ETHNOLOGY, 
 
 IN TWO PARTS 
 
 I. FUNDAMENTAL ETHNICAL PROBLEMS, 
 n. THE PRIMARY ETHNICAL GROUPS. 
 
 BY 
 
 A. H. KEANE, F.R.G.S. 
 
 ♦ . ./ 
 
 LATE VICE-PRES. ANTHROP. INSTITUTE : 
 
 CORRES. MEMBER ITALIAN AND WASHINGTON ANTHROP. SOCIETIES; 
 
 LATE PROFESSOR OF HINDUSTANI, UNIVERSITY COLL. LONDON. 
 
 SECOND EDITION REVISED 
 
 CAMBRIDGE 
 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 1896 
 
 [Al/ Rights resefveJ.] 
 
^EHEHAL 
 
 
 ^v 
 
 J^z'7'st Edit ion ^ 1895 
 Second Edition, 1896 
 
TO 
 HARRIETTE KEANE 
 
 THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY 
 
 DEDICATED 
 
 BY 
 
 HER HUSBAND. 
 
 118391 
 
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive 
 
 in 2008 witii funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 littp://www.arcliive.org/details/etlinologyintwopaOOkeanricli 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Comprehensive English works on Ethnology in the stricter 
 sense of the term, works such as those of Dr Prichard, Messrs 
 Nott and Gliddon, and Dr Latham, were all composed before 
 the appearance of Darwin's Origin of Species (1859), with 
 which biological studies make a fresh start. Since then special 
 branches of the subject, such as the evolution and antiquity ot 
 Man, primitive culture, the Stone and Bronze Ages, and the 
 origin of civilisation, have been treated by several eminent men 
 of science, conspicuous among whom are Sir Charles Lyell, 
 Professor Huxley, Darwin himself, Professor E. B. Tylor, Sir 
 John Evans, Sir John Lubbock and Professor Boyd Dawkins. 
 But scarcely any serious work of a comprehensive character 
 can be mentioned except Dr Brinton's Races and Peoples, and 
 Professor Tylor's popular treatise on Atithropology , which, despite 
 its title, is concerned more with ethnological and social than with 
 strictly anthropological matters. 
 
 When, however, the foreign literature of the subject is taken 
 into account, a literature enriched by such eminent names as 
 those of Virchow, Bastian, Waitz, and KoUmann in Germany; 
 Retzius, Castren, Worsaae, Forchhammer, Steenstrup and Mon- 
 teHus in Scandinavia; Broca, Topinard, de Quatrefages and 
 Hamy in France; Sergi, Mantegazza and GigUoli in Italy; it 
 becomes evident that, since the general acceptance of evolutionary 
 teachings, sufficient materials have already been accumulated to 
 justify M. de Lapparent's declaration that Hmire des grandes syn- 
 theses a dga sonne. Such a synthesis is here for the first time 
 
VIU PREFACE. 
 
 attempted in the English language, in the hope that, even if 
 but partly successful, it may still be accepted as a boon by those 
 students who acutely feel the want of some trustworthy guide, 
 especially amid the initial entanglements of a confessedly difficult 
 subject. A work speaking with uncertain sound would obviously 
 be useless, or at least of little value, for this purpose. Hence what 
 might otherwise be regarded as a somewhat dogmatic treatment 
 is here necessarily adopted, even in respect of many perplexing 
 problems which till lately might justly be regarded as moot ques- 
 tions on which it would be rash to pronounce a definite opinion 
 either way. But for those who frankly accept its essential principles 
 evolution is found to be a golden " skeleton key," which readily 
 opens the door to many secret chambers, even in the more 
 recondite recesses of human knowledge. Take, for instance, the 
 origin of articulate speech, a question which in pre-Darwinian 
 times was necessarily relegated by naturalists to the region of pure 
 metaphysics, and which by anti-evolutionists is still regarded 
 either as insoluble, or as soluble only by the assumption of direct 
 creative force. Now, however, it is easily seen by anthropologists 
 that language, like man himself, had a very humble beginning, 
 and has reached its present marvellously perfect state sensim sine 
 sensu, slowly improving in its phonesis and structure hand in 
 hand with the slow improvement of the physical organs in virtue 
 of which man has become a speaking animal. Its inner me- 
 chanism is analysed by the comparative philologist, and found 
 to be reducible to simple elements, and this conclusion is con- 
 firmed by the comparative anatomist, who points out with Dr 
 Arthur Keith that the facial organs of speech are non-existent in 
 the anthropoids, rudely developed in fossil man, and perfected 
 only in later ages. Thus is revealed the origin of language, which 
 does not drop ready-made from the skies, but grows up from 
 crude beginnings on the earth. The sources of much false 
 reasoning and mystification are thus removed, and the truth 
 stands out plain enough for all those wiUing to accept it. 
 
 From this view of its origin there directly follow other 
 important inferences regarding the nature and growth of speech. 
 We at once see how hopeless must be the quest of a primitive 
 mother-tongue, which never existed, the faculty starting from a 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 germ and developing itself in different regions independently. 
 Thus also is exposed the fallacious assumption of speech being 
 "created" or consciously "invented" by primitive man himself, 
 and then passed on from one tribe to another, as when even 
 M. Letourneau writes : " We may perhaps infer that these races 
 have not created their own languages, and that during the very 
 long prehistoric period foreign initiators brought to them idioms 
 which had taken root and grown elsewhere" {Sociology, p. 581). 
 It must now be obvious that no speechless people could be 
 taught to talk a ready-made language unless they possessed the 
 necessary physical organs, in which case they would not need 
 to be taught, being already in possession of a language of their 
 own. The organs and the faculty must have been developed 
 simultaneously by repeated tentative and unconscious efforts. 
 
 In the same way many other abstruse questions connected 
 with the natural history of man — his physical and mental evolu- 
 tion, his antiquity, his specific unity and varietal diversity — seem 
 to pass easily from the field of abstract speculation to that of 
 solid fact, when approached from the evolutionary standpoint. 
 From any other standpoint they remain, as before, either hopeless 
 riddles or the sport of theological theorists and metaphysical 
 dreamers. What, therefore, might here appear at first sight too 
 assertive and over-confident, may on reflection be found the 
 simple, often the inevitable, outcome of inductive reasoning. 
 When, for instance. Prof. Prestwich speaks of " 20,000 or 30,000 
 years" as the extreme length of man's days on earth, can it 
 be rash to unhesitatingly reject such a narrow estimate in the 
 face of the daily accumulating evidences of his vast antiquity 
 brought to light by such competent explorers as Mr Worthington 
 Smith, Mr W. J." Lewis Abbott, Mr H. Stopes and Mr Harrison 
 of Ightham in the present Thames basin, Dr ColHgnon and 
 Dr Couillault in North Africa, Prof. Flinders Petrie in the 
 Nile Valley, Prof. Sergi in Italy, Herr Maschka in Bohemia, 
 Dr Noetling in Indo-China, Sig. Lovisato in Fuegia, Mr W. H. 
 Hudson in Patagonia, Dr C C Abbott and Mr E. D. Cope in the 
 United States, and others elsewhere? While proofs are being 
 collected of pliocene, and even "early pHocene" man, and while 
 Dr Dubois' Pithecanthropus erectus suppUes a distinct missing link 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 between the anthropoids and the Neanderthal race, does not the 
 rashness He rather with those who would limit the age of eolithic 
 man to late or even post-pleistocene times ? When it is remem- 
 bered that fully 8,000 years ago the Egyptian language was not 
 only developed but already entirely severed from its original con- 
 nection with the Semitic group, it becomes obvious that merely 
 to account for the highly specialised Hamito-Semitic division 
 a much longer period will be needed than is conceded by 
 Prof. Prestwich to the human family itself. Hitherto " Tertiary 
 man not proven " has rightly been the watchword of the English 
 conservative school of ethnologists. May it not be asked whether 
 the negative particle should not now be struck out of this formula, 
 seeing that almost without exception their continental fellow- 
 workers have with Virchow surrendered the point, and that strong 
 evidence of pliocene man has been brought forward by Sergi 
 in Italy and Noetling in Burma, if not also by Stopes and 
 Harrison in Kent ? As these lines are being penned Mr Stopes 
 reports from Swanscombe near Gravesend and from Ash a few 
 miles farther south, numerous finds belonging to all ages, "from 
 the British back to that very remote period when the gravels 
 were being deposited on the high plateau of Kent in pliocene 
 times" {Athencetim, Sept. 7, 1895, p. 325). 
 
 Clearness has been consulted by a twofold division of the 
 subject-matter, the first dealing with those fundamental problems 
 which affect the human family taken as a whole, the second 
 discussing the more general questions which concern the Homi- 
 nid^, that is, the several main branches of mankind. In the 
 first division are introduced some topics, such as the physical 
 evolution of man, his points of contact with the other groups 
 of primates, and the physical criteria of race, which might seem 
 to belong more properly to the field of special anthropology. 
 But in all closely allied branches of knowledge such encroach- 
 ments necessarily occur, as, for instance, when geography tres- 
 passes on geology, and geology on astronomy. In the present 
 instance the "trespass" will perhaps be all the more welcome 
 because no comprehensive work on special anthropology has yet 
 appeared in the English language, so that the student is still 
 mainly dependent on Toi:)inard's masterly treatise. In any case 
 
PREFACE. XI 
 
 the introduction of certain anthropological matters was inevitable, 
 the mental qualities, of which special anthropology takes no 
 account, being largely determined by the physical constitution, 
 just as the mind itself has its seat in a physical organ. "Although 
 Mind can never be identified with Matter, nor the acts and 
 states of the mind reduced to acts and states of the brain, yet 
 as the latter are the physical antecedents of the former, the 
 study of the one class of phenomena is calculated to give light 
 and guidance in the study of the other " (Dean Byrne, General 
 Principles of the Structure of Language, ii. p. 380). And more 
 pointedly elsewhere : " Though thought be not regarded as a 
 function of the brain, yet it is the function of the brain to 
 minister to the acts of thought, so that cerebral action is the 
 condition of mental action. Between these two actions there 
 must be an exact correspondence; so that both must be studied 
 if we would understand either" (p. 379). 
 
 In the second part those general questions alone are treated 
 which concern the primary human groups. Here the main object 
 has been to solve some of the more fundamental problems con- 
 nected with these groups, and thus clear the ground for a complete 
 classification of the Hominidae. But no attempt is made at such 
 a classification which would require a work to itself, and which 
 may form the subject of a future volume of the present series. 
 
 Meantime, a hope may be expressed that this summary of 
 ethnological data will be found helpful to the student, by en- 
 abling him to group and coordinate his focts, to understand their 
 mutual bearings, and to fit them into their proper place in the 
 natural history of the human family. But, above all, it should 
 teach him to reason correctly, and draw the right inferences from 
 estabHshed premisses, at whatever cost to biassed or precon- 
 ceived theories on the fundamental ethnical problems. Thus 
 alone can a hope be entertained of some law and order being 
 introduced into the present chaotic state of the public mind on 
 all matters connected with "man's place in nature." In his 
 monograph on Sculptured Anthropoid Ape Heads from Oregon 
 (New York, 1891), Mr James Terry draws a deplorable picture of 
 American anthropological Hterature, "already so filled with op- 
 posing theories that it appals the student who undertakes to 
 
Xll PREFACE. 
 
 unravel the contradistinctions [contradictions?] of its many writers." 
 But the New World can pretend to no monopoly of such bewil- 
 dering conflicts of opinion. That Mr Terry's picture admits of 
 wider appHcation is made only too evident by a glance at the 
 wild theories of emotional ethnology still persistent amongst our- 
 selves, theories supported by the reckless comparisons and con- 
 clusions even of capable writers, who, in the absence of accepted 
 first principles, give bridle to their imagination, and replace sober 
 reasoning by extravagant speculation. Thus whole populations — 
 Japanese, Malays, Egyptians — are, so to say, transferred bodily 
 from the Eastern to the Western Hemisphere, in order to account 
 for shadowy resemblances between the cultures of the Old and 
 New Worlds. And, as if to show the absurdity of this line of reason- 
 ing, Dr A. le Plongeon now proposes to reverse the process and 
 make " Mayax" [Yucatan] the "hub of the Universe." Develop- 
 ing the ideas tentatively advanced in his Sacred Mysteries among 
 the Mayas and Quiches 11,500 years ago (New York, 1886), this 
 antiquary boldly places the cradleland of mankind itself in Central 
 America, where he discovers the tomb and the very dust of Abel 
 slain by Cain, and even "the very weapon employed in the crime." 
 Here, we are told, is still spoken the stock language which affords 
 a key to the interpretation of ancient Egyptian, Sanskrit and 
 Hellenic formulas, while the Greek alphabet itself is shown to be 
 merely an epic poem on the Cain-Abel legend, composed in the 
 same primitive Maya tongue. Even the letters of late introduction, 
 such as epsilon, omikron, omega, bearing pure Greek names, do not 
 escape this philological crucible, omikron, for instance, being re- 
 solved into the Maya elements <?;;/ = whirlpool, //'=:wind, /^ = place, 
 and on = xo\.m^, meaning "whirlwinds blow round." Ample details 
 of these "startling revelations," divulged in all seriousness, are 
 communicated through Mr O'Sullivan, H.B.M. Vice-Consul at 
 Pemba, to the Review of Reviews for September, 1895, and thus 
 acquire a sort of official stamp. 
 
 Another case in point is the rivalry still maintained betweea 
 many prominent exponents of the anthropological and philo- 
 logical sciences, whose antagonism has flooded ethnological 
 Hterature with barren controversy, and retarded the progress of 
 these sister sciences by confused methods of ratiocination. It 
 
PREFACE. XIII 
 
 is contended, on the one hand, that the races of men spring 
 from several geographical centres independently, because their 
 languages are fundamentally distinct ; it is retorted on the other 
 hand that language and race have nothing in common, or at least 
 are in no way correlated. But when the nature of the evidence 
 is examined in the light of the first principles which the present 
 work aims at establishing, it is seen that neither of such extreme 
 views can be right, while a way may nevertheless be found to 
 reconcile the rival claims of the anthropologist and the philologist 
 (Chaps. VII. and IX.). From this example we see how true it 
 is that an essential condition for the successful prosecution of 
 ethnological studies is the power of reasoning aright on the 
 facts admitted and appealed to by both sides. 
 
 But a more formidable rivalry, and one destined probably to 
 last longer, is that which persists between dogmatism and the 
 biological sciences. In his presidential address at the meeting of 
 the British Association, Ipswich, 1895, Sir Douglas Galton referred 
 to the services rendered to the advancement of knowledge by the 
 late Professor Huxley, whose action had helped to sweep away the 
 obstructions of dogmatic authority which in the early days of the 
 Association had fettered progress, especially in anthropological 
 studies, and whose energy and wealth of argument had largely aided 
 in winning the battle of evolution and securing the right to discuss 
 questions of religion and science without fear or favour. The 
 homage paid to the memory of the great captains on the scientific 
 side, the greatest of whom found a resting-place in the British 
 Walhalla, warrants the belief that their opponents are now willing 
 to give their arguments at least a fair hearing. When it is further 
 seen, as the late Professor J. D. Dana clearly saw, that there is 
 nothing in the doctrine of evolution rightly understood " to impair 
 or disturb religious faith" (Letter to the Rev. J. G. Hall, Cleve- 
 land, Ohio, March 3, 1889), we shall have arrived at a measurable 
 distance of the time when that doctrine will take its place by the 
 side of the Copernican and Newtonian teachings, as an elementary 
 truth at the foundation of a rational conception of man and the 
 universe. Then a way will also be found, as already here sug- 
 gested (p. 30), to reconcile the views of Science and Religion on 
 the origin and evolution of the human species. But it would be 
 
XIV PREFACE. 
 
 idle to pretend that there can be any compromise on the part of 
 Science. Hence such a reconciliation must necessarily involve 
 some concessions by the dogmatists, such, for instance, as enabled 
 them to ultimately accept the Copernican view of the solar system, 
 despite the geocentric theory prematurely raised to a dogma on 
 the strength of BibHcal texts. Such developments within the 
 sanctuary are inevitable if the religions are to retain the respect of 
 their more thoughtful adherents, and British orthodoxy itself is 
 warned by the present head of the Church of England not to 
 forget " that every age does and ought to shed new light on truth. 
 To refuse to admit such light and its inherent warmth is to forfeit 
 the power of seeing things as they are and to lose the vigour of 
 growth. It is, in fact, to Hmit ourselves finally to a conventional 
 use of hard formulas " {Pastoral Letter ^ August 30, 1895). 
 
 In a work of this nature, dealing with a multiplicity of subjects, 
 on all of which nobody can be supposed to have personal know- 
 ledge, it is not to be expected that the views advocated, or even 
 the mere statements of facts, will be always accepted on the ipse 
 dixit of the writer. Hence the necessity of constant reference to 
 received authorities, which may possibly here and there encumber 
 the text, but which will not on that account be objected to by the 
 serious student. Quotations, however, especially from foreign 
 sources, are in most cases transferred to the footnotes, where the 
 reader will find nearly all important statements supported by 
 proof or authority of some kind. At the same time full responsi- 
 bihty is accepted for all theories or conclusions which are here 
 advanced for the first time, or which at least are not known by the 
 author to have been put forward by any previous writer. Such are 
 in Part I. the evolution of neolithic megaHthic architecture (Chap. 
 VI.); the relation of stock languages to stock races (Chap. VII.); 
 the evolution of the various morphological orders of speech, and 
 the general relations of race and language (Chap. IX.); in Part II. 
 the order of evolution of the primary groups, and their centre of 
 evolution and dispersion (Chap. X.); the treatment of the linguistic 
 problem in Oceanica, and of the racial problem in Australia and 
 Tasmania (Chap. XL); the Finno-Tartar, Chukchi and Malay 
 racial problems, and the Malayo-Polynesian linguistic relations 
 (Chap. XII.); the peopling of America in the Stone Ages, the 
 
PREFACE. XV 
 
 independent local evolution of American cultures, and the treat- 
 ment of the Eskimo question (Chap. XIIL); the general treatment 
 of Homo Caucasicus, the Ibero-Berber question, the Aryan cradle- 
 land and the Aryan race problem (Chap. XIV.). 
 
 It remains gratefully to acknowledge the loan of photographs 
 and other illustrations, elsewhere specified, from Messrs Flower 
 and Lydekker, Sir John Evans, Dr D. J. Cunningham, the pub- 
 lishers of Nature, Mr Edward Stanford, Messrs Longmans, Mr 
 J. J. Lister, Dr H. O. Forbes, Mr W. T. Stead, and the Royal 
 Geographical Society. Thanks are also due to Messrs Cassell for 
 their kind permission to use some of the ethnological material 
 contributed by the writer to their Storehouse of Information, and 
 to the Editor of this series, whose careful revision was not confined 
 to typographical matters. 
 
 A. H. K. 
 
 Aram-Gah, 
 
 79, Broadhurst Gardens, N.W 
 
 October., 1895. 
 
 K. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 PART L 
 
 FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS. 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 PRELIMINARY. 
 
 Definitions— Anthropology General and Special — Ethnology — Ethnography — 
 Scope of Ethnology — General Nomenclature — Definite Terms : Race ; 
 Clan; Tribe; Family; Totem; Branch; Stock; Type — Indefinite Terms : 
 Division; Section; Group; Horde; Nation; People — Example i — 15 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 
 
 Man's Place in the Animal Kingdom — The Primates — Old Divisions : Quad- 
 rumana and Bimana — New Divisions: Lemuroidea and Anthropoidea — 
 The five families of the Anthropoidea — Their range in time and space — 
 Diagram of the Anthropoid families — Relations of the family Hominidse to 
 the family Simiidae — Comparative Table of the Simiidae and Hominidse : 
 Gibbon ; Orang ; Gorilla ; Chimpanzee ; Dryopithecus ; Hominidae — 
 Points of resemblance to and difference from the Simiidae — Origin of 
 Man by Creation or Evolution — Creation Theory inadequate — Evolution 
 Theory adequate — Natural and Supernatural views reconciled — Difficulties 
 of the progressive evolutionist theory — Views of de Quatrefages, de 
 Mortillet and Sergi — The Castenedolo Man — Sergi's Tertiary Hominidse 
 — Quaternary Man — Cannstadt Man rejected — Neanderthal affirmed — The 
 Quaternary Hominidse — Kollmann's Dauertypus — Persistence of primitive 
 types — Views of French, English and American Anthropologists — Diffi- 
 culties of the Dauertypus theory — Analogy of the Equidce — Their evolution 
 
 b2 
 
xviii CONTENTS. 
 
 — Sergi's Tertiary Hominidge rejected — Persistence of, and Reversals to, 
 
 primitive types reconciled with evolutionary teachings — Comparative 
 
 Diagrams of Pleistocene Hominidce and Equidoe— Broad stages of physical 
 
 ■ evolution from a postulated Anthropoid Miocene precursor , i6 — 39 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 MENTAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 
 
 Human incomparably greater than animal intelligence — Growth of mind 
 apparently out of proportion to that of its seat, the brain — Evolution of 
 organ and function correlated— Cranial to be distinguished from mental 
 capacity— Comparative cranial studies often contradictory— Chief physical 
 determinants of mental power not so much the volume of the brain as 
 its convolutions and the cellular structure of the grey cortex — These 
 elements capable of indefinite expansion till arrested by the closing of the 
 cranial sutures — Different degrees of intelligence in different races accounted 
 for — Such differences independent of the general bodily structure — Hence 
 physique and mental power not necessarily correlated and not always 
 developed part passu — But mind and cerebral structure always corre- 
 spond — Hence comparative study of brain texture, as by Broca ana 
 Miklukho-Maclay, yield best results — Brain and its function, thought, 
 capable of indefinite future expansion— Differ in degree only, not in kind, 
 from those of the lower orders — Time alone needed to bridge the gap ^■ 
 
 40—49 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ANTIQUITY OF MAN : GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS- 
 
 The Geological Sequence in its bearing on the Antiquity of Man — Table of the 
 Geological Sequence: Primary; Secondary; Tertiary; Quaternary; Pre- 
 historic ; Historic — The Glacial Problem — Reactionary Views — Croll's 
 Periodicity Theory — Objections and Limitations of Time by Prestwich — A 
 reductio ad absurdum — Arguments based on influence of Gulf Stream and 
 Absence of Glaciation in earlier geological epochs estimated — Croll's Theory 
 reaffirmed — A long period of time needed to meet all the conditions : Re- 
 distribution of Land and Water; Intermingling of Arctic and Tropica, 
 faunas; Scouring out of great river valleys; Man long associated with 
 extinct animals ; Britain twice submerged since its occupation by man ; 
 Little trace of primitive man in the last post-glacial deposits of the North 
 — Two Ice-ages and long Inter-glacial period essential factors — Difficulties 
 
CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 of the Intermingled Arctic and Tropical Faunas— Lyell and Boyd-Dawkins' 
 "Seasonal-Migration" Theory discussed — Long association of reindeer 
 and hyaena explained — Great age of the flints found in the high-level 
 drift, boulder-clay, plateaux and riverside terraces — Pre-, Inter- and Post- 
 Glacial Man — The problem restated — General Conclusion — Pliocene 
 Hominidse rejected — Specialised Inter-glacial Hominidse reaffirmed — 
 Their probable age — Post-glacial Man a nondescript . . 50 — 70 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN: PALEOLITHIC AGE. 
 
 Palaeolithic Man spread over the whole world — But in many places early and 
 later Cultures run in parallel lines, not in time sequence — Hence the Time 
 relations often obscured, objects of human industry not being everywhere 
 tests of age, but only of grades of culture — Even these grades not always 
 clearly distinguished — Palaeolithic art not stationary but progressive, and 
 in some respects outstripping that of neolithic times — Materials available 
 for the study of primitive Man: implements, monuments and human 
 remains — Unreasonable objections to implements (palceoliths) as evidence 
 of antiquity — Value of implements determined by their provenance and 
 associations in geological formations or in caves — Stalagmite beds not 
 necessarily a test of age— Ivitchen-middens of all ages, some very old, 
 some recent and of rapid growth, hence to be judged on their merits — 
 Human remains reserved for special treatment — Quaternary Man in 
 Britain: Evidence of Hatfield Beds; Kent's Cavern; Brixham Cave; 
 Cresswell and Victoria Caves ; Lotherdale and Pont Newydd Caves ; Vale 
 of Clwydd Caves ; Thames river-drift ; High-level gravels ; Chalk plateau, 
 Kent ; Eoliths from Canterbury gravels, Stoke Newington, &c. — Quater- 
 nary Man in France : Somme Valley river-drifts, St Acheul — Grades of 
 Palaeolithic Culture — De Mortillet's Four Epochs : Chellian Age, typical 
 implements ; Moustierian Age, typical implements ; Solutrian Age, typical 
 implements ; Madelenian Age, typical implements — The Dordogne School 
 of Art — Placard Cave : Superimposed Culture eras — Evidences of Palaeo- 
 lithic Man in France and Italy — Quaternary Man in Africa (Egypt, 
 Algeria, the Cape) ; in Asia (Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, Caucasus, Mon- 
 golia, India, Japan) ; in Australia and New Zealand ; in America (Tierra 
 del Fuego, Patagonia, Argentina and Brazil, Mexico, United States and 
 Canada) ; evidence from the Trenton gravels ; Mississippi Basin and other 
 localities ; Views of Chamberlin, Holmes, Mason and other conservatives 
 on the value of this evidence ; the Calaveras Skull — General Diffusion of 
 Primitive Man throughout North America — The Mound-builders not 
 quaternary; their Culture neolithic, prehistoric and historic . 71 — 107 
 
XX CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ANTIQUITY OF MAN: NEOLITHIC AND METAL AGES. 
 
 Marked difference between the Old and New Stone Ages — Comparative Table 
 of Palseo- and Neolithic Cultures— A Break of Continuity in some regions, 
 notably in Britain — But not everywhere — No universal hiatus possible — 
 Continuous evolution in the south and south-east — Probable duration of 
 neolithic times — The late palaeolithic era of the West synchronous with 
 the early neolithic era of the South-east — Great duration of neolithic 
 times argued on general considerations — The Danish peat-bogs a time 
 gauge — The Danish kitchen-middens — Origin and growth of aquatic 
 stations — The Swiss Lake-Dwellings— The Irish and Scotch crannogs — 
 Neolithic structures — Reducible to two types: The polylith or cell, and 
 monolith or block, originating in Burial and Ancestry worship — Polylithic 
 and monolithic nomenclature — Evolution of the Cromlech or Dolmen 
 through the Barrow from the Cell — Popularly associated with druidical 
 rites — The Sessi and Stazzone of Malta and Corsica — The Nuraghi of 
 Sardinia — The Talayots of the Balearic Islands — The Russian Kurgans — 
 Silbury Hill— The Cell becomes a Family Vault with later develop- 
 ments — The Menhir, its origin and wide diffusion — Its development in 
 linear and circular direction — The Alignments and Cycloliths (Stone 
 Circles) — Their origin and purpose explained — Erdeven ; Stonehenge ; 
 New Grange ; Menec, Carnac district — The Irish Round Towers — 
 Geographical Distribution of the Megaliths — Chief Centres: Bahrein 
 Islands ; Moab ; Mauritania ; Gaul, Britain, Scandinavia — Bearing on the 
 question of early migrations — Europe re-settled in Neolithic times from 
 two quarters — Routes indicated by the presence or absence of Mega- 
 lithic Structures — These wrongly accredited to the Kelts who followed 
 the non-megalithic route — Astronomic and religious ideas attributed to 
 the megalith-builders— Prehistoric monuments in the New World— General 
 Survey — Tiahuanaco, culminating glory of American Megalithic archi- 
 tecture — Tiahuanaco Culture an independent local development io8 — 140 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 SPECIFIC UNITY OF MAN. 
 
 Specific or Varietal unity decided by extent of divergence between past and 
 present races — Species and Variety — The Physiological test : inter-racial 
 fertility — The Canidse, Equidse and Hominidse — The Palseolithic races — 
 
CONTENTS. XXI 
 
 Their remains: Trinil : Homo Neanderthalensis ; La Naulette; La Denise; 
 Spy; Kent; Podbaba; Predmost ; Marcilly; Mentone; Olmo ; Eguis- 
 heim ; Laugerie ; Palaeolithic races exclusively long-headed — Neolithic 
 races at first also long-headed, then mixed, and later exclusively round- 
 headed in some places — But all intermingled — Fertile miscegenation 
 established for prehistoric times — In the historic period mixture the rule, 
 racial purity the exception — The Mestizos of Latin America — The Paulistas, 
 Franco-Canadians, and Dano-Eskimo — The United States Indians and 
 half-breeds — Eugenesis established for the New World, and for Africa : 
 The Griquas, Abyssinians, Sudanese, and West African Negroes — Mixed 
 races in Asia, Malaysia, and Polynesia — The Pitcairn Islanders — The physio- 
 logical test conclusive against the Polygenists — The anatomical test — The 
 Polygenist linguistic argument: Independent stock races inferred from 
 independent stock languages — Fallacy of this argument — Specific Unity 
 unaffected by the existence of Stock Languages — which are to be other- 
 wise explained — The Monogenist view established — and confirmed by the 
 universal diffusion of articulate speech— Psychic argument — The question 
 summed up by Blumenbach 141 — 161 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 VARIETAL DIVERSITY OF iMAN : PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 
 
 Difficulties of defining, and determining the number of, the primary human 
 varieties— Schemes of the first systematists : Bernier ; Linne ; Blumenbach ; 
 Cuvier; Virey ; Desmoulins ; Bory de Saint- Vincent ; Morton; Gliddon 
 and Agassiz; Latham; Carus; Peschel — The Philologists— The Ethno- 
 logists : Buffon ; Prichard — The Anatomists : Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire ; 
 Retzius ; Broca ; Virchow ; Mantegazza ; Barnard Davis ; Rolleston ; 
 Flower; Cope— Recent Schemes : Haeckel's; de Quatrefages's; Huxley's; 
 Broca's; Fr. Miiller's ; Deniker's;_ Flower and Lydekker's — General 
 remarks on these Groupings — Elements of Classification : Physical and 
 Mental Characters — Physical tests of Race : Colour of the Skin — Colour 
 and Texture of the Hair — The Beard ; Hirsuteness — Shape of the Skull — 
 Cephalic Indices — Tables of Dolicho-, Mesati- and Brachycephali — 
 Gnathism— Facial Index— Table of Sub-nasal Prognathism— The Denti- 
 tion — The Nose: Nasal Index— Colour and Shape of the Eye — The 
 General Expression— Stature : Tables of Heights — Other Physical Factors 
 
 162 — i8q 
 
xxii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 VARIETAL DIVERSITY OF MAN : MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 
 
 Cranial Capacity — Size of brain and Mental Capacity correlated in the animal 
 series — and partly in man — Comparative Tables of Cranial Capacity — 
 Language the chief mental criterion — Relation of speech to Anthropology 
 — Phonesis a physical function which cannot be neglected by the anthro- 
 pologist — Value of language to the ethnologist — Evolution of speech 
 from the inorganic to the organic state — The faculty originated most pro- 
 bably in a single centre — Reply to the linguistic polygenists — Speech of 
 relatively recent growth — Hence at first unstable and subject to great 
 fluctuations — Hence also linguistic divergence more rapid than physical 
 types, forming species and genera which cannot mix — Hence no mixed 
 languages — Consequent value of speech as a racial test — Linguistic more 
 easily distinguished than physical groups — Table of mixed peoples speak- 
 ing unmixed languages — Table of peoples whose speech has shifted with- 
 out mixing — Table of peoples whose physical type has changed, their 
 speech persisting — Hence speech and race not convertible terms — But speech 
 often a .^reat aid in determining ethnical elements — The morphological 
 orders of speech — Old views of linguistic growth — The "Root" theory — 
 Monosyllabism not the first but the last stage of growth — The sentence 
 the starting-point — The monosyllabic languages originally polysyllabic — 
 Chinese the result of phonetic decay — The Aryan root theory exploded^ 
 Root and Atom ; Sentence and Molecule — Agglutination — Its nature and 
 test — I'he morphological orders not fixed species — but transitional phases 
 of growth — Inflection reverts to Agglutination — Agglutination passes into 
 Inflection and Polysynthesis — Polysynthesis not a primitive but a late 
 condition of speech — Diff"ers in kind from Agglutination — Nature of In- 
 flection — Diagram of linguistic evolution — Development of speech not 
 linear but in parallel lines — Synthesis and Polysynthesis tend towards 
 monosyllabic analysis — Change from pre- to post- position in the Aryan 
 group — Change the Universal Law of all living speech — Social state : Fish- 
 ing, Hunting, Agriculture, no test of race — Social Usages poor criteria^ 
 Religion — Origin and development of nature and ancestry worship — • 
 Anthropomorphism due to the common psychic character of man — Hence 
 common religious ideas no proof of common origin or of contact — Like 
 usages no evidence of common descent 190—219 
 
CONTENTS. xxill 
 
 PART 11. 
 
 THE PRIMARY ETHNICAL GROUPS. 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE HOMINID^. 
 
 Four Primary Groups — Homo yEthiopicus, Mongolicus, Americanus, Caucasi- 
 cus — Family Tree of the Hominidae — The primary groups derived, not 
 one from the other, but independently from a common precursor — Their 
 differences determined by their different environments — Position of the 
 several groups — The Negro — The Mongol and American — The Caucasian 
 — Remarks on this Terminology — Comparative Table of the physical and 
 mental characters of the four primary groups — Centre of Evolution — Dis- 
 tribution of land and water in Secondary and Tertiary Times — The Indo- 
 African Continent— The Austral Continent— The Eurafrican Continent — 
 The Euramerican Continent — America accessible from Europe and from 
 Asia — Theory of de Quatrefages on the migrations of primitive man — His 
 linguistic argument — Views of Dallas — and Brinton — Evolution "with a 
 jump "—The Missing Link— Probable centre of Evolution and Dispersion 
 the Indo- African and Austral regions, true Home of the Lemurs and of 
 the Anthropoids— Characters of the pliocene precursor and of the pleisto- 
 cene sub-groups persistent in the Afro-Austral regions — Pliocene and 
 pleistocene migrations from the primeval home — Order of Development 
 of the primary groups in their several centres of evolution — Monogenist 
 and Polygenist views reconciled — Flower and Lydekker on the spread of 
 the Hominidoe over the globe 221 — 241 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 HOMO iETHIOPICUS. 
 
 Two divisions: African and Oceanic — Negro Family Tree — The Negritoes: 
 Two divisions — Early migrations — The African Negritoes — The Akkas 
 and Batwa— The Bushmen and Hottentots— Past and present Hottentot- 
 
xxiv CONTENTS. 
 
 Bushman domains— The Oceanic Negritoes— The Black element in India 
 — The Oceanic Negrito groups : Andamanese ; Sakais of the Malay- 
 Peninsula; Aetas of the Philippines; Karons of New Guinea; Kalangs 
 of Java— The Negro divisions compared— The African Negro unprogressive 
 without miscegenation— Testimony of H. H. Johnston, Manetta, Ruffin 
 and Sir Spencer St John— Historic evidence— Low state of Negro culture 
 — Two main sub-divisions : Sudanese and Bantu — The Sudanese Negroes 
 — Mixed Sudanese groups— The Fulahs— The Negroid Bantus — The Zulu- 
 Kafirs and Wa-Huma — The Bantu linguistic family— General intermingling 
 of the Sudanese and Bantu populations — Hence classification impossible 
 except on a linguistic basis — Tables of the Sudanese and Bantu groups — 
 The Oceanic Negro domain — An area of great ethnical confusion — Two 
 main sub-divisions: Insular Negroes and Negroid Australians — Nomen- 
 clature: Melanesians; Papuans — The Papuan domain, past and present — 
 The Papuan type— The linguistic problem — Wide diff'usion of Malayo- 
 Polynesian speech not due to Malay or Polynesian Migrations — Still less 
 to Melanesian Migrations— The true explanation; the Caucasic factor — 
 The Australian sub-division — Not homogeneous — Constituent elements of 
 the Negroid Australians— and of the Tasmanians— Tasmanian culture 
 eolithic 242—294 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 HOMO MONGOLICUS. 
 
 Asia home of the Mongol race— easily accessible to the pliocene precursor- 
 Transition from the generalised human type to the Mongol variety — 
 Chief Mongol physical characters— Diffusion of the Mongol race — Early 
 Mongolo-Caucasic interminglings — Hence aberrant Mongolic groups — 
 Mongol Family Tree — Chief Mongol sub-divisions — Their domain — The 
 Akkads — Early linguistic relations — The Mongolo-Tatar sub-division— 
 Nomenclature : Mongol ; Tatar ; Turki — Divergent Finno-Turki types — 
 The Samoyedes— The Lapps— The Baltic Finns ; Karelians ; Tavastians 
 — White elements in the Mongolo-Tatar domain — Avars — Magyars — 
 Bulgars — Osmanii affinities — Koreo-Japanese group — The Koreans — The 
 Japanese: Physical qualities; Mental qualities — The "Hyperboreans" — 
 The Chukchi problem — The Tibeto-Indo-Chinese sub-division — General 
 physical uniformity — Tibeto-Chinese linguistic relations— Function of 
 Tone in the Isolating Languages — Tibetan linguistic affinities— Indo- 
 Oceanic linguistic relations — The Indonesians — The Malay problem — 
 Malay physical type — Malagasy affinities — Malayo- Polynesian linguistic 
 relations — Ethnical relations in the Philippine Islands. . 295 — 333 
 
CONTENTS. XXV 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 HOMO AMERICANUS. 
 
 America peopled from the Eastern Hemisphere during the Stone Ages — The 
 bronze age of Chimu (Peru) no proof of later intercourse between the 
 Old and New Worlds — Hence the American aborigines are the direct 
 descendants of palaeolithic and neolithic man — and their later culture is 
 consequently an independent local development — But Homo Americanus 
 is not autochthonous, but a specialised form of a Mongol prototype — 
 General Uniformity of the American physical type — Texture of the hair ; 
 colour of the skin — "White" and "Black" aborigines no proof of 
 early migrations from Europe or Melanesia — Arguments of De Quatrefages 
 discussed — The Japanese myth exposed — The "stranded junk " argument 
 — Culture of the early Stone Age identical in both hemispheres — But 
 after that age the arts and industries show continuous divergence in 
 America — Argument based by Retzius on the two types of American 
 crania — Contrasts between the present Mongol and American physical 
 types — Mental Capacity of the American aborigines superior to the 
 Negro, on the whole inferior to the Mongol — But the Cranial Capacity 
 inferior both to Mongol and Negro — Striking uniformity of the mental 
 characters of the aborigines — in North America — in South America — 
 Uniform character of American speech in its general morphology — 
 Fundamentally distinct from the structure of the languages of the Old 
 World — Surprising number of American stock languages despite their 
 common polysynthetic type — Classification of the aborigines must always 
 be mainly based on language — Family Tree of Homo Americanus— 
 America probably peopled by two routes — From Europe by palaeolithic, 
 from Asia by neolithic man — Present distribution of the two types — ■ 
 The Eskimo question — Its solution — Prof. Mason's theory of the peopling 
 of America from Indo-Malaysia — Negative Objections to this theory — 
 Positive Objections — True explanation of the coincidences between 
 certain usages and mental aspects of the inhabitants of the Old and 
 New Worlds — Due not to contact or borrowings, but to their common 
 psychic constitution — Results of the discovery and re-settlement of 
 America on the aborigines in Latin America — In Anglo-Saxon America 
 — The Anglo-American type due, not to miscegenation, but to con- 
 vergence 334—373 
 
XXVI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 HOMO CAUCASICUS. 
 
 North Africa probable cradle of the Caucasic race — which spread thence east 
 to Asia and north to Europe — The Cro-Magnon and other early European 
 races affiliated to the fair Berbers of Mauritania — West Europe occupied 
 by several varieties of Homo Caucasicus in the Stone Ages — Who were of 
 non-Aryan speech like the still surviving Basques — The Ibero-Berber 
 problem — Basques and Picts — Family Tree of Homo Caucasicus — 
 Xanthochroi and Melanochroi — Blacks of Caucasic Type — Physical 
 Characters of Homo Caucasicus — White, Brown and Dark Hamites — 
 The Tamahu Hamites of the Egyptian records — The "New Race" in 
 the Nile Valley — The Eastern Hamites: Afars; Bejas; Gallas and 
 Somals ; Masai and Wa-Huma — Ethnical relations in Abyssinia : Him- 
 yarites ; Agaos ; The present Abyssinian populations — Relations of the 
 Hamites to the Semites — The Semitic Domain — The Semitic Groups — 
 Semitic physical and mental characters — The Semitic Languages — The 
 Aryan-speaking Peoples — Aryan a linguistic not a racial expression — 
 True character of the Aryan migrations — Illustrated by the Teutonic in- 
 vasion of Britain ; and by the Hindu invasion of India — The Aryan 
 Cradleland — Primitive Aryan Culture — Schrader's hypothesis — Conflicting 
 views regarding the Aryan Cradleland reconciled — The Eurasian Steppe 
 true home of the primitive Aryan Groups— The primitive Aryan type 
 difficult to determine— But probably xanthochroid — The Aryan problem 
 summed up — Recent expansion of the Aryan-speaking Peoples — The 
 "Greater Britain" — The Aryan linguistic family — Table of the Aryan 
 linguistic groups — Disintegration of primitive Aryan speech — The Teu- 
 tonic phonetic System — Ethnical and linguistic relations in the Caucasus 
 — Main Divisions of the peoples and languages of Caucasia — Ethnical 
 and linguistic relations of the Dravidas — Sporadic Caucasic Groups: 
 Todas ; Ainus 374 — 420 
 
 Appendix 421—426 
 
 Index 427 — 442 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Diagram of the Anthropoid suborder of Primates 19 
 
 Skull of Orang, from Flower and Lydekker's Manwials Living and 
 
 Extinct 2 1 
 
 Orang-Utan, from Guillemard's O-z^w^ ^/M^ yl/arr/^^j-^ . . . .21 
 
 Chimpanzee, from Lydekker's Royal Natural History .... 23 
 Diagram of the Simiidse and Man, reduced from Huxley's Man's Place 
 
 in Nature 27 
 
 The Neanderthal Skull, from a photograph 33 
 
 Diagram showing the Evolution of the Equidce, from Flower and 
 
 Lydekker, op. cit 36 
 
 Comparative Diagrams of the Pleistocene IIominid?e and Equidae . . 38 
 
 Remains of Palaeolithic Man from Kent's Cavern, from Sir John Evans' 
 
 Ancient Stone Itnplements of Great Britain ..... 79 
 
 River Drift Pakieolith from Santon Downham, ibidem .... 80 
 
 River Drift Palreolith from Redhill, ibidem 85 
 
 Palaeolithic Engravings from Duruthy and La Madeleine Caves . . 88 
 
 The Placard Cave, with Section of Floor 90 
 
 Palaeoliths from the District of Colombia, U.S., from Wilson's Prehistoric 
 
 Anthropology .......... 102 
 
 Neoliths from various localities in the United States, ibidem . . . 109 
 Neolithic Celt from Bridlington, from Sir J. Evans' Ancient Stone Itnple- 
 ments . . . . 112 
 
 Neolithic Arrow-head from the Yorkshire Wolds, z^2^<:w . . .113 
 
 Neolithic Stemmed Arrow-head from the Yorkshire Wolds, ibidem. . 114 
 
 Neolithic Javelin or Arrow-head from Iwerne Minster, Dorset, ibidem . 116 
 Neolithic perforated Axe from Hunmanby, Yorks, z7^/</<?/;^ . . .118 
 
 Trevethy Stones, from a photograph 125. 
 
 Ground-plan of Palo-de-Vinha Dolmen, Portugal 126 
 
 Dolmen-Tumulus of Kercado, Brittany 128 
 
 Dol Menhir, from a photograph 129 
 
XXVlll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Carnac Alignments, from a photograph . . . . . • 132 
 
 Skull of Pithecanthropus erectics, from Dr E. Dubois' Monograph, 
 
 Batavia, 1894 ........... 144 
 
 Comparative Diagram of Irish, Spy, Neanderthal, Pithecanthropus and 
 Gorilla Crania, from Dr D. J. Cunningham's Paper on Pithecan- 
 thropus, Nattire, Feb. 28, 1895 145 
 
 The Spy Cranium No. i, from Ph. Salmon's Races Huniaines Pre- 
 
 historiqiies . . . . . . . . . . .146 
 
 Diagram of J. Deniker's Scheme of Classification of Races, Bid. de la 
 
 Soc. d'' Anthropologic, June, 1889 . . . . . . .169 
 
 Diagrams showing the various forms of the human hair in transverse 
 
 section . 176 
 
 Orthognathous Skull of Kalmuk, after von Bauer 183 
 
 Prognathous Skull of Negro 183 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Family Tree of the Hominidae . ....... 224 
 
 Family Tree of Homo yEthiopicus 244 
 
 Akka of Mangbattuland (African Negrito Type) 247 
 
 Sakai of Malay Peninsula (Oceanic Negrito Type), from a photograph by 
 
 Miklukho-Maclay 258 
 
 Samang of Malay Peninsula (Oceanic Negrito Type), from a photograph 
 
 by Miklukho-Maclay . 25S 
 
 Aeta Woman of Luzon (Oceanic Negrito Type), from a photograph in 
 
 A. B. Meyer's Album von Philippinen-Tpyen, Dresden, 1885 . 260, 261 
 Ardi, a Kalang of Java (Oceanic Negrito Type), from a photograph by 
 
 H. van Musschenbroek 262 
 
 A Zulu Girl of Natal (Bantu Type), from a photograph . . . .271 
 Susu Negro, Senegambia, from a photograph by Prince Roland Bonaparte 276 
 Aduma Negro, Ogoway Basin, from a photograph by Prince Roland 
 
 Bonaparte . 278 
 
 Australian (normal Type), from A. H. Keane's Types of the Races of 
 
 Mankind, Longman's New Atlas, 1889 280 
 
 Native of Duke of York Island (Melanesian Type), from a photograph by 
 
 O.Y'm'iQ}a.{Reise inder Siidsee,^QxXm, i^'i^ 282 
 
 Native of New Britain (Melanesian Type), from a photograph by O. 
 
 Finsch, ibidem . .282 
 
 Native of Nifelole Island (Melanesian Type), from a photograph by the 
 
 Rev. W. G. Lawes 282 
 
 Native of S. E. New Guinea (Papuan Type), from a photograph by 
 
 H. O. Forbes 283 
 
 Native of Dutch New Guinea (Papuan Type), from Guillemard's Austral- 
 asia (Stanford Series) 286 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXIX 
 
 Australian of Queensland (primitive Type), from a photograph by J. J. 
 
 Lister 293 
 
 Native of Tasmania (normal Type), from a sketch by Lieut. F. G. S. de 
 
 Wesselow, R.N 293 
 
 Manchu of Kulja (full face) \ from a photographic album of Central 
 ,, „ „ (profile) I Asian Types taken at Tashkend in 
 Kalmuk Woman (West Mongol f 1876; R. Geograph. Society's Col- 
 Type) '' lection 298 
 
 Family Tree of Homo Mongolicus 300 
 
 Akkad of Babylonia (Mongol Type?), restored by Theo. Pinches {Types 
 
 of the Early hihahitants of Mesopotamia in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. 
 
 i89[,p. 91) ... 301 
 
 Ostyak Woman (North Mongol Type), from S. Sommier's Sirieni, Ostiacchi 
 
 ^ 6"rt?/Z(?m//, Florence 1887, p. 88 . . . . .• . . 306 
 Kara-Kirghiz of Semirechinsk (full face) \ 
 (profile) I 
 Kara-Kirghiz Woman of Semirechinsk 
 Kirghiz of Tashkend (Tiirki Type) 
 Uzbeg of Zerafshan District (Mixed 
 
 Turko-Iranian Type) 
 Solon of Kulja (Manchu Type) 
 
 Japanese Woman, from a Japanese photograph 315 
 
 Japanese Jinricksha runner, from a Japanese photograph . . . 315 
 
 Siamese (Indo-Chinese Type) ^ from A. H. Keane's Types of the Races of 
 Chukchi of N.E. Siberia j Mankind {%Qt 2iho\€) .... 318 
 
 Annamese of Saigon (Indo-Chinese Type), from a photograph by Prince 
 
 Roland Bonaparte 320 
 
 Burmese Lady (Indo-Chinese Type), from a photograph . . . 320 
 
 Chinese Woman of Kulja (full face) ^ from the Tashkend Album (see 
 
 (profile) J above) 321 
 
 Sundanese of West Java (Malay Type), from a photograph by Prince 
 
 Roland Bonaparte 327 
 
 Native of Tonga Is. (Eastern Indonesian Type), from Guillemard's 
 
 Australasia 3^9 
 
 Blackfoot Indian (Redskin Type), from a photograph .... 338 
 
 from the Tashkend Album of 
 Photographs (see above) 310, 312 
 
 Native of Otovalo, Ecuador '\ 
 
 Native of Zambisa, Ecuador 
 Native of Vancouver Island 
 Native of Saquisili, Ecuador 
 Paez Indian, of Tacuzo, Colombia, 
 
 from W. Reiss and A. Stiibel's 
 photographic album of Indian 
 Types of Ecuador and Colombia, 
 Berhn, 1S88 . . 338, 339, 348 
 
 from E. im Thurn's collec- 
 
 Native of British Guiana (True Carib Type) , . r , , 1 • i 
 
 _._^. ' ,_ \ [ tion of photographs m the 
 
 Native of British Guiana (Arawak Type) \ t> /^ i o c 
 
 ^^ ' ; R. Geograph. Soc. 355, 356 
 
 Family Tree of Homo Americanus 361 
 
XXX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Eskimo of Alaska, from A. H. Keane's Types of Races (see above). . 363 
 
 Family Tree of Homo Caucasicus 380 
 
 Norwegian (Xanthochroid Type), from A. H. Keane's Types of Races . 381 
 A Riff, North Coast Morocco (Berber Type), from a photograph taken in 
 
 Tangier 384 
 
 Berber (West Hamitic Type) ^ ^ . .. .. , ^ 
 Somali (East Hamitic Type) I ^^^7 \ ^^' ^^""^ ^ ^^^'^ '^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ 
 Arab (Semitic Type) J "^°"^^ • • • • 383,388,393 
 
 Afghan of the Zerafshan District ) from the Tashkent! Album (see 
 
 Hindu of East Turkistan f above) .... 397, 400 
 
 Swami Vivekanada (High Caste Hindu Type) \ ^ ,^^ ^ ^ ,, ^ 
 ^^ Tzu • • ^ .u T r A • /T I from W. T. Stead's C^w- 
 
 M. Khnmian, Catholicos of Armenia (Irano- > . „ ,. . 
 
 Semitic Type) I i^'^' of Rehgtons 399,404 
 
 A Tajik of Tashkend (Iranian Type) "] from the Tashkend Al- 
 
 A Tajik Woman, E. Turkistan (Iranian Type) j bum (see above) 406, 407 
 
 A Monk of Kikko Monastery, Cyprus (Greek Type), from a photograph 
 
 by Dr F. H. H. Guillemard 408 
 
 A Parsi of Bombay (Iranian Type), from the Congress of Religions (see 
 
 above) . 409 
 
 Kabardian of Central Caucasus (Melanochroid Type), from A. H. 
 
 Keane's Types of Races {%^q: ?i}o<yv€) 416 
 
 Ainu of Urap (Caucasic Type), from R. Hitchcock's The Ainos of 
 
 Japan, Washington, 1892 , , . . . . . . 419 
 
PART I. 
 
 FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 PRELIMINARY. 
 
 Definitions — Anthropology General and Special — Ethnology — Ethnography- 
 Scope of Ethnology — General Nomenclature — Definite Terms : Race ; 
 Clan; Tribe; Family; Totem; Branch; Stock; Type— Indefinite Terms : 
 Division ; Section ; Group ; Horde ; Nation ; People— Example. 
 
 Of the various branches of knowledge, whose subject is man, 
 the most comprehensive is Anthropology \ which 
 
 ^ , . . , , , Definitions. 
 
 m tact, taken m its broadest sense, embraces all Anthropology 
 the others. But as knowledge grows it necessarily fpeciT/. ^"*^ 
 tends to become specialised, and Anthropology, 
 the "Science of Man," is now mainly restricted to the study of 
 man as a member of the Animal kingdom. It seeks to determine 
 the position of the human family in the group of mammals, and 
 more particularly to define its relations to the anthropoid apes, 
 the nearest genera in the order of primates. Thus special, as 
 opposed to general Anthropology, is a science whose object is 
 the study of mankind considered as a whole in its separate in- 
 dividuahty and in its relations to the rest of nature {Paul Brocd). 
 But the relations of man to the Anthropoidea are mainly 
 physical, and in any case zoological studies take 
 
 . ° Scope of 
 
 little or no account of the mental qualities of special An- 
 animals, but only of their bodily structure. Hence ^^''°P°^°&y- 
 it is that special anthropology is concerned above all with the 
 
 ■'• Gr. ai/^pw7ros = man; X67os = discourse. 
 K. I 
 
 f(. 
 
ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 human anatomy, and the anthropologist, as here understood, is 
 essentially a comparative anatomist. Again, the HommidcB, that 
 is, the primary members of the human family, also present 
 structural differences, which have to be gauged by comparative 
 anatomical studies. Consequently not only man as a whole, byt 
 also the main divisions of mankind, come to this extent withi'n 
 the scope of special anthropology. 
 
 On the other hand these main divisions differ also in their 
 mental qualities, and their psychological are at 
 
 Ethnology. , ^. ,-,.,, 
 
 least as important as their physical characters. 
 Hence special anthropology cannot cover the whole of this fieia, 
 and as it were on the principle of division of labour, hands over 
 the detailed study of the Hominidae in all their relations to the 
 sister science Ethnology ^ which has been aptly defined as that 
 branch of general anthropology which deals with the relations of 
 the different varieties of mankind to each other {Latham). Thus 
 is clearly seen the essential difference between the two, about 
 which confusion still prevails. Anthropology treats its subject 
 primarily from the physical side; ethnology treats the same 
 subject both from the physical and psychological sides, borrowing 
 its anatomical data however from the elder branch. The one is 
 more technical and special, the other more all-embracing, while 
 both must be regarded as mutually complementary. 
 
 Again ethnology differs essentially from Ethnography" with 
 
 which it is also constantly confused, but which 
 graphy°" ^^ correct language is rather literature than science. 
 
 It is purely descriptive, dealing with the character- 
 istics, usages, social and political condition of peoples irrespec- 
 tive of their possible physical relations or affinities ^ The 
 
 ^ Gr. ^^»'os=race, people. 
 
 ^ Gr. Wvos and 7pa0i7 = description. 
 
 ^ Such at least is the general use of these terms amongst English writers, 
 and it is desirable that the distinction be maintained, both for the sake of 
 clearness, and to avoid the practice of French writers, who almost habitually 
 confound ethnology and the synonymous ethnogeny with ethnography, and are 
 thus obliged, when precision is essential, to speak of "ethnographic descriptive." 
 M. de Rosny, amongst others, gives an unlimited scope to ethnography, 
 declaring that it results from "la synthese de toutes les sciences qui ont pour 
 but de rechercher la mission de I'homme et ses destinees"; on which M. J. van 
 
PRELIMINARY. 
 
 subjects of ethnography are the various groups of peoples 
 taken independently one of the other ; the subjects 
 of ethnology are the same human groups regarded Etiin'oiogy. 
 as so many correlated members of one or more 
 primordial families. Hence ethnology, like anthropology, neces- 
 sarily proceeds by the comparative method, co-ordinating its facts 
 with a view to determining such general questions as the antiquity 
 of man ; monogenism or polygenism ; the geographical centre or 
 centres of evolution and dispersion ; the number and essential 
 characteristics of the fundamental human types ; the absolute and 
 relative value of racial criteria : miscegenation ; the origin and 
 evolution of articulate speech and its value as a test of race ; the 
 influence of the environment on the evolution of human varieties, 
 on their pursuits, temperament, rehgious views, grades of culture; 
 the evolution of the family, clan, tribe and nation. 
 
 In thus defining the scope of ethnology, terms have been 
 used which themselves need definition, and all the 
 more that the meaning of some, such, for instance, no^enciaSre^ 
 as race^ claji, tribe, still gives rise to constant, often 
 to angry, discussion, amongst writers on ethnological subjects. It 
 is no exaggeration to say that many stout volumes might have 
 been spared, had a common understanding prevailed regarding 
 the strict sense of the current terminology when the foundations 
 of the science were being laid some few decades ago. But in 
 speculative branches of research first principles cannoi>be estab- 
 lished by deductive process a priori; they are rather the natural 
 outcome of the inductive method based on cumulative evidence 
 a posteriori. 
 
 Ethnological studies have now reached that stage at which it 
 seems possible, and therefore desirable, to deter- 
 
 , • r , . General 
 
 mme the exact meanmg of the general terms m terms in com- 
 common use. Such terms as genus, species, variety "^°" "^^' 
 need not here be discussed. They belong to all branches of 
 biology, and their meaning is clearly defined in a way that gives 
 rise to no misunderstandings. For the ethnologist there is merely 
 
 den Gheyn aptly observes that here "I'ethnographe ne se distingue pas essentielle- 
 ment de I'anthropologiste, de I'archeologue, du linguiste, du psychologue" 
 {Revue des questions scientipques, October 1885). 
 
 1 — 2 
 
ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 the question whether the Hominidse constitute so many species of 
 one genus, or only so many varieties of one species, as will be 
 discussed in Chapter VII. 
 
 Of strictly ethnological terms there are two distinct categories, 
 one implying affinity or blood relationship of some sort, or at least 
 such close resemblance as points at genetic descent from common 
 ancestry, the other involving no such assumption, vague and inde- 
 finite, but therefore in certain cases all the more convenient, and 
 indeed indispensable wherever no theories of kinship are involved. 
 Each has thus its proper place, and it should be specially noticed 
 that although the terms of the definite class are 
 
 Definite and , • i i r ^ • i r ■ 
 
 Indefinite mostly convertible with those of the indefinite, the 
 
 '^^^"^^" latter are not to the same extent interchangeable 
 
 with the former, as will presently appear : — 
 
 Definite Terms 
 
 (involving or suggesting the idea 
 of kinship). 
 
 Clan. 
 
 Tribe. 
 
 Family. 
 
 Totem. 
 
 Branch. 
 
 Stock; Stem. 
 
 Type. 
 
 Indefinite Terms 
 
 (indifferent to the idea of kinship). 
 
 Division. 
 
 Section. 
 
 Group. 
 
 Horde. 
 
 Nation. 
 
 People. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 Race. 
 
 After assigning their proper limits to the various branches of 
 general Anthropology, Broca sums up with the remark that 
 "ethnography studies peoples, ethnology races." Here a sharp 
 contrast is drawn between the definite term race 
 and the indefinite people, a contrast entirely in 
 accordance with the nature of the two subjects. It is obvious 
 from the foregoing remarks that ethnography can have nothing to 
 do with race as such, for this term, taken in its strictest sense, 
 involves common descent from an original stock, and is therefore 
 essentially a question of blood. It answers to the breed and strain 
 of cattle-farmers and bird-fanciers, and is therefore applicable 
 
PRELIMINARY. 5 
 
 only ta groups of individuals sprung, or assumed to be sprung, 
 from one and the same original family. 
 
 But mankind has been so long on the earth, and has been 
 subject to such endless migrations, displacements and inter- 
 mingHngs of all sorts, that in the opinion of many sound 
 ethnologists few if any pure races now survive. Hence the word 
 comes to be used somewhat hypothetically. Certain abstract 
 ethnical types are assumed or inferred from a general survey 
 of the Hominidae, and the various human groups are classed 
 together or discriminated according as they approach or diverge 
 from these abstract types. Hence at present race has rather a 
 relative than an absolute value, and Topinard regards the word 
 as no more than " permissive " in ethnology. He looks upon it 
 as synonymous with the natural divisions of the human family, 
 however remote the period at which such divisions were consti- 
 tuted. 
 
 For Prichard race is a collection of iildividuals presenting 
 more or less common features transmissible by j^^^^ 
 succession, in fact, what would now be called "per- Species and 
 
 ' ' ^ Variety. 
 
 manent varieties," the origin of the charactenstics 
 themselves being an unsettled question. Pouchet also regards 
 race as practically synonymous with species. Hence the word 
 will have a different meaning according to the different views 
 entertained on the question of the unity or plurality of mankind. 
 For those who hold that all the Hominidae form but one species, 
 there can be but one fundamental race, and the current groupings 
 are strictly speaking unscientific, however convenient and even 
 necessary for the detailed study of the human family. It may be 
 concluded with Darwin that, at the initial stage of their evolution, 
 races having a common origin are varieties of a given species, 
 which tend themselves to become species. Hence on the assump- 
 tion that the varieties of the Hominidae have not yet reached this 
 stage, the expressions himian varieties and Jmvian races are 
 practically synonymous, and will be so taken in this work. 
 
 Under race come the tribe and the clan, which terms also 
 involve kinship even in a narrower sense, being 
 properly subdivisions of the race or family groups 
 connected by the ties of blood and recognising a common social 
 
ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 organisation whether under hereditary or elected chiefs or elders. 
 This organisation, which has been diligently studied by Morgan 
 and others in recent years, throws much light on the origin of 
 human societies ; in the hands of these writers it has acquired such 
 expansion, that it can no longer be adequately treated within the 
 limits of ethnology proper, and it now forms the basis of Sociology 
 which has been raised by Mr Herbert Spencer to the rank of a 
 separate science. 
 
 Here we are concerned only with the difference between the 
 clan proper and the tribe. In the clan system de- 
 system of scent was probably at first reckoned only through 
 ip. ^^ female line; consequently uterine ties alone 
 
 constituted kinship, the father not being regarded as related even 
 to his own children, and not considered as a member of the family, 
 as still amongst the Chi (Tshi) people of the Gold Coast and 
 elsewhere. In this system all the children bear the clan-name 
 transmitted through the mother, and the clan-name thus becomes 
 the test of blood-relationship. But the moment descent is 
 recognised through the male Hne also, as amongst the Yorubas 
 of the Slave Coast, the clan system breaks down, and the clan 
 merges in the tribe. This point, hitherto one of the puzzles of 
 ethnology, has been cleared up by the late Col. A. B. ElHs, who 
 remarks that " since two persons of the same clan-name may, 
 under the clan-system, never marry, it follows that husband and 
 wife must be of different clans. Let us say that one is a Dog 
 and the other a Leopard. The clan-name is extended to all who 
 are of the same blood ; therefore, directly the blood-relationship 
 between father and child comes to be acknowledged, the children 
 of such a pair as we have supposed, instead of being, as hereto- 
 fore, simply Leopards, would be Dog-Leopards, and would 
 belong to two clans. They in their turn might marry with 
 persons similarly belonging to two clans, say Cat-Snakes, and the 
 offsprings of these unions would belong to four clans. The clan- 
 system thus becomes altogether unworkable, because, as the 
 number of clans is Hmited and cannot be added to, if the clan- 
 name still remained the test of blood-relationship and a bar to 
 marriage, the result in a few generations would be that no 
 marriages would be possible. Consequently the clan-name ceases 
 
PRELIMINARY 
 
 to be the test of consanguinity, kinship is traced in some other 
 way, and the clan-system disappears \" 
 
 It is thus seen that the tribe is not merely a group of clans, 
 but that its constitution becomes profoundly modi- 
 fied by the gradual substitution of patriarchal for 
 matriarchal rights. During this process the exogamous" unions, 
 necessary in the clan system to avoid the fatal 
 results of too close in-breeding, are continued lhfc\an!°"^ 
 through force of prescribed usage, the consequence 
 being a general weakening of the ties of blood, on which the clan 
 was exclusively based. The infusion of foreign elements is later 
 increased by inter-tribal wars, abduction and the capture of 
 women and children. Hence, although the idea of consanguinity 
 persists, the tribe, as it expands, depends more and more on 
 common social and political institutions, and less on actual 
 kinship. Doubtless the foreign elements, entering slowly, are in 
 great measure slowly absorbed, so that the physical characters of 
 the group are long maintained almost intact ; but the time comes 
 when there is no longer any " necessary correlation between the 
 social unit which we call a tribe and the physical unit which con- 
 stitutes the characteristics of the individuals of a certain region ^" 
 
 It is, however, to be noticed that during the early period of 
 human society the interminglings were necessarily between closely 
 allied communities, such as the Italic Latins and Sabines, so that 
 the racial integrity would be Httle affected by such incidents as 
 the "rape of the Sabines"; hence the tribe amongst peoples at a 
 low grade of culture is still commonly taken as a consanguineous 
 group in ethnological writings. Beyond the exact sciences most 
 things are relative, and we live in a world of compromise \ 
 
 1 T/ie Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast, 1894, p. 175. 
 
 ^ Gr. ^^c<;= outside; 7d/C4os = marriage. The convenient term exogamy, first 
 proposed by IVPLennan, implies the custom of seeking a wife outside the tribe, 
 and is thus opposed to endogamy (Gr. ^j'5oj' = within), marriage within the tribe, 
 assumed to be a later development. 
 
 ^ Dr Franz Boas, Anthropology of the A'orth Ajiiericati hidians, reprinted 
 from the Memoirs of the International Congress of Anthropology at Chicago 
 (1893), p. 38- 
 
 ■* Tribe (Lat. tribus) has been referred to an Aryan word trapd, which 
 
8 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 At the base of the tribe is the fa7?ii7y, which is the irreducible 
 
 unit of the clan, but which in Anthropology is also 
 
 Family a taken in a wide sense, though always so as to 
 
 class term. . " . ' 
 
 imply consanguinity. No difficulty is presented oy 
 this larger use of the word, which is applicable to any great 
 division comprising a number of more or less closely alhed sub- 
 groups. Thus all mankind may be regarded as a family forming 
 one of the five sub-groups of the anthropoidea. Similarly the 
 primary, and even lesser divisions, of the hominidse may be 
 spoken of as so many famiUes in reference to the whole group, 
 and so on. 
 
 But in its narrower sense no word has given rise to more 
 angry discussion than the family, taken as the 
 ^i^Tunit^^ starting point of all human society. It involves 
 such questions as original promiscuity, various 
 kinds of polyandry, and polygamy as antecedent to monogamy. 
 Here it will suffice to state that the assumption of primitive 
 promiscuity advocated by so many recent ethno- 
 logists is neither necessary nor even probable. 
 The views of M*^Lennan and Morgan, which are supposed to 
 nd ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ present, have been sharply criticized 
 Wester- by Horatio Hale\ and by Edward Westermarck of 
 
 marc s views, j^gigingfors (Finland) in his able treatise on The 
 Origin of Human Marriage (1890), where the conclusion is 
 arrived at that " in all probability there was no stage of human 
 development when marriage did not exist, and the father always 
 was, as a rule, the protector of his family. Human marriage 
 
 survives in the Gothic thatirp, whence thorps Ger. dorf. If the equation be 
 correct, this word meant originally nothing more than a village group or com- 
 munity, whereas the clan was always associated with the idea of kinship ; hence 
 Ir. or Gael. f/a;m = offspring, descendants; and im, kind are the Sanskrit 
 Janana, Gr. 7^j'os, Lat. gens, Old German Chunni. The word mankind itself 
 is the Anglo-Saxon mancyjin, implying the ultimate kinship of all the human 
 family. 
 
 1 In Language as a Test of Mental Capacity, from the Transactions of the 
 Royal Society of Canada (1891), where this ethnologist rejects the cattle- 
 herding theory, holding with Darwin that, from the first, man was a pairing 
 animal. 
 
PRELIMINARY. 
 
 seems to be an inheritance from some ape-like progenitor" 
 
 (p. 64) •. 
 
 In confirmation of this statement it may be pointed out that 
 most if not all of the Simiidae, man's nearest akin, 
 live either in family groups or in small parties amongsfthe^ 
 of several families, and construct arboreal shelters Anthropoid 
 where the female and young pass the night. It is 
 noteworthy that the male gorilla is said to sleep at the foot of the 
 tree, while the chimpanzee occupies a forked branch below the 
 family resting-place, thus illustrating various stages in the evolution 
 of the family life. Some of the New Guinea and Sudanese 
 aborigines also build arboreal habitations, in which all the 
 members of the family reside, or take refuge from more powerful 
 hostile neighbours ^ The social unit is thus reached by the 
 natural process from below, and not with Prof T. H. Green by 
 implication from above. " If asked by what warrant we carry 
 back the institution of the family into the life of the most primi- 
 tive men, we answer that we carry it back no farther than the 
 interest in permanent good. From beings incapable of such an 
 interest, even though connected by acts of generation [genetic 
 ascent ?] with ourselves, we cannot in any intelligible sense have 
 been developed ^" Those who have studied these questions in 
 situ never reason in this way. They know that " primitive men " 
 have no thought for "permanent good," though fully aware of the 
 present advantages derived from association. It is well under- 
 stood even by the Fuegians, who form family groups, but have 
 not yet reached the clan state, as shown by the absence of totems, 
 the children being named neither from the father's nor from the 
 mother's side, but only from the place of birth. Thus all will 
 have the same name if born in the same place, and all will have 
 different names if born in different places ^ Here there is no 
 
 ^ This work, which is written in sterling English, is of a fundamental 
 character, and deserves to be better known than it appears to be in the English- 
 speaking world. But the subject is so vast, that it may almost be said already 
 to form a separate branch of the anthropological sciences intermediate between 
 ethnology proper and sociology. 
 
 '^ Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan, ii. p. 628. 
 
 ^ Prolegomena to Ethics, § 231. 
 
 ^ " I figli non portano il nome dei genitori ma prendono i nomi delle localita 
 
10 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 clan, tribe, or government of any kind, but the family exists 
 everywhere. 
 
 Intimately connected with the primary social division is the 
 vexed question of toteinism^^ which Lubbock and 
 
 Totemism. , •• i i • r 
 
 Spencer trace back to the general practice of 
 naming persons after plants and especially animals — Deer, Bear, 
 Turtle, &c. — these animals thus in certain cases becoming here- 
 ditary family and clan names. But Prof. E. B.Tylor, perhaps the 
 first authority on all questions of primitive culture, warns us that 
 ''while granting such a theory affords a rational interpretation of 
 
 the obscure facts of totemism, we must treat it as a 
 
 Origin of . , 
 
 the Totemic theory not vouched for by sufficient evidence, and 
 system. within our knowledge liable to mislead if pushed to 
 
 extremes" {Prim. Culture, ii. p. 215). It is nevertheless now 
 commonly assumed with M^'Lennan {Fortnightly Rev. 1869 — 70) 
 that all or nearly all peoples have passed through this totem- 
 stage of human society. In its present aspect the totemic system 
 is thus set forth by Col. Garrick Mallery : " An animal or a plant, 
 or sometimes a heavenly body, was mythologically at first, and at 
 last sociologically, connected with all persons of a certain stock, 
 who believe or once beheved, that it was their tutelar god, as 
 they bear its name Each clan or gens took as a badge or 
 objective totem the representation of the tutelar daimon from 
 which it was named. As most Indian tribes were zootheistic, the 
 object of their devotion was generally an animal, e.g. an eagle, a 
 panther, a buffalo... a snake or a fish, but sometimes was one of 
 the winds, a celestial body, or other impressive object or pheno- 
 
 dove nascono...Quindi dieci figli, che nascono in dieci luoghi differenti, hanno 
 dieci nomi diversi " (Dr Domenico Lovisato, Appunti etnografici...siilla Terra 
 del Fuocoy Turin, 1884, p. 34). It is noteworthy that in this lowest known 
 form of the family group, it is not the mother but the father that rules, showing 
 that matriarchy need not necessarily have preceded patriarchy, as is too readily 
 assumed from the study of more advanced social systems wrongly called 
 "primitive." 
 
 ^ From the Algonquian word totem, the proper form of which appears to be 
 otern, the distinctive badge carefully guarded by each member of the clan 
 (Cuoq, Etudes philologlqiies sur quelqiics latignes sauvages de rA^Jierique, quoted 
 by Reclus, xv. p. 480, French ed.). 
 
PRELIMINARY. 1 1 
 
 This view may perhaps be accepted, on the con- 
 dition of reversing the process of evolution. We are too apt to 
 read into the primitive mind our own elevated thoughts on the 
 relations between the natural and supernatural orders; else it 
 would be seen that the "sociological" must have preceded the 
 "mythological" stage. Hence the belief that the totem was "a 
 god" or "tutelar daimon," must be regarded, so to say, as an 
 afterthought, evolved when the savage mind had become capable 
 of such a lofty conception. Palaeolithic man for instance, was 
 certainly not a "zootheist," or a "theist" of any kind; yet the 
 Dordogne "artists" or the Derbyshire cave-dwellers may well 
 have had their family names derived from the surrounding fauna 
 and other sources, for, as shown, they were ab initio constituted 
 in family groups. The mistake here made is somewhat analogous 
 to that of the missionary who deified the augad (totem) of the 
 Mabuiag Islanders (Torres Strait), translating the Son of God 
 (Mark i. i) by the words Aiigadau kazi, literally "the Totem's 
 Son." The expression remains unintelligible to these Papuans, 
 whose totems are still merely family names (crocodile, snake, 
 shark, &c.), and have not even reached the rank of demons, 
 much less that of the Supreme Being. But the generally received 
 theory adapts itself fairly well to the present relatively advanced 
 stage of those primitive cultures which have here and there some- 
 what dimly grasped the idea of anthropomorphic genii powerful 
 for good or evil, mostly evil. 
 
 The terms branch, stock or stejn, being borrowed from the 
 "family tree," always imply close kinship, and Branch, 
 their use should give rise to no ambiguity. But stock, 
 
 . -11 Stem. 
 
 words of such precision have necessarily less cur- 
 rency in anthropological than in linguistic studies. This is well 
 seen in Powell's classification of the North American Indians 
 (Washington, 1891), where the expression "stock language" is 
 always intelligible, whereas "stock race" has to be used with 
 great reserve. The philologist has no doubt at all about the 
 radical difference between, for instance, the Iroquian and the 
 
 ^ Picture-writing of the Atnerican Indians, in Tenth Annual Report of the 
 Bureau of Ethnology^ Washington 1893, p. 38S. 
 
12 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 Algonquian stock languages, while the anthropologist scarcely 
 admits two distinct Iroquian and Algonquian physical types. 
 Much of the confusion pervading most ethnological treatises 
 arises from inattention to this fundamental contrast between 
 ethnical and linguistic relations, as will presently be seen. 
 
 Type stands apart from all other general terms in ethnological 
 
 nomenclature. It is not a race, a tribe or a family, 
 abstraction. ^^ ^^Y concrcte division whatsoever ; but is rather 
 
 in the nature of an abstraction, a model or pattern to 
 which all possible divisions are referable. Originally meaning a 
 mould or matrix, or rather a casting from a mould \ it is taken as 
 a summary of all the characters assumed to be proper to a given 
 class or group. Thus type becomes the standard by which we 
 measure the relative position of individuals in a group. But in 
 practice no individual exists, or ever did exist, who is entirely 
 conformable to any given standard. Hence type necessarily 
 resolves itself into a question of averages \ individuals possessing 
 most of the characters peculiar to a group are said to be typical 
 members of that group, and even this only in a relative sense. 
 They approximate nearer than other members to the ideal, but 
 none absolutely reach it. There is, for instance, no perfect 
 embodiment of the Caucasic or of the Mongolic type, and it has 
 been well remarked that "a large proportion of mankind is made 
 up, not of extreme or typical, but of more or less generaHsed or 
 intermediate forms ^" 
 
 Exaggerated specimens, hypertypes, as they are called, do 
 however occur, but only in one or two respects; such are the 
 Fijian Kai Colos, who are said to be "hypertypical Melanesians," 
 because of the excessive doHchocephaly of their crania {Flower). 
 But it would be rash to assert that these aborigines, of whom little 
 is otherwise known, are even typical Melanesians in every respect. 
 Other forms of the word, such as proto-type, sub-type, etc., explain 
 themselves. But it should be noted that in its simplest form 
 type is also occasionally used in a concrete sense, as 
 colcre^te^term^ ^vhcu wc Say that the Ba-twa are a type of the 
 African Negritoes, meaning that they are typical 
 
 1 Gr. TviTTU), to strike, hence a stamp or distinguishing mark. 
 - Flower and Lydekker, Mammals living and extinct, p. 744. 
 
PRELIMINARY. 1 3 
 
 negritoes. This use of the word, however, often gives rise to 
 misunderstandings, which, as observed by M. Sanson, might be 
 avoided by using the more definite expressions "racial type," 
 "specific type," and so on\ 
 
 Most of the Indefinite terms also explain themselves, and with 
 ordinary care can scarcely lead to any misunder- 
 standings. The chief point to observe is that the nite^^erms.^*^" 
 definites and indefinites are not necessarily inter- 
 changeable, because the latter do not connote or involve the 
 attributes of the former. Thus a branch is always a division, 
 section or group ; but divisions, sections or groups need not be 
 branches. The Melanesians are a branch, section or division of 
 the Negro stock ; they are also a section or division, but not a 
 branch, of the Oceanic peoples, who do not form a family group. 
 The Kipchaks may be called a tribe or a horde indifferently of the 
 Usbeg branch of the Turki race ; but they are a horde only 
 of the Mongolo-Turki nomads, their affinities being with the 
 Turki, not with the Mongol division. 
 
 Horde^ from yiirt^ urdit, a tent, then a group of tents, camp, host, 
 army, differs from tribe, in that it impHes no kinship, 
 
 Horde. 
 
 but only a group of nomads brought together for 
 predatory or other purposes. Many of the " Tatar hordes " were 
 not Tatar (Mongols) at all, but of Turki stock. The Sudanese 
 Sofas, are not a "tribe," as they have been described, but a horde, 
 a band of riff-raff from all the surrounding tribes (Mandingans, 
 Fulahs, Bambaras and others), brought together by Samory to war 
 against the French in the Upper Niger basin, and to raid the land 
 for slaves and plunder (1893-95). This is the obvious historic and 
 general ethnological use of the term horde, which has to be made 
 the starting point of human society only by those writers who with 
 M^'Lennan evolve order out of "promiscuity." "If we may properly 
 dismiss the term family as a scientific appellation for the earHest 
 group of human beings, and if we may consistently call it the 
 horde, borrowing the term from INPLennan, we shall, at least, 
 
 ^ Bill, de la Soc. d''Anthrop. June — Oct. 1889, p. 400. All will agree mth 
 this naturalist that "il y aurait avantage a ne pas se servir, dans le langage 
 anthropologique, d'expressions vagues qui ne servent qu'a obscurcir les idees " 
 (ib.). 
 
14 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 be clearing the way to prevent a misconception from a confusion 
 
 in terminology ^" Here horde is taken as practically synonymous 
 
 with herd, and " confusion " would be better avoided by frankly 
 
 making the substitution. Then horde will recover its historic 
 
 significance, and M'^Lennan's " Theory of the Primitive Human 
 
 Herd'' will at least have the merit of putting the point at issue 
 
 in intelligible language. This "cattle-herd" theory is a pure 
 
 assumption, an unscientific deduction, based on blank ignorance 
 
 of facts that can never be known until the social life of eolithic 
 
 man is recovered. The nearest analogous case is the social life of 
 
 the higher apes, who, as seen, do not herd together, but live in 
 
 family groups. But the less is known about these relations, the 
 
 thicker the tomes devoted to their exposition. 
 
 Through the horde the tribe expands into the nation d^n^ people, 
 
 where the idea of race or kinship is destroyed by 
 
 universal mixture. The nation comprises all the 
 
 inhabitants of a given region subject long enough to one political 
 
 system to have acquired a certain outward uniformity, a common 
 
 standard of social usages, interests, aspirations, generally also 
 
 language, literature and religion. But although not involving 
 
 common origin, it tends towards ethnical uniformity or unity, by 
 
 the gradual fusion of diverse elements in a uniform type. Some 
 
 nations, such as the Swedes, have in great measure acquired such 
 
 uniformity, and with them race and nation become practically 
 
 convertible terms. People is a still more elastic 
 People. . J 1 1 . . , 
 
 expression, and may be taken to comprise in the 
 
 singular all the uncombined sections of the nation, in the plural 
 
 an aggregate of nations remotely connected by vague traditions, 
 
 allied languages and especially a common social culture. Thus we 
 
 speak of the " Hungarian people," an expression which includes 
 
 the Ugrian Magyars, the German Transylvanians, several Slav 
 
 groups, the Rumanians of Latin speech, and others scarcely yet 
 
 merged in a common nationaHty although living under a common 
 
 political administration. So also the wider expression " European 
 
 peoples" embraces many nations mostly of Aryan speech and 
 
 culture. 
 
 ^ G. L. Gomme, Jour. Anthrop. hist. iS88, p. 119. 
 
PRELIMINARY. 15 
 
 The foregoing remarks may be illustrated by the following 
 example, in which the definite and indefinite terms ^ , . 
 
 , ^, \ Example il- 
 
 are in italics ; Dr Oronhyatekha, who visited England lustrating the 
 in 1894, is a typical member of the Turtle clan of nites and in- 
 the Mohawk tribe^ who are a brajich of the Iroquois <^efinites. 
 natio7i. The Iroquois themselves, who speak a stock language, 
 form an important sectmi of the American variety of the Homi- 
 nidse, that is, of the human /z;;^//^' in the sub-order Anthropoidea of 
 the order Primates. 
 
CHAPTER IL 
 
 PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 
 
 Man's Place in the Animal Kingdom — The Primates — Old Divisions : Quad- 
 rumana and Bimana — New Divisions: Lemuroidea and Anthropoidea — 
 The five families of the Anthropoidea — Their range in time and space — 
 Diagram of the Anthropoid families — Relations of the family Hominidae to 
 the family Simiidae — Comparative Table of the Simiidie and Hominidae : 
 Gibbon ; Orang ; Gorilla ; Chimpanzee ; Dryopithecus ; HominidcC — 
 Points of resemblance to and difference from the Simiidae — Origin of 
 Man by Creation or Evolution — Creation Theory inadequate — Evolution 
 Theory adequate — Natural and Supernatural views reconciled — Difficulties 
 of the progressive evolutionist theory — Views of de Quatrefages, de 
 Mortillet and Sergi — The Castenedolo Man — Sergi's Tertiary Hominidas 
 — Quaternary Man — Cannstadt Man rejected — Neanderthal affirmed — The 
 Quaternary Hominidae — Kollmann's Dauertypus — Persistence of primitive 
 types — Views of French, English and American Anthropologists — Diffi- 
 culties of the Dauertypus theory — Analogy of the Equidae — Their evolution 
 — Sergi's Tertiary Hominidae rejected — Persistence of, and Reversals to, 
 primitive types reconciled with evolutionary teachings — Comparative 
 Diagrams of Pleistocene Hominidae and Equidae — Broad stages of physical 
 evolution from a postulated Anthropoid Miocene precursor. 
 
 At the end of the foregoing Chapter man's position in the 
 ^„ , , animal kingdom was determined from the purely 
 
 Man's place ° . 
 
 in the animal zoological Standpoint. That he is an animal, and 
 °"^* as such must be related to other animals, is no 
 
 discovery of modern science. Even the schoolmen defined him 
 as am'ma/ rationale^ a definition which the ethnologist may accept 
 without hesitation as at least partly true. What modern science 
 has done is to give precision and completeness to this definition, 
 by fixing the place of man as an animal in the clmss of mammals, 
 and by separating him, mainly in virtue of his exclusive posses- 
 sion of articulate speech, from other animals to whom the reason- 
 ing faculty can scarcely be denied. Man will accordingly here be 
 
CH. II.] PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 1 7 
 
 considered as a rational animal possessing the faculty of articulate 
 speech. 
 
 Zoologists distinguish in the Class Mammals the large and 
 widespread group of Apes and Half- Apes (Lemurs), 
 
 ^. ° ^ ^ • 1 • J The Primates. 
 
 which m all modern systems constitute the inde- 
 pendent order Primates^ so named by Linne because viewed as 
 a whole they are the chief or most highly specialized ^j^ ^.^._ 
 
 members of the class. Cuvier made two divisions sions. 
 of the Primates, the Quadriwiafia or "four-handed," Quadrumana 
 comprising all the Apes and Half- Apes, whose four 
 extremities are more or less prehensile, and the Bimana or 
 "two-handed," comprising the single genus Homo, that is, man 
 alone, whose two anterior extremities are prehensile (true hands), 
 while the two hinder are true feet. But these terms, after playing 
 a large part in anthropological writings, have flillen into disuse, 
 being not only unsatisfactory but even misleading. " Anatomic- 
 ally the foot of apes agrees far more with the foot of man than 
 wuth his hand, and similarly the ape's hand resembles man's hand 
 and differs from his feet. Even estimated physiologically, or 
 according to use, the hand throughout the whole order [Primates] 
 remains the prehensile organ /^7r excellefice, while the predominant 
 function of the foot, however prehensile it be, is constantly loco- 
 motive. Therefore the term Quadrumana is apt to be misleading, 
 since anatomically both apes and man have two hands and a pair 
 of feet ^" 
 
 Excluding the Bats, which had been classed by Linne' with 
 the Primates, recent systematists split the Order into 
 the two suborders Lemuroidea and Anthropoidea, sions^-s^ub-^^' 
 and subdivide the Anthropoidea^, that is, the "man- orders 
 
 Lemuroidea 
 
 Hke forms" into five families, of which the Homi- and Anthro- 
 jiidti constitute the fifth. Of the other families two, p°'^^^- 
 
 ^ St George Mivart, Man and Apes, p. 88. 
 
 - Gr. "Ai/^jOOJTTos and er5os = form, shape; hence in the shape, form or like- 
 ness of man. The term etSos as a suffix has a wide application in ethnology, in 
 which it serves to distinguish between groups conformable to and more or less 
 divergent from a given type. Thus : the Ashanti are true Negroes, whereas the 
 Zulu-Kafirs are rather Negi'oid. So Mongoloid, Caucasoid, Attstraloid and 
 so on. 
 
 K. 2 
 
ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 The five Hftpalidce (Marmosets) and Cebidce (American 
 
 families of the ^, ^ ^ , • •, ^ -, ■■ 
 
 Anthropoidea. monkeys) are exclusively confined to the New 
 Family World, while the two others, Cercopithecid(B (baboons, 
 
 ai'""^h'^? macaques and other apes generally long-tailed), and 
 
 th ir r n e SwiHdcB (Gibbon, Orang-utan, Anthropopithecus or 
 
 in time and Chimpanzee, and Gorilla, all tailless) are confined 
 
 ^^^'^^* to the tropical and temperate regions of the Old 
 
 World. The range of the Simiidee is still further restricted at 
 present to the tropics, Gibbon and Orang to Indo-China and 
 Malaysia, Chimpanzee and Gorilla to equatorial Africa. But in 
 former times they extended far beyond these limits, the fossil 
 remains of a true Chimpanzee PalcBopithecus or Anthropopithecus 
 sivalensis) having been found in the pliocene of the Panjab, an 
 extinct Gibbon {Fliopithecus) in the Middle Miocene of France, 
 and in the same geological formation a somewhat generalized 
 Simian {Dryopitheais) approximating nearest to the Chimpanzee, 
 but also showing affinities to the Gorilla, and even to the Cerco- 
 pithecidse. But it should be remembered that in the Miocene, 
 and generally before the first ice-age of which there is any 
 evidence, the tropical zone extended far beyond its present 
 limits, and certainly comprised all the regions where these 
 fossil apes have been found (see p. 22, 24). Hence it is im- 
 possible to infer from their remains that the Simiid^e at any 
 time lived in colder climates than that of their present equatorial 
 habitat. 
 
 It is important to note that man has points of contact with all 
 these genera of the Simiidas, as well as with the other families of 
 the suborder \ and further that "the differences between man and 
 the Anthropoid apes are really not so marked as those which 
 Diagram of Separate the latter from the American monkeys"." 
 lilsofthe"^^' -^^^ position in the suborder is placed in a clear 
 Anthropoid light in the accompanying diagram of the five 
 
 Primates. families, where the distance between the Hominidse 
 
 1 So marked are the links with the half-apes that some zoologists trace 
 man directly from the suborder Lemurs without passing through the line of 
 anthropoids at all. This view, however, seems somewhat paradoxical, and 
 does not appear to have been taken seriously by specialists. 
 
 2 Flower and Lydekker, op. cit. p. 740. 
 
II. 
 
 PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN, 
 
 19 
 
 and the Old World anthropoids is less than that between the 
 latter and the two New World groups : — 
 
 Hominidcp 
 
 Simiidce 
 
 Cercopithecichf 
 
 Cehidcv 
 
 Hapalidce 
 
 GENERALISED ANTHROPOID FORM. 
 
 It is popularly supposed that, according to evolutionary 
 teachings, man is "descended" from the Gorilla, or Relations of 
 the Chimpanzee, or from some other member of the man to the 
 
 ^. ,. , , . _-, Simiidse. 
 
 Simudae, his nearest congeners. But no sane 
 evolutionist holds such a doctrine, and from this diagram it is 
 seen that the ascent of man is taken to be in an independent 
 line from some long extinct generalised form, from which the 
 other branches also spring in independent Hues. All have some 
 features in common, while each presents some special characters, 
 the source of which is to be sought partly perhaps in a common 
 precursor, but mainly in their independent development along 
 divergent lines of growth. At the same time the points of 
 resemblance between the Hominidas and the Simiidce are far 
 more numerous than between the Hominidte and any other 
 group, from which it may be inferred that the divergence of 
 the higher groups really took place in the sequence indicated 
 
20 ETHNOLOGY. [CIIAP. 
 
 in the diagram. Hence for the ethnologist the study of man 
 
 Comparative ^^o^^ the physical side is naturally confined to his 
 
 Table of the position in respect of the higher apes. These 
 
 five genera of -^ ^ . . 
 
 the simiidae alone are consequently included in the subjoined 
 f"mi°y Table, in which those points only are indicated 
 
 Hominidae. ^]-j^^ havc a more or less direct bearing on the 
 
 relations of the Hominidae to the Simiidae ^ 
 
 Gibbon {Hylobates): Range, Indo-China and Malay Archi- 
 pelago; Species, Siamang {Hylobates syndadylus), of Sumatra, 
 largest (3 feet high), and specially remarkable for its well-de- 
 veloped chin, in this and its wide chest approximating nearer to 
 man than any other ape; Hoolock {H. hoolock) of South Assam and 
 Upper Irawady Basin, with distinctly aquiline nose ; White-handed 
 Gibbon {H. lar) of Tenasserim and Malaysia; Dun-coloured 
 Gibbon {H. entelloides) of Malaysia; Tufted 
 Gibbon {H. pileatus) of Siam and Camboja; the 
 extinct Pliopithecus of the Middle Miocene of France. The 
 Gibbons are the only apes that habitually walk erect, with a 
 quick waddHng gait, resting on the hind feet alone with sole 
 planted flat on the ground, great toe wide apart, and the dis- 
 proportionately long arms held upwards, sometimes horizontally. 
 Voice much like man's at a distance — a peculiar wailing note and 
 a double call ijioo-lock). Dorsal vertebrae 12 to 14; ribs 7 to 8 
 on each side with angles more marked than in any of the other 
 genera except man; slender figure. 
 
 Orang-utan {Simid)\ Only two known species of which 6". 
 satyrus is confined to Borneo and Sumatra; red-haired; male 4ft. 
 4 in. high, bulky body, extremely short legs, and long arms reach- 
 ing when erect down to the ankles, walks slowly and deliberately, 
 resting on the knuckles of the hands and the outer sides of the 
 feet, the soles being turned mainly inwards; habits arboreal; 
 nests of boughs and leaves; food exclusively vegetable. The 
 reddish-brown hair covers the whole body, and in adult males 
 forms a well-developed beard; thumb and great toe very short; 
 ^ dorsal vertebrre 1 2 as in man ; 1 2 pair of ribs ; brain 
 
 Oran^. , , , . ; r ; 
 
 in its convolutions more human -like than any 
 ^ Data mainly from Flower and Lydekker, op. cit. 
 
IL] 
 
 PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 
 
 21 
 
 SKULL OF ORAXG. 
 
 ORANG-UTAN. 
 
22 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Other ape's; skull highly vaulted and brachycephalic; superciliary 
 ridges moderately developed and not prominent as in Gorilla; 
 canine teeth of male very large; lips thicker than in any other ape. 
 Remains of a species of Orang (a broken canine) have been 
 found in the Lower Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills, showing former 
 range northwards to the Himalayas. 
 
 Gorilla {Gorilla) only one known species {G. savagei) con- 
 fined to West Equatorial Africa, between the Cameroons and Lower 
 Congo river ; massive body and Hmbs thickly covered with blackish 
 hair ; larger in bulk than man, but owing to the short legs never over 
 5ft. 6in. high ; in upright position arms reach to middle of lower 
 leg; very short thumb, great toe relatively longer; 
 Gorilla. ^[g-^xs of hands and feet partly united by integu- 
 
 ment; skull dolichocephaHc, with enormous superciliary arches, 
 giving the gorilla its peculiarly ferocious aspect ; canines of male 
 very large and inclined outwards in both jaws ; ear small but well 
 developed, with a rudiment of the human lobe : orbits also more 
 human in shape than in other apes; dorsal vertebrae 13, as in 
 chimpanzee ; wrist lacks the os centralc, as in chimpanzee and 
 man ; brain convoluted Uke orangs, but in some other respects 
 comes nearer to the human type, from which it differs only in its 
 inferior size and weight and in the more symmetrically convoluted 
 cerebrum, which is less complicated with secondary and tertiary 
 convolutions. The gorilla walks with backs of closed hands and 
 flat soles planted on the ground; voice a deep guttural sound, 
 varying from a grunt to a roar ; lives in family groups, female and 
 young passing the night in the trees, at foot of which the male is 
 said to sleep ; he is much larger than his mate, and tends to turn 
 greyish in old age. 
 
 Chlmpanzee {Anthropopithecus) : Two known species {A. tro- 
 glodytes and A. calvus), ranging over inter-tropical Africa, besides 
 the extinct A. sivalcnsis of the Pliocene of Northern India ; both 
 sexes much alike, the chief difference being the larger canines of 
 the male : extreme height 5 feet ; colour blacker than in gorilla 
 and ears relatively larger, but arms shorter, reaching 
 impanzee. ^^^ ^ ^.^^^^ below the knee ; the Chim.panzee 
 comes nearest to man in this as in some other respects, such as 
 the better developed thumb and great toe, presence of whiskers, 
 
II.J 
 
 PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 
 
 23 
 
 hmvnlll 
 
 ; 'i.riv^sh. 
 
 CHIMPANZEE. 
 
24 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 eye-brows and lashes, more rounded and far less rugged coronal 
 region of the skull, relatively much smaller canines, and in the 
 dentition generally ; is also more gentle, intelligent and social, 
 living not only in family groups, but even in parties of several 
 families; builds arboreal shelters for the female and young, the 
 male sleeping lower down, according to some observers. 
 
 Dryopithecus, an extinct anthropoid from the Middle 
 Miocene of France, same size as and apparently nearest aUied to, 
 Chimpanzee ; figures largely in ethnological writings, being taken 
 by certain theorists as the precursor of man in Europe. But Dryo- 
 pithecus appears to represent a more generaHsed member of the 
 family, that is, an earlier and simpler type from 
 which the four living genera of Simiidse and the 
 family Hominidae may have ascended. Consequently Dryopithecus 
 must have been farthest removed from man in time, and must 
 have possessed fewer properties of a specially human character. 
 Between it and man many more gaps would have to be bridged 
 than, for instance, between Chimpanzee and man. But, as 
 above shown, man cannot be derived directly from Chimpanzee ; 
 how much less from Dryopithecus ! So much may be inferred 
 from what little is known of this fossil, which is represented 
 only by a single species, whose dentition stands at a stage of 
 evolution intermediate between the Cercopithecidae and Gorilla, 
 consequently lower than that of all the Simiidce. " A gradual 
 transition in the form of the mandible may, indeed, be traced 
 from Dryopithecus, through Gorilla, to Anthropopithecus " (Flower 
 and Lydekker); and this is all that can be said for the "human 
 characters" of Dryopithecus, on which so many fanciful theories 
 have been built. How little it is may be seen from the fact that, 
 although the mandible (lower jaw) of Anthropopithecus (Chim- 
 panzee) approximates in some respects to the human, it does so 
 in less degree than that of the gibbon, which on the whole is the 
 least human of all the Simiidce. In any case it would have to be 
 shown that the later evolution of Dryopithecus proceeded rather 
 in the direction of Hominidce than of Simiidce ; there is of course 
 no evidence of this, although in Prof. Sollas' diagram {A^iture, 
 Dec. 19, 1895) a suggested line of human ascent diverges from the 
 stem either of Pliopithecus or of Dryopithecus. 
 
II.] PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 25 
 
 HoMiNiD.E. (Linne's Genus Homo), forming one species, with 
 four primary varieties, all connected by endless inter- 
 mediate forms ; spread over most of the habitable ^. J^^ Homi- 
 world from Pleistocene times ; in this work the four 
 varieties are named : Homo /Eihiopicus (Negro), most of Africa and 
 Australasia ; Homo Mongolkus, most of Asia and Malaysia, parts 
 of Europe ; Ho7?io Caucasiins, most of Europe, parts of Asia and 
 Africa originally; Homo Amej'icanus, all the New World. 
 
 Main points of resemblance with the Simiidce in physical 
 structure: i. The general anatomical structure, the 
 framework of all being cast on the same lines, so biancert'o the 
 that all may be conceived as merging or tending to Simiidae in 
 
 •^ & to o structure. 
 
 merge one in the other, although at present the 
 primary groups are not united by any intermediate forms. 2. The 
 complete disappearance of the tail in all, nothing remaining 
 except a few caudal vertebrae, invisible in the living subject; hence 
 the folly of the quest for " tailed men," all reports regarding whom 
 (Borneo, Equatorial Africa) may be dismissed as fabulous. If no 
 species even of genus Gibbon can show any external trace of this 
 appendix, it cannot be expected in any variety, however low, of 
 the Hominidae, by far the most speciaHsed group in the suborder. 
 3. The two anterior and the two hinder extronities fairly well 
 developed throughout as true hands and feet respectively. 4. The 
 dentition, which as regards the number and sequence of the teeth 
 is the same in all the Old World Anthropoidea as in man. 5. 
 Ear, universally well developed, but lobeless in the Apes, Gorilla 
 alone showing a rudiment of the human lobule. 6. Brain, which 
 in form and general structure is much the same in man and Apes. 
 7. Hyoid bone. 8. Liver. 9. Ccecum, all identical. 
 
 Main points of difference from the Simiidae: — i. Brain, 
 absolutely as well as relatively much smaller in all ^ ^ ^^ 
 
 apes than in man ; highest cranial capacity of difference from 
 
 ^ 1 ^1 • 1 • 1 • ^1 • i. the Simiidae. 
 
 Orang and Chmipanzee, which m this respect 
 approximate nearest to the human, 26 and 27J cubic inches 
 respectively; lowest normal in man 55. 2. Brain-case, much 
 larger in man relatively to the facial part of the skull. 3. Vertebral 
 Cohnnn, completely adapted in man alone to the erect position, 
 being curved doubly so as to perfectly balance the head. 4. Legs, 
 
26 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. II.] 
 
 much longer in men than in apes relatively to the arms. 5. Great 
 toe, longer in man, and not opposable to the other digits. 
 Although this is one of the most marked differences between the 
 two families, it is not a strong zoological character, since it 
 depends on a slight change in the form of a single bone (the 
 entocuneiform) ; but great toe not opposable in the human fcetus, 
 as has been asserted \ 6. Nose, well developed in man, very 
 slightly prominent in the Apes, except the Hoolock Gibbon, 
 in which it is aquiUne. 7. De^ittftofi, forms in man alone 
 an uninterrupted series of horse-shoe shape, without prominent 
 ^anine teeth ; but the canines of the lower and higher races differ, 
 the crown of the former being larger relatively to the neck, and 
 terminating, like those of the Apes, in a sharp point, usually much 
 worn (F. Regnault). 8. C/wi, developed in man alone, though 
 in one Gibbon (Siamang) the union of the mandibles forms a 
 slight projection like the human chin. On the other hand "there 
 is no chin in the jaw of the Cannstadt [Spy] race, and the large 
 angle approaches without nearly equaUing that of the anthropoids" 
 (Cope, Genealogy of Man, A?ner, Naturalist, April 1893, p. 330). 
 9. Hair, covers the whole body in all the Anthropoids, restricted 
 mainly to the scalp and parts of the face in man ; the human hair 
 is woolly, or quasi-woolly in Homo ^thiopicus, never in any of 
 the true apes, or even of the half-apes, except the Woolly Lemur 
 {Avahis laniger) of Madagascar. Greyness with years is also a 
 human feature, although the tendency has been observed in 
 Gorilla. Traditional reports regarding "hairy men" have been 
 verified only in the case of the Ainu people of North Japan, with 
 whom the character is certainly racial. 10. Voice, inarticulate 
 in all anthropoids ; articulate in all the hominida^, who conse- 
 quently are alone endowed with the gift of speech. This, with 
 the associated intellectual qualities, separates man altogether 
 from his anthropoid congeners, and consequently from all other 
 
 ^ " Jusqu'au troisieme mois de la vie intra-uterine ravticulation du gros 
 orteil du foetus humain est oblique, exactement comme chez les singes ; c'est 
 seulement au quatrieme mois qu'on la trouve transformee " (Salmon, Races 
 Humaiiies Prehistoriqiics, p. 4). Yet the great toe is somewhat opposable 
 among the Annamese, who from this circumstance have always been known to 
 the Chinese as Giao-Chi or "Crosstoes." 
 
i 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 
2S ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 members of the animal kingdom, with which his connection thus 
 appears to be mainly physical. As an animal he is a member of 
 the Anthropoidea ; as a speaking and reasoning animal he stands 
 apart and alone in a separate category, for "the essential attributes 
 which distinguish man, and give him a perfectly isolated position 
 among Hving creatures, are not to be found in his bodily structure" 
 (Flower and Lydekker, p. 739). 
 
 The general relations of man to the Simiid^e, as seen in the 
 skeleton, are shown in the accompanying diagram, reduced from 
 Huxley's Man's Place in Nahire. 
 
 From the data suppHed by this Table, one important point 
 
 comes out very clearly — that man cannot possibly 
 ma "She^r by ^sccnd ' directly from any of the living anthropoid 
 evolution or apes. He has some physical features in common 
 
 with each, some different from each, some, and 
 these not the least important, entirely peculiar to himself. Con- 
 sequently, even on the physical side he stands somewhat apart 
 from, but yet so near to, all, that his origin can be explained only 
 by a process of natural evolution from a common precursor, or 
 else by direct creation ; there is absolutely no other alternative. 
 
 If what may be called the deiis ex viachina view be 
 theory^^°" accepted, then the gate to further inquiry is closed, 
 
 ethnology becomes ethnography, and we revert to 
 the stage at which the question stood in the uncritical times when 
 dogmatism usurped the chair of science. Only dogmatism would 
 still have to grapple with many new and hopeless difficulties, 
 resulting from the cumulation of a multiplicity of fresh facts, which 
 point unmistakeably at natural processes of development. Such, 
 for instance, are the caudal vertebrae and other rudimentary" or 
 atrophied" organs which man has in common with the anthro- 
 
 ^ 0\i\\oyx%\y ascend, not descend; so Broca : "Quant a moi, je trouve plus 
 de gloire a monter qu'a descendre, et si j'admettais I'intervention des impres- 
 sions sentimentales dans les sciences, je dirais que j'aimerais mieux etre un 
 singe perfectionne qu'un Adam degenere" [Mcinoires d' Anthropolo^ie, in. 
 p. 146). 
 
 - Owing to their careless use even by scientific biologists, some confusion 
 prevails regarding the meaning of these two terms, which are not by any means 
 synonymous although constantly taken as such. A 7-iidiinentary or^an is one 
 
PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 
 
 poids, and which, being useless, are inexplicable on the assumption 
 of creation by infinite wisdom, but quite intelligible by the theory 
 of evolution. ''In order to understand the existence of rudi- 
 mentary orga?is we have only to suppose that a former progenitor 
 possessed the parts in question in a perfect state, and that under 
 changed habits of life they became greatly reduced^"' 
 
 But the supernatural view can in no way get rid of evolution, 
 which is indispensable to any theory that attempts 
 to account for many patent facts in the natural and^useies^s 
 history of the Hominidce. It is not, for instance, 
 pretended that all the Hominidse were independently created, but 
 one only. Consequently the transition from, say, the Homo 
 Caucasicus (if he was the starting-point) to the Homo yEthiopicus, 
 must have been effected by some natural evolutionary process ; 
 from this there is no escape for the creationist. Now the typical 
 white man differs enormously from the typical Negrito, so much 
 so that they would have to be regarded as separate species but for 
 the intermediate forms in actual existence. Here then we have in 
 any case a range of evolution scarcely less" than that which is 
 covered by the transition from Gibbon to Orang or Chimpanzee. 
 The difference is obviously one of degree only, and not of kind, so 
 far as regards physical structure. 
 
 Creation being thus useless unless supplemented by evolution, 
 it may be dropped, or reserved for such points, if Evolution 
 any there be, which cannot be explained by the theory ade- 
 natural process. This process is adequate for the 
 early or initial stages of development ; it may therefore be safely 
 
 so to say, beginning its life history, as for instance, the elementary chin and ear- 
 lobe in some anthropoids, which are more fully developed in man. An atrophied 
 organ is one, on the contrary, which has run its course, completed its life 
 history, leaving only a trace of its former existence, as, for instance, the caudal 
 vertebrae, remnants of a tail in the anthropoids and in man. Rudiment is the 
 Lat. riidivienhim, from riidis, rough, unfinished; atrophy is the Gr. drpotpia, a 
 wasting away through lack of nourishment, from d negative prefix and rpecpui, 
 to nourish, 
 
 1 Darwin, Descent of A/an, p. 25 of 1885 ed. 
 
 - Huxley implies that it is even more, for he declares that the gulf between 
 civilised and savage man is wider than that between the savage and the highest 
 apes. Man's Place in Nature, p. 78. 
 
30 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 concluded that primitive man, whether it be Haeckel's Homo 
 
 pnmige?ims alalus, or any other postulated form, was not created 
 
 but evolved. It need scarcely be added that 
 
 Creation not . ' i • j t • 
 
 excluded abso- creation, as possibly standing behind all hving 
 ^"^^^^' organisms, is not excluded absolutely, but only 
 
 relatively to the Hominidce, with whom alone ethnology is con- 
 cerned. 
 
 This attitude towards creative agency leaves science unshackled, 
 and gives a free hand to the biologist within the Umits of the 
 
 existing order, without prejudice to dogmatic pre- 
 su^e^rnat'ui"'^ conccptions, without ofifencc to extremists on either 
 views recon- side. It has the further advantage of obviating the 
 
 irreverent and unorthodox^ introduction of the Ens 
 Siiprevmm, with Cuvier and other supernaturalists, to account for 
 every successive change in the animal series, or else of needlessly 
 and rashly aboHshing the Ejis Snpremiim altogether, with the 
 presumptuous modern materialistic school. Natural philosophy is 
 not called upon to solve, or indeed to deal at all with, these 
 transcendental questions, which may well be left to metaphysicians 
 and theologians. It has certainly no right to dogmatise over 
 subjects beyond its sphere, about which it can never know any- 
 thing, although it may justly claim the right to dispense with the 
 aid of the creative force within the limits of legitimate speculation. 
 In this middle course would seem to He the true ultimate " recon- 
 ciliation of Science and Religion"." 
 
 1 Irreverent, because such implied bungling and tentative efforts to arrive 
 at more perfect types of organic life are derogatory to Infinite Wisdom; imor- 
 thodox, because multi-creation is not warranted by, but opposed to, Scripture, 
 which speaks only of three creative acts within the biological horizon— two for 
 the vegetable and animal kingdoms, and one for man. In the evil days of 
 rampant sacerdotalism Cuvier must have shared the stake with Giordano 
 Bruno. 
 
 2 So Lamarck: "Sans doute, rien n'existe que par la volonte du Sublime 
 Auteur de toutes choses. Mais pouvons-nous lui assigner des regies dans 
 I'execution de sa volonte et fixer le mode qu'il a suivi a cet egard ? Sa puis- 
 sance infinie n'a-t-elle pu creer un ordre de choses qui donnat successivement 
 I'existence a tout ce que nous voyons comme a tout ce qui existe et que nous ne 
 connaissons pas?...Respectant done les decrets de cette sagesse infinie, je me 
 renferme dans les bornes d'un simple observateur de la nature " {Philosophie 
 zoologique, I. ch. iii.). 
 
II.] PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 3 1 
 
 Man being thus evolved, evolutionists themselves are con- 
 fronted with a difficulty which they cannot shrink 
 from discussing. It is obvious from his physical of the progres- 
 relations to the Simiidae that the beginning of his sive evoiution- 
 
 1st theory. 
 
 evolution must date from the incalculably remote 
 miocene times, when Dryopithecus, and no doubt other fairly 
 developed anthropoid forms, had already made their appearance : 
 for, as seen, from none of these can man be derived. Where then 
 does he part company with all other branches of the suborder, and 
 enter on his own proper upward development ? Here the absence 
 of intermediate links, owing to the necessarily imperfect state 
 of the palseontological record, seems to bar further inquiry except 
 of a purely speculative character. De Quatrefages, 
 in fact, and his followers give up the problem, and Quau'^flges.^ 
 while claiming to be evolutionists — to a certain 
 extent, they deny that the gulf between animahty and humanity^ 
 as well as between the other animal orders, can be bridged over 
 by any process of progressive evolution. The position is exactly 
 analogous to that of certain philologists, who admit evolution 
 within each morphological order of speech, but not between the 
 several orders themselves. 
 
 Others with Mortillet (Prehisiorique, p. 104) claim as the 
 precursor of man a tertiary anthropoid, not how- rtiiiet 
 
 ever the Dryopithecus, so that the diverging point 
 from the pithecan stem towards quaternary man, admitted by 
 all, need not be dated farther back than tertiary times. The 
 tertiary precursor himself is assumed to have been near enough to 
 a true man to have made implements resembHng those found at 
 Thenay in France and at Otta in Portugal, and consequently 
 superior to those of the recently extinct Tasmanians, who were 
 certainly true men. The man of Otta, however, is not yet proven. 
 Such was the opinion of Evans, Virchow and de Quatrefages who 
 took part in the discussion on the subject, when the Otta flints were 
 produced at Lisbon by their finder, Carlos Ribeiro. But on that 
 occasion both Virchow and de Quatrefages treated it as a local 
 question, and declared their beHef in tertiary man on other 
 grounds: "Je crois a son existence, mais pour d'autres raisons" 
 (Virchow). 
 
32 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Sergi, a leading Italian anthropologist, rejects both of these 
 
 views; that of de Quatrefages as opposed to 
 ^^^^' numerous morphological facts in the animal and 
 
 human groups, and as reviving the exploded theory of fixed 
 species, and leading to the inconsistency of A. R. Wallace, who, 
 although one of the originators of the doctrine of selection, ex- 
 cludes man as specially created'; that of Mortillet because no 
 postulated Dryopithecus, or any analogous type, can develop 
 into the human form. All alike are already too highly specialised 
 in other lines of development. Sergi holds not only that the 
 
 Thenay objects, but even the fossil remains from 
 doT^m^n^^^"^' ^^^ tertiary deposits of Castenedolo in the Brescia 
 
 district, found m situ by Ragazzoni in i860, and 
 allowed by de Quatrefages^ to belong to the tertiary epoch, 
 represent fully developed human beings, so that man would have 
 already appeared in that epoch, endowed with all the characters 
 by which he is at present distinguished from the lower mammals. 
 But Sergi, who may be taken as the most powerful champion 
 
 of "tertiary man," goes much further than this, and 
 
 Sergi's ter- . 
 
 tiary Homi- expresses his conviction not only that man, but the 
 ^' Hominidae themselves, whom he regards not as mere 
 
 varieties but as true species, had already been differentiated as 
 genus homo in pHocene times, from which period the different 
 species have, like the anthropoids, constantly maintained their 
 distinctive characters. Here are, therefore, not merely one but 
 several human prototypes, which would have persisted with little 
 change (a mere "series of ethnical modifications") from the pro- 
 digiously remote early tertiary period down to the present day^. 
 
 ^ Contribjttionsjo Ihe llieory of Natural Selection, 1878. 
 
 2 " A coup sur, si elle [la decouverte] avait ete faite dans un terrain quater- 
 naire, personne n'en aurait conteste la realite." Races Humaines. I. p. 100. 
 The remains comprised a man, a woman, and two children unearthed under 
 conditions afterwards verified by Sergi himself. 
 
 ^ " lo sono convinto che le specie umane si sono formate molto probabil- 
 niente nei primi periodi terziari, e sono apparse come gemis homo nel plioceno, 
 dal qual tempo, come le antropomorfe, han cbnservati costantemente i loro 
 caratteri. Dopo cio, una serie di modificazioni, che noi chiameremo etiiiche, 
 si sono prodotte per diverse cause tic." {Evoliizio7ie uviajia, 1S88, p. 11.) 
 
II.] PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 33 
 
 Whatever be said of this view, there is no doubt at all not 
 only that man, but even several varieties of Homi- 
 nid^e, had already appeared in quaternary times ^^^^^^^^^^ 
 in Europe, Africa, Java, South America and else- 
 where. Attempts have been made to discredit some of the 
 evidence bearing on this point, and no conclusions Evidence of 
 can certainly be drawn from the skull found at Cannstadt 
 
 ^ ,1 11-1 1 skuU rejected. 
 
 Cannstadt nearly two hundred years ago, and some- 
 what hastily taken as representing a palaeolithic "Cannstadt race.'' 
 It is even doubtful whether this skull, now preserved in Stuttgart, 
 is the one actually found, not in a quaternary bed as was said, 
 but associated with some potsherds in the talus or rainwash at^ 
 the foot of the cHff, on which is a modern cemetery. It may be 
 quite recent and probably pathological, or else a Evidence of 
 reversal to a palaeolithic dolichocephalic type with Neanderthal 
 
 . . , , . - , . , . skull affirmed. 
 
 Simian characters, the existence of which is now 
 established by overwhelming evidence. This type — upon the 
 osteological peculiarities of which it is unnecessary to dilate 
 here, further than to remark that its chief feature, the great 
 
 NEANDERTHAL SKULL. 
 
 development of the supra-orbital ridge, is sufficient to attract 
 the attention of even the most untrained observer — is commonly 
 known as that of Neanderthal, from a skull and some other human 
 remains extracted in 1856 from a quaternary bed in the Feld- 
 hofen cave of the Neander valley between Dusseldorf and Elber- 
 feld, Rhenish Prussia. The cranium, pronounced by Huxley to 
 be the most ape-like known (before 1892), is no longer regarded by 
 
 K. 3 
 
34 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Virchow as absolutely pathological; yet, although its normal 
 character has been fully demonstrated by Broca, Brinton and others 
 still clamour for its removal from anthropological works. But 
 even so, they cannot get rid of the type, the general characters of 
 which are shown in the restoration by Enrico Giglioli in his 
 work on the antiquity of man^ 
 
 In its essential features the same primitive type reappears in 
 other well authenticated human remains, such as 
 nary Homi"' those of La Naulettc near Dinant, Spy, also in 
 nidae. Per- Belgium, Shipka in the Balkan peninsula, Olmo in 
 primitive Italy, Predmost near Prerau in Bohemia^, Sam- 
 
 *^^^^' borombon and others in Argentina* and Brazil, 
 
 lastly Trinil in Java (Pithecanthropus erectus described at 
 p. 144). 
 
 From the American fossils, differing little from the forms still 
 surviving in the same regions, Kollmann infers that the human 
 species has not varied since quaternary times; whence his so- 
 called Daiieriypiis, or "persistent type^" From the 
 various an- European fossils similar inferences have been drawn 
 thropoiogists. ^^ g^^^^^ ^g Quatrefages and the French anthro- 
 pologists, who speak somewhat confidently of the persistence of 
 the types of palaeolithic men, and of reversals to such forms 
 amongst the present European populations. Broca even suggests 
 that the French Kelts might have resulted from the fusion of 
 quaternary man with Ligurian immigrants in neolithic times ^; 
 while de Quatrefages affirms the survival amongst us of direct 
 representatives of fossil races {Crania Ethnica, p. 28). So also 
 
 ^ Meeting of Berlin Gesell.f. Anthrop. Ethnol. &c., Oct. 20, 1S9-1. 
 
 2 L'UomOy sua antichita &c., Florence, 1893, p. 9. 
 
 3 The well-preserved fragments of skeletons of a whole diluvial family of 
 six persons, found in 1894 by Herr Maschka, associated with the remains of 
 numerous previously discovered mammoths ; that of the man wonderfully com- 
 plete and of gigantic proportions. {Athejicetwi, Sept. i, 1894.) 
 
 ■* A skeleton with 13 dorsal vertebrae, as in Chimpanzee, Gorilla and Cebidoe, 
 instead of the normal 12; found by Carles associated with a Megatherium 
 (Vilanova, International Congress of Americanists, 1892). 
 
 ^ Die Aiitochtonen America's, in Zeitschrift fUr Ethnologie, 1883, and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 * La race celtujue ancicnne et inodcrne, in Rev. d' Anthrop. vol. I, 
 
IT.] PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 35 
 
 Dr Houze, who considers that "heredity is so strong that, after 
 thousands of years, we still find in the midst of our populations 
 nearly pure descendants of our quaternary ancestors \" 
 
 At first sceptical, the foremost English anthropologists (the 
 late Prof. RoUeston, Flower, Thurnam, Barnard Davies, Galton 
 and others) have now mostly accepted these conclusions, while 
 still suspending their judgment regarding tertiary man. In the 
 first report (1882) of the Committee appointed to obtain photo- 
 graphs of the typical races in the British Isles, it is affirmed that, 
 despite universal miscegenation, primitive racial types may still 
 be recognised amongst the present inhabitants of Europe; that 
 prehistoric characteristics do survive and that under favourable 
 conditions a complete reversion to original types may take place 
 through the operation of natural laws. The Committee seems 
 to agree with KoUmann (the Swiss anthropologist) that original 
 features may be detected even in mixed populations, owing to 
 the persistence of pristine cranial characters long after the colour 
 of hair and eyes had been blurred by crossing; and lastly that a 
 complete fusion of constituent elements never absolutely occurs. 
 But there are reservations, and Dr Beddoe holds that, in the 
 absence of information respecting the features generally, light 
 hair and eyes and tall stature would not suffice to pronounce any 
 person a Saxon, Dane or Swede. 
 
 American specialists go even farther, and E. D. Cope, 
 amongst others is inclined to regard the man of Spy "as a 
 distinct species"; yet somewhat inconsistently thinks it equally 
 probable that, "taking into consideration the characters of the 
 Neolithic man, the Europeans originated in Europe, and that 
 some of us are the direct descendants of the Homo neander- 
 thalensis-.'" It should be added that this great palaeontologist 
 does not derive man directly from the lemurs (as asserted by 
 Topinard and others), without the intervention of the Anthrop- 
 oidea. On the contrary his working hypothesis is that from the 
 Eocene Lemuroids ascend the Anthropomorpha "which include 
 the two families Hominidas and Simiid^" (ib. p. 326). In other 
 words from a generalised Lemur type branch off" the true Lemurs, 
 
 ^ Bull. d. L Soc. (TAnthrop. de Bruxelles, 1894, p. 127. 
 
 2 The Genealogy of Man in The American A^aturalist, April, 1893, p. 335. 
 
 3-2 
 
36 
 
 ETHNOLOGY 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 the monkeys and the true Anthropoidea, which latter again 
 ramify into the Simiidng and Hominidae as in our diagram 
 (p. 19). 
 
 Are we to conclude from all this that, unlike the types of 
 other higher organisms, the human type and subtypes have 
 persisted unchanged since early quaternary, if not late tertiary, 
 times; in other words that man, highest and consequently most 
 sensitive of all mammals, is not subject to the ordinary laws 
 of physical evolution, that he remains unmodified under the 
 thousand influences of the modifying environment, that his 
 growth is out of harmony with the laws of the universe ? The 
 foremost expounders of evolutionary teachings would here seem 
 to find themselves in direct antagonism to the fundamental 
 principles of evolution itself, according to which not even species, 
 much less varieties, are fixed and stable. Is there to be a 
 Dauertypus of man alone, and perhaps of the molluscs near the 
 other end of the gamut ? This is the first and one of the greatest 
 difficulties that anthropology would appear to have passed on to 
 ethnology for solution. 
 
 The point may be understood, and perhaps explained, by 
 
 reference to the somewhat analogous case of the 
 the E^qufdffi.^ Equidae, whose pedigree has been fairly well worked 
 
 out from lower eocene times. Eohippus from the 
 
 a. Pachyiiolophus. h. Anchiiherium. c. Ajichitheriuvi (late miocene). 
 d. Hipparion. e. Eqinis (pleistocene). 
 
 Mexican deposits of that epoch, a creature no larger than a fox. 
 
il] physical evolution of man. 37 
 
 with four hoofed toes and an already atrophied thumb on the 
 fore feet, is Hnked with the living forms (horse, ass, zebra, &c.) 
 through Orohippiis from the middle eocene of Utah and Wyoming, 
 with four hoofed toes, Anchitherium from the early and late mio- 
 cene with three hoofed toes in use, Hipparmi from the pHocene 
 with three hoofed toes, of which two are atrophied, and the 
 pHocene horse with one hoof and traces of two others. Here 
 we see the physical evolution of the Equidse completed within 
 the tertiary epoch, since which time the further modifications 
 have been confined to specific developments of their pHocene 
 precursor. Thus there has been continuous and orderly change 
 from early tertiary to pleistocene or quaternary times, when the 
 living species were established, all in strict accordance with 
 evolutionary principles. 
 
 So it would appear to have been with the Hominidae, except 
 that here the postulated or actual (Castenedolo ?) g^^ i'sTerti- 
 precursor has developed quaternary varieties only, ary Hominidae 
 
 ._,,... 1 . , rejected. 
 
 and not true species. This is in accordance with 
 all the known facts, for Sergi's tertiary Hominidae are purely con- 
 jectural and must be rejected, because their living representatives 
 would necessarily be undoubted species, like the assumed tertiary 
 forms themselves, and not merely varieties connected by un- 
 broken intermediate finks. Thus here also there has been con- 
 tinuous change down to the quaternary varieties, and if these 
 forms of the Hominidae are less specialised physically than the 
 corresponding forms of the Equidae, the fact may be probably 
 due partly to the more extensive intermingling of 
 
 r • r 1 1- 1 Persistence 
 
 the former, arresting further divergence, partly to of, and Rever- 
 the greater intelfigence by which they were able tive ty°pes""''' 
 better to protect themselves from the modifying 
 influences of the environment. Thus may be explained KoU- 
 mann's Dauertypus, the persistence of the human varieties already 
 established in the quaternary epoch, and the reversals to the 
 primitive types observed amongst the present European popu- 
 lations, as now generally accepted by anthropologists. 
 
 In the accompanying diagrams is shown the parallefism 
 between the physical evolution of the Hominidae 
 
 ^ ■- Comparative 
 
 and Equidae from their respective pfiocene pre- diagrams of 
 
38 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 Pleistocene cursoFS. Here the greater divergence in the 
 
 E°uidse'^^^"^ pHocene branches of the Equidae is seen to result 
 in the present distinct pleistocene species, while 
 the less divergent branches of the Hominidie indicate pleistocene 
 varieties only : — 
 
 Pleistocene Varieties 
 
 Pleistocene Species 
 
 EQUID/E. 
 
 No difficulty is presented by the persistence of the human 
 varieties since the pleistocene period, because, long though the 
 interval be, it has still been too short for the development of 
 specific differences even in the animal series. Consequently here 
 no exception need be claimed, with Wallace for instance {Natural 
 Selection^ 1864—9) for man, whose physical evolution scarcely 
 differs appreciably from that of his quaternary animal contem- 
 poraries since the glacial epoch. Recent observations by such 
 eminent palaeontologists as Albert Gaudry, Nehring and Boule, 
 show that many living varieties of the cave fauna, the so-called 
 Canis spelcEus, Goldf ; Lupus spelceus, Blainv. ; HycEna crocuta, some 
 foxes, and even Leo spdceus differ scarcely more from each other 
 (Mauritanian, Nubian, Persian and Gujerat lions, for instance) 
 than they do from their pleistocene precursors; the divergence 
 has consequently been no greater than has been that of the living 
 
II.] PHYSICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 39 
 
 human varieties from their pleistocene precursors ^ Thus is 
 reached the broad conclusion that the living Hominidae, pleisto- 
 cene and pliocene man, with a postulated miocene precursor, 
 would differ respectively as varieties, species, and genus, these 
 organic differences themselves representing correspondingly longer 
 geological epochs, in which to accomplish their several stages 
 of development. 
 
 ^ Ce qui s'est procluit pour I'organisation de Tun s'est produit pour I'organi- 
 sation de rautre...Le temps ecoule [depuis I'epoque quaternaire] a ete trop court 
 pour que les accumulations de variations dans les organismes aient encore pu 
 operer des transformations de specificite, suivant la loi de la selection naturelle. 
 Au contraire, les temps anterieurs se presentent a nous. ..comma ayant eu des 
 durees incomparablement plus grandes, au cours desquelles la selection naturelle 
 aurait eu le temps de manifester toute sa puissance " (E. Dupont, Bull. d. I. 
 Soc. cCAnthrop. de Bruxelles, 1894, p. 338). 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 MENTAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 
 
 Human incomparably greater than animal intelligence — Growth of mind 
 apparently out of proportion to that of its seat, the brain — Evolution of 
 organ and function correlated — Cranial to be distinguished from mental 
 capacity — Comparative cranial studies often contradictory — Chief physical 
 determinants of mental power not so much the volume of the brain as 
 its convolutions and the cellular structure of the grey cortex — These 
 elements capable of indefinite expansion till arrested by the closing of the 
 cranial sutures — Different degrees of intelligence in different races accounted 
 for — Such differences independent of the general bodily structure — Hence 
 physique and mental power not necessarily correlated and not always 
 developed pari passic — But mind and cerebral structure always corre- 
 spond — Hence comparative study of brain texture, as by Broca and 
 Miklukho-Maclay, yield best results — Brain and its function, thought, 
 capable of indefinite future expansion — Differ in degree only, not in kind, 
 from those of the lower orders — Time alone needed to bridge the gap.. 
 
 If the physical has been less, the mental evolution of man has 
 
 been immeasurably greater, than in the Equidae, 
 
 Human in- ^j^g anthroDoids and all other organisms \ To the 
 
 comparably ^ ^ ... 
 
 greater than immense divergence in this respect is due the 
 tendency of former systematists (Cuvier, Owen and 
 others), to separate man altogether from the other 
 
 animal intelli 
 gence 
 
 1 At the Exhibition of the Anthropological Sciences in Paris, 1889, a 
 
 diagram was exhibited by Dr Topinard showing the great gap between the 
 
 brain weight and cranial capacity of man and the higher apes. Thus : 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Average for man i'25o] ,.„ _ 
 
 ^ ^ , V grammes; difference, o'874. 
 
 Average for ape o'37o ) 
 
 Difference between lowest human and highest ape species, o'6i2. 
 
 Difference between lowest human individual (an Australian 1 
 
 woman) and highest individual ape j 
 
 Capacity {volume). 
 
 Average difference 885 c.c. ; difference between lowest human and highest 
 
 Simian species 579 c.c. ; between lowest and highest individuals 377 c.c, 
 
CH. III.] MENTAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 4 1 
 
 mammals, and place him in a category apart. Indeed it might 
 almost be said that for the ethnologist proper, who is concerned 
 perhaps more with the mental than with the physical side, man- 
 kind does occupy such a separate place in the animal king- 
 dom. But the mind itself cannot be studied apart from the 
 physiological conditions common to man and all other animals, 
 else physiology becomes confused with psychology, and the 
 subjective takes the places of the objective method, a retrograde 
 movement opposed to the inductive philosophy as established by 
 Francis Bacon, and foreshadowed by Friar Bacon, greatest of the 
 Schoolmen, who in times of pure speculation enthroned observa- 
 tion, experiment, as "mistress of all the sciences, and end of all 
 speculation " {domma scie7itiarum omnium et finis totiiis specida- 
 tiofiis). 
 
 Physiology has placed beyond all doubt the fact that the 
 mental faculties are all localised in the brain; yet 
 it might be supposed that there was no room in the Growth of 
 skull for such expansion of its contents as would ^\"y l^l^l} 
 seem to be required by the enormous progressive proportion to 
 
 ^ -^ . r o that of its seat 
 
 expansion of the human intellect since the Homi- the brain, 
 nidse branched off from the anthropoid stem. That 
 there has been growth, and considerable growth, in size and 
 weight has already been seen (p. 25) ; and in point of fact the 
 lowest human brain stands in these respects as 3 to i compared 
 with that of the highest apes. But such a ratio is a totally 
 inadequate expression of the superiority of the human over the 
 ape mind\ 
 
 Have we here antagonism between function and organ, 
 lending support to the view that the function 
 creates the organ, and not the organ the function, org^n^and" °^ 
 in the idle discussion that has lately broken out on function 
 
 1 • 1-1 • ^ n.T • , correlated. 
 
 this metaphysical point? Neither of these views 
 
 ^ The reader will observe that mind {thoughi, intclligejice), not soitl or 
 sph'it, or ^'pychic force" is here under discussion. Such expressions as I /lad 
 a mind to do it ; a strange thought passed through my brain, show how common 
 speech shapes itself to the difference between these concepts, expressing the 
 distinction between the ego and its functions more vividly than many psycho- 
 logical essays. 
 
42 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 can be held, for at no stage of growth can one of the factors 
 exist apart from the other. Function is an attribute, and 
 attributes — whiteness, hardness, reason, memory and the Uke — 
 can have no independent existence ; they are not entities but 
 pure abstractions. Has anybody, except perhaps Plato, ever seen 
 a tree that was not some kind of tree ? No, because tree is an 
 abstract term which finds no place in the vocabulary of many 
 primitive languages. If there .was a hand (organ) it was used for 
 prehensile purposes (function), because to grasp is an attribute of 
 the hand, and by constantly exercising that attribute, that is to 
 say, by dint of much grasping, aided by natural selection, heredity 
 and time, the hand, starting as a rudiment, was ultimately 
 perfected. Organ and function are developed together ; neither 
 creates the other, at least in the physical world. Probably the 
 prevailing confusion on this fundamental point of biological 
 evolution, is to be traced to the prominence given by Lamarck to 
 the "efforts of the inward sentiment'" of animals in bringing 
 about changes in their physical constitution, thus suggesting the 
 idea that "la fonction fait I'organe" (M. Duval). 
 
 So it is with brain and thought, and it might be inferred 
 
 a priori \\idX the human brain, seat of human thought, has been in 
 
 some way physically perfected far beyond the ratio 
 
 Cranial and ^bovc indicated between it and the simian brain. 
 
 Mental Ca- 
 pacity to be This inference is now demonstrated a posteriori by 
 distinguished, pi^ysioipgists, who show that mere size and weight, 
 however important in themselves, are no measure of the real 
 difference between the human and the highest simian brain. But 
 owing to the relatively rare opportunities of studying the brain 
 itself in its inner texture and structure, anthropologists have 
 hitherto directed their attention mainly to the brain-case, deter- 
 mining from its capacity that of the brain, and inferentially that of 
 the mind itself. Thus the essential distinction 
 cranSs^udi^es between cranial and mental capacity has been 
 
 1 "Tout nouveau besoin.,.exige de Tanimal qui I'eprouve, soit I'emploi 
 plus frequent de celle de ses parties dont auparavant il faisait moins d'usage... 
 soit I'emploi de nouvelles parties que les besoins font naitre insensiblement en 
 lui par des efforts de son sentiment interieur" {Philosophie Zoologiqiie, i. p. 231 
 of T873 ed.). It is here that Lamarck and Darwin part company. 
 
Ill] MENTAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 43 
 
 confused, the most unsatisfactory and even con- often unsatis- 
 tradictory results have been arrived at, the long factory, 
 and painstaking labours of many eminent comparative anatomists 
 have been largely wasted, and craniology itself unduly discredited. 
 "A few years ago it was thought that the study of Crania offered 
 the only sure basis of a classification of man. Immense col- 
 lections have been formed ; they have been measured, described 
 and figured; and now the opinion is beginning to gain ground 
 that for this special purpose they are of very little value. Pro- 
 fessor Huxley has boldly stated his views to this effect; and in 
 a proposed new classification of mankind has given scarcely any 
 weight to characters derived from the cranium. It is certain, too, 
 that though Cranioscopy has been assiduously studied for many 
 years, it has produced no results at all comparable with the 
 labours and research bestowed upon it. No approach to a theory 
 of the excessive variations of the cranium has been put forth, and 
 no intelligible classification of races has been founded upon it'." 
 
 The • so-called cranial indices, on which a vast number 
 of comparative measurements have been made between races and 
 peoples, are concerned exclusively with the skull, the brain itself 
 being seldom, and in certain cases such as fossil and sepulchral 
 remains, never available. How valueless are many of the conclu- 
 sions drawn from such comparisons may be inferred from the 
 figures yielded by the skulls of Egyptian mummies, of neolithic 
 man, and of Europeans at different epochs, often showing no 
 change or even indicating apparent retrogression instead of pro- 
 gress after long intervals of time. Thus Professor Schmidt^ finds 
 that the ancient Egyptian women had a higher cranial capacity or 
 volume (1257 cubic centimetres) than the modern (1206 c.c), 
 while, according to Broca's measurements, the men of the 4th 
 dynasty (1532 c.c.) stood higher than those of the i8th (1464 c.c). 
 This great anthropologist also determines the mean capacity both 
 of neolithic and modern Europeans at about 1560 c.c. ^; no 
 advance in some tens of thousands of years! 
 
 1 A. R. Wallace, Malay Archipelas^o, 5th ed. p. 599. 
 
 2 Uebcr alt- u. neiuigyptische Schddel, in Archiv f. Anthrop. Brunswick, 
 1887, vol. 17. 
 
 3 Alevwires (f Anthrop. 187 1, p. 334, and elsewhere. 
 
44 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Yet the mental advance is unquestioned, and this advance- 
 ment would be found to correspond with the physical 
 
 Determi- . ^ ^ -^ 
 
 nants of mental advancement, were the brain, and not merely the 
 voi'^mioTthe^ skull, of the early Egyptians and of neolithic man 
 brain than its available for comparative purposes. But the con- 
 
 convolutions 
 
 and cellular trast would have to be sought not so much m the 
 respective volumes (size and weight), as in the 
 sinuosities or convolutions of the inner white substance, and 
 especially in the cellular structure of the thin outer cortex or 
 envelope of grey matter which follows all the inner convolutions, 
 with which it is also connected by an exceedingly complex 
 nervous system. The countless cells of the cortical 
 
 These ele- ^ , , ,1 , , 1 • 1 
 
 ments capable matter, fed through the nerves by the white sub- 
 eIpans?o"n*tiii Stance, are the ultimate seat of mental energy, and 
 arrested by the here is found the field in which this delicate organ 
 
 closing of the .... , , . . ^ ^ . 
 
 cranial su- and its fuuctiou, thought, may acquire mdehmte 
 
 *"^^^' expansion. The development of the cellular tissue, 
 
 with a corresponding increase of mental power, apparently goes 
 
 on until arrested by the closure of the cranial 
 
 Different sutures. All the scrraturcs are stated to be more 
 
 degrees of in- . , , . , , 
 
 teiiigence in complcx in the higher than in the lower races, 
 fccouine?fon ^^'^ ^^^^^ definite closing appears to be delayed till 
 a later period in Hfe amongst the former than 
 amongst the latter. This physiological character, to which FiHppo 
 Manetta was the first to call attention in connection with racial 
 differences \ has recently been noticed by two intelligent observers, 
 Col. Ellis amongst the Upper Guinea peoples^, and Captain Binger 
 amongst the West Sudanese populations generally. '* The Black 
 is a child," says this writer, "and will long remain so"; and the 
 sudden arrest of the intellectual faculties at the age of puberty is 
 attributed to the premature closing of the sutures ^ Broca also 
 has noticed that in idiots the " soldering " takes place early in 
 
 ^ La Razza Negra nel siio stato selvaggio &c., Turin, 1864, p. 20. 
 
 2 The Ewe-speaking peoples, 1890, pp. 9-10. 
 
 3 A cet arret intellectuel doit correspondre, dans ces regions [Sudan], la 
 soudure de la boite cervicale : le developpement du crane s'arrete et empeche 
 le cerveau de se dilater davantage" {Du Niger an Golfe de Giiitiee, 1892, 
 II. p. 246). 
 
III.] MENTAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 45 
 
 life, while the process is delayed the more the brain or mind is 
 exercised. All this is highly significative, and would seem to place 
 beyond doubt the direct relation between mental and cerebral 
 expansion. An explanation is thus afforded of the different 
 grades of intelligence that have everywhere been observed in the 
 Hominidse throughout the historic period. In some the normal 
 development of organ and function has proceeded simultaneously 
 till the present highest level has been reached. In others both 
 have been arrested at various stages by physiological causes, which 
 may have had a pathological origin, but which more probably 
 represent various stages in the evolution of the cranium since 
 quaternary times. This may be inferred from the fact that in the 
 Neanderthal skull the frontal sutures are closed (ossified), while 
 the occipital are more or less free, a distinct mark of inferiority, 
 although the growth of the cerebellum is in no way determined 
 by the premature closing of the frontal serratures. In the 
 Marcilly-sur-Eure cranium, also distinctly palaeolithic, " la suture 
 frontale a entierement disparu, la soudure est complete ; on ne 
 voit plus de trace de dentelures sur le sommet de la tete\" 
 It would therefore seem probable, or at all events possible, that 
 intense cerebration acts almost mechanically on the brain-cap, 
 tending by its throbbing to keep the frontal sutures free till late 
 in life, and even causing an expansion of the cranium itself in 
 energetic and highly intellectual races. 
 
 It is noteworthy that the mental differences are independent 
 of the general bodily structure, so that the various 
 groups of Homo Caucasicus, supreme in mental encesinde-^"^' 
 capacity, do not always compare with advantage pendent of the 
 
 . , , 1 o 1 bodily struc- 
 
 physically with some of the lower types; the bouth ture. 
 Europeans, for instance, with the Masai, the Zulu- Hence gene- 
 Xosas, the Samoans and the Eastern Polynesians, rai physique 
 
 ' "^ and mental 
 
 Some of the highest intellects — Alexander Pope, power not 
 Heine and others— have dwelt in feeble frames, "orre'Sed?" 
 while the stupid Serer Negroes of Senegambia are 
 endowed with Herculean bodies. It seems obvious that since 
 quaternary times the evolution of mind-stuff and of the general 
 
 ^ Philippe Salmon, Races Hutnaines prihistoriqiies^ p. 15; de Mortillet, 
 L Honwie, p. 48. 
 
46 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 physique has not gone on simultaneously everywhere, so that 
 we now see great discrepancies and apparent contradictions 
 between the two, one element progressing more rapidly in one 
 place, the other in another. The explanation of such anomalies 
 is perhaps to be sought in the very conditions of existence. 
 In unfavourable environments, such as excessively hot and moist 
 intertropical regions, man must either perish, or acquire such 
 physical properties as may enable him to successfully struggle 
 with the adverse climate, and in the struggle the animal is im- 
 proved at the expense of the mental side. But in more favour- 
 able surroundings, as in the temperate zone generally, the struggle 
 is relaxed, the need of bodily perfection diminishes in direct ratio 
 to mental growth, and the intellectual are, so to say, improved at 
 
 the expense of the animal properties. But wher- 
 an^"cere'brai ^^^^ ^^^ point Can be tested, it will probably be 
 structure found that mental growth has always gone hand in 
 
 respond"^" hand with an increasing number of cells of the 
 
 cortex and of cerebral sinuosities. " That the 
 convolutions in the Negro brain are less numerous and more 
 massive than in the European appears certain V' and it may be 
 safely asserted that no brain of any inferior type will be found 
 displaying the large number of windings exhibited by that of the 
 late Professor von Helmholtz, one of the profoundest and most 
 many-sided intellects of the age (ob. Sept. ii, 1894), 
 
 On the other hand the brain-cap of many savages has been 
 found to be larger and heavier than that of some higher races. 
 Thus in one of Broca's tables, quoted by Topinard {A?ithropology, 
 p. 230) the average of the neolithic skulls from the " Dead Man's 
 Cave" is higher (1606 c.c.) than that of the Auvergnians (15980.0.), 
 the Parisians (1558 c.c.) and the Spanish Basques (1574 c.c), and 
 not much less than that of Cuvier himself. After a long discussion 
 of the subject in all its bearings, Waitz found himself "compelled 
 to renounce the doctrine that the capacity of the cranium indicates 
 the amount of mental endowment" (ib. p. 266). Nevertheless it 
 will be seen that broad inductions may be drawn even from a 
 comparison of cerebral volume alone. Years ago the subject 
 engaged the attention of Dr C. G. Carus in connection with 
 1 Waitz, Anlhropolog}', I. p. 94. 
 
III.] MENTAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 47 
 
 Morton's Crania Americana^ where the skulls of the Prairie 
 Indians show a higher capacity (84 cub. in.) than those of the far 
 more civilised Toltecs (77). If, says this deep thinker, we assume 
 no direct relation between cranial volume and grades of culture, 
 the former being merely or mainly the expression of a more 
 vigorous bodily organisation, these discrepancies need not surprise 
 us. It cannot be denied that general advance in culture is often 
 attended by a certain decrease of physical strength {Abschwachiing), 
 by diminishing the need of bodily exercise, and removing us more 
 and more from natural influences generally, thus inducing a 
 certain delicacy {Verzdr telling), and even sowing the seeds of 
 many ailments by which the energies of the physical man are 
 necessarily diminished'. 
 
 Owing to the unsatisfactory results obtained from mere cranial 
 comparisons, Broca himself turned later to the 
 
 ^ ' . . , , . Hence corn- 
 
 exclusive Study of the brain, in which his greatest parative study 
 
 triumphs were achieved ^ During his residence ""^y^l^^^o^^s&s 
 at Brisbane, Miklukho-Maclay also began a syste- the best re- 
 
 ' ■' - , suits. 
 
 matic study of the cerebral structure from the 
 ethnological standpoint. As was to be expected, he succeeded in 
 determining a substantial difference between the brains of various 
 races (Australians, Melanesians, Malays and other Mongoloid 
 peoples) in the development of the corpus callosum, the pons 
 Varolii and the cereheihim^ as well as in the relative development 
 of the nerves, and in the grouping of the sinuosities in the great 
 brain ^ But the subject is in its infancy, although already suffi- 
 ciently advanced to lead us to anticipate fruitful results from this 
 new line of investigation. One point seems estabHshed, that as 
 the sinuosities have had indefinite expansion in the ^ . , . 
 
 ^ . Brain and its 
 
 past, so there is still ample room for indefinite function, 
 expansion in the future. Consequently, although bieofinde^nite 
 size and weight may have probably attained their future expan- 
 Hmits, the extent to which the cellular tissue may 
 
 1 Entstehiing 7ind Gliederung der Menschheit, 1858, p. 75. 
 
 - "Broca, il Pontefice Massimo dell' ipercraniologia moderna...non studia 
 pill i crani, ma i cervelli " (Mantegazza, Archivio, X. 1880, p. 117)- 
 
 3 Nature, Dec. 21, 1882, p. 185. These results agree with those obtained 
 by H. B. Rolleston from a careful study of the brain of an Austrahan, in 
 jfourn. Anth'Op. Inst. 18S8, pp. 32 ct scq. 
 
48 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 improve is practically uncircumscribed, and in this direction a 
 corresponding expansion of the mental faculties may be hoped 
 for\ Ethnology properly understood affords no ground for the 
 current pessimism, the disease of the age. By improved social 
 institutions, more rapid progress may be made towards the ideal 
 standard expressed by the formula, mens sana in corpore sano. 
 
 Unless we take our stand on this firm ground of the simul- 
 taneous upward growth of organ and function, 
 gr?e^^niy"from ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ guarantee of further upward growth, 
 those of the we fall back either with Romanes on mysticism 
 
 lower orders. 
 
 {Mental Evolution in Man), or with Mivart on 
 supernatural intervention at the psychological moment {Origin 
 of Human Reasoii). Separate brain from cerebration, and we are 
 lost in the a priori reasonings of Noire' and Max Miiller, ulti- 
 mately rooted in the Kantian philosophy. The difficulties that 
 all these evolutionists, and quasi-evolutionists, conjure up and leave 
 unsolved, arise from the radical mistake of comparing the mind 
 in its highest evolved state with that of the brute order, where 
 the gap is so vast as to seem impassable without the extraneous 
 aid of the supernatural or of metaphysics. They find in man, not 
 merely sensation and receptivity, with perhaps a modicum of 
 consciousness as in the brute, but true self-consciousness, which 
 " enables a mind not only to know, but to know that it knows ; 
 not only to receive knowledge, but also to conceive it... ; not only to 
 state a truth, but also to state the truth as true" (Romanes, p. 
 192). But in point of fact in the Fuegian, Tasmanian or Negrito 
 
 mind there are the merest glimmerings of con- 
 Time alone sciousness, and of self-consciousness next to nothing, 
 bridge the gap. The Fuegian "self-consciousness," for instance, may 
 
 be gauged by the Fuegian " conscience," which in 
 stormy weather flings wife and children overboard, to lighten the 
 overladen craft of so much freight, not, as has been said, to 
 propitiate gods (or demons) of whom it knows nothing^ These 
 
 ^ Topinard, VHoDimc dans la Nature. Chap. xxii. 
 
 2 Lovisato, who has made a careful and most sympathetic study of these 
 aborigines, denies them retentive memory, and compares their intelligence to 
 the stationary instincts of animals: "I Fueghini hanno poca intelligenza, 
 pochissima memoria, nessuna ritentiva. La loro abilita [mental capacity] puo 
 essere per alcuni rispetti comparata agli istinti degli animali, perche non e 
 
III.] MENTAL EVOLUTION OF MAN. 49 
 
 are the minds, and not those of Plato, Kant, Newton, Darwin, 
 that should be compared with those of man's nearest congeners ; 
 then it would be seen that the difference is one, not of kind but 
 of degree only, a difference quite capable of being bridged over 
 by natural process of development in the course of a few hundred 
 thousand years. It is time, not metaphysic or miracle ^ that is 
 needed. In the next chapter an attempt will be made to provide 
 this time, the great instrument with which Nature works out all 
 her transformations. 
 
 migliorata dall' esperienza..,Difficilissimo e per loro comprendere le piu sem- 
 plici alternative, quindi con immensa difficolta si possono da loro avere delle 
 informazioni, e non si puo mai essere sicuri se, a furia di domande, essi abbiano 
 esattamente compreso cio che loro abbiamo detto " {ib. p. 27). Yet this group 
 (the Yahgans) had at that time (1870 — 1884) been fourteen years in the hands 
 of the English missionaries, and nearly all were "Christians." Since Darwin's 
 time ( Vojyai^e of the Beadle) there had been no appreciable intellectual advance- 
 ment, despite the flourishing reports received in Europe, and despite the 30,000 
 words with which their language was strangely credited. 
 
 ^ Even Joseph Le Conte, whose theory of evolution is a "Christian pan- 
 theism" worked out by " paroxysms," allows the domain of science "to remove 
 as much as possible the miraculous from the realm of nature " {Man's Place in 
 Nature, Princeton Pevie^u, 1888, p. 784). This is considerate; only "the 
 realm of nature," like Oliver Twist, asks for more. In fact evolution is a 
 jealous mistress; she will have all or nothing. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ANTIQUITY OF MAN : GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 
 
 The Geological Sequence in its bearing on the Antiquity of Man— Table of the 
 Geological Sequence: Primary; Secondary; Tertiary; Quaternary; Pre- 
 historic; Historic— The Glacial Problem— Reactionary Views— Croll's 
 Periodicity Theory — Objections and Limitations of Time by Prestwich — A 
 reductio ad absurdum — Arguments based on influence of Gulf Stream and 
 Absence of Glaciation in earlier geological epochs estimated— Croll's Theory 
 reaffirmed — A long period of time needed to meet all the conditions : Re- 
 distribution of Land and Water; Intermingling of Arctic and Tropical 
 faunas; Scouring out of great river valleys; Man long associated with 
 extinct animals ; Britain twice submerged since its occupation by man ; 
 Little trace of primitive man in the last post-glacial deposits of the North 
 — Two Ice-ages and long Inter-glacial period essential factors— Difficulties 
 of the Intermingled Arctic and Tropical Faunas— Lyell and Boyd-Dawkins' 
 '•Seasonal-Migration" Theory discussed— Long association of reindeer 
 and hyaena explained— Great age of the flints found in the high-level 
 drift, boulder-clay, plateaux and riverside terraces— Pre-, Inter- and Post- 
 Glacial Man — The problem restated — General Conclusion — Pliocene 
 Hominidee rejected — Specialised Inter-glacial Hominida; reaffirmed— 
 Their probable age— Post-glacial Man a nondescript. 
 
 In the foregoing chapters the age of man was rather anticipated 
 than determined. Before discussing the subject 
 caTsrquenc°e^n morc fully, it wiU be convenient to define the some- 
 its bearing on ^j^^^ puzzling geological terminology bearing on the 
 
 the question of ^ odd o./ o 
 
 the antiquity of qucstion of man's first appearance on the globe, so 
 "^^"" that the non-geological student may have some 
 
 idea of what is meant by such expressions as tertiary or quater- 
 nary man, pliocene or pleistocene times, and so forth. This will 
 best be done by giving a table of the geological sequence as 
 recorded by the succession of stratified rocks in the crust of the 
 earth, tabulating more fully the later periods with which we are 
 here more immediately concerned. Geologists and solar physicists 
 are not of accord as to the probable duration of the whole process. 
 
CH. IV.] ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 5 1 
 
 Nothing can be definitely known ; but it would seem that if the 
 geologists ask too much, say, a round loo m. (m = million) of years 
 the physicists grant too little (20 m. or even less). Most, however, 
 agree that the earlier stages took far more time in running their 
 course than the later, the decrease of time proceeding by a sort 
 of geometrical ratio down to the contempo^ry period. Hence if 
 50 be taken as a rough compromise b|t4len the extremes, the 
 duration oi the several epochs in the ev(3imon of the earth's crust 
 will be approximately as here indicated \ The point has an 
 obvious bearing on the question of man's antiquity, as far as it 
 can be measured in terms of years. The ratios of geological time 
 are based on Sir A. Ramsay's estimate, which assigns 79 per 
 cent, to the palaeozoic system, 18 to the m.esozoic, and 3 to the 
 cainozoic, these being respectively about 57,000, 13,000, and 
 2,240 feet thick": — • 
 
 THE GEOLOGICAL SEQUENCE. 
 
 I. Primary (Arch^an and Palaeozoic). 
 
 I. Laurentiaji and Hiiro?iia?i systems, largely developed in 
 the Lower and Upper (Lake Huron) St Lawrence ^^^^^ ^^ 
 
 Basin, whence their names ; over 30,000 (?) feet geological 
 
 thick ; reddish gneiss : stratified crystalline rocks, 
 
 Archaean. 
 
 sequence. 
 
 mica schists, quartzites ; unfossiliferous Hmestones 
 
 ^ Being mere ratios, the figures here given can of course adapt themselves 
 to any view; those claiming 100 m. need but double them, while those satisfied 
 M ith less can halve or quarter them to fancy, always, however, bearing in mind 
 not only the slow growth, but also the subsequent weathering and disintegration 
 of vast geological formations. In the Sahara alone some two million square 
 miles of unstratified and sedimentary rocks have thus been triturated probably 
 since secondary times. They were not deposited, as generally supposed, on a 
 marine bed, and then upheaved. The sands of the Desert contain no marine 
 fossils (Suess, Reclus, Playfair). 
 
 ^ Jonrn. Geological Soc. i860. No doubt these proportions have recently 
 been questioned, and the extent of the palaeozoic system especially is believed 
 to have been exaggerated. But until replaced by something definite, they may 
 here be retained, all the more that the question of man's antiquity is not affected 
 by the greater or less duration of the early geological eras. It may be added 
 that Prof. John Perry seems now to have satisfied Lord Kelvin that his original 
 "20 millions" are far too little as the shortest limit: "I should be exceedingly 
 frightened to meet him [Geikie] now with only 20 millions in my mouth " 
 {Letter to Mr Perry, Nature^ Jan. 3, 1895, p. 227). 
 
 4—2 
 
52 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 - . -^ 
 
 and plumbago, of doubtful organic origin ; but Eozdo7i canade?ise^ 
 long supposed to be an organism (rhizopod) is now believed to be 
 a mineral structure ; Huronian is intermediate between Laurentian 
 and Cambrian ; duration 20 m. 
 
 2. Cambrian, from Cainbria = Wales, where first studied : 
 Llanberis, and other ^tes, schists, sandstones and conglomerates ; 
 fossiliferous, containii^^Mmerous invertebrate organisms, such as 
 trilobites and brachio^RP; duration 8 m. • 
 
 3. Si'/urian, from the pre-Aryan peoples of parts of Britain 
 known to the ancients as Sihires-, Llandeilo flags and schists; 
 Caradoc sandstone ; Dudley (Wenlock) limestone ; Ludlow lime- 
 stone and shale ; Brecon and other tilestones ; in Germany some 
 greywackes {Grauwacke) -, in America the Trenton, Niagara and 
 other formations, certainly of Silurian age ; in Russia widely 
 diffused ; brachiopods, tfllobites and other Crustacea; algae, corals; 
 also fishes, but no higher vertebrates ; duration 5 m. 
 
 4. Devonian, named from the characteristic Sandstones and 
 limestones (marine) of Devonshire, perhaps later than the Old Red 
 Sandstone of Scotland : probably some beds are lacustrine (S. Wales, 
 Shropsliire, &c.); all nearly synchronous ; analogous sandstones in 
 Russia, France, Belgium, United States, &c., with similar fossils, such 
 as corals, brachiopods, and especially Ganoid fishes; duration 3 J m. 
 
 5. Ca7'boniferoiis : carboniferous limestones, millstone grit, coal 
 measures, calciferous and other sandstones, deposited in lagoons, 
 estuaries and surrounding seas ; fossils abundant ; corals, molluscs 
 of all the known orders, spiders and certain insects ; many fishes ; 
 labyrinthodon and other amphibia; duration 2\ m. 
 
 6. Permian, named from the characteristic rocks of Perm 
 (Russia) : variegated sandstones, magnesian limestones, marl slate, 
 red sandstones and clays ; rich floras and faunas ; numerous 
 genera of fishes and reptiles ; but no true birds or mammals ; 
 duration 2 J m. 
 
 IL Secondary or Mesozoic: 
 
 7. Triassic, from Gr. trias = three, in reference to the three 
 
 series determined in Germany, in ascending order : 
 
 Secondary. 
 
 Bunter sandstone (Gres des Vosges of France, 
 mottled, red and other sandstones in England); Muschelkalk, a 
 
IV.] ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 53 
 
 marine limestone, wanting in England; Keuper sandstone (new 
 red marls, &c.); molluscs, amphibians, reptiles; a few mammals; 
 duration 2 m. 
 
 8. Jurassic, from the Jura mountains ; corresponds to the 
 Lias sic and Oolitic of Britain : Fuller's earth of Bath ; Oxford 
 clay ; Kelloway rock ; Portland and B|dM|k beds ; blue and 
 grey limestones ; most liassic fossi^^^^He ; enaliosaurians, 
 ichthyosaurians, plesiosaurians, numJHH^Ries; oolitic fossils, 
 reptiles, marsupial mammals, one bird (archaeopteryx) ; Britain 
 and West Europe largely under water; duration ij m. 
 
 9. Cretaceous, "chalk-like": Wealden, Neocomian (Green- 
 sands); gault; white chalk; Maestricht beds; ammonites; igua- 
 nodon; pterodactyls; probably several true birds. Throughout 
 secondary times India was probably connected by continuous land 
 across the Indian Ocean with South Africa; duration if m. 
 
 III. Tertiary or Cainozoic. 
 
 10. Eocene, "dawn of new" forms, in reference to molluscs: 
 {a) Lower Eocene: London clay, Paris gypsum, 
 
 Barton sand and clays; {b) Oligocene or Upper 
 Eocene, represented in the Hampshire basin, largely developed 
 in Germany (Maintz beds, &c.); all still surviving invertebrate 
 classes ; crocodiles, tortoises, a few birds ; the living orders and 
 famiHes of mammals (Palaeotherium, Anoplotherium, lemurs, &c.); 
 duration i'2 5 m. 
 
 11. Miocene, "less new" forms (of molluscs): {a) Lower 
 Miocene, equivalent to the Upper Oiigoce?te of the mainland ; {b) 
 and (c) Mid and Upper Miocene ; Thenay deposits ; marine 
 miocene of the Mediterranean, Egypt, India and Australia; 
 Western parts of the United States; many higher mammals, 
 including many living genera: Dinotherium giganteum. Mastodon 
 angustidens. Rhinoceros Schleiermacheri, Machairodus (sabre- 
 toothed tiger) ; Pliopithecus, allied to Gibbon ; Dryopithecus, 
 apparently allied to Chimpanzee ; remote precursor of man postu- 
 lated; in America Mesohippus, Miohippus, Perchoerus, Elotherium, 
 Hysenodon ; duration i m. 
 
 12. Pliocene, "more new" forms: two divisions; {a) Old 
 Pliocene: Red Crag of Suffolk ; white (Coralline) Crags ; Antwerp 
 
54 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAr. 
 
 Crag; Pikermi beds near Athens; Deposits of Sivalik (Hima- 
 layan foothills) ; N. American Pliocene, {b) New (Late) Fliocejie : 
 Norwich Crag; Forest beds of Norfolk cliffs; German, French, 
 Italian pliocenes; many genera of mammalia, and some living 
 species, including all the anthropoid apes, man's immediate pre- 
 cursor, and man Jmm|^; Elephas antiquus, E. primigenius. 
 Rhinoceros tichorf^^^^JooUy r. of the Thames Valley brick- 
 earths) ; R. leptorliUJ^Machairodus ; Hippopotamus ; Cave 
 lion; Cave bear; spotted and striped hyasna ; Irish elk; Bison 
 priscus; all these widespread throughout Europe and Britain, 
 some surviving into next period ; Britain connected with main- 
 land through the East Anglian forest beds, which extended along 
 Norfolk and Suffolk coasts, passing under the present cHffs and 
 beneath the North Sea to the Continent, the land being also 
 continuous westward through Ireland to the loo fathom Hne in 
 the Atlantic; climate warm or mild till towards the close, when 
 first glacial epoch sets in ; duration 0-850 m. 
 
 IV, Quaternary or Post-Tertiary: 
 
 13. Pleistocene (" most new "), a term used somewhat vaguely 
 by English and foreign geologists, the hne being 
 (P?Jistocene)'. difficult to draw between this and the new pUocene; 
 distribution of land and water nearly the same as 
 at present; but northern hemisphere subjected to two or more 
 invasions of ice (several according to Prof. Geikie), with inter- 
 vening warm epochs of varying duration. Formerly these glacial 
 periods were supposed to be synchronous with subsidences, by 
 which Britain was once if not twice severed from the mainland ; 
 but many geologists now believe that the Ice Age was more pro- 
 bably coincident with elevation rather than subsidence, and in 
 any case it is extremely doubtful whether the connection of Britain 
 with the Continent was interrupted in early pleistocene times. 
 During the recurrent ice invasions, which caused the extinction of 
 many pliocene forms, there was a perplexing association of 
 tropical, temperate and apparently arctic animals, the more 
 characteristic pleistocene fauna being : Hominidas, already 
 spread over most of the dry land throughout the whole world 
 
IV.] ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 55 
 
 (Paleolithic Man); lion, brown and grizzly bear, hygena, rein- 
 deer, panther, Kafir cat, lemmings, varying hare, musk sheep, 
 glutton, arctic fox, alpine snowy vole, chamois and ibex; mam- 
 moth, urus. Chief formations: brick-earth, fluviatile loam, high 
 level gravels, loess; cavern and glacial drift deposits 40 to 
 60 feet thick, variously known as diluvium, boulder formation, 
 boulder-clay, boulder-drift, or simply drift; all .unstratified detritus 
 (clays, flints, gravels, sands, shingle), transported partly by ice- 
 bergs, partly by land-ice, and deposited during both glacial epochs. 
 Cave dwellings, kitchen-middens, stone workshops, rude chipped 
 and unpolished stone implements of simple types (spear-heads, 
 scrapers, hammers, &c.), very much alike everywhere, chiefly of 
 flint, chert, quartzite and ironstone, besides awls, borers and 
 other objects of bone or horn, showing in some places distinct 
 progress in the arts of palseoHthic man ; approximate beginning of 
 strictly pleistocene or quaternary times 600,000 or 700,000 years 
 ago; duration o'53o m. 
 
 14. Post- Pleistocene, or Prehistoric: measured by the raised 
 beaches, peat-bogs, alluvial deposits in Mississippi Post-Pieis- 
 basin, Nile delta, and elsewhere and by other con- tocene ;Pre- 
 
 . ' . 1 , , , ; historic). 
 
 siderations, can scarcely be less than 60,000 years, 
 probably more ; largely coincides with the general disappearance 
 of ice and the appearance of the Men of the New Stone Age 
 (Neolithic Man), supposed to be separated in some places by 
 a considerable interval from their palaeolithic precursors, but 
 both more probably merged together by insensible transitions; 
 domestic animals, cultivated fruits, primitive arts (agriculture, 
 pottery, spinning, weaving, mining of copper, tin, gold), shell- 
 mounds, lake dwellings, barrows, sepulchral chambers, rude 
 megahthic and monoHthic monuments (menhirs, dolmens, crom- 
 lechs), some types stretching nearly round the globe from the 
 Naga and Khasi Hills through North Africa to West Europe and 
 Britain, and across Atlantic to Tiahuanaco (Lake Titicaca); 
 camps, fortified earthworks, polished and perfected stone im- 
 plements, dolabra, celts of varied forms and use, chiefly of flint, 
 chert, dolerite, quartzite, obsidian, jade, jadeite or nephrite; in 
 the eastern hemisphere neoHthic man passes successively and 
 without interruption into the copper, bronze and iron ages, repre- 
 
56 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 sented in the New World by copper only, these ages merging 
 generally in the north temperate zone in the 
 
 15. Historic (Contemporary) Period: chronology, written 
 records, literature, fine arts, modern culture con- 
 is one. nected by vague reminiscences and some definite 
 traditions with the bronze and earlier ages \ Duration of historic 
 period (in the Nile Valley and Mesopotamia) scarcely less than 
 T 0,000 years. With the progress of archaeological research the 
 beginnings of Egyptian culture recede farther and farther into the 
 remote past. Menes, reputed founder of Memphis and of the 
 first empire (5000 B.C.; Mariette), was recent compared with the 
 builders of the rude monuments brought to light by Mr Flinders 
 Petrie at Coptos, Upper Egypt, in 1894. Mr Norman Lockyer 
 also^ shows on astronomic grounds that a temple at Edfu towards 
 the Nubian frontier was built for the observation of the star 
 Canopus about 6400 B.C.; a date requiring the beginnings of 
 Egyptian culture to be extended much farther back than had 
 previously been supposed necessary. 
 
 Before attempting to determine the date (geological) of man's 
 
 advent, it will be necessary first to deal with the 
 
 rlbfem ^^'^^ Glacial problem, around which the battle has raged, 
 
 and still rages, especially in Britain and those other 
 
 northern lands where naturalists and archaeologists are brought 
 
 into more direct contact with glacial phenomena. 
 
 Lately there has been a reaction, led by Prof. Prestwich, 
 against the conclusions which appeared to have been firmly 
 established and even virtually accepted by Prestwich himself ^ 
 
 1 Homer and Hesiod, earliest names in Greek literature, of unknown date, 
 and therefore in a sense prehistoric, had memory of times when bronze only 
 was in use, iron being still unknown : 
 
 rots 5' -^v x^^X/cfa /xev revx^a, xctX/cfoi 5^ re oTkoi, 
 Xcl\k(} 5' eipyd^ovTo, fi^Xas 5' ovk '^cFKe ffid-rjpos. 
 
 IVorks and Days. 
 - The Dawn of Astronoviy, &c., 1894. From the section devoted to the 
 early Babylonians it would appear that their independent astronomic obser- 
 vations were not less ancient than those of the Egyptians. 
 
 3 "I am disposed to consider with Mr Tiddeman, that the cave which he 
 is now investigating at Settle [the "Victoria" Cave, Yorkshire] may be of pre- 
 
IV.] ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 57 
 
 regarding the considerable antiquity of the ice age and the exist- 
 ence of pre-glacial man. From the above table of geological 
 sequence it would appear that the glacial periods, beginning in 
 late pHocene times, reached far into the quaternary, and including 
 the interglacial interval, may have lasted altogether some 300,000 
 or 400,000 years. Adding the remainder of the quaternary and 
 the whole of the contemporary, this would give an antiquity of at 
 least half a million years to pre glacial man, if he existed; at leasts 
 because the time he may have existed before the first appearance 
 of the ice would have still to be considered, although necessarily 
 undeterminable even approximately. There are no data by which 
 it could be Hmited except the first appearance of the allied forms 
 (PHopithecus, Dryopithecus), which go back to the miocene, when 
 a remote and generalized precursor of Hominidae must indeed be 
 postulated'. But the character of such a precursor, whether truly 
 human, or only a homo alalus, would remain a subject of pure 
 speculation, interesting to systematists, but of no importance to 
 the ethnologist, who must limit his inquiries to pre-glacial man, 
 as above roughly determined. 
 
 When the problem of man's antiquity is put in this way, clear 
 of all side-issues, the importance is at once seen of 
 •further determining the approximate first appearance ^^J°^ the(My°' 
 and duration of the ice age. This problem was first 
 seriously attacked by Dr Croll in a classical work", the conclusions 
 of which have been questioned chiefly by those who are strangely 
 
 glacial age." {Journ. Anthrop. Inst. 1877, p. 1 77.) By pre-glacial, however, this 
 geologist does not mean a separate period of indefinite duration preceding the 
 glacial, but only the earlier stages of the glacial itself, which he divides into 
 three periods : pre-glacial, that of first increase ; glacial, that of maximum cold ; 
 post-glacial, that of last decrease {Journ. Geolog. Soc. August 18S7, p. 404). 
 
 1 Some philosophers object to anything being "postulated," except perhaps 
 where miracles may be needed to bridge over gaps. But if w'e see one section 
 of a chain suspended from above, and another advancing to meet it from below, 
 and if the point of junction happen, to be hid from view by some intervening 
 obstacle, we all unhesitatingly cojicede the invisible third section; we "popu- 
 late" the "missing link." So in the orderly succession of organisms in the 
 realm of nature, where the missing links, which have excited so much senseless 
 ridicule, must also be granted; else the lower series has no end, the upper no^ 
 beginning, but hangs dangling in nubibuSy the greatest miracle of all. 
 
 - Climate and Time, 1875. 
 
58 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 reluctant to concede a long term of existence to man, the noblest 
 outcome of organic evolution. Reasoning somewhat after the 
 manner of Kepler, who by pure mathematical computation deter- 
 mined the afterwards verified interplanetary distances, Croll, be- 
 lieving that periodical changes in the eccentricity of the earth's orbit 
 afforded the best clue to great secular variations of climate, and 
 that the periods of greatest cold coincided with those of greatest 
 eccentricity, determined the maximum and minimum periods for 
 3,000,000 years backwards and 1,000,000 forwards from the 
 present time. He thus found that within the last milUon years, 
 say, since near the close of the pHocene, there had been two 
 maxima, one lasting 260,000 years (from about 980,000 to 
 720,000), the other 160,000 (from about 240,000 to 80,000 years 
 ago), the differences in duration being due to differences in the 
 maxima themselves. At first Croll with " several eminent 
 geologists" referred the glacial epoch proper to the earlier and 
 longer period ; but afterwards, in order to be well within the 
 limits, and also perhaps to conciHate prejudice, he made the 
 glacial epoch coincident with the later and shorter period, closing 
 about 80,000 years ago, and giving to pre-glacial man an age of 
 not necessarily more than about 240,000 years (the beginning of 
 the last maximum of eccentricity). Then much ingenuity was 
 exercised in the effort to reconcile this Umited period with the 
 great changes that have since taken place, especially in the 
 physiographic distribution of land and water. 
 
 But now Prof Prestwich will not even grant so much, and 
 
 whittles down the last glacial epoch which he has 
 
 an^umitrtions ^cvcr workcd out mathematically, to ''from 15,000 
 
 of time by ^q 2^,000 vcars," and the post-glacial "to within 
 
 Prestwich. ^' -^ ' , -, , r^, • ■ ^ 
 
 from 8,000 to 10,000' ; and he adds : "This might 
 give to Palaeolithic man... no greater antiquity than perhaps about 
 from 20,000 to 30,000 years; while should he be restricted to 
 the so-called post-glacial period, his antiquity need not go 
 farther back than from 10,000 to 15, coo years, before the time of 
 Neohthic Man'." And thus we get within measurable distance 
 of the Mosaic Cosmogony. But such a rediidio ad absurdiim is 
 not reached without some straining and even distortions of 
 
 1 Joiirn. Geolog. Soc. August 18S7, p. 407. • 
 
IV.] ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 59 
 
 physical facts, as, for instance, when the Gulf Stream is in- 
 troduced to help in getting rid of the great ice-sheet some 
 thousands of feet thick, and made to flow in larger volume 
 than at present through the then wider Florida Strait (/^. p. 403). 
 But where did the larger volume come from? Were Florida 
 Strait now again widened, the volume would not be increased by 
 a single drop, but only spread over a correspondingly wider space. 
 Or if the narrowing of the channel diminished the outflow, as 
 implied, then the waters that failed to escape would be dammed 
 up in the Gulf of ISIexico, upsetting the general equilibrium of the 
 ocean level, were such possible, and developing in Florida Strait 
 a prodigious series of falls and rapids on a scale large enough to 
 dwarf ten thousand Niagaras. But in point of fact only a very 
 small portion of the Gulf Stream penetrates through the Lesser 
 Antilles into the Caribbean Sea, and so round the Gulf of Mexico 
 and through Florida Strait to the Atlantic, where it merges in 
 the much larger body which never enters the narrow seas at all, 
 but skirts the north side of the Greater Antilles westwards to the 
 confluence. Any local changes could not consequently affect 
 its volume, and inferentially the climate of the higher latitudes. 
 
 But Prof Prestwich goes still further, and argues against 
 Croll's periodicity theory of the earth's eccentricity, on the ground 
 that very few or no traces of glaciation can be detected in 
 earher geological epochs, the Chalk, for instance, the Carbo- 
 niferous, "the Devonian and Silurian periods," say, as far back as 
 15 or 20 million years ago'. But there seems here confusion of 
 cause and effect, a fruitful source of error in all such reasonings. 
 Croll carried his calculations only 3,000,000 years back, and had 
 he gone further, he would, or at least should, have warned his 
 opponents not to look for much results when ages of exceeding 
 high temperature were reached. The fierce cyclone, which cuts 
 like a knife through the Alleghany woodlands, strews the prairie 
 with the wreckage of mushroom towns, and churns up the waters 
 of the Great Lakes, sweeps almost harmlessly over the stoutly 
 built cities of the Northern States. So with the recurrent periods 
 of cold, which in recent and temperate times covered vast areas 
 
 ^ Or a proportionate increase or reduction according to the various views 
 held regarding the absolute duration of geological time (see note, p. 51). 
 
60 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 with great ice-caps, but which must have had continuously 
 diminishing effects the farther back their action is looked for. 
 They may no doubt have stimulated the cooling process; but 
 they could scarcely have had any appreciable effect, for instance, 
 in pre- Archaean times, when the surface of the earth may be 
 supposed to have still been in a somewhat viscous or semi-fluid 
 state, owing to the great internal heat thousands of aeons ago. 
 Nor could great eccentricity have laid down thick-ribbed ice even 
 in the early Archaean ages, when the crust, though hardening, was 
 still too warm to support any but the lowest organisms. Thus 
 we see that maximum eccentricity is merely a determining cause, 
 whose varying effects will depend on the varying conditions. 
 
 But whether the causes be cosmic or telluric, or, as would seem 
 
 Croii's self-evident, both, complementing and reacting on 
 
 theory re- each Other, Croll's last two glacial epochs must be 
 
 accepted in all their fulness and not attenuated 
 
 down to the level of narrow preconceived views. They are 
 
 needed to account for a thousand other facts in the natural 
 
 history of the Hominidse, which are apt to be overlooked when 
 
 this exceedingly wide field of research is surveyed with reversed 
 
 telescope. 
 
 It must however be confessed that it is no light matter to keep 
 
 steadily in view a vast horizon, which in space coin- 
 
 of time^nSded cides with the terrestrial periphery, in time stretches 
 
 to meet all the j^ack for. Say, half a million years ; a horizon which 
 
 conditions. . 
 
 covers two, if not more, glacial epochs with an inter- 
 vening period of some hundred thousand years. And can less be 
 demanded, is it possible to move freely in narrower limits, where 
 we have to consider the overlapping of the geological frontiers 
 (pliocene holding its ground long after pleistocene has dawned); 
 great disturbances of the planetary surface, such as the Indo- 
 African breaking up and reappearing as the Indo-Asian con- 
 tinent ; possibly high land rising and again vanishing betv/een 
 Europe and the New World, and Britain presenting great oscil- 
 lations of level before its final severance from the mainland; 
 apparent intermingling in Britain itself and on the Continent 
 of reputed arctic and decidedly tropical faunas, such as shaggy- 
 maned mammoth, large and pigmy hippopotamus, sabre-toothed 
 
IV.] ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 6l 
 
 tiger, huge cave bear, superbly antlered Irish deer, some dis- 
 appearing, others persisting till joined by fresh arrivals such as 
 the lion, spotted hyaena, bison, musk sheep, and reindeer ; lastly 
 the scouring out of great river valleys, such as Nile, Somme, 
 Thames and Rio Negro, down to depths of over a hundred feet, 
 and even fourteen hundred (Nile), to their present levels, while their 
 banks were frequented and their caves inhabited by palaeolithic 
 hunters ? For man had already arrived, was witness to many of 
 these shifting scenes, looked out on arctic seas strewn with icebergs, 
 fashioned some of his rude flint and quartzite weapons from the 
 very materials borne down by those floating masses, took refuge 
 with those strange beasts in the caves of Devonshire, Derby- 
 shire, France, Belgium, Italy and Germany, and, after the retreat 
 of the first ice-stream, associated with them on the sunny plains 
 of inter-glacial times long enough to improve his processes and 
 enable us to distinguish grades of culture even in the palaeoHthic 
 period, long before the appearance of Neolithic Man on the 
 scene. 
 
 And all this before the last and shorter invasion of ice, which 
 again drove man and beast for shelter to their old cavernous 
 haunts. Else how explain the orderly succession of fossil and 
 tool-bearing deposits in those retreats, always ascending from 
 rude beginnings to more perfected workmanship^, and even to 
 skilful carvings of human and animal forms, on the bones of 
 the extinct or living species themselves, as seen for instance in the 
 specimen from the Creswell cave, Derbyshire (well-designed head 
 of a "hog-maned" horse on a rib-bone), and in greater variety and 
 higher artistic skill in the Dordogne Caves, France, still before 
 Neolithic times ? And we are asked by professors of geology, who 
 understand better than the lay mind what all this means, to 
 beheve that possibly the age of palaeoHthic man "need not go 
 farther back than from 10,000 to 15,000 years before the time of 
 
 ^ The rudeness of the implement, however, is not always a proof of greater 
 age; the neater finish may sometimes be due to a more easily worked material, 
 so that a rough quartzite so hard to manipulate, may be more recent than a fine 
 flint object. " In some part of the older deposits of St Acheul the flint imple- 
 ments are better made than the newer ones found in the lower gravels of the 
 Somme Valley" (Prestwich). But where all are of one or the other material, 
 as is often the case, no doubt arises. 
 
62 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Neolithic Man." If this be so, then Neolithic Man himself must 
 be put back about half-a-million years or so beyond his probable 
 advent, and for this there is no kind of evidence. 
 
 Appeal is made to a possible, and no doubt probable, more 
 
 copious rainfall formerly than at present, by which 
 
 Britain twice ^|-^g scouring proccss might be accelerated. But 
 
 submerged °^ .... 
 
 since its rainfall must have its limits, say, at the outside 500 
 
 occupation by ^^ ^^^ inches annually, as at present on the Garo 
 and Khasi Hills, Brahmaputra basin; else neither 
 man nor beast could exist in the Thames or Somme Valleys. 
 But what effect could any amount of rainfall have, for instance, 
 on the upheaval and subsidence of the land itself, rivers and all, 
 since the arrival of palaeolithic man in Britain? For we are in 
 the presence of such phenomena, all admitting that primitive 
 man roamed South Britain, if not synchronously with the gradual 
 subsidence of the late pUocene East Anglian fir, spruce, oak and 
 birch forest beds beneath the German Ocean, at least during the 
 formation of the old Thames deposits in Kent and Essex. Here 
 man Uved in association with such fauna as the lion, spotted 
 hygena and musk sheep, as proved by the flints discovered by the 
 Rev. Osmund Fisher at Crayford, by Messrs Cheadle and Wood- 
 ward at Erith, and still more by the very workshops where these 
 implements were made, as revealed by the researches of Mr Flax- 
 man Spurrell. 
 
 This must have been in early pleistocene times, before the 
 
 land-ice had advanced southwards, strewing a great 
 
 The trace of ^^^^ ^f ^Y\e surfacc with its boulder-clays. As 
 
 early man in ^^ ,111 
 
 the last post- pointed out by Mr W. Shone, the early hunters de- 
 plTsks!'^^' scribed by Boyd Dawkins as contemporaries of 
 
 "the leptorhine rhinoceros, hippopotamus and 
 straight-tusked elephant," were certainly pre-glacial, that is, ante- 
 cedent to the last ice age. "If Britain were inhabited by this 
 early race of palaeolithic hunters they must have traversed large 
 areas of the surrounding country in search of food. In the 
 excitement of the chase it is inconceivable that they should not 
 have left many a lost weapon, which would to-day testify to their 
 existence in post-glacial times. Taking England from the Mid- 
 lands to Bcrwick-on-Tweed was ever country so delved to make 
 
IV.] ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 6$ 
 
 roads, harbours, mines, canals, railways, and great towns and 
 cities ; yet no trace of this palaeolithic hunter or of his contem- 
 poraries 'the leptorhine rhinoceros, hippopotamus and straight- 
 tusked elephant ' has ever been found over this area upon a post- 
 glacial surface or in post-glacial strata \" 
 
 Boyd-Dawkins argues that because the raw material of some of 
 the implements appears to have been obtained from the glacial de- 
 posits, early man must have made his appearance "after the district 
 [Pont Newydd near St Asaph] was forsaken by the glaciers and 
 the sea^." But, as shown by ^Ir Morton in this and obviously in 
 many analogous cases, the stone may have equally 
 well been obtained "from its original locality, or from '^^° *" 
 
 ° -' ' ages and warm 
 
 moraines in the early period before the district was inter-giaciai 
 submerged, as it had been brought near to the cave uaVfactors"' 
 in the form of boulders ^" It is obvious that the 
 broad question of J^re-, Inter- and Post-Glacial Man cannot be 
 intelligently argued on such narrow issues as these. But such dis- 
 cussions, which but increase the perplexity of the subject, will 
 doubtless continue to prevail until it is raised to a higher plane of 
 thought by the frank acceptance or denial of CroU's two ice ages 
 with a long intervening warm inter-glacial period, on which every- 
 thing depends. The point is put very clearly in her treatise on the 
 Paris Basin by Mme. Clemence Royer, who shows that glacial 
 phenomena were of two kinds, one characterised by the presence 
 of floating ice (icebergs) and a considerable subsidence of the 
 land, the other marked by great altitudes and glaciers descending 
 far lower than at present. The chief polar phenomena (first age) 
 occurred "between the miocene and the pleistocene ^" How 
 could the Swiss glaciers, for instance, descend much lower than at 
 present during the first age, when the plains were under water ? 
 Hence their greater former development, admitted by all, must 
 have occurred at some other time, in fact during the second ice 
 age, when the land stood at a much higher level above the sea. 
 
 ^ Post-Glacial Mati in Britain, in Geol. Mag. 1894, p. 79. 
 
 '^ Eai-ly Man in Britain, p. 192. Elsewhere of course this authority admits 
 that the River-drift hunter may have been "quite as likely pre- as post-glacial" 
 {On the Present Phase of the Antiquity of Man, Meeting of Brit. Ass. 1882). 
 
 2 Geology of the Count 7y around Liverpool, quoted by Shone, ib. 
 
 ^ Le Lac de Paris, passim. 
 
64 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 So in Britain all the known facts remain inexplicable unless 
 
 two glacial epochs be recognised. What sort of 
 
 Difficulties explanation, for instance, is given of the inter- 
 
 of the inter- ^ ' . 
 
 mingled arctic mingling of reputed arctic and undoubted tropical 
 faunas°^^'^^ and temperate faunas in the same area and at the 
 
 same time? Prof. Boyd-Dawkins adopts and sup- 
 ports with fresh arguments Lyell's desperate '' seasonal-migration 
 
 hypothesis," a sort of "Box and Cox" arrangement, 
 "Seasonal- ^^ which the arctic animals move southwards and 
 
 Migration" occupy the caves in winter, while the tropical move 
 
 theory. 
 
 northwards and take their place in summer. "In 
 the summer the Hon, Kafir cat, spotted hyaena and hippopotamus 
 would advance northwards ; in the winter the reindeer, musk 
 sheep, lemming, tailless hare, glutton and arctic fox would 
 swing southwards \" Here it may be asked, were these un- 
 wieldy quadrupeds migratory at that time, like birds of passage, 
 and could they (think of the hippopotamus) traverse such vast 
 distances^ on foot as these do wearily on the wing? How did 
 they manage to hit off arrival and departure so as to avoid com- 
 plications between carnivora and herbivora? How were such 
 compHcations avoided on the road between, for instance, fox and 
 sheep? Or are we back again to the naive days of Noah's Ark 
 processions ? And why take the trouble to do all this plodding at 
 all, not once but twice a year, merely to fit in with the views of 
 naturahsts, who for the moment ignore or at least overlook the 
 laws of nature and of perspective ? For them, peering down the 
 grooves of time, warm inter-glacial periods of long duration get 
 crumpled up between two glacial epochs brought too closely 
 together, and so recede to the vanishing point, leaving everything 
 unexplained, and the actual relations involved in chaos. 
 
 The chief trouble appears to be the reindeer, which in all 
 
 Long as- cthnological writings without exception is insepar- 
 
 sociation of ably associated with an arctic climate, as a foregone 
 
 ^ Evidence afforded by the Caves of Great Britain as to the Antiquity of Man, 
 Jozirn. Anthrop. Inst. \'^11, p. 156. 
 
 2 To be sure the zones are spoken of as "contiguous" {ib). But the 
 respective frontiers alone were contiguous, and large and diversified faunas 
 cannot live on frontiers ; they must have elbow-room and spread out over broad 
 expanses to avoid congestion ; so the difficulty of distances stands. 
 
IV.] ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 65 
 
 conclusion. Yet in these same writings the rein- reindeer and 
 deer is habitually preyed upon by the hyaena, so pi^^ed!''' 
 that after all the complications are not avoided, 
 though other difficulties are created. " In twenty-eight out ot 
 thirty-one ossiferous caverns the two [spotted hyaena and rein- 
 deer] are found side by side, and in the great majority of 
 these the gnawed bones and antlers of the reindeer show that 
 that animal was the common food of the hyaena" {id. p. 156). 
 What then ? Is the hyaena also an arctic animal ? But he was in 
 the southern procession. Or was the reindeer a tropical? But 
 he was in the northern, and his arctic habitat is taken for granted. 
 
 Is there then no outlet, for the facts are unquestioned? It 
 would seem that the foregone conclusion must be reconsidered, 
 and indeed put aside. The intimate association of reindeer and 
 hyaena shows that the same climate suited both, and that this 
 cHmate was not arctic during the association, but at least tem- 
 perate, for few tropical and sub-tropical animals will stand 
 great cold, while all the arctic can endure a considerable degree 
 of warmth, as in their own short summers, often intensely 
 warm. It would further appear that the reindeer was evolved 
 like the elk in a temperate or warm zone, and is only arctic by 
 pressure and gradual adaptation, so that it has not yet acquired a 
 completely variable coat, like the arctic hare and other earlier 
 hyperboreans (in winter greyish brown on body, white only on 
 neck, belly and hind-quarters). It is identified with Caesar's dos 
 ceroi figura (vi. 26), which roamed the Hercynian forest well 
 within the historic period, and still lingered in Caithness down to 
 the middle of the thirteenth century. Even now it ranges in some 
 places as far south as the 50th parallel, that of the Land's End, 
 and those introduced to the London public in 1885 felt perfectly 
 at home in the present British cHmate. 
 
 Almost a more striking case of such adaptation is that of the 
 tiger, who infests the Indian jungle and in Java 
 
 ° ■> ° •> Analogous 
 
 touches the equator. Yet his range extends north- instances, 
 wards to the Amur basin and to the island of Great range of 
 SakhaHn, "where broken masses of ice have been 
 known to remain heaped up around the eastern headlands till 
 the month of July," where the thermometer ''often remains 60° F. 
 
 K. 5 
 
66 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 below freezing-point in January," where "icy rains and raging 
 snow-storms" prevail "for a great part of the year'." But no 
 other tropical animal would appear to show such a range as this, 
 without some corresponding special readjustments to the altered 
 environment", such, for instance, as that of the white panther 
 {Felis isbis) of the Great Pamir ^ and that of the shaggy-maned 
 mammoth surviving till apparently quite recent times in the 
 Lena basin and other parts of Siberia. But enough has been said 
 to show that there should be Httle further difficulty about the late 
 pliocene and early pleistocene faunas of West and Central Europe. 
 It is absolutely unnecessary to assume any such unnatural as- 
 sociations as are taken for granted, these apparently incongruous 
 interminghngs merely bespeaking long mild or warm inter-glacial 
 periods, lasting a few hundred thousand years on Croll's com- 
 putation, and needed to account for the many secular climatic 
 and physiographic changes witnessed by early man in the northern 
 hemisphere. It was necessary to dwell on this point, owing to 
 the paramount importance attached to the almost universal 
 presence of the reindeer in the British and neighbouring palaeo- 
 lithic caves, especially by Boyd-Dawkins, who from this fact alone 
 concludes against Geikie {Ice Age) that "the perpetual summer 
 hypothesis [the warm inter-glacial period] is untenable" {ib. 
 p. i6i). But in the next chapter it will be seen that in some 
 places the reindeer was certainly pre-glacial, and consequently at 
 that time belonged to a temperate or warm fauna. 
 
 In respect of the boulder-clays and glacial drift, in which 
 
 palaeoHthic objects are constantly found at various 
 
 Great age of depths on the plateau escarpments and riverside 
 
 the flints found ^ ..•^, ... ,. 
 
 in the boulder- tcrraces, it IS to be noticed that their age is 
 and te^rmce^s'!'' measured, not by the few feet of surface deposits 
 accumulated upwards from the level of the finds, 
 for which a comparatively short period might suffice, but by the 
 extent of the erosions from that level downwards to the present 
 level of the river beds. Thus, instead of the slight thickness of 
 
 1 Keane's Kecliis, vol. vi. pp. 453-4. 
 
 2 Even the tiger, however, shows considerable incipient adaptations, the 
 northern having longer, softer, and lighter fur than the southern variety. 
 
 3 A specimen of this rare species is now (1895) to be seen in the Paris 
 Jardin des Plantes. 
 
IV.] ANTIQUITY OF MAN. fi'J 
 
 surface deposits on the high-level glacial gravels, we have to take 
 into account the 80, loo or 120 feet of excavations by running 
 waters according to the height of the present river-banks. It 
 might be supposed that a gauge of the time needed for such 
 erosions would be afforded by the extent of the scourings, say, in 
 the Thames valley during the historic period (1900 years), or at 
 least during the prehistoric (perhaps 2500 or 2600 years) since 
 the erection of fortified Hnes or other works by semi-civiHzed man 
 about the then river level, as at the village of Dorchester below 
 Oxford. But the gauge is useless, because, long as the period is, 
 it has not had time to operate at all. No appreciable change has 
 taken place in the present low level of the Thames even during the 
 longer period, that is, since the bronze age. So also in the Somme 
 valley, where " there is evidence afforded by relics of the Roman 
 and bronze age found in the peat in the bottom of the valley, that 
 the river had not materially lowered its bed since those relics were 
 deposited, and therefore it must have taken an enormous time to 
 work out the whole valley by means of a river which flowed with 
 the same eroding power as at present'." 
 
 It would seem from his division of the glacial epoch (note 
 p. 56), that in discussing the antiquity of man p^.^. 1^^^^^.^ 
 Prof. Prestwich overlooks the two recurrent ice- and Post- 
 
 HT . • . , . , , glacial man. 
 
 IS division into a pre-, mid- and post- 
 glacial period leaves no room for an inter-glacial man, which, at 
 least in Britain, is the main point at issue. His mid-glacial, or 
 simply glacial, is the point of maximum cold, whereas by inter- 
 glacial is understood the long warm period between the two ice 
 ages. Owing to inattention to this distinction much confusion, 
 degenerating into mere logomachy, has been introduced into the 
 discussion. Nobody out of Bedlam would suggest that any 
 organism, much less the highest, had been differentiated during a 
 period of maximujp cold with 6000 or 8000 feet of ice on the 
 ground. ''Yet a " glacial man" is currently spoken of, as if he had 
 really made his appearance in such an environment. Well might 
 Quinet protest, and refuse to admit that humanity, the loveliest 
 flower of creation, " burst into being amid the swamps and fogs 
 
 1 Col. Lane Fox (Genl. Pitt Rivers), Jour. Antlircp. Inst. 1877, p. 178. 
 
 5—2 
 
6S ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 of the glacial epoch \" And it may be asked, if palaeolithic 
 man was such a "glacial organism," why he should have perished 
 in Britain in post-glacial times, or at least before the arrival of 
 his neolithic successor, as assumed by Sir John Evans ? Hence 
 there is, or ought to be, no question of a glacial or mid-glacial 
 man, that is, in the sense of his making his first appearance 
 whether by migration or evolution at that untoward moment. If 
 he was there, cowering with his huge associates in the caverns 
 about the frontal moraines of great glaciers, then he must have 
 arrived before the intense cold set in. He did not leave the 
 temperate southern lands to cross ice-strewn seas, in quest of such 
 precarious shelter as Britain then afforded, at a time also when 
 those lands were still connected with the African continent,— 
 Italy, through Sicily, Malta and Pantellaria; Greece through 
 Crete ; Iberia across the straits. 
 
 Hence whoever admits glacial, must perforce admit pre-glacial 
 man, for the terms in this connection are practi- 
 The problem ^^yiy synonymous. But pre-glacial may obviously 
 be taken in four senses, by which our ideas of man's 
 antiquity will be materially affected. It may either coincide with 
 the first increase of cold, or with the second, or with the 
 warm interval between the two ice ages (inter-glacial), or 
 with the still warmer times antecedent to all glacial phenomena, 
 stretching back through the pliocene to the miocene when the 
 date-palm flourished in Central Europe, and a sub-tropical flora 
 stretched far beyond the confines of the Continent in the direction 
 of the North Pole. To the first and second the same objections 
 must be urged as against glacial man, for all migrations would be 
 suspended during periods of steadily increasing cold. Thus the 
 question is narrowed down to the inter-glacial between 720,000 and 
 240,000 years ago, let us say 500,000, and the indefinite period 
 antecedent to the first ice age, say a milHon of years ago. Of course 
 there may be other factors in the problem, such as possible, even 
 probable short recrudescences of cold due to local causes in the 
 inter-glacial period itself^ But such disturbances would not 
 
 ^ Quoted by Desor, V Ho7}i me pliocene de la Californie. 
 2 Dr Penck, quoted by Rudler and Chisholm, shows that the ice-sheet 
 "advanced at least three times over northern Germany as far as Altenburg 
 
IV.J ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 69 
 
 seriously affect the main relations, which would seem on the 
 whole to have been as here stated. 
 
 Most authorities now accept an inter-glacial man, who on the 
 above computation would have appeared, say, half a 
 milHon years ago, or about a million on the 100 m. General 
 
 ■' ° ' conclusion. 
 
 base (p. 51), or a quarter of a million or less on 
 proportionately reduced bases. A pre-glacial man in the broader 
 sense, which many cautious writers also concede, and which 
 even on the reduced base would allow about half-a-million, might 
 be accepted but for the fact that it presupposes fully differentiated 
 pliocene Hominid^ present in North-west Europe before the first 
 ice age. That seems a somewhat violent and unnecessary as- 
 sumption, and it was seen (chap. 11.) that in pliocene times 
 nothing beyond a generalised precursor differing specifically from 
 all the present varieties can be looked for, in accordance with 
 the general laws of organic evolution. The most rational hypo- 
 thesis seems, therefore, that of iriter- glacial Hominidce, specialised 
 not less, possibly much more, than half-a-million years ago. 
 This inference derived from the foregoing general considerations 
 will be strengthened by a closer study of the primitive Hominidce 
 themselves, that is of PalseoHthic Man, in the next chapter. 
 
 Nothing has here been said about a " post-glacial " man, for 
 whom so many ardently contend, thinking thereby ^^^^_ \z.c\&\ 
 to limit his term of existence to a few odd thousand "^ap a nonde- 
 years. But the term is obviously equivocal, as on ^'^"^ ' 
 the assumption of two or more recurrent glacial periods, each 
 will necessarily have its post-glacial interlude. Hence a post- 
 glacial man may still have a hoary antiquity, or he may have a 
 less but still a great age, or he may be comparatively modern, 
 according to the particular glacial invasion after which he is 
 placed. The term has to be clearly determined, else its discus- 
 sion leads to nothing but a war of words, seeing that under 
 certain conditions post- and pre-glacial may have precisely the 
 same meaning. A post-glacial man following Croll's first ice age 
 
 and Dresden" {Europe, Stanford Series, p. 27). In the Alps also proof has 
 now been obtained of "the recurrence of at least three successive periods of 
 great glaciation, separated by relatively long intervals" (Dr H. R. Mill, Geog. 
 Journ., Jan. 1895, p. 68). 
 
70 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. IV. 
 
 will be pre-glacial to Croll's second ice age ; that is to say, he will 
 be inter-glacial, as here maintained. In this conclusion it is 
 pleasant to find oneself in accord with such a shrewd and careful 
 observer as Enrico Giglioli, who also accepts "inter-glacial" man, 
 contemporary of Elephas antiquus and Rhinoceros Merkii, animals 
 at that time characteristic of the Italian fauna\ 
 
 1 " Sappiamo che 1' Uomo esisteva nei primi tempi del Quaternario, in quel 
 periodo interglaciale per 1' Europa nel quale vivevano nei paesi nostri 1' Elephas 
 antiquus ed il Rhinoceros Merkii^'' (Z' Uomo; Sua A^itichita, &c., Florence, 
 1893, p. 9). 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN : PALAEOLITHIC AGE. 
 
 Palaeolithic Man spread over the whole world — But in many places early and 
 later Cultures run in parallel lines, not in time sequence — Hence the Time 
 relations often obscured, objects of human industry not being everywhere 
 tests of age, but only of grades of culture — Even these grades not always 
 clearly distinguished — Palaeolithic art not stationary but progressive, and 
 in some respects outstripping that of neolithic times — Materials available 
 for the study of primitive Man : implements, monuments and human 
 remains — Unreasonable objections to implements (palreoliths) as evidence 
 of antiquity — Value of implements determined by their provenance and 
 associations in geological formations or in caves — Stalagmite beds not 
 necessarily a test of age — Kitchen-middens of all ages, some very old, 
 some recent and of rapid growth, hence to be judged on their merits — 
 Human remains reserved for special treatment — Quaternary Man in 
 Britain. Evidence of Hatfield Beds; Kent's Cavern; Brixham Cave; 
 Cresswell and Victoria Caves ; Lotherdale and Pont Newydd Caves ; Vale 
 of Clwydd Caves ; Thames river-drift ; High-level gravels ; Chalk plateau, 
 Kent ; Eoliths from Canterbury gravels. Stoke Newington, &c. — Quater- 
 nary Man in France : Somme Valley river-drifts, St Acheul — Grades of 
 Palaeolithic Culture — De Mortillet's Four Epochs: Chellian Age, typical 
 implements ; Moustierian Age, typical implements ; Solutrian Age, typical 
 implements ; Madelenian Age, typical implements — The Dordogne School 
 of Art — Placard Cave : Superimposed Culture eras — Evidences of Palaeo- 
 lithic Man in France and Italy — Quaternary Man in Africa (Egypt, 
 Algeria, the Cape) ; in Asia (Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, Caucasus, ]NIon- 
 golia, India, Japan) ; in Australia and New Zealand ; in America (Tierra 
 del Fuego, Patagonia, Argentina and Brazil, Mexico, United States and 
 Canada) ; evidence from the Trenton gravels ; Mississippi Basin and other 
 localities ; Views of Chamberlin, Holmes, Mason and other conservatives 
 on the value of this evidence ; the Calaveras Skull — ^General Diffusion of 
 Primitive Man throughout North America — The Mound-builders not 
 quaternary; their Culture neolithic, prehistoric and historic. 
 
 In the last chapter our horizon was mainly confined to the 
 northern hemisphere, where the intimate association 
 of primitive man with glacial phenomena has been man ^^eld'*^ 
 most carefully studied. Now it must be extended °^*^'' ^^^ whole 
 
 world. 
 
 to the southern hemisphere also, thus embracing the 
 
72 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 whole world, which would appear to have been already occupied 
 by the Hominidae in palaeolithic times. If this point can be 
 
 established, it will afford of itself a strong argument 
 piac^eVeady "^ ^^ support of the long period here claimed for man's 
 and later cui- existence on earth. But the question is beset with 
 synchronous. snarcs and pitfalls, due especially to the fact that 
 
 the very terminology itself does not everywhere con- 
 note the same order of sequence, much less the same periods of 
 absolute time. Thus palseoHthic implements in the New may in 
 some cases well correspond with neolithic in the Old World, and 
 in all the Continents except Australia, where one order alone 
 exists, various phases of progress go on simultaneously rather than 
 consecutively. The Aymaras and Peruvians had probably two 
 thousand years ago arrived at a somewhat high grade of culture in 
 South America, where the Botocudos and the Fuegians have 
 scarcely yet reached even the Old Stone Age. Similar contrasts 
 are met on the Anahuac tableland, between the long-civilised 
 Nahuas and the still barbarous Otomi highlanders ; in Europe 
 between the Slav settlers and their nomad Samoyede neighbours ; 
 in Abyssinia between the Semitic Amharas with long historic 
 records and the debased Wito fishers of almost aberrant human 
 type ; in India between the haughty Caucasic Rajputs and many 
 utterly savage Kolarian or Dravidian aborigines. 
 
 Such overlappings of old and new, such persistence of low 
 
 Hence the primitive culturcs in the midst of highly advanced 
 
 time relations populations, tend to obscure the time relations, 
 
 which are here under consideration. It is obvious, 
 for instance, that implements of the most primitive types, such 
 as those of the Tasmanians, more rudely fashioned than those of 
 the European palaeolithic hunters, cannot of themselves be any 
 test of age. They represent no sequences, but only an incipient 
 growth permanently arrested and by adverse conditions prevented 
 from attaining its normal development. Where there is no 
 change, there is no standard by which to measure time. Hence 
 the mistake made especially by some American ethnologists, who 
 have assigned a considerable antiquity to certain native cultures, 
 solely on the ground of the rude implements with which they 
 appeared to be associated. Certain objects, such as flint flakes or 
 
v.] PALEOLITHIC MAN. 73 
 
 chippings, if found on or near the surface, or under other circum- 
 stances not necessarily involving great age, might have been made 
 at any time, and are now still made by many peoples not yet 
 brought under higher influences. 
 
 How misleading such evidence may be is shown by the fact 
 that, as will presently be seen, some of the European 
 palaeolithic are more skilfully worked than the far radeTn^t*"'^^ 
 more recent neoHthic objects ; for the men of the always clearly 
 
 ^^1 1 o A • 1 T 1 1 i , distinguished. 
 
 Old Stone Age certainly hved through the greater 
 part of the inter-glacial epoch, and they could scarcely have 
 remained stationary for such countless generations. They un- 
 doubtedly made considerable progress within the limits of their 
 primitive culture, and the men of Solutre have left recorded on 
 the bones of extinct species various specimens of their artistic 
 taste and technique superior to any similar works that can be 
 traced to their neolithic successors. 
 
 But this very progress leads to fresh difficulties, as points are 
 at last reached where it becomes almost impossible to draw the 
 line between the Old and New Stone ages. Although Prof Boyd- 
 Dawkins argues with much force for a great " abyss separating the 
 Palaeolithic Age of the Pleistocene period from the NeoHthic Age 
 of the Prehistoric period," he is fain to admit with Mr J. Allen 
 Brown, who takes the continuity view, that the one must be derived 
 from the other "in some part of the world"; only we have "not 
 yet discovered where that part is; it is probably not in Europe'." 
 Yet it would seem from the contents of such caves as those of 
 Solutre and Mentone that even in some parts of Europe there is 
 no break but a decided overlapping of the early and later cultures. 
 Speaking of the Mentone finds, Mr A. Vaughan Jennings^ points 
 out that while the worked ornaments may be neolithic the 
 skeletons, especially those found in 1892, "show osteological 
 affinities to more ancient types." Even the implements, "though 
 not of the type which we in England know as palaeolithic, are 
 certainly not any of the usual neolithic patterns." Hence we 
 may here be in the presence of a palaeolithic race in Southern 
 Europe, whose culture merges in that of their neolithic successors. 
 
 ^ Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Feb. 1894. 
 
 2 The Cave Men of Mentone, Natural Science, June 1892, p. ayS. 
 
^4 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Mr Jennings well remarks that "it is likely that the habit of 
 speaking of Palaeolithic and NeoHthic times, and attempting to 
 draw sharp distinctions between them, carries with it more than 
 the usual evils of all formal nomenclature" {ib.). But this of 
 course applies only to the borderlands, where intermingHngs begin 
 to take place between the two cultures, which in other respects 
 stand widely apart, and must be studied separately. 
 
 Even the rude bulbed flints themselves already show some 
 progress in art. These are generally taken as the beginnings of 
 human culture, and Mr Shrubsole' and Mr A. M. BelP have 
 produced unbulbed pal^oHths from the hill-gravels of Berkshire 
 and Mr B. Harrison from the chalk plateau of Kent, which seem 
 to be undoubtedly the work of man. They are more advanced 
 than those of the South African Bushmen, or the Tasmanians who 
 would almost appear to be incapable of fashioning any of these 
 British eoliths, as they are called (see p. 293). Hence any stone 
 that can be conveniently grasped must be taken as the true 
 starting point, and between this and bulbed flints there is a wide 
 interval, with room for much upward development. At the same 
 time objects which show no clear sign of artificial treatment are of 
 course useless in the study of human progress. 
 
 It is therefore not only the objects themselves, but also the 
 associated circumstances that have to be considered, 
 av^ulbil^for Speaking broadly, the materials now available for 
 the study of the study of primitive man are threefold, his imple- 
 ^ ^ * ments, his jnonuments, and himself. The first, from 
 
 which he rightly takes his name of PalcEolithic Man'', are in some 
 respects the most important, as being immeasurably the most 
 numerous and widespread, but chiefly because they often occur 
 under conditions which aff"ord the best proof of their artificers' 
 extreme antiquity. The monuments, if such undesigned structures 
 as shell-mounds or kitchen-middens may for convenience be so 
 
 1 Jour. Anthrop. Inst., May and August 1894. 
 
 2 Gr. irtCKaili^, old, in the sense of young, early, pristine, and \ido%, a stone. 
 This convenient term, now universally adopted, is due to Sir John Lubbock, 
 who applies it to the first of the four great eras into which he divides Prehistoric 
 Archeology: "This we may call i\ve palaolitkic period'' [Prehistoric Times, 
 p. 2). So neolithic, from vio^, new [ib. p. 3). 
 
v.] PALAEOLITHIC MAN. 
 
 75 
 
 named, lie necessarily on the surface, or at most on raised beaches, 
 while the fossil remains of man himself have been found almost 
 exclusively amid the general contents, or at most under the 
 stalagmite floors, of his cave-dwellings. But many of the palceo- 
 liths date from the early pleistocene, while some claim to have 
 been discovered in the Suffolk crag (pliocene), and even in the 
 miocene of Thenay ; but of this presently. 
 
 Owing to the abundance of materials for the study of early 
 man, and one might almost say of man's precursor, 
 that have accumulated in every region of the globe, abVe^JbfeTt^o'ns 
 especially during the last few decades, a selection to implements 
 
 :• ' (palaeoliths) as 
 
 becomes imperative. In the subjoined summary of evidence of 
 the available evidence clearness will be consulted ^"^''i^'^y- 
 by a geographical, and partly chronological, arrangement of some 
 of those objects, whose genuine character seems placed beyond 
 reasonable doubt. Even the best authenticated however have been, 
 and presumably still are, hotly contested by writers and critics, 
 who claim to hold a sort of brief for a narrow orthodoxy which is 
 here singularly out of place. It is a remarkable fact that many of 
 the pioneers in this line of inquiry have been enHghtened Roman 
 CathoHc or Protestant clergymen, such as Dr Buckland (after- 
 wards Dean of Westminster), who in 182 1 startled the public by 
 the discovery of the remains of no less than seventy-five hyeenas 
 in the Kirkdale Cavern, Yorkshire, so that it was asked whether 
 some antediluvian menagerie had broken loose in those parts. 
 He was followed by the Rev. Mr M'^Enery, who in 1825 first drew 
 attention to the "storehouse of antiquity" preserved beneath the 
 stalagmite beds of Kent's Hole ; and the Rev. J. M. Mello, who 
 led the way in the exploration of the no less famous Creswell Caves, 
 Derbyshire. In France Boucher de Perthes, whose patient re- 
 searches amid the high-level drift at St Acheul on the Somme may 
 be said to have established quaternary man, was followed by 
 the Abbe Bourgeois, who went much further, and whose name will 
 always be remembered as one of the ablest champions of tertiary 
 man in Europe. When asked how he reconciled such a pro- 
 digious antiquity of man with the Mosaic cosmogony, the last- 
 mentioned was satisfied to reply : '' Je suis iiaiuralisie, je ne fats 
 pas de theologie,'' and overzealous partisans of a forlorn cause 
 
j^ ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 might remember that nobody need be piii Papa del Papa stesso. 
 Yet some of these writers would have us beHeve that Sabre-tooth, 
 for instance, was still prowling about the Roman castra, or at 
 least the early British camping-grounds, and that the hippo- 
 potamus was floundering amid the Lincolnshire fens a short time 
 before the new era, rather than admit that their associate man 
 lived in pleistocene times. " I think," says Mr T. K. Callard, 
 "the time has now fairly come to ask calmly the question, 
 whether finding the works of man in association with Rhinoceros 
 tkhorhifius and mammoth, instead of proving man's great antiquity, 
 does not rather prove the more recent extinction of these 
 mammals'"; and again : " The legitimate inference is that he [the 
 Woolly Rhinoceros] was contemporaneous with the potters, 
 Roman, pre-Roman, or Samian ; also that he lived when the 
 modern sheep browsed in Creswell dale\" Mr Callard is at least 
 logical, for he feels that unless the natural history of the Hominidae 
 can be made to harmonise altogether with the Mosaic account, a 
 few thousand years more or less cannot matter either way ; and 
 that is so. 
 
 Here are brought together specimens, so to say, of such 
 
 objects as are indicated at p. 55 in a general way 
 
 pieme^nude"^' as characteristic of palaeolithic times. Their locaUty, 
 
 TeT/"roven- associations and position, together with the names 
 
 ance. of the findcrs or witnesses, are briefly recorded, so 
 
 stalagmite ^^^^ ^.j^g Student may be able to judge for himself of 
 
 beds not •' ^ • • • 
 
 necessarily a their value as evidence. In doing so it will be 
 age. ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ .^ mind three points: (i) that from 
 
 position in or under undisturbed boulder-clays and drift of all 
 kinds there is no appeal; such finds must date from pleisto- 
 cene times (p. 67); (2) that position in cave-earth under thick 
 stalagmite beds does not of itself alone necessarily imply great 
 age; stalagmite growth is irregular, as it depends on variable con- 
 ditions, amount of rainfall, and quantity of vegetable humus on 
 the roof yielding carbonic acid with which the percolating water 
 dissolves the limestone particles, thus forming the carbonate of 
 lime, which in the cave takes the form of stalactites above and 
 
 1 The ConUinporaneity of Man with the Extinct Mammalia, &c., pp. 9 
 and n. 
 
v.] PAL.-EOLITHIC MAN. 'JJ 
 
 Stalagmites below ; but normally the growth is slow, and a thick- 
 ness of 12 feet, as in Kent's Cavern, may involve 
 
 ^ Kitchen- 
 
 many thousand years; (3) that position near the middens of 
 
 surface may of itself alone imply great age, as in nlnS must 
 old beaches slowly raised to considerable heights be judged on 
 
 1 1 11 ■!•,., . ■■ , their merits. 
 
 above the present sea-level, and m kitchen-middens 
 such as some of those in Tierra del Fuego (Elizabeth Island), 
 where the shells of which they are composed are extinct, or no 
 longer the same as those of the surrounding waters. Kitchen- 
 middens themselves cover the whole field from palaeolithic to 
 modern times, some being very old, others still in progress, so 
 that each has to be taken on its merits. Even size is here no safe 
 guide, as well remarked by Mr Petrofif: "The time required for 
 the formation of a so-called layer of kitchen refuse found under 
 the sites of Aleutian or Innuit [Eskimo] dwellings, I am inclined 
 to think less than indicated by Mr Ball's calculations. Anybody 
 who has watched a healthy Innuit family in the process of making 
 a meal on the luscious echinus or sea-urchin, would naturally 
 imagine that in the course of a month they might pile up a great 
 quantity of spinous debris. Both hands are kept busy conveying 
 the sea-fruit to the capacious mouth ; with a skilful combined 
 action of teeth and tongue, the shell is cracked, the rich contents 
 extracted, and the former falls rattling to the ground in a con- 
 tinuous shower of fragments until the meal is concluded. A 
 family of three or four adults, and perhaps an equal number of 
 children, will leave behind them a shell monument of their 
 voracity a foot or eighteen inches in height after a single meal... 
 The heaps of refuse created under such circumstances during a 
 single season were truly astonishing in size. They will surely 
 mislead the ingenious calculator of the antiquities of shell heaps 
 a thousand years hence^" 
 
 In consequence of their importance in other connections the 
 human remains (skulls, skeletons, whole or frag- 
 mentary) are reserved for special treatment. Their Human 
 
 ^ remains re- 
 
 mterest is more than antiquarian ; they supply data served for 
 helpful in determining such fundamental questions ^p^*"'^^ *^^^*' 
 as the specific unity or diversity of the Hominidse, 
 ^ Ivan Petroft, American Naturalist, July 1882. 
 
 ment. 
 
y^ ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 inter-racial resemblances and differences, and the origin and cradle 
 of mankind. 
 
 Britain. 
 
 Gray's Inn Lane, London, pointed implement found at end 
 of 17th century, said to have been associated with remains of an 
 elephant ; first recorded discovery of a stone object in quaternary 
 gravels ; now in British Museum ; Evans' Sto?ie Implements of Gr. 
 Britain, p. 522. 
 
 Hoxne, Suffolk, 1797, palaeoliths with bones of huge extinct 
 Quaternary auimals at a great depth in fine brick-earth ; Frere, 
 
 Britain. ^rchceol. XIII. 204. 
 
 Hatfield Beds (Brandon, Thetford), East Anglia, post-ter- 
 tiary flint-bearing deposits, stratified sands, gravel 
 bed^^*^^^'^ and brick-earth underlying boulder-clay of great 
 
 extent and in some districts proved to a thickness 
 of 60 feet; T. M^Kenny Hughes, Journ. Anthrop. Inst. iSj-j, 
 pp. 162-65. 
 
 Kent's Cavern, one mile from Torquay, Devonshire; 1825- 
 94; downward sequence of deposits: i. Limestone 
 blocks isS^^Yv in from the roof, some over 100 tons, 
 partly cemented with carbonate of lime; 2. Black mould 3 to 
 12 in. thick with remains of living species only, also Roman and 
 pre-Roman objects (potsherds, &c.); 3. Cave-earth and black band 
 4 ft. thick underlying granular stalagmite 5 ft. thick, with char- 
 coal, burnt bones, 366 flints delicately made of flakes but never 
 polished, also needle and other bone objects, but no pottery; 
 living and extinct faunas, hyaena, mammoth, cave-bear, horse, 
 glutton, cave-lion, reindeer, rhinoceros tichorhinus, urus, machai- 
 rodus latidens, voles, Irish deer, hare; 4. Breccia derived from 
 neighbouring hills underlying crystalline stalagmite nearly 12 ft. 
 thick, with rude massive implements made of flint nodules, but 
 also a flint flake and a chip embedded in the breccia; fauna 
 chiefly ursine, with lion and fox ; inscriptions or graffiti in cave 
 with dates 1604, 16 15 and 1688, the oldest with thin stalagmite 
 accretion showing rate of growth about 4^ inch in 250 years. 
 Buckland, M^Enery, Pengelly (numerous writings), Ralph Richard- 
 son {Trajisadions Edinburgh Geol. Soc. 1886-87). 
 
V. 
 
 PALEOLITHIC MAN. 
 
 79 
 
 REMAINS OF PALAEOLITHIC MAN {froM Kent's Caverjt.) 
 a. Flint implement ; b. bone awl \ c. harpoon head ; d. needle. 
 
8o 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 Cave. 
 
 Brixham Cave, near Kent's Cavern, with similar contents ; 
 Brixham Pengclly {Report of Committee of the Royal and Geo/. 
 Societies). 
 
 Tremeirchion Cave, Vale of Clwyd, N. Wales, 1885; flint 
 
 lance-head and scraper with cave-lion, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, 
 
 hyaena, &c ; Hicks and Davies, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xlil, p. 3. 
 
 Creswell Caves (Robinhood, Church Hole and Pin-Hole), 
 
 Creswell Crags, Derbyshire, 1875-6; upper bed 
 
 under stalagmite up to i ft. thick; quartzite, flint, 
 
 ironstone tools, scrapers, spear-heads, bone awls. 
 
 Creswell 
 Caves. 
 
 RIVER DRIFT IMPLEMENT {FaUeoUt kit). From Santon Downham, 
 
 Suffolk. 
 
 borers, rib-bone with incised head of hog-mained horse (objection 
 to this that it implied clipping and palaeoUthic shears invalid, 
 because hog-mane is a natural growth); machairodus, Hon, 
 leopard, hyaena, reindeer, woolly rhinoceros, hippopotamus, Irish 
 deer; lowest bed 3 ft. thick, red sand and clay; rude quartzite 
 flakes; lion, reindeer, hyaena, mammoth, rhinoceros, Irish deer, 
 horse, bear, wolf; tools of this bed identical with those of 
 Brandon, Bedford, Hoxne, St Acheul and thence south to 
 Toulouse, always associated with reindeer, mammoth, woolly 
 rhinoceros, &c. 
 
PALEOLITHIC MAN. 
 
 Victoria Cave, Settle, West Riding, Yorkshire, on the 
 Ribble; cave so called because opened 1837, year 
 of Queen Victoria's accession; "hyaena bed" under cave^°^^^ 
 glacial deposits originally 25 now 15 ft. thick; 
 scratched bones, also human or ursine fibula (Burk's "bone of con- 
 tention"); elephas antiquus, mammoth, hippopotamus, bos primi- 
 genius, rhinoceros leptorhinus, bear; Rev. J. M. Mello, Boyd- 
 Dawkins, Tiddeman, Crosskey; the fibula doubtful, but the 
 bones found 1875 ^^d 1876 show clean cuts or markings of 
 human agency ; one is small humerus of goat generally supposed 
 to be a late arrival coming in with the neolithic herdsmen, but 
 shown by M. E. Dupont to have associated \vith rhinoceros, 
 hippopotamus, cave-bear and other extinct fauna {B Honwie pen- 
 da iit les ages de la Pierre, p. 197, and letter to Tiddeman in Jour. 
 Anthrop. hist. 1877, p. 168); the hycena bed is certainly pre- 
 glacial in N. Britain, which may correspond to a post-glacial period 
 in the south, there being evidence of two strongly-marked glacial 
 periods, the earlier reaching far south, the latter arrested in the 
 north of the Midland Counties (Tiddeman). 
 
 LoTHERDALE Cave, near Skipton, same fauna as in Victoria 
 Cave in old river-gravel bed under glacial deposits, 
 but not in the river-gravels of the well-glaciated sur- and°Pon't^^ ^ 
 rounding district, showing that here the reindeer ^a^^s'^'^ 
 did not come in with, but preceded the ice-age. 
 
 Pont Newydd Cave, Denbighshire, 3 miles from St Asaph, 
 flints and associated extinct fauna in pre-glacial deposits; see p. 
 63 ; here are remains of hippopotamus, rhinoceros hemitoechus 
 and elephas antiquus. 
 
 LiFYXNON Benks, Cae Gwyn and Stet Caves. Vale of 
 Clwyd, explored 1884-86 by Dr. H. Hicks and 
 Mr E. B. Luxmore; occupied by pleistocene animals ciw^'d Caves 
 and man before deposit of the surrounding glacial 
 beds; the caves now 400ft. above sea-level, yet the contents had 
 been disturbed {retnanie^ resorted) by marine action; above the 
 fossil-bearing beds were deposits with foreign pebbles like those 
 of the glacial beds; Stet had been blocked by thick glacial beds 
 necessarily deposited after its occupation by the pleistocene 
 fauna; a small well-worked flint flake in the bone-earth (18 inches 
 K. 6 
 
82 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 below the lowest layer of sand) which extends outwards from the 
 entrance under the glacial beds, which were proved to over 20 ft. 
 The lance-heads, scrapers and other implements appear to be all of 
 same age as the flint flake, and it is evident that the contents (of 
 Stet) had been washed out by marine action during submergence 
 in mid-glacial times and then covered by marine sand and an 
 upper boulder clay (Hicks, J>aJ>er Brit. Ass. Meeting, 1886). 
 
 Ilford, Grays Thurrock, Essex; Erith, Crayford, Kent. 
 
 Numerous palaeoliths of normal river-drift type; 
 
 riJer^drfft ^^^^y pleistocene ; spotted hyaena, lion, 8zc.; 26 
 
 species, of which six only extinct ; Rev. Osmund 
 
 Fisher; Cheadle and Woodward (Boyd-Dawkins, iV^-Z/zr^, Aug. 31, 
 
 1882, p. 436). 
 
 FiNCHAMPSTEAD HILL-GRAVELS, Berkshire, pre-glacial and 
 apparently pre-pleistocene, deposited by a river 
 gr^veis"^^^^^ that has ceased to exist; extremely rude palaeo- 
 liths ("eoliths^"), grooved scrapers, large imple- 
 ments with rounded butt, flints worked at point only; figured by 
 O. A. Shrubsole \wJour. Anthrop. Inst. August, 1894, p. 44. 
 
 Chalk Plateau, Kent, rolled and other rude palaeoliths. 
 Chalk like the Berkshire eoliths, described by A. M. 
 
 Plateau. Bell,/^//r. Atithrop. Inst. May, 1894, p. 266 et seq. 
 
 Canterbury gravel beds. Stoke Newington, Padding 
 TON, &c. &c. Numerous eoliths and palaeoliths of 
 gr^aveis,"&c. ^ types and forms collected and described by 
 Mr Worthington G. Smith in Man, the Primeval 
 Savage, 1894. Many of these are so rude that they may well be 
 assigned to a tertiary or eolithic precursor whenever his existence 
 is established in Britain. But "on this question the world needs 
 enlightenment " (Thos. Wilson, Prehistoric Anthropology, p. 604). 
 
 European Mainland. 
 
 St Acheul, ABBEVILLE; Amiens. Somme Valley, explored 
 
 for many years (1841 — 1860), by Boucher de Perthes, 
 
 man in who found numerous palaeoliths of ordinary types 
 
 associated with extinct fauna in undisturbed high- 
 
 ^ Gr. 97WS, dawn, and Xi'^os, a stone. 
 
v.] PALAEOLITHIC MAN. 83 
 
 level river-gravels: sites visited (1859-60) by Prestwick, Evans, 
 Lyell, Flower, and other eminent English scientists, who verified 
 Boucher's statements as "established beyond all controversy" 
 (Evans, The Progress of Archceology, 1891, p. 5, and else- 
 where). The acceptance of palaeolithic man on the mainland 
 by competent judges beyond suspicion dates from this event. 
 Boucher's first actual find was a rudely fashioned flint in a 
 sandbank at Menchecourt, 1841. Further research has enabled 
 archaeologists to divide tne palaeoHthic age more or less satis- 
 factorily into various epochs or sequences according to the 
 faunas associated with the implements or the locaUties where 
 found. Thus M. Lartet makes three such divisions, those of 
 the cave-bear, mammoth and reindeer, reduced by 
 
 ■' Grades of 
 
 Dupont to two, mammoth and reindeer. These Palaeolithic 
 cannot be accepted because of the intermingling ^"^^"'■^• 
 of the faunas (p. 64) ^ Evans, followed by Cartailhac, Reinach 
 and others, proposes two, the alluvium, and the caverns, as if 
 primitive man first occupied the land, and was then driven by 
 the increasing cold to take shelter in the caves. But from their 
 contents it is evident that the caves were inhabited at all times; 
 and there is no reason why that should not be so. 
 
 At present the most generally accepted and perhaps the most 
 convenient division is that of i\L de Mortillet" into 
 four epochs, or culture sequences, named from the four^p?chi!^'^ 
 places in France where the most numerous and 
 
 ^ The zoological divisions, as they may be called, have led to endless con- 
 fusion and misunderstandings, as when de Quatrefages argues that the men of 
 Furfooz (Lesse Valley, Dinant), must have been paleolithic merely because of 
 their association with the reindeer, the lemming and a few other animals 
 assumed to belong necessarily to an Arctic fauna {Races Hut?iaijies, Questions 
 Gcnerales, p. 74). Yet these men made pottery, deposited offerings with the 
 dead, and were sub-brachycephalic, a combination of characters indicating a 
 distinctly neolithic race. No doubt pottery was also found by Dupont at the 
 Trou de Chaleux, same district, under debris over 3 ft. thick that had fallen in 
 from the roof; but that is no test at all of age. Such accidents may happen in 
 a moment at any time, and objects found under such debris in Kent's Cavern, 
 Placard and elsewhere, are often not only neolithic but even historical (British, 
 Roman &c.). The rudest pottery has not yet been traced to distinctly pleisto- 
 cene and inter-glacial times in Europe. 
 
 2 In his classical work, Le Prehistorique. 
 
 6—2 
 
84 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 most typical implements of the several epochs have been found. 
 These are the Chellian, from Chelles a few miles east of Paris; 
 the Moustierian from the cave of Moustier on the river Vezere, 
 Dordogne; the Sohdrian, from the cave at Solutre near Macon; 
 and the Madelenia7i, from the rocky shelter of La Madeleine, Dor- 
 dogne. This nomenclature is of course purely conventional, the 
 local names being taken merely as indicating so many types, to 
 which implements have to be referred wherever found. The chief 
 objection is perhaps the fact that the human remains from Solutre 
 appear to be not palaeolithic but neoUthic. At least the skulls 
 are not doHcho- but brachy-cephalic, and "hitherto no certain 
 example of brachycephaly has been found amongst quaternary 
 human remains" (Salmon, ib. p. 6). But this question must 
 not be prejudged, and meanwhile de Mortillet's fourfold division 
 appears to hold the field. In any case it has been too widely 
 accepted^ to be overlooked in any comprehensive ethnological 
 treatise. It takes no account of an eolithic period, which has 
 yet to be established; nor is it probable that the grouping will 
 be found elastic enough to meet all cases with the progress of 
 discovery in every part of the world. It must therefore be re- 
 garded, not as possessing finaUty, but only as a convenient 
 scaffolding, to be removed when it has served its purpose, that 
 is, when the last word has been said on the obscure problem 
 of palaioHthic man, his age, evolution and general culture. 
 
 Chelles, right bank Marne, district Meaux, above Paris; 
 numerous chipped flints, mostly oval or almond- 
 Cheihanage. gj^^^p^^^ somc morc round and even like dirks 
 (scrapers?), cutting edge generally at the point, but also ex- 
 tended nearly round, leaving part for a grip. "I much doubt 
 whether any of them were attached to a handle" (Wilson, ib. 
 p. 608). Since their manufacture many have been deeply patined 
 and rusted sometimes even right through, in red, yellow, or chalky 
 white colours by physical or chemical agency, implying great age; 
 uses obviously multifarious at a time when this was almost the only 
 implement invented by man; this "Chellian type" is found almost 
 
 1 To mention one instance, de Mortillet's division has been taken as 
 the basis of Mr Thomas Wilson's excellent Study of Prehistoric Anthropology y 
 Washington, 1890. 
 
v.] 
 
 PAL/EOLITHIC MAN. 
 
 85 
 
 PALEOLITHIC HAND IMPLEMENT, {R'tver Dlijt), \. 
 
 From Red/iill, Thetford. 
 
 \ 
 
S6 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 everywhere in both hemispheres as far north as the "Arctic Circle" 
 which at that time included Scotland, Scandinavia, North Bel- 
 gimn, N. Holland, N. Germany and N. Russia; it answers 
 generally to the river-drift type of Britain. In the St Germain 
 Museum, Paris, are six cases of these flints from the Chelles 
 sands and gravels, which rest to a thickness of 22 to 26 ft. on 
 the original chalk, some of the objects being coeval with the first 
 deposits, consequently of vast age. A great part of France is 
 covered with the plateau formation through which the rivers have 
 eaten their way down to their present levels. In this formation 
 multitudes of flints of the Chellian type are found ; consequently 
 at that time, before the running waters had begun their erosive 
 work, man lived in relatively numerous communities more in the 
 open air than in caves; hence the climate was mild and either 
 pre-glacial absolutely (late pliocene), or inter-glacial between 
 Croll's two great ice-ages (pleistocene). Either assumption an- 
 swers the conditions, though the absence of Chellian flints from 
 the then Arctic regions (see above) would imply that the period 
 was rather inter- than pre-glacial; otherwise there seems no 
 reason why primitive man should not have ranged northwards, to 
 Scandinavia for instance, at a time when the cUmate of high 
 latitudes was favourable. But no true ChelHan or other palaeo- 
 lithic implements occur in Scandinavia, despite the statements 
 of Zinck and others to the contrary (Wilson, zA pp. 74-5). 
 After the Chellian follow what may be called the Cavern periods, 
 that is times when man resorted more to the caves than to the 
 open, as if the first ice-age were now setting in. It will be con- 
 venient to keep these periods, as named by de Mortillet, together, 
 as under : — 
 
 MousTiER Cave, on the right bank of the Vezere affluent of 
 
 the Dordogne, above Les Eyzies and Tayac ; typical 
 
 or F^rst Cav^" implements, flint point or spear-head left smooth 
 
 Age. impie- ^j^^^ f[^^ qjj one sidc, as struck from the core, 
 
 merits. ^ ' . ' 
 
 pointed and edged from the other side; scraper 
 treated in same way, but with edge rather upon the side than 
 at the end, as in all succeeding epochs ; similar objects occur in 
 the river-gravels, but are found in the caves at such depths and in 
 such associations as to suggest long occupation during glacial 
 
PALEOLITHIC MAN. 87 
 
 times with a fauna more like the present, all the now extinct 
 forms having already disappeared. In fact some of these flint 
 implements, which from their form are treated by the French 
 geologists as palaeolithic, "would be included in the second 
 division, or neolithic, in England ^" 
 
 SoLUTRE Cave, Macon district, Saone-et-Loire ; flint imple- 
 ments of laurel-leaf and other patterns, showing an 
 immense advance on those of the previous age, both second cave 
 in variety of form and especially in finish, in this ^^^- ^"^p^^- 
 respect scarcely ever since rivalled, certainly never 
 surpassed ; large thin spear-heads ; scrapers with edge no longer 
 on the side but on the end; flint knives and saws, but all still 
 chipped, never ground or polished ; characteristic are the long 
 spear-points with tang and shoulder on one side only ; also bone 
 or horn awls or borers. These beautiful objects occur in nests or 
 {:ac/ies as in the United States. The flakes chipped off are some- 
 times "so long and thin as to resemble shavings rather than 
 chips" (Wilson, p. 615). The fine laurel-leaf patterns defy imita- 
 tion, hence have never been forged like so many other antiques. 
 Besides Solutre they occur in several other caves, such as Rigny- 
 sur-Arroux (Saone-et-Loire), Grotte de Garges (Vaucluse), and 
 Grotte de I'Eglise (Dordogne). 
 
 La Madeleine Rock Shelter, on the Vezere, about mid- 
 way between Moustier and Les Eyzies ; a very long Madeienian 
 epoch represented by numerous stations, whose or Third cave 
 varied contents show continued progress in the arts ^^' 
 and general culture ; scrapers, gravers, saws and knives of flint 
 
 ^ J. Allen Brown, your. AnthroJ). hist. 1893, p. 92. This palaeontologist, 
 it may be mentioned, proposes {ib. p. 94) four divisions instead of the two 
 commonly accepted: (i) Eolithic, roughly hewn pebbles, nodules &c., of the 
 chalk plateaux older than the present hydrographic system; (2) Paleolithic, 
 flints of the higher river drift of the present valleys, and oldest limestone 
 cave breccias; (3) Mesolithic, flints of better form intermediate between the 
 palceolithic and (4) Neolithic, polished or delicately worked implements like 
 those from the Danish tumuli, dolmens, &c. These divisions will probably be 
 accepted when sufficient data have been collected and correlated to clearly dis- 
 tinguish between the several epochs. But even then there will always be inter- 
 minglings and overlappings. 
 
88 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 flakes; borers, needles, "harpoons," hooks and diverse orna- 
 ments of bone, horn and ivory; but specially re- 
 piements. ^'"" markable are the spirited carvings in the round, or 
 etchings on stone, bone or horn, of seals, fishes, rein- 
 deer, mammoths and other animals, including man himself, besides 
 decorative work in straight, curved, or dotted lines, zigzags, 
 festoons or herring-bone pattern. This palaeoHthic " school of 
 art" stands apart, being almost exclusively confined to the 
 Dordogne district, although, as seen, analogous specimens occur 
 in Britain (Creswell), also in Belgium (Cave of Goyet), and a few 
 other places. Besides La Madeleine, the chief stations of this 
 epoch are Les Eyzies, Laugerie Basse and Gorge d'Enfer, in 
 Dordogne; Grotte du Placard, in Charente; and others in South- 
 West France. Noteworthy are a mammoth engraved on a frag- 
 
 PALiEOLITHIC ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 a. Of pike, cut on canine tooth of bear, Duriithy Cave. 
 
 b. Of aurochs, trees, s?iake etc. on reindeer horn. La Madeleine. 
 
v.] PALEOLITHIC MAN. 89 
 
 ment of its own ivory tusk, a dagger of reindeer horn with handle 
 in form of a reindeer, a cave-bear incised on a flat piece of schist, 
 a seal on a bear's canine, a fish admirably carved on reindeer 
 horn, and a scene also on reindeer horn, showing horses, aurochs, 
 trees, and a snake biting a man's leg. The man is naked, and 
 this with the horses and snake' suggests a warm climate, despite 
 the " Arctic " reindeer. Horses as well as reindeer abounded in 
 this and the previous epoch, and the Solutre cave district alone 
 yielded the fossil remains of about 10,000 of these animals. 
 wSufficient attention has not been paid to such points by those 
 ethnologists who regard all the cave men as "glacial." For the 
 "arctic reindeer epoch" of many French writers might be sub- 
 stituted a " temperate horse epoch " more in harmony with the 
 prevaiHng relations. In many instances art is displayed for its 
 own sake, as in the embelHshment of the so-called "batons de 
 commandement," apparently a kind of mace or emblem of 
 authority, from the Madeleine and Goyet caves. But this culture 
 suffered a sudden eclipse either before, or coincidently with, the 
 irruption of the rude neolithic peoples into Western Europe, just 
 as on the Anahuac plateau the Toltec culture disappeared before 
 the invasion of the Chichimec barbarians, and was not again 
 revived till two or three centuries before the arrival of the Con- 
 quistadores. \j 
 
 Placard Cave, on the Tardoire aflluent of the Charente river, 
 is the "Kent's Cavern " of France, its several layers 
 reveahng like it the successive phases of troglodytic cave. 
 culture from the Moustierian upwards. In the Superimposed 
 
 '■ Culture eras. 
 
 accompanying cut is seen the grotto with a sec- 
 tional view drawn to scale of the several beds, whi(^ in de- 
 scending order are as under : — 
 
 AAA. De'bris fallen from roof at various periods and separating 
 the different beds ; represents the stalagmite floors of limestone 
 caves. B. Layer of same with thin streak of clay interposed; 
 no remains in A or B. C. Top implement-bearing beds 15 in. 
 thick ; poHshed flint hatchets, barbed spear-heads, bones of living 
 species, all neolithic. D. E. F. G. All with Madelenian objects 
 
 ^ It has been called an "eel"; but the action shows that it is clearly a 
 snake. 
 
90 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 and corresponding species; altogether, with intervening strata, 
 about lo.L feet thick. H. Late Sokitrian beds ; spear-heads with 
 
 THE PLACARD CAVE. 
 
 shoulder on one side. I. Earlier Solutrian bed with laurel-leaf flints. 
 A K. jNIoustierian bed, with typical pointed flint. 
 
 Note that the second layer A (debris from 
 roof) is 28 in. thick, so far implying non-con- 
 tinuity and a considerable gap between the latest 
 palaioUthic (D) and the neolithic (C) era. Similar 
 evidence is afforded by other caves, such as 
 Laugerie Haute (gap 50 in.), and Grotte de la 
 Vache (stalagmite gap 21 in.). But these gaps, 
 by which many eminent archaeologists have been 
 influenced, do not necessarily imply correspond- 
 ing breaks between palaeo- and neo-lithic times. 
 They merely point at gradual improvement in 
 the cHmate after the retreat of the last ice-sheet, 
 thus enabling the men of the New Stone Age to 
 Hve more in the open, and obHging them to 
 resort less frequently to the caves, which were- 
 at last abandoned altogether. In other words, 
 early neoHthic man was of less troglodytic habits 
 than his immediate Madelenian precursor of 
 
v.] PALEOLITHIC MAN. 9 1 
 
 post-glacial times. So far it may be inferred that in Britain 
 and West Europe primitive man appeared after the retreat of 
 Croll's first ice-sheet, and lived throughout the whole of the 
 inter-glacial period, surviving in some places till the retreat of 
 Croll's second ice-sheet, when he was gradually replaced and 
 no doubt partly absorbed by early neolithic man arriving after the 
 final disappearance of glaciation everywhere below the Alpine 
 uplands. 
 
 Thenay, near Pontleroy, Loir-et-Cher, flints extracted by 
 I'Abbe Bourgeois from the miocene beds (knife, 
 scraper, point) : claimed by him to be of human Evidences of 
 
 ^ ' ^ . ^ ' ^ Tertiary Man 
 
 workmanship, but claim generally disallowed, and in France, 
 doubted by de Quatrefages {ib. p. 93). These finds Ita'i>^^^ 
 first raised the question of tertiary man in Europe, 
 further proof of which was adduced in 1863 by M. Desnoyers, 
 who produced from the gravels of 
 
 Saint-Prest, near Chartres, various incised bones, undoubtedly 
 worked by man and associated with elephas meridionalis and 
 rhinoceros leptorhinus ; site examined by Lyell, but the beds 
 appear to be rather old quaternary than true tertiary. Better 
 evidence was brought forward by JVI. Rames from the upper 
 miocene of 
 
 PuY-CouRNY, near Aurillac, Cantal ; by Senhor Ribeiro from 
 the same formation at 
 
 Otta, Tagus Valley, near Lisbon ; and by Signor Capellini 
 from the pliocene of 
 
 Monte-Aperto, near Siena. Apart from human remains, 
 the proofs of tertiary man in Europe appear at present to be 
 limited to these finds, the most convincing of which are those of 
 Rames, of some of which it is admitted that ''had they been 
 found in quaternary beds no one would have hesitated to regard 
 them as intentionally carved " (de Quatrefages, ib. p. 93). This 
 carries the question back, not merely to a pliocene, but to a 
 miocene (mid-tertiary) precursor of the Hominidae. Such a 
 precursor would be necessarily intermediate between the gene- 
 raUsed pliocene precursor, who must be accepted, and some 
 higher anthropoid forms than any of those now existing. Such a 
 being must no doubt also be postulated ; but he could scarcely 
 
92 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 be regarded as distinctly human, though possibly endowed with 
 sufficient intelligence to work the rude flints produced by M. 
 Rames. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Nile Valley, opposite Thebes, chert implements from the 
 undisturbed river-drift, and from the breccia in 
 which are hewn the royal tombs of the wady Biban ManVn Africa. 
 el-Moluk; Pitt Rivers, y<?7/r//. Anth7'op. Inst., June 
 i88r. 
 
 Abydos District, 30 miles north of Thebes, a limestone 
 plateau 1400 feet above the present Nile level, explored (1894- 
 95) by Prof. Flinders Petrie and described by him as "the home 
 of palaeolithic man." Here were found in great numbers large 
 massive flints, beautifully worked and perfectly unworn, "of 
 exactly the same forms as those of France and England. The 
 enormous age of these is shown by their black-brown staining, 
 while others 5000 years old by their side show scarcely a tinge of 
 weathering. Besides these, other flints of a later palaeolithic 
 type are found embedded in the ancient gravels of the former 
 High Nile, so that the Nile still rolled down as a vast torrent 
 fifty times its present volume at the latter age of palaeolithic 
 man" (Paper read before the Royal Society, Edinburgh, x'\pril, 
 
 1895)- 
 
 Cairo, fine river-drift hatchet found 1879 on the road to 
 the petrified forest 3 miles from the city, made to be grasped, 
 not fixed to a handle (H. Stopes, Rep. Brit. Ass., 1880, 
 p. 624). 
 
 Gafsa and surrounding district, Tunisia; successive epochs 
 of palaeolithic culture (Chellian, Moustierian and Solutrian) ; work- 
 shops and immense numbers of typical implements, some found 
 in the undisturbed gravels 16 ft. below the surface, as on the 
 right bank of the Wed-Baiash i^ mile north of Sidi-Mansur; no 
 pottery or polished stones, but fragments of friable bones carved 
 with fine parallel lines, and one with the rude outHnes of an 
 animal's head. The long sojourn of palaeoHthic man in Tunisia 
 west from Gulf of Cabes (Syrtis Minor) is placed beyond all 
 
v.] PALEOLITHIC MAN. 93 
 
 doubt by the explorations of Dr R. Collignon^ and Dr Courl- 
 lault-. 
 
 Tlemcen, near Oran; Kolea, west of Algiers, and other 
 parts of Algeria numerous flints of distinct palaeolithic type, but 
 mostly surface finds; Lubbock, Bleicker, Hayness. 
 
 Cape Colony, Natal, stone implements from every part of 
 this region, some (Natal) undoubtedly palaeolithic of river-drift 
 types (knives, scrapers, spear-heads, &.C.); W. D. Cooch (illus- 
 trated memoir), J. Sanderson. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Syria, palaeolithic hatchet, found 1842 by the Abbe' Richard 
 between Mt Tabor and Sea of Tiberias. 
 
 Palestine, another of same type found 1880 between Jeru- 
 salem and Bethlehem by H. Stopes {Aritiquity of 
 Man, p. 7). "This axe has been chipped and ManTnAsYi! 
 worn in use, and the chips have during the vast 
 lapse of time it has been exposed to the weather assumed that 
 pecuHar appearance that lengthened exposure alone gives" {ib.). 
 
 Lebanon, quaternary station with palaeoHthic tools associated 
 with partly extinct fauna (Louis Lartet). 
 
 Asia Minor, hatchet of river-drift type from Abydos (Lub- 
 bock). 
 
 Caucasus, cave 30 miles from Kutais, human remains with cave- 
 bear and other large fauna (Prince Mossa Shvili, ^L Navrotsky). 
 
 Mongolia, arrow-heads from quaternary beds near Tul-she- 
 san-hao (Abbe Armand David). 
 
 India, numerous palseoliths from pleistocene beds in every 
 part of the peninsula, generally of same types as the European 
 river-drift; some near Madras under thick beds of laterite (Med- 
 licott and Blandford); quartzite hatchet from the fossiHferous 
 undisturbed beds of the Narbadda (Hacket); agate knife from 
 
 ^ Les dges de la pierre en Tiinisie, in Materiaiix pour f histoire primitive et 
 naiurelle de rho7?i??ie, 3rd series, Vol. iv., May, 1887. 
 
 ^ Stations prehistoriques de Gafsa {Tztnisie), in V AntJuvpologie, v. 5, 
 1894, p. 530 et seq. "On peut done en conclure que les populations primitives 
 qui taillaient ces silex ont ete tres r^pandues dans toute cette region du Sud 
 tunisien, a I'epoque oil s'operait le lent comblement des vallees" {ib. p. 533). 
 
94 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 corresponding pleistocene l)eds of the Godavery (Winne); both 
 associated with hippopotamus, elephas insignis and other large 
 extinct (pliocene?) fauna. 
 
 JAPAN abounds in caves and shell-mounds of great age, 
 studied by John Milne {Stone Age in Japan, Jouni. Anthrop. 
 Inst., May, 1881); but not yet brought into clear relation with 
 pleistocene times in Europe; of the caves there are vast numbers, 
 many opening southwards and supposed to be artificial. "It is 
 more than probable that they offer as wide a field for the research 
 of the cave-hunter as caves do in any other country, and from 
 them a rich harvest of facts relating to prehistoric times has yet 
 to be reaped." The shell heaps of Nemuro, Hakodate, Omori 
 near Tokyo and others, stand 20 or 30 ft. above the present sea- 
 level, and those of Omori He about half a mile from the present 
 shore line {ib. p. 414). 
 
 Australia, numerous ;;//>;7^jw/^^,s' (ash-heaps, shell-mounds, &:c.) 
 mainly confined to the eastern and southern regions : 
 
 Quaternary -^ , . , , . 
 
 Man in somc very large and evidently of great age; one 
 
 Australia. ^^^^ ^^p^ Otway 300 x 50 ft. and i6 ft. high. "It 
 
 must have taken ages for the fish-eating natives of the coast to 
 build up such heaps" (Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, ii. 
 p. 234, and Vol. i. p. 239): "the layers of which they are com- 
 posed point clearly to the slow and gradual heaping-up of small 
 quantities of material from time to time." Near the south-west 
 coast between Port George the Fourth and Hanover Bay there is 
 "a complete hill of broken shells, which it must have taken some 
 centuries to form, for it covered nearly, if not quite, half an acre 
 of ground, and in some places was 10 ft. high" (Grey, North- 
 western and Western Australia^ i. p. no). E. M. Curr, who has 
 examined a great many of these "ovens," states that "neither 
 stone arrow-heads nor fragments of pottery are found in them" 
 {The Australian Race, iii. p. 677). But the "stone-circles" men- 
 tioned in Chambers' Monume?its of Unrecorded Ages as "numerous 
 in Victoria," have no existence; "there are no such circles, and 
 never ^ve^e" (Smyth, 11. p. 235). On the other hand vast 
 numbers of stone implements (hatchets, knives, adzes, scrapers, 
 pounders, points, ^q.), made of diorite, basalt, quartzite, granite, 
 porphyry, obsidian, lava, sandstones, &c.), occur almost every- 
 
v.] PAL.-EOLITHIC MAN. 95 
 
 where, but always on or near the surface. "It is scarcely possible 
 to disturb any large area of the natural surface in Victoria without 
 lighting on some of these weapons.... Broken tomahawks, broken 
 adzes, chips and flakes of basalt, and near the coast old mirni- 
 yong heaps, which for ages have been covered with drift-sand 
 [blown sand] are from time to time discovered. All these show 
 that the Aboriginals, living in exactly the same state as they were 
 found when Australia was first discovered, have been for periods in- 
 calculable the possessors of the soil... But though some hundreds 
 of square miles of alluvia have been turned over in mining for 
 gold, not a trace of any work of human hands has been dis- 
 covered. Some of the drifts are not more than three or four feet 
 in thickness (from the surface to the bed rock), and the fact that 
 no Aboriginal implement, no bone belonging to man, has been 
 met with, is startling and perplexing" (Smyth, i. p. 364). And 
 although some implements are chipped, others ground and polished, 
 the distinction is rather one of locality and material than of age. 
 "There is no method by which we can distinguish a difference of 
 period if we examine stone implements" {ib. p. 360) \ Neverthe- 
 less a strong proof of vast antiquity answering perhaps to that of 
 palreolithic man in the northern hemisphere, is afforded not only 
 by all this cumulative evidence, l)ut also "by the fact that in 
 sinking wells and other excavations in the Hunter Valley, flat 
 rocks with axe-marks on their surfaces have been discovered at 
 the depth of 30 feet or more below the present surface-level, and 
 covered with drift or alluvium, which in all probability must 
 have taken thousands of years to accumulate" (Bennett, History 
 of Australian Discovery and Colonization^ p. 263, quoted by 
 Smyth). 
 
 In New Zealand three stone ages are distinguished by 
 F. R. Chapman, the last being the contemporary, associated 
 
 ^ So also R. Etheridge: Has man a Geological History in Australia^ Free, 
 Linn. Soc, N. S. Wales, 1890, p. 259; and E. H. Giglioli; Le Eth delta 
 Pidra nelV Australasia, &c., 1894, p. 4: "II tipo e la fattura delle arme e 
 degli strumenti di pietra degli Australian!, e dico cio per osservazioni mie 
 proprie su un esteso materiale nella mia collezione, rappresentano oggi tutti gli 
 stadii possibili dal piu rozzo tipo paleolitico al saggio piu perfezionato...deir 
 epoca neolitica." 
 
96 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 with the working of nephrite or greenstone by the Maoris {Trans. 
 N. Zealand List., 189 1, p. 479). The first may be referred to the 
 Papuan predecessors of the Maori, the *'Moa-hunters," although 
 the ancestors of the Maori themselves appear to have hunted 
 some species of dinornis. In any case its correlation to the 
 extinct pleistocene fauna of the northern hemisphere remains to 
 be determined. 
 
 America. 
 
 TiERRA DEL FuEGO ; kitchen-middcns ancient and modern, 
 both of prodigious extent, and formerly much larger, 
 
 Quaternary , . ^^ , , - . . „., 
 
 Man in havmg Suffered greatly from marme erosions. 1 he 
 
 America. former, after every allowance is made for rapid 
 
 accumulation, are shown from their contents and magnitude 
 to be of vast age, and considering their position at the southern 
 extremity of the Continent, seem alone sufiicient to solve in the 
 affirmative the question of quaternary man in the New World. 
 What remains of the shell-heap on Elizabeth Island is nearly a 
 mile long, stands 24 ft. above the present sea-level, has a mean 
 thickness of nearly 4 ft., and is covered with a layer of fine sand 
 from 24 to 28 in. thick, above which is a layer of vegetable 
 humus with a luxuriant herbaceous growth. Lovisato, who has 
 carefully studied these Fuegian shell-mounds, shows that that of 
 EHzabeth Island was submerged, during submergence received 
 its layer of marine sands, and was then upheaved to its present 
 level. He also shows that the shells {patella, mytiliis) forming a 
 great part of the contents are different from and much larger than 
 the corresponding species now inhabiting the surrounding waters \ 
 Similar phenomena are presented by the mound at Ushwaya in 
 Beagle Channel, and by the other ancient middens strewn over 
 the Archipelago. 
 
 Patagonia. Here as in so many other parts of the New 
 
 1 "Le valve delle grandi patelle e le altre dei grossi mitili del deposito non 
 si trovano oggigiorno su quelle spiaggie, ne sulle circostanti, ove patelle e 
 mitili, che pur vivono ancor in quel mare sebbene non abbondanti, sono pic- 
 colissimi " {op. cit. p. 11). This argument will appeal forcibly to those 
 paleontologists, who are well aware how very slow is especially the growth 
 and evolution of these organisms. 
 
v.] PAL/EOLITHIC MAN. 97 
 
 World the great difficulty arises, not from lack of material, of 
 which there is a superabundance, but from the intermingHng or 
 close juxtaposition of types, the persistence of old in the midst of 
 new forms, so that it often becomes impossible to discriminate 
 between remote and later epochs. In the Western Hemisphere 
 there are few Creswell or Placard Caves, where the reHcs of the 
 past follow in orderly succession, as if arranged in cabinets for the 
 convenience of the antiquarian student. Thus the Rio Negro 
 Valley, Patagonia, may rather be compared to an ill-assorted 
 ethnological museum, where the naturalist, Mr W. H. Hudson, 
 wanders about the abandoned sites of old and recent habitations 
 profusely strewn mostly on or near the surface with evidences of 
 the presence of primitive and later generations. Nevertheless, 
 thanks to denudation and weathering here and there, "the sites 
 of numberless villages^ of the former inhabitants of the valley 
 have been brought to Hght. I have visited a dozen such village 
 sites in the course of one hour's walk, so numerous were they. 
 Where the village had been a populous one, or inhabited for 
 a long period, the ground was a perfect bed of chipped stones, 
 and among these fragments were found arrow-heads, flint knives 
 and scrapers, mortars and pestles, large round stones with a 
 groove in the middle, pieces of large polished stones used as 
 anvils, perforated shells, fragments of pottery, and bones of 
 animals.... The arrow-heads were of two widely different kinds 
 — the large and rudely fashioned, resembHng the palaeolithic 
 arrow-heads of Europe, and the highly-finished or neolithic, of 
 various forms and sizes. Here there were the remains of 
 the two great periods of the Stone Age, the last of which 
 continued down till the discovery and colonization of the 
 country by Europeans. The weapons and other objects of the 
 latter period were the most abundant, and occurred in the valley; 
 the ruder were found on the hill-sides, in places where the river 
 
 ^ Such sites, the paraderos of the Hispano- American writers, are scattered 
 in great numbers all over Argentina. Although the contents are mostly those 
 of neolithic times, some, such as that of the Marco-Diaz Valley (612 x 408 feet), 
 must have been occupied either continuously or at intervals for untold gene- 
 rations. Paradero is the Spanish "sojourn," "residence," from parar, to 
 stop, or sojourn. 
 
 K. 7 
 
98 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 cuts into the plateau. The site where I picked up the largest 
 number had been buried to a depth of 7 or 8 feet; only where 
 the water after heavy rains had washed great masses of sand and 
 gravel away, the arrow-heads with other weapons and implements 
 had been exposed. These deeply-buried settlements were doubt- 
 less very ancient \" This passage, written by a good observer 
 and naturalist, reads like a description of the river-drift finds in 
 the Thames and Somme Valleys, and prejudice alone will refuse to 
 accept it as proof of quaternary man in America. Here also the 
 argument is strengthened by the evident change of climate, which 
 at present is far too dry to support the numerous village com- 
 munities formerly dotted thickly over the now arid Patagonian 
 wastes. Moreno's investigations also establish quaternary man in 
 Patagonia. 
 
 Argentina, Brazil. Here the existence of quaternary man 
 seems to be established by the researches of Ameghino, Bur- 
 meister, Lund, Moreno and other eminent palaeontologists, who 
 have produced not only the works but also the remains of fossil 
 man himself, especially from the Brazilian caves and from the 
 Pampas beds, which latter answer partly to the pleistocene, 
 partly to the pliocene, formations of Europe. The question of 
 tertiary man has even been raised by Ameghino, on the ground 
 that these beds all belong to the same period, which he refers to 
 "pre-glacial," that is, late pliocene times. But Burmeister, whose 
 views are confirmed by Soren Hansen, shows clearly that the 
 Pampas formations belong to two distinct epochs, the lower alone 
 being pre-glacial, the upper quaternary; and as all agree that the 
 upper alone contains human remains and traces of human industry, 
 the question may be regarded as settled in the same sense that 
 it has been settled in Europe and elsewhere — tertiary not proven, 
 except for a postulated generalized precursor; quaternary proven 
 for differentiated Hominidas. The chief localities that have 
 
 ^ Idle Days iii Patagonia, pp. 37 — 39. In the same Rio Negro Valley 
 Moreno found (1874) at a depth of 13 ft. a skull artificially deformed like those 
 of the Bolivian Aymaras {Bidl.de la Soc. d'Aiithrop. 1880, p. 490). But against 
 this supposed widespread practice of cranial deformation a warning note is 
 raised by Juan Ignacio de Armas in a paper read before the Havana Anthrop. 
 Soc. Nov. 1885, on the so-called deformed Carib crania of Cuba. 
 
v.] PALEOLITHIC MAN. 99 
 
 yielded evidence of palaeolithic man are: Lagoa Santa district, 
 Minas Geraes (Upper S. Francisco basin) ; Sumidouro and other 
 limestone caves, explored by Claussen, and especially by Lund', 
 who here found the fossil remains of over 30 human beings and 
 numerous stone implements associated with an extinct fauna 
 answering to that of pleistocene times in Europe; all the skulls 
 except one are dolicho- and hypsisteno-cephalic (long, high and 
 narrow). Rio Carcarafia, Parana basin (Buenos Ayres Pampas) ; 
 similar remains, including one skull found by Roth under the 
 carapace of a Glyptodon near Pontimelo, but of brachycephalic 
 type. Some of the fauna present characters like those of the 
 tertiary period in Europe; such is the mastodon, which however 
 persisted in America long after its extinction elsewhere. Hence 
 "there would be nothing strange in the existence in America of a 
 mammalian fauna apparently tertiary, but contemporary with 
 our quaternary times" (Quatrefages, op. cit. p. 104). Thus here 
 again the proof of tertiary man breaks down. On the other 
 hr.nd the two different Lagoa Santa and Pampas types seem 
 to attest the existence of human varieties (the Hominidc^) in 
 South America in the quaternary period". Samborombo?i, south- 
 east of Buenos Ayres ; human skeleton and megatherium dis- 
 covered 1882 by Carles (see p. 34). Sa?itarcm district and 
 Marajo Island near Para; extensive shell-heaps with skulls of 
 same type as the present Tapuyo populations of Amazonia, also 
 mounds affecting the forms of alligators and other huge animals 
 
 ^ Memoires de la Soc. des Antiqtiaires du A'ord, 1845, and numerous other 
 communications. This palaeontologist, who devoted many years to the ex- 
 ploration of the hundreds of caves in the Lagoa Santa district, has determined 
 as many as 115 species of fossil mammals, including a huge ape, a jaguar twice 
 the size of the present Brazilian species, a cabiai as large as a tapir, and a horse 
 like that of the eastern hemisphere, but everywhere extinct in America before 
 the discovery; all these in close contact with fossil man. 
 
 - "Les grandes differences que presentent les cranes, les instruments, les 
 inscriptions des rochers, prouvent que ces populations appartenaient a des 
 souches diverses. Le continent qui se termine en une longue peninsule formait 
 comme une sorte de nasse dans laquelle les peuples refoules des contrees du 
 nord venaient se prendre les uns apres les aiitres, et souvent s'entre-exterminer. 
 L' Argentine est une vaste necropole de races perdues." Reclus (after Moreno) 
 XIX. p. 672. 
 
lOO 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 (the tribal totems ?), resembling the mounds of the Mississippi 
 basing Qiiixeramobun Valley, Jaguaribe b3sin, Ceara ; skull of 
 great age found in a cave, of doubtful Tupi type-. Santa Catha- 
 rina seaboard ; hundreds of sambaqiii (shell-mounds) with human 
 remains and rude implements. A skull described by A. Nehring 
 ( Verhandl, Berlin, Anthrop. Soc. 1895-6, p. 710) shows characters 
 like those of Neanderthal, Spy and even Pithec. erectus ; another 
 found by Loefgren in a mound 6 miles west of Sao Vicente 
 resembled those of the Lagoa Santa caves. The mounds them- 
 selves must be of great age, some being overgrown with huge 
 forest trees or buried beneath the drift washed down by ancient 
 rivers. Many are still over 300 feet wide by 50 high, although 
 for over 200 years they have been utilised by the lime-burners of 
 Rio Santos and other towns 40 or 50 miles inland ^ 
 
 Mexico; fossil human remains found 1884 at foot of the 
 Peiion de los Banos on the saline plains near the city of Mexico, 
 associated with extinct fauna (elephant, horse, &c.) beneath a 
 lava-stream, indicating a time when the neighbouring Texcoco 
 lagoon stood 10 feet higher than its present level and when 
 igneous eruptions of remote pre-historic times had not yet taken 
 place; elsewhere numerous palaeoliths also associated with the 
 elephant {E. Colombi) point at the presence of man on the 
 Anahuac plateau at a time corresponding to the European inter- 
 glacial period. 
 
 In the United States and Canada, this period is clearly 
 defined between CroU's ice-ages, the first preceding, the second 
 following, the formation of the present Ohio valley; both in- 
 dicated respectively by the normal trend from north-east to south- 
 west, and from north to south, of the usual phenomena due to 
 the grinding action of the ice-sheets. In a summary such as this 
 it would be idle to follow all the vicissitudes of the battle that 
 
 1 F. von Martius, Ethnographic B?'asiliett's. Many of these vestiges, how- 
 ever, are distinctly neolithic or even later, and apart from their associations 
 none would suffice to establish the presence of quaternary man in Amazonia. 
 
 2 Lacerda and Peixoto, Contribiiicdes para cstudo anthropologico das racas 
 indigenas. 
 
 3 " Les sambaqui datent certainement d'une epoque reculee...La somme de 
 travail que representent ces amas est vraiment prodigieuse" (Reclus, xix. 
 P- 359)- 
 
v.] PALAEOLITHIC MAN. lOI 
 
 has not yet been fought out over the presence of palaeolithic man 
 in the North American Continent. But speaking generally it may 
 be stated that the e\'idence brought forward even by such eminent 
 archaeologists and geologists as Abbott, Putnam, Wilson, Powell, 
 Cook, Shaler, and others studying the question on the spot, is 
 not yet regarded as conclusively establishing in this region the 
 presence of primitive man contemporary of the 
 European pleistocene Hominidae. The proofs fr,^\h\"" 
 chiefly relied on consist partly of innumerable sur- Trenton 
 
 r - , ^ ^ gravels, 
 
 face tmds from every part of the United States 
 and from some Canadian districts (of which presently) and partly 
 of numerous palaeoliths identical in form with those of the Thames 
 and Somme river-drifts, taken from apparently undisturbed glacial 
 deposits of corresponding age. Such are those of the Delaware 
 valley near Trenton, New Jersey, where Dr C. C. Abbott has 
 year after year brought to Hght from depths of 5 to 20 feet 
 scrapers, points and other rude implements of hard argillile, 
 one even showing glacial scratchings exactly like those of the 
 striated rocks among which it was found. Some were taken 
 in situ in the presence of such unimpeachable witnesses as 
 Putnam, Shaler, Dawkins, Haynes, of whom the last mentioned 
 writes that "speaking from an archaeological stand-point, I do 
 not hesitate to declare my firm conviction that the rude argillite 
 objects found in the gravels of the Delaware river at Trenton, 
 N.J., are true palaeolithic implements'." The Delaware is a 
 much larger river (350 miles long) than either the Somme or the 
 Thames, and when its banks were assumed to be frequented by 
 primitive man its bed stood 50 feet higher than at present. 
 
 Farther inland, evidence has been adduced from a few places, 
 such as Claymont (Delaware), Upland (Chester 
 County, Pennsylvania) and the glacial gravels of ^^^ i^asin" 
 Jackson County, Indiana, in all of which districts and other 
 palasoliths are claimed to have been found /;/ silu 
 by Dr Hilborne T. Cresson of Philadelphia; the extensive gravel 
 beds of the Little Miami near Cincinnati, Ohio, also of glacial 
 origin, where specimens were brought forward by Dr C. L. Metz 
 
 ^ Quoted by Dr Abbott in Evidences of the AntiquUv of Man in Eastern 
 North America, i8S8, p. lo. 
 
lo: 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP 
 
 ;n 
 
 PALAEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS FROM DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. i 
 
 3 ' 
 
v.] PALEOLITHIC MAN. IO3 
 
 at a depth of nearly 30 feet below the surface, so that "we can 
 henceforth speak with confidence of inter-glacial man in Ohio" 
 (Abbott, id. p. 6); the drift at Little Falls, Minnesota, where in 
 1879 Miss Babbil is stated to have found rudely worked quartzes 
 deeply buried beneath the glacial deposits; the Lake Lahotan 
 valley, north-western Nevada, where an obsidian spear-head ap- 
 parently palaeolithic was found by Prof. M^'Gee. 
 
 At the meeting of the American Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Knowledge, Madison, Wisconsin, 1893, all this evidence 
 formed the subject of a long discussion, in which it was accepted 
 as valid by Prof. G. F. Wright, but impugned by 
 Prof T. C. Chamberhn and others. In closing the ^^'^Z^ °^ 
 
 ° Chamberhn, 
 
 discussion, Prof W. J. M^Gee submitted that, Holmes, 
 
 111 -111 • f • XT 1 Mason and 
 
 although possible, the existence of man in North others. 
 America even during the last ice invasion of the 
 glacial period "had not yet been proved beyond question. 
 The supposed evidences of great human antiquity in that country 
 had not yet been corroborated by more extended research, but in 
 all save one or two cases later research had only served to show 
 that the first interpretation was erroneous." This is the view also 
 entertained by Mr W. H. Holmes and Prof. Otis T. Mason, two 
 most careful observers, both of whom hold that " the finds of 
 shaped stones referred to the gravels in place are modern shop 
 refuse [rejects, wastrels], involved in the talus deposits in com- 
 paratively recent times." After his return from the Chicago 
 Exhibition, M. Topinard, reviewing the whole question, expressed 
 in r Anihropologie his belief in the high antiquity of man in the 
 New World, and alluded to Dr C. C. Abbott as "the Boucher 
 de Perthes of America." To this Prof. O. T. Mason ^ repHes that 
 "it is quite within the limits of possibiHty that Boucher de Perthes 
 may turn out to have been the Dr Abbott of France," meaning 
 that his conclusions, since confirmed by overwhelming evidence 
 and accepted by Evans, Flower, and even Prestwich and other 
 extremely cautious observers, may nevertheless have to be rejected 
 as premature. It would appear, on the contrary, that, when not 
 merely one section, but the whole field from Fuegia (see above) 
 
 ■^ Afnef'ican Anthropologist, Oct. 1893, p. 461. 
 
104 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 to Alaska, is brought, under survey, the existence of quaternary 
 man in America may be as frankly accepted as it has already been 
 in Europe. 
 
 At the meeting of the American Association no reference 
 appears to have been made to the famous fossil 
 veTa^s%kun' skull reported by Prof. J. D. Whitney as found 
 (1886) in the undisturbed auriferous gravels of 
 Calaveras County, Cahfornia, which at once raised the still 
 discussed question of "tertiary man " in the New World. Before 
 reaching the gravel bed where the skull was said to have been 
 found, the shaft sunk by the miners had in downward order 
 successively pierced a black lava sheet 40 ft. thick, gravels 3, 
 white lava 30, gravels 5, white lava 15, gravels 25, and brown 
 lavas 9, or a total depth of nearly 130 feet. As the lavas might 
 have accumulated rapidly during periods of great igneous disturb- 
 ance in the Sierra Nevada region, everything would depend on 
 the age of the gold-bearing gravels, which are assigned by Whitney 
 to late tertiary times (pHocene), and by le Conte to "the be- 
 ginning of the [last?] glacial epoch." On the strength of this 
 and other data Whitney himself concludes generally "that there 
 is a large body of evidence, the strength of which it is im- 
 possible to deny, which seems to prove that man existed in 
 California previous to the cessation of volcanic activity in the 
 Sierra Nevada, to the epoch of the greatest extension of the 
 glaciers in that region, and to the erosion of the present river canons 
 and valleys, at a time when the animal and vegetable creation 
 differed entirely from what they now are, and when the topo- 
 graphical features of the state were extremely unlike those 
 exhibited by the present surfaced" The question is still sub 
 judice ; but should the find prove genuine, it will go some way to 
 establish a warm interglacial period of long duration to give 
 time for slow movements of migration between the eastern and 
 western hemispheres before the second ice-age set in. From his 
 studies of the Colombia formation M^^Gee infers such an epoch 
 for North America, where the relative erosion of running waters 
 since the formation of the first (Columbia) and second deposits 
 
 1 Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra A^evada^ p. 28S. 
 
v.] PALEOLITHIC MAN. I05 
 
 shows that " the interval of mild climate and high level of the 
 land between the two epochs of cold was from three to ten times 
 as long as the post-glacial period'." 
 
 This would also give time not merely for the appearance of 
 palceolithic man, at a few isolated points, as above, 
 but for his general diffusion throughout the northern fusion of qua- 
 Continent, as some have inferred from the special ternary man 
 
 ^ throughout 
 
 inquiries made in this direction by Mr Thomas North 
 Wilson, Curator of the Department of Prehistoric "^^"^^• 
 Anthropology in the Smithsonian Institution. From his memoir 
 on the subject (Washington 1890), it appears that to a Circular 
 (No. 36), issued in 1888, asking for information respecting primi- 
 tive man and his works, 209 replies were received, reporting 6,656 
 palaeoliths of Chellian and Solutrian (laurel- leaf) types from 23 
 States of the Union and 106 from Canada. Besides these, 
 thousands exist in public and private collections, such as those of 
 Cambridge, Mass., the New York Natural History Museum, the 
 United States National Museum, Washington, the Valentine 
 collection, lately presented to the City of Richmond, and the 
 Christy, now in the British Museum. 
 
 Some of those reported to the Smithsonian Institution occurred 
 in undisturbed deposits, such as those from Warren and Green 
 Counties, Ohio; from Essex County, Mass.; Bonaparte, Iowa; 
 West Granby, Connecticut (12 ft. below the surface); Lewisburgh, 
 Pennsylvania, and elsewhere. But many are from mounds and 
 shell-Heaps of no great age, while the majority are simply " surface 
 finds." A great controversy rages over these, which by many are 
 not accepted in evidence, being regarded as wastrels from the 
 workshops of neolithic peoples (the present Indians). Flakes and 
 chippings of all kinds must be so regarded, unless their age is 
 attested by their provenance and associations. But all rudely 
 finished implements, say of the Chellian type, are not to be 
 rejected merely because found on or near the surface. Often they 
 cannot be explained as chips flaked off from the core in the 
 process of manufacturing neoHths. They show wear and tear, 
 having been used as the best tools palceolithic man could produce, 
 
 ^ Meeiing Anicr. Ass. for the Advancement of Science, 1887. 
 
I06 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 and they occur in some places in pockets or caches^ as prized 
 objects, doubtless rude in a relative sense, but not so to those who 
 knew of nothing better. Mr Wilson, one of the first archaeologists 
 living, writes {ib. p. 694) : " My experience with these implements 
 in the two continents justifies me in identifying those found in 
 America as belonging to the same stage of culture to which the 
 Chellian implements of France and England belonged, and, con- 
 sequently, enables me to call them palaeolithic implements." And 
 this must suffice for a subject about which hundreds of papers 
 have been written, but on which it would be premature to pro- 
 nounce definitely. Hence little has here been attempted beyond 
 a fair exposition of the available facts, and of the views advocated 
 on both sides. An impartial observer may perhaps be per- 
 mitted to add that, if palaeoHthic man, as we are told, "is dis- 
 credited in the north," he stands in high favour in the south, 
 where his existence appears to be placed beyond reasonable 
 doubt, at least in Brazil, Patagonia and Fuegia. 
 
 A great antiquity has been claimed for the above-mentioned 
 
 mounds and the earth-works of all kinds strewn 
 
 buTider^not"^' ovcr the Mississippi basin, and abundant especially 
 
 quaternary. ^^ the Ohio vallcv. They havc been referred to 
 
 Their culture ..... 
 
 neolithic, pre- the Tallcgwi; an extinct civilised race, ante-dating 
 historic.^" the present Indian tribes, and driven out or ex- 
 
 terminated by them. It is confidently asserted 
 that between the Mound-builders and the Red Skins " no line of 
 connection can be made out," to which it might be replied with 
 even greater confidence that " no line of disconnection can be 
 shown." 
 
 Mr W. K. MooreheadS one of the best authorities on this 
 subject, recognises two distinct mound-building races, the old long- 
 headed, the later round-headed intruders, besides traces of palaeo- 
 lithic man near Cincinnati, possibly associated with the mastodon, 
 megatherium, mylodon, and huge extinct bears and jaguars, but 
 not known to be connected with the mound-builders. The chief 
 seat of the long-heads was the Muskingum valley, from Marietta 
 upwards to East Ohio, where the mounds, diifering in type from 
 
 1 Primitive Man in Ohio, Boston, 1892. 
 
PALEOLITHIC MAN. lo: 
 
 those of the round-heads, have yielded pottery, articles of slate, 
 hematite, copper bracelets and other ornaments, generally inferior 
 to those of the round-heads. These had their chief centre in the 
 Madisonville district, at the head of the Ohio river, where have 
 been found superior copper, horn, flint, stone, bone and shell 
 objects in profusion. Some 24 miles to the north-east are the 
 famous earthworks of Fort Ancient, the largest in Ohio, nearly a 
 mile long, with over 10 miles of artificial lines. Chillicothe, on 
 the Scioto river, is still the centre of the most interesting round- 
 head remains, such as the Hopewell group, the Hopeton works, 
 the Mound City, and other sites of pre-Shawnee settlements, 
 yielding potteries of artistic designs and elaborate workmanship, 
 finely wrought flints, copper, and other objects. INIoorehead con- 
 cludes that none of the mound-building races attained more than 
 a high state of savagery, that they were skilled in several arts, but 
 excelled in none, that they were not even semi-civilised, much less 
 possessors of the "lost civilisation" with which they have been 
 credited. The best authorities \ in fact, now regard them, not as 
 a distinct race, but merely as the precursors or ancestors of the 
 present aborigines. There is nothing in the mounds that the Red 
 Skins could not have executed, and several of these structures 
 have been in progress since the discovery. They thus connect 
 neolithic and prehistoric with historic times, but do not help in 
 any way to bridge over the gap between palaeolithic and neolithic 
 man. In the next chapter it will be seen that this problem of the 
 continuity of early with later culture everywhere presents itself, 
 and nowhere perhaps admits of a complete solution. 
 
 ^ Dr Andree {Das Zeichnefi bei den Natmt'olkern, 1887) "reasserts the old 
 statement that there is an established difference in artistic capacity between the 
 so-called mound-builders and the present Indians, so great that it either shows 
 a genetic difference between them, or that the Indians had degenerated in that 
 respect. This statement is denied by the Bureau of Ethnology " (Mallery, op. 
 cit. p. 738). This may be regarded as decisive, as the Bureau in question, a 
 branch of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, possesses all the materials 
 necessary to form an authoritative judgment on the point. See also Tzvelfth 
 Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology (1894) where the subject is treated 
 exhaustively by Mr Cyrus Thomas. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ANTIQUITY OF MAN : NEOLITHIC AND ^lETAL AGES. 
 
 Marked difference between the Old and New Stone Ages— Comparative Table 
 of Palteo- and Neolithic Cultures— A Break of Continuity in some regions, 
 notably in Britain— But not everywhere— No universal hiatus possible — 
 Continuous evolution in the south and south-east— Probable duration of 
 neolithic times— The late palteolithic era of the West synchronous with 
 the early neolithic era of the South-east — Great duration of neolithic 
 times argued on general considerations— The Danish peat-bogs a time 
 gauge — The Danish kitchen-middens — Origin and growth of aquatic 
 stations— The Swiss Lake-Dwellings— The Irish and Scotch crannogs — 
 Neolithic structures— Reducible to two types: The polylith or cell, and 
 monolith or block, originating in Burial and Ancestry worship— Polylithic 
 and monolithic nomenclature— Evolution of the Cromlech or Dolmen 
 through the Barrow from the Cell— Popularly associated with druidical 
 rites— The Sessi and Stazzone of Malta and Corsica— The Nuraghi of 
 Sardinia— The Talayots of the Balearic Islands— The Russian Kurgans— 
 Silbury Hill — The Cell becomes a Family Vault with later develop- 
 ments — The Menhir, its origin and wide diffusion — Its development in 
 linear and circular direction — The Alignments and Cycloliths (Stone 
 Circles) — Their origin and purpose explained— Erdeven ; Stonehenge; 
 New Grange; Menec, Carnac district — The Irish Round Towers- 
 Geographical Distribution of the Megaliths— Chief Centres: Bahrein 
 Islands; Moab; Mauritania; Gaul, Britain, Scandinavia— Bearing on the 
 question of early migrations— Europe re-settled in Neolithic times from 
 two quarters— Routes indicated by the presence or absence of Mega- 
 lithic Structures — These wrongly accredited to the Kelts who followed 
 the non-megalithic route — Astronomic and religious ideas attributed to 
 the megalith-builders— Prehistoric monuments in the New World— General 
 Survey— Tiahuanaco, culminating glory of American Megalithic archi- 
 tecture— Tiahuanaco Culture an independent local development. 
 
 Thanks to the break of continuity which certainly occurs in 
 some places between the old and the new stone 
 differenct be- ^8^^' ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ difficulty in defining the more 
 tween the Old salient features by which these two epochs are 
 stone A^es. distinguished. Later, the various grades of human 
 culture often merge so imperceptibly one in the 
 other, or present such a tangle of survivals and overlappings, 
 that it becomes hard at times to say where one begins or the 
 other ends. Thus the copper age, which must have preceded the 
 
NEOLITHIC MAN. 
 
 109 
 
 bronze, seems, so to say, crowded out almost everywhere in the 
 Old World, so that the transition is direct from the neoUthic to 
 
 NEOLITHIC ARROWHEADS. 
 
 {From various localities i?i the United States. ) 
 
 the bronze era. Even the bronze seems in some districts fused 
 in the iron, as in Belgium, where M. Ch. J. Comhaire is unable 
 to determine "the existence of a bronze age in the strict sense, 
 but only of a first iron age, that revealed by the Hallstadt necro- 
 poHs type'." 
 
 ^ Bitll. de ia Soc. iV Anthrop. de B7'uxetles, 1894, p. 18. So at the present 
 time we find railways preceding roadways in some newly-settled regions 
 (Argentina, the 'Far West &c.). 
 
no 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 But even where they obviously come into close contact 
 (Liguria, Gaul) the men of the palaeolithic age always present the 
 sharpest contrast to their neolithic successors. As will be seen in 
 the next chapter, the physical types are absolutely distinct, 
 except where intermediate forms already point at interftiinglings. 
 All the elements of their respective cultures also differ so pro- 
 foundly, as almost to suggest some violent disloca- 
 tion or sudden cataclysm, such as those of the 
 early geologists, rather than an orderly sequence 
 in accordance with the accepted principles of 
 organic evolution. The chief differences between 
 the two ages may be conveniently tabulated as under : — 
 
 Comparative 
 Table of 
 Palaeo- and 
 Neolithic 
 Cultures. 
 
 Paleolithic Culture. 
 Climate at first warm.(intei--glacial), 
 then cold (last ice-age) in the present 
 temperate zone of the Northern hemi- 
 sphere and everywhere in the Alpine 
 regions. 
 
 Fauna: large pachyderms, feline 
 and ursine species, hyaena, reindeer, 
 horse, elk, glutton, chamois, goat, all 
 ^vild ; some perish with the increasing 
 cold, some migrate south, some survive 
 by adaptation to the changed environ- 
 ment and either withdraw northwards 
 with the retreating ice-sheet or take 
 refuge in the Alpine regions; no do- 
 mestic animals. 
 
 Human types mainly dolichocepha- 
 lous, but brachycephalous also in some 
 places (South America?). 
 
 Fire, at first known only, later 
 partly under control — could be pre- 
 served when kindled by natural means^ 
 
 Food'^, at first mainly vegetable, 
 then animal also, mostly perhaps eaten 
 raw ; obtained by hunting and fishing 
 only. 
 
 Neolithic Culture. 
 
 Climate everywhere much as at 
 present, though at first (last post- 
 glacial period) perhaps cooler. In 
 general ice disappears with the ap- 
 pearance of neolithic man in the tem- 
 perate zone. 
 
 Faima: mainly as at present, a few 
 pachyderms survive here and there 
 (mammoth in Siberia); chief wild 
 animals wolf, bear, lion, aurochs, 
 beaver, fox, deer; domestic animals 
 everywhere abundant — horse, ox, dog, 
 sheep, goat, pig in temperate zone, 
 camel in Arabia and Central Asia, 
 llama in S. America. 
 
 Htunaji types at first mainly dolicho- 
 cephalous in Europe, later mixed and 
 diversified as at present everywhere. 
 
 Fire under more complete control — 
 could be artificially kindled and pre- 
 served^. 
 
 Food-, vegetable and animal, the 
 latter mostly cooked ; obtained by 
 hunting, fishing, stock-breeding and 
 tillage. 
 
 1 " II ne faut pas confondre ces trois choses distinctes: 
 feu, I'usage du feu, la production du feu " (Broca). 
 
 la connaissance du 
 
 It is commonly but wrongly supposed that in the wild state the higher 
 
VI. 
 
 NEOLITHIC MAN. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Palaeolithic Culture. 
 Cultivated plants, none. 
 
 Industries limited to the making of 
 chipped stone implements of Chellian, 
 Solutrian and other types, never ground 
 or polished; apparently no pottery, 
 but later artistic sentiment developed. 
 
 Momivients, none in the strict sense; 
 no houses, graves, or burial. 
 
 Speech, at first perhaps inorganic, 
 later involved. 
 
 Religious ideas ^ none (?). 
 
 Social Groups, the family, later tlie 
 clan. 
 
 Neolithic Culture. 
 
 Cultivated plants, numerous, cereals, 
 vegetables, fruits. 
 
 hidustries extended to the making of 
 polished stone implements of diverse 
 types, spinning, weaving, mining, 
 pottery, but little artistic sentiment 
 at first. 
 
 Monuments, monolithic, megalithic 
 etc. very numerous; houses, barrows, 
 graves (burial). 
 
 Speech perhaps everywhere involved 
 at first, later organic. 
 
 Religious ideas well developed. 
 
 Social groups, the family, clan and 
 tribe. 
 
 Some of tliese details, such as the comparatively late intro- 
 duction of the art of kindling fire\ the true starting 
 point in the evolution of civilized man, may perhaps 
 be open to doubt. But the table as a whole pre- 
 sents a sufficiently accurate picture of the two eras, 
 which are here seen to offer the sharpest contrasts 
 
 A break of 
 continuity 
 in some 
 regions, 
 notably in 
 Britain. 
 
 apes are exclusively herbivorous. They are certainly also insectivorous and 
 carnivorous, eating vermin, eggs, small rodents and birds greedily. "A I'egard 
 des jeunes oiseaux, le gorille et le chimpanze font preuve d'une telle voracite 
 qu'ils avalent leur proie sans la deplumer " (L. F. de Pauw, Btdl. d. l. Soc. 
 d'Anthrop. de Bruxelles, 1894, p. 140). Hence, when the precursor was driven 
 by the increasing cold of the first ice-age from arboreal habits to a nomad life 
 on the plains he readily acquired omnivorous tastes. It follows that man, in 
 the eolithic stage mainly frugivorous^ adapted himself later to a general diet; 
 all physiologists admit that food is largely a question of adjustment to the 
 environment, while itself reacting most powerfully on the dentition and 
 gnathism. 
 
 1 Yet even this may be inferred from the vague reminiscences of the dis- 
 covery, which still survived into historic times in the form of the Promethean 
 myth. The very names of the two pieces of wood used in one primitive process 
 of producing fire are preserved both in Greek and Latin : CTop^m or eaxo-pa. 
 = tabula, the stand or under piece; rpxnravov = terch7'a-X\iQ borer twirled 
 between the hands. This " fire-drill," itself an improvement on the still more 
 primitive method of the "stick and groove " (Tylor), was in use in connection 
 with mystic rites long after it had been superseded for practical purposes by the 
 flint and steel, the burning-glass, and other more efficient processes. It thus 
 
112 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 at all points. Hence it is not surprising that a general impres- 
 sion should prevail, not of mere sequence, but of an abrupt 
 transition without any intermediate stages between the Old and 
 New Stone Ages. In some localities, notably in Britain, such 
 may have been the case, and Evans aptly remarks that " there 
 appears in this country, at all events, to be a complete gap 
 between the river-drift and surface-stone [neohthic] periods, so 
 
 NEOLITHIC CELT OF GREENSTONE. 
 
 {Frofn Bridlington, Yorks.) 
 
 far as any intermediate forms of implements are concerned; here 
 at least the race of men who fabricated the latest of the palceo- 
 
 became associated with so many superstitious practices, especially in the pro- 
 duction of the so-called nodfyr or niedfyr ("needfire ") in Germanic lands, that 
 the use of kindling lire by friction {De igne fricato dc Ugno) was prohibited by 
 the Council of Leptines (Hainaut) in 725. Such survivals point to relatively 
 recent inventions in neolithic or even prehistoric times. 
 
VI.] NEOLITHIC MAN. II3 
 
 lithic implements may have, and in all probability had, dis- 
 appeared at an epoch remote from that when the country was 
 again occupied by those who not only chipped but poHshed their 
 flint tools, and who were moreover associated with a mammalian 
 fauna far nearer resembling that of the present day than that of 
 the quaternary times \" 
 
 It has been seen (p. 73) that the same inference is drawn 
 by Prof. Boyd Dawkins, and although questioned by others, this 
 
 NEOLITHIC ARROW-HEAD. 
 
 {From the Yorkshire I Voids.) 
 
 certainly seems the most probable view, so far as regards Britain, 
 
 where the conditions were peculiar. The few scattered palaeolithic 
 
 hunters could scarcely have lived through the last ice-age in a 
 
 contracted region at one time reduced by subsidence to a mere 
 
 cluster of islets, and for long intervals entirely 
 
 severed from the mainland. But elsewhere the gver^^whlre 
 
 relations were very difterent, continuous land at all 
 
 times affording a retreat from the advancing ice- sheet, or from 
 
 the glaciers descending from Alpine heights. The southern and 
 
 south-eastern lands (Mediterranean seaboard, Arabia, most of 
 
 Irania and India) not only lay beyond the farthest limits of the 
 
 ^ Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain, p. 61 ■2. So great is the 
 authority of Sir John Evans on matters of this sort, that his view must be 
 accepted until disproved by some direct evidence to the contrary, which is not 
 at present forthcoming. 
 
 K. 8 
 
114 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 ice-sheet, but were even favourably affected by glaciation, which 
 transformed the temperate to an arctic, and the tropical to a 
 temperate zone. Here therefore human culture need never have 
 known any break, and if a continuous sequence between old and 
 new has not yet been estabUshed in these regions, it is only 
 
 NEOLITHIC STEMMED ARROW-HEAD. 
 
 {From the Yorkshire Wolds.) 
 
 because they have not yet been everywhere so diligently ex- 
 plored as have those north of the Alps. It was seen (p. 73) 
 that even in Liguria (Mentone Caves) interminglings seem to 
 have taken place V: similar contact may well be suspected in 
 
 ^ These, however, are somewhat differently interpreted by Mr A. J. Evans, 
 who from the associated ornaments concludes that the three skeletons of the 
 
VI.] NEOLITHIC MAN. II5 
 
 France, Belgium, Hungary, and may be assumed for the southern 
 and south-eastern lands. In any case no absolute 
 
 •' No universal 
 
 or universal hiatus can be imagined without the hiatus 
 assumption of one of Cuvier's fresh creations, which p°^^'^^^' 
 are in themselves a violent and gratuitous assumption, and which 
 in science would merely be another name for 
 limited knowledge. In this connection it is speci- Continuous 
 
 ^ evolution in 
 
 ally noteworthy that neolithic man is unanimously the southern 
 allowed to have reached Europe from the east or ers1:eTn"iands. 
 south \ most probably from both quarters, and if 
 this be so, it follows that those regions were the seat of a 
 relatively advanced civilization at the close of the last ice-age in 
 the west. This is one of those reasonable inferences which, 
 without admitting of direct proof, must yet be accepted in order 
 to avoid reckless and incredible assumptions. 
 
 For the whole period, from the close of the last ice-age to the 
 
 Barma Grande Cave, Balzi Rossi Cliffs, are early neolithic although interred in 
 unstratihed paleolithic debris. Hence " a race representing the essential 
 features of the later population of the polished Stone Age was already settled 
 on the Ligurian shores at a time when many of the civilized arts, which have 
 hitherto been considered the original possession of neolithic man on his first 
 appearance in Europe, were unknown. It will no longer be allowable to say 
 that these supposed immigrants from Asia brought with them at their first 
 coming certain domestic animals, and had already attained a knowledge of the 
 potter's art and of the polishing of stone weapons. And, if this is the case, 
 something at least will have been done towards bridging the gap between the 
 earlier and the later Stone Age in Europe" {Jour. Anthi-op. Inst., 1893, 
 p. 301). 
 
 ^ " Tout le monde reconnait que celles-ci [les populations neolithiques] sont 
 venues de loin et ont apporte avec elles des industries jusque-la inconnues sur les 
 bords de la Vezere ou dela Lesse, et un etat social nouveau " (De Quatrefages, 
 I. 117). Thus even allowing interminglings and contacts at various points, an 
 arrest of progress would have still to be admitted for the West. Assuming the 
 survival of primitive man into the New Stone Age, it is obvious that in any 
 case his culture was interrupted and prevented from continuing its natural 
 evolution by the irruption of neolithic man into Europe. One hesitates to 
 speak positively on such a difficult question ; but it may be said that all the 
 known facts point perhaps at extinction in Britain, and at absorption on the 
 mainland. Indeed Mr J. Allen Brown fairly establishes continuity in West 
 Europe {Jour. Anthrop. inst. 1893, pp. 66—95). 
 
ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 present day, a term of over 100,000 years was postu- 
 lated at p. 55. It was also seen that of this term 
 fully 10,000 years are now required for the strictly 
 historic period in Egypt and ^Mesopotamia. At a 
 moderate calculation at least double that number 
 of years may be assigned to the prehistoric metal ages inter- 
 
 Probable 
 duration of the 
 neolithic and 
 prehistoric 
 ages. 
 
 NEOLITHIC JAVELIN OR ARROW-HEAD. 
 
 {Iwerne Minster^ Dorset.) 
 
 vening between neolithic and historic times This v/ould leave 
 about 70,000 years for the neoHthic alone, and a nearer con- 
 sideration of the data above tabulated may help to show that this 
 is no extravagant estimate. 
 
 From the necessary hypothesis of a neolithic culture syn- 
 
VI.] XEOLITPIIC MAN. IT/ 
 
 chronoiis in the south and south-east with the later 
 
 stages of the palceolithic era in West and Central paiseoiithic 
 
 Europe, it follows that the neolithic era itself, when era of the 
 
 '■ _ west syn- 
 
 viewed as a whole and not merely in its western chronouswith 
 developments, must be dated back to palgeolithic nthiTera in°" 
 times. In other words, while primitive man was *^^ south- 
 
 . . east. 
 
 still strugghng with the mammoth, and fabricating 
 chipped implements in Dordogne and Britain, a relatively ad- 
 vanced degree of culture had already been developed, say, in 
 the Nile and the Euphrates valleys. Consequently the duration 
 of this advanced culture is to be measured, not by the first 
 appearance of its representatives in the west, but by its first 
 beginnings in the east, which may probably have coincided with 
 the ]\Iadelenian epoch in France. 
 
 How far removed these beginnings are from even the dawn of 
 history, may be dimly conjectured by such general 
 
 . , . 1 r 11 • Great dura- 
 
 consiaerations as the following. Not even the tionofneo- 
 faintest memory, such as might have been orally ar^ued'^n ^ 
 transmitted in popular myths and folklore, has general con- 
 
 , ^ ■, r ^ .... , „ siderations. 
 
 been recorded of the origin in time or place of 
 any one of the arts characteristic of the New Stone Age. All 
 de Candolle's ingenuity has failed to discover, otherwise than by 
 inference, the true home of the cereals and other cultivated plants 
 already known to neolithic man. No one can even surmise where 
 or when weaving, pottery making, and the other early industries 
 had their rise. Who can say when man first began to polish his 
 stone implements, and fashion them to convenient forms, some of 
 which were afterwards perpetuated in bronze and iron with little 
 change down to our days? The foundations of the megalithic 
 monuments, which yet girdle the globe, are wrapped in im- 
 penetrable mystery. Stonehenge and other similar works in 
 Britain and Brittany must be of comparatively recent date, for 
 their builders had already traversed more than half the eastern 
 hemisphere before reaching the Atlantic seaboard. Yet they are 
 old enough to have been entirely forgotten by later generations, 
 despite the vast labour expended in their erection. J^a/io in 
 obsacro, says Tacitus {Hist. ii. 3), in reference to a rude stone 
 pillar representing the Paphian goddess, and the remark may be 
 
Ii8 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 extended to all the works with which neoHthic man has covered 
 a great part of both hemispheres. 
 
 Some of these remains, however, afford a somewhat more 
 definite idea of the time occupied in their con- 
 
 The Danish ^ 
 
 peat-bogs a structioH. Probably the best tmie-gauge may 
 ime-gauge. ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^ study of the Danish peat-beds, 
 
 rendered famous by the classical labours of Worsaae, Steenstrup 
 
 ^^•"^ 
 
 NEOLITHIC PERFORATED AXE. 
 
 i^Huunianby^ Yorks.) 
 
 and other distinguished archaeologists. We have already seen 
 that palaeolithic man never ranged so far north as Scandinavia. 
 Hence the prehistoric remains now found in Denmark go no 
 farther back than the polished stone period. Yet so remote is 
 that period that since the first arrival of man the climate of the 
 country, as indicated by its flora, has undergone not one but 
 several successive changes. At the dawn of history the beech 
 was, as it still is, the characteristic forest tree, and as it could not 
 have sprung suddenly into existence, its general diffusion may 
 confidently be dated back to at least 2500 years ago. But the 
 peat-bogs, from the lowest depths of which objects of human 
 industry have been recovered, disclose three successive layers of 
 decayed vegetable matter, showing that before the beech, the land 
 
VI.] NEOLITHIC MAN. II9 
 
 was covered with the pedunculated oak, which had displaced the 
 sessile oak, successor to the Scotch fir characteristic of a still 
 earlier epoch. Allowing from 2000 to 3000 years to each of 
 these slow-growing and exceedingly tenacious arborescent species, 
 we see that man must have already been in occupation of the 
 land at the very least some 10,000 years ago. But to reach 
 Denmark he had to traverse the whole of the European mainland 
 by whatever route was followed, and such migratory movements, 
 always slow, must have taken many successive generations in 
 times when most of the land was either forest-clad, or covered 
 with vast swampy tracts. Even so recently as the seventh 
 century the Gallo-Germanic borderland is still described as "a vast 
 region occupied by almost continuous morasses'." In the Danish 
 peat-bogs the change of flora roughly coincides with a change of 
 culture, the polished neoliths of the fir and early sessile oak 
 being replaced by bronze tools which last throughout the upper 
 sessile oak and the whole of the pedunculated oak periods, when 
 iron comes in apparently with the beech forests, or somewhat 
 later. With the neoliths are associated the remains of elk and 
 reindeer, but not of the mammoth, which appears to have never 
 ranged into Denmark, although in Asia extending far beyond the 
 corresponding parallels of latitude. 
 
 In Denmark also were first studied and named the KJokken- 
 moddinger, or "Kitchen-middens," which we have 
 
 ^^ ' ' The Danish 
 
 seen scattered over both hemispheres, but the true Kitchen Mid- 
 character of which was determined by Steenstrup, 
 Worsaae and Forchhammer. By Lubbock they are referred to 
 the early part of the NeoUthic age, "when the art of polishing 
 flint instruments was known, but before it had reached its greatest 
 development ^" Surprise has often been expressed that Denmark 
 should have proved such an attraction to man at this period. But 
 the explanation may He in the physical and biological conditions 
 of a region washed by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, and 
 yielding an abundance of easily captured food. In the middens 
 
 ^ "Regio vastis et fere continuis paludibus obsita"; A. G. B. Schayes 
 Les Pays-Bas avatit et diirant la domination jxvnaiue, 1838, II. p. 67, quoting 
 from Audcemis, Life of St Eloi. 
 
 ^ Prehistoric Tii/ies, ch. vii. 
 
120 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 are found the shells of the oyster, cockle, mussel and periwinkle, 
 as well as the bones of the herring, eel, capercailzie, wild swan, 
 duck, great auk (now extinct), stag, roe, wild boar, urus, beaver 
 ti'c, besides the dog — probably already trained to the hunt. Here 
 consequently were found some of the earhest permanent settle- 
 ments, and here was even developed a distinctly local culture, as 
 shown by the peculiar and often highly artistic forms of the 
 later stone and bronze implements. This early settlement of 
 Scandinavia affords perhaps a clue to the preponderating part 
 played by the Norsemen in the course of events in later times. 
 
 Long occupation is indicated both by the great number and 
 by the magnitude of the middens, which occur all round the 
 shores of Jutland and neighbouring islands, and some of which 
 exceed looo feet in length, with a breadth of from loo to 200 and 
 a height of 10 feet. A single mound thus contains many tens of 
 thousands of cubic yards of refuse. They were certainly of earHer 
 formation than the middle peat-beds, for they contain no bronze 
 implements, and only a Httle pottery of coarse type. Since their 
 formation the very coast-line has been greatly modified, and the 
 Baltic Sea has become so fresh that the oyster, which formerly 
 abounded in the archipelago, can no longer live in the surround- 
 ing waters. 
 
 To the Danish peat-bogs correspond in point of time the 
 lake-dweUings of Switzerland, where analogous 
 growth'of" physical conditions could not fail to attract some 
 
 stSfons ^^ ^^""^ ^^^^ neolithic hordes, probably penetrating 
 
 up the Danube valley westwards from Caucasia 
 or Asia Minor. Lacustrine or marine settlements form an 
 interesting feature in the evolution of human progress, their 
 development being intimately dependent on the local conditions 
 at certain stages of culture. Communities seated by the shores 
 of lakes or shallow inland seas possess obvious advantages over 
 tribes confined to the woodlands or the plains. They draw their 
 suppHes both from land and water, and to their other resources 
 are added navigation followed by barter and piracy. But on the 
 other hand the wealth thus rapidly accumulated exposes them to 
 the attacks of predatory hordes, to guard against which they take 
 refuge in their boats. They are thus gradually transformed to a 
 
VL] neolithic man. 121 
 
 floating population, which soon learns to adapt itself to the new 
 environment by erecting dwellings on platforms resting on piles 
 driven into the mud or sands of a shelving beach. Then, 
 when peaceful days and orderly government take the place of 
 lawless habits, a return is made to terra firma, and the abandoned 
 lacustrine dwellings soon disappear; but the sites remain the safe 
 depositories of the multifarious objects of human industry which 
 have accumulated beneath the shallow waters during their occu- 
 pation. 
 
 Such is the history, either completed or still in progress, of 
 the numerous floating habitations which are found in every part 
 of the world from the New Guinea coastlands and the estuaries of 
 the Borneo rivers to Helvetia and the British Isles, and beyond 
 the Atlantic to the aquatic settlements of the Maracaibo Sea, to 
 which the surrounding region owes its present name of Venezuela, 
 "Little Venice." Such especially is the history 
 
 - , ^ . , ^ ^ ^ The Swiss 
 
 of the Swiss lake-dwelhngs, the recent exploration Lake Dweii- 
 
 of which has shown them to be one of the richest '"^^' | 
 
 storehouses of neolithic and prehistoric industries. Antiquaries 
 have already explored over two hundred of such 
 
 . Extend into 
 
 stations, some of which were occupied again and the Bronze 
 again, like Hissarlik (Troy), t>achish ', and those other ^^^' 
 eastern cities, where the vestiges of several distinct civilizations 
 are found superimposed one on the other. At Robenhausen, 
 south side of Lake Pfafflkon, three such prehistoric occupations 
 have been disclosed, each destroyed before the next began, as 
 shown by the three sets of piles (100,000 altogether), each pro- 
 jecting from 3 to 5 feet higher than the one below. So also 
 at Morges, on the north side of Lake Geneva, there were three 
 different stations, here, however, not superimposed but standing 
 in close proximity within a space of about a third of a mile. 
 Nevertheless they were not inhabited simultaneously, but succes- 
 sively, as shown by their relics, all stone in the earliest, stone and 
 rude bronze hatchets in the next, bronze alone and very fine 
 
 ^ The site of this place "was found l^y Mr F. J. Bliss to contain the 
 accumulated remains of as many as eleven cities, which here succeeded each 
 other from about 2000 to 400 or 300 B.C." (A. H. Keane, Asia, Stanford 
 Series, 1895, Vol, I. Ch. iii.j. 
 
122 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 bronze in the last, the great prehistoric city of Morges. Even the 
 present Morges appears to be some 1200 or 1500 years old; 
 yet it never had any record or memory of its predecessor till its 
 existence was revealed in 1854 by the subsidence of the lake, due 
 to an exceptionally long drought. 
 
 Although the study of the Swiss lake-dwellings dates from the 
 year 1854, it should be mentioned that the Irish craiinogs had 
 already engaged the attention of Sir W. R. Wilde in 1839; in his 
 Catalogue of the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy (1857) 
 as many as forty-six are recorded as known at that date, and 
 many more have since been brought to light. But the crannogs 
 "were not, strictly speaking, artificial islands, but cluans, small 
 islets or shallows of clay or marl in those lakes which are pro- 
 bably dry in summer-time, but submerged in winter" {ib.). 
 Although true pile dweUings were not unknown, as at Ardmore 
 in the South, most of the houses were of the so-called "fascine" 
 type, resting not on stakes and platforms but on layers of sticks 
 raised above the surface. Hence the connection with the con- 
 tinental structures is not obvious, although all alike are referred 
 by Dr Robert Munro ^ to the Kelts, the Swiss being also regarded 
 by Keller as of Keltic origin. Of the known Irish sites (about 
 220) over half {124) occur in Ulster, and nearly all those dis- 
 covered in Scotland are centred in the districts nearest to Ulster 
 (Ayrshire and Wigtonshire) : they are also of similar fascine type, 
 so that here a connection may be established. The Scotch cran- 
 nogs were probably constructed by the first immigrants from 
 the north of Ireland before they had secured a firm footing in the 
 country to which they gave its present name of Scotland. 
 
 It would seem that the settlements on the Swiss lakes were 
 
 far more numerous than those officially recorded. 
 nu^e/ouJthan ^^^ Thomas Wilson tells us that he knows many " not 
 is commonly notcd, and where noted as one they really include 
 
 several." He adds: "At Chevroux, Lake Neuchatel, 
 I found twelve stations, of which seven belonged to the neolithic 
 and five to the bronze age, yet they are noted as only one of 
 each. An idea of the extent of these stations may be obtained 
 from the fact that they contain from 10,000 to 100,000 piles.... 
 
 1 Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1886, p. 453. 
 
VI.] NEOLITHIC MAN. 1 23 
 
 At Wallishofen, Lake Zurich, there have been found no less than 
 2000 bronze hair-pins, some long with large and beautiful heads, 
 which when polished to their original gold colour, must have 
 given a gorgeous appearance to the female head-dress of that 
 age'." - 
 
 Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin in the proportion of about 
 9 to I, appears never to have been made in Europe before the 
 historic age ; but it was in general use amongst the Egyptians and 
 Babylonians many thousand years ago. It certainly was intro- 
 duced from the East at a very remote period into Europe, where 
 there were numerous prehistoric foundries for recasting worn or 
 broken implements. At one of these, near Bologna, some 14,000 
 such fractured pieces were found ready to be worked up, when this 
 ancient smithery was suddenly closed for ever, by events which 
 have passed out of the memory of man as completely as if they 
 had taken place in Croll's first ice-age. Bronze was unknown in 
 the New World, except in Chimu, where the art of making it 
 seems to have been discovered independently. It will be seen 
 presently that this fact has a direct bearing on the question of 
 the relations between the two hemispheres in remote prehistoric 
 times. 
 
 For the study of neolithic man, far more important than 
 peat-bogs, middens or lake-dwellings, are the multi- 
 tudinous megalithic structures which he has strewn strntture^ 
 broadcast over the face of the globe. Despite much reducible to 
 diversity of form and size, all these structures seem 
 reducible to two fundamental types, the polylith or cell, and the 
 monolith or block, both primarily associated with burial and 
 ancestry-worship, later also with religious rites in the stricter 
 sense. As in biology all proceeds from the cell, so in this 
 primitive architecture from the corresponding nucleus are evolved 
 the various organic structures, which seem to culminate in the 
 Egyptian temple (cell), with its obelisks, avenues of sphinxes, 
 and other monolithic approaches (block). Clear- 
 ness and the exigencies of space will be consulted an^°Mono^-'^ 
 by here grouping in two divisions, according to ^^^^'^^ nomen- 
 their affinities to one or other of the two primary 
 
 ^ Prchisioyic Anthropology, p. 629. 
 
124 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 types, the numerous terms in current use in connection with the 
 neolithic monuments : — 
 
 PoLYLiTHic Type 
 
 (the cell). 
 Cromlechs^ Dolmens or Quoits. 
 CistT'acns. 
 
 TuinuU or Barroias. 
 Cairns or Galgals, 
 Knrgans, 
 Nitraghi. 
 Talayots. 
 Sessi or Stazzone. 
 
 Monolithic Type 
 
 (the block). 
 Menhirs. 
 
 Alignments or Avenues. 
 Cycloliths or Stone Circles. 
 Stantare. 
 Roimd Toivers. 
 Gateways. 
 TrilithoJis. 
 
 Evolution of 
 the Cromlech 
 ; and Dolmen 
 I through the 
 j Barrow or 
 I Tumulus from 
 ' the cell. 
 
 Here the cell, taken as the starting-point, is essentially a 
 sepulchral chamber or tomb, composed primarily of 
 four, five, six or more megaHths, three or four 
 upright or on edge, supporting a horizontal slab, 
 which covers the whole space enclosed, and to 
 which corresponds another horizontal slab, resting 
 on the ground as a floor, but not necessarily present. 
 Here are deposited the remains of the dead, or else urns con- 
 taining their ashes, with or without parting gifts. Then the 
 polylith thus constructed is covered with a heap of stones or earth, 
 and is called a cair?i, tumulus, galgal, mound or barrow^. But in 
 course of time this superstructure may disappear from various 
 causes, leaving exposed the original cell, which is then called a 
 cromlech ox dolmen", of which the cistvaen is a mere variety ^ and 
 
 ^ Cairn (from Irish and Welsh cam, rock), a pile or heap of stones, thrown 
 together for any commemorative purpose, hence not necessarily containing a 
 grave; barrozv, from Anglo-Saxon beorh, a shelter, a burial-place {beorgan, to 
 shelter), always covers a grave; galgal, a rough tumulus without a passage for 
 secondary burial. 
 
 2 Cromlech (Welsh croin, bending, llcch, a slab), and dolmen (Kelt, table- 
 stone), are practically synonymous terms, indicating any group of uprights 
 supporting a flat capstone or table, this table being the original roof of the 
 sepulchral chamber. These terms however are not always used with strict 
 accuracy, and cromlech especially is often applied to groups of uprights which, 
 having no capstone, should properly be regarded as groups of monoliths or 
 menhirs, such as are seen in India, Algeria, Brittany and other regions. 
 
 3 Welsh Cistfaen, a chest or box-shaped tomb in a barrow, applied especially 
 
VI.] 
 
 NEOLITHIC MAN. 
 
 125 
 
 the quoit a local designation. Such, according to the best 
 authorities, would appear to be the genesis of all true cromlechs, 
 
 TREVETHY STONES. 
 
 many of which have been so long exposed that their raisou d'etre 
 
 has been forgotten. In many parts of Britain, 
 
 Guernsey and elsewhere, they are called "Druids' associ^ted^ 
 
 Altars," and are popularly associated with Druidical with Druidicai 
 
 rites. They are even attributed by some archccolo- 
 
 gists to the " Kelts," although it would seem more probable that 
 
 the Kelts on their arrival found them ready to hand and utiHsed 
 
 them for religious purposes. The Kelts certainly did not reach 
 
 Gaul and Britain by the southern route from Syria, through 
 
 Mauritania and Iberia. Hence to them cannot be referred the 
 
 to those receptacles in which were deposited the pots or urns containing the 
 cremated remains of the dead. Such cists are still in use amongst the Khasi 
 hiUmen of Assam, and many a]~)pear never to have been covered by a mound. 
 
26 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 numerous structures of identical form found in those 
 regions, as well as the Sessi and Stazzoue, which are 
 merely local names for the dolmens of Pantellaria, 
 Malta and Corsica. There are no true dolmens in 
 Sardinia, where they are replaced by the Niiraghi, abodes not of 
 the dead but of the living, though possibly modelled 
 
 The Sessi 
 and Stazzone 
 of Malta and 
 Corsica. 
 
 The Nuraghi q^ Xoxig Vanished cromlech prototypes . To the 
 
 and Talayots. i, i ^t-, » ^ 
 
 same category belong the so-called Falayots^ or 
 *' watch-towers " of the Balearic Islands, which date also from 
 
 GROUND-PLAN OF PALO-DE-VINHA DOLMEN, NEAR EVORA. 
 
 prehistoric times, and which are generally supposed to have been 
 erected by the same race that built the Sardinian Nuraghi. 
 
 To the British barrows, of which there are two types, the 
 
 older long and the later round-shaped, correspond the Kiirgans of 
 
 the Russian steppe lands, and the already described 
 
 The Russian mounds of North America. Both the Kurgans and 
 
 Kurgans. . .... . , 
 
 the mounds reach far mto the historic period, and 
 
 1 The resemblance of primitive dwellings to the dolmens has often been 
 noticed ; but it is reversing the order of sequence to suggest with Miss A. Buck- 
 land "that the tombs were reproductions of the houses of the living" {Jow. 
 Anthrop. Inst. ix. p. 132). It was surely the other way, for early man, when 
 advanced enough to be influenced by religious sentiment, was intensely super- 
 stitious, and in his dread especially of his departed ancestry expended far more 
 labour on the abodes of the dead than of the living. Innumerable Old Egyptian 
 tombs, but not a single Old Egyptian house or even palace, has lasted to our 
 time. 
 
VI.] NEOLITHIC MAN. 12/ 
 
 the Kurgans were still used as burial-places in the roth and nth 
 centuries of the new era. 
 
 In the south-east of Spain, where the gradual transition is so 
 clearly seen from the earliest neolithic to the bronze and even 
 " silver " epochs, there occurs a type of grave which probably pre- 
 ceded the cell or cist itself, just as inhumation certainly preceded 
 cremation, which came in with the development of the potter's art. 
 "The mode of burial at this [early neolithic] period was by 
 inhumation of several bodies in polygonal spaces enclosed by 
 stones set in an upright position ; the bodies were interred at a 
 slight depth, with knives, arrowheads of flint, and ornaments 
 formed of steatite, beads, shells, (S:c.^" Here the superstructure 
 seems to be entirely dispensed with, the bodies (as many as fifteen 
 have been found together) being interred in the ground, as at 
 present, and the sites simply marked by enclosures of upright 
 stones ] at least there is nothing to show that the whole was ever 
 surmounted by a tumulus of any kind. Later, when cremation 
 was practised, the baked clay urns containing the ashes "were 
 placed in sepulchral chambers formed of slabs" {ib. p. 126). 
 Here we seem to have the natural evolution of the cell or cist, 
 whence the dolmen, as above. 
 
 It thus appears that all graves of the cell type were in principle 
 underground, or at least covered, structures ^ But the super- 
 structure was often a laborious and costly affair, 
 such as that of Silbury Hill, near Marlborough, 
 Wiltshire, one of the finest in the world, standing on about five 
 acres and rising in vertical height 170 and along the 
 slope 316 feet. It is obvious that Silbury Hills Theceiibe- 
 
 . comes a family 
 
 could not be raised over the grave of every great vault with 
 chief, or smaller mounds over those of smaller mln'ts.^^^ °^' 
 people. Hence the same mound had to do duty 
 for many generations, and the original cell expanded into the 
 
 ^ Henri and Louis Siret, your. Anthrop. Inst. 1889, p. 124. 
 
 - Part of the mound is still to be seen, which originally covered the dolmen 
 near Corancez, Chartres district, although the huge capstone is no less than 
 15 X lo^ feet (A. L. Lewis, Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1890, p. 68). In the same 
 district " there are remains of the tumulus which, no doubt, completely covered 
 it" [the dolmen known as "le Berceau "] {ib. p. 70). At another place (Bonne- 
 
28 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 "family vault," developing a more or less complex system of 
 lateral chambers, sometimes 30 x i6 and 8 ft. high, with super- 
 imposed slabs of corresponding size, some weighing 10, 20 
 and even 40 tons. But easy access, with due regard to 
 security from the attacks of prehistoric ghouls, attracted by the 
 rich offerings deposited with the dead, was a primary necessity. 
 
 DOLMEN-TUMULUS OF KERCADO, MORBIHAN. 
 
 We know how this was effected by the pyramid-builders, the very 
 form of whose tombs shows that they were merely "petrified 
 mounds." So also the neolithic cell had its intricate approaches, 
 galleries or corridors 3 or 4 feet wide and sometimes 40 or 50 
 long, constructed like the chambers themselves, and blocked by 
 cross slabs either at the entrance or the end, or even at both 
 entrance and end, of the passage. 
 
 But the dolmen and its gallery being still entirely covered by 
 the mound, and not always disposed in the same direction, some 
 opening to the north, some to the south, west, east and especially 
 south-east, it became desirable or convenient to indicate the 
 entrance by some visible landmark. This was effected by setting 
 
 val) both dolmen and encircling menhirs would appear to have been originally 
 covered by the barrow, just as "a row of upright stones has been found buried 
 in a tumulus in Brittany" {ib. p. 71). Chambered tumuli of the same type 
 occur even as far east as Japan (W. Gowland, ib. p. 64). 
 
VI.] 
 
 NEOLITHIC MAN, 
 
 29 
 
 up one or more monoliths (the block), generally perhaps two, like 
 the two obelisks in front of so many Egyptian temples. Such 
 was the menhir, or " tall stone " (Kelt. 7nae7i = stone, ^^ ., 
 
 ^ ' The Menhir, 
 
 /iir = high), apparent germ of all the monuments its origin and 
 reduced to our second or monolithic type. Thus ^^ ^ * usion, 
 we see that as the dolmen was originally always concealed from 
 view, the menhir on the contrary always stood on the surface, 
 
 DOL MENHIR. 
 
 sometimes resting on the ground, sometimes sunk a few feet deep, 
 sometimes with prepared foundation, according to the size and 
 shape of the block. Although no tool marks are now to be 
 detected, all appear to have been quarried, the markings being 
 blurred or effaced by long weathering. Some, especially in 
 Brittany, are of enormous size, those of Penmarck, Cadiou, Mount 
 K. 9 
 
I30 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Dol, Plouarzel, Plesidy and Lochmariaquer, being respectively 25, 
 28, 31, 36J, 37 and 67I feet high, and the last mentioned, now 
 fallen and broken, weighs no less than 347 tons. Of menhirs 
 proper, that is, completely isolated blocks, as many as 739 have 
 been enumerated in Brittany alone. They occur also in groups, 
 mostly rough-hewn or unhewn, but sometimes inscribed with 
 oghams, runes, and other markings, in North and West Europe, 
 North Africa, and as far east as the Deccan, the Khasi and Naga 
 Hills. Here they are still erected either as votive offerings or as 
 monuments to the dead, in association with, or perhaps more 
 frequently detached from, the cists or tombs containing the ashes 
 of the dead, with which all would seem to have been originally 
 connected. " We may trace back the history of the menhirs from 
 historic Christian times to non-historic regions, when these rude 
 stone pillars... were gradually superseding the earthen tumuli as a 
 record of the dead"." In Khasiland, where both vertical and 
 horizontal blocks are combined in a single monument, they 
 appear to be in a state of transition, for Mr C. B. Clarke tells 
 us that "they are not necessarily placed where the family ashes 
 are kept in cists, or near such cists; but they are usually at no 
 great distance from the village where the family dwells ^" 
 
 But before this divorce took place between menhir and 
 
 chambered tumulus, the combined system acquired 
 
 mentln\°inear ^ Surprising development both in a linear and 
 
 and circular circular direction. When disposed in single, parallel 
 
 direction. . t i i i 
 
 or convergmg rows, the monohths take the name ot 
 alignments^ and these may be regarded as linear extensions of the 
 
 blocks originally set up at the entrance to the 
 mentsand"' covercd passagcs. But similar blocks are also 
 Cycioiiths or found disposcd in circular form round the barrows, 
 
 and they are then known as cycioiiths or stone 
 circles. At present many of the alignments seem to lead 
 nowhere, and have consequently remained a puzzle to archaeo- 
 logists. Similarly many of the cycioiiths seem now to enclose 
 
 ^ Fergusson, Rtcde Stone Monufticnts, p. 60. 
 
 - The Stone Monuments of the Khasi Hills, Jour. Anthrop. Inst., 1873, 
 p. 486. 
 
VI.] NEOLITHIC MAX. I3I 
 
 empty space, and have accordingly given rise to much discussion. 
 Typical examples are the alignment of Erdeven, 
 Brittany, where 11 20 menhirs are disposed in 13 
 converging Unes, i mile 536 yards long, and the cycloHth of 
 Stonehenge, which is too well known to need 
 description. But when row, circle and chambered 
 barrow are studied where all are still found in more or less 
 complete structural combination, all seems sufficiently plain. 
 Such is the huge domed tumulus of New Grange, 
 five miles from Drogheda, the largest in Ireland, ^^ range. 
 
 70 feet high, approached by a gallery 63 feet long formed of 
 about 22 blocks on either side, the whole enclosed originally by 
 a perfect cyclolith, of which about a dozen menhirs are still in 
 situ. "The stupendous mound, the circle of enormous blocks 
 of stone surrounding it at equal distances, the great masses 
 forming the entrance, fill the spectator \vith wonder at the 
 labour necessary to rear so vast a monument. Creeping in 
 on hands and knees, we find huge upright blocks from 2 to 
 7 feet in height and from 2 to 3 feet 6 inches in breadth, lining 
 the entrance passage on both sides, and gradually approaching 
 each other [compare the converging rows at Erdeven], until at 
 one point farther progress is a little difficult. This point past, the 
 passage widens and rises, so that it is soon possible to stand, and 
 you find yourself in a chamber nearly circular, with three side 
 compartments, two of them containing large stone basins or 
 dishes, on or under which I believe the bodies of the entombed 
 were placed \" Remove the tumulus and New Grange becomes, 
 mutatis 7mcta?idis, a Stonehenge on a reduced scale ; supply the 
 tumulus, and Stonehenge becomes a New Grange on a colossal 
 scale. New Grange may thus be hkened to those Pacific islets, 
 which are encircled by fringing coral reefs ; Stonehenge to those 
 Pacific atolls, in which the islets have disappeared by subsidence, 
 leaving only a reef- encircled lagoon. The "lagoons," that is, the 
 apparently empty spaces, have, when searched, yielded human 
 remains, showing their sepulchral character even ages after the 
 disappearance of the menhir-encircled barrows. 
 
 ^ Miss A. Buckland, your, Anthrop. Insf. ix. p. 151. 
 
 Q— 2 
 
132 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 
 N 1 
 
 
VI.] NEOLITHIC MAN. 133 
 
 So with the aUgnments, some of which even still terminate in 
 cromlechs. Such are those of Menec, near Carnac, Menec 
 Brittany, a system of 8^c; menhirs disposed in ii Carnac 
 
 n 1 ,• J 1 -1- 1 t. r district. 
 
 parallel Imes 1293 yards long with a cromlech of 
 62 menhirs; and Kerlescant, in the same district, with 13 rows 
 1000 feet long (258 menhirs in all), and a cromlech square of 
 39 menhirs. There are altogether nearly 50 alignments in France, 
 and as many as 3500 dolmens of diverse forms, for the most 
 part confined to the southern, central and western districts. 
 
 Whether the Irish Round Towers are a transformation of the 
 menhir analogous to the Egyptian obelisk, or a de- ^^^ j^.^j^ 
 velopment analogous to that of the Muhammadan Round 
 minaret, as suggested by Mr A. L. Lewis ^ it is im- 
 possible to say. Owing to their complete isolation, for they are 
 with one or two doubtful exceptions confined exclusively to Ireland, 
 they have hitherto remained an unsolved mystery. But they are 
 not monoliths, and being cemented they can scarcely be of any 
 great antiquity, although some may be pre-Christian, that is, erected 
 before the fifth century. Others are certainly recent, although 
 these may possibly have been built in Christian times in imitation 
 of the older monuments. 
 
 More important, especially in connection with early migra- 
 tions, is the subject of the geographical distribution 
 of the neoUthic monuments. Broadly speaking, and distri?uSn ^ 
 excluding mere cairns and earth mounds, which may o^^he Mega- 
 be thrown up anywhere, all the stone structures of 
 the cell and block types, are mainly confined in Asia to the south 
 (Naga, Khasi and Jaintea Hills, the Deccan south of the Vindhya 
 Range, Irania, Asia Minor, Moab, Syria, Palestine, Arabia); in 
 Africa to Mauritania taken in its widest sense (Tripolitana to 
 the Atlantic); in Europe to the south (Crimea, Mediterranean 
 islands, Iberia), the west (Gaul, Belgium, and British Isles) and 
 the north (Scandinavia). Greece and Italy are excluded because 
 the Cyclopean tombs of those regions seem to be of diff'erent 
 type, and much more recent, being directly traceable to historic 
 peoples (Pelasgians, Hellenes, Etruscans). 
 
 ^ yottr. Anthrop. Inst. ix. p. 144. 
 
134 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Amongst the chief centres of prehistoric tumuli are: (i) The 
 Bahrein Islands, Persian Gulf, explored in 1889 by 
 
 Chief centres. ' ' r v ^ 
 
 Bahrein Mr Theodorc Bent, who speaks of "a vast sea of 
 
 sepulchral mounds," comprising " many thousands," 
 and "extending over an area of desert for many miles'." Here 
 the chambers are two-storied, the lower cemented and reserved 
 for the human remains, the upper for parting gifts. The roof is 
 formed of flat slabs, the tomb is approached by long passages, 
 and the whole mound is encircled by a retaining wall of huge 
 stones, exactly as at New Grange. Palm branches were found, 
 which had "the flaky appearance of asbestos," showing a great 
 change in the climate of this now "desert" region, which Mr 
 Bent regards as the probable cradle of the Phoenician race. 
 
 (2) Moab, of which Canon Tristram writes: "The 
 Moab. ^ ' 
 
 three classes of primaeval monuments m Moab, the 
 
 stone circles, dolmens and cairns, exist each in great abundance, 
 in three different parts of the country, but never side by side, the 
 cairns being found exclusively on the east, on the spurs of the 
 Arabian range, the stone circles south of the Callirrhoe, and the 
 dolmens north of that valley; one cairn only surrounded by a 
 circle of dolmens is found on the north-west.... This fact would 
 seem to indicate three neighbouring tribes, coexistent in the pre- 
 historic period, each with distinct funeral or religious customs" 
 {Land of Moab). But this is not so, for such interminghngs occur 
 elsewhere, and are to be explained not so much by racial as by 
 cultural differences and climatic changes, as above explained. 
 
 (3) Mauritania, a great centre of neolithic culture. 
 
 Mauritania. . . , , . ,. . 
 
 m some places covered with an incredible multitude 
 of every imaginable type of polylith and monoHth ; described by 
 Barth, Broca, and other more recent observers. "These remains 
 occur in great variety of form, and in vast numbers, as many as 
 10,000, chiefly of the menhir type, having been enumerated in 
 the Mejana steppe alone. All kinds of megalithic structures are 
 found — cromlechs, circles of stones like Stonehenge, cairns, under- 
 ground cells excavated in the solid rock, barrows with huge 
 capstones, cupped stones, mounds in the form of step pyramids, 
 sacrificial altars, even porticos or gateways like those of the Jebel 
 
 ^ Froc. R. Geograph. Soc, 1890, p. 73. 
 
VI.] NEOLITHIC MAN. 1 35 
 
 Msid, Tripolitana, formed by two square posts 10 feet high, 
 standing on a common pedestal and supporting a huge super- 
 imposed block \" {^) Gaul a?id British Isles, whtxQ ^^^j 
 both types attain their greatest development in the Britain, 
 eastern hemisphere (see above). (5) Scandinavia, 
 especially Denmark and parts of Sweden. "They exist in great 
 numbers on the west and south coasts [of Sweden], and advance 
 nearly to the centre of the land, but they are found almost 
 entirely in separate groups, which rarely intermingle; thus the 
 chambered tumuli are found massed together between Lakes 
 Wener and Wetter, a few being scattered on the south coast, and 
 two only on the west, where, as in the south, dolmens without 
 galleries, or cromlechs predominate largely. Between these two 
 groups, but extending farther to the north, we find a great 
 number of cists 7iot covered witli tumuli, and a few covered either 
 with tumuli or cairns"." Here the "few" explain the "great 
 number," representing probably the original condition of all, 
 though, as seen, cists are now commonly constructed uncovered 
 in the Khasi Hills. 
 
 How is this general geographical distribution to be inter- 
 preted, taken especially in connection with the 
 above-described special centres of neolithic culture? the qu"st1orr 
 It was assumed (p. iiO that after the last ice-age °^.ea'"iy 
 
 ^^ ^ migrations. 
 
 Europe was resettled from two different quarters, 
 
 the east, and the south or south-east. It was also seen that in 
 
 the south and south-east, temperate regions during 
 
 the ice-age, no break need have- taken place in the f.!"''??^ ''^' 
 
 *-■ ^ settled in 
 
 normal evolution of human culture from palaeolitJiic neolithic 
 
 to neolithic times. Here consequently was Ihe twJTqua^Srj. 
 
 seat of early neolithic, as later of early historic, 
 
 civilization. But civilization means increase of population, which 
 
 again gives the impulse to migratory movements. 
 
 Hence from these regions, Mauritania especially, dica°e/by"he 
 
 must have come the first and the more civilized pj;esenceor 
 
 ^ absence of 
 
 Stream of migration. Hence also the route fol- megaiithic 
 lowed, across the Strait of Gibraltar and along tlie 
 
 ^ A. H. Keane, Africa, 1895, vol. I. p. 73. 
 "■'■ Miss Buckland, loc. cit., p. i^S. 
 
1 36 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 west side of Iberia (Portugal) to Gaul and Britain, is everywhere 
 strewn with the monuments of these megalithic builders, ap- 
 parently a tall dolichocephalic people of non-Aryan speech. 
 Later, much later, came the stream of ruder eastern barbarians 
 who could build no megalithic structures, and none are to be 
 found along the route necessarily followed by them up the 
 Danube to Central and West Europe. Here they came into 
 collision with their predecessors, with whom they ultimately 
 intermingled, driving out some, who perhaps took refuge in 
 Denmark and Sweden, whence the megaliths of Scandinavia. 
 These eastern hordes would appear to have been a 
 wrong^iyat- Smaller race of brachycephalic type, also of non- 
 tributed to the Aryan spccch. Their much later arrival gives time 
 
 Kelts, who . . . . 
 
 follow the non- for the prodigious development of "neolithic archi- 
 megaiithic tccture," especially in Brittany and the British Isles. 
 
 It is thus seen that this architecture is wrongly 
 ascribed to the "Kelts," who certainly arrived by the Danube 
 route, or at least from the east, and who before reaching the 
 extreme west were long settled in a great part of Central Europe 
 (Bohemia, Bavaria, Helvetia, &c.), where they raised no mega- 
 lithic structures of any kind\ At the same time it is con- 
 ceivable, even probable, that after the fusion of the two races in 
 the west, the practice of building megaHthic structures may have 
 been continued for some time, and to that extent the popular 
 traditions would be justified. After the universal adoption of the 
 language of the conquering Kelts, the earUer element would be 
 forgotten except in vague legendary lore, and by later generations 
 everything would be attributed to the "Kelts," just as in Mexico 
 and Central America everything was in the Aztec traditions 
 attributed to the "Toltecs." It is also to be noticed that, coming 
 from the east, the Kelts were probably sun-worshippers, and 
 may very well have adapted such cycloliths as Abury (Avebury) 
 and Stonehenge to the solar cult. Hence their later modifica- 
 
 1 "It is a remarkable fact that no dolmens are found in Central Europe. 
 However oVjscure the origin of the Kelts. ..there is no possibility of making the 
 area of their evolution in space and time to coincide with that of the megalithic 
 monuments. In fact the two areas appear to cross each other at right angles " 
 (Dr Munro, Jour. Aiithrop. Inst. 1890, p. 65). 
 
VI.] NEOLITHIC MAN. 1 37 
 
 tions, from which Mr A. L. Lewis concludes that "interment was 
 at most a secondary object," the "primary object" being "wor- 
 ship or sacrificed" But a survey of the whole field of neolithic 
 architecture would seem to show that this is reversing the actual 
 sequence, and that burial connected with the first gUmmerings of 
 the religious sentiment, veneration (fear) of the dead, was the 
 true starting point. The connection of these monuments with 
 those of Mauritania has been confirmed by M. Ch, Letourneau, 
 who finds that many of the carvings on the dolmen des marcha?ids^ 
 Brittany, are almost identical with those of the so-called "rupes- 
 trian inscriptions" of Tunisia and South Algeria^. But the Mauri- 
 
 tanian megaliths do not appear to be in any way 
 
 , • , 1 , . ,• . . , . , The Astro- 
 
 connected with the advanced religious ideas with nomic notions 
 
 which the builders of the structures in Britain and ^"e^megaHth- 
 Brittany are credited by many antiquaries both builders ex- 
 English and foreign. M. F. Gaillard, amongst 
 others, has endeavoured to show that the alignments of Saint- 
 Pierre, and other menhir systems in the Morbihan district, were 
 erected "in order to indicate the time of year for celebrating the 
 rites and ceremonies in honour of the departed." In support of 
 this view he claims that they are disposed in a line either with 
 the summer solstice or with the autumn equinox, which he sup- 
 poses may still be verified. But if so, the theory itself would 
 collapse. All agree that the monuments are some thousand 
 years old, for some had already been abandoned and partly over- 
 thrown in the time of the Romans. But the position of the 
 earth in relation to the sun varies incessantly, although no doubt 
 slowly. Hence if the alignments were originally disposed as 
 here assumed, they would be so no longer; and on the other 
 hand if they are now so disposed, they could not have been so 
 originally. M. de Mortillet also points out that some of the 
 systems are coudes, "bent," which again destroys the "solar 
 myth^" In general such advanced astronomic and religious 
 notions may be conceded with Piazzi Smyth and Norman Lockyer 
 
 1 your. Anthrop. Inst. 1891, p. 286. 
 
 2 Letourneau and de Mortillet, Bull. d. I. Soc. d'AntJn-op. de Paris, 1893; 
 two papers. 
 
 2 Bui. de la Soc. d'Anthrop., June — Oct. 1889, p. 424. 
 
138 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 to the Egyptian temple and pyramid-builders, but not with Lewis 
 
 and Gaillard to the rude megaHth-builders of Gaul and Britain. 
 
 Great as are the works of prehistoric man in Britannia, Gaul 
 
 and Mauritania, they are rivalled by those of pre- 
 
 prehistoric historic man in the New World. Reference has 
 
 monuments m 
 
 the New already been made to the barbaric mound-builders 
 
 ^°^^^' of the Mississippi basin. South of their somewhat 
 
 formless structures, follow in almost unbroken succession the 
 
 casas gr abides of the Pueblo Indians (New Mexico 
 
 General ^^^ Arizona); the truncated pyramids and other 
 
 survey. ' ^ ^ ■' 
 
 remains of the Toltecs and their Nahua successors 
 (Anahuac Tableland); the palace of Mitla (South Mexico) of 
 al-most classic beauty; the elaborately ornamented temples, 
 palaces, "convents," raised by the Mayas of Palenque, Uxmal, 
 Chichen-Itza and other cities of Yucatan; the great temples of 
 the sun, the causeways, aqueducts and terraced slopes of the 
 Peruvian Quichuas. Some of these are prehistoric, while others 
 reach well into the historic period. But none can compare in 
 magnitude and exquisite finish with the stupendous megaUthic 
 edifices of doubtful origin, which stand in an almost uninhabit- 
 able region near the southern shores of Lake Titicaca on the 
 Bolivian plateau, nearly 13,000 feet above sea-level. Although 
 often visited and partly described, full justice has only quite 
 recently been done to these astounding ruins of 
 Tiahuanaco, Tiahuanaco by Herren Stiibel and Uhle, who have 
 g"oiy'oP"^ devoted a sumptuous volume to their description 
 American ^j^^j illustration \ The monuments, which cover a 
 
 Megalithic 
 
 Architecture. large area between the lake and Pumapunga, though 
 chiefly centred about the Ak-Kapana hill, here 
 shown to be a natural formation, not an artificial mound, are of 
 an absolutely unique character, despite certain general re- 
 semblances to the neolithic structures of the eastern hemisphere. 
 As shown by the numerous highly polished slabs and blocks lying 
 flat on the ground, as if ready for the mason, it is evident that all 
 formed part of a general design on a scale rivalling that of the 
 
 1 Die Riiincnstiitte von Tiahuanaco im Hochlande des alien Pent, Breslau, 
 1S93. 
 
 I 
 
VI.] NEOLITHIC MAN. 1 39' 
 
 largest Egyptian temples, but never completed, the works having 
 apparently been interrupted by the Inca conquerors about 120 or 
 130 years before the arrival of the Spaniards. They must have 
 been in progress for. some generations before that time, for the 
 blocks, some weighing from 100 to 150 tons, had been conveyed 
 with primitive appliances from distances of many miles over 
 rugged ground, up steep inclines, and in some cases across several 
 inlets of Lake Titicaca. A number of the blocks are disposed as 
 uprights like those of Stonehenge, with shoulders for the re- 
 ception of horizontal connecting beams, but far better dressed 
 and mortised. Others form doorways hewn in a single piece, one 
 of which at Ak-Kapana is the crowning triumph of the primitive 
 American architecture \ This marvellous monolith, weighing over 
 1 2 tons, is richly carved on one face with symbolic devices and 
 the image of Viracocha, tutelar deity of the BoHvian Aymaras, 
 overthrown by the Quechua worshippers of the rival Peruvian 
 sun-god. When the sway of the Incas was spread over the 
 whole of the middle Andean plateau, there was no longer 
 room for two independent and hostile religious centres — Pacca- 
 ritambo and Tiahuanaco, the "Gerizim and Ebal" of the New 
 World; hence the political subjection of the Aymaras to the 
 Quechuas was followed by the inevitable suppression of the 
 Viracocha cult, and the arrest of the Tiahuanaco works by the 
 Incas, shortly before the suppression of the Incas themselves 
 by the Conquistadores. Such was the origin and end of this 
 splendid Aymara culture, in which the transition is clearly seen 
 from the rude and inorganic buildings of neolithic to the true 
 "megalithic architecture" of historic times. Not that the Tia- 
 huanaco works are to be connected with those of Tiahuanaco 
 the eastern hemisphere, or even traced with Angard, Culture an 
 
 independent 
 
 Clements Markham, Middendorff and others to locai deveiop- 
 Toltec, Maya or Inca sources. Despite the mis- ™^"** 
 leading statements of Garcilaso de la Vega, blindly followed 
 because of his Inca descent by most archaeologists, Stiibel and 
 Uhle make it clear that the Incas were not the founders but 
 
 ^ "Seine Bedeutung iiberragt... alias was bis jetzt in Peru aufgefunden 
 worden ist. Es zahlt unter den merkwiirdigsten und interessantesten Resten 
 des vorcolumbischen Amerika" {Ruinenstdtte, Text, p. 20). 
 
140 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. VI. 
 
 the destroyers of Tiahuanaco, and also that this culture had 
 its origin neither amongst the Mexican Toltecs, nor the Mayas 
 of Yucatan, but is to be regarded as an independent local 
 development amongst the Bolivian Aymaras, elder brothers of 
 the Peruvian Quechuas. But "an independent evolution of 
 different social systems in different environments seems to 
 be a view still beyond the grasp of a certain school of 
 ethnologists and antiquaries, who run to the ends of the earth 
 seeking 'affinities' and 'origins' and 'influences' where none 
 exist, and who 'affiliate' two cults or two peoples, no matter 
 how many continents and oceans may intervene, if only both 
 worship the same sun and moon, forgetting that after all there 
 is but one sun and one moon for people on this planet to choose 
 from\" If all peoples, as will be seen in the next chapter, not 
 only come of one stock but have, relatively speaking, diverged 
 but Httle from their pleistocene precursors, is it surprising that 
 resemblances and paralleHsms of all kinds should occur in their 
 independent later evolution? 
 
 Almost the concluding words of Dr Robert Munro's address 
 to the Anthropological Section of the British Association, 1893, 
 were that "man's immense antiquity is now accepted by a vast 
 majority of the most thoughtful men." Possibly some of the less 
 thoughtful may also accept the same conclusion from the con- 
 siderations set forth in the foregoing pages. 
 
 1 A. H. Keane, Academy, July 8, 1893, p. 37. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 SPECIFIC UNITY OF MAN. 
 
 Specific or Varietal unity decided by extent of divergence between past and 
 present races — Species and Variety— The Physiological test : inter-racial 
 fertility — The Canidse, Equidae and Hominidte — The Palaeolithic races — 
 Their remains : Trinil : Homo Neanderthalensis ; La Naulette; La Denise; 
 Spy ; Kent ; Podbaba ; Predmost ; Marcilly ; Mentone ; Olmo ; Eguis- 
 heim ; Laugerie ; Palaeolithic races exclusively long-headed — Neolithic 
 races at first also long-headed, then mixed, and later exclusively round- 
 headed in some places — But all intermingled — Fertile miscegenation 
 established for prehistoric times — In the historic period mixture the rule, 
 racial purity the exception — The Mestizos of Latin America — The Paulistas, 
 Franco-Canadians, and Dano-Eskimo — The United States Indians and 
 half-breeds — Eugenesis established for the New World, and for Africa : 
 The Griquas, Abyssinians, Sudanese, and West African Negroes— Mixed 
 races in Asia, Malaysia, and Polynesia — The Pitcairn Islanders — The physio- 
 logical test conclusive against the Polygenists— The anatomical test — The 
 Polygenist linguistic argument : Independent stock races inferred from 
 independent stock languages^Fallacy of this argument — Specific Unity 
 unaffected by the existence of Stock Languages — which are to be other- 
 wise explained — The Monogenist view established — and confirmed by the 
 universal diffusion of articulate speech— Psychic argument — The question 
 summed up by Blumenbach. 
 
 In the address referred to at the end of the last chapter it is 
 also stated that "all the osseous remains of man 
 
 Specific or 
 
 which have hitherto been collected and examined varietal unity 
 point to the fact that, during the larger portion of extent of ^ 
 the quaternary period, if not, indeed, from its very divergence 
 
 ^ 111, between past 
 
 commencement, he had already acquired his human and present 
 characteristics. This generahzation at once throws ''^^^^' 
 us back to the tertiary period in our search for man's early 
 appearance in Europe." It was seen (p. 32) that a tertiary 
 generalized form has been fairly well established by Sergi. The 
 "human characteristics" of the quaternary "osseous remains" 
 have now to be considered, with a vieAv to determining the 
 extent of their divergence from each other, as well as the extent 
 
142 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 of the divergence of the living primary divisions both from these 
 quaternary prototypes, and from each other. It is obvious that 
 on the extent of these divergences depends the question of 
 man's specific or generic unity. 
 
 It is not always easy to draw the Hne between species and 
 
 mere variety, more especially as to neither of these 
 va^fety^^ ^""^ terms is any longer attached the idea of finaHty. 
 
 But, speaking broadly, species may be said to 
 possess a large measure of stability, whereas variety is essentially 
 unstable, holding an intermediate or transitional position between 
 species and species. Variety is species /;;/ IVerden, as the 
 Germans would say; that is, a form breaking away from a specific 
 type, and tending to become itself a new specific type. When, 
 therefore, it is here said that the Hominidae, past (quaternary) and 
 present (living), are varieties, not species, all that is intended is 
 that the forms diverging from a common precursor are still 
 relatively speaking unstable, not having yet reached that stage 
 which constitutes true species. 
 
 Here we have two assumptions, both strenuously denied by 
 many ethnologists, first, that the Hominid^ descend from a single 
 precursor, secondly, that their differences are comparatively 
 slight, or not sufficiently pronounced to be regarded as specific. 
 But both points may, so to say, be determined by one con- 
 sideration. It is mainly a question of physiology, and all physio- 
 logists are now of accord in accepting fertility as the ultimate 
 test of varietal and specific difference. Species and sub-species, 
 
 varieties and sub-varieties, may, as pointed out by 
 logicaUest— Darwin, "blend into each other by an insensible 
 ^"^^.^:^^'^^^^ series," giving "the idea of an actual passaged" 
 
 But, however imperceptible the transitions, they 
 are continuous only so long as fertility persists; where fertility is 
 
 arrested true species is established. The various 
 and^equtdse.^ breeds of dogs differ far more from one another in 
 
 respect of form, colour and texture of the hair and 
 relative size, than do the Equid^ from one another ; compare 
 on the one hand the skye or the toy terrier with the blood- 
 
 ^ Origin of Species, 2nd ed., p. 41. 
 
VII.] SPECIFIC UNITY OF AfAN. I43 
 
 hound or bull-dog ; on the other the ordinary horse with the ass 
 or even the zebra. Yet all dogs are grouped in a single species 
 of the Canidae, being held to be mere varieties, because where 
 pairing is possible they are permanently fertile among them- 
 selves. But the Equidae form e contra so many distinct species, 
 despite their much closer general resemblance, because the cross 
 is a mule. Some zoologists have even spoken of a specific 
 identity of dog and wolf; but nobody denies the specific differ- 
 ence of horse and ass. 
 
 Applying this severest of tests to the Hominidae, it is found 
 that none breed mules, but that all have been per- 
 manently fertile amongst themselves since quater- ^^^ Homi- 
 nary times; consequently that they form varieties, 
 not species, and are sprung from a single precursor. As regards 
 the past, that is, the palaeolithic, neolithic, and prehistoric eras, 
 the point is estabHshed for all who accept the general con- 
 clusions of the leading French and English anthropologists re- 
 garding the "universal miscegenation" of primitive man with 
 later immigrants in Europe, a miscegenation proved by the 
 persistence of pleistocene characters down to the present time 
 (see pp. 34-5)- For others, who may perhaps not unreasonably 
 feel somewhat sceptical regarding this persistence of palaeolithic 
 characters, a nearer study of primitive man himself may supply a 
 stronger argument for the specific unity of mankind. 
 
 Fully authenticated remains of palaeo- or even of early neolithic 
 man are not numerous, and those hitherto brought 
 to light are mainly confined to restricted areas — Thepaiaeo- 
 
 ° •' lithic races. 
 
 Europe (especially France and North Italy), and 
 South America (Brazil, Argentina). The reason is obvious. 
 Interment appears not to have been practised by the river-drift 
 hunters and other even earlier generations. Hence none of their 
 osseous remains could survive except the few that might have 
 been preserved in caves and rock-shelters. It is accordingly in 
 such "hermetically sealed receptacles" that have been found the 
 skulls, and in still rarer instances the imperfect skeletons now 
 available for the study of primitive man. Subjoined is a tabu- 
 lated summary of results. The consideration of these might 
 indeed be dispensed with if Virchow's statement that "scientific 
 
1.44 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 anthropology begins with Hving races," could be accepted. But 
 when Virchow^ himself tells us that "the first step in the con- 
 struction of the doctrine of transformism will be the explanation 
 of the way the human races have been formed," it is evident that 
 the oldest known precursors of the present races cannot be over- 
 looked. The truth should now be frankly stated, that, as in the 
 case of Cuvier and Owen, Prof Virchow's vast knowledge and 
 range of thought have been somewhat neutralized by his excessive 
 conservatism. 
 
 Trinil, left bank river Bengawan (Solo), Java; roof of skull, 
 
 an upper molar, and a femur found (1891 — 4) by Dr Eugene 
 
 .^ Dubois in pleistocene (?) bed 12 to 15 metres 
 
 Remains: bclow the surfacc, showing characters intermediate 
 
 between gorilla and Neanderthal, but distinctly 
 
 human; low depressed cranial arch; index 70; capacity iooo(?); 
 
 PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS. 
 
 {^Upper surface of skull.) 
 
 very narrow frontal region; highly developed superciliary arches: 
 "the lowest human cranium yet described, very nearly as much 
 below the Neanderthal as this is below the normal European"; 
 
 1 FoJ)ular Science Monthly (quoted), Jan, 1893, p, 373. 
 
vil] specific unity of man. 145 
 
 femur quite human, 455 mm. long, showing height 1654 mm., 
 that of an average Frenchman, but found 12 or 15 metres from 
 the skull, hence may not belong to the same individual; same 
 remark applies to the tooth, which is very large, but more human 
 than simian. For these remains Dubois forms a new family 
 
 OUTLINE OF CRANIA. 
 
 a. Ordinary Irish skull ; b. Spy a'aniiun ; c. Neanderthal 
 craniiun ; d. Pithecanthropus ; e. Gorilla. 
 
 {Pithecafithropus erectus, cine Uebergangsforni aus Java, Batavia, 
 1894); but they cannot represent a transition between man and 
 any of the existing Anthropoids, Pithecanthropus standing in the 
 direct human line of divergence in the genealogical tree, although 
 considerably lower down than any human form yet discovered 
 (Dr D. J. Cunningham, paper read at meeting R. Dublin Soc. 
 reported in Nature, Feb. 28, 1895, p. 428). 
 
 Neanderthal (see p. 2>?))\ ^ brain-cap, two femora, two 
 humeri and some other fragments, now in the 
 
 Homo 
 
 Fuhlrott Collection, Elberfeld; normal character Neander- 
 established by Broca against Virchow's pathological * ^ ^"^*^' 
 theory ; remarkable for its flat retreating curve ; dolichocephalic 
 (index 73.76); frontal sutures closed, occipital more or less free; 
 enormous supercihary ridges; the most ape-like skull next to 
 Pithecanthropus erectus ; in the vicinity were found remains of 
 rhinoceros, cave bear and hycena; Chellean epoch (Fuhlrott, 
 Huxley, Broca), 
 
 i^- 10 
 
146 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 La Naulette, near Dinant, Belgium; an imperfect lower 
 
 jaw found by Edouard Dupont in a large cave on 
 
 the left bank of the Lesse, which joins the right 
 
 bank of the Meuse above Dinant ; was associated with remains 
 
 of mammoth, rhinoceros, reindeer; now in the Brussels Natural 
 
 Hist. Museum; simian characters very pronounced in the extreme 
 
 prognathism and alveolar process (teeth themselves lost), canine 
 
 very strong, large molars increasing in size backwards (Dupont). 
 
 La Denise, Espaly-Saint-Marcel commune. Upper Loire; 
 
 two depressed and retreating frontal bones from an 
 
 La enise. argillaceous limonite under the muddy bed of an 
 
 extinct volcano; now in the Pichot Collection and Musee du 
 
 Buy; (neighbouring beds have yielded remains of cave bear and 
 
 hyaena, mammoth, large hippopotamus, rhinoceros tichorhinus) 
 
 glabella of one very prominent, recalling the Neanderthal; that of 
 
 the other also prominent and separated from the retreating 
 
 frontal bone by a deep depression; superciliary ridge of both large 
 
 and thick (Aymard, Sauvage, Hamy). 
 
 Brux, near Prague, Bohemia; a brain-cap and other bones 
 from a quaternary sandpit; now in the Vienna Anthropological 
 Society's Collection ; frontal region and flat elongated parietals 
 like those of Neanderthal and Eguisheim, but superciliary bosses 
 larger than the latter (Woldrich, Rokitanski). 
 
 Spy, Betche aux Roches cavern, left bank Orneau R., Namur 
 
 district, Belgium ; two nearly perfect skeletofl?(rtJan 
 
 ^^* and woman) found 1886 by Maximin Lohest and 
 
 the spy cranium. 
 Marcel de Puydt at a depth of 16 feet, with numerous im- 
 
vil] specific unity of man. 147 
 
 plements of the Moustierian type ; now in the Lohest Collection, 
 Liege; enormous superciliary ridges and glabella; retreating 
 frontal region ; extremely thick cranial wall ; massive mandibular 
 ramus with rudimentary chin ; large posterior molars ; divergent 
 curvature of bones of the fore-arm ; tibia shorter than in any other 
 known race, and stouter than in most; tibia and femur so 
 articulated that to maintain equilibrium head and body must 
 have been thrown forward, as seen in the large apes. These and 
 other characters "place the man of Spy in the lowest category... 
 the dentition is inferior to that of the neolithic man in France... 
 approximates near to the apes, although there is still, to use the 
 language of Fraipont and Lohest, an abyss between the man of 
 Spy and the highest ape" (Cope, op. at. p. 334); associated fauna, 
 woolly rhinoceros, elephas primigenius, cave bear and hycena, &c., 
 five extinct, four existing species (Fraipont, Lohest, Cope). 
 
 Galley Hill Terrace-Gravels, Thames Valley, Kent; 
 nearly perfect skeleton found by Mr R. Elliott and 
 Mr Matthew Heys in situ at a depth of 8 feet in 
 the Pleistocene high-level gravels about 90 feet above the Thames, 
 with numerous palaeolithic implements and remains of extinct 
 mammals close by; skull hyperdolichocephalic, extremely long, 
 narrow and much depressed, with height and breadth indexes 67 
 and 64; glabella and brow-ridges prominent; forehead somewhat 
 receding; all chief sutures obliterated; three lower molars and 
 two premolars in place ; last lower molar, which in Neolithic 
 skulls is smaller, is in this specimen as large, if not larger than 
 the first; height about 5ft. i in.; altogether most nearly related 
 to the Neanderthal, Spy and Naulette types (Dr Garson); "is the 
 best authenticated record of the occurrence of human remains 
 in the higher river-drift that has yet been brought forward in 
 England" (J. Allen Brown). From the anatomical characters 
 Prof. Sollas thinks it highly probable that the remains were in a 
 natural position and of same age as the gravels, and not merely 
 interred in them at a later (NeoHthic) period, as suggested by Sir 
 J. Evans and Prof. Boyd Dawkins (E. T. Newton, Meeting Geolog. 
 Soc. May 22, 1895). 
 
 PoDBABA, near Prague, fragment of skull found 1883 in 
 undisturbed brick-clay 13 ft. thick near remains of mammoth, 
 
 10—2 
 
148 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 rhinoceros tichorhinus, reindeer, &c., at same level; in the large 
 supercihary ridges and depressed frontal region 
 approaches the Neanderthal type^ (Fritsch, Kerck- 
 hoffs, de Mortillet, V Homme, 1884, p. 528). 
 Predmost; see p. 34. 
 
 Marcilly-sur-Eure, Evreux district ; part of skull also of 
 Neanderthal type, exposed by a railway cutting at 
 a depth of 22 feet, now in Dore-Delente Collection, 
 Dreux; frontal separated by deep depression from the super- 
 cihary ridges; frontal suture completely ossified (de Mortillet, 
 HHomme, 1884, p. 48). 
 
 Arcy-sur-Eure, Yonne, Grotte des Fees ; lower jaw found in 
 contact with rhinoceros teeth and Moustierian implements; some- 
 what modified Naulette type, prognathism less pronounced (Broca, 
 de Quatrefages, and Hamy). isT L*t^ 
 
 Balzi Rossi Cave, Mentone, Liguria, see pp. 
 
 Mentone. 
 
 73. 114. 
 
 Olmo, near Arezzo, Tuscany; skull exposed in 1863 by a rail- 
 way cutting, 50 feet below the surface in blue lacustrine marl bed, 
 with remains of elephant and a Moustierian implement ; now in 
 the Florence Geological Museum ; nearly as doHchocephalous as 
 the Neanderthal, but superciliary ridges flat and frontal high ; but 
 "judgment must be suspended on this find, surrounded as it is 
 by so much doubt" (Salmon, op. cit. p. 17). 
 
 Eguisheiri, near Colmar; part of skull found in 1865 associated 
 with elephas primigenius, now in the local Museum ; 
 
 Eguisheim. i x o 
 
 prominent supercihary ridges ; frontal region broad 
 but retreating; sutures very simple and nearly effaced; marked 
 dohchocephaly (Faudel, de Mortillet). 
 
 Laugerie-Basse, Tayac district, Dordogne; one skeleton 
 
 (male), two skulls (female); thick parietals, cranial 
 Baie^^"^" capacity above the modern average in the male 
 
 and in one female skull, but in the other female 
 very low, about 1,100 cc. ; all dolichocephalic (Lartet, Christy, 
 Broca). 
 
 ^ " The bone has nearly the same appearance as those of the diluvial 
 mammals found in the same clay, commonly considered fossil " (Dr Anthon 
 Fritsch, Science, June 27, 1884, p. 786, where illustrations are given). 
 
VII.] SPECIFIC UNITY OF MAN. I49 
 
 The foregoing all belong to the various palaeolithic epochs, 
 and while all without exception are dolichocephalic 
 (index ranging from about 70 to 75); the distinctly race^i^x-'*^^'^ 
 low characters show progrfissive modifications in ciusiveiy long- 
 
 ^ ° headed. 
 
 the direction of the higher neolithic and modern 
 types. But the general assumption that brachycephaly appears at 
 once with the neolithic age is certainly a mistake. On the con- 
 trary, when all the evidence is sifted and correlated, it will pro- 
 bably be made manifest that dolichocephaly even of a pronounced 
 type persisted far into neoUthic times, and that it was only very 
 gradually first modified and then replaced in some regions by 
 brachycephaly. 
 
 In the last Chapter it was shown that Europe was re-settled 
 from two different quarters, by megaHthic builders 
 from the south, and from the east by rude hordes ra«rat*first 
 
 who nowhere raised stone structures, and it was f^so long- 
 headed, 
 suggested that the former were a dolichocephalic 
 
 (long-headed), the later a brachycephalic (round-headed) people, 
 who arrived in the west at a much later period. If so, and it will 
 be seen that all the facts point in this direction, the persistence 
 of a long-headed type will be at once explained. In Britain, 
 where there was, so to say, a tabula rasa owing to the general 
 disappearance if not the actual extinction of palaeolithic man, 
 Enghsh archaeologists are unanimous in holding that the round- 
 headed builders of the round barrows were preceded by the 
 long-headed builders of the long barrows. Consequently in this 
 region dolichocephaly is established for early neolithic times. 
 
 So in France, Belgium, Italy and elsewhere the later cave- 
 dwellers and the early dolmen-builders appear to have been all 
 first of long, then of medium, and lastly in some places of ex- 
 clusively round-headed type. Thus the " Cro-Magnon race," as 
 it is called by French anthropologists from the numerous remains 
 found by Lartet, Christy and others in the cave of that name at 
 Eyzies, Tayac district, Perigord (Dordogne), shows a mean cephalic 
 index 73-34 (Broca), hence was distinctly long-headed. This 
 race, however, although most probably early neolithic, is regarded 
 by some as late palaeoHthic. But there can be no doubt about 
 the neolithic age of the remains from the dolmen of Mainteno?iy 
 
i:o 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Eure-et-Loir (Index 73-54, Broca) ; from the MatareUe cave, 
 Aveyron (index 73-62, Durand de Gros) ; from the Sorgues, 
 also Aveyron (7370, de Gros); from the station on Lake Ladoga, 
 (ten skulls, mean 73-64, Bogdanov); from the So2da?ie Cave, 
 Xavares-de-Aguso, Spain (ten, mean 73-96, Verneau); from the 
 Baiwies-Chandes Cave, Lozere (thirty-five, mean 74'o6, Broca). 
 Even the numerous skulls from the Caver?te de V ILonwie-Mort 
 Then mixed ("Dead Man's Cave"), Saint-Pierre-de-Tripiez, 
 and later Lozerc, are all long except two intermediate (mesa- 
 
 roun'dhe^aded ticephalic), Seventeen ranging from 68-21 to 76*66, 
 in some places. ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^g..^ ^^^ ^g.g . (Broca). After 
 
 this round heads begin to appear, as in the dolmens of Lozere 
 (18 long, 6 round, one medium, Broca); and in the sepulchral 
 chambers of the Petit-Morin Valley, Marne (22 long, 10 medium, 
 12 round, Broca). Then the round grow more numerous, and at 
 last outnumber the long, as at Orrouy, Oise, (7 round, 4 medium, 
 5 long), and the dolmen of TEtang-la-Ville, Seine-et-Oise (3 round, 
 no long or mean, Chudzinski). ''Towards the close of the neo- 
 Hthic age in France, the round and medium types become eight 
 or ten times more numerous than the long /;/ certain regions\'' 
 Similar evidence is yielded by the neoHthic caves of Finale 
 
 (Ligurian Coast), and other parts of Italy (Dr G. 
 everywhere Nicolucci); by those of Hallstatt, Austria, and by 
 intermingled. p^rfooz and Others in Belgium (Dupont), as well as 
 by the British round barrows, where all types are associated in 
 varying proportions. In England the round heads seem to come 
 in with the metal age, as shown by the contents of their barrows, 
 and it is evident that here, as on the mainland, the two types 
 
 were gradually merged in a mixed population, 
 Fertile mis- which with later superadded elements (Kelts, Teu- 
 
 cegenation « ^ • i • -r~> 
 
 established for tons (Scc), pcrsists to the present time. Permanent 
 times^^°"'^ miscegenation, that is, mixed races capable of trans- 
 
 mitting their kind, is consequently established for 
 the prehistoric populations of Europe. Thus, however they may 
 have differed from each other in outward form, the primitive 
 
 ^ Ph. Salmon, op. cit. p. 39. To this palaeontologist is due the credit of 
 having conclated these important data. 
 
vil] specific unity of man. 151 
 
 peoples of this region are shown by the physiological test to 
 have been varieties of a single species descended from a pHocene 
 precursor, and the diagram, p. 38, is justified. 
 
 Throughout the historic period the same phenomenon of 
 fertile miscegenation is everywhere presented, to 
 such an extent that amongst the present inhabit- tork period' 
 ants of the globe the rule is mixture, the exception J?i\e^"ra^ciai*^^ 
 racial purity. When comparative anatomists, such purity the 
 as Broca, Flower, or Garson, cast about for speci- ^^^^^ ^°"* 
 mens of absolutely pure types, they have to explore such secluded 
 upland valleys as those of Savoy or Auvergne, or else extend their 
 enquiries to remote insular groups, such as the Andamans, Fiji, 
 Tasmania, or Fuegia, and even then they are not always sure. 
 From large ethnical groups— Malays, Mongols, Germans, Sudan- 
 ese — little is to be gleaned except averages, mostly of doubtful 
 value. But averages mean transitions of all kinds, and transitions 
 could result only from extensive interminglings, which again could 
 take place only between varieties. 
 
 This general inference will be confirmed by a closer survey of 
 the whole field. For this purpose mankind may 
 
 --..,,. . , ,, ■' The Mestizos 
 
 be divided into two sections, the older groups of Latin 
 whose mixed character caii only be indirectly in- ■^"^^"'=^- 
 ferred from the foregoing considerations, and the more recent 
 groups, whose mixed character can be proved by direct evidence. 
 Of the latter by far the most important are the present inhabitants 
 of Central and South America, the immense majority of whom 
 are confessedly mixed peoples — Lusitano-Americans with a con- 
 siderable strain of Negro blood in Brazil, Hispano-Americans 
 elsewhere. "Whatever be the pretensions of certain sections of 
 the community, there can scarcely exist in Latin America any 
 really pure race, for the first European immigrants from Mexico 
 to Chili nearly all married native women, and since then twelve 
 generations have followed, diversely modified by unions between 
 every shade of half-breeds. The American populations, which in 
 virtue of these unions belong at once to both races may be esti- 
 mated at about thirty millions altogether \" 
 
 ^ Reclus, English ed., xv. p. 52. 
 
152 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 But it is pretended that these mestizos are not a stable race, 
 and would disappear or revert to one of the primitive types, but for 
 the constant infusion of fresh blood from Europe. Scarcely any 
 immigration^ however is directed towards Mexico, the Central 
 American States, Columbia, Venezuela, Peru or Bolivia; yet in 
 all these regions there is a steady increase of population despite 
 epidemics, and physical and political convulsions. Thus : — 
 
 Mexico (1874)9,3435000; (1891)11,643,000. 
 
 Salvador (1886) 651,000; (1892) 780,000. 
 
 Columbia (1810) 1,000,000; (1892) 4,200,000. 
 
 Venezuela „ 800,000; „ 2,323,000. 
 
 Peru „ 1,100,000; „ 3,000,000. 
 
 Bolivia „ 800,000; „ 2,350,000. 
 
 In Brazil the famous "Paulistas" (so called from the province 
 ^j^g of Sao Paulo), a cross between the first Portuguese 
 
 Pauiistas. immigrants and the aborigines, have always been 
 
 the most vigorous and enterprising section of the community. 
 Mainly to them is due the extension of the Portuguese domain from 
 the Atlantic seabord to the eastern slopes of the Cordilleras. In 
 Canada the French element was probably saved from extinction 
 by its alliance with the surrounding Algonquian tribes, and the 
 sturdy Franco-Canadian boatmen and voyageurs 
 
 The Franco- ^ . . 
 
 Canadians and (trappers and traders) yield to none m energy and 
 Dano-Eskimo. pj^y^-^^j vitdity. In Greenland also the Dano- 
 Eskimo half-breeds are not only a thoroughly constituted race, 
 but they also show qualities in some respects superior to those of 
 either of the original stocks. 
 
 In North America proper, Dr Franz Boas, who has made 
 
 a special study of "the anthropology of the half- 
 
 stltls^"'*^^ breeds," declares that *'the present generation of 
 
 Indians and Indians is mixed to a considerable extent with 
 
 Half-breeds. . . , . . 
 
 whites and negroes, so much so that in certain 
 regions it is impossible to find a full-blood individual. Thus the 
 
 ^ Nearly everywhere immigration is almost nil, or balanced by the 
 emigration, the only exception being Peru, which receives a small but steady 
 supply of coolies, chiefly Chinese; these number at present (1895) altogether 
 abuut 50,000, but most of them return to China at the end of the contract time. 
 
VII.] SPECIFIC UNITY OF MAN. 1 53 
 
 numerous tribes of the Iroquois, Cherokees, Chickasaws and Choc- 
 taws contain very few full-blood individuals, if any*." It would 
 further appear that while the Indians, as a whole, are decreasing 
 owing to various social, political and other extraneous causes, the 
 decrease is mainly confined to the unmixed element. "Indian 
 women of more than forty years have as an average, approximately, 
 six children, while half-breed women have on an average from 
 seven to eight.... The smaller numbers of children are very much 
 more frequent among the Indians than among the half-breeds." 
 In a word "we find the rather unexpected result that the fertility 
 among half-breed women is considerably larger than among full- 
 blood women {ib. p. 39). 
 
 Thus what Broca calls ettgmesis, that is, indefinitely fertile 
 miscegenation, is proved for the whole of the New 
 World. It is also proved for South Africa by the Eugenesis 
 persistence for over 200 years of the "bastaards," thl^New"'^ ^°'' 
 that is, the Hottentot-Dutch half-castes known as 1^°''''^ ^^^ ^°'' 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Griquas, who form flourishing communities in TheGriquas. 
 Griqualand West and East; and also by the Negro- 
 Hottentot half-castes known as Gonaquas, "Borderers," scattered 
 in small groups over the eastern provinces of Cape Colony. 
 Farther north the Gallas, Somali and Abyssinians 
 of North-East Africa are certainly a blend of the somaH, 
 Negro and Hamite on the one hand, and of the Abyssinians, 
 
 AT TT • 1 r>. • Soudanese, 
 
 JNegro, Hamite and Semite on the other. Most of West African 
 the Soudanese populations also, — Mabas, Baghirmi, ^^^'■°^^- 
 Dasas, Kanuri, Hausas, Songhrays, "Toucouleurs," Fulahs — are 
 not negroes, but negroid mixtures of Hamites and aborigines all 
 along the borderlands between the Berber and Black domains. 
 Some of these, notably the Hausas, are greatly superior in many 
 respects to both of the primitive elements. From a careful study 
 of the West African negroes (Senegal to Angola), J. Deniker 
 and L. Laloy conclude generally that they also are a mixture of at 
 least three distinct elements— one very tall, long-headed with broad 
 deeply depressed nose, dominant in the north; another also tall 
 
 ^ The Anthropflhs^y of the North American Indian, in Memoirs of the 
 International Congress of Anthropology, Chicago, p. 38. 
 
154 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 and long-headed with very broad but less depressed nose, domi- 
 nant in the south, and a third round-headed, very short and hairy, 
 whose domain Hes about the equator \ 
 
 In Asia analogous cases occur in Afghanistan, where the 
 vigorous Hazaras and Aymaks are of Mongolo- 
 in Asli^ '"""^ Persian descent; in Kashmir, where the Baltis, 
 who give their name to the province of Baltistan, 
 are described by Major Biddulph and others as an excellent fusion 
 of Mongols and Aryans^; in India generally, where masses of 
 Dravidian and Kolarian aborigines have benefited immensely by 
 their union with the Aryan intruders some thousands of years ago ; 
 in Cochin-china, where the Franco-Annamese half-breeds known 
 as Minh-huongs are steadily increasing in numbers and displaying 
 qualities of a sterling character ^ Most of the PhiHppine Islanders 
 are the outcome of diverse interminghngs, in which the Malay, 
 Negrito, Chinese, Japanese, Spanish and perhaps Polynesian 
 elements are variously represented. But there is no lack of 
 vitahty in these mestizos, who have certainly increased in 
 numbers under the Spanish rule. 
 
 In Malaysia many of the so-called " Alfuros " are the result of 
 crossings between the Malays and Papuans, and 
 arid Pofynesia. ^nalogous crossings between Papuans and Poly- 
 nesians make up a large part of the population in 
 Fiji and Melanesia. A striking instance of the permanently 
 fertile union of two extreme types is afforded by the present 
 inhabitants of Pitcairn Island in the South Pacific. In 1789 the 
 mutineers from the Bounty — 9 English sailors, 
 isiande^rl^.''^''^'' 6 male and 15 female Tahitians— settled on this 
 island. But through constant strife and bloodshed 
 these were reduced in 1793 to four Englishmen and ten Tahitian 
 women. Since then, peace having been restored, the community 
 
 1 V Anthropologic, May — ^June, 1890, p. 294. 
 
 2 " Les Baltis posscdent tout a la fois la patience et la tenacite du Mongol et 
 I'intelligence elevee avec I'esprit d'initiative qui caracterisent I'Arya" (J. van 
 den Gheyn, Rev. des Questions Scientifiques, July 1883, p. 5). 
 
 2 Of these Minh-huongs M. Morice tells us that they "deviennent de plus 
 en plus nombreux, resistent bien le climat...les enfants, fort gentils, ont le nez 
 un peu camus, les cheveux chatains, et le teint un peu plus clair que les 
 indigenes" {Bui. d. I. Soc. d'Anthrop.y Feb. 1875). 
 
VII.] SPECIFIC UNITY OF MAN. 1 55 
 
 began to flourish, increasing in 1825 to 66, and in 1891 to 120. 
 These islanders are a robust, active race, of dark complexion but 
 pleasing expression, and very intelligent. Their steady expansion, 
 as shown by the colony founded by them on Norfolk Island, 
 establishes their permanent eugenesis. In general it may be said 
 that in the South Sea Islands it is the full-blood Polynesian 
 natives that are disappearing (Maori, Hawaii, Samoans, &c.), 
 while their place is being taken by half-breeds of all kinds. All 
 these facts, which might be multiplied indefinitely, fully justify Dr 
 Robert Dunn's statement that "half-castes very generally combine 
 the best attributes of the two races from whence they originated" 
 
 It may be concluded on inductive evidence that all the 
 Hominidos are, and always have been, permanently 
 fertile with each other. Eugenesis is the norma, Thephysio- 
 
 ° . ' logical test 
 
 and to It must in fact be attributed the present conclusive 
 endless varieties of mankind, which may be said to potygeVists. 
 have almost everywhere supplanted the few original 
 fundamental stocks. The argument in favour of the specific unity 
 of these stocks may be summed up with Prof. E. B. Tylor, who 
 remarks that "the opinion of modern zoologists, whose study of the 
 species and breeds of animals makes them the best judges, is 
 against the view of several origins of mankind, for two principal 
 reasons. First that all tribes of men, from the blackest to the 
 whitest, the most savage to the most cultured, have such general 
 likeness in the structure of their bodies and the working of their 
 minds as is easiest and best accounted for by their being descended 
 from a common ancestry, however distant. Second, that all the 
 human races, notwithstanding their form and colour, appear 
 capable of freely intermarrying and forming crossed races of every 
 combination, such as the miUions of mulattos and mestizos sprung 
 in the New World from the mixture of Europeans, Africans and 
 native Americans ; this again points to a common ancestry of all 
 the races of men. We may accept the theory of the unity of 
 mankind as best agreeing with ordinary experience and scientific 
 research ^" 
 
 ^ Uni^jy of the Human Species (physiological and psychological evidence), 
 1861, p. 5. 
 
 ^ Anlhiopolog}', p. 5. 
 
156 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 From the now universally accepted doctrine of correlation of 
 parts, Prof. Kollmann draws another argument in 
 tomicaUest. support of the unigcnist doctrine against poly- 
 genist views. After referring to Cuvier's statement 
 that from a single bone it is possible to determine the very species 
 to which an animal belongs, because every bone stands in such a 
 relation to every other, that from its characteristics the characters 
 of all the others may be inferred, he adds : " Precisely on this 
 ground I have mainly concluded that the existence of several 
 human species cannot be recognised; for we are unacquainted 
 with a single tribe, from a single bone of which we might with 
 certainty determine to what species it belonged \" 
 
 Driven from the physiological and anatomical grounds, poly- 
 
 genists have taken refuge in a philological argument, 
 
 genis^t lin-^' which they consider unanswerable, possibly because 
 
 guistic anthropologists have hitherto considered it not 
 
 argument. . 
 
 worth answering. Of course special anthropology, 
 which deals with man only as a member of the zoological series, is 
 not called upon to discuss linguistic questions at all. But they 
 cannot be overlooked by the ethnologist, who has to study man 
 and all his faculties, of which articulate speech is the most 
 characteristic. 
 
 Abel Hovelacque concludes his Science oj Language with the 
 remark that "the ascertained impossibility of re- 
 
 Independent . 
 
 Stock Races ducmg a multiplicity of linguistic families to a 
 Independent common Centre is for us sufficient proof of the 
 Stock Lan- original pluraUty of the races that have been 
 
 guages. J ^ . •' 
 
 developed with them^"; and elsewhere: "If the 
 faculty of articulate speech constitutes the sole fundamental 
 characteristic of man, and if the different linguistic groups known 
 to us are irreducible, they must have taken birth independently 
 and in quite distinct regions. It follows that the precursors of 
 man must have acquired the faculty of speech in different localities 
 independently, and have thus given birth to several races of man- 
 kind originally distinct.... Had man acquired this faculty in one 
 
 1 Ueber pithekoide Formen m dem Gesichtsschddel, in Correspondenz-Blatt of 
 the German Anthrop. Soc, Nov. 1883, p. 164. 
 
 2 English ed. 1877, P- Sn- 
 
vil] specific unity of man. 157 
 
 way only, language would have remained substantially the same to 
 the present time, or at least we should detect in all languages 
 some traces of their common descent" {ib. p. 304). So also Fr. 
 Miiller in his Allgemeine EthnogJ-aphie, and other polygenists, who 
 confidently argue from fundamentally distinct stock languages to 
 fundamentally distinct stock races evolved in different geographical 
 centres. 
 
 But the inference is based on a tremendous fallacy, which per- 
 vades an immense number of ethnological treatises, 
 and which does not appear to be anywhere ade- thfs^a?gument. 
 quately dealt with. The irreducible stock languages 
 are unquestioned, and Mr J. W. Powell enumerates as many 
 as fifty-eight for the United States and Canada alone \ In the 
 rest of the Continent there must be at least as many 
 
 , . . Specific 
 
 more, or, say, at an extremely moderate estmiate, unity un- 
 one hundred for the whole of America. Are we ^^^^}^^ ^y the 
 
 existence of 
 
 therefore to conclude that there are also at least a stock Lan- 
 hundred stock races, a hundred distinct species of 
 the Hominidae in the New World where nevertheless such remark- 
 able physical uniformity prevails? And if so, how were they 
 evolved in a region, where there are not even any anthropoid apes 
 higher than the Cebidoe, from which no sane zoologist would 
 attempt to trace the ascent of man ? In Australia there are not 
 even any Cebidae ; no apes or monkeys of any kind, no half-apes 
 or lemurs, no placental mammals, except a few species of bats and 
 rodents, but there is at least one stock language. Is therefore the 
 race that speaks it to be derived from bats or rodents, or perhaps 
 marsupials? For the geological record shows that in this region 
 there never have been any higher mammals except the dingo of 
 recent introduction. Here therefore the polygenists must give up 
 the problem, or else fall back on direct creation, or perhaps on 
 Agassiz' exploded hypothesis of several distinct pairs of " proto- 
 plasts," with radiation of species from several distinct centres. 
 And all this to avoid the comparatively easy transitions from one 
 variety to another of the Hominidae. 
 
 In other parts of the Eastern Hemisphere, such as Sudan, 
 
 ^ Indian Linguistic Faviilies, &c., Washington, 1891. 
 
158 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Caucasia, Malaysia, stock languages are reckoned by the score. 
 In some districts of Caucasia, the " Mountain of Languages," as 
 it has been called by the Arabs and Persians, almost every upland 
 valley has its distinct form of speech, and although a few of these 
 have been traced to a common source, many have hitherto resisted 
 all the attempts of philologists to classify them in family groups. 
 But the inhabitants of these valleys all belong physically to the 
 same great Caucasic division of mankind, of which they are in fact 
 typical members. Similar relations prevail in the Minahasa 
 district at the extremity of the northern peninsula, Celebes, 
 where in a small tract some 60 miles by 20 over a dozen 
 different languages are spoken. "Some of these may perhaps be 
 more or less dialectic, but the majority are said to be quite 
 distinct, and the people of the different tribes cannot make 
 themselves understood except through the medium of Malay, 
 although, perhaps, their villages may be within three miles of one 
 another \" In these regions the absurdity of the argument that 
 infers stock races from stock languages is thus seen in its full 
 force, and the truth of the somewhat trite saying that quod niniis 
 probat nihil probat ("what proves too much proves nothing") is 
 strikingly illustrated. It follows, as will more fully appear farther 
 on, that there is no necessary relation at all between race and 
 speech. In other words, however useful as a factor in determining, 
 or helping to determine, the affinities of various races one to the 
 other, language has no bearing whatever on the question of the 
 original unity or diversity of mankind. 
 
 Nevertheless the absolute irreducibility of the stock languages 
 is a difficulty, to account for which Prof. Sayce 
 
 which are to -^ 
 
 be otherwise amongst othcrs suggests that " man was speechless 
 explained. when the leading races were differentiated from each 
 
 other." But to this the same fatal objection still applies, for on 
 this assumption there would be needed not one ho7no alalus 
 prifftigenius, as postulated by Haeckel, but as many speechless 
 precursors as there are and have been stock languages in all parts 
 of -the world. Probably ten times as many stock languages have 
 perished during the long ages since the evolution of speech as still 
 
 ^ Dr F. H. H. Guillemard, Australasia (Stanford series, new issue), p. 291. 
 
VIL] specific unity of man. T59 
 
 survive. Hence it would be logically necessary to assume that 
 this marvellous evolution took place not ten or twenty but many 
 hundred times in various regions of the globe. A much less 
 violent assumption is the common sense view, not that every 
 distinct language represents a distinct race, but that the several 
 distinct races must have evolved within themselves a greater or 
 less number of distinct languages, that is, of languages which have 
 diverged from a common source so far as to become true species 
 or even genera and orders, while the races themselves have 
 remained mere varieties of a single species. 
 
 No true evolutionist can have any difficulty in accepting this 
 view. Linguistic are far more variable than animal or vegetable 
 forms, and in anthropology it is a generally accepted principle 
 that speech changes more readily and more rapidly than physicil 
 types. Hence it is more easy to conceive all the present linguistic 
 orders deriving from an original germ or inorganic state of primi- 
 tive speech, than all the present animal and vegetable orders 
 deriving from original animal and vegetable germs. The only 
 difference is that the biological series are proved by paloeontology, 
 whereas the early linguistic series must necessarily be postulated, 
 because extinct forms of speech leave no fossils behind them. 
 Historic languages, however, leave documents, and some of these 
 documents, such as the Hindu Vedas, reveal an enormous 
 divergence in the course of a few thousand years within the Hmits 
 of a single linguistic family. Compare, for instance, modern 
 English with Sanskrit, Zend or Homeric Greek, all members of 
 the Aryan group. From what has taken place in this relatively 
 short historic period, any extent of divergence may be conceived 
 as possible, and indeed necessary, during the immeasurably 
 longer prehistoric period, until a stage is reached when no 
 resemblance at all will be perceptible between the primitive and 
 later Aryan tongues. They will have become radically distinct, 
 that is, stock languages. 
 
 Thus the existence of the present stock languages is no argu- 
 ment at all for the disparity of the human family ; while on the 
 other hand the fact that every single member of that family is a 
 speaking animal supplies perhaps the very strongest argument for 
 the specific unity of all its branches. Waitz aptly remarks that 
 
l6o ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 "inasmuch as the possession of a language of regular gram- 
 matical structure forms a fixed barrier between 
 
 The Mono- . , ,. . , 
 
 genistview man and the brute, it establishes at the same time 
 and confirmed ^ near relationship between all peoples in psychical 
 by the uni- rcspccts. ...In the presence of this common feature 
 
 of articulate of the human mind, all other dififerences lose their 
 ^^^^^^" importance'." And he quotes Pott as saying that 
 
 "if theology feared that an original difference of language might 
 imphcate the original unity of the human species (which by no 
 means follows), the science of language restores to theology the 
 psychical unity of mankind, compared with which the physical 
 unity must yield in importance" {ib.) This argument in favour of 
 
 unity, based on psychological grounds, was urged 
 ArTment ^^^^ much force and eloquence by Dr Prichard, who 
 
 pointed out that "the same inward and mental 
 nature is to be recognised in all the races of men. When we 
 compare this fact with the observations, fully established, as to the 
 specific instincts and separate psychical endowments of all the 
 distinct tribes of sentient beings in the Universe, we are entitled 
 to draw confidently the conclusion, that all human races are of 
 one species and one family ^" 
 
 Blumenbach, true founder of scientific anthropology, has 
 
 summed up the whole question from the physical 
 
 The question ^ , ^ ^ ^ . 
 
 summed up by Standpoint in words which have lost nothing of their 
 Blumenbach. fgj-ce since they were penned a hundred years ago. 
 He asks whether everywhere in time or place mankind has con- 
 stituted one and the same, or clearly distinct species ; and he con- 
 cludes: "Although between distant peoples the difference may 
 seem so great, that one may easily take the inhabitants of the Cape 
 of Good Hope, the Greenlanders and Circassians for peoples of so 
 many distinct species, nevertheless we shall find, on due reflection, 
 that all, as it were, so merge one in the other, the human varieties 
 passing gradually from one to another, that we shall scarcely if at 
 all be able to determine any limits between them. Hence those 
 varieties of mankind have proved extremely arbitrary both in 
 
 1 Anthropology^ p. 273. 
 
 2 Natnial History of Man, p. 4S8. 
 
VII.] SPECIFIC UNITY OF MAN. l6l 
 
 number and description, which have been accepted by distin- 
 guished men\" The last remark will receive its full justification 
 in the next chapter. 
 
 1 "Sintne fuerintne omnis aevi omnisque gentis homines unius eiusdemque 
 diversaeve plane speciei...Quamquam tanta inter remotiores gentes interesse 
 videatur differentia, ut facile Capitis Bonse Spei accolas, Groenlandos et Cir- 
 cassios pro tot diversas specie! hominibus habere possis, re tamen rite pensitata. 
 ita omnes inter se confluere quasi, et sensim unam in alteram transire hominum. 
 varietatem videbis, ut vix ac ne vix quidem limites inter eas constituere poteris. 
 Maxime arbitrarise ideo et numero et definitione evaserunt quas cl. viri 
 receperunt generis humani varietates " {De genei^is htimaiii varietate naiiva, 
 T795. P- 40). 
 
 K. II 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 VARIETAL DIVERSITY OF MAN : PHYSICAL CRITERIA 
 OF RACE. 
 
 Difficulties of defining, and determining the number of, the primary human 
 varieties — Schemes of the first systematists: Bernier; Linne; Blumenbach; 
 Cuvier; Virey ; DesmouHns ; Bory de Saint- Vincent ; Morton; GHddon 
 and Agassiz; Latham; Carus ; Peschel — The Philologists — The Ethno- 
 logists : Buffon ; Prichard — The Anatomists : Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire ; 
 Retzius ; Broca ; Virchow ; Mantegazza ; Barnard Davis ; Rolleston ; 
 Flower; Cope — Recent Schemes : Haeckel's; de Quatrefages's ; Huxley's; 
 Broca's; Fr. Miiller's ; Deniker's ; Flower and Lydekker's — General 
 remarks on these Groupings — Elements of Classification : Physical and 
 Mental Characters — Physical tests of Race: Colour of the Skin — Colour 
 and Texture of the Hair — The Beard ; Hirsuteness — Shape of the Skull — 
 Cephalic Indices — Tables of Dolicho-, Mesati- and Brachycephali — 
 Gnathism— Facial Index — Table of Sub-nasal Prognathism — The Denti- 
 tion — The Nose : Nasal Index — Colour and Shape of the Eye — The 
 General Expression — Stature : Tables of Heights — Other Physical Factors. 
 
 FroiM the foregoing considerations it appears that the Homi- 
 nid^e constitute a family group, that is, a group connected, how- 
 ever distantly, by the ties of blood derived from a common 
 pHocene precursor. It further appears that several distinct 
 members of the group were already established in pleistocene 
 times in every part of the then habitable globe. It follows that 
 the present races of mankind are to a certain extent of diverse 
 origin, that is to say, descend in diverging, converging or 
 parallel lines from their several pleistocene pre- 
 definTn^g^and°^ cursors, without anywhere developing specific differ- 
 determining enccs. But to this vcrv fact of their relatively 
 
 the number of ,.,.., - , . , ,.„ . 
 
 the primary closc Kinship IS duc the great and admitted airiiculty 
 
 human 
 varieties. 
 
 human ^^ determining the number and character of the 
 
 existing primary groups. It was seen that because 
 the Equidae form so many true species, systematists find it an 
 
CH. YIII.] PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 1 63 
 
 easy task to define and describe their main divisions. On the 
 other hand the grouping of the Canidae, which form varieties only, 
 presents ahnost insuperable difficulties to classifiers. 
 
 In this respect the position of the Hominidae is entirely 
 analogous to that of the Canidte. All being fertile inter se, 
 although possibly in different degrees, and several having early 
 acquired migratory habits, endless new varieties have constantly 
 been formed since remote prehistoric times, both by segmen- 
 tation of early groups, and by countless fresh combinations of 
 already established varieties. Outward modifying influences must 
 have been brought into play as soon as the first-named groups 
 began to migrate from their original homes, and such influences, 
 intensified by the climatic changes accompanying the advance 
 and retreat of glacial phenomena, would increase in activity 
 according as the primitive tribes spread farther afield. To these 
 influences of the surroundings were soon added the far more 
 potent effects of interminglings seen to be at work already in 
 neoHthic times, and thus the development of fresh sub-varieties 
 of all sorts proceeded at an accelerated rate. This process 
 has necessarily continued down to the present time, resulting in 
 ever-increasing confusion of fundamental elements, and blurring 
 of primaeval types. Hence it is not surprising that many ethno- 
 logists should accept as a truism the statement that "there are 
 no longer any pure races in the world*." 
 
 To this ethnical confusion, which has been traced back to the 
 mesfalith-builders, and even to the Furfooz, Finale, ^ , 
 
 ° . Schemes of 
 
 and other cave-dwellers, must be attributed the the first 
 amazing diversity of opinion that has prevailed and ^^^ ^™^ 
 still prevails amongst anthropologists, even as regards the number 
 of the primary divisions of mankind. The first 
 
 ... Bernier. 
 
 serious attempt at a systematic grouping of the 
 
 Hominidae has been accredited to F. Bernier (1625 — 88), who 
 
 distinguished (1672) four radical types: the European white, the 
 
 ^ "Le seul siibstratiini sur lequel nous pouvons operer, les dxvQxs peiipies, 
 nations, pcnplades, tribiis &c., tels qu'ils sont actuellenient repartis sur la terre, 
 ne sont que les melanges d'elements souvent tres heterogenes. La phrase: 'U 
 n'y a plus de races pures sur la terre,' est devenue un cliche " (J. Deniker 
 Bill. d. I. Soc. d'Anihrop., June 6, 18S9, p. 322). 
 
 II — 2 
 
l64 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 African black, the Asiatic yellow, and the northern Lapp ! Then 
 came the great systematist Linne (1738 — 83) with 
 his Homo 7?ionsiriws2is, Homo ferns, and Homo 
 sapietis. The Homo ferus, being dumb and covered with hair, 
 answers somewhat to Haeckel's Homo alalus, while the group 
 Homo sapiens comprises four varieties : the fair-haired, blue-eyed 
 and light-skinned European ; the yellowish, brown-eyed, black- 
 haired Asiatic ; the black-haired, beardless, tawny American ; the 
 black, woolly-haired, flat-nosed African. Biumenbach (1752 — 
 1840) followed (1775) with his five varieties bearing 
 a nomenclature that still largely persists : Caucasic, 
 Mongolic, Ethiopic, American and Malay. But Biumenbach later 
 (1795) fell back on Linne's four varieties which, however, he 
 distributed somewhat differently, assigning to the Caucasic most 
 of Europe, Cis-gangetic Asia and the region stretching north- 
 wards from the Amur basin ; to the Mongolic Trans-gangetic Asia 
 north to the Amur "with the islanders and great part of the 
 Austral lands"; to the Ethiopic Africa; and to the American all 
 the New World except the northern coastlands, that is, the 
 Eskimo domain, which he includes in the Mongolic division \" 
 Then ensued a period of orthodox reaction against the 
 Lamarckian ideas headed by Cuvier (1773 — 183S), 
 who held by fixity of species, but inconsistently 
 admitted three races, the Caucasic, Mongolic and African, sup- 
 posed to answer to the bibHcal Japhetic, Semitic and Hamitic 
 families. This of course caused a great outcry, and in fact was 
 the starting-point of the monogenist and polygenist theories, 
 which were discussed in the last chapter. In 1801 
 irey. Virey (1775 — 1840) reduced Cuvier's three divi- 
 
 sions to two distinct species, white and black, each with three 
 main races or sub-species, which again comprised a number of 
 secondary groups. But this could not satisfy thorough-going 
 polygenists, such as Desmoulins, who started eleven 
 Desmouhns. i-^^^j-^^^j^ specics in 1 82 5, and next year raised them 
 s^nt^vlncent. ^° sixteen; Bory de Saint-Vincent, who in 1827 
 discovered fifteen species, including such nebulous 
 
 1 Op. cit. p, 42. 
 
VIII.] PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 165 
 
 groups as "Scythians," "Neptunians," "Columbians"; lastly the 
 American school, which in the hands of Morton, 
 
 Morton, 
 
 Gliddon, Knox, Agassiz and others brought about Giiddon, 
 an inevitable reaction by threatening to increase s^^siz. 
 the number of species indefinitely. Other groupings, which were 
 marked by greater sobriety, and which still possess some historic 
 interest, were those of Hamilton Smith (Caucasic, Mongolic, 
 Tropical) ; Latham (Japhetic, Mongoloid, Atlan- 
 tides); Karl G. Carus (four divisions somewhat 
 phantastically named Nachtmenschen, "Night-men," the Negro; 
 Tag/nenschen, "Day-men," the Caucasian; ostliche 
 Dd7)wie7'ungsmenscheii^ "Men of the eastern twi- 
 light," Mongolo-Malayo-Hindu peoples; and westliche Dammer- 
 jnigsmenschen, " Men of the western twilight," the 
 ^American aborigines); lastly Peschel (Australian 
 with Tasmanian, Papuan, Mongoloid with Malayo-Polynesian and 
 American, Dravidian, Hottentot with Bushman, Negro, Mediter- 
 ranean, i.e. Blumenbach's Caucasian). 
 
 A fresh element of confusion, which still cHngs to ethno- 
 logical studies, arose out of Frederick Schlegel's 
 little treatise on the "Language and Wisdom of the ioJists^^'^°" 
 Hindus" (1808), which was later declared by Max 
 Miiller to have^revealed a new world, and to have shown what 
 unexpected services Anthropology might derive from the science 
 of language. Unfortunately these services were pushed too far 
 wlien philologists entered the field, and claimed to hold in 
 language the key to the solution of all ethnological problems. 
 This again led to another reaction, caused especially by the 
 attempt to identify race and speech, and to set up as many 
 independent physical as there are independent linguistic groups, 
 as discussed in the last chapter. When it was seen that such 
 views led, like those of Nott, GHddon and Knox, to an un- 
 limited number of human species and varieties, a violent divorce 
 took place between philology and ethnology, a divorce which will 
 be dealt with farther on with a view to a possible reconciHation 
 of the two schools. 
 
 Meanwhile the way had been prepared for a more rational 
 treatment of racial diversity by Dr James Cowles Prichard, who 
 
1 66 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 not without reason is by many regarded as the true founder of 
 ethnology as a distinct branch of general anthro- 
 logists? "°" pology- At least he may share this honour with 
 Buffon Buffon, who so early as 1749 had undertaken 
 
 r Histoire Complete de V Ho7nme, as a part of his great 
 work on the Animal Kingdom (1749 — 88). Both of these great 
 writers avoided, perhaps wisely, any systematic groupings, but 
 brought to bear a great store of learning, combined with much 
 acute reasoning, on the natural history of the various divisions of 
 mankind, as they presented themselves in their several geographic 
 areas. But while Buffon was mainly descriptive (Ethnography), 
 the comparative method is conspicuous in Prichard (1785 — 1848), 
 whose writings {Eastern Origiii of the Celtic La?iguage; Physical 
 History of Majikind, &c.) are consequently of a strikingly ethno- 
 logical character, and possess great permanent value. 
 
 His Crania of the Laplanders and Finla?iders, continued by 
 
 Theanato- ^^^^ more solid work of the elder Retzius in the 
 
 mists: same field, gave a fresh impulse to craniological 
 
 Geoffroy Saint- ,. '.,,,, , , 
 
 Hiiaire, studics which had already been cultivated by 
 
 Retzius. Morton, and on which Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire based 
 
 his four fundamental types : orthognathous, eurygnathous, progna- 
 thous and eury-prognathous (1858). Thus were laid the foun- 
 dations of the comparative study of the Hominidae based on their 
 physical characters, a line of inquiry which in the hands of 
 Broca, de Quatrefages and Hamy {^Crania Eth7iica), 
 Broca, Topinard, Virchow, Kollmann, Mantegazza, Pruner 
 
 vir^how^^^' Bey, Barnard Davis, Beddoe, Huxley, Thurnam, 
 Mantegazza, Tumei, Rolleston, Flower, Macalister, Garson, 
 
 Barnard ' ' ' ' ' 
 
 Davis, Cope and others, has led to fruitful results. On 
 
 Flower, Cope, thesc physical characters, for the most part irre- 
 spective of speech or other mental qualities, were 
 estabhshed fresh groupings, which have entirely superseded the 
 more extravagant polygenist classifications, while showing a 
 general tendency to revert to Linne's and Blumenbach's primary 
 divisions in various more or less modified forms, 
 scheme"* ^.s reference is constantly made in ethnological 
 
 Haeckei's. ^ writings to onc or more of these groupings, a brief 
 summary is here appended of the more important. 
 
VIII.] PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 167 
 
 Ernst H. Haeckel's Scheme. 
 
 Ulotriches [Lophocomi (Tufted) : Papuans ; Hottentots. 
 (Woolly-haired) iEriocomi (Fleecy) : Kafirs ; Negroes. 
 
 / Euthycomi (Straight) : Malay, Mongol, 
 Lissotriches American, Arctic, 
 
 (Lank-haired) ] . Australian. 
 
 I Euplocomi (Curly) : Dravidas, Nubians^ 
 \ Mediterranean. 
 
 De Quatrefages'^ 
 
 Trunks. 
 
 _ , AVhite or Caucasic ) -n t. -n i. 
 Souche I , ,, ,^ ,. Boughs, Branches, 
 
 .„ . -^Yellow or Mongolich ^^ r r- 
 
 (Root) 
 
 ^ , . . , Families, Groups, &c. 
 Negro or Ethiopic ) 
 
 Huxley. 
 
 (Leiotrichi, "smooth-haired," and Ulotrtchi, ** woolly- 
 haired," adopted from Bory de Saint-Vincent.) 
 
 Ulotrichi'. yellow-brown to jet-black; hair and eyes dark: 
 mostly long-headed ; Negro, Papuan. 
 
 Leiotrichi : (a) Australoid, dark skin, hair, and eyes ; hair long 
 and straight ; prognathous ; AustraHans, the blacks of the Dekkan. 
 
 {b) Mongoloid, yellow-brown, or reddish-brown ; dark eyes ; 
 long, black, straight hair; mesaticephalous ; Mongols, Chinese, 
 Polynesians, Eskimo, Americans. 
 
 {c) Xant/iochroid, fair skin, blue eyes, abundant fair hair ; 
 mesaticephalous ; Slavs, Teutons, fair Kelts. 
 
 {d) Melanochroid, pale skin, dark eye, long black hair; 
 Iberians, Berbers, dark Kelts. 
 
 1 Classification des Races Hwnaines, p. 298. Here the terminology is 
 defective, the word group being indefinite, while all the others are definite. An 
 attempt is made in working out the scheme to correlate the three fundamental 
 linguistic to the three fundamental physical groups. But the result is vitiated 
 by the prevailing misconception regarding the so-called "Monosyllabic Lan- 
 guages." 
 
l68 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Broca. 
 
 I. Straight-haired: i. dolicho, Eskimo; 2. brachy, (a) red, 
 Prairie Indians ; (d) olivaster, Mexican, Peruvian ; (c) yellow, 
 Guarani, Samoyede, Mongol, Malay. 
 
 II. Wavy or Curly-haired ; i. do/ic/w, {a) blonde, Cim- 
 merian, Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon ; {b) brown, Mediterranean 
 (Basque, Corsican, Berber) ; Semite ; (c) black, Australian, Indo- 
 Abyssinian ; (d) red, Fulah, Red Barabra (Nubian) ; 2. brachy^ 
 blonde, Finn ; chestnut, Kelt, Slav ; brown, Iranian, Galcha. 
 
 III. Woolly-haired : i. dolicho^ {a) yellowish, Bushman, 
 {b) black. Oceanic, Papuan; Africa, Kafir; 2. brachy^ Negrito. 
 
 Frederick Muller. 
 
 I. Woolly: i. Ttifted^ Hottentot, Papuan; 2. Fleecy^ Negro, 
 Kafir. 
 
 II. Smooth : i. Straight, Mongol, Arctic, American, Malay, 
 Australian ; 2. Wavy, curly, Dravidian, Nubian, Mediterranean, 
 
 J. Deniker. 
 
 This remarkable scheme' needs a word of explanation. On 
 the assumption that every ethnical group results from a fusion 
 of two, three or more "races," the characters of each of which 
 are persistent, it follows that every such group must contain 
 within itself two, three or more distinguishable strains, here called 
 "types." Thus there are more" types" than " races," which at 
 first sight sounds paradoxical, and from thirteen racial groups 
 are in fact evolved " thirty types," set forth in a scheme primarily 
 based on the different textures of the hair. The races themselves 
 are further disposed in a space of two dimensions (three being 
 impracticable) in order the better to show their mutual affinities, 
 which could not be done in the usual linear arrangement ^ 
 Thus : — 
 
 1 Bid. d. I. Soc. d'Anthrop. June 1889. 
 
 - "Pour bien presenter ces affinites, il faudrait disposer les groupes suivant 
 les trois dimensions de I'espace, ou du moins sur une surface ou Ion a la 
 ressource de deux dimensions. C'est ce que j'ai essaye de faire sur le tableau 
 suivant ou les races sont disposees approxiniativement d'apres leurs affinites 
 
VIII.] 
 
 PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 
 
 Ainu 
 
 Xanthochroid 
 
 Flower and Lydekker\ 
 
 I. EtJiiopian, Negroid or Mela?iesian : Negro, Negrillo, Bush- 
 man, Papuan (Oceanic Negro), Australian. 
 
 II. Mongol, XantJioiis or Yelhnv : Mongols, Malays, Poly- 
 nesians, Americans somewhat doubtfully as an "aberrant" 
 branch. 
 
 III. Cancasic or Eurafrican : Huxley's Xanthochroi and 
 Melanochroi. 
 
 None of these schemes profess to be more than tentative 
 efforts at a satisfactory classification, where the initial 
 difficulty lies in the fact that the groups themselves marks on these 
 are already mixed. Some are based on positively r°"P»"&s. 
 
 dites naturelles" {ib. p. 328). No doubt the unfortunate use of the word 
 " type " has damaged this scheme, which however in the details gets entangled 
 in several incongruities, due to the difficulty of separating fused or juxtaposed 
 strains from the different racial groups. 
 
 ^ Introduction to the Study of Mammals, p. 743. 
 
I70 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 erroneous data, such as Huxley's, which treats the Eskimo as 
 mesaticephalous (intermediate between the long and the round 
 heads), whereas they are, next to the Fijian Kai-Colos, the most 
 dolichocephahc of any race. So with Haeckel's and Fr. Miiller's 
 Hottentots and Papuans, grouped together on the ground of the 
 *' tufted " hair growing in separate bunches, which, however, is 
 characteristic, not of the Papuans, but of the Hottentots and 
 Bushmen alone. Even in these the hair grows uniformly over 
 the scalp, as amongst all other races, and not in isolated tufts 
 with intervening bald spaces, as is often asserted. Owing to the 
 peculiar clumpy growth such spaces merely simulate baldness, 
 though in old age they actually do become bald, thus giving rise 
 to the prevaiHng mistake^ Broca brackets Fulahs and Nubians 
 together because of their common "red" colour, neither being 
 red, and both being in other respects quite distinct — the Nubians 
 being originally Negroes from Kordofan mixed with Bejas and 
 other eastern Hamites, and the Fulahs originally and still partly 
 Saharan Hamites, mixed here and there with Mandingans and 
 other West Sudanese Negroes. Fr. Miiller appears to be primarily 
 responsible for this " Nuba-Fulah Family," constituted on a 
 linguistic base, the two languages being fundamentally distinct'^ 
 Again, what is to be made of the expression " Indo-Abyssinian," 
 or even " Abyssinian " at all as an ethnical term 1 The very word 
 {Habeshi) means "mixed," and in African ethnology "Abys- 
 sinian " conveys no more meaning than does " Hungarian " in 
 European ethnology ; both are national not racial designations, 
 and as a Hungarian may be a Magyar, a Slav, a Rumanian or a 
 Teuton, so an Abyssinian may be a Hamite (Agao and others), 
 or a Semite (Tigre and others). 
 
 1 " Ce dernier caractere [cheveux laineux] atteint son maximum dans les 
 chevelures dites e7i grains de poivre ['peppercorn' growth] que Ton a cru 
 longtemps pousser par touffes isolees. De nouvelles recherches et una obser- 
 vation tres precise de M. Topinard ont montre qu'il n'en est rien " (De Quatre- 
 fages, op. cit. p. 203). See also J. Denilier, Rev. d'Atitkrop. 1883, p. 496, 
 where the error is explained by the fact that "tres sou vent les cheveux des 
 Papous [Hottentots] s'enchevetrent et forment de petites boules simulant 
 des touffes separees." 
 
 2 A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan, p. 16. 
 
VIII.] PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. I7I 
 
 From a general survey of the various schemes, it appears that 
 special, if not paramount, importance is given by 
 these systematists to the three elements of com- Elements of 
 
 Classification: 
 
 plexion, character of the hair, and shape of the skull, physical and 
 And, in general, physical features are relied on, not J^rs! 
 merely in preference to, but to the total exclusion 
 of mental quahties. Yet in determining the relative position of 
 ethnical groups these cannot be overlooked, else ethnology re- 
 mains merely a sub-branch of special anthropology, which as seen 
 confines itself to the human anatomy, and disregards the intel- 
 lectual side, in virtue of which alone the Hominidae constitute an 
 entirely separate division of the animal series. Nor can it be said 
 that the mental endowments are all alike, and consequently 
 useless for schematic purposes. On the contrary they show far 
 greater diversity than do the physical qualities, as is evident from 
 the single fact that, as seen, languages form distinct species and 
 genera, while the various human groups constitute varieties only. 
 Hence due account will here be taken of the mental as well as of 
 the physical characters, as criteria of racial affinities. 
 
 Precedence may be claimed for colour, at least as the element 
 which occurs first to the observer, and on which, 
 probably for that reason, the first groupings were tests^o^f race 
 determined. Nevertheless we are warned by Linne' 
 himself not to trust too much to this character : 7ie nimis crede colori, 
 and physiology now tells us that it is mainly, if not 
 essentially, a question of climate and, quite possibly, sk?n ^""'^ °^ ^^^ 
 diet\ It appears that the pigment, or colouring 
 matter, situated chiefly in the rete iniicoswm or lower layer of the 
 cuticle, which was formerly supposed to be peculiar to the Negro, 
 is really common to all races, only more abundant and of darker 
 hue in the Negro, the Papuan, Australian and Oceanic Negrito. 
 Nor is there any necessary correlation between this darker hue 
 and other Negro characters, as appears from its presence in 
 many Somal, Galla and other Hamitic and even Semitic groups 
 of quite regular features (see p. 382). Waitz {pp. at. pp. 46 
 — 52) adduces many examples to show that "hot and damp 
 
 ^ " Principem tamen inter omnes nigredinis causas locum tenebit clima, 
 solis aeiisque potentia cum vitce genere " (Blumenbach op. cit. p. 50). 
 
ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 countries favour the darkening of the skin," and that the same 
 race tends to be much darker in low, marshy districts than 
 on the neighbouring uplands. Lepsius, a good observer, de- 
 clares somewhat emphatically that the hotter the climate, the 
 darker is the colour of the Negro; he adds that, proceeding 
 from Africa eastwards the isothermal line of greatest heat inter- 
 sects the regions in southern Asia, which are inhabited by the 
 darkest peoples of that Continent'. There may be some exaggera- 
 tion in this statement, and there are certainly many apparent 
 exceptions to the general law regarding the direct relation of 
 heat to colour. But the exceptions are probably either due to 
 local causes, or to the absence of one or other of the factors which 
 combine to darken the pigment. Thus Schweinfarth {Heart of 
 Africa) attributes the reddish hue of the Bongos and other 
 Negroes of the hot, moist White Nile basin to the ferruginous 
 nature of the laterite soil, and the same cause appears to have 
 produced the same result amongst the A-Zandeh (Niam-Niam) of 
 the Welle valley. 
 
 In America all shades within certain limits seem to be inter- 
 mingled irrespective either of latitude, temperature, or relief of the 
 land. Thus in Bolivia are found in juxtaposition the coppery 
 Maropas, the dark brown Aymaras, the yellowish Moxos and the 
 light Mosetenos, Siriones and Guarayos^ So in Australasia the 
 yellow-brown Malays living about the equator present a striking 
 contrast to the almost sooty black Tasmanians of the south 
 temperate zone. But physical as well as moral characters are the 
 outcome not of one or two but of many causes acting simul- 
 taneously on the organism, which cannot escape either from its 
 environment or from its own tendencies. Hence such seeming 
 discrepancies are to be attributed either to descent (dark peoples 
 migrating to cold, light to warm regions), or to various local 
 circumstances and other influences, such as dryness, moisture, 
 food, aspect, altitude or flora (herbaceous or arboreal) of the land, 
 by all of which the complexion may be diversely affected, and 
 
 1 Ntihische Gram. Einleitnng. This isothermal does not coincide in Africa 
 with the equator, but is deflected in the north to about 12°— i5°N., precisely 
 where are found the Wolofs and other Negroes of the deepest dye. 
 
 2 A. H, Keane, Indians {American) in Encyc. Brit., 9th ed. 
 
VIII.] PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 1 73 
 
 mere temperature largely neutralised. The Negro migrating from 
 the moist tropical zone northwards and southwards, or trans- 
 planted to the cooler regions of America, will for an indefinite 
 period retain his inherited dark colour, which, whatever its origin, 
 has to a large extent become a racial character. On the other 
 hand the Semitic and Hamitic inhabitants of the intensely hot 
 but also intensely dry regions of Arabia and the Sahara, are of 
 distinctly light complexion, not perceptibly darker than many 
 South Europeans. 
 
 It is important to note that the palms and soles of the Negro 
 are never black, but always yellowish, that the dark pigment is 
 wanting in the Negro fcetus, and that Negro children are born "of 
 a light grey colour " (Waitz, p. 99). Hence it might be inferred 
 that the dark colour, with which a thicker skin is correlated, is a 
 later development, an adaptation of the organism to a hot, moist 
 malarious climate, in which the Negro thrives and the white man 
 perishes. Thus colour taken alone cannot be regarded as an 
 entirely trustworthy test of race, the less so that even blackness ' is 
 not an exclusively Negro character, but common also to many 
 eastern Hamites (Agaos, Bejas, Somals, Gallas), and to numerous 
 aborigines of India. Nevertheless it is far too important a factor 
 to be overlooked, and taken in combination with other characters 
 will lead to satisfactory results. Although the transitions, as in 
 other physical traits, are complete, there appear to be about six 
 primary colours to which all the human groups may be referred, 
 as under : — 
 
 Black: African and Oceanic Negroes; Australians; Tas- 
 manians ; some aborigines of India and America ; Eastern 
 Hamites. 
 
 Yelloiu : Mongols ; Indo-Chinese ; Japanese ; Tibetans ; some 
 South-Americans ; Bushmen ; Hottentots. 
 
 1 An absolutely black complexion is of extremely rare occurrence in any 
 branch of the Negro group. This may be easily seen by comparing the colour 
 of the face of the average African or Papuan with that of his hair, which 
 is usually intensely black. The skin will always show a lighter, as well as a 
 different shade, so much so that a Negro with face and hair of exactly the same 
 sombre hue would look like some monstrous hisiis naturce, or some stage figure, 
 such as the Othello whose weak points were detected by Blumenbach during 
 his visit to London (1S16). 
 
174 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Brown : Polynesians ; Hindus ; Plateau Indians of America ; 
 many Negritoes ; Fulahs. 
 
 Coppei-y red: Prairie Indians ("Redskins"). 
 
 Florid white: Northern Europeans; Lapps; Finns; Xantho- 
 chroid Caucasians generally. 
 
 Pale white: Southern Europeans; Iranians; many Semites 
 and Western Hamites ; Melanochroid Caucasians generally. 
 
 A glance at the foregoing schemes of classification will suffice 
 to show that the hair, if not regarded as of more 
 texture of the importance than the complexion, has at all events 
 ^^^^- steadily risen in favour with systematists. Its for- 
 
 tune, so to say, was made by the classical memoir, " On the human 
 hair as a race character, examined by the aid of the microscope," 
 read by Dr Pruner-Bey before the Paris Anthropological Society, 
 March 19, 1863 \ Since then this element, previously little 
 attended to, has been made the base or leading character in the 
 groupings of some of the most eminent recent ethnologists. The 
 reason is that both colour and texture of the hair are found to be 
 extremely constant characters, resisting time and climate with won- 
 derful tenacity, and presenting remarkable uniformity throughout 
 large sections of the human family. Thus all the American 
 aborigines from Fuegia to Alaska, as well as most of the Mongo- 
 loid, Malay, and Eastern Polynesian peoples, are invariably 
 distinguished by the same black, lank, somewhat coarse and 
 lustreless hair, round or nearly round in transverse section. No 
 other single physical trait can be mentioned which is to the same 
 extent characteristic of several hundred millions of human beings 
 distributed over every climatic zone from the Arctic to the Ant- 
 arctic waters, and ranging from sea-level (Fuegia, Mackenzie 
 estuary) to altitudes of 12,000 and even 16,000 feet (Bolivian and 
 Tibetan plateaux). So also short black woolly, or at least crisp, 
 or frizzly hair, elliptical and even somewhat flat in transverse 
 section, is a constant feature of the Negroes, Hottentots, Bushmen, 
 Negritoes, Papuans, Melanesians, Tasmanians, in fact of all the 
 distinctly dark Negroid populations, say, of 150 million members 
 
 1 An English translation appeared in the Anthrop. Rev. February, 1864. 
 The genera conclusions arrived at by this eminent anthropologist have been 
 confirmed and extended by the later researches of Topinard and others. 
 
VIII.] PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 1/5 
 
 of the human family. The only important exception are some 
 African pigmies, the Wochua amongst others, whose hair is de- 
 scribed by Junker as "of a dark, rusty-brown hue." This observer 
 adds that " this is certainly one of the most marked peculiarities of 
 the race, for the hair of all other Negro peoples, however light- 
 coloured they may otherwise be, is always the deepest black'." 
 Lastly hair of intermediate types, black, brown, flaxen, red, smooth, 
 wavy or curly, and generally oval in transverse section, prevails 
 amongst both sections of the Caucasic division, which may now 
 be estimated at 700 or 800 millions. Hence the quality of the 
 hair has naturally come to be regarded as one of the safest, if not 
 the very safest test of racial purity, and Pruner-Bey goes so far as 
 to suggest that " a single hair presenting the average form charac- 
 teristic of the race might serve to define it," adding, however, that 
 "without pretending to this degree of certainty, it is indubitable 
 that the hair of the individual bears the stamp of his origin " 
 
 (P- 23). 
 
 It might be objected that hair can have only a secondary 
 importance, because, unlike the cranium, it is limited in point of 
 time, no specimens having survived from the palaeo or neoHthic 
 eras. But the Egyptian mummies (some of the fourth dynasty) 
 show that for at least 6000 years this feature remains unchanged. 
 Hence it may perhaps be inferred that the primary divisions of 
 mankind were always distinguished by the same texture and colour 
 of hair as at present. But it is specially noteworthy that, as pointed 
 out by Topinard^ the white group comes nearest to the higher 
 apes in this respect, the black being the farthest removed, and the 
 yellow intermediate. The lanugo of the human foetus would seem 
 to imply that the pliocene, or at all events the miocene precursor 
 was a furred animal, and fur might easily pass in one direction 
 into lank, in another into woolly, crisp, or intermediate types 
 (cf. the goat and sheep). By the wavy intermediate forms may 
 perhaps be bridged over the otherwise impassable gulf between 
 the lank- and the woolly-haired Hominidse, Unless the present 
 human varieties are studied with reference to a generalised pre- 
 cursor, as the Solidungula and other mammalian groups are studied, 
 
 ^ Travels in Africa^ ill. p. 82. 
 
 ~ U Homvie dans la Natw-e, 1891, chap. VI. 
 
176 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 it will be difficult for monogenists to hold their ground against the 
 pluralists. 
 
 From Pruner's microscopic studies it appears that, apart from 
 its colour, the structure of the hair is threefold : i. Short, crisp or 
 fleecy, usually called "woolly," elliptical or kidney-shaped in 
 section, with mean diameters 20:12 in hundreds of millimetres ; 
 no perceptible medullary tube, and often relatively flat especially 
 in Papuans ; colour almost invariably jet black ; characteristic of 
 all black races except the AustraHans and aborigines of India. 
 2. Long, lank, of the horse-mane type, cyHndrical, hence round 
 or nearly so in section, with diameters either about 24, or if 
 elongated 27: 23; distinct tube filled with medullary substance; 
 colour mainly black or blue black ; characteristic of all American 
 and Mongoloid peoples. 3. Intermediate, wavy, curly or smooth; 
 oval in section, with long and short diameters 23 : 17 or 20 : 15 ; 
 distinct tube, but empty or diaphanous ; all colours from black 
 through every shade of brown to flaxen, red and towy ; character- 
 istic of most Caucasic peoples, but in the eastern Hamites and 
 some others developing long ringletty curls. Besides the three 
 typical transverse sections : — 
 
 Flat ellipse Circle Oval ellipse 
 
 (Negro). (Mongol). (European). 
 
 considerable diversity is presented by some hair, whose sections 
 take square, triangular, kidney-shaped or other forms, as thus : — 
 
 In general the flatter the hair the more it curls ; the rounder 
 the more stiff and lank it becomes, these two extremes being 
 respectively represented by the Papuan (diameters 29:10 or 25:7) 
 and the Japanese (section a perfect circle). It would also appear 
 that of all forms the woolly is the most persistent, as well shown 
 by the Brazilian Cafusos, Negro and native half-breeds, who are 
 
VIII.] PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 1/7 
 
 mop-headed like many Papuans. A triple hybrid also, figured by 
 de Quatrefages (p. 48) and described as "half Negro, a quarter 
 Cherokee and a quarter English," has short, crisp, furry-looking 
 hair, and it would seem as if in this respect the Negro hair had 
 least deviated from the suggested original fur type. 
 
 With the hair of the head is correlated that of the face, of 
 which it will suffice here to remark that the beard 
 is properly characteristic only of the Caucasic group. 
 All American, Mongoloid and Negroid peoples are normally 
 beardless, the chief exceptions being the Australians and some 
 Melanesians. Fully developed beards, combined with a general 
 hirsuteness, occur also sporadically amongst certain isolated groups, 
 such as the Todas of Southern India, the Veddahs of Ceylon, and 
 especially the Ainus of Japan ^ The significance of these facts 
 will be dealt with farther on. 
 
 With the shape and size of the skull as racial tests we seem to 
 enter debateable ground. On its size obviously 
 depend the volume and weight of the brain, on skun^^^°^*^^ 
 which, as seen (p. 44), largely but not exclusively 
 depends the mental capacity. Hence this factor will best be 
 considered in the next chapter deaUng with the intellectual 
 qualities. With regard to the shape, to which our remarks will 
 consequently here be confined, it may be admitted that no physical 
 character has been more extensively studied with, on the whole, 
 such indifferent results. Hence the emphatic protests that have 
 been uttered by Wallace (p. 43), and some other eminent natural- 
 ists against craniology as affording trustworthy data for ethnical 
 classifications. Even professional craniologists often express dis- 
 appointment at the poor returns for the labour expended. Thus 
 Topinard, for whom this line of research forms " the first chapter 
 in anthropology," is fain to confess that craniology "in its present 
 phase is still a science of analysis and of patience, and not yet 
 a science of synthesis"." Miklukho Maclay also, finding the 
 heads of New Guinea Papuans varying as much as from 62 (ex- 
 
 1 Many of Junker's Wochua dwarfs "had full beards and hairy breasts," 
 though his observations "did not confirm the statement that many of these 
 pigmies have very hirsute bodies " (^Travels in Africa, ill. p. 82). 
 
 '^ Anthropology^ p. 206. 
 
 K. 12 
 
178 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 tremely long) to 86 (round), appears at last to have lost faith in 
 craniology as a racial test. He asserts in one place ^ that it cannot 
 be regarded as a means of distinguishing between Negritoes and 
 Papuans, both displaying an obvious tendency towards brachy- 
 cephaly. 
 
 But it should be noticed that Maclay appears to have measured 
 mostly mixed Papuan specimens, and Sir W. Flower has placed it 
 beyond doubt that the typical Negritoes are brachycephalous, the 
 typical Papuans extremely dolichocephalous. Some other general- 
 izations may also be considered as fairly well established, as, for 
 instance, that the African Negroes, Hottentots, and Bushmen are 
 normally long-headed, as are also the Arabs (Semites), the Berbers 
 (Hamites), the Xanthochroid Europeans and the Eskimo, while 
 most of the Mongoloid peoples are round-headed, the Malays 
 and American aborigines mixed. A general survey of the ascertained 
 facts leads to the inference that of itself the shape of the skull is an 
 extremely persistent character, but that it becomes easily modified, 
 not perhaps by climate or other outward influences, but certainly 
 by intermixture. It follows that remarkable uniformity prevails, 
 not only amongst the primitive palaeolithic races (all long-headed, 
 p. 149), but also amongst many relatively pure living races, such as 
 the Galchas, Savoyards and Auvergnats (all round-headed), and 
 the Fijian Kai-Colos (all long-headed), these peoples being pre- 
 served from contact with their neighbours by their secluded upland 
 or insular homes. Hence also mesaticephalous (intermediate) 
 forms may have their value in determining the presence of two or 
 more ethnical elements, as in America and Malaysia. 
 
 Craniologists generally assume two fundamental types, the 
 dolichocephalous or long horizontally, that is, from back to front, 
 and the brachycephalous, or approximately round horizontally^ 
 The types are determined by the so-called cephaHc index num- 
 bers, that is, the relation of the antero-posterior 
 Cephalic diameter (measured from the glabella to the farthest 
 
 Indices. ^ o 
 
 point of the occiput) to the transverse diameter 
 
 ^ Isvestia, 1879, p. 39, quoted in Nature, Nov. 20, 1879. 
 
 - Gr. SoXiX"^?, long; jSpax^s, short, and K€(pa\ri, head. These terms, which 
 play such a large part in anthropological works, were introduced by the elder 
 Retzius, true founder of craniology. 
 
VIIT.] PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 1 79 
 
 from side to side. The former being taken at 100, the latter will 
 range from about 60 to 95, increasing with the greater degree of 
 brachycephaly, and vice- versa (see formula, p. 426). Excluding 
 artificial deformation, the extremes appear to lie between 61 -9 a Kai- 
 Colo of Viti Leva, Fiji, measured by Flower \ and 98-2 1 a Mongolian 
 of doubtful provenance described by Huxley. This last approaches 
 the perfect circle, which is never presented by the normal head, 
 though exceeded (103, 105 ?) by pathological or deformed speci- 
 mens. Most peoples are mesaticephalous, that is to say, they are 
 of mixed descent, and it has been seen that the intermingling 
 began in neoHthic times. Hence it is that, speaking broadly, the 
 horizontal index is now applicable less to the primary than to the 
 secondary divisions of mankind". The statement, for instance, 
 that the African Negroes are normally dolichocephalic, is subject 
 to numerous exceptions (Bongos, A-Zandeh &c.), while the 
 Eskimo, who ought apparently to be brachycephalic, are on the 
 contrary extremely dolichocephalic. 
 
 To meet the endless transitions between the 
 two extremes, Broca has proposed a convenient Doitchr-°^ 
 fivefold division^, which being frequently referred Mesati- and 
 
 , ..... . , , , Brachycephali. 
 
 to m anthropological writings, is here appended : 
 
 1. Dolichocephali, with index No. 75 and under. 
 
 2. Sub-dolichocephali, ., „ ,, 75'oi to 7777. 
 
 3. MesaticephaH, ,, „ „ 7778 to 80. 
 
 4. Sub-brachycephali, ,, ,, ., Scoi to 83"33. 
 
 5. Brachycephali, ,, ,, ,, 83-34 upwards, 
 
 A few examples of each will suffice for a character which, as 
 shown, has mainly a sub- varietal value only : 
 
 r . Dolichocephali. 
 
 Neanderthal 72'(?) 
 
 Kai-Colo (mean) 65* 
 
 Australian 71 '49 
 
 Eskimo (Greenlander) 7177 
 
 Hottentot and Bushman 72-42 
 Kafir 72-54 
 
 ^ Join-. Anthrop. Inst. Nov. 1880, p. 157. 
 
 - " L'indice horizontal ne caracterise pas les groupes primaires de I'hu- 
 manite. Mais il retrouve toute son importance dans la repartition des races 
 appartenant a chacun d'eux " (De Quatrefages, op. cit. p. 215). 
 
 ^ Rev. d'' Anthrop. 1872, p. 385 et seq. 
 
 12 — 2 
 
i8o 
 
 ETHNC 
 
 LOGY. [ 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 I. 
 
 Dolichocephali (cont.) 
 
 
 W. African Negro 
 
 73-40 1 
 
 Low-Caste, Calcutta 
 
 74-17 
 
 Cro-Magnon 
 
 73*34 
 
 Berber 
 
 74-63 
 
 Nile Nubian 
 
 73-72 
 
 Laugerie Basse 
 
 74-85 
 
 Algerian Arab 
 
 74-06 
 
 Baumes-Chaudes 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 (Lozere), one 
 
 75- 
 
 
 2. Sub-dolichocephali. 
 
 
 Dolmens N. of Paris 
 
 75-01 1 
 
 Anglo-Saxons 
 
 76-10 
 
 Guanches (Canaries) 
 
 75-53 
 
 Polynesians (some) 
 
 76-30 
 
 Old Egyptians 
 
 75-78 
 
 Copts (Modern Egyptians) 76*39 
 
 Ainus (some) 
 
 76- 
 
 Basques of Guipuzcoa 
 
 77-62 
 
 Tasmanians 
 
 76-11 
 
 Chinese 
 
 77-60 
 
 
 3. Mesaticephali. 
 
 
 Ancient Gauls 
 
 78-09 
 
 Hawaiians 
 
 80-0 
 
 Mexicans (normal) 
 
 78-12 
 
 Afghans 79 
 
 to 80-0 
 
 Dutch 
 
 78-89 
 
 Ossetians 
 
 8o-o 
 
 Prussians 
 
 78-90 
 
 Petit-Morin (Marne) and^j 
 others from NeoHthicf- 80 -o 
 
 S. Americans (various 
 
 ) 79-16 
 
 N. Americans „ 
 
 79-25 
 
 Caves and dolmens 
 
 J 
 
 
 4. Sub-br achy cep kali. 
 
 
 French Basques 
 
 80-25 
 
 Italians (North) 
 
 8 1 -80 
 
 Low Bretons 
 
 81-25 
 
 Andamanese 
 
 81-87 
 
 Mongols (various) 
 
 81-40 
 
 Finns 
 
 82-0 
 
 Turks (various) 
 
 81-49 
 
 Little Russians 
 
 82-3 
 
 Javanese 
 
 81-61 
 
 Germans (South) 
 
 83-0 
 
 
 5. Brachycephali. 
 
 
 Indo-Chinese 
 
 83-51 
 
 Burmese 
 
 86- 
 
 Savoyards 
 
 83-63 
 
 Armenians 
 
 86-5 
 
 Croatians 
 
 84-83 
 
 Solutre, one 
 
 88-26 
 
 Bavarians 
 
 84-87 
 
 Peruvians 
 
 93-0 
 
 Lapps 
 
 85-07 
 
 Huxley's Mongol 
 
 98-21 
 
 Some value has also been attached to the vertical index (high 
 and broad), which, when it rises to or exceeds 100, determines 
 the so-called hypsistenocephaly characteristic of the Malicolos and 
 other Melanesians. 
 
VIII.J PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. l8l 
 
 But of all cranial measurements none is more important 
 than that which determines the varying degrees of 
 
 ,,.,., , . . . Gnathism. 
 
 gnathisni, that is, the greater or less projection of 
 the upper jaw, which itself depends on the angle made by the 
 whole face with the brain-cap. The more obtuse the angle, the 
 greater will be the maxillary projection {prognathism); the more 
 vertical the face, the less the projection {prthogjiathisni) \ Hence 
 gnathism, which is best seen in profile, is indicated by the so-called 
 -'facial angle," accepted by all anthropologists as one of the best 
 criteria of race. The evolution, which is intimately associated with 
 the dentition and change from raw to cooked food, has obviously 
 been from the extreme projection of the higher apes and of primi- 
 tive man (see profiles p. 183) to the nearly vertical position of the 
 Mongolic and Caucasic groups. Hence prognathism is naturally 
 regarded as characteristic of the lower, orthognathism of the higher 
 races. " The profile of the face of the Calmack is almost vertical, 
 the facial bones being thrown downwards and under the fore part 
 of the skull. The profile of the face of the Negro, on the other 
 hand, is singularly inclined, the front part of the jaws projecting 
 far forward beyond the level of the fore part of the skull. In the 
 former case the skull is said to be orthognathous, or straight-jawed; 
 in the latter it is called prognathous— a term which has been ren- 
 dered with more force than elegance by the Saxon equivalent — 
 snouty^" 
 
 Combining this feature with eurygnathism^, that is, lateral pro- 
 jection of the cheek-bones, Geofifroy Saint-Hilaire found that the 
 Caucasic face is oval with vertical jaws ; the Mongolic broad 
 (eurygnathous); the Negro prognathous; the Hottentot both pro- 
 and eurygnathous. 
 
 Nevertheless Topinard, who has made a special study of 
 gnathism in all its bearings, distinguishes between a superior and 
 an inferior facial angle, the former (general facial gnathism) being 
 fallacious, the latter, that is, sub-nasal gnathism, being alone trust- 
 worthy. "Anthropologists have been wrong up to the present 
 time in giving so much importance to the projection of the whole 
 
 ^ Gr. opBh-s, straight ; irpb, before ; yuddo^, jaw. 
 2 Huxley, Alan's Place in Nature, p. 146. 
 * Gr. ^\jpv%, wide, broad. 
 
l82 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 Facial Index. 
 
 maxilla, or of the whole face.... There is no uniformity of results 
 in any given series, the most flagrant contradictions 
 being met with between averages in allied races — 
 But sub-nasal, or true prognathism, furnishes of itself the dif- 
 ferential character of the various human types \" Sub-nasal 
 gnathism is determined by the angle formed by a line drawn 
 from the nasal spine (sub-nasal point) to the anterior extremity of 
 the alveolo-condylean plane. This plane, which gives the total 
 projection of the skull, is about parallel with the horizontal line of 
 vision, coinciding with a line drawn from the alveolar point 
 (median point of the alveolar arch) at right angles to a perpen- 
 dicular faUing from the occipital condyles. Topinard gives the 
 subjoined table of results : — 
 
 I 
 
 
 T 
 
 rue or sub-nasal p7'ognathism. 
 
 
 Individual extremes 89° to 5 1 -3° 
 
 Merovingians 
 
 76-54° 
 
 I 
 
 White races 
 
 82° „ 76-5° 
 
 Finns and Esthonians 
 
 75'53° 
 
 
 Yellow „ 
 
 76° „ 68-5° 
 
 Tasmanians 
 
 75-28^ 
 
 i 
 
 .Black „ 
 
 69° . 59-5° 
 
 Tahitians 
 
 75-° 
 
 Guanches 
 
 81-34° 
 
 Chinese 
 
 72-° 
 
 Corsicans 
 
 81-28° 
 
 Eskimo 
 
 71-46° 
 
 Gauls 
 
 80-87° 
 
 Malays 
 
 69-49° 
 
 Dead Man's Cave 
 
 79-77° 
 
 New Caledonians 
 
 69-87° 
 
 Parisians 
 
 78-13" 
 
 Australians 
 
 68-24° 
 
 Toulousians 
 
 78-5° 
 
 W. African Negroes 
 
 66-91° 
 
 Auvergnats 
 
 77-18° 
 
 Namaquas and Bush- 
 
 
 
 
 
 men 
 
 59-58° 
 
 From this table it appears that the facial is never a right angle, 
 so that absolute orthognathism does not exist. All races are more 
 or less prognathous, the European least, the Negro most, the 
 Mongol and Polynesian intermediate. In Europe the most ortho- 
 gnathous appear to have been the Gauls, Corsicans and Neolithic 
 men, the Finns the least. The high position of the Tasmanians in 
 the series is remarkable and puzzling, one of those disturbing 
 elements that render all classifications so hazardous. Otherwise 
 
 ^ Anthropology, Part II. ch. iii. 
 
VIII. 
 
 PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 
 
 83 
 
 ORTHOGNATHOUS SKULL OF KALMUC. 
 After von Bauer. 
 
 PROGNATHOUS SKULL OF NEGRO. 
 
1 84 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 the difference between Caucasian and Mongol is very marked, 
 while from the latter to the Negro the transition is gradual. "The 
 Negroes of the east coast of Africa are less prognathous than those 
 of the west ; the Negroes of Oceania less than those of Africa ; the 
 purest Hottentots reach the highest maximum of the whole human 
 race" {ib. p. 282). 
 
 The above-mentioned correlation of the teeth with gnathism 
 
 gives to this character a racial value scarcely if at 
 
 The Den- jj inferior to that of the facial angle itself. Of the 
 
 tition. ° 
 
 facts already determined the subjoined are amongst 
 the most important. 
 
 Sir W. Flower shows that the molars are larger in the lower 
 races, where they may occupy on the alveolar arch the same com- 
 pass as in the chimpanzee. That this relation has persisted from 
 the remotest times is evident from the fact that in the man of Spy 
 (p. 146) "the molars increase in size posteriorly to the same extent 
 that they do in the apes, which is the reverse of what is usual in 
 man, where they diminish posteriorly, or in a few lower races 
 (Austrahans &c.), remain equal\" In this palaeolithic race the 
 premolars approximate "the relative dimensions seen in the 
 chimpanzee," while the third molar even exceeds that of the 
 chimpanzee, "reminding one of some of the gibbons " {ib. p. 333). 
 Thus may perhaps be explained the curious fact that, as noted by 
 Dr Houze, "the third molar is often as large as the others in the 
 lower races V' whereas in Europeans the last molar is disappearing 
 through disuse, so that the jaws contract and prognathism dimin- 
 ishes, as already shown by Darwin and Mantegazza. To this 
 contraction, however, is due the marked irregularity of the dentition 
 in civiUsed man, the teeth getting crowded together for want of 
 space in the shrunken jaws. In savage tribes this defect scarcely 
 occurs, but on the contrary supplementary teeth appear, as amongst 
 the New Caledonians, where Bertillon and Fontan have noticed a 
 fourth molar. " Cette anomalie est en rapport avec le caractere 
 inferieur du prognathisme et I'ampleur de la machoire^." 
 
 ^ E. D. Cope, The Genealogy of Man, in The American Naturalist, April 
 
 1893' P- 332- 
 
 2 Bui. d. I. Soc. d'Anthrop. de Bruxelles, 1894, p. 136. 
 
 2 Houze, ib. p. 137. In the same place Bourgade is referred to as stating 
 
VIII.] PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 1 85 
 
 On the other hand wear and tear depends mainly on the 
 quality of the food, hence varies with the social conditions, being 
 greater amongst the lower (coarse eaters), than amongst the cul- 
 tured classes. Consequently, however paradoxical it may sound, 
 the intelligence would appear to be in inverse ratio to dental wear ; 
 " plus celle-ci [usure] est considerable, plus celle-la [I'intelligence] 
 est rudimentaire " (ib.). In a word it must be obvious that use 
 and disuse necessarily play a vast part in the character of the 
 masticatory apparatus, which is otherwise so persistent, and con- 
 sequently such a valuable test of race. Every morsel of food taken 
 into the mouth at once brings the teeth and jaws into play; hence 
 these organs, remaining for ages unchanged in unchanged sur- 
 roundings, may be modified with relative rapidity by change of diet 
 through altered habits of life. 
 
 Few physical characters yield more uniform results than does 
 the nose, which is normally thin, prominent, long, 
 straight or else convex (arched or hooked) in the 
 higher races, in the lower short, broad, more or less concave and 
 even flat. A careful study of this organ shows almost better than 
 any other the coordination of parts in the facial features gene- 
 rally. Thus the small flat concave is usually correlated with high 
 cheek-bones and narrow oblique eyes (Mongol); the short with 
 wide nostrils and depressed root, with everted Hps and bombed 
 frontal bone (Negro); the short with blunt rounded base and 
 depressed root, with heavy superciliary ridges and long upper Hp 
 (primitive Australian and Tasmanian) ; the large, straight or arched, 
 with regular oval features (Semite and European). Hence the nasal 
 index, which expresses the relation of the maximum breadth of the 
 anterior orifice to the maximum length from the nasal spine to the 
 naso-frontal suture, is regarded by Broca as one of the best tests 
 of ethnical differences. Note that the nasal spine, or sub-nasal 
 point, Hes at the base of the outer or lower extremity of the carti- 
 
 that amongst the New Caledonians the canines *'tres souvent depassent en 
 longueur le niveau des autres dents." It is further pointed out that the jaws of 
 the pariah dogs in Constantinople are wolfish, while the tenderly nurtured 
 King Charles has lost the typical dentition of the species. " Au lieu d'avoir 
 six molaires et premolaires au maxillaire superieur ils n'ont plus que trois ou 
 quatre, et les cuspides sont pour ainsi dire nulles " (F. L. de Pauw, ib. p. 140). 
 
1 86 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 Nasal Index. 
 
 laginous septum separating the nostrils ; also that the centre 
 naso-frontal suture (where the nasal joins the frontal bone), 
 the root of the nose midway between the orbits (sockets 
 eyes). Taking the length as loo, the relation 
 absolutely from 72*22 in a Bushman to '35 7 
 Russian, and between these extremes are distinguished 
 groups, as under : 
 
 1. F/atyrrhinian^^ with wide nasal skeleton (all 
 
 Negroid races; most Mongols) . 
 
 2. Mesorrhinian\ intermediate (all Americans except 
 
 Eskimo) . 
 
 3. Lepforr/iim'a7i\ elongated (Caucasic races; Es- 
 
 kimo) ........ 
 
 A few examples in ascending order will suffice : 
 
 of the 
 lies at 
 of the 
 varies 
 I in a 
 three 
 
 58-53 
 52-48 
 47-42 
 
 Hottentots 
 
 56-38 
 
 Peruvians 
 
 50-23 
 
 Tasmanians 
 
 56-92 
 
 Polynesians 
 
 49-25 
 
 Nubian Negroes 
 
 55-17 
 
 Mongols 
 
 48-68 
 
 W. African Negroes 
 
 5474 
 
 Chinese 
 
 48-53 
 
 New Caledonians 
 
 53-66 
 
 Parisians 
 
 46-81 
 
 Australians 
 
 53'39 
 
 Basques (French) 
 
 46-80 
 
 Javanese 
 
 51*47 
 
 Basques (Spanish) 
 
 44-71 
 
 Lapps 
 
 50-29 
 
 Eskimo 
 
 42-33 
 
 In the eye both colour and shape have to be considered. 
 The colour of iris and sclerotic is of less value in 
 shap"o?the the higher than in the lower races, where it is more 
 ^y^- uniform, more persistent and more generally cor- 
 
 related to the complexion. Thus the European iris is of every 
 shade from black to brown, hazel, and light blue, although even 
 here dark is normal in the Melanochroid division, light in the 
 Xanthochroid ; sclerotic in both whitish. But in the Negroid 
 and Mongoloid groups the iris is generally almost black, or deep 
 
 1 Gr. TrXari^s, broad, flat; [xiaos, middle, median; XeTrros, slender, thin; 
 pts (Gen. pi.vb$), nose ; terms introduced by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire to classify 
 the monkey tribe, and later applied to the HominidK. 
 
VIII.] PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 1 87 
 
 brown, the outer being always darker than the inner circle; sclerotic 
 of the Negro yellowish. The shape has no great racial value, 
 except in the Mongol division, where it is characteristically slant, 
 with outer angle turned upwards, and the inner often covered 
 by a fold of loose integument. This occurs even amongst some 
 Eskimo, covering the caruncula lachrymalis^ and "forming, as it 
 were, a third eyelid in the form of a crescent \" The Semitic 
 eye is also somewhat almond — shaped, or at least more oval than 
 the European ; but the character is not constant. 
 
 Sometimes the face as a whole is mentioned as of distinctive 
 value ', but this is rather the result of diversely com- 
 bined elements than an additional factor. According '^^^ general 
 
 o expression. 
 
 to the form and disposition of the orbits, forehead, 
 nose, cheek-bones, jaws, lips, &c., the features assume a general 
 expression, a racial physiognomy, which is sufficiently constant, 
 though liable to be affected by dress and ornament. The average 
 observer notices, not so much particular points, as this general 
 expression of the countenance, which was often correctly repro- 
 duced by the Egyptian, Babylonian, and Assyrian artists. Thus 
 have been transmitted from early historic times several racial types 
 — Akkad, Semite, Hittite, Hamite, Negro. There are broadly dis- 
 tinguished four characteristic faces : — 
 
 Simian, due to extreme prognathism, seen best in profile : 
 Negro ; Negrito. 
 
 Broad ajid flat, due to lateral projection of cheek-bones and 
 small nose, seen best in front ; Mongol. 
 
 Hatchet-shaped, due to lateral projection of the maxillaries ; 
 Prairie Indian. 
 
 Regular, determined by orthognathism, oval contour, large 
 nose, small mouth, straight eyes ; Caucasic races. 
 
 Stature, Hke the eye, is more uniform amongst the lower than 
 amongst the higher races, where it is largely affected 
 
 , . ,...,,. Stature. 
 
 by pursuits, town or country life, agricultural or m- 
 
 dustrial occupations in mines or factories, and so on. Hence 
 
 there are not only tall and short Americans, such as the Patagonians 
 
 ^ King, Physical Chai'acters of the Esquimaux, in jfour. Ethncl. Soc. 
 Vol. I. 1848. 
 
i88 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 and their Fuegian neighbours, but also tall and short Englishmen, 
 and even tall and short Londoners, as is evident by comparing the 
 East End population with those of "club-land." 
 
 Excluding the abnormal dwarfish and gigantic specimens of 
 the showmen, the height ranges from about 1-40 to I'So metre 
 with a mean of 170, or, say, between 4 feet 7 inches and 6 feet 
 2 inches with a mean of 5 J feet; this for the male adult, from 
 which for the female must be deducted about 8 per cent, in the 
 tall and 5 per cent, in the short races. The sub- 
 joined tables of heights, chiefly from Broca and 
 Topinard, show that all the Negritoes are dwarfish, 
 the true Negroes tall, the Mongols rather below the average, the 
 Americans extremelv variable^: — 
 
 Tables of 
 Heights. 
 
 
 Tall Races: 
 
 [70 upwards. 
 
 
 Patagonians 
 
 1781 
 
 Australians (some) 
 
 1-718 
 
 Brown Polynesians 
 
 1762 
 
 Scandinavians 
 
 1-713 
 
 Iroquois 
 
 1735 
 
 Scotch 
 
 1-710 
 
 W. African Negroes 1724 
 
 English 
 
 1-708 
 
 Kafirs 
 
 1718 
 
 Eskimo (Western) 
 
 1-703 
 
 
 Middle-sized: 
 
 1-70 to 1-65. 
 
 
 Irish 
 
 1-697 
 
 Eskimo (Central) 
 
 1-654 
 
 Danes 
 
 1-685 
 
 Caucasus tribes (some) 
 
 1-650 
 
 Belgians 
 
 1-684 
 
 French 
 
 1-650 
 
 Charuas (S. America) i-68o 
 
 Hindus and Dravidians 
 
 1-645 
 
 Arabs (some) 
 
 1-679 
 
 Jews 
 
 1-637 
 
 Germans (some) 
 
 1-677 
 
 Magyars 
 
 1-631 
 
 New Caledonians 
 
 1-670 
 
 Nicobar Islanders 
 
 1-631 
 
 Fuegians (some) 
 
 1-664 
 
 Chinese 
 
 1-630 
 
 Kirghiz 
 
 1-663 
 
 Araucanians & Botocudos 
 
 1-620 
 
 Russians 
 
 1-660 
 
 Sicilians 
 
 1-618 
 
 Rumanians 
 
 1-657 
 
 Finns 
 
 1-617 
 
 Berbers 
 
 1-655 
 
 Indo-Chinese 
 
 1-615 
 
 ^ The figures are in metre with 3 decimals as allowing greater accuracy than 
 vulgar fractions, to which they may be roughly reduced by making i metre 
 = 39-^ in. and -05 = 2 in. Thus, Wissmann's Batwa: 
 
 1-40 = 39^+16 = 55^ = 4 feet 7^ in. 
 
VIII.] PHYSICAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 1 89 
 
 
 Short: \- do and wider. 
 
 
 Peruvians 
 
 I -600 
 
 Melanesians (some) 
 
 1-536 
 
 Malays 
 
 1-596 
 
 Veddahs 
 
 1-535 
 
 Australians (Sydney) 
 
 1*577 
 
 Negritoes 
 
 1-478 
 
 Orissa tribes 
 
 1-569 
 
 Bushmen 
 
 1-404 
 
 Kurumba (Nilghiri) 
 
 1-539 
 
 Batwa ( Wissmann's ^) 
 
 1-400 
 
 Lapps 
 
 1*536 
 
 Wambutti (Stanley's ') 
 
 1-360 
 
 
 
 Akka (Emin's^) 
 
 1-250 
 
 In general the stature, as applied to all the Hominidae, would 
 appear to be a question of averages, almost more than any other 
 important physical character. The absolute range, however, as 
 here seen, is limited to about two feet (Patagonians — Wambutti). 
 
 In recent years anthropologists have made systematic studies of 
 several other anatomical points, such as size of the 
 pelvic basin, relative length of the extremities, span ca?factors^^^'' 
 of the outstretched arms, finger markings (Galton). 
 Some of these have doubtless some racial value, and when applied 
 to a sufficiently large number of subjects from various peoples may 
 be expected to yield good results. But most of the points vary 
 too much to be of any service in determining human varieties, 
 though useful in identifying individuals^; hence their increasing 
 interest in connection with the new science of " Criminal Anthro- 
 pology," cultivated especially in Italy and France. 
 
 1 My Second yoiirney through Eijuatorial Africa, 1891, p. 165. 
 
 - In Darkest Africa, 1890, II. p. 150. At p. 92 Stanley states generally 
 that the Wambutti "vary in height from three feet to four feet six inches"; 
 but the above is the shortest measured by him. Three feet, or a little over, 
 have also been spoken of by other travellers; but no trustworthy measurements 
 of adults seem to fall much below about 4 feet. 
 
 3 " The measurement of their height I have taken from Emin Pasha's 
 anthropological notes; he has measured a good number of them, mostly women ; 
 but men or women have never exceeded 4 feet i inch in height " (A. J. 
 Mounteney-Jephson, Eviin Pasha and the Rebellion at the Equator, 1890, 
 P- 372). 
 
 "* " The other parts of the skeleton also have differences more or less pro- 
 found in the different ethnic groups — the stature, the length of the extremities 
 both absolutely and relatively to the stature and to the trunk, the thoracic 
 form, and so on. But such differences are but slightly characteristic in com- 
 parison to those presented by the brain-case and the face " (Sergi, Le Varicta 
 Uniane, quoted in Nature, April 18, 1895, p. 595. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 VARIETAL DIVERSITY OF MAN : MENTAL CRITERIA 
 OF RACE. 
 
 Cranial Capacity — Size of brain and Mental Capacity correlated in the animal 
 series— and partly in man — Comparative Tables of Cranial Capacity — 
 Language the chief mental criterion— Relation of speech to Anthropology 
 — Phonesis a physical function which cannot be neglected by the anthro- 
 pologist — Value of language to the ethnologist — Evolution of speech 
 from the inorganic to the organic state — The faculty originated most pro- 
 bably in a single centre — Reply to the linguistic polygenists — Speech of 
 relatively recent growth — Hence at first unstable and subject to great 
 fluctuations — Hence also linguistic divergence more rapid than physical 
 types, forming species and genera which cannot mix — Hence no mixed 
 languages — Consequent value of speech as a racial test— Linguistic more 
 easily distinguished than physical groups — Table of mixed peoples speak- 
 ing unmixed languages — Table of peoples whose speech has shifted with- 
 out mixing — Table of peoples whose physical type has changed, their 
 speech persisting— Hence speech and race not convertible terms — But speech 
 often a great aid in determining ethnical elements — The morphological 
 orders of speech — Old views of linguistic growth — The "Root" theory — 
 Monosyllabism not the first but the last stage of growth — The sentence 
 the starting-point — The monosyllabic languages originally polysyllabic — 
 Chinese the result of phonetic decay — The Aryan root theory exploded — 
 Root and Atom; Sentence and Molecule — Agglutination — Its nature and 
 test — The morphological orders not fixed species — but transitional phases 
 of growth — Inflection reverts to Agglutination — Agglutination passes into 
 Inflection and Polysynthesis — Polysynthesis not a primitive but a late 
 condition of speech — Diff"ers in kind from Agglutination — Nature of In- 
 flection — Diagram of linguistic evolution— Development of speech not 
 linear but in parallel lines — Synthesis and Polysynthesis tend towards 
 monosyllabic analysis — Change from pre- to post- position in the Aryan 
 group— Change the Universal Law of all living speech — Social state: Fish- 
 ing, Hunting, Agriculture, no test of race — Social Usages poor criteria — 
 Religion — Origin and development of nature and ancestry worship — 
 Anthropomorphism due to the common psychic character of man— Hence 
 common religious ideas no proof of common origin or of contact — Like 
 usages no evidence of common descent. 
 
 As already remarked, the size as distinct from the shape of the 
 
 Cranial skull, gives its volimie or "capacity," which although 
 
 Capacity. ^^ ^^ carefuUy distinguished from the mental capacity 
 
 (p. 42), stands, nevertheless, in close association with the mental 
 
 characters. As the size of the brain-pan is necessarily correlated 
 
 to the volume of its contents, the brain; so on this volume to some 
 
CH. IX.] MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. I9I 
 
 extent depends the quality of the mind, of which the brain is the 
 organ. The lighter and smaller the organ — that is, smaller 
 relatively to the whole organism — the weaker, cceteris paribus^ \\all 
 be its functional power. Hence the cranial capacity, although a 
 physical factor, serves as a connecting link between 
 the physical and mental criteria; and if gradation and Mental 
 can here be shown between different races, we shall Capacity 
 
 ' correlated. 
 
 be able to speak on solid grounds of high and low 
 varieties of the Hominidae. The limitations of each will also be 
 more clearly seen, and the inherent inequality of the various 
 members of the human family made evident against the precon- 
 ceived theories of sentimentalists. On this basis, for instance, it 
 might be fairly argued that man, specifically one on the physical 
 side, may not be so on the mental. In the lower orders of the 
 animal series the gradation in question undoubtedly exists, the 
 ratio between weight of brain and body diminishing rapidly in the 
 ascending order, thus : — 
 
 Fishes i to 5,668. I Birds i to 212. 
 
 Reptiles i to 1,321. I Mammals i to 168. 
 
 Similarly between the highest anthropoid and the lowest human 
 brain there is a tremendous gap, that of the gorilla weighing only 
 20 oz, while that of the most degraded savage weighs 32 oz. in a 
 body scarcely half the weight of the gorilla's. Again, according to 
 Morton the size of the smallest human skull, as measured by its 
 capacity, is 55*3 cubic inches, that of the largest 114, while the 
 difference between the smallest and that of the gorilla is consider- 
 ably more than that between the smallest and largest normal 
 human brains \ Herbert Spencer considers the brain of civiUsed 
 man nearly 30 per cent, larger than that of the savage. 
 
 But, as explained in Chap. HI., mental power depends also 
 on the number of cerebral convolutions, and still more on the 
 quantity of grey cortical substance contained in both hemispheres. 
 Here also the gulf between the lower and higher orders is vast, 
 though relatively sHght between the anthropoids and man. " Be- 
 tween the smooth brain of the wistitis (lowest of the Hapalidae), 
 and the marvellously complicated brain of chimpanzee and orang, 
 
 ^ Charles Bray, Anthropology, p. 23. 
 
192 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 there is a gap, while there are but faint shadows of difference 
 between the latter and that of man. The enormous and complex 
 mass of convolutions in man... is composed of the same funda- 
 mental folds, united by the same connections and separated by the 
 same sulci'." Nevertheless, as already pointed out, considerable 
 differences exist between the human varieties in 
 TabiTJ'or^'''^ respect of the secondary convolutions, which are 
 smaller and more complex in the higher races. But 
 this subject has hitherto been little studied, and 
 ethnology has still tx) depend mainly on comparative tables of 
 cranial capacity (volume), such as those here appended from 
 Topinard and Barnard Davis. 
 
 Cranial 
 Capacity 
 
 Topinard. 
 
 gravwies. 
 English and Scotch 1427 
 
 Germans 
 Austrians 
 French 
 
 African Negroes 
 Annamese 
 Cape Negro 
 
 1382 
 1342 
 1334 
 
 1238 
 
 1233 
 974 
 
 Barnard Davis. 
 
 grammes. 
 
 1425 
 1396 
 
 1357 
 
 English 
 Eskimo 
 Chinese 
 D ah Oman 
 Australian 
 
 1322 
 1197 
 
 Subjoined is Morton's table, re-arranged by de Quatrefages, 
 showing mean capacity in cubic inches : — 
 
 Cherokees 84 
 
 Shoshons 84 
 
 African Negroes 83 
 
 Polynesians '^'^ 
 
 Chinese 82 
 
 Hindus 80 
 Egyptians (Ancient) 8o 
 
 Fellahs 80 
 
 Mexicans • 79 
 
 Peruvians 75 
 
 Australians 75 
 
 Hottentots 75 
 
 [869. See also Topinard's Diagram, 
 
 English 96 
 
 Germans 90 
 
 Anglo-Americans 90 
 
 Arabs 89 
 
 Grseco-Egyptians 88 
 
 Irish 87 
 
 Malays 86 
 
 Persians 84 
 
 Armenians 84 
 
 Circassians 84 
 
 Iroquois 84 
 
 Eenape 84 
 
 1 Broca, Mcmoire siir Us Primates, 
 p. 40. 
 
IX.] MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. I93 
 
 The incongruities of this table have already been noted, 
 and such tables have as a rule but little value, the observations 
 being seldom made on a sufficient number of specimens. 
 
 A better index of the difference between the mental capacity 
 of the various human groups is afforded by the 
 
 /-I n ^ ■ ^ -1 1 • Language 
 
 reasonmg faculty, of which articulate speech is at the chief 
 once the measure and the outward expression. But ^ritedon. 
 this special characteristic of man, in virtue of which 
 he stands entirely apart from and immeasurably above all other 
 creatures, has hitherto had the misfortune of suffering from friend 
 and foe alike ; over-zealous philologists ranking it much too high, 
 anthropologists depreciating it to a corresponding extent. Thus 
 while the latter too often decline to recognise its claim to con- 
 sideration in ethnological studies, many of the former go so far as 
 to assert with Horatio Hale that language is the true Relation 
 basis of anthropology, that by their speech alone of speech to 
 
 r 1 • .-iz 11 1 -c A Anthropology. 
 
 the tribes of men can be scientmcally classihea, 
 their affiliations determined, and their mental quaUties discerned ; 
 hence the logical inference that Unguistic anthropology is "the 
 only Science of Man\" 
 
 But apart from such extravagant assumptions, even the purely 
 anthropological student must recognise the importance of this 
 faculty, when it is pointed out that different phonetic systems 
 imply greater or less differences in the anatomical structure of the 
 vocal organs. 
 
 Owing to such differences Europeans, for instance, find it 
 impossible, after years of residence amongst the phonesis 
 natives, to pronounce the various cHcks of the Bush- a physical 
 
 1 TT- ^ 11- function. 
 
 man, Hottentot and Kafir tongues, the splutterings 
 and other harsh sounds of the ThHnkit, Chimik (not the jargon\ 
 Apache and some other American idioms, the gutturals (c, 6, ^, 
 f-, J) of the Semitic group, and so on. The "absolute impossi- 
 bihty " of imitating certain utterances in some of the New Guinea 
 languages is by Miklukho Maclay rightly attributed to " funda- 
 mental differences in the anatomical structure of the larynx and 
 
 ^ Language as a Test of Mental Capacity, in Transactions of the Royal 
 Society of Canada, i^cji. 
 
 K. 13 
 
194 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 the whole muscular system of the organs of speech in the two 
 races" [European and Papuan]; he adds that "not only the 
 organ of speech but also that of hearing plays an important part, 
 for the same word may be heard in a totally different manner by 
 different individuals'." The new school of phonetics associated 
 with the names of Ellis, Bell, Sweet, Jespersen, Paris and others, 
 is entitled to look for aid on these points from special anthro- 
 pologists, who on this ground alone cannot afford to neglect 
 linguistic studies. They should be able to tell us, why the planta- 
 tion negroes, whose mother tongues have for several generations 
 been English, French, Spanish or Portuguese, still continue to 
 speak these languages barbarously, why the same languages 
 continue to be a '' shibboleth " to the Jews resident for hundreds 
 of years amid the European populations, and why no Ephraimite 
 could frame to pronounce this very word right, whence 
 
 " so many died, 
 Without reprieve adjudg'd to death 
 For want of well pronouncing shibboleth.''' 
 
 Samson Agonistes. 
 
 But if the anthropologist has no time to take heed of these 
 things, he should at least understand that they possess no slight 
 racial value. Phonesis, now recognised as the true basis of all 
 philological studies, "belongs almost exclusively to the physio- 
 logical characters of race ^" 
 
 In any case the evolutionist, who regards articulate speech as 
 a natural phenomenon, will not hesitate to recognise 
 
 Value of Ian- . , , • , t rr^i r i • ir 
 
 guage to the its value m ethnological studies. 1 he faculty itselt, 
 ethnologist. proper to all the Hominid^, and to them only, 
 would alone suffice to separate them as a distinct family from the 
 other anthropoids. As soon as the term alalus drops out of 
 Haeckel's definition of man's precursor, we get the homo primi- 
 genius himself, the origin of the human race being coincident with 
 
 1 Ethnologische Bemerktingen ilber Papiias der Maclay Kiiste, quoted hy 
 J. C. Gallon, Nature, Jan. i, i88o. 
 
 - T. de Lacouperie, Academy, Sept. 4, 1886, p. 156. Prof. H. Schuchardt 
 goes further, and boldly asserts that " there is no more difference between 
 biology and philology than between biology and chemistry " {Literatiirblatt fiir 
 Ger, u. Roj?i. Philologie, 1892); this also on physiological grounds. 
 
IX.] MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. I95 
 
 that of speech. " If it is language that constitutes man, then our 
 first progenitors were not real human beings, and did not become 
 such till language was formed in virtue of the development of the 
 brain and of the organs of speech " (Schleicher). 
 
 For the evolutionist, who necessarily traces man back to a 
 speechless precursor, speech is a function which perfects itself 
 hand in hand with the growth of the organ (p. 41). Hence the 
 faculty starts from a germ, and its history is one of continuous 
 upward evolution from slowly accumulating crude utterances. 
 Such utterances, vague at first in sound and sense, 
 are to be regarded as the imperfect expression of g ^^°Jj^*^°" °^ 
 inward emotion and feelings, of outward things and 
 actions, differing from the accompanying gesture-language only in 
 this, that the one appeals to the sense of vision, the other to that of 
 hearing. Primitive man, always a social being congregating in 
 family groups, expressed his thoughts by speech and gesture, and 
 as speech expanded with the infinite capabilities of the vocal 
 organs, gesture fell more and more into abeyance, now surviving 
 only amongst the lower and some of the more emotional higher 
 races (American aborigines, Neapolitans). 
 
 The first utterances, like those of the higher apes, were doubt- 
 less mere jabberings\ scarcely more distinct and varied than the 
 present language of man's companion, the dog, who, a howler in 
 the wild state, has learnt in domesticity to bark diversely, to 
 yell, yelp, growl, snarl, whine, whimper, moan, or bay-. So with 
 
 ^ Prof. R. L. Garner's recent experiments have not convinced us that 
 "monkeys talk, the power of expression being commensurate with that of 
 thought." This is the error into which Max Mliller and other Hegelians have 
 fallen. Thought (reason) and language are not convertible terms, and it is 
 conceivable that even the homo alalus might have arrived at a considerable 
 degree of culture by the aid of gesture language, ejaculations, an upright 
 position and specialised hands and feet. In any case a varying range of thought 
 cannot be denied to the speechless ape and other dumb creatures. "Man does \ 
 not speak because he thinks. He speaks because the mouth and larynx com- ! 
 municate with the third frontal convolution of the brain. This material con- ! 
 nection is the immediate cause of articulate speech " (Andre Lefevre, Race and 
 Language, 1894, p. 3). 
 
 - "La domestication supprime les inquietudes de la faim, et donne des 
 loisirs au systeme nei-veux. L'ideation augmente, et s'exteriorise par une 
 modification de I'appareil phoneteur" (Houze, loc. cit. p. 135). 
 
 13—2 
 
196 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 our pliocene precursor's cry, which is rightly regarded by Andre 
 Lefevre as "the undoubted embryo of speech \" With the growing 
 needs of society it could not fail to develop by various processes — 
 mimesis, reduplication, repetition, stress, prolongation of vocaHc 
 sound ^ — sufficient raw material for the constitution of the inorganic 
 or first phase of human speech, which may well have been reached 
 in eolithic times. At least the Tasmanian, practically at the 
 eoHthic stage of culture, spoke a tolerably developed language, 
 which had fully passed beyond the inorganic^ to the early organic^ 
 phase. 
 
 That this marvellous evolution occurred more than once in a 
 few independent centres is conceivable, but improbable, and it has 
 been seen in Chap. vii. that the existence of radically distinct stock 
 languages is no argument for a multiple origin of human speech. 
 All the conditions seem best accounted for by the assumption of a 
 single centre of evolution, coincident in time and place with the 
 evolution of man himself. The faculty once acquired would thus 
 have accompanied man in all his migrations over the globe ; it 
 was never lost, and all members of the family, however debased, 
 are found in full possession of this priceless heirloom. Had the 
 faculty risen independently in several centres, this need not, pro- 
 bably would not, have been the case. Some tribes, migrating 
 from the common centre to unfavourable regions, or surrounded 
 by unfavourable conditions of existence, might well have remained 
 
 1 Op.cit. p. 22. 
 
 2 Rival schools have advocated now one now another of these processes. 
 which have thus been brought into ridicule and stigmatised as the "bow-wow," 
 the "pooh-pooh " or other theories. But all have in varying proportions con- 
 tributed towards the formation of language, and some (reduplication) have 
 entered into the very structure of the highest forms of speech. The past tenses 
 of all our English "strong verbs " are due to reduplication. 
 
 3 These terms are here used merely in the sense of coherent, incohej-ent; 
 organised, unorganised, and not as used by A. W. Schlegel and the host of 
 German metaphysical philologists, who, despite Pott's protests, still persist in 
 speaking of language as, not merely figiiratively, but actually an organism, a 
 concrete substance existing, growing, flourishing and decaying independently 
 of the human organism. Articulate speech should rather be likened to the 
 notes emitted by musical instruments of varying degrees of perfection. Heyse 
 (quoted by Sayce) calls language "the music of the soul," though in a sense 
 different from that here implied. 
 
IX.] MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. I97 
 
 speechless, or the faculty might have been arrested at various low- 
 stages of the inorganic phase. But no such speechless or semi- 
 speechless tribes have ever been discovered, so that the universal 
 diffusion of the faculty is itself an argument in favour of its dis- 
 persion from a single centre. Or let us suppose hundreds of 
 speechless groups scattered over the primaeval woodlands. The 
 odds are that some of them will remain in that state, for evolu- 
 tion, even granting the conditio sine qua non^ is not a necessity. 
 Nowhere are the conditions more favourable for wheat-growing 
 than in CaHfornia ; yet not an ear ever ripened in that region till 
 the seed was planted by the discoverers. Moglichkeit, say the 
 Germans, ist nicht Notwendigkeit. 
 
 But it may be argued that the alaloi may have existed, but 
 w^ere either killed off by the speaking tribes, better 
 
 •^ ^ ° ' Reply to the 
 
 equipped for the struggle, or else learned to speak linguistic 
 from them. But if killed off, we are not concerned oiygemsts. 
 with them, any more than with the Homo alalus himself, common 
 precursor of the assumed speechless and speaking tribes. That 
 they could not have learnt to speak is obvious from the fact that 
 the faculty, as explained, is of slow growth, its development going 
 on simultaneously with that of the vocal organs. 
 
 Again it may be urged that languages differ specifically and even 
 generically from one another ; hence must have had independent 
 centres of origin. This point has been referred to in Chap, vii.; 
 but as it is the source of endless misconceptions in ethnology, it 
 will be desirable here to dispose of it once for all. In his assumed 
 speechless precursor man has physically a real starting point. 
 From that precursor he ascends directly, and owing to the per- 
 sistence of physical characters has, relatively speaking, diverged 
 little from that prototype. But with language the case is entirely 
 different. Its starting-point was not, and could not be a fully 
 developed prototype, but only a germ, that is, such 
 
 Spcccn 01 
 
 inarticulate utterances as may have been inherited relatively 
 from the precursor. Physically man goes back ^^^^"^ ^'■°^ 
 through imperceptible transitions to the lower animal series ; 
 linguistically he goes back no farther than the Homo alalus. Hence 
 speech, as compared with physique, is an entirely new feature of 
 relatively recent growth. Now all new features are at first incon- 
 
198 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 stant, pliable, unstable, until permanently fixed. Compare the 
 tendency of new varieties of the pigeon or geranium to sport and 
 revert. Renan well remarks that '' linguistic families apparently 
 isolated could have had fruitful contacts at times when they were 
 still capable of being re-cast. In speaking of languages, we can- 
 not too carefully distinguish the embryonic state, during which 
 accidents harmless in riper age may have had vital consequences, 
 from the perfect state, when they are fixed, as it were, in a definite 
 mould \" 
 
 It was during this " embryonic state," which is here called the 
 inorganic phase^ that, as the stuttering groups spread 
 u^trbfe^^ ^'^^^ abroad from a common centre, their speech, such 
 as it was, rapidly diverged, and broke readily into 
 numerous varieties. Then these varieties, following each its 
 inward bent, gradually acquired greater consistency and firmness. 
 They grew from varieties into species and genera, while the speakers 
 have continued to remain mere physical varieties to the present 
 time. Hence it is that within the same physical group, the Caucasic, 
 for instance, we find several linguistic groups differing generically 
 (Aryan, Semitic, Georgian, Chechenz, Basque &c.). This pheno- 
 menon, which has been the cause of such wonder and of so many 
 delusions, thus appears simple enough, and indeed inevitable, 
 when we but reflect that, cceteris paribus, linguistic change far more 
 rapidly than physical types. But these changes have been in 
 progress since pleistocene times, when the groups of speaking 
 Hominidse were already spread over the face of the globe. Con- 
 sequently the divergence is now too great to trace the linguistic 
 groups back to their primordial inorganic condition. A primordial 
 organic condition could never have existed for all the Hominidse, 
 who carried with them from the centre of dispersion nothing but 
 a common stock of incoherent utterances. It follows that a 
 common language of organic type is a chimaera which will always 
 elude the grasp of linguistic monogenists. 
 
 Hence also another curious result, of paramount importance in 
 the study of linguistic and ethnical groups. The human groups, 
 being mere varieties, all amalgamate with each other; but the 
 
 ^ n Origine des langues, p. 212. 
 
IX.] MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. I99 
 
 linguistic groups, forming species and genera, never amalgamate, 
 but on the contrary are mutually repellent. There is no such 
 phenomenon as linguistic miscegenation, no change of inner 
 structure by any amount of contact, but only word-borrowing, and 
 the words so borrowed have all to conform to the genius of the 
 languages into which they are accepted. There are many mixed -^ 
 races; indeed, as seen, all races are mixed; but there are no mixed 
 languages, that is, mixed in the sense here explained. 
 The so-called jargons— Chiniik, Pigeon-English, the la^gurgrs^.'^ 
 " Slavo-Deutsches " and " Slavo-ItaHsches " of Prof. 
 Schuchardt^, and so on, are not mixed languages, but rather mixed 
 vocabularies with little trace of the grammatical forms of the 
 idioms from which the words are brought together and gradually 
 organised on a fresh basis. An attempt has been made by 
 Mr J. C. Clough to prove the existence of mixed languages in 
 a "prize essay" which rather proves their non-existence. The 
 writer relies mainly on sound and vocabulary, which are not in 
 dispute, while his references to grammar are highly uncritical^ 
 Enghsh, if any, might be called a mixed language ; but its grammar 
 is purely Teutonic, and while it has embodied thousands of Latin 
 and French words, it has not embodied a single Latin or French 
 grammatical form. So with Hindustani, Persian, Turkish, and all 
 the other so-called " mixed languages," none of which are mixed 
 in their inner mechanism. " Never has the grammatical structure 
 of a language accommodated itself to a new one, but rather the 
 whole language has disappeared, and has been supplanted by the 
 new one; for such a change in the structure of a language would 
 presuppose a transformation of ideas and the mode of con- 
 necting the elements of thought, which we deem next to im- 
 possible V 
 
 1 Gratz, 1885. 
 
 2 The Existence of Mixed Lan^iages, &c., 1876. The uncritical character 
 of this essay appears from such statements as that at p. 7, where the Romance 
 tongues are stated to have been " once nothing more than jargons of various 
 Gothic and Latin dialects"; that English Grammar "has become Romance in 
 spirit " (p. 95) ; and that the transposed Hindustani ioww juti tnard ki for mard 
 kijuti\% "according to the Persian order" (p. 18). 
 
 ^ Waitz, op. cit. p. 248. 
 
test. 
 
 200 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 From this " kakogenesis " of speech, taken in connection with 
 the "eugenesis" of races, there follow some im- 
 vaiu"ofspeech portant inferences. Arguing from the universal 
 a Racial niiscegenation in Hungary, Schwiker concludes that 
 "speech remains the most conspicuous distinctive 
 indication of European affinities \" De Quatrefages points out 
 that " had it not been for their special language no one would 
 have hesitated to consider the Basques as belonging to the same 
 family as other southern Europeans-." Sayce also observes that 
 " the physiological races of the modern world are far more mixed 
 than the languages they speak ; the physiologist has much more 
 difficulty in distinguishing his races than has the glottologist in dis- 
 tinguishing his families of speech^" Thus we have in Europe 
 mixed Keltiberian peoples, but no mixed Keltiberian languages ; 
 Finno-Slavs, Slavo-Teutons, Kelto-Teutons, but no Finno-Slav, 
 Slavo-Teutonic or Kelto-Teutonic tongues. The inferior, and 
 sometimes even the superior races, have in all cases abandoned 
 their mother tongue, while adopting, without seriously modifying, 
 that of the conquerors or conquered, as the case may be. Within 
 ^two generations the victorious Northmen of the Seine valley forgot 
 their Norse speech and adopted the Romance of their Gallic sub- 
 jects. These Gauls themselves had, on the other hand, previously 
 ; changed their old Keltic speech for the Latin of their Roman 
 '^ masters. In this region of Northern France there have thus arisen 
 racial complexities of all sorts, but never any permanent linguistic 
 confusion, one language simply displacing another without pro- 
 ducing any hybrid forms of speech, which, if they exist at all, are 
 certainly the rarest of philological phenomena. The Basques of 
 Navarra are at present slowly giving up their old Escuara tongue 
 for Spanish, but they do not blend the two into some new Hispano- 
 Basque variety. So with the Pruczi, or " Old Prussians " of 
 Lithuanian speech, the nearly extinct Wendish Polabs, the Ugric 
 Bulgarians, many Permian Finns, Kelts of Cumberland, Cornwall, 
 and Ireland, all or most of whom have been assimilated in speech 
 to the surrounding Slav and Teutonic populations. The same 
 
 ^ Statistik des Konigreichs Ungarn, Stuttgart, 1877, p. 148. 
 - 77ie Htiman Species, 1879, p. 434. 
 '' ScieJtce of Language, I. p. 366. 
 
IX.] 
 
 MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 
 
 201 
 
 process is at present going on amongst the Finnish Vepses of Lakes 
 Onega and Ladoga, who are becoming rapidly Russified in speech 
 while retaining their distinctive physical features ^" 
 
 This important subject may be further illustrated by 
 
 Table of 
 mixed peoples 
 
 the subjoined table of some of the chief European 
 
 speaking un- 
 
 peoples, showing that all belong ethnically to mixed 
 
 mixed lan- 
 guages. 
 
 groups, but linguistically 
 
 to unmixed famiHes : — 
 
 Lhiguistic 
 
 Peoples. 
 
 Ethnical Group. 
 
 Family. 
 
 English; Scotch 
 
 Kelto-Teutonic 
 
 Teutonic 
 
 Cornish 
 
 Siluro-Kelto-Teutonic 
 
 Teutonic 
 
 Welsh 
 
 )j 11 11 
 
 Keltic 
 
 Irish (West) 
 
 11 11 11 
 
 Keltic 
 
 French 
 
 Ibero-Kelto-Teutonic 
 
 Italic 
 
 Spaniards 
 
 Ibero-Keltic 
 
 Italic 
 
 Germans 
 
 Slavo-Kelto-Teutonic 
 
 Teutonic 
 
 Bohemians 
 
 Kelto-Teuto-Slavonic 
 
 Slavonic 
 
 Russians (many) 
 
 Finno-Slavonic 
 
 Slavonic 
 
 Bulgarians 
 
 Ugro-Slavonic 
 
 Slavonic 
 
 Hungarians (Magyars) 
 
 Ugro-Teuto-Slavonic 
 
 Finnic 
 
 Prussians (East) 
 
 Letto-Teuto-Slavonic 
 
 Teutonic 
 
 Rumanians 
 
 Italo-Slavo-Illyric 
 
 Italic 
 
 Italians 
 
 Liguro-Kelto-Italic 
 
 Italic. 
 
 Here we have no compound terms, i.e. mixed elements, in the 
 linguistic column, while in the ethnical all the terms are compound. 
 Moreover, there is no doubt at all as to the linguistic terms, whereas 
 the ethnical are largely conjectural, or merely symbols (Silurian, 
 for instance) of unknown elements. It is this consideration that 
 to some extent justifies the remark of Waitz that " for the classifi- 
 cation of mankind philological research has given much more 
 certain and harmonious results than the physical study of man^" 
 But a little reflection will show that too blind a trust in philology 
 may lead to as erroneous results as too bhnd a trust in craniology 
 
 1 " Les Vepses disparaissent en prenant la langue i-usse, mais ils se con- 
 servent fort bien au point de vue anthropologique " (Ch. de Ujfalvy, Btd. d. I. 
 Soc. de Geogr. Paris, 1877, P- S'^o)- 
 
 - Anthropologic der Naticrvolker, part I. sect. 5. 
 
202 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 or in other physical characters. A language, for instance, may in 
 the struggle for existence get killed oft', although the people 
 speaking it may escape the same fate. Countless 
 instances may have occurred in past ages, many 
 have occurred within the historic period, of such 
 hnguistic shiftings. Subjoined are a few instances 
 of communities which are known to have changed 
 their languages in comparatively recent times : — 
 
 Table of 
 peoples whose 
 speech has 
 shifted with- 
 out mixing. 
 
 People. 
 
 Cornish 
 
 Irish (many) 
 
 East Prussians 
 [/ Bulgarians 
 , Bashkirs 
 
 Gauls 
 
 Normans 
 
 Etruscans 
 \^ Hazaras; Aimaks 
 
 Polabs (most) 
 
 Burgundians, ] 
 
 Franks, Lombards] 
 ^. Permian s (many) 
 
 Basques of Vitoria 
 
 Bretons (many) 
 
 Talaings (many) 
 
 Ahoms 
 
 Samangs (many) 
 
 Griquas (many) 
 
 Negroes of America 
 Negroes of Madagascar 
 
 Original Speech. 
 Keltic 
 Keltic 
 Lithuanian 
 Ugrian 
 Finnic 
 Keltic 
 Teutonic 
 Non-Italic (?) 
 Mongolic 
 Slavonic 
 
 Teutonic 
 
 Finnic 
 
 Iberic 
 
 Keltic 
 
 Mon 
 
 Shan 
 
 Negrito 
 
 Hottentot 
 
 Bantu \ 
 
 YorubaJ 
 
 Bantu 
 
 &c. 
 
 Present Speech. 
 Teutonic 
 Teutonic 
 Teutonic 
 Slavonic 
 Turki 
 Itahc 
 Italic 
 Italic 
 Persian 
 Teutonic 
 
 Italic 
 
 Slavonic 
 
 ItaHc 
 
 Italic 
 
 Burmese 
 
 Assamese 
 
 Malay 
 
 Dutch 
 jTeutonic 
 tltahc 
 
 Malagasy. 
 
 On the other hand cases may arise of the reverse process, that 
 is, of peoples gradually changing their physical type, while retain- 
 ing their original speech. Such instances would not affect the 
 truth of the general statement that physique is more persistent 
 than language, because the change would be mainly due to mis- 
 cegenation, a most potent factor in modifying physical, but, as 
 
IX.] 
 
 MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 
 
 203 
 
 seen, powerless to modify linguistic types. The change in 
 question would be likely to occur when conquering or intruding 
 races find themselves strong enough to maintain 
 their political and social supremacy, but numerically 
 too weak to prevent fusion and assimilation with 
 the subject peoples. Subjoined are some of the 
 most conspicuous instances, for which there is either 
 linguistic or direct historical evidence : — 
 
 Table of 
 peoples whose 
 physical type 
 has changed, 
 their speech 
 persisting. 
 
 Race. 
 
 Original Type. 
 
 Western Turks Mongolic 
 
 Magyars Mongolic 
 
 "^Finns (many) Mongolic 
 
 Basques Non-Aryan 
 
 Berbers (many) Hamitic 
 Abyssinians (some) Semitic 
 
 Tibus (some) Hamitic 
 Germans of] 
 Caucasus J 
 
 Teutonic 
 
 Present Type. 
 
 Caucasic 
 
 Caucasic 
 
 Caucasic 
 
 Aryan 
 
 Semitic 
 
 Negroid 
 
 Negroid 
 
 Georgian 
 
 Speech 
 {imchafiged). 
 Mongolic 
 Mongolic 
 Mongolic 
 N on- Aryan 
 Hamitic 
 Semitic 
 Hamitic (?) 
 
 Teutonic. 
 
 V 
 \/ 
 
 The last instance is most remarkable, and well deserves the 
 consideration of those anthropologists who attach but little im- 
 portance to the influence of the environment, and still less to 
 the value of speech as an aid to the ethnologist. The Germans 
 in question, a few hundred Wurtembergers, who settled (18 16) at 
 Yehsavethpol near Tiflis, had originally fair or red hair, light or 
 blue eyes and broad coarse features. In the first generation brown 
 hair and black eyes began to appear, in the second black eyes and 
 hair became the rule, while the face acquired a noble oval form, 
 and these changes were due entirely to the surroundings, no 
 instance of crossings with Georgian natives being on record. At 
 the same time these transformed Wurtemburgers continue to speak 
 their German mother-tongue uninfluenced by the local dialects \ 
 
 ^ II parait que dans I'espace de deux generations les colons suabes ont 
 change physiquement d'une maniere remarquable sous I'influence du milieu. 
 Quoiqu'il n'y ait point eu de croisement entre eux et leurs voisins, la plupart 
 ont maintenant la chevelure foncee, les yeux noirs, la figure ovale et reguliere, 
 la taille elegante et souple. lis ne ressemblent plus a leurs cousins testes dans 
 la mere-patrie" (Reclus, vi. p. 225). 
 
204 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 From these tables, establishing an apparent antagonism 
 
 between speech and race, it follows that, as Prof. 
 
 speech Ld Sayce rightly remarks, "philology and ethnology 
 
 race not con- ^^^ ^^^ Convertible terms \" But this writer goes 
 
 vertible terms. '-' 
 
 too far, much too far, when he adds that " identity 
 or relationship of language can prove nothing more than social 
 contact... Language is an aid to the historian, not to the ethno- 
 logist. ...Language in short was not created until the several 
 types of race had been fully fixed and determined. The 
 xanthochroid and the melanochroid, the white albino and the 
 American copperskin existed with their features already fixed and 
 enduring before the first community evolved the infantile language 
 of mankind " (//^.). Prof. Max Miiller cannot approve of this 
 view, because it summarily disposes of his contention that speech 
 and reason are one. It is not to be supposed that groups of 
 speechless Hominidae could become highly specialised as Homo 
 Caiicasiais ("xanthochroid and x^^izxiO^ioiA'')^ Homo A77iericanus 
 &c., without a liberal endowment of reason^, which would thus 
 have existed for ages without the faculty of speech. 
 
 But the view must be rejected on other grounds, and the last 
 
 highly gratuitous assertion has in fact already been disposed of 
 
 (pp. 196-7). The statement that language proves 
 
 But speech social contact only and is no aid to the ethnologist, 
 
 often a great -^ . o ' 
 
 aid in deter- implies a fundamental misconception of the correla- 
 caurem^entT.' tion of spcech to race. Cases may and do arise, 
 where language will infallibly prove the presence 
 of distinct ethnical elements, which, but for it, would never 
 have even been suspected, much less determined. In Europe a 
 case in point are the Basques, shown by their speech to be at 
 least partly descended from a pre-Aryan or a non-Aryan race, 
 which has elsewhere apparently disappeared, but which has far 
 more probably become amalgamated with the intruding Aryan 
 peoples. Thus from the Basque language we learn to be cautious 
 
 ^ Science of Language, li. p. 317. 
 
 - It would need, for instance, a considerable degree of intelligence for the 
 speechless successors of Homo neanderthalensis (still of somewhat Simian type) 
 to build the neolithic monuments of Mauritania, Brittany and Britain, or even 
 to fashion the delicate palceoliths of the Solutrian period. Ethnological specu- 
 lation cannot be safely indulged in from the subjective standpoint. 
 
IX.] MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 205 
 
 in speaking of the peoples of West Europe as of "pure Aryan 
 stock." Moreover, if the late G. von der Gabelenz be right, the 
 Basque language, connected by him with the Berber, supplies the 
 clue to the identification of the non- Aryan element, which would 
 thus appear to be African Hamite*. So with the Finns, whose 
 Uralo-Altaic speech reveals the MongoUc ethnical element, which 
 could otherwise be only suspected in their physical constitution ; 
 and so with the Magyars, in whom but for their Finno-Tatar 
 idiom that element would not be suspected at all, so "Aryanised" 
 are they. A Malay element in the Negroid peoples of Mada- 
 gascar is placed beyond doubt by their Malayo-Polynesian 
 dialects. Or are we to suppose that, by crossing from the 
 mainland to the neighbouring island, the Mozambique Bantus 
 forgot their mother-tongue, and began to speak Malay somehow 
 wafted with the trade-winds from Malaysia across the Indian 
 Ocean to Madagascar? Language used with judgment is thus 
 seen to be a great aid to the ethnologist in determining racial 
 affinities, and in solving many anthropological difficulties. 
 
 It would even appear that the great divisions of speech corre- 
 spond, at least to a limited extent, with the great ^^^^ morpho- 
 divisions of mankind. Languages are by most logical orders 
 
 . . , of speech. 
 
 philologists grouped accordmg to their morpho- 
 logical structure in four main classes or orders, which are distri- 
 buted amongst the main branches of the human family as 
 under : — 
 
 Most Negroid peoples. 
 
 agglutinating:^ All Mongols, Tatars, and Finns. 
 Malays and Polynesians. 
 Some Caucasic peoples. 
 
 PoLYSYNTHETic : Most American Aborigines. 
 
 Inflecting : Most Caucasic peoples. 
 
 Isolating : Indo-Chinese and Tibetans. 
 
 Here it will be noticed that the last three answer fairly well to 
 so many distinct sections of mankind, while the first alone com- 
 prises several different groups, the reason being because aggluti- 
 nation itself is not of one kind, as is often supposed, but of many 
 
 ^ Die Verivandtschaft des Baskischen nut dm Berbenprachen Nord-AJrikas 
 nachgcxvicscn, Brunswick, 1894. 
 
206 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 types. All four belong to the organic phase of speech, from which 
 it follows that all known tongues, having in prehistoric times passed 
 through the inorga?iic state, have, so to say, already completed 
 their natural evolution, at least to the same extent that the 
 Hominidoe themselves have completed their natural evolution. It 
 is commonly assumed by philologists that for language this 
 evolution consists of passing successively through the lower to the 
 higher of the above specified morphological states, the isolating 
 and inflecting being taken as respectively the two extremes, in 
 the ascending order, of this assumed linguistic gamut. Opinions 
 vary greatly as to how the complete process is accomplished, and 
 owing to the difiiculties involved in the application of this cut and 
 ^,^ . dry theory, its correctness has in recent years been 
 
 Old views . . 
 
 of linguistic seriously questioned. But most philologists have 
 
 ^^°^ " till recently accepted the views of Grimm and 
 
 Schleicher, according to which the inflecting state was reached 
 
 through the agglutinating from the isolating, this last consisting of 
 
 detached "roots," such as those yielded by the analysis of the 
 
 Aryan tongues. These roots being monosyllables, it was naturally 
 
 inferred that the Indo-Chinese family, consisting also mainly of 
 
 monosyllables, must represent the most primitive condition of 
 
 Monosyiia- human speech. Thus were established two fallacies, 
 
 bism not the one that primaeval speech consisted of a mono- 
 first but the , ^ ^ 
 last stage of syllabic root-language, the other that Indo-Chinese 
 
 ^^°^ ' is still in that primitive state. The first fallacy is 
 
 now exploded, and it is generally understood that monosyllabism 
 
 is not a necessary condition of primitive speech, Sayce amongst 
 
 others holding that, on the contrary, the sentence was the necessary 
 
 starting-point. Rightly understood, this position is impregnable, 
 
 for the object of speech must always have been to communicate 
 
 thought, and the definition of the sentence is, not a number of 
 
 abstractions called roots thrown together anyhow, but a number of 
 
 terms so arranged as to convey a concept, to communicate thought. 
 
 But this may be done by a single ejaculation such as /i/^s/i ! or 
 
 whist ! and the first sentences could not have been much more 
 
 complicated than such utterances, the full meaning being, where 
 
 necessary, eked out with the aid of gesture language, as still in 
 
 Grebo (West Coast of Africa) and some other savage tongues. 
 
IX.] 
 
 MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 
 
 207 
 
 The mono- 
 syllabic lan- 
 guages origi- 
 nally polysyl- 
 labic. 
 
 Edkins was 
 
 "This complex of sound and gesture... was the earliest sentence V' 
 in which the question of monosyllabism does not enter. 
 
 The second fallacy still persists, and most philologists continue 
 to regard the Indo-Chinese languages as in a 
 primitive state of monosyllabism from which they 
 have never emerged. Yet their original polysyl- 
 labic character, already dimly seen by Edkins and 
 de Rosny, has now been placed beyond doubt by 
 the researches of the late Terrien de Lacouperie. 
 able to trace ta, great, back to a fuller form dap; yi, one, to tit; 
 tsie through tsit to tsik^ a. joint, and so on". But de Lacouperie 
 went further, and recovered not merely monosyllabic but trisyllabic 
 forms, such as tadaka^ to doubt, now worn down to /^ This view 
 is accepted by Mr Robert K. Douglas, one of the first living Sino- 
 logists, who writes : " I quite agree with the opinion expressed by 
 the late Dr T. de Lacouperie, that the present monosyllabism of 
 Chinese, instead of being evidence in support of the theory that in 
 their earliest stage all languages were monosyllabic, is another 
 proof of the existence of phonetic decay in this 
 
 Chinese the 
 
 and in other tongues. When we trace back Chinese result of Pho 
 to its earHest recognised form in Akkadian, we see "^^^'^ Decay, 
 unmistakable evidence of tlie same kind of j^honetic decay. Thus 
 Akkadian. 
 Gush-kin 
 Ukush 
 Kur-fi 
 Inim 
 Garshan 
 Billudu 
 Guk-kal 
 Guk-kud 
 Ukkin 
 Dim-menna 
 ^ Sayce, op. cit. I. p. 116. 
 
 - Introduction to the Study of the Chinese Characters, 1876. 
 •^ Note communicated to A. H. Keane, and published in his Asia (Stanford 
 Series), 1882, p. 700. 
 
 ■* MS. note communicated to A. H. Keane, Oct. 29, 1S94. 
 words supplied by the Rev. C. J. Ball. 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kin 
 
 Gold 
 
 Kut, Kwa 
 
 Gourd 
 
 Ki 
 
 A fowl 
 
 Nien, Nim 
 
 To recite 
 
 Shan 
 
 Mountain 
 
 Lut, Lii 
 
 A statute 
 
 Ku 
 
 A sheep 
 
 Kit, Kie 
 
 A wether 
 
 Kien 
 
 All 
 
 Men, Wen 
 
 Inscription ^ 
 
 The Akkadian 
 
208 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 But the same process had already made considerable ravages 
 thousands of years ago in Akkadian itself, in which the monosyllable 
 ge, for instance, has been traced by Mr T. G. Pinches to twelve 
 originally distinct words, such as get, root, gen, seed, gig, night, 
 geme, like, gi-num, fire, gin, shekel, gis, one ^ Similar tendencies 
 are at work in other groups, such as Tibetan, Danish, EngHsh 
 (most monosyllabic of all Aryan tongues), Otomi of Mexico, and 
 especially Yoruba, Tshi, Ewe, and other aUied idioms of Upper 
 Guinea, where, as in Indo-China, the numerous homophones re- 
 presenting originally distinct terms are now distinguished by their 
 different tones. 
 
 Monosyllabism is thus shown to be, not the first but the last 
 stage in the evolution of human speech, and the 
 
 The Aryan ° . r J 
 
 Root Theory numcrous thcorics based by Bopp, Schleicher and 
 ^^^ ° ^ ' others on the assumed original monosyllabic state 
 
 of the " Aryan roots " all fall to the ground. All the facts tend to 
 the conclusion that primitive speech was not monosyllabic or 
 isolated, but on the contrary involved, after it had passed the 
 inorganic phase, and it may be regarded as certain that at no time 
 did man ever speak in "monosyllabic roots." A root is a pure 
 abstraction, the residuum of a term stripped of its formative 
 elements, comparable to the atom of physicists, not exactly a 
 fiction, but an ultimate particle of matter, which eludes the 
 keenest analysis, and which has no independent existence in the 
 cosmos. But as the atom unites with one or more atoms to form 
 the molecule, so the root unites with one or more roots to form the 
 sentence, the unit of speech. The combination, however, is much 
 closer in the physical than in the linguistic order ; hence the che- 
 mical union of parts in the molecule is represented by the much 
 looser agglutinative process, which is thus seen to constitute the 
 first stage in the organic condition of speech. Roots, therefore, 
 whether mono- or polysyllabic, must be relegated with the atom to 
 the ante-cosmos, and agglutination of some form taken as the 
 primary condition, the first morphological state of all organic 
 languages, which either remain in that state, or else pass on to 
 the three other above specified morphological orders. 
 
 ^ Observations on the Early Languages of Alesopotaniia, paper read before 
 the R Asiat. Soc, March 17, 18S6. 
 
IX.] MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 209 
 
 The character of the several orders is determined by the way in 
 which the relational combine with the notional 
 
 rr^, , . , , , 1,1 Agglutination. 
 
 elements. The relational were themselves doubtless 
 originally notional, as it is almost impossible to imagine the 
 deliberate invention, except perhaps later by analogy, of meaning- 
 less particles, such as the Turkish mak^ lar, 7m, 7?ie, or the Aryan 
 /;/, iin, ab, ex, introduced for the purpose of expressing in combi- 
 nation the various relations of the notional words. But these 
 particles were unsuited to enter into true combination until they 
 had gradually ceased to become notional, and until they 
 had at the same time been reduced by phonetic decay to con- 
 venient adaptive forms. When they are merely tacked or glued, 
 as it were, on to the notional words, language enters the aggluti- 
 nating, i.e. the first strictly morphological state, of which there are 
 divers kinds and grades, according to the various ways and 
 degrees of combination. But, in general, the true test of agglu- 
 tination is the power of the particles to become detached and 
 shift their places in the combined form, as when ly in the English 
 word manly makes room for ful in 7nan-ful-ly ; so the Turkish 
 sev-77iek, sev-il-7nek, sev-il-77ie-7?iek, &c. ; and the Assamese 77ia7tuh- 
 bilak-or, of-the-7nen (plural bilak inserted between noun manii/i 
 and its gen. case-ending 07^: A vast number of languages are of 
 this agglutinating order, from which all the others have emerged in 
 diverse directions \ although this evolution of speech has been 
 denied by Sayce and some other reactionists against the old 
 theory of root origin. Thus Sayce speaks of "the magical frontier 
 between flection and agglutination," which can never be "cleared," 
 "since to pass from agglutination to inflexion is to revolutionise 
 the whole system of thought and language and the 
 basis on which it rests, and to break with the past , Themorpho- 
 
 ' _ ^ logical orders, 
 
 psychological history and tendencies of a speech," transitional 
 {ib. I. p. 131). Nevertheless this break with the grow^th.° 
 past has been made, and as Prof. Jespersen shrewdly 
 remarks, *' revolutions do take place in the world of languages, 
 
 ^ " So far as verified facts in linguistic history go, all outward devices of 
 derivation and accidence grew out of agglutination, that is, by adding originally 
 independent [notional] words " (G. v. d. Gabelentz, di^ Sprachwisscnschaft, 
 1891, p. 189). 
 
 K. 14 
 
210 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 even if they take more time than it takes the French to change 
 their constitutions. If a thousand years suffice to change a type 
 of speech like that of King Alfred into the totally different one of 
 Queen Victoria, then the much longer period which palaeontologists 
 and zoologists accord to mankind on this earth could work still 
 greater wonders.... Sayce stands, with regard to these three or four 
 types of speech, in much the same attitude which naturalists kept 
 with regard to the notion of 'species' before Darwin came\" It 
 is argued that the transition from a significative term to a forma- 
 tive element is an unknown, or at least an extremely rare 
 phenomenon, because but few particles in current languages have 
 been traced back to notional words, so that most of them must 
 be accepted as '* meaningless affixes" from the firsts Not so ! This 
 is rather a case in which it may safely be argued from the few to 
 the many, for the process, so far from being a "rare phenomenon," 
 is normal in most languages, though arrested by 
 
 Inflection . , • j -j- rr^, i 
 
 reverts to various causes m cultivated idioms. The above 
 
 Agglutination, ^^^j^^p^^g ^^^^ EngHsh and Assamese show that 
 
 reversions may take place from inflection to agglutination, which 
 in fact is a general tendency amongst the Gaurian (Neo-Sanskritic) 
 tongues of India, and also to a less extent in Italian and other Neo- 
 Latin tongues. Thus Italian incorporates both direct and indirect 
 pronominal object, as in ^(^(w)-//«-/^ = give-to-me-it (sing.); dafe- 
 7;/^-/^ = give-to-me-it (plur.); dando-me-/o ^ giwing-to-me-it (pres. 
 part.). In the same way the whole of the Hindi conjugation 
 except a solitary tense (the so-called "aorist") has become par- 
 ticipial with gender and number but no perso7i^ as in so many 
 
 1 Progress in Language, 1894, p. 132. 
 
 2 According to Ludwig's "adaptation theory," as soon as the relations of 
 words to each other in the sentence got to be understood, " pre-existing suf- 
 fixes," no doubt floating about in circumambient space, were set apart to 
 determine them. Thus the Greeks captured the suffix es, which in TroS-fc-o-i 
 and TToS-^c-coj' (ttoSwj/) has no grammatical meaning, but which came to symbo- 
 lise the nom. pi. in 7r65es and the 2nd pers. singular in ^ruTres, being thus made 
 to do duty for the plural in nouns and the singular in verbs. Thus also we are 
 back in the old days, when speech was regarded as an elaboration of the 
 conscious will, instead of being the result of unconscious cerebration acting 
 through the vocal organs, as it had previously acted through the facial muscles, 
 say, in the miocene precursor. 
 
IX.] MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 211 
 
 agglutinating systems. Similarly vernacular Bengali is now mainly 
 agglutinating, forming nominal cases, number, and gender by 
 juxtaposed nouns, the case-endings themselves being the same for 
 singular and plural, while conjugation is effected by verbal nouns, 
 or participles and auxiliaries. "In a word the whole language 
 tends to become reduced to nouns, joined together to express 
 declension and conjugation \" What is happening so generally 
 during the process of disintegration (synthesis to analysis) must 
 have taken place universally during the process of integration in 
 the pre-inflecting agglutinative stage of linguistic evolution. 
 
 From that stage language developed, according to its different 
 initial tendencies, in various directions towards 
 complete decomposition, as in the above-described ^. Aggiutma- 
 
 ^ ^ _ ^ tion passes 
 
 isolating state of the Indo-Chinese group ; partial into inflection 
 decomposition, as in the particle languages of the xhesis° ^^^" 
 Malayo-Polynesian group; polysynthesis, as in 
 most of the American groups ; and synthesis, as in the inflecting 
 Aryan, Semitic and Hamitic groups. Polysynthesis, regarded by 
 some philologists as a primitive condition of speech, is on the 
 contrary the outcome of great phonetic corruption, syncope and 
 clipping of words and particles, which become so fused together 
 that the sentence often tends to assume the aspect of a single 
 composite term. Its involved character has no doubt been 
 greatly exaggerated by Duponceau^ who introduced the word 
 " polysynthetic," describing it as a process by which the greatest 
 number of ideas are comprised in the least number of words. 
 But the fact remains that in Iroquoian and other 
 languages of this type "the stem of a verb or adjec- thesis differs 
 tive may be combined with the stem of a noun^"; a '''lutinTtTon 
 and thus arises practically unlimited participial con- 
 jugation, which is the essentially distinguishing feature of polysyn- 
 thesis, as compared with all other incorporating systems. Basque, 
 
 ^ Ch. Johnston, Paper read at the Oriental Cojtgress, Sept. 1S91. See also 
 Asiatic Quarterly Review for July 1892. 
 
 2 Memoire sur le systeme grammatical de qtielqties nations indioines de 
 VAmcrique du Nord, 1838, and in other writings. 
 
 ^ J. N. B. Hewitt, Polysynthesis in the Lajigiiages of the American Indians, 
 in The American Anthropologist, Oct. 1893, p. 387. 
 
 14—2 
 
212 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 for instance, the most highly aggUitinating tongue in the Old 
 World, may run the changes through such a form as I-giving-it-to- 
 him, stopping short at the direct and indirect pronominal objects; 
 but Iroquoian introduces the noun as well, and inflects I-giving-it-the- 
 book-to-him ; and as the pronominal elements are few, the nominal 
 innumerable, it is at once seen that agglutination and polysynthesis 
 differ not merely in degree, as is often assumed, but also in kind. 
 Fusion by syncope, however, which is only one aspect of poly- 
 synthesis, is a common phenomenon, as seen in the English 
 ha'porth = half-penny-worth ; the Mexican teo-calle = teotl-calli = 
 God's-House (temple); the Vei (W. Coast of Africa) nkumbafbwuye 
 = n-kumu m-be a fo wu-ye = I-tell-you-this ; the Basque arkume = 
 ardi-hume ^ sheep-little ^ lamb; the Spanish hidalgo = hijo-de-algo = 
 son-of-somebody = noble; the French (as pronounced) kekcexga^ 
 qu'est-ce que c'est que cela, and so on. But what is more or less 
 exceptional elsewhere is normal in polysynthesis, which is thus 
 seen to represent a very advanced state of development, in fact 
 standing in this respect on the same level as inflection. In the 
 Nature of inflecting (synthetic) order, as represented by the 
 Inflection. Aryan group, the so-called " monosyllabic root " 
 
 is assumed to develop a " stem " (Lat. a7n, am-a), with which are 
 fused one, two or more relational particles, so as to form one 
 inseparable compound, such as the Lat. ain-a-b-u-nt-u-r^ where the 
 cohesion is complete, and not loose, as in Turkish (see above). 
 
 Taking the more or less articulate cry as the starting-point, the 
 various morphological orders of speech would thus appear to have 
 been evolved from a primitive inorganic condition, 
 lin^^uSfc"^^ through various types of agglutination, to poly- 
 evoiution. synthesis, inflection and isolation, as in the sub- 
 
 joined diagram : — 
 
 rnjitxtion 
 
 Polysynthesis 
 This genesis of speech explains the reason why the later forms 
 
IX.] MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 21 3 
 
 possess some features common to the earlier stages through which 
 they have passed. They resemble the higher orders in the 
 Animal kingdom, whose embryonic life is an epitome of their past 
 history. But in the Animal kingdom the evolution was not 
 through all the four classes of fishes, reptiles, birds and mammals, 
 but either from fishes through reptiles to birds, or from fishes 
 through reptiles to mammals. So in the linguistic kingdom, the 
 evolution was not through all four morphological orders, in 
 single linear direction, but from the earlier agglutinating phases 
 to inflection, isolation, and polysynthesis in parallel lines as 
 above. Thus linguistic growth must be admitted, not only 
 within each order, which Sayce allows, but also from order 
 to order, which Sayce denies. If the evolution be eternally 
 within each order, and if the transition from one order to another 
 be impossible, then the orders themselves must be conceived as 
 having come into existence independently as we now find them. 
 For the evolutionist this would be like saying that the animal 
 classes came into existence ready made, say, by creative force. 
 The very difficulty which often presents itself of drawing a hard and 
 fast line between the several orders is itself a proof that, servatis 
 servajidis, they may pass by imperceptible transitions one into the 
 other. Thus Finnish and Tamil have developed agglutinating 
 forms which are scarcely to be distinguished from true inflection, 
 while Basque holds a somewhat intermediate position between 
 agglutination, inflection and polysynthesis. It is the " ornitho- 
 rhynchus " of the linguistic family, and to express this anomalous 
 position W. von Humboldt classed it by itself as 
 emverleihend^ "incorporating." Hence these orders and Poiysyn- 
 must be regarded as progressive phases, not as fixed Jo^ards'^'^ 
 linguistic species. And if it be objected that some Monosyllabic 
 
 , , ,,,,.. Analysis. 
 
 languages have never got beyond the agglutinating 
 state, the answer is that some animals have never got beyond the 
 classes of fishes, or reptiles. But as they were subject to perpetual 
 change in the past, so they are never at rest in the present. 
 English amongst the inflecting tongues of the Old World has 
 made vast strides towards monosyllabic isolation, as seen in such 
 an expression as " town talk," where a noun becomes an adjective 
 and a verb a noun without any change of form, but, as in Chinese, 
 
214 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 by position alone. So in the New World polysynthesis is no 
 longer universal, and Otomi amongst other formerly polysynthetic 
 tongues has by constant wear and tear at last simulated the 
 appearance of a monosyllabic isolating language \ although one of 
 its dialects (Mazahua) is still "decidedly polysynthetic-." 
 
 But inflection may also tend towards true polysynthesis, as in 
 
 Sanskrit, where the limits are not always observed 
 
 from^p"rl%o bctwccn the word and the sentence. Thus in 
 
 P°^^-. virtue of the euphonic rules of Sandhi a group of 
 
 positions. ^ . 
 
 words may flow together, developing such a form as 
 trinairgimatwamdpannairbadhyaiite, rivalling in length the formid- 
 able compounds of Cherokee, Mexican and other American 
 incorporating tongues. Hence the inevitable revolt against such 
 monstrosities, which has resulted in the Neo-Sanskritic postfixing 
 vernaculars. Thus the change from the prefixing to the postfixing 
 principle, which some hold to be impossible, has actually taken 
 place during the historic period within the Aryan group itself, just 
 as in prehistoric times prepositions would appear to have been 
 preceded by postpositions. Thus, such forms as me-cum, te-ciun, 
 se-at7?2, rare in Latin, are normal in the sister Umbrian of the 
 Eugubine tables, where we have such constructions as tertiam-a 
 sparitim = tcrtiam-ad libaiionem ; ocre-per Fisiu = colk-p?'o Fisio, 
 showing how the post- may have easily become prefixes and then 
 separable prepositions^; so tiita-per Ikiivina^ civitate-pro Iguvina 
 (Eugubium, Gubbio) ; fratus-per Attiiedies =fratribus-pro Attidiis ; 
 asam-ad = ad aram ; spintam-ad = ad mensam; uvi-kum = cum ove; 
 esunek esiinu anier = inter istud sacrifichim^ &c. Compare also the 
 Latin iLrbem versus with the Hindustani sha/ir-ki-fara/-(mejl) = dty- 
 
 1 "L'Othomi nous a tout I'air d'une langue primitivement incorporante, et 
 qui, pavvenue au dernier degre d'usure et de delabrement, a fini par prendre 
 les allures d'une dialecte a juxtaposition " (Charancey, Melanges de Fhilologie et 
 de Faleographie, 1883, p. 80). 
 
 2 A. S. Gatschet, MS. note communicated to A. H. Keane, Nov. 14, 1894. 
 This great authority is also inclined to remove Kwakiutl, Ata'kapa, Isleta and 
 others of the Tehua group, as well as the Chibcha of S. America, from the 
 polysynthetic order. "The Chibcha is remarkably simple; it approaches 
 monosyllabism, and shows no incorporation" {MS. note, Dec. 4, 18S7). 
 
 3 "Nous croyons que I'usage des postpositions a precede celui des preposi- 
 tions" (Michel Breal, Les Tables Engnbincs, 1875). 
 
IX.] MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 21 5 
 
 of-direction {in), where nouns are transformed to postpositions. 
 When it is remembered that analogous transformations took place 
 in the agglutinating Akkadian of Babylonia, it will ^^^^ ^ ^^^ 
 be seen that inflection must not be rated too highly universal 
 above agglutination, of which it is "merely a child'." if^ng speech. 
 Thus the transition from order to order is established 
 for all periods and for all linguistic groups, and there is no natural 
 division between the historic and prehistoric life of languages, as 
 maintained by the Hegelian school of philology. Change, the 
 universal law, is arrested only by the extinction of species. 
 
 In his progressive development as a social being man passes 
 necessarily from the hunting and fishing to the pastoral 
 
 ^ ^ , , • ? • Social State. 
 
 and agricultural states. But these higher states are in 
 all cases determined, not by race but by the outward conditions. In 
 Africa the Negro is normally a husbandman, although in all other 
 respects greatly inferior to his Arab neighbour, who, as a rule, is a 
 herdsman. In the Upper Lena basin the Yakut domesticates the 
 horse, in the Middle the reindeer, in the Lower the dog. The Tungus 
 of North-east Siberia tills the land in the fertile Amur basin, tends 
 the herd farther north, hunts and fishes in still higher latitudes. 
 The Arab is a nomad pastor on the steppe lands of Nejd, a good 
 agriculturist in the rich, well-watered upper valleys of Yemen. In 
 a word, peoples pass so obviously from one to another of these 
 states, that they can in no way be accepted as distinctive character- 
 istics of any race. They are the proper subject of ethnography 
 and geography, rather than of ethnology in the stricter sense. 
 Hence they are discarded by Dr E. Hahn, who substitutes six 
 ** Kulturformen " distributed, irrespective of race, throughout so 
 many geographical areas over the surface of the globe ^, all existing 
 side by side, and determined by the physical and cUmatic condi- 
 tions of the several regions. 
 
 1 " Ueberhaupt darf man die Flexion, die, abgesehen von dem innern 
 Lautwandel, nur ein Kind der Agglutination ist, nicht zu hoch, und die Ag- 
 glutination nicht zu niedrig anschlagen " (Dr C. A. F. Mahn, Dcnkmdler der 
 baskischen Sprache, 1857, p. xxiii). 
 
 2 Peter tnann''s MiUeilungeti^ January, 1S92. 
 
2l6 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 The same remark also applies in great measure to the primi- 
 tive condition of the family and tribe: to such 
 
 Usages poor ... , , . / 
 
 Criteria of mstitutions as polyandria, polygamy, monogamy, the 
 
 *"^"* matriarchal and patriarchal states, exogamy, en- 
 
 dogamy, the totem systems, tattooing, cannibalism, and similar 
 practices more or less common to all primitive communities. The 
 investigation of such subjects, however interesting in itself, can 
 throw little light on the origin and mutual relations of the funda- 
 mental divisions of the human family. They belong to the natural 
 as distinguished from the recorded history of man, and come more 
 specially within the province of the historian of the growth of 
 human culture. W. EarP remarks that in Malaysia the grades of 
 civilisation depend rather on the physical conditions than on race. 
 Near the sea and rivers the people become fishers and navigators, 
 on the uplands tillers of the land, and so on, and the observation 
 may be taken as of general application. 
 
 So also with the various religious systems of mankind, even the 
 most primitive of which betray evidence of growth 
 
 Religion. . ^ ... . . . ^ . ^ ^ . 
 
 from some stili more primitive previous state. It is 
 obvious that, apart from the question of direct revelation, with 
 which we are not here concerned, all natural religions must have 
 had their beginnings in the first faint awakenings of the reflective 
 powers. As soon as man began to remember his dreams, and to 
 take cognisance of himself in a dim way as something distinct 
 from his surroundings, all natural phenomena must have presented 
 themselves to him as the effects of causes beyond his control and 
 comprehension. With the growth of the reasoning faculties, 
 comparisons would be instinctively made between such phenomena 
 and those dependent on his own will. Thus the human powers 
 and passions became the standards to which all things were 
 referred, and instead of man being f^ishioned to the likeness of his 
 deities, his deities or demons were rather fashioned to the Hkeness 
 of man^ Hence the good and evil spirits take the complexion of 
 the times, reflect the social status of the community; to their 
 
 ^ Native Races of the Indian A^'chipclago, p. 235. 
 
 - Hence J. P. Richter's remark that "minder der Mensch nach Gottes 
 Bilde geschaften sei, als dass er sich seinen Gott nach scincm Bilde zu schahen 
 pflege " (quoted by Carus, op. cit. p. 94). 
 
IX.] MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 21/ 
 
 friendly or hostile feelings are attributed all favourable or adverse 
 events. All nature is filled with such invisible agencies, which 
 move about freely, as man moves freely in his dreams, and which 
 have to be propitiated or enhsted in his service by offerings and 
 other devices. Some are the spirits of the mountain, the forest, 
 the storm or the flood, some the spirits of departed men 
 themselves; whence nature and ancestry worship. Such must 
 have been the beginning of the anthropomorphism 
 which is the essence of all primitive, and of many morphism°due 
 later religions. *° ^^^ common 
 
 ° ^ ^ psychic 
 
 Whether this anthropomorphic state was reached character of 
 before or after the first dispersion of the human "^^"* 
 family could matter little. The conditions being everywhere 
 alike or analogous, the evolution of this early phase of natural 
 religion must have everywhere proceeded along the same lines of 
 thought. Whether developed in a common centre, or in several 
 independent centres, the religious sentiment would still present 
 but slight shades of difference, such as might arise, for instance, 
 from the differences between the manifestations of the natural 
 forces in hot, cold, dry or moist climates, in high or low latitudes, 
 in mountainous or forest regions. The sun, naturally regarded as 
 a supreme agent in tropical lands, might be replaced by the moon 
 under more temperate climes, and it is noteworthy that the 
 gender of sun and moon, respectively masculine and 
 feminine in the south of Europe (soL lima) is Common 
 
 * ^ ' rengious ideas 
 
 reversed in the north (A. S. sunne, nmid). In the no proof of 
 same way night becomes the measure of time with origin, 
 the Teutonic, day with the Italic peoples. But 
 apart from such easily explained discrepancies, the early religions, 
 growing out of a common anthropomorphism into all shades of 
 fetishism and shamanism, would everywhere present substantially 
 the same general features ; hence could nowhere serve as distinc- 
 tive marks of the primary human groups. 
 
 It is further to be noticed that religious ideas, like social usages, 
 are easily transmitted from tribe to tribe, from race to race. 
 Hence resemblances in this order, where they arise, must rank 
 very low as ethnical tests. If not the product of a common 
 cerebral structure, they can prove little beyond social contact in 
 
2l8 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 remote or later times. A case in point is the remarkable parallelism 
 between the four great scenes of the Buddhist purgatory depicted 
 on the Japanese temple scrolls, and the corresponding scenes on 
 the road to spirit-land depicted in the Aztec Vatican codex: — 
 
 Buddhist Purgatory. 
 
 1. Soul wades across the 
 river of death. 
 
 2. Passes between two iron 
 mountains pushed together by 
 demons. 
 
 3. Climbs mountains of 
 knives which cut its hands and 
 feet. 
 
 4. Is gashed by knives fly- 
 ing through the air. 
 
 Aztec journey to Spirit-land. 
 
 1. Soul crosses the river of 
 death. 
 
 2. Passes between two 
 mountains that clash together. 
 
 3. Climbs a mountain set 
 with obsidian knives. 
 
 4. Is beset by these knives 
 blown about by the winds. 
 
 The parallelism is complete; but the range of thought is 
 extremely limited — nothing but mountains and knives, besides the 
 river of death common to Egyptians, Greeks and all peoples 
 endowed with a little imagination. Hence Prof. E. B. Tylor, who 
 calls attention to the points of resemblance \ builds far too much 
 on them when he adduces them as convincing evidence of pre- 
 Columbian culture in America taking shape under Asiatic in- 
 fluences. In the same place he refers to Humboldt's argument 
 based on the similarity of calendars and of mythical catastrophes. 
 But the "mythical catastrophes," floods and the like, have long 
 been discounted, while the Mexican calendar, despite the authority 
 of Humboldt's name, presents no resemblance whatsoever to those 
 of the " Tibetan and Tartar tribes," or to any of the other Asiatic 
 calendars with which it has been compared. *' There is absolutely 
 no similarity between the Tibetan calendar and the primitive form 
 of the American," which "was not intended as a year-count, but as a 
 ritual and formulary," and whose signs " had nothing to do with 
 the signs of the zodiac, as had all those of the Tibetan and Tartar 
 calendars ^" Regarding all such analogies as may exist " between 
 
 1 Mythical Beliefs as Evidence hi the History of Culture. Paper read at 
 the British Association, Oxford, 1894. 
 
 2 D. G. Brinton, On Various supposed Relations between the American and 
 
IX.] MENTAL CRITERIA OF RACE. 219 
 
 the culture and customs of Mexico and those of China, Cambodia, 
 Assyria, Chaldsea and Asia Minor," Dr Brinton asks pertinently, 
 " Are we therefore to transport all these ancient peoples, or repre- 
 sentatives of them, into Mexico?" {ib. p. 147). So Lefevre, who 
 regards as "quite chimerical" the attempts made to trace such 
 resemblances to the Old World. " If there are coincidences, they 
 are fortuitous, or they result from evolution, which leads all the 
 human groups through the same stages and by the same steps \" 
 
 Many far more inexplicable coincidences than any of those 
 here referred to occur in different regions, where not even contact 
 can be suspected. Such is the strange custom of the Coiivade^ 
 which is found to prevail amongst peoples so widely separated as 
 the Basques and the Guiana Indians, who could never have either 
 directly or indirectly in any way influenced each other. Of these 
 Guiana Indians Reclus remarks that, to whatever ethnical group 
 they may belong, their customs are everywhere very much alike : 
 *' L'analogie du milieu et des conditions e'conomiques ^^^^ ^^^ 
 a rapproche les populations^" Sometimes wide- no evidence of 
 spread customs which appear motiveless, and there- scent, 
 fore all the more inexplicable when found prevaiHng 
 amongst distant peoples, may receive quite a simple explanation 
 from some circumstance still surviving amongst one or two 
 primitive peoples. Thus the strange reluctance of the mother- 
 in-law to meet her son-in-law, observed amongst Papuans, Austra- 
 lians, Zidus and some American aborigines, seems accounted for 
 by a Patagonian practice which persisted till quite recent times. 
 On the death of any young person the head of the family was 
 required to despatch some aged woman, a mother-in-law by pre- 
 ference. Hence through fear of such a fate women acquired the 
 habit of avoiding all contact with their sons-in-law, and the feehng 
 continued after the motive had been forgotten. Thus the most 
 startling coincidences go for nothing, and, speaking generally, like 
 usages may be regarded as the least trustworthy of all evidences of 
 common descent. 
 
 Asian Races, from Memoiis of the International Congress of Anthropology, 
 Chicago, p. 148. 
 
 ^ Race and Language, p. 185. 
 
 2 Nouvelle Geogr. Universelle, xix. p. 46. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE PRIMARY ETHNICAL GROUPS. 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE HOMINID^. 
 
 Four Primary Groups — Homo /Ethiopicus, Mongolicus, Americanus, Caucasi- 
 cus — Family Tree of the Hominida; — The primaiy groups derived, not 
 one from the other, but independently from a common precursor — Their 
 differences determined by their different environments — Position of the 
 several groups — The Negro — The Mongol and American — The Caucasian 
 —Remarks on this Terminology — Comparative Table of the physical and 
 mental characters of the four primary groups — Centre of Evolution — Dis- 
 tribution of land and water in Secondary and Tertiary Times — The Indo- 
 African Continent — The Austral Continent — The Eurafrican Continent — ■ 
 The Euramerican Continent — America accessible from Europe and from 
 Asia — Theory of de Quatrefages on the migrations of primitive man — His 
 linguistic argument — Views of Dallas — and Brinton — Evolution "with a 
 jump" — The Missing Link — Probable centre of Evolution and Dispersion 
 the Indo- African and Austi^al regions, true Home of the Lemurs and of 
 the Anthropoids— Characters of the pliocene precursor and of the pleisto- 
 cene sub-groups persistent in the Afro-Austral regions — Pliocene and 
 pleistocene migrations from the primeval home — Order of Development 
 of the primary groups in their several centres of evolution — Monogenist 
 and Polygenist views reconciled — Flower and Lydekker on the spread of 
 the Hominida; over the globe. 
 « 
 a We have seen (p. i66) that recent systematists show a tendency 
 to return to the broad groupings of Linne' and Blu- 
 menbach, and to recognise with them not more than 
 three or four main divisions of the human family. 
 Flower and Lydekker in a careful survey of the whole field ^ 
 reduce the Hominidae to three primary groups, the Ethiopic^ 
 Mongolic and Caucasic, leaving the position of the American 
 aborigines an open question. Although ''incHned to include 
 them as aberrant members of the Mongolian type," they add: "It 
 is however quite open to anyone adopting the Negro, MongoHan 
 
 ^ IntrodtictioJi to the Study of Maiujuals, p. 743 et seq. 
 
 Four primary 
 groups. 
 
 ^ 
 
222 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 and Caucasian groups as primary divisions to place the Americans 
 apart as a fourth" (p. 752). But they really go farther than this, 
 remarking that "now that the high antiquity of man in America — 
 perhaps as high as that which he has in Europe — has been 
 discovered, the puzzHng problem, from which part of the Old 
 World the people of America have sprung, has lost its significance. 
 It is indeed quite as likely that the people of Asia may have been 
 derived from America as the reverse \" And as the pre- 
 Columbians were practically isolated from the rest of the world, 
 *'it is difficult to look upon the anomalous and special characters 
 of the American people as the effects of crossing — a consideration 
 which gives more weight to the view of treating them as a distinct 
 primary division" (p. 753). It would therefore seem that on 
 physical grounds alone these anthropologists are prepared to 
 admit the claim of the Americans to be regarded as an indepen- 
 dent branch of the human family. This view is greatly 
 strengthened by a consideration of the mental characters as 
 revealed in the independent cultures of the New World. Hence 
 without denying a common origin of both groups, it may still be 
 argued that the American offshoot has diverged sufficiently to be 
 regarded as a distinct variety in the same sense that the Mongol 
 is itself taken as a distinct variety. In other words, the pre- 
 Columbians differ perhaps as much from the Asiatic Mongols 
 as these do from the Caucasic Europeans ; consequently all stand 
 in any scheme on much the same level, constituting three branches 
 more nearly akin to each other than any of them is to the Negro 
 or Ethiopic branch. 
 
 Linne's original fourfold division (p. 164) must therefore be 
 
 upheld ; nothing would be gained either in clear- 
 
 ;Eu!iT°icus ^^^^ ^^ accuracy by attempting on minor considera- 
 
 Mongoiicus, tious to increase or reduce the number of the great 
 
 Americanus, .• ,, • rrii 
 
 Caucasicus. systematist s primary groups. 1 hese groups, as ex- 
 plained, are to be regarded as so many main varieties 
 of a single species, and not as so many distinct species of genus 
 
 ^ So A. H. Keane : " The arguments brought forward in support of an 
 Asiatic origin of the American would not lose their point if adduced in favour 
 of an American origin of the Asiatic people" {^American Indians, Encylopcpdia 
 Britannicai 9th ed.). 
 
X.] MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE HOMINID^. 223 
 
 Homo. As the Negro stands somewhat apart, and admittedly at 
 a lower grade than the other three branches, it might be conceived 
 as diverging first in the process of upward development from the 
 main stem, from which the others ramified later. In a genealogical 
 tree of the human family the several primary branches — Homo 
 ^THiopicus, Homo Mongolicus, Homo Americanus, Homo 
 Caucasicus — would therefore stand relatively to each other and 
 to their respective chief sub-branches somewhat as in our Family 
 Tree (p. 224). But there is really neither "first" nor "second" 
 in the process, and the evolution is to be conceived, not as taking 
 place in temporal sequence, but rather as going on all along the 
 line simultaneously in space and time. 
 
 What follows will be mainly occupied with an elucidation of 
 these genealogies, with a view to the establishment 
 of such a general scheme of classification as may groJjps^derivS 
 seem best to accord with the known pre-historic and from a com- 
 
 . , . mon precursor 
 
 present relations. In most ethnological treatises a independently, 
 direct transition is assumed from one to another of 
 the primary groups, usually from the Negro to the Mongol, 
 and from the Mongol on the one hand to the American, on the 
 other to the Caucasian. Such direct transitions are in the abstract 
 possible, the differences being nowhere more than varietal. But 
 they are not probable, and they could scarcely have taken place 
 within the limited time available for the implied physical and 
 mental changes. For it is to be remembered that the differences 
 are shown by comparative craniological studies to have already been 
 everywhere established in neolithic times, while the varying grades 
 of culture, following in ascending order, show that even in the 
 paleolithic age Europe at least was inhabited by peoples differing 
 enormously in mental capacity, consequently it may be assumed 
 also in physical appearance. These disparities, presenting them- 
 selves at such an early period in the natural history of man, can 
 be explained only by supposing them to be the result of develop- 
 ments occurring, not consecutively in one area, but simultaneously 
 in several areas, and introduced into Western Europe by successive 
 waves of migration during the warm inter-glacial epoch. On this 
 assumption sufficient time is obtained, not to transform a Negro 
 to a Mongol, or a Mongol to a White, which need never have 
 
PLEISTOCENE 
 
 PRECURSORS 
 
 FAMILY TREE OF THE HOMINID/F.. 
 
X.] MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE HOMINID.^. 225 
 
 happened, but to transform several semi-simian pleistocene 
 
 precursors inhabiting different environments into generalised 
 
 Negro, Mongolo-American and Caucasian precursors respectively 
 and independently. Transitions taking place in 
 
 this way would also be immeasurably less violent Their differ- 
 
 '' •' ences deter- 
 
 than those commonly assumed, as is obvious ; for mined by their 
 we need but suppose that the several pleistocene environments, 
 groups, already presenting certain differences 
 amongst themselves, continued their natural evolution in the 
 direction of those differences in varying physical and climatic 
 surroundings — warm, temperate or cold zones, mountainous or 
 low-lying tracts, wooded or open lands, marine or inland regions, 
 and so on. Thus under torpid suns it would be advantageous to 
 retain more of the original furry coat (hirsute Caucasic Ainus) 
 than in torrid lands (Negroes hairless except on head where a 
 thick woolly covering is needed). So with a temperate foggy 
 chmate, which is conducive to a florid complexion, hot suns and 
 dry atmosphere which tend to swarthiness, hot suns and moist 
 atmosphere which aided by a vegetable diet cause a darkening of 
 the subcutaneous pigment. Thus the general evolution would 
 appear to have preceded, not in a single or linear direction, but 
 as shown in our "Family, Tree," by successive lateral rami- 
 fications from the parent stem, just as man himself was seen 
 (p. 19) to have been evolved not from any speciaHsed anthropoid 
 forms, but from the common anthropoid stem by divergence 
 antecedent to such specialisations. 
 
 In the Tree the first ramification (to the right) is that of the 
 "generalised Negro," that is, the ideal "Homo „ .. 
 
 ° ° ' ' Position of 
 
 ^thiopicus," who during his subsequent natural the several 
 evolution largely ceases to be ideal, but retains in ^''°"p^- 
 more or less modified form a greater or less number of his original 
 physical and mental characters. These are never 
 
 •11,- 11 • r, , The Negro. 
 
 entirely obliterated, but continue to flow through 
 the arteries of the whole system, as it branches off in various 
 directions towards Africa, Oceania and Australia. Hence, despite 
 later interminglings, the relationship of the several branches can 
 mostly be recognised, thanks to the persistence of a sufficiently 
 large number of special features. Where doubt arises, it can only 
 K. 15 
 
226 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 be through excessive miscegenation, by which the specific unity of 
 the whole human family is estabUshed, while the more immediate 
 kinship of aberrant groups may be obscured. Thus the Australian 
 branchlet, pointing towards that of the Toda, suggests possible 
 fusion of Melanochroid Caucasic (South Indian) and Austral 
 Negro blood at a remote epoch in some now perhaps submerged 
 Indo-Austral region. 
 
 After the Negro dispersion the main stem throws off (to the 
 
 left) a generaUsed Mongolo-American limb, which 
 an^^An^erkfan. prescntly breaks into two great divisions, the 
 
 American and the Asiatic Mongol, each preserving 
 a share of the common inheritance, but diverging at such an early 
 period in their Hfe history that, as above seen, the best authorities 
 hesitate with regard to their mutual relationship. The ties have 
 been so weakened by long separation that an ideal Homo Ameri- 
 canus as well as an ideal Homo Mongolicus must now be assumed 
 and studied separately. Here the chief aberrant types, due to 
 the same causes as in the Negro family, are tlie Eskimo, the 
 Dravidian and the Finno-Lapp, stumbUng- blocks to all sys- 
 tematists. 
 
 Between the Negro and the Mongolo-American boughs the 
 
 main stem passes upwards, developing a generalised 
 CaAicasian Caucasic type — Homo Caucasicus — which also at 
 
 an early date ramifies into three great branches, 
 filling all the intervening central space, overshadowing the Negro, 
 overtopping the Mongol, and shooting still upwards, one might 
 say, into almost inimitable space. Such is the dominant position 
 of this highest of the Hominidae, which seems alone destined to a 
 great future, as it is alone heir to a great past. All the works of man 
 worthy of record have, with few or doubtful exceptions, emanated 
 from the large and much convoluted brain of the white Homo 
 
 Caucasicus. Needless objection is often made to 
 
 Terminology. • ,, i • ■, • i -i ^ 
 
 this term " Caucasic, which was introduced by 
 Blumenbach, and suggested to him by a skull of fine proportions 
 belonging to a native of Georgia, South Caucasia. But the word, 
 like so many others in scientific nomenclature, is purely conven- 
 tional and not restricted to the inhabitants of the Caucasus, who 
 are merely taken as somewhat typical members of the whole 
 
X.] MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE HOMINID^. 227 
 
 family ^ It is more important to note that Caucasic is not synony- 
 mous with " Aryan," or " Indo-European," as is commonly 
 supposed. These are rather linguistic than ethnical designations, 
 hence are excluded from our Tree ; and in any case Aryan would 
 only form one of many branches of the Caucasic division, which, 
 as here seen, also comprises Semites, Hamites, Iranians, besides 
 some aberrant groups — Tibu, Toda, Ainu, Polynesian and others. 
 It follows from the foregoing considerations that by the four 
 primary divisions are to be understood those first 
 ramifications from the parent stem which, like the Physical and 
 
 1 ' mental cnarac- 
 
 branches of a banian tree returning to earth, took tersofthe 
 fresh root, and became gradually differentiated groups?" 
 independently in so many isolated centres. In 
 these centres were evolved those special physical and mental 
 characters, the sum of which constitutes the ideal types of the 
 several independent groups. And although the ideal types them- 
 selves have long ceased to exist in their primordial integrity, the 
 determination of the characters is none the less necessary, in 
 order to estabHsh distinct standards whereby to fix the position of 
 the various sub-varieties in the human family. A comparative 
 study of the fundamental types, using the word fundamental not 
 absolutely but only in a relative sense, will be facilitated by here 
 summing up the more saHent features of each division in tabular 
 form. These tables, based on the data brought together in 
 Chapters VIII. and IX., will enable the student, so to say, to 
 reconstruct the ideals by a sort of eclectic process, and thus to 
 form some notion of the typical primitive Negro, Mongol, Ameri- 
 can and Caucasian, as they may be supposed to have existed in 
 their several original homes prior to later migrations and inter- 
 minglings : 
 
 1 Hence a distinction might be drawn between the scientific Caucasic and 
 the ethnic Caucasian; but this is not necessary, as, the explanation once made, 
 the sense in which the term is used must always be evident from the context. 
 So with the forms Mongol, Mongolian., Mongoiic, which have similarly a par- 
 ticular and a general application, the special Mongol group of Central Asia 
 being taken as typical of the whole division. The term Ethiopic has also a 
 particular meaning, which sometimes causes confusion. It is applied to the 
 eastern branch of the Hamites, who are not Ethiopians in the general sense, but 
 members of the Caucasic division. 
 
 15-2 
 
'w 
 
 i, 
 
 H 
 u 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 ~i 
 a 
 
 Q 
 
 rt. Long, wavy, soft, flaxen : 
 b. Long, straight, wiry, black; 
 
 both oval in section; both full 
 
 bearded 
 
 73.' 
 
 I 3 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 i. 
 
 V 
 
 J5 
 
 rt. Blue; 
 b. Black; 
 
 both moderately large and 
 
 always straight 
 
 c 
 
 
 
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 n 
 
 1 
 
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 03.E 
 
 w . 
 u in 
 
 II 
 
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 S 
 
 tfl 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 ii 
 
 II 
 
 E^ 
 ■J >i 
 o's 
 
 Active, enterprising, imagina- 
 tive : 
 
 a. serious, steadfast, solid and 
 stolid; 
 
 b. fiery, impulsive, fickle; 
 science, art and letters highly 
 developed in both 
 
 Id 
 
 H 
 
 z 
 
 < 
 
 5 
 s 
 
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 Q 
 
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 ►J 
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 J-Si 
 
 Hi 
 
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 llll 
 
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 s 
 
 oo 
 
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 c 
 
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 p 
 
 V 
 
 £ 
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 2d.5 
 
 c 
 
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 L 
 
 -fl 3 
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 ^^ 
 
 lis 
 
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 bo<^ 
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 3-2 
 
 c 
 
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 S.> b!o rt « o 
 
 I..IPI 
 
 ■~^V rt ^ 2-3"^ 
 
 llll Hi 
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 XI « o 
 
 c 
 
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 <; 
 
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 m 
 
 ^■^ 5. 
 H ^ 2 
 
 111 
 
 2; 
 
 oj 3 re a; *^ « 
 3'^'|ii?>^'S 
 
 u 3 " t; o £ g^ 
 
 
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 U 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
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 3 
 
 s 
 
 2 
 
 e 
 
CHAP. X.] MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE HOMINID^. 229 
 
 Reserving each of these four types for special treatment, it 
 will be convenient here to consider such general questions as 
 equally concern them all. Such are mainly their probable prim- 
 eval homes, and the direction of their first migratory movements, 
 in other words, their several centres of evolution and dispersion. 
 
 From all the foregoing remarks there follows a first important 
 corollary, that although man had but one origin, 
 one pliocene precursor (p. 38), men had several Evoiut^on.° 
 separate places of origin, several pleistocene pre- 
 cursors. In our Family Tree four such precursors are assumed, 
 and the question at once arises, in what inhabitable regions of the 
 globe were they evolved ? Here the inquiry assumes a somewhat 
 speculative turn, as is obvious from the consideration that, despite 
 the views put forward by Wallace^ and others regarding the stability 
 of the Continents, the inhabitable regions of the globe have cer- 
 tainly undergone considerable modifications since the appearance 
 of the Hominidae in their several geographical areas. Doubtless 
 Wallace is right in rejecting Sclater's " Lemuria," Former 
 as unnecessary to account for the range of the of^ land 'and 
 Lemurs. But he cannot reject the " Indo- African water. 
 Continent," which replaces Lemuria in the Indian Ocean, and 
 which is estabUshed on a solid foundation by the naturalists 
 associated with the Indian Geological Survey". Thus the hippo- 
 potamus, now confined to Africa, is found in a fossil state both in 
 Madagascar and in the Sivalik Hills (Himalayan foothills), while 
 the plants of the Indian and South African coal measures are 
 absolutely identical, and the remarkable Dicynodon and other 
 allied forms of fossil reptiles are equally characteristic of both 
 regions. Hence, although belonging mainly to secondary times, 
 considerable sections of the Indo- African Continent, 
 such as are still represented by Madagascar, the African "an°d" 
 Chagos, Seychelles, Mascarenhas and other smaller ^^^^^^ ^°"^'' 
 groups, must have persisted far into the tertiary 
 epoch. 
 
 1 The Comparative Antiquity of Continents, as indicated by tiie Distribution 
 0/ Living and Extinct Animals, R. G. S. Journal, 1877, and elsewhere. 
 
 2 See especially R. D. Oldham, Tlic Evolution of Indian Geography, in 
 Gcograpii. jour. March 1894. 
 
230 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 During this epoch Australia also was far larger than at present, 
 not only comprising New Guinea, Tasmania, and perhaps New 
 Caledonia in the Pacific, but also stretching westwards probably 
 as far as the islets of St Paul and Amsterdam, that is, to within a 
 relatively short distance of the Mascarenhas in the Indian Ocean. 
 "The islands of St Paul and Amsterdam may indicate where an 
 intervening land once formed a stepping-stone for the intermigration 
 of the plants of Australia and South Africa."^ In fact an Austral 
 Continent dating from late secondary or early tertiary times, sur- 
 viving in fragments down to the quaternary epoch, and extending 
 from the Cape through Madagascar and Australia towards New 
 Zealand, seems to be postulated by the huge cursores and other 
 birds such as the gepyornis of Madagascar, the dodo of Mauritius, 
 the Australian dromornis and the moa of New Zealand, surviving 
 till quite recently in those regions. 
 
 To the Indo-African Continent in the southern hemisphere 
 
 corresponded a later (Miocene) Eurafrican Continent 
 
 The Eurafri- ^^ ^.j^g northern hemisphere, which occupied a con- 
 can Continent. '■ . ^ . 
 
 siderable secUon of the present Mediterranean basm, 
 as shown by the miocene formations, on the Mauritanian seaboard, 
 in the islands and on the opposite side at intervals as far east as 
 the Caucasus ^ At that time the Sahara also formed, not a marine 
 bed, as is generally supposed, but an elevated region at a much 
 greater altitude above sea level than at present ^ Thus in the 
 miocene epoch there was continuous land almost everywhere 
 between Europe and Africa, and the connection still continued at 
 several points throughout pliocene times^ when gradual subsidence 
 transformed the miocene plains first into three separate basins, 
 and then into a vast inland sea extending from the Caucasus to 
 the Atlantic. But geologically this marine inlet, on the shores of 
 
 1 A. R. Wallace, Australasia (Stanford Series, new issue), p. 99. 
 
 2 See F. W. Rudler and G. G. Chisholm, Europe (Stanford Series), 
 Chap. 1. passiifi. 
 
 ^ See A. H. Keane, Africa (Stanford Series, new issue), Vol. i. ch. iii. 
 passim. 
 
 ^ At Gibraltar, where the present strait is of relatively recent formation; 
 between Tunis and Sicily, still connected by a shallow submarine ridge ; and 
 between Libya and Greece united in tertiary times by a vast plain, the haunt 
 of the lion and rhinoceros (Reclus, English ed. I. p. 36). 
 
X.] MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE HOMINID^. 23 1 
 
 which the tribes of men settled down " hke frogs around a swamp " 
 (Plato), is but a western extension of the still larger central Asian 
 depression, which towards the close of the miocene age extended 
 from Turkestan to Sicily, and the subsidence of which was syn- 
 chronous with that of the Mediterranean, and with the final 
 upheaval of the orographic system which stretched from the 
 Pyrenees, through the Alps and Caucasus to the Himalayas. 
 
 Thus when the pliocene precursor, wherever evolved, began to 
 spread abroad, he was free to move in all directions over the 
 eastern hemisphere. Like the anthropoid allied forms, he could 
 have wandered, say, from the Indo-African Continent, either east- 
 wards to India and to Malaysia, where are now the gibbon and 
 orang, or westwards to Africa, where are now the chimpanzee and 
 gorilla, and thence northwards to Europe whither he was preceded 
 by the extinct miocene dryopithecus. From the Indo-African 
 Continent the road was also open through Australasia towards 
 New Zealand, and from India to the shores of the flooded 
 central Asian depression. Nor could climate anywhere present 
 any difficulty, for this first dispersion took place 
 during the long inter-glacial warm period, when a cHmate^^^^^^^ 
 temperate flora ranged as far north as Spitzbergen, 
 and when a rich arborescent vegetation afforded sufficient shelter 
 from the fiery pliocene suns. 
 
 From the Eastern Hemisphere the New World could at that 
 time be easily reached either from Europe or from Asia. Without 
 conjuring back Plato's vanished '* Atlantis," recent surveys have 
 revealed the presence of a submarine bank, which stretches from 
 Scotland through the Faroes and Iceland to Greenland, and 
 which is nowhere more than 300 or 400 fathoms deep. Although 
 partly of igneous origin, the corresponding strata on 
 both sides of the North Atlantic, together with accessible 
 striking resemblances between the respective faunas ^°"^ urope. 
 and floras, show that this ridge represents a vanished Continent 
 of great age, which would appear to have still formed dry land in 
 late tertiary times. Miocene limestone formations occur even in 
 the island of St Mary, one of the i\zores, midway between the Old 
 and New Worlds, while Terceira, another member of the same 
 group, is strewn with boulders both of crystalline and sedimentary 
 
232 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 origin, on the provenance of which geologists have however not 
 yet made up their minds, whether transported by floating ice 
 during the glacial period from the American mainland, or torn by 
 volcanic agency from a subsiding continent. 
 
 On the Asiatic side the two continents converge at Bering 
 Strait to within a distance of 60 miles between 
 ^And from Capcs East and West, while the strait itself has a 
 
 mean depth of Httle over 20 fathoms. In clear 
 weather the American is visible from the Asiatic headland, and in 
 mid-channel lie the Diomede islets, stepping-stones between the 
 two hemispheres. Farther south the Aleutian chain, enclosing the 
 shallow Bering Sea, extends from the Alaskan Peninsula west- 
 wards to the " Near Islands," so named from their proximity to 
 the Siberian coast. For a great part of the year the intervening 
 spaces are spanned by frozen masses, so that even before the first 
 kayak was launched, primitive man might have passed on solid 
 ground to and fro between the eastern and western hemispheres. 
 
 But these essential factors, by which the problem, one might 
 say, solvitur ujnbulando, have been for the most part either 
 neglected or misunderstood by those who have approached the 
 question of man's early migrations. Thus de Quatrefages, re- 
 moving Sclater's Lemuria, without substituting the 
 
 Migrations . r y t ^• n. 
 
 of primitive Indo-African Contment of the Indian Survey, 
 ^^^' leaves a great ocean flowing between the African 
 
 and the Oceanic sections of the Negro division. Then, to meet 
 the difficulty, he locates this with all the other primary divisions 
 somewhere round about the Central Asian plateau, as if these 
 groups could become differentiated in the same physical environ- 
 ment, although to be sure, the conditions of existence are assumed 
 to be diff"erent. The environment itself is reached from the 
 
 Arctic regions where the precursor was evolved at a 
 oJatr'^fage^.^ ^^™^ when Spitzbcrgcn enjoyed a temperate climate 
 
 like that of California at present, and we are assured 
 that this hypothesis of a boreal origin agrees with all the facts in 
 the early history of man, and alone enables us to coordinate them\ 
 From the extreme north tertiary man was driven e?t masse by the 
 
 ^ Histoire Gcnerale des Races Hw/iaines, I. p. 133. 
 
X.] MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE HOMINID^. 23 ^ 
 
 advancing ice-sheet to the central plateau, which is therefore taken, 
 not as the cradle of the species, but as "le centre de caracte'risa- 
 tion des types ethniques fondamentaux de I'epoque actuelle" 
 (p. 137). Yet in flat contradiction to this assumption it is added 
 that it is not to be supposed that the migration southwards, deter- 
 mined by the increasing cold, took everywhere the same direction. 
 On the contrary some of the emigrants wandered away into 
 America as far south as Brazil and the pampas, while others passed 
 through Syria into Africa, sending offshoots (" e'claboussures ") 
 south to the Cape. Central Asia thus ceases to be the officina 
 gentium, where the present fundamental types were elaborated. 
 To the Negro division, and especially to the Negrito sub-group, is 
 given an enormous expansion, radiating through Irania and South 
 Arabia westwards to Africa, and through India south-eastwards to 
 Oceania, these movements being required by the necessity of 
 avoiding the Indian Ocean impassable before the invention of 
 navigation. The general theory is supported by linguistic argu- 
 ments, which are based on a radical misconception of the evolu- 
 tion of speech. Thus it is affirmed that " d'une langue agglutina- 
 tive ne sort pas un dialecte monosyllabique " (p. 300), the fact 
 being that, as seen in Chapter IX., all monosyllabic languages 
 have been developed from agglutinating forms. Again, the Negro 
 migration from India to Australia is stated to be proved by the 
 affinity of the Australian and Dravidian languages, " aujourd'hui 
 universellement admise" (p. 333). This is one of those reckless 
 assumptions which have brought philology into disrepute with all 
 anthropologists, but respecting which it must suffice here to state 
 that no sound philologist has ever affiUated the AustraUan to the 
 Dravidian linguistic family \ 
 
 The " Geographical Distribution of Mankind " has also been 
 discussed by Mr James Dallas in a learned and 
 well written monograph ^ which, however, is also Daiiir^° 
 vitiated by a disregard for the distribution of land 
 
 1 "The numerous Australian idioms seem all related to each other, but 
 have no affinity with any other linguistic family" (A. Hovelacque, Scietice of 
 Language, English ed. 1877, p. 67). "The Dravidian tongues may safely be 
 regarded as an independent group, related to no other linguistic family" (ib. 
 
 P- 79)- 
 
 2 Anthrop. Journal, 1885, pp. 304—30. In this essay Mr Dallas proposes 
 
234 ETHNOLOGY. [CH'AP. 
 
 and water in tertiary times. While the Indo- African Continent is 
 ignored, the Sahara is submerged and Africa thus separated by an 
 impassable Hquid barrier from Europe. " Thus Europe would be 
 effectually separated from Africa except at one point — the Darda- 
 nelles " (sic) ; and thus also the migrations not only of man, but 
 also of the large African fauna into Europe would be left unex- 
 plained. It is not surprising that the attempted scheme of 
 distribution is almost admittedly a failure, and that the writer 
 confesses himself "at a loss for a starting-point" for his "Meso- 
 chroic " (Mongol) division. Here also Hnguistic and ethnical 
 questions are confused, and a disposition is shown " to revert to 
 the old Atlantis theory," in order to account for a purely fanciful 
 " affinity of the Basque and American languages," an affinity 
 which we are assured " must at once occur to every ethnologist " 
 (p. 329). Basque has no affinities, beyond that -due to loan words, 
 to any other group in the New or the Old World, unless indeed 
 G. von der Gabelentz can be said to have established a remote 
 kinship with the Berber of North Africa. 
 
 It may here be remarked that, however useful it may often be 
 in connection with the study of existing races, language is of little 
 or no avail in the elucidation of the early history of man. It is no 
 longer possible to say how far the different present forms of 
 speech had established themselves in those remote times; and 
 such profound changes must have taken place since then, that 
 resemblances between languages spoken thirty or forty thousand 
 years ago have in any case necessarily long been obhterated. 
 Some — the Semitic for instance — are no doubt marvellously persis- 
 tent; but none, unaided by a written literature, could possibly 
 resist the ravages of phonetic decay and other disintegrating 
 influences acting for ages on the rude dialects of primitive man. 
 Hence no use is here made of arguments drawn from linguistic 
 resemblances or disparities, except only for the relatively later 
 movements in the Indo-Pacific regions and elsewhere. 
 
 Lastly, reference may be made to Dr D. G. Brinton's paper in 
 the Forum for December 1 894 on " The Beginning of 
 Man and the Age of the Race," which by a process 
 
 Leucochroi, Mesochroi and ALthochroi as substitutes for White, Yellow and 
 Black respectively. 
 
X.] MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE HOMINID^. 235 
 
 of elimination places the original home somewhere or anywhere 
 along the southern slopes of the mountain ranges stretching from 
 the Cantabrian Alps to the eastern Himalayas, but by preference 
 in the western section, where " up to the present time his earliest 
 vestiges have been exhumed.... Speaking from present knowledge, 
 we must say we know of man nowhere earlier than within the area 
 of England, France and the Iberian peninsula." But all the 
 known facts seem to imply that here man is an intruder arriving 
 in west Europe from the south across the Mediterranean isthmuses 
 (Ch. XIV.) in company with the great African fauna. West Europe 
 is far too limited an area, and has been too frequently subject to 
 upheaval and subsidence, to be the primeval home of the higher 
 and larger mammals. But of course anything might happen any- 
 where, according to this anthropologist's new and somewhat 
 startHng theory of " evolution per- saltum^^^ which is proposed as 
 an alternative between the doctrine of " specific creation " and 
 that of the " missing link," which is again made the butt of some 
 needless ridicule. By this "evolution with a jump" is meant 
 "that process which produces 'sports' in plants and 'cranks' or 
 men of genius in respectable families... So it may have been with 
 the first of men, &c." 
 
 But, apart from these eccentricities, it cannot be denied that, 
 although the missing link must be postulated (see p. 57), the 
 failure, after a long and diligent search, to discover ijt in those 
 regions where its presence might be looked for, is sufficiently sur- 
 prising to need explanation. One obvious explanation may be 
 that all traces of remote fossil forms must in any case be extremely 
 rare, as seen in the few fragmentary remains hitherto discovered, 
 for instance, of dryopithecus, which nevertheless must have 
 abounded in the miocene forests of India and the Mediterranean 
 basin. Unless protected by the accidental shelter of glacial 
 deposits, rocky fissures and cavernous recesses, the osseous 
 remains of animals strewn on the surface of the ground, or left 
 undevoured by the carnivora, must with years crumble and mingle 
 with the soil. Nor is it to be supposed that the search is ex- 
 hausted, especially when it is remembered that scarcely a gene- 
 ration has passed since inquiry has been turned in this direction 
 by the appearance of The Origin of Species. 
 
236 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 But few missing links of much more simian aspect than those 
 of Java or Neanderthal will probably ever be brought 
 
 Probable *' 1 J & 
 
 centre of to light, the pUoccne precursor having apparently 
 
 originated in a now submerged area where the 
 
 transitional forms can no longer be recovered. This area must 
 
 obviously be sought in those regions of the Indo-African and 
 
 ^1- T J Ar Austral Continents, which survived into tertiary 
 
 Thelndo-Af- _ ' -' 
 
 rican and Aus- times, and which were the common home of the 
 regions. anthropoids and of the lemurs with both of which 
 sub- orders the Hominidae show affinities. It will be admitted that, 
 C(zteris paribus, such a region is more likely to have been the 
 cradle of mankind than any other, where the lemuroid and anthro- 
 poid precursors occur either only sporadically, or not in association, 
 or else not at all. Thus are excluded, the whole of the New 
 World and most of the northern section of the eastern hemisphere, 
 leaving as the only possible centre of evolution some part of the 
 southern section of the eastern hemisphere, where the proportion 
 of land to water was far greater in the secondary and early tertiary 
 periods than at present. In fact dry land extended continuously 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific, affording a free range to the 
 lemuroids, the anthropoids and the dark Hominidte, all of which 
 are now divided into western and eastern (African and Oceanic) 
 groups by the intervening waters of the Indian Ocean. The true 
 lemurs abound now mainly in Madagascar; but more generalised 
 forms exist both in that surviving section of Indo-Africa (the 
 gigantic Alegaladapis and the Aye- Aye or Chiromys Madagas- 
 cariensis), in Malaysia (the Flying lemur, or Galeopithecus volitans), 
 and even in Ceylon (the Loris or Nydicebidce, popularly known as 
 "Slow Lemurs," found also in the Eastern Archipelago). So with 
 the higher apes, as already seen, and with the two great sections 
 of the Negro division of the Hominidae. The inference seems 
 irresistible, that all these allied forms had their common primeval 
 home in and about the Indo-African and Austral Continents, of 
 which considerable sections still survive. 
 
 Other considerations point with equal force in the same 
 , direction. That the immediate precursor was a 
 
 Characters of ^ 
 
 the pliocene tropical or sub-tropical furry animal of arboreal 
 precursor habits is generally allowed, and this description 
 
X.] MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE HOMINID/E. 237 
 
 applies to all the allied forms, some of which have coats combined 
 of wool and sleek hair\ Man has both uncombined, and it is 
 easy to see that, according to the requirements of the environment, 
 one or other might be dropped, without assuming any transition 
 from wool to hair. In other respects the precursor is described 
 by de Quatrefages as probably red-haired, yellow-skinned, and 
 prognathous, the red being perhaps rather a russet brown, the 
 yellow a yellowish brown. This writer also points out that some 
 of the sub-groups in the Negro division are not black but yellow, 
 while the Negro himself shows a tendency to revert to this colour, 
 whereas a tendency to hark back to darker shades is never 
 observed in the yellow division and rarely in the white, from all of 
 which phenomena it is inferred that blackness is not an original 
 but an acquired character in the Negro division ^ 
 
 These views are confirmed by other considerations, such as the 
 fact noted by Darwin that "the children of the Australians im- 
 mediately after birth are yellowish brown and become dark at a 
 later age^," which is true also of the African Negro whose soles 
 and palms are always yellow. With regard to the black hair both 
 of the Negro and of the Mongolo-American, it is specially note- 
 worthy that in East Tibet it is of a pale brown in .... 
 
 ■' ^ persistent in 
 
 infancy, changing in the terith or twelfth year to a the Afro-Aus- 
 bright or glossy black, though in some cases a dark ^^ ^^^^ 
 chestnut hue is retained for life, while the iris is always either 
 brown or "d'un jaune fonce*." Similarly Giovanni Pelleschi tells 
 
 ^ The Aye-Aye, for instance, "is clothed with longish smooth hairs with 
 an under coat of a woolly nature" (N. S. Dallas, The Anhnal Kiiigdom, p. 772), 
 somewhat like the lanugo of the human foetus. 
 
 2 "On est conduit a admettre comme probable que nos premiers ancetres 
 avaient la chevelure tirant sur la teinte rouge plus ou moins roussatre. Le 
 pigment cutane, qui donne aux individus et aux races leur couleur caracteris- 
 tique, examine au microscope, presente toujours quelque chose de plus ou moins 
 jaune.. ..En invoquant encore les faits que je viens de rappeler, il est permis de 
 penser que cette teinte dominait chez I'homme primitif" {Op. cit. p. 156). 
 
 3 Descent of Man, ^nd ed., p. 557. And according to Brough Smyth they 
 "are nearly of the same colour as European children when born, and all of 
 them are generally light-red" {The Aborigines of Victoria, I. p. 6). 
 
 ^ Desgodins, quoted by V. de Saint-Martin, art. Tibet, p. 591. 
 
238 ETHNOLOGY. [CIIAP. 
 
 us that the children of the Mattacco and Toba aborigines of Gran 
 Chaco, Argentina, "up to ten or twelve years have reddish hair, a 
 curious fact recalling the theory of De Salles, according to which 
 primitive man was red-haired'," like the Orang-utan of Malaysia. 
 Even amongst the true Negroes of the Welle basin, Central Africa, 
 " red hair occurs both amongst the dirk and light peoples," while 
 some of the dark Zandehs (Niam-Niams) have " very light, almost 
 yellow-leather skins." ^ The hair of the Wochua dwarfs in the 
 same basin is described by the same observer as " of a dark, rusty- 
 brown hue," and many are stated to have "full beards and hairy 
 breasts" {ib. iii. p. 82). Other Negritoes both in the western and 
 eastern sections of the Negro domain, present more pronounced 
 simian features than any other living human groups. Such are 
 the Akkas of MangbattuLind, the Batwa and others of the Congo 
 forest zone, the Sakais of the Malay Peninsula, the extinct Kalangs 
 of Java, and the also extinct Australian tribe of the Adelaide 
 district, whose skull, as described by Dr W. Wyatt', reproduces 
 the enormous superciHary arches and some other traits of Pithec- 
 anthropus erectus and of the Neanderthal race. Thus are found 
 still persisting or till lately surviving in these regions, and no- 
 where else, several groups, which approach nearest both to the 
 higher simian and to the earliest known human types. Some- 
 of these groups, notably the yellow Bushmen of South Africa, the 
 Sakais, the Aetas of the PhiHppines, the Karons of North-West 
 New Guinea, and the extinct Tasmanians, have always stood at a 
 stage of culture scarcely, if at all, higher than that of eolithic man 
 in West Europe. 
 
 Thus all the conditions point to these Indo-African and 
 , Austral lands as the most probable centre of evo- 
 
 Pliocene and 
 
 Pleistocene lutiou of the plioccne precursor, who may have 
 migrations. easily migrated thence in small family groups to 
 
 every part of the eastern hemisphere — northwards through India 
 to Central Asia, eastwards and westwards to Australasia and 
 
 ^ Eii^ht Months on the Gran Chaco of the Aj-gentine Republic, 1886, 
 
 P- 31- 
 
 2 Junker, Travels, II. p. 240. 
 
 3 Sofue Account of the... Adelaide and Encounter Bay Aboriginal Tribe Szc. 
 Adelaide 1879. This tribe died out about the year 1850. 
 
X.] MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE HOMINID^. 239 
 
 Central Africa, and from Africa to Europe. From the already 
 described distribution of land and water at that Primeval 
 time, it is evident that all the continents were ^°"^s- 
 directly accessible by " overland routes " to the migratory groups, 
 which in their new homes became independently specialised by 
 the natural process of readjustment to the differ- 
 ent environments. And thus arose in the new ^^^^°l tV 
 
 velopment 01 
 
 centres of evolution the several pleistocene srroups, the primary 
 
 groups. 
 
 whence are derived without any violent transitions 
 the present primary divisions of the human family. Treating of 
 the relative antiquity of these divisions de Quatrefages concludes 
 that " The human races have appeared in the following order : 
 The Yellow, or at least a section of them, would appear to be 
 the elder branch of the present human family; other Yellow men, 
 the Blacks and the AUophylian Whites followed apparently very 
 soon after them, and it would be difficult to say which came first ; 
 then may have come the Semites and at last the Aryans."^ This 
 successive evolution of Blacks, AUophylian and other Whites from 
 different sections of a Mongol prototype, involves transformations, 
 which are both improbable in themselves and unwarranted by the 
 known facts. It seems far more natural to assume an indepen- 
 dent and simultaneous evollrtion of the several pleistocene groups 
 from a generaHsed pliocene precursor in different surroundings, 
 where the specialised forms were each determined by their special 
 environment, and afterwards diversely modified by fresh migrations 
 and interminglings. Thus the question of "relative antiquity" 
 scarcely arises, for all the present divisions ascend directly and 
 independently in parallel lines from so many pleistocene groups, 
 themselves determined by the physical conditions of their re- 
 spective centres of evolution. By this assumption a reconciliation 
 is also to a certain extent effected between monogenist and 
 
 ^ Op. cit. p. 161. By "AUophylian Whites" are here meant those Europeans 
 of fair type, such as the Finns and Basques, who are not of Aryan speech. The 
 term "allophylian," from Gr. aXXos and 0uX^, was introduced by Prichard 
 i^Nat. Hist, of Alan, 2nd ed. p. 185), as the collective name of all European 
 and Asiatic peoples not belonging to the Aryan, Semitic or Hamitic races. 
 But like "Turanian" and other vague terms liable to be abused by popular 
 ethnographists, it is now little used in strictly scientific ethnological writings. 
 
240 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 polygenist views. The Hominidoe are not separately evolved, in 
 an absolute sense, that is, from so many different anthropoid pre- 
 cursors ; but the present primary divisions are separately evolved 
 from so many different pleistocene precursors, themselves evolved 
 through a single pliocene prototype from a single anthropoid 
 precursor. 
 
 Such would also seem to be the assumption of Flower and 
 
 Lydekker, who, in discussing the primeval disper- 
 
 Fiowerand siOYi, remark that the first Hominidae were probably 
 
 Lydekker on ' ^ ■' 
 
 the spread of all alike (our pliocene groups) ; but as they spread 
 over thegiobe. ovcr the globc, they became modified by climate, 
 food, the struggle for existence with themselves and 
 with other animals, by selection acting on slight variations, and so 
 forth, the differences showing themselves externally in the colour 
 of the skin, in the colour and texture of the hair, forai of head and 
 face, proportions of limbs and stature. These anthropologists 
 also point out that geographical position must have been a main 
 factor in determining the formation and permanence of races. 
 Groups isolated in islands or secluded uplands would in due 
 course develop new types in the physical and moral orders. But 
 on large open spaces, continental plains or plateaux, unobstructed 
 by great ranges or other natural barriers, free intercourse would 
 make for uniformity. Smaller or feebler groups would be 
 absorbed or wiped out, conquerors and conquered disappearing 
 or merging together. " Thus for untold ages the history of man 
 has presented a shifting kaleidoscopic scene," a ceaseless "de- 
 struction and reconstruction," a constant tendency towards 
 differentiation and towards fresh combinations in a common 
 uniformity, the two tendencies acting against and modifying each 
 other in diverse ways. At the same time the history of the evolu- 
 tion of the present divisions has been mainly obliterated, and the 
 absence of paleontological evidence, that is, of physical facts drawn 
 from the remote ages when the different races were being slowly 
 fashioned, makes their reconstruction largely conjectural. In 
 other words, the geological record is necessarily imperfect, and 
 many chapters being absent, the gaps between transitional forms 
 cannot all be bridged over. The starting-point itself in the 
 inquiry is unknown, and may never be discovered, as it may lie 
 
X.] MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE HOMINID^. 24I 
 
 buried in the bed of the Indian Ocean, or of some other marine 
 or lacustrine basin \ 
 
 The detailed study of the several primary divisions, to which 
 the following chapters are devoted, will tend to confirm these 
 views regarding the geographical centres of evolution and disper- 
 sion of the Hominidae. 
 
 1 Introduction to the Study of Mammals, pp. 742 — 43. 
 
 K. 16 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 
 
 Two divisions: African and Oceanic — Negro Family Tree — The Negritoes: 
 Two divisions — Early migrations — The African Negritoes — The Akkas 
 and Batwa— The Bushmen and Hottentots— Past and present Hottentot- 
 Bushman domains — The Oceanic Negritoes— The Black element in India 
 — The Oceanic Negrito groups : Andamanese ; Sakais of the Malay 
 Peninsula; Aetas of the Philippines; Karons of New Guinea; Kalangs 
 of Java — The Negro divisions compared — The African Negro unprogressive 
 without miscegenation — Testimony of H. H, Johnston, Manetta, Ruffin 
 and Sir Spencer St John — Historic evidence— Low state of Negro culture 
 — Two main sub-divisions : Sudanese and Bantu — The Sudanese Negroes 
 — Mixed Sudanese groups— The Fulahs— The Negroid Bantus — The Zulu- 
 Kafirs and Wa-Huma— The Bantu linguistic family— General intermingling 
 of the Sudanese and Bantu populations — Hence classification impossible 
 except on a linguistic basis — Tables of the Sudanese and Bantu groups — 
 The Oceanic Negro domain — An area of great ethnical confusion — Two 
 main sub-divisions: Insular Negroes and Negroid Australians — Nomen- 
 clature: Melanesians; Papuans — The Papuan domain, past and present — 
 The Papuan type — The Hnguistic problem — Wide diffusion of Malayo- 
 Polynesian speech not due to Malay or Polynesian Migrations — Still less 
 to Melanesian Migrations — The true explanation; the Caucasic factor — 
 The Australian sub-division — Not homogeneous — Constituent elements of 
 the Negroid Australians — and of the Tasmanians — Tasmanian culture 
 eolithic. 
 
 In our Family Tree the " Generalised Negro " appears to be 
 first detached from the parent stem. But strictly speaking it was 
 not detached at all. The Negro group is to be conceived rather 
 as remaining in the primeval home, left behind, so to say, while 
 the others passed on to their several centres of evolution. As 
 
 seen in the last chapter, this primeval home is 
 divisions- assumed to be the Indo- Austral region now flooded 
 
 African and by the Indian Ocean. But before, or simultaneously 
 
 with, the subsidence of the land, its human inhabit- 
 ants gradually withdrew westwards to Africa, northeastwards to India 
 
XI.] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 243 
 
 and Malaysia, eastwards to South Australia and Tasmania and later 
 to New Zealand. Thus from the remotest times were constituted 
 by easy and natural migrations the various Negro groups in those 
 regions on both sides of the Indian Ocean, where they have always 
 dwelt, and where they are still found, generally in association with 
 the allied anthropoid apes. Perhaps the strongest argument for the 
 original unity of all these groups, now separated by a great marine 
 basin, is afforded by the fact that the two main sections, the 
 African and Oceanic, comprise two distinct types, the tall Negro 
 and the dwarfish Negrito. As the Negrito appears to represent 
 the primitive stock, from which the Negro diverged 
 later, such a paralleHsm cannot be regarded as a Farnny°Tree. 
 mere coincidence. In the accompanying Family 
 Tree of Homo ^thiopicus are shown the main ramifications of 
 both sections and sub-sections of the Negro stock. 
 
 Here the parent stem, after throwing off the two great African 
 and Indo-Oceanic branches to the right and left (west and east), 
 soon dies out, submerged, as it were, by the rising waters of the 
 Indian Ocean. That the Negrito^ branches, from The Ne ri 
 which the Negro proper is seen to break away at an toes : two 
 
 ,-.,,. , 1 divisions. 
 
 early date in both regions, stand nearest to the 
 primitive human type, seems self-evident, if de Quatrefages' 
 description of the precursor be accepted as approximately cor- 
 rect. It would also appear that the western (African) branch has 
 on the whole preserved more of the original characters than has 
 the eastern (Indo-Oceanic). Both no doubt present in certain 
 groups (Akka, Sakai) an equal degree of prognathism, as well as 
 an equally simian expression, combined with normally brachy- 
 cephalic crania. But the African alone shows the original 
 yellowish complexion, the reddish-brown woolly head, the some- 
 what hairy body and the extremely low stature, ranging from about 
 3 ft. 4 in. to a little under 5 ft. -. Few of the Malaysians fall much 
 
 ^ Span, negrito and negrillo, diminutives of negro-, both forms occur, but 
 negrillo is little used in English writings. 
 
 - Some of the dwarfs of the vSemliki river between Lakes Albert and Albert 
 Edward are spoken of by Captain Lugard as "about 3 ft. high," and reaching 
 "to the hip-bone of Suron Adam, the Sudanese sergeant, who was about 
 6 ft. 3 in." {The Rise of our East African Evipire, II. p. 178.) But these do 
 
 16 — 2 
 
FAMILY TREE OF HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 
 
XL] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 245 
 
 below 4 ft. 6 in., while some, such as the Andamanese, rather ex- 
 ceed 5 ft. The colour also is described as deep brown or blackish, 
 so that it is not always easy to distinguish between the true Negri- 
 toes and the Negroes (Papuans, Melanesians) of Oceanica; whereas 
 in Africa no doubt ever arises. Here it may be remembered that 
 the term "gorilla" was in the first instance applied by the Cartha- 
 ginian Admiral, Hanno, not to the anthropoid so named by 
 du Chaillu, but to certain hairy women seen by him and his 
 companions on the west coast, probably the dwarfs still surviving 
 in the Ogoway basin. The Akkas, Wochua, and others of the 
 Welle basin have a still more venerable historic record. They were 
 not only known by repute to Aristotle, Herodotus, and even the 
 Homeric singers, but had already been introduced 
 into Egypt during the First Empire. At least Dr tio^s'^^ "''^'^" 
 W. Pleyte has shown ^ that the Akkas described by 
 Miani and Schweinfurth most probably represent the pygmies 
 sculptured on the tombs of Ti and Ptahhotep at Sakkarah, referred 
 to the time of Tatkara (Tankheres) of the 5th dynasty, that is, 
 according to Mariette, 3366 B.C. These figures, which are in bas- 
 relief, faithfully reproduce their racial characters, while a dwarf 
 from Beni-Hassan, in Upper Egypt, is depicted in Rossellini's 
 design with the feet turned inwards, exactly like Schweinfurth's 
 Akkas ^ Mariette^ points out that the Egyptians were acquainted 
 with the Welle lands whence they procured these dwarfs, who are 
 referred to in a hieroglyphic inscription recording that "to him 
 come the pygmies of Niam-Niam from the Southern Lands, to 
 serve in his household ^" Pleyte also mentions the well-known 
 
 not appear to have been full grown ; and the Batwa of the district north-west 
 of Luluaburg (South Congo basin) measured by Dr Ludwig Wolf, averaged 
 quite 4 feet 3 inches {Nature, March 24, 1887, p. 497). None of the four 
 Akkas brought to Europe in 1874 and 1876 (Marno and Long) exceeded 
 3 ft. 4 in, 
 
 ^ Chapitres Siipplementaires dti Livre des Marts; Traduction et Cominen- 
 taire, Leyden, 1883. 
 
 2 "lis ne surpassent pas un metre de hauteur; ils ont les pieds tourne.s 
 au dedans, ce qui rend leur marche chancelante" (il. p. 159). 
 
 ^ Scciete Kh^diviale de Geographies April, 1876. 
 
 * From Diimichen's Geographische Inschriften, PI. 31, quoted by Dr 
 rieyte. It should however be stated that the hieroglyph transcribed Nam, 
 
246 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 statue of the dwarf, Nemhotep, who had a tomb of his own dating 
 from the same 5th dynasty, and who belonged to the same group 
 as those of the Sakkarah monuments. 
 
 From Egypt, or else from Mauritania, where dwarfish tribes are 
 still spoken of\ some of these Negritoes may perhaps have found 
 their way into Europe in neolithic if not earUer times. At the 
 meeting of the British Association, Oxford, 1894, the Swiss 
 Anthropologist, Dr J. Kollmann, read a paper on "Pygmies in 
 Europe," in connection with some human remains recently ex- 
 humed from the neolithic stratum of a prehistoric station near 
 Schaffhausen. Side by side with skeletons of the normal size were 
 found four or five averaging not more than i'424 mm., say, 4 feet 
 8 inches. Reference was made in the same paper to the small 
 people about 5 feet high still surviving in Sicily and Sardinia, 
 that is, on the high road between pleistocene Africa and Europe, 
 who were regarded by Dr Kollmann, not as degenerate Europeans, 
 but as representatives of a distinct variety of mankind, which 
 occurs in several types dispersed over the globe, and which he 
 beheves to have been the precursors of the taller races of man- 
 kind. Some support is lent to this view by the folklore of many 
 northern peoples, and perhaps even by more substantial evidence, 
 such as the remains of little people said to have been found in 
 the Hebrides by Dean Monro in 7549 and by the traveller Martin 
 in about 1703, and in an island of Hudson Bay in 1631 by Foxe, 
 who tells us that "the longest corpses were not above four feet 
 long^." But the Negroid affinities of all these pygmies is doubtful. 
 Although many of the Akkas and some other groups are 
 
 described as somewhat disproportioned and top- 
 Nlgdtol"''^" heavy, with tottering gait, the African Negritoes 
 
 appear to be, on the whole, well made, except 
 perhaps for a too protuberant paunch, very active, daring hunters, 
 and fairly intelligent. Certainly the description given by Oscar 
 
 or Niam by Diimichen is read Nu and Nun by Birch arid Brugsch, and the 
 term "Niam," now applied by their neighbours to the cannibal Zandehs, can 
 hardly have been a territorial designation over 5000 years ago. 
 
 1 A. H. Keane, Africa, 1895, I. p. 86. 
 
 2 See Prof. B. C. A. Windle's Introduction to the re-issue (1894) of 
 Dr Edward Tyson's Essay Concerning the Pigmies of tJie Ancients, 1699, 
 
XL] HOMO -ETHIOPICUS. 247 
 
 Lenz of the Abongo of the Okande district, who are akin to 
 Du Chaillu's Obongo of Ashiraland, and whom he 
 
 . The Akkas 
 
 speaks of as "physically and mentally degenerate V 
 is by no means appHcable to the Negritoes in general. They are 
 in no sense a degraded race fallen from a higher state, but 
 obviously a small people arrested in their upward development 
 probably by an adverse environment. From time immemorial 
 
 AKKA OF iMANGBATTULAND. 
 
 {African Negrito Type.) 
 
 their home has been the great forest zone of Central Africa, where 
 the original yellowish brown complexion may have been preserved, 
 and where a short stature would be an advantage to a race living 
 entirely by the chase, and thus compelled to pass their lives 
 flitting about amid the tangled coils of tropical woodlands. 
 
 E. G. Donnenberg, the only European who claims to have 
 actually seen the Mauritanian dwarfs, speaks of them as "about 
 four feet high, robust and well-made, and certainly not Moors or 
 Berbers whose growth had been stunted by rickets, as they 
 differed altogether from the other inhabitants of Marocco in 
 
 1 ''Physisch und geistig degenerirt" (Skizzen atcs IV. Afrika, Berlin, 1878, 
 ch. VI.). It is noteworthy that these Abongo are stated to be "very dolicho- 
 cephalous" and of a "somewhat light chocolate-brown colour," whereas the 
 Negritoes are normally brachycephalous and yellowish. 
 
248 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 physical appearance." Junker's Wochua, south of the Akkas, are 
 stated to be "well-proportioned, though the oval-shaped head 
 seemed somewhat too large for the size of the body. In the 
 upper jaw the facial angle showed a high degree of prognathism, 
 and in those of hghter complexion the crisp hair was of a dark, 
 rusty brown hue.... Hands and feet are of elegant shape, the 
 fingers long and narrow, with relatively large nails. I found no 
 trace of steatopygia and some other features characteristic of the 
 Hottentots. All things considered, the Wochua must be regarded 
 as normal (healthy) members of a wide-spread race of remarkably 
 short stature, but otherwise fairly well-proportioned and well- 
 developed. Hence they cannot be described as a morbid, 
 degenerate people, as appears to be conjectured by Professor 
 RatzeP." 
 
 A very full account is given by Dr Ludwig Wolf of the Batwa, 
 who may be taken as typical members of the Negrito 
 family south of Congo. Here they occupy numerous 
 village settlements in the Sankuru and other river valleys, such 
 settlements being met especially in the forest glades of districts 
 inhabited by the Bakubu Bantus. They display wonderful agihty 
 both in climbing palm-trees to extract the sap, and in setting traps 
 for game. In the chase they bound through the tall herbage 
 "like grasshoppers," attacking the elephant and even the buffalo 
 with their tiny arrows and darts. They are well made with 
 absolutely "no deformity," averaging about 4 ft. 3 in. in height, 
 with yellow-brown complexion distinctly lighter than that of their 
 Bantu neighbours, short woolly hair and no beard. Dr Wolf 
 unhesitatingly connects them both with the northern Akkas and 
 with the southern Bushmen'', all being the scattered fragments of 
 a primeval dwarfish race, who are to be regarded as the true 
 autochthones of equatorial Africa. 
 
 But whatever be their ethnical relation to the equatorial Negri- 
 toes, there can be' little doubt that the Bushmen^ 
 men. (.QJ^sti|-^|■g ^j^g aboriginal element in the whole of 
 
 1 Travels, ill. pp. 84-5. 
 
 2 " Nicht zweifelhaft erscheine" {Im Innern Afrikas, pp. 258-61). 
 
 ^ This term, which of course has no ethnical value, has been adopted by the 
 English from the Dutch Bosjcsman. The scattered groups have no general 
 
XL] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 249 
 
 South Africa at least as far north as the Zambesi. Here they have 
 been gradually driven to their present domain, the Kalahari 
 Desert north of the Orange River, and Great Bushman Land, 
 south of that river, by the Bantu populations advancing south- 
 wards from the interior of the Continent. In some of their 
 physical characters, as well as in their speech, they resemble the 
 Hottentots, of whom some ethnologists regard them as a degraded 
 branch, while others look on the Hottentots as a mixed race^ 
 resulting from unions between the Bantus and the Bushmen. 
 Either view would satisfy many of the actual conditions, though it 
 seems probable that they have suffered degradation in their present 
 environment, where they have been hunted down like wild beasts 
 by Boers and Bechuanas alike, and where they find little to live 
 upon except game, snakes, lizards, locusts, roots, bulbs and 
 berries. At times they pass several days in search of food, on 
 vv'hich, when found, they gorge themselves, five persons devouring 
 a whole zebra in a couple of hours. Their weapons are the bow 
 and poisoned arrow; their dress the untanned skins of Avild beasts 
 when procurable; their dweUings either the cave or a kind of 
 "nest," formed by bending round the foliage of the bosje (bush), 
 whence their Dutch name. They are grouped in small bands 
 without any hereditary or elected chiefs, and consequently with no 
 social organization. Even the family tie has become extremely 
 loose, unions being of the most transitory nature. 
 
 Yet, debased as they are almost to the lowest level of culture 
 compatible with existence, the Bushmen are remarkably intelligent, 
 and possess a sense of art far higher than that of the surrounding 
 populations, as shown by the rock paintings of men and animals 
 true to life found in their caves, and recaUing the analogous repre- 
 sentations of the Dordogne troglodytes. These rock drawings 
 and paintings "differ much in aim and character. A large portion 
 are of a caricature class, rudely but very spiritedly drawn in black 
 
 designation, but call themselves Kwai, which answers to the Hottentot Khoi, 
 "Men," and which suppHes the plural postfix kwa, as in Saati-kiua {San- 
 kzva, Soan-kiua), the name by which the Bushmen are known to their 
 Hottentot neighbours. Cf. the Hindi log, "people," also used colloquially 
 as a personal plural ending, as in Admi-lSg, Mard-log, &c. According to 
 Hahn, the word San means native, hence A/w-z^tc/a^ Aborigines. 
 
250 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 paint. The class representing fights and hunts is a large and 
 interesting one.... Many of the drawings are representative of 
 figures and incidents among white people, also of other native 
 tribes. Some even suggest actual portraiture. The ornamentation 
 of the head-dresses, feathers, beads, tassels, &c., seems to have 
 claimed much care, and to have given the native artists great 
 pleasure in deHneation. The higher class of drawings will be seen 
 to indicate correct appreciation of the actual appearance of 
 objects; and perspective and foreshortening are found correctly 
 rendered'." The Bushmen have also a rich oral folk-lore Utera- 
 ture, consisting of legends, fables, and animal stories in which the 
 animals are made to talk each with its proper dick, not otherwise 
 heard in ordinary Bushman speech. These clicks, inarticulate 
 sounds unpronounceable by Europeans, are pecuHar to the Bush- 
 man and Hottentot languages, the former possessing six, the 
 latter four, three of which have been borrowed by the Zulu-Xosas, 
 who have been for ages in close contact with both races. 
 
 The Kalahari Bushmen are described as taJler and altogether 
 a finer race than those of Cape Colony. But reports vary; 
 nor is it always easy to sift the evidence, for the term 
 '* Bushman " is often applied in a very loose way to dispos- 
 sessed Hottentots, half-castes, or broken tribes owning neither 
 flocks nor herds. " The Bushmen in Bechuanaland in the present 
 day are following their masters' lead in the ways of civiHsation. 
 They are employed as herds and waggon servants, and on our 
 recent journey to Shoshong we found on entering Khama's country 
 that the chief had entrusted a flock of goats to the Bushmen who 
 were living at Mamabula. In the heart of the Kalahari the 
 vassals have flocks of goats of their own, while they herd also the 
 flocks of their masters"." 
 
 Although the affinities between the Bushmen and Hottentots, 
 
 both in physical type and speech, seem to be fun- 
 The Hotten- ^ameutal, the former present some sharp contrasts, 
 
 especially in their more animated expression, their 
 more furtive glance and more agile movements. The Bushman 
 
 1 Notes on a Collection of facsimile BusJunan Draivings, by Mark Hutchinson, 
 Joiirn. Ajithrop. Inst. 1882, p. 464. 
 
 2 Rev. J. Mackenzie, Blue Book, 1885, p. 63. 
 
XL] HOMO .^THIOPICUS. 25 1 
 
 in this respect may be described as mercurial, the Hottentot as 
 leaden, and the distinction applies with equal force to their mental 
 qualities. Hence although occupying a much lower position 
 socially, the Kwai appear to be endowed with a greater share of 
 natural intelligence, and H. H. Johnston, like other observers, 
 was much struck by the " mental ability " of the race, so ''strangely 
 at variance with their low physical characters \" 
 
 All things considered, it seems safe to regard the Hottentot" 
 as an intermediate form between the Bushman and the Negroid 
 Bantu, but much more closely connected with the former than 
 with the latter. This is seen, not only in their common speech, 
 but also in their common yellow or yellowish brown colour, their 
 abnormally prominent cheek bones, giving a triangular shape to 
 the face, and some other peculiar racial characters, of which the 
 tablier and steaiopygia of the women are the most remarkable. 
 But for the fact of their eugenesis both with Bantus and Euro- 
 peans these traits might almost be regarded as specific, both 
 appearing earlier in Hfe and in a more exaggerated form in the 
 Bushman, that is, the assumed original stock. In other re- 
 spects the Hottentots are tall compared with the Bushmen (5 ft. 
 4 or 5 in. and 4 ft. 8 in. respectively), with disproportionately 
 small hands and feet (like the Negritoes), feeble muscular develop- 
 ment, very broad flat nose, slightly oblique and deep-sunk eyes 
 set wide apart, pointed chin, large lobeless ears, large mouth with 
 thick pouting lips, pronounced prognathism (64 to 70), highly 
 dolichocephalic head with very low cranial capacity (1290, Broca)'^ 
 short black woolly hair. The famous "Hottentot Venus" ex- 
 amined by Cuvier, was really a Bushman woman, and consequently 
 presented all these characters in a marked degree. " She had a 
 way of pouting her lips exactly like that we have observed in the 
 orang-utan. Her movements had something abrupt and fantastic, 
 
 ^ Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1S83, p. 463. 
 
 2 HottentPt appears to be an onomatopceic term invented by the early 
 Dutch settlers to imitate certain recurrent sounds in the native language. 
 Like their Bushman kinsmen, the people call themselves KJioi, "Men," or 
 more fully, Khoi-Khoin, "Men of Men," and in some districts Hoic-Khoin, 
 "True Men," men in a preeminent sense. 
 
 ^ Dr Hermann Welcker gives for ten Bushmen 1 240, but for ten Hottentots 
 1369, which is higher than for many Negroes {Archiv fiir Anthrop. xvi.). 
 
252 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 resembling those of the ape; her Hps were monstrously large... 
 I have never seen a human head more like an ape's than that of 
 this woman \" This Hottentot Venus had a rival in prehistoric 
 times in the "Venus de Brassempouy," whose ivory statuette 
 with several others was lately found in the undisturbed Quater- 
 nary deposits of the Grotte du Pape at the station of Brassempouy 
 in the Chalosse district, Landes. M. Ed. Piette, one of the 
 explorers of the cave, describes these exceedingly realistic works 
 of art as exhibiting physical characters (pronounced steatopygia 
 and other features) analogous to those of the ancient inhabitants 
 of Flint (Somaliland?) and of the present Bushman race. Whence, 
 he asks, came these palaeolithic cave-dwellers, who were also 
 distinguished by great hairiness, thick lips, the upper overlapping 
 the lower, receding chin like that of the Naulette skull, and a 
 remarkable development of fatty growth and excrescences about 
 the pelvic region. "In quaternary times branches of the stock to 
 which they belonged must have covered the whole of Africa and 
 a part of Europe. In the Pharaonic epoch they were probably 
 already extinct in Europe; but the allied races, although driven 
 back and in a decrepid state, still occupy vast spaces from 
 Somaliland to the Cape. The Egyptians, who knew them, have 
 left us the portrait of the women of Piint, noted for their 
 gibbosit'es fes sieves. At present the adipose races are everywhere 
 dying out, despite the taste of the Negroes, and even of the 
 Berbers for voluminous forms. The SomaH and the Bushmen 
 still persist, though their inferior qualities place them at the 
 lowest rung of the social ladder''." 
 
 Whatever is to be thought of this prehistoric diffusion of the 
 Bushman or allied peoples, the former presence of 
 en?Hottentot- ^^ Hottcntot-Bushman elements all over South 
 Bushman do- Africa is proved by the geographical nomenclature 
 of the regions now occupied by the intruding 
 Bantus. Thus the names of most water-courses contain some 
 dialectic form of the word ib (ob, eb, ap, iep &c.), which in 
 
 1 Cuvier, quoted by Topinard, Anthropology, Eng. ed., pp. 493-4. 
 
 2 La Station de Brassempouy et les Statuettes humaincs de la periode glyptiqtie, 
 in VAnth-opologie, March- April, 1S95. 
 
XL] HOMO yETHIOPICUS. 253 
 
 Hottentot means "water/' or "river," as in Gar-ib, "Great 
 Water" (the Orange River), Hyg-ap, Nos-ob, Mol-op{o), and 
 others. The Wak-Wak of Edrisi's map (1154), which has so 
 greatly puzzled historical geographers, may even be the Bushman 
 Kwa-Kwa {Kwai-Kiuai)^ showing the presence of these abori- 
 gines on the east coast south of Sofala, whence "long before the 
 Portuguese circumnavigation of Africa they were driven back by 
 Kafir tribes \" 
 
 Owing to these encroachments, continued for centuries, the 
 Hottentot domain had been confined to the south-west corner of 
 the Continent at the arrival of the first Dutch settlers in the 17th 
 century. Since then it has been further reduced and broken into 
 fragments by the development of European colonisation, so that 
 at present the race is mainly represented by about 20,000 Namas, 
 who give their name to Great and Little Namaqualand", and who 
 can alone be regarded as full-blood Hottentots. All the other 
 groups, Hill Damaras, Koranas of the Upper Orange basin, 
 Griquas of Griqualand West and East, and Gonaquas about the 
 Kafirland frontier, numbering collectively about 180,000, are 
 either Hottentot-Dutch or Hottentot-Negro half-breeds mostly of 
 Dutch speech. The Namas alone still speak Hottentot, which is 
 specially remarkable as one of the few languages of non-Caucasic 
 peoples possessing grammatical gender and relational suffixes 
 scarcely to be distinguished from true inflections. It shows no 
 affinity to any other tongue except Bushman, although Lepsius 
 felt inclined to group it with Ancient Egyptian on the ground of 
 its highly developed grammatical forms. 
 
 ^ Dr Lichtenstein, Reisen, I. p. 400. So also Adelung and Vater : " Fiir 
 gewisse Gegenden ist diess volHg erweislich, indem Berge und Fliisse des 
 Landes, wo jetzt die Koosa [Ama-Xosa] wohnen, in ihren hottenlotischen 
 Namen den sichern Beweis an sich tragen, dass sie einst ein bleibender Besitz 
 der Hottentoten gewesen sind" (Berlin, ed. 1812, ill. p. 290). 
 
 2 The qtca of Namaqua is the above explained plural ending kwa.' 
 Damaraland farther north, which takes its name from the Dama-Herero 
 (Hottentot-Bantu) half-breeds, should be Damaqualand. The ra is really a 
 feminine dual form, so that Damaraland means literally "the land of the two 
 Dama women." When the first explorers reached that region they asked its 
 name, to which the guide answered Damara in reference to two native women 
 visible at the time in the distance. 
 
254 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 As already seen de Quatrefages assigns a vast domain to 
 the eastern (Indo-Oceanic) Negritoes, whom he 
 Nl^rlt^e"^"^^ represents as having left traces of their presence 
 " depuis la Nouvelle-Guine'e jusqii'au Golfe Persiqiie 
 et des archipels malais au Japon," besides forming the substratum 
 of the Dravidian and other populations in India and along the 
 southern slopes of the Himalayas \ But, apart from vague refer- 
 ences to Asiatic "Ethiopians" in Persia by Ctesias, PHny, and 
 other ancient writers, and to a dark element in Indo-China by the 
 Chinese records, there is no proof at all of Negrito populations 
 anywhere on the Asiatic mainland, except in the Malay Peninsula 
 and possibly in India, precisely the very regions wliere they 
 might be looked for. During his eastward migrations from the 
 subsiding Indo-African Continent, primitive man 
 element in would ncccssarily rcach both of these regions, India 
 
 ^^"^^^' directly, the Malay Peninsula through the Eastern 
 
 Archipelago at that time forming part of the mainland, from which 
 it is even now separated only by shallow waters scarcely fifty 
 fathoms deep. Southern India itself is merely " the eastern half 
 of a once more extensive land area," the gradual subsidence of 
 which "took place during the last great period of earth-move- 
 ments," which began towards the close of the miocene, and which 
 "reached their maximum in the pliocene period^" thus giving 
 time for pliocene man to reach the Indian mainland. Hence the 
 now generally admitted black substratum, forming the autochtho- 
 nous element in that region, is no more than might be expected. 
 Yet the real character of this element has given rise to much con- 
 troversy, and owing to the absence of distinctly woolly hair, 
 marked prognathism and brachycephaly amongst the low-caste 
 aborigines of the Deccan, many ethnologists still deny the presence 
 of true Negritoes in the peninsula. "Mop-heads" somewhat of 
 the Papuan type are shown in a group of Veddahs of Ceylon 
 photographed by M. de la Croix and reproduced by de Quatre- 
 fages (ii. p. 318). But it may be doubted whether any woolly hair, 
 such as is common to all known African and Oceanic Negritoes, 
 
 1 Races Hnmahics, II. p. 351. 
 
 2 R. D. Oldham, The Evolution of Indian Geography, Jour. Geo. Soc. 
 March, 1894, pp. 176-7. 
 
XL] HOMO /ETHIOPICUS. 255 
 
 has yet been seen in India proper. " The hair," writes Mr James 
 Dallas, " is also black, but has never been stated with certainty to 
 present the woolly character of the Negro ; but I would mention 
 that to the best of my belief I have myself seen natives of India 
 with unquestionably woolly hair. The reiteration of the contrary 
 statement has, however, so unsettled my mind on the subject that 
 I should now be loth to pronounce with certainty upon so simple 
 a question \" Fr. Miiller also tells us that "mention is every- 
 where made of crisp (" gekrauselte ") often even of woolly hair""; 
 but the statement is too vague to decide anything. On the other 
 hand E. Callamand describes the hair of the Mundas (aborigines of 
 Baghalpur) as " tantot Hsses et raides, tantot frise's," and this 
 authority asserts that no woolly hair has yet been found in India, 
 with a single doubtful exception ; he adds that the blacks of India 
 are far removed from the brachycephalous Negritoes ^ Still more 
 conclusive is the evidence of F. Jagor and G. Koerbin, who made 
 a careful study of 254 members of 54 low-caste and out-caste 
 tribes of the Madras presidency, but failed to discover any woolly 
 hair, all being either schlicht (straight), ivellig (wavy) or at most 
 kraus or gekrduselt (crisp or curly). The colour of the skin was 
 mostly very dark, but never quite black, the darkest being "a 
 somewhat shiny grey-black"'." Three only of the heads were brachy- 
 cephalous, all the rest being either dolicho-, sub-dolicho- or even 
 per-doHchocephalous, so that, all things considered, the dark 
 element in India would appear no longer to represent the original 
 reddish-haired yellowish Negrito, but an intermediate form between 
 that type and the Papuan, generally modified by later intruding 
 Kolarian, Dra vidian, and Aryan populations ^ Referring to the 
 
 1 Jour. Amhrop. Inst. 1S85, p. 308. 
 
 2 Ethnographie, p. 139. 
 
 3 Le Crd7ie des Noirs deTInde, in R^v. d: Aiithrop. Oct. 1878, pp. 607-625. 
 ^ Zeitschrift fiir Ethuologie, 18S7, Part I. "Das ganz glanzende blauschwarz 
 
 vermisse ich," the nearest being "ein etwas glanzendes grauschwarz." 
 
 5 It is noteworthy that M. Rousselet's portrait of a Jangali (properly Juang) 
 approaches the Oceanic Papuan in the development of the nose and super- 
 ciliary arches more closely than that of any other Continental dark type. 
 These "Jungle people" who are said by Dr Caldwell to be the most primi- 
 tive tribe in all India, live in the forest district a little north of Cuttack. They 
 are represented by one skull in the Barnard Davis collection. 
 
256 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 worthless nature of the evidence reUed on by de Quatrefages (in 
 his work on the Pygmies) for the former wide-spread diffusion of 
 the Negrito element, the late Professor V. Ball declares that he 
 never met the slightest trace of this element amongst the 
 numerous tribes visited by him "during many years' travelling in 
 the hilly tracts of Western Bengal, the Central Provinces and the 
 Northern Provinces of Madras. Individuals belonging to different 
 tribes with curly, not really woolly, hair, are occasionally to be 
 seen; but I venture to think that such occasional freaks are 
 casual, wholly without significance, although they were regarded 
 as evidence of a Negroid element in the population by the late 
 Sir George Campbell ^" 
 
 Hence we should no longer speak of Indo-Oceanic, but only 
 ^^ ^ .of Oceanic, Negritoes, and even these differ in one 
 
 The Oceanic > o ' 
 
 Negrito material respect from their African congeners. The 
 
 '^°"^^' original yellowish brown colour of the skin appears 
 
 to have everywhere given place to various shades of dark brown 
 and black, as amongst the surrounding Papuan populations. The 
 •Oceanic is even more fragmentary than the African domain, and 
 the true Negrito element, formerly widespread throughout Ma- 
 laysia, is now confined to the Andaman Islands, the Malay 
 Peninsula, the Philippines and parts of New Guinea. A detailed 
 description of the several groups would be foreign to the purpose 
 of this broad classification, and a general survey with a view to 
 establishing their racial unity must suffice. 
 
 The Andamanese islanders, formerly spoken of as " Min- 
 
 copies," present what Flower calls an infantile 
 mane\^"'^^" Ncgro type^ although in respect of stature they 
 
 stand at the head of all Negrito peoples, averaging 
 about 4 ft. 10 in. Mr E. H. Man, who has made a special study 
 
 1 Nature, May 23, 1895, p. 80. 
 
 2 Osteology and affifiities of the Natives of the Adamanese Islands, in your. 
 Anthrop. Inst. 1879, pp. 132-3. Here the Andamanese cranium is shown to be 
 ■"as distinct as possible" from the Melanesian, and these islanders are spoken of 
 " as representing an infantile, undeveloped or primitive form of the type from 
 which the African Negroes on the one hand, and the Melanesians [Papuans] on 
 the other... may have sprung," exactly in accordance with the views here 
 advocated. 
 
XL] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 2$/ 
 
 of this race\ describes them as a homogeneous people, everywhere 
 presenting the same uniform Negrito characters, short woolly 
 black hair, very dark, almost black complexion, somewhat softened 
 or undeveloped Negro features. They occupy a very low social 
 state, living almost exclusively by hunting and fishing, in isolated 
 groups of 50 to 80 persons, who wear scarcely any clothing and 
 form both permanent and temporary camps of palm-leaf huts, 
 varying in size and durability. They have names only for one 
 and two, although able to count with the fingers up to ten, and 
 otherwise show a considerable degree of intelligence as well as 
 great affection for their women and children. Their social con- 
 dition lends no support to the "cattle-herd" theory (p. 14), and 
 the ferocious character formerly attributed to them is shown to be 
 the reverse of the truth, and based on misunderstandings between 
 them and strangers visiting the islands sometimes to kidnap the 
 natives and sell them as slaves in the ]\Ialay markets. Since the 
 British occupation none of the few recorded cases of hybridism 
 have survived more than seven or eight years ; the full-blood 
 aborigines appear to be also dying out, numbering at present 
 (1891) less than 4,000. The language, of which there are two 
 distinct branches, is entirely unlike any other known form of speech, 
 although in its morphology presenting certain analogies both to the 
 Dravidian of India and to the Australian family. 
 
 Geologically the archipelago is connected with the opposite 
 mainland, so that migrations were formerly possible 
 to the Malay Peninsula, where several small groups toes'of^he"" 
 of Negrito aborigines still survive. The Sakais, Malay Penin- 
 Samangs, Jakuns, or Orang Beniia (" Men of the 
 Soil ") as they are variously called by their Malay neighbours, are 
 indeed more numerous than was formerly supposed, and, according 
 to the Penang Administration Report for 1890, there may be over 
 5,000 in the Ulu Pahang district alone. Here they form two 
 distinct tribes, calling themselves Sen-oi and Tem-be, living for 
 the most part in small groups of from two to three families, with 
 Httle social organization. They speak a stock language, of which 
 till recently little was known beyond the fact that it possesses 
 
 ^ In a series of papers contributed to the Jour. Anthrop. hist. 1882-83. 
 K. 17 
 
258 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 SAKAI OF MALAY PENINSULA. 
 
 {Oceanic Negrito Type.) 
 
 ^^'Zi^-'m^^i. 
 
 
 SAMANG OF MALAY PENINSULA. 
 
 (Oceanic Negrito Type.) 
 
XL] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 259 
 
 names only for the first three or four numerals. But Mr Hugh 
 Clifford has now made a study of the Sen-oi dialect, of which he 
 publishes a glossary and grammar, with phonetic rules, showing 
 no connection with any other known language \ There is almost 
 everywhere much mixture with the surroui^ding Malay populations, 
 resulting in many transitional forms. But the full-blood aborigines, 
 as studied by Miklukho-Maclay, present the true Negrito type, 
 even in an exaggerated form, with black woolly hair, dispropor- 
 tionately large round head, and extreme prognathism. '' This 
 people undoubtedly belongs to the Melanesian stockl" Special 
 features are a very crisp black beard, a "third eyelid" or inner 
 fold as in the Mongolic group, and the position of the three outer 
 toes, which are turned obliquely towards the two inner, as in so 
 many apes. This observer tells us that the Malays distinguish 
 two groups, the Orang-Snkai-Liar, who are quite wild,, keeping 
 entirely aloof in the recesses of the forests, and the Orang-Sakai- 
 Dina, who associate freely with the settled communities. One of 
 Maclay's three photographs is described by Giglioli as presenting 
 " a highly remarkable exaggeration of the bestial characters, exceed- 
 ing even the Kalang of Java in its prognathism. . .a real chimpanzee 
 profile and I believe the highest degree of prognathism possible in 
 a human being l'' 
 
 Like those of the Malay Peninsula, the Negritoes of the 
 Philippines, collectively known as Aetas*, are shown ^j^^ Negri- 
 by Dr Blumentritt to be far more numerous than toes of the 
 
 1x1 r nr Philippines 
 
 IS commonly supposed. It also appears from Mon- 
 
 tano's recent explorations in Mindanao that they are very numerous 
 
 1 your. Straits Branch R. As. Soc. No. 24, 1892. 
 
 2 Ethnological Excursion in Johor. By " Melanesian " is here to be under- 
 stood "Negrito," the Russian traveller habitually using the former term in a 
 general way for all the dark Oceanic populations. 
 
 3 "L' ultimo limite al quale possa giungere il prognatismo in un essere 
 \xxi\sc^o'' {Nuove notizie sui Popoli Negroidi delV Asia e specialmente sui Negriti, 
 Florence, 1879, p. 7). 
 
 * This term, which occurs in a great variety of forms — Acta, Aita, Atta, 
 Ate, Eta, Ita, &c.— has in the Tagala language the meaning of "black," being 
 cognate to the Malay j^!'^ (hetam). Like the corresponding Mamdniia 
 ("Aborigines"), it is applied both to the full-blood and to the half-caste 
 Negritoes. 
 
 17 — 2 
 
260 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 in that large island as well as in some other districts, where their 
 presence had not previously been suspected. But they are not 
 always easily distinguished from the surrounding populations, 
 many having adopted the dress and usages of the Malay intruders. 
 Like the Sakais, many of the Aetas have formed close unions 
 with these Malays, giving rise to various shades of transition between 
 the two races, as shown in Dr A. B. Meyer's Album vo?i Philip- 
 pinen-Typen, Dresden, 1885. Many of the photographs in this 
 
 AETA WOMAN OF LUZON, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 
 
 {^Oceanic Negrito Type.) 
 
 collection are those of full-blood Aetas from Luzon and other 
 parts of the Archipelago, showing the woolly hair, crushed nose, 
 broad at base, deeply depressed at root, thickish and everted 
 under-lip, sunken eyes set wide apart, long arms, slender extremi- 
 ties, and wild look of the true Negrito. Some, especially of the 
 children, have a distinct Negro expression, heightened by the low 
 bulging frontal bone, so that they might well be taken for natives 
 of Central Africa. In several a transition may be suspected 
 between the Negrito proper and the Papuan, as might be expected 
 from the position of the Archipelago on the confines of the 
 respective domains. The same inference may be drawn from the 
 physical appearance of the Karons, a group of Negritoes visited 
 
 in 1879 by M. Raffray, in the Arfak Hills, North- 
 Guln^ar' ^^'est New Guinea ^ All alike are extremely rude, 
 
 dwelling in wretched hovels of foliage and branches 
 
 Tow- du Monde, xxxvii. 
 
XL] 
 
 HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 
 
 261 
 
 and in some districts with no habitations, wearing no clothes 
 beyond a few strips of bark dangling from a string round the 
 loins, and (the Karons) addicted to cannibalism. " In the pure 
 Negrito the height is said to average 4 ft. 10 in., but Semper's 
 estimate is two or three inches less. The skull is brachycephalic, 
 the chest small, the legs without calves, and the feet turned 
 inwards. Their prognathous and deeply-Hned faces give them an 
 ape-like appearance. The nose is broad and flat, and the nostrils 
 
 t&^ 
 
 AETA WOMAN OF LUZON. 
 
 {Ocea7iic Negrito Type.) 
 
 dilated, and the slender build and small size of the body cause 
 the head to appear disproportionately large... Their intelligence is 
 of a very low type, and according to Montano they are unable to 
 count above five... They are monogamists without exception... 
 Mr J. Barnard Davis, from the examination of three fine crania, 
 considers the Negrito to be distinct from any other race'." 
 
 The Negritoes have left no traces of their presence in Formosa, 
 if they ever reached that island, or in any other part of Oceanica^ 
 
 1 Dr F. H. H. Guillemard, Australasia, vol. ii. (Stanford Series, new 
 issue) 1894, pp. 47-9. 
 
 2 It should, however, be stated that during his scientific mission (1890-93) 
 to Malaysia and Polynesia, Dr H. ten Kate collected what he considered 
 
262 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 except Java, home of the recently extinct Kalangs, in some 
 
 respects the most ape-Uke of human beings. This 
 
 The Negri- ^^y -^^ inferred from the startHngly simian expression 
 
 of Ardi, almost the last of his race, who lately died 
 
 at Buitenzorg near Batavia, and of whom photographs have been 
 
 preserved. Such a juxtaposition will cause no surprise, when it is 
 
 remembered that Java must have been one of the first regions 
 
 ARDI, A KALANG OF JAVA. 
 
 {Oceanic Negrito Type.) 
 
 reached by primitive man and his miocene precursor during their 
 eastward migrations from the subsiding Indo-African Continent. 
 Dr A. B. Meyer, who devotes a monograph to the subject \ speaks 
 of a few of the Kalang tribe as still surviving, and Van Musschen- 
 
 strong evidence of the former presence of Negritoes in Timor and the 
 neighbouring islets of Samu, Roti and Savu, and especially in the Hokor 
 district, Flores. From the appearance of tlie natives he infers that Timor was 
 originally occupied by Negritoes, who were afterwards reduced and absorbed 
 or exterminated by later Papuan intruders. He thinks with Crawfurd that 
 here have been developed transitional types, the Negrito element prevailing in 
 the west, the Indonesian in the centre of the island, though it is not quite 
 clear what meaning this observer attaches to the term "Indonesian" (Tijd- 
 schriftvan het Kon. Nederl. Aardrijkskmidig Genootschap, Leyden, 1894). 
 ^ Die Kalangs aufjava, re-issued from the Lcopoldina, August 1877. 
 
XL] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 263 
 
 broek, to whom we are indebted for Ardi's photographs, informed 
 Prof. Veth of Leyden, that " he has met with the same type in 
 other parts of Java, though not so pronounced, and that it could 
 always be traced to a Kalang origin^" That they were the 
 aborigines of Java gradually exterminated by the intruding Malays 
 is not disputed, while Van Musschenbroek regarded them as akin 
 to the other Negritoes of Malaysia. There could be no doubt on 
 this point, but for the fact that when the photograph was taken 
 Ardi's head was shaven, and since then Prof O. Beccari, who 
 saw him in 1878, found that the fresh growth was smooth, not 
 woolly or frizzly, as had been expected'. What, then, is to be said 
 of this Simian group, which is certainly not Malay, and presumably 
 not Negrito? It has been shown that the precursor was most 
 probably furry, with a woolly under and a sleek outer coat, and it 
 is conceivable that in a peculiar environment like that of Java it 
 might have been advantageous to shed the wool and retain the 
 sleek hair, together with all the other physical characters of the 
 primitive Negrito. Analogous processes are common enough 
 especially amongst the ovidae, the European sheep changing its 
 wool to hair in tropical lands, while in Sierra Leone all acquire 
 black heads in a single generation ^ No doubt the character of 
 the hair, fixed by long ages, is now extremely persistent in the 
 human varieties ; but it may have been less stable at an earlier 
 period of their evolution. In any case it is readily modified by 
 miscegenation, which might also be suspected amongst the mori- 
 bund Kalangs now dispersed as menials and artisans amid the 
 Malay populations. Only in that case the doctrine of correlation 
 of parts would lead us to expect corresponding modifications in 
 the other characters. 
 
 Passing from the Negrito to the Negro proper, the most 
 important point is the now established physical 
 identity of the African and Oceanic branches. The DiVi's%ns!^'^° 
 evidence bearing on this question has been sum- 
 med up in a masterly manner by de Quatrefages, from whose com- 
 
 1 Letter to A. H. Keane, Oct. 16, 1880. 
 
 2 "I suoi capelli, cresciuti da quando fa fotogiafato, sono lisci" (E. H. 
 Giglioli, loc. cit., p. 7). 
 
 3 Winwood Reade, The African Sketch-book. 
 
264 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 parative craniological 
 
 tables^ are taken 
 
 the subjoined broad 
 
 results : — ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cranial 
 
 Cephalic 
 
 Facial 
 
 Nasal 
 
 
 Capacity 
 
 Index 
 
 Index 
 
 Index 
 
 S. W. Sudanese 
 
 1300 cc. 
 
 69-78 
 
 71-09 
 
 54-00 
 
 S. E. Sudanese 
 
 1355 
 
 71-66 
 
 71-09 
 
 54-16 
 
 Mandingans 
 
 1460 
 
 72-82 
 
 68-i8 
 
 54-00 
 
 Serrers 
 
 1490 
 
 69-79 
 
 72-51 
 
 54-54 
 
 Krumen 
 
 1445 
 
 72-28 
 
 69-16 
 
 51*92 
 
 N. W. New Guinea 
 
 - 1305 
 
 7I-II 
 
 71-42 
 
 55-10 
 
 S. E. New Guinea 
 
 1385 
 
 71-89 
 
 69-92 
 
 53-56 
 
 New Hebrides 
 
 1485 
 
 68-42 
 
 69-69 
 
 54-16 
 
 Loyalty Is. 
 
 1460 
 
 69-84 
 
 68-38 
 
 51-92 
 
 New Caledonia 
 
 1445 
 
 69-66 
 
 67-40 
 
 52-47 
 
 Africans (mean) 
 
 1424-2 
 
 71-23 
 
 70-04 
 
 54*49 
 
 Papuans „ 
 
 1412-5 
 
 70-38 
 
 68-87 
 
 53-03 
 
 When to these anatomical resemblances are added such out- 
 ward characters as a normally dark complexion, hair uniformly 
 black and either frizzly or woolly in texture, the parallelism seems 
 complete. Yet there are differences, such as the shorter stature, 
 larger nose often arched and with downward tip, and generally 
 milder expression of the Papuans, by which they may nearly 
 always be distinguished at a glance from the African blacks. 
 
 But the independent and simultaneous evolution of two types 
 so nearly alike on either side of the Indian Ocean remains a 
 remarkable phenomenon, which seems more than a mere coinci- 
 dence, especially when the similarly independent or apparently 
 independent evolution of two Negrito sub-types in the same 
 regions is borne in mind. The explanation seems to be that both 
 were already partly developed in the common centre of evolution, 
 and after the dispersion east and west continued their evolution 
 in the direction already taken. Then the observable differences 
 would readily be accounted for by the influences of the different 
 environments, both tropical, but one mainly continental, the other 
 mainly Oceanic. 
 
 These differences are even more marked in the mental than in 
 
 ^ Races Humaines, ii. pp. 319-20. 
 
XL] HOMO yETHIOPICUS. 26$ 
 
 the physical order. In some respects there is perhaps not much 
 to choose between the two. CannibaHsm was at no very remote 
 period universal in both areas, although probably of a milder 
 character in the east than in the west, where even since the 
 " Partition " scenes of incredible brutality and atrocity have been 
 witnessed in the Congo basing But the Papuan stands intellect- 
 ually at a somewhat higher level than the African. He is less of 
 an " overgrown child,'' more capable of social progress, less grossly 
 superstitious, and possesses a much higher sense of Art, as seen 
 by the splendid ethnographic collections recently made in the 
 western parts of New Guinea by the agents of the Dutch Govern- 
 ment^ 
 
 Reference has already been made (p. 44) to the apparent 
 incapacity of the full-blood African Negro to make ^j^^ African 
 any permanent advance bevond his present normal Negro unpro- 
 
 ' gressive. 
 
 condition without extraneous aid. In fact without 
 miscegenation he seems to have no future, a truth which but for 
 false sentiment and theological prejudice would have long since 
 been universally recognised. Commissioner H. H. Johnston, 
 than whom no better authority could be appealed to, fully agrees 
 with the Negro writer who holds that ''the pure and unadulterated 
 Negro cannot as a rule advance with any certainty of stability 
 above his present level of culture; that he requires the admixture 
 of a superior type of man." But the white and Testimony 
 black races "are too widely separated in type to of H.H.John- 
 produce a satisfactory hybrid." Hence he thinks 
 that "the admixture of yellow that the Negro requires should 
 come from India, and that Eastern Africa and British Central 
 Africa should become the America of the Hindu. The mixture 
 of the two races would give the Indian the physical development 
 
 1 The French explorer M. Fondese speaks of paddocks where "human 
 cattle" were kept and fattened for the market, like stall-fed oxen. These were 
 to be seen in almost every village in the Ubangi valley, and so resigned were 
 the victims to their fate, that they actually refused the chance of freedom offered 
 them by M. Fondese. 
 
 2 F. S. A. De Clercq and J. D. E. Schmeltz, Ethnographische Beschrijving 
 van de West- en Noordktist van Nederlandsch Nietnv-Guinea, 1893. To these 
 have now (1895) been added the collections made especially by Prof. A. C. 
 Hadden in British New Guinea. 
 
266 ETHNOLOGY. [CIIAP. 
 
 which he lacks, and he in his turn would transmit to his half 
 Negro offspring the industry, ambition, and aspiration towards a 
 civilised life which the Negro so markedly lacks \" 
 
 In reply to those who attribute the backward state of the 
 African Negro to baneful European and Mohammadan influences, 
 it may be pointed out, first that Islam has on the whole been far 
 more beneficial than injurious, as shown by the superior condition 
 of those Sudanese populations, such as the Mandingans, Hausas 
 and Sonrhai, who have been long in association with the Arab 
 and Berber intruders; second, that the social status of the Negro 
 masses is antecedent to all contact with European or any other 
 foreign peoples. As already expliined, their inherent mental 
 inferiority, almost more marked than their physical characters, 
 depends on physiological causes by which the intellectual faculties 
 seem to be arrested before attaining their normal development. 
 ^ , Even in the Southern United States under the plan- 
 
 ofManetta, , . . , ^ 
 
 tation system Filippo Manetta noticed that "the 
 Negro children were sharp, intelligent, and full of vivacity, but on 
 approaching the adult period a gradual change set in. The 
 intellect seemed to become clouded, animation giving place to a 
 sort of lethargy, briskness yielding to indolence. We must 
 necessarily infer that the development of the Negro and White 
 proceeds on different lines. While with the latter the volume of 
 the brain grows with the expansion of the brain-pan, in the 
 former the growth of the brain is on the contrary arrested by the 
 premature closing of the cranial sutures and lateral pressure of the 
 frontal bone-." 
 
 Has any real improvement taken place since the emancipation 
 
 anywhere in the New World, where the conditions are more 
 
 favourable than in the cradle of the race? After a lengthened 
 
 experiment to raise the Virginian freedmen by education, involv- 
 
 ^^ , „ ^ ing an expenditure of about Xi, 000,000, the late 
 
 of Col. Ruffin, 01 ^'o ? J 7 
 
 Col. Frank G. Rufiin finds the outcome to be that 
 "so far from having been fitted by education for the discharge of 
 civil or social duties, or from having been improved in conduct or 
 
 ^ Report of the first three years'' Administration of British Central Africa, 
 August 1894, p. 31. 
 
 2 La Razza Negra &c., Turin, 1864, p. 20. 
 
XI.] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 26/ 
 
 morals, they have absohitely deteriorated and have given no 
 promise of amendment in any direction." This observer also 
 notices "that negro children up to the age of puberty learn remark- 
 ably well, at least by rote, but after that period of life has been 
 reached they became incurably stupid and make no further 
 progress'." Hence "there has been no development of religious, 
 intellectual, moral or industrial advancement in the Negro," who 
 should be spoken of rather as non-moral than immoral, and who 
 is here declared to be "a political idiot," an appreciation fully 
 borne out by the results of a century of misrule amongst the freed- 
 men and freemen of Hayti. Here the reversions to vaudoux and 
 other pagan rites, to snake worship, cannibalism, and similar 
 horrors are fully vouched for by Sir Spencer St John, 
 who had official knowledge of these matters, and stjohn!'^"'^^'^ 
 who after a residence of over twenty years in " The 
 Black Republic" was fain to confess that the greater his experience 
 the less he " thought of the capacity of the Negro to hold an 
 independent position. As long as he is influenced by contact 
 with the white man, as in the southern portion of the United 
 States, he gets on very well [?]. But place him free from all such 
 influence, as in Hayti, and he shows no signs of improvement; on 
 the contrary he is gradually retrograding to the African tribal 
 customs, and without exterior pressure will fall into the state of the 
 inhabitants of the Congo. If this were only my own opinion, I 
 should hesitate to express it so positively; but I have found no 
 dissident voice amongst experienced residents since I first went to 
 Hayti in January 1863"." 
 
 In Africa itself all social institutions are at the same low level, 
 and throughout the historic period have made no 
 perceptible advance except under the stimulus of gv^e^nce*^ 
 foreign influences. Rehgion is a system of pure 
 fetishism and ancestry-worship, associated with a universal belief 
 in witchcraft and such sanguinary rites as those of the "customs" till 
 recently practised in Dahomey and Ashanti. Slavery, 
 where not checked by European governments, NegrocSture. 
 2orevails everywhere both as a local institution and 
 
 ^ The Cost and Outcome of Negro Education in F/;-^/';/m, Richmond, 1889. 
 2 Hayti, or The Black Republic, 1884, p. 131. 
 
268 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 a branch of the "export trade." The great bulk of the natives 
 are still in the tribal state, while in the kingdoms founded in 
 Upper Guinea, Ulunda, Buganda and elsewhere, the exercise of 
 autocratic rule has nearly always been marked by the most wanton 
 cruelties. The administration of justice is regulated, not so much 
 by any sense of right or wrong, as by the caprice of the king, who 
 is himself often in the power of the "witch doctor/' Without 
 external aid, no Negro people have ever reduced their language to 
 written form, so that "Hterature" is purely oral, and limited to a 
 few tribal legends, some folklore, proverbs, and songs of the 
 simplest kind. The arts are restricted mainly to coarse weaving, 
 pottery, agriculture, wood carving, and the smelting and working 
 of iron and copper, in which alone real skill and originality have 
 been displayed. Architecture has no existence, nor are there any 
 monumental ruins or stone structures in any part of Negroland 
 except those of Sudan and Matabililand erected under Arab and 
 Himyaritic influences. "No full-blood Negro has ever been 
 distinguished as a man of science, a poet, or an artist; and the 
 fundamental equality claimed for him by ignorant philanthropists 
 is belied by the whole history of the race throughout the historic 
 period ^" This is not the language of prejudice, of racial or 
 religious bias, but the sober truth, frankly admitted by the Negro- 
 philes themselves "behind the scenes." "In Massachusetts," writes 
 Theodore Parker to Miss Hunt, "there are no laws now to keep 
 the black man from any pursuit, any office that he will; but there 
 has never been a rich Negro m New England... none eminent 
 in anything except the calHng of a waiter ^" 
 
 ^ A. H. Keane, Encyclopcedia Britannica, Art. Negro, 9th ed. 
 
 - Letter, Nov. 10, 1857, quoted by J. R. Maxwell, almost the only "Negro- 
 of pure descent," as he calls himself, who has ever written a book {7'he Negro 
 Question, 1892, p. 36). Dr Blyden, author of Christianity, Islam and the 
 Negro Race, is also a Negro, or at least Negroid. No other instance has been 
 recorded, although it is claimed for the Vei people of the West Coast that, like 
 the Cherokees, they have invented an alphabet. The matter is involved in 
 some mystification and needs further inquiry before the claim can be admitted. 
 In any case it appears that the Vei are a branch of the Mandingans, who 
 have been subject to Arab and Berber influences for nearly a thousand years 
 (Capt. liinger, Du Niger ait Golfe de Giiint!e, 1892, II. p. 213). 
 
XL] HOMO .^THIOPICUS. 269 
 
 On linguistic grounds the African blacks are conveniently 
 grouped in two main sub-divisions, the northern 
 
 Sudanese, occupying a region of great Hnguistic sub^w^foSs, 
 
 confusion, and the southern Bantus, amongst whom Sudanese and 
 
 Bantu. 
 
 a remarkable uniformity of speech prevails every- 
 where, except in the now contracted Bushman-Hottentot area. 
 Sudan, which in its widest sense comprises the whole region 
 stretching from the Sahara towards the equator, and from the 
 Atlantic to the Red Sea, has with some reason been always 
 regarded as the true home of the African Negroes, and in fact was 
 so named from them by the mediaeval Arab writers \ This is the 
 "Black Zone" in a pre-eminent sense, for here far 
 more than south of the equator the Negro type is eslNegroes"' 
 found in almost "ideal perfection," as amongst the 
 Upper Guinea populations, the Serers of Senegambia, the Gallinas 
 of Sierra Leone, the Sienufs within the Niger bend, the Mosgu of 
 Lake Chad, the Fur dominant in Dar-Fiir^, the Kordofan Nubas, 
 the Dinkas and Shilluks of the Upper Nile, the A-Barambo, 
 Zandehs and other of the Upper Welle Basin. During his excur- 
 sion up the Nile Valley, the eminent French anthropologist, 
 Dr E. T. Hamy, examined several specimens of Sudanese and 
 Nilotic natives, presenting the usual Negro traits, such as great 
 prognathism, high doHchocephaly and hypsistenocephaly, slender 
 legs without calves, broad flat feet and larkspur heel ("talons forte- 
 ment saillants en arriere"), and comparing these with observations 
 made in other parts, he was satisfied as to "the indissoluble unity 
 of the Western and Eastern Sudanese, a unity since then definitely 
 confirmed to my mind by a large number of anatomical facts^" 
 
 But although Negro blood is almost everywhere dominant, 
 Sudan, taken as a whole, is far from a homogeneous 
 ethnical region. The greater part of the lands nese Groups.^" 
 between the Nile and the coast are comprised within 
 
 1 The full expression is Bildd es-Siiddn (^ij|^-«il iS^^)? "Land of the 
 Blacks," whence the terms Nigri/ia, Negroland, figuring on all the old maps of 
 Africa. 
 
 - Arab. Ddr, country, region »S:c., of frequent occurrence in East Sudan: 
 Dar-Fur, Dar-Nuba, Dar-Fertit &c. 
 
 3 Rro. d'Anthrop. 1^^ serie, iv. 1881, p. 225. 
 
270 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 the Hamito-Semitic domain ; other Hamite and Semite (Berber 
 and Arab) communities occur both in the east (Middle Nile, 
 Kordofan, Dar-Fiir, Waday, Lake Chad), and in the West (within 
 the Niger bend and Senegal basin), while the ethnical " divides " 
 are everywhere occupied rather by mixed Negroid than by full- 
 blood Negro peoples. Such are, going eastwards, the Senegambian 
 Toucouleurs, the Sonrhay of the Middle Niger, the Central 
 Sudanese Hausas, Bornus and Baghirmi, the Mabas of Waday, 
 the Base (Kunama), Barea, Shangalla and others of the Abyssinian 
 slopes. The Base, however, to judge from the figures reproduced 
 by Mr F. L. James, represent an extremely low and even repulsive 
 Negro type\ A difficulty is presented by the Fulahs, Moham- 
 madan pastors, who were formerly dispersed in small 
 communities throughout West and Central Sudan, 
 but who, led by their warlike and fanatical chief, Othman Dan 
 Fodio, rapidly overran nearly the whole region between Lake 
 Chad and the Niger, and after overthrowing the native Hausa 
 States (1800 — 1810), founded the present "empire" of Sokoto, 
 with the vassal kingdoms of Gando, Nupe', and Adamawa. By 
 some they are classed with the Negroes, by others with the 
 Tuaregs (Saharan Berbers), while others again have brought them 
 all the way from Malaysia. But this is not necessary, and when 
 studied in their original homes — the Futa-Toro and Futa-Jalon 
 districts, Senegambia — the Fulahs are found, despite their present 
 Negro speech, to be of Hamitic type, possibly representing the 
 Leukaethiopi (" White Ethiopians ") located by Pliny south of the 
 Mauritanian Getulians. Grimal de Guirodon, who knew them 
 well, describes the full-blood Fulahs as of reddish-brown or light 
 chestnut colour, with crisp but not woolly hair, straight and even 
 aquihne nose, regular features, and other characters separating 
 them entirely from the Negro division ^ Hence, despite Fr. 
 Miiller's " Nuba-Fulah Family," they have no connection either in 
 type or speech with the black Nubas of Kordofan. 
 
 In the Bantu domain, which meets the Sudanese a little north 
 
 ^ The Wild Tribes of the Soudan, 1883; see especially the frontispiece, "A 
 Base Professional Beauty." 
 2 Les Pills, i^^-j, passim. 
 
XI.] 
 
 HOMO ^TH[OPICUS. 
 
 271 
 
 of the Cameroons on the west coast, and about the 
 
 north end of Lake Albert Nyanza on the east side, Bantus^^^'^°^'^ 
 
 there are certainly some groups about the Lower 
 
 Limpopo, Lake Tanganyika, the Ogoway and Lower Congo 
 
 basins, which it is difficult to distinguish physically from the true 
 
 Negroes. But, speaking broadly, the Bantu populations show 
 
 marked modifications of this type in their lighter colour, larger 
 
 cranial capacity, smaller teeth and less pronounced prognathism. 
 
 A ZULU GIRL OF NAT/.L. 
 
 {Bantu Type) 
 
 They are also distinctly more intelligent, more civilised, and more 
 
 capable of upward development than the full-blood Negro. The 
 
 Zulu-Xosas (Zulu-Kafirs) of the extreme south-east, 
 
 who stand out conspicuously in all these respects, 
 
 are taken as typical members of the division, and 
 
 from their language has been adopted the term Bcntu (properly 
 
 Aha-ntu, "people^") now used as the conventional name of all 
 
 The Zulu- 
 Kaflrs. 
 
 ^ Aba is one of the numerous plural personal prefixes, each with its corre- 
 sponding singular form, which are the cause of so much confusion in Bantu 
 nomenclature. To aba, ab, ba answers a sing. ii>?iH, tun, vui, so that sing. 
 tiniii-ntti, wii-ntti or mii-ntn, a man, a person; pi. aba-ntu, ab-ntu, ba-ntu. 
 
272 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 African races of Bantu speech. These are essentially mixed 
 Negroid peoples, the dominant element being undoubtedly the 
 Negro, as shown by the universal prevalence of black woolly hair 
 and dark complexion, besides gross superstitions associated with 
 witchcraft of a specially Negro character. With the black sub- 
 stratum are intermingled Semitic (Arab) intruders on the east 
 coast, and elsewhere most probably Hamites, chiefly Gallas, 
 descending from the north-east. The so-called Wa- 
 Huma.^^" Humas, dispersed amongst the equatorial lake popu- 
 
 lations, with whom they are slowly amalgamating, 
 are known to be Hamitic Gallas \ The founders of the Kitwara 
 empire, now broken into fragments (Buganda, Bunyoro, Karagwe) 
 were also Gallas, as is evident from the fact that Galla was the 
 mother-tongue of the late King Mutesa of Buganda, a lineal 
 descendant of the Kitwara dynasty. A distant branch of the 
 same race are the fierce nomads of Masailand, east of Victoria 
 Nyanza, though probably modified by a strain of black blood, and 
 the same process of segmentation and infiltration has obviously 
 been going on for ages, leavening the seething masses throughout the 
 southern half of the continent, and raising them to a somewhat 
 higher level than that of the full-blood Sudanese aborigines. 
 
 Hence in the Bantu domain every shade of transition is 
 
 The Bantu presented between the extreme Negro and Hamitic 
 
 linguistic types ; hence also the impossibiHty of determining 
 
 ^"^* ^' a clearly marked Bantu physical type, so that this 
 
 term has rather a linguistic than an ethnical value. It thus 
 
 But in some of the groups mu is also plural, the chief dialectic variants being 
 Ania, Aba, Ma, Mu, Ba, IVa, Ova, Va, Vua, C/a, U, A, O, Eshi, as in Atna- 
 Zulu^ Mu-Saroiigo, Ma-Yomba, Wa-Swahili, Ova-Hercro, Vua-Twa, Ba- 
 Suto, Eshi-Kongo. Equally numerous and perplexing are the class' pre- 
 fixes indicating speech: Ki, Kishi, Di, Lu, So, Se &c., as in Ki-Szmhili, 
 Kishi- Kongo, Lti-Ganda, Se-Suto, = \hQ Siva/iili, Kongo, Buganda and Basuio 
 languages. It would be well if the Swahili IVa and Ki were universally 
 adopted, as is the practice of some writers. 
 
 ^ Thus Stanley speaks of the Wa-Kerewe islanders, Victoria Nyanza, as 
 "a mixture of the Ethiopic [Plamitic] and Negro type" {Through the Dark 
 Continent, i. p. 251), and in Usongora he met certain Wa-Huma chiefs who 
 " were as like in features to the finest of the Somali types and Wa-Galla as 
 though they were of the same race " (/;^ Darkest Africa, 1 1, p. 317). 
 
XI.] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 2/3 
 
 corresponds to such names as Aryan, Mongolo-Tatar and Malayo- 
 Polynesian, which similarly imply linguistic unity amid much 
 physical diversity. As far as is known — and the region has now 
 been almost every\vhere traversed by explorers — all the innumer- 
 able dialects current throughout the Bantu domain are more or less 
 closely related in structure, phonetics and vocabulary, and have all 
 certainly sprung from a common Bantu mother-tongue, dififering 
 fundamentally from all other known forms of speech. This stock 
 language is distinguished by some remarkable grammatical features, 
 of which the most characteristic is a certain alliterative harmony, 
 somewhat analogous to the vocal harmony of the Finno-Tatar, 
 and the nominal concordance of the Aryan system. The allitera- 
 tion is caused by the repetition, in a slightly modified form, of the 
 same prefixed element before all words of the sentence in gram- 
 matical concord. Hence inflection in Bantu is mainly initial, not 
 final, as in most other systems. All nouns are grouped in so many 
 classes, according to their proper determining prefixes, of which 
 there appear to have been at least sixteen in the organic Bantu 
 language ; it follows that all adjectives and other words dependent 
 on the noun are liable in principle to sixteen initial changes, 
 according to the several classes of nouns with which they may 
 occur. Thus ; umu-ntu ojn-Milu, a great man, but in-kose en-kulu^ 
 a great chief, where kulu^ great, becomes oj/i-kiilu, en-kuiu,... in 
 agreement with jwm-fitti, in-kose... Compare Lat. do?nin-us boti-us^ 
 doinm-a bon-a, &c. The germs of this concordance, which gives 
 the clue to grammatical gender in the inflecting orders, are found 
 in Masai, Galla, Tibu and some of the Nilotic tongues. Traces 
 of alliteration depending on the same principle occur also in some 
 of the idioms of the Welle basin and elsewhere in the border lands 
 between the Sudanese and Bantu areas. But the principle is fully 
 developed only in Bantu, which Avould thus appear to have origi- 
 nated in the north, and to have spread thence with the prehistoric 
 Hamitic (Galla) migrations throughout South Africa. How 
 rapidly a Bantu language may be diffused by such migrations is 
 seen in the case of the Makololos, a Basuto people who about 
 1825 moved several hundred miles northwards to the Zambesi, 
 where they reduced the dominant Barotse nation and founded a 
 powerful state under their renowned chief, Sebituane. Then the 
 K. 18 
 
2/4 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Barotse suddenly rose (1864) against the intruders, exterminating 
 them almost to a man, and restoring the old Barotse kingdom. 
 But although the invaders have disappeared, their Sesuto language 
 still survives as the current speech throughout the Upper Zambesi 
 basin'. 
 
 Throughout the historic period a great part of Negroland has 
 
 been wasted by similar hostile movements, con- 
 
 Generai In- spicuous amongst which were the widespread 
 
 termingling of ^ ,. . . , mix • i i 
 
 the Sudanese expeditions of the terrible Jagas m the 17th century, 
 populations. Scarcely less destructive were the kidnapping raids, 
 dating back to the old Egyptian Monarchy, revived 
 by the Western nations to supply the hands needed to work the 
 mines and plantations in the New World, and continued down to 
 the present time by the Arabo-Nubian slave-hunters and their 
 native aUies. The result was an incessant dislocation, breaking 
 up and re-formation of the tribal groups, and a universal inter- 
 minghng of the most diverse elements, so that the utmost ethnical 
 confusion now prevails throughout both the Sudanese and the 
 Bantu domains. In fact hopeless chaos would seem to have been 
 prevented mainly by the principle of convergence, which con- 
 tinually tends towards uniformity of type in a given environment, 
 thus to some extent counteracting the influences which tend in the 
 opposite direction towards divergence. Hence the broad general 
 resemblances already noticed in these regions, although even 
 within comparatively narrow areas great diversity has often been 
 observed by inteUigent travellers. Thus Junker speaks of the 
 " endless gradations of colour " on both slopes of the Nile-Congo 
 waterparting, " ranging from the rarely-occurring deep black to a 
 dark iron-grey, dark chocolate or roasted coffee-berry, light cigar, 
 the yellow-brown of dressed leather, cafe-au-Iait, and, in exceptional 
 cases, the fair colour of the Malays." He adds that " red hair 
 occurs both amongst dark and light peoples",'' as in the other 
 primary divisions. 
 
 How is it possible, after these long continued tribal inter- 
 mingUngs, to speak of any scientific classification of the second- 
 
 1 Livingstone, Travels-, Holub, Sieben Jahre in Sud-A/rika, 1S81. 
 
 2 Travels, 11. p. 240. 
 
XL] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 275 
 
 ary divisions? Refuge is naturally taken in differences and 
 resemblances between languages, which, as seen, do not inter- 
 mingle, and which under certain conditions may 
 have some value. Thus the Gold and Slave Coasts . Hence ciass- 
 are occupied by a considerable number of Negro possible except 
 tribes speaking three or four marked dialects of a basfs.^'"^'''^^*'' 
 common stock language — Tshi, Ga, Ewe, and Yoruba 
 — and also, as shown by Ellis', presenting numerous points of 
 resemblance in their physical characters, social usages, religion, 
 traditions and progressive grades of culture. It seems reasonable 
 in such cases to infer common genetic descent also. Analogous 
 instances occur in other parts of Sudan, as amongst the Sonrhay, 
 who may be traced by their speech from within the Niger bend 
 eastwards to Asben, which district is known to have formed part 
 of the powerful Sonrhay empire overthrown by Marocco in the 
 1 6th century. So with the Fulahs, who can be followed by means 
 of their language throughout all their wanderings from near the 
 Atlantic seaboard right across the Black Zone to 
 Dar-Fur, although no longer everywhere distinguish- Sudanese and 
 able by their physical features from the surrounding ^a"*" groups. 
 Negro populations. Hence in the subjoined Tables of the 
 Sudanese and Bantu peoples, the groupings have necessarily to a 
 large extent a linguistic base. 
 
 Sudanese ^ 
 
 Wolof, between Lower Senegal and Gambia; chief branch 
 Jolof; very black, but somewhat regular features, showing Hamitic 
 blood. 
 
 Se7'er, Salum river and Cape Verde district; tallest of Negroes, 
 many 6 ft. 6 in. ; herculean frames. 
 
 Toucoideur {Tacuror), Kaarta district and Senegal river; a 
 historical people formerly powerful in W. Sudan ; Negroid. 
 
 1 The Tshi- Speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast, 1887; The Eive-Speaking 
 Peoples of the Slave-Coast, 1890; The Yoruba- Speaking Peoples of the Slave- 
 Coast, 1894. 
 
 " Assumed to be approximately full-blood Negroes where no indication is 
 given to the contrary. 
 
 18 — 2 
 
2^^^ 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 Ma7idingan^ the chief nation in W. Sudan, with numerous 
 branches between the Upper Niger and the Coast : Sarakole, 
 Kassonke, Jallonke, Suzi, Susu, Vei, SoHma &c. ; mostly Negroid. 
 
 SUSU NEGRO, SENEGAMBIA. 
 
 Khabunke, Balanta, Bagmim, Upper Casamanza and Cacheo 
 
 rivers. 
 
 Feljtp, Casamanza and Cacheo estuaries. 
 
 Laiiduman, Nalu, Baga, Sape, Rio Nunez basin. 
 
 Bulloin, Afendi, Limba, Gallina, Timni, Sierra Leone. 
 
 Pessi, Gola, Kondo, Basso, Km, Webo, Liberia. 
 
 Avekvom, Ag?ii, Oshiu, Ivory Coast. 
 
 Tshi, Ga, Ewe, Yoriiba, Gold and Slave Coasts. 
 
 Sonrhay {Songhay) Middle Niger, and east to Asben. 
 
 Hausa, the chief nation between the Niger and Bornu. 
 Negroid; speech shows Hamitic influences. 
 
 Bob, Yako, Tmigala, Kali, Mishi, Do ma, Benue basin. 
 
 Igarra, Ibo, Iju, Okrika, Nempe, Niger delta and Oil Rivers. 
 
 Ejik, Qua, Andoni, from Bonny to Rio del Rey, where Bantu 
 domain begins on the west coast. 
 
 Borgu, Garma, Mossi, Tombo, Gurimga, Sieniif, within the 
 Niger bend. 
 
XL] HOMO yETHIOPICUS. 2// 
 
 Kafuirt, Bornu, Negroid ; speech shows Tibu influences. 
 
 Baghirmi^ Lower Shari basin. 
 
 Mosgu, between Lake Chad and Adamawa. 
 
 Yedi?ia, Kurt, Islands in L. Chad. 
 
 Maba, Birkit, Massalit, Korunga, Kabbaga 8zc. ; Waday, 
 mostly Negroid. 
 
 F7/r, Kunjara^ Tegele, Dar-Fiir, Kordofan. 
 
 Nuba, Kargo, Kulfdn, Kolaji, Tumali, Kordofan. 
 
 Nubians, Nile Valley between Meroe and Egypt', 
 
 Shuli ; Labore, Luri, Bari, Nuer, Dinka, Shilluk, Miindu, 
 Abaka, Bongo, Mittu, Golo, TonJ and others, Upper Nile and its 
 western affluents between Lake Albert Nyanza and the Sobat con- 
 fluence. 
 
 Kiriin, Ishing, Janghey, BoJijak, Ko?nar, Sobat basin. 
 
 Kalaka, Ma?igbattu {Mombuttu), A-Bangba, A-Madi, A-Zatideh 
 {Niam-Nia?/i), Momfu, A-Kahle, A-Barambo, A-Babua, Embata, 
 Mangballe, A-Banjia, Mabenge, Nsakkara, A-Ngaddu, Welle basin 
 from source to IMbomu confluence'. 
 
 Base {Kunama), Barea, Mareb basin, Upper Nubia. 
 
 Shangalla, Gainbil, western slopes of Abyssinia and Gallaland. 
 
 Negroid Bantus. 
 
 Bayoii, Ndob, Basa, Bahul, Abo, Barombi, aborigines of the 
 Cameroons^ 
 
 1 For the intricate relations between the Negro Nubas of Kordofan and the 
 Negroid Nubians of the Nile valley see A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian 
 Sudan, 1884, pp. 12—16. Here also the reasons are given for rejecting 
 Fr. Miiller's "Nuba-Fula" Family. 
 
 2 In this borderland between the Sudanese and Bantu areas there is a great 
 intermingling of tribes. From what little is known of the languages (ten 
 vocabularies collected by Junker) Leo Reinisch infers a distant connection 
 with the Bantu form of speech. The aboriginal Negro element seems to be 
 best represented by the A-Kahle of the ]Mbomu atitluent, who "probably 
 occupy their present domain from remote times," and who "are the only 
 nation that has not suffered dismemberment". (Junker, III. p. 280.) 
 
 3 This distinction, made by H. H. Johnston, between the aboriginal and 
 intruding Bantus in the Cameroons territory, "is based, not on physical 
 appearance, which is nowhere sufficiently marked for purposes of classification, 
 but on linguistic grounds, the indigenous tribes speaking archaic Bantu idioms 
 
278 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 Barondo^ Bafarami^ Bakufidu, Btunboko, Bakwiri^ Isjcbu, 
 Duala, Bakoko, Bafioko, Bapiiko {Great Batanga), Bafindi^ Ibea, 
 intruders in the Cameroons from the east and south'. 
 
 Biibt {Adegkaz), Fernando Po, Bantus in speech only^ 
 
 Fan, intruders in the Gaboon and Ogoway basins ^ 
 
 Mpongwe, Gaboon estuary. 
 
 Mbe?iga, Corisco Bay and islands. 
 
 ADUMA NEGRO, OGOWAY BASIN. 
 
 Galboa, Ivinga, Oka?ida^ Apinji^ Ashango^ Ishogo, Lower and 
 Middle Ogoway basin. 
 
 Oshebo, Adiima, Osaka, Mbamba, Upper Ogoway basin. 
 
 degraded by long contact with their Negro neighbours, while all the later 
 arrivals except the Ibeas speak comparatively pure Bantu tongues connected 
 by imperceptible transitions along the seaboard with those of the Lower Congo " 
 (A. H. Keane, Africa, 1895, ii., ch. i). 
 
 ^ See previous note. 
 
 2 "Les Boubis...se distinguent tres nettement de toutes les tribus cotieres 
 par les traits, par la couleur jaunatre de la peau, par les cheveux, qui sont longs 
 et frises, mais nullement laineux " (De Quatrefages, Races Htimaines, 11. 
 p. 404). 
 
 ^ A cannibal people who reached the west coast from the interior during 
 the 19th century, and who are described by Burton, Oscar Lenz and other 
 
XI.1 HOMO .^THIOPICUS. 279 
 
 Bafeke, Apfiiru, Alima tributary of Lower Congo. 
 
 Cabinda, Mayombe, Bakamba, Kuilu basin and thence to 
 Congo estuary. 
 
 Ban gala, Mayakka, Vakioko, K wan go basin. 
 
 Bakictu, Bakuba, Bakete, Tushilange, Bahiba, Balolo, Eshl- 
 Kongo, southern affluents Middle and Lower Congo. 
 
 Ababa?nbo, Aba?ija, Ubangi valley. 
 
 Babanda, Babesse, Banalya, Aruwimi valley. 
 
 Vuaregga, YajJibarri, Ma7iyiiema, Viiarua, Basamba, Congo 
 basin above Stanley Falls. 
 
 Kaiunda, Vuabisa, Vuamnga^ Vimfiba, Uvinza, Vuahha, 
 Lakes Moero, Bangweolo and Tanganyika. 
 
 Abunda, Qiiissama, Aviboella, Angola, Benguela. 
 
 Ovampo, Ovaherero, Damaraland. 
 
 Amaxosa, Amatembu, Amampoiido, Amafingu, Aviazidu, 
 MatabiH, Maviti, Cape Colony, Natal, Matabililand, Nyassaland. 
 
 Bechiiana, Basicfo, Makalaka, Mashona, Banyai, Bechuana, 
 Matabili and ^Lishona lands. 
 
 GaJigtidla, Baviko, Barotse, Mambunda, Kubango and Upper 
 Zambesi basins. 
 
 Batonga, Bashukulumbn^e, Kafue and Middle Zambesi basins. 
 Wankonde, Ma?iganja, Wayao, Nyassaland. 
 
 Magwangwara^ Makua, Maviha, Mozambique. 
 
 Makonde, Wazaramo, Wasagara, IVagogo, Vuazmza, IVasam- 
 bara, IVanyamwezi, Waswahili, between the east coast and 
 Tanganyika. 
 
 JVateita, Wataveita, Wachaga, Kilimanjaro district. 
 Wapokomo, Tana basin, conterminous with the Hamitic 
 (Somal, Galla) area. 
 
 observers as quite distinct from the surrounding Negroid populations, of light 
 brown or yellowish colour, full beard, tall slim figure and very prominent 
 frontal bone. Lenz {Skizzen, p. 35) describes the language as "entirely 
 different from that of the other Negro tribes," whereas Winwood Reade 
 {Sketch-book, I. p. 108) says that "it is like Mpongwe (a pure Bantu idiom) 
 cut in half; for instance itjina (gorilla) in Mpongwe is nji in Fan." This 
 word Fan itself, meaning "Man," is stated to be cognate with Bantu, and the 
 plural is formed in the usual Bantu way: Ba-Fan = lsi^xi. It occurs in several 
 forms, Pahuin (adopted by the French), Pamoe, Fanwe, Mpangwe, &c. 
 
280 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 IVasoga, Wagafida, Wanyoro, Victoria and Albert Nyanzas. 
 Wakonjo, Wamlmha^ Wawamba, lVa/e;iga, Lake Albert 
 Edward and Semliki basin ; Rmvenzori^ 
 
 In the Oceanic Negro division, where intercourse has always 
 
 been facilitated by the prevailing trade winds and 
 
 The Oceanic marine currents, racial intermindings have taken 
 
 Negro domain ' . 
 
 an area of place cven to a greater extent than on the African 
 
 fusion^ ' mainland. The confusion of types is all the more 
 perplexing in that this watery domain has from the 
 remotest times been easily accessible from the southern shores of 
 Asia, with which it still formed continuous land probably so 
 
 AUSTRALIAN. 
 
 recently as the pleistocene age, when that Continent would appear 
 to have been already occupied both by Mongolic and Caucasic 
 peoples. From their prehistoric migrations to Malaysia, Australia, 
 
 ^ Here the Bantu and Sudanese domains appear to overlap, and Dr Stuhl- 
 mann, who explored this region in company with Emin Pasha in 1891, speaks 
 of the Wakonjo and some other local tribes rather as full-blood Negroes than 
 negroid Btintus {Fetermatui's Mitteilungen, June, 1892). 
 
XL] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 28 1 
 
 and Polynesia have arisen some difficult ethnical problems, which 
 will be discussed farther on. Here it should be noted that all 
 these regions, now occupied by so many different races, were 
 the primitive home of the Oceanic or eastern branch of the 
 Negro division ; consequently that the black is everywhere to 
 be regarded as the aboriginal element, the others as later in- 
 truders. 
 
 Besides the already described Negritoes, this black element 
 comprises two broad sub-divisions, presenting such 
 marked physical and mental differences that no sub-divisions: 
 systematist has ventured to group them under a groeiYnd^" 
 common designation in the same category. These Negroid aus- 
 
 ° . tralians. 
 
 are the insular blacks, true Negroes, whose domain 
 originally comprised the whole of Oceanica, taken in its broadest 
 sense, and the Continental Negroid blacks, comprising all the 
 aborigines of Australia with the extinct Tasmanians. The distinc- 
 tion is thus somewhat analogous to that which was seen to obtain 
 between the Sudanese Negroes and the Negroid Bantus of the 
 African division. The parallelism is even closer than might 
 appear from this statement, as will presently be seen. 
 
 No quite satisfactory general name has yet been proposed for 
 the insular blacks, who are commonly referred to either as Me/a- 
 ncsiafis or Papuans. But the use of Melanesians in this general 
 sense gives rise to much confusion, as the term has 
 
 ° , ...... Melanesians. 
 
 a long-established special meaning, indicating the 
 natives of Melanesia, that is, the insular groups (New Britain, 
 New Ireland, Solomon, Louisiade, New Hebrides, Loyalty and 
 New Caledonia), so named from their "Black" inhabitants'. 
 Thus the Melanesians are only one section of the group, and as 
 they moreover present some special characters, it is in every way 
 desirable that they should retain their special name. On the 
 other hand no reasonable objection can be made to 
 Papuan, which has always been applied by the 
 Malays to the black aborigines of Malaysia and New Guinea — that 
 is, to the most typical members of the group — and which is more- 
 over descriptive of their frizzly " mop-heads," one of the most 
 
 1 Gr. /xeXas, black; I'^cros, island. 
 
282 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 fCHAP. 
 
 marked physical characters of the race\ Where it may be 
 necessary to distinguish, the eastern section may be called 
 
 MELANESIAN OF DUKE OF YORK I. 
 
 Mim 
 
 MELANESIAN OF NEW BRITAIN. 
 
 Melaneslan Papuans, or simply Melanesians, the western Ma- 
 laysian Papuans, New Guinea Papuans, or Papuans proper, as the 
 
 ^ Malay d^ {pa.p\x\va.h), /rizz/ed. "The Malays now understand Papua 
 
XI.] 
 
 HOMO .ETHIOPICUS. 
 
 283 
 
 case may be. For the habitat Papuasia seems a convenient and 
 appropriate name, analogous to Malaysia, Melanesia, &c. 
 
 At present the Papuan domain is restricted to Melanesia and 
 parts of Fiji, practically the whole of New Guinea ^^^ Papuan 
 with the neighbouring Torres Strait islands, and domain past 
 
 ,, • -I- > T 1 • c ^"'^ present, 
 
 most of the smaller groups m East Malaysia as far 
 
 west as Flores inclusive. But in prehistoric times it must have 
 
 MELANESIAN OF NIFELOLE I. 
 
 also included the whole of Polynesia, as far as Easter Island in the 
 extreme east, Hawaii and New Zealand in the extreme north and 
 south. This is inferred from the fact that " there are probably few 
 if any of the islands of the Pacific in which it [the Papuan element] 
 does not form some factor in the composite character of the 
 
 to mean 'frizzled,' as the hair of the Papuans" (F. A. Swettenham, Malay 
 Dictionary, p. 131). The splendid collection of about 600 photographs of 
 Oceanic Negroes, published (1894) by A. B. Meyer and R. Parkinson at 
 Dresden, is entitled Album von Papiia-Typen, although including great num- 
 bers from Melanesia as well as from New Guinea, and this general application 
 of the term is steadily growing in favour with ethnologists. The character 
 indicated by the word prevails everywhere from Flores to Fiji, and in the 
 Solomon group "the whole head of hair has much the appearance of a mop 
 placed erect on its handle " (H. B. Guppy, A'ature, April 26, 1883). 
 
284 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 natives^" It will be seen that the Papuans must have also most 
 probably been the first inhabitants of Australia and Tasmania. 
 But whether they had at any time spread over West Malaysia, 
 India and Madagascar can no longer be determined, the actual 
 relations in these regions being equally explicable by the presence 
 either of the Oceanic Negritoes (Malaysia, India), or of the African 
 
 PAPUAN OF S. E. NEW GUINEA. 
 
 Negroes (Madagascar). De Quatrefages' extends their area even 
 to the New World, because of the dark colour of the Lower 
 Californian aborigines. But colour alone, apart from other 
 characters, is not sufficient to determine any racial type, else many 
 Semitic Abyssinians and Hamitic Gallas would have to be classed 
 as Negroes. The extinct Charruas of South Brazil were also 
 described as " black "; but no one has yet spoken of them as 
 " Africans," 
 
 While agreeing in all essentials with the African, the Papuan 
 
 type presents certain differences, such as more 
 ^ The Papuan ^^^^^ developed glabella and supraorbital ridges, 
 
 narrower nose, often mesorrhine and prominent, 
 
 1 Flower and Lydekker, p. 748. 
 " Races Htiniames, II. p. 406. 
 
XI.] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 285 
 
 skull somewhat higher and narrower generally, that is, more 
 decidedly hypsistenocephalic. Yet on the other hand dolicho- 
 cephaly is certainly a less constant character, so much so that on 
 this ground some anthropologists have felt disposed to deny the 
 existence of a distinct Papuan type at all. But the variations, 
 which may be described as excessive \ are obviously due to inter- 
 minglings, the foreign elements being in the west the brachy- 
 cephalous Malays ^ in the east the brachycephalous Sawaiori 
 (Polynesians). Like their Hquid environment, the Oceanic popu- 
 lations have always been in a fluctuating state, as sufficiently 
 proved by the prodigious expansion of the Malayo-Polynesian 
 hnguistic family from Madagascar to Easter Island, and from 
 Hawaii to New Zealand. 
 
 This stock language has taken exclusive possession of the 
 whole area, except AustraHa, Tasmania, West Papu- 
 asia and New Guinea, and even in New Guinea pj^obtim^"'^*''' 
 some of the coast tribes, such as the Motu of Port 
 Moresby, speak pure Malayo-Polynesian dialects. It is as if in 
 Africa Bantu were the common speech, not only of the Southern 
 but also of the Northern (Sudanese) Negroes, and not only of the 
 Negroes, but also of the neighbouring Hottentot, Hamitic and 
 Semitic peoples. That the assumed analogy is not strained 
 appears from the fact, placed beyond all doubt by 
 comparative philology, that the Negroid Malayo- sionofMaia^yo- 
 Malagasy peoples of Madagascar, the yellow Mon- ^°^y""'^" 
 goloid Malays of the Eastern Archipelago, some of 
 the black Papuans of the same region and of New Guinea, all the 
 
 1 Thus Miklukho-Maclay's measurements show a range of from 62-0 to 86-4 
 for the cephalic index of the New Guinea natives, and this observer affirms 
 that "we have no right to describe the heads of Melanesians as well as those 
 of Papuans as dolicho, but rather as mesocephalic " {Nattcre, Nov. 20, 1879). 
 Even for the Solomon Islanders Guppy finds a range of from 73 to 84, with a 
 mean of 81 for the Treasury natives, and of 74 to 77 for those of St Christoval 
 {Nature, April 26, 1883). 
 
 - This is clearly shown by M. Maclay, who found that for centuries the 
 Malays had maintained direct relations with the western parts of New Guinea, 
 regularly visiting the Koving coast and other districts for trading purposes, 
 and especially to procure slaves for the Sunda Islands {Meine ziueite Excursion 
 nach Neue Guinea, i874> passim). 
 
286 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 black Melanesians and all the brown Eastern Polynesians as well 
 as the mixed Mikronesians, speak idioms belonging to various 
 branches of the Malayo-Polynesian stock language. 
 
 The usual explanation of this remarkable phenomenon is that 
 
 NATIVE OF DUTCH NEW GUINEA. 
 
 {True Papuan Type.) 
 
 the diffusion of the Oceanic language is due to the migrations of 
 the restless and aggressive Malay people, the Orang-laut (" Sea- 
 
XI.] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 287 
 
 men ") in a pre-eminent sense, who conquered and imposed their 
 speech on the surrounding, and mostly inferior, 
 insular populations. But the theory, always sus- MaiayVr° 
 pected because of its simplicity, breaks down com- Polynesian 
 
 ■^ migrations, 
 
 pletely before the facts firmly established by the 
 Rev. R. H. Codrington in his classical work on The Melaiiesian 
 Languages^, where it is clearly shown that " Malay is undoubtedly, 
 as compared with the languages of Madagascar and the Philippine 
 Islands, a simplified form of the common language" (p. 26), and 
 that, " as compared with Fijian [a typical Melanesian tongue], the 
 languages of Tonga and Samoa [typical Polynesian or Sawaiori 
 dialects] are late, simplified and decayed"; in a word that Mela- 
 nesian is the most primitive form of the Oceanic stock language. 
 It thus becomes self-evident that neither the Malays nor the 
 Polynesians, both speaking later dialects, could have diffused this 
 archaic form of speech throughout Oceanica. 
 
 Is then a Melanesian to be substituted for a Malay migration 
 theory, and is it to be supposed that the admittedly ^^.jj j^^^ ^^ 
 inferior race imposed its speech on the more Melanesian 
 advanced Malay and Polynesian populations ? Or ^^^^^ '°"^' 
 is there no solution to a problem in which race and language appear 
 to be placed in hopeless antagonism? It has been shown that 
 the whole of Polynesia, taken in its widest sense, was originally 
 occupied by the black element. It also appears from Mr Sidney 
 H. Ray's recent investigations in New Guinea- that Motu and the 
 other Malayo-Polynesian languages current on the south-east 
 coast of that island belong, not to the Polynesian branch, as had 
 been supposed, but to the Melanesian, showing later Melanesian 
 migrations to that region. This is one of those instances in which 
 speech proves to be not merely a useful, but an indispensable 
 factor in determining the constituent elements of mixed races. 
 But Mr Ray further shows that the languages of the New Guinea 
 
 ^ Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1885. 
 
 2 The Languages of British New Guinea, in Anthrop. Joitr. August 1894. 
 In this valuable paper the practical identity of the New Guinea Maiva, Motu, 
 Loyalupa, Sariba, Awaiama and Dobu with the Melanesian, and especially 
 with the Efate of the New Hebrides group, is established on phonetic, structural 
 and lexical grounds. 
 
288 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Papuans proper are fundamentally distinct from the Melanesian', 
 consequently from the Malayo-Polynesian ; and that even in 
 Melanesia itself there are some dialects, such as the Kiriwina, 
 Nada, Misima and Tagula of the Louisiades, which " only partly 
 agree with the Melanesian," and which may be regarded as 
 possibly "belonging to originally Papuan stocks, upon which 
 have been grafted in course of time words and idioms from the 
 Melanesian tongues." This " Melano-Papuan " group, as Mr Ray 
 calls it, also comprises other somewhat aberrant members of the 
 Melanesian branch, such as Alu (Treasury Island), Buka (Bou- 
 gainville), Savo (Solomons) and Ambrym (New Hebrides), all of 
 which "differ more or less from the typical Melanesian, and 
 probably contain some Papuan elements" (p. 17). It follows 
 that Melanesian is not indigenous in its present home (which also 
 includes Mikronesia^), but must have been introduced and im- 
 posed upon the Papuan natives by some foreign people in remote 
 prehistoric times. This people is none other than the Eastern 
 Polynesians, a branch of the Caucasic division, who possibly in 
 the Neohthic period migrated from the Asiatic mainland to 
 Malaysia and thence eastwards to the remotest islands of the 
 Pacific Ocean. The fact that these Polynesians 
 The true ^ sDcak "late, simpUfied, and decayed" dialects 
 
 explanation. i ? j. ' ^ 
 
 of the common Oceanic tongue presents no diffi- 
 culty, the explanation being that, while the archaic form was 
 
 1 "They present in nearly every respect the widest possible contrast to the 
 Melanesian" {id. p. 16). 
 
 - The languages of Mikronesia are undoubtedly Melanesian, but the natives 
 are extremely mixed, showing all shades of colour and transitional forms 
 between the Papuan, Malay and Polynesian types. In the western groups 
 M. Maclay, who visited the archipelagoes in 1876, describes the people as 
 nearly akin to the Polynesians, but with a probable Melanesian mixture, 
 shown in the curly and even frizzly hair, dark skin and other Papuan 
 characters. In the Esheke (Eshikie) group he found the true border-line 
 between the frizzly and straight-haired races {Sitzungsberichte der Berliner 
 Gesellschaft fiir Anthrop., March 3, 1878). Thus the Marianne, Pelew, Marshall 
 and Gilbert groups, collectively called Mikronesia, would appear to have 
 been originally peopled by Papuans from Melanesia, and to have afterwards 
 received numerous colonists both from Polynesia and Malaysia (the Philip- 
 pines), besides occasional settlers from Japan and China. See also Dr O. 
 Finsch, Reise in der Siidsee, «S:c., Berlin, 1'^%:^, passim). 
 
XL] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 289 
 
 retained or better preserved by the rude Papuan aborigines, it 
 became in course of time more "simplified," — that is, improved — 
 amongst the more progressive Malay and Polynesian peoples. 
 Compare English with Gothic, and especially modern Danish and 
 Swedish with Icelandic. Nobody pretends that the Danes and 
 Swedes have derived their " simpHfied " Norse dialects from the 
 archaic Norse still surviving in Iceland, because history tells us 
 that it is the other way, that Iceland was colonised from Scandi- 
 navia, not Scandinavia from Iceland. In Oceanica common 
 sense supplementing the few known facts must supply the place of 
 history, and that the above is the true solution of one of the most 
 intricate entanglements in the whole range of ethnology has been 
 elsewhere more fully explained \ Since that explanation was 
 given, and questioned because of the " Caucasic factor " introduced 
 into the problem, this factor has been accepted by some of the 
 foremost living or lately deceased ethnologists. De Quatrefages 
 amongst others recognises the presence of " the three fundamental 
 types in Oceanica",'' while Giglioli goes so far as to speak of an 
 "Aryan" element in Australia^. 
 
 In this Continent, of which Tasmania may be regarded as an 
 "ethnical annexe," most anthropologists recognise ^, 
 
 ' i t) b Tj^g Austra- 
 
 at least two fundamental types beneath a general lian sub-divi- 
 
 physical and linguistic uniformity. That the black 
 
 element forms the substratum is also commonly admitted, and 
 
 may be regarded as self-evident, the colour being often almost 
 
 quite black, while the features and skeletal structure are distinctly 
 
 Negroid. The natives of the Adelaide River (North-West), who 
 
 may be taken as typical Australians, are described 
 
 by a recent observer as " brown-black to almost a "eoug""""^^' 
 
 pure black. ..the head long and prognathous; eyes 
 
 ^ See A. H. Keane, On the Relations of the Indo-Chinese and Inter- 
 Oceanic Races and Langicages, your. Anthrop. Inst. February, 1880, 
 
 '■^ "Les trois types fondamentaux se retrouvent en Oceanic... Les Blancs 
 allophyles [Caucasians] occupent essentiellement la Polynesie, les Noirs 
 [Negroes] la Melanesic.En Malaisie surtout, les Jaunes [Mongols] sont venus 
 se joindre aux deux autres types" {Races Hnmaines, 1889, II. p. 335). 
 
 ^ "E note infine che i Tasmaniani erano Negroidi e diversi in razza dagli 
 Australiani che io considero Arianoidi degenerati " {Archivio per VAntrop. 
 XXIV. 1S94). 
 
 K. 19 
 
290 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 deep-set; nasal bones depressed, nostrils large, dilated, and lips 
 thick; their legs have practically no calf muscles \" But they 
 differ from all other Negro or Negroid races in the character of 
 the hair, which is neither woolly nor frizzly, but at most bushy, 
 curly or wavy, thick, black, and like the beard (often well deve- 
 loped) of somewhat coarse texture". The explanation, suggested 
 amongst others by Flower and Lydekker, is that they are probably 
 not a homogeneous group at all, as supposed by Huxley, but a 
 cross between two already formed stocks. Thus Australia may 
 have been " originally peopled with frizzly-haired Melanesians... 
 but a strong infusion of some other race, probably a low form of 
 Caucasian Melanochroi, such as that which still inhabits the inte- 
 rior of the southern parts of India, has spread throughout the land 
 from north-west, and produced a modification of the physical 
 characters, especially of the hair" {Op. cit. p. 748). It is added, 
 however, that the Australians may possibly be mainly sprung 
 from a very primitive human type, from which the frizzly-haired 
 Negroes may be an offset, frizzly hair being probably a speciaHsa- 
 tion, not the attribute of the common ancestors of the Hominidae^ 
 Possibly a middle term may be drawn from both of these 
 alternatives. The "very primitive human type" is 
 elements of"^ morc than a mere hypothesis, as is shown by the 
 the Austra- South AustraUan tribe presenting Neanderthal cha- 
 racters, and inhabiting a district which could easily 
 
 1 P. W. Bassett-Smith, Anthrop. Jour. May 1894, p. 324. With regard 
 to the colour of the skin, "infants are a light yellow or brown, but at the age 
 of two years they have already assumed the hue of their parents " (Carl 
 Lumholtz, A??iong Cannibals, 1889, p. 132). The same remark is made by 
 many other observers. 
 
 - So Lumholtz: "Hair and beard black as pitch, slightly curly but not 
 woolly, seldom straight in the north-east, though straight hair is quite common 
 in the rest of Australia, especially in the interior. I only once saw a man with 
 his hair standing out in all directions, like that of the Papuans " {Atfiong 
 Cannibals, p. 131). This observer, however, denies the "coarse texture." 
 
 3 These and analogous characters occur elsewhere, as in the north-east, 
 where " their projecting jaws make them resemble the apes more than any other 
 race, and their foreheads are as a rule very low and receding... the superciliary 
 arches very prominent, the cheek-bones high, the temporal fossae very deep, 
 nasal bones flat and broad, teeth large and strong" (Lumholtz, ib. p. 260). 
 
XL] HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 291 
 
 be reached by pliocene man at a time when Australia formed 
 almost continous land with the Indo-African Continent. On 
 the other hand Australia was equally accessible on the north 
 and north-west sides to primitive migrations both from India and 
 Papuasia. That such migrations took place scarcely admits of a 
 doubt, and the Rev. John Mathew, who has made a special study 
 of this question^, concludes that the continent was first occupied 
 by a homogeneous branch of the Papuan race either from New 
 Guinea or Malaysia, and that these first arrivals, to be regarded as 
 the true aborigines, passed into Tasmania, which at that time pro- 
 bably formed continuous land with AustraHa. Thus the now 
 extinct Tasmanians would represent the primitive type, which in 
 Australia became modified but not effaced by crossing with later 
 immigrants chiefly from India. These are identified, as they have 
 been by other ethnologists, with the Dravidians, and the writer 
 remarks that "although the AustraHans are still in a state of 
 savagery, and the Dravidians of India have been for many ages a 
 people civiHzed in a great measure and possessed of a literature, 
 the two peoples are afiiHated by deeply-marked characteristics in 
 their social system," as shown by the boomerang, which, unless 
 locally evolved, must have been introduced from India. But the 
 variations in the physical characters of the natives — stature 
 (5 ft. 4 in. to over 6 ft.), features, muscular development, texture 
 of the hair — appear too great to be accounted for by a single 
 graft ; hence Malays also are introduced from the Eastern Archi- 
 pelago, which would explain both the straight hair in many 
 districts, and a number of pure Malay words in several of the 
 native languages^, as well as the mental capacity, which is "any- 
 thing but despicable." 
 
 Skulls from this region microcephalous, with cephalic index 71, facial angle 68, 
 nasal index 53 (very platyrrhine). 
 
 1 Proc. R. Soc. N. S. Wales, xxiii. Part 2. 
 
 2 In other respects these languages appear all to belong to an original stock, 
 which beyond some dubious verbal resemblances or coincidences, has not yet 
 been affiliated to any other linguistic group. Affinities may possibly be dis- 
 covered with some of the almost unknown Papuan tongues of New Guinea or 
 East Malaysia, most of which appear to agree in their limited arithmetical systems, 
 possessing no radicals for more than two, three or at most/^«r. The morpho- 
 logy also seems to be somewhat analogous, agglutinating everywhere, with post- 
 
 19 — 2 
 
292 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 All this agrees substantially with Flower and Lydekker's first 
 hypothesis, especially if the primitive Dravidians be regarded, not 
 as of MongoHc stock, against which there are many objections, 
 but as " Caucasian Melanochroi," such as are still represented in 
 Southern India and Ceylon by the shaggy-haired and full-bearded 
 Todas and Veddahs. Thus would also be explained the wavy 
 hair and thick beard forming the most marked physical trait of the 
 Australian aborigines, while the Neanderthal characters persisting 
 here and there would be traceable to the Ur-Eijnvanderimg of the 
 pliocene precursor from the Indo- Austral Continent. 
 
 This solution of the Australian problem has the advantage of 
 
 also explaining the position of the Tasmanians, who 
 
 AndoftheTas- ^j.^ described by Flower and I.ydekker (p. 748) as 
 
 manians. •' , ■' \i « -r / 
 
 perhaps aberrant Melanesians [Papuans], modified 
 not by mixture but by long isolation. The divergence is shown 
 especially in the width of the skull in the parietal region, the form 
 of the nose, the projection of the mouth, size of teeth and charac- 
 ter of the hair. Hence the conclusion of Giglioli amongst others 
 that the Tasmanians were " of a different race from the Austra- 
 lians," whom '' they preceded in the island-continent " {loc. cit.). 
 The latter part of this statement agrees with Mr Mathew's view, 
 while the supposed racial difference will disappear if the Tas- 
 manians be compared, not with the average Australian, but with 
 the more primitive groups still surviving in some districts. Thus 
 the resemblance amounts almost to identity between the accom- 
 panying portrait of a Queensland native from a photograph by 
 Mr J. J. Lister, and that of a Tasmanian from a sketch taken in 
 the year 1845 by Lieut. F. G. S. de Wesselow, R.N. 
 
 fixes in Australia, with both pre- and postfixes in Papuasia. Thus : sJii'in, man ; 
 sni'nisi, men; rosnun, of the man; rosniinsi, of the men. The difference in all 
 cases from the Malayo- Polynesian family is fundamental. Thus the phonesis 
 is much harsher, and richer in consonantal combinations and sounds, even the 
 Australian admitting sibilants, fricatives and aspirates {s, th, h), as shown by 
 A. B. Meyer and M. Uhle, although denied by Fr. Miiller {Ziir Dippil- 
 Sprache in Osi-Anstralien, Dresden 1882, pp. 129-30). It should, however, be 
 added that A. B. Meyer and G. von der Gabelentz hold Australian to be "im 
 geraden Gegensatze zu den melanesischen [papuanischen] " in its phonetic and 
 formative systems {Bcitriige zm- Kointniss der melanesischoi . . . Sprachen, Leipzig, 
 1882, p. 38+). 
 
XL] 
 
 HOMO ^THIOPICUS. 
 
 293 
 
 In harmony with this theory is the extremely low grade of 
 culture both of these primitive Australian groups Tasmanian 
 and of the Tasmanians, lower even than that of culture eo- 
 the European palaeoHthic man of the ChelUan age. 
 Their rude stone implements have been compared with the 
 specimens from Portugal claiming to be of pliocene if not of 
 miocene origin. None are ground or poHshed, or detached from 
 the core by pressure, but only by blows in the simplest possible 
 
 \j^ 
 
 fe^ 
 
 
 ^Bht ' ''^''^^' 
 
 
 ^^^1.^iJ|^ 
 
 ^j^ 'H 
 
 'hHhp 
 
 "" 
 
 -^ mm^r 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 M- 
 
 
 ■ /■' ■• 
 
 
 TASMANIAN. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN OF QUEENSLAND. 
 
 way; nor were they mounted on handles, but only grasped in the 
 hand, like the eoliths described at p. 74. This simple art was 
 acquired only since the British occupation of the island, so that, 
 assuming the accuracy of the accounts, the Tasmanians would 
 appear "to have remained to our day living representatives of the 
 early Stone Age, left behind in industrial development even by the 
 ancient tribes of the Somme and the Ouse...The life of these 
 savages proves to be of undeveloped type alike in arts and insti- 
 tutions, so much so that the distinction of being the lowest cf 
 normal tribes may be claimed for them\" 
 
 ^ E. B. Tylor, On the Tasmanians as representatives of Palceolithic ]\Ian, 
 your. Anthrop. Inst. Nov. 1893, pp. 149 — 52. 
 
294 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. XI. 
 
 Thus while the lately extinct Adelaide tribe carries us back 
 nearly to the Neanderthal physical type, the lately extinct^ Tas- 
 manians recall the mental level of eolithic man in Britain. 
 
 1 According to Mr James Barnard one full-blood Tasmanian, Fanny 
 Cochrane Smith, was still living at Port Cygnet in 18S9 {Nature, Nov. 14, 
 1889). But Mr H. Ling Roth writes that he has obtained three photographs 
 of Mrs Smith and some of her hair, showing that "she is not a full-blood 
 Tasmanian" (Letter to A. H. Keane, Jan. 20, 1896). 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 HOMO MONGOLICUS. 
 
 Asia home of the Mongol race — easily accessible to the pliocene precursor — 
 Transition from the generalised human type to the Mongol variety — 
 Chief Mongol physical characters — Diffusion of the Mongol race — Early 
 Mongolo-Caucasic interminglings — Hence al)errant Mongolic groups — 
 Mongol Family Tree — Chief Mongol sub-divisions — Their domain — The 
 Akkads — Early linguistic relations — The Mongolo-Tatar sub-division— 
 Nomenclature : Mongol ; Tatar ; Tiirki — Divergent Finno-Turki types — 
 The Samoyedes — The Lapps — The Baltic Finns ; Karelians ; Tavastians 
 — White elements in the Mongolo-Tatar domain — Avars — Magyars — 
 Bulgars — Osmanli affinities — Koreo-Japanese group — The Koreans — The 
 Japanese: Physical qualities; Mental qualities — The "Hyperboreans" — 
 The Chukchi problem — The Tibeto-Indo-Chinese sub-division — General 
 physical uniformity — Tibeto-Chinese linguistic relations — Function of 
 Tone in the Isolating Languages — Tibetan linguistic affinities — Indo- 
 Oceanic linguistic relations — The Indonesians — The Malay problem — 
 Malay physical type — Malagasy affinities — Malayo- Polynesian linguistic 
 relations — Ethnical relations in the Philippine Islands. 
 
 It is admitted by all ethnologists that Asia is the original home 
 of the Mongolic division, a fact which harmonises ^^.^ ^^^^^ 
 well with the view that the vanished Indo-African of the Mongol 
 Continent was the cradle of mankind. From that 
 region the pHocene precursor had easy access through India 
 itself to the Central Asian plains and plateaux. At present the 
 peninsula appears cut off on all sides by lofty ranges from the 
 mainland, although recent military surveys have revealed a con- 
 siderable number of relatively easy passes, giving access through 
 the Soleiman Mountains to the Iranian tableland. But in the 
 pliocene epoch all these ranges stood at a much lower level than 
 they now do. Both the Arakan-Yoma, now blocking the way to 
 Indo-China, and the Sivalik foothills, date only from the latter 
 
296 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 part of the tertiary era, when the Western Himalayas themselves 
 were probably not more than 20,000 feet high, or 
 
 accessible to ^ •' ' ° ' 
 
 the Pliocene nearly 10,000 less than at present. Even the 
 pr cursor. Tibetan plateau, now the highest on the globe, was 
 
 a marine bed in the cretaceous age, since when it has been slowly 
 raised to its present level. In general "the extra-peninsular 
 ranges, the great Indo-Gangetic plain, the northern margin of the 
 peninsula, and the western coast owe their origin to another great 
 series of earth-movements which took place during the tertiary 
 era^" Consequently the way was open from India to the very 
 heart of the continent, that is, to the shores of the then flooded 
 Central Asian depression, at the very time when pliocene man 
 began to spread northwards from the Indo-Austral regions. 
 
 Such a precursor, migrating northwards to a new environment 
 on the Central Asian plateau, as at that time consti- 
 
 Transition , . , 
 
 from the gene- tutcd, might pass by casy transitions to a form ap- 
 type'tt the""^" proximately like that of the ideal Homo Mongolicus 
 Mongol described in Chap. X. Neither colour of the skin, 
 
 variety. .... 
 
 texture of the hair, nor stature could present any 
 difficulty, for in all these respects the Mongol type stands actually 
 nearer than does the Negro to that of the precursor as conceived 
 by de Quatrefages. Hence the unsatisfactory nature of all 
 attempts made to derive the yellow and white varieties from 
 the black, which is generally but wrongly assumed to be in all 
 particulars the best representative of primitive man. It is mainly 
 in the form of the skull, its extreme prognathism and dolicho- 
 cephaly, as well as in the disproportionate length of the arms and 
 slight muscular development of the calves, that the Negro stands 
 nearest to the anthropoids. Perhaps in most other respects the 
 Mongol takes this position, although Topinard has noticed that 
 in the texture of the hair the white comes nearest to the apes, the 
 black differing most, while the yellow is intermediate. Such 
 results should be expected on the theory here assumed of inde- 
 pendent ascent from the prototype, whereas they would be 
 inexplicable on the opposite assumption of successive transitions 
 from one human variety to another. 
 
 ^ R. D. Oldham, The Evolution of Indian Geography, in Geograph. Jour, 
 March, 1S94, p. 180. 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 297 
 
 Taken as a whole, the typical Mongol differs from the other 
 divisions mainly in the general yellowish colour of chiefMon oi 
 the skin, the broad flat features, with very prominent physical 
 anteriorly projecting cheek bones, small mesorrhine 
 nose, mesognathous jaws, brachycephalous head, slightly developed 
 superciliary ridges and glabella, somewhat sunken eyes with 
 narrow almond-shaped aperture between the Hds, a vertical fold 
 of skin over the inner canthus and outer angle slightly elevated. 
 This oblique eye with its "third lid" is a highly characteristic 
 trait, constant in the more typical groups, and exclusively found 
 in the Mongol division. The black, lank and rather coarse hair, 
 almost if not quite circular in transverse section, is also a constant 
 but not an exclusive character, being equally common to the 
 American division, and forming the most marked physical Hnk 
 between Homo ^longolicus and Homo Americanus. It seems to 
 justify the assumption of an original generalised Mongolo-American 
 type, from which the American branched otf at an early date prior 
 to later differentiations, as represented in the Family Tree of the 
 Hominidae (p. 224). 
 
 After the separation the parent stem continued to spread over 
 a great part of the continent, reaching its extreme Diffusion of 
 eastern limits probably in - the palaeolithic age, the Mongol 
 passing later southwards into Malaysia, and pene- 
 trating in neolithic times into Europe, but apparently not into 
 Africa. This early expansion of the Mongol race, of which there 
 is monumental evidence in Mesopotamia, and abundant ethnical 
 proof in Indo-China and the Amur basin, brought about fresh 
 groupings and interminglings, not only with kindred tribes, but 
 also with Caucasic peoples, who had already in remote times 
 spread from their primeval homes in North Africa and Europe 
 eastwards to Japan, south-eastwards to India and Indo-China, 
 and thence to Malaysia, Australasia and Polynesia. Thus arose, 
 not only on the confines but in the very heart of the Mongol 
 domain, those Mongoloid and Caucasoid aberrant groups, such as 
 the Malaysian Indonesians, the Mesopotamian Ak- 
 kads, the Dravidians of the Indian peninsula, the goio%aucasi'c 
 Ugrian Finns, and the Tiirki peoples, wrongly called ^"ter- 
 
 I- 1 7 D y minglmgs. 
 
 Tatars, all of whom are found fully constituted long 
 
298 
 
 ETHNOLOGY 
 
 [chap. 
 
 MANCHU OF KULJA. 
 
 {Frofile.) 
 
 MANCHU OF KULJA. 
 
 {Full face.) 
 
 KALMUK. WOMAN. 
 
 {West Mongol Type.) 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 299 
 
 before the dawn of history, but whose ethnical affinities have 
 remained an unsolved problem. But, speaking broadly, it may 
 be confidently said that the explanation of these ethnical puzzles 
 will be found in the frank recognition of MongoHc and Caucasic 
 elements interpenetrating each other at various points of their 
 respective territories from the earHest times \ In the presence of 
 distinctly fair types and regular "European" features in Man- 
 churia, Korea, Yezo, Turkestan, parts of Siberia, and Malaysia, 
 the assumption must be abandoned that these regions have always 
 been the exclusive appanage of the yellow race. In the chapter 
 devoted to the Caucasic division, this important subject will have 
 to be dealt with more fully. Meanwhile it will suffice here to 
 point out that in the accompanying Family Tree of the MongoHc 
 division all those aberrant groups find a place, which can be 
 shown to belong fundamentally to the Mongol stock. Here 
 language becomes an important factor, to which 
 appeal may be made in doubtful cases, while historic Fam°ny Tree, 
 evidence is available in determining the constituents 
 of Magyars, Bulgars, Uzbegs and some other later groupings. 
 
 Here, as in the Negro Tree, two great hmbs are seen to branch 
 oif from the parent stem nearly simultaneously — 
 the Mo?igolo- Tatar to the left and the Tibeto-Indo- ^u^Jlgroups"^"^ 
 Chinese to the right. From each of these springs 
 an extra-continental branch, the Mongolo-Tatar passing with the 
 Eskimo to America, the Tibeto-Indo-Chinese with the Oceaiiic 
 Mongols to the neighbouring Indo-Pacific waters. Thenceforth a 
 relatively close connection is maintained between the various 
 
 1 On this point Dr Hamy aptly remarks: "Nous passons d'une race a 
 I'autre par des transitions insensibles, et nous avons pu ainsi nous rendre 
 compte de I'extreme difficulte que presente habituellement la delimitation 
 scientifique des Jaunes et des Blancs. Les vallees de la Siberie occidentale 
 sont parcourues dans les hautes latitudes par des peuples, comme les Samoiedes, 
 Kanirs et autres, chez lesquels les variations individuelles sont vraiment fort 
 etendues et conduisent, a peu pres sans hiatus, du Mongol au Lapon. Ailleurs, 
 dans les memes zones, les types intermediaires etablissent d'autres passages 
 presque insensibles du Lapon au Finnois et du Finnois au Slave. On peut ainsi 
 aligner des series d'observations continues entre les plus exageres des Jaunes, 
 et certains Blancs tout a fait averes." {Les Races Jaunes in L Anthropologie, 
 May-June, 1895, p. 249.) 
 
FAMILY TREE OF HOMO MONGOLICUS. 
 
[chap. XII.] 
 
 HOMO MONGOLICUS. 
 
 301 
 
 Tibeto-Indo-Chinese sub-branches, whereas the Mongolo-Tatar 
 ramifications are not only far more numerous, but also develop 
 more independent secondary branches, such as the Akkad, the 
 Koreo-Japanese, the Finno-Tatar and the Mongol proper, some 
 confined to the Asiatic mainland, others spreading eastwards to 
 the Japanese archipelago, or westwards far into Europe. Europe, 
 however, may be regarded as to some extent an ethnological, as it 
 is altogether a geographical, dependency of Asia. Thus the 
 whole of the northern section of the eastern hemisphere is seen to 
 be largely occupied by Mongol or Mongoloid peoples, the regions 
 from which they are either partly or altogether excluded being 
 India, Irania, Arabia, North Africa and West Europe. Such 
 throughout the historic period has been the domain of the Mongol 
 division, here and there modified from time to time by the vicissi- 
 tudes of the secular struggle for ascendency maintained with the 
 conterminous Caucasic populations. 
 
 For the Mongol division the historic period dates from the 
 
 AKKAD OF BAnvrOXIA. 
 
 earliest records of the Mesopotamian Akkads, founders of the 
 
 oldest known civiHzation in Babylonia. Here some 
 
 of the figures brought to light by M. de Sarzec at 
 
 Tell-Loh, site of the ancient city of Lagash (4000—2500 B.C.), 
 
 The Akkads. 
 
302 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 show distinctly Monguiic traits in the prominent cheek bones, 
 obhque eyes and generally flat features, standing out in marked 
 contrast to the almost pure Semitic type of the later Assyrian 
 epochs We have also seen (Ch. IX.) that the Akkad language 
 shows some striking resemblances to Chinese, while most Akkad 
 students are rather inclined to affiliate it either to the Finnic or to 
 the Turki branch of the Mongolo-Tatar linguistic family. The 
 reconcihation of these apparently contradictory views may be 
 found in the now estabHshed fact (p. 207) that Chinese was itself 
 formerly polysyllabic, and may consequently have sprung from a 
 common Tibeto-Mongol form of speech, of which Akkad is the 
 earliest and nearest representative. If continued in this direction, 
 Akkad studies may lead to a satisfactory solution of the Tibeto- 
 Mongol problem, and to the recovery of the primordial unity of 
 the Mongohc division, which appears in our Mongol Family Tree 
 to be split from prehistoric times into two great subdivisions. 
 
 The expression "Mongolo-Tatar" applied to one of these 
 
 The Mon- Subdivisions, is perhaps too firmly established to 
 
 goio-Tatar be now set aside. But "Mongolo-Tdrkic" would 
 
 subdivision. . , .,,,,.,, 
 
 certamly be preferable, though still not quite satis- 
 factory, as seeming to exclude the Eskimo, the Koreo-Japanese 
 and the Finnic groups. The expression Ural-Altaic has in recent 
 years come into favour as a convenient alternative and is certainly 
 better than the misused and discredited " Turanian ^" It is of 
 
 ^ On Plate xxv. of de Sarzec's Deconvertes en Chaldee "a small head is 
 figured in which an obliqueness of the eyes is clearly noticeable" (T. G. Pinches, 
 Types of the Early Inhabitants of Mesopotamia, in Joicr. Anthrop. Inst. 1891, 
 p. 99). The head of No. i, Plate xii. figured and restored by Mr Pinches 
 (pp. 87, 88), also shows a general Mongolic expression in the flat face and 
 well-marked malar bones flattened in front. No importance can be attached 
 to Mr Pinches' restoration of the mutilated nose, which was probably smaller 
 than here shown. 
 
 2 Whether containing the root of Turk, or, as seems more probable, trace- 
 able to an Aryan word meaning "swift" (cf. Skt. tvard = haste, speed), Tiira 
 (later Tnrdn) was applied in the early Persian records to the region north of 
 Ariana (East Irania) now known as Turkistan, " Land of the Turk." Thus 
 was indicated the sharp contrast, the everlasting antagonism, between the 
 settled Aryas (root ar, to ear, to plough) and the nomad Turdni, swift-moving 
 predatory hordes then as now. When comparative philology began to extend 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 303 
 
 course geographical, and like the analogous "Indo-European" 
 is defective, excluding large areas occupied by Mongoloid peoples 
 of Mongolo-Tatar speech. Here it will be used like Schott's 
 Ugro-Altaic in the widest sense, so as to embrace the whole 
 region from Lapland to Japan inclusive, a region occupied by 
 peoples of more or less homogeneous physical type, and now 
 shown to speak idioms ultimately traceable to a common stock 
 language. 
 
 The great objection to "]\Iongolo-Tatar" Hes in the fact that it 
 is tautological, both terms of the compound form being historically 
 referable to Mongol peoples proper, so that Tata}' is wrongly 
 taken as synonymous with Turki. No objection 
 can be made to the first component, whether ture""^^"*^ ^' 
 derived from inong, "brave," or from the Mongol 
 tribe of which Jenghiz-Khan was chief, and which in the 12th 
 century was seated near the Kara- Kara mountains north of the 
 Gobi Desert. But Tatar (plural of Tata) was never the name of 
 any section of the Tiirki branch, to which it is now collectively 
 appHed. It appears to be a Tungus or Manchu word, meaning 
 either "archer" or "nomad," and first occurring in Chinese records 
 of the 9th century in reference to certain Mongol tribes which 
 were later driven by the Khitans southwards to the In-Shan moun- 
 tains about the great bend of the Hoang-ho river. Here the 
 predatory Mongols and Tatars, all closely related members of the 
 Mongol group proper, were welded into one nation by Jenghiz- 
 Khan, a Mongol on his father's side, and a Tata on his mother's. 
 That Tatar became dominant in the west was largely due to the 
 fact that the Tatas generally formed the van of the Mongol expe- 
 ditions westwards. At an early date Tatar took the form Tartar 
 by association with the Tartarus of classic mythology, as in the 
 
 its sphere from the Indo-European to the Central Asiatic linguistic domain, 
 Ti'trdn naturally su pplied the comp re hensive term "Turanian" needed to 
 distinguish the AI ongolo-Tatar from the A ryan linguistic family. But while 
 Aryan has held its ground, Turanian has fallen into abeyanc^,'Thanks to its 
 misuse by popular ethnographists, who made it a convenient receptacle for 
 almost everything non-Aryan in the Eastern, and even occasionally in the 
 Western, Hemisphere. At present Turanian is the shibboleth of unscientific 
 and inaccurate writers on ethnological subjects. 
 
304 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 letter (1241) of Louis IX. to Queen Blanche'. Thus it happened 
 that Tatar or Tartar, originally the name of a Mongolian tribe, 
 was gradually transferred to the western group whose proper name 
 always has been and still is Turkic though in many places ruled 
 by Khans of real or pretended Mongol descent. The powerful 
 Kipchak empire, founded by Batu-Khan, grandson of Jenghiz, 
 was mainly inha"T)ited by Kumans, Pechenegs, and other Turki 
 peoples, and when the empire was broken into fragments, each 
 section still continued to be ruled by Tatar Khans and to be 
 called a Tatar Khanate. Thus originated the expressions "Sibe- 
 rian Tatars," Kazan, Astrakhan, Krim (Crimean) and other Tatars, 
 that is, Tiirki peoples ruled by Tatar princes of Jenghiz-Khan's 
 dynasty. But the peoples themselves have always disclaimed the 
 name of Tatar, calling themselves and their language Turki. 
 
 This word is of far more venerable origin than the Mongol 
 term which has partly usurped its place. It is traceable in its 
 mutilated Chinese form Tii-kiii back to the 2nd century B.C. when 
 a people of that name dwelt in the Altai region. Here they 
 gradually rose to great power, and in the first century of the new 
 era their name had already reached Europe, the Tiircce being 
 mentioned both by Pomponius Mela (i. 22) and by PHny (vi. 7)". 
 The Hiung-nu and the On-Uighurs, founders of vast but unstable 
 empires, were all of Tiirki stock, as were also the bulk of Attila's 
 hordes, that is, "the Huns whom we commonly call Turks" 
 (G. Theophanes, 8th century). In 569 Sinjibu, Kha-Khan 
 ("Great Khan") of the Altai Turks, received an embassy from 
 Justin II. of Constantinople, and ever since that time the Turks, 
 
 1 " Erigat nos, Mater, creleste solatium, quia si perveniant ipsi, vel nos 
 ipsos quos vocamus Tartaros ad suas tartareas sedes retrudemus, vel ipsi nos 
 omnes ad ci^lum subvehent." But it would almost seem from this text and 
 from other circumstances as if the form Tartar had already been established, 
 and the word occurs in fact in earlier documents (1237 and 1240). A vast 
 amount of information on the early history and relations of the Mongolo-Turki 
 peoples is embedded in Sir H. H. Howorth's monumental but ill-digested 
 History of the Mongols^ 1876-80. 
 
 2 W. Thomsen reads the name Tiiirk in the scarcely decipherable rock 
 inscriptions of the Yenisei, which he refers to a Turki dynasty ruling in that 
 region in the 8th century (Paper submitted to the R. Academy of Denmark, 
 Jan. 1894). 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 305 
 
 under one name or another, have maintained almost uninterrupted 
 relations, hostile or friendly, with the nations of the West, over- 
 throwing the Byzantine Empire (1453), penetrating up the Danube 
 to the gates of Vienna (16S3) ^^^ still holding their ground in the 
 Balkan Peninsula, Anatolia and parts of Irania. 
 
 The Tilrki type, originally Mongolic, had at an early period 
 been profoundly modified in many places, and 
 especially in the north by contact with peoples of Finno-Turki 
 Caucasic race, whence the frequent mention of ^^"' 
 "red hair," "green eyes," and "white complexion" in the early 
 Chinese records. By some ethnologists these modifications have 
 been attributed to interminglings with Ugrian (Siberian) Finns, 
 the Finnish race itself being regarded as originally not Mongolic 
 but Caucasic. De Quatrefages habitually calls them "white 
 Allophylians." Many of the European Finns \ and especially the 
 Baltic group, have undoubtedly been largely assimilated to the 
 surrounding populations, although even these retain certain 
 physical and mental characters, such as peaky eyes, somewhat 
 flat face, round head, dull sullen temperament, which, combined 
 with their pure Ural-Altaic speech, betray their primordial Mongol 
 affinities. These affinities become more marked in the direction 
 from west to east, until the Samoyedes, Soyotes and other Finns 
 of Siberia, true home of the race, show all the characters of the 
 Mongolic type often in an exaggerated form. 
 
 Thus the Samoyedes^ of the Ob basin, studied by Castren, 
 
 ^ The European Finns call themselves Stiomilaiset, usually interpreted 
 *'Fen People," from suo, fen, swamp; but this cannot be because the m of 
 suovii is radical; hence the assumption that " Finn " is a Teutonic translation 
 of Suomi, in the sense of "Fen People," also falls through. Moreover to 
 derive this word from Old Norse ^« is philologically impossible. Here the 
 e arises by umlaut from an original a, as in the Gothic fani, whereas Finn 
 {Fenni, Finni, Tacitus, Germania 46; Pliny 4. 13) goes back to a time 
 long prior to the appearance of umlaut in the Teutonic languages. See W. 
 Thomsen, Uebej- den Einfluss der germanischen Sprachen auf die finnisch- 
 lappischen, Halle, 1870, note p. 14. 
 
 - Properly Hasovo or Nenizi, both terms meaning "men," and current, the 
 former chiefly in the Ob basin, the latter west of the Pechora river. The 
 ■word Samoyede, for which the absurd popular etymology "Self-eaters," in the 
 sense of Cannibals^ has been found in the Russian language, appears to be also 
 
 K. 2Q' 
 
306 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Finsch and especially Stephen Sommier, have the 
 s^oyedes. ^^^^ MongoHc eye, fold and all, the character- 
 istic short nose, prominent malar bones, flat 
 features, low stature scarcely exceeding 5 ft. i or 2 in., lank 
 dark hair ranging from a deep chestnut to black, and distinctly 
 round head (Sommier's mean cephalic index 84-44) \ Although 
 their southern neighbours, the Ugrian Voguls and Ostyaks, present 
 some marked differences, especially in their lighter complexion. 
 
 OSTYAK WOMAN. 
 
 (^North MongoHc Type.) 
 
 chestnut and even blonde hair, and long head (index 79 '28), the 
 Mongol type is conspicuous enough in their flat features, small 
 nose, slightly obHque eyes, and short stature (little over one per 
 cent, taller than the Samoyede). The hair is described as "red" 
 
 a national designation, in which Samo is to be equated with the Finnish 
 Suomi and the Lapp Same, as in Suoffiilaiset, Samelats (A. H. Keane, The 
 Lapps, p. 3). According to Mr Fr. G. Jackson the present pronunciation is 
 Sa?fioyad, or even Sa7nyad, at least in the districts visited by him during his 
 expedition to Waigatz Island: "Mr Jackson found that the Yuraks of the 
 Trans-Pechora country invariably pronounced the name as if it were Samo-yad, 
 or even Sam-yad" {The Great Frozen Land, 1895, note by Mr Arthur Monte- 
 fiore, p. 54). So also Mr Trevor-Battye, Ice-bound on Kolguev, 1895, p. xxii. 
 1 Sirieni, Ostiacchi e Samozedi dell' Ob, Florence 1887, p. 150. 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 307 
 
 by Topinard and other ethnologists; but this is a mistake arising 
 out of a faulty translation of the original account 
 
 ^ ... The Lapps. 
 
 given by Pallas, which was itself inaccurate, but 
 which has now been rectified by Sommier (p. d-^. It is note- 
 worthy that the hair of the Lapps, most aberrant of all the 
 western Mongoloid peoples, is at present generally brown or light 
 chestnut, whereas in Linne's time it was normally black'. This 
 rapid modification of a marked physical character, attributed by 
 the writer^ doubtfully to crossing with the fair-haired Scandinavians, 
 is shown by Sommier^ to be more probably due to aUiances with 
 the blond Quaens, that is, Finnish immigrants into Lapland. But 
 whatever be the cause, the fact is important, as illustrating the 
 analogous changes by which in the course of ages the Baltic Finns 
 themselves have been largely assimilated in appear- 
 ance to the average European. In this group pinnl^^^*'*^ 
 Retzius* distinguishes two well-marked types, the 
 eastern Karelians, tall, slim figures with regular features, straight 
 grey eyes, brown complexion, and chestnut hair hanging in ringlets 
 down to the shoulders, and the western Tavastians, the "white- 
 eyed Chudes" of the Russians, broad thick-set figures, small and 
 slightly oblique blue eyes, light flaxen or towy hair, and white 
 complexion. It would almost seem as if the Tavastians were the 
 issue of a German graft on a Mongol stock, while the Karelians 
 represented a Slavo-Mongol mixture in which the original Mongol 
 element was largely eliminated. In this respect the Karelians 
 resemble the more easterly Permian Finns, and especially the 
 Siryanian group, who dwell on both sides of the northern Urals, 
 and who are distinguished from the neighbouring Samoyedes by 
 their white colour, blonde or light chestnut hair, large brown or 
 grey eyes, and straight nose. Some of these Russified Finns have 
 
 ^ '* Capillis nigris, brevibtis, rcctis,^^ Sy sterna Natiint. 
 
 2 The Lapps, 1885, p. 7. 
 
 ' Siii Lapponi e siii Fitilandesi Settentrionali, Archivio per C Aittropologia, 
 XVI. 1886, p. 162. The general Mongolic affinities of the Lapps, affirmed by 
 the writer {pp. cit. passim), but denied by many anthropologists, is accepted by 
 this observer: *'Egli ammette che i Lapponi sono di origine Mongolica, 
 ed in questo, dando al termine Mongolico un senso molto largo, andiamo 
 d' accordo" {op. cit. p. 52). 
 
 ^ Finska Kranier, passifu. 
 
 20 — 2 
 
-08 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 even developed a full beard, while others still betray their Mongol 
 descent in their broad heavy features, small nose, and large malar 
 bones, ''recalling the Tavastian type of Finns'." 
 
 It is generally supposed that the region about the headwaters 
 
 of the Yenisei was the original home of the Finnish 
 
 White eie- race, and here still survive a few isolated Samoyede 
 
 ments in the ' •' 
 
 Mongoio- tribes, such as the Koibals, Karagasses, Kamassintzi 
 
 and Soyotes. Although some of these have inter- 
 mingled with the neighbouring Turki tribes and now speak Tiirki 
 dialects, the Turks of Central Asia could not have acquired their 
 Caucasic features from this source, the affinities of the Upper 
 Yenisei Finns being, not with the Slavonised or Germanised 
 western groups, but with the North Siberian Samoyedes of pro- 
 nounced Mongol type. The same Caucasic strain has moreover 
 been traced through Manchuria and Korea to Japan, regions 
 where no Finns have ever been heard of, but where a distinctly 
 Caucasic element still survives in the Ainu aborigines of Yezo. 
 The early Chinese records have preserved the memory of other 
 "Allophylian Whites," such as the Wusuns, an extinct historical 
 nation of Central Mongolia described in the annals of the Han 
 dynasty as a tall fair race, with red hair and green eyes, who were 
 gradually driven by the Mongols westwards to the Tarim basin 
 (Kashgaria). Thus the Mongolo-Tatar populations are everywhere 
 found from remote prehistoric times interpenetrated by primitive 
 Caucasic peoples, and it is to the interminglings of these two 
 elements that must be attributed the Caucasic characters noticed 
 in all ages amongst the Finno-Tatars and their more remote allies 
 of Manchuria, Korea and the Liu-Kiu (Lii-Chii) Archipelago. 
 
 During their later migrations southwards and westwards the 
 Finno-Tatar peoples (Avars, Magyars, Bulgars, 
 Osmanli and other Turks), underwent still more 
 profound transformations. Nearly all became assimilated by misce- 
 genation to the Caucasic type, some (Avars) being completely 
 absorbed, others (Bulgars) retaining but slight traces of their 
 Mongol descent and nothing of their Finno-Tatar speech, others 
 again (Magyars, Osmanli) losing their physical characters, but 
 
 ^ Sommier, Sirieni, ivc, p. 66. 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 309 
 
 preserving their highly agglutinating Ural-Altaic languages \ The 
 Avars, whose very name has perished, unless they are still repre- 
 sented by a small group of wild hillmen bearing that designation in 
 the Caucasus, were formerly dominant from the Don to the 
 Middle Danube, where they clashed swords with the legions of 
 Charlemagne. In Pannonia (Hungary) they were replaced by 
 the kindred Magyars of Finno-Turki stock, who in the 9th century 
 crossed the Carpathians and pitched their tents on the banks of 
 the Theiss and Danube, where they are still the dominant people. 
 The Magyars are ethnologically an extremely inter- 
 esting nation, who for about a thousand years have 
 preserved their Finno-Tilrki speech intact amid a congeries of 
 Aryan-speaking populations, while in their new environment their 
 Mongolic physical type has gradually conformed to the normal 
 European standard, perhaps partly by convergence, but mainly 
 by continuous crossings with their German, Slav and Rumanian 
 neighbours. Mentally also the evolution is complete, and the 
 frank, chivalrous, intelligent and highly cultured Magyars of the 
 present day differ as much from their rude nomad forefathers 
 roaming the northern steppe as does the present imperial race of 
 Englishmen from their Romano-British forerunners. But how are 
 such a people to be classified? No doubt some of the peasantry, 
 and especially the so-called Szeklers' of Transylvania, are still dis- 
 tinguished by somewhat coarse Mongoloid features, whether 
 inherited or acquired by fusion with the Avars. But were it not 
 for their Ural-Altaic speech, the most experienced anthropologist 
 would fail to detect a drop of Mongol blood in the regular, often 
 hnndsome features, white skin, shapely pliant figure and quick 
 flashing glance of the average Magyar of the present generation. 
 It thus becomes evident that, when the details are reached, all 
 classifications resolve themselves into more or less convenient 
 groupings of the transitional forms by which the primary divisions 
 are everywhere connected on their ethnical borderlands. 
 
 So with the Bulgars, a horde of Volga ^ Finns, who in the 
 
 ^ For an explanation of these phenomena see Chap. IX. 
 2 Yxo^Q.x\y Szekely^ "Borderers." 
 
 ^ The Byzantine chronicler Nicephoras Gregoras (14th century) states 
 expressly that the Bulgars took their name from the Bulga (Volga), which 
 
310 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 KARA-KIRGHIZ OF SEMIRECHINSK. KARA-KIRGHIZ OF SEMIRECHINSK. 
 
 {Profile:) {Full face.) 
 
 KARA-KIRGHIZ WOMAN OF 
 SEMIRECHINSK. 
 
 KIRGHIZ OF TASHKEND 
 DISTRICT. 
 
 {Turki Type,) 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 3 II 
 
 7th century (678) moved southward and settled in r 1 ar 
 Moesia on the right bank of the Lower Danube. 
 Here their fate was somewhat different from that of their remote 
 Magyar kinsmen. Failing to preserve their ethnical indepen- 
 dence, they had already in the loth century exchanged their 
 Finnish speech for a Slav tongue, and were thenceforth classed 
 with the Slavonic branch of the Caucasic peoples. Yet the 
 Mongol physical characters were never quite eliminated, and are 
 still perceptible in the somewhat broad flattish face, long black 
 hair, small slant eyes, heavy figures, and rather sluggish tempera- 
 ment of the modern Bulgarians. In their original home, "Great 
 Bulgaria," the Mordvins, Cheremisses, Chuvashes, Votyaks and 
 other kindred Volga Finns, are also being slowly Slavonised, and 
 on linguistic maps already appear like so many ethnical islets lost 
 amid the vast sea of surging Russian nationality. A similar fate is 
 overtaking the Bashkirs, Tepyaks and other Finno-Tatar groups of 
 the Southern Urals, as well as the Baltic Finns south of the Gulf 
 of Finland, where those of Kurland and Livonia have already 
 disappeared; none of Finnish speech now survive in this region 
 except the historical Esthonians, of whom King Alfred has left an 
 interesting account in his translation of Orosms. 
 
 Like the Finns, the European Turks (Osmanli) have lost most 
 of their Mongol physical characters \ But while 
 the Finns have generally become xanthochroi affinities.* 
 (blondes), the Turks have approximated more to 
 
 traverses their country, "Great Bulgaria," so called in contradistinction to 
 *' Little Bulgaria " (Moesia) south of the Danube. 
 
 1 These characters are thus described by Dr Hamy: — "Aplatissement 
 parieto-occipital, commun a tous les Turcs. Ce trait signaletique tres habituel, 
 tres manifeste, permet deja d'etablir entre le Mongol et le Turc une difference 
 immediatement appreciable. II en est un second plus frappant encore et qui, 
 combine avec le premier, donne a la boite cranienne du Turc, qu'il soit 
 Yakoute ou Turcoman, un aspect aiboide. C'est la tendance de la tete a se 
 developper en hauteur, juste en sens inverse, par consequent, de I'aplatisse- 
 ment vertical du Mongol. La tete du Turc est done a la fois plus haute et 
 plus courte ; elle est aussi un peu moins large a proportion et I'indice cepha- 
 lique est seulement sous-brachycephale. La face, s'harmonisant, comme il 
 convient, avec le crane ainsi quelque peu retreci, est moins epanouie; par 
 centre le squelette nasal s'accentue plus encore chez le Turc que chez le 
 
312 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 the melanochroic (dark) subdivision of the Caucasic type, a differ- 
 ence readily explained by their exogamous alliances with the 
 Circassians, Abkhasians and other Mohammadan peoples of the 
 Caucasus. Their Mongol descent is now chiefly shown by their 
 Tiirki language, which despite the Arabic and Persian forms of 
 the literary standard, still preserves the peculiar agglutinating 
 structure of Ural-Altaic speech. When they are followed along 
 the line of their westerly migrations to their Central Asiatic homes, 
 the Turks, like the Finns, are also seen to gradually approximate 
 to the Mongolic physical type. This may be seen by a detailed 
 study of the Anatolian Turks, the Kizil-Bashes of the same region, 
 the Afars, Qajars and other Tilrki nomads of Persia, the Turko- 
 
 UZBEG OF ZERAFSHAN DISTRICT. 
 
 {Turko- Iranian Mixed Type.) 
 
 SOLON OF KULJA. 
 
 {Manchu Type.) 
 
 mans of Western Turkistan, the Uzbegs, Kara-Kalpaks and 
 others of the Oxus basin, the Kirghiz hordes of the West Siberian 
 steppe, the East Siberian Yakuts, the Solons of the Amur basin 
 
 Mongol, et vous avez pu voir sur des Ansariehs, par exemple, des cas de 
 macrorhinie veritablement surprenants" {L Anthropologic, 1895, May-June, 
 p. 248). 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 313 
 
 and the Hor-Soks of the Tibetan plateau. The Tilrki branch 
 proper is thus found to cut obliquely across the heart of the 
 continent from the Lena and Amur basins to the Bosphorus, 
 interrupted here and there by Mongol, Iranian, and other elements, 
 but everywhere showing remarkable Hnguistic uniformity amid all 
 the transitions between the Mongolic and Caucasic physical types. 
 From the Mongolo-Tatar bough of the Family Tree a slender 
 branch comprising the Koreo-Japanese group is 
 seen to ramify independently between the two anese^roup.' 
 main subdivisions of the parent stem. The rela- 
 tive position of this group to the other members of the family, long 
 a subject of discussion, may now be regarded as settled. That the 
 separation took place at a very remote period is evident from the 
 difficulty observers have had in recognising the connection, which 
 even now has been estabHshed perhaps as much by the aid of 
 language as of physical characters. This may be explained by the 
 fact that both the Koreans and Japanese are mixed peoples, 
 yellow and white elements prevailing in the former, yellow, white 
 and perhaps brown in the latter, whereas their languages are 
 unmixed and fundamentally related with the Ural-Altaic family. 
 Korean was first shown by Mr W. G. Ashton to be remotely con- 
 nected in its verbal and structural character and phonetics with 
 Japanese. "It seems probable that the distance which separates 
 Japanese from Korean... is not greater than that which lies 
 between English and Sanskrit.... Everything considered, we may 
 regard them as equally closely allied with the most remotely con- 
 nected members of the Aryan family \" Since then a distant 
 relation has also been established between Japanese and the other 
 branches of the Ural-Altaic stock language. But here the affinity 
 is exceedingly faint, less even than that now estabHshed between 
 the Hamitic and Semitic groups. It would appear however to be 
 of a fundamental nature, due, not to later contact, but to common 
 descent. On this obscure philological problem, which so nearly 
 concerns Ural-Altaic ethnical affinities, much light has been 
 thrown by Dr Heinrich Winkler in his scholarly treatise Japaner 
 tmd Altaier (^Qx\\i\, 1894). Here it is shown that all the essential 
 
 1 A Comparative Study of the Japanese and Korean Languages, in 7our. 
 R. As. Soc. 1879, p. 360 et seq. 
 
314 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 features of Japanese, and consequently also of Korean, find their 
 counterpart in the Finno-Ugrian group. Numerous identities 
 have also been traced between the radical elements and primitive 
 vocabularies of both families, so that little doubt now remains of 
 their fundamental unity. In this respect Japanese and Korean 
 Avould appear to stand in much the same relation to Finno-Tatar 
 that the Hamitic does to the Semitic Hnguistic family. In both 
 cases no doubt the disparity is enormous, and such wide diver- 
 gences from original stock languages must have taken a vast 
 period of time to accompHsh. But such a consideration can 
 have weight only with those who, despite accumulating evidence 
 of great antiquity, still persist in limiting the existence of man to 
 a few thousand years. 
 
 Their common descent is also clearly perceptible in some of 
 
 the physical features of the Koreo-Japanese groups. 
 The Koreans. ^^^ Koreans, who take an intermediate position 
 between the continental and insular Mongoloid peoples, are 
 somewhat taller and more robust, with much Hghter complexion 
 and far more regular features than the average Mongol. As 
 amongst the neighbouring Manchus, greenish, grey and even blue 
 eyes are not uncommon, and the fusion of yellow and white 
 elements is perhaps more marked than elsewhere in north-east 
 Asia. Ernst Oppert^ everywhere met people, and especially 
 children, with such regular features, florid complexion, light hair 
 and blue eyes, that they could scarcely be distinguished from 
 Europeans. The national records speak of two primitive races, 
 the Sien-pi and San-San, apparently representing yellow and white 
 types, who were gradually merged in the present Kao-ri {Kao-lt, 
 Koreans). 
 
 Their Japanese neighbours are the outcome of more complex 
 
 interminghngs^ According to the national tradi- 
 , '^^^ tions thev arrived from the south and south-west, 
 
 Japanese. -' ... 
 
 and gradually spread over the archipelago, driving 
 the Caucasic Ainu aborigines northwards to Yezo, and no doubt 
 
 1 Reisen nach Korea, Leipzig, 1881, passhn. 
 
 ' '* Among the Japanese there are three distinct types noticeable in the 
 living subject {^Rosny), and a fourth which we may gather from an examination 
 of skulls " (Topinard, Anthropology, p. 445). 
 
XII.] 
 
 HOMO MONGOLICUS. 
 
 315 
 
 here and there mixing with them, though nowhere to any con- 
 siderable extent. Some appear to have arrived from the southern 
 
 JAPANESE WOMAN. 
 
 Malay lands (Formosa, the PhiHppines), while others may have 
 come from Polynesia. But there is nowhere any evidence of the 
 
 JAPANESE JINRICKSHA RUNNER. 
 
 black or Negrito element that has been spoken of, and all the 
 evidence points to Korea as the original home of the great 
 
3l6 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 majority, and especially of the dominant classes. Amid much 
 diversity, all these elements have merged in a marked Japanese 
 
 type, which can generally be recognised, and which 
 qu^mfe"^ is characterised by a flat forehead, great distance 
 
 between the eyebrows, small but well-formed nose, 
 with slightly raised nostrils, no glabella, nor any depression at the 
 root of the nose, small black eyes, rather less oblique than the 
 Chinese, lank black hair, scant or no beard, disproportionately 
 short legs and low stature, shown by the measurements now 
 taken of the conscripts for the army to average about 5 ft. 4 or 
 5 inches. The complexion is sallow, or dirty olive-yellow, but 
 " it is curious how the (face) complexion of these people differs 
 from the body complexion. In the course of two visits to Japan, 
 in which I travelled much in various parts of the country, I saw 
 many hundreds of naked Japanese, the bathing of both sexes in 
 company being at that time the rule, and I was struck particularly 
 with the fact that, in spite of their sallow or yellowish com- 
 plexions, their bodies were whiter than those of Englishmen or 
 even Englishwomen. The Chinaman, however, i'/r^^i'j<?//(?7£//>/z\" 
 "The Koreans are notably taller than the Japanese; and it is 
 on the islands of Tsushima and Iki, in which Korean blood 
 predominates, that the height of the men averages one inch more 
 than on the main island, Hondo"." 
 
 It was seen (p. 45) that there is no necessary correlation 
 
 between physical qualities and mental endowment. 
 Mentaiquah- rpj^j^ ethnological datum is perhaps better illustrated 
 
 in the Japanese than in any other race. Compared 
 with the average Chinese and especially with the Manchus and 
 Koreans, they are but a feeble folk, no doubt possessing con- 
 siderable staying power, but physically weak, with slight muscular 
 development, contracted chest and a marked tendency to anaemia, 
 which however may be largely due to the innutritions national 
 diet of rice, fish, and vegetables. On the other hand the Japanese 
 stand intellectually at the head of all Mongolic peoples without 
 exception. In this respect they rank with the more advanced 
 
 1 Dr F. H. H. Guillemard in letter to A. H. Keane, Aug. 2, 1895. 
 
 2 New York Nation, quoted by the Academy, Sept. 8, 1894. 
 
xil] homo mongolicus. 317 
 
 European nations, being highly intelligent, versatile, progressive, 
 quick-witted, and brave to a degree of heroism unsurpassed by 
 any race. The sense of personal honour, so feebly developed 
 amongst other Asiatics, became a passion under the mediaeval 
 feudal system, and led to astounding acts of devotion and self- 
 sacrifice, as well as to deeds of incredible ferocity, of almost daily 
 occurrence. With much enterprise and originality is combined 
 an imitative faculty surpassing even that of the Chinese, as shown 
 by the fact that their first steamer with engines complete was con- 
 structed solely from the directions given in a Dutch treatise on 
 the subject. These varied mental qualities explain the rapidity 
 with which the Japanese, the barriers of exclusion once broken 
 down, have taken their place in the comity of the western nations. 
 From the mental standpoint the contrast observed between the 
 Japanese and their Korean neighbours is all the more remarkable 
 since the former are not only physically related to the latter, but 
 are also indebted to them for much of their culture. At one time 
 Korea was a flourishing centre of the ceramic and other arts, and 
 from Chinese or perhaps Manchu materials the natives have 
 developed a syllabic alphabet. But for no apparent reason they 
 have for centuries been retrogressing, and they now "seem the 
 dregs of a race'." Their decay may perhaps be accredited 
 to political institutions eminently calculated to yield such re- 
 sults. 
 
 Formerly the expression ''Hyperboreans" was collectively 
 applied to the Chukchi, Koryaks and other Arctic 
 peoples of North-east Siberia, who were supposed boreans/'^^^"^' 
 to form a homogeneous group with the Eskimo 
 dweUing under corresponding high latitudes in the New World. 
 But if they ever possessed ethnical unity, the Asiatic and American 
 branches of this group now stand as widely apart from each other 
 as both do from the original Mongolo-Tatar stock. In our 
 Family Tree the divergence is shown in the bough to the extreme 
 left, where the Eskimo are seen to occupy a branch by them- 
 selves, breaking away from the other members of the group soon 
 after the common severance from the Mongolo-Tatar connection. 
 
 1 Mrs BLshop, Gcograph. Jour. Feb. 1895, p. 162. 
 
318 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 The Chukchi ^ typical Asiatic "Hyperboreans," are 
 robfem^"^*^^* Scattered in small groups along the shores of the 
 
 Frozen Ocean between the Kolyma River and 
 Bering Strait, reaching inland as far as the Anadyr basin. They 
 were first carefully studied by the members of the Nordenskjold 
 Expedition (1878 — 9), who describe them as tall, lean, with some- 
 what irregular features and fair complexion ; hence they are classed 
 by de Quatrefages with his " AUophylian Whites," although W. H. 
 Dall speaks of their coppery tinged But the statements on this 
 
 .^ 
 
 CHUKCHI, N.E. SIBERIA. 
 
 SIAMESE. 
 
 {Indo-Chifiese Type.) 
 
 and other points are conflicting, o^ving to the presence in their 
 domain of true Eskimo (Chuklukmiut Innuits), with whom some 
 observers have confused them. The Chukchi appear, however, to 
 differ altogether from the Eskimo in speech, in the distinctly 
 brachycephalous shape of the head^ and in their light com- 
 
 1 Properly Ttiski, "Brothers," or "Confederates" (Hooper, Ten Months 
 among the Tents of the Ttiski); Nordqvist, however, gives the form Chatichau, 
 plural Chatichauate. 
 
 - Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. I. 
 
 8 '■^ Ziim Thcilin extremejn Maasse'" (Virchow). 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 319 
 
 plexion. These characters seem to be explained by the statement 
 of G. Bove that they came originally from the Amur region 
 (Manchuria), and finding the country occupied by the Koryaks 
 and the Onkilons, they drove the former south beyond the 
 Anadyr, and partly merged with the latter, partly compelled them 
 "to cross the Frozen Ocean ^" The solution of the Chukchi 
 problem, which has been so much discussed, seems therefore to 
 be that they are originally a Manchu or Tungus people, who some 
 centuries ago settled on the north-east seaboard, where they 
 amalgamated with the Onkilon aborigines, that is, with the Ang- 
 kah, or so-called "Fishing Chukchis," apparently Koryaks still 
 surviving about the Anadyr estuary. The more difficult Eskimo 
 problem, thus disengaged from its Asiatic entanglements, will be 
 more conveniently dealt with in the next chapter. 
 
 The Tibeto-Indo-Chinese branch, which ramifies to the right 
 of the parent stem, presents on the whole far greater ^, ^., 
 
 . . ^ ° The Tibeto- 
 
 ethnical unity than the Mongolo-Tatar group rami- Chinese sub- 
 fying to the left. On the Asiatic mainland, where 
 it occupies almost exclusively the great central Tibetan plateau, 
 the southern slopes of the Himalayas, China proper, Indo-China 
 and the Malay Peninsula, it may be almost described as homo- 
 geneous. Throughout the whole of this vast region, in which are 
 concentrated probably one-fourth of mankind, the distinctive 
 Mongolic physical type is everywhere in almost exclusive posses- 
 sion of the land, the chief exceptions being a few tracts on the 
 Southern Himalayas and in Farther India, which are occupied by 
 pure or mixed Caucasic peoples. But in the great ocean of 
 Mongol humanity flooding south-east Asia for countless ages 
 these alien groups may be regarded as t/ne quantite 7iegligeable. 
 
 Hence racial problems of such a fundamental and complex 
 nature as those of the Ural-Altaic domain do not 
 
 General 
 
 here present themselves. Although physical differ- physical uni- 
 ences occur everywhere, they are all confined within °^'"^*y- 
 narrow Hmits. Apart from the few indicated exceptions there 
 are no aberrant types, nor even any transitional forms, such as 
 those Northern and Western Manchu, Turki and Finnish groups, 
 
 1 Bol Soc. Geogi: Hal. Dec. 1879, p. 838, 
 
320 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 AKNAMESE OF SAIGON. 
 
 {Indo-Chinese Type.) 
 
 BURMESE LADY. 
 
 lylndo-CJiinese Type.) 
 
XII.] 
 
 HOMO MONGOLICUS. 
 
 32J 
 
 in which Mongolic and Caucasic characters are inseparably 
 blended, and which consequently resist all attempts at a scientific 
 classification. Tibetans can certainly be at once distinguished 
 from Shans, Annamese from Burmans or Chinese, but all alike 
 are recognised as not merely Mongoloid but distinctly MongoHc 
 peoples, and no question is raised as to their descent from a 
 common Mongol ancestry. Thus a yellowish complexion, narrow 
 slant eyes, small nose, laterally prominent malar bones, black 
 lank hair, and short stature are universally prevalent, and these 
 found in combination suffice to constitute a true Mongol type, 
 despite discrepancies in minor points. Even the shape of the 
 head, which fluctuates within such wide ranges in other divisions 
 
 A CHINESE WOMAN OF KULJA. 
 
 {Profile.) 
 
 A CHINESE WOMAN OF KULJA. 
 
 {Full face.) 
 
 of the Hominidae, is here somewhat constant, here and there 
 mesaticephalous and even sub-dolichocephalous, but mainly show- 
 ing a marked tendency towards brachycephaly. 
 
 This general uniformity is well illustrated by the prevailing 
 physical and mental characters of the Chinese, the 
 most numerous, and one of the most homogeneous sica/xyp^e!' ^" 
 masses of seething humanity on the globe. Certain 
 variations are no doubt presented by the outward traits, such as 
 K. 21 
 
322 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 colour of the skin, ranging from a light lemon and almost white 
 shade in the north, to deep brownish hues in the southern pro- 
 vinces; the eye usually more or less oblique, but occasionally 
 nearly horizontal; the nose normally small and concave, but often 
 large and straight especially amongst the upper classes; the 
 stature, which though generally under the average, as with all 
 Mongolic peoples, often presents surprising discrepancies, as seen 
 in the "Chinese dwarfs" and "Chinese giants" from time to time 
 exhibited in Europe. But the bony fabric of the Chinese skull, 
 so variable elsewhere, is singularly constant both in its resem- 
 blances to and differences from the normal Mongol cranium. In 
 general it is proportionately longer, and at the same time higher 
 than that of any other yellow group, its height slightly exceeding 
 its breadth, and the cephalic index falling to about 77*25 (sub- 
 dolichocephaly). The face, in complete harmony with the brain- 
 cap, is always moderately broad, with very high and prominent 
 cheek bones, and jaws developing a slight degree of progna- 
 thism'. 
 
 Equally constant are the moral qualities, so much so that the 
 , ^ action, for instance, of a Chinese crowd, may under 
 
 Mental cha- ' -^ 
 
 racterofthe given conditions, be always predicted with much 
 more confidence than that of any other race at the 
 same level of culture. They seem in some respects to be almost 
 as incapable of progress as the Negroes themselves, the only 
 essential difference being that the arrest of mental development 
 comes later in life for the yellow than for the black man. Whether 
 this difference is to be explained by a corresponding retardation 
 in the closing of the cranial sutures, must remain matter of con- 
 
 ^ Dr Hamy, who has made a special study of Chinese craniology, says 
 "des machoires projetees en un prognathisme etroit et allonge" {UAnthro- 
 pologie, May, June, 1895, p. ■253). This anthropologist here quotes the graphic 
 description given by von Baer of the Chinese skull : " Figurez-vous que vous 
 ayez un nioulage de I'un de ces cranes de Kalmoukes [western Mongols], 
 execute en quelque substance elastique telle que la gutta-percha, et que vous 
 comprimiez avec les deux mains chaque cote de la voilte, de fajon a faire 
 monter le front et saillir plus encore le sommet de la voute et I'occiput ; 
 comprimez plus fortement les arcs zygomatiques, pour qu'ils deviennent plus 
 etroits et que les os jugaux et surtout les maxillaires se profilent en avant, et 
 vous atirez le type chinois " (/7^). 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 323 
 
 jecture, at least pending further craniological studies in the direction 
 indicated on pp. 44 — 5. 
 
 Meanwhile it may be pointed out that Chinese culture has 
 been stagnant since the early historic period, despite many im- 
 pulses from within and without to shake off the chronic state of 
 lethargy in which the nation seems content to vegetate. The late 
 Terrien de Lacouperie has advanced many arguments to show 
 that, before reaching their present homes in the Hoang-ho and 
 Yang-tse basins, the primitive Bak tribes had long been in contact 
 with the civilised Akkad populations of Babylonia. Hence they 
 reached China already a somewhat cultured people, with a know- 
 ledge of letters, astronomy, and various industrial arts. In their 
 new environment they continued the development of these arts 
 np to a certain point, after which, — that is, throughout the greater 
 part of their historic life, — they have mostlyjremained at a stand- 
 still, and even now find the greatest difficulty in assimilating 
 Western ideas. This inert mass of semi-civilised savagery ~OlTfe?s~a^ 
 dead resistance to all outward pressure, even at the peril of the 
 national stability more than once overthrown by a few rude Tatar 
 hordes. Their religion remains a system of cold moral precepts, 
 combined with the old shamanistic superstitions, beneath a veneer 
 of Buddhistic ceremonial, ancestry and spirit (demon) worship. 
 Their astronomy has scarcely advanced beyond the astrological 
 state, while their medical art continues to be a hopeless mixture 
 of superstitious practices, absurd nostrums, and a few grains of 
 common sense. Excessively courteous amongst themselves, they 
 are rude and aggressive towards strangers, with a deep-rooted 
 feeling of contempt and even hatred of foreigners and all their 
 ways. On the other hand the Chinese, although reckless gamblers 
 like all the Indo-Chinese and Malay peoples, are naturally frugal, 
 thrifty and parsimonious, which, combined with great staying 
 power and capacity for enduring hardships on poor fare, makes 
 them formidable competitors with the western nations in the 
 labour markets of the world. A characteristic trait is their ex- 
 cessive gregariousness, shown in the tendency to crowd together 
 in large villages and cities, so that small hamlets and scattered 
 farmsteads are scarcely anywhere seen in China. In San Fran- 
 cisco 10,000 Chinese are packed together in a space where a 
 
 21 — 2 
 
324 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 thousand whites would be asphyxiated. This again leads to other 
 evils, and especially to a low state of morals, which is one of the 
 main objections to the free admittance of Chinese immigrants 
 into European colonies. As exaggerated statements continue to 
 prevail regarding the population of China, sometimes estimated 
 as high as 500 and even 600 millions, it may be remarked that no 
 real census has ever been taken. The official estimates of 414 
 millions for 1842 and 404 for 1890, are certainly excessive, and 
 have been reduced by Herr Kreitner of the Szechenyi expedition 
 down to about 150 milHons. Other rough calculations give from 
 280 to 350 minions, and the population is now generally supposed 
 to be about the same as that of British India taken in its v/idest 
 sense, say 275,000,000. 
 
 Further unity is imparted to the Tibeto-Chinese sub-division of 
 the Mongol family, by its common isolating form cf 
 chil!rse°iin- spccch, to which is usually appHed the misguiding 
 guistic reia- epithet " monosyllabic." It was shown (Ch. IX.) that 
 monosyllabism is not the original nor the essential 
 condition of these languages ; it is not even a constant character 
 in their present state, for imperfect dissyllabic compounds abound 
 in Chinese and Siamese, while true polysyllabic compounds and 
 derivatives are frequent in the Tibeto-Burmese group. Thus in 
 Burmese : kaim, good ; akaim, goodness ; hliikthan, to ring, from 
 hluk, shake and thaii^ sound. In compounds of this type it may 
 even happen that neither element is any longer found separate, in 
 which case the dissyllable is incapable of decomposition. 
 
 A far more important feature than the length of the words is 
 their tonic utterance, the origin and nature of which was neces- 
 sarily misunderstood so long as these languages were supposed to 
 represent a primitive condition of speech. It is now clear that 
 tone gives no support to the theory of a supposed primitive sing- 
 song utterance, but that it is a compensating element uncon- 
 sciously introduced to distinguish the numerous homophones 
 resulting from the ravages of phonetic disintegration. " Thus the 
 monosyllable /« will be toned in six or more different ways to 
 represent so many original dissyllables, pada, paka, pa?ia, pasa, 
 pata..., and some of the Chinese and Shan dialects have, in fact, 
 as many as ten or twelve such tones, which unless correctly 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 325 
 
 uttered lead at once to the greatest confusion, and to all kinds of 
 misunderstandings. Hence these languages are now called iso- 
 lating and fomcTSitheT than isolating and monosyllabic^.^' 
 
 It may perhaps be asked why, this being so, tones in Tibetan 
 ''eke out scanty inflections, but do not form an Tibetan 
 important feature of the language"." The explana- ^^^^'jj^^'^'^ 
 tion is that this language has developed, or possibly 
 never lost, numerous grammatical processes which largely dispense 
 with the use of tones. Such is regular tense formation by internal 
 vowel change, as in hgel, to load; past mkal; future dgal, impera- 
 tive Kol Tibetan has this remarkable feature in common with 
 the Kottian of the Yenisei basin, Siberia ^ showing a possible 
 original connection between the Ural-Altaic and the Tibeto- 
 Chinese linguistic families, or at least a parallel line of develop- 
 ment with later divergence towards a flexionless analytical state in 
 the Tibeto-Chinese group. Thus might also be explained the 
 intricate grammatical forms occurring in some of the idioms on the 
 South Himalayan slopes, such as the Vayu^ and especially the 
 Kiranti of East Nepal, whose complicated verbal system shows 
 analogies with the Munda, Sonthal and other Kolarian tongues of 
 Lower Bengal ^ Through the archaic Lepcha dialect of Sikkim 
 and Bhutan, the Bodo (Kachari) and Dhimal of the Terai, the 
 Dophla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi of the Eastern Himalayas, and 
 the Mikir, Khasi^ Garo (closely allied to Kachari) and Naga of 
 the South Assam Hills, the Tibetan system passes over to the 
 
 ^ A. H. Keane, Population, Races, Languages, and Religions of the World, 
 in Church Missioiiary Intelligencer, October, 1894, p. 723. 
 
 - Prof. John Avery, Proc. Y^th Annual Session, American Philol. Ass. 
 July, 1885, p. xvii. 
 
 3 Castren, Yen., Ostiak. und Kott. Sprachlehre. 
 
 4 Specimens by B. H. Hodgson in Bengal As. Jour, xxvi., 1858, p. 372. 
 
 5 Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 102. "The verb has a remarkable 
 development, for, though poor in tense-forms, it has a profusion of forms 
 expressive of the relations of subject to object. Participles, too, vary according 
 to the tense of the principal verb. Altogether the possible forms of a Kiranti 
 verb amount to several hundred " (Avery, ih. p. xviii). 
 
 6 Khasi, however, would appear to be a stock language of peculiar struc- 
 ture, having no tones although isolating, and showing scarcely any affinity to 
 "the rest of these mountain dialects" (H. Roberts, A Grammar of the Khassi 
 Lafiguage, 1S92). 
 
326 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 more isolating and toned languages of Indo-China : — Burmese, 
 Kakhyen, Lushai, Chin, Karen, Mon, Annamese, and the wide- 
 spread Shan group of Assam, Upper Burma, South China and 
 Siam. But agglutinating forms reappear in Karen, 
 nic linguistic while a distinctly polysyllabic group of untoned 
 languages, with Oceanic (Malayo-Polynesian) affini- 
 ties, occupies a great part of Camboja and surrounding uplands 
 (Khmer, Kuy, Charay, Stieng, Cham)^ These Oceanic affinities 
 have now been traced to the very heart of the continent, and 
 T. de Lacouperie confirms B. H. Hodgson's suggestions regarding 
 the relations of Gyarung on the Tibeto-Chinese frontier with 
 Tagalog, the chief Malay language of the PhiHppine Archipelago. 
 "The Gyarungs were nothing more nor less than one of the 
 disjecta membra (now driven away by the pressure of the Chinese 
 growth west, south, and also east) of a former nucleus of the native 
 population of China, Indonesian in character at the beginning, 
 and gradually diverging from their former standard under the 
 combined influences of their new surroundings, linguistical and 
 others-/' 
 
 Here it should be noticed that the term "Indonesian," intro- 
 duced by Logan to designate the light-coloured 
 nelfa^ns."^°' non-Malay inhabitants of the Eastern Archipelago, 
 is now used as a convenient collective name for 
 all the peoples of Malaysia and Polynesia, who are neither Malays 
 nor Papuans, but of Caucasic type. Such are the Battaks of 
 North Sumatra, many of the Bornean Dyaks, most of the Jilolo 
 natives, many of the PhiUppine Islanders, and the large brown race 
 of East Polynesia, that is to say, the Samoans, Maori, Tongans, 
 Tahitians, Marquesas Islanders and the Hawaiians, who are 
 commonly called "Eastern Polynesians." Dr Hamy, who first 
 gave this extension to the term Indonesian, points out that the 
 Battaks and other pre-Malay peoples of Malaysia, so closely 
 resemble the Eastern Polynesians, that the two groups should be 
 
 ^ A. H. Keane, Relations of the Indo-Chinese and Inter-Oceanic Races and 
 Languages, passim. 
 
 2 For?nosa Azotes, 1887, p. 69; see also his Langiiages of China before the 
 Chinese, §§ 129-144, and 225. Here is established "the existence in the east 
 of China of dialects of a North Indonesian character." 
 
XII.] 
 
 HOMO MONGOLICUS. 
 
 127 
 
 regarded as two branches of an original non-Malay stock. 
 Although all speak dialects of the common Malayo-Polynesian 
 language, the physical type is quite distinct, and rather Cau- 
 casic than Mongolic, though betraying a perceptible Papuan 
 (or Negrito) strain especially in New Zealand^ and Mikronesia. 
 
 SUNDANESE, WEST JAVA. 
 
 (Malay Type.) 
 
 The true Indonesians are of tall stature (5 ft. 10 in.), muscular 
 frame, rather oval features, high, open forehead, large straight or 
 curved nose, large full eyes always horizontal and with no trace of 
 the third lid, light brown complexion (cinnamon or ruddy brown), 
 long black hair, not lank but often slightly curled or wavy, skull 
 
 1 Yet even in New Zealand Dr O. Finsch met "some full-blood Maoris 
 with quite European features, eyes mostly beautiful, full, large, brown to deep 
 brown, straight or well curved nose, full beard, and well developed calves, 
 as is characteristic of all Polynesians" {Reise in der Siidsee, 1884, p. 25). 
 This is important testimony from an observer who, against his own evidence, 
 is inclined to connect both Polynesians and Mikronesians "als Rasse" with 
 the Malays (p. i). In the same way he confounds the Philippine Negritoes 
 with the Melanesians under protest from Herr Virchow, who remarks that 
 "ein Craniologe wird nicht leicht Hrn. Finsch zustimmen, wenn er die 
 Negritos der Philippinen einfach zu den Melanesiern zieht" {ib. Vonuort, 
 p. viii). 
 
ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 generally brachycephnlous like that of the melanochroic Euro- 
 pean\ 
 
 Thus severed from its unnatural Indonesian connection, the 
 
 Malay problem may have some prospect of a satis- 
 probiem^'^^ factory solution. In some of the early essays at 
 
 classification the Malay race found a place amongst 
 the main divisions of mankind (p. 164). Then the very existence 
 of a Malay type was questioned by scientific systematists, and 
 craniologists especially failed to discover a normal Malay head 
 amid the endless discrepancies presented by specimens from the 
 Eastern Archipelago. It could scarcely be otherwise when Indo- 
 nesian, "Alfuro^," Mikronesian, Polynesian, and true Malay skulls 
 were all alike ticketed "Malay" in European collections. Thus 
 "the dimensions which Welcher has found in the Malay nations 
 are especially surprising.... We find the Maori, with an index [of 
 breadth] of 73, still on the verge of dolichocephalism... Marquesas 
 74, Tahitians 75, Chatham 76, Sandwich 77, Borneo Dyaks 75, 
 Balinese 76, Amboynese 77, skulls from Sumatra 77, Mancassar 
 78. To these mesocephali must be added, as brachycephaU, the 
 Javanese and Buginese v/ith 79, Menadorese 80 and Madurese 
 8 2... Of the 19 gradations of breadth the skulls of the Malay 
 family occupy no less than nine. ...According to Barnard Davis the 
 Maori (75) are most inclined to doUchocephalism, while the 
 Javanese (82) appear still more brachycephalic than the Madurese 
 (Si)'." 
 
 1 Dr E. T. Hamy, Bull. d. I. Soc. de Geo. xiii. i^-^-j, passim. 
 
 - This term Alfuro is specially confusing. Whatever its origin, whether 
 Portuguese, Arab or local, it never had any ethnical value, being indifferently 
 applied by the Malays to all rude non-Muhammadan peoples in the eastern 
 parts of Malaysia. So heathen, from heath, originally "rude," "rustic"; 
 pagan, pay nii7i, ixoxa paganiis, a "villager." Thus C. B. H. von Rosenberg: 
 " 26 villages stretch along the coast [of Ceram], of which 5 are inhabited 
 by Christians, 3 by Muhammadans, 15 by Alfuros [neither Christians nor 
 Muhammadans], while 13 have a mixed population" {Malay ische Archipel, 
 Part ii. p. 26). This passage also shows that the " Alfuros " were not necessarily 
 the aborigines (as is generally supposed) driven into the interior by the Malay 
 invaders, for, here they are found dwelling on the coast peacefully associated 
 with their Christian and Moslem neighbours. 
 
 3 Oscar Peschel, Races of Man, p. 55. So also Prof. Sir W. H. Flower: 
 
XII. 
 
 HOMO MONGOLICUS. 
 
 It 
 
 NATIVE OF TONGA ISLANDS. 
 
 {^Eastern Indo?tesian Type.) 
 
330 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 But when the disturbing elements are removed, the true 
 
 Malays are seen to present remarkably uniform 
 ph^^ilStype characters, and Dr Finsch himself was struck by 
 
 this very uniformity in the subjects from every part 
 of Malayland studied by him at Batavia in i8Si \ Thus there is, 
 after all, a Malay type, and its characters are such as enable it to 
 be at once pronounced distinctly Mongoloid; one might almost 
 say Mongolic without reservation, but for the somewhat straight 
 nose and large round and generally horizontal or but slightly 
 oblique eyes. Yet even here is seen the pecuHar Mongol fold of 
 the upper lid, "just as with the Chinese," says Finsch (p. 28). 
 Other marked Mongol features are very prominent malar bones, a 
 dirty yellow or brownish olive colour, very black lank hair, scant 
 or no beard, low stature ranging from little over five feet to five 
 feet four or five inches, brachy or sub-brachycephalous head". 
 
 Thus is fully justified the Oceanic Mongol group, which in our 
 Family Tree is seen to ramify from the Tibeto-Chinese stem east- 
 wards to Formosa and south-westwards to Madagascar. The 
 Malay affinities of the Formosan aborigines have long been recog- 
 nised ^ and here it will suftice to add that in the island no trace 
 has yet been discovered of a Negrito or Papuan element after 
 
 a search of about two hundred years since their 
 affinhfe^^^^ existence was first reported by the Dutch. In 
 
 Madagascar, on the contrary, the Malay type even 
 of the dominant Hovas has been considerably modified by ad- 
 
 " There is certainly no very great uniformity in the characters of the skulls 
 in our collections which are said to belong to Malays" {The Native Races of the 
 Pacific Ocean, 1878, p. 41). 
 
 ^ "Zunachst war mir bei diesen malayischen Volkern, was allgemeinen 
 Typus, Grosse und Hautfarbung anbelangt, die im Allgemeinen herrschende 
 Uebereinstimmung auffallend, eine Uebereinstimmung Mie ich sie in ahnlicher 
 Weise bei Sudsee- Volkern nicht beobachtet hatte. Dieselbe gipfelt vorzugs- 
 weise in dem starken Hervor^pringen der Jochbogen, welches Sudsee- Volker 
 in weit geringerem Grade, zum Theil kaum zeigen " {ih. p. 27). 
 
 - Cephalic index of Sundanese 83-9; of Javanese 78*2 (J. Deniker and 
 L. Laloy, Les Races exotiqiies, &c., in V Anthi-opologie, 1890, No. 5, p. 543). 
 
 2 Mr Taylor, however, brings some of the tribes from the north, the 
 Pepohoans from Liu-Kiu, th.; Tipuns probably from Ji^P-'^i"!, &c. {China 
 Revirw, Vol. xvi. No. 3). 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 33 1 
 
 mixture with a Bantu Negroid element from the neighbouring 
 mainland. What is specially remarkable in this island is the 
 surprising uniformity of speech, a pure Malayo-Polynesian lan- 
 guage being everywhere current, with but slight dialectic variety, 
 amid semi-cultured and rude Malayo-African populations (p. 205). 
 It is noteworthy that the relations of Malagasy are not so much 
 with the standard i\Ialay, as with some of the more 
 remote and more archaic members of the Oceanic p^y^nesian 
 family, such as the Kavi, parent of modern Javanese, linguistic reia- 
 
 ^ tions. 
 
 the Tagalog and Bisayan of the Philippmes, the 
 Maori, Tahitian and other Polynesian tongues. Thus the numerals 
 seve7i and eight correspond in all these languages {roots pito, valu), 
 but not in Malay (tujoh, delapan) '. The explanation is that the 
 early Oceanic migrations took place in remote times, long before the 
 rise and expansion of the Malay nation as now constituted. This 
 energetic race of sea-rovers and conquerors had its cradle in the 
 Sumatran district of Menangkabau, whence they began to spread 
 abroad, apparently not earUer than some eight or nine hundred 
 years ago, founding permanent settlements in the Malay Penin- 
 sula^, around the Bornean seabord and as far east as the 
 Moluccas. Through their maritime expeditions and trading rela- 
 tions, their simple and harmonious but comparatively modern 
 Sumatran dialect became the general medium of intercourse, a sort 
 of lingiia franca throughout the whole of Malaysia, and even 
 in parts of Papuasia and along the Cambojan and Annamese 
 coastlands. But there is nothing to show that these later Malays, 
 the Orang Maldyu^ in the stricter sense of the term, ever 
 
 ^ "La premiere racine, pitou, dont on ne trouve pas trace en malais, se 
 retrouve simultanement en Madagascar, aux Philippines, a Timor, dans la 
 Nouvelle Zelande et a Taiti" (Aristide Marre, Les AffinitJs de la Langite 
 Malgache, &c., Leyden, 1884, p. 154). And Melanesia might have been 
 added, for " the Melanesian decimal series of numerals is not borrowed from 
 the Malay... but is identical with that generally in use in the Indian Archipelago 
 and INIadagascar" (Codrington, The Melanesian Languages, p. 229). 
 
 2 According to the national records this region was reached by a colony 
 direct from Menangkabau in 1238, the foundation of the first settlement, 
 Singapore, dating from that year. 
 
 3 This term >J*^ Malayu, which has acquired such a prominent ethnical 
 and linguistic position, is of unknown origin, possibly the name of an obscure 
 
332 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 penetrated either into Polynesia, or westwards to Madagascar, at 
 least in sufficient numbers to form distinct settlements and 
 acquire a dominant influence in those regions. Hence the 
 diffusion of the Malayo-Polynesian speech, for which a better 
 name would be Indo-Pacific or simply Oceanic, is not due to, 
 but long ante-dates, the diffusion of the Sumatran people, from 
 whom the inhabitants of the Eastern Archipelago are now named 
 and are wrongly supposed to be sprung, or at least to have 
 acquired their "Malay" speech. Thus may now be understood 
 the otherwise inexplicable phenomenon, that the Malagasy lan- 
 guage has on the whole perhaps more intimate relations with those 
 of the Philippine Archipelago, of Melanesia, and even of Easter 
 Island "within measurable distance" of South America, than with 
 the standard Malay of Menangkabau, almost the nearest land in 
 Malaysia to Madagascar. All are independent offshoots of the 
 common Oceanic speech, which has its roots in Central Asia 
 and of which Malay proper is relatively speaking quite a recent 
 development. 
 
 In the Philippine Islands the conflicting statements of 
 
 observers correspond with the intense ethnical con- 
 la^onsTif ihe' f'-^sion prevalent amongst the motley populations of 
 Philippine the Archipelago. Here "the constant mingUng of 
 
 different races from China, Malaya, and parts of 
 Melanesia and Polynesia has created a mixture of which the com- 
 ponent parts are almost undiscernible\" Nevertheless the means 
 of introducing some order into this chaotic field seem to be sup- 
 plied by the writings of such recent observers as Dr Montano^ 
 and Prof. Blumentritt^ Apart from the true Negrito aborigines 
 
 Sumatran tribe, which rose to power under some renowned chief in the loth 
 or nth century of the new era. The derivation from the Javanese m-layni, 
 to flee, cannot be accepted, because the Malays are not "fugitives" but 
 everywhere aggressors ; nor is it credible that they would accept from 
 strangers a term of reproach as their national designation. That this has 
 always been their national name is evident from the fact that on reaching the 
 mainland in the T3th century they called it Tanah Maldyii, " Malayland," 
 whence the present expression Malay Peninsula. 
 
 ^ Xature, Oct. 7, 1886. 
 
 ■2 Voyage aux Philippines, 1S85, passim. 
 
 ^ Numerous papers in Globus^ Vol. 50 and elsewhere. See also C::pt. 
 
XII.] HOMO MONGOLICUS. 333 
 
 dealt with in Chap. XI, Blumentritt distinguishes two separate 
 "Malay" invasions, both pre-historic. Montano also recognises 
 these two elements, which, however, he more correctly calls 
 I?ido7iesian and Malay. The Indonesians, whom he affiliates to 
 the "Polynesian Family," were the first to arrive, being followed 
 by the Malays and then in the i6th century by the Spaniards, who 
 were themselves followed, perhaps also preceded, by Chinese and 
 others. Thus Blumentritt's Malays of the first invasion, whom he 
 brings from Borneo, are Montano' s Indonesians, who passed 
 through the Philippines during their eastward migrations from 
 Borneo and other parts of Malaysia. The result of these succes- 
 sive movements was that the Negritoes were first driven to the 
 recesses of the interior by the Indonesians, with whom they after- 
 wards intermingled in various degrees. Then the Indonesians 
 were in their turn driven by the Malays from the coastlands and 
 open plains, which are consequently now found occupied mainly 
 by peoples of true Malay stock. Such are the Tagalas, Bisayas, 
 Bicols, Pampangos, Ilocanes and Cagayanes, besides the so-called 
 "Moros," that is, the Muhammadan Malays of the Sulu Archi- 
 pelago, Palawan and Mindanao. Then with peaceful times fresh 
 blends took place, and to previous crossings are now added 
 Spaniards and Chinese with Malays, these "quadroons" and 
 " octoroons " with Indonesians, and even here and there with 
 Negritoes. It has thus become difficult everywhere to distinguish 
 between the true Malays and the Indonesians, who are also less 
 known, dwelling in the more remote upland districts, often in 
 association with the Negritoes, and not always standing at a much 
 higher grade of culture. Of these savage Indonesians the tribal 
 groups are endless, the more important being the Igorrotes 
 studied by Dr A. B. Meyer', the Tinguianes, Guinanes, Apayos, 
 Gaddanes, Bagobos, Tagabawas, Samals, and Mandayas. Thus 
 the Philippine half-castes may be roughly classed as Negrito- 
 Indonesians, Malayo-Indonesians, Malayo-Europeans, and Ma- 
 layo-Chinese, the Indonesian element giving here as elsewhere in 
 Oceanica the clue to the puzzHng ethnical entanglements. 
 
 L. Galta's summary of Jordana y Morerd's investigations, in Boll. Ital. Geo, 
 Soc. Feb. 1886, p. 122 et seq. 
 
 1 Eine IVeltrcise, (S:c., Leipzig, 1885. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 HOMO AMERICAN US. 
 
 America peopled from the Eastern Hemisphere during the Stone Ages — The 
 bronze age of Chimu (Peru) no proof of later intercourse between the 
 Old and New Worlds — Hence the American aborigines are the direct 
 descendants of palaeolithic and neolithic man — and their later culture is 
 consequently an independent local development — But Homo Americanus 
 is not autochthonous, but a specialised form of a Mongol prototype — 
 General Uniformity of the American physical type — Texture of the hair; 
 colour of the skin — "White" and "Black" aborigines no proof of 
 early migrations from Europe or Melanesia — Arguments of De Quatrefages 
 discussed — The Japanese myth exposed — The "stranded junk " argument 
 — Culture of the early Stone Age identical in both hemispheres — But 
 after that age the arts and industries show continuous divergence in 
 America — Argument based by Retzius on the two types of American 
 crania — Contrasts between the present Mongol and American physical 
 types — Mental Capacity of the American aborigines superior to the 
 Negro, on the whole inferior to the Mongol — But the Cranial Capacity 
 inferior both to Mongol and Negro — Striking uniformity of the mental 
 characters of the aborigines — in North America — in South America — 
 Uniform character of American speech in its general morphology — 
 Fundamentally distinct from the structure of the languages of the Old 
 W'orld — Surprising number of American stock languages despite their 
 common polysynthetic type — Classification of the aborigines must always 
 be mainly based on language — Family Tree of Homo Americanus-— 
 America probably peopled by two routes — From Europe by palaeolithic, 
 from Asia by neolithic man — Present distribution of the two types — 
 The Eskimo question— Its solution— Prof. Mason's theory of the peopling 
 ■of America from Indo-Malaysia — Negative Objections to this theory — 
 Positive Objections — True explanation of the coincidences between 
 certain usages and mental aspects of the inhabitants of the Old and 
 New Worlds — Due not to contact or borrowings, but to their common 
 psychic constitution — Results of the discovery and re-settlement oi 
 America on the aborigines in Latin America — In Anglo-Saxon America 
 — The Anglo-American type due, not to miscegenation, but to con- 
 vergence. 
 
 Elsewhere (Chap. X.) general reasons were given for detaching 
 the American aborigines from the Mongolic connec- 
 peopied from tion, and treating them independently, as one of the 
 Hemisphere ^^ur main divisions of the Hominidae. It was also 
 during the sliown (Chaps. v., VI.) that while a Neolithic age is 
 
 universally accepted for the New World, there are 
 also good grounds for accepting a Palaeolithic age for at least the 
 
CHAP. XIII.] HOMO AMERICAXUS. 335 
 
 southernmost parts (Patagonia, Fuegia) of that region. On the 
 other hand there are no records of any migrations between the 
 Eastern and Western Hemispheres in pre-Columbian or pre-Norse 
 times throughout the historic period, which at all events for Egypt 
 and Babylonia goes back some 8000 or 10,000 years from the 
 piesent time (p. 56). Outside those earHest centres of civiliza- 
 tion primitive man was at that remote period everywhere at a low 
 plane of culture, from which it follows that, if America was 
 peopled from the Old World, the occupation took place and was 
 practically completed during the two stone ages. 
 
 The general absence of bronze as well as of iron excludes 
 those metal periods, while the copper age was in 
 the east too short and of too ill-defined a character The bronze 
 
 , . age of Chimu 
 
 to be here taken mto account. Iron was unknown (Peru), no 
 except in meteoric form. But bronze implements proof of later 
 
 i A intercourse 
 
 in great number and variety have been collected between the 
 
 . , , . r r^^ • -r. • • ^^^ ^"*^ New 
 
 amid the vast ruins 01 Chimu, a Peruvian city, Worlds, 
 capital of an empire overthrown by the Incas 
 (Squier, jPem, passim). The occurrence of chumpe, as the alloy is 
 locally called, in this district, and nowhere else in the New World, 
 is almost equally inexpHcable, whether we suppose the metal itself 
 to have been prepared on the spot, or only introduced and 
 wrought into diverse objects by the local workers in bronze. 
 The few bronze objects, little bells and other trinkets, found 
 in the Isthmus of Panama and in Mexico, appear to have been 
 imported, perhaps from Peru\ But for Chimu a real bronze age 
 may be claimed. The people were skilled in other arts and their 
 earthenware was so beautiful in form and finish that they may be 
 called the "Etruscans of the New World." Deposits of tin occur 
 both in Mexico and in Bolivia, and some of the mines appear to 
 have been worked in pre-Columbian times, so that the Chimu 
 people may have been expert metallurgists as well as artificers. 
 In any case this solitary instance scarcely warrants the assumption 
 
 ^ Mr W. H. Holmes suggests that the bronze objects found in some of the 
 Chiriqui graves may be post-Columbian, *' pointing toward the continuance of 
 the ancient epoch of culture into post-Columbian times" {Ancient Art of the 
 Province of Chiriqui, in Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 
 Washington, 18S8, p. 186). 
 
336 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 of direct trading relations between the two hemispheres in the 
 bronze age, that is, long before the dawn of Chimu culture. On 
 any later contact history is silent. 
 
 It may thus be inferred that, before the discovery, America 
 received no ethnical contributions of any import- 
 aborigines are ance from any quarter after the stone ages, and 
 Ints'i^^rE^o- consequently that the aborigines are mainly the 
 lithic and direct descendants of palaeolithic and neolithic 
 
 neolithic man, . . . ^ i r v j ^i 
 
 man. If this inference can be estabhshed, the 
 further inference will follow of itself, that all their arts and institu- 
 tions, everything comprised under the general expression "cul- 
 ture," are indigenous, those only being excepted 
 culture is^a which may be traced to the pre-metal ages. These 
 
 ment*^^^^^°^" inferences may thus be briefly formulated: Homo 
 Americanus branched off from Homo Mongolicus 
 in the Stone Ages, and since then has pursued an independent 
 local evolution, arrested by the arrival of Homo Caucasicus in late 
 historic times. 
 
 It is evident that, owing to the absence of the higher 
 
 apes, the New World cannot be regarded as an 
 
 Amerifanuris independent centre of evolution for man himself. 
 
 notautoch- Hcuce for the American division of the Hominidae 
 
 thonous, but a 
 
 specialised there is no question of a transition from an anthro- 
 
 goi"pr°ototype".' po^d precursor, but only from an already special- 
 ised human form. On the other hand the American 
 undoubtedly approximates nearest to the Mongol form, and as the 
 latter cannot be derived from the former, it follows, as is now gene- 
 rally allowed, that the American type has been differentiated from 
 a generalised ^Mongol prototype. Thus is established without any 
 lengthy argument, the first assumption of our formula: "Homo 
 Americanus branched off from Homo Mongolicus." 
 
 This is also in accordance with physical, geographical and 
 other considerations. A strong argument for the 
 
 General uni- ... ^ , . • • , , , 
 
 formityofthe Substantial unity of the American race is based by 
 
 fi^al'tyje.^^^" ^^essrs Flower and Lydekker on the great difficulty 
 
 of forming within the group any natural divisions 
 
 "founded upon physical characters \" Thus the hair is every- 
 
 ^ Op.cit.^. 752. 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 33/ 
 
 where black, straight, lank and long, often very long, falling down 
 to the waist and even lower. The colour also "varies but little," 
 generally presenting different shades of a reddish, olive, or coppery 
 brown, whence the expression "Redskins." Although specially 
 characteristic of the North American Prairie Indians, this coppery 
 tint also prevails in parts of South America, as amongst some of 
 the Amazonian tribes, whose "skin is of a coppery or brown 
 colour of various shades V and especially amongst the natives of 
 Guiana, whose colour is described by Mr E. im Thurn as a "very 
 red cinnamon" though differing considerably in the different 
 tribes ^ On the elevated plateaux it passes to a more decided 
 brown, and in the Brazilian woodlands often to a , . ,. 
 
 ' "White ' 
 
 leathery or faint yellowish hue, as amongst the and "black" 
 Botocudos of the eastern seabord. Both "white" no°p"oofo^f 
 
 and "black" shades are also mentioned, and on early migra- 
 tions from 
 these terms, which should obviously be taken in a Europe or 
 
 relative sense, some fanciful theories of prehistoric 
 and even historic immigrations from Europe and Africa have been 
 built. De Quatrefages devotes many pages to the discussion of 
 these questions, and although obliged to give up "immigration en 
 7?iasse^'' {pp. cit. p. 559), and to "oppose conjecture to conjecture" 
 (p. 555), he still beheves that Melanesians or Papuans gained a 
 footing and maintained themselves on the shores of CaHfornia, 
 because some of the local tribes are spoken of as "black." " The 
 faces of the Achomawis," says Mr Powers, "are broad and black, 
 and calm and shining with an Ethiopian unctuousness." But we 
 had already been warned by La Pe'rouse that these Californians 
 were in no sense "Negroes," but obviously of Mongol stock, as 
 shown by their lank hair, high cheek-bones and oblique eyes. So 
 also with the extinct "black" but lank-haired Charruas of South 
 Brazil, and the "white" Antisians (Guarayos, Yuracares) of the 
 east Peruvian and Bolivian slopes, these possibly descended from 
 some "white Africans" (Guanches, Bubis) stranded on the Brazil- 
 ian coast and penetrating thence across the Amazonian forests to 
 the foot of the Cordilleras. Surely it would be simpler to regard 
 these "bearded savages" as the result of crossings with European 
 
 1 A. R. Wallace, Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, p. 478. 
 
 2 Among the Indians of Guiana, i883) P- 189. 
 
 K. 22 
 
338 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 NATIVE OF ZAMBISA, ECUADOR. 
 
 BLACKFOOT INDIAN. 
 
 {Redskin Type.) 
 
 NATIVE OF OTOVALO, ECUADOR. 
 
 
 
 ^Hk ■"'^^SMtt. ^mr-" ^H 
 
 /0^^^K — -" ^~ W^^i 
 
 *%^^ ; 
 
 •''^|hm^-. ' 
 
 ™* . 
 
 »^iM^' \ 
 
 NATIVE OF VANCOUVER I. 
 
XIII.] 
 
 HOMO AMERICANUS. 
 
 339 
 
 captives, of whom there was no lack during the Indian wars, or 
 even as runaway Spaniards adopting the native speech and usages 
 as others have done in BoHvia and Yucatan. 
 
 That the reports of white and bearded natives must be 
 received with caution, is evident from the current accounts of the 
 Mayorunas of the Maranon (Upper Amazons) and its Ucayali 
 and Yavari tributaries, who are also said to have thick beards and 
 white skins, and who are supposed to be descended from some of 
 the Spanish soldiers left in the district after the murder of Pedro 
 de Ursua by Lopez de Aguirre. But it was Aguirre's followers 
 who had received the name of Maranones^ "People of the 
 
 NATIVE OF SAQUISILI. 
 
 {Hispano- American Mixed Type.) 
 
 Maranon," and this word was afterwards confused with Mayoruna, 
 the name of a full-blood Indian tribe, who are neither white nor 
 bearded \ The Spanish Maranones have disappeared, though they 
 survived long enough for their European features to be transferred 
 by popular report to the Mayoruna aborigines. Similar reports 
 
 ^ " L'on ajoutait qu'ils ont encore les traits europeens et la barbe noire tres 
 epaisse. II n'en est rien : loin d'etre fils ou metis d'Espagnols, les Mayorunas 
 sont, au contraire, des Indiens de race pure." (Reclus, xviii. p. 550.) 
 
 22 — 2 
 
340 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 long prevailed regarding the mysterious Guatusos of the Rio Frio, 
 Costa Rica, who were said to have fair hair and blue eyes, due to 
 contact with the English buccaneers, or with some Spanish 
 fugitives. But since they have begun to visit the neighbouring 
 markets of San Carlos and San Jose, the Guatusos are found to 
 have black hair, dark skins and high cheek bones, hke the 
 Nicaraguan Chontals to whom they appear to be related \ The 
 Oyariculets of French Guiana, also reported to be white with blue 
 eyes and light beard, are now found to be "like other Indians I" 
 
 Faint traces of the Norse settlers may perhaps be allowed on 
 the north-east coast ^; but is it not a violent assump- 
 nesemyth tion to talk of a "Scandinavian dispersion" over 
 
 exposed. ^^^^ ^^^ Northern Continent; to bring "Ainu 
 
 whites" to Labrador and Hudson Bay; to build hypotheses on 
 the exploded Fusang legend of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, or to 
 take seriously M. Guillemin-Taraire's statement that "the members 
 of a Japanese embassy were able to converse right off (a premiere 
 vue) with certain natives of Sta Barbara County " [CaUfornia], if 
 not to recognise the rock carvings executed by the neighbouring 
 coast tribes, which we are assured are not to be distinguished from 
 "objects of a like nature fashioned in Japan" (p. 558). 
 
 Lately Mr O. H. Howarth described before the Anthropological 
 Institute some of these "rock inscriptions" which he had seen in 
 Sinaloa, West Coast of Mexico, which he also traced to a Japanese 
 source, and which "seem likely to furnish an important Hnk in the 
 problem of the prehistoric colonization of Central America*." But 
 amongst the audience was Mr Daigoro Goh, of the Japanese 
 Consulate-General in London, who at once snapped this "link" 
 with the remark that "I do not see any resemblance in those 
 figures of the inscriptions with the prehistoric characters in Japan 
 
 ^ Reclus, XVII. p. 304, English ed. 
 
 2 H. A. Coudreau, BtiL de la Soc. de Geograph. June 15, 1891. 
 
 3 To this source might, for instance, be attril)uted the high degree of 
 dolichocephaly observed amongst the Micmacs of Nova Scotia, although even 
 this is regarded by Dr Franz Boas as evidence not of Norse but of Eskimo 
 contact. "Archaeological facts tend to indicate that the Eskimo must have 
 lived along the coast of New England at one time '' {Anthropology of the Noi'th 
 Atnericaji Indians, p. 45). 
 
 4 Jour. Anthrop. Inst. February, 1894, p. 226. 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 34I 
 
 known as Hibunci or sun letters; nor do I find any similarity in 
 the Ainu writing. Moreover, I should like to remind the lecturer, 
 who said that one of the inscriptions has the crest of the Prince of 
 Satsuma, that that identification will not give any weight on [to] 
 his assertion, since the former must be a thing of several thousand 
 years old, whilst the latter has had only a seven or eight centuries 
 existence" (p. 231). Unfortunately Japanese scholars have only 
 lately begun to take part in discussions of this nature, so that the 
 numerous other links like those of Sinaloa and California which 
 abound in uncritical ethnographical writings still remain to be 
 snapped. 
 
 Meanwhile it may be pointed out that all these fancied early 
 historic relations of the natives with the Asiatic ^. .. . 
 
 The "strand - 
 
 peoples are not only unsupported by any direct edjunk" 
 evidence, but are otherwise involved in tremendous 
 difticulties. Because a stray Chinese or Japanese junk may have 
 occasionally been stranded on the western seabord since the 
 discovery, it is argued that similar waifs may have arrived in 
 remoter times, and given rise to the local cultures. But there 
 were no craft capable of traversing the Pacific Ocean in the 
 neolithic age, when America was already strewn with monuments 
 from the Mississippi basin to the Argentine pampas. At that 
 remote epoch, without going still further back to the "discredited" 
 palaeolithic man, there were neither speciaHsed Japanese, v/ho 
 according to the national traditions reached their present homes 
 less than 3000 years ago, nor specialised Chinese, who according 
 to T. de Lacouperie migrated from Western Asia to the Hoang-ho 
 valley since the rise of Akkad culture in Babylonia. And if any 
 of these historical peoples ever arrived in sufficient numbers to 
 build up a civilization in the New World, the Asiatic origin of such 
 a civilization would be self-evident, and not the subject of heated 
 debate between different schools of learned archaeologists. Man 
 cannot separate himself from his immediate associations, and the 
 eastern founders of such communities must necessarily have 
 brought with them their arts, their speech and written records, 
 their domestic animals, their more useful cereals and other plants, 
 without which they must have themselves speedily perished or 
 been absorbed in the surrounding native populations. But no 
 
342 ETHNOLOGY [CHAP. 
 
 trace of these things was found in any part of the New World on 
 the discovery. There was neither the rice of the Malays and 
 Japanese, nor the tea of the Chinese, nor yet the wheat, barley, 
 oats or rye of the western nations, nor the horse, camel, ox, sheep, 
 goat, pig or poultry of the Eastern Hemisphere, nor the iron now 
 proved to have been known to the ancient Egyptians and 
 Assyrians; lastly, not a single written document nor an echo of 
 the speech of any of the Asiatic, African or European peoples. 
 All was of indigenous growth, maize, potato, llama, mounds, casas 
 grandes, Toltec, Nahua, Maya, Peruvian and Aymara monuments 
 and languages, man himself, at all events since the stone ages. "To 
 say that the Americans are derived from the Chinese, the Japanese, 
 the Malays or the Polynesians, is highly unscientific. Theo- 
 retically it is probable that the language, the physique, the social 
 and religious culture, and the geographical distribution of all these 
 peoples, have undergone radical changes since that early time, and 
 that since their present stages or any approximation to them have 
 been attained, migration to America has not been in progress \" 
 
 But it may be asked why these migrations should be arrested 
 at so early a date, and not continued into later times, when man 
 might be supposed better equipped for such peaceful or hostile 
 movements? Two answers may be given to this question, which 
 is often raised, but usually allowed to go unchallenged. In the 
 first place it might suffice to observe that there is no evidence, 
 where abundant evidence should be forthcoming, that any later 
 migratory movements did take place between the Eastern and 
 Western Hemispheres. The proofs reUed upon by the advocates 
 of Asiatic or European influences are invariably found, when 
 critically examined, to possess no weight, while many must be set 
 aside as palpable frauds. Such are the stone carvings from Mount 
 Pisgah, North CaroHna, some specimens of which were brought to 
 Europe by the late Mr Mann S. Valentine of Richmond in 1882, 
 and exhibited at the London and BerUn Anthropological Societies ^ 
 About the good faith of Mr Valentine himself there never could be 
 any doubt. But it has since been ascertained that "these articles 
 
 1 De Nadaillac, Prehistoric America, English ed. p. 523. 
 
 2 A. H. Keane, On North Carolina Stone Carvi^tgs, Jour. Anthrop. 
 Institute^ June 1882. 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 343 
 
 were made from the soapstone found in that region by some 
 persons who had learned how to give them the appearance of 
 age.... As a proof of the correctness of his statement Mr Emmert 
 [of Washington] had the same parties who stated they had made 
 some exhibits for Mr Valentine, make quite a number of similar 
 articles for the Bureau '." A similar object-lesson is afforded by the 
 famous " Lenape Stone," to which Mr Mercer has devoted a special 
 monograph, without convincing the scientific public that it is any- 
 thing more than a clumsy copy of a genuine mammoth carving 
 found in the cave of La Madeleine, Perigord, in 1864'. The 
 monuments of North America and the associated objects were 
 never observed with more intelligent eyes than those of the 
 traveller, Bartram, whose conclusion was that "none of them 
 discover the least signs of the arts, sciences or architecture of the 
 Europeans, or other inhabitants of the Old World ; yet evidently 
 betray every mark of the most distant antiquity I" 
 
 In the second place, although later and more civilised peoples 
 were undoubtedly better equipped for spreading abroad than were 
 those of the Stone Ages, they lived under different conditions, by 
 which the difficulties of migratory movements were immeasurably 
 increased, and in some regions rendered practically impossible. 
 When man first became specialised, he ranged, like the surround- 
 ing faunas and floras, slowly but steadily over the still unoccupied 
 spaces. He drifted, so to say, unconsciously hither and thither, 
 impelled or attracted now in one direction, now in another, by 
 various causes, such as overpeopUng, changed cUmatic relations, 
 greater or less abundance of food and facilities for obtaining it. 
 He thus gradually filled all the inhabitable parts of the earth, 
 
 1 Cyrus Thomas, Twelfth Anmcal Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 
 Washington, 1894, p. 347. Here also may be seen an exposure of the 
 Davenport and other inscribed tablets written on some eclectic system in 
 various Old World scripts, and from time to time extracted from the mounds 
 where they had been deposited by the "authors" for the purpose of mystifying 
 the credulous archaeologists of North America. " A consideration of all the 
 facts leads us, inevitably, to the conclusion that these relics are frauds, that is 
 they are modern productions made to deceive " (pp. 642 — 3). 
 
 2 H. C. Mercer, The Lenape Stone, or the Indian and the Mammoth. 
 New York, 1885. 
 
 * Travels, 1791, p. 522. 
 
344 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 following the lines of least resistance, and like the waters that 
 seek their level, overflowing into all the empty spaces. But when 
 these spaces were themselves flooded by the tide of humanity, 
 there necessarily ensued a period of rest, followed at intervals by 
 the ebb and flow of fresh currents setting in all directions. To 
 the first movement correspond the two Stone Ages, when in fact 
 the whole world, America included, was peopled to its utmost 
 inhabitable limits (Chaps. V. VL)\ To the later movements of 
 ebb and flow correspond prehistoric and historic times, when, the 
 empty spaces being already occupied, every advance involved a 
 conflict, in which those perished who were least fitted for the 
 struggle. But before the development of navigation insular re- 
 gions, such as America, could scarcely be approached at all in 
 sufficient numbers to overcome the dead resistance of the more or 
 less dense populations in possession of the favourable districts. 
 Even the Norsemen failed to etfect a permanent footing, and it 
 must now be obvious that small bands arriving at intervals in 
 praus or junks from the Asiatic seabord could produce no appre- 
 ciable impression either socially or ethnically, but must have been 
 successively absorbed by the surrounding aborigines. The few 
 hyperboreans that may have crossed over by Bering Strait in later 
 times could have no influence of any kind beyond the ''Eskimo 
 fringe," while the crews of any European vessels stranded on the 
 inhospitable Brazilian coastlands could do little except supply a 
 
 ^ " You know that before there was a beast of burden humanity had found 
 its way over the earth on foot, and that in the simplest craft, without compass 
 and with only Nature's pilots, every water had been traversed and every 
 habitable island in all the seas had been discovered and settled. It is a long 
 journey from the supposed cradle land of our species to Tierra del Fuego : but 
 it had been successfully accomplished in prehistoric times" (O. T. Mason, 
 Similarities in Ctdhire, in The American Anthropologist, viii. April, 1895, 
 p. 102). With regard to the islands, however, it may be pointed out that 
 many, such as those of the Eastern Archipelago, were certainly connected by 
 continuous land with the adjacent continents in comparatively recent geological 
 times. In the Pacific Ocean, also, some, such as New Zealand, occupied far 
 wider areas than at present, thereby proportionately diminishing the distances 
 to be navigated. Groups and solitary islands far removed from all land — the 
 Mascarenhas, the Galapagos, St Helena, Ascension, &c. — had never been 
 reached by primitive man, and were found uninhabited when discovered in 
 recent times. 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 345 
 
 meal for the ferocious Tamoyo and Botocudo cannibals. Thus 
 there are positive as well as negative reasons for beHeving that 
 after the Stone Ages the American aborigines remained secluded in 
 their insular domain without any serious contact with the peoples 
 of the Old World prior to the discovery. 
 
 Although Virchow's statement^ may be true that the most 
 practised archaeologist will fail to detect any material 
 ditference between the stone implements of the two ^^"^^"''^ °/ 
 
 / the early Stone 
 
 hemispheres, this merely implies that the arts of Age identical 
 
 1- 1 • 1 -vT T 1 • 1 in both hemi- 
 
 Palseolithic ana Neohthic man were pretty much spheres, 
 alike everywhere, and that, as here maintained, the 
 peopling of America dates from and ceases with the Stone Ages. 
 But divergencies already appear in neolithic times, and the rude 
 ornamentation of the potsherds found in the New England shell- 
 mounds shows little resemblance to that of the oldest European 
 pottery^. The stone implements are identical; the beginnings of 
 decorative art already differ. The inference is obvious — America 
 owes nothing to the Old World after the Stone Ages, since when it 
 has pursued an entirely independent ethnical and social evolution, 
 undisturbed l)y, and unconscious of, the occasional arrival of a 
 stray Japanese junk, IMalay prau, or soHtary Buddhist wanderer. 
 
 Hence — despite certain apparent coincidences and analogies 
 due to the fundamental unity and common psychic 
 nature of man — the local arts, and social and reli- that"age the 
 gious institutions continue to diverge in proportion ^/^^ ^"^ i"- 
 
 o r dustnes show 
 
 as they reach higher planes of culture. "That the continuous 
 Toltec builders of the low truncated Mexican Am^e'rfca" ^" 
 pyramids were a different people from the pyramid 
 builders of the Nile Valley, and that the mummies of the Ancon 
 necropolis and other parts of Peru were of a different stock from 
 the Egyptian mummies is sufficiently evident from the texture of 
 the hair alone. The hair of the old cultured races of America was 
 the same as that of all the later American races, uniformly lank, 
 because cyUndrical in section. The hair of the old Egyptians, like 
 
 1 Anthropologie A7nerika' s in Verhandhingen der Gcsellschaff fiir A^ithro- 
 polo^je, 1877, pp. 144-56- 
 
 2 Peabody Museum Report, 1872. The types and processes were already 
 widely diffused, as far south as Florida and west to Illinois and Missouri. 
 
346 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 that of the modern Fellahin, is on the contrary uniformly wavy, 
 because more or less oval in section. The religions again, of the Red 
 Man, we are told by Carl Schultz-Sellack, Oscar Loew, and other 
 good observers, are 'essentially astrological, based on star, sun 
 and moon worship,' with which was often associated an intricate 
 method of measuring time built on a series of twenty constella- 
 tions ^' The sun, says Loew, *is the god of most Indian tribes. 
 He diffuses warmth and nourishment for us and our animals ; why 
 shall we not worship him? observed to me on one occasion 
 Masayamtiba, a Moqui Indian' {ib. p. 265). This Masayamtiba 
 was a better philosopher than those ethnologists who seek for the 
 origin of such a simple cult in the remote corners of the globe, 
 rather than in the beneficial influence of the heavenly bodies which 
 shine aHke for all mankind. The four great gods of the Mayas, 
 the 'props of the heavens,' answered to the four great Mexican 
 gods of the four quarters of the compass, all being associated with 
 the four elements of wind, water, fire and earth. But to what does 
 either system answer in the polytheistic creeds of the Hindus, 
 Assyrians, Babylonians, or other nations of antiquity? There is 
 something similar in the Neo-Buddhistic teachings ; but Buddhism, 
 even of the oldest type, is much too recent to explain anything in 
 the religious worlds of Mexico or Yucatan. Waitz- well observes 
 that a common belief in a universal flood, or in the periodical 
 destruction of the world, whether by fire, water, storms or earth- 
 quakes, and analogous or parallel lines of thought, afford no proof 
 whatever in favour of affinity^." 
 
 Such affinities with what de Nadaillac calls the "full-fledged 
 
 races" of the Eastern Hemisphere have been sought 
 
 tatefbTRet- ^y authropologists in the shape of the skull. 
 
 ziusonthetwo Andreas Retzius amongst others grouped all the 
 
 types of ^ , ° ... , 
 
 American American aborigines in two great divisions : i. The 
 
 Crania. western highlanders, occupying the Rocky Mount- 
 
 ains and the Andes with the intervening Pacific seabord; 2. x'\ll 
 the rest, mainly lowlanders, from the western uplands to the shores 
 
 1 Zcitschr.filr Ethnologie, 1879, p. 209. 
 
 2 Anthropology^ p. 255. 
 
 8 A. H. Keane, American Indians in Encyc. Britannica, ninth ed. p. 823. 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 34/ 
 
 of the Atlantic. The highlanders, assumed to be all round- 
 headed, he classed with the brachycephalous Mongols and 
 Malays; the lowlanders, assumed to be long-headed, he traced to 
 possible Berber and Guanche migrations from North- West Africa 
 and the Canary Islands. We have seen (Chap. XI.) that Europe and 
 North America were probably connected by continuous land in 
 miocene if not later times, and Mme. Marie Pavlovna has recently 
 shown that the close resemblance between the Eurasian and 
 American mastodons adds much force to the hypothesis of a 
 connection between the two continents during the Tertiary period ^ 
 This will account for the peopling of the New World in pleistocene 
 times, but it will give no support to the later movements of 
 migration implied in the Swedish anthropologist's generalisation, 
 the postulated tertiary continent having vanished in the low 
 latitude of the Canaries — if it ever extended so far south— long 
 before the arrival of the cultured Guanches in the Archipelago. 
 
 It is also to be noticed that South America was already 
 occupied by both long- and round-headed races (Lagoa Santa, 
 Pampas, p. 99) in the first Stone Age. Since then America, like 
 other parts of the globe, has been the scene of constant ethnical 
 movements, shiftings, dislocations and dispersions, so that it would 
 be surprising to find the two elements now disposed in the sym- 
 metrical order assumed by Retzius. The sharp distinction drawn 
 between brachycephalous highlanders and dohchocephalous low- 
 landers has in fact no substantial basis, and a closer study of the 
 aborigines, after making every allowance for the practice of arti- 
 ficial cranial deformation which is wide-spread in some regions, has 
 placed beyond doubt the intermingling of cranial types almost to 
 as great an extent in America as in Malaysia itself. Thus Prof. 
 Kollmann^ finds for the northern Continent, excluding Mexico, 
 1575 P^^ c^^^- dolicho; 40-26 meso; 25-81 brachy; 11-96 hyper- 
 brachy; and 4*48 ultra-brachy through deformation, without any 
 marked relation to geographical areas. According to de Quatre- 
 fages and Hamy^ the Algonquians are sub-brachy in the north, 
 
 ^ Bull, de la Soc. des Naluralistes de Moscou, 1894, No. 2. 
 - Die Atitochtonen Amerika's in Zeitschrift filr Ethnologie^ 1883, p. i 
 €t seq. 
 
 ^ Crania Ethnica, p. 469 et seq. 
 
348 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 nearly dolicho in the south, and intermediate in the west. Both 
 the Mexicans and Peruvians, who ought to be brachy, are sub- 
 dolicho (78-1 and 787, Broca), and MM. Deniker and Laloy find 
 that the Aztecs are also dolicho or intermediate, "never brachy- 
 cephalous^" All the Eskimo irrespective of locaHty are highly 
 dolicho, but increasing from the west (75*3) and centre (75-1) to 
 the east (7i*3)^ Nine Omahas (Dakotan lowlanders) measured 
 by M. Manouvrier gave a mean of 83-8, and the Dakotans of 
 Col. Cody's troop measured by MM. Deniker and Laloy {ib. p. 
 541) a mean of 8o-66; yet all these ought according to the theory 
 
 PAEZ INDIAN OF TACUZO, COLOMBIA. 
 
 {Miiisca Type.) 
 
 to be dolicho. In South America, similar contradictory results 
 have been obtained, and here the lowland Charruas (brachy) 
 change place with the highland Muiscas (dolicho). Recently 
 Dr Ten Kate^ found 119 Araucanian skulls of the La Plata 
 Museum (near Buenos Ayres) to be distinctly brachy, while the 
 neighbouring Fuegians are classed by de Quatrefages as dolicho. 
 
 ^ n Anthropologie, September — October, 1890, p. 542. 
 
 2 Dr Barnard Davis, 7 /lesaurns Cranioruni ; Rink ; Boas. 
 
 2 Quoted by Dr Brinton, Science, new series, Feb. i, 1895, p. 128. 
 
XIII.] 
 
 HOMO AMERICANUS. 
 
 349 
 
 Excluding deformations, Topinard^ gives for North America a 
 mean of 79*25 and for South America 79"i6, both mesaticephalous, 
 and consequently implying mixture everywhere. Subjoined is a 
 table of results for some of the chief peoples of both continents : — 
 
 Dolichocephalous. 
 
 Calaveras (fossil) 
 
 Eskimo 
 
 Hiirons 
 
 Iroquois 
 
 Tuscaroras 
 
 Cherokis 
 
 Othomis 
 
 Sumadouro (fossil) 
 
 Caribs 
 
 Muiscas 
 
 Guaranis 
 
 Tupis 
 
 Botocudos 
 
 Coroados 
 
 Tehuelches 
 
 Fuegians 
 
 Mesaticephalous 
 
 Aleutians 
 
 Algonquians 
 
 Siouans 
 
 Cheyennes 
 
 Dakotans 
 
 Pawnees 
 
 Chichimecs 
 
 Mexicans 
 
 Peruvians 
 
 Bi'achycephalous. 
 
 Pampas (fossil) 
 
 Pueblos 
 
 CUff-Dwellers 
 
 Creeks 
 
 Choktaws 
 
 Omaha s 
 
 Paducas 
 
 Mixtecs 
 
 Zapotecs 
 
 Mayas 
 
 Guatemalans 
 
 Chimus 
 
 Charruas 
 
 Araucanians 
 
 Contrasts 
 between the 
 present Mon- 
 gol and Ameri- 
 can physical 
 types. 
 
 Other marked physical characters, showing divergence from the 
 present Mongol type, are : i. The well-developed 
 superciliary ridge and retreating forehead ; 2. Large 
 high-bridged nose, often aquiline or showing in pro- 
 file the typical busque form, that is, two lines meet- 
 ing on the bridge at an obtuse angle, and generally 
 leptorrhine; a very general feature showing in all respects the 
 greatest possible difference from the Mongol with a close approxi- 
 mation to the Caucasic type; 3. Small sunken eye, round and 
 generally horizontal, and without the Mongol fold except in the 
 aberrant Eskimo group, although here and there "the eyeHds 
 exhibit all the varieties observed in Asia, being sometimes con- 
 tracted and oblique^." 4. Stature distinctly above the average, 
 
 ^ Anthropology, p. 240. 
 
 2 Topinard, Anthropology, p. 479. Yet MM. Deniker and Laloy failed 
 
 to 
 
350 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 with a mean of about 5 ft. 8 in. or 5 ft. 9 in., rising to 6 ft. in 
 the Patagonians, and faUing to 5 ft. in the Fuegians and some 
 Eskimo at the two extremities of the continent. All the Redskins 
 are tall, and a large number (517, mostly Iroquois) measured by 
 Dr Gould gave a range of from 5 ft. 3 in. to 6 ft. 3 in., with a 
 mean of about 5 ft. 9 in. * 
 
 In their general physique, even more perhaps than in these 
 details, the average American Indians present the sharpest con- 
 trast to the Asiatic Mongol. The physical appearance of Attila's 
 Finno-Tatar hordes (Huns and others) caused the deepest aversion 
 in Procopius and other western writers, whose vivid descriptions 
 were remembered when the descendants of the same fierce 
 nomads again burst into Europe some centuries later. But the 
 American Redskin often rises to an ideal standard of manly 
 beauty, not merely in the glowing pages of Fenimore Cooper, but 
 in such personaHties as the Apache chief, Geronimo, described by 
 General Sherman as "more than six feet in height, straight as an 
 arrow, superb in his physique, with long black hair hanging 
 profusely about his shoulders and adorned with eagle's feathers — 
 a splendid specimen of his fast-vanishing race^." Such a picture 
 was never yet inspired by the presence of any full-blood Kalmuk 
 chief or Mongol khan^ 
 
 detect these traits in the group examined by them : " Dans aucun cas nous 
 n'avons observe d'yeux a forme mongoloide " {loc. cit. p. 543). This Mongol 
 eye, however, has been noticed in the women and children of the Omahas 
 (de Quatrefages, II. p. 551). 
 
 ^ Investigation in the military and anthropological statistics of American 
 soldiers, i^6g, passim. 
 
 2 With this may be compared Yvon of Narbonne's vivid though no doubt 
 overdrawn description of the Tatar hordes contained in a letter to Giraldus, 
 Archbishop of Bordeaux (i'243), and preserved in Matthew Paris : Habent 
 autem pectora dura et robusta, facies macras et palHdas, scapulas rigidas et 
 erectas, nasos distortos et breves, menta prominentia et acuta, superiorem man- 
 dibulam humilem et profundam, denies longos et raros, palpebras h. crinibus 
 usque ad nasum protensas, oculos inconstantes et nigros, aspectus obhquos et 
 torvos, extremitates ossosas et nervosas, crura quoque grossa, sed tibias 
 breviores, &c. (Chron. IV. R. Luard's ed. 1877). 
 
 3 Struck by these contrasts some anthropologists have gone so far as to 
 deny any physical connection at all between the Mongol and the American 
 divisions. Dr Brinton amongst others claims to have disproved what he calls 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 35l 
 
 Despite this physical superiority, the American aborigines are 
 generally held to be intellectually inferior to their 
 
 1 -I • -1 1 1 1 Mentalcapa- 
 
 remote Mongol kindred, but greatly superior to city of the 
 Ho7no JEihiopiais. The latter assumption needs no ^b'odg'ines 
 proof, being established beyond all question by the 
 most cursory glance at the social evolution of the Black and Red 
 races since the Stone Ages. Some groups both in Africa and 
 America — Negritos, Bushmen, Botocudos, Yahgans — still stand 
 at the lowest level. But while the New World has been strewn 
 with prehistoric remains from the northern prairies to the southern 
 pampas, the Negro domain has nothing to show more permanent 
 than the wooden "Assembly Halls" of Mangbattuland. At the 
 time of the discovery the American Indians pre- 
 sented every grade of social progress from the utter the^STgro?" 
 savagery of the Brazilian forest populations, and 
 the partly agricultural state of the hunting tribes of the northern 
 steppes \ to the more or less civilised Pueblo Indians and 
 inhabitants of the Anahuac, Yucatan, Colombian and Andean 
 plateaux, merged together in great nationaHties, and dweUing 
 in flourishing cities, whose wealth and splendour excited the 
 astonishment while stimulating the greed and rapacity of the 
 conquistadores. When it is remembered that some of these 
 cultures were the outcome of slow and independent growth on 
 bleak or arid tablelands, developed without the aid of iron or of 
 any more useful domestic animal than the feeble Peruvian llama, 
 it may be doubted whether the verdict which places the more 
 favoured Mongoloid Asiatics above the American aborigines is 
 
 *'the alleged Mongoloid resemblances of the American race," and is severe 
 on Dr Ten Kate for still upholding "the Mongoloid Theory" {On various 
 supposed relations betivcen the American and Asian Races, 1893, p. 145 and 
 elsewhere). But the resemblances are patent, perhaps even more so in the 
 southern than in the northern Continent. 
 
 ^ Speaking of the northern Continent, Mr J. W. Powell says : " The 
 practice of agriculture was chiefly limited to the region south of the St Law- 
 rence and east of the Mississippi. In this region it was far more general 
 and its results were far more important than is commonly supposed... though 
 unquestionably the degree of reliance placed upon it as a means of support 
 differed much with diff"erent tribes and localities" {Indian Linguistic Familiesy 
 &c., 1891, p. 41). 
 
352 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 entirely justified. It may be allowed that there is nothing in 
 Mexico, Yucatan, or Peru comparable to the stupendous temples 
 of Boro-Bodor and Angkor- Vat in Malaysia and Indo-China ; but 
 these structures were planned by Hindu, that is, Caucasic, 
 missionaries, and cannot be credited to the genius of the surround- 
 ing Mongoloid peoples. In respect of letters and literature, 
 however, the superiority of the Mongol intellect cannot be 
 questioned. Neither the Aztec nor the Maya pictorial or ideo- 
 graphic writings, nor the Peruvian quipos, nor yet 
 inferior to -^ incoherent compositions as those of the 
 
 the Mongol. ^ 
 
 Quiche Popolvuh, written after the Conquest, are in 
 any way comparable to the Hbraries of moral, religious, historical 
 and even poetic works produced in China, Japan, Tibet and other 
 Mongol lands during the last 1500 or 2000 years. 
 
 Measured by this test the mental capacity of the American 
 
 aborigines is as inferior to that of the yellow race 
 
 But cranial ^s is their cranial capacity, as determined by Mor- 
 
 capacity in- , .^ , k • 
 
 feriorbothto ton — Mongol average 142 1 c.c, American average 
 Negr?'^^"'^ 1234 c.c. But, as already shown (p. 43), measure- 
 ments of cranial capacity yield strangely contra- 
 dictory results, and this is specially the case as regards those of 
 native American subjects. Thus the average here quoted is the 
 same as that given for the Oceanic Negroes (Papuans), whereas 
 that of the African Negroes rises to 1364 c.c, which is higher even 
 than the Mexican (1339 c.c), and very much higher than the 
 Peruvian, which is the same as the Papuan (1234 c.c)'. Yet no 
 one would pretend to place the Congo natives intellectually on a 
 level with, much less above, the civilised nation whose empire 
 under the Incas extended from Ecuador to ChiU, and from the 
 Pacific coast across Bolivia inland to Argentina. 
 
 Such profound physical and mental contrasts as are here 
 indicated between the American and the Mongol divisions can 
 be explained only by divergence of the American branch from the 
 remotest times, and its subsequent independent evolution in a 
 practically isolated environment. Thus is established the second 
 part of our formula on physical and mental grounds. The same 
 
 1 Topinard, Anthropology^ p. 231. 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 353 
 
 inference is arrived at by a closer study of the mental characters 
 themselves, and especially the temperament and speech, of Homo 
 Americaniis, both of which present a surprising degree of uniform- 
 ity, and a no less surprising difference from the corresponding 
 characters of Homo JMongolicus. 
 
 All observers are unanimous in attributing to the American 
 aborigines a mental disposition marked by slow- 
 ness of excitability, and power of passive resist- fo?m7ty'of the" 
 ance, combined with an impassive exterior, a mental charac- 
 capability of endurance and self-control, and a 
 general wariness carried to a higher pitch than in any other 
 division of the human family. This picture is completed by an air 
 of sadness or gloom, observed especially in the more cultured 
 groups — the Aztecs, Quechuas, Aymaras, etc. — and obviously 
 attributable to the consciousness of a lost past and hopeless 
 future. The heroes of romance are grave, solemn, cautious, 
 reserved, observant beneath an outward show of indifference, 
 steeled by long inheritance and discipline to inflict, or, if van- 
 quished, to endure, the most terrible of fates, death by slow 
 and excruciating torture. 
 
 The phlegmatic temper of the Greenland Eskimo was already 
 noticed in the last century by Pastor Egede, who tells us that 
 "they seldom give way to passion, or are much affected by any- 
 thing," but "come and go, meet and pass one another, without 
 interchanging any signs of recognition ^" "A grave 
 demeanour, slow action, and pulse less rapid than America^.*^ 
 the inhabitants of the Old WorldV ^^^ the distinc- 
 tive attributes assigned by INI. Reclus to the aborigines generally, 
 while wariness is declared to be "the dominant quality of the 
 Indian hunter. He searches space with a scrutinising glance, 
 notices the trace of footsteps on the ground, studies the crumpled 
 leaf and twisted branch, lends his ear to distant sounds, ceaselessly 
 questions surrounding nature, and in it reads the brewing storm. 
 His mind is ever on the watch, his imagination ever rich in 
 stratagem, his patience still unflagging. He can glide stealthily 
 through the foliage, drift with the floating log, creep round to 
 
 ^ Description of Greenland, p. 122. 
 
 2 Universal Geography, English ed. XV. p. 48. 
 
 K. 23 
 
354 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 leeward of the game, catch the scent and, undetected, crawl 
 through the grass to take him unawares. With the enemy, or 
 even with the stranger, who may still be a foe, as the pale-face is 
 for the most part, he is still the crafty hunter. He keeps on 
 his guard, and hides his feelings under an impassive counte- 
 nance; seeming neither to hear nor to understand, he sees all 
 and remembers what may be needed to ward off or anticipate 
 attack. Should he fall into the hands of a stronger or more 
 cunning adversary, his mind is already made up. He feels 
 that it is due to himself, due to his tribe, still to maintain his 
 haughty bearing, still to defy his captors. The early writers tell 
 us how, chained to the stake, he urged the women and children 
 to tear his flesh, to sever his limbs, to burn him at a slow fire, 
 and how, feeling the approach of death, he intoned his war-song, 
 so that his last breath might still be a death-rattle of scorn and 
 pride'." Such scenes, unparalleled elsewhere, are no fancy pictures; 
 they have been actually witnessed by white men even in the 
 present century^. Equal endurance is displayed by young and 
 old under their fearful ordeals and self-inflicted tortures, such as 
 those of which George Catlin was a spectator during his resi- 
 dence amongst the now extinct Mandans of the Missouri valley ^ 
 The scenes described by that observer are of such a harrowing 
 nature as almost to pass the bounds of credibility, and indeed 
 some of the trials of endurance have been questioned or declared 
 impossible on physiological grounds alone. Nevertheless CatHn's 
 veracity, impugned by Schoolcraft and others, has been confirmed 
 by independent evidence. A few of the details must certainly be 
 rejected as absolutely incredible ; but these are given un the 
 hearsay report of "several traders" (p. 368). 
 
 1 Op. cit. XVII. p. 30. 
 
 2 See J. P. Dunn, Junr., Massacre of the Mountains, &c., 1886, p. 513. 
 
 3 North Afuerican Indians, I. p. 170 et seq. Catlin's account of the 
 appalling cruelties witnessed by him at the Mandan annual ceremonies is 
 reprinted with the original illustrations in the Smithsonian Report for 1885, 
 Part II. p. 356 et seq. Here is also published a summary of the controversy 
 to which his statements gave rise, together with confirmatory evidence and 
 remarks by the editor, who accepts "the correctness of his descriptions," 
 and declares him to have been "an honest observer and truthful chronicler" 
 (P- 374)- 
 
XIII.] 
 
 HOMO AMERICAN US. 
 
 355 
 
 Similar mental traits characterise the Central and South Ame- 
 rican Indians, such as the Caribs, who " have a 
 gravity of manner and a certain look of sadness America! 
 which is observable among most of the primitive 
 inhabitants of the New Worlds" 
 
 On the banks of the Paraguay Mr E. F. Knight witnessed a 
 
 NATIVE OK BRITISH GUIANA. 
 
 {True Carib Type.) 
 
 scene which reads like an extract from The Last of the Mohicans : 
 " We saw four Indians come stealthily down to the bank, armed 
 with long lances. Then, lying down among the reeds, they gazed 
 silently into the water till they saw some big fish pass by, when, 
 with wonderful skill, they speared them one after the other, and 
 threw them on the bank. Next, they lit a fire, roasted the fish 
 they had caught, and devoured them. This done, they picked 
 up their weapons, and crept back into the woods as noiselessly 
 and stealthily as they had come. The whole time — some three 
 hours — that they were on the river-bank, not one of these men 
 spoke a word^" 
 
 1 A. von Humboldt, Personal Narrative, iii. p. 74. 
 
 2 Cruise of the Falcon, 1884, Vol. II. p. 27. 
 
 23—2 
 
356 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 In the "strange and painful whip dance" described by Mr 
 Everard im Thurn the Arawaks " lash each other until their calves 
 are striped with weals and the blood flows freely \" The same 
 observer tells us that the Guiana Indians before shooting rapids 
 and on other occasions propitiate the local spirits by rubbing red 
 pepper in their eyes, and that the older people "inflict this 
 self-torture with the utmost stoicism." The extreme pain of 
 the operation, " which is never omitted," is shown by the fact 
 
 NATIVE OF BRITISH GUIANA. 
 
 {^Araivak Type.) 
 
 that in the children and even young men it causes sobbing, an 
 otherwise rare sight amongst the impassive and unemotional 
 natives-. ' But the power of endurance, and of uncomplaining 
 submission to the direst calamities, shown by the Guarani Indians 
 of Paraguay during the war of extermination waged by Lopez 
 against Brazil and her allies was never surpassed, scarcely ever 
 equalled, by any other nation. " On the battle-fields the allies 
 found little but dead bodies ; nor all of these, for many, fighting 
 lassoed round the waist by cords attached to the saddle-bow, were 
 
 1 Amonj^ the Indians of Guiana, 18S3, p. 326. 
 
 2 ib. pp. 368-69. 
 
xiil] homo americanus. 357 
 
 borne dead or dying from the field by their mounts. Prisoners 
 tore the bandages from their wounds.... The manhood of the 
 nation almost entirely disappeared by war, famine and cholera. 
 None survived except the infirm, the women and children \" In a 
 word, w^atchful, reserved, impassive, enduring, gloomy, sullen, are 
 the epithets most frequently appHed by travellers to the natives of 
 South, as well as of North, America, and few will dissent from the 
 contrast drawn by Darwin " between the taciturn, even morose 
 aborigines of South America and the Hght-hearted talkative 
 negroes I" 
 
 Almost equal uniformity pervades the general morphology of 
 American speech, although recent research tends 
 
 * ° Uniform 
 
 to show that what Dean Byrne calls its " megasyn- character of 
 
 , . . , q>) • ,1 American 
 
 thetic or massive character is not by any means speech in its 
 so universal as is commonly supposed. Never- general mor- 
 
 •' r I phology. 
 
 theless this character, the nature of which has 
 
 already been explained (Chap. IX.), is conspicuous in Eskimo, 
 
 1 Reclus, Vol. XIX. English ed. p. 295. 
 
 2 Desceiit of Man ^ I. p. 216. 
 
 3 General Principles of the Structure of Language, 1885, I. p. 136. In 
 this learned work an attempt is made to establish a correlation between the 
 mental qualities of all races aftd the peculiar character of their respective 
 languages. The theory is supported by a vast amount of research and acute 
 reasoning, and the author's conclusions may perhaps be said to agree better 
 with the relations prevailing in the New World than in the eastern hemisphere. 
 The general principle is laid down that " slowness and persistence of mental 
 action must tend to impede the movements of thought which are involved 
 in language, and to make its acts larger so as to embrace a wider object" 
 (l. p. 22) ; and it is claimed that the theory is proved for America by the 
 massive character of its speech, corresponding to the slow mental action of 
 the aborigines. Despite its inductive treatment, the subject belongs, and 
 must long belong, to the region of metaphysical linguistics. Its general 
 conclusions seem to be vitiated, amongst other considerations, by the pheno- 
 menon of speech shifting from one race to another (p. 202) without such a 
 corresponding mental transformation as would be necessitated by the hypo- 
 thesis. The English-speaking Irish Kelts have not acquired a Teutonic 
 liabit of thought, nor has the English language spoken by them made any 
 appreciable approximation to the general structure of Keltic speech. It 
 would, on the other hand, be difficult to show that the English people have 
 diverged in their mental qualities from their Kelto-Teutonic forefathers as far, 
 and in the same direction as, their present speech has diverged from its Anglo- 
 
358 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Algonquian, Iroquoian, Aztec, Mixtec, Quechuan (Peruvian), 
 Araucanian, and many of the chief stock languages in every part 
 of the New World, while it is not found in any of those of the 
 eastern hemisphere. A primordial unity may thus be claimed for 
 American speech, which, during the course of its independent 
 evolution, shows no clear evidence of having anywhere been 
 brought under Asiatic or other foreign influences. It would be 
 idle here to discuss the wild statements formerly and even still 
 made by erudite etymologists regarding, not merely resemblances 
 and affinities, but actual identities between Basque, Irish, Japanese, 
 Chinese, Berber, and other tongues of "High Asia," or of " High 
 Africa" on the one hand, and Iroquois, Delaware, Othomi, Maya, 
 Peruvian and others of " High America " on the other \ All such 
 statements are worthless, being based either on the vague and 
 unconfirmed reports of " shipwrecked mariners," or on gross 
 ignorance of the languages brought into unnatural connection, or 
 else on pseudo-scientific processes of comparison incapable of 
 
 Saxon prototype. And then we should have to consider the question of 
 miscegenation, to which, as seen on p. 199, race but not language is sus- 
 ceptible. 
 
 ^ One or two instances will suffice to show the reckless nature of some of 
 the statements here referred to. In a work on Keltic local names, a fruitful 
 source of the wildest etymologies, Herr Obermiiller finds Keltic roots referring 
 to water in Siberia, India and Peru ; and Prof. John Campbell of Montreal 
 has discovered that Creek, Aztec, Choctaw and other American tongues are 
 merely so many Japanese dialects. The Abbe Petitot is convinced that 
 Athapascan is a disguised Semitic idiom, while Senor Naxera identifies his 
 Othomi (Mexican) mother-tongue with Chinese. Another Mexican, Seiior 
 Jose A. Vargas, tells us that the Maxteca language, current on the uplands 
 between Puebla and Oaxaca, is identical with that of some gypsies who have 
 recently wandered to those parts from the Balkan Peninsula. Hence the 
 Maxtecas must be the descendants of other gypsies who came from the same 
 region ages ago; for "how can we explain otherwise the fact that the same 
 language is spoken in Dalmatia and in these mountains of Mexico" {Monitor 
 Republicano, Mexico, April 16, 1895). "When I see volumes of this 
 character," writes Dr Brinton, "many involving prolonged and arduous re- 
 search...! am affected by a sense of deep commiseration for able men who 
 expend their efforts in pursuits of such will-o'-the-wisps of science, panting 
 along roads which lead nowhere, inattentive to the guideposts which alone 
 can direct them to solid ground" {On various supposed relations betzveen 
 American and Asian Races, p. 151). 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 359 
 
 yielding trustworthy results of any kind. Under critical enquiry 
 the linguistic identities between the Old and the New World are 
 reduced to the Eskimo dialects current on both sides of Bering 
 Strait, where Innuit settlements have long been estabhshed. 
 
 Although mainly cast in a common polysynthetic mould, the 
 American tongues have, during their separate exist- surprising 
 ence, diverged so widely from the original type that number of 
 more irreducible stock languages have been devel- stock lan- 
 oped in this region than in any other part of the f^e^jf" ^"on^ 
 world. As many as fifty-eight have been determined polysynthetic 
 for British North America and the United States ^^^' 
 alone, and according to some authorities radically distinct lan- 
 guages are relatively more numerous in the rest of the continent 
 than in the northern regions. Perhaps 150 is not too high an 
 estimate for the whole of America, although the researches of 
 Buschmann and of some more recent philologists have tended to 
 reduce the number of independent linguistic families l)oth in 
 Mexico and the United States. Thus the Aztec and the Shoshone 
 (Snake) groups would appear to be fundamentally connected, but 
 yet so divergent that for the present they must still be treated as 
 two independent forms of speech. On the other hand, radically 
 distinct languages seem to be less numerous in South America 
 than might be inferred from the statements of early writers. On 
 the evidence of their speech Mr Clements R. Markham is inclined 
 to derive the Amazonian tribes, " now like the sands on the sea- 
 shore for number, from two, or at most three parent stocks," 
 adding that "the differences in the roots between the numerous 
 Amazonian languages are not so great as was generally supposed'." 
 Dr Brinton also now abandons the opinion formerly held by him, 
 in common with so many other philologists, "that the Hnguistic 
 stocks of South America are more numerous than those of North 
 America ^" 
 
 Another point of considerable importance is the extremely 
 irregular distribution of these stock languages, some of which, such 
 
 1 A List of the Tribes in the Valley of the Amazon, in Jour. Anthrop. 
 Institute, Feb. 1895, p. 236. 
 
 2 The present Status of American Linguistics, in Memoirs of the Chicago 
 Congress of Anthropology, 1893, p. 336. 
 
360 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 as the Athapascan, the Algonquian, the Siouan and the Shoshonean 
 in the north, the Nahuatlan and Huaxtecan (Maya-Quiche') in 
 the centre, the Guarani and Quechua-Aymara in the south, occupy 
 vast areas comparable to those of the Aryan, Ural-Altaic and Bantu 
 in the Old World. But the great majority are crowded together, 
 like those of the Caucasus and Sudan, in extremely narrow limits, 
 as on the north-west coast, where about thirty are confined to the 
 strip of seaboard which extends from British Columbia to Lower 
 California between the coast ranges and the Pacific. 
 The ciassifi- 'f ^g inevitable result is that classifications have more 
 
 cation of the ... 
 
 Aborigines of a Imguistic than an ethnical basis ; for how can 
 
 oJTiaJiguage^ the most experienced anthropologist pretend to 
 distinguish on physical grounds between a few 
 thousand Oregon Indians, for instance, who speak a score or so 
 of fundamentally distinct idioms, but who all closely resemble 
 each other in outward appearance ? As elsewhere remarked (Ch. 
 IX.) linguistic are always more easily determined than racial 
 divisions, and this is specially the case in the American field, as 
 frankly recognised by Mr J. W. Powell, who gives to his valuable 
 summary, representing over twenty years' intermittent labours, the 
 title of "Indian Linguistic Famifies of America north of Mexico \" 
 For the same reason the accompanying Family Tree of Homo 
 ^ Americanus is necessarily based far more on lin- 
 
 ofHomo guistic than on ethnical differences. Here Mr 
 
 Powell's orthography is adhered to, uniformity in 
 this respect being more important than theoretical accuracy. His 
 convenient plan of indicating stock languages by the final syllable 
 
 ^ Seventh Animal Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1891. 
 Mr E. im Thurn goes even further, and attempts to define ethnical divisions in 
 terms of language {op. cit. p. 161). He declares that for Guiana, where 
 "there are no very great differences other than those of language," this factor 
 "must be adopted " as the basis of classification {ib.)\ and at p. 167 ; "It is 
 not very easy to describe the distinguishing physical characteristics of these 
 groups [of Guiana natives], for, after all, all being of the same race, the 
 differences are but small." Here, it is important to note, the term "race" 
 has a very wide meaning, being made commensurate with Homo Americanus. 
 It may be added that d'Orbigny's attempt to group the South American 
 aborigines according to their physical characters yielded unsatisfactory and 
 even contradictory results {V Homme Am^ricain, passim). 
 
362 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 an or ian is also adopted, and extended to the whole of America. 
 Thus Siouan, Nahuatlan, Caribim, Guaninian are the collective 
 names of families, of which Dakota, Aztec, Macusi and Tupi are 
 respective sub-groups or branches, confusion being avoided by 
 using the plural form where an constitutes an integral part of the 
 tribal name, as in Mandans, Pocomans, Dirians &c. Mr Powell's 
 classification is also accepted for North America in all cases except 
 the Ytiman and Fiman groups, which appear as independent 
 fomilies on his map, but which are here transferred to the Opatan 
 of North Mexico on the authority of Manuel Orozco y Berra, first 
 of Mexican systematists \ 
 
 Assuming a common descent of these multitudinous tribes and 
 
 peoples from more or less generahsed Mongol pre- 
 
 babi^^peopi^ed' cursors in pleistocene and later times, the question 
 
 from Europe arises, bv what route or routes did they reach the 
 
 by palaeolithic, ' -^ / 
 
 from Asia by American Continent ? It was shown in Chap. X. 
 
 that the road by Bering Strait, if not also by the 
 Aleutian chain, was always open, and that in late tertiary times an 
 alternative highway was probably available from West Europe to 
 Greenland and Labrador. It seems likely that both of these 
 routes were followed, the western first by primitive long-headed 
 tribes, the eastern later by round-headed Mongoloid peoples from 
 Asia. That both arrived during the stone ages is evident from 
 the presence side by side of the fossil remains of the two types in 
 South Brazil and Argentina (p. 98). From the undoubted remains 
 of paleeoHthic man discovered in the same southern regions 
 it would also appear that the long-headed preceded the short- 
 headed race, for no clear traces of a round-headed pateohthic 
 people has yet been anywhere brought to light. Thus may be 
 explained the presence at the two extremities of the New World 
 of highly doHchocephalous peoples, Botocudos, Tehuelche Pata- 
 
 gonians and Fuegian Yahgans in the south, Eskimo 
 tributionofthe in the north from Greenland and Labrador round 
 two types. ^y ^j^g ^\ioxQ.^ of the Frozen Ocean to Alaska. These 
 
 first arrivals, being more primitive and armed with ruder weapons, 
 
 1 Gcografia de las Leuguas y carta ehiografica de Mexico, 1864, 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 363 
 
 would, unless absorbed, naturally be driven by the later neolithic 
 intruders to the less favoured Arctic and Antarctic regions, where 
 their descendants are still found in undisputed possession of their 
 uninviting homes. It is noteworthy that "the Eskimo type is 
 found in its highest expression in Greenland. Dolichocephaly 
 and extreme height of the skull [hypsistenocephaly] become less 
 as we approach Bering Strait. The Aleutians and Kolushes 
 [Thhnkits] would form the passage between it and the Samoyede 
 
 ESKIMO OF ALASKA. 
 
 and Mongolian type'." This is precisely what we should expect 
 
 on the assumption of long-headed tribes arriving first from Europe 
 
 and moving westwards till arrested by round-headed 
 
 arrivals from Asia. Doubtless another interpreta- quesSon^ ' 
 
 tion is given to this fact by Dr Rink and others, 
 
 who trace the Eskimo migrations, not from east to west, but the 
 
 other way, from Alaska to Labrador and Greenland. But all these 
 
 views are based on what may be called local, and consequently 
 
 restricted considerations, which take no account of the broader 
 
 1 Topinard, Anthropolos^y, p. 473. 
 
364 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 and more fundamental factors of the problem \ It is not merely 
 in the Eskimo domain, but throughout the whole continent that, 
 despite the already described secular intermingHngs, dolichocephaly 
 decreases westwards. According to Morton it is in the north 
 more prevalent "among the tribes that" originally inhabited the 
 east of the Alleghanies, and brachycephaly among those to the 
 west of the Mississippi. The same thing occurs on the coasts 
 of South America ^" 
 
 The question is affected or rather obscured by the supposed 
 Eskimo affinities observed amongst the Chukchi and other tribes 
 in North-east Asia, affinities which are elsewhere explained (Chap. 
 XIL). The position here taken is greatly strengthened by the 
 comparative study made in Paris of the crania brought by Senor 
 Moreno from the Patagonian paraderos, crania which might at 
 first sight be taken for "the skulls of Eskimo. ...The cephalic 
 index is 72-02, that is to say, they are the most decidedly dolicho- 
 cephalic in the world after those of the Eskimo [and some 
 Melanesians], and their prognathism is 6g-4, or less than the 
 [normal] American, and as much or more than the Eskimo.... 
 This unexpected approximation to the Eskimo suggests some 
 curious questions for consideration. Are the Tehuelches the 
 autochthonous dolichocephalic element, which by its crossing 
 with a race of Asia has given origin to the present Anxerican 
 type? May not the craniological singularity of the Eskimo, who 
 in certain respects resemble the Samoyedes and the Mongols 
 proper, and in others are as distinct as it is possible to be, be 
 explained in the same way? They would be another form of 
 cross of the same Asiatic brachycephalic element with the same 
 autochthonous American dolichocephaHc element^." 
 
 Such an explanation for a polygenist is natural. But by sub- 
 stituting quaternary for "autochthonous," which for 
 
 Its solution, , °^., . ,^^. 
 
 the monogemst has no meaning, M. Topinard s sug- 
 
 ^ CMrdgh-ke-niche antVhera, " Under the lamp is darkness," says the 
 Hindi proverb. In order to get light on these obscure ethnical problems the 
 observer must stand aside, and study them from a distance. 
 
 - Topinard, ib. p. 480. 
 
 3 Topinard, ib. p. 484; F. P. Moreno, Junr., Des Cimetih'es et Paraderos 
 de Patagonie, in Rev. d'Anthrop. ill. 1874. 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 365 
 
 gestion will harmonise completely with the solution here proposed. 
 The peopling of the New World is thus seen to be intimately 
 associated with the seemingly anomalous position of the Eskimo 
 and prehistoric Patagonian types, which have hitherto refused to 
 adapt themselves to any intelligible scheme, but which now appear 
 to fall naturally into their place, to be, in fact, as they are, essen- 
 tial elements in the equation. 
 
 One of the most striking, and perhaps the most original, of 
 the many alternative theories is that advanced by 
 Prof. O. T. Mason', who rightly argues that water theory of the 
 yields the easiest means of obtaining food and of America from 
 transport, as well as the materials of all the earlier ^"'^o- 
 
 . Malaysia. 
 
 arts and mdustnes. Hence coastlands, and especi- 
 ally estuaries teeming with animal life, first attracted human 
 settlers; and on this ground Morgan^ made the Columbia estuary 
 the chief centre of tribal dispersion over the North American 
 continent. Following up this Hne of argument. Prof Mason 
 reasons with much ingenuity that the Columbia river, or some 
 neighbouring point, may have been reached at a very remote 
 period from Indo-Malaysia by primitive seafarers in rude open 
 boats skirting the East Asiatic and North-west American sea- 
 bords, and that such voyages riiay have been constantly made 
 thousands of years ago, until the route was interfered with by 
 Chinese and other civilised settlers spreading from the interior of 
 Asia seawards. Such a route " might have been nearly all the 
 way by sea. It could have been a continuously used route for 
 centuries. Until interrupted by later civiHsations, it might have 
 been travelled over for thousands of years. It lies absolutely 
 along a great circle of the earth, the shortest and easiest highway 
 upon a globe" (p. 279). Reference is made to the analogous 
 case of the British Columbian Haida Indians, who for ages have 
 annually voyaged in their frail craft five hundred miles southwards 
 to Puget Sound in quest of clams and oysters for their own con- 
 sumption and for trade. Weight is also placed on assumed 
 
 ^ Migration and the Food Quest, A Stzidy in the Peopling of Arnei'ica, 
 reprinted from The A?nerican Anthropologist for July 1894; Washington, 
 1894. 
 
 2 North American Revieiv, Oct. 1869, Jan. 1870. 
 
366 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 ethnical and possible linguistic affinities along the hne of primeval 
 traffic; on the favourable marine and aerial currents; on similar 
 social institutions, arts and industries of too striking a nature to 
 be explained otherwise than by actual contact. It is asserted that 
 scarcely an original idea, not even the game of patolli^^ "was 
 developed upon the western hemisphere" (p. 290); that "this 
 close connection between the two continents has existed for 
 thousands of years," and that "there never was known to history 
 a day when the two continents were not intimately associated " 
 (p. 292). 
 
 The case could hardly be put in stronger language, and, if it 
 . could be upheld, many pages of this work would 
 
 objections to have to be re-written. But it may be asked, if history 
 eory. j^^^ ^^^ always been in touch with the New World, 
 why did the New World need to be discovered by Columbus, or 
 his Norse precursors? And if this close connection existed "for 
 thousands of years," how did it happen that there was no inter- 
 change of the useful commodities of social life between the two 
 hemispheres? These should have preceded, or at least accom- 
 panied, the aesthetic fancies assumed to have been wafted over the 
 seas from Malaysia or Papuasia to the north-west coast of America. 
 But while this region received none of the good things of the 
 East, neither its silks, iron, cereals such as wheat, rice, and millet; 
 pulse such as pease and lentils; nor its beasts of burden such as 
 the horse, ass, and camel, on the other hand none of the fruits of 
 the West, maize, tobacco, potatoes, tomatoes, and the like, found 
 their way to the East, so that after thousands of years this inter- 
 national traffic produced nothing but negative results, hence 
 might as well never have existed. But interchange is the very 
 essence of commercial intercourse ; therefore the assumption falls 
 to the ground, the more so that history knows nothing of this 
 
 ^ As much has been made of the undoubted resemblance between this 
 Mexican game, and the pachesi, a kind of backgammon long known in India, 
 it should be stated that, after a careful study of the subject, Mr Culin and 
 Mr Frank Gushing declare />c7/o//i to be "thoroughly American in origin." 
 (See Dr Brinton, On varioiis supposed Relations between the American and 
 Asian Races, p. 149.) The question was first raised by Dr E. B. Tylor 
 {Jour. Anthrop. Inst. Vlil., 1878). 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 367 
 
 close connection between the two hemispheres. The only inter- 
 course known to (recent) history is that which has long been 
 carried on between the Eskimo and other tribes on both sides of 
 Bering Strait, an intercourse which has led to some ethnological 
 mystifications, but which leaves the question of early intercon- 
 tinental migrations untouched. 
 
 Nor could such migrations be explained by Prof Mason's 
 theory, even were the main fleets admitted. It 
 would not account for the presence of two types of ob^°cti*ons 
 primitive man in the southern extremity of the New 
 World in quaternary times, that is, ages before the development of 
 navigation or of any other advanced art in Malaysia or Indonesia. 
 Primitive man did not reach America from those regions by 
 water, but from Asia and Europe by the overland routes, as 
 explained. But it is not a question of primitive man, but of" East 
 Indians," and " Malays" (p. 281), and of " pre-Malays, who were 
 the Phcenicians of the Orient " (p. 255), that is to say, cultured 
 peoples, who had long outlived the stone ages. If therefore these 
 were the first settlers in the New World, what becomes of the 
 American palaeolithic man ? And if he be " discredited," there 
 is still the American neolithic man, accepted by all, but unac- 
 counted for by this theory. Did these " Phoenicians of the Orient " 
 revert in America to the savage state, settle down on the shores 
 of New England, Brazil, and Fuegia and build up the enormous 
 kitchen-middens of those regions ? Did they fabricate the multi- 
 tudes of rude stone implements which have been collected in tens 
 of thousands from all parts of the United States (p. 105), and which 
 cannot be distinguished in form from the European palseoliths ? 
 Did they build the mounds of the Ohio valley, the casas grandes 
 of the Pueblos, the Mexican teocaUi, the great cities of Yucatan 
 and Peru, the megalithic monuments of Lake Titicaca? Did they 
 forget their Malayo-Polynesian and other eastern tongues, and 
 invent new forms of speech in the New World, forms utterly 
 unlike any current in the Old ? Surely all these things should be 
 taken into account in any rational theory that may be advanced 
 to explain the origin of the American aborigines, and their orderly 
 evolution up to the various planes of culture reached by them in 
 pre-Columbian times. 
 
368 ETHNOLOGY. ' [CHAP. 
 
 Thanks to their generally homogeneous character, and to their 
 
 independent normal development since the stone 
 
 be^tweeJfcr"^ ages in an environment separated from the rest of 
 
 tain usages ^^g globc, the American aborigines present few 
 
 and mental , ° . , , , ^ ^^ . . 
 
 aspects of the Other racial problems of sufficient importance to re- 
 the o*idTnd°^ quire discussion in these pages. Once severed from 
 New Worlds the fictitious Asiatic connection and influences, 
 
 explained. , . . ... . . 
 
 the Study of their social, religious, and pohtical 
 institutions acquires quite an exceptional interest. Striking re- 
 semblances and points of apparent contact with the usages of 
 the eastern populations at corresponding grades of culture are no 
 longer to be explained by the clumsy device of importations, 
 impossible borrowings or affinities, but by the immeasurably 
 more rational conception of their common mental constitution. 
 Such coincidences thus become doubly instructive. They not 
 only illustrate the social condition of the peoples themselves, 
 but also throw a flood of light on the primeval psychic character 
 of all mankind, as clearly appears from the all-embracing but 
 unfortunately somewhat entangled ethnico-psychological writings 
 of Dr Adolf Bastian. Thus, to give one instance amongst a thou- 
 sand, instead of deriving Papuans from Basques, and Basques from 
 Guiana Indians, because of the coiivade cornmon to all, it will be 
 more profitable to study the motives and mental processes which 
 underlie that strange custom, and which may explain its inde- 
 pendent origin amongst such widely separated and fundamentally 
 distinct peoples. By adopting this course, Mr James Rodway 
 seems to have arrived at a rational solution of the mystery. On 
 the birth of the child, the father " calmly prepares to do what he 
 considers his duty. He must not hunt, shoot, or fell trees for some 
 time, because there is an invisible connection between himself 
 and the babe, whose spirit accompanies him in all his wanderings, 
 and might be shot, chopped, or otherwise* injured unwittingly. 
 He therefore retires to his hammock, sometimes holding the little 
 one, and receives the congratulations of his friends, as well as the 
 advice of the elder members of the community. If he has occasion 
 to travel, he must not go very far, as the child spirit might get 
 tired, and in passing a creek must first lay across it a Httle bridge, 
 or bend a leaf in the shape of a canoe for his companion. His 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 369 
 
 wife looks after the cassava bread and pepper-pot, and assists the 
 others in reminding her husband of his duties. No matter that 
 they have to go without meat for a few days, the child's spirit 
 must be preserved from harm\" So with the Egyptian and 
 American pyramids, on which so many wild theories have been 
 based, but all of which are independent local developments ori- 
 ginating in the same psychic feeHng, awe and fear of the dead. 
 They must be honoured with parting gifts; their remains and 
 belongings, deposited in cists, must be guarded against profanation 
 by superimposed mounds (p. 128); their wrath must be appeased 
 by periodical offerings and by sacrifices on their graves. Hence 
 the mounds may in some places assume a truncated form for 
 the convenient celebration of these rites, and for the erection 
 of permanent buildings for the same purpose. Thus arose the 
 " temple-mounds" of the Mississippi basin described by Mr Lucien 
 Carr", and the ^lexican and Maya teocalli, all of which, hke the 
 Egyptian pyramids, contain human remains, but none of which 
 can date farther back than about the sixth century of the new era, 
 that is to say, ages after pyramids had ceased to be built by the 
 Egyptians, to whom, nevertheless, these American structures have 
 been attributed by those who refuse to credit the natives of the 
 New World with a single original idea. 
 
 It would be surely more reasonable to attribute the "temple- 
 mounds" to the vanished race^ by whom somewhat analogous 
 monuments were raised in Tahiti, the Low Archipelago and 
 other South Sea islands. " In the Society Islands, as in many 
 other parts of the Pacific, are to be found a number of buildings 
 which testify to the existence in former times of a people 
 of a higher development. They are generally in the form of 
 terraces or platforms, placed in elevated spots, and formed of 
 hewn blocks of stone which are often of great size. In the 
 centre is placed a sort of massive altar. A very large building 
 of this kind exists at Papawa in Tahiti. From a base measuring 
 270 feet by 94 feet rise ten steps or terraces, each about 
 6 feet in height. The object of these inorais^ as they are termed, 
 
 ^ In the Guiana Forest., i895» pp. 25, 26. 
 
 - The Mounds of the Mississippi Valley historically considered ; Smithsonian 
 Report, i89r, pp. 95 et seq, 
 
 K. 24 
 
370 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 is not very clear. They were in many cases no doubt of a 
 monumental, if not sepulchral, nature; but sacrifices were ap- 
 parently offered upon them in some instances, and it seems that 
 they also served on occasions as forts or strongholds \" Here 
 the tables might well be turned on those archaeologists who 
 trace the foundations of every monumental structure in the New 
 World to the Eastern Hemisphere ; for it might be argued that, if 
 the Egyptians built, for instance, the pyramid of Cholula, which, 
 like that of Cheops, "may have been a tomb" (de Nadaillac, 
 p. 351), the moral of Papawa may a fortiori have been erected 
 by the Toltecs, or any other prehistoric cultured people of 
 Central America, the resemblances between the morals and the 
 terraced Mexican pyramids being so much greater than that 
 between these structures and the pointed pyramids of the Nile 
 Valley. But all such inferences are highly unscientific, and it 
 may be confidently asserted that, if Cholula were of Egyptian 
 workmanship, the proofs would lie on the surface as palpably as 
 the proofs of Hindu influences He on the surface of Boro-bodor 
 and Angkor-Vat. It may be concluded with Mr Cyrus Thomas 
 that, "the mind and requirements of man being substantially the 
 same everywhere and in all ages, the primitive works of art which 
 relate to supplying these requirements will be substantially the 
 same where the conditions are alike" {Mound Explorations, 1894, 
 p. 529). 
 
 The fate of the aborigines since the discovery of America has 
 
 been compared by Dr Daniel Wilson with that of 
 
 the discovery the men of the Stone Ages in Europe, when their 
 
 and re -settle- domain was invadcd by "one or more races superior 
 
 ment of Ame- •' ^ 
 
 rica on the alike in physical type and in the arts upon which 
 
 Aborigines. -i o jj -r-. • ^ ^• rr 1 
 
 progress depends . But, owmg to the dmerent de- 
 grees of culture prevailing in America, the results have not every- 
 where been the same. The normal development of the leading 
 nations — Aztecs, Mayas, Chibchas, Peruvians — who had established 
 powerful pohtical systems with thoroughly organised governments, 
 
 1 Dr F. H. H. Guillemard, Australasia-, p. 515. 
 
 2 American Illustrations of the Evolution of New Varieties of Man, Jonr. 
 Anthrop. Inst., 1878, p. 340. 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 37 1 
 
 was abruptly arrested, and replaced by the social and religious 
 institutions of the conquerors. Millions perished during the first 
 conflicts, and later in the mines or on the planta- in Latin 
 tions. In the West Indies all the natives rapidly -^"^^"'^a- 
 disappeared, and here their place was taken by negro slaves 
 imported from Africa. But elsewhere the civiHsed populations 
 survived in sufficient numbers to amalgamate with the Spanish 
 and Portuguese intruders, and form the substratum of the present 
 mixed peoples of Latin America (p. 152). 
 
 In the northern continent totally different conditions produced 
 totally different results. Here the normal relations , ^ , 
 
 ■' In Anglo- 
 
 of a few hundred thousand half-savage and partly Saxon 
 agricultural hunting tribes, distributed over several 
 million square miles of territory, were at first little affected by a 
 few British settlements on the eastern seabord, mostly engaged 
 in hostihties with rival French colonists in the St Lawrence basin. 
 Spanish America was overrun and largely reduced within a single 
 generation after the fall of Mexico, whereas the Prairie Indian 
 was still roaming the Mississippi plains far into the nineteenth 
 century. On the other hand no fusion of the two elements has 
 taken place in Anglo-Saxon America at all comparable to the 
 amalgamation of Europeans and natives in the central and southern 
 regions. Here the union has been reciprocal, equally affecting 
 both races, whereas in the north it has been, so to say, one-sided. 
 It was shown (p. 152) that the North American Indians have almost 
 everywhere received a strain of white blood ; but the white popu- 
 lations, always excepting the French Canadians, have on the 
 whole preserved their racial purity intact. In virtue of a deeply- 
 rooted ethnical sentiment, the half-breeds have, as a rule, failed to 
 acquire citizenship amongst the higher race, and are fain to cast 
 in their lot with the aborigines who are now for the most part 
 confined to reservations. Recently, however, a tendency towards 
 absorption in the white population has been observed in some of 
 the western states, but always under the indispensable condition 
 of tribal effacement. "There is one way," writes Mr James 
 O. Dorsey, "in which a diminution of some tribes is taking 
 place, viz. by ceasing to be Indians and becoming members of 
 civilized society. In Minnesota all persons of mixed blood, 
 
 24 — 2 
 
3/2 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 i.e. of white and Indian descent, are recognized as citizens. The 
 same is true in other States; and the privilege is extended to 
 those who are not mixed bloods. Also, under present homestead 
 laws, Indians are becoming citizens by going off their reserves. 
 Let a well-arranged severalty bill be enacted into a law, and 
 Indians be guaranteed civil rights as other men, and they will 
 soon cease to be Indians \" 
 
 But absorption, universal in Latin America, is still the excep- 
 tion in the United States, where the natives are consequently 
 doomed to almost absolute extinction. At least the slight Indian 
 strain that may survive amid the white populations may be re- 
 garded from the ethnical standpoint as luie quantite iiegligeable. 
 Even Dr Wilson, who is perhaps inchned to exaggerate the import- 
 ance of the aboriginal element, admits that "the red race is actually 
 disappearing by positive extinction," adding, however, that "it is 
 blending by a process of absorption into the dominant race, not 
 without leaving some enduring influence on the European-American 
 population both of Canada and the United States " {loc. cit. p. 356). 
 Although in the States this " influence " must be regarded as 
 infinitesimal, some ethnologists have nevertheless 
 
 The Anglo- ., , . . . . , ^ ,. 
 
 American attributed to it a Certain approximation to the Indian 
 
 to^mfsTe en*- physical type, which has been observed amongst 
 ation, but to the white populations, especially in some of the 
 
 convergence. , , , ^ , . 
 
 southern and central states. But this approxima- 
 tion, which reveals itself in the increased stature, slender and 
 somewhat bony figure, sharp angular features, pale or less florid 
 complexion, straight and stiff black hair'-, is certainly not due to 
 crossings with the aborigines, for similar tendencies have already 
 been developed amongst the British settlers in Australia. It is 
 to be regarded rather as a case of convergence, such as that of 
 the Germans in Trans-Caucasia (p. 203), and may be attributed 
 to the changed cHmatic conditions, drier, hotter and less nebulous 
 than those of the British Isles. But there can be no question of 
 
 1 Contributions to North American Ethnology, ix. Washington, 1893, 
 p. 167. 
 
 2 The long lank hair "is, in comparison with the soft silky hair of the 
 Englishman, evidently an approach to the American Indian" (Waitz, An- 
 thropology, p. 54). 
 
XIII.] HOMO AMERICANUS. 373 
 
 degeneracy of the Anglo-American populations in their new 
 environment. The lugubrious vaticinations of a now-forgotten 
 school of fierce polygenists have already been belied by the 
 magnificent physique of the Kentucky and Tennessee peoples, 
 mainly sprung from a hale Virginian stock, with no appreciable 
 strain of fresh blood from the mother country. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 HOMO CAUCASICUS. 
 
 North Africa probable cradle of the Caucasic race — which spread thence east 
 to Asia and north to Europe — The Cro-Magnon and other early European 
 races affiliated to the fair Befb^^.9f .I^i^yl^tania — rWest Europe occupied 
 by several varieties of Homo CaTicasicus in the Stone Ages — Who were of 
 non-Aryan speech like the still surviving Basques — The Ibero-Berber 
 problem — Basques and Picts — Family Tree of Homo Caucasicus — 
 Xanthochroi and Melanochroi — Blacks of Caucasic Type — Physical 
 Characters of Homo Caucasicus — White, Brown and Dark Hamites — 
 The Tamahu Hamites of the Egyptian records — The "New Race" in 
 the Nile Valley — The Eastern Hamites: Afars; Bejas; Gallas and 
 Somals ; Masai and Wa-Huma — Ethnical relations in Abyssinia: I?im- 
 yarites ; Agaos ; The present Abyssinian populations — Relations of the 
 Hamites to the Semites — The Semitic Domain — The Semitic Groups — 
 Semitic physical and mental characters — The Semitic Languages — The 
 Aryan-speaking Peoples — Aryan a linguistic not a racial expression — 
 True character of the Aryan migrations — Illustrated by the Teutonic in- 
 vasion of Britain ; and by the Hindu invasion of India — The Aryan 
 Cradleland — Primitive Aryan Culture — Schrader's hypothesis — Conflicting 
 views regarding the Aryan Cradleland reconciled — The Eurasian Steppe 
 true home of the primitive Aryan Groups —The primitive Aryan type 
 difficult to determine— But probably xanthochroid — The Aryan problem 
 summed up — Recent expansion of the Aryan-speaking Peoples — The 
 "Greater Britain" — The Aryan linguistic family — Table of the Aryan 
 linguistic groups — Disintegration of primitive Aryan speech — The Teu- 
 tonic phonetic System — Ethnical and linguistic relations in the Caucasus 
 — Main Divisions of the peoples and languages of Caucasia — Ethnical 
 and linguistic relations of the Dravidas — Sporadic Caucasic Groups: 
 Todas ; Ainus. 
 
 For the history of primitive man in the northern hemisphere 
 
 the chief geological factor is the condition of the 
 
 probable cradle Mediterranean basin in miocene and later epochs. 
 
 of the Caucasic Reference has already been made to the distribution 
 
 race, -^ 
 
 of land and water after the slow disappearance of 
 the miocene continent, and it will suffice here to add that Prof 
 E, Hull has lately placed beyond reasonable doubt the existence 
 
[CHAP. XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 375 
 
 of barriers, by which the Mediterranean area was separated into a 
 chain of basins in post-miocene tiniest Continuous land, or at 
 least land connecting North Africa, Europe and West Asia at 
 several points during the pliocene and post-pliocene epochs, is 
 thus established, and at once explains the constant migrations 
 of the large African fauna north and south of the Mediterranean 
 basin. That these migrations were accompanied by primitive 
 human groups is sufficiently attested by the overwhelming proofs 
 of their presence on both sides of this area during the Stone Ages. 
 The long sojourn of palaeoHthic man in Mauritania, using the term 
 in its wider sense, has been revealed by the researches of Dr 
 Collignon and of Dr Couillault in the Gafsa district, Tunisia 
 (p. 92), and it was also seen (pp. 134-5) that the same region was 
 one of the earHest, and in every respect one of the most important 
 centres of neolithic culture. Human progress, arrested or at least 
 partly interrupted in the north by the phenomena of glaciation, 
 subsidence, and upheaval, was exposed to none of these disturbing 
 influences in the south, where the Sahara itself formed a well- 
 watered and habitable region, and not, as commonly supposed, a 
 marine bed. Here therefore pliocene man, migrating from his 
 original seat in the Indo-African Continent (Chap. X.), found a 
 new home where by slow adaptation to the changed and im- 
 proved climatic conditions the highest human type, conventionally 
 known as the Caucasic, may well have been evolved. The white 
 man and the negro, says a great biologist, have been differentiated 
 "through the long-continued action of selection and environ- 
 ment ^" 
 
 From this centre of evolution and dispersion the higher groups 
 passed by easy transitions, eastwards into the Nile 
 valley^ and West Asia, northwards to Iberia, and thence east to 
 thence to West and Central Europe. But these t^'E^^^ope?"''^ 
 migrations, Hke those of the African fauna itself, 
 
 1 Paper read before the Geological Society, Feb. 6, 1895. 
 
 - The late Prof. Arthur Milnes Marshall, Biological Lectures, 1894, pp. 247 
 and 350. 
 
 '■'• Thus M. G. Maspero holds that the Egyptian people presents the 
 characteristics of those white races which have been found established from all 
 antiquity on the Mediterranean slope of the Libyan Continent. " This popula- 
 
3/6 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 were successive and spread over a vast period of time, during 
 which the process of upward physical and mental development 
 was in continuous progress. Thus is explained the appearance of 
 low human types (Neanderthal, Spy, Castenedolo) in various parts 
 of Europe during late pliocene and early pleistocene times. They 
 represent the first waves of migration from North Africa soon 
 after the arrival of pliocene man in that region. But they were 
 followed later by higher types, such as that of Cro-Magnon, 
 which radiating from the Vezere district, gradually 
 Magnon and Spread over a great part of Europe, and is by 
 Europ^ean^ somc cthnologists already regarded as the substra- 
 
 races affiliated t^ni of the present populations of West Europe. De 
 
 to the fair Ber- r ^ f • ^^ ^ r • 
 
 bers of Mauri- Quatrcfagcs docs not hcsitatc to connect all the fossil 
 *^"^^* remains found in Europe with "the white typeV 
 
 and if these remains be regarded as so many transitional forms in 
 the evolution of Homo Caucasicus, there can be no objection to 
 that view. He also agrees with M. Verneau in identifying the 
 Cro-Magnon race with those groups of tall, dolichocephalic 
 Kabyles (Berbers) of fair complexion and often characterised by 
 blue eyes, who still survive in various parts of Mauritania, and 
 were even represented amongst the Guanches of the Canary 
 Islands (p. 446). 
 
 But in consequence of his hypothesis of a northern origin of 
 Homo Sapiens, De Quatrefages is obliged to introduce the Cro- 
 Magnon race apparently from Siberia, "arriving in Europe simul- 
 taneously with the great mammals which were driven by the cold 
 from Siberia, and no doubt following their route" {tb.). Thus 
 their later migrations are described as following a southerly course, 
 from Belgium, France, Iberia and Italy to North Africa and the 
 Canaries. But the movements of the great mammals were not 
 from north to south, but to and fro, over the Eurafrican Continent, 
 for this fauna was essentially southern, and advanced and retreated 
 synchronously with the advance and retreat of the ice sheet. 
 Hence it is that this exceedingly diversified fauna is scarcely 
 
 tion is of African origin, and came to Egypt from the west or south-west" 
 {The Datuji of Civilisation — Egypt and Chaidaa, English ed. by M. L. McChire, 
 1894). 
 
 1 Op. cit. p. 441. 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 37/ 
 
 represented in Siberia except by the rhinoceros and mammoth, 
 whereas the early and later species of elephant, lion, bear, 
 hyaena, and hippopotamus abound in Britain, P'rance, Italy and 
 Greece. 
 
 Thus all the conditions point to North Africa as the true 
 centre of dispersion for the pliocene and pleistocene 
 mammals, which invaded Europe in successive occupied by°^^ 
 waves of migration during those epochs, and which several varie- 
 
 ° ^. ... . ties of Homo 
 
 were admittedly accompanied by primitive man m Caucasicusin 
 ever increasing numbers. So thickly inhabited had Ages.*°"^ 
 some more favoured districts become in later, but 
 still remote times, that the human remains brought to light by 
 M. de Baye in the neolithic caves of the Marne basin already show 
 an intermingling of no less than " six races, representing at least 
 three quite distinct types, with an aggregate of characters and a 
 physiognomy which closely recall what may be seen in the most 
 modern craniological collections" {ib. p. 441). As these remains 
 are all connected with the " white type " (see above), it follows 
 that several varieties of Homo Caucasicus were already developed 
 in neoHthic times in West Europe \ It was suggested (p. 136) that 
 none of these pre-historic peoples were of Aryan speech, from 
 which a fresh argument may be drawn in favour of their arrival 
 from North Africa, where no Aryan language was ever current 
 before the Greek occupation of Cyrenaica (7th century B.C.). In 
 this connection the importance of the survival of a non-Aryan 
 form of speech, still spoken by the Basques on both sides of the 
 Western Pyrenees, can scarcely be overrated. The significance of 
 this fact is greatly increased since modern research tends more 
 and more to connect both the Basque people and their primitive 
 language with the indigenous Hamitic (Berber) race and language 
 of Mauritania. We have seen (p. 205) that the late G. von der 
 Gabelentz claims to have established a connection between the 
 Basque and Berber Hnguistic groups. A similar connection 
 
 ^ The same inference is drawn by Prof. Kollmann from a study of the 
 neolithic remains in the Swiss barrows, "welche zeigen aufs Neue dass die 
 Lang-, wie die Breitgesichter von uralter Herkunft sind und schon damals 
 verschiedene Varietaten neben einander lebten " {Zeitsch. f. Ethnologie, 1894, 
 Heft v. p. 221). 
 
378 ETHNOLOGY. [CFTAP. 
 
 between the Basque and Berber physical types has long been 
 proclaimed by French and Spanish anthropologists, 
 
 The Ibero- ^ 
 
 Berber pro- and although a distinct Basque type has lately been 
 
 ^^' denied \ it has nevertheless been, so to say, recon- 
 
 stituted by the recent measurements of Basque conscripts taken 
 on the French slope of the Pyrenees ^ These measurements fully 
 confirm the views of Dr. F. M. Tubino^ regarding the identity of 
 the Basques with the ancient Iberians, and their relationship to the 
 fair Berbers of Mauritania, as well as to the fair Libans (Libyans) 
 depicted on the Egyptian monuments of the 14th and 15th cen- 
 turies B.C. \ It is also to be noticed that the megalithic monuments 
 of Iberia, which abound especially in western Andalusia, in 
 Portugal, Galicia and generally along the north coast, recall 
 *' rather the megalithic monuments of Northern Africa than those 
 of Brittany and of the British Isles ^" But despite local differ- 
 ences, which characterise all wide-spread cultures, it has already 
 been pointed out (Ch. VI.) that all these neolithic monuments 
 were erected by the same race, by whatever name they be called — 
 Berbers and Libyans in Africa, Iberians and Turdetani in Spain, 
 " Kelts," " Gauls," Picts in Gaul and Britain. This view is con- 
 firmed by the researches of Prof John Rhys, Mr J. Gray and 
 others, who are now disposed to give a wide expansion northwards 
 to the Iberian race, identifying them with the Picts, that is, the 
 Pictones of Poitou, and the indigenous Pictish inhabitants of the 
 British Isles. Prof. Rhys certainly draws a distinction between 
 
 Picts and Basques; but he supposes them to be "as 
 Pici!'^"^^^" nearly related to one another as Latins, Teutons 
 
 and Kelts are held to be related within their own 
 
 1 "II n'y a point de type basque" (Elisee Reclus, I. p. 855). 
 
 2 Thousands of French Basque recruits have been examined by M. R. 
 Collignon, who estabhshes a Basque type specially characterised by "le 
 renflement du crane au niveau des tempes, et le prodigieux retrecissement 
 de la face vers le menton," while in several respects recalling the features 
 of the ancient Egyptians and Berbers {La Race Basque in VAnthropologie, 
 July 1894, passim). This anthropologist admits a difference between the short- 
 headed French and the long-headed Spanish Basques, but holds that the 
 French represent the purer type in every respect. 
 
 ^ Los Aborigines Ibericos. 
 
 •* Wentworth Webster, ^ra^/tvi/j, Sept. 26, 1891. 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 3/9 
 
 Aryan family.... I believe Picts and Iberians to have belonged to 
 one and the same family, which I have ventured to call Ibero- 
 Pidish. How nearly related Picts and Iberians may prove to be 
 is a matter for future research'." But Mr Gray seems needlessly 
 to separate the Basques from the Iberians, and to connect the 
 former positively with the Picti of North Britain and the Pictones 
 or Pictavi of South [West] Gaul. " The language of the Picts was 
 Basque. The name Pict is derived from a Basque word, pikatu, 
 to cut.... The pre-Pictish inhabitants were probably Iberians, and 
 prevailed mostly in Ireland, South Wales, Cumberland and South 
 Scotland ^" It is right to add that these conclusions are far from 
 being accepted by some of the leading Keltic scholars, such as 
 Mr Whitley Stokes and Prof. Windisch, both of whom still hold 
 that the Picts were Kelts, "but more nearly aUied to the Cymry 
 [Welsh] than to the Gael [Irish]'." 
 
 But these discordant views on points of detail do not affect 
 the main argument, that Homo Caucasicus had his pai^ii Tree 
 origin in North Africa, and spread thence in palceo- ofHomoCau- 
 and neoHthic times over the whole of Europe, the 
 Nile Valley and a great part of Asia. In the accompanying Family 
 Tree are seen the chief branches, which have ramified from the 
 parent stem during pre-historic and historic times. 
 
 In all attempts at a classification of Homo Caucasicus, claim- 
 ing to be something more than a mere Hnguistic xanthochroi 
 grouping, the great initial difficulty is colour. So and Meiano- 
 true is this that, as seen, Huxley and other recent 
 systematists begin at once by spHtting the whole division into two 
 sections, a fair and a dark type — the Xanthochroi and the Melano- 
 chroi branches of our Family Tree. But even this is far from 
 covering the whole ground. It not only leaves out of account the 
 widespread Indonesian branch, here ramifying to the left, which is 
 neither fair nor dark, but distinctly brown, but it also gives to the 
 term " dark " a totally inadequate meaning. Melanochroi in fact 
 
 i Academy^ Sept. 26, 1891. 
 
 ^ Distribution of the Picts in Britain^ as indicated by Place- Names ^ Paper 
 read at the Meeting of the Brit. Assoc. Oxford, 1894. 
 
 •* W. Stokes, The Linguistic Value of the Irish Annals. 
 
FAMILY TREE OF HOMO CAUCASICUS. 
 
 I 
 
[CHAP. XIV.] 
 
 HOMO CAUCASICUS. 
 
 381 
 
 is not taken in its strict sense at alP, having reference not to a 
 *' black," but to a "pale" colour of the skin usually accompanied 
 by black hair and eyes : " West of the area occupied by the chief 
 mass of the Xanthochroi, and north of the Sahara, is a broad belt 
 of land, shaped like a Y- Between the forks of the Y ^^^^ ^^^ 
 Mediterranean, the stem of it is Arabia... The people inhabiting 
 the area thus roughly sketched have, like the Xanthochroi, pro- 
 minent noses, pale skins, and wavy hair, with abundant beards; 
 
 A NORWEGIAN. 
 
 {XaiitJwochoid Type.) 
 
 but, unlike them, the hair is black or dark, and the eyes unusually 
 so. They may thence be called Melanockroi . . .Thty are known 
 as Kelts, Iberians, Etruscans, Romans, Pelasgians, Berbers, Sem- 
 ites. The majority of them are long-headed, and of smaller 
 stature than the Xanthochroil" But within the Caucasic division 
 there are several groups, such as the eastern Hamites (Bejas, 
 Agaos, Somals, Gallas), and the Abyssinian Semites 
 (Tigre, Amhara), besides many Hindus and Dravi- caucasic°type. 
 das, who have not merely black hair and eyes, but 
 
 1 " Black-hued," from Gr. fxeXas, black and xpo"^, colour. 
 
 2 Huxley, Critiques, p. 151. 
 
382 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 also very black skins. Some even of the Sudanese Arabs, 
 notably the Sheygyeh people between Dongola and Abu-Hammed, 
 are remarkable for their extremely dark complexion, although 
 claiming pure Arab descent. So also the Dazas, or Southern 
 Tibus of the Sahara north of Lake Chad, and the Harratin, or 
 "Black Berbers" of Tidikelt and the Saharan oases, many of 
 whom are blacker than the average Negro. 
 
 But it may be asked, on what ground are these dark groups 
 included in the light-coloured Caucasic division, 
 
 Physical cha- ° 
 
 ractersofHomo where their very presence seems to involve a con- 
 tradiction in terms ? The reason is, because they 
 cannot be separated anthropologically from that connection. 
 Apart from the colour, which in some cases appears to be the 
 result of climate and in others is certainly due to an infusion of 
 Negro blood, these " black Caucasians," if the expression can be 
 tolerated, are amongst the very finest representatives of the 
 Caucasic type. According to Messrs Flower and Lydekker, this 
 type is distinguished generally by light skin, though in aberrant 
 groups as dark as the Ethiopic ; hair ranging from fair to black, 
 soft, straight or wavy, in transverse section intermediate between 
 the flat Ethiopic and round Mongol ; full beard ; skull variable, 
 though mostly mesocephalic ; jugal bones retreating ; face narrow 
 and projecting in the middle Hne (pro-opic) ; orbits moderate ; 
 nose narrow and prominent (leptorrhine) ; jaws orthognathous ; 
 teeth small (microdont)\ With regard to Huxley's blonde and 
 dark divisions, these anthropologists hold that, despite differences 
 of colour of eye and hair, they agree so closely in other respects 
 that they are best regarded as modifications of one great type than 
 as primary divisions. In any case they are now mostly blended 
 together in diverse proportions, and even the blonde, though 
 found chiefly in North Europe, extends to North Africa [where in 
 fact it originated] and eastwards to Afghanistan. In this careful 
 survey of the whole field, the dark division receives its full expan- 
 sion, comprising not only black hair and eyes, but also a skin of 
 almost every shade from white to black (p. 753). 
 
 There is thus no reason to create separate divisions for all 
 
 ^ 0/>. cit. p. 746. 
 
XIV.] 
 
 HOMO CAUCASICUS. 
 
 383 
 
 these groups, which possess so many physical cha- vv^ite brown 
 racters in common. To do so would lead to nothing and dark 
 
 , - . r • -1 r ^ Hamitcs. 
 
 but confusion, as, for instance, m the case of the 
 various Berber groups, all agreeing in their fundamental features, 
 although some may be black, some brown or swarthy, some fairer 
 rhan many Europeans. The black Harratins of the southern 
 oases have for neighbours and kinsfolk the Kabyles of the Mauri- 
 tanian uplands, "many of whom have a fair complexion and 
 
 '^?K."<^ 
 
 BERBER. 
 
 ( JJ'esf Hamitic Type) 
 
 blonde hair, recalling the peasantry of North Europe rather than 
 the inhabitants of Africa \" Even the Arabised Berbers of North 
 Morocco are described by Mr Walter B. Harris as "for the most 
 part fair, with blue eyes and yellow beards, perfectly built and 
 exceedingly handsome men^" Such features have been attributed 
 to contact with the Roman colonists, and even to the Vandals, 
 who invaded and occupied the whole of Mauritania in the 5th 
 century. But the Periplus bearing the name of Scylax (Herodotus 
 IV. 44) already mentions a people of fair complexion on the shores 
 
 1 M. Shaler, Esqiiisse de V Etat lV Alger, p. 119. 
 
 2 Proc. R. Geograph. Soc. 1889, p. 490- 
 
384 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 of the Lesser Syrtis, and the Tamahu^ Libyans are figured on the 
 Egyptian temples (1500 — 1300 B.C.) with a rosy skin, bhie eyes 
 and red or Ught hair. Similar traits occur even amongst the 
 The Tamahu '-'"'^lareg Hamites of the Sahara, who are not known 
 Hamites and to havc cvcr had direct relations either with the 
 Race'-fiT Romans or the Vandals. In a word, these Berber 
 
 ^sypt. populations, forming the true indigenous element 
 
 throughout North Africa, are essentially Europeans '. They were 
 
 A RIFF, NORTH COAST MOROCCO. 
 
 i^Berber Type.) 
 
 not merely the alHes, but the kinsmen of those blue-eyed and 
 light-haired peoples (Pelasgians, Teucrians, Hellenes, Itali, Etrus- 
 
 ^ This word still exists under various dialectic forms {TamaJuig, Tamashek, 
 Taviazigt) applied collectively to the Hamitic languages of the Sahara and 
 Mauritania. The form T-a7?iazig-t, when stripped of its fern, prefix and 
 postfix particle /, is seen to be identical with the Maxyes of Herodotus (later 
 Masices^ Mazices), i.e. Amzigh, pi. Itnazighen, " Freemen," the most general 
 name of the Mauritanian Berbers. 
 
 - " Les Berbers de 1' Atlas, en effet, et meme la generalite des Touareg..., 
 sont physiquement de veritables Europeens... Compare a I'Arabe, ou a I'Euro- 
 peen, le Berber a des differences de physionomie, non des differences de type " 
 (V. de Saint-Martin, Nouveaii Diciioiinaire etc., I. p. 411). 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 385 
 
 cans?), who in the time of Ramses II. descended from the islands 
 of the Mediterranean on Lower Egypt, and who were expelled by 
 Ramses' son and successor, Sethi II. of the ipth dynasty. 
 
 But long before the 19th dynasty a large part of Egypt had 
 been occupied by a people of fair type, who held possession of a 
 tract over a hundred miles in length between Abydos and 
 Gebelen during the 7th, 8th and 9th dynasties, that is to say, 
 about 5000 years ago. This is the so-called "new race," whose 
 arts, industries, graves and osseous remains were unexpectedly 
 brought to light in large numbers by Mr Quinbell and Prof. 
 Flinders Petrie in 1894-5. "The race was very tall and powerful, 
 with strong features : a hooked nose, long-pointed beard and 
 browfi waiy hair are shown by their carvings and bodily remains. 
 There was no trace of the negro type apparent, and in general 
 they seem closely akin to the allied races of the Libyans and 
 Amorites. ...Though some objects point strongly to an Amorite 
 connection, others indicate a westerji source; and it must be 
 remembered that probably the Amorites were a branch of the 
 fair Libyan race. The geographical position is all in favour of 
 the race having come into Egypt through the western and great 
 Oases ; for the 7th and 8th Egyptian dynasties were still living at 
 Memphis, showing that no people had thrust themselves up the 
 Nile valley ^" On one of the skulls in the collection of objects 
 exhibited at University College, London, in 1895, the hair still 
 adheres to the scalp; it is of a darkish, almost russet-brown hue, 
 and very curly like that common amongst the Hellenes and other 
 South Europeans. The "new race" must clearly have been a 
 people of fair Caucasic type, probably of the same stock as the 
 ancient Ibero-Libyans, that is, the above-mentioned Tamahu of 
 later Egyptian documents. If so they are still perhaps best 
 represented by the fair blue-eyed Berbers of Mauritania, and, 
 despite their antiquity of some 5000 years, mark a relatively late 
 stage in the eastward spread of the primitive Caucasic peoples 
 from their North African cradleland. They thus afford un- 
 expected confirmation to the views here advocated regarding 
 Caucasic origins and early migrations through Egypt eastwards to 
 Asia and southwards to Ethiopia. Gebelen, southernmost known 
 
 1 H. M. Flinders Petrie, Academy, April 20, 1895, p. 342. 
 K. 25 
 
386 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 limit of their territory, lies not far from the frontier of Nubia, a 
 region which since Roman times (Diocletian) has been occupied 
 by Negroid tribes from Kordofan, but which had at an earlier 
 period been held by the cultured Hamitic Blemmyes. It is note- 
 worthy that these Blemmyes of Ethiopia supra ^gyptiim, re- 
 garding whose affinities much doubt had long prevailed, are now 
 regarded by Prof. Sayce as " of Berber race and language. Prof. 
 Maspero has shown (in the Transactions of the Society of Biblical 
 Archceology, Vol. i., p. 127) that in the time of the nth dynasty 
 a particular species of dog was called in Egyptian by the foreign 
 name of abakru, which is the Berber abaikur 'a dog,' from which 
 we may infer that a Berber language was already spoken in the 
 neighbourhood of Thebes. Herodotus (11. 42) asserts that the 
 inhabitants of the Oasis of Ammon, the modern Siwah, were a 
 mixed colony of Egyptians and Ethiopians ; and since a dialect is 
 now spoken there akin to those of the Tuaregs and Kabyles, it 
 would seem that these Ethiopians were a Berber tribe.... If my 
 arguments are sound, we shall thus have to look to the Berber 
 languages for an explanation of the Meroitic inscriptions'." The 
 almost simultaneous researches of Prof. Sayce and of Prof. Petrie 
 in the Nile Valley thus complement each other. They attest in 
 the whole of that region the presence at a remote epoch of 
 Hamitic Ethiopians and Libyans, and explain the juxtaposition 
 of these two peoples in the Second Book of Chronicles, where it 
 is asked, " Were not the Ethiopians and the Lubim a huge host, 
 with very many chariots and horsemen ? " (xvi. 8). 
 
 But, as already pointed out, M. Maspero holds the Egyptians 
 
 themselves to be of the same race, and modern research has further 
 
 shown that the Berbers and Tuaregs belong to the same physical 
 
 and Hnguistic stocks as all the other Hamites— Bejas, Afars, 
 
 Agaos, Somals, Gallas, Masai — who throughout all 
 
 The Eastern j-g^orded time have occupied the eastern seabord 
 
 Hamites. ^ 
 
 from the equator to the Mediterranean, interrupted 
 only by the Himyaritic Semite intruders in Abyssinia. The Afars, 
 better known as Dankali (pi. Danakil), who hold 
 the low-lying steppe between the Abyssinian escarp- 
 ments and the Red Sea, show " not a trace of prognathism," and 
 
 ^ A. H. Sayce, Acadetny, April 14, 1894. 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 387 
 
 are distinguished by "narrow straight nose, thin lips, small pointed 
 chin not retreating, cheek bones not prominent, dark brown iris, 
 pure white sclerotica, thick crisp hair, features South European \" 
 So the wide-spread Beja family — Ababdeh, Bishari, Hadendawa, 
 Homran, Beni-Amer and many others — whose do- 
 
 Bejas. 
 
 main extends from that of the Afars northwards 
 between the Nile and the Red Sea, into Upper Egypt, and who 
 have been identified with the Macrobii of Herodotus, "tallest 
 and finest of men" (iii. 17). In any case they are physically a 
 magnificent race, with well-shaped muscular frames, tall stature, 
 " of European type, often very handsome, of a bronze, swarthy or 
 light chocolate complexion, with long, crisp, but not woolly hair, 
 generally falling in ringlets over the shoulders"." 
 
 Despite a perceptible strain of Negro blood, conspicuous espe- 
 cially towards the ethnical borderlands, both the 
 Gallas and their Somali cousins belong also funda- somais^ ^"'^ 
 mentally to the same eastern Hamitic branch of 
 the Caucasic division. Of all Hamitic peoples the Gallas, who 
 call themselves Ilm^orma, " Sons of the Brave," are by far the 
 most numerous, being estimated at from 7,000,000 to 8,000,000, 
 spread over a territory of some 400,000 square miles, including 
 the whole of South Ethiopia (Gallaland proper), besides large 
 tracts in North Ethiopia (Abyssinia), and most of the little known 
 region which extends through the Lake Rudolf (Samburu) de- 
 pression to and beyond the Tana river. The typical Gallas of 
 Kaffa and surrounding uplands are perhaps the finest people in 
 all Africa^ tall, of shapely build, with high broad forehead, well- 
 
 ^ " Le fattezze sono europee del Mezzogiorno" (Fr. Scaramucci and E. H. 
 Giglioli, Notizie sui Danakil, 1884, p. 5). At p. i, the features are said to be 
 " Caucasian " despite a strain of Negro blood, as amongst all these eastern 
 Hamites. 
 
 2 Linant Bey (Linant de Bellefonds), V Etbaye, pays habite par les Bicharieh, 
 1868. The Bejas are the Biiga of the Axumite inscriptions, and the ^\4/j./j.v€S 
 ofStrabo (17, § 53). 
 
 3 "La race galla est la plus belle de I'Afrique.-.Les Gallas sont, en general, 
 bien constitues. lis ont une haute taille, le front large et eleve, le nez aquilin, 
 la bouche bien coupee, le teint cuivre plutot que noir " (Rochet d'Hericourt, 
 i^f Voyage, p. 174). So also Capt. Lugard : "a wonderfully handsome race, 
 with high foreheads, brown skins, and soft wavy hair, quite different from the 
 wool of the Bantus" (Froc. R. Geograph. Soc. 1892, p. 821). 
 
 25 — 2 
 
388 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 formed mouth, Roman nose, oval face, coppery or light chocolate 
 colour, black kinky hair, often worn in " finger curls " or short 
 ringlets round the head — altogether noble representatives of the 
 Caucasic family. In general the features are quite European, 
 and even the complexion is no darker in some districts than that 
 of the Andalusian peasantry'. The Somals also, whose domain 
 comprises nearly the whole of the eastern horn of Africa, "are a 
 very handsome race, of good physique, with excellent features"." 
 
 SOMALI. 
 
 {East Hamitic Type.) 
 
 By F. L. James they are " allied to the Caucasian typeV' but 
 owing to secular interminglings with Negroes, Arabs, Afars, 
 Abyssinians and other conterminous peoples, it is difficult to 
 determine a general Somal type. The colour varies from light 
 brown to black, and it is noteworthy that the darkest groups often 
 present the most regular features*. 
 
 Farther south and west the eastern Hamites are represented 
 
 ^ Dr Beke, Jottr. R. Geograph. Soc. xiv. p. 19. 
 
 2 Commander F. G. Dundas, Geograph. Jour., 1893, p. '211. 
 
 3 The Unknown Horn of Africa, 1888, p. 7. 
 
 ^ " On dirait un beau sujet europeen dont la peau serait noire" (G. Revoil, 
 Bull, lie la Soc. de Geograph., 1880, p. 259). 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 389 
 
 by the Masai and blue-eyed Rendileh, and in the 
 lake region by the Wa-Huma pastors, who, under w^-HunTa'!'^ 
 diverse names (Watusi, Wahha, Wajiji, Warundi, 
 Waruanda, &c.) are met scattered in small groups as far south as 
 Lake Tanganyika. The Wa-Huma of Uganda, who are certainly of 
 Galla descent, are described by Capt. F. D. Lugard as "tall, thin, 
 and lithe, with high foreheads and most intelligent faces ; the eyes 
 piercing, the features sharp, the nose often aquiUne. In colour 
 they vary, as do the Somals, some being very pale, others black. 
 Some are remarkably handsome men. . . .They were much struck with 
 the Somals [in camp], who, they said, must be of the same race 
 as themselves^" They hold themselves aloof from the surrounding 
 Negroid populations, and despite the now prevaiHng dark shades, 
 it is significant of their Hamitic origin that " the Waruanda call 
 themselves white men, and deny all connection with the Bantu 
 tribes ^" Intermediate between the Wa-Humas and the Gallas 
 proper are the Masai, some of whom, such as the Ngaje, Molilian 
 and other full-blood tribes, are " the most magnificently modelled 
 men conceivable. ...In most cases the nose is well raised and 
 straight, as good as any European's, though passing into the 
 Negro type in the lower class, such as the Wa-Kwafi....The jaws 
 are rarely prognathous, while the hair is a cross between the Eu- 
 ropean and the Negro^" Indeed an admixture of black blood is 
 evident enough, despite the statement of Lieut, von Hohnel that 
 "there is nothing of the Negro type in their appearance^" 
 
 The presence of this element is still more conspicuous in 
 Abyssinia, where the blends between Negroes, Ethnical 
 Hamites, and Semites are so multifarious and wide- Relations in 
 
 , ,, 1 T • • 1-1 Abyssinia- 
 
 spread that here nearly all the distinctive physical 
 
 1 The Rise of our East Africmi Empire, I. p. 158. 
 
 2 M. Lionel Decle, The IVatusi, in Jonr. Anthrop. Inst. May, 1894, p. 424. 
 "The pure types," says this observer, "have long thin faces, with a long 
 fine nose and a small mouth; their colour is of a rich brown without the 
 violet black tints usually found in the Bantu races.... The hair does not grow in 
 woolly patches of a dull colour, but is of a glossy black evenly spread all over 
 the head. ..very like the hair of the Abyssinians...In fact they appear to me like 
 a kind of connecting link between the Abyssinian and Bantu types" {ib.). 
 
 ^ Joseph Thomson, Through Masaiiand, 1884, p. 427. 
 
 •* Discovery of Lakes Rudolf aud Stefanie, 1894, vol. I. p. 244. 
 
390 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 characters of the different races have lost their significance. 
 *' Neither the colour nor the hair are regarded as important 
 ethnical tests, and the length of the heel alone [Negro "lark-heel"] 
 is held to be an undoubted proof of Negro origin \" To under- 
 stand the present ethnical relations, it should be remembered that 
 throughout the historic period Abyssinia has been the seat of 
 powerful states, in which the dominant people have always been 
 the Semitic Himyarites from south-west Arabia (Yemen). From 
 the seaport of Adulis, founded by them on the coast below 
 Massawa over 2000 years ago, their progress may be followed 
 along the sites of the ancient cities of Koloe, Ava and Axum, 
 successive centres of their power during the first centuries of the 
 new era. The indigenous populations, with whom they had to 
 contend, were mainly Hamites, one large section of whom, the 
 Agao^, are mentioned in the Relation of Cosmas (523 a.d.) as 
 already at that time subject to the Axumite kings. But others 
 long maintained their independence, and in the loth century were 
 strong enough to expel the Menilek dynasty from Axum, a 
 turning-point in the history of Ethiopia. Then the seat of govern- 
 ment was shifted from the northern province of Tigre to the 
 central region of Amhara, and by the close of the 17th century all 
 the Hamite aborigines as far south as Shoa appear to have been 
 brought under the sway of the Negus Negust, " King of Kings," 
 representative of the old Axumite empire. During the course of 
 these events the ruling Semitic classes were being slowly merged 
 with their Hamitic subjects in a common Abyssinian nationahty, 
 which has further been modified by a large infusion 
 
 The present . . . . 
 
 Abyssinian of ncgro blood duc to the long-standmg mstitution 
 
 popu ations. ^^ domcstic slavcry, as well as by contact with the 
 Galla Hamites, who for over 300 years have been encroaching on 
 the southern and central provinces from South Ethiopia. Thus 
 the present inhabitants of Abyssinia proper form an extremely 
 complex ethnical group, in which it is not always possible to dis- 
 tinguish the constituent elements. The prevailing colour is a 
 
 1 De Quatrefages, op. cit., 11. p. 395. 
 
 2 Cosmas writes 'Kyav, and the name has been identified with the Athagao 
 of the Adulis Inscription. It survives in the name of the large province of 
 Agaoviedir, " Agaoland," still mainly inhabited by these primitive Hamites. 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 391 
 
 distinct brown, shading northwards to a light olive and even fair 
 complexion, southwards to a deep chocolate and an almost sooty 
 black. There are Abyssinians who may certainly be called black, 
 and in whom the negro strain is revealed in the somewhat tumid 
 lips, small nose broad at base, and frizzly black hair. But the 
 majority may be described as a mixed Hamito-Semitic people, 
 who beyond question belong fundamentally to the Caucasic 
 division. 
 
 Thus is established the substantial ethnical unity of the indi- 
 genous Hamitic populations of North and North- „ , . 
 
 ° , . . ... Relations of 
 
 east Africa, as well as their direct relationship with the Hamitesto 
 the prehistoric inhabitants of Europe. Recent re- ^ ^"^^ ^^' 
 search tends further to show that these Hamites formed originally 
 a single ethnical group with the Semites of south-west Asia, and 
 philologists already speak of an organic connection between the 
 Hamitic and Semitic linguistic families. Hamitic, of which there 
 are three recognised groups — Old Egyptian with Coptic; Berber, 
 including the Kabyle of Algeria, Shluh of Marocco, and Tamashek 
 of the Sahara ; Ethiopian, current in a great diversity of forms 
 amongst the Gallas, Somali, Agaos, Afars and Bejas — belongs to 
 the inflecting order of speech, and presents numerous points of 
 contact with Semitic. The resemblance, however, is rather in the 
 identity of their morphological base, than in the coincidence 
 of fully developed grammatical forms. The subject is fully dis- 
 cussed by Dr Fritz Hommel\ who establishes a close relationship 
 in their phonetics, lexicography and structure between Semitic 
 and Old Egyptian, and thus inferentially between both families. 
 The pronominal systems are certainly alike both in their roots and 
 in the process of plural formation ; internal vowel change is also a 
 common feature, though much more highly developed in Semitic 
 than in Hamitic; both attach the pronominal elements in the 
 same way to the persons in verbal inflection, and both mark the 
 feminine both in noun and verb by the same letter /. In Berber 
 this element is both prefixed and sufflxed, as in akli, negro; 
 taklit, negress. 
 
 ^ Der babylonische Ursprung der dgyptischcn Kidttir, Munich, 1892 ; and 
 in Beiirdge zur Assyriohgie u. Heft 2, 1892. 
 
392 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 This fundamental unity of speech points at fundamental racial 
 unity in two groups occupying conterminous domains from all time, 
 and otherwise closely resembling each other in their more saHent 
 physical characters. Support is thus lent to the views of those 
 anthropologists who are disposed with Hommel to bring the 
 Hamites from Asia, or with Prof. Jastrow, Dr Brinton ' and others 
 to find the cradle of the Semitic race in North Africa. The latter 
 view will be held to be the more probable by those who regard 
 
 Mauritania as the original home and centre of dis- 
 D^miin^"''*''' persion, not only of the Hamites, but of the Caucasic 
 
 division itself, of which the Semites form one of the 
 chief branches. Yet until comparatively recent times the Semitic 
 domain was mainly restricted to the south-west corner of Asia, 
 that is to say, the region comprised between the Iranian plateau 
 and the Persian Gulf on the east, and the Red Sea and Mediter- 
 ranean on the west, with no clearly defined Hmits towards the 
 north. From this relatively narrow territory the Semites spread 
 in prehistoric times to Abyssinia, and along the southern shores of 
 the Mediterranean to and beyond the "Pillars of Hercules." 
 Later the Arab Semites overran nearly the whole of North Africa, 
 formed settlements along the East African seabord south to 
 Sofala, and penetrated eastwards to Persia, Central Asia, India 
 and Malaysia. Apart from the doubtful Hittites, there are five 
 great historical groups: i. The Assyrians of Mesopotamia; 
 
 2. The Arajfieans (Syro-Chaldeans) of Syria, parts 
 grlups^'"'"^''' of Palestine and the Lower Euphrates; 3. The 
 
 Canaanites (Hebrews, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, 
 and others) of Palestine and the Mauritanian seabord with 
 
 ^ At a meeting of the Philadelphia Oriental Club 1890, papers on The 
 Cradle of the Semites were read by Dr D. G. Brinton and Prof. Jastrow, the 
 former contending that the Semitic stock came originally from " those pic- 
 turesque valleys of the Atlas, which look forth toward the Great Ocean 
 and the setting sun." While agreeing generally with this view of a probable 
 Semitic migration from Africa to Asia, Prof. Jastrow held that there is not 
 sufficient evidence to determine the particular region of Africa whence the 
 dispersion took place. In fact, as here advocated, the whole area from the 
 Mediterranean to Sudan must be included, as the Sahara presented in post- 
 pliocene times a favourable milieu for the evolution of the highest human 
 types. 
 
XIY.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 393 
 
 settlements in Iberia, the Mediterranean islands, and Bahrein ; 
 4. The Arabs of the greater part of the peninsula named from 
 them ; 5. The Himyarites of Arabia Felix (Yemen) and Abys- 
 sinia. Of these groups all but a few Syro-Chaldeans, the Hebrews, 
 and the Abyssinian Himyarites, have either disappeared, or else 
 been assimilated in speech to the Arabs, who may be said to have 
 absorbed nearly all the other members of the Semitic family, much 
 in the same way that the Latins absorbed all the other members 
 of the old ItaHc family (Oscans, Samnites, Sabines, Umbrians). 
 
 The Semitic type, as best represented by the Assyrians of the 
 ancient monuments, by the Jews and by the Arabs, „ .^. . 
 
 ' -' -' ■' _ ' Semitic pny- 
 
 offers considerable diversity in the details but is es- sicai and men- 
 sentially Caucasic in its main characters, being distin- 
 guished by perfectly regular and expressive features, fine oval face 
 
 ARAB. 
 
 {Semitic Type.) 
 
 and brain-cap, large and often aquiline nose depressed at the root, 
 small pointed chin, forehead straight but not high, black almond- 
 shaped eyes, dolichocephalic head, glossy jet-black hair, full beard, 
 skin pale white but easily bronzed by exposure, stature rather 
 below the average European (5 ft. 4 or 5 inches). This type, 
 which in the upper classes often assumes an almost ideal beauty 
 
394 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 fully on a level with the highest European standard, approaches 
 nearest to the Hamitic, at least as represented by the Mauritanian 
 Berbers, from .which it differs chiefly in the more perfectly oval 
 contour lines of face and head. Compared with the Aryan, the 
 Semitic intellect may be described as less varied, but more intense, 
 a contrast due perhaps to their monotonous and almost changeless 
 environment of yellow sands and blue skies, with a flora and fauna 
 Hmited to a few species, and these mainly confined to oases and 
 steppes encircled by the desert and everywhere presenting the same 
 uniform aspect. Hence to the Semites mankind is indebted for little 
 philosophy and science, but for much subHme poetry associated 
 with many profound conceptions of a moral order, resulting in the 
 three great monotheistic reHgions — the Jewish, Christian and 
 Muhammadan. Expansion and progress are the dominant cha- 
 racteristics of the Aryan, concentration and immutabiHty of the 
 Semitic intellect. 
 
 This mental temperament finds its outward expression in the 
 
 Semitic form of speech, which is distinguished above 
 Lang^uagS! '^ ^^^ Others for great stability and persistence ; so 
 
 much so that the various branches (AssyriaJi, Ara- 
 maic, Hebrew^ Arabic, Himyaritic) may be regarded as mere 
 dialects of a long extinct Semitic mother-tongue. They differ less 
 from each other — Hebrew, for instance, from Syriac, or Assyrian 
 from Arabic — than do many members of the same branch in the 
 Aryan family — English from Gothic in the Teutonic, Hindi from 
 Sanskrit in the Indie branch. *' On comparing the Chaldean of 
 the fragments of Esdras, representing the Aramaic of the 5th 
 century B.C., with the Syriac still written in our day, scarcely any 
 essential differences can be detected between texts composed at 
 so long an interval. Between these two limits Aramaic may be 
 said to have varied no more than the language of Cicero from 
 that of Ennius'." Semitic speech presents some most remarkable 
 phonetic and structural features, such as the series of deep gut- 
 turals {kh, hh, q, gh) unpronounceable by Europeans, and conse- 
 quently of racial value; and the verbal roots, mainly triliteral, 
 *' moved" by vowels, but never changed in sound or sequence in 
 
 ^ E. Renan, Histoire...dcs langius seinitiqucs. 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 395 
 
 any of the branches; thus from root ^//=kill, Arab, qatala^ Heb. 
 qdtal (Sec, "he killed." The whole verbal process, based on 
 endless modifications of these roots within the prescribed limits, 
 is without analogy in any other linguistic system, and presents 
 structural phenomena which have hitherto defied all attempts at 
 analysis. From the triHteral root were developed, chiefly by 
 internal vowel change and prefixed servile letters (/^, /, n, j), as 
 many as 15 thematic forms (intensives, reciprocals, causatives, 
 reflexives, iteratives &c.), in the Semitic mother-tongue, of which 
 12 or 13 are preserved in Himyaritic, 11 in Arabic, 5 in Hebrew 
 and more or less in the other branches. Thus Arab, qatala, he 
 killed ; qutala, he was killed ; qiitiala, he was utterly killed ; 
 qdtala^ haqtala^ taqatala, hmqatala, histaqtala &c., each with its 
 personal endings, gender, participles, but two tenses only, the 
 complete and incomplete. PecuHar to the Arabic branch is 
 another striking feature, the so-called "broken plurals," on which, 
 being really singular collectives, secondary plurals may be built. 
 There are over thirty typical forms, such as jauhar, a gem, 
 jawdhir, jewellery ; ajuir, prince, timard, the nobility ; kdfir, un- 
 behever, kuffdr, the infidel ; qarib, a relation, aqribd, kindred, &c. 
 Analogous forms survive in the cognate Himyaritic {Geez of 
 Abyssinia) ; but the principle on which they have been developed 
 has not been traced to any other member of the Semitic family. 
 
 It will be noticed that in the Caucasic Family Tree no room 
 has been found either for "Aryans," or for the The Aryan- 
 equivalent expressions " Indo-Europeans " or " Indo- speaking 
 Germans'." These are essentially linguistic, not p^°p ^^• 
 racial terms, and the failure to distinguish between the groups of 
 Aryan languages and the peoples of Aryan speech may be said to 
 
 1 Strictly speaking Aryan, associated with the Airyana Vaega of Hindu 
 and the Eeryene Veejo of Persian traditions, is applicable only to the Indo- 
 Iranian branch ; but its convenient extension to the whole group is too long 
 established to be now set aside, especially as the alternative expressions Indo- 
 Etiropean and Indo-Germanic are themselves equally defective. They are 
 purely geographical terms, and are far from covering the whole field, leaving 
 out Irania and those other parts of Central and West Asia where Aryan- 
 speaking peoples are indigenous. 
 
396 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 lie at the base of the prevailing confusion regarding the ethnical 
 relations in Europe, Irania, and India. It is not denied that, at 
 some remote prehistoric epoch, there was evolved in some Eurasian 
 region a community of Caucasic type and of primitive Aryan 
 speech, to which might properly be applied the expressions Aryan 
 or Indo-European. But for ages these expressions have lost their 
 full value, and Aryan race and Aryan speech have long ceased to 
 be convertible terms \ The language has persisted under diverse 
 forms down to the present day, and indeed is now the dominant 
 speech of the world. But the primitive community, with whom it 
 originated, has disappeared as a distinct ethnical group, dispersed 
 so to say amid the innumerable populations on whom it imposed 
 one form or another of the Aryan mother-tongue. This process 
 could have been effected only by migrations and actual contact, 
 if not conquest, resulting in the absorption of the intruders and 
 the survival of their language amongst the masses reduced or 
 influenced by them. Thus it will be correct to say that an Aryan 
 strain permeates all or most of the groups now speaking Aryan 
 tongues, but not that these groups are themselves of Aryan stock. 
 For it is to be remembered that, when the primitive Aryan man 
 was first slowly evolved, the habitable globe was already fairly 
 peopled by the diverse races, which, as we have seen, had estabHshed 
 themselves in neolithic and even palaeolithic times in the regions 
 stretching from India to the shores of the Atlantic. 
 raIteTo'?fhe Hencc the Aryan migrations cannot be conceived 
 Aryan migra- as succcssivc swarms going forth from some pri- 
 meval Aryan cradleland, and for the first time 
 peopling a great part of the northern hemisphere. Had these 
 been the relations, the unity of the race, as well as of the language, 
 would necessarily have been preserved. But the ground being 
 
 ^ M, de Nadaillac asks, who are the Helvetians? the Gauls? the Kelts? 
 the Scythians and Cimmerians? And in reply to those who make them 
 members of "la grande famille aryenne," he remarks that " les Aryas pas 
 plus que les Semites ne sont un people ou une race ; ils forment une agglo- 
 meration d'hommes unis par des rapports linguistiques " {Rev. des Questions 
 Scientifiqiies, Oct. 1894, p. 514). He should have saidy«r less tha7i the Setiiites, 
 who do present, amid considerable diversity, a certain physical uniformity 
 sufficient to constitute them a tolerably well-defined ethnical group. 
 
XIV.] 
 
 HOMO CAUCASICUS. 
 
 397 
 
 everywhere, or almost everywhere, already occupied, the wandering 
 Aryan tribes could not fail to form fresh ethnical groups with the 
 indigenous inhabitants, and thus sacrifice their own racial purity. 
 Thus it happens that throughout the historic period various 
 branches of the Aryan stock language have been, and still are, 
 spoken by almost every variety of the Caucasic division, by tall 
 and short brachycephali, long-headed and round-headed Teutons \ 
 all called " Germans " because of their German idiom ; by " Kelts " 
 of so many types that the word has long ceased to have any ethnical 
 
 AN AFGHAN OF ZERAFSHAN. 
 
 significance ; and by Armenians and Afghans often resembling 
 Semites far more than ordinary "Aryans." We now see that it 
 could not be otherwise, because, as explained in Chap. IX, the 
 contact of two races speaking two distinct languages ultimately 
 
 1 The typical German skull, as seen in the prehistoric graves, was highly 
 dolichocephalic (mean index 71*3) ; yet at present brachycephaly increases 
 continuously in the direction from north to south, so that in Bavaria it is almost 
 universal. " Les Allemands du Sud sont essentiellement brachycephales. 
 En Baviere, entre autres, Ranke a trouve que dans la plaine le nombre des 
 individus presentant ce caractere est de 79 pour 100 ; sur les contreforts des 
 montagnes la proportion monte a 83 pour 100 ; dans la montagne elle s'eleve 
 a 90 pour too" (De Quatrefages, op. at. II. p. 490). 
 
398 ETHNOLOGY. ' [CHAP. 
 
 results in the fusion of the races, but not of the languages, one 
 of which must eventually prevail to the exclusion of its rival. 
 
 What occurred generally during the early Aryan migrations 
 
 may be illustrated by what occurred in Britain 
 
 Illustrated ^^^^^ ^^iq withdrawal of the Romans and the arrival 
 
 by the Teu- 
 tonic invasion of the Angles, Saxons, Frisians and other allied 
 n ain. Tcutonic tribcs. The old idea that these invaders 
 
 made a tabula rasa of the land, repeopling it with their own stock, 
 is no longer seriously entertained by any one. We now know, on 
 the contrary, that the Teutons merged everywhere in diverse pro- 
 portions with the Romano-Britons. Dr John Beddoe, who has 
 devoted his whole life to these researches, finds interspersed 
 amongst the Teutons numerous traces not only of the so-called 
 " Kelts," — related to Csesar's Belgae, and distinguished by rather 
 broad head, slightly receding forehead, arched nose, prominent 
 cheek-bones, long oval face, thin Hps, pointed and projecting chin, 
 light hair and eyes, and tall stature, averaging 5 feet 9 inches — 
 but also of still more primitive peoples, neoHthic " Ibero-Berbers " 
 with long narrow head, dark complexion, flat narrow and square 
 forehead, prominent mouth and cheek-bones, concave or straight 
 nose, light or dark grey eyes, very dark and often curly hair, and 
 short stature ; and even a " Turanian " or Mongoloid element, with 
 oblique eyes and brows, concave or flat nose, straight black or 
 dark brown hair, broad cheek-bones and narrow chins \ Yet all 
 these races were in a few generations so completely fused 
 together in a common nationaHty of Teutonic speech, that the 
 greater part of Britain might be supposed to have been originally 
 settled by the intruders from north Germany in the 5th century. 
 So it was in India, Irania, Sarmatia and other parts of the 
 present Indo-European domain, where small bands 
 
 And by the ^ ^ ^ j , • i -, , 
 
 Hindu inva- of Aryan speech imposed their language and culture 
 sion of India. ^^ ^^ surrouuding populations, which have thus 
 come to be regarded as of Aryan descent. In India Dr Gustav 
 
 ^ The Races of Britain^ iSS^, passim ; and two papers Szir VHistoire de 
 tindice Cephalique dans les Iks Britanniques, contributed to L Authropologie^ 
 1894, Vol. V. Nos. 5 and 6. This authority thinks that, even including the 
 later Scandinavian arrivals, the Teutonic element amounts to not more than 
 about one half in the greater part of England. 
 
XIV.] 
 
 HOMO CAUCASICUS. 
 
 399 
 
 Oppert's investigations, spread over many years, tend to show 
 that the Aryan invaders never were numerous, and that their 
 influence on the aborigines was more social and religious than 
 ethnical. Thanks to their higher culture and superior mental 
 endowments, they imposed their religion on the masses every- 
 where throughout the peninsula, and their Aryan speech (Sanskrit) 
 on most of the populations in the Indo-Gangetic regions ^ At the 
 census of 1891 as many as 195 millions were returned as of Neo- 
 Sanskritic speech, of whom probably not five per cent, were fall- 
 
 SWAMI VIVEKANANDA. 
 
 (High- Caste Hindu Type.) 
 
 blood Hindus of the higher castes. Even the haughty Rajputs, 
 formerly of the Kshatria (military) caste, have long lost their racial 
 purity, and are now largely intermingled with Bhils and other primi- 
 tive non-Aryan races. The same process has been in progress for 
 many ages on the Sarmatian plains, where the Scythian and other 
 Mongoloid hordes have been gradually Aryanised by peoples of 
 Slav and Gothic speech. The Gothic language, which still sur- 
 vived in the Crimea down to the i6th century^, is now extinct, 
 
 1 On the Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsa or India, 1894, passim. 
 - H. Bradley, The Goths, 1888, p. 363. A list of words is here given, 
 taken down by a Belgian traveller in 1562, from which it is evident that the 
 
400 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap 
 
 and nearly all these populations speak Great Russian and Little 
 Russian dialects. Hence they pass for Aryan Slavs, just as the 
 
 A HINDU OF EAST TURKISTAN. 
 
 The Aryan 
 Cradleland. 
 
 short, dark, brachycephaHc peoples of Auvergne and Savoy pass 
 
 for Aryan Kelts. 
 
 From these considerations it would seem that somewhat undue 
 importance has been attached to the quest of the 
 Aryan cradleland, which in recent years has been 
 prosecuted with so much zeal, in the belief that 
 
 here would be found the original home of the multitudinous 
 
 language of Wulfila (Ulphilas) was still current in Taurida at that time. Such 
 are mine, mycha, tvichtgata, ?>j = Goth. mena, nieki, hzveitata, is (moon, sword, 
 white, he). Of the Sarmatae (Sauromatae) nothing positive can be asserted, 
 though it w^ould appear that those known to Tacitus {Germania, ch. i) were not 
 of Mongolo-Tatar speech. Probably the bulk of the nation was originally of 
 Mongol stock, but had at that time already been brought under Aryan (Slav?) 
 influences. It is noteworthy that in their territory (South Russia) many recent 
 ethnologists are disposed to place the primeval home of the Aryan race. But 
 the question is beset with so many difficulties that those only who do not know 
 venture to speak confidently. Thus the primitive Slav type appears to have 
 been decidedly dolichocephalic, whereas the present Slavs are mamly brachy- 
 cephaHc (Ch. de Ujfalvy, Le Berceatc des Aryas, etc., p. 25). 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 4OI 
 
 populations now speaking Aryan languages. Nevertheless, such 
 an inquiry can never be devoid of interest, as bearing on 
 the centre of evolution of a gifted prehistoric people who, 
 more than any other, may be supposed by their very dispersion to 
 have leavened the rude prehistoric masses, thus raising a great 
 part of humanity to a higher social plane. But it is not to be 
 imagined that the primitive Aryan groups stood themselves on 
 a very high level, when they began to break up and spread 
 abroad amid the surrounding populations. Their assumed superi- 
 ority would seem to have been rather potential than 
 actually estabhshed, and the organic elements of Ar/aSTcu'iture. 
 their speech show that, before the dispersion, they 
 were a rude pastoral people, possessing cattle, sheep, goats and 
 the watch-dog, but with scarcely a rudimentary knowledge of agri- 
 culture. They were half troglodytes, dwelling in winter in holes 
 dug in the ground and roofed with turf, in summer either in 
 round huts made of poles with interwoven branches, or in lum- 
 bering waggons with wheels and axle chipped and charred from 
 a single stem. Originally they wore undressed skins, giving place 
 later to garments roughly woven of wool and flax. They also 
 made rude eartlienware, but lived in the polished stone age with 
 no knowledge of the metals, except perhaps copper, used more for 
 ornaments than for weapons. The bride was captured or purchased, 
 and the family was based on polygamous and patriarchal insti- 
 tutions ; nor can there be any doubt that " ancient Aryan custom 
 ordained that the wife should die with her husband," while " the 
 custom of putting a violent end to the aged and infirm survived even 
 into historic times'." It appears also that these primitive pastors 
 dwelt in an open region with a continental climate, that is to say, 
 severe winters and hot summers, so that they recognised but two 
 or three seasons", reckoning the years as "winters" divided into 
 "moons" and "nights," not months and days, and making no 
 
 1 F. B. Jevons, Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples, being the 
 " Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte of Dr O. Schrader," 2nd revised ed.. 
 1889—90. 
 
 2 Schrader says "two or three" ; but van den Gheyn shows that "on a 
 la preuve manifeste de I'existence de trois saisons, le printemps, I'ete, I'hiver, 
 chez les Aryas primitifs " {L Origine enropeenne des Aryas, 1885, p. 11). 
 
 K. 26 
 
402 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 attempt to harmonize solar and lunar time. By the application 
 of this " linguistic palaeontology," as Pictet has called it, it is 
 farther concluded that the Aryan cradleland was in the nature of 
 a steppe with a marked absence of mountains and continuous 
 forests, but traversed by numerous broad and shallow watercourses, 
 and with a poor flora distinguished by such hardy growths as the 
 birch, poplar, willow, reeds and rushes. 
 
 Such are the general deductions drawn by Dr Schrader from a 
 
 careful study of the common elements of primitive 
 h ^'o^trettl'^ Aryan speech, and it is because these conditions 
 
 appear to prevail to a greater extent in the South 
 Russian steppes than elsewhere that, after some hesitation, this 
 authority finally concludes " that the scene of the most ancient 
 period of Indo-European development, the original home of our 
 race, is to be looked for" in that region (/A). This conclusion, 
 however, has not been so generally accepted as is commonly sup- 
 posed, and it has been rejected not only by most French anthro- 
 pologists, but also by Ch. de Ujfalvy', Briinnhoffer', Orterer^ von 
 Roth of Tubingen ^ van den Gheyn ^ and others, who still hold by 
 the Asiatic view first attacked by Latham towards the middle of 
 the 19th century. 
 
 But a glance at the map of Eurasia, with a consideration of 
 Conflictin ^^^ climatic conditions prevalent in the northern 
 views regard- hemisphere in prehistoric times, may help to recon- 
 CradielanZre- cile both theories. In the space stretching from the 
 conciied. Urals to the Caucasus there are no natural barriers 
 
 between the two Continents, while the Urals themselves are much 
 too low and too gently incHned to offer any serious impediment to 
 the migrations of primitive man, who was free to roam everywhere 
 over the Aralo-Caspian depression and the Sarraatian plains 
 from the Turkistan highlands westwards to the Carpathians. 
 At present moisture decreases continuously eastwards throughout 
 
 1 Le Berceau cies Aryas cTapres des Oiivrages Recent s, 1884. 
 
 2 Ueber den Ursitz der hidogermaucn, 1884. 
 
 ' Literarische Rundschau, 1884, No. 9, pp. 267 et seq. 
 •* Zeitschrift der D. M. G. xxxviii. p. 138. 
 
 5 Lts Migrations des Aryas, 1882; VOrigine europecnne des Aryas, 1885, 
 and other writings. 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 403 
 
 the whole of this steppe region, and the process of desiccation has 
 been going on for ages generally throughout Central Asia. Thus 
 the Zerafshan, the Dehas (Balkh), the Murghab, the Tejend and 
 many other streams, which formerly reached the Oxus or the 
 Caspian, now run out in the Kizil-Kum, the Kara-Kum and 
 other sandy wastes of the Turkistan depression. But in neolithic 
 times Turkistan was as suitable for human habitation as the 
 South Russian steppes still are, and the long-abandoned pre- 
 historic highway leading from Hyrcania to Baktriana is strewn 
 in some places with numerous ruins now mostly buried under the 
 surging sands of the wilderness. ''The local traditions, historical 
 records, and the ruins of numerous cities leave no doubt that the 
 country was formerly far more densely peopled. The inhabitants 
 have disappeared with the running waters ; the powerful empires 
 of the Oxus and Sogdiana basins have vanished ; the great centres 
 of Eastern civilisation have become eclipsed; many cultured 
 peoples have reverted to barbarism and the nomad has triumphed 
 over the agricultural state '." 
 
 In other respects there was nothing to choose between the 
 eastern and western sections of the Eurasian plains, ^j^^ ^^^^_ 
 both of which equally presented the chmatic, bo- sian steppe 
 
 , . true home of 
 
 tanical and other natural conditions rerlected m the primitive 
 the common elements of Aryan speech ^ It will ^^^^^ e'°"P^- 
 therefore be more reasonable to place the Aryan cradleland in 
 this Eurasian steppe region generally than restrict it either to the 
 European or to the Asiatic sections, separated as these are by 
 purely conventional limits. So difficult is it to draw any hard and 
 fast line between the two zones, which are essentially one from the 
 physiographical standpoint, that the present Russian government 
 of Orenburg actually comprises both slopes of the southern Urals, 
 that is, includes parts of Europe and Asia in the same admini- 
 strative province. 
 
 1 Reclus, English ed., vi. p. 162. 
 
 - " On fait beau coup valoir pour la provenance europeenne des Aryas les 
 exigences du climat, de la faune et de la flore, revelees par la paleontologie 
 linguistique dont les donnees reclament une contree relativement froide. Faut- 
 il sans cesse affirmer que ces conditions sont realisees en Asie centrale?" (Vr.n 
 den Gheyn, VOrigine eiiropeeiine des Aryas, pp. 42 — 3). 
 
 26—2 
 
404 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAF. 
 
 Thus may also be explained the apparently contradictory state- 
 ments that the primitive Aryan communities were long in close 
 contact with the Semitic peoples, while on the other hand their 
 primitive culture was apparently the same as that which prevailed 
 both in the early lacustrine settlements of Switzerlmd' and in the 
 so-called terramare, or prehistoric stations of North Italy. As 
 
 M. KHRIMIAN, CATHOLICOS OF ARMENIA. 
 
 i^Irano- Semitic Type.) 
 
 pastoral nomads these Aryan groups needed a vast space for the 
 support of the numerous herds on which their existence depended. 
 Thus while some roamed westwards and gradually penetrated up 
 
 1 In a paper contributed to the Revue des Questions Scientifques for 
 October, 1894, on Les Populations Lacustres de V Europe, M. de Nadaillac is 
 disposed to associate these settlements with the first Aryan wanderings in 
 neolithic times, and to give them an Asiatic origin. At the same time he 
 admits that no distinct traces of Asiatic art, except perhaps the somewhat rare 
 objects made of nephrite, have been discovered in the debris, though he is 
 inclined to think that the jade objects are also more probably of Asiatic than 
 of European origin, adding, "si la nephrite et la chloromelanite ont ete 
 importees d'Asie, pourquoi n'en serait-il de meme pour les jadeites?" (p. 500). 
 But far too much importance is attached to these questions, which could never 
 prove anything more than commercial intercourse, such as is known to have 
 already been established in remote prehistoric times between the Black Sea and 
 the amber-yielding shores of the Baltic. 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 405 
 
 the Danube to and beyond the Swiss valleys, others advanced 
 from the Turkistan steppe to the Iranian plateau and the head 
 waters of the Euphrates, where they found themselves contermi- 
 nous with the territory of the Assyrian Semites. Hence the 
 distinctive hooked nose and other Semitic features still prevalent 
 amongst the Armenian, Circassian and Iranian populations through- 
 out the whole region between the Euphrates and Indus basins. 
 
 But when the cradleland is found the primitive Aryan group 
 itself still eludes our grasp. As well seek in the raised dough the 
 leaven of fermentation, as try to determine a primitive Aryan type. 
 From the foregoing remarks it must be obvious 
 
 ° ° , The primi- 
 
 that those described by ethnologists — as many as tive Aryan type 
 six are spoken of— are types, not of the original ^ITermine. 
 Aryan groups, but of the present Aryan-speaking 
 peoples, and Virchow's challenge remains unanswered: "Who 
 therefore will furnish the proof that the primitive Aryans were all 
 dolichocephalous and had blue eyes, blond hair and a white 
 complexion ' ? " It cannot be too strongly insisted upon, not 
 only that the world was peopled before the Aryan dispersion, 
 but also that tall, fair, long-headed peoples, such as are usually 
 regarded as typical Aryans, had already been evolved in North 
 Africa, and had thence spread over West Europe and Scandinavia 
 while the Aryan nomads were still tending their flocks and herds 
 on the Eurasian steppe lands. There were also other non-Aryan 
 peoples in Europe long before that region was reached by the 
 Indo-Germanic hordes. Such especially was that short, round- 
 headed dark race, which has been called both " Kelt " and 
 " Lapp '," and which is still represented by the Low Bretons, the 
 
 ^ Die Urbevolkennig Ejiropa's, p. 33. 
 
 2 In one place de Quatrefages treats the round-headed populations of Savoy 
 (Aix and Chambery districts) as "tout au moins extremement voisines des 
 Lapons" {op. cit. p. 455) ; in another these Savoyards " touchent de plus ou 
 moins pres a la race celtique," and are identified with the highland Galchas 
 described by de Ujfalvy and Topinard. The Galcha skull measured by 
 Topinard is said to present, "non pkis de simples ressemblances, mais una 
 identite a bien peu pres complete avec les cranes les mieux caracterises de 
 Savoyards" {ib. p. 489). Topinard's language is very strong : "La reproduc- 
 tion frappante du type Savoyard que nous regardons aujourd'hui comme une 
 expression de I'ancien type celtique, plus parfaite encore que le type auvergnat 
 
4o6 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 Auvergnats, the Savoyards, the Croatians and, as shown by de 
 Ujfalvy, by the Galcha highlanders of the Hindu-Kiish and 
 Turkistan uplands. Thus wherever they presented themselves 
 the Aryan tribes could only play the part of intruders, intermingling 
 with the aborigines, imposing on them their speech and culture, 
 and modifying in various degrees their physical type. 
 
 Nevertheless, all things considered, it seems probable enough 
 
 that the typical Aryans belonged rather to the 
 
 But probably xanthochroid than to the melanochroid branch of 
 
 Xanthochroid. 
 
 the Caucasic division. This may be inferred from 
 
 A TAJIK WOMAN OF E. TURKISTAN. 
 
 {Iranian Type.) 
 
 the distinct blond strain, which is found permeating most Aryan - 
 speaking peoples in varying proportions, and which seems best 
 explained by the assumption of an Aryan element grafted on those 
 
 ou le type bas-breton " {Rev. iCAnthrop. Oct. 1878, p. 706). And thus the 
 domain of the Keltic race is extended to the heart of Asia, while the whole of 
 Europe is represented by Dr R. Cruel as occupied by "Turanian" peoples of 
 Ural-Altaic speech before the arrival of the Aryans {Die Spracheii unci 
 Volker Eiiropa s vor der arischen Eimvandening, Detmold, 1883, passim). 
 
XIV. 
 
 HOMO CAUCx\SICUS. 
 
 407 
 
 aborigines. Prof. G. de Lapoiige aptly remarks that "no people 
 amongst whom the fair long-headed type prevails makes use of 
 non-Aryan languages and institutions, whereas the peoples where 
 this type is not dominant make partial use of languages and 
 institutions other than Aryan ; they have done so within a recent 
 historical epoch (part of Russia and Germany), or appear to have 
 done so in ancient times (Gaul, Spain).* " The reference here is 
 to the Esthonian, Livonian and Kurland Finns of the Baltic 
 provinces, now nearly extinct ; to the numerous groups of Volga 
 and other eastern Finns not yet absorbed by the surrounding 
 
 ■T 
 
 1 
 
 K^ 
 
 > J 
 
 I^^B''^ 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 A TAJIK OF TASHKEND. 
 
 (Iranian Tjpe.) 
 
 Slav populations ; and in the west to the Iberi, Aquitani (?) and 
 others of non-Aryan speech, now represented only by the Pyrenean 
 Basques. Amongst all these the assumed Aryan element is 
 perhaps less pronounced than amongst those more illustrious 
 historical groups which are commonly regarded as full-blood or 
 typical Aryans. Such are in the East the early Persians and the 
 
 1 rOrigine des Aryens, Science, Aug. 4, 1893, p. 65. 
 
408 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [chap. 
 
 Hindus, who occupied the Iranian tableland and the Indus basin 
 respectively some thousand years ago, and in the West the Hellenes, 
 Teutons and others who under diverse names swarmed into 
 South-east and Central Europe, if not in the neolithic and bronze 
 periods, certainly in the first iron age, that is, the epoch repre- 
 sented by the Hallstadt cult ire and by the extensive sepulchral 
 
 GREEK OF CYPRUS. 
 
 mounds (over 20,000) brought to light on the Ghsinac (Glasinats) 
 plateau near Sarayevo since the Austrian occupation of Bosnia \ 
 
 To the close linguistic unity by which these widely-scattered 
 groups are connected corresponds a certain ethnical unity, indi- 
 cated especially by their common dolichocephaly and fair com- 
 plexions, later obscured in many places by miscegenation with the 
 
 1 A. detailed account of this vast prehistoric necropolis is given by Herr 
 Salomon Reinach in VAnthropologie for September — October, 1S94, pp. 563 
 
 et scq. 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 409 
 
 aborigines of the regions severally occupied by them. It was 
 above shown that the early Teutons were certainly long-headed, 
 as were also the Hellenes \ while "the primitive Greek skull 
 appears to present a very close resemblance to that of the high- 
 caste Hindus, and this in its turn almost exactly reproduces that of 
 the doHchocephalous Persians ^." 
 
 It is difficult to resist the conclusion that we have here, if 
 anywhere, the nearest approach to the original Aryan type, which 
 
 PARSI OF BOMBAY. 
 
 i^Irariian Type.) 
 
 would have thus resembled that of the Afro-European as repre- 
 sented by the Mauritanian Berbers, by Mr Petrie's "new race" in 
 Egypt, and by early neolithic man in West Europe. To account for 
 this remarkable coincidence, it is only necessary to assume a 
 twofold dispersion of the primitive Caucasic groups from North 
 
 1 Proved by the extensive researches of Sig. Nicolucci and Dr Hamy. The 
 last mentioned describes a Greek skull of the 10th Century B.C., now in the 
 Paris Anthropological Collection; but "en Grece comme ailleurs, le type 
 primitif a ete altere par le croisement " (De Quatre'ages, op. cit. p. 494). 
 
 - De Quatrefages, op. cit. p. 494. 
 
4 TO ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 Africa, one northwards to Iberia and West Europe, the other 
 eastwards into the Semitic domain (South-west Asia) and thence 
 northwards to the Eurasian steppes. Both of these movements 
 must in any case be accepted to account for the relations between 
 Berbers and West Europeans on the one hand, and on the other 
 between the African Hamites and the Asiatic Semites, as above 
 set forth. 
 
 To sum up this difficult Aryan question, the Aryan peoples 
 The A an "^i-ist bc regarded, not as a single ethnical stock, 
 problem sum- but as an amalgam of many Caucasic, and no doubt 
 '"^ "^' some Mongolic elements, leavened by an original 
 
 xanthochroid strain, and endowed with a certain racial uniformity 
 by the immense preponderance of the Caucasic physical charac- 
 ters, and by the general adoption of Aryan speech, traditions and 
 institutions. The process of fusion, resulting in the historic Aryan 
 peoples, had its beginning with the first contact of the migrating 
 tribes with aHen races after the dispersion from a common cradle- 
 land, and this process has never ceased throughout historic times. 
 It is now developing new and often profoundly modified Aryan- 
 speaking groups in North America (Franco-Canadian 
 pansionofthe half-breeds), throughout Spanish and Portuguese 
 tJgll'ol^^^^' America (Mestizos of all varieties), in South Africa 
 (Dutch-speaking Hottentot half-breeds), in Indo- 
 China (Franco-Annamese), in North Russia and Siberia (Russo- 
 Finns and Russo-Tatars) and elsewhere. But as a rule the 
 Anglo-Saxon or British Aryans, who are by far the most numerous 
 and widespread out of Europe, do not amalgamate with the 
 aborigines. Hence Anglo-American, Anglo-African and Anglo- 
 Australian half-castes are rare, and the modifications of the Aryan 
 types undoubtedly going on in the " Greater Britain " beyond the 
 seas are due, not to miscegenation with lower races, but partly to 
 the changed environment, partly (North America) to fusion with 
 Germans, Scandinavians, and other fellow-Aryans. 
 
 In the Aryan Hnguistic family, in which root and formative 
 elements are, so to say, chemically combined, the in- 
 Linguistic fleeting principle receives its most perfect expression 
 ^^^^' (Chap. IX.). All the branches (which recent re- 
 search has raised from eight to ten by the addition of the Galchic 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 4I I 
 
 group ^ and the removal of Armenian^ from the Iranic connection) 
 spring directly, but in various divergent lines, from a primitive 
 Aryan stock language long extinct past recovery, and all attempts 
 at the reconstruction of which have proved abortive. The 
 divergent Hnes represent each a distinct branch of the mother- 
 tongue, and the divergence began at such a remote epoch that 
 the mother-tongues of the several branches themselves are also 
 irrecoverably lost. Not only so, but the earliest known forms of 
 these different groups are already so profoundly differentiated from 
 each other that their common relationship alone can be demon- 
 strated; the order of their divergence from the parent stem, or 
 from some now lost intermediate stems, remaining more or less 
 conjectural. Each group comprises two or more subdivisions, 
 which again throw off numerous branchlets, the whole forming an 
 exceedingly complex system, which will be best understood by the 
 subjoined : — 
 
 1 The researches of Ch. de Ujfalvy {Bid. de la Soc. de Geogr. June, 1878, and 
 numerous other memoirs), of Major Biddulph {The Tribes of the Hindoo- Koosh), 
 Robert Shaw {On the Galtchah Languages vixjotir. As. Soc. Bengal, XLV., 1876, 
 and XLVi., 1877), Prof. Tomaschek {Die Patnir-Dialekte) and Prof. W. Geiger 
 [Ostiranische Kultur im Altertiim) have placed beyond doubt the existence of 
 numerous primitive Aryan languages on both slopes of the Hindu-Kush and on 
 the western escarpments of the Pamir, to which de Ujfalvy has given the 
 collective name of Galcha, and which hold an independent position somewhat 
 intermediate between Baktrian (Zend) and Sanskrit. *' II est certain que les 
 idiomes de I'Asie centrale ont mis sur la piste de plusieurs formes intermediaires 
 qui manquaient pour renouer la chaine parfois interrompue qui relie le Sanscrit 
 au bactrien " (J. van den Gheyn, Les Langiies de I'Asie Centrale, Leyden, 
 1884, p. 27). 
 
 2 At a meeting of the Philological Society, May 13, 1892, the late MrG. A. 
 Schrumpf read a paper on "The Place and Importance of Armenian in 
 Comparative Philology," confirming the view of Prof. Hubschmann that 
 the Krapar or old literary language of Armenia forms with its modern repre- 
 sentatives an independent group in the Aryan family, distinct from Iranic with 
 which it has hitherto been connected, and showing certain features intermediate 
 between Iranic and Slavo-Lithuanic. It thus serves to bridge over the gap 
 between the Asiatic and European divisions, and as Dr Fr. Muller suggests, its 
 nearest congeners may have been the Thrakian (and Phrygian) formerly current 
 on both sides of the Bosphorus. Others however, with Karl Blind, affiliate 
 Thrakian to the Teutonic branch, a view for which there is much to be 
 said. 
 
412 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 Table of the Aryan Linguistic Family. 
 
 Indic 
 Braisch 
 
 Tranic 
 Branch 
 
 Galchic 
 
 ]JRANCH 
 
 Armenic 
 Branch 
 
 Hellenic 
 Branch 
 
 Italic 
 Branch 
 
 Keltic 
 Branch 
 
 Lithuanic 
 Branch 
 
 ( Early 
 Sanskrit 
 
 ] (Vedic) 
 Later 
 Sanskrit 
 
 Kashmiri 
 Multani 
 The Prakrits nyr Panjabi 
 
 <\'"'S", -< Sanskrit f'"i!" 
 Sanskrit) Hindi 
 
 Bengali 
 Oriya; Assami 
 
 Baktrian (Zend), Pushtu (Afghan) 
 
 Old Persian, Pahlavi, Neo-Persian, Kurdish, Baluchi 
 
 leg 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Group 
 Western i 
 
 Group 
 
 (Pamir )Shignani, Iskashami, Wakhi, Sanglichi, Yagnobi, 
 I Groups Minghani, Yidghah 
 
 j Hindu- Kush)Gilgit, Astor, Torwalak, Gowro, Bushkarik, 
 \ Group ) Narisati, Khowar, Bushgali 
 
 \ Old Armenian, Modern Armenian, Ossetian, Thrakian (?), 
 \ Phrygian (?) 
 
 f Groir" ! ^^^ ^^^y^'^c^ Albanian : Tosk, Gu( 
 
 Pelasgicj^^|.^j^ Dorian, Ionian, Attic, Byzantine, Romaic 
 ' Group \ ^ •> J 
 
 Oscan ^ fitalian 
 
 Sabine I (Extinct) j Langue d'Oc 
 
 Umbrianl Langue d'Oil 
 
 Latin, Vulgar Latin, Neo-Latin J (Standard French) 
 
 Spanish 
 Portuguese 
 Rumanian 
 ^Romansch 
 \ Gcedhelic : Irish, Gaelic, Manx 
 ( Kymric : Welsh, Cornish, Low Breton 
 
 [ Lithuanian, Lettic, Pruczi (Old Prussian) 
 
 Slavic 
 Branch 
 
 Teutonic 
 Branch 
 
 Eastern ) Old Slavonic, Great Russian, Little Russian, Servo- 
 Group \ Croatian, Slovenian, Bulgarian 
 Western ) Tsekh (Bohemian), Polish, Polabish, Lusatian, 
 . Group \ Slovak 
 
 /Low German) Gothic, Frisic, Dutch, Continental Saxon, Anglo- 
 Group \ Saxon, English, Lowland Scotch 
 
 01 se / Qj^] Norse, Icelandic, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish 
 Group \ ' £> ' 
 
 High German) Old, Middle and High German, Rhenish, 
 ^ Group \ Thuringian, Swiss, Suabian 
 
 The profound disintegration which is shown in this Table, and 
 
 which is immeasurably greater than in the Semitic 
 
 tion^oTprfmT- family, is mainly due to the spread of Aryan speech 
 
 tive Aryan amongst non-Aryan peoples, by whom its phonetic 
 
 system and grammatical structure were diversely 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 413 
 
 modified. But apart from these potent outward influences, all the 
 Aryan tongues have, throughout their historic life, betrayed an 
 inner tendency to break up the highly developed inflectional forms 
 of the early languages, such as Sanskrit, Baktrian, Greek and Latin, 
 and thus continue their natural evolution in the direction from 
 synthesis towards analysis. Thus the Romance (Neo-Latin) 
 gradually rejected all case endings and passive verbal forms, and 
 the Latin amabor^ for instance, is now expressed by three words 
 in Italian and French : io sa7'b amato ; je serai aime. It would 
 require four in English {/ shall be loved), and in this respect 
 EngHsh is the most highly developed, that is, the most analytical, 
 of all Aryan languages, having retained scarcely a dozen of 
 the many hundred inflections characteristic of primitive Aryan 
 speech. 
 
 The Teutonic group, of which English is now the chief 
 member, the Weltsprache as the Germans call it, The Teutonic 
 presents some remarkable phonetic features which phonetic sys- 
 give it an unique place in the Aryan family. In 
 this group the organic Aryan mutes undergo two distinct series cf 
 permutations, in accordance with the so-called law of LaiUver- 
 schiebiing ("sound-shifting") discovered by Rask, developed by 
 Grimm and completed by Verner. The first series of shifts took 
 place in prehistoric times, and is found already fully carried out in 
 Gothic, the oldest known member of the group. In this process 
 the surds or voiceless stops /, k, t first become everywhere the 
 voiceless spirants /, h, th ; then these spirants, when medial and 
 in association with sonants, become themselves the sonant or 
 voiced stops b^ g, d, always in weak syllables, and also in strong 
 syllables before the accent ; but when they follow the accent the 
 second shift is arrested, and they remain voiceless spirants. The 
 influence of the Aryan accent, first noted by Verner, is seen in such 
 examples as Sanskrit d/i/a/'a, Gothic dnthar, Anglo-Saxon and 
 English other for b?ither, with single shift only {t to th) because the 
 accent precedes ; but Sansk. antdr, Goth, undar, A.-S. and Eng. 
 under, with double shift (/ through th to d), because the accent 
 follows. The process extends in A.-S. and Norse to the organic 
 voiceless spirant s, which similarly passes through z to r, as in 
 Goth, dius (for diuz), Norse dyr^ A.-S. debr, Eng. deer. The 
 
414 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 second scries of shifts is historical, no trace of it occurring in the 
 Gothic of Ulphilas (4th century), or in any extant Teutonic forms 
 (geographical or personal names &c.) before the 7th century. Its 
 later appearance is also shown by the fact that it never spread to 
 the whole of the Teutonic domain, but is mainly confined to the 
 South German highlands, where the process was continued spo- 
 radically to about the beginning of the 12th century. The South 
 German dialects were thus constituted a distinct group under the 
 name of Hoch-Detitsch (" High German ") in contradistinction to 
 the Piatt- Dent sch ("Flat" or "Lowland German") of the northern 
 plains, which were unaffected by the process, and which conse- 
 quently remain in their phonetics truer representatives of primitive 
 Teutonic speech. The process itself is due to a general tendency 
 to strengthen the mutes, so that the soft sonants {b, g, d) become 
 hard surds (/, k, t), while these become hard (voiceless) spirants 
 {pf or fj h or ch, ts written s). Thus the Catti of the Romans pass 
 through such forms as Chatti, Hatti^ Hazi^ Hassi to the modern 
 Hessians. But the rotation is arrested at the hard spirants/ h^ th 
 of the prehistoric series (representing organic /, k^ t), because 
 these are incapable of further strengthening. Hence it is that the 
 primitive Teutonic / and h persist in High German (Gr. kvcov, 
 Goth, hufids, Germ, hufid, Eng. hoimd). Surd ///, however, passes 
 through sonant th {dh) to d, and later further changes take place 
 in the Hoch-Deutsch group, which thus becomes differentiated 
 into (9/^ (7th to nth century). Middle (12th to 15th) and Modern 
 High German. In general the dental are much more fully carried 
 out than the labial and guttural shiftings, so that the primitive surd 
 th (as in tlwi) passes through sonant th (as in the?i) to d in the 
 Low as well as in the High German group, but not in A.-S. and 
 English, which thus stand phonetically on the same high level as 
 Crothic itself, that is, nearest to the organic Aryan speech. Hence 
 it is that words like three (Goth, threis, A.-S. threo), thorn (Goth. 
 thaurnus, A.-S. thorn) Slc, appear both in Low and High German 
 with initial d: Dutch drie, doom; Ger. drei, dorn ; all represent 
 ing organic Aryan /, as in Sans, tri, Gr. rpeis &c.* 
 
 ^ A. H. Keane, Teutonic Languages, in Cassell's Storehouse of Inforniation^ 
 1894, p. 243. 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASTCUS. 415 
 
 In the Caucasus the ethnical and linguistic relations present a 
 marked contrast to those prevailing in all other ^ ^ . , ^ 
 
 ^ ° Ethnical and 
 
 parts of the Caucasic domain. Probably more stock linguistic reia- 
 languages are current amongst the few hundred Caucasus.^ 
 thousand natives of this relatively small moun- 
 tainous region, than amongst the myriads of other Caucasic 
 peoples spread over both hemispheres. The highlanders them- 
 selves belong to the melanochroid division, and some of the 
 groups, such as the Georgians, Circassians, Kabards and Les- 
 ghians, approach an almost ideal standard of physical beauty. 
 But considerable diversity prevails, and the Pshavs, Svanitians 
 and others confined to less favoured districts, have coarse, almost 
 repulsive features and ungainly figures. We have seen (p. 93) that 
 the Caucasus was already occupied by palaeolithic man, although 
 perhaps not to a great extent. But in the poHshed stone age the 
 whole region appears to have been thickly inhabited, as shown 
 by the numerous dolmens, lacustrine stations, and other remains 
 of a culture closely analogous to that of neolithic man in Europe. 
 According to the researches of M. Chantre these prehistoric 
 peoples were long-headed, and in other respects resembled the 
 Iranians and the high-caste Hindus. But, since then, great inter- 
 minglings have taken place, with the result that the physical 
 characters have been gradually modified in the direction of the 
 brachycephalous dark type^ 
 
 From this it would almost seem as if Caucasia was originally 
 occupied by primitive Aryan tribes of the xanthochroid type, 
 although of the numerous distinct languages now spoken in these 
 uplands one only, the Ossetian, is a member of the Aryan lin- 
 guistic family. All the others belong, not to the inflecting, but to 
 the agglutinating order of speech, without however showing any 
 clear relationship with the Uralo-Altaic or with any other linguistic 
 family. They are usually grouped in three main divisions : the 
 Southern^ comprising the Georgians, Imeritians, Mingrelians, Svani- 
 
 1 " M. Chantre a mis en serie dix-sept indices moyens pris sur autant 
 de populations anciennes et modernes; et on voit I'indice grandir d'age 
 en age, depuis 71*55 (Samthavro, premier age du fer) jusqu'a 86-48 (Ossettes 
 de Koban modernes)" (De Quatrefages, op, cit. p. 475). 
 
4l6 ETHNOLOGY. [CIIAP. 
 
 tians, Khevsurs, Pshavs and Lazes, all speaking 
 Main divi- distinct branches of a common stock language, sup- 
 
 sionsofthe • ,, ^ • i 
 
 peoples and posed by Saycc to be the "Vanmc, that is, the 
 crucTsfa! °^ language of the Cuneiform Inscriptions of the Lake 
 Van district. The Weskrn, comprising the now dis- 
 persed Circassians and Abkhasians besides the Kabards, Shapsukhs 
 and others, also speaking languages believed to be derived from a 
 
 KABARDIAN OF CAUCASUS. 
 
 {Melaiiochroid Type.) 
 
 common source. The Eastern^ comprising all the Daghestani 
 peoples, Chechenzes, Lesghians, Avars, Galgai, Ingushes, Kishi, 
 Tushi, Karabulaks, Kurini, Kubachi, Duodez, Ude, Dido, Dargo, 
 Andi and many others, whose various idioms have hitherto resisted 
 all attempts of the philologists to reduce them to a common stock 
 language. Some may be grouped in a single family; but others, 
 and especially the Ude, Kubachi, Andi and Dargo, must for the 
 present be regarded as so many stock languages. In the South 
 Daghestani tongues agglutination has reached such a high develop- 
 ment that General P. V. Uslar, the first authority on this subject, 
 
XIV.] HOMO CAUCASICUS. 417 
 
 calls them inflecting, which confirms the views advocated in Chap. 
 IX. regarding the evolution of the higher from the lower orders of 
 speech \ 
 
 The greater portion of South India (the Deccan) is occupied 
 by an indigenous people numbering over 50 millions, 
 
 \^ . °, r^ -7 n T ,• Ethnical and 
 
 collectively known as Vraviaas^ and speaking dia- linguistic reia- 
 lects of an agglutinating stock language. The chief D°^vidal^^ 
 members of this group, whose ethnical position it is 
 difficult to determine, are the Telingas (Telugus) of the Northern 
 Circars and part of the Nizam's territory; the Tamils of the 
 Karnatic, South Travancore and North Ceylon ; the Kanarese of 
 Mysore, the southern districts of the Bombay Presidency, and of 
 Kanara on the Malabar Coast ; the Malaydlim, on the same coast 
 south of the Kanarese ; the Kodagii of Kiirg, west of Mysore ; the 
 Onions and Rajmahdli of Chota Nagpiir; the Gonds of Gond- 
 wana, Vindhya Hills. Although they preceded the Aryan-speaking 
 Hindus, the Dravidas are not the true aborigines of the Deccan, 
 for they were themselves preceded by dark peoples, probably of 
 aberrant Negrito type (Chap. XI.). They are usually regarded as a 
 Mongoloid people, who entered India from the north-west, leaving 
 on the route the Brahiiis of Baluchistan, whose language shows some 
 remote resemblance to Dravidian. But at present the type cannot 
 be called Mongolic ; it scarcely differs from the average Hindu, 
 except in some districts, where it has been somewhat modified by 
 contact with the Kolarians and dark aborigines. Hence they are 
 grouped with the northern Hindus by Peschel, who remarks that 
 " their most noticeable feature is their long black hair, neither tufted 
 nor straight, but crimped or curly. This clearly distinguishes them 
 from the Mongoloid natives, as does the fact that the hair of their 
 beard and bodies grows profusely.... The inhabitants of India form 
 at present but a single race, and the separation of the populations 
 resident between the Himalayas and the Vindhya Mountains from 
 the Dravidas of the Deccan is based solely on the fact that the 
 
 ^ Uslar's Memoirs on the " Caucasian Microcosm," as he calls it, are 
 dispersed amongst the Bulletins of the Petersburg Imperial Academy of 
 Sciences, and in the publications of the Imperial Geographical Society. But 
 a useful summary Siir V Ethnographie du Caiicase is supplied by M. iNIichel 
 Smiinov to the Rev. d' Anthrop. for April, 1878. 
 
 K. 2-J 
 
41 8 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. 
 
 former speak languages which are descended more or less directly 
 from the Sanskrit'." It would thus seem that the position of the 
 Indian Dravidas is somewhat analogous to that of the European 
 Magyars. Both have been assimilated to the Caucasic type, and 
 both have accepted Aryan culture, while preserving intact their 
 non-Aryan speech. 
 
 The hirsuteness to which Peschel here refers occurs in a still 
 more pronounced form amongst a few sporadic 
 cas°/J?oupr' groups, such as the Todas of the Nilgheri Hills, 
 and the Ainus of Japan, \vho may be taken as living 
 witnesses to the widespread diffusion of the Caucasic race through- 
 out Asia in remote prehistoric times. Although now 
 
 Todas. . . ^ ° 
 
 of Dra vidian speech, the Todas (properly Toruwa 
 *' Herdsmen "), are distinguished from all the surrounding popula- 
 tions by their splendid physique, perfectly regular Caucasic 
 features, black wavy hair, full flowing beard, aquiline nose, light 
 brown complexion and tall stature (5 ft. 9 in.)". With the Todas 
 de Quatrefages groups both the Kubus of Sumatra and the Ainus 
 of North Japan. But the Kubus, although called "hairy men" by 
 Col. Versteeg^, must be removed from this connection, for those 
 seen and figured by Mr H. O. Forbes "^ exhibit no such peculiarity, 
 while on the osteological evidence Dr J. G. Garson declares them 
 to be "decidedly Malays and therefore Mongoloid ^" 
 
 Not so the " Hairy Ainu," as "they are correctly called by Mr 
 A. H. Savage Landor*^, one of the many observers 
 
 Ainus. , . , , . . 
 
 who have described these aborigines ot North-east 
 
 ^ Races of Man, p. 451. This view is fully in accordance with the now 
 fairly established assumption that Aryan culture spread gradually southwards 
 by a process of infiltration, resulting in a general fusion of the northern Hindus 
 with the pre- Aryan peoples of the Deccan and Ceylon. Hei-e again the slight 
 Aryan-speaking element plays the part of the leaven in raising the aborigines to 
 a higher plane of culture. 
 
 - W. E. Marshall, A Phrenologist amongst the Todas, iSj ^, passi/n. 
 
 ^ "Ce savant les appelle homvies a poll et dit qu'ils sont entierement velus" 
 (Races Hnviaines, ir. p. 468). 
 
 ■* On the Kubus of Sumatra, in Jour. Anthrop. Instit. April, 1884, 
 p. 121. 
 
 ^ Ibid. p. 132. 
 
 ^ Alone with the Hairy Ainu, 1893. 
 
XIV. 
 
 HOMO CAUCASICUS. 
 
 419 
 
 Asia at first hand in recent years. Although now confined to 
 Yezo, part of Sakhalin and the southern members of the Kurile 
 Archipelago, their territory appears to have formerly comprised a 
 great part, if not the whole of Japan \ besides large tracts on the 
 opposite mainland. In the national traditions there was a time 
 when they could look out on their watery domain, and exclaim, 
 " Gods of the sea, open your divine eyes. Wherever your eyes 
 turn, there echoes the sound of the Ainu speech"," a speech now 
 current amongst scarcely 20,000 full-blood and half-caste survivors 
 
 AINU OF URAP. 
 
 of tins remote Asiatic branch of the Caucasic division. Despite 
 the attempts of some writers to affiHate them to the surrounding 
 Mongoloid peoples, their claim to membership with the Caucasic 
 family is placed beyond doubt by a study of their physical charac- 
 ters. The features are not only regular in the European sense, 
 but often quite handsome, with large slightly curved nose, clear 
 
 ^ " From the relics of the Stone Age and of the Kitchen middens of Japan, 
 Professor Milne concludes that the Ainos once inhabited Japan as far south as 
 Kiushiu" (Romyn Hitchcock, T/ie Ainos of Japan, Washington, 1892,. 
 
 P- 435)- 
 
 - Quoted by the Rev. John Batchelor, The Aijin, of Japan, 1892. 
 
 27 — 2 
 
420 ETHNOLOGY. [CHAP. XIV. 
 
 brown or greenish eyes set straight in the head, and olive brown 
 or fair complexion. But the most striking trait is the abundance 
 of coarse black wavy or crisp hair on head, face and body. " The 
 Ainos are characterized by a strong growth of hair about the legs 
 and body, long black hair on the head, and heavy beards'." The 
 type, however, varies, and those of Yezo differ considerably from 
 the Tsuishikari Ainu of SakhaHn, while the low stature (5 ft. 2 or 
 3 in.) and the skull of all shapes, long, round and intermediate, 
 seem to betray secular interminglings with the neighbouring 
 Mongoloid peoples ^ 
 
 For the Indonesians, ramifying to the left of our Family Tree, 
 see Chap. XI. 
 
 1 Hitchcock, op. cit. p. 440. 
 
 2 " De cet ensemble de donnees, on doit, ce me semble, conclure que les 
 Ainos sont une race fondamentalement blanche et dolichocephale, plus ou 
 moins alteree par d'autres elements ethniques dont un, au moir.s, est essentielle- 
 ment mongolique " (De Quatrefages, op. cit. II. p. 467J. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 r. The Stone Ages in North America 
 (pp. TOO et seq.). 
 
 Recently the discussion as to the relative age of chipped and 
 polished implements has taken an unexpected turn. Hitherto it has 
 been taken for granted that, in the New World as in the Old, palaeo- 
 lithic necessarily antedates neolithic culture, and that, where there is a 
 time sequence, the chipped stones, being of ruder and simpler forma- 
 tion, naturally precede the more perfected polished objects. But 
 these views, which seemed placed beyond discussion, are nov ques- 
 tioned among others by Mr J. D. McGuire, Avho argues {The ArchcEO- 
 logisty July, 1894 ; The American Naticralist, January, 1895) that the 
 art of polishing by friction is easier and therefore antecedent to the 
 flaking process. Mr Charles H. Read, of the British Museum, had 
 little difficulty in exposing Mr McGuire's fallacies in a paper On the 
 Evohitioii of the Art of working ifi St07ie, in the America7i Naturalist 
 for December, 1894 ; and little more would probably have been heard 
 of the subject, had Mr McGuire not found a sort of "Advocatus 
 Diaboli" in the distinguished ethnologist, Mr W. H. Powell, of the 
 Smithsonian Institution. Referring to the researches of Mr Holmes, 
 in the old stone workshops of the North American aborigines, this 
 observer writes {Stone Art in America^ Americaji Afithropologist, 
 January, 1895) : "In view of these facts, abundantly demonstrated far 
 and wide over the continent, many American archaeologists and 
 geologists have reached the conclusion that the distinction between 
 'palaeolithic man' and 'neolithic man,' as determined by the method 
 of making the implements, is not valid for this continent. Ii" these 
 facts or the conclusion flowing from them startle European observers 
 in geology and archaeology, it behoves them to reexamine their own 
 
422 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 facts, and if by the new methods of geologic observation they can 
 demonstrate a time distinction between exclusively chipped imple- 
 ments and mixed implements fashioned by both processes, we shall 
 not fail to accord belief to their conclusions; but we shall hold the 
 question open until assured that the new methods have been tried." 
 
 Thus the war is, so to say, carried into the enemy's camp, and 
 European archaeologists are asked to reconsider their own conclusions 
 on a point about which no serious doubt has ever been raised. 
 Mr Powell contends that because, for instance, the Shoshone Indians 
 prepare their implements by chipping, and their Pahvant neighbours 
 by rubbing, while the Uintahs employ both processes, there is no 
 distinction between the palaeolithic and neolithic cultures, no time 
 sequence, in North America, and consequently the same may, on 
 further inquiry, be found to be the case also in Europe and elsewhere. 
 The reply is obvious. There is necessarily a time sequence wherever 
 the two cultures have been developed, whether in Europe, America, or 
 any other part of the world. But this sequence does not prevent 
 overlapping, the survival of primitive amid later methods, as fully 
 explained at p. 72. In all cases the ruder precedes the more improved 
 art, and under certain conditions may go on simultaneously with it, or 
 even to its entire exclusion, as in Australia, Fuegia, or Somaliland. 
 Speaking of the relations in the last-mentioned region, Dr Jousseaume 
 remarks that the rude character of the flints is no sure test of their age. 
 Those who have seen how the natives of the arid lands skirting the 
 Red Sea are satisfied with the strictly necessary without seeking for 
 artistic refinements, how their wants are limited to the point of 
 privation, how under pressure they grasp the first rude implement at 
 hand, will understand why " they have made no progress in working 
 their flints, and why the art has remained rude {grossiere) throughout 
 the stone age of those regions" {^L Anthropologie, July-August, 1895, 
 p. 411). Here we have a people still turning out rude pala^oliths, 
 while their Abyssinian and Galla neighbours, as well as some of their 
 own kindred, have long been trained to the use of firearms. But what 
 the advocates of the new theory have to show is that the firearms may 
 be as old as the palseoliths. Until this is done, no European archaeologist 
 will ever believe that the polished implements of Mr Powell's Pahvants 
 are absolutely as old as the chipped stones of the Shoshone Indians. 
 The time sequence between the two cultures is merely obscured by the 
 overlappings and survivals, by the intermingling of tribes at different 
 stages of civilisation, and by the complete lack of historic records 
 amongst illiterate populations with short memories and traditions 
 going back at most to a few generations. 
 
ADDENDA. 423 
 
 To Mr McGuire's statement that polishing is easier and therefore 
 older than flaking, it may be answered that much will depend on the 
 nature of the material, whether flint, obsidian, soapstone, quartzite, 
 sandstone and so on. But in any case it is a fallacy to suppose that 
 the easier process necessarily comes first. Transport by wheeled 
 vehicles or by steam is immeasurably easier than by pack animals or 
 by porters ; yet these come first in the order of evolution, and all 
 labour-saving methods are a distinct mark of progress. 
 
 Attention may here be called to Mr Thomas Wilson's Primitive 
 Industry^ where it is shown that Mr Holmes's researches (see above) 
 prove nothing against Dr Abbott's Trenton gravel finds (p. loi), which 
 are regarded as on the same time level as those of the European 
 palaeolithic deposits {Annual Report of the Smithso7iian Institution 
 for 1892, Washington, 1893, p. 321). 
 
 Still more important in connection with this subject is the paper 
 on the Antiquity of Man in North America, contributed to the Ame- 
 rican Naturalist for June, 1895, by Mr E. D. Cope. This eminent 
 palceontologist frankly admits palaeolithic man in the northern con- 
 tinent ; and, like Mr Wilson, denies that the question is affected by the 
 investigations of Mr Holmes. He has himself collected some obsidian 
 spear-heads in a deposit in Oregon in association with an extinct 
 fauna, which he holds to be contemporary with the pleistocene fauna 
 represented by Megalo7iyx, Mylodon and other fossil remains on 
 the east side of the continent. In the face of evidence such as this 
 the persistence of primitive cultures side by side with later develop- 
 ments loses all significance. If these cultures are now synchronous in 
 some regions, clearly they were not so ab initio; paleolithic must have 
 preceded neolithic processes in America as elsewhere, unless we are 
 prepared to admit the possible existence of neoliths as well as palaeo- 
 liths in association with an extinct pleistocene fauna in the northern 
 continent. But in that case cadit qucBstio, and chipped and polished 
 implements will all alike have to be regarded as dating back not 
 merely to prehistoric times (McGuire, Powell\ but to the pleistocene 
 epoch, as in Europe and other parts of the Eastern Hemisphere (Cope, 
 Wilson). 
 
 II. Palaeolithic Man in Asia 
 
 (P- 93)- 
 
 The range of primitive man is now extended to the Irawadi basin, 
 Indo-China, by the discovery of chipped implements in some tertiary 
 deposits near Yenangyoung on the Irawadi, Upper Burma (29° 21' 
 
4^4 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 N. lat.) by Ur Fritz Noetling, of the Geological Survey of India, in the 
 year 1894. At first the beds were supposed to be Upper Tvliocene, as 
 stated by Prof. T. Rupert Jones in a reference to the subject in the 
 Geological Magazine for November, 1894. But in reply to an inquiry 
 by Mr W. T. Blandford, Dr Noetling afterwards explained that he 
 had "definitely ascertained that the bed containing the chipped flints 
 is Pliocene" {Nature, April 25, 1895, P- 608). A full account of the 
 discovery was given by the finder at a meeting (Oct. 20, 1894) of the 
 Berlin Geselhchaft fiir Anthropologies Etimologie, imd Urgeschichte. 
 But Mr R. D. Oldham suggests that the flints may have been found, 
 not /;/ sitic, but in the coating of mud washed down from the super- 
 incumbent strata, and still adhering to the surface of the original 
 deposit (A'(:7/?/r<^/ ^r/tv/tv, Sept, 1895). 
 
 III. Neolithic Craniology in France 
 (pp. 149—150). 
 
 M. Ph. Salmon gives final results as under : total number of skulls 
 measured, 688 ; of which 577 per cent, are classed as dolichocephalic ; 
 24' I mesaticephalic with index ranging from 77 to 79 ; 2r2 brachy- 
 cephalic ; most frequently recurring index 73 {Revue mensuelle de 
 VEcole d' Anthropologic de Paris, May 15, 1895). 
 
 IV. Australian Craniology 
 (pp. 179, 182; and Chap. XI.). 
 
 Two skulls from Croydon in North Queensland recently added to 
 the collection in the University Museum, Cambridge, are described by 
 Mr W. Lawrence Henry Duckworth in the Jotir7ial of the Anthro- 
 pological Institute for February, 1895, pp. 213 — 218. The first, that 
 of a male adult, is marked by massive, overhanging brows, large 
 upper jaw, strong malar bones and zygomatic arches, low cranial 
 capacity (1,255 c.c), extreme dolichocephaly (687) and pronounced 
 prognathism in norma lateralis, though this feature is not brought 
 out by the gnathic index (96"9). The second, an adult female, shows 
 "much general similarity" to the other, with capacity 1,205 > cephalic 
 index 69-9; gnathic index jy^,. "To select the characteristics of 
 the pair would be to emphasize : (i) the prognathism, (2) the great 
 vertical height from basion to bregma, (3) the shallowness of the 
 
ADDENDA. 425 
 
 glenoid fossa. Of these the marked prognathism is interesting from 
 the fact of the same characteristic distinguishing Melanesian skulls ; 
 the same may be said of the basi-bregmatic height. As regards this 
 latter, the result is a height index greater than a breadth index. 
 Such a condition is common in Melanesians, common in skulls from 
 the more northern parts of Australia, but progressively rarer as one 
 advances to the south" (p. 215). 
 
 V. Eskimo Craxiology 
 (Chap. XIII.). 
 
 Six skulls from the East coast of Labrador lately presented to 
 the Cambridge University collection by Dr E. Curwen, and described 
 by Mr W. L. H. Duckworth in the Joicrnal of the Anthropological 
 Instittcte for August 1895, show an extreme degree of dolichocephaly 
 with cephalic index ranging from 75*4 to 65-8. On the other hand 
 the cranial capacity is high, rising from 1340 and 1385 to 1480 and 
 1550, and in one instance to 1790 c.c. In general the principal 
 measurements and indices "depart in no very important points from 
 those already recorded by other observers " (p. 72). 
 
 VI. Tufted Hair 
 (p. 170). 
 
 Fresh evidence on this assumed character of the hair of the dark 
 races is supplied by Prof. Virchow's paper on the Dinkas of the 
 White Nile in Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1895, Heft II. p. 152. "The 
 hair possesses uniformly that property which I have so often described 
 under the name of ' spiralgerollt ' [the corkscrew twist]. The so- 
 called ' peppercorns ' arising from the closeness of the twist develop 
 in the longer growths those thick curly locks to which is mamly 
 due the ' woolly ' look of the hair. Between these peppercorns there 
 occur apparently bald spaces which again gives the impression 
 that all the hair forming each grain grows from a single spot. If the 
 hair be left uncut, so as to acquire a certain length, as is often the 
 case with the women, the grains dispose themselves in continuous 
 rows, giving rise to long ridges with intervening empty spaces, as 
 in the artistic arrangement on a hairdresser's dummy. But such 
 spaces are no more hairless than are the partings made by combs, 
 so that the hair forms no separate clusters or tufted growths 
 ('Biischel'). The process appears very early in life, as in the ten 
 months' old child of Amol, a member of the Req tribe." 
 
426 ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 VII. Evolution of Speech 
 (Chap. IX.). 
 
 In a paper on Pithecanthropus Erectus, contributed by Dr Arthur 
 Keith to Science Progress iox July 1895, Prof. Cunningham's conclusion 
 that the Java remains indicate "a human race more primitive than 
 any hitherto discovered,"' is accepted as " very probably right." From 
 a study of the facial parts specially modified for speech Dr Keith 
 further infers that, the arrangement of the mental lines being the same 
 in human fossil jaws as in modern ones, "the muscles which arose 
 from them were adapted to similar purposes, and were therefore 
 subservient for speech. The arrangement of the mental lines in 
 anthropoids is quite different. They turn up in front of the inferior 
 canine teeth, and enclose between them a quadrilateral rough surface 
 corresponding to the triangular mental space of man. In anthropoids 
 this space retreats rapidly downwards and backwards, a feature in 
 which fossil man resembles apes much more than modern man, and 
 shows also, I think, that fossil man was less highly adapted for 
 speech" (p. 364 — 5). From this it appears that primitive man was not 
 speechless, but that his articulation was less perfect than that of his 
 modern descendants. Thus is confirmed on anatomical grounds our 
 statement that " speech is a function which perfects itself hand in 
 hand with the growth of the organ. Hence the faculty starts from 
 a germ, and its history is one of continuous upward evolution from 
 slowly accumulating crude utterances" (p. 195). It follows as a 
 necessary corollary that the organic or present condition of speech 
 was preceded by an "inorganic phase" as shown in our diagram, 
 p. 212. 
 
 VIII. Cephalic Breadth Index 
 
 (p. 179). 
 
 c ^ ^ ■ J) r 1 Tr. diam. x 100 ^, 
 
 bupply Topmard's formula: — . That is to sav 
 
 Ante. post. diam. 
 
 the cephalic index of breadth, as distinguished from the less important 
 cephalic index of height, is found by multiplying the maximum trans- 
 verse diameter by 100 and dividing by the maximum antero-posterior 
 diameter, as described at p. 17S — 9. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abbeville, Hints found at, 82 
 
 Abbott, C. C, on the flint-bearing 
 Trenton gravels, loi 
 
 Abydos district, Nile Valley, flints 
 found in, 92 
 
 Abyssinia, a region of ethnical con- 
 fusion, 390 
 
 Abyssinians, their constituent ethnical 
 elements, 390 — i 
 
 Adelaide tribe. South Australia, of 
 Neanderthal type, 238, 294 
 
 AetaNegritoes, Philippine Is. ,259 — 61; 
 their physical characters, 260; men- 
 tal capacity, 261 
 
 Afars, their ethnical relations, 3S6 
 
 —7 
 
 Afghans, of Irano-Semitic type, 397 
 
 African Negritoes, 246 — 53 
 
 Agglutination, many kinds of, 205 ; 
 its nature, 209; the first phase of 
 organic speech, 209 ; passes into 
 Inflexion, Polysynthesis and Isola- 
 tion, 211 — 2 
 
 Agricultural statg, see Social States 
 
 Ainus, their physical characters and 
 ethnical relations, 418 — 20 
 
 "Akkads of Babylonia, type and speech, 
 301—2 
 
 Ak-kapana, its megalithic doorway, 
 
 139 
 
 Akkas, early records of, 245 ; their 
 
 type, 247 
 Alfuro, a term of no ethnical value, 
 
 note, 328 
 Alignments, monolithic monuments, 
 
 "Allophylian whites," 308, 318 
 Ameghino, S., on tertiaiy man in S. 
 
 America, 98 
 America, its prehistoric monuments, 
 
 106, 138 — 9; accessible from Europe 
 
 in Miocene and later times, 231; 
 
 and from Asia at all times, 232; 
 
 peopled during the Stone Ages, 341 
 — 2; later migrations disproved, 
 
 American aborigines, their relation to 
 the Mongol group, 222, 336; to 
 the black and white groups, 337 — 
 40; aberrant types explained, 337 — 
 9; uniform types of, 338; not de- 
 rived from historical Asiatic peoples, 
 342, 365 — 7; two types, long and 
 round-headed, 346 — 7 ; everywhere 
 intermingled, 347 — 9; their physi- 
 cal and mental characters compared 
 with the Mongolic and Ethiopic, 
 349 — 52; their temperament every- 
 
 where uniform, 353- 
 
 reached 
 
 America by two routes during the 
 Stone Ages, 362; present distri- 
 bution of the two types, 362; theii 
 various destinies in Latin and Anglo- 
 Saxon America, 370 — 2 
 
 American culture of independent 
 growth, 340; evidences of foreign 
 influences disproved, 340 — 2 ; 
 identical with that of the Old World 
 in the first Stone Age, later diver- 
 gent, 345—6 
 
 American languages, their morphology, 
 211 — 3; their uniform character, 
 357 — 8; absolutely distinct from 
 those of the Old World, 358; great 
 number of American stock langua- 
 ges, 359—60 
 
 Amiens, flints found at, 82 
 
 Amzigh, national name of the Mauri- 
 tanian Berbers, note, 384 
 
 Anchitherium, 37 
 
 Andamanese Negritoes, their physical 
 and mental characters, 256 — 7 
 
 Angkali, "Fishing Chukchi," 319 
 
 Anglo-Americans, their physique due 
 to convergence, 372 — 3 
 
 Annamese of Indo-China, 321 
 
428 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Anthropoidea, the five families of the, 
 
 17, 18; generalised anthropoid form 
 
 (diagram), 19 
 Anthropology, special and general, 
 
 defined, i ; scope of, i, 2 ; criminal, 
 
 189 
 Anthropomorphism, its origin, 217 
 Anthropopithecus (Chimpanzee), 18; 
 
 A. sivalensis, 18 
 Antiquity of man, 50; not a question 
 
 of orthodoxy, 75; see also Paleo- 
 lithic and Neolithic 
 Arabs, their ethnical relations, 393; 
 
 their type, 393—4; language, 394 
 Argentina, evidences of primitive man 
 
 in, 98, 99 
 Armenians, of Semitic type, 397 ; 
 
 their language, 411 
 Aryan, meaning of the term, 227 ; note, 
 
 395; a linguistic rather than an 
 
 ethnical expression, 395 — 6 
 Aryan languages, their wide diffusion, 
 
 410; their main branches, 411 — 2; 
 
 their disintegration, causes of, 412 
 
 —3 
 
 Aryan problem, summed up, 410 
 Aiyan root theory exploded, 208 
 Aryans, their migrations, 396 — 9; 
 their cradleland, 400 — 5; primi- 
 tive culture, 401 — 2; early contact 
 with the Semites, 404 — 5; their 
 physical characters, 405 — 10 
 Ashton, W. G. , on Koreo-Japanese 
 
 linguistic affinities, 313 
 Asia Minor, paloeolith found in, 93 
 Assyrians, their ethnical relations, 
 
 393; language, 394 
 Austral secondary and tertiary con- 
 tinent, 230; probable cradleland of 
 man, 236 
 Australia, evidences of quaternary 
 
 man found in, 94 
 Australian languages not related to 
 Dravidian, 233; nor to Malayo- 
 Polynesian, note, 292 
 Australians, their cerebral structure, 
 47 ; not a homogeneous group, 289 ; 
 their physical characters, 290 — i; 
 their constituent elements, 291; 
 their relations to the Tasmanians 
 and to Pliocene man, 292 — 4; their 
 craniology, 424 
 Auvergnats,theirethnical relations, 406 
 Avars, a Finno-Tatar people, 308 
 Avery, J., on the Tibetan language, 
 
 325 
 
 Aymaras, their culture, 159 — 40 
 
 Bacon, Friar, on the experimental 
 
 method, 41 
 Bacon, Nicholas, his inductive method. 
 
 41 
 Bahrein Islands, their sepulchral 
 
 mounds, 134 
 Ball, v., on the Negrito question in 
 
 India, 256 
 Baltic Finns, 311 
 Bantu, origin and meaning of the 
 
 term, 271 — 2 
 Bantu negroid peoples, their type 
 
 and range, 271; their speech, 272 
 
 — 3; chief tribes, 277 — 80 
 Bantu prefix particles, note, 271 — 2 
 Barrows, their construction, 124; 
 
 origin of the word, note, 124 
 Bartram, H., on the independent 
 
 character of American culture, 343 
 Basque language, its morphology, 213; 
 
 its Berber relations, 205, 377 
 Basques, their relations to the Picts and 
 
 Berbers, 377 — 9; their type, 378 
 Batwa Negritoes, 248 
 Beard, a racial character, 177 
 Beddoe, Dr, on reversion, 35 
 Bejas, their ethnical relations, 387 
 Bent, Theodore, on the Bahrein 
 
 monuments, 134 
 Berbers, their relations to Neolithic 
 
 man, 376; to the Basques, 377 — 8; 
 
 of black type, 382 ; their relations 
 
 to the Blemmyes, 386 
 Bemier, F.,his primary human groups, 
 
 163 
 Bimana, the, 17 
 Binger, Capt., on the early closing of 
 
 the cranial sutures in the Negro 
 
 race, 44 
 Blemmyes, their ethnical affinities, 
 
 386-7 
 Blumenbach, on the specific unity of 
 
 man, 160, 161; his primary human 
 
 groups, 164 
 Blumentritt, Prof., on the affinities of 
 
 the Philippine Islanders, 332 
 Blyden, Dr, a Negro writer, note, 
 
 26S 
 Boas, Dr Fr., his theory of the tribe, 
 
 7; on the Indian half-breeds, 152 
 Bonneval dolmen, note, 127 
 Bory de Saint-Vincent, his primary 
 
 human groups, 164 
 Boucher de Perthes, his researches in 
 
 the Somme Valley, 75, 82 
 Bourgeois, Abbe, champion of Ter- 
 
 tiaiy man, 75 
 
INDEX. 
 
 429 
 
 Bove, G., on the Chukchi Hyper- 
 boreans, 319 
 
 Boyd-Dawkins, Prof., on Pre- and 
 Post-glacial man, 63; on Lyell's 
 Seasonal-migration Theory, 64; on 
 the continuity of Palaeolithic and 
 Neolithic cultures, 73, 113 
 
 Brachycephaly, defined, 178 
 
 Bradley, H., on the Gothic language, 
 note, 399 — 400 
 
 Brain, weight of, in man and the lower 
 orders, 40, 41; its cellular tissue 
 (grey cortex) seat of mental energy, 
 44; its comparative study yields 
 better results than craniometr)', 47 
 
 Branch, meaning of the term, 11 
 
 Brassempouy Palaeolithic station, its 
 ivory statuettes, 252 
 
 Brazil, evidences of primitive man in, 
 
 98' 99 
 
 Breal, M., on pre- and post-positive 
 languages, note, 214 
 
 Brinton, Dr D., on the assumed Asi- 
 atic origin of American cultures, 
 218 — 9; on evolution per saltiim, 
 235; on the cradleland of the 
 Semites, 392 
 
 Brittany, its Neolithic monuments, 
 129, 133 
 
 Biixhani Cave, implements found in, 
 80 
 
 Broca, Paul, his definition of Anthro- 
 pology, I ; his theory of the French 
 Kelts, 34; his cranial measure- 
 ments, 43, 46; turns from cranial 
 to cerebral studies, 47 ; his primary 
 human groups, 168; his scheme of 
 cephalic index, 1 79 ; on the brain of 
 man and the apes, 191, 192 
 
 Bronze, origin and diffusion of, 123; 
 not unknown in America, 123 
 
 Bronze Age, 56, 109; in Peru (Chimu), 
 
 133,335 
 Brown, J. A., on the continuity of 
 
 primitive cultures, note, 115 
 Briix, human remains found at, 146 
 Bubi, their type, note, 278 
 Buckland, Miss A., on the origin of 
 
 the Nuraghi, iid 
 Buddhist purgatory and Aztec spirit- 
 land, 218 
 Buffon, on the natural history of man, 
 
 166 
 Bulgarians, their ethnical and linguistic 
 
 relations, 309 — 10 
 Burma, flints found in pliocene beds, 
 
 423-4 
 
 Burmans of Indo-China, 321 
 
 Burmeister, on early man in Argentina, 
 98 
 
 Bushmen, their relations to the Hot- 
 tentots and Bantus, 249 ; their 
 mental qualities, 249 — 50; present 
 social state, 250 
 
 Byrne, Dean, on the correlation of 
 speech and temperament, note, 357 
 
 Cae Gwyn Cave, flints found in, 81 
 Cairns, their construction, 124; origin 
 
 of the word, note, 124 
 Cairo, implement found near, 92 
 Calaveras, fossil skull found at, 104 
 Calendars, American and Asiatic, 218 
 Callard, T. K., on the antiquity of 
 
 man, 76 
 Canada, implements found in, 10 1, 
 
 105 
 Cannibalism in the Congo Basin, 205 ; 
 
 in Hayti, 267 
 Cannstadt skull, its evidence doubtful, 
 
 33 
 Canterbury gravel beds, eoliths found 
 
 in, 82 
 Cape Colony, palaeoliths found in, 93 
 Carles, his discoveries in Argentina, 
 
 34 
 
 Carnac, its menhirs, 133 
 
 Carus, Dr, on the correlation of phy- 
 sical and mental characters, 47; his 
 primary human groups, 165 
 
 Castenedolo man, 32 
 
 Catlin, G., on the endurance of the 
 Mandan Indians, 354 
 
 "Cattle-Herd Theory," the, 14 
 
 Caucasians of dark type, 381 
 
 Caucasic, meaning of the term, 226; 
 its use justified, 226 
 
 Caucasic element in Polynesia, 289; 
 in the Mongol domain, 297 — 9, 
 307—8 
 
 Caucasus, human fossils found in, 93 ; 
 inhabitants of, their ethnical and 
 linguistic relations, 415 — 7; chief 
 divisions, 415 — 6 
 
 CebidK, the, 18 
 
 Cephalic index, how determined, 178, 
 179, 426; tables of, 179, 180 
 
 Cercopithecidae, the, 18 
 
 Chalk Plateau, Kent, eoliths found on, 
 82 
 
 Chapman, F. R., on the Stone Ages 
 in New Zealand, 95 — 6 
 
 Charancey, M., on the Otomi lan- 
 guage, 214 
 
430 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Chelles, flints found at, 84 
 
 Chellian Age, 84 
 
 Chibcha language, its monosyllabism. 
 214 
 
 Chichen-Itza, 138 
 
 Chillicothe, its monuments, 107 
 
 Chimpanzee, species, range and chamc- 
 ters of, -zcj, 24 
 
 Chimu, Peru, bronze art of, 123, 335; 
 its pre-Inca culture, 335 
 
 Chinese language, originally polysyl- 
 labic, 207 
 
 Chinese race, its physical and mental 
 characters, 321 — 2; estimates of 
 population, 322 
 
 ( hudes, "while-eyed Finns," 307 
 
 Chukchi, their ethnical relations, 318 
 
 —9 
 
 Chuklukmiut, Eskimo of N.E. Sibe- 
 ria, 318 
 
 Cistvaens, their origin and construc- 
 tion, 124 
 
 Clan, defined, 5, 6; clan system of 
 kinship, 6 ; derivation of the word, 
 note, 8 
 
 Claymont, Delaware, implements 
 found at, 10 1 
 
 Clemence Royer, Mme., on glacial 
 phenomena, 63 
 
 Clough, J. C, on mixed languages, 
 199 
 
 Codrington, Rev. R. H.,on the Mela- 
 nesian languages, 287, 331 
 
 Colour of the skin, a racial test, 171 ; 
 of Negro children, 173 
 
 Colours, racial, the six primary, 173 
 
 Comhaire, C. J., on a bronze age in 
 Belgium, 109 
 
 Cope, E. D., on the man of Spy, 35, 
 147; on the evolution of the An- 
 thropomorpha, 35; on palaeolithic 
 man in North America, 423 
 
 Coptos, age of its rude monuments, 
 
 56 
 
 Corancez dolmen, note, 127 
 
 Couvade, widely prevalent, 219; its 
 explanation, 368 
 
 Cranial capacity in man and the 
 Simiidae, 40; to be distinguished 
 from mental capacity, 42 ; of various 
 races, 43 ; correlated to mental 
 capacity, 190; its relation to the 
 weight of the body in the animal 
 series, 191 ; in man and the higher 
 apes, 191; comparative tables of, 
 192; American inferior to Mongol 
 and Negro, 352 
 
 Cranial indices, 43, 46; Negro, 264; 
 
 Malay, 328; American, 349 
 Crannogs, Irish and Scotch, 122 
 Creswell Caves, implements found 
 
 in, 80 
 Criteriaof race, physical, 171; mental, 
 
 Croll, Dr, his periodicity theory, 57 
 
 Cro-Magnon race, 149; its ethnical 
 relations, 376 
 
 Cromlechs, their origin and con- 
 struction, 124 
 
 Cruel, Dr R., his "Turanian" theory, 
 note, 406 
 
 Cultures, grades of, often synchronous, 
 hence not always a test of time se- 
 quence, 72; Pala^o- and Neolithic, 
 comparative tables of, no, in; 
 continuity of, in, 112 
 
 Cunningham, Dr J. , on Pithecanthro- 
 pus erectus, 145 
 
 Customs, as racial tests, see Usages 
 
 Cuvier, his multi-creation theory, 30 ; 
 his primary human groups, 164 
 
 Cycloliths, 130 
 
 Cyrus, Thomas, on the mound-build- 
 ers, note, 107 
 
 Dallas, ]., on the dispersion and mi- 
 grations of primitive man, 233 — 4 
 
 Damaras, 253 
 
 Danakils, their ethnical relations, 
 386-7 . 
 
 Dano-Eskimo half-breeds, permanent- 
 ly fertile, 152 
 
 Darwin, his view of race and species, 
 5 ; his explanation of rudimentary 
 organs, 29 ; on species and variety, 
 142 
 
 Dauertypus, Kollmann's, 34, 36, 37 
 
 Davis, Dr Barnard, on reversion, 35, 
 his table of cranial capacity, 192 
 
 Decle, L., on the Waruanda, 389 
 
 DeLapouge, Prof., on Aryan ethnical 
 relations, 407 
 
 De Mortillet, his four Palaeolithic 
 epochs, 83, 84 
 
 De Nadaillac, on the peopling of 
 America, 342 ; on the Aryans, note, 
 
 396 
 
 Deniker, J., on the West African Ne- 
 groes, 153; on pure and mixed 
 races, note, 163; his scheme of 
 classification, 168, 169 
 
 Denmark, its peat-beds, 118; its kit- 
 chen middens, 119; its neolithic 
 monuments, 135 
 
INDEX. 
 
 H-0 
 
 Dentition, human and simian, 25, 26, 
 1 84 ; its correlation to gnathism, 1 84 ; 
 cause of defective in civilised man, 
 184 ; its relation to social conditions, 
 184 
 
 De Quatrefages, his theory of evolu- 
 tion, 31; ontheThenayand Monte- 
 Aperto finds, 91 ; on early man in 
 S. America, 99 ; his classification of 
 man, 167; his theory of early mi- 
 grations, 232; on the evolution of 
 the Hominidse, 239; on "black" 
 and "white" American aborigines, 
 337; on the relations of Neolithic 
 man in Europe and Africa, 376; on 
 the cradleland and dispersion of 
 primitive man, 376 — 7 
 
 De Ujfalvy, Ch., on the Galcha race 
 and languages, note, 41 1 
 
 Diagram of linguistic evolution, 212 
 
 Dolichocephaly, defined, 17S 
 
 DolmenSjtheir origin and construction, 
 124 
 
 Donnenberg, E. G., on the dwarfs of 
 Marocco, 247 
 
 Dorsey, J. O., on the fate of the N. 
 American aborigines, 371 — 2 
 
 Douglas, R. K., on Akkadian and 
 Chinese monosyllabism, 207 
 
 Dravidian languages not related to 
 Australian, 233 
 
 Dravidians, their relations to the Aus- 
 tralians, 29 1 ; their ethnical affiiiities, 
 417 — 8; their chief divisions, 417 
 
 " Druids' Altars," origin of, 125 
 
 Dryopithecus, 18; relations of to the 
 Simiid.ie and to man, 24 
 
 Dubois, Dr E., his Pithecanthropus 
 erectus, 144 
 
 Dunn, Dr R., on mixed races, 155 
 
 Dupont, E., on the pleistocene fauna, 
 
 38, 39 
 Duval, M., on organ and function, 42 
 Dwarfs in Marocco, 247 ; formerly 
 
 widespread, 246 
 
 Earl, W., on grades of culture in 
 Malaysia, 216 
 
 Eastern Polynesians, a branch of the 
 Indonesians, 326 
 
 Egede, Pastor, on the temperament 
 of the Eskimo, 353 
 
 Eguisheim, fossil skull found at, 148 
 
 Egyptian culture, antiquity of, 56; 
 ethnical and linguistic relations, 391 
 
 Elizabeth Island, Fuegia, iis shell- 
 mounds, 96 
 
 Ellis, A. B., his explanation of the 
 Clan system, 6 ; on the early clos- 
 ing of the cranial sutures, 44 
 
 Emin Pasha, his measurements of the 
 Akka dwarfs, 189 
 
 Endogamy, meaning of the word, 
 note 2, p. 7 
 
 English, not a mixed language, 199; 
 its morphology, 213 
 
 Eohippus, 36 
 
 Eoliths, British, 74; found at Finch- 
 ampstead, Paddington &c. , 82; 
 derivation and meaning of the 
 word, note, 82 
 
 Equidse, their evolution compared 
 with that of the Hominidae, 36, 37 
 
 Erdeven, its alignment, 131 
 
 Erith, river-drift implements found 
 at, 82 
 
 Eskimo of Siberia, 318 — 9; of Ame- 
 rica, their temperament, 353; their 
 ethnical relations unravelled, 363 — 
 5 ; their type, 363 — 4 ; their cranio- 
 logy, 4-5 
 
 Esthonians, Baltic Finns mentioned 
 by King Alfred, 311 
 
 Ethiopic, twofold meaning of the 
 term, note, 227 
 
 Ethnography, defined, 2 ; scope of 
 
 -' 3 
 Ethnological nomenclature, 3, 4; 
 
 definite terms, 4 — 12; indefinite 
 
 terms, 13, 14; example, 15 
 Ethnology, defined, 2 ; scope of, 3 
 Eugenesis, defined by Broca, 153; 
 
 proved for all races, 155 
 Eurafrican miocene continent, 230 
 Eurasian steppe, cradleland of the 
 
 Aryans, 403 
 Eurygnathism, 18 r 
 Evans, A. J., on the culture of the 
 
 Mentone Cave Men, note, iii 
 Evans, Sir J., on the gap between the 
 
 Old and New Stone Ages, 112 
 Evolution, physical and mental of 
 
 man, 16 — 49; "per saltum," 235 
 Exogamy, meaning of the word, note 
 
 2, P- 7 
 Eye, colour and shape of, racial 
 characters, 1S6; more uniform in 
 the lower than in the higher races, 
 186; the Mongol and Semitic, 187 
 
 Face, its general expression a racial 
 character, 187 ; four types of, 187 
 
 Family, twofold meaning of the word, 
 8; the social unit, 8; origin of, 
 
432 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 conflicting theories, 8, 9; family 
 life amongst the Anlhropoidea, 9 
 
 Family Tree of the Hominid^e, 224; 
 of Homo /Ethiopicus, 244 ; of 
 Homo Mongolicus, 300; of Homo 
 Americanus, 361 ; of Homo Cau- 
 casicus, 3S0 
 
 Fans, their type and speech, note, 278 
 
 Finchampstead, eoliths found at, 82 
 
 Finger markings, rather an individual 
 than a racial test, 189 
 
 Finn, meaning of the word, 305 
 
 Finno -Tatars, their early and later 
 migrations, 308 — 11 
 
 Finno-Turki, divergent types, 305 
 
 Finns, their Mongolo-Caucasic affini- 
 ties, 305—8; Baltic, 307; their 
 cradleland, 308 
 
 Finsch, J)v O., on the Maori, note, 
 327; on the Malays, 330 
 
 Fire, reminiscences of its origin, note, 
 III 
 
 Flores, former presence of Negritoes 
 in, note, 261 — 2 
 
 Flower, Sir W., on reversion, 35 ; on 
 the Negrito and Papuan crania, 178 
 
 Flower and Lydekker, their primary 
 human groups, 169, 221; on the 
 relation of the American aborigines 
 to the Mongol group, 221 — 2 ; on the 
 dispersion of the Hominidte over 
 the globe, 240; on the Australian 
 problem, 291 — 2; on the physical 
 characters of Homo Caucasicus, 382 
 
 Food, of early man and the higher 
 apes, no, III 
 
 Forbes, H. O., on the Sumatran 
 Kubus, 418 
 
 Fort Ancient, Ohio, its earthworks, 
 107 
 
 Franco-Canadian half-breeds, perma- 
 nently fertile, 152 
 
 Fuegiani, their mental capacity, 48 
 
 Fulahs, physical type, 270; their 
 political ascendancy, 270 
 
 Function and Organ correlated, 41, 
 
 Gabelenz, G. von der, on the Basque 
 
 and Berber languages, 205, 377 
 Gafsa, Tunisia, implements found at, 
 
 9- 
 
 Gaillard, F., his theory of the mega- 
 lithic monuments, 137 
 
 Galcha languages, 4 10 — i 
 
 Galchas, their type and ethnical rela- 
 tions, 405 — 6 
 
 Gallas, their type and ethnical rela- 
 tions, 387 — 8 
 
 Galley II ill gravels, human remains 
 found in, 147 
 
 (jalton, Fr., on reversion, 35 
 
 Garcilaso de la Vega, on the Tiahua- 
 naco monuments, 139 
 
 Garner, R. L., on ape language, note, 
 
 195 
 
 Garson, Dr J. G., on the Sumatran 
 Kubus, 418 
 
 Gatschet, A. S., on the American 
 polysynthetic languages, 214 
 
 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, his four fun- 
 damental types, 166 
 
 Geological sequence, the, its bearing 
 on man's antiquity, 50; table of, 
 
 5^—56 
 Geological time, various estimates of, 
 
 51, 58 
 Germans of Caucasia, their changed 
 
 type and unchanged speech, 203 
 Germans, primitive and later types 
 
 of> 397 
 
 Gesture language, 195 
 
 Gibbon, 18, 20; range and species of, 
 20 
 
 Giglioli, E., on inter-glacial man, 70; 
 on primitive Australian implements, 
 note, 95 ; on the Australian pro- 
 blem, 293; on the Afars, 387 
 
 Glacial problem, the, ^6 ; restated, 68 
 
 Gnathism, a racial character, 181; 
 various grades of, 1 8 ( ; their evolu- 
 tion, 181; facial, 181; sub-nasal, 
 181, 182; table of, 182 
 
 Gomrae, G. L., his theory of the 
 human horde, 13, 14 
 
 Gonaquas, 253 
 
 Gorilla, range and characters of, 22 
 
 Gothic language, its late survival, 
 399—400 
 
 Gray, J. , on the relations of Picts and 
 Iberians, 378 — 9 
 
 Greeks, their primitive and later 
 types, 408 — 9 
 
 Green, T. H., his theory of the 
 family, 9 
 
 Griquas, 253 
 
 Grotte de la Vache, its culture eras, 90 
 
 Guatusos of Costa Rica, legendary 
 statements regarding their origin, 
 
 340 
 Guillemard, Dr F. H. H., on the 
 
 Negritoes of the Philippine Is., 261 ; 
 on the colour of the Japanese, 316; 
 on the 1/iorais of Polynesia, 370 
 
INDEX. 
 
 433 
 
 Gyarungs of Central Asia, their 
 Oceanic affinities, 326 
 
 Haeckel, his Homo primigeniiis 
 alalus, 30 ; his classification of man, 
 167 
 
 Hahn, Dr E., his six Kulturformen, 
 
 215 
 
 Hair, a test of race, 174; its colour 
 and texture, 174, 175; threefold 
 structure of, 176; tufted non-exis- 
 tent, 425 
 
 Hairy men, reports of, 26 
 
 Hale, Horatio, his theory of the 
 family, 8 ; on the relations of 
 speech to anthropology, 193 
 
 Hallstadt necropolis, 109 
 
 Hamites, white, brown, and dark, 
 383 ; Eastern division of, 386 — 9 ; 
 of Abyssinia, 390 ; relations to the 
 Semites, 391 
 
 Hamitic languages, three groups, 391 
 
 Hamito-Semitic, ethnical and linguis- 
 tic affinities, 391 
 
 Hamy, Dr, on the physical characters 
 of the Sudanese Negroes, 269 ; on 
 Mongolo-Caucasic interminglings, 
 note, 299 ; on the Indonesians, 326 
 
 Hapalidse, the, 18 
 
 Harratins, " black Berbers," 382, 
 
 383 
 Harris, W. B., on the Berbers of 
 
 Marocco, 383 
 Hatfield Beds, flints found in, 78 
 ?Iayti, Negroes of, 267 
 Height, see Stature 
 Hellenes, their primitive and later 
 
 types, 408—9 
 Herbert Spencer, oh the brain of 
 
 civilised man and the savage, 191 
 Himyarites of Yemen and Abyssinia, 
 
 390 
 Hindus, their ethnical relation, 398 — 
 
 9 ; their primitive type, 409 
 Hipparion, 37 
 
 Historic period, its duration, 56, ri6 
 Hitchcock, Romyn, on the Ainus, 
 
 note, 419 
 Hiung-nu, a historic Turki people, 
 
 304 
 Hodgson, B. H., on the relations of 
 
 the, Asiatic and Oceanic languages, 
 
 326 
 Hohnel, Lieut, von, on the Masai, 
 
 389 . 
 Hominidse, the, 17; four primary 
 varieties of the, 25 ; already diffe- 
 
 rentiated in quaternary times, 
 33> 34; Tertiary, rejected, 37; 
 are varieties not distinct species, 
 I42 — 3; the physiological argument, 
 T42 ; the anatomical argument, 
 156; the psychic argument, 160; 
 comparative table of their physical 
 and mental characters, 228; their 
 probable cradleland, 236; their order 
 of evolution, 239; their dispersion 
 over the globe, 240 
 
 Hommel, Dr F., on the relations of 
 the Hamites and Semites, 391 
 
 Homo ^thiopicus, ideal type of, 224; 
 two divisions, African and Oceanic, 
 242; his Family Tree, 344; his 
 early migrations, 245 ; see also 
 Negro 
 
 Homo Americanus, ideal type of, 
 224 ; relations to the Mongol group, 
 336 ; uniform physical type, 336— 
 7; Family Tree of, 361; see also 
 American aborigines 
 
 Homo Caucasicus, ideal type of, 224; 
 dominant position of, 226; cradle- 
 land of, 374 — 5 ; first migrations, 
 375—6; Family Tree of, 380; 
 physical characters, 382 
 
 Homo Mongolicus, ideal type of, 224; 
 aberrant types of, 226; original 
 home of, 295; early migrations of, 
 296; evolution of, 296; physical 
 characters of, 297; see also Mon- 
 golic 
 
 Horde, derivation and meaning of the 
 term, 13; implies no kinship, 13; 
 its historic and ethnical use, 13, 14; 
 theory of the human horde, 14 
 
 Hor-soks, Mongolo-Turks of Tibet, 
 
 313 
 
 Hottentots, their relations to the 
 Bushmen and Bantus, 249; their 
 mental and physical characters, 251; 
 formerly widespread, 252 — 3; pre- 
 sent range and position, 253; speech, 
 
 ^53 
 "Hottentot Venus" of Cuvier. 251 
 Houze, Dr, on heredity, 35 
 Hovas, their modified Malay type, 
 
 330 
 Hovelacque, A., his polygenist views, 
 
 156 
 
 Howarth, O. H., on fancied traces of 
 
 Japanese in America, 340 — i 
 Hoxne, palaeoliths found at, 78 
 Hudson, W. H., on primitive man in 
 Patagonia, 97 
 
 28 
 
434 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Humboklt, A. von, on the tempera- 
 ment of the Cai ibs, 355 
 
 Humboldt, W. von, on the Basque 
 language, 213 
 
 Huxley, his primary human groups, 
 167; his Xanthochroid and Mela- 
 nochroid divisions, 379 — 80 
 
 Hyperboreans of Siberia, 317 
 
 Hypsistenocephaly, 180 
 
 Ibero-Berber relations, 378 — 9 
 
 Ilford, river-drift implements found 
 at, 82 
 
 Implements, their value as tests of 
 antiquity, 76 
 
 im Thurn, E., on the temperament of 
 the Guiana Indians, 356 
 
 Incas, the, destroyers not founders of 
 Tiahuanaco, 139 
 
 India, palaeoliths found in, 93, 94 
 
 Indian half-breeds, U. States, perma- 
 nently fertile, 152 
 
 Indo-African Miocene Continent, 229; 
 probable cradleland of man, 236 
 
 Indo-Europeansj ^^^ ^^ 
 
 Indo-Germans ) •' 
 
 Indonesians, a sub-division of the 
 Caucasic family, 326; their Ocean- 
 ic domain, 326 ; their physical 
 characters, 327 — 8 
 
 Indo-Oceanic linguistic affinities, 326 
 
 Inflection, nature of, 212; reverts to 
 agglutination, 210; grows out of 
 agglutination, 215; merges in poly- 
 synthesis, 214 
 
 Inter-glacial man, 63, 67 
 
 Iranians, their primitive type, 407 
 
 —9 
 
 Jackson county, Indiana, implements 
 
 found in, loi 
 Jagor and Koerbin, on the low-caste 
 
 tribes of S. India, 255 
 James, F. L., on the Somali, 388 
 Japan, artificial caves and other 
 
 evidence of primitive man found in, 
 
 94 . . 
 
 Japanese, their relations to the 
 Koreans, 313 ; their origin and 
 type, 314 — 5; their mental quali- 
 ties, 316 — 7 
 
 Jas trow. Pro f., on the cradleland of 
 the Semites, 392 
 
 Java, remains of pleistocene man in, 
 144; Negritoes of, 262 
 
 Jennings, A. V., on the age of the 
 Mentone Cave men, 73 
 
 Jespersen, Prof., on the evolution of 
 
 speech, 209 
 Johnston, H. H., on the Bushmen, 
 
 251; on the Negro temperament, 
 
 265 
 Junker, Dr, on the hair of the 
 
 Negroes, 175; on the Negritoes, 
 
 248; on Negro and Bantu inter- 
 
 minglings, 274 
 
 Kabyles, their relations to Neolithic 
 
 man, 376 
 Kalang Negritoes, Java, 262 — 3 
 Karehan Finns, 307 
 Karons of New Guinea, 261 
 Keith, Dr A., on the evolution of the 
 
 organs of speech, 426 
 Kelt, a term of no ethnical value, 
 
 397 
 Kelts, the, not dolmen-builders, 125, 
 136; their migrations, 136; their 
 relations to Picts and Iberians, 378 
 — 9; their multifarious types, 397, 
 
 405 
 Kent's Cavern, implements found in, 
 
 7<S 
 Khasi Hills, neolitliic monuments in, 
 
 130 
 Khasi language, 325 
 Kiranti language of Nepal, 325 
 Kirghiz, a Turki people of West 
 
 Siberia, 312 
 Kirkdale Cavern, 75 
 Kitchen middens, no sure test of agCj 
 
 77; of Denmark, their age, 119; 
 
 of Fuegia, their age, 96 
 Kizil-bash Turks of Anatolia, 312 
 Knight, E. F., on the temperament of 
 
 the Paraguay Indians, 355 
 Kolarian languages, 325 
 Kolea, Algeria, flints found at, 93 
 Kollmann, his Dauertypus, 34, 37; 
 
 his anatomical argument for the 
 
 unity of man, 156; on Neolithic 
 
 Negritoes, 246 
 Koranas, 253 
 Koreans, their ethnical and linguistic 
 
 relations, 313 
 Koryaks of N.E. Siberia, 319 
 Kubus of Sumatra, their ethnical 
 
 relations, 418 
 Kurgans, prehistoric structures, 126 
 
 Lacouperie, T. de, on Chinese mono- 
 syllabism, 207 ; on Chinese origins, 
 323; on Asiatic and Oceanic lin- 
 guistic affinities, 326 
 
INDEX. 
 
 435 
 
 La Denise, human remains found at, 
 146 
 
 Lagoa Santa, human remains found 
 in, 99 
 
 Lahotan, Lake, palseolith (?) found 
 in, 103 
 
 Lake Dwellings, of Switzerland, 120, 
 122 ; of Ireland and Scotland, 122 ; 
 wide range and origin of, 121 
 
 Laloy, L., ' on the West African Ne- 
 groes, 153 
 
 La Madeleine Rock Shelter, imple- 
 ments found in, 87 
 
 La Naulette, fossil skull found at, 145 
 
 Landor, A. H. Savage, on the Ainus, 
 418 
 
 Language, the outward expression of 
 reason, 193 ; its relation to anthro- 
 pology, 193; its physical basis, 193; 
 its relation to ethnology, 194; its 
 evolution, 195 ; its origin in a single 
 centre, 196; develops species and 
 genera which do not mix, 198 — 9; 
 its value as a racial test, 200, 204 ; 
 its morphological orders, 205; their 
 evolution, 206; language not com- 
 mensurate with thought, note, 193; 
 its physical organs, development 
 of, 426 
 
 Lanugo, a character of the human 
 foetus, and probably of the pre- 
 cursor, 175 
 
 Lapps, their ethnical affinities and 
 physical characters, 307, 405 
 
 Latham, Dr, his primary human 
 groups, 165 
 
 Latin, originally a post-positive lan- 
 guage, 214 
 
 Laugerie Basse, human remains found 
 at, 148 
 
 Laugerie Haute Cave, its culture eras, 
 
 Lebanon, palseoliths found in, 93 
 Le Conte, J., his theory of evolution, 
 
 note, 49 
 Lefevre, A., on the cause of articulate 
 speech, 195; on coincidences be- 
 tween Old and New World cul- 
 tures, 219 
 Lemuria, Sclater's, replaced by the 
 
 Tndo-African Continent, 229 
 Lemuroidea, the, 17 
 Lenape Stone, a fraud, 345 
 Lenz, O., on the Fans, note, 278 
 Leptorrhine nose, its index, 186 
 Letourneau, Ch., on the Breton and 
 Mauritanian megaliths, 137 
 
 Lewis, A. L., his theory of the Neo- 
 lithic monuments, 137 
 
 Lifynnon Benks Cave, flints found in, 
 81 
 
 Linguistic types not stable, 209 — 10 ; 
 evolution, diagram of, 212 
 
 Linne, his primary human groups, 
 164, 222 
 
 Little Falls, Minnesota, rude imple- 
 ments found at, 103 
 
 Little Miami river, its flint-bearing 
 gravels, 10 1 
 
 Lockyer, Norman, on the age of the 
 Egyptian temples, 56 
 
 Lotherdale Cave, implements found 
 in, 8r 
 
 Louis IX. of France, his reference to 
 the "Tartars," 304 
 
 Lovisato, Dr D., on Fuegian family 
 names, note 4, p. 9 ; on the mental 
 capacity of the Fuegians, 48; on 
 the Fuegian kitchen middens, 96 
 
 Lugard, Capt., on the Gallas, note, 
 387 ; on the Wa-Huma of Uganda, 
 389 
 
 Lumholtz, C, on the Australian type, 
 290 
 
 Lyell, Sir Ch., his " Seasonal-Migra- 
 tion" Theory discussed, 64 — 66 
 
 M°Gee, W. J., on paleolithic man in 
 the U. States, 103 
 
 McGuire, J. D., his theory of the Stone 
 Ages in N. America, 421 — 3 
 
 M''Lennan, his theory of the F^amily, 
 8; of the Human Horde, 14 
 
 Madagascar, its ethnical and linguistic 
 relations, 205, 285, 330 
 
 Madelenian Age, 87, 88 
 
 Magyars, their ethnical and linguistic 
 relations, 309 
 
 Mahn, Dr, on Inflection and Agglu- 
 tination, note, 215 
 
 Makololos, their rise and fall, 273 
 
 Malagasy, their ethnical relations, 330 ; 
 see also Madagascar 
 
 Malay, meaning of the Avord, note, 
 331; the Malay problem, 328 — 32 
 
 Malayo-Polynesian speech, explana- 
 tion of its wide diffusion, 285 — 90; 
 its linguistic affinities, 33T 
 
 Malays, their cerebral structure, 47 ; 
 their craniology, 328; their general 
 physical characters,33o; their cradle- 
 land, 331 ; their linguistic relations, 
 331 
 
436 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mallery, Garrick, his theory of Totem- 
 ism, lo; on the mound-builders, 
 107 
 
 Man, definition of, 16; his place in 
 the order Primates, 17; his rela- 
 tions to the Simiidae, 19; resem- 
 blances, 25 ; differences, 25, 26 ; 
 origin of: creation theory, 28; 
 evolution theoiy, 29 ; views of lead- 
 ing anthropologists, 31 ; mental 
 evolution pf, 40; antiquity of, 50; 
 Palgeolithic, 71; Neolithic, 108; 
 specific unity of, 141; varietal di- 
 versity of, 162 
 
 Man, E. H., on the Andamanese, 256 
 
 — 7 
 Manetta, F., on the early closing of 
 
 the cranial sutures, 44; on the Negro 
 
 temperament, 266 
 Maori of N. Zealand, their Oceanic 
 
 affinities, 327, and note, ib. 
 Marcilly-sur-Eure, human remains 
 
 found at, I48 
 Marocco, evidence of dwarfs in, 247 
 Masai, their type and ethnical affinities, 
 
 389 
 Mason, O. T., on the evidences of 
 palgeolithic man in the U. States, 
 103 ; on the peopling of America, 
 
 365—7 
 Mathew, Rev. W., on the origin and 
 
 migrations of the Australians, 291 
 Mauritania, its neolithic monuments, 
 
 134 
 
 Max Miiller, on race and language, 
 165 
 
 Maxwell, J. R., a Negro writer on 
 Negro incapacity, 268 
 
 Mayas, their monuments, 138 
 
 Mayorunas, confused with the Span- 
 iards of the Maraiion, 339 
 
 Melanesian, twofold meaning of the 
 term, 284; types, 282 
 
 Melanesians, their cerebral structure, 
 47; their domain, 284; their speech 
 more primitive than Malay or Poly- 
 nesian, 287 — 8 
 
 Melanochroi, their type, 228, 379 — 
 80; their range, 379 
 
 " Melano- Papuan " languages, 287 
 —8 
 
 Menangkabau, cradleland of the his- 
 torical Malays, 331 
 
 Menhir, its evolution, 128 — 9; mean- 
 ing of the word, 129; varieties of, 
 T29 — 30; its range, 130 
 
 Menial capacity, determined more by 
 
 the structure than the volume of 
 the brain, 44; and physical power 
 not correlated, 45 ; and cerebral 
 structure always correlated, 46 
 Mental growth, arrested by the early 
 closing of the cranial sutures, 44, 
 
 45 
 Mentone Cave Men, their culture, 
 
 73, 114; their fossil remains, 148 
 Mesorrhine nose, its index, 186 
 Mestizos of Latin America, a stable 
 
 race, 151, 152 
 Mexico, evidences of primitive man 
 
 found in, 100 
 Meyer, A. B., onthe Kalangsof Java, 
 
 262 
 Migrations, early, their relations to 
 
 the megalithic monuments, 136; 
 
 their range during inter-glacial 
 
 times, 231 
 Miklukho-Maclay, his comparative 
 
 studies of cerebral stnicture, 47; 
 
 on craniology as a racial test, 177 ; 
 
 on speech as a racial test, 193 — 
 
 4 ; on the Negritoes of Malay 
 
 Peninsula, 259; on the Mikrone- 
 
 sians, note, 288 
 Mikronesian type and speech, 288 
 "Mincopies," see Andamanese 
 Mind, to be distinguished from Soul, 
 
 note, 41; a function of brain, 41; 
 
 capable of indefinite expansion, 
 
 47; human, differs in degree only 
 
 from the animal, 48 
 Minh-huong half-breeds, note, 15.^ 
 Miscegenation, persistence of, from 
 
 pleistocene times, 143, 150 
 Missing links, must be postulated, 
 
 note, 57, 235 
 Mitla, palace of, 138 
 INIivart, St George, on the divisions 
 
 Quadrumana and Bimana, 17; on 
 
 the origin of Human Reason, 48 
 Mixed languages non-existent, 199 
 Mixed races, prehistoric and historic, 
 
 150, 151 ; American, 151 ; African, 
 
 1 53; Asiatic, 154 
 Moab, its neolithic monuments, 134 
 Mongol, origin and meaning of the 
 
 term, 303 
 Mongol race, early migrations and 
 
 interminglings, 297 — 9; chief sub- 
 groups, 299 — 301 ; earliest records 
 
 of, 301—2 
 Mongolia, flints found in, 93 
 Mongolic, twofold meaning of the 
 
 term, note, 227 
 
INDEX. 
 
 437 
 
 Mongolo- Tatar sub-division, 299 ; 
 
 objections to this term, 302 — 3 
 Monolithic monuments, 123 
 Monolithic nomenclature, 124 
 Monosyllabism, not the first but the 
 
 last stage of linguistic growth, 
 
 ■206 — 7 
 Montano, Dr, on the affinities of the 
 
 Philippine Islanders, 332 
 Monte-Aperto pliocene beds, flints 
 
 found in, 91 
 Moorehead, W. K., on the mound - 
 
 builders, 106, 107 
 Morals, Polynesian monuments, de- 
 scribed, 369 — 70 
 Morgan, his theory of the Family, 8 
 Morton, Dr, his Crania Americana^ 
 
 47 
 Mound-builders, the, their age and 
 
 culture, 106, 107 
 Moustier Cave, implements found in, 
 
 86 
 Mtoustierian Age, 86, 87 
 Midler, Fr., his polygenist views, 
 
 157; his Nuba-Fulah Family, 170; 
 
 his "Nuba-Fulah" ethnical family, 
 
 270 
 Munro, Dr R., on the Irish and Scotch 
 
 crannogs, 122; on the anticjuity of 
 
 man, 140; on his first appearance 
 
 in Europe, 14 1 
 
 Naga Hills, monoliths in, 130 
 
 Nama Hottentots, 253 
 
 Nasal index, how determined, 185 ; 
 table of, 186 
 
 Natal, paloeoliths found in, 93 
 
 Nation, meaning of the term, 14 
 
 Neanderthal skull, not pathological, 
 33, 34; its characters, 145 
 
 Negritoes, normally brachycephalic, 
 178; early records of, 245; former 
 wide diffusion of, 246; African, 246 
 — 53; Oceanic, 254 — dy^ in India, 
 evidence for and against, 254 — 6 ; 
 in the Andaman Islands, 256 ; in 
 the Malay Peninsula, 257; in the 
 Philippines, 259; in New Guinea, 
 260; in Java, 262; in Timor and 
 Flores, note, 262 
 
 Negro race, arrest of its mental growth 
 
 . explained, 44 ; its prognathism, 1 84 ; 
 its twofold division, 243; see also 
 Homo ^4Llhiopicus 
 
 Negroes, African and Oceanic, com- 
 parative table of their physical 
 characters, 264; their mental quali- 
 
 ties, 265; African unprogressive, 
 265; general low state of culture, 
 268; two main sub-divisions, Su- 
 danese and Bantu, 269; their inter- 
 minglings, 274 ; table of chief 
 groups, 275—80 
 Neolithic, origin and derivation of the 
 
 word, note, 74 
 Neolithic Age, its duration, ^^^ 116, 
 
 117 
 Neolithic craniology in France, 424 
 Neolithic culture, table of, 1 to 
 Neolithic man, 108; various types of, 
 149; numerous in W. Europe, 377; 
 relations to Homo Caucasicus, 377 
 —8 
 Neolithic monuments, two types of, 
 cell and block, 123; their range, 
 133; their relations to prehistoric 
 migrations, 136; their primary ob- 
 ject not worship, but interment, 
 
 137 
 
 New Caledonians, their dentition, 184 
 New Grange, its tumulus, 13 t 
 "New Race" in the Nile Valley, its 
 
 ethnical relations, 385 — 6 
 New Zealand, its three Stone Ages, 
 
 95. 96 
 Noetling, Dr F., on pliocene man in 
 
 Burma, 423 — 4 
 North Africa, cradleland of Homo 
 
 Caucasicus, 374 — 5 
 Nose, form of, a racial character, 185 ; 
 
 correlated to the other features, 185 ; 
 
 various types of, 185, 186 
 Nuba-Fulah Family, non-existent, 1 70 
 Nuraghi, origin of the, 126 
 
 Oceanic Negritoes, 254 — 6}^ 
 
 Oceanic Negroes, 280 — 94 
 
 Ohio Valley, its age, 100; its mounds, 
 106, 107 
 
 Oldham, R. D., on the Indo-African 
 Continent, note, 229 
 
 Olmo, human remains found at, 148 
 
 Onkilons, their relations to the Chuk- 
 chi, 319 
 
 On-Uighurs,anhistoricalTurki people, 
 
 304 
 Oppert, Dr G., on the Aryan (Plindu) 
 
 element in India, 398 — 9 
 Orang-utan, 20; range and characters 
 
 of, 20, 22 
 Organ and Function, evolution of, 
 
 correlated, 41, 42 
 Orohippus, 37 
 Orthognathism, how determined, 181 
 
 28—3 
 
438 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Osnianli Turks, their type, note, iii ; 
 
 their origin and ethnical relations, 
 
 311— 2 
 Ostyaks, their physical characters, 
 
 306 
 Oioiiii language, its morphology, 214 
 Otta, human (?) implements found at, 
 
 Paccaritambo, 139 
 Paddington, eoliths found at, 82 
 Palaeolithic, meaning and derivation of 
 
 the word, note, 74 
 Palaeolithic Age, various divisions of, 
 
 83 . . 
 Palaeolithic cultures, progressive, 73; 
 
 in some places continuous with 
 
 Neolithic, 73 ; grades of, 83 ; table 
 
 of, no, III 
 Palaeolithic man, 71; spread over the 
 
 globe, 72; materials for his study, 
 
 74; in Indo-China, 423 — 4; see also 
 
 Quaternary man 
 Palaeolithic races, their remains, 143 
 
 —4; all long-headed, 149 
 Palaeoliths, unbulbed, 74 
 l^alenque, 138 
 
 Palestine, palaeolith found in, 93 
 Papuan, meaning of the term, note, 
 
 282 
 Papuans, normally dolichocephalic, 
 
 178; their domain past and present, 
 
 283 — 4; their physical characters, 
 
 284—5 
 Papuasia, the Papuan domain, 283 
 Paraderos, meaning of the term, note, 
 
 97 
 
 Parker, Theodore, on Negro in- 
 capacity, 268 
 
 Pastoral state, see Social states 
 
 Patagonia, evidences of primitive 
 man found in, 96, 97 
 
 Patagonian fossil crania of Eskimo 
 type, 364 
 
 Paulistas, the, a vigorous mixed race, 
 
 Peat-beds, Danish, a time gauge, 116, 
 
 People, meaning of the term, 14 
 
 Permian Finns, 307 
 
 Persians, their primitive type, 407 
 
 Peruvians, their culture, 139 
 Peschel, his primary human groups, 
 
 165 
 Petrie, Flinders, his discoveries at 
 
 Coptos, 56; in the Abydos district, 
 
 92; his "New Race" in the Nile 
 Valley, 385—6 
 
 Petroff, I., on the growth of kitchen 
 middens, 77 
 
 Philippine Islanders, their complex 
 physical relations, 332 — 3 
 
 Phonesis, a physical function, 193 — 4 
 
 Picts, their ethnical relations, 378 — 9 
 
 Pile-dwellings, see Lake-dwellings 
 
 Pinches, T. G., on Akkadian mono- 
 syllabism, 208 
 
 Pitcairn Islanders, vigorous half- 
 breeds, 154 
 
 Pithecanthropus erectus, 24; his phy- 
 sical characters, 144 
 
 Placard Cave, its successive culture 
 eras, 89, 90 
 
 Platyrrhine nose, its index, 186 
 
 Pleistocene fauna, persistence of, 38; 
 man, see Quaternary 
 
 Pliocene man, evidence of, in Argen- 
 tina, 98; his physical characters, 
 236—7; his migrations, 238 • 
 
 Pliopithecus, 18 
 
 Podbaba, human remains found at, 
 
 147 
 
 Polygenists, their linguistic argument, 
 156 
 
 Polylithic monuments, 123 — 128; their 
 evolution, 124 
 
 Polylithic nomenclature, 124 
 
 Polynesians, Eastern, a branch of the 
 Caucasic family, 288; their speech 
 less primitive than the Melar.esian, 
 287 
 
 Polysynthesis, its nature, 211; differs 
 from agglutination, 211; see also 
 American Languages 
 
 Pont Newydd Cave, flints found in, 81 
 
 Post-glacial man, 63, 69 
 
 Pouchet, identifies race and species, 5 
 
 Powell, J- W., on the American Lin- 
 guistic Families, 360; on the Stone 
 Ages in N. America, 421 — 2 
 
 Predmost, human remains found at, 
 
 34 
 Pre-glacial man, 63 
 Prehistoric period, its duration, 55 
 Prehistoric monuments of America, 
 
 138-9 
 Prestwich, Prof., his objections to 
 
 CroU's periodicity theory, 58 — 60 
 Prichard, Dr, his definition of race, 5; 
 
 on the unity of man, 160; on the 
 
 natural history of man, 165 — 6 
 Primary humangroups,variousschemes 
 
 of systematists, 163 ; the four funda- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 439 
 
 mental, 221 — 2; their independent 
 evolution from a common precursor, 
 223; their Family Tree, 224; their 
 differentiation, 225; their physical 
 and mental characters, 227, 228 
 
 Primates, old and present divisions of 
 the, 17, 18 
 
 Prognathism, how determined, 181 
 
 Primer- Bey, Dr, on hair as a race 
 character, 174 
 
 Psychic argument for the unity of man, 
 1 60 
 
 Pueblo Indians, their casus grandes, 
 138 
 
 Puy-Courny, implements found at, 91 
 
 Pyramids, Egyptian, " petrified 
 mounds," 128; American and 
 Egyptian compared, 369 
 
 Quadrumana, 17 
 
 Quaternary man in Britain, 78 ; in 
 
 France, 82; in Africa, 92; in Asia, 
 ^3 ; in Australia, 94 ; in New 
 
 Zealand, 95; in America, 96 
 ( Hiechuas, their culture, 139 
 Quixeramobim Valley, human remains 
 
 found in, 100 
 
 Race, meaning and value of the term, 
 4, 5 ; physical criteria of, 171 ; men- 
 tal criteria of, 191 
 
 Racial characters, persistence of, 34 
 
 Raffray, M., on the New Guinea Ne- 
 gritoes, 261 
 
 Ray, S. H.,on the "Melano- Papuan" 
 languages, 287 — 8 
 
 Rcade, W., on the Fans, note, 278 
 
 Reclus, Elisee, on the temperament of 
 the American aborigines, 353 
 
 Religion, its evolution, 216 — 7; a 
 poor criterion of race, 217 
 
 Rendileh liamites, 389 
 
 Retzius, A., on the American abori- 
 gines, 346—7 
 
 Rhys, Prof. J., on the relations of 
 Picts and Basques, 378 — 9 
 
 Rio Carcarana, human remains found 
 
 in, 99 
 Rio Negro, Patagonia, implements 
 
 found in, 97 
 Rodway, J., on the couvade, 368 
 Rolleston, H. B., on heredity, 35; 
 
 on an Australian brain, note, 47 
 Romanes, Prof, on human and animal 
 
 consciousness, 48 
 Romans of N. Africa, fair Berber type 
 
 not due to them, 383—4 
 
 Round Towers, Irish, their probable 
 age and origin, 133 
 
 Rudimentary to be distinguished from 
 atrophied organs, note 2, p. 26 
 
 Ruffin, Col., on the Negro tempera- 
 ment, 267 
 
 St Acheul, flints found at, 82 
 
 St John, Sir Spencer, on the Negro 
 
 temperament, 267 
 St Pierre, its alignments, 137 
 St Prest, carved bones found at, 91 
 Sakai Negritoes, 257 — 8 
 Salmon, Ph., on the closing of the 
 
 sutures in fossil crania, 45 ; on the 
 
 craniology of primitive man in 
 
 Europe, 149 — 50 
 Samang Negritoes, 257- — 8 
 Sambaqui, the, of Brazil, 100 
 Samborombon, human remains found 
 
 at, 34, 99 
 Samoans, their affinities, 326 
 Samoyedes, their physical characters 
 
 and affinities, 205 — 6 
 Sanskrit, its tendency to polysynthesis, 
 
 214; its diffusion in India, 399 
 vSanta Catharina, Brazil, evidences of 
 
 primitive man found at, 100 
 Santarem, Brazil, human remains 
 
 found at, 99 
 Sarmatse, of doubtful ethnical affini- 
 ties, 399, note, 400 
 Sawaiori languages, less primitive than 
 
 the Melanesian, 287 
 Sayce, A. H., on the evolution of 
 
 speech, 209, 213 ; on the Blemniycs 
 
 of Nubia, 386 
 Schmidt, Prof., his cranial measure- 
 ments, 43 
 Schrumpf, G. A., on the Armenian 
 
 language, note, 41 1 
 Semites, their relations to the Ha- 
 
 mites, 391 ; their cradleland, 392 ; 
 
 their domain and historic divisions, 
 
 392 — 3 ; their physical and mental 
 
 characters, 393 — 4 
 Semitic languages, their branches and 
 
 structure, 394 — 5 
 Scrgi, his Tertiary Hominidse, 32 ; 
 
 rejected, 37 ; on the racial value 
 
 of different physical features, note, 
 
 189 
 Sessi, neolithic structures, 126 
 Shans of Indo-China, 321 
 Shell-mounds, see Kitchen-middens 
 Shone, W., on pre-glacial man, 62 
 Silbury Hill, a typical barrow, 127 
 
440 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Simiidae, the, i8; relations of to man, 
 
 19 . . . , 
 
 Siret, H.and L., on piiniitive cultures 
 
 in Spain, 127 
 Siryanian Finns, 507 
 Si<ull, shape and size of racial tests, 
 
 177, '7« 
 Slavs, their primitive type, note, 400 
 Smith, W. G., on the eoliths of the 
 
 Thames Valley, 82 
 Smyth, Brough, on the evidences of 
 
 primitive man in Australia, 94 
 Social states, pastoral, agricultural, 
 
 &c., not tests of race, 2 1 5 
 Solons of Kulja and the Amur basin, 
 
 312^ 
 Solutre Cave, implements found in, 
 
 87 
 Solutrian Age, 87 
 
 Somali, their type and ethnical rela- 
 tions, 387, 388 
 Sommier, S., on the Samoyedes, Ost- 
 
 yaks and Lapps, 206 — 7 
 Soyotes, Siberian Finns, 305, 308 
 Species, the physiological test of, 
 
 142 
 Specific unity of man, 141 
 Speech, see Language 
 Spy Cavern, human remains found in, 
 
 146 
 Stalagmite, growth of irregular, 76 ; 
 
 hence no sure test of age, 76, 77 
 Stanley, H. AL, his measurements of 
 
 the Wambutti dwarfs, 189; on the 
 
 Wa-Humas, note, 272 
 Stature, a racial character, 187 ; table 
 
 of heights, 188 
 Stazzone, neolithic structures, 126 
 Stem, meaning of the term, i r 
 Stet Cave, flints found in, 81 
 Stock, meaning of the term, 11 
 Stock languages, no proof of stock 
 
 races, 156, 157 
 Stoke Newington, eoliths found at, 
 
 82 
 Stokes, W., on Picts and Kelts, 379 
 Stone Ages in N. America, J. L). 
 
 McGuire's theory, 421 — 3 
 Stone-circles, 130 
 Stonehenge, 131 
 Stiibel and Uhle, on the Tiahuanaco 
 
 monuments, 138 — 9 
 Sudan, meaning of the term, note, 
 
 269 
 Sudanese Negroes, physical type, 269 ; 
 
 mixed groups, 269- 70; chief tribes, 
 
 275—7 
 
 Sweden, its prehistoric monuments, 
 
 134 
 wSyria, palseolith found in, 93 
 Szeklers, a Magyar people of Tran- 
 sylvania, 309 
 
 Table of mixed peoples speaking un- 
 mixed languages, 201 ; of peoples 
 whose speech has shifted, 202; of 
 peoples whose type has changed, 
 their speech persisting, 203 ; of the 
 Aryan linguistic family, 412 
 
 Tagalog language of Philippine Is., 
 its relations to Gyarung of Central 
 Asia, 326 
 
 Tahitians, their afifinities, 326 
 
 Talayots, neolithic structures, 126 
 
 Tamahu Libyans of the Egyptian 
 records, 384 
 
 Tartar, see Tatar 
 
 Tasmanians, their relations to the 
 Australians and to primitive man, 
 292 — 4; their eolithic culture, 2^ 
 
 Tatar, origin and meaning of the term, 
 303 — 4 ; earliest records of, 304 
 
 Tatar Khans and Khanates, explana- 
 tion of the expressions, 304 
 
 Tavastian Finns, 307 
 
 Teeth, see Dentition 
 
 Ten Kate, Dr H., on the former pre- 
 sence of Negritoes in Timor and 
 Flores, note, 261 — 2 
 
 Terramare, prehistoric stations in 
 ^ Italy, 404 
 
 Teutonic languages, 413; phonetic 
 system, 4 13— 4 
 
 Teutons, their ethnical relations in 
 Britain, 398; their primitive type, 
 397, 408 
 
 Thenay, human (?) implements found 
 at, 31, 91 
 
 Thomas, Cyrus, on supposed evidences 
 of foreign influences on American 
 culture, 342—3 
 
 Thought, see Mind 
 
 Thurnam, Dr, on reversion, 35 
 
 Tiahuanaco, its megalithic monuments, 
 138 — 40; their origin, 139 
 
 Tibeto-Chinese sub-group of the 
 Mongolic division, 299, 319; their 
 range and physical characters, 319 
 — 21 ; their languages, 324 — 6 
 
 Tierra del P\iego, evidences of primi- 
 tive man found in, 96 
 
 Timor, former presence of Negritoes 
 in, note, 261—2 
 
 Tlenicen, Algeria, flints found at, 93 
 
INDEX. 
 
 441 
 
 Todas, their ethnical affinities, 418 
 Toltecs, their monuments, 138 
 Tongans, their Indonesian type, 326, 
 
 B'29 
 Topinard, Dr, his diagram of brain 
 
 weight and volume, 40 ; on mental 
 
 expansion, 48 ; on the hair of the 
 
 white, yellow and black races, 175; 
 
 on craniology, 177 ; on gnathism, 
 
 facial and sub-nasal, 182; his table 
 
 of cranial capacity, 192; on Eskimo 
 
 affinities, 364 
 Totemism, meaning and origin of, 10; 
 
 derivation of the word, note, 10 
 Tremeirchion Cave, flints found in, 
 
 80 
 Trenton, its flint-bearing gravels, loi 
 Tribe, evolution of the, 7; derivation 
 
 of the word, note, 7, 8 
 Trinil, Java, fossil human remains 
 
 found at, 144 
 Tristram, Canon, on the Moabite 
 
 monuments, 134 
 Tuareg Berbers of fair type, 384 
 Tunis, remains of palseolithic man in, 
 
 92 
 " Turanian," derivation of the term, 
 
 note, 302 ; why discredited, ib. 
 Turk, see Osmapli 
 Turki, true name of the so-called 
 
 " Tatars," 303 ; earliest records of, 
 
 304 ; primitive and later types, 
 
 305 , " . . 
 
 Turkomans, their Turki affinities, 
 
 312 
 
 Tylor, E. B., on Totemism, 10; on 
 the specific unity of man, 155; on 
 the influence of Asiatic on Ameri- 
 can cultures, 218; on Tasmanian 
 culture, 293 
 
 Type, two-fold meaning of the term, 
 12; derivation of, note i, p. 12 
 
 Ugrian Finns, 305 
 
 Ugrian Voguls, 306 
 
 Uhle, see Stubel 
 
 Umbrian, a post-positive language, 
 
 214 
 United States, evidences of palaeolithic 
 
 man found in, discussed, 100 — 6 
 Upland, Pennsylvania, implements 
 
 found at, xoi 
 Ural-Altaic linguistic family, 313 — 4 
 Usages, common, a poor test of racial 
 
 affinities, 219 
 Uslar, Genl. P. V., on the languages 
 
 of Caucasia, 416 — 7 
 
 Uxmal, 138 
 
 Uzbegs of the Oxus basin, 312 
 
 Vale of Chvyd Caves, flints found in, 
 
 81 
 Valentine, M. S., his North Carolina 
 
 "finds," 342—3 
 Vandals of Mauritania, fair Berber 
 
 type not due to them, 383 — 4 
 Van den Gheyn, J., on the Ar}'an 
 
 cradleland, note, 403; on the Gal- 
 
 cha languages, 411 
 Van Musschenbroek, on the Kalang 
 
 Negritoes, 262 — 3 
 Varietal diversity of man, 162 
 Variety, the physiological test of, 
 
 142 
 Vayu language of Nepal, 325 
 "Venus de Brassempouy," 252 
 Victoria Cave, Settle, carved bones 
 
 found in, 81 
 Viracocha, cult of, 139 
 Virchow, Prof., on the Otta flints, 
 
 and tertiary man, 31 ; his excessive 
 
 conservatism, 144 
 \'irey, his primary human groups, 
 
 164 
 Volga Finns, 310 — i 
 
 Wady Biban el-Moluk, Nile Valley, 
 
 flints found in, 92 
 Wa-Huma Hamites, 272; their type 
 
 and ethnical relations, 389 
 Waitz, Th., on mixed languages, 199; 
 
 on speech as a basis of classifica- 
 tion, 201 
 Wallace, A. R., man excluded from 
 
 his theory of evolution, 32, 38; on 
 
 the value of cranial studies, 43 
 Walton-on-the-Naze, engraved shell 
 
 found at, 78 
 Waruanda, j their type and ethnical 
 Watusi, \ relations, 389 
 Westermarck, his theory of the 
 
 Family, 8 
 "White Allophylians," 305 
 Whitney, J. D., on the Calaveras 
 
 skull, 104 
 Wilde, Sir W. R., on the Irish 
 
 crannogs, 122 
 Wilson, Dr D., on the American 
 
 aborigines, 370 
 Wilson, Th., on the flints found in N. 
 
 America, 105, 106 ; on palaeolithic 
 
 man in N. America, 423 
 Windisch, Prof., on Picts and Kelts. 
 
 379 
 
442 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Winkler, Dr H., on Ural-Altaic and 
 Japanese linguistic affinities, 313 
 
 Wochua dwarfs, bearded and hairy, 
 
 note, 177 
 Wolf, Dr L., on the Batwa Negritoes, 
 
 248 
 W^isuns of the Chinese records, 308 
 Wyatt, Dr W., on the primitive tribe 
 
 of Adelaide, Australia, 238 
 
 Xanthochroi, their type, 228, 379 — 
 80; their range, 379 
 
 Yakuts, East Siberian Turki people, 
 
 Yenisei Finns, 308 
 
 Yucatan, its prehistoric cities and 
 monuments, 138 
 
 Zulu-Xosa Bantus, 27 
 
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