BEET SUGAR ANALYSIS.
A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION FOR
ANALYSTS IN BEET SUGAR
FACTORIES.
BY
KLWOOD s. PEFFER, A. c.,
CHINO VATJ.jfcfeSite6DGAR CO.
1897.
E. C. HAMILTON, PUBLISHER.
CHINO, CAL.
L
Jr
COPYRIGHTED 1897
BY ERNEST C. HAMILTON
PRESS OF WARDEN, THE PRINTER.
Los ANGELES, CAL.
THE great interest now being manifested in the development of
the beet sugar industry in this country seems to leave little
room for doubt but that the present beet sugar production of
the United States will be multiplied many times within the next
few years. With the establishment of the industry reference books
will become a necessity, and BEET SUGAR ANALYSIS was written
in the hope that it will prove of value in the very important matter
of chemical control of factories.
It is intended primarily as a complete school for the beginner,
but the experienced chemist may occasionally find it useful for
reference. I have given what I consider to be the most practical
and accurate methods for testfn x e<Vejy substance and solution the
chemist is called upon to analyze in beet sugar work, describing
also the proper way to take samples and prepare them for analysis.
The " Pointers " given, which are hints on methods for facilitating
work and avoiding sources of error, it is hoped will help the young
chemist, as he could otherwise learn them only by experience.
After Chapter I the "Pointers " are not separated, but are written
in the text. In addition to the analysis of all sugar-containing
substances, I have also given methods for analyzing water, lime-
stone, coke and coal, and all other supplies which must be exam-
ined chemically to determine their availability for sugar work. A
description of the most practical apparatus for use is given as an
aid to new factories. The reference tables given have nearly all
been compiled for this work and they are guaranteed to be abso-
lutely correct.
In the study of which this book was born, Mr. James G. Oxnard
gave me many valuable "Pointers," and to Mr. E. Turck and Dr.
C. Portius, of the Chino Valley Beet Sugar Company, I am also
greatly indebted for suggestions and advice.
ELWOOD S. PEFFER.
No. 513 Fillmore Street, TOPBKA, KANSAS.
REFERENCES CONSULTED.
The works of reference named below, which were consulted in
the preparation of BEET SUGAR ANALYSIS are all to be recom-
mended to the student :
ATKINSON, E., Ganofs Physics, (tenth edition )
Bulletin No. 46, Chemical Division United States Department
of Agriculture.
COMMERSON, E., et RANGIER, E., "Guide Pour 1'analysedes
Matieres sucrees," (third edition.)
FRESENIUS, C. R., "Quantitative Chemische Analyse," (also
second American edition )
FRUHLING, R., und SCHULZ, J., "Anleitung Zur Untersuchung
der fiir die Zuckerindustriein Betracht kommenden Rohmaterialien,
etc ," (fourth edition.)
FRUHLING, R., same as above, (fifth edition )
LANDOI/T, H., Handbook of the Polariscope.
LEPLAY, H., "Chimie theorique et prateque des Industries du
Sucre."
PREUSS, E., "Leitfaden fiir Zuckerfabrik Chemiker."
Regulations Relative to the Bounty on Sugar of Domestic Pro-
duction, Series 7, No. 17, Revised, U. S. Internal Revenue.
REMSEN, IRA, Inorganic Chemistry.
SACHS, F., " Revue Universelle des Progres de la Fabrication
du Sucre."
SCHEiBivER, C., "Anleitung zum Gebrauche des Apparates zur
Bestimmung der Kohlensauren Kalkerde in der Knochenkohle
sowie zur volumetrisch quantitativen Analyse der Kohlensauren
Salze."
SPENCER, G. L/., A Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers and
their Chemists.
STAMMER, K., "Lehrbuch der Zuckerfabrikation," (second
edition.)
STILLMAN, T. B., Engineering Chemistry .
TUCKER, J. H., Manual of Sugar Analysis.
VON lyiPPMAN, E., "Die Zuckerarten und ihre Derivate."
WANKLYN, J. A., Water Analysis, (tenth edition.)
WINKLER, C., Handbook of Technical Gas Analysis.
WIECHMANN, F. G., Sugar Analysis,
WAI/LIS-TYLER, A. J., Sugar Machinery.
ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS.
USED IN THIS WORK.
C. Centigrade.
CC. Cubic Centimeters.
F. Fahrenheit.
F. Frontispiece.
Fig. Figure (Illustration).
Gr. Gramme or Grammes.
Kilo. Kilogramme.
L. Liter.
M. Meter.
Mg. Milligramme or Milligrammes.
MM. Millimeter or Millimeters.
M. Full page Illustration of Apparatus for Samples.
Phenol. Phenolphtalein.
Sp. g. Specific gravity.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Preface
References Consulted . ^ .".'. : . ....... 4
Abbreviations and Contractions 5
PART I.
SUGAR ANALYSIS.
CHAPTER I.
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
Cylinders. Specific gravity. Hydrometers. Sucrose
Pipettes. Flasks. Funnels and filter paper.
Beakers. Polariscopes. Scales. Other apparatus . 17-42
CHAPTER II.
GENERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS.
Introductory. Preparation of samples. Clarification.
Volumetric method. Pipette test. The Gravimeter.
Analysis by weight. Non-normal analysis. Quotient
of purity. Value Coefficient. Saline quotient. The
rendement 43-52
CHAPTER III.
INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSIS.
Beets. Cossettes. Wet pulp. Pressed pulp. Waste
water. Diffusion juice. Lime cakes. Thin juices.
Sweet waters. Thick juice. Syrups. Massecuites
and Sugars 55-71
8 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
LIME, ALKALINITIES AND SATURATION GAS.
Lime, milk of lime, alkalinities, CO 2 in saturation gas . 72-77
CHAPTER V.
STEFFENS' PROCESS ANALYSES.
Saccharate of lime. Waste waters. Molasses sacchar-
ate Molasses solution. Saccharate milk .... 78-81
CHAPTER VI.
INVERT SUGAR AND RAFFINOSE.
The correct percentage of Sucrose. Sucrose in the pres-
ence of Invert Sugar. Sucrose in the presence of
Raffinose. Percentage of Raffinose. Invert Sugar.
Soxhlet's exact method 82-88
PART II.
ANALYSIS OF SUPPLIES AND OTHER CHEMICAL WORK.
CHAPTER VII.
APPARATUS FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
Beakers. Glass rods. Funnels. Filter paper. Dessica-
tors. Crucibles and dishes. Lamps and stoves.
Other apparatus 90-94
CHAPTER VIII.
Water Analysis 95-108
CHAPTER IX.
Limestone Analysis 109-113
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 9
CHAPTER X.
Coal, Coke and Fuel Oil 114-118
CHAPTER XI.
Analysis of Boneblack . . 119-127
CHAPTER XII.
Analysis of Chimney Gases . . . .
CHAPTER XIII.
Analysis of Fertilizers . . ;r . 134-140
CHAPTER XIV.
Analysis of Refuse Lime .... 141-144
CHAPTER XV.
Analysis of Syrup or Massecuite Ash . 145-150
CHAPTER XVI.
MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES.
Beet seed. Sulphur. Anhydrous ammonia. Lubricating
oils. Fluxes and rust joints. Crude acids. Soda . 151-164
PART III.
PREPARATION OF REAGENTS.
CHAPTER XVII.
Preparation of Reagents . 166-174
10 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART IV.
TABLES.
TABLE I.
Brix temperature correction 176-177
TABLE II.
Comparison of degrees Brix and Baume and specific
Gravity 178-189
TABLE III.
For making "known sugar" solutions 190
TABLE IV.
Per cent, sugar in pulp by the volumetric method . . . 191
TABLE V.
Estimation of percentage of sugar by volumetric method,
for use with solution prepared by addition of 10 per
cent, lead acetate 192-199
TABLE VI.
For the determination of coefficients of purity .... 200-203
TABLE VII.
For determining per cent. CaO in lime with normal acid . 204
TABLE VIII.
CaO with a normal acid 205
TABLE IX.
Comparison of thermometric scales 206-207
TABLE OF CONTENTS. II
TABLE X.
Partial list of atomic weights 208
TABLE XI.
Factors used in qualitative analysis 209-210
TABLE XII.
Tables for the conversion of metric weights and measures
into customary United States equivalents and the re-
verse . 211-220
INDEX.
Index 221-224
ADVERTISEMENTS.
Advertisements . 225-243
APPARATUS IN FRONTISPIECE.
1 and 2. Siphon bottles for water and lead acetate.
3. Porcelain evaporating dish.
4. Sieve for lime samples.
5. Test tubes and rack for alkalinity samples.
6 Griffin beaker.
7. Conical assay flask.
8. Ether or indicator bottle.
9. Dessicator.
10 and 11. Mortars for chemical analysis.
12. Mortar for lime-cake analysis.
13. Siphon bottle for acetic acid.
14 Alkalinity sampler.
15. Scale for lime-cakes. *
16. Box with weights.
17. Flasks for sugar analysis.
18 German silver scoop.
19. Sucrose pipette.
20 Burette stand with Mohr's burettes.
21 Westphal specific gravity balance.
22.- Tin cylinder.
23. Glass cylinder.
24. Tumbler for dissolving samples.
25. Spatula for saccharate samples.
26 and 30. Test tubes with foot.
27 Thermometer.
28 and 29 Hydrometers.
31 Beaker with lip.
32. Air funnel for syrup test.
33 Coal oil lamp stove.
34. Beaker without lip.
35. Alkalinity apparatus.
36. 20 CC cup for measuring alkalinity samples.
37 and 37 1 Washing bottles.
38 Student's lamp.
39. Graduate.
40. Polarization tubes.
41. Schmidt and Haensch polariscope.
42. Polarization tube with water jacket and introduced
thermometer.
43 and 43 1 Siphon arrangement for cooling solution in polariza-
tion tube.
CHAPTER I.
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
1. Cylinders are the most convenient vessels for hold-
ing solutions to be tested. For syrups, massecuites, cos-
settes, and other regular laboratory tests, use glass cylinders
about 12 inches high and 2 inches in diameter, without
a lip. (Fig. 1.) For beet tests use tin cylinders about 10J
3
J_
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
inches high and 1^ inches in diameter, having a form
similar to Fig. 3. For Steffens' hot waste water and other
solutions having a low brix, a 10-inch test tube 1 inch in
diameter may be used. The Steffens' cold waste water
sample is usually a small one, on account of the trouble in
filtering a large sample, and its density may be taken in a
6x^ test tube, preferably one with a foot (Fig. 2), the
hydrometer used being the Brix 5-9 described in 2b. In
using a cylinder or a test tube, incline it slightly and pour
in the solution down the sides to avoid foam. In cossette
1 8 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
and beet juices .the air, which is usually contained, will
come to the top and the bubbles formed may be skimmed
off with a spoon. A little ether may be used in allaying
any unavoidable foam, but it should always be allowed to
evaporate, as it influences the reading of the hydrometer.
POINTERS.
Clean glass cylinders immediately after using.
Tin cylinders should be cleaned thoroughly with a rag every
day when in use. If dirt is left in them it will ferment.
Do not make a habit of using ether to allay foam in cylinders.
Use it only when absolutely necessary.
The cylinder in use should always be set on a level place.
2. Specific Gravity* There are a number of instru-
ments made for determining exact specific gravity, one of
the best of which is the Westphal balance shown in F.
21. However, the author's experience has been that for
beet sugar laboratory work there is no method as practi-
cal as actual weighing.
(a) The Pycnometer, a glass flask with a long tubular
stopper (Fig. 4) is made for this purpose. The best size is
made to hold 50 CC of distilled
water at 17^C. This is also
considered to be 50^. The
gramme is equal in weight to
l cc of water weighed in vacuo
at its maximum density 4C.
It is more practical in sugar
work to take 17^4, and polar-
iscopes are constructed for solu-
tions made up at this tempera-
ture. To find the specific grav-
ity>of any solution, thoroughly
clean and dry the pycnometer Fig. 4.
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 1 9
and weigh. Then fill with the Quid at 17^C M seeing that
no air is contained. Put in the stopper and wipe off care-
fully any solution that comes through the tube. Weigh
again and subtract the weight of the pycnometer to find
the weight of the solution. Multiply this by two, and
remove the decimal point two places to the left to find the
specific gravity.
Example :
Weight of pycnometer and fluid 78.642 gr.
Weight of pycnometer 26.856 gr.
Weight of fluid 51.786 gr.
Multiplying by 2
103.572 gr.
Moving decimal point two places 1.03572 sp. g.
The specific gravity of a liquid or a solid is the ratio of
its weight to the weight ot the same volume of water. In
the example given the weight of the fluid is 51.786 gr .
and the weight of the same volume of water is 50 gr .
50:51.786::! :x, or x = 51.786-7-50= 1.03572. If 100 CC
were taken, the division by 100 would be accomplished by
moving the decimal point two places to the left. As this
figuring is much easier, we can multiply by two and con-
sider that 100 has been taken instead of 50.
Common 50 CC flasks can be used instead of pycnom-
eters and, in fact, are more practical for most analyses, the
20 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
only advantage in the latter being that the stopper pre-
vents evaporation. In using a flask, select one with as
small a neck as possible and cut off about a quarter of an
inch above the mark. Test by weighing it in 50 gr of water
atl?iC. (See 4.)
(b) Hydrometers are used for determining the dens-
sity of fluids in analysis and in factory work. The
Brix hydrometer is used for analysis. It is graduated
according to a scale, by which it indicates the percentage
by weight of sugar when immersed in a solution of pure
sugar. (See 19.) It is properly called a "Saccharometer."
The Balling saccharometer is the same as the Brix. The
Beaume hydrometer is generally used for taking the
density of thick fluids in the work of the factory. It is a
specific gravity hydrometer, graduated according to an
arbitrary scale adopted by Antoine Beaume, a Parisian
chemist. He dissolved 15 parts of common salt (by
weight) in 85 parts of water. The point to which the
hydrometer sunk in this solution was marked 15 and the
scale between this and zero was divided into 15 parts,
divisions of the same size then being made from the 15
below to the bulb. The Beaume hydrometer for liquids
lighter than water (See 76) also has a salt solution for its
basis. The point on the stem to which it sinks in water is
marked 10 and the zero is the point where it stands in a
solution of 10 parts common salt and 90 parts water. This
is divided into 10 parts, the same divisions then being
made on the rest of the scale up to 100.
The Beaume hydrometer best adapted to general fac-
tory work is graduated from to 50 in % degrees. Of the
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 21
Brix and Balling saccharometers there should be
a well selected variety. The 30 to 60 in 1-5 degrees
and the 60 to 100 in ^ degrees may be used for
taking densities in factory work. Sweet waters
are taken with a 5 to + 5 Brix, graduated in y?
degrees. For beet analysis an instrument grad-
uated from 10 to 30, or 10 to 20, in 1-10 degrees
is used ; for cossettes and sugarhouse analyses one
graduated from 10 to 20 in 1-10 degrees (See Fig.
5) ; for diffusion juice one graduated from 5 to 15
in 1-10 degrees, and for waste waters one from
to 5 in 1-10 degrees. A Brix graduated from to
25 in 1-10 degrees is an excellent instrument for
general work, and it may be used for nearly all
analyses. Many chemists prefer it for beet analy-
sis. When the Steffens process is used the best
saccharometer for cold waste waters is the 5 to 9
Brix graduated in 1-10 degrees. The instrument
has a bulb 2^ inches long and ^ inch in diame-
ter, and is especially adapted for the test tube de-
scribed in 1. 1 * When a special saccharometer
is desired for hot waste waters, an instrument
graduated from 3 to 7 in 1-10 degrees may be ob-
tained. All instruments should be made for a
temperature of 17^C.
In taking the density ot a solution with a
hydrometer, it must be entirely free from air
bubbles. Have the instrument clean and dry
Fig. 5. before using and immerse it carefully in the
fluid, keeping it from touching the sides of
the cylinder. T-! When it has come to rest, read the
graduation. The fluid is raised around the stem of the
instrument by capillary attraction and the correct reading
22
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
is at the bottom of this, being on a level with the top of
the solution. In Fig. 6 the correct reading is 11.0 instead
of 10.8, as it appears to be. In taking
the density of a solution, the temper-
ature is taken at the same time. If a
solution is colder or hotter than normal
temperature it is obvious that its density
is greater or less than normal, so that
a correction must be made for tem-
perature.* (See Table I.)
Hydrometers are most easily tested
by immersing them in a solution the
specific gravity of which is known
and comparing the reading with the
sp. g. (See Table II.) It is a good plan
Fig. 6. to have at least three "control" saccha-
rometers graduated from to 10, 10 to 20, and 20 to 30, in
1-10 degrees. These instruments, when found to be abso-
lutely accurate, may be used for testing other saccharom-
eters by comparison.
POINTERS.
Keep the hydrometers in an earthen slop jar or tin bucket
filled with water and having a sheet of rubber covering the bottom.
Do not buy saccharometers with short, thick bulbs. They
cannot be used with accuracy in a cylinder of the size that is most
practical for sugar work. The 10-20 Brix, which is most often used,
should have a bulb about 4^ inches long and a 6-inch stem.
GO The Dry Substance is the percentage of total solids
found by weight. It is generally determined in order to
find the "real purity" (See 19) of syrups and masse-
* Taking the density of a hot solution isjiot as accurate as taking it after the
solution has cooled to nearly normal temperature. In a hot solution the tem-
perature may change during the operation and the correction for temperature
will be incorrect.
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 23
cuites. To find the dry substance, weigh a scoop con-
taining about 15* r of powdered glass orsand(See 14O) and
a small glass rod to be used for stirring. Add about 2 gr
of the substance to be tested and weigh again. Mix the
sand (or glass) and the substance thoroughly by using the
glass rod. Place in a drying oven for two hours and keep
a temperature of 100C, but be careful that it does not get
higher. Then, after cooling in a dessicator, weigh and
return to drying oven. Repeat this until the scoop and
contents has a constant weight, i. e., that there is no fur-
ther loss by drying, proving that all the water has been
driven off. Determine the amount of water lost by sub-
tracting the weight after drying from the weight before
drying. The weight of the water lost divided by the
weight of the substance used will give the per cent, of
water lost, and subtracting this from 100 will give the per
cent, of dry substance.
Example :
Weight of scoop, sand, rod, and substance 51.613 gr.
Weight of scoop, sand, and rod 49.381 gr.
Subtracting, gives weight of substance , 2.232 gr.
Weight of scoop and contents before drying 51.613 gr.
Weight of scoop and contents after drying 51.402 pr.
Subtracting, gives weight of water lost 211 gr.
.211-^2.232= 0945=9.45 per cent, of water lost.
1009.45=90.55 per cent, dry substance.
3. Sucrose Pipettes are in general use in this country
for most analyses, although they have not been adopted in
Europe. (See 1O). They are so made that when a solu-
tion is drawn into the pipette to the graduation correspond-
ing to the reading of the brix of the solution the
amount of solution in the pipette will weigh 52.096* r .
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE-
For
iucrose
The instrument should be graduated from 10 to
25. (Fig. 7.) In using a pipette, first rinse it
inside with the solution to be tested and then draw
in the solution, by aspiration, to the graduation
corresponding to the reading of the brix* ; let the
solution drop into the 100 CC flask and run a stream
of water through the pipette, to wash every
particle of the solution
into the flask. In wash-
ing the pipette, hold the
flask in the third and
little fingers of the left
hand, using the index
finger and thumb to
twirl the instrument
while the water is pass-
ing through. (See Fig.
8.) In testing a pipette,
if a solution of a known
brix is drawn in to the
proper graduation and
dropped into the scoop
of a scale or tared vessel,
if its weight is nearly,
but not quite, 52.096*'
the pipette may be ad-
judged correct.
Fig. 7.
POINTERS.
To read the graduation in a
pipette, always take the bottom of
the meniscus, the same as in a flask .
(See Fig. 9.)
* This refers to the reading without temperature correction
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYS
Be sure there are no bubbles in the pipette. They will come
to the top if present, and can be drawn out into the mouth.
Pipettes in constant use should be thoroughly cleaned every few
days. Rinse with gun shot and diluted muriatic acid. Pipettes
used for beet analysis should be cleaned every evening with gun-
shot and strong muriatic acid.
The graduations on a pipette may be more easily observed
if red lead is rubbed into the marks. Take a small ball of red lead
and rub it up and down the graduations. Wipe off with a cloth
and the lead will remain in the marks. Chalk or lamp-black (mixed
with turpentine) may be used for the same purpose.
4. Flasks for Sugar Analysis are graduated to hold
50 CC , 50 and 55 CC , 100 CC , 100 and 110 CC , and 201.4 and 221.4 CC .
The last is for beet analysis (See 23C), and should have
a neck wide at the top and narrowing down to the gradua-
tion. The 100-110 flask should have a neck ^ of an inch
in diameter, but the other flasks should all be small-necked
for accurate work. When the 100-110 flask is used for any
other volumetric (14) analysis than pulp
it should also have a small neck. In filling
flasks let the bottom of the meniscus of the
fluid come to the graduation. (See fig 9.)
This rule also applies to the reading of
pipettes and burettes. Any foam that
forms in a flask may be gotten rid of by
the use of ether. The bottle shown in F
8 is a convenient ether bottle. A small
glass tube is fitted in a ground glass
stopper, and is of such length that when
the stopper is in the bottle, the tube reaches
nearly but not quite to the bottom. Ether
is taken from the bottle by put-
Fig. 9. ting a finger over the top of the
tube, as with a pipette. The dropping bottle
shown in Fig. 10 is often used for ether, but it
is not as good as the one above described. Fig. 10.
26 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
To test a flask, clean and dry it thoroughly, weigh, fill
with water at 17^C to the mark, and weigh again. The
weight of the water should be as many gr. as the flask
holds cc. (See 2a.) It is usual to test all flasks
as soon as they are purchased and either of the fol-
lowing methods will be found quick and accurate when a
large number of flasks are to be tested.
Test a flask by water as above, to use as a standard.
Fill it with clean mercury to the mark. Clean and dry all
flasks to be tested,* then pour the mercury into each one
until all are tested. The mercury for this method must be
perfectly clean and dry. The writer has always found it
advisable to test 4 or 5 flasks and then return the mercury
to the standard flask, to be sure that none has been lost.
Keep the flask in a clean mortar while pouring in the mer-
cury, to prevent loss in case of accident.
The following method by pipette is preferable to the
use of mercury in the fact that it is more rapid, although
greater care must be exercised. Use a pipette graduated
for the same number of cc as the flasks to be tested.
Determine its accuracy by filling to the mark with water
at 17 ^C, then letting the water run out into a tared ves-
sel. Gently blow through the pipette, so that no drops of
water remain. The weight should be l gr for every cc
for which the pipette is graduated, and if it is either more
or less, find by repeated weighings where the mark should
be to make the pipette hold the exact number of gr., and
re-mark accordingly. To test a flask, clean and dry it
thoroughly; fill the pipette to the mark with water at 17^C,
wiping the outside dry, and let the water run into the
flask, blowing out the last drops. For flasks having two
* After cleaning the flask with water, rinse it with a small amount of alcohol
or ether and it will dry quickly.
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 27
graduations, determine the correctness of the lower
mark as above and add immediately, with .a smaller
pipette, the number of cc of water for which the addi-
tional mark is made. Any flasks which are found to be
incorrect by at least two tests should be re-marked.
POINTERS.
Be sparing in the use of ether. It is usually sufficient to hold
the end of the ether bottle tube in the foam.
Flasks may be kept conveniently by inverting them over wooden
pegs driven in the edge of the shelf over the analyst's table. The
pegs should be about three inches high, about 5-16 inch in diameter,
and should incline at a slight angle toward the operator.
A quarter inch glass tube six inches long may be used as a
pipette for taking out the extra solution whenever, in analysis, a
flask is accidentally filled above the mark.
5. Funnels and Filter Paper. Funnels for sugar analy-
sis should be about 3 ^ inches in diameter and ot either
glass or hard rubber. The rubber funnel is much more
serviceable, but most chemists prefer the glass funnel, as
dirt or sugar can be detected on the latter more readily
than on the former. The stems on funnels should not be
more than half an inch long.
Filter paper should be in sheets 23 inches square.
When a sheet of this size is cut into nine equal square
parts, each part folded will be of the proper size for use in
analysis. After folding, cut each filter paper round and of
such size that the edges will not extend above the funnel.
Heavy white paper is the best for sugar analysis ; gray
paper is much cheaper but it filters too slowly.
POINTERS.
In trimming filter papers save the scraps for cleaning polariza-
tion tubes.
When a solution filters slowly, cover the funnel with a watch
glass to prevent evaporation.
Creasing a filter paper makes a solution filter faster.
28 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USK.
6. Beakers to receive the filtrates in analysis are
usually small common glass tumbers, which are lipped in
the laboratory where they are employed. Tumblers of the
following size will be found very convenient: Three
inches high, two inches inside bottom diameter, and two
and one-half inches inside top diameter. The writer has
used tumblers slightly smaller than this, each measure-
ment being an eighth of an inch less, and believes that
they cannot be excelled for practical work. They each
weigh about 92 gr . Lips are not at all necessary on beakers
of this size. (See F 34.) Another good form of beaker
is shown in F 31. It is 4 inches high, with a diameter
of \y( inches at the top and of 2^ inches at the bottom,
inside measurement. One American factory tried alumi-
num beakers, but found them unsatisfactory as they were
too hard to clean.
POINTERS.
Discard the first few drops of a filtrate.
When the filtrate of syrups and juices is too dark to be read in
the polariscope, add about 1 gr. of finely powdered bone dust to the
filter paper and filter again. As the bone dust may absorb a small
amount of sugar, discard the first half of the second filtrate.
Beakers are more easily cleaned with cold water than with hot,
on account of the lead on them. (J. E. VARNER.) They must be
thoroughly dried.
7. (a) Polariscopes.* When a ray of light passes
through a crystal of Iceland spar it is divided into two rays
of equal intensity, one of which is called the ordinary ray
and the other the extraordinary ray. The former is in
the principal plane and the latter is in a plane at right
angles to the principal plane. When the rays possess this
* The explanation of the polariscope here given is necessarily very brief.
The student is referred to Ganot's Physics or I^andolt's Handbook of the Polar-
iscope for a complete and clear description of the instrument.
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 2Q
peculiarity they are said to be polarized. Polarization may
also be effected by reflection, as on water, mirrors, etc. In
most polariscopes the light is polarized by means of a
Nicol's prism which is so constructed that it transmits only
one ray, while the other is suppressed by reflection out of
the prism. The prism is placed in the polariscope so that
the transmitted ray goes straight through the instrument.
Two lenses are used to intensify the light from the lamp
before it meets the Nicol's prism. The use of the polar-
ized ray may be described as follows :
Polariscopes designed for sugar analysis (called saccha-
rimeters) are based on what is termed rotatory polarization.
This is the effect produced by certain substances (most
notably quartz) and solutions (e. g., sugar) which have the
power of rotating to a different degree the planes of polari-
zation of the various colored rays which compose white
light. To illustrate : If a thin section of a quartz crystal
cut at right angles to its axis is placed so that a ray of
polarized light passes through it and falls upon a mirror,
the image of the quartz will appear in color in the mirror.
If the mirror is on an angle and is slowly turned, the colors
of the image will change and appear in the same order as
is found in the solar spectrum red, yellow, green, blue
and violet. In some varieties of quartz these colors are
shown in the order named when the mirror is turned to the
right, and in others when it is turned to the left. Violet
rotates the plane of polarization to the greatest degree and
red to the least, and the extent of the rotation depends
upon the thickness of the quartz plate which is traversed.
Sugar solutions have the power of rotating planes of
polarization,, and, as in the case of quartz crystals, some
solutions rotate the plane to the right and others to the
left. The former are said to be dextrogyrate, as sucrose
30 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
and raffinose, and the latter laevogyrate, as laevulose and
sorbinose. The rotatory power of a concentrated sugar
solution is only about 1-36 of that of quartz, hence the
column of solution to be traversed by the polarized light
must be of considerable length. The plane of the polar-
ized light is rotated to a greater or less extent, according to
the concentration or dilution of the solution. Sacchari-
meters are constructed so that this angle of rotation may
be determined. After the polarized light passes through
the column of sugar of known length it is met by a layer
of quartz which has a variable thickness and can be moved
either to the right or to the left, to compensate for the
rotation produced by the sugar solution. This movement
is effected by means of a rackwork and pinion turned by a
milled head, and as the plate is moved its thickness at the
point where the light passes through is measured by a
scale. The thickness of a plate necessary to compensate
the rotation of a definite amount of pure sugar made up in
a certain way is marked as 100 on the scale, and the thick-
ness of the plate which gives a clear view when no active
substance is in the polariscope, is marked as zero.- The
scale is then sub-divided into 100 parts, and when a solu-
tion of sugar prepared in the necessary way, is read in the
instrument, the scale not only measures the thickness of the
plate which compensates for the rotation of the solution,
but in doing so shows the percentage of sugar the solution
contains. The reading of this scale will be described
later. After passing through the movable plate the light
meets a double refracting prism (usually a Nicol's prism)
which is called the analyzer. This prism gives a field of
vision by which the polar iscopist, in reading the instru-
ment, can tell when the movable quartz plate is in proper
position. This field is circular and is divided in half by a
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 31
perpendicular line. The observation of it is described in
the next paragraph.
The optical arrangement of a single compensation
Schmidt and Haensch polariscope,* is shown in the follow-
ing figure :
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Fig. 11.
1. Eye-piece.
2. Objective.
3. Nicol prism, analyzer.
4. Quartz wedge, fixed, bearing vernier.
5. Quartz wedge, moveable, bearing scale.
6. Quartz wedge, having rotatory power opposite to 4 and 5.
7. Nicol prism, polarizer.
8. Lens.
9. Lens. *
In Fig. 12, the arrangement of the double compensa-
tion polariscope is shown. The two prisms /N1 and /\2
are of opposite rotatory power, one being dextro- and the
other laevo-rotary. At H is the screw for adjusting the
analyzer. The screw for setting the scale (see next para-
graph,) is on the left side of the instrument, between the
two moveable wedges. The inclined mirror above K is one
of the latest Schmidt and Haensch improvements, and is
for the purpose of doing away with a second lamp for read-
ing the scale.
* The Schmidt and Haensch polariscope is the only instrument described
here, as it has been adopted by the U. S. Government, and most of the sugar
factories in operation in this country.
32 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 33
(.b) Operation. Adjust the lamp so that it gives a
bright steady light. Turn the polariscope towards the
lamp and look through the telescope J. (See Fig. 12.) A
round luminous field will be seen, and the telescope should
be focused by moving it in or out until the field is clear,
and has a well defined line passing through the center.
One side of the line may be darker than the other, but by
turning the milled head which operates the moveable
quartz plate the two halves of the field may be made to
have an equal intensity of light.
E.
Fig. 13.
In Fig. 13 R shows a picture of the field when the
milled head must be turned to the right (the thumb of the
hand moving toward the lamp) to effect neutrality, L a
picture when it must be turned in the opposite direction
and E shows the field when neutral.
When the vision is that illustrated in E, look through
the reading glass K (see Fig. 12,) and read the scale. The
small scale appearing above is called the "vernier," and
its zero should exactly correspond to the zero of the larger
scale below. If they are not in line, they should be made
to coincide by turning the nipple, provided for the pur-
pose. This should be done only by some one acquainted
with the polariscope, as in single compensation instru-
ments this screw is easily mistaken for the screw in con-
nection with the analyzer.
34
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
Now fill a polarization tube with a properly prepared
solution (see next paragraph,) and place it in the polar-
iscope. Make the observation as above, bringing the two
halves of the field of vision to an equal shade. Then make
the reading. Find the number of whole degrees the zero
of the scale has moved from the zero of the vernier. In
Fig. 14 it is 29. To determine the tenths, note the point
10
.
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
y
111!
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1
Ml!
1 ! 1
Fig. 14.
at which a line on the vernier coincides with a line on the
scale. In this illustration it is at 4. Therefore, the read-
ing is 29.4, and the solution read contains 29.4 per cent,
of sugar.
A polariscope fitted with the double compensators and
two scales, gives four checks on the correctness of the
reading. The upper scale and the milled head which
moves it are black. The lower scale is red, and its milled
head brass. In making a test, set the red scale at zero and
use the black scale. Then remove the polarization tube
from the instrument and make the field neutral by using
the brass screw. The readings of the two scales should
correspond. For an invert reading, set the black scale at
zero and use the red scale.
(c) Testing a Polariscope. No instrument should be
used unless it has been found to be accurate. The exami-
nation is most easily made by means of the control-tube or
quartz plates. The control-tube can be lengthened or
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 35
shortened and, as a scale is attached which shows the length
of the tube in millimeters, the reading which the instrument
ought to give may be easily calculated. If quartz testing
plates are used, their value should be determined by check
analyses, e.g-., with cc "known sugar" solutions. Table III
gives the number of gr. of chemically pure sugar which
must be made up to 100 CC to give any desired polariscope
reading. By the use of the control-tube, quartz testing
plates, and <c known sugar" solutions, it may easily be de-
termined whether the instrument, is correct for readings on
all points of the scale. Uneven quartz wedges will make
a polariscope accurate for some readings and inaccurate for
others.
The accuracy of the zero point may be found by read-
ing the instrument itself, and a solution of chemically pure
sugar may be used for the 100 mark. Chemically pure
sugar is prepared as follows :
Wash a quantity of the best granulated sugar repeatedly with
an 85 per cent, alcohol. Three to five times the volume of sugar is
sufficient alcohol to use. After washing, dry the sugar thoroughly
at 100 degrees Centigrade and keep in an air-tight jar. 26.048
grammes of this sugar dissolved in 100 CC of water at 17^ C should
have a specific gravity of I.IIII.
In the laboratory, a polariscope that is accurate under
normal conditions may become incorrect through the
influence of heat or some other cause. The instrument
should be thoroughly examined at least once a week, and
each chemist should read for the zero point at least twice a
day, say at the beginning of each half-day. These exami-
nations ought to be sufficient to insure its accuracy.
(d) Tubes and Weights. The Schmidt and Haensch
polariscopes are so constructed that 26.048 gr of chemi-
36 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
cally pure sugar dissolved in 100 CC of water will read 100
in the polariscope, when a polarization tube 200 mm long is
used, in sugar analysis, when these instruments are used,
26.048 r is called "normal weight," 13.024* r "half nor-
mal weight," and 52.096* r "double normal weight." A
polarization tube 100 mm long is called a "half tube," and
one 400 mm long a " double tube," the "normal" tube being
200 mm . Any one of these weights and tubes may be used
in analysis, but it is always best to use the largest weight and
longest tube practicable. All readings must be figured on
a basis of normal weight and normal tube, hence if a
shorter tube or a lower weight is used, the reading must be
multiplied, and if a larger weight or a longer tube is used
the reading must be divided. In case of an error, if the
reading is multiplied the error is multiplied, and if the
reading is divided the error is divided. In very dark solu-
tions the half tube must sometimes be used, and when there
is only a small amount obtainable of the solution to be
analyzed, half normal weight must be used. In general
the most practical combination is double normal weight and
normal tube. The double tube cannot be used accurately
except with very light solutions. All readings may be
figured to normal by the following table :
length of Tube
Used.
Weight Used.
To Make Normal.
100mm-
13.024
Multiply by 4.
100mm,
26.048
Multiply by 2.
100 :nm .
52.096
Reading shows
per cent, sugar.
200mm.
13.024
Multiply by 2.
200mm.
26.048
Reading shows
per cent, sugar.
200mm.
52.096
Divide by 2.
400mm
13024
Reading shows
per cent, sugar.
400mm.
26.048
Divide by 2.
400mm .
52. OH 6
Divide bv 4.
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 37
The continuous polarization tube (Fig. 15) may be used
when a large number of solutions of comparatively the same
sugar content are to be tested, as in beet analysis. A
Fig. 15.
funnel is fitted to one end and a rubber tube is attached to
the other, the opposite end of the tube being in a bucket on
the table when the tube is in the instrument. The solu-
tion to be read is poured in the funnel, the surplus fluid
going out of the tube. After reading, the next solution is
poured in the funnel, and so on. The use of this tube
saves a great deal of time in beet tests and the results are
accurate.
POINTERS :
The preparation and polarization of a solution should be made
at the same temperature.
Readings are made more quickly when the polariscope is cov-
ered with a box, or is in a place darkened by curtains.
The lamp should be about 200 mm from the end of the polari-
38 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
scope and the instrument should be protected
from the heat by a wooden partition or screen ,
with an opening about ^ of an inch in diam-
eter for the light to pass through. (See F 44.)
When gas is obtainable, the lamp shown
in Fig. 16 is a good form to use. It may be
raised or lowered on the stand A. The
shade B gives a concentrated light. The
Students' is a good oil lamp. (See F. 38.)
Always turn the polariscope away from the
light when you have finished reading. Heat
affects the cement holding the prisms.
Polarization tube discs (glasses) sometimes cause
inaccurate readings. They may be tested by putting
them in polarization tubes and reading for the zero
point.
Do not screw on the ends of the polarization tube
too tight. The compression of the discs may make
them double refracting, and the reading will be wrong- Fig. 16.
Discs may be wiped off with the pocket handkerchief. It is
the quickest way to clean them. A scrap of filter paper is also
good.
Rinsing the tube three times is nearly always sufficient to
insure its cleanliness. This, of course, means to rinse it with the
solution to be read.
In every test with a single compensation polariscope, make
three readings and take the average. Rest the eye for 15 or 20 sec-
onds after each reading.
When the zero point in an instrument is .1 or .2 wrong it is
unnecessary to adjust it, but a correction must be made for read-
ings. If, instead of the polariscope showing zero, it shows .2 then
.2 should be subtracted from every reading of solutions, and vice
versa. Thus, if the reading is 18.6, the correct reading would be
18.4, because the polariscope shows .2 more sugar than is really
contained, and if the zero point is .2 to the left then 18.6 would be
18.8, for the polariscope shows .2 less than is really contained.
Bach analysist doing general work should have two or three
polarization tubes, to be used for special tests. For example, a tube
for only pulp and waste waters, one for cosettes, syrups, etc., and
one for high tests, such as sugars and massecuites.
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 39
8. Scales. Four different kinds of scales are neces-
sary in beet sugar analysis. The common scale with plat-
form and scoop is used for weighing beet samples, a
druggists' balance is most convenient for weighing lime
cakes, a balance having a carrying capacity of 300 gr and
sensible to l mg is necessary for sugar analysis and spe-
cific gravity determinations, and a delicate balance with
agate bearings made for a charge of 100 gr and sensible to
l-20 mg is used for finer analytical work. These scales
are shown respectively in Figs. 26, 30, 24 and 41.
To test the sensibility and accuracy of a balance, first
adjust it properly by its regulating screws. The smallest
weight the balance is sensible to is placed on one scale pan
and the balance must turn very distinctly. Each pan is
then charged to its full carrying capacity and the small
weight added again. The balance will oscillate more
slowly than before, but should turn to the same extent.
Place the same weight, say 50 gr , on each scale pan,
and if necessary adjust the scale so that the index for mark-
ing oscillations will be exactly in the middle. Interchange
the weights and the balance should remain in equilibrium.
Remove the weights and set the balance in slight motion.
It must resume its original equilibrium. Load one scale
pan and repeated weighings of it should give same result.
The regular weights used for analytical purposes and
sugar weights (normal, half normal and double normal)
should be verified" when purchased, but if taken care of
properly they are not liable to either lose or gain in weight,
and need not be tested unless there is special reason to be-
lieve they have been affected. Scoops constantly lose in
weight by daily use, and the counterpoise weights must be
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
repeatedly filed down. If any weight is too light, un-
screw the plug on top and insert tinfoil. If it is too
heavy, file off the surplus weight.
POINTERS.
Do not touch weights with the fingers.
FRESBNIUS says : "The balance ought to be arrested every time
any change is contemplated, such as removing weights, substituting
one weight for another, etc., or it will soon get spoiled."
A substance when hot creates a draught upward and, if weighed,
its weight is less than it would be at normal temperature.
Weights should be kept in a box away from the fumes of acid,
but the tarnishing coat which forms on brass weights is so extrerm ly
thin that it is of no consequence.
There is a circular spirit level on every good
balance. If the bubble is not in the center, ad-
just the scale by the screws underneath.
Have a camel's hair brush two inches wide
for dusting the wood-work around a balance.
9. Other Apparatus. Water and
Lead Bottles. The siphon bottle shown W
in Fig. 17, is used for water and lead.
The following points should be observed
in making one of these bottles : Use a
gallon bottle, ^ inch glass tubing, and
rubber tubing to match ; have the rubber
tube long enough so that when the bottle
is on the shelf the lower end of the tube
will be on a level with the eye ; have the
air-tube bent down so as to exclude dust,
make the nozzle about two inches long,
and for rapid work the point should not
be drawn too small ; and have a Mohr's
pinch-cock immediately above the nozzle. Fig. 17.
INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
() Acetic Acid Bottles for lime cake analysis are made
as above described but smaller. (See F. 13.)
(c) Washing Bottle. This is shown in Fig. 18. It
is a bottle of about 750 CC to
800 CC capacity, and the neck
is wrapped with twine to pro-
tect the hand when hot water is
used. Heavy glass tubing of 3-16
iiich inside diameter may be used.
The nozzle is drawn to a fine point,
and a rubber tube is used to con-
nect the siphon tube with the noz-
zle so that it may be turned in any
direction. The air-tube should be
on a plane with the nozzle as the
operator can better direct the
stream.
18 '
(aO Burettes for Fehling's Solution, normal acids, etc.,
may be placed in a burette stand like that shown in F. 20.
The cheapest and very satisfactory
burettes are Mohr's, for use with
pinch-cocks shown in the illustration.
A T-tube connection for filling
burettes is shown in Fig. 19. The
use of red lead or chalk, as described
in 3 makes the graduations clearer.
If Erdmann's floats are used with
burettes, the graduation on the
burette corresponding to the line on
the float is the correct reading. If
floats are not used, the reading is at
the bottom of the meniscus (4).
Fig. 19.
42 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE.
(X) Thermometers for sugar analysis are
preferably those with large enough bulbs so that
they will only be about half immersed when
placed in a fluid. (See Fig. 20.) They may
be graduated from to 130 F., or 20 to about
130, and should be of the common
kind, that do not register too
quickly, as the reading might
change during the time the instru-
ment is taken from the fluid to be
read.
Fig. 20.
(/; Mohr's Pinchcocks (fig.
21) are the most handy clamps for
Fig. 21. water-bottles, burettes, etc. They
are made in three sizes, the middle
size being the one most often used in sugar
work.
(g) Kipp's Apparatus shown in Fig. 22 may
be used for the generation of carbonic
acid i n experimenting with lime and
to neutralize alkaline solutions. Lime-
stone is placed in the middle bulb
and crude muriatic acid is poured in the
safety tube at the top. The apparatus may
also be used for the generation of hydrogen
sulphide and other gases in chemical
analysis.
(/O Indicator Bottles may be either a
dropping ftask or an ether bottle, both of
which are described in 4. The former is
preferable. Phenol is considered the most
Fig. 22. suitable indicator for sugar work.
OF THE
m UNIVERSITY
CHAPTER
GENERAL METHODS OF ANAU.
10. Introductory. Nearly all sugar analyses are
figured for "purity." (See 19.) In exact analysis
the "real purity " is obtained by weight, but in analysis
where only approximate exactness is required, the "appar-
ent purity " is determined by some method which combines
the greatest accuracy with the quickest operation. Three
of these methods are given in the following paragraphs.
All are theoretically correct and it is a matter of opinion
which is the most practical for general work.* The analy-
sis by pipette is distinctly American, as is also the gravi-
meter method, while the volumetric method is used in
Europe. For solutions having a small percentage of sugar,
such as pulp and waste waters, there can be no doubt but
that the volumetric method is the best, as a large amount
of the solution is necessary in order to secure accurate
results. Natural water is used in sugar analysis, but it
should be tested to see that it has no optical activity.
The beginner is advised to read Chapter I. carefully lo
learn the manipulation of all the apparatus used in analysis
before studying this chapter.
1 1. The Preparation of the Sample for analysis varies
with the different substances, and is given for each one
under its proper paragraph.
12. Clarification. After the solution to be tested is
measured, or is weighed out into the flask, the impurities
must be precipitated to render it clear and colorless enough
for polarization. This is done by the use of a sub-acetate
* Nt)TE. Solutions having a brix of over 24 must be diluted, in order to make
an apparent purity test by the methods here outlined.
44 GENERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS.
of lead solution. The amount of the lead to use varies
with the color and impurity of the solution to be tested
but no more than is necessary should be used. In low-
grade syrups 5 to 7 CC is often necessary, while a granulated
sugar solution can be polarized without clarification. Add
a few drops of the lead solution, and rotate the flask
gently to mix the contents. Then let a drop flow down
the neck and side of the flask ; if this drop is lost upon en-
tering the solution, it indicates that the precipitation is not
complete and that more lead solution must be added, but if
it can be traced after entering the solution by its clear
track down the side of the flask, it shows that the clarifi-
cation is complete.
The U. S. Department of Internal Revenue, in its regu-
lations* relative to the bounty on domestic sugar, gives the
following : " The use of sub-acetate of lead should, in all
cases, be followed by the addition of * alumina cream '
(aluminic hydrate suspended in water), (t)in about double
the volume of the sub-acetate solution used, for the purpose
of completing the clarification, precipitating excess of lead,
and facilitating filtration. In many cases of high grade
sugars, especially beet sugars, the use of alumina alone
may be sufficient for clarification without the previous
addition of sub-acetate of lead."
In ordinary work it is not generally considered neces-
sary to use any other clarifying agent than lead acetate.
The precipitate given by the lead solutions causes a very
* U. S. Internal Revenue, Series 7 to 17, Revised.
t See paragraph 128 for preparation of "Alumina Cream/
GENERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 45
slight error in polarization, on account of its volume. In
the presence of this precipitate the fluid tested is not
actually diluted up to 100 CC , but to 100 CC , minus the volume
of the precipitate. In beets this error is about .17 per
cent., and in diffusion juice, .27 per cent., while in green
syrup it is estimated to be as high as .63 per cent.J This
refers to tests made by the volumetric method.
When invert sugar is present a serious error very often
result by the formation of laevulosate of lead, which is a
salt of low specific rotary power, and sometimes the left-
hand rotation is almost, if not entirely, destroyed. (G L,.
SPENCER.) The addition of enough acetic acid to give the
solution an acid reaction will prevent this error.
13. Filling the Flask. After the addition of sufficient
lead solution, the flask is filled to the proper mark and is
well shaken, the thumb being placed over the top of the
flask In nearly all cases the solution should stand for
from 5 to 10 minutes before being filtered. When it is
known that there is only a small amount of sugar con-
tained this is unnecessary, and in beet, cossette, and diffu-
sion juice tests it allowed to stand the solution soon be-
comes too dark to polarize.
14. The Volumetric Method of analysis is used in
Europe for determining all " apparent purities," but in the
United States it is generally used only for solutions con-
taining a very small amount of sugar such as pulp and waste
waters. A flask graduated to 100 and 110 CC or to 50 and
J See Tucker's Manual of Sugar Analysis, third edition, page 166.
46 GENERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS.
55 CC is rinsed with the solution to be tested, and is then
filled with it to the lower mark (50 or 100). Add
sufficient lead acetate to precipitate the impurities
and fill to the higher mark (55 or 110) with water.
Filter and polarize a part of the filtrate in a 200 mm
tube. The reading multiplied by *.286 was formerly taken
to show the percentage of sugar in the solution, but this
multiplication is now divided by the specific gravity as the
increase in density lowers the specific rotatory power of the
sugar.
Table V. may be used for determining the per cent,
sugar from the polariscope reading. For example, the
brix of a solution is 16.5 and the temperature correction
.3, making the corrected brix 16.8, and the polariscope
reading is 33.6. By referring to the table we first find at
the top of the page, the degree brix 17.0 as it is nearest to
16.8. In the column under 17 we find the line of polar-
iscope degree 33, as it is the whole degree of the polari-
scope reading obtained, and the percentage of sugar given
is 8.82. The tenths obtained is 6, and at the side of the
table under "degree brix from 12.5 to 20.0," we find .6=
.16. Adding .16 to 8.82 gives 8.98, the percentage of
sugar in the solution tested. The per cent, sugar is divided
by the brix and multiplied by 100 to give the apparent
purity, 8.98 16 8 x 100 53 45, apparent purity.
* A polariscope is made for 26.048 gr. of a solution made up to lOOcc to show
the percentage of sugar it contains, and if a solution containing 26.048 percent,
of sugar is read directly in the polariscope, the instrument will show 100 per
cent. Hence each reading of 1 shows .26048 per cent, of sugar. When a solution
is diluted 10 per cent, to allow for lead acetate (as above,) each reading of 1 will
show 10 per cent, more than .26048 or .286 iti round numbers.
GENERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 47
15. The Pipette Test is made as follows: Carefully
take the brix and also the temperature of the solution to
be tested. Fill the pipette to the graduation corresponding
to the reading of the brix. (3.)t Diop the solution into
a 100 CC flask and wash the pipette, as described in 3. Add
enough lead acetate to the flask to precipitate all impurities
and leave a clear fluid above. Then fill to the mark with
water. After filtering, fill a 200 mm tube with a portion of
the filtrate, and polarize. Divide the reading by two, as
the pipette contained double normal weight. The per cent,
of sugar thus obtained, divided by the brix, with the tem-
perature correction and multiplied by 100, will give the
apparent purity.
16. The Gravimeter, invented by W. K. Gird, is a
mechanical device by which the solution is measured off
and placed in the flask by the operation of taking the dens-
ity. It is based on the principle that a substance im-
mersed in a fluid displaces its own weight of the fluid.
The following explanation of the apparatus was prepared
for " Beet Sugar Analysis " by the inventor.
"In the illustration (Fig. 23) A represents the main
tube, to hold the solution under treatment ; B, overflow
pipe ; C, air vent, to prevent siphonage, constructed in
funnel form, to facilitate cleaning; D, an index finger point-
ing to the saccharometer, constructed so as to swing cut
of the way when necessary, and to stand, for convenience
of reading, say five graduations above the surface of the
fluid ; E, saccharometer, weighing exactly .26048 gr . and F,
point of discharge into the flask ; G, drip funnel; and H is
cock for letting out the fluid from A.
t Finding the per cent, sugar is done by weight, hence it is not influenced
by temperature, and the uncorrected reading of the brix is drawn into the
pipette.
48 GBNKRAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS.
Fig. 23.
GENERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 49
The operator closes the aperature F with his finger
and fills the main tube with the solution until it shows full
at C. Skimming off the foam from the top of the main
tube, he removes his finger and permits the excess to escape
to the last drop, which must be removed. This will leave
the tube B moistened with the fluid under analysis so that
the condition will be left precisely the same as it will be
after the delivery of the discharge hereafter explained.
There can be no loss or no gain, either in quantity or
quality. Next, place a 100 CC flask under the overflow F
and insert the saccharometer in the usual manner, Jetting
it go down slowly until it floats free. The fluid will come
out at E ; bring up the mouth of the flask so as to catch
the last drop. The fluid in the flask will now weigh
exactly e. g. 26.048 gr , being the quantity displaced by the
saccharometer having that weight. Now, bring the point
D to the index on the saccharometer and note the reading,
to which add (10), representing the height of the finger
above the surface."
The solution in the flask is cleared with lead acetate,
filtered and the filtrate polarized in a 200 mra tube, the read-
ing giving the direct per cent, sugar. In taking the brix,
note the temperature on the thermometer I, and divide the
per cent, sugar by the corrected brix and multiply by 100
to find the apparent purity.
The principal source of error in using the gravimeter is
in having saccharometers incorrect in weight. Either
normal or double normal weight instruments may be used,
but it is difficult to make them exact. Another error to
guard against is allowing the saccharometer to sink down
too far. This is simply a matter of care, and can be easily
GENERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS.
avoided. The gravimeter may be used for solutions having
a medium and low brix, but is hardly adapted for thick
juices and syrups.
1 7. Analysis by Weight is usually made where great
accuracy is required, and sometimes it is necessary when
only a sm all
amount is obtain-
able of the sub-
stance to be ana-
lyzed. For thin
solutions and beets
take double normal
weight, but for
thick solutions and
massecuites which
are not so easily
dissolved, use nor-
mal weight. Half
normal weight is Fi - 24 -
used when only a small sample is to be had. The substance
to be tested is carefully weighed in a tared scoop and then
washed from the scoop into a 100 CC flask, or with beets,
into the special beet flask. The scoops best suited for this
method of analysis are of German silver, with long lips.
(See F. 18.) After the substance is all in the flask, clear
with lead acetate, fill to the mark, filter and read. In solu-
tions where the purity by weight is to be determined, the
specific gravity is found (2a) and the per cent, sugar is
divided by the degree brix which equals the specific grav-
ity obtained. This is multiplied by 100. In the analysis
of massecuites, and sometimes of solutions, the dry sub-
stance is found (2c), the division of the per cent, sugar by
GENERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 51
the dry substance, and multiplying by 100, giving the real
purity. Fig. 24 will show the kind and quality of balance
suited for weighings in sugar analysis.
Examples :
Per cent. Sugar found by weight, 75.1.
Per cent. Dry Substance, 85.3.
75.1 -f- 85.3 x 100=88.0+, the real purity.
Per cent. Sugar found by weight 50.0.
Specific gravity, 1.4375 or 83.2 Brix.
50 o -: 83.2 x 100 = 60.09 or 60.1, purity by weight.
18. NonWNormal Analysis. It rarely, yet sometimes
happens that some other weight than normal or half-normal
weight must be taken for polarization. In this case the
substance is carefully weighed out, dissolved and made up
to 100 CC , with the addition of lead acetate, and polarized in
a 200 mm tube, the per cent, of sugar being calculated
according to the formula
P x 26.048.
w
In which P represents the polarization and W the weight
used.
Example :
A sample of 11 gr. of a massecuite is weighed out and polarized,
the polarization being 36.8. According to the formula
36.8 x 26.048 = 958.57 = 87.14, per cent, sugar in sample.
11 11
19. Quotient of Purity is the percentage of sugar con-
tained in the total solids. It is always spoken of simply as
"purity." The only exact method for determining the
quotient of purity is described in 17, and is called the
" real purity." The "purity by weight" described in the
same paragraph is considered in some factories to be suffi-
ciently exact for syrup analysis. The " apparent purity"
(14, 15 and 16,) is used for nearly all analyses in the
52 GENERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS.
chemical control of the daily run of factories. It is not
exact, as the Brix saccharometer is used for determining
the total solids, and this instrument is based on a scale
which assumes all the solids to be pure sugar. The
presence of other solids in an impure solution makes the
brix reading too high and the purity consequently too
low. It is not affected alike b}^ all impurities*, hence its
inaccuracy varies, but the purity found is usually fioin 2 to
4 lower than the real purity. After obtaining the per
cent, sugar and the degree Brix, the apparent purity can be
determined by the use of Table VI.
20. The Value Coefficient is used by some European
factories in the purchase ot beets, the price paid being ac-
cording to the coefficient. It is also used to some extent in
determining the value of juices in factory work. The
formula is
Sucrose x purity
ITJTT = value coefficient.
21. The Saline Quotient is considered by French
chemists to show how near a substance is exhausted of
crystallizable sugar. The supeiintendents of French fac-
tories pay more attention to it than to purity ; in fact, they
practically neglect figuring on purity bases (E. E. BRYS-
SELBOUT). Some chemists consider it of especial value to
new factories in the study of beets and j uices. The formula is :
Per cent Sucrose -j per cent. Ash = Saline Quotient.
For the analysis of ash see 34b. Determine the
sugar by weight.
22. The Rendement is a formula tor determining the
amount of refined sugar that can be made from a substance
or solution. It is :
Per cent. Sucrose (per cent ash x 5) = per cent, refined sugar.
* See Tucker's Manual of Su^ ar Analysis, 3rd edition, page 112.
Apparatus in M.
1. Apparatus for testing CO 2 in gas.
2. Kiehle machine for beets and cossettes.
3. Meat chopper for cossettes.
4. Power grinder for beets.
5. Hand grinder for beets.
6. Beet block and knife.
7. Beet box for beet samples.
8. Press for obtaining juice from'beets or|cossettes.
9. Press for pulp.
10. Hand grinder for pulp.
11. The same in parts.
CHAPTER III.
INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES.
23. (a) Beets. A bushel basket full of beets is
taken as a sample from each wagon, or samples from two or
three wagon loads (from the same
farmer) may be tared and analyzed as
one sample. The sample is dumped on
-S the floor in one pile and mixed. From
this pile the " tarer " takes a sample
weighing 50 pounds, using a shovel to
take the beets from the floor. The beets
are cleaned thoroughly in a washing
machine and are then tared by cutting
off the tops squarely at the point where
the first leaves have grown (see Fig. 25.)
All hairs are scraped off, and all roots
that are ^ of an inch, or les^, in diameter, are removed.
The sample is then reweighed
and the difference between its
weight and 50 pounds, multi-
plied by 2, gives the per cent,
of tare. Twenty average beets
are then taken from the sample
to test in the laboratory. They
are weighed (preferably with
metric weights) and the average weight is recorded. The
common platform scales with scoop are used in weighing.
Each beet is then cut perpendicularly as equally as possi-
ble, into four parts, and one of the quarter sections of each
beet is taken to make up the sample for analyzing. The
Fig. 26.
56 INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES.
beet block and knife used for this purpose are shown in m6.
There are a number of machines constructed for cutting
out certain parts of the beets which are considered to give
the best average sample, but the above method is very
practical, being both rapid and accurate.
(b) The sample is grated up similarly to horse radish and
the juice from the pulp thus obtained is squeezed through a
cloth by pressure. The grater and press generally used are
shown in m4 and m8. The cylinder of the grater should
make about 500 revolutions a minute. After being grated
up the sample is in a box (m4) and is dumped upon a
clean, dry cloth. The edges of the cloth are then folded
together, placed in the press and pressure applied. The
juice flowing out should be received in a bucket which is
clean and dry inside. All the juice possible should be
squeezed out. From the bucket a portion of the juice is
poured into a cylinder very carefully, so as to make as little
foam as possible, and is allowed to stand as long as may be
necessary (from 10 to 20 minutes), to let all the bubbles of
air come to the top. Skim off the foam with a spoon and
analyze by either the volumetric method or pipette test.
The use of too little or too much lead will give a dark solu-
tion after filtering. The continuous polarization tube
described in 7d is of especial value in beet work when a
large number of samples are to be tested, and is as accurate
as the ordinary tube when used properly. The per cent,
sugar is figured into apparent purity. On account of the
fibre in the beet the per cent, of sugar is less than is found
by analysis to be in the juice. The sugar in beets is usually
considered to be 95 per cent, of the sugar in juice, but in
dry years it is often taken as 94 per cent. For determining
the amount of fibre in beets see (f) of this paragraph. The
analysis of the beet may be recorded in this way :
INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. 57
Average weight 348 gr.
Brix 19.1.
Per cent. Sugar in juice 15.4.
Per cent. Sugar in beet (95 percent) 14.6.
Purity 80.6.
(c) Water Digest. A flask is especially made for this
test, being graduated to 201. 4 CC and 221. 4 CC . It is the same
as a 200 CC plus 20 per cent, flask with 1.4 CC allowed for the
fibre in the beet. Grind the beets to be tested as fine as
possible. Weigh out double normal weight and wash into
flask using an amount of water which will bring the con-
tents of the flask up to a volume of about 180 CC . Add 5 CC
of lead acetate and heat in a water bath at 75C. A stick
about eight inches long and slightly thicker than a lead
pencil may be placed in the flask to use in pushing down
any foam that may rise. The length of time required for
heating varies according to the way the beets are ground.
MR. E. TURCK and the author in a series of experiments
found that the beets ground with a horse radish grater had
to be heated for 45 minutes to give accurate results, while
beets crushed to an exceedingly fine pulp in a specially
made machine (the Kiehle) could be thoroughly diffused
in 15 minutes. After heating sufficiently, cool to 17>^ C
and make up to the 201.4 CC mark. Very often in this test
it will be found necessary to fill to Hie upper mark, in
which case deduct 10 per cent, of the reading. When the
lower mark is used, the reading in a 200 mm tube shows
the per cent, of sugar in the beet.
This test may be made as above in a 100 CC flask, but the
foam which usually forms make the operation more diffi-
cult than with the larger flask. It is also slightly less
accurate as no provision is made for the^fifetfei^the beet.
58 INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES.
(d) The Alcohol Extraction is considered by many chem-
ists to be the only exact method for determining the per-
centage of sugar in beets. The apparatus for this analysis
is shown in Fig. 27. A wide-mouthed 200 CC flask contain-
ing 150 CC of ^-per cent, alcohol is placed in a water bath,
which is well covered. The top of the flask is connected
by a rubber stopper with an extraction apparatus, prefer-
ably the Sickel-Soxhlet which is shown in the illustration.
Into the cylinder A of the apparatus is placed 52.096 gr of
the sample which is prepared in the same way as the sam-
ple for the water digestion. The cylinder should be of
such size and so made that the substance to be tested does
not come higher than the upper turn of the siphon D-
The sample may be washed into the cylinder with alcohol,
and more alcohol added until the fluid comes up in D to the
upper turn. A L,iebig condensor is now attached to the
upper part of the extraction apparatus by a rubber stopper
and some suitable arrangement made to keep a flow of cold
water through the condensor. This can be done by siphon-
age, as shown in the illustration. Heat is now applied and
the alcohol distilled. The gas passes up through the tube
C to the condensor, where it is condensed, and falls into the
tube A, going back to the flask through the siphon D.
This distillation and redistillation is kept up until the fluid
coming back through the siphon is colorless. The length
of the operation varies, but is usually about two hours, and
the fluid in the apparatus goes back about four times.
When finished, the flask is separated from the apparatus
and cooled. About 4 CC of lead acetate are then added and
the contents made up to the mark with alcohol. Shake well,
filter with precautions against evaporation, and polarize,
the reading being the per cent, sugar in beet.
Fig. 27.
6o
INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES.
(e) Alcohol Digest. This is made the same as the
water 'digestion, alcohol being used instead of water. Care
must be taken to
prevent evapo-
ration of the al-
cohol. It may
be avoided by
slanting the
ftask in the
water bath and
connecting to
the top of the
flask by a rub-
ber stopper, a
straight glass
tube l cm in di-
ameter and
about 65 cm long,
the tube acting
as a condenser
(Fig. 28.)
(/) The Fi-
bre in Beet is
usually deter-
mined indirectly
by a compari-
son of the tests
of sugar in
beet b y the
alcohol extrac-
tion, and of sugar in juice by the volumetric or pip-
ette method. A large sample is ground up and well
mixed and is then divided, a smaller portion being used
Fig. 28.
INDIVIDUAL, SUGAR ANALYSES. 6 1
for the alcohol digest and the larger portion for the juice
test, the juice being pressed out and tested as in B, dividing
the per cent, sugar found to be in the beet by the per cent,
sugar in the juice, the ratio of the sugar in beet to sugar in
juice is found. This percentage subtracted from 100 will
give the percentage of fibre.
Example :
Per cent, sugar by alcohol digest = 15.2.
Per cent, sugar found in juice = 16.1.
15.2 '- 16.1 = 94.4 per cent.
100 94.4 = 5.6, the per cent, of fibre.
A direct determination of the fibre may be made by
taking the residue remaining in the cylinder A (Fig. 20,)
after the alcohol extraction*, and drying first at 90C and
finally at 100C to constant weight. The weight of the
residue divided by 52.096 and multiplied by 100 will give
the per cent, of fiber. This is Scheibler's method.
Or) Beets in the Field. When a beet is young the
weight of the leaves is proportionately much greater than
that of the root, but as the plant grows the difference be-
comes gradually less until at maturity the condition is re-
versed and the root weighs much more than the leaves.
The knowledge of the relation between the roots and the
leaves is of value to the agriculturist in many ways, one in-
dication being that an increase in the proportion of roots
is an increase in the contents of sugar. Hence, in testing
beets before maturity, a record should always be made of
the weight of the roots and of the tops, the relation of the
roots to the total weight being calculated by dividing the
* To be sure that all soluble matter is extracted, the residue should be washed
with ether.
62 INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES.
former by the latter. The leaves are cut off squarely at the
point where the first leaves have grown, as shown in Fig
25.
Example :
Four beets are tested, the leaves of which weigh 2324s r and the
roots 18288 r .
2324gr 4 = 581gr, average weight of leaves.
1828g f -, 4 = 457gr, average weight of roots.
457 457
= .44 or 44 per cent., proportion of roots to
(581 + 457) 1038
total weight. In recording the analysis, the average weight of the
leaves and the roots and the proportion of roots to total weight are
written first, the results of analysis (as in .5) following.
24. Cossettes. The diffuser takes a small sample
(handful) of cossettes from each cell as the battery is being
filled, placing it in a large can with a closely fitting top.
This can when full contains the laboratory sample.* After
mixing thoroughly, the sample, or a portion of it, is chopped
to a fine pulp with a sausage-meat cutter (m3) or some
similar machine. After being reduced to fine particles
the sample is again thoroughly mixed and a small portion
is taken for the determination of the per cent, sugar in the
cossettes. This is done either by the water digest (23c) or
the alcohol extraction (23d). The juice is squeezed out of
the remaining portion and is analyzed the same as beet
juice (23b). In laboratories possessing the Kiehle ma-
chine (m2,) the portion for direct sugar in cossettes can
be ground up separately in this machine. In many fac-
tories this latter analysis is the only one made of cossettes.
25. Wet Pulp. The sample is taken as the pulp
comes from the diffusion battery. It should be well-mixed,
* In hot countries the can of samples should be emptied in at least two hours
after the first sample is put in, on account of the danger of fermentation.
INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES.
not all being taken from the same place, and should be
picked up with the hand so that a surplus of water is
avoided . Large chips of beets are sometimes mixed with
the pulp, and care should be taken that none of these are
in the sample. The sample is mixed thoroughly and is
ground up in a hand sausage machine (m1O.) after
which the liquid is pressed out
through a cloth. The usual press is
shown in m9 and in Fig. 29. Both
the grinder and the press should beat
some distance from the machine used
in preparing beet and cossette sam-
ples. The analysis of pulp is very
important, and the slightest addition
of sugar from a foreign source would
cause an error. The liquid pressed
out as above is analyzed by the volu-
metric method, a 100-1 10 CC flask being
used. Table IV. is prepared especially for pulp analysis
and it should be tacked up in a convenient place in the
laboratory.
26. Pressed Pulp. Take a somewhat larger sample
than is used in the wet pulp analysis described in the
above paragraph and proceed in the same way.
27. Waste Water from the diffusion battery can
usually be tested by filtering a small quantity into a
beaker and reading in the polariscope. When read
directly in this way multiply the reading by .26 (see 14.)
Sometimes the addition of a small pinch of common salt
will make a cleaier filtrate. If the water is too dark to be
read without clearing with lead acetate, make the analysis
by the volumetric method and use Table IV. for determin-
Fig. 29.
64 INDIVIDUAL, SUGAR ANALYSES.
ing the per cent, sugar. The disposal of waste water
varies so greatly in different factories that no directions can
be given for taking the sample.
28. Diffusion Juice* From each measuring tank full
of juice 50 CC are taken and placed in a bucket to make up
the sample for analysis. In warm countries there is danger
of fermentation if the sample stands too long. The addi-
tion of definite volumes of lead acetate, or common salt, or
carbolic acid, are sometimes recommended to prevent this
fermentation. None of these are satisfactory, as no accu-
rate correction can be made, either for the influence of the
foreign matter on the brix or on the polariscope reading.
The best method is to empty the sample and make the
analysis before it has had time to ferment. The juice will
keep longer if the bucket is uncovered. Analyze by
either the pipette or volumetric method and make purity.
The same precaution as in beet analysis must be observed
in regard to the use of too little or too much lead.
29. Lime Cakes* There are two methods employed
for determining the per cent, of sugar remaining in lime
cakes, the water
test and the acetic
acid test. Samples
are usually taken
from several filter
presses and mixed
together as one
sample. When the
cake is hard and
30. firm a sample taken
from any part of the press is an average of the whole press.
Theoretically in center-feed presses there is more sugar
INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. 65
contained in the outer edges of the cake than nearer the
center, and the opposite is theoretically true in side-feed
presses. When a sample is taken it should be kept covered
until analyzed to prevent evaporation of the water. Fig. 30
is the most convenient scale for weighing.
(a) Water Test. Weigh out 25^ r * of the cake taking
a small portion from each sample. Put in a shallow porce-
lain mortar (F 12 or Fig. 31,)
add about 15 CC of hot water and
mix thoroughly. Transfer to a
100 CC flask, washing the mortar
with about 75 CC of water. Add
2 or 3 CC of lead acetate and heat
slowly to about 95C. Cool,
make up to 100 CC , filter and Fi S 81 -
polarize. The reading is the
percent, sugar contained.
(b) Acid Test. Weigh out 25* r as above. Transfer
to a porcelain mortar and add enough water to make a thick
paste, using a pestle to thoroughly dissolve the lumps. Neu-
tralize with acetic acid, using phenol as an indicator. Add
the acid carefully to prevent foaming over. Pour into a
If normal weight were made up to lOOcc the dilution would be insufficient
on account of the insoluble matter in the lime-cakes. The amount of the insol-
uble matter varies with the condition of the cake, but for normal weight of good
hard cake is taken as 4cc. Hence the dilution is up to only 96cc instead of lOOcc.
By taking 25gr (96 per cent, of normal weight) an allowance is made for the in-
soluble matter and precipitate. It could also be accomplished by making
normal weight up to 104. 2cc.
66 INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES.
100 CC flask, add a few cc of lead acetate and make up to the
mark with water. Then filter and read, the reading being
the per cent, sugar contained.
30. Thin Juices of all kinds may be tested by either
the volumetric or the pipette method. In factories using
the Steffens' process there is a hydrate juice which contains
a great deal of lime. It should be neutralized with car-
bonic acid gas and filtered before being analyzed. If gas
used in the factory is employed for neutralizing, it should
pass through some condensing chamber which will free it
from water. The juice may be neutralized in a glass
cylinder, phenol being used as an indicator. In analyzing
thin juices, after the addition of lead acetate, make up to
the mark, shake well and let stand about five minutes.
31. Sweet Waters are tested in the same way as thin
juices, and when distinctly alkaline are neutralized by car-
bonic acid gas and filtered before analyzing, as in 3O. The
volumetric method is generally employed in analysis of
sweet waters on account of their low sugar content, a
100-1 10 CC flask being used.
32. Thick Juice is usually tested for its apparent pur-
ity and purity by weight. For the apparent purity take a
large tumbler half full of the juice and dilute by the addi-
tion of water. When in thorough solution transfer to a
glass cylinder and make the pipette test, or analyze by vol-
ume. For the purity by weight use normal weight and
transfer to a 100 CC flask. It is best to mix the juice thor-
oughly with water in the scoop, as it can be poured more
easily into the flask and can be cleared more readily with
lead acetate. After precipitating the impurities, fill to the
mark, shake well, and let stand about 10 minutes. Divide
INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. 67
the polariscope reading by the brix obtained by pycnometer
method to find the purity by weight.
33. Syrups. Samples may be taken from a tank or
from the trough leading away from the centrifugal
machines, but should never be taken directly from the
spout of a machine, except in very special cases. In case
the latter is necessary care should be taken to get a fair
sample. There are often drops of almost pure sugar on the
end of the spout ; avoid them. Mix every sample thor-
oughly with the hand before it is analyzed. No instru-
ment is equal to the fingers in mixing the tiny grains of
sugar with the rest of the sample.
Syrups are tested for apparent purity or for purity by
weight and real purity. For apparent purity use a large
tumbler ; fill about one-third full with the syrup and dilute
with water. Dissolve the syrup as much as possible by
stirring. I,et stand for a minute, pour off the fluid at the
top into a glass cylinder and add more water to the tumb-
ler. Completely dissolve the remainder of the syrup and
transfer to the cylinder, washing the tumbler perfectly clean
and adding the washings to the cylinder. In this opera-
tion care should be taken to not spill any of the solution
from the time the syrup is put in the tumbler until the solu-
tion has been well shaken in the cylinder. The solution should
brix from about 18 to 20. Apparent purity may be made
volumetrically or by pipette. For purity by weight all the
air must be driven from the sample to be analyzed. This
is effected most easily by the apparatus shown in F 26. A
glass funnel (sugar size) with a stick fitting water-tight in
the stem is placed in a common tin can half filled with water.
The stem of the funnel should be about half an inch above
the top of the water. Fill the funnel nearly full of the
68 INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES.
syrup to be analyzed and place the can over a burner or
stove, letting the water heat without boiling until all the air
in the syrup has been driven to the top. A funnel with a
ground glass stop cock may also be used. Cool to normal
temperature. The funnel can now be placed in the ring of
an iron lamp-stand and the syrup will flow from the stem
by raising the stick. Discard the first 5 CC as it may con-
tain a small amount of water from the bottom of the stick
and the stem of the funnel. Let that which follows flow
into a pycnometer, and when a sufficient amount has been
obtained stop the flow by shutting down the stick. De-
termine the brix by comparison with the sp. g. obtained by
the pycnometer. After the specific gravity has been taken
the syrup in the pycnometer can be used for weighing to
obtain the per cent, sugar. Weigh out normal weight,
dilute with water and make a solution in the scoop ; trans-
fer to a 100 CC flask, washing out the scoop thoroughly.
After clearing with lead acetate, fill to the mark, and
let stand for about ten minutes. For the real purity de-
termine the dry substance, as in 2c, and make the sugar by
weight as above dividing the per cent, sugar by the per
cent, dry substance.
34. (a) Massecuites and Sugars are tested for appar-
ent purity and real purity. In either case take the sample
in a small pan and mix thoroughly with the hand, being
careful to crush all the lumps. The " tryer" is used when
possible in taking samples. This instrument resembles the
half of an inch steel pipe cut longitudinally and sharpened
at the end. Insert the " tryer " in the massecuite or sugar
to be sampled, rotate it completely, and withdraw. In cold
weather sample cans brought in should be allowed to attain
the temperature of the room (WIECHMANN). For the
INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. 69
apparent purity a solution must be made in the same way
as syrups. Dissolve every grain of sugar in the tumbler
before transferring to the cylinder. Massecuite dissolves
very much more readily in hot than in cold water and in
laboratories where ice is obtainable the quickest method is
to dissolve the sample in boiling water and then cool to
normal temperature with ice. This is particularly valuable
in testing samples taken from the vacuum pan to see if the
strike is ready to be dropped. Make the apparent purity
by volumetric method or pipette test. For the real purity
make the dry substance (2c) and determine the sugar by
weight. Use normal weight and dissolve as much as possi-
ble in the scoop with hot water. Pour the fluid, but no
grains of sugar, into a 100 CC flask and add more warm
water to the scoop. Dissolve the remaining grains and
wash into the flask. A glass rod flattened out at one end
should be used in effecting this solution. Cool to normal
temperature, clear with lead acetate and make up to the
mark. Shake well and let stand several minutes (about 6
or 8.) Filter and read, dividing the reading by the per
cent, of dry substance to find the real purity.
() The Full Analysis of massecuites usually comprises
the folowing :
Apparent purity.
Real purity.
Per cent, sugar.
Per cent, water.
Percent, mineral matter (ash.)
Per cent, organic matter.
The first three are found according to the above para-
graph, and the water is 100 the dry substance. To find
the ash weigh about 3 gr in a tared platinum dish and add
about 20 drops of sulphuric acid. This is done to make
70 INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES.
the massecuite yield sulphate salts instead of carbon salts
as the latter burn away and the former do not. Burn the
massecuite until it gives a white ash. Heat gradually at
first to prevent the substance from rising suddenly and
going over the sides, but as soon as the water has been
driven off, burn over an exceedingly hot flame. After
burning, cool in a dessicator and weigh. The weight of
the ash divided by the weight of the massecuite used will
give the per cent, of the ash. The addition of the sulphuric
acid causes an error, making the ash weigh more than it
would if the natural carbon salts were present. This error
is generally accepted to be 10 per cent, and is so figured.
Example :
Weight of dish and massecuite 18.615 gr.
Weight of dish 15.597 gr.
Weight of massecuite used 3.018 gr.
Weight of ash and dish 15.763 gr.
Weight of dish 15.597 gr.
Weight of ash 166 gr.
Ten per cent, for sulphuric acid error 017 gr.
Correct weight of ash 149 gr.
.149 r- 3.018 = .049 = 4.9 per cent, of ash.
The organic matter of a massecuite is 100 less the sum
of the per cent, sugar, the per cent, water and the per cent,
ash.
Example :
Total in massecuite 100.00 per cent.
Sugar 80.6 per cent.
Water 9.45
Ash.. . 4.9 " 94.95
Organic matter , 5.05
INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. 71
The following are two results obtained from average
pans in two American factories :
Apparent purity . . 85.3 82.9
Real purity 88.9 85.4
Per cent, sugar 80.5 78.2
Per cent, water 9.05 8 5
Per cent, ash 4.5 6.6
Per cent, organic matter 5.95 6.7
CHAPTER IV.
LIME, ALKALINITIE8 AND SATURATION GAS.
35. (a) Lime is analyzed for its percentage of CaO.
Weigh out one gr. of a finely powdered average sample,
transfer to a porcelain dish and neutralize with a normal
acid. Either Nitric, Sulphuric or Hydrochloric acid may
be used in a normal solution, but the latter has been gener-
ally adopted by the American beet sugar factories. Take
the acid from a burette graduated to 1-10 of a cubic centi-
meter. Use a few drops of phenol as an indicator and add
the acid slowly until the red color is gone. Note the read-
ing of the burette before the test is begun and after the
powder has been completely neutralized. The difference
between the two readings gives the number of cc of acid
necessary to effect neutralization. Multiply this number
by .028* to find the per cent, of CaO in the lime. Table
VII. saves the operation of multiplication,
Example :
Reading of burette before neutralizing 35.6
Reading of burette at beginning 8.9
Number of cc of acid used 26.7
26 7 x .028 = .7476 = 74.76, the per cent. CaO in the lime.
*One cc of a normal acid neutralizes .028?r of CaO. To illustrate, the action of
normal HC1 will be described : In neutralizing the lime the chlorine in the acid
combines with the calcium in the lime to make calcium chloride, and the hydro-
gen in the acid combines with the oxygen in the lime to make water. Two parts
of acid must be used. The formula is :
CaO -r- 2HC1 = CaCl 2 4- H 2 O.
The atomic weight of CaO is 55.87 CCa = 39 91 and O = 15.96) and the atomic
weight of 2HC1 is 72.74 (2H = 2 and 2C1 = 70.74.) Therefore, it takes 72.74 parts
by weight of HCl to combine with 55.87 parts of CaO. In normal acid there are
36.37 parts of HCl in 1,000, or .03(537 gr in Ice. As HCl combines with CaO in the
proportion of 72.74 to 55 87 to find how much CaO Ice of normal acid will neutral-
ize, we have this equation.
72.74 : 55.87 :: .3637 gr : x.
xis .028gr.
Therefore, as in the example, if it takes 26.7cc of acid to combine with the
CaO in Igr of lime, multiplying by .028 gives the weight of CaO which has com-
bined with the acid. In this case it is .7476gr, which is 74.76 per cent of the Igr
of lime used. The action of normal sulphuric acid and normal nitric acid may
be figured out in a similar manner.
LIME, ALKAUNITIES AND SATURATION GAS. 73
H. RIECKES has proposed a test for finding the "availa-
ble lime " or lime that will go into solution with sugar, the
test being particularly applicable to the Steffens' process.
It is made by weighing out a certain amount and dissolving
with water and sugar solution. The amount used is pref-
erably l gr of lime for every 100^ of water and sugar solu-
tion. Weigh, for example, 3 gr of a finely powdered
average sample, and dissolve as much as possible in the
scoop, adding sugar solution to assist the operation. No
prescribed amount of sugar solution is necessary but about
80 or 90 CC of a solution of 50 brix should be used in a 300 CC
test. As fast as any appreciable amount is dissolved, pour
into a 300 CC flask, and repeat this until all the lime possible
has been dissolved ; then wash the remaining particles into
the flask. Fill to the mark with water and shake well.
Filter 100 CC and neutralize with normal acid, using phenol
as an indicator. Multiply the number of cc of acid used by
.028, as in the above paragraph, to find the percentage of
"available lime." The results from this test have not
proved to be reliable thus far, often being from 5 to 10 per
cent, less than determinations of the same samples by direct
titration of the powder. However, the test has a certain
value in Steffens' work. It should always be made at as
low a temperature as possible, and always at the same tem-
perature with sufficient sugar solution. For testing CaO
in saccharate the results are good.
(&} Milk of Lime is tested only for CaO and density.
The CaO is found by neutralizing l gr with normal acid as in
(a). Shake well and find the density with a Brix or a
Beaume hydrometer.
(f) The Slacking Tests of lime are g^iven in If 39.
74
LIME, AIKAUNITIES AND SATURATION GAS.
71
36. Alkalinities. In beet sugar making the alkalinity
of juices is nearly always figured as lime, although it is
partly ammonia, and sodium and potassium compounds. It
is usual in testing alkalinities to have a special acid of
which l cc will neutralize .0020^ of lime, so that if 20 CC of a
juice is used every cc of acid necessary to neutralize it ,/^
will show 1-100 of 1 per cent, alkalinity. The special acid
is made by adding 570 CC of a normal acid to 7430 CC of water.
To explain, take the special Hydrochloric acid as an ex-
ample. Every cc of this acid contains .00259* r of HC1, and
as it combines with lime in the propor-
tion of 72.74 to 55.87 each cc will neu-
tralize .0020* r of lime (see 35a ).
Therefore, when 20 cc of a juice is taken
every cc of acid combines with .0001 gr of
lime in each cc of juice, and the number
of cc of acid used show, the number of
hundredths of 1 per cent, lime in the sam-
ple. If, for example, 20 CC of a juice is neu-
tralized by 5 CC of acid, it has an alkalinity
of 5-100 of 1 per cent. This is usually
written .05 and is called an alkalinity of
5. In analyzing measure off 20 CC of the
sample (a tin cup F 36 holding 20 CC
may be used for this,} and transfer to a
porcelain dish. Use phenol as an indi-
cator and neutralize by the addition of
the special acid described above. A
burette graduated to 1-10 of a cc should
be used for measuring the acid. There
are several forms of apparatus for filling the burettes used
in alkalinity determinations, one of which is shown in F
35 and another in Fjg. 32. The burette is usually of 10 CC
Fig. 32.
I.IME, ALKAL1NITIES
75
fT
"S
capacity, and the apparatus has a siphon arrangement by
which the burette is always filled exactly to the zero mark.
A form of apparatus which can be easily
made in any laboratory and which is
preferred by many chemists is shown in
Fig. 33.
The juices sampled for alkalinities
are usually taken from a filter press after
the first carbonation, a press after the
second carbonation, a Daneck or me-
chanical filter after the sulphuring pro-
cess, the last effect in the evaporation,
and a filter after treatment of thick juice.
A 4-oz. bottle with a wooden handle
attached (F 14) is convenient for taking
the samples. They are transferred to
test-tubes in a -rack, as shown in F 5.
Each test-tube should be first rinsed
with the juice sampled. The sample
from a filter press should be taken when
the press is running at full force, and
not when it is either first opened or
nearly filled.
- 33 '
37. CO 2 in Saturation Gas. Carbonic acid is readily
absorbed by water containing either caustic soda or caustic
potassium, and it is usual in laboratories to have an appa-
ratus constructed on this principle for testing the per cent.
of CO 2 in saturation gas. A form of this apparatus is
shown in ml. There are others of different construction,
but so made that 100 CC of water are displaced by the gas to
be tested, the gas then being forced thiough a reservoir
filled with a solution of caustic soda. The gas which
76 LIME, AI^KALINITIES AND SATURATION GAS.
passes through meets a tube bearing a scale divided in cubic
centimeters and containing 100 CC of water. As much of
this water is displaced as there are cc of gas
passing through the reservoir. The amount of
water remaining in the tube is of the same volume
as the gas which was combined with the caustic
soda, hence the number of cc remaining shows
the percentage of CO 2 in the gas.
As a control for the apparatus, tests should be
made at least once every day with a burette, as
follows : Use a graduated 100 CC burette with a
ground glass stop-cock (Fig. 34). Attach it to a rub-
ber tube connected with the gas pipe, leaving the
open end in cold water. Let the gas pass
through the burette for two or three minutes, then
close the stop-cock and disconnect the rubber
tube. Raise the burette until the zero mark is
even with the top of the water and open the
stop-cock just long enough to allow the water to
come up to the mark. There are now exactly
100 CC of gas in the burette. Insert a piece of
caustic soda (stick) about half an inch long, in
the open end, keeping it under water. Then close
this end with the thumb or index finger and turn
the burette upside down several times, letting the
soda go from one end to the other. Replace the
end of the burette in water and by taking away
the finger, water will rise in the burette to take the
place of CO 2 that has been absorbed by the caustic
soda. Repeat the above operation until the water
ceases to rise in the burette. The number of cc of
water now in the burette will show the percentage
of carbonic acid absorbed, which is the percentage Fig. 34.
LIME, ALKAUNITIES AND SATURATION GAS. 77
of CO 2 in the gas tested. In determining the amount of
water in the burette it is best to place the instrument
deeply enough in water so that the surface of the water
in the vessel used is even with the water in the burette.
This prevents the weight of water in the burette from
affecting its reading.
CHAPTER V.
8TEFFEN& PROCESS ANALYSES.
38. (a) Saccharate of Lime is of two kinds, hot and
cold, and each is tested for sugar, purity and CaO. To de-
termine the sugar, weigh out I3.024 gr . Neutralize in the
scoop with acetic acid, using phenol as an indicator. Dis-
solve the saccharate thoroughly and pour the contents of
the scoop into a 100 CC flask. Cool to normal temperature,
add sufficient lead acetate, and make up to the mark with
water. Filter and read in the polariscope, multiplying the
reading by two to find the per cent, sugar.
(&) To Find the Purity of a saccharate, mix the sample
with water. Use about 1 kilo, of saccharate and dilute to
about 15 or 20 brix. Neutralize with carbonic acid
gas and filter. Evaporate the filtrate to 30 or 40 brix and
filter again. Find the brix by pycnometer and determine
the sugar by weight, using 26.048 gr . Divide the sugar by
the brix for the purity. If the purity of a solution that
has a high alkalinity is made without neutralizing, multiply
the alkalinity by 3 and subtract from the brix. However,
nearly every chemist prefers to have the solution neutral.
(c) CaO in Saccharate is found according to the Rieckes'
method for "available CaO " in lime (35a). For the cold
saccharate use 3 gr in 300 CC of water and sugar solution, but
as the hot saccharate dissolves much more readily 4 or 5 2r
of it may be used in 300 CC . In the latter case if 5 gr are
used the result must be divided by 1.666, for there are that
many gr of saccharale in the 100 CC used for the test.
39. Lime Powder is tested for CaO and grit, and occa-
sionally a slacking test is made. The CaO is found
STEFFENS' PROCESS ANALYSES. 79
according to 35a- The grit is the lime that will not
pass through the sieves used in the process. These sieves
are usually of 120 mesh, but whatever size is used must be
taken for the laboratory test. Weigh out 20* r of the pow-
der and transfer to a perfectly clean sieve. Sift out as much
as possible, being careful that none is lost over the top.
Weigh that remaining and multiply by 5 to determine the
percent, of grit. This is the same as dividing by 20 and
multiplying by 100, which is the theoretically correct way.
Example :
Weight of lime used 20.0 gr.
Weight remaining in sieve 6.5 gr.
6.5 -i- 20 = .325. .325 x 100 = 32.5 per cent. grit.
or
6.5 x 5 = 32.5 per cent. grit.
The slacking test of BAUR and PORTIUS is made as fol-
lows : Weigh out 20 gr of the powder and transfer to a
beaker. Fill a 100 CC flask to the mark with water and note
its temperature. Quickly pour the water over the lime in
the beaker and stir with a centigrade thermometer. Take
the temperature 15 seconds after starting, again in 15
seconds, and then in 30 seconds, noting it at the end of each
minute thereafter until the temperature begins to go down.
Example :
Temp, at start
..18
After 8 min ,
35
After 15 sec
. .19
ii 9 " .
36
" 30 " .
21
" 10 *' .
37
" 1 min.
23
" 11 "
37 V*
u 2 "
255^
I ( J-> C <
38
" 3 " .
27 y>
<c 13 |C .
38^
" 4 " .
29
" 14 " .
39
" 5 " .
31
" 15 " .
39
" 6 "
" 16 "...
38^
7 " .
..34
" 17 " .
..38
80 STEFFENS' PROCESS ANALYSES.
The object of the slacking test is to see how long it
takes the lime to slack after the addition of water. A so-
lution of molasses is substituted for the water when it is
desired to learn the length of time required for slacking in
the coolers, and the test is carried out the same as with
water. The syrup solution should be of the same density
as that regularly used in the StefTens' process.
40. O) Waste Waters. Cold Waste Water is tested
for density and sugar. It is not necessary to figure out the
purity. The sample is put in a small test-tube with a foot
(1) and the density taken with the 5-9 brix spindle de-
scribed in 2b. A correction is made for temperature and
is usually a subtractive one. Half normal weight is
weighed out or if there is sufficient fluid, normal weight is
taken, and is washed from the scoop into a 100 CC flask.
Two or three drops of phenol are added and neutralization
is effected with acetic acid. Use only enough acid to make
the sample neutral, or very slightly acid, and if by acci-
dent too much is added, use enough sodium carbonate solu-
tion to bring the fluid back to nearly the neutral point.
Clear with lead acetate if necessary, make up to the mark,
filter and polarize. If half normal weight is used, multi-
ply the reading by 2.
() Hot Waste Water may be made by the pipette
method or by weight, using double normal weight. In
either case neutralize with acetic acid, as in the above par-
agraph. Only the brix and per cent, sugar are recorded.
41. Molasses Saccharate is usually tested only for
CaO, which is found by neutralizing 10 CC with a normal
acid. Multiply the number of cc of acid used by 10 and by
028 for the per cent.
STEFFENS' PROCESS ANALYSES. 8 1
42. Molasses Solution. The purity is made by
pipette or volumetrically. If alkaline, neutralize as in 3O,
filter, and make the purity of the filtrate.
43. Saccharate Milk is tested for per cent, sugar,
density, and CaO. The sugar is found according to 38a,
the density is taken with a brix spindle, and the CaO is
found by neutralizing 10 CC with normal acid, as in 41.
OF THB
UNIVERSITY
CHAPTER VI.
INVERT SUGAR AND RAFFINOSE*.
44. The Correct Percentage of Sucrose cannot be de-
termined by means of the polariscope when any other sugar
is present, such as raffinose, dextrose or laevulose, and
whenever the presence of any of these is suspected, an
analysis must be made by the inversion method given be-
low. If the polarization before and after inversion is
equal, only sucrose is present, but if it is either higher or
lower after inversion than it was before, other sugars are
contained. If higher, test for invert sugar, and if lower,
test for raffinose. The other sugars need not be considered
in beet work, dextrose or laevulose, when present being
combined as invert sugar.
To invert the substance to be analyzed weigh out half
normal weight and transfer to a 100 CC flask, washing out
the scoop with about 75 CC of water. After complete disso-
lution add with a pipette 5 CC of hydrochloric acid of 1.188
sp. g. (at 15C). Put the flask immediately into a water
bath heated to 70, and leave for exactly 10 minutes, mov-
ing occasionally. During this time the water must be kept
at a temperature of from 67 to 70. At the expiration of
the ten minutes cool the fluid quickly to 20 by setting the
flask in cold water. Then fill to the 100 CC mark with water,
shake well and filter. Clearing by lead acetate is not ad-
missable, as it effects the turning of invert sugar considera-
bly. If the solution is dark add about half a gramme of
bone dust to the flask before filtering.
45. Sucrose in the Presence of Invert Sugar. Po-
larize the substance in the usual way, using a polarization
* TT1T 45 and 46 adapted from Fruhling and Schulz.
INVERT SUGAR AND RAFFINOSE. 83
tube having a water jacket and introduced thermometer,*
(F 42) noting the temperature at which the polarization is
made. Then polarize the substance after inversion, as
above described, at the same temperature as the original
substance was polarized. The polarization, after inversion,
must be multiplied by 2, as only half normal weight is
used. From both polarization figures, by means of a
formula, is found the percentage of sucrose in the sample
tested. This formula expresses only the optical action of
the sucrose, as the inversion does not change either dex-
trose or invert sugar. It has been determined that a pure
cane sugar solution which polarizes 100 at 0C in the
200 mm tube of the apparatus with Ventzke's scale (13.024* r
to 100 CC ), revolves 42.66, so that the entire diminishing of
revolution (at 0C) amounts to 142.66. If the observation
is not made at 0C, but at a higher temperature, there oc-
curs, owing to a peculiar property of the invert sugar, a
corresponding lessening of revolution, a diminishing of 0.5
for 1C increase in temperature. Upon this observation is
based the above-mentioned formula, named after Clerget.
L,et S represent the whole diminishing of revolution before
and after inversion, T the temperature (in Centigrade de-
grees), which the inverted solution shows at the polariza-
tion, and Z, the true contents of cane sugar, can be found
according to the following formula :
- 100 x S
142. (56 (.5 x T)
Example I : A sample of syrup polarizes before inver-
sion 14.8, and after inversion 12.7. The latter polariza-
tion must be doubled on account of using half-normal
* This thermometer should be graduated in 1-10 degrees, Centigrade.
8 4
INVERT SUGAR AND RAFFINOSE.
weight so that the entire diminishing of revolution S is
14.8 + (2 x 12.7) = 40.2. The temperature at both polari-
zations was 19. Therefore,
100 x 40.2 4020
z =.
30.2
142.66 (.5x19; 133.16
Example II : A mixture of cane sugar and starch
syrup polarizes + 71.4 before inversion, and after inversion
-f 8.4. Doubling the latter quality, the diminishing of rev-
clution S is 71.4 16.8 =54.6. The temperature is 18.
Therefore,
100 x 54.6
5460
40.85
142.66 (.5 x 18) 133.66
Using Table A, the percentage of cane sugar can be
found by multiplying the diminishing of revolution by the
factor corresponding to the temperature at which the test
was made.
TABLE A.
Temp. C.
Factor.
Temp. C.
Factor.
Temp. C.
Factor.
10
0.7257
17o
0.7454
24o
0.7653
11
. 7291
18
0.7482
25
. 7683
12
0.7317
19
. 7510
26
0.7712
13
. 7344
20
0.7538
27
. 7742
14
0.7371
21
. 7567
28
0.7772
IS
0.7397
22
0.7595
29
. 7802
16
. 7426
23
0.7624
30
. 7833
The use of the table may be illustrated by the two ex-
amples given above.
In Example I. the total diminishing of revolution is 40.2
and the temperature is 19. Therefore, 40.2 x .7510 = 30.19
or 30.2, the cane sugar.
In Example II. 54.6 is multiplied by .7482, giving a re-
sult of. 40.85.
INVERT SUGAR AND RAFFINOSK. 85
46. Sucrose in the Presence of Raf finosc. The
analysis follows exactly the directions given in the above
paragraph, with the exception that the observation of the
inverted fluid must always take place at 20C. The form-
ula is also different, as it must consider, besides the differ-
ence in the optical relation of cane sugar, also that of the
raffinose, the revolution to the right of which goes back
considerably through inversion. The formula based upon
the above-mentioned ratio of figures at the inversion of
cane sugar, as well as upon the polarization of pure crys-
tallized raffinose (13.034* to lOCT) before inversion
(4- 157.15) and alter inversion (+ 80.53) at 20C is as fol-
lows :
z (0.5124 xP) J
0.839
wherein Z represents the contents of cane sugar, P the po-
larization of the substance before inversion, and J the
polarization of the inverted solution, doubled on account
of the use of half normal weight. As this formula is reck-
oned only for the temperature of 20C, the expression T is
omitted.
Example : The after-product of a refinery polarized be-
fore inversion r 94.5 and after inversion r 13.8 (at 20C.)
From these figures a cane sugar content of 90.6 is calcu-
lated according to the above formula.
(.5124x94.5)4(2x13.8) 78.0218
LI = i = = yu.o
.8-39 .839
47. The Percentage of Raffinose is found by sub-
tracting the true contents of cane sugar from the polariz-
ation before inversion, and dividing by 1.852. In the ex-
ample in the above paragraph
94.5 90.6 = 3.9.
394 1.852 = 2.1 per cent, raffinose.
86 INVERT SUGAR AND RAFFINOSE.
48. Invert Sugar is determined by the use of the
mixed Fehling's solutiou described iti 141. The execu-
tion of the test is as follows :
Weigh out a definite amount of the syrup or massecuite,
dissolve and make up to 100 CC . The amount weighed out
depends upon how much invert sugar is in the sample? but
it should be some multiple of five gr. to make an easy cal-
culation, and should be sufficient to give a burette read-
ing of from 15 to 20 CC in the operations which follow. The
diluted sample is placed in a burette graduated in 1.10 CC .
In a porcelain casserole put 10 CC of the mixed Fehling's
solution and add 30 CC of distilled water. Heat to boiling,
add a portion of the solution to be tested and boil two
minutes. Repeat this, adding the solution very slowly at
the last, until the blue color of the fluid has apparently
disappeared. Pour 3 or 4 CC of the hot fluid on a small
filter, and test the filtrate for copper by adding a few drops
of potassium ferrocyanide (solution of 20 gr to 1 liter,) after
acidifying with a few drops of a 10 per cent, solution of
acetic acid. If a brownish-red color shows, add 2 CC of the
sugar solution to the copper fluid and boil again, repeating
the ferrocyanide test. Continue this until the point is
reached when there is no further reaction of copper. The
reading of the burette is then observed to see how many
cc of the sugar solution were necessary for the reduction
of the copper. The test should always be repeated to in-
sure accuracy. The calculation of the invert sugar is as
follows :
The value of the Fehling solution must be known, i. e.
how much invert sugar is necessary to reduce 10 CC of the
solution. For this purpose add to 9.5 grammes of chemi-
cally pure sugar in a 100 CC flask, 5 CC of hydrochloric acid
INVERT SUGAR AND RAFFINOSE. 87
and invert according to the directions in 44. Make up
to the mark and the flask contains 10 gr of invert sugar.
Making 20 CC of this (2& r of invert sugar) up to 1 liter and
neutralizing with sufficient sodium carbonate to turn a
piece of litmus paper blue, gives a solution in which every
cc contains 0.002s r of invert sugar. Making the test as
above described it is tound how many 7 cubic centimeters of
this solution correspond to the 10 CC of copper solution. For
example, if 25.6 CC of the solution are used, it takes 25.6 x
.002 = 0.051 2 r of invert sugar to reduce 10 CC of the Feh-
ling solution. This 0.0512 is the factor F in the formula
given below, but any other factor may be obtained in the
same way :
.002 x number of cc of standard solution used = F.
From this the percentage of invert sugar is obtainable by the
formula
100 F
X Y
in which X represents the number of cc of unknown sugar solution
required to precipitate the copper from 10 CC of Fehling solution and
Y equals the weight of the material tested in each l cc of the
w solution.
Example :
5s r of massecuite are dissolved in 100 CC of water, hence
Y =0.05gr
Let 18.5 represent the number of cc of the solution tested
which are necessary to reduce the copper solution. Then
X= 18.5.
Let 0.0512 represent the factor F, obtained as above described.
According to the formula,
100 *.Q51 2== ill - 5.53, per cent, invert sugar.
18.5 x .05 .925 *
49. Soxhlet's Exact Method, as used by the ASSO-
CIATION of OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTS is as
follows :
88 INVERT SUGAR AND RAFFINOSE-
A preliminary titration is made to determine the ap-
proximate percentage of reducing sugar in the material
under examination. A solution is prepared which contains
approximately 1 per cent, of reducing sugar. Place in a
beaker 100 CC of the mixed copper reagent and approxi-
mately the amount of the sugar solution for its complete
reduction. Boil for two minutes. Filter through a folded
filter and test a portion of the filtrate for copper by use of
acetic acid and potassium ferrocyanide. Repeat the test,
varying the volume of sugar solution, until two successive
amounts of sugar solution are found which differ by O.l cc ,
one giving complete reduction and the other leaving a small
amount of copper in solution. The mean of these two
readings is taken as the volume of the solution required for
the complete precipitation of 100 CC of the copper reagent.
Under these conditions 100 CC of the mixed copper rea-
gent require 0.475 gram of anhydrous dextrose, or 0.494
gram of invert sugar, for complete reduction. The per-
centage is calculated by the following formula :
W = the weight of the sample in 1<* of the sugar solution ;
V = the volume of the sugar solution required for the complete
reduction of 100 CC of the copper reagent.
Then 10 x 475 = per cent, of dextrose,
or : . = per cent, of invert sugar.
PART II.
ANALYSIS or SUPPLIES
AND OTHER
CHEMICAL WORK.
CHAPTER VII.
APPARATUS FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
5O. The Apparatus used in the chemical analysis in
beet sugar work is the same that is found in nearly all
analytical laboratories, hence only a short description will
be given of the apparatus most necessary, with a few sug-
gestions as to their use.
Beakers are preferably of the Griffin form,
with lip, shown in Fig. 35. The sizes which
will be most often used are the 5 and the 8
ounce, and the 10, 12 and 15 ounce are occa-
sionally used. The larger sizes 30 and 40
ounce are often serviceable for mixing v -^
solutions. The conical assay flask Fig. 35.
(Fig. 36) of 4 oz. capacity is the best
form for dissolving metals or stones with acids,
as in the limestone analysis.
Glass Rods tipped with rubber are used for
stirring and for pouring precipitated solutions on
filter paper as in Fig. 37. Tallow is rubbed with the
greased finger under the lip of the beaker before this opera-
tion. Rods % inch in diameter are of the best size. For
cleaning residues from platinum or porcelain dishes, a glass
rod bent at right angles about half an inch from one end,
and covered with a short piece of rubber tubing may be
used.
Funnels used in chemical analysis are from 1 to 2^
inches in diameter, the 2-inch size being the one most gen-
erally needed. They should have long stems and should
be on an angle of 60. In filtering, the stem of the funnel
APPARATUS FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
should be placed against the side
of the beaker receiving the fil-
trate to prevent splattering of
the fluid.
Filter Paper should be of the
Swedish quality. It leaves the
least ash of any filter paper
known, and in the analyses out-
lined in the following chapters,
no account is taken of the weight
of the ash of the filter paper
after incineration, as it is insig-
nificant except in the most deli-
cate determinations. The paper
should be cut round and of such
size that it will be about half
filled with the precipitate. In
all cases, except those specially
noted, the filter paper should be
Fig. 38.
Fig. 37.
fitted on the funnel and moist-
ened with distilled water. One
of the principal sources of error
in analysis is that precipitates
are not thoroughly washed. In
nearly all cases it is better to
wash the precipitate by de-
cantation as described in 59.
After the precipitate is on
the filter, it should be washed
with distilled water until no trace
of solid matter is given in the
filtrate. This is tested by letting
APPARATUS FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
a drop from the stem of the funnel fall upon the perfectly
clean surface of a small piece of platinum foil or crucible
cover. Dry, and if a residue remains, the precipitate has
been thoroughly washed. Wash again and repeat the test
until no residue remains. Another method is described in
the paragraph above cited (59) by testing with silver
nitrate, and can be used in many instances in sugar labor-
atories, as solutions often contain hydrochloric acid or
chlorine in some other form. After filtering, the funnel
containing the precipitate is placed in a drying oven (Fig.
38) the funnel being covered with a moistened piece of
filter paper turned down over the rim to keep out dust.
Dessicators are for the puipose of keeping hot sub-
stances from absorbing
moisture while cooling, and
for carrying them to the
balance. A good form is
shown in Fig. 39. The
bottom is filled with fused
calcium chloride to keep
the air dry. The lid and
the part of the dessicator
where it joins are ground, and tallow is used to make the
apparatus air-tight.
Crucibles and Dishes for incinerating should be of
platinum, but in some analyses porcelain is to be used.
Sapolio is one of the best agents for cleaning dishes and
crucibles of all kinds. After a magnesium precipitate is
burned with nitric acid (58) the crucible should be partly
filled with concentrated hydrochloric acid and allowed to
stand until the precipitate is loosened or dissolved.
APPARATUS FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS-
93
Lamps and Stoves. Gas burners are to be preferred, of
course, but sugar factories are generally so located that gas
is not obtainable. The gasoline
stove shown in Fig. 40 is to be rec-
ommended, as enough heat can be
generated by it to effect any incin-
eration liable to be made, and the
flame can be lowered when neces-
sary, to give a very moderate heat.
To give a good flame, the reservoir
of the stove should never be filled
more than two-thirds full. Alco-
hol lamps should be used for
evaporating and for heating solu-
tions. The best form has a
Fig- 40. side tubulation for filling.
Coal-oillamp stoves
(F. 33) may be used
in place of the al-
cohol lamps, but
great care must be
taken with them,
on account of the
danger of smoking
and the accumula-
tion of soot. The
blue flame kerosene
stoves of recent in-
vention are excel-
lent for laboratory
use, the only ob-
jection to them be-
ing that they occu-
py too much space.
Fig. 41.
94 APPARATUS FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
Other Apparatus* Evaporation dishes should be of por-
celain as described in 53. Scales and Weights are de-
scribed in 8. Fig. 41 shows the short-arm chemical scale,
which form is generally accepted to be the best. Washing
Bottles for containing alcohol, dilute, acids, etc., should be of
about 300 cc capacity and made as in 9c (see F37). Burettes
are the same as those used in sugar analysis (9d). Pipettes
most used are graduated to 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 CC . They
are tested as described in 4 . Lampstands should be fitted
with two extension rings and an extension clamp, the
rings being of about two and four inches inside diameter.
Water Baths are of copper with a covering of concentric
rings, and should be six or seven inches in diameter.
Crucible Tongs are of various forms, one of the
best being shown in Fig. 42. The tips should be
nickel plated. Graduated Cylinders or the usual
graduates divided into cubic centimeters (F)
may be used for measuring fluids, 250 CC being the
most desirable capacity. Mortars for powdering
lime stone and other samples should be of por-
celain and of the form shown in F 10. The
iron mortar shown in F 11 is also often serviceable. Vol-
umetric Flasks of 500 CC and 1 liter capacity are necessary
for making solutions of known strength. Flasks of 200 CC
or 250 CC capacity are used in many analyses. ALKALIMITERS
and other special apparatus are described under the para-
graphs in which their use is noted.
CHAPTER VIII.
WATER ANALYSIS.
51. Water. The examination of water for use in
beet sugar manufacture is usually confined to the estimation
of carbonic and sulphuric acids, chlorine, silica, iron and
aluminium oxides, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, and
the alkalies, sodium and potassium. As potassium is
usually present in only very minute quantities, as compared
with sodium, it is not necessary, except in very exact
analysis, to determine it separately. The two alkalies are
estimated together and are called sodium, the potassium
not being counted. Nitric acid is present in such small
quantities in water that it its determination is not consid-
ered of importance in sugar work. The analysis as out-
lined above may be called the "actual analysis;" the
"figured analysis " is described in 62.
52. The Sample. About 4 liters of the water should
be taken for analysis. A gallon demijohn is a convenient
vessel for holding the sample. It should be thoroughly
cleaned and well corked and no luting of any kind should
be used on the cork. The sample should be as near an
average as possible, and if taken from a faucet the water
should be allowed to run for a considerable time. In case
of a river, take the sample from the middle of the stream.
Collect the water with a cup or other small vessel, taking
the samples at short intervals until sufficient is obtained for
the large sample.
53. The Mineral Substance. Filter 2 liters of the
water and evaporate to dryness. This is best effected in a
porcelain dish over a direct flame. Do not use a glass ves-
96 WATER ANALYSIS.
sel, as the water attacks it. A dish about 8 inches in di-
ameter, and of the shape shown in Fig. 43, is convenient.
When the water has evaporated to about
50 CC , transfer to a weighted platinum dish
and complete the evaporation on a water
bath. The substance remaining on the
sides of the porcelain dish may be washed
into the platinum dish as fast as the
evaporation makes room. Use a glass rod
tipped with rubber for cleaning the porcelain dish. After
evaporation, place in the drying oven at 105C, until the
last water is driven off. Cool in a dessicator and weigh.
The weight is the total residue and is figured, as in the
whole analysis, on 100,000 parts of water. Ignite slowly
to a dull red heat, until all organic matter is consumed.
This also occasions a loss of constitutional (hydrate) water
and a slight loss by reduction of nitrates. After cooling
and weighing, the amount found to have been burned
away is written lost by combustion. The total residue minus
the amount lost by combustion is called the mineral substance.
Example :
Weight of residue after drying 28.195gr
Weight of platinum dish 26.421g f
Weight of total residue 1.776g r
Weight of residue after drying ... 28. 1 95
Weight of residue after burning 27.957
Weight lost by combustion 238
Weight of total residue 1.776
Weight lost by combustion 238
Weight of mineral substance 1.538
WATER ANALYSIS. 97
These weights are obtained from 2,000 CC and, as the
analysis is figured on 100,000 parts of water, we multiply
by 50, or divide by 2 and multiply by 100, which is an
easier way to figure. This gives a result of
Total residue 88.8 parts in 100,000
Lost by combustion 11.9 "
Mineral substance 76.9 " "
54.* Carbonic Acid which is in combination with
bases is determined by means of an alkalimeter. The
form generally preferred is Geissler's apparatus, a mod-
ification of which is the Peffer alkalimeter shown in
Fig. 44. This apparatus is designed especially for the
determination of carbonic acid (CO 2 , carbon dioxide) in
water, its form being such that the substance used for
the CO 2 test can be easily removed for use in other analy-
ses. Its manipulation is as follows :
Pure hydrochloric acid is introduced into B through
the opening D. Having seen that the cock F is
perfectly tight, both B and I are removed and placed
standing in a beaker, clamps of a lamp-stand, or some
other safe and convenient place. The residue, after
burning away the organic matter (,49), is taken up
with the least amount of water and transferred to the
*WANKLYN measures carbonic acid in water by "taking advantage of the
insolubility of carbonate of lime in the ptesence of lime-water. For this pur-
pose lime-water is prepared by taking slaked lime and shaking it up with dis-
tilled water, and then allowing to settle, and ultimately decanting the clear
supernatent lime-water. One liter of lime-water contains 1.372 gr. of CaO." Use
500cc of the water to be analyzed and mix it with 215cc of the lime-water in a
stoppered vessel. "The mixture is allowed to stand until the precipitate of
CaOCO 2 has settled and the supernatent liquid becomes clear. The liquid is de-
canted and the precipitate placed on a filter, slightly washed, burned in a plati-
num dish or crucible, and finally weighed." This precipitate must be burned as
described in 57 Multiply the resulting weight of calcium carbonate by 2and by
100 to find the amount in 100,000 parts of water, and multiply this by .44 (the fac-
tor) to find the amount of CO 2 .
9 8
WATER ANALYSIS.
flask A, through the opening- H. The substance in the
flask should not be higher than that shown in the illus-
tration to effect an accurate analysis. Replace B and I
in the apparatus and add pure sulphuric acid to I through
the opening E. All the joints should be made air-tight
by the use of a very slight amount of tallow. Wipe off
Fig. 44.
the apparatus thoroughly, dry and weigh carefully, re-
cording the weight. Now open the cock F and allow a
small amount of the HC1 to go into A. Carbonic acid is
freed and passes in C, through I, and out at E, the sul-
WATER ANALYSIS. 99
phuric acid drying- it. As fast as effervesence ceases,
add more of the acid until all the HC1 is in A. Then
carefully heat the bottom of the apparatus until the con-
tents are nearly to boiling- point. This is best done by
fixing- the alkalimeter on a lamp stand and g"ently
moving- the flame to and fro under it. Five minutes'
heating- is usually sufficient. Allow the apparatus to
cool and attach a small rubber tube, about ten inches
long-, to the top of C. Open the cock F and, by aspira-
tion, draw out slowly throug-h the tube any g-as that
may remain in A. Detach the tube, wipe off the alkalim-
eter and weig-h ag-ain. The weight lost is CO 2 .
Example :
Weight of apparatus and contents before operation . . . 75.5478 r
Weight of apparatus and contents after operation 75.383s r
Weight of CO 2 lost 164s r
Dividing by 2 and multiplying by 100 = 8.2, the amount of
CO 2 in 100,000 parts of water.
55. Silica. Transfer the contents of the alkalimeter
to a platinum dish and evaporate to dryness. This coagu-
lates silicic acid that would otherwise go into solution
in the operation which follows. Take up the substance
in the dish with water and a little diluted hydrochloric
acid, and filter into a 200 CC flask. Wash the paper and
residue thoroughly with hot water. The residue may
contain some insoluble iron and aluminum and calcium
sulphate (STILLMAN) but it is nearly all silica (SiO 2 ) and
is dried, burned and weighed as such.
100 WATER ANALYSIS.
Example :
Weight of crucible and residue 11.148gr
Weight of crucible , . 11.090g r
Weight of residue (silica) 058g r
Dividing by 2 and multiplying by 100 = 2.9, the silica.
56. Iron and Aluminum Oxides. The 200 CC flask
containing- the filtrate in 55 is allowed to cool and is then
filled to the mark and well shaken. Transfer 50 CC of
this solution to a beaker and make slig-htly alkaline
with ammonia water. This may be tested by dropping-
a small piece of litmus paper in the fluid. Heat to
nearly boiling- and iron and aluminum oxides will be
precipitated. The use of an excess of ammonia is to be
avoided. Filter and wash with the smallest amount of
hot water necessary. Dry and burn the precipitate as
iron and aluminum oxides.
Example :
Weight of crucible and precipitate 11.095
Weight of crucible . .11.090
Weight of precipitate (Fe 2 O 3 and A1 2 O 3 ) 005
As two liters are represented in the 200 CC filtrate, 50 CC
of it corresponds to 500 CC , hence the weig-ht obtained
above must be multiplied by 2 and by 100, to g-ive the
parts in 100,000 parts water.
.005 x 2 x 100 = 1.0, amount of Fe 2 O 3 and A1 2 O 3 .
57. Calcium Oxide. Make the filtrate in 56 slig-htly
acid by the addition of acetic acid*. Heat to nearly
* Acetic acid is added to prevent the precipitation of any magnesium as mag-
nesium oxalate. Chemists are not agreed as to whether this is necessary, but
the acid does no harm, and may do good.
WATER ANALYSIS. IOI
boiling", and add ammonium oxalate when calcium oxa-
late will be precipitated. Keep the above heat for about
five minutes and then allow to cool. If -the precipitate
subsides immediately it is usually evidence that all the
calcium has been precipitated, but if the supernatent
fluid remains milky for some time, heat again and add
ammonia oxalate. Even if the precipitate subsides
almost immediately, add a slight amount of the
reagent to see if this addition causes a precipitation.
After cooling-, filter and wash with warm very dilute
acetic acid. Wash the precipitate all into the apex of
the filter paper. Dry, and burn as follows : Separate
the precipitate from the filter paper with a clean knife
blade; burn the paper until it gives a white ash, then
lower the flame, add the precipitate to the crucible and
burn at a heat which turns the part of the crucible
nearest the flame to a dull red. In burning-, the calcium
oxalate becomes calcium carbonate,
CaC 2 4 =CaC0 3 + CO (burned away.)
At a hig-h heat the CO 2 would also be driven off, leav-
ing- only calcium oxide (CaO). The precipitate turns
black and when it has become white ag-ain it has been
sufficiently burned. At this point moisten with ammonium
carbonate and heat carefully until all odor of ammonia
is- driven off. This will restore any CO 2 that may have
been burned away. Cool and weig-h as calcium carbo-
nate, multiplying- by .56 to get the weight of calcium
oxide.
Example :
Weight of crucible and precipitate 11.237gr
Weight of crucible 11.0908 r
Weight of precipitate (CaCO 3 ) 147gr
102 WATER ANALYSIS.
As in the above paragraph, multiplying- by 2 and by
100 = 29.4, the calcium carbonate.
29.4 x .56 = 16.464 or 16.46, the calcium oxide.
58. Magnesium Oxide. When the filtrate in 57 is
cool, add to it ammonia water in excess,* and sodium
phosphate. (In very dilute solutions, the addition of 2
or 3 gr of crystallized ammonium chloride will hasten
precipitation.) Let stand (not in a warm place) for 12
hours and magnesium ammonium phosphate will be pre-
cipitated. Filter and wash with the precipitate with a
mixture of strong* ammonia diluted with an equal
amount of water (WANKLYN). Magnesium ammo-
nium phosphate is soluble in water to some extent, and
this is prevented almost entirely by the liberal use of
ammonia. Dry the precipitate and burn. In burning-,
the mag-nesium ammonium phosphate becomes mag-ne-
sium pyrophosphate :
2NH 4 MgPO 4 = 2NH 3 + H 2 O -j- Mg 2 P 2 Or.
The addition of nitric acid to the crucible after burn-
ing- for a little while will make the pyrophosphate yield
a white residue. Cool the crucible before adding- the
acid, and then apply the heat slowly to prevent any loss
of substance. When ig-nition is complete, cool and
weig-h, and multiply by .3602 to find the amount of mag--
nesium oxide.
Example :
Weight of crucible and precipitate ........................ 11.160gr
Weight of crucible ....................................... 11.0908 r
Weight of precipitate (Mg 2 P 2 O 7 )
.07 x 2 x 100 = 14, the magnesium pyrophosphate.
14 x .3602 = 5.04, the magnesium oxide.
* Add ammonia water to about % the amount of the original filtrate.
KlSSBL.
WATER ANALYSIS. 103
59. Sulphuric Acid. Measure off 50 CC of the solution
in 56, and put in a beaker. Heat nearly to boiling-
point and add barium chloride in slight excess. The
precipitate is barium sulphate. Heat for a few minutes
long-er and allow to stand for about three hours in a
warm place. Filter off the supernatent fluid, then add
boiling- water to the precipitate in the beaker and stir
well. Allow to settle and ag-ain filter off the fluid. Add
boiling- water and repeat the above operation until the
filtrate g-ives no traces of chlorine. This can be tested
by allowing- a few drops from the stem of the funnel to
fall into a small test tube containing- a solution of silver
nitrate. A white precipitate indicates chlorine. When
the filtrate is free from chlorine, transfer the precipitate
to the filter paper, wash with hot water, dry and burn at
a moderate red heat. Weig-h as barium sulphate and
multiply by .3431 to find the weig-ht of sulphuric acid
(sulphuric anhydride, SO 3 .)
Example :
Weight of crucible and precipitate .11 553
Weight of crucible 11.090
Weight of precipitate ( BaSO 4 ) . ., 463
.463 x 2 x 100 = 92 6, the barium sulphate.
92.6 x .3431 = 31.77, the sulphuric acid.
The determination of sulphuric acid requires the
greatest care and attention, to give accurate results.
The precipitate is very liable to carry down with it such
foreign salts as the alkalies, alkali-earth metals and iron
oxide, and if the barium chloride solution is too concen-
trated, there will be traces of it in the barium sulphate.
A thoroug-h washing-, as above described, will usually
give accurate results. Sulphuric acid is precipitated
more readily in dilute than in concentrated solutions, and
104 WATER ANALYSIS.
some analysts prefer to make the determination with a
separate portion of water, evaporating- 200 CC or 500 CC to
about >2 , and continuing- as above.
6O. Sodium. Use 50 CC of the 200 CC solution in 56.
If the solution is very strongly acid, add sufficient am-
monia to bring- it nearly neutral. Heat nearly to boiling-
and add an excess of baryta water. The salts of cal-
cium, mag-nesium, iron and aluminum, and also silicic
and sulphuric acids, will be precipitated. Filter while
hot and wash with hot water. Heat ag-ain to nearly
boiling- point and add a few drops of ammonia and then
sufficient ammonium carbonate to precipitate the barium
present. Filter and evaporate to dryness, with the addi-
tion of a few drops of ammonium oxalate solution, to
precipitate any traces of calcium salts which may have
remained. Dry at 120, and over a low flame burn care-
fully until all odor of ammonia is g-one. Take up the
residue with hot water and filter. To the nitrate add a
few cc of hydrochloric acid and evaporate to dryness in a
weig-hed platinum dish. The residue consists of the
alkali chlorides, the addition of the hydrochloric acid
having- made the chlorine combination. As stated be-
fore, potassium is present in natural waters in such
small quantities in comparison to sodium, that the whole
residue is called sodium chloride. It is calculated to so-
dium by multiplying- with the factor 0.3940.
Example :
Weight of dish and residue 26.388
Weight of dish 26.276
Weight of residue (NaCl) 1 12
.112 x 2 x 100 = 22.4, the sodium chloride.
22.4 x .3940 = 8.82, the sodium.
WATER ANALYSIS. 105
61. Chlorine is determined by use of a standard so-
lution of silver nitrate (14O), of which one cubic centi-
meter will precipitate one milligramme of chlorine. Add
a few drops of potassium chromate to 100 CC of the water
sample, or to a larger volume evaporated to about 100 CC ,
which should be made faintly alkaline by the addition of
a little sodium carbonate. From a burette carefully add
the silver nitrate solution, stirring- constantly. Each
drop of the solution forms a red spot of silver chromate,
which decomposes upon stirring-. At the very earliest
point when this red coloration becomes permanent, the
burette should be read, and the number noted of the
cc of solution used. As each cc denotes the number of
milligrammes of chlorine in the sample, the calculation
of the percentag-e is easy.
Example :
lOOOcc of water are evaporated to about lOQcc and tested as
above, 32.1 c c of solution being necessary to precipitate the chlorine.
32. l cc solution = 32.1 mg of chlorine, or 0.0321gr.
.032Ur in lOOOcc = 3.2lsr in lOO.OOQcc,
or, 3.21 parts chlorine in 100,000 parts water.
62. The Figured Analysis is a calculation which
shows in what form the bases and acids found in the
actual analysis are combined in the water. The arrang-e-
ment is usually the same, but if the chemist has reason
to believe that another combination is more correct, he is
allowed a certain latitude.
Silica is put down in the free state, unless there
should be an insufficient amount of CO 2) SO 3 and Cl to
combine with the bases, in which case enoug-h silica is
used to combine with whatever sodium may remain to
106 WATER ANALYSIS.
form sodium silicate (Na 2 SiO 3 .) Iron and aluminum
oxides are recorded as such.
The figuring* is begun with chlorine. It is combined
with sodium as sodium chloride (NaCl). If there is an ex-
cess of chlorine, it is combined with magnesium (MgfCl )
but if the sodium is in excess, the remainder is com-
bined with sulphuric acid as sodium sulphate (Na 2 SO 4 ).
In this case oxygen has to be "borrowed." The re-
mainder of the sulphuric acid is combined with mag-
nesium oxide as magnesium sulphate ( MgSO 4 ) and if
there is not sufficient .magnesium oxide, whatever sul-
phuric acid may then remain is combined with calcium
oxide as calcium sulphate ( CaSO 4 ). On the other
hand, if magnesium oxide is in excess of the remaining
sulphuric acid, the excess is combined with carbonic acid
as magnesium carbonate ( MgCO 3 ) and the calcium
oxide combined with the remaining carbonic acid, as cal-
cium carbonate ( CaCO 3 ). The calcium oxide and
carbonic acid should almost invariably be combined as
much as possible. However, when the evaporated water
is strongly alkaline, sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) is pres-
ent, and part of the carbonic acid should be combined
with sodium.
All calculations may be performed by the use of
factors. To illustrate the figured analysis, the examples
given in this chapter will be taken.
Resume :
Carbonic Acid ( CO 2 ) 8.20
Silica ( SiO 2 ) 2.90
Iron and Aluminium Oxides ( Fe 2 O 3 and A1 2 O 3 ) 1.00
Calcium Oxide 16.46
Magnesium Oxide 5.04
Sulphuric Acid (SO 3 ) 31.77
Sodium 8.82
Chlorine . , . 3.21
WATER ANALYSIS. 1 07
The following is the figured analysis:
NaCl= 5.29 (all Cl x 1.6503) 2. 09 Na used.
Na 2 SO 4 =20.75 (6.73 Na x 3.083) 11.69 SO 3 used, 6.73 " 2.33 O used
MgSO 4 = 15.13 (all MgOx3.0015)10.09 " 8.82 all of Na.
CaSO4=i6.98(9.99SO 3 xl. 6996) 9.99 " 6.99 CaO used.
CaCO 3 =16.91(9.47CaOxl. 7856)31. 77 all of SO 3 9.47
== 7.44 CO 2 used
C() 2 = .76 (in excess). .. .16.46 all of CaO .76
SiO 2 = 2.90 8.20 all of CO 2
Fe*Al= 1 00.
In the above calculation it is necessary to take 2.33
parts of oxygen for combination with sodium sulphate,
and 0.76 parts of carbonic acid are in excess. Both
these are ^recorded in the following form of "full
analysis:"
In 100,000 parts water.
Total solids 88 .8
Lost by combustion 11.9
Mineral substance . 76 . 9
Silica 2. 90 or Silica 2.90
Iron and Aluminum Oxides 1.00 Iron and Aluminum Oxides 1.00
Carbonic Acid (CO 2 ) 8.20 Carbonic Acid (CO 2 ) 76
Calcium Oxide 16.46 Calcium Carbonate 16.91
Sulphuric Acid (SO 3 ) 31.76 Calcium Sulphate 16.98
Magnesium Oxide 5.04 Magnesium Sulphate ... .15.13
Chlorine 3 .21 Sodium Chloride 5 29
Sodium [882 Sodium Sulphate 20.75
(Oxygen for Na 2 SO 4 ) J 2 33
79.72 79.72
This method of analysis gives a double check on the
results. The total of the "actual analysis" should be
108 WATER ANALYSIS.
the same as the total of the "figured analysis," and each
should be equal to or only slightly more than the min-
eral substance found by direct analysis. In the example
above given the mineral substance is 76.9 and the total
found by individual analyses is 79.72, a difference of 2.82.
It rarely occurs, on account of unavoidable errors, that
the two will exactly agree, but the difference ought not
to exceed that in the example*.
* The-student is referred to Fresenius' quantitative analysis (second Ameri-
can edition) pages 207, 208 and 209, also pages 842 and 843.
CHAPTER IX.
LIMESTONE ANALYSIS.
63. A Complete Analysis of limestone is unneces-
sary in sugar work. It is sufficient to find the principal
constituents, which are silica, iron and aluminium
oxides, calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate and
calcium sulphate. It is also usual to make a moisture
determination. Organic matter, phosphoric acid, alkali
silicates, etc., are not determined.
64. Preparation of Sample. The sample consists of
six or eight small stones, which represent an average of
the quarry from which they are taken. The stones are
broken and from each one a couple of pieces weighing
about half a gramme each are taken to make up the
sample for analyzing. The pieces should not be taken
from the outside of the stone, which may have suffered
decomposition, and should be free from any streaks of
iron, or sulphides, or other matter which is not generally
present in the stone. Transfer to a clean porcelain
mortar and reduce to a very fine powder.
65. Moisture. Weigh out 2}^ 8r of the powdered
sample on a watch glass and dry for an hour at 110-
120C. Cool in a dessicator and weigh again. The weight
lost is water ; divided by 2^2 , the weight of substance
used, and multiplied by 100, will give the percentage.
Example :
Weight of watchglass and stone before drying .............. 35.942gr
Weight of watchglass and stone after drying ............... 35.934gr
Weight lost (moisture)
.008 -r 2.5 = .0032. .0032 x 100 == .32 per cent moisture.
OF THE
110 LIMESTONE ANALYSIS.
66. Carbonic Acid. (Carbon dioxide, CO 2 .) The
dried sample, after the moisture is determined, is trans-
ferred to an alkalimeter, and the percentage of CO 2 is
determined, as in 54.
Example :
Weight of apparatus and contents 77.803gr
Weight of same after operation 76.766gr
Weight lost (CO 2 ) 1.037gr
1.037 ~ 2.5 = .4148. .4148 x 100 = 41.48 per cent, carbonic acid.
67. Silica. ( SiO 2 ) The contents of the alkalim-
eter are transferred to a platinum dish and evaporated
to dryness. Take up the residue with dilute hydrochlo-
ric acid (1 part acid, 4 parts water) and filter into a
250 CC flask. Wash the residue in the filter thoroughly
with hot water, and then dry it at 100. Burn in a tared
crucible, over a moderate flame. Cool and weigh. As
the substance tested weighed 2>^ gr , the weight of silica
obtained must be divided by 5 and multiplied by 2, to de-
termine the weight in l gr . This multiplied by 100 will
give the percentage of silica.
Example :
Weight of crucible and residue 11.146gr
Weight of crucible 11.088*r
Weight of residue (silica) 058g r
.058 -4- 5 = .0116. .0116 x 2 = .0232.
.0232 x 100 = 2.32 per cent, silica.
68. Iron and Aluminum Oxides. (Fe 2 O., and A1 2 O 3 .)
When the filtrate in 67 is cool, fill the flask to the
mark with water. Shake well and measure off 50 CC .
Make alkaline with ammonia and precipitate, filter and
LIMESTONE ANALYSIS. Ill
ecPxo
burn the iron and al^Bium oxides, as described in 56.
The weig-ht obtained^orresponds to >^ gr of the stone
and must be multiplied by 2 and 100 to give the per-
centage.
Example :
Weight of crucible and precipitate 11.0948 r
Weight of crucible 11.088 r
Weight of precipitate (Fe 2 O 3 and A1 2 O 3 ) 0068 r
.006 x 2 x 100 = 1.2 per cent iron and aluminium oxide.
g>9. Calcium Oxide (Ca^. The nitrate from the
iron and aluminum precipidjBn is heated with the ad-
oition of acetic acid, and calcium oxide is determined as
in 57. The resulting- weig-ht must be multiplied by 2
and 100 to^ive the percentag-e of CaO in the stone.
Example :
Weight of crucible and precipitate 11 .557g r
Weight of crucible 11.088gr
Weight of precipitate (CaCO 3 ) , 469gr
- . 469x2 + 100 93.8^f cen t. CaCO 3 .
93. 8 x .56 =52. 528 or 52. 53 per cent. CaO.
7O. Magnesium Oxide (Mg-O) is determined as in
58. The percentag-e is found by multiplying- the weig-ht
of mag-nesium oxide by 2 and 100 as above.
Example :
Weight of crucible and precipitate 11 . 103gr
Weight of crucible 11 . 0888 r
Weight of precipitate (Mg 2 P 2 O 7 ) 015r
.015 x .3602 = .0054, weight of magnesium oxide.
. 0054 x2xlOO = 1.08 per cent, magnesium oxide .
112 LIMESTONE ANALYSIS.
71. Sulphuric Acid (SO 3 ) is determined by precipita-
tion as barium sulphate as in 59V* From the 250 CC flask
containing- the original solution (67 and 68) 50 CC is
measured off and used for the determination. The
weight obtained is multiplied by 2 and 100 to find the
percentag-e.
Example :
Weight of crucible and precipitate ............ , ........... 11 . 103s r
Weight of crucible ........................................ 11 . 088s r
Weight of precipitate (BaSO 4 )
. 015 x .3431= .00515, weight of SO3.
. 00515 x 2x 100 ==1.03 per cent, sulphuric acid.
72. The Figured Analysis is calculated in the same
manner as that described in water analysis with the
difference that there are fewer constituents to consider.
Moisture, silica and the oxides of iron and aluminum are
set down as determined. Sulphuric acid is combined
with calcium oxide, the remaining 1 calcium oxide being-
combined with carbonic acid. The remaining- carbonic
acid is combined with mag-nesium oxide. It usually
happens that the carbonic acid is >a trifle too much or
too little to make the combinations exact, but the excess
of CO 2 or Mg-O must always be recorded.
The form g-iven below may be used for recording-
analyses, the actual analysis being- on the left and the
fig-ured analysis on the rig-ht. In the latter the calcium
sulphate is determined by multiplying- the sulphuric
acid by 1.6996, the factor; the calcium oxide which re-
mains is multiplied by 1.7856, to g-ive the calcium car-
bonate ; and the carbonic acid which remains,
multiplied by 1.9091, gives the mag-nesium carbonate, an
excess of magnesium carbonate being- left.
LIMESTONE ANALYSIS. 113
Limestone Sample :
Moisture 32 o/ Moisture 32
Silica 2.32 Silica 232
Iron and Aluminum Ox- Iron and Aluminum Ox-
ides 1.20 ides 1.20
Calcium Oxide 52.53 Calcium Carbonate 92 51
Magnesium Oxide 1.08 Calcium Sulphate 1.75
Sulphuric Acid (SO 3 ) 1 03 Magnesium Carbonate 1.49
Carbonic Acid (CO 2 ) 41.48 Excess Magnesium Oxide. 37
Undetermined . .04 Undetermined . . .04
100.00 100.00
The value of the limestone depends upon the amount
of good lime which can be burned from it at the least
cost. The best stone usually has 95 or 96 per cent, cal-
cium carbonate, and no calcium sulphate. When the
Steffens' process is used, the best stone is dependent both
upon the salts in the molasses and the time it takes for
the lime to slake, which is burned from the stone.
73. Lime may be analyzed according- to the method
g-iven for limestone. If any sulphuric acid is present it
is combined with calcium oxide. The carbonic acid is
combined with mag-nesium oxide, and the excess with
calcium oxide. The remaining- calcium oxide is recorded
as lime.
CHAPTER X.
COAL, COKE, AND FUEL OIL.
74. Coal* The estimation of moisture, coke and
volatile matters, and ash are required in coal analysis.
To determine the moisture weigh out 10 gr of a powdered
average sample and heat at 110-115C for one hour.
This is a sufficient length of time to drive off all the
water, and in a longer heating there is danger of the
sample gaining in weight by the oxidation of sulphides
and hydrocarbons. (PRESENIUS.) Cool in a dessicator
and weigh. The loss is moisture.
Take 1-10 of the dried coal (representing l r of the
original sample) and burn over an exceedingly hot flame
until all carbonaceous matter is consumed and the ash is
white or reddish colored. Cool in a dessicator and
weigh. The loss is put down as coke and volatile mat-
ters and the remainder is ash. The complete analysis
is figured as follows:
Weight of dish and coal 36.282gr
Weight of dish ' 26.282gr
Coal taken lO.OOOgr
Dish and coal before drying 36 . 2828 r
Dish and coal after drying 36.222gr
Water lost 060gr
.060 ~ 10 x 100 = .60 per cent, mosture.
10gr_ .060gr = 9. 940gr remaining, 1-10 of 9.94gr = .994gr.
Weight of crucible and coal 15 . 337gr
Weight of crucible 14.343gr
Coal taken . 994gr
COAL, COKE AND FUEL OIL. 115
Weight of crucible and coal before burning 15.337 r
Weight of crucible and ash after burning 14.3968 r
Coke and volatile matters lost 941gr
.941 -f- 1 x 100 = 94. 1, per cent, coke and volatile matters.
Weight of crucible and ash 14.3%gr
Weight of crucible 14.343*r
Weight of ash 053S r
. 053 -: 1 x 100 = 5 3, per cent. ash.
Resume :
Moisture 60
Coke and volatile matters 94 . 10
Ash.. 5.30
100.00
75. Coke is tested the same as coal, except-
ing- that about 30 gr should, be used for the moisture
test, and it may be dried at a hig-her tempera-
ture, 140C, and only half a gr is used for the
ash. 100 per cent., minus the sum -of the water
and ash, is called the "combustible matter,"
instead of "coke and volatile matters," as
above.
76. Fuel OH. The most important and
most usual test of oil is the determination of its
specific gravity. This is done with*jBeaume's
hydrometer for liquids lig-hter than water (Pig*.
45), the reading- of the hydrometer being- com- Fig. 45.
n6
COAL, COKE AND FUEL OIL.
pared with the corresponding- specific gravity by use
of the following- table :
TABLE B.
Comparison of Degrees on the Beaume Hydrominor Spindle with
Specific Gravity.
Degree .
Sp. G.
Degree .
Sp. G.
Degree.
Sp. G.
Degree
Sp. G.
10
1 000
24
.913
38
.839
52
.777
11
.993
25
.907
39
.834
53
773
12
.986
26
.901
40
.830
54
.768
13
.980
27
.896
41
825
55
.764
14
973
28
.890
42
820
56
.760
15
.967
29
.885
43
.816
57
.757
16
.960
30
.880
44
811
58
.753
17
.954
31
874
45
807
59
.749
18
948
32
.869
46
.802
60
.745
19
.942
33
.864
47
.798
65
726
20
.936
34
.859
48
.794
70
.709
21
.930
35
.854
49
.789
80
.676
22
.924
36
.849
50
.785
90
.646
23
.918
37
.844
51
.781
100
619
The above table is calculated for a temperature of
15C. or 59P., and all observations should be made at
this temperature. However, a difference of 2 Farenheit
degrees either way does not introduce an error of con-
sequence.
The specific gravity may also be taken with a
pycnometer, a specific gravity hydrometer, or any of the
specific gravity balances for liquids. The Beaume
hydrometer is preferable to other methods in the fact
that it is g-enerally used in oil commerce.
Water is so seldom present in oil that it is determined
only qualitatively. A quantity of oil of known specific
gravity is poured over fused calcium chloride, which may
be contained in a basket of wire screen. The specific
gravity of the treated oil is then taken, and if it is less
COAL, COKE AND FUEL OIL. 117
than before, water was present and was taken up by the
calcium chloride. A simpler method, but one requiring
more time, is to fill a glass tube (about 3-16 of an inch
in diameter and 12 inches long) with the oil, having one
end closed. By standing the tube on the closed end, if
any water is present it will separate from the oil in a few
days and go to the bottom.
Ashes. Evaporate 5 gr of the oil in a porcelain dish
until it is sufficiently dry for ignition. This may be
done first on a water bath and then on an asbestos plate
over a direct flame. Burn carefully until a completely
incinerated ash is obtained. The weight of the ash re-
maining divided by 5 and multiplied by 100 will give the
per cent.
Example:
Weight of dish and oil 26 . 370gr
Weight of dish 21 . 370*r
Weight of oil used S.OOOgr
Weight of dish and ash 21.373gr
Weight of dish , 21 . 370gr
Weight of ash 003gr
.003-^5= .0006. .0006x100= .06 per cent.
Flash and Fire Test. The temperature at which the
development of inflammable gases begins is called the
flash point of oil, and the degree of temperature where
the oil itself will burn is called the fire-point. Both
may be tested at the same time, as the test for the latter
is only a continuation of the test for the former. These
determinations can be made with sufficiently accurate re-
sults by the simple apparatus mentioned as follows, but
Il8 COAL, COKE AND FUEL OIL.
for absolutely exact determinations the Saybolt or some
other apparatus with electric sparks should be used:
A porcelain crucible holding" about 90 CC is nearly tilled
with the oil and placed on the ring- of a lamp-stand, over
a sheet (4 inches square) of asbestos, about V% of an
inch thick. A chemical Farenheit thermometer, sup-
ported by a clamp above, is inserted in the oil so that the
mercury bulb is just covered. Heat is applied, the flame
being 1 just large enough to cause a rise of 2 or 3 degrees
in temperature a minute. At the end of every minute
after heat is applied a "test-flame" is passed over the
oil. The "test-flame" should be as small as possible,
but a match generally has to be used in sugar factory
laboratories. The temperature degree, when the passing
of the "test-flame" first causes a flash of light, is re-
corded as the flash point, and the degree when the oil
ignites permanently is recorded as the fire point. In
crude petroleum the latter is from 6 to 15 higher than
the former.
CHAPTER XI.
ANALYSIS OF BONEBLACK*.
77. The Outward Appearance of boneblack often in-
dicates its usefulness in sugar manufacture. Well-
burned boneblack should be of a deep black color and
show a faint velvety cracking". If it is sufficiently porous
each broken piece when held to the tongue should pro-
duce a slight suction. If the boneblack is boiled with
caustic potash or caustic sodium and then allowed to
settle, the supernatent fluid should be completely color-
less; a brown coloring is caused by undestroyed organic
substance (glue, gristle).
78. The Analysis of Boneblack generally comprises
determinations of moisture, calcium carbonate, calcium
sulphate, calcium sulphide, organic matter and decolo-
rizing power. The composition of good boneblack is
about as follows:
Moisture 7 per cent
Carbon 7 to 8 "
Sand and Clay : 2 to 4
Calcium Phosphate 70 to 75 ' *
Calcium Carbonate 7 to 8 "
Calcium Sulphate 2 to. 3 "
Phosphates of Iron and Aluminum .5 {t
Magnesium Phosphate 6 to 1 "
79. Moisture. The boneblack is coarsely powdered
and 10* r are dried at 120C. It usually takes several
hours for the sample to become thoroughly dry. The
weight lost is moisture; divided by 10 and multiplied by
100 will give the percentage.
* Adapted from "I^eitfaden fur Zuckerfabrichemiker" by Dr. E. Preuss.
120 ANALYSIS OF BONEBLACK.
80. Carbon, Sand and Clay. Into a porcelain dish
put 10 gr of the finely pulverized sample and add some
water. Then digest with 50 CC of concentrated hydro-
chloric acid, the dish being- covered with a glass plate to
prevent loss by spirting". Filter through a dry filter, the
weight of which is known, and wash with hot water
until the acid reaction of the filtrate has disappeared
(test with litmus paper). The filter and contents are
dried and weighed, the total, minus the weight of the
paper, being carbon, sand and clay, the remaining
constituents of the boneblack having been taken out by
the digestion with acid. After weighing, incinerate in
a tared crucible. The residue is sand and clay, and this
weight subtracted from the weight of the contents of the
filter paper will give the weight of the carbon. The re-
results obtained, divided by 10 and multiplied by 100,
will give the percentage.
The filtrate from the above, made up to a liter, serves
in the determination of calcium sulphate, calcium sul-
phide, oxide of iron and aluminum, lime, magnesia and
phosphoric acid.
81. Calcium Sulphate. Measure off 200 CC of the
above filtrate, corresponding to 2 gr of the original sub-
stance, and heat to nearly boiling point. Add a slight
excess of barium chloride, precipitating barium sulphate,
and filter as in 59. After burning and weighing, the
resulting weight is divided by 2 to give the weight in
l gr , and is then multiplied by the factor .5832 to give the
weight in calcium sulphate. Multiplying by 100 will
give the per cent.
In factories and refineries having "boneblack houses"
the examination of the boneblack as to its contents of
ANALYSIS OF BONEBLACK. 121
calcium sulphate and its removal by treatment with soda
solution is very important. The gypsum strongly in-
fluences the crystallization of sugar and in the re-burn-
ing* of the boneblack leads to considerable losses, the
calcium sulphate being* reduced to calcium sulphide, and
carbon escapes in the form of carbon monoxide gas.
CaSO 4 -H 4C = CaS + 4CO.
The calcium sulphide thus formed has an injurious
effect, as in contact with metals it produces colored com-
binations which lessen the value of the product. There-
fore it is also necessary to determine the calcium sul-
phide.
82. Calcium Sulphide. Place 5* r of the finely pow-
dered sample in a porcelain dish and moisten with water.
The dish is now put on a water bath and lO** of fuming
nitric acid gradually added. Heat for half an hour, fre-
quently stirring-, and then add 10 CC of concentrated hy-
drochloric acid a few drops at a time. The mixture is
heated 20 minutes longer and is stirred as before. By
this means all the sulphur is oxidized and TUCKER pre-
fers the method to all others. At the end of the heating-
dilute to about 100 CC by the addition of water and filter.
Heat the filtrate nearly to boiling and precipitate with
barium chloride, filter, burn, and weigh in the usual
manner. The weight of barium sulphate is divided by 5
to give the weight in l* r and is multiplied by . 1374 and
100 to give the per cent, of sulphur. The per cent, of
the calcium sulphate obtained in the above paragraph
multiplied by .2356 will give the per cent, of sulphur in
the boneblack which is in combination as gypsum, and
this subtracted from the total sulphur as just determined
122 ANALYSIS OF BONEBLACK.
will give the sulphur in combination as calcium sulphide.
Multiply the per cent, sulphur by 2.248 to obtain the per
cent, of calcium sulphide.
83. Sugar Contents. Powder 50 gr and boil with
100 CC of water for 20 minutes. Let the mixture settle
and filter off the clear fluid. Add water to the sediment
and boil again, filtering' as before, and repeat the opera-
tion. The sediment is now placed on the filter and
thoroug-hly washed with boiling water. Evaporate the
combined filtrates to about 75 or SO CC and rinse into a
100-110 CC flask. When cool make up to the mark and
determine the sug-ar volumetrically. The result ob-
tained is divided by 50 as 50^ r were used.
84. Calcium Carbonate. During filtration the bone-
black takes up calcium carbonate from the juices, and
the pores are gradually closed. This excess is removed
down to 7 per cent, (not below this, as it would affect the
calcium phosphate present as a normal constituent) by
washing- the boneblack with hydrochloric acid, and the
amount of acid necessary is calculated from the determi-
nation of calcium carbonate present. In making- this
estimation, Scheibler's apparatus, shown in Fig-. 46, is
g-enerally used. The execution of the analysis is as
follows :
Put the weighed quantity (1.7 gr ) of finely pulverized
boneblack into the developing- bottle A; fill the caout-
chouc cylinder S about half-full with concentrated hy-
drochloric acid (1.12 sp. g.) and place it carefully, with
pincers and without spilling, into the bottle A. Fill by
pressure on the bulb W of Woulff's bottle E (which con-
tains water), the two communicating tubes DandC, with
water, until the fluid in C is at zero, the water in D
OF THK
UNIVERSITY
Fig. 46.
2
ANALYSIS OF BONEBLACK. 125
being 1 on the same level. The pinch-cock q is opened
during the filling, to allow air to escape. Care must be
taken not to overflow any of the water into B. for the
apparatus would have to be taken apart and dried.
Now place the glass stopper, fastened to the rubber
tube r upon the developing* vessel A (greasing* the joint
with tallow), and close the pinch-cock q. Hold the
bottle A at the upper end with two fingers, to avoid
warming it, and incline it so that the hydrochloric acid
is poured over the substance. The carbonic acid devel-
oped rises through r into the rubber bulb K and crowds
out an equivalent amount of air in B which, in turn, re-
duces the water in C- The pinch-cock p is opened,
whenever necessary, to make the level of the fluid in C
and D equal. A is shaken to generate the lost gas and
when no further development occurs, the volume of
water in- C is read and the temperature observed. From
these the percentage of calcium carbonate is determined
by the accompanying Table C.
Example :
The volume of gas generated is 11.2 (see n m Fig.
45) at a temperature of 21. By referring to the table
we find that 11 volumes at 21 is 10.74 and 2 volumes is
1.80. Dividing the latter by 10 gives .18 for the .2 of a
volume. Therefore, the per cent, of CaCO is
10.74 + .18 = 10.92 per cent.
As boneblack often contains caustic lime it is advisa-
ble, before making the analysis as above, to dampen the
sample with ammonium carbonate and evaporate to dry-
ness. An error is introduced when calcium sulphide is
present as sulphuretted hydrogen is developed as well as
carbonic acid. TUCKER avoids this error by adding a
00 M O iO M r-t
~
ON
I
Sj
UJ I
-J *o
OJ
I
a
ANALYSIS OF BONEBLACK. I 27
small amount of copper chloride to the hydrochloric acid
used.
Considering- 7 per cent, as the normal amount of cal-
cium carbonate, the quantity of acid of any strength
necessary to remove the excess may be calculated by the
use of Scheibler's Table D.
Example :
The calcium carbonate obtained in the above sample
is 10.92, an excess of 3. 92 "over the normal 7 per cent.
The amount of acid, say 1.175 sp. g. or 21.5 Beaume,
necessary to reduce this excess is determined by referring
to the table as follows:
3. parts of calcium carbonate = 6.3112 parts of acid.
0.9 " " =1.8934
0.02 " " " = .0409 "
3.92 parts of calcium carbonate = 8.2455 parts of acid.
In a ton of 2,000 Ibs. of boneblack having the above
percentage of CaCO 3 would take
2,000 x 8 2455 per cent. = 164.91 Ibs.
of acid of 1.175 sp. g. to remove the excess.
85. Decolorizing Power. Equal amounts of a mo-
lasses solution are treated, during the same length of
time, with equal parts of a new efficacious char and the
boneblack to be analyzed. From the difference of color
of the two filtered solutions the efficacy of the boneblack
can be approximately determined. Stammer's color in-
strument should be used where frequent analyses of
boneblack are made.
CHAPTER XII.
ANALYSIS OF CHIMNEY GASES.
86. Smoke Gases consist largely of carbonic acid,
oxygen, nitrogen and carbon monoxide gas; marsh gas,
sulphuric acid, etc., are found only in small quantities.
The analysis is most easily made by use of an appa-
ratus which removes each constituent by absorption, the
percentage of each being determined by the diminution
of volume of the sample used. The apparatus most
commonly used is Orsat's, or a modification of it.
87. Preparation of Reagents. Concentrated solu-
tions of caustic potash, pyrogallic acid and copper
chloride are used for the absorption of the most impor-
tant gases carbonic acid, oxygen and carbon monoxide.
The caustic potash solution is made by diluting 1
part of potassium hydrate with 2 parts of water. An
alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid is made by mixing 1
volume of a 25 per cent, solution of pyrogallic acid with
a 60 per cent, solution of potassium hydrate. The solu-
tion for absorbing carbonic oxide is made by shaking a
mixture of equal parts of a saturated ammonium chlo-
ride solution and ammonia with copper shavings, until
the fluid has turned dark blue.
88. Orsat's Apparatus (Fig. 47) consists of a gas
measuring-tube A which, in the lower narrow portion,
has a scale divided into half -cubic centimeters from to
40, and is surrounded by a glass jacket filled with water,
to avoid deviations of temperature. The lower end of
the gas burette A is connected with the aspirator bot-
tle E by a rubber tube. By raising and lowering this
ANALYSIS OF CHIMNEY GASES.
bottle, containing- water, the gas burette can be filled
with water and emptied, thereby drawing- the g-as mix-
ture to A, or pressing- the g-as therein contained into the
upper conduit pipe. The upper portion of A leads into
a giass tube at rig-ht ang-les to it, which has three rests
furnished with the cocks a, b, c; these cocks make corn-
Fig. 47
munication possible with the absorption vessels B, C, D,
each of which is ag-ain connected with a reservoir of like
shape (B', C, D'.)
The absorption vessels are filled with many narrow
tubes of glass, in order to give the absorption liquids as
larg-e a surface as possible. (In the diagram only a few
are denoted to give clearness.) The horizontal tube
previously mentioned has at its end a tube bent like a U
130 ANALYSIS OF CHIMNEY GASES.
(e), the shanks of which are filled with cotton for the
filtration of the smoke gases entering- through f, while
in the curve of the same there is a layer of water. Be-
tween the curve of the horizontal tube and the cock c
there is a Winkler's three-way-cock, by which the tube,
and thereby the entire apparatus, can be connected with
the tube f, leading- to the gas line, as well as with the
air-injector i. The injector is for the purpose of pump-
ing- out the air in the tube f before using the apparatus,
being done by blowing into the mouthpiece g.
89. Execution of the Test. First, the absorption
liquids from the reservoirs in the rear must be brought
to B, C, D, which is done as follows: Close the cocks
a, b, c; fill the burette A with water by placing the
three-way-cock into such a position that A communicates
with the outer air. Lift the bottle C and close the cock
d against the atmosphere; then lower the bottle E again,
open cock a, whereby the water flows from the burette to
E and an air-diluted space is formed in B. The air-
pressure then forces the absorption liquid from the res-
ervoir to B, and a must be closed at the moment when
the fluid reaches exactly to the mark. In the same manner
the vessels C and D are filled. By means of the injector
i the air must be pumped out of the tubes, which is done
in the manner above mentioned. Now, the tube e must
be connected by f with the gas-line and the three-way-
cock must be placed in such a position that the filled
burette A is connected with the atmosphere and the gas-
line. By raising and lowering the bottle E repeatedly,
the burette A and the tubes are rinsed with smoke-gas
until the operator is sure that the air is completely
crowded out.
ANALYSIS OF CHIMNEY GASES. 131
After the water in A is set in again to the mark, the
three-way-cock is turned so that A as well as the g-as-
line is closed ag-ainst the atmosphere and the smoke-g-as
line communicates only with the burette A. By opening-
the pinch-cock in front of E and lowering- the aspirator
bottle, the burette is filled with the g-as to be analyzed to
a little below the mark (100 ccm ). Whereupon the same
is closed ag-ainst the atmosphere and the g-as-line. Now
set in the fluid exactly to the zero point and allow the
excess of pressure to escape into the atmosphere by
opening- once quickly D. The cock a is opened, and by
raising the bottle E, the g-as is pressed into B, which
contains caustic potash. Repeat this operation several
times and finally hold E at such a heig-ht that the level
of the water is equal to the mark on B. Cock a is then
closed and the heig-ht of the liquid in A is read off.
Difference to 100 will give the percentag-e of carbonic
acid in the g-as. In the remainder of the g-as mixture,
determine as above, one after another, the contents of
free oxyg-en and carbon oxide g"as. The g-as volume
which remains is calculated as nitrog-en.
The absorption liquids can be saved from spoiling- by
pouring- some solar oil into the rear reservoirs, thus ex-
cluding- the atmospheric air. If thus protected, the
fluids will suffice for several hundred analyses.
9O. Franke's Gas Burette (Fig-. 48} may also be
used for smoke-g-as analysis. It has an advantag-e over
the Orsat's apparatus, in being- more simple in con-
struction.
The burette consists of the measuring- space M, the
lower cylindric part of which is graduated into whole
and half cubic centimeters, and the space R serving- for
132
ANALYSIS OF CHIMNEY GASES.
holding- the absorption liquids. The connection be-
tween the two can be produced by the glass-cock r, which
has a wide double boring-. The measuring- space M, be-
tween the two cocks m and r, holds ex-
actly lOO 00 " 1 . Into a socket at the
lower end of the space R the glass
cock a can be placed to close it air-
tight.
91. The Execution of the Analysis
with Franke's burette is accomplished
in the following- manner : Fill the bu-
rette completely with water (space M
and R), connect the point b with the
g-as-line and let so much of the g-as
enter that the space R is about half-
filled. Then close the cocks m and r
and remove the water in R, so as to
fill R completely with the absorption
liquid.
In order to exclude the air com-
pletely, pour into R so much of the
reag-ent that even the funnel-shaped
widening- is partly filled with it. Now
" m place the opened cock a carefully into
the socket, so that from the bor-
ing- as well as from the point below
the cock the air is completely excluded.
The excess of the absorption liquid
accumulated in the widening- is poured
Fig. 48. back into the storing--bottle after cock
a is closed.
In order to put the g-as-volume in the measuring-
space under atmospheric pressure, raise for a moment the
ANALYSIS OF CHIMNEY GASES. 133
cock m. The absorption of the constituent to be deter-
mined in the gas mixture is accomplished easily by open-
ing- the cock r, so that the reagent enters into the
opening- space. By shaking the burette, this operation
can be hastened. After this is done, place the burette
on the point a and wait until the absorption liquid has
completely returned into R from the measuring space.
The space R must then be filled again completely to the
boring of the cock r. Now take out the cock a, pour out
the reagent, and replace the same with water, with the
precaution that now, even in the point, no air remains.
The whole burette is now turned with the point a down-
ward, placed into a high cylinder filled with water, and
below water the cocks a and r are opened. On account
of the air-diluted space, produced by the absorption, the
water will now rise to a certain height into the measur-
ing space. The reading off of the percentage contents
is done after an equal level of water is produced inside
and outside. In order to determine the constituents yet
left in the remainder of the gas-mixture, remove the
water in the measuring space by means of a suction
bottle before the reagent is put in ; especially must this
be done by the determining of carbonic oxide gas. The
burette with the water must be shaken several times be-
fore reading off the height, in order to let the remains of
ammonia, which always evaporate, be absorbed by the
water.
CHAPTER XIII.
ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS.*
92. Artificial Fertilizers for beet fields generally con-
tain principally either nitrogen, phosphoric acid or pot-
ash, although some fertilizers contain two of the
constituents and others all three. In analysis, it is
usual to make only the determination of the constituents
upon which the value of the fertilizer depends. For ex-
ample, in nitrate of soda, a very common fertilizer, it is
necessary to estimate only the nitrogen, and in super-
phosphates, the soluble form of phosphoric acid is de-
termined. The methods outlined in the following para-
graphs may be used in the analysis of all fertilizers.
The refuse lime from sugar factories is of great
value as a fertilizer, as it returns the calcium and mag-
nesium which is taken from the soil. As it is often of
interest to know the other elements present in the refuse,
a full method of analysis is given in the next chapter.
93. The Sample is prepared by mixing it thoroughly,
after which it is ground in a mortar fine enough to pass
through a 25-mesh sieve. The operations should be
performed rapidly, to prevent loss or gain of moisture.
94. Moisture determinations should be made in all
fertilizer analysis. Weigh out 2 gr and dry at 100. For
potash salts, sodium nitrate and ammonium sulphate
fertilizers, the sample may be dried at 130. The drying
usually takes from 3 to 5 hours. Determine the per
cent, moisture in the usual way.
* The preparation of the reagents used in these analysis will be found in
Part III. The preparation of all but baryta solution is given according to the
methods adapted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. See Bul-
letin No. 76, U. S. Department of Agticulture, Division of Chemistry. Para-
graph 94 is in pat t (a and b) adapted from this report, also Paragraph 96.
ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS. 135
95. Phosphoric Acid is in two forms, soluble and in-
soluble, the soluble being- the form of value as a fertil-
izer. In contact with certain basic hydroxides and
water some of the soluble acid will become insoluble
and is said to be "reverted." A determination of the
reverted acid is usually unnecessary. In analysis of
phosphoric acid, calculation is based on the formula of
the anhydride P 2 O 5 .
O) The Total Phosphoric Acid is estimated as fol-
lows : The 2 gr dried as above are ignited in a crucible to
burn away organic matter, and are then dissolved in hy-
drochloric acid. After solution, transfer to a 200 CC flask,
cool, make up to the mark, shake well and pass through
a dry filter into a beaker or flask. Measure off half of
the solution, corresponding to l gr of the sample, and
neutralize with ammonia. If the solution is not clear,
add a few drops of nitric acid. The addition of about
10 gr of dry ammonium nitrate will assist the precipita-
tion which follows. Heat to 65C and add molybdic
solution. About 5 CC of the reagent must be used for
every milligramme of P 2 O 5 present in the solution tested.
Stir and keep covered 1 hour at 65C. Filter and wash
the precipitate with a solution containing 15 gr of ammo-
nium nitrate in 100 CC of water, to which about 3 to 5 CC of
molybdic solution has been added, and the whole
slightly acidified with nitric acid. Test the filtrate for
phosphoric acid by additional molybdic solution. The
precipitate on the filter is now dissolved with ammonia
and the filter washed with a hot mixture of 3 parts of
water and 1 part of ammonia. Nearly neutralize with
hydrochloric acid, cool, *and add magnesia mixture
slowly, preferably with a burette, while stirring con-
136 ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS.
stantly. About 10 CC of the mixture is necessary for
every milligramme of P 2 O in the solution tested. After
a few minutes add about 30 CC of ammonia and let stand
for twelve hours. Filter, wash with a 5 per cent, ammo-
nia solution, dry and ignite to whiteness, or to a grayish
white. Cool and weig-h, the weight being multiplied by
.6396 to give the weig-h t phosphoric acid (P 2 O 5 ). Divid-
ing- this by 100 will give the per cent.
W Soluble Phosphoric Acid. -Place 2 gr of the
sample upon a filter and wash with water into a 200 CC
flask. Use successive small portions of water, allowing
each portion to pass throug-h before adding more. When
the flask is filled to the mark, measure off 100 CC and test
as under the above paragraph.
(0 Insoluble Phosphoric Acid may be determined by
difference, subtracting the soluble acid from the total.
This will also include any reverted acid which may be
present, but the error may be overlooked.
96. Nitrogen is determined according- to GUNNING'S
method, which does not include the nitrogen of nitrates
(97). Weig-h out 3.0 r of the sample and transfer to a
500 CC Kjeldahl digestion flask*. In a sample containing-
much nitrog-en, a less amount of the substance may be
used for analysis. Add to the flask 10 gr of pulverized
potassium sulphate and about 20 CC of pure sulphuric
acid (free from nitrates) with a sp. g. of 1.84. Fix the
flask in an inclined position and heat gradually, until all
frothing- ceases; then boil until the liquid is colorless, or
nearly so. Cool and wash into a distillation flask of
about 550 CC capacity, with about 200 CC of water. Add a
* Kjeldahl flasks are pear-shaped and round-bottomed, with a long, tapering
neck. They should be made of Jena or of the best Bohemian glass.
ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS.
137
few drops of phenol and then a saturated solution of
sodium hydroxide until the reaction is strongly alkaline.
The flask is now fitted with a rubber stopper and a bulb
tube, as in Fig-. 49 (A and a), the latter being- con-
nected with the condenser B by a rubber tube. Another
bulb tube b is attached to the condensor at d and ex-
Fig. 49.
tends to nearly the bottom of the Erlenmeyer flask C,
which contains 20 CC of a normal acid. Half normal acid
may be used or, if only a small amount of nitrog-en is
present in the sample, tenth-normal is to be recom-
mended. Heat is now applied, and the nitrog-en present
in A is distilled as ammonia, and passes over and is
absorbed in C- The operation is completed when 150 CC
of the distillate has been collected. The time required
is from three-quarters of an hour to an hour and a half
138 ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS.
The contents of C are now cooled and titrated with
caustic baryta water solution*. This solution must be of
a known streng-th, which is determined by finding- how
many cc of it are necessary to neutralize a certain
amount of normal acid. Tincture of litmus is used as
an indicator and the baryta solution is added from a
burette until the color just turns red. The quantity of
the solution used is measured, and from this the amount
of nitrog-en is calculated as shown in the following-
Example /f
It takes 50.1 CC of baryta solution to neutralize the
20 CC of normal acid, used with the distillate, from l gr of
a sample. The baryta solution is of such streng-th that
20 CC of normal acid requires 99.9 CC of the solution for
neutralization. As one liter of normal acid corresponds
to 14.01 gr of nitrog-en, 20 CC corresponds to 0.2802 gr .
Therefore, 99.9 CC of baryta solution corresponds to
0.2802 gr of nitrog-en and l cc corresponds to 0.002799 gr .
Now, as 50.1 CC of the baryta solution are used, the
nitrog-en denoted is
50.1 x 0.002799 = 0.140238'.
As 20cc of Normal Acid = 0.28020gr Nitrogen
and SO. lcc Caustic Baryta = 0.14023gr <
There remain 13997gr
Which is, in round numbers, 14 per cent, of the l gr used.
97. Total /Nitrogen, including- the nitrog-en of
nitrates, is determined as follows : To the substance in
the dig-estion flask, as in 96, add 30 CC of a salicylic acid
* Any standard alkali solution may be used instead. The Association of
Official Agricultural Chemists recommend ammonia, a one-tenth solution, hav-
ing 1.7051 gr. of ammonia to the liter.
t Fruhling and Schulz.
ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS. 139
mixture, which is prepared by mixing- 30 CC of concen-
trated sulphuric acid with l gr of commercial salicylic
acid. The mixing" requires about 10 minutes. Then add
5 r of sodium hyposulphite and 10 r of potassium sul-
phate. Heat and then distill and determine the nitrogen,
as in 96.
98. Potash. Boil* 10* r of the sample with from
250 CC to 300 CC of water for half an hour. Make the hot
solution alkaline by the addition of ammonia and pre-
cipitate the calcium present with ammonium oxalate.
Cool, dilute to 500 CC and filter through a dry filter. In
the analysis of muriate of potash, the mixture is diluted
without the addition of ammonia and the precipitation
of calcium. Heat 50 CC of the filtrate, corresponding-^ to
l gr of the sample, to boiling- point and add, a drop at a
time, and with constant stirring, sufficient barium chlo-
ride to precipitate the sulphuric acid present. Without
filtering, add in the same manner baryta water in slig-ht
excess. Filter while hot and wash well. Heat the
filtrate nearly to boiling and precipitate the barium by
the addition of ammonium carbonate, previously adding-
a few drops of ammonia. Filter and wash thoroug-hly.
Evaporate the filtrate to dryness and burn carefully over
a low flame until all ammonium salts have been expelled.
Dissolve the residue in hot water and filter. Acidify the
Ultrate with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, in a porce-
lain dish. Add an excess of a concentrated solution of
platinic chloride (from 5 to 10 CC ) and evaporate nearly to
dryness, keeping the matter in the water-bath below
boiling- point. Add 80 per cent, alcohol (sp.g-. 0.8645) to
* Fertilizers which contain much organic matter, the 10 gr. are ignited at a
gentle heat, with the addition of enough concentrated sulphuric acid to saturate
the sample, before being boiled with water.
140 ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS.
the dish and let stand for some time ; then filter off the
alcoholic solution. Repeat this operation until the resi-
due in the dish consists of small reddish-yellow octa-
hedra, which is the appearance of potassium platinic
chloride. Bring- this residue upon the filter and wash
with alcohol. Dry the filter and contents until the alco-
hol has volatalized, and then carefully transfer the con-
tents to* a watch glass. The small amount of the
precipitate which cannot be removed is washed out with
hot water. The filtrate is evaporated to dryness in a
weighed porcelain dish, the contents of the watch glass
being 1 also added. Dry for 30 minutes at 100, cool, and
weig-h. The weig-ht, less the weig^ht of the dish, is po-
tassium platinic chloride. Multiplying- by .1931 will
g-ive the weig-ht of potassium oxide (K 2 O), and as ls r
was used for the analysis, the percentag-e is obtained by
multiplying- by 100.
CHAPTER XIV.
ANALYSIS OF REFUSE LIME.
99. Refuse Lime* analysis consists of determina-
tions of water, sugar, organic matter, silica, iron and
aluminum oxides, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide,
caustic lime, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid and carbonic
acid.
100. The Sample is a carefully selected average,
small samples being taken from several places and
mixed together. As the substance usually contains too
much moisture to handle easily, about 20 gr are dried,
powdered as in 93, and preserved in an air-tight jar.
The determinations are made with the dry substance,
and, by taking" into account the per cent, of water
found in the moisture determination, are figured into the
original substance (see 11O).
101. Water is determined by weighing out 2 gr and
drying at 100. The weight lost, divided by 2 and mul-
tiplied by 100 will give the per cent, of water.
102. Sugar. Of the original substance, take 100 gr
and treat as described in 83, determining the per cent,
sugar volumetrically.
103. Organic Matter. Burn 2}^ gr of the dry sub-
stance over a low flame, heating not quite to redness.
Cool and weigh. The loss is put down as organic
matter. The per cent, of dry substance is found by
dividing by 2.5 and multiplying by 100.
* Refuse lime, as referred to here, includes not only the filter press cakes but
any other refuse from the factory which is disposed of in the same pile or reser-
voir with the filler press cakes.
142 ANALYSIS OF REFUSK
104. Silica* After burning- away the organic
matter from 2/^ gr , as in the above paragraph, the re-
mainder is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, with the
addition of heat, and is filtered into a 250 CC flask. The
substance remaining- on the filter is washed, dried,
weighed, and percentage on dry substance figured as in
67. This is usually recorded as silica, but might be
more properly written "Insoluble in Hydrochloric Acid,"
as other substances are often in excess of silica.
105. Iron, Aluminum, Calcium and Magnesium oxides
are determined from the filtrate in the above paragraph
as described in 68, 69 and 7O, the percentage being-
found on dry substance.
106. Caustic Lime is found by titrating l gr with a
normal acid, as described in 35a. The CaO found by
this method is that which is uncombined, not being in
the form of a salt. Either the dry or the original sub-
stance may be taken for this determination.
107. Phosphoric Acid is estimated by taking 2 gr of
the dry substance and proceeding as described in 95a.
108. Sulphuric Acid. From the 250 CC filtrate of
1O4 take 50 CC and determine the sulphuric acid (SO 3 ) as
in 71.
109. Carbonic Acid is determined by means of the
alkalimeter described in 54, 2 gr of the dry substance
being taken. The weight lost, divided by 2 and multi-
plied by 100, will give the per cent.
11 0. The Percentages which are figured on dry
substance are calculated to the original substance by
multiplying the percentage found by the part which the
ANALYSIS OF REFUSE LIME. 143
dry substance is to the original substance. For example,
if the water is 43 per cent. , the dry substance is 100 43
or 57 per cent., and if the percentage of phosphoric acid
to the dry substance is 1.58, then 1.58x.57 is equal to
the percentage of phosphoric acid to the original sub-
stance, or .909.
111. The Figured Analysis. Water, sugar, organic
matter, silica, iron and aluminum oxides and caustic lime
are recorded as found. From the calcium oxide found
by precipitation with ammonium oxalate, the caustic
lime is subtracted to give the calcium oxide in combina-
tion with acids. Phosphoric acid and sulphuric acid are
combined with calcium oxide, and carbonic acid is com-
bined with the remainder of the calcium oxide and with
the magnesium oxide. The combining is effected, as
usual, with factors. For example, let the following rep-
resent the actual analysis of a sample of refuse lime :
Water ...................................................... 43.00
Organic Matter ............................................ 6 . 79
Sugar ..................................................... 1 . 14
Silica ...................................................... 5 . 28
Iron and Aluminum Oxides .................................. 75
Caustic Lime (CaO) ..................... ". .................. 4.05
Total Calcium Oxide ........................................ 25 . 75
Carbonic Acid (CO 2 ) ....................................... 16.55
Phosphoric Acid (P 2 O 5 ) ...................................... 90
Sulphuric Acid (SO 3 ) ....................................... 28
Magnesium Oxide ........................................... 47
The acids phosphoric, sulphuric and carbonic are first
combined with calcium oxide:
.90 (P 2 O 5 ) x 2. 1827 = 1.96, percent, calcium phosphate.
.28 (SO 3 ) x 1.6996 = .48, per cent, calcium sulphate.
For CaP 2 O 8 1.06 per cent. CaO is used, for CaSO 4
0.20 per cent, and the caustic lime is 4.05 per cent. The
OF THH
144 ANALYSIS OF REFUSE LIME.
total calcium oxide is 25.75, hence the amount to be com-
bined with carbonic acid is
25.75 (1.06 + .20 + 4 05 =5.31) or 20.44 percent.
20.44 x 1 7856 = 36 50, per cent, calcium carbonate.
The amount of carbonic acid used is 16.06, leaving
0.52 per cent, for combination with magnesium oxide.
0.52 x 1.9091 = .99, per cent, magnesium carbonate.
This is exactly sufficient to combine with all the mag-
nesium, for
0.47 (MgO) x 2 1 = .99, per cent, magnesium carbonate.
Resume :
Water 42 . 00
Organic Matter 6.79
Sugar 1.14
Silica 5 28
Iron and Aluminum Oxides . 75
Caustic Lime (CaO) 4 . 05
Calcium Phosphate 1 .96
Calcium Sulphate 1 . . , . 48
Calcium Carbonate 36.50
Magnesium Carbonate . 99
Undetermined . 06
100.00
CHAPTER XV.
ANALYSIS OF SYRUP OR MASSECUITE ASH.
112. The Sample. A sufficient amount of the sub-
stance should be taken to yield from 1.5 to 2 gr of ash.
The amount necessary may be determined by incinera-
tion with sulphuric acid as in 34b- The portion taken
is concentrated as much as possible by evaporation, and
is then charred at a moderate heat until no more gases
escape. The charcoal is then powdered and digested
with hot water. The solution, but none of the charcoal,
being- filtered into a porcelain dish. This is done re-
peatedly until all the soluble matter is extracted. The
sediment is then burned completely to ashes, cooled,
treated with a solution of ammonium carbonate and
burned again, moderately, until all ammonia is driven
off. It is now united with the filtrate containing the
soluble matter. This is evaporated to dryness in a
weighed platinum dish, heated moderately, cooled and
weighed, the weight in excess of the dish being the total
ashes. This weight divided by the weight of the origi-
nal substance taken and multiplied by 100, will give the
per cent. In the determinations which follow the per
cent, is figured both on the ash and on the original sub-
stance. The former is obtained according to 119, and
the latter is determined by multiplying whatever the
per cent, of the constituent is to the ash by the per cent,
which the ash is to the original substance. For example,
if one of the constituents of the ash is 12 per cent, of the
ash and the ash is 10 per cent, of the original substance,
the per cent, of the constituent to the original substance
is found by multiplying .12 by .10, which gives .0120 or
1.2 per cent.
146 ANALYSIS OF SYRUP OR MASSECUITE ASH.
113. Carbonic Acid. All the ashes obtained as
above are transferred to an alkalimeter and carbonic acid
determined as in
114. Silica Magnesium Oxide. The contents of the
alkalimeter are filtered into a 250 CC flask, the sediment on
the filter paper being" silica, and 50 CC of the contents of
the flask, after being* made up to the mark, are used for
the determination of iron and aluminum, calcium and
magnesium oxides, the estimation of each being" the
same as in limestone analysis (see 119 for calculation
of weig-hings).
115. Sulphuric Acid is also determined as in lime-
stone analysis by using 50 CC of the filtrate as above.
116. Sodium and Potassium Oxides. The total al-
kali chlorides are determined as in 6O, 50 CC of the 250 cC
filtrate being used. The residue remaining- after this
determination is then treated with platinic chloride and
the potassium oxide found as described in 98. The
sodium oxide is estimated by difference.
117. Phosphoric Acid. Another 50 CC portion of the
filtrate above is used for the phosphoric acid determina-
tion, which is made according to 94a.
118. Chlorine. A new and smaller portion of the
substance to be analyzed is taken for this determination.
It is charred at a moderate heat, and the sediment which
remains is moistened and pulverized, then being rinsed
into a 250 CC flask and boiled a short time with water.
After cooling-, without further consideration of the sus-
pended coal particles, make up to the mark with water,
shake well, and filter through a dry filter. Half the
filtrate is used for the chlorine estimation, which is
ANALYSIS OF SYRUP OR MASSECUITE ASH. 147
made by precipitation with silver nitrate, as in 5 1 . On
account of the strong- alkaline condition of the ash
extract, it should be neutralized by the addition of nitric
acid.
119. Calculation of Weighings. In analyses where a
certain number of grammes are made up to a certain
number of cubic centimeters, an aliquot portion repre-
sents either a gramme or such a fraction of a gramme,
that the calculation of weig'hing's can be made by a
simple multiplication. But in ash analysis the whole
ash is made up to 250 CC , no matter what its weig"ht ma} T
be, for if a certain definite portion were weig-hed off it
mig-ht not be an accurate averag-e of the whole. Conse-
quently, each weight must be fig-ured upon the whole
weig-ht of the ash used. The weig-hts of silica and car-
bonic acid are each divided by the weig-ht of the sub-
stance used, and multiplied by 100 to give the per cent.
For example, if 1.83 gr of ash are used and the carbonic
acid lost weig-hs .020& r , the per cent, of carbonic acid is
.020 H 1 83 x 100 = 1.09.
In determinations made from 50 CC of the 250 CC filtrate,
each weig-ht is multiplied by 5 to make it correspond to
the original substance, and is then divided by the weig-ht
of the ash and multiplied by 100 to give the per cent.
For example, the weig-ht of calcium carbonate is .0096 gr
which is multiplied by the factor .56, to give the weig-ht
of calcium oxide; .0096 x .56 = .0054 r . This is multi-
plied by 5 to give the weig-ht in 250 CC , or in the whole
original substance; .0054 x 5 = .027* r . Taking- 1.83, as
above, for the weig-ht of ash used, the per cent, of
calcium oxide is
.027 1 83 x 100 = 1 . 48.
148 ANALYSIS OF SYRUP OR MASSECUITK ASH.
The weight of chlorine is multiplied by 2, divided by
the weight of the ash used and multiplied by 100 to give
the per cent.
1 2O. The Figured Analysis. As the combination of
acids and bases is almost always the same, the figured
analysis will be illustrated by an example. Let it be
considered that the following is the result of the actual
analysis of a molasses ash, only the percentages relative
to the ash being given :
Carbonic Acid (CO 2 ) 21 . 00
Silica (Si0 2 ) 0.21
Iron and Aluminum Oxides . 93
Calcium Oxide 1 . 48
Magnesium Oxide . 26
Sulphuric Acid (SO 3 ) 5.32
Sodium Oxide 6.90
Potassium Oxide 50.88
Phosphoric Acid (P 2 O 5 ) 0.50
Chlorine 11.00
(/) The first operation is to combine all the chlo-
rine and phosphoric acid with potassium oxide. These
and all other combinations are effected by the use of
factors.
110 (Cl) x 2.1035 =23.14, per cent, potassium chloride.
5 (P 2 O 5 )x2 9903 = 1.50, per cent, potassium phosphate.
12.14 per cent, of potassium oxide is used in forming
the chloride and 1 per cent, in forming the phosphat^,
making a total of 13.14 per cent., and leaving 37.74 per
cent. (50.88 13.14) for other combinations.
( 2 ) All sodium oxide is combined with carbonic
acid.
.69 (Na 2 O) x 1.7067 = 11.78, per cent, sodium carbonate.
4.88 per cent, carbonic acid is used.
ANALYSIS OF SYRUP OR MASSECUITE ASH. 149
( j ) The mag-nesium oxide is combined equally with
sulphuric acid and carbonic acid.
13 (half MgO) x 3.0015 = 0.39, per cent, magnesium sulphate.
0.13 (half MgO) x 2.1 = 0.27, per cent, magnesium carbonate.
26 per cent, sulphuric acid and 0.14 per cent, carbonic acid are
used.
(4) The calcium oxide is combined equally with sul-
phuric acid and carbonic acid.
0.74 (half CaO) x 2.4294 = 1.80, per cent, calcium sulphate.
0.74 (half CaO) xl 7856 = 1.32, per cent, calcium carbonate.
1.04 per cent, sulphuric acid and 0.58 per cent, carbonic acid
are used.
(5 ) The potassium oxide remaining- in (1) is com-
bined with the remaining- sulphuric and carbonic acids.
The sulphuric acid used in (3) and (4) amounts to
(0.26 + 1.04) 1.30 per cent., leaving- 4.02 (5.32-1.30) for
combination with potassium oxide.
4.02 x 2.1773 = 8 75, per cent potassium sulphate.
The potassium oxide used is 4.73 per cent., leaving-
33.01 (37.74-4.73) for combination with carbonic acid.
The carbonic acid used in (2), (3) and (4) amounts to
5.60 per cent. (4.88 4- 0.14 -h 0.58), leaving- 15.40 per cent.
(21.0-5.60) for combination with potassium oxide.
33.01 (remaining K 2 O) x 1.4668 = 48.41, per cent, potassium
carbonate.
The carbonic acid used in this combination is 15.40,
exactly the amount remaining-. In analyses where, com-
binations do not come out correctly, the constituent in
excess is set down as described in 72.
The above fig-ures are each multiplied by the per cent,
the ash is to the original substance to give the respective
per cent, of each constituent to the original substance.
150
ANALYSIS OF SYRUP OR MASSECUITE ASH.
If, for example, the ash is 11 per cent, of the molasses
used, the whole analysis may be recorded as follows :
Per Cent, of
Ash.
Per Cent, of
Molasses.
Silica
0.21
.023
Iron and Aluminum Oxides
093
.102
Calcium Carbonate
1.32
.145
Calcium Sulphate
1 80
.198
Magnesium Carbonate
0.27
.029
Magnesium Sulphate . .
039
.042
Sodium Carbonate
11 78
1.296
Potassium Chloride
23.14
2545
Potassium Phosphate
1.50
.165
Potassium Sulphate
8.75
.962
Potassium Carbonate
48 71
5.358
Undetermined
1.30
.143
10000
11.008
CHAPTER XVI.
MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES.
121. Beet Seed. The value of beet seed is determ-
ined by the test for per cent, moisture, the test of non-
seed and the germination test. If a number of sacks of
the same seed are to be tested, take a small sample from
each one, inserting- a sampler into the sack. Make one
large sample from the smaller ones and mix very thor-
oughly. The moisture is found by weighing out 10 or
20 gr and drying- at 95C, until there is no further loss of
water. The weight lost divided by the weig-ht used will
give the per cent, moisture.
Weig-h 10 gr of the average sample and shake in a
sieve freeing the seeds from all dust. Discard any foreign
matter that is not seed, such as dried leaves and the
blossoms which come from the top of the seed stem.
The latter look like small dead seeds. Weigh the sample
again, and the weight lost by the above operations
divided by 10 (the weight used) will give the per cent,
of non-seed.
From the pure seed obtained by the non-seed test
weigh out 2 g r for the germination test and count the
number of seeds in this weighing. Plant these seeds an
inch apart, in squares, a half inch deep in very light
soil, mostly sand. For this purpose use a box (Fig. 50)
about ten inches wide, about 25 inches long and not less
than 2 nor more than 3 inches deep. These are inside
measurements. The box is fitted with nails an inch
apart and threads are stretched between the opposite
nails on the sides and also on the ends. The seeds are
152
MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES.
planted where the crossing's are made by these string's,
so the operator knows where to look for the plants to
come up.
Fig 50.
The g-ermination test lasts fifteen days from the time
of planting-. During- this period keep the soil moist on
top all the time, watering every morning- and when nec-
essary during- the day. Use the water from a bucket
kept standing- near the g-ermination box, for it must be
of the same temperature as the room. Keep the box in a
hot house having- a temperature of from 75 to 85 Far. ,
and g-ive it all the sun possible. Make a record every
day at the same hour of the number of seeds which have
sprouted up to that time, and also of the number which
have come up and died. At the end of the fifteen days
count the total number of plants (g-erms) living-, also the
number that have died, fig-uring- the number of g-erms
per seed. Also count the number of seeds having- 1
g-erm, 2 g-erms, 3 g-erms, etc. From the total number of
g-erms is fig-ured the monetary value of the seed. It is
usual to consider a 2 gr sample having- 150 g-erminations
MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. 153
as the standard, and a sample having- more or less germs
has a greater or less value in proportion. Some fixed
value, e. g., 20 cents per kilo, is taken as a standard and
all germination tests are fig-ured on this basis.
Example :
A test shows 140 g-erminations. Its value on the
basis of 20 cents per kilo for standard seed fig-ured by
the proportion :
150 : 140 : : 20 : x
x = 18 67, the value in cents per kilo.
be
'
O
O
^J
g
oj
1/3
iH
bjo
2
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Si2
a! O.CJ
TJ- r<5 00
rH Tf rH ?\
rH O O O
LO vO
5s
rH ^- rH
^ T(- v^
(^ Tj- U) ON ^t
t^ X d 1^
rH C^ VO d
- 1^. 00 vO
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^O 00 1> f O Tf
rH rH \O
M CO Cq rH CO
<* O O rH O rH
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o o o o o
Date
anted.
eeds
ampl
oS
o oo ro
6.
MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. 155
122. Sulphur. In the examination of sulphur for
decolorizing purposes it is usual to determine the water,
organic matter and ash, the sum of these subtracted from
100 giving the per cent, of sulphur. Weigh out 10* r of
the coarsely powdered sample in a porcelain crucible for
the moisture determination and dry at 100C. Weigh
and estimate the per cent, of water lost. In this de-
termination the weighings must be made as quickly as
possible, as the sample readily absorbs moisture from
the air. After determining the water, heat the crucible
and contents over a low flame and light the sulphur
with a match. The crucible is now removed from the
flame and placed where the fumes will readily go off in
the air. When the sulphur is all burned, cool the cruci-
ble in a dessicator and weigh, recording the weight.
The contents now consist of the ash and the organic
matter. The latter is burned away over a moderate
flame and the crucible cooled and weighed again. The
difference between this weight and the one just recorded,
is the weight of organic matter and is calculated into
percentage, and the difference between the last weighing
and the weight of the crucible is the ash, which is also
calculated into percentage. As before stated, the sum
of the per cent, moisture, organic matter and ash is sub-
tracted from 100 to give the per cent, sulphur.
Sulphur can usually be obtained in a very pure state,
the following being two sample analyses :
Per Cent. Moisture 10 .17
Per Cent. Organic Matter 38 .30
PerCent. Ash 03 .01
Per Cent. Sulphur 99.49 99.52
100.00 100.00
1 5 MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES.
123* Anhydrous Ammonia* In factories having
Steffen's plants, where the cooling- is done artificially by
a refrigerating machine, it is of considerable importance
to determine the quality of anhydrous ammonia used.
HENRY FAUROT, in an article in Cassier's Magazine,
gives the determination of boiling point as the principal
test. The lower the boiling- point, the freer the ammo-
nia is of impurities. Also, the lower the temperature at
which the ammonia expands, the cheaper it is to use.
MR. FAUROT determines the boiling- point as follows :
"Draw off (from the ammonia cylinder) about six to
eig-ht ounces of liquid ammonia into a cylindrical-
shaped g-lass or chemical beaker. Place this on a wet
plate or surround it with water, and when it boils insert
into it the bulb only of a special low standard chemical
thermometer, reading- off throug-h the walls of the glass,
and observing the temperature when the mercury
remains stationary, as the boiling point. Commercially
pure liquid ammonia should boil at not higher than 28.6
degrees below zero F ; lower temperature denotes purer
ammonia, while a less pure ammonia boils at a higher
temperature. In testing for the boiling point, the ther-
mometer should be held as stationary as possible, and
not moved about in the liquid."
It is of importance to determine whether inflammable
gases are present in the ammonia, as they are the prin-
cipal impurities, and are especially harmful in the fact
that they decompose the ammonia and lessen its refrig-
erating power. The following qualitative test is suffi-
cient: A short iron pipe is screwed into the valve of the
ammonia cylinder and is so bent that the ammonia can
be discharged into the bottom of a bucket of cold water.
Submerge over the mouth of the pipe a glass funnel,
MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. 157
with the end of the stem tightly corked. Allow the am-
monia to flow in a small stream and the ammonia gas
will be absorbed by the water, while the other gases
will rise to the top of the funnel. If methane or other
inflammable gases are present, they will, if released and
lighted with a match, burn with a blue flame.
1 24. Lubricating Oils* are often adulterated by the
addition of low grade oils and other matters. The ex-
amination of the principal lubricants is conducted as fol-
lows, the tests given being for the most common
substances used in adulteration :
Castor Oil. Dissolve in alcohol and if black poppy
oil is present it will remain as a residue.
Cocoanut Oil should dissolve completely in cold ether.
If adulterants are present, the etheral solution will be
muddy. The oil also has a more grayish color when
adulterated than when pure. Mutton suet, beef marrow
and other animal greases are most commonly used for
adulteration.
Lard. Melt at a low temperature, and if water is
present it will separate from the grease. Digest the
lard with hot distilled water and test with silver nitrate
for chlorides (common salt). Melt the lard in warm
water, and if plaster of paris is present it will go to the
bottom in the form of a white powder.
*Adapted from R. S. CHRISTIANI.
158 MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES.
Linseed OH. The oil if pure will become a pale pink
if treated with hyponitric acid and dark yellow if treated
with ammonia, giving a thick soap in the latter case.
Neatsfoot Oil. Test the same as castor oil.
Olive Oil. Test the same as castor oil.
Rapeseed Oil. Ammonia gives a yellowish colored
soap when added to the oil containing- mustard and
whale oil, and a white soap when the oil is pure. Chlo-
rine gas colors the oil brown when it contains whale oil,
but if pure it remains colorless.
Tallow. Dissolve in ether and foreign substances will
remain as a residue. Test this residue for starch by the
addition of iodine water, a blue color indicating- starch.
Other parts of the residue may be tested in the well-
known ways (with ammonia and with ammonium oxalate)
for. aluminum and calcium, the former indicating- the
presence of kaoline and the latter marble dust. Test
also for sulphuric acid with barium chloride, as barium
sulphate is also used as an adulterant. Intermix a small
portion of the tallow with half its volume of dried and
powdered copper sulphate. If water is present, the
mixture will turn blue if the tallow is white, and green
if the tallow is yellow.
The Purity of lubricating- oils is often approximately
determined by taking- their specific gravity by means of
a pycnometer or with the Beaume hydrometer (see 76)
and comparing- them with the known specific gravities of
standard samples. If, in this test, there is any wide di-
vergence found, the sample is assuredly impure. The
following is WALUS-TAYLER'S table of specific gravity
for oils :
MISCELLANEOUS
TABLE E.
Standard Specific Gravities of Lubricants.
159
NAME.
SP. G.
NAME.
SP. G.
Castor
9611
Palm
9680
Cocoanut
9202
Paraffin, volatile
.7 to .865
Cocoanut Butter
8920
Paraffin, heavy
.865 to 9
Cod Liver
917 to 92
Paraffin, solid
.9 to .93
Colza
.9136
Petroleum
.8800
Cotton Seed
.9252 i
Piney Tallow
.9260
Flax
3 9347
Rape
.9136
Grape Seed
.9202
Rosin .
.9900
Hemp
9276
Sperm ....
8810
Lard
.9380
Sun-fish .
874to 879
Linseed
9347
Sunflower .
9262
Neatsfoot
.9250
Tar
1 2600
Nut
.9260
Turpentine
.8640
Olive
.9176
Whale
.911*0.922
Oxidation of Oils. The length of time an oil is fit
for lubrication is tested by finding* how long it takes to
oxidize. NASMYTH recommends for this a common plate
of iron 6^ feet long by 4 inches wide, such as may
always be found in the blacksmith shop of a sugar
factory. On one surface are cut, with a planing ma-
chine, a number of parallel longitudinal grooves. One
end of the plate is raised about 8 inches higher than the
other and equal small portions of the different oils to be
tested are poured into the grooves at the upper end. The
distance each oil traverses down its particular groove is
noted, and also the length of time that elapses before
each oil becomes thickened by oxidation and ceases to
flow. This often takes several days.
Flash TesU The power of lubricants to resist over-
heating in work is determined by the flash test described
in 76. Animal and vegetable oils should not flash
under 400 and mineral oils should not flash under 300.
l6o MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES.
125. Fluxes and Rust Joints. It is not at all an in-
frequent occurrence that a machinist comes to the
laboratory and asks for some chemical to use as a flux in
soldering- or welding- certain metals, or for some com-
pound to use in making- a rust joint. The following- is a
list of fluxes for common metals ;
Brass Sal Ammoniac Lead Resin (or Tallow)
Copper Sal Ammoniac Lead and Tin. Resin and Sweet Oil
Iron Borax Zinc Zinc Chloride
Iron (tinned) Resin
A quick-setting- rust cement for calking- joints in cast-
iron pipes, tanks, etc., is made with 1 part sal ammoniac,
2 parts powdered sulphur, and 80 parts iron boring's.
Add water and make a thick paste. A better rust joint,
but one which sets more slowly, is made, according- to
MOLESWORTH, with 2 parts sal ammoniac, one part pow-
dered sulphur, and 200 parts of iron borings. Make into
a thick paste with water.
126. Crude Acids for boiling- out evaporators are
tested only for sp. g-., and this is done with a Beaume
spindle, being- compared with Table II. The streng-th
of the acids increase with their specific gravity. The
accompanying tables, F, G and H, show the strength of
hydrochloric, sulphuric and nitric acid for the corre-
sponding specific gravity.
127. Soda used in boiling out multiple effects is
tested only for its percentage of sodium carbonate.
Weigh out 2 gr of the sample, transfer to an alkalimeter
and find the weight of carbonic acid lost (see 52),
Divide this weight by 2 (the weight used) and multiply
by 100 to obtain the percentage of carbonic acid. This
percentage multiplied by the factor 2.4117, gives the
percentage of sodium carbonate.
MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. l6l
Example :
Weight of alkalitneter and soda 75 . 9568 r
Weight of same after operation 75 . 147gr
809gr
0.809 ~ 2 x 100 = 40.45 per cent. CO 2 .
40.45 x 2.4117 = 97.55 per cent, sodium carbonate.
162
MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES.
TABLE F.
Showing the strength of Hydrochloric Acid (Muriatic Acid) Solutions
TEMPERATURE, 153 c.
[Graham-Otto's I,ehrb. d. Chem. 3 Aufl. II. Bd. 1. Abth. p. 382.]
Sp. Gr.
HCl.
Cl.
Sp. Gr.
HCl.
Cl.
Sp. Gr.
HCl.
Cl
1.2000
40.777
39.675
1.1328
26.913
26.186
1.0657
13.456
13.094
1.1982
40.369
39.278
1 . 1308
26.505
25 . 789
1.0637
13.049
12.697
1 1964
39.961
38.882
1 . 1287
26.098
25.392
1.0617
12.641
12.300
1.1946
39.554
38.485
1 . 1267
25.690
24.996
1 . 0597
12.233
11.903
1.1928
39 . 146
38.089
1 . 1247
25.282
24.599
1 . 0577
11.825
11.506
1.1910
38.738
37.692
1 . 1226
24.874
24.202
1 . 0557
11.418
11 . 109
1 1893
38.330
37.296
1 . 1206
24.466
23.805
1 . 0537
11.010
10.712
1.1875
37.923
36.900
1 . 1185
24.058
23.408
1 1.0517
10.602
10.316
1 1857
37.516
36.503
1.1164
23.650
23.012
1 . 0497
10.194
9.919
1.1846
37.108
36 . 107
1 . 1143
23.242
22.615
1 . 0477
9.786
9 522
1.1822
36.700
35.707
1 . 1123
22.834
22.218
1.0457
9.379
9.126
1.1802
36.292
35 310
1 . 1102
22.426
21.822
1.0437
8.971
8.729
1.1782
35.884
34.913
1 . 1082
22.019
21.425
1.0417
8.563
8.332
1.1762
35.476
34.517
1 . 1061
21.611
21.028
1.0397
8.155
7.935
1 1741
35.068
34.121
1 . 1041
21.203
20.632
1.0377
7.747
7.538
1 1721
34.660
33.724
1 . 1020
20.796
20.235
1.0357
7.340
7.141
11701
34.252
33.328
1 . 1000
20.388
19.837
1.0337
6.932
6.745
1 1681
33.845
32.931
1.0980
19.980
19 . 440
1.0318
6.524
6.348
1.1661
33.437
32.535
1.0960
19.572
19.044
1.0298
6.116
5.951
1.1641
33.029
32.136
1.C939
19.165
18.647
1.0279
5.709
5.554
1 1620
32.621
31.746
1.0919
18.757
18.250
1.0259
5.301
5.158
1 1599
32.213
31.343
1.0899
18 . 349
17.854
1.0239
4.893
4.762
11578
31.805
30.946
1.0879
17.941
17.457
1.0220
4.486
4.365
11557
31.398
30.550
1.0859
17.534
17.060
1.0200
4.078
3.968
1 1537
30.990
30.153
1.0838
17.126
16.664
1.0180
3.670
3.571
11515
30.582
29.757
1.0818
16.718
16 . 267
1.0160
3.262
3.174
1 1494
30.174
29.361
1.0798
16.310
15 . 870
1.0140
2.854
2.778
1 1473
29.767
28.964
1.0778
15.902
15 . 474
1 . 0120
2.447
2.381
1 1452
29.359
28.567
1.0758
15.494
15 . 077
1 . 0100
2.039
1.984
1 1431
28 951
28.171
1.0738
15.087
14.680
1.0080
1.631
1.588
1.1410
28 . 544
27.772
1.0718
14.679
14.284
1.0060
1.124
1.191
1 1389
28.136
27.376
1.0697
14.271
13.887
1 . 0040
0.816
0.795
1 1369
27.728
26.979
1.0677
13.863
13.490
1.0020
0.408
0.397
1 1349
27.321
26 . 583
TABLE G.
Showing the Strength of Sulphuric Acid of Different Densities, at
15 Centigrade. (Otto's Table. )
Per. Cent ol
H2SO4-
Specific
Gravity
Per Cent, of
so 3 .
Per Cent, of
H2S04 .
Specific
Gravity
Per Cent, of
S0 3 .
100
1.8426
81.63
50
1.3980
40.81
99
1.8420
80.81
49
1.3866
40.00
98
1.8406
80.00
48
1.3790
39.18
97
1.8400
79.18
47
1.3700
38.36
96
1.8384
78.36
46
1.3610
37.55
95
1.8376
77.55
45
1.3510
36.73
94
1.8356
7673
44
1 . 3420
35.82
93
1 . 8340
7591
43
1.3330
35.10
92
1 . 8310
75 10
42
1.3240
34.28
91
1.8270
7428
41
1.3150
33.47
90
1.8220
73.47
40
1.3060
32.65
89
1.8100
7265
39
.2976
31.83
88
1.8090
7183
38
.2890
31.02
87
1 . 8020
7102
37
.2810
30.20
86
1.7940
70 10
36
.2720
29.38
85
1.7860
69.38
35
.2640
28.57
84
1.7770
68.57
34
.2560
27.75
83
1 . 7670
67 75
33
.2476
26.94
82
1 . 7560
6694
32
.2390
26.12
81
1 . 7450
66.12
31
.2310
25.30
80
1.7340
6530
30
1.2230
24.49
79
1.7220
64.48
29
1.2150
23.67
78
1.7100
6367
28
1.2066
22.85
77
1.6980
6285
27
1 . 1980
22.03
76
1.6860
62 04
26
1.1900
21.22
75
1.6750
6122
25
1 . 1820
20.40
74
1.6630
6040
24
1 . 1740
19.58
73
1.6510
5959
23
1 . 1670
18.77
72
1.6390
5877
22
.1590
17.95
71
1.6270
57 95
21
.1516
17.14
- 70
1.6150
57 14
20
.1440
16.32
69
1.6040
5632
19
.1360
15.51
68
1.5920
5559
18
.1290
14.69
67
1.5800
5469
17
.1210
13.87
66
1.5860
53.87
16
.1136
13.06
65
1 . 5570
5305
15
. 1060 '
12.24
64
1.5450
5222
14
.0980
11.42
63
1.5340
5142
13
.0910
10.61
62
1.5230
5061
12
.0830
9.79
61
1.5120
49 79
11
.0756
8.98
60
1.5010
4898
10
.0680
8.16
59
1.4900
48 16
9
.0610
7.34
58
1 . 4800
4734
8
.0536
6.53
57
1 . 4690
4653
7
.0464
5.71
56
.4586
45.71
6
.0390
4.89
55
.4480
44.89
5
1.0320
4.08
54
.4380
44.07
4
1.0256
3.26
53
.4280
4326
3
1.0190
2.44
52
.4180
42.45
2
1.0130
1.63
51
.4080
4163
1
1.0064
0.81
TABLE H.
Showing the Strength of Nitric Acid by Specific Gravity. Hydrated
and Anhydride.
TEMPERATURE 15 o .
(Fresenius, Zeitschrift f. analyt. Chemie. 5.449.)
Sp. Gr.
100 PARTS
CONTAIN
Sp. Gr.
100 PARTS
CONTAIN
at 150 C.
N20 5
N03
at 150 c.
N20s
N0 3 H
1.530
85.71
100.00
1.488
75.43
88.00
1.530
85.57
99.84
1.486
74.95
87.45
1.530
85.47
99.72
1.482
73.86
86.17
1.529
85.30
99.52
1.478
72.16
85.00
1.523
83.90
97.89
1.474
72.00
84.00
1.520
83.14
97.00
1.470
71.14
83.00
1.516
82.28
96.00
1.467
70.28
82.00
1.514
81.66
95.27
1.463
69.39
80.96
1.509
80.57
94.00
1.460
68.57
80.00
1.506
79.72
93.01
1.456
67.71
79.00
1.503
78.85
92.00
1.451
66.56
77.66
1.499
78.00
91.00
1.445
65.14
76.00
1.495
77.15
90.00
1.442
64.28
75.00
1.494
76.77
89.56
1.438
63.44
74.01
1.435
62.57
73.00
1.295
39.97
46.64
1.432
62.05
72 39
1.284
38.57
45.00
1. 429
61.06
71.24
1.274
37.31
43.53
1.423
60.00
69.96*
1.264
36.00
42.00
1.419
59.31
69.20
1.257
35.14
41.00
1.414
58.29
68.00
1.251
34.28
40.00
1.410
57.43
67.00
1.244
^ *"> A 1
oo . 4o
39.00
1.405
56.57
66.00
1.237
32.53
37.95
1.400
55.77
65.07
1.225'
30.86
36.00
1.395
54.85
64.00
.218
29.29
35.00
1.393
54.50
63.59
.211
29.02
33.86
1.386
53.14
62.00
.198
27.43
32.00
1.381
52.46
61.21
.192
26.57
31.00
1.374
51.43
60.00
.185
25.71
30.00
1.372
51.08
59.59
1.179
24.85
29.00
1.368
50.47
58.88
1.172
24.00
28.00
1.363
49.71
58.00
1.166
23.14
27.00
1.358
48.86
57.00
1.157
22.04
25.71
1.353
48.08
56.10
1.138
19.71
23.00
1.346
47.14
55.00
1.120
17.14
20.00
1.341
46.29
54.00
1.105
14.97
17.47
1.339
46.12
53.81t
1.089
12.85
15.00
1.335
45.40
53.00
1.077
11.14
13.00
1.331
44.85
52.33
1.067
9.77
11.41
1.323
43.70
50.99
1.045
6.62
7.22
1.317
42.83
49.97
1.022
3.42
4.00
1.312
42.00
49.00
1.010
1.71
2.00
1.304
41.14
48.00
0.999
0.00
0.00
1.298
40.44
47.18
* Formula : NOsH
f Formula : NOsH + 3H2O.
PART III.
Preparation of Reagents.
CHAPTER XVII.
PREPARATION OF REAGENTS.
128. Lead Acetate (Basic Acetate of Lead Solution}.
Put 900s r of acetate of lead and 300 ?r of lead oxide in
1 liter of water at 150P. Let stand in a warm place
for two days, shaking- every few hours. Solutions of
other densities can be made by using- different amounts
of the acetate* and oxide, but in the same proportion of 3
to 1. In most German factories a solution with a sp. g-.
of 1.20 to 1.25 is used. The beet analysts at Chino pre-
fer a solution having- a sp. g. of from 1.30 to 1.35, for
rapid beet work, and G. L. SPENCER says the U. S. De-
partment . of Agriculture analysts also prefer a very
concentrated solution.
1 29. Alumina Cream, according; to the directions of
the U. S. Department Internal Revenue, is prepared as
follows : Shake up powdered commercial alum with
water at ordinary temperature until a saturated solution
is obtained. Set aside a little of the solution, and to
the residue add ammonia, little by little, stirring-
between additions, until the mixture is alkaline to litmus
paper. Then drop in additions of the portions left
aside, until the mixture is just acid to litmus paper. By
this procedure a cream of aluminum hydroxide is obtained
suspended in a solution of ammonium sulphate, the
presence of which is not at all detrimental for sug-ar
work when added after subacetate of lead, the ammo-
nium sulphate precipitating- whatever excess of lead
may be present.
PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. 1 67
130. Normal Sodium Solution. 53. 08 r of pure
sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) previously ignited to dull
redness, are dissolved in water, and the solution is
diluted to exactly 1 liter.
131. /Normal Hydrochloric Acid. Dilute 200 OC of
pure hydrochloric acid of 1.10 sp. g. with water to 1
liter. Normal acid should be of such strength that a
certain amount of it will exactly neutralize an equal
amount of normal sodium solution. The proportion
above given will make an acid that is too strong-. Take
20 CC of normal sodium solution, color with phenol, and
add enough of the acid made to neutralize the sodium,
measuring- the amount of acid used with a burette. If,
for example, it is found by repeated experiments that
17.8 CC of acid neutralizes the 20 CC of sodium solution,
then the acid must be diluted to 20 CC by adding- 2.2 CC of
water, and all the acid must be diluted in the same pro-
portion.
Example:
60 CC has been used to find the streng-th of the acid;
then 940 CC of acid remain.
17.8 :2.2 ::940 : x
x=116 2,
The number of cc of water that must be added to the
940 CC of acid to make a normal solution. After adding
this water, verify by seeing- if 20 CC of the acid will neu-
tralize the 20 CC of the sodium solution.
132. /Normal Sulphuric Acid. Pour, while con-
stantly stirring-, one part of concentrated sulphuric acid
into 15 equal parts of water, and, after cooling, make
110 CC of the solution up to 1100 CC with water. Mix thor-
oughly and measure off 100 CC . In three parts of 25 CC
J 68 PREPARATION OF REAGENTS.
each of this amount determine the weight of sulphuric
anhydride (SO 3 ) in each l cc of the solution, analyzing
with barium sulphate, as described in 59. Three tests
are made to insure accuracy. From the contents of sul-
phuric acid, as determined by the tests, estimate how
much water must be added to the remaining- liter of solu-
tion so that each cc will contain 0.040 gr of SCK
Example :
The average of the three tests gives 0.313 gr of barium
sulphate in 25 CC of the acid or 1.252 gr in 100 CC . Convert-
ing- to SO 3 by use of the factor,
1 . 252 x . 3432 = . 4297s*.
Therefore each 100 CC must be diluted according to the
formula :
. 40 : . 4297 : : 100 : x
x = 107.425,
A dilution of 7.425 CC for each 100 CC or 74.25 CC for the
liter. After adding this amount of water to the liter of
acid it is well to make a final test.
133. /Normal /Nitric Acid. Dilute 200 CC concentrated
nitric acid of 1.2 sp. g. with water to 1 liter, and then
proceed exactly as with the formation of normal hydro-
chloric acid.
1 34. The Special Acid for alkalinities is made ac-
cording to 36. It may be made from hydrochloric,
nitric or sulphuric acid.
135. Phenol (Phenolphtalein). Dissolve the phe-
nolphtalein powder in the smallest amount of alcohol
and dilute with water to 4 or 5 times the volume of alco-
hol. This indicator turns red in the presence of alkalies.
PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. 169
136. Rosolic Acid. Dissolve 1 part in 100 parts of
alcohol. This indicator becomes colorless in the pres-
ence of free acid.
137. Cochineal. Mix 3 r of pulverized cochineal
with 50 CC of strong- alcohol and 200** of water. Let stand
for 48 hours, shaking frequently.
138. Litmus Solution. Digest 1 part of powdered
litmus with 6 parts of alcohol on a water bath until the
coloring matter soluble in alcohol is dissolved. Pour off
the alcoholic solution and digest the residue with dis-
tilled water. Filter and divide the fluid into two por-
tions. In one portion stir with a glass rod dipped in very
dilute nitric acid until the color just appears red. Add
enough of the second portion to bring back the blue
color and then turn the mixture red with the rod and
acid as before. Add the remainder of the second portion
and the whole should be perfectly neutral. Mix with an
equal part of 90 per cent, alcohol and preserve in an un-
stoppered bottle away from acid fumes.
139. Litmus Paper. Prepare a litmus solution as
above and divide in two portions. Make one portion red
by the addition of a drop or two of nitric acid and the
other a distinct blue by a drop or two of caustic soda so-
lution. Dip strips of Swedish filter paper in the red so-
lution for acid paper and into the blue for alkaline
paper. Dry away from laboratory fumes and preserve
in an unstoppered bottle. For ordinary work any un-
glazed paper may be used but in chemical analysis where
small pieces of the paper are often burned with the pre-
cipitates, the Swedish paper must be used. Acid solu-
tions turn blue litmus paper red and alkaline solutions
turn the red paper blue.
l7o PREPARATION OF RE AGENTS*.
140. Turmeric Paper. Boil 1 part of powdered
turmeric with 4 parts of alcohol and 2 of water. Filter
and dip strips of unglazed paper into the filtrate. Dry
and preserve in a stoppered bottle away from the light.
Free alkalies turn the yellow color of the paper to brown.
141. Silver /Nitrate Solution {Standard}. Dissolve
4.794 gr of pure crystallized silver nitrate in 1 liter of
water. Kach cc of this solution will precipitate l mg of
chlorine, and in a solution of common salt the precipi-
tate formed from the use of 25 CC of the silver nitrate
solution should weig-h 0.101 gr .
142. Fehling's Solution (Soxhlefs Modification'} is
prepared as follows :
(1) Dissolve 34.639 gr of copper sulphate (free from
nitric acid) in water and dilute to 500 CC .
(2) Dissolve I73 ?r of sodium and potassium tartrate
(Rochelle salts) in water and dilute to 400 CC , mixing- the
solution with 100 CC of sodium hydroxide solution. The
latter is prepared by dissolving- 500 gr of caustic soda in 1
liter of water, and should be of 1.393 sp. g-. at 15C.
Mix i and 2 in equal volumes immediately before
using-.
143. Solution for Standardizing Fehling's. -- The
method for determining- the amount of invert sug-ar nec-
essary to reduce the copper in 10 CC of Fehling-'s mixed so-
lutions is g-iven in 48. For determining- how much dex-
trose is necessary for the same purpose, dissolve 4 gr of
pure anhydrous dextrose in distilled water and make up
to 1 liter. Bach cc of this solution will then contain
0.004 gr dextrose. Make the test as usual and the number
PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. 1 71
of cc of the solution used, multiplied by 4, will give the
number of milligrammes of dextrose which reduce the
copper.
144. Pipette Solution (for cleaning-). Dissolve 1
part bichromate of potash in 10 parts water and add 1
part concentrated sulphuric acid. This solution is used
to cleanse pipettes from the film of fat which sometimes
forms on the inside. Fill the pipette with the solution,
cork one end and stand on the stopped end for twenty-
four hours.
145. Molybdic Solution. Dissolve 50* r of molybdic
acid in 20Qs r or 208 CC of ammonia, specific gravity, 0.96,
and pour the solution thus obtained into 750* r or 625 CC of
nitric acid, specific gravity 1.20. Keep the mixture in a
warm place for several days, or until a portion heated to
40 deposits no yellow precipitate of ammonium phos-
phomolybdate. Decant the solution from any sediment
and preserve it in glass-stoppered vessels.
146. Magnesia Mixture. Dissolve ll* r of recently
ignited calcined magnesia in dilute hydrochloric acid,
avoiding an excess of the latter. Add a little calcined
magnesia in excess, and boil a few minutes to precipitate
iron, alumina, and phosphoric acid ; filter ; add 140 gr of
ammonium chloride, 3SO CC of ammonia of specific grav-
ity 0.96, and water enough to make a volume of 1 liter.
Instead of the solution of ll* r of calcined magnesia,
155 gr of crystallized magnesium chloride (MgCl 2 .6H 2 O)
may be used.
147. Ammonium Citrate Solution. Dissolve 185* r
of commercial citric acid in 750 CC of water; nearly neu-
tralize with commercial ammonia; cool; add ammonia
172 PREPARATION OF REAGENTS.
until exactly neutral '(testing- with alcoholic solution of
rosolic acid), and bring- to volume of 1 liter. Determine
the specific gravity, which should be 1.0900 at 20,, be-
fore using-.
148. Baryta Solution. Pour 300 or 400 CC of boiling
water over 25 gr of crystallized barium hydrate, and filter
the hot solution quickly throug-h a folded filter, into a
bottle, then diluting- to 1 liter. Utmost speed is neces-
sary as the fluid is liable to become dim by the forma-
tion of barium carbonate, carbonic acid being- attracted
from the air. The making- of a normal baryta solution
is not advisable, as it is unstable, and the value of the
solution, as made above, must always be determined
before using- (see 96). Litmus solution should always
be used as an indicator with this preparation.
149. Orsat's Apparatus Reagents are described in
87.
1 5O. Powdered Glass or Sand for use in determin-
ing the dry substance of massecuites should be thorough-
ly dig-ested with warm and dilute hydrochloric acid to
dissolve all foreign material, then washed with water,
dried at 100 and preserved in a perfectly air-tig-ht jar.
PREPARATION OF REAGENTS.
173
TABLE I.
PREPARATION OF REAGENTS.
NAME.
Symbol.
PREPARATION.
Aqua Regia
Prepare when required by adding
Sodium Hydrate
Potassium Hydrate
Baryta Water
NaOH
KOH
BaO 2 H 2
three or four parts of concentrated
HC1 to 1 part concentrated HNOs.
Dissolve 1 part pure caustic soda in
20 parts of water
Dissolve 1 part pure caustic potas-
sium in 20 parts of water.
Dissolve 1 part barium hydrate in 5
Calcium Hydrate .
CaO 2 H 2
parts of water.
Digest slacked lime with cold water.
Sodium Carbonate
Ammonium Chloride...
" Sulphate
Oxalate
" Carbonate.-
Sulphide...
Potassium Sulphate
" Iodide .
Na 2 C0 3
(NH) 4 C1
(NH 4 ) 2 S0 4
(NH 4 ) 2 C 2 4
(NH 4 ) 2 C0 3
(Nt 4 ) 2 S
K 2 SO 4
KI
shaking occasionally. Filter off
the clear liquid.
When required dissolve 1 part of the
salt in 5 parts of water. Do not
let stand in a glass bottle.
Dissolve 1 part in 6 parts of water.
Dissolve 1 part in 5 parts of water.
Dissolve 1 part of the pure salt in
20 parts of water.
Dissolve 1 part in o parts of water
and add 1 part of ammonia water.
Pass sulphuretted hydrogen thro'gh
ammonia until saturated. Then
add % of the volume of the same
ammonia.
Dissolve 1 part of the salt in 12
parts of water.
Chromate ....
Ferri cyanide..
" Ferrocyanide .
Barium Chloride
K 2 Cr0 4
K6Fe 2 Cy Z2
K 4 FeCy 6
Df.pl
Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts of water .
Prepare only when required by dis-
solving 1 part of the salt in 12
parts of water.
Dissolve 1 part of the salt in 12 parls
of water.
11 Carbonate .'.
TJoPf).
of water
" Hydrate
nate to give it a thick consistency.
Copper Sulphate
Platinum Bichloride . .
Silver Nitrate.
CuS04
PtCl 4
A rrfj C\
Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts of water.
[See 142 for Fehling's solution.]
The cheapest way to obtain this
reagent is to buy the 5 per cent,
solution of commerce.
Acetic Acid ....
AgNL3
[See 141 for standard solution.]
Sodium Phosphate ....
2 rl 4 VJ 2
HNa 2 PO 4
cake analysis use the No. 8 acid
which contains 30 per cent. C 2 H 4
O 2 .
Dissolve 1 part of pure salt in ]0
+12H 2
parts of water.
174
PREPARATION OF REAGENTS.
TABLE I CONTINUED.
PREPARATION OF REAGENTS.
NAME.
Symbol.
PRBPARATION.
Hydrogen Disodium
Phosphate
[See sodium phosphate ]
Calcium Sulphate
CaSO 4
Digest in cold water and pour off
Hydrochloroplatinic
Acid .
H 2 PtCl6
the clear liquid for use.
Dissolve 1 part of the acid in 10
Ammonium Nitrate
parts of water. [See platinum
bichloride.]
Magnesia Mixture
[See 146 ]
Molybdic Solution
[See 145 ]
Magnesium Nitrate
Solution
[See 95a.]
Potassium bichromate . .
11 Ferrocyanide.
Acetic Acid
K 2 Cr 2 O 7
K6Fe 2 Cyi2
C 2 H 4 O 2
Dissolve 1 part ol the salt in 10
parts of water.
For Fehling's test dissolve 2gr of
the salt in lOOcc of water.
No. 8 acetic acid (30 per cent CaH4
PMRT IV.
TABLES
i 7 6
TABLE 1.
BRIX TEMPERATURE CORRECTION.
For Variations from Normal, IT
<i
a,
APPROXIMATE DEGREE BRIX AN* CORRECTION.
Ho
= -
s
. 5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
50
60
70
75
32
27
30
41
52
6?
7?
8?
9?
P8
1 11
1 w
1 9S
1 9Q
41
23
30
37
44
52
SQ
6S
79
7S
80
88
91
4
10
50.
.20
.26
.29
.33
.36
.39
.42
.45
.48
.50
.54
.58
.61
11
51.8
.18
.23
.26
.28
.31
.34
.36
.39
.41
.43
.47
.50
.53
12
53.6
.16
.20
.22
.24
.26
.29
.31
.33
.34
.36
.40
.42
.46
13
55.4
.14
.18
.19
.21
.22
.24
.26
.27
.28
.29
.33
.35
.39
14
57.2
.12
.15
.16
.17
.18
.19
.21
.22
.22
.23
.26
.28
.32
15
59.0
.09
.11
.12
.14
.14
.15
.16
.17
.16
.17
.19
.21
.25
16
60.8
.06
.07
.08
.09
.10
.10
.11
.12
.12
.12
.14
.16
.18
17
62.6
.02
.02
.03
.03
.03
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
&
.05
.06
[Add the correction to readings above 17^C (63>F) and subtract
the correction from those below this temperature.]
18
64.4
.02
.03
.03
.03
.03! .03
.03
.03
.03
.03
.03
.031 .02
19
66.2
.06
.06
.08
.08
.091^09
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
.08 .06
20
68.0
.11
.14
.15
.17
.IjfT.lH
.18
.18
.19
.19
.18
.15L.11
21
69.8
.16
.20
.22
,24
.24 .25
.25
.25
.26
.26
.25
JBr-i8
22
71.6
.21
.26
.29
.31
.31 .32
.32
.32
.33
.34
.321. 29) .25
23
73.4
.27
.32
.35
.37
.38 .3^
.39
.39
*o
.42
.33
24
75.2
.32
.38-
.41
.43
.44 .46
.46
.47
.47
.50
.46 .43
.40
25
77.0
.37
.44
.47
.49
.51 .53
.54
.55
.55
.58
.54
.51
.48
26
78.8
.43
.50
.54
.56
.58 .60
.61
.62
.62
.66
.62
.58
.55
27
80.6
.49
.57
.61
.63
.65 ! .68
.68
.69
.70
.74
.70
.65
.62
28
82.4
.56
.64
.68
.70
.72 .76
.76
.78
.78
.82
.78
.72
.70
29
84.2
.63
.71
.75
.78
.79| .84
.84
.86
.86
.90
.86
- .80
.78
30
86.0
.70
.78
.82
.87
.87 .92
.92
.94
.94
.98
.94
.88
.86
35
95.0
1.10
1.17
1.22
1.24
1.301.32
1.33
1.35
1.36
1.39
1.34
1.27
1.25
40
104.0
1.50
1.61
1.67
1.71
1.731.791.79
1.80
1.82
1.83
1.78
1.69
1.65
50
122.0
2.65
2.74
2.74
2.782.802.80
2.80
2.80
2.79
2.70
2.56
2.51
60
140.0
3.87
3.88
3.88
3.883.883.88
3.88
3.90
3.82
3.70
3.43
3.41
70
158.0
5.18
5.20
5.145.135.10
5.08
5.06
4.90
4.72
4.47
4.35
177
For practical work the table given below is sufficiently accurate
unless the solution has a brix of under 5 or over 25. In some factories
the temperature correction for diffusion juice is given in tenths and
hundredths of a degree, but for all other tests the tenths is a suffi-
cient correction :
TEMPERATURE CORRECTION.
Temperature.
C. F.
Subtract from *Brix.
14
57
.2
15
59
.1
16
61
.1
17
63
.0
Add to Brix.
18
64
.0
19
66
.1
20
68
.2
21
22
70
72
m
23
73
.4
24
75
.4
25
77
.5
26
79
.6
27
81
.6
28
82
.7
29
84
.8
30
86
.9
31
88
.9
32
90
1.0
33
91
1.0
34
93
1.1
35
95
1.2
I 7 8
TABLE II.
Comparison of Degrees Brix and Baume and Specific Gravity
FOR PURE SUGAR SOLUTIONS.
Temperature 17% C = 63 5 Far.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Beaume.
0.0
1 00000
00
4
1 01570
2 27.
0.1
1 00038
0.06
4 1
1.01610
2 33
0.2
1.00077
11
4 2
1.01650
2.38
3
1.00116
17
4 3
1 01690
2 44
4
1.00155
0.23
4.4
1 01730
2.50
0.5
1.00193
28
4.5
1 01770
2.55
0.6
1- 00232
34
4 6
1.01810
2 61
0.7
1.00271
40
4.7
1 01850
2 67
0.8
1.00310
0.45
4 8
1 01890
2.72
09
1.00349
51
4 9
1 01930
2.78
10
1 00388
57
5.0
1 . 01970
2 84
1.1
1.00427
0.63
5.1
1 02010
2 89
1.2
1.00466
68
5.2
1 02051
2 95
1 3
1 00505
74
5 3
1 02091
3.01
1.4
1.00544
0.80
5 4
1.02131
3 06
1 5
1 00583
85
5 5
1 02171
3.12
1 6
1 00622
91
5 6
1 02211
3.18
1.7
1 00662
97
5.7
02252
3.23
1 8
1 . 00701
1 02
5 8
.02292
3.29
1.9
1.00740
1.08
5.9
. 02333
3.35
2.0
1.00779
1 14
6
.02373
3.40
2 1
1 00818
1 19
6 1
02413
3.46
2.2
1 00858
1.25
6 2
.02454
3 52
2 3
1.00897
1 31
6 3
02494
3.57
2.4
1 00936
1 36
6 4
.02535
3 63
2 5
1 00976
1.42
6 5
02575
3.69
2.6
01015
1 48
6 6
.02616
3.74
2.7
01055
1 53
6.7
02657
3.80
2.8
. 01094
1 59
6.8
02697
3 86
2 9
01134
1 65
6.9
.02738
3.91
3.0
01173
1 70
70
02779
3 97
3.1
01213
1.76
7 1
.02819
4 03
3.2
01252
1 82
7.2
02860
4 08
3.3
1 01292
1.87
7 3
1 02901
4 14
3.4
1 01332
1 93
7 4
1 02942
4 20
3 5
1 01371
1.99
7 5
1 02983
4.25
3.6
1 01411
2 04
7.6
1 03024
4.31
3 7
1 01451
2 10
7 7
1 . 03064
4.37
38
1 01491
2.16
7.8
1 03105
4.42
3 9
1.01531
2 21
7 9
1 03146
4.48
TABLE II. CON
179
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
8.0
1.03187
4.53
12.4
.05021
7.02
8.1
1.03228
4.59
12.5
.05064
7 08
8 2
1.03270
4.65
12.6
.05106
7.13
8.3
1.03311
4.70
12.7
.05149
7.19
8.4
1.03352
4.76
12.8
.05191
7.24
8.5
1.03393
4.82
12.9
.05233
7.30
8.6
1 . 03434
4.87
13.0
1.05276
7.36
8 7
1 . 03475
4.93
13.1
1.05318
7.41
8.8
1 03517
4.99
13.2
1.05361
7.47
8.9
1.03558
5-04'
13.3
1.05404
7.53
9.0
1.03599
5.10
13 4
1.05446
7.58
9.1
1.03640
5.16
13.5
1.05489
7.64
9.2
1.03682
5.21
13 6
1.05532
7 69
9.3
1.03723
5.27
13.7
1 05574
7.75
9.4
1.03765
5.33
13.8
1.05617
7.81
9.5
1 03806
5.38
13.9
1.05660
7 86
9.6
1.03848
5.44
14.0
1.05703
7.92
9.7
1.03889
5.50
14.1
1.05746
7.98
9.8
1.03931
5.55
14.2
1 05789
8.03
9.9
1.03972
5.61
14.3
1.05831
8.09
10.0
1.04014
5 67
14.4
1 05874
8.14
10.1
1.04055
5.72
14.5
1.05917
8.20
10.2
1 . 04097
5.78
14.6
1.05960
8.26
10.3
1.04139
5.83
14.7
1.06003
8.31
10.4
1.04180
5.89
14.8
1 06047
8.37
10.5
1.04222
5.95
14 9
1.06090
8 43
10.6
1.04264
6.00
15.0
1.06133
8.48
10.7
1.04306
6.06
15.1
1 . 06176
8.54
10.8
1.04348
6.12
15.2
1.06219
8.59
10.9
1.04390
6.17
15.3
1 . 06262
8.65
11.0
1.04431
6 23
15.4
1.06306
8.71
11.1
1.04473
6.29
15.5
1 . 06349
8.76
11.2
1.04515
6.34
15 6
1.06392
. 8.82
11 3
1.04557
6.40
15.7
1.06436
8.88
11.4
1.04599
6.46
15.8
1.06479
8.93
11.5
1.04641
6 51
15.9
1.06522
8 99
11.6
1.04683
6.57
16.0
1.06566
9.04
11.7
1 04726
6.62
16.1
1.06609
9.10
11.8
1.04768
6.68
16.2
1.06653
9.16
11.9
1 . 04810
6.74
16.3
1 . 06696
9.21
12.0
1 . 04852
6.79
16.4
1.06740
9.27
12.1
1.04894
6.85
16.5
1.06783
9.33
12.2
. 1.04937
6.91
16.6
1.06827
9.38
12.3
1.04979
6.96
16.7
1.06871
9.44
i8o
TABLE II. CON.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
16.8
1.06914
9.49
21.2
1.08869
11.96
16.9
1.06958
9.55
21.3
1.08914
12.01
17.0
1.07002
9.61
21.4
.08959
12.07
17.1
1.07046
9.66
21.5
.09004
12.13
17.2
1 07090
9.72
21 6
.09049
12.18
17.3
1.07133
9.77
21.7
.09095
12.24
17.4
1.07177
9.83
21.8
.09140
12 29
17.5
1.07221
9.89
21.9
.09185
12.35
17.6
1.07265
9.94
22.0
.09231
12.40
17.7
1 . 07309
10.00
22.1
. 09276
12.46
17.8
1.07358
10.06
22.2
.09321
12.52
17.9
1.07397
10.11
22.3
.09367
12.57
18.0
1.07441
10.17
22.4
.09412
12.63
18.1
1.07485
10.22
22.5
.09458
12.68
18.2
1.07530
10.28
22.6
.09503
12.74
18.3
1.07574
* 10-. 33
22.7
.09549
12.80
18.4
1.07618
10.39
22.8
.09595
12.85
18.5
1.07662
10.45
22.9
.09640
12.91
18.6
1.07706
10.50
23.0
.09686
12.96
18.7
.07751
10.56
23.1
1.09732
13.02
18.8
.07795
10.62
23.2
1.09777
13.07
18.9
.07839
10.67
23.3
1.09823
13.13
19.0
.07884
10.73
23.4
1 . 09869
13.19
19.1
.07928
10.78
23.5
1.09915
13.24
19.2
.07973
10.84
23.6
1.09961
13.30
19.3
1.08017
10.90
23.7
1.10007
13.35
19.4
1.08062
10.95
23.8
1 . 10053
13.41
19.5
1 . 08106
11.01
23.9
1.10099
13.46
19.6
1.08151
11.06
24.0
1 . 10145
13.52
19.7
1.08196
11.12
24.1
1.10191
13.58
19.8
1.08240
11.18
24.2
1 . 10237
13.63
19.9
1.08285
11.23
24.3
1 . 10283
13.69
20.0
1.08329
11.29
24.4
1 . 10329
13.74
20.1
1.98374
11.34
24.5
1 . 10375
13.80
20.2
1.08419
11.40
24.6
1 . 10421
13.85
20.3
1.08464
11.45
24.7
1.10468
13.91
20.4
1.08509
11.51
24.8
1 . 10514
13.96
20.5
1.08553
11.57
24.9
1.10560
14.02
20.6
1.08599
11.62
25.0
1 . 10607
14.08
20.7
1.08643
11.68
25.1
1.10653
14.13
20.8
1.08688
11.73
25.2
1.10700
14.19
20.9
1.08733
11.79
25.3
1 . 10746
14.24
21.0
1.08778
11.85
25.4
1.10793.
14.30
21.1
1.08824
11.90
25.5
1.10839
14.35
TABLE ll.-CoN.
181
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
25.6
1 . 10886
14.41
30.0
1.12967 _
16.85
25.7
1 . 10932
14.47
30.1
1.13015
16.90
25.8
1 . 10979
14.52
30.2
1.13063
16.96
25.9
1.11026
14.58
30.3
1.13111
17.01
26.0
1.11072
14.63
30.4
1.13159
17.07
26.1
1.11119
14.69
30.5
1.13207
17.12
26.2
1 . 11166
14.74
30.6
1 13255
17.18
26.3
1.11213
14.80
30.7
1.13304
17.23
26.4
1.11259
14.85
30.8
1.13352
17.29
26.5
1 . 11306
14.91
30.9
1.13400
17.35
26.6
1 11353
14.97
31.0
1.13449
17.40
26.7
1 . 11400
15.02
31.1
1.13497
17.46
26.8
1.11447
15.08
31.2
1.13545
17.51
26.9
1 . 11494
15.13
ar<
1 13594
17.57
27.0
1 . 11541
15 19
31.4 .
1.13642
17.62
27.1
1.11588
15.24 .
31.5
1.13691
17.68
27.2
1 . 11635
15.30
31.6
1.13740
17.73
27.3
1.11682
15.35
31.7
1 . 13788
17.79
27.4
1 . 11729
15.41
31.8
1,13837
17.84
27.5
1.11776
15 46
31.9
1.13885
17.90
27.6
1 . 11824
15.52
32.0
1.13934
17.95
27.7
1.11871
15.58
32 1
1.13983
18.01
27.8
1 . 11918
15.63
32.2
1.14032
18.06
27.9
1.11965
15 69
32.3
1 . 14081
18.12
28.0
1 . 12013
15.74
32.4
1.14129
18.17
28.1
1.12060
15.80
32.5
1.14178
18.23
28.2
1 . 12107
15.85
32.6
1.14227
18.28
28.3
1.12155
15.91
32.7
1.14276
18.34
28.4
1.12202
15.96
32.8
1.14325
18.39
28.5
1 . 12250
16.02
32.9
1 . 14374
18.45
28.6
1 . 12297
16.07
33.0
1 . 14423
18.50
28.7
1 . 12345
16.13
33.1
1.14472
18.56
28.8
1.12393
16.18
33.2
1.14521
18.61
28.9
1.12440
16.24
33.3
1 . 14570
18.67
29.0
1 . 12488
16.30
33.4
1.14620
18.72
29.1
1.12536
16.35
33.5
1.14669
18.78
29.2
1 . 12583
16.41
33.6
1.14718
18.83
29.3
1 . 12631
16.46
33.7
1 . 14767
18.89
29.4
1 . 12679
16.52
33.8
1.14817
18.94
29.5
1.12727
16.57
33.9
1.14866
19.00
29.6
1.12775
16.63
34.0
1.14915
19.05
29.7
1.12823
16.68
34.1
1.14965
19.11
29.8
1.12871
16 74
34.2
1.15014
19.16
29.9 1 1.12919
16.79
34.3
1 . 15064
19.22
182
TABLE II. CON.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume
Degrees
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
34.4
1.15113
19.27
38.8
1.17327
21.68
34.5
1.15163
19.33
38.9
1 . 17379
21.73
34.6
1.15213
19.38
39.0
1 . 17430
21.79
34.7
1 15262
19.44
39 1
1 . 17481
21.84
34.8
1.15312
19 49
39.2
1.17532
21.90
34.9
1.15362
19.55
39.3
1.17583
21.95
35.0
1.15411
19.60
39 4
1.17635
22.00
35.1
1 . 15461
19.66
39.5
1 17686
22.06
35.2
1 . 15511
19.71
39.6
1 . 17737
22.11
35.3
1.15561
19.76
39.7
1 . 17789
22.17
35.4
1 . 15611
19.82
39.8
1.17840
22.22
35.5
1.15661
19.87
39.9
1 . 17892
22.28
35.6
1.15710
19.93
40.0
1 . 17943
22.33
35.7
1.15760
19.98
40.1
1 . 17995
22.38
35.8
1.15810
20.04
40.2
1.18046
22.44
35.9
1.15861
20.09
.40.3
1.18098
22.49
36.0
1.15911
20.15
40.4
1.18150
22.55
36.1
1.15961
20.20
40.5
1 . 18201
22.60
36.2
1.16011
20.26
40.6
1.18253
22.66
36.3
1.16061
20.31
40 7
1.18305
22.71
36.4
1.16111
20.37
40.8
1.18357
22.77
36 5
1.16162
20.42
40.9
1.18408
22.82
36.6
1.16212
20.48
41.0
1.18460
22.87
36.7
1.16262
20.53
41.1
1.18512
22.93
36.8
1.16313
20.59
41.2
1 . 18564
22.98
36.9
1.16363
20.64
41.3
1.18616
23.04
37.0
1 . 16413
20.70
41.4
1 . 18668
23.09
37.1
1 16464
20 75
41 5
1.18720
23.15
37.2
1.16514
20.80
41.6
1.18772
23.20
37.3
1 . 16565
20.86
41.7
1 . 18824
23.25
37.4
1.16616
20.91
41.8
1.18877
23.31
37.5
1.16666
20.97
41.9
1 18929
23.36
37.6
1 . 16717
21 02
42.0
1 . 18981
23.42
37.7
1.16768
21.08
42.1
1.19033
23.47
37.8
1.16818
21.13
42.2
1.19086
23.52
37.9
1.16869
21 19
42.3
1 . 19138
23.58
38.0
1.16920
21.24
42.4
1 . 19190
23.63
38.1
1.16971
21.30
42.5
1.19243
23.69
38.2
1.17022
21.35
42.6
1 . 19295
23.74
38.3
1.17072
21.40
42.7
1 . 19348
23.79
38.4
1.17132
21.46
42.8
1 . 19400
23.85
38.5
1 . 17174
21.51
42.9
1 . 19453
23.90
38.6
1 17225
21.57
43.0
1.19505
23.96
38.7
1.17276
21 62
43.1
1 . 19558
24.01
TABLE II. CON.
183
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
43.2
1 . 19611
24.07
47.6
1.21964
26.43
43.3
1 . 19663
24.12
47.7 '
1.22019
26.49
43.4
1.19716
24.17
47.8
1.22073
26.54
43.5
1.19769
24.23
47.9
1.22127
26.59
43.6
1.19822
24.28
48
1.22182
26.65
43.7
1 . 19875
24.34
48.1
1.22236
26.70
43.8
1 . 19927
24.39
48.2
1.22291
26.75
43.9
1 19980
24.44
48 3
1.22345
26.81
44.0
1.20033
24.50
48.4
1.22400
26.86
44.1
1.20086
24.55
48.5
1.22455
26.92
44 2
1.20139
24.61
48.6
1.22509
26.97
44.3
1.20192
24.66
48.7
1.22564
27.02
44.4
1.20245
24.71
48.8
1.22619
27.08
44 5
1.20299
24.77
48.9
1.22673
27.13
44.6
1 20352
24.82
49.0
1.22728
27.18
44.7
1.20405
24.88
49.1
1.22783
27.24
44.8
1.20458
24.93
49.2
.22838
27.29
44.9
1.20512
24.98
49.3
.22893
27.34
45.0
1.20565
25.04
49.4
. 22948
27.40
45.1
1.20618
25.09
49.5
.23003
27.45
45.2
1.20672
25.14
49.6
" .23058
27.50
45.3
1.20725
25.20
49,7
.23113
27.56
45.4
1 20779
25.25
49.8
.23168
27.61
45.5
1 20832
25 31
49.9
.23223
27.66
45.6
1.20886
25.36
50.0
1.23278
27.72
-45.7
.20939
25.41
50.1
1.23334
27.77
45.8
.20993
25.47
50.2
1.23389
27.82
45.9
.21046
25.52
50.3
1.23444
27.88
46.0
21100
25.57
50.4
1.23499
27.93
46.1
.21154
25.63
50.5
1.23555
27.98
46.2
1.21208
25.68
50.6
1.23610
28.04
46.3
1.21261
25.74
50.7
1.23666
28.09
46.4
1.21315
25.79
50.8
1.23721
28.14
46.5
1.21369
25.84
50.9
1.23777
28.20
46 6
1 21423
25.90
51.0
1.23832
28.25
46.7
1.21477
25.95
51.1
1.23888
28.30
46.8
1.21531
26.00
51.2
1.23943
28.36 ,
46.9
1.21585
26.06
51.3
1.23999
28.41
47.0
1.21639
26.11
51.4
1.24055
28.46
47 1
1.21693
26.17
51.5
1.24111
28.51
47.2
1.21747
26.22
51.6
1.24166
28 57
47.3
1.21802
26.27
51.7
1.24222
28.62
47 4
1 21856
26.33
51.8
1.24278
28.67
47.5
1.21910
26.38
51 9
1.24334
28.73
1 84
TABLE II. CON
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
52.0
1.24390
28.78
56.4
1.26889
31.10
52.1
1.24446
28.83
56.5
1.26946
31.16
52.2
1.24502
28.89
56.6
1.27004
31.21
52.3
1.24558
28.94
56.7
1.27062
31.26
52.4
1.24614
28 99
56.8
1.27120
31.31
52.5
1.24670
29.05
56.9
1.27177
31.37
52.6
1.24726
29.10
57.0
1.27235
31.42
52.7
1.24782
29.15
57.1
1.27293
31.47
52.8
1.24839
29.20
57.2
1 27351
31.52
52.9
1.24895
29.26
57.3
1 . 27409
31.58
53.0
1.24951
29.31
57.4
1.27467
31.63
53.1
1.25008
29.36
57.5
1.27525
31.68
53.2
1.25064
29 42
57.6
1.27583
31.73
53.3
1.25120
29.47
57 7
1.27641
31.79
53.4
1.25177
29.52
57.8
1.27699
31.84
53.5
1.25233
29.57
57.9
1.27758
31.89
53.6
1.25290
29.63
58.0
1.27816
31.94
53.7
1 25347
29.68
58.1
1.27874
32.00
53.8
1 . 25403
29.73
58.2
1.27932
32 05
53.9
1.25460
29 79
58 3
1.27991
32.10
54.0
1.25517
29.84
58.4
1 . 28049
32.15
54.1
1.25573
29.89
58.5
1.28107
32.20
54.2
1.25630
29.94
58.6
1.28166
32.26
54.3
1.25687
30.00
58.7
1.28224
32.31
54.4
1.25744
30.05
58 8
1 28283
32.36
54.5
1.25801
30 10
58.9
1.28342
32.41
54.6
1.25857
30.16
59.0
1.28400
32.47
54.7
1.25914
30.21
59.1
1.28459
32.52
54.8
1.25971
30.26
59.2
1.28518
32.57
54 9
1 26028
30.31
59.3
1.28576
32.62
55
1.26086
30 37
59.4
1.28635
32.67
55.1
1.26143
30.42
59.5
1.28694
32.73
55.2
1.26200
30.47
59.6
1 28753
32 78
55.3
1.26257
30 53
59.7
1.28812
32.83
55.4
1.26314
30.58
59.8
1.28871
32.88
55.5
1.26372
30.63
59.9
1.28930
32.93
55.6
1.26429
30 68
60.0
1.28989
32.99
55.7
1.26486
30.74
60.1
1.29048
33.04
55.8
1.26544
30.79
60.2
1.29107
33.09
55.9
1.26601
30.84
60.3
1.29166
33.14
56.0
1.26658
30.89
60.4
1.29225
33 20
56.1
1.26716
30.95
60.5
1.29284
33.25
56.2
1.26773
31.00
60.6
1.29343
33.30
56 3
1.26831
31.05
60.7
1.29403
33.35
TABLE II. CON.
185
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
60.8
1 . 29462
33.40
65 2
.32111
35.68
60.9
1 . 29521
33.46
65 3
.32172
35.73
61.0
1 29581
33.51
65.4
.32233
35.78
61.1
1 . 29640
33.56
65 5
.32294
35.83
61.2
1.29700
33.61
65.6
.32355
35.88
61.3
1.29759
33.66
65.7
.32417
35.93
61.4
1.29819
33.71
65 8
.32478
35.98
61.5
1.29878
33.77
65.9
.32539
36 04
61.6
1 . 29938
33.82
66.0
1.32601
36.09
61 7
1.29998
33.87
66.1
1.32662
36.14
61.8
1.30057
33.92
66.2
1.32724
36.19
61.9
1.30117
33.97
66.3
1.32785
36.24
62.0
1.30177
34.03
66.4
1.32847
"36.29
62.1
1.30237
34.08
66 5
1.32908
36 34
62.2
1 30297
34.13
66 6
1.32970
36 39
62.3
1 . 30356
34 18
66.7
1.33031
36.45
62.4
1.30416
34.23
66 8
1 33093
36.50
62.5
.30476
34.28
66.9
1.33155
36.55
62.6
.30536
34.34
67.0
1.33217
36 60
62.7
. 30596
34.39
67.1
1.33278
36.65
62.8
.30657
34.44
67.2
1.33340
36.70
62.9
.30717
34 49
67.3
1.33402
36.75
63.0
.30777
34.54
67.4
1.33464
36.80
63.1
1.30837
34.59
67.5
1.33526
36.85
63.2
.30897
34 65
67.6
1.33588
36.90
63 3
! 30958
34.70
67.7
1.33650
36 96
63.4
.31018
34.75
67.8
1.33712
37.01
63.5
.31078
34.80
67.9
1 33774
37 06
63.6
1.31139
34.85
68.0
1.33836
37.11
63.7
1 . 31199
34.90
68.1
1.33899
37.16
63.8
1.3ljb
34 96
68.2
1.33961
37.21
63.9
1.31320
35.01
68.3
1.34023
37.26
64.0
1.31381
35.06
68.4
1.34085
37.31
64.1
1 31442
35.11
68.5
1.34148
37.36
64 2
1.31502
35.16
68.6
1.34210
37.41
64.3
1.31563
35.21
68.7
1 34273
37.47
64.4
1.31624
35.27
68 8
1.34335
37.52
64.5
1.31684
35.32
68.9
1.34398
37.57
64 6
1.31745
35.37
69.0
1.34460
37.62
64.7
1.31806
35.42
69.1
1.34523
37.67
64.8
1.31867
35.47
69.2
1.34585
37.72
64.9
1.31928
35.52
69 3
1.34648
37.77
65.0
1.31989
35.57
69.4
1.34711
37.82
65 1
1.32050
35.63
69.5
1 34774
37.87
OF THB
TT-NTVFVRfiTTY
1 86
TABLE II. CON.
Degrees
Bjix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
69.6
1.34836
37.92
74.0
1 37639
40.14
69.7
1.34899
37.97
74 1
1.37704
40.19
69.8
1.34962
38.02
74.2
1.37768
40.24
69.9
1.35025
38.07
74.3
1.37833
40.29
70.0
1.35088
38.12
74.4
1.37898
40.34
70.1
1 35151
38.18
74.5
1 . 37962
40.39
70 2
1.35214
38.23
74.6
1.38027
40.44
70.3
1.35277
38.28
74.7
1 38092
40.49
70.4
1.35340
38.33
74.8
1.38157
40.54
70.5
1.35403
38.38
74 9
1 38222
40.59
70.6
1.35466
38.43
75.0
1.38287
40 64
70.7
1 35530
38.48
75.1
1.38352
40.69
70.8'
1 35593
38.53
75.2
1.38417
40 74
70.9
1 35656
38.58
75.3
1.38482
40.79
71.0
1.35720
38 63
75.4
1 38547
40.84
71.1
1.35783
38.68
75 5
1.38612
40 89
71.2
1.35847
38.73
75.6
1 38677
40.94
71.3
1.35910
38 78
75.7
1.38743
40.99
71.4
1.35974
38 83
75 8
1 . 38808
41.04
71.5
1.36037
38 88
75.9
1.38873
41.09
71.6
1.36101
38.93
76
1 . 38939
41.14
71.7
1.36164
38.98
76.1
1 . 39004
41.19
71.8
1.36228
39.03
76.2
1 39070
41 24
71.9
1 . 36292
39.08
76 3
1.39135
41 29
72.0
1.36355
39 13
76.4
1.39201
41.33
72.1
1.36419
39.19
76 5
1 39266
41 38
72.2
1 . 36483
39.24
76.6
1.39332
41.43
72.3
1 36547
39.29
76.7
1.39397
41.48
72.4
1.36611
39 34
76.8
1.39463
41 53
72 5
.36675
39.39
76.9
1 39529
41.58
72 6
.36739
39.44
77.0
1.39595
41.63
72.7
36803
39.49
77.1
1.39660
41.68
72 8
.36867
39.54
77.2
1.39726
41.73
72.9
.36931
39.59
77.3
1.39792
71.78
73.0
.36995
39 64
77.4
1.39858
41 83
73.1
37059
39.69
77.5
1.39924
41.88
73.2
.37124
39.74
77.6
1.39990
41.93
73.3
.37188
39.79
77.7
1 . 40056
41.98
73.4
1.37252
39.84
77.8
1 . 40122
42.03
73.5
1.37317
39.89
77.9
1 . 40188
42.08
73-6
1.37381
39.94
78.0
1 . 40254
42.13
73 7
1.37446
39.99
78.1
1 . 40321
42.18
73.8
1.37510
40.04
78 2
1 . 40387
42.23
73.9
1.37575
40.09
78.3
1 . 40453
42.28
TABLE II. CON.
187
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baurae.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
78.4
1 . 40520
42.32
82.8
.43478
44.48
78.5
. 40586
42.37
82.9
43546
44.53
78.6
.40652
42.42
83
. 43614
44.58
78.7
.40719
42.47
83.1
.43682
44.62
78.8
.40785
42.52
83.2
.43750
44.67
78.9
.40852
42.57
83.3
.43819
44.72
79.0
.40918
42.62
83.4
.43887
44.77
79.1
1.40985
42.67
83 5
.43955
44.82
79.2
1.41052
42.72
83.6
.44024
44.87
79.3
1.41118
42.77
83.7
.44092
44.91
79.4
1.41185
42.82
83.8
.44161
44.%
79.5
1.41252
42.87
83.9
.44229
45.01
79.6
1.41318
42.92
84
.44298
45.06
79.7
1.41385
42.96
84.1
.44367
45.11
79.8
1 . 41452
43.01
84.2
.44435
45.16
79.9
1 41519
43.06
84.3
1.44504
45.21
80.0
1 . 41586
43.11
84.4
1.44573
45.25
80.1
1.41653
43.16
84.5
1.44641
45.30
80.2
1.41720
43.21
84.6
1.44710
45.35
80 3
1.41787
43.26
84.7
1.44779
45.40
80.4
1.41854
43.31
84.8
1 . 44848
45.45
80.5
1.41921
43.36
84.9
1 . 44917
45.49
80.6
1.41989
43.41
85.0
1.44986
45.54
80.7
1.42056
43.45
85 1
1 . 45055
45.59
80.8
1.42123
43.50
85.2
1.45124
45 64
- 80.9
1.42190
43.55
85.3
' 1.45193
45.69
81.0
1.42258
43.60
85.4
1.45262
45.74
81.1
1.42325
43.65
85.5
1.45331
45.78
81.2
1.42393
43.70
85.6
.45401
45.83
81.3
1.42460
43.75
85.7
.45470
45.88
81.4
1.42528
43.80
85.8
45539
45.93
81.5
1.42595
43.85
85.9
.45609
45 98
81.6
1.42663
43.89
86.0
.45678
46.02
81.7
1.42731
43.94
86.1
1.45748
46.07
81.8
1.42798
43.99
86.2
1.45817
46.12
81.9
1.42866
44.04
86.3
1 45887
46.17
82.0
1.42934
44.09
86.4
1.45956
46 22
82.1
1.43002
44.14
86 5
1 46026
46.26
82.2
1 . 43070
44.19
86.6
1.46095
46.31
82 3
1.43137
44.24
86.7
1 . 46165
46 36
82 4
1.43205
44.28
86.8
1.46235
46.41
82.5
1.43273
44.33
86.9
1.46304
46.46
82 6
1.43341
44.38
87
1.46374
46.50
82.7
1.43409
44.43
87.1
1.46444
46.55
i88
TABLE II. CON.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
87.2
1.46514
46.60
91.6
1.49628
48.68
87.3
1.46584
46.65
91.7
1.49700
48.73
87.4
1.46654
46.69
91.8
1.49771
48.78
87.5
1.46724
46 74
91.9
1 . 49843
48.82
87.6
1.46794
46 79
92.0
1.49915
48.87
87.7
1.46864
46.84
92.1
1.49987
48.92
87.8
1.46934
46 88
92.2
1.50058
48.96
87.9
1.47004
46.93
92.3
1.50130
49.01
88
1.47074
46.98
92.4
1.50202
49 06
88.1
1 47145
47 03
. 92 5
1 50274
49 11
88 2
1 47215
47.08
92.6
1.50346
49.15
88.3
1.47285
47.12
92.7
1 50419
49.20
88.4
1.47356
47.17
92.8
1.50491
49 25
88.5
1.47426
47.22
92 9
1 50563
49 29
88.6
1 . 47496
47.27
93
1.50635
49.34
88 7
1.47567
47.31
93.1
1.50707
. 49.39
88.8
1.47637
47.36
93 2
1.50779
49 43
88 9
1 47708
47 41
93.3
.50852
49.48
89
1.47778
47.46
93.4
.50924
49 53
89.1
1.47849
47 50
93 5
.50996
49.57
89 2
1 47920
47.55
93.6
.51069
49.62
89 3
1 47991
47.60
93.7
.51141
49.67
89.4
1.48061
47.65
93.8
.51214
49.71
89.5
1 48132
47.69
93.9
.51286
49 76
89.6
1.48203
47.74
94.0
.51359
49.81
89.7
1.48274
47.79
94.1
1.51431
49 85
89.8
1 48345
47.83
94 2
1.51504
49.90
89.9
1.48416
47.88
94.3
1.51577
49.94
90.0
1.48486
47.93
94.4
1 51649
49.99
90 1
1.48558
47 98
94.5
1.51722
50.04
90 2
1 48629
48.02
94 6
1.51795
50.08
90.3
1.4S700
48 07
94.7
1.51868
50.13
90.4
1 48771
48.12
94.8
1 51941
50 18
90.5
1.48842
48.17
94.9
1.52014
50.22
90.6
1.48913
48 21
95.0
1 52087
50.27
90 7
1 . 48985
48.26
95.1
1.52159
50 32
90.8
1.49056
48.31
95.2
1.52232
50.36
90.9
1 . 49127
48.35
95.3
1.52304
50.41
91.0
1.49199
48.40
95.4
1.52376
50.45
91 1
1 49270
48.45
95.5
1 52449
50.50
91.2
1.49342
48.50
95.6
1 . 52521
50.55
91.3
1.49413
48.54
95.7
1.52593
50.59
91.4
1 49485
48.59
95.8
1.52665
50.64
91 5
1.49556
48.64
95 9
1.52738
50.69
TABLE II. CON,
189
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
Degrees
Brix.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Baume.
96.0
1.52810
50.73
98.1
1.54365
51.70
96.1
1.52884
50.78
98.2
1 54440
51.74
96.2
1.52958
50.82
98.3
1 55515
51.79
96.3
1 53032
50.87
98.4
.54590
51.83
96.4
1.53106
50.92
98.5
.54665
51.88
96 5
1.53180
50.96
98.6
.54740
51.92
96 6
1.53254
51.01
98.7
.54815
51.97
96 7
1.53328
51 05
98.8
.54890
52.01
96.8
1.53402
51.10
98.9
.54965
52.06
96 9
1.53476
51.15
99.0
1.55040
52 11
97
1.53550
51.19
99.1
1.55115
52.15
97.1
1.53624
51.24
99.2
1.55189
52.20
97.2
1.53698
51 28
99.3
1.55264
52.24
97 3
1.53772
51 33
99.4
1.55338
52.29
97.4
1.53846
51 38
99.5
1.55413
52.33
97.5
1.53920
51 42
99.6
1.55487
52 38
97.6
1.53994
51.47
99.7
1.55562
52.42
97.7
1.54068
51 51
99.8
1.55636
52.47
97.8
1.54142
51.56
99.9
1.55711
52.51
97.9
1 . -S4216
51 60
100.0
1.55785
52.56
98.0
1.54290
51.65
190
TABLE III.
FOR MAKING "KNOWN SUGAR" SOLUTIONS.
Polari-
Grammes C. P.
Polari-
Grammes C. P.
Polari-
Grammes C. P.
scope
Degrees.
Sugar in
lOOcc Solution.
scope
Degrees
Sugar in
lOOcc Solution.
scope
Degrees.
Sugar in
lOOcc Solution.
1
0.260
35
9.097
69
17.954
2
0.519
36
9.357
70
18.216
3
0.779
37
9.618
71
18.476
4
1.039
38
9.878
72
18.738
5
1 298
39
10.138
73
18.998
6
1.558
40
10 . 398
74
19 . 259
7
1.817
41
10.659
75
19.519
8
2.078
42
10 919
76
19.781
9
2 337
43
11.180
77
20.042
10
2.597
44
11.440
78
20.302
11
2.857
45
11.701
79
20.564
12
3.117
46
11.961
80
20.824
13
3.376
47
12.222
81
21.085
14
3.637
48
12.482
82
21.346
15
3.896
49
12.743
83
21 . 608
16
4.156
50
13.003-
84
21 868
17
4.416
51
13.264
85
22.130
18
4.676
52
13.524
86
22.391
19
4.936
53
13.784
87
22.652
20
5 196
54
14.044
88
22.912
21
5.456
55
14.305
89
23.174
22
5.716
56
14.566
90
23 435
23
5.976
57
14.826
91
23.696
24
6 236
58
15.087
92
23.957
25
6.496
59
15.347
93
24 . 219
26
6.756
60
15.608
94
24 . 480
27
7.016
61
15.868
95
24 742
28
7.276
62
16.130
96
25.002
29
7.536
63
16 . 390
97
25 265
30
7.796
64
16.651
98
25.525
31
8.056
65
16.912
99
25.787
32
8.316
66
17.173
100
26.048
33
8.577
67
17.433
34
8.837
68
17.694
TABLE IV.
PER CENT. SUGAR IN PULP BY THE VOLUMETRIC METHOD.
Pol.
PrCent
Sugar
Pol.
PrCent
Sugar
Pol.
PrCent
Sugar.
Pol.
PrCent
Sugar.
Pol.
Pr Cent
Sugar.
05
.014
1 45
.415
2 85
.817
4 25
1.218
5 65
.619
.10
029
1 50
.430
2 90
.831
4 30
1 232
5 70
633
.15
.043
1 55
.444
2.95
845
4.35
1 246
5.75
648
.20
.057
1.60
.458
3.00
.860
4.40
1 261
5.80
.662
.25
072
1.65
.473
3 05
.874
4.45
1.275
5 85
676
.30
.086
70
.487
3 10
.888
4 50
1.289
5 90
.691
.35
100
75
501
3 15
.903
4 55
1 304
5 95
.705
.40
.115
80
.516
3 20
.917
4.60
1 318
6.00
719
.45
129
.85
.530
3 25
.931
4 65
1 332
6 05
.733
.50
.143
90
.544
3 30
.946
4 70
1 347
6 10
.748
.55
.158
95
.559
3 35
.960
4.75
1.361
6.15
762
.60
.172
2.00
.573
3.40
974
4.80
1 375
6 20
776
.65
.186
2 05
.587
3.45
.989
4 85
1 390
6 25
1 791
.70
201
2 10
.602
3 50
1 003
4.90
1.404
6.30
1 805
.75
215
2 15
.616
3.55
1.017
4 95
1.418
6.35
1.819
.80
229
2.20
.630
3.60
1.032
5.00
1 433
6 40
1 834
.85
.244
2 25
.645
3 65
1.046
5 05
1.447
6.45
1.848
.90
258
2 30
.659
3.70
1 060
5 10
1.461
6 50
1 862
.95
.272
2 35
673
3.75
1 074
5 15
1.476
6 55
1 877
1.00
287
2.40
.688
3.80
1.089
5 20
1 490
6.60
1.891
1.05
.301
2.45
.702
3.85
1.103
5.25
1.504
6.65
1 905
1.10
.315
2.50
.716
3.90
1.117
5.30
1.519
6.70
1.920
1.15
.330
2 55
.731
3.95
1.132
5.35
1.533
6 75
1.934
1 20
.344
2 60
.745
4.00
1.146
5 40
1.547
6.80
1.948
25
.358
2.65
.759
4.05
1.160
5.45
1.562
6.85
1.963
.30
.372
2.70
.773
4.10
1 175
5.50
1.576
6.90
1 977
35
.387
2.75
.788
4.15
1.189
5.55
1.590
6.95
1 991
40
.401
2.80
.802
4.20
1.203
5.60
1.605
7.00
2.006
I 9 2
TABLE
ESTIMATION OF PERCENTAGE OF SUGAR BY VOLUMETRIC
METHOD
DEGREE BRIX
From 05 to 12 0.
Polari-
APPROXIMATE
Tenths of
Per Cent
scope
Degrees
O.5
l.O
1 5
20
8.5
3.O
3.5
4.0
4.5
a Degree.
Sucrose.
0.1
0.03
1
29
29
0.29
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
2
06
2
57
0.57
57
0.57
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.3
08
3
0.85
0.85
85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.84
0.84
0.4
11
4
1 14
1.13
1.13
1.13
1.13
1.13
1.12
0.5
14
5
1 42
1 42
1.41
1.41
1.41
1.41
1.40
0.6
0.17
6
1 70
1 70
1.69
1.69
1.69
1.68
0.7
0.19
7
1 98
1.98
1.98
1.97
1.97
1.96
0.8
0.22
8
2 26
2.26
2.26
2.25
2.25
0.9
0.25
9
2.54
2.54
2.53
2.53
10
2.82
2.82
2.81
2.81
11
3.10
3.09
3.09
12
3.38
3.38
3.37
13
3.66
3.65
14
3 94
3 93
DEGREE BRIX.
15
4.21
From 12.5 to 20.0.
16
4.49
17
Tenths of
Percent.
18
a Degree.
Sucrose.
19
0.1
03
20
71
0.2
0.05
22
0.3
08
23
0.4
0.11
04
0.5
0.13
25
6
0.16
26
0.7
0.19
27
0.8
0.21
28
0.9
24
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
v. I93
FOR USE WITH SOLUTIONS PREPARED BY ADDITION OF 10
PER CENT. LEAD ACETATE. (SCHMITZ.)
DEGREI
I BRI3
c.
Polanscope
Degrees.
5
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.O
7.5
8.O
8.5
9.O
9.5
10
28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
028
028
028
1
056
0.56
056
0.56
0.56
0.55
055
055
0.55
0.55
055
2
0.84
084
084
0.84
0.83
0.83
083
083
083
0.83
0.82
3
1.12
1.12
1.12
1 11
1.11
1.11
1 11
1.11
1.10
1 10
1.10
4
1.40
140
1 40
1.39
1 39
1.39
1 38
1.38
1.38
1 38
1.37
5
1 68
1.68
1.67
1.67
1.67
166
1.66
166
1.66
1.65
1.65
6
1.96
1 96
1 95
1.95
1.95
1.94
1 94
1.93
1.93
1.93
1.92
7
224
224
223
2.23
222
222
222
221
221
2.20
2.20
8
252
2.52
251
2.51
250
250
2.49
249
248
2.48
2.47
9
2.80
2.80
279
279
2.78
2.78
2.77
2.76
2.76
2.75
2.75
10
3.08
308
307
306
306
305
305
304
3.03
3.03
3.02
11
3.36
3 36
3.35
3.34
3.34
3.33
3.32
3 32
3.31
3.30
3.30
12
3.64
3.64
3.63
362
3.61
3.61
3.60
3.59
3.59
3.58
357
13
3.92
3.92
3.91
3 90
389
3.88
388
3 87
3.86
385
3.85
14
420
4 19
4.19
4 18
4.17
4 16
4 15
4 15
4.14
4 13
4 12
15
4.48
447
4 47
4.46
4 45
4.44
4.43
4 42
4.41
440
4.40
16
4.77
476
475
4 74
473
4.72
471
470
469
468
467
17
5.03
502
5.01
5 00
4.99
4.99
497
497
496
4.95
18
5.32
531
529
5.28
5.27
526
525
524
523
522
19
5.58
5.57
5.56
555
5.54
553
552
551
550
20
5.86
5.85
5.84
5.83
582
5.81
5.79
5.78
5.77
21
6.13
6.12
6 11
6.09
608
607
6.06
6.05
22
641
6.40
638
6.37
636
635
6.33
6.32
23
667
6.66
6.65
6.64
662
661
660
24
6 94
693
6.91
690
689
687
25
722
7.20
7.19
7.17
7.16
7.15
26
7.48
7.46
7.45
7 44
742
27
7.76
7.74
7.73
7.71
7.70
28
802
800
7.99
7.97
29
8.28
826
8.25
30
855
854
852
31
883
881
880
32
9.09
907
33
935
34
962
35
36
37
38
39
194
TABLE
DEGREE BRIX.
APPROXIMATE
From 0.5 to 12.0.
i
Tenths of
Per Cent.
' tit
1O 5
11.0
11.5
13.
13 5
13
13.5
14.0
11 5
a Degree.
Sucrose.
0.1
0.03
1
0.28
27
27
27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.2
06
2
0.55
55
6.55
0.55
0.54
0.54
54
0.54
0.54
3
0.08
3
0.82
0.82
82
82
0.82
0.81
81
81
81
0.4
0.11
4
1.10
1.10
1.09
1.09
1.09
1.09
1.08
1.08
1.08
0.5
0.14
5
1.37
1.37
1.36
1.36
1.36
1.36
1.35
1.35
1.35
0.6
0.17
6
1.64
1.64
1.64
1.64
1.63
1.63
1.62
1.62
1.62
0.7
0.19
7
1.92
1.91
1.91
1.91
1.90
1.90
1.89
1.89
1.89
0.8
0.22
8
2.19
2.19
2.18
2.18
2.18
2.17
2.17
2.16
2.16
0.9
0.25
9
2.47
2.46
2.46
2.45
2.45
2.44
2.44
2.43
2.43
10
2.74
2.74
2.73
2.73
2.72
2.71
2.71
2.70
2.70
11
3.02
3.01
3.00
3.00
2.99
2.99
2.98
2.97
2.97
12
3.29
3.28
3.28
3.27
3.26
3.26
3.25
3.24
3.24
13
3.56
3.56
3.55
3.54
3.54
3.53
3.52
3.51
3.51
14
3.84
3.83
3.82
3.82
3.81
3.80
3.79
3.78
3.78
15
4 11
4.11
4.10
4.09
4.08
4.07
4.06
4.06
4.05
DEGREE BRIX.
From 12 5 to 20 0.
16
4.39
4.38
4.37
4.36
4.35
4.34
4.33
4.33
4.32
17
4.66
4.65
4.64
4.63
4.62
4.62
4.61
4.60
4.59
18
4.93
4.93
4.91
4.91
4.90
4.89
4.88
4.87
4.86
Tenths of
a Degree.
Per Cent.
Sucrose.
19
5.21
5.20
5.19
5 18
5.17
5.16
5.15
5.14
5.13
20
5.49
5.47
5.46
5.45
5.44
5.43
5.42
5.41
5.40
0.1
0.03
21
5.76
5.75
5.74
5.73
5.71
5.70
5.69
5.68
5.67
0.2
0.05
22
6.03
6.02
6.01
6.00
5.99
5.97
5.96
5.95
5.94
0.3
0.08
23
6.31
6.30
6.28
6.27
6 26
6.24
6.23
6.22
6.21
0.4
0.11
24
6.58
6.57
6.56
6.54
6.53
6.52
6.50
6.49
6.48
0.5
0.13
25
6.86
6.84
6.83
6.82
6.80
6.79
6.78
6.76
6.75
0.6
0.16
26
7.13
7.12
7.10
7.09
7 07
7.06
7.05
7.03
7.02
0.7
0.19
27
7.41
7.39
7.38
7.36
7.35
7.33
7.32
7.30
7.29
0.8
0.21
28
7.68
7.66
7.65
7.63
7.62
7.60
7.59
7.57
7.56
0.9
0.24
29
7.96
7.94
7.92
7.91
7.89
7.87
7.86
7.84
7.83
30
8.23
8.21
8.20
8.18
8,16
8.15
8.13
8.11
8.10
31
8.50
8.49
8.47
8.45
8.44
8.42
8.40
8.39
8.37
32
8.78
8.76
8.74
8.73
8.71
8.69
8.67
8.66
8.64
33
9.05
9.03
9.02
9.00
8.98
8.96
8.94
8.93
8.91
34
9.33
9.31
9.29
9.27
9.25
9.23
9.22
9.20
9.18
35
9.60
9.58
9.56
9.54
9.53
9.51
9.49
9.47
9.45
36
9.88
9.86
9.84
9.82
9.80
9.78
9.76
9.74
9.72
37
10.15
10.13
10.11
10.09
10.07
10.05
10.03
10.01
9.99
38
10.40
10.38
10.36
10.34
10.32
10.30
10.28
10.26
39
10.68
10.66
10.64
10.61
10.59
10.57
10.55
10.53
V. CON.
DEGREE BRIX.
o $
15.O
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.O
18.5
19.0
19.5
30.0
5P
ft
77
27
27
27
27
27
27
27 0.27
0.27
26
1
54
54
54
54
53
53
53
0.53 ! 0.53
0.53
53
2
0.81
0.81
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.80! 0.79
0.79
0.79
3
1.08
1.08
1.07
1.07
1.07
1.07
1.06
1.06 1.06
1.06
1.06
4
1.35
1.34
1.34
1.34
1.34
1.33
1.33
1.33
1.32
1.32
1.32
5
1.62
1.61
1.61
1.61
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.59
1.59
1.59
1.58
6
1.88
1.88! 1.88
1.87
1.87
1.86
1.86
1.86
1.85
1.85
1.85
7
2.15
2.15
2.15
2.14
2.14
2.13
2.13
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.11
8
2.42
2.42
2.41
2.41
2.40
2.40
2.39
2.39
2.38
2.38
2.37
9
2.69
2.69
2.68
2.68
2.67
2.67
2.66
2.65
2.65
2.64
2.64
10
2.96
2.95
2.95
2.94
2.94
2.93
2.92
2.92
2.91
2.91
2.90
11
3.23
3.22
3.22
3 21
3.20
3.20
3.19
3.18
3.18
3.17
3.17
12
3.50
3.49
3.49
3.48
3.47
3.46
3.46
3.45
3.44
3.44
3.43
13
3.77
3.76J 3.75
3.75
3.74
3.73
3.72
3.72
3.71
3.70
3.69
14
4.04
4.03
4.02
4.02
4.01
4.00
3.99
3.98
3.97
3.97
3.96
15
4.31
4.30
4.29
4.28
4.27
4.26
4.26
4.25
4.24
4.23
4.22
16
4.58
4.57
4.56
4.55
4.54
4.53
4.52
4.51
4.50
4.49
4.48
17
4.85
4.84
4.83
4.82
4.81
4.80
4.79
4. 78' 4.77
4.76
4.75
18
5.12
5.11
5.10
5.09
5.08
5.06
5 05
5.04
5.03
5.02
5.01
19
5.39
5.38
5.36
5.35
5.34
5.33
5.32
5.31
5.30
5.29
5.28
20
5.66
5.65
5.63
5.62
5.61
5.60
5.59
5.58
5.56
5.55
5.54
21
5.93
5.91
5.90
5.89
5.88
5.87
5.85
5.84
5.83
5.82
5.80
22
6.20
6.18
6.17
6.16
6.14
6.13
6.12
6.11
6.09
6.08
6.07
23
6.46
6.45
6.44
6.43
6.41
6.40
6.39
6,37
6.36
6.35
6.33
24
6.73
6.72
6.71
6.69
6.68
6.67
6.65
6.64
6.63
6.61
6.60
25
7.00
6.99
6.97
6.96
6.95
6.93
6.92
6.90
6.89
6.88
6.86
26
7.27
7.26
7.24
7.23
7.21
7.20
7.18
7.17
7.15
7.14
7.13
27
7.54
7.53
7.51
7.50
7.48
7.47
7.45
7.44
7.42
7.40
7.39
28
7.81
7.80
7.78
7.77
-7.75
7.73
7.72
7.70
7.68
7.67
7.65 29
8.08
8.06
8.05
8.03
8.02
8.00
7.98
7.97
7.95
7.93
7.92
30
8.35
8.33
8.32
8.30
8.28
8.27
8.25
8.23
8.21
8.20
8.18
31
8.62
8.60
8.58
8.57
8.55
8.53
8.51
8.50
8.48
8.46
8.45
32
8.89
8.87
8.85
8.84
8.82
8.80
8.78
8.76
8.75
8.73
8.71
33
9.16
9.14 9.12
9.10
9.09
9.07
9.05
9.03
9.01
8.99
8.97
34
9.43
9.41( 9.39
9.37
9.35
9.34
9.31
9.30
9.28
9.26
9.24
35
9.70
9.681 9.66
9.64
9.62
9.60
9.58
9.56
9.54
9.52
9.50
36
9.97
9.95
9.93
9.91
9.89
9.87
9.85
9.83
9.81
9.79
9.77
37
10 . 24
10.22
10.20
10.18
10.15
10.13
10.11
10.09
10.07
10.05
10.03
38
10.51
10.49
10.46
10.44
10.42
10.40
10.38
10.36
10.34
10.32
10.29
39
196
TABLE
DEGREE BRIX.
*
APPROXIMATE
From 11.5 TO 22 5
JSs
Tenths of
Per Cent
J3
op
11.5
12.
13.5
13.O
13.5
14.O
a Degree.
Sucrose.
^
40
10.93
10.91
10.89
10.86
10.84
10.82
0.1
0.03
41
11.18
11.16
11.14
11.12
11.09
0.2
0.05
42
11.46
11.43
11.41
11.39
11.36
0.3
0.08
43
11.71
11.68
11.66
11.64
0.4
0.11
44
11.98
11.95
11.93
11.91
0.5
0.13
45
12.25
12.23
12.20
12.18
0.6
0.16
46
12.50
12.47
12.45
0.7
0.19
47
12.74
12.72
0.8
0.21
48
13.02
12.99
0.9
0.24
49
13.26
50
51
52
53
54
DEGREE BRIX.
55
Cf>
From 23.0 to 24.0
OlJ
57
Tenths of Per Ceut.
58
a Degree. Sucrose.
59
I
60
0.1 0.03
61
0.2 0.05
62
0.3 0.08
63
0.4
0.10
64
0.5
0.13
65
0.6
0.16
66
0.7
0.18
67 ,
0.8
0.21
68
0.9
0.23
69
70
71
7.2
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
V. CON.
DEGREE BRIX.
14.5
15.
15.5
16.
16.5
17.0
17.5
11
fc
10.80
10.78
10.76
10.73
10.71
10.69
10.67
40
11.07
11.05
11.03
11.00
10.98
10.96
10.94
41
11.34
11.32
11.29
11.27
11.25
11.23
11.20
42
11.61
11.59
11.56
11.54
11.52
11.49
11.47
43
11.88
11.86
11.83
11.81
11.79
11.76
11.74
44
12.15
12.13
12.10
12.08
12.05
12.03
12.01
45
12.42
12.40
12.37
12.35
12.32
12.30
12.27
46
12.69
12.67
12.64
12.61
12.59
12.56
12.54
47
12.97
12.94
12.91
12.88
12.86
12.83
42.81
48
13.23
13.21
13.18
13.15
13.13
13.10
13.07
49
13.50
13.48
13.45
13.42
13.40
13.37
13.34
50
13.78
13.75
13.72
13.69
13.66
13.64
13.61
51
14.02
13.99
13.96
13.93
13.90
13.88
52
14.29
14.26
14.23
14.20
14.17
14.14
53
14.53
14.50
14.47
14.44
14.41
54
14.80
14.77
14.74
14.71
14.68
55
15.03
15.00
14.97
14.94
56
15.30
15.27
15.24
15.21
57
15.57
15.54
15.51
15.48
58
15.81
15.78
15.75
59
16.05
16.01
60
16.31
16.28
61
16.55
62
16.82
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
1 9 8
TABLE
DEGREE BRIX.
&
APPROXIMATE
From 11.5 to 22 5.
4. <U
'J3 60
Tenths of
PerCent.
Cti qj
18.0
18.5
19.
19.5
30.O
30.5
a Degree .
Sucrose.
2 Q
40
10.64
10.62
10.60
10.58
10.56
10.54
0.1
0.03
41
10.91
10.89
10.87
10.85
10.82
10.80
0.2
0.05
42
11.18
11.16
11.13
11.11
11.09
11.07
0.3
0.08 43
11.45
11.42
11.40
11 38
11.35
11.33
0.4
0.11 44
11.71
11.69
11 66
11 64
11.62
11.59
0.5
0.13 45
11.98
11.96
11.93
11.91
11.88
11.86
0.6
0.16
46
12.25
12.22
12.20
12.17
12 15 12.12
0.7
0.19
47
12 51
12.49
12.46
12.44
12 41 12.39
0.8
0.21
48
12.78
12.75
12.73
12 70
12.67
12.65
0.9
0.24
49
13,05
13.02
12.99
12.97
12 94
12.91
50
13 31
13 29
13.26
13.23
13.20
13.18
51
13.58
13.55
13.52
13.50
13.47
13 44
52
13 85
13.82
13.79
13.76
13.73
13.70
53
14.11
14.08
14.05
14 03
14.00
13.97
54
14.38
14.35
14.32
14.29
14.26
14.23
55
14.65
14.62
14.59
14.56
14.53
14.50
DEGREE BRIX.
From 23 to 24.0.
56
57
14.91
15.18
14.88
15.15
14.85
15 12
14.82
15.09
14.79
15.06
14.76
15.02
Tenths of
a Degree.
Per Cent.
Sucrose.
58
59
15.45
15.71
15.42
15.68
15.38
15.65
15.35
15.62
15.32
15.58
15.29
15.55
60
15.98
15 95
15 92
15.88
15.85
15.82
0.1
0.03 .
61
16.25
16.21
16.18
16.15
16 11
16.08
0.2
0.05
62
16.52
16.48
16.45
16.41
16.38
16.35
0.3
0.08
63
16.78
16.75
16.71
16.68
16.64
16.61
0.4
0.10
64
17.05
17.01
16.98
16.94
16.91
16.87
0.5
0.13
65
17 32
17.28
17.24
17.21
17 17
17.14
0.6
0.16
66
17.55
17.51
17.47
17.44
17.40
0.7
0.18
67
17.81
17.78
17 74
17.70
17.67
0.8
0.21
68
18.04
18.00
17.97
17.93
0.9
0.23
69
18.31
18.27
18.23
18.19
70
18.53
18.50
18.46
71
18 76
18.72
72
19.03
18 99
73
19.25
74
19.52
75
19.78
76
77
78
79
80
V. CON.
199
DEGREE BRIX.
Polariscope
Degrees.
81.0
21.5
22.0
22 5
230
23.5
240
10.52
10.49
10.47
10.45
10.43
10.41
10.38
40
10.78
10.76
10.74
10.71
10.69
10.67
10.65
41
11.04
11.02
11.00
10.97
10.95
10.93
10.90
42
11.31
11.28
11.26
11.24
11.21
11.19
11.17
43
11.57
11.55
11.52
11.50
11.47
11.45
11.42
44
11 83
11.81
11.78
11 76
11.73
11.71
11.69
45
12.09
12.07
12.05
12 02
12 00
11.97
11.94
46
12 36
12.33
12.31
12.28
12.26
12.23
12 21
47
12.62
12.60
12.57
12.54
12.52
12.49
12.47
48
12.88
12.86
12.83
12.81
12.78
12.75
12.73
49
13.15
13 12
13.09
13.07
13.04
13.01
12.99
50
13.41
13.39
13.36
13.33
13.30
13.27
13.25
51
13.68
13.65
13.62
13.59
13.56
13.53
13.51
52
13.94
13.91
13.88
13.85
13.82
13.79
13.77
53
14.20
14 17
14.14
14.11
14.08
14.06
14.02
54
14.47
14.44
14.41
14.38
14.35
14.32
14 29
55
14.73
14.70
14.67
14.64
14.61
14.58
14.55
56
14.99
14.96
14.93
14.90
14.87
14.84
14.81
57
15.26
15.23
15.19
15 16
15.13
15.10
15.07
58
15.52
15.49
15.46
15.42
15.39
15.36
15.33
59
15.78
15.75
15.72
15.69
15.65
15.62
15.59
60
16.05
16.01
15.98
15.95
15.91
15.88
15.85
61
16.31
16.28
16.24
16.21
16.18
16.14
16.11
62
16.57
16.54
16.51
16.47
16.44
16.40
16.37
63
16.84
16.80
16.77
16.73
16.70
16.66
16.63
64
17.10
17.07
17.03
17.00
16.96
16.92
16.89
65
17.37
17.33
17.29
17.26
17.22
17.19
17.15
66
17.63
17.59
17.56
17.52
17.48
17.45
17.41
67
17.89
17.86
17.82
17.78
17.74
17.71
17.67
68
18.16
18.12
18.08
18.04
18.00
17.97
17.93
69
18.42
18 38
18.35
18.31
18.27
18.23
18.19
70
18.68
18.65
18.61
18.57
18.53
18.49
18.45
71
18.95
18.91
18.87
18.83
18 79
18.75
18 71
72
19.21
19.17
19.13
19.09
19.05
19.01
18.97
73
19.48
19.44
19.40
19.35
19.31
19.27
19.23
74
19.74
19.70
19.66
19.62
19.57
19.53
19.49
75
20.00
19.96
19.92
19.88
19.84
19.80
19.75
76
20.27
20.22
20.18
20.14
20.10
20.06
20.01
77
20.49
20.45
20.40
20.36
20.32
20.27
78
20.75
20.71
20.66
20.62
20.58
20.54
79
20.97
20.93
20.88
20.84
20.80
80
200 TABLE VI.
For the Determination of Coefficients of Purity. (KoTTMANN.)
1 Percent.
Sucrose.
PBR CENT. OF NON-SUCROSE = DEGREE BRIX MINUS PER CENT.
SUCROSE.
Per Cent.
Sucrose.
l.O
1.1
1.8
1 3
1.4
15
1.6
1.7
1.8
8.0
88.9
87.9
87
86.0
85.1
84.2
83.3
82.5
81.6
8.0
8.2
89.1
88.2
87.2
86 3
85.4
84.5
83.7
82.8
82.0
8.2
8.4
89.4
88.4
87.5
86.6
85 7
84.8
84.0
83.2
82.3
8 4
8.6
89.6
88.7
87 8
86.9
86.0
85.1
84.3
83.5
82.7
8.6
8.8
89.8
88.9
88
87.1
86.3
85 4
84 6
83.8
83.0
8 8
9.0
90.0
89.1
88 2
87.4
86 5
85.7
84 9
84.1
83.3
9
9.2
90.2
89.3
88.5
87.6
86.8
86.0
85.2
84.4
83.6
9.2
9.4
90.4
89.5
88.7
87.8
87
86.2
85.5
84.7
83.9
9.4
9.6
90.6
89.7
88 9
88.1
87.3
86 5
85.7
85.0
84.2
9 6
9.8
90.7
89.9
89.1
88.3
87.5
86.7
86.0
85.2
84.5
9.8
10.0
90.9
90.1
89 3
88.5
87.7
87.0
86.2
85.5
84.7
10.0
10 2
91.1
90.3
89.5
88.7
87.9
87.2
86.4
85.7
85.0
10.2
10.4
91.2
90.4
89.7
88.9
88.1
87.4
86.7
86.0
85.2
10.4
10 6
91.4
90.6
89.8
89.1
88.3
87.6
86.9
86.2
85.5
10.6
10.8
91.5
90.8
90.0
89.3
88.5
87.8
87.1
86.4
85.7
10.8
11.0
91.7
90.9
90.2
89.4
88.7
88.0
87.3
86.6
85.9
11.0
11.2
91.8
91.1
90.3
89.6
88.9
88.2
87.5
86.8
86.2
11.2
11.4
91.9
91 2
90.5
89.8
89.1
88.4
87.7
87.0
86.4
11.4
11.6
92.1
91.3
90.6
89.9
89.2
88.5
87 9
87.2
86.6
11.6
11.8
92.2
91.5
90.8
90.1
89.4
88.7
88.1
87.4
86.8
11.8
12.0
92.3
91.6
90 9
90.2
89 6
88.9
88.2
87.6
87.0
12.0
12.2
92.4
91.7
91
90.4
89.7
89.1
88.4
87.8
87.1
12.2
12.4
92.5
91.9
91.2
90.5
89.9
89.2
88.6
87.9
87.3
12.4
12.6
92.6
92.0
91.3
90.6
90.0
89.4
88.7
88.1
87.5
12.6
12.8
92.7
92.1
91.4
90.8
90.1
89.5
88 9
88.3
87.7
12.8
13.0
92.8
92.2
91.5
90.9
90.3
89.7
89.0
88.4
87.8
13.0
13.2
92.9
92.3
91.7
91.0
90.4
89.8
89.2
88.6
88.0
13.2
13.4
93.0
92.4
91.8
91.2
90.5
89.9
89.3
88.7
88.2
13.4
13.6
93.1
92.5
91.9
91.3
90.7
90.1
89.5
88.9
88.3
13.6
13.8
93.2
92.6
92.0
91.4
90.8
90.2
89.6
89.0
88.5
13.8
14.0
93.2
92.7
92.1
91.5
90.9
90 3
89.7
89.2
88.6
14.0
14.2
93.3
92.8
92.2
91.6
91.0
90.4
89.9
89.3
88.8
14.2
14.4
93.4
92.9
92.3
91.7
91.1
90 6
90.0
89.4
88.9
14.4
14.6
93.5
93.0
92.4
91.8
91.3
90 7
90.1
89.6
89.0
14.6
14.8
93.6
93.1
92.5
91.9
91.4
90.8
90.2
89.7
89.2
14.8
15.0
93.7
93.2
92.6
92.0
91.5
90.9
90.4
89.8
89.3
15.0
15.2
93.8
93.3
92.7
92.1
91.6
91
90.5
89.9.
89.4
15.2
15.4
93.9
93.3
92.8
92.2
91.7
91.1
90.6
90.1
89.5
15.4
15.6
94
93 4
92.8
92.3
91.8
91.2
90.7
90.2
89.7
15.6
15.8
94.1
93.5
92.9
92.4
91 9
91.3
90.8
90.3
89.8
15.8
16.0
94.1
93 6
93.0
92.5
92
91.4
90.9
90.4
89.9
16.0
16.2
94.2
93.7
93.1
92.6
92.0
91.5
91.0
90.5
90.0
16.2
16.4
94.3
93.7
93.2
92.6
92.1
91.6
91.1
90.6
90.1
16.4
16.6
94.3
93.8
93.3
92.7
92.2
91 .7
91.2
90.7
90.2
16.6
16.8
94.4
93.9
93.3
92.8
92.3
91.8
91.3
90.8
90.3
16.8
17.0
94.4
93.9
93.4
92.9
92.4
91 9
91.4
90.9
90.4
17.0
TABLE VI. CON.
20 1
PerCent i
Sucrose.
PER CENT. OF NON-SCCKOSE = DEGREE BRIX MINUS PKR CENT.
SUCROSE.
PerCent.
Sucrose. |
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2 ft 2.6
2 7
8.0
80.8
80.0
79.2
78.4
77.7
76.9
76.2 75.5
74.8
8.0
8.2
81 2
80 4
79.6
78.8
78.1
77.4
76.6 75.9
75.2
8.2
8.4
81 5
80 8
80
78.2
78.5
77.8
77.1 i 76.4
75.7
8.4
8.6
81.9
81 1
80.4
78.6
78 9
78.2
77.5 76.8
76.1
8 6
8 8
82 2
81.5
80.7
79.0
79.3
78.6
77.9 i 77 2
76.5
8.8
9.0
82.6
81.8
81.1
79.4
79.6
78.9
78.3 77 6
76.9
9.0
9.2
82.9
82.1
81 4
79.7
80.0
79.3
78.6 ; 77.9
77.3
9.2
9.4
83 2
82.5
81.7
80.0
80 3
79.9
79.0 , 78 3
77.7
9.4
9.6
83.5
82.8
82.1
80.4
80 7
80
79.3 78.7
78.0
9.6
9.8
83.8
83.1
82 4
80.7
81.0
80.3
79.7 i 79.0
78 4
9.8
10.0
84
83 3
82 6
81 9
81.3
80.6
80
79.4
78 7
10.0
10 2
84.3
83.6
82.9
82.1
81.6
81.0
80.3
79.7
79.1
10.2
10.4
84 6
83 9
83.2
82 5
81.9
81.2
80.6
80.0
79 4
10.4
10.6
84 8
84.1
83 5
82 7
82.2
81 5
80.9
80 3
79.7
10.6
10.8
85
84.4
83.7
83.1
82 4
81.8
81 2
80 6
80.0
10.8
11.0
85 3
84.6
84.0
83 4
82.7
82.1
81.5
80.9
80.3
11.0
11 2
85 5
84.8
84.2
83 5
83.0
82 4
81.8
81.2
80.6
11.2
11 4
85 7
85.1
84 4
82.8
83 2
82 6
82.0
81.4
80.9
11.4
11 6
85 9
85 3
84 7
83 1
83 5
82 9
82 3
81.7
81 1
11.6
11 8
86 1
85.5
84.9
83 3
83.7
83 1
82.5
81.9
81.4
11.8
12.0
86.3
85 7
85 1
83.5
83.9
83 3
82 8
82 2
81.6
12.0
12 2
86.5
85, 9
85.3
83.7
84.1
83 6
83.0
82.4
81.9
12.2
12.4
86 7
86 1
85.5
83 9
84.4
83.8
83.2
82.7 J82.1
12.4
12.6
86.9
86 3
85.7
84.1
84 6
84
83.4
82 9 182.4
12.6
12.8
87 1
86 5
85.9
84.3
84 8
84 2
83.7
83.1
82.6
12 8
13.0
87.2
86.7
86 1
84.5
85
84.4
83.9
83 3
82.8
13.0
13.2
87 4
86.8
86 3
84.7
85.2
84.6
84.1
83.5
83.0
13.2
13.4
87 6
87.0
86 5
84.9
85 4
84.8
84 3
83.7
83.2
13.4
13.6
87 7
87.2
86 6
85 1
85.5
85 '0
84.5
83.9
83.4
13.6
13.8
87.9
87 3
86.8
85.3
85.7
85.2
84.7
84 1
83.6
13.8
14.0
88 1
87 5
87.0
85.4
85.9
85 4
84.8
84.3
83.8
14.0
14 2
88 2
87.7
87 1
85.6
86.1
85.5
85.0
84 5
84.0
14.2
14 4
88 3
87.8
87.3
85 7
86.2
85 7
85.2
84.7
84.2
14.4
14.6
88.5
88
87 4
85.9
86 4
85 9
85.4
84.9
84.4
14.6
14.8
88 6
88 1
87.6
86.1
86 5
86.0
85.5
85.1
84.6
14.8
15
88.8
88.2
87.7
86.2
86 7
86.2
85.7
85 2
84 7
15
15.2
88.9
88.4
87 9
86.4
86 9
86 4
85 9
85.4
84.9
15.2
15.4
89.0
88 5
88.0
86.5
87.0
86.5
86.0
85 6
85.1
15.4
15 6
89 1
88.6
88.1
86 6
87.2
86.7
86 2
85 7
85.2
15.6
15 8
89 3
88 8
88.3
87.8
87.3
86.8
86.3
85 9
85.4
15.8
16.0
89 4
88 9
88.4
87.9
87.4
87.0
86.5
86.0
85.6
16.0
16 2
89.5
89.0
88.5
88.0
87.6
87 1
86.6
86.2
85.7
16.2
16 4
89.6
89.1
88 6
87.2
87.7
87 2
86 8
86 3
85.9
16.4
16.6
89 7
89.2
88 8
87.3
87 8
87.4
86.9
86 5
86.0
16.6
16.8
89 8
89.4
88.9
87.4
88.0
87.5
87.0
86 6
86.2
16-. 8
17
89.9
89 5
89
87.5
88.1
87.6
87.2
86 7
86.3
17.0
202
TABLE VI. CON.
Per Cent.
Sucrose.
PER CENT. OF NON-SUCROSE = DEGREE BRIX MINUS PER CENT.
SUCROSE.
PerCent
Sucrose.
3.8
2.9
3.0
31
3. a
33
34
3.5
3 6
8.0
74.1
73.4
72.7
72.1
71.4
70.8
70.2
69.6
69.0
8.0
8.2
74.5
73.9
73.2
72.6
71.9
71.3
70.7
70.1
69.5
8.2
8.4
75.0
74.3
73.7
73.0
72.4
71.8
71.2
70.6
70.0
8.4
8.6
75.4
74.8
74.1
73.5
72.9
72 3
71.7
71.1
70.5
8.6
8.8
75.9
75.2
74 6
73.9
73.3
72.7
72.1
71.5
71.0
8.8
9.0
76.3
75.6
75.0
74.4
73.8
73.2
72 6
72.0
71.4
9.0
9.2
76.7
75.8
75.4
74.8
74.2
73.6
73.0
72.4
71.9
9.2
9.4
77.0
76.4
75.8
75 2
74.6
74.0
73.4
72.9
72.3
9.4
9.6
77.4
76.8
76.2
75.6
75.0
74.4
73.8
73.3
72.7
9.6
9.8
77.8
77.2
76.6
76.0
75.4
74.8
74.2
73.7
73.1
9.8
10.0
78.1
77.5
76.9
76 3
75.8
75.2
74.6
74.1
73.5
10.0
10.2
78.5
77.9
77.3
76 7
76.1
75.6
75
74.5
73.9
10.2
10.4
78.8
78.2
77.6
77.0
76.5
75.9
75.4
74.8
74.3
10.4
10.6
79.1
78.5
77.9
77.4
76.8
76.3
75.7
75.2
74.6
10.6
10.8
79.4
78.8
78.3
77.7
77.1
76 6
76.1
75.5
75.0
10.8
11.0
79.7
79.1
78.6
78.0
77.5
76.9
76.4
75.9
75.3
11.0
11.2
80
79.4
78.9
78.3
77.8
77.2
76.7
76.2
75.7
11.2
11.4
80.3
79.7
79.2
78.6
78.1
77 6
77.0
76 5
76.0
11.4
11.6
80.6
80.0
79.4
78.9
78.4
77.9
77.3
76 8
76.3
11.6
11.8
80.8
80.3
79.7
79.2
78.7
78.1
77.6
77.1
76.6
11.8
12.0
81.1
80 5
80.0
79 5
78.9
78.4
77.9
77.4
76.9
12.0
12.2
81.3
80.8
80.3
79.7
79.2
78.7
78.2
77.7
77.2
12.2
12.4
81.6
81.0
80.5
80.0
79.5
79.0
78 5
78.0
77.5
12.4
12.6
81.8
81.3
80.8
80.3
79.7
79.2
78 8
78.3
77.8
12.6
12.8
82.1
81.5
81.0
80.5
80.0
79.5
79.0
78.5
78.0
12.8
13.0
82.3
81.8
81.2
80.7
80.2
79.8
79.3
78.8
78.3
13.0
13.2
82 5
82.0
81.5
81
80.5
80.0
79.5
79.0
78.6
13.2
13.4
82.7
82.2
81.7
81.2
80.7
80.2
79.8
7. 3
78.8
13.4
13.6
82.9
82 4
81.9
81.4
81.0
80.5
80.0
79.5
79.1
13.6
13.8
83.1
82.6
82.1
81.7
81.2
80.7
80.2
79.8
79.3
13.8
14.0
83.3
82.8
82.3
81.9
81.4
80.9
80.5
80.0
79.5
14.0
14.2
83.5
83.0
82.5
82.1
81.6
81.1
80.7
80.2
79.8
14.2
14.4
83.7
83.2
82.7
82.3
81.8
81.4
80.9
80.4
80.0
14.4
14.6
83.9
83.4
82.9
82.5
82.0
81.6
81.1
80.7
80.2
14.6
14.8
84.1
83.6
83.1
82.7
82.2
81.8
81 3
80.9
80.4
14.8
15.0
84.3
83.8
83.3
82.9
82.4
82.0
81.5
81.1
80.6
15.0
15.2
84.4
84.0
83.5
83.1
82.6
82.2
81.7
81.3
80.8
15.2
15.4
84.6
84.2
83.7
83.2
82.8
82.*
81.9
81.5
81.0
15.4
15.6
84.8
84.3
83.9
83.4
83.0
82.5
82.1
81.7
81.2
15.6
15.8
84.9
84.5
84.0
83.6
83.2
82.7
82.3
81*9
81.4
15.8
16.0
85.1
84.7
84.2
83.8
83.3
82 9
82.5
82.0
81.6
16.0
16.2
85.3
84.8
84.4
83 9
83.5
83.1
82.7
82.2
81.8
16.2
16.4
85.4
84.9
84.5
84.1
83.7
83.2
82.8
82.4
82.0
16.4
16.6
85.6
85 1
84.7
84.3
83.8
83.4
83.0
82.6
82.2
16.6
16.8
85.9
85.2
84.8
84.4
84
83.6 83.2
82.8
82.4
16.8
17.0
85.9
85 4
85.0
84.6
84.2
83.7 83.3
82.9
82.5
17.0
TABLE VI. CON.
20 3
a n
3
PER CENT. OF NON-SUCROSE = DEGREE BRIX MINUS PER CENT.
/ SUCROSE.
rCent
icrose.
3.7
3,8
3.9
4.0
41
42
4.3 4 4 4.5
ft CO
8 C
68.4
67.8
67.2
66.7
66.1
65.6
65.0 64 5
64.
8.0
8". 1
68.9
68 3
67.8
67.2
66 7
66 1
65 6 65.1
64 6
8.2
8.4
69 4
68.8
68 3
67 7
67.2
66.7
66.1 65.6
65.
8.4
S.i
69.9
69.3
68 8
68 3
67.7
67 2
66.7 66.2
65.6
8 6
-8 g
70 4
69 8
69 3
.68.8
68.2
67 7
67.2 66.7
66.2
8.8
9 C
70 9
70.3
69 8
69 2
68 7
68 2
67.7 ! 67.2
66.7
9.0
9.2
71 3
70.8
70 2
69.7
69.2
68 7
68 1 I 67.6
67.2
9.2
9.4
71 8
7J.2
70.7
70.1
69.6
69.1
68 6 I 68 1
67 6
9.4
9.6
72.2
71 6
71.1
70 6
70.1
69.6
69.1 68 6
68 1
9.6
9.8
72 6
72 1
71.5
71.0
70.5
70
69.5
69.0
68.5
9.8
10.0
73.0
72.5
71.9
71.4
70.9
70.4
69 9
69.4
69.0
10.0
10 2
73.4
72.9
72 3
71 T 8
71.3
70.8
70 3
69 9
69.4
10.2
10.4
73.8
73.2
72 7
72 2
71.7
71.2
70 7
70.3
69 8
10.4
10.6
74 1
73.6
73.1
72.6
72.1
71.6
71 1
70.7
70.2
10.6
10 8
74.5
74.0
73 5
73
72 5
72
71 5
71 1
70.6
10.8
11.0
74.8
74 3
73.8
73.3
72.8
72.4
71 9
71.4
71.0
11.0
11 2
75.2
74.7
74.2
73.7
73.2
72.7
72 3
71.8
71.3
11.2
11 4
75.5
75.0
74.5
74.0
73.5
73.1
72.6
72.2
71.7
11.4
11 6
75 8
75.3
74.8
74 4
73 9
73.4
73.0
72.5
72.0
11.6
11 8
76 1
75 6
75.2
74 9
74 2
73.8
73.3
72 8
72 4
11.8
12.0
76 4
75.9
75 5
75
74.5
74 1
73.6
73.2
72.7
12.0
12 .2
76.7
76 2
75.8
75.3
74 8
74.4
73.9
73.5
73 1
12.2
12.4
77.0
76.5
76.1
75.6
75 2
74 7
74.3
73 8
73.4
12.4
12.6
77.3
76 8
76.4
75 9
75.4
75
74.6
74.1
73.7
12.6
12.8
77.6
77.1
76.6
76.2
75.7
75 3
74.9
74.4
74.0
12 8
13.0
77.8
77.4
76 9
76.5
76.0
75 6
75.1
74 7
74.3
3.0
13.2
78.1
77.6
77.2
76.7
76 3
75.9
75.4
75
74 6
3.2
13 4
78 4
77.9
77.5
77
76.6
76 1
75 7
75 3
74 9
3.4
13.6
78.6
78.2
77 7
77.3
76.8
76.4
75
75.6
75 1
3.6
13 8
78.9
78.4
78
77 5
77 1
76 7
76.2
75.8
75.4
3.8
14.0
79 1
78.7
78.2
77.8
77.3
76.9
76.5
76.1
75 7
4.0
14 2
79.3
78.9
78.5
78
77.6
77.2
76 8
76.3
75.9
4.2
14 4
79 6
79.1
78.7
78 3
77.8
77.4
77.0
76 6
76.2
4.4
14 6
79.8
79.3
78 9
78.5
78 1
77.6
77.2
76 8
76.4
4.6
14:8
80.0
79.6
79.1
78 7
78.3
77.9
77.5
77 1
76 7
4.8
15
80.2
79 8
79.4
78.9
78.5
78.1
77.7
77 3
76.9
5
15 2
80'. 4
80.0
79.6
79.2
78 8
78.4
77.9
77 6
77.2
5.2
15.4
80.6
80.2
79 8
79 4
79.0
78.6
78.2
77.8
77 4
5.4
15 6
80 8
80 4
80.0
79.6
79.2
78 8
78.4
78
77.6
5.6
15 8
81.0
80.6
80 2
79.8
79.4
79.0
78.6
78.2
77 S
5.8
16.0
81.2
80.8
80.4
80
79.6
79.2
78.8
78.4
78
6.0
16 2
81.4
81.0
80 6
80.2
79 8
79.4
79.0
78.6
78.3
6.2
16 4
81.6
81.2
80.8
80.4
80
79.6
79 2
78.8
78.5
6.4
16.6
81 8
81 4
81.0
80.6
80.2
79.8
79.4
79.0
78.7
6.6
16.8
82.0
81.6
81 2
80 8
80.4
80.0
79.6
79 2
78.9
6.8
17 o 82 1,
81 7
81.3
80.0
80 6
80.2
79 8
79 4
78.1
7.0
204
TABLE VII.
For Determining Per Cent. CaO in Lime with a Normal Acid.
C. C. Acid.
Percent.
CaO.
C.C Acid.
Percent.
CaO.
r r A^-H Percent.
1 c. c. Acid, i Ca0
22.0
61 6
24.7
69.2
27.4
76.7
22.1
61.9
27.8
69.4
27.5
77.0
22.2
62.2
24.9
69.7
27.6
77.3
22.3
62.4
25.0
70.0
27.7
77.6
22.4
62.7
25.1
70.3
27.8
77.8
22 .,5
63.0
25.2
70.6
27.9
78.1
22.6
63.3
25 3
70.8
28.0
78.4
21.1
63.6
25.4
71 1
28.1
78.7
21. 8
63.8
25.5
71.4
28.2
79.0
22.9
64.1
25.6
71.7
28.3
79.2
23.0
64.4
25.7
72.0
28.4
79.5
23.1
64.7
25.8
72.2
28.5
79.8
23.2
65.0
25.9
72 5
28.6
80.1
23.3
65.2
26.0
72.8
28.7
80 4
23.4
65.5
26.1
73.1
28 8
80.6
23.5
65.8
26.2
73 4
28 9
80.9
23.6
66.1
26.3
73.6
29.0
81.2
23.7
66.4
26 4
73.9
29.1
81.5
23.8
66 6
26.5
74.2
29.2
81.8
23 9
66.9
26.6
74.5
29.3
82.0
24.0
67.2
26 7
74.8
29 4
82.3
24.1
67.5
26.8
75.0
29.5
82.6
24.2
67.8
26.9
75.3
29.6
82.9
24.3
68.0
27
75 6
29 7
83.2
24.4
68.3
27.1
75.9
29.8
83.4
24.5
68.6
27.2
76.2
29.9
83.7
24.6
68.9
27.3
76.4
30.0
84.0
205
TABLE VIII.
CaO WITH A NORMAL ACID.
c c.
Per Cent.
C. C.
PerCent.
C. C
PerCent.
of Acid.
of CaO.
of Acid.
of CaO.
of Acid.
of CaO.
1
2.8
13
36.4
25
70.0
2
5.6
14
39.2
26
72.8
3
8.4
15
42.0
27
75.6
4
12.2
16
44.8
28
78.4
5
14.0
17
47.6
29
81.2
6
16.8
18
50.4
30
84.0
7
19.6
19
53.2
31
86.8
8
22.4
20
56.0
32
89.6
9
25.2
21
58.8
33
92.4
10
28.0
22
61.6
34
95.2
11
30.8
23
64.4
35
98.0
12
33.6
24
67.2
35.7
100.0
ADD FOR TENTHS OF A CUBIC CENTIMETER.
C. C. of Acid. Per Cent, of CaO.
.28
.56
.84
1.22
1.40
1.68
1.96
2.24
2.52
2o6 TABLE IX.
COMPARISON OF THERMOMETRIC SCALES.
CKNTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT.
Centigrade
Fahrenheit
Centigrade
Fahrenheit. || Centigrade
Fahrenheit.
100
212
53
o
127.4
6
42.8
99
210.2
52
125.6
5
41
98
208.4
51
123.8
4
39.2
97
206.6
50
122
3
37.4
96
204.8
49
120.2
2
35 6
95
203
48
118.4
1
33 8
94
201.2
47
116.6
32
93
199.4
46
114.8
1
30.2
92
197.6
45
113
- 2
28.4
91
195.8
44
111.2
3
26.6
90
194
43
109.4
4
24.8
89
192.2
42
107.6
- 5
23
88
190.4
41
105 8
6
21.2
87
188.6
40
104
7
19.4
86
186.8
39
102 2
8
17.6
85
185
38
100.4
- 9
15.8
84
183.2
37
98.6
10
14
83
181.4
36
96.8
-11
12.2
82
179.6
35
95
-12
10.4
81
177.8
34
93.2
13
8.6
80
176
33
91.4
14
6.8
79
174.2
32
89.6
15
5
78
172.4
31
87.8
16
3.2
77
170.6
30
86
17
1.4
76 -
168.8
29
84.2
18
0.4
75
167
28
82.4
19
2.2
74
165.2
27
80.6
20
4
73
163.4
26
78.8
21
5.8
72
161.6
25
77
22
7.6
71
159.8
24
75.2
23
9.4
70
158
23
73.4
24
11 2
69
156.2
22
71 6
25
13
68
154 4
21
69.8
26
14 8
67
152 6
20
68
27
16.6
66
150.8
19
66.2
28
18.4
65
149
18
64.4
29
20 2
64
147.2
17
62.6
30
22
63
145.4
16
60 8
31
-23.8
62
143.6
15
59
-32
25.6
61
141.8
14
57.2
33
27.4
60
140
13
55.4
34
29.2
59
138 2
12
53 6
35
31
58
136.4
11
51 8
36
32.8
57
134.6
10
50
37
34.6
56
132 8
9
48.2
38
36.4
55
131
8
46.4
39
38 2
54
129.2
7
44.6
40
40
TABLE IX. CON.
COMPARISON OF THERMOMETRIC SCALES.
FAHRENHEIT AND CKNTIGRADE.
207
Fahren-
heit.
Centi-
grade
Fahren
heit.
Centi-
grade.
Fahren-
heit.
Centi-
grade .
Fahren-
heit.
Centi-
grade.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
212
100
165
73.89
118
47.78
71
21.67
211
99 44
164
73.33
117
47.22
70
21.11
210
98.99
163
72.78
116
46.67
69
20.55
209
98.33
162
72.22
115
46 11
68
20
208
97.78
161
71.67
114
45.55
67
19.44
207
97.22
160
71.11
113
45
66
18.89
206
96.67
159
70.55
112
44.44
65
18 33
205
96.11
158
70
111
43.89
64
17.78
204
95.55
157
69.44
110
43.33
63
17.22
203
95
156
68.89
109
42.78
62
16 67
202
94.44
155
68.33
108
42.22
61
16.11
201
93.89
154
67.78
107
41.67
60
15.55
200
93.33
153
67.22
106
41.11
59
15
199
92.78
152
66.67
105
40.55
58
14.44
198
92.22
151
66.11
104
40
57
13.89
197
91.67
150
65.55
103
39.44
56
13.33
196
91.11
149
65
102
38.89
55
12.78
195
90.55
148
64.44
101
38.33
54
12.22
194
90
147
63.89
100
37.78
53
11 67
193
89.44
146
63.33
99
37.22
52
11.11
192
88.89
145
62.78
98
36.67
51
10.55
191
88.33
144
62.22
97
36.11
50
10
190
87.78
143
61.67
96
35.55
49
9.44
189
87.22
142
61.11
95
35
48
8.89
188
86.67
141
60.55
94
34.44
47
8.33
187
86.11
140
60
93
33.89
46
7.78
- 186
85 55
139
59.44
92
33.33
45
7.22
185
85
138
58.89
91
32.78
44
6.67
184
84.44
137
58.33
90 '
32.22
43
6.11
183
83 89
136
57.78
89
31.67
42
5 55
182
83 33
135
57 . 22
88
31.11
41
5
181
82.78
134
56.67
87
30.55
40
4.44
180
82 22
133
56.11
86
30
39
3.89
179
81 67
132
55.55
85
29.44
38
3.33
178
81.11
131
55
84
28.89
37
2.78
177
80 55
130
54.44
83
28.33
36
2.22
176
80
129
53.89
82
27.78
35
1.67
175
79.44
128
53.33
81
27.22
34
1.11
174
78.89
127
52.78
80
26.67
173
78.33
126
52.22
79
26.11
172
77.78
125
51.67
78
25.55
171
77.22
124
51.11
77
25
170
76.67
123
50.55
76
24.44
169
76.11
122
50
75
23.89
168
75.55
121
49.44
74
23.33
167
75
120
48 89
73
22.78
166
74.44
119
48.33
72
22.22
208
TABLE X.
PARTIAL LIST OF ATOMIC WEIGHTS. (REMSEN.)
NAME.
Symbol.
Atomic
Weight.
NAME.
Symbol.
Atomic
Weight.
Aluminum .. .
Al.
27.04
Lead
Pb.
206.4
Antimony . . .
Sb.
119.6
Lithium . . .
Li.
7.01
Arsenic
As.
74.9
Magnesium . .
Mg.
23.94
Barium
Ba.
136.9
Manganese . .
Mn.
"54.8
Bismuth
Bi.
207.3
Mercury
Her
199.8
Boron
B.
10*9
Molybdenum
*o
Mo.
95.9
Bromine . , .
Br.
79.76
Nickel
Ni.
58.56
Cadmium ....
Cd.
111.7
Nitrogen ....
N.
14.01
Calcium
Ca.
39.9!
Carbon
C.
11.97
Oxygen
O
15.96
Chlorine. . . .
Chromium . . .
Cobalt
Copper
Cl.
Cr.
Co.
Cu.
35.37
52.45
58.74
63.18
Phosphorus . .
Platinum ....
Potassium . .
P.
Pt.
K.
30.96
194.3
39.03
Fluorine
F.
19.06
Silicon
Silver
Si.
Ag-
'28.1
107.66
Gold
Au.
196.7
Sodium ....
Na.
23.0
Strontium . . .
Sr.
87.3
Hydrogen . . .
H.
1.
Sulphur
S.
31.98
Iodine
I.
126.54
Tin
Sn.
117.4
Iridium .....
Ir.
192.5
Iron .
Fe.
55.88
Uranium ....
U.
239.8
Zinc
Zn.
65.1
209
TABLE XI.
FACTORS USED IN QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS.
FOUND.
SOUGHT.
iMulti-
plyBy
Nitrogen N
.8236
.3089
.5832
.3431
.1374
1.7856
2.4294
.5600
.4400
. 4116
.2356
2 . 2730
1 . 9091
2.4117
2.4689
2.1035
1 . 6503
.7983
.4762
2.1000
3.0015'
.7565
,3602
.6396
. :,^2
.6668
2.1827
2 . 9903
1.9062
1 . 4668
.7913
1 . 5024
2.2645
.2473
Barium Sulphate .... BaSO 4 . . .
Barium Sulphate . . . .BaSO 4 . . .
Barium Sulphate BaSO 4 . . .
Barium Sulphate .... BaSO 4
Calcium Oxide . ... CaO
Calcium Sulphide CaS . . .
Calcium Sulphate CaSO 4 .
Sulphuric Anhydride. .SO 3 . .
Sulphur S
Calcium Carbonate . . .CaCO 3 ..
Calcium Sulphate .. . CaSO 4 .
Calcium Oxide . ..CaO...
Calcium Oxide CaO
Calcium Carbonate. .CaCO 3 ..
Calcium Carbonate. .CaCO 3 ..
Calcium Sulphate CaSO 4 . . .
CalciuofSulphate CaSO 4 . . .
Carbon Dioxide .... CO 2 . . .
Carbon Dioxide CO2
Carbon Dioxide CO 2 .
Calcium Oxide CaO . .
Sulphur S
Calcium Carbonate CaCO 3 .
Magnesium Carbonate. MgCO 3
Sodium Carbonate Na 2 CO 3
Potassium Carbonate. . K 2 CO 3 .
Potassium Chloride . . .KC1.. . .
Sodium Chloride NaCl . .
Copper Cu
Carbon Dioxide COa ....
Carbon Dioxide CO 2 ....
Chlorine Cl
Chlorine .. ..Cl
Copper Oxide CuO ..
Magnesium Carbon-
ate . . MgCOj. .
Magnesium Oxide ....MgO ..
Magnesium Carbonate. MgCO 3
Magnesium Sulphate. .MgSO 4
2 Magnesium Carbonate
. 2MgCO7
Magnesium Oxide . . .MgO . . .
Magnesium Oxide. . .MgO . . .
Magnesium P y r o -
phosphate Mg 2 P 2 O7
Magnesium P y r o -
phosphate Mg 2 P 2 Oy
Magnesium P y r o -
phosphate. . . Mg 2 P 2 Oy
2 Magnesium Oxide . . .2MgO .
Phosphoric Anhydride .
Magnesium Sulphate. MgSO 4 ..
Magnesium Sulphate MgSO4...
Phosphoric A n h y -
dride PaO 5
Magnesium Oxide MgO . .
Sulphuric Anhydride. .SO 2 . . . .
Calcium Phosphate CaP 2 Og
2 Potassium Phosphate 2K 3 PO 4
Potassium Chloride . . .KC1 . . .
Potassium Carbonate. .K 2 CO 3 .
Potassium Chloride . . .KC1 . . .
2 Potassium Phosphate 2K 3 PO 4
Potassium Sulphate . . .K2SO 4 ..
Chlorine Cl
Phosphoric A n h y -
dride PaO 5
Potassium K
Potassium Oxide .... K 2 O
Potassium Oxide K 2 O
3 Potassium Oxide.. 3K 2 O ...
Potassium Oxide K 2 O ...
Silver Chloride AgCl . .
2IO
TABLE XI. CON.
FOUND.
SOUGHT.
Multi-
ply By
Sodium Na ....
Sodium Na
Sodium Na 2
.Sodium Carbonate. .Na 2 CO 3
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Chloride .
Sodium Chloride .
Sodium Chloride .
Sodium Oxide . . .
Sodium Oxide . .
Sodium Sulphate .
Sodium Sulphate .
Sodium Sulphate .
Sulphuric Anhydride. SO 3
Sulphuric Anhydride. SO 3
Sulphuric Anhydride. SO 3
Sulphuric Anhydride SO 3
.Na 2 CO 3
.NaCl.. .
.NaCl...
.NaCl...
.Na 2 ..
.Na 2 O ..
.Na 2 SO 4 .
.Na 2 SO 4 .
Na 2 SO 4 .
Sodium Chloride . . . .NaCl. . .
Sodium Carbonate. Na 2 CO 3
Sodium Sulphate Na 2 SO 4
Carbon Dioxide CO 2 . . .
Oxygen O
hlorine Cl
Sodium Na ....
Sodium Oxide Na 2 O
Sodium Carbonate. . .Na 2 CO 3
Sodium Sulphate Na 2 SO 4
Sodium Na ....
Sulphuric Anhydride. SO 3 . . .
Dxygen O .
Calcium Sulphate ...CaSO 4 .
Magnesium Sulphate MgSO 4 .
Potassium Sulphate. . K 2 SO 4 .
Sodium Sulphate . . . .Na 2 SO 4
2.5378
2.3010
3.0830
.4146
.1508
.6060
.3940
.2906
1.7067
2 2889
.3244
.5631
.1125
1.6996
.4996
2.1773
1.7759
211
2
H*Mi-'H*oooppp !
^-4^-t\J>-'^DOOO>4^C^*-*O O
^OXMO^Cn^.C^ts)!-'
O> OJ U ls> W N> Is) tO K) Is)
^C>JI '^GOO^. CnC/JMO O
*vi-*CnvOC>J < <It-*C/iOC>J 3
K) W N) 10 W ^) ts> W 10 tsJ
O^ O -^ 00 Is) ^ O -P-' OC- t\) ^ t3
OvOOOMO^Cn-^-C/JlsJM
O^a^^ON^CnCnaiCnCn
00 to O^ O 4^- 00 Is) O O 4^
Cn ^ C>J ^ M
.
M O
OOX '
-
ts)aNO-^Gois)ON
S- 2
nil
B | 8|
2. 3 o ft
5 li
&j"
H;.!
P
la
O 5' S r- o
a S- 2 " -o
03 - o a o
g * R
5 p ^ >
S I 2 3
sl
s '
o S
S S |S S
O r* g 1 J O
a r
co g o- 5- E
00
m
X
II; I
*""" P* M
B 2- |
r*- CU
?;>
B S B
212
TABLE XII. CON.
*"| "<frT}-Tj-Tl-Tj-Tl-COcOCOCOCO
cOcOcorOcO
rt Cl *0 ^ uj vo l> 00
H M '
rH M CO TJ- 10 MD1> X ON C
O ON X vO U2
S^'sa "
X'l^ iO *
ON ON ON ON
iH O
i^. ro a\
iO ON C<J
C-^ 1^* rO ON
O CO !> ^H ^~ 00 TH
. "^ O LO rH 'sO rH l>.
r-t LO O T*- ON
rH O ON
^'^s'a'a's's's's's
ON 00
<-O r-l t^ CO ON i-O rH t^ CO ON
CO l^ O * l^ r-t IO CO fN IO
lOO'vDr-t'OrNli-^fVJQOcO
TABLE XII. CON.
213
vO-^^
CM CM s .
^
OC
tO tO tO M h* M
CM 10 M 4- h- 00 CM OJ ,~
^7 o M IO 4>-CN M ^O K* IO C>
vO O NJ \> CM W GO CM -* 00 3
l\J tsi M tO M M M
00 C^ OJ O "'I 4> > 'v^
^7 C ta,4^ CM M \O O
^
CM W
O'v 2
H- 'O^MGNH 'C^ O^I *ff\
CM CM ^ O^ ^1 ^1 00 00 'O '^C
4 \O 4*. \O
O
'O ^ Cu O *^1 CM l\> 'O ON C*J ' ^
i * CJ CM G\ 00 O >- CK> CM ^i 00 &^
-C C^ C>J O ^ tJf ^O CM ts> 00 CM
M O CM O CM O CM O CM
4-* CN 00 vO M OJ
X 4* M I 4- O ^T OJ
&8SQ$~8
M O
s ' 4^ M OC CM Is) \D ^-1 4*- M
^1 O O K> 4^ tn ^7 \O O KJ -^
s . CM O O^ tOAO CM K> 00 CM t-
10 M K> -1 Is) M IN> ^7 10 ^7
O O M M IsJ N) Co OJ 4>- 4^
^-7 4^ i ' 00 C/i CM O "^1 4^- '
Is) OJ CM M GO O ts> GJ CM ^7
l- 00 4^ H* ^7 4* O M OJ O
CM O CM O C/
CMCMON^^.
i O CM O CM
OJtOt\>tO*-'>-*h-'h-
OJ O O 1 ' K) ^O CM tO 00, CM M 00
OJ>-O4'VO4^\O4>-'vO4>-^O4i-
^OOO-'t-'tOtOOJOJ4^4^
O ^7 4^- K> v ON OJ O M CM IO
CM IO o
h-'N> 2,
CMts)^OO\C>Jl '
OJ4^
cK
vO4-O
4^ ^7 -
tO tO (- 1 *->- l-
tOOOO^OJ>-'VO<7CMtO ^j
O O ^O ^ 00 00 ^*7 ^^7 *^7 O^ O^ o"
MtOOOOJ\O4-'vOCMO<^t-' tn
X tO O" O OJ
00
Cn
- -
C*JOOOO^4^tOvO<IOiCU-' {*,
1 'vOMCMCtJMvO" s -7CMCJh- 52
4i-4i.C>JC>JO^'tOtOt-'t-OO 2
ocMoa^t-'ONto
M t- Cn \O OJ
-
I-O^tO
O^ O
O 4^ 00 IO
SO O vO ^ 00 00 M M 5i ^
CMO^H'OMO^ttOOOCo
Cn \O CK) <!
to M b o '^o \o bo bo S
h-'ON-'MtOOOC>J004>-
O OJ ^7 tO
214
TABLE XII. CON.
!> rH ^ c
r-t r-t rH
1C 00 rH ^t
^f O^i 1C
CO 1> rH
O O O rH r- ?M (Nl <M ro ro
CO
I
CO
I-H
O
&
I
-* cc c^j \o o *
^ rH O rH ^O CN! I^>*
O 01 Co ON S S O
i>r^oocooo-^-^Ti-ONu^o
iHU)3o<su5o\<>'5cR^>tx
O ' ' rH rH rH fS| fNI f>i CO
O O O rH rH rH OJ C<J Cs C<) rO
OrHrHrHC<lfX|r^cOCO
^XS^^QPrHTl-r
O O O r-t r-t r-t C<l CS| fsj r<0 rO
o o
l> v> T CO r-t
CNvTj-t^,-iioONnO
00 VO Tf rH ON t> VO f*) rH
l-f rH >
^ co'rH'
o i^ vo to IH a\ t>. * cs o oo
TABLE XII. CON.
215
Co IO tO IO M h- t-k
O M 4* M 00 Cn 10
4^ Co Co tO
Co 00 Co 00
IO 4>- ON 00
H O O O O
CO tO IO IO I- 1 ^ M>
O M 4^ M 00 Cn tO vO s - Co p
M "*-7 ON ON Cn Cn 4*- 4*. 4*. Co Co
vflaoaoaD^aoacaoaoaoao
CO IO tO tO M H* H*
- pc 4^ i- 1 00 Cn to v
OOvOvOOCXOO-
^^^^S2j
g
-7 M ON ON ?
n O Cr. O ft
OJ C*J tO tO to *-* t- O O vO vC S
vO 4^ vO C/i O C/ O Cn H 4 ON h^ ^
Oi4^4-4-'4-4^4-4-4^4*-^
to ^ o
O-tOK)tOt-'>-'-r>-
r?\ ^s f^s 'n Tn i^ f^ fij f.j Ki IO S
. M vO t- Co Cn -<7 vO r
to to to to to to to
CnOO". >-C s ->-'
C s -
4^ s 00 O to 4- s 00
i-'OOOOOOO
O tO
OO
OJ KJ IO I ' *- O O vC vO OC 00
COtOtOtOtOH'H-'M
tOvOONCoOM^l-^
f$jg]$)3BMP
"^ fe M O
vO 00
tO tO tO >-> h- -* M
ONCot-'XCnCoOMCntOO
Q
10 o o o
CO M - 4*. 00 M
r.
>-vOONCOK-OOCnCoO
7 O 4* 00 - Cn *
J vO Cn M M tO
/iCot-^OOOONCnCoh^
oONvOtOCnOOi-4^M
to to to >- - H i-
M4->-vOON4->-'OOpNCop
IO Oi vO tO ON O CO M O 4* M 9
OONtO004-OCn>-^-7CovO *.
Cn 00 h^ 4^ ^7 O CJ ON vO tO Cn
^ K ^
^8S
_
tO 00
COK^
tO tO tO (- H t- 4 M
4^00-'CnOOtOONvOCo ^
Cnt-MtO004i.OONtO ".
vO^>
SOJ'<7O4^M-'CnOOtO
ONI -~-7O-vOCn>-*ONtO
h^ O 00 ON Cn Co h^ O 00 ON
vOCoO^vOtOCnOOh^-li-M
00 Cn to O M Cn tO vO M 4- h-
tO ON vO Co ON O 4^ *^7 h^ 4^- 00
O4^MOCoONvOtOCnQOl '
tOK)KJ^>-*MH*M
Cn 00 to ON vO Co ON O Co **7 ^
O 00 ON Cn Co ^ O 00 ON Cn Co
tOONvOtOCnOOH'4^^7OCo
00 s * Co O GO Cn to O ^1 Cn tO
/i vO Co ON O CO
4^ O ON h- - ~
H* Cn
Cn h-t
Is) t-
00 -
vO to Cn
Co Co Co
216
TABLE XII. CON.
O
rt 1
g *.
ON 00 vO ^ co rH ON
O ON !> *O CO CM
O^ ON O TH c^ rO
vOi/5
rH ON
l>.ONC^iOOOi 1
v> ON
*"^ ON
rnr^fj^vo'Oi^oooNO
rOONTfONi
I> ON CS ^J- t
rf) 1> rH 10 ON rO l>
Mc<jra
rH O ON
xxxxxxxxxxx
i !>. rH IO ON CO i>- rH IO ON CO l^-
U rH rH rH rH CM CM CM
X
rH rH rH H M C^ C4
*-. rH LO ON CO 1>- rH
r~<
** rH fO \O 00
u
-
OrOvDXrHrO^
rH rH rH rH fS) ri <N
. o
^ 000000000000X00000000
g IO ON CO 1^ rH IO ON CO 1^ rH IO
< i CM ^O 1^- O Ol iO X O CO * O
W THrHrHrHCMfMfM
g8?SaS85S8S8
O T-HrHrHrHOlCMCM
rH <M f O * 'O
TABLE XII. CON.
217
4*C> O
*
SOD^4*tOOOCON4i-lO
oooooocoo
NOto
Co NO
a>- U bt Q bt o en o * v *. r
61 Co M NO M Cn Co i * '-O ~^I Cn
tOtOtOtOtOtOtOtOtOtOtO
Cn
OJ
CM
^' C>J Is) Is) h-^
O (^ (-* ^1 ^ 00 OJ \O
C/J M
Cn 0-> I ' ^C -^1 Cn C*J ' vjO ^t Cn
ooooxxoooooooooo
tO
oo
M-*4*.00>-*Cri^ls)ffN l vOC>J ^
M tv) X OJ 'vO 4^ O Cn h- ON N) L*
^^i^vOC/JOOOJOOOJ-vIls) 10
o^-^ixjoooa^toooooN
IN) K) IN) tO K) l\) Is) ts) IN) IN) N)
C.J 00 Co 00 IO M tO M tO s H M
ON4^lN)OOOON4i.tOOOO<^ '
M
NO'<rCnC>J-NO'<ICnCJ>- J
*vl IO -^7 M O^ t- 1 O^ M Cri O w
4^tOOGO^4^tOOOO^\ '
ooooooooooxoooooooo
I
CO
i Cn C> O"\ "<t 00
H* Cn i ' -<I 4^- >-^
1
4^4^4^4^4^4^4^4^4^ '
^* H^ B*
hJOO n
OO- t
>-'' k -l ft
>-'4i. J
CJ^NOlN)Cn
CnCnCnCnCn
1 j -->
C*j NO Cn to sO 4^ >"^ *^I C*J NO
tototofowtototototo
00 4^ O ^ 10
NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
.
O
NO
2lS
TABLE XII. CON.
1/5101/51/51/5 U5 LO 1 -OiO
TH <x Tt- \o i^ ON c- co 10 NO
ON ^t* ON "^t* ON ^t* ON ^t*
1/51/51/51/51/51/51/51/5
w
w
na
o
i i
H
D
8"
O
H
g.
w
g
H
a
s
H
w
CJ
w
a
<5
&
O O O O O O
UjiOLOiOioiOiO
1^ C^ t^ (N t>- CS IN C4 t> CM
N rq 1- CN l^ O) 1^ (N 1^ O) l^ C4
8 o o o o
rH \O rH vO rH
VO rH l> CM 00
'OiOU^iOlO
^O O ^O O LO O
O t>- <* TH 00
\O rO O 1"^ "^J" C*l
ONOOt^-iOTJ-rO
S rHTtOOC^^O^
Ol^TfrHXLO
9 OOC^^DONr^^rHiOON
U ONvOCSOOU^rHX^O
?N ^ iO l^- ON O ca <*
vo i/j 1/5
-^-rHOOvOr
U 00 ^ O l>- rO O NO C-l ON
00 X 00 00 X X
O10U' : 1-
i> X O
fNJ
rH f<5 U5 O 00 ON rH
l^-^-rHGOuofM
TABLE XII. CON,
219
00 4^
OtO
Cn I- 1 ^1
tO4'-ON
0000000000
0000 00.
CO CO tO tO tO H* M M O O p 2 '
> ' Co Cn <! \O i ' Co Cn <! g
H
^ VO H- N
t-4^ 4^ -
H -v? C*J O O"-
s-
\O t- 'C/JCn-vi^Oi-^OJC.n-vI^O N
OOOO"OOOOOOO *
--
oocxuooooooooo
n
5
n
i
H
H- i
W
H
W
03
! -
O O
ON Cn 4^ 4" Co Co to >- h-* O O
^ 4^ 00 to O"^ O 4^ OC tO O^ O a
p> Cn Cn *
tO O^ O CJ M M
ON Cn Cn 4^ OJ Co to ls> t-* O
ONCnCn^CoCotOtsJh-'OO
^J M Cn
\D 00 *<I
Cn Cn Cn
0000
H* Cn ^O Co 5*
Cn Ln Cn Oi ^
O O O O
ON O^- ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON
OOOOOOOOOO
84* 00
IO h-
VO vo VO vO
O O O O
220
TABLE XII. CON.
09
o
Q
B i> c*j o^
O t^ l^ >O
^
I S
rH fH H O O
r-(Tj-l>Or<)
INDEX.
A.
Acetate of Lead, 166.
Acetic Acid Bottles, 41.
Acid, Special, 168.
Acids, Crude, 160.
Air-Funnel, 67.
Alcohol Digest, 60.
Alcohol Extraction, 58.
Alkalimeter, Peffer's, 97.
Alkalinities, 74.
Alumina Cream, 166.
Ammonia, Anhydrous, 156.
Ammonium Citrate Solution, 171
Analysis by Weight, 50.
Apparatus, Geissler's, 97.
Apparatus, Orsat's, 128.
Apparatus, Scheibler's, 122.
Ash of Syrup or Massecuite, 145-
150.
B
Balling Saccharometer, 20.
Baryta Solution, 172.
Baur and Portius, 79.
Beakers, 28, 90.
Baume Hydrometer for Liquids
Lighter than Water, 20, 115.
Baume Hydrometers, 20.
Beets, 55-61.
Beet Seed, 151.
Boneblack, 119-128.
Brix Saccharometer, 20.
Brysselbout, E. E., 52.
Burettes, 41, 94.
Burette, Franke's Gas, 131.
Castor Oil, 157.
Chimney Gases, 128-133.
Clarification, 43.
CO 2 in Saturation Gas, 75.
Coal, 114.
Cochineal, 169.
Cocoanut Oil, 157.
Coefficient, the Value, 52.
Coefficient of Purity (see Quo-
tient of Purity.)
Coke, 115.
Cossettes, 62.
Crucibles, 92.
Crucible Tongs, 94.
Crude Acids, 160.
Cylinders, 17, 94
D.
Dessicators, 92.
Diffusion Juice, 64.
Dishes, 92, 94.
Dropping Bottles, 25.
Drying Over, 91.
Dry Substance 22.
E.
Ether Bottles, 25.
Erdmann's Floats, 41.
Evaporation Dishes, 94.
222
INDEX.
F.
Faurot, Henry, 156.
Fehling's Solution, 170.
Fertilizers, 134-140.
Fibre in Beet, 60.
Filling Flasks, 45.
Filter Paper, 27, 91.
Filter Press Cakes (See Lime
Cakes).
Flash Test ot Oils, 117, 159.
Flasks for Specific Gravity, 19.
Flasks for Sugar Analysis, 25.
Flasks, Volumetric, 94.
Floats, Erdmann's, 41.
Fluxes, 160.
Franke'sGas Burette, 131.
Fresenius, C. R., 40. 108, 115.
Fuel Oil, 115-118.
Funnels (Air), for Syrups, 67.
Funnels, 27, 90.
Q.
Gases, Chimney, 128-133.
Geissler's Apparatus, 97.
Gird, W. K., 47.
Glass, Powdered, 172.
Glass Rods, 90.
Gravimeter, 47.
H.
Hydrometers, 20, 115.
Hydrochloric Acid, Normal, 167.
Indicator Bottles, 42.
Invert Sugar, 86.
J.
Juices, thick, 66.
Juices, thin, 66.
K.
Kiehle Machine, 57, 62.
Kipp's Apparatus, 42.
Kissel, 102.
"Known Sugar " Solutions, 35.
L.
Lamps, 93.
Lampstands, 94.
Lard Oil, 157.
Lead Acetate, 166.
Lead Bottles, 40.
Lime, 72, 113.
Lime Cakes, 64.
Lime Powder, 78.
Lime, Refuse, 141-144.
Lime, Slacking Test of, 79.
Limestone, 109-113.
Linseed Oil, 158.
Lktnus Paper, 169.
Litmus Solution, 169.
M.
Magnesia Mixture, 171.
Massecuite Ash, 145-150.
Massecuites, 68.
Meniscus, 25.
Milk of Lime, 73.
Mohr's Pinchcocks, 42.
Moisture Determination, 23.
Molasses Saccharate, 80
Molasses Solution, 81.
Molybdic Solution, 171.
Mortars, 65, 94.
INDEX.
223
N.
Nasmyth, 159.
Nealsfoot Oil, 158.
Nicol's Prism, 29.
Nitric Acid, Normal, 168.
Non-Normal Analysis, 51.
Normal Hydrochloric Acid, 167.
Normal Nitric Acid, 168.
Normal Sodium Solution, 167.
Normal Sulphuric Acid, 167.
O.
Oil, Fuel, 115-118.
Oils, Lubricating, 157-161.
Olive Oil, 158.
Orsat's Apparatus, 128.
P.
Peffer's Alkalimeter, 97.
Phenol, 168
Pinchcocks, 42.
Pipettes, 94.
-Pipette Solution, 171.
Pipettes, Sucrose, 23.
Pipette Test, 47.
Pipette, Testinga, 26.
Polariscopes, 28-38
Portius, Baur and, 79.
Powdered Glass or Sand, 172.
Preparation of Samples, 43.
Pulp, Pressed, 63.
Pulp, Wet, 62.
Purity, Quotient of, 51.
Pycnometers, 18.
Q.
Quotient of Purity, 51.
Quotient, Saline, 52.
Raffinose, 85.
Rapeseed Oil, 158.
Reagents, 166-172.
Refuse Lime, 141-144.
Rendetnent, 52.
Rieckes, H., 73.
Rosolic Acid, 169.
Rust Joints, 160.
Saccharometers, 20.
Saccharate Milk, 81.
Saccharate, Molasses, 80.
Saccharate of Lime, 78.
Saline Quotient, 52.
Samples, Preparation of, 43.
Sand, 172.
Saturation Gas, 75.
Scales, 39.
Scheibler's Apparatus, 122.
Scheibler's Method for Fibre in
Beet, 61.
Sickel-Soxhlet Apparatus, 58.
Silver Nitrate, 170,
Siphon Bottle, 40.
Slacking Test of Lime, 79.
Soda, 160.
Sodium, Normal, 167.
Soxhlet's Method for Invert
Sugar, 87.
Special Acid, 168.
Specific Gravity, 18.
Spencer, G. L., 45, 166.
Stillman, 99.
Stoves, 93.
Sucrose, Correct Percentage of,
82.
.'
224
INDEX.
s.
Sucrose in Presence of Invert
Sugar, 82.
Sucrose in Presence of Raffinose,
85.
Sucrose Pipettes, 23.
Sugar, 68.
Sulphur, 155.
Sulphuric Acid, Normal, 167.
Syrup Ash, 145-150.
Syrups, 67.
Sweet Waters, 66.
T.
Tallow, 158.
Test Tube with Foot, 17.
Thermometers, 42.
Thin Juices, 66.
T-Tube for Burettes, 41.
Tucker,J. H., 45, 52, 125.
Turck, E., 57.
Turmeric Paper, 170.
V.
Value Coefficient, 52.
Varner, J. E., 28.
Volumetric Method, 45.
W.
Wanklyn, 97, 102.
Washing Bottle, 41, 94.
Waste Water, 63
Waste Water, Steffens, 80.
Water Analysis, 95-108.
Water Baths, 94.
Water Bottles, 40.
Water Digest, 57.
Westphal Balance, 18.
Wet Pulp, 63.
H. T. OXNARD, W. BflUR,
President. Executive Officer and
Consulting Eogineer.
Oxnard Construction Co,
CONSTRUCTORS AND BUILDERS
OF COMPLETE
CONSULTING ENGINEERS,
CHEMISTS AND AGRICULTURISTS
Office 32 Na88au Street, New York City.
THIS Company will assist in every way the development of the
Sugar Industry in this country. It has various departments,
such as an Agricultural Department and a Construction Depart-
ment. These departments will thoroughly investigate questions
of climate and soil, and will give directions in growing beets, cane,
etc. Testing beets, water, soil and all supplies necessary for the
process of sugar making. The investigations will be made by expert
agriculturists, familiar with the raising of sugar plants in this
country. The Construction Department will undertake the entire
building of factories, complete in every respect, and is prepared to
guarantee their capacity. This Company is able to undertake the
full equipment of a newly built factory, with the necessary officers
and men, and run the factory, if desired, for the first year.
EIMER & AMEND
205-211 THIRD AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY,
IMPORTERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF
Physical Apparatus
Strictfy Chemicaffy Pure (hemicafs and Acids,
Special Attention given to the fitting out of Laboratories
for Sugar Analysis.
AGENTS FOR
SCHMIDT & HAENSCH'S POLAR/SCOPES,
GREINER & FRIEDRICH'S GERMAN GLASSWARE,
SCHLEICHER & SCHUELL'S C. P. FILTER PAPERS,
FINEST ANALYTICAL BALANCES AND WEIGHTS,
SCHEIBLER'S ALKALIMETER AND HYDROMETERS,
DESMOUTIS HAMMERED PLATINUM,
CRUCIBLES AND DISHES.
We carry a complete stock of Beakers, Flasks, Burettes, Pipettes,
Sucrose Pipettes, Saccharometers, Cylinders, Lamps, Stoves, and
all supplies needed for testing sugars Any apparatus or chemical
mentioned in "BEET SUGAR ANALYSIS" can be obtained from us
at the lowest price.
EIMER & AMEND, New York.
Guild & Garrison
BHOOKLg/M, /S. g.
MANUFACTURERS OF
Special Pumping Machinery
FOR BEET SUGflR FACTORIES
Vacuum Pumps,
Carbonic Acid Blowers,
Milk of Lime Pumps,
Filter Press Pumps,
*
Air Compressors,
Boiler Feed Pumps,
Liquor and Syrup Pumps,
Water Pumps, etc.
The
Link-Belt
MachineryCo.
EnQineers, Founders, Machinists
PRINCIPAL OFFICE AND WORKS:
39th St. and Stewart flve. Chicago, U. S. ft.
SOUTHERN DEPARTMENT:
316-318 St, Charles Street New Orleans, La.
Modern Methods
As applied to the handling" of Sugar Cane and its pro-
ducts, employing" the Kwart Detachable lyink-
Belting, Dodge and Special Carrier Chains.
Traveling Cane Hoists, Juice Strainers, Bagasse Feeders,
Sugar Shakers, etc.
Shafting, Pulleys, Gearing, Rope Sheaves, Friction
Clutches, etc.
California cotton
Mills 60,
Office and Works, East Oakland, Gal.
Manufacturers of all kinds of
Cotton and Jute Fabrics
From the Raw Material.
ALSO MANUFACTURE ALL KINDS OF
Press, Strainer and Filter Glottis
SPECIALLY SUITED FOR
Beet Sugar Factories and Refineries.
Correspondence solicited, and all enquiries shall have
prompt and careful attention.
ADDRESS AS ABOVE.
KLEI/MWA/MZLEBE/M ORIGINAL
Beet Seed
The Preferred Seed used by all of the American
Beet Sugar Factories,
GROWN BY THE
SUGAR FACTORY KLEINWANZLEBEN, GERMANY.
Represented in the United States by
MEYER & RAAPKE, Omaha, /Neb.
ALBERT W. WALBURN, MAGNUS SWENSON,
PRESIDENT AND TREASURER. SECRETARY AND MANAGER.
WALBUR/N=SWENSO/N CO.
Engineers, Founders and Machinists
BUILDERS OF THE MOST
IMPROVED
Beet Sugar Machinery
COMPLETE BEET SUGAR PLANTS and
CENTRAL FACTORIES A SPECIALTY
Works : General Office :
Chicago Heights 944 Monadnock Block, Chicago
KEYSTONE
Saw, Tool, Steel and File Works
HENRY DISSTON & SONS
PHILADELPHIA, PEN/MA.
U. S. A.
California Chemical Works
fllso Successor to GOLDEN CITY CflEMICflL WORKS
Manufacture
ALSO CHEMICALLY PURE ACIDS
OF ALL KINDS
Reynolds' Excelsior Solderine ; Sulphur Crude,
Sublimed, Powdered, Roll, Refined, and Virgin
Rock; Nitrate of Soda, Carbon Bi-sulphide,
Iron Wine Ethers and other
Chemicals.
Write us for price list.
California Chemical Works
JOHN REYNOLDS, Prop.
San Bruno Road and 27th St. San Francisco, Gal.
TELEPHONE, MISSION 3O
Revere Rubber Co.
MANUFACTURERS OF
ALL KINDS OF .
Rubber Goods for Beet Sugar
Factories
We have a complete outfit of moulds for making-
Evaporator Reheater, larg-e and Small Filter Rings of
all kinds. Ring's for Calorisators, Dantzenburg- Ring's,
Diffusion Ring's, Battery Gaskets, Air Pump Gaskets,
Strainer Ring's, Gaskets for Campbell & Zell Boilers.
Valves for all kinds of Pumps, including- Carbonic Acid
Pumps, Diffusion and Filter Presses, Steffins' Cooler.
Rectangular and Square Packing- for Manholes and
Doors, and Packing's for Diffusion, Vacuum Pans, and
Coolers, etc.
Also manufacturers of a full line of Belting- and
Hose of all kinds and descriptions.
Principal offices for distribution,
CHICAGO and
SA/\ FRANCISCO
Also stores at New York, Holjoke, Philadelphia, Balti-
more, Buffalo, Pittsburg-, Cincinnati, Cleveland,
Minneapolis, St. Louis, New Orleans, Leicester,
Eng. ; London and Paris.
HOME OFFICE, BOSTON. FACTORY AT CHELSEA, MASS.
ROBERT DEELEY & GO.
r Foot ot West 32nd St.. New York a
Engineers, Founders
and Machinists
Manufacturers of Improved Sugar Machinery
for Plantations and Refineries.
DUBE'S PATENT GREEN BAGASSE BURNER.
Vacuum Pans, Double and Triple Effects, Cane
Mills, Centrifugals, Defecators, Clarifiers,
Sugar Wagons, Steam Engines.,
Boilers, Engineers' Sup-
plies, Etc.
COMPLETE PLA/NITS A SPECIALTY.
Schaffer & Budenbcrg
MANUFACTURERS OF
PRESSURE GflUGES
Thermometers, Eue Glasses, Surup Testers,
Butter Gups and other Vacuum
Pan Appliances
STEflM TRflPS.REDUGING VftLVES
Thompson Steam Engine Indicators
Water Gauges, Brass Gocks and
Valves, etc.
WORKS: BROOKLYN, /N. Y,
SALESROOMS :
No. 15 W. Lake St., No. 66 John St.,
Chicago. New York.
HAROLD P. DYER EDWARD F. DYER E. H. DYER
E, H. DYER & COMPANY '
Engineers, Chemists and
Agricufturists
MANUFACTURERS OF MACHINERY
A SPECIALTY
WE built the Standard, Lehi and Los Alamitos beet
sugar factories. We are prepared to build complete
Beet Sug-ar Plants, Factories and Refineries from founda-
tions up. Machinery, Building's, Water Systems, Rail-
roads, all and every part that is required for a complete
plant ; furnish all the technical, skilled and unskilled
employees to operate the plant for any leng'th of time,
and to educate the owners how to operate them success-
fully. Expert services furnished. Correspondence
solicited. Address
E, H. DYER 8 COMPANY,
Cor. Lake and Kirtland Sts. CLEVELAND, OHIO.
THE
Kifby Manufacturing Company
POUNDERS
:., AND MACHINISTS
*
New York Office.
144 Times Building
CLEVELAND, OHIO
BUILDERS Of
(ompfete Winery for Beet Cane and
Gfuco^e Suoarfiouses and Refineries
The Risdon Iron Works
OFFICE AND WORKS, SAN FRANCISCO
DESIGNERS
ENGINEERS
For Complete Machinery for Beet,
Cane and Glucose Factories
OF ILL
Marsh Steam Pumps
FOR
Sugar House Work
Minimum
of
Weig-ht,
Wear
and
Waste
Patent Self-Governing- Steam Valve.
Patent Easy Seating- Water Valves.
No Outside Valve Gear.
DRY VACUUM PUMPS,
SWEET WATER PUMPS,
FILTER PRESS PUMPS,
CONDENSATION PUMPS,
BOILER FEED PUMPS,
MANUFACTURED BY
The Battle Creek Steam Pump Co.
BATTLE CREEK, MICH.
Write for Catalogue.
BECAUSE IT
WILL LAST A
YEAR.
i^ Cheaper than Rubber!
Guaranteed to stani any Pressnre, Gaskets Sent on 30 Days Trial is Our Proof.
GUILLOTT METALLIC GASKET CO..
CHICAGO, ILL.
Manufacturers ot
METAL
in allStyles and Plzee of Manhole,
HandhoJe, Flange and Union Gaskets.
GASKETS
for Cylinder Heads. Heaters and Lard
Tanks from 1 to 100 in. inside diam.
GASKETS
for Heine Boiler Tubes, Campbell
amd Zell, and Standard Boiier Hand
Holes, Stirling Boiler Manholes.
ICE MACHINE BASKETS.
For Sale by all Dealers.
GiisUrechtBiitchers'SiipplyCo.
I2th AND PASS AVE., ST. LOUIS, MO.
HAND AND POWER ....
MEAT GUTTERS AND CHOPPERS
of all kinds. Machines especially adapted for the pre-
paration of samples for
PULP, GOSSETTE AND BEET ANALYSIS
Our improved power draw-cut choppers give samples fine
enoug-h for the most accurate water and alcohol
dig-ests. Order an Enterprise Hand Chopper for
pulp samples. Send for Catalogue.
BUS V. BRECHT BUTCHERS' SUPPLY GO.
The Audubon Sugar School,
Louisiana State University,
Agricultural and Mechanical College,
luccessfully conducted for several years by Dr. Wm. C. Stubbs at
he Sugar Experiment Station, Audubon Park, New Orleans, has
ieen removed to the University at Baton Rouge.
Dr. Stubbs, Professor of Agriculture in the University and
Mrector of its Experiment Stations, will continue in charge of the
>ugar School, and conduct it on a more extensive scale.
Its aim is to make "Sugar Experts" men who can intelligently
;row cane, plan and erect a sugar house, run it as engineer or sugar-
naker, and take the products, either of field or sugar house, to the
aboratory and subject them to accurate analysis.
Regular Course of four years, embraces instruction in the
Growing of Cane, Beets and Sorghum; in the Designing, Construc-
iou and Operation of Sugar Houses; in the Practical Manipulation
f Sugar, and in the Chemistry of the products. It leads to
;raduation.
Irregular Course is designed to meet the wants of Sugar-
makers, Engineers or Planters who have not the time to take the
egular course, but who wish a knowledge of the principals upon
yhich their practical work is done. Such students may enter the
chool at any time, and take such studies as they may elect.
Session 1897-'93 begins September 15, 1897, and closes June
.5, 1898. *
THOMAS D. BOYD, L,L. D., President.
JOHN H. MURPHY
-MANUFACTURER OF
SUGAR MACHINERY
633 TO 643 MAGAZINE ST., NEW.ORLEANS, LA.
Vacuum Pans, to boil with direct or exhaust steam; Double and
'riple Effects, Evaporators and Clarifiers, Strike Pans, Sugar
Vagons, Chimneys and Breechings; Syrup, Juice and Molasses
'anks, Boilers and Engines.
Sole Agent for Louisiana and Texas for West Point Foundry
mproved Hepworth Centrifugals, the Eclipse Filter Press for Cane
uice and Skimmings, Ludlow Valve Mfg. Co.'s Valves and Hy-
irants, Geo. F. Blake Mfg. Co. 's Vacuum Syrup Juice and Water
'urnps for Sugar Houses and Breweries, Nason Steam Traps.
Dealer in Iron Pipe Fittings, Copper and Brass Tubing, Iron
nd Brass Globe and Gate Valves, Packing, Belting and General
>ugar House Supplies.
Will make contracts for the construction of entire sugar house
nd machinery plants of modern design. Correspondence solicited.
Lacy Manufacturing Co.
MANUFACTURERS OF.
Steel Water Pipe, Well Casing,
OIL TANKS AND GENERAL SHEET IRON WORK
IRRIGATION SUPPLIES
DEALERS IN CAST IRON PIPE
Special attention given to the manufacture
of Sheet Steel Tanks and all Sheet Steel
Work for Sugar Refineries
Works: Corner /\ew Main and Date Streets
OFFICE: ROOMS 4 AND 5 BAKER BLOCK
Telephone No. 196. Los Angeles, California.
The University of Nebraska
(ESTABLISH D N 1869)
Offers to young- men and to young- women excellent op-
portunities for a Collegiate, Technical and University
Education.
The University is the crown of the Free Public
School System of the State. In it is found the continua-
tion from the twelfth grade in the Hig-h Schools of the
State throug-h the nineteenth grade.
The University of Nebraska comprises the following
named Colleges and Schools :
The Graduate School; The College of literature, Science and the Arts; The
Industrial College, including courses in Agriculture, Engineering (Civil, Me-
chanical and Electrical), and the General Sciences; The College of Law; The
School of Agriculture; The School of Mechanic Arts; The Sugar School; Special
Professional Courses; General Preparatory Courses in Law and Journalism and
in Medicine; The Summer School; A Teachers' Course.
The expenses of living are extremely low, ranging from $125 a year upward.
Tuition is free, excepting a nominal matriculation fee of five dollars and a rea-
sonable tuition fee in the professional schools of Law, Music and Art.
The Calendar will be sent free to all persons who apply for it. For Calen-
dar or any information that is desired, address
GEO. K. MACLEAN, Chancellor,
Lincoln, Nebraska.
I84O
HIGHEST AWARD 1876.
AMERICAN MACHINERY FOR
AMERICAN PLANTS * *
1897
AMERICAN BEET SUGAR HACHINERY
Every mechanical part of a plant for making Sugar
from Beet Roots. . . . Made here in the United
States and guaranteed as good as any that cau be made
cr used for the business.
50 YEARS OP PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE IN
DEVELOPMENT OF 6UGAR MACHINERY
Have furnished
all machinery for
all early Beet
Plants at Port-
land. Farnham
and Wilmington,
and for Experi-
ment at Washuig-
to >, D. C., for
Department o f
Agriculture, and
a t Government
Station at Mag-
nolia, Louisiana.
Beet Machinery
of any descrip-
tion, from Foun-
dation Bolts to
Chimney Caps.
Portable R. R.
Buildings, Eleva-
tor s , Washers,
Cutters, Diffusion
Batteries, Carbo-
nation Tanks and
Systems, Filter
Presses, Triple
Effect, Pumps,
Vacuum Pans, Centrifugals, Piping and Boilers. All Parts of a
Plant in all Details.
A, W, COLWELt
(onsuftino and Contracting Engineer for aff flatters
Pertaining to Beet flachineru
DRAWINGS ftND ESTIMATES FURNIStt&D
CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED
Address: 39 CortlandtSt,, New York City,
OF THB
TTN" T VT.T3 ciTT V
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS
WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.
MJG 16 1934
YC 18882
\ '