UC-NRLF B 3 am A CLASSIFICATION OF VEETEBBATA A CLASSIFICATION OF VEETEBEATA RECENT AND EXTINCT BY HANS GADOW, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. CAMBRIDGE LONDON ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK 1898 INTRODUCTORY THE diagnoses given in this classification are not exhaustive definitions, although often more than sufficient because of what may be called additional characters. For instance, the " pos- session of visceral arches, one pair of which is modified into jaws," is a quite sufficient diagnosis of the Gnathostomata. The presence of an anterior and a posterior pair of limbs is probably quite as essential and peculiar a feature. There are not, and can never have been, paired-limbed vertebrata without visceral -arch jaws; consequently, wherever the converse is the case, we feel certain that the absence of limbs is a secondarily produced feature. This may serve as an example of admitting certain fundamental characters which may not be applicable to all the members of the group in question. Various features which we are accustomed to associate with the description of the recent members of a class, order, or family for instance, the intestinal spiral valve of Plagio- stomi have not been mentioned ; partly on account of our imperfect knowledge of the fossil forms, partly because these features do not apply to such fossils which are undoubtedly not only closely allied to, but ancestral to the same group in question. On the other hand, it would be pedantic to exclude all soft, perishable parts on the plea that they are unknown in the fossil forms. Here discretion is to be used. We do not 290491 CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA " know " that the palaeozoic Fishes did possess an entirely venous heart, nor has it yet been shown that the embryos of Dinosaurs were surrounded by an amnion ; but we feel nevertheless certain, because of the laws of correlation which comparative anatomy allows us to deduct from the study of recent creatures. On the other hand, it is quite possible, even most likely, that the triassic Pseudosuchia, p. 19, had no copulatory organ, and therefore this feature cannot be admitted into the diagnosis of Crocodilia, at least not if they are to comprise the Pseudo-, Para-, and Eusuchia. The various characters employed are, of course, not all equivalent. The same character, which in some groups is scarcely of more than generic value, runs perhaps through all the members of another class. The groups into which we are used to combine the animals of the various classes are not, and cannot be, all equivalent. The least objectionable, or rather the most generally accepted " orders," are those of the Mammalia, and it is well understood that the ornithologists' " orders " are of far less morphological value, while the time-honoured " orders " of Eeptilia are of infinitely greater importance. Each class has, so to say, its own standard units, just as one nation reckons with s. d., another with dollars and cents, and a third with Mark and Pfennige, which again are not the same as francs and centimes. However, to mitigate the discrepancies as much as possible, and chiefly owing to the bewildering mass of fossil reptiles which have come to light, I have arranged the reptiles in numerous sub-classes, and these again in orders, while for the host of Fishes, " divisions," and for the Birds " divisions," and " legions " have been resorted to as intermediate groups between sub- INTRODUCTORY classes and orders. It is obvious that a class which consists of 10,000 recent species may call for more sub-dividing than one which comprises scarcely one-third of that number. After all, the practical aim of our classifications is sorting and grouping ; the ideal aim is that the system should be a condensed expression of the phylogeny of the creatures dealt with. There are many, and there will be still more classifica- tions, all artificial and dependent upon the taxonomic value which we happen to attribute to the various organs. But there can be only one true or natural system, namely, that which expresses every degree of affinity or descent of every creature which has ever lived or is still living. To that gigantic system, however, no classification will be applicable. Each horizon will require its own classification, with its necessarily arbitrary boundaries. The living forms are like the growing plants in a peat bog. The latter are more or less separated by intervening stretches of water into patches, islands, and little continents. A foot or two lower down, or if the water-level sinks, the patches change in extent and in numbers, some still remaining apparently separate (" very old, generalised, isolated groups "), but after all connected by the peat, the entangled mass of countless generations. The sequence of the groups, although arranged as much as possible in ascending order, is of necessity as unnatural as that of the maps in an atlas. Concerning the generic names, I have been as conservative as possible, using those which we are familiar with in treatises of general zoology and comparative anatomy. The book which speaks of Molge, Tiliqua, Procavia, and Morunga, but does not know Triton, Cyclodus, Hyrax, and Trichechus, has fortunately I CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA not yet been written, and this little work is meant to be used by the present generation. In the arrangement of the recent Amphibia and Eeptiles I have followed Mr. G. A. Boulenger, who has given me also many hints concerning the extinct forms. To Professor W. F. R Weldon I am indebted for numerous criticisms of the whole plan of this work. It must, however, be distinctly understood that neither of my friends can in any way be held responsible for any mistakes or errors of judgment which may be found in this Classification of Vertebrata. H. GADOW. CAMBRIDGE. 28th June 1898. DISTRIBUTION OF VEKTEBKATA' ICHTHYES Recent C 5 C c ) j f Plistocene i 1 1 1 I Pliocene i 1 1 1 Tertiary Miocene i ! 1 Oligocene 1 ,-Chalk - Gault Cretaceous . Lower Greensand Wealden 'S3 IPurbeck H rS 1 3 ^g Mountain Limestone ... S - &&& O^ "2 p: ~ <->_, H ET | j Devonian or PH <^ f H '- I Old Red Sand- g < _> P stone Silurian Ichthvodorvlites Ordovician / Cambrian IN TIME AMPHIBIA 9 A REPTILIA Theromorpha MAMMALIA ^ ^ Tl i i 1 fia .3 s 1 2 n S W Broken lines, ending in 0, indicate that the further development of the respective group of animals has apparently come to a close. Continuous lines indicate that the group is still nourishing, or > even on the increase. PHYLUM VEETEBEATA SUB-PHYLUM ACEANIA SUB-PHYLUM CEANIOTA Super-CLASS CYCLOSTOMATA CLASS MYXINOIDES CLASS PETROMYZONTES Super-CLASS HYPOSTOMATA CLASS HETEROSTRACA OSTEOSTRACA ANTIARCHA Super-CLASS GNATHOSTOMATA CLASS ICHTHYES I. Sub-CLASS PISCES Division ELASMOBRANCHII Order Proselachii Plagiostomi SELACHII RAIAE Division ACANTHODI HOLOCEPHALI TELEOSTOMI Order Crossopterygii CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRA TA Order Actinopterygii CHONDROSTEI HOLOSTEI TELEOSTEI PHYSOSTOMI PHYSOCLYSTI PLECTOGNATHI LOPHOBRANCHII II. Sub-CLASS DIPNOI Order Arthrodira .. Sirenoidei CLASS AMPHIBIA I. Sub-CLASS PHKACTAMPHIBIA STEGOCEPHALI Order Lepospondyli BRANCHIOSAURI MICROSAURI AISTOPODES Order Temnospondyli Stereospondyli II. Sub-CLASS LISSAMPHIBIA Order Urodela .. Apoda Anura PHANEROGLOSSA ARCIFERA FlRMISTERNIA AGLOSSA CLASS REPTILIA I. Sub-CLASS PROREPTILIA II. PROSAURIA CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA Order Lepospondyli Stereospondyli PEOTOEOSAUEI RHYNCHOCEPHALI III. Sub-CLASS THEKOMOEPHA Order Anomodontia Theriodontia Pareiosauria Placodontia IV. Sub-CLASS CEOCODILIA Order Pseudosuchia Parasuchia Eusuchia V. Sub-CLASS CHELONIA Order Thecophora CEYPTODIEA PLEUEODIEA TRIONYCHOIDEA Order Atheca VI. Sub-CLASS DINOSAUEIA Order Sauropoda Theropoda Orthopoda STEGOSAUEI OENITHOPODA Order Ceratopsia VII. Sub-CLASS PTEEOSAUEIA PTEEODACTYLI PTEEANODONTES VIII. Sub-CLASS PLESIOSAUEIA CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA Order Mesosauri Nothosauri Plesiosauri IX. Sub-CLASS ICHTHYOSAURIA X. Sub-CLASS PYTHONOMORPHA Order Dolichosauri ... Mosasauri XL Sub-CLASS SAURIA Order Eusauri GECKONES LACERTAE CHAMAELEONTES Order Ophidia CLASS AVES Sub-CLASS ARCHAEORNITHES Sub-CLASS NEORNITHES Division EATITAE ODONTOLCAE CARINATAE 1. LEGION COL YMBOMORPHAE flchthyornithes yColymbiformes JCOLYMBI {PODICIPEDES SPHENISCI 2. LEGION PELARGOMORPHAE Ciconiiformes Anseriformes Falconiformes ISphenisciformes ( Procellariiformes PROCELLARIAE STEGANOPODES ARDEAE ] CICONIAE [PHOENICOPTERI JANSERES {PALAMEDEAE JCATHARTAE IACCIPITRES CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 3. LEGION ALEGTOROMORPHAE 4. LEGION CORAGIOMORPHAE Tinamiformes Galliformes Gruiformes Charadriiformes Cuculiformes Coraciiformes TIN AMI MESITES TURNICES GALLI OPISTHOCOMI LIMICOLAE LARI PTEROCLES COLUMBAE JCUCULI (PSITTACI CORACIAE STRIGES CAPRIMULGI CYPSELI COLII TROGONES PICI JANISOMYODAE (DIACROMYODAE Passeriformes CLASS MAMMALIA I. Sub-CLASS PROTOTHERIA Order Allotheria Monotremata II. Sub-CLASS METATHERIA or MARSUPIALIA Order Polyprotodontia PROTODONTA TRICONODONTA TRITUBERCULATA Order Diprotodontia III. Sub-CLASS EUTHERIA or PLACENTALIA Order Edentata E. NOMARTHRA E. XENARTHRA CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA Order Trogontia TILLODONTIA TYPOTHEEIA EODENTIA Order Cetacea AECHAEOCETI ODONTOCETI MYSTACOCETI Order Sirenia ; , Ungulata HYEACOIDEA TOXODONTIA AMBLYPODA PEOBOSCIDEA CONDYLAETHEA LITOPTEENA PEEISSODACTYLA ANCYLOPODA AETIODACTYLA BUNODONTA SELENODONTA s. EUMINANTIA Order Carnivora CEEODONTA FISSIPEDIA PINNIPEDIA Order Insectivora I. VEEA I. DEEMOPTEEA Order Chiroptera CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA xvii Order Primates LEMUEES TAESII SIMIAE PLATYRHINAE ARCTOPITHECI CATARHINAE Cercopithecidae Anthropoidae PHYLUM VEKTEBBATA Bilateral symmetrical animals with segmentally arranged mesoderm, with a central solid axis (Chorda dorsalis, extending through the whole length of the body, from head to tail, hence holocliordate), dorsally of which lies the tubular central nervous- system, ventrally the gut; the respiratory organs arise from the anterior portion of the gut. SUB-PHYLUM ACRANIA LEPTOCABDI A, Mueller = ACRANIA, Haeckel = CEPHALOCHORDA, Balfour Chorda persistent ; without cartilage in the skeletogenous layer. Monorhinal. Eespiratory gut with a permanent hypobranchial groove or endostyle. Liver a hollow blind-sac. Kidneys represented by meta- meric nephridia. Gonads consisting of numerous gonomeres. With a large peribranchial cavity, or atrium, into which open numerous gill-clefts and nephridia. No skull, no vertebrae, ribs or other arches, jaws or limbs. Amphioxus, Yarrel. With right- and left-sided gonads. Five species in European, West - Indian, Calif ornian and Malay seas. Epigoniclithys, Peters. With right -sided gonads only. Three species in seas of Tasmania, Torres Straits, and Ceylon. Asymmetron, Andrews. With right-sided gonads only. Two species, Bahamas, Louisiades, and Loyalty Islands. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA SUB-PHYLUM CBANIOTA With cartilaginous (unless ossified) cranium, arches and blocks of the axial skeleton. Super-CLASS CYCLOSTOMATA CYCLOSTOMATA, Eichards = MARSIPOBRANCHII, Bonaparte = MONOBHINA, Haeckel Without visceral arches transformed into jaws, and without paired limbs. Nasal tube unpaired, median. Liver a compact gland. Pronephros persistent. Gonomeres fused. With bag-shaped gill-pouches or gill-slits. Mouth suctorial. I. CLASS MYXINOIDES -HYPEROTKETA, Mueller The Myxinoids are the lowest living true vertebrates. Their hypophysial duct still communicates with the mouth- cavity, and this communicates with the unpaired rhinal open- ing. If the latter condition is the primitive one, then Fuerbringer (189*7) is justified in establishing for the Myxin- oids the term "Distoma," creatures which still possess the palaeostoma and the neostoma of Kupffer. The segmental nephric ducts remain separate, and open separately into the long, lateral archinephric ducts. Ear with one semicircular canal only. Marine, parasitic. Bdellostomidae. Gill-pouches with separate external and internal openings. Bdellostoma, Heptatrema, Polytrema. Myxinidae. The external openings of the gill-pouches are produced into long canals with one posterior opening. Myxine, Gastrobranchus. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA II. CLASS PETKOMYZONTES = HYPEKOAKTIA, Mueller Nasal sac not communicating with the mouth-cavity. The gill-pouches combine internally into one canal, which is situated below the oesophagus, and opens into the mouth- cavity. Ear with two semicircular canals. Cosmopolitan. Petromyzon, Linne. In Europe : P. marinus, P. fluviatilis, P. planeri. Here probably also : Palaeospondylus gunni. Traquair, 1890. Old Eed Sand- stone of Caithness. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA Super-CLASS HYPOSTOMATA Under the name of Hypostomata I separate the OSTEACODEEMI, Cope, as a group equivalent to and inter- mediate between Cyclo- and Gnathostomata. Craniota without " limbs " and without jaws. Vertebral column acentrous. With strongly developed dermal skeleton. I. CLASS HETEROSTKACI, Lankester Without paired appendages. Trunk and tail with rhomboid scales and fish-like. Skeleton with calcifications, but without bone and without enamel. Pteraspis. Lower Old Eed Sandstone, England. II. CLASS OSTEOSTRACI, Lankester Without paired appendages. Calcifications, with bone corpuscles, with or without enamel. Cephalaspis. Lower Old Eed Sandstone, Europe and Canada. Even already in the Ludlow strata, upper- most Silurian. Auchenaspis. Upper Silurian of Oesel, Eastern Baltic. III. CLASS ANTIARCHA, Smith Woodward With bone corpuscles, and with "ganoine. One pair of paddle-like appendages, covered with plates. Asterolepis. Devonian, Eussia. Pterichthys. Lower Old Eed of Scotland, Germany, Eussia. Possibly also in the upper Silurian strata of the Eastern Baltic. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA Super-CLASS GNATHOSTOMATA, Haeckel With visceral arches, one pair of which is modified into jaws. With an anterior and a posterior pair of limbs. Amphirhinal. I. CLASS ICHTHYES Anamnia. Anallantoidea. With fin-limbs. The median fins are supported by skeletal elements. 1. Sub-CLASS PISCES Eespiring by gills only. Heart entirely venous. Nasal blind-sacs not communicating with the mouth. I. Division ELASMOBRANCHI^Qno^^iQ. With seven, six, or mostly five, pairs of branchial arches, enclosing as many gill-clefts. The gill-bearing clefts are separated by complete septa, which are continuous with the outer skin. Vertebrae with chorda-centra, unless still acentrous. Without membrane bones. Skin with numerous small enamelled denticles. Males with a pair of mixopterygia. 1. Order Proselachii. Mouth subterminal, without a rostrum. With archipterygium biseriale. Vertebrae still acentrous. Pleuracanthus (Xenacanthus) Decheni. Lower Permian and Carboniferous. Cladodus. Lower Carboniferous. Fins with almost preserial archipterygium. 2. Order Plagiostomi, Dumeril. Mouth transverse and ventral, with a rostrum. With Ichthyopterygium preseriale. Pectoral fins separated from the head. 1. Sub-order SELACHII. Numerous since the Carboni- ferous mountain Limestone. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA Chlamydoselache anguineus, approaching the Proselachii. Japan, Azores, Norway. Heptanchus, Hexanchus, Pristis, Scyllium, Mustelus, Galeus, Squatina, Zygaena, Cestracion, etc. 2. Sub-order RAIAE. Pectoral fins fused with and surrounding the sides of the head. Beginning clearly in the Jurassic strata. Eaia, Trygon, Myliobates, Torpedo, etc. II. Division ACANTHODI, Agassiz. With five Elasmo- branch gill-clefts, but each with an external fringe-flap. Mouth sub-terminal. Vertebrae acentrous. Without mixipterygia. Paired and median fins with a strong dermal spine. Large dermal bones on the jaws ; dermal armature of trunk and cranium consisting of small granules. Acanthodes. From Devonian to Permian, Europe. Upper Devonian : pelvic fins almost as large as the pectorals, and placed midway between pectorals and anal fin. Lower Carboniferous : pel vies reduced in size. Upper Carboniferous : pelvics much reduced, and placed far forwards towards the enlarged pectorals. Lower Permian : pelvics insignificant ; pectorals enormous, and closely approximated towards each other. Chiracanthus. Old Red, Scotland ; both fins well de- veloped. Diplacanthus. Old Pied, Scotland; with clavicle and cleithrum. III. Division HOLOCEPHALI, Mueller. Palato-quad- rate bar fused with the cranium. Vertebrae acentrous ; numerous calcified rings in the notochordal sheath. Agreeing with Elasmobranchi : males with mixipterygia ; absence of membrane bones ; conus arteriosus with three series of valves. Agreeing with Tectobranchi : four gill-clefts, with one large operculum ; the gill-septa are thin and incomplete, no longer reaching the surface ; with a few large teeth resembling those of Dipnoi ; mouth subterminal. Ptyctodus. Devonian. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA Squaloraia. Lower Lias, England. Chimaeropsis and Myriacanthus. Jurassic, Europe. Ischyodus, from Jurassic to upper Cretaceous, England. Callorhynchus antarcticus. Southern seas ; the genus known already from the lower Greensand of New Zealand. Chimaera monstrosa. Seas of Northern hemisphere ; Pliocene, Tuscany. [Ichthyodorylites, Buckland. Enamelled spines of the dermal armour, chiefly from the dorsal fins, of various fishes. Onchus. Upper Silurian of Ludlow, and lower Devonian. Homacanthus. Devonian and upwards. Ctenacanthus. Lower Carboniferous.] IV. Division TELEOSTOMI, Bonaparte. Vertebrae acentrous or arcocentrous. Without mixipterygia. Tectobranchi, i.e. gills with one large operculum. With membrane bones. Mouth terminal or subterminal. Ova numerous and small. 1. Order Crossopterygii, 1 Huxley. Paired fins lobate, with a thick axis and biserial fin-rays. With a pair of jugular plates. Osteolepis, Diplopterus. Lower Devonian, Europe. Holoptychius, Glyptolepis. Devonian, Europe and North America. Megalichthys. Carboniferous, British. Codacanthidae, with a large ossified air-bladder ; from lower Carboniferous to upper Chalk ; Undina, Jurassic ; Macropoma, Cretaceous. Polypterus. African rivers. Calamoichthys. West African rivers. 2. Order Actinopterygii, Cope. Paired fins, with multi- basal, uni-preserial ichthyopterygium. 1 The Ganoidei of Bonaparte and most other authors comprise the present Crossopterygii, Chondrostei, and Holostei. They can be defined as follows : conus arteriosus with many valves ; optic nerves forming a chiasma ; with intestinal spiral valve. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 8 1. Sub-order CHONDKOSTEI, Mueller. Internal skeleton cartilaginous ; vertebrae acentrous. Cheirolepis. Lower Devonian, Scotland. Amblypterus. Lower Permian, Europe. Palaeoniscus, Platysomus. Upper Permian, Europe. Chondrosteus. Jurassic and Cretaceous. Acipenser. Periarctic, marine and fresh-water; the genus known from the London Clay. Scaphirhynchus. Mississippi and Central Asia. Polyodon. Mississippi, Yang-tse-kiang and Ho-ang-ho ; known also from the Eocene. 2. Sub-order HOLOSTEI, Mueller. Skeleton osseous. The following genera (Smith Woodward's Protospondyli) constitute perhaps an older group. Vertebrae with a tendency to form pre- and postcentra. Intestine, with a spiral valve. Lepidotus. Lias to Wealden. Pycnodus. Jurassic to Eocene. Caturus, Eurycormus, Callopterus, Osteorhachis. Jurassic. Euthynotus. Lias. Megalurus. Jurassic. Amia. Lower Miocene of England ; A. calva. Eecent, in lakes and rivers of Eastern U.S.A. The following genera (Woodward's Aetheospondyli) possess typical arcocentrous vertebrae and, in the Jurassic forms, with pre- and postcentra alternating; spiral valve vestigial. Aspidorhynchus. Jurassic. Belonostomus. Jurassic and Cretaceous. Lepidosteus. Since lower Eocene of England ; L. osseus, recent in U.S.A. 3. Sub-order TELEOSTEI, Mueller. Optic nerves decussat- ing. Without intestinal spiral valve. Heart with a bulbus and no conus (the latter vestigial in Buthyrinus). Skeleton osseous ; vertebrae typically arcocentrous and solid. a. PHYSOSTOMI, Mueller. Air-bladder, when present, with a duct. Posterior fins abdominal, or absent. Gills pectinate. Dorsal fins with ramified or fissate, flexible spines. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA With about 2500 species, which have been grouped into twenty to thirty families. a. PH. ABDOMINALES. Posterior fins abdominal. Siluridae. Silurus, Synodontis, Malapterurus electricus (Africa), Aspredo. Scopdidae. Scopelus. Cyprinidae. Cyprinus, Barbus, Gobio, Leuciscus, Tinea, Ehodeus, Abramis, Cobitis. Scombresocidae. Scombresox, Belone, Exocoetus. Esocidae. Esox, periarctic, fresh-water. Mormyridae. Mormyrus, Ethiopian fresh-water. Sternoptycliidae. Argyropelecus, Chauliodus. Salmonidae. Salmo, Osmerus. Clupeidae. Clupea, Engraulis, Buthyrinus. 0. PH. APODES. Without posterior fins. Gfymnotidae. Gymnotus, tropical American fresh-water. Muraenidae. Muraena, Anguilla, Conger. b. PHYSOCLYSTI, Gegenbaur. Air-bladder, when present, without a duct in the adult. Gills pectinate. With about 3000 species, which have been sorted into numerous super-families and still more numerous families. a. ACANTHOPTERI, Mueller. Dorsal fins protected by some entire spines. Position of pelvic fins variable. Perciformes. Perca, Serranus, Toxotes, Mullus, Sebastes. Xipliiiformes. Xiphias. Scombriformes. Scomber, Thynnus, Echeneis, Zeus, Trachi- nus, Lophius, Cottus, Trigla, Dactylopterus. Gobiiformes. Cyclopterus, Gobius, Periophthalmus. Blenniiformes. Blennius, Anarrhichas, Zoarces. Gastrosteiformes. Gastrosteus, Fistularia. Channiformes. Channa, Ophiocephalus. LabyrintMbrancliii. Anabas. Taeniiformes. Regalecus. fi. PHARYNGOGNATHI, Mueller, etc. Pdght and left lower pharyngeal arches fused with each other. Labrus, Scarus, Embiotocus, Ditrema. 7. ANACANTHINI, Mueller. Dorsal, anal and pectoral fins unprotected by spines. Pelvic fins removed to a jugular or pectoral position, or lost. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 10 Gadidae. Gadus, Lota, Molva. Ophidiidae. Fierasfer, Ammodytes. Pleuronectidae. Pleuronectes, Ehombus, Solea. c. PLECTOGNATHI, Cuvier. Physoclystic ; maxillae and premaxillae fused with each other and with the cranium. Gills pectinate, but with a very small opercular opening. Ostracion, Tetrodon, Diodon, Orthagoriscus. d. LOPHOBRANCHII, Cuvier. Physoclystic; gills in the shape of peculiar bunches under a large operculum with narrow opening. Syngnathus, Nerophis, Phyllopteryx, Hippocampus. CLA SSIFICA TION OF VER TEBRA TA 1 1 2. Sub-CLASS DIPNOI, Mueller With gills and lungs. Heart trilocular, with mixed blood. Nasal ducts lead into the mouth-cavity. With archipterygium, no mixipterygium. Tectobranch. Conus with numerous series of valves. Membrane bones. Teeth and the acentrous but potentially chordocentrous vertebral column much resembling Holocephalous conditions; the same applies to the holostylic arrangement. Spiral valve. 1. Order Arthrodira, Smith Woodward. Strong dermal armour, also on the ventral side. Paired fins vestigial or absent. With maxilla and premaxilla, which are toothless. Teeth on mandible and palatal region. Coccosteus. Lower Old Ked, Scotland. Dinichthys. 1 T ~ , . ~,. rr-i. i,i f Lower Carboniferous, Ohio. Titamchthys.J 2. Order Sirenoidei. Dermal plates restricted to the head. Trunk with imbricating scales, or " naked." Paired fins present, archipterygial. Dipterus. No distinct maxilla and premaxilla. Jugular plates. Cycloid scales. Old Eed, England ; Eussia. Phaneropleuron. Upper Old Red, Scotland. Ctenodus. Carboniferous, British. Ceratodus. No distinct maxilla and premaxilla. No jugular plates. Cycloid scales. Ehaetic, England and Wuerttemberg ; Jurassic, Colorado ; Karroo, S. Africa. Eecent, Queensland and West Australia. Muschelkalk and Keuper, Europe. Trias, India. Protopterus. Eecent, Africa. Lepidosiren. Eecent, South America. II. CLASS AMPHIBIA, Latreille Anamnia, Anallantoidea, Tetrapoda. Median fins, when present, not supported by spinal skeletal elements. With two occipital condyles, or none. Vertebrae acentrous, pseudocentrous, or notocentrous. With lungs, and with gills, at least until metamorphosis. 1. Sub-CLASS PHEACTAMPHIBIA, Haeckel With a considerable amount of bony dermal armour. STEGOCEPHALI, Cope. Cranial roof with dermal bones, containing amongst others, two supraoccipitalia, two post- orbitalia, two supratemporalia ; with interparietal foramen : with three bony pectoro-jugal plates. Tailed. Carboniferous, Permian, and Triassic epochs. 1. Order Lepospondyli, Zittel. Pseudocentrous. 1. Sub-order BEANCHIOSAUEI, Zittel. With gills. Branchiosaurus. Lower Eed Sandstone, Europe. 2. Sub-order MICEOSAUEI, Dawson. Without gills. Keraterpeton, Urocordylus. Carboniferous of Nova Scotia. 3. Sub-order AISTOPODES, Miall. Without limbs and without pectoral girdles. Dolichosoma, Ophiderpeton. Carboniferous of Ireland and Bohemia. 2. Order Temnospondyli, Zittel. The component units of the vertebrae remain in a separate, unfused state. Chelydosaurus. Lower Eed, Bohemia. Sphenosaurus. Lower Eed, Bohemia. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 13 Trimerorhachis. Permian, Texas. Archegosaurus. Lower Bed, Germany. Actinodon. ) T ^ ^ ^ vLower Eed, France. Euchirosaurus.J 3. Order Stereospondyli, Zittel. Trematosaurus. New Eed, Germany. Capitosaurus. New Eed, Germany. Mastodonsaurus. Trias, Germany, England/ Labyrinthodon. Keuper, England. 2. Sub-CLASS LISSAMPHIBIA, Haeckel Without bony dermal armour ; without supratemporalia, supraoccipitalia, and postorbitalia. 1. Order Urodela, Dume"ril. Pseudocentrous, with the tail remaining throughout life. Normally with two pairs of limbs. Ilio-sacral attachment acetabular. Skin naked and smooth. Periarctic, but extending into North-western South America. Fossils unknown until the mid-Tertiary epoch. Salamandridae. Without gills in the perfect state. Max- illaries present. Both jaws toothed. Eyelids present. Salamandra. Western palaearctic. Chioglossa. Iberian peninsula. Triton. Periarctic. Amblystoma. Numerous species in North America and Mexico ; the larva or " Axolotl " has -been described as Siredon. One species, A. persimile, from mountains of Siam. Allied genera, e.g. Eanidens, Salamandrella in Japan, Manchuria, Eastern Siberia. Plethodon. North America. Spelerpes. North America, Mexico, Columbia, Costa Eica, Hayti, and North Italy. Desmognathus. North America. Amphiumidae. No gills in the perfect state, but with or without a pair of gill-clefts. Maxillaries present. Both jaws toothed. No eyelids. Cryptobranchus japonicus. Japan, China ; without spiracle. Miocene, Europe : Andrias. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 14 Menopoma alleghaniense. Mississippi basin ; with spiracle. Amphiuma means. SE. United States ; with spiracle. Proteidae. External gills persistent. Maxillaries absent. Premaxillaries and mandible toothed. No eyelids. Necturus = Menobranchus maculatus, in North America. Proteus anguinus, in Carniola. Sirenidae. External gills persistent. Maxillaries absent. Jaws toothless. No eyelids. Siren lacertina. South-eastern United States. Pseudobranchus striatus. Georgia. 2. Order Apoda, Oppel. Pseudocentrous. Tail extremely short. Limbs and girdles absent. Skin covered by numerous imbricating concealed dermal scales, which are arranged in rings. Coeciliidae. About twenty-five species in tropical countries. Palaeotropical and neotropical. Ichthyophis. Indian and Malayan. Coecilia. Neotropical. Other genera in South America and in Africa, excluding Madagascar. 3. Order Anura, Dumeril. Notocentrous. Caudal vertebrae transformed into a coccyx during metamorphosis. Ilio- sacral connexion extremely preacetabular. Fore- and hind-limbs always well developed. 1. Sub -order PHANEROGLOSSA, Wagler. With a tongue. Eustachian tubes opening separately at the base of the cranium. Larva with one spiracle only, either on the left side (majority) or median (Discoglossidae). a. ARCIFERA, Cope. Distal portions of the coracoids and precoracoids connected with each other by a cartilaginous arch, and that of the one side overlapping that of the other. 1. Cystignathidae. Upper jaw toothed. Diapophyses of sacral vertebrae cylindrical or slightly dilated. Terminal phalanges not claw-shaped. Procoelous, no ribs Arboreal, aquatic, terrestrial, or burrowing. Neotropical and Australian. Numerous genera, e.g. Pseudis. South America. Hylodes. Tropical America. Ceratophrys. South America. Chiroleptes. Australia. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 15 2. Dendropliryniscidae. No maxillary teeth. Sacral diapophyses not dilated. Peru. Two species only. 3. Bufonidae. Maxillary teeth present. Sacral diapo- physes dilated. Procoelous, no ribs. Terrestrial, arboreal, aquatic, burrowing. Bufo and several other genera. Bufo is cosmopolitan, with the exception of the Australian region. Myobatrachus, one species, and Pseudophryne, two species, are the only Australian representatives of this other- wise cosmopolitan family. 4. Hylidae. Upper jaw toothed. Sacral diapophyses dilated. Terminal phalanges claw- shaped, swollen. Procoelous, no ribs. Cosmopolitan. Acris. U.S.A. Hyla. Cosmopolitan, excluding Africa and Madagascar. Nototrema. Tropical America. 5. AmphignatJiodontidae. Both jaws toothed. Sacral diapophyses dilated. Closely allied to Hylidae. One species, in Ecuador. 6. Pelobatidae. Upper jaw toothed. Sacral diapophyses strongly dilated. No ribs. Terminal phalanges simple. Verte- brae variable. Pelobates. Europe. Pelodytes. W. Europe. Other small genera in North America, Central America, India, Malaya, New Guinea, 7. Discoglossidae. Upper jaw toothed. Sacral diapophyses dilated. With short movable ribs. Opisthocoelous. In tadpoles the spiracle is placed mesially on the thoracic region. Discoglossus. S. Europe and NW. Africa. Bombinator. Europe and Asia. Liopelma. New Zealand. [The only Amphibian in New Zealand.] Alytes. Western Europe. 8. Hemiphractidae. Both jaws toothed. Sacral diapo- physes not dilated. Opisthocoelous. CLA SSIFICA TION OF VER TEBRA TA 1 6 Coracoids and precoracoids not overlapping, nor fused with those of the other side. A few species in S. America. b. FIRMISTERNIA, Cope. Coracoids firmly united with each other. 9. Ranidae, Bonaparte. Upper jaw toothed. Sacral diapophyses cylindrical, or very slightly dilated. Procoelous. Without ribs. Since the Miocene. Kana. Cosmopolitan, excluding Patagonia, New Zealand and Australia ; but one species in Cape York peninsula. Ehacophorus and numerous other genera, chiefly palaeo- tropical ; few neotropical, none periarctic. 10. Dendrobatidae. No teeth; otherwise like the Neo- tropical Eanidae. Dendrobates. Tropical America. Mantella. Madagascar. 11. Engystomatidae. Maxilla toothless. Sacral diapo- physes dilated. Procoelous, without ribs. Numerous genera, almost entirely palaeotropical and neo- tropical. Ehinoderma. Chili. 12. Dyscophidae. Upper jaw toothed, otherwise like the previous family. A few species in Madagascar and India. 2. Sub-order AGLOSSA, Wagler. Probably a heterogeneous group of degraded forms specialised by absolutely aquatic life. No tongue. Eustachian tubes united medioventrally. Larva with two symmetrical spiracles. No tympanum. Opisthocoelous, epichordal vertebrae. Shoulder-girdle of the arciferous type, but the two halves do not overlap. Sacral diapophyses strongly dilated. 1. Xenopidae. Upper jaw toothed, with a long, epipubic cartilage ; unique. Xenopus. Ethiopian. 2. Pipidae. No teeth. Pipa americana. Guiana. III. CLASS REPTILIA Amniota. Allantoidea. Tetrapoda. Occipital condyle triple or single. Vertebrae gastro- centrous. Ilio-sacral connexion postacetabular. With lungs only ; gills absent. 1. Sub-CLASS PEOEEPTILIA Temnospondylous : the three pairs Of component units of the vertebrae remain separate ; amphicoelous. Eryops. Permian, Texas. Cricotus. Permian, Texas. 2. Sub-CLASS PEOSAUEIA Amphicoelous, with intercentra, or with movable chevrons. Sphenodon, the only recent genus, has no copulatory organs. 1. Order Lepospondyli. Chorda persistent, without inter- ruption. Eibs with capitulum and tuberculum. Hylonomus. Carboniferous, Nova Scotia. Hyloplesion. Carboniferous, Bohemia. Hylerpeton. Carboniferous, Nova Scotia. ? Smilerpeton. Carboniferous, Nova Scotia. 2. Order Stereospondyli. Centra of vertebrae solid. With numerous intercentra and chevrons. Eibs without tuberculum. Humerus with entepicondylar foramen. Numerous abdominal " rib-like " ossifications. Quadrate fixed. Two sacral vertebrae. Upper and lower temporal arch. 1. Sub -order PEOTOEOSAUEI, Seeley. Protorosaurus. Permian, Germany. Palaeohatteria. Permian, Germany. ?Telerpeton. New Eed, Elgin Sandstone. ? Simaedosaurus. Lower Eocene, France, Belgium. 3 CLA SSIFICA TION OF VER TEBRA TA 1 8 2. Sub-order KHYNCHOCEPHALI, Guenther. Ehynchosaurus. Keuper, England. Hyperodapedon. Keuper, England ; India. Homoeosaurus. Upper Jura, Germany. Sphenodon. New Zealand. 3. Sub-CLASS THEKOMOKPHA, Cope Stereospondylous, amphicoelous. Pubes and ischia fused together. Humerus with entepicondylar foramen. Quadrate fixed. Eibs with capitulum and tuberculum. Pentadactyle walking limbs. 1. Order Anomodontia, Owen. Walking limbs. Sacrum with five to six vertebrae. Triple occipital condyle. Without intercentra. Teeth absent, or restricted to one pair of upper tusks. Oudenodon. L. Trias, S. Africa ; Permian, Ural ? Dicynodon. L. Trias, S. Africa ; Bengal ; Elgin. 2. Order Theriodontia, Owen, s. Pelycosauri, Cope. With intercentra. Two or three sacrals. Mostly with differentiated incisors, canines, and molars. Triple occipital condyle. Lycosaurus. Trias, South Africa. Cynodraco. Trias, South Africa. Galesaurus. Trias, South Africa. Clepsydros. Trias, U.S.A. Dimetrodon. Trias, U.S.A. 3. Order Pareiosauri, Zittel. Teeth in uniform series. Two sacrals. With triple occipital condyle. Caudal intercentra. Pareiosaurus. L. Trias, South Africa. Elginia. L. Trias, Elgin. 4. Order Placodontia, von Meyer. Skull only known. Palate with large, broad teeth. Marine, European. Placodus. Muschelkalk, Germany. 4. Sub-CLASS CEOCODILIA, Wagler Stereospondylous. Quadrate fixed. Eibs with capitulum and tuberculum. Two sacral vertebrae. Pentadactyle walk- CLA SSIFICA TION OF VER TEBRA TA 1 9 ing limbs. Both jaws with numerous alveolar teeth. With " abdominal " ribs. Humerus without entepicondylar foramen. Pubes and ischia distally not united. Pubes simple. At least with two rows of dorsal dermal bones. Tail long, with numerous movable chevrons. In the recent forms : cloacal opening longitudinal ; penis anterior, single. 1. Order Pseudosuchia, Zittel. Premaxillae separated by the large nasals. Nares la tero- terminal. Without lateral temporal foramen. Aetosaurus. Upper Keuper, Wuerttemberg. Ornithosuchus. L. Trias, Elgin. 2. Order Parasuchia, Huxley. Premaxillae long and united. Nares far back, near the orbits. Choanae near the anterior end of the separated palatina. With upper and lateral tem- poral foramen. Belodon. Keuper of Europe, India. 3. Order Eusuchia, Huxley. Premaxillae short. Nares terminal. Choanae behind the palatine symphysis. Amphicoelous until the lower Chalk, then procoelous. Teleosaurus. Jurassic, since Lias ; marine, Europe. Steneosaurus. Jurassic, since Lias ; marine, Europe. Metriorhynchus. Jurassic, since Lias ; marine, Europe. Pholidosaurus. Wealden and lower Chalk ; Europe. Gavialosuchus. Miocene, marine, Europe. Tomistoma. Miocene, marine, Mediterranean. T. schlegeli. Recent, fresh-water, Borneo. Gavialis. Pliocene, fluviatile, Sivaliks. G. gangeticus. Eecent, India, Burmah. Alligator. Since the upper Chalk, fluviatile, of Europe. Eecent, SE. United States, and China. Caiman. East Andean South America. Osteolaemus. West African estuaries. Crocodilus. Since the upper Chalk of Europe ; Tertiary of Europe and North America. Recent: Africa, India, Austro- Malaya, tropical America (South America, Central America, and Antilles). Total number of recent Crocodilian species about twenty. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 20 5. Sub-CLASS CHELONIA, Brogniart Stereospondylous. Quadrate fixed. Ribs with capitulum only. Two sacral vertebrae. Pentadactyle walking limbs or paddles. Both jaws without teeth, but with horny sheaths. Humerus without entepicondylar foramen. Pubes and ischia forming symphyses. Numerous dorsal and ventral dermal bones, forming a carapace and a plastron. Cloacal opening longitudinal. Penis anterior, single. 1. Order Thecophora, Dollo. Dorsal vertebrae and ribs fused with the dermal plates which form a carapace. With a parieto-pterygoidal column. 1. Sub-order CKYPTODIRA, Dume"ril. Neck, if retractile, bending in an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane. Pelvis not anchylosed with carapace or plastron. Chelydridae. Pubic and ischiadic symphyses widely sepa- rated from each other. Plastron narrow, cruciform, without entoplastral plate. Tail long. Since Upper Jurassic of Europe and North America. Eecent : Chelydra serpentina ; Macroclemmys temmincki. U.S.A. Dermatemydidae. Pubic and ischiadic symphyses widely separate. With entoplastral. Short tail. Dermatemys. America, since Eocene. Cinosternidae. Pubic and ischiadic symphyses in contact. Without entoplastral. Cinosternum in Central and North America. Platysternidae. Pubic and ischiadic symphyses connected by ligament. With entoplastral. Unique character : jugal completely enclosed by postfrontal, maxillae and quadrato- jugal. Platysternum megacephalum. South China to Siam. Testudinidae. Pubic and ischiadic symphyses firmly con- nected with each other. With entoplastron. Since Eocene : Clemmys and Emys. Since Miocene : Testudo. Colossochelys atlas. Upper Miocene, Sivaliks. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 21 Eecent distribution of Testudinidae cosmopolitan, with the exception of the Australian region. Chelonidae. Limbs transformed into paddles. With squamoso-parietal suture. Marine. Since upper Chalk in Europe and North America. Eecent : Chelone and Thalassochelys. 2. Sub-order PLEUEODIEA, Dumeril. Neck bending laterally. Pelvis anchylosed with plastron and carapace. Here possibly Proganochelys. Ehaetic, Wuerttemberg. Pelomedusidae. With eleven plastrals. Eecent, Africa, Madagascar, South America. ?Plesiochelys. Upper Jurassic, Switzerland. Chelydidae. With nine plastrals. Eecent : Chelys fim- briata = matamata ; Hydraspis and Hydromedusa. South America. Chelodina. Australian region. Carettochelydidae. Limbs transformed into paddles. With- out epidermal shields. With nine plastrals. Carettochelys insculpta. New Guinea. 3. Sub-order TEIONYCHOIDEA, Bonaparte. Neck bend- ing in an S -shaped curve in a vertical plane. Pelvis not anchylosed. With nine plastrals. With three claws. With- out epidermal shields. Since the upper Chalk in N. America ; Eocene in Europe and U.S.A. Eecent : Trionyx in Asia, Africa, North America. 2. Order Athecae, Cope. Sphargidae. Dorsal vertebrae and ribs not fused with the carapace, which consists of numerous polygonal plates. Pelvis not anchylosed. Without parieto- pterygoid column. Limbs transformed into paddles. Skin leathery, without epidermal shields. Marine. Potentially cryptodirous. ?Psephoderma. Ehaetic, Bavaria. Protostega gigas. Upper Chalk, U.S.A. Protosphargis. Upper Chalk, Venetia. Eosphargis. London Clay. Psephophorus. Oligocene, Europe. Eecent : Sphargis (Dermatochelys) coriacea. Intertropical. Total number of recent Chelonian species about 200. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 22 6. Sub-CLASS DINOSAUEIA, Pictet Stereospondylous. Quadrate fixed. Eibs with capitulum and tuberculum. Limbs terrestrial. With distal ischiadic syn- desmosis. Ilium horizontally elongated. With sternum. Upper Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. 1. Order Sauropoda, Marsh. Pubes simple, with symphysis. Premaxilla with teeth. Fore- and hind-limbs pentadactyle, plantigrade. Atlantosaurus, Brontosaurus, Morosaurus, Diplodocus : mostly gigantic beasts of the Upper Jurassic of Wyoming. Ornithopsis. Wealden, England. 2. Order Theropoda, Marsh. Pubes simple, with symphysis. Premaxilla with teeth. Carnivorous. Fore-limbs shorter than hind-limbs. Metatarsals elongated. Digitigrade. Anchisaurus. Upper Trias, Connecticut. . Brontozoum (Ornithichnites). Connecticut. Zanclodon. Keuper, Wuerttemberg. Megalosaurus. Oolite, Europe and Colorado. Allosaurus, Ceratosaurus, Coelurus, Hallopus. Upper Jurassic, U.S.A. Compsognathus. Oolite, Bavaria ; hind -limb almost typically avine. 3. Order Orthopoda, Cope. Each pubis consisting of an anterior (prepubis) and a posterior (postpubis) arm, without symphyses. Premaxilla without teeth, and with a predentary edentulous piece. Herbivorous. 1. Sub-order STEGOSAUEI, Marsh. Plantigrade. With dermal armour. Scelidosaurus. Lias to Chalk, England. Stegosaurus. Jurassic, North America. 2. Sub-order OENITHOPODA, Marsh. Fore-limbs much shorter than hind -limbs, but stout and with five fingers. Hind-limbs elongated, digitigrade. Camptosaurus and Laosaurus. Upper Jurassic, U.S.A. Hypselophodon. Wealden, England. Iguanodon. Wealden, Europe. CLA SSIFICA TION OF VER TEBRA TA 23 Hadrosaurus and Diclonius. Upper Cretaceous, U.S.A. ? Ornithomimus. Upper Cretaceous, Colorado. 4. Order Ceratopsia, Marsh. Pubes simple, with sym- physis. Pentadactyle, quadrupedous. Maxilla and mandible with a toothless rostrale and predentale. With dermal armour. Ceratops and Triceratops. Cretaceous, Europe and U.S.A. 7. Sub-CLASS PTEEOSAUEIA, Kaup Stereospondylous. Quadrate fixed. Anterior limbs trans- formed into wings, the enormously elongated ulnar finger carrying the patagium. 1. Sub-order PTEEODACTYLI. With alveolar teeth. Dimorphodon. Lias, England. Pterodactylus and Ehamphorhynchus. Upper Jurassic, Europe. Ornithocheirus. Cretaceous, England. 2. Sub-order PTEEANODONTES. Without teeth. Scapula articulating with spinous processes of dorsal vertebrae. Pteranodon. Cretaceous, Kansas. 8. Sub-CLASS PLESIOSAUEIA, Eitzinger Quadrate fixed. Alveolar teeth. Thoracic ribs without tuberculum. Strong abdominal ribs. One or more sacral vertebrae. No sternum. Neck mostly long. Aquatic. 1. Order Mesosauri, Boulenger. Pentadactyle, not more than five phalanges. Vertebrae with persistent notochordal canal. Four sacral vertebrae. Mesosaurus. Trias, S. Africa and Brazil. 2. Order Nothosauri, Boulenger. Pentadactyle walking , and swimming limbs, with not more than five phalanges. Vertebrae solid. Nothosaurus. Muschelkalk, Germany. Lariosaurus. Upper Trias, fresh water, Lombardy. 3. Order Plesiosauri. Limbs transformed into hyper- phalangeal paddles. Vertebrae solid. Europe, from the Ehaetic to the upper Chalk, Marine. Plesiosaurus, Pliosaurus, Polyptychodon. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 24 9. Sub-CLASS ICHTHYOSAURIA, Geoffrey Quadrate fixed. Vertebrae deeply amphicoelous. Teeth in one groove, or absent. Ribs with capitulum and tuber- culum. No sternum. Strong abdominal ribs. Neck short. Marine. Limbs transformed into hyperphalangeal paddles. Without sacrum. Mixosaurus. Muschelkalk, Europe, Spitzbergen. Ichthyosaurus. Jurassic and Cretaceous, Europe ; Cretaceous, Queensland and New Zealand. Baptanodon. Toothless. Jurassic, Wyoming. Ophthalmosaurus. Teeth rudimentary. Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous, England. 10. Sub-CLASS PYTHONOMORPHA, Cope Long-necked with snake-like body, marine. Anterior and posterior limbs pentadactyle. Acrodont teeth on jaws and pterygoids. With interparietal foramen. Pectoral and pelvic girdles, and sternum present. , : 1. Order Dolichosauri. Mandibles with sutural sym- physis. With two sacral vertebrae. Acteosaurus. Lower Chalk, Istria, Dolichosaurus. Upper Chalk, England. ? Plioplatecarpus. Upper Chalk, Holland. 2. Order Mosasauri. Mandibles with ligamentous con- nexion. Without sacrum. Limbs transformed into paddles. Upper Chalk. Mosasaurus. Europe and U.S.A. Liodon. N. America, Europe, New Zealand. Platecarpus. N. America, New Zealand. Clidastes. North America. 11. Sub-CLASS SAUPJA, Brogniart Quadrate movable, except in the degraded, burrowing families of Autosauri. Cloacal opening transverse, penes postero-lateral, double. Since the cretaceous epoch. 1. Order Autosauri, Haeckel. Right and left mandible CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 25 with sutural symphysis. Pectoral girdle at least vestigial, except in the degraded families, 13-17. 1. Sub-order GECKONES, Spix. Lepospondylous. With columella cranii. Sternum, girdles and limbs complete. Eibs prolonged ventrally across into abdominal ribs. Cosmopolitan, warmer zones. About 270 species. G-eckonidae. Amphicoelous ; parietal bones distinct. Gecko, Teratoscincus, etc. Uroplatidae. Amphicoelous; parietal single. Uroplates in Madagascar. Eiiblepliaridae. Probably a heterogeneous group. Pro- coelous ; parietals fused into one. West Africa, Central America, Indo-Persia. Eublepharis, etc. 2. Sub-order LACERTAE, Spix. Stereospondylous, pro- coelous. With columella cranii, except in most of the burrow- ing, degraded families. Cosmopolitan. About 1300 recent species. 1. Agamidae. Acrodont ; without supra temporal arch ; without osteoderms. Tongue thick and short. With postorbital and postfronto-squamosal arches. Limbs well developed. Asia and SE. Europe, Africa excluding Madagascar, Australian region. Calotes, Draco, Agarna, Chlamydosaurus, Uromastix, Moloch, etc. 2. Iguanidae. Pleurodont, without supratemporal arch ; without osteoderms on body. Tongue thick. With postorbital and postfrontal arches. Limbs well developed. America, Madagascar, Fiji, and Friendly Islands. Anolis, Basiliscus, Polychrus, Iguana, Phrynosoma. Amblyrhynchus. Galapagos ; algivorous. Chalarodon and Hoplurus in Madagascar. Brachylophus. Fiji and Friendly Islands. 3. JCenosauridae, Differs from Iguanidae by the teeth not being hollow at base, and by 'the anterior part of the tongue being retractile. Xenosaurus grandis. Mexico. 4. Zonuridae. Like the Iguanidae, but the supra- temporal fossa is roofed over by dermal bones. Distinguished 4 CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 26 from Lacertidae by the simple non-retractile tongue. Limbs variable. South and tropical Africa and Madagascar. Zonurus, with osteoderms covering the body. Chamaesaura, serpentiform, limbs vestigial. 5. Anguidae. Pleurodont, teeth curved and solid. Body with osteoderms ; head with all three arches. Anterior part of tongue retractile. Eyelids movable. Limbs variable. "With an azygos " occipital " shield. North and South America ; European and Mediterranean ; transgangetic India. Gerrhonotus, with limbs. Ophisaurus (Pseudopus) and Anguis, without limbs. 6. Helodermatidae. The pleurodont teeth are grooved in front and behind. Numerous lower labial, poisonous glands. Postorbital arch strong, the others absent. Anterior portion of tongue bifid, protractile. Osteoderms slightly developed. Heloderma. Mexico. 7. Varanidae. Pleurodont. Postorbital arch incomplete. Tongue deeply bifid and protractile. Limbs well developed. No osteoderms. Varanus in Africa, Asia, Australia. 8. Xanthusiidae. Pleurodont. All three arches present. No osteoderms. Eyelids not movable. Xanthusia, etc. Central America and Cuba. 9. Tejidae. No supratemporal arch ; no osteoderms. Tongue long and bifid. Teeth pleuro- to acrodont. Limbs variable. America. Teius, Ameiva, etc, 1 0. Lacertidae. Pleurodont. All three arches present. No osteoderms on the body. Proper eyelids. Tongue bifid retractile. Lacerta, etc. Palaearctic and Palaeotropical, excluding Madagascar. 11. Gerrhosauridae. Pleurodont. All three arches present. Osteoderms strongly developed. Tongue bifid. Limbs variable. Mostly with a lateral fold. Africa south of the Sahara, and Madagascar. Gerrhosaurus, Zonosaurus, etc. 12. Scincidae. Pleurodont. All three arches present. Osteoderms strongly developed. Premaxilla double. Tongue CLA SSIFICA TION OF VER TEBRA TA 27 nicked feebly. No lateral fold. Limbs variable. Eyelids well developed. Cosmopolitan. Cyclodus (Tiliqua), Scincus, Trachysaurus, etc. The following five families are composed of degraded forms of various descent, leading mostly a burrowing, subterraneous life. Limbs entirely absent, or the posterior pair reduced to small flaps ; girdles correspondingly reduced. Without post- orbital, postfronto-squamosal, and supratemporal arches. Body snake-shaped or worm-like. 13. Anelytropidae. Degraded Skinks. Teeth hook-shaped. Osteoderms present. Eyes and ears concealed. No limbs. Premaxilla single. Africa and Mexico. Anelytropsis in Mexico. Feylinia and Typhlosaurus in Africa. 1 4. Dibamidae. Degraded Skinks. Premaxilla double. No columella cranii. No limbs, except the males, in which the hind-limbs are represented by a pair of flaps on the side of the anus. Eyes and ears concealed. Teeth hook-shaped. Body worm-like. With cycloid imbricating scales. Dibamus in New Guinea, Moluccas, Celebes, Nicobars. 15. Aniellidae. Degraded Anguidae ; see Family No. 5. No limbs. Premaxilla single. No squamosal bone. No columella cranii. Eyes and ears concealed. Body snake-like. Amelia in California. 16. Amphisbaenidae. Fore-limbs only or no limbs at all. No columella cranii. Eyes and ears concealed. Pleuro- or acrodont. Worm-like with annular skin-segments. America including Antilles, Africa, Mediterranean countries. Chirotes, Blanus, Amphisbaena, Trogonophis, etc. 1 7. Pygopodidae. Pleurodont. Premaxilla single. Hind- limbs reduced to short pentadactyle flaps ; fore-limbs absent. Body scaly without osteoderms. Eyes open, without movable lids. Australia and New Guinea. Pygopus, Lialis, etc. 3. Sub-order CHAMAELEONTES, Wiegmann. Stereo- spondylous. Precocious. Without columella cranii. No tympanum. Acrodont. Limbs well developed, fingers and toes arranged in opposing, grasping bundles of two and three. CLA SSI PICA TION OF VER TEBRA TA 28 Tail prehensile. Tongue very long and protractile. Palaeo- tropical. Only Family Chamaeleontidae. Only genus, with two subgenera : Chamaeleon. About fifty species, almost all in the Malagasy sub-region and in Africa ; two species in South Arabia and Socotra ; one in India and Ceylon. 2. Order Ophidia, Brogniart. Eight and left mandible with loose ligamentous connexion. Without sternum and pectoral limbs and girdle. Pelvic limbs and girdle absent or vestigial. About 1600 recent species. The oldest known Ophidian is Palaeophis, London Clay, England. Typhlopidae. Pelvis vestigial. Mandible with coronoid. Without ectopterygoid. Pterygoid not articulating with the quadrate. Owing to absence of the squamosal, the quadrate articulates directly with the prootic. Prefrontal in contact with nasal. Eyes hidden by shields. Burrowing snakes. Maxilla very short, loose, toothed. Mandible toothless. Typhlops. South Europe, South Asia, Africa, Australia, South America. Grlauconiidae. Like the Typhlopidae, but maxilla fixed and toothless, mandible toothed. With vestige of femur. Glauconia. Africa, SW. Asia, tropical America. Boidae. Both jaws toothed. With ectopterygoid, supra- temporal and coronoid. With vestigial pelvis and hind-limbs. Prefrontal in contact with nasals. Supratemporal large and loose. Boa, Python, etc. Cosmopolitan. Ilysiidae. Like the Boidae, but the supratemporal is small and firmly wedged in between quadrate and prootic. Ilysia in Guiana. Cylindrophis in Indo-Malaya. Uropeltidae. Both jaws toothed. With coronoid. Pre- frontal in contact with nasal. Without supratemporal, and without vestiges of limbs and pelvis. Small burrowing snakes of Southern India. Uropeltis, Pthinophis, etc. Cohibridae. Both jaws toothed. With movable supratem- poral bone. Prefrontals not reaching the nasals. No coronoid. Maxilla horizontal. Pterygoid articulating with quadrate. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 29- a. Aglypha. Teeth solid, not grooved. Cosmopolitan. Tropidonotus, Zamenis, Coluber, Dendrophis, Coronella, Calamaria, Dasypeltis (Ehachiodon), etc. &. OpistJioglypha. One or more of the posterior maxillary teeth are grooved. Slightly poisonous. Cosmopolitan. Psammophis, Dryophis, etc. Hypsirhina (entirely aquatic and viviparous). c. Proteroglypha. Anterior maxillary teeth grooved or perforated. Very poisonous. Tail cylindrical, terrestrial ; mostly viviparous, cosmopoli- tan, warmer zones. Elaps, Naja, Bungarus, Sepedon, Dendraspis, etc. Tail laterally compressed ; aquatic, viviparous. Indian and Pacific coasts. Hydrophis, etc. Distira, landlocked in fresh-water lake of Luzon. Amblycephalidae. Like the Colubridae, hut pterygoid short and not reaching quadrate ; supratemporal vestigial. Aglyph- odont. Neotropical and Indo-Malayan. Amblycephalus, etc. Viperidae. With movable supratemporal, pterygoid articu- lating with quadrate. Maxilla short and vertically erectile to the pterygoid. No coronoid. Prefrontal not in contact with nasal. Viviparous, excluding Atractaspis. Very poisonous. Cosmopolitan, excluding Madagascar and Australia. Viper inae. Maxilla solid. No pit on the side of the snout. Europe, Asia, Africa. Vipera, Cerastes, Echis, Atractaspis, etc. Crotalinae. Maxilla hollowed out above, receiving the- deep, externally visible pit. Ancistrodon. Asia, America. Lachesis. SE. Asia and S. America. Crotalus. America. IV. CLASS AVES, LinnS ' Warmblooded, oviparous, Amniota, Allantoidea. Occipital condyle single. Quadrate movable. Anterior extremities transformed into wings. Covered with feathers. With inter- tarsal joint. Not more than four toes, of which the first is the hallux. Total number of recent species nearly 10,000, of which about half are Oscines. 1. Sub-CLASS AKCHAEOKNITHES (Carus), Gadow The three fingers and their metacarpals (I, II, III) remain separate, each with a claw. Well developed remiges. Both jaws with alveolar teeth. Amphicoelous. Caudal vertebrae more than thirteen, with- out a pygostyle, but with paired rectrices. Archaeopteryx. Oolite, Bavaria. 2. Sub-CLASS NEOBNITHES, Gadow Metacarpals fused. Second finger the longest. Not more than thirteen caudal vertebrae. 1. Division NEORNITHES EA TITAE, Merrem. Ter- restrial, flightless. Without sternal keel. Quadrate with single proximal knob. Without pygostyle. Coracoid and scapula fused. No pterylae. Compound rhamphotheca. With copulatory organ. A collective cosmopolitan group; with certainty since the Miocene. ? Diatryma. Eocene, New Mexico. ? Gastornis, Dasornis. Eocene, Europe. CLA SSIFICA TION OF VER TEBRA TA 3 1 1. Struthiones, Wagler. Two toes (3rd and 4th). With symphysis pubis ; unique in birds. Struthio. Africa and Arabia; Miocene of Samoa; Pliocene, Sivalik Hills. 2. Rheae. Three toes. With long ischiadic symphysis ! Ehea. Neotropical. Mesembriornis. Miocene or Pliocene, Argentina. 3. Casuarii, Kaup. Three toes. Aftershaft as long as the other half. Casuarius, Dromaeus. Australian region. Hypselornis. Pliocene, Sivalik Hills. 4. Apteryges. Four toes. Long, slender bill. Apteryx. New Zealand. 5. Dinornithes. Three or four toes. Bill short. Anterior extremities extremely reduced. Dinornis. Numerous species, recently extinct. New Zealand. 6. Aepyornithes. Four toes. Aepyornis. Eecently extinct. Madagascar. 2. Division NEONITHES ODONTOLCAE, Marsh. Marine, flightless, without sternal keel. Teeth in furrows. Cretaceous. Enaliornis. England ; vertebrae chiefly biconcave. Hesperornis. U.S.A. ; vertebrae heterocoelous. 3. Division NEORNITHES CARINATAE, Merrem. With keeled sternum. 1. Order Ichthyornithes. Vertebrae amphicoelous. Teeth alveolar. With small pygostyle. With incisura ischiadica. Cretaceous of Kansas. Ichthyornis, Apatornis. 2. Order Colymbiformes. Plantigrade, nidifugous, aquatic. Fourth toe largest, hallux short ; all toes webbed. Metatarsus laterally compressed with high, pyramidal epicnemial crest. Bill straight, pointed, with simple sheath. 1. Sub-order COLYMBI. Front toes completely webbed. Patella much reduced. Colymbus. Periarctic. 2. Sub -order PODICIPEDES. Toes lobated. Patella absent CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 32 Podicipes. Cosmopolitan, excluding Arctic and Antarctic. Centropelma. Titicaca lake ; flightless. 3. Order Sphenisciformes. Mdicolous, marine; flight- less, wings transformed into rowing paddles. SPHENISCI. Coasts of antarctic and southern temperate countries, and Galapagos. Palaeeudyptes. Oligocene, New Zealand. Palaeospheniscus. Eocene, Patagonia. Spheniscus, Eudyptes, and Aptenodytes. 4. Order Procellariiformes. Well -flying, pelagic, nidi- colous ; hallux absent or vestigial. Ehamphotheca compound. Cosmopolitan. Sub-order PROCELLARIAE s. TUBINARES. Diomedea, Oceanites. Procellaria, Puffinus, Prion, etc. Oceanites. 5. Order Ciconiiformes. Swimmers or waders; desmo- gnathous, without basipterygoid processes. With one pair of sternotracheal muscles. 1. Sub -order STEGANOPODES, Illiger. Well -flying, aquatic, nidicolous, with all the four toes webbed together. Cosmopolitan. Pkaetonticlae. Phaeton. Sulidae. Sula, since Miocene. Phalacrocoracidae. Phalacrocorax, since Miocene; Plotus. Fregatidae. Fregata, Tachypetes. Pelecanidae. Since Miocene. Pelagornis, Miocene, France; Argillornis, Eocene, England. Odontopteryx toliapicus. Eocene, England. 2. Sub-order ARDEAE, Wagler. Piscivorous, nidicolous waders, with complicated hypotarsus, and with long cervical apteria. Cosmopolitan. Ardeidae. Ardea, since Miocene ; Cancroma, Balaeniceps. Scopidae. Scopus Afra. Proherodius. Eocene,- England. 3. Sub-order CICONIAE. Carnivorous, nidicolous waders, with simple hypotarsus, and with cervical apteria. Cosmopolitan. Ciconiidae. Ciconia, Abdimia, Leptoptilus, etc. Ibidae. Ibis, Platalea. Propelargus. Oligocene. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 33. 4. Sub-order PHOENICOPTERI. Nidifugous. Very long legs and neck ; front toes completely webbed. Phoenicopterus. Cosmopolitan ; since Miocene. Elornis, Palaelodus. Oligocene, Europe. 6. Order Anseriformes. Desmognathous, nidicolous, with two pairs of sterno-tracheal muscles, with complete basiptery- goid processes and with a penis. 1. Sub-order PALAMEDEAE. Without uncinate processes on the ribs. Quadrate with two proximal articular knobs. Hypotarsus simple. Neotropical : Palamedea, Chauna. 2. Sub -order ANSERES. Hypotarsus complex. Basi- pterygoid processes articulating near the anterior ends of the pterygoids. Cosmopolitan. Only Family Anatidae. Anas, Anser, Cygnus, etc. Since Miocene. Cnemiornis. Plistocene, New Zealand ; flightless. 7. Order Falconiformes. Desmognathous, nidicolous,. carnivorous, terrestrial, without functional caeca. 1. Sub-order CATHARTAE. Withnares perviae. American. Only Family Cathartidae. Cathartes, Catharistes. 2. Sub -order ACCIPITKES. With nares imperviae. Cosmopolitan. G-ypogeraniclae. Gypogeranus. Ethiopian. Vulturidae. From Portugal to Siam, and to South Africa. Falconidae. Gypaetus; Aquila since Oligocene, Falco, Pandion. Harpagornis. Plistocene, New Zealand. Lithornis. Eocene, England. 8. Order Tinamiformes. Nidifugous, with incisura ischiadica, without pygostyle. Neotropical. Sub-order TINAMI. Crypturidae. Tinamus s. Crypturus, Rhynchotus, Nothura, etc. 9. Order Galliformes. Terrestrial, schizognathous ; with ten functional remiges. With strong spinae sterni (either spina interna, eventually sp. communis, and in this case without basipterygoid processes, or only with a strong spina externa and with basipterygoid processes). 5 CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 34 1. Sub-order MESITES. Without basipterygoid processes, and with large spina interna. Mesites variegatus. Madagascar. 2. Sub -order TUKNICES. Nidifugous ; vomer large, sternum without processus obliqui. Hallux absent or vestigial. Old World. Turnicidae. Quintocubital. Hallux absent. Turnix s. Hemipodius. S. Europe, Africa, India. Pedionomidae. Pedionomus. Australia. 3. Sub-order GALLI. With laige spina communis sterni and large processus obliquus. Hallux functional. Megapodiidae. Australian and Austro- Malay an. Mega- podius, Talegallus, Megacephalon, etc. Craddae. Neotropical, excluding Antilles : Crax, Penelope, Ortalida, etc. Gallidae. Cosmopolitan. Meleagris, Numida ; Tetrao, Ortyx ; Perdix, Francolinus, Coturnix, etc. ; Gallus, Phasianus, Pavo, Argus. 4. Sub -order OPISTHOCOMI. Arboreal. With long spina externa sterni ; without basipterygoid processes. Ophisthocomus cristatus. Guiana and Venezuela. 10. Order Gruiformes. Legs of the "wading" type. Without basipterygoid processes. Without spina interna sterni. Essentially schizognathous, excluding Ehinochetus and Dicholophus. Cosmopolitan. Eallidae. Cosmopolitan, since Oligocene. Eallus, Fulica, Ocydromus, etc. Gallinula nesiotis. Tristan d'Acunha ; flightless. Notornis. New Zealand ; flightless, recently extinct. Aphanapteryx (Mauritius), = Erythromachus (Rodriguez) = Diaphorapteryx (Chatham Island) ; flightless and recently extinct. Aptornis. Eecently extinct : New Zealand ; flightless. Gypsornis. Upper Eocene, France. G-ruidae. Cosmopolitan, excluding New Zealand and Pacific. Grus, Aramus ; Psophia. ? Phororhacos. Tertiary, Patagonia. Dicholopliidae. Dicholophus s. Cariama. Brazil and Argentina. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 35 Otididae. Otis, etc. Old World, since Miocene. Rhinochetidae. Khinochetus jubatus. New Caledonia. Eurypygidae. Eurypyga. Neotropical. Heliornithidae. Heliornis, Neotropical. Podica, Ethiopian and Indo- China. 11. Order Charadriiformes. Schizognathous, with eleven remiges, of which the terminal very short ; aquintocubital. Spinae sterni short, separate. 1. Sub -order LIMICOLAE. Nidifugous, schizognathous, without spina interna sterni ; hypotarsus complicated. Cos- mopolitan. Charadriidae. Charadrius, Vanellus, Ibidorhynchus, Hae- matopus, etc. Tringa, Phalaropus, Scolopax, Ehynchaea, Numenius, Limosa, etc. Cosmopolitan. Chionididae. Chionis. Kerguelen Islands. G-lareolidae. Glareola, Cursorius, Dromas. Old World. Thinocorythidae. Thinocorys, Attagis. South America. Oedicnemididae. Oedicnemus. Cosmopolitan, excluding North America, Australasia, and New Zealand. Parridae. Parra. Neotropical, Ethiopian, Malagasic, Indo- Malayan. Hydrophasiauus. Indian. 2. Sub-order LAEI. Aquatic, schizognathous, vomer com- plete. Without basipterygoid processes. Front toes webbed ; hallux small or absent. Large supraorbital glands. Since the Miocene. Laridae. Nidifugous. Cosmopolitan. Lestris, Larus, Sterna, Ehynchops. Alcidae. Northern half of the periarctic region. Alca, Fratercula, etc. 3. Sub-order PTEROCLES. Nidifugous. With large crop and large caeca. Vomer vestigial. Hallux vestigial or absent. From Portugal to India, and to the Cape of Good Hope. Pteroclidae. Pterocles and Syrrhaptes. 4. Sub-order COLUMBAE. Nidicolous, with large crop, vestigial caeca. Cosmopolitan. Columlidae. Since Miocene. Columba, Treron, Caloenas, Goura, Didunculus. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 36 Dididae. Without basipterygoid processes. Flightless. Didus ineptus. Mauritius. Pezophaps solitarius. Eodriguez. 1 2. Order Cuculiformes. Desmognathous ; zygodacty- lous, or with the outer toe reversible ; deep flexors of the toes normal (Type I). Nidicolous. 1. Sub-order CUCULI. Zygodactylous, or with outer toe reversible. Quintocubital. Cosmopolitan. Cuculidae. Cuculus, Coccystes ; Phoenicophaes ; Centro- pus, Crotophaga, etc. Musophagidae. Ethiopian. Musophaga, Corythaix, etc. 2. Sub -order PSITTACI. Zygodactylous. Aquinto- cubital. Cosmopolitan, chiefly tropical. Triclioglossidae. Nestor. New Zealand. Lorius, Trichoglossus, etc. Psittacidae. Stringops, Cacatua. Lophopsittacus, Mauri- tius, recently exterminated. Psittacus, Chrysotis, Platycercus, Conurus. 13. Order Coraciiformes. Nidicolous; nares imperviae ; holorhinal. Downs restricted to the apteria, or absent. Thir- teen to fifteen cervical vertebrae. Deep plantar tendons con- nected with each other. Mostly desmognathous. Cosmopolitan. 1. Sub-order COKACIAE. Either (1) syndactyle, and with long spina externa sterni ; without spina interna. Or (2) eleutherodactyle, and with spina communis. Or (3) outer toe reversible, and with spina externa only. Coraciidae. Old world. Leptosoma, Coracias, etc. Momotidae. Neotropical. Momotus, Todus. Alcedinidae. Cosmopolitan. Alcedo, Ceryle, Dacelo, Ceyx, etc. Meropidae. Old world. Merops, Nyctiornis. Upupidae. Palaearctic and palaeotropical. Buceros, Irrisor, Upupa. 2. Sub-order STEIGES. Outer toe reversible. Long functional caeca. Schizognathous. Cosmopolitan. Strigidae. Strix, Bubo, Asios, Otus, etc. 3. Sub-order CAPKIMULGI. Nocturnal. With gaping mouth. Ten remiges and rectrices. Spinae sterni vestigial. Caeca functional. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 37 Steatornithidae. Steatornis. Peru to Trinidad. Podargidae. Australia and Papuasia. Podargus, Batrachostomus, Nyctibius, etc. Caprimulgidae. Cosmopolitan. Caprimulgus, Chordeiles, etc. 4. Sub -order CYPSELI. The tenth, terminal, remex is the longest. With short spina sterni externa and interna. No caeca. Cypselidae. Cosmopolitan. Cypselus, Chaetura, Collocalia, Dendrochelidon, etc. Trochilidae. American : Trochilus, Patagona, etc. 5. Sub-order COLII. First and fourth toes reversible. Coliidae. Ethiopian : Colius. 6. Sub- order TKOGONES. Heterodactyle ; first and second toes directed forwards ; third and fourth backwards. Tropical. Trogon and Pharomacrus in America. Hapaloderma in Africa. Harpactes in Indo-Malaya. Trogon gallicus. Miocene, France. 7. Sub -order PICI. Tendon of the m. flexor hallucis sending a strong vinculum to that of the m. flexor profundus digitorum, the tendon of which goes to the third toe only. Zygodactylous. Neotropical. Galbulidae. Galbula, Jacamarhalcyon, etc., Bucco, etc. Capitonidae. Palaeotropical and neotropical. Capito, Megalaema, Pogonorhynchus, etc., Indicator. Palaeotropical. RhampJiastidae. Neotropical. Ehamphastus, Selenidera, etc. Picidae. Cosmopolitan excluding Madagascar and Aus- tralian regions. Picus, Tiga, Picumnus, etc., Yunx. 14. Order Passeriformes. Nidicolous. Aegithognathous, without basipterygoid processes. Spina externa sterni large, spina interna absent. Quintocubital. Toes normal. 1. Sub-order PASSEEES ANISOMYODAE, Gadow. Indo- Malayan, New Zealand ; neotropical and nearctic. SUBCLAMATORES. Deep plantar flexor tendons, connected by a vinculum. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 38 Eurylaemidae. India and Indo-Malayan. Eurylaemus, Psarisomus, Calyptomena, etc. CLAM A TORES. Deep flexor tendons not connected. Pittidae. Palaeotropical and Papuasian. Pitta, Philepitta. Xenicidae. New Zealand : Xenicus, Acanthidositta. Tyrannidae. America : Tyrannus, Pipra. Cotinga, Eupicola, Chasmorhynchus, etc. Formicariidae. Neotropical. Formicarius, Dendrocolaptes, Furnarius, etc. Pteroptochidae. Neotropical. Conopophaga, Pteroptochus, Hylactes, etc. 2. Sub -order PASSEEES DIACEOMYODAE, Fuerbringer. Hallux strong, with large claw. SUBOSCINJES. Australia. Menuridae. Menura, Atrichia. OSCINES. Cosmopolitan. With certainty since the Mio- cene. The Oscines, with more than 4500 recent species, are divided into about thirty families, few of which can be defined. Corvus, Muscicapa, Turdus, Meliphaga, Drepanis, Hirundo, Fringilla, Alauda, etc. V. CLASS MAMMALIA, Linn Warm-blooded Amniota, Allantoidea with milk -glands. Covered with hair. Quadrate transformed into the os tympanicum ; mandible articulating with the squamosal. Two occipital condyles. Ilio-sacral connexion preacetabular. With cruro-tarsal joint. 1. Sub-CLASS PKOTOTHEKIA, Huxley Oviparous. With a cloaca. Without chorion. Temporary marsupium, without nipples. Coracoids complete and articulating with the sternum. With large " epipubic or marsupial " bones. Mandible with (at least vestigial) an inner inverted angle. 1. Order Allotheria, Marsh. Molars multitubercular. Small mammals from the Triassic to the Eocene epoch. Tritylodon. Trias, S. Africa. Bolodon. Jurassic, England. Allodon. Jurassic, Wyoming. Plagiaulax. Jurassic, England. Microlestes. Ehaetic, Europe. Polymastodon. Eocene, New Mexico. 2. Order Monotremata, Geoffroy = Ornithodelphia, de Blainville. Multi-tubercular molars are superseded by horny coverings of the jaws. Australian region. Ornithorhynchus in Australia. Echidna and Proechidna. Australia and New Guinea ; since the Plistocene of Australia. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 40 2. Sub-CLASS METATHEEIA, Huxley, s. MAR- SUPIALIA, Illiger, s. DIDELPHIA, de Blainville Viviparous, with marsupium ; without chorion ; with epi- pubic or marsupial bones. Coracoids reduced, not reaching the sternum. Males at least without cloaca. 1. Order Polyprotodontia, Owen. Dentition complete ; lower jaw with three or four pairs of incisors. Carnivorous ; without caecum. Since the Triassic epoch. 1. Sub -order ?PEOTODONTA, Osborn. Dromatherium. Upper Trias, Carolina. 2. Sub-order ?TEICONODONTA, Osborn. Amphilestes and Phascolotherium, Oolite ; Triconodon, upper Jurassic, England. 3. Sub-order TRITUBEECULATA, Cope. Amphitheriidae. Jurassic, Cretaceous, England. Amblotheriidae. Amblotherium and Dryolestes. Jurassic and Cretaceous of North America. Myrmecobiidae. Myrmecobius fasciatus. West Australia. Pemmelidae. Perameles, Chaeropus. Australia. Dasyuridae. Dasyurus, Thylacinus. Australia, since the Plistocene. Doubtful relatives in Tertiary, Patagonia. Notorydidae. Notoryctes typhlops. Central Australia. DidelpTiyidae. Since the Eocene in America and Europe. Eecent : Didelphys. N. and S. America. Chironectes. S. America, Chile. 2. Order Diprotodontia, Owen. Lower jaw with one pair of incisors. Canines weak or absent. Herbivorous, with caecum. Since the Mid-Tertiary epoch in South America ; since the Plistocene in Australia. JZpanorthidae. Epanorthus. Mid-Tertiary, Patagonia. Caenolestes. Ecuador and Columbia. Pkalangistidae. Phalangista, Petaurus, Phascolarctos, in Australia and Papuasia. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 41 Diprotodontidae. Diprotodon, Nototherium. Plistocene, Australia. Macropodidae. Macropus, Hypsiprymnus. Australia. Macropristis. Plistocene, Patagonia. Thylacoleontidae. Thylacoleo. Plistocene, Australia. Phascolomyidae. Phascolomys. Since the Plistocene in Australia. 3. Sub-CLASS EUTHERIA, Huxley, s. MONODELPHIA de Blainville, s. PLACENTALIA, Owen Viviparous, with chorion and placenta. Without marsu- pium, and without marsupial bones. Coracoids reduced to the " coracoid process " of the scapula. Males at least without cloaca ; perineum separating the anal and urogenital orifices. 1. Order Edentata (Vicq. d'Azyr), Cuvier. Terrestrial. Dentition reduced to molars without enamel, or lost com- pletely. Probably a heterogeneous assembly. 1. Sub-order NOMAETHRA, GiU. With normal verte- bral zygapophyses. Restricted to the Old World. Orycteropodidae. Orycteropus, now Ethiopian; upper Miocene of Samos. Manidae. Manis. Palaeotropical ; in India since the Oligocene. 2. Sub-order XENARTHRA, Gill. Zygapophyses with additional articular facets. American, since the Oligocene. Bradypodidae. Bradypus, Choloepus. Central and South America. Megatheriidae. Extinct, Tertiary. Moropus. Miocene, North America. Morotherium. Lower Pliocene, North America. Mylodon, Scelidotherium. Plistocene of South America. Megatherium. Plistocene, America, etc. Myrmecopliagidae. Myrmecophaga, Cycloturus. Neo- tropical. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 42 Dasypodidae. Neotropical. Eecent : Dasypus, Priodon, Tatusia, Chlamydophorus. Plistocene : Hoplophorus, Glyptodon, etc. 2. Order Trogontia, Haeckel. Terrestrial, plantigrade, pentadactyle (unless the first digit is reduced as in some Eodentia). Clavicles mostly strong. Tendency of the second pair of incisors to excessive, ro- dential development, and gradual suppression of the first and third pair of incisors. Canines reduced or lost. 1. Sub-order TILLODONTIA, Marsh. Pentadactyle, with claws. Dentition complete ; second incisor largest. Mandibular condyle transverse. Humerus with entepicondylar foramen. Femur with third trochanter. Lissencephalous. Eocene. Estlionycliidae. Esthonyx. Lower Eocene of North America and England. Tillotheriidae. Tillotherium. Wyoming. Stylinodontidae. Stylinodon. North America and Europe. 2. Sub-order TYPOTHEKIA, Zittel. Digits -^-., One 5 or 4 pair of upper incisors enlarged. Molars prismatic, high, mostly rootless. Mandibular condyles roundish. With entepicondy- lar foramen, and with third trochanter. Tertiary. Protypotlieriidae. Protypotherium. Mid-Tertiary, Pata- gonia. Typotheriidae. Typotherium, new Tertiary. Pachyrucos. Tertiary, Patagonia. 3. Sub-order KODENTIA, Vicq. d'Azyr. Digits jj^iT Second pair of incisors much enlarged and rootless ; the others much reduced or lost. Canines absent. Mandibular con- dyle longitudinal. Clavicles weak or absent. Uterus bicornis. Placenta discoid, deciduous. Cosmo- politan, few in Australia and Madagascar. About 900 recent species. LAGOMORPHA, Brandt. Incisors ^; one small incisor is placed behind the much enlarged second. Eibula articulating CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 43 with the calcaneum. Tibia and fibula separate. Narrow infraorbital canal. Leporidae. Palaeolagos. Lower Miocene, U.S.A. Lepus. Since Miocene ; cosmopolitan, excluding Australasia. Lagomys. Periarctic ; since Miocene. HYSTRICOMORPHA, Brandt. Incisors ^. Wide infra- orbital canal. Tibia and fibula separate. Hystricidae. Periarctic, Ethiopian, neotropical. Hystrix, Erethizon. Since Miocene. Dasyproctidae. Neotropical. Dasyprocta, Coelogenys, Dinomys. Octodontidae. Neotropical. Octodon, Myopotamus, Capromys. Ethiopian : Aulacodus. ?Theriodomys. Eo- and Miocene, Europe. Caviidae. Neotropical : Cavia, Hydrochoerus, Dolichotis. Chincliillidae. Neotropical : Chinchilla, Lagostomus. ? Castoroides. Plistocene. North America and Antilles. ? JEocardidae. Tertiary, Patagonia. SCIUROMORPHA, Brandt. Incisors ^. Infraorbital canal small. Tibia and fibula separate. Cosmopolitan, excluding Australian region. Sciuridae. Sciurus, Arctomys, Tamias, Pteromys, Haplo- don, etc. Sciuroides. Eocene, Europe. Anomaluridae. Ethiopian : Anomalurus. Castoridae. Periarctic, since Miocene : Castor. MYOMORPHA, Brandt. Incisors ^. Infraorbital canal wide. Tibia and fibula fused. Since the Oligocene. Cosmopolitan. Myoxidae. Since Eocene, now palaearctic and Ethiopian. Myoxus, Muscardinus. Muridae. Cosmopolitan : Mus. Periarctic : Arvicola. Palaearctic and palaeotropical : Gerbillus, etc. Periarctic and neotropical : Cricetus, etc., since Miocene. Madagascar : Hypogeomys, Nesomys. Australian : Hydromys, Hapalotis. Spalacidae. Palaearctic and palaeotropical, excluding Madagascar : Spalax, Khizomys, Heterocephalus. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 44 Gfeomyidae. Nearctic and neotropical. Geomys, Dipodomys. Dipodidae. Periarctic and Ethiopian. Pedetes, Dipus. 1 1sehyromys. Eo- and Miocene, North America. 3. Order Cetacea (Linne), Cuvier. Anterior limbs trans- formed into paddles ; posterior limbs lost. Tail long, with a horizontal fluke. Teeth, if present, without enamel ; monophyodont. Teats inguinal. Placenta diffuse, non-deciduous. Cosmo- politan. About 150 recent species. 1. Sub-order AECHAEOCETI, Elower. All the ribs with capitulum and tuberculum. Posterior teeth two-rooted. Skull symmetrical. Zeuglodon. Marine. Eocene of Alabama, Europe and New Zealand ? 2. Sub - order ODONTOCETI, Gray. Posterior ribs without capitulum. All the teeth one-rooted. Skull asymmetrical. Since the Miocene epoch. Squalodontidae. Squalodon. Marine, Mid- Tertiary of Europe, North America, Australia. Platamstidae. Platanista, Ganges. Inia, Amazon. Pontoporia, La Plata. Delphinidae. Since the marine Pliocene, cosmopolitan. Delphinus, Phocaena, Orca, Monodon, etc. Physeteridae. Since the Miocene, marine. Physeter, Ziphius, Mesoplodon, etc. 3. Sub-order MYSTACOCETI, Gray. Most ribs without tuberculum. Teeth absent. Whalebone. Skull symmetrical. Cosmopolitan, marine, since Miocene. Balaenidae. Balaena, Balaenoptera, etc. 4. Order Sirenia, Illiger. Anterior limbs transformed into paddles, occasionally hyperphalangeal, namely, four phalanges. Posterior limbs vestigial or lost. Tail long, with a horizontal fluke. Teeth with enamel. Teats pectoral. Placenta zonaris, non-deciduous. CLASSIFICA TION OF VER TEBRA TA 45 Marine, littoral, since the Eocene period. Prorastomidae. Prorastomus. Eocene, Jamaica. Manatidae. Manatus. Atlantic basin, tropical America and Africa. Halicoridae. Halitherium. Eocene and Oligocene, Europe. Rhytiodus. Miocene, France. Felsinotherium. Pliocene, Italy. Halicore. Indian Ocean, Africa to Austro-Malaya. Rhytina. North Pacific, exterminated in 1768. 5. Order Ungulata, Wagner. Herbivorous, terrestrial, diphyodont. Without clavicles. Toes encased in hoofs, excluding Hyracoidea. 1. Sub-order HYRACOIDEA. Small, plantigrade, with | toes. Carpalia and tarsalia serial. Fibula complete, articu- lating with the astragalus, not with the calcaneum. Dentition ^ $ tvf > incisors rodential. Placenta zonary, deciduous. Gut with one sacculated and two conical caeca (unique). Hyracidae. Hyrax and Dendrohyrax. Cape to Syria. 2. Sub-order TOXODONTIA, Owen. Semiplantigrade, with -| toes. Carpalia and tarsalia alternating. Fibula complete, articulating with the calcaneum and astragalus. Some of the upper and lower incisors enlarged. Tertiary epoch of South America. Toxodon, Nesodon ; size from that of a sheep to that of a rhinoceros. 3. Sub-order AMBLYPODA, Cope. Semiplantigrade, with ^ toes. Carpalia alternating, tarsalia and metatarsalia serial. Fibula complete, articulating with the astragalus, not with the calcaneum. Upper canines enlarged. Eocene epoch of Europe and America. Coryphodon. Eocene of England, France, Wyoming, New Mexico. Uintatherium (Dinoceras). Eocene of Wyoming. Astrapotherium. Patagonia, 4. Sub-order PROBOSCIDEA, Illiger. Semiplantigrade her- bivora with |- toes. Carpalia serial, tarsalia slightly alternating. Fibula complete, articulating with astragalus and calcaneum. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 46 One or two pairs of incisors transformed into tusks, canines absent. With a long proboscis. Placenta zonary, deciduous. Mammae pectoral. During the Miocene cosmopolitan, excluding Australia. Now palaeotropical. Dinotheriidae. No upper incisors, lower pair transformed into down-curved tusks. Dinotherium. Miocene of Europe and India. Mephantidae. Mastodon with upper and lower tusks. Miocene and Pliocene of Europe, India, North America ; Plistocene of North, Central, and South America. Elephas, with upper tusks only. Since the upper Miocene in India. Plio- and Plistocene of Asia, Europe, North Africa, North and South America. Eeeent in Africa, India, Ceylon, Sumatra. 5. Sub-order CONDYLAETHEA, Cope. Plantigrade, with toes. Carpalia serial. Dentition complete. Eibula com- plete, but not articulating with either calcaneum or astragalus. Dentition complete. Eocene of North America and Europe. Periptychus and Meniscotherium. Lower Eocene, U.S.A. Phenacodus. Lower Eocene of U.S.A. and Europe. 6. Sub-order LITOPTEENA, Ameghino. Digitigrade. Carpalia and tarsalia serial. Fibula complete, articulating with the calcaneum and astragalus. Feet perissodactyle. Tertiary epoch of South America. Macrauchenia. Miocene to Plistocene. Protherotherium. Eocene and Oligocene. 7. Sub-order PEEISSODACTYLA (Cuvier), Owen. Digiti- grade. The third toe forms the functional axis. Carpalia and tarsalia alternating. Fibula, when complete, articulating with the astragalus, not with the calcaneum. Placenta diffused, non - deciduous. Mammae inguinal. Stomach simple. Caecum large. Tapiridae. Lower molars with two transverse ridges. Toes |k Since the Eocene of America and Europe. Lophiodon. Eocene of Europe. Heptodon, Helaletes. Eocene of U.S.A. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 47 Blbodon. Oligocene, South America. Protapirus. Eocene of Europe. Tapirus. Miocene of Europe arid India, recent in Central and South America, Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo. Equidae. Lower molars quadritubercular or with two transverse ridges curved into two half-moons, leading to W pattern. Toes ^, or ^. Since the Eocene. Hyracotherium. 1^ Lower Eocene, England. . , . hloes *. T ^ -CTT Eohippos. J Lower Eocene, Wyoming. Palaeotherium."! Eocene to Miocene, Europe and U.S.A. Mesohippos. j-Toes ^. Lower Miocene, Dakota. Anchitherium. J Upper Miocene, of Europe = Miohippos, U.S.A. Hipparion. Toes . Upper Miocene of Europe, Asia and U.S.A. Protohippos. Toes -|. Pliocene, U.S.A. Pliohippos. Toes ^. Pliocene, U.S.A. Hippidion. Toes \. Plistocene, South America. Equus. Toes \. Since Miocene in India, since Pliocene in Europe. During the Plistocene cosmopolitan, excluding Australian region. Rhinocerotidae. Lower molars with two transverse half- moons. Toes ^j Since the Eocene. Hyrachius. Upper Eocene, Wyoming. Hyracodon. Lower Miocene, Nebraska. Aceratherium. Oligocene, France ; Miocene, Europe, India, North America. Diceratherium. Miocene, Oregon. Khinoceros. Since the Miocene in Asia, Plistocene of Asia and Europe. Eecent in the palaeotropical regions including Sumatra, Java, Borneo, excluding Madagascar. Titanotheridae. Eocene and Miocene of Europe and North America. Palaeosyops. Eocene, U.S.A. Titanotherium (Brontotherium). Lower Miocene, U.S.A. Leptodon. Upper Miocene, SE. Europe. 8. Sub-order ANCYLOPODA, Cope. Plantigrade ; terminal CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 48 phalanges strongly curved. Carpalia and tarsalia alternating. Pibula complete, articulating with the calcaneum. Tertiary epoch : Homalodontotherium. Eocene, Patagonia. Macrotherium. Miocene, Europe. Chalicotherium (Ancylotherium). Upper Miocene of Europe and India. 9. Sub-order ARTIODACTYLA (Cuvier), Owen. Digiti- grade. The functional axis passes between the third and fourth toes. Carpalia and tarsalia alternating. Fibula articulating with the astragalus and calcaneum. Placenta diffused or cotyledonary, non-deciduous. Stomach complex. Caecum small. A. BUNODONTA, Kowalewsky. Molars tubercular. Car- palia, tarsalia, and metapodials separate. Placenta diffuse. Suidae. Cosmopolitan, excluding Australian region minus New Guinea. Choeropotamus and Cebochoerus. Upper Eocene, Europe. Elotherium. Oligocene of Europe and lower Miocene of North America. Sus. Since Miocene in Europe. Recent in the palae- arctic and Indian regions, and Indo-Malayan islands, including New Guinea. Babirusa. Celebes. Phaeochoerus. Ethiopian, extinct in Madagascar. Dicotyles. North and South America. Hippopotamidae. Hippopotamus. Since the Pliocene in Asia and Europe. Now in the Ethiopian sub-region, recently extinct in Madagascar. Anthracotheridae. Upper Eocene to Miocene. Anthracotheriuni. Europe and India. Hyopotamus. Europe and North America. Merycopotamus. India. Oreodontidae. Eocene to Pliocene of America. Protoreodon. Eocene, U.S.A. Oreodon. Miocene, U.S.A. Diplotremus. Pliocene, South America. Anoplotheridae. Eocene to lower Miocene of Europe. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 49 Dichobune, Caenotherium, Anoplotherium, Xiphodon. B. SELENODONTA, Kowalewsky, s. RUMINANTIA, Vicq. d'Azyr. The tubercles of the molars are transformed into longitudinally placed half-moons. Third and fourth metapodials fused. Euminating. Tragulidae. Placenta diffuse. Since the upper Eocene. Gelocus. Upper Eocene, Europe. Leptomeryx. Miocene, North America. Eoauchenia. Upper Miocene, South America. Dorcatherium. Miocene of Europe and India ; recent : Tragulus, Malay Islands, Ceylon, and India; Hyaemoschus, West Africa. Camelidae. Placenta diffuse. Poebrotherium, Procamelus. Miocene, U.S.A. Auchenia. Since Pliocene in South America. Camelus. Since upper Miocene in India, Plistocene in Siberia ; recent in Central Asia, introduced into Africa. Pecora. Placenta with cotyledons. a. Cervidae * s. Cervicornia. Frontal bony excrescences, if present, during their growth surrounded by hairy skin which is deciduous. a. Without frontal excrescences. Until the middle Miocene. Eecent : Moschus and Hydropotes. Central Asia. I. With bony cores, permanently covered with skin. Helladotherium and Samotherium. Upper Miocene of South Europe and India. Giraffa. Since upper Miocene of South Europe and India ; now Ethiopian sub-region. Sivatherium. Upper Miocene, Sivalik. c. With bony cores or antlers, which are periodically shed ; cosmopolitan except African and Australian regions. Cervulus. SE. Asia. Cervus, Alces, Eangifer, Capreolus. d. Bony core permanent, horns deciduous. Antilocapra. North America. /3. Bovidae, s. Cavicornia. Males, and most females, with permanent "horns" of epidermal origin, surrounding a bony core. 1 The distinction between Cervidae and Bovidae is fanciful. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 50 Since the upper Miocene in Europe. Now cosmopolitan except neotropical and Australian regions. Tetraceros, Gazella, Rupicapra, Capra, Ovis, Ovibos, Bos. 6. Order Carnivora, Cuvier. Diphyodont, heterodont; mostly with three, rarely two pairs of upper and lower incisors ; canines strong. Mandibular condyle transverse. Toes five, rarely four. Fibula complete and separate. Clavicles vestigial or absent. Mammae abdominal. Uterus bicornis. Placenta zonaris, deciduous. 1. Sub-order CREODONTA, Cope. Scaphoid and lunar of the carpus separate. Chiefly Eocene, from the lowest Eocene to the lower Miocene, of North America and Europe. Oxyclaenus. New Mexico. Arctocyon, etc. Europe and North America. Triisodon. New Mexico. Mesonyx. North America. Proviverra, etc. North America and Europe. Palaeonictis, etc. North America and Europe. Hyaenodon, etc. North America and Europe. Miacis, etc. North America. 2. Sub-order FISSIPEDIA, Flower. Scaphoid fused with the lunar bone. Toes separate. Ursidae. Ursus since the lower Pliocene of India, now periarctic, Indian, Malayan, Andean. Arctotherium. Plistocene of South America and California. Hyaenarctos. Miocene of Europe and India. Procyonidae. Procyon, Cercolaptes, America. Aelurus, Himalayas. Mustelidae. Cosmopolitan : Lutra, Enhydra ; Meles, Mephitis, Mellivora ; Mustela, Gulo. Canidae. Otocyon and Lycaon, Ethiopian. Canis, since the upper Miocene in Europe, now cosmopolitan, excluding Madagascar and Antilles. Hyaenidae. Hyaena. Pliocene in Europe, now palaeo- tropical. Proteles, South Africa. ? Ictitherium, lower Pliocene, SE. Europe and India. CLASSIFICA TION OF VERTEBRA TA 5 1 Viverridae. Palaearctic and palaeotropical regions. Yiverra since the Eocene; Herpestes, Paradoxurus. Cryptoprocta. Madagascar. Felidae. Felis, since the Pliocene epoch, now cosmopolitan excluding Australian region, Madagascar and Antilles. Cynael- urus, from Cape through Persia to South India. Machaerodus. Eocene to Plistocene in Europe, Asia, and South America ; Smilodon, Plistocene, America. Proaelurus, Pseudaelurus, Nimravus in Miocene of America and Europe. 3. Sub-order PINNIPEDIA, llliger. Anterior and posterior extremities transformed into paddles, the toes being completely connected by webs. Scaphoid and lunar bones coalesced. Marine cosmopolitan. Since the upper Miocene. PJiocidae. Chiefly arctic and periarctic seas ; landlocked in Lake Baikal and Caspian. Phoca, Cystophora, etc., since Miocene. Macrorhinus leoninus, Eastern Pacific and Antarctic. Otariidae. Pacific ocean and southern temperate seas. Otaria. Since the Pliocene epoch. Trichecidae. Arctic seas; Plistocene, France. Trichechus. 7. Order Insectivora, Cuvier. Dentition complete, diphyodont, heterodont ; not less than two pairs of lower incisors. Plantigrade. Clavicles present. Placenta discoidal, deciduous. Cosmopolitan with the exception of the Australian region and the South American continent. 1. Sub-order INSECTIVORA VERA, Flower. Limbs free. Incisors conical. Tupajidae. Oriental : Tupaja, Ptilocercus. Macroscelidae. Ethiopian: Macroscelides. Erinaceidae. Palaearctic and palaeotropical. Necrogymnurus, Eocene, France. Gymnura, Malayan. Erinaceus. Since the Miocene ; palaearctic, Ethiopian, and cisgangetic Indian. Soricidae. Periarctic : Sorex. Periarctic and palaeotropical including Madagascar : Crocidura. Talpidae. Periarctic. Myogale, Europe, since Miocene. Talpa. Palaearctic since Oligocene. Condylura, Nearctic. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 52 Solenodontidae. Solenodon, Hayti and Cuba. Chrysochloridae. Ethiopian : Chrysochloris. Centetidae. Madagascar : Centetes, Oryzoryctes. Potamogalidae. African region. Potamogale, Ethiopian ; Geogale, Madagascar. ? Ictopsidae. Eocene, North America. ? Adapiscoricidae. Eocene, Europe. 2. Sub -order INSECTIVORA DERMOPTERA, Illiger. Fore- and hind-limbs connected by a parachute. Eingers and toes not elongated, free. Lower incisors pectinated, upper incisors multicuspid. Galeopitliecidae. Galeopithecus. Indo - China, Malay Islands and Philippines. 8. Order Chiroptera, Blumenbach. Anterior limbs trans- formed into wings, second to fifth fingers elongated and carrying part of the patagium. Mammae pectoral. Placenta discoidal, deciduous. Cosmopolitan. Pteropodidae. Palaeotropical and Australian regions. Pteropus, Epomophorus, Notopteris. Vespertilionidae. Cosmopolitan. Since the Eocene of Europe and North America. Vespertilio, Vesperugo, Plecotus, Thyroptera, Rhino- lophus, Nycteris. Emlallonuridae. Inter tropical. Emballonura, Molossus, Phyllostoma, Vampyrus. 9. Order Primates, Linne. Extremities modified into hands and feet. Heterodont, diphyodont. Incisors -f , at least in the young. Orbit surrounded by a complete bony ring. Clavicles well developed. Testes scrotal, penis pendent. 1. Sub-order LEMURES, Hubrecht. Orbit posteriorly surrounded by a fronto-jugal arch, but widely communicating with the temporal fossa. Mammae pectoral, excluding Chiromys. Testes scrotal, penis pendent. Placenta non-deciduous, diffuse. Allantois large. Pollex and hallux opposable. Second toe with a pointed claw, other fingers and toes with flat nails. Lacrymal foramen outside the margin of the orbit. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 53 Fossil Lemurs since the Eocene : Adapis (Caenopithecus), ? Necrolenrur (Microchoerus), Plesiadapis, of Europe : Pelycodus (Lemuravus), etc., Wyoming. Now palaeotropical. Lemuridae, * ^ * \ V |^| | Indris, Propithecus, Lemur, Chirogale. Madagascar. Galago. African continent. Loris, Nycticebus. Further India, Sumatra, Java, Borneo. Perodicticus. West Africa. Chiromyidae. i^c^p^m^. Chiromys. Madagascar. 2. Sub-order TAESII. Orbit to a great extent separated from the temporal fossa. Lacrymal foramen outside the orbit. Allantois small. Placenta discoidal, deciduous. Tarsiidae. i^-c^-p^m^. Tarsius spectrum. Malay Islands and Philippines. Allied is probably Anaptomorphus from the Eocene of Wyoming and Argentina, with only two premolars, but with still wide temporo-orbital communication. 3. Sub -order SIMIAE, v. d. Hoeven. Orbit completely separated from the temporal fossa by an inward extension of frontal and malar meeting the alisphenoid. Mammae pectoral. Testes scrotal. Penis pendent. Placenta discoidal, deciduous. Hallux opposable. PLATYRHINAE. Pm 4, m 4- Parietal and malar in con- o ' o tact, separating the frontal from the alisphenoid. Pollex opposable. Broad internarial septum. External auditory meatus not bony. Tail mostly prehensile. Cebidae. Tropical America. Mycetes, Nyctipithecus, Cebus, etc. Since the Plistocene of S. America. ARCTOPITHECI. Pm |-, m -|. Parietal and malar in contact. Platyrhine. Pollex not opposable. Tail not prehensile. External auditory meatus not bony. Hapalidae. Tropical South America : Hapale. CATARHINAE. Pm -|, m -|. Frontal and alisphenoid in contact, separating the parietal from the malar. Internarial septum narrow, nostrils looking forwards. External auditory meatus bony. Tail not prehensile. Cercopithecidae. With a tail, excluding Macacus inuus. Africa and Asia. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 54 Cercopithecus, Cynocephalus, Ethiopian, Pliocene of India. Macacus from Marocco to Japan. Sernno- pithecus, SE. Asia, Pliocene of India and France. Miocene of S. Europe : Oreopithecus, Mesopithecus. Anthropoidae. Caudal vertebrae transformed into a coccyx. Walk erect or semierect. Hylobates. SE. Asia, " Gibbon." Pliopithecus. Miocene of Europe. Simia satyrus, " Orang Utan." Sumatra and Borneo. Troglodytes gorilla and T. niger. West equatorial Africa. T. sivalensis. Pliocene, Punjab. Dryopithecus. Miocene, France. Pithecanthropus erectus. Plistocene, Java. Homo sapiens. Cosmopolitan. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 55 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTKIBUTION NOTOGAEA (Huxley). Southern World I. Australian region (Sclater). 1. New Zealand sub-region (Wallace). 2. Australian sub-region (Wallace). 3. Papuasian or Austro - Malayan sub - region (Wallace). II. Neotropical region (Sclater). 1. South American sub-region. 2. Antillean or West-Indian sub-region. AKCTOGAEA (Huxley). Northern World III. Periarctic region (Gadow) = Holarctic (Heilprin). 1. Palaearctic sub-region (Sclater). a. Eurasian province. 5. Mediterranean province. 2. Nearctic sub-region (Sclater). a. Canadian province. 6. Sonoran province. IV. Palaeotropical region (Gadow). 1 1. African sub-region. a. Ethiopian province. ~b. Malagasy province. 2. Oriental sub-region. a. Indian province. 6. Malay province. 1 By the establishment of the Palaeotropical region (Bronn's Thierreich, Toegel. Systevmt. Theil, p. 296, 1893), the Ethiopian (African) and the Indian or Oriental regions of Sclater and Wallace assume their proper subordinate rank of sub-regions. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 56 NOTOGAEA Characterised by Dipnoi ; Cystignathidae. Chelydidae, Iguanidae. Galli peristeropodes. Diprotodont marsupials. Absence of Ganoids, Cyprinidae, Viperidae, Vulturidae. I. AUSTEALIAN EEGION. Characteristic features : All the Anura are " arcifera," with the exception of a few species of Eana in New Guinea and the Cape York peninsula. All the Chelonians are " pleurodira," viz. Chelydidae. All the poisonous snakes are Elapidae. Casuarii, Trichoglossidae, Cacatuinae, Podarginae, Meli- phaginae, Paradiseinae, Suboscines. Absence of Pici and Fringillinae. Monotremata and Marsupialia. Extreme scarcity of placen- tal Mammals ; entire absence of Edentata, Insectivora, and Primates ; of Ungulata only one species of Sus in New Guinea. Concerning Celebes see p. 57. 1. NEW ZEALAND SUB-REGION. Characterised by Spheno- don. Apteryx, Dinornithidae, Stringops, Xenicidae. Sole representative of Amphibia is Liopelma. Of Eeptilia only Geckos and Sphenodon. Absence of Mammalia, excluding one Bat and Mus maorium. 2. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGION. Characterised by Ceratodus ; Monotremata (Echidna and Ornithorhynchus) , Macropodidae, Notoryctes. Casuarii, Megapodiidae, Meliphagidae, Paradiseinae, Siib- oscines (Menura and Atrichia). Of placental mammals occur only : Canis dingo, half a dozen genera of Eodents, e.g. Hydromys, Xeromys, Mus, and numerous Chiroptera. 3. PAPUASIAN or AUSTRO - MALAYAN SUB - REGION. In reality a transitional district of debatable extent between the Oriental and Australian regions. "Wallace's line," between Borneo and Celebes, Java and Lombok, is of little significance. Note. Italic type indicates animals which are peculiar to the respective regions or sub-regions. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 57 a. The divisional line is applicable to the following animals : Trionychidae. Viperidae. Hooded Elapidae. Trogones, Cacatuinae, Meliphaginae. Phalangistidae, Manidae, Ehinoceros, Ursus, Mustelinae, Felis, Hystricinae, Tupajidae, Galeopithecus. 6. The following animals extend eastwards, beyond the line : Labyrinth-fishes. Pelobatidae ; Rana and Bufo. Crocodilus. Crotalinae. Tortricinae. Treron into Celebes, Timor, and the Moluccas, but not into New Guinea. Pici into Celebes. Bucerotinae into New Guinea. Sus into Celebes and New Guinea. Several Monkeys, Tarsius, Viverra, Paradoxurus, Cervus, Anoa, Babirusa. Sciurus, in Celebes. Celebes should therefore be excluded from the Austro- Malayan sub^region. c. The following animals extend westwards, beyond the line : Megapodiidae. Ptilinopus. d. The line is otherwise inapplicable to Paradiseinae and Fringillinae. 4. POLYNESIAN SUB - REGION, better to be treated as a province of the New Zealand sub -region. Char- acterised rather by absence of terrestrial and fluviatile animals. Hawaian Islands : one species of Bufo ; Geckones, Bats ; characterised by Drepanididae. II. NEOTROPICAL REGION. Characterised by Cysti- gnathidae ; Tejidae, Amphisbaenidae ; Cracidae. 1. SOUTH AMERICAN SUB-REGION. Characterised by Lepido- siren. Pipa, Denclrobatidae, Hylidae. Pelomedusidae, Chelydidae, Testudinidae. Crocodilus and Alligator. Crotalinae ; Amphisbaenidae. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 58 Ehea ; Palamedea ; Tinami ; Dicholophus, Eurypyga, Cathartae, Opisthocomus, Ehampliastinae, Trochilidae. Edentata xenartlira ; Marsupialia (Didelphyidae and Caenolestes) ; Camelidae (Auchenia, Llama) ; Dasyproctidae, Caviidae ; Tapirus, Cariacus ; fossil : Litopterna and Toxo- dontia ; platyrliine Monkeys and Arctopitheci. Absence of Insectivora, excluding Shrews in Guatemala and Costa Eica. 2. ANTILLEAN or WEST-INDIAN SUB-REGION. Characterised by Hylidae, Boinae, Crotalinae, Crocodilus, Cracidae. Solenodontidae, Octodontidae. Absence of Elapidae and Chelydidae ; Marsupialia, Eden- tata, Ungulata, Carnivora, Primates. AKCTOGAEA Characterised by Ganoidei, Cyprinidae. Fossil : Dinosauri. Galli alectoropodes. Abundance of Insectivora and Ungulata. III. PEEIAECTIC EEGION. Characterised by Ganoidei, Acipenser, Cyprinidae, Esocidae, Freshwater Salmonidae, Gastero- Urodela, almost peculiar to the region. Pelobatidae. Colymbi, Alcidae, Tetrao, Lag opus. Bison, Rangifer, Cervus, Ovis, Castor, Lynx, Ursus, Talpa. Absence of: Dipnoi, Eatitae, Monotremata, practically of Marsupialia and Edentata, Lemures. 1. PALAEARCTIC SUB -REGION. Characterised by Disco- glossidae. Lacertidae. Viperidae. Otididae. Erinaceidae, Talpa, Myogale, Eupicapra, Capreolus. Cervus. Alces. Sus. Absence of Passeres anisomyodae ; Marsupialia, Edentata. a. EURASIAN PROVINCE. Characterised by Acipenser and Esox ; Tetrao, Castor, Talpa. b. MEDITERRANEAN PROVINCE. Characterised by absence of the genera mentioned in Eurasian province, and presence CLA SSIFICA TION OF VER TEBRA TA 59 of genera otherwise Ethiopian or Indian ; Testudo, Geckones, Viverra, Hyaena, Felis leo, Hyrax. 2. NEARCTIC SUB -REGION. Characterised by Lepidosteus, Amia, Polyodon. Urodela. Chelydridae, Trionychidae, Crotalidae. Of Ungulata are present only Bos, Ovibos, Haploceros, Antilocapra, Cervus, Cariacus, Alces, Dicotyles. Didelphys. Condylura. Cathartae, Meleagris, Tyrannidae. Absence of Viperidae, Agamidae, Varanidae. Absence of Otididae, Turnices, Coraciae with the sole ex- ception of a few species of Ceryle (Alcedinidae). Absence of Sus and Monkeys. a. CANADIAN PROVINCE. Characterised by Ovibos, Haplo- ceros, Alces, Eangifer, Cervus, Condylura. Trionychidae. b. SONORAN PROVINCE. Characterised by Antilocapra, Dicotyles, and considerable influx of otherwise neotropical forms, as Didelphys, Tatusia, Cariacus, Felis concolor. Alligator, Iguanidae, etc. IV. PALAEOTKOPICAL REGION. Characterised by Crocodiles, Trionychidae, Varanidae, Chamaeleons, hooded JEla- pidae, Ratitae, Trogones, Bucerotinae, Upupinae, Treron, Pittidae. Lemures, catarrhine Monkeys, large Felidae, Hyaenidae, Viverridae, Hystricidae, Tragididae, Rhinoceros, Elephas, Eden- tata nomarthra. Almost entire absence of Urodela. 1. AFRICAN SUB -REGION. Characterised by Chelydidae, Pelomedusidae, Crocodilus, Chamaeleo. Hippopotamus, Hyomoschus ; Lemures ; richness in Ungu- lata, especially Antilopes, Bovinae, Equus. Absence of Urodela, Hylidae, Pelobatidae, Crotalidae ; Cervidae, and Ursidae. a. ETHIOPIAN PROVINCE. Characterised by Protopterus, Polypfarus, Ccdamoichthys. Xenopus. Amphisbaenidae. Varanidae. Pythonidae. Struthio, Podica, Serpentarius, Colii, Musophaginae. Orycteropus, Manis, Hyrax, Giraffa, Felis leo, Gorilla, Troglodytes, Lemures. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 60 b. MALAGASY PROVINCE. Characterised by Dendroba- tidae, abundance of Chamaeleons and Lemurs. Mesites. Centetidae, Gryptoprocta ferox. Absence of Ganoidei, Trionychidae, Amphisbaenidae, Vara- nidae, Lacertidae, Viperidae, Crotalidae, Elapidae ; Bucerotinae, Pici ; Ungulata excluding Sus ; Hyrax, Felidae, Canidae, Simiae. 2. ORIENTAL SUB-REGION. Characterised by Pelobatidae, Crotalidae, Viperidae, and Elapidae. Crocodilus, Gamalis. Trogones and Subclamatores, Pittidae. Hylobqtes, Simia, Ursidae, Felis tigris, Tupajidae, Manis, Tragulus, abundance of Cervidae. Elephas. Ehinoceros. Absence of Ganoids and Dipnoi. Chamaeleo only in Southern India and Ceylon. a. INDIAN PROVINCE. b. MALAY PROVINCE. Characterised by Podica, Tapirus, Tarsius, Galeopithecus. CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA 6l APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF RECENT SPECIES OF VERTEBRATA Acrania . . . .10 AVES Cyclostomata . . .17 Ratitae .... 17 ICHTHYES Colymbiformes 19 Elasmobranchi . 290 Sphenisci 12 Holocephali . . 2 "Ganoidei" . . 32 Procellariiformes Ciconiiformes . 90 155 Teleostei . . 7000 Anseriformes . 150 Dipnoi ... 4 Falconiformes . Tinamiformes . 350 35 Galliformes 367 AMPHIBIA Gruiformes 233 Urodela . . 100 Laro-Limicolae 270 Apoda ... 25 Pteroclo-Columbae . 360 Anura . . .800 Cuculi .... 200 925 Psittaci .... 400 REPTILIA Coraciiformes . 1660 Rhynchocephali . 1 Passeres anisomyodi . 1000 Crocodilia . . 20 Passeres Oscines 4500 Chelonia . . 200 9818 Autosauri . . 1620 Ophidia . .1600 MAMMALIA Monotremata . 3 AVES . . 9818 Marsupialia 150 MAMMALIA . 2702 Edentata . 35 Rodentia 1 000 Total . 24,241 Cetacea .... J. \J\J\J 60 Sirenia .... 4 Ungulata . ... 250 Carnivora 300 Insectivora 200 Chiroptera 450 Primates . 250 2702 SUPPOSING the fauna of the world were reduced to the 250th part of Jiving species, then the Primates would be represented by one species only, and this being of course Man, his available menagerie would consist of scarcely threescore species, half of which would be Teleostean fishes. The rest would be composed of a dozen and a half of Singing-birds ; half a dozen each of Lizards and Snakes ; four Eodents ; four non- singing neotropical passerine Birds ; two species each of Wood- peckers, Humming-birds and Bats ; one or two each of Parrots, Pigeons, Fowls and some other Game-birds, Kingfishers and Birds of Prey; and one species each of a Shark, Frog, Toad and Treefrog, Gecko, Kuminant and Carnivore. Although this is a somewhat ludicrous calculation, it never- theless indicates what may happen in time to come, it being beyond doubt that many of the smaller groups have had their day and are now on the decline, while others are on the increase and have a future before them. INDEX ABDIMIA, 32 Abramis, d/fya/zts some fish in the Nile (classical), 9 Acanthidositta, 38 Acanthodi, aKav^wS^? spiny, 6 Accipitres, rapacious birds, 33 Acentrous, without centra to the vertebrae, 5 Aceratherium, d- without, Kpaw I hollow out, 28 Aistopodes, arros unseen, feet, 12 Alauda, 38 Alca, 35 Alcedo, 36 Alces, dA/oj strength, 49 Alligator, 19 Allodon, dAAos different, 39 Allosaurus, dAAos different, 22 Allotheria, dAAos different, 39 Alytes, dXvrrjs a binder ; in allu- sion to the eggs carried by the male, 15 Amblotherium, 40 Amblycephalus, d/x/3Avs stout, Ka\ri head, 29 Amblypoda, d/x^Av? stout, TTOVS foot, 45 Amblypterus, d[i,/3X.v/S robber, 40 stout, fish, 6 4 CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA Amphioxus, a/xiV at both ends, fiaivo) I walk, 27 Amphitheriidae, beasts with affini- ties either way, 40 Amphiuma, a native word, 14 Amphiumidae, 13 Anabas, ava/^ouVw I climb up, 9 Anacanthini, av- without, aKavOa spine, 9 Anallantoidea, creatures without allantois, 5 Anamnia, creatures without am- nion, 5 Anaptomorphus, dvaTrr^s agitator ("stirring shape"), 52 Anarrhichas, dvappi^do/jLaL I as- cend, climb (upon rocks), 9 Anas, duck, 33 Anchisaurus, ccyx 6 related to, near, 22 Anchitherium, ciyx 1 related, Orjpiov beast, 47 Ancistrodon, dy/ao-r/xoS^s hook- shaped, 29 Ancylopoda, dyKvAos curved, TTOI'S foot, 47 Ancylotherium, 47 Anelytropidae, dveAirr/oos without sheath or covering, ^ face (eye), 2 7 Anguidae, 25 Anguilla, eel (little snake), 9 Anguis, literally snake (blindworm), 26 Aniellidae, 27 Anisomyodae, dvtcros uneven, asymmetrical, //.vwS^s (IJLVS mussel, etSos likeness), 37 Anolis, native name, 25 Anomalurus, dvo'^aAos abnormal, ovpd tail, 43 Anomodontia, avo/jios irregular, oSovs tooth, 18 Anoplotherium, a'voTrAos unarmed, 48 Anser, goose, 33 Anthracotherium, avOpa coal, 48 Anthropoidae, av6p(D7ros man, e28oavYjs obscure, 34 Apoda, a-TroSes without feet, 14 Aptenodytes, d-Trrrjv unfledged, SVTYJS diver, 32 Apteryx, a- without, Trrtpvg wing, 31 Aptornis, 34 Aquila, eagle, 33 Aquintocubital. The fifth cubital quill is absent, leaving a gap, 34 Aramus, 34 Archaeoceti, dp^aios old, K^TOS whale, 44 Archaeopteryx, trrepv^ wing, 30 Archaeornithes, a/D^cttos old, primi- tive, 30 Archegosaurus, dpxyyos ancestor^ 12 Archipterygium (Gegenbaur), the primitive, fundamental Trrepv- yiov little fin, 5 Arcifera, 14 Arcocentrous vertebrae, the centra of which are formed by a pair of arcualia ; cf. Gastro- and Noto- centrous, 7 Arctocyon,ap/pv 36 Ciconia, 32 Ciconiiformes, 32 Cinosternidae, Ktvew I move,oTe/>voi> breast-bone, 20 Cladodus, KXdSos branch, shoot, 5 Clamatores, clamo I shout, 38 Cleithrum, K\iOpov key ; Gegen- baur's term for the so-called clavicle of fishes, 6 Clemmys, K\efjifjLv<$ tortoise, 20 Clepsydros, K Ae^uS/xx water-clock, 18 Clidastes, 24 Clupea, 9 Cnemiornis, KV^/AIS shinbone, 33 Cobitis, /cw/Sm/s some kind of sar- dine, 9 Coccosteus, KOKKOS berry, OCTTZOV bone, 11 Coccystes, KOKKLXTTTJS a cuckoo- caller, 36 Coelacanthidae, /cotAos hollow, a.Kav9a spine, 7 Coelogenys, KotAos hollow, yew? cheek, 43 Coelurus, Ko?Aos hollow, ovpd tail, 22 Colius, KoAtos the green wood- pecker, 37 Collocalia, KoAAaw I glue together, KaAia hut, nest, 37 Colossochelys, 20 Coluber, 19 Colubridae, 28 Columba, 35 Colymbus, KoAv/x^8os swimmer, 31 Compsognathus, KO/A^OS elegant, yva^os jaw, 22 Condylarthra, /covSvAos knob of a joint, apOpov joint, 45 Condylura, KovSvXos a knob, 51 Conger, 9 Conopophaga, KWI/W^ gnat, ^ayeii/ to eat, 38 Conurus, KWI/OS cone, ovpd tail, 36 Coracias, Ko/oa/aas raven-like, 36 Coronella, 29 Corvus, 38 Coryphodon, Kopvr) point, 45 Corythaix, 36 Cotinga, native name, 38 Cottus, KOTTOS thick head, 9 Coturnix, quail, 34 Craniota, xpaviov skull, 2 Crax, 34 Creodonta, K/aeas flesh, oSovs tooth, 50 Cricetus, hamster, 43 Cricotus, K/KKCOTOS ringed, in allu- sion to the vertebrae, 17 Crocidura, KPOKIS tuft, ovpd tail, 51 Crocodilia, 18 Crocodilus, 19 Crossopterygii, Kpoo-o-oL tassels, a fringe, irrepvyiov little fin, 7 Crotalus, KporaXov rattle, 29 Crotophaga, Kporwv maggot, a\iy head, 53 Cynodraco, KVUV dog, 18 Cyprinus, KVTT/OIVOS a carp, 9 Cypselus, KvfaXos a swift, Kv^eA^ a hollow, 37 Cystignathidae, KIXTTIS bladder, swelling, yva#os jaw, 14 Cystophora, KTXTTIS bladder, i6? a bond, joined, y vdOo<$ jaw, 13 Diacromyodae, Si- double, aKpov top - end, yavwS^? mussel - like. The syrinx muscles are attached to the upper and to the lower end of the bronchial semi-rings. Diaphorapteryx, Siaas a double horn, 47 Dichobune, Stxa bifid, /3owos lump, cusp, 48 Dicholophus, 8i^a bifid, Ao^>o? tuft, 34 Diclonius, 23 Dicotyles, Sts twice, KorvX-rj a little cup (navel). In allusion to the navel and to the gland on the back, 48 Dicynodon "with two canine teeth," 18 Didelphia, Sts double, Se\vs womb, 40 Didelphys, Si- two, double, SeAX@v I restore, 40 Epigonichthys, eTrtyovos offspring, 1 Epomophorus, 52 Equus, 47 Erethizon, e/>e#t'fco I excite, 43 Erinaceus, 51 Eryops, evpvs broad, oil/' face, 17 Erythromachus, epvOpos red, -/xaxos fighter, 34 Esox, pike, 9 Esthonyx, Icr^ew I clothe, ovv claw (sheathed claw), 92 Eublepharidae, tv well, f3\e(f>apov eyelid, 25 Euchirosaurus, ev well, x et/ / hand, a-avpos lizard, 13 Eudyptes, ev well, SVTTT^S diver, 32 Eurycormus, tvpvs broad, KO/J/XOS trunk, 8 Eurypyga, vpvs broad, Trvyyj tail- region, 35 Eusuchia, tv well, crouxos crocodile, 19 Eutheria, ev well (developed), Oypiov beast, 41 Euthynotus, evBvs straight, I/WTO? back, 8 Exocoetus, eJwKoiTos " sleeping out- side," 9 CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA FALCO, 33 Felis, 50 Felsinotherium, Felsino in Lom- bardy, 45 Feylinia, Latinised surname, 27 Fierasfer, 10 Firmisternia, 16 Fissipedia, fissus split. The toes not being united by webs, 50 Fistularia, fistula a pipe, tube, 9 Formicarius, formica ant, 38 Francolinus, 34 Fratercula, 35 Fregata, 32 Fringilla, 38 Fulica, 34 Furnarius " baker," furnus oven, 38 GADUS, 10 Galago, native name, 52 Galbula, 37 Galeopithecus, yaXrj weasel, iriOrjKos monkey, 52 Galesaurus, yaXfj weasel, 18 Galeus, yaAeos a shark, 6 Galliformes, 33 Gallinula, 34 Gallus, 34 Ganoidei, yavos shine, glitter. In allusion to the enamelled scales, 7 Gastornis, 30 Gastrobranchus, yaa-r-rjp belly, ftpayXiov gill, 2 Gastrocentrous, the centra of the vertebrae are formed by a pair of ventral arcualia (interven- tralia), 17 Gastrosteus, yao-Trjp belly, OOTCOV bone, 9 Gavialis, gharial (Hindustani) fish- eater, 19 Gavialosuchus, o-ovxs crocodile, 19 Gazella, 49 Geckones, 24 Gelocus, 49 Geogale, yea earth, ya\rj weasel, 51 Geomys, yea earth, 44 Gerbillus, Latinised, 43 Gerrhonotus, yeppov a shield, vturos back, 26 Gerrhosauridae, 26 Giraffa, 49 Glareola, glared fine gravel, 35 Glaucoma, yAa-u/to>v a snake -like creature, 14 Gymnotus, yvfj,vo/)aKr6s armed, 15 Hemipodius, ^/ZITTOVS a half foot, 39 Heptanchus, eTrra seven, ay\o) I constrict (in allusion to the gill- openings), 6 Heptatrema, CTTTCI seven, rp^^a opening (gills), 2 Heptodon, eTrra seven, oSovs tooth, 45 Hesperornis "western bird," 31 Heterocephalus, ere/oos different, queer, Ke^aAyj head, 43 Heterodactyle, eVepos different, abnormal, SaKTvAos toe. The first and second toes are turned back, the third and fourth stand- ing forwards, 37 Heterostraci, ere/oos different, oa-rpaKov shell, 4 Hexanchus, e six, 6 Hipparion, LTnrdpiov little horse, 47 Hippidion " a little horse," 47 Hippocampus, iTTTroKa^Tros mythi- cal sea-horse, 10 Hippopotamus, Trora/xos river, 48 Hirundo, swallow, 38 Holocephali, 6'Aos entire. In allu- sion to the palato-quadrate bar being completely fused with the cranium, 6 Holochordata, oAos entire, x/^? string. The chorda extending through the whole length of the animal, 1 Holoptychius, oAos entire, TTTVXWS folded, 7 Holostei, 6'Aos entire, OOTCOV bone, 8 Homacanthus, o/x,os common, joint, aKavOa spine, 7 Homalodontotherium, o/^aAos even, 6Sov<$ tooth, 47 Homo, 54 Homoeosaurus, o/xotos even, equal, 18 Hoplophorus, oVAov weapon, ^e/ow I carry, 41 Hoplurus, oVAov weapon, ovpai tail, 25 Hyaemoschus, 49 Hyaena, vaiva, 50 Hyaenarctos, a/a/cro? bear", 50 Hyaenodon " hyaena- tooth," 50 Hydraspis, vSiap water, ao-Trts shield, 21 Hydrochoerus, vSwp water, xolpos Pig, 43 Hydromedusa, 21 Hydromys "water-mouse," 43 Hydrophasianus, 35 Hydrophis, vSiop water, 6'8r) 80/0 v lance (spike), Xi6os stone, 7 Ichthyophis, l\6v^ fish, o^t? snake, 14 Ichthyopterygium, the typical fish- fin, 5 Ichthyornithes, 31 Ichthyosauria, 23 Ichthyosaurus, 24 Ictitherium, i/crts some kind of weasel, 50 Ictopsidae, IKTLS weasel, o^ts ap- pearance of, 51 Iguanidae, Latinised native name, 25 Iguanodon " with teeth like Igu- ana," 22 Ilysia, iXvs mud, slime, 28 Indicator " indicator (of honey)," 37 Indris, native name, 52 Inia, native name, 44 Insectivora, 51 Intertarsal joint, 30 Irrisor, a scoffer, 36 Ischyodous, icrxvs strength, 7 Ischyromys, ur\vp6aAos brain, 42 Lithornis, Ai#os stone ("fossil bird"), 33 Litopterna, Acres smooth, plain, Trrepva heel, 46 Lophiodon, Adayctv to eat, 38 Mellivora, mel honey, vorare to swallow, 50 Meniscotherium, pyi/tb-Kos a little moon, 46 Menobranchus, /xei/co I remain, fipdyxwv gill, 14 Menopoma, /xevco I remain, Trw/xa cover, lid, 14 Menura, /ATJVT/ moon, ovpd tail, 38 Mephitis "noxious smell," 50 Merops, bee-eater, 36 Merycopotamus, ^pv^ a ruminat- ing fish, TTora/xds river, 48 Mesembriornis, ^(rr^^fBpia noon, 3 1 Mesites, /xeo-trrys mediator. In allu- sion to the uncertain taxonomic position, 34 Mesohippos, /xecros middle, 47 Mesonyx, /Aros middle, 6vv claw, 50 Mesopithecus, 53 Mesoplodon, /xecros middle, oVAov weapon, 44 Mesosauri, 23 Metatheria " after, later, beasts," 40 Metriorhynchus, /xer/Dtos moderate, pvyxos bill, 19 Miacis, 50 Microchoerus, /xtK/ads small, pig, 52 74 CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA Microlestes, /XIK/OOS small, robber, 39 Microsauri, 12 Mixipterygium, Gegenbaur's term for the copulatory claspers of Elasmobranchi, /zi^is copula- tion, 5 Mixosaurus "mixed, intermediate, Saurian," 24 Moloch, 25 Molossus, 52 Molva, Latinised from French morue, Italian molua, hence the mediaeval morrhua, 9 Momotus, native name, 36 Monodelphia, /zovos single, un- paired, SeAis snake, e creeper, snake, 12 Ophidia, 28 Ophiocephalus, 6'r) a furrow (in the hinder teeth), 28 Orca, 44 Oreodon, o/>os mountain (lump), dSovs tooth, 48 Oreopithecus, opos mountain, 53 Ornithichnites, t'x v s track, spoor, 22 Ornithocheirus, x et/ / hand, 23 Ornithodelphia, opvts bird, 8eA(/)L' womb, 39 Ornithomimus " mimicking a bird," 23 Ornithopoda " bird - footed crea- tures," 22 Ornithopsis, o'j/'ig appearance of, 22 Ornithorhynchus, 39 Ornithosuchus, o-o^xos crocodile, 19 Ortalida, 34 Orthagoriscus, 6p6ayopLcrKos a little pig, 10 Orthopoda, 6p66$ upright, TTOVS foot, 22 Ortyx, oprvg quail, 34 Orycteropus, opvKrrjp a digger, 41 Oryzoryctes, opva rice, O/JVKT^S a digger, 51 Oscines " singing birds," 38 Osmerus, ooy^pos smelling, smelt, 9 Osteolaemus, oo-rtov bone, AaijLtds throat, 19 Osteolepis, ocrreov bone, AeTn's scale, 7 Osteorhachis, pa\ iiaKos a wart, \oipoa\aiaAapos shiny, TTOVS foot, 35 Phaneroglossa, a/3og lighthouse, paKp6$ long. In allusion to the shiny plumage, 37 Pharyngognathi, (f>dpvy gullet, throat, yvd6oeyaf impostor, hum- bug, 46 Philepitta, 38 Phoca, seal, 51 Phocaena, ^cuKatva porpoise, 44 Phoenicophaes, ^>otvt/js purple- shining, 36 Phoenicopterus, flamingo, oAt? scaly cover- ing, 19 Phororhacos, c^e/xo I carry, 24 Phractamphibia, (frpaKros armoured, 12 Phrynosoma, (j>pvvrj toad, body, 25 Phyllopteryx, (f>vXXov leaf, fin, 10 INDEX 77 Phyllostoma, v(ra an air-passage, o-TO/xa mouth (communicating with the air-bladder), 8 Picumnus, mythological name, 37 Picus, woodpecker, 37 Pinnipedia, pinna, fin, 51 Pipa, native name, 16 Pipra, 38 Pisces. 5 Pithecanthropus, TT^KOS monkey, av0/>to7ros man, 54 Pitta, 38 Placentalia, 41 Placodontia, 18 Placodus, ?rAa plate, dSovs tooth, 18 Plagiaulax, TrAayios oblique, ou5Aa furrow, 39 Plagiostomi, TrAayios transverse, 5 Platalea " spoonbill," 32 Platanista, 7rAaTJ weasel, 51 Preacetabular, the primary ilio- CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATA sacral connexion lies in front of, headwards from, the acetabulum (Gegenbaur), 14, 39 Precentra, the vertebral central disks which carry the dorsal and ventral arches, 8 Priodon, TT/HWV a saw, 42 Pristis, Trpirj furrow, 29 Proterotherium, 46 Proteus, mythological, 14 Protodonta, 40 Protohippos " early horse," 47 Protopterus, Trptoros earliest, TTTC/OOV fin, 11 Protoreodon, 48 Protorosaurus, TT/OWTOS first, &pa spring (dawn), 17 Protosphargis, 21 Protospondyli, TT/JWTOS earliest, o-TTovSvAos vertebra, 8 Protostega, crrey^ roof, covering, 21 Prototheria, Tr/xSros first, early, beasts, 38 Protypotherium, 42 Proviverra, 50 Psammophis, t/'a/z/zos sand, 6'<<,s snake, 29 Psarisomus, ipdp some starling, 0-wjj.a body, 38 Psephoderma, ^^05 pebble, Se/>/xa skin, 21 Psephophorus, ^<^>os a pebble (granulation), 21 Pseudaelurus, cu'Aov/aos cat, 51 Pseudis, i/'evS^s false, 14 Pseudobranchus, ^ev8o? deceit, /3/oayxtov gill, 14 Pseudocentrous, vertebrae without real centra, 12 Pseudophryne, vyxs snout, bill, 23 Rhea, mythological name, 30 Rhinoceros, pis nose, Kepas horn, 47 Rhinochetus, pi's nose, oxero's a tube, 35 Rhinoderma, pi? nose, Sep/za skin, 16 Rhinolophus, pisnose, Aoc/>ostuft,52 Rhinophis, pis nose, 6' I crawl, 13 Sphargis, a fancy name, 21 Spheniscus, or^viV/cos diminutive of O-^TJV sickle, wedge (-shaped bill), 32 Sphenodon, o-^v wedge, 18 Sphenosaurus, o-^v wedge, sickle, 12 Squalodon, squalus shark, squalere to be rough, oSovs tooth, 44 Squaloraia, squalus shark, 7 Squatina, Pliny's name, 6 Steatornis, en-cap fat, 36 Steganopodes, o-Tyavo? closely covered, sheathed. In allusion to all the four toes being webbed together, 32 Stegocephali, erreyos roof, /c} head. The cranium being roofed over by dermal bones, 12 Stegosauri, (rreyos, 22 Steneosaurus, trreVos a narrow place, 19 Stereospondyli (Prosauria), crrepeos solid, o-TrovSvAos vertebra, 17 Stereospondyli (Stegocephali), 13 Sterna, tern, 35 Stringops, o-r/otf an owl, wj// face, 36 Strix, 36 Struthio, ostrich, 31 Stylinodon, o-rvAos pillar, is (geni- tive tvos) fibre, 42 Subclamatores "lower than the typical Clamatores," 37 Suboscines " lower than the typical Oscines," 38 Sula, gannet, 32 Sus, 48 Syngnathus "fused jaw," 10 Synodontis, po) I carry, 20 Theriodomys, Orjpidtfys beast-like, 43 Theriodontia, Oyptov a beast, 18 Theromorpha, 6^p a beast, (JLop^rj shape, 18 Theropoda, Otfp a mammal, TTOVS foot, 23 Thinocorys, Qis shore, Kopvs helmet, 35 .INV-EX. > 8i Thylacinus, OvXaia/)K?js life-preserving, 22 Zonosaurus, (01/77 girdle, 26 Zonurus, 001/77 girdle, ovpa tail, 26 Zygaena, vyatva the hammer- headed shark, 6 THE END Printed by R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, Edinburgh. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. JAN 2 196-2 (}a12'62ES APR 1 1963 fl r 2T6f C JUN 6 1969 MAY 2 7 1963 SSJS^T? ^SpL-*