in construc- tion and operation. A wooden rule is suspended by a wire attached to some convenient point other than the central point. To the long arm a weight is attached sufficient to balance the body to be ex- amined hung at the end of the other. The latter is immersed in water, and the weight on the longer arm is moved until the rule is again horizontal. A scale on this arm shows at once the density of the body at the point occupied by the weight. Spe-cif'ic Grav'i-ty Scales. For deter- mining the specitie gravity of metals and other substances. One form is adjusted to accurate balance with its counter- poise and loop removed from the beam, but with double bas- kets in position , and a vessel supplied with water. In determin- ing specific gravities, the mineral or other solid 'to be tested is placed in the basket and the pan holder or counterpoise is adjusted to the position, established at a convenient distance from the fulcrum, and marking the extreme working length of the lever arm. One or more of the pans are placed upon the holder to counterbalance the weight of the mineral and a sufficient quantity of the granulated copper is placed in the pan to cause the beam to assume a horizontal position or to stand in perfect equilibrium The mineral is then removed from the upper basket and placed in the lower basket where it is submerged in the water contained in the vessel. The counterpoise with its load of pans and granular material is then moved along the beam toward the fulcrum to a position when- it just counterbalances the submerged mineral. This position corresponds with the specific gravity of the mineral, and the amount being indicated by the graduated scale, can be read off direct, thus giving at a glance the correct specific gravity without regard to the weight or quantity of the min- eral or other substance under test. Spec'ta-cles. Protective spectacles are made of various forms and material to protect the eyes of engineers, firemen, furnace tenders, masons, etc. The use of such protection from snow has long since been recognized by the Esquimaux and other uncivilized and semi- civilized people. " In order to avoid the terrible glare of the Arctic snow, we find the Esquimaux have invented snow spectacles. These consist of a piece of wood cut out in the shape of a spectacle ; where the glass should be in ordinary spectacles we find two very fine slits. This apparatus I should think would be admirably adapted to drivers of railway engines, who have to encounter snow, wet, and hail, as the engine rushes through storms at express pace. The eye itself is en- tirely protected, while it gets a fair lookout through the slit in the wood. The ingenuity displayed by these hardy Es- quimaux is very interesting and instructive." Frank Buckland in "Land and Water.'' 1 Spectacle lens, annular, Rowell, * "Scientific Amer., xl. 293. Spec-trol'o-gy. The science of chemical anal- ysis, by means of the lines of spectra, as modified by the volatilization of different elements. Spec-trom'e-ter. For measuring the inten- sity of light. Prof. J. W. Draper describes in the July, 1879 , issue of Silli- man'sJoicnuU a new instrument, which he calls a " spectrom- eter," and which lie' proposes to employ to determine the inten- sity of a light, on the general principle that a light becomes invisible wueii it is in the presence of another light about sixty-four times more brilliant. lie brings the spectrum of the light to be measured into the presence of an extraneous light of known illuminating power, and varies its distance from the instrument until its light is just sufficiently pow- erful to extinguish the spectrum. The suggestion is novel and valuable, and our readers are referred to the original communication for details. We remark incidentally that, in the use of this instrument, Prof. Draper found that the generally-accepted belief that the yellow is the brightest of the colored spectrum spaces is not true of the prismatic spectrum, and that the luminous intensity diminishes from that in both directions, above and below ; that the " extin- guishing flame " first extinguished the violet, then the other more refrangible colors in their descending order, and that the red was the last to persist. The red, he found, was in- variably perceptible long after the yellow had disappeared. On diminishing the illumination, the red region of the spec- trum first comes into view, the other colors following in the order of their refrangibility. He believes this apparent contradiction to be due to the action of the prism, " which. narrows, and, as it were, condenses the colored spaces more and more as we pass toward the red, increasing the intensity of the light as it does that of the heat." Spec'tro-scope. Christie's half prism spec- troscopes have ordinary prisms that have been cut in half by a plane perpendicular to the base. In summing up the advantages of the half prisms: Suppose two slightly divergent rays of mono- chromatic light to pass through an ordinary prism, the angle of separation will not be changed so that the rays emerge at the same angle to each other which they had at entrance. But if two such rays fall perpendicularly upon a face of the half prism, the deviation of one ray in traversing the glass will be much greater than that of the other, and they will consequently emerge at a much wider angle. It is therefore claimed that the half prism is equivalent to a magnifier with cylindrical lenses. Spectroscope, Mouton, Fr. " Scientific American,' 1 '' xxxvii. 40. Rir.co * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 184. Thoilnn, Fr "Scientific American," xli. 25. Application of . . . "Scientific American,'' xxxv. 16. Compound, Thollon . * "Manuf. (f Builder," xii. 12. In solar work . . . * "Scientific Amer.,' 1 ' 1 xxxix. 242. Measuring appa. for. Reynolds . . . . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 1946. Uses of "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 257. Spec'tro-scop-ic Eye'piece. (Optics.) An adaptation of the spec- troscope to the micro- F te- 2309. scope for the examina- tion of minute sub- stances. It consists of a compound direct prism, fitted over a Huyghemain eye-piece, a slit and a supplement- ary stage upon which an object can be placed for comparison with an- other which is laid upon the stage of the micro- scope. This piece of appa- ratus tits into the draw- tube of the microscope in place of the ordinary eye-piece, and by it ac- curate observations are made on the positions of Spectroscopic Eyepiece. SPECTRUM. 836 SPEED MEASURER. the various absorption bands in the spectra of va- rious fluids, crystals, minerals, etc. Spec'trum. The several colored and other rays of which light is composed, separated by the refraction of a prism or otherwise, and exhibited, either as spread out on a screen or in direct vision. Spec'trum Scale. (O/>/ics.) A slice of a crystal of quartz of a given thickness, cut parallel to'its axis, placed between two Nicol's prisms, and giving a series of black bands. It is used as a standard for recording the position of the absorp- tion bands in objects examined under the micro- spectroscope. Spec'u-lum. The Storer vaginal speculum is so arranged that by a simple spring attachment at the side of the cusco bivalve, the blades may at once be disjointed, swung around back to back, and there fixed by a turn of the nut upon the screw traversing the handles, with the effect of giving a retractor equal in working facilities to that of Sims. Neugebauer's speculum consists of four blades, with short, flat handles, all of which fit into each other compactly. Each blade resembles in shape that of Sims, differing but slightly in the curve and in not having its end rounded up. The main peculiarity of the instrument consists in the dif- ferent blades being so proportioned to each other that any two consecutive sizes may be combined to form a tube ; the lateral edges of the smaller are then inclosed within those of the larger. The larger of the two selected is introduced posteriorly, as Sims' would be ; the other enters beneath the pubic arch. The point of the latter, which at the outset is in the hollow of the opposite blade, gradually emerges as the blade is pushed forward. It requires a little practice to enable one to perform this manipulation without inflicting some pain upon the patient. The result is a perfect tube through which the cervix may be readily inspected. The four blades form three complete specula of different sizes. Amongst other specula not yet noted are those of Dr. E. B. Turnipseed, Sims' solid and wire instruments, Dr. E. W. Jenks', and Nott's instruments. Speculum polisher, Grubbs, Br., * "Engineer," xlii. 160. Speed. A leg or beam to which a drilling ap- paratus is attached. The word may not, in this connection, have a very extensive application, but is applied to the beams supporting the drilling tubes in submarine rock-drilling, as at the Rapide aux Galoups, St. Lawrence River. The comparative speed of various saws and other machine tools are given as follows : Velocity of circular saws at periphery ...... 6,000' to 9,000' per minute. Rate of feed for circular saws 15' to 60' per minute. Velocity of band-saws . . . 3,500' per minute. Velocity of gang-saws, 20" stroke 120 strokes per minute. Velocity of scroll-saws . . . 600 to 800 strokes per minute. Velocity of planing machine cutters at periphery . . . 4,000' to 6,000' per minute. Velocity of molding machine cutters 3,503' to 4,000' per minute. Velocity of squaring-up ma- chine cutters 7,000' to 8.000' per minute. Velocity of wood-carving drills 5,OOU revolutions per minute. Speed In'di-ca'tor. An instrument for reg- i-tering the speed at which an engine or machine may at any given time be traveling. Some of them are purely automatic in tjieir construction, while others nre in conjunction with their mechan- ical device operated by hand. The Harding & Willis Indicator is designed to reveal by a glance at the' needle, and without counting or using a watch, the speed at which the engine or machine is working. The small pulley is driven by a quarter-inch band from a second pulley placed on the shaft whose speed is to be indicated. The pulley drives a small shaft on which is fixed inside the casing a small fan with radial vanes. Alongside this fan is placed another one very delicately mounted on a, small steel spindle that carries, but outside the fan -box, the indicating needle which works on the dial in the usual way. The spiral spring always tends to bring the needle to the zero of the instrument, which is, of course, the lowest Speed it is intended to indicate. When the fan is caused to revolve it has a tendency, on account of the air inclosed in the casing, to carry round in the same direction the other fan, to- gether with the index-needle, and that against the resistance of the spiral spring. The greater the rate of the revolution to the greater extent is it possible for this fan to overcome the tension of the spring, so that the farther round will the needle be carried. The needle and fan are brought to rest as soon us the pressure on the fan vanes is balanced by the resistance of the spiral spring, the needle then indicating the increased velocity. The dial is indexed for each revolution per minute from 25 to 50, and by means of the eye the di- visions may be subdivided to a quarter revolution. The Union Boston Indicator (see Fig. 2310) is used to regis- ter the speed of any revolving shaft, pulley, or mandril. To ascertain the number of revolutions of the shaft in a given time the point of the indi- cator is placed in the center of the pig. 2310 shaft, and for each hundred revo- lutions the dial revolves once. Less than one hundred will be indicated by the pointer, which requires to be placed at the 100 before starting. By a device on the face of the dial a person may feel with the end of the thumb how often it revolves without looking at it, thus enabling tho operator to keep correct time. The Westinghouse Railroad-speed Indicator is an apparatus for as- certaining and recording the speed of a train at any given instant, and by means of automatically constructed diagrams showing the fluctuations of the velocity caused by the applications of the brake. The principle of construction consists in controlling the escape of water under pressure by means of a small valve loaded by the ac- Speed Indicator. tion of centrifugal force, the ar- rangement being such that the higher the speed at which the apparatus is driven, the greater will be the pressure ex- erted by certain revolving weights upon the escape valve, and the higher, therefore, the pressure maintained within the chamber with which this valve communicates, the cham- ber receiving a constant supply of water from the pumps. A pressure-gage affixed to the chamber containing the water affords information as to the speed that is attained. The registrations are made on a paper drum similar to that used at meteorological stations to record the velocit' of the wind. The heights of the recording lines on the diagram rep- resent pressures on the accumulator of the speed indicator, and these pressures are proportioned to the squares of the speed. There is a differential speed indicator adopted by all the ironclads of the French channel squadron. Speed indica., Butler, Br. * "Engineer,"' xliii. 293. Portable * "American Miller," iv. 28. ffobson, Br "Iron Age," xix., April 12, p. 1. Moss * "Scientific American Sup., "85. Wier *" Scientific American Slip.," &. Train, Westinghouse . * "Engineering," xxii. 203. Ship's, Nonnanville, Br * "Engineer" xlvi. 193. Speed Meas'ure. Brown's measure (Fig. 231 1 ), has a mercury reservoir and a radial commu- nicating pipe. As 'the device is revolved by the machinery, the mercury, obeying the centrifugal force, passing up into the tube descends in the axial graduated tube, its sinking being the measure of the speed of rotation. Speed Meas'ur-er. The speed measurer for trains, used at the brake trials at Cnssel, Gcnnsiny, in 1877, consisted mainly of (1 ) con tact instruments, (2) reading instruments, and (3) readiug-off instru- ments. The contact instruments were fixed by the side of the rails at 33J meters apart along each trial ground, and were all to electric communication with the reading instrument, which, with the readiug-off instrument, was fixed in a room of the Buntershausen station. The apparatus is described in Speed measurer for trains, Ger., * "Engineer,'' xliv. 235. SPEED RECORDER. 837 SPHYGMOGRAPH. Fig. 2311. Speed Measure. Speed Re-cord'er. Miller's speed recorder is an indicator of the speed of trains, their stops and delays (necessary and unnecessary), registering the same for reference. See under STEAM GAOI , infra See, also, "Scientific American Supplement, '' 1457. Theiler, Br * "Engineering." xxiv. 155. Westing/iouse * "Engineer,"' xliii. 10. Speed Reg'u-la'tor. Hiibner's governor or speed regulator for railway horse powers is intended for regulating such powers in small factories, etc. The rim or circle is fastened on the power behind the belt wheel, leaving the shaft in the center. The hub has arms attached, with weighted balls, friction blocks, and a stud with a small coiled brass spring, adjustable with a thumb- screw at the end to regulate the amount of speed needed. As the velocity of speed throws the balls out the friction blocks are pressed against the rim, and act as a brake, but as soon linery is applied and takes the power, the balls drop back and relieve the breaking. See, also, "Scientific American,'' xlii. 245. Speed regulator for light machinery, * "Engineer,' 1 xlix.606. Speed'y-cut Boot. See HORSE BOOT. Spel'ter-Sol'der Al-loy'. A good solder for copper and iron is composed of three parts zinc and four parts copper. A softer solder that is used for ordinary brass work is composed of equal parts of zinc and cop- per. A very hard but fusible solder is composed of two parts zinc and one part copper. This solder is so hard and brittle that it can be easily crumbled in a mortar when cold. The two first solders are first alloyed and cast into ingots. The ingots are allowed to cool in the mold, and then reheated nearly to redness upon a char- coal tire, and are broken up on the anvil,- or in a mortar, into a finely granulated state, for use. Spelter furnace . * "Scientific American," xxxix. 402. Spen'ce's Mef al. A metallic compound con- sisting of a metallic sulphide mixed with sulphur. Used for pipe-joints, calking metallic joints, etc. Announced in a paper read by Dr. Cole before the Society of Arts. Reported in "Engineering," 1880, and repeated in " Van Nostrand's Mag.,'-'' xxii. 371. Sperge. A charge of distiller's wash. Mus- pratt. Sphe're-om'e-ter. A sphere-measurer, adapted to measure the radius of a sphere, invented by the French optician De La Roue, to measure the radii of lenses. This instrument is valuable to opticians, for if they know the radii of the spherical surfaces of a lens, and also the re- fracting power of the glass of which the lens is composed, they can estimate the general action of the lens on rays of light that fall upon it, and thus arrive at a knowledge of the focal length of the lens. Sphere Turii'ing Lathe. A lathe for turn- ing spheres; mechanically adapted to the produc- tion of a perfect lens. Its principle is based on the fact that the section of a true sphere at any part is always a circle. Sphyg'mo-graph. An instrument for indica- ting the movement of the pulse. The nature of the circulatory system and even the functions of the arteries and the veins and the nature of the blood were long enigmas. Praxagoras of Cnidus(300 B. c.) wrote on the pulse, show- ing that it is a measurer of the force of disease, and discussed the difference between arteries and veins. Theophilusof Alexandria ("DeCorporis Human/ Fabricu*') wrote on the pulse and attributed it to the contraction of the heart. Erosistratus of Alexandria described the action of the heart, but supposed that the arteries earned air and the veins blood. He noticed the lacteals, but did not understand their function. Servetus of Geneva (burned 1553), observed the smaller circulation of the blood, that from the head through the lungs and return. Rialdo Colombo ("De Re Anatomica," 1559), successor of Vesalius, at Padua, described the pulmonary circulation. Fabmio of Padua (Acyuaperdenti), 1562, noticed that the venal valves all opened towards the heart. Harvey was one of his pupils. Galileo (fl. 1610) invented an instrument for rendering the arterial pulsations visible. Placing one end of a light mirror upon the artery leading to the thumb and the other upon a fixed object, he caused the image of a sunbeam reflected from the mirror upon an opposite wall to vibrate in unison with the pulse. A remarkable similarity exists between this and Sir Win. Thomson's galvanometer. No apology is needed for naming them together. The idea was revived by Wenham (Engl.) ("English Me- chanic," xxiv. 20) who proposed to use a small mirror laid on the pulse and reflecting upon a wall or screen. Aselli of Milan (" De Venus Lacteis,-' 1627), discovered the function of the lacteals which pour the chyle into the blood. Santorio of Padua (" Commentarius in Primumfera Primi Libris Canonis AvicenneB ; " Venet, folio, 1626), invented an instrument for measuring the force of the pulse. Andrea Caesalpin ("Exeratatio Anatomica fie. Cordis et San- guinis Mot it," 1628) seems prior to his published work to have understood the greater or systematic circulation. A monu- ment has been erected to him in Rome as " the discoverer of the circulation of the blood," and a table attributing the dis- covery to him has been attached to the portals of the Univer- sity of Pisa, where he once taught. Harvey, in 1616, made the discovery of the nature of the arterial and venal circulations and the double circulation. The doctrine was first publicly discussed and combated as Harvey's, in Europe as well as in England. Within a cen- tury of the death of Harvey, the father of modern physiol- ogy, Haller, revived the whole controversy, and gave a ver- dict in favor of the English physician. Holding that the true discoverer of any truth is he who draws it from its sources " at his own risk and by his own meditations, and es- tablishes it by arguments so forcible that thjy convince those who are longing for the truth," Haller decided that "not to Oesalpinus, on account of a few utterances of ob- scure meaning, but to Harvey, the laborious author of nu- merous experiments and the expounder of all the arguments which, in his time, could be advanced, belongs the immortal glory of the discovery of the circulation of the blood." An apparatus for measuring the force due to the arterial circulation in a living animal, was made by an English phys- iologist, Stales, during the past century. He was followed by Ludvvig, the present professor of physi- SPHYGMOGRAPH. 838 SPHYGMOGRAPH. Fig. 2312. ology at Leipsic, who contrived a registering instrument, Fig. 2312, to record the variations of pressure of the blood circulating in the arteries. A tube was applied to the artery of the animal and the vary- ing force of the blood, acting upon a column of mercury, caused a float to rise and fall and a pencil attached there- to traced upon a turn- ing cylinder each oscil- lation of the manom- eter. This is said to be the first registering instru- ment constructed for the uses of physiology. The fp/iygmoscope proper (o-^vy/uios, the pulse, fifrpov, to meas- ure) that is, the instru- ment applied to the pulse, was invented by Professor Vierardt, of Tubingen. It was not a sphygmometer, o r iphygmograph, for it neither counted nor re- corded the pulsations, but its indicator oscil- lated in the fashion of a pendulum and afford- ed a means of counting by the eye instead of by Ludwig's Register of Arterial the strokes of the pulse Pulsations. against the finger-ends. The sphygmograph first attained definite shape in the invention of M. Marey. A view of the apparatus detached is shown in Fig. 5380, p. 2365, "Meek. Diet.,' 1 ' but its operation will be more readily understood from viewing it in position, Fig. 2313. Fig. 2313. form of the pulse-spring, which is made to partially em- brace the artery instead of merely resting upon it ; (2) in conveying a to-and-fro lateral instead of a vertical motion to the tracing pencil ; (3) and in a watch-spring device for registering the pressure upon the artery. See also Dr. Sanderson's "On the Spkygmograpk," an English work. The sphygmograph of Dr. Keyt, of Cincinnati, Ohio, illus- trated and described in the "Jvito York Medical Journal" (xxiii. pp. 26 et seq., plate opp. p. 30), and shown in Kig. 2314, has points of resemblance to the Marey instrument, but still more numerous novel features. The base or receptacle a is made of thin brass, semi-circu- lar above, but with a free, oblong edge below, over which is stretched an elastic rubber membrane which, when in use, lies upon the pulse and partakes of its movements. In the neck of the chamber a is a tube, 6, which has a three-way stop-cock and two lateral branches, c c, leading to the two extremities of the instrument. From one of these rises a graduated glass tube in which the liquid affected by the beating of the pulse against the membrane rises and falls in a degree "pro- portioned to the force of the arterial impulse and at a rate, of course, coincident therewith. Fig. 2314. Key fa Sp Marey's Spkygmograpk. It may as well be mentioned here that instruments which graphically indicate the beating of the heart are applied to the chest, 'and entitled CARDIOGRAPHS. Marey's sphygmograph employs a spring pad to rest upon the pulse and the degree of pressure is obtained by means of a regulating screw. This spring device is so light that it fol- lows faithfully the movements which are communicated to it by the exierior pulse, due to the swelling and collapsing blood vessel beneath the skin. These movements are so slight that it becomes necessary to amplify them, and this is done by translating the motion of the spring to a very light wooden lever near the axis of its movement. The outer end of the lever carries a scriber which records on a moving strip of pa- per, movements many times greater than those received from the artery. Extreme lightness of the lever and the union of the lever with the spring, the movements of which it records in much greater amplitude, are the necessary conditions for a good trace. The sphygmograph reveals many delicate shades of differ- ence in the pulse, showing the suddenness or slowness of the impulse, its strength or weakness, its length or brevity. The degree of abruptness is indicated by the angle of the line of trace departing from the base or horizontal line. The strength is shown by the amplitude of the excursions of the pencil : the duration, which is tantamount to the rate of repetition, is shown by the position occupied by each beat upon the length of the trace. The ribbon is moved by clock-work. The same rules govern as in the instruments for graphi- cally representing articulate sounds, as mentioned under PHONAUTOGRAPH, p. 1678, "Meek. Diet.,'' and illustrated under TELEPHONE, Logograp/iic curves, Fig. 6257, pp. 2514, 2515, Ibirl The sphygmograph of Marey was followed by several de- vices for the same purpose, notably by that of Holden, de- scribed in his work " On the S/ihygmograph,' 1 Philadelphia, 1874. He there credits Vierordt with the suggestion of the instrument, and refers to Professor Burdon Sanderson's im- provements on Marey. llolden's sphygmograph differs from Marey ; s (1) in the At the end of the other tube, f, is a small cup, g-, in which is a disk resting on the fluid in the tube, and from the disk rises a stein,_7, supporting a lever, k, on whose free end is the pencil which makes the trace upon the smoke . slide which is traversed by clock-work. The instrument weighs 8 oz. when filled with the liquid, and is 12" long, 4" h;'gh. The graduated tube folds down to place the instrument in its ease. It is usually held by the I hand of the observer, as in the illustration, which shows it as applied to the radial artery. Much fuller details of con- struction are given in the " New York Metliral .'our- intl." above cited, and republished in * "&.i< iinjic American Sup.,^ 117, 118. Pond's sphygmograph, shown in Fig. 2315, is an improvement upon the Sphygmoscopt , shown in Kig. 5381, "Meek. Diet." 1 The instrument is capable of adaptation as a sphygmograph. cardiograph, myo- graph, or pneumograph, but in the figure is shown as Fig. 2315 Pond's tsi>kygmograpk. SPHYGMOGRAPH. 839 SPIKE EXTRACTOR. adapted to the pulse of the forearm, which should lie in the cradle below. The tube, with an elastic membrane at its lower end, rests upon the pulse, and the pulsations, acting upon the membrane, are transferred to the liquid contents of the tube raising the piston ; these motions are transferred to the stylus, which makes traces upon the smoked glass plate, which is traversed at right angles to the line of motion of the style. The combination of the two motions gives the graphic representation. By the sphygmograph we may read the pulse as fol- lows : The amplitude of the pulse is shown by the height of the undulations. The regularity of the pulse is shown by the rhythmic suc- cession and equal stages and development of the undula- tions. Ihe frequency of the pulse is shown by the rapidity of suc- cession of the undulations. The quickness of the pulse is shown by the suddenness of the ascent of the undulations. The compressibiiity of the pulse is shown by the degree of elevation at which is displayed the maximum amplitude of the undulations. The tension of the pulse is shown by the mark of com- pressibility in connection with the rate and manner of de- scent of the undulations. The ijirrotous of the pulse is shown by the distinct break in the line of fall, or, as frequently seen, a second rise from the line of fall, or bottom of the undulations. .Minor sphygmographic curves are at times shown by the lesser interruptions in the fall of the undulations. It is suggested that an enlarged shadow of the undula- tions might be projected on a screen in a clinical theater : or photographed upon a prepared surf ace moved as in the THER- MOGRAPH or BAROGRAPH, Fig. 6350, p. 2546 ; Fig. 569, p. 234, "Mec/i. Diet.'' See following I'nited States patents : 2:>:!.548 A. T. Kei/t, sphygmometer, May 14, 1878. 167,785 W. K. Pond, sphygmoscope, Sept. 14, 1875. 161,821 W. K. Poii'l, sphygmoscope, April 6, 1875. 2a-,.H2 K. A. 1'ond, aphygmograph, June 25, 1878. 183,205 /.;. A. Pond, sphygmograph, October 10,1876. 232,105 W. 11. IT. Barton, sphygmophone, Sept. 14, 1880. Sphyg-mom'e-ter. An instrument for meas- uring the force, rate and other characteristics of the pulse. Tin; subject is considered under SIMIYI;- MOGRAPH, which see. See also PULSOMETER, page ]82~>, "Mi-f/i. Diet.," and article in "Manufacturer and Builder '' xii. 208. Sphyg'mo-phone. For rendering audible the sounds of the pulse heats. In Dr. Richardson's sphygmophone, a microphone is added to a I'oinl splngmograpli. A thin plate of platinum is mounted on a slip of talc which is placed in the sphygmo- graph as if for a tracing of the pulse. One terminal from a LeclanclH; cell is connected to the slip of platinum on the talc, and the second terminal to a terminal of the telephone. The other terminal of the telephone is connected to the me- tallic rod of the Bphygmograph which supports the talc. The instrument is placed on the pulse in the ordinary way, and the needle thrown hack till a good pulsating movement is secured. The needle is then thrown over to touch the platinum strip, which ii traverses with each pulse movement ami completes the connection of the telephone with the bat- tery ; this |>.ISMI,_ over the metallic plate causes a distinct se- ries of sounds corresponding with the movements of the pulse. The sounds heard are three in number : one long sound and two short, corresponding to the systolic push, the arterial re- coil, and the valvular check. The sphygmophone of Dr. Stein, of Frankfort, consists of a piece of watch-spring, five centimeters long, which is sol- dered to a. small brass frame, and is provided at its free end with a gutta-percha knob which is placed against the pulse or chest. The knob carries a platinum contact plate, oppo- site to which is a platinum contact point, and these two con- tacts are connected in circuit with two Bunsen cells and a telephone. The movements of the pulse (for instance) es- tablish contact between the pointand plate, and so make and break the circuit. The result is that the natural rythm is heard aloud in the telephone. See notices in 'Manufacture and Builder ' 'Eng. mid Mining Journal' 'Telegraphic Journal ' . . 'Iron Age '' xi. 96. xxviii. 128. vii. 120. xxiv., July 3, p. 16. Sphyg'mo-scope. An instrument for render- ing visible the beats of the pulse. Such was made by Galileo, by means of a mirror and beam of light ; see SPHYGMOGRAPH, where also is mentioned the device of Prof. Varardt, of Tubingen. See also Pond's Sphygmoscope, Fig. 5381, page 22tt5, "Meek. Diet." This instrument has since been made a recording instrument, and is further illus- trated under SPHYGMOGRAPH, present volume. Spic'u-lar. A dentist's long curved-nose for- ceps, for removing small fragments of bone, etc. Spi'der Hoop. (Nautical.) A brass hinged hoop made to clasp around the mast of a vessel, with attachments for the fastening of the futtock- shrouds. Spie'gel. (Metallurgy.) Spiegeleisen, " mirror- iron." A crystalline variety of white cast-iron con- taining from 2 to 10 per cent, of manganese, and a large amount of combined carbon. It is exces- sively hard and lustrous, and is used chiefly in the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes. See be- low. Spie'gel-ei-seii. Manguniferous cast-iron. See FEHRO-MANGANESE, SPIEGEL, and SPIEGEL IRON. See also Coin/ites Rendus, April 5, 1874. Micro-structure of . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 2668, 2738,2761. Spie'gel I'ron. Mirror iron. In German " Spiegeleisen," which means "mirror iron," is thus called because its fracture shows Hat shining sur- faces, reflecting light like pieces of mirrors. It is of all iron the richest in carbon, and also the most brittle and hardest, no steel tool will make an impression on it. It is very fusible, and it is principally used at present in the manufacture of Bessemer steel. In this process most of the impurities are removed from the melted mass by forcibly blowing air through it, which burns them out, but also too much of the carbon, so that at the last stage of the process the iron is reduced to a condition of being almost equivalent to wrought iron, and cannot he poured, the temperature, high as it is, being insufficient to keep wrought iron in the liquid state. Melted Spiegel iron is then introduced, which at once combines with the mass under the evolution of a large flame ; the iron becomes then at once as liquid as wa- ter, and is poured in the molds to make ingots. Spiegel iron is also used to make safes burglar-proof ; as an interior fill- ing for this purpose it is cast between sheet-iron lining. It also possesses the curious property of being less magnetic than any other kinds of iron ; it is less attracted by the mag- net than other kind of iron, and strongly resists efforts to magnetize it, which is contrary to the property possessed by wrought iron, which takes magnetism easily but also loses it easily ; while steel takes it with some resistance, but when once it is magnetized it holds it. We have a spiegel iron in this country ; it is made from the New Jersey Franklinite ore, and was at first called Franklinite iron. It has com- menced to be universally used in place of the spiegel iron, thus far imported from Germany, and will probably super- sede it, if it lias not already done so. Spike. The following table shows the amount of spikes to a mile of railroad : s te E s a. 5 1 3 Jj 6 e "fi Ties 2' between centers, 4 B Spikes per Tic, ma kes \ E."S per Mile : P If N 51 X 9-16 5 x 9-16 280 300 5,670 pounds = 38 5,170 pounds = 35 kegs kegs 45 to 70 40 to 56 5X1 340 4,66f) pounds = 31 kegs 35 to 40 4it X i 400 3,960 pounds = 27 kegs 30 to 35 4" Xi 41 X 7-16 4 x 7-16 450 510 640 3,520 pounds 24 3,110 pounds 21 2,940 pounds =r 20 kegs kegs kegs 28 to 35 j 25 to 30 3i X 7-16 4 X | 675 760 2,350 pounds = 16 2,090 pounds = 14 kegs kegs | 20 to 26 8JXI 3 Xf 890 930 1,780 pounds = 12 1,710 pounds = Hi kegs kegs 1 16 to 20 Spike Ex-tract'or. An iron lever with a SPIKE EXTRACTOR. 840 SPINNING, TEXTILE MACHINERY, ETC- fulcrum hook beneath to clasp the rail and a claw Damask. Ironing machine. hook at its lower extremity to lift the spike by the Darner. Darning machine. Jacquard loom. Jean. head. Debaige. Jupon. Spike extractor * "Engineer,'' xliv. 413. Degumming machine. Jute. Delaine. Jute machinery. Diagonal. Kalauieil. Spil'liard. (Fishing.) A floating trawl line. Diaper. Dimity. Kerseymere. Knitting machine. Spin'ner. (Fishing.) A trawling spoon-bait Dobby machine. Knot. which revolves as it tows abaft the boat. Doubling winding machine. Lap doubling machine. A flanged attachment in connection with a fish- hook to cause a lively motion of the hook and bait. Drag. Drap d'Alma. Drap d'Alpes. La)) machine. Leal her cloth. Linen machinery. ( Wool Manufacture.) A very 's continuous wool- Drap de Nationelle. Linsey-woolsey. spinner resembles the original Hargreave spinning machine. The roving is fed from the spool by a re- Drap d'Ete. Drawing-frame and ribbon- lap machine. Lint. Llanos. Loom. volving drum driven from the pulley-shaft, and is Drugget. Loon; stopper alarm. delivered to peculiarly-constructed wheels, which seize it at the proper moment and release it again as the spinning occurs, and the required draught Drying chamber. Drying machine. Duck. Dunging vat. Machine twist. Luster. Mandarirting machine. Manteau. is thus given. Thedrum and the cage-wheel with Dyeing. Matelasse. which it acts revolve at the same speed. The rov- Dye vat. Melange. ing, as delivered, hangs down loosely until suffi- ciently twisted, when the next motion delivers a Embossing machine. Embroidering machine, ^pingline. Merino. Merino tulle. Mexican cloth. new supply and takes up that already twisted. EpingW. Mohair. Spin'ning. (Fine Art Metal-workiny.) A mode Excelsior. Mohair glac<5. of forming silver and other ductile metal into shapes. Fabric. Faller. Moire. Moulleton. A disk of metal is placed in the clamp in the Faller machine. Mousseline. lathe, and while revolving is pressed by a burnisher Fancy board loom. Mousseline de bege. which spreads the metal, giving the disk a cup-like Feather plush. Fni f Mozambique. Mule form, for instance. Other pieces are worked in a eic. Felting machine Muslin. similar way, and form parts such as cover, body, Felt mat. Nankeen. foot, of a pitcher or what not. Fig. 5412, "Ulech. Finishing press. Nosing motion. Diet." * " Scientific American," xxxvi. 290, Fig. 9. Spin'ning, Tex'tile Ma-chin'er-y, Fab'rics, Sew'ing, Knit'ting, etc. See under the follow- Fireproofing cloth. Flat-rib knitting machine. Flax baking machine. Flax comb. Oiler. Opener. Opening machine. Opener lapper. ing heads : Flax loom. Opus consutum. Flax machinery. Overpick loom. Aino cloth. Carpet loom. Flax silk. Pal a in pore. Algerine. Carpet machinery. Flax spinner. Paramatta cloth. Alpaca. Carpet matching and measur- Flock. Pattern chain. Alpaga. ing machine. Forming machine. Plaiter. Alpine. Carpet winder. Foulard drying apparatus. Plaiting machine. Anacostra Cashmere. Foulard machine. Pongee. Armure. Cashmere de bege. Frieze. Porcupine. Arras. Chain loom. Fulling mill. Positive motion loom. Australian crape. Chain tappet loom. Fur blowing machine. Pouncing machine. Baize. Challis. Fur hat machinery. Presser foot. Balling machine. Chambery gauze. Bandekin. Chinchilla. Fustian. Gas cloth. Printing. Print-washing machine. Banding machine. Chintz. Gauze. Ply. Banding ring. Circassienne. Gingham. Pun jam. Barege. Circular knitting machine. Basket. Circular ribbing machine. Gingham loom. Girth stretcher. Ramie. Ramie fiber machine. Batavia weave. Cloth cutting machine. Glove making. Rayne, cloth of. Beaming machine. Cloth dressing machine. Glove sewing machine. Rep. Beetling machine. Cloth drjing machine. Biaretz. Cloth finishing machine. Grenadine. Grisaille. Retting. Rib-fabric knitting machine. Bleachery Cloth folding machine. Hair cloth. Rib-top machine. Block. Cloth measuring machine. Hand loom. Ring and traveler throstle* Blocker. Cloth press. Hank dyeing machine. frame. Blocking machine. Cloth pressing machine. Hardening machine. Rolling machine. Bobbin winder. Cloth shear. Harness. Rope. Bolivar. Cloth shearing machine. Hatchel. Roving frame. Bombazine. Cloth stretching machine. Hat. Roving reel. Bourdalisandre. Cloth teasling machine. Hat block. Ruffler. Braiding machine. Cloth winding and measuring Brilliantine. machine. Hat blocking machine. Hat finishing lathe. Sail Sewing machine. Salampore. Brim pouncing machine. Cocoon winder. Hat forming machine. Sample cutter. Brim stretcher. Combing machine. Hat lining sewing machine. Sarsnet. Brocade. Cone. Hat machinery. Satin. Brushing machine. Cop reel. Hat press. Satine. Buckram. Cop winding machine. Hat shaping machinery. Satinet. Burlaps. Cord making machine. Hat stretcher. Satinet loom. Burring machine. Cordwain. Hat sweat. Satin weave. Button making. Corset loom. Ho.Mdstock. Scouring. Calender rolls. Cotton. Heddle. Scutcher. Calico. Cotton cylinder. Ilemmer. Seaming machine. Calico printing. Cotton machinery. Hemp. Selvage. Calico rolls. Cotton opener. Hemp softening machine. Sendal. Cambric. Cotton process. Henrietta cloth. Serge. Camel's hair. Cotton spinning. Hernani. Serge armure. Cam loom. Cramoisy. High loom. Sewing machine. Cannel. Crape of Spain. Hosiery seaming machine. St'wins; machine, dress pro- Card and combing machine. Cretonne. Imperial silk serge. tector for. Card guider. Crown pouncing machine. Indigo mill. Sewing machine shuttle. Cardigan jacket machine. Cuff frame. Ingrain. Sewing nr'chinc treadle. Carding machine. Cypresse- Intermediate spinning frame. Sewing silk. SPINNING, TEXTILE MACHINERY, ETC. 841 SPIRAL BATTERY. Take-up. Take-up motion. Tamise. Tamise rep. Tapestry carpet. Tars, cloth of. Teasel. Teaseling machine. Tentering machine. Textile fabrics. Thread dressing machine. Thread waxing machine. Throstle frame. Tin-box loom. Tip stretcher. Tissue. Tissue paper. Tissue Silk. Toile-dc-Saxe. Tom-tom. Top. Tuck creaser. Tuck marker. Tulle. Turenne cloth. Turning-oft' machine. Turquoise. Twilled armure. Tying-in machine. Valencia. Velours. Velentine. Velvet. Vigogne. Vode. Warping machine. Warp-tying machine. Washing roller. Waste picker. Wax thread sewing machine. Weaving. Weighting. Whipper. Whirling apparatus. Wool burring machine. Wool carding machine. Wool combing machine. Wool extract. Wool hat machine. Wool oiler. Wool scouring machine. Wool washing machine. Worsted. Yarn flocking machine. Yarn printing machine. Yarn reel. Yarn tester. Yarn washing rollers. Yarn winder. Shaping machine. Shaving machine. Shawl loom. Shearing machine. Shirt frame. Shirt knitting machine. Shoddy machine. Shuttle race. Sicilienne. Siclatome. Silk. Silk degumming machine. Silk dyeing tnachiue. Silk loom. Silk machinery. Silk rod. Silk -oftcning machine. Silk spinner. Silk spooling machine. Silk spooling and measuring machine. Silk stretching machine. Silk thread. Silk-washing machine. Silk waste. Silk winder. Silk-worm nursery. Siinlon. Singeing machine. Skein-torsion machine. Sleeve frame. Sleeve machine. Sliver guide. Sliver lap machine. Stubbing frame. Stubbing machine. Snugger. Spinner. Spinning. Spinning head. Spinning machine. Spinning mule. Spinning ring Spinning roller. Spool holder. Spooling machine. Spool printing machine. Spool winding machine. Stamper. Ste:im chamber. Stiffening machine. Stop motion. Straw braid. Straw hat. Sweat-lining sewing machine. Sweat rolling machine. Sweat sewing machine. Taffeta. Taffetas. Taffetas armure. See Band's "American Cotton Spinner's Guide." Leroux's "Practical Treatise on Worsteds and Carded Torn*." Spin'ning Head. A twisting and drawing head, resembling in some respects that described on ]t. 1^7:5, Fin. . r )40S, " Mech. Diet." is described inLa- t/iin/(ii/e's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," vol. iv.. article "Broche de fa Filature," edition 1877. For twisting and drawing heads see the following pat- ents : Ballan/, 62,921, March 19, 1867. < 'happen, 115,435, May 30, 1871. Clmhot, 89,290, April 27, 1869. Croireii, 28,1 1991,1992. "Scientific American ; ' xxxix. 68. "Mining ff Scientific Press -' xxxvii. 2. "Engineer ' xlv. 226, 308. The United States and European patents on sponge pro- cesses are very numerous. Sponge Pro'cess. (Metallurgy.) A process for making wrought iron and steel direct from the ore without the use of the blast furnace. The reduction by the blomary or German hearth is at a greater heat than that of the sponge process. The tempera- ture in each is below that of melting; in the blomary the iron is obtained in an agglutinated mass, as a loup ready for the shingler; but the sponge obtained by the other process contains the iron in a metallic state besides the earthy in- gredients of the ore. The >/>;iir< is then worked to a lotip in a reverberatory , gas, or blomary furnace, to consolidate the metal and remove the earthy matter, and then is hammered to a bloom. The reduction of the ore in the sponge process takes place. in a cylinder or cupola furnace, the fuel with which it is mixed being preferably charcoal. The iron is cooled before removal from the reducing current, to prevent oxidation, which takes place rapidly on the spongy mass. The sponge is then puddled in a reverberatory. Or it has been added to a bath of pig-iron, as wrought iron is added in the Martin process to make steel by rela- tively lowering the carbon of the iron. Chenot, Yates, Benton, (iurlt, and others have devised sponge processes. The method adopted by Blair, of Pitts- burg, is it modification of the Chenot. A cylinder 40' high and 36" diameter has at 6' of its upper end an interior cylinder 28" diameter, leaving an annular space 4" wide. The upper half of the cylinder is kept at a red heat by gas burning on the outside, and the charcoal and ore in small pieces are charged at the, upper end of the annular space. The carbonic oxide from the reduction burns in the inside cylinder, and the charger is then heated to red- ness between the two fires. As the charge sinks it occupies the whole interior capacity of the large cylinder, the lower half of which is cooled by a water-jacket. The sponge and remaining portion of the fuel are withdrawn in a cool condi- tion from the lower point of the cylinder. The sponge is separated from the charcoal, compacted into balls by hydraulic pressure, which are then worked into a bath of metal in a Siemens or other furnace. Sponge is also made in a Banks rotary puddling furnace : the ore is roasted, added with fuel to the furnace, which is rotated while a reducing flame on the regenerative principle is applied. In 1876 Blair discovered during some experiments, that by the addition of a small quantity of alkali to the carbonaceous matter mixed with the ore, the action of reduction was quickened to a remarkable extent, and ore which took thirty hours to reduce without alkali could be perfectly done in six- hours with it Subsequent investigation showed that lime in a fallen state answered as well as any other alkali, and on account of its cheapness was most suitable for the purpose. The quantity of lime required being only about five per cent. the extra cost was quite insignificant when placed against the great saving in time. AVhen, however, Mr. Blair < nine to work the existing furnaces under the new condition of quickened reduction, he found the arrangement could not in any way be altered to suit it. Perhaps a brief descrip- tion of these furnaces will make the matter more easily un- derstood. Each reducing furnace consisted of a group of three verti- cal retorts, each retort being 3' internal diameter and about 28' high, surrounded by an outer casing of brickwork, leav- ing a combustion chamber between the inside of the brick- work nnd the outside of the retorts. The retorts and outside brickwork stood upon a cast-iron entablature, supported on columns 12' from the ground; below the entablature, and forming a continuation of each retort, were wrought -iron cylinders, each surrounded with a water jacket for more quickly cooling the iron sponge, and having at the lower ex- tremity a sliding sleeve for discharging it. In the top of each retort a cast-iron pipe or thimble, 2' diameter and about 6' long, was inserted, leaving an annulus of 6" between it and the inside of the retort. The retorts were heated externally by gas jets, the air for combustion being supplied through apertures immediately . above each jet. \Vhen the retorts were thoroughly heated and all in working order, the gas generated from the ore under re- duction ascended up the inside of the pipe inserted in the top of the retorj, and, on meeting with the air, flamed ami so heated the pipe. The ore and carbonaceous matter were fed into the retort down the 6" annulus between the retort and pipe. and. forming a narrow column heated oil both sides, were thoroughly heated up before reaching the wide retort below. Thus the ore, on entering the wide retort or redu- cing zone, was all of one uniform heat, both in the center and SPONGE, METALLIC. 845 SPOOLING MACHINE on the outside, and hence uniform reduction was the result. This initial heating, as it is called, must be done if the ore is to be thoroughly and uniformly reduced. It was this part of the furnaces which would not suit the quickened action of reduction taking place in the body of the retort below ; th ore could not lie heated upas quickly as the reduction too stream ot not caruonic oxiue tnrougn tne mass 01 ore ami carbonaceous matter, lie ha.-' since made some improvements in the first-named furn ice, where the initial heating of the ore is performed as quickly as is possible to be done by trans- mitted heat, and which is much quicker than the inserted pipe The new form of reducing furnace adopted by Mr. Blair has several important features. The following is a de- scrip ion of it : A vertical retort made of fire-bricks, with an external wrought-iron easing, stands upon a cast-iron entablatur supported on columns. The retort is continued below th a.ii'1 \vaier jacRei, lour small ones are suspeimeu, anu uiu split up the hot sponge into small columns, by this means effecting the cooling much more quickly. At the lower ex- tremity of each water j icket is a conical mouthpiece anil vaUc. so that the iron sponge can be discharged periodically into any rereptac'e place I under. Tlic lower part of the retort, where the gas is admitted, is larger (ban the upper portion. This is done so as to form an ovc.-liang immediately above the aperture where the gas is admitted, thus forming a chamber round the mass of ore, etc., and allowing the gas to permeate it uniformly. At the top of the retort is an outlet for the escape of the g.is alter passing through the ore, which is connected by a hori- zontal pipe to a vertical one descending to the ground, and there connected to the chimney Hue. In the horizontal pipe above named a steam jet is inserted, so as to form a vacuum in the top part of the retort, to induce a regular current o r gas through the ore, etc. The retort is fed by an ordinar section, formed of wrought- iron plates, lined internally with fire-bricks, and standing on an entablature, which, in turn, is supported at the requisite height by columns of brickwork. Below the entablature, and suspended from it, is a wrought- iron continuation, tapering to a conical discharging valve for allowing the ashes to be from time to time removed. Apertures for admitting air for combustion in the gas-pi dui-cr are placed in its circumference, fitted with slide cov< i. ate the admission of air. , bling brings it to nature. The molten metal can be made almost as cheaply as pig iron ; in fact, there is no reason why it should not be made as cheaply. Sponge Pla-ti'iium. The production of spongy platinum, says the " Metallarbeiter" is a task more easy in appearance than in reality. The principal requirement of spongy platinum is that it should bo spongy, but this obvious requirement is very fre- quently overlooked, and hard and useless masses of platinum are produced through overheating the sponge and running together the finer particles. Into a concentrated solution of muriate of ammonia drop a similar solution of platinum chloride ; a yel- low precipitate is formed, which is washed three or four times with hot water to free it from the sal ammoniac. This precipitate, when properly cleaned, and while still moist, is dropped on a very thin platinum wire stretched several times across a small ring of copper, and is then allowed to dry thoroughly. After drying, it is slightly heated over a spirit lamp, contact with the flame of which is to be avoided. As above remarked, only very careful heating over the spirit lamp will give sat- isfactory results. Sponge process, Blair . "Iron Age.,'' xxi., April 11, p. 16. American Sup.," 1991. Spool Hold'er. A case for holding spools of different numbers of thread placed on the thread- holder of a sewing machine. The spools are placed on pivots and the case revolves so that any spool can be drawn from at will. Spool'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for wind- ing silk on to 100, 200 yards, or one-ounce spools, for domestic and manufacturing purposes. See also SILK SPOOLING MACHINE. Fig. 2322 gives a front view Of a spooling machine com- posed of two parts, the portion on the left consisting of eight little duplicate machines arranged in a row, and that on the right, of the apparatus which operates the winding machines. Each of these little machines winds a spool of thread. Hack of these is a trough, containing empty spools, and back of this is a shelf which is intended to hold the bob- bins of thread. From these bobbins threads are passed through a tension apparatus above them, and carried each to its little machine. The machines are held rigidly to- gether by longitudinal rod-", and tlfere are three longitu- dinal shafts or rods passing through the whole set from the machinery at the right-hand end ; the upper one, which we will call the guide-rod, moving back and forth and giving side motion to the thread: the main shaft below and behind, with cog-wheel attachments at each machine for revolving the spools ; and a rod in front which carries a steel finger for SPOOLING MACHINE. 846 SPRAYING MACHINE. Fig. 2322. Spooling Machine. moving the thread, as will be explained presently. The spools are held horizontally and longitudinally in position just buck of the front finger-rod by clamping-pins, like axles, which pass into the holes at the ends and revolve with the spools very rapidly. Just back of each spool is a swinging curved hopper, its upper enil reaching almost to the spool- trough previously mentioned, and its lower end open and curving up just under the position of the revolving spool. All that the attendant has to do is to keep the hoppers filled with empty spools, remove the full spools from the lower troughs as they accumulate, and see that the thread is regu- larly supplied by the bobbins behind. A thread-guide is fastened on the upper sliding or guide- rod at each machine. The thread passes down from the tension apparatus over this guide to the spool. As the spool revolves, the longitudinal motion of the guide-rod back and forth moves the thread to and fro over the spool, which winds it up layer by layer. A measuring-gage is attached to the machine, and just as two hundred yards are wound, the spool ceases to revolve ; a little chisel moves up and nicks its edge ; the sliding-rod in front with its steel finger moves longitudinally and draws the thread over ; a hook passes up and pulls it down tightly into the nick ; another chisel cuts it off, and the spool drop's down into the receptacle provided for it in front. The swing- ing hopper then flies up with an empty spool in its curved lower end, which is taken up by the axle-clamp and starts into revolution. At the same time the thread, the cut end of which has been held down by the apparatus for the pur- pose, is pulled over and started on the new spool, and the operation proceeds as before. The part of a spool on which the thread is wound always has a variable length, increasing as the winding proceeds out- ward from the center. Provision must therefore be made to give this variable motion to the guide-rod carrying the thread- guides. This is effected in its feed at the right end by giving a variable motion to the stops changing its direction There are attached to this guide-rod two segmental nuts which are made to come alternately into contact with a revolving shaft having reverse screws contiguous to each other, one screw working in each half nut, causing the nuts to travel first in one direction and then in the other. These nuts connect with an arm with a forked end, which works on a fulcrum and operates over a pair of stops or jaws, pressing on to them and moving above them for one motion, and below them for the other, two heavy springs operating to produce the pres- sure and change the motion, alternately forcing it down and up, the alternate action of the nuts changing each time in accordance with this motion. By means of a cam and an ar- rangement of toggle-joint the pair of jaws opens gradually as the thread winds, keeping at a certain distance to rorre- . spond to each particular layer, thereby regulating exactly the sliding movement of the guide-rod. When the winding is finished and ready lor another spool, the jaws are sud- denly closed to their smallest dimensions and the operation is repeated. Spool cotton works. Wiilimantic .... * "Scientific American," xli. 361. Spooling machine, cotton. Cobb * "Scientific American," xxxix. 98. Spool Print'ing Ma-chine'. The spools are agitated by reciprocating rods, and guided' through a conduit into a race, from which the forward one is discharged by a flexibly-driven plunger into one of dupli- cate receivers, in which it is held by a reciprocating holder. During this movement the duplicate printing-dies, having- been inked while at rest, move forward, are tipped into hori- zontal position by cams, and, moving against the spool, print its opposite ends in different colors, and, retreating, are raised into vertical position to be inked, while the rear .-pool- holder, rising, liberates its spool, and the receiver, making half a revolution, discharges the rear spool by its contact with a discharge arm, and moves into position to receive another spool, when the former operation is repeated, and the printed spool carried to the rear and the new one received are again printed, the former receiving a new impression in a contrast- ing color. Spool'-shaped Spi'ral Spring. One nar- rower at the waist than at the ends. The opposite- of fift /-shaped. Spoon. (Surgical.) See CURETTE; SCOOP. (Fishing.) An object of glass, metal, mother of pearl, bone, or what-not, armed with a hook and towed abaft a boat, so as to shine while in motion and resemble a small fish. Trawling or trolling. Spray Con-den'ser. (Steam.) The con- denser, Fig. 2323, consists of two chambers, one over the other ; the exhaust steam from the engine is admitted to the upper chamber, and is there condensed by contact with the injection water,. which is brought in at the top, and made to fall on a perforated plate, which produces a rain-like spray. The condensed steam and injection water is drained away by alternately creating and de- stroying a vacuum in the lower chamber. This is accomplished by first opening a valve, and admit- ting a small quantity of steam at a very low pres- sure (1 or 2 Ibs. per square inch), and then opening a valve to admit cold water; these two valves are actuated by tappets geared up to a shaft to produce seven strokes per minute. A steady vacuum of about 28" is obtained with about half the water used in the ordinary jet condenser, and the con- denser will draw its own water from any depth up to 27'. Salt, muddy, or even sandy water may lie used, if pure water cannot be obtained. Spray'ing Ma-chine'. A machine invented by Daughtry to irrigate growing cotton plants- with wet poison to destroy the cotton caterpillar. See ComstocWs "Report upon Cotton Insects," 1879, p. 242, PLATB XLV. SPRINGS. See page 847. SPRAYING MACHINE. 847 SPRING. Fig. 2323. Spray Condenser. Willie's atomizer, Ibid., *p. 243. Johnson's sprayer, Ibid., *p. 245. See also SPRINKLER ; FOUNTAIN PUMP. Spray In'stru-ment. The set of atomizers represented in the cut are arranged for spraying Fig. 2324. Sprayers. the throat. The set consists of three straight tubes of strong glass, seven inches in length, tapering at the distal end to a point with only a small perfora- tion. On the right side of this extremity a second little funnel-like tube is strongly cemented. This is for holding the few drops of the medicament to be used, and may be filled from the bottle or with a pipette. In one instrument the point of the medicine-tube is ex- actly in front of the air-tube ; this is for throwing the spray directly into the throat. In the other two a variation in the direction of the tube gives a corresponding direction to the spray, so that it may be thrown upward with one instrument and downward with the other. A common Davidson syringe or rubber air-bulb may be attached to the proximal end of the long tube for forcing the air through. Both tubes, for an inch from the distal end, are flattened on their under surface, and roughened, and serve the pur- pose of a tongue-depressor. Spray Noz'zle. *For spraying a stream in- stead of delivering it solid. The nozzle shown in Fig. 2325 enables the pipeman to ap- proach and enter a burning building ; and with it the ex- cessive use of water, and unnecessary damage to goods, may be avoided. It consists substantially of a common nozzle, . having a number of small levers pivoted around it Fig. 2325. near the outer end. These levers extend about 2" be- yond the end of the nozzle, and are inclosed in a neat cup or guard, A, completely protecting them from in- jury. They are bent in- wards at a slightly acute angle, resembling the figure 7. The part corre- sponding to the short leg of the figure is wedge-shape, the thin edge being nearest the aperture of the nozzle. The other ends of these lev- ers (below which they are pivoted) are connected with the collar, C, in such a manner that when the col- lar is revolved one-eighth of a revolution to the right, the wedge-shaped parts of half the levers are project- ed into the stream, dividing it up into a number of tri- angular streams. By turn ing the collar c, one-eighth of a revolution further, the remaining four levers are projected into the stream, dividing it up into double the number of streams. These streams 1 , after leaving the nozzle a few feet, be- come a dense mass of flying spray, covering a large sur- face, and extinguishing the fire with wonderful rapid- ity. The illustration shows Spray Xuzzle. very clearly the solid stream, half spread, and full spread. Any intermediate de- gree of spread can be given to the stream, according as the pipeman is near to or remote from the fire. Spread'er. An attachment to the end of a branch-pipe to make it discharge a sheet instead of a jet or solid stream. Spring. Plate XLV. gives a variety of vehicle - springs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. See under the following heads : Back-lash spring. C-spring. Back spring. Bolster spring. Bow spring. Buggy spring. Carriage spring. Car-seat spring. Car spring. Combination spring. Compound spring. Cluster spring. C spring. Dray spring. Half scroll spring, button head. Berlin head elliptic. Bolster spring. True sweep side spring. Platform cross spring. Scroll head side spring, hole out of center Scroll head cross spring, hole in center. Spar spring. Double sweep Concord spring. Seat spring. Straight-end truck spring. Coach platform spring. Cradle spring. Full elliptic button head. Coach platform spring. Half scroll spring, button head. Philadelphia elliptic button head. Yankee-end elliptic. Half scroll spring, with loops. Full elliptic. Full scroll spring. French elliptic French head. Coach platform cross spring. Loop-end truck spring. Single sweep Concord spring. Door spring. Double-coil spring. Draw spring. Edge-rolled spring. Elliptic spring. Equal-bar nest spring. .. Flat bar spiral spring. Graduated spring. Group spring. Gum spring. SPRING. 848 SPRING TESTING MACHINE. Spool-shaped spiral spring. Spring band. Spring beam. Spring block. Spring cap. Spring case. Spring hanger. Spring plank. Spring saddle. Spring seat. Spring shelf. Spring stud. Square-bar spiral spring. Thorough-brace spring. Triple coil spring. Triplet. Triplet spring. Vehicle spring. Volute spring. Wool-packed spiral spring. ' Van Nostr. Mag.," xviii. 519. 'Van Nostrand's Mag.,'' xviii. 391,523. ' Scientific American Sup.," 723. ' Scientific American Sup.,'' 791. Maeslein. Howell. Lathrop. Scientific American Sup.," 1 2256. Scientific American Sup." 757. Half elliptic spring. Half-round-bar spiral spring, Half spring. Ilibbard spring. India-rubber spring. Journal spring. Keg-shaped spiral spring. Multicoil spring. Nest spring. Platform spring. Quadruple coil spring. Quadruplet. Quintuplet. Kound-bar spiral spring. Rubber center spiral spring. Rubber center spring Rubber spring. Seat spring. Shank spring. Single-coil spring. Spiral spring. Spring testing, tie Bonne- viUe * ' Springs, uses and Manuf. * ' de, Eonnevitle Spring motors .... * Spring motor .... Shoemaker. Frahm et al. Doubler. Bacon. f Spring motors for sewing machines * " Spring motors (2 ) . . * " Schumacher. Jones. Spring Band. ( Vehicles.) An iron strap which clasps the plates of an elliptic spring. Spring Bar Clip. A clip for fastening the spring-bar to the spring. Spring Beam. A transverse timber which rests on top of the body-springs of a six-wheeled car-truck. There are two such beams to each truck, on which the bolster-bridges which support the bolster rest. Forney. Spring Block. 1 . A seat secured to the axle to give a larger longitudinal support to the spring. 2. A distance-piece used in some forms of springs. Spring Buffer. A spring device to receive the shock between colliding or impinging objects. Spring Cap. A socket against which the top of a spring works. Spring Case. A box inclosing a spring, as in some forms of car-springs shown on pp. 482, 483, "Mech. Diet." Spring Catch. A Y-shaped spring-piece, the bifurcated parts having their ends turned outward and back, used in raising pipe from drive wells. Spring Com-pres'sor. (Optics.) A means for compressing or squeezing an object whilst un- der examination with the microscope. The glasses under which it is placed are pushed together by a spring and kept apart by a screw. It is made of convenient size for lying on the stage of a micro- scope. Spring Couplings. The shackle joining the transverse and lateral springs in side-bar and plat- form springs in buggies. Spring Hang'er. A loop or clevis which sus- tains a spring beneath an object. Spring Hinge. One in which a spring auto- matically closes the door when opened. Spring Hoe. In the Farmer's Friend Drill, shown in Fig. 2326, the hoe is attached to the drill in the usual way, but is arranged so that the fastening formsj a hinge, and when the hoe strikes any fixed obstruction it flies back and passes over it, when the expansion of a rubber spring that is compressed in the operation brings it back to its proper posi- tion. Spring Hook. (Fishintj.) A supplementary hook, which, when a rish catches the barbed hook, springing down, secures the fish from getting free. Spring Hoe. See Fig. 2000, p. 872, "Mech. Diet:' ; and for list of U. S. Patents, see p. 275, "Report U.S. Fish Com- mission," Part I., 1873. Spring Net. One closed by trigger and spring. Used in catching birds. A flap net. Another kind is used in catching rabbits. Spring Plank. (Railway.) A transverse tim- ber beneath a truck bolster. Spring Sad'dle. A clevis which holds an el- liptic spring, as in some car-trucks where a spring rests upon the journal box. Spring Seat. The support for the lower part of a spring, shaped according to circumstances. Spring Shackle. The couplings used in join- ing the transverse and longitudinal springs in the platform spring system for buggies. Spring Sha'ping Ma-chine'. A device to supersede the method of pinching heated spring leaves or plates into form by means of tongs, con- sists of a solid and flexible former, supported on a bed-plate, and a system of cams, drop lever, and screw for shaping. " Scientific American " xxxvi. 374. Spring Shelf. A ledge or bracket to afford a seat for a spring. Spring Stud. A rod passing through the axis of a coil spring to hold the latter in place. Spring Testing Ma-chine'. Fig. 2327 shows Riehle Bros, machine for testing the elasticity of springs under pressure. The power pump is operated by a pulley and belt. A lug projects from the corner of the lower table or compression surface ; this lug intercepts a pawl that is connected with a valve that controls the flow of the fluid, and when the lower table moves upwards to the desired height, the fluid is di- verted from under the plunger back into the reservoir, thus securing a uniform test. Fig. 2327. Spring Testing. Machine. The upper table bears against weighing levers, and is com- paratively motionless, while the lower table move's upwards and communicates the pressure through the spring to the upper table, and thence to the levers and weights as shown. SPRING VALVE. 849 STADIOMETER. Spring Valve. (Steam.) A spring balance is attached to the valve graduated to any number of pounds desired, and acts as a check on the valve till the indicated pressure is reached. Spring Wash'er. A flat spiral spring is cut into sections of one or more laps, and used as Fig. 2328. Spring Wasker. a washer ; will close up tightly and expand to take up looseness caused by shrinkage of woods or other cause. Sprink'ler. A machine for spraying or irri- gating plants ; notably for destroying insects. See SIMJAVIXG MACHINE ; FOUNTAIN PUMP. Robinson's combined sprinkler and duster for destruction of the cotton worm is shown in Com- stoi-k's "Report upon Cotton Insects," 1879, * p. 252. Sprinkler, automatic fire, Conant, * "Scientific American,'' xxxiv. 114. Sprue Hole. (Founding.) A gate, ingate, or pouring-hole in a mold. Spud. (Surgical.) (a.) A small instrument with an enlargement on the end, used in withdrawing foreign matters from the eyeball and orbit. It is not so pronouncedly hollow as the curette or spoon. (/).) A dermal instrument of the same shape ; used in scarifying. Spuii Glass. (Glass.) Drawn by a workman from a hot bulb, or, on a larger scale by means of a wheel. See GLASS SPINNING, p. 983, " Meek. Diet." In the Austrian section at the Paris Exposition was one of the attractions of the day, viz., the manufacture of toilet articles and stuffs for ladies" wear, made out of spun glass, by Madame Jules de Bruufaut, Vienna. The glass, shown on the counters in large bundles, to all appearance looks like cotton, and is of a remarkable fineness. This glass is spun into threads like ordinary cotton, and is woven into different colored fabrics, sometimes entirely of glass and sometimes with a chain of silk or cotton. The novelty of seeing fancy articles made of spun glass attracted the eye of the visitor. Ladies were particularly astonished at seeing collars, neckties, cords and tassels, fringes, pin-cushions, little caskets, curled feathers, belts, etc., made of glass. A very handsome ladies' buff-colored bonnet, made of spun glass, with the orthodox feather and ribbons, lined with silk, was the center of attraction. A bonnet of this kind can run the risk of a shower without being spoiled ; glass will only look brighter for being washed. The exhibit included a very handsome cloak, made of knitted wool and lined with glass cloth, the threads being woven a certain distance apart and laid at right angles. This made a very pretty and bright lining, offering a pleas- ant contrast with the colored knitted wool. The different articles exhibited were made in various-colored glasses. There was quite a variety of colored and white laces : cloths embroidered with glass ; very thin woven glass cloth, in which now and then a fine thread of gold-colored glass ap- peared, making a very handsome fabric. These goods are easily washed by simply dipping in a bath of water and soda, and brushed with an ordinary soft brush. See SLAG, supra. Fr., colon de verre ; Get., glaswolle. Spur. The far-projecting point on the circum- ferential edge of an auger. It makes the cut, while the lip raises the chip. (Ceramics.) A small piece of refractory clay ware having one or more points, and used to sup- 54 port an article in the seggar while firing in the kiln. Also called a stilt. Fr., colifichet. Sput. A thimble or annular reenforce to a hole in a boiler. Squab Cush'ion. A cushion consisting of a bag filled with curled hair, feathers, or whatnot. Square Tank Coil. A condensing coil of rectangular shape. Squar'ing-off Saw. A circular saw, fitted to a bench with a sliding table, to square the ends of work. . Squar'ing Plow. For squaring paper in book- work. The paper being placed on a table, with a board of required size on top, the paper is held firmly down by a screw having a bearing above. The board is provided near its edge with a groove or track for the plow or knife-carrier to travel in. The knife overhangs the board, and cuts the paper to size of the same. Squar'ing Shears. (Sheet-metal Working.) A machine for squaring up tinned plate. It has scales of inches upon the adjustable table, and similar scales upon the arms that support the back gage, which latter has a rack-and-piuion adjust- ment. The blade and treadle are balanced by an adjustable coun- ter-weight ; the treadle-springs are relieved of the weight of those parts, their only duty being to quicken the return movement of the blade. Page 110, "Bliss's Catalogue," 1881. Another form has two blades set at right angles one with the other, and moving in unison, so that a sheet of tin may with one motion be squared on two sides, or the whole sheet squared in two motions. . There are suitable front gages as well as independent back gages, one for each blade. The gage on one blade can be set to cut a different width from the other, so that part of a sheet of metal can be cut up into a certain width for one article, and the remainder into a different width for another article. Squaring shears, Stiles 4 Parker, * "Scientific Amer.," xl. 82. (Bookbinders.) A curved hand-shear for squar- ing paper and cardboard is pivoted at one side of a table, and is held up by a balance-weight. The operator adjusts the material to be cut, and bears down on the haudle of the shear. A foot treadle presses on the paper alongside of the shear to keep it firm. Squeez'er. In sheet-metal working, a machine for squeezing or crimping, on the tops and bottoms of sheet-metal cans. See illustrations, p. 90 et seq., "Bliss's Catalogue," 1881. A series of compressing walls, to consolidate and clear of cinders the large masses of crude wrought- iron often produced in the process of puddling. Menelaus " Scientific American Sup.,' 1 ' 1 1284. Squeezer, Head, Br. . *" Engineer,'' xliii. 358. Iron, Head .... "Iron Age," xx., July 5, p. 9. Squeezing, puddlers' balls mach., Suckors * "Scientific American Sup.," 1233. Sta-di-om'e-ter. The geographic stadiometer devised by Captain Bellomayee, is designed to show at a single reading the measure of any line, right, curved, or broken, on maps or charts executed on any scale. The toothed wheel shown at the bot- tom is moved over the line and imparts motion to the longitudinal screw. This, in rotating, causes the ascent or descent of the carriage, the straight edge of which serves as an index. Eight scales are used, one of 1-80000 for Prussian, French, and Belgian map? : one of 1-100000 for Prussian, Italian, and Swiss maps ; one of 1-86400 and another of 1-144000 for Aus- trian maps , two respectively of 1-21600 and of 1-424000 for Russian maps ; one of 1-63360 for English maps, and finally a graduation corresponding to the natural metric scale. This last marking by a simple reduction allows of the instrument being used for maps constructed on any other scale than those mentioned. The device is held in the hands like a pencil, aad as the STADIOMETER. 850 STALL. wheel runs over the line it is only nec- essary to read the distance traveled on the proper scale to know the exact length of the line. When the index reaches the top of the screw, the in- strument is turned around and pushed forward as before, the marking being now read from the top downward in- stead of in the reverse direction. It is especially useful in the field for mil- itary operations, as it does not require the entire map to be spread out flat before it can be used. It of course obviates the employment of dividers, and the usual scale of distances printed on charts. Sta'di-um. The leveling rod of a surveyor. See illustration, "Van Nostrand's Mag.," xxi. 141, 142. Stafford-shire Ware. (Ceramics.) Household earth- enware made in Staffordshire, in England, where pottery had been made as far back as the Iloman period. The red ware of the brothers Elers, from the Netherlands, was the begin- ning of the new era for the district. Delft was copied ; then came Wedge- wood, who made the greatest improve- ments due to one man, so far as we know the history of the art. He improved and decorated the old wares ; in 1762 invented the cream or queen's ware (not the modern inven- tion), made of clay and silex with a clear glass glaze. In 1766 he made his black basalt ware. In 1778 he in- vented the fine paste for cameos, re- liefs, and statuettes, which came to be known as jasper ware. The queen's ware' or irpnstone china is perhaps the best known of Staff ord- ghire wares, though many others are made in that country. See STONEWARE. Fig. 2329. Stadia-meter. Fig. 2330. Stage For'ceps. Adjustable clamps for fit- ting on to one side of the stage of a microscope to hold an object for examination. Stage Mi-crom'e-ter. (Optics.) A piece of glass upon which fine lines are en- graved, usually of 1-100 and 1-1000 of an inch or parts of a millimeter. It is placed on the stage of the microscope r Stage Forceps. and used for the measurement of objects. Stain'ing. (Leather.) Applying with a hair brush to the grain side of leather a solution of logwood, sal-soda, and soft water. It gives a dark color to the leather. Stain'ing Met'als. the deposited sulphide of lead, the above colors are produced. To produce an even coloring, the articles must be evenly heated. Iron treated with this solution takes a steel-blue color ; zinc, a brown color ; in the case of copper objects, the first gold color does not appear ; lead and zinc are en- tirely indifferent. If, instead of the acetate of lead, an equal weight of sulphuric acid is added to the hyposulphite of soda, and the process carried on as before, the brass is covered with a very beautiful red, which is followed by a green (which is not in the first scale of colors), and changes finally to a splendid brown with green and red iris glitter. This last is a very durable coating, and may find special attention in the manufactures, especially as some of the others are not very permanent. Very beavitiful marble designs can be produced by using a lead solution, thickened with gum tragacanth on brass which has been heated to 210 Fah., and is afterwards treated by the usual solution of sulphide of lead. The so- lution may be used several times. Stain'ing Wood. Oak may be dyed black, and made to resemble ebony, by the following means : Immerse the wood for 48 hours in a hot saturated solution of alum, and then brush it over with a logwood decoction, as follows : Boil one part of the best logwood with 10 parts of water, filter through linen, and evaporate at a gentle heat until the volume is reduced one-half. To every quart of this add from 10 to 15 .drops of a saturated solution of indigo. After applying this dye to the wood rub the latter with a saturated and filtered solution of verdigris in hot concen- trated acetic acid, and repeat the operation until a black of the desired intensity is obtained. Stains for wood, Slack . "Scientific American Sup.," 1994. Stake. The stanchion, standard, or post placed in a socket on the edge of a gondola or flat car to hold sideboard or freight, as the case may be. Stake Hook. The clevis or iron loop on the edge of a platform car to hold the stake or stan- chion . Stake Net. (Fishing.) A net secured by stakes. In the example, it is hung on stakes about 21' apart in a line at right angles to the shore. This part of the net is known as the bnr-ittit. At from 30' to 40' down stream an- other row of stakes is set, each opposite a stake in the bar- net, and between these stakes a wing-uel is stretched, having several yards of netting more than suffices for the distance. This end is carried round in the form of a triangle and held in position by poles lashed together at their ends. The free end of one pole is secured to the stake, and of the other to the seaming of the wing-net, and thus secured they float at the surface of the stream. The triangular portion of the wing is arranged so as to allow an opening between the end of the hook and the wing through which the salmon enter the triangle. The netting is made of strong gilling-twine, the minimum mesh allowed being 5". The salmon, swimming up the current, come in contact with the bar-net, and turning to pass around it, find them- selves opposed by the wing ; they turn again up-stream, and are pretty certain to enter the hook, the netting of which hang-s slack. In their efforts to escape they become gilled. I Fig. 2331. Metals may be colored quickly and cheaply by forming on their surface a coating of a thin film of sulphide. In five minutes brass articles may be coat- ed with any color, varying from gold to copper-red, then to carmine, dark-red, and from light aniline- blue to a blue-white, like sulphide of lead, and at last a red- dish-white, according to the thickness of the coat, which de- pends on the length of time the metal remains in the solution used. The colors possess a very good luster, and if the arti- cles to be colored have been previously thoroughly cleaned by means of acids and alkalies, they adhere so firmly that they may be operated upon by the polishing steel. To pre- pare the solution, dissolve one-half ounce of hyposulphite of soda in one pound of water, and add one-half ounce of ace- tate of lead dissolved in a half pound of water. When this clear solution is heated to from 190 to 200 Fah., it decom- poses slowly, and precipitates sulphide of lead in brown flakes. If metal be now present, a part of the sulphide of lead is deposited thereon, and, according to the thickness of Staked Gill-net for Salmon on the St. Lawrence. A gill net set in a channel attached to stakes. Such are very common in the Potomac and other Atlantic rivers. Stall. Fig. 2336 shows a stall for transporting horses or cattle on ship or cars. Each horse has his OWD separate box and sling. A shaft runs along above the row of stalls, and on this are loose clutch-pulleys, to which the ropes of the several slings are attached. These pulleys can be clutched with a corre- sponding clutch on the shaft, and any one or all the horses- STAMP. 851 STAMP MILL. swung from the floor at will. The sides of the stall are of stout canvas. Stamp. ( Min- ing.) Machines for crushing ores. The old practice of running high stamp- heads at a low speed and high drop has been changed by Western mill men, who erect heavy stamp-heads working at a high speed with a low drop, claiming that they get better results. The weight of a heavy head m a y be taken at 700 pounds, medium drop of head 10", number of drops per minute for high speed, 90. * " Scientific American Sup.," 1512. Stamp. Bait. * "Min. If Sc. Press," xxxiv. 337, 345. Canceler, electr. , Dow. * "Scientific Arner." xi. as. Tig. 2332. Stall. Canceling "Iron Age," xix., Jan. 25, p. 19. Stamp'er. A machine used in cleaning or filling textile goods. It may have one or more oak tubs about ,'i' in diameter, with fallers or stampers of birch, while the framing is of pine bolted together. The tub is fixed on an iron plate which revolves by gearing, while the stampers are lifted by cams and are released so as to fall in succession on the goods being operated upon. Stamping Ma-chine'. For stamping the soles of boots and shoes with monogram or trade- mark. Stamping Press. A press for stamping or punching sheet metal. Fig. 2333. Stamping Press. In the Stiles & Parker press, see Fig. 2333, the bed of the press is hinged to the A-frame at the front edge. The incli- nation is secured by means of a toothed wheel and a curved rack. The hinge around which the Joed of the press turns when it is inclined is at the front edge of the bed, so that this edge does not change its level nor position when the press is inclined. The adjustment of the slides in the guides is made by a very neat arrangement of a V-shaped liner, put into the guide in such a way that it takes up the wear upon the side where the wear comes. As the diagonal pressure in these presses is, owing to the length of the connecting rod, or pit- man, very slight, the wear is merely nominal. The pressure from the eccentric is transmitted to the slide in the form of compressive strains entire!}', the end of the pit- man bearing in a cup-shaped hollow, the pin merely serving to lift the slide by. The adjustment of the press is secured by a couple of eccentrics, one of which is movable about the other. JBy loosing the clamp screws shown in the top of the pitman, the outer eccentric may be turned so as to obtain any desired throw, after which the screw is set up and the press is ready for operation. This method gives exceeding delicacy of adjustment, and makes the press capable of doing work of the most difficult character. Presses of this kind are capable not only of punching plate iron, but of decorating silver-ware. The two operations are fair examples of the extremes of coarse and fine work, though both require about the same amount of power and equally heavy pressures. Stamping press, Gordon * "Iron Age," 1 xxiii., Feb. 6, p. 9. Stiles Sf Parker ... * "Iron Age, 1 ' xxiv., Sept. 4, p. 1. Bliss 4" Williams . . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 406. Stiles if Parker . . . " Kr.ie.nt(fic American," xxxix. 69. Foot, Ferracute Co. . * "Iron Age," xix., April 26, p. 23. Foot and hand, " Peer- less ' * "Iron Age," xxiv., Aug. 28, p. 1. Stamp Mill. A mill for reducing ores to a comminuted state preparatory to extracting the precious metals by amalgamation. This ore is worked by the Wet amalgamation process. The ore is introduced in an automatic feeder, and is fed un- der the stamps as required. It is stamped fine enough to discharge through a screen containing 120 holes to the square inch. Water is turned in the battery at the same time the ore is fed in, and the splash as the stamps drop causes it to discharge, and the water car- ries the crushed ore with it to the tanks, where it settles. The battery consists of 5 stamps of 775 Ibs. each ; they are raised by cams on a revolving shaft, and drop 8", at the rate of 95 drops per minute. The shoes and dies are of cast steel, and weigh 120 Ibs. each. The mortar in which the stamps work is made of cast iron, and weighs 4,400 Ibs. The crushed ore is taken from the tanks, put in the grind- ing and amalgamating pan, heated by steam, in order to soften the sand, and assist amalgamation. It is ground here for three hours ; the grinding muller revolving at the rate of 90 revolutions per minute. The mercury introduced and amalgamated for two hours more. The mass is then drawn off into the settler below, water turned in to cool it, and is stirred by the revolving shoes for two hours and a half, bringing all the particles of mercury together in a mass at the bottom. With the bottom is connected an inverted si- phon-pipe, that conducts the mass of mercury containing the amalgam into an iron bowl ; from there it is strained through a canvas sack, the mercury going through, and the amalgam containing the gold and silver remaining in the sack. It is then in a condition to be handled, and contains about four fifths of its weight in mercury. It is then put in dishes in an iron retort, placed in the furnace with the pipe at the end to conduct the mercury out. Fire is made in the furnace, and the heat drives off all the mercury, which is condensed and used over again. The bullion is left in the retort, and when taken out is ready to go to the mint for melting. Ball's patent steam stamping machinery for stamping ores and minerals (see Fig. 2334), is a direct acting vertical stamp mill having a common steam cylinder and slide valve at the top, and the piston rod extended into the stamp stem which works in a cast-iron mortar supported on spring timbers rest- ing on cast-iron sills. The lower portion of the mortar is circular in form, the upper portion being oblong, with a flat top and vertical sides ; on the front and back sides are inclined openings for receiv- ing the screens. The mortar is cast in one piece, and is lined throughout with hard iron linings. There are two feed-hop- pers bolted to the top of the mortar, through which the ore is fed to the mortar. There is also a water urn arranged about a circular open- ing in the center of the top of the mortar, through which the water is conducted to the mortar. The stamp shaft or stem works through two boxes which are attached to an iron frame that is bolted to the two up- right posts that form the main framework of the'machine. Between the boxes and about the stamp-shaft is a revolv- ing clamp and pulley, having feathers which work in splines in the stamp-shaft ; and, by means of a belt on the pulley, a rotary motion is given to the stamp-shaft during its upward and downward motion. The piston rod passes from the steam cylinder downward through the center of the bunter beam, and into the stamp- STAMP MILL. 852 STAPLE DRIVER. Fig. 2334. Stamp Mill. shaft bonnet in which the connection to the stamp-shaft is made. The bunter beam contains a cushion against which the top of the stamp-shaft bonnet would strike, should the Stamp-shaft lift too high. The slide-valve works independent of the stamp-shaft, run- ning a regular number of strokes per minute, and is driven by an eccentric on a shaft, which receives its motion from a countershaft ; the two shafts being geared together with two Stamp mill, " Elephant ;> * Kendall * For silver ores (80- stamp), Peru ... * Rotary, Taylor ... * Stamp mills, Cal. ... * Cam for mill stamps. Cochrane . . . . . * Cam for stamp mills. Moore $ Dykes ... * Cams for stamp-mills : consideration of single and double arms . . * 'Min. 4" Sr. Press,'' xxxvii. 81. 'Min. # Sc. Press," xxxvii. 112. 'Engineering," xxviii. 359. 'Win. ff Sc. Press," 1 xxxvi. 193. 'Engineering,' 1 '' xxx. 19, 85, 163, 254, 338. 'Min. # Sc. Press," xxxv. 81. 'Scientific American,'' xlii. 169. ' Mining Journal." 'Scientific American Sup.,'-' 1512. Stamp Mu'cil-age. The following is said to he the formula for the mucilage used on the United States postage stamps : Dextrine, 2 oz. ; acetic acid, 1 oz. ; water, f> oz. ; alcohol, 1 oz. Add the alcohol to the other ingredients, when the dextrine is completely dissolved. Stamping mill. Ball . . * "Eng. 4" Min. Jour.," xxii. 359. Rotating, Fis/ier, Br. * "Engineering," xxx.- 371. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 4135. Stand. 1. For holding materials for drawing or painting. The Washburn stand, maunfactured at Worcester, Mass., can be fixed at any required height, so that one can use it either sitting or stand- ing ; and by turning back the screw at the right, it is allowed to rotate, bringing either side in front. The shelf or ledge for instruments is attached to the buck side of the table, so that it is always level, whatever inclination is given to the desk ; conven- ient for the water-cups, ink-stands, etc. Fig. 2335 Fig. 2335. Wasliburn Stand. shows the table fixed at a slight inclination, the dotted lines showing it horizontal at A or vertical at B. When the table is nearly vertical the whole occupies but little space, and forms a perfect easel. When used for this purpose an attachment is fur- nished for holding the picture, and the adjustments are so simple that a mere touch is sufficient to effect an entire change in the light which falls upon the work. Under the instrument shelf are provided two drawers for working materials. The table and drawers are made of black walnut or other appropriate wood, nicely finished. 2. (Microscopy.) The framework of a microscope, usually implying all save the object glasses and the accessory apparatus. Stand'ard Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.') One to be used as a standard, having a perfectly constant electro-motive force. Such an one is Latimer Clark's battery, described in " Pkil. Trans. Royal Society," 1 June 19, 1875. JViaudet, American translation, 148. Stand'ard Gage. (Railroad.) " Standard gage " means 4' 8" between centers of rails. Stand Pipe. "A vertical pipe in which a col- umn of water is made to rise to give sufficient head for forcing the water to elevated portions of the circuit. Ses " Mech. Diet.," p. 2308. Stand-pipe. Blooming- ton, 111 * "Scientific American Slip.,'' 164. * "'En i: in n r." \\\. 51. Centennial .... * ''Scientific American Sup.," 233. Sandusky .... * "Scientific American Sup.," 1746. Stand Pipe Fire Ap'pa-ra'tus. A port- able stand-pipe for obtaining a higher head of wa- ter at fires. One section of a pipe is attached per- manently to trunnions ; other sections are carried in a side rack and attached at the fire. The pipe, 50' long or more, is raised by means of a wheel after coupling the hose. The lower end is attached to the water supply. Less power is required at the engine to raise the water. Staph'y-lor'a-phic Ap-pli'ance. Dr. Gum- inlngs' appliances for congenital ^left palate, * Dr. J. H. Thompson's report in "Centennial Ex- Jii/u'lion Reports," vol. vii., Group XXIV., p. 28. Sta'ple Dri'ver. An instrument for driving the staples in window-blinds. The one shown in Fig. 2336 feeds the blind the proper distance, sup- plies the staple, and drives it either in the rod or slat as desired. STAPLE FASTENER. 853 STAVE EQUALIZER. Fig. 2336. Staple Driver. Sta'ple Fas'ten-er. A spring punch for driv- ing and clinching a staple against an anvil block beneath. Star Feed. A star-shaped device for improvis- ing a feed motion to a slide-rest or to a tool-hold- in g device not actuated by the self-acting feed mo- tion of a lathe or machine. Upon the outer end of the feed screw of the slide-rest a star-shaped plate is fastened. For a slide-rest feed a pin is fastened to the lathe face-plate in such position that it will strike one of the star wings at each revolution. For a revolving boring bar the pin is stationary and the star revolves with the feed screw of the bar. Start'ing Valve. The starting valve, shown in Fig. 2337, is operated by a lever ; its stem is at- tached to the valve with a lost motion, Fife- 2! and has a small valve in the center of a larger valve. Pressure of the boiler is on top of the valves. Rais- ing the lever and drawing up the valves, the small valve will leave its seat and rise until a check nut has brought up against d. This Starting Valve. resistance can be distinctly felt, and indicates when the small valve only is open. Through this small valve enough steam will pass to start the jet. A further motion of the lever then raises the large valve, and the pressure, acting on the steam, forces it wide open and holds it in this position. Star Tor-pe'do. A movable chamber or mine charged with an explosive that is fired by contact or by fuse. The star torpedo has a single plati- num fuse and battery and one set of wires, and can be fired either on contact or at will as desired. There are two wires leading from the opposite poles of the battery to a contact maker on the nose of the torpedo, by which contact is made between the wires whenever the torpedo is touched by the vessel attacked, and the current thus being free to pass through the fuse, the torpedo is thereby exploded. Torpedo, J\IcEi-oy, Br. . *" Engineer," xliii. 340. Stath'mo-graph. An instrument invented by Dato, of Cassel, for recording the velocity of rail- way trains. " English Mechanic'' 1 xxv. 229. Sta'tion-a-ry Bed Pla'ner. The bed is stationary, and the stuff is fed by feed-rollers. The bed has sliding rollers, flush or a little above its face. Sta'tion Iii'di-ca'tor. An indicator opera- ting in connection with the driving-wheels to ex- hibit automatically the name of the station or street immediately preparatory to arrival. Sta'tion Me'ter. (Gas.) A meter of the largest class for measuring the flow of gas at the works; made from 30" wide and SO" long, to 15' X 15', of a capacity from 15, 000 cubic feet to 2,000,000, per 24 hours. The smaller are in one cylinder and the larger in two sections. They are made with water-line, pressure, and overflow gages, and register clock and tell-tale attachments. The tell-tale tells at a glance any irregularity of manufacture during the 24 hours, the cards being attached and removed daily. Stave Dress'ing Ma-chine'. This machine has a rotary cutter-head and revolving bed with continuous motion. The stave is placed on the bed and carried forward in a di- rect line to the rollers, which are straight, convexed, or con- caved, to fit the shape of the stave. Sta'tic E'lec-tri'ci-ty. tricity at rest. (Electricity. ) Elec- Holmes's Machine for Dressing Sawed Staves. The rotary head cutters are so made as to smooth and fin- ish the stave, perfect its shape, and give it uniform thickness. The form may be changed at pleasure and may be made to operate upon one or both sides of the stave. Revolving cutters are used for dressing staves of all thicknesses ; dressing both sides of the staves at the same time without cutting the wood across the grain, that is, leaving the staves winding and crooked as they were rived from the block. This is accomplished by allowing the frame, which supports the cutters, to "oscillate or rock in all directions, by which the cutters adapt themselves to the crooks and winds of the stave, the stave having control of the cutter frame. It dresses rived and sawed staves of different lengths and curves, for making kegs, barrels, and hogsheads, and dresses crooked and winding stock to a uniform thickness, leaving it concave and convex as required. Stave dresser, barrel. Holmes * "Engineer,'" xli. 431. Jointer, Holmes "Engineer," xli. 431. Jointing machine, Br. Richards * "Engineering," xxiii. 139. Saw, Ransome * "Engineering," xxi. 452. Shaper & bender. Ashey, Fr * "Engineer,- xlvii. 255. Stave E'qual-i-zer. In Holmes's equalizer, Fig. 2339, the feed is continuous, the staves being simply laid upon the reel, which passes them be- tween the saws and delivers them on to the stave con- veyer, which carries them where they are needed. STAVE MACHINERY. 854 STEAM BOILER. Fig. 23S9. Barrel Stave Equalizer and Conveyer. Stave Ma-chin'e-ry. See list under BARREL MACHINERY. Stay End. The end of a back-stay in a car- riage. Stay-ends are sold separately as pieces of carriage hardware, the lengthening rod being added by the blacksmith. The ends of the stay are bolted or clipped to the perch and hind axle respectively. Stay End Tie. The rod which connects the stay-end on the reach with the one on the axle. Stay Rod. A rod which connects two objects to prevent displacement of one or both. Stead'y Rest. For centering a cylindrical piece in a lathe, slotted pieces are adjustable length- wise to accommodate the size and position of the" shaft. Fig. 2340. Steady Rest. Steadying tools, lathe work, * "Scientific American," xl. 100. Steam. For appliances, machinery, and uses, see the following references : Steam building crane . Florio, Palermo . . * "Engineer," xlvi. 369. Brake, continuous. Kendal, Br. . . . * "Engineer," xlviii. 272. Canoe. Roper, 14' X 17" X 12" "Scientific American," xl. 261. Car, Ransomes, Engl. * "Scientific American," 1 xli. 50. Clyde, " Lord of the Isles" * "Scientific American Sup.,"' 1525. On common roads . . "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 96. Steam crane, Appleby, Engl * Thurston's " Vienna Rept.,"iii. 335. Caillard,r. . . . * ".Knaiin-friii-;," xxvii. 123. 60-ton, St. Petersburg * "Engineering,''' xxv. 64. Locomo. , Janson, Br. * "Engineer,'' xlix. 160. Portable, Brown Bros., Eng * Brown, Br * Burrow, Engl. 4 . * Steam digging-engine. Darby, Br . . . . * Escape, quieter . . In factories ....'' Ferry, "Iron," Eger- ton, Eng. Channel . Ferry steamer, light draft. l),niiy, Ur. . * Fire-engine boiler. La I'runi'f * Fittings factory . . * Fitting, piping a build- ing * For common roads (Wisconsin law). Generator, Franks . * Ward * Goode * Herreshoff .... * Horse for street R. R. * Steam and hydraulic press, direct acting. TweclcleU, Br. . . * Steaming app. for print- ed textiles, French . * Steam, light draft, Yar- row If Co.. Br. . . * Steam launch gager . . * Outtriilge . . . . * Engine, Se/fe, Sydney * Pressure gage, Edson * Stewart, Br * I)ewrance,Rr. . . . * Indicator, Darke . . * Regulator for portable engines, Stannah, Br. * Road wagon .... Scoop-excavator. Fowler, Br. . . . * Stop valve. Cormack, Br. . . . * Towage, Illinois canal * Water in, measurement of, Guzzi . . . . * Whistle signaling inst. Yacht " Livadia,'' Rus. * Stearing gear. Lafargue, Br. "Scientific American Sup.," 932. " Knxiii'-ir," xlii. 4i8. "*i-it ntific American Sup.,'' 3879. "Engineer," xlvi. 43. See QUIETING CHAMBER. "Iron Age,'' xxv., Jan. 1, p. 1 ; Jan. 8, p. 1. ' Vim Xostrand's Mag.," xiv. 284 : xv. 92. "Engineering," xxviii. 377. "Scientific American," xlii. 404. "Scientific American," xliii. 367. "Scientific American" xli. 355. "Scientific American," 1 xxxiv.64. "Scientific American," xliii. 115. "Scientific American," xli. 323. Am. Man.," Feb. 28, 1879, p. 6. Engineering," xxvii. 122. 'Scientific American,'' xxxiv. 51. 'Engineering," xxv. 92. 'Scientific American Sup.," 2274. 'Engineering," xxiii. 45. 'Engineer," xlix. 121. 'Engineer," xlix. 439. 'Engineering," xxi. 129. '^wi. B. R. Journal," li. 288. 'Engineering," xxvii. 37. 'Engineering," xxvii 100. 'Engineering," xxix. 241 'Engineer," xlix. 421. 'Scientific Amer.,"' xxxix. 208. 'Engineer," xlvii. 475. 'Engineering," xxv. 221. 'Eng. 4" Mm. Jour.," 1 xxiii. 109. ' Scientific American Sup." 1807. ' Telegraphic Journal " iv. 178. Si-i, utific American Sup.," 3866. 'Engineer," 1. 24. 45, 48. * "Engineer," xlvi. 71, 83. Steam'boat. For sketch of the progress and history of .steamboat building, see "Mech. Diet.," pp. 2321-2326. Steamboat, Symington Engine *" Scientific American Sup.," "ill. Engines, early Amer. * "Engineering," xxviii. 327. " Clermont." " Chancellor Livingston." Engine, light draft. Wilson f' Co., Engl. * Early history . . . Fulton. " Grand Republic " . On Mississippi, first . First voyage of Fulton's For shallow water. " Silva Americano " * Towing, Ohio river " J. B. Williams," . * Speed, Engl. . . . Steamboats, Fulton's letter Small, Firth .... Unsinkable. Thompson, Engl. . * " Scientific American Sup.," 1220. "Iron Age," xix., June 7, p. 5. Bell. "Scientific American Sup.," 1921. "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 20, 68. "Iron Age," xxii , July 4, p. 3. "Scientific American Sup.," 1486. "Engineer," xli. 416, 420,428,434. "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 193. " Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 38S. "Scientific Amer. " xxxix. 325. " Scientific American ," xxxix. 18 Steam Boiler. A vessel in which water is converted into steam, to be used as a power, a me- dium, and for other purposes. For early forms of steam generators and the adaptation of steam to mechanical and other uses, see " Mech. Diet." Of boilers of later construction, and unnoticed in the orig- inal volumes of the l; Mechanical Dictionary," we have i he " Corliss,'' an upright tubular boiler, with a cylindrical shell. The " Exeter " has a series of sections, each a boiler in it- STEAM BOILER. 855 STEAM BOILER. self, rectangular in form. Each section has twelve openings, and is practically a series of connected boxes. In the " Kelly " (see Fig. 2341) sectional safety boiler, the front chamber of each section is vertical, and the tubes are inclined over the fire at an angle of about one to eight. In Fig. 2341. ftffain Boiler. ach tube there is a partition with diaphragm, and the wa- ter-line of the boiler is above all the water tubes, but below a horizontal tube for the superheating of the steam. The Fig. 2342. Rogers if Blade's Boiler. theory of the circulation of the water is that the lower por- tion of the tube will be the most highly heated, and so gen- erate the most steam, which, being intercepted by the par- tition plate and prevented from rising to the upper part of the tube, passes along the lower side of the partition to the front chamber and thence to the dome. " Lowe's '" tubular boiler has a cylindrical shell and hori- zontal tubes, like those of a locomotive boiler, through which the heated air and gases pass. Thence the hot air is carried round and under the boiler in front. The " Howard'' sectional safety boiler has tubes inclined from front to rear, with wrought iron steam drum. " Root's " sectional boiler has an automatic feed regulator regulating the supply of water to the boiler by admitting steam from the boiler into the regulator when the water falls below a certain level. The"Babcock& Wilcox,"is a sectional tubular boiler with horizontal steam and water drum. The tubes are staggered. The end connections are each cast in one piece of steel, and connected with the steam and mud drums by short tubes expanded into bored holes, doing away with bolt connec- tions. The " Firmenich," is an upright tubular boiler. The base is two large mud drums, one on each side, but two feet be- low the fire grate. From these rise obliquely over the fire, stacks of wrought iron water tubes that end in two water and steam drums, which are connected with a steam drum in the center, forming the crown of this pyramidal structure. The '' Pierce " boiler is a cylindrical, tubular boiler. The outer row of tubes are nearly surrounded by buckets that keep them submerged in water, and also drench the inner surface of the boiler shell above the water line. The " Anderson '' ; each section of this boiler has two front manifolds, and a rear one connected, by horizontal sets of tubes. The sections are united to each other by nipples, and the sets of sections by a central column, to the top of which is attached the steam dome. The "Rogers & Black " (see Fig. 2342), is a cylindrical boiler with tubes outside for heating and circulation. Fig. 2343. Heed's Boiler, STEAM BOILER. 856 STEAM BOILER CLEANER. The " Reed " (see Fig. 2343) is a corrugated sectional boiler. The sections are of cast iron, being three corrugated pipes, joined at the bottom, top, and at the water-line. The "Sectional Ring Boiler" (see Fig. 2344) is a cylin- drical manifold boiler of unique arrangement. The il Lynde '' generates its steam in tubes that return ever the fire seven times, and has a large steam drum. It has an eclipse injector, acme governor, and stop-valve, and Lynde's low-water alarm. Fig. 2344. Sectional Ring Boiler. The " Eclipse " is adapted to either heavy or light service. The castings are of charcoal iron and the tubes lap-welded. All the parts being iron to iron, no calking or packing is re- quired. A large steam drum is attached to the boiler. In the " McLauthlin " the two heads are stayed by verti- cal braces, and the smoke bonnet has its aperture over the center of the boiler. The feed-pipe extends across the boiler inside far above the tube-sheet, and is perforated so as to secure extended distribution of the feed- water in mi- nute jets pofnting upward. Steam boiler anil super- heat, steamer " Ban- Righ," Br. * "Engineering,'' xxii. 48. Steam boiler. * " Man. if Builder,-' ix. 100 ; xi. 78. Sabcock (f'Wilcox . . * "Eng. If Min. Jour." xxv. 358. Belleville BoilerCo.,fr. * "Engineering," xxv. 341, 358. Connolly * "Am. Man.,'" Jan. 16, 1879, p. 13. Cooper, Br * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1047. Comp. Twis-Lille, Fr. * "Engineering,'' xxvi. 251. Haywood, Tyler If ~ Co., Br * "Engineering," xxvi. 254. Daly * "Scientific American,'' xl. 342. Davies, Br * "Engineering,''' xxi. 176. "Elephant,"' Hall, Br. * "Engineer," xlvi. 135. " Eclipse "....* "Am. Man.," 1 May 9, 1879, p. 13. Firmenich . . . . * "Am. Man.," 1 May 2, 1879, p. 16. Firmenich . . . . * "Iron Age," xxi., June 6, p. 44. * "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 398. Hind * "Scientific American," xl. 358. Lawson * "Scientific American,'' xliii. 4. Meunier, Fr. ... * "Engineering" xxv. 493. Ogle Sf Burnett ... * " Scientific American,' 1 ' xlii. 178. Root * "Engineer,'" 1 xli. 351. "Rover, ' Br. ... * "Engineering, 1 * xxi. 245. Thomas- Lanrens, Fr. * "Scientific, American," xl. 66. Smeaton (1765) . . * "Engineer,'' xlvii. 459. Circula,., Chambers, Br. * "Engineer,'- xli. 226. Experi., Franklin Inst. "Manufact. i; Builder," xii. 274. Exp., Manchester, Br. * "Engineering," 1 xxi. 236. Furnace, " Economy." Smith * "Iron Age," xx., July 19, p. 1. Lancashire, Livet, Br. * " Engineer, " xlix. 387. Steam boilers, priming of. Major *" Scientific American Sup.,-' 1299. Steam boiler, sectional, Tests, Howard . . . * " Van No strand's Mag.," xiv. 166. Kelly * "Engineer,-' xlii. 198-206. Anderson, * Firmenich, * Babcock $ Wilcox, * Harrison, * "Exeter."* Reed.* Tubular. Babcock 4" Wilcox . * ' With Ten- Brink's grate. E^her, Wyse Sf Co. Swit.i * ' High pro: lire, Hairks- ley, Welch if Co.,Br. * ' Lancashire . . . . ' Galloway . . . . * ' Exeter machine works * ' Expe., Manchester, Br. * ' " Elephant," Engl. . * ' feed water heater. Iron dad Man. Co. * 1 Scientific American Sup.,-' 483. Engineer," 1 xlvi. 5. Engineering," xxvi. 519. VanNostranc/'s Mag." xv. 210. Scientific American Sup.,'' 449. Scientific American Sup.," 738. 'Scientific American Sup.," 2302. 'Manufact. If Builder," ix. 265. Feeder, Bergstrom House of Corliss en- gine, Centennial Marine vertical, S. S. " Vera Cruz "... Reversible, Vail . Sectional, Root . Davies, Br Staffordshire, Br. . . Setting, for plantation sugar houses, Cort With Ten-brink fire- grate, Switz. . . . Test, Manchester, Engl. *' Vertical, Barron, Br. . * Allison, Br * Allison * Scientific American," xlii. 386. Scientific American Sup.,'' 213. 'Engineer," xlii. 273, 276. 'Scientific American Sup.," 57. 'Engineering," xxx. 266. 'Engineering," xxiv. 122, 127. 'Engineer, 1. 327. ' Scientific Amer.," xxxviii 388. 'Engineering,'' xxvii. 437 'Scientific Amer. Sup.," 1170 'Engineer," xlii. 321. ' fitigi iieerin ' " xxiv. 126. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 194. Steam boiler. See VERTICAL STEAM BOILER. Steam Boilers, Mulhaise. * "Scientific Amer. Sup.,'' 1202. Philadelphia, 1800 . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 708. II a v e m e y e r sugar- works *" Scientific Amer. Sup.," 1215. Crown Point, N. Y. . * "Engineering," xxv. 217. At Centennial. . . . * "Scientific. American Sup.," 703 Philadelphia. 1876. . . "Engineering,'" xxii. 74. Black 4' Rogers. Firmenich. * Harrison. * Li/nde. W. D. Andrews Wieganrl. Co. Tubulous, Babcock- WiUox * "Manufact. If Builder," xii. 127. Forced circulation (7 Figs.) * "Engineer," xlvii. 219. Society Alsaciennes Mulhouse .... * "Engineering," xxi. 4, 21, 56. Centennial .... * "Scientific American Sup.," 214. At Centennial, tests . " Scientific American Sup.," 1409. For water-works . . * "Iron Age," xxv., Feb. 5, p. 1. Lonsdale, Br. . . . * "Engineering," xxii. 481. Mechanical firing, which see. Perkins * "Scientific American Sup.," 1282. Philadelphia, 1876 . * "Engineering," xxii. 103. Babcock If Wilcox. * Exeter Machine Works. Kelly. SS. " City of San Fran- cisco," Roach . . * "Engineering," xxiii. 268. Relation of grate sur- face and heating sur- face * "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 224. And engines, high pres- sure, on, Perkins . " Van Nostr. May.," xvii. 143. Report of judges of Group XX., "Centennial Exhibition, Reports," 1 vol. vi., includes the following: Hoadley, (portable) p. 155 * Wiegand p. 141, * 159 Harrison p. 141, * 160 Firmenich p. 141, * 161 Rogers & Black p. 142, * 162 Andrews p. 142, * 163 Root p. 142, * 164 Kelly p. 143, * 165 "Exeter" p. 143, * 166 Lowe p. 143, * 167 Babcock & Wilcox p. 144, * 168 Smith p. 144, * 169 Galloway p. 144, * 170 Anderson p. 144, * 171 Pierce p. 145, * 172 Steam boiler, horizontal, Galloivay, Gt. Br. . Sect., Howard, Gt. Br. Adamson, Gt. Br. . . Vertical, Davey-Pax- man, Gt. Br. . Sectional, Belleville, Fr Two upright shells. Meyer, Ger. . . . Ehrharrtt, Ger. . . . Julius Bergman, Ger. Tubular, Paucksch If Freund, Ger. . . . Sigl., Austria . . . Bolzano, Tedesco if Co., Austria . . . * Thurston's" Vienna Rept.,"ii. 110. * Thurston's" Vienna Rept.," ii. 125. * Thurston's " Vienna Rtpt.," ii. 127. * Thurston's " Vienna Rept.." ii. 127. .* Thurston's " Vienna Rept.," ii. 131. * Thurston's " Vienna Rept.," ii.130. * Thurston's " Vienna. Kept.,'' ii. 132. * Thurston's " Vienna Rept.,'' ii. 132. * Thurston's " Vienna Rept.," ii. 133. * Thurston's " Vienna Rept.," ii. 133. * Thurston's " Vienna Rept.," ii. 133. Steam Boil'er Clean'er. The Hotchkiss boiler cleaner is composed of five principal parts : the reservoir, funnel, up-flow pipe, return pipe, and blow-off pipe ; automatic iu its action. STEAM BOILER CLEANER. 857 STEAM ENGINE. The funnel is partly sub- merged in such position that its opening intercepts the current of hot water flowing towards it. By the action of gravity in water of varying tempera- tures aided by the pressure on the surface, the hot surface water that enters the funnel flows into the reservoir through the up-flow pipe, displacing constantly an equal quantity of the cooler water therein, which flows back to the boiler. Purves' automatic boiler cleaner draws impurities from the surface of the water through an automatic skim- mer, from which they are passed on into the top cham- ber, which is constructed with deflecting plates, causing the impurities to fall into the lower chamber, while the pure water passes through a pipe into the lower part of the boiler. Steam Boil'er Feed'er. Prntt's boiler feeder is also a return steam trap with an automatic de- vice, that drains the water of condensation from heating coils, and returns the same to the hoiliTs, thus doing away with pumps or other mechanical de- vices for such purpose. Steam Boil'er Feed'-wa'ter Heat'er. Strong's feed-water heater and filter is a device that in connection between the feed- water and the boiler raises the temperature of the water and cleanses it of imparities. Steam Boil'er Fur'nace. The heating cham- ber that is generally placed beneath or inside of a steam boiler. There are various plans of construc- tion in accordance with the description of fuel to be used, the consumption of the gas escaping there- from, the plan of the boiler with which it is con- nected, etc. It is claimed that the fuel of the future will in a great measure be gas, generated by the furnace that then utilizes it not only in the generation of steam, but also in the pro- duction of a future supply of gas itself. The great advance made in the manufacture of sjeel is due in a great measure to the use of hot air, and to-day steel is manufactured cheaper than iron in the Siemens' gas regen- erative furnace. In the old style iron furnaces only a small per cent, of the power of coal was realized. The giant power was unbound, let loose, and after doing but a small percentage of the work it was capable of performing, escaped for parts unknown. It is claimed that the Siemens' system has so improved the combustion of fuel that it now realizes 20 per cent, of the units of heat contained in coal, a saving of 40 or 50 per cent. in fuel over the old way. In this furnace cojil is burned in a retort, and the smoke and gases (carbonic oxide) are carried up a large vertical tube from 12' to 15', after which it pro- ceeds horizontally any required distance, and then descends to the heat regenerator, through which it passes before enter- ing the furnaces. Two generators are used on each side, the ending through one, while pure atmospheric air in- tensely heated by its passage through the regenerator, as- ci-nd-i through the neighboring passage, and both are con- ducted through passage outlets, at one end of the furnace, wheiv mingling they burn, producing the heat due to their chemical action. Smith's smoke-consuming furnace (see "Me.c/i. Diet.," p. 2330) has a further improvement in its adjustable arrange- ment ; the grate being elevated or depressed, so as to increase or diminish the distance between the fire and the bottom of the boiler at pleasure. The grate consists of a series of bars, supported by a frame that rests upon a standard which slides in a hollow post, that is slotted on one side to admit the end of a lever which sets into a recess in the standard, and elevates or depre.-ses the same. The lever is pivoted in the upper end of another standard, forming a fulcrum, and is provided with a handle by means of which it is operated. The lever has an attach- ment by which it can be fastened to hold the grate in any fixed position. There are columns or heaters on the sides of the boiler that take the place of the brick walls, and being ahvnvs filled with water get the benefit of the heat that would have been absorbed by the brick walls. The bridge wall is hollow and always filled with water and is connected with the main boiler. Fig. 2345. Steam Boiler Furnace. The Jarvis furnace, Fig. 2345, has a unique feature in its setting whereby air is admitted by small flues in the front, and then conducted through a number of horizontal expand- ing ducts, in which it traverses forward and backward, until finally in a heated state it enters by the furnace bridge wall and other places, uniting with the products of combustion and causing consumption of the gases. By the arrangement of this furnace it is claimed that all kinds of cheap fuel can be used without a blower. Seeing that it is generally ad- mitted that perfect combustion of fuel does not take place till the gases are fully generated, it follows that gas fuel is one of our first necessities. To get this it requires in the fuel about 40 per cent, of moisture to generate hydrogen, and then utilize the gas with hot air (oxygen), thus giving a hy- dro-oxygen or compound blow-pipe flame. In carrying out the idea of the necessity of hydrogen, a wet screening mixture is used in the Jarvis furnace to produce a gas flame. Steam Cap'stan. (Nautical.) A capstan in- tended for use on steamboats, operated through its connections with the steam power on board, Steam Car'riage. A form of carriage like the ordinary road carnage, but having steam motive power. Steam carriage, Lauck Steam carriages . . "Scientific American,-' xxxvi. 57. "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 383. 'Engineer," 1.477. "Engineering," xxix. 63. "Engineer,'' xliii. 341. 'Engineer," xliii. 182. xxviii. 129. tg 'Engineerin Steam Carv'ing Ta'ble. A table heated by- steam for keeping fowl, fish, or meat warm, previ- ous to and during the process of carving. Steam Crane. Steam crane, portable. Grieve * Russell, Br * Radiating, Coorle, Br. . . * Traveling, Smith, Br. . . * With self-acting bucket. Priestman, Br. . . . * ' Steam-cutter engines and boilers, Washington navy yard * Steam cultivator, Barfonl . * Sf Perkins, Br * Steam cutter engine, U. S. Loring * Steam Dry'ing Ap'pa-ra'tus. Drying rooms and houses for seasoning timber, drying pur- poses in laundries, etc., through the radiating heat engendered by coils of steam pipes. Steam En'gine. The first steam engine, the ^olipile of Hero, 150 B. c., is described in "Mech. Diet.," p. 2334, and the subsequent attempts to utilize this powerful agent. The Westinghouse engine (see Fig. 2346) has the cylinders cast in one piece with the valve chamber, and bolted to the top of the bed-case. The cylinder heads cover the upper ends of the cylinders only, the lower ends being uncovered and opening directly into the chamber of the bed or crank- case. The pistons are of the trunk form, double walled at " Engineering," xxi. 508. "Engineer," xlvi. 19. "Engineering," xxx. 77. 'Engineering," xxii. 76. STEAM ENGINE. 858 STEAM ENGINE. uncovered by the piston just before the completion of the ! the folio wing figures : Year. No. of Locomotives. No. of Station- ary Engines. Horse Power. Ocean Steam- ers. Tonnage. United States .... Great Britain .... 1873 1872 1871 1873 1873 1869 1869 1872 1872 1872 1870 1868 1870 1872 1865 1871 14,223 10,933 5,927 2,684 2,369 506 4,933 1,323 1,172 331 371 225 212 185 39 34 40,191 40,000 27,141 1,215,711 936.405 325,507 3.061 403 225 2,624,431 483,040 171,039 Austria .... East Indies .... Italy . . ... Holland Switzerland .... Egypt Sweden Total 45,467 = 10,000,000 h.p. Report of Chas. E. Emery, " Centennial Exhibition Re- ports," 1 vol. vi., Group XX., p. 97, et seg., includes Corliss, beam * p. 97 Wheelock, horizontal . . . * p. 101 " Buckeye, " horizontal * p. 104 Launch, vertical * p. 107 Dudgeon, rotary * p. 108 Thompson, indicator * p. 112 Edson, recording gage * p. 113 Steam engine, Tyson . * Corliss * " Corliss "....* De Cans Ericsson's contribu. to Harris- Corliss ... * Head " Prime mover " * " Little Giant," Snyder * Maxim . . * 'Am. Man.,'' Aug. 1, 1879, p. 8. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxiv 351. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 561. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 208. ' Scientific American Sup.," 105. 1 Scientific American,'' xxxv. 95. 'Engineer," xli. 210, 212. 'Iron Age.," 1 xx., Oct. 4, p. 1. 'Scientific Amer.,'' xxxiv. 287. Fig. 2346. And Newcomen ... * "Engineer," xlvii. 403, 412, 430. Smeaton-Newcomen. Newcomen, 1712 (old print) * "Engineer," 1 xlviii. 400. Niles * "Min. Sf Sc. Press,'' xxxviii. 65. Snyder * "Min. fy Sc. Press," xxxv. 321. Symington . . . * "Engineering," xxiii. 64. Symington (1788) . . * "Engineer," xlii. 1. Trevethick (1811) . . * "Engineer," xlvii. 448. Steam Engine. See BELLOWS' STEAM ENGINE. Steam engines, Centen- nial stationary . . . "Iron Age," xviii., Oct. 12, p. 3. Ervien. Snyder. Lovegrove. Wells. Steam engine, compound * " Scientific American Sup.," 438. Experimental. Liege School of Music * "Engineering,"' xxx. 517. Frame, Finney ... * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 89. Headless cyl., Smith * "Scientific American," xxxv. 198. Hist, of the water ele- vators, \Vorcester, Savery, Pulsometer " Scientific American Sup.," 1821. Indicator, Prof. Sweet * "Iron Age," xxi., June 20, p. 1. Horizontal, Putnam Machine Co. . . . "Scientific American," xxxv. 351. * "Scientific American Sup.," 772. * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 463. * "Scientific American," xxxv. 370. * "Engineering," xxviii. 117. Portable, Armitage Marine, Cramp Horizontal, Niles . Indicator, Sweet . street vacuum imp, Gleason . *" Scientific American Sup.,' '488. 11, Tyson ... * "Engineer," xlix. 279. :e-cyl., Brotherhood* " Scientific American Sup., ''538. eless Th Valv Vertical, Niles ultural steam en- BS, notes on early . eaton, 1765 . . vethick, 1811 . . . 1844 . . . . some, 1841 Wtetinghoust Steam Engine. "Engineering," xxvii. 543. * "Engineering," xxvii. 548. * "Engineering," xxvii. 548. * "Engineering," xxvii. 548. * "Engineering," xxvii. 549. Turford, 1842. * "Engineering," xxvii. 549. Cambridge, 1847. * "Engineering," xxvii. 549. Willis, 1849 * "Engineering," xxvii. 558. Clayton if Shuttleivorth, 1853". "Engineering," xxvii. 560, 572. Steam engines, early, in America. * "Engineering," xxii. 383. Turnbull's "A Treatise on the Compound Engine." Bourne's " Catechism of the Steam Engine." Bourne's "Handbook on the Steam Engine." Bourne's "Treatise on the Steam Engine." Rankine's " The Steam Engine." King's "Notes on Steam." Auchincloss' "Link and Valre Motions." Bacon's "Steam Engine Indicator." Is/ienrood's " I'.iixiiirfrini: Precedents." Mac Cone, "Slide Valve Eccentrics." STEAM ENGINE. 859 STEAM GAGE. f^tiihniin's ''Stuun Engine Inilicator. r Oil engine. Steam engine. Porter's "Strain Engine Indicator." Oiler. Steam engine governor. See Burgh's "Practical Illustration of Land and Marine Oleojector. Steamer. Eir^i 'ins." Oscillating cylinder engine. Steam fire engine. /.V;-:,'/! 's " Practical Rules for the Perfecting of Modern En- Oscillating paddle engine. Steam gap'. gims mill Boilers.'-' Oscillating steam engine. Steam greaser. linrgh's "Slide Valve." Over-pressure valve. Steam hammer. IJuryh's " Modern Marine Engineering.'''' Packing. Steam indicator. Muni and Brotvti's "Marine Stfam Engines' 1 Packing expander. Steam machinery. ('alburn's " The Locomotive Engine.'' Packing gland. Steam motor. " Tniiji/f ton's " The Practical Examinutor on Steamandthe Packing leather. Steam packing. Steam Engine." Petroleum engine. Steam-pipe covering. Forney's "Catechism of the Locomotive.' 1 ' Pile driving engine. Steam piston. Mo/let's " Compound Engines," from the French. Piston packing. Steam power. Piston packing expander. Steam pressure recorder and Steam, Gas, and Air Ell'gmes. bee under piston-rod packing. high pressure alarm. the following heads : Piston spring. Steam pressure regulator. i Piston valve. Steam stamc. Aero steam engine. Easing valve. Plowing engine. Steam stoker. Agricultural engine. Eccentric valve. Portable steam engine. Steam trap. Air bridge. Economizer. Relief valve. Steam valve. Air cock. Egg-end steam boiler.- Reversible steam boiler. Steam wheel. Air engine. Electro-capillary motor. Kever.-ing and expansion gear. Stoker. Air motor for cars. Engine regulator. Reversing engine. Stoker, mechanical Alarm whistle. Equilibrium cock. Ammoniacal gas engine. Equilibrium valve. Reversing gear. Straw-burning engine Revolving boiler steam engine. Suet lubricator. Ammonia engine. Exhaust chamber. Road locomotive. Surface condenser. Angular safety valve. Exhaust nozzle. Road roller. Tallow cock. Annular piston engine. Expansion steam engine. Road steamer. Tallow cup. Anti-clinker grate. Expansion valve. Rotary steam engine. Tallow lubricator. Anti-incrustator. Expansion valve gear. Rotary tubular boiler. Tank engine. Arch bar. Farm locomotive. Atmospheric engine. Feed pump regulator. Rubber packing ring. Three cylinder steam engine. Safety cock. Tire. Atmospherie-giis engine. Feed-water apparatus. Automatic cut-off engine. Feed-water cleaner. Safety cylinder cock. Traction engine. Safety disk. Tramway engine. Automatic steam engine. Feed-water heater. Hack cylinder head. Feed-water regulator. Safety valve. Trip cut-off. Screw engine. Triple cylinder steam engine. liaffle plate. Ferrule. Screw-propeller engine. Triple cylinder compound Kalancc engine. Fire engine. Sectional steam boiler. steam engine. Bar. Fire regulator. Sectional ring boiler. Trunk engine. Beam engine. Flue. Semi -fixed. Tube cleaner. Bellows steam engine. Flue boiler. Semi-multiflue boiler. Tube scraper. Boiler. Front cylinder head. Semi-multitubular boiler. Tubulous boiler. Boiler covering. Fuel economizer. Boiler feeder. Fuel feeding apparatus. Boiler feed regulator. Furnace feeder. Boiler ferrule. Furnace regulator. Boiler fittings. Fusible plug. Semi-rotary engine. Twin-cylinder steam engine. Semi-tubular boiler. Two-piston steam engine. Siphon condenser. Underground running engine. Six-cylinder steam engine. Unit area safety valve. Slide cut-off. Up-take. Boiler II ue. Gas and steam motor. Slide-lubricator. Valve gear. Boiler lining. Gas boiler. Slide valve. Valveless engine. Boiler tube. Gas engine. Slide-valve oiler. Variable cut- off steam engine. Holler-tube cleaner. Gas machine. Boiler washing apparatus. Gas, steam, and air engine. Smoke-burning furnace. Variable exhaust steam en- Smoke consumer. gine. Box engine. Globe oil-cup. Calking. Globe safety-valve. Caloric engine. (iovernor. Smoke preventive. Variable expansion gear. Solar boiler. Variable expansion steam en- Circular slide valve. Governor valve. Circulating boiler. Greaser. Circulating drum. Hanging leg boiler. Circulating generator. Hanging tube boiler. Circulating steam boiler. Horizontal steam engine. Solar-caloric engine. gine. Spiral tube boiler. Velometer. Speed recorder. Vertical steam boiler. Spray condenser. Vertical multiflue boiler. Sput. Vertical steam engine. Steam boiler. Vertical tubular boiler. Circulating tube. Hot air engine. Mist-burning grate. Hot air pumping engine. Coal dust funia.'e. H-piece. Coil steam boiler. Hydraulic engine. ( ompound beam engine. Hydro-carbon engine. Compound steam boiler. Ilydromotor. Steam boiler covering. Wagon. Steam boiler feeder. Wall steam engine. Steam boiler furnace. Water engine. Steam carriage. Water gage. Steam En'gine In'di-ca'tor. An instru- Compound steam engine. Inspirator. ment for recording the pressure of steam at any Compressed air engine. Inverted steam engine. Compressed hot-air engine. Lancashire boiler. Compression engine. Launch e.igine. point of the motion of the piston. Steam Flour Core. This term is applied to Condenser. Launch steam engine. drv-sand cores in which the flour has been steamed Condensing apparatus. Lever and cam valve. before it is mixed with the sand. What is meant Condensing- engina. Lime catcher. Controlling valve. Lime extractor. Corliss engine. Lock-up safety valve. by steamed flour is flour that has been mixed with water into paste and boiled with a jet of steam Cornish boiler. Low water alarm. turned into it from the boiler. Coupled steam engine. Low water detector. Crank-pin cup. Low water valve. Cross head. Lubricator. Cross-tube boiler. Lubricator alarm signal. Steam Gage. An attachment to the boiler to indicate the pressure of steam. See "Mech. Diet.," p. 2344. The apparatus shown in Figs. 2347 and Cut-off. . Lubricator cup. Cylinder cock. Marine boiler. 2348 represents Edson's recording steam gage and Cylinder lubricator. Marine engine. speed recorder. Damper. Marine tubular boiler. The mechanism of the Instrument is first, a train of clock- Damper regulator. Marine whistle. work which controls the motion of a cylinder covered with Demi-fm'-. Mechanical stoker. a strip of paper, a pencil-arm with a pencil bearing on the Diminishing valve. Mercurial safety valve. paper, and a steel diaphragm of peculiar construction by Direct acting steam engine. Metallic packing. which, through the details shown, the pencil is worked. Disk engine. Mining engine. This is in brief the construction of the steam gage. The Double-lip safety valve. Multicylinder engine. speed-recording apparatus is similar, except that it has a gov- Double piston engine. Multiflue steam boiler. ernor driven by a belt from any principal part, and shows the Double safety-valve. Multitubular boiler. fluctuations from a regular velocity on the same chart as the Draft regulator. Needle lubricator. steam iraire. This through the pencil attached to what is Drop cut-off. Offset glass. in ordinary governors the thrust collar communicating with Dumping grate. Oil cup. the throttle-valve. So soon as the engine or train, if the ma- STEAM GAGE. 860 STEAM HAMMER. Fig. 2347. Combined Speed and Pressure Recording Gage and Alarm. chine is attached to a locomotive, is started, the governor is put in motion and the pencil connected with the paper cylin- der. If the speed is uniform the line drawn on the cylinder is straight or nearly s5, but any diminution in speed, any stoppage from any cause, is detected at once by the nature of the diagram. If the speed is slower than schedule time, the instrument shows it by fluctuations, or speed-curves in the horizontal line. As will be readily seen, any stoppage out- right is shown by the instrument in the form of a loop. This, of course, from the reason that when the train stops the in- strument stops, but the paper cylinder goes on tracing a hori- zontal line, the length of the base of which, or the area of the loop, indicates the time lost by stopping. The place stopped at is also shown, for as all stations can be marked on the paper on the cylinder, any loop occurring between sta- . tions shows a stop at Jng. .M40. once. This record, in connection with the steam card from the gage, forms a very com- plete diary of the work- ing of the train it may be applied to, and is entirely removed from external interference or being tampered with by interested parties by surrounding it with a glass dome, fitted with a lock. Similarly in regard to the gage recording the s t c ;i m pressure its construction and opera- tion are as follows : the readings are obtained from the dial by an in- dex a ad pointer as usual, operated by a corrugated steel dia- phragm of peculiar con- struction in some re- spects. Instead of a small disk, such as is commonly used for this purpose, Mr. Edson em- Recor/iiiig Hi earn Gage. ploys a very large one. The object of this is to equalize the action of the diaphragm and render it more sensitive and even. With the construction of diaphragm, as shown by the dotted lines in the engraving, the elasticity is greatly increased, anil the dial indications, as well as the records of pressure, are peculiar to each intrument. Besides these features there is an electric bell at the back of the instrument which by a simple and obvious arrange- ment opens and closes the circuit at any desired pressure, giving instantaneous warning of high or low pressures as re- quired. Ashcroft's "bourdon " steam gage, Kig. 2349, is provided with an elastic ring that prevents moisture caused by steam from gage-cocks entering the interior of the gage and cor- roding the movement. Fig. 2349. Fig. 2350. Steam Gage. Steam Gage Tester. Steam Gage Test'er. An instrument to test the accuracy of the steam gage. See Fig. 2350. The apparatus consists of a brass base, provided with a pipe, A, to be connected with a pump. At B is a hardened steel valve and seat, the latter having knife edges for the valve to rest upon, and being made exactly one square inch in area. The valve is guided by a guide-stem in the seat. The water-pipe A opens directly under the valve, as shown by the dotted lines. The valve, when in place, makes a tight joint with the knife edges, and the pressure beneath is con- fined until it exactly balances the combined weight of the valve yoke C (which rests by a pointed projection on the valve), and any extra weight whicli 7iiay !>< suspended from the lower hook of the yoke. With this the accuracy of a gage, at any specified point of its registry, can be ascer- tained. Steam Greas'er. An impermeator to deliver the lubricant into the current of the steam, which it impermeates, being carried into the interior parts of the engine in minute globules. Steam Ham'mer. One operated by steam ; technically one in which the hammer reciprocates in guides, the shaft being usually in line with the engine piston, the piston-rod, in fact, forming the hammer rod. The steam hammer is usually vertical. Plate XLVI. shows the immense 80-ton steam hammer of Schneider & Co., Creusot, France. This hammer was finished in 1877 and represented by wooden model of the exact pro- portions at the Paris Exposition of 1878. This hammer is the largest in the world, and is said to po.-.-css more than three times the power of the 50-ton Krupp hammer at Essen. A 100-ton forging may be readily turned upon its anvil by means of four powerful cranes. The cost was $500,000, including its accessories and the building in which it works. Machinery is now required to deal with immense masses. Witness the 100-ton Italian cannon forthe " Duilio ' and sis- ter ship : the Siemens-Martin steel ingot of 120 metric tons, cast at Creusot ; a rolled armor plate 13' 10" X 8' 5", 2' 1" thick, weighing 65 metric tons, and exhibited at Paris, 18.8. One plate train of the Terre Noire works will roll an armor plate 36.08' long, 8.2' wide, and 3.9' thick. The hammer made by Ramsbottom, of England, is an in- novation upon the usual method. Instead of a vertical hammer, it consists of two immense masses of iron forming the hammers, which are mounted 01 carriages sustained by small, strong, friction-wheels, and move toward or separate from each other by moving horizon- tally on rails. Between them is the anvil, which merely takes the weight of the piece to be worked, while it is struck simul- PLATE XLVI. EIGHTY-TON STEAM HAMMER. (SCHNEIDER & Co., CEEUSOT, FRANCE.) See page 860. STEAM HEATER. 861 STEAM PLOW. taneously by the two hammers which approach it from either side. The hammers are driven by large steam pistons, which are, in this case, set below the floor and under the anvil. This hammer requires no such foundation as is needed by the usual form of .-team hammer, and it possesses the apparent!} 7 generally unrecognized, but nevertheless important, advan- tage, that none of the energy of the blow is misapplied to the shaking of the earth and the injury of the buildings ; it is all usefully applied to the shaping of the work. For many kinds of work this hammer has such decided advantages over the standard forms that it seems surprising that it has not be- come more widely known and more generally introduced. Three of these hammers are in use at Crewe, England. Steam Heat'er. Warner's heater, Fig. 2351, is a low pressure steam-heating apparatus, with the hydrostatic or open column connected with the boiler at the bottom, standing at its side to such a height as to allow a pressure of only two pounds of steam to be generated. Steam Heater. In Campbell & Pryor's method of steam heating for dwell- ings, the steam boiler and radiators are inclosed in a heat- ing room in the cellar, doing away with pipes and radiators in the living rooms, the heat ascending through ordinary registers, while the cold air is drawn off the floors down flues leading to the bottom of the heating-room. Fig. 2352 shows the heating room, hot and cold air registers, and a hot-water battery, used without the steam boiler. The ar- Fig. 2352. Steam Healer. rows at A show the direction of the current of warm air ; B B, currents of cold air passing off the floor, down flues D to near the bottom of the heating room. The water battery, C, is a series of connected pipes holding 50 to 100 gallons of water, having a gas-pipe attached and passed around the heating bowl of the stove. When the fire is the warmest this water becomes heated to nearly boiling, giving out its heat again at any time the fire should slacken. By uncover- ing these water pipes the air may be moistened to any de- gree desired. A small pipe leads from the bottom of the heating room into the smoke flue to carry off the foul air that may accumulate. The furnace is fed from outside of the heating room. This method is the invention of A. K. Campbell, Newton, Iowa, who claims that by establishing -a current of air through the house and heating chamber he equalizes the tem- perature of the living rooms so that the difference between the floor and ceiling of a room is only 6 tolO, while with the ordinary method the thermometer will show a difference of from 30 to 50 between the temperature of the floor and ceil- ing. He does not warm the large current of outside air usu- ally necessary to force the hot air up into a room already full of air. Fresh air in plenty, he claims, is supplied any house through the crevices of the doors and windows ; but he uses a small side pipe, if requested. Steam Heat'er for Steam Fire Eii'gines. A device for attachment to steam fire engines for heating the feed-water before its passage into the boiler. Steam Me-tal'lic Fis'ton. A tight elastic piston with equal expansion, and a revolving ten- dency in the packing rings. Steam Mo'tor. A small engine for household use, attachable by bracket to the wall, for running sewing and knitting machines, fans, churns, etc. Steam motor, small . . * "Scientific American,''' xliii. 390. Davis * "Scientific American," xliii. 278. Mayhew * "Scientific American,'' xliii. 66. Tyran * "Scientific American," xlii. 163. Steam Nav'vy. A steam excavator. Steam Pack'ing. Asbestos steam packing, intended to contend with high temperature, mois- ture, and friction. Steam Pipe Cov-er'iiig. The peculiarity of the Chalmers steam pipe covering consists in leav- ing an air space, or dead-air chamber, of 1" or more, between the covering and surface covered. This is obtained by taking heavy wire cloth, to which is fastened, every four or six inches, a stud one inch or more in length. The wire cloth is then placed over the surface to be covered, the studs keeping it off the necessary distance. A non-con- ducting composition is then applied from one half to one inch in thickness, which partly penetrates the meshes of the wire cloth and keys itself. The second coat gives a smooth finish. Leroy's composition : Mix thor- oughly 448 parts of a paste of clay, 80 parts of paper pulp, 10 parts zinc wool, 10 parts of hemp, 8 parts of cocoa-nut fiber, 55 parts of charcoal powder, 23 parts of sawdust, 8 parts of flour, and 22 parts of tar. Heat the mixture until it is uniformly pasty. See also STEAM PIPE COVERING, "Mech. Diet.'- Steam Plow. Dr. Knight's report on Class 76 at the Paris Exposition contains views and descriptions of the following en- gines, apparatus, and modes ot in- stallation. See "Paris Exposition (1878) Reports,-' vol. vi. pp. 53-89. Double-engine steam-plowing tackle, Fowler, England. Steam-plowing engine, Fowler, England. Kope-porter, Fowler, England. Locomotive for the double-engine system, Aveling if Porter, England. Farmer's engine for all purposes, Howard, England. STEAM PLOW. 862 STEAM STAMP. Single-engine and headland-anchor plan of installation, Howard, England. Engine with two winding drums, Fowler, England. Movable headland anchor, Fowler, England. Agricultural locomotive, Are.tiiuc <-V Porter, England. Roundabout plan of installation. Fowler, Kii.nl. .nil. Windlass for the roundabout s .-rein. l'mr:,i\ lingland. Anchor for the roundabout system. Fowler, lOn^iand. Portable engine and rear windlass for the roundabout sys- tem, Howard, England. Koundabout system, with detached windlass, Biirford if Perkins, England. Roundabout system, engine, and windlass combined, Bar- ford if Perkins. England. Self-acting and self- moving anchor, Barfonl Perkins, KnglazuL Howard's roundabout tackle, Bodin. France. Engine and windlass for roundabout system, Dtbains, Fr. Installation of the roundabout system, Debains, France. Six-furrow balance-plow, Fowler, England. Three-furrow balance-plow, Bar ford if Perkins, England. Plow and subsoiler, Howard, England. Steam grubber, Fowler, England. Double-action steam cultivator, Howard, England. Turning cultivator, Fowler, England. Turning harrow, Fowler, England. Steam harrow, Fowler, England. Combined harrow and seeder, Fowler, England. Steam roller, Fowler, England. Disking machine, Fowler, England. Draining plow, Fowler, England. Reclamation plow, Fowler, England. Steam Plow Anchor. Fig. 2353 shows Fowler's headland anchor, or rope carrier, which is moved along the headland by the motion of the pulley that is turned by the rope ; the sheave is connected by a gear to a drum, which winds up a rope stretched along the headland and keeps the anchor opposite its work. Fig. 2363. Steam Plow Anchor. Steam Fres'sure Re-cord'er and High Pres'sure A'larm. See under STEAM GAGE, p. 859, supra. Steam'-proof Ce-meiit'. " Dinner's Polytech- nic Journal" gives a description of the manuufac- ture of a new steam-proof cement, discovered by Mr. A. C. Fox, which it is claimed is not affected by hot or cold water, nor by acids or alkalies. First, a chromium preparation is made in the fol- lowing manner : 2.5 parts, by weight, of chromic acid are dissolved in a mixture of 15 parts of wa- ter and 15 parts of ammonia. To this solution about 10 drops of sulphuric acid, and, finally, 30 parts of sulphate of ammonia and 4 parts of fine white paper, are added. When about to be used, gelatine dissolved in dilute acetic acid is added. Steam Pump. The large Blake mining pump has a double plunger, 16" in diameter, and steam cylinder 23" in diameter, with a stroke of 24". This pump discharges 1,000 gallons per min- ute when running at the regular speed of 23 strokes per minute. These double plunger pumps are intended for mines and for pumping gritty water, they being very hard to wear out. The small cylinder surmounting the main cylinder contains an ordinary spring ring steam piston, not a valve, which is the motor for the main valve. The cylinder heads of both cylinders through which the piston passes are cast in one piece, with the connection between them, as in many other steam pumps At each joint of the valve gearing there is a steel friction roller that can be re-, newed when worn. In II. R. Worthington's duplex steam pump, the valve motion is the prominent and important peculiarity, as being that to which the pump owes its exemption from noiM' or concussive action. Two steam pumps are placed side by side, and so combined as to act reciprocally upon the steam valves of each other. The one piston aces to give steam to the other, after which it finishes its own stroke, and waits for its valve to be acted upon before it can renew its motion. This pause allows all the water valves to seat quiet- ly, and removes everything like harshness of motion. As one or the other of the steam valves must be always open, there can be no center or dead point. The pump is, there- fore, always ready to start when steam is admitted, and is managed by the simple opening and shutting of a valve. The " Knowles " steam pump is a long, connected pump. In the steam chest there arc only "two pieces," the valve (which is a flat slide valve) and the valve-driving piston, each being made all in one piece, thus giving only two moving pieces in the steam chest, to produce the entire motion. The steam valve of the pump, being an ordinary flat slide valve, does not have a rotary motion, but simply a horizontal mo- tion, the same as any slide valve. This style of flat valve embodies the most favorable possible conditions for tight- ness, even after the wear consequent upon a long use. The slight rotary motion imparted to the valve-driving pis- ton, by the rocker arm, simply puts it in a position to be driven horizontally by the steam, in which motion it car- ries the slide valve with it, the two being directly connected together. It has no springs, screws, yokes, nuts, follow- ers, rings, plunger-cushion springs, movable seats, poppet valves, or studs, inside of the steam chest. The driving pis- ton is entirely independent of exhaust steam for cushioning, thereby working with the same certainty and exactness when exhausting into vacuum (working condensing) as when ex- hausting into atmosphere. It will also work equally well in a vertical as in a horizontal position. Steam Ram'mer. One designed to supersede- hand-work in the paving of the streets of large cities, where extensive surfaces of stone blocks and cobble-stones are constantly requiring to be laid or repaired, and which can only be im- perfectly put down by hand. The apparatus is operated on the princi- ple of the trip-hammer; it can he speeded to strike fast or slow, and will deliver a blow of from 1 Ib. up to 1,500. Steam Reap'er. Aveling Porter, * Knight's report "Paris Exposition," 1 vol. v., p. 158. Steam Stamp. One for stamp- ing out articles from heavy sheet metal. Fig. 2354 shows a 3-cwt. steam Fig. 2354 stamp, specially designed for forg- ing articles of which large quanti- ties are used, by means of dies cut to the form of the finished article. The stamp is not self acting, but is regulated either by the foot or by the hand. When left to itself with the steam turned on, it rises to the top of its stroke and remains in that position until the valve is brought down by the hand or foot of the attendant. It then delivers a single "dead-blow," and rises again, as before, leaving the lower die clear for the removal of the fin- ished article and the introduction of the hot iron for a new one. The upper die is fixed rigidly in the tup or hammer-head, the lower one be- ing adjusted by strong poppet- screws until it exactly coincides with it. The tup is fitted between slide-bars which guide it down upon the lower die, and, with a stamp of adequate size, the forging can be finished at a single blow with a great degree of accuracy. Special arrangements are intro- duced for facilitating the adjust- ment of the dies, for removing bolts and similar articles from the dies, for preventing the piston from striking the cylinder-cover, Steam Stamp. and for adjusting the slides so as to compensate for the wear caused by friction. STEAM STAMP. 863 STEEL. The 5 cwt. stamp will make a bolt 1-J" diameter, with large square head 2f" diameter and 1" thick, and with very deep square neck, at a single blow. The principal sizes of these stamps weigh from J to 10 cwt. Steam Street Car. Fig. 2355 shows the op- erating part of the Baldwin steam street car. Two 6" X 10" cylinders are attached to an inverted cast- iron bed-plate, bolted to the car-bottom near the center-line and in front of the rear axle. The cranks are on the front axle, which has both inside and outside bearings. The jaws for the inside bearings are cast on this bed-plate. The valve- rear is the usual shifting link. The exhaust is carried 22" high, and is placed on the front platform, one-half being let into the car-front ; is neatly cased so as not to be visible from inside. It is covered with 1" of felt, i" of pine, and of walnut. The car is of the usual pattern, with 16' body ; has four 80" Steam Street Car. wheels, only one pair driven by the engine. Steam brakes stop it in half its length. Running alone, the car takes 8 Ibs. of anthracite per mile run. Two additional cars have been drawn on the Atlantic Avenue line, and an additional car is taken on certain trips wlu-ii the greatest number of passengers offer. Steam Trap. A trap to automatically drain the water of condensation from heating coils, and return the same to the boiler, whether the coils are above or below water level in the boiler, thus doing away with pumps and other mechanical devices for such purposes. Maxim's patent steam trap, Fig. 2356. This trap is fur- nished with the Maxim gas machine, and consists of an outer shell in combination with a metallic expansion vessel, which acts as a valve and seats itself on the end of the inlet pipe. This vessel is filled with liquids which evaporate be- low steam heat ; when heat is applied this liquid expands, and closes or practically closes the valve. As the steam con- denses in the pipe, rhe liquid in the expansion vessel cools Fig. 2356. Maxim's Steam Trap. very gently, which relaxes the pressure, opens the valve, and lets the water out ; steam follows, expanding the liquid, and the valve closes as before. The water can be let out at the desired temperature, by raising or lowering the expan- sion vessel by means of the screw spindle and hand wheel ; raising lets off the water at a lower, and lowering at a higher temperature. Steam Valve. A door-like cover or device to- regulate the passage of gases or fluids through a port. See list, p. 2688, "Mech. Diet." Purvis's steam valve is actuated directly by the motion of the engine piston without the aid of valve gear, and without the assistance of an auxiliary valve. The whole area and length of the cylinder are utilized. The valve is thrown through its entire stroke by line steam upon its differential areas, and cushioned by the same. High pressure valve. Dennis if Co., Br. Steam valve, House , launders Steam and water valve. House, Br * "Engineering," 1 xxii.lll. * ^'Scientific American Sup.,''' 1569. * "'Scientific American,'-' 1 xxxix. 86. * "Engineering,'' xxiv. 194. Steam Wheel. In Thomas' steam wheel, Fig. 2357, the impulsive power is communicated only over a segment of the periphery instead of follow- ing the piston around the circle. See ROTARY STEAM ENGINE, supra, and "Meek. Diet." Fig. 2357. Steam Wheel. Stear'ic Ac'id Ap'pa-ra'tus. Devices use* in the extraction of the tallow from the original fats. The fats are inclosed in hair or cloth bags,, and subjected to pressure to extract the fluid fats,, or the fats are mixed with from 20 to 100 per cent, of water and 1 or 2 per cent, of lime, and kept at a. heat of 200 C. for several hours. Steel. 1. Steel is made direct from the ore by deoxidation followed by carburization. 2. It is made from pig-iron by decarburization. Oxidizing agents, solid or aeriform, are applied to- il to eliminate the carbon. 3. It is made from wrought iron by carburiza- tion. Professor Young gives the following outline of the two latter : Pig iron converted into steel by Solid oxidizing agents, iron ore, saltpeter, etc., without fusion : Examples Puddled steel ; Riepe process ; Eller- hausen process ; Ileaton steel. Solid oxidizing agents, such as spathose iron ore, with fu-- sion, Uchatius steel. Oxidizing agency of air, with fusion, Bessemer steel. Oxidizing and reducing gases, Berard steel. Wrought iron converted into steel by Fusion with pig iron, Martin process. Fusion with charcoal, \Vootz process. Heating in charcoal without fusion, Cement steel. Heated in carbureted hydrogen, Mackintosh process. As steel occupies nearly the middle place between cast and wrought iron in its proportion of carbon, it may be prepared either by decarburizing pig iron , or, on the contrary, by caus- ing wrought iron to absorb carbon. The processes to accom- plish these ends may be arranged under five principal heads : A, Fabrication of steel by decarburization of crude or pig, iron ; B, by carburization of wrought iron ; C, by mixing a wrought iron poor in carbon with a pig iron rich in same ; D, by mixing pig iron with ore (the pig yields carbon which reduces the ore and transforms the reduced iron into steel) ; E, directly by means of ore ; F, cast steel. Subdividing, STEEL. 864 STEEL. these systems, we have the following methods under each heading : A. METHODS OF DECARBURIZIKG THE CRUDE IRON. 1. Steel obtained by a long heating of the crude iron in an oxidizing atmosphere, the metal not being brought to fusion. (a) Tunner's method in sand, where the deoxidation is pro- duced by means of the oxygen in the air. (b) Jullien's method, in forge scales or spathic ore. This produces mal- leable iron, (e ) Herzeeles' method in steam, (d) Thomas' method in carbonic acid. The last two processes hare not been employed to any great extent. 2. Natural steel : In this method, employed since the ear- liest times, the crude iron is melted in a refining furnace with wood charcoal, and decarburized by the ferrous oxide of the scoria. The product is purified by repeated refining. 3. Puddling : This process is the same as the preceding, from a chemical point of view, but is practiced in a reverber- atory furnace heated with coal. It. is necessary to purify the product by repeated refining or by transforming it into cast steel. The construction of puddling furnaces has undergone many changes. We may distinguish (a) the ordinary pud- dling furnace with fixed hearth and heated by coal, (b) the same heated by lignite or peat, (c) the puddling furnaces of Schafhautl and others, with mechanical rabbles designed to diminish the labor so fatiguing to the workman. These, however, have been entirely superseded by new systems, (rf) The Banks furnace, the hearth of which is formed of a hollow cylinder placed horizontally, and turning on its axis, gives a product of excellent quality, and is econom- ical. The interior lining, however, is difficult to maintain. {e) The Ehrenwerth furnace has a horizontal circular hearth turning on a vertical axis, (f) The Pernot furnace also has a circular sole, which, however, is not horizontal, but slightly inclined, so that during its rotation the iron and scoriae run to the lowest point and are thus in a state of con- tinual motion ; while the elevated parts of the hearth, to- gether with the iron and scorise thereto adherent, are sub- mitted to the oxidizing action of the air. This furnace re- alizes the advantages of mechanical puddling without needing any special lining. 4. The Bessemer process : A current of air, finely divided, is passed through the liquid crude iron. The carbon, sili- con, and a part of the iron burn, and the temperature is so highly elevated that the iron, decarburized in part or trans- formed into steel, remains molten. It is then run into molds. 5. Be>ard's modification of the above : Air and gases are alternately introduced into the retort with different advan- tages. 6. Peters' process : The liquefied crude iron in a rever- beratory furnace falls in the form of rain in a vertical cham- ber in which the furnace gases also pass, and in which air is blown so as to decarburize the metal to the desired degree. B. METHODS BY CARBURIZATION OF WROUGHT IRON. 1. Indian or Wootz steel : Wrought iron of extraordinary purity, obtained by treating a very pure ore in small cham- ber furnaces by the direct method, is hammered, made into bars, cut into short pieces, and placed in small crucibles with a few green leaves. The crucibles are hermetically sealed and heated for a long time at a high temperature. The iron _ is transformed into steel by uniting with it the carbon con- ' tained in the leaves, and the steel even partially melts. These half melted masses furnish the famous sword blades and plateg of Persia and Damascus. 2. There are several other processes resembling the Indian, which, however, are not carried on on a large scale. There are (a) the Mushet process, in which wrought iron obtained by the ordinary refining method is melted with powdered wood charcoal. (6) The Vickers' process, analogous to the preceding, with the addition of oxide of manganese, (c) The Stourbridge, Brooman, Thomas, and Binks processes, based on identical principles. 3. English cemented steel : Wrought iron of the best pos- sible quality is, in the shape of bars, packed in clay boxes, together with wood charcoal coarsely pulverized. The heat- ing continues for two or three weeks. Without melting, the iron is changed into steel, which by remelting is transformed into cast steel. 4. Parry's cupola steel : Fragments of wrought iron, melted in the cupola with a large consumption of coke or wood- charcoal, may be transformed into steel or even into cast iron according to the length of the operation. This system offers an advantageous method of utilizing scrap, and requires no special apparatus. 5. Chenot's process : In this the ore is reduced by heating it progressively with coal. A non-melted iron sponge is ob- tained, which is ground and separated as well as possible from the gangues by the aid of a magnet. Lastly, it is mixed with carboniferous substances, and melted under pressure. The principal disadvantage of this process is the difficulty of separating the gangues without losing the steel. 6. Casehardening has for its object the transformation of the surfaces of wrought iron objects into steel. " ] t is done in two ways, (a) The pieces are placed in small sheet iron boxes and surrounded with chips of wood. The boxes are hermetically closed and heated in a forge fire, for 15 or 30 minutes, to an intense red heat. They are then removed quickly, opened, and their contents thrown into cold water, whereby the exterior steel shell is rendered as hard as glass. (b) The pieces are heated to a whitish red and moistened with ferrocyanide of potassium, which acts, by its cyanogen, on the iron, and transforms the surface into steel. C. METHODS BY FUSION OF A MIXTURE OF CAST AND WROUGHT IRON. The two materials may be, both or only one of them, used in a melted state. 1. Bessemer steel, prepared by the ordinary method. The crude and wrought iron here are both liquid, while, as we have previously said, cast iron may br directly transformed into steel. The method most followed, and which leads most surely to the end in view, consists in completely de- carburizing the crude iron in the converter, and in adding to the melted metallic iron a rigorously determined quantity of liquid crude iron. The carbon of the latter affects the previously decarburized iron, and makes a steel containing a given proportion of carbon. 2. Crucible steel is obtained by melting in crucibles a mixture of crude and wrought iron. The former liquefies first, and slowly melts the latter. 3. Martin's s^e'el i? similarly made, but replaces the cruci- ble with a reverberatory furnace. The crude iron is lique- fied under a thin layer of scoria on the concave hearth of a reverberatory furnace, heated to an intense red-white heat by a Siemens regenerator. Scraps of steel and wrought iron of all kinds in desired quantity are added, and the steel is run into molds of cast iron. D. METHODS BY A MIXTURE OF CAST IRON AND ORE. Uchatius steel : The cast iron is granulated by running it into water while molten, and the grains are melted with spathic ore, peroxide of manganese, and wrought iron in crucibles. Tne ferrous oxide of the spathic ore is reduced by the carbon of the cast iron, and the surplus of carbon unites with the wrought iron to make steel. E. METHODS BY PREPARATION DIRECT FROM THE ORE. The Siemens direct process : The ore is melted alone, with- out addition of reducing material, at a very elevated temper- ature ; then the iron is reduced and transformed into wrought iron or into steel by adding coal. E. CAST STEEL. For the purification of steel by fusion, cemented, forged, and puddled steel are employed. To improve the qualities of the steel, and notably to augment its hardness, diverse substances are added. Thus we have: 1, silver steel; 2, nickel steel ; and 3, wolfram or Mushet special steel. The Japanese method of making steel is to mix a certain quantity of iron in pigs and iron in bars, cover the mixture with borax, and melt the whole for a week in a small fire- proof crucible. The borax serves to dissolve the impurities in the dross. When the metal is separated from the dross (which floats on the surface) and cooled, it is hammered hard, and alternately plunged into water or oil, after which it is cemented and tempered. The mode of cementing is as fol- lows : The steel, on coming from beneath the hammer, is covered with a mixture composed of clay, cinders, marl, and charcoal-powder. When this plaster is dry, the whole is subjected to a red heat, and the steel is afterwards cooled very slowly in warm water which is allowed to become tepid. Steel thus obtained is not very supple, but extremely hard, because it is not properly tempered or completely freed from its impurities. It would not do for making watch-springs, but is used by the Japanese for swords and sabres which are tempered as many as eleven times, and knives which are tempered four times. (Metallurgy.} Greiner's classification of iron products : Carbon, per cent. Iron Series (welded). Steel Series (melted). 0. to 0.15 0.15 to 0.45 0.45 to 0.55 0.55 to 1.50 Ordinary iron. (iramilar iron. Steely iron or pud- dled steel. Cemented iron or steel. Extra soft steel. Soft steel. Semi- soft steel. Hard steel. STENCIL PASTE. 865 STOCK STONE. Fig. 2358. See SPONGE PROCESS, supra. See "Mech. Diet.,-' pp. 2363, 2364, 2365, 2366. Henderson Steel . . "Iron Age," xix., Feb. 1, p. 15. Sten/cil Paste. A mixture of any ordinary pigment with chalk or carbonate of magnesia, to form a paste of the required consistence. Sten'cil Pen. A pen or needle reciprocated by electric or pneu- matic force, for mul- tiplying tracings, etc. Fig. 2358 shows a simple form of pneu- matic pen. Sten'o-chrome. A print showing the colors, shades, and arrangement of a mosaic, made by forming a mosaic plate of colored sec- tions similar to the one to be copied. S t e ' n o Com- press'or, (Dental.) A spring pad for closing the saliva duct, and absorbing the saliva during operations. Step Gage. The Stencil Pen _ standard double cor- rective gage, Fig. 2359, is for testing and correct- ing fixed caliper gages, and also as a reference to prove dimensions within its range. Fig. 2359. Double Corrective Step Gage, Step Head'stock. In a watchmaking lathe the step head stock, as its name indicates, has a step or conical bearing at the rear of the spindle to reduce friction. This head is for pivoting, jewel polishing, and other work requiring very high speed. Step Pad. The foot-rest or tread of a carriage step. Ste-re-om'e-ter. An apparatus for illustra- ting various mathematical problems. It has two frames, the upper one being a square, the sides of which are three feet long ; and the longer one is formed by two such squares. Both frames are kept in position by four small columns, 4' in height, and standing on four legs, by which the whole is supported and fastened to a common ta- ble. In these squares graduated cross-bars (of any desired number) are fastened by screw-clamps. They move hori- zontally in two directions, parallel to the sides of the square, while similar bars, 4' long, are perpendicular to the frames and parallel to the columns. The cross-bars and framework are made in two pieces of " by \" , leaving between them an open space of 3-16", in which again a simple screw-clamp moves, holding a needle in position, perpendicular to the bars and frame. These needles arc pieces of strong common wire, flattened a little on one end, with an oblong hole in the end. By this arrangement a mechanical way is found to determine the position of any point in space within the ap- paratus. The shifting of the cross-bars (say north or south), the moving of the clamp in the split of the cross-bars (east and west), and the moving up and down of the needle in the clamps, are true representations of the equations of a point in space. The position of an unlimited number of points can be determined, and, consequently, any solid figure can be represented in contour lines by drawing wires or, better still, elastic silk cords through the corresponding points. Stiffened Chain Sus-pen'sion Bridge. The first bridge of this kind was erected at Pitts- burg, Pa,, in 1876-1877. The bridge is stiffened by means of rigid cords which extend (above the chains), at an undeviating angle from the towers to the center of the middle span (800 feet long), where they are connected' by a hinge to allow for expansion and contraction. Stif'fen-iiig Ma-chine'. A trough and pair of squeezing rollers used in putting the stiffening into felt hat bodies. The stiffening is to enable the hat to maintain its shape. a thicker stiffening material is used for the brim than for rs moss an gue or e rouger artce. Two vats are employed and contain the respective stiffenings ; the whole hat is submerged in the thinner stuff and the superfluous matter is squeezed out of it by passing it upward between the rollers. The brim alone is dipped in the other vat. The troughs are heated by steam to keep the stuff liquid, and the hats after this process are ready to be blocked. This is the shaping, flattening the tip, stretching out the brim. etc. See HAT-BLOCKING MACHINE. Stile Bo'rer. A machine for boring holes in the vertical parts of a window or shutter frame. In Fig. 2360, the two vertical bits are used for blinds only, and will bore without any previous marking or laying out, Fig. 2360. Colburn's Blind Stile Borer. 8,000 holes per hour. The stiles, after being jointed, are placed upon the table, with a ratchet or pattern between them, the lower ends of the stiles resting against two blocks, which are securely fastened to the end of the pattern, and are inoved over the bits by means of a pawl working in the notches of the pattern. It spaces its own work at any dis- tance apart, from I" to 1|", and bores the entire length of the stile without stopping. The mortises are marked on the edge of the stile while the machine is in operation, from corresponding marks on the edge of a thin strip which has been previously laid off and tacked to the side of the pattern, and which can be replaced with any length required. The boring being done from the under side of the stile, the chips Irop freely from the bits, and leave the holes of a uniform lepth, so that the pivot of the slat may work on the end in- stead of the shoulder, which renders them less liable to bind or stick fast on the paint. Stock Stone. (Leather.) A flat rectangular scouring-stone, 5" or 6" long and 0.5" thick, fixed STOKER, MECHANICAL. 866 STONE CUTTING MACHINE. in a stock or handle. It is used for scouring, stretching, and removing inequalities iu the leather. Sto'ker, Me-chan'i-cal. Henderson's me- chanical stoker (English) has a fuel hopper placed over the fire-door, and from which it is gradually fed into the furnace by automatic gear driven by the engine. See Fig. 2361. Fig. 2861. Henderson's Mechanical Stoker. Stone, Ar-ti-fi'cial. Stones formed by a process of treating a combination of lime and sand. Ternikoff exposes equal parts of lime and sand to a tem- perature of 150 C. for several hours in the presence of steam. The material is then pressed and exposed to the air. Glaser mills 4 to 6 parts fine sand to 1 of slaked lime and exposes for three days to a high temperature under a pres- sure of more than three atmospheres ; it is then pressed. Hosmer subjects limestone, cut to shape desired, in boiling water to 5 atmospheric pressure, and then places them in an alum or colored bath, to color as desired. See p. 2392, "Mec/i. Diet.'' Hammered artificial stone, " Iron Age.'" xviii., September 7, p. 3. Stone Clean'er. For cleaning stones or clods from wheat or other grain. Fig. 2362. Stone Cleaner. In Fig. 2362 the tray has a rocking motion on its support- ing bars, the crank making 115 turns per minute. The grain placed in the hopper discharges at the lifted gate, runs over the slanting board, and into the bed of the tray. It is divided to each side, and, as the tray is pushed laterally back and forth by a quick motion, the contents are sorted according to gravity. The wheat issues at the rear ports, B, and the stones at the front, C, the lowest part of the tray. The apparatus is adjustable for inclination, the front end being kept the lowest. The stones being heavier than the grains and of angular shape, resist the backward blow of the oblique faces of the central block and pursue their way down the slope to the front while the grain passes out at the rear. See SEPARATORS. Stone Cleav'ing Ma-chine'. Stone cleaving for dividing granite is effected by means of a prismatic steel cutter inserted with wedges in the under side of the hammer, and opposite a similar one below on the anvil bed. The granite block to be cleft is pulled on rollers over the lower cutter (which is slightly higher than the rollers), and into the proper position. Then a rapid series of blows is given from a short height, followed by a strong blow from a great height. Thus a plate is cut vertically with accurately even surface. The block is next pushed on one plate-thickness, and the process is repeated. The plates obtained are afterward divided into cubical blocks by means of a steam hammer, arranged quite like the former except that the plates, instead of lying on rollers, are placed on small tables resting ou spiral springs. By the weight of the stones tlie springs are compressed, so that the stones come to lie on the lower cutter. Stone Cut'ting. The modes of dressing stones for masonry come under several heads. Unsquared stones or rubble are perhaps hardly included in the definition, but may be included for completeness of statement. See under the following heads : Bush hammered. Pitched-face stone. Crandaled. Quarry faced. Cut stone. Rough pointed. Diamond paneled. Rubbed. Drafted stones. Rubble. Fine pointed. Squared stones. Peen hammered. Tooth-axed. All stones used in building come under one of three classes, namely : I. Rough stones that are used as they come from the quarry. II. Stones roughly squared and dressed. III. Stones accurately squared and finely dressed. In practice, the line of separation between them is not very distinctly marked, but one class gradually merges into the next. Stone Cut'ting Ma-chine'. The Tilghman sand blast will execute in ten minutes what would take a skilled stone-cutter a whole day. The pat- tern to be worked is cut in and through a flat iron or wooden plate which is fastened on to the stone. The jet-pipe traverses the pattern and the sand cuts away the parts of the stone not protected by the plate. Common sand, crushed agate, and small granules of iron, are used in cutting stone. Fig. 2363. Stone Cutting Machine. STONE CUTTING MACHINE. 867 STONE-WORKING EMERY TOOLS. many members, some of them deeply cut, more than one of these finishing-tools is sometimes employed. Mitred work is also executed by the machines with perfect accuracy. Stone Sep'a-ra-tor. A device invented by Atchison's stone cutter, Fig. 2365, has two tools arranged in a strong head piece, attached to a moving platen, similar to the iron plauing machine. This platen, with the head-piece, is made to move forward and backward over the stone, and the tools, having a per- ^ . u ,^ ul , pendicular, reciprocal, rotating motion, cut the surface at ' Hio-iiprrp for rZmnv',T,ir, and carries a counterpoise. To keep it from slipping it is held by a small clamp placed in the channel of the pulley. The latter carries an index needle, L, which multiplies the distance traversed by its circumference ten times, and the extremity of which moves across an arc graduated in millimeters. The index needle also moves two slides which show the maximum of elonga- tion or compression. The apparatus and the Fig- 2368. screw to which the wire is attached are mounted in two differ- ent ways, one designed to fasten the whole to a truss rod or to the foot of a T-iron,and the other to attach the apparatus to any or- dinary surface. The apparatus having been placed in position, the index having been brought to zero, and the wire being kept at a uniform tension by the weight, it will be seen that if the object to which it is attached elongates or shortens, the pulley will be ac- tuated by the wire, and the lever L will multiply the actual Strain Measurer. amount of the strain exerted. To study maximum strains the two sliders are moved up against the extremity of the needle. The apparatus may be used on parts of a structure inclined at any angle whatever. The sensitiveness of the apparatus may be known when it is stated that a lighted match placed under the wire will cause the needle to be immediately deflected one, two, and three millimeters. See Fig. 2368. Strap. (Nautical.) Or strop. The band of iron or rope which goes around a tackle-block. Strass. (Glass.) A variety of lead glass made for imitating gems. Straw'-burn'ing Eii'gine. An engine to en- able persons residing in countries where coal and wood are not indigenous, or are only to be obtained at a great cost, to generate steam from the vegetable products on their estate. In Russia, Hungary, and on the borders of the Danube, this engine has been found to economize from 30 to 40 francs per day by using the refuse straw instead of coal and wood. In Egypt it is used for working the irrigating ma- chinery of the cotton fields with the refuse cotton stalks, and actual practice has shown that the ref- use stalks of a crop of cotton are sufficient to gen- erate steam for working the pumps for irrigating the land, consequently the laud finds its own fuel for irrigation. In India these engines are used in the tea plantations for driving the machinery, and STRAW-BURNING ENGINE. 869 STUCCO. Fig. 2S69. Straw Burning Engine. the jungle grass which grows outside the tea-gar- dens is used as fuel instead of coal and wood. In some cases it is used for burning the refuse of the sugar-cane from the mills. See Fig. 2369. Stream Fence. One across a water-gap. A common form has the panels pivoted perma- nently to the part at one side of the stream, while the other end is held by pins that will either break under the pressure of the freshet, or allow the end to rise when the stream reaches the board, and allow it to swing loose from the pins. Barbed wires are stretched in same manner with a floating block attached to the loose end. Street Car. See STEAM STREET CAR, su- pra. Street Car Mo'tors. See "Scientific Amer- ican Supplement," p. 2125, for an account of the earl\' street-car efforts of Latin and Todd ; the Lamm fireless locomotive at New Orleans ; Baxter's engine with compound cylinders ; Grantham's en- gine (Eng.) improved by Wood. Loftiis Perkins. Belgian street-car engine. Socictc Mftallitrgiqite tt Charbonnicre, of Belgium. France,. Bcdr Sf Co. Merryweather. Hughes. Halt. Ransonte. Baldwin, et al. See Clark's " Tramways, their Con- Fig. 2370. struction ami Working." London. See also Mekarski compressed air streetcar motor.* Lamm Sf Francq fireless locomo- tive.* "Paris Exi'osilion (1878) Reports." *iv.62 86 See STEAM STREET CAB. Street Lamp. Fig. 2370 shows a tank or reservoir, ad- justed to the outside of a street lantern. Connected with the reservoir is a pipe and valve, to which is attached the solar gas burner. By means of a chemical process, the liquid, on its passage through this burner, is converted into gas, which gives a bright, steady flame. The material used in making the gas is re-distilled naphtha Street ^ of 72 to 74 gravity. Strike. The piece on which the latch of a door impinges in closing. Fig. 2371 has a roller Fi sugar cr\ .-tals Returned to battery, to be reboiled. (nearly white). Form sugar (nearly white). SUGAR REFINING. (CANE OR BEET.) Raw sugar sifted free from lumps and trash. Melted down with water (adding a little lime-water). Clarified by addition of bullock's blood and fine animal charcoal, and heating (sulphurous acid now often used to save blood, and this step very often omitted altogether). Drawn off, and filtered through bag filter. Filtered through animal charcoal. Boiled down in vacuum-pan. (Filtration repeated, and boiling continued.) Crystallized in coolers (ultramarine Crystallized par- Boiled down dry in pan (only ajipli- added if necessary for color). tially in pan. cable in case of purest syrups). Transferred to molds, and drained. Drained in centrifutriil machine. Loaf-sugar. Centrifugal sugar crystals. Green syrup. Beboiled, yielding at length I'sed as food. Clayed, or washed. Washed. Used ajTfood. Reboiled7yielding molasses. Removed from molds, inverted, and dried. molasses. _ Sugar loaves trimmed by cutting-knives. SUGAR HOUSE. 873 SULKY PLOW. Su'gar House. Plate XLVI. represents a complete sugar house as manufactured by the Com- pagnie de Fives Lille, at Abbeville. France. This company has built apparatus for operating on sugar- cane, for Java, Reunion, Brazil, the West Indies, and Egypt In the latter country one establishment, on account of the Khedive, is adapted to work 1,800 tonnes (Fr.) in 24 hours. In an iron building 11,100 square meters in superficies arc arranged 4 cane mills. 2 vacuum pan apparatus, a triple effet. 4 vacuum pans. 60 centrifugal filters. 2 stills anil apparatus. 3 rectifiers. And various accessories for the crystallization of the sugar, fermentation of the molasses, revivification of the animal black, gasworks for lighting. Repair shops. A battery of steam boilers of collective force of 2,600 horse- power, to furnish the moiive force, and the heat for the ap- paratus, is heated by the bagasse. Railways of a total length of 22 kilometers, with the neces- sary locomotives and rolling stock, bring 250,000 kilos of caiie each 24 hours to the mills. The mill has cylinders of 800 millimeters diameter, with an endless apron cane con- ductor 30 meters long, and a bagasse conductor of 12 me- ters. The vacuum apparatus a. triple effet, similar to the one shown in the far-end of the gallery to the left, in the plate, will concentrate to a density of 29 Beaume, 2,200 hectoliters of juice per 24 hours. It is composed of three puns of dif- ferent diameters, with tubular heating coils presenting a total heating surface of 300 square meters. A circumferential distribution of the vapor is secured by means of an envelope of perforated sheet metal interposed between the cluster of tubes and the exterior walls of the vacuum pan. I.y means of a centra] vertical tube of large diameter placed in the pan the juice is caused to circulate rapidly, and great activity given to the evaporation by bringing fresh quantities of juice in contact with the heating surface. Systems of pipes and cocks form communication between the juice and the vapor departments of each pan, so that the work proceeds in continuous order in the series of pans upon the juice which flows through them in succession. An economy of 60 per cent is claimed to be realized in this apparatus over the silicic acting pan. An aspirator, feeding the first pan of the series, takes the place of the monte-jiix : a vacuum chamber placed behind the third pan serves as a /v.s- i'rujtirution to a pump which elevates the sirups at 25 B. into the filters ; a tubular condenser has a double action, in condensing a portion of the vapor in the third pan it heats the incoming juice to a temperature of 35 to 40 C. ; the other portion of the vapor is condensed by an injection con- denser ; the apparatus is completed by a double-acting air pump, r,n aspirating sirup pump, and a pump for the water of condensation. The plate shows a complete installation of paratus for the treatment of beet-root juice for the manufacture of sugar, as manufactured by the (.'tuniiuznie lies Fines LiUc. The establishments where the beets are rasped and the pulp pressed are situated at a distance, and the juice is conveyed t>y subterranean pipe-lines to the centrally situated sugar factory ; the system of Linard, as described by Maumeue in his "TraiU '!> In I'ah' tuition ilit Sucre," page 207, el seq. The cartage of beet-routs is very heavy and injurious to the roads, and the area of beet culture which can be made tributary to a single sugar factory is not very large, and had been so frequently readied that it became necessary to de- vise other means of transportation. Hence the pipe-lines of Linard. Since 1867, the year of the establishment of the first pipe-line at Mont Curiiet (Aisne), having a length of 8 kilometers, beet rasping works have been constructed in in- creasing numbers and at greater distances. There were in existence in 1875, 240 of these lines. One of them serves a factory 32 kilometers (20 miles) distant. The juice should be limed at the works, as it cannot with- out injury be poured into the pipes in its natural condition. One per cent, lime is employed, which is immediately dis- solved, and prevents all alteration of the juice in its travel. By the process adopted by Maumeng the juice may even be kept several years without injury, and the liming to the ex- tent of I per cent, is a modified application of the process. Derosne. about 1811, was the first to suggest quicklime in the purification of the juice, and the lime kiln or furnace, both for the milk of lyne used in the preliminary treatment and for the production of gas for the subsequent carbonation of the lime in a subsequent part of the treatment, is a constant feature in the immense .tiirreriix which dot the landscape in the northern part of France and the south of Belgium. After lining, the juice is allowed to repose for 24 hours and then the limpid liquid is pumped into the pipe, which is buried below the line of frost, and reaches from the r&perie to the sucrerie. The pipe may vary from 2.5" to 5" in diam- eter, according to the amount of juice to be delivered, gen- erally along a roadside, where the cantonnier can observe any leak, which always shows itself at the surface of the ground. The highest parts of the conduit are provided with air traps to allow air to escape and avoid (coups de belier) concussion. See AIR TRAP. The condition of the juice is verified from time to time, on arriving at the factory, to determine the proportions of lime added. The advantages of the pipe-line system consist in spread- ing the work, as the rasping and pressing require a much, larger number of men than the subsequent operations, and they are left in their villages near to their work and their fields ; the saving in hauling and deterioration of the roads \ leaving the pulp on the farms for cattle and sheep feed ; the convenience of buy ing the juice by the saccharometer degree instead of by the weight of the beets of such varying quali- ties. The conduit is used about 4 months, the length of the beet -work ing season. The apparatus shown in the plate will work up the juice of 80,000,000 kilos of beets in a season of three months. It employs carbonating boilers of 300 hectoliters capacity ; the vacuum pan, a triple effet, will concentrate 10,000 hectoliters of juice in 24 hours. Su'gar Spile. A spile or spout driven into the sugar-tree to conduct the sugar-water or sap to the bucket. Commonly made of alder, although the iron spile to hang the bucket on is extensively used. Su'gar Test'er. Apparatus for testing grape sugar. In using, place the metallic cup, in Fig. 2383, on the scale, and balance it with weight not numbered. Then place the Fig. 2383. Sugar Tester. small weight I on the scale, and in the cup E, put enough of the sugar you wish to test to exactly balance. Now place- the large weight, 2, on the scale, and pour into the cup a small quantity of warm water to dissolve the sugar ; when dis- solved add cold water enough to balance. Then pour off the solution into the glass jar, and test it with the hydrometer and thermometer. The hydrometer indicates the percentage of saccharine, while the thermometer shows any irregulari- ties or discrepancies of the hydrometer. The degrees below zero on the thermometer (Centigrade) are to be subtracted, the degrees above zero are to be added. Each degree on the thermometer is equal to 1-10 on the hydrometer. For exam- ple, the hydrometer indicates 85, the thermometer 8 above zero. This 8 is to be added to 85, making 85 and 8-10 per cent. If the thermometer should indicate 8 below, it would be necessary to deduct .8 from 85, which would make it 84.2. Sul'ky Plow. The Deere & Co.'s Gilpin Sulky Plow, Fig. 2384, is an iron and steel plow with the exception of the tongue and eveners. It is usually drawn by three horses abreast, one horse and one wheel in the furrow. it cannot jump out on encountering clods and trash. The sulky plow of the Sacket Plow and Pulverizer Co., of New York, has two plows so arranged and run that one plow skims off the surface sods, stubble, and weeds, and throws them into the bottom of the previous furrow, where they are pressed down and cut by an iron wheel with curved knives, or sharp-edged cross-bars, around its rim. Following this skim plow is a main plow, which takes up. SULKY PLOW. 874 SURFACE CONDENSER. Fig. 2384. Tkf Deere Sulky Plow. the cleared soil to any depth desired, and throws it inside of the iron pulverizing wheel. As this wheel rolls along, the soil is lifted and thrown against its cutting bars and points, and these pare and break it finely, dropping it out loosely behind, putting not an ounce of pressure upon it, but leav- ing it light and porous and aerated (filled with air). Sul'phate of Lead Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) The invention of M. Becquerel; consisting of zinc in sulphate of zinc, and lead in sulphate of lead. As improved by Marie-Davy, it consists of a verti- cal series of tinned iron pans ; each pan has a zinc disk fastened beneath it, and is coated inside with pulverized sulphate of lead, moistened with water. The buttery is put in operation by pouring water into the pans. Prescott'n "Electricity " ........... * 79. Niaudet, American translation ........ 150. Moseley's modification, "English Mechanic" . . *xxiv. 463. Sul'phate of Mer'cu-ry Bat'te-ry. (Elec- tricity.) A battery in which sulphate of mercury is the exciting solution. See MEKCURT BATTERY; MARIE-DAVY BATTERY. Beau fil' s sulphate of mercury battery has a solid depolarizer. "Tektj. Jour.," *vi. 397. Sul'phur and Am-mo'ni-a Test. In order to detect ammonia or sulphuret- ted hydrogen in illuminating gas it is only necessary to allow a jet of the gas to blow upon a piece of turmeric or red- dened litmus paper to ascertain the pres- ence of the former, or upon acetate of lead paper for the latter. Dr. Letheby's sulphur testing apparatus is a meter with dial arranged to show any consump- tion from .01 to 1,000 cubic feet, a double dry governor fitted with a regulating cock to main- tain mi unvarying rate of consumption under the usual street pressure, connected to tube passing through the stand, and leading to a Leslie burn- er, under which stands a glass beaker containing the requisite quantity of standard liquid ammo- nia. On this beaker is placed a glass funnel passing up op, were t passes troug te nec o te arge gass cy- inder, which has a. bent glass tube at the other end rising at an angle of about 45, the rate of consumption being one cubic foot per hour. An apparatus for ammonia can be supplied with the above, coiisisting of an ammonia tube, with bulb, etc.. at a small additional cost, as the 77ieter and governor can be used proper connections being made to pass the gas through the meter " after " the ammonia appara- tus. Sul'phur Con'crete. Mix together 19 Ibs. sulphur and 42 Ibs. pulverized stoneware and glass. This mixture is exposed to gentle heat until the sulphur melts, when the mass is stirred until it has become thoroughly homogeneous and is then run into molds and permitted to cool. When required for use, it is to be heated to 248 Fall., at which temperature it melts, and may be employed in the usual manner. At 230 Fah. it becomes as hard as stone, and, it is said, preserves its solidity in boiling water, unites stone, is waterproof, resists acids. Sul'phu-rine. A new metallic compound. Sulphides of metals, combined with molten sulphur, form a liquid, which on cooling becomes a homo- geneous mass of dark gray color and possessing great tenacity, while it is not affected by the atmos- phere, and resists acids and alkalies well. It has a comparatively low melting point, 320 Fah., and expands in cooling so that it nils molds very accu- rately, so well indeed that the marks of a finger on a plate of glass are reproduced. Experiments are being made to test its adaptability for printing and stereotyping purposes, and casts from gelatine molds have been made without destroying them. Sump. (Mining.) That part of the shaft be- low the platform used for receiving water. Sun Burn'er. A burner for a mineral-oil lamp, provided with a chimney that is wide at its base, and held in place by a thin circular metallic plate, cut with indentations around its outer edge, the metallic points acting as springs to hold the chim- ney in place. Surf Boat. Fig. 2385 represents a novel surf boat, the invention of Mr. Richard Tucker of Wis- casset. It is a circular boat, with convex upper and lower surfaces, and its entire interior forms a reservoir for holding compressed air to be used in the propulsion of the boat. The propelling device consists in air nozzles projecting to- wards the stern, one being placed in each space between the keels, of which there are several. The air nozzles have valves that are operated from the deck. The boat is steered by Fig. 2385. Surf Boat. closing the air valves on one side or the other, as may be re- quired. Sur'face Con-den'ser. One form of surface condenser is recommended by Appleby, where the supply of water is limited or costly, a good vacuum being stated to be more readily attainable by it than by any other method of condensation. As it is a circulating system in which the boiler is supplied from the hot well, the loss of water from steam passing info the atmosphere is but small, and the saving in the avoidance of scale is a marked advan- tage in some localities. It is used for steam en- SURFACE CONDENSER. 875 SWEAT ROLLING MACHINE. gines, vacuum pans, and elsewhere, when a vacuum is desirable. Tlic condenser is a vertical series of horizontal copper steam pipes, with cushion boxes at each end connecting with ver- tical hollow columns. Above is a copper trough with serra- ted cilges, from which water trickles down over the pipes and falls eventually into the hot well from which the boiler is supplied. The idea has been developed for some time in various branches The ordinary tubular condenser, in which the coil is sub- merged in a cistern of cold water, differs in substantial re- spects (Fig. 1415, "Meek. Diet.''), and the condenser for alcoholic vapors of sugar has also the cistern in which the coil is submerged. The Derosne condenser, however (Fig. 1421, " Meek. Diet."), one of the train in the sugar apparatus, has the same appearance as the Ap- plcb\ steam condenser, but their purpose and ap- plication are essentially different. In the Werosne the pipes are heated by Steam, and the sugar-cane juice from the defecator trickles over them, being heated and partially evap- orated on its way to the vacuum pan. In Appieby's the steam in the pipes is condensed to form a partial vacuum in front of the piston, and the water heated thereby supplies the boiler. For other systems of pipes in somewhat similar relation, see HI:EF. COOLER, l-'u-. i;;;i, "Meek. Diet."; LIQUID COOLER, Figs 2966- 2968, ' Mn-.li. Diet" ; WORT COOLER, Figs. 7360-7372, 7364, "Mec/t. Diet.," ete. Sur'face Griiid'iiig Ma-chine'. Thomson's surf are grinder, V\. 2386, has, depending from overhead, driving arrangements, constructed to latter is moved sideways on the carriage, which traverses on rails. Sur'face Mold'ing Ma-chine'. Boult's carver and moulder has a quick, reverse motion and douhle-edge cutters, cutting designs, either plain or molded, on the surface of the lumber in the solid wood. It molds any production of the scroll saw. It routs for staii's and pew ends, grooves and grounds for inlaying, and veins and traces for carving. Sur'face Pla'ner. The Farrar surface planer, Fig. 2387, is a machine of a large size, intended for Fig. 2387. Thomson, Sterne, Sf Co.'s ( Glasgow, Scotland), Surface Grinding Machine. grind and buff the surfaces of work too large or heavy to he taken to the ordinary grinding ma- chines. The illustration, Fig. 2385, shows the machine in position for finishing the exterior of a fire-proof safe, which is run beneath it upon a truck. The machine carries a consolidated emery wheel 14" in diameter by 2" broad. When required for buffing, the emery wheel is removed and a buff-wheel with spindle and pulley complete put in its place. Surface Planer. planing-mills, boat builders, etc. It has a station- ary cylinder, convenient to have the countershaft cither on the floor or overhead. It carries three knives with steel-lip chip breakers and steel jour- nals, with pulley for two driving belts running in self-oiling boxes, with a wronght-irou bonnet, that can be swung clear of the cutters. The rollers have folding weighted levers that are self-adjust- ing to the thickness of lumber. Sus-peii'sion Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) To support a wounded, luxated, or fractured limb. Generally a splint with means of suspension from a frame. Illustrations of the following are in Tlemanii's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum," Part IV.: fig. 2388. operator has easy and complete control in moving the grinder or buffer backward and forward over the work, while the Smith's anterior splint for the leg, Figs. 120, 154. Hogtlen's suspending apparatus, Fig. 130. Salt's cradle or swing, Fig. 156. Clark's suspended splint, Fig. 157. Buck's suspension appa- ratus, Fig. 174. Sayre's suspension appa- ratus, Figs. 193, 194. Swage Block. A large perforated and indented iron block for swaging iron into its desired shape. See Fig. 2388. Swa'ging Mal'let. Swage Block. A tool for swaging up artificial plates. Fig. 2388 represents formers used in silversmith's work. Swan'-neck Nee'dle For'ceps. (Surgical.) An instrument for use through curved passages difficult to reach. Swash Plate. A plate set obliquely on its axis and acting as a cam in a line parallel to the shaft. Sweat Rolling Ma-chine'. A machine for SWEAT ROLLING MACHINE. 876 SWITCH TABLE. turning the edge of the sweat-leather lining of hats to prevent its marking or hurting the forehead. Swaging Mallets. The machine has two rollers geared together and supported in a frame, the upper one held down by a rubber spring to allow it to yield to the varying thickness of the leather. Sweat Sew'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for sewing the sweat lining in hats. See Fig. 2390. Fig. 2390. Sweat Sewing Machine. Sweep. (Agric.) A kind of plow used in cul- tivating crops planted in rows, corn or cotton for instance. The term is especially applied in cotton cultivation, the share or snares being wide and cul- tivating a wide space to a moderate depth. By the inclination of the shave to the line of draft the soil is cast sideways and may throw it either away from the plants while small or towards the row when they are more advanced. See COTTOX SWEEP. Sweep Rake. The rake that clears the table of a self-rake reaper. Fig. 2391. Swing Churn. Swing Churn. A box churn suspended on the ivoted bed irons of the folding frame on which it See Fig. 2391. PI swings Swing'ing Valve. A swinging straightaway check valve. The clapper swings on a pin loosely, and the disk being made separately can be ground in the same as other valves. Swing Mo'tioii Gear. (Railway.) The ar- rangement of parts, consisting of bolster, spring- pknk, swing-hangers, pivots, and pins, support- ing the springs and truck-bolsters by which a car is enabled to swing laterally on the truck. Swing Saw. The swing cut-off saw is used for cutting up stuff for packing boxes, etc. It: lias counter shaft, hangers, and pulleys. Switch. For descriptions of switches, cross- ings, turn-outs, and frogs on Pennsylvania Kail- road, see report of F. Slataper. "Centennial Exhi- bition Reports," vol. vi., Group XVIII., p. 68. Switching Eye. (Railway.) A cast-iron socket on the corner of a freight car to which a chain or push bar may be applied by an engine on an adjoining track. Switch-ing-in' Plug. (Electricity.) A \ lug having its two brass sides insu- lated from each other by a strip of hard rubber and provided with a handle of the same material. The sides are adapted by binding screws to be connected respec- tively with the terminals of a loop or relay circuit so that when thrust into a plug-hole the two sides of which are similarly in- sulated and connected with the line terminals, the said loop and line will be in one circuit. Switch Ta'ble. The Jones (Fig. 2393) is a telephone ex- change switch board or table through which all the subscribers Switching-in Plug. can at any time communicate with each other. It is composed of the following component parts : Fig. 2392. Telephone lever switch. Generator of electric cur- rent. Plug plates. Plug connectors with flex- ible con Is. Drop or electrical indicator. Treadle. Spring jack. Plug sockets. Engine or generator key. Key board. Telephone key. See TELEPHONE. From the instrument of every subscriber in the city a wire is run to the exchange. When a subscriber wants to talk to any other subscriber, he calls up the Exchange by ringing his bell. The Exchange answers, finds out what he wants and who he wants to talk to, calls up that person, and con- nects or " switches " their wires together; then signals to subscriber No. 1 that he can go ahead and converse with No. 2, and leaves them to talk together as long as they please. When they are through, they signal to the Exchange, and he disconnects them. When it is stated that the average num- ber of " switches " made in the twenty-four hours, in Cin- cinnati, is 6,000, it will be seen to what an extent the busi- ness has grown. The " switch " tables, of which there are twelve in the Cin- cinnati Exchange, are in form of a common writing table, with a square frame standii.g up in front of the operator and fastened to the table. To this frame run the wires brought into the office through the cupola, each one of which is ticketed with the name of the subscriber to whose instrument it is attached. In each frame are from forty to fifty magnets to which these wires are connected. These act as holders for the wires, anil are numbered. Thus one end of each subscriber's wire is attached to the instrument in his office or home, and the other is fastened to this frame or the switch-board. The operator at every board knows the number of each subscri- ber. On the front of the frame facing the operator are a number of clamps, one to each magnet. There is also at- tached to each magnet a movable piece of metal, which works automatically. This is the marker, which tells the operator which line calls him, as it drops when the bell at the other end of the line is rung. Underneath the table is a machine worked by a treadle, which generates the electric current by friction, and is con- SWITCH TABLE. 877 TALKING MACHINE. Switch Table. nected by a wire with a clamp on the table On the table is a key -board, like the key-board of a type- writer. It contains two Ift-'je keys ami a number of small onec corresponding to the number of wires on the frame. One of the large keys is connected with the generator and the other with the tele- phone, which is fixed on an upright fastened to the table within reach of the operator's ear, leaving him at liberty to ule Clamp. One intended for the attachment of jeweler or amateur vises, without injury to the article to which they are attached. With it the vise can be clamped firmly to any kind of table, mantel, or projection. Sword Mat. (Nautical.) A mat worked with a blade like a sword to drive home the roving threads. It is made with shoulders to protect the laniards of lower rigging, boats, gripes, etc. Sym-pal'mo-graph. An instrument for mak- ing Lissajou's sound curves. "English Mechanic," *xxv. 18. Syr'inge. See INJECTOR. Syr'inge Gun. A tube with piston, ejecting water for disabling humming birds without destroy- ing them. T. TaTale Brush. (Leather.) A soft brush used by curriers to sweep shavings from the buffing ta- ble. Taf'fe-tas Ar'mure. ( Weaving ) One of the four principal characters of weaving. See ARMURE. This is a simple form of weaving, having but two harnesses, simply interlacing the threads of the warp and weft. This is the weave of broad-cloth, cotton shirtings and sheetings and mousseline de laines. The variations in the goods are cited under FABRIC. Take Up. (Weaving.) 1. The web roller on which the cloth is wound. 2. The device on a sewing machine for taking up the slack of the thread on the upward stroke of the needle. Take' Up Mo'tion. ( Weaving.) A device for automatically winding the tissue on to the cloth beam. See English form, "Scientific Amer. Supplement," *4091. Talk'ing Ma-chine'. During more than a TALKING MACHINE. 878 TANNIN-TESTING MACHINE. centurv inventors have turned their ingenuity to Constructing machines capable of imitating the hu- man voice/ though what practical purpose they might serve, if ever so perfect, it is difficult to dis- cover. One of the latest of these efforts is a ma- chine made by M. Faber. It consists essentially of three parts, the wind-producing system, the sound making apparatus, and the articulating arrangement. As for the first, nothing particular need be said : it is simply a species of bellows. The second, the sound-producer, the larynx, is an ivory tube so constructed that within certain limits the length may be varied so as to cause a difference in tone produced. Probably it would have been more successful had some more elastic material been adopted. The articulating apparatus includes a part for sounding the vowels, and another for pronouncing the con- sonants. The former are due to the passage of air through openings of different shapes, made in diaphragms placed suc- cessively in the current of air by the action of levers moved by the fingers ; in addition, a special cavity, destined to pro- duce nasal sounds, can be put in communication with the former at pleasure by means of a particular lever. The consonants are produced by pieces, the action of which is analogous to that of the lips, the teeth, and the tongue, and the rolling of the r is caused by a wheel. All these imitation organs are put in motion by 14 keys very ingeniously dis- posed in a way to produce the necessary intensity of action and variation in sequence of the parts destined to pronounce a syllable. The number of 14 keys is sufficient, for by cer- tain variations in the touch the intended sound can be reg- ulated as strong orweak at pleasure. As might be expected, the language of the machine is very monotonous, and is by no means perfect, as some sounds produce a much better effect than others : however, in general, the words pro- nounced are easily understood. They cannot be compared to the changes in the human voice, and whatever improve- ments the machine may receive, the question still remains, Of what use is it ? Talking Machine, Faber . * "Scientific American,'" xlii. 266. Ta'mise. (Fabric.) An all-wool French goods. Ta'niise Rep. (Fabric.) A corded all-wool French goods. Tam'pon. (Surgical.) a. A plug to arrest nasal hemorrhage. See EPISTAXIS. 6. An inflatable plug inserted in the trachea to prevent blood from entering the lungs while the surgeon is operating on the throat above the in- strument, the lungs being supplied with air through a silver tube. Trenflelenberg's, Fig. 391, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamen- tarium Chirurgicum.'' Tam'pon Screw. (Surgical.) An instrument with a screw-end to engage and insert or withdraw a tampon or compress to prevent hemorrhage. Sims', Fig. 468, Part III., Tiemann's " Armamentai ium ." Tan'dem Eii'gine. A steam engine in which the two cylinders are placed in line, one in front of the other, tandem fashion. See COMPOUND TANDEM ENGINE. Escher Wyss et Cie * "Enicine.fr," xlvi. 23. Kingdon * "Scientific Amer. Sup.," 3848. Tan'gent Garva-nom'e-ter. The Western Union standard tangent galvanometer, Fig. 2395, is mounted on a circular hard rubber base provided with leveling screws. It consists of a magnetized needle suspended at the center of a rubber ring, containing the coils. The coils are five in number, of the resistances, 0, 1, 9, 40. and 150 ohms (=r200). The first is a stout copper band of inappreciable resistance ; the others are of differ- ent sized copper wires, carefully insulated. The five terminals have plug-holes marked respectively 0, 1, 10, 50, and 200. The plugs inserted at the end of the terminal marked 200, puts in circuit all the coils : at the ter- minal marked 50, all except the 150 ohm coil ; and so on till at the zero terminal only the copper band is in circuit. An aluminum printer is fixed to the needle at right angles, extending across a 5" dial. On one side the dial is divided into degrees, on the other it is graduated, the figures of the scale corresponding to the tangent of the angles of deflec- tion. The needle is suspended by a jewel and points. In the base of the instrument are three resistance coils, of German silver wire, of 10, 500, and 5,000 ohms, having ter- minals and plugs. Tangent Galvanometer. A tangent galvanometer has been recently introduced by Louis Schwindler. The galvanometer has two coils, one of thick wire and few convolutions, offering no more than 1 ohm resistance ; another of thin copper wire, having a greater number of convolutions, and resistance of 100 ohms. Two sets of resistance coils for use with the above coils, respectively, one of 20 and 200 ohms, the other of 1,000 and 2,000 ohms. A simple reverser allows the readings of the galvanometer to be taken from either side of zero,, In order that the strength of the currents passing through the coils may be as nearly as possible proportional to the tangents of the deflections, the magnet has a length of less than one fifth of the diame- ter of the deflecting coil. The small magnetic needle carries a thin aluminum pointer fixed in the right angle of the nee- dle. In order that the needle after each deflection may come sooner to rest, the aluminum point carries small wind fans of the same metal. When closing the box the needle is taken off its pivot. Tank Lo-co-mo'tive. A form of tank loco- motive invented by M. N. Forney, of the " Railroad Gazette." It is adapted for narrow gage. The ten- der end of the frame is carried on a 4-whecl truck ; differing in this respect from the plantation loco- motive, which has a 2-wheel truck in its larger forms, and is destitute of a truck in the smaller engines, which are supported on 4 wheels only. The Forney locomotive resembles the usual pas- senger and freight narrow-gage locomotives modi- fied by connecting the engine and tender in one rigid frame. Tan'nin-test'ing Ma-chine'. Fig. 2396 represents the " Muntz " apparatus for testing the efficiency of any tanning solution or material. The principle involved consists in forcing a solu- tion containing tannin through a piece of hide. The density of the solution is taken before and after the operation, and a comparison of the den- sities enables the value of the solution to be read- ily determined. The figure shows the internal arrangement. Having taken a small piece of raw hide, and placed it inside, on the DM6 of the apparatus, the india-rubber cover is closed down over it, and secured by the screws in the claws. The liquid to be tested is then poured in on the top of the piece of hide through the small opening, which is fitted with a screw stopper, B. This done, pressure is brought to bear by turning the per- pendicular main screw v at the bottom of which is attached a brass disk, which gradually compresses the india-rubber cover, and forces the liquid to filter through the hide. The screw must be tightened up occasionally so as to maintain the pressure. A glass is placed beneath the machine to re- ceive the liquid, which percolates drop by drop. When suf- ficient has been obtained to fill a small test glass, the den- sity is taken. To do this the glass should be filled with the \ TANNIN-TESTING MACHINE. 879 TAWING. Tig. 2396. Tannin Tester. first liquid kept in reserve, and the tannometer inserted. In a few minutes it will become steady, and the degree is then noted. The same process must be repeated with the filtered liquid. The difference of de- grees between the two densi- ties shows the percentage of tannin in the analyzed sub- stance. This difference is mul- tiplied by 40 if 'ty per cent of stuff is put into water ; by 21 1, if 5 per cent ; by 10, if 10 per cent ; and by 5, if 20 pur cent. For instance, if the tannome- ter marks for the first liquid 2.8, and for the second 1.3, the difference, 1.5, or lj, must be multiplied by 40 if we have taken 2J per cent., which gives 60 per cent, of tannin; by 20 if we have taken 5 per cent., which gives 30 per cent, of tan- nin ; by 10 if we have taken 10 per cent., which gives 15 per cent, of tannin. The tannometer referred to is practically a hydrometer, which is supplied with the in- strument, with it were de- tected the valuable properties ofbalsamo carpon, which, when gathered ripe, and the gum ta- ken off free from the fiber of the pod, contains 80 per cent, of feanuic acid. It is this gum which weights the leather. Gall nuts are liked by the tan- ners, but it is now found that the property of gallic acid is to open the pores and allow the other weighting materials to enter the hide. With this small machine, tanners and chemists can test the bark from different trees, some of which are known to yield tannic acid, and are employed for the manufacture of ink and dye, but have never been used for tanning leather. The hide takes from the solution all the properties it requires when the substance is filtered. Tannin extract factory . "Scientific American Sup.," 1603. Toting appa., Muntz. * "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxiv. 355. Muntz, Br * "Engineer," xli. 171. Tannic acid extractor. Thomson *" Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 144. Tar'get. 1. A signal used at railroad crossings and switches. See SIGNALS. 2. A shield used for proof of heavy guns. Shoeburyness, Britain, * Report of Cols. Barnard and Wright, U. S. Engineers, Fabrication of iron for defensive purposes, Supplement, No. 21. Targets of 100-ton gun * " Scientific Amer.,'' xxxvi. 150. Tangent galvanometer. Obach, Br * "Engineering," xxviii. 351. Tas'e-om'e-ter. Invented by Steiuer, of Vi- enna, for measuring the strains of structures. It depends upon the tone given out by a wire or strip when stretched. The wire being attached the variation in length of the bar causes a change in the tone. "Telegraphic Jour- nal,-' vi. 126. The strain measurer of M. Clevenad, of Paris, is figured in the " Annnlfs ties Ponts et C/iausxees,'" and is designed to measure directly the strains to which the different parts of any structure are submitted. See STRAIN MEASURER. See TESTING MACHINE. Ta-sim'e-ter. A device for measuring very minute variations of temperature. It is founded on the property, discovered by Edison, that lampblack, when pressed in the form of a button, affects the electric currents passing through the same, and offers a re- sistance, which diminishes with the pressure, and so sensi- tive is it that when this pressure varies to the amount of only one millionth part of an inch, the variation in the elec- tric current passing through it will cause a variation in the deflection of the galvanometer needle, and this variation will be in proportion to the pressure. Thus, for instance, if the carbon button is pressed by a strip of vulcanite, and the warm hand is held at a distance of 4" from it, the expansion by heat of this strip, and the consequent increased pressure, will cause an increase in the conductibility of the carbon, and the electric current which previously passed through and made the galvanometer deflect a certain number of degrees, will cause a greater deflection. The same will take place when a gas flame or a match is ignited in the room, even at a distance of 4'. ]f a strip of gelatine is used to press the carbon button, its expansion by moisture will be indicated in the same way, when a piece of moistened paper or a wet finger is held at a distance of 4" or 5" ; the heat of a lighted cigar, drying the gelatine, will cause it to contract again, di- minished pressure is the result, the current passing through the carbon undergoes greater resistance, and the deflection of the needle will be in the opposite direction. This instrument is an outgrowth of Edison's experiments with that form of the telephone with which he tried to vary the intensity of electric waves by means of the voice. It promises to be a most importunt addition to the delicate in- struments for measuring very minute variations of tempera- ture. Thus far the most delicate instrument known to science for determining, for instance, the heat iu the different parts of the solar spectrum, has been the thermopile. This instru- ment is based on .Seebeclrs discovery that when metals of different kind? are jointed together, and the joint is heated, an electric current is produced, passing from one metal to the other. By multiplying the joints and connections of the metals, after the principle of a galvanic battery arranged for very great intensity, very small variations of temperature can be observed by the electric currents generated, and their action upon the magnetic needle of the galvanometer. The great superiority of the tasinieter over the thermopile may be illustrated in a simple manner. If a few inches from the former a hot iron is placed, it will deflect the needle of an ordinary galvanometer say one degree; holding the warm finger 4" from the tasimeter with the same galvanometer, will swing the needle round some six degrees. The applications, actual and projected, of the instrument are numerous : To warn vessels of the approach of icebergs by exposure to- the air or to the water cooled by their vicinity. To indicate otherwise inappreciable weights, as such laid on the apparatus will affect it. To record pressures of air in motion ; affording a delicate and useful addition to the anemometer. "Manufacturer ff Builder," x. 149; Prescott's "Speaking Telephone," etc., * p. Fig. 2396 shows in perspective the latest form of the Edison, tasimeter. See also MICROTASIMETER. Tasimeter .... "Scientific American," xxxix. 143. Fig. 2397. Tasimeter. Tast'ing Hole. A hole in a cementing furnace at which trial bars are left to protrude in order to permit examination of the condition of the process. The same term is applied to holes in other fur- naces left for examination of contents. Taw'ing. Tanning a lamb-skin with the wool on it. Make a strong soapsuds, using hot water; when it is cold wash the skin in it, carefully squeezing it between t/.o hands to get the dirt out of the wool ; then wash the so;ip out with clean, cold water; next dissolve alum and salt, of each half a pound, in a little hot water, which put into a tub of cold water sufficient to cover the skin, and let it soak in it over- TAWING. 880 TELEGRAPH. night, or 12 hours ; now hang the skin over a pole to drain ; when well drained spread or stretch carefully on a board to dry. It need not be tacked down if drawn out several times with the hand while drying. When yet a little damp, sprinkle pulverized saltpeter and alum (an ounce each mixed tngeilier) on the flesh side, rubbing it in well. It is now to hang in the shade two or three days, the flesh side in, until perfectly dry. When entirely dry, 'scrape the flesh side with a blunt knife to remove any scraps of flesh. Trim off all projecting points, and rub the flesh side with pumice or rot- ten stone, and with the hands. Prepared in this way it is white and beautiful, suitable for a door-mat, and also nice for the feet in a sleigh or wagon in cold weather. Teem'ing. Pouring ; as for instance, the weighing of steel ingots during teeming, that is, while running into the mold. See apparatus of Ferdinand Moro, Kladno Iron Works, Austin, * "Engineering,'-' xxx. 270. Tel-au'to-graph. An electrical device for transmitting autographs, or copying designs. An ingenious application of the same general principles as Morse's telegraphic alphabet. A message is written by the sender in an ink which does not conduct the electric cur- rent, and the paper is placed in such a position that a style, or metallic pencil, drawn by machinery across the sheet, covers it with an infinite number of lines, drawn so closely as at first sight to produce the effect of almost continuous coloring, the letters remaining uncolored. Whatever is done at one end of a telegraphic wire can be repeated with ease at the other, and a, facsimile of the original is inscribed simul- taneously, and by the same means, at the receiving station. Thus, an autographic message with recognizable signature or a telegraphic check may be instantaneously transmitted by any telegraph fitted with the proper apparatus. This sys- tem is actually employed on at least one Italian line, and it seems somewhat strange that, considering its extreme sim- plicity and the great convenience of a recognizable autograph, the use of such a process has not become more general. The possibility of deception and the impossibility of automatic unquestionable record, such as the copying-press gives to letters, greatly restrict the use of the ordinary telegraph by men of business ; and both inconveniences are removed, it is said, by the employment of telautography. Te-lec'tro-scope. An apparatus for repro- ducing by telegraph the images obtained in the camera obscura. This apparatus is based on the property possessed by selenium of offering a va- riable and very sensitive electrical resistance ac- cording to the different gradations of light. The apparatus consists of an ordinary camera obscura, containing at the focus an unpolished glass, and any system of autographic-telegraphic transmission ; the tracing point of the transmitter intended to traverse the surface of the unpol- ished glass, will be formed of a small piece of selenium held by two springs acting as pincers, insulated and connected, one with a pile, the other with tlie line. The point of the selenium will form the circuit. In gliding over the surface, more or less lightened up, of the unpolished glass, this point will communicate, in different degrees, and with great sen- sitiveness, the vibrations of the light. The receiver will also be a tracing point of blacklead or pencil for drawing very finely, connected with a very thin plate of soft iron, held al- most as in the Bell telephone, and vibrating before an electro- magnet, governed by the irregular current emitted in the line. This pencil, supporting a sheet of paper arranged so as to receive the impression of the image produced in the camera obscura, will translate the vibrations of the metallic plate by a more or less pronounced pressure on that sheet of paper. Tel'e-graph. The following is the chronology of the telegraph. TELEGRAPHS BY ELECTRICITY. 1774. Georges Louis Lesage, Geneva, setup the first tel- egraph line, which consisted of 24 insulated wires for the alphabet, each terminating in a pith-ball electroscope, duly lettered, for indicating by its excitation the succession of letters in the message, the transmitting operator using a manual conductor from an electrical machine. 1787. Mons. Lomond, Paris employed a single brass wire in connection with pith-ball electroscopes, making use of an alphabet of motions. 1794. M. Reiser, Geneva, used 36 insulated wires for let- ters and numerals, in connection with a like number of nar- row strips of tin foil pasted on glass ; the letters and figures were cut in the foil and made visible by the passage of the electric spark. 1795. Tiberius Cavallo, England, sent explosive and other electric signals through fine insulated copper wire, using Leyden jars, and sending " sparks at different intervals ac- cording to a settled plan.'' 1798. D. F. Salva, Spain, worked an electric telegraph through the unprecedented distance of 26 miles, using a sin- gle wire, and the sparks of a Leyden jar for signals. 1816. Francis Ronalds, England, constructed an experi- mental telegraph line, of a single insulated wire 8 miles long, operated by an electrical machine, or small Leyden jar. His elementary signal was the divergence of the pith-balls of a Cauton's electrometer, produced by the communication of a statical charge to the wire. Lettered dials, rotated synchro- nously at each end of the line, served, in connection with the pith-balls, to indicate the letter designated by the sender. This dial system was the precursor of Wheatsooiie's dial tel- egraph in 1839 ; House's letter printing telegraph in 1846 ; and Hughes's printing telegraph in 1855. 1828. Harrison Gray Dyar, America, constructed a tele- graph on Long Island, supporting his wires by glass insula- tors fixed on trees and poles; the electric signals printed themselves upon litmus paper, the spacing of the marks in- dicating the letters and other signs. Just as Dyar and his partner Brown were seeking capital to set up a line between New York and Philadelphia, a black-mailing agent, failing to extort the concession of a large share in the enterprise, obtained a writ against the two partners on a charge of con- spiracy to carry a secret communication between tin; cities '. The case was never brought to trial, but the enterprise was blocked. According to Steinheil, these various experiments put it beyond a doubt that frictional electricity might be made a successful means of telegraphic intercourse. TELEGRAPHS BY GALVANISM. 1808. The first to apply to telegraphy the galvanic bat- tery introduced by Volta, in 180i>, was Dr. Samuel Thomas Von Soemmering, of Munich. He employed the energy of a powerful voltaic pile to bring about the decomposition of water by means of 35 goldjins immersed in an oblong glass trough. Each of these electrodes was in connection with one of the 35 wires forming the line. The bubbles evolved at these electrodes were received in lettered and figured tubes, and the messages were thus spelled out. In 1810 Soemmer- ing telegraphed through two miles of wire. 1816. Dr. John Redman Coxe, of Philadelphia, suggested a system substantially the same as Soemmering's (of which he appeared to be ignorant). He also proposed to accomplish the same result by decomposing metallic salts, as was after- wards done. 1843. Mr. Robert Smith, Scotland, devised a galvano- chemical telegraph carrying out practically the suggestion of Dr. Coxe. At first he used a separate wire for each let- ter, the message being printed on a strip of paper wet with a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium. Subsequently Mr. Smith reduced his line to a single circuit of two wires, and worked his system through 1,800 yards of fence wire (1846). 1846. Mr. Alexander Bain, Scotland, patented in Eng- land a galvano-chemical telegraph, different in mechanical details, but similar in its chemical record to the system of Smith. 1849. Prof. Samuel F. B. Morse, New York, patented in this country a telegraph similar to Smith's. TELEGRAPHS BY GALVANO-MAGNETISM. 1820. Hans Christian Oersted, Copenhagen, rediscovered the directive influence of a galvanic conductor on a magnetic needle (Romagnosi's observations of the same in 1802 having attracted no attention). The same year (1820) Professor Schweigger, of Halle, made the first real galvanometer; and shortly after Ampere, in Paris, proved experimentally the feasibility of an electro-magnetic telegraph, in which the galvanometer should take the place of the electrometer em- ployed by Lesage. 1823. Baron Paul L. Schilling, of Cronstadt, Russia, practically applied Ampere's suggestion. In his apparatus signals were produced by five galvanometer needles, provided with independent circuits. 1824. Peter Barlow, England, experimenting with con- siderable lengths of wire, to test the practicability of Am- pere's suggestion, was convinced that it was impracticable, owing to the rapid diminution of effect (due to increased re- sistance), by lengthening the conducting wire. Other in- conclusive experiments in the same direction were made bv Fechter in 1829, and Ritchie in 1830. 1833. Prof. Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Edward Weber constructed at Gottingen a galvanometer telegraph of a single circuit of uninsulated wire a mile and a half long. The alphabet of signs was made up of right and left deflec- tions of the needle, observed by reflections from a small mir- ror. Gauss was the first to employ magneto-electricity in telegraphs. Weber added to the signaling device a delicate apparatus for setting off a clock alarm. 1836. Prof. C. A. Steinheil, of Munich, undertook, at the TELEGKAPH. 881 TELEGRAPH. request of Gauss, the development of the arrangement above described, and constructed a similar galvanometer telegraph line two miles in length, introducing considerable improve- ments. The next year Steinheil discovered that the ground might be made a part of the circuit, thus dispensing with a second wire for the return circuit. 1S37. Mr. William Fothergill Cooke and Prof. Charles Wheatstone patented in England a galvanometer or needle telegraph very similar to the earlier one of Schilling, em- ploying six wires and five indicating needles. An experimen- tal Hue a mile and a quarter long was worlied with partial success Julv 25 : and one thirteen miles long was established in 1838. While these experiments with the needle were going on the electro-magnet was being developed anil applied. 1820. The gerin of the electro-magnet was discovered by Arago, who observed that the electric current would develop magnetic power in strips of iron and steel. lS'2t. William Sturgeon, England, produced the true electro-magnet with its intermittent control of an armature. The electro-magnet of Sturgeon was improved by Professor Henry in 1828 ; and in 1829 he exhibited a larger magnet of the same character, tightly wound with 35' of silk covered wire. A pair of small galvanic plates, which could be dipped into a tumbler of diluted acid, was soldered to the ends of the wire, and the whole mounted on a stand. This was the first magnetic spool or bobbin. This invention was further improved the same year, and in 1830 Professor Henry, as- sisted by Dr. Philip Ten Eyck, constructed an electro-mag- net which lifted 750 pounds. In 1831 he njade one weigh- ing 82J pounds, which sustained over a ton. In the mean- time Professor Henry practically worked out the differing functions of quantity and intensity magnets, and experi- mentally established the conditions required for magnetiz- ing iron at great distances through long conducting wires. This first made the electro-magnet available for telegraphic purposes. 1831. The transmission of signals through a mile of cop- per bell wire interposed in a circuit between a small Cruik- shank's battery and an intensity magnet a practical tele- graph was practiced by Professor Henry. " This memorable experimental telegraphic arrangement involved three very significant and important novelties. In the first place, it was the first electro-magnetic telegraph em- ploying an ' intensity ; magnet capable of being excited at very great distances from a suitable ' intensity ' battery. . . " In the second place, it was the first electro-magnetic tel- egraph employing the armature as a signaling device, or em- ploying the attractive power of the intermittent magnet, as distinguished from the directive action of the galvanic cir- cuit. That is to say, it was, strictly speaking, the first mag- netic telegraph. " In the third place, it was the first acoustic electro-mag- netic telegraph." Further on Mr. Taylor pertinently remarks that it is sug- gestive to consider how different would have been the popu- lar estimate of Professor Henry's labors if he had been worldly-wise enough to secure an early patent on Dhese three indisputably original and most pregnant features of teleg- raphy. 1837. Prof. Samuel F. B. Morse devised a magneto-electric telegraph capable of transmitting signals through a circuit of 4'J', but failed for longer distances from the circumstance that he used a quantity current. His friend, Dr. Gale, made for him an intensity battery, and added a hundred or more turns to the coil of wire around the poles of the maguet. With these necessary (a;id radical) improvements the appara- tus was made to work through ten miles of wire. In apply- ing for a caveat for his invention, October 6, 1837, Professor Morse specified six distinct parts, not one of which enters into the established " Morse " telegraph of to-day. Mr. Tay- lor shows that Professor Morse's real contribution to teleg- raphy consists first in the adaptation of the armature of a Henry electro-magnet to the purpose of a recording instru- ment ; and second, in connection therewith, the improve- ment on the Gauss and Steinheil dual-sign alphabets, made by employing the single line dot and dash alphabet. In his general summary of the history of the origin and development of the electro-magnetic telegraph, Mr. Taylor sets down the leading preparatory investigations and discov- eries as these five : 1. The discovery of galvanic electricity by Galvani, 1786- 1790. 2. The galvanic or voltaic battery by Volta, 1800. 3. The directive influence of the galvanic current on a magnetic needle by Romagnosi, 1802, and by Oersted, 1820. 4. The galvanometer by Schweigger, 1820 (the parent of the needle system). 6. The electro-magnet by Arago and Sturgeon, 1820-1825 (the parent of the magnet system). The second half dozen capital steps in the evolution of telegraphy were : 1. Henry's most vital discovery, in 1829 and 1830, of the intensity magnet and its intimate relation to the intensity battery. 56 2. Gauss's improvement, in 1833 (or probably Schilling's, considerably earlier), of reducing the electric conductors to a single circuit by the ingenious application of a dual sign, so combined as to produce a true alphabet. (The anticipa- tions of this idea by Lomond in 1787, Cavallo in 1795, and Dyar in 1825, are not regarded as practically influential in the progress of telegraphy.) 3. Weber's discovery, in 1833, that the conducting wires of an electric telegraph could be carried through the air with- out insulation, except at the points of support. 4. As a valuable adjunct to telegraphy, Daniell's invention of a constant galvanic battery in 1836. 5. Steinheil's discovery, in 1837, that a single conducting wire is sufficient for telegraphic purposes. 6. Morse's adaptation of the armature of a Henry electro- ; magnet as a recording instrument, 1837, and the single line ! dot and dash alphabet in 1838. The earlier needle type of electro-magnetic telegraph has found its special application in ocean lines, no element of the Morse system entering into the operation of submarine cables. The more recent telegraphic developments do not fall with- in the scope of Mr. Taylor's review. A few other dates, as given by Prescott, may appropriately serve to complete this i chronology. 1861. Reiss discovered that a vibrating diaphragm could be actuated by the voice so as to cause the pitch and rhythm of vocal sounds to be transmitted to a distance and repro- duced by electro-magnetism. 1872. Stearns perfected a duplex system, whereby two i communications could be simultaneously transmitted over one wire. 1874. Edison's quadruplex system was invented. 1874. Gray invented a method of electrical transmission, by means of which the intensity of tones as well as their pitch and rhythm could be reproduced at a distance ; and subsequently conceived the idea of controlling the forma- tion of electric waves by means of the vibrations of a dia- phragm capable of responding to all the tones of the human voice. 1876. Telephone invented. Bell invented an improve- ment in the apparatus for the transmission and reproduction of articulate speech, in which magneto-electric currents were superposed upon a voltaic circuit, and actuated an iron dia- phragm attached to a soft iron magnet. During the same year Dolbear conceived the idea of using permanent magnets in place of the electro-magnets and battery previously em- ployed, and of using the same instrument for both sending and receiving. 1877. Edison's carbon telephone was brought out. To these may be added Edison's electro-motograph or elec- tro-chemical telephone, 1877. 1878. Duplexing of ocean telegraph. 1879. Cowper's writing telegraph. 1880. Field's successful substitution of dynamo-elec- tricity for galvanic batteries in telegraphing. 1800. Volta, Italian, discovery of galvanism. Galvani, Italian, discovery of galvanism. 1809. Soemmering, suggestion of application of galvan- ism to telegraph. Oersted, Dane, galvanometer. Ampere, French, astatic needle. 1825. Ohm, German, law of strength of current. 1833. Gauss. Weber. Becquerel, constant battery. Daniell, constant battery. Steinheil, discovery of earth circuit. Commander Cameron of the British navy says that the Morse system of telegraphy, as far as it depends on the length of sounds, has long been in use in Africa. He has found tribes that, by stationing drummers at intervals, carry intelligence for miles with great rapidity, the beats of the drum being made in accordance with a. previous arrange- ment of signals. A message of 69 words, forwarded by the governor of Vic- toria, announcing the opening of the Melbourne Exhibition, was dispatched from Melbourne at 1 p. M., and reached Lon- don at 3.43 A. M., on the same day, or 9 hours 17- minutes before the hour of its dispatch. Allowing, however, for the difference of time between the two cities, it occupied only Telegraph Company, the lines of the Indian government, the cables of the Eastern Telegraph Company, and the lines of the Egyptian and French governments, and the rapidity of its transmission shows the harmony with which these va- rious administrations work together. The total distance traversed was 13,398 miles. The annual report of the president of the Western Union Telegraph Company for the year ending June 30, 1880, fur- nishes many figures of interest to others than the stockhold- ers of the company. The latter, however, appear to have no reason to complain, the net profits of the company for TELEGRAPH. 882 TELEMETER. the year footing up over 5,000,000, the capital stock of the company being about $41,000,000. The net profits for the fourteen years from 1866 to 1880 exceed 845,000,000. The telegraph business of the year is represented by 29,215,509 messages, $12,78^,894.63 receipts, $6,948,956.74 expenses, and $5,833,937.79 profits. The company has in operation 85,645 miles of line, 233,534 miles of wire, and occupies 9,077 offices. The new offices established and equipped dur- ing the year number 543. The number of messages sent was over 4,000,000 more than the year before. The increase in mileage of wire was 22,000 miles ; the increase in miles of pole lines was 2,658. The ratio of expenses was 54.3 per cent, of the receipts, against expenses of 56.2 per cent, the previous year, and of 63.9 per cent, the year preceding that, and the cost per message reduced to the average of 22.3 cents, against 23.1 cents the previous year, 25 cents the year preceding that, and 29.8 cents the year ending in 1877. The wires of long circuits in continental Europe are 5 mm. diameter, weighing about 540 Ibs. per English mile. Smaller lines have wire of 4 mm., = to Am. No. 9, about 320 Ibs. per mile. Branch lines have wire of 3 mm., 200 Ibs. per mile. In England large and important lines use No. 4 gage, = 800 Ibs. per mile. The majority of American lines has No. 9 gage, = 320 Ibs. per mile. A portion of the remainder is No. 8, = 380 Ibs. per mile. 8 per cent, is No. 6, = 540 Ibs. : and some No. 10, r= 270 Ibs. The Cumming periphery - contact telegraph key, it is claimed, has no jar or sticking points, and has a close needle point contact. Two disks are placed at right angles to each other, and the connection between the two is only a needle- point of surface. The adjustability of the electrodes is such that if connection should be arrested, both wheels can be changed in an instant by turning each slightly on its axis to a new bright surface. The electrodes connect firmly, so that the trunnion can be screwed tight without affecting the correct working of the key. The system of wheels and axles forms an elastic bed, that, taken in connection with the dot contact and close adjustment, makes it possible to work the key all day without any lost motion to fatigue the hand or try the nerves. Commander Perrier read a paper at the last meeting of the Geographical Society of Paris, on the determination of the longitude of Algiers by telegraphy. The exact longitude is 2' 50.21" east from Paris, the probable error being only 0.01". The time required for the transmission of the elec- tricity from Paris to Marseilles was found to be only 2-100 of a second ; the distance between these two cities being 863 kilometers, it shows that the velocity of the electricity was not less than 46,000 kilometers per second. Similar experi- ments tried on the submarine cable between Algiers and Marseilles proved that the time required to travel was 23-100 of a *econd ; for a distance of 926 kilometers this shows a velocity of only 4,000 kilometers. But the battery used for signaling in the aerial line was composed of 100 elements, and only ten elements were used in the sub-Mediterranean cable. For history of and record of improvements, see Telegraphy, history of Musical, La Cour . . * Progress of. C. W. Siemens . . Ocean telegraphy, paper on, Field .... Longitude by telegraph Multiplex printing tele- graph, Baudot, Fr. . * Multiplex telegraph. Meyer-Baudot . . . Meyer * Telegraphing without wires Telegraph, underground System, Meyers . . * Writing, Dolbear . . * New Zealand . . . Apparatus, ocean . . Pneumatic, Guattari . * Cable, appr., Tomassi * Cables, Atlantic, ''Engineering " . Relative durability . Cable ship " Faraday ; ' * Electro-harmonic, Gray Key, Byrns . . . . * Double current, Trimntfr ... * Instrument, Bramiio * Sound * Military, Trouve . . * Tel'e-graph Wire. In one fcim of under- f round telegraph system the naked copper wires are rawn through glass tubes, which are firmly held in position in the iron pipe hy pamffine wax. For lateral connections, as well as convenience in lay- ing, traps are used, into which the pipes are screwed, the wires passing over non-conducting bridges, as 2398. "Manufacturer If Builder.'' p. 62, 1873 ; x. 110. "Scientific American,'' xxxv. 136. " Scientific American Sup.," 1813. "Scientific American," xl. 195. "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 1366. "Engineering,'' 1 xxvi. 227. "Telegraphic Journal,'' vi. 502. "Engineering," xxiv. 6. "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 97. "Scientific American Sup.,'' 908. "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 311. Lines' 1 "Rspt. Vienna Exp.,"1S'i3. "Scientific American," xl. 376. "Scientific American Sup." 3. "Scientific American Su/>.," 145. "Scientific American Sup.," 555. " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 47. " Van Nostr. Mag.," xxiii. 502. " Telegraphic Journal," iv. 56. "Engineer," xli. 295. " Scientific American," xxxv. 258. "Scientific American Sup.," 807. "Scientific American Sup.," 1478. " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 114. "Scientific American," xxxv. 391 "Scientific American," xxxv. 23. Trap for Underground Telegraph Wire. . shown in Fig. 2398, thus allowing any wire to be taken out and replaced without interfering with the working of the others. The pipes are con- nected by a coupling, which, after being bolted to- gether, is completely sealed ; the traps being closed and sealed in like manner. By this system there is claimed to be no crossing of wires, no difficulty from atmospheric changes, no cutting of wires in cases of riot, no imperiling of life and property by the breaking down of poles and wires by snow storms or fires (causing inter- ruption of telegraphic communication) ; but a per- fectly reliable telegraphic connection under all cir- cumstances. Te-lem'a-chon. A name applied by Wallace, of Ansonia, Conn., to his apparatus for transfer- ring power from the Naugatuck river to his factory, a quarter of a mile off. A dynamo-electric ma- chine transforms mechanical power into electricity, and an electric motor reverses the operation and turns the current into power. Loss stated at 20 per cent. Te-lem'e-ter. A device for determining rapidly and accurately distances on the earth's surface. Various mechanical devices for these purposes have been invented, but none hitherto similar to that illustrated, de- vised by Lieutenant Gaumet, French army, which is adapted for carriage in the pocket. A perspective view of the in- strument is given in Fig. 2399. Fig. 2400 shows the interior. Two mirrors are disposed on a metallic plate so that an angle of 46 is made between them. One mirror is fixed ; the other is mounted on a movable alidade, so that the ahove angle can be varied from 41 to 49. A micrometric screw of .04" travel per turn has a disk on its head, which is divided cir- cumferentially into 100 parts. This screw moves in double nuts on the metallic plate. The disk travels in front of a divided rule, each division of which equals .04". A spring causes constant contact between the arm of the alidade and the extremity of the micrometric screw. All the above parts are contained in a rectangular box, as shown in Fig. 2399, having at its rear an opening for the eye, and on the right side a similar aperture through which the Fig. 2399. Telemeter. PLATE XLVIII. TELEPHONES. See page TELEMETER. 883 TELEPHONE. Fig. 2400. Fig. 2401. rays pass to the mirrors. The principle on which the device is constructed is a simple application of that of double reflec- tion. When a luminous ray is reflected successively by two mirrors placed in a plane perpendicular to the intersection of the mirrors, the angle formed by the incident and re- flected ray is double the angle of the mirrors. In order to measure the distance by the instrument three operations are necessary. These will be understood from Fig. 2401, and are as follows : 1, to determine the right angle CAM; 2, measure a base A B ; S, meas- u r e an angle at A a B. A c being the distance to be deter- mined. The observer posts himself at A, the point C being on his right. The re- flected image of this point then appears directly above the direct image of the fixed station M, which is regarded in direction perpendicu- lar to A C. (The angle C A M is right whenever the two mirrors make an angle of 45. ) The observer now, by means of a tape provided with the instrument, measures off a dis- tance along the line A Mot A 3 = 60'. He then proceeds to a and regards anew the signal point M, between which and c there will no longer be a coincidence, the latter appearing to the right, say at c". To reestablish the coincidence the movable mirror is turned to an angle equal to J C" B M, which equals J A c B. The angle of rotation of the mirror is in the instrument measured by its tangent by the aid of the micrometric screw. This gives a very close approxi- mation. When the coincidence above referred to is ob- tained the nurnb'er of turns made by the screw is read from the scale, and this equaU the meas- ure of the tangent of the angle of rotation of the mirror. This angle of rotation is half the an- gle A a B. The relation, there- fore, between the distance from the pivot of the movable mirror to the axis of the micrometric screw and double the number of divisions equals the ratio be- tween the unknown distance and the base measure. Therefore, D being the distance to measure ; b, the base taken, -ay 60' ; /, the distance of the pivot as above, which in the instrument is 2.2", and n the number of divisions, we have D 1 22 = or D =n b b 2.n n Whence we obtain for each instrument a constant which, divided by the number on the scale, at once gives the dis- tance sought. On every instrument a table prepared from the above formula is fixed so that the observer merely has to glance thereat to determine the distance without calcula- tion. This invention is in principle the same as that patented in the United States, March 16, 1875, by Mr. William F. Hausch, of Chicago, 111. Tel'e-phoiie. An acoustic telegraph. A modification of the electric telegraph, whereby sounds, and especially articulate sounds are conveyed to a dis- tance The telephone of Prof. Alex. Graham Bell, Plate XLVIII., Fig. 2402, consists of an insulated permanent magnet, in form of a cylindrical rod, which is enveloped with a wire coil that communicates at one extremity with the ground and by its other extremity with a similar coil around a like magnet at the distant station whose unattached end communicates in like manner with the ground. Opposite the outer end of each magnet is stretched a thin metallic diaphragm (usually ferrotype sheets) to which a mouth-piece is attached. Sounds projected into the mouthpiece vibrate the diaphragm, and by so doing increase and diminish the polarity of the mag- net. This acting inductively on the inclosing coil transmits electrical impulses through the connecting wire to the dis- tant coil, which in turn operates to magnetize and demag- netize its inclosed bar, which finally sets up vibrations on the adjacent diaphragm, similar to that in the sending sta- tion, thus converting the electrical impulses back into sound. The telephone system depends for its efficiency upon three distinct elements : the telephone, the microphone transmit- ter, and the exchange table and system. The telephone generally used consists essentially of a thin Plan reflected in the Telemeter. metallic diaphragm, suitably mounted in a sound-receiving chamber with a mouth-piece, and a short bar of magnetized iron secured adjustably in the handle of the instrument at right angles to the diaphragm, nearly, but not quite in con- tact therewith. A coil of insulated wire surrounds the mag- netized bar at its diaphragm end, and is connected with the line wire and with the ground respectively. Speech or other sounds projected into the mouth-piece cause vibrations of the diaphragm which produce fluctua- tions in the magnetism of the bar. Induced currents of electricity are thereby brought into play in the coil sur- rounding the magnet, which, being transmitted by the line wire to the terminus, cause precisely similar vibrations in the diaphragm of the receiving instrument, and thus, by an exact reverse of the previous process, produce sound waves. Thus by the conversion, so to speak, of sound waves into electrical waves, the transmission of the latter, and finally their reconversion into sound waves, the sounds given to the receiving instrument are reproduced at remote distances with astonishing accuracy ; but the favorable results produced are much enhanced by the use of a microphone known as the transmitter, which is now used as the sending instru- ment. The transmitter is a modification of the principle of the telephone proper, in which a diaphragm mounted in an in- sulating rubber marginal support vibrates against a spring- supported platinum point interposed between the diaphragm and a disk of compressed carbon. The platinum point and the carbon disk are electrically connected through an insu- lated coil, surrounded by a secondary coil interposed be- tween the line wire and the ground connection. The object of this invention is to produce secondary pulsations of greater intensity, which, being transmitted by the line wire, prac- tically solve the question of distance in the transmission of sound. Telephone exchange. Each subscriber to a local telephone system is connected by a line wire to a central office or ex- change, where, for convenience, the subscribers are grouped to the number, say of fifty, the wires of each group concen- trating at a particular desk in charge of an operator clerk, and distinguished by a particular color. At the exchange terminus of each wire is a magnet mounted on a frame, which, when the line is out of use, holds a bright colored disk in sight. These magnets being arranged on shelves in front of the operator, each will drop its disk whenever its patron " calls ' the exchange, thus indicating the individual giving the signal. Each desk has a similar group of magnets and signals con- nected with the wires belonging to its group of patrons, and, in addition, a number of plug-sockets with wires con- necting them with the other tables. These plug-sockets are arranged in groups of ten, and each group has its distinguish- ing color, and is connected with the groups of the same color on each of the other tables ; thus each table has as many groups of sockets and connecting wires as there are tables in the exchange. By this means each operator may connect either of the wires distinguished by his appointed color with any other table, and, thus intermediately with any other line wire to such other patron as the original caller may indicate telephonically to the central exchange. Fig. 2403, Plate XLVIII., represents Edison's new telephone. The chalk cylinder is inclosed in a vulcanite box at the end of the movable arm. The cylinder, when once moistened, remains in that condition an indefinite time, as the box is practically air-tight. The small shaft that runs parallel with the iron arm extends through the side of the box and carries the chalk cylinder. Upon the opposite end there is a small pinion moved by a worm, the crank of which is turned by the finger. The diaphragm of the receiving instrument is covered by the front of the box, except a small central por- tion sufficient for the exit of the sound. The arm that sup- ports the receiving instrument is jointed so that it can be raised vertically out of the way when the telephone is not in use. The transmitter is contained in the rectangular box ; its mouth-piece projecting slightly, and the diaphragm, which is of mica, is supported by a metallic frame and springs inside the box cover. The transmitter is so con- structed that a vulcanite arm is secured to the center of the mica diaphragm by a small bolt that is connected to one pole of the battery by a piece of metallic foil or very thin copper wire. The head of the bolt is platinum faced and deeply sunk in the vulcanite arm, the same cavity containing also a piece of carbon pencil, such as is used for electric candles. This carbon fits the cavity loosely, and is rounded at both ends. 'Its outer end is pressed by a platinum-faced spring, secured to the outer end of the vulcanite arm. The spring carries at its free end, opposite the carbon, a brass weight, and its pressure upon the latter is regulated by the small set screw. A wire or piece of copper foil, connecting with the spring, completes the circuit, which includes the primary of an induction coil contained by the rectangular box. The secondary wire of the induction coil is connected with the telephonic line and a tertiary coil that envelopes the sec- ondary is connected with the rubber and chalk cylinder. TELEPHONE. 884 TELEPHONE. Fig. 2404, Plate XLVIII. , represents the " Edison " carbon telephone. He made the discovery that when properly pre- pared, carbon possesses the remarkable property of changing its resistance with pressure, and that the ratios of these changes correspond exactly with the pressure. On this principle he constructed his telephone. The carbon disk is represented near the diaphragm, which is placed between platinum plates and connected with the battery circuit. A small piece of rubber tubing is attached to the center of the metallic diaphragm, and presses lightly against an ivory piece that is placed directly over one of the platinum plates. When, therefore, any motion is given to the diaphragm, it is immediately followed by a corresponding pressure on the carbon, and by a change of resistance in the latter. The " Regi '"' instrument, Fig. 2405, Plate XLVIII., has the special advantage that when once adjusted it continues to operate without readjustment. The peculiarity of the new instrument is in transmitting wave-sounds through a dia- phragm that rests upon a conducting substance made of a mixture of silver, reduced to an impalpable powder, and car- bon, also very finely pulverized; the above devices being mounted on the end of a slender spring. In principle the Regi telephone is similar to " Edison's " carbon telephone, and also to the ' ' Hughes,' ' which was based on Edison's. Professor Gray received a patent for a. combination of a telephone with the ordinary Morse instrument, so that the telegrapher may communicate over the same line both by the Morse signals and also by the voice. By use of the quadruplex instrument on such a line four messages may be transmitted by signals in the usual manner, while con- versation may at the same time be carried on over the same wire, all without any interference of the different signals or systems. Gray claims to have first invented and reduced to prac- tice 1. The transmission of composite tones of varying quality through a closed circuit by the superposition of one set of electric waves upon another. 2. The reproduction of such vibrations by means of a con- tinuously charged receiving magnet. 3. The combination of a magnet with a diaphragm of magnetic metal arranged in close proximity thereto, and adapted to act either as a transmitter or receiver of articu- late or any other sound. " Dr. Luedtge's microphone," Fig. 2406, Plate XLVIII., pa- tented January 12, 1878, some time before the microphone notes of Hughes and Edison were published, has been im- proved so that the disagreeable sounds that are heard on some other microphones have been avoided, and words spoken into the transmitter are reproduced so clearly and so loud that it can be heard best somewhat removed from the re- ceiver, which is an ordinary " Bell ;> telephone. AVith too near an approach a healthy ear might be injured. Words have been plainly transmitted by this apparatus through a distance of 186 miles. If a Bell telephone and a Luedtge microphone are brought in connection, a clear, deep, and impressive tone, something like the tone of a fog-horn that can be heard for quite a distance, is perceived at the transmitting as well as at the re- ceiving station. The essential part of the instrument is the connection be- tween the two electric conducting bodies (preferably of iron, platinum, or carbon ). One of the pieces is level at the contact surface, but the other is convex. The electric current passes through this contact, and the variations in the electrical resistance at this point while speaking cause the vibrations of the membrane in the receiving telephone. A peculiarity of the construction is that both of the contact pieces are united to a support fastened to the middle of the membrane, so that both vibrate with the membrane. Fig. 2497. Plate XL VIII., represents Edison's voltaic pile tel- ephone. A piece of cork, K, is fastened to the diaphragm, and presses upon a strip of platinum which is attached to a plate of copper. The latter is one of the terminals of an ordinary galvanic pile. The other terminal plate presses against the metallic frame of the instrument. When the pile is included in a closed telephone circuit it furnishes a con- tinuous current. The strength of this current depends upon the internal resistance of the pile and its polarization, and these are varied by vibrating the diaphragm. The pile is composed of alternate plates of zinc and copper, z c, and a bibulous medium, 6, between the pairs of plates. In the Hubbard telephone, as seen in Fig. 2408, Plate XLVIII., the inventor has made use of the Jamin lamina- ted U-maguets to secure great magnetic power with little weight. The ends of the magnet are cut off diagonally, and the poles are each surrounded with a helix of fine insulated copper wire connected as in an electro-magnet. Two of these magnets are attached to an elliptical hoop, which surrounds the head and supports the diaphragms and ear-pieces. Each diaphragm carries a light triangular armature, which fits the poles of the magnets and nearly touches them. The tel- ephones are connected with each other and with the line. The operation is similar to the Bell telephone. The instru- ment shown in the engraving is arranged as a receiver to be used with any of the ordinary transmitters, but it may be arranged as a transmitter. Fig. 2409, Plate XLVIII., represents the telephonic instru- ments of Dr. Cornelius Herz. The apparatus represented in the figure is specially de- signed for lines most affected by induction, which renders communication impossible with ordinary telephones. This plan utilizes two principles discovered by Dr. Herz : the alternation of the current in the Hue, and employing condensers as receivers. The instrument constitutes a sta- tion, completely inclosing, under a compact and appropriate form, all the parts necessary for the call and for communi- cation. The diaphragm is horizontal, but a funnel placed in front of the box collects the sound and concentrates it upon the diaphragm, and the instrument will transmit words spoken fifty centimeters from it. Four pairs of microphonic contacts are placed upon an oscillating platform, under the diaphragm and connected with it by a rigid rod, communicating to it all the vibrations of the diaphragm. These contacts are of. a special composi- tion, and communicate with the battery and with the line. In this apparatus it is not necessary to use the induction coil, but it is necessary that the number of elements of the battery in the line be proportioned to the distance of the two stations ; for example, between Paris and Orleans it was necessary to use thirty elements of Daniell at each station, in order to obtain the maximum intensity. In a modification the alternation of the current is accom- plished in a different manner, and the induction coil is used in order to diminish the number of elements necessary in a long line. Originally this instrument was formed of a vibrating plate, having at each side a contact point touching the diaphragm lightly, and the vibrations increased or diminished the pres- sure alternately upon each one of these contacts, but this form being inconvenient, M. Herz preferred that which is now used, which gives the same results. The vibrating plate is of conducting material. Below, and touching it lightly, is a cylinder, which rests upon a disk, the two being made of the same material as the plate. The disk rests, in its turn, upon a thin metal spring, which is made adjustable by means of a screw, so as to vary the con- tact between the three pieces. The plate and the disk are connected with one of the poles of a battery of four elements, which is grounded at the cen- ter. Finally, the cylinder is connected with one of the ex- tremities of the primary wire of the induction coil, the other end being grounded. The secondary wire of the coil passes out from one side to the line, and from the other side to the ground. An electro-thermic telephone, described by W. H. Preece in a paper before the Royal Society, consists of a telephone receiver whose action is due to the linear expansion of a thin wire under tension when placed in a microphonic circuit. It has been discovered that each damaged or imperfect joint in a telephonic wire becomes a microphone, taking up the sounds that occur in its vicinity for transmission to the receiver. The microphone, in fact, is itself two or more conductors, connected together, electrically, by an imperfect joint. Mr. Geo. Hopkins, of Brooklyn, N. Y , during a thunder storm, connected the gas and water-pipes of his dwelling with an ordinary Bell telephone, and discovered that the electric discharges were plainly indicated by either a sharp crack or by a succession of taps. This occurred when the discharge was so distant that the thunder was inaudible. There was a marked difference in the discharges ; some that appeared single to the eye were really multiple. Often the discharges would consist of a series, beginning and ending with discharges larger than the rest, thus : , sometimes it would be thus : , sometimes the re- verse, and often a single crack. Experiments with the telephone as an indicator of the approach of distant thunder storms seem to prove that the telephonic dispatch was simultaneous with the raysof light, as exhibited by the flash of the lightning, even when the storm was so distant that the sound waves were not appre- ciable to the ear via the atmosphere. A significant fact, if sound waves with a conductor with a minimum friction can keep pace with rays of light. The nearest cable station from Alexandria during its bom- bardment, in 1882, was at Malta, distant about 1,000 miles from the scene of the battle. A press dispatch says that when a telephone was attached to the Malta end of the cable the firing of the guns at Alexandria could be distinctly heard, though no oral communication was possible over that length of cable. See "Meek. Diet.,-' 2514. Telephone "Scientific American Sup.," 765. * "Engineer," xliy. 37, 239. "Scientific -American,^ xxxv. 16& Ader, Fr * "Engineering,'' xxvii. 387. TELEPHONE. 885 TELEPHONO GRAPH. Ad/er Adler Alarm, Chidley . Applied to torpedoes . Blake, researches . . Dr. Clarence Blake . Bell. Experiments . . . Breguet .... * * Brown Ayres ... * Call signal, Rusk . . * Curious facts, Ckaening Dental attachment for, Fiske * Disk * " Double crown " . . * Edison * Edison's carbon . . * Edisun-P/ielps . . . * Electro-thermic. Exchange, N.' Y! City.' * Farrnr (in 1851) . . * Gower, Br * * Gray * Haven Hickley Hopkins Hubbard Hughes In collieries .... In mine signaling . . * Luedtge ..... * Luedtge, Ger. . . . McDermott . . . . * Microphone and Ther- mopile, Hughes, Br. * Milller ...... Musical transmission * Octuple, Cooke, Br. Paper by Ferguson . * Paper by Scott . . , Pollard ..... Receiver, Edison . . * Reis ...... * Researches .... Reuss ...... * Rig/ii ...... Roman's ..... * Savage, experiments . Schinrller, string . Thermal, Preece . . * Transmitter, Blake . * Troitve ..... * Type setting by . . Van der Weyde ... * Walker ...... * Wheatstone's violon- cello ... . . Without diaphragm. an Moncel .... * Telephones and acoustic researches of Edison. Prescott ..... * Telephones, on, Cooke . * Telephones, simple . . * Telephonic alarm. Cooke, Br ..... * Rontgen ..... * Telephonic telegraphy. Gray, 1874 .... La Cour, 1874 . . . Varley, 1870 .... Telephonic transmitter. Dumont ..... Telephoning, submarine. C, W. Raymond , . " Telegraphic Journal," vii. 126. " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 383. " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 368. "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," vii. 247 " Srii'ntific American Sup.," 235_2. ''Engineering," xxii. 518; xxvii. 498. "Eng. If Min. Jour.," xxvi. 346. "Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng." v. 500, 519,525; vi. 385. "Manufact. If Builder,'' ix. 277. "Scientific American," xxxvi. 191 ; xxxvii. 207. "Scientific American Sup.," 1864. "Scientific American Sup.," 2004. " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 158. " Scientific American Sup.," 2087. '^Engineer,'' xlvi. 185. Scientific American Sup.," 1720. "Scientific American," xliii. 82. " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 113. " Scientific American Sup.," 2481. " Manufact. if Builder," xi. 252. "Engineering," xxv. 497. Sn'i ntific American," xli. 198. "Telegraphic Journal," vi. 158. "Scientific American Sup.," 2024. "Min. 4" Sc. Press," xxxvi. 305. "Scientific American," xliii. 37. "Scientific American," xlii. 15. " Scientific American," xl. 461. 'Engineering," xxvii. 387. " Telegraphic Journal," vii. "5. "Jovr. Soc. Tel. Eng." vi. 506 ; vii. 463. "Scientific Amer.," xxvi. 245, 263. "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 83. " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 476. "Scientific American," xxxix. 313: xlii. 292. " Scientific American," xli. 410. "Engineering," xxv. 370. "Scientific American Sup.," 2040. " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 235. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 374. "Eng. Sf Min. Jour.," xxiii. 166. '' Scientific American," xli. 4. 'Iron Age," xxiv., Aug. 7, p. 15. "Scientific American," xliii. 342. 'Engineer," xlv. 343. 'Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," ix. 124. ''Jour. Soc. Tel.. Eng.," v. 503. 'Engineer," xlvi. 108. 'Scientific American Sup.," 1903. 'Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," viii. 327. 'Scientific American Sup.," 2435 "Engineer," xlvii. 213. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 57. 'Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," vi. 385. ;l Telegraphic Journal," iv. 148. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 145. ' Scientific American," xl. 176, 186. 'Scientific American Sup.," 1864. 'Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," vii. 259. 'Jour. Soc. Tel. Eng.," vii. 331. 'Scientific American," xlii. 37. "Scientific American," xli. 274. ' Telegraphic Journal," vi. 228. " Scientific American," xliii. 57. "Manufact. If Builder," ix. 85. :l Telegraphic Journal," vi. 228. 'Scientific American Sup., "1815. ' Telegraphic Journal," vii. 109. "Engineer," xlvi. 396, 415, 425. "Engineer's," xxvii. 467,488, 506. "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 230. "Engineering," xxv. 451. "Iron Age," xxii., July 4, p. 19. " Scientific American," xxxviii. 89. "Engineering," xxiii. 355. "Engineering," xxiii. 299. "Engineering," xxiii. 299. "Scientific American Sup.,'' 2469. " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xx. 369. Telegraphic dial, A. D. 1624 " Scientific American Sup.," 881. Fac-simile tape, Young "Scientific American Sup.," 881. Pen, Coivper . . . *" Telegraphic Journal," vii. 76. Fig. 2410. . 2411. Telephone Call. Tel'e-phone Call. The Lorenz telephone call, Pig. 2410, is an alarm or call- bell, in which the magnet N S is placed coincident with a diameter of the steel gong T. When by means of a hammer M, pushed by a spring, the gong is struck in a direction across that of the magnet the vibrations have their maximum am- plitude in front of the poles, and induction currents rel- atively strong are generated in the coils placed on the poles of the magnet. These currents are sent to the corresponding station, and are there received in the Bell telephone, slightly modified, the bobbins be- ing more powerful than in ordinary telephones, and a resonator being also add- ed to them. The latter is a long cone of white iron, truncated at its top, the small end being inserted close to the telephone dia- phragm. " Telegraphic Journal," *vi. 439. Tel'e-phone Ex'- change Ap'pa-ra'- tus. Fig. 2410 is the Western Telephone Exchange switch board. It consists of fifty an- nunciators for subscrib- ers' wires ; fifty spring- jack switches for con- necting and disconnect- i n g line wires arid annunciators ; five an- nunciators for receiving the clearing-out signals. A shelf with five pairs of cords and plugs, and five sets of keys. Tel'e-phone Harp. An instrument for mak- ing telephonic musical effects more audible for large audiences. Gower, Br. . . "Jour. Soc. Teleg. Engineers," vii. 269. Tel'e-phoii'o-graph. An invention of Edison, a combination of the telephone and phonograph, for Telephone Switch-board. TELEPHONOGRAPH. 886 TEMPERING WHEEL. making a phonic record of a message conveyed from a distance. "Engineer " * xlvi. 425, Fig. 27. Tel'e-phote. An instrument or apparatus for conveying messages or images by transmission of light. This broad definition may include the heliotrope, but nothing narrower, it appears, will include the various ideas and inventions of Bell, Perry, Ayrtou, Edison, Adams, Day, Willoughby, Smith, Sabirie, Kerr, Middleton, JJichin, and others, who are reported to be working at the problem. See sketch in "Engineering,'' xxix. 361. Tel'e-scop'ic El'e-va-tor. Fig. 2412 shows a telescopic hydraulic elevator for lifting passengers or freight to the upper floors of a building. fig. 2412. Telescopic Elevator. Tel'e-scop'ic Tank Car. One in which the circular sections of the tank are of gradually de- creasing diameter toward the ends, lapped within each other. In contradistinction to the straight tank car, in which the sections are alternately inside and out- side. Tel'e-scope Sight. (Fire-arms.) A telescope mounted on a fire-arm. It is generally adjustable, in altitude for distance ; in azimuth for wind cor- rection. See patents of J. M. Trowbridge, March 8, 1864, No. 41,874 ; C. Slotserbek, October 8, 1878, No. 208,765. Tell'-tale. ( Gas.) An attachment to a station meter to indicate any irregularity of the production of gas during the 24 hours, the cards being re- newed daily. Tell'-tale Com'pass. A tell-tale mariner's compass, recently patented in England by Mr. H. A. Severn, is intended to serve captains of vessels as a check upon the man at the wheel during their absence, and to insure greater attention on the part of the helmsman. It consists of an ordinary compass card, to the center of whose upper surface is attached a metallic bar, through the agency of which an electric circuit is closed, and a bell is sounded as soon as the vessel is off her course either way beyond a given amount of latitude. To effect this there are two index bands, which may be set at will at any distance on either side of the metal bar. These hands carrv at their ends thick platinum wires, bent downward, so that they are touched by the metallic bar on the compass card as soon as the vessel is out of her course beyond the given limit. These wires are connected to one pole of aLeclanchg battery, while the point carrying the card is connected with the other. The compass can also be used in the ordinary manner. Tem'pered Glass. (Glass.) A process in- vented by M. de la Bastie, which consists in heat- ing a piece or object of glass to such a heat as to approach malleability, but not hot enough to lose its shape, and then plunging it into a bath of fatty and resinous matter, which is heated to liquidity and maintained at a heat of from 300 to 600 F., according to the quality of the glass. The difference of temperature between the malleable state of glass, say 1400 F. , and that of the bath constitutes the " temper.'- The glass is much strengthened against injury by a blow, but becomes fractured by being cut with a diamond. Jt re- sists great changes of temperature. It is much more elastic also. It can be depolished and cut by the wheel. See also COM- PRESSED GLASS. Tempered Glass, Bauree " Technology fte," xxxvii. 182-194. On, Leger .... " Tec/tnologiste,'' xl. 68. Tem'per-ing. Chisels for dress- Fig. 2413. ing French burr stones may be tem- pered by heating to a dark cherry red, and quenching in the following solu- tion : To three gallons of water add three ounces each of spirit of niter, spirit of hartshorn, white vitriol, sal ammoniac, and alum, and six ounces of common salt, with a double hand- ful of hoof parings. Tem'per-iiig Gas Heat'er. A gas heater, Fig. 2413, with directing and concentrating flanges for direct- ing the heat. Tem'per-ing Wheel. Fig. 2414 represents Allen's clay tempering wheel. It is used in the preparation of clay for making bricks, and for mixing mortar in large quantities ; the substance to be worked being placed in a circular pit, as shown in the en- graving, of 16' to 30' diameter. It is made with wrought iron or Temperi ,, g Gas with cast iron arms or spokes, and Heater. of any length of shaft required. Fig. 2414. Tempering Wheel. PlATE XLIX. EMERY'S' TESTING MACHINE -See page 887. TEMPERING WHEEL. 887 TESTING MACHINE. The heaviest piece weighs 830 Ibs. The cubic measurement of the whole is about 40'. Ten-ac'u-lum For'ceps. (Surgical.) An instrument for withdrawing and detaining the parietes of an artery to facilitate tying. Ten-ac'u-lum Nee'dle. (Surgical.) A curved surgical needle, Fig. 2415, the invention of Dr. C. J. Cleborne. Fig. 2415. ft Tenaculum Needle. Ten'der For'ce-lain. (Ceramics.) body porcelain made in Europe. a. The kaolin body porcelain of England is composed of Calcined bone-dust 47 Kaolin 34 Feldspar 19 "100 The phosphate of lime gives a translucent character, but the ware is tender and baked at a low heat. 6. P&le tendre is a vitreous porcelain, formerly made at Sevres, before the 36'ttger recipe for hard porcelain was in- troduced at Sevres in 1765. Vieux Sevres was abandoned in 1804. Ten'sion Ap'pa-ra'tus. Fig. 2416 represents Daltoii's apparatus, used by him, for the determina- tion of the tension of the vapor of ether, and is in- teresting as being the instrument by which he ar- rived at one of his most important experimental laws, the law of tensions. Almost all the ap- paratus of Dalton is of a somewhat rude descrip- tion ; this gives it the more interest, knowing as we do the immense results he obtained Fi _ 2416. with their aid. The one under notice is no exception to this, being made by Hfjl him of wood, the central figures and lines being written on paper, which is pasted on. It is about 3' long. Ten'sion Rol'ler. A pulley, drum, or roller resting against a belt to cause it to adhere to the driving pulley. A tightening pullet/. Fig. 2417 Dark Tent. Tension Appa- ratus. Tent. Fig. 2417 shows a dark tent for use in developing the plates in outdoor photography. The box carrying the tent and forming part of same contains a reservoir and developing tray, and is mounted on a light tripod. One of the many improvements in out-door photography by the Sco- vill Manufacturing Co., of New York. Test'ing Ma-chine'. A machine for ascer- taining the strength of an object for trial. A familiar class of machines of this character are dyna- mometers, which are, however, principally adapted to ascer- tain the power or strength exerted ; while those usually termed tenting machines are intended to ascertain the strength of materials. There is no absolutely clear line to be drawn between these classes of machines. It is a question of adaptation and ap- plication. The ordinary form of testing machine for ascertaining the strength of metals is founded upon the Roman stalera, the lever balance, with special arrangements incident to its new function. Such are shown on pp. 2536-2539, " JlZec/i. Diet." Ordiincc Department machine, Fig. 6323. Prof. Thurston's machine, Fig. 6324. Colt's armory machine, Fig. 6325. Fairbanks'* machine, Figs. 6326, 6327. Kirkaldy's (English) machine, Fig. 6328. A number of machines, usually of a smaller size than these which deal with steel rods of inch square section, for instance, are made for various other tests, and these may be found in this volume under the following heads : Belt-tension apparatus. Cable testing machine. Cement tester. Cloth tester. Coal testing apparatus. Dynagraph. Dynamometer. Fiber tester. Gas testing apparatus. Lubricant tester. Milk testing tube. Oil tester. Paper tester. Petroleum tester. Pipe testing machine. Spring tester. Strain measurer. Tannin tester. Taseo meter. Test gage. \Vire tester. Yarn tester. It should be added that a large number of instruments are also testers. As, for instance The photometer is the tester of the illuminating quality of gas, candles, etc. The pidsometer or sphygmometer, of the rate and force of the pulse. Without adding other instances, please refer to specific index, under the caption MEASURING, CALCULATING, TESTING, AND RECORDING INSTRUMENTS. In the Emery system of testing machines, scales, gages, and dynamometers, power is transmitted from the load to the indicating device, by means of liquid acting on dia- phragms, so as to avoid friction and give the result with the utmost accuracy. Plate XLIX. represents a fifty-ton testing machine made under this system. It is constructed with a bed, 1, to which are firmly fixed stationary straining screws 2. Adjustably medium of a splined shaft, 8, move the straining beam 3 up or down to adjust its position for long or short specimens and to give light strains if desired. Heavy strains, and usu- ally light ones, of either tension, or compression or trans- verse loads are given to the specimen by the hydraulic press piston, 5. The strain is transmitted directly from the speci- men to a yoke consisting of a platform, 9, a beam, 10, and connecting plates, 11, which yoke is fixed imposition by flexi- ble plates and transmits pressure in the axis of the machine to a pair of coupled load beams, 12 and 13, between which rests a hydraulic support, 14. With strains of tension, 13 is the free platform and 12 the bed of the scale. For compres- sion or transverse loads, 13 is the bed of the scale and 12 the free platform, the strain being transmitted from the specimen to the support 14 in either direction according to the direction of the strain. The pressure on the liquid in the hydraulic support 14 is conveyed to a small chamber, 15, in the weigh case. From this small chamber the pressure is communi- cated through a fixed fulcrum plate to the levers 16, 15, and from it through a yoke, 17, to a lever, 18, to which are at- tached a series of poise-rods, each carrying 10 weights which are operated by levers 19, 18. The weights have values of 10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000 each, depending on which poise-rod they are applied to. An indicator, 20, 19, shows when the scale is balanced. The ratio of movement of the indicator to the platform is 400,000 to 1 in this machine, so that a mil- lionth of an inch movement of the platform gives .40 of an inch at the indicator. The drawing shows the transverse apparatus in position with a specimen ready to be loaded. A testing machine of four hundred tons capacity built by Mr. Emery for the United States government has been in practical use for seven years without repairs of any sort and its efficiency and delicacy are as great as when first erected. In regard to this machine the late eminent engineer, Alex- ander L. Holley, said : " The excellence of the machine in every respect is more than satisfactory, and its accuracy is at first sight astonish- ing, although an investigation of its principles must show that if the weighing apparatus will weigh at all, it must do TESTING MACHINE. 888 TESTING MACHINE. so with perfect accuracy, because all its movements are abso- lutely without friction. ;: The proof experiments were numerous, and the effects of recoil after sudden ruptures at maximum loads, were watched with great care, but without much, anxiety, because the weighing parts affected are by no means delicate in structure and their motion is almost infinitely small. Among the tests were the following : " A forged link of hard wrought iron, 5" in diameter between the eyes, was slowly strained in tension, and broke off with a loud report at 722,800 pounds. The diameter before breaking at the point of fracture was 5.04" ; alter breaking 4.98". " In order to see if the weighing parts had been disturbed by the recoil, which was obviously near the greatest recoil the machine will ever suffer, a horse-hair was next tested; it was 7-1000ths of an inch in diameter ; it stretched 80 per cent, and broke at 1 pound. Other horse-hairs varied in te- nacity between 1 and 2 pounds. A 5" round bar, turned down to 3J" in diameter along the center, was pulled apart at 430,200 pounds tension. Then some more horse-hairs were tested ; also copper wires 19J-1000ths of an inch in diame- ter, which averaged 25 pounds tenacity. " Specimens were subjected to 1,000,000 pounds compres- sion although the contract calls for but 800,000 pounds. After these proofs, delicate structures such as eggs and nuts were tested in compression, and violin strings in tension. It is unnecessary to multiply instances. It seems safe to con- clude that bars and structures up to 400 tons can now be tested with perfect accuracy, and that there is no reason to fear the deterioration of the weighing apparatus. The machine consists of a double-acting straining cylinder and ram on a carriage at one end, and a movable weighing apparatus at the other end. The two are connected by a pair of 8J" screws, 48' long. Nuts driven by shafting move the straining cylinder to different places on the screws, so as to test long and short specimens. The weighing apparatus has been described as a reversed hydrostatic press, having dia- phragms instead of pistons. The load is transferred by means of a liquid (alcohol or glycerine) by a series of large dia- phragms to a series of small ones, and finally to a system of scale-beams. Thus a weight of 800,000 pounds acting through an inconceivably small space, finally moves a finely gradu- ated indicator at the rate of l-100th of an inch per pound. It is allowed to move through a space of 2" and is kept bal- anced by weights mechanically placed quickly on or off the scale-beam. One pound, in moving the indicator l-100th of an inch, moves the platform against which the load presses, l-42,000,OOQth of an inch. The whole arrangement of the scale-beams, the adding and removing of weights, and the fast or slow but always steady application of pressure are in- genious and convenient in the highest degree. By means of universal joints, the pressure pipes are always connected to the straining cylinder, etc., whatever the position. The steam pump and the accumulator have cylinders and weights respectively for high and low pressures, and the machine re- ceives pressure without pulsation, from the accumulator only, when testing " The finished metal in the machine weighs 175,000 pounds and includes pieces of 14,000 pounds do\vn to those of which 250,000 would weigh 1 pound. The hydrostatic weighing platform of the machine was tested to 1,500,000 pounds, but so perfectly frictionless is it that a horse-hair under a break- ing strain of one pound had to move 24,000 pounds of metal. The workmanship is also remarkable. The 85" screws, 48' long, were fitted to gages within l-1000th of an inch in di- ameter throughout their length, and similar accuracy was maintained in other parts." The boiler plate testing machine of E. & J. Fairbanks & Co.. used by the U.. S. steamboat inspectors, has a capacity of 75,000 Ibs. The weighing apparatus is a regular platform scale, and may be tested with standard weights to prove its accuracy. The strain is applied to the specimen of boiler plate by means of two screws and worm gears worked by a large gear- wheel and a small pinion. The main beam A of the scale carries a poise or weight S, which moves on rollers and may be runout to 75,000 Ibs. The light beam c has a finer grad- uation on it, running up to 6,000 Ibs. The poise Z>, on this beam, is moved automatically by an arrangement of clock- work, E, attached to the end of the beam. The platform of the scale K rests on four knife-edges in the main levers F, one at each corner of the scale. These levers connect with the double lever e, through which the strain is transmitted to the lever if, and then through the lever J to the steelyard rod of the scale and by that to the beam A. The two columns L L, with the cross-head and upper clamp M, rest on the platform of the scale. The lower the shaft carrying the gear-wheel T. To make a test, the specimen rof iron to be tested is se- cured in the clamps M W, by steel wedges w w. When this is done the specimen is the only connection between the screws and gearing and the platform of the scale. To begin the test the pinion u is shipped out of gear, and the gearing and screws are turned by the handle Y until a slight strain is applied to the specimen, when the pinion If is shipped into gear. As the strain on the specimen increases the beam of the scale rises, causing the automatic poise D to move along on the beam until it reaches the point equal to the strain applied to the specimen, when the beam drops and the poise instantly stops. This operation is continued until the specimen is broken, when the point at which the poise stands will indicate the exact number of pounds which were required to break the specimen. The testing machine of HI. Thouiasset (French), Fig. 241 7i, avoids the blows incident to the piston of the hydraulic pump when moved by a lever, and has a piston moved by a screw, preventing any jar. The pressure in the pump is obtained by a hand-wheel on whose shaft is a worm gearing into a cog-wheel on the shaft of the screw whose lower end carries the piston. The pressure in the pump cylinder is transmitted by a pipe to the horizontal cylinder in which is the piston whose rod exerts the tractive force upon the piece under experiment. The other end of the test-piece is held by a clasp connected with the short arm of a heavy lever, the horizontal arm of which rests at its end upon the diaphragm of a cylinder, the water in which transmits the pressure to a column of mercury in the manometer standing alongside The machine requires but little change for making tests in compression. For flexion the piece is supported between two edges, and a third one at the end of the ram is brought against the middle of the piece. The following references may be consulted : "Engineering. " Metals, Paris, Lyons, and Medit. Railway * xxxvi. 282. Watertown Arsenal, Emery xxvii. 267. C/iauvin $ Marie-Darbel * xxvi. 184. Greenwood fy Battey * xxviii. 244. Mulhouse (100 ton)' * xxix. 494. Tiwmasset's Testing Machine. PLATE L. FAIRBANKS' TESTING MACHINE. See page 888. TESTING MACHINE. 889 TEST METER. Water pipe * xxviii. 178, 215. Lubricants, Tkurston * xxiii. 176. Ingram $ Stapfel * xxiii. 28, 33. Eastern Ry. of France .... * xxvii. 234. Paris, Lyons & Medit. Railroad . * xxvii. 110. Cement, Holste * xxvi. 163. "Mining and Scientific Press.'- Oar wheels xxxv. 275. Metals xxxii. 355 ; xxxv. 195 ; xxxviii. 259, 303 ; xl. 19, 138, 259, 313, 371. Ropes xl. 167. Lubricants xxxiii. 7 : * xxxv. 177. (Electric) xxxviii. 351. "Iron Age." Metals, Fairbanks Riehle . . . . Riehle (hydraulic) . Allison (hydraulic) * xxiv., Aug. 21, p. 1. * xviii., Dec. 14, p. 1; xix., May 10, p. 18. * xx., July 19, p. 9 ; Aug. 30, p. 1 : * xxvi., July 29, p. 9 ; Dec. 16, p. 1. * xx., Dec. 6, p. 3. Chauvin If Marie Darbel * xvii., July 18, p. 1. Watertown, Emery Specimens and grips . Gill Grout, Engl. . . . Kennedy, Eng. . . . On metal testing machine Chain cable .... " Little Giant ' . . U. S. boiler plate tests . Wire, Riehle .... Ritter Cloth, Riehle .... Lubricant, Regray, Fr. . xxiii., Feb. 20, p. 9 ; Feb. 27, p. 17; xxiv., Dec. 25, p. 15. * xxiii., April 3, p. 9. * xxiii, May 22, p. 1. * xxiii., April 3, p. 3. * xxiv., Dec. 4, p. 1. xxxv., June 24, p. 3. xx., Aug. 16, p. 14; Sept. 20, p. 15. * xxi., June 27, pp. 9, 14 ; XXT., June 17, p. 9. xxvi., July 29, p. 12 : Aug. 26, p. 9. * xxii., Nov. 21, p. 1. xxii., Nov. 14, p. 20. * xxiii., June 12, p. 5. xxiil, Nov. 21, p. 15. xxxix. 210. * xxxvi. 342 ; xxxviii. 130. * xxxiv. 402. xxxix. 25. xlii. 323. " Scientific American." Metals, Emery, Watertown . xl. 150. Olsen (Riehle) * xl. 179. Bailey * xxxviii. 130. Fairbanks * xlii. 262. Chai/1'in Marie-Darbel Thiirstiin ..... Kerosene, Mead \ . . Oil (burning) .... Pease Milhpaugh * xxxiv. 182. Lubricants, Deprez $ Napoli . * xxxvi. 2l4. Thurston * xxxvi. 89. . Eastern Ry. of France . . * xl. 306. Boilers, mach., Howard . , * xxxiv. 246. German testing apparatus . . * xliii. 10, 98. Coin * xxxviii. 355. Wire xxxviii. 69. Paper xxxviii. 69. Yarn, Brown (f Sharpe ... * xxxv. 275. Tissues xxxviii. 74. Tannin, Muntz * xxxiv. 182. (ins. New York xxxvii. 163. Milk * xxxiv. 209. "Scientific American Supplement.''' Boiler plates, U. S.Gov. Regu- lations 1794. Strain measurer * 4014 ; * 4088. Cloth *607. Yarn. German * 2705. French 987. Twine, Riehle * 498. Fibers, tests for 1430. Cement, Mic/iaelis * 3748. Cement * 2335. Oils, chrono-thermo, for . . * 181. Adulteration, Ingram Sf Staffer * 1073. Metal, Rieidc '. * 498. Flour, French * 1471. Metals, hyd., Paris, Lyons, & Med. R. R. . . * 3199. Milk, centrifugal, Lefeldt . . * 3491. "Engineering and Mining Journal." Metals, Emery, Watertown . . xxxvii. 124 : xxix. 168. "Van Nostrand's Engineering Mag.'' Metals, Electro-mag. ... * xx. 407. Metals, etc., Marittier . . . * xxiii. 303. Rails xxiii. 169. Cement xvii. 17. " Franklin Institute Journal." 1 Boiler plates, Huston . . . December, 1878. Dumont January, 1879. "Manufacturer and Builder." 1 Metals, Riehle * x. 286 : * xi. 108. Fairbanks xii. 102. Cloth, Fairbanks * xi. 178. Cables, E. R. Bridge .... xii. 13. Cement, E. R. Bridge ... * xi. 108. Fairbanks xii. 280. Lubricants, Thurstoil ... * ix. 59. For acids xi. 240. "American Railroad Journal." Boiler iron xlix. 193, 731 : lii. 477, 1110. Railroad materials . . xlix. 896. Cement xlix. 667. Springs li. 1066. Lubricants li. 397. Packing lii. 1117. "Railroad Gazette." Metals * ix. 529, 539 ; x. 550. Tkurston .... * xii. 186. Car springs, Riehle . . * x. 64. Lubricants * ix. 266, 492 ; x. 23. Ashcroft * x. 611. Electric xii. 242. "American Manufacturer and Iron World." Chain * xxiv., Jan. 7, p. 13. Metals, Watertown, Emery xxiv., Feb. 28, p. 13: xxv.. Vfav 16, p. 12. Gill * xxv., May 16, p. 13. Wire xxv., July 18, p. 13. Resistance to shocks, Kent * xxv., Aug. 22, p. 11. Metals, Olsen .... * xxvi., July 2, p. 13. Fabrics xxv., Sept. 26, p. 11. "Leffiel's Milling and Mechanical News.' 1 ' Chain * ix. 99. "Engineer." Cement, Bailey ... * xlv. 30. Jacob * xlviii. 397 : * xlix. 5, 28, 64, 377. Brown (hyd.) . . . * xlix. 100. Cloth, Russian . . . xlii. 417. Metals * xii. 264. Lever, Landore Works * xlii. 21. Daniel Adams Sf Co. * xlviii. 412. Tannin, Muntz ... * xii. 171. See also DYNAMOMETER. Test Me'ter. Fig. 2418 shows an experimental or test meter for burners, etc. To insure ft uniform and steady light it is made with three diaphragms, and is glazed in front and on top to show its Test Meter for Gas Burners. TEST METER. 890 THERAPEUTIC MACHINERY. various internal working parts. The dial is so divided as to show hourly rate of consumption by observations of one minute. The-od'o-lite. A distance telescope (theodolite), with a self-registering scale of distances, has lately been invented in Sweden by Mr. Ljuugstrom. The difference between this instrument and others of this class, is principally that the instrument itself effects all the calculations which otherwise are necessary in consequence of the inclined angles, and also that the distances sought are immediately marked on the plane-table. The line of sight upon a leveling-staff having been taken by the telescope which is fixed on a ruler that lies on the plane-table, and can swing round on a fixed needle to a piece as large as the part read off on the leveling-staff, is marked on a movable scale on the instrument, upon which a knob being touched, the point of a needle marks the distance on the paper. The calculating operations are effected by the inclined movement of the telescope, which, by means of a curved line, places the scale at such angles to the vertical plane of the .line of sight that the sine for these angles constitute the square cosine for the inclined angle of the telescope, and this sine is then projected towards the movable needle. Ther-a-peu'tic Ma-chin'e-ry. Fig. 2419, is Dr. Zanders' instrument for treat- ing the muscles of the ankle. It consists of a sole-plate, to which the foot is se- cured by means of two sliding stops working on a screw, and adjusted by a small lever. This sole- plate is mounted on a bent axle, the lower end of which is pivoted on to the frame of the machine, and the upper end is connected with a sliding-bar ^ that passes through the spindle of a fly-wheel on ^ the top of the frame. When this wheel is caused to revolve, the axle and sole-plate revolve with it, with an angularity of movement more or less marked according to the distance of the upper bearing of the axle from the center of the wheel spindle. The person oper- ated upon sits in a chair in front of the instrument with his foot secured to the sole-plate as described. Fig. 2120 represents Dr. Zanders' machine, consisting of a saddle mounted on a shaft, the lower end of the shaft working in a socket on a sliding bar to regulate the motion. The patient, sitting astride of the saddle, is subjected to the influence of a more or less pronounced rolling movement, which brings the muscles of the trimk iuto action Fig. 2421 represents Dr. Zanders' compound in a - chine for acting on the muscles of the legs, and for friction or percussion on any part of the body. The former consists of a hori- zontal padded cushion, hinged at one extremity and resting on cams at the other, to which a very rap- id rotary motion is impart- ed in such a way that the cushion is thrown into a state of intense vibration. The restorative action of this part of the machine is very remarkable. The oth- er part of the apparatus consists of a vertical spin- dle sliding in long bearings, and capable of being locked at any height by the set screws shown . A very rapid reciprocating motion is im- parted to this spindle by means of the small connect- ing rod shown on the left- hand side of the engraving. The pad at the top of the spindle is caused to move apparatus for Strengthening the to and fro with about 600 Ankles. strokes per minute. This Fig. 2420. Apparatus for Developing the Muscles of the Body. apparatus is especially intended for application to the back and shoulder, and different shaped pads are employed ac- cording to circumstances. Fig. 2422 represents Dr. Zanders' machine designed for strengthening the wrists. With the fore part of the arm laid flat upon the table of the machine the patient grasps the two Fig. 2421, Apparatus for Developing the Muscles of the Legs and Body. THERAPEUTIC MACHINERY. 891 THERMO-DYNAMIC ENGINE. Fig. 2422. Wrist Strengthening Appa.ra.tvs. handles, and slowly raises them, repeating the operation as long as necessary. These handles are not connected with each other, but are hinged on the inner side to the table, and on the outer are connected to a shaft, on the end of which is a short crank, a pin at the end of which fits into one or other of the notches shown around the periphery of the disk, to which are coupled two rods carrying a trans- verse weighted bar. The effort required to turn this bar upon its center varies with the position of the balance weights. Ther'mal A-larm'. Fig. 2423 is an engraving of a very useful instrument de- signed and constructed by Mr. Stephen Alley, of Glasgow, Scotland, for giving a prompt indication of a hot bearing. Fig. 2423. the attention of the engineer. It is, moreover, a very sim- ple apparatus, and there is nothing about it likely to get out of order. Ther'mo-cau'te-ry Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgi- cal.) An instrument with hollow platinum cau- tery, which, having been heated to blackness in a spirit lamp, receives a blast of benzine vapor from a spray bellows which heats the cautery to redness, and maintains the heat by an occasional pressure of the air-bulb. Paquelin'x Fig. 432, Part I., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chirurgicum.' 1 '' Ther'mo-dy-nam'ic En'giiie. Fig. 2424 represents Gamgee's engine, the "Zeromotor. " A motor engine with conditions of a closed circuit with a liquid boiling at a low temperature relatively to water trans- formed into vapor, the molecular energy of which is con- verted into the mass or molar motion of the piston, so that its initial condition is restored. In this way, in a heat en- gine, the temperature is extended within which the heat is utilized downward in the direction of the absolute zero in- stead of upward above the temperature of surrounding ob- jects. The agent intended to be used is anhydrous ammonia, the boiling point of which at atmospheric pressure approaches closely to 34.4 centigrade. At centigrade its vapor ten- sion is 3,183.34 millimeters, or about four atmospheres, while at 10 it attains to 4,574.03 millimeters or six atmos- pheres. When the mean temperature attains 20 centigrade no less a pressure is exerted than 6,387.78 millimeters, or nine atmospheres ; and at 30 centigrade, or tropical heat, it reaches over 8,000 millimeters, or over 10J atmospheres in tension. Since at blood-heat 200 Ibs. to the square inch is available, it is evident that the usual temperature of ocean or river water is most desirable in practice, and best, it is thought, when below 20 centigrade. The latent heat of am- monia (9009 as against 960 for water) is used in developing energy, so as to reduce the amount of rejected heat toa min- imum, and obtain a maximum rate of liquefaction. Fig. 2424. The apparatus consists sim- ply of a brass tube, J, which is placed in a hole bored in the cap of the bearing to re- ceive it, the bottom of the tube touching the shaft. At one side, near the bottom, Thermal Alarm for Hot Boxes, the tube J is partly cut away so as to admit of the ready insertion of a cylindrical plug, z,, formed of a hard grease, or of a composition which will melt at the temperature at which it is desired that the alarm should be given . To in- sert the plug i, the handle A is pulled so as to draw up the spindle B, and thus, by compressing the spring K, make room between the bottom of the spindle and the bottom of the tube for the plug to be inserted. If the bearing be- comes heated, the plug L begins to melt, and escapes drop by drop through the hole M. As this melting takes place, the spring JP forces down the spindle B, and in so doing gives motion by the rack D to the pinion G, and thence by the ratchet o to the striking wheel F. This wheel, as it re- volves, operates upon the pallet H, and alternately draws back and releases the hammer c, which, when released, is made to strike the interior of the bell JV by the action of the spring F. The instrument gives a number of clear and distinct sig- nals as the composition melts, and can scarcely fail to call Thermo -dynamic. Engine. The engine shown in the figure is a double-cylinder rotary engine, B being the first or high-pressure cylinder, and B 1 the second or low-pressure cylinder, into which the first cylinder exhausts through pipe d. As seen in section, the gas or vapor enters the cylinder B through the valve a and sliding division-port a', which runs in contact with the eccentric rotary piston c in the usual way. The ad- mission-valve is operated from the rocking valve-rod a 3 in the usual way, said rod having an arm, a 2 , which bears against the rotating adjustable cut-off cam b, whose shaft b' is rotated through the medium of eccentrics and connecting- rods from the main shaft D in the ordinary manner. The exhaust-port of the first cylinder is shown at rf' in commu- nication with the exhaust-pipe '/, which leads to the gas or vapor admitting valve of the second cylinder B'. The latter, with its accessories, is similar, except in size, to the first cylinder B, the shaft D being common to both, and the two cylinders are combined together for operation in the same way as the two cylinders of an ordinary compound or double- cylinder rotary engine. The pipe e conducts the liquefiable gas or vapor to the primary cylinder B from the dome x* of the part A, which, for convenience' sake, will be termed the " boiler." The exhaust-pipe f from the second cylinder B', leads THERMO-DYNAMIC ENGINE. 892 THERMOSCOPE. into the closed exhaust-vessel E. This vessel receives, through the exhaust-pipe/, the liquefied vapor and gas from the second cylinder. From the upper part of the exhaust-vessel leads a pipe, g, to the larger cylinder F of a compound or double cylinder rotary pump, F F', driven by the rotary shaft D. The smaller or high-pressure cylinder F' , with its accessories, is the coun- terpart of the other, and has its induction-port in commu- nication with the eduction-port of the larger cylinder through the intermediary of pipe h. The eduction-port of the smaller cylinder F', communicates through pipe h', with the space in boiler A, which receives the liquid from which the motor gas or vapor is to be generated. Ther-mom'e-ter. Fig. 2425 is a representa- tion of Redier" new registering thermometer which operates through the dilatation in a straight line of two metals, zinc and steel. If a multiplying mechanism be mounted on a steel bar, 39" long, and connected with a zinc bar of the same length, the difference of the two expansions per 212 Fah. will be about .08". This difference is used in the present apparatus to register changes in temperature. The thermometer proper consists of an exterior steel tube, A, which carries a toothed wheel, D, on which multiplying mechanism is mounted. Fig. 2425. Registering Thermometer. Within the tube A is a zinc tube,z, which fits closely. These two tubes are connected, and at that point there is a pivot. At the upper portion of tube z is a plate, I., on which is fixed a small carriage, which carries a pointer adjustable by the milled head B. This pointer acts on a pallet. X, which is movable, and which transmits any movement of elongation of the bar z, to the needle. On the extremity of the latter is a small hook, c. The fore- going part of the apparatus is mounted on a plate in face of a double clockwork movement, and so disposed that it turns from right to left, the exterior steel tube A serving as a pivot. The clock train has two springs M and If. M terminates in a chronometer escapement, and N in a very delicate flier, which turns with great rapidity. These two movements are interconnected by the differential train R R s. The satellite S entrains the axis A which on one side carries the pulley P on which is wound a cord which moves the pencil, and on the other a pinion, E, which engages with the wheel D of the thermometer. These two gears are so constructed that the velocity of motor M being 1, that of motor N will be 2. We may now trace the operation under a constant temper- ature. The hook c of the needle A stops the small fly-wheel. The escapement E of the motor M, which works constantly, turns the large wheel D from right to left. The needle A follows the movement and disengages the flier v and spring N. The latter now being freed, and its velocity being .2, while that of the escapement is .1, tends to turn the wheel D from right to left until the needle A again catches by its hook, when the same operation is repeated. As the pulley the least change of position of the needle. If the temper- ature augments, the flier v remains hooked for a longer or shorter period, proportional to the change of temperature, and as the increase, while turning the wheel I) from left to right to unhook the flier, also causes the turning of the pul- ley P, the latter will rotate over an angle proportionate to that which the change of temperature causes the needle to pass over. The inverse effect is produced when the tem- perature falls. The pencil K. Fig. 2425, moves on a cylinder. C, on which the paper H is rolled. The chronometer R reg- ulates the movement of this cylinder at a velocity of 0.16" per hour. Fig. 2426. Thermo-telephone. Ther'mo-phone. (Electricity.) An instrument in whicli sonorous vibrations are produced by the expansion of bodies under the influence of heat. One that produces sound by thermo-action through conversion of forces, or in other words, in rapid expansion and contraction of its circuit by sudden changes of temperature. Wiesendanger Hughes . . . * " Teleg. Journal,' 1 ' vi. 410. * "Engineer," xlvi. 335. . * "Engineer?' xlv. 344, Fig. is of great importance as regards the sensitiveness of the in- strument, as it suppresses the effect of friction at starting and renders the instrument always ready to show instantly Ther'mo-scope. When chloride of cobalt is dissolved in a definite quantity of strong wine spirit, or alcohol slightly diluted with Avater, a so- lution is obtained the color of which varies in a curious manner with the temperature of the sur- rounding air. Exposed to cold air it develops a bright pink color, which, as the temperature of the air increases, passes through various shades of color, until at last, when the liquid becomes quite warm, it assumes a strong blue or violet blue hue. These color changes are primarily due to the fact that in the cold alcoholic solution the salt appro- priates a portion of the water, and when heated, it parts with this water of crystallization or hyd ra- tion. When the proportions of the chloride of cobalt, alcohol, and water are properly adjusted, and the liquid is sealed in a narrow glass tube, it becomes quite sensitive to change of temperature, and the varied changes of tint when compared with a standardized color scale may serve, within certain limits, as a rough index of the temperature of sur- rounding bodies, thus constituting the little instru- ment a thermoscope, if not entitling it to the name chromothermometer, which has been given it. The statements to the effect that changes of color are due to the action of light and electricity or atmos- pheric humidity, etc., are of course erroneous. To prepare the solution, dissolve a few crystals of chloride of cobalt (pure) in two or three drachms of warm water, and to this add strong alcohol until, when exposed to a tempera- ture of about 70 Fah., the liquid presents a slaty color, intermediate between the pink and blue. The proportions will then stand at about twenty grains of the salt to the fluid ounce of alcohol. If too blue, more alcohol or a drop of water may be added to the solution : if it inclines too strongly to the pink a few more grains of the salt. The solution may be poured into a long, narrow test tube, leaving the upper part of the tube unoccupied, so that it may be subsequently drawn out, and sealed hermetically by means of the blowpipe. THEEMOSCOPE. 893 THRASHING MACHINE. The remarkable properties possessed by some of the solu- tions of tliis salt certainly suggest the possibility of applying it to something of greater practical utility thau the curious toys in which it has thus far been chiefly employed. Ther'mo-tel'e-phone. (Electric.) Fig. 2426 is a thermo-telephone. It consists of a thermopile hav- ing placed in its collecting fun- nel a hard rubber disk, as shown in the engraving. A sound made in front of this disk is heard in a rci-civing telephone connected with the thermopile. The rationale of this is at once apparent when a strip of hard rubber is placed against the lips and bent, so that the strip will be alternately concave and con- --zigjjjtE^ vex. The difference in tempera- fZl3~~ ture is very perceptible, the con- vex surface being cold and the concave surface warm, and, however rapid the which render the surfaces alternately convex an the result is the same. Thom'sou Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) A modi- fication of Menotti's battery, in which 'a copper tray Fig. 2427. Fig. 2428. Separator. replaces the copper plate, and contains the sulphate of copper crystals, and the superstratum of wet sawdust upon which rests the zinc element. The resistance of the battery is very low. Niaudet, American translation, *130. Thrash'er. The Gaar separator, Fig. 2427, is an apron machine whose cylinder has from eight to twelve bars as may be desired, and is full curve spiked. The center heads are placed in the cylin- ders to increase their strength and the power of their momentum, so that they are not readily checked. All the eight and ten-horse machines, both geared and belt, have outside bearings and pivot boxes on the cylinder shafts. A concave adjuster enables the operator to raise or lower the whole concave any required distance while the machine is in motion. The grain carrier is shaken its whole length by agitators, facilitating the separation of the grain from the straw. Either scijpw or drag elevators, as desired. All the geared machines have three hitch gear. The tail chain or straw carrier is shaken its entire length by revolving knockers. The shoe is shaken by a half cross belt, dispensing with the fan cog-wheels and shaker shaft. The cylinders have pivot boxes and steel set screws for adjusting the cylinder endwise. In the Westinghouse combined clover and grain thrasher, Fig. 2428, the process of separation com- mences at the thrasher. The cylinder delivers the straw to the vibrating separator, where it is first agitated and loosened by a revolving picker, and a farther division of the seed or grain ensues. After passing the picker, the straw is moved back Clover Huller and Grain Thrasher. and over a series of shaking forks, which loosen it and permit the grain to reach the open plat- form, and escape to the grain carrier and fan. The picker, in addition to its help in separating, prevents the straw, with its accompa- nying seed or grain, from shooting back from the cylinder. The shoe has a short longitudinal action so as not to cause much vibratory motion to the ma- chine. There is an apparatus for elevating the clean grain or seed as it is discharged from the machine, and emptying either into the measures or bags, making a register of each measure as it is filled. Thrashing Ma-chine'. Fig. 2429 represents an interior view of the Bo- nanza machine. It is a vibrator, with large riddle surface, and strong frame, with few wearing points. It has a system of pickers that are useful, especially in damp grain. The front wheels Fig. 2429. Interior of Separator. cut under, making it easy to handle. It has many points of separation, and the tables are low. THREAD-CUTTING MACHINE. 894 TIME GLOBE. Thread-cut'ting Ma-chine'. Fig. 2430 rep- resents a self-centering machine for cutting threads in bolts, etc. Fig. 2 Thread Cutter. Three-cyl'in-der En'gine. Fig. 2431 rep- resents the Brotherhood engine. The special advantages secured by the invention are as follows : The engine will start with the crank in any posi- tion, there being no " deud center,-' and a perfectly uniform motion of the shaft is obtained without the use of a fly- wheel ; the connecting rods being always in compression, there is no blow on the crank- pin at either end of the stroke, no matter how loose the fit may be or at what speed the engine may be running. The working parts are entirely inclosed and protected from injury ; the lubrication is easily effected ; Fig. 2431. Fig. 2432. Ellington's patent controlling valve. The high speed at which this engine may be worked, be- sides developing immense power in proportion to the size of the engine, permits of its being coupled directly to capstans, ro- tary pumps, fans, circular saws, screw propellers, centrifugal ma- chines, etc The pistons are very deep and guide themselves in the cylinders. The connecting rods are of chilled cast iron in the hydraulic engine and of wrought iron well case- hardened in the steam engine, their crank-pin ends working on a hard gun-metal sleeve fitted to the crank-pin, and their piston- ends working in hard gun-metal sockets in the pistons. The crank shaft is of steel, and the crank, where necessary, is counterbal- anced. The slide valve is rotary in the hydraulic and the steam engine, and is balanced, special means being adopted to insure uniform wear. Throt'tle Damper. Throttle Dam P er - Fig. 2432 is a throttle damper, with arrow and quadrant, for regulating the passage of the flue and registering the same. Throw'irig Wheel. (Ceramics.) The potter's lathe. The accompanying engraving (Plate LI.) shows the interior of one of the workshops at Sevres. On the right are shown the throwing wheels, and farther along are men at work molding small objects. On the left is an artist dressing (ifrattaye) a green molded object with a scraper. On the throwing wheels, also, are dressed the green objects pre- viously molded there, the operation being known as tour-r nassage. See PORCELAIN MOLDING. Timber Cart. Fig. 2433 is a high wheeled cart for drawing timber. The timber, after the cart is driven over it, is raised to the axle by crank- gearing and tackle. Fig. 2433. in the steam engine the rotary slide-valve is arranged to cut Timber Cart. Time Globe. Fig. 2434 shows the time globe. Mr. L. P. Juvet, of Glen's Falls, N. Y., exhibited at the Centennial a novelty in horological manufacture, which was examined by all scientists with interest, and honored with unqualified praise from all skilled in horology. The time globe, as this invention is happily designated, is a horologi- cal apparatus by which the hour at any given place is desig- nated and also the corresponding time anywhere and every- where on the face of the earth. It consists of a terrestial globe, encircled at the equator by a zone dial, inscribed with Fig. 2434. Time Globe. TIME GLOBE. 895 TOBACCO SPINNING MACHINE. the twenty-four hours of the day and the fractions thereof, while an ordinary clock dial encircles the north pole. The zone dial is stationary, while the terrestial globe revolves on its axis once in twenty-four hours, exactly as the earth does. To set the apparatus in operation for any locality the hands of the clock dial are removed and replaced in position so as to accord with the time indicated by the longitude of that place on the zone dial at the equator. Care must be taken to set the globe in proper sidereal position by the compass, and also that the proper hour of day or night as designated by the zone dial indicates the actual time of day or night, as the case may be. This is easily determined by letting sunshine fall on the globe, and seeing which part is in light and which in shallow. Then set the hands of the clock dial to the ac- tual time of the location, and the terrestial globe revolves on its axis so that the longitude of the location is opposite the same instant ^a the zone dial. Now the time globe is set, and a glance at the zone dial shows the time opposite every meridian of longitude, and consequently of every place on the surface of the earth. The hands of the clock dial re- volve to the right, while the globe revolves to the left, con- sequently the relative difference in designation of time is maintained, and every meridian of longitude points out its mean time on the zone dial so long as the movement is regu- lated and kept in proper working order. The movement, which is self-winding in the terrestial globe, is made of two plates, in the center of which stands the main-spring and barrel, with its arbor extending through the globe at the south pole, outside of the meridian ring, where its end is provided with a knot or thumb-piece by means of which the clock is wound up. The shaft of the first wheel extends through the plate and receives a triple wheel intended to transfer to the minute, hour, and globe wheels their proper motions. The axis of these wheels is secured to the upper plate of the works by a llange with pins and screws, extends through the globe at the north pole to the meridian ring, where it is firmly secured by a set screw, and forms with the arbor the axis upon which the globe revolves. Tire. Fig. 2435 represents Adams's spring tires for locomotive wheels. _ To an inner tire of strong spring iron are riveted Fig. 2435. Tire for Locomotive Wheel. the wrought-iron spokes, while the outer iron consists of a hoop of suitable thickness, stiffened by angle-iron rings run- ning around its edges, and faced with diagonal plates for giving the wheel increased adhesion, as well as for carrying the angle-iron paddles occasionally made' use of on soft ground. Solid blocks of india-rubber between the tires serve the purpose of a spring to the engine without interference with its gearing. The outer and inner tire of each wheel are coupled by a drag link to prevent friction on the rubber blocks. Tire Set'ter. The West tire setter, Fig. 2436, is arranged with a strap made up of several thicknesses of thin steel, and capable of being " set up" by a powerful screw, worked by a belt. A 2436. Tire Setter. Fig. 2437. Tire Upsetler. wagon-wheel placed within this ring, with its tire perfectly loose, is clasped by it, and a few turns of the screw draws the strap so tight as to " upset " the tire, although perfectly cold, securing it as though shrunken in the usual way, and producing at the same time any required dish of the wheel. Tire Up-set'ter: Fig. 2437 represents the Vulcan -machine ; has levers that are adjustable by means of a joint. They allow of grasping and holding va- rious shapes of iron, from " to 3i" wide. To-bac'co Spin'- ning M a - c h i n e'. Fig. 2438 shows the Robinson tobacco spin- ning machine. A machine to spin small twist, constructed to run TOBACCO SPINNING MACHINE. 896 TONGUE HOLDER, ETC. Fig. 2438. Tobacco Spinner. at great speed, light, and without strain, making a fine eord. The rollers pass the twist between them, so as only to require winding up by the bobbin; this is done by a slight self-acting friction which is of a uniform tension and under the immediate control of the spinner. The machines are e to suit different sizes of twist, from 3-16" to |" for any sort of tobacco. The quantity which can be Tog'gle Iron. A harpoon, Fig. 2439, with latch that prevents retraction. Fig. 2439. Toggle Iron. Tog'gle Press. A press in which the power is obtained by the action of one or more toggle joints. >. 2586, "Mech. Diet." Fig. 2440 represents the Boomer & Boschert. The principle by which its accumulative power is acquired is the combination of four levers acting upon toggle joints, either to approach or to diverge, according to the direction of such rotation, with uniform motion. The power is controlled by a stand- ard fastened to the follower sliding through the head block between the arms, maintaining the follower on a level, and preventing an endwise movement of the screw. The ^rosa loud is transmitted through the toggle joints to the top frame or head block connected with the base by the wrought-iron pillars. The power ac- cumulates itt each revolution of the screw, the follower decreasing in mo- tion in precisely the same ratio as the power increases, so that at last the accunlulated power is almost irresistible. The development of the pressure and the increase of the re- sistance being so nearly equal, it requires but little motive power to work it. Thus one man can work a press of 150 tons, and for the press up to 600 tons it requires but from one to two horse-power. Toller. (Crist Mill.) The Tom Thumb toller, Fig. 2441, is' an automatic divider of the toll from the grist. Tom'ki n Post. (Grain Mill.) The post supporting the pivot end of the bridge-tree. Tom Thumb Bat'- te-ry. (Electricity.) A small and simple battery made of a couple of plates of zinc and lead placed in a tray with a so- lution of sulphate of cop- per, and furnished with binding posts for connec- tions. Toggle Press. Fig. 244,1. Toller. " Scientific Amer. Sup." 2489. Tongue Hold'er. (Dental.) Fig. 2442 represents Dr. Flagg's tongue Fig. 2442. Fig. 244a Tongue Holder. holder for restraining the tongue from interference while the teeth are being operated upon by the dentist. See TONGUE DEPRESSOR, p. 2590, "Mech. Diet." Tongue Hold'er and Duct Com- pres'sor. Fig. 2443 represents Dr. Smith's tongue reg- ulator and duct re- strainer. By the use of this instrument the tongue is clamped dowu and held in po- sition as desired. The sublingual and submaxillary d u e t.s are closed by placing upon them pads of bibulous tissue paper before applying the compress ; a pad of Tongue Holder and Duct Com- paper or a napkin pressor. TONITE. 897 TORPEDO. should be placed on the tongue before adjusting the instrument in position for use. To'nite. Dry nitrated gun cotton. Density 1.50, about the same as dynamite, and occupies in a blast-hole | the space of com- pressed gun cotton. Sold as a dense dry cartridge. "London Mining Journal,'' 1878. See also "Engineer," 1 1878. As made at Kcrnhum, England, it consists of finely divided or macerated gun cotton compounded with about the same weight of nitrate of baryta. The gun cotton itself is mainly common cot- ton waste steeped in nitric acid, and on the excess being forced out bv ,i hv- draulic press or otherwise, it is left gome time for digestion in vessels of clay. While moist, it is macerated be- tween crushing rollers and then washed. The rationale of the latter process is a secret. As stated above, tonite consists of this macerated gun cotton intimately mixed tip between edge-runners with about the same weight of nitrate of baryta. It is pressed into candle-shaped car- tridges, with a receiver m- one end for the reception of a fulminate of mer- cury detonator. Tool Grind'er. A machine for sharpening and polishing tools. Fig. 2444 is an emery grinder for heavy tools, made by Thomson, Sterne & Co., of Glasgow, Scotland, and is shown with a simple rest for the tools, but is also supplied with special slide- --,-._ rests for grinding tools in holders. The water is thrown upon the emery-wheel by perforated pipes, which are shown branching to each side from a pipe which rises alongside of the bearing from a small rotary pump driven by a cord from the wheel-shaft. Fig. 2444. To'po-phone. An instrument invented by Prof. Alfred M. Mayer to determine the direction of a source of sound. By traveling along a jase and repetition of T/iomsfin, Shrnt, if Co.'t 7W Grinder. Tool Mark'ing. To inscribe your name on steel tools cover the part to be marked with a thin coating of taliow or beeswax. Then with a sharp instrument write the name in the tallow, cut- ting clearly into it. Then fill in the letters with nitric acid. Let it remain from one to ten minutes. Then dip in water and rub off, and you will have the mark etched. Tooth Clean'er. A machine for dressing up the teeth of cog wheels. Fig. 2445 represents Thomson's wheel tool-cleaning ma- chine for dressing between the teeth of spur-wheels. Two wheels can be operated on at once by two emery wheels fixed on each end of the spindle, driven by the counter-shaft. 57 Tooth Cleaner. observation it may also, by calculation, be an indi- cator of distance of the source of sound. Described by the inventor in the "American Journal of Otology " for October, 1879. The instrument has been made in two forms : the station- ary and portable. In the former case, when used on board a vessel to ascer- tain the direction of a fog-horn or bell, the apparatus has a vertical rod passing through the roof of the deck-cabin, on the upper end of which is attached a horizontal bar carrying two adjustable resonators. Below these is a pointer, set at right angles with the horizontal bar. Rubber tubes pass through the roof of the cabin and connect the resonator with a pair of ear-tubes. A handle attached to the vertical rod serves to turn it either way, the direction being indicated by the pointer. The resonators are by this means adjusted so that they are brought simultaneously upon the wave sur- face ; that is to say, the horizontal bar is a chord in the spherical wave surface, of which the fog-horn, for instance, is the center ; the pointer then represents a radius, or, in other words, coincides in alignment with a line drawn from the place where the sound is produced through the plane of observation. By sailing the ship at a measured distance at an observed angle from the radius line thus found, a second radius line may in like manner be found, and the distance between the two points of observation is the base-line of a triangle, of which the two convergent radii are the sides. From these data the distance of the fog-horn is readily computed. The true line of direction is evinced by the clearness of the note imparted, any lateral deviation from the line giv- ing rise to opposition and consequent neutralization of the respective sounds. The connecting tubes being of the same length, when the resonators receive the sound at the same exact instant, the sound pulses, acting together, are ree'n- forced to the ear. On trial it was found that the direction of sound could be ascertained within one point, say 10. The description of the action of the stationary form ap- plies, mutates mutandi, to the portable form. "Iron Age !: . xxv., March 4, p. 5. "Manufacturer 4" Builder '' , . xii. 79 ; * 253. Tor-pe'do. Torpedoes have been divided into defensive and offensive, and the former into electrical and mechanical? TORPEDO. 898 TORPEDO. I. DEFENSIVE : 1. The electrical includes those fired by the closing of a circuit, either by a party on the look-out or by contact of the vessel. They are defined as : a. " Electro-contact tor- pedoes ' : 6. " Torpedoes fired by observation." a. The electro-contact torpedo is placed so that a vessel running against it will set in motion the electrical appara- tus ; but it can be rendered harmless as against a friendly vessel by an observer on shore, and as instantly restored to activity by the same agency. A torpedo fired by contact can be much smaller in its charge than one fired by observation, as the proximity of the latter to the enemy can only be approximately determined, and it must be sufficiently powerful to be fatal to vessels within a considerable area. b. In the torpedo fired by observation, charges of powder from 500 to 2,000 Ibs. are used, to be fired when the vessel is over the spot where such is sunken, to be determined by means of colliuiators or telescopic observing areas. The electric torpedo is not itself explosive, and a blow or a fall is harmless, except as it may injure the envelope and cause a leak. It is preferably lighted by the platinum wire fuse, which is simple, safe, and certain, and can be tested electrically, both before and after it is placed in the torpedo, without the fear of explosion. The charge may be gunpowder, gun cotton, dynamite, etc. The British prefer gun cotton ; America and Sweden have experimented largely with dynamite ; Prussia, during the war with France, 1870, 1871, used dualine, another nitro- glycerine preparation ; Austria used gun cotton. 2. The mechanical includes those exploded by concussion. ANCHORED TORPEDOES. The shell torpedo is used for the defense of obstructions in rivers and harbors. It is bolted in an inclined position to a frame' which is sunk upon the obstructions and loaded with stone. The arm torpedo is of the buoyant anchored class. As the bottom or side of a ship comes in contact with one of the three arms which radiate like spokes at angles of 120 with each other, the hammer is unshipped, and the spring drives it upon the caps, which explode the charge. The percussion torpedo has a loose lid which is displaced by the contact of the bottom or side of a vessel, and, falling off the torpedo magazine, pulls upon some wires which spring the hammers and explode the charge. This was one of the earliest in use during the late war, and continued to be employed to the last. It is understood to have done more execution than any other during the war. The submarine torpedo consists of a water-tight tank of common powder, anchored by two chains below the surface of the water and exploded by electricity, contact, clock- work, or what not. The term is general rather than de- scriptive, in contradistinction to terrestrial or military tor- pedoes, and perhaps to those exposed on the ends of spars. See SPAR TORPEDO. Into the center of the tank pass the terminals of two in- sulated copper wires, a fine platinum wire passing through a small cartridge of fine rifle powder in the middle of the charge. Mechanical torpedoes of various forms are described on pp. 2599, 2600, "Meek. Diet." a. Drifting. b. Anchored. r. Boom or spar, Figs. 6554-6556. d. Maneuvered. II. OFFENSIVE: These may be divided into 1. The fish torpedo, of which Whitehead's (see Plate LII.) is the principal example. 2. Drifting torpedoes. 3. The sea torpedo. 4. Torpedo boats. 1. The fish torpedo has a steel or iron fish-like case ; the front fitted with a percussion fuse communicating with the charge. The stern of the Whitehead torpedo has machinery for working a screw by compressed air, which is in a reser- voir amidships. It is launched from shore or from a ship and pursues its course under water. The Lay torpedo (see Plate LII.), p. 2599, "Meek Diet " uses condensed carbonic acid gas. A cable containing the electnc wires pays out as the torpedo proceeds ; two of these are for governing the machinery and the third for explod- ing the charge. Col. Lay's torpedoes are still extensively used in Europe especially in Russia, and his star torpedoes in the Russian navy ; and two of his torpedo boats are owned by the United States government. This boat, as recently improved can be controlled at a distance of more than a mile and a half. The Ericsson torpedo is launched from a vessel, and has an india-rubber tube which pays out and conveys compressed air, which furnishes the motive power. Fig. 6558, "Mech JJict.,' described on page 2599. 2. Drifting torpedoes have cases of various kinds, and are abandoned to drift in a current or with the tide. 3. The sea torpedo is used in action, and is a case maneu- vered by lines from the yards of the vessel. 4 Torpedo boats are of several kinds (see p. 2601, "Mech Diet.''), and either carry the torpedo on a spar or a' projec- tion from the stem, or are arranged for launching fish torpe- does. The turtle torpedo is so named from its resemblance to that animal, and is placed to prevent raking or grappling for a moored boom torpedo, being connected with the latter bv a rope 130' or 140' long. The Whitehead fish torpedo is a spindle of revolution made of iron and steel, about 14' long, and having a diame- ter of 14", and carries a charge of 20 Ibs. of dvnamite. It is driven by a propeller and a compressed-air engine the air being contained in a reservoir. A rudder regu lates the depth and the direction, being adjustable so as to direct it alone any curve required. The after half has projecting longi- tudinal ribs, which are extended aft to the ring which sur- maganiue. The extreme point forward has an arrow-head to stick into the side of a wooden vessel. The results attained have been speeds of from lOi to 7i knots per hour for distances of from 720' to 4,500' : but more lately one has been made to run 600' at the rate of 1" knots, or a mile at the rate of 10 knots. This trial was wit- nessed by some U. S. officers at Fiumc, and is reported in the "Army and Navy Journal " of November 28, 1874. It is described in the "Army and Navy Journal " as cigar-shaped made of |" inch steel, and 19' long, 15" in diameter. It has a six-bladed screw with expandftig pitch, and four T-iron angle pieces running three fifths of its length. A pistol at the bow is exploded by concussion, and in addition there are three triggers projecting from the bow, which may explode the charge by contact with a vessel. This torpedo had no apparent steering apparatus, traveling only in the direct ion given to it at starting by the adjustment of the rudder. The pressure in the reservoir is 1,000 pounds per square fnot. The action of current is taken into consideration in launch- ing, as \vell as the rate of motion of a vessel at which it may be launched. It can be launched by projection from a tube by compressed air, or by hand by simply starting. Mr. II. F. Hicks has designed a gun that is used, like that of Ericsson, to propel torpedoes under water, but the motive power is steam instead of gunpowder. The gun has a num- ber of steam chambers connected with the bore, so as to use steam pressure successively and act on the principle of accelerated velocity, on the plan of HaskePs gun. Myron Coloney, of St. Louis, has a system of floating tor- pedoes, with magnets secured to them (see Plate LII.). The magnets are intended to securely attach the torpedoes to iron vessels before exploding. The torpedo invented by Asa Weeks (see Plate LII.) is be- lieved to be the most powerful and destructive rocket torpedo yet produced. The torpedo proper is a triangular float, ha v- ing two side wings extending astern, where they are provided with keels or cut-waters. The wings serve to maintain the balance of the torpedo, as it grows lighter from the combus- tion of the rocket composition, and the cut-waters serve as guiding rudders. The bursting charge of dynamite is in the front compartment of the torpedo, and is exploded by a per- cussion primer on contact with an obstacle, or is blown up ' by fire from the rocket charge after the expiration of a suita- ble interval. The torpedo is slung at the davits of a steam launch made expressly for the purpose. The prow of the torpedo rises a little above the general surface line to prevent the tendency to run under when striking a wave. The rocket is carried in cylindrical chambers, and the powder is cored out eccen- trically to the inclosing casing. This arrangement of the powder secures a nearly uniform combustion. The combus- tion chambers are surrounded by some refractory substance to prevent injury to the float and danger to the bursting charge. The rocket charge is ignited preferably by an elec- tric igniter, and the torpedo detaches itself from the davits, being hung thereto by a loop and pin. The rocket runs on the surface of the water, and can be made to travel at the rate of 100' per second 'for 1,500 / . The cost of a rocket carry- ing 50 Ibs. of dynamite has been reduced below $500. This torpedo has been adopted by the United States govern- ment after full investigation of its merits. Mr. Weeks is the inventor of a star torpedo operated from the deck of a fast steam launch. He has also a floating or drifting torpedo that is detached from the float when it en- counters an obstruction and explodes after sinking a few feet. It is intended to be set adrift in rivers and tideways where the current sets in the direction of a hostile fleet. Col. Mallory's rocket torpedo has an ingenious arrange- ment of the rocket charge to secure uniform combustion. The charge of slow powder is made up into a large number of small cartridges, placed in holes radiating from a central chamber in a cylinder of fire clay. The cartridges all burn at once, and as only the end of each cartridge is presented to the flame the extent of the burning surface remains the Weeks' Rocket Torpedo. (Sectional Longitudinal View of Rocket an! Explosive Ckambers.) Weeks' Rocket Torpedo. (Sectional Transverse View.) Wliitehead Torpedo. Week's Device for Exploding Torpedo on Contact with. Netting. Coloney Projectile Torpedo. Lay Torpedo. PLATE LII. TORPEDOES. See page 898. TOUGHENED GLASS. 900 TRAM. In the Siemens' glass works at Dresden there is now manufactured a product which has the same properties as La Bat-tie's tempered glass, the strength being communi- cated by the pressure of metallic rolls. Plates can be made by this method of much larger dimensions than by La Bastie's. They have a beautiful look, and can be ornamented with the most complicated designs, at a less cost than ordinary glass. When broken, it shows a fibrous structure, while La Bastie's is crystalline. For equal thickness the resistance of a plate of compressed glass is from seven to ten times as great as that of an ordinary plate. Tourists' Pho-to-graph'ic Cab'i-net. An apparatus is made which works without a silver bath, the silver Ditrate having been already united to the haloid salts in the collodion, and a washed emulsion is supplied in a bottle. The bottle being shaken and allowed to stand 10 minutes, the emulsion is poured on the glass plate. The glass is pre- viously washed by tripoli in alcohol, followed by French chalk. In 2 minutes the film is set and may be exposed in the camera ; or if kept in reserve, dried over a hot tin or spontaneously, in 20 minutes. Non-actinic light, of course, is used in these operations, a portable ruby glass lantern be- ing furnished. After exposure the film is washed and picture developed by a mixture of pyrogallic acid and ammonia, restrained in action by a suitable quantity of potassium bromide. It is then washed, fixed, and washed again. The film can be removed to a piece of prepared paper, and when dry can be put in a book, and reimposed at any time for printing. A set of 6 glass plates is furnishing enough, and a blank book may contain the films of a prolonged tour. Tour'ists' Pock'et Cam'e-ra. Fig. 2447 is the pocket camera of the S c o v i 1 1 Manufacturing Fi S- 244 7. Co. of New York, intend- ed for tourists' use. It measures, when folded up, but 5" X \" X 1", with no projecting parts. T o w ' e r, Re-volv'- ing. Theodore R. Tim- by, of Worcester, Mass., in 1841, filed a model and caveat in the U. S. Patent office for a revolving tow- er or fort, to be revolved by engines within the same ; for use on land or water. He was granted a patent in 1862. A tank having been formed at the desired location, with the addition of water supply and exit pipes, the first communicating with a supply tank, and the latter with a drain, the water supply is regulated as desired through these pipes. A metallic battery is floated in this tank, revolving round a central pillar, on which it is lifted or lowered by the adjustment of the water supply in which it floats. Openings in the em- bankment that surrounds the tank and tower give the necessary opportunity for the exercise of the guns or mortars. Tra'che-o-tome. Hauk's instrument, Fig. 2448, is to obviate the danger from blood entering the tra- chea during an operation. It consists of a curved, hollow, sharp-pointed trocar, with handle (also hollow) attached, the whole about 3J" in length. It is made to exactly fit the larger of the set of tracheotomy tubes. Tra'cing Cop'y-ing. A photographic process called the blue process, in which a tracing is used to Tracheotome. print from instead of the glass negative. For the sensitizing solution take 1J oz. citrate of iron and ammonia, and 8 oz. clean water; and also U oz. red prus- riato of potash, and 8 oz. clean water ; dissolve these sepa- rately, and mix them, keeping the solution in a yellow glass bottle or carefully protected from the light. The paper may be gone over once with the sponge quite Tourist's Pocket Camera. moist with the solution, aud the second time with the sponge squeezed very dry. The sheet should then be laid away to dry in a dark place, as in a drawer, aud must be shielded from the light until it is to be used. When dry the paper is of a full yellow or bronze color ; after the exposure to the light the surface becomes a darker bronze, and the lines of the tracing appear as still darker on the surface. Upon washing the paper the characteristic blue tint appears, with the lines of the tracing in vivid contrast. Any good, hard paper may be employed (from a leaf from a press copy-book up to Bristol board) which will bear the necessary wetting. Lay the paper, sensitized side up, on a smooth blanket, and place the tracing on this with a plate of clear glass over all, heavy enough to press the tracing close down to the pa- per. Expose the whole to a clear sunlight for six to ten min- utes. If a clear skylight only can be had, the exposure must be continued for thirty or forty-five minutes, and under a cloudy sky. sixty to ninety minutes may be needed. Remove the prepared paper and drench it freely for one or two minutes in clean water, and hang it to dry. Track In'di-ca'tor. (Railway.) An instru- ment devised to ascertain the condition of the track, indicating irregularities, low joints, etc. One used on the Pennsylvania Railway is designed by R. Pit- cairn, locomotive superintendent of the Pittsburg Division. It is described and illustrated in" Engineering" * xxv. 119, 122. See also DYNAGRAPH. Track'-lay-ing Ma-chine'. A construction machine carrying rails and ties, with devices for delivering them off the front of the train to the laying force. The train is advanced as the work progresses. It consists in a succession of rollers set in movable frames attached at will to the sides of several flat cars in a train, elevated so as to afford an inclined plane from rear to front. Upon these the ties on one side and the rails on the other are easily rolled or laid by men upon the cars, when they move along over the rollers to the front, and are delivered to the tie and track layers as fast as they can use them. Track Lift'er. For lifting railroad tracks in ballasting and leveling. A truck frame with four ordinary flanged wheels running on the rails, has a strong central cross-bar, bearing a spirit-level Fig. 2449. Track Lifter. and scale, by, which any degree of inclination is indicated. Through this central bar two powerful screws play in suit- able swiveled nuts, and have each a pivoted base plate to thrust against the ground, and a suitable lever at the top. Trac'tion En'gine. A form of locomotive en- gine adapted to travel on ordinary roads. Used to haul threshing machines, and other heavy ob- jects from point to point, and in threshing and furnishing power for different purposes. Fig. 2451 represents Owen, Lane, & Dyer's engine, geared and speeded for 2J to 4 miles an hour ; will draw a 10- or 12- horse power thrasher with ease ; runs in either direction ; carries fuel and water for 4 hours' run ; will pull 'up or down a grade of 1 in 12. See "Mech. Diet.," p. 2608. Tram. A device for describing an ellipse. Fig. 2450. Tram. When oval moldings are required two pins are placed in two holes of the handle to the center-mold, and made to move in the rectangular grooves of the cross represented in TEAM. 901 TRANSMITTER. Traction Engine. the lower central figure, which illustrates one of the prac- tical ways to describe an ellipse, and the best way in which a plasterer can make an oval molding. See Fig. 2450. Tram'pot. (Milling.) The seat iu which the foot of the spindle is stepped. Fig. 2452 shows an improved adjustable center- lift trampot, with the lever arm swiveled to turn in any direction out of the way of spouting or other objects. Fig. 2452. Trampot. Trans'fer El'e-va-tor. An elevator or crane for hoisting from one vessel into another. See Fig. 2453. Fig. 2453. Transfer Elevator. Trans-la'tor. 1 . ( Generally. ) An instrument whereby one form of energy is converted into another. For instance : the power of a prime motor, say a steam engine, is translated by means of a magneto-electric engine into electricity. 2. (Specijically.) A British term for a repeater. Trans-mit'ter. (Electricity.) 1. In former practice, the sending forward of a message by an operator at a receiving station was called transmit- ting . This function is now performed in telegraphy by a repeater, sometimes called in Britain a trans- lator. 2. The sending instrument in telephonic circuit. (a.) In Bell's transmitter (see Fig. 2402, Plate XLVIII.) the message is sent by the variable induced currents set up in a coil surrounding a permanent magnet, to and from which the diaphragm plays. (i.) In the Edison carbon transmitter the diaphragm im- pinges upon a carbon button through which a battery cur- rent is led to line. The vibrations of the diaphragm and the consequent varying pressure upon the carbon affect the conductivity of the latter, and consequently give rise to un- dulations in the current, corresponding in amplitude and force to the sound vibrations of the spoken message. (c.) In the Blake transmitter, Fig. 2454, a battery current is led throxigh the primary helix of an induction coil, the secondary coil of which is included in the line circuit. The battery wire comes to the binding post 6. The circuit goes to primary coil /", composed of a few layers of coarse wire, thence by curl p to hinge g, thence by wire I to back frame v, thence through screw o and adjusting bar t to spring r, on the end of which is a weighted carbon button, j, thence through carbon button and platinum bead to spring ?', which is insulated at k, thence by wire m to the hinge h, thence by curl s to binding post a, thence to bat- tery, thus forming a short local circuit, including a battery, a primary coil, and a delicate carbon and platinum contact. The insulated diaphragm n bears against the platinum bead, and any movement of the diaphragm, by the voioe or other- wise, alters the degree of pressure between the platinum bead and carbon button* Any alteration of pressure alters the conductivity at this point, and thus varies the intensity of the current which the battery is sending through the primary coil /. Under the jarring effect of the voice the contact at j is constantly altering, and thus giving a series of impulses to the current passing through the primary coil. TRANSMITTER. 902 TREE-FELLING ENGINE. Tig. 2454. Blake Transmitter. This battery circle is entirely local, and does not go to line. The line wire with telephone and other apparatus in cir- cuit, goes to binding post d, thence by curl to secondary coil e, composed of many layers of fine wire wound outside of the primary coil/, thence by curl to binding post c, thence to ground or continued line. The telephone or line circuit contains, as far as the trans- mitter is concerned, only the secondary coil. When a cur- rent passes through the primary coil wire it induces a strong current in the secondary coil wire, and thus sends the im- pulse to the line. Telephonic, Redmond . * " Engineer, ' xxvi. 184. * "English Mechanic,'' xxvii. 663. Blake * "Scientific American,"* xli. 274. " Scientific American Slip.,' ' 3989. Hopkins * "Scientific American,'" xlii. 292. Duplex and quadruplex "Iron Age," xxv., March 4, p. 19. Trans-par'en-cies. Fig. 2455 is Scovill's photo-micrographer for photographing and en- larging microscopic objects in the production of transparent slides for magic lanterns. pensive heliostat to produce a steady illumination, for with any less powerful light the exposure would necessarily be so prolonged that the coating of the plate would dry and become useless. Now all this is changed, for with the mod- ern improvements in photography which are the result of the introduction of gelatine dry plates, the photographing of microscopic objects becomes easy of accomplishment. Trans-plaiit'ing Wag'on. Fig. 2456 shows a three-wheeled truck, the frame of which uncouples and surrounds the tree. The chains are crossed under the roots and the tree hoisted out of its hole by means of levers in the holes in the rollers, and transported to the place of planting, where the truck straddles the hole, and the tree is let down. Trap. A sink or depression in a pipe which allows the liquid contents to fill it permanently at one point and prevent passage of air. Fig. 2457. . , on n nection with sunlight, involved the procurement of an Transplanting Wagon. Traps. a. P-trap. /. Same with hand-bole. b. P-trap, with flange for hop- g. Conductor trap. per. h. Bell trap. < P-trap. f. Yard trap. d. Flanged S-trap. j. Kound bottom drain trap. e. Running or belly trap. k. Stable trap. Trav'el-ing Crane. A derrick on an eleva- ted track for shifting to different parts of the building. In Fig. 2458 the winch is operated by bevel gearing from the shafts at the side of the building. The transverse shafts have an endwise movement to disengage them from the gearing on the shaft along the side of the room, in shifting the carriage lengthwise of the room. Trav'ers-ing Saw'ing En'gine. Fig. 2459 shows the Brotherhood three cylinder traversing metal-sawing engine. The whole machine trav- erses longitudinally in cutting the material to be operated on. The power is obtained from a hy- draulic cylinder, and the speed of traverse is regu- lated by a slide valve. Steam may be used. Trav'ers-ing Saw'ing Ma-chine'. One in which the saw travels instead of the work operated on. Saws for cutting cold steel are made of soft iron, and run sometimes with a periphery speed of nearly five miles a minute, melting the steel sparks, but not withdrawing the temper from the piece. Tray Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which the tray forms one of the elements of the combina- tion. See THOMSON'S BATTERY, in which the tray is of copper. Tree-fel'ling En'gine. An application of steam for felling trees. TREE-FELLING ENGINE. 903 TRIAL SPECTACLE FRAME. Fig. 2458. Trareling Crane. The illustration, Fig. 2460, shows a small steam cylinder, with comparatively long stroke, mounted on a light wrought- iron frame, pivoted 011 its center ; a movement around this pivot is controlled by a worm-wheel and screw gearing into a Fig. 2459 its passage toward the cylinder, which enables a brace be- tween the cylinder-frame and the tree to resist in compres- sion alone the force of the cut. The steam distribution is effected directly from the cross-head, and so arranged as to take full steam for the in or cutting stroke of the saw, and but one tenth the amount for the return or idle stroke. TremTaler. (Electricity.) A contact breaker for induction coils. The improvement of M. Trouve is designed to secure various rates of vi- bration of the trembler, so as to obtain intermittent induction currents of dif- ferent periods. The length of the vi- brating stem is made adjustable, and its range limited according to a scale on the instrument. ' Teleg. Journal " v. 280. Traversing Sawing Machine. circular rack. A saw is rigidly fixed to the cross-head, the teeth of the saw arranged to cut only during its in-stroke ; that is, the teeth are hooked on one side and have a long bevel on the opposite one ; the saw makes a draw-cut during Fig. 2460. Tree-felling Machine. Trial Sight. (Optical.) An oculist's case of trial lenses, etc., for testing sight. Nachet's com- plete series has the following : 32 pairs each of spherical convex and concave lenses, from 2" to 72" focus. 19 pairs each of plain cylindrical convex and concave lenses, from 6" to 60" focus. 9 prisms of angles, from 2 to 10. 4 plane colored glasses. 1 white glass disk. 1 half ground surface. 2 metallic disks with stenopaic slit. 1 metallic disk with hole. 1 metallic disk, solid. 1 adjustable spectacle-frame, with revolving graduated fittings for holding the various lenses. 1 ditto, not graduated. Trial Spec'ta-cle Frame. Fig. 2461 shows a trial spectacle frame, with double grooves to Fig. 2461. Trial Spectacle Frame. TEIAL SPECTACLE FRAME. 904 TRIPLE CYLINDER STEAM ENGINE. each eye, graduated to 180. Any desired combi- nation of spherical and cylindrical lenses can be adjusted in a moment to this frame, and given to the patient for trial. Used for rinding the axis of imperfect vision in astigmatism or cylindrical cor- nea. Tri'cy-cle. The name was given to a special- ized, three-wheeled velocipede in France, as long ago as 1828. It has been made in variously modi- fied forms ever since that time, but lias gone into extensive use only in recent years, after the more successful bicycle had led the way, and improved materials and means and modes of construction had enabled it to be made lighter and more effec- tive and elegant. It is now very popular in Eng- land and throughout Europe, where it is ridden by ladies as well as by gentlemen, not only for occa- sional pleasure riding and useful conveyance, but also on very long tours through the various coun- tries. It is rapidly coming into use in America, and the latest and most improved form is the Co- lumbia tricycle, of American make, shown in Fig. 2462. The wheels are 48" in diameter, the width over all is 38", and the weight 92 pounds. It has Fig. 2462. The Columbia Tricycle. contractile round rubber tires, direct spokes in the suspension wheels, adjustable anti-friction bearings to every shaft, axle, pin, and pedal, and adjustable seat and handles to sui.t it to the individual rider. Ingenious mechanism is shown in the "balance gear," or compensating axle gearing, by which the power is distributed to both driving wheels, which may run at differing speeds on curves ; and also in the friction-disk brake, which with a slight pull on the handle will effectively control the machine on any grade. This tricycle contains fifteen or more inventions secured by United States patents. There is also adapted to 'it a device by which different speeds may be attained with the same power, or power economized at the expense of speed in hill- climbing; and there are manv useful adjuncts called " accessories " for the convenience of riders. The tricycle is brought to such a state of perfection and specialized detail in construction and finish as to be only comparable with the bicycle. Trin-op'ti-con. The " Maiden " trinopticon, Fig.^2463, is an apparatus for the exhibition of dis- solving views and dioramic effects. It consists of a combination of three achromatic hmterns, which can be used in its complete form ; or the bottom portion, that is similar to an ordinary two-tubed Trinopticon. apparatus, can be used separately, and the upper can then be employed fur phantasmagoric effects. Trim'mer." I Bookbinding.) The Star book trimmer, Fig. 2464, is a single, or double clamp power machine, with a draw-slide knife. Fig. 2464. Book Trimmer. Trip Cut Off. An arrangement to disconnect one portion of the valve motion from the other, so as to allow the cut-off valve to close with great ra- pidity, the concussive effect arising from stopping the rapidly moving parts being absorbed or taken up by acting upon a confined indestructible fluid, as water, air, etc. Triple Cyl'in-der Steam En'gine. Alexander's compound balanced piston engine, Fig. 2466, has a large central vacuum or exhaust cylinder, b, at each end of which is a smaller working cylinder, a c the pistons of is conducted into the corresponding end of the exhaust cyl- inder b, alternately through the passages g g' at the same moment that the steam is admitted to the opposite end of the other working cylinder : the pressure of the exhaust TRIPLE CYLINDER STEAM ENGINE. 905 TRUSSING MACHINE. Triple Cylinder Steam Engine. steam from a on either side of the piston b' is thus caused to help work the pistons a' d . The steam escaping from a or c is worked expansively in b, being reduced to a pressure equal to that of the atmosphere by the time b' reaches the end of its stroke. The remaining portion of the exhaust is conducted through an appropriate post to the end of either working cylinder at which the piston of that cylinder has arrived, to balance the piston so that it may offer no resistance to the action of the large piston in the exhaust cylinder, and to that of the other working cylinder to which the live steam has just been ad- mitted. Trip'le Flu'id Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which the respective fluids containing the ele- meuts^are separated by a cell containing another fluid which may be neutral or may have the effect of preventing the entry of the positive liquid into the negative cell, or vice versa. For instances, see list under GALVANIC BATTERY. Trip'le Tel'e-phone. One having two receiv- ing ear-pieces, and a transmitting mouth-piece mounted on one stem, which may be held to the head by a spring. Pritchett * " Telegraphic Journal," vi. 471. Trip'o-li. Infusorial earth : the cast-off shells of microscopic infusoria. Used in the manufacture of nitroglycerine, cements, as polishing powders, and food. Tro'car. (Surgical.) A perforator, stylet, and canula combined ; a three-part instrument. Trough Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) One in which the elements occupy a series of cells in a common trough. The earliest of these was Cruikshank's, and the second Wollaston's, which see. See also MUIRHEAD BATTERY. Trou-ve'' Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) 1. A bat- tery consisting of a pile of zinc and copper disks separated by paper disks, saturated with exciting and depolarizing liquids. See MOIST BATTERY. Niaudetj American translation ... * 112. " Scientific American " * xxxvii. 323. 2. A compound Grenet battery, in which several pairs of removable elements are mounted on a frame which can be lowered into the liquid. Niaudet, American translation * 224. 3. Trouvd's inversion battery. " Telegraphic Journal'' *vi. 476. 4. Improvement on Daniells. "English Mechanic '' * xxvi. 326. Trunk Engine. Trunk Steam En'gine. One in which the direct connection of the piston with the crank is secured without the use of the beam or oscillating the cylinder. Fig. 2466 shows Virey's French trunk engine, with the piston rod, crank shaft, and eccentric in the steam chest, attached to the steam cylinder, the revolving shaft working through packings in the steam chest. Trus'sing Ma-chine'. One for tightening the truss hoops on barrels. Holmes's machine, Fig. 2467, for trussing tight and slack barrels, will drive all the truss hoops upon a slack barrel at the same time at the rate of 1,500 per day. When used for tight barrels the quarter hoop drivers are removed, and the machine is in condition to drive the truss hoops upon tight barrels. TRUSSING MACHINE. 906 TUBULAR PILES. Fig. 2467. n, ur. 'Railroad Gazette,'' xxiv. 205 'Engineer," xlix. 235. 'Engineer," xlii. 33. 'Engineer," xliv. 149. 'Engineering," xxix. 7. Trussing Machine. Tube Clean'ers. For cleaning tubular boiler tubes. A steam-pipe having perforations to corre- spond with the ends of the tubes is fitted to each row of tubes and steam blown through them. Tube cleaner . . , "National ' : . . , Boiler, Cooke . . Tube-cleaning rings. Pauls. Tube scraper, Knott . . * Rastrick, Br * Boiler, E. Ry. of France * Tube Draw'ing Ma-chines'. Metallic tubes are drawn through formers, somewhat after the manner of wire. Tubes for particular purposes are drawn inside and out, giving them a hard, smooth finish. Ordi- nary brass tubes are soldered together and drawn through holes to shape the outside, leaving the in- side as it was. Fore * "Iron Age," xxii., July 11, p. 1. Tube Valve. A tube forming a valve, held up against its seat by a ball-weighted lever. Tube, Welcl'ed I'ron. Instead of heating the whole of the strip or skelp of iron, Roden heats only the edges which are to be welded to- gether and the parts adjacent thereto. In order to effect this, he constructs a furnace, having a long, narrow opening at its top, and the strip of iron from which the tube is to be made having been bent into a tubular form, with its edges over- lapping, is placed upon the said opening in the furnace, the said overlapping parts being alone exposed to the strongest heat of the furnace, while the greater part of the tube, being external to the furnace, is but slightly heated. Near the end of the furnace a bulb mandril, supported on a rod, is situated, the axis of the said bulb mandril being in a line with the axis of the partially formed tube on on the furnace. The end of the mandril-rod is fixed to a wagon, capable of traveling on a draw bench. Underneath the bulb of the mandril is a pressing-roller, which is pressed upwards or against the bulb of the man- dril by a spring or weight or otherwise. A pair of tongs, connected to the wagon of the draw bench or other drawing mechanism, take hold of the partially formed tube at its upper side, and motion being communicated to the said chain, draw bench, or other drawing mechanism, the partially formed tube is drawn off from the furnace on to and over the bulb mandril, its overlapping and heated edges being pressed between the bulb of the mandril and the roller underneath and thereby welded together. After the welding of the skelp has been effected, the mandril and its rod, together with the tongs and welded tube, are removed to a sufficient dis- tance from the furnace to allow the tube to be re- moved from the mandril. The mandril and other parts are then restored to their original positions near the furnace, ready to act upon and weld a sec- ond skelp. By means of this invention, welded iron tubes or pipes can bo readily and quickly made, and from thinner iron than can be conven- iently used in the ordinary method of manufac- ture. Weldless metallic . . "Iron Age,-' xvii., May 11, p. 32. Welded iron, manuf. of "Scientific American Sup.,' 11 1886. Tu'bu-lar Boil'er. One in which the water circulates in pipes. See STEAM BOILERS, supra, and pp. 2325-2328 and 2649, " Mech. Diet." Babcock Sf Wilcox Benoit, Fr. Pregardieu, Ger. * "Engineer," 1.228. Sinclair, Belg. * "Engineer," xl-vii. 42. Steinmiiller, Ger. * "Engineer," xlix. 428. , Wigzett Rams- deu. * "Engineer,"' xli. 313. " Montana :> " Bir- kenhead." * "Engineer,' 1 ' 1 xli. 316. Mast, *" Manuf. S( Build- er," viii. 246. Tubular Hue boiler. Sulzer, Swiss. * "Engineering," xxviii. 175. Farcot, Fr. * "Engineering,'-' 1 xxvi. 372. Tubular steam boilers. Babcock & Wilcox. * ''Scientific Amer.," xlii. 319. Tubular vertical boiler. Pope, Br. * "Engineer," xliii. 251. Tu'bu-lar Piles. Le Grand's t u b u 1 a r piles, Fig. 2468, are unique in their con- struction and mode of propulsion, being driv- en internally and from the bottom, instead of externajly and from the top. The piles are made of either wrought or cast-iron, and of thick- ness to suit the varying circumstances of con- struction. The lower end of the pile is made solid and pointed, and generally steel-tapped. The piles are made in sections, which are screwed together with joint sockets. The rammer is raised by rods, rope, or chain, and on beintr released, * "Iron Age," 1 xix., May 31, p. 1. * "Engineer," xlv. 354. Fig. 2468. Tubular Piles. falling with its own gravity, expends its driving force on the point just where it is wanted. This principle of internal pile-driving has been TUBULAR PILES. 907 TURNING BACK CAMERA. applied to the sinking of tube-wells, and for driv- ing the foundations of telegraph posts, etc. When used in connection with tube wells, the first socket above the perforated end is made sufficiently long to allow of a strong iron ring being placed in the center of it in such a way that the two lengths of tube, when screwed together, butt against it. The interior of this ring is of sufficient size to al- low the water to pass freely, but it has a screw thread cut throughout its whole length. During the operation of driving the aperture is closed by a steel square-headed screw plug, the head resting firmly on the ring. After driving, the plug is re- moved, allowing the water free passage. LeGrand if Sutcliffe . " Van Nostrand's Mag.," xx. 521. Tu'la. The Russian niello silver. See NIELLO SILVER. Tu'la Sil'ver. The composition tula silver, which was long kept a secret, has been discov- ered to consist of 9 parts of silver, 1 of lead, and 1 of bis- F 'g- 2469 - muth. The metals, in the proportions stated, are melted together. The addition of sulphur gives the beautiful steel-blue tint for which this composition is so highly prized. T u ' m o r E-cra'seur. Fig. 2469 represents an in- strument used in operating on uterine tumors. Tung'sten Bronze. A bronze produced by Majeon bv adding tungsten to a com- position of copper, zinc, lead, and tin ; a bronze of small cost, possessing, according to the proportions of the ele- ments, malleability, ductility, sonorousness, and conductiv- ity of electricity. Used for dies, bells, clock- work, ornaments, type, piano strings, brass for rolling, draw- ing, and chasing- "Iron Age," xx. Sept. 6, p. 20. Tung'sten Steel. (Metallurgy.) A steel con- taining tungsten, which is added in the form of Wolframite to the charge. See p. 2366, "Mech. Diet:' Tungsten -tcci "Scientific American Sup.,'' 278. Tun'nel. (Fishing.) The funnel-shaped con- ductor leading from the heart to the pound in a pound-net, which see. (Engineering.) An underground passageway for aqueducts, railways, or opening up mines, etc. See "Mfch. Diet.," pp. 2653-2655. Tunneler, Dowd . . . " Scientific American," xliii. 280. Tunneling, accurate . . "Scientific American," yixxiy.. 406. Tunneling machine. Dowd *" Manuf. $ Builder," xii. 244. Tunneling, history of, Drinker. Wiley & Snow, N. Y. See excerpts in '-Engineering Mining Journal,'- xxv. Tu'pe-lo Di-la'tor. (Surgical.) A dilator for the cervix uteri, made from the wood of the pepperidge (sour grass, Gray), a tree of the dog- wood family and genus Nyssa (Indian name tupelo.) Sussdorjf. Tur'bine. A water wheel with curved buckets. See p. 2656, "Mech. Diet:' Turbine water wheels. Trials of, Phila. 1876 *" Scientific American Sup.," 964. Turbine wheels, on. Gevelin "American Miller," v. 11. Turbine, Alcott ... * "Iron Age,'- xx., Oct. 18, p. 1. * "Manuf. and Builder,"- viii. 247. * "American Miller," vii. 166. * "American Miller," iv. 33. Biirnham .... "Eclipse," Slilhvell Bierce .... Dorseij If Kemper . " Delphos : ' . . . Leffel * "American Miller," iv. 33. * "American Miller," iv. 35. * "American Miller,' 1 ' iv. 35. * "American Miller,'' iv. 36. * "Manuf. Sf Builder," ii. 198, 225. * "Engineer,"- xliii. 59. Obenrhain .... * "American Miller," iv. 38. l.'arley ...... * "American Miller," v. 101. Mullihin ..... * "American Miller,"- v. 101. Capron ..... * "American Miller,'' iv. 2. Brooks ...... * "American Miller," v. 83. Risdon ..... * "American Miller," v. 121. * "Manuf. and Builder," ix. 56. " Little Giant, ? ' Jones * "American Miller," vi. 152. Tomplcins .... * "American Man.," July 9, 1880, p. 13. On. Trowbridge . . * " Van Nostr. Mag.,'- xx. 244, 346. " Victor," Stillwell Sf Bierce ..... * "Eiig. Sf Min. Jour.," xxviii. 145. * 'American Miller," vii. 163. Wtiitmore ..... * 'American Miller," iii. 179. " Victor," Holden . . * ' Scientific American," xl. 166. " Canadian " ... * 'Iron Age," xxii., Dec. 12, p. 5. Truax ...... * 'American Miller "\in. 68. Ridgeway .... * "American Miller, "viii. 32. Bellinger ..... * "American Miller," viii. 64. Todd ...... * "American Miller," viii. 225. Walton ..... * "Scientific American," xxxiv.374. Jouval. Augsburg Wa- ter Works .... Test of. Phila., 1876 Centennial, " Allen- town," Thompson . Centennial. Boyden, Bellinger, " Nation- al," Hunt, Houston "Iron Age," xviii., July 20, p. 3. Leffel, " American," "Eclipse," "Eure- ka," Cope .... Alcott. Risdon, Gaye- lins, Jouval . 66". Gunpowder fac- tory, Watham, Br. . * "Engineer," xlii. 379. And pumps, Buxton, Br ....... * "Engineering," xxx. 546. Tests, Holy oke . . . "Scientific American," xli. 336. Tu-renne' Cloth. (Fabric.) A cotton and wool French goods. Tur'mer-ic Pa'per. (Gas.) Used as a test for the presence of ammonia in illuminating gas. Add 6 parts by weight of alcohol to 1 of turmeric powder in a stoppered bottle, and shake occasionally for 3 days. Soak white filtering paper in the solution, dry, cut in conve- nient pieces, and keep in a stoppered bottle. Turn'ing Back Cam'e-ra. One to enable the view taker to secure either an upright or a hor- izontal picture without changing the plate holder, Fig. 2470. "Engineering," 1 xxix. 244. " Scientific American Sup.," 927 '. "Iron Age," xviii. Aug. 31, p. 7. "Iron Age," xviii., July 27, p. 5. "Iron Age," xviii., Aug. 3, p. 3. Scovill's Turning Camera. TURNING BACK CAMERA. 908 TURRET. after it has been slid into the carriage. The car- riage is simply turned about in the circle and auto- matically fastened. By this latter provision the carriage may be secured at either quarter of the cir- cle. The ability to withdraw the slide to the left enables the photographer to obtain a view which he could not get with the usual provision in a camera. The photographer of experience is well aware of the difficulty, when taking an upright picture with a large camera, of reaching up to draw out the slide at the top, and, what is more essential, of get- ting out the slide without changing the plate in the holder. Turn'ing Mill. See BOEING AND TURNING MILL, Fig. 389, p. 122, supra, and Fig. 6799, p. 2660. "Mech. Diet." Turn'iiig Mold'-board Plow. One which, has a capacity by an optional adjustment of the mold-board and share for turning a furrow to the right or to the left respectively. In this country it is usually called a side-hill plow, as it is used only on hill-sides for throwing a furrow constantly down hill at each passage of the plow. Murray, Br * " Engineering,^ xxx. 56. French & Amer., Paris * " Scientific American,' 1 ' xxxix. 163. Turn'ing-off Ma-chine'. (Knitting.) A ma- chine for closing hose which has been knit flat- wise. See SEWING MACHINE. Tur'nip Cut'ter. The " Picksley " cutter is a double-action machine, with a pulper disk, adjust- able to fine and coarse cutting. The disk has two knives, and is so arranged that a pair of stripping plates are attachable for cutting finger-pieces. Turnip cutters, old . . * "Engineer,'" xlvii. 474. Turnip thinner, Everitt, Adams $ Co., Br. . . * "Engineering,-'' xxx. 80. Tur'nip Seed Drill. A drill for the automatic deposit of small seeds. (See Fig. 2471.) Fig. 2471. Turnip Seed Drill. Turn-ta'ble. (Optics.) An instrument for making cells of gold size or other varnish. It is revolved by one hand while the other holds the brush containing the liquid. These instruments are supplied with various ap- Fig. 2472. pliances for holding the slide on the center of the revolving part of the table : either springs or vo- lute movement, beneath which actuates the clasps. Tur'pen-tine. Tar, etc., distillation. Zacharias .... " Scientific American Sup.,'" 1671 Works in the woods . . * "Scientific American," xliii. 279. Tur'ret. A report on the "Fabrication of Iron for Defensive Pitrposes " was made by Colonels Bar- nard and Wright, of U. S. Engineers, 1871. Iron cased forts of Portsmouth, Britain, defenses. Plate LI. Gruson chilled iron casemate, German. Plates XXVI.- XXX. Plate LIII. is a vertical section of a tower for harbor or land defense, having exterior and interior walls, with dome- shaped roof, revolving by gearing upon friction rollers. The artillery platforms have guns mounted upon the carriages, which radiate from the common center. The central turret revolves independently of the tower upon a shaft by means of a rod and gearing. On the left of the shaft is seen the cir- cuit-closer, forming the connection between the galvanic bat- tery and the conducting chains passing to each gun. Holes in the top act as ventilators, while at the sides of the turret, near the bottom, are casemates with guns, independent 01 the revolving tower, while below ai-e walls of subterraneous foundation for the tower, forming chambers for stores and munitions. Fig. 2473 is a view of the turret and glacis of the " Inflex- ible.-' Two guns will be mounted side by side in each turret. Each gun will be mounted so as to be supported on three points. The trunnions will rest on blocks sliding on fixed beams bolted down to the floor of the turret, while the breech will rest on a third block, sliifing like the others between guides, upon a beam or table. Behind each of the trunnion- blocks, in the line of recoil, are two hydraulic cylinders, con- nected with them by piston-rods. The cylinders communi- cate by a pipe, on which there is a valve, that, on the recoil of the gun, opens and allows the pistons of the rams to run back slowly, checking the recoil. By reversing the appa- ratus, the gun can be run out again. The beam on which the breech rests is supported by a third hydraulic ram, fixed vertically beneath it in the turret. By this means the breech can be easily raised or lowered, thus elevating or depressing Fig. 2473. Turntable. Turret. the muzzle of the gun, which pivots on its trunnions with a large preponderance towards the breech. In order to load, the muzzle is depressed until it conies opposite to an opening made in the upper deck before the turret, and protected by a sloping armored glacis. A hydraulic rammer works in guides through this hole, The rammer-head is hollow, and is so constructed that when it is driven into the recently -fired gun, and comes in contact with the sides of the powder-chamber, a valve opens, and it discharges through a number of holes small jets of water, thus acting as a sponge, and extinguish- ing any remnants of the charge or of the products of the explosion which may have remained smoldering in the bore. It is then withdrawn, and a hydraulic shot-lift raises up to the muzzle of the gun the charge, the projectile, and a retaining wad, and then a single stroke of the rammer drives them into the gun and home to the base of the bore. Again the rammer is withdrawn, the hydraulic ram undei the breech of the gun elevates the muzzle, the turret swings round, and the shot is fired. A 9" gun, mounted experi- mentally in a turret at Elswick, and loaded on this system, was brought to the loading position, sponged, loaded, and brought (jack to the firing point in twenty-three seconds. Equally rapid loading was effected with the 38-ton gun dur- ing the experimental trial of the hydraulic gear on board the Thunderer. Thus the first advantage of the system is rapidity of fire ; the second is economy of labor. One man only for each gun is stationed in the turret, another works the hydraulic rammer ou the main deck, six or eight others TURRET. 909 TUYERE COIL. are employed in bringing up the ammunition to the shot- lift by means of a small tramway. There are two sets of loading gear for each turret ; but even if both were put out of order, the gun could still be loaded, with an ordinary rammer and sponge, by a number of men stationed on the main deck. The adoption of the system enables very heavy guns to be carried in comparatively small turrets. Those of the Inflex- ible are very little larger than those of the Devastation . so that with the old plan of having a numerous crew in the turret, and running in the gun in order to load it by hand, only the 38-ton gun could be carried. As it is, it is quite possible that the Inflexible will be armed with even a more tremendous weapon than the 81-ton gun. This has been held in view in designing the ship ; and, by a slight modi- fication, it will be possible to mount in each of hy turrets a pair of 160-ton guns, with a bore of 30' and a caliber of 20". A minor feature, which will perhaps be introduced in con- nection with guns of large caliber, is a steel plug contiiininu- within it a detonating apparatus for firing a charge of pow- der. This is intended to be fixed in the vent of a heavy gun, in order to prevent the upward escape of the gas tiiid the consequent gradual erosion of the vent. The erosion very rapidly widens the vent, and at last disables the gun, and the fire has to be suspended until it is revented. Thus this system, of firing, which has been invented by Captain Noble, 11. A., would greatly increase the efficiency of the gun. Some idea of the amount of ammunition required for the 81-ton gun will be given by the following calculation: Let us suppose that in an action the Inflexible would fire only ten shots from each of her guns : she would use up more than stJ,500 worth of ammunition, burn upwards of 100 bar- rels of pebble-powder, and hurl nearly thirty tons of iron at the enemy . " Inflexible," Br. . . * "Engineer," xliii. 435. " Thunderer," Br. . . * "Engineer,'' xlvii. 19. Clock, Bombay Univ., Smith, Br * "Engineer," xlii. 395. Lathe, Harrington . . * "Iron Age,-' xix., June 28, p. 1. Screw machine, Pratt (f * " Tkurston's Vitnna Kept.," ii. \mtnti/ 226. Ship, " Jliantonomah " * "Engineer,'''' xlix. 278. Tur'ret Gun. (Ordnance.) One specially ar- ranged to be used in a revolving turret. The pe- culiarity of guns of this class consists in the fact that their horizontal traverse is effected by the motion of the turret itself, the position of the car- riage, with respect to the turret, being invariable. Fig. 2474 illustrates an 18-ton gun and carriage. The brackets each consist of an inner and outer plate of f" wrought iron, stiffened by cast iron frames. The trunnions fit accurately between the brackets, having a play of but 1-32 of an inch, and serve to brace them ; 1-32 of an inch play is also allowed between the carriage and platform, making the maximum deviation from the true line of sight but 1-16 of an inch. The elevation is effected on what is known as the principle of compound pivoting, the gun being raised or lowered by means of a hydraulic jack. The trunnions rest in blocks fixed on the extremities of a curved piece of wrought iron witli steel side-pieces, termed the saddle, un- derneath the center of which the jack is placed ; they may be supported at three different elevations on supporting Fig. 2474. blocks or steps of suitable height. On the highest step the gun may be laid at any angle between 6" depression and 3j elevation ; on the intermediate step between 2 de- pression and 7 - elevation, and in the lowest position between 7 and 13^ of elevation : it is shown in the figure in its high- est position. The elevating apparatus consists of a straight vertical rack operated by a hand-wheel through the medium of a series of gears. A second hydraulic jack is provided for the purpose of bringing the rollers into action upon which the gun is run out ; in case of accident to the jack, tackles at the sides of the carriage are employed for this object. Wedge-shaped iron plates depending from the brackets and fitting between corresponding plates on the slide act as compressors to limit the recoil of the carriage ; and if re- quired, additional friction may be obtained by means of a compressor screw and handle. Tur'ret Head. The revolving head of a bolt cutter. In Fig. 2475 the cylinder may be revolved at will, is secured in position by a spring bolt, and holds on its periphery seven Fig. 2475. Turret-head Hand Bolt Cutler. dies, either one of which may be presented instantly to the bolt to be cut, and carried forward by a crank, pinion, and) rack. The cylinder holds also a collet, adapted for recessed plates, to receive square and hexagonal nuts of different sizes for tapping purposes. This collet is secured and removed readily, as are also the dies. The revolving spindle is hol- low, to receive bolts of any length, and by removing the col- let opposite the one that is at work, allowing the bolts to pass through the head, the thread may be cut to any distance required. The spindle is furnished with a chuck for hold- ing the bolt or the tap, and it is driven by a crank, adjust- able in length, and by bevel pinion and gear. Tuy-ere'. A tube for regulating and directing the current of air to the fire in a forge or furnace. In Bayliss's vertical hot blast and water tuyere and forge, instead of the blast passing into the fire cold, as in the ordi- Fig. 2476. Turret Gun. Hot Blaft Tuyere. nary tuyere, it passes through a pipe, a, and takes a circle of the air chamber 6, and enters the fire at a temperature of 300 through nozzle r, which is a hollow casting filled with water from an iron tank,/", by pipe d. The steam generated in the nozzle is conveyed to the tank by pipe e. Air is ad- mitted to the air-chamber c through pipe g. Lloyd's tuyere is an open spray blast for a furnace. Safety, Lloyd . . . . * "Iron Age,'' xvii. , June 27, p. 5. * "Scientific American Sup.," 88. Spray, Plum .... "Iron Age," xxii., Aug. 15, p. 15. On, Taws if Hartman . "Iron Age,'' xxii., Aug. 22, p. 7. Tuy-ere' Coil. A convoluted pipe carrying water through a tuyere to mitigate the heat to which the tuyere is exposed in the fire. See "Mrch. Diet." Fig. 6827, p. 2666. TWIN CYLINDER ENGINE. 910 TWILLED ARMURE. Twin Cyl'iii-der Steam En'gine. In Fig. 2477, Bernay's twin cylinder engine, the general principle consists in placing the crank-shaft in the center line between the two cylinders, and making the connection between the crank and the two pis- Fig. 2477. Twin Cylinder. tons by means of a triangular connecting-rod, one side of which (that opposite the crank) is guided in a cross-head. The arrangement for correctly dis- tributing the steam consists in directing the mo- tion of the slide-valves of both cylinders by means of one eccentric in a manner analogous to that bv which the motion of the two pistons is directed through their triangular connection with one crank. The eccentric ring has two eyes prepared on it, whose up-and-down motion alone is made use of, and to which the valve levers or rods are hung. Straight lines drawn between these two eyes on the ring, and from the eyes to the center of the eccentric] constitute a triangle which bears the same relation to the eccentricity, or throw of the eccentric, as the tri- angle of the main connecting-rod bears to the throw of the crank. Any kind of expansion valves, and also link-motion, can be used with this engine. . For twin engines, boilers, screws, etc., see "Iron Age," xx., July 5, p. 15. " Scientific American,'' xlii. 150. 'Engineering," xxv. 27. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 2715. 'Engineer,'- xlvii. 301. "Engineering,'' xxvii. 330. "Scientific American Sup.," 1071. "Thurston's Vienna Kept.," ii. 59. "Engineering,'" xxv. 406. " Engineering,'' xxiii. 91. "Scientific American,'' xxxvii. 1. "Scientific American Sup.," 141. "Engineering," xxv. 72. "Engineering,'" xxvii. 334. "Scientific American," xxxiv. 163. " Van Nostr. Mag.," xviii. 477. "Engineer," xlv. 197. "Scientific Amer.,'' xxxviii. 247. Ball, N. Y * Boat, Sailing Proa, " La- dronia " . . . . * Boilers, Smith Alex- ander, Br * Screw * SS. "Iris," Br. navy * * Engine and boiler, Wilson, Engl. . . ' Gunboat engines, Mo- tala Works, Sweden Launch, Br. Navy . . : Launch engine, Wil- son, Br Propeller, Hunt . . Propeller engine. Whiting .... Steamboat, Stevens (Ib04) Ship "Castalia "... " Express,' 1 Calais to Dover Trial trip of (Dover to Calais . . : "Scientific American $up.." 2717. Bernays, Br * "Engineering,"' xxv. 353. Watts, Kr * "Engineering,'' xxvi. 118. Wigzell $ Halsey . . . * "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1184. Twin Fur'nace. A double furnace. Twin Lo-co-mo'tive. Two locomotives, iden- tical in their parts, attached to a long freight plat- form. Twin locomotive . . . Villa Real Railway, Portugal .... * "Engineering," xxvi. 511-515. Twin Pow'er Press. One in which the power is brought to bear upon two objects in alter- nation. See Fig. 916, p. 291, supra. Twist Drill Griiid'er. This machine, Fig. 2478, is designed for sharpening twist and other drills from \" to \\" in diameter, and of any length. All the movements are self-regulating and automatic. The head-stock of the emery-wheel has a transverse move- ment actuated by a lever, and is also capable of being set forward relatively to compensate for wear. Fig. 2478. Twist Drill Grinder. The shank of the drill is held in a hollow arbor, the other extremity being supported near the griiuling-wheel by a ring in which the drill is centralized by a screw. The cut is made with mathematical precision, and the presentation is such that the length and angle of cut on the respective sides of the drill are exactly equal. The eniery wheel is kept wet by a trickling stream of wa- ter, elevated by a small rotary pump on the wheel arbor, and conducted by pipes from a reservoir in the post to the hood of the wheel ; from the drip mass it returns by a pipe to the reservoir. The pulley has two speeds, and the more rapid may be used when the emery wheel has worn to a smaller diameter, so as to preserve proximately the same speed at different periods in the life of the stone. The drill-holding portion has a radial adjustment on the point of contact with the stone as a center, to govern the an- gle of presentation of the drill. A series of 41 rings, adapted to all sizes of drills, goes with the machine. Thomson, Sterne If Go.,Br * "Engineering,'' xxi. 23. Fay * "Scientific American,'' xxxv. 326. Twist drills, on . . "Manuf. and Builder," xi. 163. Twilled Ar'mure. ( Weaving. ) A style of weaving produced by the four-leaved harness, mak- ing a twill. Also called Balavia weave. See AR- MURE. TWISTING FORCEPS. 911 UNDERGROUND HAULING ENGINE. Twist'ing For'ceps. (Surgical.) See TOR- SION FORCEPS. Twist'ing Ma-chine'. yarn * "Scientific American Sup.," 1076. Ty'er Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) The positive element consists of fragments of zinc in a bath of mercury at the bottom of the cell. The negative element (copper) is suspended above in dilute sul- phuric acid. Niaudet, American translation * 57. Baron Ebner's modification consists in replacing the copper by a plate of platinized lead. Jfiauc/et, American translation .... . 58. Fig. 2479. Paige's Type-composing Machine. Tym'pa-num Per'fo-ra-tor. (Surgical.) A fine, piercing instrument for perforating the tym- panum. Politzer. Forceps made specially for the purpose are used to introduce an eyelet into the perforated tympa- num. See page 37, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarium C/ii- rurgicitm.'' Type. Nickel is now used in electrotyping, giving a smooth, hard face to the type. Type Com-pos'ing Ma-chine'. Paige's type-composing machine has keys by which the different sorts are dropped in the required order from the re- ceptacle pockets h ( Fig. 2479), which contain them. The keys are shown in a group, a, in the lower part of the illustration, the right-hand lower one of the set being shown at b. The main shaft of the machine is kept constantly revolving, and when a key is depressed, the mechanism at a certain portion of the revolution causes the appropriate type-forcer to push out the lowest type of the rank into the race m, when the type-driving rod <> sweeps it out of the race and into the line of composition, whenJJue justifying mechanism c comes into play to form the matter in lines for the galley measure. The ''Felt'' machine, patented May 29, I860, and June 23, 1863, was the first machine constructed to set, justify, and distribute. It attempted too much. It occupied a space 5' X 4' and 8' high, and had 8 type-cases, consisting of 36 channels each, standing perpendicularly, side by side. In front was a key-board of 40 keys, like that of an organ, 7 acting as " stops," which adjusted the keys in relation with any of the 8 cases. Thus the keys acted upon the lower- ease letters, the capitals, or the italics, at the will of the operator. When the machine was in motion, the " stick," in form and action suggesting the head and beak of a bird, played back and forth against the tubes, gathering the types. These it seized with its pincers, or beak, turned downward, and deposited in the line. When the line was nearly full, a bell announced it, so that the compositor only completed his word or syllable. By touching now the jus- tifying-key, he caused the spacer to draw the line into another part of the machine to be justified, and so resumed his setting. The process of justifying consisted in the removal of the steel spaces, with which the matter was first set, and which were fur- nished with projecting heads for the pur- pose of withdrawal, and substituting oth- ers. This process was performed auto- matically, the lead added, and the line deposited on the galley. In distribution, the necessity of nicks in the type was sought to be avoided by means of a regis- ter, made in the process of composition. This consisted of a narrow strip of card or paper, in which holes were punched as the types were taken, and by which they were redistributed. Type-casting machine . * "Scientific American," xlii. 8. Type factory . . . . * "Scientific American," xlii. 239. Type printing telegraph, Vander Ploeg . .* "Telegraphic Journal," 1 vi. 417. Instruments, Eugl. . "Scientific American Sup.," 1173. Type setting machine, Heinemann . . . "Mining $ Sc. Press,'' xxxvi. 99. And distributing ma- chine, Burr ... * "Manufact. and Builder," xii. 33. u. U Bolt. A clevis for the attachment of axles, rods, etc., in machinery and vehicles. U-cha'ti-us Steel (^tetallurgy.) Iron, gran- ulated by running it into cold water, is put into a crucible with oxygen -yielding material, such as spathose iron ore, and the pig-iron gives up its im- purities to the oxygen. Uchatius steel . . . " Van Nostr. Mag.," xv. 282, 474. Un-bran'ning Ma-chine'. (Milling.) A ma- chine for removing the bran or cuticle of the wheat grain. The Bentz process. The process is partially accomplished by a vigor- ous application of brushes arranged as in the smut machine ; also by scalding, which makes the cuticle roll off when rubbed. See SMUT MACHINE. Un'der-grade. A term as applied to bridges sy- nonymous with deck bridge, in which the track is above the truss. Un'der-ground Haul'ing En'gine. Ste- vens's underground engine, Fig. 2480, exhibited at the Leeds Exhibition, is specially designed for underground haulage, and the object has been to provide an engine, with drums and everything complete, which shall do the work of four or five horses, and be so small and compact that it will pass underground through any space which is suf- ficient for an ordinary coal train. The engine is completely erected between two frames of boiler- plate, and the one exhibited, which will indicate about 6 horse-power with 20 Ibs. pressure, and is fitted with 2 drums of 2' diameter, occupies a space of 6' 1" by 4' by 3' 5", and weighs 29 cwt. In using these engines no foundation is required, all that is necessary being to spike them down on timber. The drums which work on the second motion are loose on the shaft, and have indepen- dent brakes and a clutch for throwing them in and out of gear. These engines are designed for using compressed air or steam ; for the former the exhaust passages are made very large. Most of the new collieries that are now in progress of laying out are being arranged to use mechanical haulage. Fig. 2481 is a view of the Uskside underground engine. UNDERGROUND HAULING ENGINE. 912 UNDERGROUND WIRES. Fig. 2480. Stevens's Underground Hauling Engine. Fowler, Br * "Engineering,'' xxvi. 5. Stevens, Br * "Engineering," xxvi. 224. Underground railways . "Iron Age,'' xxi., Jan. 10, p. 15. Un'der-ground Wires. For telegraph, tele- phone, and other electric uses. Underground electric ways arose with the electric tele- graph. Messrs. Cooke and Wheatstone, in their earliest telegraph patents, No. 7390 of 1837, and No. 7614 of 1838, describe means for inclosing line wires in conduits to be used underground or placed upon posts above ground. Wooden rails were channeled or grooved upon their surface, and the wires laid in a resinous cement in the grooves. A second rail was then placed upon the first and bound down with iron bands. The wires were covered with cotton and varnished before being laid. They also used various shaped troughs and tubes, into which carefully insulated wires or cables were drawn. Iron tubes, like gas-piping with screwed joints, were laid down, and wires or cables drawn into them. A long coupling sleeve formed a junction-box for connect- ing up the wires. They also employed a split-iron tube, in the slot of which wires were introduced. The insulating material was poured in upon the wires and the edges of the slot drawn together. In 1845, Patent No. 10,799, cotton-covered wires were placed in a lead pipe and pitch poured in, the lead pipe being used for the return circuit. In the same year, Patent No. 10,838, wires were laid in railway fences and at crossings, were brought underground and embedded in asphalt. In 1847, patent No. 11,974, parallel grooves were made in sleepers of wood, stone, concrete, or earthen-ware, the wires were then laid therein and supported by insulating supports, marine glue, gutta-percha, asphalt, or Stockholm tar was then poured Fig. 2481. The Uskside Underground Hauling Engine. in hot and an iron cover screwed down over the grooves. In some cases each wire was covered with cotton and then encased in lead. In 1850 Mr. Siemens used a plow, on the carriage of which was a reeled cable. The cable was laid down in the furrow as it was cut by the plow, and then covered under, vide Patent No. 13,062. In patent No. 2,710, of 1854, per- forated or grooved blocks were made of artificial stone composed of bitumen, sand, and other in- gredients. These were molded into the proper shape, and laid in line, and then bare or insula- ted uires threaded through the perforations. The wires were stretched tight and carefully joined. At the testing ami junc- tion boxes the wires were brought out and laid in a notched frame, sn aa to be readily accessible. I'a- tent 2,089. of 1855, by Dr. Werner Siemens, is of interest as being the first attempt to avoid induction and the consequent retardation. In a cable for underground or submarine use two parallel wires are laid in gutta-percha insulation and one used as the return conductor for the other. As the current in the two is in op- posite directions, each neutralizes the inductive effect of the other. Other wires placed in the same cable are each equi- distant from the first two wires so as to be equally and oppo- sitely affected by them. In one form a central insulated copper wire is surrounded by a number of iron wires which form the return part of the circuit of which th copper wire is the direct. Patent 119 of 1859. An iron trough laid beside the curb- stone contains the wires. Patent 2,759 of 1859. Earthenware troughs are provided with hooks or notched projections or frames of insulating material on which the wires are supported. The troughs are covered up and sealed with pitch. Patent 130 of 1868. A conduit of molded blocks of earthen- ware, with perforations for the wires. The wires are drawn A by pneumatic pressure or by percussion. Patent 3,863 of 1873. The wires are supported in pipes by means of perforated disks. Dry air is forced into the pipes to absorb moisture and maintain the insulation. The air is dried by being passed over quick-lime or sulphuric acid and pumice-stone. The pipes are of glass, cement, com- position, or earthenware. In the United States but comparatively little has yet been done in underground electric ways, and most of the devices are small modifications of those described above. In the Brooks system, Patent No. 165,535, July 13, 1875, wires covered with jute or cotton and soaked in paraffin e are placed in an iron tube and the tube then filled with heavy paraffine oil or liquid paraffine which is maintained under pressure. Horner, Patent No. 173,170, February 6, 1876, uses a hollow curb-stone in which there is a box or tube contain- ing properly insulated wires. Delany, Patent No. 240,236, April 19, 1881, places within his conduit a pipe for conduct- ing hot air or steam which prevents moisture injuring the insulation. He insulates with powdered tale. Edison, Pa- tent No. 251,552, December 27, 1881, uses semi-cylindrical rods for conductors which are supported in iron tubes by manilla washers ; the tubes are then filled with melted as- phaltum under heavy pressure. Every practical underground way involves complete insu- lation of the wires, protection from moisture, accessibility of the wires for connections and testing, and means for add- ing new conductors as the needs of the service increase. Perhaps the greatest desideratum, however, is the prevention of induction be- tween different classes of wires. The device used by Siemens has been mentioned. A de- vice, invented by Foucault, Patent No. 90,089, May 18, 1869, is to surround each insulated wire with a thin metallic layer, which is con- nected to the ground at intervals. This metal- lic layer is supposed to take up the inductive energy of the wire, and prevent its disturbing action on the neighboring wires. The first practical device, however is of re- cent American invention, having been patented to the inventors, Messrs. Bentley & Knight, May 1, 1883. Electric light, telephone, and telegraph wires are all laid in the same con- duit, In one form the light wires are run up one side of the conduit and return down the opposite side. Between them are the telephone wires, which cross over at intervals from, one UNDERGROUND WIRES. 913 UNIVERSAL GRINDING MACHINE. side to the other of the conduit, so as to be equally and op- positely influenced by the two branches of the light-circuit. The telegraph lines consist of cables wherein a common re- turn is used for a number of direct lines and neutralizes their inductive effect. In a second form the light wires are crosM'd at intervals, so that the positive and negative wires exchange their lineal positions ; the telephone wires are straight, while the telegraph wires are cabled as in the first arrangement. In a third form the telephone and telegraph wires are both single and are each equally distant from the two branches of the light circuit. The light conductors are made in strips and serve as inductive shields between the telephone and telegraph wires. The underground telegraph wires of the French cities are thus arranged : The conductor, formed of a wire-cord of four strands, spirally twisted, is covered with a sheath of gutta-percha of about 5 millimeters in diameter, and sur- rounded by a, covering of cotton saturated with wood-tar, and another not so saturated. These envelopes of cotton are dipped in sulphate of copper solution. The cables con- tain from 3 to 7 conducting wires, according to the needs of the service. They are laid in cast-iron pipes similar to those used for gas, 2J meters in length, and of a size proportioned to the number of cables. The lengths of a pipe are united by leaden rings ; every 50 meters there is a joint of larger diameter, which slides over its neighbors like a sleeve. At the moment of laying the pipes in the trench dug to receive them, a thread is passed through the pipe, which, at the adjustment of each length of 200 meters, introduces a larger cord ; one of the ends of this cord is rolled upon a winch, and the other attached to a small iron bar mounted with "gudgeons," which hold the cables to be inserted. The cable is thus drawn through the pipe, passing first over a pulley whose horizontal tangent is in a line with the pipe. If the joints are well made, the pipe is weather-proof, and the cable is sheltered from all infiltrations of water or of gas. The use of the larger joints of pipe above mentioned makes the repair of the cables in case of accident an easy matter. The wires are run underground in the cities of Berlin, Dresden, Breslau, Dantzig, Stettin, Hamburg, Bremen, Co- logne, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Mayence, Carlsruhe, and other large cities and towns of (Jcnminy. and in Geneva, Lausanne, Berne, Neufchatel, Zurich, Winterthur, Schaff- hausen, Saint Galle, and Lugano, in Switzerland. In nearly all the cities of Europe neither posts nor wires are visible, but the system of underground cables is adopted instead. These cables contain from 5 to 7 conductors each, insulated with gutta-percha, and the whole protected with an armor of iron wires. This system has shown itself in practice to be both economical and reliable. There are now in Paris working lines that have been buried for twenty years, and which have been the cause of little or no expense except their first cost. It is especially worthy of note in this par- ticular that during the reign of the commune, when almost every institution of public utility was destroyed, not an underground wire was disturbed. London ...... "Iron Age.,' 1 ' xvii., March 16, p. 3. " Telegraphic Journal,' 1 '' iv. 26, 97. England "Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 278. U'ni-cy'cle. A one-wheeled vehicle for pro- pulsion by foot-power. A Danish inventor has invented a single wheel in which is arranged a seat for the traveler who is to propel it. The wheel has one central rim, and to this are fixed the arms, which are, say, six or eight in number, half of them swelled, extended, or bellied out to one side, and half of them simi- larly to the other side, each set of arms being fixed to a nave or boss ; these arms are bent out so far and the naves are go far apart that the traveler, when in the sitting posture, finds room in the wheel between them. The arms are by preference not arranged opposite to one another on the two sides, but intermediately. The naves carry each a crank, and these cranks are by connecting rods jointed to two bell- crank levers, having one arm placed about upright in a po- sition convenient to the traveler to take hold of for working them backward and forward alternately. Each bell-crank lever has its fulcrum in the seat for the traveler, which seat is hung from the naves or axles of the wheel. The seat is by preference made in scroll form, of light, open-worked steel plate or wire-work, or partly so, and may have a part extending overhead to carry an "awning to protect against dirt thrown up, and against rain. From each nave there may be hung a leg serving to steady the velocipede while entering the same, but which can be thrown up out of the way when traveling. The wheel, arms, and the rim may be fitted with stiffeners or diagonals to distribute the weight or strain over the rim as much as possible. This tmicycle is eight feet and upwards in diameter. U'nit. A basis for estimating or forming com- parisons. " One pound of good anthracite coal will produce, in com- 58 bustion, 14,220 units of heat ; while 1 Ib. of bituminous coal will produce 13,500 units. Let us adopt the round number, 14.000 units : that is to say, the proper combustion of 1 Ib. of coal should heat 14,000 Ibs. of water 1, or 140 Ibs. 100, or 14 Ibs. 1,000 Falir. But heating water 1,000 changes it into steam ; and experiments have proved that it takes exactly as much heat to change 14 Ibs. of water into steam as to heat 140 Ibs. of water 100. Therefore the 14,000 units of hear developed by the combustion of 1 Ib. of coal will change 14 Ibs. of water into steam ; and it is by the intervention of this steam that we have to obtain the me- chanical equivalent of the 14,000 units of heat. The well- established mechanical equivalent of each unit is 772 foot pounds. In fact, for every foot that we cause 772 Ibs. to descend, we may actually obtain a unit of heat; and there- fore we are entitled to expect inversely the development of a force of 772 foot pounds for every unit of heat expended. The 14,000 units of heat, obtained by the combustion of 1 Ib. of coal, should give us, then, 14,000 X 772, or 10,808,000 foot pounds. If the coal is burned in 1 hour, we ought to obtain this force per hour ; and, as 1 horse power is equal to a force of 33,000 foot pounds per minute, or 33,000 X 60 = 1,980,000 foot pounds per hour, we ought to have 10,808,000 -T- 1,980,000, or 5.4 horse power per pound of coal consumed per hour. The best engines, therefore, in place of obtaining, as heretofore, only one tenth or one twentieth of the theo- retical equivalent of the heat consumed, are reported to have reached nearly one fifth, which is certainly a wonderful ad- vance. Of course, the full theoretical equivalent can never be expected, for reasons which we will not now discuss. Most engineers are agreed on the main features of the most economical steam engines. They are : Proportionally large boilers, with large heating surfaces, and proper grates ; heat- ing of the feed-water in the condenser ; high pressure in connection with proper cut-off arrangements, so as to utilize the expansion : careful protection from loss of heat by ra- diation, and intelligent and faithful engineers and firemen." Technologist. Unit of light : England : Spermaceti candle burning 8 grains per hour. France : A carcel lamp burning 42 grams colza oil per hour. Germany : A spermaceti candle giving 1-9 the light of the Fresnel unit. U'nit and Safe'ty Valve. One exposing 1 square inch to the force of the steam. TTni-ver'sal Gal'va-nom'e-ter. Edgerton's apparatus, F i g. 2482, has leveling screws and astatic needles, suspended from the brass arm by a fiber of unspun silk, with arrangement for adjusting the zero of the scale to the axle of the coils. It is convertible by adjustment from an ordinary quantity galva- nometer into one for intensity or into a differen- tial galvanometer Fig. 2482. Universal Galvanometer. for either intensity or quantity. U'ni-ver 'sal Grind'ing Ma- chine'. One adapted for a great variety of work, with solid emery or corundum wheels. The movable table is capable of adjustment by a tangent screw and graduated arc, and admits of straight and curved taper grinding with the centers of the machine always in line. It is specially adapted for grinding soft or hardened spindles, arbors, cutters, either straight or angular, reamers and standards also for grinding out straight and taper holes, standard rings, hardened boxes, jewelers' rolls, etc. The work can be revolved upon dead centers or otherwise. The grinding wheel can be moved over the work at any angle, by which means any taper can be produced. Emery wheels from \" to 12" in diameter can be used either with or with- out water. The feed- works and slides of the machine are UNIVERSAL GRINDING MACHINE. 914 UP-ENDING TONGS. Broifn and Sharif's Universal Grinder. covered and protected from grit and dust. The grinding of taper holes and angular cutters is provided for with grad- uated ares. U'ni-ver'sal Head. A portion of a watch- maker's lathe with face-plate and dogs for holding the work. See WATCHMAKER'S LATHE, where it is shown in connection with a jeweling rest. U'ni-ver'sal Joint. For diagrams, illustra- tions, and calculations ; see "Joint Universel," in Laboulaye's " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures," tome ii., ed. 1877. U'ni-ver'sal Lathe. One for producing va- rious forms, either circular or irregular. Koch $ Miitter * "Engineer,'' xli. 26. U'ni-ver'sal Mill'ing Ma-chine'. (Metal Working.) A milling machine with a capacity and variety of adjustments of the tools and tables, to enable it to do a great variety of work. Fig. 2484. Brown and Sharped Wiling Machine. In addition to the movements of a plain milling machine, the one shown in Fig. 2484 has the following : The carriage moves and is fed automatically, not only at right angles to flic; spindle. l>ut at any angle, and can be stopped at any re- quired point. On the carriage centers are arranged in which reamers, drills, and mills can be cut either straight or spiral. Spur and beveled gears can also be cut. The head which holds one center can be raised to any angle, and conical blanks placed on an arbor in it, cut straight or spirally. Either right- or left-hand spirals can be cut. U'ni-ver'sal Square. A combined try-square, miter, T-square, rule, and center square fo'r finding the center of a circle. See SyrAKi;. -24^5. Universal Try Square Marshall's center square, Fig. 2485, combines in one seven different tools : the try-square, miter, T-square, bevel, center square, depth gage, and the graduated rule. U'ni-ver'sal Wood Work'er. The Fay wood-worker, Fig. 2486, is a machine in which both sides may be operated, and either side started or stopped without interfering with the other. As a planer, it is adapted for ordinary surfacing and thicknessing, planing out of wind, surfacing square, beveling, or tapering pieces, facing up bev- els and baluster, etc. As a molding machine it will work moldings, either simple or complex, up to 8" or 9" in width, stick sash and doors, tongue and groove ; and on the wood-worker side it will produce waved, oval, elliptical, circular, and ser- pentine and rope or twist moldings. Among its other uses are chamfering, cornering, rabbeting and joining window blinds, gaining, panel-raising on one or both sides, tenoning, ripping, cross-cut- ting, grooving, hand-matching, making glue and table joints, mitering, nosing, squaring up, and a multiplicity of other operations limited only by the skill of the operator. The molder and wood-worker sides are securely connected upon one solid column with a substantial base, and the two sides of the machine are driven from one countershaft, which conveys power either separately or simultaneously. The molding side is so arranged as to form a complete four-side molder. The side spindles are fixed to and move with the table, which has a ver- tical movement of 16". The feeding rolls are ar- ranged for fast or slow feed. The wood-worker side is constructed on the same principle and embraces the same general features as the patent variety wood-worker above described, Un-load'er. Hay, Kelly * "Mm. Sc. Press," xxxvi. 238. Winter. .... . * "Min. $ Sc. Press," xxxvi. 313. Up-end'ing Tongs. A long and strong sus- pended tongs to enable the shingles to tip the bloom on end on the anvil that the hammer may strike it endways and upset it. Head t *" Engineering," xxiii. 429. UPPER DECK. 915 UKEOMETER. Fig. 2486. Universal Wood Worker. Up'per Deck. (Nautical.) The highest con- tinuous deck. Up'right Drill. (Metal Working.) A terra Fig. 24*7. applied to a drill whose mandril is vertical, as in Fig. 2487. See also DRILL; BORING MACHINE, etc. Ferris Miles . ' "Iron Age," xx., Nov. 15, p. 1. Up'right Mold'ing Ma-chine'. Blaisdell's upright molder has an adjustable table, operated by turning the wheel around the column. The spindle is placed in boxes inside the column, and into this the false spindle is fitted by a new device. The main spindle runs in self-oiling brass boxes. U're-om'e-ter. In Hiifner's new ureometer, Fig. 2488, for clinical use, the exact methods for the determination of urea in organic liquids are far too complex and tedious to be of more than occasional service to busy medical men, whilst the readier methods are not sufficiently accurate to be of more than approximate value. The method of estimating urea by means of a solution of sodium hypobromite, given by Hiifner, and the modifica- tion of it proposed by Russel and West, are very Fi ? . 2488. Ureometer, convenient for cliuical purposes, but even these leave something to be desired ou the score of ac- curacy. UREOMETER. 916 UTERINE APPARATUS. In a recent January number of the "Practitioner,'' Drs. Bussel and U'est. state that they have found the hypobromous solution to decompose iu hot weather more quickly than they expected, and that it is very important that it be freshly prepared. They draw especial attention to this, and suggest that the solution be prepared in the following manner : A solution of caustic soda is made in water, in the propor- tion of ](X> grams of solid caustic soda to 250 cc. of water. This solution may be made in large quantities, for it will keep good for a very long time. To part of this solution bromine is added, in the proportion of 25 cc. to every 250 cc. of caustic soda solution, at the time it is required for use. \Viththeviewof simplifying the operation of ureometry to the utmost extent compatible with the necessary accuracy, M. J. G. Blackley, of London, devised the form of apparatus represented in the cut. It consists of two graduated tubes, a larger one, A, of about 75 cc. capacity, and a smaller one, B, of about 15 cc. capacity, closed by perforated india-rubber stoppers, through which pass the tubes C and D. Cis the wider of the two, and is provided with a glass stop-cock. Its lower extremity, drawn to a fine point, descends about halfway into the tube B. D is a, narrower tube, and as- cends about halfway inside A. E is a short, slightly bent tube, passing through the india-rubber stopper into the tube A, and serving as an egress for the superfluous contents of A, which are collected iu the beaker F, the whole being sup- ported by the wdoden stand G G. The method of using the apparatus is as follows : The tube A is filled with a solution of sodium hypobro- mite, and its stopper inserted. Then 5 cc. of the liquid to be examined are placed in the tube B, and its stopper(which has previously been adjusted upon the ends of the glass tubes C and D) is inserted to the level of a scratch on the outside, and the stop-cock gradually opened. The hypobro- mite solution flows down the tube C, decomposition takes place, and the gases evolved, ascending through the tube D, are collected in A. The superfluous hypobroniite solution flows out through the tube E into the beaker F. To complete the operation the ' Fi S- 2489. apparatus is removed from the stand, after placing the finger over the mouth of the tube E, and agitated for a few moments. It is then replaced, and after allowing time for the froth to subside, the quantity of the gas collected is read off. After sub- tracting the small constant of air con- tained in the tube B, the remainder gives by calculation the quantity of urea present in the 5 cc. of liquid examined. Under ordinary circumstances the whole opera- tion may be completed in five or six min- utes. Instead of having the tube A graduated into cubic centimeters, it is convenient to have the graduation indicate at once the percentage of urea, as is the case with the tube supplied with Russel & West's ure- ometer. Journal C/iem. Soc. U-re'thra Di-vul'sor. (Surgi- cal.) See DIVULSOR. U-re'thra Iii'stru-ments. (Surgical.) These are numerous and included under the following heads : Applicator. Catheter. Dilator. Divulsor. Forceps. Lithotrity instruments. Ointment bougie. Porte-caustic. Searcher. Sound. Speculum. Staff. Stricture cutter. Stricture dilator. Syringe. Urethrameter. Urethra tome. Otis's Urethram- U're-thram'e-ter. (Surgical.) eler - An instrument for measuring the diameter of the meatus unnarius. <. a i a 0t i S ' S * pp ^. ra ^ s ' Fi - 2489. consists of a small, straight anula, terminating ma set of fine steel springs hinged upon n 1 la> i and ^ S Up . n the distal twm1ty of theTn" strument, where they unite. At this point a fine rod, run- ning through the canula, is inserted. This rod (which is worked by a screw at the handle of the instrument), when retracted, expands the springs (six in number) into a bulb- ous shape, from ten to twelve millimeters in circumference when closed, and capable of expansion up to forty-five mil- limeters. That of Dr. Gross has a pair of expanding arms on the end of a staff, and an index on the handle to show the degree of expansion in situ. Fig. 71, Supplement, Tiemann's "Ar- mamentarium Chirurgiciim.'' Dr. Weir's is on the same principle. Fig. 68, Ibid. Dr. Otis's has expanding jointed toggle arms. Fig. 94. Part III., Ibid. U're-thro-met'ric Sound. (Surgical.) An olivary sound in a canula, the shaft being- grad- uated to measure the length of insertion or of pro- jection of the bulb beyond the end of the canula. Leonard, Fig. 93, Supplement, Tiemami's "Armamenta- rium C/lirurgicvm." U'ri-nal. Figs. 2490 and 2491 show forms of portable urinals for convenience of persons afflicted with incontinence of urine. They are adapted for constant wear on the person, and are made of the best rubber. Fig. 2490. Fig. 2491. Portable Urinals. U'rine Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) The plates are immersed in a trough through which urine flows. Ammonia is the chief excitant. U'ri-nom'e-ter. (Surgical.) Apparatus for making urinary examinations, including Platinum spur for calculi. Retort stand. Specific gravity bottle. Tost tubes and stand. Wash bottles. Water bath. Water oven. Balance 1-50 grain. Blow-pipe. Bunsen burner. Burette, etc. Filtration apparatus. Graduated glass. Hydrometer. Pipette. See pp. 78-80, Part II., Tiemann's "Armamentarium Chi- rurgicum.'' U'su-du'ri-an. A material for packing, made of unvulcanized rubber and other substances. It is a non-conductor, and when subjected to the ac- tion of steam it is vulcanized and enabled to re- sist influences which are usually very destructive of ordinary rubber packing. By the application of naphtha to their surfaces, two pieces of the usu- durian may be united, and under pressure become practically one, which is a convenience, as the user is thus enabled to build up any desired thickness of packing 1 . U'te-rine Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) This embraces the following : Applicator. Cautery. Cervix uteri instruments. Dilator. Douche. Dressing instruments. Ecrast'iir. Electrode. Elevator. Enibryotomy instruments. Scarifier. Excision instrument. Scissors. Forceps. Injector. Knife. Leech. Ovariotomy instruments. Placenta instruments. Probe. Redressor. Repositor. UTERINE APPARATUS. Sector. Speculum. Supporter. Syringe. Tenaculum. See under the respective heads, p. 2685, "Mech. Diet.'' Tourniquet. Tumor instruments Tupelo dilator. Uterotonie. 917 VACUUM PAN. See also Figs. 6881-6885, U'trecht Vel'vet. (Fabric.) A furniture plush made entirely of mohair, or, in the common qualities, with cotton warp. See MOHAIR. U-vu'la-tome. (Surgical.) A knife for oper- ating on the uvula. See TKACHEATOSIE. V. Vac'u-um Brake. (Railway.) A system of continuous brakes which is operated by exhausting the air from some appliance under each car by which the pressure of the external air is transmitted to the brake levers and shoes. An ejector on the engine is or- dinarily used for exhausting the air, and it is connected with the rest of the train by pipes and flexible hose be- tween the cars. The vacuum brake is to be distin- guished from the air brakes of the WHtinghouse and Loughridge class in which the brake-levers are operated by compressed air. The Smith and Eames brakes are of the vacuum order. The former has flexible cylinders beneath each car, connected by pipes and hose with ;iu ejector on the locomotive, which operates to exhaust the air from the cylinders. The latter are collapsible, and the movable head is connected to the brake-levers. See Figs. 649, 650, Forney's "Car-builder's Dictionary." The Eamea brake is similar in mode of op- eration. Ibid., Figs. 653, 654. Vacuum brake, Eames. * "Iron Age,'* xx., Aug. 16, p. 1. Hardy, Austria. * "Engineer," xlv. 346. Hardy, Vienna. * "Engineer," xlix. 297. Smith * "Engineer," xlii. 451. Automatic, AspinaU, Br. * "Engineer," xlviii. 166. Automatic, self-register- ing, Sanders, Br. . . * "Engineer,'' xlviii. 216. Automatic, Sanders, Br. * "Engineering," xxiv. 113. Continuous, Sanders, Br. * "Engineer," xliv. 106. Continuous, automatic, Eames, Br. . . . . * "Engineer,'' 1 1. 28. Vac'u-um Pan. A vessel for evaporating sac- charine juices in vacuo. The " drum " pan, so called from its shape., is usually upright, and heated by a series of vertical tubes near the bottom. In the "Gould'' pan, Fig. 2492, the pipe that conveys the vapor to the condenser, passes round the latter, forming an annular space of semi-circular cross-section, joining fche body of the condenser, and being continuous with it below and bolted to a flange upon it above. Water falls upon the perforated reversible spray plate, that has its pivotal axis passing through a stuffing box, and attached to a hand lever, by which the plate is turned to allow the water to alternate to prevent the apertures from becoming clogged. The vacuum pump is connected with the top of the condenser. The Colwell vacuum pan is elevated on great iron columns three stories high. Inside are four copper serpentines, and into these steam is led. The circulating pump and the centrif- ugal machines are placed on the first floor. On the second floor is a large receiver which receives the contents of the pan after concen- tration, in the shape of a dense mass of semi- fluid material, a magma. This goes into the centrifugal machines, which separate the sugar from the molasses. The vacuum pan of Messrs. Colwell and Brother, of New York, is & in diameter, and, in a single operation of Fte. 2492. The Gould Vacuum Pan. three hours in duration, can produce fifteen hogsheads of sugar. The Alvarado pan, Fig. 2493, is adapted to a factory work- ing up fifty tons of beets per day. It is 6J' in diameter asd is 7' high. The egress valve is operated by a lever from be- neath the pan. A dome on the top is connected by a pipe to the safe, which has a glass gage, and a cock for drawing off the syrup that collects in it. Two coils of pipe inside the pan heat the syrup and obtain Fig. 2493. Alvarado Vacuum Pan. VACUUM PAN. 918 VACUUM PUMP. their supply of steam by the pipe connecting with the gene- rator. Comp. Fivesdelle, Fr. . * "Engineering," xxvi. 132. Deeley 4" Co * " ScientificAmerican," xliii. 335. Immense . . . *"Manuf. If Builder," xii. 273. "Iron .Ag-e," xxi., March 7, p. 7- Fig. 2494. wheel, which, by means of a belt, is connected with a, pul- ley on top, the revolution of which works the alternate ad- mission of the steam into the vacuum cylinder. This cylin- der is surrounded with large valves at its lower end, giving rapid exit to water and closing against its refintering, while another valve at the top of the suction-pipe and the bot- tom of the vacuum chamber opens when the vacuum pro- duces suction and draws the water up through the suction- pipe, and closes as soon as the water leaves the vacuum cyl- inder by the readmission of steam. The vacuum cylinder is surrounded by a wider vessel, as seen in the engraving, the outlet of which is just low enough to keep the valves around the vacuum cylinder always immersed under water, so as to secure their tightness. It will be seen that the water leaves the pump by its own gravity, as it were, drops out, so that the steam' does not meet with any resistance whatso- ever ; on the con- trary, when "it en- ters it is rather drawn in and acts in this way on the steam-engine from which it is obtained almost like a con- denser. The ar- rangement added to a high-pressure en- gine changes it prac- tically into some- thing even better than a condensing engine : in t'a^|, into something similar to a compound en- gine ; the steam is first utilized by its pressure and then by its condensation. In order to change the intermittent ac- tion of this vacuum puuip into a steady one, coiuuming a steady stream of ex- Fig. 2496. Fig. 2495. Vacuum Pump. Vac'u-um Pump. If the exhaust steam of a pumping or other steam engine is allowed to enter a closed vessel, and is there submitted to condensa- tion by cooling, a vacuum will be formed. Such a vacuum may be utilized to raise water, if only the proper secon- d ary applian- ces are added to make this con- densation of the steam the sub- sequent raising of water, and its discharge and refilling with steam, al- ternate. An inge n i o u s way to effect this alternate action is represented in Fig. 2494, and is the invention of Mr. Win. Bur don , President of the New York Hy- draulic and Drain- age GO. Water escaping from the vacuum cylinder is caused to turn a small overshot Vacuum Pump. The Nye Vacuum Pump. VACUUM PUMP. 919 VALVELESS ENGINE. haust steam, producing a continuous suction and rise of water ami a steady stream of water, two suction pumps may be combined, tin- steam entering alternately the one and then the other, while this admission may be regulated in the game way as represented in Fig. 2495, or by means of other power, when the pulley is driven by a belt from shafting above. Fig. 2497. Vacuum Pump. The revolution of this pulley opens and shuts the steam- valves alternately, so that the steam entering by the main pipe is in succo.-Mon first thrown to the right and then to the left vacuum cylinder, so that while in one the ateam en- ters it is being condensed in the other. There is nothing to prevent multiplying these pumps and connecting them into one system, so as to be able to use all the exhaust steam disposable, when a steady, large stream of water may be obtained raised from a depth equal to that from which any suction pump may raise it by atmospheric pressure. The " Nye" pump. Fig. 24!>. is said to discharge 800 gal- lons per minute. It consists of two cast-iron cylinders lined with wood, to prevent loss of .steam by coming in contact with the metal, the condenser (a plain chamber back of the cylinders), a sim- ple balanced automatic steam valve on top of cylinders, and four valves cover- inn; suction and delivery ports. The aquameter pump, Fig. 249", has two chambers alternately occupied by water and steam. The steam being ad- mitted by a balanced piston -valve forces iter out, and then condensing, forms a partial vacuum, into which the water rushes under atmospheric pres- sure. Blake, * "Manuf. $ Biiililer." x. 172. N. Y. Draina K , ,\ Hi,-/. Co., *"Man. If Builder,"' viii. 29, 100. Vac 'u-uni Shunt. An elec- tric vacuum shunt of variable re- sistance was exhibited by Dr. Stone at the meeting of the Phys- ical Society, on June 26, 1880. The variable resistance was formed neither by a set of coils, a platin'um-iridium wire, or a tube of water, but by a Torricellian vacuum at the top of a mercury column, the height of which could be increased or diminished at will. The apparatus consists of an ordinary barometer tube of glass 32" long, and terminating above in a short vac- uum chamber arranged transversely, and closed at either end by adjustable india-rubber stops, through which plati- num terminals are passed. The tube is continued beyond. tlii> chamber to a stop-cock, by which small quantities of air can be admitted into the vacuum. The foot of the tube is connected by a flexible india-rubber pipe to an open glass cistern, like that of a Fraiikland gas apparatus. This cistern is nearly filled with mercury, which, on the barometric principle, ascends the tube till the height of the column above the surface level in the cistern just balances the pres- sure of the atmosphere. The cistern is suspended by a cord over a pulley, and counterweighted so that it can be raised or lowered through the whole 32''. On passing an induction spark through the Torricellian chamber all the discharge is diverted through this shunt. But on admitting a little air by the stop-cock to render the vacuum less perfect, and raising or lowering the cistern, so as to lengthen or shorten the mercury column, the resistance of the vacuum can be increased or diminished within wide limits. In this way, according to Dr. Stone, a point can be found at which the induction spark due to breaking contact is shunted through the vacuum tube, while the weaker discharge due to making coutact is arrested. The induction current is thus obtained in a single direction, a matter of some importance in physi- ological experiments. Va-len'ci-a. (Fabric.) A French dress goods woven on a taffetas loom. It has a silk chappe warp and a combed-wool weft. Val'en-tine's Knife. A two-bladed knife for making a thin section of a tissue for microscopic purposes at a single stroke. Val'gus, Tal'i-pes Ap'pa-ra'tus. (Surgical.) See CLDB-FOOT APPARATUS. Valve. A device for regulating the passage of a fluid through a pipe or aperture. See p. 2688, 'Mgs.)Br. . . Of Madison Square Theater, New York Hogg * "Scientific American .Si//).," 3981. Coal mines, Andre . " Van Nostranrl's Mag.," xix. 369. Schools, Winsor . . "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1556. Ships " Scientific Ame rican, " xxxiv. 149. Ship board ... * "Engineering,'' xxi. 327. " Scientific American," xxv. 154. * "Scientific American,' 1 ' xlii. 86. Railway tunnels System of, Green . . Ventilator, mine "Cham- pion " . . . . Chilton Colliery, Br. . High Blantyre Col- liery, Stevenson * " Iron Age" xviii., Nov. 2, p. 1. * "Engineering," xxiii. 468. * "Engineering," xxvii. 177. Tlnvaites If Carbutt, Br * "Engineer," xliii. 412. And engine, Liege . . * "Engineering," xxii. 275. Veii'ti-la'tor. Fig. 2508 represents Gen. Bil- liugs's wing fan ventilator. The ventilator shaft used in connection with this device is enlarged as it exteu'ls upward, so that each successive story VENTILATOR. 925 VERTICAL BORING, ETC., MACHINE. Fig. 2508. of a building may discharge into it without interfering with the proper ventilation of the lower stories. The cowl into which the ventilating shaft discharges is large and nicely pivoted, so that it turns easily with the wind. Its flar- ing mouth gives it peculiar advantages over the ordinary form of cowl, so that this of itself is a very efficient ven- tilator ; but the chief merit of this device lies in the arrangement of the fan and its propell- i n g wind wheel seen at the top of the cowl. All the parts are made to work very freely and with but little friction. The fans are arranged so as tn swing around the inner periphery of the casing, leav- ing an undisturbed central core, while the enlarged hood and vertical posi- tion of the fans of- fer no resistance whatever to the up- ward current of air in case the fan should not be in motion. In motion they force the air out through the lateral opening, thus producing a vacuum, aiding the natural draught or creating uiie where then- is none. With the wing fan ventilator it is found after many tests that when the wind is not strong enough to run the fan, the peculiar form of the cowl, its enlarged si/.e, and prompt ac- tion in shifting itself to windward, will give a regular cur- rent of from 100' to 200' per minute ; while with a fair to brisk wind to run the fan the velocity will go up to 300' and 400', while with a strong wind it often records over 500', and has in several oases reached over 600' per minute. Six tests made November 20, 1879, at St. Denis Hotel, where there is a 24" shaft capped with iTwing ventilator, showed an aver- age of 4oS . being an actual exhaust of fully 100,000 cubic feet of foul air per hour. December 22, 1879, in public school branch of JS'o. 15, Brooklyn, six tests showed a current of from 225' to y>~' per minute, with 8 12" pipes leading into two large pipes of 24" each, showing an exhaust of over 146,000 cubic feet per hour, with only alight wind and 'no fires. Later in the same day the one in Brooklyn "Eagle " building showed a current from 230' to 270' per minute. November 20, 1879, the Irving House, where there are two of these venti- lator-, one over each tier of water-closets, gave a current of 525', there being a good breeze. Ventilator, Murphy . . * "En # Min. Jour.," 1 xxii. 219. Centrifugal sere w, Petry $ Hecking, Ger. .... * "Engineering," xxx. 123. Pelzer * "Scientific American Sup.," 3932. For chemical works, Hail,Vr. . . .* "Engineer, " xliv. 50. Rotary, Brac/ier . . * "Iron Age,' 1 xxi., Jan. 24, p. 3. Self-acting, Gitmore 4" Cinrlcf, I5r. ... * "Engineering," 1 xxix. 264. * "Scientific American," 1 xlii. 274. * "Manuf. 4" Builder," xii. 139. Window, Mi//' n Frame, Sayers . Wall and cowl, on (16 figs.), Trewman * "Engineer," xli. 365. Ven'ti-la'tor D e-fl e c ' t o r. On railway cars ; a window so hung as to draw the air to or from the inside according to its angular position relatively to the line of motion and to the car. See Fig. 2509. Ven'ti-la'tor Hood. A shield Fig. 2509. Ventilator Deflector over the outside of a ventilator to prevent the en- trance of sparks, cinders, rain, or snow. If is some- times intended to direct the current of air either into or out of the car. Ver'meil. Silver-gilt. Ver-nier' Scale Sight. (Rifle.) A hind sight with a vernier scale for accurate adjustment. The peep-sight is elevated or depressed by a screw; the scale on the bar of the sight being slotted. Ver'tic-al Boil'er. A' convenient form of steam boiler occu- pying but small Fig. 2510. space and well adapted for those of moderate size. T h e cylindrical shells are now rolled without lon- gitudinal joints, which adds to the neatness of appear- ance, avoids to that extent the groov- ing and corrosion which always be- gin at the joints, and is convenient for fixing the mountings. There are many forms : Multiflue, multitube, hanging tube, cross tube, spiral tube, etc. Fig. 2510 is a plain form without longitu- dinal rivet joints either on the shell or fire-box, the boiler space being all around the furnace and flue. The flame space is crossed by two large tubes of 6" or 8" diameter, one of which is shown in cross and the other in longitudi- nal section. A man- Vertical Boiler. hole is shown in front and mud hole at one side ; on the other side is a cover and bridge for the hole by which the flue is reached to remove scale. Blake, Br * " Engineering:, " xxix. 147. * "Engineer," xlix. 447. Cochran, Br * "Engineer," xlv. 288. * "Engineering,' 1 ' xxvi. 303. Talbot, Br Proctor If Wallis, Br. . . . Double-chambered. Smith, Br Tubuloug boiler, Smith, Br. Tubular flue boiler, N. Y. Safety Steam Power Co. * "Engineering," xxix. 108. * "Engineer,"' xlviii. 306. * "Engineering," xxviii. 69. * "Engineer,-' xlviii. 24. "Engineer," xli. 209. Ver'tic-al Bor'ing and Turn'ing Ma- chine'. The Beuvant machine, Fig. 2511, swings 12' diameter and G' high. The face plate is driven by spur pinion with 20 changes, of speed, and is sup- ported upon a spindle, with step to sustain the weight, and adjusted vertically and laterally, giving steadiness to large work. The tool slide has BO" vertical or angular traverse, rapid hand-motion, and counterbalance carried on frame of the machine. There is self-acting feed at all angles and in either direction, with four changes. The cross-head is raised and lowered by power. The French vertical boring machines have their special uses with different kinds of borers and slides. They are used for routing sabots and gun stocks. The rounded ends of the mortise are squared out by a double chisel worked by a lever. The French use a simple hollow bit, like a pod bit, and run the mandrel 2,000 revolutions per minute. VERTICAL BURR MILL. 926 VERTICAL MULTIFLUE BOILER. fig. 2511. Vertical Boring and Turning Machine. Ver'tic-al Burr Mill, Silliman's vertical burr stone mill, Fig. 2512, has large openings for receiving and discharging the grist. It is never liable to choke or clog ; the grain drops from the shoe di- rectly into the radiating centrifugal feeder, which throws it evenly between the stones on all sides alike, above as well as below ; thus for the first time obviating a vital objection to all vertical miHs. In taking the mill apart to dress the stones, the foundation bolts are never disturbed, and each Fig. 2512. form of boiler with the crown plate of work. The cone has 4 speeds for 2" belts, and gives a wide range in speed and power ; the spindle is driven by cut bevel gear (2 'to 1); the arm carrying the belt shifter can be re- volved around the driving shaft to suit the direction of the belt ; the table arm has a lift of 20", and can be swung eutirelv around the column. The base is provided with T slots for secur- ing work, and the ta- ble is raised and low- ered by a worm and oblique rack, enabling the operator to ma- nipulate the table when it is loaded. By an arrangement o"f sheaves the spindle and lower stock is balanced by a single weight ; the balance weight plays within the hollow column. See UPKIGHT DRILL. Woodward. * "Scientific American Sup.," 836. Ver'tic-al Mul'- ti-flue Boil'er. A flue pipes extending between the furnace and an upper flue Fig. 2513. . Ver'tic-al Drill. The " Niles " vertical drill is calculated for drilling from U" to the smallest Vertical Steam Engine. VERTICAL STEAM ENGINE. 927 VIGNETTER. plate, being surrounded by the water in the boiler. See MULTIFLUE BOILER. Ver'tic-al Steam En'gine. Fig. 2513 repre- sents Maxim's automatic steam engine. The cylinder is 2" in diameter and has 2|" stroke of pis- ton. It is supplied with all the attachments used in large engines, the governor being inside the belt pulley, and oper- ating directly on the point of cut-off, enabling a small amount of steam to do a large amount of work. The engine is ready to work in ten minutes from lighting the gas, and will run all day without any attention whatever. With a supply of gas and water it is its own engineer and fireman. It is ad- mirably adapted to the use of dentists, jewelers, and ama- teurs. Lovegrove's portable engine, Fig. 2514, occupies a floor space of only 20" X .34". The boiler is 18" diameter and 42" high. It is made of charcoal hammered iron and contains 2(1 2" tubes, 30" long, and is tested t<> 2i>0 His. pressure, though the working pressure is from (JO to 90 Ibs. With this boiler and a cylinder 3" diameter and 4" stroke, is obtained a two horse-power. The engine is fitted with all the necessary ac- Fig. 2514. N. Y. Safety Steam Power Co * Vertical Portable Steam Engine. companimcnts of pmn]. valves, etc., complete. It is fur- nished with the Pickering governor, and the steam and ex- (iimections are quite short, avoiding expense in long pipe and waste of steam. The pulley which drives, the gov- ernor affords connection for the pump at the same time. The vertical guides are bolted to the base plate, and are fitted lip in as plain and substantial a manner as possible. There is a complete supply of lubricating valves, gages, blow-off valve, etc. The fly-wheel is 12" diameter and 3" face, and insures steadiness of motion. In the " Shapley " vertical engine and boiler, the engine is not attached to the boiler but rests on the same base, per- mitting adjustment of the parts, if necessary while steam is on. The boiler is in two sections, the upper part of which serves as a steam space. The fire-box is conical and from it radial tubes communicate with an annular smoke space having down-cast flues passing perpendicularly through the boiler, and conveying the products of combustion after pass- ing over water to the smokestack, into which the exhaust Steam, is also discharged. Snyder * Whitman ..,..* Double-acting, T'iner . * Small Blake * Haskins * Head, Br * Heald Sf Sisco . . . ^. * Hampson, (Vhitehill Co Lm-r. grove .... Shapley * Fitchburg St. Eng. Co. . * "Manuf. If Builder," ix. 73. Thurston's " Vienna Exp. Kept.,*' ii. 27. "Eng. 4" Min. Jour.," xxvi. 256. "Manufacturer 4" Builder," ix. 247 ; x. 201. "Iron Age," xvii., Jan. 27, p. 1. "Scientific American SMf>.,"1764. "Scientific American Sup.," 1839. "Scientific American Sup.," 165. " Imn Age,"- xix., June 14, p. 1. ' Engineering,'' xxi. 270. ' "Manuf. Sf Builder," xi. 245. "Manuf. Sf Builder," viii. 103. ' "Iron Age," xxi., May 2, p. 41. : "Manufacturer 4" Builder," viii. 52 ; x. 81. "Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 34. "Iron Age," xxi., May 2, p. 41; xxii., Aug. 8, p. 30. "Iron Age," xxii., Aug. 8, p. 29. "Iron Age," xxii., Aug. 8, p. 29. Ver'tic-al Ten'on-ing Ma-chine'. Fay's car gaining and tenoning machine has traversing cutters and automatic feed. The table is low, and the cutter-heads are adjusted independently by a screw to each, so that they can cut a tenon of the desired thickness, with any proportion of shoulders within the capacity of the machine. The back of the upright stand carries a head for gaining a double tenon to 4" in length. This is raised by a screw, and can be moved out of the range of single tenoning. The side of the upright stand has a movable piece, which when taken out makes the whole length of the tenon 12". The belt that drives the heads is retained at its proper ten- sion by a sheave and weight in connection with a binder pulley^ that compensates for the motion of the heads. The table rests upon friction rollers that run upon planed ways, one of which has a groove in which is fitted a corresponding tongue on the table, to keep it at a constant right line with the line of the heads. Ver'tic-al Tube Coil. An arrangement for steam heating purposes. Ver'tic-al Tu'bu-lar Boil'er. The Safety Steam Power Co.'s tubular boiler has the tubes pass, at about the water level, through the baffle plate. A large tube hangs from the center of the plate, nearly to the crown of the furnace, and an annular space is left around the outside of the baffle and between it and the outer shell sufficient for the easy escape of the steam and water. This arrangement is intended to stop the current of steam and water tending to shoot up between the tubes, and compel it to flow outward and escape be- tween the baffle and shell, at which point the steam and water separate. The steam is taken off from the center of the boiler, and as the steam is deliv- ered at the outer edge of the baffle it must flow in- ward, between and around the tubes, on its way to the engine, becoming dried and slightly super- heated. Vi'bra-ting Ap'pa-ra'tus. Affecting chemical phe- nomena, Berlnelol . . * "Scientific American Sup.," 3829. Vi'bra-ting Ar'ma-ture. (Electricity.) The moving bar at the end of the helix by which the circuit is opened or closed, automatically or other- wise. Vick'ers Steel. (Metallurgy.) A steel made by combining iron scrap, ground charcoal, and oxide of manganese. Vig-net'ter. A mode of making vignetters by means of gelatiue-chromate is : ready at hand, the negatives can be taken from them directly VIGNETTER. 928 VINEYARD IMPLEMENTS. by any convenient method ; either a collodion emulsion niay be used, or chromated gelatine, as described below. To pre- pare the latter a solution is made of five parts pure white gelatine in sixty parts of water, to which two parts of am- monium bichromate are added, and, when the film is after- ward to be drawn off, a few drops of glycerine may be in- troduced to uiiike it less brittle. After filtering this solution, pour it, while still hot and fluid, on a well-cleaned glass plate; rare must be taken to have this plate placed in a perfectly horizontal position, which is best effected by resting it on a larger plate that has already been carefully leveled. The gelatine solution must not be allowed to run over the sides of the plate, or the film may turn out to be, too thin ; to prevent this give the plate a raised edging of wax. When the chromated gelatine has set, let the plate dry completely in a dark and moderately warm room. Artificial heat should not be used in drying, especially when the film is afterward to be drawn off ; when this is rhe case, the plate should first be rubbed over with powdered talc or diluted ox-gall, and then, on heating, the film easily flies off. On plates prepared in this way the negatives are now copied, and that as intensely as possible by a long exposure. The copies cannot be too intense, provided that the nega- tives are quite black in the center of the aper- ture. When they have been sufficiently exposed, wash them several times in cold water, and, finally, with distilled water ; then plunge them, while still wet, into a solution of one part lunar caustic in four- teen parts water acidu- lated with one part acetic acid. It will now be seen that the film is coated with a precipitate of silver chromate, which is in the highest degree non actin- ic, and is much denser toward the side of the plate. Should there be a trace of chromium salt left, as is often the case, it is of no importance ; on the con- trary, \vhen really intense vignetters are required, it is no necessary to thoroughly wash out the chromium salt. Ell in order to obtain the requisite transparency in the center of the plate, the whole of the silver nitrate must first be washed out, and then a soft and strong hair brush dipped in dilute nitric acid. This is passed over the plate with a few rapid strokes in a circular direction from the center outward up to the commencement of the shading, and the plate is then quickly rinsed. With a little skill a great va- riety of effects may be obtained in this way, and any re- quired degree of shading. After drying, the film is coated with a little castor oH col- lodion, and then, if it be desired to draw it off, with a hot twenty percent, solution of gelatine to which a small quan- tity of glycerine has been added. The plate must be laid horizontal, and the addition of a little alcohol to the solu- tion facilitates its flowing. When the gelatine is set, the plate is placed for a couple of days to dry, and it is again coated with some thin collodion ; the edges are then cut through, and the film is drawn off. Vi-gogne'. (Fabric.) A silk- and-wool, or an all-wool French dress poods. Vig'o-rite. A nitre-glycerine explosive, manufactured at Marquette. Fig. 2515. Vine Puller. sents a cultivator as used in the vineyards on the Continent of Europe. Vineyard Cultivator. A combined horse-hoe and rake, Fig. 2517, m use as a cultivator in French vineyards. Cal., Ross "Min. fy Sc. Press," xxxvii. 69. Vine'yard Im'ple-ments. Dr. Knight's re- Fig. 2517. sulphuric acid. 25 to 50 parts of this mixture, called nitro- line, are mixed with 15 to 35 parts of nitrate of potash and 15 to 35 parts of cellulose. Vi-nasse'. The residuum of the wash in the still after distillation. (Beet-root.) The residuum of the distillation of fermented beet-root molasses. Vine Pull'er. A machine for extracting vines, Fig 2515. A pair of double-grip pinchers haiiir hy a chain fuom a double-pivoted lever that surmounts a truck-frame. Vine Shear. See PRUNING SHEARS. Vine'yard Bisse. A French double vineyard plow. Vine'yard Cul'ti-va'tor. Fig. 2516 repre- Horse Hoe and Rake. port on agricultural implements at the Paris Expo- sition of 1878 (see "Paris Exposition (1878) Re- ports," vol. v., pp. 216-223) describes and illustrates the following : Vineyard plow, Moreait^ Chaumier .... France. Dechausseuse, Renault- Gottin FrancY-. Rechausseuse, Renault- Gouin France. Plow for hilly ground, Moreau- Chaumier . . France. Vineyard plow, Renault- Gonin France. Double mold-board plow, Morean- Chaumier . France. Gang plow for vineyards. Renault- Gouin . . France. Vineyard plow of Burgundy, Renault- Gouin . France. Vineyard horse-hoe, Souchu-Pinet .... France. Vineyard harrow, Souchu-Pinrt France. Scraper and rake, Renault- Gouin .... France. Machine for crushing and stalking grapes, Chm-anette France. Grape crusher, Meixmoron de Dombasle . . France. Grape mill, MabiUe Freres , - . France, See also PRESS. VINO-SALORIMETER. 929 VISE. Vi'no-sal-o-rim'e-ter. The vino-salorimeter is a modification of the old colorimeter 'of Payen, but its dimensions are much smaller, and the addi- tion of the micrometer screw allows the depth of the layer of wine to be measured with accuracy. Vi'o-lin. For history of the violin in the United States, see report of H. K. Oliver on Group XXV., in vol. vii. of "Centennial Exhibition lie- ports^' p. 48. The President de Brosse.s, " En Italic " (1739), mentions a virtuoso in Florence, Tag- naui. " II a inventt'- une clef aux violons faites comme celles des flutes, qui s'abaisse sur les cordes en poussaut le meuton, et fait la sourdine ; il a assez ajout<5, sous le cheva- let, sept petite cordes de cuivre, et je ne sais combien d'autres mievrete's.'' 1. 272, ed. ls;>. Didier, Paris. The invention of laying the strings over ami above each other is certainly a very old one. Even before the invention of the ham- mer-piano there was added to the bass strings of the old clavichord a string sounding the higher octave. This string was fastened upon a bridge which is situated In-low the lower strings upon the sounding-board. Various experiments to utilize the crossing of the strings failed uttrrh . so that even authors of repute believed that strings lying above each other throw their respective vibrations into confusion. This, however, is not the case, as is sufficiently proven by Helmholtz's analysis of the system of sound-waves. This is done no more when lying above each other than by strings lying side by side. The vina of India has an antiquity of 2,500 years at least. The bow is claimed to have been invented in India. Pocket .... * ''Manufacturer # Builder," viii. 187. Vis-co-sim'e-ter. The viscosimeter is the name given to an instrument by means of which the viscosity of a sample of beer can be determined. It consists in its simplest form of a funnel-shaped vessel, the lower extremity of which is drawn out to a fine point, so that the internal diameter is us fine as a capillary tube. A certain quantity of distilled water being placed in the funnel- shaped reservoir, a determination is made of the quantity which will run through in a given time, say five minutes : for example, we will assume this to be 21 cubic centimeters; tin; -aine quantity of Hie beer to be tested is then placed in the instrument, and an observation made of the quantity running through in the same time, we will suppose this to have been 15 cubic centimeters. This viscosity is in inverse proportion to the quantity of fluid flowing through the tube in a given time ; taking the viscosity of water at 1,000, we have the following proportion : 15 : 21 : : 1000 : V. V = 1400. Many precautions have, of course, to be taken ; all deter- minations must be made at the same temperature, and, if possible, at the same barometric pressure; any excess of car- bonic acid gas should be previously removed from the beer, by shaking a portion of it in a bottle until ho more gas is given off ; if the beer is at all thick it must be filtered, other- wise some of the suspended particles may mechanically close up the capillary tube. The determination of the viscosity of beer is of value for many purposes, for any great excess is an unfavorable sign. Any tendency toward " ropiness " can be detected by this instrument. It would also probably be of considerable value to the practical brewer for testing his worts, with the view of determining the dextrine ratio. A dextrinous wort will run through much slower than a sac- charine wort, and we think some very useful results might be obtained by the aid of this instrument. Its construction is very simple, and any one with but a slight experience in chemical manipulation may make one for himself. Vise. Fig. 2518 represents Hall's sudden grip vise. It is intended to save the time used in operating a screw vise. The mova- ble jaw and sliding bar are cast in one piece, with a hollow chamber below, to contain the working parts of the vise. The stationary jaw is so cast that the sliding bar fits into it, and with a base to fit the swivel plate. The lever has two disk-like portions on each side to fit into recesses in the under part of the movable jaw, and having frictional sur- faces around the peripheries. A band retains the lever in the recess, and an adjustable screw regulates the tension of the band. 59 Smith's heavy chilled beam vise is one with sufficient weight of metal to give it the inertia of an anvil. The jaws move parallel so a.s to take a firm hold. Stevens's vertical and horizontal vise, Fig. 2519, here illus- trated, is so hung upon an angular swivel that a half revolu- tion upon its base brings the jaws from a vertical position to a horizontal position. In their passage from one position to the other, the jaws occupy every angle of inclination, and the vise may be fastened to its base in any position. Our illustration represents a jeweler's portable or clamp vise, Fig. 2519. Vertical or Horizontal Vise.' arranged to fasten to any table without marring it. The two plates of the swivel are faced true, and held together very firmly by a central bolt, which may be made fast by a tenpenny nail as a lever to turn the bolt. The larger vises turn upon a large cylindrical bearing which projects into the lower plate, the plates and bearing being turned true, and the binding bolt, or nut, is turned by any wrench beneath the bench. It may be changed from one position to the other in a few seconds. The Prentiss vise, Fig. 2520, has a back jaw that is adjust- able and in use instantaneously conforms by automatic ac- VISE. 930 VOLTAMETER. Fig. 2520. Angle Vise. tion to any angle, adjusts itself, and makes firm the object held, whether it be straight, beveled, or wedge-shaped. Or, if desired, by inserting the pin A, the jaw becomes fixed and immovable, thus making a perfect parallel, or solid jaw vise. The adjustable jaw, resting and working as it does upon and Against the solid body of the vise, is thereby rendered absolutely as strong and durable as the old permanent jaw. By means of the new patent swivel bottom this vise may be readily adjusted to any angle, right or left, at will of opera- tor, by simply raising" rachet-pin B, which, on being freed, is instantly forced home by a spring, rendering the vise solid and firm as if stationary. See also under SUDDEN-GRIP VISE. The following are the names of vises of various designs : Parallel bench vise, round jaws. Swivel bench vise, round jaws, with cast-steel anvil. Oval slide bench vise. Round slide, double swivel bench vise. Swivel bench vise, swivel jaw. New model swivel bench vise. Sudden-grip bench vise. Improved swivel bench vise. Stationary parallel bench vise. " Rapid Transit" parallel bench vise. " Rapid Transit '' swivel bench vise. " Rapid Transit '' woodworkers' bench vise. Woodworkers' parallel bench vises. Woodworkers' swivel bench vise. Woodworkers' swivel bench vise, with swivel jaw. Newell Simpson Smith Starkey * Zanetti * And anvil drill . . . . * Bench, Hall . . . . * Parallel, Fisher # Norris * Parallel, Simpson . . * Penfielfl * Sinclair * Solomon * Stevens . . * "Engineer," xlii. 42. "Iron Age,'' xxi., May 2, p. 25. "Scientific American," xxxiv. 54. "Scientific American,'' xxxix. 370. "Scientific American," 1 xlii. 61. "Scientific American," xlii. 130. T/ntrston's " Vienna Exp. Rept.," iii. 257. Swivel-jaw, Bonney . . * Exp. Kept.,' in. zyo. "Iron Age,-' xxii., Nov. 14, p. 5. Vise Cap. A brass cap for the upper section (the contact edge) of a vise. Vise Clamp. A device with serrated jaws for holding pipes, rods, etc. Vise Clamp. A clamp for temporarily fasten- ing the vise to the bench or other object to which it is attached. Vis-i-om'e-ter. An instrument by which to determine the numbers of lenses. A proposed formula of procedure is in multiply- ing the distance of normal vision (12) by the di's- tance of distinct vision, and dividing the" product by the difference between the two. Vode. (Fabric.) An all-wool French dress fabric made for religieuses. Vol'ley Gun. (Ordnance.) See MITR\IL- LEUR. Volt. (Electricity.) The practical unit of elec- tro-motive force. Equals one hundred million abso- lute units of potential. 1 volt = 10 8 (C. G. S.). Gordon. Vol-ta'ic Ar-ma-dil'lo. (Surgical.) A bat- tery of plates in a belt or sole, linked together so as to resemble, in a degree, the cuirass of an arma- dillo. Vol-ta'ic Fen'cil. There is at the present time scarcely a single branch of industry to which electricity is not knding its aid. Art, however, has thus far received but little benefit from this source, if we except the application of electricity to electro- metallurgy. An important discovery, however, has just been made in Paris, by M. Bellet, whose invention consists of a voltaic pencil, by the use of which designers and draughtsmen may be enabled to dispense entirely with the aitl of the engraver. The editors of "Eltclricite" state that they have examined beautiful proofs of lithographs and etchings obtained, with- out the use of the engraver, by the effect of a voltaic arc produced at the point of an ordinary lead pencil. Encour- aged by this success the inventor has taken out patents in various countries, and a company has been formed to carry out the process, which will soon be placed before the public. At present there are being prepared models of a series of apparatus which will allow any artist, however ignorant of the mysteries of electricity, to reproduce immediately, and without the aid of any artisan, the most delicate and com- plicated drawings ; and this, too, by a very simple process and at a very moderate price. By a slight modification of the system there may be produced : 1. Stencils analogous to those produced by the Edison pen ; 2. Lithographs : 3. Etch- ings ; 4. Stereotypes for typographical work. The initiators of this discovery are confident that an entire revolution will take place in the process of illustrating papers by means of their electrography. Either copper or zinc plates may be used. A late number of "Nature '' describes the modus op- erandi as follows : A thin sheet of paper is attached to the plate. One of the poles of a Rhumkorft machine is connected to the plate, and the other pole to the top of the pen. The electricity then runs through, making a spark which perfo- rates the paper in whatever direction the artist directs the pen. As soon as the drawing is finished, the paper is rubbed over with greasy ink. laid on with an ordinary roller. The paper is removed, and the plate is dipped into the acid, which cuts away those portions not protected by the ink. The light of the spark is said to be sufficient for the artist, even when he works in a dark room ; and the pen is stated to be as manageable as an ordinary pencil. Vol-ta'ic Pile. (Electricity.) A number of disks of silver or copper, wet cloth or zinc, in the order named. Invented by Volta in 1800. See Fig. 6990, p. 2714, "Meek, bict." Also * "Scientific American Supplement," 2489. Niaudet, American translation. 2. Ayrton $ Perry, "English Mechanic,'' xxvii. 185. Vol-tam'e- ter. Fig. 2521 represents a det- onating voltam- eter. The following ex- periment, due to SI. Berlin, is but little known, yet is ex- ceedingly interest- ing, inasmuch as it puts on evidence cer- tain phenomena con- nected with the po- larization of elec- trodes which always t-ike place under dif- ferent conditions. The simple appara- tus, represented in the engraving, con- sists of an inverted bell glass, G, closed with a cork, through which pass two pla- tinum wires provided at their ends with broad plates, H O, of the same metal. It is supported by a Fig. 2521. Voltameter. VOLTAMETER. 931 VULCANIZING. glass tube, T, open at both ends, and fixed in the cork which closes the mouth of a test glass E. Two wires from the batteries are connected with the platinum wires by means of ordinary binding screws. The bell glass G is filled with water acidulated with one tenth of its volume of sulphuric acid. If this mixture be now decomposed by a strong current from a Bunsen battery of 50 elements, the water will be seen to lower very rapidly ; and when the bell glass is almost full of gas, the mixture will detonate spontaneously, and be seen to take fire. This experiment is not attended with any danger whatever ; the recomposition of the products of electrolysis takes place immediately, and during the passage of the current. It is necessary that this polarization current should have a certain tension : the phe- nomenon does not take place with a battery of 30 elements, but is at once spontaneously produced when the 20 elements that are necessary to make up the complement are added. With 30 elements", instead of a detonation, there will be ob- served a phenomenon of a different nature, but none the less curious. The water, which at first lowers very rapidly to some millimeters below the platinum plates, all at once stops, in spite of the disengagement of gas on the wires. The plates recompose above what the wives decompose below. By using pure water the decomposition takes place more slowly, and the detouation is not produced, even with 50 Bunsen elements. Still , a curious phenomenon is produced : the water lowers to the base of the plates, and then does nothing but oscillate between the base and top of these. The water is decomposed below and recomposed above. A weaker current, of 30 elements, decomposes the whole. These curious phenomena are due to the polarization of the electrodes and not to the catalytic force of the platinum, for they may be obtained with electrodes of various metals. Edison "Manuf. $ Builder,'' x. 230. Detonating, Berlin, Fr. . * "Engineer" xlvi. 123. Exploding, Berlin . . *" Telegraphic Journal," vi. 399. Vo-lute' Spring. A spring made of a flat bar of steel coiled with a kind of scroll resembling the volutes used as an ornament iu the capitals of an- cient Roman and Grecian architecture. The coil is made in a conical form so that the spring can be compressed in the direction of the axis around which it is coiled. Vul'can-ite. Sulphide of caoutchouc ; sul- phur and india-rubber. India-rubber in its crude state becomes soft when subjected to heat, and very hard and rigid when exposed to severe cold ; but, by the vulcanizing process invented by the late Mr. Charles Goodyear, which consists of incorporating with the rubber a small proportion of sulphur, and subjecting it to from 250 D to 300 of heat for several hours,. it is ren- dered uniformly elastic when exposed to the most intense cold or to any reasonable degree of heat. Steam " heaters ' for vulcanizing are of cylindrical form, 5' to 6' in diameter and over 50' long. These heaters are of wrought iron, one end opening on hinges, and through this open end the goods to be vulcanized are run iu on a railway carriage. The end or door is then closed, and the steam let on and maintained at the proper temperature, ascertained by the aid of thermometers placed in the top of the heater, until the articles in it are thoroughly vulcanized. Vulcanizing under the pressure of metallic molds or sheets imparts to the articles so vulcanized a solidity and quality not otherwise obtainable. In the man- ufacture of rubber 'from 3 to 10 per cent, of sulphur, and various metallic oxides chiefly lead and zinc are com- bined with it : the quantity of the latter depending on the degree of elasticity and other properties required in the arti- cle to be manufactured ; and to judiciously combine these substances with the rubber in suitable proportions to pro- duce the desired end, as well as in properly vulcanizing it afterwards, requires great experience and skill. A certain degree of honesty on the part of the manufacturer is also es- sential to abstain from introducing more adulterating sub- stances into his " compounds." and thus cheapen the prod- uct at the expense of its quality : and we are sorry to say that this latter practice is carried 'to excess by some ignorant or unscrupulous manufacturers, whose aim appears to be to make what always proves very expensive to the consumer a low priced article regardless of its quality, with a view of underselling more reputable and skillful manufacturers. It is a common error with persons not conversant with the subject, to suppose that rubber in being manufactured is treated with solvents, and can therefore, if necessary, be run into a mold like molten lead ; but this is entirely a mistake, as since Mr. Goodyear's invention of vulcanizing rubber no solvents have been used in its manufacture, the entire mix- ing being done by the operations of machinery, after the manner of mixing dough for bread ; and at no stage of the process up to the time of vulcanizing is the rubber softer than stiff dough, and consequently it has to be pressed and molded into the various forms required. Vul'can-ized Fi'ber. Paper, paper pulp, or other vegetable fibrous substance that has been so prepared by saturation, and coating with chloride of zinc, or chlorides of tin, calcium, magnesium, or aluminum, etc., as to give it iu a measure metallic toughness and strength. Vul'caii-ized Glass. This invention consists in the sudden cooling of all kinds of glass (in pro- portion to the temperature at which they must be worked), at a temperature relatively high in rela- tion to their qualities, by plunging them into baths composed, when the glass consists chiefly of silicates of potassa and of lead, of the following'substances : cheap oils or fats, and by preference paraffine heated from 450 to 550 F. ; glycerine, among other advantages, is not so liable to catch fire, and lias more favorable properties in regard to the tem- perature at which the glass has to be worked ; gly- cerine can easily be maintained at a temperature of 480 F., which is its boiling point, when an addition of basic salt raises its boiling point to a constant temperature of 530 to 600 F. The silicates of potassa and lime, and the silicates of carbonate of soda and lime, require a much higher temperature. Hydrated sulphuric acid boiling at 600 to 640 F. can be used with advantage. The silicate of soda and of lime, which melts at 1,200 to 2,300 F., must be cooled in melted saltpeter, or in an alloy of met- als composed of antimony and tin, which melts at 460 to 680 F., while for the silicates of borax and baryta the cooling has to be done by an amalgam of lead and antimony, the melting point of which is 750 F. Vul'caii-iz-iiig. In vulcanizing caoutchouc the purified and masticated gum is kneaded on warm rolls with the proper proportion of flowers of sulphur. Other substances, as whiting, white lead, litharge, zinc oxide, disintegrated refuse rubber (vulcanized), etc., are often added to increase the volume of the product and economize the more costly caoutchouc. Lead compounds blacken the goods through the formation of lead sulphide. The heating or vulcanizing is conducted in strong cast-iron cylinders, one end of which is movable and serves as a door. The goods to be vulcanized are loaded upon a car and run in upon a railway extending along the bottom of the chamber. Powdered steatite (soapstone) is freely used to prevent adhe- sion of the different articles, the goods often being packed in boxes filled with this substance. When the heater is charged and the door made fast, high pressure steam is ad- mitted until the desired temperature is attained. This varies somewhat with the character of the articles according to Ilr. Chandler, five hours at 240 Fah. is said to be the temper- ature for fire hose. In factories where smaller articles are made, the goods are generally exposed in the heaters for four to four and one half hours, the temperature, at first about 250, gradually being auguiented to 275 Fah., at the termi- nation of the operation. A temperature exceeding 280 Fah. injures the goods. Hard rubber, vulcanite, or ebonite differs from ordinary vulcanized rubber only in that a much larger proportion of sulphur enters into its composition and the vul- canizing process is conducted at a more elevated temperature. Usually the caoutchouc has incorporated with it half its weight of sulphur : but, as in the preparation of soft rub- ber, various foreign substances metallic sulphides and ox- ides, shellac, asphaltuin, etc. are often added. Mixed with a litharge it becomes very black; with sulphide of mercury (vermilion), bright red ; and composition similar to the red vulcanite used for dental purposes is prepared with six parts of sulphur, sixteen of caoutchouc and eleven or twelve of. vermilion. The vulcanizing operation is usually conducted at tem- peratures increasing from 275 Fah. to 305 Fah., the time required being about six hours. The articles are packed in steatite or supported in water trays in the vulcanizer, and, if to present a glossy exterior, are sometimes enveloped in thick tin foil. Thin sheets of rubber or small articles are sometimes vul- canized by what is called the cold process (Parks's). In this the caoutchouc is simply immersed in a mixture of forty parts of carbon disulphide or benzolene and one part of sul- phur chloride. It is next placed in a room heated to 70 Fah.. and when all the carbon sulphide has been volatilized VULCANIZING. 932 WALL PAPER. the process is in so far complete that it is only requisite to boil the material in one pound of caustic potash in about 2 gallons of water, the vulcanized caoutchouc being next washed to remove excess of alkali. The results of this treat- ment are not always satisfactory, owing to the superficial ac- tion of the vulcanizing substances. Vul'can-iz-ing Flask. Hayes's flask and clamp is intended for vulcanizing ovens, boilers, etc. The lug joint of the clamp is so constructed that all the strain comes on the casting. The pin only serves to keep the lug in place when not in use. w. WabTale Saw. One set at an angle to the arbor, to cut a wide kerf or groove. Wag'on Box Rod Plate. The washers at- tached to the wagon box on which the rod-nut turns. Wag'on Seat. Fig. 2522 shows a lap seat spring that is hinged in front so as to make a turn- over seat. Fig. 2522. Wagon Seat. Walk'er Bat'tery. (Electricity.) A modifica- tion of the small battery in which the negative plate of platinum is replaced by platinized carbon of the gas retort. Niaudet, Am. trans., p. 56. Walk'ing Cul'ti-va'tor. A corn cultivator or plow with which the driver walks, in contradistinc- tion to a sulky cultivator, in which he rides. Wall Crane. One affixed to a wall as a hand power foundry or forge wall crane. It is attached to a wall or column so as to command a sweep over a given area, an overhead traveler reaching the nearer positions. Wall En'gine. One attached to a wall, usually vertical and serving either to drive shafting, or sup- ply feed-water to a boiler. See instances in Aimer's. "Engineer" * xlv. 393. Wall Knot. The wall knot, either single or double, forms a handsome ending to a rope. To make a single wall untwist the ends of a rope in half-inch rope the strands must be untwisted for ten or twelve inches and make a bight with the first strand ; pass the second strand over the end of the first, and the third strand over the end of the sec- ond and through the bight of the first, then haul tight. "Wall and Crown. This knot should be fin- ished with a crown : Lay the first strand over the walling, the second strand across over the first, and the third strand across over the second and through the bight of the first ; then haul the ends gt> Pinching the knot into shape as you haul. When it is made snug and tight, cut the ends of the strands off close to the crown. A double wall knot is made over a single wall by passing the ends, singly, close underneath the first wall, and thrusting them up through the middle, the last end coming up under two bights, then finish witli a crown. "Wall Pa'per. Ornamented paper for deco- rating the walls and ceilings of rooms. Paper-hangings are necessarily divided into two chinos hand-printed papers and those made by machinery. These papers differ materially from each other in cost of manufac- ture and durability when in use ; a nan '.-printed paper being worth, at least, twice as much, and frequently twenty times as much, as the same pattern would be if produced "by ma- chinery, and, as it is frequently impossible for a person un- acquainted with- the trade to detect the one from the other, especially if the two modes of manufacture are mixed, great care ought to be exercised in the purchase of paper-hang- ings ; the fact being that very few dealers are aware of the class of goods of which their stocks are composed, and hence arises the great differences in the estimates supplied by com- peting paper-hangers. The public will do well, therefore, to deal only with practical men. The cause of this great difference we will now endeavor to find out. There are various kinds of paper-hangings made in this country, all of which are made in pieces of eight yards long, or double pieces, sixteen yards long. In France the standard length is nine yards, and in England twelve. The cheapest kinds of paper-hangings are those manufactured by machin- ery, in which case the design is cutupon a cylinder, or rather a series of cylinders, for each color requires a separate cylin- der. The cylinders, when set in motion, are filled with color much after the manner in which a printing machine is sup- plied with ink. The papers are run off some hundreds of yards long, and are then cut to the required length of a piece. A machine will print some thousands of pieces in a day, com- plete with all their colors, while a man will not hand-print more than one hundred, and that in one color only ; but then the machine-printer must use his colors so composed that they will flow into the machine in a state something like printers' ink, and must only use such binding materials for sizing his colors as will not he impaired by being subjected to the great heat to which the paper so made must be sub- jected in the drying process. Now all this is exceedingly in- jurious to colors, and very much affects their durability and softness of tone ; hence the extremely fugitive character of all paper made by this process. The hand-printer, on the other hand, can use his colors in considerable thickness, and as he only puts in one color at a time, and then allows his work to dry in the ordinary temperature of a room, before he adds the next color, he can use as a binding medium a well-made spetch size, and thus produce firmness and stabil- ity of color ; and as he only lays on one color at a time, he secures clearness and delicacy of outline utterly unapproach- able in machine-made papers ; in fact, the one will last ten years without fading where the other would not be fit to look at in three. Block-made papers are composed of various qualities of cartridge-paper, upon which a solid flat ground of distemper is laid, and the design stamped upon it with a block upon which the pattern has been cut. According to the quality of the cartridge-paper and ground-work, as also the number of times it must go through the stamping process to produce the various tints and shading of the pattern, is the price of this kind of paper-hanging regulated. The next class of papers is composed of those that have satin grounds, the luster of which is produced by friction. These grounds are often embossed with patterns, some of which represent watered silk, and others a flowered or striped pattern. Upon this a colored pattern is printed in distem- per, in the same way as upon the plain grounds. This class of paper-hangings is of all others the best, as it is the most impervious to the absorption of moisture from the atmos- phere, the most easily cleaned, and decidedly the most du- rable. Another class of papers is that called " floured " or " vel- vet " paper, and is produced by the pattern being stamped on any description of ground-work with Japan gold-size, and dyed wool, ground into a powder, shaken over it while the pattern is wet. This woolen powder, which is called " flour," then adheres to the Japan gold-size, which forms the figure WALL PAPER. 933 WALL PAPER. of the pattern. When dry, the loose "flour" is dusted off and the pattern is generally then enriched by the application of additional blocks, with color or dry ; in the latter case the " flour ' receives an impression which considerably en- hances its effect. It is this class of " flour-paper ' : to which Scott's new process applies. Several coatings of " flour " are added one upon the other, until a considerable amount of relief is obtained. The whole surface is then sized and painted, and a very handsome and durable wall surface pro- duced. The next class of wall-papers embraces those in which the pattern is either wholly or partially produced by metal. The metal is either applied in powder, in a similar manner to "flour," orjn leaves, like those of gold. This metallic powder is bisulphurate of tin, and the leaf metal is made of line copper, or a mixture of copper with zinc, till, or some other metal that will give it more the color of gold than when in its natural state. These metals are often added to colored and floured patterns. Paper-hangings upon which leaf metal is employed are much more expensive than those done with the metallic powder only ; but the leaf kind has much greater brilliancy, and is more durable than the other, especially if as is now very frequently the case the pattern be stamped into the gold with a die. Many papers so produced are exceedingly beautiful, and are known as "stamped golds/' American Builder. Paper has been used as a wall covering by the Chinese from time immemorial. It was introduced in Europe, as a substitute for the ancient tapestry hangings, by the French, among whom its manufacture has always been a prominent industry. Paris contains numerous factories, employing over 3,000 workmen, and several large establishments exist in the southern cities of France. In New York City three factories are in operation. Phila- delphia has six, producing annually paper hangings to the value of fSOO.OOO. Wall paper is prepared in several different ways. The cheap varieties are rapidly printed by ingenious machinery, but for the more elegant and elaborate patterns hand-labor is almost invariably used. The paper is procured by the manufacturer in large endless rolls, weighing some 80 to 85 Ibs. each. In this condition, if of fine quality, it costs about 17 rents per pound; if ordinary or cheap, the price fluctu- ates according to the market. The designs to )" printed are prepared as follows : Sketches of the different patterns are made in this country by artists employed for the purpose. These, on being approved, are forwarded to France, where elaborate drawings are made from them. Earh color entering into the design must be printed separately ,*o that there must necessarily be as many blocks or types prepared to make the impressions as there are tints in the pattern. The blocks are constructed of two layers of wood, a thin piece of maple fastened to a thicker backing of pine board. Each block is about 20" wide. '!' long and l.V' to 2" in thickness. On the maple, all of the design to l.e printed in a single color is drawn and after- wards cut out I >y engravers, or rather wood carvers, so that the lines are left in high relief. When the carving is com- pleted, the work is brushed over with boiled oil, and, when dry, sent to the printer for use. The paint employed for coloring the paper is ground color mixed with warm size and passed through several sieves so that it is rendered perfectly smooth and free from lumps. The design being decided upon, the block carved, and the paint mixed, the first process the paper has to undergo is its uniform covering with a ground tint. This is effected by pa.-sing the paper over an endless rubber belt working on rollers. A copper cylinder at one end of the machine used for the purpose rotates in a box of prepared color. From the cylinder, the paint is distributed to revolving brushes, by which it is applied to the paper passing over the belt. As the paper issues from the machine it is drawn out along the loft and then hung up, in festoons over sticks resting on long frames, to dry. It is then wound on a large reel from which it is cut by boys into pieces of eight yards in length. In case a pattern resembling oak wood is to be applied to the paper, another machine is employed. The paper is passed around a large cylinder, receiving an impression re- sembling the grain of oak from ji smaller revolving wooden cylinder, which is suitably engraved and covered with the proper colored paint. The rolls of paper, as they are wound by the boys from the large reel, are sent to a workshop below, where they are stamped with the patterns. This process is done by hand. The workman stands before a table over which passes the paper. Hanging above the table, supported by an india-rub- ber cord, is the block on which the design is carved. The upper end of the rubber cord is attached to a small wheel traveling on an iron guide, so that the block may be swung from the table over to the place where it receives its cover- ing of color. The method of making the impression is very simple. The paint is obtained from what is termed the " slush box," which consists of a shallow box, the bottom of which is cov- ered with painted ticking made water-tight. This box floats on water contained in a larger box, so that its bottom is al- ways perfectly level. Inside of the first mentioned box is placed a piece of woolen cloth on which the paint is uni- formly distributed. The workman first places the paper across his table, then swings the block over to the slush box, and brings its carved side down on the paint. Next he car- ries the block back again, and places it on the paper, of course using great care in the registering so that the im- pression may fall exactly on the right place. A vertical movable arm attached to a frame above is now rested upon the back of the block, and forced down by means of a lever worked by the foot of the operator, thus completing the impression. This process is repeated until the whole piece is covered with the pattern, when it is hung up for from five to ten days until perfectly dry. If the design is to be gilded, the parts which are to receive the gold leaf are printed in the same manner as above de- scribed, only glue size is used instead of paint in the im- pression. Gold leaf is afterwards applied by girls in the ordinary method. Satin papers are sometimes prepared by mixing with the coloring matter sulphate of alumina and finishing off with a brush. Velvet or flock paper resembling velvet plush is made after printing the colors, by fixing to the surface some finely ground fibers of wool of the proper hue, by means of glue or white lead and oil. Paper after being printed is also often embossed by being passed between steel rollers on which a design has been en- graved. The great care which is exerted in printing the many tints of the more elaborate decorations has rendered hand labor necessary in place of machine power ; but the expense of producing the material has of course been proportionally in- creased: Large quantities of the finer qualities of hangings are imported hither from France, but it is a well-known fact that much that is represented as of French manufacture is in reality made in just such establishments and by the same processes as above described. Of late paper has been printed in patterns which have been suitable for theatrical scenery. At Booth's theater, several of the handsomest scenes are thus made, while in Wallack's the decoration of the entire auditorium is in paper. In price the fine grades of wall paper vary according to quality, but average from 25 cents to $4.50 per roll of 8 yards. Paper is extensively used in Japanese houses as a substi- tute for glass in the windows and sliding doors, and possesses not only the advantage of an immunity from breakage by the frequent earthquakes, but also occasions only a small loss when the house burns down, which happens often enough. Whatever may be its drawbacks, the use of paper for the above purpose is intimately connected with the sys- tem of house building in Japan ; and it will be long be- fore it is entirely abandoned. Wall papers are used in all the houses, and are manufac- tured, not in rolls, but in small sheets ornamented with all kinds of designs printed from wooden blocks, on which the pattern has been cut in relief. The colors having been mixed with some thickening paste, are applied to the block, either by means of a brush or by tamping ; after which the paper sheet is laid on the block and rubbed with a flat rub- ber lined with the smooth bud-scales of bamboo, and used like a printer's ball. Very fine white mica powder is ap- plied to the wall paper, and produces a metallic luster re- sembling silver. The crape-paper, which is a most perfect imitation of the real crape, is made by a very ingenious and most simple process. In the first place, that which may be called the matrix-paper is prepared by laying a moistened sheet of strong paper on a wooden board cut with fine grooves, running parallel or crossing one another at very small angles, and by beating it with hard brushes, so as to force it into these grooves. It is then painted over with the frequently men- tioned " shibu," in consequence of which operation the pa- per becomes so elastic that when let go after having been stretched out, it refolds itself. For the production of crape, several sheets of thin moistened paper are laid, alternately with sheets of the above-mentioned matrix-paper, one upon the other. The package is then wound on to a round piece of wood, and pressed several times with a strong lever, as if it were to be stripped off from this piece of wood. By means of this operation, the soft and moistened paper is forced into the folds of the matrix, and consequently folded in a similar manner. By repeating this manipulation 10 or 12 times, each time unrolling it in order to change the position of the paper between the sheets of matrix-paper, and by winding it again on the piece of wood, the paper becomes gradually folded in all directions, the intersecting points of all these folds producing the craped surface. Naturally, this process causes the paper to shrink considerably. This kind of craping is done with printed pictures, and also with colored papers, which are used for coiffures. The paper imitations of leather are made in the same man- ner, but of stronger paper. After it has been craped, it is WALL PAPER. 934 WALL PAPER STICKING MACHINE. beaten with hard brushes into the molds which produce the relief patterns ; and these designs are afterwards painted as required, with the help of ' shibu," or the "Ye-no-abura," and lacquer. Paper is also often used as a substitute for cloth, for um- brellas, rain-coats, etc., and even for dress cloth. " Shibu," and the "Ye-no-abura," are the means employed for render- ing the paper waterproof. This cloth is generally made of paper alone, by beating it to make it soft, and impregnating it with gummy substances, to make it more resistant to the action of water. Another kind of cloth, called "shifu," consists of silk warp and paper woof. The paper is cut into fine strips, twisted together into threads, and -spooled for weaving. Paper strings, of great regularity, great strength, and prettily colored, are made in a similar manner, and were formerly used in large quantities for tying up the hair. They are now only used for tying presents and other small parcels. A veneered wall paper is also made. The wood is cut to the thickness of paper, and by a peculiar process stuck on the paper, which serves as a protection against the influence of the walls on the graining and color of the wood. The delicacy of the machinery employed in cutting so thin a ve- neer may be gathered from the fact that 200 leaves are cut out of an inch of white maple wood, and 125 out of wood with very open grain, such as oak and walnut. Wall Pa'per Ma-chine'. Wall paper machines, printing from cylinders, were made successful by Zuber, of Keixheim, near Mulhouse, about 1832. Rising from the number of 2 or 3 cylinders, they have Fig. 2523. Gadd's Wall-paper Printing Machine (English). attained as great a number as 20, printing in as many grounds, colors, or shades. The machine of Gadd, of Manchester, having 8 cylinders, will, however, give as accurate an idea of the construction as one possessing a lareer number. It is shown in longitudinal vertical section in Fig. 2523, and works equally well as a calico printer or wall-paper printer. Great difficulty occurred in working machines in which the printing cylinders were driven by gearing, as it was nec- essary to preserve scrupulous exactness in the sizes of the printing rollers in order to secure correct registry of the parts which combined to form the pattern. In the Gadd machine this difficulty has been met by moving the printing rollers by surface contact. The central driving cylinder R, which forms the platen at the back of the continuous paper sheet, whose other side is exposed to the printing rollers c, is mounted upon interior arms or spokes whose hub has a bearing upon the central axis to which the driving power is applied. The printing rollers c, engraved in relief, are driven by contact with cyl- inder^, and receive their color from an endless felt cloth f, which is distended by interior wooden rollers z> z>. Eight groups of inking and printing devices are arranged about 220 of the perimeter of the driving platen cylinder B, but a description of one answers for each of the others, as the action of each is similar, each having its part to perform in adding its quota of color to make up the design which is the sum of contributions of each of the series. The felt cloth, at its lowest position, is pressed by a roller against the color-feeding roller which revolves in the copper color-trough 0; the pressure is adjusted by small hand- screws above. Two tension rollers, D D, are placed near the surface of the large cylinder and are moved between slides by means of a screw, H, so that the felt cloth is pressed against the graven printing roller with the required force. In leaving the inking roller, the felt passes against a doctor which removes superfluous color. The screw K regulates the doctor. Printing rollers engraved in intaglio, similar to those used in printing tissues, are suitable for some descriptions of wall paper, but little charged with color, for delicate designs and for spotted cards. For printing striped papers a machine has a reservoir com- posed of as many compartments as bands are required on the endless web of paper. Each compartment is pierced with an opening at bottom, as wide as the width of band required, the whole forming a series of stripes upon the paper travers- ing beneath, much as, so far as the paper is concerned, paper ruled with wide striping pens on the paper-ruling machines. Figs. 4499, 4500, p. 2002, "AfccA. Z>;c." The drying of the paper was formerly done by suspending it from rods in a frame, the piece or bolt occupying 2 of these rods. The wall paper sticking machine of J. & E. Wal- dron, of New Brunswick, N. J., shown at the Centennial, is a great advance upon hand methods. It places the fold of the paper upon the rod which traverses along a lengthy frame, the rods being au- tomatically supplied, ad- justed, and the paper hung thereon and then traversed along the frame, and then returns, doubling the length of time of drying exposure within given limits to the length of the ma- chine. See view of wall paper printing machine, " Sci- tntiftc American," xxxvii. 223'. Other machines in the manufacture of wall paper are the (Grounding machine, for putting on the body color. Sticking machine, for hanging the paper in fes- toons to dry. Polishing machine, for giving a satin finish to the ground color to be overlaid by the dead color pattern. Trimmer, for trimming the edge of the paper, Eoust, * " Scientific Amer- ican,'' xxxiv. 230. Wall Pa'per Pol'ish-ing M a - chine. A machine for giving a satin finish to wall paper. It consists of a central rotating brush against which the paper is repeatedly carried by rotating cylinders. The polish is upon the surface of alu- mina and oil which is known as the grounding. The printed pattern is usually laid on this in dead color. "Wall Pa'per Sticking Ma-chine'. A ma- chine for hanging wall p;iper in festoons to dry. The paper from the grounding or the printing machine is conducted between endless belts across which sticks are laid automatically and over which sticks the paper is suspended in festoons. The sticks are so placed that a length of paper measuring just four yards hangs between any two. The belts are kept in constant motion, and, by means of the second belt, the paper is thus conducted along the loft, which meas- ures some 160' in length. Steam coils are placed beneath the belts, and a temperature of 120 F. maintained. About nine minutes are occupied by any one festoon of paper in making the journey from the grounding machine to the point where WALL PAPER STICKING MACHINE. 935 WASHER SCRUBBER. Fig. 2524. Wall Pa/"r Slicking Mnchine. it is again made into a roll, and during this period it becomes thoroughly dried. The device employed for placing the sticks under the paper is represented in Fig. 2524. At the ends of the roller over which the endless belt a passes, are two cams, one of which is shown at b. Above the cams and resting on their periph- ery is a pile of sticks, c. The cam shoulder equals in height the thickness of one stick. Hence at each revolution of the cam a stick is moved from the bottom of the pile and carried down on and across the belts. Between the latter comes flu- paper '/. which thus falls in folds over the sticks as they are 5aid in place. "Walls. (^ fining.) The sides next to the lode. Wall S.cra'per. A broad chisel-edged tool with a socket in which can be inserted handles of various lengths for scraping and preparing walls for papering. Warp'iiig. (Nautical.) To move a vessel from one place to another by warps, which are attached to buoys, other ships, anchors, bollards on shore, etc. Warp 'ing Ma-chine'. (Weaving.) A ma- chine for laying out the threads of the warp and winding them on the warp roller. The spindles containing the threads turn in bearings in the np- righN of the frame, and the threads are carried through a separator and between two rollers, by which they are laid out flat and parallel, and are finally wound upon a roller journaled in the arms and resting upon the drum by which it is turned. Warping, scouring, si/.ing, drying, and beaming machine. Leacli if Sons, Engl. * "Scientific American Sup.," 1991. Wash'-ba-siii Valve. A valve for wash ba- sins, by means of which the sewer pipe is claimed to be as effectually closed as the water pipe ordina- rily is, and that consequently no sewer gas can es- cape into the room. The valve being air tight, a partial vacuum is produced above the water trap, which prevents the rush of water through waste pipes below, siphoning the water out of the trap. The construction is also such that the valve cannot be left open when the water is turned off or left shut when the latter is turned on. The valve is hinged to the rim of the basin, is made hollow, and of such a weight that as the wa- ter rises in the basin it is raised, and the holes cov- ered are so opened that the overflow water may freely escape. The lower surface of the valve is covered with leather, rubber, or similar material, to cause it to cover the overflow holes tightly. Wash'burn Wheel. A cast-iron car-wheel, designed and patented by Nathan Washburn in 1850. It consists of two plates, which extend from the hub to about half the distance between it and the rim. There they unite into one plate which extends to the rim. The plates are all curved so as to contract when the wheels are cooled with- out danger of fracturing the wheel. The single plate and the rim are united together and strength- ened by curved ribs cast on the inside of the whet.-l. Wash'er. The "Pharmaceut. Centralhalle " says that, for the purpose of packing joints which are to be hermetically sealed, such as retort connections, couplings, etc., where vulcanized rubber has usually been employed, cellulose appears to be even a better material. It has the advantage of cheapness, it readily absorbs water at first, thereby becoming pliable, and adapts itself more accurately to the surfaces which it is intended to render tight. If a joint is exposed to steam, and is to be frequently opened, the cellulose should be soaked in oil. Wash'er, Clothes. The Keystone washer, Fig. 2525, has its frame and rollers so arranged that the machine can be attached to "the ordinary tub. The washing is done by the united pressure Fig. 2525. Keystone Washer. and friction of the corrugated and ribbed rollers between which the clothes have to pass. A lively pressure is insured by the spiral springs above. Wash'er, Smoke. Two of the latest contri- butions to the abatement of the smoke nuisance em- ploy water to wash the smoke as it passes through the flue of the chimney. The more simple of the two consists of a spray or shower of water driven upward in the chimney flue. The water cleans the smoke of much of its impurities, and falling back escapes below. The blackened water is afterward collected, and under proper treatment yields a coloring material for a fine black paint. The other apparatus is more complicated. It consists of an upright cylinder of boiler plates 14' high and 5' in diameter. Inside are a number of sheet iron dia- phragms placed one over another, and partly filling the in- terior. Each diaphragm overlaps the other, and all are per- forated with a great number of holes 0.2 of an inch in diam- eter. The smoke enters below, and a stream of water flows in at the top. The water drips in a shower through the holes, and by the aid of a powerful exhaust, the smoke is forced upward through the apparatus. On its passage, owing to the obstructions caused by the diaphragms, the smoke travels 51' and is perfectly cleared of soot. The experiments made with this apparatus go to show that the value of such devices depends chiefly on the power of the exhaust or draft, the dis- tance traveled by the smoke through the shower of water, and the perfect subdivision of the water. The amount of water employed seems to be of less consequence. Wash'er Scrub'ber. The " Standard," washer scrubber consists of a series of cast-iron sections, varying in number with the capacity of the machine. A shaft passes horizontally through the center of these chambers, and is connected at one end with a small engine, or suitable gearing, which furnishes motive power. Each section, with the exception of the two at the ends, contains a number of circular sheet-iron disks which are bolted together and securely keyed to the shaft ; indenta- tions in the disks serving to preserve J" distance between them. Water at the rate of about twelve (U. S. standard) gallons per ton of coal carbonized, is admitted at one end of the machine, and after passing through the intermediate chambers, and constantly increasing in strength, is drawn off at the other end of the washer. The central shaft is revolved from four to five turns per minute, and the circular sheet-iron disks rotate with it, the lower halves being constantly immersed in the water while WASHER SCRUBBER. 936 WASTE PREVENTER. the 'upper portions always present a thoroughly wetted surface for the absorption of the ammonia as the gas passes through. Wash'iiig Fur'iiace. The " Pernot " is a re- generative gas furnace, and has a revolving hearth of 12' X 3'. The four regenerator chambers have 780 cubic feet capacity. The lining is 13" thick on the sides and 9" on the bottom, thus giving a hearth 9' 10" X 2' 3" deep. The lining is composed of lumps of highly refractory ores, roughly fitted to- gether, the interstices being filled with fine ores, and the whole being glazed at a melting tempera- ture. As the ore melts the lining is refilled until the mass becomes monolithic. The hearth is then fettled. Wash'iiig Rollers. For squeezing goods or yarn after being scoured. Two cast-iron rollers turned perfectly true and smooth, are carried on two cast-iron standards; the pressure is obtained by compound levers with mov- able weights. The hearings are of gun metal. Wash Tub Waste. A stop valve that on re- moval allows the waste of the wash tub to escape. Waste Card. A machine for working up and carding the waste, fluff, and broken fiber, that gathers on the floor of the factory. Waste Coal Burn'ing Lo'co-mo'tive. The Wootten locomotive, Plates LIV. and L, V., and Fig. 2526, is especially adapted to the consumption of waste coal, being unique in the large surf ace area of its grates. It is especially adapted to fast passenger service, by its free steaming qualities, its capacity being equal to the evaporation of 55 gallons of water per minute, enabling it to steadily maintain its speed. This result is secured by the peculiar form of furnace em- ployed, by which although waste anthracite can be usflrt as fuel with good results as far as steaming is concerned, yet the rapidity of the exhaust emissions is such as to lead to the dis- charge from the stack of the finer particles of impurities, contained in the waste coal. But notwithstanding its capaci- ty, in consequence of the passenger service in which it is employed, the smaller sizes of prepared coal are used, so it would be a misnomer to class it as a dirt burner. By reason of the moderate draft of these furnaces, and the consequent economy of combustion of fuel, they are enabled to attain an evap- orative effect equal to 60 per cent, of the theoretical evaporative power of the fuel used, whether it be an- thracite, bituminous, or lignite. Waste Pick'er. See RAG PICKER. Waste Pre-vent'- er. Stone's positive waste preventer for cis- terns, Fig. 2527, is so constructed that, al- though only possessing one inlet valve and one discharge valve, it yet answers the purpose" of a double-chambered cis- tern. When the water is required to be drawn off from the cistern the inlet valve leading from the source of supply is closed before the discharge valve can be opened. The valve is attached to the lower end of a socket in which the valve stem which is connected at its upper end to the ball stem, ls allowed to slide up and down a certain distance Waste Coal Burning Locomotive. freely, so as not in any way to affect the valve ; but as soon as the required distance is traversed, the valve stem acts upon the socket, and so causes the valve to be governed by Fig. 2527. Waste Preventer for Cisterns. WASTE PREVENTER. 937 WATER ANALYSIS APPARATUS. sliding socket, the ball stern can be raised sufficiently high to allow the discharge valve to be opened, so that the water can run out only after the ball valve is perfectly closed. Or when the lev-er is pulled and the discharge valve opened, the ball stem and ball are raised at the same time, which can readily be doue by means of the sliding socket without affecting the inlet valve, which is held fast on its seat by the pressure of water from the source of supply, as already described. As soon as the water has run out of the cistern, and the lever or pull is let go, the discharge valve is closed, and the ball stem and ball drop, thus' opening the inlet valve, and allowing the water to refill the cistern ready for use again. Watch. Sir Edmund Beckett, a scientific ho- rologist, who is, perhaps, the highest English au- thovitv upon the subject, in his work upon " Watches, Clocks, and Bells," says : " The liability of a watch, like any other piece of mechan- ism, to require repair, is in the ratio of the number of sepa- rate parts which make up its unity. The English watch, with its fusee and chain, is composed of 638 more pieces than the American watch. Dispense with these 688 addi- tional chances of breakage, and it is easy to infer the supe- riority of American watches, in this one respect at least. The fusee and chain are rejected in the Walthaui watch, and the direct action of the mainspring adopted, because the fusee and chain add greatly to the cost and liability to in- jury of a watch, and are of no practical value for good time- keeping. This change is advocated on the ground that there is greater simplicity of action, less friction in the transmis- sion of motive power, increased facility for using a lighter and more uniform spring, and more room for play in the other parts of the movements." In support of this view, Sir Edmund Beckett speaks very favorably of the American principle of omitting the chain. After alluding to what he calls the mischievous and common accidents of chain-breaking, and noting the tendency of ad- vanced watch-making to do without fusee and chain, he says : " Accordingly, both in Switzerland and America, which are gradually stealing away our common watch trade, the fusee and the chain are almost universally omitted.'' Dr. Ilooke raised horology from a mechanical art to a science by propounding its laws and enriching it with val- uable discoveries and inventions. The discovery and application of the laws of isochronism in the balance-spring by Dr. Hooke and Arnold in England, Leroy and Berthond in France, imparted the most essential quality for keeping a regular rate of time to the chronom- eter. "Isochronism is an inherent property of the balance- spring, depending entirely upon the ratio of the spring's tension, following the proportion of the are's of inflexion. A balance-spring, therefore, of any force whatever, having the progression required by the law of isochronism, will preserve this qua.ity, whether it be applied to a balance making rapid or glow vibrations. " The great advantage of an isochronal spring is its innate power of resisting the influences which cause a change of rate, such as change of position, increased friction ti the works become dirty, or the viscidity of the oil at low tem- peratures."' Carpenter. See list under CLOCK for exhibits of all horological instru- ments, from Prof. Watson's report in " Centennial Exhibition Reports," Group XXV., vol. vii. See also Dr. Knight's report, vol. iv., ( 'Paris Exposition (1878) Reports,'' p. 403, et SKJ. Dr. Knight's report on watch-making machine at Waltham, is in " Centennial Exhibition Rfports," 1 vol. vii., Group XXII., p. 46, et seq. The "Journal de Gren&ve," of August 26th, has the follow- ing : The watch- making population of the several Swiss can- tons may be held as exactly represented by the subjoined table, compiled from the returns of the census for the year 1870 : - CANTONS. Men. Women. Total. Neufchatel 11,081 6,392 2,439 5,330 5,383 4,743 1,313 1,288 16,464 14,135 3,752 3,618 Vaud Total .... . . 25,242 12,727 37,969 Berne is the canton in which there has been the greatest rise in the manufacture of watches of late years. It is com- puted to produce 600,000 watches a year ; and, as they are almost exclusively of ordinary quality, their average value may be set down at 40 francs, which would bring up the total of Beruese annual production to 20,000,000 francs ($5,000,000). Geneva does not supply much over 150,000 watches yearly, but, as eleven twelfths of these are gold, and in part richly ornamented, their value does not probably fall short of 20,000,000 francs. The canton of Vaud also turns out 150,000 watches per annum, the works of which are generally highly finished ; but then they are in great measure exported without cases, as mere works, the average price being about 35 francs, and the total value being 8,000,000 francs. Besides these, the canton of Vaud furnishes 80,000 musical boxes, which amount to 8,000,000 francs. In respect to value, Neufeh?.tel produces nearly half of the entire Swiss watch-making (35 per cent.); the cantons of Geneva and Berne come in for 23 per cent, each, and the canton of Vaud for 9 per cent. Break-circuit. Davidson * "Min. $> Sc. Press," xxxiv. 361. Watches, American, Watson " Van Nostrand's Mag-.," xvii. 161. Watch-making, American, on, Grosjean, Switz. . "Min. Sf Sc. Press," xxxiv. 154. Watch, demagnetizing . * " tfcifntific American," 1 xli. 227. Watches, demagnetizing "Scientific American," xxxiv. 23. Invention and history "Sc. Amer.," 1 xxxvii. 88, 101,121. Watchmaker's lathe, Williams "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 194. Watch'ma-ker's Slide Rest. A slide-rest to a watchmaker's lathe, adjustable by its set screws, to any angle or position that the work requires. Watch Tel'e-phoue. (Electricity.) An in- strument which takes its name from its resemblance in form to an old-fashioned watch. Invented by Alfred Niaudet-Begnet, of Paris. It is a Bell telephone in which the magnet is bent into a circu- lar form, and the coil is seated upon one of its poles, the planer of the magnet, coil, and diaphragm being all parallel to each other. Wa'ter A'er-a-ting Ap'pa-ra'tus. A de- vice for aerating the water supplied to an aqua- rium. The apparatus is an application of the prin- ciple of the " Catalan trumpet " that is used to operate the bellows in the iron furnaces of Spain. It consists of a number of glass tubes, into which the water is forced by hydraulic pressure, carrying with it bubbles of air, the presence and movement of which in the tubes may be plainly seen. Wa'ter A-nal'y-sis Ap'pa-ra'tus. McLeod's water analysis apparatus, used to determine the purity of drinking water, is an improvement of the one described by Dr. Franklaud and Mr. Ward, by which temperature and tensions of fixed vol- umes of water and gas are tested. This instrument is very much in use. It consists of a measuring tube 900 mm. in length and about'20 mm. in diam- eter, which is marked with ten divisions, the first at 25 mm. from the top, the second at 50 mm., the third at 100 mm., and the remaining ones at the in- tervals of 100 mm. In the upper part of the tube, platinum wires are sealed, and it is terminated by a capillary tube and fine glass stop- cock, the capillary tube being bent at right angles at 50 mm. above the junction. At the bottom of the tube a wide glass stop-cock is sealed, which communicates, by means of a caoutchouc joint surrounded with tape and well wired to the tubes, with a branch from the barometer-tube. At the up- per extremity a glass stop-cock is joined, the lower end being curved and connected by caoutchouc with a stop-cock and tube descending through the table to a distance of 900 mm. below the joint. The two tubes are firmly held by a clamp, on which rests a wide cylinder, about 55 mm. in diameter, surrounding the tubes, and adapted to them by a water-tight caoutchouc cork. The cylinder is maintained in an upright position by a support at its upper end, sliding on the sam~ rod as the clamp. Around the upper part of the barometer- tube a syphon is fixed by means of a perforated cork, through which the stop-cock passes A small bulb-tube, containing some mercury, is also fitted in this cork, so as to allow of the air being entirely removed from the syphon. The sy- phon descends about 100 mm. within the cylinder, and has a branch at the top communicating by caoutchouc with a bent tube contained in a wider one affixed to the support. A con- stant current of water is supplied to the cylinder through a WATER ANALYSIS APPARATUS. 938 WATER ENGINE. glass tube, which passes to the bottom, and escapes through the syphon and tubes to the drain. To the end of the nar- row tube is fastened a long piece of caoutchouc tube, covered with tape, by which a communication is established with the mercurial reservoir, suspended by a cord, so that by means of the winch it may be raised above the level of the top of the barometer-tube. Wa'ter Bal'last. A mode of ballasting ves- sels with water, iii tight compartments in the bottom of the hull. Wa'ter Bar'rel Truck. A pivoted water- barrel mounted on wheels, and drawn by hand. The barrel, being pivoted by its spindles, is easily emptied. Water ballast, on, Martet (20 Figs.) . . * "Engineer,'' xliv. 174. Construction ... * "Engineering,'' xxiv. 186. Wa'ter Bear'ing. Shaw's water bearing is designed to relieve the pressure on the step of a vertical shaft. It consists of a disk secured to the shaft, and pro- vided with a circular piston. The water entering from a pipe under a sufficient head, passes into the chamber of the piston and between it and the lower face of the disk, lifting the latter. If the upward pressure of the water be in excess of that necessary to sustain the shaft and the weight it may have to bear, a portion escapes beneath the lower edge of the piston and the shaft settles to its normal posi- tion. Wa'ter Box. (Metallurgy.) An iron box to contain water forming a bottom or side of a furnace in order to prevent it from burning out. Tuyere plates are so protected. "Wa'ter Breast. An improved tuyere for water breasts is described as follows : A bronze tuyere is inserted into the end of a water breast, which is bored out conically to receive it, and does not, there- fore, call for any packing. The butt end of the tuyere is turned so that it presents a part of a sphere, and the end of the belly pipe is correspondingly shaped to produce a perfect joint. By a simple arrangement, which allows rapid and easy replacement of the tuyere, the movable parts are firmly held together. This is effected by a knee lever under the elbow, at the longer end of which a detachable weight is hung. The pressure exerted by this weight firmly connects water breast and tuyere on the one hand and belly pipe and tuyere on the other. By this means all bolts are done away with, and the weight need only to be removed to allow the different parts to drop apart. When it becomes necessary to replace a tuy- ere a hook is inserted, and it is readily pulled out. By ar- ranging proper openings at the butt of the tuyere any air entering in the water is trapped and carried off direct by the waste pipe. The discharge pipe is taken off at the top of the tuyere and air prevented from collecting in it. For a short distance outside of it the discharge pipe is elerated, which carries off at once any air or steam bubbles, to a higher point outside of the tuyere, thus avoiding danger to it. In order to prevent any water from entering the furnace the water is drawn through the tuyere by suction at the same velocity as if it were forced through. It is claimed that, as by this means the water pressure is brought down below the atmospheric pressure, which is generally smaller than that of the blast in the interior of the furnace, no leakage in conse- quence of cracks can take place. It was found also by ex- periment that drawing the water through the tuyere prevents any accumulation of air or steam bubbles, the steady growth of which will ultimately lead to cracking. Great though the advantages of suction may be, however, its use is not a neces- sary element in the application of the tuyere, which, it will be readily understood, works well with pressure also. The nozzle in the tuyere, as it fits into it well, is cooled by the circulation of the water in the latter, and can therefore be carried very near the end of the tuyere, a circumstance which aids the penetrating power of the "blast. The nozzle may be easily drawn out through the belly pipe, if the cap on the tuyere pipe elbow is removed. When fire-brick stoves are used the tuyere pipes are made double, in order to prevent the serious loss of heat which otherwise takes place. Wa'ter Chan'nel In'di-ca'tor. Echebarn's indicator, Fig. 2528, for water channels was de- signed to indicate and register the depths of water in the Rio da Praia, which, from the continual shifting of its waters, presents great difficulties to Water Channel Indicator. navigation. There is a long rod turning on an axle that is provided with a toothed "wheel, and bears an index pointer, indicating on a graduated arc the inclination of the rod from the horizontal. The lower end of the rod bears a roller that trav- els on the bottom of the river, or the body to be in- dicated. A toothed wheel drives a wheel train bearing a paper drum, and on a paper band a pen- cil describes in miniature the condition of the bot- tom in the line traversed by the vessel. Wa'ter Charg'er. A device for retaining a body of water always close to the pump, so that if the lower valve of the pump leaks, and the water all runs out of the suction pipe, or if it has been let back to avoid freezing, this charger will still retain a full supply to be readily sucked into the pump, wetting the valves and packing, so as to at once bring the water, and cause the pump to work freely. The charger should be connected into the suction pipe as near the pump as it can be conveniently, and still be out of the way of frost. This charger also greatly facilitates the working of a pump, par- ticularly where the suction pipe has to be of great length, serving as an air chamber in same. Wa'ter Col'umn Air Com-pres'sor. One operating by the force of a descending body of wa- ter, as in some mines and mountain regions. See AlE COMPRESSOR. Wa'ter El'e-va-tor. See PUMP. For locomotives. Haggas, Can. ... * "Engineering,' 1 '' xxviii. 296. Wa'ter En'gine. Wells' water engine is in- tended to be used as a motor, and also if desired as. a pump. The cylinder is mounted on bearings of the case on trunnions. It has a circular valve formed on the lower end, with one port, and fitted to the correspondingly shaped valve seat in which is the inlet and the exhausts for the waste from the interior of the case. Passages are cored out in the cylinder, from the upper end down to the interior of the waste water case, to conduct the leakage to the discharge through the exhaust. A cap screws to the top of the cylinder for a guide to the piston rod, and these passages enter the cylinder above the piston, under the cover. The oscillation of the cylinder, in the case, alternately opens the supply and exhaust passages. Water engine, Hastie . * "Scientific Amer.," xxxix. 227. Three-cylinder. Hastie, Br. ... * "Engineer," xlvi. 146. Water ejector. Vaughn, Br < , . * "Engineer," xlix. 342. WATER GAS. 939 WATER MOTOR. Wa'ter Gas. Any illuminating gas in whose manufacture the decomposition of water plays a prominent part, as distinguished from the illumina- ting gas produced solely by the decomposition of bituminous coal, wood, resin, tar, oil, or other like material. Briefly, the Lowe process is the following : A generator of the ordinary type is filled with fuel brought to a high tem- perature by the aid of blast. The combustible gases thus formed are carried to a chamber filled with loose fire-brick, called a superheater by the inventor, although it should more properly be termed a regenerator. As soon as by the burning of the generator gases the regenerator has attained a high temperature, the blast is cut off and superheated steam is admitted a little above the grate, and simultaneously small streams of crude petroleum or naphtha are allowed to drop through the current of ascending gases upon the in- candescent fuel. The steam is decomposed and hydrogen and carbonic oxide are formed. The products of the decom- position of petroleum, hydrocarbons, pass to the regenera- tors together with the water gas, where the hydrocarbons are gasified. As soon as the temperature of the generator falls below a certain limit the flow of steam and of petro- leum is stopped, fresh coal is charged, and the blast of air turned on again. Dr. W. II. \Vahl gives the following answer to the query, " What is water gas ? '' " Water gas may be defined to be the gaseous product resulting from the interaction of steam and carbon at a high temperature. Generally speaking, the mode of its manufacture is to pass steam through a thick layer of glowing coal. The result of this procedure will be very easily understood by reference to the following expla- nation : The glowing coal (carbon) seizes upon the oxygen of the steam, uniting with it to form carbonic acid and lib- erating hydrogen. The carbonic acid thus formed is, how- ever, obliged to pass through a considerable layer of glowing coal (carbon) before it can escape, and this carbon has so strong an affinity for oxygen that it deprives the carbonic acid of one equivalent of its oxygen, reducing it to the state of a lower oxide of carbon. The product which results from these several reactions is 2 equivalents of hydrogen and 2 equivalents of carbon oxide ; or, expressed in chemical terms, 2 II -f 2 CO. This product is what is known as water gas. It is incorrect to assert that any positive gain in heat- ing effect is obtained by this process, for the energy expended in the process of decomposing the water is precisely equal j to the additional heat given out by the combustion of the ' water gas over what would have resulted from the conibus- ' tion of the carbon alone. On theoretical grounds, therefore, there can be no economy in the process ; but there is a gain in practice, and this is due to the fact that the combustion of a gaseous fuel can always be effected with greater economy in our furnaces, stoves, etc., than that of a splid fuel. The gain, therefore, is to be ascribed to the physical condition of the fuel, and not to any advantage resulting from the chem- ical reaction that has taken place. This is a very common error and is entertained even by otherwise well-informed persons. We look upon the future of water gas as highly promising. With its aid it is made possible to produce illu- minating gas more cheaply than by any other process, by simply enriching it with the vapors of petroleum or of other substances rich in illuminating elements But the grand field of water gas for the future will lie in filling the place of a fuel for industrial and domestic uses to take the place of coal. We think the time is not very remote when water- gas will be distributed to our houses just as coal gas is now distributed, when coal and wood fires, with their dirt and ashes, will only be known as things of the past." Water Gas, Strong . . " Van Nostr. Mag.," 1 xxiii. 376. On, Prof. Henry Morton "Plumber 4" San. Eng.,'' 1 ii. 347. Dicight "Scientific American Sup.,'' 1 948. Appa., Lowe if Strong* "Engineering,'" xxviii. 385. Lowe * "Iron Age,'' xxi., April 11, p. 1. As a fuel, Dwight . . "Scientific American Sup.," 836. Wa'ter Lens. The first microscope in exist- ence consisted of a drop of water. Water lenses as formerly used were unstable and tremulous, and almost if not quite worthless. This difficulty may t be overcome, and the drop of water rendered" avail- able as a microscope lens by confining it in a cell consisting of a short tube having a glass bottom. The simplest and cheapest of all microscopes consists of a thin piece of glass, having attached to it one or two short paper tubes, which are coated with black sealing-wax, and cemented to the glass with the same material. By aid of a small stick water is placed, drop by drop, in the cells until the lenses acquire the desired convexity. Ob- jects held below the glass will be more or less magnified, ac- cording to the diameter and convexity of the drop. An easily made and convenient stand for the water lens is made of wood. The sleeve that supports the table slides freely upon the vertical standard. A wire having a milled head, by which it may be turned, passes through the upper end of the siandard, and has wound upon it a strong silk thread, one end of which is tied to a pin projecting from the table supporting sleeve. An elastic rubber band is attached to the lower end of the sleeve, and to a pin projecting from the standard near the base, to draw the table downward. By this device the focus may be nicely adjusted. Two standards project from the bed-piece for receiving the corners of a rectangular piece of silvered glass which forms the reflector. The best form of water-cell consists of a brass tube about ]}" long and |" to 3-16" internal diameter, having in one side a screy for displacing the water to render the lens more or less convex. A thin piece of glass is cemented to the lower end of the tube, and the inside of the tube is black- ened. Several bushings may be fitted to the upper end of the tube to reduce the diameter of the drop, and thus increase the magnifying power of the lens. Water containing animalcules may be placed on the under surface of the glass, and the lens may be focused by turning the adjusting screw. The lens may also be adjusted to mag- nify objects placed on the movable table. If air-bubbles form on the upper surface of the glass they may be readily displaced by means of a cambric needle. Water lens microscope * " Scientific Amer.," xxxviii. 268. Wa'ter-lev'el Gage. A small bell-shaped casting, into the upper part of which a narrow brass tube, open at the lower end, enters. When the ball is submerged the increase of pressure con- fined in the bell and the tube will be in proportion to the depth reached. The pressure is indicated on a graduated gage. It will be easily understood that as the pipe may be of any length desired, it is possible to place the gage at quite a distance from the water the depth of which is to be measured. Wa'ter-lev'el In'di-ca'tpr. Lethuillier-Pinel (Fr.), * Laboulaye's " Dicfionnaire des Arts et Man- ufactures," tome iv., ed. 1877. Water level indica., electric, Hosier * "Teleg. Jour.,'' vi. 93. Wa'ter Mo'tor. The invention herewith il- lustrated applies water to a wheel of a novel con- struction, whereby the whole centrifugal force of a jet of water is concentrated on the center of the buckets. From these it is immediately discharged, thus avoiding any friction or dead lift," and impart- ing to the wheel not only a great- er impetus, but, it is claimed, a very high de- gree of power, considering the pressure and the size of the stream used. Although adapt- ed to all pur- poses where wa- ter is used as a motive power, this invention is more particu- larly designed for use where the supply of water is limited or variable ; and this is believed to be a desidera- tum, as streams of water are lia- ble to much fluc- tuation at differ- e n t seasons of the year. More especially is it designed for use Fig. 2529. Water Motor. WATER MOTOR. 940 WATERPROOF PAPER. in propelling light machinery, such as printing presses, sewiug machines, lathes, etc., wherever wa- ter can be taken from a hydrant. It is also claimed to be well adapted for heavy work. The disk of the wheel A is made of brass of various sizes, and together with the buckets B B, is of a peculiar con- struction and of a capacity to correspond with the size of the stream and the power required. C C are the belt pulleys ; D the supply pipe; E a self-packing faucet or stop-cock, which is the subject of another patent obtained by the same in- ventor. This faucet is capable of supplying one, two, three, or more streams of water of different dimensions through the pipes F which are firmly held in position at the point of delivery of the water on the buckets by a shoe, O. The pipes are provided with bushings at their extremity, which can be removed at pleasure, and others of a different capacity in- serted. The waste pipe, of course, can be arranged as re- quired, either from the sides or bottom of the casing. The communication between supply pipe and buckets is shown in section in Fig. 2529. One of the smallest motors capable of being put to prac- tical use is the Hayworth's miniature turbine water motor. It consists of a tube 3" long and f " outside diameter, with an oblique inlet by which it can be screwed to the hydrant or faucet. A small stem with a double pulley at the end projects from the upper end of the tube, and is rapidly re- volved when the water is turned on. A rubber hose drawn over the lower end of the tube conveys the water off after performing its duty. By an endless cord the motion can be transmitted from 'the pulleys to a sewing machine or any other machine requiring only light power for driving. The motor is constructed on the principle of turbine wheels, and can be run with water pressxire of 10 to 15 Ibs. to the square inch. After entering the tube by the inlet, the water first passes a stationary wheel having a series of radial vanes of such a shape as to give the water a spiral motion. Issuing from these vanes, the water strikes against similar vanes of a wheel that is fastened to the above mentioned spindle, and which, by the impact of the water, is made to rotate. Different sizes of this motor are manufactured. The smallest size, of the dimensions above stated, furnishes suf- ficient power to drive sewing machines, etc. Messrs. W. II. Bailey & Co., of Salford, England, have re- cently designed a new water motor which works under the ordinary pressure of the water sent through the street mains. In appearance it is somewhat similar to an ordinary hori- zontal steam engine. It has an oscillating cylinder, with- parts so arranged that the motion of the cylinder cuts off the supply of water at the end of the stroke, a reciproca- ting action being thereby obtained and imparted to the fly- wheel by the ordinary crank arrangements. There are no loose valves or tappets in connection with the motor, and all the fixing it requires may be done by a plumber, as there is nothing more to do than to connect the machine with a pipe from the street main. One of the motors is said to be work- ing very successfully at the bottom of a colliery shaft near Bolton, the power being supplied by the water pumped up from the pit by the steam engine. A large number of laden wagons are drawn up an incline with great ease by this means. The motion has also been utilized for sawing tim- ber, printing newspapers, etc. Iron Age. See also Patents : Tate, Oct. 31, 1871 No. 120,548. Backus, Jan. 6, 1874 No. 146,120. Dobson, Jan. 7, 1873 ...... No. 134,651. Schmid, Feb. 27, 1872 No. 124,162. Welch, Dec. 17, 1872 No. 134,115. See HYDRAULIC PRESSURE ENGINE; WATER PRESSURE EN- GINE. Water motor. . . * "Scientific American," xxxv. 150. Wa'ter Pres'sure En'gine. See HYDRAU- LIC ENGINE. Wa'ter-proof Ce-ment'. Glue 4. Resin 4. Red ocher 3, with a little water. Wa'ter-proof-ing. The Ncptunite water-re- pellent process, owned by the International Chemi- cal Company of New York is founded upon the several patents of Mr. D. M. Lamb. It is applica- ble to all sorts of textile fabrics : paper, leather, etc., in fact to all goods which it is desirable to pro- tect from the action of water and dampness, and which are liable to mildew and decay. The effect of the treatment by this process is to render the goods non-absorbent, or water-repellent. The property of capillary attraction possessed by all fibrous goods is destroyed. The pores of each fiber are filled with the Nc-ptunite material and the fiber receives a coating of the same. By the action of heat this is thoroughly incorporated into the fibers, giving them the remarkable properties mentioned. The action of water upon the fabrics treated is very pecul- iar. When poured upon the goods the water runs about like quicksilver, without showing any disposition to be absorbed or to penetrate. In the case of open goods like grenadine or even musquito-netting, the water can be made to run about like quicksilver without passing through the open spaces. The advantages given to the goods are by no means con- fined to the water-repellent quality. The fibers are made tougher and stronger, and do not crack and disintegrate as before treatment. Goods may be rendered proof against moth and vermin ; the colors are imprisoned and fastened ; the threads are slightly swelled, giving the goods a firmer and more compact texture. This is peculiarly valuable in the case of silks, giving them a hand and body which cannot be secured except by a large increase of the stock used. It is well known that rubber waterproof garments are pro- nounced injurious to health from the fact that they confine the perspiration of the body. In the case of the Neptunite garments, however, the insterstices between the fibers are not closed, and a free circulation of air is permitted, but at the same time a perfect protection from the rain is insured. La- dies' waterproofs are now made from thin mohair goods and these light garments will afford the same protection in ordi- nary showers as the unsightly rubber goods. The process is of almost universal application and is of great economic importance. It is at the present time exten- sively used, and must soon come to a general application throughout the country. The solution used is a colorless fluid produced by the action of certain gases upon hydrocarbons, and is inexpensive. It is better to treat the goods in the piece before being made up, but ready-made garments can be treated, though they are more expensive to handle in quantities. Waterproof soles, which are either inserted into ordinary leather soles or laid into the boot, are made as follows : ; A mixture is prepared, consisting of 60 parts of resin, 80 | parts of tallow, 6 parts of wax, and 5 parts of turpentine. In this mixture linen is soaked, and is thereby rendered water-tight. The sheet of linen is then united to a sheet of wool by being passed between rollers. On the linen side the ' sole is now covered with a solution of glue to prevent the resinous surface from sticking to the stockings and shoes in j walking. To waterproof leather: Melt one liter of boiled linseed ' oil, 125 grams of suet, 46 grams wax, and 32 grams resin together over a slow fire, and apply it to the leather with ! a brush while warm. This composition keeps the leather very soft. The English fishermen have long been using it. They can remain in the water for hours ere it penetrates through the leather. For making canvas waterproof : It is very easy to make canvas waterproof, without altering its ap- pearance or pliability, by saturating it with a boil- ing and strong solution of soap, pressing out the excess of this, and then submitting it for a short time to the action of a hot bath of alum, sulphate of aluminum, or acetate of lead, which operation causes the formation of an insoluble alumina or lead soap, which will permeate all the pores of the texture and make it waterproof. To render fabrics waterproof, M. Dujardin proposes the following procedure : 335 grams each of potash, alum, and sugar of lead, are to be triturated in a mortar until the mass becomes syrupy, to which is then to be added 400 grams of a mixture of equal parts of finely pulverized bi- carbonate of potassa and sulphate of soda. To this mixture there should now be given about 50 liters (about 11 gal- lons) of rain water, and when complete solution is effected, the same is poured into a vessel containing an oleine soap in solution in an equal quantity of water. This mixture is to be stirred for about 20 minutes, or until complete mix- ture has occurred. To waterproof a fabric it is necessary only to immerse it, with the hand or by mechanical means, into the aforesaid mixture, and to retain it there until by pressure or otherwise the fluid has penetrated to every por- tion of it. The fabric is then removed, and after allowing i the surplus fluid it retains to drop off, hung up to dry. Af- ! terwards it is thoroughly washed in cold water, and again dried. Goods treated in "this way, it is affirmed, are water- ! proof, but still permit free transmission of air. The colors i of the goods are in no wise affected. "Journal des Fab- ricants de Papier." 1 Wa'ter-proof Pa'per. Waterproof paper of superior quality, transparent and impervious to fat, i may be prepared by saturating good paper with a WATERPKOOF PAPER. 941 WAX. liquid prepared by dissolving shellac at a moderate heat in a saturated solution of borax. Paper thus prepared resembles parchment, and may be given any color by the use of aniline dyes. When a sheet of paper is immersed in an ammoniaeal so- lution of copper and then dried, it is said to become quite impermeable to water, and does not lose this quality even although the water be boiling. Two sheets of paper thus prepared and passed between cylinders adhere to each other so completely as to be quite inseparable. If a large number of sheets so prepared be thus cylindered together, boards of groat thickness are obtained, the cohesion and resistance of which may be increased by interposing fibrous matters or cloths. The substance so prepared is quite as hard as the closest-grained wood of the same thickness. The ammonia- eal solution of copper is prepared by treating plates of cop- per with ammonia of the density of 0.880 in contact with the atmosphere. Wa'ter Sup-ply' for Lo'co-mo'tives. The water tanks of locomotive tenders are usually re- plenished from elevated tanks at the side of the track, either filled by the natural flow of water from a more elevated source or by means of a pumping engine. In some cases the locomotive itself i.s caused by suitable connections to operate a pump and draw its own water from a reservoir or well. Either of these methods involves a stoppage of the train, and to obviate this efforts have been made to render the engine capable of supplying itself with water while in mo- tion. In 1854 Mr. Angus W. McDonald, of New Creek Depot, Va., patented an invention embracing two different methods of effecting this object. By one the tank of the tender was to be air-tight, so that after being filled and partially exhausted there would be a partial vacuum within. From the side or bottom of the tank a valved pipe or hose was to be dropped into a cistern of water on or under the road, as the engine passed by, when, the valve being opened, atmospheric pressure would force the water into the tank. The other method was to employ an inclined trough or plane at a suitable angle to dip into the pool of water ; the velocity of the train causing the water to ascend into the tank. The latter plan has since been adopted on some railways. A water-trough of cast-iron sections, IS" wide at top by 6" deep, is laid upon the sleepers between the lines of rails at surli a level that when full the water surface is 2" above the level of the rails. A scoop of brass, having a mouth 10" wide by 2" high, and turning on a hinge, is, when in nor- mal position, kept elevated by means of a balance weight, but is, when used, depressed, and is kept in this position while the tank is being filled. The upper end of the scoop and the lower end of the deliv- ery pipe are of corresponding circular arcs, so that the scoop forms a prolongation of the pipe when in position for raising water. The limit to which the scoop may be depressed is adjusted by set screws, and is varied as the brasses and tires of the tender become worn, lowering the level of its body. The trough is cast in lengths of about 6', so as to rest on each alternate sleeper, and is fixed to the sleepers, its height 1. 1 justed by means of wooden packing. The ends of each length are formed with a shallow groove, made water- tight by round strips of vulcanized rubber, the metal not being in contact. The road at each end is laid with an in- cline of 1 in 100 for a distance of 16 yards, the trough taper- ing down to a mere plate to allow the scoop to pass clear in entering and leaving it. At each extremity is an overflow pipe to limit the depth of water to 5". The orifice of the scoop is just covered by the water, and its edges are beveled off sharp to diminish splashing. The top edge is carried forward 2" or 3", and turned up with the same object. The water rushes into the scoop and up the delivery pipe, which is caused to discharge downwardly in order to prevent splashing. Wa'ter Thief. A tube for drawing water from a cask, barrel, etc., by the bung-hole. A bunq- liucket. "Wa'ter Tow'er. A portable stand-pipe for use at fires. This invention of Mr. Logan, a prac- tical machinist of Baltimore, having been brought to the attention of the New York Commissioners they invited an exhibition in that city, and Chief Bates was instructed to furnish every convenience for a thorough test of the apparatus. The test wa in every way satisfactory, and ail who wit- nessed the operation of the machine, says the " Fireman's Journal," expressed the opinion that it was a practical and desirable adjunct to fire de- partments. The water tower consists of three sections of iron pipe mounted on a truck ; these sections being fitted together horizontally are raised to a perpendicular position by turn- ing a wheel, an operation easily performed by one man ; at the upper end of the tower is a flexible play-pipe, to which was attixed a 1J" nozzle : at the base of the tower are con- nections for two lines of hose. Engine No. 20 was at a hy- drant at Washington Square, and connected to the tower by two lines of hose. When water was first put through the hose, a coupling flew off and had to be sent to the repair shop to be readjusted. Meantime the steamer played through oue line of hose, a splendid fire stream being projected through the tower, the nozzle of which was 51' above the ground. One man on the truck had perfect control of the stream, and by means of a simple gearing was able to de- press or elevate the stream, or turn it in any direction, .. sweeping the horizon at all points and freely sprinkling the promiscuous crowd that had assembled. At a height of 28' a branch-pipe is placed and two streams were thrown at the same time, being handled with equal ease and facility by one man. Subsequently the tower was lowered and a short, section substituted, having a 1J" nozzle and a height of 37'. Two lines of hose were connected, and two streams thrown from the tower to a great height and a great distance horizontally. The ease with which the machine was handled and its ef- fectiveness excited the admiration of all beholders. Firemen, especially, were enthusiastic regarding it, but wanted to see one 70' instead of 50' high, and a 2" nozzle substituted for the smaller. The advantages offered by this machine are the getting of a solid stream high in the air before it leaves the nozzle without the aid of ladders, and the ease with which it is controlled by one man. Of course no greater power is exerted than is furnished by the engines, but half a dozen streams could be siamesed into it if necessary. At the test the highest water-pressure obtained was 170 Ibs., while the owner claims that the tower will sustain a pres- sure of 300 Ibs. at the nozzle. As Commissioner King re- marked, a 2j x/ stream delivered at that height under such pressure would be bound to make a black mark on any fire against which it was projected. It would also be of great value in " wetting down " buildings contiguous to a fire, as its range would enable it to sweep both sides of the street and keep the buildings wet from curb to cornice. Wa'ter Wheel. A wheel turned by the action of water. Lafflneur's "Treatise on the Construction of Water-wheels." Lowell's "Hydraulics." Glynn's "Treatise on the Power of Water as applied to drive Flour Mills, and to give motion to Turbines and othfr Hydrostatic Engines." 12mo. New York, 1869. Wa'ter Works. For a description of various works for furnishing water supply, see "Mecli. Diet.," p. 2746. See also Colburn Sf Maw's "The Water-works of "London.'' Jacob's " On the Designing and Construction of Storage Reservoirs." 16mo. Prof Corfield'i "Water and Water Supply." New York, 1875. MrMaster's "High Masonry Dams." Kirkwood "On Filtration of River Waters." Fanning's " Water Supply Engineering." McElroy's ''Papers on Hydraulic Engineering." Hughes' "Water-works for Cities and Towns." (Weale's Series.) New edition. Humber's " Comprehensive Treatise on the Water Supply of Cities and Toirns." Illustrated. Haslcoll's "Water-works, Sewage, and Irrigation." Being vol. ii. of "Engineering Field Work." London, 1871. "Wave Mold'ing Ma-chine'. The Ransome wave molder has carriage, feed, and reciprocating scraping cutters. The chisel bar or its connections are elongated to give the stroke, the bar and chisel having a reciprocating motion, but capable of being extended to the depth of the mortise, and yet re- sisting in its joints the force of the blow. Wax. The following are some useful recipes for sealing wax : Red Sealing Wax, Fine. Melt cautiously 4 oz. pale shel- lac in a copper vessel, at the lowest possible temperature ; add 1} oz. of Venice turpentine, previously warmed, and stir in 3 oz. vermilion ; pour into metallic molds and allow it to cool. WAX. 942 WEEDING HOE. Red Sealing Wax, Common. Resin, 4 Ibs. ; shellac, 2 Ibs. ; melt ; mix in ij Ibs. Venice turpentine and rod lead. Black Sealing Wax, Fine. Shellac, UU parts : Venice tur- pentine, 20 parts ; melt shellac carefully : add Venice turpen- tine ; stir in 30 parts of finely-powdered ivory black. Black Sealing Wax, Common. Resin, 6 Ibs.: shellac, 2 Ibs. : melt. Add 2 Ibs. Venice turpentine, and lamp black to color. Gold Sealing Wax. Melt cautiously 4 oz. pale shellac in a copper vessel, at the lowest possible temperature ; add 1 j oz. of Venice turpentine, previously warmed ; and stir in 3 oz. mica spangles ; pour into metallic molds, and allow it to cool. Colored Sealing Wax. 4 oz. pale shellac, 1| oz. white resin, 2 oz. Venice turpentine ; add a finely powdered pig- ment of the required color. Bottle Wax. (1. ) Resin, 6J parts ; beeswax, J part ; Vene- tian red or red lead, 1 Ibs. (2.) Shellac, 3 parts ; Venice tur- pentine, 1J parts ; vermilion, 2J parts, or Venetian or red lead, q. a. (3.) Resin, 6 parts ; shellac and Venice turpentine, .each, 2 parts ; coloring matter to suit. Wax, Graft'ing. This is an article which should be kept on hand ready for use whenever needed, for it is valuable for various other purposes besides that of grafting. All wounds made in pruning trees will heal over much sooner if coated with this wax ; and, if a piece of bark is accident- ally stripped from a tree, the place should be cov- ered over with it, and the wood will remain sound underneath. A good wax may be made as follows : Melt in a basin 1 Ib. of tallow, 2 Ibs. of beeswax, and 4 Ibs. of resin ; stir well together, and keep in a cool place in the dish in which it is melted. If beeswax is a very costly item, one-third less quantity can be used. Wax'-thread Sew'ing Ma-chine'. A sew- ing machine for sewing leather with waxed thread. Such machines are made to work with two threads or with one. In the single thread machine the needle carries down the thread, which is caught by a looper work- ing in the pillar beneath, and thereby held till the leather is fed forward so that the next descent of the needle will be through the former loop. Pro- vision is made for keeping the waxed thread warm so that it may be flexible. The warming is usually by a lamp which heats a current of air in the duct through which the thread passes. In other cases the thread passage is heated by hot water. The wax is heated by a lamp beneath and the thread is conducted from the spool, through the wax and along a heated passage to the needle. "Way. (Railway.) With one exception, the Paris Exposition did not furnish any valuable sug- gestions of new uses for iron. This exception re- lates to the introduction of various systems of iron permanent way for railroads, in place of the wood- en cross-ties and stringers which are now generally in use. One of these systems, Hilf's, has been adopted on nearly 1.000 miles of railway in Germany, Aus- tria, Belgium, and other countries. Both the stringers and the cross-ties are of wrought-iron. Other systems, at least one of which substitutes steel for iron, are modifications of the Hilf system. It seems not improbable that one or two of these systems will become popular and even necessary in countries which do not possess an abundance of timber, but at present many objections are made to their adoption. It is alleged that the first cost of an iron permanent way, cheap as iron has become, is much greater than one of wood, and that it is liable to corrode, and is more rigid than wood. Iron, however, has found new friends in those inventors who have suggested its use in the con- struction of the so-called permanent way of rail- roads, and various systems of this new permanent way are now in daily use on the Continent. In Great Britain one or two of them have been used experimentally, and a commencement has been made in shipping iron for the construction of the permanent way of an Indian railroad. Wear I'ron. The projecting piece of iron fas- tened to the bottom of a buggy or wagon to protect the wheel from wearing away the body in turning. Weath'er-board'ing Saw. A" combination saw, composed of saw, square, level, plumb, and rule, allowing the carpenter to plumb, space, true, saw, and fit on weather-boarding without other tools. Weav'ing. The manufacture of fine blankets by the Navajo women is thus described : The wool is all spun with the fingers and with- out the aid of a wheel, the process being very slow and requiring great skill. The colors are all vege- table. As two women spin the warp two others stretch the yarn upon pegs driven into the ground, each thread being as long as the blanket is to be. When the warp is made and arranged, the woof or filling is spun in the same way, and each thread woven in by hand and with the greatest care. In this manner four women make four fine blankets in about three months. The Navajos have not lost the art of weaving blankets. While the men hunt and herd cattle and sheep, the women spin and weave blankets for their own use and for saje. Some are coarse and can be purchased for from S3 to $6, but others are so fine and tightly woven that they will hold water like a rubber poncho, and sull for 'from $25 to $75 each. Diagrams showing the principles of various ar- mures or dispositions of the harness for twills, sat- ins, etc., may be found in Laboulaye's " Diction- naire des Arts et Manufactures," article "Tissage," vol. in., ed. 1877. WeHber. (Electricity.) The practical unit of i quantity (I weber J^ (C. G. S.)). Ampere. The practical unit of resistance is called the ohm or B. A. unit ( 1 ohm one billion absolute electro- 1 magnetic units). (1 ohm 10 9 (C. G. S.).) Gor- don. We'ber-me'ter. Edison has lately patented a " webermeter." This is an instrument for meas- uring the amount of electric current flowing through a circuit, or in other words a meter for electric cur- rents to tell the number of webers that have been supplied. Wedge. (Nautical.) One of the supporting blocks of a ship on the ways. Wedge Cut'ter. A dentist's cutting pliers to excise the ends of separating wedges, inside and outside of the jaw. ( Carpentry.) A combined relisher and wedge cutter for relishing the rail of a door and cutting the wedges at one operation. The first arbor is perpendicular, the second upright arbor is thrown forward on the right angle to give the bevel to the wedge, and can be adjusted to give different bevels to accommodate different widths of tenons, or can be moved to a perpendicular. The two horizontal arbors are adjusted by screws, andean be moved up and down to cut any width of relish. The two small saws are fastened on end of arbors with screws, the heads being flush with face of saws. The sliding bed moves the length of machine on tracks. The rail to be relished is placed on its worked edge, on the bed, with shoulder against the stop (which can be adjusted to any depth of cut), and run through machine, thus cutting the relish and wedge in one movement. One man can relish the rails and make the wedges for 1,000 to 1,200 doors in ten hours. Wedge Valve. A wedge-shaped valve driven to its seat by a screw. Used in closing mains, etc. Weecl'iiig Hoe. One style is made with three small triangular blades or s'hares which cut the WEED SCYTHE. 943 WELDING TUBES. Fig. 2530. Weighing Scoop. -weeds off at the surface of the ground, or lower, .and are adjustable laterally to cut all in one broad row, or spaced apart as desired. Weed Scythe. See BRAMBLE SCYTHE. Weigh Can. A can con- taining a liquid, resting on scales. The indicator is fixed at the present weight less the amount wanted ; the faucet is opened, and when the beam rises the flow is cut off. Weigh'ing Ma-chine'. Figs. 1423-1425, p. 486, su- pra, show a convenient form of hydrostatic scale for weighing in transitu. See also STEELYARD, TRACK SCALE, PLATFORM SCALE, SUSPENDED SCALE, etc. Weigh'ing Scoop. Mery's scoop has a spring balance located in the scoop handle, scale and pointers on the handle, and a stop so ar- ranged as to save the spiral balance spring from damage when the scoop is thrust into any hard, unyielding mate- rial. When the scoop is in use the handle is naturally grasped so that the thumb is directly over the stop , and a slight pressure on it when the scoop is thrust into any material prevents the stem from beiug pushed down upon the spring, and causing auy damage to it. The combination of handle and stem is made stiff and unyielding by reason of the stop, thus facilitating the scooping up of any hard un- yielding material. When the material to be weighed is raised up in, the scoop, the stop is released and the balance, being free to act, the weight of the material will show on the scale. This arrangement of scoop and scale gives two useful articles in one, and is very serviceable where a large amount of mate- rial has to be divided by weight into small quan- tities. Weight'ed Car'riage Lathe. One in which the carriage rest is held down by a weight. Weight'ed Gage Cock. One in which the piston or valve is held to its seat by a weight. See Fig. 2531. Weighting. Load- ing silks, cotton, and other goods with foreign substances in dyeing, to give them body and weight. This fraudu- lent practice is resorted to in many cases, the principal weighting ma- terial used being chlo- ride of magnesium. Sul- phate of magnesium (Epsom salts), oxy mu- riate of tin, sumac, galls, gums, sugars, salts of lead, oxides of iron, and other articles of a simi- lar kind are used by un- scrupulous dyers to give to -silk an artificial weight, regardless of,the Weighted Gage Cock. Fig. 2531. fact that the goods are seriously damaged thereby, for use. Weir. A dam across a stream to raise the water to a higher level, either for milling, fishing, or na\ r - igating purposes. The rivers SJeine and Yonne have been made navigable for small vessels, between Paris and Auxerre, by a system of weirs which give a minimum depth of about 5'. This has been accomplished by building 34 movable dams, with side locks, and also making three cut-offs ; every cut-off has a guard-gate at its head to keep ovit the flood water, and a movable dam, without a lock, is built across the river just below each gate. See BARRAGE, p. 76, supra, and Plate IV. The above operations have served to convert the two rivers into a series of navigable pools. 'Rivers so converted are said to be canalized. Each weir, 150' wide, is composed of a fixed and movable portion, the fixed part consisting of a mass of beton, faced with masonry, poured between two lines of sheet piles with an interval of 25' between the lines. This mass rises to within 3J' of the upper bay level. This fixed part is. surmounted by 33 movable gates 5' wide, with their tops, when they are up, at 3j' above the permanent portion. These gates were designed by M. Desfontaine, and called by him hausses a tambour, or drum gates. The object was to operate the dam by utilizing the power produced by the fall itself. The moving apparatus, Fig. 2532, consists of a series of gates, independent of each other, and turning around a hori- zontal hinge, a, placed in the middle. The upper half, a b, is the hausse or gate, properly so-called ; it is this which forms the upper bay. The lower half a c d, called the counter hausse, has no other function than to carry along the hausse in the movement impressed upon itself. It is inclosed in a quarter of a horizontal masonry cylinder of the same length, whose axis coincides with the hinge, and in which it can conse- quently make a quarter of a revolution. The horizontal one is slightly raised parallel to itself, and the vertical one has been similarly moved back, so as to leave the empty spaces I and k between the drum and the extreme positions of the counter hausse. By admitting water from the upper bay into the chamber I, when the bay is full, the gates are revolved on their axes, and the bay emptied as far as desired. The admission of the water into k raises the gate again. The simplest form of s,Jisli wair consists of a fence of brush Fig. 2532. driven into the sand or mud and forming a curve concave to the ebb of the tide. As the water runs off, becoming more shallow, the fish in the inclosure are detained and are cap- tured when stranded. A dry weir is one on a flat left dry by the ebb of the tide. Weirs are called slat weirs or brush weirs when made of boards or brush respectively. Weirs may have leaders of brush or slats and pounds of net, or the heart and net may be of brush below and netting above. Weir and pound are almost synonymous terms. Weld'ing. A welding block mounted on the long slide, carries a welding bar, upon which sad- dles may be fitted for different diameters. The block and bar carrying the flue are traversed along the bottom slide, and as much length as can be heated may be welded at once. See Fig. 2533. Weld'ing Tubes. Herr Knipp, of Essen, Ger- many, has recently patented in Germany a method of welding tubes and tires. He draws the tube over one of a pair of ordinary rolls, and then heats WELDING TUBES. 944 WHALING EOCKET. Fig. 2633. the whole length of the portions to be welded by a special contrivance, which is a portable fire-box, into which air is so blown that the heat is directed against the weld. After the necessary heat is at- tained the rolls are set in motion and the place to be welded is repeatedly drawn through them. His heating apparatus could, we believe, be replaced to advantage by some gas apparatus similar to that used for heating wagon tires in this country and in France. Well-bor'ing Tools. The tools used in well- boring may be classed under five heads. 1. Drills, acting by percussion. 2. Augers, for boring by rotation. 8. Reamers, for enlarging the hole. 4. Sand pumps, for extracting detritus or soft material. 5. Grabs, for recovering fallen or broken tools, rods, or tubing, and for raising or lowering rods or tubing. The simplest plan for operating boring tools is the Chi- nese ; the tools are suspended from a rope which is worked vertically and imparts by its torsion a circular motion to the tool. The well is tubed as the work progresses. This plan, while it has the merit of simplicity, is liable to the objection that the tool is apt to follow fissures, to avoid nodules and hard seams, and thus become deflected from the true course. The usual mode of boring is to attach the boring tool to the end of a section of rod, which, as the work progresses, is lengthened by the attachment of other rods, which are in lengths of from 10' to 20'. A vertical reciprocation is given to the drill stock by attachment to a walking beam, by a lever or by other means, and a certain amount of rotation being imparted to the tool at each stroke causes it to fall in a fresh place at each impact. The tool acting upon the rock, or the scoop upon the sand, gravel, etc., accumulates a quantity of debris which requires to be withdrawn from time to time, the rod being lifted and unscrewed, section by section, and the debris removed by sand pump if the tool itself has no provision for withdraw- ing it. The sections are then again attached and the tool lowered to its work. The loss of time entailed by .this plan, in the raising and unscrewing, emptying, reattaching, and letting down has given rise to a number of inventions designed to withdraw the debris as it is made, i'or this purpose was suggested a downcast and upcast current of water circulating through two tubes or on each side of a partition in a single tube. Another device, patented in England in 1844, by Beart, was to make the rods hollow, with water-tight joints, and then introduce a downcast current of water which carried the debris up the space between the rod and the wall of the well. Pumps of various kinds have been contrived, designed to accomplish the same purpose, and other inventors have made hollow drill-rods with a succession of valves, the water and debris being supposed to work their way from section to sec- tion upwardly by means of the forcible contact of the tool with the yielding strata. When danger is apprehended from the weight of the drill- rod, a slide-joint may be made which will limit the percus- sive action to one or two sections at the lower end of the rod while the portion above the joint is counterbalanced so as not to be involved in the blow. This slide-joint is the invention of (Euyenhausen. See full-page plate of well-boring tools, p. 2758, "Mech. Diet." Well Smack. A perforated submerged cage attached to the bottom of fishing smacks for trans- porting the fish to market alive. "Welt Ma-chine'. A machine to cut leather, cloth, etc., into a series of parallel strips to be used as welts in side seaming. The material is passed into the machine irrespective of its width, the end knife separating the portion not cut into strips be- fore it can be carried against the standard. Well'-wheel Block. A grooved pulley for the cord of the well-bucket to run over. It has a hook for suspension and anti-friction rollers for the axis. Wet and Dry Plates. The wet plates used in photography and prepared by the photographer at time of taking a picture, are being largely super- seded by the dry or gelatine plate, which can be prepared or bought in advance, and carried around for taking views, or other pictures. These dry plates are practically instantaneous. See work by J. Traill Taylor, published by the Scovill Manufac- turing Co., New York. Wet Broke. (Paper.) The moist and imper- fectly felted stock or pulp as it leaves the wire cyl- inder and before being smoothed out on' the for- warding blanket. Whaling Ap'pa-ra'tus. For list of U. S. patents on whaling apparatus, harpoons, bomb- lances, rockets, and explosives used in fishing and whaling, 1838-1879, see HARPOON. Wha'ling Gun. Off the Norway coast, near Wadso, whales are killed by the use of a gun in- vented for the purpose. The gun has a chamber about four feet long, is mounted on the forecastle of the vessel, and, being balanced, can be easily moved to allow aim to be taken. The projectile in use consists of a long iron bolt, having at its extreme end four harpoons bound round with a line so as to be flat, and close to the harpoons a five or six pounder shell. As soon as the steamer has approached sufficiently near to the fish, the bolt is fired off, and, if well directed, penetrates deeply into the flesh and blubber of the animal. The whale rushes off at a furious pace, and the effect of his rapid movement is to make the bolt slip back a little, thus setting free the four harpoons from the lines, and, by means of a mechanical arrangement, caus- ing the shell to explode. This generally proves the coup de grace. A fire arm or small cannon hurling a bomb, harpoon, or lance. Patents : Brand . June 22, 1859. Pierce 1865. See also HARPOON GUN. Wha'ling Rock'et. A projectile carrying har- poon, line, and explosive, used in whaling. The Roys rocket has a strong brass cylinder containing the projectile charge. In the front of this is secured a bomb containing an explosive charge, and inside of it is a harpoon attached to the shell. To the rear end of the rocket, is at- tached the whale line. The bomb has a bearded or barbed point, and when projected into the whale by the rocket ex- plodes, inflicting a fatal wound, the harpoon takes its hold, and the boat is fastened to the whale by the line. These shots are good for killing and fastening to a whale at 30 fathoms distance. The whole apparatus weighs 32 pounds, and is 6' 6" in length. A peculiar rest is used in firing, having on it a shield to protect the operator from the fire which issues from the rear end of the rocket. The rocket is set in the rest, the rear end of which is placed on the shoulder, and by discharging a pistol charge into a hole provided for the purpose, the pro- jectile is discharged and the rocket powder carries the rocket, bomb, and line in the direction required. WHALEMEN'S TOOLS, KNIVES, ETC. 945 WHEAT SCOURER. Whale'men's Tools, Kuives, etc. Blubber Fork. Used for tossing blubber into the try kettle. Blubber Hook, Used in hauling small pieces of blubber on deck. Blubber Knife. For cutting up blubber for try- ing out. Boarding Knife. For cutting the blanket-piece of blubber or long piece which is flensed or peeled from the sides of the whale. Boat Spade. Used from the boat to disable the whale by cutting its flukes. Boat Hatchet. Same use as boat knife,. Boat Knife. To cut the harpoon Hue when it becomes tangled in paying out. Kept iu its sheath on the bulkhead of the whale-boat, ready for use. Cutting Spade. Used iu peeling the blubber from the carcass of the dead whale. Known as " cut- ting in the blubber." Half-round Spade, For cutting the "blanket" piece, to allow blubber hook to enter. Head Knife. For cutting off the head of the whale ; opening the skull to obtain the spermaceti ; removing the baleen, etc. Head Spade. For cutting off the head, of the whale. Junk Hook. Used for hauling heavy pieces of blubber on deck. Lance. To give the whale its death thrust. Line Hook. A hook for catching the line. ^ Lip Hook. A grapnel for catching in the whale's lip, to tow it to the vessel. Mincing Knife. For cutting the blubber into small pieces. Mincing Spade. For cutting the blubber into small pieces before trying out. Throat Spade. Flat with a round shank. Used in cutting off the head of the whale. Whaling Gun. A fire arm or small cannon hurl- ing a bomb, harpoon, or lance. Wide Spade. Used in the blubber room for cutting blubber in the rough, before mincing. Wheat Brush. A device for scouring grain. The illustration, Fig. 2534, shows two bristle brushes, with the bristles inclined. One of the brushes revolves while the other is stationary. The wheat enters the hopper A and passes to the center between brushes s 1 and ii-, whence it is carried by centrifugal force to the periphery of the brushes, when it falls into the air-chamber E, whence the dust is removed by the suction created by fan D. Fig. 2534. Wheat Cleaner. Wheat Crack'er. (Milling.) A mill for making grits. See GRITS MILL". Wheat Damp'en-ing and Dry'ing Ma- chine'. Apparatus for washing and cleansing smut and dirt from grain, and drying the wheat when washed. See GRAIN WASHER. Wheat Drill. See GRAIN DRILL. Wheat Gra'der. A machine for separating the perfect from the imperfect grains, and for sort- ing out long from round grains, or removing dirt, stones, etc., from grain. See GRAIN SEPARATOR, STONE CLEANER, WHEAT SEPARATOR. Wheat Heat'er. (Milling.) An apparatus for heating grain before grinding in order to facili- tate the loosening of the bran coat. It is usually some form of steam heated chamber, and in Welch's wheat heater, it has a perforated steam ring for damping the grain also, if desired. It has an interior iron cone, heated by one steam- pipe, and a frusto- conical steam coil "a short dis- tance outside of the cone. The live steam pipes of each are above and the waste below. The wheat enters the machine and passes clown the channel between the conical coil of pipe and the central iron cone, which is notched on the outside, spread- ing out and passing through a series of openings in the bottom, where it is collected by the hopper at the bottom of the machine, and spouted to the burrs. The ring just below the wheat induction opening is for steaming the grain, when required the pipe having its own valve. The space outside the steam is packed with asbestos to prevent radia- tion of heat. The length of the apparatus is 26. 5". Capacity, 15 bushels per hour. Several forms of apj aratus may be found under the following; references : Provost, " Victor " . . * Gratiot * Price "IXL.,". . . . * Fulton ....'..* Osborne * Deal * Welch * Palmer * Hunt . . * 'American Miller,'" vi. 148. 'American Miller, 1 ' v. 83. 'American Miller," 1 v. 83. 'American Miller, 1 " vi. 277. 'American Miller," vi. 148. 'American Miller," viii. 237. 'American Miller," viii. 287. 'American Miller," viii. 461. 'Lejfel's Milling If Mech. News," vii. 4. (Steamer). .... "Level's Milling If Mech. News" ix. 89. "Scientific American," xlii. 152. Wheat Mag'nets. Fig. 2535 shows forms of magnets for inserting in the mill spouts to gather the pieces of wire that may have gotten in from the use of wire binders or other sources. Wheat Rid' die. See SEPARATORS, full page of plates, p. 417, supra, Wheat Scour 'er. (Milling.) A machine which follows the smut- ter. Fig. 2535. Wheat Magnets. 60 It consists of a stiff brush, against which and below, a grooved burr-stone is made to revolve, the wheat passing between the brush and burr-stone. It serves to remove still adhering hairs and loosened portions of the outer bran, and presents, after passing through a blower, a berry of rejnark- able smoothness and look of purity. By this process, some varieties of wheat lose, beside the hair, portions of the outer layer pf true bran, traces of the cigar-coat, and scales from the surface of the embryo. To effect the same end in other mills, the wheat is passed between a grooved steel cylinder and a segment of a stone shell in which the abrasion of the surface of the wheat and the partial removal of the outer bran coat are effected. Another form has a cylindrical grater operating against a 7 WHEAT SCOURER. 946 WHEEL-MAKING MACHINERY. surface of stone. The wheat enters the machine at a spout and comes in contact with a system of cast-iron spiders. Pass- ing through in a spiral form, it is discharged. The screen- ings are delivered from one spout and the dust from another. The separation can be adjusted by a movable valve. Wheat Sep'a-ra-tor. The separation of mus- tard, cockle, and grass seed from the wheat is ef- fected by passing the mixed grains over inclined plates perforated with holes large enough for the smaller seeds to pass through but not large enough for the wheat. The oat-grain is separated by taking advantage of its elon- Fig. 2536. perforated witn rounu noies, ui mtei vair> mccij ueicimmcu by experiment, abundantly large for the ready passage oi both the wheat and oat grains if presented end foremost per- Wheel Hoe. One, or a series of hoes, mounted on a wheeled frame, and adapted to be pushed by hand. Revolving disks are sometimes interposed between the plants and the hoes to prevent the plants being smothered with earth. Wheel Joint'er. For trimming the joints of staves, heading, etc. See HEAD JOINTER, snjirn. Wheel-ma'king Ma-chiii'e-ry. Apparatus for pressing hub, spokes, and felloes into a solid wheel at one operation. Fig. 2538 shows Archibald's wheel machine, which occupies space upon two consecutive floors. A strong circular plate of cast-iron, about 7' diameter, having its upper surface faced oft' true, is placed horizontally level with the ~~" second floor. Arranged at equal distances around its outer edge are a number of levers, B, equal to the number of spokes to be set in the wheel, having their fulcrums securely bolted to the plate. The long arms of the levers radiate from the plate, about 3' all around : the short arms are formed into cams, or rolling inclines, or curved wedges, acting upon sliding pieces of cast-iron, which move freely iu a radial direction, in guides formed in the fulcrum blocks. When the long arms of the levers are raised, the sliding pieces are pressed outwards by springs until they bear upon the cam-shaped short arms of the levers at the point nearest the fulcrum or center of motion of the lever. When the long arms of the levers are lowered, their sliding pieces are forced inwards by the cams, and unite in pressing inward the wheel. The levers are actuated by means of wrought-iron rods, C, extending downwards from the ends of the levers, converging to a vertical column, D, under the center of the plate, much as the braces of an umbrella extend downwards from the ribs to the stick. A screw is cut upon the central column, and a nut, E, answering to the slide upon an um- a hole. An individual hole is oi sucn aiamei the wheat-grain sliding forward carries its center of gravity beyond the support of the upper edge of the hole, there will be room for the prow, that is, the forward end of the grain, to sweep downward through the hole without striking its lower margin, and thus the wheat-grain be separated. The oat-grain, however, in sliding down the inclined plane, be- fore the center of gravity has passed bey ( ond the support tho iinnar tnai-tfin nf t.hi> hnlp will liv rfiaSOn of itg nrolon t of SB Fig. 2537. Adjustable Spoke. Wheel. (Vehicle.) A circular frame supported on an axis, distinguished from a roller by the axle bearing the stress. Fig. 2537 shows the Raddin elastic adjustable iron and wooden spoke for carriage wheels. The cut shows the manner the felloe is expanded to set the tire. A represents a spoke and felloe, with clasp and nut ready to be expand- ed to set the tire. /> shows a spoke with screw-thimble to receive the nut C and hasp D. By turning the nut on each spoke the felloe is expanded, the tire is set, and the wheel made round, which cannot be done by the ordinary method. Smith's wheel has a metallic hub with the spokes clamped between collars. The outer collar is held on by a jam nut and a loose spoke can be replaced without removing the tire. The spokes in the Watson wheel pass through a metallic collar encircling the hub, the two parts of which are joined by connecting pieces which form wedges to spread and tight- en the spokes as they are driven in. Wheel Cut'ting Ma-chine'. A device for dividing a circle into any number of equal divis- ions. Wheel cutting machine. Scott * "Engineering," xxiii. 381. Wheel cutter bevel. Grube * "Scientific American Sup." 450. Wheel En-gra'ving. (Glass.) As distin- guished from sand-blast engraving or acid etching. See GLASS ENGRAVING. Wlieel Machine. WHEEL MAKING MACHINEEY. 947 WHITE BRICK. brella stick, raises or lowers all the levers at once, with great facility, and with any required power. Motion is given to the nut by means of beveled gears, and a belt with fast and loose pulleys, so arranged that at the upward and downward limits the belt i.s thrown automatically upon the loose pul- ley, and the motion of the nut and levers stopped. Any required motion, either up or down, within the range of the screw, can be obtained with great delicacy and convenience by a shipper, F, actuated by a shipping-rod, 0. "Wheel Plow. One having a wheel in ad- justable standards depending- from the front end of the plow-beam to regulate the depth of the furrow. Wheel plows. Ransume, Br. . . Wheel plow, Howard, Br. . * "Engineering,'' xxvii. 4c . * "Engineering," xxx. 49. Wheel Press. A hydraulic press for forcing car-wheels upon their axles. Wheel Ribs. Projections on the inner side of plate car-wheels to strengthen them. Wheeled Scra'per. One mounted on trucks to scrape and level newly-dumped dirt on railroad tracks. Wheel Seat. The part of an axle inclosed by the hub of a wheel. " Wheel'wright Ma-chine'. A machine for doing the different varieties of work necessary in the forming of a wagon wheel. Some forms will plane wagon or buggy rims when on the wheel, and plane the periphery of a rim made of sections (i. e., sawed felloes), so that each section shall have a true circle of its own, greater than the circle of the wheel, forming what is known in the trade as swelled joints, without which such wheel would be deficient, as the rim is always inclined to dent in at the joints of the fel- The amount of irregularity can be varied, arid is quickly changed so as to plane a bent rim to a true circle. The rim planer will also plane stuff straight, out of wind, square, and to thickness (and 8" wide with an extra cutter-head of this width). The upper table nuiy be taken off its hinges without removing a bolt, and a saw board substituted, making an ad- justable saw table for rip-sawing or cuttiug-off, the cutter-head being exchanged for a saw. . The machine" thus fitted, and furnished with back-top, adjustable fence and bevel rest, patent gaining and saw frame, is a complete universal wood-worker, without interfering with the rim planer. On the opposite side, when desired, is attached a spoke saw and wheel tenouer, with or without a bor- ing table. It can be changed to a boring machine without the use of a wrench. Two men may operate on the machine at the same time, one on the front side and the other on the opposite side. A horizontal shaper may be made of the rim planer, which will shape, round, and corner all or- dinary work. "Whelps. 1. (Nautical.) The projecting ribs of :i capstan, around which the rope is wound, gen- erally of the form of a frustum, to keep the rope from becoming jammed against the pawl. 2. The teeth or projections of a sprocket wheel. Whet'stone. A report on this subject by J. M. Safford is given in that of Group I., "Centen- nial Exhibition Reports," vol. iii., p. 172, et seq. Whin. (Mining.) A machine for raising ores and refuse. Whip Crane. That form of crane in which the winding rope passes over the periphery of a larger wheel, on whose barrel axis the lifting rope oils itself. Such cranes are independent on rooted posts or are supported above according to the exi- gencies or facilities of the case ; the latter swings completely round, is fitted with three purchases or speeds of lifting, and with break apparatus for lowering. Weights up to 600 Ibs. are lifted quickly by pulling directly upon the rope ; for weights up to one ton the handle is put on the rope-barrel shaft ; for heavier loads the handle is put on the pinion shaft. The upright and jib are of pitch pine timber, with cast-iron shoes, top and bottom, wrought-iron pivots, and square cast-iron plates for fixing to floor and beam. The jib is fitted with cast-iron bracket and jib-head and wrought-iron tie-rods to the top pivot casting. Whip Grin. A simple tackle-block, over which a hoisting-rope runs. Also called gin block and monkey wheel. Whip on Run'ner. (Nautical.) A tackle with two single blocks, one a standing and the other ; a running block. The fall of the standing-block is spliced round the block of the lower whip. A ivh!p-on-whip. b Fig. 6159, p. 2480, "Mech. Diet." Whip'ping. (Nautical.) Tying or binding with twine the end of a rope to prevent its untwist- ing. For list of whipping, lashing, seizing, etc., see SEIZING. A Spanish whipping occupies an intermediate position be- tween a knot and a splice, and gives a very neat finish to a ' to receive the ends of the strands. Whip Ma'king. For method of covering whips, see BRAIDING MACHINE, p. 355, "Mech. Diet.," and for history, etc., see WHIP, p. 2769, Ibid. The main items of expense in whip making material are rattan and whalebone. The rattan is imported from Batavia and China. The qualities which are too soft, or otherwise unfit for use in whips, are sorted out and sold to the basket- makers. The fine strips which make up the stock of a whip are split out first by hand, and afterwards worked down by drawing them througli a shave, which can be gaged. The whalebone is already split when imported. The main part of most whips is composed of nine pieces. The whalebone is ill the center, surrounded by the thin strips of rattan, and secured in place by glue. This com- pound stock is dipped in glue so that every part is permeated by it, and then run through a machine, which winds it with a strong thread from end to end. It is again wound with rope, so that it cannot warp out of shape, and left to dry. A peculiar turning lathe gives a smooth finish and even taper from butt to tip. The thread covers are plaited on to the stocks by machines, which are wonders of ingenuity ; some carrying as many as 24 spools. Some of the better grades of whips have this cover made of fine gut, prepared from sheep entrails. Sometimes a portion is worked on by hand, and fancy designs in colors, or the owner's name is introduced. A great variety of sticks is used for the stiff portion of the stock, many of them being very handsome, and include the holly and other ornamental woods. The Malacca cane, which grows in the Dutch East Indies, and is imported, is also used largely. Fine lashes for stage drivers, teamsters, or tandem whips are plaited out of the best California deer skin. They con- tain from 4 to 24 strands, and are from 4' to 16' long. Horse- hide answers for the cheaper grades used by cartmen and others. Plaiting lashes well can be done only by careful and ex- perienced hands and is all piece-work. Much of it is given out to be done at the homes of the operatives. Whis'ker Gaff. (Nautical.) One of the spars rigged out from the bow to spread the guys of the jib-boom. Also called a sprit-sail gaff. "White Brick. A process for the manufacture of white pressed brick from common red clays, con- sists in mixing or grinding into the common clay a cheap material, chiefly magnesian limestone, which has been reduced to an impalpable and harmless powder by being burned and slaked. WHITE BRICK. 948 WINE HEATER. This compound is passed through a series of mix- ing aud grinding mills, and so completely ground that it leaves the last mill reduced to a fine pow- der ; in this state it falls through the feeder into the molds of a powerful steam -pressing machine, is subjected to a heavy pressure, and is delivered at the delivery table a complete and almost dry pressed brick, which, when burnt in the kiln, produces a white brick of good quality. The ingredients added to the clay at once absorb about 40 per cent, of the moisture found in the natural clay, and the grind- ing is so close aud complete that the mixture is thoroughly and evenly amalgamated. The change effected in the color of the red clay on being burnt is due to the presence of the mixture. White Bronze. A name given to either of sev- eral light-colored bronzes. See NICKEL BRONZE ; MANGANESE BRONZE. See list under BRONZE. White Cloud Il-lu'min-a-tor. A round piece of plaster of Paris fitted on the microscope, reflecting a white beam of light, often used instead of the ordinary mirror. White Glass. ( Glass. ) A term used in Eng- land to distinguish certain brilliant uncolored glass f rom flint glass, which has lead in its composkion. See FLINT GLASS, CRYSTAL. Whi'ten-ing. (Leather.) The leather is laid over the beam, and with an extremely fine-edged knife a thin shaving is taken from the flesh side. Whi'ten-ing Ma-chine'. A buffing machine, operated by power, to buff, whiten, or flesh leather in finishing. Whit'worth Steel. One of the most interesting of the British steel exhibits at the Paris Exhibition, 1878, was that which embraced various samples of the " Whitworth metal," to which much impor- tance has been attached in Great Britain in connection with the manufacture of ordnauce and other articles by the Sie- mens and Siemens-Martin processes. The exhibit was large, and of a character to favorably impress the visitor. The metal is made of more than ordinary solidity and tenacity by being cast under hydraulic pressure. Cannon and shells of this metal are said to withstand the severest tests, a claim that received confirmation from some of the samples sub- mitted. A propeller shaft was exhibited, forged hollow, which it was claimed was much stronger than a solid wrought-iron shaft of the same size and weighing one-half more. This shaft, forged from a hoop of compressed steel, was 33' 7" long, the outside diameter 17^", and the diameter of the bore 11$". A hydraulic cylinder of this metal was shown which was represented to stand a pressure of four tons to the square inch. For machine tools, in which strength combined with lightness is desirable, the com- pressed steel is claimed to have no equal. Sir Joseph Whit- worth's aim has been to produce a steel that would be free from blow-holes, and this result he has accomplished by mechanical means. A similar result has been claimed by the Terre Noire Company, in France, through chemical com- binations. White'wash. A good durable whitewash is made as follows : Take half a bushel of freshly burnt lime, slake it with boil- ing water ; cover it during the process to keep in the steam. Strain the liquid through a fine sieve, and add to it 7 Ibs. of salt previously well dissolved in warm water ; 3 Ibs. of ground rice boiled to a thin paste and stirred in boiling hot ; Ib. of powdered Spanish whiting ; 1 Ib. of clean glue, which has been previously dissolved by soaking it well, and then hang- ing it over a slow fire in a small kettle, within a large one filled with water. Add 5 gallons of hot water to the mixture, stir it well, and let it stand a few days covered from dirt. It must be put on quite hot. For this purpose it can be kept in a kettle on a portable furnace. About a pint of this mix- ture will cover a square yard. A recipe almost identical is recommended by the Treasury Department to all lighthouse keepers. It answers for wood, brick, or stone. Wide Spade. (Whaling.} Used to cut the blubber in the rough, before mincing. Willow Cur'tain. (Hydraulic Engineering.) A device to curb the rapidity of streams and induce deposit of sediment. Its action is similar to the FLOATING BRUSH DIKE, which see. See also FLOATING WIRE DIKE. The willow curtain is made of willows V to 2" diameter, and fastened parallel to each other and 6" to 8" apart, by means of wire. It is made of any desired width and length and anchored in position in the stream by weights attached at intervals along the lower edge, and sustained by buoys made fast to the upper edge. "Report of U. S. Engineers,'' 1880, pp. 1452, 1459. The tools and methods are well shown in the " Chief of Engineer's Report,'' 1879, *ii. 1074, et seq., Plate IV. Winch. A hoisting machine operated by hand, crank with gearing, and tackle, which should al- ways have a follower or dog, as a safety-brake. Wind Fur'nace. (Metallurgy.) One depend- ing upon the draft of a chimney, as distinguished from a blast furnace. Wind Gage. A gage attached to a gun to in- dicate the strength of the wind and enable the per- son using the gun to make allowance for the de- flection of the ball in its flight to the target. Wind'lass. A drum revolving on a horizontal axis for raising heavy bodies. A capstan has a ver- tical axis. Win'dow Bar. A bar intended as a security against children falling through an open window or door. It is so constructed by reversible screws at each end that it can be extended or contracted to fit the doorway or window. Window Glass. Common window glass is made by the blowing and whirling process. Plate glass is run into molds, ground, and polished. The irregular thickness of the Pompeiian window glass shows that it could not have been blown, and M. Bontemps is of the opinion that it was cast in bronze frames. The analysis shows the following composition : Silica ... 69.43 Lime 7.24 Soda . 17.31 Alumina 5.55 Oxide of iron 1.15 Oxide of manganese 0.39 Oxide of copper trace Window glass in wooden frames in France under Louis XIV. Window glass in use in England, Xllth century. Window glass in royal palace in Edinburgh, 1661. Painting on glass in Abbey St. Denis, Xllth century (Le Vieil). Painting on glass in Abbey Leroux, Anjou, 1121. Painting on glass in Abbey Tergernsere, Bavaria, Xth Cen- tury. See CROWN GLASS, CYLINDER GLASS. Win'dow Mir'ror. A mirror mounted out- side the window, and capable of being adapted at any angle to reflect the passing objects in the street, to the view of persons inside the house. Win'dow Op'en-er. A lever or rod by which a window, ventilator, sash, or panel in a clear-story is held in any desired position. Win'dow Sec'tor. A bar or plate of metal of the form of part of a circle, and which is used as a guide or stop to control the movement of a clear-story window. Win'dow Tube. A glass or hard rubber tube forming a passage-way for an electric wire into a building. Wine Heat'er. A machine to preserve wine after it has acquired its best condition from its nat- ural fermentation, against secondary fermentation, and all diseases which arise from the development within the wine of animo-vegetal parasites, such as bacteria, vibria, mycodermi aceti, etc. It is sim- ply the mechanical application of the well-known and well-established theory of M. Pasteur, the emi- nent French chemist, that subjection of any fer- mented liquor to an instantaneous heat of 45 tto 55 centigrade (112 to 131 Fahr.), or to a slowly acquired temperature of 65 to 75 centigrade (149 WINE HEATER. 949 WIRE. to 167 Fahr.) will destroy or reuder inert all germs of fermentation or of animo-vegetal life existing therein. Wine Press. In the common form used in France the main characteristics are the exact ar- rangement of the gearing on the nut. The inven- tions of Mabille freres, Marmonier, Primal, and others differ. The crate is made of a cylindrical series of slats, hooped and latched. Rising from the bed of the machine is the screw, upon which is the follower, which is forced down by the nut. The latter is rotated by the lever, the laborer at the first merely walking round the press. When he can no longer operate thus, he commences a reciprocating movement, drawing the lever back and forth, which he is enabled to do by a species of gravitating ratchet movement in the appara- tus upon the nut. The cotter-keys are gravitating ; each motion of the lever turns the mortise-wheel in a constant direction, the action of the cotters being alternate. While one cotter is effective the other slips up out of its seat, slides over the intervening space, and drops into the next mortise. The stroke of the lever is 0.8 meter. Wine making, Hammonds- port * ".Scientific American,'' xliii. 79. Wing. (Fishing.) The portion of a hand-seine on each side of that central part which is known as the bag. Wing Net. (Fishing.) A net running down stream from one of the stakes of the stake net, to the stake at the mouth of the hook net, to guide fish intercepted by the main or bar net. See STAKE NKT, p. 850, supm. Wing Stop'per. (Nautical.) A rope clenched to a ship's beam and at the other end to a cable. Winze. {Mining.) A shaft sunk from one level to another. "Wiped Joint. (Plumbing.) One made by placing the parts in the required juxtaposition and covering the joint with a mass of solder. The wiping action of the woolen pad used origi- nated the name. Wire. The following table, showing breaking strain of ropes of 133 wires, is from a pamphlet by Messrs. J. A. Roebling's Sons : Diameter. Inches. Strength. Tons. No. No. No. No 1 9 i| if r 9-16 74.00 65.00 54.00 43.60 35.00 27.20 20.20 16.00 11.40 8.64 5.13 4.27 9 3 4 No 5 . . . . No. No. No. No. No. No.] No. ] 6 ... 8 . 9 . . . . . . . . Oi . . . 01 . . . . The following shows the weight and resistance per mile of galvanized iron wires : 1 S & 6 7 8 9 io Resistance. 1 Weight. | Resistance. Weight. 10 ohms 12.1 ohms 14.1 ohms 16.4 ohms 20 ohms 550 Ibs. 11 25 ohms 455 Ibs. 12 32.7 ohms 385 Ibs. 14 52.8 ohms 330 Ibs. 16 91.6 ohms 275 Ibs. 220 Ibs. 168 Ibs. 104 Ibs. 60 Ibs. Wire bid Wire bri Wire for Brooklyn bridge, ' xix., Jan. 25, p. 14. Amer.," xxxvi. 127. American," xl. 319. for East, dge, making . manufacture River . . * "Scientific . . * "Scientific TABLE OF WIRE RESISTANCE AND WEIGHT. The following electric resistances are calculated for pure copper wire. The number of feet to the pound is only approximate for insulated wire. FEET PER POCSD. RESISTANCE, NAKED COPPER. Number. Diameter. Cotton Covered. Silk Covered. Naked. Ohms per 1,000 Feet. Ohms per Mile. Feet per Ohm. Ohms per Pound. 8 .12849 _ 20 .6259 3.3 1,600. .0126 9 .11443 ' - - 25 .7892 4.1 1,272. .0197 10 .10189 _ 32 .8441 4.4 1,185. .0270 11 .09074 _ _ 40 1.254 6.4 798. .0501 12 .08081 42 46 60 1.580 8.3 633. .079 13 .07196 55 60 64 1.995 10.4 504. .127 14 .06408 68 75 80 2.504 13.2 400. .200 15 .05707 87 95 101 3.172 16.7 316. .320 16 .06082 110 120 128 4.001 23. 230. .612 17 .04525 140 150 161 5.04 26. 198. .811 18 .0403 175 190 203 6.36 33. 157. 1.29 19 .03539 220 240 256 8.25 43. 121. 2.11 20 .03196 280 305 324 10.12 53. 99. 3.27 21 .02846 360 390 408 12.76 68. 76.5 6.20 22 .02535 450 490 514 16.25 85. 61.8 8.35 23 .02257 560 615 649 20.30 108. 48.9 13.3 24 .0201 715 775 818 25.60 135. 39.0 20.9 25 .0179 910 990 1,030 32.2 170. 31.0- 33.2 26 .01594 1,165 1,265 1,300 40.7 214. 24.6 52.9 27 .01419 1,445 1,570 1,640 61.3 270. 19.5 74.2 28 .01264 1,810 1,970 2,070 64.8 343. 15.4 134. 29 30 .01126 .01002 2,280 2,805 2,480 3,050 2,617 3,287 81.6 103. 432. 538. 12.2 9.8 213. ass. 31 .00893 3,605 3,920 4,144 130. 685. 7.7 639. 32 .00795 4,535 4,930 5,227 164. 865. 6.1 856. 33 .00708 6,200 6,590 206. 1,033. 4.9 1,357. 34 35 36 .0063 .00561 .005 - 7,830 9,830 12,420 8,330 10,460 13,210 260. 328. 414. 1,389. 1,820. 2,200. 3.8 2.9 2.4 2,166. 3,521. 5,469. WIRE BELT. 950 WIRE GAGE. Wire Belt. Machine straps of wire, as a sub- stitute for leather, are beiug made. The belts are made of the best crucible steel wire, in trans- verse network of 1 to 10 wires, iu any desirable length or width. The two ends of the strap are joined like the middle, so that there is no beginning and no ending, the belt form- ing an endless band. All the wires run parallel only across the width, in such a manner that one wire catches into the other like a spiral, a continuous, densely woven chain being thus produced, the movability of which is so great as to ena- ble it to go round the smallest pulley. The straps are also made with leather or elastic lining, or bordered with leather, elastic, hemp, hair-tape, or any other material, also its inter- >tires tilled with gutta-percha, to supply elastic bands with cotton web, and to prevent their stretching. The tighten- ing of the strap shortening of the chain which is only necessary once, namely, when put on by means of a strap key, may be effected very easily and very quickly by taking out any desirable number of wires, and again joining the two ends in the same manner by twisting in the required num- ber of wires. Wire Book'-sew-ing. In this system of book sewing the book is " sewed flexible " upon tapes or wide bands (sawing the signatures being entirely dispensed with), and the work is equally well done upon all classes of books. Every signature is sewed " all along " by independent tinned-wire staples, uniting them firmly to the tapes or web- bing, thus securing the utmost strength and durability in addition to the valuable feature of thorough flexibility. This system is equally adapted to all grades of edition and school book binding, from the cheapest to the most costly full bound books. Also for all classes of blank books, music books, and pamphlets of one or more signatures. Wire Cut'ting Scis'sors. A double pivoted projecting slide shears for use where there is not play for the common single pivot shears. Wire-feed'ing Chuck. A screw machine, Fig. 2539. It has an adjustable chuck and wire- feeding apparatus. It is used for making the smallest screws of sewing machines, guns, etc., making from 1,000 to 3,000 screws per day. The chuck is operated while in motion, and the wire is fed through it automatically when loosened, with- out stopping for each screw. It is adjustable to any sized wire from " to 7-16" diameter. It has a hollow cylinder with an outer sleeve sliding upon it. The cylinder contains three jaws fitted to slide in slots which converge to the center ; the inner sides of the jaws are parallel with the axis of the chuck, the outer sides of Fig. 2539. Wire-feeding Chuck. the jaws are slightly inclined toward the axis, making each jaw a wedge. The chuck is attached to the machine by- screwing the cylinder upon the tubular spindle. The sleeve contains three shoes, fitted into deep cavities which corre- spond in position to the slots in the cylinder. In the cir- cumference of the sleeve are adjusting screws, so placed that when screwed in their points bear against the outer sides of the shoes until they conform, each to the inclination of its respective jaw in the cylinder. Each shoe has a pair nf these adjusting screws, which maybe fastened, after being adjusted to the wire, by a pair of set nuts which are tightened by a cone-shaped screw. When the sleeve is moved upon the cylinder toward the spindle, the shoes, acting on the in- clined sides of their respective jaws, force them straight toward the center until they grasp the wire. The sleeve is operated by a fork-lever by pins projecting into a suitable groove in its circumference. Wire Fence. Wires or strips of metal armed with barbs and stretched on posts. It is nearly fifty years since experiments with wire fencing began to be made, and twenty-five years since it began to be much used. The method promised great economy, both in first cost and in the saving of ground space. Besides, the wire fence was less liable to be blown down, and it would not occasion snowdrifts. On the other hand, it was sunn found that it was rapidly corroded by the weather, an. I lie- ing inconspicuous was liable to be run down by cattle and horses. When "galvanized,"' the wire was more durable and more easily seen ; and in spite of its inability to stop unruly cattle, wire fencing became widely adopted, partic- ularly in the West, where it is estimated, as many as 150,000 miles of plain wire fencing have been set up since 1850. To make wire fencing stock-proof several devices have been in- vented and patented during the past ten years, to provide for arming the fence with cattle-repelling spines or barbs of metal. The "Holyoke. Manufacturer'-' states that during the four years the first barbed wire was put upon the market the sales amounted to between fourteen and fifteen thousand tons, and the demand has rapidly increased both at home and abroad. There are several manufactories, and in one instance the works cover three acres and give employment to 1,200 men. The wire is made from Bessemer steel, and is drawn in the usual way. The " galvanizing," or zinc coat- ing, is done by heating the wire in suitable furnaces and drawing it from them, first through tanks of acid, and then through tanks of boiling zinc. A thin and even coating of zinc adheres to the wire, giving it both a handsome fin- ish and a perfect protection from the chemical action of the atmosphere. The barbing is done by automatic ma- chinery. These machines, as described by the ''Manufac- turer," are good specimens of American mechanism, and do their work with lightning-like rapidity, yet with mathe- matical accuracy. One of the main wires passes through the machine longitudinally. A second wire is fed into the machine at right angles to the first. At each revolution of a certain disk or wheel, the sharp end of wire number 2 is twisted firmly around number 1, and cut off so as to leave a sharp point on the incoming wire as before, while the bit of pointed wire cut off remains as a steel thorn attached firmly to wire number 1. This wire, thus armed with barbs at regular intervals, passes on to a revolving reel, where it is met by wire number 3, a plain wire without barbs, and by means of the reel motion is loosely twisted with it. The completed fence wire is thus really a two-strand steel rope, armed with barbs projecting in every direction. The great advantage, besides additional strength, that is secured by the second strand and twist, is an automatic adjustment to changes of temperature. When heat expands the metal the twist simply loosens, and when cold contracts it the twist tightens all without altering the relative length of the combined wires. The reels upon which the finished prod- uct is woven are light, strong, wooden ones, suitable for shipping, and provided with cross-pieces at the ends, on which they can stand, and the barbed wire be protected from injury. Each of these barbing machines turns off 1,200 Ibs. of barbed wire a day. At present wooden posts are usually used as supports for the wire in putting up the fence. But it is believed that iron posts will sooner or later supplant the wood. For study, with a view to new and useful improvements the subject of metallic fences is a promising one for inventors. The de- mand increases not only with the decay of the old wooden fences, but also with every acre of new land that is opened up to cultivation. Wire Find'er. (Electricity.) An instrument for testing insulation of wires. It has a short ear tube, with ferrotype diaphragm, which is placed in proximity to a magnet which holds the wire be- tween its poles. Gott. "Journal Soc. Teleg. Engineers" . . * vi. 522; * vii. 77. Wire Gage. An adjustable gage for measur- ing the diameter of wire, iron, etc. Wire gage, on a standard * "Scientific American,' 1 xlii. 233. WIRE-HANDLE MACHINE. 951 WIRE TESTING MACHINE. Wire-han'dle Ma-chine'. (Sheet Metal Workimj.) A machine for straightening wire, forming it into oval or oblong handles, from 2" to 3" long, such as are used on petroleum cans, drip- ping pans, etc. No. 148 of "Bliss's Catalogue," 1881. Wire In'stru-ments. (Surgical.) Instru- ments for manipulating wire in surgical practice. The list includes Wire adjuster. NeKUes. Shot compressor. Wire Lath. A wire screen or netting that is applied in the place of wooden lath for holding plaster. It is claimed to be more secure against fire. Wire Meas'ur-ing, Fprm'ing, and Cut'- ting. (Shet't Metal Working.) A machine for preparing wire for use in making up sheet-metal Suture wires. Wire twister. I'.liss's automatic machine is adapted to straighten wire from the coil, cut it off in lengths not exceeding 72". or form it into rings of from 4" to 20" diameter, suitable for pans, kettles, pails, brackets, etc., or into half-circles for pail-han- dles, etc. It is driven by power, quite automatic, and works wire up to \" diameter. "Wire Nail. A round nail made of wire, and used for attaching molding, metallic roofing, etc. Wire nails, American . "Iron Age," xix., March 15, p. 24. Wire Pan. A cake-pan with wire screen bot- tom. Wire Pla'ting. Immerse in sulphuric acid in which a piece of zinc is suspended. Then place in contact with a plate of zinc in a solution of water (100), tartaric acid (2), chloride of tin (3), soda (3). Let it remain 2 hours, and polish by passing through a draw-plate. Dr. Heeren. Wire Rope. Commodore Shufeldt has re- cently ordered the proper authorities of the Boston navy yard to make several 1" steel wire hawsers. These will probably be the largest wire ropes ever made. The navy department has use for immense hawsers to tow monitors and vessels in distress. They are put on board the men-of war for use when required. The usual appliance is a 12" hemp rope, but it swells wheu wet, and gets very heavy by ab- sorption of water. The steel wire hawsers will be 5" less in diameter, much lighter, non-absorbent, more pliable and durable, aud in every respect bet- ter. This is a curious, and, in fact, wonderful ad- vance in the application of steel and iron to com- mercial uses. A hemp hawser \-l" thick is a won- derful thing in itself, but a steel wire hawser 7" in thickness, better answering the same purpose, is something fruitful of thought to the student in ship building aud rigging. StaU's " Transmission of Power by Wire Ropes.' 1 '' Hildenbrand's " Cable -making of Suspension Bridges, as exemplified in the East River Bridge." 1 Wire Ropes, paper on, by G. L. Abegg .... Wire rope, wear of . . Steel, tests, Engl. . . Transmission . . . * Transportation, Read- ing Iron Works . . System, stationary . * Wire ropes vs. chain ca- bles Wire rope vs. chain cable Ships cable apparatus. Bullivant, Br. . . * 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 2094. 'Scientific American Sup.,'' 86. 'Scientific Amer.," xxxvii. 88. 'Van Tfostrand's Mag.," xvi. 68, 166. 225. 'Scientific American,'' xli. 40. 'Manujact. and Builder,'' xii.59. 'Iron Age," xxi., June 6, p. 18. 'Iron Age,'' xxii., Oct. 24, p. 11. 'Engineering," xxix. 264. Wire Rope Con-vey'ance. A system of aerial transit on suspended wire ropes has been es- tablished to connect the gasworks at Hanover with "the neighboring coal station on the Hanover AJten- beck Railway, for the supply of coal to the works. The line crosses the Limmerstrasse and the river Ihrne, and is about 625 yards in length. There are 2 iron wire ropes placed 5' 10" apart, and em- ployed respectively for the carriage of loaded and of empty wagons. They cross the Limmersti-asse at a height of 23', and the river at about 30'. The cables are respectively 1.12" and 1" in diameter, and are constructed of wire of 4 milli- meters, about 1-6". in diameter. They are supported on pulleys at intervals of 24 yards, except in crossing the river, on a span of 57 yards. Resting on pulleys, they are free to expand or contract. They are kept taut by weights of 5 tons and 4 tons respectively. The wagons are drawn by means of a 9-16" endless wire rope, supported on rollers at intervals of 60 yards, and driven, by a 6-horse steam engine at a speed of 3 miles per hour. The wagons are constructed of sheet-iron, and are capable of holding 3 hectoliters, or 106 cubic feet of coal ; they are suspended from the carrying ropes on 2 grooved wheels, one in advance of the other, between which the attachment of the Milfoil is made. The bodies of the wagons are swiveled. so that they may be easily emptied. They follow each other at intervals of about 60 yards. Allowing for delays, the quantity of coal carried at no time exceeds 180 tons per day of ten hours, and is frequently less, the average delivery be- ing only 135 tons. Wire Rope Thim'bles. A curved metallic eyelet for protection of the rope from wear. Wire Rope Tow'age. The ferry-boat, Waag, is a vessel of 120' in length. 23/ beam, and 6^' depth of hold, and draught is of 2', is pro- pelled by " overhauling ' a chain which lies along the bed of the river between Vienna and Pressburg. The same method is adopted on the Elbe and on other rivers of Europe for towage. The chain is laid on the river-bed, from end to end of the route. The steamer is provided with a winding- drum instead of paddle-wheels, and is thus fitted to haul in the chain at one end of the vessel and to pass it off at the other end. This method of propulsion, where practicable, is claimed to be more economical of power than the ordinary methods, especially where, as in towing, the losses by slip and by ob- lique action of the paddle-floats become very serious. Wire Rope Trans-mis'sion. The use of a round, endless wire rope running at a great veloci- ty in a grooved sheave, in place of a flat belt run- ning on a flat-faced pulley, constitutes the " trans- mission of power by wire-ropes." Remarks on same by Roehling .... * Cooper's "Belting," 253. Ac/iard * Cooper's "Belting," 260. Telodynamic system, Him "Prac.Mech. Jour.,'' March, 1867, 358. Professor Barnard . . "Report Paris Exposition," 1867. Wire rope driving . . "Manuf. Sf Builder," Feb., 1869, 38. Rope gearing .... "Newton's Journal," 1 xxi. 46. Durie "Iron,'' London, Oct. 28, 1876. Wire ropes as connect- ing rods ... * Cooper's "Belting," 285. Wire Spring Ma-chine'. A machine for making spiral wire springs. The wire is first seized by a pair of rollers, one of which has a groove and the other a corresponding milled projection. It is passed under a guide roll, the position of which may be adjusted according to circumstances, and is then carried be- tween a second roller and a guiding sheet which throws it forward. The position of the guide roll determines the di- ameter of the spiral spring, while the deviation of the sec- ond roller and guiding sheet from a position parallel to the first pair causes the spring to become spiral. This deviation is automatically regulated, and the machine is so constructed that when a dpuble spiral has been finished the wire is cut at the proper time. Wire Test'ing Ma-chine'. The wire to be tested is held by two clamps, which are drawn apart by a screw and hand wheel attached to one. The other acts upon a long lever, to the longer arm of which a fine chain is attached, which is so connected with a weight that its tension increases in proportion to the movement of the lever. A rod which carries a pencil is attached to the lever, and by a spring the pencil is made to travel along a straight guide-piece. The paper upon which the line is drawn is moved perpendicularly to the direction of the wire through the agency of cog-wheels and a toothed rod. The WIRE TESTING MACHINE. .952 WOODBURYTYPE. ratio of the two movements is so chosen that a curve is he result, the abeissas of which, if multiplied by ten, yield the elongation of the wire, while the ordinates register the ten- sile strain. See also "Scientific American, "Iron Age "... Wire testing machine, Richie, . . . xxxix. 211. xxii., Nov. 21, p. 1. "Iron Age,'' xx., July 19, p. 9. Wir'ing Press. A press for wiring pieced tin- ware. No. 33 of "Bliss's Catalof/ite," 1881. Withe. The metal rings that embrace the mast, boom, or gaff, and which have eyelets through which to reeve the ropes. Wol'las-toii Bat'te-ry. (Electricity.) A trough battery ; an improvement on Cruikshank's in which the cells are of glass and the plates are attached above to a wooden bar. The first plunging bat- tery. Niaudet, American translation . p. 15. Wood Bend'ing. The bending of hard wood, especially beech, is effected at present by means of hot water or steam, a process somewhat costly as regards fuel, and taking a long time. For over- coming these difficulties the following method has been proposed, chiefly for sieve hoops : Two rollers are used, one above the other, the upper one having less velocity, so that it acts by holding back, while the lower extends the wood fibers. When the board, thus bent, leaves the rollers, it is fastened in the mouth of the sieve. The upper roller is fluted, the under one smooth. If two smooth rollers were used a very much greater pressure would be necessary. Wood Bend'ing Ma-chine'. Fig. 2541 represents one modification of the machinery for bending timber, which has been brought by a number of years' practice to a high state of utility. It consists of a jointed mold made up of cast-iron sections which have two horizontal projecting arms on the flush side, the one above the other, forming a groove between them for the timbers. The end of each of these sections is circular, and is secured like hinges, interlocking in its adjoining section, and held together by a vertical wrought-iron pin. The sections thus united form a series of joints adjustable to any form, and may be extended to any length. This mold rests upon a Fig. 2541. Wood Bending Machine. circular table with a circular frame beneath, 22' in diame- ter. This table, being 3j" thick anil pierced with slotted holes Systematically arranged to receive the fastening of the mold, etc., is mounted upon a hollow shaft of cast-iron, 30" in diameter, and has a screw-thread cut in its outer surface at the lower end, by means of which the table may be raised or lowered and made to bear a part or the whole of its weight on the shaft-bearing. On the lower edge of the table are cir- cular cogs into which a pinion-wheel meshes, and the power applied to the pinion revolves the table. The table has an attachment fastened on the top at its edge, called the head- block, which receives the small end of timbers and plate- strap covering the outside of timbers. The larger end of timbers is confined in a massive cast-iron clamp, which also receives one end of plate-iron strap. This clamp is mounted upon casters, and having a vertical roller on its back at the larger end, is drawn along by means of the plate-strap as the table revolves, the roller in end of clamp bearing against a vertical bulkhead raised from the floor of the building while the timber is being bent into the groove of joint-mold. The clamp, and also the head-block, have screws passing through their ends, by the use of which pressure on the two ends of the timber is communicated. This end-pressure ap- plied to the timber draws the strap straight and to its full tensile dimensions, and when thu brought up against the outside of the timber, the process of bending commences by revolving the table. A mold for bending knees is arranged upon the same table, and is complete in all its parts, details of which it seems unnecessary to describe. The whole ma- chinery is massive and ingenious, although easily operated. Wood'bu-ry-type. Where the subject is in line a positive photograph of it (?'. expositive by transmitted light) is made, and from this is obtained a relief in gelatine by the ordinary method, the re- sult being that the hollows of the relief will all be of one uniform depth, this characteristic producing a level or uni- form surface in the resulting mold, which is made by impress- ing this relief into metal by hydraulic or other pressure, or by the method stated in the second part of this invention. Where the subject is in half-tone, as in a photograph from nature, the process is as follows : In printing 011 the gelatine film there is interposed between it and the negative a photo- graph on mica or transparent collodion of what is known as mosquito netting, or Brussels net, which breaks up the re- sulting relief into a multitude of fine square or hexagonal lines. To obtain from this a printing block the means al- ready described are employed, the resulting block in soft metal being capable of giving from 100 to 200 impressions ; but where large numbers are wanted this block is electroty ped in the ordinary way. Diffused light is used to produce the block from half-tone negatives, as in that case the light in the parts that represent the whites creeps around the lines, thus obliterating them in that part, and leaving them strong- est only in the parts printing dark. Another method is sometimes adopted : A negative of the network is taken by transmitted light, and copied together with the negative, thus producing a positive with the lines already thereon, from which a relief is made as stated. The second part of this invention may be accomplished as follows : In place of using a thin film of collodion (as is gen- erally used in the process called " Woodburytype '') to hold the gelatine of the relief, a sheet of plate glass is first rubbed over with French chalk or ox-gall, and then coated with the bichromatized gelatine solution as now used. When this is dried and ready for use >the side that was next to the glass is exposed for a few seconds to daylight before exposing it under the negative. This has the effect of causing a thin film of gelatine to become insoluble, which after subsequent exposure under the negative will not wash away, but form a support for the photographic image afterwards impressed, thus doing away with the expense and trouble of the double coatings as now practiced. When the gelatine relief is dried, in the ordinary way, a thin sheet of tinfoil (same size as the gelatine relief) is attached by gum or other adhesive sub- stance around the edges to the gelatine relief. A stout sheet of plate paper is laid on the back of this and the whole passed through an ordinary rolling press. The tinfoil is by this means impressed into all the details of the relief ; but in^this state it would be useless to print from. Therefore a shallow metal box is filled with a composition of shellac and asphalt, which on warming becomes soft, but hardens on cooling. This box is placed on a hot plate until the compo- sition softens ; it is then placed on the lower plate of the or- dinary Woodbury printing press, the foil and relief laid on it, the press closed, and the pressure applied by the under screw. When the composition has hardened the tinfoil ad- heres to it. The gelatine relief is removed from the foil, and the foil-backed mold used to print from. In place of fixing the proofs by alum or other substance of a like nature, they are varnished with an ordinary varnish composed of shellac and alcohol, giving the print an effect of a photograph on albuminized paper, at the same time protecting the surface from moisture. .Sometimes the composition is melted in boxes and used with out the foil as a printing mold direct ; WOODBURYTYPE. 953 WOOD OIL. when sufficient numbers have been printed the box holding the composition is again heated and can be used over and over again. The third part of this invention consists in an improved method of printing" Woodbury type '' by machinery. This is accomplished as follows : Out of a solid block of iron a cylindrical hole is turned, in which is made to fit very loosely a cylinder of soft metal having a taper or conical hole through it lengthwise. Between the interior of the steel block and the soft metal cylinder the gelatine reliefs are in- sertcd : then, by means of a taper or wedge-shaped spindle (roughened), by hammering or by pressure the soft metal is driven against the iron cylinder, thus impressing the relief on the outside of the metal cylinder, the taper spindle at the same time forming a shaft for the cylinder to be used in the process of printing. This roller, bearing the relief, is then mounted in vertical slots in a frame having a bed of plate glass on which the paper rests, the roller resting on the glass its own weight and being dragged round by the paper itself ; or in place of the glass plate the soft metal cylinder is al- lowed to lie on another fixed or movable roller of metal or glass. The latter may be hollow so as to reduce its temper- ature in hot weather by a stream of cold water running through it. Wood'chop-pers' Maul. A large wooden sledge with heavy iron-bound head for driving wedges used in splitting wood. Wood'en Floor Mat. A sort of grating made of strips of wood, used as a door-mat. Wood'eii Pave'ments. A rigid foundation of bituminous or cement concrete is universal. This costs more than sand, but it is permanent, and will prevent the blocks from sinking under the wheels. English engineers, in discussing pavements, call the founda- tion the true pavement, the blocks being the wearing sur- face only. The " llcnson " pavement, with some modifica- tions, is the best for this country. Instead of a layer of tarred paper on the concrete, use a thin layer of pitch, with oil enough in it to make it permanently slightly plastic, set- ting the blocks upon it while hot and" soft, using the strips of tarred felt between the rows, and driving the blocks to- gether. The tarred felt would make a very close joint. Then poor melted pitch over the whole surface, taking care to fill every crevice, and upon this spread fine sharp gravel, which will work into the ends of the blocks and form a sur- face resembling macadam, and afford a far better footing than wide spaces between the rows, which serve as recep- tacles for mud and dust. It is easy to keep this pavement clean. No water can penetrate it, so that it will not be in- jured by frost. The blocks themselves, if creosoted, will not absorb water, and if laid without spaces between the blocks, the drainage will be surface drainage solely, which is of the first importance. But the pavement would be short-lived if green and wet blocks are used. It is not practicable to use, as Mr. North the case in London, " wood better seasoned than the pine generally used by house carpenters in this country.' 1 .Seasoned wood cannot be obtained in sufficient quantities here. But, what is far better, it can be preserved from de- cay. No faith can be placed in any method of wood preserva- tion for paving blocks which does not exclude water. The blocks are so short that any soluble preparation is quickly washed out of them, and, if not made waterproof, they are certain to absorb the seeds of destruction from the filth in the streets. The blocks should be well saturated with creo- sote oil, whose chemical constituents act preservatively upon the fibers of the wood by coagulating the albumen of the sap, while the fatty matters act mechanically in obstructing the pores of the wood and keep the water out. At the same time, as oil cannot be injected into wood full of moisture, the thorough artificial seasoning which forms a part of the pn.M-os of creosoting as carried on in this country, is as use- ful to the timber as any of the metallic salt processes. By thoroughly ereosoting the blocks, expansion and con- sequent throwing out of the blocks is prevented. They will not shrink or expand. The wood is also rendered homo- geneous ; the sap wood becoming as durable as heart wood. Looking to sanitary considerations, the creosoted wooden pavement is perfect. The carbolic acid contained in the oil is a powerful disinfectant, and as the pavement described will not absorb any deleterious substance from the surface, it has only to be kept clean to maintain the best sanitary condition. Wooden pavement, Lond. "Scientific American," xxxv. 115. On, (many figures) . * "Engineer,'* xlv. 171, 314. Wood'en Rail. For wooden rails the best wood is maple, laid with the heart up ; hard pine is used in the South. The simplest form of wooden rail is a stringer cut in 16' to 20' lengths, and of such cross-section as the kind of wood or weight of engine requires. 6" square is usually the best size for stringer, although 5" face by 7" depth" is some- times as good. 4" face by 6" depth, or 5" square, will answer for small engines, if the wood is good ; still smaller sizes may be used by placing the cross-ties close together, say 2' or 2i' between centers ; for large stringers, 4' between centers will answer. When worn out on top the stringer may be reversed, and when again worn out may be used for ties. The ties are more easily fitted and laid if made uniform, and of about the same size lumber as the rails ; 6" square is heavy enough. Any cheap lumber not specially liable to decay will do. Ordinary hewn ties may be used, but not being uniform are less convenient for cutting out recesses for rails. They should be at least 3' longer than the width of the track between rails. The ties must be cut out accurately and uniformly to receive the rails. The recesses should be'about 3" deep, and be at the top face of the tie 1", and at the bot- tom of the recess 1J" wider than the rail. The inner faces of the recesses are perpendicular, and the distance between them is the gage of the track. The bottom of the recess should be level, and ties laid well to afford proper bearing for the stringer. Wedges made of any cheap wood, or better, of ends of stuff left from rails, are driven on the outsides of rails. They are made of right shape to fit the space left ; the reason for making this space wider at the bottom than at the top, is to keep the wedges from working up, so that the rail may be held securely in place. The stringers must be arranged to break joint on the ties. Both stringers should not break joint on the same tie. The stringers are sometimes sawed off diagonally instead of perpendicularly, so as to lap and be spiked altogether. The cost of lumber for a hard pine wooden road will be about $450 per mile. With another style of wooden road the stringer is made of hemlock or any cheap lumber, and a maple strip 4" to 5" wide and 2J" to 3" thick is spiked on to the stringer. By this plan, such a part of the rail as is worn out may be removed with- out taking up the stringer. The maple strip may be re- placed by a T-irou rail considerably lighter than would be required if laid directly on cross-ties ; this is preferable to strap iron. A wooden rail is very slippery when wet, and hard to keep clear of snow and ice in freezing weather. On very bad curves and steep grades a wooden rail is impracticable, and iron must be used. A locomotive has but one half or two thirds the power on wood that it has on iron ; the friction useful for traction is less, and the flange friction is greater. Locomotives for wooden rails should be built very strongly and evenly bal- anced ; the weight should be less, and the drivers larger than for the same size of cylinders on iron rail. A locomo- tive with six wheels connected, or with four drivers and a two wheel truck, is preferable to a four-wheel engine for wooden rail. Wood'en Wall Cov'er-ing. A veneer sur- face for wall paper. The wood is cut to the thickness of paper, and by a pecul- iar process stuck on the paper, which serves as a protection against the influence of the walls on the graining and color of the wood. The delicacy of the machinery employed in cutting so thin a veneer may be gathered from the fact that 200 leaves are cut out of an inch of white maple wood, and 125 out of wood with very open grain, such as oak and wal- nut. Wood Fa'cing Ma-chine'. A machine used in the manufacture of furniture, sash, doors, pat- terns, agricultural implements, etc. It is adapted for planing out of wind, making bevel or square glue joints, facing and edging, surfacing straight, squaring, beveling, etc. The work, as it passes over the tables, needs no dogging or exertion to hold it. The tables are drawn back or pushed forward, to regulate the cut, by a screw, while the machine is running. The motion of the tables on the wedges, while regulating the cut, secures at the same time a uniform distance from the knives. Wood Oil. The curious product of India, called by the English wood oil or Gurjun balsam, forms the subject of two papers pub- lished in the "Pharmaceutical Journal," by Messrs. Charles Lowe and Daniel Hanbury. Mr. 0. Lowe, who only knew that this resinous liquid is extracted in India, by incisions made in the tree, considers it as a Copaiva balsam rendered turbid by a greenish resin held in suspension. The filtered balsam forms a brown and transparent liquid, from which we withdraw by distillation WOOD OIL. 954 WOOD SCREW. Volatile oil . . . . Hard resin .... Water and acetic acid . According to Mr. Lowe the volatile oil possesses all the characters of that of copaiva, and the hard resin, which he wards as pure copaivic acid, free from the soft resin, which, according to him, exists in the most part of commercial co- pa ivas, seemed to him to indicate a superior quality as a medicine. "Wood Pre-serv'ing. The various processes for preserving wood have for their object the prevention or anest of fungoid growth. This is sought to be accomplished by two main systems ; one of which consists in impregnating the wood with a solution of a metallic salt, such as corrosive sublimate, chloride of zinc, or sulphate of copper, and the other includes the several creosote processes. The action of the salts named is purely chemical, and as they are introduced in watery solution, it is evident that subsequent exposure to moisture tends to re- dissolve them and leave the wood unprotected. Creosotiug, j while producing the same result chemically, also secures dr.yness, which alone is sufficient to prevent decay, provided that it can be maintained. In creosoting, it is essential that the wood should be thor- oughly dried, in order to secure complete impregnation, and hence timber is usually seasoned for months before treat- ment. This is a serious objection, which inventors have at- tempted to remedy by adding a preliminary dessicating oper- ation. At extensive works at South Boston, Mass., a process known as the Hayford is in use, which consists in drying the timber in vacua, and then impregnating it with creosote oil under pressure. Green timber is fed by a rail track into an air-tight cylinder of boiler iron, 100' long and 6' in diameter. This cylinder has been tested by hydrostatic pressure of 200 Ibs. to the square inch, and is capable of being hermetically closed. When the charge is in, steam is introduced, raising the temperature gradually , so as not to harden the outside of the wood and prevent the escape of moisture from the in- terior. Atmospheric air is also forced in at a pressure of from 30 to 40 Ibs., to restrain the tendency of the wood to crack. A temperature of 250 to 270 is found sufficient to evaporate the sap, and the whole steaming process occupies from 4 hours for boards to 10 or 12 hours for heavy timber. When it is certain that the sap and vapor have been turned into steam, the direct steam is shut off, and air pumps set to work to free the cylinder from the steam, vaporized sap, and result of condensation. This stage is reached in about an hour. The cylinder bein.g made tight again, and still heated by the coil, a vacuum pump is put in action. Then the cre- osote oil, previously heated to near the boiling point to ren- der it limpid and penetrating, is introduced under a pres- sure of 60 Ibs., which, added to the drawing power of the vacuum, makes a total pressure of over 70 Ibs. to the square inch. The hot oil soon impregnates the wood. If the tim- ber is of very close fiber, the pressure is raised to a higher point. The process completed, the charge is withdrawn and another takes its place. The process known as " Beerizing timber," takes its name from Sigismund Beer, a chemist of New York City, who dis- covered that by the use of borax as a solvent the coagulation of sap is prevented, and this without injury to the wood tis- sues. The obnoxious ingredients being thus removed, the wood is rendered closer in grain and thereby improved in ap- pearance, becomes impervious to decay, and remains unaf- fected by atmospheric changes. A recent number of the "Annales des Fonts et Chaussies " gives the following information, furnished by the officers of the railway from Hanover and Cologne to Minden. The pro- portion of pine ties, injected with zinc, renewed after 21 years, was 21 per cent. ; beech ties, injected with creosote, renewed after 22 years, 46 per cent. ; oak ties, not injected after 17 years, 49 per cent. ; oak ties injected with chloride of zinc, after 17 years, 20.7 per cent. The ties which were not renewed appeared perfectly sound. Since 1870 the Em- peror-Ferdinand Northern Railway has used only oak ties, injected with either creosote or with chloride of lime. Hatzfeld recommends, in "Eisenba/m," for this purpose the injection of tannin in form of decoctions of substances containing it, as for instance, chestnut and oak bark. The wood is treated with these decoctions in closed vessels at high pressure, and afterwards treated with a solution of the py- roacetate of the sesquioxide of iron. The latter is trans- formed into a tannate and finally converted into a salt of the oxide by oxidation. This process has now been generally introduced by the larger railroad and telegraph companies in France. Mr. Lostal, a French railroad engineer, recommends lime as a preservative for wood. He puts the wood to be prepared in large excavations in the ground, and covers them with freshly calcined lime, which is gradually slaked by the addi- tion of water. Wood to be used for mining structures must remain in the lime about 8 days before becoming fully im- pregnated. The wood becomes exceedingly hard and never rots. Beechwood prepared in this way has been used as ma- terial for hammers and other tools in several factories, and is said to have become as hard as iron, without losing its peculiar elasticity. At Strasbourg, lime slacked in a solution of chloride of calcium is used as a fire and weather proof pigment for woodwork. Wood, preservation of. "Scientific American Sup.," 1890. Paper by Jefferson . . "Man. $ Builder,'''' xii. 181, 190. * "Scientific American,'' xxxv. 360. Wood preserving process Palmer * "Scientific Amer.," xxiv. 259. Wood preserving and fireproofing, Folbacci . " Scientific American,'" xl. 67. Wood Pulp Pa'per. In wood paper manufacture the split 4' timber is fed into a circular fan-like hopper provided with swiftly revolving steel knives, which cut the timber into small chips in very short order, when a fan drives them up into the loft, where they are shoveled into two steel digesters holding from four to six tons each. Soda ash, and other chemicals, are intro- duced, a heavy head of steam is turned on, varying in differ- ent mills from 100 Ibs. to 200 Ibs. pressure to the square inch, and the chips are thoroughly separated. Then the pulpy mass is washed out into vats to drain off the chemicals, and after it has become solid it is again washed out and pumped up into the engines and beaten, and the usual process of paper-making ia then gone through with. Some makers think evergreen woods far preferable, as having a larger and more hardy fiber. The year 1846 when the German engineer, II. Volter, began his experiments of using, instead of vegetable fiber from flax and cotton, wood fiber, which he prepared by quite a simple expedient was the beginning of a branch of industry which is already of great importance to Sweden, since that country possesses just what is chiefly required for it: abundant supplies of fir- forests and large waterfalls. The first factory established on this Volter's system was at Trollhattan, in 1857, and for ten years was the only one of its kind, until here and there in the country they began to establish others, so that m 1870 there were six ; but from this time their erection was very rapid till 1873, when there were twenty-seven wood-pulp factories already completed or nearly so; but since that time none have been erected. The observations and inventions made in this branch of industry have not been unnoticed, and therefore the manu- factories are calculated to be worked, partly on the chemical and partly on the mechanical method. The chemical method is as yet so new, that it is difficult to say what development it will enjoy. It is certainly true that in this way a better and more fibrous pulp is obtained, but in proportion to the ground pulp, it is also dearer, especially since caustic soda, which is needed for the manufacture, has considerably risen in price. The grindstones that have hitherto been employed in the mechanical method have as yet been generally ob- tained from Germany, the cause of which cannot be that the material required for it is wanting in Sweden, but rather at the new-established works they have wished to avoid experi- ments at first, and hence the stones have been brought from such places, where they have already been practically tried. All the machinery, on the other haud, is now made in the country. The Swedish wood-pulp manufactories extant at the c ginning of 1873, may be divided as follows : I. Mechanical, new works where 100 horse-power is calcu- lated for each grindstone : a . Eleven Volter's manufactories with vertical gnndstones, and the supplying of the pieces of wood by a screw-mecha- nism. Of these the oldest (Trollhattan) has twenty stones, of which the greater number are small ; but besides, there are several large establishments with from five to six grind- stones of from 5 to 5' in diameter. b. Two Hartmann's, with small vertical grindstones, and supplied by weights. c. Four Siebrecht's, with large horizontal grindstones, and supplied by hydraulic pressure. II. Chemical, generally provided with two boilers : Ten manufactories constructed on different methods I clair's, Lee's, Fry's, etc.). The boiling is generally done with caustic soda, in weight about 25 per cent, of the wood, besides, the so-called half-chemical method is applied, co: sisting in boiling or steaming blocks of wood, and then grii ing them in the usual manner. Some of the more recent pi per manufactories in the country manufacture from sucn pulp a kind of paper very good for wrappers and sheath- ings. Wood Screw. A square-headed screw with a coarse thread for fastening together wooden frames. Wood screws. "Scientific Amer.," xL 24. WOOD STAINING. 955 WOOL WASHER. Wood Stain'ing. In most cases the staining of wood may be effected so as to produce very bright colors without any previous prepara- tion, as, generally speaking, the UK >n hints employed have a bleaching action on the wood. But in many case-, in conse- quence of the quality of the wood under treatment, it must be freed from its natural colors by a preliminary bleaching. To this end it is saturated as completely as possible with a clear solution of 17j oz. chlo- ride of lime and 2 oz. soda crys- tals, in 10J pints of water. In this liquid the wood is steeped for half an hour, if it does not appear to injure its tex- ture. After this bleaching it is immersed in a solution of sulphurous acid, anil then washed in pure water. The Sulphurous acid which may cling to the wood in spite of washing does not appear to injure it or alter the colors which are applied. Jii-il. The wood is plunged first in a solution of 1 <>/.. of curd soap in 35 fluid oz. of wa- ter, or else is rubbed with the solution : then magenta is ap- plied in a state of sufficient dilution to bring out the time required. All the aniline col- ors behave very well on wood. Vnilf t. The wood is treated in a bath made up with 4', o/. olive oil, the same weight of soda ash, and 2j pints of boil- ing water, and it is then dyed with magenta, to which a cor- responding quality of tin crystals have been added. Blue. Prepare as for violet and dye with aniline blue. Green. Mordant the wood with red liquor at 1 B. This is prepared by dissolving separately in water 1 part sugar of lead and -i parts of alum free from iron ; mix the solutions and then add one thirty-second of a part of soda crystals, and let settle over night. The clear liquor is decanted off from the sediment of sulphate of lead and is then diluted with water till it marks 1 J B. The wood when mordanted is dyed green with berry liquor and extract of indigo, the relative proportions of which determine the tone of the green. The wood, mordanted, as above directed, can also be dyed a fine blue with extract of indigo. Yellow. Mordant with red liquor and dye with bark liquor and with turmeric. Besides the aniline colors cochineal gives a very good scarlet red upon wood. Boil 2 o/,. of cochineal, previously reduced to a flue powder, in 35.oz. of water for three hours, and apply it to the wood. When dry, give a coating of di- lute chloride of tin, to which is added a little tartaric acid, 1 o/,. of chloride of tin, and J oz. of tartaric acid in 35 fluid oz. of water. If instead of water the cochineal is boiled in a decoction of bark (2 oz. bark to 35 oz. of water), and the chloride of tin is use. I as above, an intense scarlet, and all shades of orange, may be produced according to the propor- tions. Brown. Various tones maybe produced by mordanting with chrouiate of potash, and applying then a decoction of fustic, of logwood, or of peachwood. Gray. ( } rays may be produced by boiling 17 oz. orchil paste for half an hour in 7 pints of water. The wood is first treated with this solution, and then, before it is dry, steeped in a beck of nitrate of iron at 1 B. An excess of iron gives a yellowish tone ; otherwise a blue-gray is produced which may be completely converted into blue by means of a little Black. Boil 8;J oz. of logwood in 70 oz. of water, add 1 oz. blue stone, and steep the wood for twenty-four hours. Take out, expose to the air for a long time, and then steep for twelve hours in a beck of nitrate of iron at 4 B. If the black is not fine, steep again in logwood liquor. Wood'work-ing Ma-chine/ The Green- .wich Combined Woodworking- Machine, Fig. 2542, is a machine for circular and scroll sawing, sur- face molding, planing, mitering, and boring. The scroll saw has a positive motion, and there is a steel bearing at the back of the saw that steadies and keeps it firmly in its place when running, so as to enable those inex- perienced in the use of the scroll saw to do true work. Any Fig. 2542. Woodworking Machine. desired rake can be given to the saw, by turning the hand- screw behind it. The cutting edges on planing and molding machines should move at a velocity of 6,000' per minute. Where hard wood exclusively is worked the feed should be one fourth less. Teeth of circular saws should travel about 9,000' per min- ute. Teeth of band-saws should travel about 4,000 per minute, to obtain the best results. See English patents of Sir Samuel Bentham, 1791 and 1793. Joseph Bramale, 1802. Hatton, 1776. Samuel Miller, 1777. Molesworth's pamphlet on " The Conversion of Wood by Machinery," Proceedings Inst. of C. E. , London, 1857. Prof. Kankin on machine tools. Prof. Willis's lecture before the Society of Arts, 1852. Woodworker, variety. Fay If Co * "Engineer," xli. 463. Fay * "Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 114. Woodworker, Universal. Fay . . . ... . . * "Scientific American," xxxv. 118. Bentel, Mayedant (f Co * "Engineer," xxi. 409. Fay * "Scientific American," xxxv. 147. * "Engineer,'' xlv. 439. Fay 4" Co * "Man. $ Builder," viii. 270. Wood working machines, Power, Barnes, Fr. . * "Manufact. Sf Builder,' 11 x. 55. Wood working machin- ery, Woods ... * "Manufact. $ Builder," ix. 136. Works, Rogers . . . * "Scientific American," xlii. 31. Wood working machines. French * "Scientific Amer.," xxxvi. 210. Wool " Ex'tract." Wool recovered from worn mixed fabrics where the cotton has been destroyed by a chemical process. In the year 1865 the amount of extract used was 5,000,000 Ibs. Wool Hat Ma-chiii'e-ry. See HAT MA- CHINERY ; also the various special machines under the caption HAT, as HAT FULLING MILL ; HAT BLOCKING MACHINE, etc., etc. Wool Wash'er. Plate LVT. represents "Smith's" wool washer. The ducker is attached to the rake, next to the feed apron, and serves to duck or push down the stock into the liquor. The stock is forced under by the curved lines, as it drops from WOOL WASHER. 956 WRECKING PUMP. Worm Ueantig. the feed apron, and it is carried at once to the bottom of the bowl. A valve outlet is so arranged that the stock cannot wind about the valve levers. Steam has -access to the water through numerous small holes pierced through a pipe extending lengthwise of the machine, under the false bottom, thus distributing the heat. The water is supplied through a chamber in tho side of the bowl, obviating any splash in filling it. A double-acting carrier takes the stock up and delivers it to the press rolls. The carrier has teeth, the rear rank of which are nearly as long as those of the stirrer fork. On its forward movement the carrier engages with the stock and takes it up over the face of the chute. The cone pulley on the main driving mechanism is driven from a like cone pulley on the counter shaft. Wootz. The genuine Wbotz steel comes from India in three forms, namely, in bullet-shaped pieces of a certain weight as they cool in the pots, and which comes from Calcutta; in cakes of 2^ Ibs. from Bombay; and in cylindrical rods of about the same weight from Golconda. See "Mech. Diet.," pp. 2364, 2818. Work'er. (Leather.} A two-handled blunt knife curved to suit the inclined face of the beam, and used to scrape the hides. Work'ing Glove. Ordinary gloves used in husking corn and doing other sim- ilar kinds of work, wear out first upon the tips of the fingers and thumb, and upon the ball of the thumb. To obviate the unequal wear, and to render the glove more serviceable, a glove has been devised the body of which is of the ordinary form and materials, and to its inner or palm side are attached pieces of cloth upon which, in places subjected to the greatest wear, there! are surfaces that are covered with a protecting coating of sand and rubber. Instead of apply- ing the protective coating to the cloth in this manner, it may be applied directly to the face of the glove. The rubber coating protects the glove and renders it waterproof at the points to which it is applied, and the sand assists materially in removing the husks from corn ; it also renders the glove more effective in grasping objects of any description. Worm Gear'ing. Hawkin's gear- ing, Fig. 2543, is a new modification of worm gearing. :== It has an arrangement for transmitting cir- cular motion in either direction. It is a plan in which the spiral worm is made of such a length that the edge of one roller does not cease contact until the edge of the next comes into contact ; a wheel carries four rollers which turn on studs, the latter being secured by cottars ; the axis of the worm is at right angles with that of the wheel. The edges of the rollers come near together, leaving sufficient space for the thread of the worm to fit between any two contiguous rollers. The pitch line of the screw thread forms an arc of a circle, whose center coincides with that of the wheel, therefore the thread will always bear fairly against the rollers ami maintain rolling contact therewith during the whole of the time each roller is in gear, and by turning the screw in either direction the wheel will rotate. Worm'ing. (Nautical.) Laying of yarn in the cant of a rope to bring it to a rounder surface before parceling or serving, which see. Worm'-thread Tool'-gage. A gage that furnishes a correct guide of form for tools used in turning the threads of worms, when the worm wheels have been cut to correspond. The figures on the gage represent the number of threads per inch of the worm. The slots in the gage are also of the proper depth for their respective threads. Wor'sted. (Fabric.) From Worsted, in Nor- folk, England. The wool-workers of that place adopted a comb in carding and a harder twist in spinning, which gave the name to its products. Wound Ex-plor'er. (Surgical.) An electric sound used in searching for bullets. The electric wound explorer of M. Trouve", of Paris, was presented to the Academy of France in 1867. Wo'ven Wire Belt'ing. Woven steel wire belting is claimed to transmit power v;ell, to oper- ate without lengthening, and to run smoothly be- cause there is no overlapping at any place. The spirals of wire are woven across the belting, so that three, four, or more spirnls form one link. The space between two links is, besides, filled up with a cross-piece, so that the closely woven netting of spiral \virc forms a baud of great strength and flex- ibility. It is faced and lined with rubber or leather. Wreck'ing Pump. The " Heald " steam pump, Fig. 2544, is for use in pump- ing out wrecked vessels. It is actuated by an oscillating engine of short stroke. The rolling valve within the valve- chamber on the cylinder is worked by au eccentric from the engine-shaft. The guides for relieving the strain mi the piston-rod project from the head of the cylinder, and im- partially concealed by the counter balance-wheels. There is a force-pump used for priming the main pump through the pipes. Itls operated by friction-wheels, connected nr disconnected by a lever. There are swiveled elbows i'nv suction and dis- charge, turning in any direction and detachable. There is a Fig. 2644. Wrecking Pump. device in the cross-head of the guides for taking up the slack occasioned by wear of the parts. There is also a bale, WRENCH. 957 XYLOPHONE. with tubular trunnions, in conjunction therewith for secur- ing a better connection of the steam-pipes with the engine. Wrench. A lever having jaws at one end adapted to catch around the head of a bolt, or around a nut to loosen or tighten the nut on the bolt. One jaw is often made adjustable. The " Alligator " has ratchet teeth cut diagonally across one jaw, thus enabling it to bite with three teeth at once. A single wrench will hold many sizes of nuts or bolts. Robinson's crank-wrench and bit-brace is a combination of the wrench, crank, and brace. It is intended in its crank movement to provide a wrench that will not require to be readjusted at each half-turn; a rotary wrench that turns without removal till the nut is advanced to its place. A> ;i brace it is clamped to the bit by the set-screw that drives the movable jaw a.nd holds the same. As a vise it is inverted and secured to the bench by a clamp. The "Baxter" wrench has adjustable sliding jaws that are connected by a set screw that contracts them to their embrace. The "Rogers" wrench is an elongated ring bar device, diverging to a larger capacity at one end so as to hold nuts of all sizes. A bevel rigidifying sleeve that clamps to the square of the nut, holds it while Vicing operated on. Wrench, Squire . . . * " Scientific Ain/rlrnii," xxxv. 51. Port *" Scientific Amer.," xxxiv. 131. Bedell * "Scimt'ific Amer.,"> xxxiv. 182 Bemis If Call ... * "Iron Age," xxi., June 27, p. 11. Rouse * " Iron Age," xxiii., June 26. p. 9. Phi/tips * "Scientific Amer." xxxix. 8. Automatic, Birch . . * "Scientific American,'' 1 xli. 278. Monkey, Johnson if Co. * "Iron Age," xxi., March 28, p. 11. Screw, Coex . . . . * " Iron Age," xxi., May 2, p. 25. Wrench Han'dle. A double-arm wrench for use with dies for cutting threads, and other pur- poses. Wri'ting. For restoring faded writing. Brush it over with a solution of ammonium sulphide. M. Von Hibra, in the '''Journal de C/iimie," describes a method of restoring the writing of old manuscripts and the colors of oil paintings which have tailed or become discol- ored by age. For the manuscripts, the writing is treated with recently prepared ammonium sulphide, and in the course of a few moments tile characters become distinctly visible. Any excess of the reagent must be removed by washing in cold water, and the manuscript is then dried, either by gentle heat or by means of blotting-paper. Should the characters fade again after this treatment, they should be submitted to the action of a solution of tannin. As it is only in far distant times that carbon writing fluids were used, and as nearly all the more recent manuscripts have been written in gallate ink, it may be said that M. Von Libra's method can be empkned with any writings. For the oil paintings, after having dusted them with a wash leather, they are washed with a sponge ami fresh water ; they are then covered with a solution of soap (the author recommends shaving-soap, probably that which is known in France as crcme de savon), which is wiped off with a brush after the lapse of from eight to ten minutes, and when the soap has been com- pletely removed the painting is allowed to dry. It is then rubbed with a soft linen cloth soaked in nitro-benziue, which restores the luster. Lastly, a little olive oil is passed over it, and it is varnished with a white varnish. Wri'ting Tel'e-graph. Cowper's writing tel- egraph, unlike previous autographic systems, does nor depend upon electro-chemical decomposition. A pencil is moved at the sending station, and at the receiving station a pen charged with ink de- scribes the same movements. The sending apparatus consists of a pencil under which a continuous band of paper is drawn by clockwork. Attached to the pencil are two light rods placed at right angles to one another. When the pencil is moved, the curves made in forming the various letters cause the ends of these rods to make a series of lateral and longitudinal movements. These ends of the rod pass over the ends of a bundle of brass plates, connected each with a resistance coil, so that their movements over them transmit to the distant station cur- rents of varying intensity. These are utilized at the receiv- ing station in the following manner: There are two strongly magnetized needles ou delicate bearings, forming movable cores in coils, which are placed between the poles of four permanent magnets. These magnetized needles are also placed at right angles to one another. Fastened to the point of each is a thread, and these two threads cross one another and are knotted together at the point of intersection. At this central point thy carry a tiny pen, consisting of a glass hair-like tube of syphon form, its upper end dipping into a little cistern of limpid analine ink. A traveling slip of paper passes slowly beneath this pen, and as it moves a straight line of ink is drawn upon it. But directly the operator at the sending station begins to write with his pen- cil, the varying currents thus caused, in the manner indica- ted, impart varying degrees of strength to the magnets sur- rounding the needles. The needles are consequently en- dowed with movements of greater or less amplitude. The crossed threads are pulled by the moving needles, and the curves of the written letters are reproduced by their com- bined action. By this machine the question of sending au- tographic messages, so important in many government and commercial affairs, has been solved in a simple and ingen- ious manner. X. Xan'the-ine. (Chemical.) A yellow substance soluble in water, which forms the coloring matter of some yellow flowers. Xan'thi-an. A kind of marble found near Xanthus in Asia Minor. Xan'thid. (Chemical.) A supposed compound of xanthogen with some basifiable or aciditiable element. Xan'thite. A mineral occurring in rounded grains and foliated masses, of a yellow color, and translucent, consisting chiefly of silica, alumina, lime, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, and mag- nesia. Xan'tho-core. A mineral of a dull red or bro\vni>h color, consisting chiefly <5f sulphur, ar- senic, and silver. Xan'tho-rite. A variety of allanite, of a yel- lowish color, and containing much water. Xe'bec. (Xniitirnl.) A small three masted vessel used in the Mediteranean Sea. With a fair wind in good weather) it carries two large square sails ; when close hauled it carries large lateen sails. Xy-lan'thrax. Wood-coal, or charcoal. So called in contradistinction from mineral coal. Xylite. (Mineral.) A mineral resembling xylotilc, of a brown color and asbestiform structure, and consisting chiefly of silica, sesquioxide of iron, lime, magnesia, and water. Xy'lo-phone. An instrument to determine the vibrative properties of woods and metals. M. Decharme experimented a short time ago on the musi- cal sounds given by metallic bars of different metals having the same dimensions. He has made similar experiments on different kinds of wood. Notwithstanding the diversity of the kinds of wood examined (38 species and 14 varieties) they were all found to give sounds comprised in the interval of an octave. The most grave sound is mi t , given by box ; the highest mi s . given by Northern fir. M. Decharme gives a list of the sounds emitted by different woods between the two extremes. The range of sounds from the metals ex- tended from 690 vibrations for lead to 2,762 vibrations for aluminum. Sounds from wood are comprised between those for brass, 1,303.62, and aluminum, 2,762. This is no doubt partly accounted for by the much less range of densities in woods than in metals. Still there are anomalies. Thus, the willow, which, after the poplar and certain firs, was the lightest of the woods experimented on, gives the same note ( so/ 4 ) as ebony, which is the heaviest after the tea and the palisander. It was difficult to appreciate the intensity and the duration of the sounds, but palisander, logwood, walnut, and acacia were in the front rank in this respect. (The dura- tions of the sounds did not exceed the fraction of a second 0.5 to 0.7, for the most sonorous palisander.) Northern fir and poplar had the clearest timber. Y. 958 YARN WINDER. Y. Y. Or fork, for holding boring bars by the square. See also CLAMP. A branching pipe having a bifurcation like the letter Y. See BRANCH. One of the forked pieces that support the pivots of a transit instrument, of the telescope, or the the- odolite, etc. Yarn As-sort'er. Fig. 2545 represents an ap- paratus for the assortment and graduation of yarns. Fig. 2645. Yarn Assorter. A skein is placed in the cup suspended from the rear arm of the pointer, when the number is imme- diately indicated on the graduated scale. Yarn Flpck'ing Ma-chine'. Le Jacquard gives a description of an apparatus which, though crude, is intended to produce a new effect in the appearance of certain yarns for fancy goods. The yarn to be manipulated, according to this plan, is passed through the apparatus before being doubled. One thread passes direct from a cop or bobbin, and the other through a trough containing water or a thin solution of size. The latter is then carried through a box, provided at its upper end with a hopper filled with particles of colored wool broken fiber from rag-ends, feathers, or any desirable sub- stances, which are allowed to fall through an opening at the bottom of the hopper, and upon a revolving fan-wheel which pulls it out and disperses it, throwing it upon the thread passing through the lower part of the box. In a modification of this arrangement a traveling apron Fig. 2546. Yarn Printing Ma-chine'. A machine for printing warps for tapestry carpets. Short's pa- tent, No. 168,932, Oct. 19, 1875. See TAPESTRY CARPET ; CARPET LOOM. Yarn Test'er. An instrument for testing the strength of yarn. See Fig. 2547. Fig. 2547. Fasten the foot a to the floor, and the legs d b to the wall, thus holding the machine firmly in a perpendicular position. Then with a yarn rest, wind from cop or bobbin one knot (or one seventh of a hank or skein) which equals l'2 yards. Carefully remove the knot from the reel and place" it upon the pins opposite, j* and h : then turn the crank i to the right until the yarn breaks. The index point d will then show the amount of stretch in inches and eighths, and the upper index c will also give the ex- act breaking weight in pounds avoirdupois. The machine, shown in Fig. 2548, has for its object the exposure of all unevenness in yarn. It consists of a black board turned by a strap and pulley from a handle, which latter also revolves a screw, upon which slides a prong-shaped guide for directing the yarn as it comes from the cop, bobbin, or hank. By the revolution of this screw the yarn is wound properly spaced upon the black board, and any unevenness may thus be readily detected, as well as all impurities in the same. The principle of testing the evenness of the yarn against black boards is not unknown to yarn agents and shippers, but this little apparatus seems to be very handy, and to have the advantage that these boards, with the yarn, may be put aside for ready reference when "re quired. Fig. 2548. Yarn Tester. Yarn Flocking Machine. runs under the threads, and carries any superfluous flocks Yarn Wash'ing Rol'lers. A machine with two cast-iron rollers turned perfectly true and smooth, working on wrong ht-iron spindles, carried on two cast-iron standards. The pressure is ob- tained by compound levers and with movable weights, so* as to vary the pressure as desired. All the bearings are of gun metal and bored. These machines are also fitted up for steam power, with stopping and starting gear. . Yarn Wind'er. Fig. 2549 is Campbell & Clutes' yarn winder for spinning machines. The yarn is condensed as it is wound on the cone of each bobbin by a glass faced cop-former which leaves the yarn smooth and perfect. Each sliding bobbin spindle is supported by a sliding journal-box which is at all times close or adjacent to the YARN WINDER. 959 ZINC COATING. Fig. 2549. Yarn Winder. base of u bobbin on the spindle so as to prevent the bobbin from shaking and beating upon the cop-former. Each sliding journal box, with the bobbin spindle and bobbin thereon, is pressed toward the cop- former with an ad- justable yielding force, by means of a weighted lever having the weight adjustable, so that any desired degree of conden- sation and solidity can be given to the yarn wound on the bobbin by simply setting the weight to a given point on the Jever. Y Branch. A branch with a divergent stem. Y Cross. A pipe with two divergent stems. Yoke. Twin hot and cold water .pipes that unite in their discharge, and which have stop cocks that regulate the temperature of the supply. (Wheelwright.) The over-lap tire bolt washer, used at the joints of the felloes. The arch on which the bell hangs and on whose pivots it swings. Yt'tri-a. ( Chemical. ) A fine white powder or earth without taste or smell, insoluble in water, and having no effect on vegetable blues. It is sup- posed to consist of the protoxide of yttrium. It was discovered by Professor Gadolin in 1794. Yt'tri-um. A very rare metal discovered in 1828 by Woehler. Its texture is scaly, its color grayish black, and its luster perfectly metallic. Yt'tro-ce'rite. (Min.) A mineral of a violet blue color inclined to gray and white, occurring very sparingly at Finbo and Brodbo, near Fahlun, embedded in quartz. It consists of lime, sexqui- oxide of cerium, yttria, and hydrofluoric acid. Yt'tro-tan'ta-lite. (Min.) Columbium and yttrium, found in Sweden. It is found of yellow, brown, and black colors. z. Zaf'fer. (Glass.) Fr. zqfi-e, zaffer, saffre ; Sp. zufore ; It. zaffera ; Ger. zaffer. Impure oxide of cobalt ; residuum of treatment of cobalt after im- purities are driven off by calcination. Used as blue color in glass-making. Z Crank. A form of crank especially adapted to use where the minimum of space is one of 'the most important items of consideration. The result is a very compact engine of long stroke, *.he height of the engine being little more than the diameter of the cylinders. In small launches the engine is placed under the smoke-box end of the boiler (locomotive), so that only the space necessary for the latter is required, the engine being in otherwise unused space, and its weight brought to the lowest position possible. Zinc Dec'o-ra-ting. A chemical process for covering zinc with colored coatings has lately been described by Dr. L. Stille. The articles of zinc are first brightened by scouring with quartz sand, moistened with dilute muriatic acid, putting them quickly in water and then carefully wiping them dry with white blotting paper. To insure success, however, it is necessary to employ zinc as free as possible from lead, and to have it as bright as a mirror. When these conditions are fulfilled the metal may be coated with a variety of beautiful colors by immersion in a solution of alkaline tartrate of cop- per for a shorter or longer interval of time, depending on the color that is desired. Zin'cite. A brittle translucent mineral of a deep red color, sometimes inclining to yellowish, consisting chiefly of oxide of zinc,, but containing also a small quantity of oxide of manganese. Called also red zinc ore and red oxide of zinc. Zinc Coat'ing. On brass or copper. The following simple process is recommended by Bottger : Boil a large excess of so-called zinc dust some time, with a concentrated solution of caustic soda, or potash, and place the copper or brass articles to be coated in the boiling liquid. By continuing the heating, after a few minutes a beautiful, mirror-like film of zinc will form upon them by the decom- position of the alkaline solution, in consequence of their electro-negative character in combination with the zinc. It ZINC COATING. 960 ZOOGYROSCOPE. is suggested that the process is applicable to the preparation of disks tor dry-piles, and also for forming a layer of tom- bac, by heating a copper article thus coated, carefully, to about 248 to 284 (best under olive oil), when the zinc will unite with the copper support to form a gold-tinted tombac, and the article need only be quickly cooled in water, or some other suitable liquid, us soon as the desired color is apparent. Zinc Me'thyl. A volatile liquid consisting of two equivalents of carbon, three of hydrogen, and one of zinc. It takes fire spontaneously on expo- sure to the atmosphere. Its vapors are very poi- sonous. Zin'co-graph'ic Cop'y-ing Fro'cess. In the Belgian "Bulletin du Miise't," M. Hunnot de- scribes the following new autographic process : The writing or drawing is made upon any kind of paper, which should, however, not be very thick. A special ink is used, composed of gum :trabic or gelatine f oz., water satu- rated with bichromate of potash, 1 quart, and sufficient In- dia ink to color the whole. The gum is first dissolved in the solution and the ink afterwards added. The preparation niu.-t be kept sheltered from the light, and when used a por- tion should be poured out in an inkstand of black glass. When the drawing is finished it is exposed to light, whereby the lines are rendered insoluble. A plate of zinc or a stone is then prepared and polished with emery, and the drawing is placed upon it face down- ward. Above the latter is laid a sheet of paper covered with gum arabic, and above this two or three sheets of dampened blotting paper. The whole is then pressed. The moisture in the blotting paper reaches the gummed paper, and the gum, dissolved, traverses the autographic paper and affects the zinc or stone everywhere except where the insoluble lines of the design have prevented its passage. A roller of greasy ink may then be passed over the plate, and the grease will adhere only to the lines which are not covered with moisture. Printing is then done in the usual way. Zin-cog'ra-phy. Engraving on zinc in the style of wood-cuts, as also in the use of the litho- grpphic stone, and taking impressions therefrom. In a paper lately read before the London Society of Art!-, by Mr. Thos. Bolas, F. 0. S., the following simple process in zincography is described : Zincography, he said, is similar to lithography, except, that a zinc plate is employed in the place of the lithographic stone. The so-called transfer paper is merely a moderately fine paper which has been brushed over, on one side, with a mucilaginous mixture, prepared 03' boiling together the following: Water, 1,0 '0 parts; starch, 100 parts ; gamboge, 6 parts ; glue, 1 part. This part is writ- ten upon with the ordinary commercial lithographic writing ink, which has been rubbed up with water like an artist's water-color. The writing being dry, it is necessary to moisten somewhat the back of the transfer by means" of a damp sponge ; after which it is laid face downward on a sheet of ordinary roofing zinc, which has been previously cleaned by means of emery cloth. Both being now passed together under the roller of a small press, the transfer adheres to the metal plate ; but on damping the back of the paper it be- comes easily removable, leaving the writing on the zinc. The face of the zinc plate is now gently rubbed over with mucilage of gum arable, which is all the better for being slightly sour, and the excess of gum having been sponged off, an india-rubber inking roller, charged with ordinary printer's ink, is passed over the still damp zinc plate a few times. The ink takes only on the lines of the transferred j writing, and it is now merely necessary to lay a sheet of | white paper on the plate and to pass both through the press to obtain an impression, an exact reproduction of the original writing. Any number of copies can be printed by repeating the operations of damping and inking. The zincographic pro- cess, thus simplified, is rapid, economical, and within the reach of every one. Maiepeyre . " Technologiste," xxxviii. 26. Zinc Col'or-iug. The " Technologists " gives the following process for per- manently coloring zinc. The metal must be quite pure, as must also the materials of which the following bath is com- posed : Tartrate de cuivre, 30 grains; potasse caustique, 40 grains ; eau distille'e, 400 grains. After being submitted for two minutes to the action of this bath, the zinc takes a violet tint ; after three minutes' immersion it becomes a deep blue ; in four and a half minutes, green ; in six and a half minutes, purple. The "Aleta/tarbeiter " gives the following recipe for giving bright colors to zinc : The objects to be colored are first thor- oughly brightened by rubbing with sand and moistening with hydrochloric acid, which is rapidly washed off with water. In order to be successful it is necessary to use zinc free from lead. The colors are produced according to neces- sity by dipping the object for a certain varying length of time in a solution of tartrate of copper and alkali. Zinc Pla'ting. As nickelizing is replacing silvering in some cases, so there are some where nickelizing may be itself replaced for many articles of small value, such as pins, particularly if they contain copper. The manipulation is very simple. Coarse rasped or granulated zinc is boiled for some time in a mix- ture of three parts by weight of sal-ammoniac and ten of water ; the objects are immersed and stirred with a zinc rod. The deposit is silvery bright, and resists mechanical action as well as a coating of nickel. The process can be recom- mended for goods which are meant for a second coating of some other metal, since any other is easily deposited upon zinc. Zinc Pow'der. A powder which is now considerably used in the arts, is said to be composed of zinc, 40 parts ; lead, 2.5 ; cadmium, 4 ; zinc oxide, 50 ; zinc carbonate, 2.5, with some traces of non-metallic dust. As a part of the cargo of vessels it is extremely dangerous and ought never to be stowed where it cannot be readily removed. When it is slightly moistened with water it becomes spontaneously inflammable. Zo'o-gy'ro-scope. A modification and am- plification of the zootrope, in which a series of suc- ceeding instantaneous photographs of an animal (a horse, for instance) in motion are placed on a cir- cular rotating glass, the photographs being alter- nately illuminated by an oxyhydrogen lantern as the glass turns, throwing a single continuous, yet ever changing, picture upon the screen. While the separate photographs had shown the successive positions of a trotting or running horse, in making a single stride, the zoogyroscope appar- ently throws upon the screen the living, moving animal. 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