ECLIPSES. peculiarly applied. These philosophers lived chiefly un- der the Roman empire. The most celebrated among them maybe said to have-been Epictetus(A. d. 90) and Plutarch. The latter, in particular, a man of great and various endow- ments, may yet be taken as a striking ins:ance of a false eclecticism. His great object, in his philosophical writings, seems to have been to reconcile the profound speculations and pure morality of the philosophers witluhe fanciful in- ventions and the gross theology of the poets and priests of Greece, Italy, or Egypt. A far more favourable specimen of the eclectic spirit has been afforded us in modern times in the person of M. Vic- tor Cousin, without doubt the most able and ingenious thinker of modern France. See his Lectures on the Hist. of Philosophy, in which eclecticism is presented under its fairest guise, and vindicated with the utmost vigour of style and acnteness of thought. ECLI'PSES (Gr. cKXciipts, from ckXcitto), I faint awny or disappear), taken in ageneral sense, are those phe- nomena which exhibit the obscuration of astronomical lumi- naries, and may be divided inlo two kinds, in reference to the circumstances under which they are presented ; viz. 1. When the obscuration is caused by an interception of the light received by the luminary from the sun ; as in the cases of eclipses of the moon, eclipses of Jupiter's satel- lites,*^. 2. VVhen the obscuration is caused by an inter- ception, either totally or partially, of the light transmuted from the luminary to the spectator ; and this kind consists of eclipses of the sun, occultations of stars and planets by the moon, and the transits of Mercury and Venus over the disc of the sun. The most popular and generally interesting objects are the eclipses of the sun and moon ; and their causes and aspects will here deserve some explanation. The earth and moon, being opaque bodies, are illuminated by the sun ; and, just as we observe with small opaque bodies on the surface of the earth which are within the range of ocular examination, they cast their shadows in directions which are opposite to the sun. As the figures of the bodies are nearly spherical, and as the sun is the largest, it is plain that these shadows must be very nearly of a conical form. The moon is eclipsed when it becomes involved in the shadow Df the earth, and so deprived of the light it is accustomed to receive from the sun ; and this can take place only at the time of full moon, or when the moon is in opposition to the sun. Let S represent the sun, E the earth, and n' t n As conical shadow, into which the rays of the sun do not enter. This shadow must evidently be a portion of the larger cone T / T' which envelops both bodies. Suppose the plane of the paper to be the plane of the ecliptic, or the plane in which the earth moves round the sun, and let d d ' represent a portion of the path of the moon round the earth, the arrows indicating the direction of her motion. Conceive also by means of cross tangents T P fl , T' P Q ' the two opposite and circumscribing cones TP T', ([' P <[ to be drawn. The latter of these cones, (J ' P (J , is called the penumbral cone ; and the space Nnti' N', projected beyond the earth, is called the earth's penumbra. It is evi- dent that any position within this penumbra is at least par- tially deprived of the light of the sun ; for if we imagine a spectator to be in that position, it is obvious that the inter- position of the earth would act as a partial screen and ob- scure a portion of the sun's disc from his view. It is also evident that a greater portion of the disc of the sun would be hidden from this supposed spectator as his position ap- proaches tiearer to the earth's shadow; and that if we sup- pose him to enter the shadow, he will become totally de- prived of the light of the sun, the disc of the sun in this case being entirely hidden by the intervention of the earth. From this observation it follows that as the moon advances in the penumbra from ([ to m her disc will receive less and less light from the sun, and its brightness will gradually diminish ; also, as soon as a portion of the moon's disc en- ters the shadow, that portion becomes totally deprived of the light of the sun, and is, in other terms, darkened or ■vjlipsed. If in the course of the eclipse only a part of the moon's disc enters the earth's shadow, it is called a partial eclipse ; but if the moon is totally darkened by the whole disc entering the shadow, it is called a total eclipse. It is to be understood in the diagram that the orbit of the moon, or the path she describes round the earth, is not in the plane of the ecliptic or the plane of the paper, but inclined to it at an angle always greater than 4° 57' and less than 6° 21'. This is the reason why eclipses of the moon do not happen 334 at every full moon, for they can only take place when the moon s elevation above the ecliptic at full moon happens to be less than the semidiameter of thrt section of the earth's shadow through which she passes. In the course of a year there may be three eclipses of the moon, which is the greatest number that can happen; but there must always necessarily be two. At the time of new moon, or when the moon is between the sun and the earth, her shadow or penumbra may fall on the disc of the earth at certain places, and prevent either all or part of the light of the sun from reaching those places on the earth's surface. This circumstance pro- duces the phenomenon of a total or partial eclipse of the sun, which is limited to the portion of the earth on which the moon's shadow or penumbra happens to fall. The shadow of the moon does not always reach so far as the earth. In the two following diagrams, annexed by way of illustration, the former represents thn case in which it does reach, and the latter represents tho case in which it fig- a does not reach, the surface of the earth. The shadow ot the moon in the first diagram falls upon a portion of the earth's surface between m and m' ; and the inhabitants, if any, of that portion, will evidently, from what has been said before, have the sun's disc wholly covered by the in- tervention of the dark body of the moon, and therefore fig- 3. have presented to them a total eclipse of the sun. But in the second diagram, where the shadow of the moon does not reach the earth, if we suppose the dark conical shadow ntn' to be produced into the small opposite cone mtm' meeting the surface of the earth, it will be obvious, after a slight consideration, that any supposed spectator within this latter cone, or any inhabitant of the portion mm' of the earth, will perceive the dark body of the moon wholly within the disc of the sun, and intercepting only an interior part of his light; the unobscured part of the sun which cir- cumscribes the disc of the moon will consequently present the appearance of a beautiful luminous ring or annulus, and the eclipse exhibiting this aspect is commonly called an annular eclipse of the sun ; the cone m t m' may be simi- larly called the annular cone. It does not always occur, during the progress of an eclipse of the sun, that either the dark shadow of the moon or the annular cone will fall on the earth's surface, and it very rarely happens that either of them fall on a»y defined spot, such as London or Edin- burgh. For the occurrence of an eclipse on the earth, it is only necessary that the moon's penumbra Nnn'N' shall be projected against a portion of the terrestrial surface, as an inhabitant of that portion will at least have a part of the disc of the sun intercepted by the moon. When neither the moon's shadow nor the annular cone meets the earth in the course of an eclipse, and consequently only a part of the sun's disc is obscured to terrestrial vision, it is called a partial eclipse of the sun, and in that respect it is similar to a partial eclipse of the moon. If in the two diagrams we suppose, as before, the plane of the paper to be the plane of the ecliptic, the position of the moon must not neces sarily be considered to be in that plane. The north pole of the earth will be directed upwards at an angle of about 23° 28', and the arrows will represent the direction in which the earth revolves about its axis; the moon proceeds round the earth in the same direction, and carries her penumbra across the earth's surface with a much greater velocity than the earth's rotation. It follows, therefore, that the arrows indicate also the direction in which the phenomena of the eclipse pass geographically over the earth, viz. from west to east ; and that different places will have the eclipse at a later or earlier time, according as they are more to the east or west. Eclipses of the sun occur more frequently than eclipses of the moon. In the course of each year there must be two at least in some parts of the earth ; but there cannot possibly be more than four, — a number that some- times, though very seldom, happens. Calculation of Eclipses of the Sun and Moon.— it is here chiefly intended to explain methods by which the times of ECLIPSES. beginning and ending of any phase or appearance may be predicted for a particular place on the earth. For these calculations it is necessary, first, to ascertain the longi- tudes and latitudes of the sun and moon by means of the solar and lunar tables. Those of the sun may be deter- mined from the revised tables of Carlini, which form the supplement to the Milan Ephemeris for the year 1833 ; and the moon may be calculated from the tables of Bnrckhardt or Damoiseau. With the help of the tables, the hourly variations of the same quantities, as well as the horizontal parallaxes and scmidiameters of both bodies, are to be calculated. The results so found will be ele- >m which the phenomena of the eclipse may be determined for any stated place on the earth ; but their computation is necessary only for eclipses that occur at remote periods, since all these calculations are accurately i and registered in the Nautical Almanac, a work regularly published three or four years in advance. The positions are there likewise reduced to the plane of the equator, so as to determine the places of the bodies by their right ascensions and declinations, which are more readily applicable to the calculation of all the circum- stances of an eclipse ; besides, the right ascensions and declinations of the moon are given with the utmost pre- cision for every hour, which adds considerably to the facility of these calculations. It will here be the more ge- nerally useful and interesting, therefore, to describe me- thods'by which, with the use of the Nautical Almanac, the circumstances of an eclipse may be predicted, as it will appear from any given spot on the earth's surface. In the diagram (fig. 1.) join E m, E fl . S n, and denote E mn= the moon's horizontal parallax, by P, E S n = sun's by *, T n 8 = sun's semidiameter, by a ; then the angle M E m is the semidiameter of the section of the earth's shadow traversed by the moon, as it would Baa from the centre E ; and the angle M E fl is the similar semidiameter of the penumbra. To determine the Mmidiameter of the section of the shadow, we have wlW = Emn— Efm = Emn— (SnT — nSi) = Em7i -(-» S| — SnT: that is, the semidiameter of the shadow = PjJ-jt — . y = (right ascen. shad. — that of fl ) X C08 - (I ' s de<>. hourly mo. y = (hor. mo. QJs right ascen. — that of X cos. d 's dec. s = d 's dec. + 0's dec. hourly mo. x= nor. mo. d 's dec. ■+■ hor. mo. E 's dec. It will be here observed that hourly mo. y denotes tin- decrease of y, while hourly mo. * denotes the increa .>•<■ of x. in one hour. If >' denote the angle c I S or m 8 c, which is the inclina tion of the relative orbit O R with the parallel A B, we Bad also, hourly mo. x tan. i = £ ri hourly mo. y . . . . ~ ~ hourly mo. y hourly motion in the orbit O R = — ■ Again, in the right-angled triangle a b 8, knowing the sides S4=t, and abz=.y, we calculate the angle a9 b and the distance 8 a. The difference of the angles 8 a 3 b, mSc, gives the angle a 8m; and in the right-angled triangle a S m, knowing also the side a 8, we find the other two sides a m, 8 m, the latter of which is the nearest distance of the cen- tres of the moon and shadow. The distance 8 M, at the beginning or ending of the eclipse, is found by adding the semidiameter of the moon to that of the shadow ; hence, in the triangle MStn, knowing also the side 8 m, we find the side M m — m M ' ; and by subtracting and add- ing the value of a m, before found, we get the distances Ma, aM'. Knowing therefore these distances, and the hourly motion in the orbit O R, we find the times employed by the moon in traversing them : the former of these limes, subtracted from the time originally assumed at which the elements were taken, will therefore give the time of the beginning of the eclipse; and, similarly, by adding the lat- ter, we get the time at which the eclipse will terminate. The times thus found will be for the meridian of Green- wich, and will require reducing for the longitude of the place. To those who are not familiar with algebraical opera lions, a rough sketch of the figure, drawn by the hand. will indicate most distinctly the way in which the several angles and lines ought to be combined in the process of the calculation. For an eclipse of the sun the relative positions of the sun and moon are not independent of the observer's posi- tion, like those of the moon and the earth's shadow. In the calculation of an eclipse of the sun, we must first ap- ply the effects of the relative parallax to the right ascen- sion and declination of the moon to get her exact position with respect to the sun, as she will appear to a spectator at the place for which the calculation is proposed to be made. (8ee the article Parallax.) By subtracting and add- ing the hourly motions, given in the Nautical Almanac, we obtain the values of the quantities for an hour before and afterthe time of conjunction in right ascension. Then, after calculating and applying the effects of parallax to the moon, we find the quantities x, y, in the same manner as for an eclipse of the moon, only substituting the sun in place of the sections of the earth's shadow. The half dif- ferences of the quantities so computed for an interval ol two hours will show their apparent hourlv motions ; and with these the remaining calculation, for either time, is pre cisely the same as has already been described for an eclipse of the moon. It is only further to be observed, that as the apparent relative motion of the moon is not very uniform, the results will be most accurate when they are close to the times assumed. If a very accurate calcu- lation of the beginning or ending be required, it will, for this reason, be necessary to repeat the calculation for a single assumed time close to the occurrence of the phase ; and for this purpose we may adopt the hourly motions- In the first calculation. In these cases, greater accuracy is to be obtained by interpolating the right ascensions and de- clinations from the running ephemeris than by inferring them from the list of elements. ECLI'PTIC. In Astronomy, the great circle of the heavens which the sun appears to describe in his annual revolution. It has been called the ecliptic, because eclipses only happen when the moon is in the same plane, or very near it. The ecliptic, from time immemorial, has been con- ceived to be divided into twelve equal parts, called signs,— Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces. But the signs of the ecliptic are not to be confounded with the sign* of the zodiac, which denote the places occupied by certain 2B Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/brandedictionaryOObranrich DICTIONARY SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND ART:. COMPRISING THE HISTORY, DESCRIPTION, AND SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF EVBBY BRANCH OF pitman IvuotolcuQc; WITH T.iE DERIVATION AND DEFINITION OP ALL THE TERMS IN GENERAL USB. EDITED B7 *•*' W. T. BRANDE, F.R.S.L. & E..
f C' e "'stry in the TtiyaT Institution r f Great ^n'ta-'n ; Prof, of Chemistry and Materia Medica to tho Apothecmies' Company, dsc. Assisted by JOSEPH CAUVIN, Esq. 1. Architecture, Music, and the Fine Arts .... Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. & F.R.A.S. 5 J. Lindley, Ph.D.F.R.S.L.S., &c. r 2. JOOTANY . < Professor of Botany in University College, and in th" ( Royal Institution. 3. Chemistry, Geolooy, Mineralogy, Medicine, and the Arts and Sciences dependino on Chemical Princi- > W. T. Brande, Esq. (Editor.) PLES El - S W. T. 4. Gardening and Agriculture J. C. Loudon, F.L S.H.S., &c. 5 Law . . [Herman Merivale, A.M., *. ( Late Fellow of Baliol College. 6. General Literature J J. R. M'Culloch, Esq., and ( Joseph Cauvin, Esq. 7. Mathematics, and the Arts and Sciences depending ) m o »«■ * t. n o on Mathematical Principles \ Thos ' Galloway, M.A.F.R.S. 8. Nautical Science Lieutenant Raper, R.N., &c. 9. Political Economy and Statistics J. R. M'Culloch, Esq. 10. Theology The Rev. Chas. Merivale, M.A. 11. Zoology, Anatomy, and Physiology Richard Owen, F.R.S., &c. PREFACE. The advantages of Encyclopaedias are now so universally acknowledged, that it would be wholly superfluous to endeavour to recommend the present work by dwelling on their peculiar merits. But though the utility of such works be no longer in dispute, it may, notwithstanding, be reasonably supposed that at a period when so many voluminous Encyclopaedias and special Dictionaries have recently issued, and are still daily issuing from the press, this department of lit- erature must be fully occupied, and that there can be no well-founded call for any farther addition to the numbdr. It will be found, however, on a little consideration, that this is by no means the case. By far the greater number, or, rather, perhaps we might say, all the Encyclopaedias and Dictionaries of modern times, are either too voluminous or too special for ready reference and general use. The Encyclopedie Francaise, Rees's Cyclopcedia, the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the Encyclopaedia Metropol itana, and the Penny Cyclopcedia, arc all works of vast extent, comprising man\ volumes, and embracing an infinite variety of articles, or rather treatises, which, ' if published separately, would etich make a considerable work. Now it is ob- n voluminous publications, whatever may be their merits in other respects, want that facility of reference and precision of statement which ought to be the distinguishing features of a useful Dictionary. No man can carry about with him any of the great modern Encyclopaedias ; while the extensive plan on which they are compiled renders them at once far too expensive for general circulation, and wholly unsuitable for ready consultation. The supply, indeed, of that concise and authentic information on the various subjects of sci- ence, literature, and art, which a book of reference should furnish with the ut- most facility to all classes of readers, has been but a secondary object with the compilers of our great Encyclopaedias; and though it had been otherwise, the length, theoretical character, and frequent obscurity of the articles in such works, must have effectually precluded their ever being used for mere purposes of ref- erence. They are valuable as substitutes for libraries, as repositories of the various knowledge connected with the different departments of which they treat ; and being so, they cannot be convenient manuals. Special Dictionaries, on the other hand, though they may exhaust some one branch or department of science, literature, or art, and be invaluable to those engaged in iis cultivation, and to those who wish to become acquainted with its details, are not intended to supply information on other branches. A work, therefore, like that nOw offered to the public, possessing the comprehensive char- acter of a general Encyclopaedia without its amplitude, and affording in a conve- nient form an abstract of the principles of every branch of knowledge, and a definition and explanation, of the various terms in science, literature, and art which occur in reading and conversation, appears to be still wanting. May we hope that this desideratum, which has been long felt to exist in en- cyclopedical literature, has been at length supplied ? Such, at least, will be the case, should the present work answer the expectations of its authors and pub- lishers. They have endeavoured to produce a condensed and compendious Dictionary, of a convenient size, and adapted to the wants and means of all classes, that may be advantageously used as a manual or reference-book in ev- iv PREFACE. ery department of science, literature, and art ; and they flatter themselves that, hy rejecting all discussion and details not indispensable to the proper elucidation of the different topics, the work will be found, notwithstanding its comparatively narrow limits, to furnish, in the readiest possible manner, precise and accurate information on the all but infinite variety of subjects which it embraces. Great pains have been taken to make the definitions and explanations correct, clear, and concise- The principles of the most popular and important departments of science, literature, and art, are also distinctly, though briefly explained ; and notices are given of their rise, progress, and present state. Neither must it be supposed that because these articles are for the most part brief and compendious, they are either flimsy or superficial. On the contrary, they have been compiled throughout with the greatest care. Popularity has not been sought for at the expense of science, nor brevity by the sacrifice of useful facts or appropriate illustrations. The work contains not a few new and on fe - ; nal views ; and it is confidently believed that in every department it will be found to imbody the latest information, and to be on a level with the most advanced state to which knowledge has attained, not merely in this, but also in other countries. No statement has been made as to any unusual or doubtful matter, without referring to the authority whence it has been derived ; and when subjects of general interest and importance are noticed, the reader is referred to the works relating to them in which they are handled with the greatest ability. Not only, therefore, will those who may consult this work have a guarantee for the authenticity of its information, but they will learn the sources to which they may resort with the greatest advantage, should they wish to make farther in quiries. Such, in a few words, is the design of this work ; and unless its publishers be greatly deceived as to its execution, it can hardly fail to be useful to individ- uals of all ranks and conditions : to the man of business and the man of pleasure, the student and the superficial reader, the busy and the idle. Every one who takes any share in conversation, or who dips, how cursorily soever, into any newspaper or other publication, will every now and then find the advantage of having access to the Dictionary op Science, Literature, and Art. In finally submitting the work to the judgment of the public, the publishers may, perhaps, be allowed to say that they have left no means untried that ap- peared likely to ensure the accuracy and excellence of the work. It was dis- tributed into divisions or departments, each embracing a single subject, or a class of closely-allied subjects ; and these were respectively assigned to gentlemen dislinguished by their attention to, and proficiency in, the topics to be treated of. This seemed to be the most likely means to avoid mere compilation, to ensure accuracy and adequate information, and to make the work not only a compre- hensive and correct, but in some measure also an original, digest and synopsis of human knowledge. QV T13 ■UiriVERSITY ©jr i&IFO* DICTIONARY OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND ART. A. :tcr of the Alphabet, in nil known Ian- cception of the Amaric, a dialect of the ;i il is Hi'* 13th, and of tin- Runic, in It was called Alp/in by the Greeks, (rews. e Abacus.) In Architecture, any Hat tnent o of the wind. This by a Rudden change of the wind, or an ■ tid (i- English kings, aH,i\. a Blab.) In A n » member of the i lumn. ■mitivc ia!. ! i, Doric, ami Ionic orders it is square, orinthian and composite curved inwards on its i at the quoins or angles at 4."> degrees) with the face of the entablature. The me of the abacus i the ton of the colcunn, an I pri ■■ of level bed for the reception of the archi- ■ Abacus. An ancient instrument used for assisting nu- ll? dc. soar, signifying • table; a unifying sand (because when co- purposes of writing) ; but obably to be referred to the three labet. ■ ahncus will he readily understood from irallelograBl ia divided by parallel i which small pebbles or coun- The counters on the >!e units, those on the use on the third hun- 1 11 ; one counter on a :ing equal to ten on the bar Imm n it. By means rli bar, it ia ob- vious that any number may be thus :n lii" number of coun- • i 'Y be diminished by placing a counter on the inter- ween two bars, givin* it the value of five plow, When e used, any number may I ! under ten millions. The number re- It will be li- the at :;ven to the counters, according to the ley occupy, is entirely analogous to our numerical system of digits. The form of the instrument admitted "i considerable variety. The Grecian abacus ai (jblong frame, bavins wires stretched aci strung wiili perforated beads o* little ivory balls. In the os the counters were slid along grooves. Its I a 'jaro numeros, el tee'.o in pulcert mtttu Swl n»is*e Tafcr ABATOR. use formed an essential part of the education ol every no- i oi youth : — ■-— ? mttas. Per: Sat. I. 139 .employ wires with bead J j ami with them I Swan-penis in universal use. as it convi ir decimal dirl . continued ti during the middle ai a board, however, with burs or wire the prac- bench or bank with chequered ■ which ih chequer, ueh a.< is ,! tin' doors of public houses, was formerly used In England as an abacus. For lent account ot ll i d of palpable arithmi i Arithmetic, in the Encj I Sir John Leslie. Dr. D. B. Reia, of Edin- is applied the abacus to facilitate the study of the f chemical compounds. See Reid's Client- ABA'IT, or AFT, In sea language, signifies towards the stern, or hinder pan of the vessel Thus a thing Is abaft- the foremast when it is between the Ibreni.ist and the stern. ABANDONMENT. A term used in insurances, where, impensation can be demanded, the insured must abandon I i my portion of the rescued property. ., Doctor of Medicine. C. B , Companion of the M. P., Member of Parlia- ABERDEVINE. Miscellaneous. Diplon.atical, &c. Bath. I). C. L ., Doctor of Civil Law. D. D., Doctor of Divinity. F. R. 8., Fellow- of the Roy- al Society. meat. M. R. I. A., Member of the Royal Irish Academy. R. A., Royal Academy. It. E., Royal Engineers. R. M., Royal Marines. G. C. B, Grand Cross of the It. N.. Royal Navy. Bath G C. H. Grand Cross of Hanover. K. B., Knight of the Bath. K. C. B.. Knight Command- er of the Bath. 2 S. T. P.. Doctor of Divinity, or Sanctce Theologise Professor. E. I. C, East India Com- pany. VV. S 'Writer to the Signet. A. D., the year of our Lord. A. H.j the year of the He- gira. A. M., the year of the world, i. e., that is to say. ib., in the same place, id., the same. N. B., observe. viz., for videlicet, to wit. L. S., (in a deed) the place of the seal. R. S. and L. 8., right and left side. N. S., new stvle, (since 1752.) O. 6., old style, (before 1752, and in the Greek calendar.) A. C. or B. C, the year be- fore Christ. A. I). C, the year from the building of Rome. Nem. con., no one contra- dicting. Nem. dis., no one dissenting. MS., manuscript. A. M., morning. P. M., afternoon. H. M. S., His Majesty's ship, or service. D. G., by the grace of God. F. I)., Defender of the Faith. II. R. E., Holy Roman Em pire. U. S., United States of Ame rica. ABDICA'TION. (Lat. abdico, I abdicate.) In Politics, the renunciation of an office or dignity by its holder ; but it is commonly meant to express the voluntary renunciation of supreme power. The most famous examples of this en record, are the abdication of the dictatorship by Sylla, 75 years B. C. ; of the imperial throne, by Dioclesian, anno 305 ; of the Emperor Charles V., in 1550 ; and of Christina, queen of Sweden, in 1054. —Of all the sovereigns who have made voluntary abdications, Dioclesian is, perhaps, the only one who did not regret the step. Examples of forced or voluntary abdication are too numerous to require to be pointed out. The modern history of France and Eng- land furnish some very striking instances with which every one is familiar. The convention parliament of 1688 used the word abdication to express the act of James II. in abandoning the government and kingdom. The word "desertion" was rejected as implying the possibility of a return. The Scottish convention of estates declari a that James had " forfeited" the kingdom. Abdication is said to differ from resignation, the former being unconditionally latter done in favour of some oilier person. ABDO'MEN. (Lat. abdo, / conceal.) The great cavity of the animal body, which is liable to temporary changes in its dimensions, independently of respiration. In cnto otology it forms, in insects the third, in arachmdans ihe second, in both classes the most posterior, of the sections into which the body is externally divided, and contains the principal digestive" and respiratory, and the whole of the generative organs. The enlargements of the abdomen, in relation to the activity of the generative functions, is most remarkable in insects ; in some of which, as the white ant, or termite, it constitutes at the full development of the ova an immense proportion of the entire body of the fe- male. In vertebrates the abdomen is not divided external- ly from the thorax ; and only in one class, the mammalia, by an internal partition, or diaphragm. The abdomen is the first-formed cavity in the develop- ment of the animal body, and is the most constant in its existence throughout the animal series. {See CRANIUM and Thorax.) ABDO'MINALS. Abdominal?*. An order of malacop- terygious fishes, including those which have (lie ventral tins situated under the abdomen, behind the pecfi ABDU'CTION. (Lat. ab, from, and duco, Head.) In Law, the forcible carrying away of a woman, for the pur- pose of marriage or defilement. Where the femah property, oris presumptively entitled to it, such abduction is felony : and in all cases the taking of a girl under si from under the protection of her parents is a misdf mean- our. The crime of abduction, according to Sir W.Scott (see his Notes and Introduction to Rob Roy'), was at one period extremely common on the border of the Scottish Highlands; it is now an ordinary offence in Ireland : the number of convictions in the last 7 years amounts to 61 ; executions. 5. ABDU'CTOR. Abductor muscles are those which pull back or separate the limbs to which they are afl A'BELITES, or Abeliavs, in ecclesiastical history, a sect mentioned by St. Augustine, in Africa. They are said la have enjoined marriage and virginitv, after the pretended example of Abel. (.See Mosheim, Eng. Trans, i A'BER. A Celtic term, implying Ibe month of b river; as Aberdeen, the mouth oi the Dee; Aberystwith, the mouth of the Ystwith, &c. AUE'KDEVINE. or European Siskin ; (.Carduelis spinas. Cuv.) A small green and yellow finch, belonging ti same sub-irenus as the goldfinch of England. Its is similar to that of the goldfinch, but is not so sweet, and ends With a harsh jarring note. Its [light is a sen. successive undulating courses, accompanied by a chirp, at each propelling motion of the wings, as in other species of Carduelis. The Aberdevine winters m the south ol Eng land, and flies northward in Ihe month of March, to I in the pine forests of Scotland. The nest is bui'i among £ ABERRATION. ;t:e higher branches of tit*- pine : the eggs are four or five in nuj bluish wliiie colour, speckled with pur- in the south in Ihe itember. 'I embles in the ie common redpole, (Linaria , .'nt. lERRA'TION. (i.n. ab,from, and erro, / wander.) A ter note a change in lha post- combined <■!'- ::.tand liie motion of the earth in f this remarkable phenomenon, ma st;tr S to an ob- . or If the motion of light a forward if BOA . then, that earth's orbital motion from A i" -it will strike the ej a with ■iiv proportional lo 1> O, and the eye will ii particle with a velocity proportional to A O. •. that of the Jit proportional to I) O, and, secondly, Mill to ■ i will in no way be having (>. Thus the eye i I1CDO; and by effect would ;le im- .ng in the direction of the with a velocity proportional to C O. star will be at 8', in ad- 1 ' ) l> is the aberral .i we know the relative magni- 1 i • ■ 10 i the inclination of those of light and of their motions. It is ether. s of Jupiter's satellites, and other phe- ;hl is Iran- ; ii velocity of 192,000 mi!>-s per second of the earth in itsort.it is about 1°. miles per second ; we have, therefore, when B O and D O are at right angles, the proportion i : 19 = DO : BO=rad.: tan. COD; hence ol C O D,or the aberration (oi .1 is equal lo the are), la I ical Tables = 20" '6. This being tbegi \f Aberration. of Aberration ilcrmined by Bessel < Furulamenla Astroruimirh)l" be •">. Dr. Brinkley found it =20" -37. Mr. Richai vationa made with I i the Qreenwic value mirt Royal As r. Society, vol. iv.) The effect of ab< rration on any particular star depends ii of the star with refpri nee to the ecliptic. be the orbil ol nd S plane of i! When * tlh is nt A Ihe s!ar will be thrown forward by the efl rration to s. i nt the opposite bit C, Ihe star will he thrown ■ t'. At i; and !> the earth is mov- B lion parallel to the ray of Light rom the siar, and thi Hence a star " ■ ecliptic appears to oscillate brwards in a straight line, always returning il the end of a year. A ray of light proceeding from a star situated in the polo ,'ti'-. is always at right angles to the direction of msequently, a star having this posi- tion will appear to describe annually, about the pole of the ecliptb which the radius = 80" - 3. In any oilier position, th* apparent path of a star, sb far a Is on aberration, is an ellipse whose m minor axis = 40"-6, multiplied by the sine >f the star's latitodo. The apparent places of the planets are also affected by 'i ABIETIN^E. aberral - the body from which toe Ider tli.it the ray of light which enters the eye has p the place which ihe planet occupies at the In observation, hut from that which it did an interval ; tance between the planet and ihe earth. To nation in the place of the planet must be added thi described by the earth in the same interval; and it i • nl or r< lati 1 uring the time which light takes to ■ irth. Th (plained, by Dr. Bradley. It is thi which astronomy furnishes of the motion of the earth round the sun. Aberration. In Optics, denotes the deviation of the rays of light from the true focus of a cui lufn ; i which they do not unit point, inn in r on a i mall form a somewhat confused Image of th.- object This arises from tvi Ihe lenses or specula; and. 2d I) , cal na- ture of ment.s are wi no practical i cui-v.itnre wh i ry lo collect jural!- rays !!!">'! the axis of the I tint of of the lena This is called th" Tne secon i of refraction j a beam of light u : sing from one medium u m ap pear. It waa long I that it waa im| losing light ; and hi feet n and adapt them to clrcu! -;its. But il 1 Live am combining i diffexei I ilint ABETTOR, (8 incite.) u felony, by his advice or : the commission of the principal ; if absent, an accessory b- ony the much a principal I ■ ; i ace, arc subjected to th princip ABETANt Fr. beyer, to expect.) Ill abeyance, when thi on in esse in whom it cau the proper hel rims, in a grant to A/or life, and afterwards to the lei- mains in abeyance until the death ol II, as tin heir to a livin ige descendii | A'BIB. The first month of fh« Debre •gen- erally known by th in'' of Shun. Il is h verse of Ihe I3tll I A'BIKS. (1 fir tree.) The name of all those fir trees which, lik'- of Le- banon, have th'-ir leaves growing singly upon the slem. and the scales of the cones round and thin, called by limb Abies exccl-a, ami a by otln liaii balsam by A. balsam ofGilei .ilver fir; Venetian turpentine bj A laiix, the larch. '■'>• lished partly by A rdy hy A. nigra. All Ihe species are hardy, and, with ti xception of larches, arc Dd in cultivation in England. The mostvalu- .i- the limber are, A. Douglasii, A. excelsa. and A. larix; the most ornamental are. A. cedrus, the cedar of odara, and larix. The most worthless in Britain are, a ■ balaamea, and pec* : the three latter form, however, fine trees In fa- vourable situations. The wood of the fir la in very ex- tensive use, ami il i --. perhaps, the most serviceable of all AB1ETTNJS. A division in the natural order of conife- rous plants, comprehending the true firs, pines, and arau- ABJURATION. caria-li have cones with many rows of in which the seeds are form ABJURATION. Oath of (Lat. ab, from, and jure, / ■ Introduced i y slat. 13 VV. HI., and regulated by 6 (J. III. An oath as: title of the present royal family to the crown ofEnglmd. By this oath thejurorre- right of the king under the Act of Settlement ; tupport him to the utmost of his power; prom- ose all traitorous conspiracies against him; and isclaims any right to the crown of England in tits of the Pretender; Abjuration of the Realm (in law) signifies a sworn ban- ' the taking of an oat!) to renounce and depart I e realm for ever. Abjuration also signifies a solemn recantation of opin- ion of heresy required by the Romish ch. Henry IV. abjured Protestantism at Saint Denis in 1593. Galileo was compelled to abjure li is philosophi- cal opinions by the Inquisition at Home, in 1633. A'iiLATi". ■ t. ablatus, taken aitoy.) The ouns implied in English by the mxfrom. (Ste Grammar.) A'BLU'TION. (Latablu .) A religious cere- isting in bathing the body or part of it. It con- part of the Mosaic ceremonial, and was after- tnong the Jews, both by the priesis and are most rigidly enforced by the The term is also applied to the cup given, withon y in the popish churches. NO'RMAL. (Lat. nh,fruvi, and norma, a rule.) Any or itrary to, system or rule. Thu3 Horace >'ctl-in formed sagacious countryman, — Rusticus, abjiormta sapiens, crassaque Minerva. In botany, if a (lower has five petals, the rule is that it the same number of stamens, or some regular iple of that number j if it has only four or six stamens, ower would be abnormal. AliOA'KD, withil ■',.,, one vessel is said to r 1 of another when she gets foul of her. ABORI'GINES. ir original (a prima origine) , that is, those who occupied it at tl'.e period when It known, and who either il or had immigrated thither be- ie dawn of history. Some of the ancients supposed mie soil, and were created . it, as the Athenians, who thence called themselves kthones, coeval with and sprung from the land. But n nations use the word Abori those inhabitants of a country of whose origin Thus the Indians of America because they were found i its discovery, and we have no accounts of their immigrated from any other quarter. ABO'RTION. (Lat. abortus, miscarriage.) This term /'.died to the morbid or unnatural expulsion of i the human subject after the sixth week, and ! sixth Before the sixth miscarriage, and after the sixth month, 'abor. i in plants that'do not ac- periection; a flower only partially ! a stamen whose filament lias no anther, a seed i no . to, or which consists only of skin, abortion. The term is also applied to parts h, although perfect in the beginning, cease to grow, in being imperfect; thus ovules, which are not I, and which shi \ 1 up instead "of growing into •e called abortive. ABO'UHANNES. An African bird, supposed to be the i< lents. ABRACADA'BRA. A celebrated term of incantation : i spell against fevers. The manner in it was written and carried for that purpose may be seen in Defoe's History of the Plague at London. The word seems to be connected with Abrasax or Abraxas; a found inscribed on certain stones or amulets, in such characters, together with the figure of a human body, with the head of a cat and feet of a reptile. Various explana- tions have been attempted of the object of these curiosi- ties : some from the cabalistic and an Egyptian derivation. mano (Berlin, i^!?,) and Neander, have written on ject of the Abraxas stones. AiillA'DING. In Agr. (Lat. ab, from, and rado, I ■•crape or rub off.) Applied to the sloping surface of banks i), which crumbles down from the effects of frost, or the alternate action of drought and moisture. ABRA'MIS (Abramis, Cuv.) The name of a subgenus of Malacopterygious or sofl-finned abdominal fishes, cbar- e of spines or barbels ; by the dorsal fin being short and placed behind the ventrals, and the anal fin being long. The common bream is a species of this ■■ ABRA'NCHIANS. Abranthia, Cuv. (Gr. d, without, 4 ABSCISS. Ppayx ta iai !!s -) An order (the third in Cuvier's arrange merit) of anellidans, so called because the species compos ing il have no external organs of respiration ; they are di- vided into the setigerous abranchians, or worms, and tlw non-setigerous abranchians, or leeches. ABRA'SION. (Lat. abrado, J rub off.) In Numismato- logy, implies Ihe wasle of coins, or the loss by wear and tear in the pocket. This forms a considerable item in the expense of a metallic currency; and various means have been employed to lessen it, by alloying the coins SO as to render them harder, by raising the borders so as ti the surface exposed to be rubbed. &c. ABRA'XAS. A genus of Lepidopterous insects, ol tin- family GeometridcB : founded by Dr. Leach for the com mon magpie moth (Abraxas glossulariata) and oth species. It is the larvte of the Abr. glossulariata which commit the well known ravages upon the gooseberry trees of our gardens : consuming the leaves almost as soon as they appear. They feed early in the morning, before the dew is off or the sun has much power; and it is at lids time thai thev should be sought for and removed. ABRIDGEMENT, In Literature. (Lai. abbrevio, / shorten.) A compendious arrangement of the matter cou- tained In a larger work. Before the invention of printing, when manuscripts were valuable, and the labour of writing them great, the compiling abridgements of considerable works was an important branch of authorship ; and it has been doubted whether we have lost or gained more by the practice : since, on the one hand, the contents of many lost authors are thuspartially preserved to us : and, on the other, the abridgement becoming popular may, in some cases, have caused the loss of the original. Among the best known abridgements of antiquity are the History of Justin, being an abridgement of the lost History of Trogus Pom- peius : the Natural History of Solinus, chiefly abridged from that of Pliny, >, chance.) In Painting, are those fortuitous or cl effects, occurring from luminous rays ertain objects, by which they are brought il light than they otherwise would be, ami 'heir g consequently of greater intensity. Tl ; to be seen in almost every picture by Bern \^->d them to a very great extent Thei instances of accidentals in Raphael's Tic: and particularly in the celebrated pie in Coreggio. in which the light em Christ. With these effects may he classed such acci- dental lights as those from a foi such object, of which the use is extremely imp painter of still life. ACCIPITRES. In Music, are those flats and sharps i m a movement, and which t be considered so by the flal pa in the accipiter, a hawk.') The name of • u-py. U'MVi'i- .id rlima, a climate.) inure them to a tnral to them. Anac- ince of art for its con nit or animal 1 without an . man. The ca- acclima- . ■ thin the fortu h had hither! >\\\\m. the neck ) The tubbing a e instrumental to which . ument, whose i to exhibit. : i Painting. ig to us ornament or Accessary, Apphovek.) \l.. The principal orrospon- inied t>y iici of pai i >8 his ac- .■ . him. use. ) In . l'. (Lat accumbere, to lit dmr ■ v in pronouns ; in. {Set A IMIALANS, Acephala. (Gr. dxufiahot, ■ l'allio branch!- i i v the 1 unelli-brancl rs, or the acephala I the aco- phora. (Grd«0aXoc, tinviUe to a class corresponding to the acephala and . ier. \ botanical term, occasionally cm- li> of which springs from Acephalous. In Anatomy, is applied to those malform- acer, sharp. Pikes ui of hardy ti id various la not of much j.ible ; but thi I r makers. T r saccharinum id quality, is prepared from il Norway maple, sed totlie \ (K.E (-See Acer), or ACKitlNi:."!". A small ol polypetaloa plants, compre- Miiers. It CO ints, inhabitin • T consists in their samarold dicarpellary fruit, connected with a bro- 9 ACHROMATISM. ken whorled calyx, and amymmetrical flowers without f the petals. The uses of the order are the same as those of acer. A'CKKANS. Acera. (Gr. a, irithout. and Ktpas, a horn.) A name applied to a family of apterous insects, character- ised by the absence of antenna? : and to podous mollusks, including those species which have n > A'CERIC ACID. (Lat acer, the mci],; ) An acid ol tained from the sap of thai i ifl word literally means chaffy (I.at panis ;> or dish ) A term era on the anus of the cul oil, or d taouHfera. T i were called by Aristotle kotuioi, which Tayl ren- . ry of Animals. In anatomy, acetabulum signifies lha cavity ol !he hip joint, in entomology it is the socket on ti.e trunk in which the I'-j ACETA'RIOUS PLANTS. (Lai. eceUtria, a salad.) ii h as lettuce, muslard and cress, AC) Baits containing acetic acid, c.sve Vine- GAll.) ACE'TIC A * "I I j. The pure m pungenl colourless acrid liquid ; its odour, wh luied. \ efresbiof : w I, it b" known nnder the name of aroma . unci durum the germinal of many plants, but it is mi during irly all i m water, -t is of m - - - 4 atoms = 21 -17 ik; Hydrogen - - 3 •' =3 - 3 " ss 24 -17 00 1 51 AC'h LQ1 B. A confedi rac; whlcl ulsted from very early tin he north of the Pi Ii ■ original cltl the ep from this lime II gained strength, and Snail) the v- irincipally on ihe pat I anally R mans, on the evenl of tl h by Mumiiiiiis, b. c. 1-57. The two most celebral id tnstru men) ■ i ; and Philoptemi n Ival, in military reputal , ol I and llanuiOal. (.Sip Polybius. i." ii. 1'au nicl.i \( li.i; Ml M, or ACHENIUM, (Gr. d, without, and Xc, I gape.) A small bony fruit, i p, nor ■'. hen ripe. At'llA'T'i I nown by the 'i Ivial nami blong ventricose shell, striated longitudinally; with the aperture ovale ami never thickened or reflected, and a smooth, straight columella, truncated al lha base. All the i on.-, the Achalma zf/mi, pro- with a hard, white, calcai and as i 'arrow. I HERON. (Cr. axos, grief.) The rive which Bowed round the infernal realms of Hades, accord- i ic mythology of the ancients. 1 of the same i > one in Italy, near which Alexander. slain ;' both of which from the unwholi iul na- turc of their waters, were supposed to communicate with the Infernal sti ACHIEVEMENT. (I'r. achever, to accomplish.) In Heraldry, denotea generally a shield of arm.', but U more particularly applied i monly called hatchment, affixed to the dwellii irious, according not only to the rank of the d : tie, married, or wido ACHLAMY'DEOUS. (Gr. d, >ySi " Its which have neitl '■ ;,1:il Sowers are consequently destitute of a covering, or ACHROMATIC. (Gr. a, without, and xpw/ia, colour-) Free from colour. ACHROMATISM. The destruction of the primary leb accompany the Image ; s R eti through a prism or lens. Light is not homogeneous, but B ACHROMATISM. eompoumled of rays unequally refrangible, and differing from one another in oilier physical properties. In passing Into a refracting medium, some of the rays are more re- fracted, or bent out of their course, than others ; whence the image of an object, seen through a lens, is rendered confused and indistinct, and appears encircled by a coloured ring. This circumstance presented a formidable obstacle to the use of the telescope ; and accordingly, soon after the invention ol that admirable instrument, the utmost efforts of mathematicians and artists were exerted to remove the imperfection. The compound nature of light, and conse- quently, the theory of unequal refrangibility, wens bow- ever, not known till the time of Newton ; and after the true source of the difficulty had been made known, it con- tinued tor a long time to be believed that achromatism was Impossible, or that light could not be deflected without be- ing decomposed. Newton himself was conducted to this conclusion by imperfect experiments. Subsequent disco- veries have proved that the conclusion was errroneous, and that the rays of light may be bent without being separated ; but after all the progress that has be*-- made in the arts, as well as in the theory of colours and light, the subject of achromatism continues to be one of the most delicate and embarrassing, both in regard to theory and practice. The principles on which achromatism is effected may he briefly explained, as follows. On observing the spectra formed by prisms of different substances, it is soon per- ceived that the different colours, though always ranged in the same order, do not occupy the same relative lengths. A prism of flint glass, for example, exhibits proportionally less red, and more violet, than a prism of crown glass ; anil, in some other substances, the difference is still more re- markable. Hence it follows, that the primary coloured rays, in passing through different substances, do not under- go tii' L same relative refractions ; that is to say, the angle formed by two rays, the red and the violet, for example, is greater when the light is refracted by some substances than when it is refracted by others, though in all substances !he violet is more refracted than the blue, the blue more than the green, and so on. The angle, formed between the extreme rays of the spectrum measures the dispersion of : and it is found by experiment that the di power of common Hint glass is to that of crown glass in the ratio of about 3 to 2; so that if a prism of flint ■ a spectrum three inches long, a similar prism of crown glass will give a spectrum of only two inches. Now, suppose a prism of crown glass, C, the faces of which make an angle of 25°, and a prism of flint glass, F, of 20° 21' 43", to be placed be- hind il, and that a ray of direct or white light. I. I. falling on the first prism at I, emerges from the second bwween the points E and E'. It is known by ex- perience, that when the angles of the two prisms are as above stand, the violet ray E V, on emerging from the second prism, is parallel to the incident ray L I; and that the red ray 1/11 must fill below E V, because the red ray only emerges parallel lo l!ie incident ray when the angle of is 20° 56' 23". Hut if the prism of liim glass were removed, or, which would be the same thing, if{t8 sides became parallel, and consequently its an- gle =0, the red ray E' R would fall above the violet ray E V, the violet being more refrangible than the red. While the angle !•'. therefore, increases from 0° to 20° 56' 28", the emerging rays E' 11 and E V change their relative po- sitions ; whence it follows, that at some intermediate angle of the prism F they will be parallel, and this is the ansile of achromatism. Il is found by experience to be 11° 58' 3"; Varying, however, between the narrow limits according to liar constitution of the two refracting substances; and, therefore, in determining the ratio of the angles of the two prisms, recourse must generally be had to particular experiments on the individual substances of which the prisms are composed. The achromatism of lenses depends on the same princi- ples, and is determined in the same manner, as that of prisms; but in tlie case of lenses, the compensation is at- tended wilh great practical difficulties, on account of its be- : rv lo have regard to the spherical aberration. If the ratios of the dispersion of the different spectral co- lours were all equal, the achromatism would be perfect, when the extreme rays, or, indeed, any two rays, emerge parallel. This, however, is not generally the case. ; ihese e in general variable, and, I hero fore, the angle enders the red and violet rays parallel is not that which is required for the intermediate colours. It is possi- ble, however, to remedy this defect, by combining a lumber of prisms or lenses. Theoretical: mg, indeed, the number of rays united or rendered paral- ime as the number of prisma. The achromatic >f telescopes formerly made in England, i- rally triple; that is to say, consisted of three ,me1v,a concave lens of flint glass placed between lit ACKNOWLEDGEMENT-MONEY. two lenses of crown slass : but almost all the large objei.l glasses lately constructed consist of only two lenses; l'h< achromatism produced by this combination, Iho rigorously exact, being sufficient tor optical purpi Tin: possibility of refracting light without produi iour was discovered and experimentally proved by i\K Hall, a country gentleman of Worcestershire, under whose directions an achromatic telescope was made by a London artist in 1733. But, from whatever cause, no notice was taken of Hall's discovery ; indeed, it. appears to have been entirely forgotten, and contributed notnil lo ad- . vance subsequent researches. The merit of the discovery of achromatic compensation belongs lo John Dollond, who arrived at it through a long course of skilful and systematic experiments undertaken for die express purpose, il sibility had, indeed, been previously asserted by tire cele- brated Eulei, who, reasoning from the construction of the eye, which, indeed, is a perfect achromatic instrument, proposed various hypotheses for destroying the coloured images. After Dollond's discovery, the subject was ex- amined theoretically by Euler, Clairaut, and D'Ahmbert, but their profound mathematical investigations ltd to no practical improvement. The object-glasses made by Peter Dollond (a son of the inventor) were long celebrated throughout Europe as the best that were manufactured. Of late years, however, the science o flight hi ly extended ; and the discoveries ofFraunhofer, in ; articu- lar, have opened up an entirely new view of the com- position of the s] ectrum. The largest and best achro- matic glasses have recently been made in Bavaria and Switzerland. (See Chromatics, Refraction.) ACl'CULAR. (I. at. acicula, ance.dk.) Any thing that is slender, sharp-pointed, and rather stiff; as many kinds of prickles on the leaves of plants, &c. A'CID. In common language, any sour substance ; in chemistry the term is less restricted, and often applied to all substances which saturate and neutralise the alkalis and oilier salifiable bases, without other obvious .acid pro- perties. ACIDIFTABLE. Convertible into an acid. ACrDULOUS. Dim. of acid. Subacid ; a term fre qu mtl; ning i arboni ACI'NACIl'ORM. (Lai. acinaces, a scinutai , and forma, shape.') A name applied to certain succulent leave fruits, which resemble the blade of a curved sword oi Turkish scimitar. A'CINUS. (Gr. aKivog, the stone of a grape.) The se- parate carpels of a succulent fruit consisting of many car pels ; as the raspberry. This term is also applied In anato- my to a cluster of the ultimate secerning follicles ol cer tain conglomerate glands ; as the liver. ACIPE'NSER. (Lat aclpenser, a zturgcon.) The name of a Linnffian <;enus of the amphibia nantes, cl terised by solitary, lateral, linear d-openings ; the mouth, situated beneath the head, retrac ..le and edentulous; ers under the snout, in front of die mouth/ The sli: (acipenser slurio.) and most of the other amphibia nantes of LinnaMis, from the order chrondropterygii, or cartilagin- ous fishes of Cuvier. Thegenu .-acipenser is sebarateu by A^assiz from the other cartilaginous fishes. It forms a link between the osseous and cartilaginous fishes, having its gills protected by an operculum, and only a or gill-opening, on each side of the respiratory currents: but at the same time having no rays to the bn membrane, and having the whole of its true internal ton in a cartilaginous slate. By Cuvier, then-fore, the ge- nus acipenser is placed in the cartilaginous division of fishes, hut separated from the rays, sharks, and lampreys, which have five or more gill-openings on each side, to form, along with the genera spatularia and chimera, the order eleuthero-branchiata, or those which have the branchiae free at their outer circumference. In the system of Agassi?, the sturgeons are joined with the sauroid i; siluri, polypterus, and some other genera, to form the or- der Ganoides. (.See that word.) Audit is worthy of ob- servation, that the polypterus (a ganoid fish ol the Nile) has a spiral valve in the intestine like that of the SlU There are several distinct species of acipenser in the Danube, and other ^reat rivers of Europe : Ihe eimen ever caught in Great Britain is, probably, thai . is recorded by Pennant as having been taken in Ihe Esk, and which weighed four hundred and sixty poui In England. Ihe sturgeon is considered a roj its use is exclusively as an article ofluxury foi its flesh, like that of most cartilaginous fishes, lhan is usual among osseous tishes, and having little pecu- liar flavour of ils own. affords ample scope for the skill ol the cook in imparting to ii an extrinsic zest. In the northern parts of Europe this fish is much more numerous than in the British rivers, and extensive tishe ries are established for its capture. The best isinglass is manufactured from the sound, or air bladder; and ea is prepared from the roe of the female. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT MONEY, in Law, paid ry, during the last war, \. Tho name aconite has to the original go- or winter aeon Am Vl'lv (<;r. ukuv, a dart.) A genus of non-veno- • proper (an- rudiments of the scapular ties, and distributed i parts of the old worm, fabulous accounts by the ancient ited to them the pow so much force and velocity as ^e a hurled javelin, or ar- ia untrue as the assertion The Dart snakes are amongst the ieir order; tli< -iMs of small 1 irvsj. I, i:. or ACOKOIDK.K. The natural order it is dlsttn- having its carpels scpa- . iged in aneqnJiaot A't ofaac, an oak, and cent, grain.) . and therefore not a term : belonging to archil u an oi ns constituted b principal (Ovid. Metamorph. i. 100; Virgil, rwlly used in the Continent during scarcities: but in i xcept for the feeding of . v, li- itanists Plants win. sf seeds have no distinct CO- ! to what are more . Buch as ferns, I irly so I. bit which are propagated by imdividi n t. The word ar-otyledon is occasionally . cactus. &c, whose ugh n-ally of the same nalu no obvious division j this the term is, however, seldom employed. ACOl dxovtu, / hear.) 'I ND.) \< rrh. yards. vjuarea in yards. 1 = 4 = 100 = 4S-10 = C9 s'701 I = 40 = 1210 = : 1 = 30} = 5 5 121 Irish acres are equivalent to 196 English acres. ■ tch acres arc equal to 61 English acres. tichacreisa square. la 10 metres, and 1000 English acres are equivalent to 40408 acres. ("\\ CAL,or ACHRONYCHAL. (Or. dkoo;, and vv\. night.) A star or planet is said lo be BCTonycal when in. or passes the meridian at mid- night It rises acronyally, when it rises icronycally, when it sets as the sunrises. The I these different positions ol a star, lg or setting, with respect to the sun. by the terms acrcniyai'. 1 heliacal; and thereby Indicated, in u of the sun in the ecliptic, or tho season of the year. ACROPCDIUM. (Or. d*poc. and «■«»{, foot.) In Zoo- logy, the upper surface Of the whole foot. ACROTOL1S. (Or. d K i.oc. and rroXic, city.) The uppei town or citadel of B Grecian city. It was usuall) of the ordinal settlement, and was chosen by the i i. The most celebrated were those of Athens, Corinth, and Ithome; the two latter Ol winch the horns Ol the Peloponnesus, as ifjhcir in of the peninsnla. A'CROSPIRE. (Or. expos, and c-xtipa. a enrxed one.) .■in to grow, the part of Ihe germ which af- stem shoots forth In the forjB ol a fibre, and, gradually bursting 11 I its appearance at the end ol the bi ed. dally, call this the acrospire of barley. ACRO'STIC.or ACROSTICH, (6r. dxsoj.and «riw, ank.) A composition in verse or prose, in w hie,. ol every line, or of every word, read collectively, form a name or a sentence. Oreat 1.; n an;i . have been exercised in inventing varieties oi tins and similar curious trifles. Such, for exan pli . is the pen tacrostic. in which the initial letter of each versa is r* ACROTARSIUM, peated five times in every verse, so as to form five repeti- tion:; of the same acrostic, as It were, in different columns. ACROTA'RSIUM. (Gr. dxpoi, and Tapaos, larsits.) In itoology, the upper surface of the tarsus. (See that word.) ACKOTE'RIA. (Gr. dxpoirripioi', l/ie extremity of any thing.) tn Architecture, the pedestals, often without base or cornice, which are placed on the centre and sides of pediments, and which are so placed for Ihe reception of Satires. Vitmvlus gives the rules for their dimensions. The same word is applicable to the ridge of a building. Some have used the word acroterton to signify tl on the pedestals, bni it is strictly the pedestals themselves ouiy to Which it is applicable. The word acroteria is also used to denoie the small pieces of wall in balustrades be- n the pedestal and the balusters ACRY'DHJM. (Gr. dxpts, a locust.) The name applied by f'abrictus to a genus of locusts, characterised by acari- nate thorax; filiform antennae, snorter than the thorax: and equal palps or feelers. ACT. In Dramatic literature, a division of a drama, sub- divided into scenes. The Greek dramas of the old model were naturally divided into separate portions by the stasi- ma, or choric odes, which occur at intervals, during which the stage was left, to the sole occupation of the chorus. Nevertheless, the Grecian writers do not notice this divi- sion in express terms ; nor do we know the origin of the famous rule'of Horace, that, every dramatic piece should be restrained within the limits of five acts, neither more nor less. The division into acts must be in great measure arbitrary, although rules have been laid down, by various writers, to define the portion of the story or plot which should be contained in each of them. Thus, Vossitis lays it down as a rule, that the first act presents the intrigue, the second developes it, the third is filled with incidents forming its knot or complication, the fourth prepares the means of unravelling it, which is finally accomplished in the filth. (See Drama.) Act. In the Universities, an exercise performed by stu- dents before they are admitted to degrees. The student proposes certain questions to the presiding officer of the schools, who then nominates other students to oppose him. ussion is syllogistical and in Latin, and terminates by the presiding officer questioning the respondent, orper- son who is said to keep the act, and Ids opponents, and dis- missing them with some remarks upon Iheir respective merits. ACT OF PARLIAMENT. (See Statute.) A'CTA DIURNA, daily proceedings. Among the various important improvements effected by Julius Ctesar may be ranked that of his furnishing tin' Romans with a species of per. II" was the first to order that the acta iliurna uf tii" senate and the people should be drawn up in a regu- lar form and published. This publication must conse- quently have, iii many important respects, closely resem- bled a modern newspaper. — (Sueton. in C;es. cap. 20.) A'CTA ERUDITORUM The fide of a celebrated lite- rary and scientific journal, which was commenced at Leip- zig, in 1682, by Professor Mencke, of that university. The last volume was that for 1776. A'CTIAN GAMES. (Lat. Ltidi Actiaci.) Games cele- brated in antiquity at Actium in honour of Apollo, hence suruamed Actius. The temple of the god was repaired, and tie' games restored ana celebrated with increased splendour by Augustus, in memory of his victory over Mark Antony off Aciium. ACTI'NIA. (Gr. Aktw, a ray.) A genus of polypi with very numerous tentacles, which extend, like rays, from the irence of the mouth. They tire amongst the most highly organized of the class, having the alimenfary sac dis- tinct from the parietes of the body; feeding on shellfish .and other marine animals, which they draw into their mouth with their tentacular, and in a short lime rejecting, ture, the shells and indigestible parts. They are of a soft gelatinous texture, and they assume various forms when the tentacles are all expanded, hav- ing the appearance of full-blown many-pelalled flowers; whence they are called "sea anemones/" '■ sea sunflow- ers." &c. (Phil. Tram, lxiii. p. 361.) AC'ITNOCA'MAX. (Gr. dxriv, a ray, ica/jui^, a pale.) A name applied by Miller lo the fossil shells of an extinct genus of Cephalopodous Molluscs, apparently connecting the Betemnites with fhe existing Sepia. The remains of r appear, as yet, to be peculiar to the chalk formations of Ensland and Normandy. ACTl'NOCRl'NlTES. (Gr. Aktiv. a ray, koivov, a lily.) The name of a subgenus of extinct Crinoidean radiated aui- Encrinites. characterise,! by the numerous rows ■if angular plates, winch, being articulated by their margins, constitute the body. ACTI'NOLITE. (Gr. dxrtv, a ray, and XiOu;, stone.) A variety of hornblende, which usually occurs in I crystals. ACTINO'METER. (Gr. dxru; and jicrpnv, n An instrument invented by Sir John Herscbe-1 for mea- • 12 ACTOR. suring the intensity of the sun's rays. (Sec Photo- METER.) A'CTION. (Lat. ago, I act.) In Painting and Sculpture, the state of Ihe subject as imagined in the artist's mind at the moment chosen for representation. It must not be confounded with motion, which relates to the mobility of a single figure. Action must, be true, simple, natural, and connected ; and its unity must be preserved, or the action is weakened. Action In fhe Military Art, an engagement or battle between opposing forces: hence partial actions, &c. Action. In Oratory, the accommodating or the countenance, voice, and gesture id' fhe speaker to '.he matter to he spoken or delivered. This s« Cicero calls it. has always been regarded as a must import- ant part of oratory. The ancient, m stress upon it. Demosthenes said that action wis '-the beginning, the middle, and the end of the orator's office ;" and Cicero admits, that ■•jclia! an orator says is not of so much importance as hoir he says it." Hamlet's the players should be kept in mind by those who desire to excel in this art. Action. In Poetry, an event either real or imaginary, forming the subject of an epic poem or play, &c. Thus the wrath of Achilles forms the action or subje Iliad, the wanderings of jEneas the action c gEneid, &c. Action. In fhe Slock Market in Paris, and other places in France, action is the name given to asha tal stock of a joint stock company. Action. In Mechanics, denotes sometimes the effort which a body or power exerts against anoll times flie effect or motion resulting from such efl chanical action is exerted cither by percusi sure ; in the former case, the effect, is instantaneous, in Ihe • latter it is continued. In all cases of mechanical action, the effect of the acting body is resisted in an equal degree by the inertia of Ihe body acted upon, which rei termed reaction ; and it is an axiom in mechanic lion and reaction are always equal, a. opposite direcfions. Thus, in driving a nail with a hammer, the stroke acts against the face of the hammer same energy as against the head of the nail ; and ing the hand against a stone, tl on the stone is precisely the same. A'CTIONS, in Law, are real, pprsi :ed, Ac- tions, real or mixed, for the n very numerous, but. so prolix and difficult I most wholly abandoned as a moans of obtaining and questions relating to lille to land are n< simple form of ejectment. The only case in wl have been resorted to, of late year-. the shorter period to which the action of limited (see Limitations), a right survived for l of the former, which was haired as to flu I recent acts on (his subject have much rede tion. Actions in common \\.red: aiiain banished by Domilian; . rva, ami liuil' : ; l>iu,liy of the reign o I the last-mentioned emperor, the ■ r pageants, in ai nobles ! for their diversion; and when regular long in der the proii . ..til known, retain the custom of calling until some time alter the Rcs- ;a»lity had frequently, under [..performed parti m masques, Ac. I. ■ ted in ihi per m will bo found in Pepys's Catholic cot . i.-iu>n of excoin- \i 1 1 . Molecules.) tes made r. by virtue of a n powering may think expe- ing the procedure and forms of Admiaiater. nally a public officer in the drew up writings, contract : lis name, from The clerk who registered the acts mblies of i an actuary. na officer ia usually termed in England ■ CB.) ' aruleus, a prickle.) In Botany, any : that is, with sharp, promt- in the cellular system and have no 10(1. hymenopterous i the females and neuters are provided aled within the last segment I i:. (I. at. acumen, the point of any thing.) lered to a , which means acus, a needle, and > Pricking with a needle. In the i ii m mo n remedy for painful affections of ol ihc body. It has lately been extensively ure of chronic rheumatism, a long rile being thrust Into the affected no Aii TB The opposite of obtuse. An acute thai which Is less than a right aimle ; an acute-angled irian- wtiich each of the • whoso opposite sides form an acute an- i ex. in. (I.at. acutus, shiirp.) in Music, the height or iiul or lone, in respect of another, l! AI) Ll'BITUM. In Music (at pleasure), a term applied ipaniment which is not essential, and mayor iihout interfering with the com- AD QUOD DAMNUM. (I.at . tn irhat damage.) A writ nit of certain liberties anil fraie . which may he prejudicial to the king ' or iln- public; by it the sheriff is direct- damage may accrue from the grant in ADA'OTYI.E. (Or. a, priv. and (SafcrvXo?, a digit.) In ■ locomotive extremity without digits. A'DAGE. (L>at. adagiam, a proverb.) (See Phoverb.) ty are collected by Erasmus in a work ADA'GIO. (Ital. adagio, leisurely) In Music, Ihe slow- I time, grave only excepted. (.See Ai.i.eoro.) • IMAN'TINE SPAR. (Or, d, without, and Sa/iaoJ, J r/uer.) A variety of crystallised alumina, t lie sapphire in composition, and of ex- The finest specimens come from India bay i' is called corundum. A'DAMfTES. (Theology.) A sect in the early ages of the Christian church, who are said to have protei exact imitation of the primitive slate of innocence. They re-appeared in the 13th century in Bohemia. (Mnsheim. L p. 231. ADANSO'NI.V. A remarkable African tree, named after 13 ADHESION. Adanson, a celebrated French botanist and traveller. It In called by the negroes Baobab. A'UAPI.S. A name originally applied by Gesner to the llvrax or coney of Scripture, and adopted by Cuvier to de- signate another email pachydermatous quadruped, now extinct, hut the existence and nature of which that great naturalist detected and deduced from three fragments of id, which were discovered in that immense deposi tory of fossil bones, the gypsum quarries ol Montmartre. Adapis is as follows: — each jaw has four trenchant incisors; two conical can : up- per ones straight, the lower inclined obliquely forwards; and apparently fourteen molar teeth, of which Ihe first is trenchant, and the ihrce or four posterior ones, on side, like the posterior molars of ihe Anoplotheriam. Cu- vier supposes ihe animal to have been about the size of a and lo have closely approximated the Anoplotheria. A liiu:i: (See Viper.) ADDITION. In Arithmetic. The operation by which a number is found equ d to several others taken together. It is ihe first of the lour fundamental rules. Addition, in i. is the uniting or incorporating of several algebraic quantities into a simple or contracted expression. A'DPlTlvt;. Something to be added, in contradistinction In subtraclive. which denotes something tn tie taken away. The terms additive and subtractive are sometimes applied braic quantities, to denote these relation! to other quantities which are nmre commonly, though less correct- ly, exj'i live. MUM (IdK. (I.at. adduco, I draw towards.) The adductor mu ihe abductors: they draw •s in which ihey are attached, together, ADE'LPIIIA. (Gr. a&t\tbos, a brother.) A collection mens into a bundle. Linns ed this trim ■ ts in which the st, linens, instead ei growing singly, combine Into one or more parcel axis; thus, monadelphia signified stamens all connected into one phis into two parcels, ami so on. ADE'NOSTY'LEjE. (Gr. dirtv, a gland, and crv\oi, a ,/, or style.) A subdivision of composite planls, compi hairis, enpatorium, and some other genera, In which the branches of the style are co- hilar hairs. ADKTII ACaNS. ADEPIIAGA. (Gr. dj^ajoj, tutu- cioii3.) A family of carnivorous and very voracious cole- A'I>EPT. (I.at adipiscor, I obtain.) A distinctive term applied lo those ahhemi.-ts who were supposed to have at- tained the great object of (heir researches, or to l.ave d's- ! the philosopher's stone. ADFE'CTED, or AFFECTED. (See the latter term.; ADHE'SION, ( Let adhaveo, / adhere,) is a properly of tier by which contiguous p ■ thcr; one of the causes of the treat diversity <<\ aj pear- of plants. Two op] I grow ■ rand form apparently one, through whico Ihe item ral in a whorl adhere, and form an involucre ; nber of petals adhere, and thus constitute a moiinpc- talons corolla ; several stamens adhere, and an adelpbia carpi Is contract an adhesion with one ■r, and firm a compound fruit ; finally, Ihe calyx ad- . and then seems us il i! horn Ihe apex of it. Irregularity in (lowers and fruit < produced by the unequal manner in which ce between similar pails; of the pals adhere into one parcel, and three nolher; the result of which is a two- lipped calyx; ne thing occurs in the corolla, and elsewhere. Aiihesion. I to denote the force with which different bodies remain attached lo each other, t they are brought into contact. Adhesion has often t n confounded with cohesion ; hut the two terms are dally distinct. Adhesion is the force with which two I of different kin. Is cling to each other when united ; ion is that which unites the panicles of a homogene- i ody with each other. Thus, the particles which form a drop of water or quicksilver are united by cohesion ; Ihe particles of water which wet the surface of any body- are united to it by adhesion. Adhesion may exist between two solid bodies, b< I a solid and a fluid, or between two fluid bodies. The a J- hesion of solid bodies is exemplified in the force reqt to soparate two pieces of marble, whose polished so. have been brought into contact. The suspension of water above its level in capillary tubes, or between two plates of glass very nearly in contact, shows the adhesion of a fluid to a solid body ; and an instance of the adhesion of two li- quids is obtained by covering a plale of glass with oil, and bringing it into contact with the surface of water; a very sensible force is required to raise it perpendicularly from the water. , . I)r Brook Taylor appears to have been the first who un- k to estimate experimentally the force of adhesion ; the method which he employed was to determine (he ADIANTUM. weight necessary to separate fir-boards from the surface of water. This method, however, unless proper precautious are taken, is apt. to give inaccurate results. On separating a fir-board from water, the whole surface of the board may be observed to be wetted ; that is to say, a thin film of wa- ter remains attached to the wood, so that the force by which the separation was effected is not the force neces- ! ,i v to overcome the adhesion of the water to the board, but the cohesion of the particles of water to each other. This is fully established by the experimental fact, that, when discs of different substances are applied to a liquid, by which they are perfectly welted, their adhesion to it is the same, whatever may be their nature, and exaclly equal to the cohesive force of the fluid. Discsof glass and discs of copper of the same diameter adhere to water with pre- cisely the same force. The adhesion of discs to the surfaces of liquids is de- monstrated by Laplace to be a capillary phenomenon, ari- sing from the action of attractive forces which are sensible only at very small distances. Supposing the diameter of the disc to be known, and the height to which the same liquid rises in a capillary tube of the same matter, and of a given diameter, Laplace determined from theory the force necessary to detach the disc. The results of his de- termination, applied to different liquids, as water, oil of turpentine, and alcohol, at different densities, agreed ex- actly with the numbers found by M. Gay-Lussac, in a se- ries of very accurate experiments on this subject. The perfect identity of the forces producing adhesion and ca- pillary attraction, is also proved by the following experi- ment : — It is well known that the height to which fluids rise in capillary tubes depends on the angle which the liuid makes with the sides of the tube. Hut the surface of mercury covered with water in a capillary tube is exactly spherical; consequently, the angle which the mercury makes with the sides of the tube vanishes, and the force is reduced to zero. If, therefore, adhesion depends on a force of the same nature, it follows that, on applying a disc af glass to the surface of mercury, and covering them both with water, no force should be required to separate the tHsc, excepting what is necessary to overcome its weight. Now, this was found by Gay-Lu'ssac to be exactly what takes place. When the mercury and disc were covered wild water, no resistance was offered to their separation ; without tho interposition of the water, a weight of 290 or even -100 gi-ammes was required to overcome the adhesion. (Laplace, Mecanique Celeste, tome iv. Biot. Traill de Physique, tome r\ p. 404.) The adhesion of the polished surfaces of solid bodies is picportional lo the extent of the surface, or to the number of points brought into contact. It was formerly believed that the resistance to separation in this case arises solely from the pressure of the atmosphere; but the difference fits amount in different substances proves this opinion to >e erroneous ; besides, it is found to be the same in a va- cuum. (.Sv>e Capillary Attraction.) ADIA'NTUM. (Gr. aSiavros, dry.) A genus of thin- leaved ferns, having their fructification in short marginal lines. The leaflets are usually wedge-shaped, and placed upon slender shining petioles. One of the species (A. ca- pillus veneris) was formerly employed in the manufac- ture of svrnp of capillaire. ADIA'PHORITES. (Gr. dSiavhich fat is deposited. 14 ADMIRAL. A'DIT. (Lat. adeo, I approach.) A horizontal shaft at passage in a mine, either for access, or carrying off water ADJA'CENT ANGLE. In Geom a mime diately contiguous to another, so that one side is common to both angles. It is more particularly used when the two angles, besides having a common side, have their other sides in the same straight line. In this case, lie- angle is the same as the supplemental angle. A'DJECTIVE. (Lat. ad, to, and jaceo, I lie.) In Gram- mar, that part of speech which is annexed to tives, to define more' accurately the conceptions intended to be denoted by them. (See Grammar.) ADJECTIVE COLOURS. Colours which require lo be fixed by some base or mordant, in order to be .. permanent, dye-stuffs. ADJOURNMENT, in Parliamentary language, means a postponement of the sittings or proceedings of eithei House of Parliament from one time to another for its re-assembling. Adjournment differs from proroga- tion in this, that the filter is an act of royal authority, whereas the power of adjournment is vested in each house respectively, no definite limits being prescribed to it by the constitution. (See Prorogation.) ADJUDICATION. In Scottish La-.vftbe diligence (»\ e. process) by which land is attached as security for pay- ment of debt. Adjudication for debt is a species of mort- gage, redeemable, except in the cases of what are termed general adjudications, or adjudications contra hajreclitate.nl jacentem. ADJUSTMENT. In Marine Insurance, the settlement of a loss incurred by the insured. A'DJUTANT. A military officer, attached to every re- giment, who relieves the major of part of his duly, and performs it in his absence. A'DJUTANT GENERAL. A staff officer, who is lo the army what the adjutant is to a regiment. lie assists the general, and distributes his orders. A'DJUTANT GENERAL OF THE JESUITS. A title given to certain fathers who resided with the general of the order. A'D.IUVANT. (Lat. adjuvare, td help.) In Medicine, a substance which assists and promotes the operation of others. ADMINISTRATION. (In Law.) If a person die intes- tate as to his personally, letters of administration are grant- ed by the ordinary (see Law, tit. Ecclesiastical Courts) to such person as is pointed out by the Statutes 31 E. 3., and 21 H. 8. These empower the ordinary to grant I letters to the widow, If there be one, or next of kin, at his discretion. Of persons equally near in degree, the ordina- ry may grant to which he please. If none of the kindred take out administration, a creditor may do it. When the will is made without the nomination of any executor, the. ordinary grants administration cum testamenlo annexo, Where a person dies intestate, his personal property de- scends (subject to his debts) as directed by the statute of Distributions, 22 & 23 C. 2. c. 10., explained by 20 C. 2. c 30. One-third goes to the widow; the residue in equal proportions to the children, or, if they are dead, lo theii representatives, i. e. their lineal descendants. If thei none of these, then the widow takes a moiety, and the next of kin in equal degree, and their representatives take the other; if there be no widow, they take the whole. But of representatives none are admitted among collaterals farther than the children of the intestate's brothers and sisters. The order of nearness of kin, with reference to the distribution of intestates' estates, is thus . cording to the rules of the civil law— children, parents, brothers, grandfathers, uncles or nephews (and the females of each class respectively), and, lastly, cousins. Administration. (Lat. administrate, care of tut affair.} In its general sense means the conduct or management of any affair; but in 'his country the term Is usually applied to the management of the public or natio . the government, which is thence called the Administration. A'DMIRAL. A great naval officer, who lias the same power and authority over the maritime forces of a state that a general has over its land forces ; and who also tries himself, or appoints officers to try, maritime cases. There are three ranks of Admirals, the Admiral (or full Ad- miral), Vice Admiral, and Rear Admiral. Each of tl again has three gradations, of red, white, and I lours of the flags they bear. The Admiral carries his l! ig at the main, the Vice'at (he fore, and the Rear at the mizen mast. Admiral, Lord High. The ninth great, officer of state in England. The office has been usually giv. since the reign of Henry IV., to some of the king's young- esl sons, near kinsmen, or of the higher nubility. Since the reign of Charles II. it has been, With occasional excep- tions, always in commission, and the commissioners are styled 'Lords of the Admiralty.' It was held by the late sovereign William IV., when Duke of Clarence, from 1827 to the following year. ADMIRALTY. A'DMIRAI.TV. the Hoard of Commissioners for execu- Lord lliuh Admiral, and having authority OVpr naval a lV /. In Law, is a court of record, of ngs are carried on, al least to a certain ■ ;' the civil law ; aUl i some cases the assistance of a . lance to the courts of common ! ction principally i" nation njuries to private rights arising at sea, or iuti- vuh marhimi nhority extern er with Hie common law courts, or those of Is may bo instituted in this court for assault it sea; for collision of ships; for the reatitu- • ally taken not under colour of war. It equitable jurisdiction between part owners of suits for mariners' wages, and for ea of bottomry of the - to ar- 1011 iu cases ol nd incidentally of wreck. i)rt,'which decides prize causes in time of tribunal, although usually presided over by ili. nl admiralty. To that able and ■■. Sir W. Scott (Lord Stowell), who sat - well as the ;i lor many •I, and after its close, the country . not only for the high character and value of r the light thrown on the difficult of national law, by the most pro- ions e» er applied lo thai subject. A ' I • N \'l I ; (Lat. adnascor, I grow to any thing.) Is ilher, and not innate. This term ADb'MS. hi Mythology. A beautiful youth, son of ind killed by It is, also, •. on the banks of which ■ : -t, was snp- kllled. At certain seasons of the quires a high red colour, by the rains washing up particles of red earth. The ancienl the river for the death of Adonis. This observed as a festival In the adjacent country. • . Calmet, Dictiotmairedt la Bible, art. Thmmmux.) Milton has beautifully alluded to these cir- i umstan nmla lo lum-jiii I > i Ml ilillie* all n smnincr'i day : "While im Ran purple to the ii-a ; mipitoted with blood Of Tfinimnu: yearly wuunJed." Parad. Lost, t. r. 445. ADONIC. (Cr. 'Kiuivtt, Adonis ) A species of verse j of a dactyle and a spon li:it the sacred writings are not >n this point, and thi i he period of its occurrenc ■ reckon by the era of the Olympiad (see in ai the Bummer solstice, anno 776 I!, c. T l from the bu generally held to be tlte 24th of April. 1!. <:. 763. The Ju- dates from the reformation of the calendar by Jo- . which took place on the 1st middle of the 4th year of I ear of the building of Rome, if the He- mmed to Meil ding with Iwaaab, In com- s to \ I' > in Persia, began lCih June, if some of ihe principal rrras, of the Christian sera in which thi iriationa by which they are commonly dis- JEms. Commenced Abbreviations B. C. 5,509 A. M. Const. — (Alexandrian — \ M Alex. — (Jewish account) - — 3,701) \ M • — 747 Nib. . — Olymp. Rome — A. U. C. . — 45 Jul. Mr. Bra ■ - - — A. I). . A IV • - JEr. Dioc. . . — A II . . — 632 A. Pers. .•II this the year of the Chri with that of any greater .■era. (SB History by Sir II. Nicholas JBRA'RLAN. The term applied to a Roman citizen who had i' rank compatible with per- 'ii. He, li->\\ • no privileges, and could not serve in the army, or, conse- quently, participate in the distribution of land grant ■ • did. jERA'RIUM. (Lat.) Tlie public treasury of the Ro Hi in ire of which was vested in the qutestors. ofthe republic i lm terarium was kepi distinct from the treasury of the emperor, which was called I The erarium lanclhis, or more sacred treasury, was ap pointed to provide for cases of extreme emergency, anil pened on othi AG' RIAL, (Gr. air/j, air. ) In Painting, a term applied diminishing intensity of colour on objects receding from the eye. Aerial perspective la the relative apparent .'■■ii of objects from the foreground, owing to the quantity of air interposed between them and the spectator, andmu8taccompai on of the perspective lines. AERIAL AC ID. Carbonic acid. A'ERO-DYNA/MICS, (Gr. dtjp, and iwafttt, power.) ind of air In motion. This is an expe- rimental scienco, and there are two ways in which it may he nr. The first is, by ascertaining the i which air, moving with a certain velocity, that is, wind, pro lu.-.:; on a hod.- against which it strikes; and the second, by ascertaining : a which air at rest offers to a solid body rapidly passing through it. The pro- blem is exactly the same, whether the body la considered as ni it rest, or the air is supposed to ly with the same velocity. Com moved forward In a straight line, dispU Ively the particles of air opposed to it: Seel which it produces is proportional to the number i to the quantity of motion communicated to each. Suppose now the ofthe body to be doubled, the motion communic each particle of air displaced will be twice as great 88 he- fore, and twice as many particles will receive the impul- sion in the same time. Hence we infer that the effect will ir that the effect is proportional to velocity. This result of t bly well with experiments made to determine the tanee of the air when the velocity is not verj or not exceeding eight or nine hundred feet in a : '■■ When the velocity is much greater than this, the effect la modified by circumstances which require further expla- nation. When a solid body is moved out of its position, the space 17 AEROLITE. which it occupied is not filled with air instantaneously, out only after a sensible, though very short time. Theory, tied to a certain degree by experience, ahowa that air, under the ordinary atmospheric pressure,, rushes Into a vacuum with a Telocity of between 1800 and 1400 few in a second of time. But this velocity is very speedily checked : for the instant thai any portion of air is admit- ted, or the vacuum ceases to be perli cl, that portion resists of more with a force proportional to its den. • ■. for example, the air in a receiver to he in- duced to one fourth of its natural density ; the eflbn ofthe i air to enter the receiver will be n duceil to three- fourths of its amount when the receiver was perfectly ex- hausted : and consequently lite velocity, which is propor- tional to the square root of the effort or Ihe resistance, will he reduced in the proportion of 1 to V% ; or of 100 i very nearly. In this manner, ns the air continues to enter, city will rapidly dim Now. conceive a body, for example a cannon ball, to U moving rapidly through the air. hut with a less velocity than 1900 leet per second. The air in front ofthe ball will remain in its natural state, because the condensation pro- duced every instant by the contact of the ball. Is propaga- ted more quickly than the ball moves (the velocity of the propagation being equal to I hat with which air enters a vacuum). Hut there is a certain space behind Ihe ball in which the air has not entirely recovered Its equilibrium, Imt remains more or less rarefied, the bill having p I through it In less lime than la required lor the surrounding sir entirely to liil it. In addition, therefore, to the resist- ance n from the communication of motion to the particles of air. I -me on Ihe front part of the ball, not counterbalanced from behind ; Inconsequence of which, we may infer that the resistance will increase in a quicker ratio than the square of the velocity. Thi duction is also confirmed by experience ; for it is found that thi increase with the sqiiiuv ofthe velocity only while the velocity is less than '.no or 1000 feet per second. Above this velocity the ratio begins to fail; and when Ihe velocity exceeds thai with which air urn. the ratio is entirely altered. At a veloci- ty of 1000 feel per second, the n -.-.i - .hi.' e is found 10 be more than t« D by theory. The reason is ib- vions: the density of the air before the body is increased by the rapid motion, and, consequently, ire w» the fori body than air in II i natural state The resistance of the air on the motion of projectiles; experimentally by M. Robins (see nil Princip iv), anil afterwards by Dr. Mutton, of Woolwich (W i I, VOL 3, and Math. Diedonai y \ whose experiments were carried on to a greater e xtent , and varied in Dumber of ways. The following are the principal results deduced by Dr. Mutton, from UtS on bodies moving very slowly, not tt*>r» than 20 feet per second : — 1st. -istance is nearly in lh>> Same BrOfJOT* ufaces; a small increase only taking place in the greater surfaces and for the greater velocities. Sid, "The resistance of the air to the same surface witli different velocities, is, in these slow motions, nearly as tho square o, the velocity, hut gradually increases more and more ah ■ irtion as the velocity incres 3d. -Tin- round ends and sharp ends of solldB suffer leas resistance than the il it or plane ends of the same diame- ter; but the sharper end has not always the ance. 4th. " When the hinder parts of bodies are of different forms, the re different, though the fore parts be exactly alike and equal: owing, probably, to tho differ- ent pressures ofthe air on the hinder parts." Dr. Mutton likewise found, that although In slow motions the experimental resistance is nearly equal to that compu- ted by theory, yet, " ■ the experi- mental resistance gradually rxcftt)* the other more and locity of 1300 feet, the formi r > comes double ihe latter; after which, the difference increases a little further, till, at the velocity of 1600 Or 1700 feet, when ■ the greatest, and is rather less than ' 1-lOthj and, after this the difference decreases gradually, Ity increases; and at the velocity of 2000 the former resistance again becomes just double ihs latter." For further information on this subject, tee I'iiojixtji.ks, Wind AERO'C.RAPHY. (Or. d»jp./Aea«r, and ypa^>b}, Iirrite* The description of ihe atmosphere, its nature, properties, limits. Ac (See Atmosphere.') AT.ROLI'TE. (Gr. drip, the «/,,and >iflos, a stone, stoats ofthe air.) The origin or these singular substances is in- I in the greatest mystery. Borne philosophers, among whom is Laplace, the Illustrious author of the "Mecamque impose them to be ejected from volcanoes in the j moon ; others suppose them to exist ready formed In the celestial space, circulating about the sun wilhgreal velocity like planets,and falling to the earth when its attraction, upon 15 ^^*. AEROLOGY. mem preponderates: others regard them as fragments of rocks which have been propelled by terrestrial volcanos to an immense height above the limits of the atmosphere, "and again xle#cend after having described several revolu- tions about the earth. On. examining and comparing the aerolites, the first cir- cumstance that strikes us as remarkable is their perfect resemblance to one another in their composition, what- ever be their form or magnitude. Their exterior surface is black as if they had been exposed to the heat of a fur- nace. Internally they are of a greyish white. Their spe- cific gravity, which is very nearly the same in all of them, varies between 3-352 and 4-281, that of water being taken as unit, Their chemical analysis gives, in almost every instance, the same substances, combined in very nearly the same proportions. They are composed of silex, mag- nesia, sulphur, iron in the metallic state, nickel, and some traces of chrome. Sometimes they are formed of a spongy or cellular texture, the cavities being filled with a stony substance. They have occasionally been found without nickel. These common and constant characters indicate with the greatest evidence a common origin, and their composition renders it probable that it is to be sought elsewhere than in the earth. Iron is scarcely ever found (if. indeed, it is found at all) in the metallic state in terres- trial substances ; volcanic matter contains it only in the state of an oxide. Nickel is also very rare, and never found on the surface of the earth: and chrome is still more rare. The fall of the aerolites is accompanied by meteors, named bolides, or fire balls They are, in fact, inflamed globes, which appear instantaneously in the atmosphere, and move through it with extreme velocity, sometimes even equal to that of the earth in its orbit. The direction of their motion is inclined to the horizon. After shining with great splendour for a few instants, they explode with a lom! noise, and often at a great height, 30 or 40 miles above the surface of the earth. They do not affect any peculiar direction with respect to the. motion of the earth, but seem to come from all points of the heavens indiffer- ently. With regard to the hypothesis which explains the origin of the aerolites, by supjxising them to be propelled from lunar volcanos. it may be remarked, that no improbable amount of mechanical force would be required. As there is no atmosphere about the moon sufficient to offer a sen- sible resistance to the motion of a solid body, the force re- quired is only that which would be sufficient to overcome the moon's attraction, which is found by calculation to be about four times the force with which a ball is expelled from a cannon with the ordinary charge of gunpowder. A body projected with a velocity of about 7770 feet per se- cond from the lunar surface, would be detached from the moon, and be brought to the earth by terrestrial gravita- tion. But philosophers seem now disposed to assign the aerolites a different origin. From the phenomena of comets there is reason to believe that portions of chaotic matter are dispersed in the planetary regions in detached parcels, or perhaps in considerable masses. The earth in describing its orbit may meet with such masses directly, or pass so near to them as to carry them along with it by virtue of its attraction. On plunging into the atmosphere with the velocity due to the height from which they have fallen, which is that of their distance from the earth, when they begin to obey its attractive force, an enormous heat is evolved by the rapid and powerful condensation of the air; the matter becomes inflamed, and the aerolite is the pro- duct of the combustion. In the same manner, shooting stars, and other igneous meteors of frequent occurrence, are explained. The chaotic matter may be entirely con- sumed long before it reaches the earth, in which case the appearance of the bolide will not be accompanied with the fall of an aerolite. (vtov, a plant.) Plants which live exclusively in air ; in distinction to hy- drophytes, which live as constantly under water. A'EROSTA'TICS. A term sometimes used to denote the science which treats of the equilibrium of elastic fluids. {Zee Pneumatics.) A'EROSTA'TION. (Gr. drip, air, and craw, I stand ) Means simply the weighing of tiie air; but it has been em- ployed, though incorrectly, in the science of aeronautics. or as the art of raising substances into the atmosphere by the buoyancy of heated air, or of very light gases enclosed in a bag of a spheroidical form ; hence called a balloon, which see. iESCULA'CEiE. A natural order of exogenous plants consisting of the horse-chestnut, jEsculus hippocastan.im, and other nearly allied species. They are all either shrubs or trees inhabiting temperate regions, and nearly corres- pond with ./Esculus hippocastanum in the structure of the flowers. Their seeds contain starch, and their bark is in some cases hitler and astringent. ^SCHLA'PIUS, or ASCLE'PIUS, as he was called by the Greeks, was a mythological deity of the Greeks and Romans, according to whom he was the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. He was worshipped as the god of surgery and medicine; but the older poets, as Homer and Pindar, mention him only as a hero well skilled in these arts. The chief seat of his worship was Epidanrus, where he was represented as an old man, with a mantle and staff, round which a serpent is twined. AESTHE'TICS. (Gr. dicdriTtKos, having the power of perception by means of the senses.) In the -fine arts, that science which derives the first principles in all the arts from the effect which certain combinations have on the. mind, as connected with nature and right reason. It is in- timately related to sentiment, which links together with feeling the different parts of a composition. All art, con- sidered as imitation of nature, is affected by the same re- lations, and subject to the same laws, which govern nature herself; and if it could be satisfactorily proved that those rules of art which are the result of reason were necessari- ly connected with sensation, it might be possible to lay down laws from which the principles of art might be satis factorily deduced. As an illustration of this, in architec- ture we might take the rule which forbids the position of a heavy mass over a void, when it may appear to have no ostensible and immediate support; in which case it might almost seem possible to connect the unpleasant sensation produced on the mind with the rules of reason : but in ar- chitecture it is difficult to conceive how this could be ef- fected without recurring to primitive types, and on them pursuing the reasoning into all its details. In the other arts it might not, perhaps, be so difficult to establish a si-i of rules, inasmuch as the immediate type is nature herself. The Germans have written much on the doctrine of aesthe- tics; it would, however, seem, that the fundamental prin ciples of taste in all the arts depend on the laws of gravita- tion, and their balances, equipoise and counterpoise j the necessary resultants whereof are symmetry and propor- tion. We shall here lay before the reader a synoptical view of this science: to do more would occupy a space much more than would fill this volume; for, under othei JEBTHNA. name-.-, it is a subject which has much engaged the attention of writers on the philosophy of the arts. The the polite arts lies in i or the ntation, whether by lines, word media, and Ion arises from an exer- : the inventive faculty; their end being the pro- ible sensations ; thus uisned ht in the sciences, whose object is to pro- Dd utility. And here we. an . may be to instruct, or to be objects, yet that the expression on which the laws which govern the i he object of the fine arts is beauty, which is ail the various perfections whereof an object ii perfections arising, first, from the twecn the several parts of the ■ !. from the proportions between object taken as a whi or the the faculty of the mind by which it is Ive and e.vjn ' •ions, and is, the production of beauty ; wliilc ition of a mind refined by IB, embracing, and produ. Hence a general theory of the polite arts be founded on a knowledge of all that they contain iile and beautiful. They are usually a aence, poetry, musfi nlplure, and »rchitecture. By some, dancing number; bin. for reasons too long to be advanced here, to recollect that, In able, must be im his work. First, he must consult his genius, ftui'l ferre rccutcnt, ftuii- II <;. lioiho. :: Bande, ller- Leipzig, 1829. Urit. I 13, art, •• Philosophy ol Art.") -TUNA. A name applied by Fal MM of I by having the wings expanded •el the divisions of the lip equal. TIIF.O'CAMOl :s. (Or. d/j0>j{, unusual, and yauof, marriage) A. name contrived to riy the i called cryptogamie plants ; it being the n of the author of the name that the niodp of proper I among such plants was not hidden, hut only of an ■iitiueil by 1) I .•. ell as cellular tissue, in their or- a sense, they are the same as ferns, ly- copo.i . and their allies. jE'TMUOSCO'PE. (Or. diOpio;, dear, and anrercu, Iriew.) Ai: Invented by Sir John Leslie for relative degrees ol produced by the pulsations from a clear sky. I rely of a differential thermometer, adapted to the cavity .>( a idal cup of metal, the interior of which is highly poll a man- or the halls occupies a focus of the spheroid; while the orifice of the cup is formed by a plane passing through perpendicular to die A lid of the same metal is filled to outh of the cup, and only r< lion is to he made. ■•-•• die cup exposed to a clear sky : I pulses darted from the upper atmosphere, which enter the orifice of the cup, are reflected from polished surfaces upon the ball A in the focus, while the bail B, sideof the cup in Us widest part, is ne d from them, or receives only the small nuniher which fall obliquely upon it. The two halls are thus exposed to rlif ferent degrees of cold, the effect of which is Immediately apparent, by the rise of the liquor in the stem of the ther- mometer, in consequence of the contraction of the air in the ball A. The effect may be augmented by covering the ball 15, which is out of the focus, with a coat of gold or sil- ver leaf. It is evident that the instrument is equally adapt- 19 AFFINITY, CHEMICAL. ed to measure the effects of the radiation of heat, which will be manifested by the d< scent of the stem. When applied to this pin, r. the metallic cull becomes ui': ; irowiP back from the bright sorl e their full effect en the naked or Beoticnt one. The aethrioacope is thus convened into a pyroscope. (See Encyc. Brit., art "Climati i 'IVa'TION. (Lat. aestivus, ofm i sum- mer.) A figurative exprei manner in which the parts of a (lower are arrai they unfold. Uotain of the corolla, of the statu ,!■'. > II AKY. (Let. JEshtorium.) !n . was anciently understood to be ani creek, frith, or see, in which the tide ebbs and flows (Plia Epi 33); but it la channels of certain rivers eontigi ea in which the water is either salt or brackish, and in wl and How of ll little or no current. ■sn. A'KTI \TOI. (Gr. citroc, tm eagle.) In Architecture, the name given by I form- ing the face of the tympanum of a pediment. This word i now in the British Mu- Dr. Cham:: ng to the sin al Athens. [OXOGY. (Or. dirui, (t rmtxe, and Xo}os,ilisa,ursc.) Toe do rO'MA, or A'ETOS. 'Gr. dtnt.-an eagie.) In Ar- by the (dick si chiti ■ ts to the tympanum of a pedimec ge of the roof with figure I ^me thence Bret given to the ridge wi iransferred to the pedimenl AIT ■ih.) In the Fine Arts, nil artificial snow arising from the want of simplicity either in colon. the overcharging an] onwithanarl , E'CTED, or ADFEOTED. A I When applied quantity enl equation : thus, x> — 0x2 + bx — c=.u, in which there are three different pov. . iy. r'\ X-, and T. \. the term w.inti- ii : thus, in the quantity .'. and with the sign +. D to algebra by \ AITF/TTO, or AFFETTl (>>(). (It. affetto, ttfiKtion.) In Music, a term prefix* d to a mnven* is to be performed in a smooth, tender, and affecting man- sit, therefore, rather inclining to slowness than the Al'KIDA'VIT. (I.at. afikUo, ] confirm by oath.) In 1 iih in m riting, sworn 1 eli authority to iriministi r it. AFFILIATION. (Lat. ad, i . EliOS, a son.) hi Law, the assignment of a child to a pareni by I where the father ol b bai tard chl timony of the nig it tpon him. By the i ndn enl Act, this can now only he done, after suificienl i [iarly intended to be charged, by an order of the conn of quarter sessions, on the testimony of the woman, con rated as to sol (.Set Bastard.) AJfiliut in Politics, ar< lies, depending on a central society with which Wieysor- respond, and from which they receive directions. Such were ih" provincial jacobin clubs, foundi idelol the jacobin clubofParis. Such, also, were the corn spend- ing societies In England, for the suppression of whu • ' (;. :;. c 79. AFFI'NITY. (Lat affinis. related.) A relation of ani- mals lo one another, in the* shnilarity of a greater propor- tion of their o i thus, a porpoise is said to have an affinity to man, b< i i em bianco to him in respiratory, circulating, at • systems, ii brain, eye, and ear. Are. : while it is said to have anal toafi emblance is confined to ea h form. In short, affinity is that, degree of relationship by which, in forming a concatenated series of animals, we pass from one to another hv the closest gradations, AFFINITY, CHEMICAL. The attractive force by which dissimilar substances combine with each other to produce chemical compounds. All natural and artificial substances are either simple or compound. The metals, for instance, are simple substances, — no one of them hav- ing been as yet decomposed : water is a compound; it may be resolved into oxvgen and hydrogen gases, which are therefore called its component part -. To enable substances AFFINITY, CHEMICAL. ta exert their mutual affinities, or to act chemically upon each other, the opposing powers of matter must be over- come, and they must be placed under circumstances fa- TOurable to the exertion of their mutual chemical attrac- tions. Two solid bodies seldom combine, in consequence of their imperfect contact, and the immobility of their par- a ; hence the oldest axiom, corpora non agunt, nisi la. But to this there are exceptions : ice and salt, for instance, run down into liquid brine ; oxalic acid and dry lime unite; and when sulphur and chlorate of potash are ither. they act violently on eacli other. Even when one or both substances are fluid, heat is often requi- site to diminish cohesion, and promote affinity : thus, mer- cury an t iron combine with melted sulphur; and oxygen and hydrogen, and oxygen and carbon, require heat to ef- fect their union. In some cases the action of the solar riys excites and increases affinity, as in the combination of hydrogen and chlorine. The investigation of the relative proportions in which eg combine, forms the basis of the atomic theory, or doctrine of chemical equivalents. Many substances seem to unite in all proportions; but these are not strict cases of chemical combination: thus, water and sulphuric acid, and alcohol and ether, mix to- gether in any quantities. Others unite indefinitely, up to a certain point: water, for instance, dissolves salt, in varia- ble quantity, till the solution is saturated : we thus find that a given quantity of water is only able to retain a cer- tain weight of salt in permanent solution. In these cases of indefinite combination, the affinities of the combining substances are usually feeble; but where their affinities or attractive powers are energetic, there is a remarkable ten- dency to combine in certain proportions only. Thus, sul- phuric acid and lime unite in the proportions of 40 of the acid to 28 of the lime, and in no other or intermediate quantity : in such cases the acid and the base are said to neutralise each other; and such compounds are often 1 neutral salts, that is, salts in which the leading cha- racters of the component parts are no longer perceptible, which are neither acid nor alkaline. When such bodies combine in more than one proportion, which is often the case, the second, third, &c. proportions are simple multi- ples of the first: thus, 16 parts of sulphur combine respec- tively with 8, 16, and 24 of oxygen ; in these compounds the relative proportions being as 1,2, and 3. Again, 14 parts of nitrogen combine with 8, 16, 24, 32, and 40 of oxy- gen, forming five distinct compounds, in which the relative proportions of the oxygen are as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Where the combining substances are either naturally gaseous, or where they may be hypothetically so consi- dered, it is obvious that, as their weights bear these simple relations to eacli other, their bulks or volumes will do so likewise : thus, in the case of the compounds just noticed, 1 volume of nitrogen will combine respectively with %, 1, 1 ;~, 2, and :l l i volumes of oxygen ; or, what amounts to the same thing, 2 volumes of nitrogen will combine with 1, 2, ;;, 4, and 5 volumes of oxy thus combine with each other in definite pro- portion-;, it is obvious, that if we select any one substance lity, or =: 1, all oilier substances may be represented by numbers equal to the weights in which they respective- ly combine with each other, and with the unit. Upon this iple of numeric representation, hydrogen, which is known substance, is assumed a3 unity ; the compound of hydrogen with oxygen is water, in which 1 part by weight of hydrogen is combined with 8 of oxygen, to form 9 of water: hence, in a table of atomic numbers, definite proportionals, or chemical equivalents, (for all these terms have been applied to such numbers,) we have — Hydrogen represented by 1 Oxysen 8 Water ... 9 And in the above series of nitric compounds we have, in the first of them, 14 of nitrogen combined with 8 of oxy- gen ; and, accordingly, calling 14 the equivalent of nitrogen, and 8 the equivalent of oxygen, we have the following equi- valents of their compounds ; and it may be presumed that tnese numbers represent the weights of the combining atoms of those bodies: — Equivalents, or Atom* combining vMnghtt, Equivalents of tie of nitro- of oxy- of nitro- of oxy- compounds, gen. gen. gen. gen. 1 + 1 1 1 + 8 = 22 nitrous oxide. 1+2 14 + 16 = 30 nitric oxide. 1+3 14 + 24 = 38 hyponitrous acid. 1 + 4 14 + 32 = 46 nitrous acid. I 4- 5 14 + 40 == 04 nitric acid, litis table also shows the nomenclature commonly applied to the compounds; the termination ous indicating the mi- nimum of oxygen, the termination ic the maximum; the term oxide implying generally all those combinations of oxygen which are not sour, such being called acids. More frequently the relative proportions of oxygen in the oxides 20 AFTERMATH. are designated by the first syllable of the Greek ordinal numerals: thus we have protoxides, deu toxides. tritoxides, n of l sauna, or Agamii/tn ; which section is charac oill |i. eral genera, which are numerous In spe- mted over the warmer parts of nil Australia. They have ail the ly, and of producing, but in than in the chamaleon, changes of colour, v. ; the name. A'G vMOl'S. (Gr. ' writers for cryptogamic, bi have in reality no organs analogous to iver, usually limited to such groups ! fungi, because they have in reality nothing ir similar to the sexes of more p - ; while, on the contrary, ferns ami mosses, although is parts of an analogous nature. ii useamong munion, the oblatii i n the temple, liich the rich had brought imed at a common pute whether in the apostolic times this I take place before the communion, in more tiding th" iii- iii churches, . the Council of Laodicea, A. I). 361, and ■ D A'GAPHrTE ' ojsk. i in Somalia.) A tnprenendiug many hundred species, among v eampestris. the comm m, and . which ace d< in my of the ••ni fungi called li tid na- il species, which appi : i inly grow iii decaying an- . among which their stem, or IS commonly called, ramifies. Alter the spawn iroper age, it ce tsea to branch, a parcels 'he fmetifi- . which forces iis way into the light under the form C. The cap is the part where the spores or for reproducing the enerated; they are formed within the plates or gills that lie on tl I nd are little grey round bodies, which, when ected in great quantities upon a sheet or white i exceedingly One dust. : by the underground stems of agarics Which branch from a common centre, ami only r fructification at the AGARIC MINERAL. Avery soft mealy variety of car- i lime AG \'sri;i{, admirable.) A genus of plants found in the temperate parts of America, resembling -■ii appearance, but differ- in.: m having an inferior" .-..per- I is Agave americana, called the American aloe, which ha mi the '•' ■■ literranean, wh opuntia, the palmet eatropfcalair to Em err. It is ma; i for its gigantic pyramid of flowers, and I ed by '''*' effort, that It quickly afterwards p sweet sap flows from its inward stem, and upon fermenta- tion becomes an intoxicating beverage, yielding by dl Uon a powerful ardent spirit. Hemp of considerable ' 21 is manufactured from its leaves. The genus agave is the type of one of the subdivisions of amaryllidaceous plants. AGE. (Fr. age) Means, generally, a definite period or length of time. Age. As applied to man, ago may either mean the whole of his life, or a portion of it. it is usual todi whole period of human life into four parts oragi r • first, or infancy, extending la the fourteenth next, or youth, from the fourteenth to about the twenty- fifth ; manhood, from the twenty-fifth to ts I the last, or old age, filling up tl Ovid ingeniously compares these four ages to the ferent seasons of the year.— (Metamorph. xv. \ These divisions are, however, in s great degree arbitrary ; and very frequently they have been extended to six, the first being divided Into infancy and childhood, an into old age an. I age Sometimes, life of man is supposed to be divide,! into i leading characteristics of which have been most admirably depicted by shakspeart • — " tils a»U bsing seren aset. At flrtt, the iufant, Mewling and AixW- n h|> Michel, And (hilling moel : aiely to Khool : Anil llien the lover ; like furnace, will) a woeful ballad i rebrow : then a soldier, led like the paid, q nek- in quarrel, ■mil then, the Justice, - lie, wilh capon ■I heard uf formal cut, Pull of wise gawn nitd n. And io he play, hit part : The lixth age ahifta Into the «-.tii and llipper d pantaloon ; v\ uii tpactat »ide ; .<• well tav'd, a world too wide Iblng." For a scientific discussion of this subject, see Mortality. which Individi qualified to undertake certain duties and offices. By" the common law of England, a man at fourteen is a: tl i, in I may then appoint guardians, an wiih ih'-ir consent: at twenty-one he is of full any civil privilege in which he may otherwise' be entitled, lliat is. ho i, be appointed a judge, alien dec. Hut no person can be admitted in England lo i orders til! he be twenty-three till he be twenty-four". At I a woman may marry, provided she have the consent of her p guardians ; and at twenty-one she \t her own misti may dispose of herself and her estates. Infants under seven years are hei.i by the law of England to be Incapable of committing felon is above ml under fourteen, commit felon ma facte entitled to an acquittal; bill If I court and the jury thai the accused wa clearly understood the nature of Ihe crime he ley may pn ed on the principle Ih . in point of (act, has been n me, to the extremes) penalty of the I 111 this respect as if they had arrived at full age. — {Btackstone, cap. 8,) At Rome, the coneuUjr a^r-. or the age at which became capable of holding the consular dignity, wi at forty-three, though in extraordinary cast s this I U be set aside. In France, at ibis moment, a man is not al- lowed to exercise the elective franchise till he be live years of age | nor be elected a deputy till he be thirty. In some of the America : to retire when they have attained to a certain age, which times so early as sixty. Aoe. In Mythology, age means one or other of the foul" ages as described by the ancient poets. The first en age, aurea cttas, when there was an eternal B] - when the earth spontaneously poured forth her I and man " vindire nullo, Spoate sua tine lege f.dein reciutnqueoi B Itum on earth. Thi ntoa tBtas, was marked by lion and cultivation of lands. The third, or brazen age, aenea (Btas, is described as lit, et nd horrid*, promptiur anna ; Nee sceJeruta tamen." And then came the last, or iron {<■!<■. ferrea cDtas, fu sorts of hardships and Wickedness," which stiU continues. (Ovidii Metamorph., i. tin. 89., &c.) AGENDA. Acs. In Literature, age is a period distinguished by great improvements and eminence in arts and sciences, usually bearing the name of some powerful sovereign, or other prominent person, who flourished during that period. Of these ages, the most memorable are the age of Peri- Augustan age, the ago of Leo X., of Louis XIV., .. Aob. In Chronology and History, age is sometimes used 13 mous witli a century, and sometimes also with a on. Writers differ in respect to the period bidd- er whal is called the middle ages; but they are commonly understood to begin with the reign of Constan- liiic, and to extend to the fifteenth or the early part of the century. The a?ra of the invention of printing, 1450 — 1455, might, we think, be advantageously adopted as the termination of the middle ages. AGE'NDA. (Lat. things- to be clone.) Small books are now published under this title, in which individuals may set. down, under their proper heads, the things to be daily attended to. Agenda. In Divinity, articles of moral practice, in op- position to crcderula, articles of faith. Also, the ritual of a church, and the books containing it. A'GENT. In Law, is a person authorised to «lo some act or acts in the name of another, who is called his princi- pal. An agent may, in genera!, be appointed by bare words, or his appointment will be inferred from circum- stances ; but, lor some purposes specified by the statute of frauds, Ids appointment must be in writing. The agent of a corporation must, in general, be appointed by deed. If [aged to perform certain duties for a consi- deration, the pcrlormance may be enforced in law. But against an unremunerated agent, the principal can only re- cover damages for misconduct in the performance, and cannot compel him to proceed. With respect to the deal- ings of third parties with an agent, some general rules of that the extent of an agent's authority is, as be- tween ins principal and third parties, to be measured by the extent of his usual employment; that the representa- tion of an agent about the subject-matter of a contract 1 itiating for his principal, will, if made du- uegotiation, bind the latter; that pay - an agent, in the course of his employment, is pay- ment to the principal : that the principal is, under many . responsible in civil actions for the negli- gence or fraud of his agent, but not criminally liable for his acts, unless done under an express command. In Diplomacy, a general name, comprising se- iks— as, 1. Ambassadors. 2. Envoys extraordi- nary and ministers plenipotentiary. 3. Ministers resident. 5. Secretaries of legation, &c. In U lire, however, the highest officer em- power at the court of another, is usually [1 nl of that power at the court in question. {See Diplomacy.) A'GGREGATE ANIMALS. This term is applied to nals which are collected together in a common g organised substance containing numerous com- partments, from each of which a distinct occupant sends forth a circle of organs to collect food, which, alter assimi- lation, is carried by a common and continuous system of 1] -the support and enlargement of the common Examples of animals so associated or aggregated he class polypi, where they form most of the or- ders; also in the class acalepha?, forming the polytoma ; and in acephalous moltusca, forming the genera botryllus, polyclinum. AGI'I.IA. (Lat. agilis, susift.) A family of rodents in ■■■. of llliger, including the squirrels and dormice. A'GiO. A mercantile term, denoting the percentage difference existing' between the values of the current and Stand ar 1 moneys of any place. Also, the rate of premium Which is given, when a person having a claim which can inly be legallv demanded in one metal, chooses to be paid r. Thus, in countries where silver is the only lard, a large payment in silver is so inconvenient, thai the receiver will ofteta pay a small premium for the convenience of receiving gold : this premium constitutes gokl. A'GIOTAGE. A term employed to designate thesortof res by which speculators in the public funds con- riisseminating false rumours, or otherwise, to lower or enhance their price. It is sometimes also, though less commonly, applied to the machinations of those who ir, by similar artifices, to raise or depress the immodtties. 1TMENT. In Law. From the old French word, ; a licence granted for cattle, viz. to I, or, in legal phrase, levant, and couchant, on A contract by which A.'s cattle are taken into I, to remain there at a stipulated sum, paid peri- Asistment is also used for the profits of such The ''Tithe of Agistment," orof cattle and other • f grass lands, demanded by the Irish clergy, was 22 AGREEMENT. resisted in 1720, by the landlords, and in effect abolisneu by a resolution of the Irish house of commons ( 1 . the act of union, this resolution was passed into law; and thus the tithes of Ireland have, in effect, been thrown on the poorest part of the agricultural population, the owners and cultivators of arable land. (See Ed. Rev., vol. xxxiv. : Wakefield's Ireland, vol. ii.) A'GNATE. (Lat. agnatus.) In Roman Law, agnatu are those who descend through males from a common an- cestor ; in opposition to cognutes, i. e. all the descendant! of a common ancestor, whether through males or females. Thus, in France, the hereditary crown passes by right of agnation, females being excluded. AGNO'MEN. Besides the pramomen,nomen,and cog nomen, the Romans sometimes had a fourth nam men), which was derived from some illustrious action or remarkable event. Thus, two Scipios had the name Alri canus given them on account of their victories over the Carthaginians in Africa. The youngerof these celebrated generals had a second agnomen, viz. iEmilianus, because he was the son of L. Paulus JEmilius, and adopted into the family of the Scipios. A'GNON. A name applied by Fabricius to a genus ot dragon-flies, having the wings erect when at rest, the eyes distinct, and the outer divisions of the lip bifid. AGNO'STUS. (Gr. ayviraros, unknown.) A name de vised to express the obscure nature of a genus of trilobites (fossil crustaceans), to which it is attached ; the genus is characterised by the semicircular or reniform shape of the body, which in all other trilobites is ovate or elliptical. A'GNUS DEI. (Lat. Lamb of God.) 1. A pray er of the Roman Catholic church, which begins with the words, "Agnus Dei qui tollis peccata mundi." 2. An image of wax, impressed with the figure of the Lamb, consecrated by the pope, and distributed to the faithful. AGO'MPHIANS, AGOMPHIA. (Gr. a, without, and yojicpios, a tooth.) A term applied by Ehrenberg to those rotifers of which the jaws are deprived of teeth. A'GONY. (Gr. dyovia, contest.) In Divinity, the Buf- fering of our Saviour In the garden on the night preceding his crucifixion. Luke, nil 24. A'GoRA. The market- lc of 1 (. '. towi was generally used also as the place where die assemblies of the people met. It answers to the Latin term forum. From the verb aytipuv, to collect, or assemble. Fri is derived AGORA'NOMUS. The title of an Athenian magistrate, forming one of a body of ten, or, as some say, fifteen, per- sons, whose duty it was to superintend the markets, and collect the customs imposed on certain articles. AGOU'TI. The Indian name of some South American herbivorous rodent quadrupeds, nowincluded in the genus Dasvproeta. AGKA'RIAN LAWS. (Lat. ager, field.) Under this term are comprehended the enactments which \\ ried or attempted to be carried at Rome by the p] and their partisans, in opposition to the patricians, touching the distribution made of the public lands accruing to the state by conquest. These were leased out to the patricians by the state at. a moderate or nominal rent, while the ple- beians gained nothing by them. The object of the agrarian laws, which did not interfere, with private freehold proper- ty, was to obtain for the plebeians a share in these lands, to restrict the quantity occupied by individuals, and to cause a real rent to be paid from them for the support of the arm v. The most celebrated movers of these laws were, Sp. Cas- sius, Licinius, and the two Gracchi, whose reputation has suffered with posterity, from being intrusted to the hands of writers who favoured the party whose unjust encroach- ments were sought to be moderated by these laws. For a more impartial investigation of them than can be found In ancient writers, (for Cicero, from his aristocratic partisan- ship, has much misrepresented the objects of these re- formers, and the character of the laws they sought to in- troduce,) see Niebuhr's Roman History. In consequence of the misrepresentations here alluded to, an "Agrarian law" now generally serves to denote a law for tie tion of individuals, by reducing landed properly in private hands to a fixed amount. The law of partihilii . estates, as it obtained in the Roman jurisprudence, and still more in countries where it cannot be controlled by testa- mentary disposition, has, in some measure, the 1 an Agrarian law, although free from its injustice. AGREE'MENT. (Fr. agrement, agretabletiess.) In the Fine Arts, a certain degree of resemblance between the parts, in style and character, so that they may seem to be long to each other. Agreement. In Law, that which is consented to by two or more parties. Agreements are divided into executed and executory. Ity the statute of frauds, 29 Car. 2. c. 3, no action can be brought to charge a defendant on any agreement upon consideration of marriage, or on any contract or sale of lands, &c, or any interest therein, ot any agreement not to be performed within one year, unteM AGRICULTURE. "•iit or some memorandum or note of it be in i'itb, or ;uto lawfully authorised. !i of Ml equity will in mlract which awarded dam princi- . 10 ClltS rule is, win : • ! such ■ is breach can be or was intended to be com- ■ IRICULTURE. (I.at. ager, a JfaULsod com, //tfi.) I oi cultivating I ■ I to horticulture, which is ig land in gardens, or in small quantities: the art of cultivating land nd horticulture that of cultivating it with l1 meaning of the word ugricul- of cultivating tit-Ids ; hut whole mcr, which comprehends in addition to rement of live term, the word agricultun |uenlly ■ II oi territorial tin- is made to comprehend embanking, . draining, planting, and sometimes even hor- ted by abject i the term auriculture in its gene- and in other countries where the . including thi ic ani- •!■■ ; and we .incise I practice. ive been co- in the primeval state of -ted of i movement from one point to ■ rage and m- .. fixed i private property. At this ii allure may be said imenced. Previously, the natural produ ly consumed whet lound; ■, sought in Increase them by culture. Uture. — The culture of (he land will be found ry country, principally on .nd its civilisation ; though partly, also, on its In the warm, r climates, nature produces fruits in I bundancefor h of men and animals, and where v.-ry little care is required to proco icutture y unne- iry lor i he prosperity of the inhabitants. In el of a dire - 1 ly opposite c made am ill" natural obstacles opposed . tor example, as Greenland and i. only oio' or two kinds of corn C cultivated, and perennial ■ iy exist: be- Hind is covered with snow lor eight months in the year: and in these countries agriculture is hut little praetl ief resources of the inhabl are found In the sea and the forest In intermedia ith of Britain, the m the north of Italy, the s.,ii may i,.- laboured by .out the whole year; and there i limit to the kind of crops that maj nit. In .such climates, agriculture is calculated to attain the bight |r f perfection; nod comparing i lie diObreut parts of cription of climate in both hemispheres, peri, i ed, that tint best agriculture in the world is to be found in Britain and in the north of Italy: viz. in East Lothian and Norfolk, in the vale of Arno. and oath i Po The kind of agriculture pn In different countries is also of coarse adapted to the dif- ference of climate. Thu e north, the great art ofth i supplying heat; or, rather loptfalg such m lard plants and anirn told, rains, and tin- ..f tin' .nth. on the other hand, the artof hiefly directed to moderating ex- trem It thus appears that the agriculture of any country necessarily depends on its In high and low latitudes, win-re there ■ witi.. tore difficult and hazardous sin-- | rla, where the tin i o have red as ittained its highest degr I perfi in tracing the progress of this tut in civilised countries we have only to follow the chronology of general history. Greeks and Romans Appear to have arrived at ■■• e of perfection in legislate n as the moderns, r to htive attained nearly equal excellence in ;lu- practice of agriculture. Till within the present centu- ry, very little difference existed between the most approved lure •- Mai Km Kuttii ..-." complete thick volume, Bvo. ; and tl ding work in Britain is Loudon's re ■ ' principle* »J arc derived fri ledge of the nature of plants ami of animals, of noil* and manures; and of the Climate, the Iber. Plants aie organised beings, which take up their fts d. by means of roots, from the interior of tin- soil; animals are id beings which -elect their food from veget lees glowing on the surface of the toil, or from Other animals, and this food is prepared before b< d Into the sys- tem, bv means of a stomach. The climate ol a ci untry de- termlaes both the plants and Ihe animals which can be pro- duced In it and the ther, the time when inU and anim i i Hcnlar .ur or torpidity ; and when certain operations of culture can be performed on them, or on the soiL The nature of these elementary materials being under- stood, even though imperfectly, certain improvemenU can be effected in them bv art, which are greatly conducive to the increase of agricultural produce. The kinds ol plants and animals suitable to anv given climate, soil, or season, termlned by the laws of nature ; bat trom among these kinds it is in th" power of man lo make a s. -lection ; and the plants and animals so selected, lo originate others adapted to his purposes in a superior degree. Hence the Importance of selecting certain breeds of animals rather than others: and of making choice, not merely ol one kind of bread corn rather than another, but of particular varieties it corn. Thus, in the case of wheat, tbi kinds the strains of which, under no circumstances, weigh than from 60 to 66 pounds a bushel, while there are .which never weigh less than 60 pounds a bushel. The nourishment of plants has been lound to depend r luefly tnised matters contained in the soil, and pro, ay of other plants. This is a law of na- ture, Which, followed up by man, has led to tin- Use Ol ma mires ; as the fact, every where observed, that DO plant can AGRICULTURE ve without water, lias led to irrigation ; and, as the obser- vation that the excess of water is injurious, has led to sur- face anil under-draining. The in/luence of temperature and shelter over the growth of plants, and die thriving of animals, is every when' Observable in wild nature ; and though die temperature of a climate cannot be changed, yet that of most localities may be improved by shelter from cold winds, and by diminishing the evaporation from the surface, by means of surface and under-draining, to draw off the superfluous water. The most important prin- ciples in the theory of agriculture are those which relate to the improvement of plants and animals, and of the soil. The improvement of the soil may be comprised under two heads — the improvement of its earthy part, and the in- crease of the organized matter added to the earths. The improvement of the soil, considered as a mixture of differ- ent earths, consists in rendering it more or less retentive of water, by diminishing or increasing the size of the parti- cles of which it is composed : for example, by the addition of cay in some cases, and sand in others ; and by improv- ing the earthy composition of the soil by the addition of such earths as may be in too small quantities, or wanting altogether, it has been found, from experience, that those soils which are composed of several primitive earths are naturally more productive than such as consist of only >ne earth, all other circumstances being the same; and it has also hern found that no soil will maintain its fertility for any length of time that does not. contain a certain por- lion of calcareous earth in its composition. Hence one of common means of improving all soils not calca- reous is. by the addition of lime; and of all other soils, by mixing them with such as are of an opposite description. All soils whatever are rendered more productive by the addition of organised matter, or what are called manures. Manures may either be composed of animal or of vegeta- ble matter: and these may either he applied 81 or together, and in a fresh state, or in a state of decay. It has been found from experience, and explained by che- mical experiments, that every description of manure is rendered more effective by being made to undergo putre- factive fermentation before it is applied ; and this process is carried on with solid manure in heaps or dung-lulls, and with liquid manure in tanks or wells. In the application of manure to soils, the great object of the cultivator is to apply enough for t lie ensuing crop, and as little more as possible; because all that is applied and not immediately Used, is liable, to a certain extent, to have its particles car- ried off by evaporation into the atmosphere, or by rains into rivers or the sea. But, even if this were not the case, to apply manure to a soil where it would not be immediate- ly turned into a crop, would be an expenditure of capital without interest The operation of freeing a soil from superfluous water .s of equal or perhaps more importance than supplying it with manure ; because, though without manure plants will not grow with great luxuriance and vigour, yet with too much water they will not grow at all. or will become sickly. Tl scess of water may proceed from three causes : an extremely moist climate, the only alleviation to which isar- ranging the surface with frequent furrows, and short slopes between them, so as to carry off the rain as soon as it falls; a soil very retentive of moisture, so as to hold it like a sponge, in which frequent under-drains, as near together as tlie surface furrows, are required, and, lastly, a soil lying over a subsoil which abounds in springs, or,'in other words, which has the substrata charged with water, which is continually oozing out through the surface soil. The remedy for this last evil is by undcr-drains of considera- ble depth, so directed as to collect the water from the sub- strata, and carry it off before allowing it to reach the sur- face soil. A soil, after being drained and rendered of a proper tex- ture and composition by the admixture of such earthy in- •gredients as may be wanting, requires, to render it fit for being penetrated by the roots of plants, to be frequently stirred and comminuted. This is done by the mechanical operations of ploughing, harrowing, &C. ; which, aided by the alternate action of droughts and rains, frosts and thaws, and summer and winter, have the effect of pulverizing the soil. To maintain a soil in a fertile slate, it is not only tie- cessary to supply it with manure in proportion to the crops Which have been carried from it, but to vary the crops which it is made to produce, it has been found from ex- perience, that crops of plants belonging to the same natural family do not succeed so well after each other, as when crops of a different family are made to inter- vene. Tllds, the several grasses alternate better with root or herbage crops than with one another; or, one of those grasses of which the seed is ripened will alter- nate bolter with another in which the herbage only con- stitutes the crop, than with one of the same kind as itself. Something analogous lo the succession of crops takes place also with regard lo the pasturage of animals, 1 •t is found advantageous to put cattle in a field that has 34 been grazed by horses, rather than to put horses after 1 orses, and cattle after cattle. Thus, the principles of agriculture may be comprised Under the selection of breeds of plants and animals: the improvement of the soil and subsoil ; the culture or move- ment of the soil ; the. improvement of the local climate by shelter and drying; and the succession of crops. All these principles have been derived from experience: and they are only in part accounted for by chemistry or natural philosophy. They are not, however, on that account, the less true and useful. It is singular that they shi ul I all have been known to the Romans, and, to all appearance, as fully so as they are to modern cultivators. (See Johnston a Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, 13-12. ) The practice of Agriculture in Britain may lie included under the heads ol the choice, hiring, and slocking of a farm; and its general culture and management. In tne choice of a farm in any given country, the object of greatest importance is the nature of the soil ; because, though this may be improved by art and expense to such a degree as almost to render a bad soil equal to a good one, yel in prac- tice this would be so expensive as by no means to answer the purpose of the farmer. It may be thought that the vi- cinity of good roads, of a canal, a river, or a market-town, are objects of more importance than the nature of the soil ; but this is not the case, because, supposing the mails to be bad, and the market at a distance, it is only nee change the system of cultivation and management, and to turn the produce of the farm into some description of live stock which may be driven to any distance, even over a country without roads. If it be alleged that the nature ol the climate is of paramount importance to the soil in the choice of a farm, we allow that in an extended sense it is ; for ex- ample, if a cultivator had the choice of any part of Europe, there are douhtless many districts where the climate is fax more favourable for all the operationsand product culture than others; and even if he had the choice of every part of Britain, he might find some localities much more fa- vourable than others. In general, however, the actual choice of any cultivator lies within a given locality, where the cli- mate, in a practical point of view, is every where 1 1 Next to soil and climate in the choice of a farm, the state of the buildings and fences on it, the stale of the mails. and the distance from a market-town, a canal, t port, are of importance. Without buildings of a sufficient extent, properly situated, and of the proper kinds, the bu- siness of a farm cannot be carried on ; and though some farms, and some kinds of farming, may be conducted without fences, yet, in general, fence roads. The last circumstance which we shall mention in this cursory glance is, the nature of the tenure by which the farm is to be held, and the covenants and conditions of the lease. No cultivator, who calculates on the employ- ment of a considerable capital, will risk it on the lands of another without some security for having it return this security is a lease for a fixed number of years. On the other hand, no proprietor of lands will deli possession of them to another for a fixed number of years, without a valuable consideration; and tin. himself in the lease, under the denomination of rent. As lands in a state of cultivation, and buildings and fences in a state of repair, are liable to bo injured and deti in value by bad management or neglect, the proprietor guards against these accidents by certain conditions in the lease. The kind of culture and management adopted in any farm depends jointly on the soil and climate; and on the kind of produce most in demand, or reckoned i fitable. In the mountainous districts of Great Britain. where the climate is cold, almost Ihe only kind of firm- ing practised is that of breeding and rearing different kinds of live stock; such as sheep or cattle, which are sold for being fattened in more favourable districts: or h order to supply the demand for these animals for the pur- pose of draught, or the saddle. The mountainous districts of Scotland and Wales are chiefly devoted to the breeding and rearing of sheep and black cattle; which are sold to the farmers of the low country in both kingdoms, in order to be fattened for the shambles. The hilly districts of Yorkshire and Lancashire are chiefly employed in the breeding and rearing of horses. In the loj» country of the east coast of Great Britain, the climate being dry, is favour- able for the culture of com : while on tic- west coast, and in Ireland generally, the climate being moist, is more fa- vourable for pasture. The farm products most universally in demand are, corn and butcher's meat: ami t, be produced on every farm the fields of which admit of being kept alternately in tillage and in grass, 'ihe butch- er's meat may, however, be produced in much greater abundance, on such sods as admit of the culture and herbage crops, such as turnips, potatoes. ,-],e while corn may be produce,] most abundantly in gtronf loamy soils, within reach of extensive sources of manure. The most pn Stable description of crop will frequently be AGRICULTURE. to be different from lliat which is most generally in rid : for example, In the neighbourhood of a large ilture of culinary vegei iblea, on a li • •.I farm gardens, is generally far more profit- m or butcher's moat, riven the . in such situations, is round to profit than common farming. Th ere are also which may be occasionally cultivated i extraordinary profits; each as plants used in manufacture not common; plants of new and improved variety of the kinds in general rm beiii'i fixed on, all preliminary matters settled, II be to : i of cultivation that he means to i i ved, he will be guided by capable of producing, ami what be can One of the first points thai he will determine his, will be the quantity of land that lie can have 1111- riicular kind of crop that he intends to prow ; e order in which these crop* are to succeed one . . p. tint, lodeed, in the whole system of farm . is .if more importance than the succession, • is usually i ■ prin- ■ iii which the i led haa been ly hinted at; and in lure treating II practically, it that all agricultural crops what- i three kinds— exhausting crops, i . : 1 iir crops; and ihat the perfec- iving an exhausting og or cleaning crop; or. what is h combined. All crops which are allowed to or which are carried whollv off the red exhausting, though In different de> cultj. corn; but clover, lares, or even hay cut rtl in a much less degree. where the produce i-^ suffered to ground, or is consumed on it : as In the case Ing crops are ■Town in drills, sufficiently wide to admit of us of cleaning between. Some fi tutting, as where in drills; while others are cleaning and resto- clover and lucerne, the pi. mis an it. Other principles which enter into i in fixing on a rotation of crops are, that allied should ii"t succei d us the soil of one ar kind of nutriment, or by depositing in it one in- line kind of thoul Intermission on the same soil soon become sickly. Thus three or four crops of any kind of i will not only unfit the soil for that v or species of corn, but in a great measure for every other. firmer having determined on the crops which he is to crow, and the order of their succession, his next busi- Irulate the quantity of stocking which will be required for his farm. My stocking is to be understood the niitiiher of horse-, cattle, and other live slock, and the kind and number of machine*, Implements, and tools, thai will tie required. In addition to these, he must take into calculation the number of male ami female servants which it wiii ■. for him to keep, either permanently by lonally by the week. Lastly, he will have to take into consideration the sum of money he will require to lav out for servants' wages, house. it, and all other expenses, before he receives from Ins farm prodi :i tool is the anion for what is called stocking a farm ; and it amounts, in different parts of the country, to from Si. to 107. per acre. Poor soil under pasture requires the smallest sum pei' acre : and rich soil under tillage the largest sum. farm being entered on, and mi culture nture business daring the lease is one uniform routine of preparing, sowing, reaping, threshing, and marketing ; including, where the breeding or fattening of live slock enters iuio the system, their purchase, fatten- ning, breeding, and sale. icnliure of Britain, and especially of the low Scotland, excels that of most other countries having similar climates, from the superior skill, intelli- . and capital of the farmer; the considerable length ot |e granted by the landlord ; the superiority otthi rid implements employed; and the im- i eeds of animals and plants which are reared or Perhaps the nearest approach to perfection in the ciil.ure of arable land in any part of Britain, Is made in mrts of East Lothian; where, in consequence of iff, substituting under-drains for furrows, re- gularly supplying manure, and alternating, cleaningand re- storing crops with exhausting crops, as great an amount of 25 AIR. produce is obtained as can stand on the surface at one time. The agriculture of Britain is most defective in th6 southern districts of the island; in consequence of the farmers being the very opposite of those in the northern districts, the want or the shortness of leases, and the re- strictive clauses in those leases, by which the tenant is prevented from exercising his own Judgment, and is Obliged to follow in the routine prescribed in the leasesof a former age. (See London's Lncyclo. of Agriculture; Ste Book of the Farm; Low's Practical Agriculture; Library of Useful Knowledge, Farmer's Bei A'GRIMONY. A wild plant with sawed pinnated leaves, ig spike of yellow flowers, followed by bur-tike fruit. It has hail the reputation of keepfn from those ladies who persevere in tin' use of it in decoc- tion. At least, it has the merit of being harmless, and from its slightly tonic qualities it would probably form a good kind of diet drink. AORlO'NIIMv (Or. aypm, a field.) The name of a family of near eels, Including the various kinds of dragon-flies {Libe&ula, Linn. ; tee thai word). The blue dragon-fly (Agrionpuelta) frequents ihe rushy ditches, and is one of the commonest of the Briti - i of this family. AGRO'NOMY. (Or. aypo;, a field, and voftof, a rule.) Theart of cultivating the ground : - id, parti Ihe French, as svmiiivmoiis with agl iculture. AOKOSTn'l.ooV. (Or ' dypwartf. a grass, and \oyo{. a epttchor uniting.) That part of botany which compre- the L'rasses. AGR1 l'M\. (Gr. dypvtrvos, sleepless.) Watchfulness \ ■ Mi:. An intermittent fever, which comes on at cer- tain intervals, leaving thi the Intermedl ods in apparent health. The febrili often re- markably regular, whence the division of agues into quoti- dians, Which are dally attacks ; tertians, w Inch appi third day, having an intermission of forty-eight hours; and quartans, the intermission of whten la sbottl two hours The pen.nl during which the lever continues is called Ihe paroxysm or pyrexia! period ; and the inter- mission, the apyrexial period. The febrile sis's of three stages, which follow each other in regular u : namely, Ihe cold, the hot. and the sweating nut;; the latter, the febrile symptoms abate and disapn AGUE CAKE. An enlargement of the fiver oroffhi spleen produced by Ihe AOY'RATE. (Gr. ii. without, and yvpof, a circle.) A n to osmundaceous plants by Bwartz, in conse quence of their bavins no true elistir annulus. A'HRIMAN, or ARIMANIUS v.) One of the ch;- Their philoso- &!v held by the I •■ were two prlncipl and one of evil. To the latter they gave llm name of Ahriman, and ascribed to his agency afi the evila existing in the world. The two principles were not. however, sup- be co-eternal or alike powerful, at ieasJ BUCO was not the orthodox belief; hot it was suppose! that in the end, the principle of good, Oromasdce, would finally prevail over and utterly destroy the principle of evil. (Boyle, arte. Ahiman, Manichb'kns, and Zoroastkr.) AI. A word which is a pretty close imitation of the plaintive cry of Ihe (hrce-toed sloth {Acbeus tridactylut, !•'. t'uv.), of which it is the trivial name. (See Bradvpod*.) All). A pecuniary tribute paid by feudal vassals to their lords In certain cases of emergency. (See Feudal Srs- TKM.) AIDE DE-CAMP. An officer appointed to attend a ge- neral officer in the field, in winter-quarters, ami in garri- son, to receive and carry orders. A field -marshal is enti- tled to four, a liii ral to two, and a major-gene- The kim: appoints as many as lie pleases, anil this situ he rank of coionel. AIGRETTE, in Botany. See Pappus. AIR, Atmogpherlc. (Or. drip, air.) The air which sur- rounds our "lobe to a height of about forty miles, and which '1 to all living beings, was one of tie' elements of the ancient phllo • veral of its me- chanical properties were discovered by Galileo and Torn- celli about the middle of the seventeenth century ; but its composition was not accurately determined till more than a century afterwards. The air is transparent, colourless, Inodorous, and taste- ntial to the respiration of animals nnd vegetables, and to the support of combustion. It is 816 time than its bulk of water; lOOQ cubic inches, at mean tem- perature, and pressure, weighing about 305 grains. The air is a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen gases, with a small portion of carbonic acid ,ias and of the vapour of wa- ter : in particular situations, other substances exist in it ; as, over marshes, miasmata; over sulphureous springs, sulphuretted hydrogen; over and near tre sea, In. dry AIR. weather, muriatic acid, either free or combined ; and a sub- stance, probably of organic origin, which, aided by light, reddens solution of silver; peculiar organic combinations, sometimes infectious, where people, especially the sick, are confined ; sulphurous acid and ammonia, in London and other places where large quantities of coal are burned ; and traces of nitric acid during severe thunder-storms. The leading constituents of the air are nitrogen and oxy- gen, which are to each other in the relative bulks of about 79 and 21, or SO and 20 ; atid these proportions are probably not liable to any appreciable change, either dependent on season, wind, weather, situation, or height from the sur- face. Berthollet found 21 per cent, of oxygen in Cairo and in Paris: Baussure, the same in Geneva; De Martyr, in Catalonia, and in all winds, weather, seasons, and states of the barometer ; in wet and dry, and in inhabited and unin- habited places ; Davy, in Bristol and other places in Eng- land and upon the coast ; also in air brought from the coast of Guinea ; Brande, in air from Behring's Straits and from Otaheite : Berger, in the Jura, and in the mountains and valleys of Savoy : Configliachi, on the Simplon and Mont Cenis (208 of oxygen over rice-fields); Gay-Lussac and Humboldt, in Paris, and in all seasons and weathers, and at 6,636 metres above the surface, from 209 to 21-$. ; Dalton, in England, from 207 to 208. : Selden, 21. : on the 8th of January, 1835, the barometer being 309 inches and a north-east wind, 21 15. In crowded and confined places, the relative proportion of oxygen may be a little below the pro- per standard, but is soon again restored. Air collected at •he back of the upper gallery in Covent Garden Theatre, on a full night, gave 20 oxygen, and rendered lime-water more than usually turbid. The relative proportion of carbonic acid is more varia- ble ; yet this gas is found in air from the most elevated re- gions and purest sources. Saussure and Beauvais found it on the top of Mont Blanc, and in the same proportion in the streets of Paris, and at 650 toises above the city. At sea, carbonic acid has sometimes not been discoverable. Saussure found it vary with the seasons, and no doubt ve- getation may affect it. In August, over a meadow, the air contained 0000.713, in January, 0000,425. Dalton esti- portion ol carbonic acid a' 1 in 1000; t aflgliachi, t 1 --; :iia.ximum at 8, and Humboldt at from 5 to 18 : Lhift is probably in excess. Tbr, aqueous vapour is the most variable constituent of the atmosphere. It is more abundant with a south and west wind in summer and in warm weather, than with a north and east wind in winter and cold weather. In the climate of Britain it usually fluctuates between 1 and 15 per cent. Dr. Prout, in his Bridgewater Treatise (p. 350), has sug- gested the possibility of the occasional existence of ex- tremely minute portions of foreign and poisonous matters in the air during the prevalence of epidemic disorders; and, in reference to this subject, a remarkable observation occurred during the prevalence of the cholera. For more than six weeks previous to the appearance of cholera in London, he had been almost every day engaged in accu rately determining the weight of a given quantity of air un- der precisely the same circumstances of temperature and pressure. On the 9th of February, 1832, the weight of the air suddenly rose above the usual standard, and it con- tinued so for six weeks. Onthe9lh of February, the wind, which had been west, veered round to the east, and the first cases of epidemic cholera made their appearance. Without reference to the occasional presence of foreign matters, the average ordinary constitution of the atmos- phere may be stated as follows : — By measure. By weight. Nitrogen .... 7750 75-55 Oxygen - ■ - - 2100 23 32 Aqueous vapour • • 1-42 1-03 Carbonic acid • - • 03 010 100 00 100 00 Air In Music, signifies the melody, or treble part of a musical composition. The word is also used for a tune, or song itself, that is, for a series of sounds whose movement is regular and graceful. Air. In Painting, the medium in nature through which svery object is viewed, and hence to be transferred to the Imitation on canvass. The effects which it produces are an indispensable part of the knowledge of every artist. It affects the sizes and colour of objects according to their distance. AIR- ULADDER, called also Air bag, sound, swim, &c. An organ situated in the abdomen of "most osseous fishes, which, by altering its dimensions, and the quantity or den- sity of its contents, regulates their relative position to the surface oft.be water, and is supposed to represent the ru- diments! condition of the liinns of the higher vertebrates. A1K-CELLS. Are cavities in the stems and leaves of 26 AIR-PUMP. plants, constructed of cellular tissue, and intended Ic render the part in which they reside buoyant in water. Air-Cells. In birds, are membranous receptacles communicating with the lungs, eight of which, of large size, occupy the interspaces of the thoracic ami abdominal vis- cera; the smaller ones extend around the principal joints of the four extremities, penetrate the substance of the bones, insinuate themselves between the skin and subja- cent muscles, and enter the quills of the feathers, so that the whole body of the bird is permeated by the atmosphere ; whereby its specific gravity is diminished, its respiration extended, its circulation accelerated, and its muscular en- ergies increased, and thus it is finally adapted to wing Us way through aerial space. In the Hying insects the air-ves- sels are more or less dilated into air-cells at different parts of their course, in order to diminish the specific gravity of the general mass of the body. AIR-GUN. An instrument for projecting bullets or other missiles, the movimi power being the elastic force of con- densed air. A strons; vessel of metal is constructed, into which air is forced by means of a condensing syri through a small hole with a valve opening inwards, and the greater the quantity of air thrown into l lie vessel, tho greater will be the effect, the elastic force of air being near- ly in proportion to its condensation. The magazine of con- densed air is then detached from the syringe, and screwed to the breech of the barrel ; and a trigger, adapted to tho stock of the gun in the usual way, is constructed so as to be capable of opening the valve. The bullet is placed neal the breech, and should fit the barrel very exactly, so as to leave no windage. On pulling the trigger the condensed air escapes through the valve, and rustics with violence into the barrel, propelling the bullet before it ; and the in- stant the finger is withdrawn from the trigger the valve is closed by the pressure of the air in the magazine, which remains in a somewhat less condensed slate for the next discharge. Thus the same supply of air in the magazine will serve for several successive discharges, but the force becomes weaker and weaker after each. The air vessel may be of any form, but it is most convc niently disposed of by placing it within the stock ; and this circumstance usually determines its shape and dime] Sometimes, also, a reservoir of bullets is placed in a chan- nel under the barrel; and by a simple mechanism these are successively transferred into the barrel, whereby the gun is quickly loaded after each discharge. The instru- ment thus constructed is called the magazine air-gun. The elastic force of inflamed gunpowder is from 1000 to 2000 times greater than that of common air. H would seem, therefore, that air would require to be condensed upwards of 1000 limes beyond its natural slate, in order to exert the same propulsive force as gunpowder, Now the velocities communicated are as tiie square roots of (he forces; therefore, If the air in the magazine be condensed only ten times, it consequently exerts a force only equal to 1- 100th of that of inflamed gunpowder, ami communicates a velocity of l-10th. There is a circumstance, howi ver, which adds considerably to the effect of the air-gun, name- ly, that as the magazine is large in proportion to Ihe cavity of the barrel, and the valve remains open a sensible por- tion of time, the ball is urged all Ihe way through the barrel with nearly the same force as at the first instant ; whereas in the case of gunpowder, the gas produced by t tie inflam- mation occupies a small space in proportion to Ihe capaci- ty of the barrel, and the force ceases to act before the hall has quitted the barrel. On this account it happens that air condensed only ten times in a magazine ot considerable size, projects a ball with a velocity not greatly inferior to that given by gunpowder. The time and labour necessary foreffecting the condensation of the air prevents the instru- ment from beins: employed as an engine of war; but, as it produces its effect with less noise man the ordinary 6un, it has sometimes been made subservient to the purpose of the assassin. AIR-PLANTS. A name given to planrs of any kina which grow without their roots penetrating ihe earlh. They have been so called, from its being supposed that they derive their nourishment exclusively from the atmo- sphere ; but as they are usually found in places where they are in contact with at least minute quantities of vegetable matter, or even with the juices of the plants upon which they grow, it is probable that their existence is in part main- tained much in the same way as that of other plauls. The most extensive natural order in which air-plants are found is orchidacea?, thousands of species of which literally crowd the forests of some of the damp and hot parts of the world. Next to these range bromeliaceous plants, some of which will live for months suspended freely in th or tied to iron or stone balconies. Various species of ficus, and some Gesneracere, have similar habits. The only real air-plant that grows wild in Great Britain is cuscuta. AIR-PUMP. A pneumatic machine for lemovin air out of a vessel. The principle of this important phi- losophical instrument is very simple, and may be easily .AIR-PUMP. The essential jomprehonded from a brief explanation. part of the machine consists of an exhausting syringe ("), formed of a en at one ion of a small ori- h a valve (6), opening in-, the valve c of the piston is immediate- die exterior atmosphere, so that i:ter the barrel, and a perfect vacuum would t it, were it not that the valve at the bottom of I open by the pressure of the air in the iich rushes into the barrel till its density be- th in the receiver and barrel. When •i drawn to the top of the barrel, (be air which occupied the barrel has been le- nd barrel are now both filled with previously contained in the receiver tclty of the receiver to be six times that of th'i dr which at first occupied ■quenlly reduced to 6-7lhs i I the piston now be returned to its fli | ■ begins to descend, the it no air c.-m enter the receiver. As soon I through one-seventh of lie density of : and as it descends furth( air in I f the barrel is condensed, till it acquires ent to open the valve e in the piston, and continues to do so till the | ■ i to th«* bottom of the barrel. I piston the density of the air in ti. rinr i duced to 6-7ths of its previous den- sitv ; an I it i- evident that each succeeding stroke will . or remove i-7th pert of the re- tly, alter the second stroke, the .ill be reduced to (Wilis of ■ the exterior air; after Die third to 6-7ths of 96-49ths=216-343ds, and so on. Alter twenty one strokes, it will be reduced to about ensity; alter one hundred strokes, to , a degree Of rarefaction ued ; for as soon as the elasticity elver is reduced bo far that it fa ■ it the valves. DO more air can escape Into the tube, anil the exhaustion cannot ther. What has now been said applies to all air-pumps', though nn of construction admits of great variety. The bet- exhausting barrels, and the pistons are worked bv a rack and pinion, bo that when the one _• in the barrel, the other is descending, by which mean-; an uninterrupted discharge of the air is kept up. The receiver is placed on a smooth plate of brass, having a small hole in the mid. lie to receive the end of a communicating with a syringe. Various; contrivan- ces have been employed to continue the exhaustion alter r has been rarefied to that degri e that it does not re- tain sufficient elasticity to lift the valves. In order to deter- mini lo which the rarefaction is carried, aba- lapted to the machine, the upper end of ies wilh the receiver, while the lower end is plunged inlo an open basin of quicksilver. As the ■ air is withdrawn Horn the tube ut t!i ■ml the external air presses up the mer- cury in the tube to a height proportional to the degree of lion. Tins is called a gauge; but the following form is more mploj ed. " A tube six or ejght inches in length, • end and filled with mercury, is inserted in a liquid. The mercury is of course sup- I by the pressure of the atmosphere, and continues ibe. This apparatus is placed beneath a second pe d. Daring the first l, the mercury still remains sup- ion of the contained air bio- com.. sufficient to support the column of mer- fall, and the height at which it itaints above i he level of that iii the basin is the measure ALANTINE. of the tension of the remaining air. This is called the short Barometer Gauge. Otto Guericke, a magistrate of Magdoburgh, was the first who conceived the idea of rarefying the air in a vessel by means of a pump, about the year 1654. The machine which he constructed was of a very rude kind, but it ena- bled him to exhibit experiments which at that time were regarded as astonishing. The air-pump was afterwards greatly improved by Hooke and Boyle; and has attained its present state of perfection through the successive inven- tions of Hauksbee, Smeaton, Culhbertson, and others. AIR-VESSELS. Are minute tubes composed of an ex- ceedingly fine transparent membrane, closed at each end. and furnished internally with a delicate elastic i twisted spirally, whence they are now commonly called spiral vessels. They occur in the medullary sheath, the veins of leaves and of tlowers, in the stamen's, the ovary, and the seed : their office is to convey oxygenated air. Air-vessels. In insects, the atmospheric air is con- veyed through all parts of the body, for (he pnrpoSi respiration, chiefly by means of air-vessels, or trachea. word.) AISLE, or ALA. (Lat. ala, a wing.) Tn Architecture, a term used by the English, more especially, to signify the side subdivisions in a church, usually separated from the nave, or centre division, by pillars or columns ; but among different nations it bears different significations as applied to architecture. Strabo informs us, that among the Bgyp- i of the t. mple were the two walls that hv closed the two sidesof the pronaos, and which were of the same height as the temple itself. The walls, bo observes, from above ground, were a little farther apart than the foundations of the temple, but, as they rose, were built With an inclination towards each other. The right understand- ing, however, of this passage is attended wilh difficulty, ems to have puzzled Pocock no less than ourselves. The Greek al re the colonnades which surrounded the coll of the temple, the monopleros temple i hi' only species which had columns without an in- terior (lo them) wall. The peripteral had one tier of co- lumns round dipteral two. and the psendoor ■ invented, was that in which the ala was single, but occupied the sax dipteral, though one of (he tiers of columns was left out; thus, by metaphor, the columns were called the ale, or wings, of the temple. This term is also applied lo the sides of a building which are gubordin- me principal, and central division, and are vulgarly rings. AITS. Islets, or little islands, commonly planted wilh osiers, and which are then called willow aits. AKK'NII M. See AcUDfrox. A LA MIRE. In Music, the name of one of the notes ii: the modern scale of Gaido. (.vee Mrsic.) A'LA. (Lat. ala, airing.) In Ornithology, the pectoral extremity, the bones ol which support broad folds of skin, ed with feathers, and are modified for flight. The under part of the base of the wing, where it joins the body, tned the axilla ; the joint between the antibracl.ium i pus is termed th* flexure or plica. The wing is said to be armed (slacalcamta) when the carpus bears one or two hornv spurs; to be impennale(alaimpennata) when provided with equal, lax plumes, unfit for flight; to be elongate (ala elongata) when, in (he folded stale, it equals or exceeds in length the body from the base of the bill to the root of the tail ; to be middle-sized (ala mrdiocris) when, In the folded state, the extremity covers the base of the tail ; lo be short (ala brevis) when, in the folded state, the extremity reaches the sides of the coccyx. In Entomology, the wings, or organs of aerial progres- sion, are tegumentsry productions simply, and consist of a • double membrane of a tender and generally transparent consistence, inclosing numerous nervures, or branched lubes of a firmer substance. These organs present considerable differences of form and structure in the different orders of insects, and also varv in number from two to four. A'LABASTER. A white semitransparent variety of gypsum or sulphate of lime. It is a mineral ol common occurrence, and is manufactured into ornamental and occasionally into small statues. The ancients used it for ointment and perfume boxes. Perhaps the term Is de- rived from ti, privative, and \a6ov, a handle, as opposed to ;. with handles. This stone Is not slippery, and ore the derivation la incorrectly referred lo u and \au6avw, as if il were difficult to grasp. ALANGIA'CEJE. (Alangi, the Malabar name of ont cpecies.) A natural order of plants closely akin to myr- tace». It consists of Indian species, with aromatic root* and eatable fruit. Their long strap-shaped petals afford one of Hie principal distinctions between them and my r- tacea:. , , - _ \l. VNTINE. An amylaceous substance extracted from the root of the Angelica archangelica. ALARMISTS. AI.A'KMISTS. In a general point of view, means nil individuals who an particularly prone to take alarm at, and to circulate and exaggerate, any sort of bad news; but the designation it) more peculiarly applied to those who u in a i political Innovations or changes. ALATE, (Lat. a !a. airing. ) When ;uiv solid I by a membranous or leafy expansion. ILAU'UA, (Lat. alauda, a lark.) The name of a Lin ei ine iiiui.'. characterised hy the claw of their hinder me, which Is straight, strong, and longer than the others. The birds of this genus are granivorous, and nidificate on the ground. The field lark, Alauda arvensls, l. , is a well known example : they appertain to theconi- rostral division of the passerine order ol Cuvier. Al.it. (Lat. nlbus, n/ii/r.) A vestment worn by priests jn the Roman Catholic church, which differs from the sur- plice in fitting more (lose to the body, and being lied with a girdle ; ti is also commonly embroidered on the I willi crosses. ALBA'RIUM oris. (Lat) In ancient Roman archi- tecture, a term Imagined by some to have been nothing more than a species of whitewash applied to walls, lull not, as wo ihiuk. correctly, in ihe passage oi the tenth chapter of the fifth book of Vltruvius, where he recommends the use of the albaiium opus, for the ceilings ol baths, he al lows tentorium opus as a substitute, so thai ii was clearly a i of stucco. Its employment at the baths of Agrippa. knowing, as we do, the extent to which luxury was earned in the iiaihs of the ancients, seems to prove thai it was a of stucco, and n is by no means improbable thai it was MISCeptible of taking a polish. A'l.ltATitoss (See Diombdxa.) A/LB1GEN8ES. A seel which arose in the south of France In the latter half of the twelfth century. They have been confounded with the Waldenses, with whom, how- e\n r, they do not appear to have had any real connection. Their tenets have heeii very differently described, and pro- bably misrepresented, hy their opponents; and treat oh. ) is thrown upon the subject, by the fact of the ap- pearance of various dissenters from Ihe church of Koine in England and elsewhere, ahoiit llie same lime, whose re- spective views have not heen very accurately discrimi- nated, it is probable that the reformers of the south of France opposed themselves originally lo Ihe corruptions in discipline, winch began tirst at thai period to draw general attention and animadversion upon Ihe clerical order. Hence a very easy step would lead ihem lo Ihiuk slighting- ly Of many ecclesiastical Ordinances, ami Ihe ceremonial oi religion would seduce them Into the adop- tion ol' mystical notions about an internal linht and assii- . and finally betray them into the wildest extravagan- cies, Thus they are charged with perpetuating theManl- ehean doctrines: bul Bossuet, who accuses them of in- cline- tern on certain points, acquits them of holding what Is, after all. the distinguishing tenet ol the Oriental heresy the monstrous doctrine of the two prin- ciples. The origin "I the name is doubtful. The Latin name hy which Narbonnese Gaul was known in ihe twelfth century, mm, which seems to pul forth a better claim to ihe derivation than ihe town ol aiim in Languedoc. In the 1163, Alexander ill. published a decree again si these m.i i is in a council held at Toms, and a net tier in 1179. On neither occasion, however, did he invoke the ass of I hi' secular arm. At the close of the century, when Ihe seel was still flourishing, .and so mod lo lie more parlicu- larly under the protection of Raymond, count ofThoulouse, tnnoeenl ill. commenced ihe work ol its extirpation, lie appointed two legates to go through ihe country ami excite the seal of the clergy and laity against the innovators; he instituted the Dominican order of friars, purposely to preach them down; ami finally, in 1207, he addressed himself to Philip Augustus, king of Prance, exhorting him to eradicate the heresy Willi the sword. The chief leader of the expe- dition. Which SOOn assumed Ihe character and name of a |6, was Simon de Mont tort, earl ol Leicester, to whom the earldom ol Thoulousewas promised by the pope as a BtimulU8 to his exertions. In the siege of thai City. how- ii' was killed. The Contest, winch was carried on with more or less vigour lor many years, and whicli fur- nishes i In- first evidence of the disposition of the chinch of Koine lo employ ihe extreme of violence against those who .a from its doctrines, ended in the entire destruction ot the fUblgenses, about the middle of the thirteenth centu- ry, i , Sismondi, Hiat.de* Frtmfati, torn, vl.) AI.IM'NISM. A State in which the skin is white, the hair ad Ihe iris pink. (See Ai.hi.no .) ALBI'NO. a term originally applied by ihe Portuguese groes who were born mottled or discoloured with white h i, now generally applied to persons id' a preter- natural Whiteness of the skin and hair, and a peculiar red- ness of the pupil ol' Ihe eye, whicli is so weak as lo he of little use in broad daylight, so that albinos sleep in the day- time, and are only capable of seeing distinctly in the twi- ALCABALA. Ugtal or hy moonlight. The disease appi I upon a deficiency or morbid state of i bi whole bodj . A'LBUM. laterally means any thing white. The term Is now generally applied to b hook in which pe autographs, lit< rary essays, &c. The praetor's album was a white board, on which the edicts of that functionary were Inscribed. ALBUM (.'KyF.cfm. When dogs an- led upon b< they digest the annual portion, and the earth) parts (chiefly phosphate ol lime) are voided in the form ol ■ ineni. This inert matter was formerly used In no under Ihe above title. ALBU'MEN. A peculiar animal matti Into the composition of animal bi | lood, muscles, bones. &c . al o the chief component of white ol egg, to which the term albumen was originally applied, ami which well ami familiarly illustrates iis leading pi culi nami ly, thai at a certain temperature II Into a son while solid, no longer soluble in water. It may i lalned pure by coagulating ihe while of i b! "tad. washing it thoroughly with that fluid, ami then carefully drying il at 120°. if then appears as a yellow, shll transparent and brittle substance, compost Nitrogen - i atom = 1 1 15 05 Oarbon .... 8 =-\- Hydrogen .... 7 =7 Oxygen - • - - 3 =24 l The albumen of birds' eggs coagulates at a temperature ol 14;")° to 166° ; and when dried, shrinks and becomes brittle and semitransparent, In all respects resembling horn. One hundred parts of the albumen ol the hi upon ill drying, about Ml of water, ami lea 1 reel due. Alcohol) most Of the acids, and several metallic salts, also coagulate albumen, and some of the latti very delicate tests of its presence In animal flul late oi lead, for Instance, renders a soliu ion oi one part ol fresh white of egg in 2000 of water turbid, so that ltdi 1 part ol dry albumen in 10,000 of water. ( '.., mate Is also an excellent test of albumen, foi m white insoluble compound ; hence whil proposed as an antidote in cases of pol sublime Albumen, a solid fleshy, bony, or horn) substance, secreted iii some seeds between the embryo and the skin. II is supposed to he intended for llie nutriment of the j oung embryo wh«>n il into life The pan that furnishes the flour ol corn, ihe flesh of th eat mass of the sei d nlsts have remarked thai tins substance is never i riOUS, however poisonous llie plant may he b) win. borne. ALBUMEN OF VEGETABLES. Is a pro) pie. having some of the leading chemfca ei ani- mal albumen. AI.BU'KNFM. (Lat. alburnum, sop-tcood.J The newly formed and sod part of the wood ol exogenous trees, con- sisting of empt) or ueai ly empty lubes and ceils, ihe of which are thin, and not indurated: however dlirabl timber of a plant may be, this pari of il is in all i able, (he vegetable matter of which it ci rig but little power of adhesion, and readily yielding Up its c to the oxygen of the atmosphere, the consequence ol which composition, it is only when the tissue of this part becomes consolidated by the addition of resins, tannin, and various other products, which Change its Colour from a pale yellow to various Other deeper colours. |h;i| limber really becomes valuable. In some species thl rapidly, as In oak, teak, lignum vilte, &c ; in other slowly, or not at all, as in the poplar and willow. C the wood of the latter class of trees no nihility. By some writers the alburnum is defined " wood only one year old;" this is, however, It is through the alburnum principally that the ascending sap of a plant moves; the course of the sap is not, however, confined to the alburnum, but is effected wherever the w ly tube - are sufficiently open for it to p A'l.CA. The name of a i.iiuue. characterised by a short, compret convex beak, edged along the upper sntl i rally transversely furrowed ; feet toti-palmale, and wanting the hinder toe.' Recent ornithologists haw l.in awks or penguins into the nbgenera fratercula .ilea. Al. (WHAT, A. or AI.CAYA'I.V iu Spain and her colonies, consisting originally ol |(1 piently oi 1 1 percent, ad valorem, on sold, and payable as often as it changed handi slrous impost, by preventing the perly, i proved in the highei I (Set idea, Rctaolisstment des Manvf, ignc. ALCALDE. igh officer of justice ; from the Ara- known -e eaturales. n peril i- duet syphilis, r of: otherwise called of Knint . order oi knighthood, inati- The kinji of Spain is aoveri \"/.'/.\ A porous vessel i .rcool- nsequent superficial • h is llie external The kingfisher, ; these nave a< i cives tlie great much practised tot wholly 1 Arabic; « tin and i i the precious metal. d Mi<' last person ' i inni mercury ed himself in d, it was n of his deceptions. The alche- -. are said enee in many ways. To - ascribed the discovery of the concentrated rus. Another object of the adepts, erwith their research after • discovery of the elixir vita;, or sup- hcmy is also denominated Tris- s LI OHOL. A term of Arabic oriain, implying the n illy applied to seven ed in modern ch« r wine. known in the earliest ages. with the r Romans. Al- twelfth century, taught the method of pro- lirit from wine; and Raymond Lully, in the thir- • niury. concentrated spirit of wine by carbonate of imposition of alcohol was first accurately ■ Lavoisier, and its analysis was perfected i is exclusively produced by the process of fer- i : it is obtained in combination with water by distilling fermented liquors, such as wine, beer, wash. Ax. ; the liquor thus obtained (brandy, for instance, if from redistilled, and the spirituous portion, h volatile, first passes over; in this slate it is called ardent or rectified spirit, and often contains acetic acid and a pecu- 29 ALDERMAN. liar flavouring principle, probably of an oily natnre : tr.ese are got rid ol by redistillation with alkaline substances, al, chloride of lime, Ac. i absolute alcohol is obtained by distilling the pu- rest rectified spirit otT dry and warm carbonate of potash, or dry quicklime. The specific gravity of rectified spirit is 820 to 628; thatof alcohol, 792, at the 'ur | Pure alcohol has an agreeable odour, a strong pungent taste, and is eminently intoxicating. It consists of Carbon • • • 2 atoms =12 5218 rogen - - - 3 " = 3 13 04 Oxygen - • - 1 " = 8 34 78 1 23 10000 Alcohol bums with a pale flame, and produces carbonic arid and inter; tl>'' weight of the water thus !■ * !. is as 27 to 23. It produces no smoke or s< a cleanly lemp, firing much heat with little light. Mixed with waier and certain substances, especially gluten, and exposed to air negar. It is the t wine and of fermented and spirit- uous liqu . medicine and in some '-, being the .-• ua resins for varnishes. •I water are mixed, heat la i it is some hours before the two liquid ' the bulk of a pint of ■ ml a pint of waterfalls far short of two | series of tables by Mr. (Jilpin will be found in the Pbiloe. Trans, for 1797, exhibiting much information upon the subject of the specific gravities and composition of various mixtures of alcohol ai it impor- tance, an bearing upon the levying of duties upon spirituous liquors. Alcohol has never been frozen ; hence its use in the eon- Of thermometers lor measuring low tempera- tures. It boils at the temperature of 170°, and is converted into a vapour, the specific gravity of which is to that of air as 16 to 10. AL'COHOl '. In which alcohol appears to A I ( ((RAN, or Al.KOKAN. (Al Koran, or the Book, The sacred hook ol ; which, B in their belief, was dictated to their pi Of 114 chapters; nh-r. but by certaii which ihey are respectively known. Every cl malogoua to the verses of our Scriptures. There are, however, seven principal ancient copies of the Koran ; and in all of theg-2 >r of verses is not the same l I ran la writ- ! or gloating believe the lis regarded among the Mohammeda ■ D :e eternal and uncreated (the Sonnites or ortho- is aerts of het Al.< ') ' ut, Arab., a sleeping i In Architecture, that part of a aleepu . her where the bed is placed. The uae of alcoves, though not by that name, is ancient They were frequently de- signed in the form of a niche ; such, for instance, as those that Winckelman notices at Hadrian's villa at 'I which species some are also to be seen at Pompeii. They a formed by an enclosure or balustrade, some- nies low, through which, by means of draperies, this part waa separated from the large cham- ber, whereof it was a part. A notion of it may be obtained from many of the ancient bassi rilievi, especially from the celebrated one known by the name of the Nozze Aldobran- dine. In modern architecture, this part of a room differs :• to the rank and taste of the proprietor; in Enf* rarely used, but in France and Italy it forms fre- quently a beautiful feature in the apartments of their pal- aces. A'LCYOMI I- A collective term for the fruit-like rm flint fossils common in chalk formations. Al.< VO'MI M. A Linnjnanterm for an aggregate genus of marine polypes, having a fleshy, coriai axis, beset with stellate cells, containing each a polype with eight radiate denticulate arms. The axis is fixed to foreign bodies, and in some species rises in short branches as m that commonly known by tin "•! m's Hand." (Alcyonium digitatum, Linn. ; Lo bularia digitata, Lam.) A'LCVONS. (Gr. dy.KVov, a kingfisher.) The name given by Tetnmfnck to an orderof birdsof which the king fisher (alcedo) is the type. A'LUKK. (Kllarn in Anglo-Saxon.) A native tree be- the natural order Betulacea;. It is chiefly found in damp situations, and is of little value except for hurdle ;md for the manufacture of charcoal. A'LDERMAN. Originally written ealdor-man, meaning elder-man, which was used in the earlier parts of the Pax ALDINE EDITIONS. on period as a name of dignity unconnected with office ; it was also the original title of the officer who was subse- quently styled earl, whence counties were sometimes called alderman-shires. It seems also to have been the designation of the chief magistrate or judicial functionary of minor districts, in which sense it first appears in con- nection with boroughs. Its application is now confined to the class of municipal officers in a borough next in order to the mayor. By 5 & 6 W. 4. c. 76., the aldermen are to be in number one-third of the councillors in every borough (London alone being excepted from the provisions of the act), one part to be elected triennially, on the 9lh of No- vember, Irom among councillors or persons qualified to be such; and to form, with the mayor and councillors, the council of the borough. A'LDINE EDITIONS. In Bibliography, those which proceeded from the press of the farrmy of Aldus Manutius. The first of that name established his press at Venice, not long after the year 1490; and to his industry and zeal we owe several of the first editions of Greek authors, and many other valuable works. The Italic characters used in Roman printing by Aldus and his family, first appear in his Virgil of 1501 ; and from that period a series of works, chiefly classical, both Greek and Latin, proceeded from his press in a duodecimo form : these are the best known and most common Aldine editions. The family press is said to have been broken up in 1597, after producing 90S editions. There are, however, Venetian publications of the beginning of the 17th century which bear the impress of the Aldine family (an anchor and dolphin engraved on the last page). A branch of the Aldine press was for a short period established in Rome. (.See Raynouard, An- nules de V Imprimerie des Aides.) ALE. See Beer. ALEATO'RIUM. (Lat.) In ancient Roman architec- ture, an apartment appropriated to the use of players with dice or aleae. ALECTO'RIDES. (Gr. dX«*ro>p, a cock.) A tribe of rasorial or gallinaceous birds, including the curassow, and the species which, like it, resemble the common fowl in the form of the beak. ALE'MBIC. (From the Arabic particle al, the, and BStbeeq, corrupted from the Greek word d^i6i\, a cup or vessel.) An obsolete form of still. Constructed upon a small scale in glass, it is sometimes used in the laboratory. ALE'MBROTH, or Salt of Wisdom. A term applied by the old chemists to a salt composed of ammonia, muriatic acid, and oxide of mercury. It is poisonous. ALEXA'NDRIAN SCHOOL. An academy for litera- ture and learning of all kinds, instituted at Alexandria by Ptolemy, son of Lagus, and supported by his successors. The grammarians and mathematicians of this school were particularly celebrated. In the former class occur the noted names of Aristarchus, Harpocration, and Aristo- phanes ; and among the latter were numbered the astro- nomer Ptolemy, and geometer Euclid. The grammarians of Alexandria exercised a universal literary jurisdiction, publishing canons of those who were to be considered standard authors, and revised editions of ancient writers. For some account of the famous collection of books at Alexandria, see Library. ALEXA'NDRINE. The French heroic verse of twelve syllables or six Iambic feet. In English poetry it is occa- sionally used: by Dryden, sometimes as a second line in a heroic couplet, more frequently as a third line in a trip- let ; and the Spenserian stanza necessarily concludes with an Alexandrine. The lines of Pope, defining the Alexan- drine by an example, are well known: 11 A needless Alexandrine ends the song, Which, like a wounded snake, dl ags its slow length along." ALEXIPHA'RMIC. (Gr. aX^u), 1 avert, and fappaKov, a poison.) Antidotes to poisons. ALEXITE'RICS. (Gr. oAeJoj, / avert.) Preservatives against contagious and infectious diseases and the effects of poison in general. AfLGM. (Lat. alga, seaweed.) Plants which are desti- tute of all signs of sexual organs, and which vegetate exclu- sively under water. When they grow in salt water they are called sea- weeds, when in fresh water thev are named confervas. They comprehend in the division Zoospermeae some of the lowest known forms of vegetable life, plants consisting of simple cells adhering in different degrees, and emitting at maturity spores or seeds having a distinct animal motion. In the case of Oscillatorias, the whole mass of the plant writhes and twists spontaneously ; and Zysmenas actually copulate. It is in this part of the vegetable kingdom that plants approximate to animals in the most striking degree. An excellent account of the salt-water species is given in Greville's Alga; Britannicae ; the fresh-water kinds may be studied in the third volume of the English Flora. See Harvey's Manual op the British Algie, Svo. 1841. ALGAKO'BA. (Arab, al, the, and garoba, a bean-tree.) A. tree found in the southern parts of Europe, and in Palcs- 30 ALGEBRA. tine, having pods filled with a sweetish nutritions powder: they are supposed to have been the locusts on which St. John fed in the wilderness. It is the ceratonia siliqua of botanists. A'LGAROTH, POWDER OF. The white powder which tails when chloride of antimony is dropped into water : it is a submuriate of antimony, virulently purgative and emetic. A'LGEBRA. An important branch of the math sciences, and may be defined to be the method oi ting indeterminate quantities. It is a sort of universal arithmetic, founded on the same principles as common arithmetic, and proceeding by rules and operations pre- cisely similar. But it is not confined merely to questions relating to numbers, being applied generally to investigate the relations that subsist among quantities of all kinds, whether arithmetical or geometrical. The reasoning is carried on by general symbols; and it is to the complete system of notation, which has been introduced by its suc- cessive cultivators and improvers, that it owes its immense superiority over the ancient analysis. The symbols employed in algebra are of two- kinds : those which denote quantities; and those which denote the affections or relations, or properties of quantities, and operations to be performed on them. For representing quantities or magnitudes, the letters of the alphabet are employed. Thus, in the solution of an arithmetical pro- blem, a number maybe represented by the letter a; in geometry, a may represent a line or an angle ; in mechan- ics, a force. The relations of quantities are expressed by other conventional symbols. The relation of equality is ex- pressed by the sign =; thus, to express that the quantity represented by a is equal to the quantity represented by b, we write a = b. The symbol > or < coming between two quantities denotes inequality ; thus, a > b signifies that a is greater than b, and a < b denotes thai a is less than 6. The two primary operations of which quantities are susceptible, are addition and subtraction, and these are respectively indicated by the symbols + plus, and — minus. For example, a -f b denotes the sum of the two quantities a and b, or that a is to be increased by b ; and a — b denotes the difference between a and b, or that a is to be diminished by b. Multiplication is indicated by the symbol Xi °r by simply placing the letters beside each other without an intervening symbol. Thus, in numbers, "X b or a b denote the same thing, namely, the product arising from the multiplication of the number u into b. In geometry, two letters joined together, as a b, denote a rect- angular parallelogram, one of the sides of which is re- presented by a, and Ihe other by b. Division is indicated by -7- ; or more frequently by placing one of the numbers above the other in the form of a fraction ; thus : 30-i-lO, or SB.. In addition and subtraction, the quantities connected by the appropriate symbols must be homogeneous, or of the same kind ; for it is only such quantities that admit of ad- dition or subtraction. Of two quantities connected by the symbol of multiplication, one must necessarily be an ab- stract number, for a quantity can only be multiplied by a number, or, which is the same thing, added to itself once or twice, or some other number of times. When division is to be performed, the divisor may either be a quantity of the same kind as the dividend, or it may be an abstract number; in the former case, the quotient is an abstract number ; in the latter, it is a quantity of the same kind as the dividend. In the multiplication of quantifies, the frequent repeti- tion of the same symbol would become inconvenient; it is usual, therefore, to write Ihe root only once, and to place over it, on the right, the exponent or number indicating the power: thus, a'-* denotes the same thing as a a, or the square of a; aS is the same as aaa, or the cube of a, and a» denotes the nth power of a, or a multiplied by n limes into itself. By analogy, a- denotes the square root of a; a* the cube root of a, and so on. (.See Notation, Symbol.) Algebra is in its nature essentially distinct from arith- metic. In arithmetic absolute numbers are given, from which other absolute numbers are required to be deter- mined. But in algebra the symbols that are employed are perfectly general, and may represent any numbers what- ever; and the expressions which result from combining them according to the conditions of the problem, indicate the solution not of a particular question, but of all questions whatever, in which numbers are subjected to the same series of operations. In this manner the general proper- ties of numbers are discovered. For example, the expres- sion (a + b)(a — b), which signifies that the sum of Ihe two numbers a and b is to be multiplied by their difference, becomes, on performing the multiplication, a2 — bi; whence we infer this general or universal truth, namely, that the product of the sum and the difference of anv f.—- ALGEBRA. \h equal to the difference of the squares of those - Arithmetic could only prove the prop true in respect of particular numbers. The .systematic to which algebra owes nearly the whole of its • ;m instrument of research, is only of recent In- troduction, indeed, the science il-elf, if known at all to nl Greek mathematicians, was known only as a lecies of arithmetic. The Bnt writer on the sub- i whose works we are acquainted, is Diophantus, I iihoitt the middle of the fourth century of our pc,'., and his work relates only to a peculiar class of arith- metical questions, in the solution of which he displayed ible address, but the symbols which he u • only abort h as lie- Initial or terminal ing letters) of Dinphantu ol the Arabians; bul algebr I them no improvement or extension Arabians, ited Into Italy, in the beginning of lie' 13th inrdo Bonacci. a merchant of IYsa. who ind become acquaint- ed wilh the science of those countries A treatise on arith- metic, comprehending algebra as it was then known, was id from that time the been cultivated with some assidui- i .ok on the subject was P iciolus, or Lucas tie Burgo, a mino- d in H.'l It contains a pretty com- itise on algebra for the time ; but exlilb me state iii which it was left by Dio- iplication was confined to questions relating lo numbers of no great Interest, and its power extended on- cond de- r this epocii it began in be cultivated exten- jo rapid Improvement Bcipio Fer- l d monia, about the year through the boundary within which it had :hc solution of a problem of the third degree. A general method of solving :ubic equations was soon after discovered by Tar: communicated it, under an oath of strict secrecy, to the 1 n. Presnmins on some improvements he^ la the rules given to him by Tartales, and on the' which he certainly had the merit of Invent- in, wiih a remarkable (though, unfortunately. In not singular) instance of bad faith, which he ' idan, however, 1 the methods given to him by Tar- itrlbuted to improve the notation, by . ■ the letters of the alphabet Lewis disciple of Cardan, had the honour of making the next important Improvement In the science, by tbi ery of a method of solving biquadratic equations, or equa- the fourth degree; and H is remarkable that all -of modern mathematicians, have not yet been ■ barrier, or effect the general solution of of a higher order than the fourth. - ihe improvement of algebra, by the : ide notation, was made in Germany, by BtlfeL, or Btifellus, a protestant minister, ork, " Arithmetics Integra," was published In 1544. Stifcl adopted [he symbols + and — for plus and minus, to represent addition and subtraction, and also \/ (the con- traction of r) for radix, or root : he likewise Intro I numeral exponents of the pow e r s, — 3, — 2, — 1, 0, -4- I, -f- 2, + 3. &c. The symbol =, denoting equality, was first • Robert Recorde. In following the chain of the principal discoveries, our attention is next arrested by Viola, a native of France, who first applied algebra to the improvement of geometry, and thereby laid the foundation of the modern analysis. He i he first who employed general symbols to repre- sent known, as well as unknown, quantities, and thus intro- duced what has been called the specious algebra, in contra- distinction to the literal, where known quantities are repre- sented by numbers. This improvement, simple as it may appear, wis attended by important rouse, piences, as it ren- methods quite general, and enabled the algebraist ehend whole classes of problems in a single for- gave a method of solving algebraic by approximation : and from his doctrine of an- n derived the arithmetic of sines, and :ost valuable processes of trigonometry. ■ as followed by Albert Girard. who first showed if the negative sign in the solution of equations ; and hy Harriot, to whom the science is indebted for the very important discovery, that every algebraic equation may be regarded as the product of as many simple equa- tions as there are units in the number expressing its order. An equation, for instance, of the fifih degree maybe re- garded as the product of five simple equations. Descartes followed soon after, and opened up vast fields of discovery, by the application of the algebraic analysis to define the na- xure and inr'-ti.igate the properties of curve lines. By re- Z\ ALIMENTARY CAMAL. ferring every point of a curve to co-ordinate or perpendicu lar axes, lie I e relation between its different points by means of an equation, which serve, i as a charao . and from which its differ- ent properties could be investigated by the ordinary opera- tions ol algebra. Descartes also pointed out the method of act ii. ' or representing geometrically, equations of the higher e a rule for solving a biquadratic equa- tion by means ol a cubic and two quadratics; and improved the methods of reducing and treating equations which had i by Cardan, Girard, Harriot, and others who had preceded him. rice, has undergone no revolution since the time of Harriol and Descartes; but it has been im- proved In all its del i ly varied and extended in its applications. During the last century, and the latter part of the precedin ! of infinite series, so use- ful in many amplications of mathematics, particularly in the calculation 0) probabililie ally cultivated by m, the liernotillis. Killer, i Stirling, on, anil others. The nature and composition of el- ii equations has been fully Investigated, and the la of approximating to their roots reduced to order and ■] ,i|" the relations of angular sections, begun by Vleta, conducted Euler to the arithmetic of sines and a complete theory of plane and spherical nometry. Applied to problems . [on of bodies or points, algebra baa gr< en rise to ihe doctrine of lluxions, and the refined methods of the differential and in- legral calculus. It has completely anpi the elegant, but comparatively feeble, ai ;s,and •: now regarded as forming the I whole edifice of mathematical science. (.See Binomial Tiieo > TIOS.) ALGEBRAIC CURVE. A curve of which the relation a and the ordinate- I bran equation which contains only algebraic quantities. The (arm algebraic la here used In contradistinction la Iran dental, under which Is comprehended infinite series and quantities of the following kind : log. X, ox, sin. x, c tan. x, Ac. ALGEBRAIC EQUATION. An equation of which the terms contain only algebraic quantities. ($e>: Equation.) A'LGORITIIM, signifies the art of computing in eni-e ti ibject,orinsomeparticulai as the algorithm of numbers; the algorithm of the diflcren- ■ i Ins. A'LGUAZIL. A Spanish officer corresponding with Ihe English bailitr, having power to place persons in cu and apprehend criminals. A'LIAS. (I.af. ul/ieririsp.) In Law, when a defends!)) . or a prisoner, had more than one com- mon appellation, he was designated In the Latin forma of Instruments, as "A. alias dictus B." w eatery for a second writ of the lion with a former one lo Issue, it is headed '-alias," as, an dee. A'l.llil. (Let. etetdtere.) A rant law phrase, need to et up by one charged with a criminal Ommce, who oilers evidence to prove that he here at the lime of the act committed, A'LIDADE. An Arabic name given to the indexor rulei which moves about the centre of an astrolabe or quadrant, carry!) op.,, and showing on the limbof the instrument the number of degrees and minutes the ob- Dove the horizon. A'LIEN, generally speaking, is one born in a country out of the allegiance of the sovereign, unless his father were a natural born subject, in which case he will himself be deemed a natural born subject, to all intents and purposes. An alien in England cannot hold landed property, but he may hold and dispose of, by will or otherwise, goods, mo- ney, or other personal estate, and may take a lease of a house for habitation or trade. An alien may. bv totters pa- tent, become a denizen, and take lands by purchase ; or he may be naturalised by act of parliament, and no uute by in- heritance. In either case he becomes an Englisn subject, hut, nevertheless, cannot be a member of the privy council or parliament (&e* Denizen.) ALIEN WATERS. Any stream of water carried across an irrigated field or meadow, but which is not employed in cess of irrigation. ALIENATION ' In Law, the act of parting with proper- ty : more especially real property. The alienation of real property takes place by deed, or in pais. (See Real Pro- perty.) ALIME'NTARY CANAL. A cavity in the interior of an animal body in which the nutriment is taken to be digested, before it is conveyed by the nutritive vessels to Ihe system; it affords the best organical characteristic of an animal, but Ota various modifications of structure. Sometimes it is a simple cavity with one opening ; sometimes a true ca- nal, with an outlet or anus, distinct from the inlet or mouth ; this canal may be divided into stomach and intestine, as in the oyster ; or a mouth, pharynx, and oesophagus may pre ALIMONY. cede the stomach ; the (Esophagus, again, may have one or !wo sacculi appended to it, called crops. The stomach may be subdivided into four bags, as in the ruminants, or into seven, as in the bottle-nose whale; and the intestines into small, blind, and large, forming, with their subdivisions, what are termed duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum, co- lon, and rectum. The cfficum, again, may be single, or double, as in most birds ; or a single caecum may exist in addition to a double one, as in the hyrax, a small pachyder- matous quadruped. Lastly, the various glandular organs which communicate with the alimentary canal are to be re- garded as csecal processes of that tube, since these are de- veloped from it, and in this condition ihey are permanent- ly retained by one or other of the lower animals; thus, in tiie sea-mouse, the liver is represented by long, branched, lateral processes of the intestine ; in the codfish, &c. the pancreas is similarly represented by numerous ca^cal pro- cesses of the duodenum. A'LIMONY. In Law. The allowance for which a mar- ried woman is entitled to sue on separation from her hus- band. (See Marriage.) A'LIQUOT PART of a number. A number which di- vides the given number without leaving a remainder. Thus 2, 3, 4, and 6, are aliquot parts of 12. To find the ali- quot parts of any number, divide the given number by its least divisor; divide the quotient also by its least divisor, and so on, always dividing the last quotient by its least di- visor till the quotient is 1. The divisors thus used are the prime aliquot parts of the given number; and the products of every two, every three, every four, &c. of the prime ali- quot parts, give the compound aliquot parts of the given lumber. Suppose the given number 30; divide 30 by its least divisor, which is 2, and the quotient is 15 ; divide 15 oy its least divisor 3, and the quotient is 5 ; divide 5 by it- self (it has no smaller divisor) and the quotient is 1. Therefore, 2, 3, and 5, are the prime aliquot parts of 30. The compound aliquot parts are, 2X3=6,2X5=10, 3X5= 15. ALISMA'CEiE. (Alisma, from alis, water, in Celtic.) A small natural order of endogenous plants, marked by the presence of numerous distinct carpels in a tripetaloideous flower. They form a near approach to ranunculaceos among exogens. Alisma and sairittaria are common genera. ALI'TRUNCK, ALITRUNCUS. In Entomology, the posterior segment of the thorax of an insect to which the abdomen is affixed, and which bears the legs, properly so called, or the two posterior pairs, and the wings. ALIZARINE. From Ali-zari, the commercial name of madder in the Levant; a peculiar colouring principle ob- tained from madder. A'LKAIIEST. A term of obscure Arabic origin, applied ?y the alchemists to a supposed universal solvent. A'LKALI, or ALCAL1, derived from the Arabic article il, and kali, the name of a plant in the same language. A term originally applied to the ashes of plants; now gene- rally used to designate potash, soda, and ammonia, which *re also termed vegetable, mineral, and volatile alcali. These substances have certain properties in common, such »s neutralising and forming salts with the acids, reddening several vegetable yellows, and changing some blues to green, and ready solubility in water. Lime, baryta, stron- tia, and magnesia, have been called alcaline earths, from their analogous action on vegetable colours. Lithia is also one of the alcalis. A singular class of bodies have been discovered in vegetables which have been termed alcalis, or alkaloids, chiefly in consequence of their power of satu- rating and forming definite salts with the acids. Morphia, quinia. &c. are substances of this description. ALKALI, FOSSIL or MINERAL. Soda. ALKALI, PHLOGtSTICATED. Ferrocyanuret of po- tassium. ALKALI, VEGETABLE. Potash. ALKALI, VOLATILE. Ammonia. A'LKALOI'DS. Substances analogous to alcaline bases nf vegetable origin, and generally possessed of great medi- cinal activity. Their ultimate elements are carbon, hydro- gen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The principal substances of this class, together with the plants from which they are obtained, are the following: Aconita - - • Aeonitum napellus. Aricina - - - A bark from Arica. Atropia • - • Atropa belladonna. Brucia - - - Strychnos mix vomica. Cinchonia - - Cinchona lancifolia. Codeia - - - Opium Conia - - - Conium maculatum. Corydalia ... Corydalis tuberosa. Cynapia • - ^Ethusa cynapium. Daturia ... Datura stramonium. Delphia ... Delphinium staphisagria. Diaitalia - - - Digitalis purpurea. Emetina - - . Cephaelis ipecacuanha. liyoscyamia - - Hyoscyamus niger. Dleconia - - • Opium. 32 ALLEGORY. Morphia Narcotina - Nicotina Picrotoxia Quinia . . , Sanguinaria Solania Thebaia and Narceia Veretria Opium. Opium. Nicotians tabacum. Meuispermum coccuius Cinchona ■:-:■' Sanguinaria canadensis. Solarium nigrum. Opium. Veratrum sabadilla A'LKANET. (A corruption of the French orcanerrt orca, a rouge pot.) A kind of reddish purple dye. ob- tained from the roots of Anchusa tinctoria : it was formei ly used for staining the face. Alkanet. The Anchusa tinctoria. The root of thii plant, which is a native of the warmer parts of Europe, contains a red resinous colouring matter which it impart, to alcohol and oils : it is used to tinge some ointments, es pecially lip-salves, of a red colour. ALKOO'L. A preparation of antimony used by the wo men of eastern nations, to tinge the eyelids and lashes of? black colour. Dr. Shaw, speaking of the women in Barba ry, says, " None of these consider themselves dressed, til/ they have tinged the edges of their eyelids with alkoohl." A'LLA BREVE. (Ital. according to the breve.) Ii Music, the name of a movement whose bars or consist of the note called a breve, equal therefore to twi semibreves or four minims. It is denoted at the begin ning of a staff by a C with a bar drawn through it verti- cally. A'LLA CAPELLA. (Ital. according to the chapel.) In Music, the same as alia breve. The name originates in tin circumstance of this time being principally employed lot movements used in the church or chapel. A'LLAH. Trie Arabic name of the Supreme Being It signifies the True God, as opposed to the deities oi idolaters. A'LLANITE. A silico-ferriferous oxide of cerium fron Greenland ; named after the late Mr. Allan of Edinburgh. ALLA'NTOIC ACID. A white crystallisable acid, ob tained by evaporating the allantoic liquid of the foetal calf. ALLA'NTOIS. (Gr. aXkas, a smisage, and li&os, form.] A thin membranous sac developed from the termination of the alimentary canal of the embryo, situated between the amnion and chorion, and organised by the hj arteries and umbilical vein. Its functions, as a re organ, is of most importance in those oviparous verte- brates where the embryo has no branchiae: in the mam- malia, its use is more or less superseded by the chorion and placenta. In some quadrupeds the allantois has the form of a sausage ; whence its name. AI.LE'GIANCE. (Fr. ligence, from the Latin ligare and allegare, to bind. The obedience which a citizen owes to his prince or country.) The allegiance of a born subject of the English Crown is inseparable, and follows him every where ; nor can he by any act of his own free himself from it. There is also a temporary allegiance which t' incur so long as they reside within the kind's dominions By common law, all persons above the age of twelve years were required to take the oath of allegiance at the court leet ; and the oaths of allegiance and supremacy have since been imposed by many statutes. The present form of the oath of allegiance was introduced by the Convention Par- liament of lbSS. In the United States, it appears to be re- garded as a doubtful point, whether the allegiance of the citizen is necessarily perpetual, as in Great Britain. The American laws also require a foreigner to have renounced (as far as possible by his own act) allegiance to his former government, two years before he takes the oath of allegi- ance to that of his acquired country. A / LLEGORY. In Rhetoric and Literature (from the Greek words d\\o, another thing, and fiyopew, I declare,') has been defined, "a figurative representation, in which the signs (words or forms) signify something beyond their literal or direct meaning. In this sense allegory may be addressed to the eye, in painting and sculpture, by means of forms, intended to convey, besides the notion of those sensible objects which they represent, certain ideas to winch these objects are supposed to bear analogy Allegory differs, 1. from symbolical writing or representa tion ; because in the first, the type and antitype, or thing exhibited and thing intended, have some real or natural re- semblance, relation, or analogy : in the latter, t!, blance is merely conventional. Thus, to take an instance from modern literature, if it be true, es is now alleged, thai the earlier Italian poets of the middle ages, and Dante in particular, attached a conventional meaning to certain ideas frequently recurring in their poems; as. for example, that Satan signified the papal power,— the three beasts mentioned in the commencement of Dante's poem three States,— love, loyally to the emperor, &c. &c. ; then their poems, consi- dered in reference to this occult sense, most he regarded as specimens not of allegory but of symbolical writing. But if, as in the more ordinary interpretation of Dante's poem, Satan represents the abstract idea of eternal misery. ALLEGRETTO. ts particular vices, «fcc, whi.-h in common accepta me natural analogy with their • m is in this re :st. there ; running through tin- ! ; and in .1 ) Alle- i .' . ! without ALLEG term is a dim 1 lively in inner ; not, i' than any •as : pro- . little, strengthen the significa- A'U.NM \M> 1F1 i In Wu \ eg of slow • in common time, and per- ■ nl of his civil d perfect- ed. In tl I Into their the voice h by its appi c formed by their combination; the 1 1 Ing not only to di scribe extei n depict the ■ the mind, an riety of 11 to the much i of tins modi thrown upon 'eel by i' writing of ■ i graphic. Hut, according to the new theory, the word Ahom signified an eagle : the figure o .•.iih which that woi i Rimt i According lo overies, a great pro.' monuments and papyri are partly id rtly alphabetical; i. e. som is ; aud these are Intermingled Willi others wl) 'and for letti I ived the notion of the phonetic that it was only employed when foi < Ign words or e of Greek sings) were Introdn llion carried the discovery further, and I nd names in the Ian i, among ; Interpretation, would thai the phonetic writing Wl 1 1. (See Dr. Young's writings, i the article BoYPT in thl lion; M Klaproih's Exanien Ci mux de I Quarterly Review, vol In p. 110.; 'tie Phonetic System of Hieroglyphics, Svo. Londcn, 1826, fee.) ll is not within our present province to hon, upon whai ground of probability this i should in Mr; language Of that country in which the earliest serins cf Knowh dge and civilisation seem to have been developed, H Is probable thai we shall have made a able step towards tracing the origin of pure alpha- betical writing iii other '•. s it Is, although various iov, the symbolical origin of mi alphabets, it cann tint any very sal till has been obtained. And, total want ol the invention of alphabetical writing, and the difficulty of (■counting for it on any known principle of men • hypothesis of divine revelation has obtained con- currency ; hut it need hardly be observed, how • doctrine agrees with all that we know by analogy of the dealings of Providence with man. ar that writing was known to the Hebrews at the period w!on the Mosaic books were composed, from many contained in them. Exodus, xxxii. 15,16. Num- bers, xvii. I-., xxxi. 9. i9.. xxxiii. 1., «fcc. And although it cannot be positively asserted, that the writing there alluded 35 to may not have been of the symbolical description in use among the Egyptians, there seems, on the other hand, lit- tle reason for supposing that the Hebrew alphabet was not in use even at that remote period. And t: peiior antiquity seems to lie entirely betwei and the Phoenician. The claims of the latter are rd by Mr. Astle (Essay on the Origin if Writing, dui, 1803), whose views are now generally concurred in. The belief was all but universal am<>: g and Ro- mans, that the Phoenicians were the inventors of letters. According to Lucan, prtmi fnm.T si cratimus'i ausi Mamuram rudihus vocem s.gnurtr fi^nris." And l'linysays (lib. v. cap. 12). "Ipsa gens Phoenicum in cloria magna est literarum inventionis." Hut whether the Clans were or were not the inventors of alpli writing, there can be little or no doubt that the knov of it was broughi by Cadmus, from Phoenicia, into Greece, about ISOU years H.'C From the Phoenician, therefore, or the Hebrew, are incontestibly derived, I. The Oriental alphabets used in Asia. West of the Indus ; written, like w, from righl to left; the principal being the Si Arabic, and Persian. 2. The Pelasgic, or original <• alphabet Were ihere nothing else by which to establish the fact, the eastern origin would ivioua from its being originally written, like the Phce- and other eat . m right to left. It was afterwards written consecutively ft left to right, in the manni procured for it the name of fiovoTpoippiov, or furrowed writing. This species of writing maintained its ground for a ten Solon, promulgated ti in it ; and till lie I! C. Hut writing from left to right alter- ir furrowed medio. I was Options is B. C. have been found written from left tc ef. Origin of &C) Prom ilplia- bet were derived thi I n. From the Ionic. variety of the Greek, csmi - . the Coptic. and Ethlopii . and Runic ; and in parativi tnes, the Armenian, Dlyrlai - an. Wiih rt Greek writing, it DClenl lUille Wllr~ ill ters now In use seem to havi been in- troduc fifth century, they appear intermixed with But the latter were principal! I, until Latin alphabet i;i rived from ll to have been bout the time of Tarquinius Prisons. In tie which we possess, the tormsofthe let- ters scarcely differ from those ill use I day ; hot gi have le en in subsequent tim is Intro duccd : first, in the ordinary method of writing it; as, the Uncial, Semi-Uncial, Lombard, Italic, Ac (.See Charac- ter.) Secondly, in the number and form of the letters contained in the n umerous alphabets derived from it. 4. A fourth class of alphabetical languages consists of the Sans- i re very name od islands of India. The great regularity of the Devanagaree, or most elegant form a t alphabet, and its copiouc ntains 100 let- B presumption that it was com- piled by son ividual. or body, (like the Ilus- oid other modern Western alphabets,) from other form* of writing then in use, and imported into India from derivative languages are written like European, from left to right These four i all the alphabetical languages in exis- The following table exhibits the number of letters in some of the principal. Class 1. Phoenician (known), 17. Samaritan, Hebrew (cr -riac,22cach. Arabic, 28. Per- 2. Greek, 24 Armenian, 38. Ethiopic, or A! nian, 202, Modern Russian, 41. Class 3. (which is only a subdivision ofClass 2). Latin, 22. English, 20. French, 28. Italian, 20. Ger- man. scril (Devanagaree), 100. ions learned persons have proposed the adoption of a universal alphabet ; and have shown that the elementary reducible to a still smaller number than those j ed in our western alphabets. Harris (Hermes, book iii. c 2.) estimates them at twenty. Wachter (Nalurm el Scriptura. Concordia) conceives that the number may be diminished to ten. Hut Bishop Wilklns-ta bis Essay to- a real Character and Philosophical Language, fol.. in, 1608, estimates the necessary number at thirty- We here present the reader with a table of the principal alphabe-s of the family to which our own belongs. ALPHABET. Arabic Syriac. Hebrew. A Etrupcaflk Anc. Greek. Mod Greek. Roman. Eng. Script, t I N \ A A A a O S a 3 a e B B I c "A a 1 r r C G e y 5 i T ^ A A D ci *(») 81 n n a E E E e ) i V i F F / ' ) 1 T ^ i X Z Z /y. € v4» n ^ B H H H 4 k ^ •j f e *(«) «t i fit i I i IJ V J o 3 i£ ^ K K K 4 J >w b z >j A A L /. r W >o(ie) » ^ i M M M m «,(>) v( J ) J 1 i N N N n, _£> D £ -s i H e *%, 7 V A O o o wS 3 ^ n n n P A L^ vS S ■m 2 O wO P ? 9 a f ; ? "1 ^ S p p R P U* Or » JUA. >/ ^ 2 s d O Z n A . (It. To the mark.') In Music, a notice to in that part of mark $ is pri weedy much more beaut; . from ire known by their i 'S its name from Alsinc (aloos, a . in which places it is found,) the COO) chick". \t.T (Lai alius, high.') In Music. A term applied to the high notes of the scale. \I.T\K (From alta ara, Lat. ; or, according to some, ?K, Ood, and "iso, described, or i hi Ar- pedestal whereon sacrifice was offered. is that among the ancients there was a differ- u the ara and altare, the latter being raised on ii. and used in the service onlyol ; iiperior divinities, wliilst the former was merely oa (be ground, and appropriated to the service of the ten altars were made by exca- ■-. which were termed scrobiculi. Some authors have ara was the altar before which prayers !. whilst the altare was used for sacrifices. It r that ancient authors made I . but that the words were used by them iudiscri- ly. The earliest altars were square polished i ire placed the offerings to the gods. Whilst lined to libations, perfumes, and oft'. of that sort, the altar was not of large dimensions, and was 11 as soon as man thought he was doing ur to the Divinity by an offering of blood, the altar ne- Different forms were :cor ling to the nature of the sacrifice, on which the victim was cut and the Mesh burnt. Of irt is the circular altar of the villa Pamphili at Rome, one of the largest and most elegant of existing remains of that Cl ' is to be seen the cavity for holding the fire,:, es for carry tag off the blood. The va- follow the service to which they were .1 by difference in their forms, ornaments, andsitu- - ne, as we have already observed, served for burning incense and receiving libations. Some were for iid others for receiving offerings and sacred vases. Many were erected merely as monu- ments of the piety of the devotee, whilst others were con- structed to perpetuate some great event. They served for adjuration, an asylum to the unfortunate and evil-doer. The forms varied from square to oblong, from 37 ALTERNATE. triangular to circular. Those of metal were usually tripo- dial. When of brick or stone, they were generally square on the plane. According to Pausaiiias, wood was ally a material of which they were not seem to have been of any .standard height, inasmuch as we sometimes see them on bassi relievi reaching little above a man's knee, wliilst in others they appear to reach his middle, though it would seem that the circular altar was generally the highest in proportion to its diameter vius says Ihey should be kept down in height, so that they may not intercept the statuesof the gods; and he relative height of those used for the different divinities. Those of Jupiter and the celestial gods the bjghi those of Vesta and the terrestrial gods ; then the sea-gods were to have theirs a little lower, and so on. On they were decorated for the occasion with such flowers and leaves as were sacred to the particular divinity, lint besides this casual decoration, the ancient altars furnish us with some of the most elegant bassi relievi and : (laments that are extant, still serving as m winch have escaped the hands of the barbarl lg to Vilruvius. their fronts were turned towards iinigli often little regard seems to have been paid to their position, as they were occasionally deposited Under the peristyle of a temple, and no: onfrequently in air. In the larger temples there were olim altars : the first was in the moat (acred part, in front of the statue of the god ; the second was before tie d temple ; and the third was portable, called anclabris, on which the offerings and sacred vases we-. Christians, the altar is a square or ol : . placed at the east end of the church, for oration oi the mass, or, in Protestant churches, for the celebration of the sacrament. These are I form almost as much as Ihoai rwas adopted by the early Chrt I aether with the corresponding Greek term, Svo-iaorriptov, (but not, unless, perha ; he table of i!., altar is sU the fathers in -"oiaariipiof j Christ himself, from Bebr. xiii. 10. 2. The church of Christ iu general. 3. Individual members of tta rd'a table. It is observed that the fatbt first three centuries on lit of the altar, and not >!e, although ■• charge which the heat!, altars, conceiving the :■ heathens to Im- I the pre- sence of the statue of the dcily to whom the o made. From the fourth century the word tab! In King Edward L'l Hook of Comm on Pi ted in the communion service : ' Hooper, on account of the ambiguity of its meaning, and the colour it might seem to lei the eucharist, it was abandoned, ,i. This, however, did not satisfy the more vlo- . and (hi the restoration of the reformed at the accession of Elizabeth, the people pror take the first step towards a real and not a verbal sub- stitution, by palling down the altars iii many i I an injunction no matter of great moment there be altars or tables, so that the sacrament be reverentially administered ;" and directs that where the altars bad been pulled down, tables should he i the same A'LTERATIVBS. fLat altero, / change.) Medicines which cure diseases by slow and imperceptible without producing sensible evacuations. ALTERNATE. (I.at. alternatus, chun . parts are said to be alternate « when one is placed upon the stem a little higher lower than the other; the word is chietly applied i and is used in distinction to opposite, in which parts arise the same plant on opposite sides of the stem. Alternate. (Geometry.) When two straight intersected by a third, the interior angles on the sides of the intersecting line are said to be alternate. Thus A M N ami M N D are a! a \fg p angles : and so also are B M N wi\ - M N C. If the two straight lines A 13 and C D be parallel, (he alternal \. V P glea are equal. In pi ternate terms are the first an and also the second and fourth terms of a proportion are said to be taken altemati alternation, when the second and third are made to Changs places ; and it is a well known theorem, that a proportion .' among four quantities of the same kind is noi i by this change. Thus, if a: b :: c: d, ternately, a : c: b: d. ALTICA. A'LTICA. A name applied by Fabricius to a subdivision o( the Linnrcan Chrysomelaj, characterised by the oblong body, bifid lip, and thickened hind legs. A'LTITUDE. (Lat. alius, high, altitude, height.) In Astronomy, denotes the angle of elevation ofa celestial ob- ject, or the angle of the visual ray with the horizon. The ofa star is apparent or true. The apparent alti- tude is the angle ascertained immediately from observa- tion ; the true altitude is found by correcting the apparent altitude for refraction, parallax, &c. Altitude is frequently used in Elementary Geometry instead of height. The at- titude of a triangle is measured by a straight line drawn 1 vertex perpendicular to the base; and the alti- tude of a cone by a straight line drawn from the vertex perpendicular to the plane of the base. ALTO. (Lat. altus, high.) In Music, the counter-tenor part, or that immediately below the treble or highest. It is a word also used to denote the tenor violin. ALTO RELIEVO. {See Rilievo.) A'LUDEL. A piece of chemical apparatus used in the process of sublimation, and much resembling the ancient alembic. A'LULA. (Lat. ala, a icing.) In Ornithology, the group of ill- feathers, attached to the joint of the carpus ; as in the snipe. These are also called the 'bastard wings' {ala spuria). A'LUM. A salt composed of alumina, potash, and sul- phuric acid, and in its usual form containing a large quantity of water of crystallisation. Its octohedral crystals consist of Alumina ... 3 atoms = 54 10 76 Potassa - - - 1 " =48 0-95 Sulphuric acid - - 4 " =100 33-74 Water - - ■ 24 " =216 45-55 Crystallised alum - 1 =478 100 00 Alum dissolves in about five parts of water at 60°. The solution has a sweet and astringent taste, and is a powerful Styptic. When crystallised alum is heated, it melts, and gradually losing water of crystallisation, becomes a white mass, called burned alum. Alum is largely manufactured for the uses of the arts, especially dyeing and calico printing. What is termer! alum ore, is an albuminous slate, containing sulphuret of iron ; i! is calcined, exposed to air, lixiviated, and the solu- tion so obtained mixed with sulphate of potash, and crys- tallised. The alum works near Paisley, and at Whitby, in Yorkshire, are the largest in England. Milk, curdled by stirring it with a lump of alum, Atr- ium whey, which is sometimes taken as a remedy for relaxed bowels. Alum curd is made by beating the white of eirg with a piece of alum till it coagulates. ALU'MINA. Aluminous earth; earth of alum; argil. When a solution of ammonia is dropped into a solution of Blum, a white precipitate falls, which, thoroughly washed, dried, and heated, is pure aluminous earth. There are l wo properties of tins earth which render it of great impor- tance in the arts ; one is, that it forms a plastic mixture With water, and, though it is not the predominant ingredi- ent in, yet it confers the valuable property of plasticity upon, all natural clays, which enables them to be moulded into the various forms of pottery and earthenware; the other is the remarkable affinity of alumina for colouring and extractive matter, whence its use in the arts of dyeing and calico printing. In the pure and crystalline form, alumina constitutes the sapphire, one of the hardest and most valuable of the gems. In its common state, aluminous earth is a soft white powder, strongly attractive of moisture ; hence, alu- minous fossils are often recognised by adhering to the tongue, and many of them exhale an earthy smell when breathed upon, as we observe in common slate. Alumina consists of 52-91 aluminum, and 47-0(3 oxygen; like the other earths, as they are usually called, alumina, there- fore, is a metallic oxide. Aluminum is with difficulty ob- tained, and in small quantities, by heating chloride of alu- minum with potassium ; it is a grey, difficultly fusible metal, not easily acted on by water, and which, when heated in the air burns with great brilliancy, and forms alumina by the absorption of oxygen. Alumina has but a feeble attraction for acids, and does not fully neutralise them; and when it has been heated red hot, or is in an indurated state, as it exists in the sap- phire, in corundum, and some other minerals, it is abso- lutely insoluble. The aluminous salts are mostly colourless, soluble in nil ofa sweetish astringent taste. Exclusive of alum, the acetate of alumina is the most important of these ling used as a base or mordant by the dyers. {See Dyeing.) It is usually prepared by mixing a solution of 190 parts of acetate of lead with one of 487 parts of alum ; a white precipitate of sulphate of lead falls, and acetate of alumina remains in solution. ALU'MIMTE. Native subsulphate of alumina. AHJ'MINFM. The metallic base of alumina. 38 AMBARVALIA. A'LUMSTONE. A silicious subsulphate of alumina. ALU'RNUS. A genus of coleopterous insects, charac- terised by having short filiform antennas ; palpi four to six, very short; maxilla horny and short. ALUTA'CEOUS. (Lat. alula, tanned leather.) A pale brown colour. ALVE'OLAR. (Lat. alveolus, diminutive of alveus, a cavity.) Belonging to the alveoli, or sockets of the teeth. ALVE'OLATE. In Botany. When the surface is co- vered with numerous deep hollows, as in the receptacle of some Composite. ALVEO'LITES. A genus of fossil zoophytes, allied to the corallines ; one species of which {Alv. suborbicularia) occurs in the Portland stone. A'LVINE. (Lat. alvus, the belly.) A term generally used as relating to the intestinal excretions. A'MADOU. German tinder; a fungus found chiefly in old oaks and ash trees. It is boiled in water, dried, beaten, soaked in a solution of nitre, and again dried for use. AMA'IN. A sea term, signifying to yield, to let go. Thus, to strike amain is to lower or let fall the topsails, in token of surrender. To wave amain is to make a signal to a vessel to strike its topsails. Amain is also a term used in letting down a thing into the hold or elsewhere, or in lowering a yard, or the like, to denote that Ihe sailors are to let go that part of the rope which they held before, and let down the thing easily and by degrees. AMA'LGAM. A combination of mercury with other melals. Medallists apply the term to soft alloys generally. AMALTH-E'A. In Mythology. The name of a goat in Crete, alleged to have suckled Jupiter: or of the nymph who tended the goat. The cornu Amalthma, or horn of the goat in question, was the magic cornu copia,,or horn of plenty. A'MARANTH. (Gr. d, priv., /uapaivu, I wither, and dvdos, a Jlovcer.) Plants with richly coloured flowers, whose parts are of a thin dry texture, so that they are a long while before they wither. They give their name to the natural order of Amaranthacea:. Amaranthes me- lancholicus, hypochondriacus, caudatus, &c, are the an- nual? known in gardens by the names of Love lies bleedinj, Prince's feather, »fcc. The ii:.m3, in composition other words, is used to designate plants not belonging to the same genus, but to the tame natural order, Globe-ama- ranth is Gomphrena ghffiosa. AMARANTHA'CEjE. The order which comprehends the amaranthus, and other similar dry-flowered genera. Some of the species are objects of ornament, as cocks- combs {Celosia coccinea), globes {Gomphrena globota), va- rious species of amaranthus, trichinium, &e. ; but the priti- cipal part consists of tropical kinds. The order partici- pates in the harmless qualities of Chi . from which it is not very different. AMARYLLIDA'CEjE. (Amaryllis, one of A natural order of beautiful Endogens, with inferior fruit, six stamens, and six nearly eq.wl segments of the flower, The greater part consists of bulbous species inhabiting the Cape of Good Hope, and the tropical parts of both hemis- pheres. Snowdrops are the most northern form. A few, such as agave and doryanthes, are trees in stature, al- though only herbaceous plants in duration. A'MATEUR. (Fr.) A person familiar with, and who encourages any particular art or pursuit, without being professionally engaged in it, is said to be an amateur. But the term is usually restricted to those who are skilled in and patronize the fine arts. AMAURO'SIS. (.Gr. dpavpos, dark.) A loss of sight de- pendent upon defective action of the nerve of vision, and independent of visible injury. It is also called gutta Sere- na: drop serene of Milton. AMAZO'NIAN STONE. A beautiful green felspar, found in rolled masses near the Amazon river. A'MAZONS. (Gr. d, without, and fiat^os, breast.) Fe- male warriors. Tribes, either real or imaginary, belonging to Africa and Asia, among which the custom prevailed for the females to go to war; preparing themselves for that purpose by destroying the right breast, in order to use Ihe bow with greater ease. According to Greek tradition, an Amazon tribe invaded Africa, and was repulsed by The- seus, who afterwards married their queen. Hence, all fe- male warriors have been called Amazons; and the river of that name owes its appellation to one of the early Span- ish navigators, who fancied he beheld armed women on its banks. The wars of the Athenians and Amazons formed favourite subjects for Attic art: they were depicted in the Poecile or painted chamber of the Parthenon. is punlaha- i i Iminally no only malaprotu; ments of the laws of the ex- . Vniic, c. 12, an ambassador or public min- mts, buna fi per c a burned, Distilled per se, U ■ r holding succinic and acetic acids, and empyreumatic oil in solution (tl limed succinic acid (salt of amber), and an oil (oil of amber). The acid, when purl- i from 3 to 5 per cent. The residual char- r 13 per cent., and when strongly • little volatile matter resembling c iling amber, called fc times occurs with it; it Is less soluble in alcohol, and yields id. uown mass of amber was found near the round in Lithuania, about twelve miles from i ighteen pounds, and is in the royal . i al Merlin. e of amber is as an article of ornament, cut ids or necklaces, and in the manufacture of var- ATVIBERGRIS. (From ambre, and gris, grey amber.) has been found in the intestines 01 ibably a product of disease : perhaps ne. Ii has also been found upon the coasts cal countries, in masses of valriou I appearance, and interspersed throughoul I'll the beaks of the sepia octopo : Mimon food of the whale. When genuine, amber- gris has a peculiar odour, not easily described or Imitated, and which Is exceedingly diffusive, especially in soluiion, unate quantity of ambergris is perceptible id is thought to exalt their odour. A grain i down with suaar, and added to a * i very perceptible in the wine and ir, by some considered as an improvement. The best ambergris is softish and somewhat waxy when ty varies from 780 to 896: it ruses al higher temperature gives out a white smoke, which condenses into a crystalline fatly matter, component (about 80 percent.) is a peculiar fatty matter (ambreine), which may be obtained by boiling it In : as the solution rools, it deposits crystals, which may bepurified by pressure in foldsof blotting paper. Am- uses at 100° ; its odour is agreeable, and it rises in vapour AMBIDE'XTER. (I.at. ambo, bolh, and dexter, right hand ) One who uses both hands alike, the left as welfas Numerous theories have been advan plain the preference so generally given to the right over the 39 AMENDMENT. left hand ; but, generally, they seem to be i than solid. A'MBl i mbio, lencompass, or circumvent.' The circumference or extreme edge of any thing; the en- compassing border of a leaf. Ambitus! In Politics. A term used by the ancient Ro- mans to designate the soliciting ami canvassing for offices and honours. It was of two kinds, the one, laris, laudable ; as, where a candidal' firetensions, publicly stated the grounds on wll i tcited the suffrages of the electors, and left them their opinion upon his claims without privately their votes. The other, and more common kind of ambi- tus, was either disreputable or unlawful. I il solicitations, cajolery, offers of money and pre- ferment, and all those resources for corrupting the free :' electors, so well undersl . in our own times. The bribery a forbidden, although to very Utile purpose,!)} of the Roman legislature. (Facciolati Lexicon, Diction- ary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, Taylor & Walton, A'.MIil.E, AMBLING. (In Ilorsemansl miliar kind of a pace in which a horse's two the same aide move at the same time. am HI. OTIS. (Or. du(JXu)(7ic, abortion.) The name, in the system of Dliger, of the Marat eluding the w • -mt>nt. AMBLYO'PIA. (Gr. d/iSXtij, dull, and (iuV, th*. siglu.) Imperfect vision. AMBLY'PTERUS. (Gr. chitfXvc, obtuse, and vrcpov, a fin.) Tli rounded pectoral and i having small and numerous teeth, set i er like a brush, which shows the habit of thei : and Bofl an . Mom 01 the ' A'MltO. (V.r. djiSov, a boss, or icnob.) In Are! The elevated place, or pulpit, in the ■ churches, from Whence it VI gregatlon, and on which certain parts of th rvice were A'MBRI .inbreic acid. AMIiKO'Sl.v (Gr their drink, the use of w (erred un AMBR081 \N CHANT. In Mo- Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, who church there : the I lurth century : i| ian chant bj B great monotony and v.an ly in its "melody. A'MBL'BALB. A Syrian or Aral wing mil- sical girls from Syria, who Rome. See Hor. Sat lib. i. sat. 2. v. 1. and I AMBOLA'CRA. (I.at. ambulacrum, on attey.) The narrow longitudinal portions of the shell ol ted with s number ■ with tl ■ AMBTJLATO'RES. (Lat. ambulo. / in,//. .) Th der of birds in nearly with tho Passeree of Linnaeus. A'MBULATORY. Formed for walking. In Ornitholo- gy, the term Is applied to the feet of birds where I one behind. AMItr'SCADE. A military term derived from the Ital- ian imboscata, concealed in a wood. It is also applied to r an enemy. AMBU'STION. (Lat. amburo, Ibt/rn.) A medical term for a burn or scald. v'MION. (Heb. |BK. signifying, let it be, or rather, let it be irrevocably jixid.) It is understood to express I assent at i [irayer. It is sometimes Ii verily, as when used si the beginnine ol a disc AME'NDE HONORABLE. In French Law, a species of infamous punishment, to which criminal Inst public decency or morality were condemned under the ancient system, and arc so still In some instances. Such were, sedition, forgery, sacrilege, fraudulent bank- ruptcy, &c. The simple ordryamende la ed merely of an acknowledgment by the criminal fence to open court, bar.- headed and kneeling. The amende honorable in figuris was made by an offender kneeling in his shirt, a torch in the hand, a rope round tie- neck, and conducted by the executioner. I is, usually conjoined with some other punishment ; some- times capital, as in the case of parricides, <&c. AME'ND.MENT. In a general • chang« made in anything for the better. In Parliamentary Pro . || Is an alteration in the words of any loll or mo- tion, which it is competent for any member to mo the bill or motion has been read. (See PaRLIasjemt AMENORRHCEA. Amendment. In Law. The correction of an error com- aiitted in any process, as the amendment of a declaration, plea, . IJl.oic.) Morbid irregularity or deficiency of the men- strual discharge. AMENTA'CEOUS. Having amenta; a name formerly applied in Systematic Botany to such plants as have their (lowers arranged in amenta. But as very different kinds of structure were combined by this character, the order AmentacetE of Jussieu is broken up in several others, and the i' iiii is but hitle used. AME'NTHES, in Eastern Mythology, is the kingdom of the dead, or Tartarus of the ancient Egyptians. AMENTIA. (Eat. omens, deprived of mind.) Idiotism. AME'NTOM. (Eat. amentum, a thong, or hap.) A kind of inflorescence such as is found on willows and poplars ; it differs from a spike only in being deciduous. AMERCIAMENT. (From the French merci.) The pecuniary punishment of an offender against the king or i in his court, when by his offence he is said to stand at the mercy of the king or lord. AMETABO'LIANS, AMETABOEIA. (Gr. d, tcithout, and fiiTuSo'Xr), change.) A sub-class of insects which do not undergo any metamorphosis. A'METHYST. Purple rock crystal. The finer varie- ties are in great request for cutting into seals and brooch Some of the ancient vases and cups are com- posed of this mineral, and it was an opinion among the iii i wine drank oat of an amethystine cup would not intoxicate: hence its name, from the Greek apLtOvaroi. A'MIA. The name of a Einntean genus of abdominal fishes founded on a single species (Amia caiva, Linn.) a native of the freshwater streams of Carolina, North America; and which is still its sole representative. It is an example of the Sauroid fishes of Agassi/,, and is re- markable for the cellular structure of its air-bladder, which) as Cuvler remarks, is similar to the lung of a reptile. AMIA'NTIIUS. (Gr. dniavros) A term applied to as- lieslus, in consequence of the resistance which it affords tu the action of fire. A'MIDES. Compounds containing a base apparently composed of 1 atom of nitrogen, and 2 of hydrogen. The term Ammonide, from their resemblance to ammonia, i lie more correct. A'MIDINF,. The soluble part of starch. AM1D-SH1PS. A nautical term, denoting the middle of p, either with respect to her length or breadth. A'MMOCCE'TES. (Gr. an/ios, sand', and koitti, a bed.) The name of a genus of Cyclostomous fishes, of which the 'pride.' or 'stone grig' (Amm. brandiialis), is a well-known example. This fish buries itself in the sand or clay of the hanks of rivers ; has many of the habits of a worm ; pos- sesses a skeleton reduced to membraneous consistence ; and ranks among the lowestof organised vertebral animals. A'MMODYTES. (Gr. du/xoi, sand.) The name of a Linntean genus of apodal fishes, characterised by a com- head, narrower than the body; and both elong- ated. Gill-openings lame, with seven branchioslegal rays; dorsal fin extending nearly the whole length of the back; anal tin of considerable length; dorsal and anal fins sepa- m the caudal fin. The sand-eel (Ammodytes tohi- anus, Lin.) and the sandlaunce (Ammodytes lemcea, Cuv.) are examples of this genus. A'MMON. In Mythology, apparently a Libyan divinity, adopted by the Greeks, and by them identified with their ■ " Btat corniger illic Jupiter, ut memarant, sect non ant fulir.lna vibrans. .\iit ? iiiiilis nostra, sad tortis corntbus Amracn." The name appears to be derived from dpfio;. sand; and the situation of his celebrated temple in an oasis, sur- rounded by African deserts, indicates his origin. Alexan- d the temple, and assumed the title of son of this divinity, in order to impose on oriental imagination. It i a eel brati d oracle. The lines of Lucan, partly quoted above (Phonal lib. ix. lin. 510. &c), describing the temple, and the refusal of Cato to visit it, and consult the ig an enterprise, of the justice of which he meed, are among the finest and best known por- his poem. AMMO'NIA. Volatile alcali. This important compound is chiefly produced artificially. It exists, combined with acids, in some of the saline products of volcanos, and, in very small quantities, it is discoverable in sea-water. It is found in putrid urine and in the salts produced by the de- composition of animal matter; it exists occasionally in eery min ■ in the air, especially in large towns, it-coal is burned ; and the small stellated crystals 40 AMNESTY. which are sometimes observed on dirty windows in Lon- don, consist of sulphate of ammonia. Ammonia was originally obtained (in the form of muri- ate of ammonia) by burning the dung of camels, which was collected for the purpose in Egypt, especially about the temple of Jupiter Amnion (whence the term sal am- moniac). It was afterwards produced by the distillation ol putrid urine: at present, the demand lor an monia in he various states and combinations is in this country supplied from two sources; the distillation of pit coal, and that of refuse animal substances, such as bone, clippings and shavings of horn, hoof, <5ce. When coal is distilled (see Gas), a large quantity of am- moniacal liquor, as it is called, is formed, to which sulphu ric or muriatic acids are added so as to form a sulphate or a muriate of ammonia. When the animal substani mentioned are distilled, a quantity ol impure ammonia passesoff with the other products, which is also converted into sulphate or muriate of ammonia. Pure ammonia is obtained in the form of ing a mixture of quicklime and muriate of ammonia. It is very pungent and acrid ; and so soluble, thai sure of water absorbs nearly 500 of gaseous ammonia: this solution is known under the name ol" liquid ammonia, and is used in medicine. Ammonia is a compound ol nitrogen and hydrogen ; it consists of Nitrogen - - 1 atom = 14 8235 Hydrogen - - 3 =3 17 05 I 17 100 00 It is decomposed when passed through a red hot lube, and every 100 volumes of ammonia are resolved into 200 vol- umes of a mixture of 3 volumes of hydrogen and 1 of nitrogen. Carbonate of ammonia is used in medicine as a stimu- lant, and frequently employed, under the name of smell- ing sal', as a restorative in faintness. It is obtained by sub- limation from a mixture of muriate of ammonia bonate of lime. Muriate of ammonia lias been e ferred to as the common source of pure ammonia. Sul phate of ammonia is aiso manufactured for ihe same nurposes. Ammonia is recognised by its pungent smell, by its tran- sient alcaline effect upon vegetable colours, and by produ- cing white fumes when approached by muriatic acid. Tims, if we burn a pi . and hold a glass rod dipped in muriatic acid near the smoke of it, dense while fumes appear, announcing I ammonia, formed by Ihe action of heal upon the animal m AMMONI'ACUM. A gum resin used in medicine : it is imported in drops and cakes from Africa and the East Indies, and is said to be the produce of the Dorema ammo- niacum. It is of a pale buff colour, and stands in the ma- teria medica among the mildly stimulating but uncertain expectorants. It is sometimes applied externally in the form of a plaster. A'MMOMTE, AMMONITES. An extinct genusof mol- luscous animals which inhabited convoluted chi siphouifcrous shells, sometimes called Comua ammonis, and vulgarly snake-stones. From their affinity to the naulilites, and the known organisation of the animal of the pearly nautilus, fossil shells of this genus are referred to the Tetrabrancniate order of Cephali constitute the typical genus of the second family of that order (Ammunitida). They are characterised by their conspi- cuous whorls, and the marginal-external position of the siphon. They abound in the strata i . da ry for- mation, varying from the size of a bean to the dimensions of a coach-wheel. Their name is derived fin m semblance to the horns upon the statue of Jupiter Ammon. AMMOM'TIDjE. A family of Cephalopoda, vs bered siphoniferous shells, characterised by Ihe septa being sinuous, with lobated margins. AMMO'NIUM. A name given by Davy to the hypotheti- cal base (supposed to be metallic) of ammonia. Accord- ing to the hypothesis of Berzelius, ammonium is a com- pound of 1 volume of nitrogen with 4 volumes of hydrogen. AMMO'PHILA. (Gr. djiyioi, sand, and fiXcw,' / love.i The name of a genus of hymenopterous insects, called sand-wasps. The generic characters are, ; inflected, concealing a bifid, retractile, tubular tongue; jaws forcipated, 3-toothed at ihe tip ; antenna? filiform in each sex, wilh about 1-1 articulations; >•)■ plane: sting pungent, concealed wilhin die abdomen. AMMEM'TION. In Military Language, signifies all soils of warlike stores and provisions, btil I powder and bill. A'MNESTY. (Gr. a pvnorM, oblivion.) In Politics, free- dom from penalty, granted by a solemn act to the of some crime. Usually, by an act of amnesty ii one passed to comprehend a number of individuals guilty of offences of a political nan- m,&c. Anion's remarkable amnesties in modem European history, may be cited, that granted on the restoration of Charles II., from AMNION. which were excepted those concerned in the. death of Charl , mted on the second restoration of the 16, from which, - were excepted by name ; and the law i- political offences in France, in l IN ION (Cr. iftvoi, ulamb.) The membrane which lua in utero . it includes a thin watery amnii. hi lli.tariy, a thin, semitransparent, gelatin- e in which "the embryo of a I .in which the embryo appears to Sometimi Is wholly absorbed; form of albti- onally, as in the cocoa-nut, a portion is consoti- , and a portion remains always in a fluid ID. An acid supposed to be peculiar to tnnii of the cow, but now known to belong to the AMO'MEjE. (See Amo.vvm.) One of the names of the inly called Zingiberacea:. AMO'MUM. (hhamama, Arabic: d/jcofiov, ofthe Greeks.) I.itit. with aromatic seeds, much em- r the name of cardamoms, mains of Paradise, tec i ccur exclusively in the hottest parts of India AMO'RPHOUS. (Or d, without, and iioptyn, form.) i ular forms. AMI'DI.I I iy. ((.'r. n/iirrXoj, a n'ne.) One of the natural order Ynacea?. 4TELIS. The name of a Linna*an genus of Passe- rine bl ised by a straight convex beak, of which is the longer, and is Bubincurved, and ih sides. The Bohemian chatterer, or <*arrulus.) Linn., is a well known spe- referred in the recent systems of Ornii .■mis. retaining the AMl'lll WANS. AMPHI'BIA. (Gr. d/zd>«, both, and pios, Ity of existing both in wati / I in its mala which possess organs for ■ns for breathing air. or pills and tn the .illation and the great capacity of their to the vascular gurfi era the i;ned air, can remain a Ion onder for .11 -called Rep- iii the culty, included under ihe term Amphl- : longer than iry for renewing the air in their limps, ■iy be drowned ; fhey re, not -o, however, with that small nor- order which retain their branchial throughout hiate reptiles sullVr nothing from a prolonged aquatic existence, but, on the contrary, are loo long continuance on dry land : a de- J fringed gills, according la Iments on the £ -ioning ■ warm-blooded mammalia which have comotive instruments adapted for ind seals, are, ir circulation igiOUS irelory membrane of the h supply of air for pi ilea, and arc con- i from a true amphibious organ- ism i tin ii oi' the., i dee the perennibrani the Ampullaria, and Bom.- iii-'--'- and crustaceans, are the only examples AMPIU'BIOLI'TE. (Or. d/iptSta, and Xiflu,-, a stone.) /en by Linnaeus to the parts of reptiles, or am- nce. AMPIU'BOLE. (Or. dpii(d.) The third order of eaus- s arrangement, and the only one in which rabcaudal natatory feet co-exist with AMPHITROSTYLE. (Gr. du to have the power of creeping backward i with equal facility. AMPHI'BCn, or AMPHT'BOIANS. (Gr. dfift, al ami si i by (he ant . at noon-day, fall in opposite directii i • ol times of the year; that is to say, toward* north, when the son al noon is to the south of their zenith, and towards the south when the sun is lo the north ol zinith. The term consequently applies lo the p> oj! pics. AMPeiTHE'ATRE. (Gr. d^t, about, and Siarpov. a theatre. ) in Architecture, a double theatre, or one ol an elliptical figure; being, as Ka name imports, two thi d al i in- line of the proscenium ; by which contrivance all th' one above the other, saw equally well what w the an ed by the lo* Etruscans, I the flrsl e.v iiis. From these the Romans acquired the taste for such shows, which they comnm "iy nation i to their dominion. Athenaen* says, k Romani, obi primuni ludoa facere coeperunt, huic ascitl artifiei ineniiit, ser autero. hidi omni nunc a Romania celebrari solent, sunt institutiV' (L. iv. cap. 17.) Tlie most extraordinary edifice remaining in Home is the amphitheatre, generally called the Coliseum. begun by Vespasian and finished by' Ids .-on Titus. Words are inadequate lo coi factory idea of its stupen- dous and gigantic dimensions. " Omuls Cesareo cedat labor ampl.iilieatro, L'liuin pro etincti* fama bqoalur says Martial. It covers five English acres and a quarter of ground ; the walls arc of (he height of 166 feel : i> had for 87,000 spectators, with standing room for 22,000 ol and a vast anna, where thousands of gladiators and wild beasts contended at once — *' BotcherM to make a Roman holiday ! : ' This magnificent ruin has suffered much from earth- quakes, and the destroying influence of time ; and to the disgrace of the Papal government, it was allowed 10 be . in comparatively recent times, as a convenient quar- ry, whence the materials of many modern edifices have been derived. — Still, however, its remains are such as to astonish the spectator : A ruin— yet what -iiu! From its mass, W'ulls,' pa laces, naif-cities, have been reai'd J Yet oft the enormous skeleton ye pass, And marvel where the spoil could have appear d- Latterly, more attention has been paid to the preserva AMPHITRITE. Hon of this noblest monument of Imperial Rome. The walls have been propped up in some places, and sentinels have been placed for its protection. — Besides this amphi- theatre there were three others in Rome, namely, the Am- phitheatrum Castrense, probably built by Tiberius, on the Esquiline; that of Statilfus Taurus ; and that built by Tra- jan, in the Campus Martins. The other principal amphi- theatres were those of Otricoli, on the Garigliano, of brick, Pozzuoli, Capua, Verona, the foot of Monte Casino, Pala- tum, Syracuse, Agrigentum, Catanea, Argos, Corinth, Pola in Istria, Hipella in Spain, Nismes, Aries, Frejus, Saintes, and Autun. This last has four stories, similar in that re spect to the Coliseum. But that in the most perfect state is tl)3 amphitheatre of Verona, which, with the exception of the exterior wall, is still perfect. The first that were erected, were, as we learn from Pliny, constructed of wood, and usually seated in the Campus Martius, or in some place out of the city. Accidents occurring from their insecurity, they were abandoned for the more sub- stantial species of fabric whereof we have been speaking. The first person who is said to have erected an amphithe- atre in Rome, was Caius Scribonius Curio, in the games he gave to the people on the occasion of his father's fune- ral obsequies. Determined to snnpass, in the way of games, all that had hitherto been seen, he constructed two theatres of wood, back to back, which, after the theatrical representations had been finished, were turned round with the spectators still in them, leaving the stages and scenery behind, and, by their opposite junction, forming a perfect amphitheatre, in which the people were gratified with a show of gladiators. The part in which the gladiators fought was called the arena, from being usually covered with sand to absorb the blood spilt in the conflicts for which it was used. The arena was encompassed by a wall, called the podium, fifteen or sixteen feet in height, imme- diately round which sate the senators and ambassadors. As in I he theatres, the seats rose at the back of each other ; fourteen rows in the rear of the podium being allotted to the equites, and the remainder for the public generally, who sate on the bare stone, cushions being provided for the gi nafors and equites. Though generally open to the sky, 1 are were contrivsni bag the whole space with a sort of awning. The aven tes by which the public entered were many in number, and bore the name of vomitoria. See the work of MafFei, Degli Amfitealri ; and the section on Amphitheatres in his learned and excellent work, Verona Illustrata. T Kr> modern history of the Coli- seum is given at considerable length in Hobhouse's Illus- trations to Childe Harold. AMPHITRI'TE. The name of a genus of cephalo- branchiate or tubicular Annelides, characterised by golden- coloured short bristles, arranged like a crown, in one or two rows, on the anterior part of the head. One species inhabits the south coast of England, and forms for its habi- tation a very delicate, straight, conical tube of grains of sand, agglutinated together by the mucus exuded from the^ skin : this is the Amphilrite auricoma. AMPIII'TROPAL. (Gr. du, I raise the eyes.) A name ■ i by a remai . es from n which there result two pupils, . io be doable ti they -is humour, and one LA'STICS (Or. ava, up, ami /tXau, J break.) in which th i iighl is con- ! Dioptrics. The term was ap- i to the apparent curves formed ioked at through a body of A. natural order of exo \nacnrdium Occident v nut. s, often abounilinzin a fluid resin i . but forming a valuable varnish in its, the fruit oi lanaoardiam, trnlsh from Melanorhasa usltatissima, i nuts, sumach, are all pro- rive natural order. XnCHOIUTB. ANa'CHRONISM. (Gr. dva, backward, and xPO"»Si timr > ii or disturbance in Lime: King John, cannon are intro- ere not in reality employed until a hundred 1'IION. (Gr. dyaKoXovOav, not following.) ■ J. the want of seque in a ondl not with the remaindi irs more frequently in the ■iv other Ian ■ STIC. In I'm 'try, a spcciesof ode devoted ■ f love and wine ; — ! from Ajiacrconof Teos, whoflour- nlury b. c. The genuineness of the i » ir h 18 name, has. however, been ques- ; but someof them are.atall ev. Nis. been universally admired for their -; — '* All UlT Terw i- »ofler far ■iv featheri are, . or of my arrow*, Of mr nuttier'* (lores and srmrrnwi ; Graceful, cleanly, imonlh, mil round, All with Venu«* girdle bound *' eon have been rendered familiar to ■ ler by the translations id' Cowley and ions of the original are tho ' ;r. , whom evil hold* in fetter*" ri m is that which is made by«trans- kiters ad libitum: and an anagram In which the ■ii'lped out by the admission of letters not ginal word, or the rejection of some of those which termed impure. The manufacture of ana- trrani-;. particularly out of proper names, formed ' ingenuity in the 16th and 17th centuries; ■ mode of flattery was by Invent - of the name of i Hut none of the anagrams of that , In felicity, Dr. Burney's on Lord '■ taNilo." Of all the exlrava- I by the anagrammatic fever, wl equals what is recorded ot';< ichman in the 17th century. Andre* Pui read in the anagram " pendu a. It:* seal of criminal justice in the province of Auvergne), felt 43 ANALOGY. impelled to fulfil his destiny, committed a capital offence in Auvergne, and was actually hung in the place to which the omen pointed. ANAL. In Ichthyology, the fin which' is placed between and tail, and expands perpendicularly. ANAL GLANDS. Comp. Anal. Organs "tor secreting substance i attractive, but generally repulsive in their properties, and applied to purposes of defenc present every grade of the glandular structure, from the simple cscum, or lube, to thi temass; devel- oped from, and consequently always running Into mination of the intestine, near Ihe anus. In ins sweet fluid ejected by the aphides, and of which are fond, is, at least in I if secern- ing tubules opening near the anus. Odorou sometimes fragrant, sometimes felid, — are in dim cies of insects respectively emitted from the same part ; and the singular defensive acrid vapours discharged explo- sively by the insects called "bombardiers," are Ihe pro- duels ot anal "lands. In lie- moliusks, Ihe most remarka- ble example oi the anal glands is presented by ll • . where they are represent rally by a wiili part of its p .valid glandular, and which the inky fluid which these animals i the water around them lor the purp. i ment in time of danger. Among fishes, an anal bag opens by a sin- gle narrow duct, as in cephalopoda, into the termination of ihe rectum, in rays and sharks; but it no longer exercises the function of a secemer of colouring matter. In the anal bags are either single, double, or triple; and in many n frogs and tortoises, are devi loped to a -i/e, and serve for aquatic respiration. In eroo they are two in number, and emit into the cloaca a muco- caseous secretion, without any strong odour. In birds, the anal follicles have a similar function, hut they are gated into a single cavity, which is called the "bursa I cii." In qua anal follicles are generally col- . each having an opening near the verge of tie Insupportably disgi odour of the of the viveriv in others, Ihe odour is not Stronger than serves to attract Ihe individuals of th 0.6 another. Which is Ihe common function of the anal glands in this class of \N AL VALVES. A mechanical structure for defending initial Orifice of the intestines in some of the Cepha- , which swim forwards, from the T Irance offoreign or noxious substances. This mechanism is re. quired firom the position and direction of the anal opening, which is turned forwards towards the base of the funnel or tinel. \'I.. I pick up. [ALE'MMA (Or. ava\nn6avu>, I take up.) In Geom- etry. An orthographic projection of the sphere on the plane of the meridian. In r his projection the eve is sup- -.■ an infinite distance. Every great cir- cle whose plane is perpendicular to the plane of projection, —the horizon, for example, — is represented by the chord which forma its diameter. A small circle parallel to the plane of projection, is represented by a circle. Every cir- eat or small, of whicti the plane when produced does not past through ihe eye, or Is not perpendicular to the . will' be seen obliquely and under the form of an ellipse. Analemma also denotes an instrument of brass or wood on which the projection Is made, (the plana of projection being the solstitial colure,)with a move- able horizon attached to it, by means of which some of the common astronomical problems may be solved, though not very exactly. Ptolemy wrote a treatise on Ihe Analemma. of whic Latin translation from an Arabic, ver- sion, with i commentary by Commandine. According to fibre, it contains only some complicated rales' for computing the true values of Ihe arcs of the sphere from the by which they are represented on the ana- o volition of trigonometry, contrivances of this sort have become useless. A'N.U.F/I'-Y. (Gr. dva\ap6avG).) A species of epi- leptic an. i and frequent recurrence. ANALE'PTIC. A restorative medicine. A'NALOGDE. A body that resembles another. A fos- sil of the same species as a recent one, is its ana- aNA'LOGY. (Gr. dvaXoyoi.accordivgtoruleoTprnjor thn.) In Geometry, signifies the same thing as proportion, or ihe equality or similitude of ratios. {See Piiopohtion, and Ratio.) , Analogy. In modern Zoology, this term is restricted to the relation which anima'.s bear to one another ^ tin ANALYSIS. similarity of a smaller proportion of their organisation : thus, the Ascalaphus italicus, in the length and knobbed ex- tremities of its antenna:, the colouring of its wings, and its general aspect, exhibits a striking resemblance to a butter- By; but in all the essential parts of its organisation it ad- heres to the neuropterous type of structure; its relation to the Lepidoptera is therefore said to be one of analogy, while it is connected to the ant-lions by the order of affini- ty. As it has been found in some instances, that two se- ries of animals, arranged according to the greater amount of resemblances, or the relation of affinity, are connected to another by analogical resemblances at given points of the series, the relation of analogy has been regarded as dif- fering from that of affinity not only in degree, but in kind. If a zoologist, for example, were led, by a too superficial glance at the external resemblances of two animals, to place them in the same series contiguous to one another, and it were discovered that the resemblance was but skin- deep, or limited to a temporary state of being, as a stage of metamorphosis, but contradicted by a dissimilarity of a greater proportion of the internal organisation, then it would be said that he had mistaken a relation of analogy for one of affinity ; a phrase which the reader, however, will readily perceive merely expresses the fact, that a false judgment had been formed, from not taking into consideration the whole of the points of comparison ne- cessary for determining the mutual relation of animals to each other. Analogy. In its Rhetorical sense, signifies a similarity of two tilings in their relation to a third, though there may be the greatest difference in their structure, form, colour, &c. : thus, a hat is analogous to a turban, and both are analogous to a bonnet, having a similar relation to the head of the wearer. In this sense, a porpoise is analogous not only to a fish, but to every other animal which habitually moves and seeks its food in the water. It often happens, however, in Zoology, that a similarity of relationship to a medium of locomotion, a kind of food, &c, is accompanied with a certain amount of corporeal and organic resem- blance ; and this is necessary to constitute an analogy in the zoological sense, though by no means in the strictly logical application of the word. Analogy. In ordinary Language, denotes a relation or similarity between different things in certain respects. The conclusions to which we are led concerning one thing, by reasoning from our experience concerning another si- milar thing, form what is termed analogical knowledge. The word analog; is generally employed to designate an imperfect degree of similarity. Thus, a physician, argu- ing from the effects which he had seen produced by a drug )i'. one man, to its probable effects on another man, would De said to reason from experience : but reasoning from the effects produced on an inferior animal, to the probable effects on man, would be, more properly, reasoning by malugy. — In Rhetoric, the word analogy is employed in a somewhat stricter sense ; it designates, not the specific re- semblance between two objects, but a resemblance be- tween the relations in which they stand to other objects. Thus, to term youth " the dawn of life," is said to be a me- taphor by analogy ; not because of any actual resemblance between youth and morning, but because the one is to life, what the other is Co the day. — In Mathematics, analogy signifies the similitude of certain proportions. — In Gratei- mar, it means a conformity in the principles of organisa- tion of different words or collections of words. ANA'LYSIS. (Gr. di/aXt><», 1 dissulvt.) A Greek word which signifies the resolution of a Ih.ng into its component parts. — la Logic, analysis is used in opposition to synthesis, as a method of arriving at adequate definitions. In the synthetical method, we begin by assuming some quality which the subject is known to possess. Finding this to be • common to other subjects than the one we wish to define, | we add on some further property and so on, until we have adequately distinguished it from all other things. Thus, man is an animal, man is a hot blooded animal, man is a hot-blooded viviparous animal, &c. &c, may be taken as a specimen of a synthetical process. In analysis we should reverse the method ; assuming the most distin- guishing characteristic, and descending, through succes- sive gradations, to that which is least so. Correspondently with this distinction, an analytical proposition is one in which the subject is implied in the predicate ; e. g, " mat- ter is extended." A synthetical proposition, on the con- trary, is that in which the terms have no necessary con- nection: e.g. "John is tall:" "the world is round." As applied to mental phenomena, analysis is the referring them to the acts or faculties of the mind which they ne- cessarily imply, either as contemporaneously contribut- ing to their production, or as rendering their production possible by their past operation. The distinction frequently made between analytic and synthetic reasoning, rests on a somewhat vague use of lan- guage. Strictly speaking, all reasoning can be but of one kind. A process of ratiocination admits, however, of being 44 reversed : i. e. we may make certain assumptions, and from them form certain legitimate deductions ; and we may then proceed to take the truths thus deduced for granted, and by a counter-process arrive, as inferen.' what, in the former case, were the grounds from which we started. Here it is evident that the distinction lies not in the reasoning, but in the subject-matter concerning which we reason. Analysis. In Chemistry, this term is applied to the re- solution of compound bodies into their elements. It is either qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative sists in the determination of the component parts, merely as respects their nature, and without reference to their re- lative proportions: it is an imperfect, and often a very easy operation, as compared with quantitative analysis, by which we determine not merely the components of a compound, but their relative proportions: to effect this, much si tific skill and practical dexterity are required, more espe- cially in the identification of new substances. The theory of definite proportionals, or the Atomic Theory, as it is usually called, has materially facilitated many analytical processes, and is especially valuable in furnishing an unerring test or criterion of the general accuracy of the results. In reference to chemical analysis generally, but more especially as regards organic products, we often employ the terms proximate and ultimate analysis: the former referring to the immediate combinations which form the subject of experiment; the latter to their final resolutions into elementary principles. Thus, in regard to sulphate of lime, it is resolved by proximate analysis into sulphuric acid and lime, and these are called its proximate elements ; but sulphuric acid is itself a compound of oxygen and sul- phur; and lime, of oxyen and calcium; oxygen, sulphur, and calcium, therefore, are the results of the ultimate analysis of sulphate of lime ; and there are many theoreti- cal points in chemistry dependent upon the views which are taken of the various groupings of these ultimate princi- ples. Wheat flour is a compound of starch and gluten; starch is compounded of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon; and gluten, of the same elements with the addition of ni- trogen ; so that the ultimate components of wheat, a yeen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. See Rose's Pracfi cal Treatise on Chemical Analysis ; Griffin's Blov Analysis, &c. Analysis. In Geometry, a method of conductinj ometrical inquiries, invented by the philosophers of the school of Plato, or, according to Theon of Alexandri Plato himself, and one of the most ingenious and beau contrivances in the Mathematics. The essence of the lytic method of establishing the truth of a proposition run sists in assuming the proposition enunciated to be true and deducing consequences from that supposition till * conclusion is arrived at manifestly true ormanifi or at least known to be true or false b; i i>i disagreement with some proposition which been demonstrated. Analysis is thus the converse of syn- thesis, or composition, — a form of reasoning by which we ascend, through a series of propositions, from some known truth to the conclusion we are in search of. The dislinc tion between analysis and synthesis, as well as the defini- tion of the two terms in the sense in which they were un- derstood by the ancient geometers, is concisely given by Pappus, in the Preface to the Seventh Book of his Mathe- matical Collections. "Analysis," says Pappus, "i course which, setting out from the thing sought, and which for the moment is taken for granted, conducts by a series of consequences to something already know i among the number of principles admitted to be true. By this method, therefore, we ascend from a truth or a pi < tioii to its antecedents; and we call it analysis, or resolu- tion, as if indicating an inverted solution. In synthesis, on the contrary, we see out from the proposition which last in the analysis: and proceed by arranging, accoi to their nature, tne antecedents which present themselves as consequents 'n the analytic method, and combining them together till we arrive at the conclusion sought. lysis'Vnay be distinguished into two kinds: in die first, which may be called contemplative analysis, we prop., discover the truth or falsehood of an affirmed ] the other belongs to the solution of problems, or the inves- tigation of unknown truths. In i assume the subject of the proposition advanced to be true, ami proi through the consequences of the hypothesis til! we arrive at something known. If this result is true, the proposition is true also, and the direct demonstration is obtained by stating in an inverse order the different parts of the analy- sis. If the ultimate consequence at which we arrive Is false, the proposition was also false. In I blem, we first, suppose it to be resolved, and deduce |uences resulting from that proposition til at something known. If the last consi irolvei only something which can be executed, or is comprised among what geometers called data, the pi ANALYSIS. ulve<]; and the demonstration, or rather in this action, is obtained, as in the former case, of the analysis in an inverse lit is impossible, the thing demanded ,!ile. : ' mea of the ancient writers on the geometrical ana- rved by Pappus in the preface before . to: lli^y are. Euclid, in his Data anil Porismaia; is, in his treo one Rationis, and in his lis ; and Eratos- , Ijui uf these only the 3, however, been lerns, and a complete system be found in the jow. (See also Lea term analysis the ancient geometers un ning altogether independen I which might be carried on by ordinary xeplation, analysis is synony- the calculus, and is oppos metry. In this sense lb . is entirely lost sight of; an ! licidar mode of reasoning, it ■ the instrument by which the reasoning is oyed with advantage, ; demonstration be analytical or syn- ■.rising from the use of algebra in the .ins, consists in this, — that the certain rules, and carried on in consequence of which, the ed his problem to equations, can ge- ine at a glance, whether the soluti< II must be admitted, that the demoi itionsof elementary geometry by the ancient m iliar elegance which the alge- braic methods cannot always reach; but, in point of power and applicability, the modern analysis is vastly superior to the ancient. "The geometrical synthesis," says Laplace, " has the advantage of never losing sight of Its object, and of illumi.jating the whole path which leads from the first ax- ices; whereas the algebraic principal object in or- der to occupy ns with abstract combinations. But in thus after having abstracted from them i he Is in search manning himself to the operations of analysis, and : ill his forces to overcome the difficulties which ills inaccessible . that it is particular truths into this universal ■ rceive a series of other new and tin- from their mere expressions. No i illy susceptible of the elegance which re- in the development of a long series of ex p y connected with one another, and all flowing from the same fundamental Idea, Analysis also unites il ways capable of lead- ing t .) the simplest methods; for this purpose it is only re- to apply it suitably, by a skilful choice of indeter- minate quantities, and to give the results the form the most nr for geometrical construction or numerical cal- Hodcrn geometers, convinced of the superiority of analysis, have especially applied themselves to extend its domain, and enlarge its limits." — (Exposition du Sys- tem* du Monde, 4to. p Analysis is In general the instrument of invention; and it is supposed, not without reason, that the greater part of the discoveries, for which the mathematicians of the 17th cen- tury were distinguished, were mule by Its means, though they were given to the world in a synthetical form. It is evident, from the posthumous worksof Pascal and Rober- val, that they first obtained the solution of many of their problems by the method of indivisibles, and afterwards de- monstrated the truth of their results in the manner of the ancients. Newton himself thought that a mathematical proposition ought not to be made public, or was not fit to be seen, till invested in a synthetic dress. Synthetic, demon- stration is now rarely met with in any other than the most elementary works; thf algebraic analysis has become the ordinary instrument of mathematical investigation. "Ne- vertheless," says Laplace, "geometrical considerations ought not to be entirely abandoned ; they are of great utility in the arts. Besides, it is Interesting to figure to one's self in space the divers results of analysis ; and reciprocally to read the affections of lines and surfaces, and all the varia- tions of the motion of bodies, in the equations which ex- press them. This connection of geometry and analysis throws a new light over both sciences ; the intellectual ope- rations of the latter, rendered sensible by the former, are more easily apprehended, and more interesting to follow ; and when the imagination realises these images, and trans- 45 ANATHEMA. forms geometrical results into laws of nature ; when those laws, while they embrace the universe, unveil to our eyes its past and future conditions; the sight of this sublime spectacle atfords the noblest of the pleasures reserved for the human race." — Exposition du Systems du Monde, p. 421) AXAMORPIIO 'SIS. (Gr. dva, backiccrd, and poptyr), form.) A term employed in Perspective, to denote uilmiv- ued la such a manner that, when viewed in the common way, it presents a confused or distorted image of the thing represented, or an image of something entirely . but when viewed from a particular point, or as mirror, or through a polyhedron, it recovers its proportions, and presents a distinct i lation of the object. Anamorphosis. In Botany, when any part assumes an appearance unusual with it. The calyx of the rose as- suming il. " of a fruit, the stipule of a prosopis im of a cactus when succulent and tube-lil "(.anamorphosis. ANA'NAS (Ananas, Brazilian.) The plant that pro- delicious pineapples of the gardens. It is of South American origin, but has been gradually dispersed through similar climates till it has become apparently wild in Africa and many parts of Asia, especially the Malayan igo, where it arrives at a greater degree of excel- lence than In Its nail ANA NDROUS. (fir. d, without, and dvnp, (genitive dvipos), a maleor stamen.) When flowers are destitute of re usually called female flowers. A 'NAP. EST. ((Jr. di/airaitrrof.) A foot in Greek and uf two short syllables followed by a long, belt) iflha dactyle. ANaTHORA. (Gr. ava^opa, raising up.) In Rheto- isor phrases at (he commencement s. Thus in Cicero, Verr. iv. c. 10., Verres calumniatores apponebat. Verves adesse jubebat, eognotcebat, Pi r i ex judicubat. AN \l'l OTIIE'RIUM Set Anopi.otherium. v NAIli 1IY. (Gr. d, without, dpx<>>, I govern.) In Poli- ition of a country in which not only lawful mi. bin regular government dejaev by force. Hence Milton metaphorically terms his personi- fied Chaos an •' Anarch." AN AKKHi't II \s A name conceived by Gesner and applied by Linnajus to a genus of spiny. finned osseous laracteriaed by having their mandibular, palatine, and vomerine bones armed with lai tubercles, bearing on their summits small enamelled teeth ; anterior- ly the jaws support longer and more conical U means of this powerful dental apparatus the species of this genus, which inhabits the northern seas, called the " wolf- fish," is enabled to break and bruise the testaceous defen- sive coverings of shellfish, the soft parts of which form its ordinary : (Lat anas, a duck.) The name of a Linnasan genus of Anserine birds, characterised by a large, broad, at the margin with numerous thin, transverse, projecting plates; and an obtuse papillose or ciliate tongue. The subdivisions of this extensive group of web footed birds, which were indicated by Ltnntsus, have since been raised to the rank of genera (see An atid«), and the term Anas is now restricted to the species which pre- sent a flattened bill, the base of which is always of greater breadth than depth, as wide (or wider) at the extremity as at the beginning ; with nostrils placed nearer the upper margin and tn.se of the bill. The legs are shorter and placed farther back than in the goose (iuuer); they have a shorter neck, and the windpipe is dilated at its lower end into two osseous capsules, of which the left is usually the larger. The ducks, thus characterised, are subdivided in- to those which have the hind toe provided with a mem- brane, and those in which it is naked. Both divisions are again broken up into numerous minor groups, which are tuished by generic terms. ANASA'RCA. (Gr. dva, through, and aarf, flesh.) A diffusion of water through the cellular membrane of the limbs, as in < I . A.N ; V'STO.MO'SING. When two parts, growing in dif- ferent directions, meet and grow together, as the veins in ANA'STOMO'SIS. (Gr. dva, through, and cropa, a mouth.) The communications of the vessels of the body with each other. ANA 'STROPHE. A name given in Classical Philology to some species of inversion (see Inversion) or deparlure from the usual order of succession in words. From the Greek avaarpapio, I overturn or invert. Such phrases as mecum, vobiscum, <&c, in which the preposition follows the word governed by it, or in which it is placed between two words governed by it, &c, are instances of anastrophe. ANATHEMA. (Gr. avaOepa.) Properly, a thing laid by, consecrated, or devoted : hence a person upon whom the ban of the church is laid, is said to be anathematised ANATID.E. or in the Jewish phrase, to be "anathema." St. Paul says, "If we or an angel from heaven preach any other gospel to you than that which we have preached, let him bo anathema:" and upon the authority of this and similar passages, the church assumed from the first the power of anathematising or excommunicating evildoers and heretics. ANA'TIO^E. The name of a family of web-footed birds, of the swan, goose, and duck kind, of which the genus Anas is the type. AN V'TO.Yiy. (From ava, through, and re uvea, I cut.) This term literally mesas dissection, but is generally under- stood to signify a knowledge of the internal structure of the human body, in the acquisition of which dissection is essentially necessary. The anatomy of other animals is Usually designated Comparative Anatomy ; and that of plants, Vegetable Anatomy ; which see. Although some anatomical knowledge must have been accidentally acquired by the earliest inhabitants of the globe, and although there are several allusions in the early books of the Old Testament to the subject, no dissections of the human body were performed with a view to ascer- tain the position and structure of its internal organs, or to elucidate their functions, till a much later period. Homer has, it is true, been complimented, and in some respects justly so, for the precision with which he de- scribes the wounds of his heroes; and the ancient Egyp- tians are said to have acquired great anatomical skill by their practice in the art of embalming; but these, and simi- lar statements, have no bearing upon the pursuit of anato- my as a science, or in connection with surgery, medicine, and physiology. Thales, Socrates, Xenophon, and Plato. are each quoted by anatomical historians, as having ac- quired no inconsiderable anatomical knowledge ; Plato is even said to have anticipated the celebrated discovery of the circulation of the blood. "The heart," he says, " is the centre of the blood-vessels, the spring of the blood, whence it flows rapidly round : blood is the pabulum of the flesh, in order to the nutriment of which the body is ■ id by canals, like those of gardens, to convey the blood like water from a fountain, to the remote parts." The first author who is supposed to have written on hu- man anatomy is Hippocrates ; and the first recorded dis- section was, probably, made by 1 1 is contemporary Demo- crittts of Abdera. This carries us back to about 400 years before the Christian era, from which period, to that of Ga- ien, (that is, in the space of 600 years,) little progress seems to have been made in the knowledge even of the structure and position of the viscera of the body, much less ill their uses anil diseases. It would appear from Galen that the most eminent anato- mists of antiquity were Erasistratus and Herophilus, who taught anatomy in the celebrated school of Alexandria, ana are said to have been the first who were authorised to dissect human bodies: hence, probably, the high rank which the school, founded by the Ptolemies, acquired, ami maintained for several hundred years. The works of the above-mentioned anatomical professors have been lost, but they are abundantly quoted by their more immediate successors. Among the Romans the first anatomist was, probably, Asclepiades, who flourished in the time of Pompey ; and soon afterwards Rome became a celebrated seat of medi- cal science. Celsus, Aretteus, and Galen, are the orna- ments of this period; especially the latter, as an anato- mist; though it appears probable that his descriptions were often taken from dissections of inferior animals, and applied to the corresponding organs of the human body: it is, however, said, that he anticipated many subsequent discoveries, and that a great part of his writings were for a long time unintelligible, till cleared up and explained by the labours of t lis successors. During the dark ages anatomy sustained the fate of other branches of knowledge; and, with few exceptions, little progress was made in it, till the revival of learning in Eu- rope; the prejudice, too, against the dissection of the hu- man body was not only maintained, but sanctioned by the highest existing authorities. In the year 1315, a System of Anatomy was drawn up by Mundinus, chiefly, it is said, founded upon such parts of Galen's doctrines as had been preserved by the Arabians. This work deserves notice, as having been the anatomical textbook of the schools of Italy fora period of nearly 200 years. Mundinus is, in- dee'd, celebrated by his contemporaries as the restorer of anatomy. Early in the fifteenth century, when learning began to revive in Europe, in consequence chiefly of the introduction of the writings of the Greek authors, nume- rous treatises on the Sciences made their appearance, amongst which anatomy formed a prominent subject ; and among its most successful followers, the name of the cele- brated Leonardo da Vinci may be recorded, although he. apparently only pursued it in reference to his own art. [See the sketches annexed to Memoire Storiche di L. da Vinci, by C. Amoretti, Milano, 1804.) In reference to some of the drawings and their descriptions, preserved in the li- 46 ANATOMY. brary of George III., and which he had access to, Dr. Hun- ter observes, that he saw with astonishment that Leonardo had been a deep student, "and was at that time the best anatomist in the world." We must give the fifteenth cen- tury the credit of Leonardo's anatomical studies, as he was fifty-five years of age at its close. At the beginnii sixteenth century Berengarius and Massa • man anatomy ; but such was the authority at that time, that few dared publish any statement or opin- ions contradicting those of their infallible master. About the middle, however, of the sixteenth century, this spell was broken by the celebrated Vesalius of Brussels, who taught anatomy at Paris and Louvain, and alter Itaiy. He boldly demonstrated the errors of Galen ; de. scribed accurately the dissections of trie body, corrected and improved anatomical nomenclature, and insisted upon the necessity of diligence and actual observation in dissec tion, as the only solid foundation of successful medical and surgical practice. He had many opponents, and is said to have been detected in the very mischievous error for which he blames Galen; namely, that of describing the human viscera from dissections made upon quadrupeds. Among the most remarkable contemporaries or imme- diate successors of Vesalius, were Fallopkis and Eusta- chius,— the former of Padua, the latter of Venire ; whose names, as annexed to their discoveries, have been handed down to posterity. Indeed, the schools of Italy seem to have been the only accessible sources of practical anatomy at that period : in France and England an antipathy to dis- section prevailed, which was fatal to all anatomical im- provement. Cortesius, who wrote at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and who, after having been | of anatomy at Bologna, tilled the chair of medicine suia. complains that he was prevented finishing a treatise on Practical Anatomy, in consequence of having only been able twice to dissect a human body in the course of twen- ty-four years, "whereas in the academies of Italy there is that opportunity once every year." About this time the name of the renowned Harvey be- comes conspicuous in the annals of anatomy : he, like his most eminent, contemporaries, studied medicine in Italy. Fabricius ab Aquapendente, who was his master, had just made the highly important discovery of the vah veins ; and it. was this which, probably, more especially di- rected Harvey's attention to the use of the heart, and the vascular system : for at that time ihe liver was considered as its great centre, and the veins were supposed to convey the blood from it to the remote parts of Ihe body. Har- vey's great discovery of the circulation of the blood was taught by him in his lectures as early as 1616, though not published till 1628, in consequence of his desire to demon- strate the subject in detail, and to collect proofs and illus- trations of the correctness of his doctrines. Thisdl was not only of vast intrinsic importance, but, as is the case in all similar Instances, it led to others; and the route of the blood had no sooner been traced and di than the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the circulation became an object of research : this was successfully developed by Asellius, an Italian phy- sician, in the year 1627. He was so fortunate as to see the lacteals filled'with chyle, and to trace them to Iheir com- mon trunk, the thoracic duct, and thence into the blood- vessels. The lymphatic system was also soon afterwards detected, and first described by T. Bartoline, a Dan tomist ; and this was followed by important detail upon the anatomy of the gravid uterus and of the tive system, in which nearly all the celebrated B of Europe had a share; and among them Harvey was con- spicuous, though Dr. Hunter attributes, with apparent in- justice, his knowledge upon this subject, ami oven the merit of detecting the use of the arteries, to his master Fabricius. The physiology of generation was more espe- cially followed up by Bwammerdam, Malpighi, and Leuen- hoek, who were enabled greatly to extend the bounds of anatomical knowledge by their ingenious use of the mi croscope. Although England has produced many celebrat mists, there is no one to whom it is so deeply indebted as Dr. William Hunter, who was born in 171S, at Kilbride, ir Lanarkshire, and was contemporary with the celebrate! Cullen. Dr. Hunter went to London in 17-11, taking with him an introduction to Dr. Douglas, who was then in a work upon the bones, and was a young man who might assist in his dissections. He found in William Hunter a person so exactly suited to his purpose, that he not only engaged him as an assistant, but received him into his family and made him his son's tutor. As our object here is to give a brief historical Outline of B rather than the biography of its successful cultivators, we must pass over many interesting points in Dr. Hunter'a earlv history, till he came before the public as an anato- mist, which was in the year 1743. when he communicated to the Royal Society an Essay "On the Structure and Dis- eases of Articulating Cartilages;" and was remarkelfor ANATOMTf. nuity, and skill in tlie arrangement of of which he bad accumulated a Hon, wiili a view of pursuing his favour- namely, that of publicly teaching anatomy. H<' this arduous (ask in 1746, under the an: it Garden, in whose theatre lie In 1717 he [ember of the Corporation of Surgeons : and in pring of the following year, having concluded his pil, Mr. James lid and France, He returned in lime rin his winter courae, during which he not only ac- ij a high character as an anatomist, but commenced of midwifery, in winch he soon attained emi- . founded not merely upon his person and address, if which were agreeable and well suited to thai line profession, but upon his anatomical skill ; so that, in : and difficulty it soon became customary t his celebrity became so In 1762 Dr. ■ in of his cl . in a work entitled "Medi- :" and in the is ap- |ueen of George III. His profes- now became so numerous and urgent, I to take a partner In his lectures, and for pupil, William HeWSOn, who af- tied Mr. Cruickshank, two gentlemen upy no unimportant place In the history of i and structural anatomy. In 17M Dr. Hunter began his mat and splendid work : Uterus," which was not till 1775. This nve him a high rank among I domestic honours d upon him in consequence; but menl of his Museum, and School, that ■ principally to look for the new impulse which was of anatomy in London, and for the cele- tropolis has I'heac- f this Museum, therefore, fly recorded here. When Dr. Hunter I a competent fortu II entirely of mal merit and unwearied diligence, he . still pouring in upon him, and b national pur- siit or useful Iropolitan School of Anatomy .'" He a 176,'j, during the administration of Mr. ■ 1 a memorial to that miiiisier, In which i the erant of an unemploj jround . e siti- of his : upon which he undertook to expend tuily. After waiting for some time without ■ I he renewed his request, or rather repeated his pro- posal : and his second application, Which WU even iii more liberal terms than the former, shared the same su- percilious treatment. Althongl as he well might be, at this unaccountable neglect, he determined n in which he had acquired his wealth and re- putation should not be without some useful and honorable orialof his labours: he accordingly purchased a of ground in Great Windmill street, near the Haymarket, ■■• he erected a spacious dwelling-house, behind which magnificent fire-proof room, fitted up as a museum library, and communicating with a good anatomical theatre, and an extensive series of apartment tion an'l for the preparation of anatomical specimens. . was completed in 1770. iter expended upon this Museum a sum exceed- i.OOOL : it included, besides its unrivalled anatomical plendid and valuable collection of books, coins, of minerals, shells, and other ar iral history. By bis will, the u~e of this Mu- direction of trustees, devolved upon his lew IlaiMie ; and in case of his death, to 1 ruickshank, for the term of thirty years ; at the end ikh period the entire collection was bequeathed to oWj together with a sum of 8,000/. Dr. Hunter died on the 20th of March, U his will, in regard to his Museum, ha carried Into effect, and it is now in Ola To say nothing of the hooks, antiquities, and objects of natural history. i» contalm tion. the finest series of anatomical specimens In Europe. Thus, through the apathy of the administration of that day, was this unrivalled collection lost to the metropolis Dr. Hunter's u uuificent intentions must, however, nevi Uen: he furnished a noble and rare example of a man i as he bad rendered himself independent by h;3 own exertion. In a laborious and difficult profession, ap- plied the whole of his lanre income to a great public ob- lect; and, though :1 warted in his original desire, that it 47 I should remain in the metropolis in which the fortune ex- led upon it had been amassed, as a monument of his tude, and an example to his successors, he was, never- 3, sufficiently liberal and patriotic to devote it to the use of the public, by bequeathing it to the university which had granted Mm his degree. Dr. Hunter not only gave a new impulse to anatomical Science, the effects of which have been transmitted to the present time, but his zeal in behalf of his favourite pur- suit tended to make many converts. Among these, the celebrated John Hunter stands foremost. Hearing of his reputation, he offered his services as an assist- ant in his inquiries, and his proposal was kindly Accordingly, in September, 1748, he left Lanarksl then twenty years of age. His disposition to excel In anatomical pursuits soon became evident. In the of the race ling year he had rendered him ielf sufficient- of the subject to instruct ins brother's pupils in tctmg-room; and In 1755 was admitted to a part- nership In the lectures. His ardour and enthusiasm ss an anatomist were most extraordinary, and he became as eminent in surgery as his brother was In physic ; yet his more lucrative professional avocations were never allowed ede bis scientific zeal; and the result was, the formation of a Museum of Comparative Anatomy, which is at once a memorial of a scientific mind and a skilful hand. Mr. Hunter died suddenly on the 16th of October, 1793, at the age of 65. He directed by his will that his Mu- seum, upon which be had expended nearly the ' his large professional income, should be offered to the purchase of the English government ; and, fortunately (or the credit of the country, the j With a very dif. ((•rent reception to that which we have above recorded in to his brother. It was purchased for the sum of er, under certain conditions, which n not only faithfully, but liberally, fulfilled, to the i Surgeons in London, it is one of the ndfd collections in the world, and in many re- spects unrivalled ; it is open, under prop, i n, in the magnificent buil ge forits reception, on the south side of Lincoln's inn Fields. Another convert to anatomical pursuits, educated in lh<; school of William Hunter, was his nephew, the : thew BailHe. His virtues and his talents placed him high in public estimation ; his anatomical knowledge wag the foundation of his professional eminence; and the excel- lence of his lectures, both as regards matter and manner, tended to exalt the reputation of his uncle's school, and to establish the Importance of anatom] . of medi- s than of SOTglca] practice. We have dwelt upon the Ifnutcrian School, from the conviction that it gave a character to anatomical pursuits, eticially Influenced their sub- sequent progress, not only in London, but throughout the Their Importance and their necessity as the of medicine and surgery publicly felt and ackt)o\ tion of the human body is on the wane; and the degrading and disgraceful practice of allowing the schools of anato- my ro be supplied with subjects for dissection, by the ro- of exhumation, has been Human anatomy is usually subdivided into descriptive, hid, or, more correctly, pathological. •irn Anatomy embraces a description of the dif ferent organs of the body, together with their relative situa- tions and connei imines the textures of which they are formed, enumerates the nerves and v< which they are supplied, and gives all general and particu- lar details concerning their organisation. Having done this, it proceeds to the analogies that sub-ist among the materials of which different organs are composed ; and is thus bd to specify the proximate constituent parts of the living bodv. or Pathouigicou Anatomy comprehends all that relates to I f disease upon healthy . structures ; flllly traces and describes the changes of texture and of composition which they thus suffer, in reference to the entire organ, as well as to its individual parts. We shall now proceed to give a short description of the parts of which the human body is constructed, referring lor the account of individual organs to the separate terms Under which they are enumerated. Anatomical teachers generally first direct the student's to that branch of the subject which is termed .- in other words, to the bones or skeleton, con- he hardest and most durable part of the whole Structure, and that which gives it its stability and general form. At the period of birth, the bones, for obvious rea- lld not exist With the degree of induration and firmness which they possess in the adult ; we accordingly find that, at that period, they are mostly soft and flexible g cartilage, with certain specks of osseous matter which gradually extend and increase, as the process o» ANATOMY. ossification advances during the growth of the young ani- mal. In contemplating this bony skeleton when it has thus become perfect, we are struck with the admirable adapta- tion ami mutual connection of the various parts of which it consists; the separate bones being extremely numerous, (including the teeth, amounting to about 250,) and attached to each other by unequal surfaces, the cavities and emi- nences of which mutually correspond. These connec- tions, termed articulations, are extremely various ; some admitting of every variety of motion, others of limited mo- .ion, and other-, as it were, continuously united. In the former case the evils of friction are perfectly provided against by the peculiarity of tbe articulating surfaces, which are covered with an extremely smooth and elastic sub- stance, called cartilage ; and lubricated, or as it were oiled, by a slippery lluid termed synovia, which here performs precisely the same office as that of the various anti-attri- tions which are used in machinery. Butas the bones must be more or less restricted in their range of motion, there are peculiar means by which that end is attained : some being prevented from changing their relative situations by certain modes of articulation ; others, where a slight mo- tion is required, being united by cartilage; and others, where extensive and varied motions are wanted, being con- nected by ligaments, membranes, or flesh. Ligaments are white, fibrous, glistening, and flexible substances, occurring in an infinite variety of forms and situations. They are, for the most part, exterior to the joint, and, by their great strength and trifling elasticity, preserve the relative position or connection of the bones in Iheir various movements. Membranes are thin, whitish webs or textures, more flexi- ble and elastic than ligament. They not only assist in the security and motion of joints, but fulfil a variety of other of- fices. They surround or line the cavities and the organs of the body, and contribute to unite and combine the whole ; and, at the same time, interpose and preserve a distinc- tion, enabling separate parts either to co-operate or to act independently of each other. They vary in strength and texture, and different terms are applied to them in different parts of the body : two within the skull are called mattes ; those which envelope muscular fibres are called aponeu- roses ; that which covers the lungs and lines the cavity of the chest is termed pleura ; that which lines the cavity of the abdomen and its included viscera is named peritoneum ; those which inclose articular surfaces are termed capsules ; that which covers bone, periosteum ; and, in other cases, they are called coals, or tunics. The remaining substance concerned in the connection of the bones is Jlesh; it is thus, that the upper extremities are connected with the Dody, and that many of the joints are rendered secure. But Mesh performs another and more important office, inasmuch as it constitutes a principal part of the- organs termed mus- cles, through the medium of which the various movements of the body are effected. Many of the muscles contain, be- sides flesh, a substance analogous to ligament, through the medium of which they are attached to the bones, and to which the term tendon is applied : muscles and tendons are composed of bundles of fibres, which may be unravelled to extreme minuteness ; and when what appears to be a sin- gle fibre is viewed under the microscope, it resembles a chain of infinitely small globular particles. But though the muscles are the immediate organs of motion, they are de- pendent for their powers of contraction and relaxation upon the nerves with which they are supplied. These, when separately examined, appear in the form of white cords or threads ; and, when traced to their origin, are found to is- sue as it were from the brain, and from its elongation, termed the spinal marrow. The trunks of the nerves are subdivided into branches, and these again into filaments, which enter into, and are, as it were, lost in the substance of the muscles and other organs of the body. Their func- tions are in some cases obedient to, and in others indepen- dent of, the will: to the former belong the nerves of the lo- comotive muscles; to the latter, those of the heart, viscera. &c. When they are divided, the peculiar functions of the organs which they supply are impaired or impeded : thus, the muscles may be deprived of the power of contracting, the glands of secretion, the eye of sight, the ear of hearing, and the skin of feeling. The nervous trunks, which issue in pairs from the brain or spinal marrow, amount to about forty; and in tracing them and their branches, they are found in certain different places to swell into knots, which are termed ganglia, or they are reticularly aggregated into plexuses. Having thus shown how the bones are connected and put into motion, and from what sources theirmotion is derived, it may next if? inquired how they and the other organs of the body grow and are nourished. This brings us to con- sider the blood and its vessels. The composition and propertiesof the blood, and the ex- traordinary changes which it suffers in its passage through the pulmonary vessels, are elsewhere defined. (See Blood, and Resfirat.ion.) Without this exposure to the actioD of the air in the lungs, the blood is unfit for the sup- I port of life. We accordingly find that the heart is so con structed as to propel the blood which it receives through the structure of the lungs, and after if has there been aerated, to transmit it over the body : in fact, the heart is a hollow muscle: when it relaxes, its two principal cavities, or ven- tricles, are enlarged, and the blood flows in ; when it con- tracts, they are diminished, and the blood is propi two large tubes or arteries, one leading to the I called the pulmonary artery, and the other to the system generally, and called ihe aorta : these arteries are not only elastic, but also muscular, so that they drive the blood 01: wards from the heart, its retrograde motion being effectu ally prevented by valves placed at their origin. The arteries are divided and subdivided into an infinits number of ramifications ; and the branches from the same trunk are frequently observed to unite or anastomose in their course ; so that when, by any accident, some are ob- structed, an adequate supply of blood may be kept up by the others. As, however, the blood cannot return to the heart by these vessels or arteries, we find that they inoscu- late, or communicate at their extremities with another se- ries of tubes or vessels, which are called veins. These are more numerous than the arteries, and generally accompa- ny them in their course. They have a less muscular pow- er; and as they are not assisted by the heart in propelling the blood, they open to it larger and larger channels as it advances, and are supplied with valves by which its reflux is prevented. This is, in fact, Ihe circulation of Ihe blood (first made out by Harvey, asbefore mentioned) ; the veins ultimately terminating in two large trunks which pour the blood into the right auricle of the heart ; whence it is pro- pelled into the right ventricle, from which arises the pul- monary artery, transmitting it through the lungs ; from the lungs the blood (having been aerated) returns by the pul- monary vein into the left auricle of the heart, which con- tracting, propels it into the left ventricle, from which arises the aorta. Such, then, is the extraordinary mechanism by which the circulation of the blood is effected ; but it must not be supposed that the whole of the blood is (bus directly returned from the arterial into the venous system : a part of it is transmilted by minute arterial ramifications into the different structures and organs of which the body is com- posed, each of which is gifted with the power of assimila- tion, fhat is, of converting the blood, or a part of it, into a substance of its own kind. Some of these minute or capil- lary vessels also terminate upon the surface ol the body, where they exhale perspirable matter; others, upon llie membranes lining the cavities of the body, where they se- crete the fluids which lubricate and mo is i en the interior sur- faces: and others again go to the glands,— those peculiar organs or structures, which have not only the power nl separating certain parts of the blood, but of converting it into new forms, which arecalled secretions, some of which are ejected, others retained, for the purpose of the animal economy. Thus, then, it appears that the blood nourishes and pre- serves the body and all its parts, and thai i: is continually tending to the renovation and repre.it different organs ; but this very process implies another, and no less extraordinary, function, which is performed by a distinct system ; namely, that of absorption. There are, in short, a series of vessels which are continually carrying away the useless and worn-out materials ; removing them in a state of solution ; furnished, like the veins, with valves; termi- nating in a common trunk, called the thoracic duct; and pouring its contents into the veins, just before tiiey enter the right auricle of the heart. It appears, therefore, that a continual system of deposi- tion and removal is carrying on within the living body ; that the ramifications of Ihe arterial system are constantly reno- vating the different organs, whilst the absorbents are as constantly removing the materials of which they consist. Nothing, therefore, is stationary or permanenl ; and as the blood, on the one hand, conveys the materials required, so- on the other, it receives those which are removed : and such as are useless, or would be hurtful if retained, are thrown off either by the intestines, the kidneys, ihe lungs, or the skin. It now only remains to show howl! is compensated for, and by what means those i which are thrown off in one form are replaced in . this leads us to the functions of another branch of (he am mal machinery, called (he organs of digestion ; those or gans. namely, by which the food is converted into bloi d. Different animals require different kinds and quantities of food ; some living almost exclusively upon animal, others upon vegetable substances; hence their division nivorous and graminivorous tribes. Man partakes of loth , and, accordingly, the structure ol" his digestive organs is in termediate between the comparative simplicity of the truly carnivorous, and the complexity of ihe graminivorous classes. In all (he higher orders of animals, however, the mechanism of digestion is of a complicated character. The first change which the food undergoes is in the mouth, where it is torn, ground, and moistened by ma- ANATOMY. coinery expt rations. The teeth ire admirably contrived fortius purpose; some of them until! tincing, others rubbing and grind- i fluid is supplied by the salivary "lauds so as te mixture of a proper consistency to be i : the food is propelled from the mouth into the lobe which con- ! which is called the ami is. .it if , by an extraordinary utd complicated arrangement of the parts concerned, from ig iu any other direction, and, more especially, from entering the trachea or air-passage into the lungs. In the food is subji ns of thai or- which is acid, and by which it is ii fluid ime the food id of the stoma.!;, or the pylorus, characters are entirely changed; its separate discernible, ami it lias acquired . In short, digested. How Ugh many attempts ■ explain them upon chemical and me- chanical principles. Dr. Hunter, in his Introductory Lec- ■ remarks, in reference lo this aul similar pi ' therefore expect," i at you wilt not hereafter be surprised, when ii many of the must ions relating to animal operations, such i, motion, respiration, digestion, generation, &c. In my opinion, all 11 link them. Our vanity deceives n we have got the whole as soon as we itural knowledge. Hence different sects ol | nd ca- pon such different prlnetl e, for example, to account for digestion, le stomach a mill; some would h .and some a wort-trough ; yet, all the while, light that it must have been very mill, nor a stewing- h, nor any tiling but a stomach." When the food has been thus far digested in tbi ito the duodenum, or upper end of the lube, the whole length or which is about six times that of the body, and which, therefore, is various- ly convoluted to enable it to be packed into oal cavity. Into this portion of the inn is and glands deliver thefer secretions, partly for the purpose of lubricating its surface, and partly to as- i the further changes which are to he brought about fluids, two are ■ emark- . he Importance and si nds by which they are secreted, and of the ducts by which they art I; namely, the bile, which la of a green colour and ml is secreted in the liver; and iht panerantte juice, which appears to resemble saliva, and winch is se- ! by a i;l uid called the pancreas. The influence of Quids upon the chyme is direct and Important: the pancreatic secretion probably acts as a diluent merely ; but the effect of the bile is more complicated ; and it appears to be • the further change of the chyme into which is a white milk-like fluid, formed in tiie upper part of the intestine, and absorbed by a distinct set of ves- sels which, from the colour of their contents, have been Called tacteals, and Which convey the chyle, that is, the portion of the products of digestion fitted tor nutrition, into the above-mentioned trunk of the lymphatics, whence it le transmitted into the veins, which open through the medi- um of the right auricle into the right ventricle of the heart. The bitter principle of the bile, and its colouring matter, are obviously not absorbed by the lacteals, but remain with the residue of the food, which la slowly propelled along the whole of the intestinal tube, and, having undergone u changes in its passage, is ultimately voided as ex- Havtng nmv enumerated the various classes of organs in the hum in body, and adverted to their leading functions ; having seen how the bones are united by articulations, and connected by ligaments, flesh, and membranes, forming a variety of levers adapted to the motions of the limbs, and supporting and protecting the soft parts, as in the skull and spine ; how the brain ami nerves are concerned in the sen- tient energies, and in presiding over and directing muscu- lar motion, and influencing the functions of the viscera ; having likewise seen how each part of the body is nour- ished by the blood, which is sent from the heart by the ar- teries, and conveyed back to it by the veins ; how the use- less and decayed parts are removed by the lymphatics ; how the nutritious part of the food is carried into the blood »y the lacteals ; and how tenons is changed into arterial Wood in the course of its passage through the pulmonary vessels ; it only remains to observe, that, the whole fabric Is as it were protected from eternal injuries by its integ- uments. Of these the most exterior is a covering, varying 49 ANCHOR. in thickness and induration on different parts of the body . where without feeling, and called the epidermis, rely beneath it is a soft mucous substance termed rete mucosum ; and under it the cutis, or true skin. These external coverings of the body are attached to ami ed with the parts beneath, by cellular membr though the animal owes much of II ncurity to tturea, it owes more to the senses, iustii appetites, with which it is so miraculously endow* Is led to pursue what is useful, and to gnat danger, inconvenience, and want. Nor is this all; there has likewise been conferred, to a certain extent, upon all lies, the power of reproduction, by which ihej are frequently able to repair the slighter injuries to which the different organs tire exposed; and if this pow ceedingly languid in the latter periods of old age, it j s !>•■■ cause tbe author of nature never intended that i lie animal structure should be immortal. He has fixed its bounds, which it cannot pass ; and has measured out the tin the fairest fabric must crumble into dust, and Its animating spirit return unto Him, the great Almighty Incomj sible Being, who first bestowed it." (.sv-e Dr. Ban troductory Lectures to a Course of Anatomy, and Dr. Wil liam Hunter's Two Introductory Lectures, for details re- specting the history, uses, and Importance of the study ol Anatomy.) Anatomy, Comparative. So called because the organ- isation of the lower animals was first principally studied with immediate reference to that of the human Galen, who visited the schools of Alexandria at a period when the dissection of the human body was no longer per- ught in the anatomy of the ape to acquit rious knowledge of the anatomy of man. Vesalius, after the revival of literature, dissected various qnadrup i their organisation with that of man, in order lo correct the errors of Galea, and to establish the true know- ledge of the peculiarities of the human structure. Succeeding anatomists have investigated the structure of the lower animals, to acquire the knowii for experimenting upon them with success; and still more important In physiological sole ed ironi tracing the modification and disappearance of dif- ferent organs in the descending series of animals, as the only means by which we can obtain just notions of tin uses and relative importance of the • I ins in the animal economy, and a of the laws which rcgu- e in the same individual. ■ . ey, and Hunter, combined the tnvestiga lion of the mature animals o( different classes with obser- vations of the different stages of development of the cm. bryo, and their example has been assiduously and success- fully followed by the ablest compare . i f fh€ une of [he general laws of anima. organisation, of development, and of the analogies which apparently different parts bear to one another throughout i discovered. A very important application of comparative anatomy is to the determination of the relative degrees of complexity in the organisation of different animals, and of the number and value of the points of resemblance which different species manifest to each other in the totality of their Organ- isation. A study of the anatomy of animals, guided by these views, is essential to the determination of their natu- ral affinities, which is the highest aim of the philosophic naturalist. Lastly, the labours of the comparative anatomists contin- ually tend to bring to light examples of structures, designed with reference to especial purposes, of the most striking and forcible description ; and thus provide for the moralist and divine a storehouse of facts peculiarly adapte I to the illustration of the doctrine of final causes. (See Grant's Outline of Comparative Anatomy ; also, A General Outline of the Animal Kingdom, by Thos. Rymer Jones, 1811.) ANA'TltOPOUS. (Gr. dvarpciru), I invert.) A very common kind of embryo, produced by one side of the ovule crowing upon itself, while the other remains im moveable, till, at last, that part of the ovule which was originally next the apex, is brought down to the hilum. the base of the nucleus in such cases being at the apex of the ovule. The common apple, and the greater part of plants, offer an example of this. A'NCIIOR. (Gr. dynvpa.) Con- sists of a straight bar, called the shank, A Ii, which ends in two arms, B C, B I), on which are placed the triangular plates called Jlukes, or palms ; the extremity E or F is called the pea (peak) or bill ; the point B is called the crown. At the end A is ploced the stock G If, which, when of wood, consists of two pieces of oak, hooped together. When the stock is of iron, it passes through D ANCHOR. 11 hole in the end of the shank. The stock is at right angles to the plane of the flukes, and is a little longer than the shank. At A is the ring, which is of iron, to which the ca- ble is attached, and by which the anchor is lifted or hung. When a hemp cable is used, the ring to which it is bent (fastened in a particular way) is covered first with tarred canvass, and then with pieces of rope secured firmly round il j this is called a puddening, and protects the hemp from the iron. When a chain cable is used, it is shackled to the ring, which is not then puddened. M111 of war and large ships carry two large anchors of equal size, at the bows, called, thence, bower anchors ; and two others, of the same size, called the sheet and the spare anchors; besides two or three others, which are much smaller, for temporary occasions. The anchor, after being let go from tfae ship's bow or side, whether the shank be vertical or horizontal when it i" water, arrives upright at the bottom, in conse- quence of the resistance of the water on the stock, when it (alls over, and rests on the crown, one corner of a fluke, and the end of the stock. From this position of stable equilibrium on three points forming a long narrow triangle, a small force disturbs it, when the stock, falling flat, one of the bills must pierce the ground, penetrating deeper as the cable pulls, until the arm is partly or entirely buried. Since the security of the vessel depends on the hold the tnchor has of the ground, it is evident that the direction of she lluke should be such that the reaction of the soil against it, from the pull of the cable, may tend most effect- ually to keep it down. The pressure on the fluke being perpendicular to the surface, take A B to represent the pull of the cable, then the resolved portion of this perpendicular to the fluke is BCorAB cos. ABC; and the effect of this in \. « ■ keeping the fluke down is \ " B D = B C cos. C B D = \ B C sin. ABC, because ^^4: A U is horizontal, and «^^ A C B D is 90°— C B A, ver- tical ; hence B D = A B sin. ABC cos. ABC, which is maximum when A B C = 45°. The flukes of anchors in general make the ansde with the shank much greater than this; but Lieut. Rodger, R, N., has, among other improvements, adopted this angle in his patent anchor, having established the above conclu- sion by experiment. Anchors are made of broad flat bars forged together. As the greatest strain upon the shank takes place during the act of weighing, the diameters of the shank are made unequal, the longest being placed vertical. This improve- ment is, we believe, due to Mr. Pering, on whose plan an- chors have of late years chiefly been made. The weight of an anchor in men of war is estimated roughly at about 1 cwt. to a gun ; in merchantmen, about 1 cwt. for each 15 tons. The weight of the anohor is not strictly proportional to the size of the vessel, as large ves- sels are less affected by sudden or violent motions than smaller ones are. 'Large anchors are thicker in proportion to their length than smaller ones are ; that is, the weight increases faster than the cubes of the dimensions. Winn an anchor is left behind, it is recovered either by lifting it by the buoy rope, or, where that is not possible, by sweeping for it ; which is dragging a hawser, hung between two boats, slowly over the bottom till it catches the upper fluke, by which the anchor is then weighed. When one anchor is down the ship is said to be at single anchor; when two are down, the ship is generally moored. (See Moored; Cable; Buoy.) Ships rarely ride by more than two anchors : in bad weather a third is often let go under foot, as a precaution in case of one of the cables parting. When the anchor is dragged by the pulling of the cable, it is said to come home. When the cable gets twisted round the anchor or stock, the anchor is said to be foul. The anchor is sometimes hove up without one of the flukes, which has either been fixed in a cleft of the rock and wrenched off by the force of weighing, or been snapped off, as some think, by striking against a point of rocks in its rapid descent. When the ship is at single anchor, the wind or tide may cany her over the anchor; if the water is deep, she may so drag the cable as to foul the anchor, in which case it may not hold again ; if the water is very shallow, she may get upon the anchor, the. fluke entering the ship's bottom, or she may break the shank by striking upon it. Keeping the ship clear of her anchor is, therefore, an important, as It is also a nice point of seamanship. When the anchor is lifted out of the ground, it is said to be aweigh; when hove up to the surface of the water, it is awash. The anchor being hove up by the cable only to the hause holes, is lifted by the ring to the cathead : this is called catting it. The fluke next the ship's side is then lifted up to its resting-place, called the bill board ; it is now 50 ANDALUSITE. said to be fished. When the ship is fairly at sea, the ring is lashed close, up to the cathead, and the fluke brought close to the ship's side, or inside the bulwark, and the cable and buoy rope unbent; the anchor is then secured. Messrs. Porter & Co. of Dunstan, near Newcastle, Eng- land, have recently patented a new anchor, of the greatest practical utility and importance. It is manufactured in two distinct parts; one forming the arms made of bars, extending from pea to pea, without any crossing or weld- ing, moving as it were on a pivot, and Hie other the shank. By this arrangement, the fatal risk of an unsound weld tit the crown, the part in which the present anchor often fails in the hour of peril, is averted. Among its many ad- vantages are, — a strength threefold greater than that of the ordinary anchor of the same weight, it cants and bites more readily than the common anchor, even in the most stub- born ground ; it is impossible to foul it ; it cannot lodge on its stock end ; it holds on the shortest stay beak ; it may be taken apart at. will ; and it cannot injure a vessel's bows, when hanging a cock bill. (/See London United Service Gazette.) Anchor. In Architecture, an ornament applied to mouldings somewhat resembling an anchor intermixed with eggs, and by some called a tongue, from the resem- blance it bears to the forked tongue of a serpent. It is found in the mouldings of all the orders, but is only applied to that called the echinus or quarter round. A'NCHORAGE. Ground fit to hold a ship's anchor, so that she may ride safely. The ground best suited for this purpose is hard sand or stiff clay ; and the best position is that which is land-locked, or out of the tide. AN'CIIORITE. (Lat. anachoreta. Gr. avaxoipcu, 1 retreat, or withdraw.) More properly, anachoret, a hermit, or person who has retired from the world with the purpose of devoting himself entirely to meditation and prayer. Such was the case with many of the early Christians, be- ginning perhaps with such as fled from the persecutions of Decius and Diocletian, and retired into forests and deserts, at first with a view to security merely, and afterwards con tinued, from religious motives, the mode of life they had there adopted. The adoption of perfect solitude was es sential to the character of an anchorite : but they were ne cessarily bound by vows. The origin of this class of reli gionists preceded that of the Coenobites, or monks living in societies: but in later times the monks used frequently to leave their monasteries, with the permission of theii superior, and devote themselves for a time, or for fheii whole lives, to the solitude of anchorites. ANCIIO'VY. (tfceENGRAULIS.) ANCHYLO'SIS. (Gr. ayitvXow, I bend.) A stiff, im moveable, or bent joint. A'NCIENT DEMESNE. In Law, all lands which, hav ing been in possession of Edward the Confessor, and from him having passed to William the Conqueror, are named in Doomsday Book as Terra Regis, are said to be held in ancient demesne. The tenure is peculiar, resembling copyhold in some respects. A'NCIENTS. (Fr. anciens.) In the more general sense of the term, Ancients means those who lived long ago, or before the moderns. But the term is now usually employed to designate the Greeks and Romans; and if any other people be meant, it is customary to specify them, as the ancient Germans, the ancient Jews, &c. Ancients, Council of. In French History, one of the two assemblies composing the legislative bodies in 1795. It consisted of 250 members; and derived its name lions each of them being at least forty years of age. It was put an end to by the Revolution of the 18th Brumaire. AN'CILE. The shield of Mars, which, according to tradition, fell from heaven in the reign of Numa, and was accompanied by an oracle, which declared that, while it remained in Rome, the city could never be taken. Its figure was that of an oval compressed in the middle, so as to be widest near the two extremities. Noma had it pre- served in the temple of Mars, to whose priests, the Salii. its care was committed ; and at the same time hid eleven more shields made to exactly the same pattern, in order to prevent the genuine one from being distinguished and stolen. Every year, in the month of March, these ancilia were carried round the city by the Salii, with solemn dances and music, for thirty consecutive days, during which time no business connected with war was allowed to be carried on in the city. ANCITITAL. Having two opposite edges or angles. ANCIT1TOUS. (Lat. anceps, two-edged.) When any tiling is compressed, with the two opposite edges thin. It is chieflv applied in Botany to leaves and stems. ANCO'NES. (Gr. aynuv, the point of the eltnw.) In Architecture, the consoles or ornaments cut on the key- stones of arches, or on the side of doorcases. They are sometimes used to support busts or oth^r figures. ANDALU'SITE. A mineral composed of 52 alumina, 58 silica, 8 potass, 2 oxide of iron. It is very hard and tn ANDANTE. fusible, by which characters it is distinguished from fel- spar. Ii was first observed in Andalusia in Spain AND V'NTE. (Ital. going.) In Music, signifies that the notes are to be played distinctly. ANDR-EA'CEjfc. (Andrrca, one of the genera.) Little like plants, differing from the mosses in the want of >rculum and peristome, and in having a four-valved A NDRr.ASIiE'RfJOl.ITE. From Andreasberg, in the A mineralogical name of a species of Harmo- ANDRE'NA. The name of a Fabrician genus of bees, including those which hav,e the tongue 3-cleft, and the im cylindrical, with two membranous bristles on each ANDROC.E'UM. (Gr. dvriq, a male, and o'ikos, a house.) All that part of a flower to which the male organs apper- tain. The ring of stamens in a plant is an androcajum : ■ ■.' the mouth of the tube in the i I ether with the true stamens. The term v translated (he male apparatus. ANDRO'fJVNOl.S ((Jr. dvnn. a man, and ywn, a tro- mtDi.) An animal which ponenei the organs of both nail. An hermaphi In Physiology, the possession of the organs of both sexes in the same individual, either naturally, as in the snail; or rnaturally,as in the free martin and similar mm An hermaphrodite. In Botany, a union of both males and females, either in iwer, which is also called hermaphrodr me plant, the sexes being in different ii the birch and similar trees. The latter is what Lin- ious. A'NDRON. ((Jr. dvnp, aman.) In Grecian and Roman Architecture, the apartment ap| the reception branches of the establishment, and always in pirtof the house: the gyncecea, or women'l In the upper part. ANDROPE'TALOD8. <(Jr. dvnp, a man, and irtraXov, iking of double flowers which are men* into pet ranunculus. Most double flowers are of this VN'DRO'PIIORIJM. (Gr. dvnp, a man, or, in Botany, a I <]>tptiv,to bear.) A columnar expansion of the ir, on which (lif stamens seem in grow, iwer. In i. mad partly of g filaments, and partly of an elevation of the A'NECDOTE. (Gr. dvtxSorov, something inediled, or unpublished.) In its original sense, some particular rela- • jeet to which publicity had not been given in 'ins works on that subject, 'in its secondary irrative of a particular action or saying of an iudi- L1DES,ANELLA'TA. (Lat.anellus,a/f,'o'eri>/g'.) 'i ally, but improperly, written Annelidans or Anne- \ articulate animals with a long cylindrical divided into ring-like tving red blood, and , but no jointed extremities. The class is divided, according to modifications of the respiratory i.ilobranchiaies, Dorsibranchiates, and ;. of which the Serpuia, or tul Aplir . and the Lumbricus, or earth- ■ ly examples. .Y'TROUS. (Gr. d, priv., and tXvrpov. a I ziven to those insects which have two or four membranous wings, either naked or covered only with hairs or scales. AM'.MO'METER. (Gr. dvtjtof, the irind. and ptroov, 're.) An instrument for ni force or Velo- i tiie wind. An instrument of this son was first in- vented by Wolflus. and descrih I by him in his Elementa tens. It consists of four sails, like those of a windmill, turning on a horizontal axis. On the axis is a pen ■crew, which turns a cog-wheel, to the axis of which a r, carrying a w i i emity, is attached. When it is calm, the lever and weight assume the vertical posi- tion. When the wind acts on the sails, (he lever is in a vertical circle, to an elevation at which the weig 1 ar.tly counterbalances the force of the wind. The angle of ■.'ion of the weight is measured on a dial, the index of which turns on the axis of the cogwheel. Several im- provements have been made on this form of the Instru- ment T ie sails have sometimes been placed horizi ly ; and Mr. Renjamin Martin gave the axis the form of the fusee of a watch, having a cord winding upon it with two rhta at the ends, which answers the same purpose as r and weight, Dr. Lind's anemometer consists of a glass tube, bent in- to the form of the letter U, and open at both extremities. One of the extremities, A, is also bent round to tie zontal direction, in order that the wind may blow into it. The tube being partially filled with water and exposed to a 51 ANGIOSPOROUS. current of air, the water in the branch at which the wind enters is depressed, for example, to R, and consequently rises in the other branch to C, and the difference at C, of the levels at which it stands in the two branches, is the height ofa column ofwater.t he wei'rht of which forms a counterpoise Ie the force of the wind. The relative velocities of the wind are thus ascertained, the variation of the velocity being nearly proportional to the square root of the resist The bore of the tube is diminished at the bottom to check the undulatloi the water caused by a sudden gust of wind. Various other contrivances have been pi of which one of the simplest is to expose a flat board of given dimensions to a current of wind, and observe to what exient it will force back a spring attached to it, and restine against an immoveable obstacle. AM'.MO'MN. or am:mo\ia. An acrid cry stallisable substance obtained from some species of anemone. It burns like camphor, i'NEMOSt '() Ti: (Gr. dvtjios, wind, and a/co-zeco, J look.'} An instrument for indicating the direction of the wind, a common vane, or weathercock, is an Instrument of this kind. (Sometimes the vane turns a spindle which descends through the roof of the building into the chamber where the observation Is to : Vn Index fixed to lie points out the direction of the wind, on a com- l fixed to the ceiling. Ity means of wheel-work, the direct ndle,orthe* idex,may at the compass card may be placed on a wall of the chamber, or in any.convenient position for observation. \\l.l RISM. (Or. dvevpvvo), I dilate.) A hunoor formed by the morbid dilatation of an artery, and which is therefor. d by i's pulsatory motion. ANFRA'i I I (il- 1 ' anfnctU a finding backward and forward.) When the lobesof ananther,of the margin of any thii I hack upon itself, and doubled ami bent till all trace of its normal character is lost TI of a encumber Is anfractuous. a'ngei.. a coin oi the value of about ten shillings, h was impressed with the figure of an angel, in comm lion of a saying of Pope Gregory, (hat the beautiful, that if they were I would he ansi N \m;i:i . GOLDEN, or ST. GEORGE, or ST. CON STWI'IM:. An ancient order of knighthood, fal repotted to have been instituted by < but proha- bly by the imperial houseof Comnenus at Const ii and revived by the Emperor ' tcrship of (his order was resigned f:nd.) When seeds are inclosed within a pericarp, as in most pi ants. The word is now chiefly used in opposition to gymnospermous, when seeds are not included in a peri- carp, as in fir trees ami others. Linnteus intended to apply , m e sense ; blithe contrasted it with small-lobed seed-like fruits, which he mistook for naked seeds. ANGIO'SPOROUS. (Gr. dyytiov. a vessel, and +p3»'2 + p4r3 +pxr=t— i); and, multiplying both sides by pi v, p\ r A' =;/ r +7' « '• + pi V*. .... + px v* . On subtracting this equation from A =pi V+p3V % + pj v3 + pi vi . . . . +pi v* , we get A — pi v At =pt », whence A = pi v (1 + A';. This formula, which was found by the Euler, gives the following rule for determining' the value of ail an- nuity on a life at any age from the value of the sinie anoui- . and renders the computation of the wh much more laborious than the direct Mon of the annuity on the youngest life. "To the 1 an annuity on a life one year older, add unit ; mul- tiply the sum by the probability that the III live over one year, and also by the present value of XI to I ceived at the end of a year. The product Is the value ol the annuity on the given life." The values of deferred and temporary anuui; ilv found from the table of the Values for the whole of life. For example, let it be rean the present value of an annuity on the II Idual now aged 40, but deferred 10 years, thai commence till the expiration of 10 years. After II If the individual be then alive, the valui unity ou the remainder of his life is ihe annultj : B. The present value of jEl payable at tie- end of in years isr 0; and the probablli ing it in the evenl of an individual now aged 40 being then alive, is/- ■'ii; therefore, the present value of II BUbjecl to the contingency. Is 7^0 v 10 B. In general, the value of an annuity deterred n years, Is pn m An, where \ the annuity on a life n years older than that corresponding to A. ,' A temporary annuity on a single life for n years, is found by adding together the first n terms of the series pi v + pi v* + pi v\ &c. But it is frequently more easy to find it. by means of the deferred annuity on the same life for the fame term of years ; for it Is obvious that the temporary annuity and de- ferred annuity are. together, equal to the who!- annuity. Thus, let A be an annuity for the whole of life, At" a tem- porary annuity of the same amount for n years on the same life, and Adn the same annuity deferred n years, we shall — A — A'I«. v Annuities on Joint Lives.— The method of calculating annuities to be paid so long as two or more individuals shall continue to live together, is equally simple. Let the probabilities that A and B will live over 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. years be p', p' 2 , PS pt, &c 01, tfl, ?', 7 4 - &c. respectively, then the probability that both will live ovec 1, 2, 3. 4, &c. years win be pi 71, p?? 5 . p ; q\ piq*, *c and the value of an annuity on their joint lives, which we may denote by AB, becomes AB =pi 71 v -r-p'72f2+p3 73 B3+pt7-l Vi + Ac, continued till p or 7 becomes nothing, or to the last ane In. I le. When more lives than two arc involved, the method of proceeding is obvious. Another question of this kind frequently occurs, namely^ to determine the value of an annuity on the survivor. • ANNUITY. or more lives. Let us suppose two lives only are concern- ed : and let A be the value of the annuity on the first life, B that on the second, and AB that on the joint lives (i. e. to be paid till one of the lives shall drop). Letpx = the pro- bability the first will live over x years, and qx = the probability the second will live over x years. We shall then have 1 — px = probability 1st will die before the end of x years, 1 — qx s= prob. 2d will die before the end of x years, (I — px) (l — grx) = prob. both will die before end of* years ; and hence the probability that both will not die before the end of.r years, is 1 — (I — px) (1 — qx), which is equal to px -|- (/ ,x — px qx. This expression, therefore, is the mea- sure of the probability that a payment will be received at the end of the^th year; and supposing the annuity to be JE1, the present value of that payment certain is vx. Mul- tiplying this into the above probability, we get the value in present money of the payment to be made at the xthyear, if one or both of the lives survive, viz. px vx -\- qxvx — px qx vx. Now, if we substitute successively the numbers 1, 2, 3,4, &c. forx in this expression, we shall have the value of the 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. payment, and the sum will be the value D.f the annuity to continue during the life of the survivor. Bill it has been shown that p\ »1 -f- pivi + pivZ -f- pi vi + &c. ss A, g! el + 32 « a + 9 3 i> 3 + oi » 4 + &c - = B - pi il in r. On ar- in its orbit is irregu- . that while the real | r planet moving In the same orbit, with i i I performii in in the same from A to P. opposed, the : v 8 P is the mean ano- Himaly. The mean ano- cription : to find the difficulty, re- qulrin (from the cir- ■'. ing been first proposed by Kepler, it Is Kepler's prol ar, an exception from a general ANO'MIA. (Gr. d, without, v6uos, a law ; because not le ordinary laws of classification.) The n genus of I , apply ifthe modem I lurmia Acephalous Molluscs, having two thin valves, of which the flatten 'lie cardinal margin. The greatest part this opening to he in . which is so Icareons, and . always attacl I of the muscle serves to join one The animal 11 vestige of a . ible for the le AN'ONA (Menona, the Malayan name of II found in hot latitudes, with large iv fruit, which in some species la used as food. -.•iied front its seeds laying In a -ii-like pulp, is produced by A. squamosa; lyer, the most esteemed of all the fruits in Peru, ier: and other kinds are known. tA'CE-E. (See anoxa.) e natural illy dry and ripe camels furnished the Piper ANTENNA. •urn of the old drun shops. The great mark ol Anonaces is their having ternary (trimerous) flowers, and a ruminated albumen. ANO'NYMOUS. (Gr. dvaivvfios, nameless, from avofia, a name.) In Literature, works published without the name of the author. Those published under .-are termed Pseudonymous (ibtiSos, falsehood). The N-stcata- 1 is that of Barbier (Dictiomurire 1 1 Pseudonymee, 3 vote, Parte, is also the of Placcius, irum i-t Psevdonymorutn, t. fol. Ham- burg, i . ANOPLOTHElUUM. (Gr. uvoxXoj. .idSij. piov, beast.) The name of a genus or extinct animate ol the order Pachydermata, characterised by tin ■ shot and feeble size of tl th, which resemble the in- oily unfitted for being used as As the canines In lo not i below the level of the incisors a th, no : required iii tin- dental Beriesofthe op- posite j.tw for the reception of their pointed teeth is uninterrupted in ile In no existing animal \ loplothertum has 6 incisors, 2 canines, and 1 I ich jaw. Tie jiloihc Hum • bout the size of a wild boar, but longer in the body, with the head of an oblong form, and a i the body, ibable use was to assist the animal in swimming, itherium (.1. iroaching to I grace- lie; a third so Of the teeth, and th ! is, appear to have been sinjul irlv defii ANORE'XY. (Gr a, icit/iout. and d.orfiy, ajpetite.) ANO'SMIA (Gr. sp:iv, to bear.) A columnar process arising from the b calyx, and having at its apex the petals, stamens, and pistil. It is usually very short, and is in reality an internode be tween the whorls of sepals and petals. ANTIIOXA'NTHUM. (Gr. dvOo j, a flower, and tavQos, yellow.) A dwarf annual grass, found plentifully in tures, and having sweet-scented leaves. It is thought the fragrance of hay is owing to its presence. The fli are in oval heads, which become dull yellow when Farmers call it the sweet vernal crass. _ ANTHOZA'SIA. (Gr. dv9os, a flower, and $ao). I flour- ish.) When the leaves of a plant assume the appearance of petals. AN'TIIRACITE. (Gr. dvOpajt, charcoal.) Mineral car- bon. A difficultly combustible species of coal. A'NTHRACOTHE'RIUM. (Gr. d»6pa\, charcoal, and Stjziov, a beast.) A name indicative of die stratum in which the fossil genus of Pachyderms, to which it is ap- plied, was found, viz. in the tertiary coal or lignite of Ca- dibona, in Liguria. The genus presents Seven species, some of them approximating to the si; iter of the hog ; others approaching nearly to the dimensions of a hippopotamus. A'NTHRAX. The name of a Fabfician genus of Dip- terous insects, having the mouth provided with a verj straight setaceous sucker, formed of two unequal horizon- tal valves, and containing stings; palpi hairy; antennae distant, the last joint setaceous. Til nus is now raised to the rank of a family, Anthi racterised by a short body; win. widely em; antenna; distant, two and sometimes three jointed ; the head as high as the thorax. Two of the genera (Somalia, and Anthrax proper) are British. ANTHRE'NUS. The name of a Linmean genus o! Coleopterous insects, having the antenna club solid; palpi unequal, filiform: , , branaceous linear, bifid ; labium entire ; head hid under the thorax. A'NTHRIBUS. The name of a Fabrician genus of Coleopterous insects, applied to that section of the Liniueaii Curculiones, which has the lip bifid, the jaw bifid and short, and the proboscis short. ANTIfltOPO'GRAPHY. (Gr. dvOpornos, man, aim ypatpuv, to describe.) A branch of P. raphy which investigates the physical characteristics, loRal boun- daries, and actually existing cure races or families of men : differing from Ethnograpliv which examines their origin and affinities. ANTHROPOLOGY. ItuPO'LOGY. ((ii'. dvdpuiros, man, and Xo/»f, human nature, ill intellectual : any writing on the mtly used to d RO POMO'RPIHTES hape. Such !i always com- ItliellS. \ STHRO'POMO'KPIIOUS. <<;r. avOpioKos, a man, and \ name applii sllum in some ' ol the upper lobes to human arms, and the low- ANTHROPO PHAG1. (Gr. dvQpwrros. iiian,uin\ipayttv, ipon human tleah. (Gr. AvVot, a Jlowtr, and oi/ia, a /art.) . angcd closely on a i • Piper. Will, acofasubgci A'NI'j ' k preposition is . antibilious, an- : n se poison. ATTRITION. A compound applied to machine- . i^pa\iov, arm.) remities, .mil ulna i ither alone, or .narticu- Ih the hand. A'NTICIIAMBER. (Fr. antichambro.) In Architec- r adjoining or near a bed- principal Cham- room in a palace. in which ■ various and mi ied d:\ iin-.s baa •villi the Romish church. At the there aa- ■ Grotiua, and r Antichrist as symbolical of . Lightfoot, and J wish im- I entertained b) ( iiurch divines \. (Gr. dtri, and K\ipa\. gradation.) In ofascend- • to little. Horace • Nelnr rirticulna mm." nplea of this figure in aid eiiilow a college or i But in this case the r>ff tied by the alliteration. ANTIChl'NAI, AXIS .. against, and kWci/, • of hills or a valley be comp ne that lies between them, towards which with steep roofs facin? the south, the slates ping north and south, and the I axis (I,yell.) In the l are the anticlinal, 6 b the synclinal lines. ANTI'COUS. (Lai.) In Botany, la applied to an anther tjrle; or to a petal which flower which i. ; is stem. . i In ancient Architecture. The - lildint ; iliat which v, ! lalsouaed ■a the cell and the eolumns of . ANTINOMIANS. A'NTIDOTE. (Gr. dm, against, and <5«5w/^, I give.: linst sickness, (iv.- Poison.) A'NTli-TXA. or ANTEFIXA (Lat. ante before, and figo, I fix.) In Architecture. The ornaments of lions' and - of a temple, through perfora- tions in which, usually by the mouth, Hie water is cast away from the eaves. By some this term is used to denote tha upright ornaments above the eaves in ancient Architecture, which concealed the ends ofthe barmi, or join) tiles. ANTILI'THICS. (Gr. dvrt, against, and \iOot,astone.) Medicines used In the treatment of atone in the bladder and urinary gravel, A'NTlI.O'tiAUlTHM. In its most common ac' I is number to a logarithm. Thus, in the sommon ogarithm of 100 Son etimi i used to denote the complement of the logarithm, or the difference arithm from the next higher term in the 10, 100. ice AVI'II.OI'MIC. (Gr uvti, against, and Aoijioj, eu?ita- gion, or the plague.) K [I in the prevention and the plague. A'NTILOPfi. (Gr. dwBof, ornament, and £>d>, eye.) An which, according to I irruption ■ I "anthotop Eustathius, a i :. to the gazelle, in allusion to its beautiful eyes. . honied Ruminant I oknia), in which t' the horn i • ■■I by suborbital or maxillary glandular , and their light and t They are the for the ir.nst part, of I ble places in the warmer latitudes of the globe ; frequenting the cliffs ami ledges of mountain rocks, or the vet banks of tropical streams, or the oases of the desert. They the intervening wildernesses in pairs or in troops, with Incredible t irtog obstacles, which would the course of other quadrupeds, by a suc< unda. The antilopes are now arranged under a number of sub- generic di ■ •. which ANTIMO'MC ACID, The peroxide of antimony. {See. Anti.m ANTIMONY. A brittle metal of a silver white i ivity, 6 7. I . or just at a red heat The principal pt l< scribed in the " Cujtus Triumphalia Antimoi 1 towards the end of the thirteenth century. • I. i: gradually combines with In a white vapour. There are three I antimony. The protoxide consists of fi.j antimo- ny + 13 oxygen ; it la ■ greyish white powder, eminently c ; and aa such, of much im- ,u medicine. It is the active base of emetic tartar and of Je r. The other oxides of antimony, nbtnlng with • Jled and- monipus and an onsisi respectively oft;." antimony + 16 a 5 + 20. The combination ol chlorine and antimony was known to the old chemists un- der then many. The principal ore of i is met wiiii melted into conical moots, under the name of crude anti- mony. It is of a bluish grey colour, metallic lustre, and a • vity 4-frj; it is much more easily fusible than the pure metal. Antimony fori alloys with some of thi ble metals: h : with a two-hundredth part of antimony, the com- pound is brittle; and even the fumes of antimony in the vicinity of melted gold are sufficient to render if brittle. Alloyed whh had In the proportion of 1 to 16, and addition of copper, it forms the metal at A for printers' .- ipoimd ." plates upon which mu : graved. With iron it tonus a hard whitish alloy. celled martial regulus : 12 parts of tin and 1 of antimony form hard pewter. T id teapots are formed of an alloy of 100 tin, 8 antimony. 2 1 e stimmi, or stibium, of the old c ANTTNO'MIANS. (Gr. drt and wboj, tow.) Oppugncra ofthe law. In Theology, Antinomian aa interpret the law, to which St. Paul reli ciallv in the Epistle to the Romans, as including all n oral ordinanci r; and push the contra-;! which the laintdlns between faith and lhe ) works ol ng the entire useles good works, in nnv i i sole efficacj rti .ii is applied tothe of Antlnomia given I t ,. to the followers o the upin ions of John Agricola on (his aubji however, thai h Similar doctrines app' ' ,,i: I'-nuuuul b> ANTIPiEDOBAPTISTfS. an ephemeral sect in the time of the commonwealth: but amino ay now be taken rather as expressing the exti e lie of theology has y distinct soot or ci ither in this country or abi r ANTIP.-E'DOBA'PTISTS. In Theology. TJ object on the ground that they are not capable of understanding the nature of the rite, and of pledging themselves to such a course of life as is required ofallsu to be baptized. (See Baptists.) A'X i'lPATHES. A genus of Corticifcrous Polypes, or ah>, in which the central axis is enveloped by so soil a cortex that it falls off when the specimen is removed from water. From the colour of the axis, it is commonly called •• black coral," A'NTIPE'DES. (Eat. ante, before, pes,/«rf.) In Zoolo- gy the anterior or pectoral extret A'NTIPHLOGrSTICS. (Cir. dvrt, against, and $\oyia. >(oj. i '.) Medicines which allay inflammatory action. A'XTIPIILOGIS'TIC SYSTEM. In Chemistry, the system opposed to that of Phlogiston. {See Phlogistic.) A'NTIPHON. (Or. avTiixjiveiv. to sing against, ormutu- il Church Music, the short verse sung be- fore the psalm and other portions of the Catholic service. (Sec Anthem.) ANTI'PODES. (Or. dvri, against, and vovs, the foot.) Denotes, literally, these who stand feet to feet; that is. the inhabitants of opposite parts of the earth. They live under the same parallels of latitude, on opposite sides of the equa- tor, consequently the seasons are reversed, or, when it is summer to the one, it is winter to the other. Their longi- tude differs by 180°, or 12 hours, consequently their days and nights are reversed, that is, when it is mid-day to the one, it is midnight to the other. They have the same cli- mate, in so fiir, at least, as climate depends on latitude. Y'XTIPOPE. One that assumes the title and functions of pone without a valid election. The term more particu- larly refers to the popes who maintained themselves in op- iHon to each other, during part of the fourteenth and fif- :ecnth centuries. The great western schism was caused by die rival jealousies of the French and Italian parties in the conclave ; the French cardinals having been accustomed by their numbers, and the influence of the kings of France, !o carry the election in favour of French candidates, while the popes resided at Avignon, a period of about 70 years, from 1305 to 1376. Accordingly, when the Italian party at ie.1 in the election of Urban VI., in 13S9, the French cardinals retired from Rome, and there invested with the functions of pope one of their own body, under the ut VII. They attempted, in the first instance, la maintain themselves in Italy, and war was proclaimed del ween the two rivals. After a short struggle, Clement eated to Avignon; and there he, and his successor, idicf XIII.. held their Court, while Urban, and after nim, Boniface IX. and Gregory XII., reigned at Rome. They were supported respectively by different European states, of which France, Austria, Castile, Aragon, Savoy, Genoa, and Scotland sided with the p -coders. The schism, however, caused great scandal throughout Chris- tendom, and measures were repeatedly taken, and baffled inly by the artifices of the rival claimants, for an adjust- ment of the difference. There seemed to be three methods if proceeding to this end, and each liable to great difficul- : — 1st. By the simultaneous resignation of both pontiffs, md a fresh election. 2d. By an arbitration between them. A id, 3d. By the calling of a general council, to declare the holy see void, and recommend the conclave to fill the va- cancy. This last method was finally adopted ; though it has been constantly objected, that such a council could not be lawfully convened except by the summons of a reigning pope ; which condition certainly was not fulfilled in the in- stance of the council of Pisa. However, in 1409, the rival parties were both declared guilty of heresy and schism, and thereby the validity of both claims greatly disproved.. Alex- ander V. was then elected In due form \ and the antipopes were unable long to maintain their pretensions against the authority of a general council. A'NTIQUARY. Copiers or old books, especially in con /ents, were termed Antiquarii in the Latin of the middle ges. In modern phraseology, antiquary is defined " a per- . » n who studies and ter monuments and re- n&ins of antiquity, as old medals, hooks, statues, inscrip- ii us, ia«i not tried, PITRAOUS (Gr. iv iyoj, thetnar- '■•■lij in l ! behind the meatus audi- v, anil ratituv, to turn | iway from the hilu I hough i of parts, is nevertlt ict nature of the de\ an in8tniment of Lepidopterous In- . in which the ordinary Irophi, or instruments lor ob- achine It prin > lindrical tubes, and tlie ■ ed by which intermediate canal fiically. the utilise inordinately elongated, and they ■ palpi. Rudl upper in the head, . i l.i \ PNEl'Al \'iii ' i: Uatlon of the south- dvri, opposite, and dixoc, a hougr.) ■r ■. a term used in ■••■ the inhabitants of the globe who live i, but on opposite parallels of lati- il the day or night are the • ; that is, when it is . it is winter with the other. A'NTONOMA'SIA. (Gr. liin. instead of, and ovnu.n, a . a figure by which a ul for an appellative noun N'ero, an usurper a Cromwell, 6) nlimentary periphrasis, or an appellation ■ _• is railed -His Majesty," or Tacitus "the 'ical historians." A'NTH intrum, a cure.) An old name ap- h hollow fruits as the apple; they are now ANTRU'STIONS, otherwise styled Fidelei (Faithful) .■m. people). ! people Pranks, who were the pet or de- counts. They were nol i of holding lands by Iholr consequence of being such dependent . ired with donations of land, or benefices; which, in ag hereditary, assumed ll System.) '1 word from which Antrustion is derive! btedly which our word trust, confli AM "IMS. In Mythology, an Egyptian deity. venth, accordin 1 ; to the astron their eighl iss. The Gri d htm with Mercury. In Egyptian painting and sculpture hi fn with the head of a dog i ok of Virgil's JSneid, describing ih flict of Egypt with Rome : — Ommeen'imqiie Do'iin monntra, etlatrator AnuhU, Court Neptuamn et Venerem, contraque Miucrvam, Tela ftrunt. A'NUS. The cxcre;nen'.ary orifice of the alimentary c»- 61 APHELION. i sometimes opens directly on the exterior sui face of the animal, ;.s in most Mammals; sometimes into immon to it with the outlets of the urii ins, called the cloaca, as in most oviparous Ver- ifies into the respiratory cavity, as in most MoUusks, In Entomology, it signifies the two last segments i, and includes the podex, bypopygium, cu- and appendices. In most of the Acrttes Dlifice to the alimentary cavity, which thus i. -lions of mouth and anus. A'ORIST. ((Jr. dopioros, indrjinite.) That inflexion of which leaves the time of the action denoted un- certain. AO'RTA. (Or. drip, tn'r, and ttjoeiv, to keep.) The great arterial trunk v. from the left ventricle of the and empty ; whence the older that it was for the conveyaiii-r of air. gave jt th mo. It is single in Mammals and reptiles, and in the Ccphalopods ; triple in Al'A i.\ NO! 6. iCr. <'n ii-iij, mire, and yvvp, a female.) > oner, perishing Iran after it Hot e as monocarpic, and nearly nusil; only that, like the latter term, it In- American agave, which live fore they fructify. A'l'Al.l s. \ pi crous insects, having thi the palpi equal and filiform; the labium membra- truncate, and entire. A'PANAGE. An allowani branches ofa renuea of the conn!: ith a grant of public domains. A district . m ordinary cases, descends to Ihe /ho enjoys it A'PATITK. Native phosphate of lime (from diraraio, 1 ■ been confounded with other minerals, Al'ATl IMA. An Athenian festival, which cami 1 by the rest of the Ionians except tlto lophon and Ephesus. Two accounts are given of its ori- rives its name from Ih" Creek word dvuTii. d U was instituted in memory of s by which Melanthua the Athenian king overcame i; the other from xari)p,father, and •';//-, because ai tnJ that their nan i on tin- public register, The festival took place daya mm;. In the Zoological trictod to those . hich arc They are included in the modern sub- "glodytes, and Bylobatet, or the inzi es, and gibbons. APE'LLOl 9. (Gr. ( i. priv. and pcllis, skin.) Destitute APETALOUS. (Gr. d, priv., irtra\ov, a petal.) When B Dower nly, and no corolla. The term is sometimes extended to In which there is rtei- corolla; thus, the apeialoos plants of Jus- ute of a coron* only, or of all Horal r kind. A'I'KX. The summit or highest point of any thing. ofa pyramid, &c. Al'II K'KKIS (Gr. d, 1 take away.) In Grammar, a figure by which a or a syllable is cut off from the beginning of a word ; is in the common abbreviation, '• 't is," lor "it is." A'PHIDES, (Gr. dipi;, a puceron, or rine-fretttr.) A family of ilemiptcrous insects, commonly called "plant- inhabiting trees and plants, and living on their juices; remarkable for the anal saccharine secretion referred to in ANAL GLANDS, but more especially for a peculiarity of Iheir generative economy, particularly described by Bon- net, and which consists in the first fecundation of the fe- male influencing not merely the ova immediately dcvel- : thereafter, but those of the females resulting from that developement, even to the ninth generation, which are successively impregnated and productive without any intercourse with the male insects. Certain Coleopterous insects, which prey upon and keep in check the Aphides, arc termed Aphidi'phagi and Aphidivora (ayoj, I cat, voro, I devour), AJPHLOGI'STIC. (Gr. d(j>\oyiaros, uninflamma!,U.) Without flame or lire. APHLOGI'STIC LAMP. A lamp with a glowing wick, the combustion in which goes on without flame. A'PHONY. (Gr. d, priv., and tpwvri, voice.) Loss of APHORISM. (From the Greek dipopigsiv, to define, or A term chiefly used in Law and Medicine, 'but oc- llally also in Moral Philosophy, J Love, having reference to her upposed origin from the of the sea, dippoi.) This classical name was applied by Linnaeus to a beautiful genus of Annelidana adorned with resplendent silky hairs "and bristles, of which the sea- mouse (Aphrodita aculeuta, Lin.) of our coasts is an example. APIIRODI'TIDjE. The name of the family of Anne- lides of which the Aphrodita aculeata is the type. APHYLLA'NTHEjE. A small division of the Junca- ceous order of Endogens, comprehending the genus Aphyl- lanthus from the South of Europe, with Calcctasia and Dasypogon from New Holland. APHY'LI.OUS. (Gr. d, priv., and (pvWov, a leaf.) Leaf- less. The term is, however, often applied to plants in which the leaves are present, but so small as not to look so much like leaves as mere scales. Plants are also called is, in which, although scales of considerable size are at, there are no true green leaves: of this descrip- tion are Monotropa, Orobanche. Pyrolaaphylla, &c. APIA'CEjK. (Lat. apium, parsley.) A name recently proposed to replace that of Umbelliferee, it being construct- ed With n ore resemblance to the plan upon which the names of other natural orders are formed in Botany, than that of Urrtbelfiferas. A'PIARY. (Lat apis, a bee.) A place for keeping bee- lives. Sometimes this is a small house, with openings for he bees in front, and a door behind, which is kept locked ecurity; and sometimes it is an area, in which each particular beehive is chained down to a post and padlocked. API'CULATEf). (Lat. apex, a sharp point.) When a leaf or any other part is suddenly terminated by a distinct A'PIP.E. (Lat. apis, a bee.) One of the varieties re- sulting from the modern division of the Linnsan genua including these species which are distinguished by tne length of the terminal parts of the inferior organs of the mouth, whicti constitute a proboscis. APIO'CRINITES. (Gr. drnov, a pear, koivop, a ///>/.) Pear Encrinite. (.See Encrinite.) The name Ota of fossil Encrinites, in which the body is formed of separate pieces articulated with the stem, and supporting the rays by similar articulations, in consequence of which 02 APIS. the stem is rounded and dilated Into a pyriform figure tit its upper part. A'PION. A genus of minute Coleopterous insects, of the weevil family ( Cureulionidtz.) ; very nun erous in spe- cies: distinguishable by their elegant pear-sl protruded snout, and straight antenna?. A'PIS. In Mythology, a' bull, to which di\ were paid by the Egyptians, especially at Men phis. He was require*! to be black, with peculiar arks. One of this description was always maintain suffered to live beyond twenty-five years. He was then buried with much solen nity ; and Belzoni wo that the bones discovered in one- of the Bare terred by him, belonged to anin al. The i made by the Persian conqueror Cam by sea on the Apis, and the disasters which were supposed to have he- fallen him in consequence of that act, are detailed in the history of Herodotus, book ii. Apis. (Lat. apis, a bee.) The Linna?an genus, now subdivided into different families, is thus characti I mouth horny; jaw and lip membranaceous at the tip; tongue inflected ; feelers four, unequal, filiform ; anti short, filiform, those of the fen ale subclavate ; wings flat : sting of the females and neuters pungent, and concealed in the abdomen. The insects of this extensive genus live, bob in large societies, and some are solitary ; then nectar of flowers, honey, and ripe fruit; the larva i and without feet; the pupa n-^rw bles the perfect insect. The characters of the Linnaean genus are applies a variety of forms, now the types of nut included by Latreillc in a fan lly of Aculeate Hyn i l rous insect's, under the term Anthophila, or Mi habits of each of the subgenera of this with interest, arisin nd the separation of the individuals into three sexual modifica- tions, viz.., the prolific fen ales, or queens; (he unprolif.c females, or workers ; and the t ales, or drones. The nol- icy of the-hive bee (Apis v/rH/Jira, Lin.) has been studied with so much diligence and detail, that we pi mystery of nature with ai . and often feel in clined to regard what Iluher relat theless, the highly interesting observations of the writer. and those especially on which his reputation chiefly rests. have been confirn ed by subsequent observers, both i tilic entomologists as well as practical apiarians. The hive-bee is distinguished from all other species of the modern genus Apis, by bavin: rior pair of legs furnished with a sn ooth and concavi on the outer surface, and fringed ket adapted for the conveyance of pollen; and in I destitute of spines at the extren ity ; 1 ■ the tarsi, in the workers, being of an oblong form, with its inner surface clothed with hairs disposed in transvi rse rows; by the trophi being ol an elongated for n axillary palpi being almost obsolete ami com simile joint. The different individuals ol the social Apis me more nearly resemble fach other in their grade of d opement — as regards their locomotive powers, organs of sense, and instinctive endowments — than the ants. No in- dividual among them is without wings; and the indi of the workers, or in perfect fei least their tasks are less arduous, than fall to the lot o Apterous labourers of the ant tribes. As bees, like most other winged insects, are annua go through the whole essential i c within the year, the histoi - the whole, and we have only to choose the point in th cle at which to con n ence it. As some individuals, however, always survivi and begin to breed early in which quits the parent slock, we shah bi . and trace their operations throus The first young swarm in England is generally sent offin.Iune. The migration see,..; to depend on w« space in the mother-hive, not on an instinctive change on the part of the brood; for it there I ■ the operations of the increasing comn unity. bi naturally swarm ; and skilful apiai vantage of this circumstance, and. by h akin ! additions to the hive, retain the whole year's the same building. The swarm consists in about six or seven thousand individuals, of \ l-30th part are males, the rest females : and ol only, for the most part, is prolific, an ' queen. Her body is longer than that of either or worker; her colours are brighter and purer, ally of a darker shade : fhi - : the abdomen are of a deeper ami brighter yellow, and are times orange; the hei er than that of the unprolific female, and the b der; her mandibles are notched, and her sting is curved j but the most obvious distinctive character is the propor. AV igtncnt of the body, which i elon- irt and thick He :ht, and proportionally larger and is in their in- d re arriving at ;• than either leas bright , which li « ■ r iv. lie terms r first 'i requisite lor col- "tlice is to build thi en laid by the eider. ■e two kinds of drones ; oucn.it d And her variety of the inmates of the which are supposed >:ers. I, commonly leaves the hive in 'Iv after a shower. II their ■onger proof that instinct . d ia not aflbrd- on the them of any oriran, jiv limb : yet. the i I, they join another e neighbouring ley all lorth- •avityofan old tree ii ; nnd this, • The or pro- . uh the future consti I In th( In which the : ved in this country, the pn liflcla] hives. I many other inter- ! no effect in ion of the bee, nor ■ ire of isable. Tlie consideration of tli to i he ordinary consequences of i. and of the conditions on winch the circum- riation in the bee depend, would lead us 'lit allotted io the present subject ; but . Inquiry full of inti ; i lie variation of animals from their sue- ,1'in I. In the wild state, the young colony at first return occa- lies of provi- their crops with they leave th( wax is a pe- tion from the working bee : and having the ma- Within themselves, they immediately be- i n the comb. ribing the many-chambered nursery and e about to prepare, a few irding the material or which it Is nation of the war is a very singular and complex "The wax-makers, having taken n of honey or sugar, fro n either of which wax can '• ich other, the ig attached to le hind pair of the uppermost, and form them- s cluster, the exterior layer of which looks like i of curtain. This cluster consists of a series of fes- i or garlands, which cross each other In all directions, h most of the bees turn their back upon the ob- •■•: the curtain has no other motion than what if re- ■ layers, the fluctuations of which are co I to it. All this ti ne the nurse-bees pre> I activity, and pursue their usual employ- The wax- ble for about twenty-fourhourSjdnringwhich p • nation of wax . and thin laminae of I rally perceived under their ah lomen. O le of the la now seen land-- of the 'o the middle of t!r i ot the hive, and by turning r/3 APIS. itself round to form a kind of void, in which it can move itself freely. Ii then suspends Itself to Ihe centre of the space which it b eter of Which is about an inch. It ne\ of the laminae of wax with a pincer formed by the ; tatarsus and tibia, and drawing it from beneath the abdominal segment, one of the anterior legs takes it with its claws and carries it to the mouth." The wax has, perhaps, the i ret ion of the intcgu oilier anl- noii : it is for i the un- len, and wh< ted there seems to irritate the part, lor i wagging her abdoi .and running round, ■ to shake out the 1 nd she is generally followed by one or I eh have been attracted by her movements, and an upon the plates of wax as they fall. How i l into the wall Sactly lin- es off and join them together ; bul ind uniform sin line of tho cell shows thai some other operation musl take place*: ■ ic wall of the cell Is son elimes thicker than a scale of wax, ' '■ power of applying some i . .I to the wax- icalea, by which Ih to knead and blend them into 'ad when we rome ly alkaline, and that wax Is by alkali, it is r. that it is by this meant] that the ■ e brought Into a - Reaumur. exuding II, which was applied to the proper place by the DID then kneaded in by the mandibles; and Huber has ile- g that the lina of wax with it illy, — the serving lor a ! by elevating or w ill, causes the whole of its circn to be exp" that the . Into pieces, which drop, as they are : with hairs. Of the mand It in the fc .riband. They are then prei sented to the tongue, which i a frothy Dquor. During I all sort* of forms : tilaj theti like a trowel, which applies itself to the riband of wax : al terminating In a point After having moistened the whole ol I it re-enter the ■ but in ar. direction, when it is worl The li- quor mixed with the wax communicates lo It a I and opacity which It ha thai dneti. Ity which it possesses in il state. ommonly begin at the top or roof of their cham- ber, and build downwards, at first working irregularly, and a; it we," I 'hen building horizontal cells or a more perfect :'■ ' numerous, that they extend downwards in the form of a vertical wall ; other a-h plate of a double sel of cejls, the I applied to nd form Ihe p ilarj and the i ties which may be observed are not a) they are built. The cells are not all of the cient number of a given depth and which are necessarily adapted to Ih the future e smaller or shallowei . but the mouth oftl r to retain the honey. The is vertical co ally about half an Incl : these streets, re- lb' y I. in this ciiv of Industry, being just wid allow two bees " i io pass withoul inc Ing each other. In addition to these Interspaces, the combs rated ta various places, so as to allow a for the be.-; from one street to another, thus saving them much time. The shape of each cell is not, as might have been ex- cylindrical, or that which seem? best adapted to the form of the maggot, or even Of the bee constructor; but the only form which allows the cell to be iize in proper! ' : mattei employed, time fo be so disposed as to occupy in the hi --pace. The form <>t , the one , rposste sal. a I has to gam greater APIS. strength, and more capacity, with less expenditure of wax; (he latter consideration being one of great importance to bees, which do not secretcavery large quantity of this ma- terial: and the most profound mathematicians and most skilful bund the solution of the problem, relating to the attainment of the preceding objects, as de- rived from the infinitesimal calculus;, to have a surprising ei tenl with the actual measure of the different angles of the cell. There may generally be observed one or more cells, wider and shallower than the rest, placed either on the ^dge of a comb, or partition ; or placed against the mouths .1' the cells, and projecting beyond the general surface of '.he comb. — These are called the royal cells ; but as they are not adapted to 'tie form of the queen, nor ever lined with the silken covering of the chrysalis, the supposition that the queen is bred in them seems improbable. Having now generally described the comb, we return to the consideration of those instinctive operations by which its several compartments are furnished with their destined contents. The comb seems at first to be formed entirely for propa gation, and, indeed, to be essentially related to that func- tion ; for if the workers lose their queen, they make no combs; and the reception of honey is, therefore, its se- condary use. Wasps and hornets make combs, although they collect no honey. As soon as the young colony has prepared a few combs, the female begins to exclude her eggs. The first that she lays produce the imperfect females, or workers ; the sub- sequent ones produce the males, and, perhaps, the fer- tile females, or queens. The eggs are deposited at. the bottom of the cells, often before they are half completed; they adhere generally by one end to the cell. In about five days the little maggot is hatched, and is seen lying at the bottom of the cell, coiled up in a transparent fluid. Now begins the additional employment of the labourers, that of feeding and nursing the young maggots ; for this purpose new materials must be collected abroad, and brought into the hive. At first the bees of a young colony fly out singly, and afterwards collectively. They direct their flight generally in a straight line, or the nearest way to the destined object, and often travel to great distances from the hive. In sum- mer time they may be seen almost everywhere where flowers bloom. In April and May they are abroad the whole day ; but in the hot months they venture out less frequently, generally in the morning and evening, at which times it is more easy for them to form the pellets of the pollen, the grains of which adhere together less strongly during the heat of noon-day. liees do not like wet weather ; yet it is, perhaps, less the presence of rain, than the changes in the degree of light, which deters them from venturing abroad at this time: for they possess lanre and complex organs of sight, and when clouds collect quickly over the clear sky, they are seen to hurry hack in ureal numbers to the hive ; while, if the sky be uniformly overcast, it is not merely a shower of rain that will drive them back : many of the actions of the bee prove, on the contrary, how essential moisture is for them. The bee does not take honey indiscriminately from every flower ; in the meadows they may be seen generally upon the Orchidere, Polygonia, Caryophylacea, but seldom, if ever, upon the RanunculacecE, perhaps on account of some poisonous quality. The oleander (Ncrium oleander, L.), which yields poisonous honey fatal to thousands of flies, is carefully avoided by bees; and the crown imperial (Fri/il- laria imperialism I,.), the white nectaries of which are so conspicuous, tempts in vain the passing bee. They are, however, extraordinarily activ^ in spring at the blossoming of the Ameiiiacese, Rosacea; (especially the dog-rose), and the balsamic, lilies, Primulacese, &c. ; and are, above all, allured by the innumerable flowers of the lime (especially Tiiia parvifolia). and their hum may be heard among the branch wee. The 'finest flavoured and most delicate honey is collected from aromatic plants; and it is therefore always advisable to have large beds of borage, mignionette, lemon thyme, and sage in the neigh- bourhood of bee-hives, Those flowers which yield a nectar Innocuous to the bees themselves, but possessing poison- ous qualities when taken by man, are sometimes frequent- ed by bees, and the honey derived from them acts like a poison. The description by Xenophon of the intoxicating or maddening honey, which so violently affected a number of the ten thousand Greek soldiers in his celebrated retreat, lias been confirmed by the observations of Tournefort. And Dr. Barton, in his account of the poisonous honey col- lected from the Kalmia latifolia by the bees in Pennsylva- nia, justly observes, that there is more of poetry than phi- losophy in the following lines of Pope : — • " hi the nice bee what sense 90 subtly true, From poisonous herbs extracts the healing dew." The honey which is swallowed by the bees passes into the crop, where it in accumulated as in a reservoir, and 64 APIS. upon the return of the bee to the hive is regurgitated into a honey cell. If any honey had been previously accumu- lated there, the bee breaks through the firm cream-like crust which always forms upon the exposed surface of the honey; and it is this crust which maintains the honey in the horizontal cells. The collection of the farina, or pollen, of flowers, is a great object of the industry of bees. In large flower the tulip, the bee dives in ; and if the poller, receptacle, or anther, be not burst, she biles it open, ami comes out sin- gularly disguised, being covered over entirely with the fer- tilising dust, which adheres readily to the Cringed hairs of her body and legs. Aristotle, who was well acquainted with much that is in- teresting in the economy of the bee. was the first to ob- serve that, a bee, during each single excursion from the hive, limits her visits to one species o( flower. Modern naturalists have confirmed the general accuracy of this statement, and have noticed that the pollen with which a bee comes home laden is always of the same colour. The m crssity of this instinct arises out of the operation which the pollen first undergoes when collected by the bee. *he rakes it out with incredible quickness by means of the first pair of legs: then passes it lo tin? middle pair, which transfer it'to the hind legs, by which it is wrought up into little pellets. Now, if the pollen were taken indiscrimi- nately from different flowers, it is probable that the grains, being heterogeneous, would not cohere so effectually. Certain it is, that bees enter the hive, some Willi yellow pellets, others with orange, pink, white, or even green coloured ones; but they are never observed to he party- coloured. Through this instinct, another important end is gained, in relation to the impregnation of flowers: the pro- duction of hybrid plants by the application ol tie.- pollen of one species to the stigma of another is avoided — while those flowers are more effectually fertilised, which require the aid of insects for that purp When a pollen-laden bee arrives at the hive, she gene- rally walks or stands upon the c wings, and three or four of her fellow citizens assist in her of her load ; or the laden bee puts her two hind into a cell, and with the intermediate pair, or the extremity of the abdomen, brushes off the pellets. These are then kneaded into a paste at the bottom of the cell : and several cells are thus filled with the packed ani pollen, which is called bee-bread. Besides the honey and farina, bees also collect a. pecu liar substance, like gum-resin, which wa poliu 1 by Pliny ; and this they obtain principally from the bal- samic buds of the horse-chestnut, birch, and 1 daily the Papuhis balsamifera, I.. Th 1 soft, red, will pull out in a thread, and is aromatic. It is em- ployed in the hive, not only in fipishil . but also in stopping up every chink or orifice !>;. which cold, wet, or any enemy can enter. Like the pellets ol pollen, it is carried on the posterior tibia?, hut tin lenti- cular. Having thus tracei Ihe working bees relating to the collection of ti 1 quired in the economy of the hive, we shall now t irvte, which are the immediate objects of all this industry. The bees may be readily detected oung maggot, which opens its lateral jaws ti bee- bread, and swallows it. The well-fed ; too large for its tough outer skin, and accordin rly easts it ; when its bulk has increased so that it tills its cell, it then requires no more food, and is ready to be inclosed for the chrysalis state. The 'last care Is is to cover over the mouth of the cell with a suh.-t; 1 brown colour, apparently a mixture of wax and farina. This takes place gem rally four he larva was excluded from the egg. The incli ins m line the cell, and covering of the aperture before with a silk, which it spins from e ilarto those of the silkworm. When the first three segments ol the trunk, to which the locomotive org 1 rfect insect are attached, begin to he ei -skin splits along the hack, and is pu head backwards, and deposited at the bottom 1 and if then becomes a chrysalis. Now the v take place, partly by a. formation of new organs, partly by a development of pre-existing ones, which end at la.-t in jiletion of the perfect Mr. Hunter ascertained the duration of the 1 the bee to be, in one instance, thirteen days and twelve hours, exactly ; making the period of .In . from the first deposition of the egg, to be twenty-two days and a half, — a remarkably brief time for the completion ol the tamorphoses, as compared with that in 1 orre spondlng changes are effected in other 1 When Ihe bee first comes forth it is of a greyish colour, but soon assumes the ordinary brown tints. When the season of oviposition and the- rearing of t"_\t larva? is over, then the business of collecting homy geri ously begins ; and when the last chrysalis of the season hai APIS. uisclosc! ell is immediately filled with hone er with wax, to serve as a store .! the prolific fe- ■ following in the air. The -lit. The a similar e unpro- were con- not loiter kers ;it a mt piiich '. From 1 lias taken . and that luring the i months, |wil mid produce the larvae etting in i very quiet, they are with most other . and have superior to that i ins in July, when the that of the inte- •■ s^ J ; and in December, the ed a tcm- extremely aiotain their i the product dy to lake advantage ■ n Bring ■v it. They void their ex- they are in i propriety ; and when purposely confined f food, they have been known : nance to defile '•lions during tin" 1 win- ter influx lition of the oviducts in i ly to expand, and are iion in the month of March. This makes H the insects of Eng- land. Tl ustomed duties, tig the provision the store of bee -bread, laid tip in the nee of the to form the first sw.irm. As soon, i to blow, the bees By forth to gather fresh pollen, propolis, and honey, and the labours of mmence. It appi i>rescnceofthplarv«, which are des- tined to become perfect females, which stimulates the old the hive. After repe - to pene- trate their cells, and destroy her royal progeny, she be- r agitation to a portion ther with her, rush out of the i new domicile. It I in every i swarm ; the labourers a pay particular attention to the royal larva that ■ iK.il the hi K-iently enlarged. I . not only the recently hatched young >n of the old inhabitants. Some as- sert that the queen, which leads each swarm, is impregnat- <:<■<■ (he new colony is settled ; and, as this may ■ in the summer, she begins to oviposit the Phe number of ova which are fertilised by a ■ Is prodigious: Huber calculates that the ui two months; while, according to of 200 a day. The du- ration ol rerent individuals of the hive varies : that of the male bee is not more than two or three months ; more doubt respecting the longevity of the work- ers, but it is probable that it does not extend much beyond f> year, The term of the queen's existence has been slated to have been prolonged for five years; but this is rendered tble by the fact that all insects of the same species • duration of existence allotted to them. The 1 1 meUiftea, I,.) was originally limited in i :al range to the Old World, whence it. has been transported to America, and other countries where European colonies have been established, and where it Is now acclimated. The distinguished entomologist La- treille, on whose authority we state this fact (Regiie Animal. ■jn of the apotome to the Apotome. In Geometry, a term employed by Euclid • le the re- i two lines or quantities com- ■ by the ej —1. In the tenth hook of his Ele- apotomes into six clasaes. a.'POZEM. (Gr. dm, and (civ, to boil.) An old Phar- rm for a decoction. APPA'RENT. A term used in Astronomy to denote to the eye. in what I hey hus, the apparent altitude ofa star denotes which its line of vision makes with the hide is found by making a i is of parallax, which CaUSi "i it would if there The apparent diameter of a planet is measured ' :t lines drawn from the eye to oppo- site poin' |oinuig those points ; while astronom der which the dia neter would be nth, the true diameter. T horizon denotes the plane which is b , mgenl to tl a the place of the observ irizon is a o earth. Apparent motion is the in which a body appears to movi wlin i-- h diurnal west arises from tory motion of i. apparent u bv the sun' le mean time is that which won!. I be •'. by the sun if its angular velocity in its o "fm. APPARITION. Ill a general sense, tneai or semblance of any tiling; but the word spectre, or the pr< I tural appearances has been entertained eminent men; but it ha3 chiefly prevailed in ti torance and superstition, and has eitherwhi or had a comparatively limitcr) influence i I «««d times. Set II bbert's Philosophy of Apparitions. APPEA'L. In Law, 1. The removal ofa cause from an toferior court to a superior. 2. An accusation of a crimi- APPRENTICE. nal offence by one subject against another. The bringing of the courts of Scotland and Ireland, or I of chancery in England, before the house of lords, is pecu- liarly kn. led an appeal in the first sense. Criminal ap- {■■: thoscjon charges not capital have ong been so. Appeals of treason and of felony i r period: the latter had doubtlft origin in the early jurisprudence of the (Jolhic nations, by . acts of violence or injury were redeemable by a the parly injured or his nearest relative. They were put an end to by slat. 59 G. 3. c. 46. (.Set \Ya- OER Of' IlATTLE.) APl'E.V'RANCE. In Law, the act whereby a defendant uses the process by which that action cod against him: originally by appearing ir . nicy, in court ; now, by filing common id to a writ of capias, by delivering a memo- m riling to an officer of the court, in answer to a us, &c. APPK'LLANT. In Law, the party by whom an appeal ! an order of n agistrate to the quarter i the decision ofa court of equity to the ! ly is termed respondent. APPE'NDAGE. In Botany, all parts which are regu- ed round any other part are called appendages; the axis : so are all the parts of a j ; the supernumerary sepals in a straw- lyx; the abortive stamens torn the calyx of a passion-flower are append- \ ; and so on. ■T,M>'i( l LATE. Having appendagea Tlie word I to all those plants which are furnished with Ic f the axis.) APPE'NDIX. In Literature, a supplement added at the end of a work, either to contain portions of the subject I been omitted, or separate pieces and extracts from other works bearing on it : sucn as are termed in French pieces justifica APPE'NSUS. (l.at. appendo, I hang up.) V- ovule is not exactly pendulous, but is attached to the pla- centa by some point intermediate between the apex and ddle. A'PI'IAN WAY. The most celebrated of the I, rom ancient Rome. It was constructed by Hie I '! uidius, a. v. c. 442 ; and comim Ian, extended to Capua, limit of the empire. It was formed of stones Died, and was wide enough for two chariots On each side was a ditch for carrying off A/PPLE. (Gr. dztos, a uildpeur.) The cultivated fni . (he er.ib apple of our hedges. All the nu are said to have 1 slowly from improvements of this wild sort. A I melioration commenced is unknown ; but, as Pliny w I with several kinds, it is reasonably it is to be assigned to quity If it could be true that pippins, seedling it ! only at the en*. itury, we should have to five the southern of having furnished us with which the valuable varieties we n sess have been derived. Hut there is no doubt tl: of some kind have been known in England from long be- Conquest, and although they may have been of bad quality, and fit for '■ vet they could hardly nave foiled to produo 'valuable qualities. The term apple i position to any large fli pie, thorn-apple, APPOGIATU'RA. (Ital. appo upon.") In all note preceding a larger one of greater dura ■.'which it borrows one half of ils value : sometimes, • r, it is only one quarter in duration of the note | which it pre'- APPORTIONMENT. In Law, the dividing of a rent, rding to the number and proportion ot the pai the land is divided. APPRAISEMENT. The valuation of goods sold under rent due, by sworn appraisers, under severa. (See DisTRBsa.) APPREHENSION, SIMPLE. In Logic, is that act or condition of the mind in which it receives a notion of any . said to be either incomplex or complex : the r being the apprehension of one object, or of severa. relation between lb'' u," "cattle;' several, with such a relation, as "a man on rd of cattle." APPRENTICE. (Fr. apprendre, to team.) A person hound by indenture, for a certain term, to perforin servi- cer, receiving, in return, instruction in a trade upation ; and, in most instances, necessary food and ing. Apprenticeship seems to have originated, togetli- ' er with guilds and fraternities, in the middle ages, beven APPROACH. anon term of apprenticeship in Germany. =.s well us in England ; but other periods, as three and eight, have been customary in different trades, places, and limes. tier period was fix§d in England by the statute 5 Eliz. c. -1., which regulated apprenticeship throughout the general. By 54 G. 3. c. 96., the legal force of ■ship was finally destroyed ; that is, persons were exercise their respective trades without having served; London, and a few other corporate towns, being i. Apprenticeship is, therefore, now only rccog- the law as the mode of learning a trade. APPROA'CII. In Fortification a term given to the trench ed way by which a besieging army may advance from its camp to the wall of a fortress without being cx- the fire of the defenders. Approaches sometimes , covering masses only, formed of earth in bags, . stuffed gabions, woolsacks, bales of cotton, or oth i" materials within reach. Approach, Curve of. In Geometry, the name given to ises this property, — that a heavy body ing along it by the force of gravity, makes equal to tl orizon in equal portions of time. It losed by Leibnitz, and its properties investigated by Bernoulli and others. Approach Uoad. In Landscape Gardening, is the road ids from the public or main road, through a park tire ground, to the mansion of a country residence. In the ancient or geometric style of gardening, this road was bounded by lines either straight or regularly curved, and was generally accompanied by one or more rows of each side, at regular distances: but in the modern style, the approach road is led in graceful sweeps, which ■ire made to appear as if they were determined by existing circumstances, either in the surface of the ground, or in the trees or other objects which are placed on it. There I e no bend in an approach road for which there is not an obvious and sufficient reason, either naturally existing, or created by art. APPROPRIATION. In Landscape Gardening, is the ast of so blending the scenery of one estate with that of the others that adjoin it, as to make the one subservient to the other, in a scenic point of view. This is effected by appropriate fore-grounds, in the estate at command, to the distant views, in the estates not at command ; or in fields immediately adjoining, by imitating in our own field what is contained in the field of our neighbour: thus, if the park of A. should be chiefly planted with pines and firs, and that of B. chiefly with oaks ; A., in order to appropriate the scenery of B., must substitute oaks for a part of his pines and firs; more especially in the imme- diate vicinity of the grounds of B. AFPRO'VER. In Law. a person who being indicted of treason or felony, and not disabled from giving legal evi- dence, upon his arraignment, before any plea pleaded, con- e indictment, and takes an oath to reveal all trea- sons and felonies that he knows of, and therefore prays a i enter his appeal or accusation against those that rtners in the crime contained in the indictment. APPROXIMATE. In Zoology, when the teeth are so arranged in the jaws, that one passes on the side of the id there is no intervening vacancy. APPROXIMATION. (Lat. proximus', nearest, next to.) ing near to. In Mathematics, quantities are said to be approximate which are nearly but not absolutely equal In a general sense, the term approximate may be applied ■ result of natural philosophy or experimental science. For example, the magnitude of the earth, the distance of the sun, the masses of the plants, in fact, all the elements of astronomy, are only known nearly, or by approximation. In these cases, however, the want of ab- solute knowledge arises from the imperfections of our senses, or the errors of our instruments. In the language of Analysis, approximation is used to denote those methods of calculation by which we obtain near values of quantities which cannot be found accurately, either on account of the nature of their composition, or the imperfections of our methods of calculation. The problem of finding the length of the circumference of a circle, by means of inscribed polygons, affords an in- stance of approximation to the values of geometrical quan- tities. It is a principle in Geometry, that any arc of a cir- cle, however small, is greater than its chord. Now, sup- pose a regular polygon of 100 sides to be inscribed in a cir- cle, and that we know the exact length of one of the sides ; it is evident that the sum of all these lengths will give an approximation to the length of the circttmferenee, though it would fall short of it by a very sensible quantity. Hut suppose that, instead of a polygon of 100 sides, one of 1000 sUes were inscribed in the circle, the a| lengths of the sides would now approach much mot J3 the length of the circumference. By continuing to multiply the number of sides, we may obtain an approxi- mation to any degree of nearness we please ; but whatever iie number of the sides of the polygon may be, their sum 68 APRIL. will never be exactly equal to the circumference, for tliej are only the chords of small arcs, which of necessity are smaller than the arcs to which they belong. Numbers are formed by successive additions of unity which is necessarily a finite quantity. In consequence ol this linitude, it may be affirmed that no magnitudes which flow, or increase, by insensible degrees, can be expressed generally by numbers. For example, let a straight line bt taken at random, and suppose that we wish to detei length, our unit of linear measure being one foot. On ap plying successively a scale divided into feet to the different parts of the given line, the chances are infinity to one that the last division does not exactly coincide with the ty of the line. We may diminish our unit by reducing it to an inch, or to the hundredth or the thousandth part of an inch; the chances of ultimate coincidence will not thereby be increased, though the difference between the last divi- sion of the scale and the extremity of the line may be di- minished till it becomes smaller than any quantity be pleased to assign. Precisely similar to this is what takes place when we attempt to express by decimals a vulgar trac- tion whose denominator is not a measure of any pi ten. Thus, the fraction ^, expressed decimally, is .33333, &c. The first figure of the series gives the approximate value 3-tenths ; the first twofigi hundredths: the first three, 333-thousandths, and so on ; the addition of every figure to the series making the difference of its value from 1-third ten times smaller. The difference may, there- fore, be diminished till it becomes smaller than any assign able quantity, but it can never entirely disappear. Another instance of the necessity of having recourse to approximation, is presented in seeking to find the roots of numbers. If a number is not an exact square, its square root cannot be expounded by rational numbers, v. i tegcrs or fractions. The same thing occurs with respect to numbers which are not cubes, and so on. In these eases exact numerical values of the roots cannot be found. Ie other cases exact values may exist, though our methods o/ analysis are not sufficiently perfect to enable us to diseovei them. Notwithstanding the successive efforts of the great est algebraists since the days of Lucas de Borgo, no gene- ral method has yet been discovered of solving i of a higher degree than the fourth; consequently, the values of quantities involved in such equations can only be obtained approximately. It is to this subject that iheatten tion of our best writers on analysis has chiefly bi - ed ; in fact, the discussion of the different methi i proximating to the roots of equations of the higher degreei forms one of the principal subjects of pure Al: The method of exhaustion, by which the ancient mathn maticians attempted to find the rectification and quadrature, of the circle, was the first instance of a sye of approximation. The Indivisibles of Cavalleri effected the same object in a more rapid and general manner, and prepared the way for the differential calculus. The inven- tion of the method of infinite series led immediately to ge- neral methods of approximating to the valuesof all radical quantities, and subsequently to the roots of all kinds of com. pound equations whatever. Vieta was the first who showed how to find successive values of the roots of equations, each approaching more nearly to the true value than the preced- ing ; but his method was tedious and imperfect. Other methods, more easy and general, have been given by vari- ous mathematicians; among which, the best known are those of Newton, Halley, and Raphson, at have been proposed al a later period by Lagrange. Legen- dre, Budan, and others. Thi drawn from the most abstruse parts of the theory of equa- tions, and could not be explained in this place with fhe de- tails necessary to render them of any use. For the best information on the subject, we may refer the reader to the excellent work of Lagrange, " Traite" de la Resolution des Equations Numeriques : : ' the " Nouvelle Me*lhode pour resoudre les Equations Numeriques" of M. Budan ; the "Supplement a 1' Essai stir la Th€orie des Non bt Legendre ; and the article Equations, in the Em;. Britannica. by Mr. Ivory. (See Equations.) A'PRICOT. (Lat. prtecox, early, or Arab, berkhach, butter fruit.') The fruit of Armeniaca vulgaris, a native of Cachmere, and probably of the mountains of (.'annul, and cultivated from Persia and the typl throughout the temperate parts of the world. In its wild apricot is a small round pale waxy yellow fruit, rosy on one side, and agreeably subacid ; in that stab i: is dried in large quantities under the name of mishmish : in its mosl in. proved state it becomes three times as large and sweetet. : but it is then apt to become insipid. For tin 1 confectioner's purpose, the Brussels and Breda apricots, which are near approaches to the wild fruit, are better adapted than t'-e larger and sweeter kinds. A'PRIL. The fourth month of the year. The name is probably derived from Lat. aperire, to open, either from the opening of the buds, or of the bosom of 11. e eartb t» producing vegetation. A PRIORI. n. 1'RIO'RI. (T >ri.) In Philosophy and Rhetoric, is a phrase somewhat loosely applied to de- tood 10 it conclusion is drawn no ler the conse- time, nr in thi the mercury sinks, there- fore it will ram/' - incut drawn from an au- nt in time, d ' A murder ■•ion, as hav- iment bis en- ould aflbrdacause fur his committing order. On the other hand, rty falls under ii quit the house at a par- Mi on his clothes: these a either from it, or from ef- rutnent favour of the i God, drawn from certain primary alio ion course of reasoning to una truth from the to instance of the latter or a pos- A'PcUDES, or A PSES. (Or. drnnc, circfe, or cwrrofure.) he orbit of a pi which it is 1 the straight hue joining it points 01 the orbit are the 1 1 at which a from the sun. pais; conaequ lion, and the these two points, which the orbit, is called Die line of ii ingular mo- the planet's orbit; and the time which olution with regard {See Aphe- M.Y.) APTENODV TI.S. (Gr. d. priv., irr^of, that can fly.) . for flight, covered with Bns ur ling under « .. with four toes, all turned (on I. lh" fourth very The lightly the bill, con The Patagonian penguin is the MS. \l'l': HA (Or. d, priv., -artoov, awing : i the class of s in different systems of naean system it is the seventh or- itfnguished by their having no wings. Kirby makes bis Aptera the twelfth order of the ciaBS of ; that it is not a natural one, and limits the definition of it to those insects which are apterous, lit in Latrail an order of A'PTEROllS. In Botany, denotes any part of a plant ilitute of membranous expansions. The term in distinction to alate, or \\ A'PTERYX. (Or. ii, priv., irrfptif, a trim?.) A genus of birds represented by an extremely rar native i, id, in which the wings are reduced to a defensiv A/PTHOUS. ((Jr. Snrctv, to inflame.) Resembling or Apt ha, the d the thrush. A'PUsS. A name ap] polo to a cart of Bnl is; characterised by a flattened, semi- transparent, membranous envelope, which protects the like a shell, having ifl posteriorly; and bearing in front two large eyes, placed close together, with a third smaller one behind. The f logs are long, ••iitary, and branched, representing antennae; f mauling sixty pairs are si and modified so as to form a re in ; according to the struc- ture which characterises the Br . or gill-footed order, to which the Apus belon : Apus ir in immense numbers in our freshwater pools; they prey chiefly on tadpoles; and some at': th of an half. APYRE'XJA (Gr. d. priv., ami zvpcrds, fever.) The ■ion of feverish disorders. A'l'YROUS. (Gr. d. priv., and jtvo, fire.) A term for- merly apple ices which resisted a strong heat without ens A'QUA. (A Latin word of uncertain derivation, but pro- bably from »qua, smooth, or level.) Water. It is often al- B9 AaUEDUCT. igliclsed, as in the words aquavitsc, aquafortis, aquamaj AQUA FORTI8. Nitric acid. A'Ql AMARi'NE. Set Beryl. AQ.UA REGIA A nurture of nitric and muriatic acids, from its power of dissolving gold, the king of the AQUA TOFI'ANA. See Acuet: a. AU1 A'KILM. (Lai. aqua, irater.) In Horticulture. A ?, in which only aquatic plants are grown. pond or cistern, containing uiace, in which pots an the plants. Aul'.v'KIls. J%e Waterbearer. The eleventh sign ol ugh which the sun moves in part ol the of January and February. Also, one oi the twelve zodiacal conatell AQUATICS. AQUATTLIA. (lat aquaticus.) A name applied by Nitzch to an order of birds; 1 lie, to a division of Gr by Lamarck, to a family of bugs (Ct'micute); each of which groups Includes animals which live in, swim on, or fre- llelS. AQUA'TK: plants. Plants which grow in which may be either running or stagnate. In tin '.ire called river plants; In the latter, pond plants. .1 are called marine plants. A/QUATEMT In En- graving, a n resembling an In .GRAVING.) A.'QUEDUCT. (La , and ductus, a conduit.) A conduit or channel for conveying water from oi to anothi r for the purpose of conveying the water of distanl >!v of large cltii The largest and ma ■■' aqueducts, with the are acquainted, were the work of ins; and the ruin- Italy and oilier countrie laments of tin The aqueduct of Ap ■ ■nt, and constructed In tl It convej 1 Ity, from a di between 7 and s miles, I length. The aqueduct ol circuit of three miles, and afterwards, forming a vault of it ran :{s mill , ition of 70 L... ' I of three distinct channels, placed one above the other, CO water from thn flowed the Aqua Julia; in the second, tie and in I!. \qiiu Martia. The d hv Agripp In length. ' 1 and finish veyed the water t; . This aqueduct forme:! ngth, and was supported 00 through tl attraction, that it continues to supply the cilv with water to the present day. The water river Anii conducted to 1: : the first was carried through f>\' miles them upwards of 10x0 feet in h • Rome at the com Nerva. five others \. "d hy that 1 under the superintendence of Julius Frontinus; ana it ap- pears that at a later p. , ier amounted I ty. The supply Of H works was enor ; We may therefore extend the supply, when till tl ducts were in action, to the enormoi t of water.' Reckoning the populai 1 million, which it probably never exceed would furnish no less than o0 cubic, feet for the daily con- sumption of each Inhabitant"— (Leslie's Element* vept away by the descent of ice down the river; those at the extremities still remain entire. ■ueduct of Segovia, in Spain, is in a still more per- than that of Metz. About 150 of its arcades re- main, all formed of large stones without cement. There rows of arcades, the one above the other, and the ; the edifice is about 100 feet, passing over the )• part of the houses of the city. ucts have been constructed in modem times, par- ticularly in France, which rival those of the ancient Ro- mans. One of the most remarkable was constructed by Louis XIV., for conveying the waters of the river Eura to Versailles. It extends about 4400 feet in length, or nearly seven-eighths of a mile, and is upwards of 200 feet in height, li contains 242 arcades, each divided into three rows, forming in all 726 arches of 50 feet span. The intro- duction of cast-iron pipes, which has only taken place with- in the last century, has superseded the use of such expen- sive structures. A'QUEOUS SOIL Agr. and Hort. Soil naturally abounding in water, the fluid being supplied by springs in the subsoil. AQUE'TTA. (Hal. little water.) A celebrated poison used by the Romans under the pontificate of Alexander VII. It was probably a preparation of arsenic, and was also oder the name of aqua Toffana, from a woman of the name of Toffana. who prepared it at Naples. AUUIFOLI'ACEJE. (Lat. Aquifolium, the holly.) A na- tural order of Exogens, connecting the monopetalous with : etalous subclasses. The whole of the specil s are either shrubs or trees, and scattered over most parts of the world. Ilex, Trinos, and Cassia are the commonest genera. A'QUILA. (Lat. aquila, an eagle.) The genus of Ac- t-.ipitrine or Raptorial birds, including the eagles proper, or lecies of the Linnaean Falco which have no trench ant tooth and corresponding notch in the beak. A'QUILA ALBA. (Lat. the white eagle.) An alchemical name of calomel. The old chemists designated sal ammo- niac and other sublimates by the term aquila. AQUILARIA'CEiE. (Aquilaria, eagle wood, one of the ,: d to rhymelacesB. Thespo- but little known. The Aquillariaagallochum is the produces the eagle or aggul wood, and which, in all probability, was the aloes wood of Scripture. ARABE'SQUE. (French.) Painting and Sculpture, af- ter the Arabian taste. This is a term applied to a species of ornament, capricious, fantastic, and imaginary, consisting [ii fruits, flowers, and other objects, to the exclusion, in besques, of Hie figures of animals, which religion lot bade. That the Arabians originated this sort of orna- monl is not the fact; it was known to and practised by the at a very early period. Foliage and griffins, with ornaments not very dissimilar to those of the Arabians, were by no means unfrequent in the friezes of temples; and on many of the ancient Greek vases at Herculaneum, 07i the walls at the baths of Titus, at Pompeii, and many es, elegant examples of this species of decoration arc to be found. It is, however, to Raphael that we owe the most splendid specimens of the style, which he digni- fied, and left in it nothing to be desired. Since his time it has been practised with varying and inferior degrees of specially by the French in the time of Louis XIV. Arabesques lose their character when applied to large ob- isher are they appropriate where gravity of style is required. A'RABLE. (Lat. arare, to plough.) Land fit to be iDto a state of tillage, or ofaration, A'RABOTEDE'SCO. (Ital. arabo, and tedescho, Ger- noan.) In Painting and Sculpture, a style of art composed of Moorish, Roman, and German-Gothic. ARA'^EJE, or AROIDEiE. (Arum, one of the genera.) Acrid Endogens, with the flowers arranged upon a spadix, I within a spathe. In hot countries they some- times become arborescent; in many cold countries they are unknown. Most commonly they arise from a fleshy Hind tuber, from which an eatable frecula is pro- cured by washing away the acrid matter. Their flowers ost destitute of floral envelopes; the sexes are mostly placed in different flowers, and their embryo has a slit on one side. Caladium seguinum, the dumb cane of thfi West Indies, derives its name from its juice paralysing the muscles of the mouth, if chewed ; nevertheless, the • 'certain c.aladiums are eaten by the negroes like spinach, but they are too acrid for an European palate. ARA'CHNOID. (Gr. dpaxi'1, a Sjrider, and ti$os,farm.) like. It is an Anatomical term, applied to the the vitreous humour of the eye, and to the thin sic placed between the dura and pia mater of the ! rain. AH ACIINI'DANS, ARACHNIDA. (Gr. dpaxvi, aspider.) \ class of Apterous, spider-like Condylopes, having the head confluent with the chest, and the body, consequent- ly, c insisting of but two segments, with eight legs, smooth 70 ARBORESCENT. eyes, and the sexual orifices situated on the thorax, or an terior part of the abdomen. ARjEO'STYLOS. (Gr. dpaio;, vide, and Xof, a col- umn.) In Architecture, that style of building in which the distance between the columns used is four and sometimes rive diameters; the former, however, is the distance to which the term is strictly applied. It is only suited to the Tuscan order. AROEOSY'STYLOS. (Gr. dpaios, wide, cvv, with, and oruXoc,o column.) In Architecture that style of building in which four columns are placed in a space equal to eight diameters and a half. In this arrangement the central in- tercolumniation is equal to three diameters and a half, ani the others on each side only half a diameter, by which coupled columns are introduced. I ARALIA'CEJE. (Aralia, one of the genera.) An order of Exogens, differing in little from the Apiaceous or umbel- liferous plants, except in having more than two parts in their fruit. They are commoner in hot than in cold lati- tudes, and form an unexpected transition from Apiacese to Vitaceee. The only state of them in Europe is the diminu- tive Adoxa moschatellina. ARANEFDANS. ARANE'IDJE. fjLat aranea, aspider.) A tribe of the Pulmonary order of Arachnidans, with a co- riaceous integument; modified antenna?, or chelicers, con- sisting of a single joint armed widi a claw, perforated nenr the apex for the transmission of venom ; breathing by pul- monary ones, which are either two or four in number, with the abdomen pedicellate, and the arms provided with four or six spinnarets. ARANEO'SUS. (Lat. aranea, a spider.) Covered with hairs crossing each other like the rays in a spider's web. A'RAR. The Barbary name of Inula articulator the tree whose wood is chiefly used by the Mahometans of Af- rica for the construction of their mosques, and whose resin is the sandarach of commerce. ARA'TION. Agr. Lands are said to be in a state of aradon, when they are under tillage. ARA'TOR. Agr. Literally a ploughman, hut common ly applied to an arable farmer. ARATJC*/RIA. (Araucanons, a tribe of Indians in the southern pasts of Chili.) Fir trees with very rigid branches, having leaves like scales, either small and sharp pointed, or stiff, spreading, and lanceolate. The cones consist of leaves something like those of the stem, only longer, and con- taining large seeds. Two species occur in South America, and two in New-Holland. A'RBALEST. (Lat. arcubalista, a cross-bow.) This weapon is supposed to have been introduced into European armies by the crusaders, although used lorn: before in the chase (in England as early as the reign of Willi. ■ Conqueror). The arrows used with the cross-bow were short and thick (quarrels, bolts). The weapon was ui the English armies after the reign of Richard 1. ; but the Italians, and especially the Genoese, were most expert in the use of it atone time. A large force of G u bow men served in the French army at Cressy, where their weapon was found very inadequate to match the English long-bow. Yet so deadly a weapon was it at on sidered, that papal hulls were issued in the twelfth century, condemning and forbidding its use in combats Dei Christians. It was disused in England, as a weapon of war, in the reign of Henry VIII. Cross-bows were of several sizes : the large or stirrup cross-bow was bent by the foot A'RBITRARY. (Lat. arbitro, I judge.) In a general sense, means that which is not defined by any rule or law, but is left to the sole judgment and discretion of son e one individual or body of individuals. It is commonly used in political discussions to designate despotical or irresponsible power. (See Despotism.) ARBITRATION. In Law, the investigation before an unofficial person of the matters in difference between con- tending parties. His judgment is called an award. The reference to him may be made, whether loyal proceedings concerning the question referred have hern instituted 01 not. The reference is made by writing under seal or otherwise, and even by parole agreements, but in this latter case the submission cannot, as in the others, rule of court. (&cAward.) A'RBOR. The principal spindle or axis which col nicates motion to the other parts of a machine. ARBOR DIANiE. r lTie tree of silver, that metal having been called Diana by old chemists; it is trade by putting quicksilver into a solution of nitrate of silver, which cai the separation of the silver in a beautiful arborescent and crystalline form. ARBO'REOUS. Woody, or -Trowing on wood. Herba- ceous plants, the stems of which take a ligneous character, are called suffrutescent, or arboreous, according to th gree of woodiness which they exhibit. Plants which grow on trees are also called arboreous, such as the arbor! oua lichens, arboreous mosses, arboreous fungi, A-c. ARBORE'SCENT. Stems of plants which are at first ARBORETUM, and afterwards become somewhat woody and ARBORETUM. In Gardening', a place in a park or irden or nursery, in which of trees and shrubs, one ot" each kind, is cul- I lere ought to be sufficient room md variety to attain something like its hape; though, from the limited i collections of trees and shrubs in gar- . ■ most Europe, so I its the the London Horticultural 1 : Ion's Arboretum llnianni- ( the Trees and Shrubs of ARBORICI 'I.TDRE. (Lat arbor, a tren, and c art of ml Ii and shrubs. i for timber or ornamental pur- iwn for their under horticulture, and is some- The origin of arboricultui popu- country, it would bi ids in order to of the field and garden. After f wood, both ind, and then ■ artificial plantations, or arbori- mgb the Greeks and -■ their ii and the poplar, for supports to their for the purpo ■ there is no instance on record of thetr . a view of culting them down imposes they : -. to the management of ntion. In Bril Vnl. ; and ;.. which was ,( was finally to remain. nation of artificial plantations has ■ especially during the hitter end ling of the present century, when ly limited by demand for timber for ship-building. The discovery of coal mines, and more I tcility of working them after the invent!, im-engine, by providing fuel exr: ly oi >. idered the necessity of preserving natu- ral w. rming artificial plantations, lew in Bri- t.tin than in any oilier country in the world. In i ■ Is no other country in which so small 1 with forests ; the woods ry-where planted and maintained for purposes. On the continent of Europ Umber was little known before the time of Louis XIV., though the natural i "I" France and Germany were appropriated, irved, for many generations before) At ice of the continental na- hii2 almost entirely on wood for their fuel, the ■ i the natural forests, and the formation of artificial plan! in important part of the duties of go- I i North America, in the oldest rultl country, the formation of artificial plantations is barely commencing, while in the back settlements, or i, the felling and clearing of timber is only now takine p f Arboriculture depends on a knowledge nature of trees, of the dhf i calibration, ! in the ails. in. -hides nursery culture : viz. propasation by . grafting, £cc.,and raising In beds and rows; transplanting, pruning, thinning, and. finally, felling, and the wccession of kinds. The nursery culture is carried on in limited spots, called nursery grounds, or doners or turnery men; and the other operations in woods, groves, rows, hedgerows, ler holts, n: for the pressure on s 7 acts in the direction perpendicular to*'i or o 11 ■. the pre- rare on C II is perpendicular to !> (> - an U D O. In like manner, the voussoSr p r 7 a being so shapei that rp, when produced, meets O II in the point Oi If. ARCHAEOLOGY. /)iess';re on the joint rp is to that on C H, as m D to D O. Hence, the pressure on a q is to the pressure on r pas Dre to Dm. We are thus led to infer that the voussoirs ought to increase in length, from the key-stone to the piers, proportionally to the lines D n, Dm, &c. ; for in this case, the surfaces of the joints being increased in propor- tion to the pressure they sustain, the pressure on every point of the arch will be equal. It will also be observed that the angle n O D is equal to the angle made by a tangent, to the curt e at q, and the horizontal line parallel to A B ; the angle m O 1) equal to that made by the tangent, at jo ami the horizontal line ; and the radius D O remaining constant, D n is the tangent of the point of these angles, and D m of the second; hence the pressures on the successive joints are proportional to the differences of the tangents of the arches reckoned from the crown. From this property, when the intrados is a circle given in position, and the depth of the key-stone is given, the curve of the extrados may be found. When the weights of the voussoirs are all equal, the arch of equilibration is a catenarian curve, or a curve having the form which a tlexible chain of uniform thickness would as- sume if hanging freely, the extremities being suspended fiom fixed points. Such is the form which theory shows to be the best adap- ted to give strength to an arch, on the supposition that there is no superincumbent pressure. But it seldom if ever hap- pens that this is the case, and therefore it is entirely unne- cessary, in the actual construction of an arch, to adhere closely to the form determined on the above supposition. Indeed, on account of the friction of the materials and the adhesion of the cement, the form of the arch, within cer- tain limits, is quite immaterial, for the deviation from the form of equilibration must be very considerable before any danger can arise from the slipping of the arch-stones. The Roman arches, which have resisted the attacks of time for so many centuries, are generally in the form of a semicir- cle. For bridges, it is better to employ a smaller segment of a circle ; frequently the elliptic arch is preferred, on ac- count of the beauty of its form. It has not been satisfactorily ascertained in what country arches were ljrst erected. They do not occur in any of the buildings of the Egyptians that can unquestionably be re- ferred to an ancient date; and if they were not altogether unknown to the Greeks before the period of the Roman conquest, their principal uses appear to have been very lit- tle understood. They do not appear ever to have been employed in roofing the temples, or to have formed a part of oman ental architecture. By the Romans, however, the advantages of the arch were well understood at a very remote period. The Cloaca Maxima, which is an arched structure, is referred, with the greatest probability, to the ige of the Tarquins ; the arched dome is supposed* to have originated with the Etruscans, and to have been employed for the convenience of the augurs, affording them a shelter from the weather, and permitting them at the same time to have a view of the whole range of the horizon. In the mag- nificent buildings erected under the empire the arch is of frtquent occurrenca; and it was by the Romans that it was first applied to Its most useful purposes, namely, the construction of bridges and aqueducts. The Romans, however, appear to have given little attention to the graces of form in the erection of their arches, for they seldom de- viated from the semicircle. It was in the middle ages that the pointed or Gothic arch was introduced, when Christians and Saracens vied with each other in giving beauty lo their public buildings, by multiplying and combining arches in all possible maimers. The associated architects of those ages, says Dr. Robison (Ency. Brit. art. Arch), having studied this branch of Ihe art of building with so much at- tention, were able to erect the most magnificent buildings with materials which a Greek or Roman architect could nave made little or no use of. There is infinitely more sci- entific skill displayed in a Gothic cathedral than in all the uildinss of Greece and Rome ; indeed, these last exhibit ery little knowledge of the mutual balance of arches, and re full of gross blunders in this respect ; nor could they ive resisted the shock of time so long, had they not been .most solid masses of stone, with no more cavity than was idispensably necessary. It is somewhat remarkable that lose architects do not appear ever to have studied or paid jy regard to the theory of equilibrated arches. The form which they adopted was strong, and capable of resisting considerable inequalities of pressure, and hence the dura- bility of their constructions. For further particulars on this subject, see Bridge. Dome. ARCILFO'I.OGY. (Gr. dpx al °i- ancient, and \oyof, a description ) The science or study of Antiquities, and chief- ly, in ordinary language, of those minor branches of anti- quities which are discarded from the contents of genera] history; ,1-; genealogies, national architecture, manners, cus- iiirl similar subjects. ARC H.F/US. (Gr. lipxi. principle.) A term used by the. old chemists and physicians to imply the occult cause of certain phenomena. Van Helmont ami Siahl ascribe certain 72 ARCHITECTURE. vital functions to the influence and superintendence of a spiritus archajus. A'RCHAISM. (Gr. dpxaio;, ancient.) In Rhetoiic ana Literature, the use of an obsolete expression or phrase giving an air of antiquity to the passage in which it occurs. ARCHA'NGELS. A superior order oi angels. The term occurs once in Scripture, being applied by St. Jude lo Michael. ARCHBl'SHOP, or METROPOLITAN. The primate of a province containing several dioceses. The term first came into use in the fourth century, and was then consider- ed superior to that of metropolitan, and equivalent to pain- arch, or bishop of an imperial diocese, such as Rome, Con stantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Carthage. ARCHDE'ACON. An Ecclesiastical olncer, ranking next to the bishop. As deacons were originally attendants upon the bishop, so the archdeacon was one selected 1101. ■ among the deacons of several dioceses. liis functions vvi-i e confined to attending upon and assisdi.g the bishop in this discharge of his spiritual duties and the management ui his diocese, and had at first no jurisdiction. There are now more archdeacons than one in each diocese, the whole number in England being sixiy ; and they are en ployed by their bishops in visiting the clergy ol the diocese, and in the dispatch of other matters relating to die episcopal superintendence. ARCH-DUKE. A title originally assumed by various dukes, but in the sequel appropriated to those of the house of Austria by the Emperor Frederic 111. in Moo. It is now strictly confined to the younger sous of an Emperor of Austria. A'RCIIER. (From the Latin arcus, a buw.) A bow-man) one who uses a bow. The use of the bow 111 war 11, ay be traced to the earliest antiquity, and to the history of almost every people. The exact time when the English long-bow began to be used in war is not exactly ascertained ; tiie Normans brought with them the arbalest or cross-bow ; but from the reign of Edward 11., the long-how, the favourite na tional weapon, seems lo have been fully established. When fire-arms began to come into use, various attempts were unsuccessfully made, by statute and proclamation, to pre- vent this ancient weapon becoming obsolete. In France the officers who attended the lieutenant oi police were . before the Revolution, always called archers, although provided »vith carbines. Artillery is a French tern , originally sig- nifying archery, and the' London artillery con pan) were a fraternity of bow-men. (See Hansard's Book ol Archery.) A'RCHETYI'E. (Gr. apxtrviros, from dpxii origin, and TVTros,type.) The original 01 that which is represented in a picture or statue; and, figuratively, die reality which is shadowed out in propheciesor mysteries. Thus, in The- ology, the death of our Saviour is said to lie the archetype of the Jewish sacrifices, which were instituted as types of that event. (See Type.) A'RCHIL. (A corruption of orseille, French.) A kind of purple dye obtained from the lichens, called Hoi tuna and fudformis. It is chiefly procured in the Ca- naries. ARCHIMANDRITE. A title of the Greek church, equi- valent to abbot ; the word inandia signifying a monastery in the language of the Lower En pire. ARCHITECTURE (Gr. dpxi, >■■ .ran-, ar- tificer.) The art of Building, according to certain propor- tions and rules determined and regulated by nature and taste. Architecture becomes an art at that period only in the history of nations when they have readied a certain degree of civilisation, of opulence, and of luxury. In an earlier state, it can only be reckoned an ong the trades or occupations necessary to the wants ol mankind ; its appli- cation is then very limited, its use little more than furnish- ing man with shelter from the waters of the heavens, and protection from the inclement vicissitudes oi the seasons At its birth, however, it assumes a character in all countries which in the sequel stamps it with such remarkable and distinguishing features, that in the summit of its grandeur the traces of its early origin are still discernible. Notwith- standing the interval of so many ages from its origin, we may even trace the general form ol architecture to three distinct states of the human race, which necessarily inllu- enced the nature of the habitations suitable to each, and which ultimately became standard models of the art People whose dependence fur their SUBt hunting the beasts of the field, as well as those w on the produce of the waters, from the natural i induced by those occupations and the little industry called for in such courses of life, would not be at an early period led to the construction of dwellings. They availed them- selves of the natural caverns of the rock, or at nest hol- lowed them out, for shelter and protection. Nations occupied in a pastoral life, through alarj of the year, obliged, for the sake 0! quenlly to change their abode, and thus lend a w life, would find the most suitable dwelling one wit could remove with themselves ; hence the use of tetns ARCHITECTURE Agriculture, which requires continued and active indus- try o:i i induced man to exert his l and durable ueces- with iis sloping roof was the off- . to be understood that in every country ;le principle, since among :n relation to I will be found to enter into nl of the habits of the filiation and will these in I ou the first named. In mankind thai inking peculiarities which prevent ne people with that of an- had a try the great leading forma spring ■ for the original types of this art ins exclusively, have coun- ofthem, such as the famous car of Dionjaius, n the quarries that mrhoods. By the help of ice with tlie habits of the nation, ' mode of life, only, utecture. By ellingS lias existed i to the racier of their 'ves of this at a later a may be traced to lear that lite types of the n BTerenl origin. The same passion ippears in pat the di- es, would seem to have led parts appear to hav< imitation of any system of carpentry; I :, the short and massive propor- ipitals, and thi irongh- type i.)i- their Inven In t : ■ remarkable Indlca- on. M. de Pauw justly oh ■^ which served as modi ' I" them the ■ in character i.ibils of the Chinese, who, like all the lita, encamping with their they gathered into cities. Their cities i he appearance of a vast encamp- extent of them seems to indicate an in- aolidi" i cm that will not allow of a number of thcr. i, which has been universally as- hi or type of all styles of architecture, aid not have been that of C ii it unquestionably was that of <■ arch;' . working upon this, transferred to hi assemblage of carpentry, a construc- tion w i!i to the members of the orders of ar- ire to this day the ornaments of our bulldii tj le, be it remembered, belongs to a na- occupation is agriculture. In pursuing ations only will be needed ito the earth for the purpose of bearing a er, were the origin of the insula) CO of a temple, an 1 i the art. As the trees were In d bottom than the top, so were the columns diminishe I in thickness as they pise. Scaniozzl lm that the mouldings at the bases and capitals of colut their origin in cinctures of iron, to prevent the splitting of the t: . think that the use of'the form i from the dampness of the earth, and thereby prevent rot. The architrave or chief beam origin. It was the great beam placed hori- . df the columns, and destined to i the .: entire building The joists of the ceil- space in height which they frieze, the ends of the joists in the tame of triglyphs.frora theii with two whole and two half glyphs or chan- llie ends of them are sculptur. posite order of the Coliseum at te trigiyphs was for el from a passage in the Iphigenia P • the temple. ifterwards filled up solid: and in the other or- 73 ARCHITECTURE. ders, the whole length of the frieze becomes one plain sur face. The inclined rafters of the roof formed a projecture beyond the face of the building, which delivered the rain free of lh enter. difficult, perhaps now impossil exact period of the invention of BTChitei hue m Gl . mid is the result of the la- bours of many. In the time of Homer, r.ctseem to have been in so forward astute as lo>havebeer. i to principles and "fa fixed nature. architi s with him t tee than the form; and well selected and pol . more- than line proportion ! merit of the palace of Alcinoiis. Tli' i 1 , doubtless the earliest of th i mains without testimony which can satisfactorily a us of the period "t its Invention, i proof thai it was invented by Dorus, the Helen, and king of Achaiaand Pelopon ble it might have acquired its name Rom having been used celebrated tempi.- which tli.it prince bu honoui from the use of ii by the Dorians, it obtained introduction i u i,, thi ece. Cerium, however, it is that in the time of Alexander the Great tie' three original oi of architecture had been brought ■ Moral as -. physical causes had contributed to bring the ' oerty, love of country, and ambition, ha 1 i . the common cenrr nd art Tl of the Persians at Marathon, with other victoi to the country. In the period preceding tie' in war, there was a general burst of talent in avrrr.-. in it the chisel of Phidias was employed ; pi phy, eloquence, the military art, the art- andscienc conspired to give' the epoch lustre. It was in this age that the Gre i need the rebuilding edifices that hud been destroyed in the Vermin war. build- ings whose ruins had hmn carefully presei for i lie express purpose of keeping alivi an seoi r thai constantly m< :i • : > nation, it the flight ol Xerxes, and the victory of Themi restoration of their monuments wa- - city of Athens rebuilt ; a city whose hi be Ci il- ls M. Quatremere de Quincy has well , as so many trophies of the victory at Salamls. 1 the epoch of a pure and grand style of ari art generally. The sculpture ol thai period is marked by the same character of purity, sublin Ity, and grandeur; and the Elgin marbles, fortunately now pos- sessed by England, exhibit a perfection v been approached by modern art, and which we It was in this age thai the temple of Minerva, known by the name ol the Parthenon preserved her virginity pure ami in a building which displays, perhaps, model of the Doric order. ARCHITECTURE. The Ionic order seems, at this period, to have likewise received the finishing touches of that grace and elegance whereof it was susceptible. This order, passing from Greece to Asia .Minor, seems, in that enervating climate, to have acquired elegance and finish at the expense almost of solidity. Whether we are indebted for its invention to the people whose name it bears, is of little importance. Upon the relation of Vitruvius no dependence can be placed. At. the period, however, of the erection of the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens, which was about the time we have alluded to' it seems to have been brought to a state of perfection that leaves us nothing to desire. The capitals of this example are splendid specimens of decorated architecture. By a substitution of acanthus leaves for the olive, laurel, and lotus leaves of the Egyptian capital, Callimachus is said to have invented the Corinthian capital, the feature which distinguishes the Corinthian from the Ionic order. Tiie tale seems an idle one ; but though almost threadbare, we cannot omit it, and will give it in the words of the au- thor who has recorded it. ''A Corinthian virgin, of mar- riageable years, fell a victim to a violent disorder. After her interment, her nurse, collecting in a basket those arti- cles to which she had shown a partiality when alive, car- ried them to her tomb, and placed a tile on the basket, for the longer preservation of its contents. The basket was accidentally placed on the root of an acanthus plant, which, pressed by the weight, shot forth, towards spring, its stems and large foliage, and in the course of its growth reached the angles of the tile, and thus formed volutes at the ex- tremities. Callimachus, who for his great ingenuity and taste was called Catatechnos by the Athenians, happening at this time to pass by the tomb, observed the basket, and the delicacy of the foliage which surrounded it. Pleased with the form and novelty of the combination, he con- structed, from the hint thus afforded, columns of this spe- cies in the country about Corinth, and arranged its pro- portions, determining their proper measure by perfect rules." The annexed diagram gives a repre- sentation of the circumstance, as usual- ly found in architectural works: the reader, however, is at liberty to make nis own representation of it, which will most probably be as near the truth as that here given. But few ancient examples of the Corinthian order are extant of so ear- ly a date as the age of Alexander. Its delicacy and slenderness render it very susceptible of the ravages of time ; and it has been suggested, that the value of the material of which the columns and capitals of this or- der were made, excited the cupidity of the Romans to re- move them. The general opinion runs, that architecture, as well as the other arts, was carried into Etruria by the Pelasgi, at which period Doric was the only order in use in Greece, and was the only one, moreover, as far as can be judged of, adopted by the Pelasgi. But they chamred its character, stripping it of triglyphs, and adding to it a base. — The Ro- mans, who borrowed their earliest architecture from the Etruscans, adopted, under the name of Tuscan, this Doric order, thus cheated of its fair proportions, which is in truth but a species of Doric. Rome appears to have been indebted to the people of Etruria for its earliest work of any note. It has always been supposed, that to an Etruscan architect was confided the construction of the immense sewer which drained the city, and in which might be discerned a presage of its fu- ture grandeur, The undecorated and simple art of Etru- ria suited the roughness and austerity of a warlike and then needy people. The art of architecture was long ne- glected among them. Their temples and palaces for a long period were protected from the seasons by a covering of nothing more than clay and straw. Marble and slavery entered Rome together, under the reign of Augustus. Ef- feminacy had been induced by the riches of the known world which centered in the city, whose inhabitants did not apprehend that slavery would follow in the train of the arts which were bound to" the triumphal chariot. Augustus, sensible that the only mode of tranquillising the people, when liberty was no more, would be by intro- ducing the pleasures and luxuries attendant on the arts, exerted himself most zealously for their prosperity: his conduct on this point is sufficiently exemplified in the boast attributed to him, "That lie found the city built of - and left it constructed with marble." Livy compli- :-; the founder or restorer of temples, "Tem- plorutn omnium conditorem aut restitutorem." His pa- iw the most skilful Grecian artists to Rome, which now became the capital of the arts, and architecture reached all the perfection it could there attain. It was un- der Augustus that Vitruvius wrote his work on architec- tuie, tin; only ancient text-book on the art that has reached 71 ARCHITECTURE. us. It has been of late the fashion to decry the utility of this author. Those that have done so know little of the art. Though in matters relating to the history of architec- ture, our author deals somewhat in fable, the n ore im- portant parts of his work are invaluable ; and if one of the most profound architects that ever existed could dignify Vitruvius with the title of " our old master," it ill becomes the small fry of the present age to carp at him. Un- der Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, the Pantheon was raised; one of the most magnificent examples of Roman grandeur. Amongst other superb structures he introduced baths, and constructed a considerable number i temples,