BEET SUGAR ANALYSIS. A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION FOR ANALYSTS IN BEET SUGAR FACTORIES. BY KLWOOD s. PEFFER, A. c., CHINO VATJ.jfcfeSite6DGAR CO. 1897. E. C. HAMILTON, PUBLISHER. CHINO, CAL. L Jr COPYRIGHTED 1897 BY ERNEST C. HAMILTON PRESS OF WARDEN, THE PRINTER. Los ANGELES, CAL. THE great interest now being manifested in the development of the beet sugar industry in this country seems to leave little room for doubt but that the present beet sugar production of the United States will be multiplied many times within the next few years. With the establishment of the industry reference books will become a necessity, and BEET SUGAR ANALYSIS was written in the hope that it will prove of value in the very important matter of chemical control of factories. It is intended primarily as a complete school for the beginner, but the experienced chemist may occasionally find it useful for reference. I have given what I consider to be the most practical and accurate methods for testfn x eof any solution, thoroughly clean and dry the pycnometer Fig. 4. INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 1 9 and weigh. Then fill with the Quid at 17^C M seeing that no air is contained. Put in the stopper and wipe off care- fully any solution that comes through the tube. Weigh again and subtract the weight of the pycnometer to find the weight of the solution. Multiply this by two, and remove the decimal point two places to the left to find the specific gravity. Example : Weight of pycnometer and fluid 78.642 gr. Weight of pycnometer 26.856 gr. Weight of fluid 51.786 gr. Multiplying by 2 103.572 gr. Moving decimal point two places 1.03572 sp. g. The specific gravity of a liquid or a solid is the ratio of its weight to the weight ot the same volume of water. In the example given the weight of the fluid is 51.786 gr . and the weight of the same volume of water is 50 gr . 50:51.786::! :x, or x = 51.786-7-50= 1.03572. If 100 CC were taken, the division by 100 would be accomplished by moving the decimal point two places to the left. As this figuring is much easier, we can multiply by two and con- sider that 100 has been taken instead of 50. Common 50 CC flasks can be used instead of pycnom- eters and, in fact, are more practical for most analyses, the 20 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. only advantage in the latter being that the stopper pre- vents evaporation. In using a flask, select one with as small a neck as possible and cut off about a quarter of an inch above the mark. Test by weighing it in 50 gr of water atl?iC. (See 4.) (b) Hydrometers are used for determining the dens- sity of fluids in analysis and in factory work. The Brix hydrometer is used for analysis. It is graduated according to a scale, by which it indicates the percentage by weight of sugar when immersed in a solution of pure sugar. (See 19.) It is properly called a "Saccharometer." The Balling saccharometer is the same as the Brix. The Beaume hydrometer is generally used for taking the density of thick fluids in the work of the factory. It is a specific gravity hydrometer, graduated according to an arbitrary scale adopted by Antoine Beaume, a Parisian chemist. He dissolved 15 parts of common salt (by weight) in 85 parts of water. The point to which the hydrometer sunk in this solution was marked 15 and the scale between this and zero was divided into 15 parts, divisions of the same size then being made from the 15 below to the bulb. The Beaume hydrometer for liquids lighter than water (See 76) also has a salt solution for its basis. The point on the stem to which it sinks in water is marked 10 and the zero is the point where it stands in a solution of 10 parts common salt and 90 parts water. This is divided into 10 parts, the same divisions then being made on the rest of the scale up to 100. The Beaume hydrometer best adapted to general fac- tory work is graduated from to 50 in % degrees. Of the INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 21 Brix and Balling saccharometers there should be a well selected variety. The 30 to 60 in 1-5 degrees and the 60 to 100 in ^ degrees may be used for taking densities in factory work. Sweet waters are taken with a 5 to + 5 Brix, graduated in y? degrees. For beet analysis an instrument grad- uated from 10 to 30, or 10 to 20, in 1-10 degrees is used ; for cossettes and sugarhouse analyses one graduated from 10 to 20 in 1-10 degrees (See Fig. 5) ; for diffusion juice one graduated from 5 to 15 in 1-10 degrees, and for waste waters one from to 5 in 1-10 degrees. A Brix graduated from to 25 in 1-10 degrees is an excellent instrument for general work, and it may be used for nearly all analyses. Many chemists prefer it for beet analy- sis. When the Steffens process is used the best saccharometer for cold waste waters is the 5 to 9 Brix graduated in 1-10 degrees. The instrument has a bulb 2^ inches long and ^ inch in diame- ter, and is especially adapted for the test tube de- scribed in 1. 1 * When a special saccharometer is desired for hot waste waters, an instrument graduated from 3 to 7 in 1-10 degrees may be ob- tained. All instruments should be made for a temperature of 17^C. In taking the density ot a solution with a hydrometer, it must be entirely free from air bubbles. Have the instrument clean and dry Fig. 5. before using and immerse it carefully in the fluid, keeping it from touching the sides of the cylinder. T-! When it has come to rest, read the graduation. The fluid is raised around the stem of the instrument by capillary attraction and the correct reading 22 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. is at the bottom of this, being on a level with the top of the solution. In Fig. 6 the correct reading is 11.0 instead of 10.8, as it appears to be. In taking the density of a solution, the temper- ature is taken at the same time. If a solution is colder or hotter than normal temperature it is obvious that its density is greater or less than normal, so that a correction must be made for tem- perature.* (See Table I.) Hydrometers are most easily tested by immersing them in a solution the specific gravity of which is known and comparing the reading with the sp. g. (See Table II.) It is a good plan Fig. 6. to have at least three "control" saccha- rometers graduated from to 10, 10 to 20, and 20 to 30, in 1-10 degrees. These instruments, when found to be abso- lutely accurate, may be used for testing other saccharom- eters by comparison. POINTERS. Keep the hydrometers in an earthen slop jar or tin bucket filled with water and having a sheet of rubber covering the bottom. Do not buy saccharometers with short, thick bulbs. They cannot be used with accuracy in a cylinder of the size that is most practical for sugar work. The 10-20 Brix, which is most often used, should have a bulb about 4^ inches long and a 6-inch stem. GO The Dry Substance is the percentage of total solids found by weight. It is generally determined in order to find the "real purity" (See 19) of syrups and masse- * Taking the density of a hot solution isjiot as accurate as taking it after the solution has cooled to nearly normal temperature. In a hot solution the tem- perature may change during the operation and the correction for temperature will be incorrect. INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 23 cuites. To find the dry substance, weigh a scoop con- taining about 15* r of powdered glass orsand(See 14O) and a small glass rod to be used for stirring. Add about 2 gr of the substance to be tested and weigh again. Mix the sand (or glass) and the substance thoroughly by using the glass rod. Place in a drying oven for two hours and keep a temperature of 100C, but be careful that it does not get higher. Then, after cooling in a dessicator, weigh and return to drying oven. Repeat this until the scoop and contents has a constant weight, i. e., that there is no fur- ther loss by drying, proving that all the water has been driven off. Determine the amount of water lost by sub- tracting the weight after drying from the weight before drying. The weight of the water lost divided by the weight of the substance used will give the per cent, of water lost, and subtracting this from 100 will give the per cent, of dry substance. Example : Weight of scoop, sand, rod, and substance 51.613 gr. Weight of scoop, sand, and rod 49.381 gr. Subtracting, gives weight of substance , 2.232 gr. Weight of scoop and contents before drying 51.613 gr. Weight of scoop and contents after drying 51.402 pr. Subtracting, gives weight of water lost 211 gr. .211-^2.232= 0945=9.45 per cent, of water lost. 1009.45=90.55 per cent, dry substance. 3. Sucrose Pipettes are in general use in this country for most analyses, although they have not been adopted in Europe. (See 1O). They are so made that when a solu- tion is drawn into the pipette to the graduation correspond- ing to the reading of the brix of the solution the amount of solution in the pipette will weigh 52.096* r . INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE- For iucrose The instrument should be graduated from 10 to 25. (Fig. 7.) In using a pipette, first rinse it inside with the solution to be tested and then draw in the solution, by aspiration, to the graduation corresponding to the reading of the brix* ; let the solution drop into the 100 CC flask and run a stream of water through the pipette, to wash every particle of the solution into the flask. In wash- ing the pipette, hold the flask in the third and little fingers of the left hand, using the index finger and thumb to twirl the instrument while the water is pass- ing through. (See Fig. 8.) In testing a pipette, if a solution of a known brix is drawn in to the proper graduation and dropped into the scoop of a scale or tared vessel, if its weight is nearly, but not quite, 52.096*' the pipette may be ad- judged correct. Fig. 7. POINTERS. To read the graduation in a pipette, always take the bottom of the meniscus, the same as in a flask . (See Fig. 9.) * This refers to the reading without temperature correction INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYS Be sure there are no bubbles in the pipette. They will come to the top if present, and can be drawn out into the mouth. Pipettes in constant use should be thoroughly cleaned every few days. Rinse with gun shot and diluted muriatic acid. Pipettes used for beet analysis should be cleaned every evening with gun- shot and strong muriatic acid. The graduations on a pipette may be more easily observed if red lead is rubbed into the marks. Take a small ball of red lead and rub it up and down the graduations. Wipe off with a cloth and the lead will remain in the marks. Chalk or lamp-black (mixed with turpentine) may be used for the same purpose. 4. Flasks for Sugar Analysis are graduated to hold 50 CC , 50 and 55 CC , 100 CC , 100 and 110 CC , and 201.4 and 221.4 CC . The last is for beet analysis (See 23C), and should have a neck wide at the top and narrowing down to the gradua- tion. The 100-110 flask should have a neck ^ of an inch in diameter, but the other flasks should all be small-necked for accurate work. When the 100-110 flask is used for any other volumetric (14) analysis than pulp it should also have a small neck. In filling flasks let the bottom of the meniscus of the fluid come to the graduation. (See fig 9.) This rule also applies to the reading of pipettes and burettes. Any foam that forms in a flask may be gotten rid of by the use of ether. The bottle shown in F 8 is a convenient ether bottle. A small glass tube is fitted in a ground glass stopper, and is of such length that when the stopper is in the bottle, the tube reaches nearly but not quite to the bottom. Ether is taken from the bottle by put- Fig. 9. ting a finger over the top of the tube, as with a pipette. The dropping bottle shown in Fig. 10 is often used for ether, but it is not as good as the one above described. Fig. 10. 26 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. To test a flask, clean and dry it thoroughly, weigh, fill with water at 17^C to the mark, and weigh again. The weight of the water should be as many gr. as the flask holds cc. (See 2a.) It is usual to test all flasks as soon as they are purchased and either of the fol- lowing methods will be found quick and accurate when a large number of flasks are to be tested. Test a flask by water as above, to use as a standard. Fill it with clean mercury to the mark. Clean and dry all flasks to be tested,* then pour the mercury into each one until all are tested. The mercury for this method must be perfectly clean and dry. The writer has always found it advisable to test 4 or 5 flasks and then return the mercury to the standard flask, to be sure that none has been lost. Keep the flask in a clean mortar while pouring in the mer- cury, to prevent loss in case of accident. The following method by pipette is preferable to the use of mercury in the fact that it is more rapid, although greater care must be exercised. Use a pipette graduated for the same number of cc as the flasks to be tested. Determine its accuracy by filling to the mark with water at 17 ^C, then letting the water run out into a tared ves- sel. Gently blow through the pipette, so that no drops of water remain. The weight should be l gr for every cc for which the pipette is graduated, and if it is either more or less, find by repeated weighings where the mark should be to make the pipette hold the exact number of gr., and re-mark accordingly. To test a flask, clean and dry it thoroughly; fill the pipette to the mark with water at 17^C, wiping the outside dry, and let the water run into the flask, blowing out the last drops. For flasks having two * After cleaning the flask with water, rinse it with a small amount of alcohol or ether and it will dry quickly. INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 27 graduations, determine the correctness of the lower mark as above and add immediately, with .a smaller pipette, the number of cc of water for which the addi- tional mark is made. Any flasks which are found to be incorrect by at least two tests should be re-marked. POINTERS. Be sparing in the use of ether. It is usually sufficient to hold the end of the ether bottle tube in the foam. Flasks may be kept conveniently by inverting them over wooden pegs driven in the edge of the shelf over the analyst's table. The pegs should be about three inches high, about 5-16 inch in diameter, and should incline at a slight angle toward the operator. A quarter inch glass tube six inches long may be used as a pipette for taking out the extra solution whenever, in analysis, a flask is accidentally filled above the mark. 5. Funnels and Filter Paper. Funnels for sugar analy- sis should be about 3 ^ inches in diameter and ot either glass or hard rubber. The rubber funnel is much more serviceable, but most chemists prefer the glass funnel, as dirt or sugar can be detected on the latter more readily than on the former. The stems on funnels should not be more than half an inch long. Filter paper should be in sheets 23 inches square. When a sheet of this size is cut into nine equal square parts, each part folded will be of the proper size for use in analysis. After folding, cut each filter paper round and of such size that the edges will not extend above the funnel. Heavy white paper is the best for sugar analysis ; gray paper is much cheaper but it filters too slowly. POINTERS. In trimming filter papers save the scraps for cleaning polariza- tion tubes. When a solution filters slowly, cover the funnel with a watch glass to prevent evaporation. Creasing a filter paper makes a solution filter faster. 28 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USK. 6. Beakers to receive the filtrates in analysis are usually small common glass tumbers, which are lipped in the laboratory where they are employed. Tumblers of the following size will be found very convenient: Three inches high, two inches inside bottom diameter, and two and one-half inches inside top diameter. The writer has used tumblers slightly smaller than this, each measure- ment being an eighth of an inch less, and believes that they cannot be excelled for practical work. They each weigh about 92 gr . Lips are not at all necessary on beakers of this size. (See F 34.) Another good form of beaker is shown in F 31. It is 4 inches high, with a diameter of \y( inches at the top and of 2^ inches at the bottom, inside measurement. One American factory tried alumi- num beakers, but found them unsatisfactory as they were too hard to clean. POINTERS. Discard the first few drops of a filtrate. When the filtrate of syrups and juices is too dark to be read in the polariscope, add about 1 gr. of finely powdered bone dust to the filter paper and filter again. As the bone dust may absorb a small amount of sugar, discard the first half of the second filtrate. Beakers are more easily cleaned with cold water than with hot, on account of the lead on them. (J. E. VARNER.) They must be thoroughly dried. 7. (a) Polariscopes.* When a ray of light passes through a crystal of Iceland spar it is divided into two rays of equal intensity, one of which is called the ordinary ray and the other the extraordinary ray. The former is in the principal plane and the latter is in a plane at right angles to the principal plane. When the rays possess this * The explanation of the polariscope here given is necessarily very brief. The student is referred to Ganot's Physics or I^andolt's Handbook of the Polar- iscope for a complete and clear description of the instrument. INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 2Q peculiarity they are said to be polarized. Polarization may also be effected by reflection, as on water, mirrors, etc. In most polariscopes the light is polarized by means of a Nicol's prism which is so constructed that it transmits only one ray, while the other is suppressed by reflection out of the prism. The prism is placed in the polariscope so that the transmitted ray goes straight through the instrument. Two lenses are used to intensify the light from the lamp before it meets the Nicol's prism. The use of the polar- ized ray may be described as follows : Polariscopes designed for sugar analysis (called saccha- rimeters) are based on what is termed rotatory polarization. This is the effect produced by certain substances (most notably quartz) and solutions (e. g., sugar) which have the power of rotating to a different degree the planes of polari- zation of the various colored rays which compose white light. To illustrate : If a thin section of a quartz crystal cut at right angles to its axis is placed so that a ray of polarized light passes through it and falls upon a mirror, the image of the quartz will appear in color in the mirror. If the mirror is on an angle and is slowly turned, the colors of the image will change and appear in the same order as is found in the solar spectrum red, yellow, green, blue and violet. In some varieties of quartz these colors are shown in the order named when the mirror is turned to the right, and in others when it is turned to the left. Violet rotates the plane of polarization to the greatest degree and red to the least, and the extent of the rotation depends upon the thickness of the quartz plate which is traversed. Sugar solutions have the power of rotating planes of polarization,, and, as in the case of quartz crystals, some solutions rotate the plane to the right and others to the left. The former are said to be dextrogyrate, as sucrose 30 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. and raffinose, and the latter laevogyrate, as laevulose and sorbinose. The rotatory power of a concentrated sugar solution is only about 1-36 of that of quartz, hence the column of solution to be traversed by the polarized light must be of considerable length. The plane of the polar- ized light is rotated to a greater or less extent, according to the concentration or dilution of the solution. Sacchari- meters are constructed so that this angle of rotation may be determined. After the polarized light passes through the column of sugar of known length it is met by a layer of quartz which has a variable thickness and can be moved either to the right or to the left, to compensate for the rotation produced by the sugar solution. This movement is effected by means of a rackwork and pinion turned by a milled head, and as the plate is moved its thickness at the point where the light passes through is measured by a scale. The thickness of a plate necessary to compensate the rotation of a definite amount of pure sugar made up in a certain way is marked as 100 on the scale, and the thick- ness of the plate which gives a clear view when no active substance is in the polariscope, is marked as zero.- The scale is then sub-divided into 100 parts, and when a solu- tion of sugar prepared in the necessary way, is read in the instrument, the scale not only measures the thickness of the plate which compensates for the rotation of the solution, but in doing so shows the percentage of sugar the solution contains. The reading of this scale will be described later. After passing through the movable plate the light meets a double refracting prism (usually a Nicol's prism) which is called the analyzer. This prism gives a field of vision by which the polar iscopist, in reading the instru- ment, can tell when the movable quartz plate is in proper position. This field is circular and is divided in half by a INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 31 perpendicular line. The observation of it is described in the next paragraph. The optical arrangement of a single compensation Schmidt and Haensch polariscope,* is shown in the follow- ing figure : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Fig. 11. 1. Eye-piece. 2. Objective. 3. Nicol prism, analyzer. 4. Quartz wedge, fixed, bearing vernier. 5. Quartz wedge, moveable, bearing scale. 6. Quartz wedge, having rotatory power opposite to 4 and 5. 7. Nicol prism, polarizer. 8. Lens. 9. Lens. * In Fig. 12, the arrangement of the double compensa- tion polariscope is shown. The two prisms /N1 and /\2 are of opposite rotatory power, one being dextro- and the other laevo-rotary. At H is the screw for adjusting the analyzer. The screw for setting the scale (see next para- graph,) is on the left side of the instrument, between the two moveable wedges. The inclined mirror above K is one of the latest Schmidt and Haensch improvements, and is for the purpose of doing away with a second lamp for read- ing the scale. * The Schmidt and Haensch polariscope is the only instrument described here, as it has been adopted by the U. S. Government, and most of the sugar factories in operation in this country. 32 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 33 (.b) Operation. Adjust the lamp so that it gives a bright steady light. Turn the polariscope towards the lamp and look through the telescope J. (See Fig. 12.) A round luminous field will be seen, and the telescope should be focused by moving it in or out until the field is clear, and has a well defined line passing through the center. One side of the line may be darker than the other, but by turning the milled head which operates the moveable quartz plate the two halves of the field may be made to have an equal intensity of light. E. Fig. 13. In Fig. 13 R shows a picture of the field when the milled head must be turned to the right (the thumb of the hand moving toward the lamp) to effect neutrality, L a picture when it must be turned in the opposite direction and E shows the field when neutral. When the vision is that illustrated in E, look through the reading glass K (see Fig. 12,) and read the scale. The small scale appearing above is called the "vernier," and its zero should exactly correspond to the zero of the larger scale below. If they are not in line, they should be made to coincide by turning the nipple, provided for the pur- pose. This should be done only by some one acquainted with the polariscope, as in single compensation instru- ments this screw is easily mistaken for the screw in con- nection with the analyzer. 34 INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. Now fill a polarization tube with a properly prepared solution (see next paragraph,) and place it in the polar- iscope. Make the observation as above, bringing the two halves of the field of vision to an equal shade. Then make the reading. Find the number of whole degrees the zero of the scale has moved from the zero of the vernier. In Fig. 14 it is 29. To determine the tenths, note the point 10 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 y 111! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ml! 1 ! 1 Fig. 14. at which a line on the vernier coincides with a line on the scale. In this illustration it is at 4. Therefore, the read- ing is 29.4, and the solution read contains 29.4 per cent, of sugar. A polariscope fitted with the double compensators and two scales, gives four checks on the correctness of the reading. The upper scale and the milled head which moves it are black. The lower scale is red, and its milled head brass. In making a test, set the red scale at zero and use the black scale. Then remove the polarization tube from the instrument and make the field neutral by using the brass screw. The readings of the two scales should correspond. For an invert reading, set the black scale at zero and use the red scale. (c) Testing a Polariscope. No instrument should be used unless it has been found to be accurate. The exami- nation is most easily made by means of the control-tube or quartz plates. The control-tube can be lengthened or INSTRUMENTS FOR ANALYSIS AND THEIR USE. 35 shortened and, as a scale is attached which shows the length of the tube in millimeters, the reading which the instrument ought to give may be easily calculated. If quartz testing plates are used, their value should be determined by check analyses, e.g-., with cc "known sugar" solutions. Table III gives the number of gr. of chemically pure sugar which must be made up to 100 CC to give any desired polariscope reading. By the use of the control-tube, quartz testing plates, and ^ C and make up to the 201.4 CC mark. Very often in this test it will be found necessary to fill to Hie upper mark, in which case deduct 10 per cent, of the reading. When the lower mark is used, the reading in a 200 mm tube shows the per cent, of sugar in the beet. This test may be made as above in a 100 CC flask, but the foam which usually forms make the operation more diffi- cult than with the larger flask. It is also slightly less accurate as no provision is made for the^fifetfei^the beet. 58 INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. (d) The Alcohol Extraction is considered by many chem- ists to be the only exact method for determining the per- centage of sugar in beets. The apparatus for this analysis is shown in Fig. 27. A wide-mouthed 200 CC flask contain- ing 150 CC of ^-per cent, alcohol is placed in a water bath, which is well covered. The top of the flask is connected by a rubber stopper with an extraction apparatus, prefer- ably the Sickel-Soxhlet which is shown in the illustration. Into the cylinder A of the apparatus is placed 52.096 gr of the sample which is prepared in the same way as the sam- ple for the water digestion. The cylinder should be of such size and so made that the substance to be tested does not come higher than the upper turn of the siphon D- The sample may be washed into the cylinder with alcohol, and more alcohol added until the fluid comes up in D to the upper turn. A L,iebig condensor is now attached to the upper part of the extraction apparatus by a rubber stopper and some suitable arrangement made to keep a flow of cold water through the condensor. This can be done by siphon- age, as shown in the illustration. Heat is now applied and the alcohol distilled. The gas passes up through the tube C to the condensor, where it is condensed, and falls into the tube A, going back to the flask through the siphon D. This distillation and redistillation is kept up until the fluid coming back through the siphon is colorless. The length of the operation varies, but is usually about two hours, and the fluid in the apparatus goes back about four times. When finished, the flask is separated from the apparatus and cooled. About 4 CC of lead acetate are then added and the contents made up to the mark with alcohol. Shake well, filter with precautions against evaporation, and polarize, the reading being the per cent, sugar in beet. Fig. 27. 6o INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. (e) Alcohol Digest. This is made the same as the water 'digestion, alcohol being used instead of water. Care must be taken to prevent evapo- ration of the al- cohol. It may be avoided by slanting the ftask in the water bath and connecting to the top of the flask by a rub- ber stopper, a straight glass tube l cm in di- ameter and about 65 cm long, the tube acting as a condenser (Fig. 28.) (/) The Fi- bre in Beet is usually deter- mined indirectly by a compari- son of the tests of sugar in beet b y the alcohol extrac- tion, and of sugar in juice by the volumetric or pip- ette method. A large sample is ground up and well mixed and is then divided, a smaller portion being used Fig. 28. INDIVIDUAL, SUGAR ANALYSES. 6 1 for the alcohol digest and the larger portion for the juice test, the juice being pressed out and tested as in B, dividing the per cent, sugar found to be in the beet by the per cent, sugar in the juice, the ratio of the sugar in beet to sugar in juice is found. This percentage subtracted from 100 will give the percentage of fibre. Example : Per cent, sugar by alcohol digest = 15.2. Per cent, sugar found in juice = 16.1. 15.2 '- 16.1 = 94.4 per cent. 100 94.4 = 5.6, the per cent, of fibre. A direct determination of the fibre may be made by taking the residue remaining in the cylinder A (Fig. 20,) after the alcohol extraction*, and drying first at 90C and finally at 100C to constant weight. The weight of the residue divided by 52.096 and multiplied by 100 will give the per cent, of fiber. This is Scheibler's method. Or) Beets in the Field. When a beet is young the weight of the leaves is proportionately much greater than that of the root, but as the plant grows the difference be- comes gradually less until at maturity the condition is re- versed and the root weighs much more than the leaves. The knowledge of the relation between the roots and the leaves is of value to the agriculturist in many ways, one in- dication being that an increase in the proportion of roots is an increase in the contents of sugar. Hence, in testing beets before maturity, a record should always be made of the weight of the roots and of the tops, the relation of the roots to the total weight being calculated by dividing the * To be sure that all soluble matter is extracted, the residue should be washed with ether. 62 INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. former by the latter. The leaves are cut off squarely at the point where the first leaves have grown, as shown in Fig 25. Example : Four beets are tested, the leaves of which weigh 2324s r and the roots 18288 r . 2324gr 4 = 581gr, average weight of leaves. 1828g f -, 4 = 457gr, average weight of roots. 457 457 = .44 or 44 per cent., proportion of roots to (581 + 457) 1038 total weight. In recording the analysis, the average weight of the leaves and the roots and the proportion of roots to total weight are written first, the results of analysis (as in .5) following. 24. Cossettes. The diffuser takes a small sample (handful) of cossettes from each cell as the battery is being filled, placing it in a large can with a closely fitting top. This can when full contains the laboratory sample.* After mixing thoroughly, the sample, or a portion of it, is chopped to a fine pulp with a sausage-meat cutter (m3) or some similar machine. After being reduced to fine particles the sample is again thoroughly mixed and a small portion is taken for the determination of the per cent, sugar in the cossettes. This is done either by the water digest (23c) or the alcohol extraction (23d). The juice is squeezed out of the remaining portion and is analyzed the same as beet juice (23b). In laboratories possessing the Kiehle ma- chine (m2,) the portion for direct sugar in cossettes can be ground up separately in this machine. In many fac- tories this latter analysis is the only one made of cossettes. 25. Wet Pulp. The sample is taken as the pulp comes from the diffusion battery. It should be well-mixed, * In hot countries the can of samples should be emptied in at least two hours after the first sample is put in, on account of the danger of fermentation. INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. not all being taken from the same place, and should be picked up with the hand so that a surplus of water is avoided . Large chips of beets are sometimes mixed with the pulp, and care should be taken that none of these are in the sample. The sample is mixed thoroughly and is ground up in a hand sausage machine (m1O.) after which the liquid is pressed out through a cloth. The usual press is shown in m9 and in Fig. 29. Both the grinder and the press should beat some distance from the machine used in preparing beet and cossette sam- ples. The analysis of pulp is very important, and the slightest addition of sugar from a foreign source would cause an error. The liquid pressed out as above is analyzed by the volu- metric method, a 100-1 10 CC flask being used. Table IV. is prepared especially for pulp analysis and it should be tacked up in a convenient place in the laboratory. 26. Pressed Pulp. Take a somewhat larger sample than is used in the wet pulp analysis described in the above paragraph and proceed in the same way. 27. Waste Water from the diffusion battery can usually be tested by filtering a small quantity into a beaker and reading in the polariscope. When read directly in this way multiply the reading by .26 (see 14.) Sometimes the addition of a small pinch of common salt will make a cleaier filtrate. If the water is too dark to be read without clearing with lead acetate, make the analysis by the volumetric method and use Table IV. for determin- Fig. 29. 64 INDIVIDUAL, SUGAR ANALYSES. ing the per cent, sugar. The disposal of waste water varies so greatly in different factories that no directions can be given for taking the sample. 28. Diffusion Juice* From each measuring tank full of juice 50 CC are taken and placed in a bucket to make up the sample for analysis. In warm countries there is danger of fermentation if the sample stands too long. The addi- tion of definite volumes of lead acetate, or common salt, or carbolic acid, are sometimes recommended to prevent this fermentation. None of these are satisfactory, as no accu- rate correction can be made, either for the influence of the foreign matter on the brix or on the polariscope reading. The best method is to empty the sample and make the analysis before it has had time to ferment. The juice will keep longer if the bucket is uncovered. Analyze by either the pipette or volumetric method and make purity. The same precaution as in beet analysis must be observed in regard to the use of too little or too much lead. 29. Lime Cakes* There are two methods employed for determining the per cent, of sugar remaining in lime cakes, the water test and the acetic acid test. Samples are usually taken from several filter presses and mixed together as one sample. When the cake is hard and 30. firm a sample taken from any part of the press is an average of the whole press. Theoretically in center-feed presses there is more sugar INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. 65 contained in the outer edges of the cake than nearer the center, and the opposite is theoretically true in side-feed presses. When a sample is taken it should be kept covered until analyzed to prevent evaporation of the water. Fig. 30 is the most convenient scale for weighing. (a) Water Test. Weigh out 25^ r * of the cake taking a small portion from each sample. Put in a shallow porce- lain mortar (F 12 or Fig. 31,) add about 15 CC of hot water and mix thoroughly. Transfer to a 100 CC flask, washing the mortar with about 75 CC of water. Add 2 or 3 CC of lead acetate and heat slowly to about 95C. Cool, make up to 100 CC , filter and Fi S 81 - polarize. The reading is the percent, sugar contained. (b) Acid Test. Weigh out 25* r as above. Transfer to a porcelain mortar and add enough water to make a thick paste, using a pestle to thoroughly dissolve the lumps. Neu- tralize with acetic acid, using phenol as an indicator. Add the acid carefully to prevent foaming over. Pour into a If normal weight were made up to lOOcc the dilution would be insufficient on account of the insoluble matter in the lime-cakes. The amount of the insol- uble matter varies with the condition of the cake, but for normal weight of good hard cake is taken as 4cc. Hence the dilution is up to only 96cc instead of lOOcc. By taking 25gr (96 per cent, of normal weight) an allowance is made for the in- soluble matter and precipitate. It could also be accomplished by making normal weight up to 104. 2cc. 66 INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. 100 CC flask, add a few cc of lead acetate and make up to the mark with water. Then filter and read, the reading being the per cent, sugar contained. 30. Thin Juices of all kinds may be tested by either the volumetric or the pipette method. In factories using the Steffens' process there is a hydrate juice which contains a great deal of lime. It should be neutralized with car- bonic acid gas and filtered before being analyzed. If gas used in the factory is employed for neutralizing, it should pass through some condensing chamber which will free it from water. The juice may be neutralized in a glass cylinder, phenol being used as an indicator. In analyzing thin juices, after the addition of lead acetate, make up to the mark, shake well and let stand about five minutes. 31. Sweet Waters are tested in the same way as thin juices, and when distinctly alkaline are neutralized by car- bonic acid gas and filtered before analyzing, as in 3O. The volumetric method is generally employed in analysis of sweet waters on account of their low sugar content, a 100-1 10 CC flask being used. 32. Thick Juice is usually tested for its apparent pur- ity and purity by weight. For the apparent purity take a large tumbler half full of the juice and dilute by the addi- tion of water. When in thorough solution transfer to a glass cylinder and make the pipette test, or analyze by vol- ume. For the purity by weight use normal weight and transfer to a 100 CC flask. It is best to mix the juice thor- oughly with water in the scoop, as it can be poured more easily into the flask and can be cleared more readily with lead acetate. After precipitating the impurities, fill to the mark, shake well, and let stand about 10 minutes. Divide INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. 67 the polariscope reading by the brix obtained by pycnometer method to find the purity by weight. 33. Syrups. Samples may be taken from a tank or from the trough leading away from the centrifugal machines, but should never be taken directly from the spout of a machine, except in very special cases. In case the latter is necessary care should be taken to get a fair sample. There are often drops of almost pure sugar on the end of the spout ; avoid them. Mix every sample thor- oughly with the hand before it is analyzed. No instru- ment is equal to the fingers in mixing the tiny grains of sugar with the rest of the sample. Syrups are tested for apparent purity or for purity by weight and real purity. For apparent purity use a large tumbler ; fill about one-third full with the syrup and dilute with water. Dissolve the syrup as much as possible by stirring. I,et stand for a minute, pour off the fluid at the top into a glass cylinder and add more water to the tumb- ler. Completely dissolve the remainder of the syrup and transfer to the cylinder, washing the tumbler perfectly clean and adding the washings to the cylinder. In this opera- tion care should be taken to not spill any of the solution from the time the syrup is put in the tumbler until the solu- tion has been well shaken in the cylinder. The solution should brix from about 18 to 20. Apparent purity may be made volumetrically or by pipette. For purity by weight all the air must be driven from the sample to be analyzed. This is effected most easily by the apparatus shown in F 26. A glass funnel (sugar size) with a stick fitting water-tight in the stem is placed in a common tin can half filled with water. The stem of the funnel should be about half an inch above the top of the water. Fill the funnel nearly full of the 68 INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. syrup to be analyzed and place the can over a burner or stove, letting the water heat without boiling until all the air in the syrup has been driven to the top. A funnel with a ground glass stop cock may also be used. Cool to normal temperature. The funnel can now be placed in the ring of an iron lamp-stand and the syrup will flow from the stem by raising the stick. Discard the first 5 CC as it may con- tain a small amount of water from the bottom of the stick and the stem of the funnel. Let that which follows flow into a pycnometer, and when a sufficient amount has been obtained stop the flow by shutting down the stick. De- termine the brix by comparison with the sp. g. obtained by the pycnometer. After the specific gravity has been taken the syrup in the pycnometer can be used for weighing to obtain the per cent, sugar. Weigh out normal weight, dilute with water and make a solution in the scoop ; trans- fer to a 100 CC flask, washing out the scoop thoroughly. After clearing with lead acetate, fill to the mark, and let stand for about ten minutes. For the real purity de- termine the dry substance, as in 2c, and make the sugar by weight as above dividing the per cent, sugar by the per cent, dry substance. 34. (a) Massecuites and Sugars are tested for appar- ent purity and real purity. In either case take the sample in a small pan and mix thoroughly with the hand, being careful to crush all the lumps. The " tryer" is used when possible in taking samples. This instrument resembles the half of an inch steel pipe cut longitudinally and sharpened at the end. Insert the " tryer " in the massecuite or sugar to be sampled, rotate it completely, and withdraw. In cold weather sample cans brought in should be allowed to attain the temperature of the room (WIECHMANN). For the INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. 69 apparent purity a solution must be made in the same way as syrups. Dissolve every grain of sugar in the tumbler before transferring to the cylinder. Massecuite dissolves very much more readily in hot than in cold water and in laboratories where ice is obtainable the quickest method is to dissolve the sample in boiling water and then cool to normal temperature with ice. This is particularly valuable in testing samples taken from the vacuum pan to see if the strike is ready to be dropped. Make the apparent purity by volumetric method or pipette test. For the real purity make the dry substance (2c) and determine the sugar by weight. Use normal weight and dissolve as much as possi- ble in the scoop with hot water. Pour the fluid, but no grains of sugar, into a 100 CC flask and add more warm water to the scoop. Dissolve the remaining grains and wash into the flask. A glass rod flattened out at one end should be used in effecting this solution. Cool to normal temperature, clear with lead acetate and make up to the mark. Shake well and let stand several minutes (about 6 or 8.) Filter and read, dividing the reading by the per cent, of dry substance to find the real purity. () The Full Analysis of massecuites usually comprises the folowing : Apparent purity. Real purity. Per cent, sugar. Per cent, water. Percent, mineral matter (ash.) Per cent, organic matter. The first three are found according to the above para- graph, and the water is 100 the dry substance. To find the ash weigh about 3 gr in a tared platinum dish and add about 20 drops of sulphuric acid. This is done to make 70 INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. the massecuite yield sulphate salts instead of carbon salts as the latter burn away and the former do not. Burn the massecuite until it gives a white ash. Heat gradually at first to prevent the substance from rising suddenly and going over the sides, but as soon as the water has been driven off, burn over an exceedingly hot flame. After burning, cool in a dessicator and weigh. The weight of the ash divided by the weight of the massecuite used will give the per cent, of the ash. The addition of the sulphuric acid causes an error, making the ash weigh more than it would if the natural carbon salts were present. This error is generally accepted to be 10 per cent, and is so figured. Example : Weight of dish and massecuite 18.615 gr. Weight of dish 15.597 gr. Weight of massecuite used 3.018 gr. Weight of ash and dish 15.763 gr. Weight of dish 15.597 gr. Weight of ash 166 gr. Ten per cent, for sulphuric acid error 017 gr. Correct weight of ash 149 gr. .149 r- 3.018 = .049 = 4.9 per cent, of ash. The organic matter of a massecuite is 100 less the sum of the per cent, sugar, the per cent, water and the per cent, ash. Example : Total in massecuite 100.00 per cent. Sugar 80.6 per cent. Water 9.45 Ash.. . 4.9 " 94.95 Organic matter , 5.05 INDIVIDUAL SUGAR ANALYSES. 71 The following are two results obtained from average pans in two American factories : Apparent purity . . 85.3 82.9 Real purity 88.9 85.4 Per cent, sugar 80.5 78.2 Per cent, water 9.05 8 5 Per cent, ash 4.5 6.6 Per cent, organic matter 5.95 6.7 CHAPTER IV. LIME, ALKALINITIE8 AND SATURATION GAS. 35. (a) Lime is analyzed for its percentage of CaO. Weigh out one gr. of a finely powdered average sample, transfer to a porcelain dish and neutralize with a normal acid. Either Nitric, Sulphuric or Hydrochloric acid may be used in a normal solution, but the latter has been gener- ally adopted by the American beet sugar factories. Take the acid from a burette graduated to 1-10 of a cubic centi- meter. Use a few drops of phenol as an indicator and add the acid slowly until the red color is gone. Note the read- ing of the burette before the test is begun and after the powder has been completely neutralized. The difference between the two readings gives the number of cc of acid necessary to effect neutralization. Multiply this number by .028* to find the per cent, of CaO in the lime. Table VII. saves the operation of multiplication, Example : Reading of burette before neutralizing 35.6 Reading of burette at beginning 8.9 Number of cc of acid used 26.7 26 7 x .028 = .7476 = 74.76, the per cent. CaO in the lime. *One cc of a normal acid neutralizes .028?r of CaO. To illustrate, the action of normal HC1 will be described : In neutralizing the lime the chlorine in the acid combines with the calcium in the lime to make calcium chloride, and the hydro- gen in the acid combines with the oxygen in the lime to make water. Two parts of acid must be used. The formula is : CaO -r- 2HC1 = CaCl 2 4- H 2 O. The atomic weight of CaO is 55.87 CCa = 39 91 and O = 15.96) and the atomic weight of 2HC1 is 72.74 (2H = 2 and 2C1 = 70.74.) Therefore, it takes 72.74 parts by weight of HCl to combine with 55.87 parts of CaO. In normal acid there are 36.37 parts of HCl in 1,000, or .03(537 gr in Ice. As HCl combines with CaO in the proportion of 72.74 to 55 87 to find how much CaO Ice of normal acid will neutral- ize, we have this equation. 72.74 : 55.87 :: .3637 gr : x. xis .028gr. Therefore, as in the example, if it takes 26.7cc of acid to combine with the CaO in Igr of lime, multiplying by .028 gives the weight of CaO which has com- bined with the acid. In this case it is .7476gr, which is 74.76 per cent of the Igr of lime used. The action of normal sulphuric acid and normal nitric acid may be figured out in a similar manner. LIME, ALKAUNITIES AND SATURATION GAS. 73 H. RIECKES has proposed a test for finding the "availa- ble lime " or lime that will go into solution with sugar, the test being particularly applicable to the Steffens' process. It is made by weighing out a certain amount and dissolving with water and sugar solution. The amount used is pref- erably l gr of lime for every 100^ of water and sugar solu- tion. Weigh, for example, 3 gr of a finely powdered average sample, and dissolve as much as possible in the scoop, adding sugar solution to assist the operation. No prescribed amount of sugar solution is necessary but about 80 or 90 CC of a solution of 50 brix should be used in a 300 CC test. As fast as any appreciable amount is dissolved, pour into a 300 CC flask, and repeat this until all the lime possible has been dissolved ; then wash the remaining particles into the flask. Fill to the mark with water and shake well. Filter 100 CC and neutralize with normal acid, using phenol as an indicator. Multiply the number of cc of acid used by .028, as in the above paragraph, to find the percentage of "available lime." The results from this test have not proved to be reliable thus far, often being from 5 to 10 per cent, less than determinations of the same samples by direct titration of the powder. However, the test has a certain value in Steffens' work. It should always be made at as low a temperature as possible, and always at the same tem- perature with sufficient sugar solution. For testing CaO in saccharate the results are good. (&} Milk of Lime is tested only for CaO and density. The CaO is found by neutralizing l gr with normal acid as in (a). Shake well and find the density with a Brix or a Beaume hydrometer. (f) The Slacking Tests of lime are g^iven in If 39. 74 LIME, AIKAUNITIES AND SATURATION GAS. 71 36. Alkalinities. In beet sugar making the alkalinity of juices is nearly always figured as lime, although it is partly ammonia, and sodium and potassium compounds. It is usual in testing alkalinities to have a special acid of which l cc will neutralize .0020^ of lime, so that if 20 CC of a juice is used every cc of acid necessary to neutralize it ,/^ will show 1-100 of 1 per cent, alkalinity. The special acid is made by adding 570 CC of a normal acid to 7430 CC of water. To explain, take the special Hydrochloric acid as an ex- ample. Every cc of this acid contains .00259* r of HC1, and as it combines with lime in the propor- tion of 72.74 to 55.87 each cc will neu- tralize .0020* r of lime (see 35a ). Therefore, when 20 cc of a juice is taken every cc of acid combines with .0001 gr of lime in each cc of juice, and the number of cc of acid used show, the number of hundredths of 1 per cent, lime in the sam- ple. If, for example, 20 CC of a juice is neu- tralized by 5 CC of acid, it has an alkalinity of 5-100 of 1 per cent. This is usually written .05 and is called an alkalinity of 5. In analyzing measure off 20 CC of the sample (a tin cup F 36 holding 20 CC may be used for this,} and transfer to a porcelain dish. Use phenol as an indi- cator and neutralize by the addition of the special acid described above. A burette graduated to 1-10 of a cc should be used for measuring the acid. There are several forms of apparatus for filling the burettes used in alkalinity determinations, one of which is shown in F 35 and another in Fjg. 32. The burette is usually of 10 CC Fig. 32. I.IME, ALKAL1NITIES 75 fT "S capacity, and the apparatus has a siphon arrangement by which the burette is always filled exactly to the zero mark. A form of apparatus which can be easily made in any laboratory and which is preferred by many chemists is shown in Fig. 33. The juices sampled for alkalinities are usually taken from a filter press after the first carbonation, a press after the second carbonation, a Daneck or me- chanical filter after the sulphuring pro- cess, the last effect in the evaporation, and a filter after treatment of thick juice. A 4-oz. bottle with a wooden handle attached (F 14) is convenient for taking the samples. They are transferred to test-tubes in a -rack, as shown in F 5. Each test-tube should be first rinsed with the juice sampled. The sample from a filter press should be taken when the press is running at full force, and not when it is either first opened or nearly filled. - 33 ' 37. CO 2 in Saturation Gas. Carbonic acid is readily absorbed by water containing either caustic soda or caustic potassium, and it is usual in laboratories to have an appa- ratus constructed on this principle for testing the per cent. of CO 2 in saturation gas. A form of this apparatus is shown in ml. There are others of different construction, but so made that 100 CC of water are displaced by the gas to be tested, the gas then being forced thiough a reservoir filled with a solution of caustic soda. The gas which 76 LIME, AI^KALINITIES AND SATURATION GAS. passes through meets a tube bearing a scale divided in cubic centimeters and containing 100 CC of water. As much of this water is displaced as there are cc of gas passing through the reservoir. The amount of water remaining in the tube is of the same volume as the gas which was combined with the caustic soda, hence the number of cc remaining shows the percentage of CO 2 in the gas. As a control for the apparatus, tests should be made at least once every day with a burette, as follows : Use a graduated 100 CC burette with a ground glass stop-cock (Fig. 34). Attach it to a rub- ber tube connected with the gas pipe, leaving the open end in cold water. Let the gas pass through the burette for two or three minutes, then close the stop-cock and disconnect the rubber tube. Raise the burette until the zero mark is even with the top of the water and open the stop-cock just long enough to allow the water to come up to the mark. There are now exactly 100 CC of gas in the burette. Insert a piece of caustic soda (stick) about half an inch long, in the open end, keeping it under water. Then close this end with the thumb or index finger and turn the burette upside down several times, letting the soda go from one end to the other. Replace the end of the burette in water and by taking away the finger, water will rise in the burette to take the place of CO 2 that has been absorbed by the caustic soda. Repeat the above operation until the water ceases to rise in the burette. The number of cc of water now in the burette will show the percentage of carbonic acid absorbed, which is the percentage Fig. 34. LIME, ALKAUNITIES AND SATURATION GAS. 77 of CO 2 in the gas tested. In determining the amount of water in the burette it is best to place the instrument deeply enough in water so that the surface of the water in the vessel used is even with the water in the burette. This prevents the weight of water in the burette from affecting its reading. CHAPTER V. 8TEFFEN& PROCESS ANALYSES. 38. (a) Saccharate of Lime is of two kinds, hot and cold, and each is tested for sugar, purity and CaO. To de- termine the sugar, weigh out I3.024 gr . Neutralize in the scoop with acetic acid, using phenol as an indicator. Dis- solve the saccharate thoroughly and pour the contents of the scoop into a 100 CC flask. Cool to normal temperature, add sufficient lead acetate, and make up to the mark with water. Filter and read in the polariscope, multiplying the reading by two to find the per cent, sugar. (&) To Find the Purity of a saccharate, mix the sample with water. Use about 1 kilo, of saccharate and dilute to about 15 or 20 brix. Neutralize with carbonic acid gas and filter. Evaporate the filtrate to 30 or 40 brix and filter again. Find the brix by pycnometer and determine the sugar by weight, using 26.048 gr . Divide the sugar by the brix for the purity. If the purity of a solution that has a high alkalinity is made without neutralizing, multiply the alkalinity by 3 and subtract from the brix. However, nearly every chemist prefers to have the solution neutral. (c) CaO in Saccharate is found according to the Rieckes' method for "available CaO " in lime (35a). For the cold saccharate use 3 gr in 300 CC of water and sugar solution, but as the hot saccharate dissolves much more readily 4 or 5 2r of it may be used in 300 CC . In the latter case if 5 gr are used the result must be divided by 1.666, for there are that many gr of saccharale in the 100 CC used for the test. 39. Lime Powder is tested for CaO and grit, and occa- sionally a slacking test is made. The CaO is found STEFFENS' PROCESS ANALYSES. 79 according to 35a- The grit is the lime that will not pass through the sieves used in the process. These sieves are usually of 120 mesh, but whatever size is used must be taken for the laboratory test. Weigh out 20* r of the pow- der and transfer to a perfectly clean sieve. Sift out as much as possible, being careful that none is lost over the top. Weigh that remaining and multiply by 5 to determine the percent, of grit. This is the same as dividing by 20 and multiplying by 100, which is the theoretically correct way. Example : Weight of lime used 20.0 gr. Weight remaining in sieve 6.5 gr. 6.5 -i- 20 = .325. .325 x 100 = 32.5 per cent. grit. or 6.5 x 5 = 32.5 per cent. grit. The slacking test of BAUR and PORTIUS is made as fol- lows : Weigh out 20 gr of the powder and transfer to a beaker. Fill a 100 CC flask to the mark with water and note its temperature. Quickly pour the water over the lime in the beaker and stir with a centigrade thermometer. Take the temperature 15 seconds after starting, again in 15 seconds, and then in 30 seconds, noting it at the end of each minute thereafter until the temperature begins to go down. Example : Temp, at start ..18 After 8 min , 35 After 15 sec . .19 ii 9 " . 36 " 30 " . 21 " 10 *' . 37 " 1 min. 23 " 11 " 37 V* u 2 " 255^ I ( J-> C < 38 " 3 " . 27 y> 2 , and continuing- as above. 6O. Sodium. Use 50 CC of the 200 CC solution in 56. If the solution is very strongly acid, add sufficient am- monia to bring- it nearly neutral. Heat nearly to boiling- and add an excess of baryta water. The salts of cal- cium, mag-nesium, iron and aluminum, and also silicic and sulphuric acids, will be precipitated. Filter while hot and wash with hot water. Heat ag-ain to nearly boiling- point and add a few drops of ammonia and then sufficient ammonium carbonate to precipitate the barium present. Filter and evaporate to dryness, with the addi- tion of a few drops of ammonium oxalate solution, to precipitate any traces of calcium salts which may have remained. Dry at 120, and over a low flame burn care- fully until all odor of ammonia is g-one. Take up the residue with hot water and filter. To the nitrate add a few cc of hydrochloric acid and evaporate to dryness in a weig-hed platinum dish. The residue consists of the alkali chlorides, the addition of the hydrochloric acid having- made the chlorine combination. As stated be- fore, potassium is present in natural waters in such small quantities in comparison to sodium, that the whole residue is called sodium chloride. It is calculated to so- dium by multiplying- with the factor 0.3940. Example : Weight of dish and residue 26.388 Weight of dish 26.276 Weight of residue (NaCl) 1 12 .112 x 2 x 100 = 22.4, the sodium chloride. 22.4 x .3940 = 8.82, the sodium. WATER ANALYSIS. 105 61. Chlorine is determined by use of a standard so- lution of silver nitrate (14O), of which one cubic centi- meter will precipitate one milligramme of chlorine. Add a few drops of potassium chromate to 100 CC of the water sample, or to a larger volume evaporated to about 100 CC , which should be made faintly alkaline by the addition of a little sodium carbonate. From a burette carefully add the silver nitrate solution, stirring- constantly. Each drop of the solution forms a red spot of silver chromate, which decomposes upon stirring-. At the very earliest point when this red coloration becomes permanent, the burette should be read, and the number noted of the cc of solution used. As each cc denotes the number of milligrammes of chlorine in the sample, the calculation of the percentag-e is easy. Example : lOOOcc of water are evaporated to about lOQcc and tested as above, 32.1 c c of solution being necessary to precipitate the chlorine. 32. l cc solution = 32.1 mg of chlorine, or 0.0321gr. .032Ur in lOOOcc = 3.2lsr in lOO.OOQcc, or, 3.21 parts chlorine in 100,000 parts water. 62. The Figured Analysis is a calculation which shows in what form the bases and acids found in the actual analysis are combined in the water. The arrang-e- ment is usually the same, but if the chemist has reason to believe that another combination is more correct, he is allowed a certain latitude. Silica is put down in the free state, unless there should be an insufficient amount of CO 2) SO 3 and Cl to combine with the bases, in which case enoug-h silica is used to combine with whatever sodium may remain to 106 WATER ANALYSIS. form sodium silicate (Na 2 SiO 3 .) Iron and aluminum oxides are recorded as such. The figuring* is begun with chlorine. It is combined with sodium as sodium chloride (NaCl). If there is an ex- cess of chlorine, it is combined with magnesium (MgfCl ) but if the sodium is in excess, the remainder is com- bined with sulphuric acid as sodium sulphate (Na 2 SO 4 ). In this case oxygen has to be "borrowed." The re- mainder of the sulphuric acid is combined with mag- nesium oxide as magnesium sulphate ( MgSO 4 ) and if there is not sufficient .magnesium oxide, whatever sul- phuric acid may then remain is combined with calcium oxide as calcium sulphate ( CaSO 4 ). On the other hand, if magnesium oxide is in excess of the remaining sulphuric acid, the excess is combined with carbonic acid as magnesium carbonate ( MgCO 3 ) and the calcium oxide combined with the remaining carbonic acid, as cal- cium carbonate ( CaCO 3 ). The calcium oxide and carbonic acid should almost invariably be combined as much as possible. However, when the evaporated water is strongly alkaline, sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) is pres- ent, and part of the carbonic acid should be combined with sodium. All calculations may be performed by the use of factors. To illustrate the figured analysis, the examples given in this chapter will be taken. Resume : Carbonic Acid ( CO 2 ) 8.20 Silica ( SiO 2 ) 2.90 Iron and Aluminium Oxides ( Fe 2 O 3 and A1 2 O 3 ) 1.00 Calcium Oxide 16.46 Magnesium Oxide 5.04 Sulphuric Acid (SO 3 ) 31.77 Sodium 8.82 Chlorine . , . 3.21 WATER ANALYSIS. 1 07 The following is the figured analysis: NaCl= 5.29 (all Cl x 1.6503) 2. 09 Na used. Na 2 SO 4 =20.75 (6.73 Na x 3.083) 11.69 SO 3 used, 6.73 " 2.33 O used MgSO 4 = 15.13 (all MgOx3.0015)10.09 " 8.82 all of Na. CaSO4=i6.98(9.99SO 3 xl. 6996) 9.99 " 6.99 CaO used. CaCO 3 =16.91(9.47CaOxl. 7856)31. 77 all of SO 3 9.47 == 7.44 CO 2 used C() 2 = .76 (in excess). .. .16.46 all of CaO .76 SiO 2 = 2.90 8.20 all of CO 2 Fe*Al= 1 00. In the above calculation it is necessary to take 2.33 parts of oxygen for combination with sodium sulphate, and 0.76 parts of carbonic acid are in excess. Both these are ^recorded in the following form of "full analysis:" In 100,000 parts water. Total solids 88 .8 Lost by combustion 11.9 Mineral substance . 76 . 9 Silica 2. 90 or Silica 2.90 Iron and Aluminum Oxides 1.00 Iron and Aluminum Oxides 1.00 Carbonic Acid (CO 2 ) 8.20 Carbonic Acid (CO 2 ) 76 Calcium Oxide 16.46 Calcium Carbonate 16.91 Sulphuric Acid (SO 3 ) 31.76 Calcium Sulphate 16.98 Magnesium Oxide 5.04 Magnesium Sulphate ... .15.13 Chlorine 3 .21 Sodium Chloride 5 29 Sodium [882 Sodium Sulphate 20.75 (Oxygen for Na 2 SO 4 ) J 2 33 79.72 79.72 This method of analysis gives a double check on the results. The total of the "actual analysis" should be 108 WATER ANALYSIS. the same as the total of the "figured analysis," and each should be equal to or only slightly more than the min- eral substance found by direct analysis. In the example above given the mineral substance is 76.9 and the total found by individual analyses is 79.72, a difference of 2.82. It rarely occurs, on account of unavoidable errors, that the two will exactly agree, but the difference ought not to exceed that in the example*. * The-student is referred to Fresenius' quantitative analysis (second Ameri- can edition) pages 207, 208 and 209, also pages 842 and 843. CHAPTER IX. LIMESTONE ANALYSIS. 63. A Complete Analysis of limestone is unneces- sary in sugar work. It is sufficient to find the principal constituents, which are silica, iron and aluminium oxides, calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate and calcium sulphate. It is also usual to make a moisture determination. Organic matter, phosphoric acid, alkali silicates, etc., are not determined. 64. Preparation of Sample. The sample consists of six or eight small stones, which represent an average of the quarry from which they are taken. The stones are broken and from each one a couple of pieces weighing about half a gramme each are taken to make up the sample for analyzing. The pieces should not be taken from the outside of the stone, which may have suffered decomposition, and should be free from any streaks of iron, or sulphides, or other matter which is not generally present in the stone. Transfer to a clean porcelain mortar and reduce to a very fine powder. 65. Moisture. Weigh out 2}^ 8r of the powdered sample on a watch glass and dry for an hour at 110- 120C. Cool in a dessicator and weigh again. The weight lost is water ; divided by 2^2 , the weight of substance used, and multiplied by 100, will give the percentage. Example : Weight of watchglass and stone before drying .............. 35.942gr Weight of watchglass and stone after drying ............... 35.934gr Weight lost (moisture) .008 -r 2.5 = .0032. .0032 x 100 == .32 per cent moisture. OF THE 110 LIMESTONE ANALYSIS. 66. Carbonic Acid. (Carbon dioxide, CO 2 .) The dried sample, after the moisture is determined, is trans- ferred to an alkalimeter, and the percentage of CO 2 is determined, as in 54. Example : Weight of apparatus and contents 77.803gr Weight of same after operation 76.766gr Weight lost (CO 2 ) 1.037gr 1.037 ~ 2.5 = .4148. .4148 x 100 = 41.48 per cent, carbonic acid. 67. Silica. ( SiO 2 ) The contents of the alkalim- eter are transferred to a platinum dish and evaporated to dryness. Take up the residue with dilute hydrochlo- ric acid (1 part acid, 4 parts water) and filter into a 250 CC flask. Wash the residue in the filter thoroughly with hot water, and then dry it at 100. Burn in a tared crucible, over a moderate flame. Cool and weigh. As the substance tested weighed 2>^ gr , the weight of silica obtained must be divided by 5 and multiplied by 2, to de- termine the weight in l gr . This multiplied by 100 will give the percentage of silica. Example : Weight of crucible and residue 11.146gr Weight of crucible 11.088*r Weight of residue (silica) 058g r .058 -4- 5 = .0116. .0116 x 2 = .0232. .0232 x 100 = 2.32 per cent, silica. 68. Iron and Aluminum Oxides. (Fe 2 O., and A1 2 O 3 .) When the filtrate in 67 is cool, fill the flask to the mark with water. Shake well and measure off 50 CC . Make alkaline with ammonia and precipitate, filter and LIMESTONE ANALYSIS. Ill ecPxo burn the iron and al^Bium oxides, as described in 56. The weig-ht obtained^orresponds to >^ gr of the stone and must be multiplied by 2 and 100 to give the per- centage. Example : Weight of crucible and precipitate 11.0948 r Weight of crucible 11.088 r Weight of precipitate (Fe 2 O 3 and A1 2 O 3 ) 0068 r .006 x 2 x 100 = 1.2 per cent iron and aluminium oxide. g>9. Calcium Oxide (Ca^. The nitrate from the iron and aluminum precipidjBn is heated with the ad- oition of acetic acid, and calcium oxide is determined as in 57. The resulting- weig-ht must be multiplied by 2 and 100 to^ive the percentag-e of CaO in the stone. Example : Weight of crucible and precipitate 11 .557g r Weight of crucible 11.088gr Weight of precipitate (CaCO 3 ) , 469gr - . 469x2 + 100 93.8^f cen t. CaCO 3 . 93. 8 x .56 =52. 528 or 52. 53 per cent. CaO. 7O. Magnesium Oxide (Mg-O) is determined as in 58. The percentag-e is found by multiplying- the weig-ht of mag-nesium oxide by 2 and 100 as above. Example : Weight of crucible and precipitate 11 . 103gr Weight of crucible 11 . 0888 r Weight of precipitate (Mg 2 P 2 O 7 ) 015r .015 x .3602 = .0054, weight of magnesium oxide. . 0054 x2xlOO = 1.08 per cent, magnesium oxide . 112 LIMESTONE ANALYSIS. 71. Sulphuric Acid (SO 3 ) is determined by precipita- tion as barium sulphate as in 59V* From the 250 CC flask containing- the original solution (67 and 68) 50 CC is measured off and used for the determination. The weight obtained is multiplied by 2 and 100 to find the percentag-e. Example : Weight of crucible and precipitate ............ , ........... 11 . 103s r Weight of crucible ........................................ 11 . 088s r Weight of precipitate (BaSO 4 ) . 015 x .3431= .00515, weight of SO3. . 00515 x 2x 100 ==1.03 per cent, sulphuric acid. 72. The Figured Analysis is calculated in the same manner as that described in water analysis with the difference that there are fewer constituents to consider. Moisture, silica and the oxides of iron and aluminum are set down as determined. Sulphuric acid is combined with calcium oxide, the remaining 1 calcium oxide being- combined with carbonic acid. The remaining- carbonic acid is combined with mag-nesium oxide. It usually happens that the carbonic acid is >a trifle too much or too little to make the combinations exact, but the excess of CO 2 or Mg-O must always be recorded. The form g-iven below may be used for recording- analyses, the actual analysis being- on the left and the fig-ured analysis on the rig-ht. In the latter the calcium sulphate is determined by multiplying- the sulphuric acid by 1.6996, the factor; the calcium oxide which re- mains is multiplied by 1.7856, to g-ive the calcium car- bonate ; and the carbonic acid which remains, multiplied by 1.9091, gives the mag-nesium carbonate, an excess of magnesium carbonate being- left. LIMESTONE ANALYSIS. 113 Limestone Sample : Moisture 32 o/ Moisture 32 Silica 2.32 Silica 232 Iron and Aluminum Ox- Iron and Aluminum Ox- ides 1.20 ides 1.20 Calcium Oxide 52.53 Calcium Carbonate 92 51 Magnesium Oxide 1.08 Calcium Sulphate 1.75 Sulphuric Acid (SO 3 ) 1 03 Magnesium Carbonate 1.49 Carbonic Acid (CO 2 ) 41.48 Excess Magnesium Oxide. 37 Undetermined . .04 Undetermined . . .04 100.00 100.00 The value of the limestone depends upon the amount of good lime which can be burned from it at the least cost. The best stone usually has 95 or 96 per cent, cal- cium carbonate, and no calcium sulphate. When the Steffens' process is used, the best stone is dependent both upon the salts in the molasses and the time it takes for the lime to slake, which is burned from the stone. 73. Lime may be analyzed according- to the method g-iven for limestone. If any sulphuric acid is present it is combined with calcium oxide. The carbonic acid is combined with mag-nesium oxide, and the excess with calcium oxide. The remaining- calcium oxide is recorded as lime. CHAPTER X. COAL, COKE, AND FUEL OIL. 74. Coal* The estimation of moisture, coke and volatile matters, and ash are required in coal analysis. To determine the moisture weigh out 10 gr of a powdered average sample and heat at 110-115C for one hour. This is a sufficient length of time to drive off all the water, and in a longer heating there is danger of the sample gaining in weight by the oxidation of sulphides and hydrocarbons. (PRESENIUS.) Cool in a dessicator and weigh. The loss is moisture. Take 1-10 of the dried coal (representing l r of the original sample) and burn over an exceedingly hot flame until all carbonaceous matter is consumed and the ash is white or reddish colored. Cool in a dessicator and weigh. The loss is put down as coke and volatile mat- ters and the remainder is ash. The complete analysis is figured as follows: Weight of dish and coal 36.282gr Weight of dish ' 26.282gr Coal taken lO.OOOgr Dish and coal before drying 36 . 2828 r Dish and coal after drying 36.222gr Water lost 060gr .060 ~ 10 x 100 = .60 per cent, mosture. 10gr_ .060gr = 9. 940gr remaining, 1-10 of 9.94gr = .994gr. Weight of crucible and coal 15 . 337gr Weight of crucible 14.343gr Coal taken . 994gr COAL, COKE AND FUEL OIL. 115 Weight of crucible and coal before burning 15.337 r Weight of crucible and ash after burning 14.3968 r Coke and volatile matters lost 941gr .941 -f- 1 x 100 = 94. 1, per cent, coke and volatile matters. Weight of crucible and ash 14.3%gr Weight of crucible 14.343*r Weight of ash 053S r . 053 -: 1 x 100 = 5 3, per cent. ash. Resume : Moisture 60 Coke and volatile matters 94 . 10 Ash.. 5.30 100.00 75. Coke is tested the same as coal, except- ing- that about 30 gr should, be used for the moisture test, and it may be dried at a hig-her tempera- ture, 140C, and only half a gr is used for the ash. 100 per cent., minus the sum -of the water and ash, is called the "combustible matter," instead of "coke and volatile matters," as above. 76. Fuel OH. The most important and most usual test of oil is the determination of its specific gravity. This is done with*jBeaume's hydrometer for liquids lig-hter than water (Pig*. 45), the reading- of the hydrometer being- com- Fig. 45. n6 COAL, COKE AND FUEL OIL. pared with the corresponding- specific gravity by use of the following- table : TABLE B. Comparison of Degrees on the Beaume Hydrominor Spindle with Specific Gravity. Degree . Sp. G. Degree . Sp. G. Degree. Sp. G. Degree Sp. G. 10 1 000 24 .913 38 .839 52 .777 11 .993 25 .907 39 .834 53 773 12 .986 26 .901 40 .830 54 .768 13 .980 27 .896 41 825 55 .764 14 973 28 .890 42 820 56 .760 15 .967 29 .885 43 .816 57 .757 16 .960 30 .880 44 811 58 .753 17 .954 31 874 45 807 59 .749 18 948 32 .869 46 .802 60 .745 19 .942 33 .864 47 .798 65 726 20 .936 34 .859 48 .794 70 .709 21 .930 35 .854 49 .789 80 .676 22 .924 36 .849 50 .785 90 .646 23 .918 37 .844 51 .781 100 619 The above table is calculated for a temperature of 15C. or 59P., and all observations should be made at this temperature. However, a difference of 2 Farenheit degrees either way does not introduce an error of con- sequence. The specific gravity may also be taken with a pycnometer, a specific gravity hydrometer, or any of the specific gravity balances for liquids. The Beaume hydrometer is preferable to other methods in the fact that it is g-enerally used in oil commerce. Water is so seldom present in oil that it is determined only qualitatively. A quantity of oil of known specific gravity is poured over fused calcium chloride, which may be contained in a basket of wire screen. The specific gravity of the treated oil is then taken, and if it is less COAL, COKE AND FUEL OIL. 117 than before, water was present and was taken up by the calcium chloride. A simpler method, but one requiring more time, is to fill a glass tube (about 3-16 of an inch in diameter and 12 inches long) with the oil, having one end closed. By standing the tube on the closed end, if any water is present it will separate from the oil in a few days and go to the bottom. Ashes. Evaporate 5 gr of the oil in a porcelain dish until it is sufficiently dry for ignition. This may be done first on a water bath and then on an asbestos plate over a direct flame. Burn carefully until a completely incinerated ash is obtained. The weight of the ash re- maining divided by 5 and multiplied by 100 will give the per cent. Example: Weight of dish and oil 26 . 370gr Weight of dish 21 . 370*r Weight of oil used S.OOOgr Weight of dish and ash 21.373gr Weight of dish , 21 . 370gr Weight of ash 003gr .003-^5= .0006. .0006x100= .06 per cent. Flash and Fire Test. The temperature at which the development of inflammable gases begins is called the flash point of oil, and the degree of temperature where the oil itself will burn is called the fire-point. Both may be tested at the same time, as the test for the latter is only a continuation of the test for the former. These determinations can be made with sufficiently accurate re- sults by the simple apparatus mentioned as follows, but Il8 COAL, COKE AND FUEL OIL. for absolutely exact determinations the Saybolt or some other apparatus with electric sparks should be used: A porcelain crucible holding" about 90 CC is nearly tilled with the oil and placed on the ring- of a lamp-stand, over a sheet (4 inches square) of asbestos, about V% of an inch thick. A chemical Farenheit thermometer, sup- ported by a clamp above, is inserted in the oil so that the mercury bulb is just covered. Heat is applied, the flame being 1 just large enough to cause a rise of 2 or 3 degrees in temperature a minute. At the end of every minute after heat is applied a "test-flame" is passed over the oil. The "test-flame" should be as small as possible, but a match generally has to be used in sugar factory laboratories. The temperature degree, when the passing of the "test-flame" first causes a flash of light, is re- corded as the flash point, and the degree when the oil ignites permanently is recorded as the fire point. In crude petroleum the latter is from 6 to 15 higher than the former. CHAPTER XI. ANALYSIS OF BONEBLACK*. 77. The Outward Appearance of boneblack often in- dicates its usefulness in sugar manufacture. Well- burned boneblack should be of a deep black color and show a faint velvety cracking". If it is sufficiently porous each broken piece when held to the tongue should pro- duce a slight suction. If the boneblack is boiled with caustic potash or caustic sodium and then allowed to settle, the supernatent fluid should be completely color- less; a brown coloring is caused by undestroyed organic substance (glue, gristle). 78. The Analysis of Boneblack generally comprises determinations of moisture, calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, calcium sulphide, organic matter and decolo- rizing power. The composition of good boneblack is about as follows: Moisture 7 per cent Carbon 7 to 8 " Sand and Clay : 2 to 4 Calcium Phosphate 70 to 75 ' * Calcium Carbonate 7 to 8 " Calcium Sulphate 2 to. 3 " Phosphates of Iron and Aluminum .5 {t Magnesium Phosphate 6 to 1 " 79. Moisture. The boneblack is coarsely powdered and 10* r are dried at 120C. It usually takes several hours for the sample to become thoroughly dry. The weight lost is moisture; divided by 10 and multiplied by 100 will give the percentage. * Adapted from "I^eitfaden fur Zuckerfabrichemiker" by Dr. E. Preuss. 120 ANALYSIS OF BONEBLACK. 80. Carbon, Sand and Clay. Into a porcelain dish put 10 gr of the finely pulverized sample and add some water. Then digest with 50 CC of concentrated hydro- chloric acid, the dish being- covered with a glass plate to prevent loss by spirting". Filter through a dry filter, the weight of which is known, and wash with hot water until the acid reaction of the filtrate has disappeared (test with litmus paper). The filter and contents are dried and weighed, the total, minus the weight of the paper, being carbon, sand and clay, the remaining constituents of the boneblack having been taken out by the digestion with acid. After weighing, incinerate in a tared crucible. The residue is sand and clay, and this weight subtracted from the weight of the contents of the filter paper will give the weight of the carbon. The re- results obtained, divided by 10 and multiplied by 100, will give the percentage. The filtrate from the above, made up to a liter, serves in the determination of calcium sulphate, calcium sul- phide, oxide of iron and aluminum, lime, magnesia and phosphoric acid. 81. Calcium Sulphate. Measure off 200 CC of the above filtrate, corresponding to 2 gr of the original sub- stance, and heat to nearly boiling point. Add a slight excess of barium chloride, precipitating barium sulphate, and filter as in 59. After burning and weighing, the resulting weight is divided by 2 to give the weight in l gr , and is then multiplied by the factor .5832 to give the weight in calcium sulphate. Multiplying by 100 will give the per cent. In factories and refineries having "boneblack houses" the examination of the boneblack as to its contents of ANALYSIS OF BONEBLACK. 121 calcium sulphate and its removal by treatment with soda solution is very important. The gypsum strongly in- fluences the crystallization of sugar and in the re-burn- ing* of the boneblack leads to considerable losses, the calcium sulphate being* reduced to calcium sulphide, and carbon escapes in the form of carbon monoxide gas. CaSO 4 -H 4C = CaS + 4CO. The calcium sulphide thus formed has an injurious effect, as in contact with metals it produces colored com- binations which lessen the value of the product. There- fore it is also necessary to determine the calcium sul- phide. 82. Calcium Sulphide. Place 5* r of the finely pow- dered sample in a porcelain dish and moisten with water. The dish is now put on a water bath and lO** of fuming nitric acid gradually added. Heat for half an hour, fre- quently stirring-, and then add 10 CC of concentrated hy- drochloric acid a few drops at a time. The mixture is heated 20 minutes longer and is stirred as before. By this means all the sulphur is oxidized and TUCKER pre- fers the method to all others. At the end of the heating- dilute to about 100 CC by the addition of water and filter. Heat the filtrate nearly to boiling and precipitate with barium chloride, filter, burn, and weigh in the usual manner. The weight of barium sulphate is divided by 5 to give the weight in l* r and is multiplied by . 1374 and 100 to give the per cent, of sulphur. The per cent, of the calcium sulphate obtained in the above paragraph multiplied by .2356 will give the per cent, of sulphur in the boneblack which is in combination as gypsum, and this subtracted from the total sulphur as just determined 122 ANALYSIS OF BONEBLACK. will give the sulphur in combination as calcium sulphide. Multiply the per cent, sulphur by 2.248 to obtain the per cent, of calcium sulphide. 83. Sugar Contents. Powder 50 gr and boil with 100 CC of water for 20 minutes. Let the mixture settle and filter off the clear fluid. Add water to the sediment and boil again, filtering' as before, and repeat the opera- tion. The sediment is now placed on the filter and thoroug-hly washed with boiling water. Evaporate the combined filtrates to about 75 or SO CC and rinse into a 100-110 CC flask. When cool make up to the mark and determine the sug-ar volumetrically. The result ob- tained is divided by 50 as 50^ r were used. 84. Calcium Carbonate. During filtration the bone- black takes up calcium carbonate from the juices, and the pores are gradually closed. This excess is removed down to 7 per cent, (not below this, as it would affect the calcium phosphate present as a normal constituent) by washing- the boneblack with hydrochloric acid, and the amount of acid necessary is calculated from the determi- nation of calcium carbonate present. In making- this estimation, Scheibler's apparatus, shown in Fig-. 46, is g-enerally used. The execution of the analysis is as follows : Put the weighed quantity (1.7 gr ) of finely pulverized boneblack into the developing- bottle A; fill the caout- chouc cylinder S about half-full with concentrated hy- drochloric acid (1.12 sp. g.) and place it carefully, with pincers and without spilling, into the bottle A. Fill by pressure on the bulb W of Woulff's bottle E (which con- tains water), the two communicating tubes DandC, with water, until the fluid in C is at zero, the water in D OF THK UNIVERSITY Fig. 46. 2 ANALYSIS OF BONEBLACK. 125 being 1 on the same level. The pinch-cock q is opened during the filling, to allow air to escape. Care must be taken not to overflow any of the water into B. for the apparatus would have to be taken apart and dried. Now place the glass stopper, fastened to the rubber tube r upon the developing* vessel A (greasing* the joint with tallow), and close the pinch-cock q. Hold the bottle A at the upper end with two fingers, to avoid warming it, and incline it so that the hydrochloric acid is poured over the substance. The carbonic acid devel- oped rises through r into the rubber bulb K and crowds out an equivalent amount of air in B which, in turn, re- duces the water in C- The pinch-cock p is opened, whenever necessary, to make the level of the fluid in C and D equal. A is shaken to generate the lost gas and when no further development occurs, the volume of water in- C is read and the temperature observed. From these the percentage of calcium carbonate is determined by the accompanying Table C. Example : The volume of gas generated is 11.2 (see n m Fig. 45) at a temperature of 21. By referring to the table we find that 11 volumes at 21 is 10.74 and 2 volumes is 1.80. Dividing the latter by 10 gives .18 for the .2 of a volume. Therefore, the per cent, of CaCO is 10.74 + .18 = 10.92 per cent. As boneblack often contains caustic lime it is advisa- ble, before making the analysis as above, to dampen the sample with ammonium carbonate and evaporate to dry- ness. An error is introduced when calcium sulphide is present as sulphuretted hydrogen is developed as well as carbonic acid. TUCKER avoids this error by adding a 00 M O iO M r-t ~ ON I Sj UJ I -J *o OJ I a ANALYSIS OF BONEBLACK. I 27 small amount of copper chloride to the hydrochloric acid used. Considering- 7 per cent, as the normal amount of cal- cium carbonate, the quantity of acid of any strength necessary to remove the excess may be calculated by the use of Scheibler's Table D. Example : The calcium carbonate obtained in the above sample is 10.92, an excess of 3. 92 "over the normal 7 per cent. The amount of acid, say 1.175 sp. g. or 21.5 Beaume, necessary to reduce this excess is determined by referring to the table as follows: 3. parts of calcium carbonate = 6.3112 parts of acid. 0.9 " " =1.8934 0.02 " " " = .0409 " 3.92 parts of calcium carbonate = 8.2455 parts of acid. In a ton of 2,000 Ibs. of boneblack having the above percentage of CaCO 3 would take 2,000 x 8 2455 per cent. = 164.91 Ibs. of acid of 1.175 sp. g. to remove the excess. 85. Decolorizing Power. Equal amounts of a mo- lasses solution are treated, during the same length of time, with equal parts of a new efficacious char and the boneblack to be analyzed. From the difference of color of the two filtered solutions the efficacy of the boneblack can be approximately determined. Stammer's color in- strument should be used where frequent analyses of boneblack are made. CHAPTER XII. ANALYSIS OF CHIMNEY GASES. 86. Smoke Gases consist largely of carbonic acid, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon monoxide gas; marsh gas, sulphuric acid, etc., are found only in small quantities. The analysis is most easily made by use of an appa- ratus which removes each constituent by absorption, the percentage of each being determined by the diminution of volume of the sample used. The apparatus most commonly used is Orsat's, or a modification of it. 87. Preparation of Reagents. Concentrated solu- tions of caustic potash, pyrogallic acid and copper chloride are used for the absorption of the most impor- tant gases carbonic acid, oxygen and carbon monoxide. The caustic potash solution is made by diluting 1 part of potassium hydrate with 2 parts of water. An alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid is made by mixing 1 volume of a 25 per cent, solution of pyrogallic acid with a 60 per cent, solution of potassium hydrate. The solu- tion for absorbing carbonic oxide is made by shaking a mixture of equal parts of a saturated ammonium chlo- ride solution and ammonia with copper shavings, until the fluid has turned dark blue. 88. Orsat's Apparatus (Fig. 47) consists of a gas measuring-tube A which, in the lower narrow portion, has a scale divided into half -cubic centimeters from to 40, and is surrounded by a glass jacket filled with water, to avoid deviations of temperature. The lower end of the gas burette A is connected with the aspirator bot- tle E by a rubber tube. By raising and lowering this ANALYSIS OF CHIMNEY GASES. bottle, containing- water, the gas burette can be filled with water and emptied, thereby drawing- the g-as mix- ture to A, or pressing- the g-as therein contained into the upper conduit pipe. The upper portion of A leads into a giass tube at rig-ht ang-les to it, which has three rests furnished with the cocks a, b, c; these cocks make corn- Fig. 47 munication possible with the absorption vessels B, C, D, each of which is ag-ain connected with a reservoir of like shape (B', C, D'.) The absorption vessels are filled with many narrow tubes of glass, in order to give the absorption liquids as larg-e a surface as possible. (In the diagram only a few are denoted to give clearness.) The horizontal tube previously mentioned has at its end a tube bent like a U 130 ANALYSIS OF CHIMNEY GASES. (e), the shanks of which are filled with cotton for the filtration of the smoke gases entering- through f, while in the curve of the same there is a layer of water. Be- tween the curve of the horizontal tube and the cock c there is a Winkler's three-way-cock, by which the tube, and thereby the entire apparatus, can be connected with the tube f, leading- to the gas line, as well as with the air-injector i. The injector is for the purpose of pump- ing- out the air in the tube f before using the apparatus, being done by blowing into the mouthpiece g. 89. Execution of the Test. First, the absorption liquids from the reservoirs in the rear must be brought to B, C, D, which is done as follows: Close the cocks a, b, c; fill the burette A with water by placing the three-way-cock into such a position that A communicates with the outer air. Lift the bottle C and close the cock d against the atmosphere; then lower the bottle E again, open cock a, whereby the water flows from the burette to E and an air-diluted space is formed in B. The air- pressure then forces the absorption liquid from the res- ervoir to B, and a must be closed at the moment when the fluid reaches exactly to the mark. In the same manner the vessels C and D are filled. By means of the injector i the air must be pumped out of the tubes, which is done in the manner above mentioned. Now, the tube e must be connected by f with the gas-line and the three-way- cock must be placed in such a position that the filled burette A is connected with the atmosphere and the gas- line. By raising and lowering the bottle E repeatedly, the burette A and the tubes are rinsed with smoke-gas until the operator is sure that the air is completely crowded out. ANALYSIS OF CHIMNEY GASES. 131 After the water in A is set in again to the mark, the three-way-cock is turned so that A as well as the g-as- line is closed ag-ainst the atmosphere and the smoke-g-as line communicates only with the burette A. By opening- the pinch-cock in front of E and lowering- the aspirator bottle, the burette is filled with the g-as to be analyzed to a little below the mark (100 ccm ). Whereupon the same is closed ag-ainst the atmosphere and the g-as-line. Now set in the fluid exactly to the zero point and allow the excess of pressure to escape into the atmosphere by opening- once quickly D. The cock a is opened, and by raising the bottle E, the g-as is pressed into B, which contains caustic potash. Repeat this operation several times and finally hold E at such a heig-ht that the level of the water is equal to the mark on B. Cock a is then closed and the heig-ht of the liquid in A is read off. Difference to 100 will give the percentag-e of carbonic acid in the g-as. In the remainder of the g-as mixture, determine as above, one after another, the contents of free oxyg-en and carbon oxide g"as. The g-as volume which remains is calculated as nitrog-en. The absorption liquids can be saved from spoiling- by pouring- some solar oil into the rear reservoirs, thus ex- cluding- the atmospheric air. If thus protected, the fluids will suffice for several hundred analyses. 9O. Franke's Gas Burette (Fig-. 48} may also be used for smoke-g-as analysis. It has an advantag-e over the Orsat's apparatus, in being- more simple in con- struction. The burette consists of the measuring- space M, the lower cylindric part of which is graduated into whole and half cubic centimeters, and the space R serving- for 132 ANALYSIS OF CHIMNEY GASES. holding- the absorption liquids. The connection be- tween the two can be produced by the glass-cock r, which has a wide double boring-. The measuring- space M, be- tween the two cocks m and r, holds ex- actly lOO 00 " 1 . Into a socket at the lower end of the space R the glass cock a can be placed to close it air- tight. 91. The Execution of the Analysis with Franke's burette is accomplished in the following- manner : Fill the bu- rette completely with water (space M and R), connect the point b with the g-as-line and let so much of the g-as enter that the space R is about half- filled. Then close the cocks m and r and remove the water in R, so as to fill R completely with the absorption liquid. In order to exclude the air com- pletely, pour into R so much of the reag-ent that even the funnel-shaped widening- is partly filled with it. Now " m place the opened cock a carefully into the socket, so that from the bor- ing- as well as from the point below the cock the air is completely excluded. The excess of the absorption liquid accumulated in the widening- is poured Fig. 48. back into the storing--bottle after cock a is closed. In order to put the g-as-volume in the measuring- space under atmospheric pressure, raise for a moment the ANALYSIS OF CHIMNEY GASES. 133 cock m. The absorption of the constituent to be deter- mined in the gas mixture is accomplished easily by open- ing- the cock r, so that the reagent enters into the opening- space. By shaking the burette, this operation can be hastened. After this is done, place the burette on the point a and wait until the absorption liquid has completely returned into R from the measuring space. The space R must then be filled again completely to the boring of the cock r. Now take out the cock a, pour out the reagent, and replace the same with water, with the precaution that now, even in the point, no air remains. The whole burette is now turned with the point a down- ward, placed into a high cylinder filled with water, and below water the cocks a and r are opened. On account of the air-diluted space, produced by the absorption, the water will now rise to a certain height into the measur- ing space. The reading off of the percentage contents is done after an equal level of water is produced inside and outside. In order to determine the constituents yet left in the remainder of the gas-mixture, remove the water in the measuring space by means of a suction bottle before the reagent is put in ; especially must this be done by the determining of carbonic oxide gas. The burette with the water must be shaken several times be- fore reading off the height, in order to let the remains of ammonia, which always evaporate, be absorbed by the water. CHAPTER XIII. ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS.* 92. Artificial Fertilizers for beet fields generally con- tain principally either nitrogen, phosphoric acid or pot- ash, although some fertilizers contain two of the constituents and others all three. In analysis, it is usual to make only the determination of the constituents upon which the value of the fertilizer depends. For ex- ample, in nitrate of soda, a very common fertilizer, it is necessary to estimate only the nitrogen, and in super- phosphates, the soluble form of phosphoric acid is de- termined. The methods outlined in the following para- graphs may be used in the analysis of all fertilizers. The refuse lime from sugar factories is of great value as a fertilizer, as it returns the calcium and mag- nesium which is taken from the soil. As it is often of interest to know the other elements present in the refuse, a full method of analysis is given in the next chapter. 93. The Sample is prepared by mixing it thoroughly, after which it is ground in a mortar fine enough to pass through a 25-mesh sieve. The operations should be performed rapidly, to prevent loss or gain of moisture. 94. Moisture determinations should be made in all fertilizer analysis. Weigh out 2 gr and dry at 100. For potash salts, sodium nitrate and ammonium sulphate fertilizers, the sample may be dried at 130. The drying usually takes from 3 to 5 hours. Determine the per cent, moisture in the usual way. * The preparation of the reagents used in these analysis will be found in Part III. The preparation of all but baryta solution is given according to the methods adapted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. See Bul- letin No. 76, U. S. Department of Agticulture, Division of Chemistry. Para- graph 94 is in pat t (a and b) adapted from this report, also Paragraph 96. ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS. 135 95. Phosphoric Acid is in two forms, soluble and in- soluble, the soluble being- the form of value as a fertil- izer. In contact with certain basic hydroxides and water some of the soluble acid will become insoluble and is said to be "reverted." A determination of the reverted acid is usually unnecessary. In analysis of phosphoric acid, calculation is based on the formula of the anhydride P 2 O 5 . O) The Total Phosphoric Acid is estimated as fol- lows : The 2 gr dried as above are ignited in a crucible to burn away organic matter, and are then dissolved in hy- drochloric acid. After solution, transfer to a 200 CC flask, cool, make up to the mark, shake well and pass through a dry filter into a beaker or flask. Measure off half of the solution, corresponding to l gr of the sample, and neutralize with ammonia. If the solution is not clear, add a few drops of nitric acid. The addition of about 10 gr of dry ammonium nitrate will assist the precipita- tion which follows. Heat to 65C and add molybdic solution. About 5 CC of the reagent must be used for every milligramme of P 2 O 5 present in the solution tested. Stir and keep covered 1 hour at 65C. Filter and wash the precipitate with a solution containing 15 gr of ammo- nium nitrate in 100 CC of water, to which about 3 to 5 CC of molybdic solution has been added, and the whole slightly acidified with nitric acid. Test the filtrate for phosphoric acid by additional molybdic solution. The precipitate on the filter is now dissolved with ammonia and the filter washed with a hot mixture of 3 parts of water and 1 part of ammonia. Nearly neutralize with hydrochloric acid, cool, *and add magnesia mixture slowly, preferably with a burette, while stirring con- 136 ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS. stantly. About 10 CC of the mixture is necessary for every milligramme of P 2 O in the solution tested. After a few minutes add about 30 CC of ammonia and let stand for twelve hours. Filter, wash with a 5 per cent, ammo- nia solution, dry and ignite to whiteness, or to a grayish white. Cool and weig-h, the weight being multiplied by .6396 to give the weig-h t phosphoric acid (P 2 O 5 ). Divid- ing- this by 100 will give the per cent. W Soluble Phosphoric Acid. -Place 2 gr of the sample upon a filter and wash with water into a 200 CC flask. Use successive small portions of water, allowing each portion to pass throug-h before adding more. When the flask is filled to the mark, measure off 100 CC and test as under the above paragraph. (0 Insoluble Phosphoric Acid may be determined by difference, subtracting the soluble acid from the total. This will also include any reverted acid which may be present, but the error may be overlooked. 96. Nitrogen is determined according- to GUNNING'S method, which does not include the nitrogen of nitrates (97). Weig-h out 3.0 r of the sample and transfer to a 500 CC Kjeldahl digestion flask*. In a sample containing- much nitrog-en, a less amount of the substance may be used for analysis. Add to the flask 10 gr of pulverized potassium sulphate and about 20 CC of pure sulphuric acid (free from nitrates) with a sp. g. of 1.84. Fix the flask in an inclined position and heat gradually, until all frothing- ceases; then boil until the liquid is colorless, or nearly so. Cool and wash into a distillation flask of about 550 CC capacity, with about 200 CC of water. Add a * Kjeldahl flasks are pear-shaped and round-bottomed, with a long, tapering neck. They should be made of Jena or of the best Bohemian glass. ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS. 137 few drops of phenol and then a saturated solution of sodium hydroxide until the reaction is strongly alkaline. The flask is now fitted with a rubber stopper and a bulb tube, as in Fig-. 49 (A and a), the latter being- con- nected with the condenser B by a rubber tube. Another bulb tube b is attached to the condensor at d and ex- Fig. 49. tends to nearly the bottom of the Erlenmeyer flask C, which contains 20 CC of a normal acid. Half normal acid may be used or, if only a small amount of nitrog-en is present in the sample, tenth-normal is to be recom- mended. Heat is now applied, and the nitrog-en present in A is distilled as ammonia, and passes over and is absorbed in C- The operation is completed when 150 CC of the distillate has been collected. The time required is from three-quarters of an hour to an hour and a half 138 ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS. The contents of C are now cooled and titrated with caustic baryta water solution*. This solution must be of a known streng-th, which is determined by finding- how many cc of it are necessary to neutralize a certain amount of normal acid. Tincture of litmus is used as an indicator and the baryta solution is added from a burette until the color just turns red. The quantity of the solution used is measured, and from this the amount of nitrog-en is calculated as shown in the following- Example /f It takes 50.1 CC of baryta solution to neutralize the 20 CC of normal acid, used with the distillate, from l gr of a sample. The baryta solution is of such streng-th that 20 CC of normal acid requires 99.9 CC of the solution for neutralization. As one liter of normal acid corresponds to 14.01 gr of nitrog-en, 20 CC corresponds to 0.2802 gr . Therefore, 99.9 CC of baryta solution corresponds to 0.2802 gr of nitrog-en and l cc corresponds to 0.002799 gr . Now, as 50.1 CC of the baryta solution are used, the nitrog-en denoted is 50.1 x 0.002799 = 0.140238'. As 20cc of Normal Acid = 0.28020gr Nitrogen and SO. lcc Caustic Baryta = 0.14023gr < There remain 13997gr Which is, in round numbers, 14 per cent, of the l gr used. 97. Total /Nitrogen, including- the nitrog-en of nitrates, is determined as follows : To the substance in the dig-estion flask, as in 96, add 30 CC of a salicylic acid * Any standard alkali solution may be used instead. The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists recommend ammonia, a one-tenth solution, hav- ing 1.7051 gr. of ammonia to the liter. t Fruhling and Schulz. ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS. 139 mixture, which is prepared by mixing- 30 CC of concen- trated sulphuric acid with l gr of commercial salicylic acid. The mixing" requires about 10 minutes. Then add 5 r of sodium hyposulphite and 10 r of potassium sul- phate. Heat and then distill and determine the nitrogen, as in 96. 98. Potash. Boil* 10* r of the sample with from 250 CC to 300 CC of water for half an hour. Make the hot solution alkaline by the addition of ammonia and pre- cipitate the calcium present with ammonium oxalate. Cool, dilute to 500 CC and filter through a dry filter. In the analysis of muriate of potash, the mixture is diluted without the addition of ammonia and the precipitation of calcium. Heat 50 CC of the filtrate, corresponding-^ to l gr of the sample, to boiling- point and add, a drop at a time, and with constant stirring, sufficient barium chlo- ride to precipitate the sulphuric acid present. Without filtering, add in the same manner baryta water in slig-ht excess. Filter while hot and wash well. Heat the filtrate nearly to boiling and precipitate the barium by the addition of ammonium carbonate, previously adding- a few drops of ammonia. Filter and wash thoroug-hly. Evaporate the filtrate to dryness and burn carefully over a low flame until all ammonium salts have been expelled. Dissolve the residue in hot water and filter. Acidify the Ultrate with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, in a porce- lain dish. Add an excess of a concentrated solution of platinic chloride (from 5 to 10 CC ) and evaporate nearly to dryness, keeping the matter in the water-bath below boiling- point. Add 80 per cent, alcohol (sp.g-. 0.8645) to * Fertilizers which contain much organic matter, the 10 gr. are ignited at a gentle heat, with the addition of enough concentrated sulphuric acid to saturate the sample, before being boiled with water. 140 ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS. the dish and let stand for some time ; then filter off the alcoholic solution. Repeat this operation until the resi- due in the dish consists of small reddish-yellow octa- hedra, which is the appearance of potassium platinic chloride. Bring- this residue upon the filter and wash with alcohol. Dry the filter and contents until the alco- hol has volatalized, and then carefully transfer the con- tents to* a watch glass. The small amount of the precipitate which cannot be removed is washed out with hot water. The filtrate is evaporated to dryness in a weighed porcelain dish, the contents of the watch glass being 1 also added. Dry for 30 minutes at 100, cool, and weig-h. The weig-ht, less the weig^ht of the dish, is po- tassium platinic chloride. Multiplying- by .1931 will g-ive the weig-ht of potassium oxide (K 2 O), and as ls r was used for the analysis, the percentag-e is obtained by multiplying- by 100. CHAPTER XIV. ANALYSIS OF REFUSE LIME. 99. Refuse Lime* analysis consists of determina- tions of water, sugar, organic matter, silica, iron and aluminum oxides, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, caustic lime, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid and carbonic acid. 100. The Sample is a carefully selected average, small samples being taken from several places and mixed together. As the substance usually contains too much moisture to handle easily, about 20 gr are dried, powdered as in 93, and preserved in an air-tight jar. The determinations are made with the dry substance, and, by taking" into account the per cent, of water found in the moisture determination, are figured into the original substance (see 11O). 101. Water is determined by weighing out 2 gr and drying at 100. The weight lost, divided by 2 and mul- tiplied by 100 will give the per cent, of water. 102. Sugar. Of the original substance, take 100 gr and treat as described in 83, determining the per cent, sugar volumetrically. 103. Organic Matter. Burn 2}^ gr of the dry sub- stance over a low flame, heating not quite to redness. Cool and weigh. The loss is put down as organic matter. The per cent, of dry substance is found by dividing by 2.5 and multiplying by 100. * Refuse lime, as referred to here, includes not only the filter press cakes but any other refuse from the factory which is disposed of in the same pile or reser- voir with the filler press cakes. 142 ANALYSIS OF REFUSK 104. Silica* After burning- away the organic matter from 2/^ gr , as in the above paragraph, the re- mainder is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, with the addition of heat, and is filtered into a 250 CC flask. The substance remaining- on the filter is washed, dried, weighed, and percentage on dry substance figured as in 67. This is usually recorded as silica, but might be more properly written "Insoluble in Hydrochloric Acid," as other substances are often in excess of silica. 105. Iron, Aluminum, Calcium and Magnesium oxides are determined from the filtrate in the above paragraph as described in 68, 69 and 7O, the percentage being- found on dry substance. 106. Caustic Lime is found by titrating l gr with a normal acid, as described in 35a. The CaO found by this method is that which is uncombined, not being in the form of a salt. Either the dry or the original sub- stance may be taken for this determination. 107. Phosphoric Acid is estimated by taking 2 gr of the dry substance and proceeding as described in 95a. 108. Sulphuric Acid. From the 250 CC filtrate of 1O4 take 50 CC and determine the sulphuric acid (SO 3 ) as in 71. 109. Carbonic Acid is determined by means of the alkalimeter described in 54, 2 gr of the dry substance being taken. The weight lost, divided by 2 and multi- plied by 100, will give the per cent. 11 0. The Percentages which are figured on dry substance are calculated to the original substance by multiplying the percentage found by the part which the ANALYSIS OF REFUSE LIME. 143 dry substance is to the original substance. For example, if the water is 43 per cent. , the dry substance is 100 43 or 57 per cent., and if the percentage of phosphoric acid to the dry substance is 1.58, then 1.58x.57 is equal to the percentage of phosphoric acid to the original sub- stance, or .909. 111. The Figured Analysis. Water, sugar, organic matter, silica, iron and aluminum oxides and caustic lime are recorded as found. From the calcium oxide found by precipitation with ammonium oxalate, the caustic lime is subtracted to give the calcium oxide in combina- tion with acids. Phosphoric acid and sulphuric acid are combined with calcium oxide, and carbonic acid is com- bined with the remainder of the calcium oxide and with the magnesium oxide. The combining is effected, as usual, with factors. For example, let the following rep- resent the actual analysis of a sample of refuse lime : Water ...................................................... 43.00 Organic Matter ............................................ 6 . 79 Sugar ..................................................... 1 . 14 Silica ...................................................... 5 . 28 Iron and Aluminum Oxides .................................. 75 Caustic Lime (CaO) ..................... ". .................. 4.05 Total Calcium Oxide ........................................ 25 . 75 Carbonic Acid (CO 2 ) ....................................... 16.55 Phosphoric Acid (P 2 O 5 ) ...................................... 90 Sulphuric Acid (SO 3 ) ....................................... 28 Magnesium Oxide ........................................... 47 The acids phosphoric, sulphuric and carbonic are first combined with calcium oxide: .90 (P 2 O 5 ) x 2. 1827 = 1.96, percent, calcium phosphate. .28 (SO 3 ) x 1.6996 = .48, per cent, calcium sulphate. For CaP 2 O 8 1.06 per cent. CaO is used, for CaSO 4 0.20 per cent, and the caustic lime is 4.05 per cent. The OF THH 144 ANALYSIS OF REFUSE LIME. total calcium oxide is 25.75, hence the amount to be com- bined with carbonic acid is 25.75 (1.06 + .20 + 4 05 =5.31) or 20.44 percent. 20.44 x 1 7856 = 36 50, per cent, calcium carbonate. The amount of carbonic acid used is 16.06, leaving 0.52 per cent, for combination with magnesium oxide. 0.52 x 1.9091 = .99, per cent, magnesium carbonate. This is exactly sufficient to combine with all the mag- nesium, for 0.47 (MgO) x 2 1 = .99, per cent, magnesium carbonate. Resume : Water 42 . 00 Organic Matter 6.79 Sugar 1.14 Silica 5 28 Iron and Aluminum Oxides . 75 Caustic Lime (CaO) 4 . 05 Calcium Phosphate 1 .96 Calcium Sulphate 1 . . , . 48 Calcium Carbonate 36.50 Magnesium Carbonate . 99 Undetermined . 06 100.00 CHAPTER XV. ANALYSIS OF SYRUP OR MASSECUITE ASH. 112. The Sample. A sufficient amount of the sub- stance should be taken to yield from 1.5 to 2 gr of ash. The amount necessary may be determined by incinera- tion with sulphuric acid as in 34b- The portion taken is concentrated as much as possible by evaporation, and is then charred at a moderate heat until no more gases escape. The charcoal is then powdered and digested with hot water. The solution, but none of the charcoal, being- filtered into a porcelain dish. This is done re- peatedly until all the soluble matter is extracted. The sediment is then burned completely to ashes, cooled, treated with a solution of ammonium carbonate and burned again, moderately, until all ammonia is driven off. It is now united with the filtrate containing the soluble matter. This is evaporated to dryness in a weighed platinum dish, heated moderately, cooled and weighed, the weight in excess of the dish being the total ashes. This weight divided by the weight of the origi- nal substance taken and multiplied by 100, will give the per cent. In the determinations which follow the per cent, is figured both on the ash and on the original sub- stance. The former is obtained according to 119, and the latter is determined by multiplying whatever the per cent, of the constituent is to the ash by the per cent, which the ash is to the original substance. For example, if one of the constituents of the ash is 12 per cent, of the ash and the ash is 10 per cent, of the original substance, the per cent, of the constituent to the original substance is found by multiplying .12 by .10, which gives .0120 or 1.2 per cent. 146 ANALYSIS OF SYRUP OR MASSECUITE ASH. 113. Carbonic Acid. All the ashes obtained as above are transferred to an alkalimeter and carbonic acid determined as in 114. Silica Magnesium Oxide. The contents of the alkalimeter are filtered into a 250 CC flask, the sediment on the filter paper being" silica, and 50 CC of the contents of the flask, after being* made up to the mark, are used for the determination of iron and aluminum, calcium and magnesium oxides, the estimation of each being" the same as in limestone analysis (see 119 for calculation of weig-hings). 115. Sulphuric Acid is also determined as in lime- stone analysis by using 50 CC of the filtrate as above. 116. Sodium and Potassium Oxides. The total al- kali chlorides are determined as in 6O, 50 CC of the 250 cC filtrate being used. The residue remaining- after this determination is then treated with platinic chloride and the potassium oxide found as described in 98. The sodium oxide is estimated by difference. 117. Phosphoric Acid. Another 50 CC portion of the filtrate above is used for the phosphoric acid determina- tion, which is made according to 94a. 118. Chlorine. A new and smaller portion of the substance to be analyzed is taken for this determination. It is charred at a moderate heat, and the sediment which remains is moistened and pulverized, then being rinsed into a 250 CC flask and boiled a short time with water. After cooling-, without further consideration of the sus- pended coal particles, make up to the mark with water, shake well, and filter through a dry filter. Half the filtrate is used for the chlorine estimation, which is ANALYSIS OF SYRUP OR MASSECUITE ASH. 147 made by precipitation with silver nitrate, as in 5 1 . On account of the strong- alkaline condition of the ash extract, it should be neutralized by the addition of nitric acid. 119. Calculation of Weighings. In analyses where a certain number of grammes are made up to a certain number of cubic centimeters, an aliquot portion repre- sents either a gramme or such a fraction of a gramme, that the calculation of weig'hing's can be made by a simple multiplication. But in ash analysis the whole ash is made up to 250 CC , no matter what its weig"ht ma} T be, for if a certain definite portion were weig-hed off it mig-ht not be an accurate averag-e of the whole. Conse- quently, each weight must be fig-ured upon the whole weig-ht of the ash used. The weig-hts of silica and car- bonic acid are each divided by the weig-ht of the sub- stance used, and multiplied by 100 to give the per cent. For example, if 1.83 gr of ash are used and the carbonic acid lost weig-hs .020& r , the per cent, of carbonic acid is .020 H 1 83 x 100 = 1.09. In determinations made from 50 CC of the 250 CC filtrate, each weig-ht is multiplied by 5 to make it correspond to the original substance, and is then divided by the weig-ht of the ash and multiplied by 100 to give the per cent. For example, the weig-ht of calcium carbonate is .0096 gr which is multiplied by the factor .56, to give the weig-ht of calcium oxide; .0096 x .56 = .0054 r . This is multi- plied by 5 to give the weig-ht in 250 CC , or in the whole original substance; .0054 x 5 = .027* r . Taking- 1.83, as above, for the weig-ht of ash used, the per cent, of calcium oxide is .027 1 83 x 100 = 1 . 48. 148 ANALYSIS OF SYRUP OR MASSECUITK ASH. The weight of chlorine is multiplied by 2, divided by the weight of the ash used and multiplied by 100 to give the per cent. 1 2O. The Figured Analysis. As the combination of acids and bases is almost always the same, the figured analysis will be illustrated by an example. Let it be considered that the following is the result of the actual analysis of a molasses ash, only the percentages relative to the ash being given : Carbonic Acid (CO 2 ) 21 . 00 Silica (Si0 2 ) 0.21 Iron and Aluminum Oxides . 93 Calcium Oxide 1 . 48 Magnesium Oxide . 26 Sulphuric Acid (SO 3 ) 5.32 Sodium Oxide 6.90 Potassium Oxide 50.88 Phosphoric Acid (P 2 O 5 ) 0.50 Chlorine 11.00 (/) The first operation is to combine all the chlo- rine and phosphoric acid with potassium oxide. These and all other combinations are effected by the use of factors. 110 (Cl) x 2.1035 =23.14, per cent, potassium chloride. 5 (P 2 O 5 )x2 9903 = 1.50, per cent, potassium phosphate. 12.14 per cent, of potassium oxide is used in forming the chloride and 1 per cent, in forming the phosphat^, making a total of 13.14 per cent., and leaving 37.74 per cent. (50.88 13.14) for other combinations. ( 2 ) All sodium oxide is combined with carbonic acid. .69 (Na 2 O) x 1.7067 = 11.78, per cent, sodium carbonate. 4.88 per cent, carbonic acid is used. ANALYSIS OF SYRUP OR MASSECUITE ASH. 149 ( j ) The mag-nesium oxide is combined equally with sulphuric acid and carbonic acid. 13 (half MgO) x 3.0015 = 0.39, per cent, magnesium sulphate. 0.13 (half MgO) x 2.1 = 0.27, per cent, magnesium carbonate. 26 per cent, sulphuric acid and 0.14 per cent, carbonic acid are used. (4) The calcium oxide is combined equally with sul- phuric acid and carbonic acid. 0.74 (half CaO) x 2.4294 = 1.80, per cent, calcium sulphate. 0.74 (half CaO) xl 7856 = 1.32, per cent, calcium carbonate. 1.04 per cent, sulphuric acid and 0.58 per cent, carbonic acid are used. (5 ) The potassium oxide remaining- in (1) is com- bined with the remaining- sulphuric and carbonic acids. The sulphuric acid used in (3) and (4) amounts to (0.26 + 1.04) 1.30 per cent., leaving- 4.02 (5.32-1.30) for combination with potassium oxide. 4.02 x 2.1773 = 8 75, per cent potassium sulphate. The potassium oxide used is 4.73 per cent., leaving- 33.01 (37.74-4.73) for combination with carbonic acid. The carbonic acid used in (2), (3) and (4) amounts to 5.60 per cent. (4.88 4- 0.14 -h 0.58), leaving- 15.40 per cent. (21.0-5.60) for combination with potassium oxide. 33.01 (remaining K 2 O) x 1.4668 = 48.41, per cent, potassium carbonate. The carbonic acid used in this combination is 15.40, exactly the amount remaining-. In analyses where, com- binations do not come out correctly, the constituent in excess is set down as described in 72. The above fig-ures are each multiplied by the per cent, the ash is to the original substance to give the respective per cent, of each constituent to the original substance. 150 ANALYSIS OF SYRUP OR MASSECUITE ASH. If, for example, the ash is 11 per cent, of the molasses used, the whole analysis may be recorded as follows : Per Cent, of Ash. Per Cent, of Molasses. Silica 0.21 .023 Iron and Aluminum Oxides 093 .102 Calcium Carbonate 1.32 .145 Calcium Sulphate 1 80 .198 Magnesium Carbonate 0.27 .029 Magnesium Sulphate . . 039 .042 Sodium Carbonate 11 78 1.296 Potassium Chloride 23.14 2545 Potassium Phosphate 1.50 .165 Potassium Sulphate 8.75 .962 Potassium Carbonate 48 71 5.358 Undetermined 1.30 .143 10000 11.008 CHAPTER XVI. MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. 121. Beet Seed. The value of beet seed is determ- ined by the test for per cent, moisture, the test of non- seed and the germination test. If a number of sacks of the same seed are to be tested, take a small sample from each one, inserting- a sampler into the sack. Make one large sample from the smaller ones and mix very thor- oughly. The moisture is found by weighing out 10 or 20 gr and drying- at 95C, until there is no further loss of water. The weight lost divided by the weig-ht used will give the per cent, moisture. Weig-h 10 gr of the average sample and shake in a sieve freeing the seeds from all dust. Discard any foreign matter that is not seed, such as dried leaves and the blossoms which come from the top of the seed stem. The latter look like small dead seeds. Weigh the sample again, and the weight lost by the above operations divided by 10 (the weight used) will give the per cent, of non-seed. From the pure seed obtained by the non-seed test weigh out 2 g r for the germination test and count the number of seeds in this weighing. Plant these seeds an inch apart, in squares, a half inch deep in very light soil, mostly sand. For this purpose use a box (Fig. 50) about ten inches wide, about 25 inches long and not less than 2 nor more than 3 inches deep. These are inside measurements. The box is fitted with nails an inch apart and threads are stretched between the opposite nails on the sides and also on the ends. The seeds are 152 MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. planted where the crossing's are made by these string's, so the operator knows where to look for the plants to come up. Fig 50. The g-ermination test lasts fifteen days from the time of planting-. During- this period keep the soil moist on top all the time, watering every morning- and when nec- essary during- the day. Use the water from a bucket kept standing- near the g-ermination box, for it must be of the same temperature as the room. Keep the box in a hot house having- a temperature of from 75 to 85 Far. , and g-ive it all the sun possible. Make a record every day at the same hour of the number of seeds which have sprouted up to that time, and also of the number which have come up and died. At the end of the fifteen days count the total number of plants (g-erms) living-, also the number that have died, fig-uring- the number of g-erms per seed. Also count the number of seeds having- 1 g-erm, 2 g-erms, 3 g-erms, etc. From the total number of g-erms is fig-ured the monetary value of the seed. It is usual to consider a 2 gr sample having- 150 g-erminations MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. 153 as the standard, and a sample having- more or less germs has a greater or less value in proportion. Some fixed value, e. g., 20 cents per kilo, is taken as a standard and all germination tests are fig-ured on this basis. Example : A test shows 140 g-erminations. Its value on the basis of 20 cents per kilo for standard seed fig-ured by the proportion : 150 : 140 : : 20 : x x = 18 67, the value in cents per kilo. be ' O O ^J g oj 1/3 iH bjo 2 0) Si2 a! O.CJ TJ- r<5 00 rH Tf rH ?\ rH O O O LO vO 5s rH ^- rH ^ T(- v^ (^ Tj- U) ON ^t t^ X d 1^ rH C^ VO d - 1^. 00 vO rH rH O ^O 00 1> f O Tf rH rH \O M CO Cq rH CO <* O O rH O rH O OO O O o o o o o Date anted. eeds ampl oS o oo ro 6. MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. 155 122. Sulphur. In the examination of sulphur for decolorizing purposes it is usual to determine the water, organic matter and ash, the sum of these subtracted from 100 giving the per cent, of sulphur. Weigh out 10* r of the coarsely powdered sample in a porcelain crucible for the moisture determination and dry at 100C. Weigh and estimate the per cent, of water lost. In this de- termination the weighings must be made as quickly as possible, as the sample readily absorbs moisture from the air. After determining the water, heat the crucible and contents over a low flame and light the sulphur with a match. The crucible is now removed from the flame and placed where the fumes will readily go off in the air. When the sulphur is all burned, cool the cruci- ble in a dessicator and weigh, recording the weight. The contents now consist of the ash and the organic matter. The latter is burned away over a moderate flame and the crucible cooled and weighed again. The difference between this weight and the one just recorded, is the weight of organic matter and is calculated into percentage, and the difference between the last weighing and the weight of the crucible is the ash, which is also calculated into percentage. As before stated, the sum of the per cent, moisture, organic matter and ash is sub- tracted from 100 to give the per cent, sulphur. Sulphur can usually be obtained in a very pure state, the following being two sample analyses : Per Cent. Moisture 10 .17 Per Cent. Organic Matter 38 .30 PerCent. Ash 03 .01 Per Cent. Sulphur 99.49 99.52 100.00 100.00 1 5 MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. 123* Anhydrous Ammonia* In factories having Steffen's plants, where the cooling- is done artificially by a refrigerating machine, it is of considerable importance to determine the quality of anhydrous ammonia used. HENRY FAUROT, in an article in Cassier's Magazine, gives the determination of boiling point as the principal test. The lower the boiling- point, the freer the ammo- nia is of impurities. Also, the lower the temperature at which the ammonia expands, the cheaper it is to use. MR. FAUROT determines the boiling- point as follows : "Draw off (from the ammonia cylinder) about six to eig-ht ounces of liquid ammonia into a cylindrical- shaped g-lass or chemical beaker. Place this on a wet plate or surround it with water, and when it boils insert into it the bulb only of a special low standard chemical thermometer, reading- off throug-h the walls of the glass, and observing the temperature when the mercury remains stationary, as the boiling point. Commercially pure liquid ammonia should boil at not higher than 28.6 degrees below zero F ; lower temperature denotes purer ammonia, while a less pure ammonia boils at a higher temperature. In testing for the boiling point, the ther- mometer should be held as stationary as possible, and not moved about in the liquid." It is of importance to determine whether inflammable gases are present in the ammonia, as they are the prin- cipal impurities, and are especially harmful in the fact that they decompose the ammonia and lessen its refrig- erating power. The following qualitative test is suffi- cient: A short iron pipe is screwed into the valve of the ammonia cylinder and is so bent that the ammonia can be discharged into the bottom of a bucket of cold water. Submerge over the mouth of the pipe a glass funnel, MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. 157 with the end of the stem tightly corked. Allow the am- monia to flow in a small stream and the ammonia gas will be absorbed by the water, while the other gases will rise to the top of the funnel. If methane or other inflammable gases are present, they will, if released and lighted with a match, burn with a blue flame. 1 24. Lubricating Oils* are often adulterated by the addition of low grade oils and other matters. The ex- amination of the principal lubricants is conducted as fol- lows, the tests given being for the most common substances used in adulteration : Castor Oil. Dissolve in alcohol and if black poppy oil is present it will remain as a residue. Cocoanut Oil should dissolve completely in cold ether. If adulterants are present, the etheral solution will be muddy. The oil also has a more grayish color when adulterated than when pure. Mutton suet, beef marrow and other animal greases are most commonly used for adulteration. Lard. Melt at a low temperature, and if water is present it will separate from the grease. Digest the lard with hot distilled water and test with silver nitrate for chlorides (common salt). Melt the lard in warm water, and if plaster of paris is present it will go to the bottom in the form of a white powder. *Adapted from R. S. CHRISTIANI. 158 MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. Linseed OH. The oil if pure will become a pale pink if treated with hyponitric acid and dark yellow if treated with ammonia, giving a thick soap in the latter case. Neatsfoot Oil. Test the same as castor oil. Olive Oil. Test the same as castor oil. Rapeseed Oil. Ammonia gives a yellowish colored soap when added to the oil containing- mustard and whale oil, and a white soap when the oil is pure. Chlo- rine gas colors the oil brown when it contains whale oil, but if pure it remains colorless. Tallow. Dissolve in ether and foreign substances will remain as a residue. Test this residue for starch by the addition of iodine water, a blue color indicating- starch. Other parts of the residue may be tested in the well- known ways (with ammonia and with ammonium oxalate) for. aluminum and calcium, the former indicating- the presence of kaoline and the latter marble dust. Test also for sulphuric acid with barium chloride, as barium sulphate is also used as an adulterant. Intermix a small portion of the tallow with half its volume of dried and powdered copper sulphate. If water is present, the mixture will turn blue if the tallow is white, and green if the tallow is yellow. The Purity of lubricating- oils is often approximately determined by taking- their specific gravity by means of a pycnometer or with the Beaume hydrometer (see 76) and comparing- them with the known specific gravities of standard samples. If, in this test, there is any wide di- vergence found, the sample is assuredly impure. The following is WALUS-TAYLER'S table of specific gravity for oils : MISCELLANEOUS TABLE E. Standard Specific Gravities of Lubricants. 159 NAME. SP. G. NAME. SP. G. Castor 9611 Palm 9680 Cocoanut 9202 Paraffin, volatile .7 to .865 Cocoanut Butter 8920 Paraffin, heavy .865 to 9 Cod Liver 917 to 92 Paraffin, solid .9 to .93 Colza .9136 Petroleum .8800 Cotton Seed .9252 i Piney Tallow .9260 Flax 3 9347 Rape .9136 Grape Seed .9202 Rosin . .9900 Hemp 9276 Sperm .... 8810 Lard .9380 Sun-fish . 874to 879 Linseed 9347 Sunflower . 9262 Neatsfoot .9250 Tar 1 2600 Nut .9260 Turpentine .8640 Olive .9176 Whale .911*0.922 Oxidation of Oils. The length of time an oil is fit for lubrication is tested by finding* how long it takes to oxidize. NASMYTH recommends for this a common plate of iron 6^ feet long by 4 inches wide, such as may always be found in the blacksmith shop of a sugar factory. On one surface are cut, with a planing ma- chine, a number of parallel longitudinal grooves. One end of the plate is raised about 8 inches higher than the other and equal small portions of the different oils to be tested are poured into the grooves at the upper end. The distance each oil traverses down its particular groove is noted, and also the length of time that elapses before each oil becomes thickened by oxidation and ceases to flow. This often takes several days. Flash TesU The power of lubricants to resist over- heating in work is determined by the flash test described in 76. Animal and vegetable oils should not flash under 400 and mineral oils should not flash under 300. l6o MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. 125. Fluxes and Rust Joints. It is not at all an in- frequent occurrence that a machinist comes to the laboratory and asks for some chemical to use as a flux in soldering- or welding- certain metals, or for some com- pound to use in making- a rust joint. The following- is a list of fluxes for common metals ; Brass Sal Ammoniac Lead Resin (or Tallow) Copper Sal Ammoniac Lead and Tin. Resin and Sweet Oil Iron Borax Zinc Zinc Chloride Iron (tinned) Resin A quick-setting- rust cement for calking- joints in cast- iron pipes, tanks, etc., is made with 1 part sal ammoniac, 2 parts powdered sulphur, and 80 parts iron boring's. Add water and make a thick paste. A better rust joint, but one which sets more slowly, is made, according- to MOLESWORTH, with 2 parts sal ammoniac, one part pow- dered sulphur, and 200 parts of iron borings. Make into a thick paste with water. 126. Crude Acids for boiling- out evaporators are tested only for sp. g-., and this is done with a Beaume spindle, being- compared with Table II. The streng-th of the acids increase with their specific gravity. The accompanying tables, F, G and H, show the strength of hydrochloric, sulphuric and nitric acid for the corre- sponding specific gravity. 127. Soda used in boiling out multiple effects is tested only for its percentage of sodium carbonate. Weigh out 2 gr of the sample, transfer to an alkalimeter and find the weight of carbonic acid lost (see 52), Divide this weight by 2 (the weight used) and multiply by 100 to obtain the percentage of carbonic acid. This percentage multiplied by the factor 2.4117, gives the percentage of sodium carbonate. MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. l6l Example : Weight of alkalitneter and soda 75 . 9568 r Weight of same after operation 75 . 147gr 809gr 0.809 ~ 2 x 100 = 40.45 per cent. CO 2 . 40.45 x 2.4117 = 97.55 per cent, sodium carbonate. 162 MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. TABLE F. Showing the strength of Hydrochloric Acid (Muriatic Acid) Solutions TEMPERATURE, 153 c. [Graham-Otto's I,ehrb. d. Chem. 3 Aufl. II. Bd. 1. Abth. p. 382.] Sp. Gr. HCl. Cl. Sp. Gr. HCl. Cl. Sp. Gr. HCl. Cl 1.2000 40.777 39.675 1.1328 26.913 26.186 1.0657 13.456 13.094 1.1982 40.369 39.278 1 . 1308 26.505 25 . 789 1.0637 13.049 12.697 1 1964 39.961 38.882 1 . 1287 26.098 25.392 1.0617 12.641 12.300 1.1946 39.554 38.485 1 . 1267 25.690 24.996 1 . 0597 12.233 11.903 1.1928 39 . 146 38.089 1 . 1247 25.282 24.599 1 . 0577 11.825 11.506 1.1910 38.738 37.692 1 . 1226 24.874 24.202 1 . 0557 11.418 11 . 109 1 1893 38.330 37.296 1 . 1206 24.466 23.805 1 . 0537 11.010 10.712 1.1875 37.923 36.900 1 . 1185 24.058 23.408 1 1.0517 10.602 10.316 1 1857 37.516 36.503 1.1164 23.650 23.012 1 . 0497 10.194 9.919 1.1846 37.108 36 . 107 1 . 1143 23.242 22.615 1 . 0477 9.786 9 522 1.1822 36.700 35.707 1 . 1123 22.834 22.218 1.0457 9.379 9.126 1.1802 36.292 35 310 1 . 1102 22.426 21.822 1.0437 8.971 8.729 1.1782 35.884 34.913 1 . 1082 22.019 21.425 1.0417 8.563 8.332 1.1762 35.476 34.517 1 . 1061 21.611 21.028 1.0397 8.155 7.935 1 1741 35.068 34.121 1 . 1041 21.203 20.632 1.0377 7.747 7.538 1 1721 34.660 33.724 1 . 1020 20.796 20.235 1.0357 7.340 7.141 11701 34.252 33.328 1 . 1000 20.388 19.837 1.0337 6.932 6.745 1 1681 33.845 32.931 1.0980 19.980 19 . 440 1.0318 6.524 6.348 1.1661 33.437 32.535 1.0960 19.572 19.044 1.0298 6.116 5.951 1.1641 33.029 32.136 1.C939 19.165 18.647 1.0279 5.709 5.554 1 1620 32.621 31.746 1.0919 18.757 18.250 1.0259 5.301 5.158 1 1599 32.213 31.343 1.0899 18 . 349 17.854 1.0239 4.893 4.762 11578 31.805 30.946 1.0879 17.941 17.457 1.0220 4.486 4.365 11557 31.398 30.550 1.0859 17.534 17.060 1.0200 4.078 3.968 1 1537 30.990 30.153 1.0838 17.126 16.664 1.0180 3.670 3.571 11515 30.582 29.757 1.0818 16.718 16 . 267 1.0160 3.262 3.174 1 1494 30.174 29.361 1.0798 16.310 15 . 870 1.0140 2.854 2.778 1 1473 29.767 28.964 1.0778 15.902 15 . 474 1 . 0120 2.447 2.381 1 1452 29.359 28.567 1.0758 15.494 15 . 077 1 . 0100 2.039 1.984 1 1431 28 951 28.171 1.0738 15.087 14.680 1.0080 1.631 1.588 1.1410 28 . 544 27.772 1.0718 14.679 14.284 1.0060 1.124 1.191 1 1389 28.136 27.376 1.0697 14.271 13.887 1 . 0040 0.816 0.795 1 1369 27.728 26.979 1.0677 13.863 13.490 1.0020 0.408 0.397 1 1349 27.321 26 . 583 TABLE G. Showing the Strength of Sulphuric Acid of Different Densities, at 15 Centigrade. (Otto's Table. ) Per. Cent ol H2SO4- Specific Gravity Per Cent, of so 3 . Per Cent, of H2S04 . Specific Gravity Per Cent, of S0 3 . 100 1.8426 81.63 50 1.3980 40.81 99 1.8420 80.81 49 1.3866 40.00 98 1.8406 80.00 48 1.3790 39.18 97 1.8400 79.18 47 1.3700 38.36 96 1.8384 78.36 46 1.3610 37.55 95 1.8376 77.55 45 1.3510 36.73 94 1.8356 7673 44 1 . 3420 35.82 93 1 . 8340 7591 43 1.3330 35.10 92 1 . 8310 75 10 42 1.3240 34.28 91 1.8270 7428 41 1.3150 33.47 90 1.8220 73.47 40 1.3060 32.65 89 1.8100 7265 39 .2976 31.83 88 1.8090 7183 38 .2890 31.02 87 1 . 8020 7102 37 .2810 30.20 86 1.7940 70 10 36 .2720 29.38 85 1.7860 69.38 35 .2640 28.57 84 1.7770 68.57 34 .2560 27.75 83 1 . 7670 67 75 33 .2476 26.94 82 1 . 7560 6694 32 .2390 26.12 81 1 . 7450 66.12 31 .2310 25.30 80 1.7340 6530 30 1.2230 24.49 79 1.7220 64.48 29 1.2150 23.67 78 1.7100 6367 28 1.2066 22.85 77 1.6980 6285 27 1 . 1980 22.03 76 1.6860 62 04 26 1.1900 21.22 75 1.6750 6122 25 1 . 1820 20.40 74 1.6630 6040 24 1 . 1740 19.58 73 1.6510 5959 23 1 . 1670 18.77 72 1.6390 5877 22 .1590 17.95 71 1.6270 57 95 21 .1516 17.14 - 70 1.6150 57 14 20 .1440 16.32 69 1.6040 5632 19 .1360 15.51 68 1.5920 5559 18 .1290 14.69 67 1.5800 5469 17 .1210 13.87 66 1.5860 53.87 16 .1136 13.06 65 1 . 5570 5305 15 . 1060 ' 12.24 64 1.5450 5222 14 .0980 11.42 63 1.5340 5142 13 .0910 10.61 62 1.5230 5061 12 .0830 9.79 61 1.5120 49 79 11 .0756 8.98 60 1.5010 4898 10 .0680 8.16 59 1.4900 48 16 9 .0610 7.34 58 1 . 4800 4734 8 .0536 6.53 57 1 . 4690 4653 7 .0464 5.71 56 .4586 45.71 6 .0390 4.89 55 .4480 44.89 5 1.0320 4.08 54 .4380 44.07 4 1.0256 3.26 53 .4280 4326 3 1.0190 2.44 52 .4180 42.45 2 1.0130 1.63 51 .4080 4163 1 1.0064 0.81 TABLE H. Showing the Strength of Nitric Acid by Specific Gravity. Hydrated and Anhydride. TEMPERATURE 15 o . (Fresenius, Zeitschrift f. analyt. Chemie. 5.449.) Sp. Gr. 100 PARTS CONTAIN Sp. Gr. 100 PARTS CONTAIN at 150 C. N20 5 N03 at 150 c. N20s N0 3 H 1.530 85.71 100.00 1.488 75.43 88.00 1.530 85.57 99.84 1.486 74.95 87.45 1.530 85.47 99.72 1.482 73.86 86.17 1.529 85.30 99.52 1.478 72.16 85.00 1.523 83.90 97.89 1.474 72.00 84.00 1.520 83.14 97.00 1.470 71.14 83.00 1.516 82.28 96.00 1.467 70.28 82.00 1.514 81.66 95.27 1.463 69.39 80.96 1.509 80.57 94.00 1.460 68.57 80.00 1.506 79.72 93.01 1.456 67.71 79.00 1.503 78.85 92.00 1.451 66.56 77.66 1.499 78.00 91.00 1.445 65.14 76.00 1.495 77.15 90.00 1.442 64.28 75.00 1.494 76.77 89.56 1.438 63.44 74.01 1.435 62.57 73.00 1.295 39.97 46.64 1.432 62.05 72 39 1.284 38.57 45.00 1. 429 61.06 71.24 1.274 37.31 43.53 1.423 60.00 69.96* 1.264 36.00 42.00 1.419 59.31 69.20 1.257 35.14 41.00 1.414 58.29 68.00 1.251 34.28 40.00 1.410 57.43 67.00 1.244 ^ *"> A 1 oo . 4o 39.00 1.405 56.57 66.00 1.237 32.53 37.95 1.400 55.77 65.07 1.225' 30.86 36.00 1.395 54.85 64.00 .218 29.29 35.00 1.393 54.50 63.59 .211 29.02 33.86 1.386 53.14 62.00 .198 27.43 32.00 1.381 52.46 61.21 .192 26.57 31.00 1.374 51.43 60.00 .185 25.71 30.00 1.372 51.08 59.59 1.179 24.85 29.00 1.368 50.47 58.88 1.172 24.00 28.00 1.363 49.71 58.00 1.166 23.14 27.00 1.358 48.86 57.00 1.157 22.04 25.71 1.353 48.08 56.10 1.138 19.71 23.00 1.346 47.14 55.00 1.120 17.14 20.00 1.341 46.29 54.00 1.105 14.97 17.47 1.339 46.12 53.81t 1.089 12.85 15.00 1.335 45.40 53.00 1.077 11.14 13.00 1.331 44.85 52.33 1.067 9.77 11.41 1.323 43.70 50.99 1.045 6.62 7.22 1.317 42.83 49.97 1.022 3.42 4.00 1.312 42.00 49.00 1.010 1.71 2.00 1.304 41.14 48.00 0.999 0.00 0.00 1.298 40.44 47.18 * Formula : NOsH f Formula : NOsH + 3H2O. PART III. Preparation of Reagents. CHAPTER XVII. PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. 128. Lead Acetate (Basic Acetate of Lead Solution}. Put 900s r of acetate of lead and 300 ?r of lead oxide in 1 liter of water at 150P. Let stand in a warm place for two days, shaking- every few hours. Solutions of other densities can be made by using- different amounts of the acetate* and oxide, but in the same proportion of 3 to 1. In most German factories a solution with a sp. g-. of 1.20 to 1.25 is used. The beet analysts at Chino pre- fer a solution having- a sp. g. of from 1.30 to 1.35, for rapid beet work, and G. L. SPENCER says the U. S. De- partment . of Agriculture analysts also prefer a very concentrated solution. 1 29. Alumina Cream, according; to the directions of the U. S. Department Internal Revenue, is prepared as follows : Shake up powdered commercial alum with water at ordinary temperature until a saturated solution is obtained. Set aside a little of the solution, and to the residue add ammonia, little by little, stirring- between additions, until the mixture is alkaline to litmus paper. Then drop in additions of the portions left aside, until the mixture is just acid to litmus paper. By this procedure a cream of aluminum hydroxide is obtained suspended in a solution of ammonium sulphate, the presence of which is not at all detrimental for sug-ar work when added after subacetate of lead, the ammo- nium sulphate precipitating- whatever excess of lead may be present. PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. 1 67 130. Normal Sodium Solution. 53. 08 r of pure sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) previously ignited to dull redness, are dissolved in water, and the solution is diluted to exactly 1 liter. 131. /Normal Hydrochloric Acid. Dilute 200 OC of pure hydrochloric acid of 1.10 sp. g. with water to 1 liter. Normal acid should be of such strength that a certain amount of it will exactly neutralize an equal amount of normal sodium solution. The proportion above given will make an acid that is too strong-. Take 20 CC of normal sodium solution, color with phenol, and add enough of the acid made to neutralize the sodium, measuring- the amount of acid used with a burette. If, for example, it is found by repeated experiments that 17.8 CC of acid neutralizes the 20 CC of sodium solution, then the acid must be diluted to 20 CC by adding- 2.2 CC of water, and all the acid must be diluted in the same pro- portion. Example: 60 CC has been used to find the streng-th of the acid; then 940 CC of acid remain. 17.8 :2.2 ::940 : x x=116 2, The number of cc of water that must be added to the 940 CC of acid to make a normal solution. After adding this water, verify by seeing- if 20 CC of the acid will neu- tralize the 20 CC of the sodium solution. 132. /Normal Sulphuric Acid. Pour, while con- stantly stirring-, one part of concentrated sulphuric acid into 15 equal parts of water, and, after cooling, make 110 CC of the solution up to 1100 CC with water. Mix thor- oughly and measure off 100 CC . In three parts of 25 CC J 68 PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. each of this amount determine the weight of sulphuric anhydride (SO 3 ) in each l cc of the solution, analyzing with barium sulphate, as described in 59. Three tests are made to insure accuracy. From the contents of sul- phuric acid, as determined by the tests, estimate how much water must be added to the remaining- liter of solu- tion so that each cc will contain 0.040 gr of SCK Example : The average of the three tests gives 0.313 gr of barium sulphate in 25 CC of the acid or 1.252 gr in 100 CC . Convert- ing- to SO 3 by use of the factor, 1 . 252 x . 3432 = . 4297s*. Therefore each 100 CC must be diluted according to the formula : . 40 : . 4297 : : 100 : x x = 107.425, A dilution of 7.425 CC for each 100 CC or 74.25 CC for the liter. After adding this amount of water to the liter of acid it is well to make a final test. 133. /Normal /Nitric Acid. Dilute 200 CC concentrated nitric acid of 1.2 sp. g. with water to 1 liter, and then proceed exactly as with the formation of normal hydro- chloric acid. 1 34. The Special Acid for alkalinities is made ac- cording to 36. It may be made from hydrochloric, nitric or sulphuric acid. 135. Phenol (Phenolphtalein). Dissolve the phe- nolphtalein powder in the smallest amount of alcohol and dilute with water to 4 or 5 times the volume of alco- hol. This indicator turns red in the presence of alkalies. PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. 169 136. Rosolic Acid. Dissolve 1 part in 100 parts of alcohol. This indicator becomes colorless in the pres- ence of free acid. 137. Cochineal. Mix 3 r of pulverized cochineal with 50 CC of strong- alcohol and 200** of water. Let stand for 48 hours, shaking frequently. 138. Litmus Solution. Digest 1 part of powdered litmus with 6 parts of alcohol on a water bath until the coloring matter soluble in alcohol is dissolved. Pour off the alcoholic solution and digest the residue with dis- tilled water. Filter and divide the fluid into two por- tions. In one portion stir with a glass rod dipped in very dilute nitric acid until the color just appears red. Add enough of the second portion to bring back the blue color and then turn the mixture red with the rod and acid as before. Add the remainder of the second portion and the whole should be perfectly neutral. Mix with an equal part of 90 per cent, alcohol and preserve in an un- stoppered bottle away from acid fumes. 139. Litmus Paper. Prepare a litmus solution as above and divide in two portions. Make one portion red by the addition of a drop or two of nitric acid and the other a distinct blue by a drop or two of caustic soda so- lution. Dip strips of Swedish filter paper in the red so- lution for acid paper and into the blue for alkaline paper. Dry away from laboratory fumes and preserve in an unstoppered bottle. For ordinary work any un- glazed paper may be used but in chemical analysis where small pieces of the paper are often burned with the pre- cipitates, the Swedish paper must be used. Acid solu- tions turn blue litmus paper red and alkaline solutions turn the red paper blue. l7o PREPARATION OF RE AGENTS*. 140. Turmeric Paper. Boil 1 part of powdered turmeric with 4 parts of alcohol and 2 of water. Filter and dip strips of unglazed paper into the filtrate. Dry and preserve in a stoppered bottle away from the light. Free alkalies turn the yellow color of the paper to brown. 141. Silver /Nitrate Solution {Standard}. Dissolve 4.794 gr of pure crystallized silver nitrate in 1 liter of water. Kach cc of this solution will precipitate l mg of chlorine, and in a solution of common salt the precipi- tate formed from the use of 25 CC of the silver nitrate solution should weig-h 0.101 gr . 142. Fehling's Solution (Soxhlefs Modification'} is prepared as follows : (1) Dissolve 34.639 gr of copper sulphate (free from nitric acid) in water and dilute to 500 CC . (2) Dissolve I73 ?r of sodium and potassium tartrate (Rochelle salts) in water and dilute to 400 CC , mixing- the solution with 100 CC of sodium hydroxide solution. The latter is prepared by dissolving- 500 gr of caustic soda in 1 liter of water, and should be of 1.393 sp. g-. at 15C. Mix i and 2 in equal volumes immediately before using-. 143. Solution for Standardizing Fehling's. -- The method for determining- the amount of invert sug-ar nec- essary to reduce the copper in 10 CC of Fehling-'s mixed so- lutions is g-iven in 48. For determining- how much dex- trose is necessary for the same purpose, dissolve 4 gr of pure anhydrous dextrose in distilled water and make up to 1 liter. Bach cc of this solution will then contain 0.004 gr dextrose. Make the test as usual and the number PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. 1 71 of cc of the solution used, multiplied by 4, will give the number of milligrammes of dextrose which reduce the copper. 144. Pipette Solution (for cleaning-). Dissolve 1 part bichromate of potash in 10 parts water and add 1 part concentrated sulphuric acid. This solution is used to cleanse pipettes from the film of fat which sometimes forms on the inside. Fill the pipette with the solution, cork one end and stand on the stopped end for twenty- four hours. 145. Molybdic Solution. Dissolve 50* r of molybdic acid in 20Qs r or 208 CC of ammonia, specific gravity, 0.96, and pour the solution thus obtained into 750* r or 625 CC of nitric acid, specific gravity 1.20. Keep the mixture in a warm place for several days, or until a portion heated to 40 deposits no yellow precipitate of ammonium phos- phomolybdate. Decant the solution from any sediment and preserve it in glass-stoppered vessels. 146. Magnesia Mixture. Dissolve ll* r of recently ignited calcined magnesia in dilute hydrochloric acid, avoiding an excess of the latter. Add a little calcined magnesia in excess, and boil a few minutes to precipitate iron, alumina, and phosphoric acid ; filter ; add 140 gr of ammonium chloride, 3SO CC of ammonia of specific grav- ity 0.96, and water enough to make a volume of 1 liter. Instead of the solution of ll* r of calcined magnesia, 155 gr of crystallized magnesium chloride (MgCl 2 .6H 2 O) may be used. 147. Ammonium Citrate Solution. Dissolve 185* r of commercial citric acid in 750 CC of water; nearly neu- tralize with commercial ammonia; cool; add ammonia 172 PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. until exactly neutral '(testing- with alcoholic solution of rosolic acid), and bring- to volume of 1 liter. Determine the specific gravity, which should be 1.0900 at 20,, be- fore using-. 148. Baryta Solution. Pour 300 or 400 CC of boiling water over 25 gr of crystallized barium hydrate, and filter the hot solution quickly throug-h a folded filter, into a bottle, then diluting- to 1 liter. Utmost speed is neces- sary as the fluid is liable to become dim by the forma- tion of barium carbonate, carbonic acid being- attracted from the air. The making- of a normal baryta solution is not advisable, as it is unstable, and the value of the solution, as made above, must always be determined before using- (see 96). Litmus solution should always be used as an indicator with this preparation. 149. Orsat's Apparatus Reagents are described in 87. 1 5O. Powdered Glass or Sand for use in determin- ing the dry substance of massecuites should be thorough- ly dig-ested with warm and dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve all foreign material, then washed with water, dried at 100 and preserved in a perfectly air-tig-ht jar. PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. 173 TABLE I. PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. NAME. Symbol. PREPARATION. Aqua Regia Prepare when required by adding Sodium Hydrate Potassium Hydrate Baryta Water NaOH KOH BaO 2 H 2 three or four parts of concentrated HC1 to 1 part concentrated HNOs. Dissolve 1 part pure caustic soda in 20 parts of water Dissolve 1 part pure caustic potas- sium in 20 parts of water. Dissolve 1 part barium hydrate in 5 Calcium Hydrate . CaO 2 H 2 parts of water. Digest slacked lime with cold water. Sodium Carbonate Ammonium Chloride... " Sulphate Oxalate " Carbonate.- Sulphide... Potassium Sulphate " Iodide . Na 2 C0 3 (NH) 4 C1 (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 (NH 4 ) 2 C 2 4 (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 (Nt 4 ) 2 S K 2 SO 4 KI shaking occasionally. Filter off the clear liquid. When required dissolve 1 part of the salt in 5 parts of water. Do not let stand in a glass bottle. Dissolve 1 part in 6 parts of water. Dissolve 1 part in 5 parts of water. Dissolve 1 part of the pure salt in 20 parts of water. Dissolve 1 part in o parts of water and add 1 part of ammonia water. Pass sulphuretted hydrogen thro'gh ammonia until saturated. Then add % of the volume of the same ammonia. Dissolve 1 part of the salt in 12 parts of water. Chromate .... Ferri cyanide.. " Ferrocyanide . Barium Chloride K 2 Cr0 4 K6Fe 2 Cy Z2 K 4 FeCy 6 Df.pl Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts of water . Prepare only when required by dis- solving 1 part of the salt in 12 parts of water. Dissolve 1 part of the salt in 12 parls of water. 11 Carbonate .'. TJoPf). of water " Hydrate nate to give it a thick consistency. Copper Sulphate Platinum Bichloride . . Silver Nitrate. CuS04 PtCl 4 A rrfj C\ Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts of water. [See 142 for Fehling's solution.] The cheapest way to obtain this reagent is to buy the 5 per cent, solution of commerce. Acetic Acid .... AgNL3 [See 141 for standard solution.] Sodium Phosphate .... 2 rl 4 VJ 2 HNa 2 PO 4 cake analysis use the No. 8 acid which contains 30 per cent. C 2 H 4 O 2 . Dissolve 1 part of pure salt in ]0 +12H 2 parts of water. 174 PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. TABLE I CONTINUED. PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. NAME. Symbol. PRBPARATION. Hydrogen Disodium Phosphate [See sodium phosphate ] Calcium Sulphate CaSO 4 Digest in cold water and pour off Hydrochloroplatinic Acid . H 2 PtCl6 the clear liquid for use. Dissolve 1 part of the acid in 10 Ammonium Nitrate parts of water. [See platinum bichloride.] Magnesia Mixture [See 146 ] Molybdic Solution [See 145 ] Magnesium Nitrate Solution [See 95a.] Potassium bichromate . . 11 Ferrocyanide. Acetic Acid K 2 Cr 2 O 7 K6Fe 2 Cyi2 C 2 H 4 O 2 Dissolve 1 part ol the salt in 10 parts of water. For Fehling's test dissolve 2gr of the salt in lOOcc of water. No. 8 acetic acid (30 per cent CaH4 PMRT IV. TABLES i 7 6 TABLE 1. BRIX TEMPERATURE CORRECTION. For Variations from Normal, IT F) and subtract the correction from those below this temperature.] 18 64.4 .02 .03 .03 .03 .03! .03 .03 .03 .03 .03 .03 .031 .02 19 66.2 .06 .06 .08 .08 .091^09 .10 .10 .10 .10 .10 .08 .06 20 68.0 .11 .14 .15 .17 .IjfT.lH .18 .18 .19 .19 .18 .15L.11 21 69.8 .16 .20 .22 ,24 .24 .25 .25 .25 .26 .26 .25 JBr-i8 22 71.6 .21 .26 .29 .31 .31 .32 .32 .32 .33 .34 .321. 29) .25 23 73.4 .27 .32 .35 .37 .38 .3^ .39 .39 *o .42 .33 24 75.2 .32 .38- .41 .43 .44 .46 .46 .47 .47 .50 .46 .43 .40 25 77.0 .37 .44 .47 .49 .51 .53 .54 .55 .55 .58 .54 .51 .48 26 78.8 .43 .50 .54 .56 .58 .60 .61 .62 .62 .66 .62 .58 .55 27 80.6 .49 .57 .61 .63 .65 ! .68 .68 .69 .70 .74 .70 .65 .62 28 82.4 .56 .64 .68 .70 .72 .76 .76 .78 .78 .82 .78 .72 .70 29 84.2 .63 .71 .75 .78 .79| .84 .84 .86 .86 .90 .86 - .80 .78 30 86.0 .70 .78 .82 .87 .87 .92 .92 .94 .94 .98 .94 .88 .86 35 95.0 1.10 1.17 1.22 1.24 1.301.32 1.33 1.35 1.36 1.39 1.34 1.27 1.25 40 104.0 1.50 1.61 1.67 1.71 1.731.791.79 1.80 1.82 1.83 1.78 1.69 1.65 50 122.0 2.65 2.74 2.74 2.782.802.80 2.80 2.80 2.79 2.70 2.56 2.51 60 140.0 3.87 3.88 3.88 3.883.883.88 3.88 3.90 3.82 3.70 3.43 3.41 70 158.0 5.18 5.20 5.145.135.10 5.08 5.06 4.90 4.72 4.47 4.35 177 For practical work the table given below is sufficiently accurate unless the solution has a brix of under 5 or over 25. In some factories the temperature correction for diffusion juice is given in tenths and hundredths of a degree, but for all other tests the tenths is a suffi- cient correction : TEMPERATURE CORRECTION. Temperature. C. F. Subtract from *Brix. 14 57 .2 15 59 .1 16 61 .1 17 63 .0 Add to Brix. 18 64 .0 19 66 .1 20 68 .2 21 22 70 72 m 23 73 .4 24 75 .4 25 77 .5 26 79 .6 27 81 .6 28 82 .7 29 84 .8 30 86 .9 31 88 .9 32 90 1.0 33 91 1.0 34 93 1.1 35 95 1.2 I 7 8 TABLE II. Comparison of Degrees Brix and Baume and Specific Gravity FOR PURE SUGAR SOLUTIONS. Temperature 17% C = 63 5 Far. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Beaume. 0.0 1 00000 00 4 1 01570 2 27. 0.1 1 00038 0.06 4 1 1.01610 2 33 0.2 1.00077 11 4 2 1.01650 2.38 3 1.00116 17 4 3 1 01690 2 44 4 1.00155 0.23 4.4 1 01730 2.50 0.5 1.00193 28 4.5 1 01770 2.55 0.6 1- 00232 34 4 6 1.01810 2 61 0.7 1.00271 40 4.7 1 01850 2 67 0.8 1.00310 0.45 4 8 1 01890 2.72 09 1.00349 51 4 9 1 01930 2.78 10 1 00388 57 5.0 1 . 01970 2 84 1.1 1.00427 0.63 5.1 1 02010 2 89 1.2 1.00466 68 5.2 1 02051 2 95 1 3 1 00505 74 5 3 1 02091 3.01 1.4 1.00544 0.80 5 4 1.02131 3 06 1 5 1 00583 85 5 5 1 02171 3.12 1 6 1 00622 91 5 6 1 02211 3.18 1.7 1 00662 97 5.7 02252 3.23 1 8 1 . 00701 1 02 5 8 .02292 3.29 1.9 1.00740 1.08 5.9 . 02333 3.35 2.0 1.00779 1 14 6 .02373 3.40 2 1 1 00818 1 19 6 1 02413 3.46 2.2 1 00858 1.25 6 2 .02454 3 52 2 3 1.00897 1 31 6 3 02494 3.57 2.4 1 00936 1 36 6 4 .02535 3 63 2 5 1 00976 1.42 6 5 02575 3.69 2.6 01015 1 48 6 6 .02616 3.74 2.7 01055 1 53 6.7 02657 3.80 2.8 . 01094 1 59 6.8 02697 3 86 2 9 01134 1 65 6.9 .02738 3.91 3.0 01173 1 70 70 02779 3 97 3.1 01213 1.76 7 1 .02819 4 03 3.2 01252 1 82 7.2 02860 4 08 3.3 1 01292 1.87 7 3 1 02901 4 14 3.4 1 01332 1 93 7 4 1 02942 4 20 3 5 1 01371 1.99 7 5 1 02983 4.25 3.6 1 01411 2 04 7.6 1 03024 4.31 3 7 1 01451 2 10 7 7 1 . 03064 4.37 38 1 01491 2.16 7.8 1 03105 4.42 3 9 1.01531 2 21 7 9 1 03146 4.48 TABLE II. CON 179 Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. 8.0 1.03187 4.53 12.4 .05021 7.02 8.1 1.03228 4.59 12.5 .05064 7 08 8 2 1.03270 4.65 12.6 .05106 7.13 8.3 1.03311 4.70 12.7 .05149 7.19 8.4 1.03352 4.76 12.8 .05191 7.24 8.5 1.03393 4.82 12.9 .05233 7.30 8.6 1 . 03434 4.87 13.0 1.05276 7.36 8 7 1 . 03475 4.93 13.1 1.05318 7.41 8.8 1 03517 4.99 13.2 1.05361 7.47 8.9 1.03558 5-04' 13.3 1.05404 7.53 9.0 1.03599 5.10 13 4 1.05446 7.58 9.1 1.03640 5.16 13.5 1.05489 7.64 9.2 1.03682 5.21 13 6 1.05532 7 69 9.3 1.03723 5.27 13.7 1 05574 7.75 9.4 1.03765 5.33 13.8 1.05617 7.81 9.5 1 03806 5.38 13.9 1.05660 7 86 9.6 1.03848 5.44 14.0 1.05703 7.92 9.7 1.03889 5.50 14.1 1.05746 7.98 9.8 1.03931 5.55 14.2 1 05789 8.03 9.9 1.03972 5.61 14.3 1.05831 8.09 10.0 1.04014 5 67 14.4 1 05874 8.14 10.1 1.04055 5.72 14.5 1.05917 8.20 10.2 1 . 04097 5.78 14.6 1.05960 8.26 10.3 1.04139 5.83 14.7 1.06003 8.31 10.4 1.04180 5.89 14.8 1 06047 8.37 10.5 1.04222 5.95 14 9 1.06090 8 43 10.6 1.04264 6.00 15.0 1.06133 8.48 10.7 1.04306 6.06 15.1 1 . 06176 8.54 10.8 1.04348 6.12 15.2 1.06219 8.59 10.9 1.04390 6.17 15.3 1 . 06262 8.65 11.0 1.04431 6 23 15.4 1.06306 8.71 11.1 1.04473 6.29 15.5 1 . 06349 8.76 11.2 1.04515 6.34 15 6 1.06392 . 8.82 11 3 1.04557 6.40 15.7 1.06436 8.88 11.4 1.04599 6.46 15.8 1.06479 8.93 11.5 1.04641 6 51 15.9 1.06522 8 99 11.6 1.04683 6.57 16.0 1.06566 9.04 11.7 1 04726 6.62 16.1 1.06609 9.10 11.8 1.04768 6.68 16.2 1.06653 9.16 11.9 1 . 04810 6.74 16.3 1 . 06696 9.21 12.0 1 . 04852 6.79 16.4 1.06740 9.27 12.1 1.04894 6.85 16.5 1.06783 9.33 12.2 . 1.04937 6.91 16.6 1.06827 9.38 12.3 1.04979 6.96 16.7 1.06871 9.44 i8o TABLE II. CON. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. 16.8 1.06914 9.49 21.2 1.08869 11.96 16.9 1.06958 9.55 21.3 1.08914 12.01 17.0 1.07002 9.61 21.4 .08959 12.07 17.1 1.07046 9.66 21.5 .09004 12.13 17.2 1 07090 9.72 21 6 .09049 12.18 17.3 1.07133 9.77 21.7 .09095 12.24 17.4 1.07177 9.83 21.8 .09140 12 29 17.5 1.07221 9.89 21.9 .09185 12.35 17.6 1.07265 9.94 22.0 .09231 12.40 17.7 1 . 07309 10.00 22.1 . 09276 12.46 17.8 1.07358 10.06 22.2 .09321 12.52 17.9 1.07397 10.11 22.3 .09367 12.57 18.0 1.07441 10.17 22.4 .09412 12.63 18.1 1.07485 10.22 22.5 .09458 12.68 18.2 1.07530 10.28 22.6 .09503 12.74 18.3 1.07574 * 10-. 33 22.7 .09549 12.80 18.4 1.07618 10.39 22.8 .09595 12.85 18.5 1.07662 10.45 22.9 .09640 12.91 18.6 1.07706 10.50 23.0 .09686 12.96 18.7 .07751 10.56 23.1 1.09732 13.02 18.8 .07795 10.62 23.2 1.09777 13.07 18.9 .07839 10.67 23.3 1.09823 13.13 19.0 .07884 10.73 23.4 1 . 09869 13.19 19.1 .07928 10.78 23.5 1.09915 13.24 19.2 .07973 10.84 23.6 1.09961 13.30 19.3 1.08017 10.90 23.7 1.10007 13.35 19.4 1.08062 10.95 23.8 1 . 10053 13.41 19.5 1 . 08106 11.01 23.9 1.10099 13.46 19.6 1.08151 11.06 24.0 1 . 10145 13.52 19.7 1.08196 11.12 24.1 1.10191 13.58 19.8 1.08240 11.18 24.2 1 . 10237 13.63 19.9 1.08285 11.23 24.3 1 . 10283 13.69 20.0 1.08329 11.29 24.4 1 . 10329 13.74 20.1 1.98374 11.34 24.5 1 . 10375 13.80 20.2 1.08419 11.40 24.6 1 . 10421 13.85 20.3 1.08464 11.45 24.7 1.10468 13.91 20.4 1.08509 11.51 24.8 1 . 10514 13.96 20.5 1.08553 11.57 24.9 1.10560 14.02 20.6 1.08599 11.62 25.0 1 . 10607 14.08 20.7 1.08643 11.68 25.1 1.10653 14.13 20.8 1.08688 11.73 25.2 1.10700 14.19 20.9 1.08733 11.79 25.3 1 . 10746 14.24 21.0 1.08778 11.85 25.4 1.10793. 14.30 21.1 1.08824 11.90 25.5 1.10839 14.35 TABLE ll.-CoN. 181 Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. 25.6 1 . 10886 14.41 30.0 1.12967 _ 16.85 25.7 1 . 10932 14.47 30.1 1.13015 16.90 25.8 1 . 10979 14.52 30.2 1.13063 16.96 25.9 1.11026 14.58 30.3 1.13111 17.01 26.0 1.11072 14.63 30.4 1.13159 17.07 26.1 1.11119 14.69 30.5 1.13207 17.12 26.2 1 . 11166 14.74 30.6 1 13255 17.18 26.3 1.11213 14.80 30.7 1.13304 17.23 26.4 1.11259 14.85 30.8 1.13352 17.29 26.5 1 . 11306 14.91 30.9 1.13400 17.35 26.6 1 11353 14.97 31.0 1.13449 17.40 26.7 1 . 11400 15.02 31.1 1.13497 17.46 26.8 1.11447 15.08 31.2 1.13545 17.51 26.9 1 . 11494 15.13 ar< 1 13594 17.57 27.0 1 . 11541 15 19 31.4 . 1.13642 17.62 27.1 1.11588 15.24 . 31.5 1.13691 17.68 27.2 1 . 11635 15.30 31.6 1.13740 17.73 27.3 1.11682 15.35 31.7 1 . 13788 17.79 27.4 1 . 11729 15.41 31.8 1,13837 17.84 27.5 1.11776 15 46 31.9 1.13885 17.90 27.6 1 . 11824 15.52 32.0 1.13934 17.95 27.7 1.11871 15.58 32 1 1.13983 18.01 27.8 1 . 11918 15.63 32.2 1.14032 18.06 27.9 1.11965 15 69 32.3 1 . 14081 18.12 28.0 1 . 12013 15.74 32.4 1.14129 18.17 28.1 1.12060 15.80 32.5 1.14178 18.23 28.2 1 . 12107 15.85 32.6 1.14227 18.28 28.3 1.12155 15.91 32.7 1.14276 18.34 28.4 1.12202 15.96 32.8 1.14325 18.39 28.5 1 . 12250 16.02 32.9 1 . 14374 18.45 28.6 1 . 12297 16.07 33.0 1 . 14423 18.50 28.7 1 . 12345 16.13 33.1 1.14472 18.56 28.8 1.12393 16.18 33.2 1.14521 18.61 28.9 1.12440 16.24 33.3 1 . 14570 18.67 29.0 1 . 12488 16.30 33.4 1.14620 18.72 29.1 1.12536 16.35 33.5 1.14669 18.78 29.2 1 . 12583 16.41 33.6 1.14718 18.83 29.3 1 . 12631 16.46 33.7 1 . 14767 18.89 29.4 1 . 12679 16.52 33.8 1.14817 18.94 29.5 1.12727 16.57 33.9 1.14866 19.00 29.6 1.12775 16.63 34.0 1.14915 19.05 29.7 1.12823 16.68 34.1 1.14965 19.11 29.8 1.12871 16 74 34.2 1.15014 19.16 29.9 1 1.12919 16.79 34.3 1 . 15064 19.22 182 TABLE II. CON. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume Degrees Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. 34.4 1.15113 19.27 38.8 1.17327 21.68 34.5 1.15163 19.33 38.9 1 . 17379 21.73 34.6 1.15213 19.38 39.0 1 . 17430 21.79 34.7 1 15262 19.44 39 1 1 . 17481 21.84 34.8 1.15312 19 49 39.2 1.17532 21.90 34.9 1.15362 19.55 39.3 1.17583 21.95 35.0 1.15411 19.60 39 4 1.17635 22.00 35.1 1 . 15461 19.66 39.5 1 17686 22.06 35.2 1 . 15511 19.71 39.6 1 . 17737 22.11 35.3 1.15561 19.76 39.7 1 . 17789 22.17 35.4 1 . 15611 19.82 39.8 1.17840 22.22 35.5 1.15661 19.87 39.9 1 . 17892 22.28 35.6 1.15710 19.93 40.0 1 . 17943 22.33 35.7 1.15760 19.98 40.1 1 . 17995 22.38 35.8 1.15810 20.04 40.2 1.18046 22.44 35.9 1.15861 20.09 .40.3 1.18098 22.49 36.0 1.15911 20.15 40.4 1.18150 22.55 36.1 1.15961 20.20 40.5 1 . 18201 22.60 36.2 1.16011 20.26 40.6 1.18253 22.66 36.3 1.16061 20.31 40 7 1.18305 22.71 36.4 1.16111 20.37 40.8 1.18357 22.77 36 5 1.16162 20.42 40.9 1.18408 22.82 36.6 1.16212 20.48 41.0 1.18460 22.87 36.7 1.16262 20.53 41.1 1.18512 22.93 36.8 1.16313 20.59 41.2 1 . 18564 22.98 36.9 1.16363 20.64 41.3 1.18616 23.04 37.0 1 . 16413 20.70 41.4 1 . 18668 23.09 37.1 1 16464 20 75 41 5 1.18720 23.15 37.2 1.16514 20.80 41.6 1.18772 23.20 37.3 1 . 16565 20.86 41.7 1 . 18824 23.25 37.4 1.16616 20.91 41.8 1.18877 23.31 37.5 1.16666 20.97 41.9 1 18929 23.36 37.6 1 . 16717 21 02 42.0 1 . 18981 23.42 37.7 1.16768 21.08 42.1 1.19033 23.47 37.8 1.16818 21.13 42.2 1.19086 23.52 37.9 1.16869 21 19 42.3 1 . 19138 23.58 38.0 1.16920 21.24 42.4 1 . 19190 23.63 38.1 1.16971 21.30 42.5 1.19243 23.69 38.2 1.17022 21.35 42.6 1 . 19295 23.74 38.3 1.17072 21.40 42.7 1 . 19348 23.79 38.4 1.17132 21.46 42.8 1 . 19400 23.85 38.5 1 . 17174 21.51 42.9 1 . 19453 23.90 38.6 1 17225 21.57 43.0 1.19505 23.96 38.7 1.17276 21 62 43.1 1 . 19558 24.01 TABLE II. CON. 183 Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. 43.2 1 . 19611 24.07 47.6 1.21964 26.43 43.3 1 . 19663 24.12 47.7 ' 1.22019 26.49 43.4 1.19716 24.17 47.8 1.22073 26.54 43.5 1.19769 24.23 47.9 1.22127 26.59 43.6 1.19822 24.28 48 1.22182 26.65 43.7 1 . 19875 24.34 48.1 1.22236 26.70 43.8 1 . 19927 24.39 48.2 1.22291 26.75 43.9 1 19980 24.44 48 3 1.22345 26.81 44.0 1.20033 24.50 48.4 1.22400 26.86 44.1 1.20086 24.55 48.5 1.22455 26.92 44 2 1.20139 24.61 48.6 1.22509 26.97 44.3 1.20192 24.66 48.7 1.22564 27.02 44.4 1.20245 24.71 48.8 1.22619 27.08 44 5 1.20299 24.77 48.9 1.22673 27.13 44.6 1 20352 24.82 49.0 1.22728 27.18 44.7 1.20405 24.88 49.1 1.22783 27.24 44.8 1.20458 24.93 49.2 .22838 27.29 44.9 1.20512 24.98 49.3 .22893 27.34 45.0 1.20565 25.04 49.4 . 22948 27.40 45.1 1.20618 25.09 49.5 .23003 27.45 45.2 1.20672 25.14 49.6 " .23058 27.50 45.3 1.20725 25.20 49,7 .23113 27.56 45.4 1 20779 25.25 49.8 .23168 27.61 45.5 1 20832 25 31 49.9 .23223 27.66 45.6 1.20886 25.36 50.0 1.23278 27.72 -45.7 .20939 25.41 50.1 1.23334 27.77 45.8 .20993 25.47 50.2 1.23389 27.82 45.9 .21046 25.52 50.3 1.23444 27.88 46.0 21100 25.57 50.4 1.23499 27.93 46.1 .21154 25.63 50.5 1.23555 27.98 46.2 1.21208 25.68 50.6 1.23610 28.04 46.3 1.21261 25.74 50.7 1.23666 28.09 46.4 1.21315 25.79 50.8 1.23721 28.14 46.5 1.21369 25.84 50.9 1.23777 28.20 46 6 1 21423 25.90 51.0 1.23832 28.25 46.7 1.21477 25.95 51.1 1.23888 28.30 46.8 1.21531 26.00 51.2 1.23943 28.36 , 46.9 1.21585 26.06 51.3 1.23999 28.41 47.0 1.21639 26.11 51.4 1.24055 28.46 47 1 1.21693 26.17 51.5 1.24111 28.51 47.2 1.21747 26.22 51.6 1.24166 28 57 47.3 1.21802 26.27 51.7 1.24222 28.62 47 4 1 21856 26.33 51.8 1.24278 28.67 47.5 1.21910 26.38 51 9 1.24334 28.73 1 84 TABLE II. CON Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. 52.0 1.24390 28.78 56.4 1.26889 31.10 52.1 1.24446 28.83 56.5 1.26946 31.16 52.2 1.24502 28.89 56.6 1.27004 31.21 52.3 1.24558 28.94 56.7 1.27062 31.26 52.4 1.24614 28 99 56.8 1.27120 31.31 52.5 1.24670 29.05 56.9 1.27177 31.37 52.6 1.24726 29.10 57.0 1.27235 31.42 52.7 1.24782 29.15 57.1 1.27293 31.47 52.8 1.24839 29.20 57.2 1 27351 31.52 52.9 1.24895 29.26 57.3 1 . 27409 31.58 53.0 1.24951 29.31 57.4 1.27467 31.63 53.1 1.25008 29.36 57.5 1.27525 31.68 53.2 1.25064 29 42 57.6 1.27583 31.73 53.3 1.25120 29.47 57 7 1.27641 31.79 53.4 1.25177 29.52 57.8 1.27699 31.84 53.5 1.25233 29.57 57.9 1.27758 31.89 53.6 1.25290 29.63 58.0 1.27816 31.94 53.7 1 25347 29.68 58.1 1.27874 32.00 53.8 1 . 25403 29.73 58.2 1.27932 32 05 53.9 1.25460 29 79 58 3 1.27991 32.10 54.0 1.25517 29.84 58.4 1 . 28049 32.15 54.1 1.25573 29.89 58.5 1.28107 32.20 54.2 1.25630 29.94 58.6 1.28166 32.26 54.3 1.25687 30.00 58.7 1.28224 32.31 54.4 1.25744 30.05 58 8 1 28283 32.36 54.5 1.25801 30 10 58.9 1.28342 32.41 54.6 1.25857 30.16 59.0 1.28400 32.47 54.7 1.25914 30.21 59.1 1.28459 32.52 54.8 1.25971 30.26 59.2 1.28518 32.57 54 9 1 26028 30.31 59.3 1.28576 32.62 55 1.26086 30 37 59.4 1.28635 32.67 55.1 1.26143 30.42 59.5 1.28694 32.73 55.2 1.26200 30.47 59.6 1 28753 32 78 55.3 1.26257 30 53 59.7 1.28812 32.83 55.4 1.26314 30.58 59.8 1.28871 32.88 55.5 1.26372 30.63 59.9 1.28930 32.93 55.6 1.26429 30 68 60.0 1.28989 32.99 55.7 1.26486 30.74 60.1 1.29048 33.04 55.8 1.26544 30.79 60.2 1.29107 33.09 55.9 1.26601 30.84 60.3 1.29166 33.14 56.0 1.26658 30.89 60.4 1.29225 33 20 56.1 1.26716 30.95 60.5 1.29284 33.25 56.2 1.26773 31.00 60.6 1.29343 33.30 56 3 1.26831 31.05 60.7 1.29403 33.35 TABLE II. CON. 185 Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. 60.8 1 . 29462 33.40 65 2 .32111 35.68 60.9 1 . 29521 33.46 65 3 .32172 35.73 61.0 1 29581 33.51 65.4 .32233 35.78 61.1 1 . 29640 33.56 65 5 .32294 35.83 61.2 1.29700 33.61 65.6 .32355 35.88 61.3 1.29759 33.66 65.7 .32417 35.93 61.4 1.29819 33.71 65 8 .32478 35.98 61.5 1.29878 33.77 65.9 .32539 36 04 61.6 1 . 29938 33.82 66.0 1.32601 36.09 61 7 1.29998 33.87 66.1 1.32662 36.14 61.8 1.30057 33.92 66.2 1.32724 36.19 61.9 1.30117 33.97 66.3 1.32785 36.24 62.0 1.30177 34.03 66.4 1.32847 "36.29 62.1 1.30237 34.08 66 5 1.32908 36 34 62.2 1 30297 34.13 66 6 1.32970 36 39 62.3 1 . 30356 34 18 66.7 1.33031 36.45 62.4 1.30416 34.23 66 8 1 33093 36.50 62.5 .30476 34.28 66.9 1.33155 36.55 62.6 .30536 34.34 67.0 1.33217 36 60 62.7 . 30596 34.39 67.1 1.33278 36.65 62.8 .30657 34.44 67.2 1.33340 36.70 62.9 .30717 34 49 67.3 1.33402 36.75 63.0 .30777 34.54 67.4 1.33464 36.80 63.1 1.30837 34.59 67.5 1.33526 36.85 63.2 .30897 34 65 67.6 1.33588 36.90 63 3 ! 30958 34.70 67.7 1.33650 36 96 63.4 .31018 34.75 67.8 1.33712 37.01 63.5 .31078 34.80 67.9 1 33774 37 06 63.6 1.31139 34.85 68.0 1.33836 37.11 63.7 1 . 31199 34.90 68.1 1.33899 37.16 63.8 1.3ljb 34 96 68.2 1.33961 37.21 63.9 1.31320 35.01 68.3 1.34023 37.26 64.0 1.31381 35.06 68.4 1.34085 37.31 64.1 1 31442 35.11 68.5 1.34148 37.36 64 2 1.31502 35.16 68.6 1.34210 37.41 64.3 1.31563 35.21 68.7 1 34273 37.47 64.4 1.31624 35.27 68 8 1.34335 37.52 64.5 1.31684 35.32 68.9 1.34398 37.57 64 6 1.31745 35.37 69.0 1.34460 37.62 64.7 1.31806 35.42 69.1 1.34523 37.67 64.8 1.31867 35.47 69.2 1.34585 37.72 64.9 1.31928 35.52 69 3 1.34648 37.77 65.0 1.31989 35.57 69.4 1.34711 37.82 65 1 1.32050 35.63 69.5 1 34774 37.87 OF THB TT-NTVFVRfiTTY 1 86 TABLE II. CON. Degrees Bjix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. 69.6 1.34836 37.92 74.0 1 37639 40.14 69.7 1.34899 37.97 74 1 1.37704 40.19 69.8 1.34962 38.02 74.2 1.37768 40.24 69.9 1.35025 38.07 74.3 1.37833 40.29 70.0 1.35088 38.12 74.4 1.37898 40.34 70.1 1 35151 38.18 74.5 1 . 37962 40.39 70 2 1.35214 38.23 74.6 1.38027 40.44 70.3 1.35277 38.28 74.7 1 38092 40.49 70.4 1.35340 38.33 74.8 1.38157 40.54 70.5 1.35403 38.38 74 9 1 38222 40.59 70.6 1.35466 38.43 75.0 1.38287 40 64 70.7 1 35530 38.48 75.1 1.38352 40.69 70.8' 1 35593 38.53 75.2 1.38417 40 74 70.9 1 35656 38.58 75.3 1.38482 40.79 71.0 1.35720 38 63 75.4 1 38547 40.84 71.1 1.35783 38.68 75 5 1.38612 40 89 71.2 1.35847 38.73 75.6 1 38677 40.94 71.3 1.35910 38 78 75.7 1.38743 40.99 71.4 1.35974 38 83 75 8 1 . 38808 41.04 71.5 1.36037 38 88 75.9 1.38873 41.09 71.6 1.36101 38.93 76 1 . 38939 41.14 71.7 1.36164 38.98 76.1 1 . 39004 41.19 71.8 1.36228 39.03 76.2 1 39070 41 24 71.9 1 . 36292 39.08 76 3 1.39135 41 29 72.0 1.36355 39 13 76.4 1.39201 41.33 72.1 1.36419 39.19 76 5 1 39266 41 38 72.2 1 . 36483 39.24 76.6 1.39332 41.43 72.3 1 36547 39.29 76.7 1.39397 41.48 72.4 1.36611 39 34 76.8 1.39463 41 53 72 5 .36675 39.39 76.9 1 39529 41.58 72 6 .36739 39.44 77.0 1.39595 41.63 72.7 36803 39.49 77.1 1.39660 41.68 72 8 .36867 39.54 77.2 1.39726 41.73 72.9 .36931 39.59 77.3 1.39792 71.78 73.0 .36995 39 64 77.4 1.39858 41 83 73.1 37059 39.69 77.5 1.39924 41.88 73.2 .37124 39.74 77.6 1.39990 41.93 73.3 .37188 39.79 77.7 1 . 40056 41.98 73.4 1.37252 39.84 77.8 1 . 40122 42.03 73.5 1.37317 39.89 77.9 1 . 40188 42.08 73-6 1.37381 39.94 78.0 1 . 40254 42.13 73 7 1.37446 39.99 78.1 1 . 40321 42.18 73.8 1.37510 40.04 78 2 1 . 40387 42.23 73.9 1.37575 40.09 78.3 1 . 40453 42.28 TABLE II. CON. 187 Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baurae. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. 78.4 1 . 40520 42.32 82.8 .43478 44.48 78.5 . 40586 42.37 82.9 43546 44.53 78.6 .40652 42.42 83 . 43614 44.58 78.7 .40719 42.47 83.1 .43682 44.62 78.8 .40785 42.52 83.2 .43750 44.67 78.9 .40852 42.57 83.3 .43819 44.72 79.0 .40918 42.62 83.4 .43887 44.77 79.1 1.40985 42.67 83 5 .43955 44.82 79.2 1.41052 42.72 83.6 .44024 44.87 79.3 1.41118 42.77 83.7 .44092 44.91 79.4 1.41185 42.82 83.8 .44161 44.% 79.5 1.41252 42.87 83.9 .44229 45.01 79.6 1.41318 42.92 84 .44298 45.06 79.7 1.41385 42.96 84.1 .44367 45.11 79.8 1 . 41452 43.01 84.2 .44435 45.16 79.9 1 41519 43.06 84.3 1.44504 45.21 80.0 1 . 41586 43.11 84.4 1.44573 45.25 80.1 1.41653 43.16 84.5 1.44641 45.30 80.2 1.41720 43.21 84.6 1.44710 45.35 80 3 1.41787 43.26 84.7 1.44779 45.40 80.4 1.41854 43.31 84.8 1 . 44848 45.45 80.5 1.41921 43.36 84.9 1 . 44917 45.49 80.6 1.41989 43.41 85.0 1.44986 45.54 80.7 1.42056 43.45 85 1 1 . 45055 45.59 80.8 1.42123 43.50 85.2 1.45124 45 64 - 80.9 1.42190 43.55 85.3 ' 1.45193 45.69 81.0 1.42258 43.60 85.4 1.45262 45.74 81.1 1.42325 43.65 85.5 1.45331 45.78 81.2 1.42393 43.70 85.6 .45401 45.83 81.3 1.42460 43.75 85.7 .45470 45.88 81.4 1.42528 43.80 85.8 45539 45.93 81.5 1.42595 43.85 85.9 .45609 45 98 81.6 1.42663 43.89 86.0 .45678 46.02 81.7 1.42731 43.94 86.1 1.45748 46.07 81.8 1.42798 43.99 86.2 1.45817 46.12 81.9 1.42866 44.04 86.3 1 45887 46.17 82.0 1.42934 44.09 86.4 1.45956 46 22 82.1 1.43002 44.14 86 5 1 46026 46.26 82.2 1 . 43070 44.19 86.6 1.46095 46.31 82 3 1.43137 44.24 86.7 1 . 46165 46 36 82 4 1.43205 44.28 86.8 1.46235 46.41 82.5 1.43273 44.33 86.9 1.46304 46.46 82 6 1.43341 44.38 87 1.46374 46.50 82.7 1.43409 44.43 87.1 1.46444 46.55 i88 TABLE II. CON. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. 87.2 1.46514 46.60 91.6 1.49628 48.68 87.3 1.46584 46.65 91.7 1.49700 48.73 87.4 1.46654 46.69 91.8 1.49771 48.78 87.5 1.46724 46 74 91.9 1 . 49843 48.82 87.6 1.46794 46 79 92.0 1.49915 48.87 87.7 1.46864 46.84 92.1 1.49987 48.92 87.8 1.46934 46 88 92.2 1.50058 48.96 87.9 1.47004 46.93 92.3 1.50130 49.01 88 1.47074 46.98 92.4 1.50202 49 06 88.1 1 47145 47 03 . 92 5 1 50274 49 11 88 2 1 47215 47.08 92.6 1.50346 49.15 88.3 1.47285 47.12 92.7 1 50419 49.20 88.4 1.47356 47.17 92.8 1.50491 49 25 88.5 1.47426 47.22 92 9 1 50563 49 29 88.6 1 . 47496 47.27 93 1.50635 49.34 88 7 1.47567 47.31 93.1 1.50707 . 49.39 88.8 1.47637 47.36 93 2 1.50779 49 43 88 9 1 47708 47 41 93.3 .50852 49.48 89 1.47778 47.46 93.4 .50924 49 53 89.1 1.47849 47 50 93 5 .50996 49.57 89 2 1 47920 47.55 93.6 .51069 49.62 89 3 1 47991 47.60 93.7 .51141 49.67 89.4 1.48061 47.65 93.8 .51214 49.71 89.5 1 48132 47.69 93.9 .51286 49 76 89.6 1.48203 47.74 94.0 .51359 49.81 89.7 1.48274 47.79 94.1 1.51431 49 85 89.8 1 48345 47.83 94 2 1.51504 49.90 89.9 1.48416 47.88 94.3 1.51577 49.94 90.0 1.48486 47.93 94.4 1 51649 49.99 90 1 1.48558 47 98 94.5 1.51722 50.04 90 2 1 48629 48.02 94 6 1.51795 50.08 90.3 1.4S700 48 07 94.7 1.51868 50.13 90.4 1 48771 48.12 94.8 1 51941 50 18 90.5 1.48842 48.17 94.9 1.52014 50.22 90.6 1.48913 48 21 95.0 1 52087 50.27 90 7 1 . 48985 48.26 95.1 1.52159 50 32 90.8 1.49056 48.31 95.2 1.52232 50.36 90.9 1 . 49127 48.35 95.3 1.52304 50.41 91.0 1.49199 48.40 95.4 1.52376 50.45 91 1 1 49270 48.45 95.5 1 52449 50.50 91.2 1.49342 48.50 95.6 1 . 52521 50.55 91.3 1.49413 48.54 95.7 1.52593 50.59 91.4 1 49485 48.59 95.8 1.52665 50.64 91 5 1.49556 48.64 95 9 1.52738 50.69 TABLE II. CON, 189 Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. Degrees Brix. Specific Gravity. Degrees Baume. 96.0 1.52810 50.73 98.1 1.54365 51.70 96.1 1.52884 50.78 98.2 1 54440 51.74 96.2 1.52958 50.82 98.3 1 55515 51.79 96.3 1 53032 50.87 98.4 .54590 51.83 96.4 1.53106 50.92 98.5 .54665 51.88 96 5 1.53180 50.96 98.6 .54740 51.92 96 6 1.53254 51.01 98.7 .54815 51.97 96 7 1.53328 51 05 98.8 .54890 52.01 96.8 1.53402 51.10 98.9 .54965 52.06 96 9 1.53476 51.15 99.0 1.55040 52 11 97 1.53550 51.19 99.1 1.55115 52.15 97.1 1.53624 51.24 99.2 1.55189 52.20 97.2 1.53698 51 28 99.3 1.55264 52.24 97 3 1.53772 51 33 99.4 1.55338 52.29 97.4 1.53846 51 38 99.5 1.55413 52.33 97.5 1.53920 51 42 99.6 1.55487 52 38 97.6 1.53994 51.47 99.7 1.55562 52.42 97.7 1.54068 51 51 99.8 1.55636 52.47 97.8 1.54142 51.56 99.9 1.55711 52.51 97.9 1 . -S4216 51 60 100.0 1.55785 52.56 98.0 1.54290 51.65 190 TABLE III. FOR MAKING "KNOWN SUGAR" SOLUTIONS. Polari- Grammes C. P. Polari- Grammes C. P. Polari- Grammes C. P. scope Degrees. Sugar in lOOcc Solution. scope Degrees Sugar in lOOcc Solution. scope Degrees. Sugar in lOOcc Solution. 1 0.260 35 9.097 69 17.954 2 0.519 36 9.357 70 18.216 3 0.779 37 9.618 71 18.476 4 1.039 38 9.878 72 18.738 5 1 298 39 10.138 73 18.998 6 1.558 40 10 . 398 74 19 . 259 7 1.817 41 10.659 75 19.519 8 2.078 42 10 919 76 19.781 9 2 337 43 11.180 77 20.042 10 2.597 44 11.440 78 20.302 11 2.857 45 11.701 79 20.564 12 3.117 46 11.961 80 20.824 13 3.376 47 12.222 81 21.085 14 3.637 48 12.482 82 21.346 15 3.896 49 12.743 83 21 . 608 16 4.156 50 13.003- 84 21 868 17 4.416 51 13.264 85 22.130 18 4.676 52 13.524 86 22.391 19 4.936 53 13.784 87 22.652 20 5 196 54 14.044 88 22.912 21 5.456 55 14.305 89 23.174 22 5.716 56 14.566 90 23 435 23 5.976 57 14.826 91 23.696 24 6 236 58 15.087 92 23.957 25 6.496 59 15.347 93 24 . 219 26 6.756 60 15.608 94 24 . 480 27 7.016 61 15.868 95 24 742 28 7.276 62 16.130 96 25.002 29 7.536 63 16 . 390 97 25 265 30 7.796 64 16.651 98 25.525 31 8.056 65 16.912 99 25.787 32 8.316 66 17.173 100 26.048 33 8.577 67 17.433 34 8.837 68 17.694 TABLE IV. PER CENT. SUGAR IN PULP BY THE VOLUMETRIC METHOD. Pol. PrCent Sugar Pol. PrCent Sugar Pol. PrCent Sugar. Pol. PrCent Sugar. Pol. Pr Cent Sugar. 05 .014 1 45 .415 2 85 .817 4 25 1.218 5 65 .619 .10 029 1 50 .430 2 90 .831 4 30 1 232 5 70 633 .15 .043 1 55 .444 2.95 845 4.35 1 246 5.75 648 .20 .057 1.60 .458 3.00 .860 4.40 1 261 5.80 .662 .25 072 1.65 .473 3 05 .874 4.45 1.275 5 85 676 .30 .086 70 .487 3 10 .888 4 50 1.289 5 90 .691 .35 100 75 501 3 15 .903 4 55 1 304 5 95 .705 .40 .115 80 .516 3 20 .917 4.60 1 318 6.00 719 .45 129 .85 .530 3 25 .931 4 65 1 332 6 05 .733 .50 .143 90 .544 3 30 .946 4 70 1 347 6 10 .748 .55 .158 95 .559 3 35 .960 4.75 1.361 6.15 762 .60 .172 2.00 .573 3.40 974 4.80 1 375 6 20 776 .65 .186 2 05 .587 3.45 .989 4 85 1 390 6 25 1 791 .70 201 2 10 .602 3 50 1 003 4.90 1.404 6.30 1 805 .75 215 2 15 .616 3.55 1.017 4 95 1.418 6.35 1.819 .80 229 2.20 .630 3.60 1.032 5.00 1 433 6 40 1 834 .85 .244 2 25 .645 3 65 1.046 5 05 1.447 6.45 1.848 .90 258 2 30 .659 3.70 1 060 5 10 1.461 6 50 1 862 .95 .272 2 35 673 3.75 1 074 5 15 1.476 6 55 1 877 1.00 287 2.40 .688 3.80 1.089 5 20 1 490 6.60 1.891 1.05 .301 2.45 .702 3.85 1.103 5.25 1.504 6.65 1 905 1.10 .315 2.50 .716 3.90 1.117 5.30 1.519 6.70 1.920 1.15 .330 2 55 .731 3.95 1.132 5.35 1.533 6 75 1.934 1 20 .344 2 60 .745 4.00 1.146 5 40 1.547 6.80 1.948 25 .358 2.65 .759 4.05 1.160 5.45 1.562 6.85 1.963 .30 .372 2.70 .773 4.10 1 175 5.50 1.576 6.90 1 977 35 .387 2.75 .788 4.15 1.189 5.55 1.590 6.95 1 991 40 .401 2.80 .802 4.20 1.203 5.60 1.605 7.00 2.006 I 9 2 TABLE ESTIMATION OF PERCENTAGE OF SUGAR BY VOLUMETRIC METHOD DEGREE BRIX From 05 to 12 0. Polari- APPROXIMATE Tenths of Per Cent scope Degrees O.5 l.O 1 5 20 8.5 3.O 3.5 4.0 4.5 a Degree. Sucrose. 0.1 0.03 1 29 29 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 2 06 2 57 0.57 57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.3 08 3 0.85 0.85 85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.4 11 4 1 14 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.12 0.5 14 5 1 42 1 42 1.41 1.41 1.41 1.41 1.40 0.6 0.17 6 1 70 1 70 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.68 0.7 0.19 7 1 98 1.98 1.98 1.97 1.97 1.96 0.8 0.22 8 2 26 2.26 2.26 2.25 2.25 0.9 0.25 9 2.54 2.54 2.53 2.53 10 2.82 2.82 2.81 2.81 11 3.10 3.09 3.09 12 3.38 3.38 3.37 13 3.66 3.65 14 3 94 3 93 DEGREE BRIX. 15 4.21 From 12.5 to 20.0. 16 4.49 17 Tenths of Percent. 18 a Degree. Sucrose. 19 0.1 03 20 71 0.2 0.05 22 0.3 08 23 0.4 0.11 04 0.5 0.13 25 6 0.16 26 0.7 0.19 27 0.8 0.21 28 0.9 24 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 v. I93 FOR USE WITH SOLUTIONS PREPARED BY ADDITION OF 10 PER CENT. LEAD ACETATE. (SCHMITZ.) DEGREI I BRI3 c. Polanscope Degrees. 5 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.O 7.5 8.O 8.5 9.O 9.5 10 28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 028 028 028 1 056 0.56 056 0.56 0.56 0.55 055 055 0.55 0.55 055 2 0.84 084 084 0.84 0.83 0.83 083 083 083 0.83 0.82 3 1.12 1.12 1.12 1 11 1.11 1.11 1 11 1.11 1.10 1 10 1.10 4 1.40 140 1 40 1.39 1 39 1.39 1 38 1.38 1.38 1 38 1.37 5 1 68 1.68 1.67 1.67 1.67 166 1.66 166 1.66 1.65 1.65 6 1.96 1 96 1 95 1.95 1.95 1.94 1 94 1.93 1.93 1.93 1.92 7 224 224 223 2.23 222 222 222 221 221 2.20 2.20 8 252 2.52 251 2.51 250 250 2.49 249 248 2.48 2.47 9 2.80 2.80 279 279 2.78 2.78 2.77 2.76 2.76 2.75 2.75 10 3.08 308 307 306 306 305 305 304 3.03 3.03 3.02 11 3.36 3 36 3.35 3.34 3.34 3.33 3.32 3 32 3.31 3.30 3.30 12 3.64 3.64 3.63 362 3.61 3.61 3.60 3.59 3.59 3.58 357 13 3.92 3.92 3.91 3 90 389 3.88 388 3 87 3.86 385 3.85 14 420 4 19 4.19 4 18 4.17 4 16 4 15 4 15 4.14 4 13 4 12 15 4.48 447 4 47 4.46 4 45 4.44 4.43 4 42 4.41 440 4.40 16 4.77 476 475 4 74 473 4.72 471 470 469 468 467 17 5.03 502 5.01 5 00 4.99 4.99 497 497 496 4.95 18 5.32 531 529 5.28 5.27 526 525 524 523 522 19 5.58 5.57 5.56 555 5.54 553 552 551 550 20 5.86 5.85 5.84 5.83 582 5.81 5.79 5.78 5.77 21 6.13 6.12 6 11 6.09 608 607 6.06 6.05 22 641 6.40 638 6.37 636 635 6.33 6.32 23 667 6.66 6.65 6.64 662 661 660 24 6 94 693 6.91 690 689 687 25 722 7.20 7.19 7.17 7.16 7.15 26 7.48 7.46 7.45 7 44 742 27 7.76 7.74 7.73 7.71 7.70 28 802 800 7.99 7.97 29 8.28 826 8.25 30 855 854 852 31 883 881 880 32 9.09 907 33 935 34 962 35 36 37 38 39 194 TABLE DEGREE BRIX. APPROXIMATE From 0.5 to 12.0. i Tenths of Per Cent. ' tit 1O 5 11.0 11.5 13. 13 5 13 13.5 14.0 11 5 a Degree. Sucrose. 0.1 0.03 1 0.28 27 27 27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.2 06 2 0.55 55 6.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 54 0.54 0.54 3 0.08 3 0.82 0.82 82 82 0.82 0.81 81 81 81 0.4 0.11 4 1.10 1.10 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.08 1.08 1.08 0.5 0.14 5 1.37 1.37 1.36 1.36 1.36 1.36 1.35 1.35 1.35 0.6 0.17 6 1.64 1.64 1.64 1.64 1.63 1.63 1.62 1.62 1.62 0.7 0.19 7 1.92 1.91 1.91 1.91 1.90 1.90 1.89 1.89 1.89 0.8 0.22 8 2.19 2.19 2.18 2.18 2.18 2.17 2.17 2.16 2.16 0.9 0.25 9 2.47 2.46 2.46 2.45 2.45 2.44 2.44 2.43 2.43 10 2.74 2.74 2.73 2.73 2.72 2.71 2.71 2.70 2.70 11 3.02 3.01 3.00 3.00 2.99 2.99 2.98 2.97 2.97 12 3.29 3.28 3.28 3.27 3.26 3.26 3.25 3.24 3.24 13 3.56 3.56 3.55 3.54 3.54 3.53 3.52 3.51 3.51 14 3.84 3.83 3.82 3.82 3.81 3.80 3.79 3.78 3.78 15 4 11 4.11 4.10 4.09 4.08 4.07 4.06 4.06 4.05 DEGREE BRIX. From 12 5 to 20 0. 16 4.39 4.38 4.37 4.36 4.35 4.34 4.33 4.33 4.32 17 4.66 4.65 4.64 4.63 4.62 4.62 4.61 4.60 4.59 18 4.93 4.93 4.91 4.91 4.90 4.89 4.88 4.87 4.86 Tenths of a Degree. Per Cent. Sucrose. 19 5.21 5.20 5.19 5 18 5.17 5.16 5.15 5.14 5.13 20 5.49 5.47 5.46 5.45 5.44 5.43 5.42 5.41 5.40 0.1 0.03 21 5.76 5.75 5.74 5.73 5.71 5.70 5.69 5.68 5.67 0.2 0.05 22 6.03 6.02 6.01 6.00 5.99 5.97 5.96 5.95 5.94 0.3 0.08 23 6.31 6.30 6.28 6.27 6 26 6.24 6.23 6.22 6.21 0.4 0.11 24 6.58 6.57 6.56 6.54 6.53 6.52 6.50 6.49 6.48 0.5 0.13 25 6.86 6.84 6.83 6.82 6.80 6.79 6.78 6.76 6.75 0.6 0.16 26 7.13 7.12 7.10 7.09 7 07 7.06 7.05 7.03 7.02 0.7 0.19 27 7.41 7.39 7.38 7.36 7.35 7.33 7.32 7.30 7.29 0.8 0.21 28 7.68 7.66 7.65 7.63 7.62 7.60 7.59 7.57 7.56 0.9 0.24 29 7.96 7.94 7.92 7.91 7.89 7.87 7.86 7.84 7.83 30 8.23 8.21 8.20 8.18 8,16 8.15 8.13 8.11 8.10 31 8.50 8.49 8.47 8.45 8.44 8.42 8.40 8.39 8.37 32 8.78 8.76 8.74 8.73 8.71 8.69 8.67 8.66 8.64 33 9.05 9.03 9.02 9.00 8.98 8.96 8.94 8.93 8.91 34 9.33 9.31 9.29 9.27 9.25 9.23 9.22 9.20 9.18 35 9.60 9.58 9.56 9.54 9.53 9.51 9.49 9.47 9.45 36 9.88 9.86 9.84 9.82 9.80 9.78 9.76 9.74 9.72 37 10.15 10.13 10.11 10.09 10.07 10.05 10.03 10.01 9.99 38 10.40 10.38 10.36 10.34 10.32 10.30 10.28 10.26 39 10.68 10.66 10.64 10.61 10.59 10.57 10.55 10.53 V. CON. DEGREE BRIX. o $ 15.O 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.O 18.5 19.0 19.5 30.0 5P ft 77 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 0.27 0.27 26 1 54 54 54 54 53 53 53 0.53 ! 0.53 0.53 53 2 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80! 0.79 0.79 0.79 3 1.08 1.08 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.06 1.06 1.06 1.06 1.06 4 1.35 1.34 1.34 1.34 1.34 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.32 1.32 1.32 5 1.62 1.61 1.61 1.61 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.58 6 1.88 1.88! 1.88 1.87 1.87 1.86 1.86 1.86 1.85 1.85 1.85 7 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.14 2.14 2.13 2.13 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.11 8 2.42 2.42 2.41 2.41 2.40 2.40 2.39 2.39 2.38 2.38 2.37 9 2.69 2.69 2.68 2.68 2.67 2.67 2.66 2.65 2.65 2.64 2.64 10 2.96 2.95 2.95 2.94 2.94 2.93 2.92 2.92 2.91 2.91 2.90 11 3.23 3.22 3.22 3 21 3.20 3.20 3.19 3.18 3.18 3.17 3.17 12 3.50 3.49 3.49 3.48 3.47 3.46 3.46 3.45 3.44 3.44 3.43 13 3.77 3.76J 3.75 3.75 3.74 3.73 3.72 3.72 3.71 3.70 3.69 14 4.04 4.03 4.02 4.02 4.01 4.00 3.99 3.98 3.97 3.97 3.96 15 4.31 4.30 4.29 4.28 4.27 4.26 4.26 4.25 4.24 4.23 4.22 16 4.58 4.57 4.56 4.55 4.54 4.53 4.52 4.51 4.50 4.49 4.48 17 4.85 4.84 4.83 4.82 4.81 4.80 4.79 4. 78' 4.77 4.76 4.75 18 5.12 5.11 5.10 5.09 5.08 5.06 5 05 5.04 5.03 5.02 5.01 19 5.39 5.38 5.36 5.35 5.34 5.33 5.32 5.31 5.30 5.29 5.28 20 5.66 5.65 5.63 5.62 5.61 5.60 5.59 5.58 5.56 5.55 5.54 21 5.93 5.91 5.90 5.89 5.88 5.87 5.85 5.84 5.83 5.82 5.80 22 6.20 6.18 6.17 6.16 6.14 6.13 6.12 6.11 6.09 6.08 6.07 23 6.46 6.45 6.44 6.43 6.41 6.40 6.39 6,37 6.36 6.35 6.33 24 6.73 6.72 6.71 6.69 6.68 6.67 6.65 6.64 6.63 6.61 6.60 25 7.00 6.99 6.97 6.96 6.95 6.93 6.92 6.90 6.89 6.88 6.86 26 7.27 7.26 7.24 7.23 7.21 7.20 7.18 7.17 7.15 7.14 7.13 27 7.54 7.53 7.51 7.50 7.48 7.47 7.45 7.44 7.42 7.40 7.39 28 7.81 7.80 7.78 7.77 -7.75 7.73 7.72 7.70 7.68 7.67 7.65 29 8.08 8.06 8.05 8.03 8.02 8.00 7.98 7.97 7.95 7.93 7.92 30 8.35 8.33 8.32 8.30 8.28 8.27 8.25 8.23 8.21 8.20 8.18 31 8.62 8.60 8.58 8.57 8.55 8.53 8.51 8.50 8.48 8.46 8.45 32 8.89 8.87 8.85 8.84 8.82 8.80 8.78 8.76 8.75 8.73 8.71 33 9.16 9.14 9.12 9.10 9.09 9.07 9.05 9.03 9.01 8.99 8.97 34 9.43 9.41( 9.39 9.37 9.35 9.34 9.31 9.30 9.28 9.26 9.24 35 9.70 9.681 9.66 9.64 9.62 9.60 9.58 9.56 9.54 9.52 9.50 36 9.97 9.95 9.93 9.91 9.89 9.87 9.85 9.83 9.81 9.79 9.77 37 10 . 24 10.22 10.20 10.18 10.15 10.13 10.11 10.09 10.07 10.05 10.03 38 10.51 10.49 10.46 10.44 10.42 10.40 10.38 10.36 10.34 10.32 10.29 39 196 TABLE DEGREE BRIX. * APPROXIMATE From 11.5 TO 22 5 JSs Tenths of Per Cent J3 op 11.5 12. 13.5 13.O 13.5 14.O a Degree. Sucrose. ^ 40 10.93 10.91 10.89 10.86 10.84 10.82 0.1 0.03 41 11.18 11.16 11.14 11.12 11.09 0.2 0.05 42 11.46 11.43 11.41 11.39 11.36 0.3 0.08 43 11.71 11.68 11.66 11.64 0.4 0.11 44 11.98 11.95 11.93 11.91 0.5 0.13 45 12.25 12.23 12.20 12.18 0.6 0.16 46 12.50 12.47 12.45 0.7 0.19 47 12.74 12.72 0.8 0.21 48 13.02 12.99 0.9 0.24 49 13.26 50 51 52 53 54 DEGREE BRIX. 55 Cf> From 23.0 to 24.0 OlJ 57 Tenths of Per Ceut. 58 a Degree. Sucrose. 59 I 60 0.1 0.03 61 0.2 0.05 62 0.3 0.08 63 0.4 0.10 64 0.5 0.13 65 0.6 0.16 66 0.7 0.18 67 , 0.8 0.21 68 0.9 0.23 69 70 71 7.2 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 V. CON. DEGREE BRIX. 14.5 15. 15.5 16. 16.5 17.0 17.5 11 fc 10.80 10.78 10.76 10.73 10.71 10.69 10.67 40 11.07 11.05 11.03 11.00 10.98 10.96 10.94 41 11.34 11.32 11.29 11.27 11.25 11.23 11.20 42 11.61 11.59 11.56 11.54 11.52 11.49 11.47 43 11.88 11.86 11.83 11.81 11.79 11.76 11.74 44 12.15 12.13 12.10 12.08 12.05 12.03 12.01 45 12.42 12.40 12.37 12.35 12.32 12.30 12.27 46 12.69 12.67 12.64 12.61 12.59 12.56 12.54 47 12.97 12.94 12.91 12.88 12.86 12.83 42.81 48 13.23 13.21 13.18 13.15 13.13 13.10 13.07 49 13.50 13.48 13.45 13.42 13.40 13.37 13.34 50 13.78 13.75 13.72 13.69 13.66 13.64 13.61 51 14.02 13.99 13.96 13.93 13.90 13.88 52 14.29 14.26 14.23 14.20 14.17 14.14 53 14.53 14.50 14.47 14.44 14.41 54 14.80 14.77 14.74 14.71 14.68 55 15.03 15.00 14.97 14.94 56 15.30 15.27 15.24 15.21 57 15.57 15.54 15.51 15.48 58 15.81 15.78 15.75 59 16.05 16.01 60 16.31 16.28 61 16.55 62 16.82 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 1 9 8 TABLE DEGREE BRIX. & APPROXIMATE From 11.5 to 22 5. 4. -'^DOOO>4^C^*-*O O ^OXMO^Cn^.C^ts)!-' O> OJ U ls> W N> Is) tO K) Is) ^C>JI '^GOO^. CnC/JMO O *vi-*CnvOC>J < J 3 K) W N) 10 W ^) ts> W 10 tsJ O^ O -^ 00 Is) ^ O -P-' OC- t\) ^ t3 OvOOOMO^Cn-^-C/JlsJM O^a^^ON^CnCnaiCnCn 00 to O^ O 4^- 00 Is) O O 4^ Cn ^ C>J ^ M . M O OOX ' - ts)aNO-^Gois)ON S- 2 nil B | 8| 2. 3 o ft 5 li &j" H;.! P la O 5' S r- o a S- 2 " -o 03 - o a o g * R 5 p ^ > S I 2 3 sl s ' o S S S |S S O r* g 1 J O a r co g o- 5- E 00 m X II; I *""" P* M B 2- | r*- CU ?;> B S B 212 TABLE XII. CON. *"| " 00 H M ' rH M CO TJ- 10 MD1> X ON C O ON X vO U2 S^'sa " X'l^ iO * ON ON ON ON iH O i^. ro a\ iO ON C ^H ^~ 00 TH . "^ O LO rH 'sO rH l>. r-t LO O T*- ON rH O ON ^'^s'a'a's's's's's ON 00 <-O r-l t^ CO ON i-O rH t^ CO ON CO l^ O * l^ r-t IO CO fN IO lOO'vDr-t'OrNli-^fVJQOcO TABLE XII. CON. 213 vO-^^ CM CM s . ^ OC tO tO tO M h* M CM 10 M 4- h- 00 CM OJ ,~ ^7 o M IO 4>-CN M ^O K* IO C> vO O NJ \> CM W GO CM -* 00 3 l\J tsi M tO M M M 00 C^ OJ O "'I 4> > 'v^ ^7 C ta,4^ CM M \O O ^ CM W O'v 2 H- 'O^MGNH 'C^ O^I *ff\ CM CM ^ O^ ^1 ^1 00 00 'O '^C 4 \O 4*. \O O 'O ^ Cu O *^1 CM l\> 'O ON C*J ' ^ i * CJ CM G\ 00 O >- CK> CM ^i 00 &^ -C C^ C>J O ^ tJf ^O CM ts> 00 CM M O CM O CM O CM O CM 4-* CN 00 vO M OJ X 4* M I 4- O ^T OJ &8SQ$~8 M O s ' 4^ M OC CM Is) \D ^-1 4*- M ^1 O O K> 4^ tn ^7 \O O KJ -^ s . CM O O^ tOAO CM K> 00 CM t- 10 M K> -1 Is) M IN> ^7 10 ^7 O O M M IsJ N) Co OJ 4>- 4^ ^-7 4^ i ' 00 C/i CM O "^1 4^- ' Is) OJ CM M GO O ts> GJ CM ^7 l- 00 4^ H* ^7 4* O M OJ O CM O CM O C/ CMCMON^^. i O CM O CM OJtOt\>tO*-'>-*h-'h- OJ O O 1 ' K) ^O CM tO 00, CM M 00 OJ>-O4'VO4^\O4>-'vO4>-^O4i- ^OOO-'t-'tOtOOJOJ4^4^ O ^7 4^- K> v ON OJ O M CM IO CM IO o h-'N> 2, CMts)^OO\C>Jl ' OJ4^ cK vO4-O 4^ ^7 - tO tO (- 1 *->- l- tOOOO^OJ>-'VO<7CMtO ^j O O ^O ^ 00 00 ^*7 ^^7 *^7 O^ O^ o" MtOOOOJ\O4-'vOCMO<^t-' tn X tO O" O OJ 00 Cn - - C*JOOOO^4^tOvOJC>JO^'tOtOt-'t-OO 2 ocMoa^t-'ONto M t- Cn \O OJ - I-O^tO O^ O O 4^ 00 IO SO O vO ^ 00 00 M M 5i ^ CMO^H'OMO^ttOOOCo Cn \O CK) J004>- O OJ ^7 tO 214 TABLE XII. CON. !> rH ^ c r-t r-t rH 1C 00 rH ^t ^f O^i 1C CO 1> rH O O O rH r- ?M (Nl * O 01 Co ON S S O i>r^oocooo-^-^Ti-ONu^o iHU)3o'5cR^>tx O ' ' rH rH rH fS| fNI f>i CO O O O rH rH rH OJ C v> T CO r-t CNvTj-t^,-iioONnO 00 VO Tf rH ON t> VO f*) rH l-f rH > ^ co'rH' o i^ vo to IH a\ t>. * cs o oo TABLE XII. CON. 215 Co IO tO IO M h- t-k O M 4* M 00 Cn 10 4^ Co Co tO Co 00 Co 00 IO 4>- ON 00 H O O O O CO tO IO IO I- 1 ^ M> O M 4^ M 00 Cn tO vO s - Co p M "*-7 ON ON Cn Cn 4*- 4*. 4*. Co Co vflaoaoaD^aoacaoaoaoao CO IO tO tO M H* H* - pc 4^ i- 1 00 Cn to v OOvOvOOCXOO- ^^^^S2j g -7 M ON ON ? n O Cr. O ft OJ C*J tO tO to *-* t- O O vO vC S vO 4^ vO C/i O C/ O Cn H 4 ON h^ ^ Oi4^4-4-'4-4^4-4-4^4*-^ to ^ o O-tOK)tOt-'>-'-r>- r?\ ^s f^s 'n Tn i^ f^ fij f.j Ki IO S . M vO t- Co Cn -<7 vO r to to to to to to to CnOO". >-C s ->-' C s - 4^ s 00 O to 4- s 00 i-'OOOOOOO O tO OO OJ KJ IO I ' *- O O vC vO OC 00 COtOtOtOtOH'H-'M tOvOONCoOM^l-^ f$jg]$)3BMP "^ fe M O vO 00 tO tO tO >-> h- -* M ONCot-'XCnCoOMCntOO Q 10 o o o CO M - 4*. 00 M r. >-vOONCOK-OOCnCoO 7 O 4* 00 - Cn * J vO Cn M M tO /iCot-^OOOONCnCoh^ oONvOtOCnOOi-4^M to to to >- - H i- M4->-vOON4->-'OOpNCop IO Oi vO tO ON O CO M O 4* M 9 OONtO004-OCn>-^-7CovO *. Cn 00 h^ 4^ ^7 O CJ ON vO tO Cn ^ K ^ ^8S _ tO 00 COK^ tO tO tO (- H t- 4 M 4^00-'CnOOtOONvOCo ^ Cnt-MtO004i.OONtO ". vO^> SOJ'<7O4^M-'CnOOtO ONI -~-7O-vOCn>-*ONtO h^ O 00 ON Cn Co h^ O 00 ON vOCoO^vOtOCnOOh^-li-M 00 Cn to O M Cn tO vO M 4- h- tO ON vO Co ON O 4^ *^7 h^ 4^- 00 O4^MOCoONvOtOCnQOl ' tOK)KJ^>-*MH*M Cn 00 to ON vO Co ON O Co **7 ^ O 00 ON Cn Co ^ O 00 ON Cn Co tOONvOtOCnOOH'4^^7OCo 00 s * Co O GO Cn to O ^1 Cn tO /i vO Co ON O CO 4^ O ON h- - ~ H* Cn Cn h-t Is) t- 00 - vO to Cn Co Co Co 216 TABLE XII. CON. O rt 1 g *. ON 00 vO ^ co rH ON O ON !> *O CO CM O^ ON O TH c^ rO vOi/5 rH ON l>.ONC^iOOOi 1 v> ON *"^ ON rnr^fj^vo'Oi^oooNO rOONTfONi I> ON CS ^J- t rf) 1> rH 10 ON rO l> Mc. rH IO ON CO i>- rH IO ON CO l^- U rH rH rH rH CM CM CM X rH rH rH H M C^ C4 *-. rH LO ON CO 1>- rH r~< ** rH fO \O 00 u - OrOvDXrHrO^ rH rH rH rH fS) ri O * SOD^4*tOOOCON4i-lO oooooocoo NOto Co NO a>- U bt Q bt o en o * v *. r 61 Co M NO M Cn Co i * '-O ~^I Cn tOtOtOtOtOtOtOtOtOtOtO Cn OJ CM ^' C>J Is) Is) h-^ O (^ (-* ^1 ^ 00 OJ \O C/J M Cn 0-> I ' ^C -^1 Cn C*J ' vjO ^t Cn ooooxxoooooooooo tO oo M-*4*.00>-*Cri^ls)ffN l vOC>J ^ M tv) X OJ 'vO 4^ O Cn h- ON N) L* ^^i^vOC/JOOOJOOOJ-vIls) 10 o^-^ixjoooa^toooooN IN) K) IN) tO K) l\) Is) ts) IN) IN) N) C.J 00 Co 00 IO M tO M tO s H M ON4^lN)OOOON4i.tOOOO<^ ' M NO'J-NO'- J *vl IO -^7 M O^ t- 1 O^ M Cri O w 4^tOOGO^4^tOOOO^\ ' ooooooooooxoooooooo I CO i Cn C> O"\ "-^ 1 4^4^4^4^4^4^4^4^4^ ' ^* H^ B* hJOO n OO- t >-'' k -l ft >-'4i. J CJ^NOlN)Cn CnCnCnCnCn 1 j --> C*j NO Cn to sO 4^ >"^ *^I C*J NO tototofowtototototo 00 4^ O ^ 10 NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO . O NO 2lS TABLE XII. CON. 1/5101/51/51/5 U5 LO 1 -OiO TH - CS IN C4 t> CM N rq 1- CN l^ O) 1^ (N 1^ O) l^ C4 8 o o o o rH \O rH vO rH VO rH l> CM 00 'OiOU^iOlO ^O O ^O O LO O O t>- <* TH 00 \O rO O 1"^ "^J" C*l ONOOt^-iOTJ-rO S rHTtOOC^^O^ Ol^TfrHXLO 9 OOC^^DONr^^rHiOON U ONvOCSOOU^rHX^O ?N ^ iO l^- ON O ca <* vo i/j 1/5 -^-rHOOvOr U 00 ^ O l>- rO O NO C-l ON 00 X 00 00 X X O10U' : 1- i> X O fNJ rH f<5 U5 O 00 ON rH l^-^-rHGOuofM TABLE XII. CON, 219 00 4^ OtO Cn I- 1 ^1 tO4'-ON 0000000000 0000 00. CO CO tO tO tO H* M M O O p 2 ' > ' Co Cn - h-* O O ^ 4^ 00 to O"^ O 4^ OC tO O^ O a p> Cn Cn * tO O^ O CJ M M ON Cn Cn 4^ OJ Co to ls> t-* O ONCnCn^CoCotOtsJh-'OO ^J M Cn \D 00 * c*j o^ O t^ l^ >O ^ I S rH fH H O O r-(Tj-l>Or<) INDEX. A. Acetate of Lead, 166. Acetic Acid Bottles, 41. Acid, Special, 168. Acids, Crude, 160. Air-Funnel, 67. Alcohol Digest, 60. Alcohol Extraction, 58. Alkalimeter, Peffer's, 97. Alkalinities, 74. Alumina Cream, 166. Ammonia, Anhydrous, 156. Ammonium Citrate Solution, 171 Analysis by Weight, 50. Apparatus, Geissler's, 97. Apparatus, Orsat's, 128. Apparatus, Scheibler's, 122. Ash of Syrup or Massecuite, 145- 150. B Balling Saccharometer, 20. Baryta Solution, 172. Baur and Portius, 79. Beakers, 28, 90. Baume Hydrometer for Liquids Lighter than Water, 20, 115. Baume Hydrometers, 20. Beets, 55-61. Beet Seed, 151. Boneblack, 119-128. Brix Saccharometer, 20. Brysselbout, E. E., 52. Burettes, 41, 94. Burette, Franke's Gas, 131. Castor Oil, 157. Chimney Gases, 128-133. Clarification, 43. CO 2 in Saturation Gas, 75. Coal, 114. Cochineal, 169. Cocoanut Oil, 157. Coefficient, the Value, 52. Coefficient of Purity (see Quo- tient of Purity.) Coke, 115. Cossettes, 62. Crucibles, 92. Crucible Tongs, 94. Crude Acids, 160. Cylinders, 17, 94 D. Dessicators, 92. Diffusion Juice, 64. Dishes, 92, 94. Dropping Bottles, 25. Drying Over, 91. Dry Substance 22. E. Ether Bottles, 25. Erdmann's Floats, 41. Evaporation Dishes, 94. 222 INDEX. F. Faurot, Henry, 156. Fehling's Solution, 170. Fertilizers, 134-140. Fibre in Beet, 60. Filling Flasks, 45. Filter Paper, 27, 91. Filter Press Cakes (See Lime Cakes). Flash Test ot Oils, 117, 159. Flasks for Specific Gravity, 19. Flasks for Sugar Analysis, 25. Flasks, Volumetric, 94. Floats, Erdmann's, 41. Fluxes, 160. Franke'sGas Burette, 131. Fresenius, C. R., 40. 108, 115. Fuel Oil, 115-118. Funnels (Air), for Syrups, 67. Funnels, 27, 90. Q. Gases, Chimney, 128-133. Geissler's Apparatus, 97. Gird, W. K., 47. Glass, Powdered, 172. Glass Rods, 90. Gravimeter, 47. H. Hydrometers, 20, 115. Hydrochloric Acid, Normal, 167. Indicator Bottles, 42. Invert Sugar, 86. J. Juices, thick, 66. Juices, thin, 66. K. Kiehle Machine, 57, 62. Kipp's Apparatus, 42. Kissel, 102. "Known Sugar " Solutions, 35. L. Lamps, 93. Lampstands, 94. Lard Oil, 157. Lead Acetate, 166. Lead Bottles, 40. Lime, 72, 113. Lime Cakes, 64. Lime Powder, 78. Lime, Refuse, 141-144. Lime, Slacking Test of, 79. Limestone, 109-113. Linseed Oil, 158. Lktnus Paper, 169. Litmus Solution, 169. M. Magnesia Mixture, 171. Massecuite Ash, 145-150. Massecuites, 68. Meniscus, 25. Milk of Lime, 73. Mohr's Pinchcocks, 42. Moisture Determination, 23. Molasses Saccharate, 80 Molasses Solution, 81. Molybdic Solution, 171. Mortars, 65, 94. INDEX. 223 N. Nasmyth, 159. Nealsfoot Oil, 158. Nicol's Prism, 29. Nitric Acid, Normal, 168. Non-Normal Analysis, 51. Normal Hydrochloric Acid, 167. Normal Nitric Acid, 168. Normal Sodium Solution, 167. Normal Sulphuric Acid, 167. O. Oil, Fuel, 115-118. Oils, Lubricating, 157-161. Olive Oil, 158. Orsat's Apparatus, 128. P. Peffer's Alkalimeter, 97. Phenol, 168 Pinchcocks, 42. Pipettes, 94. -Pipette Solution, 171. Pipettes, Sucrose, 23. Pipette Test, 47. Pipette, Testinga, 26. Polariscopes, 28-38 Portius, Baur and, 79. Powdered Glass or Sand, 172. Preparation of Samples, 43. Pulp, Pressed, 63. Pulp, Wet, 62. Purity, Quotient of, 51. Pycnometers, 18. Q. Quotient of Purity, 51. Quotient, Saline, 52. Raffinose, 85. Rapeseed Oil, 158. Reagents, 166-172. Refuse Lime, 141-144. Rendetnent, 52. Rieckes, H., 73. Rosolic Acid, 169. Rust Joints, 160. Saccharometers, 20. Saccharate Milk, 81. Saccharate, Molasses, 80. Saccharate of Lime, 78. Saline Quotient, 52. Samples, Preparation of, 43. Sand, 172. Saturation Gas, 75. Scales, 39. Scheibler's Apparatus, 122. Scheibler's Method for Fibre in Beet, 61. Sickel-Soxhlet Apparatus, 58. Silver Nitrate, 170, Siphon Bottle, 40. Slacking Test of Lime, 79. Soda, 160. Sodium, Normal, 167. Soxhlet's Method for Invert Sugar, 87. Special Acid, 168. Specific Gravity, 18. Spencer, G. L., 45, 166. Stillman, 99. Stoves, 93. Sucrose, Correct Percentage of, 82. .' 224 INDEX. s. Sucrose in Presence of Invert Sugar, 82. Sucrose in Presence of Raffinose, 85. Sucrose Pipettes, 23. Sugar, 68. Sulphur, 155. Sulphuric Acid, Normal, 167. Syrup Ash, 145-150. Syrups, 67. Sweet Waters, 66. T. Tallow, 158. Test Tube with Foot, 17. Thermometers, 42. Thin Juices, 66. T-Tube for Burettes, 41. Tucker,J. H., 45, 52, 125. Turck, E., 57. Turmeric Paper, 170. V. Value Coefficient, 52. Varner, J. E., 28. Volumetric Method, 45. W. Wanklyn, 97, 102. Washing Bottle, 41, 94. Waste Water, 63 Waste Water, Steffens, 80. Water Analysis, 95-108. Water Baths, 94. Water Bottles, 40. Water Digest, 57. Westphal Balance, 18. Wet Pulp, 63. H. T. OXNARD, W. BflUR, President. Executive Officer and Consulting Eogineer. Oxnard Construction Co, CONSTRUCTORS AND BUILDERS OF COMPLETE CONSULTING ENGINEERS, CHEMISTS AND AGRICULTURISTS Office 32 Na88au Street, New York City. THIS Company will assist in every way the development of the Sugar Industry in this country. It has various departments, such as an Agricultural Department and a Construction Depart- ment. These departments will thoroughly investigate questions of climate and soil, and will give directions in growing beets, cane, etc. Testing beets, water, soil and all supplies necessary for the process of sugar making. The investigations will be made by expert agriculturists, familiar with the raising of sugar plants in this country. The Construction Department will undertake the entire building of factories, complete in every respect, and is prepared to guarantee their capacity. This Company is able to undertake the full equipment of a newly built factory, with the necessary officers and men, and run the factory, if desired, for the first year. EIMER & AMEND 205-211 THIRD AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY, IMPORTERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF Physical Apparatus Strictfy Chemicaffy Pure (hemicafs and Acids, Special Attention given to the fitting out of Laboratories for Sugar Analysis. AGENTS FOR SCHMIDT & HAENSCH'S POLAR/SCOPES, GREINER & FRIEDRICH'S GERMAN GLASSWARE, SCHLEICHER & SCHUELL'S C. P. FILTER PAPERS, FINEST ANALYTICAL BALANCES AND WEIGHTS, SCHEIBLER'S ALKALIMETER AND HYDROMETERS, DESMOUTIS HAMMERED PLATINUM, CRUCIBLES AND DISHES. We carry a complete stock of Beakers, Flasks, Burettes, Pipettes, Sucrose Pipettes, Saccharometers, Cylinders, Lamps, Stoves, and all supplies needed for testing sugars Any apparatus or chemical mentioned in "BEET SUGAR ANALYSIS" can be obtained from us at the lowest price. EIMER & AMEND, New York. Guild & Garrison BHOOKLg/M, /S. g. MANUFACTURERS OF Special Pumping Machinery FOR BEET SUGflR FACTORIES Vacuum Pumps, Carbonic Acid Blowers, Milk of Lime Pumps, Filter Press Pumps, * Air Compressors, Boiler Feed Pumps, Liquor and Syrup Pumps, Water Pumps, etc. The Link-Belt MachineryCo. EnQineers, Founders, Machinists PRINCIPAL OFFICE AND WORKS: 39th St. and Stewart flve. Chicago, U. S. ft. SOUTHERN DEPARTMENT: 316-318 St, Charles Street New Orleans, La. Modern Methods As applied to the handling" of Sugar Cane and its pro- ducts, employing" the Kwart Detachable lyink- Belting, Dodge and Special Carrier Chains. Traveling Cane Hoists, Juice Strainers, Bagasse Feeders, Sugar Shakers, etc. Shafting, Pulleys, Gearing, Rope Sheaves, Friction Clutches, etc. California cotton Mills 60, Office and Works, East Oakland, Gal. Manufacturers of all kinds of Cotton and Jute Fabrics From the Raw Material. ALSO MANUFACTURE ALL KINDS OF Press, Strainer and Filter Glottis SPECIALLY SUITED FOR Beet Sugar Factories and Refineries. Correspondence solicited, and all enquiries shall have prompt and careful attention. ADDRESS AS ABOVE. KLEI/MWA/MZLEBE/M ORIGINAL Beet Seed The Preferred Seed used by all of the American Beet Sugar Factories, GROWN BY THE SUGAR FACTORY KLEINWANZLEBEN, GERMANY. Represented in the United States by MEYER & RAAPKE, Omaha, /Neb. ALBERT W. WALBURN, MAGNUS SWENSON, PRESIDENT AND TREASURER. SECRETARY AND MANAGER. WALBUR/N=SWENSO/N CO. Engineers, Founders and Machinists BUILDERS OF THE MOST IMPROVED Beet Sugar Machinery COMPLETE BEET SUGAR PLANTS and CENTRAL FACTORIES A SPECIALTY Works : General Office : Chicago Heights 944 Monadnock Block, Chicago KEYSTONE Saw, Tool, Steel and File Works HENRY DISSTON & SONS PHILADELPHIA, PEN/MA. U. S. A. California Chemical Works fllso Successor to GOLDEN CITY CflEMICflL WORKS Manufacture ALSO CHEMICALLY PURE ACIDS OF ALL KINDS Reynolds' Excelsior Solderine ; Sulphur Crude, Sublimed, Powdered, Roll, Refined, and Virgin Rock; Nitrate of Soda, Carbon Bi-sulphide, Iron Wine Ethers and other Chemicals. Write us for price list. California Chemical Works JOHN REYNOLDS, Prop. San Bruno Road and 27th St. San Francisco, Gal. TELEPHONE, MISSION 3O Revere Rubber Co. MANUFACTURERS OF ALL KINDS OF . Rubber Goods for Beet Sugar Factories We have a complete outfit of moulds for making- Evaporator Reheater, larg-e and Small Filter Rings of all kinds. Ring's for Calorisators, Dantzenburg- Ring's, Diffusion Ring's, Battery Gaskets, Air Pump Gaskets, Strainer Ring's, Gaskets for Campbell & Zell Boilers. Valves for all kinds of Pumps, including- Carbonic Acid Pumps, Diffusion and Filter Presses, Steffins' Cooler. Rectangular and Square Packing- for Manholes and Doors, and Packing's for Diffusion, Vacuum Pans, and Coolers, etc. Also manufacturers of a full line of Belting- and Hose of all kinds and descriptions. Principal offices for distribution, CHICAGO and SA/\ FRANCISCO Also stores at New York, Holjoke, Philadelphia, Balti- more, Buffalo, Pittsburg-, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Minneapolis, St. Louis, New Orleans, Leicester, Eng. ; London and Paris. HOME OFFICE, BOSTON. FACTORY AT CHELSEA, MASS. ROBERT DEELEY & GO. r Foot ot West 32nd St.. New York a Engineers, Founders and Machinists Manufacturers of Improved Sugar Machinery for Plantations and Refineries. DUBE'S PATENT GREEN BAGASSE BURNER. Vacuum Pans, Double and Triple Effects, Cane Mills, Centrifugals, Defecators, Clarifiers, Sugar Wagons, Steam Engines., Boilers, Engineers' Sup- plies, Etc. COMPLETE PLA/NITS A SPECIALTY. Schaffer & Budenbcrg MANUFACTURERS OF PRESSURE GflUGES Thermometers, Eue Glasses, Surup Testers, Butter Gups and other Vacuum Pan Appliances STEflM TRflPS.REDUGING VftLVES Thompson Steam Engine Indicators Water Gauges, Brass Gocks and Valves, etc. WORKS: BROOKLYN, /N. Y, SALESROOMS : No. 15 W. Lake St., No. 66 John St., Chicago. New York. HAROLD P. DYER EDWARD F. DYER E. H. DYER E, H. DYER & COMPANY ' Engineers, Chemists and Agricufturists MANUFACTURERS OF MACHINERY A SPECIALTY WE built the Standard, Lehi and Los Alamitos beet sugar factories. We are prepared to build complete Beet Sug-ar Plants, Factories and Refineries from founda- tions up. Machinery, Building's, Water Systems, Rail- roads, all and every part that is required for a complete plant ; furnish all the technical, skilled and unskilled employees to operate the plant for any leng'th of time, and to educate the owners how to operate them success- fully. Expert services furnished. Correspondence solicited. Address E, H. DYER 8 COMPANY, Cor. Lake and Kirtland Sts. CLEVELAND, OHIO. THE Kifby Manufacturing Company POUNDERS :., AND MACHINISTS * New York Office. 144 Times Building CLEVELAND, OHIO BUILDERS Of (ompfete Winery for Beet Cane and Gfuco^e Suoarfiouses and Refineries The Risdon Iron Works OFFICE AND WORKS, SAN FRANCISCO DESIGNERS ENGINEERS For Complete Machinery for Beet, Cane and Glucose Factories OF ILL Marsh Steam Pumps FOR Sugar House Work Minimum of Weig-ht, Wear and Waste Patent Self-Governing- Steam Valve. Patent Easy Seating- Water Valves. No Outside Valve Gear. DRY VACUUM PUMPS, SWEET WATER PUMPS, FILTER PRESS PUMPS, CONDENSATION PUMPS, BOILER FEED PUMPS, MANUFACTURED BY The Battle Creek Steam Pump Co. BATTLE CREEK, MICH. Write for Catalogue. BECAUSE IT WILL LAST A YEAR. i^ Cheaper than Rubber! Guaranteed to stani any Pressnre, Gaskets Sent on 30 Days Trial is Our Proof. GUILLOTT METALLIC GASKET CO.. CHICAGO, ILL. Manufacturers ot METAL in allStyles and Plzee of Manhole, HandhoJe, Flange and Union Gaskets. GASKETS for Cylinder Heads. Heaters and Lard Tanks from 1 to 100 in. inside diam. GASKETS for Heine Boiler Tubes, Campbell amd Zell, and Standard Boiier Hand Holes, Stirling Boiler Manholes. ICE MACHINE BASKETS. For Sale by all Dealers. GiisUrechtBiitchers'SiipplyCo. I2th AND PASS AVE., ST. LOUIS, MO. HAND AND POWER .... MEAT GUTTERS AND CHOPPERS of all kinds. Machines especially adapted for the pre- paration of samples for PULP, GOSSETTE AND BEET ANALYSIS Our improved power draw-cut choppers give samples fine enoug-h for the most accurate water and alcohol dig-ests. Order an Enterprise Hand Chopper for pulp samples. Send for Catalogue. BUS V. BRECHT BUTCHERS' SUPPLY GO. The Audubon Sugar School, Louisiana State University, Agricultural and Mechanical College, luccessfully conducted for several years by Dr. Wm. C. Stubbs at he Sugar Experiment Station, Audubon Park, New Orleans, has ieen removed to the University at Baton Rouge. Dr. Stubbs, Professor of Agriculture in the University and Mrector of its Experiment Stations, will continue in charge of the >ugar School, and conduct it on a more extensive scale. Its aim is to make "Sugar Experts" men who can intelligently ;row cane, plan and erect a sugar house, run it as engineer or sugar- naker, and take the products, either of field or sugar house, to the aboratory and subject them to accurate analysis. Regular Course of four years, embraces instruction in the Growing of Cane, Beets and Sorghum; in the Designing, Construc- iou and Operation of Sugar Houses; in the Practical Manipulation f Sugar, and in the Chemistry of the products. It leads to ;raduation. Irregular Course is designed to meet the wants of Sugar- makers, Engineers or Planters who have not the time to take the egular course, but who wish a knowledge of the principals upon yhich their practical work is done. Such students may enter the chool at any time, and take such studies as they may elect. Session 1897-'93 begins September 15, 1897, and closes June .5, 1898. * THOMAS D. BOYD, L,L. D., President. JOHN H. MURPHY -MANUFACTURER OF SUGAR MACHINERY 633 TO 643 MAGAZINE ST., NEW.ORLEANS, LA. Vacuum Pans, to boil with direct or exhaust steam; Double and 'riple Effects, Evaporators and Clarifiers, Strike Pans, Sugar Vagons, Chimneys and Breechings; Syrup, Juice and Molasses 'anks, Boilers and Engines. Sole Agent for Louisiana and Texas for West Point Foundry mproved Hepworth Centrifugals, the Eclipse Filter Press for Cane uice and Skimmings, Ludlow Valve Mfg. Co.'s Valves and Hy- irants, Geo. F. Blake Mfg. Co. 's Vacuum Syrup Juice and Water 'urnps for Sugar Houses and Breweries, Nason Steam Traps. Dealer in Iron Pipe Fittings, Copper and Brass Tubing, Iron nd Brass Globe and Gate Valves, Packing, Belting and General >ugar House Supplies. Will make contracts for the construction of entire sugar house nd machinery plants of modern design. Correspondence solicited. Lacy Manufacturing Co. MANUFACTURERS OF. Steel Water Pipe, Well Casing, OIL TANKS AND GENERAL SHEET IRON WORK IRRIGATION SUPPLIES DEALERS IN CAST IRON PIPE Special attention given to the manufacture of Sheet Steel Tanks and all Sheet Steel Work for Sugar Refineries Works: Corner /\ew Main and Date Streets OFFICE: ROOMS 4 AND 5 BAKER BLOCK Telephone No. 196. Los Angeles, California. The University of Nebraska (ESTABLISH D N 1869) Offers to young- men and to young- women excellent op- portunities for a Collegiate, Technical and University Education. The University is the crown of the Free Public School System of the State. In it is found the continua- tion from the twelfth grade in the Hig-h Schools of the State throug-h the nineteenth grade. The University of Nebraska comprises the following named Colleges and Schools : The Graduate School; The College of literature, Science and the Arts; The Industrial College, including courses in Agriculture, Engineering (Civil, Me- chanical and Electrical), and the General Sciences; The College of Law; The School of Agriculture; The School of Mechanic Arts; The Sugar School; Special Professional Courses; General Preparatory Courses in Law and Journalism and in Medicine; The Summer School; A Teachers' Course. The expenses of living are extremely low, ranging from $125 a year upward. Tuition is free, excepting a nominal matriculation fee of five dollars and a rea- sonable tuition fee in the professional schools of Law, Music and Art. The Calendar will be sent free to all persons who apply for it. For Calen- dar or any information that is desired, address GEO. K. MACLEAN, Chancellor, Lincoln, Nebraska. I84O HIGHEST AWARD 1876. AMERICAN MACHINERY FOR AMERICAN PLANTS * * 1897 AMERICAN BEET SUGAR HACHINERY Every mechanical part of a plant for making Sugar from Beet Roots. . . . Made here in the United States and guaranteed as good as any that cau be made cr used for the business. 50 YEARS OP PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE IN DEVELOPMENT OF 6UGAR MACHINERY Have furnished all machinery for all early Beet Plants at Port- land. Farnham and Wilmington, and for Experi- ment at Washuig- to >, D. C., for Department o f Agriculture, and a t Government Station at Mag- nolia, Louisiana. Beet Machinery of any descrip- tion, from Foun- dation Bolts to Chimney Caps. Portable R. R. Buildings, Eleva- tor s , Washers, Cutters, Diffusion Batteries, Carbo- nation Tanks and Systems, Filter Presses, Triple Effect, Pumps, Vacuum Pans, Centrifugals, Piping and Boilers. All Parts of a Plant in all Details. A, W, COLWELt (onsuftino and Contracting Engineer for aff flatters Pertaining to Beet flachineru DRAWINGS ftND ESTIMATES FURNIStt&D CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED Address: 39 CortlandtSt,, New York City, OF THB TTN" T VT.T3 ciTT V THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. MJG 16 1934 YC 18882 \ '