REESE LIBRARY 
 
 1 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 IjeceiveJ ,190 . 
 
 Accession No. ^ 8 5& 70 . * Class No. 
 
 
m 
 
 m 
 
THE 
 
 RECLAMATION OF LAND FROM 
 TIDAL WATERS 
 
THE 
 
 RECLAMATION OF LAND 
 
 FROM TIDAL WATERS 
 
 A HANDBOOK FOR ENGINEERS 
 
 LANDED PROPRIETORS, AND OTHERS INTERESTED 
 IN WORKS OF RECLAMATION 
 
 BY 
 
 ALEXANDER BEAZELEY, M.lNST.C.E. 
 
 ilhtstr.ittans 
 
 LONDON 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON 
 
 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 
 1900 
 

 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE excellent little book by the late Mr. John Wiggins, 
 F.G.S., on "The Practice of Embanking Lands from the 
 Sea " the most important work in English dealing exclu- 
 sively with that subject, published since Dugdale wrote 
 being now out of print, it was in contemplation to 
 issue a new and revised edition. In view, however, of 
 the extensive alterations of the text needful in order to 
 bring it even fairly into line with present knowledge and 
 practice, the Publishers invited me to undertake the pre- 
 paration of a new work, which, while retaining such of 
 the matter in the former one as I might deem of permanent 
 value, should bring the subject thoroughly up to date and 
 be of a severely practical character. 
 
 Although there is in Mr. Wiggins's book some matter 
 that is unnecessary and some that has gone out of date, 
 it nevertheless contains a large amount needing only 
 revision to be useful at the present day; together with 
 much that could not be omitted in any work professing 
 to treat the subject thoroughly, and if not reproduced in 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 his own words would have to be disguised by paraphrase. 
 The reader will see for himself which of these alternatives 
 has been preferred. 
 
 With the two other conditions that is to say : bringing 
 the subject up to date, and treating it in a practical 
 manner I have to the best of my ability endeavoured to 
 comply. Should the endeavour prove to have been success- 
 ful, this will be due chiefly to the great kindness with which 
 my search for information has been seconded by those in 
 whose power it lay to do so. I am especially indebted to 
 the Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers for per- 
 mission to reproduce matter contained in their Minutes of 
 Proceedings, and to the Institution of Civil Engineers of 
 Ireland and the Surveyors' Institution for copies of their 
 Transactions most liberally furnished to me for the like 
 purpose. 
 
 It is a particular pleasure to here acknowledge also my 
 great indebtedness to the kindness of Mr. W. H. Wheeler, 
 M. Inst. C.E., for much information personally communi- 
 cated, as well as for large and unreservedly-sanctioned 
 drafts upon his published works on " The Fens of Lincoln- 
 shire," " Tidal Rivers," and " Drainage of Fens and Low 
 Lands," and his Papers on " Sea Coast Protection " in The 
 Engineer. 
 
 The final chapter, dealing with certain legal aspects of 
 the subject, and giving the substance of those sections of 
 Mr. Wiggins's book which treat of the parties to works of 
 reclamation, has been specially prepared for this volume by 
 the kindness of Mr. R. M. Johns, of the Middle Temple, 
 
PREFACE. Vii 
 
 to whom my best thanks are due for thus adding to the 
 practical and useful character of the work. 
 
 Foot-notes, as having a tendency to distract the attention 
 of a reader, have been omitted from the pages of the text, 
 and their subject-matter placed in the form of "Notes 
 and References " at the end of the volume. Should 
 these appear to any reader to be needlessly numerous, 
 I may observe that, the materials for the present work 
 being collected chiefly from statements of other writers, I 
 have endeavoured to indicate as far as possible in all cases 
 the source whence such information is derived. This 
 information I have supplemented where needful by 
 explanatory and additional matter, transferring to the Notes 
 some portions which, though useful in elucidation, would 
 but encumber the text. 
 
 HERNE BAY, 
 April 1900. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION 1 
 
 II. THE SITE 9 
 
 III. THE BANK . . . . . .27 
 
 IV. THE DRAINAGE 159 
 
 V. THE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR . . 207 
 
 VI. WARPING 223 
 
 VII. THE CULTIVATION 232 
 
 VIII. EXAMPLES, VALUES, AND RENTS . . 249 
 
 IX. LEGAL REQUIREMENTS : THE PARTIES 
 
 TO WORKS OF RECLAMATION 260 
 
 NOTES AND REFERENCES . . . .289 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 1 . DIAGRAM OF FORESHORE AND BANKS . . . .31 
 
 2. SECTION OF BANK ON DANISH COAST .... 49 
 
 3. DYKES ON THE ELBE AND AT PELWORM . . . .51 
 
 4. BANK ON SALT MARSH (A). BANK ABOVE HALF-TIDE 
 
 LEVEL (B) 55 
 
 5. SECTION OF BANK BELOW HALF-TIDE LEVEL ... 57 
 
 6. MR. WIGGINS'S DIAGRAM A . . . . .61 
 
 7. BREAK AND RUN OF WAVES : (A) ON A SLOPE; (B) ON A 
 
 SHORE 71 
 
 8. MATTRESS AND CRADLE CONSTRUCTION .... 73 
 
 9. FASCINE PROTECTION TO FOOT OF BANK . . . .81 
 
 10. CLOSURE WORK IN CREEKS 87 
 
 11. PLAN OF TRAINING-WORK FOR NEW CHANNEL IN A 
 
 TIDAL RIVER 134 
 
 12. SECTION OF CRADGE-BANK AND TRAINING-WALL FOR A 
 
 TIDAL RIVER 135 
 
 13. GROYNE WITH SHEET- PILING 146 
 
 14. GROYNE AT BALLYVOILE 149 
 
 15. LARGE TIDAL SLUICE : SECTIONAL ELEVATION . .174 
 
 1 6. Do. DO. : LONGITUDINAL SECTION . . 175 
 
 17. 18. Do. DO. : PLAN, AND DRAW-DOOR . .176 
 
Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 19. SMALL TIDAL SLUICE : PLAN . . . . . .179 
 
 20, 21. Do. DO. : ELEVATIONS .... 180, 181 
 
 22. Do. DO. : SECTION 182 
 
 23. ARCHIMEDEAN SCREW PUMP 190 
 
 24. 25. SCOOP WHEEL : PLAN AND SECTION . . . 193, 194 
 
 26. SCOOP WHEEL WITH SHUTTLE AND MOVABLE BREAST . 195 
 
 27. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP : TURBINE TYPE .... 200 
 
 28. BYCHAN BANK 251 
 
RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 INTR OD UCTION. 
 
 ATTACHMENT to precedent, and the desire of ascertaining 
 antecedents in a question of practice, happily touched upon 
 by Mr. John Scott Russell, V.P. Inst C.E., 1 by no means 
 confined to the case he puts that of English Engineers, 
 may be said to be characteristic of the people at large ; and 
 it is extremely probable that a person about to embark in 
 a scheme of Reclamation would wish to know, not only : 
 What has to be done ? and : What is the best way of doing 
 it ? but also : To what extent is it matter of accomplished 
 fact? 
 
 To furnish answers to two of these demands is the purpose 
 of the present work. It would be highly gratifying could a 
 reply be given to the third also ; and it is somewhat disap- 
 pointing to find, in connexion with a subject admittedly of 
 considerable importance, that no satisfactory answer seems 
 to be at present possible. If negative results of diligent 
 research and inquiry may be accepted as a criterion, it would 
 appear that no public or authentic record exists of the total 
 
 B 
 
2 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 area of tidal reclamation of land in the United Kingdom, 
 and that none is kept of annual additions to it. In view of 
 the elaborateness with which details relating to all branches 
 of national economy are nowadays collected and registered, 
 this item of statistics seems not unworthy of finding a place 
 among them. 
 
 That the total area must be something enormous appears 
 from the fact, that in the estuary of the Humber alone about 
 290 square miles have by degrees been enclosed ; while the 
 Fens of Lincolnshire are said to include an area of about 
 680,000 acres or upwards of a thousand square miles. 3 
 There is reason for believing that in Ireland, tidal reclama- 
 tions are more extensive than those made in recent years in 
 this country : in Scotland also they are not unimportant. 
 
 In designing the works for a Reclamation, it is an object 
 of prime importance to enclose the largest area of land with 
 a bank of the least length and the smallest average cross- 
 section ; and considerable diversity of opinion exists as to 
 the extent of land that should advisably be reclaimed at any 
 one operation. Mr. Wiggins lays it down as a general rule 
 that an intake of moderate size is much more manageable 
 and less expensive per acre than a large one, 3 and recom- 
 mends enclosure bit- wise : a matter that will presently be 
 noticed. Mr. J. H. Muller, on the other hand, considers 
 that in most cases large areas are the least expensive in the 
 end, " for," he observes, " if a small area is selected at first, 
 some portion of the original sea banks will be useless when 
 an increase becomes desirable." * Mr. G. P. Bidder, Past- 
 President Inst. C.E., "thought enclosure works of less than 
 800 acres, the area usual in Holstein, would not be remu- 
 nerative, and that from 1,200 acres to 1,500 acres was the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 utmost extent which ought to be undertaken at one time. 
 Beyond that area the difficulty of closing became almost 
 insurmountable." 5 It will be seen hereafter, that this 
 difficulty, though no despicable one, is far from being 
 necessarily the formidable affair it was at and prior to the 
 date of this utterance, when the old-fashioned mode of 
 closing from the side was more generally in vogue than the 
 then recently introduced and far preferable one of working 
 upwards from the bottom. It is perhaps to this latter 
 method that Mr. Muller, writing in 1862, refers in the 
 following passage : " When large areas at this [the half- 
 tide] level are to be reclaimed, it is sometimes considered 
 necessary, that the species of preparatory banks called 
 ' cradge banks ' should be previously carried out from the 
 shore, so that with less area, there may be a less extent of 
 water to contend with, during the construction of the sea 
 bank, but that practice is erroneous, as the difficulty in the 
 construction does not increase with the size of the area to 
 be reclaimed, but depends upon the relative width of the 
 openings left in the banks." 6 
 
 Another point upon which very various opinions have 
 been put forth, is that of the cost of a work of reclamation. 
 In 1867, it was stated that this should not exceed ^20 per 
 acre. 7 In 1876 it was estimated that it would probably 
 lie between the limits of ^10 and ^30. 9 Another estimate, 
 accompanied by some remarks indicating the conditions 
 governing the question, is as follows : " The cost of em- 
 banking must of course depend on the depth of the marsh as 
 compared with the length of the frontage, and special 
 circumstances arising from situation make the banks either 
 more or less costly. A fair average for an inclosure, with 
 banks 10 feet in height, and slopes varying from 5 to i in 
 
RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 the more exposed parts, to 3 to i where the bank is more 
 sheltered, on the sea side, and i J to i on the land side, 
 may be taken at 15 to 20 an acre, including the sluice 
 and other necessary works. In addition to this from ^3 
 to ^4 an acre will be required for levelling and ditching " 9 
 in all, about i 8 or ig to ^23 or ^24 per acre. 
 
 The following tabular statement, compiled from various 
 sources, 10 illustrates the foregoing questions. 
 
 
 
 Area. 
 
 Len^ 
 
 Proportion between 
 Area and Bank.. 
 
 
 Total Cost in terms of 
 Area and Bank. 
 
 
 
 
 Bank. 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cost. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Chains. 
 
 Area 
 Bank=i. 
 
 Bank 
 Area = i 
 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 Per Chain. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 A. 
 
 Lincolnshire . 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 1-50 
 
 '67 
 
 795 
 
 13 5 
 
 19 17 6 
 
 B. 
 C. 
 
 Bychan . . . 
 Lincolnshire . 
 
 70 
 
 100 
 
 8973 
 80 
 
 0-78 
 1-25 
 
 1-28 
 0'8o 
 
 4450 
 1469 
 
 63 II 5 
 14 13 10 
 
 49 II 10 
 18 7 3 
 
 D. 
 
 Do. 
 
 130 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4000 
 
 30 15 4 
 
 
 
 E. 
 
 Essex . . . 
 
 175 
 
 144 
 
 I'22 
 
 O'82 
 
 2100 
 
 12 O O 
 
 14 ii 8 
 
 F. 
 
 Lincolnshire . 
 
 310 
 
 164 
 
 I-8 9 
 
 0-53 
 
 7OOO 
 
 22 II 7 
 
 42 13 8 
 
 G. 
 
 Foulness . . 
 
 330 
 
 105 
 
 3-I4 
 
 0-32 
 
 1700 
 
 530 
 
 16 3 10 
 
 H. 
 
 Essex . . . 
 
 360 
 
 152 
 
 2'37 
 
 0'42 
 
 5650 
 
 15 13 II 
 
 37 3 5 
 
 I. 
 
 Rossbegh . . 
 
 400 
 
 47 
 
 8-51 
 
 O'I2 
 
 
 
 
 
 J- 
 
 Lincolnshire . 
 
 400 
 
 1 80 
 
 2'22 
 
 0'45 
 
 5574 
 
 13 18 8 
 
 30 19 4 
 
 K. 
 
 Do. 
 
 458 
 
 145 
 
 3'l6 
 
 0-32 
 
 8073 
 
 17 12 6 
 
 55 13 6 
 
 L. 
 
 Do. 
 
 699 
 
 105 
 
 6-66 
 
 0-15 
 
 5 2 50 
 
 7 10 3 
 
 50 o o 
 
 M. 
 
 Sunk Island . 
 
 700 
 
 275'77 
 
 2'54 
 
 0'39 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. 
 
 
 
 1000 
 
 60 
 
 16-67 
 
 o'o6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0. 
 
 Terrington . 
 
 1000 
 
 320 
 
 3'I2 
 
 0-32 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 Lincolnshire . 
 
 IOOO 
 
 
 
 
 
 12000 
 
 12 O O 
 
 
 
 Q- 
 
 Do. 
 
 1213 
 
 250 
 
 4-85 
 
 0'2I 
 
 19409 
 
 16 o o 
 
 77 12 9 
 
 R. 
 
 
 
 1700 
 
 320 
 
 5'3i 
 
 o'lg 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. 
 
 Wexford S. . 
 
 2410 
 
 i09'55 
 
 22'00 
 
 0-05 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T. 
 
 Do. N. . 
 
 2489 
 
 i55"9i 
 
 I5'96 
 
 0-06 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U. 
 
 Sutton Bridge 
 
 4000 
 
 262*70 
 
 I5-23 
 
 o - 07 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V. 
 
 Dengie Flats . 
 
 7000 
 
 720 
 
 972 
 
 O'lO 
 
 ~ 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 It is probable that in all the above cases, the cost given 
 is exclusive of parliamentary and legal, engineering, com- 
 pensation, and other contingent expenses, and of the price 
 of machinery where pumping is necessary : the cases that 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 admit of the calculation showing that the cost is reckoned 
 on the work alone. Those items, if added, would greatly 
 swell the total expense, but would probably not to any 
 material extent interfere with the relative proportion of the 
 cases among themselves, which is all we are concerned with 
 in the following considerations : 
 
 The average cost per acre of the whole of the above is 
 ;i8 1 6s. 6d. ; but for comparison on other points, those 
 cases only in which all the particulars are given, are avail- 
 able and as their average cost per acre is almost exactly 
 that of the whole, we can safely deal with the figures belong- 
 ing to them. Their mean is : acreage 380, ratio of area to 
 bank 2-64, cost per acre ;i8 75. 3d. 
 
 The mean of the four lowest in cost (A, E, G, L) is : 
 acreage 316, ratio of area to bank 3*13, cost per acre 
 
 9 9S. 7d. 
 
 That of the four highest (B, F, K, Q) is: acreage 513, 
 ratio of area to bank 2-67, cost per acre ^29 i8s. icd. 
 
 The lowest in cost (G) has a ratio of area to bank of 
 3*14, which is practically the mean of the four lowest ; and 
 the lowest but one (L) has the highest ratio of area to 
 bank, viz. 6-66 : while the highest in cost (B) has the lowest 
 ratio of area to bank, viz. 078. 
 
 Of course, in dealing with figures relating to matters of 
 this sort, wherein cost depends so greatly on the special 
 circumstances of each individual case, it is not legitimate to 
 attempt hard-and-fast conclusions. But it is not unlikely 
 that by many readers the foregoing results may be regarded 
 as lending some show of justice to the contention that 
 small areas are relatively less costly than large ones. 
 And there can be little or no doubt that the ratio borne by 
 area to bank does very materially influence expense a con- 
 
6 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 elusion indeed entirely accordant with what one feels to be 
 intrinsically probable. 
 
 Upon the question of bit-wise enclosure already men- 
 tioned, Mr. Wiggins observes : " A very important pre- 
 caution is to divide the intake into as many portions as 
 circumstances render convenient, making so many separate 
 intakes or levels, since an intake of moderate size is much more 
 manageable and less expensive per acre than a large one ; " 
 and again : " One great portion of the expense ... is 
 incurred by the necessity [he is here speaking of a certain 
 intake on the Nene] of what are called ' cradge-banks,' 
 which enclose portions of the space to be finally embanked. 
 . . . Other cradge-banks have been made, and are in- 
 tended to be made, for the double purpose of reducing the 
 area of tidal water to be contended against at one time 
 . . . and of raising the land; which latter operation 
 not only reduces the water in depth and force, but also 
 makes the land more valuable when embanked. The benefit 
 of these cradge-banks is thought to be so great, that 
 although they do in fact constitute many temporary intakes 
 in addition to one permanent embankment, yet the parties 
 are constructing as many of them as will ultimately reduce 
 the space from which the water is to be finally excluded, to 
 a few, say 500 acres, on the principle of lessening the 
 force of the reflux tide, at or about the critical period of 
 closing or shutting out the tide altogether." " 
 
 In the case of the River Dee Qompany's Reclamation, the 
 process followed was to construct a bank rising 9 feet 
 above the level of high-water, so as to confine the river to 
 the south side of the estuary. The tidal water, which was 
 admitted to flow freely between this bank and the north 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 coast, gradually deposited layer after layer of sand and silt, 
 and in fact shut itself out ; and as soon as the surface had 
 attained a sufficiently high level, a cross bank was con- 
 structed between the main bank and the north shore, and 
 thus a large area was bit by bit reclaimed. The reclaiming 
 banks were gradually strengthened, and pitched with stone 
 on the outer face ; and substantial self-acting sluices were 
 constructed, which close against the ingress of the rising 
 tide, but open when the tide has sufficiently fallen, allowing 
 the drainage water to escape from the reclaimed ground, 
 some of which is below high-water mark. 12 
 
 This subject will be treated somewhat more in detail when 
 dealing with the banking-out of streams intersecting an in- 
 take : in modified form the principle is applied to the pre- 
 vention of flooding caused by percolation and by casualties, 
 which so far as needful will be noticed in due course here- 
 after. The question of its preferableness to enclosure all at 
 once, is but one out of many which, as we shall frequently 
 have occasion to observe, do not admit of solution by any 
 hard-and-fast rule, but are determined by conditions of 
 the particular case contemplated. 
 
 . In the present volume, prices of work and materials are 
 not as a rule given : those for items of a special or unusual 
 description are occasionally stated, as a guide to persons 
 who may have to frame estimates for a work wherein these 
 come to be employed. Every care has been taken to bring 
 them as nearly as possible into agreement with rates at the 
 present time prevailing, chiefly on the East Coast It is 
 probable however, that even so they are but approximately 
 correct, and the figures are to be received with this caution 
 that prices occasionally vary : that they are not likely to 
 
8 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 be uniform even at the same period in all parts of the 
 kingdom; and that circumstances of locality will almost 
 certainly affect them in different parts of even the same 
 district. 
 
 No attempt whatever has been made to give an estimate 
 of the work as a whole. Mr. Wiggins, it is true, has made 
 one ; but of what value can it be accounted, seeing how 
 widely different must be the circumstances of every indi- 
 vidual case. A mean cross-section has to be assumed for 
 his bank ; and it is only by the rarest chance that the bank 
 required for a given work would agree with this mean nor, 
 even if it did so, can it be taken that other data would at all 
 agree with those assumed. Examination of the relative 
 proportion between area and bank in the foregoing Table : 
 the smallest amount of reflection upon the influence of 
 shape and configuration of the ground on position and 
 length of the drains, and of the amount of local and land 
 waters upon their dimensions in cross-section and their in- 
 clination : to say nothing of height of surface, range of 
 tides, and a score of other conditions will sufficiently show 
 how little reliance can be placed on any arbitrary estimate 
 as a guide to solution of the question of cost as a whole. 
 Of this truth another striking illustration will be found in 
 the extreme variance in the cost of sluices, and a further 
 one in that of the cost of pumping-stations. In fact, such 
 estimates are worse than worthless as a guide they actually 
 tend to mislead. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 THE SITE. 
 
 IN the course of discussion at the Institution of Civil 
 Engineers in 1862, on the Reclamation of Land from Seas 
 and Estuaries, it was well remarked that " as regarded the 
 general question, it was very difficult to separate the agri- 
 cultural from the Engineering branch of the subject. An 
 Engineer was generally called upon to report upon the 
 desirability of making the proposed inclosure, and some 
 part of his observations must necessarily have reference to 
 the value which the land would probably acquire by being 
 reclaimed. . . . There was a particular class of fine sandy 
 deposit, of a siliceous character, which might easily be 
 mistaken by inexperienced persons for mud, but upon 
 examination it would be found to contain so small a 
 portion of soluble matter as to render its enclosure a profit- 
 less speculation. This showed how desirable it was that 
 Engineers, who undertook this class of works, should 
 address their attention to the character of the soil they 
 were about to reclaim, because in some cases it might be 
 worth while to inclose a small area with expensive works, 
 while in others, however cheaply the works might be exe- 
 cuted, the land when reclaimed might prove comparatively 
 valueless." 13 Hence it appears that, in investigating the 
 eligibility of a site, the nature of the soil stands first among 
 the numerous points to be taken into consideration. The 
 most essential among theie are as follows : 
 
10 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 a) Soil, 
 
 b) Height with reference to tide-levels, 
 
 c) Slope and differences of level of the ground, 
 
 d) Intersection by streams &c., 
 <?) Shelter, 
 
 /) The foreshore and the foreland. 
 
 These points will now be considered seriatim. 
 
 a) Soil. The chief constituents of soils are : alumina, 
 clay, silica, lime, and organic matter ; alumina being the 
 pure earth of alum or oxide of aluminium, and clay a che- 
 mical compound of about 60 per cent, of silica and 40 per 
 cent, of alumina with a little oxide of iron, no siliceous or 
 sandy matter being separable mechanically or by washing 
 in water. The most familiar form in which silica occurs 
 is that of sand. Lime in soils occurs chiefly in the form of 
 carbonate and sulphate ; the former being by far the more 
 frequent and abundant and, in the form of broken and com- 
 minuted shells, constituting in many localities a large pro- 
 portion of the sand on the sea- shore, hence called calca- 
 reous sand. For agricultural purposes, soils are classified 
 in general as follows : 
 
 Pure clay, consisting of about 60 per cent, of silica and 
 40 per cent, of alumina and a little oxide of iron. No 
 siliceous sand subsides from it when diffused through 
 water. 
 
 Clay soil, consisting of pure clay and 5 to 20 per cent, of 
 siliceous sand, separable from it by washing in water. 
 
 Clay loam, from which 28 to 40 per cent, of sand is separ- 
 able by washing. 
 
 Loamy soil deposits from 40 to 70 per cent, of sand when 
 washed. 
 
THE SITE. II 
 
 Sandy loam, 70 to 90 per cent, of sand separable by 
 washing. 
 
 Sandy soil contains no more than 10 per cent, of clay. 
 
 Marly soil, in which the'proportion of lime is more than 
 5 but not more than 20 per cent, of the whole weight of the 
 dry soil. It is a sandy, loamy, or clay marl, according as 
 the proportion of clay it contains would place it under the 
 one or the other of the foregoing denominations, supposing 
 it to contain no lime or not more than 5 per cent. 
 
 Calcareous soil, in which the proportion of lime exceeds 
 20 per cent. It is a calcareous clay, loam, or sand, accord- 
 ing to the proportion of clay it contains. 
 
 Vegetable moulds are of various kinds, from garden mould 
 which contains 5 to 10 per cent, of its weight of organic 
 matter, to peaty soil containing from 60 to 70 per cent, (in 
 each case when dry). These soils are clayey, loamy, or 
 sandy, according to the predominant character of their 
 earthy constituents. 14 
 
 It is in the highest degree improbable that a Reclamation 
 of any considerable extent would be undertaken save on 
 favourable reports as to the soil from a chemical expert and 
 from practical agriculturists. In order, however, that the 
 Engineer may form for himself a preliminary idea on the 
 subject sufficient for purposes of classification, a good prac- 
 tical process of analysis given by Professor Johnston is 
 appended in the Notes. 15 Such an analysis cannot, how- 
 ever, be regarded save as preliminary and general. The 
 presence of even a small percentage of some substances is 
 known to be hurtful. Professor Johnston instances a soil 
 " taken from a field in which sainfoin died regularly in the 
 second or third year after it was planted. This was natur- 
 ally attributed to something in the subsoil. And by ... 
 
12 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 analysis ... it was found to contain much sulphuric acid 
 [i'4 per cent] in combination with oxide of iron, forming 
 sulphate of iron (green vitriol). This salt being noxious to 
 plants, began to act upon the crop of sainfoin as soon as 
 the roots had gone so deep as to draw sufficient supplies 
 from the subsoil, and it thus gradually poisoned them, so 
 that they died out in two or three years." 16 It has been 
 stated that on the Essex coast the surface is impregnated 
 and poisoned by something that comes from oysters. 17 A 
 much more minute analytical examination is therefore 
 needful, before a soil can be conclusively determined as 
 being worth reclamation. 
 
 On the other hand, it does not necessarily follow that a 
 soil is worthless because preliminary examination such as 
 that first mentioned shows it to contain an undue or even an 
 apparently excessive proportion of sand. A Danish official 
 authority 18 states that the land reclaimed from the shift- 
 ing sand (flyve sand) on the west coast of Schleswig gives 
 good crops of grain, and he attributes this fertility to the 
 fact of its intermixture with mica particles, which appear 
 as regularly in that sand as in the marsh clay. Again, Mr. 
 D. Stevenson, M. Inst. C. E., says : " The area reclaimed 
 from the estuary of the Dee, which is now fertile land, was 
 originally pure sandbank covered by all spring-tides, and 
 utterly unavailable for any useful agricultural purpose." 19 
 In some marshes at Morecambe Bay, portions of bare sea- 
 sand, which formerly were covered with the tide every day, 
 were scarified, sown with seeds, and liberally dressed with 
 bones and other manures, and soon became luxuriant pas- 
 tures carrying extraordinary numbers of sheep and cattle, 
 the former sometimes looking half overhead amongst the 
 clovers. 20 
 
THE SITE. 13 
 
 Mr. John Wiggins, 21 in treating of the eligibility of a 
 site for reclamation, says with reference to the question of 
 soil : " The best and earliest indication when a marine 
 soil has become fit to embank is the growth of samphire, 
 which demonstrates its stability and permanence of posi- 
 tion, and is the forerunner of the marine grasses, so healthy 
 for sheep, which are largely fed on the very extensive 
 saltings of Essex. . . . 
 
 "The best soil for an intake, therefore, is that clayey 
 earth whereon sufficient marine herbage grows to afford 
 sheep-feed of some value, and this will be above the level of 
 ordinary tides. 
 
 " The next best is silty earth, with sheep-feed like that 
 . . . found on the Lincolnshire coast. 
 
 " The third is mud-banks with samphire, over which the 
 spring tides always flow. 
 
 " The fourth is mud, over which the tide always flows 
 more or less, and this is eligible in proportion to its clayey 
 matter. 
 
 " The fifth is what is called sheer sand, which is almost 
 barren, except as to a few plants, such as the eringo, the 
 sand-rush, &c., but sometimes even this sand is rendered 
 to a certain degree fertile by the calcareous matter of com- 
 minuted shells, or may be rendered fertile by raising on its 
 surface the marly substance sometimes found beneath. 
 
 " A sixth class may be designated in those sandy and 
 shingly dunes, which continue for ages bare of vegetation; 
 and are only worth embanking on account of local value ; 
 and these must be deeply covered with mould to enable 
 them to grow anything. 
 
 "In our judgment on the all-important subject of soil, 
 we are not, however, to be misled by the black and stink- 
 
14 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 ing deposit of the sea amongst sandy particles, not to 
 mistake the mere decay of marine vegetation for inex- 
 haustible fertility or rich manure. Such matter soon dries 
 into a caput mortuum, and little but a white sand remains. 
 To secure permanent or high fertility, there must be suffi- 
 cient quantity of argillaceous matter to render the deposit 
 somewhat slippery under foot when in a moist state, and if 
 some shells are seen, so much the better. 
 
 " One may judge of what the sea-mud will come to when 
 laid dry, by observation of the neighbouring shores. If 
 they are argillaceous, so will be the soil of the intake ; if 
 siliceous, sand will predominate, since these mud-banks are 
 but the detritus of those shores altered by the sea and its 
 contents. 
 
 " Shells mixed in fragments, or in layers, are always a 
 good sign, and denote fertility. There are also often to be 
 found patches of calcareous clay amidst sandy shores, though 
 covered with siliceous matter, and by raising such upon the 
 surface the fertility may be greatly increased. 
 
 " It may also be well for an intake to include some acres 
 of beach or shingle, or gravel, as that material may prove 
 highly useful for making or repairing roads, &c., or even 
 for draining." 
 
 Some of the points mentioned in the above remarks, and 
 those cited on page 12 ante, sufficiently indicate the necessity 
 for an examination of the subsoil as well as the surface soil. 
 
 b) Height with reference to tide-levels. "This is 
 important for several reasons, but chiefly on account of its 
 drainage to seaward ; for ... unless there is height 
 enough above ordinary or medium low water to admit of 
 the sluices running from four to six hours between tide and 
 
THE SITE. 15 
 
 tide, no sufficient natural drainage can be obtained, and it 
 may be necessary to resort to the expensive means of steam 
 drainage, and even that may not be effective in all cases, i.t. 
 cases in which the land waters come down very suddenly. 
 
 " In Essex, no intake, as the embanked grounds are 
 there called, is ever attempted of ooze or mud overflowed 
 by every tide. It is only the saltings which are considered 
 fit subjects for that speculation, and these are only covered 
 by spring tides. The banks, or, as there termed, sea-walls, 
 are therefore on ground generally 5 or 6 feet above low- 
 water level, and the sea-walls seldom exceed 6 or 8 feet 
 in height above their seat. Still it is very possible to em- 
 bank and drain lower slobs than these, but the difficulties 
 are proportionate, and on the whole it must be concluded, 
 that any slob of less height than that which admits of four 
 to six hours' run, unless of extreme fertility to afford steam 
 drainage, is not eligible for embankment, as besides the 
 drainage, the lowness of the ground must be compensated 
 by additional height of bank, and the hazard, and the ex- 
 pense of security against that hazard, are thereby increased. 
 . . . There is also another point, in which the height 
 above tide is of consequence, viz. that in low cases the 
 soakage from sea to land is greatest, and the hazard of the 
 bank blowing up more imminent. Besides, low slobs have 
 seldom attained to those qualities of soil which are essential 
 to fertility, and which time alone can give. There is yet 
 another objection to low intakes, viz. that they contain so 
 much salt from the constant presence of the tide, that they 
 are a long time in becoming sufficiently freshened for culti- 
 vation, and that time is prolonged in proportion to the 
 tenacity of the soil." 2a 
 This view of the case receives support from the opinion 
 
1 6 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 expressed by Mr. D. Stevenson M : " My experience leads 
 me to conclude that it is in general inexpedient to attempt 
 to enclose land by permanent banks until, by gradual de- 
 posit and subsequent accumulation due to the decay of 
 vegetable matter, its surface has reached about the level of 
 high water of ordinary spring tides. I do not say it may 
 not be done before this level is reached, for land has, within 
 my own knowledge, been enclosed at a considerably lower 
 level on some parts of the Tay, where the marshes covered 
 by reeds in sheltered places were found to be fit for enclo- 
 sure, though covered to the extent of from 3 to 4 feet at 
 high water, and on the Forth still lower slob lands have 
 been enclosed." 
 
 While there can be no doubt as to the importance of 
 securing sufficient fall for drainage, and of attaching due 
 weight to the foregoing considerations as respects other 
 points : it is to be observed that restriction of a Reclamation 
 to the saltings or salt marshes at or above high-water level, 
 stated to be the invariable practice in Essex, is by no means 
 universal or even general elsewhere ; and that a lower seat 
 for the embankment may not only secure advantages out- 
 weighing the difficulties and objections above advanced, 
 but in many cases may be the sole means of taking-in 
 sufficient land to repay the cost of embanking at all. Thus, 
 to cite only one example out of many that might be ad- 
 duced : in some parts of the estuary of the Humber between 
 Sunk Island and Spurn Point, extensive tracts of " out- 
 strays " or (locally so-called) " growths " exist beyond the 
 banks, and are submerged only at average spring-tides. 
 These level tracts are covered with marine grasses, affording 
 exceedingly valuable feed for young horses and sheep in 
 the summer season. 24 
 
THE SITE. 17 
 
 Closely connected with the question of height, is that of 
 warping, a process whereby the level of a marsh or even of 
 a slob may be considerably raised. This involves matters 
 of construction not properly belonging to the subject im- 
 mediately in hand, and its consideration is deferred to a 
 subsequent chapter. It may here be remarked, however, 
 that a judgment upon the eligibility of a site in reference to 
 its height must not omit to take into account the facilities 
 it may present for being raised by warping. 
 
 c) Slope and differences of level of the ground. 
 Although this is a minor point, it should not be left out of 
 account in estimating the suitableness of a proposed site. 
 The surface of the ground should be somewhat, even if but 
 slightly, varied by more or less of water-sheds and channels, 
 so that rain-water may have free discharge into the lows or 
 fleets natural depressions usually occupying a consider- 
 able portion of the surface of marsh lands whence it is to 
 be led into the general system of drainage. A dead flat, even 
 when well provided with grips and drains, is apt to retain 
 the surface-water too long, to the prejudice of vegetation ; 
 and without some such natural advantage of surface, the 
 reclaimed area will be more expensive to drain and less 
 suitable for cultivation. 
 
 d} Intersection by Streams &c. A highly important 
 point for consideration is the intersection of the proposed 
 site by creeks and rills, and by streams or rivers discharging 
 inland waters. " In a mountainous country, or even such 
 a one as presents a considerable slope towards the sea, the 
 inland waters may be so considerable as to require great 
 expense in conducting them to sea, clear of the intake, 
 
 C 
 
1 8 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 by means of catchwater drains intercepting those upland 
 waters, and carrying them out to sea, independent of the 
 waters of the intake; viz. those of downfall upon it, or 
 springs rising within it : hence such intakes as have the 
 smallest quantity of upland waters to provide for, are the 
 most eligible subjects." 25 
 
 Creeks and rills follow the lines of natural drainage of 
 the site in its normal or unimproved state, and frequently 
 afford valuable indications of the existence and position of 
 land-springs within it. Beyond useful information on these 
 points, their chief if not sole importance consists in the 
 difficulty and expense they may involve in the carrying of 
 the bank across them, their bed being occasionally deep and 
 of a treacherous softness. This will be more fully dealt with 
 when treating of the Bank. 
 
 Streams and rivers discharging inland waters present for 
 consideration matters of a very different character. Their 
 catchment-basin needs to be carefully studied, since its 
 area, configuration, soil, slopes and surface, rainfall, and 
 other physiographical features affecting as they do the 
 nature and amount of solid matter brought down by its 
 water-courses, and the volume of water in ordinary flow and 
 in floods for whose conduction through and discharge from 
 the reclaimed area provision will have to be made have 
 an important bearing upon the value of the site and the 
 works needful for its reclamation. " The drainage area in 
 one situation, for example, may include large tracts of hill 
 country, having steep and scantily soiled slopes, from which 
 the rain is readily discharged. In other places the surface 
 may be flat, or gently rising deeply soiled land, absorbing 
 much of the rain that falls, and giving it off only by slow 
 degrees. The discharge of other districts, again, may be 
 
THE SITE. IQ 
 
 much influenced by their geological formation and the 
 absorbing power of the underlying strata. Agricultural 
 improvements, also, exert an important influence on the 
 drainage of land, large tracts of sheep grazing pasture, for 
 example, being less absorbent than an equal area of well- 
 drained arable land." 26 
 
 The solid matter brought down by streams varies accord- 
 ing to the soil and condition of the areas they drain, and 
 nothing save careful examination can determine either its 
 nature or its amount. Should it be found to consist of soil 
 fertile in itself or suitable for admixture with the soil already 
 on the site, it may in many cases be turned to profitable 
 account by warping. Where, on the other hand, large 
 quantities of infertile gravelly detritus are deposited by a 
 stream on the proposed site, it is an unfavourable token ; 
 not alone as regards any prospect of advantage to be 
 derived from it if warped, but also because the course of 
 such a stream when embanked for conduction through the 
 reclaimed area may be " apt to fill up with gravelly debris, 
 and either to overtop or burst the banks, thus causing 
 floods at least, if not invasions of fertile lands by a covering 
 of infertile soil." 27 To endeavour to provide against this 
 by widening the opening between the confining banks 
 would not only tend to augment the mischief by reducing 
 the velocity of the current and thus encouraging the deposit 
 of obstructive matter, but would mean reduction of the 
 reclaimed area available for cultivation. The remedy lies 
 rather in contracting the channel, and this involves an 
 increase in the height of the confining banks and additional 
 expense in their construction. 
 
 The relation of rainfall to outflow is a question compli- 
 cated by so great a variety of circumstances and local con- 
 
20 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 ditions, that notwithstanding the amount of painstaking 
 observation and calculation bestowed upon it, its solution 
 by any method of universal application has not yet been 
 arrived-at ; and save some general average results and 
 roughly approximate rules nothing can be regarded as de- 
 termined. Fifty years ago it was said to be assumed by 
 scientific men that the proportion of outflow to rainfall 
 was as i to 3. 28 From observations made in 1867 by 
 Captain E. R. James, R.E., on the River Wey, he con- 
 cluded that the proportion of outflow to rainfall might be 
 roughly estimated as 4 to TO. Certain observations made 
 by him in another locality gave, indeed, very different 
 results, but these seem to be satisfactorily accounted for. 29 
 In course of discussion on two elaborate papers read before 
 the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1876, Mr. C. Greaves, 
 M. Inst. C.E., considered the proportion of the ordinary 
 discharge of a river might be taken to be one-sixth, and ot 
 a river in flood one-tenth, of the rainfall. 30 Mr. L. F. 
 Vernon-Harcourt, M. Inst. C.E., after giving a summary 
 of observations on several European rivers, proceeds : 
 " It appears from these observations, that the ... propor- 
 tion of the rainfall that actually reaches a river may vary 
 from 75 per cent, on impermeable strata, down to 15 per 
 cent, on very permeable soils. These proportions, how- 
 ever, are merely yearly averages, and would be much less 
 in the warm season, and greater in the cold season." 31 At 
 the same time, however, it should be borne in mind that 
 " perhaps the only general result to be gathered from the 
 published observations relative to floods, is, that the flood 
 discharge has a higher ratio to the ordinary discharge in 
 small, than in large rivers. This is due very much to the 
 fact, that in a small river a rainfall affects every one of its 
 
THE SITE. 21 
 
 feeders, whereas, in a larger river, the influence of the rain 
 is [perhaps] limited to one portion of the district only." n 
 Taking into consideration all the circumstances, it is advisable 
 to leave too great rather than too small a margin of safety, 
 by providing for the passage of a maximum outflow : facing 
 a known definite outlay in construction in the first instance 
 in preference to risking the disastrous consequences of mis- 
 calculation in the matter. " Taking the rainfall in the Fen 
 district as a guide, it may be estimated that provision should 
 be made for a daily rainfall equal to about '0076 of the 
 average annual rainfall of wet seasons." M 
 
 Finally it may be observed that investigation into the 
 level of maximum and ordinary floods, by their vestiges if 
 any such remain, or by authentic information concerning 
 them, will usually prove more reliable than a theoretical 
 estimate, and should in every case when possible be used 
 in preference to the latter. 
 
 e) Shelter. " Another point of eligibility is the degree 
 of shelter from prevailing winds which the position of a bank 
 may afford, and consequently protection from seas driven up 
 by those winds. This point is important, inasmuch as with 
 a long sea-reach having full play against a sea-bank which 
 stands broadside to the prevailing winds, it is so continually 
 flogged and battered by the waves, that nothing but an 
 expense disproportioned to the benefits can sustain the 
 banks. It therefore becomes necessary to look carefully 
 to this point of shelter, as one of eligibility, and for some 
 headland or some rock, some spit of land or bank of sand, 
 which may either act as a shelter from the winds, or as a 
 breakwater from the heavy seas, since the more sheltered 
 and land locked is the site of any intake, the more eligible 
 
22 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 and secure will be its position, the more valuable its 
 property, and the less expensive the maintenance of the sea- 
 defences ; and moreover it is in such situations, as in bays, 
 coves, and inlets, that the richest and best diluvial and 
 alluvial deposits of soil are most usually found." M 
 
 f) The Foreshore and the Foreland. The words 
 "foreshore" and "foreland" being sometimes employed 
 without due regard to the distinction existing between them, 
 it is proper to note that in the present text (save in quo- 
 tations) " foreshore " is used to denote the whole stretch 
 of ground from average high-water mark to lowest water 
 mark, and " foreland " that lying between the outer foot of 
 the embankment and the lowest water mark. 
 
 The foreshore of an intended site will in general be 
 found to consist of the following four kinds of ground, in 
 descending order : the salt marsh, on clay or clayey soil, 
 lying usually at a level above high-water mark of spring- 
 tides, and seldom so low as to be overflowed save on ex- 
 ceptional occasions : salts, saltings, samphire-ground, slob, 
 or slake, as is variously termed the mud or rich alluvial 
 matter overflowed at high-water of neap-tides and extending 
 to about half-tide level : sea-sand more or less hard and 
 firm : and, at or about low-water mark, quicksand or sand 
 closely resembling it. These do not always occur together 
 on a given foreshore, but two or more of them may usually 
 be expected to be found at any site likely to promise well 
 for reclamation. 
 
 The matter of most importance in a foreshore as affecting 
 the eligibility of a proposed site, is its fitness as a foundation 
 for the bank. Mr. J. H. Muller points this out as follows: 
 " Experience has shown, that if the banks cannot be con- 
 
THE SITE. 23 
 
 structed entirely on the salt marsh, it is preferable to go 
 to half-tide level. Banks entirely on the salt marsh are the 
 easiest to construct, and the strongest that can be made. 
 Those on samphire ground and mud are the most difficult. 
 During their construction, slips are of constant occurrence, 
 the use of waggons and horses is impossible, and a large 
 proportion of the material is washed away, as it is deposited, 
 and before the bank is consolidated and raised above high- 
 water mark. In fact, for waste, settling, and contingencies, 
 from 60 per cent, to 100 per cent, of the original quantity 
 must be calculated upon as necessary. If a storm occurs 
 during the progress of the works, the slopes cannot be pro- 
 tected ; and indeed, a bank constructed on such a bottom, 
 is always unsafe. When the line of the embankment is 
 laid at the half-tide level, or about the limit of vegetation, 
 and on hard sand, it is possible to make the whole of the 
 reclaimed land fit for cultivation, and this mode of effecting 
 the inclosure need not cost more, and is safer, than when 
 the higher, but softer bottom is adopted as the seat of 
 the bank." 35 See diagram, Fig. i. At Malahide near 
 Dublin, the estimated quantity of earthwork in an embank- 
 ment was 88,000 cubic yards ; but owing to the sinking 
 of the bank its weight displacing and forcing up the 
 slob, the actual quantity required was 180,000 cubic 
 yards. 36 
 
 Not only the supporting power of the foreshore has to 
 be considered, but also its permeability: percolation of 
 water under the bank being a serious danger to its stability. 
 "All natural soils are more or less porous and transmit 
 water pretty freely ; but some still retain their quasi-fibrous 
 texture, and have their tenacity not impaired, or at least 
 destroyed, by being infiltrated. Others become entirely 
 
24 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 disintegrated, and some almost lose their solid quality and 
 run like a liquid. In consequence of their porosity, 
 natural soils adjacent to water-courses become saturated 
 to a long distance and nearly to the very level of the water 
 itself. ... If the natural soil be porous to a high degree, 
 there will be leakage under the embankment to an extent 
 which may be very inconvenient and even extremely dan- 
 gerous. ... It is sometimes enormous in quantity. If the 
 soil be of a fibrous and tenacious kind, so that a certain 
 continuity and coherency are preserved even in a moist or 
 wet state, the evil will probably be confined to mere leakage, 
 which will be embarrassing or damaging in proportion to 
 its quantity, its duration and the means of getting rid of it 
 by drainage. But if the soil be composed of loose and in- 
 dependent particles of small size, it may become exceed- 
 ingly unstable and even mobile when saturated with water. 
 A fibrous or honeycombed soil, though never so porous, 
 yet presents, as it were, a network of capillary tubes, which 
 afford a strong frictional resistance to the flow of water and 
 diminish the hydraulic head by so much. But earths of the 
 second kind permit their particles to be perfectly enveloped 
 by the liquid and held in suspension by it, in proportion to 
 their smallness and lightness, perhaps also to the cohesive 
 union between the water and the particles, which is different 
 in different earths. Hence result -a variety of treacherous 
 and semi-fluid soils, commonly classified together as ' quick- 
 sands,' which instead of remaining in place and resisting 
 the passage of water, are actually carried by it and are, as 
 it were, incorporated with it. It follows that such soils 
 will transmit the pressure of the external water with com- 
 paratively small loss. It is evident that if the water stand 
 very high against the embankment, the pressure transmitted 
 
THE SITE. 25 
 
 under the bank will be exerted upon the layer of strong 
 soil, if such there be, overlying the [so-called] quicksand, 
 and if this be thin, will ' blow it up,' as it is called, thus 
 knocking the foundation from under the dyke or levee. . . . 
 This is no chimerical or merely speculative danger, but a 
 very real and threatening one. ... In Holland, extra- 
 ordinary precautions are taken against it." " 
 
 The foreshore generally, and especially the part intended 
 to be the seat of the bank, should therefore be carefully 
 examined, as to its subsoil as well as its surface material, 
 by trial pits and borings. The mode of dealing with defects 
 in respect of bearing-power and permeability, will be con- 
 sidered when treating of the Bank. 
 
 The foreland plays so conspicuous a part in protecting 
 the Reclamation, and so much the better does it serve that 
 purpose the wider and higher it is, that consideration of 
 advantage to be thus obtained may to a large extent influ- 
 ence a decision as to whereabouts to place the seat of the 
 bank. Mr. J. Wiggins 38 lays great stress upon it. "There 
 is," he says, " certainly no feature appertaining to a sea- 
 bank of greater importance than this, since it acts as the 
 advanced guard to the bank itself, receives the first 
 shocks of the sea, and deadens its force upon the bank, 
 by decreasing the depth and bulk of the wave. The 
 broader, therefore, the foreland, and the higher above 
 low-water mark, the greater its protection to the bank. 
 ... It will certainly answer the purpose of the boldest 
 undertaker, to leave at least one hundred yards in breadth 
 outside his intake." And though, owing to his practice 
 having lain chiefly in the Eastern Counties, he was doubt- 
 less prepossessed in favour of the Essex practice of keeping 
 
26 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 the bank as far back as possible (ante, p. 15), and was con- 
 tent to sacrifice some of the area of reclamation for the sake 
 of safety, yet even among the advocates of bolder under- 
 takings the desirableness of width and height in a foreland 
 is emphatically recognised. " Of course the best protection 
 which can be afforded to the foot of the dyke, is a good 
 foreland lying on its seaward side, and the probability of 
 damage decreases with the height of this foreland. Where, 
 however, there is deep water, this cannot be obtained, and 
 the breaking of the waves is not only increased, but the 
 dyke is exposed for a longer period to their operation. 
 Everything which can tend towards the increase of foreland 
 seems to be adopted as the surest course ; such as groynes, 
 coverings of straw and brushwood, &c." 39 
 
 No rule, however, can be laid down for determination of 
 the extent to be given to this most useful feature. Its 
 value and importance once recognised, the rest must 
 depend upon local conditions and the circumstances and 
 requirements of each particular case. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 THE BANK. 
 
 THE subject of the Bank or Dyke, i.e. the mound whereby 
 the sea is excluded from the area to be reclaimed, may be 
 divided under the following heads, viz : 
 
 a) Location, 
 
 b) Materials, 
 
 c) Form and Dimensions, 
 
 d) Construction, 
 
 e) Closing, 
 
 /) Permanent Facing, 
 g) Streams and Cradge-banks, 
 
 h) Groynes and other Protective Outworks; and these 
 in their order will now be considered. 
 
 a) Location. The location of the bank depends upon 
 circumstances such as : the nature of the foreshore, the 
 amount of shelter afforded by the configuration of the coast 
 and by shoals or sandbanks, the quarter whence come the 
 prevailing winds and the heaviest seas, the direction and 
 force of currents, &c. conditions varying with each par- 
 ticular case. It is also affected by considerations respecting 
 the proportion borne by the area desired to be reclaimed to 
 the amount of embankment needed for its enclosure : it 
 may, for example, be prudent to keep the bank well back 
 in a position of safety and expend little on its construction, 
 in the case of an area of small extent or one promising only 
 
28 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 a small return upon the cost ; while on the other hand an 
 area, worth enclosing by a bank of moderate extent and 
 cost, may be capable of being so greatly augmented by bold 
 treatment as to warrant the construction of a highly expen- 
 sive one : circumstances alone can decide the question. 
 Another point to be considered is the amount of inland 
 waters other than those whose outflow is by a river or 
 stream separately embanked and having a special channel 
 to the sea independent of the drainage- sluices. This point 
 will be dealt-with in detail when we come to treat of 
 Drainage : its bearing upon the location of the bank con- 
 sists in this that the greater the amount of outflow to be 
 provided for, the higher above low-water mark must the 
 bank be placed, unless the number or the discharge-capacity 
 of the sluices be increased, or power- drainage resorted to. 
 Upon some points relating to location of the bank there is, 
 as will presently be seen, divergence of opinion. But there 
 exists a general agreement as regards the placing of its seat 
 at such a height above low-water level as to allow sufficient 
 time for natural drainage of the enclosed area ; the alterna- 
 tive being a necessity for the employment of power-drainage 
 or the proportional increase in number or dimension of the 
 sluices. " Banks on a lower level than that of the half-tide 
 mark, are not advisable, on account of the shifting nature 
 of the bottom which is ordinarily met with, and the large 
 openings, and low levels, which are required for the outfall 
 sluices." 40 "The bank, therefore, must be placed suffi- 
 ciently above the tide at ordinary low water to admit of the 
 sluices remaining open as nearly six hours as possible, and in 
 general for four hours at least. If placed at low-water mark, 
 the return tide would evidently shut the sluice valve, or 
 door, almost as soon as it was opened by the tide receding, 
 
THE BANK. 2Q 
 
 although so long as the weight of water inside the sluice is 
 greater than that outside of it, so long will the sluice remain 
 open. When placed so low, however, the run is stopped 
 whenever the tide does not recede so much as usual, which 
 often happens when the wind keeps up the water, and also 
 in neaps. Therefore the sluice must be placed, as nearly 
 as circumstances will admit, so far above the low water of 
 spring tides as will allow it to have six hours' run between 
 tide and tide, beginning to run at half-tide of ebb, and con- 
 tinuing to half-tide of flood. But the sill of the sluice 
 should be at least 2 feet below the level of the land, there- 
 fore the proper height of the foot of the bank above low- . 
 water mark is 4 feet at least Most speculators will, how- 
 ever, carry their line of bank to within 2 feet of the low- 
 water level ; but this is imprudent and injudicious, as the 
 greatest fault of an intake is being too low with reference to 
 the tide, and the more especially when it is flat as well 
 as low, in which case its drainage is difficult and expen- 
 sive, and, however good the soil, its cultivation must be 
 imperfect without the expense of machine drainage, in 
 addition to what natural drainage can be obtained. We 
 conclude, therefore, that the most eligible situation for a 
 bank is such as will allow of about 2 feet from the sill 
 of the sluice to dead low water, that sill being placed 
 2 feet below the general level of the land, i.e. the land 
 being 4 feet above low-water level ; but this must depend 
 on many circumstances, amongst which the quantity of 
 water intended to stand inside the intake, or what is 
 usually termed ' the fleet,' must be taken into the account ; 
 and if all cannot be drained, it will be important to deter- 
 mine how much beforehand, and to place the bank accord- 
 ingly. Thus, for instance, should the proposed intake 
 
30 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 consist of 1,000 acres, and should the chief part, say 700 
 acres, of its surface, be 4 feet above the dead low water, 
 it would be sufficient; although 200 acres more might not 
 be above 3 feet higher than low water, and even 100 
 acres either not above i foot higher, or never ebbing 
 dry, since these lower levels may either remain as fleets 
 (lakes), or, if worth while, be drained by steam." 41 
 
 Of course, at a site where the rise of tide exceeds 8 feet, 
 ,the heights above mentioned would place the seat of the 
 bank below half- tide level, which would be not in accord- 
 ance with the recommendation quoted at page 28 ; but in 
 both cases the statements should be understood as ex- 
 pressing and illustrating a well-defined general principle 
 rather than a hard-and-fast rule. 
 
 Fig. i is an imaginary cross-section of a foreshore, show- 
 ing the general succession of the various soils and the 
 several positions of a bank at different heights above low- 
 water. 
 
 The limit of size of intakes, and their proportion to the 
 bank needful for their enclosure, were dealt- with in the 
 Introduction; and what was there stated will serve as a 
 general guide on that head. 
 
 As regards the line and direction on plan of the bank 
 with reference to prevailing winds, the run of the heaviest 
 seas, and the flow of currents, there is much diversity of 
 opinion. The distinguished Dutch authority Caland, is 
 cited in favour of a line with as few salient angles as pos- 
 sible, set somewhat aslant to the run of the sea ; and he 
 nowhere appears to contemplate the construction of banks 
 having concave curves or retiring angles. Where salient 
 
THE BANK. 
 
 angles on plan 
 cannot be wholly 
 avoided, the 
 several straight 
 lines of the plan 
 should be joined 
 by a curved 
 sweep ; rectan- 
 gular corners, as 
 he points out, 
 being always 
 dangerous points 
 of attack for 
 waves and cur- 
 rents. 42 
 
 Mr. J. Wig- 
 gins takes a 
 somewhat differ- 
 ent view of the 
 matter. " The 
 best line of direc- 
 tion is not one 
 at right angles 
 with the prevail- 
 ing winds and 
 seas, but one 
 rather in the 
 same direction 
 as these, not a 
 straight line, but 
 one affording 
 such curves as 
 
 i 
 
 MWW;-: 
 
 iP^IfwiM^ 
 
 life 
 IB 
 
 W$jwm 
 
32 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 that the salient angles may protect the retiring lines, 
 not actually zig-zag, but with projecting elbows here and 
 there, so placed as to embay the spaces between them. 
 The benefits of these projections are considerable. They 
 shelter, under some circumstances of wind and tide, 
 very extensive reaches of bank to leeward of them, and 
 in other cases they break and divert waves that would 
 otherwise rake the bank for miles. They act as jetties 
 also, and tend to accelerate, if they do not actually cause, 
 the accumulation of silt and mud in the bight to lee- 
 ward of them, and so not only strengthen the bank, but 
 also prepare for another embankment outside of the first. 
 Care must however be taken to enable these advanced 
 guards to sustain the rudest shocks of the ocean, and, with 
 this view, they must be well covered with stone over the 
 whole of their height above tide. The position and dis- 
 tance of these points must depend on the general form of 
 the shore and on the form of the line chosen for the em- 
 bankment, but it would be. well to place them upon any 
 rocky or gravelly points that may exist on, or near, the line, 
 or even any little mounds that may occur on the line, if of 
 sound materials, but also so as to present one of their pro- 
 jecting sides to the most prevalent wind and sea, and so 
 that it may throw off to seaward any wave striking that side. 
 The distance of such points may be from one to two fur- 
 longs, and in the case of bays between, they may be more 
 distant, even to a mile. The bank in the intermediate 
 spaces between these points had better be rather curved 
 than straight, and the curves had better be rather inward 
 towards the land than outward towaids the sea, because 
 the power of the wave will be diminished by the inlet or 
 bay thus made, and it will have a tendency to fill up and 
 
THE BANK. 33 
 
 strengthen . the bank. In choosing a site for a sea-bank, 
 care should also be taken to avoid those spots which are 
 exposed to any great current or rush of tidal or land-flood 
 waters against the bank, since the force of such waters may 
 be so great as inevitably to overcome the resistance of 
 almost any bank. In estuaries or inlets where the entrance 
 is wide but suddenly narrows, these currents are often very 
 strong, the tide comes up with an ' eager ' or ' bore ' as it 
 is variously called, i.e. a wave of several feet in height, 
 as in the Severn for instance, which scarcely any bank 
 could receive ' full on ' without destruction, although it 
 might pass innoxious from end to end along the line of 
 bank. Sometimes also, the most tempting land-locked 
 situations are liable to this objection, and where it seems 
 only requisite to join two opposite projecting points by a 
 bank, in order to gain a large extent of land, and yet such 
 a bank may be almost impracticable by reason of the 
 strong current with which the tide sets in against it. On 
 the other hand, there may be very eligible situations for a 
 sea-bank, even in such estuaries as are filled by a rapid 
 tidal current, because there are often in such estuaries pro- 
 jecting points of land which break the force of the current, 
 and in the bight of which the tidal rise is almost tranquil." 
 Mr. J. H. Muller's opinion differs considerably in some 
 respects from those above given. "The principal object to 
 be kept in view, is to inclose the largest area, with a bank 
 of the least length, and the smallest average cross section. 
 These points are regulated by the direction of the outer 
 portion of the embankment, or sea-bank. It is sometimes 
 recommended that it should be, as nearly as possible, 
 parallel with the current, and at an acute angle to the pre- 
 vailing winds. But experience seems to show, that where 
 
 D 
 
34 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 creeks do not interfere, a different system is preferable. 
 When the embankment is placed at an acute angle to the 
 prevailing winds, the force of the wave acts on a greater 
 length of bank, without much diminishing its intensity. A 
 current which runs parallel to a bank, also occasions a 
 chafing similar to that which is produced by the action of a 
 stream on the sides of a river. . . . It is best to con- 
 struct one side of the embankments boldly exposed to the 
 full force of the gales, so that the sea bank will shelter, or 
 protect the other two sides. By this arrangement, a less 
 extent of bank requires supervision during gales, and in 
 executing the work, if the sea bank is first made, the other 
 two sides can be finished in comparative security. A direc- 
 tion, at right angles to that of the current, also possessed 
 advantages, on account of the small extent of bank which is 
 acted upon by the current, and the eddy which is produced 
 occasions an accumulation which forms a protection, through- 
 out a considerable length of the bank. Indeed, the direction 
 of the original currents are generally so much changed, by 
 the altered outline of the foreshore, that in most cases it is 
 only necessary to take the current into consideration with 
 regard to the difficulty of constructing the bank, but not 
 with regard to its maintenance." u 
 
 In the case of an embankment on the River Crouch, in 
 Essex, the sea is said to wash the bank in a peculiar way, 
 coming from the German Ocean with a sort of cutting side- 
 wave that probably has a more wearing effect than if it 
 came directly upon it. 45 
 
 It is not easy to determine a question respecting which 
 so great a diversity of opinion exists. The probability is 
 that the several writers had in view examples wherein the 
 conditions differed widely: it is self-evident that what 
 
THE BAXK. 35 
 
 might be perfectly efficient in one case might fail in another. 
 Whether the bank should squarely present a bold front to 
 the sea, or one retiring at a greater or less angle, depends 
 upon the gradual or rapid deepening of the sea-bed beyond 
 low-water mark, the steepness or flatness of the foreland, 
 the materials of which the bank is constructed, and the 
 force of the tidal currents at different levels of the tide, 
 quite as much as upon the existence of shoals or rocks that 
 may diminish the force of the waves upon the bank itself. 
 Where the water deepens rapidly and the foreland is steep, 
 it may be in a general way assumed that a bank somewhat 
 aslant will answer best, and vice versa but such an assump- 
 tion can never be more than of a very general character. 
 
 The " projecting elbows " advocated by Mr. Wiggins, 
 besides serving as breakwaters to shelter the bank, are evi- 
 dently intended to act as groynes in the accumulation of 
 protective material at the foot of the bank, much in the 
 same manner as contemplated by Mr. Muller when recom- 
 mending that one side of the bank should be boldly ex- 
 posed as a shelter to the retiring sides. When we come to 
 treat of groynes, it will be seen that the same end may be 
 accomplished in a simpler and less expensive manner than 
 that of making the bank itself serve the purpose. Boldly to 
 take the full force of the sea in a gale, the face of a bank 
 must be effectually fortified ; and any projections serving as 
 breakwaters will need to be strongly constructed. Whether 
 under any circumstances a curve concave to the run of the 
 sea is advisable, must be extremely doubtful ; and unless 
 cogent reasons exist for its adoption, it would be well to 
 avoid both it and a strongly convex line. If one or the 
 other is found to be unavoidable, the point at which the 
 line of run of the sea is normal to the curve will need to be 
 
3$ RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 specially protected ; because if the curve is convex that 
 part will receive the full force of the waves and turn them 
 aside, and if concave will have to stand not only their 
 direct shock but also the uprush at the meeting of the cur- 
 rents occasioned by the run of the sea along the curve 
 on either hand. That this would be the case appears to 
 be corroborated by an observation made by Captain 
 O'Brien, R.E., 46 that on the concave sweep of the shore at 
 Romney Marsh, the middle of the curve or bight of the 
 bay was the part that suffered most from the waves in a 
 gale, and was always liable to be scooped out unless means 
 were taken to prevent it. 
 
 b) Materials. The choice of material for a bank de- 
 pends, not always so much upon what is intrinsically the 
 very best, as upon what is most easily procurable at or near 
 the site, the question of expense being in general a highly 
 important one ; and experience has shown that even with 
 poor material a good bank may be constructed if proper 
 precautions are observed. It is found in practice that a 
 bank of almost any material, presenting a proper slope and 
 suitably protected on its surface, will at least for a while 
 withstand the action of the waves, if it be high enough to 
 prevent them from running over its top. Moreover, 
 materials which rank as best are not always exclusively 
 used throughout a work even where they are readily pro- 
 curable ; some being better suited for one purpose or in one 
 part of the work and others for another. It is therefore 
 desirable to consider the several materials themselves, and 
 the opinions of experts concerning them ; leaving the 
 details of their employment to be more fully dealt with as 
 may be needful, under subsequent sections. 
 
THE BANK. 37 
 
 The employment in sea-walls of stone in the form of 
 masonry, being almost exclusively confined to those in- 
 tended for coast-protection, does not come within the 
 scope of the present inquiry. Its use in works such as we 
 are now dealing with is chiefly in the form of pitching and 
 rubble, its weight rendering it valuable for loading as well 
 as protecting softer and lighter materials. A bank of 
 rubble, however, is not of itself sufficiently water-tight to 
 exclude the tide, and needs to be rendered so by a core of 
 impervious material or by a layer of puddle and clay on its 
 sea-face the latter indeed would in any case be required 
 if the bank is intended to be overgrown with vegetation 
 other than seaweed. Where stone is abundant and easily 
 procured, such a bank might possibly prove to be the 
 cheapest in construction ; but a coast presenting sites suit- 
 able for reclamation by embanking is usually deficient in 
 stone. 
 
 Where stone for facing, weighting, or other purposes, is 
 not readily procurable, and shingle, gravel, and lime are so, 
 concrete may be advantageously employed. Although 
 inferior in specific gravity to stone, it possesses one great 
 recommendation in being easily moulded into blocks of any 
 desired size or shape. 
 
 Gravel is by Mr. Wiggins regarded as one of the most 
 important and at the same time often the most easily pro- 
 cured material for a bank. "The uses of gravel," he says, 17 
 " are manifold. At the outer edge of the bank gravel is the 
 very best material wherewith to form the lower portion of 
 the slope or facing, where it forms a natural sea-beach almost 
 impervious to the water, and also a roadway, the traffic on 
 
38 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 which consolidates the sand below. In this latter use it 
 may also be applied with advantage to the inner edge or 
 foot of the bank. This material also, being spread over the 
 stone facing of the bank, insinuates itself into the interstices 
 between them, and keeps them better than the best masonry. 
 But the use of gravel should be almost confined to the out- 
 side of the bank (the internal material requiring to be of the 
 most cohesive kind that can be obtained); a coating of 
 gravel of several inches in thickness being spread previous 
 to the stone facing being applied. 
 
 " Gravel also might be advantageously used as a substi- 
 tute for stone, in the facing of that portion of the bank 
 which is above the main bank. . . Gravel might, indeed, in 
 many cases, be substituted for stone or any other facing of 
 the whole bank ; and to qualify it for this valuable applica- 
 tion, it is only requisite to give the bank sufficient slope, so 
 as to resemble a natural sea-beach ; and if the original shore 
 is muddy, a coating of 6 inches of gravel, over 18 inches of 
 mud, would probably form a facing not to be surpassed. . . . 
 Even soft wet mud, costing 3d. per cubic yard to throw up, 
 may be fixed and consolidated into cement by the addition 
 of one-third gravel brought to mix with it, costing is. per 
 cubic yard, making the whole to average 6d. per cubic yard. 
 ... A wall of pise or rammed gravel in a frame might very 
 judiciously be adopted for 2 or 3 feet of the centre of 
 the bank." 
 
 Respecting sand as a material for the bank : 
 Mr. (afterwards Sir John) Hawkshaw, M. Inst. C.E., con- 
 sidered that the sand of the sea-shore, with a slope of 6 or 
 7 to i, " proved an effectual barrier against waves if it was 
 long enough." 4S 
 
THE BANK. 39 
 
 At Folkestone, when the sand was left bare by the wash- 
 ing-away of the shingle, the unprotected surface stood at a 
 slope of 9 to i , and resisted the force of very heavy seas. 49 
 
 The bank at Holkham in Norfolk, for a length of about 
 1,400 yards was formed entirely of sand inside, protected on 
 the sea-face by 2 feet thickness of puddle and on the land- 
 face by i foot of puddle, the tipper portion of the external 
 slope being covered with grass sods 3 inches thick and the 
 lower portion with shingle. This bank is but little exposed 
 to destructive action of the sea, there being no long fetch of 
 waves to break upon it. In 1867 it was stated that in the 
 nine years then elapsed since its construction it had needed 
 no considerable repairs save those of a breach caused by 
 one severe storm accompanied by unusually high tide ; and 
 the opinion was expressed that experience had shown sand 
 to be the better material for the construction of these banks, 
 no settlement having occurred in the large one so formed, 
 while the smaller one, entirely of clay, had required addi- 
 tions to be made to maintain the original dimensions. 80 
 
 Several of the banks in Schleswig are of sand ; and where 
 that material is used both slopes are covered with clay. In 
 some cases where sand or earth is used, percolation will 
 sometimes take place unless a core of clay is carried up from 
 a considerable depth in the ground. The same result is 
 found to occur in some of the banks on the shores of the 
 Humber, and the remedy is the same. 51 
 
 Sand was generally used in the hearting of some 1 3 miles 
 of banks on Lough Foyle and in Morecambe Bay, the sea- 
 slopes being covered with 12 inches of clay puddle and 
 about 15 inches of pitching, and the banks are stated to 
 have stood several years without any failure. 53 Limestone 
 for the pitching was in the latter case readily procurable 
 
40 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 from excavations and quarries in the immediate vicinity of 
 the works. 
 
 An embankment on The Wash, 3 miles in length, of sandy 
 loam well puddled, covered with 15 inches of clay and 12 
 inches of Norfolk clunch, stood well and resisted the action 
 of very heavy seas. 53 Linings of sand are frequently intro- 
 duced into the body of dykes in Holland, to prevent rats 
 and moles from damaging them. 
 
 Mr. Wiggins strongly objects to the employment of sand ; 
 and his statements, although perhaps not quite free from 
 petitio principii) are too important to be wholly neglected. 
 " Sandy material," he says, 54 "is the most difficult to manage, 
 and the least to be depended on. If it be used in raising 
 the bank, great part is taken away by almost every tide, of 
 what has been previously collected between tide and tide, 
 and sometimes much more is taken by a tide than was col- 
 lected between that and the preceding tide. This material 
 melts away like sugar in water, and must be collected again 
 and again to perform the work, which after all is always 
 liable to escape particle by particle ; when dry, running as 
 in an hour-glass through every aperture, or blowing away 
 with every wind ; or sinking to a level, when wet. Thus 
 the working with this material is attended with infinite mor- 
 tification, and at least twofold the cost of any other material 
 upon the spot. Many expedients are in use to prevent its 
 escape ; as covering the bank of it every tide with sods, 
 which are removed when the work recommences on the re- 
 cession of the tide : indeed in the case of those loose run- 
 ning sands which we are now contemplating, it is absolutely 
 necessary to fix them with from half a yard to a yard thick- 
 ness of clay outside, according to the exposure. ... In the 
 case however of such loose sands, no doubt the most 
 
THE BANK. 41 
 
 effectual, safe, and permanent consequently the least ex- 
 pensive mode ultimately would be to avoid using a single 
 shovel-full of such sand, but to bring all the materials for 
 the bank from the nearest depot of good material, and lay 
 it upon the sandy surface [of the sea shore]. It is true that 
 carts and horses being used to raise the bank with such 
 sands, the pressure of these has a great effect in consoli- 
 dating this loose material, but still it is treacherous, and 
 much of it escapes at every tide, and if thus raised at sixpence 
 per cubic yard, it would be better policy, all things con- 
 sidered both present and future, to incur a charge of one 
 shilling per cubic yard for better material." 
 
 "There is however another kind of sea-sand, locally 
 named ' silt' which seems when wet to be somewhat muddy 
 and argillaceous, and which in that state not only retains 
 its position when laid up in bank, but seems ponderous 
 and sound. But even this kind of sand dries into a running 
 sand, though not much liable to blow, and less prone to 
 escape than that just mentioned. Such sands are best 
 collected by means of planks and barrows, or by horses and 
 carts, and perhaps the cheapest and best way of embanking 
 with them, in cases where stone is too expensive, is that of 
 raising a bank of great bulk, turfing or gravelling the sea 
 face, and mending every little ' peck ' or injury as it occurs, 
 until the bank has become so firm as to bear the tide. It 
 would however be extremely prudent either to cover the 
 whole of such a bank with turf or with some feet in thick- 
 ness of clay, or at least a foot thick of such gravelly or stony 
 earth as would soon admit of vigorous vegetation over the 
 whole surface." 
 
 " But the policy of making sea-banks across very loose 
 sea-sands is at least questionable, even in cases where the 
 
42 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 level of those sands admits of a good drainage to seaward, 
 since to bring all the materials from a distant spot may be 
 very expensive, and to throw up the sand itself is dangerous, 
 where they are covered at every tide, and the water dwells 
 long enough to saturate them fully, and that continually, so 
 that in course of time a communication takes place between 
 the water-soaken sand outside or seaside, and that inside 
 or landside of the bank, the silicious particles become sepa- 
 rated by the aqueous particles, and when the latter become 
 predominant the bank blows up. This has been experienced 
 even in cases where all the materials were brought from a 
 distance, and the sand untouched, and therefore sea-banks 
 can only be made with absolute security with this material, 
 in cases where the sandy soil is above ordinary tides and 
 covered with vegetation : even then, the bank must be very 
 well packed and covered with mud, so that the water cannot 
 penetrate between its clods when it has shrunk in drying, 
 and it must also be guarded on the sea-side with stone if 
 liable to any great swash of the wave. Another fault of 
 sand-banks is their liability to sink, from the finer particles 
 of sand being drawn out by the suction of the retiring wave; 
 and if the smallest particle of sand escapes, then it will be 
 followed by another and another, the mischief silently going 
 on till it becomes apparent in visible depression of the front 
 and top of the bank, which perhaps may at first be taken 
 for a shrinking or settlement of the materials in that place 
 more than another, or to the consolidation of the sands 
 beneath, and the parties may proceed to make up the 
 deficiency, under the idea that their bank is stronger than 
 before, till new instances attract notice, and the real cause 
 becomes known. It has been found in such cases, that a 
 broad footing of gravel increases the seat of the bank and 
 
THE BANK. 43 
 
 checks the percolation of water underneath it, especially 
 when that footing is made a common road for traffic. If 
 sea-banks are built over, and with sands, it becomes also a 
 very essential point to make use of a great quantity of pon- 
 derous stone, not only to break the waves and to prevent 
 their tearing away the face of the bank, but also to weight 
 the sand and compress it, so as to bring it to as near an 
 approximation to a solid state as circumstances will admit, 
 and thus lessen the chances of the water insinuating itself 
 amongst the sand forming the foundation of the bank. 
 
 " After all, no art or expense whatever can always insure 
 a sea-bank on a sandy shore, and in an open exposed situa- 
 tion, from considerable damage. . . . Such, therefore, should 
 only be risked in sheltered spots, and where the rage of the 
 ocean is mitigated by projecting rocks or spits of land, pro- 
 tecting the bank from the inclement points, or the shore is 
 observed to be increasing. But if banks of sand are attempted 
 they should be of ample height and dimensions, and the 
 front or facing guarded with clay, turf, sodding, and stones, 
 besides constant watching and repairing every little breach." 
 
 Peat-moss appears to be a good material for a bank. Its 
 tough fibrous nature, its elasticity, and the readiness with 
 which it consolidates into a dense mass, render it peculiarly 
 valuable for the purpose. It is found also to possess advan- 
 tages as a material for puddling, since it readily imbibes and 
 retains moisture, and does not crack from dryness as clay 
 puddle frequently does. In case also of holes being made 
 in such puddle by vermin or by external injury, it is found 
 that they soon close again, owing to the elasticity of the 
 peat and its tendency to grow together. It is sometimes 
 used as a puddle between two stone walls, sometimes as a 
 
44 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 backing instead of clay, and is particularly recommended 
 for use in combination with rubble stone. The action of 
 the waves against it even adds to its security, since from its 
 fibrous nature it retains any silt thrown up with the water, 
 until all the interstices between the stones are completely 
 filled. In 1841 it was stated that upwards of twenty years 
 had elapsed since some of the first banks were constructed, 
 and that up to that time they had perfectly answered their 
 purpose. 55 
 
 Mr. Wiggins says it is apt to split in drying, forming 
 crevices, necessitating occasional opening of the face of the 
 bank for the purpose of stopping them. In other respects 
 he speaks well of it ; and mentions that a peat sea-bank 
 which was opened after being built for seventeen years, 
 exhibited the material as fibrous and undecayed as when 
 first deposited. It had been covered and compressed with 
 layers of stone and gravel. This bank was built across a 
 sandy estuary, where it was deemed too hazardous to make 
 use of sand in its construction. 56 
 
 Owing to its lightness, this material needs to be well 
 loaded, and thus seems to be most suitable for use when in 
 combination with stone. 
 
 Clay is the material most commonly employed where 
 obtainable, and may on the whole be regarded as the best ; 
 although (cf. pp. 39, 45, 46) authorities are not unanimous 
 on the latter point. In what follows, it will be observed that 
 even among those who advocate its use, some recommend 
 that it should be mixed with sand. 
 
 " On the whole," says Mr. Wiggins, " it must be con- 
 cluded, that of the materials for a sea-bank, tenacious clay 
 is the best, and loose sand the very worst. All the inter- 
 
THE BANK. 45 
 
 mediate modifications of soils will have their respective 
 merits or demerits, but they will be eligible in proportion to 
 their ponderosity their cohesiveness and their power of 
 resisting the action of water, either in penetrating or dis- 
 solving them : and these soils will be ineligible in proportion 
 to their lightness, their looseness, and their aptitude to run 
 and blow away when dry, or to melt away when wet." But 
 he immediately adds : " A mixture of materials, bad and 
 good together, when in a wet state, would probably reduce 
 the whole mass to an eligible condition ; and although the 
 expense might be thought too great at first, it might be 
 found economy in the end." And of clay generally, he 
 observes: "Even stiff clay requires to be very carefully 
 packed." 57 
 
 According to Caland, all the properties required in a 
 material for a bank are best found in common clay, having 
 the greatest weight, particles so fine as to be imperceptible 
 to the naked eye, and the greatest continuity of known 
 soils. 58 
 
 The material used in the dykes in Schleswig and Holstein 
 is sometimes of clay, sometimes of moor or bog earth. The 
 best material is considered to be " clay, mixed with sand ; 
 and as the marsh ground itself is usually of this nature, it is 
 generally used. Clay alone, without intermixture of sand, 
 easily bursts after exposure to the rains, or dries suddenly 
 by excessive heat. Common soil is frequently used, and is 
 considered good, though not equal to the sandy clay, as 
 moles, rats, and foxes can more readily make passages 
 through it, which at high water may sometimes become 
 dangerous, and the holes are not easily stopped. Where 
 good materials cannot be procured, in sufficient quantities, 
 for the formation of the dyke, it is customary to cover the 
 
46 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 water slope with clay, several feet in thickness ; and if the 
 material is of fine sand, or of bog earth, both slopes are 
 covered with clay." For closures also, clay alone is re- 
 garded as an unsuitable material. " It was liable to crack 
 and dissolve, and a great portion of it was generally washed 
 away. Clay and sand combined resisted the action of the 
 water much better." 59 
 
 On the other hand, it is stated that a bank at the entrance 
 to Wexford Harbour, in what appears to be a not very 
 exposed situation, failed " in consequence of being built of 
 sand, fascines, and clay, mixed together." 60 No details are 
 given of the dimensions, slopes, or face-protection of this 
 bank particulars which may have had as much influence 
 upon its stability as the material composing it. 
 
 c) Form and Dimensions. The form of the bank in 
 cross-section is (very roughly speaking) a trapezium, its 
 longest side being the base, its shortest the top, and the 
 other sides forming the sea- and land-slopes respectively, 
 the longer slope being seaward. The materials composing 
 it may be approximately taken as weighing about 123 Ibs. 
 per cubic foot : theoretically therefore, an impervious bank, 
 its summit above the highest tide-level and its materials 
 lying at their natural slope, will safely withstand the pres- 
 sure of quiescent water. In practice however, these con- 
 ditions do not concur : it is scarcely possible to render a 
 bank perfectly waterproof, the materials composing it 
 cannot always be laid at their natural slope, nor is the 
 water that presses against it ever perfectly quiescent. Hence 
 the necessity of artificially increasing its resisting power, 
 by augmenting its bulk and protecting its surface against 
 the wash of tides in their rise and fall, the erosion of 
 
THE BANK. 47 
 
 currents, and the destructive force of waves. Of these 
 agencies, the first is the least and the third the most for- 
 midable ; and their operation is counteracted by increasing 
 the thickness of the central portion or body of the bank, 
 flattening the slopes and covering their face with clay or 
 puddle of some kind, and as it were " armour-plating " that 
 covering with material hard and heavy enough to withstand 
 the shock of waves and sufficiently tenacious or well bonded 
 and secured to resist their tearing and scooping action. The 
 conditions and extent of the destructive agencies to which 
 a bank is exposed, differing according to circumstances, 
 there is great variety in the particulars of its form and 
 dimensions, and these we shall now proceed to consider. 
 
 Some small banks at several weak points along the neck 
 at Spurn Point ; from 6 to 7 feet in height, their top from 
 3 to 4 feet above high-water mark of spring-tides and 4 feet 
 6 inches to 6 feet wide, had slopes 4 to i, protected at foot 
 by stakes and wattles, and planted with mat-grass (arundo 
 arenaria}, and stood well. 61 This situation is an exposed 
 one. 
 
 Those at Lough Foyle and Morecambe Bay (ante p. 39), 
 protected by puddle and pitching, had sea-slopes 2 to i. 
 
 At Dymchurch, the severest storms between 1837 an( ^ 
 1847 taid the shingle at a slope of 12 to i ; while with a 
 slope of 8 to i the waves were found to wash out every 
 particle of sand and shingle from the interstices of the 
 stones. The situation is very exposed. 62 
 
 The banks on The Wash (ante p. 40) had a sea-slope of 
 5*12 to i. They are said to have stood well against very 
 heavy seas : the situation may therefore be regarded as an 
 exposed one. 
 
48 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 The bank at Holkham, in a somewhat sheltered situation 
 (ante p. 39), had a sea- slope of 4 to i for 8 feet from top 
 and 5 to i for the remaining distance or cess. The top 
 was 5 feet wide. The land-slope was 2 to i for 8 feet 
 from top, and from thence 3 to i down to the level of 
 ground : the land-slope for a portion of the length of the 
 bank was 2 to i throughout. A breach in this bank was 
 repaired with shingle, laid to a slope of 5 to i on the land 
 side and 12 to i on the sea side, the latter exactly coincid- 
 ing with the slope to which the shingle at Dymchurch was 
 brought by the action of the sea. 
 
 Some dykes were constructed in 1850 on Sunk Island at 
 the mouth of the Humber, of alluvium, silty sand, and ma- 
 terial from the foreland, and faced with grass-sods. The 
 top stood about 4 feet above high- water mark of spring- 
 tides. In well -sheltered situations it was 3 feet wide, the 
 land-slope i to i and sea-slope 3 to i. In the most exposed 
 portion (which however may be regarded as partially shel- 
 tered) the top was 4 feet wide, the land-slope i& to i ; and 
 the sea-slope, constructed at 5 to i, was by settlement and 
 wave-action brought to 6 to i. 63 
 
 At the Wexford Harbour Reclamation, the dykes were 
 6 feet wide at top and their crown 8 feet 6 inches above 
 high-water mark of spring-tides. The land-slopes i to i. 
 The sea-slopes were stone-pitched : that of the north bank 
 being straight in cross-section, with an inclination of i '5 to 
 i ; that of the south bank concave in cross-section, its 
 chord apparently sloping at 1*33 to i. It is stated that the 
 curved section was adopted with a view of preventing the 
 waves running up to a height which was there found objec- 
 tionable. 64 
 
 On the coast of Denmark, much diversity exists in the 
 
THE BANK. 
 
 height and slopes of the banks, a typical 
 cross-section whereof is shown in Fig. 2. 
 The section adopted is entirely relative to 
 the extent of the foreland, the position 
 of the dyke, the height of its seat above 
 ordinary high-water mark, and its exposure 
 to direct action of the waves and winds : 
 even the same dyke has often a different 
 section in different parts. In determining 
 the width of the top and the inclination 
 of the slopes, regard is had not only to 
 the position of the dyke, but also to the 
 materials of which it is to be constructed 
 (ante pp. 39, 45). The width of the top 
 is from 8 to 10 feet in the smaller dykes, 
 and from 10 to 20 feet in the larger ones, 
 the width depending mostly upon whether 
 it is to serve as a road, which is usually 
 the case. The banks are generally seated 
 at or wholly above ordinary high-water 
 mark ; and the great height to which 
 they are carried is owing to the excessive 
 variations of the level to which the water 
 sometimes rises during strong winds. For 
 exposed situations, with a low foreland, 
 the standard height above ordinary high- 
 water mark is 1 8 feet 6 inches; for ex- 
 posed situations with a higher foreland, 
 or for less exposed situations with a low 
 foreland, 1 7 feet 6 inches ; for unexposed 
 situations, from 16 feet 6 inches to 14 feet 
 5 inches. Generally, the inner slopes 
 
 E 
 
 I 
 
50 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 have an inclination of i to i. The sea-slopes vary 
 considerably: the general type in Schleswig having a 
 cess or lower slope of from 8 to i, to 15 to i, up to a 
 height of 10 or 12 feet above ordinary high- water mark, 
 and above that a storm-bank with a slope of 3 to i up to 
 the full height of the dyke. The sea-slopes in the Eider 
 and the Elbe (Fig. 3) are sometimes 3 to i ; but in situa- 
 tions exposed to the run of the sea they are 6 to i or more, 
 according to local circumstances. In those of the dykes on 
 the island of Pelworm and at several places on the coast of 
 Holstein, the lower part of the cess is curved and pitched, 
 as shown in Fig. 3, and this is held to be the best and 
 strongest form of construction for slopes not wholly faced 
 with stone. The stone facing is carried up to a height of 
 about 4 feet above ordinary high-water mark, and the chord 
 of its curve is at a slope of about 3 to i . Where the sea- 
 slope is wholly faced with stone, an inclination of 2 or 3 
 to i is adopted, and the pitching is carried up 12 or 1 6 feet 
 above ordinary high-water mark. There is reason for believ- 
 ing that where any serious breach has occurred in a main 
 dyke in Schleswig or Holstein, it has rarely been caused by 
 direct action of the sea on the outward face, but rather 
 on the inner slope, the waves rolling over the top and under- 
 mining the foot. 65 
 
 On the Zeeland coast the dykes, if exposed to the full 
 force of the sea, are carried at least 9 feet above the level 
 of high storm-tides, or 17 feet 6 inches above ordinary 
 high-water mark, leaving about i foot 8 inches high and dry 
 dyke above the wash of the highest waves, which is reckon- 
 ed to reach 8 feet 3 inches or 8 feet 6 inches above the 
 highest tide-level. The longer and higher the foreland, the 
 less can the waves rise against the dyke, for they have 
 
THE BANK. 
 
52 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 further to run up and further to run back. If it can possibly 
 be avoided, the Dutch never leave a steep slope exposed to 
 the direct action of the sea : a case is mentioned of a bank 
 at Flushing, with a sea-slope of 375 to i, being seriously in- 
 jured, while (in the same storm) another in an equally exposed 
 situation but having a sea-slope of 13-3 to i, was scarcely 
 damaged at all. The sea- slope of the Zeeland dykes, which 
 are well protected with grass, is never steeper than 6 to i, 
 and where possible is made 12 to i, and preferably with a 
 convex face. The inner slope seems to be about 2 to i, 
 the steepest being 175 to i. Caland's rule for the sea- 
 slopes of dykes of various heights, in exposed situations, is 
 given as follows : 
 
 Height of crown Inclination 
 
 above toe of bank. of sea- slope, 
 
 ft. ins. 
 
 26 3 . . . 10 to 
 
 24 6 .... 8-8 
 
 23 o .... 7-67 
 
 21 7 .... 6-6 
 
 19 8 .... 5-6 
 
 18 o . . . . 473 
 
 16 5 .... 4 
 
 14 8 .... 3-2 
 
 13 o .... 2-5 
 
 And for the breadth of the crown, he recommends half the 
 height from low-water to high-water of ordinary tides, 66 
 
 That Caland's rule as to slopes is not always observed in 
 practice, appears from the statement in the foregoing para- 
 graph that the Zeeland dykes never have a sea-slope steeper 
 than 6 to i and also from the following particulars re- 
 corded by Mr. G. B. W. Jackson, Assoc. Inst. C. E., who 
 also assigns to the dykes a less height than that mentioned 
 in the beginning of the paragraph. It is probable that the 
 latter discrepancy may be accounted-for by supposing that 
 
THE BANK. 53 
 
 the dykes respectively referred-to are very differently 
 situated as regards exposure to the violence of the sea : 
 
 "The dykes ... are raised to the level of i foot 8 
 inches, and 3 feet 3 inches, above the highest tide at the 
 equinox ; and, if not intended to be used eventually, for 
 the high roads of that portion of the country, they are from 
 3 feet 3 inches to 6 feet 6 inches wide on their summit. 
 The angles of the slopes depend on their position, but two 
 to one inside, and four to one towards the sea, have been 
 frequently adopted." The sea-dyke at Koegrass near 
 Nieuwdiep, whose top is 1 1 feet 6 inches above ordinary 
 high- water mark (Amsterdam standard) and from 9 to 10 
 feet wide, has a sea-slope of 4 to i and a land-slope of 
 3 to i. 67 
 
 It will be seen that Mr. J. H. Muller, of the Hague, 
 prefers steep slopes, alternated with a cess or bench at 
 about the level of high-water, to flat slopes without a cess ; 
 assigning as a reason, that the best cross-section is one in 
 which the centre of gravity comes nearest to the bottom 
 and to the toe of the bank. He illustrates his remarks by 
 some cross-sections, one or other of which he considers 
 will be found available according to special circumstances : 
 
 Fig. 4 (A) is the section of a bank on salt marsh. The 
 top of the bank is about 3 feet wide, and 3 or 4 feet above 
 level of highest known tide. The inner slope is not greater 
 than 1-5 to i; steeper slopes being liable to slip, and not 
 presenting sufficient surface for the growth of the grass 
 intended for their protection. The outer slope is 3 to i. 
 
 Fig. 4 (B) is the section of a bank above the level of 
 half- tide. The top of the bank is 4 feet wide and 4 feet 
 above the level of the highest known tide. The inner slope 
 
54 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 is 1-5 to i. The outer top slope is 3 to i, and extends 
 from the top down to the level of the highest known tide, 
 at which point there is a cess 20 feet wide, having a fall of 
 i foot 6 inches or 2 feet. The lower slope is 3 to i. The 
 inner slope and the crown are covered with a layer of clay 
 8 inches thick, the upper slope and the cess with a layer 
 12 inches thick, and the bottom slope with a layer 18 inches 
 thick. The outer bottom slope is further protected by 
 fascine-work. 
 
 Fig. 5 is the section of a bank seated below the level 
 of half-tide, where a stone protection is proposed to be 
 adopted. The top of the bank is 6 feet wide and should 
 be at least 6 feet above the level of the highest known tide. 
 The inner slope is 1*5 to i. The outer top slope is 4 to i 
 and covered half-way up by a wooden or fascine protec- 
 tion. The cess is 20 feet wide, and has a fall of 2 feet 
 or 3 feet, and the outer lower slope is 5 to i or 6 to i 
 according to circumstances, covered with a stone defence 
 such as is commonly constructed by the Dutch on islands 
 exposed to the ocean. When the slope is trimmed, a 
 layer of clay 12 to 18 inches thick is spread over it and 
 sometimes covered with a straw matting. Over this are 
 laid one or two courses of bricks, then 6 to 12 inches 
 of brickbats, and then stone pitching 12 to 18 inches thick. 
 
 " It will be observed," he proceeds, " that with a stone 
 defence, the slopes are recommended to be flatter, and 
 the banks to be higher, than where wood protection is 
 employed. In steeper slopes, the rows of stone would 
 rest upon one another, and if a wave removed or dis- 
 turbed one stone, the removal or displacement of those 
 above it would almost necessarily follow. The bank is 
 made higher on account of the flatness of the slope. If 
 
THE BANK. 
 
56 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 the rule is adopted, that the shock of the wave increases 
 with the sine of the angle made by the slope with the 
 horizon, the momentum remaining the same, the amount 
 of force, or intensity, saved by the flatter slope is ex- 
 pended in the velocity with which the wave runs up the 
 slope. But whatever may be the cause, it is certain that 
 waves ascend much higher on flat slopes than on steep 
 ones; so that, although the shock may not be so great, 
 the protection must be carried up higher. ... In ex- 
 posed situations, an additional width may be given to the 
 cess with great advantage. The wave rushes up the slope 
 until it arrives at the cess, when its direction being altered, 
 it is checked, and if the cess is sufficiently long, its force is 
 almost expended before its direction is again altered by the 
 upper slope." * 
 
 Mr. John Wiggins has laid down some rules for the form 
 and dimensions of sea-banks in general, which he regards 
 as the best possible. Whether they are so or not, they 
 have been worked out by him with so much care, and with 
 so evident a reliance upon experience, that they ought not 
 to be omitted in a treatise on the subject. 
 
 " The form and features of the sea-bank," he says, " are 
 matters of the greatest moment, although its form appears 
 to have been, until lately, but little regarded ; the usual 
 form given to them, from the Roman banks in Lincolnshire 
 to those of the Essex marshes, being most generally a mere 
 steep mound of earth, which in the latter cases has been 
 defended by rows of piles, the spaces between those rows, 
 called ' rooms? being filled with chalk or stone, stowed 
 closely in, and in some cases fourteen of these rows have 
 been placed tier above tier. But of late years it has been 
 found that another form, more consonant to nature, is 
 
THE BANK. 
 
58 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 better adapted to these sea-defences, and that instead of a 
 steep face, embankments should have a slope in front, re- 
 sembling a natural sea-beach, and be of sufficient thickness 
 and substance to withstand the assaults of the ocean, whilst 
 they ought to have slope enough in the rear to admit of a 
 luxuriant vegetation ; and to effect these objects we propose 
 the threefold bank, of which the diagram [Fig. 6, p. 61] is a 
 section, consisting of 
 
 " i st. The main bank, built to the full height of ordinary 
 spring tides, which is taken by way of example at 10 feet. 
 It is 20 feet wide at top, and with a slope to sea side, partly 
 of 5 feet base, and partly of 4 feet base, to i perpendicular, 
 as the minimum slopes. 
 
 " 2nd. The outburst bank, 5 feet high and 8 feet wide at 
 top, and with a slope of but i to i, because this part of 
 the bank will have to sustain but a transient stress from 
 the top of the tide, and this only occasionally. On this 
 is set 
 
 " 3rd. The swash bank, which, having only to sustain the 
 broken tops of the waves, is but 2^ feet high and 2% feet 
 wide at the top, though its base is 8 feet, and should be 
 made amply sufficient to prevent any part of the highest 
 seas going over the bank. 
 
 "The construction of this diagram is as follows : 
 
 " Having drawn the base line a b, construct the cubes d 
 and cm; draw a <:', 5 base to i perpendicular. Set off 
 6 feet from the top of the cube d towards the base line, for 
 the high-tide wave. Draw the line d s, intersecting a c at s. 
 Draw a s and s m and h b, and this completes the main bank, 
 with the double cubes of its height backed by a half-cube, 
 besides the front with a base of 4 to i , the gravel footing 
 bringing it 5 to i. For the other proportions construct the 
 
THE BANK. 59 
 
 cubes e and /, and draw m c", also g and g h, giving ample 
 weight, substance, and slope to the bank for ordinary cases. 
 
 " The rationale of this construction will appear as we go 
 on, but its outlines are these. The cubes d and c m, with 
 the half-cube b h, are considered to be very ample for the 
 body of the main bank, which is 20 feet wide at top. The 
 slope of 5 to i is lessened at m, to 4 to i, in order to afford 
 a greater base for the upper bank, and because the space 
 from m to s is stone-faced, that space being 6 feet perpen- 
 dicular from the top of the main bank, which is considered 
 the usual height of great waves near the shore. The 
 gravelled footing is on the slope of 5 to i, and is not stone- 
 faced, because the sea has not acquired much force at that 
 height of tide. This completes the main bank. The out- 
 burst and swash banks are drawn with a narrow apex in 
 order to give as much slope as possible to the line m /', but 
 where the soil is tenacious, this line may retire still more, 
 and the line g b may be steeper. 
 
 " The essential features of the bank recommended in 
 section A are the following : 
 
 " a b is the seat of the bank, or base g is the top. 
 
 on which it stands. h is the back. 
 
 ac" is the slope. *' is the delph. 
 
 tc*c" is the heig-ht. k is the foreland. 
 
 d e f is the thickness. / is a gravelled footing on both 
 /' is the facing. sides. 
 
 " On each of which features some observations of im- 
 portance may be made. 
 
 " The general form of a bank is required to be such as to 
 receive the wave easily, i.e. without any great concussion, 
 or with the least degree of concussion ; such as may enable 
 the top of the wave at its highest range to run along the top 
 of the bank, without meeting with any great resistance or 
 sudden check, and such that if the wave should even top 
 
60 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 the bank, and the swash go over the back of the bank, it 
 may not cut away the soil to any dangerous extent. 
 
 " The form given ... in section A, is thought to 
 be such as fulfils all these conditions; and the hollow 
 in front is considered to be such as to reduce the force of 
 the wave when it arrives there, which can only happen at 
 great outbursts of the sea, or when the wave is raised by 
 the wind far above its ordinary height, because the hollow 
 only commences at a point just below the height of equi- 
 noctial spring tides, i.e. the utmost height of the body of 
 the tide, the wave above that being but transient, and 
 making only a temporary, though it may be a powerful, im- 
 pression on the upper part of the bank. 
 
 " The width of the seat or base of the bank should be 
 regulated by the amount of adhesiveness in the material 
 upon which it is placed, and of which it is built, because it 
 is necessary ... to guard against any escape of those 
 materials from the drawing out or suction of the sand, by 
 the reflux of the wave, or by the soakage of water under 
 the bank. 
 
 '* The width therefore of the seat or base must be such 
 as to throw the sea as far distant as possible from the sandy 
 material, which being prone to run away in minute particles 
 when dry, and to melt like soft sugar when wet, and being 
 equally prone in both states to escape particle by particle, 
 through the smallest aperture, and with a very small de- 
 clivity, must be kept as much as possible in an undisturbed 
 state. This however is by no means easy, since the waves 
 will be sure to find apertures too minute to be readily dis- 
 cernible, wherein the sands will steal away both in the dry 
 and wet state. Small animals also will burrow in the sand 
 from both sides of the bank, and the apertures thus formed 
 
THE BANK. 
 
 will enlarge by degrees, and 
 may become dangerous before 
 they are observed. Such 
 insidious apertures are very 
 apt to take place amongst and 
 below the stone facing of 
 banks, and should therefore 
 be carefully guarded against. 
 But after all they will inevitably 
 happen, and the only sure 
 safeguard is such a wide base 
 or seat as may give the bank 
 substance enough to admit of 
 rather more than slight aper- 
 tures and channels without 
 endangering its safety. This 
 substance cannot be given 
 without width of seat, which 
 is therefore an important 
 feature of a sea-bank. 
 
 " The proper width for the 
 base or seat of a sea-bank 
 will, however, depend much 
 on its other dimensions ; but 
 independently of these, it will 
 be necessary to consider the 
 state of the soil on which 
 the line of bank is proposed, 
 and to ascertain whether it be 
 a sound clay or a loose sand ; 
 whether of uniform and firm 
 texture, or interspersed with 
 
62 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 soft watery spots ; whether likely to sustain the weight of a 
 bank, or to yield to its pressure, and spread on each side ; 
 whether such as to remain impervious to water, or to 
 admits its percolation, however slowly, from seaward to 
 landward ; in short, whether the foundation on which the 
 proposed bank is to rest be firm or otherwise, i.e. compact 
 or porous ; for according as it may be one or the other, so 
 must be the width of the seat or base of the bank, whatever 
 its weight, height, or thickness. 
 
 " This width of seat may be increased, in fact, without 
 adding to the bulk of the bank, by means of a gravelled 
 footing or beach in front, and if this gravelled footing is 
 also used as a road, either during the building of the bank, 
 or afterwards, or both, it will add much to the consolidation 
 of the materials, and to the prevention of percolation. If, 
 again, another such road was used on the inside of the 
 bank, it would also be productive of the same benefit as a 
 wider seat to the bank or sea-wall. 
 
 " The slope of the bank to the seaward is one of its prin- 
 cipal features of strength and safety. A steep bank enables 
 the wave to strike it with great force, and ultimately to 
 batter it down, or greatly to reduce its substance, by means 
 of those violent or continuous assaults which the power of 
 the ocean often exercises. In all such cases, the safest plan 
 is to follow nature as far as possible. 
 
 " The slope of the bank, therefore, should be as similar 
 to a natural beach as all the other considerations will admit. 
 This, however, will depend on the nature of the material : 
 thus, we may assume for argument, that a loose sandy beach 
 will probably slope itself 10 base to i perpendicular; and 
 a living rock will be brought by the action of the sea to 
 nearly a perpendicular, according to its hardness. There- 
 
THE BANK. 63 
 
 fore, the best line seems to be the medium between the two 
 extreme lines taken in nature, viz. the nearly perpendicular 
 face, and the slope of 10 base to i perpendicular, that is, 
 5 to i. This, therefore, may be taken as the best slope 
 that can be given to any sea-bank ; that more is generally 
 unnecessary, and less insufficient in exposed situations ; 
 but that this slope need not extend, in ordinary cases, 
 beyond the height of the ordinary spring tides, when 
 another kind of bank may commence, which having only to 
 sustain occasional and transient outbursts of the sea, may 
 have only such a slope as the material will admit. A slope 
 of nearly 5 to i in front also lessens the necessity for thick- 
 ness at top of the bank ; besides the very important con- 
 sideration, arising from the compression of the earthy matter 
 of the bank, by the weight of water upon its face, the 
 degree of such compression, and consequent increase of 
 strength of the bank, being in direct proportion to the degree 
 of slope. 
 
 " This slope also admits of the easy flow of the sea up 
 and along the inclined plane of the face of the bank ; since 
 if stone-faced where the chief stress lies, the waves run 
 harmlessly along the whole face or slope without striking the 
 bank as they would if it were steeper. The stone facing is 
 necessary, for without this a greater substance of bank will 
 be requisite, though strong clay, with a stone footing only, 
 might perhaps be trusted with a slope of 5 to i, in conside- 
 ration of its adhesiveness when well covered with suitable 
 vegetation. 
 
 " But it is expedient also to consider the bank and its 
 slope in three portions, viz. that from the base to the line 
 of spring tides, which we shall call the main bank ; that next 
 above, which is to guard against extraordinary outbursts ; and 
 
64 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 that which is only to sustain the swash or spray of the 
 waves ; and to construct the bank as shown in the preced- 
 ing diagram A, in which the slope a c' is 5 to i of the 
 height, c c', to which the ordinary spring tides rise. This 
 height is here set out at 10 feet, and the seaward base at 50 
 feet, which gives a slope almost equal to that of a natural 
 sea-beach on a shingly shore, and greater than that of a 
 shore of large loose boulders. 
 
 " The whole seaward slope being thus divided in the 
 diagram A into three portions of different inclinations, each 
 dip considerably and variously from the hypothenusal line 
 of the whole height a c", and this dip in the surface of the 
 front of the bank, which in practice will be worked into a 
 curve, is thought preferable to the straight line ac", because 
 the wave impelled by wind will be less likely to roll over 
 the top of the bank, since the hollow will expend part of 
 its force, and give it a tendency upwards or back again 
 into the sea, whereas the inclined plane will encourage its 
 onward tendency, and enable it to continue under the same 
 impulse till it roll over the bank. 
 
 " The height of a sea-bank up to its outburst line and 
 exclusive of the swash bank must depend on two conditions, 
 viz. the rise of tide in the particular locality, and the height 
 to which the greatest outbursts of the sea have ever reached. 
 It is indeed the last-named point that must regulate the 
 total height of the bank, though other points may govern 
 the height of stone facing in land-locked cases. Some 
 marks must be ascertained on the land by the testimony of 
 old people, up to which some outburst of the sea has at any 
 time arrived : the greater number of such marks that can 
 be spoken to the better, and the more they agree in hori- 
 zontal level upon the land the better; but the highest must 
 
THE BANK. 65 
 
 be taken, even if it should not be very well authenticated. 
 It is sufficient if there be a possibility of the sea having 
 ever flowed so high ; and when it is considered how much 
 the wind forces up the water on the side against which it 
 presses, its flow on that side will occasionally reach heights 
 almost incredible; but whatever that height may be, it 
 must regulate that of the bank, which must be not less 
 than 2 feet above the height of such outbursts in land-locked 
 and sheltered situations, and not less than 3 feet above it in 
 exposed situations, and such as have a long sea-reach in 
 front, so as to occasion a heavy swell on the bank. No 
 escape from these conditions as to the height of the bank 
 can prudently be attempted. It is in vain to conclude, that 
 as the sea has only been known to reach such a height 
 once or twice in the memory of man, it may never reach that 
 height again, or at least that the chances are against its 
 reaching that height again, before the embanking parties 
 have effected their purpose. Such a conclusion will be an 
 infringement of bona-fide dealing as regards others, and a 
 self-delusion as regards the adventurers. The rules laid 
 down for the height of the bank are imperative, and cannot 
 be neglected with impunity ; nay, it will be ultimate economy 
 rather to exceed than to fall short of them. 
 
 " It is therefore of the utmost importance to determine 
 accurately the three points of height before mentioned, viz. 
 that of the ordinary springs, that of equinoctial springs, 
 and of extraordinary outbursts, and to provide weight, 
 strength, and height of bank accordingly, not forgetting the 
 swash of the wave at the top of the highest tide. 
 
 " In the diagram [page 61], the height of the bank up to 
 the point of the highest ordinary springs is assumed at 10 
 feet, which is, in fact, a considerable height for any sea- 
 
 F 
 
66 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 bank, and greater than is generally found to have been 
 hitherto adopted in the intakes of Essex, on which coast 
 these banks are more frequent and extensive than on any 
 other, as 220 miles of them may be measured on the 
 Ordnance Map : of these the author had the management 
 of a considerable portion for many years, exposed to bois- 
 terous seas. The equinoctial springs and outburst bank is 
 assumed at 5 feet above this 10 feet, which, being half the 
 height of the main bank, will in general cases be found 
 sufficient ; but in the case of very exposed situations, and 
 such as have a great weight of sea on them, or where pre- 
 vailing winds raise the wave and drive it slanting on the 
 bank, the outburst and swash banks together should ap- 
 proach the height of the main bank, subject, however, to 
 the ascertainment of actual heights of flow of tide, as 
 before mentioned. 
 
 "The proper thickness of the main bank is the double 
 cube of its height, supported by a half-cube at the back, 
 and the slope in front for that division of the height, viz., 
 ordinary springs, which we term the main bank. The equi- 
 noctial springs and outbursts, and the swash, may diminish 
 to one cube and a half or less. At each of these respective 
 heights the tide exerts a peculiar force, which, though lessen- 
 ing as the height advances, requires a proportionate resist- 
 ance ; and a double cube of the height of each division, or 
 nearly so, backed by a half-cube, seems to offer that resist- 
 ance in the most complete manner, since it affords the 
 requisite degree of weight, and also places that weight in 
 the most efficient form, besides securing that degree of 
 economy which is so essential an ingredient in such works. 
 
 " The double cubes d, m, and the triangular half-cubes at 
 the back thereof, the cube and rectangular half-cube e with 
 
THE BANK. 67 
 
 its triangular half-cube h, and the cube / with its triangular 
 half-cube, are the several stages of thickness or bulk which 
 we assign to a well-constructed bank, over and above the 
 frontage forming the slope, and this for the following 
 reasons. 
 
 " It has been previously shown that the weight of mate- 
 rials comprised in the triangle a c c', together with the half- 
 cube // b, are more than equal, under any circumstances, to 
 the resistance of the water opposed to it. The like holds 
 good of the triangle a, c", b ; but the whole height of the 
 bank in the diagram is i y feet, and except in open sea, 
 waves seldom, if ever, rise to more than 6 feet, or, in other 
 words, the sea in other situations than open ocean is seldom, 
 if ever, agitated to more than that depth from its surface. 
 We are, therefore, not called upon to provide for the full 
 effect of the weight of this depth of water, but, in fact, only 
 for 6 feet of it ; since, if we supposed 6 feet in depth of 
 water to exert its full force above the line d, and upon the 
 face /', it would strike with a force of 6,894 Ibs., and be 
 resisted by a force of 24,750 Ibs. ; the one being as the 
 A s m, and one-fifth more, and the other as the solid con- 
 tents of the whole 6 feet in height above d. Taking also 
 each distinct height of bank separately, it is clear by in- 
 spection of the diagram, that each division contains a 
 sectional area over and above that of the mass of water 
 which will be exerted against it ; and that this excess 
 amounts in the main bank to double the cube d, and in the 
 outburst bank to once and a half the cube e. It may, there- 
 fore, be safely concluded that this feature of thickness in 
 the diagram gives a bank of weight and strength fully suffi- 
 cient to withstand the heaviest seas, especially if a central 
 nucleus be worked up with well-rammed earth. In some 
 
68 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 cases, where the fertility or the locality render the subject of 
 embankment sufficiently valuable, it might answer well to 
 take up from the foundation a pise wall of gravelly earth 
 well rammed into a cassoon or frame, the latter to be removed 
 when filled. We have seen such pise walls, when just 
 finished, allow of windows being cut in them, and the em- 
 bedded flints were cut in halves rather than separate from 
 the mass." 
 
 " The top or apex of the bank is a feature of which the 
 only question is the width of it, and this must depend 
 greatly on the nature of the material with which the bank 
 is built. If topped with stone, the narrower the better, to 
 prevent a footpath or the tread of cattle, which might dis- 
 place the stones, and then it might be brought up to a 
 sharp edge. If the material of the bank be clay, two or 
 three feet of width at the extreme top will suffice when swarded 
 over. The width given in the diagram of 2 J feet at the 
 extreme height is sufficient, because the sea-defence of that 
 bank does indeed stop at the second or outburst height 
 where it is five feet broad, the banklet above that being only 
 added to prevent the swash going over, and as a guard 
 against any very extraordinary but transient outbreak . . . ; 
 and the width at top of it may be proportioned to the 
 height of the bank by adopting the proportions of the dia- 
 gram, viz. half the height of the main bank for the outburst 
 bank, and half the height of the outburst bank for the swash 
 bank, which, however, should always be kept up by repairs, 
 as the shrinking of the newly deposited materials, and the 
 washings of the rains or tides, may reduce its width or 
 height. 
 
 " But if the material of the bank be sand or sandy earth, 
 the width of the top must be greater, and the [sea-] slope 
 
THE BANK. 69 
 
 and the slope at back greater also. This extension of 
 width must be proportioned to the looseness and want of 
 weight or cohesion of the sandy material, and even then 
 care must be taken to cover its surface with vegetation as 
 soon as possible. In ordinary cases, however, where the 
 w^dth of the top of the bank is required to be greater than 
 in the diagram, say 4 feet, such width may be given by the 
 addition of the space at , without destroying the proper 
 slope of the back of the bank. 
 
 " The back of the bank will require not only such a slope 
 as will enable the material to stand well, but also such as will 
 admit of a good and firmly established vegetation, and this 
 degree of slope will depend much upon the material of the 
 bank. Good ponderous adhesive earth will stand well at a 
 slope of i to i, or less, and the slopes of the back of the 
 bank in the diagram are so, of each of the three thick- 
 nesses, and this is a good and sufficient slope for any earthy 
 material that is likely to be employed in the construction 
 of a sea-bank, and upon this slope vegetation is sure to 
 prosper. The sea-banks of silty sand on the coast of Flint- 
 shire are sown with lucerne, . . . For ordinary localities, 
 however, it may be as well to secure the surface of the back 
 of the bank as early as possible with ray grass, couch grass, 
 and such strongly rooted grasses, and maritime or brackish 
 plants, as can best be obtained on the peculiar soil, since it 
 is first on the back of the bank that any impression is made 
 by an accidental overflow of the tide. This part once 
 giving way, the bank is eaten away by the overfall of the 
 wave from back to front, by a process called ' pecking ' by 
 sea- wallers; the sea then breaks in, and a 'breach ' ensues. 
 The safety of the bank, therefore, much depends upon the 
 security of its back." 69 
 
70 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 Some observations by Mr. John Scott Russell, on 
 waves, have an important bearing upon the question of 
 slopes. There generally exist, he says, two or more kinds 
 of waves in the sea : one kind, which he terms waves of 
 the second order (the immediate effect of the existing local 
 wind), short, high, and superficial ; the other, elsewhere by 
 him called waves of the first order also known by the 
 name of ground swell (the result of some previous wind or 
 storm), long and low, their effect extending to a considerable 
 depth. He has never noticed a wave so much as ten feet 
 high in ten feet of water, nor so much as twenty feet high 
 in twenty feet of water, though he has seen waves approach 
 very nearly to those limits. He gives a table of the -lengths, 
 periods, and velocities of waves, as an assistance in calcu- 
 lating the force to which sea-works are likely to be exposed ; 
 and some diagrams showing the behaviour of waves on 
 meeting various forms of shore or sea-bank, 70 from which 
 Fig. 7 has been compiled. He points out, that if a wave 
 expends its force in breaking upon one point of any work, it 
 injures [or at least has a tendency to injure] that part ; and 
 the object of the Engineer is to allow the wave to act where 
 it can do the least harm, and afterwards expend its force 
 over the whole surface instead of at one point. Fig. 7 (A) 
 is the section of a moderately steep slope having a vertical 
 wall at top and a convex curve at foot : the slope may be 
 flatter and the foot steeper, but the curve is recommended 
 to be parabolic. The curved foot deflects the water up- 
 wards, causing the wave to break almost immediately upon 
 reaching the slope : it continues to break until it reaches the 
 vertical wall, which it strikes, and is then thrown back. If 
 now we imagine, instead of a vertical wall, a cess with a 
 flat slope as shown by the line CD, it is evident that the 
 
THE BANK 
 
 further progress of the 
 wave will resemble that 
 shown in Fig. 7 (B), 
 representing the break- 
 ing of waves on the 
 natural slope of a sea- 
 beach; and we have 
 only to conceive the 
 slopes from E to D and 
 from H to J to be steep- 
 ened as shown at E F 
 and H K, to see that by 
 the time the wave has 
 ascended the latter it will 
 have expended nearly 
 the whole of its destruc- 
 tive force. 
 
 d) Construction. 
 
 Fascine- works of various 
 kinds being much used 
 in embanking, we shall 
 have frequent occasion 
 to mention them; and 
 it will be convenient to 
 give some description of 
 them before dealing with 
 the construction of the 
 bank itself. 
 
 Mr. W. H. Wheeler, 
 M. Inst. C. E., states 
 that fascines used in 
 
72 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 the Fen districts are made of thorns cut from the hedges, 
 tied in bundles with tarred rope, their maximum length 
 being 6 feet and their girth 3 feet. Cost per 120 delivered 
 at any accessible place on the river-side, 145. 6d. Conveying 
 by boat from the place of delivery to the work, including 
 loading and unloading, 45. per six score. 71 It does not 
 appear that the several fascines are bound together for revet- 
 ment and training work, their thorny branches entangling 
 and interlocking so as to form a sufficient bond. 
 
 Those employed in Holland are generally brushwood of 
 willow; but ash, alder, aspen, oak, and hazel are also used. 
 They are from i o feet to 1 1 feet 6 inches long, 1 7 inches in 
 girth at the thick end and 14 inches at the other. These 
 faggots form the basis of all fascine operations, and their 
 cost is from 55. to 73. per hundred. Fascines under water 
 are chiefly used in the form of what in English is termed 
 indifferently " mattress " or " cradle " ; and Mr. T. C. 
 Watson, M. Inst. C. K, has so clearly described their con- 
 struction, that his account may with advantage be here 
 reproduced almost verbatim. 
 
 The first requisites for a mattress are the ropes of fascines 
 (Fig. 8), which form a network above and below the mat- 
 tress, and are constructed as follows : Two stakes are 
 driven into the ground about 2 feet 6 inches apart, to which 
 is secured a cross stick about 2 feet 3 inches above the 
 ground. A series of these frames, about 2 feet apart, is 
 erected, the number being dependent on the size of the 
 mattress and consequent length of the rope. The stage 
 being ready, those bundles or fascines which have most 
 branches and twigs are opened and the contents placed on 
 the cross sticks of the stage, the brushwood being drawn 
 out lengthwise so that each bundle overlaps and bonds well 
 
7"4 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 into the next. They are laid of such thickness that, on 
 being bound round in the form of a rope, the girth is 
 17 inches. When the full length for one rope has been laid 
 out, it is tied at intervals of about 16 inches with osier 
 bands tightly twisted, their ends tucked under like a faggot 
 band. Lighter intermediate bands are then put on about 
 4 inches apart, and the rope is ready. The ropes are now 
 laid out on the ground in parallel rows 2 feet 6 inches to 
 3 feet 3 inches apart, to the full width of the proposed mat- 
 tress. These are crossed by a second layer at right-angles 
 to the first, thus forming a network the exact size of the 
 projected mattress, with meshes 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 
 
 3 inches square. 
 
 The site for making the mattress should be between high 
 and low water mark, for convenience of subsequent float- 
 ing ; it is, however, frequently prepared on the surface of 
 the water [but this method is much less convenient than 
 that of working on the ground, and probably is resorted -to 
 only when circumstances render the latter impossible]. 
 Every alternate crossing of the fascine-ropes is securely tied 
 with J-inch tarred rope, the ends of which are left about 
 
 4 feet long and temporarily secured to stakes thrust verti- 
 cally into the rope. The other crossings are secured by 
 bands of withe. The crossings on the two external rows 
 are generally lashed with rope. 
 
 The lower network, being now complete, is covered with a 
 layer of fascines one bundle thick ; a second course is laid 
 across the lower one, and a third at right-angles to the 
 second, the three layers being together about 18 inches 
 thick. A corresponding network of fascine-ropes is next 
 laid on, and fastened to the lower by the rope ends de- 
 scribed as being left over. 
 
THE BANK. 75 
 
 Mattresses are much employed in Holland as a founda- 
 tion for the bank where the ground is soft or yielding. 
 When the seat of the bank is below low- water mark, the 
 mattress for this purpose has to be floated out and sunk 
 in its destined place. In order to sink and hold it, it is 
 loaded with stones. To prevent these rolling to one side 
 in sinking, or on a sloping bottom, the upper surface of the 
 mattress is divided into rectangular cells, in the following 
 manner: Stakes are driven into the crossings of the fascine- 
 ropes and all round the edge of the mattress ; between 
 these, wattles are interwoven, three sticks together. When 
 the wattled work is about 7 to 9 inches high, the stakes are 
 driven down into the mattress, the tops remaining about 6 
 inches above the wattles, and the cells thus formed not only 
 serve to retain the ballast in place, but add greatly to the 
 strength of the mattress. 
 
 The position of the mooring posts, by which the mattress 
 is towed to its destination and held by cables and anchors 
 before sinking, is decided on when the lower grillage is being 
 formed, and always at a crossing. The fascine-ropes are 
 there worked much thicker, and securely bound with tarred 
 cord on each side of the crossing as well as to the upper 
 grillage. A large and heavy stake is now driven through 
 the mattress and stayed by six or seven others radiating from 
 it in a sloping direction. The posts thus secured cannot 
 give way without tearing the mattress. The mooring cables 
 are turned two or three times round the posts, so as to be 
 easily cast off when the mattress is sunk. 
 
 The mattress is now towed to its place and loaded with 
 stone so as just to float. Anchors are placed on all sides, 
 their number dependent on the velocity of the current, the 
 time chosen being about half an hour before the turn of the 
 
76 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 tide. Barges of from 10 to 15 tons burden, loaded with 
 stone, are secured to the edges of the mattress by ropes 
 (marked " sinking -line " on Fig. 8) running under the 
 fascine-ropes of the grillage, both ends being fast on board 
 the barge ; other vessels, with fresh supplies of stone, being 
 kept in reserve outside. The ballast is first carried by men 
 (standing on the mattress) towards the centre pockets, and 
 worked towards the outer edges. When the mattress begins 
 to sink in the centre, and the strain on the sinking-lines 
 becomes severe, a halt is called for a few minutes, while the 
 crews of the barges pile up their remaining cargo on the 
 planksheer of the vessel towards the mattress. This weight, 
 with the tension on the sinking-lines, gives the barges a 
 considerable list ; but being stout and of great beam they 
 stand it. At a given signal, every captain stands by the 
 sinking-line ; and at a second signal, all the lines are let go 
 simultaneously, the crews throwing out the stone as rapidly 
 as possible, to keep down the outer edges of the mattress, 
 which otherwise might be turned and rolled up by the current. 
 The vessels meet near the centre of the mattress, which 
 now lies on the bottom ; and the ballasting proceeds until a 
 load of about 3^ cwt. to 7 cwt. per square yard has been 
 deposited as evenly as possible over the whole surface. 
 
 Smaller mattresses are employed for building-up the faces 
 of the bank, and are made and sunk in the same manner. 
 Mattresses in foundation are laid so as to overlap each other 
 lengthwise about 3 feet 3 inches ; and, wherever used, care is 
 always taken that the joints of a course below are covered by 
 the course above. Although they will not wholly prevent the 
 bank from sinking in soft ground, this takes place regularly 
 and gradually : there is however a possibility of the mat- 
 tress being too weak to carry the weight of the bank in the 
 
THE BANK. 77 
 
 centre of its cross-section, and in consequence being torn 
 asunder longitudinally. When this happens, there is nothing 
 to be done save to add material until a solid bottom is 
 reached. In some cases, where the bottom is firm, as on 
 sand, and the bank much exposed only on one side, mat- 
 tressing is not used over the whole width, but only for 
 building-up the outer side to prevent the stuff forming the 
 body of the bank from being washed away during construc- 
 tion. 72 
 
 The cost of mattresses depends much upon local facilities 
 for procuring materials, but may be approximately estimated 
 at from is. to 55. per square yard : it is reckoned that twenty 
 men will construct a mattress 200 feet X 60 feet in four 
 days. The sinking, if all goes well, occupies about two 
 hours ; but the time and labour required for this operation 
 are wholly regulated by the circumstances of the case, and 
 these are variable to so great a degree that no reliable 
 estimate can be framed to apply to all cases. 
 
 Willow mattressing is said by Mr. W. H. Wheeler, 
 in his account of the groynes at Scheveningen, to last 
 not longer than about twenty years. 73 Groynes, how- 
 ever, are exposed to alternations of wet and dry, which 
 may perhaps shorten the duration of the mattressing. More- 
 over, in the case of a bank, it is not unreasonable to expect 
 that in the course of twenty years the work will be so settled 
 that its stability would not be affected even by the decay 
 of the mattress : there does not appear to be any record of 
 its needing renewal, nor of injury to a bank owing to such 
 a cause. 
 
 Mattresses are employed in the United States chiefly as a 
 protection to river-banks, especially on the Mississippi. 
 The mode of their construction differs in many respects 
 
7 8 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 from European practice, canes and saplings being used 
 along with brushwood, and wire and even steel cables for 
 binding the fabric. They are frequently put together on 
 specially-built barges with sloping platforms for convenience 
 of launching. Their dimensions are occasionally enormous : 
 mention is made of some measuring from 1228 x 152 feet 
 to 1750 x 175 feet, and of one 2010 x 1 7 5 feet or upwards 
 of 8 acres in extent. 74 Those employed in European 
 practice for sea-works are smaller, their dimensions usually 
 not exceeding from 164 x 92 feet to 197 x 78 feet, or a 
 little over 15,000 superficial feet; one sunk in 1856, near 
 Flushing, measured an acre. 
 
 Fascine-work for protection of slopes above low-water, in 
 Holland is thus made : Reeds are laid horizontally along 
 the line of bank to a thickness of i inch ; at right-angles 
 across these are laid faggots, 5 or 6 inches in middle 
 diameter, their thinner end pointing up the slope, forming 
 horizontal layers along the line of bank, the thick end of 
 the faggots in each layer overlapping the thin end of those 
 in the layer below. Through these, at intervals of 14 inches, 
 are driven stakes about 4 feet long, forming rows parallel to 
 the line of bank and from 16 inches to 2 feet apart. The 
 heads of the stakes are left 8 inches above the faggots, and 
 are bound together with wattles after the manner of hurdle 
 work. When this wattling is complete, it is driven down 
 with a mallet onto the fascines, and a peg or key is fixed 
 through the head of every fourth or fifth stake to prevent 
 the wattles from lifting. If the proper sort of wood is used, 
 this protection will last from five to seven years, and is 
 quite able to resist the action of the tide. In English prac- 
 tice each layer recedes by about 12 or 18 inches from the 
 one below it, forming steps ; and when the layers are hori- 
 
THE BANK. 79 
 
 zontal the work is termed *' rise-heading " : when the fascines 
 lie horizontal and the layers up and down the slope it is 
 termed " arming." The protection is the strongest of all 
 temporary ones. So effective is it, in fact, as to be not un- 
 frequently treated as a permanent form though periodically 
 needing repair and partial renewal. It is sometimes loaded 
 with stone filled in and firmly wedged between the rows of 
 stakes, 8J cwt. to the square yard. In England it is said 
 to last three or four years ; and the cost without stone may 
 be taken at about is. 6d. per square yard. 
 
 In Denmark, the arrangement is somewhat different from 
 either of the foregoing. The fascines, about 10 feet long 
 and 3 feet in middle girth, are laid side by side about i foot 
 6 inches apart, their length lying up and down the slope ; the 
 brushwood composing them is then spread out, making a 
 continuous layer 6 inches thick. Obliquely across this are 
 laid fascine-bands, i foot 6 inches apart, fixed by stakes 
 driven into the bank, and the intervening spaces packed 
 with stone. For securing the foot of a bank, fascines, 
 their inner ends sunk in the bank and inclining downwards, 
 are placed close together side by side, and secured by 
 stakes driven through into the bank. The tops of the 
 stakes project 8 or 9 inches and are wattled together, and 
 each layer is covered with broken stone. Upon the first 
 layer another is similarly laid and secured, the outer end 
 retiring : it is customary to place four or five layers, giving 
 a height of 6 or 8 feet. The steps formed by the layers, 
 are packed with stone. 75 This forms an excellent toe- 
 protection, and is illustrated in Fig. 9. It is to be noted 
 that, in order to avoid needless repetition, the foregoing 
 descriptions of fascine-work include an account of that used 
 for constructive purposes and for permanent as well as 
 
80 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 temporary protection. For permanent protection of other 
 descriptions see infra pp. 120-131. 
 
 Where reeds are easily procurable, they form a useful 
 temporary protective covering for slopes likely to be covered 
 by only a few extraordinary high floods. The reeds are cut 
 while green, laid to a thickness of 4 inches, and secured by 
 long pegs wattled together. It is said to last about a year, 
 and to cost about 6d. or yd. per square yard. 
 
 The application of straw as a protection, has no univer- 
 sally-recognized name in English. " Straw thatching " best 
 explains the nature of the thing ; but as it is also variously 
 termed " straw band," "straw mat," " cramp mat," &c., we 
 shall employ the Dutch term " krammat," comprehending 
 as it does all these several names. It is used on slopes and 
 berms above low-water level where the wash is not great. 
 Wheat or rye straw is combed-out straight, and spread 
 closely over the surface (its direction up and down the 
 slopes, sometimes diagonally) in a layer of from i to 3 inches 
 thick. This is kept in place by well-twisted straw bands 
 about 4 inches in girth, laid at right-angles to the straw, a 
 loop or bight of the band being thrust 6 or 8 inches down 
 into the bank at intervals of about 6 inches. Sometimes the 
 bands are pinned down with strong forked pegs or twigs. 
 The straw bands are laid about 2 feet apart. This form of 
 protection, although possessing some disadvantages, par- 
 ticularly as regards durability, is considered most generally 
 advantageous by reason of the rapidity with which it can be 
 applied and its cheapness. It is used under urgent circum- 
 stances, where loss of time would mean risk of damage to 
 the work, as for example during construction, or before the 
 surface is grass-clad ; and also where fresh earth has been 
 used for repairs. It costs about 2 ^d. or 3d. per square yard, 
 
THE BANK. 
 
 8l 
 
 and will last from 
 6 to 12 months. 
 In Holstein, straw 
 protection is de- 
 scribed as being 
 made thus : The 
 men employed 
 kneel with their 
 backs to the sea, 
 having beside 
 them bundles of 
 straw, of which 
 they make ropes 
 an inch or two in 
 thickness. When 
 they have made 
 one about a foot 
 long, they press 
 the middle part of 
 it into the soil of 
 the bank to the 
 depth of several 
 inches with a kind 
 of forked chisel, 
 the two points of 
 which prevent the 
 rope from opening 
 while pressed 
 down by the flat 
 part between 
 them. With that 
 end of the rope 
 
82 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 which remains out, they interweave fresh straw, and when 
 it is sufficiently lengthened they again press it down into 
 the bank at a distance of 5 or 6 inches from the former 
 place. This work is carried on all along the bank from the 
 top to the bottom, each new rope being laid close to the 
 preceding as regularly as in a beehive. The grass soon 
 springs up between the straw ropes, and after a while entirely 
 conceals them. 76 
 
 Mr. Wiggins mentions some other materials as being 
 suitable for temporary protection. " The refuse of flax," 
 he says, " would also doubtless suffice for a time to prevent 
 the abrasion of the soil by the waves, and so would rushes 
 or flags. Any kind of linen or coarse woven fabric, such 
 as hop-bagging or the like, would doubtless temporarily 
 protect the soil from further damage, where the turfy cover- 
 ing might be torn up, and so would wads of sea -weed. 
 These latter indeed are much relied on for the sea-banks of 
 the islets near Portsmouth." 77 Sea- weed, weighted with 
 stone or otherwise secured, has been employed in Denmark, 
 and its use has been strongly recommended by a Danish 
 Dyke-Inspector. Gunny-bagging may also be added to the 
 list of useful materials for protective purposes. 
 
 Permanent protection will be treated - of later on. 
 Some of the foregoing methods are suitable for that as well 
 as for temporary purposes, and in order to save repetition 
 have been in this place described because they belong to 
 the general class of fascine-work, straw-work, and the like. 
 With reference to all methods of surface-protection, how- 
 ever, whether temporary or otherwise, it is to be observed 
 that none save the throwing-in of rubble or similar material 
 to find its own slope and take its chance of remaining, is in 
 practice available for places more than a very small depth 
 
THE BANK. 83 
 
 below the lowest tide level, since they cannot be applied at 
 any considerable depth without coffer-damming or other 
 expensive means of laying dry the surface. 
 
 The construction of a bank seated below low-water 
 mark proceeds in general as follows. If the bottom is 
 weak, a layer of mattresses is first put down, as already 
 described. Upon this or upon the ground itself if 
 satisfactory and firm are raised two longitudinal banks 
 of narrower mattresses, one on the land side and the other 
 on the sea side, at such a distance apart as to be just in- 
 cluded within the width of the bank, each successive layer 
 retiring inwards from the one below. As fast as these are 
 sunk in position and weighted down, the hearting of the 
 bank is filled-in between them. When the bank is thus 
 brought up to near the level of low- water, the work pro- 
 ceeds in much the same manner as if the seat were at that 
 level. Banks have been thus constructed in a depth of as 
 much as 2 7 feet of water, and with such success that even 
 when the hearting was chiefly sand none was washed 
 away. The foot of the bank, and the slopes below 
 low-water, should be fortified with rubble stone tipped in 
 sufficient quantity to repose at its natural slope. In some 
 cases, where the bank is not much exposed on one side, 
 only one lateral dam is needed to prevent the stuff forming 
 the hearting or body of the bank from being washed away 
 during construction. 
 
 The objection to fascine-work thus executed below low- 
 water level is its slowness, since the mattresses can be 
 sunk only during calm weather and at or about low-water. 
 And the durability of fascines so employed seems to be as 
 yet an open question. For these reasons, as well as 
 
84 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 for those given at pp. 28, 29, it is probable that only 
 under special circumstances will a bank be so seated : the 
 method of proceeding in its construction is, however, given 
 in order to meet such cases. 
 
 In the case of a bank seated above low-water mark, it 
 has to be decided where and of what width the openings 
 for influx and efflux of tide during construction are to be. If 
 the site is intersected by a stream or streams of land-water 
 (as distinguished from creeks and rills of tidal water alone), 
 these have to be dealt-with in a special manner, and their 
 discharge provided for, as hereafter described at pp. 132-139. 
 If there are no such streams, or if they cannot be so 
 dealt-with as to be utilised for the ebb and flow of the tide, 
 openings must be left in the bank for that purpose. The 
 width requisite for these openings is a matter of high im- 
 portance, because the difficulties of construction occasioned 
 by the tide do not necessarily increase with the size of the 
 area to be reclaimed, but depend to a very great extent 
 upon scour caused by the alternate filling and emptying 
 of that area as the embankment proceeds. From an 
 elaborate calculation made by Mr. J. M. Heppel, 
 M. Inst. C.E., 78 it would appear that while, as an approxi- 
 mate rule, the openings left for final closing should have 
 an aggregate width extending down to the foot of the 
 bank or to low- water mark as the case may be amounting 
 to i foot for every 10 acres of the area to be en- 
 closed, additional openings for influx and efflux during 
 construction must be left, their aggregate width depending 
 on conditions that vary for each particular case, and 
 needing to be calculated accordingly. In illustration of 
 the difference in practice occasioned by different conditions, 
 
THE BANK. 85 
 
 it may be remarked that in reclaiming a piece of land ot 
 1,000 acres, by a bank three-quarters of a mile in length 
 the seat of which was 6 feet below high-water mark, only a 
 single opening, 7 chains in width, was left. In another 
 case, in reclaiming an area of 1,700 acres, by a bank four 
 miles in length the seat of which was 8 feet below high- 
 water mark, three openings, respectively of 5 chains, 7 
 chains, and 1 2 chains in width, were needed. In neither 
 case was the speed of the outgoing current materially 
 increased during the progress of the works, nor indeed 
 until the cross-section of the openings was diminished. In 
 completing the latter of these two works, the aprons of two 
 of the openings were raised 18 inches or 2 feet at a time, by 
 woodwork, stone, and clay. It was expected that the cur- 
 rent would increase in the third opening when the other 
 two were raised ; but this was found not to be the case, as 
 the water within the enclosure did not rise to so high a 
 level as that without, and in fact never attained to high- 
 water mark. 79 
 
 Respecting the situation of the openings to be left for 
 final closing or " shutting-up," Mr. Wiggins makes a sug- 
 gestion that calls for notice. Much judgment, as he points 
 out, is required in choosing the place of shutting-up. 
 This is often fixed at the deepest part or main channel [he 
 is here speaking of existing creeks &c.], as the natural 
 inlet and outlet of the tide, and sometimes no other can be 
 adopted ; but it will be matter of serious thought, whether 
 the shutting-up could not with advantage take place on 
 higher ground, and the main channel be previously crossed 
 by the bank. " It is true," he continues, " that this will 
 impound a lake inside, of the same extent and depth as the 
 channel, but this water will be ultimately worked out by 
 
86 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 the sluices ; and by having higher ground to shut up on, 
 longer time will be gained for working between tides, and 
 less material will suffice. It should also be considered 
 whether two or more ' gaps ' for final closing are not pre- 
 ferable to one." 80 
 
 It is not, however, always advisable to carry the bank 
 over, and wholly close, the natural channels in the first 
 instance. In fact as will be seen in the case of the work 
 at Sunk Island hereafter mentioned (p. 102), especially 
 when judged-of in connexion with the always critical and 
 sometimes costly and laborious operation of shutting-up 
 economy of time and expense may be effected by judiciously 
 turning them to account. The importance of Mr. Wiggins's 
 remarks, and the value of the suggestion concerning the 
 selection of ground higher than the bed of the deepest 
 channel for at least some of the closure-places, will never- 
 theless be generally admitted ; and as they touch the 
 question of how best to deal with existing creeks and such- 
 like natural passages for ebb and flow of tidal water, this 
 subject will be here considered. 
 
 In the case of a bank whose seat is below low-water 
 mark, such creeks should always be at once filled-up over 
 the whole width occupied by the seat of the bank. Where 
 the depression of their bed below the general surface of the 
 ground is only a yard or so and the slope of their sides is 
 gentle, this will be sufficiently effected by the mattressing 
 (if any) and the other materials laid down in forming the 
 base of the bank itself. If the bed is deeper, or its sides at 
 all steep, it is best to bring it up to the general level of the 
 ground with suitable filling before laying down the bottom 
 of the bank. When the seat of the bank is at or above 
 low-water mark, all creeks whose bed (either naturally, or 
 
THE BANK. 
 
 8-1 
 
 
 
88 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 after the loose mud and slush have been taken out of it) is 
 below low-water mark i.e. all such as contain water at low- 
 tide, should be at once permanently brought up to that 
 level. The procedure in both cases is illustrated in Fig. TO, 
 and the description given at pp. 75, 76 applies, on a 
 smaller scale. In the case of a creek where the seat of the 
 bank is above low-water mark, there is far less difficulty in 
 the operation, and when the bed has been brought up to 
 low-water level mattresses are no further required. The 
 total width of opening for tidal flow and ebb, when deter- 
 mined (ante, p. 84), should be made up by creek 
 widths, which will in almost all cases suffice. Any deficiency 
 has to be made up by intervals left in the earthwork. 
 Creeks (if any) in excess of the needful openings should be 
 cleared of slush and soft mud, bottomed with brushwood, 
 furze, or the like, filled-up with clay well rammed and 
 beaten down, and the bank carried over them. Of all the 
 openings, whether on the site of creeks or otherwise, it is to 
 be especially noted, that they must be substantially paved 
 with well-bedded stone or concrete, laid over the whole 
 space to be occupied by the bank and fanned-out for at 
 least 30 feet beyond on the land side and not less than 
 60 feet on the sea side if the foreland is sufficiently wide : if 
 not, then carried to lowest water mark. When stone and 
 concrete are quite out of the question, the best shift will 
 be made with planking, laid across the set of the in-and-out 
 current, close-jointed, and securely fixed in place. The 
 sides of the openings must also be protected as the bank is 
 raised, by strong fascine-work and clay, up to the highest 
 tide level. No reasonable expense should be spared in 
 this paving and protection of the openings : the stability of 
 the bank itself, and success or failure in the final closure, 
 
THE BANK. 89 
 
 depending upon its soundness. For a reclamation of 7,000 
 acres on Dengie Flats, Mr. G. W. Hemans, M. Inst. C. E., 
 proposed to have four or five outlets, each from 100 to 200 
 feet wide, for the purpose of draining out the water : that 
 these openings should be provided with stone sides and 
 proper aprons and, where necessary, with inverts ; and that 
 the openings should be of such a width that at every ebb 
 tide the inside area would be dry, so that the work of raising 
 the banks could be carried on. Each opening should, 
 in the first instance, be converted into an apron of stone, 
 of sufficient size to resist the velocity of the water. 81 
 
 The situation and dimensions of the sluices have also 
 to be determined and the sluices constructed, before the 
 bank is commenced, or at latest before the earthwork 
 reaches the spots at which they are to be placed. Their con- 
 struction will be dealt with when treating of Drainage. Their 
 capacity of discharge is not to be included in calculating 
 the dimensions of the outlets above mentioned ; and their 
 doors should be kept shut until the time arrives for closing 
 the bank, so that in case of need they may be opened to 
 assist the outflow and relieve the temporary openings should 
 scour anywhere be noticed. 
 
 Should there be any weak spots on the seat of the in- 
 tended bank, they have to be cleared out if not too deep, 
 and filled with sound material. If too deep to be com- 
 pletely cleared, they should if possible be so for a yard or a 
 yard-and-a-half down, fascines in two thicknesses at right- 
 angles to each other laid over the bottom, and the place 
 filled with sound stuff If the whole or any extensive part 
 of the site is weak, a foundation of mattresses should be 
 
QO RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 laid, and it will be matter for consideration whether in 
 such a case it would not be advisable after clearing out 
 and filling the weakest spots as mentioned above to let 
 the mattressing extend over sound and weak places alike 
 until the whole area affected by weak spots is covered and 
 a sounder portion of surface reached. 
 
 It may be that the seat, although not unsound in respect 
 of bearing-power as a foundation for the bank, appears to 
 be defective as regards impermeability. In the United 
 States of America, means of cutting off percolation under 
 the bank have been tried, and successfully. In the Mis- 
 sissippi valley it is the almost invariable practice of the 
 levee Engineers to put in what is termed a "muck ditch" 
 under the embankments, that is, to excavate a portion of 
 the natural soil and to replace it by strong well-tamped 
 clay, causing a projection as it were of the embankment 
 into the ground, after the manner of a tongued and grooved 
 joint. The object of this is to supply as far as possible the 
 want of a foundation extending to an impermeable stratum, 
 and to stop at least a part of the leakage, by substituting a 
 tight for a porous soil for part of the depth ; and it 
 gives the water a somewhat longer distance to traverse in 
 order to get through. It is thought to be especially indi- 
 cated in sandy soils. Occasionally sheet-piling has been 
 used to a limited extent, and it has been proposed to put 
 in longitudinal diaphragms or vertical walls or cores of 
 cement or concrete, but neither in the United States nor 
 in Holland have these expedients had a fair trial. Even 
 muck ditches, though known to the Dutch Engineers, are 
 not much favoured by them. They think they do not 
 extend deep enough to do much good, and cannot be 
 rendered efficient without great expense. What is the use, 
 
THE BANK. 9 1 
 
 they say, of going six or eight feet into a sand stratum 
 which is twenty or thirty feet thick? Nevertheless, the 
 experience of American Engineers is that muck ditches, 
 when of considerable dimensions and well filled and tamped, 
 perform an important part in arresting percolation. The 
 levees built on the Mississippi since 1890 have muck ditches 
 1 2 feet wide at the top, 6 feet wide at the bottom, and 
 6 feet deep. During a flood in 1891, these levees and the 
 land behind them were unusually dry, though previously 
 very much affected by percolation. 82 Similar contrivances 
 seem to be in use in Denmark, although perhaps not to a 
 great extent. Where good materials cannot be procured 
 in sufficient quantities for the formation of the bank, " it is 
 necessary to fill up the interior with clay, laid a considerable 
 depth in the ground, as experience has shown that the water 
 will, without this precaution, sometimes find its way through 
 the ground, and issue behind the dyke," 83 When the 
 stratum, from which danger is apprehended of percolation 
 under the bank, is close to the surface, the thinness of the 
 strong top soil may be remedied by artificial means. A 
 layer of several feet of earth, forming a berm or banquette, 
 may be placed upon the natural surface on the inner or 
 land side of the dyke to serve as a counterpoise to the 
 upward pressure of the external water, or on the outer side to 
 add weight to the top soil and compress the permeable 
 stratum as well as to remove the source of percolation to a 
 greater distance. The upward pressure of the water in the 
 soil when far removed from its source is so diminished by 
 friction that it ceases to be dangerous. There are numerous 
 examples of interior and exterior banquettes in the Holland 
 dykes, of various dimensions from 3 to 10 feet high and 
 20 to 100 feet wide, the inner banquette being the one 
 
92 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 most frequently adopted. 84 In reference to the foregoing 
 and to the woodcut accompanying it in the original, it is 
 to be remarked that it is open to question whether a hori- 
 zontal banquette on the outer side, thus described and 
 figured, might not be advantageously supplanted by employing 
 the same amount of material in an extension of the sea- 
 slope, which not only removes the maximum head of water 
 but also renders the bank stronger to resist the action of 
 waves and the run of the sea. Indeed, this appears to be 
 recognised by Dutch Engineers, for it is immediately added 
 that the new South Linge dyke has banquettes, their cross- 
 section being usually a long convex segment whose chord 
 has a slope of from i in 5 to i in 10. In place of a ban- 
 quette, an ingenious device is very commonly employed 
 in the United States of America, and occasionally in Hol- 
 land. A low interior cradge- or inset-bank is constructed, 
 distant 20 or 30 feet or more from the main bank and 
 returned into it at each end, forming an enclosure which is 
 allowed to fill with the water percolating beneath the bank. 
 The water thus impounded exerts a counter-pressure against 
 the external water, and relieves the ground or the banquette 
 inside from some of the upward pressure. 85 
 
 If the materials available for construction of the bank 
 cannot be relied-on as sufficiently good to prevent percola- 
 tion through the body of the bank itself, it may be necessary 
 to arrange for the carrying-up of a central core along a 
 portion or even the whole length of the bank. It is true that 
 a good facing of clay will as a general rule suffice to prevent 
 water from penetrating to the interior ; but there are circum- 
 stances under which it may be desirable to provide additional 
 safeguard. A core of pis, to which reference has already 
 been made (ante, p. 68), is well worth consideration on 
 
THE BANK. 93 
 
 account of its cheapness as compared with clay puddle or 
 concrete, and will in the majority of cases answer the purpose. 
 Whether this, or concrete, or puddle is adopted, it will be 
 founded on the clay in the muck ditch if one has been put 
 in : where this has not been needed owing to soundness of 
 the natural surface, it may be founded directly on that sur- 
 face, and carried pari passu with the bank and a little in 
 advance of it as to height, so as to allow the frames or 
 planking within which it is brought up, to remain undisturbed 
 until it has set, before being drawn. The height to which it 
 is carried must depend upon the more or less reliable nature 
 of the material forming the bank : half the height between 
 the seat of the bank and high -water will generally suffice, 
 and it will rarely need to extend above ordinary high- water 
 level. 
 
 Sheet-piling has also been recommended as a core for 
 prevention of percolation below or through the bank : there 
 are cases in which it would be more efficacious than those 
 above mentioned. Its location in the centre of the bank 
 would protect it against the teredo that great enemy of 
 timber-construction in sea-works : its extensive employment 
 in Holland and elsewhere even where quite exposed, seems to 
 sufficiently dispose of objections sometimes urged against its 
 durability; and in some situations it might be preferable 
 even on the score of economy. 
 
 As a protection against percolation owing to weakness of 
 the material of the bank, as well as that caused by the 
 burrowing of rats, crabs, and other creatures, it has been 
 proposed by Mr. Driggs, of New York, to form a core or 
 diaphragm of cast-iron plates, thin and sharp at the bottom, 
 and of sufficient length to reach both the high and the low 
 water marks. They are made to fit together at the sides so 
 
94 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 as to form a continuous wall, and are pressed or driven down 
 into the bank. 86 
 
 The toe of the bank should be put in before the earth- 
 work on that section is commenced. Whether the sea-slope 
 is to be stone-faced or not, the toe should if possible 
 be of stone or concrete, sunk 18 inches or more below the 
 natural surface of the shore and carried up 2 feet or 2 feet 
 6 inches above that surface, which if at all tender should be 
 excavated behind it to not less than a foot deep and filled 
 with sound and well-rammed stuff. Filling and ramming is 
 to be continued until a good solid backing some 6 or 8 feet 
 wide, with a slope on top of 5 or 6 to i inwards, is formed 
 up to the top of the toe-wall. Where the cost of stone or 
 concrete is too great, or local conditions as for example 
 the nature of the foreland, the sheltered situation of the 
 bank, or other circumstances render their employment 
 unnecessary, the foot of the bank can be protected by a row 
 of piles 5 or 6 feet apart, parallel and close to it, driven into 
 the foreland and sheeted with 2^-inch or 3-inch planking with 
 close and well-backed joints, and thoroughly coated with 
 tar. This, if kept low say not more than 2 feet or 2 feet 
 3 inches high, and placed not against the slope but at the 
 point where it runs out, forms a good revetment, and the 
 filling and ramming behind it is done as above described 
 for a stone or concrete footing, and carried back level on 
 top until it meets the slope. There are some situations in 
 which groynes are said to be preferred even to a stone toe. 
 In Holland, " wherever the shores are exposed to heavy 
 prevailing storms, the outer slopes of the dykes are de- 
 fended by banks 50 yards, or 60 yards apart, running out 
 from the face mostly at right angles, and intended to break 
 
THE BANK. 95 
 
 the first shock of the waves. This method is preferred to 
 placing masonry on the toe of the dyke. These protecting 
 banks, or groynes are of various kinds," 87 and are described 
 as being of a very substantial character. In such cases, it is 
 probable (although not so stated) that fascine- work similar 
 to that described at p. 79 and illustrated in Fig. 9 is 
 employed to strengthen the toe. To the passage just 
 quoted it is added that " where the foreshore is very long, a 
 parallel shore-work [presumably of like construction with the 
 groynes described], with occasional openings, is laid down 
 at spring tide level." The question of longitudinal protec- 
 tive works will be more fully considered when treating of 
 groynes. 
 
 Whatever the kind of footing adopted, it must ever be 
 borne in mind that expenditure is well incurred upon this 
 feature, as a safeguard against continual loss of material at 
 the commencement, and risk of undermining by washing- 
 out during the progress, of the bank. 
 
 The official General Regulations ("Algemeene Voor- 
 schriften ") of Holland require that when an embankment is 
 designed to keep out water, the seat must be broken with 
 a spade or plough to the depth of 8 inches, and chopped 
 fine. This applies also to existing earthworks to which the 
 new work is to be joined. And in our own country it is a 
 general opinion that the seat of a bank should be more or 
 less pecked-up or stepped in order that the earthwork may 
 have a good junction with the ground. The idea is correct 
 in theory and, as regards an embankment on dry land, 
 especially where the ground has any considerable slope, in 
 practice also. In embanking on a nearly level tide-washed 
 shore however, it may in practice be a question whether, if 
 
96 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 the ground is originally firm and sound, it is not best to 
 leave it undisturbed save for insertion of the stone or con- 
 crete of the toe. 
 
 The materials for the bank have to be procured, partly or 
 wholly, either on the spot or from a distance ; and these two 
 points require some consideration. 
 
 Respecting the first of these cases, Mr. Wiggins remarks 
 as follows 88 : "Where the material si the slob or shore to 
 be embanked is applicable to the building of the bank, much 
 expense and delay may be avoided, and there can be but 
 few cases where that material is wholly inapplicable, 
 since any soil which is so entirely devoid of argillaceous 
 matter, as to require to be wholly rejected, can hardly be a 
 fit subject for an intake. In general, indeed, the whole or 
 nearly the whole of any sea-bank may be thrown up from 
 its own vicinity, either by means of barrows running on 
 planks, or by horses and carts . . . ; and one of the advan- 
 tages of these modes is, that as much force as is wished may 
 be employed along the line, and the work done in the 
 shortest time possible, i.e. within the working days of one 
 season, reckoning 200 days from the ist of March to the 
 ist of November, so as to obviate the necessity of leaving 
 the unfinished bank . . . for a whole winter. In cases where 
 all the bank cannot safely be built with the material on the 
 spot, it will be necessary to determine what portion of it that 
 material is fit for, since it may be extremely ineligible in a 
 wet state, but quite the contrary when dry. It may often be 
 highly eligible for the parts above ordinary springs, or for the 
 front of the bank beneath the stone-work, when it sets hard 
 after being wet, or it may do for the back of the bank, when 
 covered over with vegetable mould. All this must be well 
 
THE BANK. 97 
 
 considered, taking into account at the same time, that any 
 saving of expense which detracts from the stability and 
 permanency of the bank is very bad economy, and the worst 
 policy. Amongst other precautions in building a bank with 
 the materials which the line of bank affords, one is most 
 important, viz. to go out to some distance for them from the 
 sea-foot of the bank, so as to avoid causing deep water at 
 the immediate foot. Another precaution is to avoid favour- 
 ing any channels ; and to this end, digging away the earth 
 in spots with bars left between them. If the water comes 
 up at all turbid, these hollows will soon fill with warp. A 
 channel along the foot of the bank is particularly to be 
 avoided as probably mischievous. It seldom happens, in 
 the case under notice, that carts and horses can be largely 
 employed to collect the materials, by reason of their wetness 
 and softness, or from the rills and inequalities of the surface. 
 Planks, barrows, and ' box-horses,' are therefore the usual 
 implements employed; and ... it is an advantage of barrows 
 and planks, and in some degree of horses and carts, that 
 they admit of any number of hands being employed, so as to 
 exclude the sea in one season, this being of great import- 
 ance, in order to prevent its ravages upon an unfinished 
 bank. Thus it becomes expedient to have several reaches 
 or portions of the bank going on at once, by different gangs, 
 and this will occasion several gaps or places for closing, 
 which will be an advantage, since the force of the reflux tide 
 will be divided, and the closing more easily effected." 
 
 In constructing some embankments at Sunk Island in the 
 Humber, the contractor was required to use the soil exca- 
 vated in forming the drains, and the remainder was to be 
 taken from the ground lying outside the line of works, under 
 the restriction that the excavation was not to be made within 
 
 H 
 
Q8 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 6 feet of the outer slope nor to exceed 4 feet 6 inches in 
 depth, that the sides of the excavations nearest to the banks 
 should have a slope of not less than 2 to i, and that 
 channels should be provided for the purpose of discharging 
 the water that might accumulate in the pits after each tide. 
 The soil of Sunk Island so consolidates and unites as to be 
 perfectly compact and impervious to the pressure of water, 
 therefore no difficulty was experienced in that respect, and 
 the entire lines of banks formed by the material found in 
 situ proved from the first perfectly water-tight. The total 
 settlement of the bank along the shore of the river, in a 
 somewhat though not very exposed situation, amounted to 
 15 inches in a maximum height of 8 feet 10 inches, and is 
 said to have been due partly to the consolidation of the soil 
 composing the bank and partly to the subsidence of the 
 ground on which the bank was seated. 89 That this subsi- 
 dence of the ground was, in part if not chiefly, due to the 
 too great nearness of the borrow-pits on the foreland, seems 
 probable; because another portion of the bank, 7 feet 6 inches 
 maximum height, seated on firmer ground and lying very 
 sheltered along Patrington Channel (a narrow muddy creek 
 then rapidly silting up), underwent very little settlement. 
 
 The precautions specified by Mr. Wiggins, viz. to avoid 
 excavating material too near the bank, and to so arrange 
 the borrow-pits as to prevent the formation of channels in 
 the foreland, are carefully observed in embankment- works 
 in Denmark and Holland. Wherever suitable material is to 
 be had outside the bank, it is always used, care being taken 
 that the excavations are not cut in a direction parallel with 
 the current, nor continuously in connexion with one another, 
 the natural surface being left undisturbed between them for 
 a width of from 17 to 20 feet, to prevent the formation of a 
 
THE BANK. 99 
 
 channel, the scouring- out of the foreland, or other injury. 
 Where circumstances make it necessary to obtain material 
 from inside the bank, the utmost care is exercised in doing 
 so, and a breadth of from 50 to 80 feet of natural surface is 
 left undisturbed along the inner foot of the bank. The 
 Dutch regulations prescribe that no excavation in the fore- 
 land shall be less than 33 feet from the outer foot of the 
 bank, and that the strips of undisturbed natural surface shall 
 be not more than 328 feet apart 
 
 As regards stone, fascines, and timber, it is commonly the 
 case that these are not found on the spot, and that almost 
 as a matter of course they have to be brought thither. But 
 it also occasionally happens that the materials at hand for 
 the earthwork of the bank are unsuitable as to quality or 
 insufficient in quantity ; and it then becomes a serious ques- 
 tion, whether to make shift with inferior materials and to 
 supply the lack of others by substitution as best one can, or 
 to incur the sometimes considerable expense of obtaining 
 better or more abundant ones from elsewhere. This point 
 is calculated to test and tax in no small degree the skill and 
 ingenuity of the Engineer, the embanking of an intake for 
 agricultural purposes being seldom an undertaking in which 
 cost is of trifling moment ; and the decision calls for careful 
 thought and sound judgment on his part. By augmenting 
 the bulk or adjusting the slopes of the bank and protecting 
 it with additional facing and the like : by making-up the 
 deficiency of one material with another as for example 
 that of stone with concrete, or that of both with timber ; or 
 by other devices and means good and substantial work 
 may be constructed even with inferior materials and scanty 
 resources. The conditions of the problem are different in 
 every individual case, and it is not possible here to offer 
 
100 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 any specific advice in assistance of that judgment. The 
 following general considerations may, however, be found 
 suggestive and useful. 
 
 " The expenses of the work will of course be greatly en- 
 hanced, not only by reason of the transport of earthy matter 
 from a distance, but also by reason of having to purchase 
 the material, as well as to transport it, and form the bank. 
 There are, however, some advantages as a set-off against the 
 expense in this alternative, such as the avoidance of the loss 
 of any part of the valuable ground to be embanked : and 
 what is of still more importance, the avoidance of cutting 
 away the fore shore or foreland lying outside the bank, and 
 so deepening the water immediately outside the bank, and 
 consequently increasing the power of the sea upon it. Still 
 the additional cost will seem at first . . . perhaps more so 
 than it really is, when all the advantages are considered ; 
 for besides those just mentioned, there is the advantage of 
 not losing material thus collected, in anything like the ratio 
 which is inevitable where that [of inferior quality] on the spot 
 is used, and the further advantage in all cases, over sandy 
 material on the spot, of having ultimately a much more safe 
 and substantial bank than any such sandy material would 
 furnish, and probably a consequent saving of bulk or stone- 
 work, equal to the additional expense of a better, though a 
 more distant material; besides which, something may be 
 reckoned for the advantage of earth capable of immediately 
 bearing fresh-water plants, instead of waiting many months 
 before that kind of security can be obtained." 90 
 
 While on the subject of obtaining material, it may be 
 mentioned that in the Eastern Counties a local custom 
 exists for measurement of earthwork for embankment works. 
 "The labour attending the removal of heavy clay is measured 
 
THE BANK. IOI 
 
 either by the floor or by the cubic yard ; the floor is the 
 most local, and the cubic yard the most scientific and 
 universal measure. . . . The floor oi earth differs locally as 
 the perch differs; thus the statute perch is 16^ feet, whilst 
 the marsh or sea- waller's perch is in some places 18 feet, 
 and in others 20 feet. So the floor of earth being the square 
 of the perch, and i foot deep, is either 324 feet (generally in 
 practice 320 feet), or 400 feet, as the one or the other perch 
 may locally prevail. It is important to recollect this in 
 putting out or settling for walling-work, since otherwise 
 much confusion and misunderstanding may arise, and sea- 
 walling being done at so much' per floor, may inadvertently 
 be measured and paid for by the square of the statute perch 
 or rod of 272 square feet, instead of 320 square feet or 400 
 feet, as the case may be. The floor in most general use is 
 that of 400 feet, which contains a trifle less than 15 cubic 
 yards, and that quantity is generally calculated. The floor 
 of 320 feet contains rather less than 12 yards cubic, and for 
 the sake of uniformity it is highly useful to reduce these 
 local measures into the more universal denomination of 
 cubic yards." 91 In Lincolnshire (and possibly elsewhere) 
 the same custom obtains. " Earthwork is always paid for 
 by the floor in Lincolnshire = 400 square feet, i foot deep 
 = 15 cubic yards." 92 
 
 The following detail is given of Dutch practice in the 
 actual execution of a bank, and indicates the general pro- 
 cedure advisable in similar work elsewhere : The grass is 
 first taken in regular sods from the excavations, and piled 
 on one side. The seat of the bank is cleared of all [soft] 
 mud, vegetable growth, and rubbish, either all at once or in 
 sections as the execution of the work may require. To 
 
102 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 allow for compression and settlement, the bank is built 
 higher than the intended finished work, by an amount vary- 
 ing according to the material and the mode of construction 
 and other circumstances from one-seventh to one-twentieth 
 of the intended finished height. To obviate too great 
 shrinkage [at any one time], the bank is carried-up in layers, 
 level longitudinally and somewhat sloping inwards trans- 
 versely, from 12 to 1 6 inches thick if carts are used, and 
 from 8 to 1 2 inches thick if built with wheelbarrows. Horses 
 and carts are greatly preferred to wheelbarrows, and should 
 be used if possible, at least in part. The teams must not 
 all travel precisely the same road along the work, but must 
 change their tracks constantly [this is probably with a view of 
 assisting consolidation]. The earth is well rammed : as a 
 general rule there should be one tamper to four shovellers. 
 Old cavalry horses are also used for treading-down and con- 
 solidating the earthwork. The earthwork being finished 
 and the slopes trimmed, the sods that have been taken up 
 and piled aside are then placed upon the slopes regularly in 
 rows, beginning at the bottom, closely fitted, beaten in place 
 with heavy wooden paddles or mallets, and covered with 
 fine earth. If sods cannot be had, the bank is sown with 
 clover-seed. 93 
 
 It is often convenient to carry- on a bank at several points 
 simultaneously in order to expedite the work. Where open- 
 ings are left for influx and efflux of the tide during construc- 
 tion, as mentioned at pp. 84, 85, this mode of execution 
 becomes inevitable. In carrying out the work at Sunk 
 Island, gangs of men were set on at several places along the 
 line, so as to raise the bank fully to the height of ordinary 
 spring-tides, but the principal natural creeks were left open 
 for the passage of tidal water. The creeks were afterwards 
 
THE BANK. 103 
 
 simultaneously filled up, and the whole embankment brought 
 to one level and to the full height required. 94 This bank, 
 nearly 3^ miles in length, was commenced in April : by the 
 beginning of July the tide was excluded from the land, and 
 in December the whole was completed. The economy of 
 time and trouble thus ingeniously effected by taking advan- 
 tage of the existing natural channels as tidal openings will 
 be best appreciated when we come to treat of the operation 
 of shutting up. 
 
 With exception of the method now generally approved for 
 closure work, perhaps no change in modern practice as con- 
 trasted with that prevailing in the early part of the nineteenth 
 century is more marked than in the manner of constructing 
 the earthwork of the bank itself: a change based, like the 
 other, upon the principle of reducing the velocity with which 
 the tide in its ebb and flow streams over the work in pro- 
 gress. It seems to have been invariably the custom to 
 carry-on the bank by pushing it forward at its full or nearly 
 its full intended height, from the two ends towards the 
 opening left for closure ; the idea probably being to en- 
 counter the sea with a mass the biggest possible, complete 
 so far as it extended. There does not appear to be any 
 mention of a different system of procedure in this country 
 prior to 1850. In 1852 Mr. Wiggins, a good practical 
 authority, who evidently spared no pains to bring up to 
 date his treatise on the subject, speaks of carrying-on at full 
 or nearly full height as being almost indispensable. " It 
 will be necessary," he says, " to use the precaution of build- 
 ing the bank from the two ends, approaching each other 
 towards the place of ' shutting up,' as it is called, i.e. closing, 
 or finally excluding the sea ; and each end should be of tlje 
 
104 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 full height, or at least the full height of spring tides; because 
 wherever the tide overflows an incipient bank, much of the 
 material is washed away, and the mischiefs that otherwise 
 happen are considerable. The bank therefore should be 
 built up to its safe height at once." And further on : 
 " Other precautions of a general nature are well worthy of 
 attention, viz. to raise the bank to its full height as soon as 
 possible, and to allow in so doing for its settling and shrink- 
 ing from one-eighth to one-fifth of its height." His men- 
 tioning as a point worth consideration the leaving of several 
 gaps for closure in preference to a single one, seems to show 
 that the practice was not a common one : it is the only 
 means he has to propose for obviating or diminishing the 
 difficulties thus described : " As the line of bank advances 
 along the shore, . . . precautions will probably be more 
 particularly requisite as the two ends of the bank approach 
 each other, towards the place of shutting up. The tidal way 
 will then be contracted, and the rush will be great, both of 
 the influx and reflux of tide. Much of the material at the 
 ends of the bank will thus be carried away, unless guarded 
 with turf kept down with stone during the flow of tide, and 
 removed at its reflux when the work is renewed." 95 
 
 The earliest mention of a change in English practice as 
 respects the raising of the bank to its full height from the 
 first, appears to be in 1862, when Mr. Gibbs, M. Inst. C.E., 
 who was well acquainted with Dutch embanking, stated that 
 by raising a closure-dam in horizontal layers, the velocity of 
 the water was not increased ; and that "he had constructed 
 an entire embankment upon the same principle. The 
 material of which it was composed was so deposited, that 
 at each tide, the top, as far as was practicable, presented a 
 level surface, for the water to pass over, and the scour of 
 
THE BANK. 105 
 
 the overflow was guarded against by temporary aprons." 
 Nothing is said as to the way in which the water on the 
 land side of the bank was got rid of when the tide fell. 
 This, if it remained, increasing in depth as the bank was 
 raised, might occasion much inconvenience. It is possible 
 that tidal openings, although not mentioned, were left, and 
 that the raising in horizontal layers refers, not to a wholly 
 continuous line of bank, but only to the sections between 
 those openings. The obvious objection to this as an ex- 
 planation is, the mention of guarding against the scour of 
 the overflow by temporary aprons unless by these is meant 
 a krammat or similar temporary covering to the slopes and 
 the top : had tidal openings been left there would have been 
 no overfall to guard against, the water slowly rising on both 
 sides of the bank and submerging it, and sinking again as 
 the tide ebbed. At any rate the difficulty, if there was one, 
 was overcome somehow, for it is added that the work was 
 successfully executed. 96 The advantages of the new 
 method were not long in being recognized. In 1864 Mr. 
 Heppel, speaking of the works proposed for a Reclama- 
 tion at Dengie Flats, describes a modified form of 
 it. " It is evident," he says, " supposing the banks to be 
 carried forward at their full height like a railway bank, that 
 as the open space left between them, for the passage of the 
 water in and out, is diminished, the velocity and scour 
 would increase; and when this open space became very 
 small, . . . the scour against the ends of the banks, and the 
 ground between them, would be very nearly the same as that 
 through the closing places ; and although the latter, having 
 been constructed with special reference to resisting such a 
 scour, would suffer no injury from it, there would obviously 
 be a great deal of difficulty, and risk of failure, in carrying 
 
106 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 forward an embankment exposed to its action. To avoid 
 this difficulty, it was intended to stop the carrying on of the 
 banks to their full height, as soon as any injurious amount 
 of scour should begin to show itself; and to make up the 
 intervals then remaining, over and above the final closing 
 places, by bringing up the banks, as evenly and simul- 
 taneously as possible, in horizontal layers. . . . The raising 
 of a bank, in horizontal layers, would have the effect of 
 continually diminishing the velocity of the water flowing 
 over it, so, that if any injurious action occurred, it would 
 most likely be at the commencement of the operation ; and 
 that if it did not then take place, no great apprehension 
 need be felt for the future stages of the work, even though 
 it should extend over several tides." 97 
 
 When circumstances require that the work should be 
 rapidly performed, and time is of more importance than 
 solidity of construction, the old mode of carrying the bank 
 forward by tipping from the end as in ordinary railway 
 work will probably be practised. Apart from the question 
 of scour and closing, it has the great drawback of depositing 
 material without any possibility of consolidation save by 
 the slow effect of pressure upon the lower portion by the 
 weight of the superincumbent mass, this of course diminish- 
 ing from the bottom upwards and becoming nil at the top. 
 In nearly all cases therefore, it may be assumed that whether 
 constructed in two continuous lengths or in several sections, 
 the bank will be raised in horizontal layers. In addition to 
 the advantage of obviating or greatly reducing scour, this 
 method possesses another in the facilities it affords for 
 properly consolidating the work throughout, the import- 
 ance whereof can scarcely be over-rated. Whatever the 
 
THE BANK. 1 07 
 
 material, " the most special care must be taken in putting 
 it together. Some banks have failed in consequence of the 
 sods even of clay being loosely thrown together by means 
 of planks and barrows, and mixed with loose earth : the 
 water thus being enabled to percolate the earth, surrounded 
 the sods, and rendered them almost buoyant, so that the 
 whole mass separated and dispersed ; whereas the loose 
 earth ought to have been either collected under the pressure 
 of carts and horses, or rammed down hard with iron-shod 
 rammers, and the sods placed carefully outside to defend 
 the most exposed part. . . . Horses and carts might, with 
 a little ingenuity, be so worked in collecting the material, 
 either on the spot or from a distance, that the weight of 
 the carts and the tread of the horses might be available 
 pretty uniformly over every portion of the bank ; and where 
 this is not done, the ramming of all the earth that is loosely 
 cast should be adopted, in order to consolidate and give it 
 that cohesion which is one ingredient in its strength, be- 
 sides preventing or checking its loss by the washing of the 
 tide, which latter effect alone would in some cases repay the 
 expense of ramming; and in one case I have known a 
 breach, and 10,000 acres, drowned, where ramming would 
 certainly have prevented that catastrophe." 98 
 
 The conveyance of material from a distance will be by 
 railway, tram, cart, or barge : of that obtained on the spot, 
 by tram, cart, or wheelbarrow. Our concernment here is 
 solely with the mode of its being actually brought to bank, 
 i.e. deposited in the place it is to occupy; and we shall 
 briefly consider those several modes, with special reference 
 to the question of consolidation as the work proceeds in a 
 bank built in horizontal layers. 
 
 Railway earth-wagons, and the smaller ones used on tram- 
 
108 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 ways of narrower gauge, are suitable up to a height of 
 perhaps 3 feet above the seat, in the case of a bank con- 
 structed in sections : when that height has been reached, 
 they are suitable only where, or so far as, the bank is con- 
 tinuous from one or both ends, or the rails carried 
 across the openings by a gantry, raised from time 
 to time as the bank rises. Unlike carts, they con- 
 tribute in their passage to and fro nothing to the consolida- 
 tion of the ground over which they travel, save the tread 
 of the horses by which they are drawn, or in the case of 
 trams propelled by hand, that of the men. Their rate of 
 delivery is so rapid, and of such considerable amount 
 a railway wagon holding about 2\ or 3 cubic yards, and a 
 tram about i or i cubic yard, according to size that 
 where, as usually the case, time is of importance, they are 
 undoubtedly serviceable. They should tip from the side ; 
 and the track should" be so laid that the stuff tipped along- 
 side it by a train of wagons will, when spread and well 
 rammed, form a layer along the bank 12 or 16 inches 
 thick, between the track and the edge of the bank. This 
 done, the rails are shifted so that each succeeding strip 
 shall fill-in between the track and the strip last completed. 
 Two or more tracks can be in use simultaneously; and 
 when the strips so formed cover the whole width of the 
 work, the first layer is complete. Upon this the tracks are 
 then laid and the second layer formed, and so on. 
 
 A barge contributes nothing to consolidation ; but stuff 
 so conveyed can be very quickly and easily brought to 
 bank if she is beached at high-water upon the foreland or 
 on the sea-slope where she will lie close to the work. Her 
 freight, unloaded as in coal- whipping, can by proper manage- 
 ment be discharged wholly or in part upon the spot where it 
 
THE BANK. 1OQ 
 
 is to lie, or into trams or barrows by which it may be run 
 thither. The amount of stuff that can at one time be 
 thus brought to bank, is limited only by the number of 
 barges for which there is berthage alongside the work. 
 
 Carts possess the recommendation of consolidating the 
 ground as they pass and repass ; and by constantly changing 
 their tracks a great deal may be accomplished in that way. 
 The dobbin or three-wheel cart is preferable to the ordinary 
 two-wheel one. Although it carries only about three- 
 quarters of a cubic yard, it is more easily hauled over a 
 soft and uneven surface, its three wheels distributing the 
 weight over more lines of pressure and therefore with less 
 tendency to sink in. Whether the cart used is the ordinary 
 one or the dobbin, its wheels should be extra broad in the 
 tire, so as to roll-down rather than cut-up the stuff already 
 banked. 
 
 Wheelbarrows, running as they must upon planks, are 
 useless as regards consolidation. They are however, handy 
 and manageable, and in many situations afford the only 
 practicable means of moving stuff. 
 
 Whatever the mode of bringing material to bank, and 
 whether its delivery be fast or slow ; it is never to be lost 
 sight of that the number of rammers must be proportioned 
 to the amount banked, and constantly maintained at the 
 full number required for the thorough performance of the 
 work. 
 
 Mr. Wiggins describes a mode of construction with clay, 
 which would seem to be, if properly performed, an excellent 
 one. " Stiff clay," he says, "requires to be very carefully 
 packed. This material, which is principally in use in Essex 
 for sea-walling, as embanking is there called, is taken from 
 the saltings or oozy forelands outside the walls, and is 
 
110 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 therefore in a wet state and very ponderous. It is dug in 
 spits, and packed into a sea-wall by a process called 'flood- 
 flanking, 1 the barrow-men delivering the spits to the packers, 
 who take each spit on a pitchfork, and striking it hard into 
 its place, it adheres closely ; but as these spits contract in 
 drying, the crevices outside are therefore filled with mud, 
 which is called ' sludging.' Yet, when the packing has not 
 been carefully performed, or the bulk of the sea-wall has 
 not afforded sufficient weight to close the clods on each 
 other, in drying, open spaces still continue, into which the 
 water penetrates on the sea side, and mice, rats, &c. on 
 the land side ; so that if not carefully watched and timely 
 mended, the water is let in to the interior, and a breach 
 ensues. . . . The labour attending sea-walls is performed 
 by gangs generally consisting of six runners to two fillers, 
 a lad to clean barrows and planks, and three men to pack 
 on the bank, these proportions, however, somewhat differ- 
 ing with weather, length of run, and other circumstances. . . . 
 A man will pack or ' store ' nearly as much as three men 
 can run . . ., and by this operation the 'spits 1 of earth 
 are made to fit, and the sorts of earth mixed properly." " 
 The work thus described is, however, expensive. According 
 to the prices quoted by Mr. Wiggins, it would cost from is. 
 to is. 6d. per cubic yard: at the present time it probably 
 could not be done under from is. 6d. to 25. 6d. 
 
 The foot of the landward slope of the bank, up to about 
 3 feet above the seat, should be of large spits of good clay 
 well packed together and sludged (grouted with clayey mud), 
 the courses extending 6 or 8 feet inwards and having a slope 
 inwards of about i in 6. The layers of earthwork in the 
 bank should have a slope of i in 60 landwards, up to high- 
 
THE BANK. Ill 
 
 water mark, from whence upwards they should run level 
 across the whole breadth of the work. 
 
 If the body of the bank is sand, or very sandy material, 
 it will be advisable that its exterior, both landward and sea- 
 ward, for at least 3 feet inward from the face, and up to the 
 very crown, be of well-packed and sludged clay spits, carried 
 up just in advance of the hearting, the courses tilting 
 inwards. 
 
 As the bank gradually rises, the land and sea slopes 
 should be approximately trimmed, beaten to a plane sur- 
 face, and, together with the top, protected by krammat or 
 other temporary covering before the tide reaches them. 
 
 The portion of the bank at its junction with the land is 
 not unfrequently apt to prove its most vulnerable part ; 
 and precautions should be observed accordingly. Its top 
 should rise somewhat towards the end : the inner and outer 
 slopes (especially the latter) should meet the solid ground 
 with a slight curve rather than run butt up against it, and 
 should be stepped or otherwise securely bonded into it. If 
 during wet weather water trickles down the natural surface 
 at this place, it should be diverted above by a drain dis- 
 charging it well clear of the outer slope of the bank. 
 
 e) Closing Allusion has already been made to the 
 fact of a great change having taken place within a compara- 
 tively recent period in the method of shutting up or finally 
 closing a reclamation -bank. Mr. Vignoles, M. Inst. C.E., 
 speaking in 1862 on the subject, stated that until 1789 the 
 Engineers directing the works in Holland considered it an 
 innovation to attempt to close a breach otherwise than by 
 piling across it. The more intelligent of the country people, 
 however, contended that the best method was to use 
 
112 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 bundles of faggots or fascines filled with as much gravel or 
 broken brick as could be bound up in them. After this 
 controversy had existed for some time, the suggestion was 
 adopted, and eventually so improved as to produce the 
 present system, namely that of protecting the bottom of the 
 gap with an elastic covering now called a mattress. Instead 
 of narrowing the opening by working from the sides, it was 
 made shallower by laying mattresses across its entire extent 
 and filling it up horizontally. As the bottom thus rose, the 
 velocity of the water decreased, until a level was attained at 
 which the velocity became so small that the opening could 
 be closed without difficulty. Subsequently this system was 
 adopted almost universally in Holstein and Northern 
 Europe. The employment of fascines bound up with gravel 
 and broken brick, and heavy enough to sink in a stream 
 and remain where deposited, must have been common in 
 Holland and the Low Countries at a period not less than 
 three centuries before its revival under the circumstances 
 described ; and it was singular that the art of so employing 
 them for closure work should have been neglected until it 
 was forgotten by technical men in the Low Countries. In 
 the Spanish Peninsula, the old method of closing by piling 
 had even very recently been advocated. On the same 
 occasion, Mr. Gibbs said that about 1842 he found in 
 Holland a variety of systems in use, whereof the best and 
 cheapest was, he thought, that of forming the skeleton of a 
 dam by driving across the opening two open rows of piles, 
 and making the closure by planking them and filling in 
 between with earth, bringing up this dam by degrees, at 
 periods of low-water. 100 A consensus of opinion was 
 expressed in favour of the new or horizontal system. 
 
 That this system was by no means in general use ten 
 
THE BANK. 113 
 
 years previously, seems well-nigh certain, otherwise a 
 practical man such as Mr. Wiggins would hardly have pre- 
 sented us with the following picture of the process of 
 closing: " Stores of stone, of grass turf, and of heath, 
 furze, fir tops or bushes should be provided at an early stage 
 of the work. The loose or falling earth should be retained 
 in its place by a judicious use of these materials, which 
 themselves may be required to be retained by piles, for 
 which Scotch fir thinnings and boughs of little value may 
 be used. . . . Wherever the shutting up takes place, care 
 should be taken to collect sufficient material of every kind 
 likely to be wanted to shut up in one tide ; and with this 
 view, the two ends of the bank must be advanced accord- 
 ingly with guards of turf, heath, and stone, as already 
 mentioned. As the earth thrown in attains a position 
 ranging with the general front line of bank, it should 
 be covered with stones thrown down at random, but 
 close, and secured with spray of some kind as a key. A 
 boom also across the gap is often useful, whilst shutting up, 
 to check or equalize the current. In very difficult cases, 
 sand-bags, i.e. about half a cubic yard of any kind of pon- 
 derous earth enclosed in coarse hempen bags, must be 
 provided in great numbers, ready to throw into the gap at 
 such critical moments as may require the most strenuous 
 exertions for the purpose of shutting up between tide and 
 tide, because shovel-fulls of earth, and even large stones, are 
 carried away by the force of the current ; whereas these 
 sand-bags are weighty, and contain many shovel-fulls, 
 though taking scarcely more time to throw in than one 
 shovel-full, and they afterwards accommodate their forms to 
 each other, and pack very closely together ; but they should 
 be afterwards guarded by a coating of stone outside, and 
 
 i 
 
114 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 staunched with a thick backing of adhesive ponderous earth 
 on the land side." 101 That abundance of materials should be 
 collected in readiness, and that closing must always imply 
 a more or less critical and anxious time to all concerned, is 
 unquestionably true; but the foregoing passage points to 
 a hurried and (so to say) scrambling state of affairs that 
 ought to be quite needless under the improved system. 
 
 When the catchwater drains, and the embanking of 
 streams provided with special outfall, are completed, or have 
 progressed so far as to answer their purpose of leaving no 
 inland waters to be dealt with ; and the earthwork of the 
 bank has been raised to not less than high-water mark of 
 spring-tides, and returned into and well joined to the shore 
 at each end : the work of closing can be taken in hand. 
 Although not absolutely necessary, it is in the highest 
 degree advisable, that the operation should be performed in 
 a single tide. 
 
 Calm and settled weather, and (save in the case of a 
 bank seated a good deal above half-tide level) a time of 
 spring-tides, should be chosen, even if this involves a few 
 days' waiting. 
 
 If the configuration of the shore has allowed some of the 
 tidal openings to be situated on relatively high ground, and 
 they have been properly distributed from the highest to the 
 lowest level, it will prove of much advantage. As the tide 
 rises, they come successively into use, permitting the inflow 
 to the proper extent required and relieving the lower ones 
 from undue scour; and, as the tide ebbs, the higher 
 openings run dry first, and work can be begun on them 
 earlier than on those lower down. The wisdom of using as 
 many as possible of the natural channels and creeks for 
 
THE BANK. 115 
 
 tidal openings will now become apparent ; those depressions, 
 already brought up (as described on p. 88) to low- water 
 level, are solid ground, instead of oozy channels still to be 
 rilled at the cost of time now doubly precious, and serve to 
 drain-out the area to the lowest possible level. 
 
 That this view is not universally accepted, appears from 
 the following statement by a speaker on the subject in 1883. 
 " In a small enclosure on his own land," he said, " he had 
 to deal with three or four very bad rills one 250 feet 
 across, another 200 feet, and another 220 feet as well as 
 two smaller ones, and, after taking the best available advice, 
 he made up his mind to leave the two deeper rills to the 
 last. As a caution to others it was only right to say this 
 proved to be a great mistake, for having to compete against 
 the great rush of water, which at the last was necessarily 
 confined to a very narrow space, the difficulty of shutting 
 out the tide had been very great. ... He had not anticipated 
 any difficulty in stopping the water out, but the rush was so 
 great that one rill cost him ,5,000. . . . He had now spent 
 about .19,000 on the work. The two wide rills had 
 absorbed the greater part of the outlay, costing, as nearly as 
 possible, i 0,000. The rush of water was so great that 
 one day the boat conveying the men from their work was 
 swept away, and two of the occupants were drowned." m 
 Such a statement of personal experience undoubtedly seems 
 at first sight to tell against the practice of using the natural 
 channels of creeks and rills as closure-places. But on 
 examination, the case is the reverse of conclusive against 
 the method above recommended. There is nothing to 
 indicate that the channels were filled up to the level of low- 
 tide before shutting-up was commenced ; while the mention 
 of a great rush of water and its confinement to a very 
 
Il6 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 narrow space renders it next to certain that an attempt was 
 made to close from the sides instead of working up hori- 
 zontally from the bottom. And the concluding sentence 
 shows that provision was not made for completing the work 
 in a single tide. 
 
 When the seat of the bank is below low-water mark, 
 openings will not be requisite until it is brought up to low- 
 water level of neaps: the situation of the openings has then to 
 be determined, and the height of the bottom of each can be 
 adjusted at pleasure to the requirements of inflow and out- 
 flow of tidal water, so as to save time in the work of closing. 
 The fanning-out of their aprons is carried down to the 
 lowest possible level ; and the building-up of the bank in 
 sections differs in na essential particular from that already 
 described ; but the bringing of materials to bank for them 
 will of course be, as it was for the lower part, by barge. If 
 the difference in level between low-water of neaps and of 
 springs is small, the time available for closing may be too 
 short for the purpose ; in which case the entire bank will 
 have to be raised until a height has been obtained for the 
 floor of the openings allowing sufficient time for the work. 
 The consequent excess height of the water impounded inside 
 of the bank will be somewhat reduced through the sluices 
 while they run, arid will do no harm. The best alternative 
 procedure seems to be that of employing sliding panels (infra, 
 p. 218); or else of forming skeleton dams across the open- 
 ings (ante, p. 1 1 2), and planking and filling up to above high- 
 water mark, a sufficient number of hands being put on to do 
 this more rapidly than the tide rises : in this case the bottom 
 plank will have to be sunk into the floor of the opening and 
 the junction made tight with a good bulk of well-puddled 
 
THE BANK. 117 
 
 clay on the outside. If this alternative be adopted, the 
 piles at each side of the opening should be driven, and 
 planked to the full height, before the earthwork of the 
 raised sections of the bank reaches them, so that the bank 
 end of the planking may be well buried in it and the junc- 
 tion made good with puddle before closing is attempted : 
 this planking should not project more than is requisite for 
 its junction with that of the dam to be subsequently made. 
 
 This mode of proceeding applies also to the case of any 
 bank seated so low as to allow no sufficient time for closing 
 in any other manner. 
 
 It is not indispensably necessary that the closure-bank 
 should in the first instance be constructed with the slopes 
 of the finished work : if good materials are used, the sea- 
 slope may be steepened (according to the time available for 
 closing) to 2 to i or even i J to i, and the land-slope may 
 be i to i. But of course, if the quantity of stuff requisite 
 to make the full slopes can be properly put in during the 
 time available, so much the better. 
 
 The amount of material required for closing being ascer- 
 tained beforehand, the importance of providing for its rapid 
 and continuous supply is so vital that special arrangements 
 must be made for the purpose. A sufficient number of 
 loaded barges should be moored outside each opening of a 
 bank seated below low-water ; and, as they will be afloat the 
 whole time, they can be removed as soon as emptied and 
 their place supplied by full ones as needed : the moorings 
 should be so laid as to allow for the rising of the tide and 
 the hauling of the barges nearer to the work as it proceeds. 
 In the case of a bank seated above low-water, as many 
 barges as will lie within accessible distance when aground 
 
I 1 8 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 should be moored opposite the openings before the tide 
 has gone down ; and, as it may not be possible thus to 
 supply all the material required, a line of rails double, 
 or else with suitable turn-outs for passing for trams or 
 earth-wagons should be laid along the landward side of the 
 bank, so that stuff can be run from both ends and a constant 
 supply kept up. These lines will have to be laid before 
 the time comes for closing ; and if the work is carefully done, 
 a few fillings and emptyings of the area meanwhile by the tide 
 will not harm it. It will save much time, if the barges and 
 wagons are loaded with proper tumbling automatic skips con- 
 taining the materials : these, whipped-up by steam-derricks 
 on the ends of each section of bank, can be discharged 
 exactly where requisite. If the opening is too wide for 
 the reach of derricks at the ends, others should be placed at 
 intermediate spots, on the landward side. All this will cost 
 money ; but the outlay so incurred will be true economy. 
 
 As each opening successively runs dry, it is to be filled- 
 up in layers, the soundest procurable material being used. 
 It is to be observed, that the earthwork of the bank has 
 already had some time to settle, and has been so washed by 
 successive tides that its crevices may be regarded as pretty 
 well filled-up and sludged ; and no pains should be spared 
 to render the new work solid and substantial to match it as 
 nearly as possible and obviate shrinkage and undue subsi- 
 dence. The ramming of every layer should be thoroughly 
 performed ; and especial care taken to unite the new with 
 the old work, and to use clay and sand, well puddled 
 together, along all junctions. Precious as time is in closure 
 operations, there should be no hurrying or scamping: a 
 sufficient number of hands should be employed, in order to 
 
THE BANK. I 1 9 
 
 allow the closing of each opening to be commenced the 
 moment the tide leaves it, without interfering with the men 
 already at work upon other ones. 
 
 Should anything occur during the progress of the 
 operation in either case, to retard it, so that it evidently 
 cannot be completed in a single tide, the work must not be 
 allowed to proceed so far as to shut up too many openings ; 
 and, if any are already closed, those yet remaining must be 
 protected by every possible means against the scour certain 
 to be caused by their absence. Should the check in the work 
 occur when the gaps still open are too few for safety, it will 
 be better to cut down to a suitable level one or more of 
 those already shut up, rather than risk destruction of some 
 of the bank (and when this once begins, nobody can say 
 where it will end,) by a too great rush of water through the 
 remaining openings. If the delay be owing to neglect of 
 providing enough hands or sufficient material in readiness, 
 the error, whether due to incapacity or to parsimony, is 
 likely to prove a costly one. 
 
 The openings having been securely closed, no time should 
 be lost before proceeding with the work of completing them 
 to match the rest of the bank ; particular care being be- 
 stowed upon the junction of the new with the existing slope, 
 so that no gullying may occur on that very vulnerable line. 
 
 f) Permanent Facing. After completion of the earth- 
 work, there will have to be considered whether to lay its 
 permanent facing at once, or to await settlement and con- 
 solidation before doing so, trusting for its protection mean- 
 while to the temporary coverings laid down during its 
 construction. Mr. Wiggins's recommendation is, "to let 
 
I2O RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 the earthwork remain, for one winter, without any stone 
 facing, till it is seen what effect the sea has upon the bank, 
 what slope it takes, and how far it may consolidate and take 
 a natural bearing, before the external facing is put on. It 
 is true that some little escape of materials may take place, 
 but this would be much checked by well ramming the earth 
 in front, after covering it with a thin coating of gravel ; and 
 the loss will be amply compensated by additional soli- 
 dity." 103 
 
 There can be no doubt that, even with the utmost care in 
 construction, some settlement will afterwards take place : 
 in anticipation of this, allowance is made beforehand, and 
 the varying amount prescribed for that allowance would 
 seem to depend upon the material of which the bank con- 
 sists and the exposure to which it is subjected. It appears 
 equally certain that the latter, in the form of atmospheric 
 influences and the action of the sea, will promote settle- 
 ment, and should be allowed free scope to the utmost ex- 
 tent compatible with avoidance of serious injury. Where 
 the situation is such that the sea has considerable fetch, and 
 breaks with violence upon the bank, the work will have to 
 be permanently faced as soon as built. Even if moderately 
 or indeed well sheltered, a bank of sand or very sandy 
 material will need, as already described, to be constructed 
 with a good casing of clay, and possibly on the sea-slope a 
 facing of turf will be needful in addition. One of good 
 gravel or clayey earth will in most cases need only kram- 
 mat or similar covering, protecting it from injury and yet 
 leaving it exposed to sea and weather for the purpose of 
 hastening its due settlement. When this has satisfactorily 
 taken place, all dawks, fissures, and local depressions will 
 have to be filled and levelled up ; the surface planed, beaten 
 
THE BANK. 121 
 
 close, and trimmed to its proper slope ; and the bank will 
 then be ready to receive its permanent facing. 
 
 Of this, the most general forms are perhaps clay, and 
 turf. The thickness to which clay is laid varies according 
 to circumstances, being sometimes 2 or 3 feet all the way up, 
 sometimes decreasing towards the top of the slope. The 
 thickness on the inner slope may as a general rule be taken 
 as not exceeding half, or at most two-thirds, of that on the 
 sea-slope, with a minimum of 1 2 inches at bottom and 9 
 inches at top. These dimensions do not apply to what 
 was said respecting the clay casing or shell to a bank of 
 sand. The clay is packed and sludged as already described 
 (ante, p. no), and its cost will be at the rate there 
 mentioned. 
 
 Turfing or sodding is laid either upon clay facing, or upon 
 the earthen face if but little exposed. The sods should be 
 not less than 12 inches by 9 inches and 3 inches thick: 
 those laid on the Schleswig dykes are i foot square and 
 6 inches thick. They should be closely packed, beaten 
 flat, and covered with fine earth well beaten down. If the 
 sea-slope is an exposed one, each turf should be secured by 
 a wooden pin driven not less than 12 inches into the bank, 
 and the whole protected with krammat until the sods are 
 well established and the grass grown. The cost may be 
 estimated per yard super., at from 6d. to 9d. and upwards, 
 according to the distance of the spot from whence the sods 
 are brought. 
 
 Respecting the merits of wood as a permanent surface- 
 protection, opinions differ. As "arming" and "rise-head- 
 ing," one of its forms has been already described ; and of 
 
122 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 this Mr. Wiggins says that it is largely in use on the coast 
 of Essex, where it is called " thatching." He remarks that 
 it has perhaps been adopted in consequence of the great 
 quantity of woodland in the immediate neighbourhood. He 
 estimates its cost at a rate equivalent to is. 6^d. per square 
 yard, and adds : " This covering does not, however, pre- 
 vent the constant or frequent surging of the waves from 
 carrying away a certain portion of the earthy face of bank, 
 and then the wood becomes loose, and almost useless, and 
 requires to have fresh wood drawn in, and the piles driven 
 afresh. . . . And when it is considered that the brushwood 
 of this kind of protection seldom lasts more than two or 
 three years, and is not unfrequently carried away in less 
 than one year, although the piles may be more long-lived, 
 we shall not be understood as describing this kind of sea- 
 defence in order to its recommendation, but rather the con- 
 trary. . . . Still it may happen that such a mode of facing 
 may be judiciously adopted, in some cases where wood is 
 abundant near, and almost valueless from the facility of 
 obtaining coal, and especially as a temporary expedient, 
 until preparation can be made for a more permanent and 
 efficient covering to exposed sea-walls. But as to a perma- 
 nent covering, its cost, even with the precarious prolonga- 
 tion of frequent repair, cannot with interest thereon be 
 reckoned at less than twenty shillings per annum for every 
 square rod of 320 square feet, an annuity worth in ready 
 money full ^20, which is a sum many times sufficient to stone 
 the whole exposed face of the bank, as we shall presently 
 demonstrate ; and yet where this improvident mode has for 
 a long period prevailed, it may not always be convenient to 
 change the habit for a better." 104 
 
 On the other hand, Mr. Muller points out that in the case 
 
THE BANK. 123 
 
 of a bank seated on a lower level than the salt marsh, wood 
 possesses great advantages over stone, which cannot be laid 
 until the bank is consolidated. As to its merits generally : 
 whilst regarding the question of employing wood, or stone, 
 as one which must be decided by the relative cost of the 
 materials in the locality, he believes that in most instances, 
 if the compound interest on the excess of the original out- 
 lay for stone as compared with wooden protection be taken 
 into consideration, the balance in a given term of years will 
 be found to be in favour of the employment of wood, not- 
 withstanding the frequent renewals which it requires. The 
 unavoidable supervision being the same in both cases, the 
 wooden protection as requiring less expenditure is more 
 likely to be preferred by proprietors or shareholders. 105 This 
 difference of opinion may perhaps be ascribed to the dis- 
 crepancy between the reported duration of the wood in 
 England and in Holland ; and this again is probably owing 
 to the quality of the material, that employed in Holland 
 being of a better description than what is used in this 
 country (ante, p. 72). Another matter mentioned by Mr. 
 Muller deserves consideration as a not unimportant point 
 in favour of wood. " In neutralising the action of the 
 wave," he observes, " wooden protection has an advan- 
 tage over the stone. The slope being steeper, more of the 
 power of the wave is expended while rushing up it, and the 
 numerous stakes encountered so subdivide the wave, that it 
 becomes a mere ripple before it reaches the cess. On the 
 other hand, the surface of the stone protection is so [com- 
 paratively] smooth, that waves seem invited to ascend. In 
 some cases it has been found advantageous to introduce 
 rows of oak stakes, at intervals above the surface of the 
 stone, to break the force of the waves. The stakes should 
 
124 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 be about i inch or 2 inches apart, and their tops should be 
 12 inches or 15 inches above the surface of the stones. An 
 oak framework of piles, 1 2 inches in scantling, connected 
 together by walings, has been used to break the wave in 
 exposed localities, such as those of West Kapelle in Zeeland 
 and Petten in North Holland." This is probably the pro- 
 tection thus described by Mr. Wiggins : " In Holland . . . 
 it has been customary to use a great deal of timber in sea- 
 defences, and amongst the modes of using this expensive 
 and perishable material, is that of facing the bank with a 
 framework of strong oak, very accurately built, and the 
 compartments filled in tightly with stone ; but such costly 
 modes of expense [? defence] soon become nugatory, from 
 the constant shake occasioned by the action of the sea, the 
 frames sometimes becoming loosened and letting the stone 
 escape, and sometimes the stone is shaken out, though the 
 frames remain firm. Sometimes, also, the sea finds its way 
 behind this kind of facing, and renders it useless." 106 
 
 Wharfing is another form of timber -protection ; of which 
 Mr. Wiggins says that it " has been a mode of sea-walling 
 formerly practised to some extent on those parts of the 
 coast where timber is plentiful on the estates to which such 
 sea-defences belong. This is a method of facing sea-banks 
 with stout planking set upright, and the joints backed by 
 other planks, the whole being secured by means of land 
 ties and stout connecting bars mortised through their pro- 
 jecting heads, the earthen bank being closely stowed in the 
 rear of all, in imitation of many of the dykes in Holland, 
 where much timber is used in the sea-defences. The first 
 expense of these wharfed sea-walls is however so great that 
 they are limited to very exposed points, and cannot extend 
 very far on those, and they have been found, after a lapse 
 
THE BANK. 125 
 
 of a few years, suddenly to fail in some spots where the 
 planking has become decayed ; and though the apertures 
 may be small, the reflux wave has drawn out with it an 
 alarming quantity of the earth at the back of the planking, 
 the land-ties have become loose, and much expense has 
 been required to restore the strength of the wall, which it 
 would have been good economy to remove, and replace 
 with a sloped bank, faced with stone." 107 Wharfing is in 
 fact a timber retaining-wall. It is sometimes constructed 
 of planking laid horizontal and spiked to piles which are 
 secured by land-ties : the wall thus formed having usually a 
 battering face. Timber does sometimes last a very con- 
 siderable time : in Holland it appears to answer very well, 
 and the average duration of oak or fir piles is said to be at 
 least 30 years. The teredo is bad only below mean-tide 
 level : where it is not abundant, pile-work is much in vogue 
 in the Netherlands. 108 Its duration is promoted by tarring : 
 the tarred boxing to a concrete wall at Reculver lasted 
 some thirty years and was then destroyed by a storm. As 
 a toe-protection to the sea-slope it is serviceable where 
 stone or concrete is not obtainable ; and, should this be par- 
 tially or even wholly destroyed, its backing remains to 
 wash-down to a natural slope in front of the toe. As a 
 retaining-wall however, it is not to be recommended. A 
 retaining-wall to a reclamation-bank is at best an untrust- 
 worthy and makeshift substitute for a slope : if any failure 
 occurs in it, a nearly vertical face of earthwork, whereof it 
 forms the sole support, is exposed, and this means a threat- 
 ening of the entire bank. An apparently insignificant 
 aperture in the planking may be the beginning of injuries 
 far more serious than those mentioned by Mr. Wiggins. A 
 striking example of this was recently afforded by the wharfed 
 
126 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 sea-face of the parade at Herne Bay. The piles and planking, 
 though old, were in the main fairly sound. The timber 
 land-ties were somewhat decayed and those of iron a good 
 deal rusted, but had they been ever so sound they could not 
 have prevented the catastrophe that followed. During the 
 storm of 29th November 1897, some of the planking began 
 to give way : the back-draught of the waves brought out 
 some of the earthen backing, the blows of succeeding ones 
 stove-in more of the thus unsupported planking and exposed 
 the backing to further and more rapid washing-out; the 
 result being that within a few hours the parade was wrecked 
 for a length of upwards of four hundred yards. 
 
 Pitching with stone, although in almost all cases the most 
 expensive, is the best and most permanent facing for a 
 bank. Owing to its cost, it is seldom applied save where 
 considerations of safety render it indispensable : the toe of 
 the bank, and the lower portion of the slope, being the 
 places where this necessity most frequently occurs. Rounded 
 and water-worn stones are difficult to fix securely in 
 position ; but if such stones of large size are procurable, 
 and lime is cheap, fairly sound work may be made by pack- 
 ing and wedging them with spawls and small stones and 
 grouting the whole. Nothing less than 9 inches deep should 
 ever be attempted with pitchers; nor less than 12 inches 
 with boulders if wedged and grouted, or 14 inches if wedged 
 only. Whether for pitchers or boulders, a firm bed must be 
 prepared. Roughness of surface greatly assists in breaking- 
 up the run of waves : flaggy stone is good in this respect ; 
 and if of good depth, laid on edge with the joints at right- 
 angles to the shore-line, solidly bedded and well packed and 
 wedged with spawls, it may safely be employed. 
 
THE BANK. 127 
 
 In Danish practice, the sea- slope is covered with a layer 
 of clay and small stones, about i foot thick, on which 
 are packed stone blocks of at least 300 Ibs. weight, the 
 smallest section of the stones lying uppermost. 109 Much 
 steeper slopes are used than where the facing is merely of 
 clay. 
 
 The stone facing usual in Holland has already been de- 
 scribed (ante, p. 54). 
 
 With reference to English practice, Mr. Wiggins says : 
 " Stone facing is the usual mode, but previously to the 
 facing with stone a facing of clay should be spread as a 
 foundation for the stone, especially if the bank is built with 
 sand or of any other earth which is liable to run, either in a 
 wet or dry state. The clay facing to the sand should be not 
 less than 3 feet thick, and if over this a coating of gravel be 
 spread, if only 3 inches thick, it will be a great saving in 
 the end, and with such coating the stone must be 15 to 18 
 inches in thickness or depth from the surface. The manner 
 of stone facing must depend on the kind and form of the 
 stone which is obtainable for the purpose. If it be rounded 
 or boulder stone, it must be mixed with angular stone to 
 give it stability, and in that case promiscuous laying or 
 placing may be better than regular pitching, the several 
 kinds and shapes of stone keying each other, especially if 
 small and large gravel be from time to time spread over the 
 face of the bank, and allowed to take its position either 
 amongst the stone used for the facing, or be washed down 
 to the foot of the bank, where its service will be equally 
 effectual. If the stones be flaggy and flat, it will be neces- 
 sary to pitch them edgeways, although the action of the sea 
 on their exposed edges is to shake them to and fro until 
 they be loosened and washed out. Still they will not have 
 
128 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 sufficient bearing on each other to lie flatways, and would 
 slide away into heaps, so that there is no remedy but pitch- 
 ing, and keeping tight with small stones and fragments. 
 But when the stones are angular and tolerably massive and 
 ponderous, like Kentish rag-stone, 12 to 15 inches in thick- 
 ness, or less, will suffice, and there is no better way than 
 placing them side by side till the surface is covered, taking 
 care to entangle and hitch the angles of each stone with 
 those of its neighbours ; then by encouraging such maritime 
 plants as the soil of the bank will produce, the interstices 
 between the stones are much better occupied than by a 
 continuous mass of stone, since the roots below interlace 
 and keep the stones in place, and the vegetation at top 
 eases off the wave and renders it innoxious." " 
 
 At some considerable reclamation-embankments executed 
 in England and Ireland under the superintendence of Mr. 
 (afterwards Sir James) Brunlees, M. Inst. C.E., stone was 
 plentiful in the locality and was therefore used for facing. 
 "The hearting was generally of sand, which was covered 
 with a layer of puddled clay of 1 2 inches in thickness, and 
 upon that, on the sea-slope, was placed from 2 to 4 feet of 
 ' quarry rid ' and broken stone, and afterwards the pitching, 
 which varied from 16 inches to 18 inches in thickness. By 
 placing broken stone immediately under the pitching, the 
 waves did not run so far up the slope, nor were they so destruc- 
 tive when receding. The water in the advancing wave was 
 dispersed through the joints of the pitching, and received 
 into the rid. It was with the object of making the receiving 
 power of the rid equal to the quantity of water likely to 
 break upon the slope that its depth was varied from 2 feet to 
 4 feet." 111 In this case, open joints in the pitching seem 
 to have been adopted on principle. The danger of injury 
 
THE BANK. 1 29 
 
 owing to compression of air within the body of the work by 
 impact and pressure of water, and consequent blowing-out 
 of the facing-stones, has been frequently and by many 
 writers pointed out : in the foregoing example this does not 
 appear to have taken place, it being stated in 1862 that the 
 work had stood without any failure since its completion 
 some nine or ten years previous. Most probably this im- 
 munity was owing, as mentioned, to the great depth of the 
 bed of broken stone placed for that purpose. 
 
 To what has already been said concerning methods of 
 permanent protection, may be added a remark leading to 
 some further consideration respecting treatment of the sur- 
 face of a bank. " It is only in cases of extreme exposure 
 and peril that the whole face of the bank need be protected 
 with so expensive a material as stone. In many cases 
 where it would be prudent to erect a sea-bank, it would be 
 sufficient to guard as much only as might be subjected to 
 the frequent assaults of the ocean, viz. so much as the 
 spring tides reached, as shown in the diagram [Fig. 6] ; 
 above that the attacks of the tide would be few and far 
 between, and though violent, would continue but a short 
 time. It might therefore be enough for safety, to coat that 
 portion above ordinary spring tides with clay and gravel, or 
 clayey gravel, as before mentioned, and to cultivate upon it 
 the plants most likely to thrive, amongst which may be 
 reckoned the common couch or twitch grass, very much 
 employed in Essex for this use, the net-work roots of which 
 bind the surface effectually ; so also does the sand rush 
 (arundo artnaria}, called Maram grass in Norfolk, where it 
 is much relied on. If the soil be sufficiently fresh, sowing 
 ray grass seeds answers a good purpose, and every locality 
 
 K 
 
ISO RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 affords also other plants easily propagated. It may however 
 happen that the surface is of too loose and sandy a nature 
 to be left exposed until vegetation can take place, in which 
 case it must be turfed over ; but . . . even when the intake 
 is [originally] sufficiently swarded to afford materials for 
 turfing, its productiveness is [thereby] too much reduced." 
 This refers to the sea-slope. With reference to the land- 
 slope it is remarked : " The sea-banks of silty sand on the 
 coast of Flintshire are sown with lucerne, the crop of which 
 is large and valuable, being in a district abounding with 
 horses employed in mining. The roots of this plant are 
 strong and elastic, and penetrate deeply, so that the recently 
 collected materials are firmly bound together for several 
 years, when the grasses gradually overcome the lucerne, and 
 a strong external sward takes its place. For ordinary 
 localities, however, it may be as well to secure the surface 
 of the back of the bank as early as possible with ray grass, 
 couch grass, and such strongly rooted grasses, and maritime 
 or brackish plants, as can best be obtained on the peculiar 
 soil." A further and considerable advantage possessed by 
 couch grass is mentioned further on : " The sea-walls in 
 these counties [Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, and Lincolnshire] 
 . . . are generally swarded over with grass of some kind, 
 but couch grass or twitch forms not only their general, but 
 their best covering and protection, from the matting nature 
 of its roots and its distastefulness to cattle, enabling it to 
 renew itself plentifully by seed as well as root." 112 In Hol- 
 land, a mixture of salt-marsh and meadow grass with clover 
 seed, is recommended. 113 
 
 There are various opinions as to the maximum steepness 
 of the slope on which grass will thrive. Mr. Wiggins says 
 that i to i, or less, is a good and sufficient slope for the 
 
THE BANK. 131 
 
 land side of a bank, and that upon this slope vegetation is 
 sure to prosper. By another authority it is stated that grass, 
 where not washed by salt water, will grow well on a thin 
 stratum of good arable soil at a slope not steeper than if 
 to i ; but that sea-dykes which are covered by each storm- 
 flood require one not steeper than 4 to i on the sea-face to 
 get a good turf; and though the grass will look sickly in 
 the spring, by May and June it will have got round. 114 
 
 Of all growths for binding together the face of a sea- 
 bank, the most esteemed appears to be Arundo arenaria, 
 in English called Marram, Marum, Sea-reed, Mat-grass, and 
 many other names. 115 It has the property of flourishing 
 in the driest soils, and possesses extraordinary power in 
 strengthening sea embankments ; its spreading roots, fre- 
 quently 30 feet long, binding together the loose particles 
 even of sand. The protection afforded by this grass was 
 held to be of so much moment three hundred years ago, 
 that by an Act of Parliament in the reign of Elizabeth it 
 was made a penal offence to cut it down ; and in the reign 
 of George II. another Act was passed on the same subject. 
 For the first offence the penalty was 205. or three months' 
 imprisonment ; and for the second offence the punishment 
 was twelve months' imprisonment with hard labour. A 
 penalty of 205., or three months' imprisonment with hard 
 labour, was also imposed for being found in possession of 
 this bent-grass within 5 miles of the sand-hills. In Scot- 
 land the regulations were still more stringent, it being a 
 penal offence to be found in possession of it within a dis- 
 tance of 8 miles from the shore. 116 Another highly esteemed 
 plant is Lyme-grass (Elymus arenarius], extensively used 
 in the Eastern Countries and in Holland for the same 
 purpose. 
 
132 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 After being sown or planted, the slopes should be covered 
 with krammat, which will scarcely ever need to be renewed 
 when the grass has grown. 
 
 g) Streams and Cradge-banks. Intersection by a 
 stream of inland water is an objectionable feature in a 
 proposed intake, since its passage to the sea has to be 
 provided-for by an intercepting-drain discharging indepen- 
 dently of the local drainage from the site, or by regulating 
 its channel and conducting it through the main bank : works 
 that not only involve additional and sometimes considerable 
 outlay, but occupy space which, together with that taken up 
 by the channel, is so much deducted from the area available 
 for cultivation. Although, under favourable circumstances, 
 its natural channel may be turned to account as a means of 
 drainage for the site itself, any saving thus effected will 
 seldom if ever counterbalance the cost of regulating and 
 embanking the stream. Whether the method adopted be 
 that of an intercepting-drain or an embankment of the 
 natural channel, depends upon the particular circumstances 
 of the case. The former where possible is almost always 
 preferable, and will be dealt with when we come to treat of 
 Drainage. At present we shall consider the alternative 
 procedure. 
 
 If there are more streams than one, it is in principle 
 desirable that they should be united, and discharged by a 
 single outlet. In practice, however, it is not always so : 
 their distance apart may be too great, or the depth of the 
 intake landwards too small in proportion to that distance : 
 the one may bring down a much greater volume of flood- 
 water than the other ; or other conditions, not uncommon 
 in shallow intakes of long stretch coastwise, may render it 
 
THE BANK. 133 
 
 advisable to have two or even more outlets. We will assume, 
 as an example, that there are two streams, and that they 
 can be joined in a V of moderately acute angle on the 
 landward side of the bank, and thence led by a single 
 channel to the place of discharge. The example will serve 
 to illustrate the mode of procedure where there is only one 
 stream, and also where more than two can be joined ; and 
 whatever be the number of outlets required, one or other of 
 the above three cases will apply. 
 
 The volume of ordinary and flood water of the streams 
 forms a measure for calculating the dimensions of their 
 respective channels, and of that common to both below 
 their junction. The natural channel should be straightened ; 
 and, if bends cannot be wholly avoided, they must be made 
 as slight and as gradual as possible : a new channel being 
 cut wherever the old one is unsuitable or cannot be rendered 
 so. 
 
 The training and regulation of a channel is shown in 
 plan Fig. n and in section Fig. 12 ; and the process is as 
 follows : 
 
 The line of the new channel is set out, commencing at 
 the existing channel, and proceeding across the marshes to 
 where the two channels again cross. The fascine-work is 
 commenced at the upper end, at a concave bank of the old 
 channel, and carried out into it. As soon as the contrac- 
 tion begins to be felt, the material is scoured away from the 
 opposite or convex bank. The training-wall on the other 
 side is then commenced, and gradually pushed on ; and so 
 both sides are continued until a new channel is scoured out 
 along the intended line. Where the training-wall has to be 
 laid below the level of low- water, the fascines are conveyed 
 to the site in barges, two barges of faggots being moored 
 
134 
 
 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 W) 
 
 s 
 
THE BANK. 
 
 in the river in the line of 
 the wall and parallel with 
 it, and one barge across the 
 end, loaded with clay or 
 marsh sods. At low-water 
 the fascines are placed in 
 the water in the space left 
 between the three barges, 
 transversely to the direction 
 of the wall, overlapping 
 each other one-half the 
 length of the faggot, and 
 covering a space equal to 
 the intended width of the 
 wall. Each layer is weighted 
 with clay or sods till it 
 sinks, being directed to its 
 place by poles fastened in 
 the ground. This is con- 
 tinued until the wall attains 
 half-tide level. The wall 
 is made as far as practic- 
 able to a batter of 6 inches 
 horizontal to one foot ver- 
 tical. Training-walls con- 
 structed in this manner 
 have been put in where the 
 depth at low-water has 
 been as much as 20 feet, 
 and where there has been 
 a tidal run of 4 knots, and 
 even after the lapse of 
 
 i! 
 
 ll 
 
 ilt 
 
 p 
 
 : 
 
 
136 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 twenty years needed no repairs. Sediment rapidly accumu- 
 lates on the land side of the wall, and in the course of a 
 short time the fascines themselves form the face of the 
 channel. Thorns are well adapted for this work, as the 
 branches interlace and hang together in a way that is not 
 common to other brushwood ; and the spaces between the 
 branches become filled with soil and sand, forming a tough 
 and solid bank capable of withstanding the strongest tidal 
 current, and so compact that when any of the work has to 
 be removed, it can only be done by cutting the thorns out 
 branch by branch. If built on sand which afterwards scours 
 out, it settles down in a mass needing only additional fas- 
 cines and clay put on the top to bring it to the original 
 level. As the work of constructing the wall proceeds, a few 
 heavy stones are placed on the end to prevent the fascines 
 from being washed-up by the flood-tide, and these are 
 removed forward for the same purpose as the work pro- 
 gresses. 117 It is well to permanently load the top of the 
 completed work with hand-packed stone, about 2 cwt. to 
 the square yard. 
 
 The cost of this work varies according to the distance the 
 material has to be conveyed, and other circumstances. A 
 similar wall constructed a few years ago by Mr. Wheeler in the 
 Witham, 16 feet high, with base 22 feet and top 13 feet, cost 
 at the rate of 195. 3d. per lineal foot. Each lineal foot took 
 about seventy faggots. For getting and delivering the clay 
 (obtained from the foreshores at the mouth of the river) the 
 men were paid 305. per barge-load containing about 30 tons. 
 Conveying the faggots by boat to the work, including load- 
 ing and unloading, cost 45. per hundred, the distance being 
 about 5 miles and the boats only able to navigate the river 
 on the tide. One hundred faggots require 10 tons of clay. 
 
THE BANK. 137 
 
 The cost of labour in building the wall was 35. per hundred. 
 The whole cost may be summarised as follows : 
 
 s. d. 
 Fascines per hundred (six score) . . . o 14 6 
 
 Conveying by boat .040 
 
 Labour building wall 030 
 
 Ten tons clay at is o 10 o 
 
 Stone for top, ton at 6s o I 6 
 
 Total per hundred fascines . . . I 13 o 
 
 Or allowing seventy fascines to each lineal foot to the 
 dimensions given above, the cost of the wall comes to 
 195. 3d. per lineal foot, or is. 8d. per cubic yard. 118 The 
 cost of bank-protection (infra p. 138) may be taken at about 
 the same rate. 
 
 The embanking of streams amounts, in fact, to dividing 
 the intake into two or more separate ones, a principle which, 
 as was seen in the Introduction, has been recommended. 
 This, and some attendant precautions, are pointed out by 
 Mr. Wiggins. " If any rivers cross the ground," he says, 
 " as is almost sure to be the case in large undertakings of 
 this kind, it is much better on all accounts to construct 
 separate, independent intakes between those rivers, even if 
 .they should be but insignificant streams, than to attempt to 
 enclose such streams within the bank, and afterwards sluice 
 them out, because, however contemptible such streams may 
 be in summer, they almost always (especially in mountainous 
 countries) pour down a vast quantity of water at particular 
 seasons, which it may not be possible to carry off in time 
 for vegetation. And in banking out such rivers and streams 
 care must be taken to embank them quite as securely as 
 against the sea, leaving them a good wide berth diverging 
 gradually but sufficiently towards the sea, and taking care 
 
138 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 that they disembogue clear of the sea-bank." 119 Where the 
 embankments along a stream are exposed to wave-action, as 
 will probably be the case near its outfall if the opening 
 through the sea-bank is wide, they must of course be strong 
 in proportion to their degree of exposure. In more sheltered 
 places, however, they may in general be much less massive 
 than the sea-bank. 
 
 In order to reduce to a minimum the space occupied by 
 streams, it is an object to give the sides of their channels as 
 steep a slope as possible : where they are protected by 
 fascine-work (see Fig. 12) this may be a batter as small as 
 6 inches to a foot. It is pointed out that such a revetment 
 or retaining-wall presents to the current a surface with plenty 
 of friction, and that such a surface is advantageous : the 
 fascines protecting not alone that part of the bank which 
 they cover, but also, by retarding the velocity of the current, 
 to some extent the adjacent bank and the one opposite. 120 
 The sides of the channel at and for some distance below the 
 junction of the streams, and those of the V for some dis- 
 tance upward, need to be specially well protected and 
 strengthened by similar revetment : the former being liable 
 to erosion by cross-currents and eddies occasionally set up, 
 and the latter having to stem and divide the current (if 
 any) of flood-tide into the channel. In fact, the sides of the 
 channel throughout will need to be attended-to with the 
 utmost care : a slip or caving-in may bring down the 
 embankment they carry. " The usual way of executing this 
 work," says Mr. Wheeler, " is to commence by excavating as 
 far below low water of spring tides as practicable, a slight 
 dam of earth being left between the excavation and the 
 water. From three to four fascines are then laid in, over- 
 lapping each other, and with their butt ends at right angles 
 
THE BANK. 139 
 
 to the channel, the outer layer having the brush end towards 
 the water. On this a layer of the excavated soil is placed, 
 and then another row of fascines, the process being con- 
 tinued until the top course is brought up to the level of 
 ordinary high water, the depth of the courses of fascines 
 gradually being diminished till the last finishes up with a 
 single fascine. The brush is then trimmed off to a neat face. 
 Provided that plenty of clay or similar material is used, this 
 work is of a permanent character, any interstices of the 
 fascines becoming filled with silt. Fascine work executed 
 in this manner in the fen rivers fifty years ago is still in good 
 condition." 121 As a further precaution against disaster 
 from caving-in, it is advisable to have between the embank- 
 ment and the back of the revetment a cess, of from 35 to 60 
 feet according to circumstances, with a slope of i o or 1 2 to 
 i ; so that in case of the bank of the stream giving way, 
 there may be time to take steps for protection of the intake 
 before the damage extends so far inwards as to affect the 
 embankment. 
 
 The division of the intake into three portions, in the 
 example we are now considering, is by the very nature of the 
 case obligatory, the streams forming the boundary between 
 them. Where there is no embankment of streams to 
 necessitate it, a division if desired is effected by banks small 
 relatively to sea-banks such as we have heretofore described. 
 In general, a Reclamation made bit-wise will be begun by a 
 bank situate further back and therefore on higher ground 
 than one intended to encounter the sea direct. Such a bank, 
 although its top must of course be above high-water mark, 
 will not measure so much in height from seat to crown ; nor, 
 in most cases, will it need to be so massively built, the force 
 
140 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 of the waves being diminished by its shelter of position, or 
 by expenditure upon the greatly-extended foreland they 
 have traversed. A bank of this description is known in the 
 East of England by the local name of " cradge " or " cradge- 
 bank," a term applied also to those for embankment of a 
 stream ; and with suitable change in details the manner of its 
 construction is the same as that of the larger ones called by 
 way of distinction " sea-banks " or " main banks." When 
 an intake has been thus secured, another cradge is in due 
 time pushed out in front of or in some other way connected 
 with the former, and so on: measures being at the same 
 time taken, by groyning or otherwise, to raise the foreland as 
 much as possible, so that the work on no one of these 
 several banks is so heavy as if it had in the first instance 
 been built equally far out. 
 
 h) Groynes and other Protective Outworks. Sub- 
 stantial and well-constructed though it may be, and however 
 great the care bestowed upon due employment of the means 
 needful for keeping it in proper condition and repair: the 
 bank is strong so long only as its foundation remains secure. 
 That foundation, if in itself sound, depends for its stability 
 wholly upon the unimpaired condition of the foreland. 
 This, save in situations favouring the deposit of warp and 
 the formation of marsh, is continually menaced by the action 
 of the sea, forming lows, gullies and channels, cutting out 
 and eating away the ground, and, if not arrested, under- 
 mining the bank itself. To preserve and strengthen the 
 foreland is therefore of vital importance. This is best 
 effected by keeping it heaped up with material, and most 
 permanently so by making the sea itself perform the work. 
 We shall here consider the means of accomplishing this end. 
 
THE BANK. 141 
 
 Among these, groynes are on all hands admitted to be the 
 most effectual known. " There is no feature of greater im- 
 portance in connection with the dykes than the projecting 
 works, or groynes. Where they are short and low, although 
 they prevent the outer ground from being hollowed out, 
 they do not cause any raising of it. It has been found [in 
 Denmark], that where they have a height [at their upper 
 end] of 2 feet above ordinary flood, with a length of 1,300 
 feet to 1,700 feet, they afford practical protection to the 
 dykes, as they cause the outer ground to rise considerably, 
 and they are indeed quite indispensable." "No doubt 
 groynes constructed at right angles to the shore would arrest 
 the shingle. . . . Groynes were an effectual means of 
 arresting the shingle and obtaining an accumulation of that 
 material." m 
 
 With respect however, to particulars, the variety and even 
 conflict of opinion is as marked as the unanimity prevailing 
 on the former point. Height, length, distance apart, direc- 
 tion on plan every diversity of detail relating to construc- 
 tion, dimensions, and arrangement, has found an advocate. 
 
 As these opinions cannot be grouped exactly according to 
 the various systems advocated or mentioned, they are here 
 placed in chronological order as nearly as may be of the 
 date of execution of the several works, when known : failing 
 that, in order of the date at which the opinion quoted was 
 spoken or written so that an idea may be formed of the 
 extent to which previous experience was in each example 
 acted upon or disregarded. 
 
 In 1847 it was stated that in exposed situations in 
 Holland, groynes for protection of the dykes are placed 
 mostly at right-angles to the shore, and 50 or 60 yards apart. 
 Their construction is of a very substantial kind. Those at 
 
142 RECLAMATION OF LAND, 
 
 Petten are from 500 to 600 feet long, and about 800 feet 
 apart. Where several groynes are carried out from the shore 
 consecutively, the work should commence with the lowest 
 down the current. 123 
 
 Writing in 1852, Mr. Wiggins says that, where the shingle 
 is shifting, it is important to retain it, for which purpose 
 " some expensive works are requisite, such as those called 
 * horses ' in Essex, and ' groins ' in Sussex and Hants. These 
 are rows of oak piles, not less than 6x6 inches, and often 
 9X9 inches, and from 12 to 14 feet long. They are 
 driven into the ooze below the shingle at least 6 feet, and 
 stand 3 feet apart, in such manner that an inch and a half 
 elm plank fits between pile and pile, so as to have alternate 
 piles on each side of the plank, which are spiked to the pile 
 . . . Three men will drive four of these piles per day ; the 
 rows extend out for about 10 rods from the shore, and are 
 always placed at right angles with it ; some horses placed at 
 an oblique angle failed, by being broken up the first storm. 
 The effect is to gather shingle on, or rather to prevent its 
 escape from, the leeward side in winds raking the shore 
 . . . Their distance must be proportioned to the nature of 
 the shore, but 10 to 15 to a mile are sometimes needed. 
 ... It often happens that some particular projecting 
 points are very expensive to sustain, by reason of their 
 exposure, although they themselves protect a long line of 
 bank, and then any mode of retaining the beach upon them 
 becomes extremely valuable. In a case of this sort in prac- 
 tice, a sluice on one side of such a point was lengthened in 
 order to obtain a better run to seaward, and the effect was 
 to gather the shingle about the projecting point, so that it 
 afterwards needed scarcely any repairs. The same effect 
 would have happened by means of a horse, but as the sluice 
 
THE BANK. 143 
 
 stood but 2 or 3 feet out of the general level of the shingle, 
 it would seem that horses of smaller height than those usually 
 erected, viz. 6 feet, would have a better effect. It is how- 
 ever worth while to consider and determine their absolute 
 necessity, and this some are inclined to doubt, since the 
 shingle often leaves the beach in spite of them ; at best they 
 collect it but on one side, and for a time only, and where 
 the wind is ' full on ' the shore, the shingle would gather as 
 well without these horses as with them. Therefore we may 
 conclude that a stone footing to the sand-bank, which 
 usually forms the sea-wall of such beaches, would answer 
 better at less expense, and with greater permanency, although 
 we may decline changing the established mode." m 
 
 Of some groynes constructed at Spurn Point between 
 1863 and 1868, we read : " The first six that were erected 
 are of Dantzig timber piles 10 inches square, shod with 
 iron shoes and driven various depths into the beach. The 
 planking is 3-inch red wood, secured to the piles by f-inch 
 screw bolts and nuts. All butt-joints are made on and 
 secured to the southern piles by ii-inch wood screws and 
 clip-plates. The length of the groynes varies with circum- 
 stances, likewise the levels and rake of the pile-heads. 
 When they were erected most of them stood five to seven 
 planks above the sea beach at the land end. In September 
 1876 five of the groynes were covered with shingle to 
 depths of 3 to 4 feet along most of their length"; and in 
 1878 it was estimated that a belt of beach at least 100 yards 
 wide, 7 feet in average thickness, and 2\ miles in length, 
 equal to 1,250,000 tons of shingle, had been collected there 
 by these works. The cost of the groynes was about 2 
 per foot run. 125 
 
 In 1870-71, Mr. R. Pickwell, Assoc. Inst. C.E., put down 
 
144 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 six groynes for protection of the foreshore at Withernsea. 
 Before their erection the beach was very low, and after a 
 north-west gale the whole of it was not uncommonly swept 
 away down to the bare clay. The groynes were from 300 
 to 350 feet long, 200 yards apart, and at right-angles to the 
 beach : Mr. Pickwell subsequently believed they might 
 with equally good results have been 300 yards apart instead 
 ot 200. The top of the groynes at the land end was 12 feet 
 above high- water mark of ordinary spring-tides, or 8 to 10 
 feet above old top of beach, and the outer end 4 to 6 feet 
 above the old beach. The main piles, 5 feet apart, were 
 Dantzig red wood, 13 inches square, 22 to 24 feet long, 
 shod with i4-lb. shoes, and driven n to 12 feet into the 
 boulder-clay below the sand. The planking was of red wood, 
 4 inches thick by n inches wide, in 20-feet to 25-feet 
 lengths, secured to the piles with a i-inch screw-bolt to every 
 plank in each pile. Cast-iron washer plates were used, as 
 less liable to rust than wrought- iron. The planking was 
 alternately on the north (or up-stream) and the south side 
 of the piles, and every butt-joint had a clip-washer, and 
 was made to occur on the north side of a pile. Every 
 fourth pile was strutted on the south side, the struts of red 
 wood, 13 inches wide by 6 inches thick, dovetailed and 
 halved onto the piles and secured with i^-inch screw-bolts ; 
 the strut-piles of red wood, 13 inches square and 12 feet 
 long, driven 8 to 9 feet into the clay. The top five rows 
 of planking were only added as the beach accumulated. In 
 1876, groynes Nos. i and 2 (the most northerly) were buried 
 for two-thirds of their length, and the other four entirely 
 buried. The ordinary high-water spring-tide mark was in 
 1878 from 50 to 80 yards further seaward than formerly ; 
 and it is estimated that there is an average constant beach 
 
THE BANK. 145 
 
 of 1,200 to 1,400 yards in length, by 100 yards broad and 
 8 to TO feet thick, or an accretion of 500,000 tons of 
 shingle due to the effect of the groynes. In addition to the 
 sea beach proper, there is a large accumulation of drift sand 
 at the foot of the cliffs and the groynes, forming a high and 
 dry beach, in many places covered with vegetable growth. 
 The cost of the groynes was 225. 5d. per foot run. 
 
 About 1876 some groynes were erected at Hornsea, of 
 sheet-piling secured by walings fixed to main piles ; and of 
 these, Mr. Pickwell in 1877 expressed the opinion that this 
 form is not desirable, because the sheet-piles, being fixed at 
 their ultimate height of 9 or 10 feet above the beach, 
 present too great a resisting surface to the breakers, and 
 are more exposed than that form of groyne which admits of 
 the top planks being added and built up as the beach 
 accumulates. His own experience of the difficulty which 
 exists in penetrating the wet sand beach down to the clay 
 in order to fix the bottom planks if the planking is 
 horizontal, led him to believe that a combination of sheet- 
 piles at the bottom and of planks. at the top is the most 
 efficient form of groyne, both as regards strength and as 
 offering a minimum of useless resistance to waves. 
 Fig. 13 illustrates the form he proposed; the main piles, 
 5 feet apart, being so driven as to be alternately on one 
 side and the other of a waling 6 inches thick by 12 inches 
 deep, put down between them and fixed at the then level 
 of the beach ; sheet-piles 6 inches by 12 inches being driven 
 on the weather side of the wale down into the clay, and the 
 top planking gradually added in horizontal layers dropped 
 down above the waling as the beach accumulates, and kept 
 3 or 4 feet above it. Such a groyne would, he estimated, 
 cost about 305. per foot run. 126 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 s-^srboits ^ 
 
 Fig- !3 Groyne with Sheet-piling. 
 
 Mr. G. H. Kinahan, C.E., in 1876 pointed out the 
 disadvantage of erecting high groynes in the first instance, 
 and their injurious effect upon the beach. " Groynes," he 
 says, " are usually erected the full height at the first This, 
 however, in some localities is objectionable, as the driftage 
 fills up one side rapidly, while the other is empty ; 
 consequently the water-fall, or ' overfall ' over the groynes 
 forms a current that carries away the beach [already 
 loosened by the downpour of water]. Groynes, therefore, in 
 most places ought to be made low at first, and heightened 
 as the beach accumulates." He also thus describes a 
 groyne of very singular construction : " I have seen, in the 
 west of Ireland, an effective groyne made of seaweed and 
 straw ' suggauns ' (coarse ropes). This was to keep the 
 sea out of turf banks. The seaweed was tied in bundles, 
 and the suggauns run through the tyings as each was 
 placed in position ; the bundles, as placed, were weighted 
 with sand, while the seaward end of the suggaun was 
 
THE BA^ M7 
 
 weighted with stones. When the wall was of sufficient 
 height it was backed with sand, and the groyne was 
 complete." 127 The simplicity of this construction, and the 
 inexpensive nature of the materials, seem to render it in 
 an especial degree adapted to remote spots where none but 
 the most ordinary unskilled labour is obtainable, and for 
 persons of small means to whom the price of timber and 
 other more or less costly materials would be prohibitive. 
 It is questionable however, whether a groyne thus con- 
 structed would prove sufficiently strong for any but a very 
 sheltered situation ; and it is much to be regretted that 
 information concerning the location and durability of this 
 very interesting example was not added. 
 
 At Ardmore a sea-wall, which was being undermined by 
 the cutting-away of the beach, was strengthened by the 
 addition of a paved toe; and Mr. L. Duffin, M. Inst. C.E.I., 
 the County Surveyor, added a groyne as a further protec- 
 tion. " It was built of timber, and stood only 3 feet over 
 the beach, and extended 33 feet seawards. It was built in 
 a zigzag, the Engineer thinking that form best calculated, 
 on account of the undertow, to catch the accumulation 
 which chiefly consisted of sand. It was constructed in the 
 usual form adopted for these groynes, viz. : rough piles 
 driven in pairs, and 3-inch sheeting dropped between them, 
 and spiked through with half-inch spikes, clenched ; stayed 
 in some cases on the weather side. The groyne filled 
 rapidly up to the level of the top of the paved toe, and 
 since it was completed in May 1880, no damage has [up 
 to February 1884] occurred to the wall; although theie 
 have been unusually heavy gales and great damage done to 
 the coast in other places. The cutting-out gales have often 
 almost emptied the groyne, yet the foundation of the wall 
 
148 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 [which it was built to protect] has never been laid bare. 
 It was subsequently doubled in length, the last bay being 
 only i foot over the beach. As it appears to have effected 
 the object it was intended for, nothing further has been 
 done to it." This groyne cost at the rate of 6s. per 
 foot run. 
 
 In Dungarvan Bay, Mr. Duffin put up three groynes, all of 
 timber of the construction above described. The first one 
 erected was in the autumn of 1881. It was at first only 
 4 feet over the beach, but was subsequently raised about 
 3 feet at the shore end as the beach rose, the lower end 
 being left untouched. The advance of the sea was quite 
 checked at the place protected by it, although very rapid 
 on the adjoining coast. The others though only a few 
 months up in February 1884, were then rapidly filling. 
 These groynes were so placed as to make an acute angle, 
 about 80, with the line of direction of the tidal stream, and 
 Mr. Duffin believed that this direction makes them fill 
 better than if placed at right-angles. The upper end of the 
 groyne built in 1881 was generally buried; but it was found 
 necessary to put rubbing-pieces on the piles at its lower end 
 on the lee side (with reference to the tidal stream), that 
 being exposed to the cutting-out winds, as they were 
 rapidly cut by the shingle, those on the weather side being 
 untouched. The cost of these groynes averaged about 
 6s. 8d. a foot run. 
 
 At Bally voile Mr. Duffin built a groyne of rock concrete on a 
 rock foundation. It is a vertical wall, i32feetlong, 9 feet high 
 and 4 feet thick at the shore end, 4 feet 6 inches high and 2 feet 
 6 inches thick at the sea end. It makes an angle of about 80 
 with the line of direction of the tidal stream, and curves to the 
 lee ward for the last 13 feet of its length. The concrete was put-in 
 
THE BANK. 
 
 in lengths in a moveable frame, and 
 cost about iys. 6d. per foot run. The 
 section (Fig. 14) shows the surface of 
 beach when completed in October 1882, 
 and the surface in February 1883, the 
 high-water mark being moved back 
 70 feet. Since then the beach has risen 
 slightly, and the shingle travels on the 
 top of the groyne. 
 
 About the same time, for protection 
 of a low sea-wall carrying a road along 
 the shore near Tramore, some more 
 groynes were built, about 45 feet in 
 length, their shore end about 50 feet 
 from the wall. They did collect beach 
 to a certain extent, but it was soon 
 found that the shingle travelled between 
 them and the wall, and they were there- 
 fore extended back to it. They were 
 of cheap construction, costing about 
 53. per foot run, and stood 4 to 5 feet 
 above the beach at the wall and 2 feet 
 6 inches at the seaward end. The two 
 furthest to leeward were not long in 
 forming a bank of shingle 20 feet wide 
 on top, with a steep slope, which never 
 moves even in the cutting-out gales : 
 when the shingle has been thrown up 
 to a certain height, the sea loses its 
 drifting power, and is only able at the 
 top of the tide to push it back slightly. 
 One or two of the middlemost groynes 
 
 149 
 
150 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 did not fill well ; and their direction was altered so as to 
 make an angle of about 80 with the direction of the tidal 
 current as mentioned concerning those in Dungarvan Bay, 
 and they soon began to fill up. 
 
 As the result of experience, Mr. Duffin believes that when 
 a length of coast has to be protected, the groyning should 
 commence at the furthest point to leeward, and be carried 
 on slowly against the stream, which will allow the leeward 
 groyne to fill before it is robbed of shingle by its weather 
 neighbour. This will also give the correct distance between 
 them, which should be such that the shingle should be 
 thrown well back on the next groyne. They should not be 
 made to the full height or length at first, but be added-to 
 gradually as the beach rises, and this should also proceed 
 from the leeward. In a bay like Dungarvan, where two 
 tidal streams meet, the work should begin near the point of 
 meeting, and proceed in both directions ; and it is probable 
 that a groyne placed near that point would fill pretty equally 
 on both sides. Long groynes should be divided into three 
 sections of different construction, having regard to the 
 different work they have to perform. When groynes are 
 correctly spaced, the landward section soon becomes buried 
 in shingle, the gravel being backed up from the leeward by 
 the next groyne, so that it is not exposed to any wear, and 
 the pressure is pretty equal on both sides ; and the work 
 might be of light construction. The middle section has to 
 support the pressure of excess of gravel on the weather side, 
 and should be of heavier build, having to act as a retaining 
 wall. The seaward section being bare (and there will always 
 be a bare end to a groyne, varying in length from one-third 
 to one-ftfth of the whole length), it is exposed to the stroke 
 of the sea and the wear of the shinglej and should be designed 
 
THE BANK. 151 
 
 accordingly. The scour round the seaward end of a groyne, 
 although it appears greater than it really is, owing to the 
 gravel being piled against the weather side and kept back 
 from the sea is a source of difficulty. Mr. Duffin in all 
 cases makes the top line of his groynes slope faster than the 
 beach, thus giving a low sea end, which he believes lessens 
 the scour. As to the length of groynes, he believes in the 
 efficiency of a number of short groynes more than in that of 
 a few long ones, but prefers that they should extend some- 
 what beyond the natural beach, otherwise they will fail to 
 catch the shingle, which is always scattered over the flat 
 beyond the beach after storms. After cutting-out gales the 
 beach is frequently found empty, and the flats strewn with 
 the shingle. Beaches are found to fill-in most during calm 
 weather or off-shore winds, although the filling-up will be 
 most apparent after a gale has heaped -up the shingle 
 collected during the calm. Ground swell, before and after 
 storms, has great effect in sucking out the shingle; the 
 gales from the line of greatest exposure are not those which 
 do most damage to a beach. 128 
 
 Mr. Wheeler, who has devoted much attention to the 
 subject, has made an exhaustive examination of what has 
 been done in the construction of groynes, and of their 
 practical effect. The recently published results of this 
 investigation, whereof the following is a brief abstract, may 
 be taken as fairly representing the present state of know- 
 ledge on the subject : 
 
 Groynes cannot in themselves be regarded as a protec- 
 tion, but are serviceable in the effect they produce on the 
 beach. They do not create fresh material, but simply stay 
 the littoral drifting action, and so prevent denudation and 
 assist in accumulation. Provided they stay the drift of the 
 
152 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 shingle from the length of coast to be protected, that is 
 all that can be expected of them. Beyond the prevention 
 of lows on sandy shores and beaches, they are of no service 
 on a coast where there is no material to collect and no 
 wasting cliffs to provide fresh supplies. The process of 
 accumulation will be effected as well, or better, by a few 
 groynes placed at considerable distances apart than when 
 they are spaced near together. No general rule can be laid 
 down as to the space that should intervene between groynes; 
 so much depends on local circumstances that experience of 
 these alone can determine it, but it is better to proceed 
 tentatively, and add to the number, if experience shows this 
 to be desirable, rather than to place them near together at 
 first. In many cases where the length to be protected is 
 not great, a single groyne placed at the leeward end, carried 
 sufficiently far down the beach, and raised from time to 
 time as the material accumulates, will be found as effective 
 as a number of groynes placed at short intervals, and 
 will make a much better and more level beach at far less 
 cost. 
 
 After a beach has been raised to nearly high-water mark, 
 or to a little above mean tide level, the accumulation of 
 shingle will proceed without artificial aid when there is a 
 continuous supply of drift. Groynes, if properly arranged 
 and not carried too high, will become buried by the 
 accumulating shingle, and therefore there is no need to 
 make them of a more substantial and permanent character 
 than is necessary to serve the temporary use they have to 
 fulfil. 
 
 Groynes are of no service in moderating the force of the 
 waves or preventing their breaking on the beach, but on 
 the contrary tend to add to their destructive effect. When 
 
THE BANK. 153 
 
 the momentum of a wave is suddenly checked by an obstruc- 
 tion, such as a high groyne, the water is projected upwards, 
 and in falling cuts out and erodes the beach. The retiring 
 wave, flowing back in a considerable volume, carries with 
 it in its undertow this loosened material. 
 
 When groynes project much above the beach, and are 
 placed within short distances of each other, the water drawn 
 into the bay between them is forced above its normal 
 height in consequence of its momentum being checked. 
 Owing to this increased elevation, the wave retires with 
 greater velocity than when it has a freer course, and is thus 
 more effective in the removal of material down the slope of 
 the beach. When waves are driven by the wind obliquely 
 into these shore bays, the water also eddies round and cuts 
 out the shingle. Owing to the irregularity in the breaking 
 of the waves, due to the obstruction caused by a high 
 groyne, it frequently occurs that the crest of a wave is on 
 one side of the groyne while the trough is on the other, and 
 consequently the water pours over the top like a cataract, 
 and, falling as in some cases 8 or 10 feet on the bare beach 
 on the other side, disturbs and cuts out the surface. Beach 
 is frequently found heaped up to the top of a high groyne 
 on the windward side, but never accumulates on the lee- 
 ward side. 
 
 With direct on-shore gales, shingle is drawn down and 
 the upper part of the beach becomes denuded. Groynes do 
 not prevent this removal. When however, a shingle bank 
 has become accumulated by their aid or otherwise, the 
 destructive effect of the waves is diminished in proportion 
 to the extent of the material over which they have to 
 play and the decreased depth of water in which they 
 break. Shingle drawn down from an accumulated bank is 
 
154 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 returned by the action of the tides, after the cessation of the 
 gale. 
 
 With reference to the most effective direction to be given 
 to groynes, the general practice is to place them at right- 
 angles to the shore line, and experience has shown that this 
 on the whole gives the best results. The worst direction 
 is at an angle sloping to the windward side, i.e. towards 
 the source from which the regular supply of drift comes ; 
 and although examples are to be found of groynes placed 
 in this direction, experience cannot be said to justify the 
 system. Groynes sloping to leeward, i.e. away from the 
 source of supply, are advocated by Mr. R. F. Grantham, 
 M. Inst. C.E., who has had considerable experience in works 
 of coast protection on the South Coast. The groynes he 
 has constructed at Lancing and Middleton have been made 
 to point in a south-easterly direction, and he considers the 
 result as satisfactory. 
 
 As to the length of groynes : they ought to extend from 
 the cliffs or the sea-wall to low-water of spring-tide, or even 
 below this. Although shingle accumulates only at the 
 upper part of the beach, there is always, and especially 
 after on-shore gales, a certain quantity spread all over it 
 down to or below low-water. A groyne extending the whole 
 depth of the beach will collect any coarse sand or shingle 
 drifted against it, and material thus stopped from travelling 
 will gradually work along the groyne to the upper part of 
 the beach. 
 
 The late Mr. E. Case, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., the Engineer of 
 -the Romney Sea Defences, who paid great attention to 
 groyning and had considerable experience of its effect, 
 was a strong advocate of the use of long low groynes, and 
 advised strongly against the use of high ones, contending 
 
THE RANK. 155 
 
 that the building-up of the foreshore should be gradual and 
 progressive, and that the object to be sought is the re- 
 modelling of the beach to its natural inclination of repose. 
 This inclination varies according to the material of which 
 the beach is composed, being steeper where shingle exists 
 than where sand alone prevails. For a beach containing a 
 mixture of shingle and sand, he puts it at i in 12 for the 
 upper part, flattening to i in 40 lower down, and towards 
 low- water of spring-tides i in 70. He contended that 
 groynes should accordingly be placed at this angle, the 
 planking being placed horizontally and stepped to meet the 
 varying slope. He further advocated that the groynes 
 should not be carried up the bank beyond the point to 
 which mean high-water reaches. It is doubtful if the 
 stopping of the groynes at this point will be found satis- 
 factory, especially when the beach consists principally of 
 sand. An examination of some of the groynes erected on 
 this principle shows that the waves running round the end 
 of these groynes tend to scour out the beach ; and it is to 
 be apprehended that these shortened groynes will aid in 
 developing the lows or hollows, running parallel with the 
 coast, which are produced during gales by the waves on 
 sandy beaches at or about the point reached by high-water. 
 
 " The conclusion arrived at after an inspection of the 
 principal works of groyning along the coasts of England, 
 Belgium, and Holland, is that the best results have been 
 obtained 
 
 " (i) By the use of low, inexpensive structures of wood, 
 extending out from the sea wall or cliff to low water of 
 spring tides. 
 
 "(2) That there is no advantage derived from placing 
 groynes near together. As a general rule it may be taken 
 
156 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 that the distance should never be less than the space lying 
 between extreme high and low water of spring tide, but may 
 with advantage be made greater than this. 
 
 " (3) That in many instances where the length of coast 
 to be protected is not great, a single groyne placed at the 
 extreme leeward end of the beach, and carried as far below 
 low- water mark as practicable, and raised from time to time 
 as the shingle accumulates, is sufficient to prevent the drift 
 of material, and will provide a level and even beach. 
 
 "(4) That the tops of groynes should not rise more than 
 about 2 feet, or at the most 3 feet above the natural surface 
 of the beach, provision being made for raising them as the 
 beach accumulates. 
 
 " (5) That the best direction for groynes is at right angles 
 to the line of coast. 
 
 " (6) That the inclination of groynes should vary as they 
 proceed seaward, in harmony with the natural slope of the 
 beach. 
 
 " (7) That as regards the length, the leeward groyne 
 should extend from the cliff, or extreme high-water mark, to 
 a short distance below low water of spring tides." 129 These 
 opinions and conclusions are illustrated by copious details 
 of groyning at home and on the Continent. 
 
 Another form of defence, used instead of or in combina- 
 tion with groynes, is a breastwork, detached from the bank 
 and parallel to it or to the beach that is to be protected. It 
 is stated that, in Holland, " where the foreshore is very long, 
 a parallel shore-work [probably of like construction with the 
 groynes], with occasional openings, is laid down at spring 
 tide level ; " and again ; " The Dutch usually placed parallel 
 protection works in front of their sea walls, leaving openings 
 in them, to permit the waves to retreat ; the seas broke upon 
 
THE BANK. 157 
 
 these before reaching the walls, and in retreating did not 
 scoop out the stones, or other materials." 13 A writer who 
 made an especial study of the embanking-works of Holland, 
 mentions that pile-work is generally placed in front of the 
 bank and not on it, so that the sea- slope may be sodded, 
 and the force of waves so broken that the sods are not in- 
 jured. 131 The use of longitudinal instead of transverse out- 
 works does not, however, appear to be generally approved in 
 this country ; experience tending to show that they do not 
 in fact tend to promote the accumulation or the retention of 
 driftage, but rather encourage the formation of lows or 
 channels in the beach. There is a scarcity of records con- 
 cerning them, owing to the disfavour with which they are 
 regarded and the consequent infrequency of their employ- 
 ment. 
 
 Mr. D. Stevenson mentions a case in which longitudinal 
 work was found remarkably efficient. The locality was on 
 the shore of the Bristol Channel, " where large tracts of low- 
 lying pasture, the most valuable lands in the country, were 
 exposed to be flooded when high winds and high tides 
 coincide. High isolated groynes were found not to 
 encourage a uniform deposit of shingle, which shifted from 
 side to side of the groynes according to the wind, while the 
 exposed face of the groyne, from which for the time the 
 shingle had been removed, acted most injuriously as a decoy 
 to the sea right up to high-water mark. These groynes 
 were therefore removed, and a continuous line of piling, 
 parallel to high-water mark, was substituted, presenting no 
 obstacle to the run of the waves along its surface. 
 Occasional lines of low groynes were put in front of the 
 higher continuous pile-work to arrest the shingle, and the 
 ends of these low groynes were at some places, where the 
 
158 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 scour of shingle was greatest, connected by lines of low 
 piling parallel to the higher continuous piling ; and this 
 mode of construction proved very successful, not only in 
 encouraging a more uniform collection of shingle, but also 
 in preventing the run of the sea, during high tides, from 
 overtopping the shingle beach and deluging the adjoining 
 lands. In proof of this, it was found, on making an 
 examination after the occurrence of an unprecedented ly 
 heavy storm accompanied by high tides, that wherever the 
 continuous upright piling and planking had been con- 
 structed, there was no influx of anything beyond spray upon 
 the adjoining land, but that at all other parts of the coast 
 (which is about six miles in length) where the face of the 
 beach was sloping and the upright piling had not been 
 applied, the water passed freely over in considerable depth, 
 carrying drift timber far into the fields, and in some places 
 heaping up heavy shingle on the land to the depth of two or 
 three feet." 132 
 
 It is hardly needful to remark, that the work thus de 
 scribed is in reality neither more nor less than a bank 
 constructed of piling and defended by low groynes ; and 
 that the accumulation of shingle, preventing the run of 
 the sea from flooding the land, was due to the groynes and 
 exactly what might be expected. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE DRAINAGE. 
 
 IN preparing a scheme for the drainage of a reclaimed area, 
 account has to be taken not only of the moisture falling 
 upon it as atmospheric precipitation, but also that intruding 
 in the form of surface-water or of springs, the result of 
 atmospheric precipitation elsewhere. When the area lies 
 sufficiently high to allow it to run off of itself, the removal 
 is said to be effected by gravitation, or " natural drainage " : 
 all that is needful in such a case is to provide the outlets 
 with sluices permitting escape when the tide falls, and 
 preventing influx when the tide rises. Where the land lies 
 so low, or where the amount of water is so greatly increased 
 by floods in wet seasons, that there is not always time for 
 it to run wholly off while the tide is below the outlets, the 
 drainage is of a mixed character, effected partly by gravita- 
 tion and partly by mechanical means. The discharge from 
 an area lying below low- water level has to be effected 
 entirely by mechanical means, or " power-drainage." 
 
 Drainage by Gravitation. Drainage by gravitation 
 being thus limited to situations where the water can run off 
 between tide and tide, it is an object to deal with the least 
 possible quantity. For this reason, and because surface- 
 water from land not included in the reclaimed area has a 
 better chance of being so got rid of owing to its coming 
 from relatively higher ground, it is always advisable, where 
 
160 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 possible, to intercept it by catchwater drains and lead it out 
 separate from that belonging to the reclaimed area itself. 
 If that area is intersected by a stream that is embanked as 
 already described, the catchwater drain may be led into it 
 with advantage to the stream provided the drain does not 
 bring down a disproportionate amount of sediment and 
 thus tend to silt-up the channel. Such a junction should 
 be made at the upper end of the stream and outside the 
 encircling main drain or " marsh fence," into which it would 
 otherwise discharge. In some cases the main drain itself is 
 made to serve as catchwater drain also. When no junction 
 with a stream can be effected, the catchwater drain should 
 be led to an outlet of its own. 
 
 " A large fall of rain at any particular period does not 
 necessarily produce a flood in flat districts. When rainfall 
 succeeds a season of dry weather, it takes some time to 
 saturate the land ; and owing to the large capacity of the 
 arterial drains, ... it occupies some time before these 
 become fully charged. On the other hand, if rain falls after 
 a continuance of wet weather, the land, together with the 
 drains, is already charged, and any exceptionally heavy 
 rain, although even for a short duration, is at once 
 succeeded by a flood, as the drains cannot carry off the 
 excess in their surcharged state. . . . The quantity of 
 drainage which was provided for by the old Fen engineers 
 was that due to the water arising from a continuous rainfall 
 of a quarter of an inch of rain in twenty-four hours, making 
 no deductions for soakage or evaporation. This calculation 
 was also adopted by Sir John Hawkshaw for the engines 
 erected for the drainage of the East Fen in Lincolnshire, 
 and by Sir John Coode as the maximum quantity to be 
 lifted by the engines proposed to be erected for the drainage 
 
THE DRAINAGE. l6t 
 
 of the North Level. Taking the rainfall in the Fen district 
 as a guide, it may be estimated that provision should be 
 made for a daily rainfall equal to about "0076 of the average 
 annual rainfall of wet seasons [see Note 149]. ... In 
 Ireland, for the Rathdowney drainage on the River Erkina, 
 provision was made in the channel for a discharge of 600 
 cubic feet per square mile per minute, equal to a continuous 
 rainfall of about three-eighths of an inch in twenty-four hours. 
 The soil was a deep alluvium ... on the lower limestone. 
 At the Wexford Harbour Reclamation Works, where the 
 rainfall of wet years amounts to over 50 inches, and the 
 mean from 45 to 48 inches, it was estimated that three- 
 fourths of this quantity, or 34*2 inches, would have to be 
 pumped ; but the machinery was made of sufficient capacity 
 to lift nearly an inch of rainfall in twenty-four hours." 133 
 
 Springs within an intake are sometimes a cause of trouble. 
 When their water rises naturally to the surface, it can be led 
 away by the ordinary drains. If the depth of these is not 
 sufficient to reach the source, an auger-hole will generally 
 suffice to tap it, and if the spring is fed from a higher level 
 the water will rise and flow off by the drain. Care should 
 be taken to bore no deeper than suffices to ease its ascent : 
 if continued deeper, the result may be the tapping of a 
 lower and perhaps powerful spring whose waters find a 
 natural outlet elsewhere, and the remedy may prove worse 
 than the disease. Instead of putting-down a bore-hole, a 
 well may be sunk to the needful depth, and filled with loose 
 stone, through which the water will rise as in the bore-hole, 
 with less liability to choke up. 
 
 The amount of water for whose discharge provision is to 
 be made, being ascertained, two questions forming as it 
 were the key-note of the whole scheme have to be dealt- 
 
 M 
 
162 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 with, viz. : First, the depth below the surface of the land at 
 which the water in the soil can be left to stand (this level 
 being practically that of the water in the ditches) ; and 
 second, the level at which the sill of the outlet-sluices can 
 be placed. 
 
 As to the first point, Mr. Wiggins lays it down as a rule, 
 that the waters of an intake should never stand less than 
 1 8 inches below the lowest level of the land, except where 
 lakes must remain. 134 Another writer states that the 
 practice in the Fens of Lincolnshire shows that the most 
 beneficial distance from the surface for the free water is 
 about 2 feet, and that in general the best depth is from 
 2 feet 6 inches in heavy clay to 3 feet 3 inches in friable 
 loam. 135 In the case of a Reclamation at Wexford Harbour 
 (infra, p. 245), it is mentioned as untoward that the water 
 had never been more than 3 feet below the surface; and 
 a confident anticipation is expressed that, when with the 
 help of improved pumping machinery it can be kept down 
 5 or 6 feet, the land will become more valuable by 25 or 30 
 per cent. Mr. Wheeler says it " should not be less, where 
 obtainable, than 3 feet or 3 feet 6 inches, to allow the 
 under drains to run clear. In peat land, two feet below the 
 surface is considered sufficient for the water-level. Taking 
 the depth to be 3 feet 6 inches, and allowing for i foot of 
 water in field ditches, the bottom of these will require to be 
 4 feet 6 inches below the surface. The depth of the main 
 drains and level of the water must be such as to provide for 
 the drainage of the lowest land situated the greatest distance 
 from the outfall, and also to allow for the necessary fall in 
 the surface of the water from this land to the outfall. . . . 
 There are many cases, however, in fens and marsh land, 
 where the state of the outfall ditches will not allow of a 
 
f 
 
 I 
 
 * 
 
 THE DRAINAGE. 163 
 
 greater depth than 2 feet. The pipes should never be laid so 
 low that their ends are buried in the water in the ditches 
 into which they empty ; such a practice is simply laying 
 pipes for the purpose of soddening the land with water 
 instead of draining it." 136 Where pipe-drains are laid, and the 
 land is to be cultivated with the plough, another considera- 
 tion comes in : that, namely, of the depth to which the 
 plough penetrates. " Mr. Stephens calculates the depth of 
 a furrow-slice with a two-horse plough at 7 inches ; but in 
 cross-ploughing, 9 inches. If four horses be used, the depth 
 of the furrow will be 1 2 inches ; and if the four-horse plough 
 follow the common one, the depth will be increased to 
 1 6 inches. Subsoil ploughing will penetrate 1 6 inches below 
 the common furrow of 7 inches. Allowing 3 inches between 
 the lowest disturbed part of the soil and the surface of the 
 materials in the drain, and restricting the effectiveness of the 
 drain to that portion of it which is below the ploughed surface 
 of 7 inches in depth, the minimum depth of drains should 
 be such as to allow 19 inches below the furrow-slice, or 
 26 inches below the surface and above the constructed 
 portion of the drain, and so much more than this if subsoil 
 ploughing be practised. Allowing 6 inches for the depth of 
 the drain occupied by the pipes or tiles, Mr. Stephens 
 estimates 33 inches as the minimum depth of drains in 
 porous subsoils, and 50 inches in clay subsoils, with an 
 additional 6 inches in each case if stones are employed as 
 filling materials in the drain." 137 
 
 As regards the second question, i.e. the level at which the 
 sill of the sluices should be placed, Mr. Wiggins says : 
 " Sluices, as has been said before, are the most simple means 
 of this natural drainage, and these will run a shorter or 
 longer time, according to the height of their sill above low- 
 
1 64 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 water level, to the degree of ebb of tide, and to the height 
 of the water standing upon the sill of the sluice. Thus, the sills 
 of some sluices laid down have been but 6 to 1 2 inches above 
 low- water mark, according as the tide ebbs out more or less 
 at springs or neaps, when not acted on by winds or other- 
 wise kept up. These sluices at the period of a good ebb, 
 and having 12 inches of water on their sills, will run four 
 hours. They would therefore run dry if the tide ebbed 
 1 2 inches lower, so that it appears that if the sill of a sluice 
 has 2 feet fall to low water of springs, it will generally run 
 six hours when the tide is not kept up by winds, and when 
 there is much pressure of water on the inside, it will run 
 nearly seven or eight hours. But as the waters of an intake 
 should never stand less than 18 inches below the lowest 
 level of the land, (except where lakes must remain,) and as 
 6 inches should be allowed for the water to stand usually or 
 often in wet times on the sill of a sluice, that sill should not be 
 placed at less than 2 feet below the general level of the land 
 where the bank is placed ; and as there ought to be at least 
 2 feet fall from the sill of the sluice to the low water of 
 springs, it follows that the line of bank should at its foot be 
 at least 4 feet above low-water mark at springs, as above 
 stated, and it must depend upon the quantity of water to be 
 discharged, what number of sluices should be put down, 
 and the width of their several runs." 138 This matter will be 
 further considered when treating of the sluices themselves. 
 Meanwhile it is well to note, that a fall of 2 feet from the sill 
 of the sluice to low-water, although desirable as lessening 
 the risk of blocking-up by sand or shingle, is not always 
 obtainable; the level at which it can be placed depending 
 upon the circumstances of the case. 
 
 From the data ascertained respecting amount of water to 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 165 
 
 be got rid of, the height at which that in the drains is to be 
 maintained, and the height at which the sill of the sluices can 
 be placed the requisite form, dimensions, and fall to be 
 given to the drains can be estimated, and a scheme of 
 drainage prepared. The method of doing this cannot be 
 better explained than by a brief abstract of the very clear 
 practical instructions given by Mr. Wheeler. 
 
 The object to be sought in laying out a drain in a flat 
 country is to provide a channel wherein the water shall be 
 moved along its intended course with such ease that as small 
 as possible an inclination and area shall be used. Every 
 increase beyond what is absolutely necessary is a waste of 
 land and expense in excavation. 
 
 The greater the depth within certain limits in proportion 
 to the width, the better will be the discharging power of the 
 drain. The greater the body of water as compared to the 
 area of rubbing surface, the more free is the water to move. 
 The proportion of rubbing surface of the sides and bottom 
 to the area of the water is termed the hydraulic mean depth, 
 and is found by dividing the latter by the length of the 
 former, or the area by the wetted perimeter. The best form 
 of channel for conveying water is when the width is double 
 the depth, i.e. when a semicircle described with the water- 
 line as diameter touches the bottom of the drain. Such a 
 form however, is not in practice attained in land drains, 
 and the width will generally be from four to six times 
 the depth. 
 
 The velocity of water in drains is governed by the rate of 
 inclination of the surface of the water, and not of that at 
 the bottom of the drain. The velocity due to gravity is 
 retarded by the friction of the water against the rubbing 
 
1 66 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 surfaces with which it comes in contact, this rubbing surface 
 consisting of the sides and bottom of the drain, weeds, 
 sides of bridges, or other impediments. The velocity is 
 greatest in the centre of the stream. The mean velocity is 
 generally taken as about four-fifths of the surface velocity in 
 the centre, and is expressed by the formula V= ( y 7 R X 2 F) C. 
 V equals mean velocity in feet per second; R equals 
 hydraulic mean depth in feet ; F, fall of surface in one mile 
 in feet ; C, a constant, varying from 0*90 in rivers and large 
 streams with considerable depth of water to 0*60 for small 
 drains in good order. The surface velocity in the centre of 
 the stream, as found by floats or by a current-meter, must 
 be multiplied by 0-83 to find the mean velocity of ordinary 
 drains. The following may be taken as the factors by 
 which the theoretical discharge is to be multiplied to allow 
 for friction, and as generally applicable to drains in low flat 
 districts. 
 
 Main drains 
 Secondary drains 
 Small drains . 
 
 Depth. 
 Feet. 
 
 . 6 
 
 4 
 
 . 2 
 
 Mean Width. 
 Feet. 
 
 30 
 20 
 10 
 
 Factor. 
 80 
 70 
 60 
 
 Every inch of fall being of value in flat districts, the area 
 of the drain is so proportioned that the surface inclination 
 of the water in the drain is reduced to as low a rate as is 
 compatible with the efficient discharge of the water. Main 
 arterial drains in well-drained flat districts flow with an 
 inclination of from i J to 3 inches per mile. 
 
 The determination of the slope or batter to be given to 
 the sides of the drains must depend on the nature of the 
 soil, but will also be guided to a certain extent by the width 
 and depth ot the drain. It is frequently advantageous to 
 lay out the sides of the main outfall drains at a flatter slope 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 167 
 
 than the nature of the soil absolutely requires, in order to 
 afford larger storage room during the time the flow of the 
 water is stopped by the tide, the rapid increase in the area 
 above the mean water line affording a large reservoir for the 
 water without increasing the width at the bottom. Soils of 
 a sandy nature will require very flat slopes, as the soil is 
 easily removed by the wash of the water. In the alluvial 
 soils of marsh districts the large drains may frequently be 
 found having slopes of only i to i : but as a rule their 
 slopes are seldom steeper than 2 to i , and are 3 to i in light 
 soils. Clay, according to its nature, will stand at a good 
 slope so far as the wash is concerned, but is liable to slip if 
 laid too steep. Peat requires very little batter : in fact many 
 of the secondary drains in peat districts may be seen with 
 their sides almost vertical. Careful observation of the 
 existing drains or watercourses in the neighbourhood, and 
 the slope to which they have adapted themselves, will form 
 a guide as to the section to be given to a new drain. As 
 the drains diminish in size, the slopes may be made i to i 
 or i % to i for the second-class drains, and to i for the 
 main ditches. 
 
 In excavating drains where the substratum consists of soft 
 alluvial soil, overlain by material of a denser and more stable 
 character, the bottom will spring up and let the sides down. 
 When ground of this character has to be encountered, the 
 soil excavated must be moved to a sufficient distance to 
 prevent its weight forcing the sides into the cutting, and 
 should not be placed nearer than six feet. It may even be 
 necessary in very bad places to build up the sides with 
 fascines to prevent them from slipping in. 
 
 No fixed rule can be laid down for the designing of a 
 system of drainage applicable to all districts, as regards the 
 
1 68 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 number of the drains, their arrangement, width, or depth, 
 as these must all be governed by the particular conditions 
 of the land to be drained and the outfall. 
 
 A typical case for illustration of the method of making 
 such a design from given data may, however, be taken, 
 having an area of flat land containing 20,000 acres, dis- 
 charging into a tidal stream which allows the sluice doors 
 to be open only fourteen hours out of the twenty-four. 
 The rainfall is assumed as being at the rate of a quarter of 
 an inch in twenty-four hours, the whole of which is to be 
 discharged off the land. The quantity of water due to this 
 rainfall would be equal to 210*07 cubic feet per second : the 
 main drain, running only 7 hours each tide, would require 
 a capacity equal to 359*22 (say 360) cubic feet per second. 
 Taking the district as 6 miles long by 5 miles wide, this 
 would require one main drain along the centre, with lateral 
 drains on each side at intervals of every fifty chains ; ditches 
 branching out of these lateral drains would be required at 
 intervals of every ten chains, leaving the areas of the fields 
 drained by them twenty-five acres each. Taking the main 
 drain as having 26 feet bottom width at its lower end, with 
 side slopes of 2 to i, a mean depth in floods of 8 feet, a 
 rise of 4 inches per mile in the bottom and 2 inches per 
 mile on the surface of the water, its discharging capacity 
 would be as follows : 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Bottom width .26 
 
 Width of surface of water . . . . - . 58 
 
 Mean width . . 42 
 
 Mean depth . .' . . . . . .8 
 
 H. M. D. 
 
 Area 42-0X8-0 .... = 336-0 _ 
 Contour 17-6 -f- 17-6 -|- 26-0 . . = 61 
 
I 
 
 THE DRAINAGE. 169 
 
 Fall per mile o- 1 66 X 2 = 0-332 
 
 V 5'5 y X 0-332 = 1-352 velocity per second. 
 
 i'352 X 0-80 = 1-0816 
 
 Area 336-0 X 1*0816 == 363-42 cubic feet per second. 
 
 The dimensions in the drain at the middle would be 
 40 feet 6 inches top, 10 feet 6 inches bottom, 7 feet 6 inches 
 depth, and discharging capacity 182 cubic feet per second. 
 The quantity of drainage to be discharged at this part of the 
 drain would be that due to the rainfall on 10,000 acres, viz. 
 1 80 cubic feet per second. At the top end the drain 
 would diminish to i foot at bottom, 29 feet at top, and 
 7 feet depth. The twenty lateral drains would each take 
 the drainage of 1,000 acres. The mean dimensions of these 
 drains in the middle of their length would be 2 feet 6 inches 
 bottom, 6 feet 8 inches top, slopes i to i, mean depth 
 i foot 8 inches, fall in bottom i foot per mile, in surface of 
 water 6 inches per mile, discharging capacity 5-19 cubic feet 
 per second, the constant for friction &c. being taken at 
 070. The quantity of water coming in at the middle of 
 each of the lateral drains would be that due to the rainfall 
 on 500 acres, viz. 5^25 cubic feet per second. These drains 
 are taken as running the whole 24 hours. The field ditches 
 will have i foot width at bottom, slopes | to i, mean depth 
 of running water i foot. Supposing that in floods, during 
 the time the sluice doors were closed by the tide, the water 
 rose i foot above the mean level as before given, and fell at 
 low-water to i foot below mean level, the drains would hold 
 between low and high water a quantity equal to the rainfall 
 of five hours. Supposing that in anticipation of a flood, 
 and before the water had swollen in the outfall, the water in 
 the main drain were run off within 3 feet 6 inches of the 
 bottom, the drains would hold up to 3 feet below the sur- 
 
1 70 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 face of the land a quantity equal to about one day's rainfall. 
 The area of land occupied by these drains would be 282 
 acres, or A of the whole area. If the water had to be pumped, 
 and the pumps worked night and day, the area of the drains 
 would be proportionately less ; as would also be the case if 
 the sluice were situated sufficiently high to allow of a longer 
 discharge than seven hours each tide. 
 
 The sluice for this district (Figs. 15, 16, 17, 18) would 
 require to have three openings of 14 feet each. The water 
 would approach with a velocity of 1*078 feet per second; 
 and as the piers of this sluice have pointed ends it may be 
 assumed that it would pass through at the same rate, the 
 velocity of approach being sufficient to overcome the friction 
 due to the sides and bottom of the openings. The depth of 
 the water on the sill being 8 feet, the same as that in the 
 main drain, the area of the waterway would be 3 X 14^0 x 
 8*0 =r 336*0 X i'o8i6 = 363-42 cubic feet per second. 139 
 
 Mr. Wiggins recommends that the main and secondary 
 drains should be made to answer the ulterior purpose of 
 fences, as well as of drains to carry-off the surface water ; 
 and that one of these should entirely surround the reclaimed 
 area. " The fences of an intake," he says, " are usually 
 marsh ditches or dykes, standing wide and deep enough of 
 water or mud to prevent cattle attempting to cross them, 
 and an intake seldom admits of any other description of 
 fence. Such water-fences and drains must, in the first place, 
 be drawn all around the intake, i.e. from the sluices by 
 which the water is to escape along the land side of the sea- 
 bank or wall, and along the edge of the higher lands of the 
 adjoining country. The proper dimensions of such fences 
 [he appears to be here speaking with regard to the typical 
 reclamation of 1,000 acres to which he subsequently refers] are 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 171 
 
 10 feet wide at top, 5 feet wide at bottom, and 5 feet deep, 
 the water always standing 3 feet 6 inches in depth, which 
 will be 1 8 inches below soil ; and the surface of the water 
 will be then level with the sill of the sluice, or near thereto 
 since, as the sluices will be in the lowest parts, some 
 water will probably always stand on them, unless the intake 
 be on a dead level, which is not desirable. By the same 
 rule, should any inequalities of level exist on the surface of 
 the intake, the dykes or ditches forming the water-fences 
 must be dug accordingly, deeper than 5 feet and wider than 
 10 feet, so as to have nearly the same . . . depth of water, 
 throughout." 140 The putting-in of an encircling drain is in 
 accordance with Dutch practice. " With regard to general 
 drainage, the system adopted in Holland, so far back as 
 1650, by Van Ens, and which is not materially altered up 
 to the present time [1847], is that of dividing the whole 
 country of Polders, into zones, or districts, each of which is 
 on the same level, and is surrounded by its own water 
 channel. Thus the higher water flows off into the lower 
 channels, and eventually reaches the sea, each district being 
 drained separately." M1 
 
 While on the subject of the drains, mention must be 
 made of one important feature the delf or delph. 142 In 
 Holland, "when the dyke is completed, a parallel ditch 
 about 10 feet wide is cut at the foot, on the [landward side 
 of the] inner slope, in order to receive simultaneously the 
 waters which filter through the body of the dyke, and 
 those which are thrown over by the waves and extra- 
 ordinary high tides, and also with a view to unite and lead 
 off, by the dyke sluices, the rain water and springs. 
 Between this inner ditch, and the foot of the dyke, a raised 
 benching, or road, generally of 15 feet to 20 feet wide, is 
 
172 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 frequently maintained, which, whilst it serves to consolidate 
 the earthwork, is also used for t carriages. " U3 "Thedefy/i 
 or drain," says Mr. Wiggins, " which in Essex and else- 
 where, in strong soils, is dug on the land side of the bank 
 or sea-wall, for the double purpose of a drain and a fence, 
 is a feature of some importance, inasmuch as if dug too 
 near the land foot of the bank, it may be injurious by 
 favouring and promoting the percolation of water from the 
 sea side to the land side, under the bank, and in cases 
 where this effect is not so likely to take place, by reason 
 of the adhesive nature of the soil, as in more porous soils, 
 the danger is still imminent of its causing the base of the 
 bank to slip and give way. On this account alone, on some 
 occasions, several miles of delph have been filled up, and 
 dug afresh at a greater distance from the bank foot. Twelve 
 yards from the foot of the bank is the true distance, even 
 when no roadway is intended, but it will always be found 
 convenient and judicious to set out the space wide enough 
 for a drift- way between the bank and the delph. The delph 
 should not be nearer, although there is a great temptation 
 to bring it nearer during the building of the bank, in order 
 to make the materials from the excavation available for the 
 bank at a smaller distance. The usual dimensions of the 
 delph, when cut independently of its materials, are 12 feet 
 wide at the top, 6 feet wide at bottom, and 4 or 5 feet 
 deep ; generally, for a fence against cattle, 3 to 4 feet depth 
 of water is requisite. ... In soft, loose, sandy soils whose 
 tenacity is insufficient to enable their sides to stand in 
 excavation, the delph must be omitted, as it might tend to 
 bring down the bank, and only a slight rill or channel be 
 permitted to carry off the soakage from the bank, which, in 
 such a soil, must be considered as inevitable. In soils which 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 173 
 
 have an ordinary degree of tenacity . . . and the exca- 
 vated sides of which will stand, the delph is highly useful 
 in keeping the bank dry, and carrying off any water which 
 might otherwise remain stagnant" U4 The distance between 
 the delph and the foot of the inner slope of bank differs 
 greatly in different cases. In Holland it appears to be from 
 7 to 20 feet. In the banks at Pel worm it is given as 33 
 feet. In those of Schleswig and Holstein, where probably 
 the tender nature of the ground has influenced the matter, 
 it is from 50 to 80 feet. In practice it will vary according 
 to the nature and stability of the soil ; but care should be 
 taken that the minimum breadth of undisturbed surface is 
 such that the inner slope of the bank, if produced, would 
 nowhere intersect the nearest side of the excavation forming 
 the delph and even this as a minimum in cases only where 
 it is not possible to give a greater breadth. 
 
 In sluices for large drains, the doors, Mr. Wheeler says, 
 are made in pairs, the opening for the pair seldom exceeding 
 20 feet in width. The doors being self-acting, a greater 
 width is unadvisable, the concussion of the doors as they 
 come together on closing with the head of the rising tide 
 throwing a considerable strain on the frame-work of the 
 door and on the masonry. The doors shut against a solid 
 wooden sill at the bottom and a pointed wooden frame at 
 the top, hooded over. In some sluices the doors are made 
 of sufficient height to be above the rise of the highest tide. 
 This adds considerably to their cost, weight, and liability to 
 strain, without any corresponding advantage. The angle at 
 which the doors are set is generally about 25, the angle 
 they form with one another when closed being about 130. 
 The angle of set should be not less than 20 nor more than 
 
174 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 
 
 175 
 
176 
 
 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 FEET 10 50 10 20 30 40 50 FEET 
 
 Fig. 17. Large Tidal Sluice. 
 
 ELEVATION OF DRAW DOOR. 
 
 10 FEET 
 
 Scale 
 
 lNS.128 01 2345 
 
 Fig. 1 8. Large Tidal Sluice. 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 177 
 
 30. The heel-post works on a pivot at the bottom, and is 
 held in place by an anchor-strap at the top. These doors 
 do not open back flush with the wall, as those of a lock do, 
 but stand off sufficiently to allow the rising tide to get in 
 behind and act on the back so as to close them. To give 
 stability to the structure, the masonry opening is made of 
 considerable width from in to out, and forms a bridge over 
 the drain. The projection of the piers against which the 
 doors open is about double the width of the opening, and 
 their outer and inner ends are pointed or rounded. On the 
 inside of the arch, draw-doors working in grooves are made 
 so as to lift up and let down by a cast-iron toothed bar 
 actuated by pinions and gearing. Large draw-doors have 
 counterbalance weights, suspended by chains over pulleys. 
 These doors are kept open to their full extent in floods, and 
 lowered when the flood is over : they serve to regulate 
 height of the water in the drains and ditches for fencing or 
 other purposes. 
 
 Smaller sluices, with openings not exceeding 4 to 5 feet, 
 are made either with a single door, hung in the same 
 manner as already described, or with a " tankard-lid " door, 
 hung from the top and frequently provided with a counter- 
 balance weight on a lever fastened to the door. 
 
 An improved method of hanging flap-doors has been 
 designed by Mr. Stoney, whereby such doors may be used 
 of considerable size. Attached to the door is a pair of lever 
 bars with counterbalance weights. These bars, instead of 
 turning on fixed pivots, are carried on a circular segment, 
 which rocks on a horizontal path, reducing friction and 
 rendering the opening and closing very easy. Doors of this 
 description, 6 feet 3 inches wide by 4 feet 6 inches high, 
 used for the sluices of the Bally teigue and Kilmore 
 
178 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 Reclamation Works, were found to open with a head of 
 to f of an inch. 
 
 In addition to the sluice doors at the outlet, it is 
 frequently desirable to place doors at the end of drains dis- 
 charging into the main outfalls, to prevent backing-up of the 
 water when it accumulates during heavy floods and at tide 
 time, especially if the main drain has to receive water from 
 high land. By the use of doors a large amount of embank- 
 ing may be saved ; and even where embankments already 
 exist they save great pressure and minimize the risk of a 
 breach. 
 
 Great care is required in making the foundations of 
 sluices, to prevent water from finding its way under the floor 
 during high tides, when, owing to the head on the outside, 
 the power of the water to penetrate through the ground is 
 very great. The lands enclosed generally consist of 
 deposits of alluvial matter ; and the site of the sluice being 
 on the sea-shore or on a river, the soil is frequently nothing 
 but silt or sand of such a depth that no material of a more 
 tenacious character can be reached within a distance that 
 would warrant the foundations being carried down to it. 
 When the soil consists entirely of silt, the danger to guard 
 against is that of the water finding its way under the floor of 
 the apron and the invert of the culvert. Several cases came 
 under Mr. Wheeler's experience where this occurred, the 
 sluices, otherwise well built, being left standing on the 
 bearing-piles with the material entirely washed away from 
 under the concrete below the floor. The only reliable 
 course to pursue in dealing with foundations in sand or silt 
 is, to build the sluice on bearing-piles and to completely 
 box-in the whole of the site covered by the foundation with 
 sheet-piling, driven eight or ten feet below the bed of the 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 
 
 179 
 
i8o 
 
 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 
 
 181 
 
 JO 
 
 
I 82 
 
 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 channel into which the sluice discharges. Within the box a 
 solid bed of cement concrete should be placed, and on this 
 the planking for the floor. Wings should be carried out with 
 box-piling for some distance on each side, both at the inner 
 and outer ends, to prevent the water making its way round 
 outside. The brickwork of the piers and culvert will rest on 
 the planking, bearing-piles being driven to carry the walls ; 
 
 rws.t2eO f f * f f I 
 
 20 FEE? 
 
 Fig. 22. Small Tidal Sluice. 
 
 and the whole upper part surrounded with puddled clay. In 
 fixing the depth to which the piles are driven, consideration 
 must be given to the probability of the deepening of the out- 
 fall by improvements or by natural scour. After the sluice 
 has been built, cement-grout should be forced under the floor, 
 by pumping it in through holes bored in the planking and 
 afterwards plugged. By this means every cavity becomes filled 
 up. Figs. 19, 20, 21, 22 show an example of a small sluice 
 of 8 feet opening, built on a silt foundation ; and Figs. 15, 1 6, 
 17, 1 8 a larger sluice with three openings of 14 feet each. 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 183 
 
 In selecting the site for a sluice discharging on the sea- 
 coast, the position chosen should be as sheltered as possible, 
 where the sand is least likely to drift and fill up the outfall. 
 Shifting sands are frequently a source of great trouble ; and 
 where sluices discharge on sandy forelands it often becomes 
 necessary to carry the outfall from the sluice for a consider- 
 able distance by means of a covered wooden tunnel. 
 
 Where the coast is flat, the water, after leaving the sluice, 
 frequently has to travel through a long stretch of marsh and 
 sandy foreland. Where creeks already exist, it is generally 
 necessary to deepen and straighten them. To prevent the 
 shifting of the channel through the sand, and its sides from 
 being washed down in storms, fascines properly laid in 
 place, and bedded with sand, form inexpensive and efficient 
 training-walls which with slight care will last for a great 
 number of years. 
 
 Where the sluice discharges into a river, the site should be 
 fixed at a concave bend, where the water is always deeper 
 than in other parts and the sill less likely to become 
 blocked by deposit in dry weather. The position of the 
 sluice should be such that the outflowing water may join 
 the ebb current at as small an angle as possible, so as to 
 cause a minimum of disturbance at the junction of the 
 two streams. Where the district to be drained is at a low 
 level, the sill of the sluice has generally to be placed at the 
 lowest level to which the river is likely ever to be scoured- 
 out or deepened. When every inch of fall is of consequence, 
 it may even be advantageous to place it a certain depth 
 below the bed of the river. The outflowing water will 
 always keep the doors clear ; and any deposit that may 
 accumulate in summer is soon washed away when rains 
 cause the water in the drain to rise. For the purpose of 
 
1 84 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 scouring away this deposit, small sluice-doors are placed in 
 the larger doors, near the bottom : these being drawn by 
 means of rods worked by gearing, permit a current of water 
 to pass out at low-tide, having sufficient head to wash away 
 the deposit so as to allow the main doors to open. 
 
 The velocity of water due to head, is for practical 
 purposes taken as V = 8 <J h x c, and 
 
 V = velocity in feet per second. 
 
 h = height in feet. In the case of sluices or bridges, 
 this is the vertical difference in the surface of 
 the water above and below the opening. 
 
 c is a constant 
 
 =: for the opening of a bridge or sluice with 
 
 pointed piers and smooth masonry . . '96 
 = for the opening of a bridge or sluice with 
 square-ended piers, or rough masonry, or 
 where the doors are so hung as to cause 
 eddies ....... -86 
 
 = for small openings of sluices, as in a lock, 
 whether submerged or not, or sluices with 
 tankard-lid doors causing resistance on 
 all four sides ...... -64 
 
 The quantity of water that will pass through a sluice is 
 found by multiplying the area of the water-way by the 
 velocity, the dimensions being taken at the down-stream or 
 outer side of the sluice : the full velocity due to the head 
 not being acquired until the lowest level is reached, the 
 depth if taken on the inside would give too great a result. 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 185 
 
 In a tidal sluice, both the depth of water and the velocity 
 will vary, from the time the doors are first opened until 
 they are closed again by the rising tide. The calculation 
 must therefore be made on the mean velocity of the water. 
 The velocity is governed by the head, less the frictional 
 resistance of the sides and the disturbance caused by the 
 eddying of the water as it leaves the confined space between 
 the walls for the open stream. If the piers have rounded 
 or pointed ends, the frictional resistance will not amount 
 to 4 per cent. With square ends and rough masonry, the 
 loss due to friction will amount to 15 or 20 per cent. In 
 sluices with doors that do not open freely, or with lifting 
 doors that are not raised freely out of the water, there is 
 resistance on four sides ; and the discharge in such cases 
 may amount to no more than 64 per cent, of that due to the 
 head. The amount to be allowed for frictional resistance 
 must be a matter of judgment determined by the facility for 
 outflow with the least possible friction or disturbance 
 arising from eddies caused by projections. In calculating 
 the velocity, allowance has to be made for the head due to the 
 velocity with which the water approaches the sluice. If the 
 sluice is of sufficient capacity, this will overcome the friction 
 and carry the water through without any heading-up. 
 
 For example : take the case of a sluice with three 
 openings of 1 6 feet each, and a depth of 9 feet, the drain 
 running with a velocity of 1-50 feet per second, and dis- 
 charging 1,200 cubic feet per second. The quantity pass- 
 ing through each opening would be 400 feet, and the 
 velocity required with the area of the sluice would be 
 2*778 feet per second. The head required for this velocity, 
 allowing 4 per cent, for friction (that is, multiplying by the 
 factor -96), would be -1308 feet, Deducting the head due 
 
1 86 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 to the velocity of approach of 1-50 feet (= '0381), leaves the 
 head required at the sluice -0927 feet, or a little over one inch. 
 
 Area of waterway^i 6-0x9*0x3 432 feet. 
 
 Total quantity coming down drain divided by area of 
 
 sluice = = 2778 velocity required. 
 
 43 2 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Head required for this velocity = I ' ' \ = "1308 
 
 Less head of approach = ( * 5 ) = -0381 
 \oX'9o/ 
 
 Head required at sluice . . -0927 
 
 The proportion of depth to total width of the water 
 passing through sluices, varies in practice from one-fourth 
 in the smaller sluices to one-fifth and one- sixth in those of 
 larger capacity. 145 
 
 The work required in the construction of sluices depends 
 so much upon circumstances, that their cost especially 
 when viewed in relation to the size of the opening differs 
 very greatly. The following gives that of some constructed 
 in recent years for drainage-works discharging to the 
 Wash 146 : 
 
 Slippery Gowt, on the Witham. Opening 4 feet 6 inches. 
 Culvert 25 feet long under the sea-bank, with doors 6 feet 
 6 inches high. Built on concrete boxed-in with sheet- 
 piling. Including approach and temporary dam. Total 
 cost ......... ^3 8 
 
 Fivie Towns, on the Welland. Built in 1882. Opening 
 8 feet. Culvert 53 feet long. Inclusive of cost of a new 
 cut to the sluice (say) .225, the average of tenders 
 was ......... ^2,595 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 187 
 
 Risegate Eau, on the Welland. Built in 1885. Opening 
 8 feet. Cost ,2,800 
 
 Sutton Learn, on the Nene. Built in 1887. Opening 
 8 feet. Culvert 88 feet long. Including banks and 
 temporary works. Total cost .... 4,080 
 
 Wainfleet Clough, on the Steeping. Built in 1886. 
 Opening 12 feet. Built on silt foundation. Total 
 cost 2, 
 
 Slasker. Two openings, each 12 feet 6 inches. Total 
 cost ;8oo 
 
 Syphons of iron, led from the main drain up through 
 the bank and down to a point below low- water of spring- 
 tides, have been tried as a substitute for sluices. The 
 principle is correct ; and if all risks of their running dry 
 can be obviated there seems no reason to doubt they 
 would prove efficient. They have not, however, come into 
 anything even approaching to general use ; and, the ques- 
 tion of their employment being eminently a practical one, 
 it is to be concluded that upon the whole a sluice is 
 preferable. 
 
 Power- Drainage. The relative cost of wind and steam 
 as motive powers for pumping-machinery, has been in- 
 vestigated with great care by an American Engineer, Mr. 
 A. R. Wolff, whose estimate, arrived-at by observation of 
 actual results, is that " the economy of the windmill averages 
 about 2-25 times that of the steam-pump, when there is 
 included for the latter a charge for boiler capacity, and for 
 the services of one-tenth of the time of one man." The 
 calculations include interest on capital, repairs, depreciation, 
 attendance, and oil (and coal for the steam-engine), and are 
 
1 88 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 based upon the performances of the best types of steam- 
 machinery and of windmills of American pattern the 
 latter, it may be observed, being now obtainable of English 
 manufacture, from the Woodcock Works at Warminster, and 
 other makers. "American windmills," Mr. Wolff says, 
 11 differ from the European mills . . . most conspicuously 
 in the form of wheel receiving the impulse of the wind. 
 Instead of the small number of sails of large width, 
 common to the European or Dutch mills, the American 
 wheel is made up of a great number of blades or slats of 
 small width. This . . . gives an entirely distinct appearance 
 to the American wheel, since it resembles a closed surface 
 as compared to the large open spaces between the arms of 
 the European mill, though, of course, ample room is pro- 
 vided between the slats to permit the free escape of the 
 impinging air. This division of the receiving-surface of the 
 mill . . . enables a much smaller aggregate weight of parts 
 for a desired strength, size, and capacity of mill ; so that 
 the American windmill is lighter in weight, as well as in 
 appearance, than the European mill." 147 
 
 There is something extremely attractive in the idea of a 
 motive power which in itself (as distinguished from the 
 machinery it actuates) costs absolutely nothing ; and it is 
 difficult to discard the notion that this must be specially 
 adapted for the pumping-work of reclaimed land. Unfortu- 
 nately, such is not the case : the one defect in its application 
 for this purpose is the uncertainty of the wind. Experience 
 in the United States goes to show that a windmill will on 
 the whole perform work equivalent to a daily average of eight 
 hours of a 1 6-mile wind. This however, cannot be counted- 
 upon daily : calms and light airs may intervene and prevail 
 for long periods ; and the motive power may be entirely 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 189 
 
 absent at the very time when most needed. While there- 
 fore for domestic water-supply, dynamo-electric machinery, 
 and other purposes where the results of intermittent work 
 performed by a motor can be stored up for use as required, 
 wind power appears to be effective and inexpensive ; it 
 cannot be regarded as comparable to steam power in point 
 of availability at short notice and* for as long a period as 
 needful : an indispensable requirement for the discharge of 
 water from a reclaimed area where it becomes necessary to 
 employ an auxiliary to, or substitute for, drainage by 
 gravitation. 
 
 Pumps, &c. The contrivances in use for raising water 
 for the drainage of land, are bucket pumps (sometimes 
 called piston pumps), Archimedean or screw pumps, scoop 
 wheels, and centrifugal pumps ; and the following is a brief 
 abstract of the excellent and comprehensive account given 
 of them by Mr. Wheeler. 
 
 Bucket purnps are employed for the drainage of Lake 
 Haarlem, and in several districts in England. Trials have 
 shown pumps of this sort to be as effective, as any of the 
 machines above mentioned. They are not, however, advan- 
 tageous for situations in which the lift is variable ; and the 
 valves are ill-adapted to cope with water charged with mud 
 and grit, and weeds and pieces of wood which frequently 
 find their way to the inlet. 
 
 The screw pump consists of a cylinder in the centre, 
 carrying one or more wide spiral threads, sometimes 
 enclosed in a cylindrical external case. The number of 
 screws running round the core varies from one in the 
 simplest machine to three or four in larger ones. Fig. 23 
 
RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 19 1 
 
 shows one having two threads. The ends of the core 
 terminate in gudgeons which revolve in bearings, the lower 
 one fixed under the water, and the upper one on a beam 
 across the delivery-opening. The efficiency per revolution 
 of this machine being unaffected by the speed at which it 
 runs, it is suitable for being driven by steam, wind, or hand 
 power. In small pumps, a crank handle is attached to the 
 upper part of the core for use by hand. One man can 
 raise in an hour at the rate of 1,738 cubic feet of water 
 lifted one foot high, the pump making 40 revolutions per 
 minute. If worked by machinery, the pump is driven by a 
 spur-wheel and gearing as shown. 
 
 The water-level on the inlet side may vary without 
 affecting the efficiency of the pump, except so far as 
 concerns the increased weight due to the greater length 
 required to meet the variation. But any change in the 
 level on the delivery side immediately affects the efficiency. 
 These pumps therefore are not adapted for use where there 
 is much change in the level of the water into which they 
 discharge. 
 
 The " spiral angle " is the acute angle which a line on the 
 surface of the core parallel to its axis, makes with a tangent 
 to the spiral at the point of intersection with that line. 
 The " tilt " is the angle of the axis of the core with reference 
 to the horizon. The best results are obtained with a spiral 
 angle of about 40 and a tilt of about 30. A longitudinal 
 section through the axis of the core and the thread of the 
 screw shows, in pumps of the best form, that the plane of 
 the thread is not at right-angles with the axis, but forms 
 with it an obtuse and an acute one. The pump is most 
 effective when the acute angle is on the side towards its 
 lower end. 
 
1 92 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 In pumps working under similar conditions, the discharge 
 is as the cube of the diameter ; and approximately it may 
 be taken that, under favourable conditions, a pump one foot 
 in diameter will discharge 0*32 cubic feet of water for every 
 revolution. The number of revolutions varies according 
 to the kind of power applied and the size of the pump. 
 Small pumps of about one foot in diameter may be run at 
 60 revolutions per minute, the large sizes not reaching more 
 than 20. For drainage purposes these pumps can be run 
 at from 20 to 40 revolutions per minute. The practical 
 limit of height of lift is 14 feet, and of delivery 3,500 cubic 
 feet per minute. The Dutch screw pumps work without an 
 external casing, the screw revolving in a semi-cylindrical 
 trough of masonry (Fig. 23). The weight of the water is 
 thus borne on the masonry and the screw relieved of 
 the strain. 
 
 The efficiency of these pumps is about the same as that of 
 scoop wheels, and varies from 50 to 80 per cent, of the power 
 applied. 
 
 The scoop wheel resembles a breast water-wheel with 
 action reversed. In its simplest form (Fig. 25) it consists 
 of an axle carrying discs, to which are attached radial arms 
 A terminating in the rim B, whereon are fastened arms 
 called " start-posts " carrying boards C called " scoops." 
 On the inside of the rim are cast-iron cogs fastened on in 
 segments, and geared into these is a pinion on the shaft of 
 the fly-wheel of the engine. In some a wheel F is fixed on 
 the axle of the wheel in place of the toothed segments on 
 the rim. The former construction occupies less space, but 
 the wheel is more difficult to repair in case of damage to the 
 teeth. The wheel revolves in a trough connected at one 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 
 
 193 
 
 end with the drain and at the other with the place of dis- 
 charge. The scoops beat or lift the water from the lower 
 to the upper end, the waterway at the outlet end having a 
 
 Fig. 24. Scoop Wheel. 
 
 self-acting door E, which closes when the wheel stops. The 
 trough in which the wheel revolves is of masonry, carried up 
 as high as the centre of the wheel. The invert is made of 
 the same radius as the wheel plus the amount of clearance : 
 
 o 
 
RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 the latter in the best machines being -A- of an i ncn 
 side and at the bottom. In order to allow the water to get 
 freely to the scoops, the inlet raceway is made about one- 
 third wider than the wheel, gradually narrowing to its mini- 
 mum width at a point vertically below the outer rim of the 
 wheel, the angle of convergence at each side being about 
 17 from the straight line. The outlet channel should have 
 the same width as the trough, and immediately beyond the 
 
 SECTION A A 
 
 Fig. 25. Scoop Wheel. 
 
 outlet-door it should rapidly widen to the outfall drain ; and 
 the outlet-door should be at some distance (say i or i 
 times the maximum lift) from a point vertically below the 
 extreme range of the scoops, and prevented from opening 
 more than so as to be just parallel to the sides of the trough. 
 To prevent the scoops from dipping too deep, and the 
 wheel from being overloaded, when the drains are in flood, 
 the inlet is fitted with a shuttle (A A, Fig. 26) to regulate the 
 supply. It consists of a wooden framework with a sliding 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 
 
 195 
 
 door, fitted in the raceway close up to the wheel, sloping at 
 such an angle as to be tangential to the circumference of the 
 wheel. The door has friction-rollers on the side next the 
 wheel, running on a frame, and has a balance-weight, and a 
 rack and pinion for raising and lifting. A shaft geared to 
 the pinion can be carried into the engine-house so that the 
 shuttle may be adjusted in the engine-room, a float indicator 
 
 Scale 
 
 I N 8': 12601 234 56 78910 
 
 20 FEET 
 
 Fig. 26. Scoop Wheel with Shuttle and Movable Breast. 
 
 being also placed there to show the height of the water. 
 When the wheel has to contend with a great depth of water 
 on the outside owing to floods or abnormally high tides, the 
 scoops as they come round churn up a large quantity with- 
 out discharging it : the wheel thus becomes choked, and its 
 free discharge impeded. To obviate this, an iron plate, 
 hinged to another plate which lies on the floor of the outlet 
 channel, is fitted in a recess cut in the masonry of the outlet 
 
IQ6 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 sill. By means of a segmental toothed rack and a pinion 
 (Fig. 26) this movable breast can be raised or lowered, and 
 the sill of the discharging channel adjusted to the height of 
 the water. 
 
 The diameter of the wheel is regulated by the formula 
 D = 8-75 v 7 H, when D = diameter of the wheel, / = the 
 immersion of the scoops, / . the lift, H = / -f / = the 
 height from the lowest point of the wheel to the highest 
 external level to which the water has to be raised, and 
 875 = a constant giving a result closely approaching 
 Dutch and English practice. The measurements are infect. 
 In Holland the largest wheels do not exceed 33 feet 
 diameter. In England, the largest diameter is 50 feet, there 
 are many wheels of 35 and 40 feet, but the best limit for 
 efficient working is about 36 feet. It is not advantageous to 
 use scoop wheels for lifts exceeding 1 2 feet : for greater lifts 
 centrifugal pumps are more effective and economical. 
 
 Owing to the large diameter and great weight of the 
 wheels, it is necessary that the foundation be rigid and the 
 wheel very nicely adjusted, as the slightest settlement causes 
 the wheel to grind in the trough. 
 
 There does not appear to be any determinate relation 
 between the diameter and the breadth of the wheel, nor 
 between these and the number and area of the scoops. 
 
 The angle made by the face of the scoop with the surface 
 of the water when first it comes in contact with it, is termed 
 the angle of ingress : that made by the back of the scoop 
 with the surface of the water when it leaves it being termed 
 the angle of egress ; the outer end of the scoop in each case 
 being taken as the apex of the angle. In determining the 
 angle to be given, the mean level of the water, both on the 
 inlet and the outlet side, must first be settled. The centre 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 1 97 
 
 of the wheel is then so fixed as to divide the head (= lift) 
 and dip (== immersion) in equal proportions, but the dip is 
 seldom made to exceed 6 feet. 
 
 On the whole, it may be taken that flat scoops, with an 
 angle of ingress of 30 and an angle of egress of 45, give 
 the best results. 
 
 The speed at which wheels with flat scoops run should 
 not exceed 8 feet per second at the periphery. Those in 
 England have generally a speed of 6-27 to 7 feet per second. 
 Some of the Dutch wheels have as low a speed as 3 -46 feet. 
 Wheels having curved scoops can be run at a higher velocity 
 than flat-bladed ones. 
 
 The work performed by a scoop wheel is measured by the 
 quantity of water lifted in a given time. This is ascertained 
 by multiplying the mean circumference of the immersed 
 portion of the wheel by the area of the scoops (=width 
 X immersed radial length), and deducting from the result 
 the bulk occupied by the scoops and start-posts, and the 
 loss by leakage between the scoops and the trough. 
 Example: Diameter of wheel= 30 feet, dip=5 feet; width of 
 scoops =4 feet. Deducting half the dip from each of the 
 radii of the wheel, the mean diameter of the immersed 
 part=30 5 = 25 feet, and mean circumference=78'54 feet. 
 Area of scoops=4X 5 = 20 feet. Then 78-54x20=1570-80 
 feet. Deducting bulk occupied by scoops (say) 129-8 feet, 
 leaves 1,441 feet, and this less 7-6 per cent, for leakage 
 = 109-5 feet, leaves 1,331*5 cubic feet for each revolution 
 of the wheel. The number of revolutions per minute=4, 
 the discharge per minute= 1,33 1*5 x 4=5,326 cubic feet. 
 
 A number of careful observations on the performance of 
 wheels gives, for those with flat scoops, a result of effective 
 work averaging 70*6 per cent, of the power indicated : the 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
198 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 maximum efficiency reaching the very high figure of 81*97 
 per cent. 
 
 The centrifugal pump consists of an outer case having 
 inlet and outlet pipes, in which revolves a fan at a high 
 velocity. This high velocity adapts it well for gearing 
 direct to engines running at high speeds. A very large dis- 
 placement of water is effected in a short time. The machines 
 are compact and occupy small space. The weight being about 
 one-twentieth that of a scoop wheel, the area of buildings 
 required is small, and the cost of foundations comparatively 
 inexpensive. The first outlay is also considerably less : the 
 average difference of cost of pumping-stations erected in 
 Holland during recent years is 20 per actual horse-power 
 in favour of the pumps. Another great advantage of the 
 centrifugal pump is that it readily adapts itself to the vary- 
 ing lift which must be encountered in most drainage 
 stations, and automatically adjusts the work thrown on the 
 engine as the lift varies. At first starting, the engine-drain 
 is full and at its highest level. The lift being therefore 
 smaller, the pump discharges a larger volume of water : as 
 the water in the drain lowers, the lift increases and the 
 quantity pumped diminishes in proportion, giving more time 
 for the water to flow from the distant drains down to the 
 engine-drain and keep it fed. Further, when permanent 
 settlement of the land occurs, the cost of adapting a pump 
 is trifling, all that is necessary being a lengthening of the 
 inlet pipe. Where proper precautions are taken by protect- 
 ing the approach to the pump with gratings across the 
 entrance to the raceway, no practical difficulty has been 
 found to arise from weeds and other substances which find 
 their way into the pump-well. 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 1 99 
 
 There are two types of these pumps : the one having a 
 horizontal spindle, and being almost invariably fixed above 
 the level of the water ; the other of the turbine form, having 
 a vertical spindle, the fan and case being submerged. All 
 the larger stations in England have been fitted with the 
 turbine form, while in Holland and Italy the pump with 
 horizontal spindle has been most generally used; 
 
 The pumps having horizontal spindles are, owing to the 
 ease with which they can be fixed, eminently adapted for 
 temporary purposes, and for drainage in places where it is 
 not considered desirable to cut through a river- bank. For 
 small drainage areas pumps of this type are preferable to 
 those which are submerged, owing to the greater facility of 
 access to the fan should it become choked with weeds, ropes, 
 or other matter liable to be twisted round the blades. Sub- 
 stances, intruding through the protecting gratings, that will 
 readily pass through the openings in large pumps, frequently 
 get wrapped round the fans and spindles of the smaller 
 pumps ; and if not actually bringing the pump to a stand- 
 still, seriously affect its efficiency and throw a greater strain 
 on the engine. 
 
 Pumps with horizontal spindles require charging with 
 water before they can be started : this can be done by a 
 small donkey-pump, or by exhausting the air by a steam- 
 jet. 
 
 The turbine type of pump (Fig. 27) has a vertical spindle, 
 and must be placed below the water, at the lowest level from 
 which the water is to be pumped. Pumps with single fans 
 can be run at a smaller number of revolutions than those 
 with two an advantage when used for drainage purposes. 
 The pump is fixed in an iron case or a brick well, the outlet 
 from which is at the lowest level to which the water in the 
 
200 
 
 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 outlet channel is ever likely to fall : there should be not less 
 than 2 feet of water over the pump, since within reasonable 
 limits its depth below the surface does not appreciably add 
 to the work to be done. No delivery or suction pipes are 
 required. The opening in the well is protected by a self- 
 
 
 Fig. 27. Centrifugal Pump: Turbine type. 
 
 acting valve to prevent back flow when the pump is not 
 working, or doors are placed at the end of the channel lead- 
 ing into the main outfall drain. The pump is hung by its 
 spindle to a girder across the top of the well, by an 
 accessible gun-metal bearing j and the spindle is stayed by 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 2OI 
 
 horizontal guides in the well. No foot-step is required; and 
 the fan can at any time be taken out for repairs, and replaced, 
 without emptying the water from the pump-well. The case 
 or well should be so arranged that it can at any time be 
 pumped dry if necessary a precaution seldom needed. No 
 valves are required, the pump being always charged and 
 ready for starting ; and being covered by a considerable 
 depth of water, it is free from the action of frost the water 
 left in a pump exposed to it being liable to freeze and burst 
 the case. The friction of the water along the suction and 
 delivery pipes necessary in the other type of pump, is also 
 avoided. 
 
 The action of a centrifugal pump of either type is as 
 follows : As soon as the fan begins to revolve, the blades 
 carry with them the water, which is then pushed forward 
 and driven into the case partly by the action of the blades 
 propelling it, and partly by the centrifugal action of the 
 rapid rotary motion caused by the fan. The place of the 
 water expelled from the fan is immediately filled by a fresh 
 supply from the inlet. The water driven out by the fan is 
 propelled along the discharge passage or rises up the well 
 until the outlet is reached. A continuous stream is thus 
 created, and the water is kept in motion along its whole 
 passage. The discharge increases with the increase of 
 velocity, a small increase in the number of revolutions pro- 
 ducing a large increase in the delivery. Unless the speed 
 at which the pump is intended to run is attained, the machine 
 does not work at its best, and fuel is wasted. It is there- 
 fore important that the engine-man in charge should know 
 the velocity for which his pump is speeded. Makers usually 
 furnish particulars whereby the quantity discharged can be 
 ascertained when the lift and speed are known. 
 
202 
 
 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 The great advantage a centrifugal pump has over all other 
 machines for raising water for the drainage of land where 
 the lift is constantly varying owing to the rise and fall of 
 the tide in the outfall river or the lowering of the water in 
 the inside drains as the pumping proceeds, is that it adapts 
 itself to these variations in the lift without any alteration in 
 the speed of the engine, employment of differential gear, or 
 attention on the part of the engine-driver. If kept working 
 at the ordinary speed, the pump will discharge either more 
 or less water according as the lift diminishes or increases. 
 
 The various sizes of these pumps are generally described 
 from the diameter of the inlet pipe : a " 3o-inch pump " 
 would be one having a suction pipe 30 inches diameter at 
 the inlet. . 
 
 In best-class pumps with low lifts, such as are required for 
 drainage purposes, the following may be taken approxi- 
 mately as the rate of discharge : the amounts given are 
 above those attained by pumps in ordinary use : 
 
 Diameter of 
 
 
 Suction and Dis- 
 charge Pipe, in 
 
 Water discharged per Minute. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 15 
 
 5,000 
 
 22-32 
 
 18 
 
 7,OOO 
 
 31'25 
 
 24 
 
 11,000 
 
 49-10 
 
 3 
 
 18,000 
 
 80-35 
 
 36 
 
 20,000 
 
 89-28 
 
 42 
 
 27,000 
 
 120-53 
 
 48 
 
 40,000 
 
 I78-57 
 
 54 
 
 70,000 
 
 312-50 
 
 60 
 
 IOO,OOO 
 
 446-43 
 
 The duty to be expected from a centrifugal pump of the 
 best construction used for drainage purposes may be taken 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 203 
 
 at about 70 per cent., the effectiveness diminishing, in 
 small-sized pumps and in those not of the best construction, 
 to 50 per cent. 148 
 
 Steam-engines. Engines used for draining land should 
 always be of as simple a character as possible, free from 
 all complicated parts, and of the best workmanship and 
 ample strength. The more nearly they approach the type 
 of engines used for agricultural purposes, the less will be the 
 difficulty in obtaining experienced engine-men. The fewer 
 parts of a simple machine reduce the risk of breakdowns ; 
 and drivers of the agricultural class have generally sufficient 
 intelligence to deal at least for a time with such accidents 
 as may happen. In the case of engines used in pumping 
 mines, or for town water-supply, or for similar purposes, 
 experienced men and skilled mechanics are at hand to carry 
 out repairs and rapidly remedy defects : in the event of a 
 mishap with a drainage-engine, a messenger has to be 
 dispatched from some out-of-the-way place to a perhaps 
 distant town to obtain the services of an engine-fitter. 
 
 In recent pumping-stations in England no one particular 
 class of engine prevails. In Holland the type of engine 
 most commonly in use is the horizontal condensing single 
 cylinder; but there, as also in France and Italy, direct 
 acting horizontal compound engines have most generally 
 been applied for driving centrifugal pumps. Vertical 
 engines require less foundations, and are less subject to 
 strain if (a common occurrence in fen-land) settlement of 
 the foundation takes place, than those of horizontal type. 
 Where the area of land is small, say not exceeding 2,000 
 acres, and therefore not sufficient to warrant the cost of 
 brick buildings, the most economical arrangement is to use 
 
204 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 a semi-portable engine driving a centrifugal pump, the whole 
 enclosed in a galvanized-iron shed. The cost of founda- 
 tions and erection of a chimney is thus avoided. The 
 pump can be driven by belt or by direct gearing from the 
 crank-shaft. 
 
 Although in drainage-engines the saving of coal as 
 between one type of engine and another may not be of such 
 consequence as in engines used for commercial purposes, 
 yet the total consumption is important, because on this 
 principally depends the annual cost of the pumping-station 
 and the amount of taxes required to meet expenses. If 
 more fuel than necessary is used, this is due to some fault 
 of engine-man, engine, or pump. The excess has to be paid 
 for. A good engine-man may save his wages many times 
 over by careful stoking : an incompetent man may not only 
 run up the coal bill, but do serious damage to the machinery 
 by bad management. 
 
 Dutch Engineers in their contracts for engines &c. gener- 
 ally stipulate that the coal consumed shall not exceed 
 6*60 Ib. per horse-power per hour for water actually raised 
 (W.H.P.). Allowing an efficiency of '55 for the machinery, 
 this is 'equal to 3*63 Ib. per indicated horse-power (I.H.P.). 
 Some of the best pumping-engines for land drainage in this 
 country consume from 4lb. to 4^5 Ib. per I.H.P. ( = 7*25 Ib. 
 to 8-25 Ib. per W.H.P.) per hour. At the trials of the 
 machinery put up at Fos, Bouches du Rhone, the consump- 
 tion was at the rate of 2-47 Ib. per I.H.P. (= 4-45 Ib. per 
 W.H.P.) ; and in that for drainage of the Ferrara marshes 
 2-5 Ib. per I.H.P. (= 4 Ib. per W.H.P.) per hour. 
 
 Engine- Drains. Pumping - machinery should be 
 adequate to the maximum rainfall of wet years. Assuming 
 
THE DRAINAGE. 205 
 
 for example an area of 1,000 acres, with a lift of 5 feet, and 
 daily rainfall of i inch ; this is equal to 39,394 lb. lifted 
 5 feet every minute, or 196,970 foot-pounds, which divided 
 by 33,000 the unit of horse-power, is equal to 6 horse- 
 power. 149 Allowing that 50 per cent, is absorbed in over- 
 coming friction and leakage, 12 I.H.P. would be required. 
 This is on the supposition that the engine during extreme 
 floods is running night and day, which in cases of emergency 
 is generally done. If the work is required to be done in 
 less time, the power required will be proportionately larger. 
 The best advantage is obtained when the machinery runs 
 continuously night and day. If the drains are capable of 
 delivering a full supply, a pump works at its best, and the 
 scoops of a wheel being fully charged deliver their full 
 quantity with less lift than if the water-level is lowered and 
 gathers again during the night. The coals used in getting 
 up steam and re-starting are saved, and usually a better 
 result is obtained. If the machinery does not run at night, 
 it will have to be so much larger as to be capable of dis- 
 charging in 14 or 1 6 hours (as the case may be) the rainfall 
 of 24 hours, and the drains must be proportionately large 
 to supply the increased capacity of the pump or wheel. The 
 wages of the night men for the short time they are required 
 will not, in the case of a large pumping-station, amount to 
 so much as the annual payment of interest and sinking-fund 
 on the extra cost of the machinery and drains. If the main 
 interior drains of the reclaimed area are of sufficient 
 capacity, an inclination of even 2 inches per mile will be 
 enough to bring the water to the pump : these drains, and 
 especially the main engine-drain, serve not only as conveyers 
 of water to the pump, but also as reservoirs to collect it 
 when the engine is not running, and should therefore be 
 
206 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 larger than shown by a calculation founded merely on their 
 discharging capacity. When steam is once up, it is bad 
 management to allow the engine to stand still for the water 
 to gather because the drains are not of sufficient capacity to 
 keep up the supply. 150 
 
 Pumping- Stations. The cost of erecting a pumping- 
 station depends upon the circumstances of each case, and 
 does not appear to bear any definite relation to the area to 
 be drained or to the lift of water. The mean of seven some- 
 what typical stations, of very different acreage and engine- 
 power, gives the cost for buildings and machinery as 
 ;o'74 per acre of land drained, the maximum being \ "84, 
 and the minimum o'2o. For the cost per W.H.P. em- 
 ployed, the five of these stations of which the data admit 
 of the calculation give a mean of ,82*73, the maximum 
 being ^101*08, and the minimum ;55'9O. 151 Mr. Wheeler, 
 well acquainted with the subject, considers from ^"70 to 
 ;8o per W.H.P. may be in a general way taken to 
 represent the cost. 
 
 The annual cost of maintenance and working-charges 
 seems to average, per acre of land drained 9'48d., or per 
 acre per foot of lift 2'2d. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 THE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR. 
 
 THE importance of strengthening and preserving the fore- 
 land has already (p. 140) been touched upon. It may here 
 be added, that where the nature of the foreland is such as 
 to allow of the growth of vegetation upon it, this may be 
 promoted by cutting sods from the marsh already formed, 
 laying them about, singly, on the site, and pegging them 
 down : they become fixed, and the grass gradually spreads 
 until the separate sods are united and the whole surface 
 covered. This method, locally termed " inoculation," is in 
 many places practised with success, and deserves considera- 
 tion all the more because, when the land-waters that 
 formerly kept open the creeks and rills are diverted into the 
 permanent outfalls from the sluices, their old beds, after 
 being bushed and properly filled up, may with advantage be 
 thus grassed over. (See also infra p. 229.) 
 
 Not less important is the care of the bank itself. The 
 expense of its maintenance will of course be affected by 
 the degree of soundness of the work bestowed upon its con- 
 struction; but be this greater or less, its durability will 
 nevertheless in great measure depend upon the attention 
 subsequently paid to keeping it in good condition. Although 
 disasters occurring to sea-walls are generally attributed to 
 some exceptionally severe storm, there can be little doubt 
 
208 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 that in many cases they are primarily assignable to want of 
 diligent inspection, proper keeping up, and timely repair : 
 the storm does but find out the weak places. All seems to 
 go well until it comes, and then the damage results. 
 
 The expense of maintenance is very different in different 
 cases. On the Lincolnshire coast it is given as from 6d. to 
 8s. and los. per acre of embanked area. At one place in 
 Essex it is stated as being at the rate of 75. per acre; and 
 on one Reclamation with an area of 700 acres at Tendring 
 in the same county it is said to have been for many years as 
 much as 203., for several years 305., and in 1883 no less 
 than 355., in the of annual value. There is nothing said 
 as to whether in any of the foregoing the cost of extra- 
 ordinary repairs was included. In the case of Canvey 
 Island, the cost during a period of 66 years averaged 45. 
 per acre, exclusive of the heavy repairs occasioned by 
 damage done by the gales of 1881 to the bank, which had 
 not been duly kept up. 152 
 
 Constant attention has to be given to the preservation of 
 the turf on the slopes of the bank, and to that on its top if 
 not laid out as a road ; and to the immediate filling of all 
 holes and cracks noticed, and the turfing-over or otherwise 
 protecting the fresh earth used for that purpose. 
 
 Mr. Wiggins lays great stress on the importance of 
 constant attention to the facing, strengthening, and topping 
 of the bank ; and regards as a feature of prime importance 
 the maintenance of the bank at its full height, " which," he 
 says, " is apt to be diminished by the tread of cattle and the 
 natural degradation occasioned by rains and other causes. 
 The first-named cause of this diminution of height ought to 
 be prevented by limiting the grazing of sea-walls to 
 sheep; 153 but even in this case, the other causes are 
 
THE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR. 2 09 
 
 powerful enough to render much vigilance requisite in 
 restoring the lost height, before any higher tides than usual 
 cause a ' drown,' and this is done by the operation called 
 topping, or placing a sufficient quantity of earth on the top 
 of the bank. In this operation allowance must be made 
 for the settling or shrinking of the wet earth generally used, 
 which may be calculated at nearly one-third of the height 
 to which it is put on. Topping put on 5 feet base, 3 feet at 
 top and 2 feet high, took about one floor (400 feet) to 2^ 
 rods. . . . 
 
 " The back of the sea-wall has already been mentioned as 
 requiring a certain degree of slope, not only to give stability 
 to the materials of the bank, but to enable it to derive that 
 support which the matted roots of grasses, and other 
 vegetation, are capable of giving. In old banks this slope 
 becomes lessened in time, and in some cases the bank slips 
 down at the back, or it becomes worn by the tread of cattle. 
 The back of the bank is also sometimes honeycombed by 
 rats, moles, &c., or split by the shrinking of the spits or 
 clods originally used in its construction, and not properly 
 packed and flood-flanked at that time. In either of these 
 cases it requires to be made up by the operation called 
 1 siding, ' or the addition of fresh earth to the requisite 
 extent. Sometimes this operation is deemed necessary in 
 order to give a greater degree of solidity to banks which 
 appear to be deficient in thickness or substance. Siding is 
 usually measured with a string for the breadth, and the average 
 depth of earth is taken. The earth should be taken from 
 the marsh or land side, and ... as the material both of 
 siding and fronting sea-walls, when of a tenacious nature 
 and used wet, is apt to shrink in drying,. and crack so as to 
 fall away, a process called ' sludging ' is performed, which 
 
210 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 consists in plastering up and filling the fissures with 
 sea-mud. 
 
 " It takes about one floor and a quarter to side a rod in 
 length, in ordinary cases . . . ; but in another case, seven 
 floors sided a lo-foot wall for 6 rods in length. The 
 expense of siding must, however, of course depend entirely 
 on the quantity of material employed, and this having to be 
 more carefully placed or packed of unequal thickness in 
 places, is worth more than the more bulky work of repairing 
 the bank ; it depends however much on the nature of the 
 earth, its distance, and the quantity to be added." 154 
 
 In Holland, it is considered inexpedient to allow 
 pasturing on the bank to be begun until the second or 
 third year, or at any time to allow it to continue after the 
 ist of October. Low places and cracks are filled in the 
 spring with fine earth. Pasturing by cattle is regarded as 
 the best means of preserving the grass on the bank in good 
 condition. Calves and sheep are not allowed, because they 
 graze too closely ; nor horses, because their hoofs cut the 
 sod. 155 
 
 As regards the manner of pasturing, it may here be 
 observed that grass, if close- cropped, especially by sheep, 
 develops small and fine roots, but covers the surface with a 
 compact carpet of turf ; while, if suffered to grow rank, it 
 is apt to coarsen and run into tussocks, which disturbed, as 
 they are liable to be when pastured by cattle, are apt to 
 leave holes in the bare soil. The question is one for agri- 
 cultural experience and expediency rather than for an 
 Engineer to decide : it certainly demands careful con- 
 sideration. 
 
 ''Trees on dikes are highly prejudicial. They prevent 
 the dikes from becoming thoroughly dry. Grass does not 
 
THE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR. 211 
 
 grow well in their shade or under their influence. They 
 are shaken even to their roots by heavy winds and the 
 ground loosened accordingly. Add to this, that there are 
 frequently cavities under the arch of the roots of large and 
 especially [of] old trees, and that considerable streams of 
 water may be conducted through the dike by means of the 
 lateral roots. The latter are subject to decay and then 
 constitute formidable channels." 156 
 
 Where a bank has proper slopes, and is of sound and 
 good construction, a serious breach rarely occurs by direct 
 action of the sea on the outward face ; the danger to be 
 apprehended being rather that of the waves rolling over the 
 top during a coincidence of heavy storm with unusually 
 high tide, cutting-up the land slope, and undermining its 
 foot. The support afforded by the backing being once 
 lost, the outer face gives way, and a breach ensues. Such 
 at least is the teaching of experience with respect to banks 
 in Jutland (cf. p. 50), and there is no sufficient ground 
 for supposing the matter to be otherwise in this country. 
 In case of emergency, then, the main object must be to 
 avert disaster by a temporary raising of the bank. Rows, 
 4 feet apart, of stakes are driven into the top of the bank, 
 and planks or fascines secured to them, the space between 
 being filled with earth. When fascines or planks are not 
 readily procurable, clay, brushwood, stones, and sand-bags 
 are rammed in between the stakes, and the heads of the 
 stakes are then bound together. In this manner a bank 
 can be easily and quickly heightened 3 or 4 feet. The bank 
 itself being above highest tide level, the overflow to be 
 guarded against is little more than that due to the breaking 
 and run of the waves ; and ; slight as seems the barrier thus 
 
212 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 raised, it has been found effectual : a sudden danger has 
 more than once been thus averted and the land saved from 
 inundation. In view of possible recurrence of a like event, 
 the work so executed will advisably be left in place as an 
 additional storm-bank, earth and turves being added as 
 opportunity offers, by way of making it stanch and per- 
 manent at small extra cost. 
 
 The following recommendations relating to Dutch practice 
 in the matter of repairs, will be found useful and worthy of 
 adoption, being equally applicable to banks in this 
 country : 
 
 Damages should be speedily repaired, or they will lead to 
 increased trouble and cost. If the sodding be injured and 
 the slope badly washed, the damaged spots should be 
 levelled-off and the place covered with a krammat or a 
 dressing of brushwood. If the damage occurs in winter, a 
 permanent filling of the gaps or holes in the facing is not 
 recommended, it being difficult to secure a good and firm 
 sod during the winter season, and there is risk of storms 
 washing away the new work. It is best therefore to adopt 
 adequate though only palliative measures, and to postpone 
 the complete restoration of the slope to a later season ; and 
 filling-in with fresh earth or clay should be resorted-to only 
 in extreme and unmistakably urgent cases. Brushwood 
 dressing should be used in places previously protected by it, 
 or where krammat would be insufficient. Brushwood is 
 especially recommended where the earth is so much injured 
 that paring-away without filling would not make a slope 
 suitable for the reception of a krammat ; because brush, 
 by tight and strong wattling, can be made to stand at a 
 much steeper slope, and is much better as a protection for 
 
THE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR. 213 
 
 new earth if that must be used. The greater cost of brush- 
 wood dressing is in some measure made up for by the fact 
 that most of the material can be saved and used again. 
 
 If, as often happens, the outer slope is so far cut away by 
 the storm as to encroach upon the crown, it becomes 
 difficult to restore the slope so that a brushwood dressing 
 will stand, without a filling of some kind. Then fascine- 
 work may be resorted to, or a facing of stakes or timbers 
 backed by hurdles or planking. The foot of such a structure 
 needs protection against wash. For this purpose, the 
 bottom plank of the revetment may be sunk 8 or 12 inches 
 in the ground, or short upright planks may be driven. If 
 preferred, a layer of brush or straw, of good thickness and 
 6 or 8 feet wide, maybe secured at the foot of the revetment. 
 If the slope is covered with stone, and this be so injured 
 that it cannot be at once restored (as, if possible, it ought 
 to be), the displaced and injured material should be cleared 
 away and replaced by a good facing of brushwood, or, if 
 the bank is so washed-out as to need filling, by fascine-work 
 made up to a good face. 
 
 One of the most serious accidents that can happen is a 
 sudden sinking or collapse of the bank, caused by under- 
 mining below water. These slips are not always the result 
 of storms, being sometimes due to the steady action of 
 currents, and frequently occur in time of calm weather. 
 In general, the first thing to be done is to build up the bank 
 under water with fascine-work to prevent further sliding. 
 When the damage is not extensive, this work may be 
 carried on until the sea-slope is rebuilt. The fascines are 
 laid in tiers, and weighted with cubes of clay [as described 
 at pp. 133-136, 138 for the construction of training- 
 walls and the sides of channels]. If the injury extends to 
 
214 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 the inner slope, it may be necessary to build a new bank on 
 the land side of the old one. 157 
 
 The important part played by fascine- work in construction 
 of banks and training-walls seated below low-water mark as 
 well as above that level, has been shown when treating 
 of the subject (pp. 75-77, 83, 133)- How S reat a 
 difference of opinion may exist on points of practice, is 
 evidenced by contrast of the preceding paragraph with the 
 following : " If a slip takes place, in any part of tidal em- 
 bankments, great care must be observed not to allow any 
 fascines to be used, as there is always a danger and liability 
 of fagots forming conductors for the water." 158 
 
 When a breach occurs, the work of repair may be far 
 more difficult and expensive than that of closing tidal open- 
 ings left during construction. Unlike these, it has no 
 flooring, side-guards, or aprons, and is almost always (at 
 any rate in the first instance) much narrower relatively to 
 the quantity of water passing in and out at each tide. The 
 result is a much greater velocity of current, a more or less 
 rapid deepening of the bed by scour, and a wasting-away of 
 the sides. The last is of small consequence, the difficulty 
 of closing being due to the deepening of the bed, and the 
 velocity sometimes 8 or 10 miles and upwards per hour, of 
 the tidal stream. Hence the impolicy of delay in the com- 
 mencement of repairs : every tide working further mischief 
 and enhancing the difficulty and ultimate cost of making 
 good. Matters are even worse when, as at St. Germains 
 on the Middle Level and in other cases, the breach is 
 caused by the failure of a sluice ; because the drainage this 
 carried cannot always be led to and got rid of by other 
 existing ones, and provision for its discharge has to be 
 
THE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR. 215 
 
 made by building a new sluice or possibly sluices, which 
 can rarely if ever be done exactly on the site of the old one. 
 This involves some alteration and perhaps diversion of the 
 outfall drain ; and if much scour has there taken place 
 that of the Middle Level had for a quarter of a mile been 
 scoured-out to a depth of 15 feet below its original bed 
 the portion abandoned at and near the breach may prove 
 a source of additional difficulty. 
 
 Owing to the fact that the particular conditions and 
 circumstances of each individual case of breach have to be 
 taken into account and dealt-with accordingly, it is not 
 possible to lay down any fixed rule for the work of repair. 
 All that can be done is to indicate methods of procedure 
 which have been followed in various similar works, leaving 
 to the Engineer the selection of the one best suited to the 
 requirements of the affair he has in hand. Three points, 
 however, having a practical bearing upon almost all cases, 
 may be premised. 
 
 First : Working " in the dry" is far easier than working 
 below water : if therefore the method adopted for closing 
 the breach admits of it, it is desirable that the bottom of 
 the opening be as soon as possible brought up to low-tide 
 level. Experience goes to show that the readiest, safest, 
 and most effectual way of doing this is by the use of mat- 
 tressing and loading. Mr. Muller, who had considerable 
 experience in the matter, says : " Filling up a gap by this 
 method possesses the great advantage that there is com- 
 paratively no loss, or displacement of the material. There 
 is no chance of any scouring taking place under the cradle, 
 and the hollows between the lumps of clay and stone being 
 soon filled up with sand by the tide, the bottom of the 
 creek or gap is, in a few hours, permanently raised several 
 
2l6 RECLAMATION OF JLAND. 
 
 feet. The sides of the opening are next protected with 
 similar cradles, the lower end of each resting on that first 
 laid. Subsequently, other cradles are sunk over these, 
 until the work reaches low-water mark, when the width of 
 the embankment is gradually increased, by throwing in sods 
 on the outer side, protected by fascine work, weighted with 
 stone. The same process is then pursued on the inner 
 side. . . . From his own experience he believed, that by 
 adopting the system of laying layer upon layer, horizon- 
 tally, the largest breaches could be easily closed. . . . Be- 
 tween 1853 an d 1860, he had successfully closed seven 
 large openings, the greatest depth of which varied from 
 28 feet to 42 feet, below the level of high water. The size 
 of the cradles need only be limited by the strength of the 
 current, and the facilities which existed for sinking 
 them." 159 
 
 Second : However low the bottom of the opening, the 
 water on the inundated area will never fall below low-tide 
 level ; and therefore the lowest level to which it can be 
 reduced by gravitation will not be affected by bringing up 
 the bottom of the opening to that height. 
 
 Third : If the inundated area is large, and the discharge- 
 capacity of the breach insufficient, the impounded water 
 will be held up so long that it may not fall to low-water 
 level before the tide again rises : the velocity of the current 
 will be unduly high ; and these together will occasion more 
 difficulty in the work than a greater length of closure made 
 in water whose flow is less rapid and whose level more 
 closely agrees with that of the tide. It is therefore almost 
 always advantageous to widen to the requisite extent the 
 opening above low-water mark, protecting its sides with 
 fascine- work and its outlet and inlet with aprons. These 
 
THE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR. 2iy 
 
 latter, being at and below water level, will be best made by 
 laying as foundation a mattress with strongly wattled com- 
 partments filled with sand-bags, sods, and stone : this, if 
 properly done, should withstand any amount of wash to 
 which it is likely to be exposed ; and the overfall upon it 
 will be but slight, since the water on the inside of the breach 
 will rise and fall practically as fast as the tide. 
 
 From low-water level upwards, the closure will be made : 
 a) By raising earthwork in layers in the breach : b] By 
 forming a skeleton dam of piles, and planking and filling 
 up : c) By an arrangement of sliding panels that can be 
 simultaneously lowered so as to close the whole opening at 
 once ; or d) By forming an inset bank on the landward 
 side of the breach. 
 
 a) The raising of earthwork in layers proceeds in much 
 the same way as described for a new bank, so far as regards 
 the supplying of material and its spreading and ramming. 
 But since in the present case it will have to be commenced 
 at low-water level, closure cannot be completed in a single 
 tide : the slopes and top of the work will therefore require 
 protection as the tide rises. The impounded water, in- 
 creasing in depth as the closure proceeds, will probably 
 cause some inconvenience in carrying on operations, but 
 will be to some extent kept down by the sluices, so that the 
 top of the work will not long remain awash after the tide 
 has sunk below that level ; and material for filling can be 
 supplied by conveyance along the bank, or by barge. 
 
 b) A closure made by a dam of double planking secured 
 to open rows of piles and brought up and filled-in by de- 
 grees in horizontal layers, will require a staging for the men 
 in addition to the width of the dam itself. The piles must 
 
2l8 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 be well strutted on both sides, to sustain the pressure of the 
 water. The planking and filling must be closely followed 
 up by a backing of sacks filled with clay and sand puddled 
 together, packed close against both sides of the dam and 
 formed with a slope not less than i to i and flatter if 
 possible this requirement of strutting and backing applies 
 also to the work of closure in a new bank. It is question- 
 able whether even in the latter case such a dam can always 
 be brought up fast enough to close in a single tide : in that 
 of a breach it almost certainly can not. 
 
 f) The arrangements for sliding panels, in closing the 
 Middle Level drain for repair of the breach caused by 
 failure of St. Germains sluice, are thus described. " Tem- 
 porary piles were screwed into the ground in the first in- 
 stance, and a platform was erected thereon, to form a 
 staging for the pile-driving engines. When this was done, 
 the permanent pile-work was commenced, by driving two 
 rows of sheet- piling, 25 feet apart, transversely down the 
 slope of the drain on each side. This sheet-piling extended 
 from the centres of the banks to within about 20 feet of the 
 bottom of the drain, leaving a space of 20 feet on each 
 slope and of 48 feet (the bottom horizontal width of the 
 drain), together equal to a central space of 88 feet of 
 cofferdam to be completed. This portion of the dam was 
 thus constructed : Piles of whole timbers were driven on 
 each side, so that when in place they would be in pairs, 
 7 feet 6 inches apart, from centre to centre. The piles in 
 each pair were placed back to back, a space being left 
 between them of 7 inches, this distance being preserved by 
 a central piece 7 inches by 3 inches. These piles were 
 driven separately, one of the piles, with the distance-piece 
 attached, being first driven, and afterwards the second pile. 
 
THE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR. 2 19 
 
 The grooves thus left were for the reception of sliding 
 panels, to be used in order to fill up the spaces between 
 these several twin piles. These piles could only be pitched 
 during the few minutes of slack water. Waling pieces of 
 whole timbers were fixed to the inside and the outside, both 
 at the top, and also as near to the low water level as pos- 
 sible. As the piles were driven, proper struts and ties were 
 inserted to stiffen and strengthen the dam, and strongly 
 framed raking struts were fixed, abutting against the dam 
 and against abutments, composed of piles backed with 
 concrete, on the land. . . . The panels are composed of a 
 series of timbers (7 inches thick, and of the length neces- 
 sary to enable them to slide into the grooves), fastened 
 together by bolts i inch diameter, and further strength- 
 ened and weighted by flat wrought-iron plates on one 
 side, each plate being 6 inches wide by i inch thick. In 
 order to put these panels in place, a frame was erected, 
 from which they were suspended, and from which they 
 could be lowered, and raised again if necessary, by pulleys." 
 The panels were put-in in three tiers. Those " in the first, 
 or lower tier were each 7 feet deep. They were pointed at 
 the lower end, so that they could be driven down some 
 depth into the mud ; and when all those of the first set 
 were driven, another set was put in. These latter were of 
 variable depths, inasmuch as the first series could not all be 
 driven to the same level, and the lengths of the second set 
 were so arranged as to raise the panelling uniformly to the 
 level of about low water of spring tides. Whilst the panels 
 were being driven, and after they were down, the operation 
 of throwing in sacks of clay and gravel, both on the inside 
 and the outside of the dam, was persevered in." The top 
 tier of panels was 1 2 feet deep, and its lowering into place 
 
220 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 occupied about twenty minutes. The backing was filled-in 
 as fast as possible. "About 3,000 yards of clay with 
 several hundred sacks of gravel and clunch were prepared 
 for the operation, and 800 men were in readiness to put 
 these materials in place, from several barrow-roads and 
 waggon roads ; and so perfect were the arrangements, that 
 the raising of the dam inside was kept in advance of the 
 rise of the tide, and before high water the operation was 
 completed." 16 This dam being across a drain embanked 
 on each side, it would not have been possible to widen the 
 opening ; and the difficulty of the work was greatly aug- 
 mented by the strong current, and an overfall sometimes 
 amounting to 5 feet, due to the narrowness of the water- 
 way, which was less than one-fourth of what would be given 
 to a prearranged tidal opening, and even this was further 
 reduced by the sheet-piling at the sides ; so that during 
 progress it was scarcely possible to maintain the aprons and 
 backing, which were continually being broken up and 
 washed away. 
 
 The requisite piles having been driven through the mat- 
 tressing and filling whereby the bottom of the breach has 
 been brought up to low-water level, its surface should be 
 covered with a layer of puddled clay and sand 2 feet or 
 2 feet 6 inches thick, in which is sunk, well bedded and 
 stanched, a bottom tier of the sliding panels, their top 
 standing some 2 feet 6 inches above low-water level ; the 
 aprons being made up nearly to this height. The im- 
 pounded water will be thereby raised, but its head will be 
 so small as to occasion no trouble, and the panels thus 
 fixed will form a good junction for the tier above. The top 
 and bottom of all the panels should have a bevelled edge 
 so as to make a tight joint. The length of the upper panels 
 
THE MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR. 221 
 
 will depend upon the range of tide : if this is so great as to 
 render them too heavy or difficult to handle, they can be in 
 two or even more lengths (the fewer the better) ; but 
 arrangements must be made for completion of the panelling 
 to its full height in one operation, and sufficient men and 
 materials provided to follow-up with the backing on the 
 inside in advance of the rise of tide. When the dam is 
 securely closed, the filling and slopes must be completed 
 with the least possible delay. 
 
 d) An inset bank affords in some cases the easiest means 
 of stopping a breach, especially where a sluice has been 
 destroyed and, in order to avoid interference with the 
 existing drains, or for other reasons, it is desired to reinstate 
 it as nearly as possible in its former situation. 
 
 The sluice, if one be required in the inset bank, is first 
 constructed, a cofferdam for the purpose being so placed as 
 not to reduce the width of the breach, whereof however, the 
 original width need not be increased unless dangerously 
 rapid scour or other serious injury is taking place. The 
 inset bank is then built, returned into the main bank at 
 each end so as to shut off between the breach and the inun- 
 dated area, an opening in it being left of sufficient width 
 to reduce the speed of the tidal current to a working 
 rate ; and when all is ready, this opening is shut up in 
 the ordinary manner. The area enclosed being small, no 
 injury is likely to be occasioned to the sides of the breach 
 by inflow and outflow when the inset bank is completed ; 
 but as a safeguard against wave-action they should be pro- 
 tected by strong fascine-work. The danger to be appre- 
 hended is that of the silting-up of the sluice. For avoid- 
 ance of this risk, and as a general principle, the preferable 
 procedure is to form a cofferdam on the inside and outside 
 
222 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 of the main bank, leaving room between the cofferdam and 
 the breach for the return of the inset bank into the main 
 bank so as not to include the sluice; and to put-in the 
 sluice through the bank so as to discharge on the outside as 
 the former one did. The sluice thus placed may so reduce 
 the tidal current as to allow the breach to be closed direct. 
 If not, an inset bank can then be built ; and when the tide 
 is thus excluded from the inundated area, there should be 
 no difficulty in closing the breach and restoring the main 
 bank to its original condition : after which the inset bank 
 is no longer needed. 
 
 The repair and restoration of old and wasted sea-banks 
 proceeds upon the same principles and in the same manner 
 as in the foregoing pages described for the construction of 
 new works : there does not appear to be anything in pro- 
 cedure differing from that already set forth, or needing 
 special notice. There is in fact in the case of the former a 
 particular advantage, inasmuch as what remains of them 
 serves as an already established framework or skeleton 
 whereon to build up and close in the new work. 161 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 WARPING. 
 
 THE alluvial and other matter held in suspension in river- 
 water, and in that of the sea near the shore, is in general 
 of a high degree of fertility ; and warping or the accumu- 
 lating of those substances by subsidence upon the land 
 while temporarily covered by the water, is a matter of very 
 considerable importance as a means of raising the surface 
 and improving the soil of an area embanked or to be 
 embanked for reclamation and of the foreland belonging to 
 it. Two modes of procedure are in use for the purpose : 
 groyning ; and letting-in warp-charged water to settle. 
 
 The water of rivers being more highly charged with warp, 
 and that of more fertile nature, than is the case with sea- 
 water, warping on a tidal river goes on more expeditiously, 
 and with more profitable result to the quality of the land ; 
 while at the same time, owing to the comparatively sheltered 
 situation of the site operated upon, with much more ease, 
 than when dealing with the sea. The amount by which land 
 can be raised by warping depends upon its original level, as 
 the surface of the warp when completed cannot be higher 
 than that of the tide at high- water ; and where the land in 
 its original state lies but a foot or so below this, the warp 
 will of course be very shallow. The process of river- 
 warping has been well described by Mr. T. C. Smith- 
 Woolley, F.S.I., and is briefly as follows : 
 
 The river being shut out from the area to be warped, a 
 
224 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 sluice is put into the river-bank, of a size proportional to the 
 area to be covered and the distance of the furthest point. 
 It differs in no essential respect from a sluice for drainage, 
 and most warping sluices are used as drainage sluices when 
 their original purpose has been fulfilled. 
 
 The area is next divided into compartments ; and the 
 one intended to be warped first is banked in, the top of the 
 bank being made of uniform level throughout. The ground 
 is roughly levelled, and hillocks are removed and thrown 
 into the hollows or else used for the banks. Judgment has 
 to be exercised in levelling, because when the ground rises 
 to a considerable height within a compartment, the cost of 
 removing it will sometimes be too large, if the material is in 
 excess of that required for the embankment and no part of 
 the area lies much below high-tide level. In such cases, it 
 is usual to leave in their natural condition the hills which 
 rise above high-water mark, and they may often with 
 advantage be planted with larch, Scotch fir, or other trees. 
 Where at the margin of the compartment the land rises rapidly 
 above high-tide level, it serves the purpose of a bank, which 
 at that place need not be constructed. 
 
 The compartment being embanked, the beginning of the 
 main drain is cut from the sluice, supposing, as is usually 
 the case, that the first compartment does not immediately 
 adjoin the river, but that there is between them an interval 
 of land not requiring warping. The sluice gates are then 
 opened and the tide admitted. There are usually two or 
 more openings to the sluice, and at first it is best to open 
 only one of them, so as to prevent injury to the newly-made 
 banks. It is a mistake to suppose that, when the tide has 
 been admitted, the gates ought to be shut to keep it there 
 for a considerable time in order to let the warp settle. A 
 
WARPING. 225 
 
 single tide in its natural flow and ebb deposits so large a 
 proportion of what it brings, that it does not pay to lose 
 tide No. 2 while tide No. i is taking time to settle. The 
 water should therefore be retained no longer than will leave 
 time for it to run off before the next tide is ready to run in. 
 
 While land adjacent to the sluice is being warped, all 
 tides may be let in ; but when the operation is being carried 
 on at a distance (some warping drains are five or six miles 
 long), it is necessary to shut out the neap-tides, because, 
 their flow of water being but small, their power of doing 
 good is out of all proportion to their power of doing 
 harm namely, by leaving their deposit in the main drain, 
 where it is an unmitigated evil. The same objection does 
 not apply to the spring- tides, as they have sufficient force to 
 clear out the drain themselves during the ebb. 
 
 The disposition of the warp over the land requires great 
 nicety. Were the water allowed to flow anyhow, the result 
 would be that a large portion of the land would be when 
 completed scarcely any more worth than it was originally, 
 the tendency of the water being to deposit the valueless 
 material it contains at the place at which it begins to spread 
 out over the land, while the lighter and more valuable 
 portions are carried to the farthest limits of the flow. 
 Hence arises the necessity for "inlets " or little embanked 
 channels, by which the water is conducted over different 
 parts of the land. These are altered from time to time ; 
 and it is in their due adjustment so as to leave the land, 
 when warped, of uniform value throughout, that the skill of 
 an experienced warper is found to be invaluable. Very low 
 land lying at a distance from the sluice is under a great 
 disadvantage, for the water often does not begin to get off 
 until that in the river has ebbed and begun again to flow. 
 
 Q 
 
226 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 It consequently is often necessary to shut out a tide, some- 
 times more than one, in order that the confined water which 
 had not time wholly to escape may pass out through the 
 sluice as soon as the water of the second tide in the river 
 has ebbed to a sufficiently low level. 
 
 The first compartment of an area being completed, the 
 banks of the main drain are carried right through it or 
 along its side, to the next compartment, which in turn is 
 subjected to the process, and so on until the whole area is 
 finished ; after which, unless required for drainage purposes, 
 or for the conveyance by boat of the produce of the warped 
 land, the main drain is allowed to warp itself up, which if 
 left to itself it will very soon do. Should it be again 
 required for the warping of still more distant lands or for 
 any other purpose, a small channel is cut through the warp ; 
 when the spring-tides being allowed to flow in and out 
 (neap-tides being excluded), the bed of the drain will soon 
 be effectively scoured and in as good a condition as ever. 
 
 In river-warping, it is the practice to exclude the tide- 
 waters when the river is in flood, the deposit brought down 
 by freshes being always of very inferior quality to the 
 ordinary warp, and sometimes utterly worthless. 
 
 The cost of river-warping varies greatly according to 
 circumstances ; but as a rule the larger the scale of opera- 
 tions the less the cost per acre, owing chiefly to the very 
 great outlay required in building a sluice, and the difference 
 between one to warp 100 and one to warp 500 acres being 
 comparatively trifling. Wooden sluices, though much less 
 expensive, are not desirable except in cases where the area 
 capable of being warped is small ; because a timber sluice 
 cannot be expected to last more than ten years or so, 
 whereas, if the area to be warped is very large, the sluice 
 
WARPING. 227 
 
 may be required for a much longer period, or perhaps even 
 permanently. The making of the main drain, also, forms a 
 very heavy item in the necessary expenditure. One of 
 30 feet bottom, the banks rising to a height of 6 feet above 
 the surface of the water and 1 2 feet above the bottom of 
 the drain, with slopes of 2 to i, would cost about ; 1,200 
 per mile for labour alone: the banks in the case con- 
 templated would be about 9 feet wide at the top, and the 
 earth dug from the drain would be exactly the quantity 
 required to form them. 162 
 
 The process of sea-warping embanked land differs in no 
 essential particular from that of river- warping. It is how- 
 ever, in some cases desirable to warp-up the surface before 
 embanking ; and the procedure is then different. 
 
 A salt-marsh has a general tendency to extend seaward ; 
 but, if not assisted by artificial means, the process of accre- 
 tion is practically stationary after a certain distance from 
 the shore. The oldest salt-marshes in the Wash are about 
 half a mile in depth, beyond which there is nothing but bare 
 sands. The cause of the accretion not extending beyond 
 a certain point is easily explained. The tidal water, carry- 
 ing matter in suspension, spreads over the foreshore up to 
 the banks bounding the marsh, and for the short time during 
 which there is a period of quiet, the matter in suspension is 
 deposited. The siliceous particles of silt and sand, having 
 the greatest specific gravity, are deposited first, the warp or 
 loamy particles being carried back with the ebbing current. 
 Gradually, as the marsh rises, the silt is deposited before 
 the water reaches the banks, the warp alone being carried 
 to the upper part and there deposited. As samphire and 
 grass respectively grow, this process is hastened, the vegeta- 
 
228 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 tion holding the warp and filtering it from the receding 
 water. For the deposit of this light flocculent matter, a 
 state of quiescence in the water is necessary, agitation 
 keeping it in suspension. After a certain breadth of marsh 
 has been formed, the body of water flowing off the marsh 
 on the recession of the tide becomes so great as to form a 
 current sufficiently strong to carry with it the siliceous as 
 well as the argillaceous particles held in suspension. After 
 a time, from the action of the forward and backward motion 
 of the wavelets of the ebbing tide, a marked and broken line 
 or steep, from one foot to two feet in height, appears at the 
 edge of the newly-formed marsh, up to which the neap- 
 tides reach, and beyond which the marsh ceases to grow. 
 The existing marsh is then covered by spring-tides, but 
 continues to rise slowly until covered by only the few 
 spring-tides which rise above the average height. When 
 the marsh is enclosed by a bank, the strong seaward flow of 
 ebb off it no longer takes place : accretion recommences, 
 and in the course of a longer or shorter time sometimes a 
 few months only according to the amount of suspended 
 matter brought up by the tide, the sand is covered with 
 warp ; then follows a growth of samphire, succeeded by 
 grass, and in a few years a marsh is formed outside the 
 recent enclosure, which rises by the accession of warp, 
 through which the grass grows, until for a foot or more in 
 depth the soil is a mass of the finest warp mixed with roots 
 of grasses and decayed vegetation. This process, extended 
 over a series of years, makes some of the most valuable and 
 fertile soil in the country. 163 
 
 Where no bank has yet been built, the backward flow of 
 water off the marsh and over the foreland has to be retarded 
 and controlled, so as to promote accretion on the foreshore 
 
WARPING. 229 
 
 and thereby enable further outward growth of the marsh. 
 Grips should be cut in the surface of the lower or seaward 
 half of the marsh, across the line of flow, and led into the 
 creeks. Where they discharge into a creek it should be 
 bushed ; and, to prevent it from being scoured out by the 
 additional current turned into it, brushwood or bushes should 
 be laid in its channel, the branches or top ends turned land- 
 ward, and secured with stakes as may be requisite. Rows 
 of brushwood set in the marsh near to and parallel with its 
 outer edge, help to break up the overflow from it. On the 
 foreland, rows of stakes filled in with brushwood, or wattled, 
 are placed parallel with the shore-line, at short intervals 
 Sods, fascines, seaweed, and the like, placed on the fore- 
 land and secured with stakes, straw ropes, or other fastening, 
 are also serviceable. These devices, or such of them as 
 circumstances render possible and expedient, will in almost 
 all cases contribute to the end desired ; and watchful atten- 
 tion will soon detect any need of additions to or modifica- 
 tions of the means employed. 
 
 A curious feature connected with warping is, that under 
 some favourable circumstances, worthless land above high- 
 water level may by proper arrangements be brought into a 
 condition for profitable cultivation. Certain parts of 
 Thorne Waste, a large peat-moss near Goole, formerly 
 above high-water level, have been so lowered by drainage 
 as to be now below it ; and a considerable portion of the 
 higher part has been subjected to an experiment of the 
 same kind. The peat, which is some 20 feet in depth, had 
 in 1877 been already lowered 3 feet, and needed only 
 lowering another yard to make the enterprise a success. 
 The almost valueless nature of this land in its natural state 
 would lead to its being chosen for improvement before land 
 
230 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 of finer quality, but this is not the only reason why it should 
 be selected ; for this moorish peaty soil becomes, when 
 warped, land of extraordinary fineness. 164 
 
 The length of time requisite for warping land into a con- 
 dition fit for enclosure ; the depth of warp obtainable in a 
 given period ; the cost ; and in fact all particulars of the 
 like description, have been variously stated. It is said that 
 silt foreshores outside a newly-erected enclosure become 
 grass marsh in about 10 years, after which 20 to 25 years 
 should elapse before they are enclosed. In 15 years, a 
 foreshore of bare sand became grassed all over : of this, 300 
 acres were enclosed 13 years, and 800 acres 24 years, later. 
 River- warped lands become fit for enclosure in from 14 to 
 30 years. Some land below the Cross Keys embankment 
 warped up 7 feet and became good grass marsh in 1 2 years. 
 From 20 to 50 years is said to embrace the ordinary limits 
 of such reclamation periods. 165 Of river- warping it is said 
 that ten or twelve tides covered an area of 10 or 15 acres 
 to an average depth of 2 feet ; and that in seven months 
 1 60 acres were warped-up to a depth of from i to 3 feet. lfi6 
 " No enclosure should be made until the land is ripe for 
 it. The growth of accretion is extremely slow, extending 
 from 25 to TOO years." 167 The foregoing statements (with 
 exception of the last, to which no local reference is given) 
 all relate to examples on the estuary or affluents of the 
 H umber; and the conclusion to be drawn from them and 
 indeed from any similar estimates amounts to this : that 
 the rate of deposit, and the time requisite before enclosure 
 can be profitably undertaken, are matters wholly dependent 
 upon local situation and conditions. So must be accounted 
 
WARPING. 231 
 
 also the cost of the process, variously stated at from 10 
 to ^40 per acre. Bearing in mind the rich quality and 
 abundant quantity of the Humber warp, the idea of 
 ultimate benefit in a less-favoured locality would seem to 
 connote also that of a lapse of time not less considerable 
 than indefinite. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 THE CULTIVATION. 
 
 THE rules and maxims laid down by Mr. Wiggins for 
 cultivation or, as he terms it, reclamation of an embanked 
 area, although in some minor details they may possibly be 
 found to admit of modification in accordance with theory 
 and practice of the present day, are of so plain and prac- 
 tical a nature, that it is desirable to reproduce them here : 
 the more so because, this branch of the subject being wholly 
 agricultural, its treatment by writers on the general question 
 (with exception of the account of Holkham Reclamation, 
 infra p. 245) is meagre in the extreme. 
 
 " We are now," Mr. Wiggins says, " to contemplate an 
 intake securely and completely embanked, together with 
 sluices of sufficient capacity to take off the water falling or 
 coming from other lands on the surface of the intake, and 
 these sluices having a sufficient run to seaward, to carry off 
 those waters down to 18 inches below the general level of 
 the surface of the intake, in sufficient time to prevent injury 
 to vegetation. These are essential conditions, on which 
 alone the work of reclamation can be commenced with any 
 hope of success, and these conditions being strictly fulfilled, 
 we may proceed to agricultural operations according to the 
 nature of the soil, which may be classed into clayey, sandy, 
 and loamy, each of which will require a somewhat different 
 treatment in some respects, though in other matters they 
 may be treated in the same manner, or nearly so ; thus, for 
 
THE CULTIVATION. 233 
 
 instance, in the first agricultural operation, viz. that of 
 enabling the soil, which has so lately been supersaturated 
 with salt water, with all its chemical combinations, to part 
 with so much of its saline and other particles as may be in 
 excess for the purpose of vegetation ; or, in other words, to 
 freshen the soil sufficiently for land plants to thrive upon it : 
 the process will be the same upon all these soils, and this 
 process consists in forming a series of surface drains, grips, 
 or channels, by which the downfall and other waters may 
 run off, carrying with them such portion of the saline and 
 other particles as they may have been enabled to dissolve, 
 and take up or absorb. . . . 
 
 " The next operation is to divide it into marshes of such 
 convenient size as may be judged most judicious ; and this 
 size will be partly governed by the soil, clayey soils parting 
 with their salt most reluctantly, and sandy soils most easily. 
 It will also be more strictly governed by the size most con- 
 venient for occupation in the particular locality, and also by 
 the desire to save expenses ; but in general sandy marshes 
 may be considerably larger than other soils, and there may 
 even be some advantages in leaving the interior of the level 
 for some time without subdivision, since it will be by no 
 means wise to hasten the process of freshening by any kind 
 of washing or sudden saturation, but, on the contrary, to 
 allow a considerable period of time to elapse before any 
 thought of cultivation is entertained, and during that period 
 to allow the level to remain sodden, only leading the surface 
 waters away gently into the circular dykes already described 
 [ante, p. 170], so as to prevent any pools of stagnant 
 water ; and it may be very judicious to fill up the nearest of 
 such hollows or ' pans,' as they are called, with the stuff out 
 of the circular dyke. This soddening, or stagnation of the 
 
234 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 soil in a watery state, is considerably more applicable to 
 sandy soils, and to such of those as have before embank- 
 ment been covered by every tide, than to clayey soils, and 
 will be quite unnecessary in such high fringes or salts as 
 have only been occasionally covered by the tide. But the 
 benefits of allowing the soil to remain for a length of time 
 under the influence of stagnant fresh water are great, since 
 it affords time for the decomposition of such animal and 
 vegetable matter as the sea may have deposited in it, 
 macerates and dissolves the calcareous, shelly, and other 
 such matter, and even reduces the silicious matter into a 
 state of subdivision resembling clay; and it amalgamates 
 all those heterogeneous particles, takes off their crudities, 
 promotes or prepares them for chemical combination, and 
 reduces them to a state fit for the purposes of fresh-water 
 vegetation. But such effects as these are not likely to 
 happen by the too powerful action of water that might, and 
 probably would, wash away the fertile or fertilizing particles, 
 and reduce the soil to a state of infertile sheer sand, or 
 sharp sand, and prove most injurious to future fertility of 
 the level ; we therefore disapprove any attempt at suddenly 
 freshening the soil, and consider that even the soddening 
 process recommended should be conducted with great care 
 and caution, always gradually, but neither allowing the 
 water to remain too copiously nor too long, nor suffering it 
 to run off too quickly ; for this purpose, therefore, cuts or 
 channels should be made from the lowest spots of the level 
 into the circular dyke, so that no water should remain 
 absolutely stagnant if it could be got off, but that at the 
 same time it should only be drawn off gradually : thus, 
 supposing the whole level could be gripped, or channelled 
 from the pans to the circular dyke, within the first year after 
 
THE CULTIVATION. 235 
 
 shutting out the sea, and this was done only 12 inches deep, 
 these grips should be allowed to remain at that depth a full 
 summer and winter at least, before deepening them another 
 6 inches, bringing them to the ultimate depth of 18 inches ; 
 gradual freshening and maceration being essential to future 
 fertility, and this requiring a longer time in proportion to 
 the quantity of saline matter, and the crude state of that 
 matter, with reference to vegetation, at the period of its 
 embankment. 
 
 " Thus we have brought the level into this state ; viz., it 
 has a marsh dyke or water-fence surrounding it, and very 
 numerous grips throughout its surface, leading the waters 
 into the marsh dykes to the depth of 18 inches below the 
 general surface, but of course lower where elevation of 
 surface occurs. In forming the principal grips, care should 
 be taken that they be cut in such places as to fall in with, 
 and promote, the ulterior design of laying out the level into 
 conveniently sized marshes ; and it will also be proper to 
 consider which way the ridges and furrows will lie, in case 
 of these marshes being ploughed, and to lay the grips 
 parallel thereto if possible, recollecting that the nearer the 
 ridges lie to north and south the better. 
 
 "The depth of the soil, we may now suppose, has been 
 somewhat increased by the soil arising from the grips being 
 spread about. By this time several brackish plants, partly 
 of a maritime, and partly of fresh-water nature, will have 
 appeared, and partially covered the surface in places : these 
 may be grazed to advantage, and as the surface soil freshens, 
 it may be harrowed, and Dutch clover and ray grass may 
 be sown and rolled in, wherever the absence of other plants 
 may allow of them ; first, however, bestowing but a small 
 quantity of seed by way of experiment, and increasing tLis 
 
236 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 as success may encourage from time to time. In a period 
 varying from three to seven years, according to the tenacity 
 of the soil, and its height above the tide, the level will be fit 
 to bear corn and pulse. If its surface be coarse and uneven, 
 and its soil tenacious and stubborn, or what is called marsh 
 clay, it may be judicious to dig it over and level it at the 
 same time, preserving however the grips already dug; 
 taking in the first instance a crop of coleseed (rape), which 
 might judiciously constitute the first crop, and may either 
 be saved for seed or fed off, and be succeeded in either case 
 by oats, then beans, and then wheat ; but even after the 
 digging of such soils, they will require much tillage, so as to 
 thoroughly mix and pulverize them, and the bean crop 
 should be repeatedly well hoed and weeded. With good 
 treatment, however, such soils bear heavy crops of wheat 
 and beans in succession, and when some degree of exhaus- 
 tion calls for a relaxation of cropping, the course of fallow, 
 oats, clover, wheat, beans, will give all the produce that can 
 reasonably be expected from any land; the crops very 
 commonly grown on good soils of this kind being 8 to 10 
 quarters per acre of oats, 4 to 6 quarters per acre of wheat, 
 and about the same of beans. This produce, however, must 
 not be reckoned on as over the whole surface ploughed and 
 sown with these crops ; for at least one-eighth to one- fifth 
 thereof will consist of 'lows,' 'rills,' and 'pans,' where the 
 clayey soil will be still too crude, too salt, too wet, or too 
 stubborn, to bear perhaps any crop, or at most but one-fourth 
 of what is borne by the best parts. This drawback, together 
 with the expenses of cultivating this description of land, 
 soon points out that grass, not tillage, is its most profitable 
 ultimate destination, and accordingly it is found expedient 
 to prepare it for the true and legitimate purpose of an 
 
THE CULTIVATION. 237 
 
 intake, viz. grazing. But we must not fall into the error 
 that because this is the last, it may also be the first, destina- 
 tion of the level, a course of tillage being requisite for a 
 time upon all the argillaceous soils, in order to mix and 
 incorporate them, and to pulverize the soil, so as to bring 
 it into a fit state for the production of the better kinds of 
 grasses ; otherwise the coarser will predominate, and the 
 value of the ground be much deteriorated. The necessity of 
 this course of tillage is demonstrated on a piece of silty 
 loam-salts, near Fossdyke, in Lincolnshire, which the late 
 Sir Joseph Banks, with his habitual consideration for the 
 public good, ordered to be left untouched, in the state in 
 which the whole intake was when embanked, and after a 
 lapse of nearly thirty years the maritime salt plants still 
 remain, and the land plants but feebly strive to establish 
 themselves. In proportion, therefore, as the course of 
 tillage is perfect without being continued to exhaustion, and 
 as the levelling and surface draining are well performed, so 
 will be the productive value of the grazing marsh which 
 succeeds the tillage. Nor are these operations sufficient in 
 stiff clayey soils ; such will require to have their tenacity 
 subdued or lessened, their working rendered easier, and 
 their pulverization or admixture of parts more effectual, by 
 the application of chalk rubbish, i.e. soft chalk, to the land, 
 after the rate of at least ten tumbril cart-loads per acre, 
 which will usually cost about ten shillings per cart, including 
 carriage. This supply of calcareous matter will also act as 
 a manure, and will not only increase the quantity of wheat, 
 but also tend much to improve its quality, to stiffen its straw, 
 so as to prevent or check its lodging, and the consequent 
 deterioration of the grain. In these various ways, an expense 
 of ;5 per acre thus incurred will soon be repaid, whilst its 
 
238 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 beneficial effects on the soil will last at least twenty years 
 even under a succession of cropping, but in grass would be 
 permanent. 
 
 "The more silicious soils, whether sandy or loamy, 
 require less chalk, if any ; and as their texture is apt to be 
 rather too open than too close, lime is often much better 
 adapted to them, if any manure be at all needful, since an 
 intake of soils of this kind generally abounds with shelly 
 fragments, enough to supply the requisite quantity of 
 calcareous matter. It may, however, be well worthy of 
 consideration, whether a supply of lime would not be advan- 
 tageous in setting to work that calcareous matter, and 
 consolidating the texture of the soil. 
 
 "There are several reasons why any course of tillage 
 should not continue long upon an intake level, one amongst 
 which is, that even under the misfortune of a breach of bank 
 but little harm ensues to grass marshes, provided the tidal 
 waters be again excluded within a few months, because the 
 saline particles, not being in excess, are rather fertilizing 
 than otherwise; but the chief reason is, because the intake 
 cannot advantageously continue many years without suitable 
 farm-buildings, which require a great outlay of capital 
 without adequate return, since a more profitable appropria- 
 tion of the land can be made without them ; and besides, if 
 the natural fertility of these lands is exhausted by a succes- 
 sion of corn crops, it will be vain to look for their becoming 
 rich grass lands afterwards. The period of tillage, there- 
 fore, should be limited to such a space of time as may be 
 sufficient, according to the nature of the soil, to bring it into 
 a fit state for the best grasses to grow to perfection. This, 
 on stiff clay lands, may be reckoned as i, oats, 2, beans, 
 3, wheat, 4, beans, 5, wheat, 6, clean fallow, 7, oats ; 
 
THE CULTIVATION. 239 
 
 and lay this crop down with grass seeds, or what would be 
 better, either sow it down on the fallow with grass seeds, 
 and about half a seeding of coleseed, feeding off the same in 
 a dry part of October, or otherwise inoculate it with the 
 roots of sward from some good grass marshes in the neigh- 
 bourhood, a process in which a machine is used, con- 
 structed for the purpose of shaking apart, or otherwise 
 separating, the grass roots, and then sowing them on the 
 ground by hand, and rolling them down, by which means a 
 good sward is obtained much sooner than by seeds alone, 
 though both should be resorted to. 
 
 " But on the good silty loams of an intake, a different 
 mode and duration of cropping may be adopted. Upon 
 such lands, along the coasts of Norfolk and Lincolnshire, 
 the usual course of cropping is i, beans, 2, oats, 3, wheat, 
 and they get better wheat after the oats than before, the 
 straw being less bulky and less liable to 'go down.' But 
 even in the case of such soils, if the argillaceous particles 
 are in such abundance as to produce an unctuous texture 
 or slipperiness under the feet when rather wet, they may 
 judiciously be subjected to the rotation prescribed for clays, 
 and treated similarly. 
 
 "There must, however, be a very great difference ot 
 treatment with regard to those light, loose, sandy soils, of 
 which some spots of the intake level will be found to con- 
 sist, when taken from the low slobs of a sandy shore which 
 has been covered by every tide. Such loose sands, if 
 blowing when dry, should be fixed as soon as possible by 
 any feedable grass, that can be made to grow upon them, 
 until a better sward can be produced. On such loose spots 
 the agrostis maritima or sea-side fiorin has grown luxuriantly, 
 especially when the stolones have been planted in a wet sod 
 
240 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 of bog turf, and that trodden into the sand. The shoots 
 from these sets have been extremely vigorous, the cattle 
 have sought and eaten them with avidity, and the treading 
 thus induced has fixed the sand, whilst the droppings of the 
 cattle, containing the undigested seeds of other grasses, 
 have soon brought up a good sward wherever the drainage 
 was sufficient for its. establishment. 
 
 " In such cases of loose sand, no tillage need to be, or 
 perhaps can judiciously be, contemplated. Such soils are 
 already sufficiently open to part with their excess of saline 
 particles, and are generally sufficiently homogeneous not to 
 require admixture by stirring, unless it be by harrows on the 
 surface, to let in the Dutch clover seeds that may with pro- 
 priety be sown thereon, when that brought by cattle shall be 
 permanent enough to show an aptitude in the soil for that 
 plant. These seeds, after being thus sown in moist still 
 weather, should be rolled down, and if the soil has been 
 well drained and freshened, it is more than probable that a 
 good grazing marsh will be established, at less expense, and 
 in less time, than could be effected by any other means ; 
 since if the clover thrives, the cattle will lie so constantly on 
 those spots as to enrich them more than any others. 
 
 " The cultivation of rape for seed has been much relied 
 upon with reference to these newly acquired lands, as the 
 first crop thereon ; but it should be recollected that the 
 price of this seed is much reduced by importation; that 
 such crops on new grounds generally come very unequal ; 
 that it is a crop very liable to injury by frosts on low 
 grounds ; that the climate of this country does not admit of 
 any good chance of saving any very large breadth of this 
 crop ; that the straw is valueless ; and that it occupies the 
 ground for two years, although on this latter point there is 
 
THE CULTIVATION. 241 
 
 a remedy in a species of rape formerly grown on the Lin- 
 colnshire Wolds, which ripened the same year as sown. 
 The merits of rape, however, are that it will grow on crude 
 and not perfectly prepared land, and costs little for seeding, 
 and if the land be clean, is not a bad forerunner of wheat. 
 
 " Mustard is another of those crops, which, being some- 
 what more valuable than common corn crops, are reckoned 
 on as a means of returning some portion of the great out- 
 lay incurred upon an intake. The brown mustard taints 
 the land worse than any weed, as is instanced in Canvey 
 Island, Essex, where it is harvested with the beans, and is 
 sometimes the best crop of the two. The white mustard 
 has not the property of lying in the land, but requires a 
 finer tilth and better soil than the brown sort, and an intake 
 would require a lapse of time to prepare it for this crop, or 
 for any other of the seed crops usually cultivated as extra 
 valuable on the rich soils of Essex or Kent 
 
 " Woad and other dye plants are also valuable, but 
 require so much accommodation of buildings and 
 machinery as to be quite inapplicable to the general cir- 
 cumstances of an intake. Chicory might do on deep sands 
 when quite freshened. 
 
 " The benefits of irrigation have been much reckoned on 
 with reference to some recent intakes which afford a com- 
 mand of water, and as an ultimate means something of this 
 kind might be applicable to the higher portions of a level. 
 When, however, it is duly considered that irrigation is only 
 applicable to cases admitting of complete and quick 
 drainage, and that the greatest difficulty in almost all 
 intakes is timely to get rid of superfluous water, it will 
 appear that this mode of augmenting value can but seldom 
 be relied on to any great extent; nor does the farming 
 
 R 
 
242 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 system of marshes, whether in tillage or grazing, at all 
 assimilate to that in which water meadows are valuable 
 auxiliaries. 
 
 " To sum up this head of our discourse ; the great and 
 leading points for the guidance of the adventurer, in 
 reclaiming his intake, are the following : 
 
 1. To freshen gradually ; 
 
 2. To drain effectually; 
 
 3. To cultivate perfectly ; 
 
 4. To crop moderately ; 
 
 5. To look to grazing ultimately ; 
 
 6. To lay down to grass carefully ; 
 
 and in proportion to the perfect accomplishment of these 
 points, will be the value of his land ; i.e. it will, in the 
 case of neglect or imperfect execution of them, become only 
 coarse pasturage for young stock . . . ; or in the case of 
 their perfect accomplishment, the lands will come, as near 
 as their soil will admit, to those grazing lands of intakes in 
 Sussex, which carry a fatting ox of 130 stone (8 Ibs.) per 
 acre, ... or to those of Kent, which carry six or eight 
 large sheep per acre ; or even to some more favoured spots 
 in Lincolnshire, which used to fat ten sheep per acre to 
 40 Ibs. per quarter, clipping 14 Ibs. of wool each ; or others 
 in that county, which carry a large ox per acre and several 
 sheep besides." 168 
 
 Mr. James Oldham, M. Inst, C.E., writing in 1862 re- 
 specting a Reclamation at Sunk Island in the Humber, 
 whereof mention has already been made, gives the follow- 
 ing brief account of its treatment for farming purposes. 
 The local conditions are different from those contemplated 
 
THE CULTIVATION. 243 
 
 by Mr. Wiggins, whose remarks apply more especially to 
 the treatment of lands reclaimed from the sea itself: the 
 situation of Sunk Island, on the estuary of a large river 
 bringing down great volumes of fresh water, seems to have 
 rendered unnecessary the operation of freshening the soil 
 a view deriving corroboration from the plenteous growth, 
 shortly after the shutting-out of the salt water, of clover, its 
 seed probably washed down by the river ; a feature strongly 
 contrasting with the case cited by Mr. Wiggins of sea- 
 washed land left to itself after being embanked. 
 
 " The freshwater door " [of the sluice], says Mr. Oldham, 
 " is used for the purpose of holding up fresh water in the 
 drains, and for flushing and scouring the sluice and outfall, 
 which is liable to be silted, in the summer, or when but 
 little fresh water is running out. In very dry seasons, the 
 sluice is used for taking in a quantity of tidal water, to fill 
 or charge the fence ditches, and the cattle are thus pre- 
 vented from straying; for the fields are generally only 
 divided by ditches, and as the subsoil is of a sandy and 
 porous nature, the water in them rapidly disappears. 
 
 "Soon after the exclusion of the tidal water from the 
 surface of newly-embanked land, the marine grasses and 
 vegetation begin to die and decay, and in the course of a 
 year, or two years, fresh-water grasses appear. After the 
 lapse of about three years, a tolerably good surface of pas- 
 ture is naturally formed, and it is capable of sustaining a 
 considerable number of cattle. But that which is most 
 surprising, is the spontaneous appearance, and the growth, 
 on the inclosures of Sunk Island, of an entire covering of 
 white clover, which presents itself within three years, or four 
 years of the date of the exclusion of salt water. . . . 
 
 " After the completion of the embankment, and the sub- 
 
244 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 division of the land, a selection is made as to what portion 
 shall remain as pasture, and what shall be worked by tillage. 
 Some trifling labour devolves on the farmer, in levelling 
 irregular places on the surface ; he then ploughs and pre- 
 pares for a crop, and generally the first on the land is rape. 
 This is sown about the third year or fourth year after the in- 
 closure, and the produce is usually of extraordinary quantity 
 and vigour. The following season oats, or beans may be 
 sown, and then wheat, and perhaps, of all the districts in 
 England, the largest and best crops may be found on Sunk 
 Island, for the tenants admit that the land produces up- 
 wards of six imperial quarters of wheat per acre. Flax 
 also is produced of a fine and valuable quality, and in large 
 quantities. The producing power of this description of 
 land is not limited to the growth of cereals, or fibrous pro- 
 ducts, but the finest roots, such as potatoes, turnips, man- 
 gold wurzel, &c., are successfully cultivated." 169 
 
 The land reclaimed on Wexford Harbour received a 
 treatment somewhat different from either of the foregoing. 
 
 " For the first three years after the reclamation on the 
 north side was completed, the land was put under corn 
 crops, with very slender success, many parts being perfectly 
 barren. Where crops did grow well, there was a consider- 
 able admixture of sand or gravel in the mud. The limeing 
 recommended by Professor Sullivan was resorted to,' to the 
 extent of twenty barrels (of 280 Ibs.) to the acre, with very 
 encouraging results, converting barren into productive land. 
 Later on the limeing was increased to from forty to fifty 
 barrels per acre, by which means luxuriant crops, par- 
 ticularly of wheat and barley, were grown. Green crops, 
 clover and grasses, answered admirably, and the pasture 
 
THE CULTIVATION. 245 
 
 improved in fattening qualities. The drainage, up to the 
 present [1862], is still deficient, the water never having been 
 more than 3 ft. below the surface; but when, with the 
 assistance of the new machinery, the water is kept down 
 5 ft. or 6 ft., the value of the land will rise from 25 to 30 
 per cent. The experience of nine years in the management 
 of the north side, together with some experimental farming 
 on a very small scale on the south side, and an analysis in- 
 dicating somewhat better land, justifies the conclusions that 
 it requires the same treatment. The land should be turned 
 up deeply by steam ploughing, for which it is peculiarly 
 adapted, left to lie fallow for a year, and then heavily limed. 
 After such treatment abundant crops may be certainly ex- 
 pected. Fortunately there is an abundant supply of lime- 
 stone on the south side ; it is brought to the limekilns, at a 
 very low rate, by small sailing lighters." 17 
 
 The intake at Holkham, on the north coast of Norfolk, 
 is a sea-reclamation of 580 acres, embanked in 1856-58. Of 
 the 580 acres, more than 200 acres adjoining the old grass- 
 marshes were a strong clay loam ; 170 acres strong blue 
 clay or clay-loam, buried beneath the sand to a depth of 
 from 6 inches to 3 feet ; and 130 acres were either shingly 
 stones, or sea-sand, to an unknown depth. Upwards of 
 370 acres were therefore good land. The following de- 
 scription of its treatment, given in 1867 by Mr. Shellabear, 
 the steward of the owner, is specially instructive in details 
 relating to the subdivision of the land and the actual work 
 of setting out drains &c. 
 
 " In the autumn of 1859 ^ e l an d was laid out for division 
 into fields. One road was formed, passing through the 
 entire length, and crossed at right angles at intervals of 
 
246 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 about 500 yards by two others. These roads are each 30 
 feet wide, and are bounded on each side by a ditch. The 
 lands between are again divided by a ditch into fields, 
 varying in extent from 10 to 20 acres. Every field, there- 
 fore, has access to a road and is square two very important 
 advantages with steam- cultivation. 
 
 " In bringing it into cultivation the next operation was to 
 fill up the large creeks throughout the farm, sand being 
 brought from a distance where necessary by means of a 
 portable tramway worked with horses, or moved from the 
 adjoining lands, where available, by barrow roads : in either 
 case the creek was ultimately brought to the level of the 
 land on each side by a coating of soil of similar quality. In 
 the same way the small creeks which appeared only in the stiff 
 lands were filled up, or else by digging, and thus reducing 
 the level of the adjoining land. By the summer of 1862, a large 
 breadth of this land had been brought into cultivation ; cole- 
 seed, peas, wheat, and oats were grown upon it, and a further 
 portion was sowed with wheat when the sea again came 
 over it. Up to this date the crops were better than they 
 have been at any time since, and it seems probable that the 
 cultivated lands, especially those which had been subsoiled, 
 became more strongly impregnated with the salt than when 
 in their original state. The damage done to the water- 
 courses and roads was inconsiderable; but the land had 
 become so thoroughly saturated as to be incapable of bearing 
 horses until late in the spring, and the roots of autumn-sown 
 corn were destroyed by the wet and salt in the land. 
 
 " Underdraining, which had been done partially before, 
 was now systematically commenced, and up to the present 
 time [1867] about 230 acres have been drained with i|-inch 
 pipes, at a distance of 12 yards in the clay and 24 yards in 
 
THE CULTIVATION. 247 
 
 the sandy subsoils nearly all the drains emptying into the 
 ditches. The fields being all flat, considerable difficulty 
 was experienced in maintaining a regular and proper fall in 
 the drains, the slightest dip causing the drain-pipes to silt 
 up in the sandy lands. The plan now adopted is to set out 
 the level of the outlets in the ditches, and a point 4 feet 
 above the bottom of the drains to be cut across the centre 
 of the field, with a spirit-level, adding the rise to be allowed 
 in the drains. From these two points given him, the fore- 
 man is enabled to give an even fall to the bottom of the 
 drain throughout its length, by placing a T staff 4 feet 
 long upon the level point at the outlet, and having a similar 
 staff moved up and down the drain, aligning it upon the 
 level given him in the centre of the field. Four levels only are 
 given in each ditch, and four across the centre of the field, 
 the remainder being put in with the T staves in the same 
 manner. By this means the work is satisfactorily done, and 
 the foreman is able to superintend the whole, check the 
 levels of every drain, and assist a second man in laying the 
 pipes in the drains, of which about 16 to 18 chains are cut 
 every day from April to August, the work being impracticable 
 in winter. 
 
 " Four hundred and twenty acres of the land have been 
 cropped, but only 340 are at present under cultivation ; the 
 remaining fields are being treated as follows : Some of the 
 heaviest clay lands are being sanded to a depth of 3 or 4 
 inches by means of the portable tramway (two horses draw- 
 ing a load of from 4 to 6 tons), 8 or 10 inches of sand being 
 taken from the sandy fields for this purpose, and to bring the 
 clay beneath within reach of the steam-plough. In other 
 fields where the clay is at a greater depth, pits are sunk, and 
 the clay is barrowed upon the land to a depth of 5 or 6 
 
248 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 inches (when solid), the surface-level having been previously 
 reduced by barrowing the sand into the last pit sunk ; in 
 other parts where the clay is from 12 to 16 inches from the 
 surface, or where the sand is not required for the heavy 
 lands, the ground is trenched, and from 8 to 10 inches of 
 the clay brought to the surface : but in these cases, from the 
 frequent occurrence of creeks in the clay below, the sinking 
 of a pit is often necessary to complete the field and make the 
 soil equally good throughout. 
 
 " With respect to cultivation but little at present can be 
 said. Good crops of wheat, oats, barley, coleseed, turnips, 
 man gold- wurzel, and clover have been grown upon the land, 
 both before and since the winter of 1862 ; but it was not 
 until the summer of last year [1866] that the land can be 
 said to have recovered, to any extent, from the flooding of 
 that time. As soon as the fields have been drained, they are 
 broken up with Fowler's steam subsoil plough to a depth of 
 1 6 inches, allowed to lie the winter, and put under crop the 
 following year." m 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 EXAMPLES, VALUES, AND RENTS. 
 
 THE chief objection to adducing particular instances as 
 examples of Reclamations consists in this : that before any 
 such instance can be regarded as a truly typical and trust- 
 worthy guide in similar undertakings, a vast amount of 
 detail respecting it needs to be ascertained and specified, 
 without which it is illusory and misleading so far as con- 
 cerns its applicability to the special case contemplated by 
 the inquirer. These details however, in their entirety are not 
 and probably can not be known. For this reason, caution 
 must be exercised in drawing and applying conclusions : 
 indeed it is not too much to say, that only in respect of con- 
 ditions and facts which can be beyond doubt ascertained to 
 be exactly parallel to those of the contemplated case, can 
 any conclusion with reference to it be safely drawn from an 
 example. With this qualification, the following works of 
 reclamation may be given. It is to be premised that, early 
 and old Reclamations being even less instructive than recent 
 ones, those here presented have been selected from works 
 executed since 1840, and that they, in common with those 
 noticed at pp. 243-248, are worth attention chiefly with 
 respect to certain particulars concerning execution and 
 subsequent treatment. 
 
 " Some embankments have taken place under i and 2 
 Viet., chap. 87, a special Act for that purpose, along the 
 
250 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 shores of Lough Foyle, in the county Deny, Ireland, which 
 seem likely to prove but the commencement of similar, or 
 perhaps more important undertakings, in that highly im- 
 provable country. About 3,500 acres have been excluded 
 from the sea on the south side of this Lough, and as the soil 
 in general affords every indication of the highest fertility, 
 great ultimate returns are expected. Two different modes 
 have been adopted by different parties in this undertaking ; 
 one having raised his bank by barrows and planks with the 
 soil of the shore on the spot, which is a sandy silt or sea- 
 mud drying into a whitish shelly sand composed of very 
 minute particles ; the other party having run out his earthy 
 material and stone from the shore, upon tram-roads and 
 waggons, drawn both by horses and locomotive engines. 
 The whole face of the bank from foot to top is pitched with 
 stone 1 8 inches deep, set edgeways, with a slope of about 
 4 to i more than half-way up, and then somewhat steeper to 
 the top, which is 4 feet wide. The spring tide here rises 9 or 
 ip feet, but the outbursts are great, and the top of the 
 banks will be, say 16 feet above the low- water line. 
 
 " Both parties have experienced those accidents to which 
 these undertakings are subject, viz. very high tides before 
 completion washing away material, leading to the conclusion 
 that it is better to make up the bank to its full height at once 
 as it proceeds, and also the conclusion that sufficient height 
 is the one thing needful, and that the want of it is the rock 
 upon which all these kinds of works are most likely to 
 split." m 
 
 " In 1843 a bank or 'cop ' was built by the joint efforts 
 of the Hon. E. M. LI. Mostyn, and J. P. Eyton, Esq., called 
 the Bychan embankment, situated between Llanerchy-mor 
 
EXAMPLES, VALUES, AND RENTS. 251 
 
 smelting-works and Mostyn colliery in Flintshire, being on 
 the western estuary and near the mouth of the river Dee. 
 Its dimensions are, base 87 feet, height 16 feet, sea-side 
 slope 59^ feet, of which 42 feet from the foot were stoned, 
 landside slope 32^ feet, and 2 feet wide at top, giving the 
 following section. 
 
 "The length of the bank is 1,974 yards, or rather more 
 than one mile and an eighth. The cost was ^4, 500, less 
 the barrows and planks which were used in making up the 
 bank with the sea-sand on the spot, and might be worth 
 50 when completed. The cost therefore would be ^4,000 
 a mile, or as nearly as possible sixpence per cubic yard for 
 the whole, including stone, which however was not placed 
 over the whole face. When first laid on, the stones were 
 thrown promiscuously on a layer of straw, gorse, or brush- 
 wood, which was put on the face of the sand, but the 
 winter tides brought a part of the stones down to the base, 
 and it was found expedient to replace them edgeways, 
 paving them regularly and smoothly on the surface, in 
 which process it is found that the larger the upper stones 
 are, the better. The distance the stone had to be carried 
 was about a mile and a quarter, and the cost was i3d. per 
 ton, viz. 4d. quarrying and 8d. drawing ; the total cosj 
 was reckoned at 33. per square yard. The part not stone- 
 faced was covered with sods in two thicknesses, each being 
 about eight inches thick ; but where stone was used, the 
 
252 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 sods from them to the top of the bank were only z\ inches 
 thick, cut with a push plough; the inside slope was cut 
 3i feet deeper than the level outside, so as to have a larger 
 facing, and to put a cover to make it a cart-road. The 
 highest spring tides on the sands outside of the bank do 
 not rise more than 7 feet on the bank, if in a quiet state, but 
 in stormy winds blowing into the estuary, the waves reach 
 nearly to the top of the bank. The land obtained is about 
 70 acres, but it is in a situation which gives it great local 
 value, and with a probability of coal beneath. The Chester 
 and Holyhead Railway will pass through it. The back of 
 the bank will be sown with lucerne, of which there will be 
 4l acres." 173 
 
 The foregoing is an instructive example of the way in 
 which circumstances affect the question of expenditure upon 
 a work. The cost figures out to something over ^63 per 
 acre an amount doubtless foreseen before the work was 
 commenced : the expectation of finding coal, together with 
 probably other considerations of which we know nothing, 
 making it worth while to incur this large expense. Yet, 
 take this rate of ^63 per acre and put it into a statement, 
 either of separate or of average cost, without at the same time 
 specifying the whole conditions under which it was incurred 
 and of what value does it become as a guide in estimating 
 the cost of a proposed work ? 
 
 On a tidal Reclamation at Lough Foyle, probably though 
 this point is not material of later date than the one first 
 cited, shallow surface-drains were formed after the salt water 
 had been excluded, and in about two years rye-grass grew 
 pretty freely, but exceptional spots remained barren for some 
 time. The grass was followed by oats, which improved as the 
 
EXAMPLES, VALUES, AND RENTS. 253 
 
 salt left the soil. Deeper draining allowed the cultivation of 
 flax and clover. Afterwards, on still deeper draining, all ordi- 
 nary crops began to grow well, wheat, beans, turnips, man- 
 gold, and carrots, but all requiring as much manure as any 
 old upper land. These slob lands yield a great return for 
 manure, but must have manure on the lower and damper 
 portions. Fiorin grass grows well without manure. When 
 the ditches have so far drained the soil as to allow of its 
 becoming cracked and open to the air, the crops begin to 
 increase in produce. But the full value of the soil is never 
 known until thoroughly under-drained with tile or stone; 
 it then yields excellent crops of almost any produce, clover 
 and rye-grass for hay being perhaps the most profitable. 
 Grazing the land does not answer, except from the middle 
 of May to the beginning of September ; after this the soil is 
 too cold and damp for the beasts to lie down, and they begin 
 to fail. The expense of these intakes on the Foyle may be 
 taken at about 20 per acre to get them from the sea, and 
 the expense of bringing the land into cultivation will come 
 to at least 10 more, making a total of ^30 per acre. The 
 best lands were said in 1874 to be worth [in rent] from about 
 635. to 503. per acre, and the lowest and wettest parts perhaps 
 not more than about 125. 6d. say 385. as a fair average. To 
 this has to be added the expense of keeping up the banks and 
 pumping water. The above remarks may be held generally 
 to apply to Reclamations made about the same time on Lough 
 Swilly, and certainly do not present encouraging views as 
 to these Reclamations regarded as a mercantile specula- 
 tion. 174 
 
 A portion of the land on Morecambe Bay enclosed by the 
 Ulverston and Lancashire Railway in 1856 was grassed over, 
 
254 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 the remainder being sand without any vegetation on it. 
 After it was levelled it was divided into fields by open ditches 
 and iron fences. The ditches had to be made very wide at 
 the top in order to get them to stand. The land was then 
 drained with 3-inch pipes, each drain opening into the ditch 
 on each side of the field. The tiles were embedded in peat 
 moss, to act as a filter to prevent the sand from running into 
 them. The sand is so fine that without this precaution the 
 drains would have filled up very quickly. The drainage was 
 the great difficulty, the pipes being very apt to fill up after 
 every precaution had been taken. On the portion that was 
 grassed over before it was enclosed, two crops of oats were 
 first taken, and then it was green-cropped. It grew for 
 a few years good crops of wheat, beans, and clover, as 
 also Swedish turnips and mangolds, but though a great 
 quantity of manure was used the crops fell off, and in 1874 
 it was nearly all in grass. The portion that was bare sand 
 when it was enclosed was treated in the same way, except 
 as to the first two crops of oats. It was green-cropped after 
 it had been enclosed about two years. After the railway 
 was made, there was no means of warping that portion of 
 the enclosure which was sand : the tide was entirely kept out. 
 Had it been admitted, the lands would have been much 
 more valuable and much higher, with better drainage and 
 a richer soil. The portion that was already grassed over 
 at the time it was enclosed was still [1874] much the best. 175 
 
 In the foregoing examples, some mention has been made 
 of the rental and the purchase value of land. To this may 
 be added some further particulars derived from various 
 authorities. 
 
 War fed land before enclosure. Rent. On the Humber 
 
EXAMPLES, VALUES, AND RENTS. 255 
 
 the foreshores when they have grown into salt-marshes are 
 useful for the grazing of sheep, and in 1876 were said to let 
 at from 55. to 6s. per acre. In the same district, it was 
 stated in 1877 that [arable] land let at from 503. to 6os. ; 
 some, owing to special advantages of position, fetching as 
 much as $ per acre : the average rental being about 6os. 
 On the Swale, in Kent, saltings or accretions some time 
 before the surface reaches a level fit for enclosure, afford 
 good pasturage for sheep, and in 1883 realised rents varying 
 from 2s. 6d. to ros. per acre. 
 
 Warped land before enclosure. Purchase. On the 
 Humber, the sum of ^20 per acre was taken as a fair 
 standard for the value in 1876 of a salt-marsh fit for 
 enclosure : some years previous, the value was from ;i8 
 to ;2o per acre. 
 
 Reclaimed land. Rent. On the Humber, large quantities 
 of land were, between 1831 and 1876, let immediately after 
 enclosure for 405. to 6os. per acre: in 1876, land imme- 
 diately after enclosure let at from 405. to 505. per acre. In 
 the estuary of the Dee, some reclaimed land is reported in 
 1883 as returning a rent of from 205. to 525. per acre; 
 some reclaimed land in Lincolnshire as being let immediately 
 after enclosure at from 403. to 6os. per acre; newly- 
 reclaimed land on the Swale, los. per acre, and five years 
 after enclosure 205. per acre, as grazing land. At 
 Faversham, newly -re claimed land, worth in 1868 a rent of 
 6s., was in 1883 valued at 205. 
 
 Reclaimed land. Purchase. On the Humber, some of 
 the land below the Cross Keys embankment, enclosed in 
 1842, sold in 1847 for .80 per acre. In the same district, 
 recent enclosures were reported in 1876 as selling at the 
 rate of ^60 per acre ; and newly-reclaimed land as being 
 
256 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 valued directly after enclosure at from -$o to 60 per 
 acre. Some land in Lincolnshire, valued at ,18 per acre 
 in 1873 when first enclosed, was worth 40 in 1883, the 
 best parts realising 80 per acre. 176 
 
 An instructive supplement to these figures is the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 " In 1849 Mr. Clarke estimated the average [rental] value 
 of the land in the Fenland at 405. an acre. 
 
 "From a report, made by the Boston Branch of the 
 Chamber of Agriculture, in January, 1895, ^ ls stated that 
 rents varied in that district, from 153. to 305. an acre, the 
 average being 245. or 255. Since 1880, there has been a 
 reduction of from 30 to 50 per cent. A large farm of mixed 
 soil, rented at ^1,600 in 1880, was now let at .800. . . . 
 As regards profits made by the tenants, in 1880 they 
 averaged about i an acre, whereas, at the time of the 
 report, there were no profits, save in exceptional cases. 
 
 "Mr. Wilson Fox (Commission on Agriculture, 1895) 
 gives the rents as averaging, in the Wainfleet District, 308. 
 to 508. for marsh land, 253. to 455. for fen land, and 6os. to 
 i oos. for toft, or early potatoe land ; near Boston, for the 
 very best land in small holdings, 6os. to loos. ; farms of 
 about 60 acres, 405. ; Spalding District, 305. to 405. Some 
 heavy clay land was let as low as 55. an acre. 
 
 " There is a great demand for land suited for growing 
 early potatoes, and from ^4 to ^5 an acre is given 
 for this. 
 
 " Taking an average, in the neighbourhood of Spalding, 
 the reduction of rents on small farms, of from 20 to 70 
 acres of good land, is estimated to be from 30 to 50 per 
 cent, during the past 20 years ; on farms of 70 to 250 
 acres of good land, 30 per cent. ; on farms of 250 acres 
 
EXAMPLES, VALUES, AND RENTS. 257 
 
 and upwards, 30 to 40 per cent, j and where the land is bad, 
 70 per cent. ; in the neighbourhood of Grantham, 50 per 
 cent. ; and round Sleaford, 33 per cent, on good land, and 
 60 per cent, on land of bad quality. 
 
 " The Lincolnshire Chamber of Agriculture put the 
 reduction at from 25 to 40 per cent, for good land. 
 
 " The following examples, taken from Mr. Wilson Fox's 
 report, will show what the freehold value of land was when 
 times were good, as compared with what it is now, in the 
 depressed condition of Agriculture. An arable farm of 300 
 acres at Spalding, of fair quality, having mixed peat and 
 clay soil, was purchased in 1876 for ,19,000, or about 63 
 an acre ; and in 1894 could not find a purchaser at ^23 an 
 acre. Another peat farm, in the same locality, of 100 acres, 
 bought 18 years ago for 65 an acre, was sold in 1894 for 
 an acre. A farm of 461 acres, bought in 1885 for 
 an acre, was sold in 1892 at the rate of 1$ an acre. 
 A farm of no acres of good alluvial soil, at Kirton, bought 
 in 1870 for about 74 an acre, could not be sold for 40 
 an acre in 1891. A farm of 118 acres, in Blankney Dales, 
 bought in ^1877 at the rate of 65 an acre, was sold for half 
 this in 1894 ; and a farm of 92 acres, at Whaplode Drove, 
 the original price of which was about 85 an acre, could 
 not be sold for ^40 an acre. 
 
 " The fall in the freehold and rental value of land is due 
 to the unfavourable seasons and the low prices of produce. 
 During the series of wet seasons, 1874-1882, the condition 
 of the land became seriously affected, the pastures were 
 deteriorated, and the manure washed out of the arable land 
 and there was no opportunity of properly cleaning it. This 
 resulted in a decreased yield and in rot in the sheep. On 
 farms where 10 quarters of oats were grown to the acre, the, 
 
 I 
 
258 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 yield fell to 7, and where 7 or 8 quarters of barley were 
 grown, only 5 or 6 could be harvested. Following on the 
 bad seasons, began a decline in prices, which has since con- 
 tinued. Between 1874 and 1894 the average price of wheat 
 has fallen 60 per cent. ; of barley, 53 per cent. ; and of 
 oats, 50 per cent. ; the average price of wheat for 1874- 
 1884 being 445. gd. for 1894, 195. 2d. ; barley for the 
 same period fell from 355. to 205. and oats from 225. 4d. to 
 145. 6d. Wool also has steadily decreased, the average 
 for 1873-1877 being 405. 2d. a tod; 1883-1887, 213. 3d. 
 and 1893-1894, 2 is. 4d., a decrease of 46 per cent. Cattle 
 have fallen in price during the 12 years, 1882-1894, from 
 28^ to 34 per cent." m 
 
 The picture thus presented is not encouraging to sanguine 
 expectations of profit. And fortunately so, since this makes 
 for safety. Highly-coloured statistics, while powerless to 
 aid success, may bias the mind and unduly influence 
 judgment. Thousands of acres still await reclamation and 
 offer a fair reward to well-conducted enterprise. And 
 modest even under-stated, figures, per se ineffectual as 
 absolute deterrents but inducing deliberate and diligent 
 examination, may tend to promote the prosecution of under- 
 takings unpromising at first sight, whose intrinsic soundness 
 is shown up all the better through subjection to the ordeal 
 of rigorous scrutiny. 
 
 Finally: as a consideration of paramount importance, the 
 necessity of heedfulness cannot be too strenuously pressed 
 upon him who purposes entering upon the business of Re- 
 clamation ; and his attention is earnestly invited to the 
 following precautions on no account to be omitted : 
 
EXAMPLES, VALUES, AND RENTS. 259 
 
 First. Let him ascertain the nature and quality of the 
 soil or soils over the whole intended intake. A great deal 
 of land has been reclaimed before it is fit : such land has no 
 heart in it. 
 
 Second. Let him learn what terms can be made with 
 proprietors, frontagers, and others, as to their claims (if 
 any) in the matter ; and what provision will have to be 
 made for legal and all other similar contingent expenses. 
 
 Third. Let him obtain at the hands of a competent 
 adviser, a design and inclusive estimate of cost for the 
 works required. 
 
 Fourth. Let him allow for interest upon the whole 
 amount of money expended, unfruitful until cultivation is 
 completed and returns begin to come in. 
 
 Such amounts, together with a margin of not less than 
 20 per cent, on construction and 10 per cent, on all other 
 items of outlay (and as much more as the financial aspect of 
 the affair will allow) for contingencies will make up the 
 equivalent of capital to be provided. 
 
 Fifth. Let him then ascertain what is the actual present 
 value of land of similar quality or qualities in the district, 
 and take an average of the lower figures of that valuation. 
 
 If the result of all this shows a positive profit, or a rental 
 sufficient to cover sinking-fund and satisfactory rate of 
 interest : in such case, let him decide for himself. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the result shows anything less : 
 in such case, let him hold aloof from the speculation. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS : THE PARTIES TO WORKS 
 OF RECLAMATION. 
 
 BEFORE concluding this volume, some reference may be 
 made to the preliminary negotiations and arrangements 
 with adjoining landowners, and other persons or bodies 
 interested in the lands to be affected by a proposed embank- 
 ment, which will require the attention of the projectors 
 before any such project can take a substantial form. 
 
 As regards the land sought to be reclaimed or inclosed, 
 the present ownership of such land is necessarily the 
 first fact to be ascertained. Where lands adjoin a river, 
 the soil of one-half of the river, from the banks on either 
 side to the middle of the stream, is presumed to belong 
 to the respective owners of the lands adjoining the stream, 
 except in the case of a tidal river, the soil whereof up to 
 high-water mark belongs presumptively to the Crown. The 
 Crown is also presumptively entitled to the sea-shore up to 
 high-water mark of medium tides, although on many parts 
 of the coast grants of portions of sea-shore have been made 
 at different times to private individuals as well as to public 
 bodies ; " 6 and it is well established that, where documentary 
 evidence is not forthcoming, such grants may be presumed 
 by proof of long -continued and uninterrupted acts of 
 ownership. 177 
 
 As to the ownership of the soil affected by changes in 
 the flow of the sea, the legal position may be briefly stated 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 261 
 
 as follows : A sudden irruption of the sea gives the Crown 
 no title to the land thrown under water, although when the 
 sea makes gradual incroachments the rights of the owners 
 of the land to which the incroachments extend are as gradu- 
 ally transferred to the Crown ; and in like manner, when 
 the sea gradually retires, the rights of the Crown below the 
 original high- water mark are as gradually transferred to the 
 owners of the adjoining coast-land. But a sudden dereliction 
 of the sea will not deprive the Crown of its title to the soil. 179 
 
 The charge and management of the rights and interests 
 of the Crown in foreshore lands is now (under the Crown 
 Lands Act, 1866) vested in the Board of Trade, with whom 
 it rests to make grants of the foreshore, where required for 
 useful works which can be carried out consistently with the 
 public welfare. Such grants are made either in perpetuity, 
 or for a term of years. 
 
 If it happen that any proposed works of embankment will 
 involve the inclosure of adjoining common lands, or other 
 interference with rights of common, application will be 
 necessary also to the Board of Agriculture, with whom (under 
 the Commons Act, 1876) now rests the administration of the 
 several provisions of the Inclosure Acts, 1845 to 1882. 
 Should the proposed interference with common rights be such 
 as to require confirmation by means of a Provisional Order 
 under the Act of 1876, the persons making application to 
 the Board of Agriculture in that behalf must represent at 
 least one-third in value of the interests proposed to be 
 affected, and consents to the Order must be given by 
 persons representing at least two-thirds in value of such 
 interests, and by the Lord of the Manor; but inasmuch 
 as the Provisional Order will itself require confirma- 
 tion by Parliament, the case may be one in which the 
 
262 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 projectors would do well (as is often, for various reasons, 
 found to be necessary) to proceed by way of a Private 
 Act of Parliament authorising the proposed works, and 
 granting them all necessary powers. It may be assumed, 
 however, that no authority would be given by Parliament 
 to inclose any common land, or to vary or diminish rights 
 of common, without reference to the attitude of the Board 
 of Agriculture, who, therefore, in any case affecting common 
 rights, would have to be reckoned with by projectors. 
 
 Further, where the inclosure of a common is proposed, the 
 Commons Act, 1876, now requires that special information 
 shall be furnished to the Board of Agriculture as to the 
 reasons why an inclosure is " expedient when viewed in 
 relation to the benefit of the neighbourhood," so that it may 
 be taken for granted that no inclosure will be sanctioned 
 in future unless shown to be of " benefit to the neighbour- 
 hood," as well as to those legally interested in the common 
 itself. Where the freemen, burgesses, or inhabitant house- 
 holders of a borough have rights in a common, the consent 
 of two-thirds in number of such freemen and burgesses as 
 are resident in the borough, or within seven miles thereof, 
 or of such inhabitant householders, is required for any 
 inclosure under the Act. 
 
 It may further be noted, that under the Local Govern- 
 ment Act, 1894, District Councils are empowered to aid in 
 preventing the extinction of rights of common, and to 
 regulate the use of common lands. 
 
 Should the proposed works involve interference with 
 existing highways, the powers of the District Council will 
 again be called into exercise, the Local Government Act, 
 1894, having imposed on the Councils the duty of pro- 
 tecting all public rights of way and preventing their closure 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 263 
 
 or obstruction, and of preventing any unlawful encroach- 
 ments on roadside wastes. 
 
 Under the same Act, the Rural District Councils exercise 
 the functions originally conferred upon vestries of adopting 
 or initiating proceedings for the stopping-up or diverting 
 of highways, under orders to be made by Justices at quarter 
 sessions under the Act 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 50. 
 
 As pointed out by Mr. Wiggins, 180 in almost all cases where 
 the embankment of a large space or extent of sea frontage 
 is contemplated, several frontagers, or adjoining proprietors, 
 will have to concur in the measure, in addition to the repre- 
 sentatives of the Crown, or other person or body in whom 
 are vested rights of foreshore; and if, as often happens, 
 only some of the parties whose concurrence is requisite are 
 in a position to give such consents as shall be legally 
 binding on their successors, it becomes, in many cases, 
 absolutely necessary to seek Parliamentary powers. For 
 this purpose application may be made by the projectors to 
 Parliament, as soon as they have obtained sufficient con- 
 sents, in number, of the parties concerned, and a sufficient 
 proportion in value, to enable a Parliamentary Committee 
 to entertain the Bill. The provisions of such a Bill will 
 have for their object, on the one hand, to secure to the 
 public, the frontagers, and all other interested parties, either 
 a continuance of the enjoyment of all their property, rights, 
 privileges, and conveniences, or a compensation for the loss 
 of them ; and, on the other hand, to secure to the pro- 
 jectors the fullest means of carrying their project into 
 effect, and the fullest enjoyment of it when effected. 
 
 As opposition to a Bill necessarily increases the cost of 
 proceedings before the Parliamentary Committee (without 
 
264 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 whose approval of its provisions the Bill cannot receive 
 further consideration in Parliament), the true policy of the 
 promoters is to disarm opposition as much as possible 
 before coming to Parliament, by concluding agreements 
 wherever practicable with the various interested parties, 
 and thus lessening the chance of defeat before the 
 Parliamentary Committee by predisposing that tribunal in 
 their favour. Even at the best a contested Bill must be a 
 matter of some cost, which may be substantially lessened 
 by previous consents. 
 
 According to Mr. Wiggins, 181 one -tenth of the land embanked 
 has been mentioned as the probable expectation of the 
 frontager, in consequence of that proportion having been 
 given in some considerable cases of the kind ; and this, over 
 and above such pasturable verges or grassy fringes as have 
 already been subject to acts of ownership and occupation 
 on the part of the frontager. But one-tenth (he says) is a 
 larger deduction than almost any intake will allow, so as to 
 leave the adventurers a sufficient chance of adequate remu- 
 neration for their enterprise. 
 
 Still, the frontager must be compensated, since he loses 
 conveniences and easements of value such as the feedage 
 of the pasturable verges ; he loses also something from having 
 the sea further removed from his upland, and if he gets 
 manure from the shore, the embankment will in this respect 
 be some hindrance ; further, he loses the opportunity of 
 making the same speculation as the adventurers. 
 
 In discussing the extent of compensation properly allow- 
 able to a frontager, Mr. Wiggins points out that in the case 
 of the inclosure of the waste or common of a manor, the 
 lord of the manor would commonly receive from one-twelfth 
 to one-sixteenth of the commonable land in respect of his 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 265 
 
 manorial rights namely, his absolute right to the soil and 
 a portion of the herbage, and his right of granting portions 
 of the soil to copyholders. The lord has also a right not 
 only to all the timber growing on the waste, but to all timber 
 on a copyholder's lands, although he cannot come upon the 
 lands to cut his timber, or to work the minerals on and under 
 the soil, without the leave of his copyholder, and his claim 
 to the timber is on some manors commuted by custom for 
 a one-third or other defined share thereof. Yet to a lord of 
 a manor, the actual share of waste lands allotted upon 
 inclosure has seldom been more than one-sixteenth, some- 
 times one-twelfth, and in some cases only one-twentieth, 
 although the lord is undoubtedly in the enjoyment of actual 
 rights of property to a greater amount than any frontager to 
 seaward in foreshore lands, where slobs or mud-banks are 
 covered by every tide. 
 
 Another case cited by Mr. Wiggins is that of mines or 
 quarries, where the accustomed royalty, seignorage, or 
 groundage varies, according to circumstances, from one- 
 eighth to one-twelfth, one-sixteenth, or one twenty-fourth ; 
 and he arrives at the conclusion that one-fifteenth may be 
 reasonably taken as the fair share of an intake to be 
 rendered to the frontager, in lieu of rights in and over such 
 surfaces as are covered by every tide. 
 
 As to the pasturable fringes, Mr. Wiggins further observes 
 that it would be very disadvantageous for the projectors not 
 to secure them, since the great disadvantage of the kind of 
 property created by an embankment is the uniformity of its 
 nature, and the absence of the "shift" in other words, of 
 that change of soil, of aspect, of herbage, of crop, and of 
 all local circumstances which is found so requisite to 
 successful farming. 
 
266 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 Now the only alleviation of this disadvantage of an intake 
 is to be found in the higher levels of land constituting these 
 fringes, or pasturable verges (called on the eastern coasts of 
 England " salts " or " saltings"). On some portions of the 
 coast, the verges consist of shingly or sandy dunes or downs, 
 which are very seldom covered by the tide even at outbursts, 
 and which not only afford the only approximation to a 
 "shift," but also the only secure and healthy place of 
 habitation, as well as place for the folding of cattle for 
 shelter. 
 
 On the other hand, it should be recollected that the 
 frontager will be relieved from all future expense of defence 
 against the sea, and of repairing damage which the sea may 
 possibly occasion to his property ; and in consideration of 
 these advantages he should in fairness class his verdant 
 frontages with the other lands to be embanked. 
 
 Any proposed arrangement with a frontager should, there- 
 fore, include the frontager' s verges up to the present sea- 
 defences, if he has any, and if not, up to the high-water 
 mark. 
 
 It may, however, be more convenient to a frontager, 
 instead of an allotment of a denned portion of the land to 
 be embanked, to have a money rent reserved on the land to 
 be gained ; and it then becomes a question what this rent 
 should be per acre. To settle this question, two points have 
 first to be determined : (i) What would be the fair proportion 
 of land to be rendered ; and (2) The value of that land when 
 embanked, and before any of the operations of drainage or 
 reclamation have been commenced. These points settled, the 
 amount of rent to be reserved is a matter of calculation 
 only. 
 
 In estimating, on the one hand, the probable benefits 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 267 
 
 derivable from an intake, and on the other hand the cost of 
 the undertaking, Mr. Wiggins 182 gives (as applicable at the 
 time of writing) the following statement " as the result of 
 good management, attended by such a share of good fortune 
 as might reasonably be expected " : 
 
 Say 1,000 acres, of the value when embanked and 
 
 drained of ^40 per acre ,40,000 
 
 Cost of embanking and draining . . ,20,000 
 
 of is. 6d. per acre for -^th . . 1,500 
 
 of occupation roads, gates, etc. . 1,500 
 
 of Parliamentary and professional 
 
 expenses 1,000 
 
 of extra works, etc. . . . 1,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 Yielding, at ^40 per acre, a profit of . . ,15,000 
 
 at ,35 per acre, a profit of . . . . ,10,000 
 
 at ,30 per acre, a profit of . . . . .5,000 
 
 These figures (and any figures which may be substituted 
 for them in view of altered values, whether of land or of 
 works, at the present time) will be subject in every case to 
 deduction for loss of interest on money sunk, from the 
 commencement of operations to their conclusion. 
 
 A promoter or projector of a proposal for reclamation of 
 land on any extensive scale, who canvasses for consents to 
 such a project, must in some cases be prepared to encounter 
 extravagant demands on the part of frontagers, some of 
 whom will consider that the projectors are about to get 
 rich at their expense or by their means. Any such unrea- 
 sonable demands may be best met by a full and frank 
 statement of the case as it presents itself to the promoters, 
 and of the manner in which they propose to deal with 
 existing interests. This statement may be conveniently 
 circulated amongst the several persons whose co-operation 
 
268 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 or consents will be requisite. With this statement, there 
 may also be circulated a draft of the Bill proposed to be 
 submitted to Parliament, accompanied by a sufficient map 
 or plan showing the ground proposed to be embanked, the 
 line of embankment, and a section of the bank intended, 
 with such other particulars as may be necessary to furnish 
 adequate particulars of the works in contemplation. The 
 adjacent rivers and streams, and other features of the country, 
 should be sufficiently indicated on the map, as well as the 
 roads intended to be carried out, and the drainage to be 
 made or continued. There should also be a report from 
 the engineers engaged by the projectors specifying the data 
 on which the proposed works are founded, particularly 
 the rise of the highest tides and of the greatest out- 
 bursts, and estimates showing the cost of the under- 
 taking. 
 
 The reception given in any particular case to the pro- 
 posals of the projectors, as thus formulated, will serve to 
 guide them as to their subsequent proceedings ; and will 
 enable them to judge whether it be advisable to avail them- 
 selves of the provisions of the Lands Clauses Consolidation 
 Act in framing their Bill to be submitted to Parliament. 
 That well-known Act (8 & 9 Viet. c. 18) the provisions of 
 which may be incorporated with a private Act was passed 
 in 1845 t Burnish (as it has been expressed) "a general 
 code regulating the manner in which lands, or interests in 
 land, may be taken under the authority of Parliament, and 
 compensation made for injury occasioned by what may be 
 thus legalised by the Legislature." 183 
 
 No enlargement is necessary here upon the wisdom of 
 thus endeavouring by a frank and open policy to secure 
 provisionally beforehand the consents required to the 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 269 
 
 undertaking. The promoters, before actually applying to 
 Parliament, will then be in possession of the sentiments 
 of those concerned, and be enabled to judge what amend- 
 ments, if any, may be advisable in the details of their pro- 
 ject, and enabled also to estimate the probability of carrying 
 their Bill against any threatened opposition. An open and 
 candid policy at the outset is not only likely to dispose 
 frontagers and others to give better terms, or to be content 
 with less expensive accommodations, but will also have its 
 due effect before the Parliamentary Committee in favour of 
 the promoters. 
 
 It is unnecessary to enter in detail upon the further steps 
 to be taken, and the formalities observed, with a view to 
 obtaining the authority of Parliament for the proposed 
 works by means of a private Act. With this object in 
 view the projectors will have to rely on the guidance and 
 assistance of their legal advisers, acting in conjunction with 
 a professional Parliamentary agent. Here it will suffice to 
 say that, as arrangements for Parliamentary business are 
 necessarily made well in advance, when application is in- 
 tended to be made for an Act in the coming session, a copy 
 of the Bill representing its provisions whether intended to 
 be introduced in the first instance in the Lords or in the 
 Commons must be deposited in the office of the Clerk of 
 the Parliaments on or before the iyth of December. Notice 
 must also be given by advertisement once in the London 
 Gazette, and in the local papers once in each of two suc- 
 cessive weeks (with an interval of at least six clear days 
 between) in the preceding October or November (but the 
 last of such notices must be not later than ayth November), 
 of the intention to make application for the Bill, with such 
 particulars of its provisions as are required by the Standing 
 
270 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 Orders. These Orders provide (among other things) for the 
 deposit with the Board of Trade, at the Private Bill Office, 
 and with local authorities, on or before 3oth November, of 
 plans, books of reference as to any properties proposed to 
 be taken, and other particulars, to be open to public in- 
 spection ; and copies of the Bill must also be deposited in 
 the Private Bill Office, and in certain other public offices, 
 on or before 2ist December, for public inspection. On 
 or before 3ist December estimates of the expense of the 
 undertaking, and particulars of the constitution of the 
 body by whom it is proposed to be carried out, must be 
 furnished to the proper Parliamentary officials. A deposit 
 in cash, equivalent to four per cent, of the amount of the 
 estimated outlay, will also have to be made. 
 
 In the course of the ensuing January the Bill comes be- 
 fore the Examiners, whose duty it is to certify whether the 
 Standing Orders have been complied with, and to report 
 the Bill to the Select Committee on Standing Orders. That 
 Committee, in their turn, report to the House whether any 
 non-compliance with Standing Orders certified to them 
 should or should not be waived ; and in the event of any 
 non-compliance which is not waived, the Bill will be lost, 
 as far as the coming session is concerned. 
 
 It is subsequently to these proceedings that the Bill is 
 formally presented to the House in which it is introduced, 
 and has to pass through the various stages of first, second, 
 and third readings in the two Houses. In the course of 
 this progress it comes before the Parliamentary Committee 
 upon whose approval or non-approval of its preamble its 
 further progress depends, and before whom appear (besides 
 the promoters and assenting parties or public bodies) the 
 parties, if any, by whom the passing of the Bill is opposed. 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 271 
 
 The preamble being held by the Committee to be " proved," 
 they then proceed to consider its provisions clause by clause, 
 to hear objections, to discuss proposed amendments, and 
 (should occasion require) to add new clauses found to be 
 necessary in order to meet objections, or more completely 
 answer the objects of the Bill. The Bill is eventually re- 
 ported to the House in which it was introduced, and (un- 
 less re-committed) comes up there for third reading, 
 afterwards going to the other House to pass through its 
 several stages of first, second, and third reading. 
 
 It is manifest, from what has been already said, that clear 
 and well-defined notions are necessary on the part of pro- 
 moters of works of reclamation as to the actual rights of all 
 the parties concerned, and as to the best means whereby these 
 are to be provided for. In this respect Mr. Wiggins 184 has 
 some observations, the substance of which may be given here. 
 
 i. First, he says, the rights of the public are involved in 
 all such projects by reason of the propriety and necessity of 
 continuing to them the conveniences and accommodations 
 which they have hitherto enjoyed namely, of roads to the 
 sea-side, navigation of the sea and of the rivers, and that 
 general species of drainage which such rivers, together with 
 the smaller brooks and streams, may have hitherto afforded. 
 
 With this view, therefore, all public roads should be 
 continued across the embanked lands to the sea ; and this 
 according to ascertained dimensions and defined rules as to 
 quantity and disposition of materials, and under proper 
 arrangements for drainage and for future maintenance. 
 
 As to rivers also, the avoidance of any obstructions to 
 their discharge into the sea should be secured by their em- 
 bankment on each side across the slobs or shores to be 
 
272 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 gained ; and the lines of these banks should be laid down 
 with an ample degree of divergence, so that the river waters 
 may have a due space for their outfall and escape to seaward. 
 The height and dimensions of these banks should also be 
 specified and fixed, so as to secure their being of such 
 elevation and strength, that neither the tide itself, nor tide and 
 floods together, may be able to overtop or break them ; and 
 yet that the land-flood waters may not be impeded so as to 
 drown the lands situated above the intake. These points 
 as to rivers ought not to be left to the projectors only, who 
 may not be aware of the quantity or force of waters 
 coming down a river, or of the 1 iability of that river to flood 
 the grounds near its mouth, or of the lowness of such 
 grounds upon some part of the course of such river. It 
 would therefore be expedient that a qualified Engineer 
 should certify on the part of the public, as well as of 
 the proprietors of lands adjoining such river, that the pro- 
 posed river -banks will be good and sufficient for all these 
 purposes ; and hence, among other reasons, the necessity 
 (as already suggested) of the Engineer's original report 
 specifying the height of tides and other particulars or data. 
 
 These points being secured, that of the navigation of 
 the rivers should also be protected. It is sometimes of 
 great consequence to a tract of country that either the actual 
 power of navigating to a certain point up the river, or at 
 least the capability of rendering the river navigable to such 
 point, should be preserved ; but this is in great danger of 
 injury or annihilation when embanked, by reason of the 
 accumulation of detritus brought by the stream down from 
 the upper country. Any alteration of the stream, therefore, 
 becomes of great importance in a river where such detritus 
 is abundant ; and the width at which the banks should be 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 273 
 
 set, their direction, and the degree of their divergence, are 
 matters of equal importance ; since the natural bias of the 
 projectors will be to place the river-banks as close as pos- 
 sible, in order to avoid diminishing the area of the intake, 
 whilst the danger of their being too close is, not only want 
 of sufficient space for tide and flood, but such an accumula- 
 tion of detritus as to leave an insufficient depth for tide and 
 flood, and totally to destroy navigation. 
 
 To obviate these difficulties, it may be requisite to deal 
 with the rivers far above the bounds of the intake, and to 
 deepen, widen, and embank them, so as to secure them 
 against every mischief to which they may be liable in con- 
 sequence of the works of the intake ; but as this ought to be 
 done by, or at the expense of, the promoters of the scheme, 
 it may be best that such matters should be left to be finally 
 determined in detail by some authority or tribunal to be 
 named in the Act ; and should any works done by the pro- 
 jectors, beyond those necessary for the embankment, be 
 greatly beneficial to the public, the district reaping the 
 advantages of such works should be required to contribute 
 towards the cost in manner to be prescribed by the Act. 
 
 As in matters of drainage, also, the public may be injured 
 by the projected embankment, care should be taken to 
 secure the complete drainage of the lands embanked, so as 
 to prevent malaria, or any unhealthful effects of stagnant 
 waters, as well as to prevent any stoppage of such drains 
 as have hitherto carried the upland waters to sea. On the 
 other hand, waters may be lowered, roads improved, and 
 bridges rendered unnecessary by the proposed new works, 
 in which case also contributions to the cost should be forth- 
 coming from the district so benefited. 
 . In the case of navigation seaward, the public will neces- 
 
 T 
 
274 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 sarily be driven to a greater distance from the usual land- 
 ing-places on the shore, and any disadvantage in this respect 
 should be compensated by commodious landing-places, 
 conveniently situated with respect to the roads that are to 
 cross the intake. 
 
 In the case of quays or wharfs to be built by the pro- 
 jectors, powers should be taken to charge tonnage or other 
 dues within limits to be specified by the Act. 
 
 The public also ought to have reserved to them the 
 customary power of collecting such substances as the sea 
 affords on many parts of the coast such as shingle, sand, 
 boulders, sea-weed, shells for manure, sea-mud, etc. ; but 
 as the unlimited exercise of those powers as hitherto enjoyed 
 might be injurious to the embankment, it ought to be 
 Jimited within a certain distance of the foot of the bank, by 
 way of compensation facilities for the free landing of such 
 substances should be provided. 
 
 ii. Secondly, Mr. Wiggins proceeds to say, the due 
 provision to be made for the rights of the proprietors of 
 adjoining land, who may be affected by these projects of 
 embanking lands from the sea, and those especially who 
 have been denominated frontagers, will require the fullest 
 consideration ; and any Bill proposed to Parliament with 
 the object of reclamation of lands from the sea, whilst it 
 gives powers to the promoters sufficient to cany out their 
 project, must also carefully guard against abuse of those 
 powers by invasion of or injury to existing property without 
 ample compensation. 
 
 The property actually taken away will chiefly, if not 
 entirely, comprise that which has been previously described 
 and estimated as share of frontage and pasturable fringes, 
 which should be wholly vested in the undertakers in fee, 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 275 
 
 when the sea has been shut out by them. But in case of the 
 final abandonment of the project for any reason, as it would 
 be hard on the frontager to lose his slob and fringes, pro- 
 vision should be made that if the sea again break in, and 
 the breach made thereby remain open, and the reserved 
 rents thereof remain unpaid for, say, three years, then the 
 slobs and fringes should revert to their original proprietors. 
 
 It might be provided, also, that any buildings may be 
 removed within one year after expiration of the three years, 
 but the materials of any roads should not be removed. 
 
 If these stipulations be thought too specific for the clauses 
 of an Act of Parliament, they might be embodied in an 
 agreement specifically referred to and allowed by the Act. 
 
 in. Thirdly, as regards the consideration of what is due 
 to the projectors of an intake or embankment of lands from 
 the sea, the general principles are, that every possible 
 facility and encouragement should be afforded to the pro- 
 jectors, consistently with the rights of the public and of the 
 proprietors or frontagers. 
 
 The projectors, accordingly, should have power to enter 
 upon lands, and to take materials fit and proper for their 
 purpose ; also to make roads for the conveyance thereof, 
 and to make catchwater drains, and to erect temporary 
 buildings, and for all other purposes that the prosecution of 
 their work may require, subject, of course, to every reason- 
 able restriction necessary for the interests and convenience 
 of the proprietors, without too much reducing the powers of 
 the projectors. 
 
 The projectors should also be enabled at a future period 
 to embank any further portion of the shore than that laid 
 down as their exterior line of bank ; and the extent of their 
 rights over such portion as remains unembanked should be 
 
276 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 clearly defined by the Act ; saving to the public and to the 
 frontage proprietors, until embanked, such rights and privi- 
 leges as they have been hitherto accustomed to enjoy in, 
 on, and over such unembanked shores. 
 
 They should also be allowed to enjoy all the advantages 
 which their bank may afford, towards promoting trade 
 thereon by landing-places, wharfs, quays, warehouses, etc., 
 without hindrance from the frontagers, but under conditions 
 specified in the Act. 
 
 Any public roads made by them should afterwards be 
 maintained and kept up in the same manner as other public 
 roads are kept up in the district. 
 
 It would be reasonable, also, that the lands embanked 
 should be declared free from all rates and taxes for a de- 
 fined period say for the first seven years, to be computed 
 from the day of the commencement of the year of any 
 assessment next after the final shutting out of the sea. 
 
 The projectors having executed the works of embank- 
 ment and drainage, the several distinct intakes, or em- 
 bankment enclosures, may be erected into levels, bearing 
 such denominations as may be prescribed by the Act, and 
 provision made for the due maintenance and repair of the 
 said banks and sluices by the appointment of Trustees for 
 each level respectively. 
 
 The Trustees (who may be owners of lands within the level, 
 or their nominees) should have power to levy an acreable rate 
 to any needful amount such rate not to be uniform and 
 even over the whole level, since some of the lower lands 
 will require more draining than others which are higher, 
 whilst all the lands will equally require the protection of 
 the bank ; but there may be an equal acreable rate for the 
 support of the bank, with a separate rate for drainage levied 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 277 
 
 according to the situation of the lands. These may be 
 distinguished into, say, high lands, medium lands, and low 
 lands, and the drainage rate levied accordingly. This prin- 
 ciple of classification in the expense of drainage has always 
 been recognised as equitable in the case of reclaimed lands. 
 The interests involved in any large scheme of reclamation, 
 and the necessary incidents of the completion of the work, 
 being thus of so varied and complex a nature, it will be 
 readily understood that the authority of Parliament, to be 
 secured by a Private Act, is in many cases found necessary 
 for the carrying out of the project. 
 
 In the case of works on a smaller scale, which yet involve 
 the appropriation of any portion of foreshore, a grant by the 
 Board of Trade of so much of the shore as is required to be 
 taken or dealt with may be sufficient for the purpose in view. 
 
 The procedure for obtaining such grants is very simple, 
 but no grants are made without security being taken, by 
 means of such covenants (to be entered into by the grantees) 
 as the Board may deem necessary, for the purpose of re- 
 serving to the public all existing rights of walking, bathing, 
 boating, landing, fishing, etc. ; and it is also the practice to 
 insert where necessary in the deed of grant, clauses and 
 covenants for the protection of navigation, similar to those 
 of the Railway Clauses Act, 1863 ( ss 1 3" I 9) 
 
 In simple matters, upon sufficient particulars being fur- 
 nished by the applicants for a grant, the Board may dispense 
 with any official survey of the shore-land proposed to be 
 dealt with ; but before considering any application, it is the 
 practice of the Board to make inquiry as to the existing 
 user of the foreshore. A communication is therefore ad- 
 dressed to the Officer commanding the nearest Coast Guard 
 
278 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 division, requesting information as to the use at present 
 made, or which has hitherto been made, of the shore in 
 question, either by fishermen, boatmen, or the public 
 generally; and as to whether the shore is or has been 
 used by the public for walking, bathing, boating, landing, 
 fishing, gathering seaweed, etc., or any other purpose ; and 
 inquiring also whether the use of the shore contemplated 
 by the applicants will interfere with or abridge its present 
 use and enjoyment by the public. Communications are 
 also addressed to every owner and occupier of the land 
 adjacent to the foreshore in question and if the shore is 
 in a harbour, to the Harbour Authority inviting their 
 observations upon the proposals of the applicants. When 
 the result of these inquiries is known, if the view of the 
 Board is favourable to the desired grant, public notice of 
 their intention to make it is given in the locality before the 
 grant is made absolute. 
 
 The grant may be made either by way of sale, in con- 
 sideration of the payment of a sum of purchase money, or 
 for a term of years on lease at an annual rent : the terms in 
 either case being adjusted by reference to a valuation made 
 for the purpose under the direction of the Board. 
 
 Subjoined (pages 279-282, and 283-287) are the forms in 
 which conveyances and leases of the rights of the Crown in 
 foreshore lands are usually made by the Board of Trade ; 
 but it will be understood that not all the clauses given in 
 the forms are applicable to every case of grant. Omissions 
 are made of such clauses as do not apply to a particular 
 case, and it may be that in certain cases additional clauses 
 will need to be inserted. 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 279 
 
 I. FORM OF CONVEYANCE OF FORESHORE 
 IN FEE. 
 
 THIS INDENTURE, made the day of I , 
 
 between THE QUEEN'S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY of the 
 1st part, THE BOARD OF TRADE, acting in exercise of such of the powers 
 conferred by the Crown Lands Act, 1829, and the Crown Lands Act, 
 1852, or any other Act, as were transferred to the Board of Trade by 
 the Crown Lands Act, 1866, of the 2nd part, and 
 
 hereinafter called the grantee , of the jrd part, WITNESSETH, that 
 in consideration of the sum of 
 
 by the grantee paid to the Assistant Secretary, Finance Depart- 
 ment, Board of Trade, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, 
 the Board of Trade, on behalf of Her Majesty, and with the consent of 
 the Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, signified by their warrant 
 dated the day of I , do by these presents grant unto 
 
 the grantee and h heirs 
 
 ALL piece of land being part of the foreshore and bed 
 
 of the below high- water mark situate 
 
 opposite to 
 
 in the parish of in the county 
 
 of and extending 
 
 which said premises hereby granted are intended to be delineated in 
 the plan annexed to these presents and to be therein coloured 
 
 Except nevertheless and always reserving to the Queen's Majesty, 
 Her Heirs and Successors, out of this present grant full and free right 
 for Her and them, and for all persons by Her or their permission (which 
 permission shall be assumed to have been granted unless the contrary 
 be shown), to ride, drive, walk, or otherwise pass to and fro, over, and 
 to fish and bathe upon, and to gather sea- weed and waie from the 
 premises hereby granted and to land thereon goods and passengers 
 from vessels and boats, and to embark therefrom goods and pas- 
 sengers in vessels and boats, but so that erections or works constructed 
 or placed on the said premises, with the consent and approval of the 
 Board of Trade as hereby provided, shall not be prejudiced or inter- 
 fered with by reason of the aforesaid exception and reservation. 
 
 And also except and always reserving as aforesaid all rights of way 
 and access to and over the premises now existing by means of any 
 public road, footpath, bridge, or other means, or by means of any road, 
 footpath, or bridge shown on the said plan hereto annexed, as made or 
 intended to be made. 
 
280 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 And also except and reserving to the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs and 
 Successors, and to the Board of Trade, and any other body or person 
 duly authorised in right of the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs and Suc- 
 cessors, full right to enter on the premises hereby granted, and remove 
 therefrom all buildings, works or erections which may have become 
 dilapidated or abandoned, or which may have been constructed without 
 the consent or approval hereby required thereto, or which may, in the 
 opinion of the Board of Trade, be injurious to navigation or the public 
 interest, and to restore the site to the former or proper condition 
 thereof, and to erect or construct any buildings or works which may, 
 in the opinion of the Board of Trade, be required for the purpose of 
 navigation or the public interest. 
 
 To HAVE AND TO HOLD the premises hereby granted unto and to 
 the use of the grantee , h heirs and assigns 
 
 for ever. 
 
 YIELDING AND PAYING unto the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs and 
 Successors, the yearly rent of one shilling on the first day of January 
 in every year, if demanded. 
 
 And the grantee do hereby for h self h heirs and assigns, 
 
 covenant with the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs and Successors, in manner 
 following ; that is to say, THAT the grantee , h heirs 
 and assigns, will not, without the consent in writing of the Board of 
 Trade first obtained, erect or place on the premises hereby granted any 
 building or work. 
 
 AND ALSO will, in case the Board of Trade shall consent to any 
 building or work being erected or placed on the premises hereby 
 granted, erect, place and construct the same according to such plan 
 and under such restrictions and regulations as may be approved of in 
 writing by the Board of Trade, and not otherwise. 
 
 AND ALSO will not, in case any such building or work shall have 
 been so erected or placed on the premises hereby granted, at any time 
 alter or extend the same without the like consent and approval of the 
 Board of Trade having been first obtained. 
 
 AND ALSO will not, without the consent in writing of the Board of 
 Trade first obtained, place any materials, or do any other act on the 
 premises hereby granted, which may, in the opinion of the Board of 
 Trade, prejudice or obstruct navigation, or be or become injurious to 
 the public interest. 
 
 AND ALSO will at all times keep the premises in a good and proper 
 state of repair, and in proper condition, free from all defects injurious 
 to navigation or the adjacent lands or the public interest. 
 
 AND ALSO will, during the whole time of constructing, altering or 
 extending any work upon the premises hereby granted, and also after 
 the completion thereof, exhibit and keep burning every night from 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 281 
 
 sunset to sunrise such lights (if any) as the Board of Trade shall from 
 time to time require. 
 
 AND ALSO that it shall be lawful for the Queen's Majesty, Her 
 Heirs and Successors, and the Board of Trade, and any persons duly 
 authorised by Her or them, from time to time, and at all reasonable 
 times, to enter into and upon and inspect the premises hereby granted, 
 and the state and condition thereof, and of any want of repair or of any 
 defect to give notice, and to place such notice in some conspicuous 
 position upon the said premises, and that the grantee , h heirs 
 or assigns, will on receipt of any such notice, or upon any 
 such notice being placed in some conspicuous position on the premises 
 hereby granted, forthwith, and within three calendar months from the 
 giving or placing of such notice, restore the premises hereby granted to 
 a proper state and condition, and substantially and properly execute the 
 repairs and amendments, and remove the defects specified in such notice. 
 
 AND ALSO that it shall be lawful for the Queen's Majesty, Her 
 Heirs and Successors, and the Board of Trade, and any persons duly 
 authorised as aforesaid, at any time to enter upon the premises htreby 
 granted, and to remove therefrom and abate all buildings, works, or 
 materials which may have become dilapidated or abandoned, or which 
 may have been constructed without the consent or approval hereby 
 required thereto, or which may, in the opinion of the Board of Trade, 
 be injurious to navigation or the public interest, and to restore the site 
 to the former or proper condition thereof, and to erect or construct any 
 buildings or works which in the opinion of the Board of Trade may be 
 required for the purpose of navigation or the public interest. 
 
 AND ALSO will pay to the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs and Suc- 
 cessors, all expenses incurred by the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs or 
 Successors, or the Board of Trade, or any persons duly authorised as 
 aforesaid, of and incidental to a survey of the premises hereby granted, 
 preparatory to the erection or construction of buildings or works or of 
 or incidental to any consent or approval hereby required to be given 
 thereto, or which may be incurred in removing buildings, works, or 
 materials which may have become dilapidated or been abandoned, or 
 which may have been constructed without the consent or approval 
 hereby required, or which may, in the opinion of the Board of Trade, 
 be injurious to navigation or the public interest, and all other expenses 
 incurred in restoring the premises hereby granted to the former or 
 proper condition thereof. 
 
 AND ALSO will not in any way hinder or obstruct the due exer- 
 cise and enjoyment of any other right or privilege excepted and 
 reserved out of the grant hereby made. 
 
 AND ALSO will duly observe and perform all the stipulations and 
 provisions contained in the Schedule hereto. 
 
282 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 Provided always, that if the rent hereby reserved shall be unpaid for 
 the space of twenty-one days after the same shall have become due and 
 been legally demanded, or in case default shall be made in observance 
 or performance of any covenant or provision herein contained, and on 
 the part of the grantee , h heirs or assigns to be 
 
 observed and performed, or in case the 
 
 then and in any of such cases it shall be lawful for the Queen's Majesty, 
 Her Heirs or Successors, into and upon the premises hereby granted, 
 or any part thereof in the name of the whole, to re-enter, and put an 
 end to the grant hereby made, and thereupon the grant hereby made 
 shall become void accordingly, without prejudice to any remedy of the 
 Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs and Successors, under any covenant by 
 the said grantee herein contained. 
 
 Provided always, and it is hereby declared, that nothing in this deed 
 shall be deemed to extend to or affect any beds, seams, or veins of coal 
 or stone, or any metallic or other mineral substance, or any mines or 
 quarries thereof referred to in Section 21 of the Crown Lands Act, 
 1866, and further that nothing in this deed contained shall affect any of 
 the rights or powers mentioned in Sections 22, 23, or 24 of the same 
 Act. 
 
 Provided also, and it is hereby agreed and declared, that if the 
 Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs or Successors, or the Board of Trade, 
 shall at any time be desirous of purchasing the premises hereby granted, 
 then the grantee , h heirs or assigns, shall sell the 
 
 same to the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs or Successors, at such price 
 as shall be agreed upon, or, if not agreed upon, as shall be ascertained 
 by arbitration under the provisions of the Lands Clauses Consolidation 
 Act, 1845, with respect to the purchase of lands otherwise than by 
 agreement, and on payment of the purchase money so ascertained 
 the premises shall be re-conveyed to the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs 
 or Successors. 
 
 Provided also that this deed shall be deemed sufficiently enrolled by 
 the deposit of a duplicate thereof in the Office of Land Revenue 
 Records and Enrolments, and the filing or making an entry of such 
 deposit by the Keeper of the said Records and Enrolments. 
 
 And the grantee hereby declares that accepts the grant 
 
 and conveyance hereby made as effectual only to the extent of such 
 estate, right or interest in the premises as may be vested in the Queen's 
 Majesty at the date of these presents. 
 
 In witness whereof one of the Secretaries or Assistant Secretaries of 
 the Board of Trade and the grantee have hereunto set their respec- 
 tive hands and seals the day and year first above written. 
 
 The SCHEDULE above referred to. 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 283 
 
 II. FORM OF LEASE OF FORESHORE. 
 
 THIS INDENTURE, made the day of 18 
 
 between THE QUEEN'S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY of 
 the 1st part, THE BOARD OF TRADE acting in exercise of such of the 
 Powers conferred by the Acts loth George 4th, Chapter 50, and 
 I5th and i6th of Her Majesty, Chapter 62, or any other Act, as 
 were transferred to the Board of Trade by "The Crown Lands Act, 
 1866," of the 2nd part, and 
 
 hereinafier called the lessee , of the 3rd part, WITNESSETH, that 
 THE BOARD OF TRADE on behalf of HER MAJESTY, and with the 
 consent of the Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, signified by 
 their warrant dated the day of 
 
 1 8 , do by these presents grant and demise unto the lessee 
 
 ALL piece of land being part of the foreshore 
 
 and bed of the below high-water mark opposite 
 
 to 
 
 in the parish of in the county 
 
 of and extending 
 
 which said premises hereby demised are intended to be delineated in 
 the plan annexed to these presents and to be therein coloured 
 
 Except nevertheless and always reserving to the Queen's Majesty, 
 Her Heirs and Successors, out of this present grant and demise, full 
 and free right for Her and them, and for all persons by Her or their 
 permission (which permission shall be assumed to have been granted 
 unless the contrary be shown), to ride, drive, walk, or otherwise pass to 
 and fro over, and to fish and bathe upon, and to gather sea- weed or 
 ware from the demised premises, and to land thereon goods and pas- 
 sengers from vessels and boats, and to embark therefrom goods and 
 passengers in vessels and boats, but so that erections or works con- 
 structed or placed on the demised premises, with the consent and 
 approval of the Boaid of Trade as hereby provided, shall not be pre- 
 judiced or interfered with by reason of the aforesaid exception and 
 reservation. 
 
 And also except and always reserving as aforesaid all rights of way 
 and access to or over the demised premises now existing by means of 
 any public road, footpath, bridge, or other means, or by means of any 
 road, footpath, or bridge shown on the said plan hereto annexed, as 
 made or intended to be made. 
 
 And also except and always reserving to the Queen's Majesty, Her 
 Heirs and Successors, and to the Board of Trade, and any other body 
 or person duly authorised in right of the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs or 
 
284 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 Successors, full right to enter on the said demised premises, and remove 
 therefrom all buildings, works, or erections which may have become 
 dilapidated or abandoned, or which may have been constructed without 
 the consent or approval hereby required thereto, or which may, in the 
 opinion of the Board of Trade, be injurious to navigation or the public 
 interest, and to restore the site to the former or proper condition thereof, 
 and to erect or construct any buildings or works which may, in the 
 opinion of the Board of Trade, be required for the purpose of naviga- 
 tion or the public interest. 
 
 To HAVE AND TO HOLD the said hereby demised premises unto the 
 
 lessee , h executors, administrators, and assigns, for the term of 
 
 years from the day of 18 , 
 
 YIELDING AND PAYING therefor during the said term unto the 
 QUEEN'S MAJESTY, Her Heirs and Successors, the yearly rent of 
 
 pounds, to be paid to 
 
 the Assistant Secretary for the time being of the Finance Department 
 of the Board of Trade at the office of the Board of Trade in London by 
 equal half-yearly payments on the day of 
 
 and the day of in every year, free from 
 
 all deductions on account of present or future landlords' or tenants' 
 taxes, rates, charges, or impositions, except landlord's property tax, 
 the first yearly payment to be made on the 
 
 day of 1 8 , and the payment of the rent for the 
 
 last year of the said term to be made on the 
 
 day of next preceding the expiration of the said 
 
 term. 
 
 And the lessee do hereby, for executors, adminis- 
 
 trators, and assigns, covenant with the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs 
 and Successors, in manner following ; that is to say, THAT the lessee , 
 h executors, administrators, and assigns, will duly pay the yearly 
 rent hereby reserved, at the times and in manner hereby provided. 
 
 AND ALSO will pay the land tax, and all other present and future 
 landlords' and tenants' taxes, rates, charges, and impositions, except 
 landlord's property tax, payable in respect of the demised premises, or 
 by the landlord or tenant on account thereof. 
 
 AND ALSO will not, without the consent in writing of the Board of 
 Trade first obtained, erect or place on the demised premises any building 
 or work. 
 
 AND ALSO will, in case the Board of Trade shall consent to any 
 building or work being erected or placed on the demised premises, 
 erect, place, and construct the same according to such plan and under 
 such restrictions and regulations as may be approved of in writing by 
 the Board of Trade, and not otherwise. 
 
 AND ALSO will not, in case any such building or work shall have 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 285 
 
 been so erected or placed on the demised premises, at any time alter or 
 extend the same without the like consent and approval of the Board of 
 Trade having been first obtained. 
 
 AND ALSO will not, without the consent in writing of the Board of 
 Trade first obtained, place any materials, or do any other act on the 
 demised premises which may, in the opinion of the Board of Trade, 
 prejudice or obstruct or tend to prejudice or obstruct navigation, or be 
 or become injurious to the public interest. 
 
 AND ALSO will not commit or suffer any waste, spoil, or destruction 
 on the demised premises. 
 
 AND ALSO will, at all times during the term hereby granted, keep 
 the demised premises in a good and proper state of repair, and in 
 proper condition, free from all defects injurious to navigation or the 
 adjacent lands or the public interest. 
 
 AND ALSO will, during the whole time of constructing, altering, or 
 extending any work upon the demised premises, and also after the com- 
 pletion thereof, exhibit and keep burning every night from sunset to 
 sunrise such lights (if any) as the Board of Trade shall from time to 
 time require. 
 
 AND ALSO that it shall be lawful for the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs 
 and Successors, and the Board of Trade, and any persons duly author- 
 ised by Her or them, from time to time and at all reasonable times, to 
 enter into and upon and inspect the demised premises and the state 
 and condition thereof, and of any want of repair or of any defect to 
 give notice, and to place such notice in some conspicuous position upon 
 the demised premises, and that the lessee , h executors, adminis- 
 trators, or assigns, will, on receipt of any such notice, or upon any such 
 notice being placed in some conspicuous position on the demised pre- 
 mises, forthwith and within three calendar months from the giving or 
 placing of such notice restore the demised premises to a proper state 
 and condition, and substantially and properly, and to the satisfaction of 
 the Board of Trade, execute the repairs and amendments, and remove 
 the defects specified in such notice. 
 
 AND ALSO that it shall be lawful for the Queen's Majesty, Her 
 Heirs or Successors, and the Board of Trade, and any persons duly 
 authorised as aforesaid, at any time to enter upon the demised premises, 
 and to remove therefrom and abate all buildings, works, or materials 
 which may have become dilapidated or abandoned, or which may have 
 been constructed without the consent or approval hereby required 
 thereto, or which may, in the opinion of the Board of Trade, be 
 injurious to navigation or the public interest, and to restore the site to 
 the former or proper condition thereof, and to erect or construct any 
 buildings or works which, in the opinion of the Board of Trade, may 
 be required for the purpose of navigation or the public interest. 
 
286 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 AND ALSO will pay to the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs or Successors, 
 all expenses incurred by the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs or Successors, 
 or the Board of Trade, or any persons duly authorised as aforesaid, of 
 an incidental to a survey of the demised premises preparatory to the 
 erection or construction of buildings or works, or of or incidental to any 
 consent or approval hereby required to be given thereto, or which may 
 be incurred in removing buildings, works, or materials which may have 
 become dilapidated or been abandoned, or which may have been con- 
 structed without the consent or approval hereby required, or which 
 may, in the opinion of the Board of Trade, be injurious to navigation or 
 the public interest, and all other expenses incurred in restoring the 
 demised premises to the former or proper condition thereof. 
 
 AND ALSO will not in any way hinder or obstruct the due exercise 
 and enjoyment of any other right or privilege excepted and reserved 
 out of the demise hereby made. 
 
 AND ALSO will not assign or underlet the demised premises or any 
 part thereof without the consent in writing of the Board of Trade first 
 obtained. 
 
 * AND ALSO will cause all assignments of the demised premises or 
 any part thereof made with such consent as aforesaid, and all probates 
 and letters of administration affecting the same premises, to be, within 
 six calendar months after the date thereof, entered and enrolled in the 
 Office of Land Revenue Records and Enrolments, in the Consolidated 
 Record and Writ Office, Chancery Division of the High Court of 
 Justice in Ireland. 
 
 AND ALSO will duly observe and perform all the stipulations and 
 provisions contained in the Schedule hereto. 
 
 AND ALSO will, at the expiration or other sooner determination of 
 the term hereby granted, deliver up the demised premises to the 
 Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs or Successors, in good and substantial 
 repair and proper condition, having regard to the erections and works 
 to be authorised pursuant to the provisions of these presents. 
 
 Provided always, that if the rent hereby reserved shall be unpaid 
 for twenty-one days after any day hereby appointed for payment 
 thereof, whether legally demanded or not, or in case default shall be 
 made in observance or performance of any covenant or provision herein 
 contained, and on the part of the lessee , h executors, adminis- 
 trators, or assigns, to be observed and performed, or if any act shall 
 be done or suffered whereby the demised premises or any part thereof 
 shall, without the assent of the Board of Trade first obtained, become 
 vested in any person other than the lessee , or other than any of the 
 following persons, namely, an assignee becoming such with such assent 
 
 * Omit words which do not apply. 
 
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. 287 
 
 as aforesaid, or an executor, or administrator, or legatee of the lessee , 
 or of any such assignee, or in case the 
 
 then and in any of such cases the term hereby granted shall cease with- 
 out prejudice to any remedy of the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs 
 or Successors, under any covenant by the said lessee herein con- 
 tained. 
 
 Provided always, and it is hereby declared, that nothing in this deed 
 shall be deemed to extend to or affect any beds, seams, or veins of coal 
 or stone, or any metallic or other mineral substance, or any mines or 
 quarries thereof referred to in section 21 of " The Crown Lands Act, 
 1866," and further that nothing in this deed contained shall affect any 
 of the rights or powers mentioned in sections 22, 23, or 24 of the same 
 Act. 
 
 Provided also, and it is hereby agreed and declared, that if the 
 Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs or Successors, or the Board of Trade, shall at 
 any time be desirous of purchasing the demised premises for all the residue 
 of the term hereby granted, the then lessee , h executors, administra- 
 tors, or assigns, shall sell the same to the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs 
 or Successors, at such price as shall be agreed upon, or if not agreed 
 upon as shall be ascertained by arbitration under the provisions of 
 " The Lands Clauses Consolidation Act, 1845,'' with respect to the 
 purchase of lands otherwise than by agreement, and on payment of the 
 purchase money so ascertained the demised premises shall be sur- 
 rendered to the Queen's Majesty, Her Heirs or Successors, to the 
 intent that the term hereby granted may merge and be extinguished. 
 
 *Provided always, that this deed shall be deemed sufficiently enrolled 
 by the deposit of a duplicate thereof in the Office of Land Revenue 
 Records and Enrolments, and the filing or making an entry of such 
 deposit by the Keeper of the said Records and Enrolments in the 
 Consolidated Record and Writ Office, Chancery Division of the High 
 Court of Justice in Ireland, and the filing and making an entry of such 
 deposit by the clerk of the Records and Writs. 
 
 And the lessee hereby declares that accepts the grant and 
 
 demise hereby made as effectual only to the extent of such estate, right 
 or interest in the premises as may be vested in the Queen's Majesty at 
 the date of these presents. 
 
 In witness whereof one of the Secretaries or Assistant Secretaries of 
 the Board of Trade and the lessee have hereunto set their respective 
 hands and seals the day and year first above written. 
 
 The SCHEDULE above referred to. 
 * Omit words which do not apply. 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
NOTES AND REFERENCES. 
 
 lf^ The figures in heavy type denote the consecutive number of the 
 note ; those in old -face type immediately following, refer to the 
 page of this volume on which the note occurs. 
 
 1. I. Reports on the Paris Universal Exhibition 1867, iv. 322. 
 
 2. 2. Surveyors' Institution, Transactions, xv. 299. 
 
 3. 2. Embanking Lands from the Sea, 54. 
 
 4. 2. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, xxi. 
 467-468. 
 
 5. 3. Jb. xxiii. 183. 
 
 6. 3. Ib. xxi. 468. 
 
 7. 3. Royal Agricultural Society, Journal, 2nd. S., iii. 665. 
 
 8. 3. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, xlvi. 
 
 77- 
 
 9. 4. Ib. xlvi. 72. 
 
 10. 4. A, C-F, H, J-L, P, Q, Surveyors' Institution, Trans- 
 actions, xv. 306 : B, G, I, O, U, Wiggins, I.e. 173-186 : M, N, R, V, 
 Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, xxi. 463, 485 ; 
 xxiii. 182 : S, T, Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, Trans- 
 actions, vii. 103-105. 
 
 11. 6. L.c. 54, 174. 
 
 12. 7- D. Stevenson, Reclamation and Protection of Agricultural 
 Land, 24. 
 
 13. 9. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, xxi. 
 480, 481. 
 
 14. ii. Condensed from J. F. W. Johnston, Lectures on Agri- 
 cultural Chemistry, 2nd. ed., 443-445. 
 
 15. ii. The mode of examining with the view of naming soils, as 
 above, is very simple. It is only necessary to spread a weighed quantity 
 of the soil in a thin layer upon writing paper, and to dry it for an hour 
 or two in an oven or upon a hot plate, the heat of which is not sufficient 
 to discolour the paper the loss of weight gives the water it contained. 
 While this is drying, a second weighed portion may be boiled or other- 
 wise thoroughly incorporated with water and the whole then poured 
 into a vessel, in which the heavy sandy part? are allowed to subsid* 
 
 U 
 
2 QO RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 until the fine clay is beginning to settle also. This point must be care- 
 fully watched, the liquid then poured off, the sand collected, dried as 
 before upon paper, and again weighed. This weight is the quantity of 
 sand in the known weight of moist soil, which by the previous 
 experiment has been found to contain a certain quantity of water. 
 
 Thus, suppose two portions, each 200 grs., are weighed, and the one 
 in the oven loses 50 grs. of water, and the other leaves 60 grs. of sand, 
 then the 200 grs. of moist are equal to 150 grs. of dry soil, and these 
 150 grs. of dry soil contain 60 of sand, or 40 in 100 (40 per cent.). It 
 would, therefore, be properly called a clay loam. 
 
 The determination of the lime, when it exceeds 5 per cent., is 
 attended with no difficulty. Thus, 
 
 To TOO grs. of the dry soil diffused through half a pint of cold water, 
 add half a wine glass full of muriatic acid (the spirit of salt of the shops), 
 stir it occasionally during the day, and let it stand over night to settle. 
 Pour off the clear liquor in the morning and fill up the vessel with 
 water, to wash away the excess of acid. When the water is again 
 clear, pour it off, dry the soil and weigh it the loss will amount 
 generally to about one per cent, more than the quantity of lime present . 
 The result will be sufficiently near, however, for the purposes of 
 classification. If the loss exceed 5 grs. from 100 of the dry soil, it may 
 be classed among the marls, if more than 20 grs. among the calcareous 
 soils. 
 
 The method of determining the amount of vegetable matter, for the 
 purposes of classification, is to dry the soil well in an oven, and weigh 
 it ; then to heat it to dull redness over a lamp or a bright fire till the 
 combustible matter is burned away. The loss on again weighing is the 
 quantity of organic matter. , 
 
 Summary. The several steps, therefore, which are necessary in 
 examining a soil with the view of so far determining its composition as 
 to be able precisely to name and classify it, will be best taken in the 
 following order : 
 
 i- Weigh 100 grains of the soil, spread them in a thin layer upon 
 white paper, and place them for some hours in an oven or other hot 
 place, the heat of which may be raised till it begins slightly to discolour 
 the paper. The loss is water. 
 
 2- Let it now (after drying and weighing) be burned over the fire as 
 above described. The second loss is organic, chiefly vegetable matter, 
 with a little water, which still remained in the soil after drying. 
 
 3- After being thus burned, let it be put into half a pint of water 
 with half a wine glass full of spirit of salt and frequently stirred. 
 When minute bubbles of air cease to rise from the soil on settling, 
 this process may be considered as at an end. The loss by this treatment 
 will be a little more than the true per-centage of lime, and it will 
 
NOTES AND REFERENCES. 29 1 
 
 generally be nearer the truth if that portion of soil be employed, which 
 has been previously heated to redness. 
 
 4- A fresh portion of the soil, perhaps 200 grains in its moist state, 
 may now be taken and washed to determine the quantity of siliceous 
 sand it contains. If the residual sand be supposed to contain calcareous 
 matter its amount may readily be determined by treating the dried sand 
 with diluted muriatic acid, in the same way as when determining the 
 whole amount of lime (3-) contained in the unwashed soil.* 
 
 * The weighings for the purposes here described may be made in a small 
 balance with grain weights, sold by the druggists for 55. or 6s., and the vege- 
 table matter may be burned away on a slip of sheet iron or in an untinned iron 
 table spoon over a bright cinder or charcoal fire care being taken that no 
 scale of oxide, which may be formed on the iron, be allowed to mix with the 
 soil when cold, and thus increase its weight. Those who are inclined toper- 
 form the latter operation more neatly, may obtain for about 6s. each from 
 the dealers in chemical apparatus thin light platinum capsules from i to ij 
 inches in diameter, capable of holding 50 or 100 grs. of soil, and for a few 
 shillings more a spirit lamp, over which the vegetable matter of the soil may 
 be burned away. With care, one of these little capsules will serve a lifetime. 
 
 Example. Along the outcrop of some of the upper beds of the 
 green sand . , . occur patches of a loose friable grey soil mixed with 
 occasional fragments of flint, which is noted for producing excellent 
 crops of wheat every other year. . . . I select a portion of this soil . . . 
 for my present illustration. 
 
 I?-. After being dried in the air and by keeping some time in paper, 
 it was dried for some hours at a temperature sufficient to give the white 
 paper below it a scarcely perceptible tinge : by this process 104^ grs. 
 lost 4 grs. 
 
 2- When thus dried it was heated to dull redness. It first blackened, 
 but gradually assumed a pale brick colour, the change, of course, 
 beginning at the edges. The loss by this process was 4^ grs. 
 
 3- After this heating, it was put into half a pint of pure rain water 
 with half a wine glass of spirit of salt. After some hours, when the 
 action had ceased, the soil was washed and dried again at a dull red 
 heat. The loss amounted to 3 grs. 
 
 4- Washed with water by decantation 100 grs. of the soil left 70 grs. 
 of very fine sand, or 104^ grs. would have left 73 grs. 
 
 The soil, therefore, contained 
 
 Water 4 grs. 3-9 per cent. 
 
 Organic matter, (less than) . 4$ ,, 4-1 
 Carbonate of lime, (less than) . 3 3-0 ,, 
 
 Clay . . . . . 2o 19-0 
 
 Sand, (very fine) . . . 73 70-0 
 
 104^ 100 * 
 
 * Some of these numbers differ by a minute fraction from those in the pre- 
 vious column; this is because they are calculated from the more correct 
 
RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 decimal fractions contained in my own note book. The organic matter is said 
 to be less than the number here given, because by simple drying, as here pre- 
 scribed, the whole of the water cannot be driven off a portion being always 
 retained by the clay, which is not entirely expelled till the soil is raised nearly 
 to a red heat. Hence the loss by this second heating must always be greater 
 than the actual weight of the organic matter present. The lime is also less 
 than the number given, because the acid dissolves a little alumina as well as 
 any carbonate of magnesia which may be present. 
 
 This soil, therefore, containing 70 per cent, of sand, separable by 
 decantation, is properly a sandy loam. (J. F. W. Johnston, Lectures 
 on Agricultural Chemistry, 2nd ed. 443-447.) 
 
 At p. 1073-1092 are given methods of more minute analysis; but 
 these are outside the scope of Engineering investigation save in cases 
 where the services of an analytical chemist are not obtainable. 
 
 16. 12. Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2nd ed. 524. 
 
 17. 12. Royal Agricultural Society, Journal, 2nd S., iii. 668. 
 
 18. 12. Etatsraad Trapp, cited in Institution of Civil Engineers, 
 Minutes of Proceedings, xxi. 435. 
 
 19. 12. Reclamation and Protection of Agricultural Land, 23. 
 
 20. 12. Royal Agricultural Society, Journal, 2nd S., iv. 34. 
 
 21. 13. Embanking Lands from the Sea, 75-80. 
 
 22. 15. Jb. 73. 
 
 23. 16. L.c. 31. 
 
 24. 16. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 454. 
 
 25. 1 8. J. Wiggins, Embanking Lands from the Sea, 83. 
 
 26. 19. D. Stevenson, Reclamation and Protection of Agricultural 
 Land, 13. 
 
 27. 19. J. Wiggins, I.e. 84. 
 
 28. 20. J. Linehan, The Drainage Engineer, 107. 
 
 29. 20. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxvii. 234. 
 
 30. 20. Jb. xlv. 94. 
 
 31. 2O. Rivers and Canals, 2nd ed. i. 13. 
 
 32. 21. D. Stevenson, Canal and River Engineering, 3rd ed. 130. 
 
 33. 21. W. H. Wheeler, Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 9. 
 
 34. 22. J, Wiggins, I.e. 80. 
 
 35. 23. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 468. 
 
 36. 23. Jb. xiv. 249. 
 
 37. 25. American Society of Civil Engineers, Transactions, xxvi. 
 568, 569- 
 
 38. 25. L.c. 48. 
 
 39. 26. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 441. 
 
 40. 28. Jb. xxi. 469. 
 
NOTES AND REFERENCES. 293 
 
 41. 30. J. Wiggins, I.e. 70-72. 
 
 42. 3!. The Engineering of Holland," in Weale's Quarterly 
 Papers on Engineering, vol. ii. 
 
 43. 31. L.c. 68. 
 
 44. 34. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 467. 
 
 45. 34. Royal Agricultural Society, Journal, 2nd S M iii. 664. 
 
 46. 36. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings , 
 vi. 480. 
 
 47. 37. L.c. 21. 
 
 48. 38. Royal Agricultural Society, Journal, 2nd S., iii. 666. 
 
 49. 39. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 ii. (1842) 129. 
 
 50. 39. Royal Agricultural Society, Journal, 2nd S., iii. 659. 
 
 51. 39. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 440, 461. 
 
 52. 39. 2b. xiv. 242, xxi. 482. 
 
 53. 40. Ib. vi. 122, 97. 
 
 54. 40. L.c. 13 etseqq. 
 
 55. 44. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 i. (1841) 141. 
 
 56. 44. L.c. 20. 
 
 57. 45. Ib. 23, 18. 
 
 58. 45. "The Engineering of Holland," in Weale's Quarterly 
 Papers on Engineering, vol. ii. 
 
 59. 46. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 440, 491. 
 
 60. 46. Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, Transactions, 
 vii. 105. 
 
 61. 47. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxviii. 503. 
 
 62. 47. Ib. vi. 477. 
 
 63. 48. Ib. xxi. 462. 
 
 64. 48. Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, Transactions, 
 vii. 104. 
 
 65. 50. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 431, 438-44 2 - 
 
 66. 52. "The Engineering of Holland," in Weale's Quarterly 
 Papers on Engineering, vol. ii. 
 
 67. 53. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 vi. 96, 91. 
 
 68. 56. Ib. xxi. 472, 473. 
 
 69. 69. L.c. 24-46. 
 
 70. 70. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 
RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 vi. 136 et seqq. The subjoined extract shows the useful character of the 
 Table referred to. 
 
 TABLE of the LENGTH, PERIOD, and VELOCITY of the 
 TRANSMISSION of WAVES of the Second Order. 
 
 Column A, length of Waves in Feet. 
 B, period of Waves in Seconds. 
 C, calculated Velocity of Waves in Feet per Second. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 748 
 1-058 
 1-296 
 1-496 
 1-670 
 2-366 
 2-90 
 3-34 
 
 2-672 
 3-778 
 4-628 
 
 5*334 
 5-975 
 8-45 
 10-34 
 
 n-95 
 
 So 
 
 100 
 200 
 300 
 400 
 500 
 1,000 
 2,000 
 
 3*74 
 5*29 
 7-48 
 9-16 
 10-58 
 11-83 
 16-70 
 23-66 
 
 I3-36 
 18-89 
 26-72 
 32-73 
 37-78 
 42-25 
 
 59-75 
 84-5 
 
 71. 72. Ib. xlvi. 65. The cost of conveyance to the work (45.) is 
 probably somewhat exceptional in the case cited, the distance having 
 been about 5 miles, and the boats only able to navigate the river on the 
 tide. 
 
 72. 77. Ib. xli. 161-164. 
 
 73. 77. Sea Coast Protection," in The Engineer, 19 May, 
 1899, p. 483. 
 
 74. 78. American Society of Civil Engineers, Proceedings, xxii. 
 36-117, giving full details of construction and cost: the cost in recent 
 years of mats fixed in place, seems to be at the rate of about 2s. 5d. per 
 square yard. It is scarcely needful to remark that the conditions under 
 which such work is executed in a river differ immensely from those of 
 work on a sea- shore, and greatly in favour of the former. 
 
 75. 79. Institution ot Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 443. 
 
 76. 82. De Luc, Geological Travels, cited by J. Wiggins, I.e. 202. 
 
 77. 82. L.c. 41. 
 
 78. 84. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxiii. 168-179. 
 
 79. 85. Ib. xxi. 468. 
 
 80. 86. L.c. 52. And at p. 61 he gives his reasons for preferring 
 several openings to a single one. 
 
NOTES AND REFERENCES. 295 
 
 81. 89. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, xxiii. 
 1 80. Aprons are also made of bags of sand or ballast, staked down. 
 
 82. 91. American Society of Civil Engineers, Transactions, xxvi. 
 
 572. 
 
 83. 91. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 440. 
 
 84. 92. American Society of Civil Engineers, Transactions, xxvi. 
 570. 
 
 85. 92. 2b. xxvi. 571. 
 
 86. 94. The Engineer, 30 Oct. 1868, p. 328. The result of 
 experiments with this invention does not appear to have been published. 
 
 87. 95. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 vi. 99. But cf. what is stated at p. 152-153 of our text. 
 
 88. 96. Z.*r. 59-61. 
 
 89. 98. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 463. This settlement amounts to about one-seventh of the height 
 to which the bank was raised. Mr. Wiggins allows from one-eighth to 
 one-fifth. The allowance in Dutch practice is said to be from one- 
 seventh to one-twentieth. 
 
 90. 100. J. Wiggins, I.e. 112. 
 
 91. loi. Ib. 212. 
 
 92. loi. Mr. W. H. Wheeler, M. Inst. C.E., to the Author. 
 
 93. 102. American Society of Civil Engineers, Transactions, xxvi. 
 
 578, 579- 
 
 94. 103. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 463. 
 
 95. 104. L.c. 50-52. 
 
 96. 105 Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 480. 
 
 97. 106. Ib. xxi. 177-178. 
 
 98. 107. J. Wiggins, I.e. 18, 62. 
 
 99. no. Ib. 19, 213. The term "flood-flanking" in this sense 
 seems to be purely local. Mr. Wheeler informs me that there was an 
 expression used by navvies in embanking, ' ' flood-fanging," which meant 
 the bringing-up of the bank to the height needful for excluding the 
 tide (not its full ultimate height). When the water was thus shut out 
 from the intake, the bank was " flood- fanged." 
 
 100. 112. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 478, 479. 
 
 101. 114. L.c. 52-54. 
 
 102. 115. Surveyors' Institution, Transactions, xv. 316, 317. 
 
 103. 120. L.c. 57. 
 
 104. 122. Ib. 218-220. 
 
296 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 105. 123. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 471, 472. 
 
 106. 124. L.c. 42. 
 
 107. 125. L.c. 221. 
 
 108. 125. American Society of Civil Engineers, Transactions, xxvi. 
 584. 
 
 109. 127. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 441. It is remarked, however, that by some of the Danish 
 Engineers stone facing is considered a dangerous mode of defending a 
 bank, as its weight causes a depression at the foot of the facing. The 
 peculiar character of the shore (cf. ib. 430, 435), its firm upper layer 
 of sand or clay resting on soft material below, probably accounts for 
 this objection. 
 
 110. 128. L.c. 37-39- 
 
 111. 128. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 482. 
 
 112. 130. J. Wiggins, I.e. 40, 45, 210. 
 
 113. 130. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 470. 
 
 114. 131. "The Engineering of Holland," in Weale's Quarterly 
 Papers on Engineering, vol. ii. 
 
 115. 13 1 . It may be doubted whether a more polyonymous vegetable 
 is to be found in English nomenclature. Besides the names mentioned 
 in the text, it bears or bore the botanical designations of Ammophila 
 arundinacea, Psamma arenaria, Psamma arundinacea ; and the 
 English ones Maram, Marrum, Common Marum, Bent-grass, Mat- 
 weed, Sand-reed, Sand-rush, Sea-bent, and Sea-mat, all existing in 
 print ; besides probably others in popular if not literary use. A passage 
 quoted in the New English Dictionary mentions it as " known to the 
 Highlanders by the name of Muran, and to the English by that of 
 Bent-star." 
 
 116. 131. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 vi. 117 ; xxviii. 503. 
 
 117. 136. W. H. Wheeler, Tidal Rivers, 400, 211 ; and additional 
 particulars communicated by him to the Author. 
 
 118. 137. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xlvi. 65. In the discussion on his Paper, Mr. Wheeler (p. 79) adds : 
 " For^fi per foot many estuaries might be trained in which the cost of 
 stonework would entirely preclude improvement." 
 
 119. 138. L.c. 54. 
 
 120. 138. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xlvi. 74. 
 
 121. 139. Tidal Rivers, 213. 
 
NOTES AND REFERENCES. 297 
 
 122. 141. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 441 ; xxviii. 499. 
 
 123. 142. Ib. vi. 99. 
 
 124. 143. L.c. 232-234. 
 
 125. 143. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 li. 206. 
 
 126. 145. Ib. li. 207-210. 
 
 127. 147. Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, Transactions, 
 xii. 13. 
 
 128. 151. Ib. xv. 70-75, 82. 
 
 129. 156. "Sea Coast Protection," in The Engineer, 14 April, 
 1899, P. 354- 
 
 130. 157. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 vi. 99, "7- 
 
 131. 157. American Society of Civil Engineers, Transactions, 
 xxvi. 584. 
 
 132. 158. Reclamation and Protection of Agricultural Land, 61, 
 64. 
 
 133. 161. W. H. Wheeler, Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 
 8,9- 
 
 134. 162. L.c. 90. 
 
 135. 162. Mr. Smith, of Deanston, quoted in Dempsey & Clark, 
 Drainage, 3rd ed., 79, 88. 
 
 136. 163. Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, lo, 43. 
 
 137. 163. Dempsey & Clark, I.e., 84. 
 
 138. 164. L.c. 90. 
 
 139. 170. Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 10-26. 
 
 140. 171. L.c. 94. 
 
 141. 171. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 vi. 98. 
 
 142. 171. Delf appears to be etymologically the more correct ; but 
 the latter form is preferable as being distinctive from the earthenware 
 so called. In relation to drainage, it is denned in the New English 
 Dictionary as a trench, or ditch, and as "specifically applied to the 
 drainage canals in the fen districts of the eastern counties." Although 
 noted as being " now only local? 'it is worthy of general adoption as a 
 term to denote the particular water- channel described in the text. In 
 this sense it is invariably employed by Mr. Wiggins. 
 
 143. 172. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 vi. 98. 
 
298 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 144. 173. L.c. 46. 
 
 145. 186. Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 27-33. Another 
 example is also given. For the sake of illustration, the several data are 
 here changed so as to make them correspond with those of the example 
 given in the text : 
 
 A sluice, with pointed piers, and doors fully open, allowing a free discharge 
 of the water, having three openings of 16 feet each, with depth of water 9 feet, 
 and a head of '0927 foot, would discharge (4 per cent, being allowed for fric- 
 tion) 1,010 cubic feet per second. 
 
 Area = 16' o" x 9' o" x 3 = 432' o". 
 
 Velocity = 8 ^'0927 x "96 = 2*338 feet per second. 
 
 Discharge = 432 x 2*338 = 1010 cubic feet per second. 
 
 If the water approached the sluice with a velocity of 1*50 feet per second, 
 allowance would require to be made for the head due to this, then : 
 
 Head due to this =. h = ( rs Y = '0381. 
 \8 x * 9 6/ 
 
 Adding this to the head through the sluice, the head = '0927 + '0381 = "1308, 
 which gives a velocity of 2*778 feet per second, and a discharge of 432 x 2*778 
 = 1 200 cubic feet per second. 
 
 In the Appendix, two useful Tables are given for facilitating 
 calculation of tides and tidal sluices, here with slight modification 
 reproduced. 
 
 TABLE A. 
 
 To find the quantity of "water due to 24 hours' rainfall to be dis- 
 charged in a limited time owing to the sluice being closed by the tide. 
 
 No. of Hours No. of Hours 
 
 Sluice Doors Sluice Doors 
 
 Open each Open each 
 
 Tide. Multiplier. Tide. Multiplier. 
 
 12 . I* 
 
 II ... 1-09 
 
 10 ... I'20 
 
 9 .-. i'33 
 
 8 ... 1-50 
 
 6 . 2- 
 
 5 ... 2-4 
 
 4 ... 3' 
 
 3 . . . 4" 
 
 2 6- 
 
 I 12- 
 
 Multiply the given discharge per hour, minute, or second, by the 
 multiplier opposite the number representing the hours the sluice doors 
 are open each tide. 
 
 Example. The discharge from the rainfall of 24 hours over a given 
 area is equal to 500 cubic feet per minute. This has to pass through a 
 sluice, the doors of which are closed 5 hours each tide, or 10 hours out 
 of the 24, consequently the discharge will have to be effected in 14 
 hours, or 7 hours each tide, and the quantity per minute will be 
 
 500 x I '7 1 = 855 cubic feet. 
 
NOTES AND REFERENCES. 299 
 
 TABLE B. 
 To ascertain the time the doors of a sluice are closed by the tide. 
 
 Falling Tide. Rising Tide. 
 
 Time after High Constant. Time after Low 
 
 Water. Ebb and Flood. Water. 
 
 H. M. H. M. 
 
 o* ..... I 1 .... 6* 
 
 0-30 .... -96 .... 5-30 
 
 1- .... -92 .... 5- 
 1-30 .... -84 .... 4-30 
 
 2- .... 75 .... 4' 
 2-30 .... -63 .... 3-30 
 3' .... 'So .... 3' 
 3'3 .... -38 .... 2-30 
 4' .... '26 .... 2* 
 4-30 .... -16 .... 1-30 
 5' .... -08 .... i 
 5-30 .... -025 .... 0-30 
 
 Having ascertained the level of the sill of the sluice with reference to 
 low-Water in the sea or estuary into which the sluice discharges : add 
 this to the depth of water in the drain if the sill is above low-water 
 mark, and deduct if the sill is below low-water mark. Divide the sum 
 (or the difference) by the range of tide for the day. The constant (in 
 middle column of Table) nearest to the result will give in the right- 
 hand column the time after low-water when the doors will close with 
 the rising tide, and in the left-hand column the time after high-water 
 when they will open again on the falling tide. 
 
 Example. Suppose the range of tide to be 22 feet ; the sill of the 
 sluice to be 6 feet above low- water ; and the surface of water in the 
 drain 4 feet above sill (or 6 + 4 = 10 feet above low-water mark), 
 accumulating during tide-time to 8 feet above sill (or 6 + 8 = 14 feet 
 above low-water mark). Then 10 divided by 22 = 0-45, which is 
 nearly the mean between 2 hours 30 minutes and 3 hours in right-hand 
 column. The doors will therefore close 2| hours after low- water, 
 leaving 3^ hours to high-water. Again : 14 divided by 22 = 0-63, 
 which gives in left-hand column the time for their opening as 2\ hours 
 after high- water. The doors will thus be shut for 3^ + 2\ = sf hours 
 each tide, or 1 1 \ in the 24. The drain must therefore be constructed 
 to discharge in 12^ hours the water due to the rainfall of 24 hours. 
 
 If the sill is 3 inches below low-water mark (the other conditions 
 being as above), the surface of water in drain will be 4-0 0-25 = 375 
 
300 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 above low-water. ? '*- = 0-17, and the doors will close i^ hour after 
 low-water, leaving 4^ hours to high-water. Again : 8-0 0-25 = 7*75 ; 
 and L- L-? = 0-35, which gives the time for their opening as nearly 3| 
 
 hours after high -water ; and they will thus be shut for about 8 1 hours 
 each tide, or 16^ in the 24. The drain must therefore be constructed 
 to discharge in 7^ hours the water due to the rainfall of 24 hours. 
 
 Table B enables one also : 
 
 To ascertain the height of the tide at any hour during the ebb and 
 the flood. 
 
 Multiply the range of the tide for the day by the constant (in middle 
 column) opposite the time required. The result will give the height of 
 the tide at that time. 
 
 Example. Suppose the range of tide to be 22 feet. To what height 
 will it have risen z\ hours after low-water ? and to what will it have 
 fallen 2 \ hours after high-water ? For a rising tide, the constant 
 opposite 2h. 3om. is 0-38; and 0-38 x 22 = 8-36 feet, the height at 
 2\ hours after low-water. For a falling tide, the constant opposite 
 2 h. y>m. is 0-63; and 0-63 x 22 = 13-86 feet, the height at 2\ hours 
 after high-water. 
 
 146. 186. Communicated to the Author by Mr. W. H. Wheeler. 
 
 147. 188. The Windmill as a Prime Mover. 8. 1885. New 
 York. p. 72. 
 
 148. 203. Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 50, 73-90. 
 
 149. 205. The subjoined Table will facilitate calculation. To 
 obtain the exact average daily rainfall, multiply the annual rainfall by 
 00274. It is however best, as a margin of safety for exceptional fall 
 on occasion, to multiply annual rainfall by -0076 as recommended 
 at p. 161, and to use the fractions of an inch so found, for ascer- 
 taining the multipliers. If it is desired to work to smaller fractions 
 than tenths, hundred ths can be found by shifting the decimal point of 
 the multiplier one place to the left, thousandths by shifting it two places 
 to the left, and so on. Example : Required the cubic feet per minute 
 per acre for a daily rainfall of -136 inch. In the column of multipliers, 
 
 I inch = -2521 
 03 = -07562 
 ^ -006 = -015125 
 
 Multiplier for -136 = -3428 
 Acreage x -3428 = Total cubic feet per minute. 
 
NOTES AND REFERENCES. 
 
 301 
 
 TABLE C. 
 
 Rainfall 
 in 24 
 Hours. 
 
 Multiplier 
 for Cubic 
 
 Multiplier 
 for 
 W. H. P. 
 
 Rainfall 
 in 24 
 Hours. 
 
 Multiplier 
 for Cubic 
 
 Multiplier 
 for 
 W. H. P. 
 
 Decimals 
 of an 
 Inch. 
 
 per Minute 
 per Acre. 
 
 per Foot of 
 Lift per 
 Acre. 
 
 Eighths 
 of an 
 Inch. 
 
 per Minute 
 per Acre. 
 
 per Foot of 
 Lift per 
 Acre. 
 
 I 
 
 2521 
 
 000477 
 
 I 
 
 3151 
 
 000597 
 
 '2 
 
 5042 
 
 000954 
 
 i 
 
 6302 
 
 OOH94 
 
 '3 
 
 H 
 '5 
 
 7562 
 1-0083 
 I -2604 
 
 001432 
 001909 
 002387 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 '9453 
 1-2604 
 
 001790 
 002387 
 
 6 
 
 1-5125 
 
 002865 
 
 f 
 
 1-5755 
 
 002984 
 
 8 
 '9 
 
 I ' 7646 
 2-0167 
 2-2687 
 
 003342 
 003819 
 004297 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1-8906 
 2-2057 
 
 003581 
 004178 
 
 I'O 
 
 2-5208 
 
 004774 
 
 I 
 
 2-5208 
 
 004774 
 
 150. 206. Drainage of Fens and Low Lands, 58-69. 
 161. 206. 
 
 
 
 
 * rt fc* 
 
 g ] 
 
 Cost per W. H. P. 
 
 Name of 
 
 Description 
 
 Area. 
 
 SD o 
 
 feQ 
 
 
 Station. 
 
 of Pump. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 *S*5 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 tej 
 
 w rt 
 
 Build- 
 
 Ma- 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 ings* 
 
 chinery 
 
 Total. 
 
 Lade Bank . 
 
 Wheel. 
 
 35,000 
 
 
 17,000 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 
 
 8037 
 
 Dirtness 
 
 Wheel . . 
 
 10,660 
 
 8,887 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 55'90 
 
 Prickwillow 
 
 Centrifugal 
 
 25,000 
 
 4,917 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 Wexford 
 
 Centrifugal 
 
 2,489 
 
 4,575 
 
 I-8 4 
 
 54'io 
 
 37-00 
 
 91-10 
 
 (North) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Upwell . . 
 Messingham 
 Redbourne . 
 
 Wheel . . 
 Centrifugal 
 Centrifugal 
 
 9,000 
 
 3,250 
 800 
 
 2,680 
 ''852 
 
 30 
 
 '44 
 i -06 
 
 26-40 
 
 2I'IO 
 
 74-68 
 64*10 
 
 IOI-08 
 85-20 
 
 
 
 
 . Mean 
 
 74 
 
 
 Mean 
 
 82-75 
 
 152. 208. Surveyors' Institution, Transactions^ xv. 308, 311, 313, 
 314. 
 
 153. 208. It has already been seen that he commends the swarding 
 of the bank with couch-grass on account of its distastefulness to cattle. 
 
 154. 210. L.c. 225-227. 
 
302 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 155. 2IO. American Society of Civil Engineers, Transactions, 
 xxvi. 579. 
 
 156. 211. Ib. xxvi. 579-580. 
 
 157. 214. Ib., citing Dutch authorities, xxvi. 596-598. 
 
 158. 214. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xxi. 462. 
 
 159. 216. Ib. xxi. 476-477, 491. 
 
 160. 220. Ib. xxii. 500-503. 
 
 161. 222. The maintenance of the Bank in sound condition and 
 repair is of importance not only because of the great expense attend- 
 ing its restoration in the event of a breach occurring, but also on 
 account of the disastrous consequences to the land of a flooding by sea- 
 water. For a very thorough investigation into the far-reaching injury 
 thereby occasioned to the soil see Messrs. Dymond and Hughes's excel- 
 lent Report on Injury to Agricultural Land on the Coast of Essex by 
 Inundation of Sea Water, published by the Essex Technical Instruc- 
 tion Committee, September 1899. See pp. 246 and 248 of our text, 
 for damage similarly caused at Holkham. 
 
 162. 227. Surveyors' Institution, Transactions, x. 40-47. The 
 agricultural value of some warps will be readily appreciated upon 
 examination of the subjoined analysis of two samples from Lincolnshire, 
 given by Mr. Smith- Woolley : 
 
 No. I. 
 
 Organic matters 6-927 
 
 Chloride of magnesium . . '105 
 
 Soluble salts chloride of sodium and potassium -939 
 
 of river water, Sulphate of magnesia . . . -176 
 
 Sulphate of soda. . . . -313 
 
 Carbonate of lime 8-177 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia -312 
 
 Sulphate of lime . . . . . . '104 
 
 Alkalies from decomposed silicates . . . -469 
 
 Lime . '677 
 
 Magnesia 2-604 
 
 Oxide of iron 5'5 2 
 
 Alumina 8-177 
 
 Oxide of manganese traces 
 
 Perphosphate of iron I -040 
 
 Silicic acid 9-062 
 
 Sand, undecomposed silicates, &c. . . . 55-866 
 
NOTES AND REFERENCES. 303 
 
 No. II. 
 
 Mud taken in front of Sluice on the Lincolnshire Coast. 
 
 (At 300 F. the solid matter in this sample was 66-94, the moisture 
 
 -o6.) 
 
 Organic matter, water of combination (containing 
 
 Nitrogen 'ii, equal to Ammonia -12) . . 3-96 
 
 Oxide of iron ....... 3-41 
 
 Alumina 3-75 
 
 Carbonate of lime 9-69 
 
 Magnesia 1-92 
 
 Potash and soda -58 
 
 Chloride of sodium -04 
 
 Phosphoric acid 1 2 
 
 Insoluble matter (chiefly fine sand and fine clay) . 76-53 
 
 100-00 
 
 163. 228. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xlvi. 67. 
 
 164. 230. Surveyors' Institution, Transactions, x. 40. From recent 
 information obligingly communicated by Mr. Smith-Woolley, it 
 appears that drainage has now so far lowered the surface as to render 
 a considerable area capable of being warped. 
 
 165. 230. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xlvi. 68, 69, 76. 
 
 166. 230. Surveyors' Institution, Transactions y x. 45. 
 
 167. 230. Ib. xv. 312. 
 
 168. 242. L.c. 93-107. Mr. D. Stevenson, in 1874, at p. 33 of 
 Reclamation and Protection of Agricultural Land (originally a Paper 
 read before the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland), says : 
 " The treatment of reclaimed marsh or slob lands in order to fit them 
 for the purpose contemplated by their enclosure, . . . has been very fully, 
 and 1 should think judiciously, treated by the late Mr. John Wiggins, 
 F.G.S., in his treatise on Embanking Lands from the Sea.' I there- 
 fore offer no apology for giving the following extracts from Mr. Wiggins' 
 book": which he proceeds to do at considerable length; a pretty 
 good proof that experience during the twenty-two years then elapsed 
 had not impaired the value of Mr. Wiggins's recommendations. 
 
 169. 244. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings^ 
 xxi. 464-465- 
 
 170- 245. Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, Transactions, 
 
304 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 vii. 106. Four samples of the soil reclaimed, analyzed by Professor 
 Sullivan, gave an average as follows : 
 
 Potash "083 
 
 Soda -285 
 
 Lime '22O 
 
 Magnesia ....... '319 
 
 Alumina 4'3 12 
 
 Peroxide of iron 2-194 
 
 Protoxide of iron I '53 I 
 
 Phosphoric acid *o8o 
 
 Sulphuric acid '420 
 
 Hydrochloric acid "033 
 
 Silica in combination, decomposable by 
 
 hydrochloric acid .... 9*062 
 Clay or silicates undecomposable by hydro- 
 chloric acid . . . . .28-021 
 
 Silicious sand 44 '694 
 
 Water not driven off at 212 and organic 
 
 matter rich in nitrogen . . . 7'8i$ 
 
 Carbonic acid and loss . . . . '931 
 
 lOO'OOO 
 
 171. 248. Royal Agricultural Society, Journal, 2nd. S., iii. 661- 
 662. 
 
 172. 250. J. Wiggins, I.e. 191-192. 
 
 173. 252. Ib. 184-186. 
 
 174. 253. Stevenson, Reclamation and Protection of Agricultural 
 Land, 45. 
 
 175. 254. Ib. 46. 
 
 176. 256. Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, 
 xlvi. 72, 69, 73 : Surveyors' Institution, Transactions, x. 48, 59 ; XT. 
 
 307, 317. 
 
 177. 258. W. H. Wheeler, The Fens of Lincolnshire, 2nd. ed. 
 418-420. 
 
 178. 260. From Returns made to Parliament, it appears that from 
 ist January, 1867, to 3ist December, 1891, grants of foreshore within the 
 United Kingdom were made, either by way of sale or by lease for a 
 term of years, by the Board of Trade to various individuals and corporate 
 bodies, to the number of nearly 600. But only a small percentage of 
 these grants would be made with a view to the reclamation of land as 
 dealt with in this volume ; the great majority being for the purpose of 
 facilitating works of shore preservation, such as groynes, sea-walls, and 
 
NOTES AND REFERENCES. 305 
 
 the like ; or for the construction of harbours, docks, landing-places, piers, 
 etc. ; or with a view to the protection of cliffs and the construction of 
 public promenades ; and in other cases for the laying of submarine 
 telegraph cables. 
 
 179. 260, 261. See Williams on Real Property, i;th ed., pp. 
 390-1, and the authorities there cited. 
 
 180. 263. L.c. 133-136. 
 
 181. 264. L.c. 136-140. 
 
 182. 267. L.c. 142. 
 
 183. 268. Per Blackburn, J., in Rfgina v. Lord Mayor of London, 
 L.R. 2 Q.B. 292. 
 
 184. 271. L.c. 147-167. 
 
 Note Supplemental to Chapter V. On 5th March a Paper was 
 read before the Society of Engineers by Mr. R. F. Grantham, 
 M. Inst. C.E., on The Closing of Breaches in Sea and River Em- 
 bankments, containing some particulars of personal experience in three 
 cases those of a tidal opening in Brading Harbour, and of breaches 
 at Northey Island in the Blackwater, and on the Swale at Grovehurst. 
 The method adopted at Brading was that of forming a skeleton dam 
 by driving piles, in two rows 15 feet apart. The piles were pitched 
 at intervals of 12 feet, their heads left 5 feet above low- water, with 
 timber ties securing the front piles to the back ones. A waling was 
 bolted on the landward side of the back row, and wales along both 
 sides of the front row ; and the space between the wales on the front 
 row was filled-in with sheet-piling, against which were thrown-in 
 sand-bags and chalk, forming slopes of about 2 to I on each side of 
 the dam. Piles, their tops 19 feet above low-water, were then driven 
 on the landward side of the inner front waling, strutted to the back 
 piles, planked, and backed with sand. The embankment was made up 
 to its intended height and the sea shut out. The bank thus raised 
 was, however, too low, and four months afterwards an unusually high 
 tide overflowed and wrecked it. The dam was restored, and ulti- 
 mately a bank 35 feet wide on top was permanently established. The 
 breaches at Northey and Grovehurst were caused by the storm and 
 high tide of 29th November 1897, and in each case occurred at a 
 sluice whether owing to the failure of the sluice itself, is not stated. 
 The repairs at Northey were begun in July 1898, by which time the 
 
 X 
 
306 RECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 damage had become serious. At Grovehurst, some attempts at piling 
 from the sides were made, and failed : the matter was ultimately put 
 into Mr. Grantham's hands, and work commenced seventeen months 
 after the disaster occurred. At Northey, and at Grovehurst, the 
 method adopted was that of forming an inset bank and sluices, and in 
 both cases ultimately proved successful: the bank at Grovehurst was 
 not carried high enough, and was several times destroyed before being 
 finally established. A noteworthy point mentioned in connexion with 
 the building of the inset banks is, that the rush of tidal water was 
 found not to cause any scouring of the surface of the marsh, the roots 
 of the grass appearing to hold the earth together so that the current 
 flowed over without abrading it. 
 
 The importance of height in a bank, of careful inspection and con- 
 stant attention to maintenance, of promptly taking in hand all needful 
 repairs, and of care in the foundation and construction of sluices, 
 pointed out in the present volume, are well illustrated by the examples 
 given in this interesting Paper. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 %* The figures in old- face type refer to the pages of the volume ; those 
 in heavy type to the notes so numbered (pp. 289-306). 
 
 Some of the sub-heads appear also as principal headings, under which 
 may be found further particulars respecting them. 
 
 ARDMORE : Groynes, 147. 
 
 BALLYTEIGUE AND KILMORE : Sluice-doors, 177. 
 
 BALL YVOI LR : Groyne, 148. 
 
 BANK : Ratio to area, 2-5. Wave action on bank, 21, 32-36. Loca- 
 tion, 27-36 ; in relation to drainage, 28-30. Line and direction, 
 3> 35- Salient and retiring angles, 30, 35. Materials, 36-46; 
 stone, 37; concrete, 37; gravel, 37; sand, 38; peat-moss, 43; 
 clay, 44. Core, 37, 38, 67, 68, 90, 92, 93. Form and dimensions of 
 bank, 46-69 ; Mr. Wiggins's rules for, 56-69. Height as to tides, 
 47-59> 64-66, 70. Slopes, 47-65, 69, 92, 1 17. Banks at Spurn Point, 
 47, Lough Foyle and Morecambe, 47, The Wash, 47, Holkham, 48, 
 Sunk Island, 48, Wexford, 48, Denmark, 49, Eider and Elbe, 50, 
 Zeeland, 50, Koegrass, 53, Bychan, 250. Foot and toe of bank, 
 50, 54, 70, 79, 94, no, 125. Cross-sections for various situations, 
 54. Construction, 71-119, 250, 251. Fascine-work, 72 ; as toe-pro- 
 tection, 79. Tidal openings, 84-89, 114-116. Foundation, 89, 95, 
 101 ; pecking-up ground for, 95. Muck ditch, 90. Precautions 
 in excavation near bank, 97-99. Junction with land at ends, in. 
 Closing, 111-119, 304. Facing, 119-131. Streams and Cradge- 
 banks, 132-140. Groynes and protective outworks, 140-158. 
 
 BANQUETTES : As protection against leakage and percolation, 91, 92. 
 
 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE : Where application to necessary, 261. 
 
 BOARD OF TRADE : Powers as to foreshores, 261. Procedure on 
 application for grant, 277. Forms of grant, 279, 283. 
 
 BRADING HARBOUR : Closure operations, 305. 
 
308 INDEX. 
 
 BREACHES : In bank, closing of, 214-222, 305, 306. 
 BRISTOL CHANNEL : Longitudinal protection to shore, 157. 
 BYCHAN : Dimensions and construction of bank, 251; cost, 251,252. 
 
 CLAY : Permanent facing to bank, 39, 40, 54, 63, 121, 127, 128 ; casing 
 or shell to sandy materials, 40, in, 120. Material for bank, 44. 
 Mixture with sand commended, 45 ; disapproved, 46. Muck ditch 
 and core, 90,91. Measurement by "floor," 101. Flood-flanking, 
 no, 99. Foot of bank, no. Training- walls, 136. 
 
 CLOSING: Difficulties, 3, 86, 104, 113, 115. Horizontal mode, 85, 
 104, 112, 116-119, 215. Early mode, from the side, in. Closure- 
 bank, temporary slopes, 117. Supply of material, 117. Interrup- 
 tion in the work of closing, 119. Breaches, 214-222, 305. 
 
 COAL-CONSUMPTION : Of various drainage-engines, 204. 
 
 COMMONS, AND RIGHTS OF COMMON : Statutory requirements 
 concerning, 261, 262. Powers of District Councils, 262. 
 
 CONCRETE : Substitute for stone, 37. Core in bank, 93. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION : Casing or shell, 40, in, 120, 127. Fascine- work, 
 71-79, 83, 89, 112, 122, 135, 139, 167. Mattresses, 72-78, 83, 86, 
 90, 112. Protection of bank during construction, 78-82, 105, ill ; 
 krammat, 80 ; various, 80, 82. Construction below low- water, 83, 
 86, 116 ; above low-water, 84, 89 ; Dutch practice, 101 ; change in 
 English practice, 103. Tidal openings, 84, 88, 89, 116, 119. Con- 
 struction in sections, 102 ; continuous, 103, 105, 106. Earthwork, 
 102-111,250. Closing, 111-119. Permanent facing, 119-131. 
 
 CORE IN BANK, 37, 90, 92, 93 ; pise, 38, 67, 68. 
 
 CRADGE-BANKS, 6, 140. For repair of breaches, 217, 221, 306. 
 
 CRADLE. See MATTRESS. 
 
 CREEKS: Indications of springs, 18. As closure-places, 86,102, 114. 
 Pilling up for bank, 86-88, 102. 
 
 CULTIVATION, 232-248. Division into fields, 233, 245, 254. Fresh- 
 ening, 233. Surface treatment, 236, 239, 246, 247. Cropping, 
 236, 238, 239, 246, 248, 253, 254. Manuring, 237, 244, 253. 
 Irrigation, 241. Damage by sea inundation, 246, 248, 161. 
 
 DEE RIVER : Bit-wise enclosure, 6. Fertility of sand, 12. 
 
 DKLPH, 171, 142. Distance from bank, 171 ; minimum, 173. 
 
 DENGIE FLATS : Area and bank, 4. Tidal openings during construc- 
 tion, 89, 105. 
 
 DENMARK: Height of seat of bank in relation to tide-levels, 14. 
 Height and slopes of bank, 49. Fascine-work, 79. Muck 
 ditch, 91. Precautions in excavating near bank, 98. Stone 
 facing of slopes, 127; apprehended risk in, 109. 
 
INDEX. 309 
 
 DRAINAGE, 159-206, 254. By gravitation, 159. Rainfall to be pro- 
 vided-for, 160. Marsh fence, 160, 170, 235. Springs within 
 intake, their treatment, 16 1. Drains, 162-168, 247, 254. System 
 of drainage, design for, 168. Sluices, 173-187, 145. Syphons, 187. 
 Power-drainage, 187-206 ; wind and steam as motive powers, 188. 
 Pumps, 189-203. Steam-engines, 203-204. Pumping-stations, 
 206, 151. 
 
 DRAINS: Depth for, 162, 245; in arable land, 163. Outfall with 
 reference to, 164. Section and fall, 165 ; in various soils, 167. 
 Slopes for sides, and dimensions, 166-169,227. Delph, 171-173, 
 142. Engine-drains, 204-206. Warping-drains, 227. Setting- 
 out levels for drains, 247. Silting-up of drain-pipes in sandy soils, 
 247, 254 ; how prevented, 254. 
 
 DUNGARVAN : Groynes, 148, 150. 
 
 DYMCHURCH : Effect of waves in a gale, 36. Slope of shingle, 47. 
 
 EARTHWORK, loo-ni. Waste and loss, 23, 104, 113. Settlement, 
 48, 76, 98, 102, 104, 120, 209, 89. Measurement by "floor," 
 101. Bringing to bank, 102, 107, 117, 250. Consolidation by 
 ramming, 102, 107, 109, 118; proportion of tampers to shovellers, 
 102 ; consolidation by transport of materials, 102, 107-109. 
 
 EIDER AND ELBE : Slopes of banks, 50. 
 
 ENGINE-DRAINS : As channels and reservoirs, 205. 
 
 ESSEX : Area and bank, 4. Location of banks with reference to tide- 
 levels, 15. Fascine- work, 122. Grassing of slopes, 129. Delph, 
 172. Cost of maintenance of banks, 208. 
 
 ESTIMATES AND PRICES : Caution as to figures, 7. Arbitrary esti- 
 mates of cost of works are illusory, 8. Earthwork quantities, 23. 
 
 FACING OF BANK :- Clay, 39, 40, 54, 63, 121, 127, 128. Pitching with 
 stone, 39, 47, 48, 50, 54, 63, 126, 128, 251 ; minimum thickness, 
 126, 128 ; rubble, 82. Turfing or Sodding, 39, 41, 48, 102, 120, 
 121, 251. Grass, 52, 69, 129-131 ; steepest slope for, 53, 130. 
 Timber, 56, 123; wharfing, 124; duration and risks, 125. Fascine- 
 work, 78, 79, 122. Krammat, 80-82. Maram, 131, 115. 
 
 FASCINE-WORK, 71. Dimensions and cost of fascines, 72, 122, 136, 
 71; laying, 78, 79, 89, 112, 135, 138, 167. Rise-heading, 79. 
 Arming, 79. Foot- protection, 79, 95. Duration, 83, 122, 123, 
 139. Importance of, various opinions, 214. 
 
 FEN DISTRICTS : Fascine- work, 72. Value and rent of land, 255, 
 256 ; diminution of, 256-258. See LINCOLNSHIRE. 
 
 FOLKESTONE : Natural slope of sand on shore, 39. 
 
 FORELAND : <( Outstrays " in Humber estuary, 16. Definition of 
 
310 INDEX. 
 
 foreland, 22. Value as protection to bank, 25, 140. Relation to 
 line of bank, 35 ; to slopes of bank, 49. Maintenance, 140, 207, 
 228. 
 
 FORESHORE: Defined, 22. Ground composing it, 22, 30. Founda- 
 tion for bank, 22. Permeability, 23, 90. Ownership, 260. Grants 
 of, how obtained, 261, 277. 
 
 FRANCE: Purnping-engines, 203, 204. 
 
 FRONTAGERS : Rights of, 263, 274. Assessment of compensation to, 
 264. Negotiations with, 267. 
 
 GRANTS OF FORESHORE : How obtained from Board of Trade, 277. 
 Restrictions on, 277. Terms of, how arrived at, 278. Forms of 
 grant : in fee, 279 ; on lease, 283. 
 
 GROVEHURST : Breach and repairs, 306. 
 
 GROYNES, 140-157. In Holland, 94, 141, Spurn Point, 143, Withern- 
 sea, 144, Hornsea, 145, Ardmore, 147, Dungarvan, 148, Ballyvoile, 
 148, Tramore, 149. Angle with shore, 94, 141, 144, 148, 150, 154, 
 156. Construction and dimensions, 142-149, 154, 156; of sea- 
 weed and sand, 146. General conclusions respecting, 155. 
 
 HEIGHT: With reference to tides and waves, of Site, 14-16, 28-30; 
 
 of Bank, 47-59, 64-66, 70; of Tidal openings, 85, 114-116. 
 HERNE BAY : Timber boxing (Reculver), 125. Wharfing of parade, 
 
 126. 
 HIGHWAYS : Interference with, 262. Diversion of, 262. Powers of 
 
 District Councils, 262. 
 HOLKHAM : Bank, materials, 39 ; slopes, 48. Soil and Cultivation, 
 
 237. 
 
 HOLLAND: Linings of sand in banks, 40. Dimensions and slopes of 
 banks, 50-54. Fascine-work, 72-78. Banquettes against percola- 
 tion, 91. Sheet-piling against percolation, 93. Groynes, 94, 141. 
 Seating of bank, 95. Precautions in excavating, 98. -Mode of 
 constructing bank, 101, Horizontal closure, 1 04 v historical sketch 
 of, 112. Timber protection to bank, 123, 124 Duration of, 125. 
 Longitudinal protection, 95, 156. Delph, 171, 173. Archimedean 
 pumps, 192. Scoop wheels, 196, 197. Centrifugal pumps, 198.. 
 Pumping- engines, 203, 204. Pasturing on bank, 210. v Repairs to 
 bank, 212. 
 
 HOLSTEIN : Area of intakes, 2. Banks, material, 45 ; dimensions 
 and slopes, 50; breaches, how caused, 50, 211. Delph, 173. 
 
 HORNSEA: Groynes, 145. 
 
 HUMBER RIVER : Area of land reclaimed, 2. " Outstrays " on fore- 
 land, 16. Warping, 230, 231. Values and rents, 255. See 
 SUNK ISLAND. 
 
INDEX. 3 1 1 
 
 INSET BANK. See CRADGE-BANK. 
 
 INTAKE. See RECLAMATIONS. 
 
 ITALY: Centrifugal pumps, 199. Pumping-engines, 203, 204. 
 
 KENT: Values and rents, 255. 
 KRAMMAT, 80. Substitutes for, 82. 
 
 LINCOLNSHIRE : Area of reclaimed land in Fens, 2. Ratio of area 
 to bank, 4. Calculation of rainfall for pumping, 160, 161. Depth 
 of water below surface of soil, 162. Cost of maintenance of bank, 
 208. 
 
 LONGITUDINAL PROTECTION, 94, 95, 156-158. 
 
 LOUGH FOYLE : Bank, material and facing, 39 ; slopes, 47, 250 ; 
 construction, 250 cost, 253. Draining of intake, 253. 
 
 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR : Foreland, 140, 207. Bank, cost of 
 maintenance in various places, 208. Injuries and remedies, 208- 
 222, 161, 305. Topping, 209; in emergency, 211. Siding, 209. 
 Pasturing on bank, 130, 208, 210. Growth of trees injurious, 210. 
 Closing of breaches, 214-222, 305. Restoration of old sea- 
 banks, 222. 
 
 MARSH : Manner of growth and extension, 227-229. 
 
 MATERIALS : Stone, 37; Concrete, 37; Gravel, 37, 42; Sand, 38 ; 
 Peat-moss, 43; Clay, 44. Procured on the spot, 96-100; pre- 
 cautions in excavating for, 97-99. Procured elsewhere, 99. In- 
 ferior not always to be rejected, 99. Bringing to bank, 107-109, 
 117. For permanent facing, 121-131. 
 
 MATTRESSES : Construction, 72-75. Sinking and placing, 75, 76, 
 83, 87-89, 112. Duration, 77. Cost, 77, 74. United States, 
 77, 74. Filling gaps and breaches, 215. In aprons, 217. 
 
 MIDDLE LEVEL: Breach and closing, 218-220. 
 
 MORECAMBE BAY : Fertility of sand, 12. Bank, material and fac- 
 ing, 39; slopes, 47. Draining of intake, 254. Crops, 254. 
 
 MUCK DITCH, 90, 91. 
 
 NENE RIVER : Bit-wise enclosure, 6. 
 NORTH EY ISLAND : Breach and repairs, 305. 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY POWERS : Where advisable, 263. Steps for ob- 
 taining, 269. Course of procedure, 270. Suggestions by Mr. 
 Wiggins as to powers to be sought, 274-277. 
 
 PASTURING ON BANK, 130, 208, 210. 
 
 PEAT-MOSS : Material for bank, 43 ; durability, 44. 
 
312 INDEX. 
 
 PERCOLATION : Under bank, 23-25, 42, 92, 213. Through bank, 39, 
 92, 93. Preventive measures, 37-39, 43, 68, 90-93. 
 
 PERMANENT PROTECTION. See FACING. 
 
 PRIVATE ACT. See PARLIAMENTARY POWERS. 
 
 PUMPING-ENGINES : Types of, 203. Coal consumption, 204. Ad- 
 vantage of continuous running, 205 . 
 
 PUMPING-STATIONS : Cost, 2O6, 151. 
 
 PUMPS: Bucket or piston pump, 189; efficiency, 189. Archimedean 
 or screw pump, 189; efficiency, 192. Scoop wheel, 192; effi- 
 ciency, 197. Centrifugal pumps, 198 ; sizes, how described, 202 ; 
 efficiency, 202. 
 
 RAINFALL : Relation to outflow, 19. Daily average, provision to be 
 made for, 21, 160, 149. Table for discharge of, 145; of multi- 
 pliers for, 149. 
 
 RATHDOWNEY : Amount of water to be pumped, 161. 
 
 RECLAMATIONS : United Kingdom, no record of area, 2. Large or 
 small area preferable? 2. Bit-wise enclosure, 2, 6, 139. Cost, 3, 
 251,253; tabular statement, 4. Estimates not given, and why, 
 7-8. Examples, 249-255 ; caution respecting, 249. 
 
 RIGHTS OF WAY: Interference with, 262-271. Powers of District 
 Councils, 262. 
 
 SAND : Fertility, in Schleswig, 12 ; on Dee River, 12 ; at More- 
 cambe Bay, 12. Material for bank, 38, 83 ; objections to, 40. 
 Slope on a beach, 39. Groyne of sand and sea-weed, 147. 
 
 SCHLESWIG: Fertility of sand, 12. Percolation through banks, 39. 
 Banks, material, 45 ; dimensions and slopes, 50 ; breaches, how 
 caused, 50, 211. Sods on banks, 121. Delph, 173. 
 
 SEA- WEED : As temporary protection, 82. Groyne of, 146. 
 
 SHINGLE : Slope of, on a beach, 47. 
 
 SITE, 9-26. Points for consideration, 10. Soil, 10-14. Height with 
 reference to tide-levels, 14-16, 28-30. Warping facilities, 17. 
 Slope &c. of ground, 17. Intersection by streams &c., 17-21. 
 Tidal creeks, 18. Rainfall and outflow, 19. Shelter, 2 1. Fore- 
 shore and foreland, 22-26. 
 
 SLOPES : Of ground in relation to site, 17. Of sand on a beach, 39 ; 
 of shingle, 47. Sea-slope of bank, 47-65, 92 ; varying according to 
 exposure, 49; Caland's rule for, 52; may be steeper with cess 
 than without, 53; flatter where pitched, 54; steeper, 127. Land- 
 slope, 48-50, 53, 54, 69. Wave-action on slopes, 50, 52, 56, 62-65, 
 70, 123. Slopes of closure-bank may first be put in steeper than 
 finished work, 117. Batter of training-walls, 135, 138; of sides 
 of drains, 166, 169. 
 
INDEX. 313 
 
 SLUICES : Height of sill with reference to tide-levels, 28-30, 163-165, 
 183. To be built ready for bank, 89. Tide-table for opening and 
 shutting of sluices, 145. Description of sluices, 170, 173-182 ; foun- 
 dations, 1/8. Discharge into main drains, 178 ; on coast, 183 ; on 
 a river, 183. Flow of water through, 184-186, 145. Examples 
 and cost, 186-187. Sluices for warping, 224. 
 
 SOILS : Misleading appearance of, 9, 13. Classification and analysis, 
 10-14, 15, 162, 170. Injurious matter in, n. Sandy, in Schles- 
 wig and at Dee River and Morecambe Bay, 12. " Outstrays " 
 in Humber estuary, 16. Various kinds composing a foreshore, 
 22-30. 
 
 SPURN POINT : Dimensions and slope of banks, 47. Groynes, 143. 
 
 STONE: Rubble as material for bank, 37, 128; as protection to slopes 
 and footing, 82, 83. Pitching on slopes &c., 39, 47, 48, 50, 54, 
 63, 126-128, 109. 
 
 STREAMS AND RIVERS : Intersection of intake by, 17, 132. Detritus 
 brought down by, 19, 226, 271-273. Floods, 21, 133. Treatment, 
 by catch water-drains, 132, 1 60; by training-walls, 132-139. 
 
 SUNK ISLAND : Area and bank, 4. "Outstrays" on foreland, 16. 
 Materials and slopes of banks, 48. Excavation for materials, 97. 
 Mode of constructing bank, 102. Cultivation, 243. 
 
 TAY AND FORTH : Level of intakes when enclosed, 16. 
 
 THORNE WASTE : Warping, 221, 164. 
 
 TIDAL OPENINGS: Width required, 84, 89. Situation, 85, 114-116. 
 Should be at various levels, 85-88, 114-116. Aprons, and pro- 
 tection of sides, 88, 89, 216, 81. Caution as to closing, 119. 
 
 TIDAL RIVERS, SOIL OF : Ownership, 260. 
 
 TIDE-TABLE : For sluices, 145. 
 
 TIMBER: Protection to bank, 94, 124, 125. Duration, 125. 
 
 TRAINING-WALLS: Construction, 133-136, 138. Cost, 136, 118. 
 
 TREES : On bank, prejudicial, 210. 
 
 UNITED STATES : Mattfessing, 77. Muck ditch, 90, 91. Cradge- 
 bank against leakage, 92. Wind as motive power, 188. American 
 type of windmill, 188. 
 
 VALUES AND RENTS, 253, 255-256. Diminution in recent years, 
 256-258 ; causes, 257. 
 
 WARPING, 17, 223-231. River-warping, 223; sluices, 224; main 
 drain, 227. Sea-warping, 227. Growth of marshes, 227 ; how to 
 promote, 228. Warping of land above high-water level, 229. 
 Y 
 
3H INDEX. 
 
 Cost of warping, 226, 231. Time required, 230. Analysis of 
 
 warps, 162. 
 WASH (THE) : Banks, material and facing, 40 ; slopes, 47. Sluices, 
 
 1 86. 
 WAVES .-Action on bank, 21, 32-36, 67, 122 ; on slopes, 50, 52, 56, 
 
 62-65, 7> 123. Length, period, and velocity, table of, 70. 
 WEXFORD : Area and bank, 4. Failure of clay and sand bank, 46. 
 
 Dimensions and slopes of banks, 48. Amount of water to be 
 
 pumped, 161. Depth of water below surface of soil, 162, 245. 
 
 Analysis of soil, 170. Cultivation, 244. 
 WINDMILLS: Wind as a motive power, compared with steam, 187-189. 
 
 American type of windmill, 188. 
 WITHAM RIVER : Training-wall construction, 136. 
 WITHERNSEA : Groynes, 144. 
 
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 Consulting Engineer to the Tokyo Water-works. Second Edition, Revised and 
 Extended. With numerous Plates and Illustrations. 
 
 "The chapter upon filtration of water is very complete, and the details of construction well illus- 
 trated. . . . The work should be specially valuable to civil engineers engaged in work in Japan, 
 but the interest is by no means confined to that locality." Engineer. 
 
 'Royal 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. 
 
 RIVER BARS. The Causes of their Formation, and their Treatment 
 by "Induced Tidal Scour;" with a Description of the Successful Reduction by 
 this Method of the Bar at Dublin. By I. J . MANN, Assist. Eng. to the Dublin 
 Port and Docks Board. 
 
 " We recommend all interested in harbour works and, indeed, those concerned in the improvements 
 of rivers generally to read Mr. Mann's interesting work on the treatment of river bars." Engineer. 
 
 Crown 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF LANDS, TOWNS AND BUILDINGS. 
 
 By G. D. DEMPSEY, C.E. Revised, with large Additions on RECBNT PRACTICE IN 
 DRAINAGE ENGINEERING. By D. KINNBAR CLARK, M. Inst. C.E., Author of 
 " Tramways : their Construction and Working." 
 
 " The new matter added to Mr. Dempsey's excellent work js characterised by the comprehensive 
 grasp and accuracy of detail for which the name of Mr. D. K. Clark Is a sufficient voucher." Athenaum. 
 
 Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 PUMPS AND PUMPING. A Handbook for Pump Users. Being 
 Notes on Selection, Construction, and Management. By M. Powis BALE, 
 M.l.M.E. Third Edition. Revised. 
 
 " The matter is set forth as concisely as possible. In fact, condensation rather than diffuseness has 
 been the author's aim throughout; yet he does not seem to have omitted anything likely to be of use." 
 Journal of Gas Lighting. 
 
 8vo, 283. buckram. 
 
 TRAMWAYS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND 
 
 WORKING. Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an 
 exhaustive Analysis of the Various Modes of Traction, including' Horse Power, 
 Steam, Cable Traction, Electric Traction, &c., ; a Description of the Varieties of 
 Rolling Stock ; and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses. New Edition, 
 Thoroughly Revised. By D. KINNEAR CLARK, M. Inst. C.E. 
 
 " The new volume is one which will rank, among tramway engineers and those interested in tramway 
 working, with the author's world-famed book on railway machinery." The Engineer, 
 
 Medium 8vo, rss. cloth. 
 
 LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM, 
 
 INDIA, AND THE COLONIES. A Practical Handbook setting forth the 
 Principles on which Light Railways should be Constructed, Worked, and 
 Financed ; and detailing the Cost of Construction, Equipment, Revenue and 
 Working Expenses of Local Railways already established in the above-mentioned 
 countries, and in Belgium, France, Switzerland, &c. By J. C. MACKAY, F.G.S., 
 A.M Inst. C.E. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams. 
 " Mr. Mackay's volume is clearly and concisely written, admirably arranged, and freely illustrated. 
 
 The book is exactly what has been long wanted. We recommend it to all interested in the subject. It 
 
 is sure to have a wide sale." Railway News. 
 
 London : CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 7, Stationers' Hall Court, E.G. 
 
CROSBY LOCK WOOD AND SON'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 In the press. Demy 8vo. Price about IDS. 6d. net. 
 
 SURVEYING WITH THE TACHEO METER. A prac- 
 
 tical Manual for the use of Civil and Military Engineers and Surveyors. Including 
 two Series of Tables specially computed for the Reduction of Readings from 
 Sexagesimal and from Centesimal Degrees. By NEIL KENNEDY, M. Inst. C.E. 
 With Diagrams and Plates. 
 
 Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. 
 
 PRACTICAL SURVEYING. A Text-Book for Students pre- 
 paring for Examinations or for Survey-work in the Colonies. By GEORGE \V. 
 USILL, A.M.I. C.E. With 4 Plates and about 350 Illustrations. Sixth Edition, 
 including Tables of Natural Sines, Tangents, Secants, &c. 
 
 " The best forms of instruments are described as to their construction, uses, and modes of employ- 
 ment, and there are innumerable hints on work and equipment which the student in his inexperience 
 will find most serviceable." Engineer. 
 
 Imperial 8vo, 423. cloth. 
 PRACTICAL TUNNELLING. Explaining in detail Setting-out 
 
 the Works, Shaft-sinking, and Heading-driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling 
 underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering and the Construction of the Brickwork 
 of Tunnels, with the amount of Labour required for, and the Cost of, the various 
 portions of the work. By FREDERICK W. SIMMS, M. Inst. C.E. Fourth Edition, 
 Revised and Further Extended, including the most recent (1895) Examples of 
 Sub-aqueous and other Tunnels, by D. KINNEAR CLARK, M. Inst. C.E. With 34 
 Folding Plates and other Illustrations. 
 
 "The present (1896) edition has been brought right up to date, and is thus rendered a work to which 
 civil engineers generally should have ready access, and which engineers who have construction work 
 can hardly afford to be without, but which to the younger members of the profession is invaluable, as 
 from its pages they can learn the state to which the science of tunnelling has attained." Rail-way News. 
 
 336 pages. Demy 8vo, cloth, 8s. net. 
 
 INWOOD'S TABLES FOR PURCHASING ESTATES 
 
 AND FOR THE VALUATION OF PROPERTIES. Including Advowsons, 
 Assurance Policies, Copyholds, Deferred Annuities, Freeholds, Ground Rents, 
 Immediate Annuities, Leaseholds, Life Interests, Mortgages, Perpetuities, Re- 
 newals of Leases, Reversions, Sinking Funds, &c. 25th Edition, Revised and 
 Extended by WILLIAM SCHOOLING, F.R.A.S., with LOGARITHMS OF NATURAL 
 NUMBERS and THOMAN'S LOGARITHMIC INTKREST and Annuity Tables. 
 " Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation cases, 
 
 as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will find the present edition of eminent 
 
 service." Engineering. 
 
 Crown 8vo, 55. cloth. 
 
 THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE. Being a Brief Account 
 
 ot the Scientific Principles of Sewage Purification, and their Practical Application. 
 
 By SIDNEY BARWISE, M.D. (Lond.), M.R.C.S., D.P H. (Camb.), Fellow of the 
 
 Sanitary Institute, Medical Officer of Health to the Derbyshire County Council. 
 
 " ' What process shall we adopt to purify our sewage?" This question has rarely been treated from 
 so many points of view in one book. This volume teems with practical hints, which show the intimate 
 knowledge the author has of his subject.'' The Engineer. 
 
 Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. 
 WATER AND ITS PURIFICATION. A Handbook for the 
 
 Use of Local Authorities, Sanitary Officers, and others interested in Water 
 Supply. By S. RIDEAL, D.Sc. Lond., F.I.C. With numerous Illustrations. 
 " Dr. Rideal's book is both interesting and accurate, and contains a most useful ris-umt of the 
 latest knowledge upon the subject of which it treats. It ought to be of great service to all who are 
 connected with the supply of water for domestic or manufacturing purposes." The Engineer. 
 
 Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. 
 
 POWER TRANSMITTED BY ELECTRICITY AND 
 
 APPLIED BY THK ELECTRIC MOTOR, INCLUDING ELECTRIC 
 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. By P. ATKINSON, A.M., Ph.D. With 96 
 Illustrations. 
 
 London : CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 7, Stationers' Hall Court, E.G. 
 
7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LONDON, E.C. 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S 
 Catalogue 0f 
 
 Scientific, Technical and 
 Industrial Books. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING . 1 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING .... 9 
 
 MARINE ENGINEERING, &c. . 17 
 
 MINING & METALLURGY ... 19 
 
 ELECTRICITY 23 
 
 ARCHITECTURE & BUILDING . 25 
 
 SANITATION & WATER SUPPLY 27 
 
 CARPENTRY & TIMBER . . 28 
 
 PAGE 
 
 DECORATIVE ARTS 80 
 
 NATURAL SCIENCE 82 
 
 CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES . 84 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 86 
 
 COMMERCE. TABLES. Ac. . . 41 
 
 AGRICULTURE & GARDENING- 48 
 
 AUCTIONEERING. VALUING. Ac. 46 
 
 LAW & MISCELLANEOUS. . . 47 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, &c. 
 
 THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. 
 
 Comprising Tables, Formulae, Rules, and Data : A Handy Book of Reference 
 for Daily Use in Engineering Practice. By D. KINNEAR CLARK, M. Inst. C.E., 
 Third Edition, Revised. Small 8vo, 700 pp., bound in flexible Leather Cover, 
 rounded corners ............ 6/O 
 
 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS: MATHEMATICAL TABLES. MEASUREMENT OF SUR- 
 FACES AND SOLIDS. ENGLISH AND FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. MONEYS. 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WEIGHT, AND VOLUME. MANUFACTURED METALS. STEEL PIPES. 
 BOLTS AND NUTS. SUNDRY ARTICLES IN WROUGHT AND CAST IRON, COPPER, 
 BRASS, LEAD, TIN, ZINC. STRENGTH OF TIMBER. STRENGTH OF CAST IRON. 
 STRENGTH OF WROUGHT IRON. STRENGTH OF STEEL. TENSILE STRENGTH OF 
 COPPER, LEAD, &c. RESISTANCE OF STONES AND OTHER BUILDING MATERIALS. 
 RIVETED JOINTS IN BOILER PLATES. BOILER SHELLS. WIRE ROPES AND HEMP 
 ROPES. CHAINS AND CHAIN CABLES. FRAMING. HARDNESS OF METALS, ALLOYS, AND 
 STONES. LABOUR OF ANIMALS. MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES. GRAVITY AND FALL OF 
 
 BODIES. ACCELERATING AND RETARDING FORCES. MILL GEARING, SHAFTING, &C. 
 
 TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. HEAT. COMBUSTION.- FUELS. WARMING, VENTI- 
 LATION, COOKING STOVES. STEAM. STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS. RAILWAYS. 
 TRAMWAYS. STEAM SHIPS. PUMPING STEAM ENGINES AND PUMPS. COAL GAS, GAS 
 ENGINES, &c. AIR IN MOTION. COMPRESSED AIR. HOT AIR ENGINES. WATER 
 POWER. SPEED OF CUTTING TOOLS. COLOURS. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. 
 
 " Mr. Clark manifests what is an innate perception of what is likely to be useful in a pocket- 
 book, and he is really unrivalled in the art of condensation. It is very difficult to hit upon any 
 mechanical engineering subject concerning which this work supplies no information, and the 
 excellent index at the end adds to its utility. In one word, it is an exceedingly handy and efficient 
 tool, possessed of which the engineer wiu be saved many a wearisome calculation, or yet more 
 wearisome hunt through various text-books and treatises, and, as such, we can heartily recommend 
 it to our readers." The Engineer. 
 
 " It would be found difficult to compress more matter within a similar compass, or produce a 
 book of 650 pages which should be more compact or convenient for pocket reference. . . . Will 
 bs appreciated Dy mechanical engineers of all classes." Practical Engineer. 
 
2 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 MR. MUTTON'S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS. 
 
 THE WORKS' MANAGER'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 Comprising Modern Rules, Tables, and Data. For Engineers, Millwrights, 
 and Boiler Makers ; Tool Makers, Machinists, and Metal Workers ; Iron and 
 Brass Founders, &c. By W. S. HUTTON, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, 
 Author of "The Practical Engineer's Handbook." Fifth Edition, carefully 
 Revised, with Additions. In One handsome Volume, medium 8vo, strongly 
 bound 15/0 
 
 1HF"~ The A uthor having compiled Rules and Data for his own use in a great 
 variety of modern engineering work, and having found his notes extremely useful, 
 decided to publish them revised to date believing that a practical work, suited to 
 the DAILY REQUIREMENTS OF MODERN ENGINEERS, would be favourably received. 
 
 "Of this edition we may repeat the appreciative remarks we made upon the first and third. 
 Since the appearance of the latter very considerable modifications have been made, although the 
 total number of pages remains almost the same. It is a very useful collection of rules, tables, and 
 workshop and drawing office data." The Engineer, May ip, 1895. 
 
 " The author treats every subject from the point of view of one who has collected workshop 
 notes for application in workshop practice, rather than from the theoretical or literary aspect. The 
 volume contains a great deal of that kind of information which is gained only by practical experience, 
 and is seldom written in books." The Engineer, June 5, 1883. 
 
 " The volume is an exceedingly useful one, brimful with engineer's notes, memoranda, and 
 rules, and well worthy of being on every mechanical engineer's bookshelf." Mechanical World. 
 
 " The information is precisely that likely to be required in practice. . . . The work forms 
 a desirable addition to the library not only of the works' manager, but of any one connected with 
 
 general engineering." Mining Journal. 
 " Brimful of useful info 
 
 information, stated in a concise form, Mr. Hutton's books have met a 
 pressing want among engineers. The book must prove extremely useful to every practical man 
 possessing a copy." Practical Engineer. 
 
 THE PRACTICAL ENGINEER'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 Comprising a Treatise on Modern Engines and Boilers, Marine, Locomotive, 
 and Stationary. And containing a large collection of Rules and Practical 
 Data relating to Recent Practice in Designing and Constructing all kinds of 
 Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering work. The whole constituting a com- 
 prehensive Key to the Board of Trade and other Examinations for Certificates 
 of Competency in Modern Mechanical Engineering. By WALTER S. HUTTON, 
 Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of " The Works' Manager's Handbook 
 for Engineers," &c. With upwards of 370 Illustrations. Fifth Edition, 
 Revised with Additions. Medium 8vo, nearly 500 pp., strongly bound. 
 
 [Just Published. 1 8/O 
 
 B^p- This Work is designed as a companion to the Author's "WORKS' 
 MANAGER'S HANDBOOK." It possesses many new and original features, and con- 
 tains, like its predecessor, a quantity of matter not originally intended for publication, 
 but collected by the Author for his own use in the construction of a great variety of 
 MODERN ENGINEERING WORK. 
 
 The information is given in a condensed and concise form, and is illustrated by 
 upwards of 370 Woodcuts ; and comprises a quantity of tabulated matter of great 
 value to all engaged in designing, constructing, or estimating for ENGINES, BOILERS, 
 and OTHER ENGINEERING WORK. 
 
 "We have kept it at hand for several weeks, referring to it as occasion arose, and we have not 
 on a single occasion consulted its pages without finding the information of which we were in quest. 
 
 " A thoroughly good practical handbook, which no engineer can go through without learning 
 something that will be of service to him." Marine Engineer. 
 
 " An excellent book of reference for engineers, and a valuable text-book for students of 
 engineering. "Scotsman. 
 
 "This valuable manual embodies the results and experience of the leading authorities on 
 mechanical engineering." Building News. 
 
 " The author has collected together a surprising quantity of rules and practical data, and has 
 shown much judgment in the selections he has made. . . . There is no doubt that this book is 
 one of the most useful of its kind published, and will be a very popular compendium." Engineer. 
 
 " A mass of information set down in simple language, and in such a form that it can be easily 
 referred to at any time. The matter is uniformly good and well chosen, and is greatly elucidated 
 by the illustrations. The book will find its way on to most engineers' shelves, where it will rank as 
 one of the most useful books of reference." Practical Engineer. ... 
 
 " Full of useful information, and should be found on the office shelf of all practical engineers. 
 English Mechanic 
 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, 
 
 MR. MUTTON'S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS-"'*"""*. 
 
 STEAM BOILER CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 A Practical Handbook for Engineers, Boiler-Makers, and Steam Users. 
 
 Containing a large Collection of Rules and Data relating to Recent Practice 
 
 in the Design, Construction, and Working of all Kinds of Stationary, Loco- 
 
 motive, and Marine Steam-Boilers. By WALTER S. HUTTON, Civil and 
 
 Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook," "The 
 
 Practical Engineer's Handbook," &c. With upwards of 500 Illustrations. 
 
 Third Edition. Revised and much Enlarged, medium 8vo, cloth . . "J 8 O 
 
 JB^- THIS WORK is issued in continuation of the Series of Handbooks written 
 
 by the Author, viz. : "THE WORKS' MANAGER'S HANDBOOK "and "THE PRACTICAL 
 
 ENGINEER'S HANDBOOK," which are so highly appreciated by engineers for the 
 
 practical nature of their information; and is consequently written in the same style 
 
 as those works. 
 
 The Author believes that the concentration, in a convenient form for easy 
 reference, of such a large amount of thoroughly practical information on Steam- 
 Boilers, will be of considerable service to those for whom it is intended, and he trusts 
 the book may be deemed worthy of as favourable a reception as has been accorded to 
 its predecessors. 
 
 " One of the best, if not the best, books on boilers that has ever been published. The infor- 
 mation is of the right kind, in a simple and accessible form. So far as generation is concerned, this 
 is, undoubtedly, the standard book on steam practice." Electrical Review. 
 
 " Every detail, both in boiler design and management, is clearly laid before the reader. The 
 yolume shows that boiler construction has been reduced to the condition of one of the most exact 
 sciences ; and such a book is of the utmost value to they?w de siecle Engineer and Works Manager." 
 Marine Engineer. 
 
 " There has long been room for a modern handbook on steam boilers ; there is not that room 
 now, because Mr. Huttpn has filled it. It is a thoroughly practical book for those who are occupied 
 in the construction, design, selection, or use of boilers." Engineer. 
 
 " The book is of so important and comprehensive a character that it must find its way into the 
 libraries of every one interested in boiler using or boiler manufacture if they wish to be thoroughly 
 informed. We strongly recommend the book for the intrinsic value of its contents." Machinery 
 Market. 
 
 PRACTICAL MECHANICS' WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 Comprising a great variety of the most useful Rules and Formulae in Mechanical 
 
 Science, with numerous Tables of Practical Data and Calculated Results for 
 
 Facilitating Mechanical Operations. By WILLIAM TEMPLETON, Author of 
 
 " The Engineer's Practical Assistant," &c., &c. Seventeenth Edition, Revised, 
 
 Modernised, and considerably Enlarged by WALTER S. HUTTON, C.E., Author 
 
 of "The Works' Manager's Handbook," "The Practical Engineer's Hand- 
 
 book," &c. Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with 8 Plates and upwards of 250 Illus- 
 
 trative Diagrams, strongly bound for workshop or pocket wear and tear . 6/O 
 
 " In its modernised form Hutton's ' Templeton ' should have a wide sale, for it contains much 
 
 valuable information which the mechanic will often find of use, and not a few tables and notes which 
 
 he might look for in vain in other works. This modernised edition will be appreciated by all who 
 
 have learned to value the original editions of 'Templeton.'" English Mechanic. 
 
 " It has met with great success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are 
 a great many men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little book." Building 
 
 This familiar text-bookwell known to all mechanics and engineers is of essential service 
 
 a grea 
 
 to the every-day requirements of engineers, millwrights, and the various trades connected with 
 engineering and building. The new modernised edition is worth its weight in gold." Building 
 
 . (Second Notice.) 
 
 " This well-known and largely-used book contains information, brought up to date, of the 
 sort so usefu to the foreman and draughtsman. So much fresh information has been introduced as 
 to constitute it practically a new boolc. It will be largely used in the office and workshop." 
 Mechanical World. 
 
 " The publishers wisely entrusted the task of revision of this popular, valuable, and useful 
 book to Mr. Hutton, than whom a more competent man they could not have found." Iron. 
 
 ENGINEER'S AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 A Collection of Useful Tables, Rules, and Data. By WILLIAM TEMPLETON. 
 Seventh Edition, with Additions. i8mo, cloth 2/6 
 
 "Occupies a foremost place among books of this kind. A more suitable present to an 
 apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be made." Building News. 
 
 "A deservedly popular work. It should be in the 'drawer' of every mechanic." English 
 Mechanic. 
 
CROSBY LOCK WOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S REFERENCE BOOK. 
 
 For Machine and Boiler Construction. In Two Parts. Part I. GENERAL 
 
 ENGINEERING DATA. Part II. BOILER CONSTRUCTION. With 51 Plates and 
 
 numerous Illustrations. By NELSON FOLEY, M.I.N.A. Second Edition, 
 
 Revised throughout and much Enlarged. Folio, half-bound, net . 3 3s. 
 
 PART I. MEASURES. CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS, &c., SQUARES, CUBES, 
 
 FOURTH POWERS. SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS. SURFACE OF TUBES. RECIPROCALS. 
 
 LOGARITHMS. MENSURATION. SPECIFIC GRAVITIES AND WEIGHTS. WORK AND 
 
 POWER. HEAT. COMBUSTION. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION. EXPANSION OF 
 
 GASES. STEAM. STATIC FORCES. GRAVITATION AND ATTRACTION. MOTION AND 
 
 COMPUTATION OF RESULTING FORCES. ACCUMULATED WORK. CENTRE AND RADIUS 
 
 OF GYRATION. MOMENT OF INERTIA. CENTRE OF OSCILLATION. ELECTRICITY. 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. ELASTICITY. TEST SHEETS OF METALS. FRICTION. 
 
 TRANSMISSION OF POWER. FLOW OF LIQUIDS. FLOW OF GASES. AIR PUMPS, SURFACE 
 
 CONDENSERS, &c. SPEED OF STEAMSHIPS. PROPELLERS. CUTTING TOOLS. FLANGES. 
 
 COPPER SHEETS AND TUBES. SCREWS, NUTS, BOLT HEADS, &c. VARIOUS RECIPES 
 
 AND MISCELLANEOUS MATTER. WITH DIAGRAMS FOR VALVE-GEAR, BELTING AND 
 
 ROPES, DISCHARGE AND SUCTION PIPES, SCREW PROPELLERS, AND COPPER PIPES. 
 
 PART II. TREATING OF POWER OF BOILERS. USEFUL RATIOS. NOTES ON 
 CONSTRUCTION. CYLINDRICAL BOILER SHELLS. CIRCULAR FURNACES. FLAT 
 PLATES. STAYS. GIRDERS. SCREWS. HYDRAULIC TESTS. RIVETING. BOILER 
 SETTING, CHIMNEYS, AND MOUNTINGS. FUELS, &c. EXAMPLES OF BOILERS AND SPEEDS 
 OF STEAMSHIPS. NOMINAL AND NORMAL HORSE POWER. WITH DIAGRAMS FOR ALL 
 BOILER CALCULATIONS AND DRAWINGS OF MANY VARIETIES OF BOILERS. 
 
 "The book is one which every mechanical engineer may, with advantage to himself, add to 
 his library." Industries. 
 
 " Mr. Foley is well fitted to compile such a work. . . . The diagrams are a great feature 
 of the work. . .' . Regarding the whole work, it may be very fairly stated that Mr. Foley has 
 produced a volume which will undoubtedly fulfil the desire of the author and become indispensable 
 to all mechanical engineers." Marine Engineer. 
 
 " We have carefully examined this work, and pronounce it a most excellent reference book 
 for the use of marine engineers." yourna/ of American Society of Naval Engineers. 
 
 COAL AND SPEED TABLES. 
 
 A Pocket Book for Engineers and Steam Users. By NELSON FOLEY, Author 
 
 of " The Mechanical Engineer's Reference Book." Pocket-size, cloth . 3/6 
 
 " These tables are designed to meet the requirements of every -day use ; are of sufficient scope 
 
 for most practical purposes, and may be commended to engineers and users of steam." Iron. 
 
 TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 With a Supplement on GAS ENGINES, and PART II. on HEAT ENGINES. By 
 
 T. M. GOODEVE, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Mechanics at the Royal 
 
 College of Science, London ; Author of " The Principles of Mechanics," " The 
 
 Elements of Mechanism, "&c. Fourteenth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 6/O 
 
 "Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine which will bear comparison 
 
 with anything written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can award it no higher praise." Engineer. 
 
 " Mr. Goodeve's text-book is a work of which every young engineer should possess himself." 
 Mining Journal. 
 
 ON GAS ENGINES. 
 
 With Appendix describing a Recent Engine with Tube Igniter. By T. M. 
 GOODEVE, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 
 
 " Like all Mr. Goodeve's writings, the present is no exception in point of general excellence. 
 It is a valuable little volume." Mechanical World. 
 
 A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS. 
 
 Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By R. WILSON, C.E. 
 Fifth Edition. i2mo, cloth 6/O 
 
 "The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers. Engineer. 
 "The author shows himself perfect master of his subject, and we heartily recommend all 
 employing steam power to possess themselves of the work." Ryland's Iron Trade Circular. 
 
 THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S COMPANION 
 
 of Areas, Circumferences, Decimal Equivalents, in inches and feet, millimetres, 
 squares, cubes, roots, &c. ; Weights, Measures, and other Data. Also Prac- 
 tical Rules for Modern Engine Proportions. By R. EDWARDS. M.Inst.C.E. 
 Fcap. 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 3/6 
 
 " A very useful little volume. It contains many tables, classified data and memoranda, 
 generally useful to engineers." Engineer. 
 
 "This small book is what it professes to be, viz. : ' a handy office companion,' giving as it 
 does, in a succinct form, a variety of information likely to be required by mechanical engineers in 
 their everyday office work." Nature. 
 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, &>c. 
 
 A HANDBOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 With especial Reference to Small and Medium-sized Engines. For the Use of 
 Engine Makers, Mechanical Draughtsmen, Engineering Students, and users 
 of Steam Power. By HERMAN HAEDER, C.E. Translated from the German 
 with considerable additions and alterations, by H. H. P. POWLES, A.M.I. C.E., 
 M.I.M.E. Second Edition, Revised. With nearly 1,100 Illustrations. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 9/O 
 
 " A perfect encyclopaedia of the steam engine and its details, and one which must take a per- 
 manent place in English drawing-offices and workshops." A Foreman Pattern-maker. 
 
 " This is an excellent book, and should be in the hands of all who are interested in the con- 
 struction and design of medium-sized stationary engines. ... A careful study of its contents and 
 the arrangement of the sections leads to the conclusion that there is probably no other book like it 
 in this country. The volume aims at showing the results of practical experience, and it certainly 
 may claim a complete achievement of this idea." Nature. 
 
 " There can be no question as to its value. We cordially commend it to all concerned In the 
 design and construction of the steam engine. "Mechanical World. 
 
 BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS. 
 
 Their Draught-Power and Stability. With a chapter on Lightning Conductors. 
 By ROBERT WILSON, A.I.C.E., Author of " A Treatise on Steam Boilers," &c. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 
 
 " A valuable contribution to the literature of scientific building." The Builder. 
 
 BOILER MAKER'S READY RECKONER & ASSISTANT. 
 
 With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating, for the Use of Platers, 
 Smiths, and Riveters. By JOHN COURTNEY, Edited by D. K. CLARK, 
 M.I. C.E. Third Edition, 480 pp., with 140 Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo . 7/O 
 " No workman or apprentice should be without this book." /ran Trade Circular. 
 
 REFRIGERATING & ICE-MAKING MACHINERY. 
 
 A Descriptive Treatise for the Use of Persons Employing Refrigerating 
 and Ice-Making Installations, and others. By A. J. WALLIS-TAYLER, 
 A.-M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With Illustrations. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 7/6 
 
 "Practical, explicit, and profusely illustrated." Glasgow Herald. 
 " We recommend the book, which gi 
 
 _ ves the cost of various systems and illustrations showing 
 details of parts of machinery and general arrangements of complete installations." ffuilder. 
 
 " May be recommended as a useful description of the machinery, the processes, and of the 
 facts, figures, and tabulated physics of refrigerating. It is one of the best compilations on the 
 subject. Engineer. 
 
 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 A Popular Treatise on the Gradual Improvements made in Railway Engines 
 between 1803 and 1896. By CLEMENT E. STRETTON, C.E. Fifth Edition, 
 Enlarged. With 120 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 3/6 
 
 " Students of railway history and all who are interested in the evolution of the modem loco- 
 motive will find much to attract and entertain in this volume." The Times. 
 
 " The author of this work is well known to the railway world, and no one, probably, has a 
 better knbwledge of the history and development of the locomotive. The volume before us should 
 be of value to all connected with the railway system of this country." Nature. 
 
 ENGINEERING ESTIMATES, COSTS, AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 A Guide to Commercial Engineering. With numerous examples of Estimates 
 and Costs of Millwright Work, Miscellaneous Productions, Steam Engines and 
 Steam Boilers ; and a Section on the Preparation of Costs Accounts. By 
 A GENERAL MANAGER. Second Edition. 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. "| 2/O 
 
 " This is an excellent and very useful book, covering subject-matter in constant requisition in 
 every factory and workshop. . . . The book is invaluable, not only to the young engineer, but 
 also to the estimate department of every works." Kuilder. 
 
 We accord the work unqualified praise. The information is given in a plain, straightforward 
 , and bears throughout evidence of the intimate practk 
 every phase of commercial engineering." Mechanical Ivor Id. 
 
 manner, and bears throughout evidence of the intimate practical acquaintance of the author with 
 " world 
 
CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 AERIAL OR WIRE=ROPE TRAMWAYS. 
 
 Their Construction an Management. By A. J.WALLIS-TAYLER, A.M.Inst.C.E. 
 
 With 81 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 7/6 
 
 "This is in its way an excellent volume. Without going into the minutiae of the subject, it 
 
 yet lays before its readers a very good exposition of the various systems of rope transmission in use, 
 
 and gives as well not a little valuable information about their working, repair, and management. 
 
 We can safely recommend it as a useful general treatise on the subject. 'The Engineer. 
 
 " Mr. Tayler has treated the subject as concisely as thoroughness would permit. The book 
 will rank with the best on this useful topic, and we recommend it to those whose business is the 
 transporting of minerals and goods." Mining Journal. 
 
 MOTOR CARS OR POWER=CARRIAGES FOR COMMON 
 
 ROADS. 
 
 By A. J. WALLIS-TAYLER, Assoc. Memb. Inst. C.E., Author of "Modern 
 
 Cycles," &c. 212 pp., with 76 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 4/6 
 
 "Mr. Wallis-Tayler's book is a welcome addition to the literature of the subject, as it is the 
 
 production of an Engineer, and has not been written with a view to assist in the promotion of 
 
 companies. . . . The book is clearly expressed throughout, and is just the sort of work that 
 
 an engineer, thinking of turning his attention to motor-carriage work, would do well to read as a 
 
 preliminary to starting operations." Engineering. 
 
 PLATING AND BOILER MAKING. 
 
 A Practical Handbook for Workshop Operations. By JOSEPH G. HORNER, 
 
 A.M.I.M.E. 380 pp. with 338 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . . "7/6 
 
 " The latest production from the pen of this writer is characterised by that evidence of close 
 
 acquaintance with workshop methods which will render the book exceedingly acceptable to the 
 
 practical hand. We have no hesitation in commending the work as a serviceable and practical 
 
 handbook on a subject which has not hitherto received much attention from those qualified to deal 
 
 with it in a satisfactory manner." Mechanical U'orld. 
 
 PATTERN MAKING. 
 
 A Practical Treatise, embracing the Main Types of Engineering Construction, 
 and including Gearing, both Hand and Machine-made, Engine Work, Sheaves 
 and Pulleys, Pipes and Columns, Screws, Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, 
 the Moulding of Patterns in Loam and Greensand, &c., together with the 
 methods of estimating the weight of Castings ; with an Appendix of Tables for 
 Workshop Reference. By JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.M.E. Second Edition, 
 Enlarged. With 450 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth .... 7IQ 
 " A well-written technical guide, evidently written by a man who understands and has prac- 
 tised what he has written about. . . . We cordially recommend it to engineering students, young 
 journeymen, and others desirous of being initiated into the mysteries of pattern-making." Builder. 
 " More than 400 illustrations help to explain the text, which is, however, always clear and ex- 
 plicit, thus rendering the work an excellent vade nteciun for the apprentice who desires to become 
 master of his trade." English Mechanic. 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TERMS 
 
 (Lockwood's Dictionary of). Embracing those current in the Drawing Office, 
 Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smiths', and Boiler Shops, &c., &c. 
 Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. Edited by JOSEPH G. HORNER, 
 A.M.I.M.E. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 
 "Just the sort of handy dictionary required by the various trades engaged in mechanical en- 
 gineering. The practical engineering pupil will find the book of great value in his studies, and every 
 foreman engineer and mechanic should have a copy." Building News. 
 
 " Not merely a dictionary, but, to a certain extent, also a most valuable guide. It strikes us 
 as a happy idea to combine with a definition of the phrase useful information on the subject of 
 which it treats." Machinery Market. 
 
 TOOTHED GEARING. 
 
 A Practical Handbook for Offices and Workshops. By JOSEPH HORNER, 
 
 A.M.I.M.E. With 184 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . . . 6/O 
 
 " We must give the book our unqualified praise for its thoroughness of treatment, and we can 
 
 heartily recommend it to all interested as the most practical book on the subject yet written." 
 
 Mechanical World. 
 
 FIRES, FIRJE-ENGINES, AND FIRE BRIGADES. 
 
 With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Manage- 
 ment ; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire-Brigades, &c. By CHARLES 
 
 F. T. YOUNG, C.E. 8vo, cloth 1 4s. 
 
 " To such of our readers as are interested in the subject of fires and fire apparatus we can 
 most heartily commend this book. Engineering. 
 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, S-c. 
 
 STONE-WORKING MACHINERY. 
 
 A Manual dealing with the Rapid and Economical Conversion of Stone. With 
 
 Hints on the Arrangement and Management of Stone Works. By M. Powis 
 
 BALE, M.I. M.E. Second Edition, enlarged. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 
 
 cloth. [Just Published. 9/Q 
 
 "The book should be in the hands of every mason or student of stonework." Colliery 
 
 Guardian. 
 
 " A capital handbook for all who manipulate stone for building or ornamental purposes." 
 Machinery Market. 
 
 PUMPS AND PUMPING. 
 
 A Handbook for Pump Users. Being Notes on Selection, Construction, and 
 Management. By M. Powis BALE, M.I. M.E. Third Edition. Revised. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 2/6 
 
 "The matter is set forth as concisely as possible. In fact, condensation rather than diffuse- 
 ness has been the author's aim throughout ; yet he does not seem to have omitted anything likely to 
 be of use." Journal of Gas Lighting: 
 
 " Thoroughly practical and simply and clearly written." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 MILLING MACHINES AND PROCESSES. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Shaping Metals by Rotary Cutters. Including 
 Information on Making and Grinding the Cutters. By PAUL N. HASLUCK, 
 Author of " Lathe-Work." 352pp. With upwards of 300 Engravings. Large 
 
 crown 8vo, cloth 1 2/6 
 
 " A new departure in engineering literature. . . . We can recommend this work to all in- 
 terested in milling machines ; it is what it professes to be a practical treatise." Engineer. 
 
 " A capital and reliable book which will no doubt be of considerable service both to those 
 who are already acquainted with the process as well as to those who contemplate its adoption." 
 Industries. 
 
 LATH E= WORK. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appliances, and Processes employed in 
 the Art of Turning. By PAUL N. HASLUCK. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, 
 cloth 5/O 
 
 " Written by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how 
 to do it, and how to convey his knowledge to others. To allturners this book would be valuable. " 
 Engineering. 
 
 " We can safely recommend the work to young engineers. To the amateur it will simply b 
 Invaluable. To the student it will convey a great deal of useful information." Engineer. 
 
 SCREW-THREADS, 
 
 And Methods of Producing Them. With numerous Tables and complete 
 Directions for using Screw-Cutting Lathes. By PAUL N. HASLUCK, Author 
 of " Lathe-Work," &c. With Seventy-four Illustrations. Fourth Edition, 
 
 Re-written and Enlarged. Waistcoat-pocket size 1/6 
 
 " Full of useful information, hints and practical criticism. Taps, dies, and screwing tools 
 generally are illustrated and their actions described." Mechanical ll'orld. 
 
 " It is a complete compendium of all the details of the screw-cutting lathe ; in fact a ntultum- 
 in-parvo on all the subjects it treau upon." Carpenter and Builder. 
 
 TABLES AND MEMORANDA FOR ENGINEERS, 
 
 MECHANICS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, &c. 
 
 Selected and Arranged by FRANCIS SMITH. Sixth Edition, Revised, including 
 ELECTRICAL TABLES, FORMULA, and MEMORANDA. Waistcoat-pocket size, 
 limp leather. [Just Published. 1 /6 
 
 " It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book selection of notes and formulae 
 to suit ALL engineers as it would be to make a universal medicine ; but Mr. Smith's waistcoat- 
 pocket collection may be looked upon as a successful attempt." Engineer. 
 
 " The best example we have ever seen of 270 pages of useful matter packed into the dimen- 
 sions of a card-case." Building News. " A veritable pocket treasury of knowledge." Iron. 
 
 POCKET GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 English-French, French-English; with Tables suitable for the Architectural, 
 Engineering, Manufacturing, and Nautical Professions. By JOHN JAMES 
 FLETCHER, Engineer and Surveyor. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, 
 
 200 pp. Waistcoat-pocket size, limp leather 1/6 
 
 " It is a very great advantage for readers and correspondents in France and England to have 
 so large a number of the words relating to engineering and manufacturers collected in a lilliputian 
 volume. The little book will be useful both to students and travellers." Architect. 
 
 " The glossary of terms is very complete, and many of the Tables are new and well arranged. 
 We cordially commend the book." Mechanical World. 
 
8 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S YEAR BOOK FOR 1899. 
 
 Comprising Formulae, Rules, Tables, Data and Memoranda in Civil, Mechanical, 
 
 Electrical, Marine and Mine Engineering. By H. R. KEMPE, A.M. Inst. C.E., 
 
 M.I.E.E., Technical Officer of the Engineer-in-Chief's Office, General Post 
 
 Office, London, Author of "A Handbook of Electrical Testing." "The 
 
 Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Book," &c. With about 900 Illustrations, specially 
 
 Engraved for the work. Crown 8vo, 750 pp., leather. [Just Published. 8/O 
 
 " Represents an enormous quantity of work, and forms a desirable book of reference." The 
 
 Engineer. 
 
 "The volume is distinctly in advance of most similar publications in this country." 
 Engineering. 
 
 " This valuable and well-designed book of reference meets the demands of all descriptions of 
 engineers." Saturday Review. 
 
 " Teems with up-to-date information in every branch of engineering and construction." 
 Building News. 
 
 " The needs of the engineering profession could hardly be supplied in a more admirable, 
 complete and convenient form. To say that it more than sustains all comparisons is praise of the 
 highest sort, and that may justly be said of it." Mining Journal. 
 
 " There is certainly room for the newcomer, which supplies explanations and directions, as 
 well as formulae and tables. It deserves to become one of the most successful of the technical 
 annuals. "A rchitect. 
 
 " Brings together with great skill all the technical information which an engineer has to use 
 day by day. It is in every way admirably equipped, and is sure to prove successful." Scotsman. 
 
 "The up-to-dateness of Mr. Kempe's compilation is a quality that will not be lost on the busy 
 people for whom the work is intended." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 THE PORTABLE ENGINE. 
 
 A Practical Manual on its Construction and Management. For the use 
 of Owners and Users of Steam Engines generally. By WILLIAM DYSON 
 WANSBROUGH. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 
 
 " This is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should be read by every 
 one who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere." Mark Lane Express. 
 
 " We cordially commend this work to buyers and owners of steam-engines, and to those who 
 have to do with their construction or use." Timber Trades yournal. 
 
 " Such a general knowledge of the steam-engine as Mr. Wansbrough furnishes to the reader 
 should be acquired by all intelligent owners and others who use the steam-engine." Building News. 
 
 " An excellent text -book of this useful form of engine. The ' Hints to Purchasers ' contain a 
 good deal of common-sense and practical wisdom." English Mechanic. 
 
 IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 A Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory, and Office. Containing ready, 
 useful, and trustworthy Information for Ironmasters and their Stock-takers ; 
 Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills; Iron and Metal 
 Founders ; Iron Ship and Bridge Builders ; Mechanical, Mining, and Con- 
 sulting Engineers ; Architects, Contractors, Builders, &c. By CHARLES HOARE, 
 Author of "The Slide Rule," &c. Ninth Edition. 32mo, leather . 6/O 
 
 " For comprehensiveness the book has not its equal." Iron. 
 
 " One of the best of the pocket books." English Mechanic. 
 
 CONDENSED MECHANICS. 
 
 A Selection of Formulas, Rules, Tables, and Data or the Use of Engineering 
 Students, Science Classes, &c. In accordance with the Requirements of the 
 Science and Art Department. By W. G. CRAWFORD HUGHES, A.M.I.C.E. 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 
 
 " The book is well fitted for those who are either confronted with practical problems in 
 their work, or are preparing for examination and wish to refresh their knowledge by going through 
 their formulas again." Marine Engineer. 
 
 "It is well arranged, and meets the wants of those for whom it is intended." Rail-way News. 
 
 THE SAFE USE OF STEAM. 
 
 Containing Rules for Unprofessional Steam Users. By an ENGINEER. Seventh 
 Edition. Sewed. ........... 60. 
 
 " If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explosions would become 
 sensations by their rarity." English Mechanic. 
 
 HEATING BY HOT WATER. 
 
 With Information and Suggestions on the best Methods of Heating Public, 
 
 Private and Horticultural Buildings. By WALTER JONES. Second Edition. 
 
 With 96 Illustrations, crown 8vo, cloth . . ... Net 2/6 
 
 "We confidently recommend all interested in heating by hot water to secure a copy of this 
 
 valuable little treatise. 1 'The Plumber and Decorator. 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &c. 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &c. 
 
 LIGHT RAILWAYS FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM, 
 
 INDIA, AND THE COLONIES. 
 
 A Practical Handbook setting forth the Principles on which Light Railways 
 should be Constructed, Worked, and Financed ; and detailing the Cost of 
 Construction, Equipment, Revenue and Working Expenses of Local Railways 
 already established in the above-mentioned countries, and in Belgium, France, 
 Switzerland, &c. By J. C. MACKAY, F.G.S., A.M. Inst.C.E. Illustrated 
 with Plates and Diagrams. Medium 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 1 5/Q 
 
 " Mr. Mackay's volume is clearly and concisely written, admirably arranged, and freely 
 
 Illustrated. The book is exactly what has been long wanted. We recommend it to all interested 
 
 in the subject. It is sure to have a wide sale." Rail-way News. 
 
 'Those who desire to have within reach general information concerning almost all the light 
 
 railway systems in the world will do well to buy Mr. Mackay's book." Engineer 
 
 " This work appears very opportunely, when the extension of the system _ 
 
 England is at last being mooted. In its pages we find all the information that the heart of man can 
 
 desire on the subject. . . . every detail in its story, founded on the experience of other countries 
 and applied to the possibilities of England, is put before us." Spectator. . 
 
 PRACTICAL TUNNELLING. 
 
 Explaining in detail Setting-out the Works, Shaft-sinking, and Heading-driving, 
 Ranging the Lines and Levelling underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering 
 and the Construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels, with the amount of Labour 
 required for, and the Cost of, the various portions of the work. By FREDERICK 
 W. SIMMS, M. Inst.C.E. Fourth Edition, Revised and Further Extended, 
 including the most recent (1895) Examples of Sub-aqueous and other Tunnels, 
 by D. KINNEAR Cr.ARK, M. Inst. C.E. Imperial 8vo, with 34 Folding Plates 
 and other Illustrations. Cloth. [Just Published. 2 2s. 
 
 'The present (1896) edition has been brought right up to date, and is thus rendered a work to 
 which civil engineers generally should have ready access, and to which engineers who have con- 
 struction work can hardly afford to be without, but which to the younger members of the profession 
 is invaluable, as from its pages they can learn the state to which the science of tunnelling has 
 attained." Kail-way News. 
 
 "The estimation in which Mr. Sinuns's book has been held for many years cannot be more 
 truly expressed than in the words of the late Prof. Rankine : 'The l>est source of information on 
 the subject of tunnels is Mr. F. W. Simms's work on Practical Tunnelling.' "Architect. 
 
 THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CON- 
 STRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS. 
 
 A Practical Treatise for the Use of Engineers and Students of Engineering. 
 By W. K. BURTON, A.M. Inst. C.E., Professor of Sanitary Engineering in the 
 Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan, and Consulting Engineer to the Tokyo 
 Water-works. Second Edition, Revised and Extended. With numerous 
 Plates and Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, buckram. [Just Published. 25/O 
 I. INTRODUCTORY. II. DIFFERENT QUALITIES OF WATER. III. QUANTITY OF 
 WATER TO BE PROVIDED. IV. ON ASCERTAINING WHETHER A PROPOSED SOURCE OF 
 SUPPLY is SUFFICIENT. v. ON ESTIMATING THE STORAGE CAPACITY REQUIRED 
 TO BE PROVIDED. VI. CLASSIFICATION OF WATER-WORKS. VII. IMPOUNDING RESER- 
 VOIRS. VIII. EARTHWORK DAMS. IX. MASONRY DAMS. X. THE PURIFICATION OF 
 WATER. XI. SETTLING RESERVOIRS. XII. SAND FILTRATION. XIII. PURIFICATION 
 OF WATER BY ACTION OF IRON, SOFTENING OF WATER BY ACTION OF LIME, NATURAL 
 FILTRATION. XIV. SERVICE OR CLEAN WATER RESERVOIRS WATER TOWERS STAND 
 PIPES. XV. THE CONNECTION OF SETTLING RESERVOIRS, FILTER BEDS AND SERVICE 
 RESERVOIRS. XVI. PUMPING MACHINERY. XVII. FLOW OF WATER IN CONDUITS- 
 PIPES AND OPEN CHANNELS. XVIII. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS. XIX. SPECIAL PRO- 
 VISIONS FOR THE EXTINCTION OF FIRE. XX. PIPES FOR WATER-WORKS. XXI. PRE- 
 VENTION OF WASTH. OF WATER. XXII. VARIOUS APPLICATIONS USED IN CONNECTION 
 WITH WATER-WORKS. 
 
 APPENDIX I. By PROF. JOHN MILNE, F.R.S. CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THH 
 PROBABLE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES ON WATER-WORKS, AND THE SPECIAL PRE- 
 CAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN EARTHQUAKE COUNTRIES. 
 
 APPENDIX II. By JOHN DE RIJKE, C.E. ON SAND DUNES AND DUNE SAND AS 
 A SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 " The chapter upon nitration of water is very complete, and the details of construction well 
 illustrated. . . . The work should be specially valuable to civil engineers engaged in work in 
 Japan, but the interest is by no means confined to that locality." Engineer. 
 
 " We congratulate the author upon the practical commonsense shown in the preparation of 
 this work. . . . The plates and diagrams have evidently been prepared with great care, and 
 cannot fail to be of great assistance to the student." Bttildet. 
 
 " The whole art of water-worksconstruction is dealt with in a clear and comprehensive fashion 
 in this handsome volume. . . . Mr. Burton's practical treatise shows in all its sections the fruit 
 of independent study and individual experience. It is largely based upon his own practice in the 
 branch of engineering of which it treats." Saturday Review. 
 
io CROSBY LOCK WOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. 
 
 By WILLIAM HUMBER, A. M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E., Author of "Cast 
 and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," &c., &c. Illustrated with 50 Double 
 Plates, i Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwards of 250 Woodcuts, 
 and containing 400 pp. of Text. Imp. 410, elegantly and substantially 
 
 balf-bound in morocco Net 6 6s. 
 
 LIST OF CONTENTS. 
 
 I. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF SOME OF THE MEANS THAT HAVE BEEN ADOPTED FOR 
 THE SUPPLY OF WATER TO CITIES AND TOWNS. II. WATER AND THE FOREIGN MATTER 
 
 USUALLY ASSOCIATED WITH IT. III. RAINFALL AND EVAPORATION. IV. SPRINGS AND 
 
 THE WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS OF VARIOUS DISTRICTS. V. MEASUREMENT AND 
 ESTIMATION OF THE FLOW OF WATER. VI. ON THE SELECTION OF THE SOURCE OF 
 SUPPLY. VII. WELLS. Vlll. RESERVOIRS. IX. THE PURIFICATION OF WATER. 
 X. PUMPS. XI. PUMPING MACHINERY. XII. CONDUITS. XIII. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER. 
 XIV. METERS, SERVICE PIPES, AND HOUSE FITTINGS. XV. THE LAW OF ECONOMY OF 
 WATER- WORKS. XVI. CONSTANT AND INTERMITTENT SUPPLY. XVII. DESCRIPTION OF 
 PLATES. APPENDICES, GIVING TABLES OF RATES OF SUPPLY, VELOCITIES, &c., &c., 
 
 TOGETHER WITH SPECIFICATIONS OF SEVERAL WORKS ILLUSTRATED, AMONG WHICH 
 WILL BE FOUND : ABERDEEN, BlDEFORD, CANTERBURY, DUNDEE, HALIFAX, LAMBETH, 
 ROTHERHAM, DUBLIN, AND OTHERS. 
 
 " The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto produced in English, or 
 in any other language. . . . Mr. Humber's work is characterised almost throughout by an 
 exhaustiveness much more distinctive of French and German than of English technical treatises." 
 Engineer. 
 
 RURAL WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on the Supply of Water and Construction of Water- 
 works for small Country Districts. By ALLAN GREENWELL, A.M.I.C.E., 
 and W. T. CURRY, A.M.I.C.E., F.G.S. With Illustrations. Second Edition, 
 Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 5/O 
 
 " We conscientiously recommend it as a very useful book for those concerned in obtaining 
 water for small districts, giving a great deal of practical information in a small compass." Builder. 
 
 " The volume contains valuable information upon all matters connected with water supply. 
 ... It is full of details on points which are continually before water-works engineers." 
 Nature. 
 
 HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO=EFFICIENTS, & FORMUL/E. 
 
 For Finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and 
 
 Rivers. With New Formulae, Tables, and General Information on Rain-fall, 
 
 Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill 
 
 Power. By JOHN NEVILLE, Civil Engineer, M.R.I. A. Third Edition, 
 
 revised, with additions. Numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . 1 4/O 
 
 " It is, of all English books on the subject, the one nearest to completeness. . . . From 
 
 the good arrangement of the matter, the clear explanations and abundance of formulae, the carefully 
 
 calculated tables, and, above all, the thorough acquaintance with both theory and construction, 
 
 which is displayed from first to last, the book will be found to be an acquisition.' Architect. 
 
 HYDRAULIC MANUAL. 
 
 Consisting of Working Tables and Explanatory Text. Intended as a Guide in 
 Hydraulic Calculations and Field Operations. By Lowis D'A. JACKSON, 
 Author of "Aid to Survey Practice," "Modern Metrology," &c. Fourth 
 
 Edition, Enlarged. Large crown 8vo, cloth 1 6/O 
 
 " The author has had a wide experience in hydraulic engineering and has been a careful 
 
 observer of the facts which have come under his notice, and from the great mass of material at his 
 
 command he has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a trustworthy guide to this 
 
 branch of the engineer's profession." Engineering. 
 
 " The most useful feature of this work is its freedom from what is superannuated, and its 
 
 thorough adoption of recent experiments ; the text is in fact in great part a short account of the 
 
 great modern experiments." Nature. 
 
 WATER ENGINEERING. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisa- 
 tion of Water for the Supply of Towns, for Mill Power, and for other Purposes, 
 By C. SLAGG, A. M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 7/6 
 " As a small practical treatise on the water supply of towns, and on some applications of water- 
 power, the work is in many respects excellent." Engineering. 
 
 " The author has collated the results deduced from the experiments of the most eminent 
 authorities, and has presented them in a compact and practical form, accompanied by very clear 
 and detailed explanations. . . . The application of water as a motive power is treated very 
 carefully and exhaustively." Builder. 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, S>c. 
 
 MASONRY DAMS FROM INCEPTION TO COMPLETION. 
 
 Including numerous Formulae, Forms of Specification and Tender, Pocket 
 Diagram of Forces, &c. For the use of Civil and Mining Engineers. By 
 C. F. COURTNEY, M. Inst. C.E. 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 9/Q 
 
 RIVER BARS. 
 
 The Causes of their Formation, and their Treatment by " Induced Tidal 
 Scour ; " with a Description of the Successful Reduction by this Method of 
 the Bar at Dublin. By I. J. MANN, Assist. Eng. to the Dublin Port and Docks 
 
 Board. Royal 8vo, cloth 7/6 
 
 " We recommend all interested in harbour works and, indeed, those concerned in the 
 
 Improvements of rivers generally to read Mr. Mann's interesting work on the treatment of river 
 
 bars." Engineer. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF LANDS, TOWNS AND BUILDINGS. 
 
 By G. D. DEMPSEY, C.E. Revised, with large Additions on RECENT PRAC- 
 TICE IN DRAINAGE ENGINEERING, by D. KINNEAR CI.ARK, M. Inst. C.E., 
 Author of "Tramways: their Construction and Working." Cr.Svo, cloth . 4/6 
 " The new matter added to Mr. Dempsey's excellent work is characterised by the compre- 
 hensive grasp and accuracy of detail for which the name of Mr. D. K. Clark is a sufficient 
 voucher." Athouzum. 
 
 TRAMWAYS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. 
 
 Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive 
 
 Analysis of the Various Modes of Traction, including Horse Power, Steam, 
 
 Cable Traction, Electric Traction, &c. ; a Description of the Varieties of 
 
 Rolling Stock ; and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses. New 
 
 Edition, Thoroughly Revised, and Including the Progress recently made in 
 
 Tramway Construction, &c., &c. By D. KINNEAR CLARK, M. Inst. C.E. 
 
 With 400 Illustrations. 8vo, 780 pp., buckram. [Just Published. 28/O 
 
 " Although described as a new edition, this book is really a new one, a large part of it, which 
 
 covers historical ground, having been re-written and amplified ; while the parts which relate to all 
 
 that has been clone since 1882 appear in this edition only. It is sixteen years since the first edition 
 
 appeared, and twelve years since the supplementary volume to the first book was published 
 
 After a lapse, then, of twelve years, it is obvious that the author has at his disposal a vast 
 
 quantity of descriptive and statistical information, with which he may, and has, produced a 
 
 volume of great value to all interested in tramway construction and working. The new volume is 
 
 one which will rank, among tramway engineers and those interested in tramway working, with his 
 
 world-famed book on railway machinery." The Engineer, March 8, 1895. 
 
 PRACTICAL SURVEYING. 
 
 A Text-Book for Students preparing for Examinations or for Survey-work in 
 the Colonies. By GEORGE W. USILL, A.M.I. C.E. With 4 Plates and up- 
 wards of 330 Illustrations. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Including 
 Tables of Natural Sines, Tangents, Secants, &c. Crown 8vo, cloth 7IQ ', or, 
 on THIN PAPER, bound in limp leather, gilt edges, rounded corners, for 
 pocket use ............ "\ 2/6 
 
 " The best forms of instruments are described as to their construction, uses and modes 
 of employment, and there are innumerable hints on work and equipment such as the author, in 
 his experience as surveyor, draughtsman and teacher, has found necessary, and which the student 
 in his inexperience will find most serviceable." Engineer. 
 
 " The latest treatise in the English language on surveying, and we have no hesitation In say- 
 ing that the student will find it a better guide than any of its predecessors. Deserves to be 
 recognised as the first book which should be put in the hands of a pupil of Civil Engineering." 
 Architect. 
 
 AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE. 
 
 For Reference in Surveying, Levelling, and Setting -out ; and in Route Sur- 
 veys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, and Records. 
 By Lovvis D'A. JACKSON, A.M. I. C.E. Second Edition, Enlarged. Large 
 
 crown 8vo, cloth 1 2/6 
 
 " Mr. Jackson has produced a valuable vade-mecum for the surveyor. We can recommend 
 this book as containing an admirable supplement to the teaching of the accomplished surveyor." 
 Athenaum. 
 
 " As a text-book we should advise all surveyors to place it in their libraries, and study well 
 the matured instructions afforded in its pages." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 "The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience which, 
 aided by a clear and lucid style of writing, renders the book a very useful one." Builder. 
 
12 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 ENGINEER'S & MINING SURVEYOR'S FIELD BOOK. 
 
 Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and 
 use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and plotting the work with minute 
 accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the 
 Theodolite, Casting-out and Reducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections 
 in the ordinary manner; Setting-out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential 
 Angles and Multiples with Right and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument ; 
 Setting-out Curves without Theodolite on the System of Tangential Angles by 
 Sets of Tangents and Offsets ; and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, calcu- 
 lated for every 6 inches in depth. By W. DAVIS HASKOLL, C.E. With 
 numerous Woodcuts. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . 1 2/O 
 " The book is very handy ; the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make 
 k useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same." Athenceunt. 
 
 "Every person engaged in engineering field operations will estimate the importance of such 
 a work and the amount of valuable time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tables 
 prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this volume." Rail-way Ne-uif. 
 
 LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING. 
 
 In Reference to the Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways ; Canals, 
 Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies ; Docks and Harbours. With Description 
 and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. DAVIS HASKOLL, C.E. Second 
 Edition, Revised, with Additions. Large crown 8vo, cloth . . . 9/O 
 " This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation in recom- 
 mending it. feeling assured that it will more than repay a careful study." Mechanical World. 
 
 "A most useful book for the student. We strongly recommend it as a carefully-written 
 and valuable text-book. It enjoys a well-deserved repute among surveyors." Builder. 
 
 " This volume cannot fail to prove of the utmost practical utility. It may be safely recom- 
 mended to all students who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors." Mining Journal. 
 
 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING. 
 
 Showing its Application to Purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering in 
 the Construction of Roads ; with Mr. TELFORD'S Rules for the same. By 
 FREDERICK W. SIMMS, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. Eighth Edition, with the 
 addition of LAW'S Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and 
 TRAUTWINE'S Field Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates 
 
 and numerous Woodcuts, 8vo, cloth 8/6 
 
 *** TRAUTWINE on CURVES may be had separate 5/O 
 
 " The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges." Engineer. 
 
 "The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the 
 younger members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful work." Engineering. 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING 
 
 A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. 
 
 For the Formation of Geographical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Mili- 
 tary Reconnaissance, LEVELLING, &c., with Useful Problems, Formulae, 
 and Tables. By Lieut. -General FROME, R.E. Fourth Edition, Revised and 
 partly Re-written by Major-General Sir CHARLES WARREN, G.C.M.G., R.E. 
 With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, cloth .... 1 6/O 
 " No words of praise from us can strengthen the position so well and so steadily maintained 
 by this work. Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and made such additions as were 
 necessary to bring every portion of the contents up to the present date." Broad Arrow. 
 
 TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES 
 FOR SETTING-OUT CURVES. 
 
 From 5 to 200 Radius. By A. BEAZELEY, M. Inst. C.E. 6th Edition, 
 Revised. With an Appendix on the use of the Tables for Measuring up 
 Curves. Printed on 50 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size. 
 
 [Just Published. 3/6 
 
 " Each table is printed on a card, which, placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands free 
 to manipulate the instrument no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work." Engineer. 
 
 " Very handy : a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which 
 he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind." AtJuncciim. 
 
 HANDY GENERAL EARTH-WORK TABLES. 
 
 Giving the Contents in Cubic Yards of Centre and Slopes of Cuttings and 
 Embankments from 3 inches to 80 feet in Depth or Height, for use with either 
 66 feet Chain or 100 feet Chain. P>y J. H. WATSON BUCK, M. Inst. C.E. 
 On a Sheet mounted in cloth case. [Jst Published. 3/6 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &-c. 13 
 
 EARTHWORK TABLES. 
 
 Showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c., of 
 Heights or Depths up to an average of 80 feet. By JOSEPH BROADBENT, C.E., 
 
 and FRANCIS CAM PIN, C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/O 
 
 " The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross section into three 
 elements, two in which are constant and one variable, is ingenious." Athenaum. 
 
 A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK. 
 
 By ALEX. J. S. GRAHAM, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. Second Edition. 
 i8mo, cloth 2/6 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS. 
 
 A Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. WATSON BUCK, M. Inst. C.E., 
 Resident Engineer, L. and N. W. R. With Folding Plates, 8vo, cloth 1 2/O 
 " Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason, and the observa- 
 tions on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construction of the templates, 
 will be found of considerable use. We commend the book to the engineering profession." 
 Building News. 
 
 " Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost value, and calculated to save much 
 time and obviate many mistakes." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 CAST & WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 (A Complete and Practical Treatise on), including Iron Foundations. In 
 Three Parts. Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By WILLIAM HUMBER, 
 A. M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Third Edition, revised and much im- 
 proved, with 115 Double Plates(2o of which now first appear in this edition), 
 and numerous Additions to the Text. In 2 vols., imp. 410, half-bound in 
 
 morocco 6 16s. 60. 
 
 " A very valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering. In addition to 
 elevations, plans, and sections, large scale details are given, which very much enhance the 
 Instructive worth of those illustrations." Civil Engineer and Architecfs yottrtuzl. 
 
 " Mr. Humber's stately volumes, lately issued in which the most important bridges 
 erected during the last five years, under the direction of the late Mr. Brunei, Sir W. Cubitt, 
 Mr. Hawkshaw, Mr. Page, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hemans, and others among our most eminent 
 engineers, are drawn and specified in great detail." Engineer. 
 
 ESSAY ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES 
 
 (Practical and Theoretical). With 13 large Plates. By the late GEORGE 
 WATSON BUCK, M.I. C.E. Fourth Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. WATSON 
 BUCK, M.I.C.E. ; and with the addition of Description to Diagrams for 
 Facilitating the Construction of Oblique Bridges, byW. H. BARLOW, M.I.C.E. 
 
 Royal 8vo, cloth 1 2/O 
 
 " The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches is Mr. Buck's treatise, 
 and it would be impossible to consult a better." Engineer. 
 
 "Mr. Buck's treatise is recognised as a standard text-book, and his treatment has divested 
 the subject of many of the intricacies supposed to belong to it. As a guide to the engineer and 
 architect, on a confessedly difficult subject, Mr. Buck's work is unsurpassed." Building Nevis. 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF OBLIQUE ARCHES 
 
 (A Practical Treatise on). By JOHN HART. Third Edition, with Plates. 
 Imperial 8vo, cloth 8/O 
 
 GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS. 
 
 In their Practical Application to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Solid 
 
 Girders, Lattice, Bowstring, and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron Arches and 
 
 Piers, and other Frameworks. By R. HUDSON GRAHAM, C.E. Containing 
 
 Diagrams and Plates to Scale. With numerous Examples, many taken from 
 
 existing Structures. Specially arranged for Class-work in Colleges and 
 
 Universities. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth . 1 0/O 
 
 " Mr. Graham's book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are used or 
 
 studied." Engineer. 
 
 " The work is excellent from a practical point of view, and has evidently been prepared 
 with much care. The directions for working are simple, and are illustrated by an abundance of 
 well-selected examples. It is an excellent text-book for the practical draughtsman." A thenteum. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 For the Architect, Engineer, and Mechanic. Giving Rules for the Delineation 
 and Application of various Geometrical Lines, Figures, and Curves. By 
 
 E. W. TARN, M.A., Architect. 8vo, cloth 9/O 
 
 " No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of 
 the rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfactory." Scotsman. 
 
14 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES. 
 
 Or, Problems Resolved by the mere Description of Circles and the Use of 
 Coloured Diagrams and Symbols. By OLIVER BYRNE. Coloured Plates. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 
 
 WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON & STEEL GIRDERS. 
 
 A Graphic Table for Facilitating the Computation of the Weights of Wrought 
 Iron and Steel Girders, &c., for Parliamentary and other Estimates, By 
 J. H. WATSON BUCK, M.Inst.C.E. On a Sheet 2/6 
 
 HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS 
 
 In Girders and Similar Structures and their Strength. Consisting of Formulae 
 and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous details for Practical Applica- 
 tion, &c. By WILLIAM HUMBER, A. M. Inst. C.E., &c. Fifth Edition. 
 Crown 8vo, with nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, cloth . . . 7/6 
 
 "The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams good." Athenceittn. 
 
 "We heartily commend this really handy book to our engineer and architect readers." 
 English Mechanic. 
 
 TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON. 
 
 Practical Applications of Science in Determining the Stresses, Breaking 
 Weights, Safe Loads, Scantlings, and Details of Construction. With Complete 
 Working Drawings. By WILLIAM GRIFFITHS, Surveyor, Assistant Master, 
 Tranmere School of Science and Art. Oblong 8vo, cloth . . . 4/6 
 "This handy little book enters so minutely into every detail connected with the con- 
 struction of roof trusses that no student need be ignorant of these matters." Practical Engineer. 
 
 THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK. 
 
 With Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. SHEILDS, M.I.C.E. 
 8vo, cloth 5/O 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 With Rules for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension 
 Bridges, Railways, &c. By PETER BARLOW, F.R.S. A new Edition, revised 
 by his Sons, P. W. BARLOW, F.R.S., and W. H. BARLOW, F.R.S. ; to which 
 are added, Experiments by HODGKINSON, FAIRBAIRN, and KIRKALDY ; and 
 Formulas for calculating Girders, &c. Arranged and Edited by WM. HUMBER, 
 A. M. Inst. C.E. Demy 8vo, 400 pp., with 19 large Plates and numerous 
 
 Woodcuts, cloth . 18/O 
 
 " Valuable alike to the student, tyro, and the experienced practitioner, it will always rank 
 
 in future as it has hitherto done, as the standard treatise on that particular subject." Engineer. 
 
 "As a scientific work of the first class, it deserves a foremost place on the bookshelves of 
 
 every civil engineer and practical mechanic." English Mechanic. 
 
 STRENGTH OF CAST IRON AND OTHER METALS. 
 
 By THOMAS TREDGOLD, C.E. Fifth Edition, including HODGKINSON'S Experi- 
 mental Researches. 8vo, cloth 1 2/O 
 
 SAFE RAILWAY WORKING. 
 
 A Treatise on Railway Accidents, their Cause and Prevention ; with a De- 
 scription of Modern Appliances and Systems. By CLEMENT E. STRETTON, 
 C.E., Vice-President and Consulting Engineer, Amalgamated Society of 
 Railway Servants. With Illustrations and Coloured Plates. Third Edition, 
 
 Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 
 
 "A book for the engineer, the directors, the managers; and, in short, all who wish for 
 
 Information on railway matters will find a perfect encyclopaedia in ' Safe Railway Working.' " 
 
 Railway Review. 
 
 " We commend the remarks on railway signalling to all railway managers, especially where 
 
 a uniform code and practice is advocated." Herepath's Rail-way Journal. 
 
 EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT. 
 
 By JOHN KEILY, C.E., late of the Indian Public Works Department. Crown 
 8vo, cloth 3/6 
 
 " The aim the author has set before him, viz., to show the effects of heat upon metallic and 
 other structures, is a laudable one, for this is a branch of physics upon which the engineer or 
 architect can find but little reliable and comprehensive data in books." Builder.' 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &>c. 15 
 
 RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF MODERN 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 Complete in Four Volumes, imperial 4to, half-morocco, price 1 2 1 2s. 
 
 Each volume sold separately, as follows '. 
 
 FIRST SERIES, Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, Railway, 
 Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By WILLIAM HUMBER, 
 A. M. Inst. C.E.j&c. Imp. 410, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, 
 Photographic Portrait of Joho Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c., and copious 
 descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. Half-morocco . . 3 3s. 
 
 LIST OF THE PLATES AND DIAGRAMS. 
 
 VICTORIA STATION AND ROOF, L. B. & S. C. R. (8 PLATES) ; SOUTHPORT PIER 
 {2 PLATES) ; VICTORIA STATION AND ROOF, L. C. & D. AND G. w. R. (6 PLATES) ; ROOF 
 OF CREMORNE MUSIC HALL; BRIDGE OVER G. N. RAILWAY; ROOF OF STATION, 
 DUTCH RHENISH RAIL. (2 PLATES); BRIDGE OVER THE THAMES, WEST LONDON 
 EXTENSION RAILWAY (5 PLATES) ; ARMOUR PLATES : SUSPENSION BRIDGE, THAMES 
 (4 PLATES); THE ALLEN ENGINE; SUSPENSION BRIDGE, AVON (3 PLATES); UNDER- 
 GROUND RAILWAY (3 PLATESI. 
 
 NUMBER'S PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING. 
 
 SECOND SERIES. Imp. 410, with 3 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of 
 Robert Stephenson, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letter- 
 press, Specifications, &c. Half-morocco . . . . . . 3 3s. 
 
 LIST OF THE PLATES AND DIAGRAMS. 
 
 BIRKENHEAD DOCKS, LOW WATER BASIN (15 PLATES) ; CHARING CROSS STATION 
 
 ROOF, C. C. RAILWAY (3 PLATES); DIGSWELL VIADUCT, GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY; 
 ROBBERY WOOD VIADUCT, GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY; IRON PERMANENT WAY; 
 CLYDACH VIADUCT, MERTHYR, TREDEGAR, AND ABERGAVENNY RAILWAY ; EBBW 
 VIADUCT, MERTHYR. TREDEGAR, AND ABERGAVENNY RAILWAY; COLLEGE WOOD 
 VIADUCT, CORNWALL RAILWAY; DUBLIN WINTER PALACE ROOF (3 PLATES); BRIDGE 
 OVER THE THAMES, L. C. & D. RAILWAY (6 PLATES); ALBERT HARBOUR, GREENOCK 
 
 (4 PLATES). 
 
 HUMBER'S PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING. 
 
 THIRD SERIES. Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of 
 J. R. M'Clean, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, 
 
 Specifications, &c. Half-morocco 3 3s. 
 
 LIST OF THE PLATES AND DIAGRAMS. 
 
 MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS. North Side. MAP SHOWING INTERCEPTION OF 
 SEWERS; MIDDLE LEVEL SEWER (2 PLATES); OUTFALL SEWER, BRIDGE OVER RIVER 
 
 LEA (3 PLATES) ; OUTFALL SEWER, BRIDGE OVER MARSH LANE, NORTH WOOLWICH 
 
 RAILWAY, AND Bow AND BARKING RAILWAY JUNCTION ; OUTFALL SEWER. BRIDGE OVER 
 Bow AND BARKING RAILWAY (3 PLATES) ; OUTFALL SEWER, BRIDGE OVER EAST LONDON 
 WATER-WORKS' FEEDER (2 PLATES) ; OUTFALL SEWER RESERVOIR (2 PLATES) ; OUTFALL 
 SEWER, TUMBLING BAY AND OUTLET; OUTFALL SEWER, PENSTOCKS. South Side. 
 OUTFALL SEWER, BERMONDSEY BRANCH (2 PLATES) ; OUTFALL SEWER, RESERVOIR AND 
 OUTLET (4 PLATES) ; OUTFALL SEWER, FILTH HOIST ; SECTIONS OF SEWERS (NORTH AND 
 SOUTH SIDES). 
 
 THAMES EMBANKMENT. SECTION OF RIVER WALL; STEAMBOAT PIER, WEST- 
 MINSTER (2 PLATES) ; LANDING STAIRS BETWEEN CHARING CROSS AND WATERLOO 
 BRIDGES ; YORK GATE (2 PLATES) ; OVERFLOW AND OUTLET AT SAVOY STREET SEWER 
 (3 PLATES) ; STEAMBOAT PIER, WATERLOO BRIDGE (3 PLATES) ; JUNCTION OF SEWERS, 
 PLANS AND SECTIONS ; GULLIES, PLANS AND SECTIONS ; ROLLING STOCK ; GRANITE 
 AND IRON FORTS. 
 
 HUMBER'S PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING. 
 
 FOURTH SERIES. Imp. 410, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of 
 John Fowler, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Speci- 
 fications, &c. Half-morocco 3 3s. 
 
 LIST OF THE PLATES AND DIAGRAMS. 
 
 ABBEY MILLS PUMPING STATION, MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS (4 PLATES); 
 BARROW DOCKS (5 PLATES); MANQUIS VIADUCT, SANTIAGO AND VALPARAISO RAILWAY, 
 (2 PLATES) ; ADAM'S LOCOMOTIVE, ST. HELEN'S CANAL RAILWAY (2 PLATES) ; CANNON 
 STREET STATION ROOF, CHARING CROSS RAILWAY (3 PLATES); ROAD BRIDGE OVER 
 THE RIVER MOKA (2 PLATES) ; TELEGRAPHIC APPARATUS FOR MESOPOTAMIA ; VIADUCT 
 OVER THE RIVER WYE, MIDLAND RAILWAY (3 PLATES); ST. GERMANS VIADUCT, 
 CORNWALL RAILWAY (2 PLATES); WROUGHT-IRON CYLINDER FOR DIVING BELL; 
 
 MILLWALL DOCKS (6 PLATES); MlLROY'S PATENT EXCAVATOR ; METROPOLITAN DlS- 
 
 TRICT RAILWAY (6 PLATES) ; HARBOURS, PORTS, AND BREAKWATERS (3 PLATES). 
 
16 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 THE POPULAR WORKS OF MICHAEL REYNOLDS. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE DRIVING. 
 
 A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of Locomotive Engines. By 
 MICHAEL REYNOLDS, Member of the Society of Engineers, formerly Loco- 
 motive Inspector, L. B. & S. C. R. Ninth Edition. Including a KEY TO 
 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. With Illustrations and Portrait of Author. 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6 
 
 " Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently recom- 
 mend the book not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the 
 performance of locomotive engines." The Engineer. 
 
 " Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature of the day. This admirable 
 practical treatise, of the practical utility of which we have to speak in terms of warm commendation.'' 
 Athencentn. 
 
 " Evidently the work of one who knows his subject thoroughly." Railway Service Gazette. 
 " Were the cautions and rules given in the book to become part of the every-day working 
 of our engine-drivers, we might have fewer distressing accidents to deplore." Scotsman. 
 
 STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING. 
 
 A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of Stationary Engines. By 
 MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. With Plates and Woodcuts. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6 
 
 " The author is thoroughly acquainted with his subjects, and his advice on the various points 
 treated is clear and practical. ... He has produced a manual which is an exceedingly useful 
 one for the class for whom it is specially intended." Engineering. 
 
 " Our author leaves no stone unturned. He is determined that his readers shall not only 
 know something about the stationary engine, but all about it." Engineer. 
 
 "An engineman who has mastered the contents of Mr. Reynolds's book will require but 
 little actual experience with boilers and engines before he can be trusted to look after them." 
 English Mechanic. 
 
 THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, 
 
 Fireman, and Engine-Boy. Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer 
 
 Locomotive Engines and their Inventors. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Second 
 
 Edition, with Revised Appendix. With numerous Illustrations, and Portrait 
 
 of George Stephenson. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 4/6 
 
 " From the technical knowledge of the author, it will appeal to the railway man of to-day 
 
 more forcibly than anything written by Dr. Smiles. . . . The volume contains information of a 
 
 technical kind, and facts that every driver should be familiar with." English Mechanic. 
 
 " We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has 
 ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine." Iron. 
 
 CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom : 
 
 their Construction and Performance. With copious Illustrations and numerous 
 
 Tables. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Large crown 8vo, cloth . . . 9/Q 
 
 " A popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be of great assistance in forming 
 
 public opinion, and will be studied with benefit by those who take an interest in the brake." English 
 
 Mechanic. 
 
 " Written with sufficient technical detail to enable the principal and relative connection of the 
 various parts of each particular brake to be readily grasped." Mechanical If 'arid. 
 
 ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE. 
 
 Stirring Adventures and Incidents in the Lives of Locomotive Engine- 
 
 Diivers. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 1/6 
 
 " From first to last perfectly fascinating. Wilkie Collins's most thrilling conceptions are 
 
 thrown into the shade by true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every page." North 
 
 British Mail. 
 
 "Anyone who wishes to get a real insight into railway life cannot do better than read 
 ' Engine-Driving Life ' for himself and if he once takes it up he will find that the author's enthu- 
 siasm nd real love of the engine-driving profession will carry him on until he has read every page." 
 Saturday Review. 
 
 THE ENGINEMAN'S POCKET COMPANION, 
 
 And Practical Educator for Enginemen, Boiler Attendants, and Mechanics. 
 
 By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. With 45 Illustrations and numerous Diagrams. 
 
 Third Edition, Revised. Royal i8mo, strongly bound for pocket wear . 3/6 
 
 "This admirable work is well suited to accomplish its object, being the honest workmanship 
 
 of a competent engineer." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 "A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the information an 
 engine-minder desirous of mastering the scientific principles of his daily calling would require." 
 The Miller. 
 
 "A boon to those who are striving to become efficient mechanics." Daily Chronicle. 
 
MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, &>c. 17 
 
 MARINE ENGINEERING, SHIPBUILDING, 
 NAVIGATION, &c. 
 
 THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S 
 
 POCKET-BOOK of Formulae, Rules, and Tables, and Marine Engineer's and 
 Surveyor's Handy Book of Reference. By CLEMENT MACKROW, M.I.N.A. 
 Sixth Edition, Revised, 700 pp., with 300 Illustrations. Fcap., leather. 12/6 
 
 S MMARY OF CONTENTS : SIGNS AND SYMBOLS, DECIMAL FRACTIONS. TRIGONO- 
 METRY. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. MENSURATION. CENTRES AND MOMENTS OF FIGURES. 
 MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OF GYRATION. ALGEBRAICAL EXPRESSIONS FOR 
 SIMPSON'S RULES. MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES. CENTRE OF GRAVITY. LAWS OF MOTION. 
 DISPLACEMENT, CENTRE OF BUOYANCY. CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SHIPS HULL. 
 STABILITY CURVES AND METACENTRES. SEA AND SHALLOW-WATER WAVES. ROLLING 
 OF SHIPS. PROPULSION AND RESISTANCE OF VESSELS. SPEED TRIALS. SAILING, 
 CENTRE OF EFFORT. DISTANCES DOWN RIVERS, COAST LINES. STEERING AND 
 RUDDERS OF VESSELS. LAUNCHING CALCULATIONS AND VELOCITIES. WEIGHT OF 
 MATERIAL AND GEAR. GUN PARTICULARS AND WEIGHT. STANDARD GAUGES. 
 RIVETED JOINTS AND RIVETING. STRENGTH AND TESTS OF MATERIALS. BINDING 
 AND SHEARING STRESSES, &c. STRENGTH OF SHAFTING, PILLARS, WHEELS, &c. 
 HYDRAULIC DATA, &c. CONIC SECTIONS, CATENARIAN CURVES. MECHANICAL 
 POWERS, WORK. BOARD OF TRADE REGULATIONS FOR BOILERS AND ENGINES. BOARD 
 OF TRADE REGULATIONS FOR SHIPS. LLOYD'S RULES FOR BOILERS. LLOYD'S WEIGHT 
 OF CHAINS. LLOYD'S SCANTLINGS FOR SHIPS. DATA OF ENGINES AND VESSELS. 
 SHIPS' FITTINGS AND TESTS. SEASONING PRESERVING TIMBER. MEASUREMENT OF 
 TIMBER. ALLOYS, PAINTS, VARNISHES. DATA FOR STOWAGE. ADMIRALTY TRANS- 
 PORT REGULATIONS. RULES FOR HORSE-POWER, SCREW PROPELLERS, &c. PER- 
 CENTAGES FOR BUTT STRAPS, &c. PARTICULARS OF YACHTS. MASTING AND RIGGING 
 VESSELS. DISTANCES OF FOREIGN PORTS. TONNAGE TABLES. VOCABULARY OF 
 FRENCH AND ENGLISH TERMS. ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. FOREIGN 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS. FOREIGN MONEY. DISCOUNT 
 AND WAGES TABLES. USEFUL NUMBERS AND READY RECKONERS. TABLES OF 
 CIRCULAR MEASURES. TABLES OF AREAS OF AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 
 TABLES OF AREAS OF SEGMENTS OF CIRCLES. TABLES OF SQUARES AND CUBES AND 
 ROOTS OF NUMBERS. TABLES OF LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS. TABLES OF HYPER- 
 BOLIC LOGARITHMS. TABLES OF NATURAL SINES, TANGENTS, &c. TABLES OF 
 LOGARITHMIC SINES, TANGENTS, &c. 
 
 " In these days of advanced knowledge a work like this is of the greatest value. It contains 
 a vast amount of information. We unhesitatingly say that it is the most valuable compilation for its 
 specific purpose that has ever been printed. No naval architect, engineer, surveyor, or seaman, 
 wood or iron shipbuilder, can afford to be without this work." Nautical Magazine. 
 
 "Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or design of vessels. . . . Will 
 be found to contain the most useful tables and formulae required by shipbuilders, carefully collected 
 from the best authorities, and put together in a popular and simple form. The book is one of 
 exceptional merit." Engineer. 
 
 " The professional shipbuilder has now, in a convenient and accessible form, reliable data for 
 solving many of the numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his work." Iron. 
 
 " There is no doubt that a pocket-book of this description must be a necessity in the ship- 
 building trade. . . The volume contains a mass of useful information clearly expressed and 
 presented in a handy form." Marine Engineer. 
 
 WANNAN'S MARINE ENGINEER'S GUIDE 
 
 To Board of Trade Examinations for Certificates of Competency. Containing 
 all Latest Questions to Date, with Simple, Clear, and Correct Solutions ; 
 Elementary and Verbal Questions and Answers ; complete Set of Drawings 
 with Statements completed. By A. C. WANNAN, C.E., and E. W. I. WANNAN, 
 M.I.M.E. Illustrated with numerous Engravings. Crown 8vo, 370 pages 
 cloth. [Just Published. 8/6 
 
 WANNAN'S MARINE ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. 
 
 Containing the Latest Board of Trade Rules and Data for Marine Engineers. 
 By A. C. WANNAN. Second Edition, carefully Revised. Square i8mo, with 
 thumb Index, leather. [Just Published. 5/Q 
 
 MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS. 
 
 A Treatise on. By ROBERT MURRAY, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly 
 
 Revised, with considerable Additions by the Author and by GEORGE 
 
 CARLISLE, C.E., Senior Surveyor to the Board of Trade. 12010, cloth . 4/6 
 
 " Well adapted to give the young steamship engineer or marine engine and boiler maker a 
 
 general introduction into his practical work." Mechanical World. 
 
 " We feel sure that this thoroughly revised edition will continue to be as popular in the future 
 as it has been in the past, as, for its size, it contains more useful information than any =,imiUf 
 t realise. Industries. 
 
18 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 SEA TERMS, PHRASES, AND WORDS 
 
 (Technical Dictionary of) used in the English and French Languages 
 (English- French, French-English). For the Use of Seamen, Engineers, Pilots, 
 Shipbuilders, Shipowners, and Ship-brokers. Compiled by W. PIRRIE, late of 
 the African Steamship Company. Fcap. 8vo, cloth limp. . . . 5/O 
 
 " This volume will be highly appreciated by seamen, engineers, pilots, shipbuilders and ship- 
 owners. It will be found wonderfully accurate and complete." Scotsman. 
 
 " A very useful dictionary, which has long been wanted by French and English engineers, 
 
 masters, officers and others." Shipping World, 
 
 ELECTRIC SHIP LIGHTING. 
 
 A Handbook on the Practical Fitting and Running of Ships' Electrical Plant, 
 for the Use of Shipowners and Builders, Marine Electricians and Sea-going 
 Engineers in Charge. By J. W. URQUHART, Author of "Electric Light," 
 " Dynamo Construction, " &c. Crown 8vo, cloth ..... 7/6 
 
 MARINE ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. 
 
 Consisting of useful Tables and Formulae. By FRANK PROCTOR, A.I.N.A. 
 
 Third Edition. Royal 32mo, leather, gilt edges, with strap . . . 4/O 
 " We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt want." Naval Science. 
 " A most useful companion to all marine engineers." United Service Gazette. 
 
 ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING. 
 
 A Manual for Young Marine Engineers and Apprentices. In the Form of 
 
 Questions and Answers on Metals, Alloys, Strength of Materials, Construction 
 
 and Management of Marine Engines and Boilers, Geometry, &c., &c. With 
 
 an Appendix of Useful Tables. By J. S. BREWER. Crown 8vo, cloth . 1 /6 
 
 " Contains much valuable information for the class for whom it is intended, especially in the 
 
 chapters on the management of boilers and engines." Nautical Magazine. 
 
 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. 
 
 Consisting of THE SAILOR'S SEA-BOOK, by JAMES GREENWOOD and W. H. 
 ROSSER ; together with the exquisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for 
 the Working of the Problems, by HENRY LAW, C.E., and Professor J. R. 
 YOUNG. Illustrated. i2mo, strongly half-bound ..... 7/O 
 
 MARINE ENGINEER'S DRAWING-BOOK. 
 
 Adapted to the Requirements of the Board of Trade Examinations. By JOHN 
 LOCKIE, C.E. With 22 Plates, Drawn to Scale. Royal 8vo, cloth . 3/6 
 
 THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKING. 
 
 By SAMUEL B. SADLER, Practical Sailmaker, late in the employment of 
 Messrs. Ratsey and Lapthorne, of Cowes and Gosport. With Plates and 
 other Illustrations. Small 410, cloth ....... 1 2/6 
 
 " This extremely practical work gives a complete education in all the branches of the manu- 
 facture, cutting out, roping, seaming, and goring. It is copiously illustrated, and will form a first- 
 rate text-book and guide." Portsmouth Times. 
 
 CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS. 
 
 Comprising Sizes and Curves of Links, Studs, &c., Iron for Cables and Chains, 
 Chain Cable and Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of 
 Cables and Chains, Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain 
 Cables and Chains, Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, 
 Charges for Testing, List of Manufacturers of Cables, &c., &c. By 
 THOMAS W. TRAILL, F.E.R.N., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer-Surveyor-in-Chief, 
 Board of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable and Anchor Proving Establishments, 
 and General Superintendent Lloyd's Committee on Proving Establishments. 
 With numerous Tables, Illustrations, and Lithographic Drawings. Folio, 
 cloth, bevelled boards .......... 2 2s. 
 
 " It contains a vast amount of valuable information. Nothing seems to be wanting to make it 
 a complete and standard work of reference on the subject." Nautical Magaxine. 
 
MINING AND METALLURGY. ig 
 
 MINING AND METALLURGY. 
 
 COLLIERY WORKING AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Comprising the Duties of a Colliery Manager, the Oversight and Arrange- 
 ment of Labour and Wages, and the different Systems of Working Coal 
 Seams. By H. F. BULMAN and R. A. S. REDMAYNE. 350 pp., with 
 28 Plates and other Illustrations, including Underground Photographs. 
 Medium Svo, cloth. (Just Published. 1 5/Q 
 
 "This is, indeed, an admirable Handbook for Colliery Managers, in fact it is an indispensable 
 adjunct to a Colliery Manager's education, as well as being a most useful and interesting work 
 on the subject for all who in any way have to do with coal mining. The underground photographs 
 are an attractive feature of the work, being very lifelike and necessarily true representations of the 
 scenes they depict." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 " Mr. Bulman and Mr. Redmayne, who are both experienced Colliery Managers of great 
 literary ability, are to be congratulated on having supplied an authoritative work dealing with aside 
 of the subject of coal mining which has hitherto received but scant treatment. The authors 
 elucidate their text by 119 woodcuts and 28 plates, most of the latter being admirable reproductions 
 of photographs taken underground with the aid of the magnesium flash-light. These illustrations 
 are excellent." Nature. 
 
 INFLAMMABLE GAS AND VAPOUR IN THE AIR 
 
 (The Detection and Measurement of). By FRANK CLOWES, D.Sc., Lpnd., 
 F.I.C., Prof, of Chemistry in the University College, Nottingham. With a 
 Chapter on THE DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF PETROLEUM VAPOUR 
 by BOVERTON REDWOOD, F.R.S.E., Consulting Adviser to the Corporation 
 of London under the Petroleum Acts. Crown Svo, cloth. 
 
 [Just Published. Net. 5/Q 
 
 " Professor Clowes has given us a volume on a subject of much industrial importance . . 
 Those interested in these matters may be recommended to study this book, which is easy of compre 
 hension and contains many good things." The Engineer. 
 
 " A convenient summary of the work on which Professor Clowes has been engaged for some 
 considerable time. . . . It is hardly necessary to say that any work on these subjects with these 
 names on the title-page must be a valuable one, and one that no mining engineer certainly no coal 
 miner can afford to ignore or to leave unread." Mining yournat. 
 
 MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINES. 
 
 A Practical Treatise for Mining Engineers, Metallurgists, and Managers of 
 
 Mines. By E. HENRY DAVIES, M.E., F.G.S. Crown Svo, 580 pp., with 
 
 upwards of 300 Illustrations, cloth. [Just Published. "| 2/6 
 
 " Mr. Davies, in this handsome volume, has done the advanced student and the manager of 
 
 mines good service. Almost every kind of machinery in actual use is carefully described, and the 
 
 woodcuts and plates are good." Athenaum. 
 
 " From cover to cover the work exhibits all the same characteristics which excite the confi- 
 dence and attract the attention of the student as he peruses the first page. The work may safely 
 be recommended. By its publication the literature connected with the industry will be enriched 
 and the reputation of its author enhanced." Mining- journal. 
 
 METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING. 
 
 By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c., Author of "A Treatise on 
 Slate and Slate Quarrying." Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much 
 Enlarged by his Son, E. HENRY DAVIES, M.E., F.G.S. With about 150 
 Illustrations. Crown Svo, cloth 1 2/6 
 
 " Neither the practical miner nor the general reader, interested in mines, can have a bette 
 book for his companion and his guide." Mining Journal. 
 
 " We are doing our readers a service in calling their attention to this valuable work." 
 Mining World. 
 
 " As a history of the present state of mining throughout the world this book has a real value 
 and it supplies an actual v<x&."Athenceum.. 
 
 EARTHY AND OTHER MINERALS AND MINING. 
 
 By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S., Author of " Metalliferous Minerals," &c. Third 
 Edition, Revised and Enlarged by his Son, E. HENRY DAVIES, M.E., F.G.S. 
 
 With about 100 Illustrations. Crown Svo, cloth 1 2/6 
 
 " We do not remember to have met with any English work on mining matters that contains 
 the same amount of information packed in equally convenient form." Academy. 
 
 " We should be inclined to rank it as among the very best of the handy technical and trades 
 manuals which have recently appeared." British Quarterly Review. 
 
20 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 BRITISH MINING. 
 
 A Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical Development, and Future 
 
 Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United Kingdom. By ROBERT 
 
 HUNT, F.R.S., late Keeper of Mining Records. Upwards of 950 pp., with 
 
 230 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal 8vo, cloth 2 2s. 
 
 " The book is a treasure-house of statistical information on mining subjects, and we know of 
 
 no other work embodying so great a mass of matter of this kind. Were this the only merit of 
 
 Mr. Hunt's volume it would be sufficient to render it indispensable in the library of every one 
 
 interested in the development of the mining and metallurgical industries of this country." 
 
 Athen&um, 
 
 " A mass of information not elsewhere available, and of the greatest value to those who may 
 be interested in our great mineral industries." Engineer. 
 
 MINE DRAINAGE. 
 
 A Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Underground Steam 
 Pumping Machinery, with a Description of a large number of the best known 
 Engines, their General Utility and the Special Sphere of their Action, the 
 Mode of their Application, and their merits compared with other forms of 
 Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN MICHELL. 8vo, cloth . . 1 5/O 
 
 " Will be highly esteemed by colliery owners and lessees, mining engineers, and students 
 
 fenerally who require to be acquainted with the best means of securing the drainage of mines, 
 t is a most valuable work, and stands almost alone in the literature of steam pumping machinery.' 
 
 Colliery Guardian. 
 
 "Much valuable information is given, so that the book is thoroughly worthy of an extensive 
 circulation amongst practical men and purchasers of machinery." Mining Journal. 
 
 THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 A Guide for the Prospector and Traveller in se; 
 
 Valuable Minerals. By J. W. ANDERSON, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S., Author 
 
 A Guide for the Prospector and Traveller in search of Metal-Bearing or other 
 
 ~y J. W. ANDERSON, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S., 
 of " Fiji and New Caledonia." Seventh Edition, thoroughly Revised and 
 
 much Enlarged. Small crown 8vo, cloth, 3/6 \ or, leather, pocket-book form, 
 with tuck. [Just Published. 4/6 
 
 " Will supply a much-felt want, especially among Colonists, in whose way are so often thrown 
 many mineralogical specimens the value of which it is difficult to determine." Engineer. 
 
 " How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they are found, are the 
 eading points to which attention is directed. The author has managed to pack as much practical 
 detail into his pages as would supply material for a book three times its size." Mining Journal. 
 
 NOTES AND FORMUL/E FOR MINING STUDENTS. 
 
 By JOHN HERMAN MERIVALE, M.A., Late Professor of Mining in the Durham 
 College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Fourth Edition, Revised and 
 Enlarged. By H. F. BULMAN, A.M.Inst.C.E. Small crown 8vo, cloth. 
 
 [Just Published. 2/6 
 
 " The author has done his work in a creditable manner, and has produced a book that will 
 be of service to students and those who are practically engaged in mining operations." Engineer. 
 
 THE MINER'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 A Handy Book of Reference on the subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining 
 
 Operations, Ore Dressing, &c. For the Use of Students and others interested 
 
 in Mining Matters. By JOHN MILNE, F.R.S., Professor of Mining in the 
 
 Imperial University of Japan. Revised Edition. Fcap. 8vo, leather . 7/6 
 
 " Professor Milne's handbook is sure to be received with favour by all connected with 
 
 mining, and will be extremely popular among students." Athenceum. 
 
 POCKET-BOOK FOR MINERS AND METALLURGISTS. 
 
 Comprising Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Notes for Use in Field and Office 
 Work. By F. DANVER:; POWER, F.G.S., M.E. Fcap. 8vo, leather . 9/Q 
 "This excellent book is an admirable example of its kind, and ought to find a large sale 
 amongst English-speaking prospectors and mining engineers." Engineering. 
 
 MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S GUIDE. 
 
 Comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valuation o. 
 Mining Properties, with New Traverse Tables. By WM. LINTERN. Fourth 
 Edition, Enlarged, izmo, cloth 3/6 
 
MINING AND METALLURGY. 21 
 
 THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 A Comprehensive Treatise on the Laying-out and Working of Collieries i 
 Designed as a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the Use of Coal 
 Mining Students preparing for First-class Certificates. By CALEB PAMELY, 
 Mining Engineer and Surveyor; Member of the North of England Institute of 
 Mining and Mechanical Engineers; and Member of the South Wales Institute 
 of Mining Engineers. With 700 Plans, Diagrams, and other Illustrations. 
 Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged, medium 8vo, over 900 pp. 
 Strongly bound 1 63. 
 
 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS : GEOLOGY. SEARCH FOR COAL. MINERAL LEASES 
 AND OTHER HOLDINGS. SHAFT SINKING. FITTING UP THE SHAFT AND SURFACE 
 ARRANGEMENTS. STEAM BOILERS AND THEIR FITTINGS. TIMBERING AND WALLING. 
 NARROW WORK AND METHODS OF WORKING. UNDERGROUND CONVEYANCE. 
 DRAINAGE. THE GASES MET WITH IN MINES ; VENTILATION. ON THE FRICTION OF 
 AIR IN MINES. THE PRIESTMAN OIL ENGINE; PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. 
 SURVEYING AND PLANNING. SAFETY LAMPS AND FIREDAMP DETECTORS. SUNDRY 
 AND INCIDENTAL OPERATIONS AND APPLIANCES. COLLIERY EXPLOSIONS. MISCEL- 
 LANEOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. Appendix: SUMMARY OF REPORT OF H.M. 
 COMMISSIONERS ON ACCIDENTS IN MINES. 
 
 "Mr. Pamely has not only given us a comprehensive reference book of a very high order, 
 suitable to the requirements of mining engineers and colliery managers, but has also provided 
 mining students with a class-book that is as interesting as it is instructive." Colliery Manager. 
 
 " Mr. Pamely's work is eminently suited to the purpose for which it is intended, being clear, 
 interesting, exhaustive, rich in detail, and up to date, giving descriptions of the latest machines in 
 every department. A mining engineer could scarcely go wrong who followed this work." Colliery 
 Guardian. 
 
 "This is the most complete 'all-round' work on coal-mining published in the English 
 language. . . . No library of coal-mining books is complete without it." Colliery Engineer 
 (Scranton. Pa.. U.S.A.). 
 
 COAL & IRON INDUSTRIES of the UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Principal Seams of 
 Coal, with Returns of their Produce and its Distribution, and Analyses of 
 Special Varieties. Also, an Account of the Occurrence of Iron Ores in Veins or 
 Seams ; Analyses of each Variety ; and a History of the Rise and Progress of 
 Pig Iron Manufacture. By RICHARD MEADE. 8vo, cloth . . 1 8s. 
 "Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of its class which we have ever 
 
 met. ... A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from 
 
 his library." Iron and Coal Trades Review. 
 
 COAL AND COAL MINING. 
 
 By the late Sir WARINGTON W. SMYTH, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector 
 of the Mines of the Crown. Seventh Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With 
 
 numerous Illustrations, 12010, cloth 3/6 
 
 "As an outline is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of the 
 
 principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers." 
 
 Mining Journal. 
 
 ASBESTOS AND ASBESTIC. 
 
 Their Properties, Occurrence, and Use. By ROBERT H. JONES, F.S.A., 
 Mineralogist, Hon. Mem. Asbestos Club, Black Lake, Canada. With Ten 
 Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 1 6/O 
 " An interesting and invaluable work." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING 
 
 (Elementary and Practical Treatise on), with and without the Magnetic Needle. 
 By THOMAS FENWICK, Surveyor of Mines, and THOMAS BAKER, C.E. Illus- 
 trated. i2mo, cloth 2/6 
 
 GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES. 
 
 By GEORGE F. HARRIS, F.G.S., Membre de la Soci6t6 Beige de Geologic, 
 Lecturer on Economic Geology at the Birkbeck Institution, &c. With Illus- 
 trations. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 
 
 " A clearly and well-written manual for persons engaged or interested in the granite industry.' 
 Scotsman. 
 
22 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 THE METALLURGY OF GOLD. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores. 
 Including the Processes of Concentration, Chlorination, and Extraction by 
 Cyanide, and the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. EISSLER, 
 Mining Engineer and Metallurgical Chemist, formerly Assistant Assayer of the 
 U.S. Mint, San Francisco. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. With about 250 Illus- 
 trations and numerous Folding Plates and Working Drawings. Large crown 
 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 1 6/O 
 
 " This book thoroughly deserves its title of a ' Practical Treatise.' The whole process of gold 
 milling, from the breaking of the quartz to the assay of the bullion, is described in clear and orderly 
 narrative and with much, but not too much, fulness of detail." Saturday Revie-w. 
 
 " The work is a storehouse of information and valuable data, and we strongly recommend it 
 to all professional men engaged in the gold-mining industry." Mining Journal. 
 
 THE CYANIDE PROCESS OF GOLD EXTRACTION. 
 
 Including its Practical Application on the Witwatersrand Gold Fields in South 
 Africa. By M. EISSLER, M.E., Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold," &c. 
 With Diagrams and Working Drawings. Second Edition, Revised and En- 
 larged. 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 7/6 
 
 "This book is just what was needed to acquaint mining men with the actual working of a 
 process which is not only the most popular, but is, as a general rule, the most successful for the 
 extraction of gold from tailings." Mining Journal. 
 
 " The work will prove invaluable to all interested in gold mining, whether metallurgists or as 
 investors." Chemical News. 
 
 THE METALLURGY OF SILVER. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation of Silver 
 Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Silver Bullion. By 
 M. EISSLER, Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold," &c. Third Edition. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth "| Q/6 
 
 " A practical treatise, and a technical work which we are convinced will supply a long-felt 
 want amongst practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and others indirectly 
 connected with the industries." Mining Journal. 
 
 " From first to last the book is thoroughly sound and reliable." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 " For chemists, practical miners, assayers, and investors alike we do not know of any wrk 
 on the subject so handy and yet so comprehensive." Glasgow Herald, 
 
 THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of 
 Lead Bullion. Including Reports on various Smelting Establishments and 
 Descriptions of Modern Smelting Furnaces and Plants in Europe and America. 
 By M. EISSLER, M.E., Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold," &c. Crown 8vo, 
 400 pp., with 183 Illustrations, cloth . 12/6 
 
 " The numerous metallurgical processes, which are fully and extensively treated of, embrace 
 all the stages experienced in the passage of the lead from the various natural states to its issue from 
 the refinery as an article of commerce." Practical Engineer. 
 
 " The present volume fully maintains the reputation of the author. Those who wish to obtain 
 a thorough insight into the present state of this industry cannot do better than read this volume, and 
 all mining engineers cannot fail to find many useful hints and suggestions in it." Industries. 
 
 METALLURGY OF IRON. 
 
 By H. BAUERMAN, F.G.S., A.R.S.M. Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
 i2ino, cloth SO 
 
 THE IRON ORES of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. 
 
 Their Mode of Occurrence, Age and Origin, and the Methods of Searching for 
 and Working Them. With a Notice of some of the Iron Ores of Spain. By 
 J. D. KENDALL, F.G.S., Mining Engineer. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 16/O 
 
 " The author has a thorough practical knowledge of his subject, and has supplemented a 
 careful study of the available literature by unpublished information derived from his own observa- 
 tions The result is a very useful volume, which cannot fail to be of value to all interested in the 
 iron industry of the country.' Industries. 
 
ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, &-c. 23 
 
 ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL 
 ENGINEERING, &c. 
 
 SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHS. 
 
 Their History, Construction, and Working. Founded in part on WUNSCHEN- 
 DORFF'S " Trait6 de Telegraphic Sous-Marine," and Compiled from Authorita- 
 tive and Exclusive Sources. By CHARLES BRIGHT, F.R.S.E. Super-royal 
 8vo, about 780 pp., fully Illustrated, including Maps and Folding Plates. 
 
 [Just Published. Net. 3 3 8 . 
 
 " There are few, if any, persons more fitted to write a treatise on submarine telegraphy than 
 Mr. Charles Bright. The author has done his work admirably, and has written in a way which will 
 appeal as much to the layman as to the engineer. This admirable volume must, for many years to 
 come, hold the position of the English classic on submarine telegraphy." Engineer. 
 
 " This book is full of information. It makes a book of reference which should be in every 
 engineer's library." Nature. 
 
 " Mr. Bright's interestingly written and admirably illustrated book will meet with a welcome 
 reception from cable men." Electrician. 
 
 " The author deals with his subject from all points of view political and strategical as well as 
 scientific. The work will be of interest, not only to men of science, but to the general public. We 
 
 can strongly recommend it." Athenccui 
 
 " The work contains a great store of technical information concerning tl 
 ing of submarine telegraphs. In bringing together the most valuable results relating to the evolu- 
 
 tion of the telegraph, the author has rendered a service that will be very widely appreciated." 
 Morning Post. 
 
 THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. 
 
 Consisting of Modern Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Data. By H. R. KEMPE, 
 M.Inst.E.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., Technical Officer Postal Telegraphs, Author of 
 "A Handbook of Electrical Testing," " The Engineer's Year-Book," &c. 
 Second Edition, thoroughly Revised, with Additions. With numerous Illus- 
 trations. Royal 32mo, oblong, leather 5/O 
 
 " It is the best book of its kind." Electrical Engineer. 
 
 " The Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Book is a good one." Electrician. 
 
 " Strongly recommended to those engaged in the electrical industries." Electrical Review. 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING. 
 
 A Handbook for Working Electrical Engineers, embodying Practical Notes on 
 Installation Management. By J. W. URQUHART, Electrician, Author of 
 " Electric Light," &c. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition, 
 Revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 5/Q 
 
 " This volume deals with what may be termed the mechanics of electric lighting, and is 
 
 addressed to men who are already engaged in the work, or are training for it. The work traverses 
 
 a great deal of ground, and may be read as a sequel to the same author's useful work on ' Electric 
 
 Light. ' " Electrician. 
 
 " Eminently practical and useful . . . Ought to be in the hands of every one in charge of an 
 
 electric light plant. Electrical Engineer. 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 Its Production and Use, Embodying Plain Directions for the Treatment of 
 
 Dynamo-Electric Machines, Batteries, Accumulators, and Electric Lamps. 
 
 By J. W. URQUHART, C.E. Sixth Edition, Revised, with Additions and 145 
 
 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 7/Q 
 
 " The whole ground of electric lighting is more or less covered and explained in a very clear 
 
 and concise manner." Electrical Review. 
 
 " A -vade-mecum of the salient facts connected with the science of electric lighting." 
 Electrician. 
 
 "You cannot for your purpose have a better book than 'Electric Light' by Urquhart." 
 Engineer. 
 
 DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 A Practical Handbook for the Use of Engineer-Constructors and Electricians- 
 in-Charge. Embracing Framework Building, Field Magnet and Armature 
 Winding and Grouping, Compounding, &c. With Examples of leading 
 English, American, and Continental Dynamos and Motors. By J. W. 
 URQUHART, Author of " Electric Light," &c. Second Edition, Enlarged. 
 With 114 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 
 
 " Mr. Urquhart's book is the first one which deals with these matters hi such a way that the 
 engineering student can understand them. The book is very readable, and the author leads bis 
 readers up to difficult subjects by reasonably simple tests." Engineering Review. 
 
 " A book for which a demand has long existed." Mechanical World. 
 
CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 THE MANAGEMENT OF DYNAMOS. 
 
 A Handy Book of Theory and Practice for the Use of Mechanics, Engineers, 
 Students, and others in Charge of Dynamos. By G. W. LUMMIS PATERSON. 
 
 With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 
 
 " An example which deserves to be taken as a model by other authors. The subject is treated 
 In a manner which any intelligent man who is fit to be entrusted with charge of an engine should 
 be able to understand. It is a useful book to all who make, tend, or employ electric machinery." 
 Architect. 
 
 THE STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 A Popular Encyclopaedia of Words and Terms Used in the Practice of Electrical 
 Engineering. By T. O'CoNOR SLOANE, A.M., Ph.D. Second Edition, 
 with Appendix to date. Crown 8vo, 680 pp., 390 Illustrations, cloth. 
 
 [Just Published. 7/6 
 
 " The work has many attractive features in it, and is, beyond doubt, a well put together and 
 useful publication. The amount of ground covered may be gathered from the fact that in the index 
 about 5,600 references will be found." Electrical Review. 
 
 ELECTRIC SHIP-LIGHTING. 
 
 A Handbook on the Practical Fitting and Running of Ships' Electrical Plant. 
 For the Use of Shipowners and Builders, Marine Electricians, and Seagoing 
 Engineers-in-Charge. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E. With 88 Illustrations, 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 
 
 "The subject of ship electric lighting is one of vast importance, and Mr. Urquhart is to be 
 
 highly complimented for placing such a valuable work at the service of marine electricians." The 
 
 Steamship. 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR COUNTRY HOUSES. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on the Erection and Running of Small Installations, 
 
 with Particulars of the Cost of Plant and Working. By J. H. KNIGHT. 
 
 Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, wrapper. [Just Published. 1 /Q 
 
 " The book contains excellent advice and many practical hints for the help of those who wish 
 
 to light their own houses." Building Nevis. 
 
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC LIGHTING. 
 
 By ALAN A. CAMPBELL SWINTON, Associate I.E.E. Third Edition, Enlarged 
 and Revised. With 16 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . . . .1/6 
 " Any one who desires a short and thoroughly clear exposition of the elementary principles of 
 electric lighting cannot do better than read this little work." Bradford Observer. 
 
 DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 
 
 By PHILIP ATKINSON, A.M., Ph.D., Author of " Elements of Static 
 Electricity," &c. Crown 8vo, 417 pp., with 120 Illustrations, cloth . 1Q/6 
 
 THE ELECTRIC TRANSFORMATION OF POWER. 
 
 With its Application by the Electric Motor, including Electric Railway 
 Construction. By P. ATKINSON, A.M., Ph.D. With 96 Illustrations. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 
 
 HOW TO MAKE A DYNAMO. 
 
 A Practical Treatise for Amateurs. Containing numerous Illustrations and 
 Detailed Instructions for Constructing a Small Dynamo to Produce the 
 Electric Light. By ALFRED CROFTS. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 2/O 
 
 " The instructions given in this unpretentious little book are sufficiently clear and explicit to 
 
 enable any amateur mechanic possessed of average skill and the usual tools to be found in an 
 
 amateur's workshop to build a practical dynamo machine." Electrician. 
 
 THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. 
 
 By H. M. NOAD, F.R.S. Cheape Edition. 650 pp., with 470 Illustrations. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 9/O 
 
ARCHITECTURE. BUILDING, &>c. 25 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, &c. 
 
 PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 A Handbook for Students Preparing for Examinations, and a Book of 
 
 Reference for Persons Engaged in Building. By JOHN PARNELL ALLEN, 
 
 Surveyor, Lecturer on Building Construction at the Durham College of 
 
 Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
 
 Medium 8vo, 450 pp., with 1,000 Illustrations, cloth. [Just Published. 716 
 
 " The most complete exposition of building construction we have seen. It contains all that is 
 
 necessary to prepare students for the various examinations in building construction." Building 
 
 News. 
 
 " The author depends nearly as much on his diagrams as on his type. The pages sugges 
 the hand of a man of experience in building operations and the volume must be a blessing to 
 many teachers as well as to students." The Architect. 
 
 " The work is sure to prove a formidable rival to great and small competitors alike, and 
 bids fair to take a permanent place as a favourite student's text-book. The large number of illus- 
 trations deserve particular mention for the great merit they possess for purposes of reference in 
 exactly corresponding to convenient scales." yournalofthe Royal Institute of British Architects. 
 
 PRACTICAL MASONRY. 
 
 A Guide to the Art of Stone Cutting. Comprising the Construction, Setting 
 Out, and Working of Stairs, Circular Work, Arches, Niches, Domes, Penden- 
 tives, Vaults, Tracery Windows, &c., &c. For the Use of Students, Masons, 
 and other Workmen. By WILLIAM R. PURCHASE, Building Inspector to the 
 Borough of Hove. Second Edition, with Glossary of Terms. Royal 8vo, 142 pp., 
 with 52 Lithographic Plates, comprising nearly 400 separate Diagrams, 
 
 cloth 7/6 
 
 "Mr. Purchase's ' Practical Masonry ' will undoubtedly be found useful to all interested in 
 this important subject, whether theoretically or practically. Most of the examples given are from 
 actual work carried out, the diagrams being carefully drawn. The book is a practical treatise on 
 the subject, the author himself having commenced as an operative mason, and afterwards acted as 
 foreman mason on many large and important buildings prior to the attainment of his present 
 position. It should be found of general utility to architectural students and others, as well as to 
 those to whom it is specially addressed." Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects. 
 
 CONCRETE: ITS NATURE AND USES. 
 
 A Book for Architects, Builders, Contractors, and Clerks of Works. By 
 GEORGE L. SUTCLIFFE, A.R.I. B.A. 350 pp., with numerous Illustrations. 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 
 
 " The author treats a difficult subject in a lucid manner. The manual fills a long-felt gap. 
 It is careful and exhaustive ; equally useful as a student's guide and an architect s book of 
 reference." ypurnal of the Royal Institute of British Architects. 
 
 " There is room for this new book, which will probably be for some time the standard work 
 on the subject for a builder's purpose." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 THE MECHANICS OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 A Treatise on Applied Mechanics, especially Adapted to the Use of Architects. 
 
 By E. W. TARN, M.A., Author of " The Science of Building," &c. Second 
 
 Edition, Enlarged. Illustrated with 125 Diagrams. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 
 
 "The book is a very useful and helpful manual of architectural mechanics, and really contains 
 
 sufficient to enable a careful and painstaking student to grasp the principles bearing upon the 
 
 majority of building problems. . . . Mr. Tarn has added, by this volume, to the debt of 
 
 gratitude which is owing to him by architectural students for the many valuable works which he has 
 
 produced for their use." The Builder. 
 
 LOCKWOOD'S BUILDER'S PRICE BOOK for 1899- 
 
 A Comprehensive Handbook of the Latest Prices and Data for Builders, 
 Architects, Engineers, and Contractors. Re-constructed, Re-written, and 
 Greatly Enlarged. By FRANCIS T. W. MILLER. 800 closely-printed 
 
 crown 8vo, cloth 
 
 " This book is a very useful one, and should find a place in every English office connected 
 with the buildine and engineering professions." Industries. 
 "An excellent boolc of reference." Architect. 
 
 " In its new and revised form this Price Book is what a work of this kind should be compre- 
 hensive, reliable, well arranged, legible, and well bound." British Architect. 
 
 THE DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 By Sir WILLIAM CHAMBERS, F.R.S. With Portrait, Illustrations, Notes, and 
 an EXAMINATION OF GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE, by JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A. 
 Revised and Edited by W. H. LEEDS. 66 Plates, 4 to, cloth . . 21 /O 
 
26 CROSBY LOCK WOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Being a Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With 
 Outline Specifications and Estimates. By C. WICKES, Architect, Author of 
 "The Spires and Towers of England," &c. 61 Plates, 410, half-morocco, gilt 
 edges 1 11s. 60. 
 
 "The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and 
 they will prove very valuable and suggestive." Building News. 
 
 THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE. 
 
 Being a Text-book of Useful Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, 
 Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c., &c. By FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect. 
 
 Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 
 
 "As a text -book of useful information for architects, engineers, surveyors, &c., it would be 
 hard to find a handier or more complete little volume." Standard. 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 The whole Course and Operations of the Draughtsman in Drawing a Large 
 
 House in Linear Perspective. Illustrated by 43 Folding Plates. By F. O. 
 
 FERGUSON. Second Edition, Enlarged. 8vo, boards .... 3/6 
 
 " It is the most intelligible of the treatises on this ill-treated subject that I have met with." 
 
 E. INGRESS BELL, ESQ., in the R.I.B.A. Journal. 
 
 PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING. 
 
 For the Operative Builder and Young Student in Architecture. By GEORGE 
 PYNE. 14 Plates, 410, boards 7/6 
 
 MEASURING AND VALUING ARTIFICER'S WORK 
 
 (The Student's Guide to the Practice of). Containing Directions for taking 
 Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with 
 Tables of Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the Calculation of Areas 
 and Solidities. Originally edited by E. DOBSON, Architect. With Additions 
 by E. W. TARN, M.A. Sixth Edition. With 8 Plates and 63 Woodcuts. 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 
 
 " This edition will be found the most complete treatise on the principles of measuring and 
 valuing artificer's work that has yet been published." Building News. 
 
 TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER, AND ESTIMATOR. 
 
 For Builders and Surveyors. Containing Technical Directions for Measuring 
 Work in all the Building Trades, Complete Specifications for Houses, Roads, 
 and Drains, and an Easy Method of Estimating the parts of a Building 
 collectively. By A. C. BEATON. Eighth Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size, 
 
 gilt edges . 1/6 
 
 "No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his 'Beaton.'" Building 
 News. 
 
 CONSTRUCTIONAL IRON AND STEEL WORK. 
 
 As Applied to Public, Private, and Domestic Buildings. A Practical Treatise 
 for Architects, Students, and Builders. By F. CAMPIN. Crown 8vo, cloth. 
 
 [Just Published. 3/6 
 
 " Any one who wants a book on ironwork, as employed in buildings for stanchions, columns, 
 and beams, will find the present volume to be suitable. The author has had long and varied 
 experience in designing this class of work. The illustrations have the character of working 
 drawings. This practical book may be counted a most valuable work." British Architect. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. With an Essay 
 on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. Upon the Basis of the 
 Work by ALFRED BARTHOLOMEW, thoroughly Revised, Corrected, and greatly 
 added to by FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect. Third Edition, Revised. 8vo, 
 
 cloth . . 15/O 
 
 "The work is too well known to need any recommendation from us. It is one of the books 
 with which every young architect must be equipped." A rchitect. 
 
 THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR. 
 
 Or, What will it Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair ? A Pries Book for Un- 
 professional People as well as the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By 
 J. D. SIMON. Edited by F. T. W. MILLER, A.R.I.B.A. Fourth Edition. 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth : . . 3/6 
 
 "In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over." Field. 
 
SANITATION AND WATER SUPPLY. 27 
 
 SANITATION AND WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE. 
 
 Being a Brief Account of the Scientific Principles of Sewage Purification, and 
 
 their Practical Application. By SIDNEY BARWISE, M.D. (Lond.), M.R.C.S., 
 
 D.P.H. (Camb.), Fellow of the Sanitary Institute, Medical Officer of Health 
 
 to the Derbyshire County Council. Crown 8vo, cloth. {Just published. 5/Q 
 
 " ' What process shall we adopt to purify our sewage ? ' This question has rarely been treated 
 
 from so many points of view in one book. This volume teems with practical hints, which show the 
 
 intimate knowledge the author has of his subject. 1 The Engineer. 
 
 "We know of no book of the same size which gives so complete and accurate an account of 
 the principles of sewage purification." The Builder. 
 
 WATER AND ITS PURIFICATION. 
 
 A Handbook for the Use of Local Authorities, Sanitary Officers, and others 
 
 interested in Water Supply. By S. RIDEAL, D.Sc. Lond., F.I.C. With 
 
 numerous Illustrations and Tables. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 716 
 
 "Dr. Rideal's book is both interesting and accurate, and contains a most useful re'sume' of 
 
 the latest knowledge upon the subject of which it treats. It ought to be of great service to all who 
 
 are connected with the supply of water for domestic or manufacturing purposes." The Engineer. 
 
 " Dealing as clearly as it does with the various ramifications of such an important sunject as 
 water and its purification it may be warmly recommended. Local authorities and all engaged in 
 sanitary affairs, and others interested in water supply, will read its pages with profit." Lancet. 
 
 RURAL WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on the Supply of Water and Construction of Water- 
 works for Small Country Districts. By ALLAN GKEENWKLL, A.M.I.C.E., 
 andW. T. CURRY, A.M.I.C.E. Revised Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/Q 
 " We conscientiously recommend it as a very useful book for those concerned in obtaining 
 water for small districts, giving a great deal of practical information in a small compass." Builder. 
 
 THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. 
 
 By WILLIAM HUMBER, A.M. Inst. C.E., and M.Inst. M.E. Imp. 410, half- 
 bound morocco. (See page 10.) Net 6 6s. 
 
 THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CON- 
 STRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS. 
 
 By PROFESSOR W. K. BURTON, A.M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, Revised 
 and Extended. Royal dvo, cloth. (See page 9) 25/O 
 
 THE HEALTH OFFICER'S POCKET-BOOK. 
 
 A Guide to Sanitary Practice and Law. For Medical Officers of Health, 
 
 Sanitary Inspectors, Members of Sanitary Authorities, &c. By EDWARD 
 
 F. WILLOUGHBY, M.D. (Lond.), &c. Fcap. 8vo, cloth .... 7/6 
 
 " A mine of condensed information of a pertinent and useful kind on the various subjects of 
 
 which it treats. The matter seems to have been carefully compiled and arranged for facility of 
 
 reference, and it is well illustrated by diagrams and woodcuts. The different subjects are 
 
 succinctly but fully and scientifically dealt with." The Lancet. 
 
 SANITARY ARRANGEMENT OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 A Handbook for Householders and Owners of Houses. By A. J. WALLIS- 
 
 TAYLER, A.M.Inst.C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 
 
 "This book will be largely read; it will be of considerable service to the public. It is well 
 arranged, easily read, and for the most part devoid of technical terms." Lancet. 
 
 VENTILATION. 
 
 A Text-book to the Practice of the Art of Ventilating Buildings. By W. P. 
 BUCK AN, R.P. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 
 
 PLUMBING. 
 
 A Text-book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. By W. P. 
 BUCHAN, R.P. Seventh Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 3/6 
 
 WATER ENGINEERING. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisa- 
 tion of Water for the Supply of Towns, for Mill Power, and for other Purposes. 
 By C. SLAGG, A.M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 7/6 
 
 SANITARY WORK IN SMALL TOWNS AND VILLAGES. 
 
 By CHARLES SLAGG, A. M. Inst. C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth . . . 3/O 
 
28 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 CARPENTRY, TIMBER, &c. 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 A Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resistance 
 of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, Uniting 
 Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added an Essay on the Nature 
 and Properties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the kinds of Wood used 
 in Building ; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different 
 purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By THOMAS TREDGOLD, C.E. 
 With an Appendix of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron and Stone, Illus- 
 trated. Seventh Edition, thoroughly Revised and considerably Enlarged by 
 E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Author of "The Science of Building," &c. 
 With 61 Plates, Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In One large 
 
 Vol., 410, cloth 25/O 
 
 " Ought to be in every architect's and every builder's library. "Builder. 
 
 "A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful carpentry is 
 
 concerned. The author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by time. The additional 
 
 plates are of great intrinsic value." Building News. 
 
 WOODWORKING MACHINERY. 
 
 Its Rise, Progress, and Construction. With Hints on the Management of Saw 
 
 Mills and the Economical Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples 
 
 of Recent Designs by leading English, French, and American Engineers. By 
 
 M. Powis BALE, A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Second Edition, Revised, 
 
 with large Additions, large crown 8vo, 440 pp., cloth .... 9/Q 
 
 " Mr. Bale is evidently an expert on the subject, and he has collected so much information 
 
 that his book is all-sufficient for builders and others engaged in the conversion of timber." Architect. 
 
 " The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery we have seen. The 
 
 author is a thorough master of his subject." Building News. 
 
 SAW MILLS. 
 
 Their Arrangement and Management, and the Economical Conversion of 
 
 Timber. By M. Powis BALE, A.M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition, Revised. 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 1 Q/6 
 
 " The administration of a large sawing establishment is discussed, and the subject examined 
 
 from a financial standpoint. Hence the size, shape, order, and disposition of saw mills and the like 
 
 are gone into in detail, and the course of the timber is traced from its reception to its delivery in its 
 
 converted state. We could not desire a more complete or practical treatise." Builder. 
 
 THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE. 
 
 Or, Book of Lines for Carpenters ; comprising all the Elementary Principles 
 essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late PETER 
 NICHOLSON'S standard work. A New Edition, Revised by ARTHUR ASHPITEL, 
 F.S.A. Together with Practical Rules on Drawing, by GEORGE PYNE. 
 With 74 Plates, 410, cloth 1 1 8 . 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING. 
 
 Showing New and Simple Methods for Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing 
 the Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing-up, and Squaring the Wreath. By GEORGE 
 COLLINGS. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, to which is added 
 A TREATISE ON STAIR-BUILDING. With Plates and Diagrams . . 2/6 
 
 " Will be found of practical utility in the execution of this difficult branch of joinery." Builder. 
 
 " Almost every difficult phase of this somewhat intricate branch of joinery is elucidated by 
 the aid of plates and explanatory letterpress." Furniture Gazette. 
 
 CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. By 
 GEORGE COLLINGS. With Diagrams. Second Edition, i2mo, cloth . 2/6 
 
 " An excellent example of what a book of this kind should be. Cheap in price, clear in 
 efinition, and practical in the examples selected." Builder. 
 
CARPENTRY. TIMBER. &c. 29 
 
 HANDRAILINQ COMPLETE IN EIGHT LESSONS. 
 
 On the Square-Cut System. By J. S. GOLDTHORP, Head of Building 
 Department, Halifax Technical School. With Eight Plates and over 150 
 Practical Exercises. 410, cloth 3/6 
 
 " Likely to be of considerable value to joiners and others who take a pride in good work. 
 The arrangement of the book is excellent. We heartily commend it to teachers and students. " 
 Timber Trades Journal. 
 
 TIMBER MERCHANT'S and BUILDER'S COMPANION. 
 
 Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measure- 
 ment of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from One to a Thousand Pieces, and 
 the relative Price that each size bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per 
 Petersburg!! Standard Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of Square Timber 
 to any given Price per Load of 50 Feet, &c., &c. By WILLIAM DOWSING. 
 Fourth Edition, Revised and Corrected. Crown 8vo, cloth . . . 3/O 
 "We are glad to see a fourth edition of these admirable tables, which for correctness and 
 simplicity of arrangement leave nothing to be desired." Timber Trades Journal 
 
 THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT. 
 
 A Guide for the Use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c., 
 comprising useful Tables for all purposes connected with the Timber Trade, 
 Marks of Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of 
 Timber, &c. By W. RICHARDSON. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, cloth . 3/6 
 " This handy manual contains much valuable information for the use of timber merchants, 
 
 builders, foresters, and all others connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of timber." 
 
 Journal of Forestry. 
 
 PACKING-CASE TABLES. 
 
 Showing the number of Superficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six 
 inches square and upwards. By W. RICHARDSON, Timber Broker. Third 
 Edition. Oblong 410, cloth 3/6 
 
 " Invaluable labour-saving tables." Ironmonger. 
 
 GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEASUREMENT. 
 
 Tables calculated from i to 200 inches in length by i to 108 inches in breadth. 
 
 For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber Merchants, 
 
 Builders, &c. By JAMES HAWKINGS. Fourth Edition. Fcap., cloth . 3/6 
 
 "A useful collection of tables to facilitate rapid calculation of surfaces. The exact area of 
 
 any surface of which the limits have been ascertained can be instantly determined. The book will 
 
 be found of the greatest utility to all engaged in building operations. Scotsman. 
 
 PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 
 
 Its Bearing on the Improvement of Estates. By CHARLES E. CURTIS, F.S.I., 
 F.S.S. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 3/6 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY. 
 
 Designed to afford Information concerning the Planting and Care of Forest 
 Trees for Ornament or Profit, with suggestions upon the Creation and Care of 
 Woodlands. By F. B. HOUGH. Large crown 8vo, cloth . . . "| O/O 
 
 THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, 
 
 AND BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. 
 
 By RICHARD E. GRANDY. Comprising : An Analysis of Deal Standards, 
 Home and Foreign, with Comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements for 
 fixing Net Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, including all 
 intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c. ; together with copious Informa- 
 tion for the Retailer and Builder. Third Edition. i2mo, cloth . . 2/O 
 " Everything it pretends be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, 
 
 and throws in as a makeweight a host of material concerning: brick's, columns, cisterns. &c." 
 
 English Mechanic. 
 
30 CROSBY LOCKWOOD $ SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 DECORATIVE ARTS, &c. 
 
 SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF 
 
 WOODS AND MARBLES. 
 
 As Taught and Practised by A. R. VAN DER BURG and P. VAN DER BURG, 
 Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, i8j by 12^ in., 
 Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates ; also 12 plain Plates, comprising 
 154 Figures. Second and Cheaper Edition .... 1 11s. 60. 
 
 LIST OF PLATES : i. VARIOUS TOOLS REQUIRED FOR WOOD PAINTING. 2, 3. WALNUT ; 
 PRELIMINARY STAGES OF GRAINING AND FINISHED SPECIMEN.^ TOOLS USED FOR 
 MARBLE PAINTING AND METHOD OF MANIPULATION. 5, 6. ST. REMI MARBLE; 
 EARLIER OPERATIONS AND FINISHED SPECIMEN. 7. METHODS OF SKETCHING 
 DIFFERENT GRAINS, KNOTS, &c. 8, 9. ASH: PRELIMINARY STAGES AND FINISHED 
 SPECIMEN. 10. METHODS OF SKETCHING MARBLE GRAINS. n, 12. BRECHE MARBLE ; 
 PRELIMINARY STAGES OF WORKING AND FINISHED SPECIMEN. 13. MAPLE ; METHODS 
 OF PRODUCING THE DIFFERENT GRAINS. 14, 15. BIRD'S-EYE MAPLE; PRELIMINARY 
 STAGES AND FINISHED SPECIMEN. 16. METHODS OF SKETCHING THE DIFFERENT 
 SPECIES OF WHITE MARBLE. 17, 18. WHITE MARBLE ; PRELIMINARY STAGES OF 
 PROCESS AND FINISHED SPECIMEN, 19. MAHOGANY; SPECIMENS OF VARIOUS GRAINS 
 AND METHODS OF MANIPULATION. 20, 21. MAHOGANY; EARLIER STAGES AND 
 FINISHED SPECIMEN. 22, 23, 24. SIENNA MARBLE; VARIETIES OF GRAIN, PRELIMINARY 
 STAGES AND FINISHED SPECIMEN. 25, 26, 27. JUNIPER WOOD; METHODS OF PRO- 
 DUCING GRAIN, &c. ; PRELIMINARY STAGES AND FINISHED SPECIMEN. 28, 29, 30. VERT 
 DE MER MARBLE; VARIETIES OF GRAIN AND METHODS OF WORKING, UNFINISHED 
 AND FINISHED SPECIMENS. 31, 32, 33. OAK ; VARIETIES OF GRAIN, TOOLS EMPLOYED 
 AND METHODS OF MANIPULATION, PRELIMINARY STAGES AND FINISHED SPECIMEN. 
 34. 35. 3 6 - WAULSORT MARBLE; VARIETIES OF GRAIN, UNFINISHED AND FINISHED 
 SPECIMENS. 
 
 " Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods and marbles will find advantage 
 in consulting this book. . . . Some of the Working Men's Clubs should give their young men 
 the opportunity to study it." Builder. 
 
 " A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the processes, the manipulation 
 and management of the colours, and the beautifully executed plates will not be the least valuable to 
 the student who aims at making his work a faithful transcript of nature. "Building News. 
 
 " Students and novices are fortunate who are able to become the possessors of so noble a 
 work." The Architect. 
 
 ELEMENTARY DECORATION. 
 
 A Guide to the Simpler Forms of Everyday Art. Together with PRACTICAL 
 HOUSE DECORATION. By JAMES W. FACEY. With numerous Illus- 
 trations. In One Vol., strongly half-bound 5/O 
 
 HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND 
 
 SIGN WRITING. 
 
 A Practical Manual of. By ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. Seventh Edition. With 
 Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. i2mo, cloth boards . . . 6/O 
 "A mass of information of use to the amateur and of value to the practical man." English 
 Mechanic. 
 
 THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 A Modern Guide for Decorative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, 
 Gilders, &c. Containing upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules, and Instructions ; 
 with a variety of Information for General Work connected with every Class of 
 Interior and Exterior Decorations, &c. Seventh Edition. 152 pp., cr. 8vo. 1 /O 
 " Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c. The book contains the gist of 
 
 larger treatises on colour and technical processes. It would be difficult to meet with a work so full 
 
 of varied information on the painter's art." Building News. 
 
 MARBLE DECORATION 
 
 And the Terminology of British and Foreign Marbles. A Handbook for 
 Students. By GEORGE H. BLAGROVE, Author of " Shoring and its Applica- 
 tion," &c. With 28 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth .... 3/6 
 
 " This most useful and much wanted handbook should be in the hands of every architect and 
 builder." Building World. 
 
 " A carefully and usefully written treatise ; the work Is essentially practical." Scotsman. 
 
DECORATIVE ARTS, &c. 31 
 
 DELAMOTTE'S WORKS ON ALPHABETS AND 
 ILLUMINATION. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT & MEDI/EVAL. 
 
 From the Eighth Century, with Numerals; including Gothic, Church-Text, 
 large and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, 
 Monograms, Crosses, &c., &c., for the use of Architectural and Engineering 
 Draughtsmen, Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, 
 Engravers, Carvers, &c. , &c. Collected and Engraved by F. DELAMOTTE, and 
 printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, 
 
 ornamental boards 2/6 
 
 " For those who insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends 
 
 over shop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be 
 
 useful." A thenaum. 
 
 MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN AND ORNAMENTAL. 
 
 Including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, 
 Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque ; 
 with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English 
 Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, 
 Surveyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, 
 &c. Collected and Engraved by F. DELAMOTTE, and printed in Colours. 
 New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, ornamental boards . 2/6 
 " There is comprised in it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and 
 
 numerals can be formed, and the talent which has been expended in the conception of the various 
 
 plain and ornamental letters is wonderful." Standard. 
 
 MEDI/EVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR 
 
 ILLUMINATORS. 
 
 By F. G. DELAMOTTE. Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated Title, printed 
 
 in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by J. WILLIS BROOKS. Fourth 
 
 and Cheaper Edition. Small 410, ornamental boards .... 4/O 
 
 "A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in gilding and all the 
 
 colours of the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled." Sun. 
 
 A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. 
 
 For the Use of Beginners ; with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical 
 Directions for its Exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., 
 printed in Gold and Colours. By F. DELAMOTTE. New and Cheaper 
 Edition. Small 410, ornamental boards ....... .6/O 
 
 " The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much good sense, 
 
 the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge as 
 
 well as taste." At Aeruzum. 
 
 THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN. 
 
 Containing Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, 
 Ecclesiastical Devices, Mediaeval and Modern Alphabets, and National 
 Emblems. Collected by F. DELAMOTTE, and printed in Colours. Oblong 
 
 royal 8vo, ornamental wrapper 1/6 
 
 " The book will be of great assistance to ladies and young children who are endowed with 
 the art of plying the needle in this most ornamental and useful pretty work." East Anglian Times. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS IN WOOD-CARVING FOR AMATEURS. 
 
 With Hints on Design. By A LADY. With 10 Plates. New and Cheaper 
 
 Edition. Crown 8vo, in emblematic wrapper 2/O 
 
 " The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt from ' A 
 Lady's ' publication." Athenccum. 
 
 PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED. 
 
 By THOMAS JOHN GULLICK, Painter, and JOHN TIMES, F.S.A. Including 
 Fresco, Oil, Mosaic, Water-Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera, Encaustic, 
 Miniature, Painting on Ivory, Vellum, Pottery, Enamel, Glass, &c. Fifth 
 Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/O 
 
 *** Adopted as a Prize Book at South Kensington. 
 
 " Much may be learned, even by those who fancy they do not require to be taught, from the 
 careful perusal of this unpretending but comprehensive treatise." Art Journat.. 
 
32 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 NATURAL SCIENCE, &c. 
 
 THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE. 
 
 Chapters on the Origin and Construction of the Heavens. By J. E. GORE, 
 F.R.A.S., Author of " Star Groups," &c. Illustrated by 6 Stellar Photographs 
 and 12 Plates. Demy 8vo, cloth 1 6/O 
 
 " A valuable and lucid summary of recent astronomical theory, rendered more valuable and 
 attractive by a series of stellar photographs and other illustrations." The Times. 
 
 " In presenting a clear and concise account of the present state of our knowledge Mr. Gore 
 has made a valuable addition to the literature of the subject." Nature. 
 
 " Mr. Gore's ' Visible Universe ' is one of the finest works on astronomical science that have 
 recently appeared in our language. In spirit and in method it is scientific from cover to cover, but 
 the style is so clear and attractive that it will be as acceptable and as readable to those who make 
 no scientific pretensions as to those who devote themselves specially to matters astronomical." 
 Leeds Mercury. 
 
 STAR GROUPS. 
 
 A Student's Guide to the Constellations. By J. ELLARD GORE, F.R.A.S., 
 M.R.I.A., &c., Author of "The Visible Universe," "The Scenery of the 
 
 Heavens," &c. With 30 Maps. Small 4to, cloth 5/O 
 
 " The volume contains thirty maps showing stars of the sixth magnitude the usual naked-eye 
 limit and each is accompanied by a brief commentary adapted to facilitate recognition and bring 
 to notice objects of special interest. For the purpose of a preliminary survey of the ' midnight 
 pomp ' of the heavens nothing could be better than a set of delineations averaging scarcely twenty 
 square inches in area and including nothing that cannot at once be identified." Saturday Revietu 
 
 AN ASTRONOMICAL GLOSSARY. 
 
 Or, Dictionary of Terms used in Astronomy. With Tables of Data and Lists 
 of Remarkable and Interesting Celestial Objects. By J. ELLARD GORE, 
 F.R.A.S., Author of " The Visible Universe," &c. Small crown 8vo, cloth. 
 
 2/6 
 
 "A very useful little work for beginners in astronomy, and not to be despised by more 
 advanced students." The Times. 
 
 " A very handy book ... the utility of which is much increased by its valuable tables of 
 astronomical data." Athenceum. 
 
 THE MICROSCOPE. 
 
 Its Construction and Management. Including Technique, Photo-micrography, 
 and the Past and Future of the Microscope. By Dr. HENRI VAN HEURCK. 
 Re-Edited and Augmented from the Fourth French Edition, and Translated 
 by WYNNE E. BAXTER, F.G.S. 400 pp., with upwards of 250 Woodcuts, 
 imp. 8vo, cloth 1 8/O 
 
 " A translation of a well-known work, at once popular and comprehensive." Times, 
 
 " The translation is as felicitous as it is accurate." Nature, 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 By the late Rev. ROBERT MAIN, M.A., F.R.S. Third Edition, Revised by 
 WILLIAM THYNNE LYNN, B.A., F.R.A.S., formerly of the Royal Observatory, 
 Greenwich. i2mo, cloth 2/O 
 
 "A sound and simple treatise, very carefully edited, and a capital book for beginners." 
 Knowledge. 
 
 "Accurately brought down to the requirements of the present time by Mr. Lynn." 
 Educational Times. 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. 
 
 A Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By S. P. WOODWARD, A.L.S., 
 F.G.S. With an Appendix on RECENT AND FOSSIL CONCHOLOGICAL 
 DISCOVERIES, by RALPH TATE, A.L.S., F.G.S. With 23 Plates and 
 upwards of 300 Woodcuts. Reprint of Fourth Edition (1880). Crown 8vo, 
 cloth 7/6 
 
 "A most valuable storehouse of conchological and geological information." Science Gossip. 
 
 THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION. 
 
 Or, Geology and Genesis, their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. 
 
 By G. W. V. LE VAUX. 8vo, cloth 5/O 
 
 " A valuable contribution to the evidences of Revelation, and disposes very conclusively of 
 the arguments of those who would set God's Works against God's Word. No real difficulty is 
 shirked, and no sophistry is left unexposed." The Rock. 
 
NATURAL SCIENCE, S-c. 33 
 
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. 
 
 By Dr. LARDNER. Enlarged and re-written by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S. 
 378 Illustrations. Post 8vo, cloth 6/O 
 
 " The perspicuity of the original has been retained, and chaptersjwhich had become obsolete 
 have been replaced by others of more modern character. The explanations throughout are 
 studiously popular, and care has been taken to show the application of the various branches of 
 physics to the industrial arts, and to the practical business of life." Mining Journal. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. 
 
 By Dr. LARDNER. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged by BENJAMIN LOEWY, 
 F.R.A.S. With 236 Illustrations. Post 8vo, cloth .... 5/Q 
 "For those 'who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science without the 
 profound methods of mathematical investigation,' this work is well adapted." Chemical News. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF HEAT. 
 
 By Dr. LARDNER. Edited and re-written by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S., &c. 
 117 Illustrations. Post 8vo, cloth 6/O 
 
 ' ' The style is always clear and precise, and conveys instruction without leaving any cloudiness 
 or lurking doubts behind." Engineering. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. 
 
 By Dr. LARDNER. New Edition. Edited by T. OLVER HARDING, B. A. Lond. 
 
 With 298 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 448 pp., cloth 5/O 
 
 " Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifully and elaborately illustrated." 
 Mechanics' Magazine. 
 
 ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND ACOUSTICS. 
 
 By Dr. LARDNER. Edited by GEO. CAREY FOSTER, B.A., F.C.S. With 
 400 Illustrations. Small 8vo, cloth 5/O 
 
 " The book could not have been entrusted to any one better calculated to preserve the terse 
 and lucid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors and bringing up his work to the present 
 state of scientific knowledge." Popular Science Review. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 By Dr. LARDNER. Fourth Edition. Revised and Edited by EDWIN DUNKIN, 
 F.R.A.S., Royal Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates and upwards of 
 100 Woodcuts. 8vo, cloth 9/6 
 
 " Probably no other book contains the same amount of information in so compendious and 
 well arranged a form certainly none at the price at which this is offered to the public." Athenaum. 
 
 " We can do no other than pronounce this work a most valuable manual of astronomy, and 
 we strongly recommend it to all who wish to acquire a general but at the same time correct- 
 acquaintance with this sublime science." Quarterly Journal of Science. 
 
 MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. 
 
 Edited by Dr. LARDNER. With upwards of 1,200 Engravings on Wood. In 
 Six Double Volumes, 1 1 s. in a new and elegant cloth binding ; or hand- 
 somely bound in half-morocco J31 1 "| g. 60. 
 
 " A cheap and interesting publication, alike informing and attractive. The papers combine 
 subjects of importance and great scientific knowledge, considerable inductive powers, and a popular 
 style of treatment." Spectator. 
 
 Separate books formed from the above. 
 
 Common Things Explained. 55. 
 The Microscope. 25. cloth. 
 Popular Geology. 25. 6d. cloth. 
 Popular Physics. zs. 6d. cloth. 
 
 Steam and its Uses. 25. cloth. 
 Popular Astronomy. 45. 6d. cloth. 
 The Bee and White Ants. 25. cloth. 
 The Electric Telegraph, is. 6d. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. 
 
 By Dr. LARDNER. Fcap. 8vo . .... 3/6 
 
 " A very convenient class book for junior students in private schools.' British Quarterly 
 Review. 
 
 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. 
 
 By Dr. LARDNER. Fcap. 8vo 3/6 
 
 " Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated." Gardener's Chronicle. 
 
 THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 
 
 By Dr. LARDNER. Revised by E. B. BRIGHT, F.R.A.S. Fcap. 8vo. . 2/6 
 "One of the most readable books extant on the Electric Telegraph." English Mechanic. 
 
 L 
 
34 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, 
 CHEMISTRY, &c. 
 
 THE GAS ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. 
 
 Comprising Tables, Notes and Memoranda relating to the Manufacture, 
 Distribution and Use of Coal Gas and the Construction of Gas Works. By 
 H. O'CONNOR, A.M.Inst.C.E., 450 pp., crown 8vo, fully Illustrated, leather. 
 
 [ Just Published. 1 Q/6 
 
 " The book contains a vast amount of information. The author goes consecutively through 
 the engineering details and practical methods involved in each of the different processes or parts 
 of a gas-works. He has certainly succeeded in making a compilation of hard matters of fact 
 absolutely interesting to read." Gas IVorld. 
 
 " A useful work of reference for the gas engineer and all interested in lighting or heating by 
 gas, while the analyses of the various descriptions of gas will be of value to the technical chemist. 
 All matter in any way connected with the manufacture and use of gas is dealt with. The book has 
 evidently been carefully compiled, and certainly constitutes a useful addition to gas literature." 
 Builder. 
 
 " The volume contains a great quantity of specialised information, compiled, we believe, from 
 trustworthy sources, which should make it of considerable value to those for whom it is specifically 
 produced." Engineer. 
 
 LIGHTING BY ACETYLENE 
 
 Generators, Burners, and Electric Furnaces. By WILLIAM E. GIBBS, M.E. 
 With 66 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. {Just Published. 7/6 
 
 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. 
 
 A Practical Treatise for the Use of Analytical Chemists, Engineers, Iron 
 
 Masters, Iron Founders, Students and others. Comprising Methods of Analysis 
 
 and Valuation of the Principal Materials used in Engineering Work, with 
 
 Analyses, Examples and Suggestions. By H. J. PHILLIPS, F.I.C., F.C.S. 
 
 Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 400 pp., with Illustrations, cloth 1 O/6 
 
 "In this work the author has rendered no small service to a numerous body of practical 
 
 men. . . . The analytical methods may be pronounced most satisfactory, being as accurate as the 
 
 despatch required of engineering chemists permits." Chemical News. 
 
 " Full of good things. As a handbook of technical analysis, it is very welcome." Builder. 
 "The analytical methods given are, as a whole, such as are likely to give rapid and trust- 
 worthy results in experienced hands. . . . There is much excellent descriptive matter in the work, 
 the chapter on ' Oils and Lubrication ' being specially noticeable in this respect." Engineer. 
 
 NITRO-EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 A Practical Treatise concerning the Properties, Manufacture, and Analysis 
 of Nitrated Substances, including the Fulminates, Smokeless Powders, and 
 Celluloid. By P. G. SANFORD, F. I. C., Consulting Chemist to the Cotton Powder 
 Company, &c. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. QIQ 
 "Any one having the requisite apparatus and materials could make nitrp-glycerine or gun- 
 cotton, to say nothing of other explosives, by the aid of the instructions in this volume. This is 
 one of the very few text-books in which can be found just what is wanted. Mr. Sanford goes 
 through the whole list of explosives commonly used, names any given explosive, and tells us of what 
 it is composed and how it is manufactured. The book is excellent throughout." Engineer. 
 
 A HANDBOOK ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Use of Dynamite, Gun-Cotton, 
 
 Nitro-Glycerine and other Explosive Compounds, including Collodion-Cotton. 
 
 With Chapters on Explosives in Practical Application. By M. EISSLER, 
 
 Mining Engineer and Metallurgical Chemist. Second Edition, Enlarged. 
 
 With 150 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 1 2/6 
 
 " Useful not only to the miner, but also to officers of both services to whom blasting and the 
 
 use of explosives generally may at any time become a necessary auxiliary." Nature. 
 
 DANGEROUS GOODS. 
 
 Their Sources and Properties, Modes of Storage and Transport. With Notes 
 and Comments on Accidents arising therefrom, together with the Government 
 and Railway Classifications, Acts of Parliament, &c. A Guide for the Use of 
 Government and Railway Officials, Steamship Owners, Insurance Companies 
 and Manufacturers, and Users of Explosives and Dangerous Goods. By 
 H. JOSHUA PHILLIPS, F.I.C., F.C.S. Crown 8vo, 374 pp., cloth . . 9/O 
 " Merits a wide circulation, and an intelligent, appreciative study." Chemical News, 
 
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY, &c. 35 
 A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE. 
 
 Including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching 
 Powder. By JOHN LOMAS, Alkali Manufacturer, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and 
 London. 390 pp. of Text. With 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings, 
 Second Edition, with Additions. Super-royal 8vo, cloth . . ) "\ Qs. 
 " This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. The working details of the most 
 approved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by no less than 232 wood 
 engravings, all of which may be used for the purposes of construction. Every step in the manu- 
 facture is very fully described in this manual, and each improvement explained. Athenaum. 
 
 " We find not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of the 
 trade, but a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing- on the successful 
 conduct of alkali works, but which are generally overlooked by even experienced technological 
 authors." Chemical Review. 
 
 THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, AND 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Working 
 
 Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut. -Colonel W. A. 
 
 Ross, R.A., F.G.S. With 120 Illustrations. Second Edition, Enlarged. 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 5/Q 
 
 " The student who goes conscientiously through the course of experimentation here laid down 
 will gain a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than if he had ' got up ' any of the 
 best text-books of the day, and passed any number of examinations in their contents. Chemical 
 News. 
 
 COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 Or, Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic or Commercial 
 Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and in the Arts. By 
 A. NORMANDV. New Edition by H. M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.R.S. Crown 8vo, 
 cloth 12/6 
 
 " We strongly recommend this book to our readers as a guide, alike indispensable to the 
 housewife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner." Medical Times. 
 
 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE-WARES. 
 
 Their Properties, Applications, Valuations, Impurities and Sophistications. 
 
 For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. SLATER. 
 
 Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . 7/6 
 
 " A complete encyclopaedia of the materia tinctoria. The information given respecting each 
 
 article is full and precise, and the methods of determining the value of articles such as these, so 
 
 liable to sophistication, are given with clearness, and are practical as well as valuable." Chemist 
 
 "There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. To students preparing 
 for examinations in dyeing and printing it will prove exceedingly useful." Chemical News. 
 
 A HANDY BOOK FOR BREWERS. 
 
 Being a Practical Guide to the Art of Brewing and Malting. Embracing the 
 
 Conclusions of Modern Research which bear upon the Practice of Brewing. 
 
 By HERBERT EDWARDS WRIGHT, M.A. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 
 
 8vo, 530 pp., cloth. [Just Published. 1 2/6 
 
 " May be consulted with advantage by the student who is preparing himself for examinational 
 
 tests, while the scientific brewer will find in it a resume" of all the most important discoveries of 
 
 modern times. The work is written throughout in a clear and concise manner, and the author 
 
 takes great care to discriminate between vague theories and well-established facts." Brewers' 
 
 Journal. 
 
 " We have great pleasure in recommending this handy book, and have no hesitation in saying 
 that it is one of the best if not the best which has yet been written on the subject of beer-brewing 
 in this country ; it should have a place on the shelves of every brewer's library." Brewers' 
 Guardian. 
 
 " Although the requirements of the student are primarily considered, an acquaintance of half- 
 an-hout's duration cannot fail to impress the practical brewer with the sense of having found a 
 trustworthy guide and practical counsellor in brewery matters." Chemical Trade Journal. 
 
 FUELS: SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. 
 
 Their Analysis and Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and Engineers. By 
 
 H. J. PHILLIPS, F.C.S., formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist to tbf 
 
 G.E. Rlwy. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/O 
 
 " Ought to have its place in the laboratory of every metallurgical establishment and wherever 
 
 fuel is used on a large scale." Chemical News. 
 
36 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Showing their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non-Permanency, and 
 Adulterations ; Effects in Combination with Each Other and with Vehicles ; 
 and the most Reliable Tests of Purity. By H. C. STANDAGE. Third Edition, 
 crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 
 
 " This work is indeed multu'm-in-parvo, and we can, with good conscience, recommend it to 
 all who come in contact with pigments, whether as makers, dealers, or users." Chemical Review. 
 
 A POCKET-BOOK OF MENSURATION AND GAUGING. 
 
 Containing Tables, Rules, and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, Brewers, 
 Spirit Merchants, &c. By J. B. MANT, Inland Revenue. Second Edition, 
 Revised. i8mo, leather 4/O 
 
 " This handy and useful book is adapted to the requirements of the Inland Revenue Depart- 
 ment, and will be a favourite book of reference. The range of subjects is comprehensive, and the 
 arrangement simple and clear." Civilian. 
 
 " Should be in the hands of every practical brewer." Brewers' Journal. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ARTS, TRADES, AND 
 MANUFACTURES. 
 
 MODERN CYCLES. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on their Construction and Repair. By A. J. WALLIS- 
 
 TAYLER, A. M. Inst. C. E. Author of " Refrigerating Machinery," &c. With 
 
 upwards of 300 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. "\ O/6 
 
 "The large trade that is done in the component parts of bicycles has placed in the way of 
 
 men mechanically inclined extraordinary facilities for building bicycles for their own use. . . The 
 
 book will prove a valuable guide for all those who aspire to the manufacture or repair of their own 
 
 machines." The Field. 
 
 "A most comprehensive and up-to-date treatise." The Cycle. 
 
 " A very useful book, which is quite entitled to rank as a standard work for students of cycle 
 construction, Wheeling. 
 
 TEA PLANTING AND MANUFACTURE 
 
 (A Text Book of). Comprising Chapters on the History and Development of 
 the Industry, the Cultivation of the Plant, the Preparation of the Leaf for the 
 Market, the Botany and Chemistry of Tea, &c. With some Account of the 
 Laws affecting Labour in Tea Gardens in Assam and elsewhere. By DAVID 
 CROLE, late of the Jokai Tea Company, &c. With Plates and other Illustra- 
 tions. Medium 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 1 6/O 
 " The author writes as an expert, and gives the result of his personal experiences. The work 
 
 can hardly fail to be of practical interest to tea growers and tea manufacturers." British Trade 
 
 yournal. 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURE. 
 
 A Manual of Practical Instruction of the Processes of Opening, Carding, 
 Combing, Drawing, Doubling and Spinning of Cotton, the Methods of 
 Dyeing, &c. For the Use of Operatives, Overlookers, and Manufacturers. 
 By JOHN LISTER, Technical Instructor, Pendleton. 8vo, cloth . . 7/6 
 
 " This invaluable volume is a distinct advance in the literature of cotton manufacture." 
 Machinery. 
 
 " It is thoroughly reliable, fulfilling nearly all the requirements desired." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 FLOUR MANUFACTURE. 
 
 A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By FRIEDRICH KICK, Imperial 
 Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German 
 Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from the Second Enlarged and 
 Revised Edition with Supplement. By H. H. P. POWLES, Assoc. Memb. 
 Institution of Civil Engineers. Nearly 400 pp. Illustrated with 28 Folding 
 
 Plates, and 167 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, cloth 1 5s. 
 
 " This valuable work is, and will remain, the standard authority on the science of milling. . . . 
 The miller who has read and digested this work will have laid the foundation, so to speak, of a 
 successful career ; he will have acquired a number of general principles which he can proceed to 
 apply. In this handsome volume we at last have the accepted text-book of modem milling in good, 
 sound English, which has little, if any, trace of the German idiom." The Miller. 
 
 "The appearance of this celebrated work in English is very opportune, and British millers 
 will, we are sure, not be slow in availing themselves of its pages." Millers' Gazette. 
 
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 37 
 
 CEMENTS, PASTES, GLUES, AND GUMS. 
 
 A Practical Guide to the Manufacture and Application of the various Aggluti- 
 nants required in the Building, Metal-Working, Wood-Working, and Leather- 
 Working Trades, and for Workshop, Laboratory or Office Use. With upwards 
 of 900 Recipes and Formulae. By H. C. STANDAGE, Chemist. Third Edition. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 2/O 
 
 "We have pleasure in speaking favourably of this volume. So far as we have had 
 experience, which is not inconsiderable, this manual is trustworthy." Athtnemtn. 
 
 " As a revelation of what are considered trade secrets, this book will arouse an amount of 
 curiosity among the large number of industries it touches." Daily Chronicle. 
 
 THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING. 
 
 A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet 
 
 Soaps, &c. Including many New Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of 
 
 Glycerine from Waste Leys. By ALX. WATT. Fifth Edition, Revised, with 
 
 an Appendix on Modern Candlemaking. Crown 8vo, cloth . . . 716 
 
 "The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the 
 
 practical soap boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art." Chemical News. 
 
 " A thoroughly practical treatise on an art which has almost no literature in our language. 
 We congratulate the author on the success of his endeavour to fill a void in English technical 
 literature "Nature. 
 
 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 A Manual for Paper-Makers and Owners and Managers of Paper-Mills. With 
 Tables, Calculations, &c. By G. CLAPPERTON, Paper-Maker. With Illus- 
 trations of Fibres from Micro-Photographs. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 5/O 
 
 The author caters for the requirements of responsible mill hands, apprentices, &c., whilst 
 lual will be found of great service to students of technology, as well as to veteran paper- 
 makers and mill owners. The illustrations form an excellent feature." The World's Paper Trade 
 
 Review. 
 
 "We recommend everybody interested in the trade to get a copy of this thoroughly practical 
 book." Paper Making. 
 
 THE ART OF PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, 
 Straw, and other Fibrous Materials. Including the Manufacture of Pulp from 
 Wood Fibre, with a Description of the Machinery and Appliances used. To 
 which are added Details of Processes for Recovering Soda from Waste Liquors. 
 By ALEXANDER WATT, Author of "The Art of Soap-Making." With Illus- 
 trations. Crown Svo, cloth 716 
 
 "It may be regarded as the standard work on the subject. The book is full of valuable 
 information. The ' Art of Paper-Making ' is in every respect a model of a text-book, either for a 
 technical class, or for the private student." Paper and Printing Trades Journal. 
 
 A TREATISE ON PAPER 
 
 For Printers and Stationers. With an Outline of Paper Manufacture ; Complete 
 Tables of Sizes, and Specimens of Different Kinds of Paper. By RICHARD 
 PARKINSON, late of the Manchester Technical School. Demy Svo, cloth. 
 
 [Just Published. 3/6 
 
 THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Being a Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, 
 and Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning 
 Explained, and many Recent Processes Introduced ; as also Methods for the 
 Estimation of Tannin, and a Description of the Arts of Glue Boiling, Gut 
 Dressing, &c. By ALEXANDER WATT, Author of " Soap-Making," &c. 
 
 Fourth Edition. Crown Svo, cloth 9/O 
 
 " A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories. The book is an eminently 
 
 valuable production, which redounds to the credit of both author and publishers." Chemical 
 
 Review. 
 
 THE ART OF BOOT AND SHOE MAKING. 
 
 A Practical Handbook, including Measurement, Last-Fitting, Cutting-Out, 
 Closing and Making, with a Description of the most approved Machinery 
 Employed. By JOHN B. LENO, late Editor of St. Crispin, and The Boot and 
 Shoe-Maker. i2mo, cloth 2/O 
 
38 CROSBY LOCKWOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 WOOD ENGRAVING. 
 
 A Practical and Easy Introduction to the Studyof the Art. By W. N. BROWN. 
 izmo, cloth 1/6 
 
 " The book is clear and complete, and will be useful to any one wanting to understand the 
 first elements of the beautiful art of wood engraving." Grap hie. 
 
 MODERN HOROLOGY, IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 
 
 Translated from the French of CLAUDIUS SAUNIER, ex-Director of the School 
 of Horology at Macon, by JULIEN TRIPPLIN, F.R.A.S., Besancon Watch 
 Manufacturer, and EDWARD RIGG, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With 
 Seventy-eight Woodcuts and Twenty-two Coloured Copper Plates. Second 
 Edition. Super-royal 8vo, cloth, 2 2s. ; half-calf . . . 2 1 0s. 
 " There is no horological work in the English language at all to be compared to this produc- 
 tion of M. Saunier's for clearness and completeness. It is alike good as a guide for the student and 
 as a reference for the experienced horologist and skilled workman." Horological Journal. 
 
 "The latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of those literary productions to which 
 continental watchmakers are indebted for the mechanical superiority over their English brethren 
 in fact, the Book of Books, is M. Saunier's ' Treatise." " Watchmaker, yetueller, and Silversmith. 
 
 THE WATCH ADJUSTER'S MANUAL. 
 
 A Practical^ Guide for the Watch and Chronometer Adjuster in Making, 
 
 itures. 
 16/O 
 
 Springing, Timing and Adjusting for Isochronism, Positions and Temperatures 
 By C. E. FRITTS. 370 pp., with Illustrations, 8vo, cloth . 
 
 THE WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 Intended as a Workshop Companion for those engaged in Watchmaking and 
 
 the Allied Mechanical Arts. Translated from the French of CLAUDIUS 
 
 SAUNIER, and enlarged by JULIEN TRIPPLIN, F.R.A.S., and EDWARD 
 
 RIGG, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. Third Edition. 8vo, cloth. 9/O 
 
 "Each part is truly a treatise in itself. The arrangement is good and the language is clear 
 
 and concise. It is an admirable guide for the young watchmaker." Engineering. 
 
 " It is impossible to speak too highly of its excellence. It fulfils every requirement in a 
 handbook intended for the use of a workman. Should be found in every workshop." Watch and 
 Clockmaker 
 
 A HISTORY OF WATCHES & OTHER TIMEKEEPERS. 
 
 By JAMES F. KENDAL, M.B.H. Inst. Boards, 1/6 ; or cloth, gilt . 2/6 
 "The best which has yet appeared on this subject in the English language." Industries. 
 " Open the book where you may, there is interesting matter in it concerning the ingenious 
 devices of the ancient or modern horologer." Saturday Review. 
 
 ELECTRO-DEPOSITION. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, Nickel, and 
 other Metals and Alloys. With Descriptions of Voltaic Batteries, Magneto 
 and Dynamo-Electric Machines, Thermopiles, and of the Materials and 
 Processes used in every Department of the Art, and several Chapters on 
 ELECTRO-METALLURGY. By ALEXANDER WATT, Author of " Electro- 
 Metallurgy," &c. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 9/O 
 "Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition. It contains practical 
 
 descriptions of methods, processes and materials, as actually pursued and used in the workshop." 
 
 Engineer. 
 
 ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 
 
 Practically Treated. By ALEXANDER WATT. Tenth Edition, including the 
 
 most recent Processes. i2mo, cloth 3/6 
 
 " From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary for the successful 
 prosecution of electroplating." Iron. 
 
 JEWELLER'S ASSISTANT IN WORKING IN GOLD. 
 
 A Practical Treatise for Masters and Workmen, Compiled from the Experience 
 of Thirty Years' Workshop Practice. By GEORGE E. GEE, Author of "The 
 
 Goldsmith's Handbook," &c. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 
 
 " This manual of technical education is apparently destined to be a valuable auxiliary to a 
 handicraft which is certainly capable of great improvement." The Times. 
 
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 39 
 
 ELECTROPLATING. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on the Deposition of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold, 
 Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, &c., &c. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E. Third 
 Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/O 
 
 " An excellent practical manual. "Engineering. 
 
 " An excellent work, giving the newest information." Horologtcal Journal. 
 
 ELECTROTYPINQ. 
 
 The Reproduction and Multiplication of Printing Surfaces and Works of Art 
 by the Electro-Deposition of Metals. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E. Crown 8vo, 
 cloth 5/O 
 
 " The book is thoroughly practical ; the reader is, therefore, conducted through the leading 
 laws of electricity, then through the metals used by electrotypers, the apparatus, and the depositing 
 processes, up to the final preparation of the work. 'Art Journal. 
 
 GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 By GEORGE E. GEE, Jeweller, &c. Fifth Edition. i2mo, cloth . . 3/O 
 "A good, sound educator, and will be generally accepted as an authority." Horological 
 
 Journal. 
 
 SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 By GEORGE E. GEE, Jeweller, &c. Third Edition, with numerous Illustra- 
 tions, izmo, cloth 3/O 
 
 " The chief merit of the work is its practical character. . . . The workers in the trade will 
 speedily discover its merits when they sit down to study it." English Mechanic. 
 
 *** The above two works together, strongly half -bound, price 7s. 
 
 SHEET METAL WORKER'S INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Comprising a Selection of Geometrical Problems and Practical Rules for 
 Describing the Various Patterns Required by Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and 
 Tin-Plate Workers. By REUBEN HENRY WARN. New Edition, Revised and 
 greatly Enlarged by JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.M.E. Crown 8vo, 254 pp., 
 with 430 Illustrations, cloth. [Just Published. j/Q 
 
 BREAD & BISCUIT BAKER'S & SUGAR-BOILER'S 
 
 ASSISTANT. 
 
 Including a large variety of Modern Recipes. With Remarks on the Art of 
 
 Bread-making. By ROBERT WELLS. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 2/O 
 
 " A large number of wrinkles for the ordinary cook, as well as the baker." Saturday Review. 
 
 PASTRYCOOK & CONFECTIONER'S GUIDE. 
 
 For Hotels, Restaurants, and the Trade in general, adapted also for Family 
 Use. By R. WELLS, Author of " The Bread and Biscuit Baker." Crown 8vo, 
 
 cloth 2/O 
 
 " We cannot speak too highly of this really excellent work. In these days of keen competition 
 our readers cannot do better than purchase this book." Bakers' Times. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL CONFECTIONERY. 
 
 A Guide for Bakers, Confectioners and Pastrycooks ; including a variety of 
 
 Modern Recipes, and Remarks on Decorative and Coloured Work. With 129 
 
 Original Designs. By ROBERT WELLS. Second Edition. Crown 8vo . 5/O 
 
 "A valuable work, practical, and should be in the hands of every baker and confectioner. 
 
 The illustrative designs are alone worth treble the amount charged for the whole work." Bakers' 
 
 Times. 
 
 THE MODERN FLOUR CONFECTIONER, WHOLESALE 
 
 AND RETAIL. 
 
 Containing a large Collection of Recipes or Cheap Cakes, Biscuits, &c. With 
 
 remarks on the Ingredients Used in their Manufacture. By ROBERT WELLS, 
 
 Author of "The Bread and Biscuit Baker," &c. Crown 8vo, cloth . 2/O 
 
 " The work is of a decidedly practical character, and in every ecipe regard is hadto economical 
 
 working." North. British Daily Mail. 
 
 RUBBER HAND STAMPS 
 
 And the Manipulation of Rubber. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
 Indiarubber Hand Stamps, Small Articles of Indiarubber, The Hektograph, 
 Special Inks, Cements, and Allied Subjects. By T. O'CoNOR SLOANE, A.M., 
 Ph.D. With numerous Illustrations. Square 8vo, cloth . . . 5/O 
 
40 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 HANDYBOOK8 FOR HANDICRAFTS. 
 
 BY PAUL N. HASLUCK. 
 Editor of " Work " (New Series), Author of " Lathe Work," " Milling Machines," &c. 
 
 Crown 8vo, 144 pp., price is. each. 
 
 These HANDYBOOKS have been written to supply information for WORKMEN, 
 STUDENTS, and AMATEURS in the several Handicrafts, on the actual PRACTICE of 
 the WORKSHOP, and are intended to convey in plain language TECHNICAL KNOW- 
 LEDGE of the several CRAFTS. In describing the processes employed, and the manipu- 
 lation of material, workshop terms are used ; workshop practice is fully explained ; 
 and the text is freely illustrated with drawings of modern tools, appliances, and 
 processes. 
 
 THE METAL TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. 
 
 A Practical Manual for Workers at the Foot-Lathe. With over 100 Illus- 
 trations. ............. "1 /o 
 
 " The book will be of service alike to the amateur and the artisan turner. It displays 
 thorough knowledge of the subject." Scotsman. 
 
 THE WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. 
 
 A Practical Manual for Workers at the Lathe. With over 100 Illustrations. 
 
 1/O 
 
 " We recommend the book to young turners and amateurs. A multitude of workmen have 
 hitherto sought in vain for a manual of this special industry." Mechanical World. 
 
 THE WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. 
 
 A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With upwards of 
 loo Illustrations I/O 
 
 " We strongly advise all young persons connected with the watch trade to acquire and study 
 this inexpensive work." Clerkenwell Chronicle. 
 
 THE PATTERN MAKER'S HANDYBOOK. 
 
 A Practical Manual on the Construction of Patterns for Founders. With 
 upwards of 100 Illustrations ......... 1 /O 
 
 "A most valuable, if not indispensable manual for the pattern maker." Knowledge. 
 
 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. 
 
 A Practical Manual on Mechanical Manipulation, embracing Information 
 on various Handicraft Processes. With Useful Notes and Miscellaneous 
 
 Memoranda. Comprising about 200 Subjects I/O 
 
 "A very clever and useful book, which should be found in every workshop ; and it should 
 certainly find a place in all technical schools." Saturday Review. 
 
 THE MODEL ENGINEER'S HANDYBOOK. 
 
 A Practical Manual on the Construction of Model Steam Engines. With 
 upwards of zoo Illustrations. "I/O 
 
 " Mr. Hasluck has produced a very good little book." Builder. 
 
 THE CLOCK JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. 
 
 A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With upwards of 
 100 Illustrations 1/O 
 
 " It is of inestimable service to those commencing the trade." Coventry Standard. 
 
 THE CABINET MAKER'S HANDYBOOK. 
 
 A Practical Manual on the Tools, Materials, Appliances, and Processes 
 employed in Cabinet Work. With upwards of 100 Illustrations . . 1 /O 
 " Mr. Hasluck's thorough-going little Handybook is amongst the most practical guides we 
 have seen for beginners in cabinet-work." Saturday Review. 
 
 THE WOODWORKER'S HANDYBOOK OF MANUAL 
 
 INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes 
 
 Employed in Woodworking. With 104 Illustrations "I/O 
 
 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 " Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but how to do it, and 
 how to convey his knowledge to others." Engineering. 
 
 " Mr. Hasluck writes admirably, and gives complete instructions." Engineer. 
 " Mr. Hasluck combines the experience of a practical teacher with the manipulative skill and 
 scientific knowledge of processes of the trained mechanician, and the manuals are marvels of what 
 can be produced at a popular price." Schoolmaster. 
 
 " Helpful to workmen of all ages and degrees of experience. " Daily Chronicle, 
 "Practical, sensible, and remarkably cheap." Journal of Education. 
 "Concise, clear, and practical." Saturday Review. 
 
COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, *. 41 
 
 COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, 
 TABLES, &c. 
 
 LESSONS IN COMMERCE. 
 
 By Professor R. GAMBARO, of the Royal High Commercial School at Genoa. 
 
 Edited and Revised by JAMES GAULT, Professor of Commerce and Commercial 
 
 Law in King's College, London. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo . 3/6 
 
 " The publishers of this work have rendered considerable service to the cause of commercial 
 
 education by the opportune production of this volume. . . . The work is peculiarly acceptable to 
 
 English readers and an admirable addition to existing class books. In a phrase, we think the work 
 
 attains its object in furnishing a brief account of those laws and customs of British trade with which 
 
 the commercial man interested therein should be familiar." Chamber of Commerce Journal. 
 
 " An invaluable guide in the hands of those who are preparing for a commercial career, and, 
 in fact, the information it contains on matters of business should be impressed on every one." 
 Counting- House. 
 
 THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT. 
 
 Being Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages English, 
 French, German, Italian, and Spanish. By CONRAD E. BAKER. Second 
 
 Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 
 
 " Whoever wishes to correspond in all the languages mentioned by Mr. Baker cannot do 
 better than study this work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently arranged. They 
 consist not of entire specimen letters, but what are far more useful short passages, sentences, or 
 phrases expressing the same general idea in various forms." Athenaum. 
 
 " A careful examination has convinced us that it is unusually complete, well arranged and 
 reliable. The book is a thoroughly good one." Schoolmaster. 
 
 FACTORY ACCOUNTS: their PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE. 
 
 A Handbook for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the 
 Nomenclature of Machine Details ; the Income Tax Acts ; the Rating of 
 Factories; Fire and Boiler Insurance; the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c., 
 including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings. 
 By EMILE GARCKE and J. M. FELLS. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
 
 Demy 8vo, 250 pp. , strongly bound 6/O 
 
 " A very interesting description of the requirements of Factory Accounts. . . . The principle 
 
 of assimilating the Factory Accounts to the general commercial books is one which we thoroughly 
 
 agree with." Accountants' Journal. 
 
 " Characterised by extreme thoroughness. There are few owners of factories who would not 
 
 derive great benefit from the perusal of this most admirable work." Local Government Chronicle. 
 
 MODERN METROLOGY. 
 
 A Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems of the present Century. With 
 an Appendix containing a proposed English System. By Lowis D. A. 
 JACKSON, A. M. Inst. C. E., Author of "Aid to Survey Practice," &c. Large 
 
 crown 8vo, cloth 1 2/6 
 
 " We recommend the work to all interested in the practical reform of our weights and 
 measures." Nature. 
 
 A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES. 
 
 In which the British Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those 
 of the Metric System at present in Use on the Continent. ByC. H. DOWLING, 
 
 C.E. 8 vo, strongly bound 1O/6 
 
 "Mr. Dowling's Tables are well put together as a ready reckoner for the conversion of one 
 system into the other." Athen&um. 
 
 THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION. 
 
 For Expeditiously Ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by 
 Weight, from is. per cwt. to 1125. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to 
 one shilling per pound. By THOMAS DOWNIE. 396 pp., leather . . 9/O 
 
 14 A most useful set of tables, nothing like them before existed." Building News. 
 
 " Although specially adapted to the iron and metal trades, the tables will be found useful in 
 every other business in which merchandise is bought and sold by weight." Railway News. 
 
42 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 NUMBER, WEIGHT, AND FRACTIONAL CALCULATOR. 
 
 Containing upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing at a Glance the 
 
 Value at 422 Different Rates, ranging from rajth of a Penny to 205. each, or per 
 
 cwt., and .20 per ton, of any number of articles consecutively, from i to 470. 
 
 Any number of cwts., qrs., and Ibs., from i cwt. to 470 cwts. Any number of 
 
 tons, cwts., qrs., and Ibs., from i to 1,000 tons. By WILLIAM CHADWICK, 
 
 Public Accountant. Third Edition, Revised. 8vo, strongly bound . 1 8/O 
 
 "It is as easy of reference for any answer or any number of answers as a dictionary. For 
 
 making up accounts or estimates the book must prove invaluable to all who have any considerable 
 
 quantity of calculations involving price and measure in any combination to do." Engineer. 
 
 "The most perfect work of the kind yet prepared." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR. 
 
 Being a Series of Tables upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at 
 one Reference the exact Value of any Weight from i Ib. to 15 tons, at 300 
 Progressive Rates, from id. to i68s. per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct 
 Answers, which, with their Combinations, consisting of a single addition 
 (mostly to be performed at sight), will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 
 Answers ; the whole being calculated and designed to ensure correctness and 
 promote despatch. By HENRY HARBEN, Accountant. Fifth Edition, carefully 
 Corrected. Royal Svo, strongly half-bound 1 5s. 
 
 " A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally." Ironmonger. 
 
 "Of priceless value to business men. It is a necessary book in all mercantile offices." 
 Sheffield Independent. 
 
 THE DISCOUNT GUIDE. 
 
 Comprising several Series of Tables for the Use of Merchants, Manufacturers, 
 Ironmongers, and Others, by which may be ascertained the Exact Profit arising 
 from any mode of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and 
 the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount, or Advancing a Price, so as 
 to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise any required Profit after 
 allowing one or more Discounts : to which are added Tables of Profit or 
 Advance from ij to 90 per cent., Tables of Discount from ij to 98^ per cent., 
 and Tables of Commission, &c., from | to 10 per cent. By HENRY HARBEN, 
 Accountant. New Edition, Corrected. Demy Svo, half-bound . 1 5s. 
 " A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of time 
 
 means saving of money. The work must prove of great value to merchants, manufacturers, and 
 
 general traders. "British Trade Journal. 
 
 TABLES OF WAGES. 
 
 At 54, 52, 50 and 48 Hours per Week. Showing the Amounts of Wages from 
 One quarter of an hour to Sixty-four hours, in each case at Rates of Wages 
 advancing by One Shilling from 4$. to 555. per week. By THOS. GARBUTT, 
 Accountant. Square crown Svo, half-bound 6/O 
 
 IRON-PLATE WEIGHT TABLES. 
 
 For Iron Shipbuilders, Engineers, and Iron Merchants. Containing the 
 Calculated Weights of upwards of 150,000 different sizes of Iron Plates from 
 i foot by 6 in. by J in. to 10 feet by 5 feet by i in. Worked out on the Basis of 
 40 Ibs. to the square foot of Iron of i inch in thickness. By H. BURLINSON 
 and W. H. SIMPSON. 410, half-bound 1 5s. 
 
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES (ACTUARIAL). 
 
 Comprising Commutation and Conversion Tables, Logarithms, Cologarithms, 
 Antilogarithms and Reciprocals. By J. W. GORDON. Royal Svo. mounted 
 on canvas, in cloth case. [Just Published. 5/Q 
 
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, &c. 43 
 
 AGRICULTURE, FARMING, 
 GARDENING, &c. 
 
 THE COMPLETE GRAZIER AND FARMER'S AND 
 
 CATTLE BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 A Compendium of Husbandry. Originally Written by WILLIAM YOUATT, 
 Thirteenth Edition, entirely Re-written, considerably Enlarged, and brought 
 up to the Present Requirements of Agricultural Practice, by WILLIAM 
 FREAM, LL.D., Steven Lecturer in the University of Edinburgh, Author of 
 "The Elements of Agriculture," &c. Royal 8vo, 1,100 pp., with over 
 450 Illustrations, strongly and handsomely bound . . . 1 1 1 8 . 60. 
 
 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK I. ON THE VARIETIES, BREEDING, i BOOK VII. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, 
 REARING, FATTENING AND MANAGE- AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 
 
 MENT OF CATTLE. 
 BOOK II. ON THE ECONOMY AND MAN- 
 AGEMENT OF THE DAIRY. 
 
 BOOK Vlll. ON FARM OFFICES AND 
 
 IMPLEMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. 
 BOOK IX. ON THE CULTURE AND MAN- 
 
 BOOK ill. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. 
 AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES. , BOOK X. ON THE CULTIVATION AND 
 
 BOOK IV. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, 
 
 AND FATTENING OF SHEEP. 
 BOOK v. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, 
 
 AND FATTENING OF SWINE. 
 BOOK VI. ON THE DISEASES OF LIVH 
 
 STOCK. 
 
 APPLICATION OF GRASSES, PULSE AND 
 
 ROOTS. 
 BOOK XI. ON MANURES AND THEIR 
 
 APPLICATION TO GRASS LAND AND 
 
 CROPS. 
 BOOK XII. MONTHLY CALENDARS OF 
 
 FARMWORK. 
 ** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE NEW EDITION. 
 
 " Dr. Fream is to be congratulated on the successful attempt he has made to give us a work 
 which will at once become the standard classic of the farm practice of the country. We believe 
 that it will be found that it has no compeer among the many works at present in existence. . . . 
 The illustrations are admirable, white the frontispiece, which represents the well-known bull, 
 New Year's Gift, bred by the Queen, is a work of art." The Times. 
 
 "The book must be recognised as occupying the proud position of the most exhaustive work 
 of reference in the English language on the subject with which it deals." Atheneeum. 
 
 " The most comprehensive guide to modem farm practice that exists in the English language 
 to-day- . . . The book is one that ought to be on every farm and in the library of every land 
 owner." Mark Lane Express. 
 
 " In point of exhaustiveness and accuracy the work will certainly hold a pre-eminent and 
 unique position among books dealing with scientific agricultural practice. It is, in fact, an agricul- 
 tural library of itself. "North British Agriculturist. 
 
 " A compendium of authoritative and well-ordered knowledge on every conceivable branch of 
 the work of the live stock farmer; probably without an equal in this or any other country." 
 Yorkshire Post. 
 
 FARM LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Stock. Demy 8vo, 384 pp., with 79 Plates and Maps, cloth. ." .1 2/6 
 " A really complete work on the history, breeds, and management of the farm stock of Great 
 
 Britain, and one which is likely to find its way to the shelves of every country gentleman's library." 
 
 The Times. 
 
 " The latest edition of ' Farm Live Stock of Great Britain ' is a production to be proud of, and 
 
 its issue not the least of the services which its author has rendered to agricultural science." 
 
 Scottish Farmer. 
 
 "The book is very attractive, . . . and we can scarcely imagine the existence of a 
 
 farmer who would not like to have a copy of this beautiful and useful work. Mark Lane Express. 
 
 NOTE-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACT5 & FIGURES 
 
 FOR FARMERS AND FARM STUDENTS. 
 
 By PRIMROSE McCoNNELL, B.Sc., Fellow of the. Highland and Agricultural 
 Society, Author of " Elements of Farming." Sixth Edition, Re-written, Revised, 
 and greatly Enlarged. Fcap. 8vo, 480 pp., leather. [Just Published. 6/O 
 
 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS : SURVEYING AND LEVELLING. WEIGHTS AND 
 MEASURES. MACHINERY AND BUILDINGS. LABOUR. OPERATIONS. DRAINING. 
 EMBANKING. GEOLOGICAL MEMORANDA. SOILS. MANURES. CROPPING. CROPS. 
 ROTATIONS. WEEDS. FEEDING. DAIRYING. LIVE STOCK. HORSES. CATTLE. 
 SHEEP. PIGS. POULTRY. FORESTRY. HORTICULTURE. MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 " No farmer, and certainly no agricultural student, ought to be without this multum-in-parvo 
 manual of all subjects connected with the farm." North British Agriculturist. 
 
 " This little pocket-book contains a large amount of useful information upon all kinds of agri- 
 cultural subjects. Something of the kind has long been wanted." Mark Lane Express. 
 
 " The amount of information it contains is most surprising ; the arrangement of the matter Is 
 so methodical although so compressed as to be intelligible to everyone who takes a glance through 
 its pages. They teem with Information." .Farm and Koine. 
 
44 CROSBY LOCKWOOD <* SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 BRITISH DAIRYING. 
 
 A Handy Volume on the Work of the Dairy- Farm. For the Use of Technical 
 Instruction Classes, Students in Agricultural Colleges and the Working Dairy- 
 Farmer. By Prof. J. P. SHELDON. With Illustrations. Second Edition, 
 Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 2/6 
 
 " Confidently recommended as a useful text-book on dairy farming." Agricultural Gazette. 
 
 " Probably the best half-crown manual on dairy work that has yet been produced." North 
 British Agriculturist. 
 
 " It is the soundest little work we have yet seen on the subject." The Times. 
 
 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on their Properties and the Processes of their Produc- 
 tion. Including a Chapter on Cream and the Methods of its Separation from 
 Milk. By JOHN OLIVER, late Principal of the Western Dairy Institute, 
 Berkeley. With Coloured Plates and 200 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. 
 
 7/6 
 
 " An exhaustive and masterly production. It may be cordially recommended to all students 
 and practitioners of dairy science. Afar/A British Agriculturist. 
 
 " We recommend this very comprehensive and carefully-written book to dairy-farmers and 
 students of dairying. It is a distinct acquisition to the library of the agriculturist." Agricultural 
 Gazette. 
 
 SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING. 
 
 Or, The Lessons of My Farm. Being an Introduction to Modern Farm 
 Practice for Small Farmers. By R. SCOTT BURN, Author of " Outlines of 
 
 Modern Farming," &c. Crown 8vo, cloth 6/O 
 
 "This is the completest book of its class we have seen, and one which every amateur farmer 
 will read with pleasure, and accept as a guide." Field. 
 
 OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. 
 
 By R. SCOTT BURN. Soils, Manures, and Crops Farming and Farming 
 Economy Cattle, Sheep, and Horses Management of Dairy, Pigs, and 
 Poultry Utilisation of Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth Edition. In One 
 Vol., 1,250 pp., half-bound, profusely Illustrated . . . . .1 2/O 
 
 FARM ENGINEERING, The COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK of. 
 
 Comprising Draining and Embanking ; Irrigation and Water Supply ; Farm 
 Roads, Fences and Gates ; Farm Buildings ; Barn Implements and Machines ; 
 Field Implements and Machines ; Agricultural Surveying, &c. By Professor 
 JOHN SCOTT. In One Vol., 1,150 pp., half-bound, with over 600 Illustrations. 
 
 12/O 
 
 "Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and ability. The author has done his 
 work well ; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements. 
 The volume will be of great value to agricultural students." Mark Lane Express. 
 
 THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 A Text-Book of Agriculture. Adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and 
 Art Department. For Elementary and Advanced Students. By HUGH 
 CLEMENTS (Board of Trade). Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. 
 i8mo, cloth 2/6 
 
 " It is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased us more, or which contains 
 such a vast and useful fund of knowledge." Educational Times. 
 
 TABLES and MEMORANDA for FARMERS, GRAZIERS, 
 
 AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS, SURVEYORS, LAND AGENTS, 
 AUCTIONEERS, &c. 
 
 With a New System of Farm Book-keeping. By SIDNEY FRANCIS. Fourth 
 
 Edition. 272 pp., waistcoat-pocket size, limp leather . . . -1/6 
 
 " Weighing less than i oz., and occupyingno more space than a match-box, it contains amass 
 
 of facts and calculations which has never before, in such handy form, been obtainable. Every 
 
 operation on the farm is dealt with. The work may be taken as thoroughly accurate, the whole of 
 
 the tables having been revised by Dr. Fream. We cordially recommend it." Bell's Weekly 
 
 Messenger. 
 
 THE ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS AND THEIR 
 
 PRACTICAL LESSONS FOR FARMERS. 
 
 Part I. STOCK. Part II. CROPS. By C. J. R. TIPPER. Crown 8vo, cloth. 
 
 [Just Published. 3/6 
 
 11 We have no doubt that the book will be welcomed by a large class of farmers and others 
 nterested in agriculture." Standard. 
 
AGRICULTURE, FARMING. GARDENING, &c. 45 
 
 FERTILISERS AND FEEDING STUFFS. 
 
 A Handbook for the Practical Farmer. By BERNARD DYER, D.Sc. (Lond.). 
 
 With the Text of the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act of 1893, &c. Third 
 
 Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. 1 /Q 
 
 "This little book is precisely what it professes to be 'A Handbook for the Practical 
 
 Farmer.' Dr. Dyer has done farmers good service in placing at their disposal so much useful 
 
 information in so intelligible a form." The Times. 
 
 BEES FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT. 
 
 A Guide to the Manipulation of Bees, the Production of Honey, and the 
 General Management of the Apiary. By G. GORDON SAMSON. With 
 numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth "I/O 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING for FARMERS and ESTATE OWNERS. 
 
 A Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted for all 
 Classes of Farms. By JOHNSON M. WOODMAN, Chartered Accountant. 
 Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 3/6 5 or, cloth limp, 2/6 
 "The volume is a capital study of a most important subject." Agricultural Gazette. 
 
 WOODMAN'S YEARLY FARM ACCOUNT BOOK. 
 
 Giving Weekly Labour Account and Diary, and showing the Income and 
 Expenditure under each Department of Crops, Live Stock, Dairy, &c., &c. 
 With Valuation, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet at the End of the 
 Year. By JOHNSON M. WOODMAN, Chartered Accountant. Second Edition. 
 
 Folio, half-bound Net 7/6 
 
 "Contains every requisite form for keeping farm accounts readily and accurately." 
 Agriculture. 
 
 THE FORCING GARDEN. 
 
 Or, How to Grow Early Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables. With Plans and 
 Estimates for Building Glasshouses, Pits and Frames. With Illustrations. 
 
 By SAMUEL WOOD. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 
 
 " A good book, containing a great deal of valuable teaching. Gardeners' Magazine. 
 
 A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING. 
 
 Or, How to Grow Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers. By S. WOOD. Fourth 
 Edition, with considerable Additions, and numerous Illustrations. Crown 
 
 8vo, cloth ... 3/6 
 
 " A very good book, and one to be highly recommended as a practical guide. The practical 
 directions are excellent." Athenaum. 
 
 MULTUM-IN-PARVO GARDENING. 
 
 Or, How to Make One Acre of Land produce .620 a year, by the Cultivation 
 of Fruits and Vegetables ; also, How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass Houses, 
 so as to realise ^176 per annum clear Profit. By SAMUEL WOOD, Author of 
 " Good Gardening," &c. Fifth and Cheaper Edition, Revised, with Additions. 
 
 Crown 8vo, sewed 1 /O 
 
 "We are bound to recommend it as not only suited to the case of the amateur and gentle- 
 man's gardener, but to the market grower." Gardeners' Magazine. 
 
 THE LADIES' MULTUM-IN-PARVO FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 And Amateur's Complete Guide. By S. WOOD. Crown 8vo, cloth . 3/6 
 " Full of shrewd hints and useful instructions, based on a lifetime of experience." Scotsman. 
 
 POTATOES: HOW TO GROW AND SHOW THEM. 
 
 A Practical Guide to the Cultivation and General Treatment of the Potato. 
 By J. PINK. Crown 8vo 2/O 
 
 MARKET AND KITCHEN GARDENING. 
 
 By C. W. SHAW, late Editor of Gardening Illustrated. Cloth . . 3/6 
 " The most valuable compendium of kitchen and market-garden work published." Farmer. 
 
46 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 AUCTIONEERING, VALUING, LAND 
 SURVEYING, ESTATE AGENCY, &c. 
 
 THE APPRAISER, AUCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE 
 
 AND ESTATE AGENT AND VALUER'S POCKET ASSISTANT. 
 
 For the Valuation for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of Leases, Annuities, and 
 
 Reversions, and of Property generally ; with Prices for Inventories, &c. By 
 
 JOHN WHEELER, Valuer, &c. Sixth Edition, Re-written and greatly Extended 
 
 by C. NORRIS, Surveyor, Valuer, &c. Royal 32010, cloth . . . 5/Q 
 
 " A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearly-arranged list of 
 
 prices for inventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of furniture, &c. "Standard. 
 
 "Contains a large quantity of varied and useful information as to the valuation for purchase, 
 
 sale, or renewal of leases, annuities and reversions, and of property generally, with prices for 
 
 inventories, and a guide to determine the value of interior fittings and other effects." Builder. 
 
 AUCTIONEERS: THEIR DUTIES AND LIABILITIES. 
 
 A Manual of Instruction and Counsel for the Young Auctioneer. By ROBERT 
 SQUIBBS, Auctioneer. Second Edition, Revised and partly Re-written. Demy 
 8vo, cloth 1 2/6 
 
 "The standard text-book on the topics of which it treats." Athenaum. 
 
 " The work is one of general excellent character, and gives much information in a com- 
 pendious and satisfactory form." Builder. 
 
 " May be recommended as giving a great deal of information on the law relating to 
 auctioneers, in a very readable form. La-w Journal. 
 
 " Auctioneers may be congratulated on having so pleasing a writer to minister to their special 
 needs." Solicitors' Journal. 
 
 INWOOD'S TABLES FOR PURCHASING ESTATES 
 
 AND FOR THE VALUATION OP PROPERTIES, 
 
 Including Advowsons, Assurance Policies, Copyholds, Deferred Annuities, 
 Freeholds, Ground Rents, Immediate Annuities, Leaseholds, Life Interests, 
 Mortgages, Perpetuities, Renewals of Leases, Reversions, Sinking Funds, 
 &c., &c. 25th Edition, Revised and Extended by WILLIAM SCHOOLING, 
 F.R.A.S., with Logarithms of Natural Numbers and THOMAN'S Logarithmic 
 Interest and Annuity Tables. 336 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 
 
 [Just published. Net 8/O 
 
 " Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation 
 cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will find the present edition of 
 eminent service." Engineering, 
 
 " ' Inwood's Tables ' still maintain a most enviable reputation. The new issue has been 
 enriched by large additional contributions by M. Fe'dor Thoman, whose carefully arranged Tables 
 cannot fail to be of the utmost utility." Mining Journal, 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL VALUER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on the Valuation of Landed Estates ; including Rules 
 and Data for Measuring and Estimating the Contents, Weights and Values of 
 Agricultural Produce and Timber, and the Values of Feeding Stuffs, Manures, 
 and Labour ; with Forms of Tenant-Right Valuations, Lists of Local Agricul- 
 tural Customs, Scales of Compensation under the Agricultural Holdings Act, 
 &c., &c. By TOM BRIGHT, Agricultural Surveyor. Second Edition, Enlarged. 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth 5/O 
 
 " Full of tables and examples in connection with the valuation of tenant-right, estates, labour, 
 
 contents and weights of timber, and farm produce of all kinds." Agricultural Gazette. 
 
 "An eminently practical handbook, full of practical tables and data of undoubted interest and 
 
 value to surveyors and auctioneers in preparing valuations of all kinds." Farmer. 
 
 POLE PLANTATIONS AND UNDERWOODS. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on Estimating the Cost of Forming, Renovating, 
 Improving, and Grubbing Plantations and Underwoods, their Valuation for 
 Purposes of Transfer, Rental, Sale or Assessment. By TOM BRIGHT. Crown 
 8vo, cloth 3/6 
 
 "To valuers, foresters and agents it will be a welcome aid." North British Agriculturist. 
 
 " Well calculated to assist the valuer in the discharge of his duties, and of undoubted interest 
 and use both to surveyors and auctioneers in preparing valuations of all kinds." Kent Herald. 
 
AUCTIONEERING, VALUING. LAND SURVEYING, &-c. 47 
 THE AGRICULTURAL SURVEYOR'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 A Comprehensive Manual of Practical Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Data for 
 the Use of Surveyors, Estate Agents, Agriculturists, Landowners, and others 
 interested in the Management, Equipment, or Valuation of Landed Estates. 
 By TOM BRIGHT, Agricultural Surveyor and Valuer, Author of "The Agri- 
 cultural Valuer's Assistant," &c. Pocket-book size. 
 
 [Nearly Ready. Price about 7/6 
 
 THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT. 
 
 Being Tables on a very much Improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of 
 Estates. With Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary 
 Acres to Statute Measure, &c. By R. HUDSON, C.E. New Edition. 
 Royal 32mo, leather, elastic band ........ 4/O 
 
 " Of incalculable value to the country gentleman and professional man." Farmers' Journal. 
 
 THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK. 
 
 Comprising Formulas, Tables, and Memoranda required in any Computation 
 relating to the Permanent Improvement of Landed Property. By JOHN EWART, 
 Surveyor. Second Edition, Revised. Royal 32010, oblong, leather . 4/O 
 " A compendious and handy little volume." Spectator. 
 
 THE LAND VALUER'S COMPLETE POCKET-BOOK. 
 
 Being the above Two Works bound together. Leather .... 7/6 
 
 HANDBOOK OF HOUSE PROPERTY. 
 
 A Popular and Practical Guide to the Purchase, Mortgage, Tenancy, and 
 Compulsory Sale of Houses and Land, including Dilapidations and Fixtures : 
 with Examples of all kinds of Valuations, Information on Building and on the 
 right use of Decorative Art. By E. L. TARBUCK, Architect and Surveyor. 
 Sixth Edition. i2mo, cloth 5/O 
 
 "The advice is thoroughly practical." La-w Journal. 
 
 " For all who have dealings with house property, this is an indispensable guide." Decoration. 
 
 " Carefully brought up to date, and much improved by the addition of a division on Fine 
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 LAW AND MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 MODERN JOURNALISM. 
 
 A Handbook of Instruction and Counsel for the Young Journalist. By JOHN 
 B. MACKIE, Fellow of the Institute of Journalists. Crown 8vo, cloth . 2/O 
 " This invaluable guide to journalism is a work which all aspirants to a journalistic career wil 
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 HANDBOOK FOR SOLICITORS AND ENGINEERS 
 
 Engaged in Promoting Private Acts of Parliament and Provisional Orders for 
 the Authorisation of Railways, Tramways, Gas and Water Works, &c. 
 By L. LIVINGSTONE MACASSEY, of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, 
 M. Inst. C.E. 8vo, cloth 1 5 8 . 
 
 PATENTS for INVENTIONS, HOW to PROCURE THEM. 
 
 Compiled for the Use of Inventors, Patentees and others. By G. G. M. 
 HARDINGHAM, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E., &c. Demy 8vo, cloth . -1/6 
 
 CONCILIATION & ARBITRATION in LABOUR DISPUTES. 
 
 A Historical Sketch and Brief Statement of the Present Position of the 
 Question at Home and Abroad. By J. S. JEANS, Author of " England's 
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48 CROSBY LOCK WOOD <& SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER. 
 
 A Handy-Book of the Principles of Law and Equity. With a Concise 
 Dictionary of Legal Terms. By A BARRISTER. Thirty-sixth Edition, care- 
 fully Revised, and including New Acts of Parliament of 1898. Comprising 
 the Benefices Act, 1898; new Marriage (Nonconformists) Act, 1898; 
 Inebriates Act, 1898; Criminal Evidence Act, 1898 ; Vaccination Act, 1898; 
 Vagrancy Act, 1898; besides the Workmen's Compensation Act, 1897; 
 Infant Life Protection Act, 1897; Land Transfer Act, 1897, &c-, &c- 
 Judicial Decisions during the year have also been duly noted. Crown 
 8vo, 750 pp. Price 6/8 (saved at every consultation !), strongly bound in 
 eloth. {Just Published. 
 
 The Book will be found to comprise (amongst other matter) 
 
 THE RIGHTS AND WRONGS OF INDIVIDUALS LANDLORD AND TENANT VENDORS 
 AND PURCHASERS LEASES AND MORTGAGES PRINCIPAL AND AGENT PARTNERSHIP 
 AND COMPANIES MASTERS, SERVANTS AND WORKMEN CONTRACTS AND AGREEMENTS 
 BORROWERS, LENDERS AND SURETIES SALE AND PURCHASE OF GOODS CHEQUES, 
 BILLS AND NOTES BILLS OF SALE BANKRUPTCY RAILWAY AND SHIPPING LAW- 
 LIFE, FIRE, AND MARINE INSURANCE ACCIDENT AND FIDELITY INSURANCE CRIMINAL 
 LAW PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS COUNTY COUNCILS DISTRICT COUNCILS PARISH 
 COUNCILS MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS LIBEL AND SLANDER PUBLIC HEALTH AND 
 NUISANCES COPYRIGHT, PATENTS, TRADE MARKS HUSBAND AND WIFE DIVORCE- 
 INFANCY CUSTODY OF CHILDREN TRUSTEES AND EXECUTORS CLERGY, CHURCH- 
 WARDENS, &c. GAME LAWS AND SPORTING INNKEEPERS HORSES AND DOGS TAXES 
 AND DEATH DUTIES FORMS OF AGREEMENTS, WILLS, CODICILS, NOTICES, &c. 
 
 f The object of this -work is to enable those -who consult it to help themselves to the 
 law ; and thereby to dispense, as far as possible, -with professional assistance and ad-vice. There 
 are many -wrongs and grievances -which persons submit to from time to time through not 
 knowing how or -where to apply for redress ; and many persons have as great a dread of a 
 lawyer's office as of a lion's den. With this book at hand it is believed that many a SlX-AND- 
 EIGHTPENCE may be saved; many a -wrong redressed ; many a right reclaimed; many a la-w 
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 lawyers residing at a distance from la-w libraries, who are glad to have at hand a work 
 embodying recent decisions and enactments. 
 
 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 " It is a complete code of English Law written in plain language, which all can understand. 
 
 . . . Should be in the hands of every business man, and all who wish to abolish lawyers bills." 
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 " A useful and concise epitome of the law, compiled with considerable care. 'Law Magazine. 
 
 " A complete digest of the most useful facts which constitute English law." Globe. 
 
 "This excellent handbook. . . . Admirably done, admirably arranged, and admirably 
 cheap." Leeds Mercury. 
 
 " A concise, cheap, and complete epitome of the English law. So plainly written that he who 
 runs may read, and he who reads may understand." Figaro. 
 
 " A dictionary of legal facts well put together. The book is a very useful one." Spectator. 
 
 THE PAWNBROKER'S, FACTOR'S, AND MERCHANT'S 
 
 GUIDE TO THE LAW OP LOANS AND PLEDGES. 
 
 With the Statutes and a Digest of Cases. By H. C. FOLKARD, Barrister-at- 
 Law. Cloth 3/6 
 
 LABOUR CONTRACTS. 
 
 A Popular Handbook on the Law of Contracts for Works and Services. By 
 DAVID GIBBONS. Fourth Edition, with Appendix of Statutes by T. F. UTTLEY, 
 Solicitor. Fcap. 8vo, cloth 3/6 
 
 SUMMARY OF THE FACTORY AND WORKSHOP ACTS 
 
 (1878-1891). For the Use of Manufacturers and Managers. By EMILE 
 GARCKE and J. M. FELLS. (Reprinted from "FACTORY ACCOUNTS.") 
 Crown 8vo, sewed . ' . . . , . , . . . . 60 
 
 BRADBURY, AGNHW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE 
 
WEALE'S SERIES 
 
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 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL 
 
 WORKS. 
 
 "It is not too much to say that no books have ever proved more 
 popular with or more useful to young engineers and others than the 
 excellent treatises comprised in WEALE'S SERIES." Engineer. 
 
 Jiefo Classified list. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING AND SURVEYING 2 
 
 MINING AND METALLURGY .... 3 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING .... 4 
 
 NAVIGATION, SHIPBUILDING. ETC. . 5 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING . . 6 
 
 INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. . 9 
 
 AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, ETC. . IO 
 
 MATHEMATICS, ARITHMETIC, ETC . 12 
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS VOLUMES . . 14 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON, 
 STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LONDON, E.G. 
 1899- 
 
2 WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING & SURVEYING. 
 Civil Engineering. 
 
 By HENRY LAW, M. Inst. C.E. Including a Treatise on HYDRAULIC 
 ENGINEERING by.G. R. BURNELL, M.I. C.E. Seventh Edition, revised, 
 with LARGE ADDITIONS by D. K. CLARK, M.I. C.E. . . . 6/6 
 
 Pioneer Engineering: 
 
 A Treatise on the Engineering Operations connected with the Settlement of 
 Waste Lands in New Countries. By EDWARD DOBSON, A. I. C.E. With 
 numerous Plates. Second Edition ....... 4/6 
 
 Iron Bridges of Moderate Span: 
 
 Their Construction and Erection. By HAMILTON W. PENDRED. With 40 
 Illustrations 2/0 
 
 Iron and Steel Bridges and Viaducts. 
 
 A Practical Treatise upon their Construction for the use of Engineers, 
 Draughtsmen, and Students. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E. With numerous 
 Illustrations [Just Published 3/6 
 
 Constructional Iron and Steel Work, 
 
 As applied to Public, Private, and Domestic Buillings. By FRANCIS 
 CAMPIN, C.E 3/6 
 
 Tubular and other Iron Girder Bridges. 
 
 Describing the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. By G. DRYSDALE 
 DEMPSEY, C.E. Fourth Edition 2/0 
 
 Materials and Construction: 
 
 A Theoretical and Practical Treatise on the Strains, Designing, and Erec- 
 tion of Works of Construction. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E. . . 3/0 
 
 Sanitary Work in the Smaller Towns and in Villages. 
 
 By CHARLES SLAGG, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition . . 3/0 
 
 Roads and Streets (The Construction of). 
 
 In Two Parts: I. THE ART OF CONSTRUCTING COMMON ROADS, by H. 
 LAW, C.E., Revised by D. K. CLARK, C.E. ; II. RECENT PRACTICE: In- 
 cluding Pavements of Wood, Asphalte, etc. By D. K. CLARK, C.E. 4/6 
 
 Gas "Works (The Construction of), 
 
 And the Manufacture and Distribution of Coal Gas. By S. HUGHES, C.E. 
 Re-written by WILLIAM RICHARDS, C.E. Eighth Edition . . 5/6 
 Water Works 
 
 For the Supply of Cities and Towns. With a Description of the Principal 
 Geological Formations of England as influencing Supplies of Water. By 
 SAMUEL HUGHES, F.G.S., C.E. Enlarged Edition . . . . 4/0 
 
 The Power of Water, 
 
 As applied to drive Flour Mills, and to give motion to Turbines and other 
 Hydrostatic Engines. By JOSEPH GLYNN, F.R.S. New Edition . 2/0 
 
 Wells and Well-Sinking. 
 
 By JOHN GEO. SWINDELL, A.R.I. B. A., and G. R. BHRNELL, C.E. Revised 
 Edition. With a New Appendix on the Qualities of Water. Illustrated 2/0 
 
 The Drainage of Lands, Towns, and Buildings. 
 
 By G. D. DEMPSEY, C.E. Revised, with large Additions on Recent 
 Practice, by D. K. CLARK, M.I. C.E. Third Edition . . . 4/6 
 
 Embanking Lands from the Sea. 
 
 With Particulars of actual Embankments, &c. By JOHN WIGGINS . 2/O 
 
 The Blasting and Quarrying of Stone, 
 
 For Building and other Purposes. With Remarks on the Blowing up of 
 Bridges. By Gen. Sir J. BURGOYNE, K.C B. . . . . -1/6 
 
 Foundations and Concrete Works. 
 
 With Practical Remarks on Fooling?, Planking, Sand, Concrete, Beton, 
 .Pile-driving, Caissons, and Cofferdams. By E. DOBSON, M R.I.B.A. 
 Seventh Edition ...,.,,.... 1 /6 
 
WEALES SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 3 
 Pneumatics, 
 
 Including Acoustics and the Phenomena of Wind Currents, for the Use of 
 Beginners. By CHARLES TOMLINSON, F.R.S. Fourth Edition . 1/6 
 
 Land and Engineering Surveying. 
 
 For Students and Practical Use. By T. BAKER, C.E. Seventeenth Edition, 
 Revised and Extended by F. E. DIXON, A.M. Inst. C.E., Professional Asso- 
 ciate of the Institution of Surveyors. With numerous Illustrations and two 
 Lithographic Plates {Just published 2/0 
 
 Mensuration and Measuring. 
 
 For Students and Practical Use. With the Mensuration and Levelling of 
 Land for the purposes of Modern Engineering. By T. BAKKR, C.E. New 
 Edition by E. NUGENT, C.E .'-1/6 
 
 MINING AND METALLURGY. 
 Mineralogy, 
 
 Rudiments of. By A. RAMSAY, F.G.S. Third Edition, revised am 1 
 enlarged. Woodcuts and Plates 3/6 
 
 Coal and Coal Mining, 
 
 A Rudimentary Treatise on By the late Sir WARINGTON W. SMYTH, 
 F.R.S. Seventh Edition, revised and enkj-ged 3/6 
 
 Metallurgy of Iron. 
 
 Containing Methods of Assay, Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manu- 
 facture of Iron and Steel, &c. By H. BAUKRMAN, F.G.S. With numerous 
 Illustrations. Sixth Edition, revised and enlarged .... 5/0 
 
 The Mineral Surveyor and Valuer's Complete Guide. 
 
 By W. LINTERM. Fourth Edition, with an Appendix on Magnetic and 
 Angular Surveying 3/6 
 
 Slate and Slate Quarrying: 
 
 Scientific, Practical, and Commercial. By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S. With 
 numerous Illustrations and Folding Plates. Third Edition . . 3/0 
 
 A First Book of Mining and Quarrying, 
 
 With the Sciences connected therewith, for Primary Schools and Self In- 
 struction. By J. H. COLLINS, F.G.S. Second Edition . . -1/6 
 
 Subterraneous Surveying, 
 
 With and without the Magnetic Needle. By T. FKNWICK and T. BAKER, 
 C.h. Illustrated 2/6 
 
 Mining Tools. 
 
 Manual of. By WILLIAM MORGANS, Lecturer on Practical Mining at the 
 Bristol School of Mines 2/6 
 
 Mining Tools, Atlas 
 
 Of Engravings to Illustrate the above, containing 235 Illustrations of Mining 
 Tools, drawn to Scale. 410 . ... . 4/6 
 
 Physical Geology, 
 
 Partly based on Major-General PORTLOCK'S " Rudiments of Geology." 
 By RALPH TATE, A.L.S., &c. Woodcuts. . . . .. .2/0 
 
 Historical Geology, 
 
 Partly based on Major-General PORTLOCK'S " Rudiments." By RALPH 
 TATE, A.L.S , &c. Woodcuts 2/6 
 
 Geology, Physical and Historical. 
 
 Consisting of " Physical Geology," which sets forth the Leading Principles 
 of the Science ; and " Historical Geology," which treats of the Mineral and 
 Organic Conditions of the Earth at each successive epoch. By RALPH 
 TATE. F.G.S 4/6 
 
 Electro-Metallurgy, 
 
 Practically Treated. By ALEXANDER WATT. Tenth Edition, enlarged 
 and revised, including the most Recent Processes .... JL/6 
 
4 WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 
 The Workman's Manual of Engineering Drawing. 
 
 By JOHN MAXTON. Instructor in Engineering Drawing, Royal Naval 
 College, Greenwich. Seventh Edition. 300 Plates and Diagrams . 3/6 
 
 Fuels : Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous. 
 
 Their Analysis and Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and Engineers. 
 By H. J. PHILLIPS, F.C.S., formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist 
 to the Great Eastern Railway. Second Edition, Revised . . . 2/0 
 
 Fuel, Its Combustion and Economy. 
 
 Consisting of an Abridgment of " A Treatise on the Combustion of Coal and 
 the Prevention of Smoke." By C. W. WILLIAMS, A.I. C.E. With Exten- 
 sive Additions by D. K. CLARK, M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition . 3/6 
 
 The Boilermaker's Assistant 
 
 In Drawing, Templating, and Calculating Boiler Work, &c. By J. COURT- 
 NEY, Practical Boilermaker. Edited by D. K. CLARK, C.E. . 2/0 
 
 The Boiler-Maker's Ready Reckoner, 
 
 With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating for the Use or 
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 %* The last two Works in One Volume, half-bound, entitled " THE BOILER- 
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 D. K. CLARK. Price js. 
 
 Steam Boilers : 
 
 Their Construction and Management. By R. ARMSTRONG, C. E. Illustrated 
 
 1/6 
 Steam and Machinery Management. 
 
 A Guide to the Arrangement and Economical Management of Machinery. 
 By M. Powis BALE, M. Inst. M.E 2/6 
 
 Steam and the Steam Engine, 
 
 Stationary and Portable. Being an Extension of the Treatise on the Steam 
 Engine of Mr. J. SEWELL. By D. K. CLARK, C.E. Third Edition 3/6 
 
 The Steam Engine, 
 
 A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of, with Rules and Examples for 
 Practical Men. By T. BAKER, C.E 1/6 
 
 The Steam Engine. 
 
 By Dr. LARDNER. Illustrated 1/6 
 
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 ByG. D. DEMPSEY, C.E. With large Additions treating of the Modern 
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 Locomotive Engine-Driving. 
 
 A Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of Locomotive Engines. By 
 MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Eighth Edition. 3*. 6d. limp ; cloth boards 4/6 
 
 Stationary Engine-Driving. 
 
 A Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of Stationary Engines. By 
 MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Fourth Edition. 3*. 6d. limp ; cloth boards . 4/6 
 
 The Smithy and Forge. 
 
 Including the Farrier's Art and Coach Smithing. By W. J. E. CRANE. 
 Second Edition, revised 2/6 
 
 Modern Workshop Practice, 
 
 As applied to Marine, Land, and Locomotive Engines, Floating Docks, 
 Dredging Machines, Bridges, Ship-building, &c. By J. G. WINTON. 
 Fourth Edition, Illustrated 3/6 
 
 Mechanical Engineering. 
 
 Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop 
 Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of the Steam Engine, 
 &c. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E. Third Edition .... 2/6 
 
 Details of Machinery. 
 
 Comprising Instructions for the Execution of various Works in Iron in the 
 Fitting-Shop, Foundry, and Boiler- Yard. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E. 3/0 
 
WEALES SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SEU1KS. 5 
 Elementary Engineering : 
 
 A Manual for Young Marine Engineers and Apprentices. In the Form of 
 Questions and Answers on Metals, Alloys, Strength of Materials, &c. 
 ByJ. S. BREWER. Second Edition 2/0 
 
 Power in Motion: 
 
 Horse-power Motion, Toothed-Wheel Gearing, Long and Short Driving 
 Bands, Angular Forces, &c. By JAMES ARMUU.V, C.E. Third Edition 2/O 
 
 Iron and Heat, 
 
 Exhibiting the Principles concerned in the Construction of Iron Beams, 
 Pillars, and Girders. By J. ARMOUR, C.E 2/6 
 
 Practical Mechanism, 
 
 And Machine Tools. By T. BAKER, C.E. With Remarks on Tools and 
 Machinery, by J. NASMYTH, C.E 2/6 
 
 Mechanics : 
 
 Bein.n a concise Exposition of the General Principles of Mechanical Science, 
 and their Applications. By CHARLES TOMLINSUN, F.R.S. . .1/6 
 
 Cranes (The Construction of), 
 
 And other Machinery for Raising Heavy Bodies for the Erection of Build- 
 ings, &c. By JOSEPH GLYNN, F.R.S. . ..1/6 
 
 NAVIGATION, SHIPBUILDING, ETC. 
 The Sailor's Sea Book: 
 
 A Rudimentary Treatise on Navigation. By JAMES GREENWOOD, B.A. 
 With numerous Woodcuts and Coloured Plates. New and enlarged 
 Edition. By W. H. ROSSER . 2/6 
 
 Practical Navigation. 
 
 Consisting of THE SAILOR'S SEA-BOOK, by JAMES GREENWOOD and W. H. 
 ROSSER ; together with Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working 
 of the Problems, by HENRY LAW, C.E., and Prof. J. R, YOUNG . 7/Q 
 
 Navigation and Nautical Astronomy, 
 
 In Theory and Practice. By Prof. J. R. YOUNG. New Edition. 2/6 
 
 Mathematical Tables, 
 
 For Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calculations ; to which is 
 prefixed a Treatise on Logarithms. By H. LAW, C.E. Together with a 
 Series of Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. By Professor J. 
 R. YOUNG. New Edition 4/0 
 
 Masting, Mast-Making, and Rigging of Ships. 
 
 Also Tables of Spars, Rigging, Blocks ; Chain, Wire, and Hemp Ropes, 
 &c., relative to every class of vessels. By ROBERT KIPPING. N.A. . 2/O 
 
 Sails and Sail-Making. 
 
 With Draughting, and the Centre of Effort of the Sails. By ROBERT 
 
 KIPPING, N.A ...... 2/6 
 
 Marine Engines and Steam Vessels. 
 
 By R. MURRAY, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly revised, with Addi- 
 tions by the Author and by GEORGE CAKLISLE, C.E. . . . 4/6 
 
 Iron Ship-Building. 
 
 With Practical Examples. By JOHN GRANTHAM. Fifth Edition . 4/Q 
 
 Naval Architecture : 
 
 An Exposition of Elementary Principles. By JAMES PEAKE . . 3/6 
 
 Ships for Ocean and River Service, 
 
 Principles of the Construction of. By HAKON A. SOMMERFELDT . 1 /Q 
 
 Atlas of Engravings 
 
 To Illustrate the above. Twelve large folding Plates. Royal 4to, cloth 7/Q 
 
 The Forms of Ships and Boats. 
 
 By W. BLAND. Seventh Edition, revised, with numerous Illustrations and 
 Models 1/6 
 
WEALKS SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SKIMES. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE AND THE 
 
 BUILDING ARTS. 
 Constructional Iron and Steel Work, 
 
 As applied to Public, Private, and Domestic Buildings. By FRANCIS 
 CAMIMN, C.E 3/6 
 
 Building Estates : 
 
 A Treatise on the Development, Sale, Purchase, and Management of Build- 
 ing Land. By F. MAITLAND. Second Edition, revised . . . 2/O 
 
 The Science of Building : 
 
 An Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Construction. By E. WYND- 
 HAM TARN, M.A. Lond. Third Edition, revised and enlarged . 3/6 
 
 The Art of Building : 
 
 General Principles of Construction, Strength, and Use of Materials, Working 
 Drawings, Specifications, &c. By EDWARD DOESON, M.R.I.B.A. . 2/O 
 
 A Book on Building, 
 
 Civil and Ecclesiastical. By Sir EDMUND BECKETT, Q.C. (Lord GRIM- 
 THORPE). Second Edition 4/6 
 
 Dwelling-Houses (The Erection of), 
 
 Illustrated by a Perspective View, Plans, and Sections of a Pair of Villas, with 
 Specification, Quantities, and Estimates. By S. H. BRWOKS, Architect 2/-> 
 
 Cottage Building. 
 
 By C. BRUCR ALLEN. Eleventh Edition, with Chapter on Economic Cot- 
 tages for Allotments, by E. E. ALLEN, C.E 2/O 
 
 Acoustics in Relation to Architecture and Building : 
 
 The Laws of Sound as applied to the Arrangement of Buildings. By Pro- 
 fessor T. ROGKR SMITH, F.R.I. B.A. New Edition, Revised . -1/6 
 
 The Rudiments of Practical Bricklaying. 
 
 General Principles of Bricklaying ; Arch Drawing, Cutting, and Setting ; 
 Pointing; Paving, Tiling, &c. By ADAM HAMMOMD. With 08 Woodcuts 
 
 1 /6 
 The Art of Practical Brick Cutting and Setting. 
 
 By ADAM HAMMOND. With 90 Engravings 1/6 
 
 Brickwork : 
 
 A Practical Treatise, embodying the General and Higher Principles of 
 Bricklaying, Cutting and Setting ; with the Application of Geometry to Roof 
 Tiling, &c. By F.WALKER 1/6 
 
 Bricks and Tiles, 
 
 Rudimentary Treatise on the Manufacture of; containing an Outline of the 
 Principles of Brickmaking. By E. DODSON, M.R.I.B.A. Additions by 
 C. TOMLINSON, F.R. S. Illustrated . . ... . . 3/0 
 
 The Practical Brick and Tile Book. 
 
 Comprising: BRICK AND TILE MAKING, by E. DOBSON, A.I. C.E. ; Prac- 
 tical BRICKLAYING, by A. HAMMOND; BKICK-CUTTING AND SETTING, by 
 A.HAMMOND. 550 pp. with 270 Illustratious, half-bound . . 6/O 
 
 Carpentry and Joinery 
 
 THE ELFMRNTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY. . Chiefly composed from the 
 Standard Work of THOMAS TREDGOLD, C.E. With Additions, and TREATISE 
 ON JOINERY, by E. W. TARN, M.A. Sixth Edition, Revised . . 3/6 
 
 Carpentry and Joinery Atlas 
 
 Of 3s Plates to accompany and Illustrate the foregoing book. With 
 Descriptive Letterpress. 410 . . 6/O 
 
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 7 
 A Practical Treatise on Handrailing; 
 
 Showing New and Simple Methods. By GEO. COLLINGS. Second Edition, 
 Revised, including a TREATISE ON STAIKBUII.DING. With Plates . 2/6 
 
 Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. 
 By GEORGE COLLINGS. Second Edition 2/6 
 
 Roof Carpentry : 
 
 Practical Lessons in the Framing of Wood Roofs. For the Use of Working 
 Carpenters. By GEO. COLLINGS 2/0 
 
 The Construction of Roofs of Wood and Iron; 
 
 Deduced chiefly from the Works of Robison, Tredgold, and Humber. By 
 E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Architect. Second Edition, revised . 1/6 
 
 The Joints Made and Used by Builders. 
 
 By WYVILL J. CHRISTY, Architect. With 160 Woodcuts . . 3/Q 
 
 Shoring 
 
 And its Application : A Handbook for the Use of Students. By GEORGE 
 H. BLAGROVE. With 31 Illustrations 1/6 
 
 The Timber Importer's, Timber Merchant's, and 
 Builder's Standard Guide. 
 
 By R. E. GRANDY 2/0 
 
 Plumbing : 
 
 A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. With 
 Chapters upon House Drainage and Ventilation. By WM. PATON BUCHAN. 
 Seventh Edition, Re-written aud Enlarged, with 500 Illustrations . 3/6 
 
 Ventilation : 
 
 A Text Book to the Practice of the Art of Ventilating Buildings. By W. P. 
 BUCHAN, R.P., Author of " Plumbing," &c. With 170 Illustrations 3/6 
 
 The Practical Plasterer: 
 
 A Compendium of Plain and Ornamental Plaster Work. By W.KEMP 2/0 
 
 House Painting, Graining, Marbling, & Sign Writing. 
 
 With a Course of Elementary Drawing, and a Collection of Useful Receipts. 
 By ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. Seventh Edition. Coloured Plates . . o/O 
 ** The above, in cloth boards, strongly bound, 6s. 
 
 A Grammar of Colouring, 
 
 Applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By GEORGE FIELD. New 
 Edition, enlarged, by ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. With Coloured Plates . 3/O 
 
 Elementary Decoration 
 
 Asapplied to Dwelling Houses, &c. By JAMES W. FACEY. Illustrated 2/0 
 
 Practical House Decoration. 
 
 A Guide to the Art of Ornamental Painting, the Arrangement of Colours in 
 Apartments, and the Principles of Decorative Design. By JAMES W. FACBY. 
 
 2/6 
 
 *** The last two Works in One handsome Vol., half -bound, entitled " HOUSE 
 j. DECORATION, ELEMENTARY AND PRACTICAL," price 5*. 
 
 Warming and Ventilation 
 
 Of Domestic and Public Buildings, Mines, Lighthouses, Ships, &c. By 
 CHARLES TOMLINSON, F.R.S 3/0 
 
 Portland Cement for Users. 
 
 By HENRY FAIJA, A.M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition, Corrected . 2/0 
 
 Limes, Cements, Mortars, Concretes, Mastics, Plas- 
 tering, &c. 
 
 By G. R. BURNELL, C.E. Thirteenth Edition .. -1/6 
 
8 WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 
 
 Masonry and Stone-Cutting. 
 
 The Principles of Masonic Projection and their application to Construction. 
 By EDWARD DOBSON, M.R.I.E.A 2/6 
 
 Arches, Piers, Buttresses, &c. : 
 
 Experimental Essays on the Principles of Construction. By W. BLAND. 
 
 1/6 
 Quantities and Measurements, 
 
 In Bricklayers', Masons', Plasterers', Plumbers', Painters', Paperhangers". 
 Gilders', Smiths', Carpenters' and Joiners' Work. By A. C. BEATON 1 /6 
 
 The Complete Measurer : 
 
 Setting forth the Measurement of Boards, Glass, Timber and Stone. By R. 
 
 HORTON. Fifth Edition 4/0 
 
 *** The above, strongly bound in leather, price 5$. 
 
 Light: 
 
 An Introduction to the Science of Optics. Designed for the Use of Students 
 of Architecture, Engineering, and other Applied Sciences. By E. WYND- 
 HAM TARN, M. A., Author of " The Science of Building," &c. . .1 /6 
 
 Hints to Young Architects. 
 
 By GEORGE WIGHTWICK, Architect. Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged 
 by G. HUSKISSON GUILLAUME, Architect 3/6 
 
 Architecture Orders : 
 
 The Orders and their ^Esthetic Principles. By W. H. LEEDS. Illustrated. 
 
 1/6 
 Architecture Styles : 
 
 The History and Description of the Styles of Architecture of Various 
 Countries, from the Earliest to the Present Period, by T. TAI.BOT Bi'RY, 
 F.R.I.B.A. Illustrated 2/0 
 
 *** ORDERS AND STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE, in One Vol., 3$. 6d. 
 
 Architecture Design : 
 
 The Principles of Design in Architecture, as deducible from Nature and 
 exemplified in the Works of the Greek and Gothic Architects. By EDW. 
 
 LACY GARBETT, Architect. Illustrated 2/6 
 
 %* The three preceding Works in. One handsome Vol. , half bound, entitled 
 "MODERN ARCHITECTURE," price 6s. 
 
 Perspective for Beginners. 
 
 Adapted to Young Students and Amateurs in Architecture, Painting, &c. 
 By GEORGE PYNE 2/O 
 
 Architectural Modelling in Paper. 
 
 By T. A. RICHARDSON. With Illustrations, engraved by O. JEWITT 1 /6 
 
 Glass Staining, and the Art of Painting on Glass. 
 
 From the German of Dr. GESSERT and EMANUEL OTTO FROMBERG. With 
 an Appendix on THE ART OF ENAMELLING 2/6 
 
 Yitruvius The Architecture of. 
 
 In Ten Books. Translated from the Latin by JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A., 
 
 F.R.A.S. With 23 Plates 5/0 
 
 N.B. This is the only Edition 3/"ViTRUVius procurab 'e at a moderate price. 
 
 Grecian Architecture, 
 
 An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in. With an Historical View of the 
 Rise and Progress of the Art in Greece. By the EARL OF ABERDEEN 1 /Q 
 
 %* The two preceding Works in One handsome Vol., half bound, entitled 
 "ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE," price 6s. 
 
WEALK'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SKULKS. 9 
 
 INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 
 Cements, Pastes, Glues, and Gums. 
 
 A Practical Guide to the Manufacture and Application of the various 
 Agglutinants required for Workshop, Laboratory, or Office Use. With 
 upwards of 900 Recipes and Formulae. By H. C. STANDAGE . . 2/O 
 
 Clocks and Watches, and Bells, 
 
 A Rudimentary Treatise on. By Sir EDMUND BECKETT, Q.C. (Lord 
 GKIMTHOKPE). Seventh Edition. ....... 4/6 
 
 The Goldsmith's Handbook. 
 
 Containing full Instructions in the Art of Alloying. Melting, Deducing, 
 Colouring, Collecting and Refining, Recovery of Waste, Solders, EnaineK 
 &c., Sic. By GEORGE E. GEE. Third Edition, enlarged . . . 3/Q 
 
 The Silversmith's Handbook, 
 
 On the same plan as the GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By GEORGE E. GKK. 
 
 Second Edition, Revised 3/0 
 
 *#* The Inst two u O rks, in One handsome Vol., tuUJ-boitnii. js. 
 
 The Hall-Marking of Jewellery. 
 
 Comprising an account of all the different A*say Towns of the United 
 
 ' Kingdom; with the Stamps and Laws relating 10 the Standards and Hall- 
 
 Marks at the various Assay Offices. By GEORUH E. GEE . . 3/0 
 
 Practical Organ Building. 
 
 By W. E. DICKSON, M.A. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions 2/6 
 
 Coach-Building: 
 
 A Practical Treatise. By JAMES W. BURGKSS. With 57 Illustrations 2'S 
 
 The Brass Founder's Manual: 
 
 Instructions lor Modelling, Pattern Making, Moulding Turning, Ac. My 
 W. GRAHAM 2/0 
 
 The Sheet-Metal Worker's Guide. 
 
 A Practical Handbook for Tinsmiths, Coppersmiths, Zincworkers, &c., with 
 46 Diagrams. By W. J. E. CRANE. Second Edition, revised . 1 /6 
 
 Sewing Machinery: 
 
 Its Construction, History, &c. With full Technical Directions for Adjust- 
 ing, &c. By J. W. UKQUHART, C.E 2/0 
 
 Gas Fitting: 
 
 A Practical Handbook. By JOHN BLACK. Second Edition, Enlarged 
 With- 130 Illustrations 2/6 
 
 Construction of Door Locks. 
 
 From the Papers ot A. C. HOBBS. Edited by CHARLES TOMI.INSON, F.R.S 
 With a Note upon IRON SAFES bv ROBERT MALLET. Illustrated . 2/6 
 
 The Model Locomotive Engineer, Fireman, and 
 Engine-Boy. 
 
 Comprising an Historical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotive Engines and 
 their Inventors. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Second Edition. With 
 numerous Illustrations, and Portrait of George Stephenson . . 3/6 
 
 The Art of Letter Painting made Easy. 
 
 By J. G. BAUENOCH. With 12 full-page: Engravings of Examples . 1 /6 
 
 The Art of Boot and Shoemaking. 
 
 Including Measurement, Last-fitting, Cutting-out, Closing and Making. By 
 JOHN BKDFORD LENO. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition 2/0 
 
 Mechanical Dentistry : 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the Various Kinds of Artificial 
 Dentures. By CHARLES HUNTER. Third Edition, revised . . 3/O 
 
 Wood Engraving: 
 
 A Practical and Easy Introduction to the Art. By W. N. BKOWN . 1 /6 
 
 Laundry Management. 
 
 A Handbook for Use in Private and Public Laundries. Including Accounts 
 of Modern Machinery and Appliances. By the EDITOR of " The Laundry 
 Journal." With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition . . 2/0 
 
10 WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 
 
 AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, ETC. 
 Draining and Embanking: 
 
 A Practical Treatise. By Prof. JOHN SCOTT. With 68 Illustrations 1 /Q 
 
 Irrigation and Water Supply: 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Water Meadows, Sewage Irrigation, Warping, &c.; 
 on the Construction of Wells, Ponds, Reservoirs, &c. By Prof. JOHN 
 SCOTT. With 34 Illustrations 1/6 
 
 Farm Roads, Fences, and Gates: 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Roads, Tramways, and Waterways of the 
 Farm ; the Principles of Enclosures ; and the different kinds of Fence--, 
 Gates, and Stiles. By Prof. JOHN SCOTT. With 75 Illustrations . 1 /6 
 
 Farm Buildings : 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Buildings necessary for various kinds of Farms, 
 their Arrangement and Construction, with Plans and Estimates. By Prof. 
 JOHN SCOTT. Wiih 105 Illustrations 2/0 
 
 Barn Implements and Machines : 
 
 Treating of the Application of Power and Machines used in the Threshing- 
 barn, Stockyard, Dairy, &c. By Prof. J. SCOTT. With 123 Illustrations. 
 
 2/0 
 Field Implements and Machines: 
 
 With Principles and Details of Construction and Points of Excellence, their 
 Management, etc. By Prof. JOHN SCOTT. With 138 Illustrations 2/0 
 
 Agricultural Surveying : 
 
 A Treatise on Land Surveying, Levelling, and Setting-out ; with Directions 
 for Valuing Estates. By Prof. J. SCOTT. With 62 Illustrations . 1 /6 
 
 Farm Engineering. 
 
 By Professor JOHN SCOTT. Comprising the above Seven Volumes in One, 
 1,150 pages, and over 600 Illustrations. Half-bound . . 12/0 
 
 Outlines of Farm Management. 
 
 Treating of the General Work of the Farm ; Stock ; Contract Work ; 
 Labour, &c. By R. SCOTT BURN 2/6 
 
 Outlines of Landed Estates Management. 
 
 Treating of the Varietie-. of Lands, Methods of Fanning, Setting-out of 
 Farms, Roads, Fences, Gates, Drainage, &c. By R. SCOTT BURN . 2/6 
 *** The above Two Vols. in One, handsomely half -bo it ml, price Qs. 
 
 Soils, Manures, and Crops. 
 
 (Vol. I. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING.) By R. SCOTT BURN . 2/O 
 
 Farming and Farming Economy. 
 
 (Vol. II. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING.) By R. SCOTT BURN 3/Q 
 
 Stock: Cattle, Sheep, and Horses. 
 
 (Vol. III. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING.) By R. SCOTT BURN 2/6 
 
 Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry. 
 
 (Vol. IV. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING.) By R. SCOTT BURN 2/0 
 
 Utilization of Sewage, Irrigation, and Beclamation 
 of Waste Land. 
 
 (Vol. V. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING.) By R. SCOTT BURN . 2/6 
 
 Outlines of Modern Farming. 
 
 By R. SCOTT BURN. Consisting of the above Five Volumes in One, 
 1,250 pp., profusely Illustrated, half-bound . ' 1 2/O 
 
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SEIIIES. 11 
 
 Book-keeping for Farmers and Estate Owners. 
 
 A Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Flans, a System adapted for all 
 classes of Kauns. By J. M. WOODMAN. Third Edition, revised . 2/6 
 
 Ready Reckoner for the Admeasurement of Land. 
 
 By A. ARMAN. Third Edition, revised and extended by C. NORKIS 2/0 
 
 Miller's, Corn Merchant's, and Farmer's Ready 
 Reckoner. 
 
 Second Edition, revised, with a Price List of Modern Flour Mill Machinery, 
 by W. S. HUTTON, C.E. . 2/0 
 
 The Hay and Straw Measurer. 
 
 New Tables for the Use of Auctioneers, Valuers, Farmers, Hay and Straw 
 Dealers, &c. By JOHN STEELE 2/0 
 
 Meat Production. 
 
 A Manual for Producers, Distributors, and Consumers of Butchers' Meat. 
 By JOHN EWART 2/6 
 
 Sheep : 
 
 The History, Structure, Economy, and Diseases of. By W. C. STOONER, 
 M.R.V.S. Fifth Edition, with fine Engravings 3/6 
 
 Market and Kitchen Gardening. 
 
 By C. W. SHAW, late Editor of "Gardening Illustrated" . . . 3/0 
 
 Kitchen Gardening Made Easy. 
 
 Showing the best means of Cultivating every known Vegetable and Herb, 
 &c., with directions for management all the year round. By GEORGE M. F. 
 GLENNY. Illustrated 1/6 
 
 Cottage Gardening: 
 
 Or Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables for Small Gardens. By E. HOBDAY. 
 
 1/6 
 Garden Receipts. 
 
 Edited by CHARLES W. QUIN 1/6 
 
 Fruit Trees, 
 
 The Scientific and Profitable Culture of. From the French of M. Du 
 BREUIL. Fourth Edition, carefully Revised by GEORGE GLENNY. With 
 187 Woodcuts 3/6 
 
 The Tree Planter and Plant Propagator : 
 
 With numerous Illustrations of Grafting, Layering, Budding, Implements, 
 Houses, Pits, &c. By SAMUEL WOOD 2/0 
 
 The Tree Pruner: 
 
 A Practical Manual on the Pruning of Fruit Trees. Shrubs, Climbers, and 
 Flowering Plants. With numerous Illustrations, By SAMUEL WOOD 1 /6 
 
 *** The above Two Vols. in One, handsomely lialf- bound, price 3-?- 6^'. 
 
 The Art of Grafting and Budding. 
 
 By CHARLES BALTET. With Illustrations ...... 2/6 
 
12 WEALK'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SEIUES. 
 
 MATHEMATICS, ARITHMETIC, ETC. 
 Descriptive Geometry, 
 
 An Elementary Treatise on ; with a Theory of Shadows and of Perspective, 
 extracted from the French of G. MONGE. To which is added a Description 
 of the Principles and Practice of Isometrical Projection. By J. F. HEATHKK, 
 M.A. With 14 Plates 2/0 
 
 Practical Plane Geometry: 
 
 Giving the Simplest Modes of Constructing Figures contained in one Plane 
 and Geometrical Construction of the Ground. By J. F. HEATHER, M.A. 
 With 215 Woodcuts 2/O 
 
 Analytical Geometry and Conic Sections, 
 
 A Rudimentary Treatise on. By JAMES HANN. A New Edition, re- 
 written and enlarged by Professor J . R. YOUNG .... 2/0 
 
 Euclid (The Elements of). 
 
 With many Additional Propositions and Explanatory Notes; to which is 
 prefixed an Introductory Essay on Logic. By HENKV LAW, C.E. . 2/6 
 
 \* Sold also separately, viz : 
 
 Euclid. The First Three Books. By HENRY LAW, C.E. . . .1/6 
 Euclid. Books 4, 5, 6, ii, 12. By HENRY LAW, C.E. . . .1/6 
 
 Plane Trigonometry, 
 
 The Elements of. By JAMES HANN 1/6 
 
 Spherical Trigonometry, 
 
 The Elements of. By JAMES HANN. Revised by CHARLES H. DOW- 
 LING, C.E 1/0 
 
 *** Or -with " The Elements oj Plane Trigonometry" in One Volume, zs. 6d. 
 
 Differential Calculus, 
 
 Elements of the. By W. S. B. WOOLHOUSE, F.R.A.S., &c. . .1/6 
 
 Integral Calculus. 
 
 By HOMERSHAM Cox, B.A. 1/0 
 
 Algebra, 
 
 The Elements of. By JAMES HADDON, M.A. With Appendix, containing 
 Miscellaneous Investigations, and a Collection of Problems . . 2/0 
 
 A Key and Companion to the Above. 
 
 An extensive Repository of Solved Examples and Problems in Algebra. 
 By J. R. YOUNG 1/6 
 
 Commercial Book-keeping. 
 
 With Commercial Phrases and Forms in English, French, Italian, and 
 German, by JAMES HAUDON, M.A 1/6 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 A Rudimentary Treatise on. With full Explanations of its Theoretical 
 Principles, and numerous Examples for Practice. For the Use of Schools 
 and for Self-Instruction. By J. R. YOUNG, late Professor of Mathematics 
 in Belfast College. Eleventh Edition .... . 1 /6 
 
 A Key to the Above. 
 
 By J. R. YOUNG 1/6 
 
 Equational Arithmetic, 
 
 Applied to Question-; of Interest, Annuities, Life Assurance, and General 
 Commerce ; with various Tables by which all Calculations may be greatly 
 facilitated. By W. HIPSLEY 1/6 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 Rudimentary, for the Use of Schools and Self-Instruction. By JAMES 
 HADDON, M.A. Revised by ABRAHAM AKMAN . . . -1/6 
 
 A Key to the Above. 
 
 By A. ARM-VN . . . ... . . . . . -1/6 
 
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AED TECHNICAL SERIES. 13 
 
 Mathematical Instruments : 
 
 Their Construction, Adjustment, Testing, and Use concisely Explained. 
 By J. F. HEATHER, M.A., of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. 
 Fourteenth Edition, Revised, with Additions, by A. T. WALMISI.KY, 
 M.I.C.E. Original Edition, in i vol., Illustrated .... 2/O 
 
 \* In ordering the above, be careful to say "Original Edition," or give the 
 number in the Series (32), to distinguish it front the Enlarged Edition in 
 3 vols. (as follows) 
 
 Drawing and Measuring Instruments. 
 
 Including I. Instruments employed in Geometrical and Mechanical Draw- 
 ing, and in the Construction, Copying, and Measuremeit of Maps and 
 Plans. II. Instruments used for the purposes of Accurate Measurement, 
 and for Arithmetical Computations. ByJ. F. HEATHEK, M.A. . 1/6 
 
 Optical Instruments. 
 
 Including (more especially) Telescopes, Microscopes, and Apparatus for 
 producing copies of Maps and Plans by Photography. By J. F. HUATHER, 
 M.A. Illustrated 1/6 
 
 Surveying and Astronomical Instruments. 
 
 Including I. Instruments used for Determining the Geometrical Features 
 of a portion of Ground. II. Instruments employed in Astronomical Ob- 
 servations. ByJ. F. HEATHKK, M.A. Illustrated. . . .1/6 
 
 %* The above three volumes form an enlargement of the Authors original work, 
 " frlatlieinatical Instruments" price zs. {Described at top of page.) 
 
 Mathematical Instruments : 
 
 Their Construction, Adjustment, Testing and Use. Comprising Drawing, 
 Measuring, Optical, Surveying, and Astronomical Instruments. By J. F. 
 HEATHER, M.A. Enlarged Edition, for the most part entirely re-written. 
 The Three Parts as above, in One thick Volume. .... 4/6 
 
 The Slide Rule, and How to Use It. 
 
 Containing full, easy, and simple Instructions to perform all Business Cal- 
 culations with unexampled rapidity and accuracy. By CHARLES HOARE, 
 C.E. With a Slide Rule, in tuck of cover. Fifth Edition. . . 2/6 
 
 Logarithms. 
 
 With Mathematical Tables for Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical 
 Calculations. By HENRY LAW, C.E. Revised Edition . . . 3/0 
 
 Compound Interest and Annuities (Theory of). 
 
 With Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of Interest, 
 Discount, Annuities, &c., in all their Applications and U*es for Mercantile 
 and State Purposes. By FEDOR THOMAN, Paris. Fourth Edition . 4/0 
 
 Mathematical Tables, 
 
 For Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calculations ; to which is 
 prefixed a Treatise on Logarithms. By H. LAW, C.E. Together with a 
 Series of Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. By Professor J. 
 R. YOUNG. New Edition ' . 4/Q 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 As applied to the Constructive Arts. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E., &c 
 Second EL! \.\M 3/0 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 By the late Rev. ROBERT MAIN, F. R.S. Third Edition, revised and cor- 
 rected to the Present Time. By W. T. LYNN, F.R.A.S. . . . 2/0 
 
 Statics and Dynamics. 
 
 The Principles and Practice of. Embracing also a clear development of 
 Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, and Central Forces. By T. BAKEK, C.E. 
 Fourth Edition ...... \ . . , . 1 /6 
 
14 WE ALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE AND 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS VOLUMES. 
 
 A Dictionary of Painters, and Handbook for Picture 
 Amateurs. 
 
 Being a Guide for Visitors to Public and Private Picture Galleries, and for 
 Art-Students, including Glossary of Terms, Sketch of Principal Schools of 
 Painting, &c. By PHILIPPE DAKYL, B.A 2/6 
 
 Painting Popularly Explained. 
 
 By T. J. GULLICK, Painter, and JOHN TIMBS, F.S.A. Including Fresco, 
 Oil, Mosaic, Water Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera, Encaustic, Miniature, 
 Painting on Ivory, Vellum, Pottery, Enamel, Glass, &c. Fifth Edition 5/0 
 
 A Dictionary of Terms used in Architecture, Build- 
 ing, Engineering, Mining, Metallurgy, Archae- 
 ology, the Fine Arts, &c. 
 
 By JOHN WEALE. Sixth Edition. Edited by ROBT. HUNT, F.R.S. 
 Numerous Illustrations 5/0 
 
 Music : 
 
 A Rudimentary and Practical Treatise. With numerous Examples. By 
 CHARLES CHILD SPENCER ... 2/6 
 
 Pianoforte, 
 
 The Art of Playing the. With numerous Exercises and Lessons. By 
 CHARLES CHILD SPENCER 1 /g 
 
 The House Manager. 
 
 Being a Guide to Housekeeping, Practical Cookery, Pickling and Preserv- 
 ing, Household Work, Dairy Management, Cellarage of Wines, Home- 
 brewing and Wine- making, Stable Economy, Gardening Operations, &c. 
 By AN OLD HOUSEKEEPER . 3/6 
 
 Manual of Domestic Medicine. 
 
 By R. GOODING. M.D. Intended as a Family Guide in all cases of 
 Accident and Emergency Third Edition, carefully revised . . 2/0 
 
 Management of Health. 
 
 A Manual of Home and Personal Hygiene. By Rev. JAMES BAIRD 1 /Q 
 
 Natural Philosophy, 
 
 For the Use of Beginners. By CHARLES TOMLINSON, F.R.S. . . 1/6 
 
 The Electric Telegraph, 
 
 Its History and Progress. With Descriptions of some of the Apparatus. 
 By R. SABINE, C.E., F.S.A., &c 3/0 
 
 Handbook of Field Fortification. 
 
 By Major W. W. KNOLLYS, F.R.G.S. With 163 Woodcuts . . 3/Q 
 
 Logic, 
 
 Pure and Applied. By S. H EMMENS. Third Edition . . .1/6 
 
 Locke on the Human Understanding, 
 
 Selections from. With Notes by S. H. EMMENS . . . -1/6 
 
 The Compendious Calculator 
 
 (Intuitive Calculatinns}. Or Easy and Concise Methods of Performing the 
 various Arithmetical Operations required in Commercial and Business 
 Transactions ; together with Useful Tables, &o By DANIEL O'GORMAN. 
 Twenty-seventh Edition, carefully revised bv C. NORRIS . . . 2/6 
 
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 15 
 Measures, Weights, and Moneys of all Nations. 
 
 With an Analysis of the Christian, Hebrew, and Mahometan Calendars. 
 By W. S. B. WOOLHOUSE, F.R.A.S., F.S.S. Seventh Edition . 2/6 
 
 Grammar of the English Tongue, 
 
 Spoken and Written. With an Introduction to the Study of Comparative 
 Philology. By HVDE CLARKE, D.C.L. Fifth Edition. . . -1/6 
 
 Dictionary of the English Language. 
 
 As Spoken and Written. Containing above 100,000 Words. By HVDE 
 
 CLARKE, D.C.L 3/6 
 
 Compete with the GRAMMAR 5/6 
 
 Composition and Punctuation, 
 
 Familiarly Explained for those who have neglected the Study of Grammar. 
 By JUSTIN BRENAN. i8th Edition 1/6 
 
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