CEtEY ;ARY IS1TY OF =ORNlA ZjV^ 7> o £40 u 'j PRACTICAL GRAMMAR OF , • ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION, ON PLAIN AND RECOGNISED PRINCIPLES, CALCULATED TO ASSIST IN REMOVING EVERY OBJECTIONABLE PECU- LIARITY OF UTTERANCE, ARISING EITHER FROM FOREIGN, PROVINCIAL, OR VULGAR HABITS; OR FROM A DEFECTIVE USE OF THE ORGANS OF-SPEECH; AND FURNISHING, TO PUPILS OF ALL AGES, THE MEANS OF SYSTEMA- TICALLY ACQUIRING THAT NERVOUS AND GRACEFUL ARTICULATION, WHICH IS THE BASIS OF A SUPERIOR DELIVERY: TOGETHER WITH DIRECTIONS TO PERSONS WHO STAMMER IN THEIR SPEECH, Comprehending some new Ideas relative to ENGLISH PROSODY. BY B.H.SMART, TEACHER OF ELOCUTION AND POLITE LITERATURE. LONDON: PRINTED FOR JOHN RICHARDSON, ROYAL EXCHANGE ; AND J.JOHNSON AND CO., ST. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD. 1810. PREFACE. 3°l\ r 1 HE following work has little of novelty beside the plan. It is an attempt to com- prise every thing really useful that has been said on the subject, within such a system as may render Pronunciation capable of being studied from its elementary principles, and become, as other branches of learning, an object of methodical acquirement. For want of some system of this kind, an un- couth or an elegant utterance is generally the mere effect of chance and habit, al- though acknowledged to be a blemish and an excellence of the first magnitude, be- cause so very open to notice. Yet latterly, writers have not been wanting to investi- gate, almost as far as it is possible to go, the nature and principles of English Pro- a 3 VI PREFACE. nunciation ; who have, at the same time, enforced the propriety of a more general attention to the subject, and pointed out the advantages which would result from it. They have shown that foreigners might be taught to speak the language with much greater correctness, and in much less time, — that almost every peculiarity and defect of Pro- nunciation might be remedied, — by re- sorting to the proper means. ThejJbave persons with provincial habits, defects, and impediments in speech, as- sisted upon the best principles; pupils intended for public situations instructed in Composition and Delivery ; By Mr. B. H. SMART. Terms, every Course of twelve Lessons, Four Guineas. Mr. S. also attends Schools, and instructs idies and Gentlemen desi sistance in Polite Literature. Ladies and Gentlemen desirous of general as Letters (post paid) to be addressed, Mr. B. H. Smart, 55 Princes Street, Leicester Square. SYSTEM OF &ULES, OBSERVATIONS, AND EXAMPLES FOR THE ATTAINMENT OV ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION. CHAP. I. OF SOUNDS. Vowel sounds. By what means foreigners and pro- vincialists are to attain a vernacular utterance. Consonant sounds. In what manner an har* monious and energetic enunciation is to be acquired. Impediments in speech. Their cause and method of 7'emoval. 1HE pronunciation of a language consists in the utterance of certain vowel and consonant sounds, which sounds are denoted on paper by signs called letters. In the English language, it seems to happen more frequently than in any other, that several of these sounds are represented by the' 2 OF SOUNDS. same letter, under different circumstances ; and therefore, the proper mode of learning our pro- nunciation appears to be* first, to obtain a distinct idea of the nature and number of the sounds, and then endeavour to ascertain all the various methods by which they are represented*. * This, indeed, must suggest itself to every one who properly considers the subject, as the most obvious and rational mode of procedure ; yet it is one which is seldom, if ever adopted, in learning pronunciation. It is customary to begin with sounding the names of the letters. In a language where, generally speaking, the name of every letter is the sound it preserves in the composition of words, this method is certainly proper; for there, learning the letters and learning the sounds are one and the same thing. But in a language like the English, where it is more than an equal chance, that, in any one word, a vowel letter has not the sound which is given to it in naming the letter singly, such a mode of instruction must involve perplexity and confusion. For is it not likely to embarrass a foreigner, after he has learned the names of the vowels, and has found their sounds correspondent to their names in such words as paper, me, bzped, go, dtdy, date, glebe, bite, note, cwbe, to be afterwards told that the same letters must have sounds quite different in abide, man, mar, •hall, bet, imagine, pat, not, nor, move, dove, bwt, pull, &c. leaving him quite at a loss as to what those sounds are, whict &e has never yet heard of, nor what other new ones may yet be behind ? And may we not attribute the difficulty with which foreigners tax our pronunciation to a want of adopting that mode of acquiring it, which its circumstances seem to point out ? For it is not in respect to sounds, that our pro- nunciation is difficult These, as will be gathered in the *equel> are neither mare numerous, nor in themselves more OF SOUNDS. 3 It is the vowel sounds which must be chiefly attended to by foreigners, provincialists, and all difficult to enounce than the sounds of other languages. Bup if a foreigner never obtains a clear idea of their nature and extent; if it is never pointed out to him, by rule, under what circumstances a letter has one of these sounds, and under whatj another ; or, if some words form particular exceptions to general analogies, if it is not shown that such words are ex- ceptions and how far they extend ; — it necessarily follows, thafc he will think our language to be a jargon composed of sounds indefinite and unlimited, that there is no certain rule for pro- nouncing our letters ; and though through habit and length of time he may obtain a practical knowledge of our pronuncia- tion, the impression of its difficulty will alvva3 T s remain. Nor does the author think, that the method intended to be followed may be useful only in learning to pronounce English. It is indeed more particularly necessary in our language, on account of the very irregular representation of our sounds. But where the same mode has been adopted in learning French, he has witnessed a very superior utterance acquired in much less time than by the usual methods. In fact, it is to a little work composed for teaching learners of French on such a plan, by his respected friend Mons. Des Carrieres, that the author is indebted for the idea of the present undertaking. The same mode of instruction, namely, beginning with the sounds, must be equally useful in correcting a provincial accent, or reforming the pronunciation of a foreigner, who has been badly taught in the first instance. It is an assertion countenanced by orthoepists, that the natives of many counties at a distance from the metropolis, and all badly instructed foreigners, give a wrong utterance to almost every vowel sound. Hence it is evident, that there is scarcely a word in the language that will not, in their mouths, be mispronounced. B c 2 4 OF SOUNDS. such as have to acquire a correct, vernacular utterance j for though some of our consonants arc Thosei therefore, who have no other idea of correcting theft pronunciation than by noticing their faults as they occur in every Word, are startled at the labour, and both pupil and teacher give up all hopes of remedying evils, which appear so extensive. This has given rise to an opinion, that a foreign or provincial accent, as it is called, can never be shaken oil" by persons of a ripe age. But when the evil which wears so formidable an aspect is reduced to the learning of eight new vowel sounds (for the consonants have comparatively but a small share in causing the mispronunciation of foreigners and provincialists) ; when the rules for the proper substitution of these sounds in the place of others are made known ; when a Praxis is given, exemplifying the rules where the same sound continually occurs in different words, by reading which the ear and organs will become separately acquainted with each sound; what should hinder, when these sounds are variously combined in reading and speaking, that the whole pronuncia- tion, so far as the utterance of words alone is concerned, should be native and correct ? With regard to thqse who, without a provincial or foreign accent, have to correct vulgarisms or other improprieties of pronunciation, to them the task is much easier. They have no need, as the others, of a person from whom, by continual repetition, to catch the sounds. They are already in posses- sion of them, and have only to learn the proper application of th^m ; which they do by reading the Praxis and referring to the rules. The vowel sounds can never be a cause of impediments of speech, as these arise only in the utterance of the consonants. Impediments will therefore be considered in treating of that part of pronunciation. OF SOUNDS. 5 peculiar to the language, and others used in a manner different from what they are in other tongues, yet, generally speaking, the consonants are in all dialects alike. On the other hand, natives who possess the vernacular utterance, but who wish to establish a superior, harmonious, and forcible delivery, or who have to correct impedi- ments of speech, must direct their principal at- tention to the consonants. This will clearly ap- pear upon ascertaining the nature of these com- ponent parts of pronunciation. A vowel sound is nothing more than a pure, unobstructed utterance of the voice ; avid it may be soft or loud, low or high, long or short*, and still continue the same vowel sound. The dif- ference between one such sound and another arises then from the different positions of the organs of speech in uttering them \ and it is therefore essential to a simple vowel sound, that the organs keep precisely the same position from the beginning to the end of it-)-. * It may perhaps require a demonstration to point out to unmusical ears the difference between soft and loud, low and high, which, though so widely different, they sometimes con- found. This distinction may be shown by any one wh# knows the gamut. f A difficulty here arises as to the manner in which we shall distinguish by terms the vowel sounds from one another. We may say of the u in fall, that it is a sound formed by 6 OF SOUNDS. The easiest of the vowel sounds is that which is produced by emitting the voice when the organs are in the position they most naturally take if the mouth be open. Such we call the Italian a ; the sound we give to that letter in the last syllables of the words papa, mamma. It is, says Buffon, one of the first which, next to a cry, an infant utters. But the number of vowel sounds which it is possible to utter is almost infinite. The smallest change of position in the organ* of speech, the widening or contracting the mouth or lips, elevat- ing or depressing the tongue, will be the occasion of new sounds. Hence, as languages differ chiefly opening the mouth wider than to pronounce a in far, but this does not distinguish them by a comparison of their qualities, but only by their different modes of formation. Jn fact, terms are wanting here ; and orthoepists, in borrowing such as are proper only to objects of sight, have rendered some parts of their treatises unintelligible to the generality. We cannot have a clear idea of a broad, a narrow, or a slender vowel, when these epithets are employed in direct reference to the sounds. The only way in which they will be clearly under- stood is when they refer to the different apertures of the mouth; and, for want of other terms, we must therefore be content to say a vowel sound is broader or narrower than another, when the mouth is opened to a greater or less degree in sounding it. As to open and shut, terms which are generally used io the same signification, they will hereafter, throughout this book, be adopted with quite a different meaning. OF SOUNDS. 7 m respect to vowels, the variety of their pro- nunciation; hence a foreign, and hence a pro- vincial accent. For, instead of thinking it remarkable that in two languages there should not be two vowel sounds exactly alike, ought not the contrary to be rather deemed surprising ? And is it to be wondered at, that the people of one province pro- nounce all the vowel sounds differently from those of another ? In fact, it may happen that two persons who are of different nations or provinces, but who pro- nounce the same language, on separately com- paring their enunciation of the vowel sounds, may think the dissimilarity between each so trifling as not to be material - 3 and yet the general impression which this dissimilarity shall produce upon their whole pronunciation shall be so great, as to make the difference of their dialects evident to the dullest ear. From this consideration we may gather, that it is in general a dangerous practice to refer a fo- reigner to his own language for sounds, which are said to be correspondent to some in ours. It is much better to tell him in the outset, that we have no sounds exactly similar, in order that he may rely on no means of obtaining them but by imitating a native, than to suffer him to place, a dependence on what frnay, in the end, prove a 8 OF SOUNDS. source of an almost incurable peculiarity in his pronunciation*. Hence, too, we may con- vince ourselves of the absolute futility of describ- ing upon paper the organic formation of the vowel sounds. In respect to the consonants, such descriptions are often expedient -, but the nature of the vowels renders ail written directions of this kind entirely useless. Imitation of a native of London, or a person who pronounces like one, is the only method by which a true utterance of the vowel sounds can be acquired Not that, as pronounced by a Londoner, they are intrinsically more harmonious and euphonical than as they are heard in some of the provinces: very plausible assertions may be made to the contrary. But, while it is necessary that there should be a standard pronunciation, and while the courtly and well-bred conform to * As a proof of the errors into which teachers, who adopt this means, are likely to lead their pupiK Mr. Walker, in one part of the Principles of English Pronunciation, prefixed to his Dictionary, say* (paragraph 73), " our long slender a corresponds exactly to the French e at the beginning of the words etre and tete ;" and in another place (the page before the commencement of the dictionary), " that it is like the e in fee, epee," &c. But who does not know that in French e with the circumflex, and e'with the acute accent represent different sounds? In the author's opinion, neither of them is pronounced like the English a. See the remark at the head of chap. iii r tec. '!. OF SOUNDS. 9 it, that of the inhabitants of the metropolis will always claim the preference, and every deviation will be looked upon, if not as illiterate, at least as uncouth and inelegant. But it is necessary to observe, that there are two pronunciations even in London, that of the well-bred, and that of the vulgar ; and this dif- ference does not consist merely in the various manner of pronouncing particular words, but often with the latter in a corruption of funda- mental sounds. In short, it is owing to the one being cultivated, and the other neglected. The cultivated speaker employs a definite number of sounds, which he utters with precision, distinct- ness, and in their proper places ; the vulgar speaker misapplies the sounds, mars, or alters them. This is particularly observable in his utterance of unaccented vowels that are final in a syllable. It is therefore very probable, that a Londoner, who is imparting his vernacular enun- ciation to a foreigner or provincialist, may at the same time be benefiting himself. He will first learn the exact number of vowel sounds that are to be employed, examples of which follow in words where he cannot mistake their true utter- ance; and these he will bear with him as his models in reading, and hearing read, the words throughout the Praxis, given in chap, iii ; always pronouncing With precision and distinctness, ex- 10 OF SOUNDS. cept where it is noted, that particular circum- stances necessarily render a sound doubtful. These then are, or ought to be, the only simple vowel sounds heard in English pronunciation : 1st The sound represented by a in mate. 2d by a in fot. 3d by a in for. 4th by a and ou in foil, nought. 5th by e in me, glebe, 6th by o in n(x 7 th by o and oo in move, pool. gth by u in t«b. But though all the vowel sounds heard in the language may be reduced to these few, yet some of them are so modified by certain associations as to render it necessary to speak of them, under such circumstances, as if they were distinct sounds. This, however, requires some explanation. It was stated, that different degrees of length or duration cannot essentially affect a vowel sound, which may be either long or short. Thus the e and o in devout and polite, though, from being unaccented, they have their sounds pro- tracted by no means so long as in the first syllables of decent and patent, where they are accented, are still the same sounds ; and it would be just as improper to speak of them as being different sounds, as it would be to say that e in me, as pro- jounced in the sentence, " Give me your hand," OF SOUNDS. 11 is really a different sound from that of the same letter in the same word as pronounced in the sentence, " Do not give him your hand, give it me" where, in the former sentence we may ob- serve that the e does not fall under any emphasis, and therefore is as short as the c in devout; while in the latter, it does fall under the emphasis, and therefore is as long as the e in decent. It appears then, that in such cases there is a protracted and an unprotracted sound, dependent on contin- gencies. And, perhaps, it may be necessary to warn a foreigner of this, lest the habits of his maternal tongue should lead him to make a sound not accented as long as it properly is when under the accent. But no directions are requisite to a native on this head. If he is told that the y in truly is pronounced as the e in me, his natural habits induce him not to protract the sound so long as e in that word uttered by itself, or em- phatically in a sentence, but only so long as when it occurs in a familiar phrase, and is unemphatical*. But though it would be absurd to speak of sounds as being different because from contin- gencies they are Longer or shorter, yet it may be expedient to make a distinction in regard to such * Emphasis is to a word in a sentence, what accent is to a syllable in a word ; hence the coincident length of sound be- tween a vowel sound in an emphatica! or unemphatical word, and in ^n accented and unaccented syllable. 12 OF SOUNDS. as are always short, although they are essentially the same with others already noted. Upon this principle, orthoepists consider the sounds repre- sented by e in met, o in not, i in gh'b, and n in pwll, as new vowel sounds, though they are, in fact, the same with the first, fourth, fifth, and seventh of those given above ; of the truth of which any one may convince himself by lengthen- ing the vowel sound in these words, met, not, glib, and pwllj by which proceeding he will find them reduced, in point of pronunciation, to mate, naught, glebe, and pool. In strict theory, there- fore, the distinction cannot be admitted ; but, from the circumstance of the vowel sounds being always short, whether under or not under the accent, it may be justified in practice. There is another circumstance, which has caused a reference to some of the simple sounds, as if to sounds which are different and distinct. It often happens, that two vowel sounds succeed one another without the intervention of a consonant, in which case they are usually pronounced in separate syllables -, as in Bd~a\, fi-ery, po-etry. But, in four instances, two vowel sounds thus occurring together are pronounced so closely upon each other, as to be considered as being both in the same syllable. Hence, two of these com- binations are seldom looked upon in any other light than as simple sounds 5 and the more so, as OF SOUNDS* 13 they are each represented but by a single letter ; and though the two others are universally allowed to be -compounds, and are represented, each combination, by two letters, yet still they are comprehended under a single term, diphthong, and in this manner referred to as one. These combinations are the four following ; 1st. That represented by i in fme, m/ld, stn'ke, and which consists of the third and the fifth of the simple sounds given above, namely, a as heard in for, and e as heard in me *. 2d. That represented by u in hz/-mid, cube, &c. which consists of the fifth and the seventh of the above simple sounds, e, as in me, and o, as in move; or rather, not of e in me, but of y con- sonant, and o as in move ; for its true pronuncia- tion is exactly the same with the word you, where ou after y has the sound of o in move. We can- not therefore so well call this a diphtiwngal vowel sound, as a sound composed of a consonant and a vowel r 3d. That represented by ol or oy in oil, boy, * Such is the composition which almost every orthoepist attributes to the first sound of fc except Mr. Nares, who says he cannot form to himself the least idea of such composition. But any one may satisfy himself on this point by pronouncing, in immediate succession, the component sounds, when he will find that by this means, the true pronunciation of i is pro* 4uced. 14 Af sounds. which consists of the fourth and fifth of the sim- ple sounds, a as in fall, and e as' in me. 4th. That represented by ou or ow in pcwnd, \ozv, which consists of the fourth and seventh of the simple sounds, a as in fall, and o as in move. From these premises it will be seen why sixteen Vowel sounds are referred to throughout this book, as being separate and distinct, while there exist in reality but eight. A table of the sixteen simple and diphthongal vowel sounds, exemplified in Chap, Hi. The 1 st is that represented by a in fate ; orthoepically marked a 2d by a in fot a 3d by a in for a 4th by a in foil a 5 th byeinnitf e 6th by e in met h 7th « by i in pine i 8th byiinpm I 9th by o in note o 10th by o in not 6 11th — — — • by o in move 6 12th by win cube u 13th by a in cub £ 14th — by u in bull & 15th by oi in oil oi 16th ► by ou in pound ot* In reading this list it is requisite to observe, that those sounds which are orthoepically denoted by ( 2 ) over the letters are such as must be uni- OF SOUNDS. l£ formly short, whether under or not under the accent; and these will, in future, be said to be dosed or shut, because they are closed or shut in by consonant sounds. On the same principle, the other sounds which are orthoepically marked with figures over the letters, will be said to be open, because they are not shut in by consonant sounds, but may receive different degrees of pro- traction, according as the utterance is more or less rapid, or as they are or are not accented or emphatical; and this distinction of sounds into open and shut must be carefully remembered *.. Now, with regard to the vowel letters, it is pro- per to notice, that each of them has its regular open and shut sound, or, as it is said by other writers, its long and short sound. These are de- noted in the table by (- 1 ) and ( 2 ) over the respective letters. A -has, besides, two irregular or incidental , sounds, aone, and u one; all of which are open. But though, in speaking of the letters, we sajr- that their sounds as heard in fate, me, pine, n^te, * Open and shut, thus employed, signify what long and short xlo in most other works on the present subject ; but as a sound naturally long may, from circumstances, be unpro- tected, it seemed better to employ the former terms. Fo- reigners, in particular, should remember the distinction spoken of; for, from the infrequency of shut vowel sounds in their own tongues, they are very apt to pronounce ours open, a bate for a bet, a feet for zfit, &c. 16 OF SOUNDS. cube, are their regular open sounds, and as in fat, met, pin^ not, cab, their regular shut sounds, we must remember that these sounds do not re- spectively correspond with each other; for, as was before shown, the correspondent open sound of e in met, is the a in fate; of i in pin, the e in me; and of o in not, the a in pall ; while a in fat, andtt in cub, have no correspondent open sounds. Some orthoepists do indeed reckon the a as in far to be the open sound of a in fat ; but to pronounce the former, the mouth is opened rather wider than to pronounce the latter ; and therefore, however small the difference may be, they must be con- sidered as essentially two distinct sounds. It is also to be kept in mind, that o in move is the cor- respondent open sound of u in bull. Perhaps it would be as well to exhibit the sounds thus distin- guished into open and shut in a table, and to show, at one view, those which have corresponding sounds, an with the name of a conso- nant. He is to keep in mind, that in calling a consonant by its name, we always accompany its own, with a vowel sound, which makes no part of its real composition. Thus in speaking of/, we call it the letter ef> prefixing the vowel sound 3 to its own sound; but the sound of /alone is nothing more than a breathing through the teeth OF SOUNDS. 19 with the under lip between them ; as we hear it after the sound & in naming the letter* or before ate in the word fate. In the same manner, the other consonants have all of them simple sounds, which by no means depend on the vowel that is prefixed or subjoined to each, in calling them by their names ; and it is these simple sounds alone that are meant, in speaking of the consonants. Keeping this idea of the consonants in view, we shall find some of them to be an obstructed or compressed utterance of the voice; some of them a propulsion or forcing out of the breath, and giv- ing it different modifications by different actions of the organs of speech ; and some of them to be a mere action of these organs, viz. the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate, without either utterance of voice or propulsion of breath. The sounds /, m t and v, may serve to instance the first kind. In pronouncing /, the tip of the tongue presses the gums of the upper teeth ; in m, the lips are closed; and inu, the under lip is placed between the teeth; but in all three the voice is as freely ■uttered as the position of the organs will admit : in /, it goes through the mouth with little inter- ruption ; in m, it passes of necessity the nose ; and in v, it makes an obscure murmur, with a mixture of breath, as it passes the teeth. Such consonants as these are properly called vocal, or semivowels. The next kind of consonants may be instanced by C2 SO OF SOUNDS. h, s> and /. In h, the breath is merely propelled through $n open mouth* ; in s, it is propelled while the tip of the tongue touches the gums of the upper teeth, so as to product a hiss; and in f, as before stated, while the under lip is between the teeth. Consonants thus formed by the breath are said to be aspirations. The other sort of con- sonants may be exemplified by p and b. To effect p, the lips are joined with a strong com- pression, and that is all ; for if no vowel sound follow, as in lap, all further sound ceases the moment the lips so join ; and if no vowel sound precede, as in phn, nothing is perceived by the ear till the lips are disjoined with a kind of explosion to let the sound & pass. It is evident, then, that such consonants have neither voice nor breath be- longing to them ; their effect becomes manifest only when a vowel sound precedes or follows, and it is therefore to these alone the common de- finition of consonants properly applies. The other kinds of consonants may be uttered by themselves, and be evident to the ear -, but in attempting to * The best English grammar of the present day contains, however, a quotation from the Encyclopaedia Britannica in support of an opinion, that something more is done in uttering the consonant h. But the reader is left to judge whether a forcing out of the breath before the word and, without pausing between the propulsiou and the word, does not produce the correct pronunciation ©f the werd hand. OF SOUNDS. 21 utter these, unconnected with any other con- sonant or vowel, nothing is heard but the almost imperceptible noise caused by separating the organs. Such consonants are called mutes. With regard to b, and others similar, though they are usually reckoned among the mutes, we cannot be equally satisfied in calling them so. For as b is formed by a similar action of the organs with p, namely, closing the lips, what is it that can constitute the difference between them, if it is not the introduction of voice? Indeed, if we en- deavour to dwell on b, we hear an obscure sound of voice within the mouth, as if striving to force a passage. This sound, however, being scarcely audible in common discourse, we may consider, the difference of b from p to consist merely in a less forcible compression of the organs, and call the former a flat, and the latter a sharp mute. Having thus acquired an accurate idea of the nature of the consonant sounds, subjoined is a list of all that occur in English pronunciation; in giving of which it is thought proper to pay a regard to the consonant letters, as they stand in the order of the alphabet when the vowels are taken away, in order to show the propriety of rejecting several, when a reference is made to them as to the representatives of simple sounds. The consonant letters are b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, $, y> z. But w and %/ 22 OF SOUNDS. represent consonant sounds only when initial to a word or syllable j when they end one, they are equivalents for u and i. B is the representative of a flat mute, as heard in 6ad, cu6. C before a, o, or u, represents the same sound with k ; before e or f, the same with s. In re- ferring to sounds, therefore, it will not be em- ployed. D is the representative of a flat mute, as heard in dog, wed. F is the representative of an aspirate, as heard in /an, off. G is the representative of a flat mute, as in £un, leg. What is called soft g, as generally , heard before e and i, is not a simple sound, but composed of d and another consonant sound, which will be spoken of presently. H is the representative of an aspirate, as heard in /?ate. / represents the same complex sound with what is called softg, and therefore cannot be re- ferred to when speaking of simple sounds. K is the representative of a sharp mute, as heard in km, oaA:. L, of a vocal consonant, as in log, i\U. M, of a vocal consonant, as in wan, da?/z, jV, of a vocal consonant, as in ??ag, fan. JP, of a sharp mute, as in pun, ni/>. OF SOUNDS. 23 2 is always followed by n, and along with that letter has either the sound of kw as in quest, or else of k alone, as in ob%z/e\ R\§ the representative of a vocal consonant, a* in* run, mar. S> of an aspirate, as in sun, mkr. T, of a sharp mute, as in fan, mat. Vy of a vocal consonant, as in uan, heate. W, initial to a word or syllable, is the repre- sentative of a consonant, formed by a forcible action of the organs, when in the position for uttering the vowel sound 8*. X represents two sounds, k and s, as in ex\t> org and z, as in exist. F, initial to a word or syllable, is the repre- sentative of a consonant, formed by a forcible action of the organs when in the position for uttering the vowel sound £*. % is the representative of a vocal consonant, as in zeal, buzz. From this representation, it plainly appears, that only seventeen of the consonant letters can be * These two sounds, w and y, have been classed, by Mr. Lindley Murray, with the vocal consonants, or semivowels. It seems, however, that it is possible to make their effect manifest upon a following vowel, as in wag, yell, without emitting any of the sounds e or 6 ; and in this view, they are independent of sound, and should be called mutes. But nicety of classi- fication is not material, while their existence as consonants is acknowledged. 24 OF SOUNDS. referred to, as the representatives of simple sounds. These seventeen are not, however, all that are ever heard in the language. There are, besides, these five following; namely, that denoted by sh in shall; that by s in vision, which sound, because s is used as a representative in another instance, will be called the sound zh -> that denoted by th in thick ; that by the same letters in them, which" sound* to distinguish it from the foregoing, will be called the sound dh -, and that by ng in s\ng. That these are really simpb, distinct sounds, and not compounded of the sounds usually repre- sented by the letters, will be evident to any one who exarnjnes their formation. Sh and zh are effected by drawing back the tongue, and suffering it to touch the palate at some little distance above the teeth ; and the difference between the two is, that in uttering the former the breath alone is propelled, while,, in the latter, the voice is in- troduced. Sh is therefore an aspirate, and zh a vocal consonant. Th and dh are produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the teeth, with the same difference between them, as be- tween the two foregoing. Ng is produced by placing the tongue as in the position to >oum\ g, but not so close to the palate, and giving an utterance to the voice through the nose. With the addition, then, of these five, the simple con- sonant sounds of English pronunciation amount OF SOUNDS. 25 to twenty-two in number ; viz. nine vocal, I, m, », r, ?ig, v, z, dh, %h*: 9 five aspirated, //, /, .?, th, sh ; six mutes, three of which are sharp, p, k, t> and three flat, b,g, d; and two consonants, w and y, whose classification is doubtful. The order of these, adopted in the present work, will pay no regard to alphabetical arrangement, but be as folio vys: 1 h a propulsed aspiration. 2 if 7 consonant sounds, founded on the 3 y ) bases of vowel sounds. 4 vocal or flat, ««■ a nasal, ringing consonant. 5 aspirated or sharp, ,1 £#&* <3 vocal or flat, z j 7 aspirated or sharp, ,/o ]fc 8 vocal or flat, zh ) 9 aspirated or sharp, fi . 10 vocal or flat, v ) 11 aspirated or sharp, thl .. * - . , ' j, f lisping dentals. 12 vocal or flat, dAJ r b 13 T/ dental. "\ called liquids,from 14 . n * );» labio-nasal. f their easily flow- vocal or flat, ^ /v v 15 In dento-nasal. I ing into other 16 tf guttural. J sounds. 17 f ^ 1 t labials. 18 — flat, jo „ sharp, 20 flat, 21 sharp, o 2 flat, ?• gutturals. ^ mutes. 1} dentals.; * The last four of these, v, z, dh, zh. are not purely .?ocal, but have a mixture of breath with the voice. f A dental is a soundjbrmed by touching any part o<* J he £6 or sounds. As these are all the simple consonant sounds in the language, whenever it appears that a letter has a sound which is not one of these, that sound will be found to be, not a simple, but a complex: sound. Thus, the sound we give to /, in /am, joy, &c. is composed of d and zh , differing from the sound the French give the same letter, by having the d prefixed ; a remark which foreigners should attend to. What is called soft g, as heard in giant, gender, age, &c. is precisely the same two sounds. X y in miar, sty*, &c. is composed of k and r; and t y as it is pronounced in the words crea/ure, nature, is formed of t and sh ; the pro- per utterance of the words being cre-to/uire and na-fr/mre. This circumstance, of representing two con- sonant sounds by one letter, suggests the idea of calling such combinations diphthongal conso- nants*; an epithet that may be employed in all cases where two consonant sounds succeed each other in the same syllable, without the intervention of a vowel, whether represented by one or two letters. Accordingly, we next teeth or gums with the tongue; — a palatal, hy touching the palate; — a labial, is where the lips effect the consonant; — and a guttural, where it is effected in or near the throat: — a labio- nasal, is where the sound goes through the nose, while the lips meet, &c. * Diphthong, which is from the Greek, merely signifies a double sound; so that there is no impropriety in applying it to consonants as well as to vowels. OF SOUNDS. 2? proceed to exhibit what diphthongal consonant sounds each consonant forms with others, itself being the last of the two. This may easily be done by a reference to the preceding list of sim- ple sounds. Such a method of treatment, though novel, it is presumed, will be advantageous. A viezv of the diphthongal consonant sounds which occur in English pronunciation. 1. II is never the last of a diphthongal con- sonant sound. 2. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which w is the last, are, hw, sw, thw, bw, kw, gw, tzv, dw, as heard in zvhile*, swell, thwack, buoy) quill, languid, twenty, dwell. 3. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which y is the last, are numerous ; for, since what we call the vowel sound & is composed of y consonant and 3 vowel, so often as that sound, viz. a, comes after a consonant, a diphthongal consonant sound, of which y is the last, will be formed ; as in humid, cubic, suitor, furious, &c. which are pronounced u-j/6omid, k-ybobic, s-ybotur, /-j/oorius, &c. * It will still be remembered that sounds, and not letters, are spoken of. Though in the spelling of the word while, w comes first, in the pronunciation it comes last. Entirely to sink the h, and pronounce it wen, is vulgar. In the word* buoy, quill, and languid,' u has the power of w>; and in quill, q has the power of k. ^8 OF SOUNDS, 4. There are no diphthongal consonant sounds of which ng is the last. 5. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which s is the last, are, fs, ths, Is, ?is, rs, ps, ks, and ts, as heard in cu^r, truths, ipulse*, se?ise, hearse, tops, \ex, mats. 6. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which z is the last, are, ngz, vz, dhz, Iz, mz, nz, rz, bz, gz, dz, as heard in rings, lives, months, balls, hams, dens, bars, ribs, bags, beds, 7. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which sh is the last, are, Ish, ?ish, tsh, as heard in i\lch, bench, chafe (pronounced tshafe). Orthoepists do not, however, agree in sounding ch after a liquid simply, like sh. Some sound it tsh, even in this situation ; and the first two words are pro- nounced jilt sh and bentsh. If this pronunciation be admitted, then tsh is the only diphthongal con- sonant sound, of which sh is the last. 8. The diphthongal consonant sound, of which * The diphthongal sound Is, exemplified in this word, may be said to be represented not by /* but he, the e being silent. In the same manner, we may say that the sound ps is .repre- sented by pes in ropes; for thee, though it is necessary in the orthography, in order to determine the proper sound of the o, is silent in the pronunciation. This method of printing silent letters in the same character with those with which they may be supposed to represent a simple or diphthongal sound under consideration, will be adopted throughout the book. OF SOUNDS. 29 &k is the last, is dzh, as heard in jade, and in gen- der and cage. 9. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which / is the last, are, If, rf, as heard in shelf, turf. 10. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which # is the last, are, Iv, rv, as heard in dete, nerve. 11. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which ih is the last, are, ngth, sth, fth, Ith, mth, nth, rth, dth, as in length, sixth (i. e. siksthj fifth,. stealth, warmth, month, birth, breadth. 12. There are none of which dh is the last ; for the representing mark, th, after a consonant in the same syllable, has always its sharp sound. 13. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which I is the last, are, si, zl, fl, vl, rl, pi, bl, kl, gl, ll, dL Slant, dazzle, fing, drivel (for the cursory pro- nunciation, which drops the e in this word, must be adhered to, even in the most solemn speaking), cur/, plan, blame, claim, glad, rattle, riddle. ■ 14. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which ^i is the last, are, zm, thru, Im, rm, as heard in cbasm, logaril/un, dim, harm. 15. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which n is the last, are, sn, zn,fn, vn, dim, In, rn, pn, hi, tn, dn, as heard in Match, brazen, roughen (for gh has here the sound /),■ raven, heathen, stolen (the word being pronounced in one syllable, stoln), barn, happen, oaken, fatten, sudden. 1(5. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which r 30 OF SOUNDS. is the last, are, shr, fr, thr, pr, br, kr, gr, tr, dr, as in shred, free, throw, pry, brim, creek, groan, frout, dry. 17. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which p is the last, are, sp, Ip, vip, rp, as in span, scalp, Ynnp, har/;. 18. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which b is the last, are, lb, rb, as in alb, verb. 19. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which k is the last, are, ngk, sk, Ik, rk, as in Xhank (where n represents the sound ng), busk,hulk, da?'k. 20. The diphthongal consonant sound, of which g is the last, is, rg, heard only in the word burgh, where h is silent. 21. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which I is the last, are, st, slit, ft, It, mt, nt, rt, pt, kt,, as in bust, rushed, (pronounced vusht) tuft, melt, dreamt, hunt, cart, tripped (pronounced tr\pt) 9 kicked (pronounced kikl). 22. Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which d is the last, are, ngd, zd, zhd, vd, dhd, Id, md,nd, rd, bd, gd, heard in wro7Zg^, praised, obWged {oh\i&zhd), bereaved, breathed , held, blamed, hand, Ifard, rubbed, gagged. It is quite sufficient, in this view of consonants following each other in the same syllable, to con- sider the diphthongal only, or another list might have been irade of triphthongal, and, further still, OF SOUNDS. 31 f associations of four and five successive con- sonants. For we hear that mtk in warmth, is pre- ceded by r; Id in hwded, also by r; tsh in French (FrenM), by n\ sth in sixth {siYsth), by k-, zhd in obliged {obYuizhd), by d, &c. In many instances, we find that syllables are formed entirely without the aid of vowel sounds ; as the last syllables of drivel, stvex\gthe?z, in which the e is silent : so that the common opinion, that a syllable cannot be formed without the aid of a vowel, is erroneous; at least in regard to the English language. In- deed, why should not consonants be capable of forming syllables, since, as we have seen, many of them are in so great a degree vocal? The verb, to strengthen, in the past tense, may take ed, and this e may be silent ; and, in the second person of the same tense, st is added, stveng-thenedst ; so that five successive consonant sounds, th, n, d, s, and t, may compose a syllable without the aid of a vowel sound. It is qow proper to point out what share the consonant sounds have in causing the. mispro- nunciation of foreigners and provincialists ; to show the advantage that persons who have in view a superior, harmonious, and forcible delivery, may derive by attending to, and cultivating the manner of uttering them ; and to point out the causes of impediments in speech, with the best methods of cure. i c l OF SOUNDS. The consonant sounds are, for the most part, alike in all languages; for consonants have their origin in different modes of contact between the organs of speech, the varieties of which cannot be very extensive. There are, however, few lan- guages in which one or two consonant sounds are* not peculiar. This is the case with the English ///and dh ; sounds which are unknown on the continent, and which are consequently a stum- bling-block in the way of foreigners, though they are, in reality, of no more difficult formation than /and v. It is merely the not being early accustom- ed to them which causes the difficulty. To acquire their proper utterance, let the directions at the head of section 27, chap, iii, be observed; and let the words which follow in the Praxis be read over and over again, till the sounds become ready and familiar. But there are other sounds, which, in certain situations, some foreigners mispronounce, because they are placed differently from what they are in their 'own language. The Germans seem to have no idea tiiat a flat mute can finish a word ; and therefore, though they pronounce these sounds correctly when initial, they change them into sharp mutes when final; mop, dole, mat, for mob , dog, mad: In the same manner, instead of pro- Bouneng s like ■ z, as it always should be pro- nounced in the plurals of nouns or third persons of OF SOUNDS. S3 verbs when following a vowel, or a flat consonant, they almost always pronounce it in its own hissing sound. Many provincialists are liable to the same errors. The Welsh, in particular, make all those consonants sharp which should be flat ; heafen for heaven, prake for praize (praise), let for ded (dead), &e. ; and natives of the north, too, often use s in its hissing sound where it should be flat. Directions for the cure of these defects will be found under the proper sections in chap iii. The general rule is, to use a less forcible compression of the organs in the flat consonants, and to throw in as much of the voice as possible, dwelling on the sound for a very considerable time. The contrary fault may be remarked in other pro- vincialists ; they say Zomczetshere for Somerset- shire, and vather for father. Attention will soon remedy such errors, as they do not arise from, inability to utter the proper sounds, but from im- proper substitution. Of the Irish it may be observed, generally, that they employ too much forcible breathing in their utterance, both of the vowel and consonant sounds, and speak too much from the breast. And now, of the benefits that are likely to re- sult from a cultivated utterance of the consonants. It is understood, that a language is harmonious in proportion as it abounds with open vowel sounds: for, as the purposes of music are best answered by D 34 OF SOUNDS. having sounds purely vocal to exert itself upon ; that is to say, as good singers always endeavour to give the freest utterance to their voice, paying the least possible regard to the consonants, which only obstruct or compress it ; it is natural to sup- pose, that a language is most euphonical where consonants are introduced just in sufficient num- ber to prevent hiatus*, and enable the voice to bound, as it were, from one long-drawn sound to another. Doubtless, in respect to melody alone, such a language must possess . great advantages. Where softness, harmony, and sweetness are re- quired, in pastoral or elegiac poetry, and in that species of eloquence, where the object is only to please and captivate, it will be used with great effect. But when we intend to be strong and nervous, to rouse and animate, whence is to come the corresponding energy in the language ? On such occasions, the sounds of music would be made to swell and lengthen, and strike the ear in the loudest peals ; but the vowel sounds cannot be lengthened to any sensible degree in speech, without entirely changing it to a song -, and to employ the whole force of the voice upon open sounds* would be nothing better than clamour and noise. In fact, real energy of pronunciation * An hiatus is the succession of two vowel sounds without, the intervention of a consonant; as in the word itseJf. *uafus, OF SOUNDS. 35 does not consist in a vociferate utterance, but in active and forcible exertion of the organs : and if a language gives no room for any exertion of this kind; if, to pronounce it properly, the whole flow of voice must roll upon the vowels, and the consonants be little dwelt upon ; however har- monious such a language may be, it will neces- sarily want strength and vigour. It is certain, that the English tongue is not chargeable with defects of this kind. On the contrary, the num- ber of its monosyllables, which so often begin or end with clusters of consonants, and the frequent practice of shortening, or entirely shutting the vowel sounds, have been the cause of taxing it with harshness. But, in this respect, it is pre- sumed, much depends on the person who pro- nounces it 5 because there are proofs, that some consonants are capable of harmonious effect, and, if care be taken in uttering them, may supply the want of a greater number of sounds purely vocal, at the same time that they preserve their quality of adding strength to pronunciation. Let a foreigner, entirely unacquainted with the language, be told to judge, in point of harmony alone, between the pronunciation of two persons having equal qualities of voice, but one of whom has a cultivated, and the other an uncultivated utterance, and he will decide, without hesitation., in farour of the former. Some cause for such a p 2 56 or sounds. decision may perhaps be found in the superiorit}* of modulation and measure ; but it is presumed, it will principally be owing to the different utterance of the consonants: or what is the reason that a good singer is so often found to pro- nounce with indifferent harmony, while a person with a bad singing voice is listened to with pleasure in reading ? The reason is, that the vowel sounds are neither sufficiently numerous, nor protracted, to give the singer room for displaying the melody of his voice, while he mars those consonants which are susceptible of harmony, because he has never studied how to give them their greatest effect. The good reader, on the other hand, from the unfrequent occurrence of sounds purely vocal, has the defects of his voice in a great measure concealed, and by his har- monious pronunciation of the consonants gains the superiority. It must be quickly understood, that the vocal consonants alone are meant as. capable of adding to the melody of speech. As a proof of their tuneful quality we may remark, that a semivowel contains voice enough to be made the subject of a note in singing ; that is to say, if any word, ending with a vocal consonant, dell, for instance, occurred in a song under a long note, it is in the singer's power to make nearly the whole note run upon the /; though we well know that a singer always chooses pure and open OF SOUNDS. 37 sounds in preference to those which are in the least degree obstructed or compressed ; and there- fore he will rather take the sound £, which pre- cedes, and convert it to an open sound, as better suited to his purpose. Here is a choice ; but had an aspirate or a mute closed the £, as in deaf (pronounced def), and deck, then he must, of ne- cessity, have employed the %, and not the con- sonant ; because aspirates and mutes have no vocal sound belonging to them. Consonants, therefore, which partake so much of the nature of vowels, and which are capable of musical effect, instead of contributing to the harshness of a language, require only to be properly pro- nounced to add to its melody. How soft and harmonious are the consonant sounds marked in italics in the following lines ! dh dh dhs dh The frolic wind that breathes the spring. Ah Zephyr with Aurora playiwg z A* he met her once a may'mg. dh 3 There on beds of piolet blue, And fresh blown roses wash'd in dew. dh Fi/Z'd her with thee, a daughter fair, dh So buxom, blithe, and debonnair. It is a pleasure to a good reader or speaker, when he has such sounds to utter. He dwells upon them, throws into them all the voice they 38 OF SOUNDS. are capable of receiving, and, through their means* mellows his whole pronunciation. He has even a choice to make between the flat and sharp mutes ; for bl in blue, is more harmonious than pi in play. But, to an uncultivated reader, all sounds come alike indifferent. Instead of endea- vouring to render them melodious, he clutters them together, curtails them of their due length, runs one into the other, so as to let none be heard distinctly, deprives them of the share of voice which belongs to them, and thereby reduces them nearly all to mutes or aspirates. Since, then, a proper utterance of the consonants may render them not only a source of strength, but melody of pronunciation, and since our language abounds so much with these sounds, it will be of importance to observe the following directions : In effecting the consonants, let the most active and forcible exertion of the organs be employed -, and in the vocal consonants, at the same time, give utterance to as large a body of voice as the position of the organs will admit. Never permit sounds to coalesce, which ought to be heard dis- tinctly. Thus the sis in hosts, mists, he desists, he wastes, must all three be heard in succession, without suffering one sound to lose itself in another. In order to acquire this distinct enunciation of the consonants, let each of them be in turn made the object of exercise in reading, as they are arranged OF SOUNDS. 39 in the Praxis, chap, iii, beginning at section 17- We know, that in the practice of almost every art, the inevitable consequence of aiming at ex- pedition in the beginning is an imperfect manner of executing, which is to be got rid of only by returning to first principles. So it generally happens in pronunciation. Having learned to speak fast before we had acquired a correct utterance of the separate sounds, we must now return to these, and, when we are assured that our fundamental errors are eradicated, we may pro- ceed by degrees to acquire facility ; reading very slowly at first, dwelling on all the consonants, and making every one tell to the ear. At length the organs will become expert in their office, will start into different positions with ease, and make a ready and smooth transition from one sound to another, without marring or confounding them. Thus will be gained a distinct, nervous articula- tion, free at the same time from any appearance of restraint or labour. What next arises from a consideration of the consonant sounds are, impediments in speech. Whenever any part of the organs employed in utterance are defective, or whenever, from being unaccustomed to particular articulations, they are unable to perform their office, impediments or defects in speech are the consequence. If they proceed from the former cause, they are termed W OF SOUNDS. natural impediments. These, though certainly the most difficult to cure, should seldom be re- garded as irremediable. When, indeed, the organs are extremely defective, if the tongue be ma- terially disproportioned, if the palate have an aperture, or the teeth be lost, instruction can do but little ; though other means may still be some- times resorted to, as supplying false teeth, &c. But when the organs are defective in no very great degree, it generally depends only on a per- son's perseverance, guided by some few directions, to remove, at least in some measure, the impro- prieties of his utterance. For do we not often see, that where the hand or fingers are but ill adapted for certain offices, by constantly bending them to the point, they are at length made to act with very passable effect ? The same may be done with the organs of pronunciation. Being acquainted with the number of consonant sounds, the pronunciation may be analysed, to discover in the utterance of which sound the articulation is defective ; and, when the extent of the malady is thus ascertained, let the directions, as to the proper position of the organs, under the respective sections of the different sounds, in chap, iii, be consulted ; and let every attempt be made to get nigher and nigher the right utterance. It seldom happens, however, that the inability %o utter any particular consonant arises from. OF SOUNDS. 41 mal-conformation of the organs : it is generally the consequence of early inattention, or bad ex- ample, confirmed into a habit. Nor is it matter of wonder, that such defects should be almost as obstinate to be removed as those that proceed from natural causes. For, to recur to the allusion before employed, do not the other organs of the body find the utmost difficulty in performing even the most simple actions, to which they have been unaccustomed? Hence the organs of speech will always find the same difficulty ; and so simple a consonant as th> which is effected merely by putting the tongue between the teeth and breath- ing, shall seldom be correctly uttered by one who is not bred in England. The force of example in a person's family, or in others with whom he has early associated, will, in the same manner, render difficult such consonants as h, r, or s. For the second, we often hear substituted a sound something like /; and for the last, one resembling thy which produces what is called a lisp. Such defects may certainly be remedied, when nothing material is wanting in the organs, by inquiring into the manner by which the true articulation is accomplished, and by persevering in every effort to render the organs flexible to the purpose. A species of impediment now remains to be spoken of, more common than any, and more complicated in its nature — what is usually termed 42 OF SOUNDS. stammering. This does not arise from any de- fect in the organs, or from any misuse of theni, but from a hesitation in producing some of the consonants, in reading or speaking, which, taken separately, the organs can effect without difficulty. From this circumstance, and from others, it should seem that the impediment has its origin in phy- sical causes, the development of which does not come within the province of the orthoepist. Some of these other circumstances are, that the impediment is increased by any violent emotion in the mind, any great eagerness in the person to express himself with energy ; and is affected even by variations in the weather. But, what seems more remarkable, in reading poetry the defect is generally less troublesome than in reading prose; and, in singing, it quite disappears. Hence it seems evident, that a certain sense of harmonious proportion, an idea of the necessity of keeping time, operates materially in removing the hesita- tion ; and as prose, as well as poetry, has its metrical laws, and every good speaker, not only in reading and solemn speaking, but in common conversation, intuitively preserves a measured proportion in the utterance of his sentences, it has been conceived that a knowledge of these laws, and enforcing the necessity of an even and well ordered movement in discourse, might be attended with the best effects. This plan having OF SOUNDS. 43 been found to answer, there will be given, in the chapter on Quantity, some few instructions on this head, particularly directed to persons who labour under the impediment. As to the ne- cessity of gathering presence of mind to resist the stuttering habit, when it is found to be coming on ; of directing the attention, not to the whole drift of what is intended to be said, so as to cause an eagerness to get to the end-, but to think, as it were, step by step, and speak in the same calm deliberate manner ; these are things which the person will so naturally see the propriety of himself, thai? it is needless to enforce them. Two or three remarks of another kind may, however, be of use. It is observed, that those who have the impediment usually stop at the mutes/?, k, t y and b, g, d; less frequently at the latter three than the former, and very seldom when any of them come after a vocal, or semivocal sound, that is, when they end a syllable ; but only when they come before a vocal sound, or begin a syllable. Now these consonants are not sounds, but modes of contact merely in the organs, which, for the moment they last, impede the efflux of voice. In effecting them, let it be endeavoured to make the conjunction as forcible and rapid as possible, and let the separation be accomplished in the same instantaneous and vigorous manner, £0 as to cause a sort of explosion on the following 44 OF SOUNDS. sound. This method will often overcome the impediment. At the same time it will be ne- cessary to keep in mind the vowel, or vocal con- sonant sound, which follows, that it may be im- mediately uttered after, and bear the effect of the mute. It is by recurring to the first principles of pronunciation, as unfolded in the above chapter, that persons born deaf, and who are consequently dumb, have been taught to speak. They learn the proper positions, and action of the organs, from ocular example. And, in order to make them sensible of the difference between a vowel, a semivowel, and an aspirate; or, in other words, to show them where sound should and should not be uttered, they are made to apply the ringer to the pro- minence caused by the larynx at the upper end of the throat, where they presently feel the effect resulting from the vibra- tion of the chorda vocalis; an effect that takes place only in the production of sound. What an encouragement does the successful tuition of such persons offer to those whose whole concern is to remove only two or three impediments! If organs, hitherto incapable of producing a single word, can, under such disadvantageous circumstances of instruction, be brought to perform their office, no excuse remains, the organs not being materially defective, for giving up as irremediable even the most obstinate deficiencies of utterance. The following Tables of the Elementary Souncfo of the English Language are taken from pp. 14 and 25, and placed here for the purpose of con- venient Refeqgnce. A Table of the Sixteen Simple and Diphthongal Vowel Sounds, The 1 st is that represented by a in fote; orthoepically marked a 2d by a in fat a 3d by a in far a 4th by a in fall a 5th by e in me e ^th by e in met e 7th by i in pine — i 8th — by i in pin ! 9th by o in note 6 10th by o in not 6 11th by o in move * 6 12th by u in c^be u 13th ■ — by win cab u 14th by u in ball — u 1 5th by ol in oi\ — * oi 16th byowinpownd ou> A Table of the Twenty-two Consonant Sounds. 1 . - h a propulsed aspiration. 2 iv 7 consonant sounds, founded on the 3 y) bases of vowel sounds. 4 vocal or flat, ng a nasal, ringing consonant. 5 aspirated or sharp, S 7 demals 6 vocal or flat, s ) 7 aspirated or sharp, sh 7 lata]s 8 vocal or flat, zh\ v 9 aspirated or sharp, /I labiak 10 vocal or flat, v y 11 aspirated cr sharp, th 7 y . d , 1 2 vocal or flat, dh j * 5 13 C I dental. "J called liquids, from 14 , fl ; ?« labio-nasal. f their easily flow- 15 Y0C ° r Mat ' ) n dento-nasal. C ing into other 16 ( r guttural. J sounds. 17 ; sharp, 18 flat, 19 sharp, 20 — flat, 21 sharp, 22 flat. labiah gutturals. y- mutes, dentals. s S CHAP. II. OF LETTERS, With rules for their pronunciation, when associated in the formation of words: first, the proper sounds of vowel letters which occur singly in a syllable ; secondly, of two or more which imme- diately follow in the same syllable ; thirdly, of consonant letters which occur singly in a syllable; and, fourthly, of two or more which immediately follow in the same syllable. THE last chapter treated of sounds, and showed the nature and number of all that occur in Eng- lish pronunciation. Letters, the representatives of sounds, will make the subject of the present chapter ; and rules will be given for applying to them, as they occur under different circumstances of association, those sounds which the custom of the language has determined they should take. Had letters been employed, as it is natural to suppose they ought to have been, in sufficient number to represent every one a sound, and no sound had ever been represented but by its own letter; that is to say, if the sixteen vowel sounds, 46 OF LETTERS. and the twenty-two simple consonant sounds, which have been shown to belong to our lan- guage, had each been possessed of a single mark by which to be represented, and this mark had never been employed to denote any other but its own sound, the business of the present chapter, and the rules exemplified throughout the Praxis, chap, iii, would have had no founda- tion for existence. But neither the English lan- guage, nor indeed any other, has the advantage of so regular a notation of its sounds. Our lan- guage is remarkably irregular in this respect. Sometimes we find a simple sound represented by two letters, as the 4th, 7th, 11th, and 12th of the consonants, page 25, by ng, sh y and th, ms'ing, shall, thick, and this ; and the 1st, 5th, and 9th of the vowels, page 14, by ai, ea, and oa, in nail, seat, and mourn. On other occasions, we meet with two sounds represented by a single letter; as the 22d and 8th of the consonants, d and zh> by j and g, in /ade and gentle. Then, it is by no means uncommon to find two or more sounds denoted by the same letter; as the 5th consonant sound by s in save, the 6th by s in ease, and 8th by s in pleasure ; the 9th vowel sound by o in note, the 10th by o in not, the 11th by o in m/;ve, and the 13th by o in love. From all which premises it appears, that rules are highly necessary to enable us to determine when a letter OF LETTERS. 47 should have one sound, and when another; ne- cessary, not only to foreigners, who are to be sup- posed entirely without this information, but fre- quently also to natives, who, though early habits have for the most part furnished them with it, are often at a loss for the pronunciation of an un- usual word, because they have not examined into analogies, and do not know, theoretically, where a general rule should apply, and where exceptions are to be made. It is not, however, intended in the present chapter to bring forward all the rules of pro- nunciation, with their exceptions^ because this can be done in a much more advantageous man- ner in the Praxis; but to make general observa- tions, and trace general analogies, in order to be referred to in the sequel. In the first place, rules will be given for sounding the vowel letters when they occur singly in a syllable ; then, for the pro- per sounds of two or more occurring together without the intervention of a consonant. After- ward, in the same manner, for the proper sounda taf consonant letters when single ; and, lastly, of two or more occurring together in the same syllable without the intervention of a vowel. The letters, or marks of sounds, employed in the English language, are twenty-six in number : a y b, c, d 9 e, f, g, h> i, /, i, /, m, ?i> o,p, q, r, s, t % v, u 9 w> x y y, z. Seven of these are used to denote vowel sounds; a, e, i, o, u y y, and w: the last two 30 OF LETTERS. the former or latter syllable. The following ob- servations will, however, be of some use. RULE 3. When the accented vowel, having one consonant, or two proper to begin a syllable be- tween it and the next vowel, is in the penultimate syl- lable , we are told by grammarians, that the idiom of the language inclines to place the consonant or consonants to the latter syllable; or, expressed in other words, the accent causes the vowel to be open ; as, ft'-tal, lumM'-go, inherent, misn6'-mer, dd-ty, f&'-ble, m&'-tron. . That this rule, if it may be allowed really to exist, has very numerous exceptions, will be seen in reading the Praxis. 4. And we may remark, that those words are to be regularly excepted from the above, which have s and another consonant between the vowels, although they may be proper to begin a syllable ; as, b&'s-ket, t&'s-ter, apfrs-tate, bl'i's-ter, mft's-ter. And, if there be any exception to this rule, it is in de- rivative words, that retain the vowel sound of their primitives; as the a in tester, which retains its open sound, because it is open in the primitive, to t&ste. 5. When the accented vowel, having one con- sonant, or two proper to begin a syllable between it and the next vowel, is in a syllable further back than the penultimate, our idiom then directs to place the consonant, or, of the two, one of them, to the former syllable ; that is to say, the accent OF LETTERS. 51 causes the vowel to be shut. Example: fa'm-ily., e'l-egancy, a'b-rogate, F^b-ruary. 6. The secondary accent, in syllables" higher than the penultimate, has the same effect with the primary. Ex.: a'n-imadvert, de'c-laration. 7. From the two preceding rules we must except some words, in which it is necessary to convey distinctly the meaning of each part of the word. It is for this reason, that r&p-etition comes under the rule when it signifies^ generally, an itera- tion of the same act, while repetition, meaning tar petition again, forms an exception to it by the present rule* 8. Many other exceptions to RULES 5 and 6 will be owing to derivation : as, from blame, comes bla'-mable ; from decent, dd'-cency > from bribe, brl'-bery ; from p6-tent, potentate. 9. From RULES 5 and 6 must also be excepted words, in which the accented vowel is us as> n&'-meral, redu'-cible. The same rules will also fre- quently be contravened by that which succeeds. 10. When the syllable following the accented vowel, unless that vowel be i> has in it ei 9 ia, ie, to, hi, couy or ion, the consonant goes to the latter syllable. Ex, : a'-theist, ambr6'-sia, a'-lien, harmonious, cad&'-ceus, outra'-geous. It is from the influence of this rule, that the vowels which precede that frequent termination ion> are always open 5 as, na'-tion, adW-sion, promfr-tion, &c« 52 OF LETTERS. 11. The vowel letter f, as was said, is not affected by the preceding rule. Ex. : exhibi't-ion, mag'fc-ian, v'i's-ionary ; t, c, and s having, the former two, the sound sh, and the latter the sound zh*. 12. The rules adduced have related to the placing of the consonant only, when the accent is on the former vowel ; when the accent does not fall on the former vowel, there is no difficulty ; for then, with only one exceptive rule, the con- sonant or consonants must go to the latter *owel. Ex. : d£-test, bl-sect, dS-throne, 6-pinion, correspondent. 13. The exception alluded to is, when s is one of^the consonants proper to begin a syllable, and that they come after unaccented it s must, in this case, close the i. Ex. : dis-tend, dk- tract. On the whole, it appears from these rules, that, generally speaking, accentual force tends to shorten or close all vowels but those in the penultimate of words ; while the absence of accent has univer- sally a contrary effect : for though the absence * Let it be remarked, that when a consonant goes to a former syllable, in order to render it short, it still preserves any change of sound which may be caused by its being before some particular vowel, as in the above instances ; and again, in the word natural, pronounced na/s/t-ural, where the / pre- serves the same diphthongal consonant sound, which was caused by its preceding the sound u in ni-ture, pronounced na-tt^ure. OF LETTERS. 53 of accent will not allow the vowel sound to be protracted, still, in the case of only one consonant or two, &c. between the vowels, it keeps the former vowel from being closed, and consequently preserves it, by nature, long. These principles will be evident from the different divisions which the following words properly take, according to the different seat of the accent : irr&'f-ragable, irrefragable ; indg'c-orous, indecorous ; rg'c-ondite, recondite. Thus we see, that if the general rule, N°. 1, were always allowed to act, it would immediately direct us to the right pronunciation of any vowel letter occurring singly in a syllable; and the only error into which we should be liable to fall, would be, that when a single consonant, or two proper to begin a syllable, such as bl,fl, &c. sp, st> sir, &c. fr y thr> &c. came between the two vowels, we might, from the uncertainty of the rules in this respect, place the consonant or consonants to the wrong syllable, and by this means make a vowel shut when it should be open, or open when it should be shut. But the general rule has very numerous exceptions. Instead of giving «, in the following words, its regular closed sound, £, we pro- nounce, p^th, tall, w&r, &c. Instead of?, in the following, we pronounce, mUd, find. Instead of 34 OF LETTERS. giving o its regular open sound, 6, in the following words, we pronounce, m^ve, pr^ve ; and, for a in b&ll, p&sh, we pronounce the sound marked. In some words, we substitute a sound quite foreign to the letter ; as the a in village, which we pro- nounce i ; the o in gtave, and the o, in son, which we pronounce ft, &e. To foreigners all this must be a source of vast perplexity \ to natives, who possess a vernacular utterance, it will not afford much difficulty : they will seldom be in error, unless the deviation should take place in an un- usual word, because they have been correctly taught by habit. Indeed, a native will seldom be sensible of any irregularity, while he is con- fined to common reading and common conversa- tion ; but, place him in a situation where he is obliged to pronounce with deliberation and de- cision ; tell him to give to every syllable in every word its real and specific sound : then, if he derive all his knowledge of pronunciation from Jiabit alone, and has never entered into the theory, you will find him very frequently at a loss, even in the most common words. He has no distinct idea of the sound he is accustomed to give to cer- tain syllables in conversation : he knows, that a vowel in general has two sounds, an open and a shut ; but he finds that, if he always pronounces a vowel letter in its own sound, he often departs, very widely from common utterance. Nor in. OF LETTERS. 55 the vowels alone, but in the consonants also, he will frequently find the same difficulty : he wavers, he hesitates, he pronounces with indecision, and, consequently, with indistinctness. To make this point more clear, let us suppose that such a per- son has to read in a very distinct, deliberate manner, before a large assembly, and that he meets with the words, courage, company, would, derogative, calm,sudden, pardon,creature,treasure. These, in common conversation, he would cor- rectly pronounce, c^'r-ridzh, cfrm-pan-ne, wood, de-rog-a-tiv, di-m, sud-dn, par-dn, cr£-tshure, tr£zh-ure : but he is not able to appreciate the deviation he is in the habit of making from the real sounds of the letters j or even, if he can ap- preciate it, he does not know whether it may not be a corruption not to be admitted in solemn reading: at the same time, though he knows that, separately spelling the syllables, and giving each letter its own sound, c, 0, w, spells cow ; a, g, e, kge; c, 0, m, cbm; n,y, n\; 0, w, /, d, owld; t, i\ v > e, five ; a, /, w, Um ; d, e, n, dhi ; d> 0, n, d&n ; t, u, r, e 3 t^re; and s, u, r, e, sh?*es yet he perceives, that if he were thus to pronounce the syllables, as they occur in the words, his pronunciation would be offensive, from its peculiarity and affectation of correctness. Hence he would be thrown into em- barrassment, and know not how to pronounce ; and this embarrassment every person, so circumstanced, would be more or less exposed to, who, though 56 OF LETTERS. he might pronounce with no peculiar incorrect- ness in conversation, had not studied what ought to be the real and decided sounds of letters in certain situations, when called upon to determine them. Not to mention that, even in common conversation, unless he had always frequented the politest company, he would be in danger of falling into deviations which are not received among well-educated people : for some deviations from the proper sounds of letters are dictated by the nature of the language, and acknowledged by polite usage; while some are corruptions which are heard only in the mouths of the vulgar. The following general rules, which show where proper deviations are to be made, with the reasons for them, where any can be given ; and the Praxis, in which the rules are copiously exemplified, and particular, received exceptions shown; will be useful, not only to foreigners and provincialists, but to every Londoner, who has to acquire a firm, consistent, polite delivery; with this dif- ference in the use of the Praxis, that the former, who have not a vernacular utterance of the true sounds, must read it to one who can correct them, while the latter can, by reading it, teach himself. The primary and greatest cause of the devia- tion of vowels from their regular souuds is the ab- OF LETTERS. 57 .sence of accent. Accent obliges us to pronounce every syllable, which is affected by it, with its clear, appropriate sound 5 but unaccented syl- lables, being slightly passed over, very frequently change the true sounds of their vowels into other sounds, easier to the organs of pronunciation. Here, then, is the principal reason of the em- barrassment, which arises in having to pronounce words deliberately : the easier sounds are adopted unthinkingly and without hesitation in conversa- tion ; but in solemn speaking, it becomes doubtful whether or not they must give place to the re- gular sounds. In fact, this is a point of con- siderable difficulty ; and it cannot, in some cases, be exactly decided upon. Taking the vowel letters under the three different circumstances (page 48 ), the following rules obtain. RULE 14. First, when the vozvels are final in a syllable, the absence of accent causes no alteration m their regular sounds, except in a and i. It merely renders them un protracted ; as, de-vout, p^-lite, finite. , 1.5. But unaccented a, final in a syllable, de- parts from its regular sound, and acquires an in- definite, open sound, more like & than any other. Ex.: abound, kle-a, tra-duce, admirable*. * Mr. Walker applies this rule only when the unaccented, unclosed q comes immediately before or after the accent ; and 58 OF LETTERS. 16. And unaccented i\ or its equivalent y, final in a syllable, because its regular, open sound is compounded of a and t T> , generally drops the for- mer part, and is pronounced as unaccented £. This always takes place when i or y is unaccented, and final in a syllable, and is not in the initial syllable of the word -, as, indj-vis-i-bil-z-ty, pro- nounced ind£-viz-£-b!'l-£-t£. Except some verbs, generally where y is preceded by /,* as, justify, pronounced justifi. But when i, unaccented and final in a syllable, is in an initial syllable, it some- times has, and sometimes has not, its first sound ; as,l-dea,2-magine,pronounced£-magine,di-ameter, ch-vine, pronounced divine. The words, each way, will be gathered in the Praxis. 1 7. Secondly, when the vozvels are closed by a con- sonant, the absence of accent causes various alterations in their sounds, which must be noted separately. 18. A, unaccented and closed by a consonant, may be said to approach the sound a; as, noble-, man, outward, defiance, giant, which incline to be pronounced nobleman, outward, &c. Here he therefore marks a in admirable to be pronounced like a in fat. But the ear does not seem to warrant any distinction being made between a unaccented and unclosed, though not immediately after or before the accent, and when it is so situate, as in tra-duce, idea. Besides that a is a closed sound. OF LETTERS. o9 we see the exact sound cannot be decided upon. In colloquial pronunciation it will rather be the latter : in deliberate reading or speaking, it will decline less from the former. 19. E, unaccented and closed by a consonant, for the most part, retains its regular sound ; as, in cobweb, anthem. Often, however, it is rather pro- nounced like shut ij as in podt, faces, pronounced po-'it, fa-c!z. 20. /, unaccented and closed by a consonant, retains its regular sound; as in classic, timid. 21. O, unaccented and closed by a consonant, if in a final syllable, acquires the sound ft exactly; and if not in a final syllable, it approaches that sound. Ex. : method, pronounced meth-xid ; conjecture, approaching to conjecture. 22. U, unaccented and closed, retains its re- gular sound, as in hubbub, sublime. 23. But e before d, in the preterits and parti- ciples of verbs, is mostly dropped in the pronun- ciation ; as in loved, lived, barred, pronounced luvd, Tivd, bard. In some cases, however, it must be retained, as will be gathered in reading the Praxis. 24. And e, i, and o, before Z and 7i'm final, un- accented syllables, must sometimes be dropped in the pronunciation ; as, swivel, raven, evil, cousin, ^acon, pronounced swiv-vl, ra-vn, e-vl, cuz-zn, 60 OF LETTERS. ba-kn. The Praxis will show where this pronun- ciation* ought and ought not to be adopted. 26. Tliirdtyy when the vowel is followed by a con- sonant and final e mute, the following effects result from the absence of accent. 26. A, before te> seems merely rendered less protracted : but it is to be observed, that there is a difference made in this protraction in different words ; for it is shorter when in a substantive or adjective, than when in a verb ; as a discerning ear may distinguish, by comparing the words delicate, climate, primate, ultimate, with the verbs to dedicate, to regulate, to speculate. 26. A, in the termination ace, inclines to an indefinite sound of ft ; as, palace, solace, which in conversation are pronounced somewhat likepal-ltis, sol-lus. 27. A y in the termination age, acquires the sound i ; as in cabbage, village, pronounced cab-bige, vil-Mge. There are some exceptions to this rule, which will be gathered in the Praxis. 28. E, unaccented, and followed by a consonant and final e mute, keeps its sound with distinctness; as in multiple, obsolete. 29. /, unaccented, and followed by a consonant and final e mute, sometimes retains its regular sound, as in gentile, appetite; and in other words adopts its shut sound, as in servfle, hy'pocntc, OF LETTERS. 61 pronounced servil, hy'p-ocilt. The words, each way, in the Praxis. 30. O, unaccented, and followed by a consonant and final e mute, is merely less protracted ; as in telescope, metamorph6se. 31. The same may be generally said of u ; as, prod-ftce, vol-ume. - Thus we see, that in some instances the ab- sence of accent quite alters the proper sound of a vowel; and, in others, renders it undecided between two sounds, leaving it to the speaker's dis- cretion to incline more to one or the other, ac- cording as his discourse is colloquial or solemn. RULE 32. But when it is said, that the absence of accent has such an effect on the vowels in some situations, we must be careful that this circum- stance does so operate upon those that are final in a syllable. This remark is the more necessary, as a neat pronunciation of vowels so situate is one of the greatest beauties in speaking; and it is of these Mr. Walker speaks, when he says, that scarcely any thing more distinguishes a person of a mean and good education, than the pronuncia- tion of the unaccented vowels. A vulgar speaker will corrupt e, i, o, and u, in the following words, by pronouncing them, perp&t-rate, affinfitty, in- troduce, scrupfil-ous, or bordering on such an G2 OF LETTERS. utterance; but a good speaker pronounces, per pt-i rate, affinity, introduce, scrupti-lous. Other effects of the absence of accent will be noticed as we proceed. The next cause of the deviation of vowels from their regular sounds is, when they are followed by the consonant r. This consonant is a jar of the tongue, accompanied by an emission of voice. The peculiarity of its conformation causes it to leave any vowel which precedes it open, instead of closing it, as another consonant would do ; and we should naturally conclude that the vowel, in this case, would have the open sound, which cor- responds to it, shut. It will be seen, however, that this does not always take place. RULE 32. A, followed by r, has the open sound §, which is broader than the closed sound K. Ex.: far, h^rd, barter. S3. E y followed by r, is differently pronounced by different speakers. As the correspondent open sound of e is Sj in strict theory, it ought to have that sound ; but nobody would venture to pro- nounce mercy, prefer, herd, m&'re-cy, pre-f&'re, h.iird. The usual sound which is given to e, in this situation, is ft; and the above words are ac- cordingly pronounced mu'rcy, prefer, Wrd. But OF LETTERS. 63 with polite speakers, we hear a deviation from the latter pronunciation,which approaches the former ; and is, in fact, a compromise between the two. 34. /, followed by r, is pronounced exactly like e followed by r ; with the same difference between different speakers. But to foreigners, it is advisable to lay down as a rule, that e and i followed by r, ought wholly to have the sound a ; because they are already too liable to pronounce these letters, so situate, wholly a; mai7*th, defare, for merth (mirth), defer; and because they will, by this means, more readily catch the proper medium. 35. O, followed by r, has exactly the corre- spondent open sound of its shut sound ; as, nor, cord, pronounced nar, card. Sometimes, how- ever, when o is followed by rt, o has its first open sound ; as, p6rt. Words in the Praxis. 36. U, followed by r, has an open sound, which corresponds with the shut sound fi. But, as this ©pen sound is never heard on any other occasion, it is not usual to introduce it as a new sound ; and u, before r, is marked to be pronounced as before any other consonant ; f&r, us&rp. This is not strictly correct; but no ill consequences can re- sult from it, because u will naturally be open be- fore r. 37. But when r, or what amounts to the same 6*4 OF LETTERS. thing, a vowel, follows r in another syllable*, the preceding five rules do not take effect; for the vowel letter must then retain its regular closed sound. Ex. : ma'r-ry, pa'r-adise, be'r-ry, p&T-il, spi'r-it, h/'r-ic, pronounced lh'-ic, s6'r-ry, c6'r-al, hn'r-ry. 38. The foregoing rules relate to the sounds of vowels before r only when the accent is upon the vowels. In the absence of accent, they all, be- fore that consonant, have indifferently the sound ft. Thus the terminations ar, er, ir, yr, or, and ur> in dollar, member, elixz'r, martj/r, author, sulphwr, are pronounced exactly in the same manner. 39. When the first sound of any of the vowel letters comes before r, from the peculiar nature of this letter, the single syllable sounds as if it were two: bare, various, here, material, hire, bore, glbrious, demure, are pronounced ba'ur, va-urius, he'ur, mate'-urial, hl'-ur, bof-ur, glo -urius, dermV-ur. Orthoepists do not notice this pe- culiarity, though it is the distinguishing mark of an English pronunciation of such words, as is evident from the vicious pronunciation Englishmen are apt to give the French words dire, punir, &c, in which they wrongly interpose * When a consonant between two vowels goes to a former syllable, the word will have the same sound as if two consonants had been employed : thus, va/?-id would have sounded the same if written \Bppk\ ; petf-ant, if written neddant; pop-ular, if written popular. O* 1 LETTERS. 6$ the same sound, ft, before r. At the same time, it is proper to notice* that here also, in bare, here, hire, &c, there are two methods of pro- nouncing, distinguishable in the well-bred and the vulgar; the former dwell longer on the vowel, and interpose the sound a in a less sensible manner. It is not easy to give reasons for other* devia- tions of the vowels from their regular sounds ; but the following rules will show, in general, when such deviations take place. RULE 40. A, succeeded by nge, or ste, has its 'first, open sound y as in change, m&nge, Mste, p&ste. This is an irregularity ; for final e mute has the power of keeping a preceding vowel open only when a single consonant comes between. 41. A 9 succeeded by th, If, lm 9 Iv, in the same syllable, has mostly the sound & 5 as, p^th, cUlf* cdlm, c&lve (/ is silent in the last three words). Formerly, there were many other letters that* when they followed**, were allowed to make it sound in the same manner ; but it is now usual to adhere to the regular rule in this respect. 42. A y succeeded by // in the same syllable, 4or by one I and any other consonant but pj F 66 OF LETTERS. b,f, takes its fourth open sound; as, tall, ihthrall, (usually spelled inthral*), falcon, talk (/ silent), salt, bald, false. It must be remembered, that the two els are to be in the same syllable, to cause the a to fall under the rule ; for when one of them goes to another syllable, a has its shut sound; as in ma'l-let. 43. A, preceded by the sound usually repre T sented by w, has either the sound a or 6 ; as, wl-ter, w^r, quarter (qu being equivalent to ktv) 9 wan, swab, quantity, quality, pronounced w6n, sw6b, quantity, quality. Unless the following consonant be k 3 g, ng, x, or/; for, in that case, a retains its regular sound ; as in thwack, wag, twang, WaX, waft. 44. E, in a final, unaccented syllable, after /, preceded by another consonant, is dropped in pronunciation ; as in bubble, title, pronounced bub-bl, ti-tl \ bute, in a final, unaccented syllable, after r, preceded by another consonant, sounds with r like ur ; as in massacre, theatre, pronounced massacwr, theatar. 45. /, followed by nd, Id, or gh, takes its first, open sound ; as in mind, find, mild, child, high, nigh (gh silent). 46. Q, followed by ve, sometimes has its re- * Thia rule appKes to all those words which formerly had the / doubled, but one of which modern innovation has left out. A proof how pernicious an omission it is. OF LETTERS. 67 gular sound, sometimes the sound 6, and some- times the sound ft. Ex. : gr6ve, pr8ve, glove, pronounced glftv. The words, each way, may be gathered in the Praxis. 47- O, followed by //, or st, in the same syl- lable, takes its first sound; as in r6ll, contr6ll (usually written control — see the note to RULE 42), h6st, mfist. 48. O, closed by m, n, r, v, z, th, or preceded by the sound zv, very frequently assumes the sound ft; as in combat, son, attorney, cover-, dozen, nothing, worry, worst. Words in the Praxis. 49. U, followed by //, sometimes acquires the sound uj as in ball, fall, pall. Words in the Praxis. 50. V, following r, instead of its first sound, assumes the sound 6 ; as in trzdy, brwte. This is owing to the difficulty of pronouncing a after r. 51. E y /, and u, followed by gn, have their first, open sounds, the g being mute (RULE 104). Ex. : impr£gn, sign, impftgn. &% When the second vowel sound, &, is pre^ ceded by either of the guttural mutes, k or g 9 as in can, gap, we find, by an attention to onr pro- nunciation, thJEJt there is a slight sound of £ un- avoidably interposed before the a. It is for this reason, that polite speakers also interpose the same sound between k and g, and the third vowel sound, &, pronouncing cart, card, regard, guard F9 68 OF LETTERS. (u silent), something like ke-&rt, ke-&'rd, rege-frrd., ge-il'rd (g hard). The seventh vowel sound, I, it is to be remembered, being composed of & and £ (see page 13), falls under the same analogy ; as in sky, guise [u silent), kind, pronounced ske-1', ge-i'se (g hard), ke-I'nd. Once more, it may be necessary to state, that in the above rules particuFar exceptions are en- tirely disregarded. These will be learned from the Praxis. Rules for the pronunciation of two or more vowel letters succeeding each other without the inter- vention of a consonant RULE 53. When two vowel letters, having each a vowel sound, immediately follow each other, they will necessarily be each in a different syl- lable ; and the vowel sounds they take, when so circumstanced, will be regulated by pre- ceding rules. Ex.: B d, or g, which, so situated, acquire the sounds sh, zh, tsh, dzh, the sound i sometimes has the same sound, namely, y conso- nant, and is sometimes absorbed by the preceding sound. Kx. : 6ce-an, soci-al, nause-ate, Persi-a* nati-on, soldi-er, haberge-on, pronounced 6sh-yan, or 6-shun, s6sh-yal , or so-shal, naush-yate, Persh-yS, na-shun, s6'ldzh-er, haberdzh-un. It may be ob- served, that slightly introducing the sound y, in- stead of sinking it, has a neatness in it, where custom has not absolutely decided that it should be sunk. 56. Also when the first of the two vowels is w, and they do not together have a simple vowel sound, the u acquires the sound zv. Ex.: assu-age, consu-etude, langu-id,qu-ote, pronounced asswage, conswetude, langwid, kwote. But two or more vowel letters, coming imme- diately after each other, are generally sounded simply with one of the sixteen vowel sounds, page 14. It will be proper to enumerate these 70 OF LETTERS. occurrences of two or more vowels, and then speak of them in their order. — aa ea, eau m oa ua ae ee ie oe ue ai ei -— oi ui ay, aye ey> eye — oy uy ao eo — 00 — au eu, ieu — ou, eou, iou — aw ew, ewe, iew — ow — RULE 57- Aa, having a simple sound, is found only in the proper name Ca-naan, where it is pro- nounced as a alone would be in its place. 58. JE is found in adopted Greek and Latin words, and should be pronounced as e would be in its place. Thus, in C#'-sar, it is sounded £ (RULE 1) ; in Mich^l-mas, it is sounded £ (RULE 1) ; and in D^'d-alous and ^'n-obarbus, it is also sounded 8 (RULES 5 and 6). 59. Ai, when under the accent, takes the sound a; as in ail, pazn. Unaccented, it drops the a; as, captain, villain, pronounced captin, &c. In some words it has an irregular sound; as in plaid, raillery, which are pronounced plad, rallery. 60. Ay is the same in effect as ai, and is under exactly the same rule, except that, as ay always finishes a syllable, and ai never (Joes, it has, when unaccented, the open, though unprotected sound by instead of the correspondent closed OF LETTERS. 71 sound i. Ex.: pay, gay, pronounced pa, &.c. ; Sunday, Mondtfj/, pronounced Sun-d£, Mun-dS. Aye, a term of assent, is pronounced \, which, we must remember, is a diphthongal sound composed of a and 6. In the above word, the first sound of the diphthong is something more protracted than in pronouncing f. 61. Ao occurs but in one word, gao\, better written jail, where it has the sound L 62. " £ The same in effect. Their general Aw) ° sound is a, as in Van], dawn. But an, before n and another consonant, takes the sound &; as in haunt, Haunt, &c. 63. The regular sound of ea is £, though it al-^ most as frequently takes the sound (*, and some- times a. Ex. : appeal, clean, pronounced ap- p£'Ie, cl£ne; head, eavth, pronounced hed, £rth; great, break, pronounced grate, brake. In a few instances, it has the same sound that a would have if similarly situate; as in heart, pronounced hart. In vengrance, pageant, &c, the e is also silent, but serves to keep g in its soft, sound. Eau, in beau, has the sound 6. In beauty, and compounds, it has the sound u. 64. Ee is pronounced £ ; as in mdtft. 65. Ei, under the accent, usually takes the sound £ ; but sometimes a, f, and &. Ex. : receive, pronounced rec^'ve; vein, pronounced 72 OF LETTERS. line; height, pronounced hite; heifer, pro- nounced hef-er. Unaccented, it drops the e; as in forfeit, pronounced forfit. 66. Ey is the same in effect as ei. Ex. : bey, purvey, pronounced b&, purva'. When unaccented, there is the same difference as be- tween ai and ay (RULES 59, 60). Ex. : •alley, galley, pronounced al-ie, gal-le. Eye is pronounced I. 67- Eo takes the sound 5 in people, g in JeJp-ard, &c, ft in feod, feodai (generally written feud, feudal), 6 in yea-man, and 6 in galleon (gak loon). When not under tiie accent, thesis dropped, though it still retains its modifying - power over the preceding consonant, and the talis under its proper rule (21). ZJr. : scutcheon, pronounced scutch-un. 68. I are pronounced a. Ex. : feud, dew. But if r precede, they have not the sound n, but & (RULE 50); as in brero, pronounced bro. Ewe, ieu, iew, are all, too, sounded a j as in ewe y ad/ew, view. 69. /# is generally separately pronounced ; but in one or two words, where it is unaccented, the a is dropped 3 as in park'o-ment, minw-ture, pronounced parl£-ment, mine-ture. 70. Ie, when not pronounced indifferent sylla- bles, usually has the sound £ j as in fYend, thzeve, OF LETTERS. 73 In trie fid, and tierce, it sounds as e would do in its place. It sometimes takes the sound \ ; as in die, lie. When these letters meet, in consequence of forming the plurals of nouns and the per- sons of verbs, they retain the sounds of their originals. Thus the ie in fhes, he denied, is pro- nounced I, because that is the sound of y in the original words fly, to deny ; while ie in dignities, he sulked, is pronounced i, because that is the closed sound of the y in the original words dignity, to sully, pronounced dign£-t£, to sul-l£. ^71. Oa is generally sounded 6; as in boat, coat. In one or two instances it takes the sound &; as in broad, groat. 72. The same is to be said of cc, as was said of & (RULE 58). Ex. : ant#>ci, pronounced ante-ci; tf'c-onomics, pronounced Economics; fo/t-id, pronounced fet-id. In a few mono- syllables it has the sound 6 ; as in doe, hoe. In shoe and canoe, it has the sound 6. In does, third person singular of to do, it has the sound a, the word being pronounced duz. 73. ' \ have the fifteenth of the vowel sounds (page 14). Ex.: toil, boy. It was shown, that this is a diphthongal sound; and hence grammarians call oi and oy, proper diph- tJiongs. Two vowel letters, that occur together m the same syllable and have but one sound,, they call an improper diphthong. 74 OF LETTERS. 74. Oo has the sound 3 ; as in moon, soon. Iii some words it has the sound u; as in good, foot. In blood and flood, it has the sound 6; in door and floor, the sound 6. 75. * \ have for their regular sound the sixteenth of the vowel sounds (page 14). Ex. : hound, ww; and, for reasons given above (RULE 73), are then called proper diphthongs. Ozv, however, frequently departs from its regular sound, and assumes the sound 6; as in s\ozv, crozv. Ou takes several other sounds : viz. the sound ft, as in dcwble, jc^rnal ; the sound o, as in through [gh silent), wound; the sound 6, as in court, mourn-, the sound a, as in sought, nought (gh silent) ; the sound ft, as in woidd, could (I silent) \ and the sound 6, as in cough, trough (gh pronounced/). Eou, and iou, come before s at the end of unaccented syllables ; and e or i has the sound y, which is sometimes absorbed, by a preceding sound, while ous sounds uSj Ex. : cutaneous, abstemzbz^s, sagac/otts, factious, pronounced cutane-yus, absteme-yus, sagaish-yus, or saga'-shus, fac-shus. 76. Ua,\n words where the u is not pronounced zv, drops the u, and the a is pronounced by its proper rule. Ex. : gMard,piqz*a'nt. In vict?/als, both letters are dropped, and the word pronounced vit-tlz. 77. Ue falls under the same observation with ua. Ex. : gu^st, guhs. On final syllables it is OF LETTERS. 75 pronounced a, as in fine; or else, after r, ¥» rf. Ex. : cuff, self, calf, surf. 5. Dg, gg, lg, ng, rg. Ex. : sledge (g soft before e), egg, bilge, rmg, range, forge. 6. Ch, chm, gh, ght, ph, phth, rh, sh, th, wh. Ex. : chi\d, arch, cAaise, bencA, c/ W- 92. Class 5. Ng, when not followed by after a, drops the /; as in pi/m. 103. Sm final is pronounced zm ; as in pm/«. 104. Ctes 10. Gn and £w have the former letter silent; as in g?*omon, Arauckle, s?g?z, im- pr<*gw, impugw. 10,5. Zw has the n silent in kifo ; and mn has the n silent; as in autumn, condemn. 106. Class 12. Wr is pronounced simply asr; wrong, write. 107. Class 13. S, after some of the letters in this class, is pronounced z (see RULES 82, 83); G 82 OF LETTERS, When se follows a liquid, s has its own sound ; as in pulse, sense, herse. Ps initial, drops the p. 108. Class 15. Lv, after a, drops the I; as in dive. 109. Class 16. In swor& and answer, sw is pronounced simply as s. In twb, tw are pro- nounced as t. 110. Ctos 17. Nx, being in reality a com- pound of n, k, and s, falls under the observation, RULE 100; and phala?w is pronounced pha- langks. 111. Class 18. Cz % found only in Czar, Cza- rina, drops the c. 112. When words that end with two con- sonant letters, one of which is silent, take an additional syllable, a difficulty sometimes occurs, whether or not the latter consonant should go to the added syllable. Thus, we sometimes hear condemning pronounced with n silent, as in the original word condemn, and sometimes with the n prefixed to the syllable ing, conde?#-raing. But it may be given as a general rule, that all words compounded from others, by having termi- nations so common as ing, y, er, &c, affixed, must retain the sounds of their primitives, and therefore, sign-ing, impugn-ing, climb-ing, talk-ing, talk-er, psalm-istry, calm-er, calm-est, &c., have the latter consonant of the original OF LETTERS. 83 words not joined to the last syllable. Very- solemn speaking may, perhaps, in some few in- stances, warrant a departure from the rule. At the same time we must remember, that words which are not, as the above, compounds of our own, but are derived from compound words in other languages, must be divided so as to pro- nounce both consonants, although related to simple words in which one consonant is silent. Ex. : phleg-matic, phleg-magogue, psal-mist, psal-mistry, lim-ner. And now, after a perusal of the whole of the rules which have been given, it will naturally occur, that they are very numerous, and often liable to be overruled by many different circum- stances. It is hoped, however, that these objec- tions have no foundation in the method of treat- ment, but arise from the nature of the subject. The number of the rules must indeed pre- clude any utility from them in their present de- tached state ; and hence the necessity of a very copious exemplification, to show how they act in the language, and make their influence apparent* Such an exemplification will be given in the following chapter, by means of a Praxis, separately embracing every vowel and consonant sound ia the language. ! 84 ADVERTISEMENTS TO THE PRAXIS. THE letter or letters which represent the sound under con- sideration are printed in italics. And as silent letters, imme- diately following or preceding those that are sounded, may be said, with them, to represent a sound, these are also printed in italics. Thus, hei in hen, and igh in sight, because h and gk are silent, may be said, with el and i, to represent the sounds a and I. — (See the note at page 28.) The figures are employed with no other intention than as marks of reference to different lists, rules, or observations ; and are omitted or inserted as it is thought necessary. In employing words as examples of the rules, other sounds, beside that intended for the subject of exercise, are necessarily introduced. The foreigner, or provincialist, must be guided by his teacher for the proper pronunciation of these, giving his particular attention to the sound he is upon. If, however, a letter take a sound not usually given to it, it is noted imme- diately after the word; and the pupil, by referring to the section of the sound, may discover whether the irregularity is confined to that one word, or whether there is an analogy for pronouncing the letter frequently or always in the same man- ner, when similarly situate. Thus, when it is marked after the word comrade, that o is pronounced u ; if he desire to know whether there are other words in which o is so pro- nounced, let section 1 3, appropriated to the sound u, be over- looked, and a long list of words will be found, (6) and (7), where accented o ought to have that sound. As the intention of the Praxis is to afford matter of exercise for every different sound in its turn, to exhibit the general ADVERTISEMENTS. 85 laws,and analogies of pronunciation, and to show what parti- cular words are authorised by custom to deviate from rule, it is not meant to supersede the use of a pronouncing dictionary, which immediately gives the current orthoepy of any required word. Such a dictionary will, in fact, be a necessary accom- paniment to the present volume: and the compiler takes the liberty of recommending, for this purpose, Mr. Walker's ; having, in the following pages, adopted most of the principles upon which the orthoepy of that work is adjusted. The vowel sounds also correspond with Mr. Walker's scale, differing only in the arrangement. Mr. Walker's scale is as follows : fate, far, fall, fit; me, met; pine, pin; no, move, nor, not; tube, tub, bull ; oil ; pound. Where, it is to be observed, all the open sounds come first, and the a in fat is therefore the fourth sound of a instead of the second, as it is called in this volume; it having been found more convenient to put the regular sounds of the vowel letters first, and let their incidental sounds follow. We may remark, too, that the o in nor, being identical with a in fall, is omitted in our list of vowel sounds ; and o before r is referred to that sound of a. These premises, being understood, will make a reference from the dictionary to the Praxis plain and easy. The following is Mr. Sheridan's scale : hat, hate, hall; bet, bear, beer; fit, fight, field; not, note, noose; but, bush, blue; lovely, lye. This scheme wants one sound ; the a, as heard in far ; but is, in other respects, redundant. Ma in bear represents the same sound with a in hate ; ie in freld the same with ee m beer ; y in lovely the same with ie in fYeld, or ee in beer; but 86 ADVERTISEMENTS. from the absence of accent the sound is not protracted as in these words (see page 10) ; and ye in lye denotes the same sound with i in fight. Mr. Sheridan was aware of this re- dundancy; but, as the method of referring to key words, in order to obtain a correct pronunciation, was then a new idea, he was probably fearful, that reducing the number of them would render his plan less obvious to common apprehension. It will be proper that they who read for the purpose of ob- taining a vernacular utterance, should at first practise only on the vowel sounds, as they stand under the accent. Many of the observations accompanying the unaccented sounds are intended to meet the attention of those alone who already pronounce with passable correctness. 87 PRAXIS CHAP. III. A Praxis on all the sounds of the English language, showing every way by which they are represented; and intended to exhibit a complete vlezv of the analogies and anomalies of English pronunciation. _ SECTION 1. The % first vowel sound a. IT is seldom thought that the present sound is at all likely to be a source of mispronunciation to foreigners ; for, in almost all treatises on the present subject, we find it referred to a sound in the French language, to which it is said to be similar. But, as a proof that this idea is erroneous, there is scarcely a foreigner in a hundred that can sound the word fate, or any other in which k occurs, exactly in the same manner as an English- man. The fault consists in making the sound too narrow * ; and the above word is uttered with 9 For the meaning of the terms broad and narrow, as here employed, see the second note in page 5. 88 PRAXIS. — SECT. 1. a pronunciation between feet and the true sound. They are led into this error from being accustom- ed to the French sound of e, in fe, epee, which they conceive to be the sound of the English a. On the other hand, the French sound e in itre, fite, is a broader sound than the present. The true sound can be acquired only by imitation. It may be observed, too, that the Scotch and Irish, when they correct themselves of the fault of giving this sound too broad an utterance, fall into the opposite error of making it too narrow. These observations should lead the pupil to be extremely careful of acquiring the sounds with the greatest possible exactness ; since a faulty variation is so easily fallen into, and since a variation in a single sound will materially affect the whole pronunciation. The sound k under the accent*. Exemplification of the RULES 1 and 3 (pages 48 and 50), so far as the rules regard letter a. (1) A-b\e, fl-gue, ba-by (vulgar pronunciation makes it hab-y), ba-sis, ca-dence, fla-vour, gra-vy, h«-zy, na-dir, ra-zor, tra-der, wa-vy, brav«-do, N dicta-tor, pacifica-tor. For the variations from the above analogy, in. respect to letter a, see sect. 2, (7). * The accented syllable is, therefore, not marked. The reader will know that the a in italic is to bear the accent. FIRST VOWEL SOUND. 89 RULE 53 — page 68. Ba-'d], a-orist, a-eronaut, a-eromancy. RULE 10 — page 51. (2) Ga-bion, ma-niac, ra-diant, sa-lient, ca-vear, a-theist, a-lienate, a-viary, a-miable, Asia, (s represents the sound sh) ; coura-geous ( geous rep. the successive sounds d, zh, y consonant, u, and s), umbra-geous, advantageous ; auda-cious (cious rep. the successive sounds sh, y cons, u, and s, or, in colloquial utterance, sh, u, s), viva-cious, vora-cious; occa-sion {sion rep. zh, u, n), eva-sion, persua-sion {u rep. w cons.) ; na-tion {Hon rep. sh, u, n), ra-tion, carna-tion, acclama-tion. For the variations from the above analogy, in respect to letter a, see sect. % (3). RULE 8 — page 51. (3) Bla-mable, bra- very, ca-pable, fa-talist, pa-pacy, srt-voury, dra-pefy. RULE 1 — page 48. (4) ^Ice, bake, bane, cake, crane, dame, gale, gave, gaze, bathe*, swathe, became, hate, make, name, nape, sale, vane, vase (5 rep. z. The word is sometimes incorrectly pronounced vaz), age, cage, rage, abate, debate. RULES 1 and 39 — pages 48 and 64. Bare, care, dare, hare, beware, declare. * Generally speaking, e mute has power to lengthen a pre- ceding vowel only when a single consonant intervenes. But a, 1, and o, are all long before the. And a has the exclusive privilege of being long before wgeand ste, as will be seen pre- sently (5) and (6). 90 PRAXIS. — SECT. 1. RULES 39 and 10 — pages 64 and 51. G7/-rious, va-rious, bifa-rious, grega-rious. RULES 39 and 8 — pages 64 and 51. Preva-ricate; ra-rity (uncommonness, distinguished from rar-ity, signifying the opposite of density). RULE 2 — page 48. Plague, vague, Hague. RULE 40 — page 65. (5) Grange, mange, range, change, strange, danger, stranger, angel (but not in the compound angelic; neither in hanger, from to hang, nor in anger ; in both which the g is hard, and in the latter sounds as if doubled). (6) Paste, baste, haste, taste, waste, chaste, and the de- rivatives basting, tasting, taster; to hasten {ten rep. sn), chasten, &c. And this makes us sometimes hear chastity, though the usual and received pronunciation is chastity. The sound a not under the acce?it. All the vowel letters, except a and ?, when alone, or final in a syllable, as well when not under the accent as when under it, have their first sounds; with this difference only, that from the absence of accent, they are not so long dwelled upon or protracted (see RULE 14, page 57). But unaccented a, final in a syllable, never has its first sound, but an indefinite, open sound, more like its third than any other (RULE 15, page 57) '> and it was probably this peculiarity of FIRST VOWEL SOUND. 91 the letter a, which gave rise to the dispute whether it should be named by its sound a ori. But they who will take the trouble to remark the coin- cidence between the present section, and the sections of the first sounds of the other vowel letters (sections 5, 7, 9, and 12), and who remem- ber, that these are always named by their first sounds, will not doubt, for a moment, the pro- priety of naming letter a y a. The only circumstance, therefore, under which a, not accented, can have its first sound, is, when followed by a consonant and final e mute ; and even here, in many instances, it seems doubtful : for as the absence of accent causes us to pass over a sound without dwelling upon it, the fol- lowing consonant sometimes appears entirely to shut it, and the a has its correspondent closed sound & (page 17). Thus the words comrade, primate, cassate, in common conversation, may, without impropriety, be pronounced cumr£d, prim£t, cass^t. A, circumstanced as in the fol- lowing words, must therefore be considered as doubtful between the two sounds. (7) Com'rade (o rep. u), mon'ade, ren'egade, maii'drake* night'ingde, mem'brane, pri'mate, del'icate, predicate, duplicate, in'tricate, can'didate, ro'seate (s rep. zh), profligate, rep'robate. In the following it has a more decided sound, principally from the words being compounds. G 6 92 PRAXIS. — SECT. 1. (§) Foot/pace, horse'race, night'shmle, mar'malade, clice.se'- cflke, sweep'strtke, eai th'quuke, fe'maie, sur'name, wolf Vbanc (o rep. u), night'm«re, stair'cwse. As it has also in the following verbs, RULE 26, page 60 (the former of the two rules so num- bered*). (9) To 'dedicate, calculate, speculate, reg'ulate, rep'ro- bate, depfrecflte, in'dicate, preva'ricate, authenticate, coin- mu'nicate. But if the accent be on the syllable imme- diately preceding, the a is shorter. To pertur'bate, elon'gate, contem'plate. RULE 26 (the latter of the two) — page 60. Sur'foce, pal'ace, solace, pin'nace, men'ace, preface, pop'ulace. (But furnace and the proper name Wallace are pronouncecrTur'nlss and Wo'lliss.) A, unaccented, before ge, mostly has the sound I (see the list, sect. 8, (8), exemplifying RULE 27). But in the following^ ords, a appears to keep its sound with more distinctness. ( I J ) PresVzge, scu'tage, hem'orrhage, pu'cikge, vas'salage, car'cel«ge, gui'dage, mu'cilage, car'tilr/ge, voy'flge, pu'pilage, or'phanage, vil'lanage, ap'panage, concu'binage, bar'onage, patronage, heritage, parentage, advantage, par'sonage, mort'gage (r/rep. r), eq'uipage,os'sifrage,sax'ifr«ge, um'pirage, em'bassage, her'mitage, pres'age, mes'suage {u rep. w cons.)* * Through an oversight, there have been two rules num- bered 26, and also two numbered 32. FIRST VOWEL SOUND. 93 From the above view of an unaccented vowel sound, the reader will conceive the difficulty of giving precise rules for the pronunciation of vowel letters when not accented : sounds under the accent are always definite, because they must necessarily be uttered with distinctness ; but un- accented sounds will generally verge towards other sounds of easier utterance; and this will take place in a greater or less degree, according as the pronunciation is colloquial or solemn. This consideration will be a plea for any want of exactitude on this part of the subject. Through- out the Praxis, such sounds will be given to the unaccented vowels as are proper models for dis- tinct and deliberate utterance : the discretion of the speaker will lead him to proper variations in familiar conversation. Lists of those words hi which two or mure vowel let- ters, succeeding eadi other, have the present sound. RULE 5 9 — page 70. Ai. For the words with the other sound of this combination, which it takes when not under the accent, refer to sect. 8, (13). (12) Ai\, bail, bait, fail, gain, \\ai\, nail, pain, rail, strait, sail, wait, maim, frail, campaign (see rule 104, page 81), arraign, ailing, daily, ungain, complain, complainant, plaintive, plaintiff (sometimes, but incorrectly, pronounced pliotiff), maintain ; the former ai, from the absence of ac~ 94 PRAXIS. — SECT. 1. cent, acquires the sound <*, which is the correspondent shut of the open sound a (see page 17); straight (rule 94, page 80). Remainder of the above list; also exemplifying RULE 39, page 64 : fair, pa/r, affazr, debonnazr. RULE 60 — page 70. Ay. For the words with the other sound of this combination, which it takes when not under the accent, refer to sect. 5, (22). (13) Bay, day, fay, hay, ray, say, way, stray, goyly, bewra?,< (ivr rep. r). rule 61 — page 71. Jo. (14) Gaol. This word must be distinguished from goal (pron. gole), the boundary in a race. rule 63 — page 71. Ea. For the words with the more usual sounds of this combination, and references to others, con- sult sect. 5, (23), and sect. 6, (18). (15) Great, greater, greatest, steak, break, breaker. • Remainder of the above list 5 also exemplifying RULE 39, page 64 : Bear, pear, swear, to wear, to tear (and the substantive derived from it), to forswear, bearer, swearing, peartree. RULE 65 — page 71. EL For the words with the most usual sound FIRST VOWEL SOUND. 95 of this combination, and references to others, con- sult sect. 5, {25). (16) Vein, reins, veil, skein, he/nous, deign (see rule 104, page 81) ; feign, reign, weigh (see rule 94, page SO); neigh, weight, freight. Remainder of the above list; also exemplifying ruli: 39, page 64 : Heir, heiress. RULE 66 — page 72. Ey. For the words with the other sound of this combination, which it takes when not un- der the accent, refer to sect. 5, (26). (17) Bey, dey, hey, they, grey, prey, whey, obey, convey, purvey, survey. Sometimes, as a substantive, pronounced with the accent on the first syllable; which accentuation, if admitted, causes the word to be the only one where ey un- accented has the sound a. The words key and ley are the only exceptions to the above list. They are pronounced k£ and U. Remainder of the above list ; also exemplifying RULE 39, page 64 : Eyre, eyrey. The following words take the present sound in opposition to various rules, bmV they are not sufficiently numerous to range in classes. (18) Ancient, chamber (but some speakers pronounce it chamber), Cambridge, cambric; there, wnerc. e'er, ne'er (for ever and never; — the last four words exemplify rule 39). 96 TRAXIS. — SECT. 2. SECT. % Of the second vowel sound. This is properly called the short, or shut sound of a> but the corresponding shut sound of & is generally represented by e ; as, m&te, met (page 17). It seems doubtful whether there are any closed vowel sounds in the neighbouring languages. The French word fat, a coxcomb, is said to be pronounced as the English word fat, but delicate ears will discern a difference ; and Frenchmen, Italians, Germans, are all prone to give a its third, open sound in such words as bad, had, fan, bag. In the mouths of provincialists, both north and south, the present sound mostly acquires too broad an utterance ; and with those wholly un- educated, it is often widened to 6. Thus we hear m6n for m&n, c6n for can. The Scotch often confound it withe; as, bad for bed, and he'bit for hii>it The sound a tinder the accent. RULE 1 — page 48. (1) Bad, dab, fag, can, mat, nack, pad, ram, sand, vat. disband (s rep. z), cabal, relax, sedan, trepan, unmask, abjeCt, backward, banter, cannon, dagger, fancy, flaxen SECOND VOWEL SOUND. 97 (x an equivalent for k and s, the one in the former, and the other in the latter syllable), gander, hamper, landscape, mariner, napkin, pantry, rally, tankara, abandon, decanter, un- thankful, memorandum, absolute, accident, battlement, calcu- late, champion, frankincense, magnify, tobacconist, tyrannical. There are some consonants, which, following letter a, do not, according to RULE 1, give to it its shut sound, but suffer it to have its third, or its fourth sound. These will be gathered in reading the two following sections. RULE 5 — page 50. (2) ylb-rogate, am-orous, an-imal, av-arice, ban-ishment, cat-alogue, clam-orous, fab-ulous, graduate*, magical, pacify, sac-rament, sal-ary, tragical, vag-abond, van-ity, anal-ogy, anat-omise, antag-onist, calam-ity, dissat-isfy, evap-orate, frugal-ity, implac-able, infatuate, magnan-imous, geograph-ical, liberal-ity, am-icable, ani-mated, pat-rimony, sf/l-utary, val-uable, defam-atory, explan-atory. RULE 6 — page 51. v4n-abap'tism, cal-iman'co, manu-fac'ture, nav-.iga'tion, hab-ita'tion, an-imadvert'. * When in this, or in other classes of words, the division made in most of the instances, in order to show that the con- sonant closes the vowel, is neglected to be made in some, it is on account of an irregular sound the consonant takes, from being followed by certain vowels. Thus, the consonant d, in graduate, coming before the unaccented sound u, is pro* nounced dzh ; g in magical is pronounced in like manner; and.c in pacify has its soft sound, that is, the sound s. Such alterations in the sound of the closing consonant do not pre- vent the influence of the analogy. H 93 PRAXIS. — SECT. 2. In the following words, RULE 5 operates over RULE 10 (page 51), exemplified in sect. 1, (2). These are, however, the only variations from that analogy, so far as letter a is concerned ; and there would be one exception less, if battalion were spelled, as it ought to be, with two els, instead of one. (3) Compan-ion, battal-ion, retal-iate, val-iant, national, rational. t There is another exception, which the closing power of the accent, when higher than the pe- nultimate syllable, causes to vary from the ana- logy exemplified by the instances, sect. 1, (3); namely, the word Natural j it being derived from ni-ture, where the a is long. When r is the consonant that follows a, this letter will then have its open sound, & (rule 32, page 62, exemplified in the next section) j unless another r follow in the succeeding syllable, or, what amounts to the same, a vowel follow (RULE 37, page 63 , and note). (4) Tarry, marry, barrister, arrogant. RULES 37 and 5 — pages 63 and 50. Car-away, Par-adise, rar-ity (the contrary to density), scar-ify, char-ity (which is too often, in opposition to the ana- logy, pronounced charity). It was formerly usual to give the third sound of a to this letter, when succeeded by the SECOND VOWEL SOUND. 99 consonants that close it in the following words (see RULE 41, page 65). But elegant pronun* ciation now disowns this utterance. (5) Slander, plant, planter, brass, grass, mass, glass, fast. The above observation, and RULE 4 — page 50. Cas-tle (/ rep. s, rule 88, page 77), as-ker, bas-ket, bas-tion [tion rep. t, sh, u, n), cas-tor, clas-per, las-ting, mas-tiff, mas-ter, nas-ty, ras-cal, alabas-ter, bombas-tic, fantas-tic, mas-culine, emas-culate, exas-perate. The words command and demand seem how- ever still to retain a in the old sound. RULE 43 — page 66. Which see farther exemplified in sect. 4, (%)-, and sect. 10, (6). (6) Wag, quagmire, waft, quaf£ quack, thwack, twang. The following words are the exceptions, so far as letter a is concerned, to RULE 3 (page 50), already exemplified in sect. 1, (1). (7) Ban-ish, bar-on, bav-in, dam-age, dram-a (though by some speakers, agreeably to rule 3, dra-ma), drag-on, facile, fam-ish, fash-ion, flag-on, gran-ate, grav-el, hab-it, haz-ard, can-on, Lat-in, mad-am, magic, mal-ice, man-age, man-or, mat-in, pal-ate, pan-el, ad-ult,^4d-am,pan-ic, pat-ent (pa-tent, is by no means a received pronunciation), plac-ard, plan-et, plat-en, rap-id, vap-id, rap-lne, rav-age,rav-in, sal-ad (to pro- nounce this word sal-et is improper), sat-ire {ire rep. u, r), lat-yr (t/r rep. u, r; but many speakers pronounce the*© last two words, agreeably to rulb 3, sa-tfre, and aa-tyr)* H2 100 PRAXIS. — SECT. 2. sflt-in, sav-age, shad-ow, spav-in, stat-ue, tab-id, tacit, tal-ent, tal-on, tav-ern, tragic, travel (vcl rep. v, 1), val-et, val-our, val-id, val-ue, van-ish, vap-id, wag-on, man-y, an-y (for so we now hear these latter two words in the mouths of the best speakers, though the common pronunciation is menny and enny), balsam-ic, exam.-ine, enam-el, inhab-it, inval-id (adjective, signifying of no efficacy, distinguished from the substantive invalid, pron. invaleed), mechan-ic {ch rep. k). The sound a not under the accent. RULE 18 — page 58. (8) Bal'lad, hus'band, ver'bal, gran'dam, At'las, com'bat (o rep. vi), cli'max, abju're, admit 7 , afflict', blasphe'me, in'stantly, hus'bandman, pen'alty, work'manship, accomplish, «dvow'son, balco'ny. Lists of the words in which tzvo or more vowel letters, succeeding each other, have the present sound. RULE 5*1 — page 70. Aa. (9) Ca'-naan. RULE 59 — page 70. AL For words with the regular sound of this combination, refer to sect. 1,(12). (10) Plaj'd, raillery. , ' RULE 63 — page71. Ea. For the words with the regular sound of this combination, with references to others, con- sult sect. 5, (23). THIRD VOWEL SOUND. 101 (11) Ser'geant (the accented e rep. a), pa'geant, pa'-geantry, ven'geance. But the sound represented by ea, in these words, approaches almost to ft, on account of the absence of accent. RULE 76 — page 74. Ua. (12) Viquant. Words with the present sound individually con- travening various rules. (13) Bade (preterit of to bid), have, shall, hath. SECT. 3- Of the third vowel sound. This incidental sound of a is called the Italian a. Its pronunciation, to foreigners, is a matter of no difficulty. Provincialists of the north give it a false sound, which cannot be specified on paper, but which seems to be something between & and the true sound ; as may be observed in their pro- nunciation of the words bar, father. A too broad, drawling utterance of the sound, common among the vulgar, must be carefully avoided. Tlie sound & under the accent. RULE 32 — page 62. (1) Bar, far, jar, mar, star, tar, debar, guitar (ui rep. £), bard, dart, farm, hart, mart, al &c. But Frenchmen often use the sound of their diphthong au for the present sound, especially if the latter be represented by au (see the words in the pre- sent section, (8). Thus they pronounce au-dit, caught, 6-dit, cite. 77/e sound & under the accent. RULE 42 — page 65. (l) A\\, ball, call, fall, gall, hall, pall, small, squall (an FOURTH VOWEL SOUND. 105 rep. kw), tall, thrall (but shall and Pall-mall, pron. Pel-mel, are exceptions), baYk (/ in this and the three following words is silent, rule 99, page 81), talk, falcon, walk, als-o, alt-ar, bals-arn, salt, malt, false (it appears, however, that a may, in the last six words, have the sound 6, which is the corre- spondent shut sound to £), bald, scald. • The /, in the word alphabet, is followed by the sound f 9 and therefore a has its regular shut sound. In many compound words, one of two els has been omitted , but the present rule still operates. Instal, inthral, bethral, enthral, thraldom, always. A has its fourth sound when preceded by the sound usually represented by xv (RULE 43, page 66). This must, however, be understood of it only when no consonant follows in the same syl- lable, or when such a consonant or consonants follow as do not usually shut a preceding vowel sound. When this is not the case, with perfect concordance to analogy, the sound a will be shortened into its correspondent shut sound, 6 (see examples, sect. 10, (6). But w has not this power over letter a, when the latter is followed by certain consonant sounds mentioned in RULE 43 (see sect. % (6). (2) Wtt-ter (where the present analogy preponderates over that exemplified in sect. 1, (1), war, warlike, warbler, warden, warm, wasp, dwarf, quart, quarter, quarterage [qualm is an ex- ception, because the analogy exemplified by the words where it is placed, sect. 3, (3), preponderates over the present). 106 PRAXIS. — SECT. 4. RULE 35 — page 63. (3) Or, for, border, corner, dormant, hornet, Norman, orphan, vortex. But should another consonant follow r, in the same syllable, the o sometimes retains the sound 5, and sometimes has its own, first sound, 6; as, short (shaurt), p&rt ; a difference which must be carefully noted, particularly by northern pro- vincialists, who seem not to be aware of it, but always pronounce o, followed by r, in the present sound. See, therefore, the words in which o, situate as mentioned above, must have the sound 6, sect. 9, (10). In the following, and all but those, it has the present sound. (4-) Orb, absorb, form (signifying method, figure), cord, accord, lord (colloquially, my lurd), chord [ck pron. k), gorge, corn, scorn, horn, horse, morse, cork, fork, stork, short, •nort, resort, extort, sort, perform, performance, important^ importunate (the politest pronunciation of the last two word% though we also hear important and importunate). (5) Formerly, by the obsolete analogy alluded to in the observation preceding sect. 2, (5), and still observed in some cases, sect. 3, (3), o before thy ss, or sty had the present sound , and brothyTnoth, dross, moss, were pronounced brawth, mawth, drawss, mawss. But well-educated ears are now averse to this pronunciation, and the words are regularly pronounced with o in its closed sound, sect. 10, (2). FOURTH VOWEL SOUND. 107 Tlie sound a not under the accent. In most instances, the sound is retained when not under the accent as when under it, with the indistinctness usually consequent on the absence of accent. (6) ^lbe'it, altogether. But o before r, in a final, unaccented syllable, usually has the sound ft; and author, successor, are pronounced authfrr, success&r (RULE 38, page 64, exemplified sect. 13, (9) ; unless the word be a technical term from the learned languages ; for, in that case, pains are taken to give o its distinct sound. (7) Ca'-lor, sa'-por, stu'-par, fe'-tor, mo'-tor. RULE 62 — page 71. Ail. For the words with the other sound, refer to sect. 3, (6). (8) ^u-dit, au-gur, au-tumn, bau-bee, daub, Gaul, haul, maudlin, nauseate (s rep. sh), pause, sauce, saucer, debauch ; augAt (gh in this and the four following words is silent, rule 94, page 80), caught, daughter, haughty, naughty. RULE 62 — page 71. Aw. This combination has no other sound than the present. There is a cockney pronuncia- tion of the following, and other words, in which the sound & occurs, and which consists in pro- nouncing r after the sound; though this letter is 108 PRAXIS. — SECT. 5. not present. Such a blemish must be carefully avoided. (9) Jaiv, paw, haw, thaw, claw, flaw, law, gnaw (gn rep. p), spaw, withdraw, saw, haw\, straw. RULE 71— page 73. Oa. The regular sound is 6, sect. 9, (15). The following three words are exceptions: , (10) Broad, abroad, groat. RULE 15 — page 74. Ou. Refer to sect. 16, for its regular sound. (11) Ought (gh in this and the following words is silent, rule 94, page 80), bought, brought, sought, besought, fought, tought, thought, inethought, wrought. SECT. 5. Of the fifth soundy f. The Scotch and Irish often sound £ verging to < 7 i ; as may be observed in their utterance of me, see : a good pronunciation requires, that it should be a narrow, squeezed sound. , The sound & under the accent. RULES 1 and 3 — pages 48 and 50. (1) Me, he, we, she, be-som, ce-dar, de-ist, e-vil, pre-cept, st-ccet, cathe-dra], que-ry, colic-rent (the last two also exem- plify rule 39). For variations from the above, so far as regards letter e 3 see sect 6, (7\. FIFTH VOWEL SOUND, 109 RULE 53 — page 68. De-ist, de-ify, de-ity, Europe- an, apothe-osis (which last two words, Englishmen, unacquainted with their classical de* rivation, wrongly accent, European and apotheosis). RULE 10 — page 51. (2) Abbre-viate, bre-viary (so that brhv-iary, as we some- times hear it, is a pronunciation contrary to analogy ; which in all cases should be adhered to, unless universal custom de- termines otherwise), ethe-real, irreme-diable (notwithstanding its derivation from remedy), de-viate, de-vious, alle-giance, te-dious, depre-ciate, spe-cious, compie-tion, secre-tion, accre-tion, concre-tion, cohe-sion, adhe-sion, inhe-sion. For the exceptions, so far as the analogy re- gards letter e, refer to sect. 6, (3). RULE 8 — page 51. (3) De-cency, inde-cency, se-crecy, ame-nable, ve-hement (for h being merely an aspiration, or forcible breathing, has not the power to close a vowel sound). RULE 1 — page 48. (4) Glebe, impede, concede, accede, eke, scheme (ch rep. k), scene (sc rep. s), serene. RULtis 1 and 39 — pages 48 and 64. » Here, mere, sphere (ph rep* f ). But there, where (tMre, whare), and were (w5r), are exceptions to the above. RULE 51 — page 67. (5) Impregn (g silent). And, in the same manner, e should be pro- 1 10 PRAXIS. — SECT. 5. nounced long in phlegm ; but custom determines otherwise, the word being sounded flem. The i, in tiie following words, being most of them from the French, has the present sound. (6) Ambergris, verdigris, antiqae, critique (a criticism, distinguished from critic, a criticise)'), oblique (though by many orthoepists oblique), pique, ttecafico, bombasm (c pron. z), Brasi'l, capzvi, capuchin (ck pron. sh), chioppine, or chopin, chagrin, chevaux-de-frize, machine, colbertine, caprice, festucine, gabardine, haberdine, sardine, rugine, trephine, palanquin, quarantine {qu, in the preceding two words, rep. k), routine, tambourine, financier, fascine, fatigue, intrigue, glacis (but some orthoepists accent it on the first syllable), invalid (distinguished from the adjective irwdlid), magazine, marine, police, suite (su rep. sw), profile, recitative, mandarine, tontine, imbecile, transmarine, ultramarine, senior (g silent, sometimes spelled seignior), Tertigo, serpigo. And by the same analogy was the i in obliged so sounded, till, as it appears from Lord Chester- field^ Letters, the polite thought proper to deviate from this pronunciation, because it was grown common, and changed it into 6-bll'ge. This sound of ?', before a consonant and final e mute, being a little removed from the common, persons are apt to give into it when there is no ground of deviation to plead; as in the word rac-cme, and others. Letter e y like the other vowel letters, except a, and sometimes i, as well when not under the accent as when under it, if it be not followed in FIFTH VOWEL SOUND. Ill the same syllable by a consonant, has its first, open sound (RULE 14, page 57). But it must be remembered, that unaccented sounds are passed over with more rapidity than those which are accented ; and, therefore, in the following words, and others where it is unaccented, though the sound £ is certainly open, it is by no means protracted or long. This remark is the more necessary, as nothing is more common than to hear foreigners protract the sound in de-vout, charity , &c. ; dee-vout, charee-tge. RULE 12 — page 52; RULE 14 — page 57; and RULE 32* — page 61. (7) -E-ject, c-steem', be-come', be-lieve' (to pron. it blieve •hould be carefully avoided), ce-ment', de-cree', de-stroy', pe-ruse', pre-fer', re-coil', tre-pan', ap'pe-tite, ben'e-flce, coun'- t«-nance, lib'e-ral, op'e-rate, per'se-cute, per'pe-trate, pi'e-ty, •ppre-hend', expe-dite', ser'e-nade, cer'e-mony, el'e-gancy, generally, mal'c-factor, tol'e-rable, b- dac'tic, dz-gest', di-gest'ion, d£-gress', df-gres'sion, d?-lac'erate, di-lapida'tion, v d£»late', di-la'table, dz-latabil'ity, de-lec'tion, di-lu'cid, di-lu'cidate, d£-lucida'tion, dz-lute', df-lu'tion, di-lu'- vian, di-men'sion, di-men'sive, d£-midia'tion, dz-min'ish,- di-min'utive, d£-net'ical, di-numera'tion, di-plo'ma, di-rect', di-rec'tion, de-va'n, dj-verge', dz-ver'gent, dt-ver'sify, d£-ver- pifica'tion, di-ver'sion, dt-ver'sity, dz-vert', dz-Yer'tisement, 4i-ver'tive, dz-vest', dt-ves'ture, dz-vid'able, di-vide', da-vine', cl2-vin / ity,di-vis / ible,d£-visibil'ity, df-vorce', dz-vulge', ft-del'ity, #-du'cial, fi-da'ciary, fri-gid'ity, finance', mz-lit'ia, nw-met'ic, mi-mog / raphy,m«-na'cious, mz-nac'ity, m£-nor'ity,rm-rac'ulous, phi-lan/thropy, piu-lip'pic, pht-log'ical, pbi.*lol'ogUt, plw'« FIFTH VOWEL SOUND. 115 tal'ogy, phz-los'opher, philosophize, phi-los'ophy, phy- lac'teric, ptiy-sic'ian, pz-los'ity, pi-tu'itous, ph'-ca'tion, n'-dic'u- lous, n-gicfrty, sf-lic'ious, s/-mil'itude, sz-ri'asis, U-mid'ity, typography, vz-ci'nal, ™'-cin'ity, vicis'situde, vz-min'eous, yz-ra'go, vz-tu'peratfc, v/-va'cious, ve-vac'ity. It is not pretended that many of the above words may not be pronounced either of the ways alluded to ; and some occasions will, in particular, authorise a variation ; as, in using the fol- lowing word, if we wish to be very exact and explicit, we may say, instead of as marked above;, di-rect : the unaccented syllable assuming a Stress almost equal to the other. (15) We have se£n that nearly all the above 'words have the accent immediately after the initial syllable. When the seat of the primary accent is further towards the end of the word, the initial syllable generally acquires a secondary accent, which has the effect of the primary in causing a syllable higher than the penultimate, to be closed by a single following consonant (RULE 6, page 51). Thus the following words divide into, and are pronounced, cllm'-acteruc, pKil'-olog'ical. And thus didascalic, with the accent on the second syllable, divides into Di-das'calic ; but the accent on the third syllable (the pre- ferable mode), gives a secondary accent to the 13 116 PRAXIS. — SECT. 5. first, and it then divides into did-ascalic. Per- haps, in these words, this principle may not be very apparent ; because the shut sound of the unclosed i (£) is i, which is the correspondent shut to h ; but take a word in which the open and closed sounds are not correspondent open and closed sounds, and the principle will presently discover itself j as in De-gra'ding : here, by throwing the accent lower, so as to give a secondary accent to the first syllable, the £ is closed into the sound 2. Ex. : d£g'-radation. Words coming immediately from the learned languages, ending in e after a consonant, have the e sounded ; contrary to the general analogy, which makes e mute in this situation. (16) Epit'o-me, sim'i-le, apos'tro-phc, catas'tro-ph(r, r$c'i-p* f cxtem'po-re, Penel'o-pe, epip'lo-ce, hyper'bo-Ur, eaal'la-g^ ^ypal'la-ge, dias'to-le, sys'to-lc. (17) The above pronunciation takes place only when the words are adopted without alteration ; for when a change is made in a borrowed word, it then becomes our own, and must be pronounced according to our own rules. For this reason, satellite, being altered from its original Latin word, satelleSy is pronounced satellite, and not gatel'li-te ; and the plural being considered re- gularly formed from the English singular by FIFTH VOWEL SOUND. 117 adding s, and not coming from the Latin plural satel'li-tes, is properly pronounced satellites, al- though Pope, by poetic licence, has usad the Latin plural. But the following words, being classical nouns plural, adopted without alteration, preserve their original number of syllables. (18) Antip'o-des (the s final, in all the words, rep. a), ma'-ncs, canthar'i-des, caryat'i-dcs, na'-ia-des (i rep. y) ; and in isos'celcs, though not immediately from the original Greek. RULE 28 — page 60. (19) Muhipede, cen'tipede, en'thymcme, dam'asc«ie (ge- nerally corrupted to damson), obsolete. (20) The termination ege, not under the ac- cent, in the words college, sacrilege, privilege, and also in allege, where it is under the accent, have been taxed with a vfant of conformity to analogy; because the e has its shut sound, while a, i, 0, u, in age, personage, oblige, doge, huge, refuge, have their open sounds. But perhaps, strictly speak- ing, these last are wrong: for soft g is, in fact, two sounds, d and zh ; and when d is placed be- tween a vowel letter and g, in order to close the vowel sound, it is only inserting a letter to repre- sent a sound which was hard before its insertion. Ex.: badge, sledge, bridge, lodge, judge. But the insertion should have been always made, or always omitted. 118 PKAXIS. — SECT. 5. Joists of words in which two or more vowel letter^ succeeding each other, have the present sound. RULE 08 — page 70. M. Refer to sect. 6, (16). (21) (V-sar*, pce'-an, afv\e y #-dile, JEne'as, jo* the air. FIFTH VOWEL SOUND. 119 two lists, the following, and that sect. 6, (18), must be compared; as it has been endeavoured to collect in them all the words in which ea is sounded the two ways. Its other, less common soqndsmay be gathered, sect. 1, ( 15) ; sect. 2, (10) j and sect. 3, (7). (23) Anneal, appea/, appease, aread, beacon, beadle, bead, bead-roll, beagle, beak, beaker, beam, beast, beat (both in the present and preterit tenses), beaten, beaver, beleaguer, beneath, bequeath (th, in these two words, rep. dh), bereave, bespeak, bleach, bleak, bleat, bohea, breach, bream, breathe, cease, cheap, cheat,clean, cleanly(the adverb, distinguished from the adjective in the other list), cleave, cochineal (o, rep. u), colleague, conceal, congeal, cream, creak, crease, creature, deacon, deal, dean, deanery, decease, defeasance, defeasible, defeat, demean, de- meanor, decrease, dream, each, eager, eagle, east, Easter, easy, eat, eater,eaten,eaves, entreat, escheat, feasible, feasibility, feast, feat, feature, flea, fleam, freak, glean, grease, greaves, heal, heap, heat, heath, heathen (th rep. dh), heave, impeach, increase, in- seam, interleave, knead (k silent), lea, lead (the verb, distin- guished from the substantive, in the other list), leaf, league, leak, lean, lea. c .e,leash, leasy, least, leave, leaves, mead, meagre, meal, mean, meat, measles (s pron. z), meatb, neat, neap, pea, peace, peat, plea, plead, please, reach, read (verb, present tense, distinguished from its; preterit and participle in the otter list), ream, reap, reason, release, repeal, repeat, retreat, reveal, screak, scream, seal, sea, seam, seamy, season (son rep, zu), seat, sheath, sheathe, sheaf, sleazy, sneak, sneaker, speak, steal, steam, streak, stream, streamer, streamy, surcease, tea, teach, teague (gue rep. g), teal, team, tease, teat, treacle, treason (son rep. zn), treat, treatise, treatment, treaty, tweak, tweague (gue rep. g), veal, underneath (th rep. dh), uneasy, imreave, weak, weaken (ken rep. kn), we /I, weald, wean, weanling, weasand, weasel (sel rep. zl), weave, wheal, wheat, wheatea 120 PRAXIS.— .SECT. 5, (ten rep. tn), wreak (tor, here and elsewhere, rep. r), wreath* Wieathy, wreathe, yea, yeanling, zeal. Remainder of the above list; also exemplifying RULE 39, page 64: Appear, afeard (an obsolete word, or else vulgar), arrear, beard, bearded (but on the stage, with the words in the other list, berd, bSrded), besmear, blear, clear, clearance, dear, drear, dreary, ear, endear, fear, fearful (when it signifies timorous; but when it means terrible, with the words in the other list, ferful), gear (g hard), hear, near, rear, rearward, sear, searcloth, shear, shears, spear, uprear, weary, weariness, wearisome, year, yearly. RULE 64 — page 71. Ee. The present is the sound of this combi- nation ; and the only words in which it departs from the sound, are breeches, where it has the correspondent shut sound, 1, and Beelzebub, a proper name, pronounced in verse BSl'zebub, and sometimes Be-eTzebub. (24) Cheesecake, breech (these two words are often shortened into chizcake, and britch ; but the above pro* nunciation is recommended), queen, meet, seen, feet, beef, bee, fee, see, settee, coffee, &c. ; beer, deer, cheer, cheerful, &c. (rule 30, page 64) ; some orthoepists pronounce the last word ch&rful. RULE 65 — page 71. EL The words with the other sound of this combination, which are nearly as many as in the following list, may be found sect. 1,(16), page 95. One or two words, in which other sounds are given it, may be seen, sect. 6, (19)> and sect. 18 $ FIFTH VOWEL SOUND. 121 jmd its sound, when not under the accent, is in sect. 8, (14). (25) To ceil, ceiling, conceit, deceit, receipt (pt rep. t), conceive, perceive, deceive, receive, inveigle, seize, leisure (5 rep. zh ; many orthoepists giveei in these words the sound e), seizin, seignior (gn rep. n), Seine, plebeian, obeisance (though some speakers give ei, in this word, its other usual sound, a), either, neither (but speakers differ also in respect to the last two words : some pronounce the ei, as in height and sleight, sect. 7, (18), and some as in the words sect. 1, (16). The latter pronunciation seems particularly grating to polite ears ; and to pronounce as in the list is recommended before the other.) RULE 66 — page 72. Ey. For the words with the sound when un- der the accent, refer to sect. 1, (17), page 95. The exceptions to that list, as there mentioned^ are, (26) Key, and \ey. When unaccented in a final syllable, ft has the sound which y alone has in the present sect, (10). Al'lejf, gal'ley, valley, lack'ej/, jock'ey, med'ley, pul'ley, hon'ey, mon'ey, mon'key (o, in the last three words, rep. u), jour'ney, tour'ney (ou, in the last two words, rep. u). rule 67 — page 72. Eo. (27) Peo-ple. The word leopard divides mto leop-ard, anala- 122 PRAXIS. — SECT. 5. gously with the words in list (7), sect. 6 ; and therefore eo has the shut sound of e. See it, with four other words, sect. 6, (20). — The rule men- tions those words in which eo has other sounds. rule 69 — page 72. Ie. (28) Mirrta-ture, par'lia-ment. RULE 70 — page 7*. Ie. For the words with the other sounds of this combination, refer to sect. 6, (2 1 )j sect. 7, (19); and sect. 8, ( 16). — The present is its usual sound. (29) Grieve, thfeve, ft'end, lief, liege, chief, relief, brief, shrievalty. Remainder of the above list -, also exemplifying RULE 39, page 64: Grenadier, tier, fierce (but many speakers pronounce ie, in the last word, as in tierce, sect. 6, (21). In the words variegate (pron. vaz-rS-S-gate), and fl'ery, both letters should be heard. RULE 72 — page 73. \ (E. Refer for the other sounds to sect 6, (22) j sect. 9, (16); and sect. U, (7). Anta?-ci, pevi#-ci, fa-tus, prosopopoeia (i rep. y consonant), onomatopoeia. Fiztid, analagously with the words in the list (7)v sect. 6, divides into fcet-id, which is the reason of p being sounded *. SIXTH VOWEL SOUND. 123 rule 79 — page 15. Uy. Refer to sect. 7, (SI). (31) Pla'-gwy, ro'-gay. Words which have in them the present sound, individually contravening various rules. (32) Quay (flwrep. k), vai-sin, demesne {s silent). SECT. 6- Of the sixth vowel sound i. This is a closed sound, and foreigners are apt to mispronounce it, by making it open (see the observation at the head of sect. 2). Accordingly we hear them pronounce the e, in met, spell, vent, &c, nearly like its correspondent long sound a, or the French e ; mate, spile, vaint, Scotchmen often wrongly use the eighth sound, i, in place of the present; as, to bliss,, for to bless, rid, for red. TJie sound £ under the accent. RULE 1 — page 48. (1) Bet, bell, beck, Bess, dell, deZ>t {bt rep. t), fen, gem, lend, amend, arrest, eftect, undress, better, beggar, engine (vulgarly pron. ingine), exit (see note to the word flaxen, sect 2, (1), page 97), exile, fellow; kennel, pensive, question {t rep. tsh), sexton, apprentice, contentment, accidental, dis- affected, emphasis, mendicant, spectacle, embellishment. 124 PRAXIS. — SECT. 6. RULES 1 and 4 — pages 48 and 50. Tes-ter, t^s-ty, intes-tate, domes-tic. RULES 1 and 5 — pages 48 and 50. (2) Ben-efit, el-egant, em-inent, ep-ocha (instead of whicK we often use ep'och), en-emy, rael-ody, pel-ican, rem-edy,, rep-robate, specify, prem-ature, sec-ular, accel-erate, angel-ical, prophet-ical, exec-utor (a person left to see that a will is per- formed, distinguished from executor, one that, generally Speaking, executes. RULES 1 and 6 — > pages 48 and 51. "Rep-artee', rec-ollect', rep-resent', pred-eces'sor, ed-uca'tion, legerdemain', nev-ertheless'. The following are those words in which the foregoing analogy, so far as regards letter e, operates over that, sect. 5, (2). (3) Impetuous, perpetual, special, especial, discretion, precious. RULES 1 and 33 — pages 48 and 62. (i) Defer, prefer, herdsman, nervous, mercy, err, erst, fern, pert, term, merchant (formerty, and still by some speakers, m&rchant), servant, service, vernal, verdure, emergent, maternal, fervency, persevere, internal, determine, Derby, Derbyshire (by some Darby, Dirbi/shire), From the rule it appears, that the e in the above words does not represent the real closed sound of e, but rather an open sound; and it therefore follows, that the examples ought not to have been placed tp the present section. It was, however, thought advisable rather t© saerU SlXTll VOWEL SOUND. 135 fice a little regularity, than run the hazard of being thought too nice and delicate in making distinctions. In the following instances, e has its regular, shut sound, conformably to RULE 37, page 63. (5) Ber-ry, ter-rible, sever-ity, per-il, ver-y ; — which last two words belong also to the list (7). Letter i, in the following list, has the same sound with e in list (4) ; — see RULE 34, page 63. (6) Virgin, virtue, virtuous, circumstance, irksome, rm/r-tle, mirth, birth, girt, gird, girl, whirl, firm, myrrh, and de- rivative myrrh-lne, dirk, ivk. But some monosyllables, perhaps from being in constant occurrence, have f, before i\ always sounded ur; — see sect. 13, (4). The following words are the exceptions, so far as letter e is concerned, to RULE 3 (page 50), already exemplified in sect. 5, (1). (7) Tep-id, ref-uge, sen-ate, ten-ant, pres-age, sec-ond, dec-ade, eb-on, ep-ocb, ep-ic, reb-el, met-al, ten-et, fec-und, lep-er, sev-er, efed-it, eth-ics, leg-ate, res-in, fel-on, mel-on, lem-on, ech-o {ch rep. k), ped-ant, clem-ent, cem-ent (subs.), pres-ent (s pron. z), sched-ule (ch silent), shek-el, rel-ish, blem-ish, med-al, bev-il, lev-el, rev-el, ref-use (subs.), plev-in, ven-om, weth-er, neth-er, clev-er, nev-er, eph-od (but by some, e-phod), bev-y, lev-y, replen-ish, reven-ue, but also revenue, decrep-it, lieuten-ant {ieu pron. iv). Remainder of the above list; also exemplifying IlULE 37, page 63 : Ster-il, cer-use, ver-y, ser-aph, sher-iff, inher-it. 126 PRAXIS. — SECT. 6. The sound S not under the accent. RULE 19 — page 59. (8) Cob'wcb, nut'meg, ship'wreck (anciently, and still ojr some speakers, pron. ship'rack), an'them, mer'ciless, si'lcnt, com'plex, privilege, col'lege (see the observation, sect. 5,(20)* For examples in which unaccented closed e takes the sound'*, see sect. 8, (9). Preterits, and participles of verbs, and parti- cipial adjectives, ending in ed y have the e silent ; as, / addressed, he blamed, esteemed, jeered; which are pronounced I addrest, he blaimd, esteemd, jeerd. — RULE 23, page 59. Except the four following participial adjectives: (9) Bles'sed, learned, curs'ed, wing'ed (as heard in the phrases, a blessed day, a learned man, a cursed thought, a winged horse; for when they are used as verbs, the contraction takes place). Except also when the consonant preceding the e be d or t\ for, in this case, unless the e were sounded, the d could not be pronounced. (10) I affbr/ded, he plead'ed, I want'ed, it aba'ted. We may likewise, in general, except the second persons singular of the preterit tense ; for, as the sound st is here added, the pronunciation of the words becomes extremely harsh, if so many con- sonant sounds be suffered to follow in succession^ without the intervention of a vowel sound. SIXTH VOWEL SOUND. 127 (1.1) Thou appearedst> thou apprc/vedst, thou interpo'sedst, fchou strength'nedst. (Giving the preference to this pronun- ciation, does not however disprove the remark at page 31.) But adjectives ending in ed, which are not at the same time participles and adjectives, have the c sounded. (12) Na'ked (but more commonly with the words, sect. 8, (9), na'kid), wicked, picked (signifying pointed; for when it means chosen, as in the phrase, a hundred picked men, it is a participial adjective), hooked, forked, tusked, tressed, wretched, scab'bed, crab'bed, chub'bed, stub'bed, shag'ged, Jiag'ged, shag'ged, rag'ged, scrub'bed, dog'ged, rug'ged, acrag'ged, hawked, jag'ged, a'ged. But aged, when compounded with another word, suppresses the e; as, a full-ag'd horse. The same may be observed of winged, Ex. : a sheath- wing'd insect. Adverbs formed by adding ly to participial adjectives ending in ed, and abstract substantives formed by adding ness, very often retain the sound of e in those very words which suppressed it before the composition took place. The fol- lowing is a list of such words: (13) I^cirdly, enfor'cedly, unveiledly, deformedly, feign'edly, unfeignedly, resignedly (.? rep. z), designedly r j rep. its proper sound), refi'nedly, restrained ly, con- cernedly, unconcernedly, discernedly, undiscernedly (so in these words rep. z), prepa'redly, assu'redly, (ss rep. sh), advi'sedly, disper'sedly, diffu'sedly, confu'sedly, resolvedly, reser/vedly, unreservedly, unpercei'vedly, avowedly, per» 128 PRAXIS. — SECf . 6. plex'cdly, fixedly, ama'zedly, num'bedness (mb rep. ifi)'; blearVdness, prepa'redness, assuredness, disea'scdness, ad-; vi'sedness, repo'sedness, compo'sedness, indispo'sedness, dif- fu'scdness, confu'sedness, distress'edness, resol'vedness, re- ser'vedness, perplex'edness, fix'edriess, ama'zedness. RULE 24 — page 59. When e, in a final, unaccented syllable, comes before I or n, it is sometimes pronounced and sometimes suppressed ; and this difference is a source of much perplexity and uncertainty. If a liquid precede el or en, there is indeed no diffi- culty $ for e in this situation is always sounded, except in the words fallen, when used as a verb, stolen and swollen, either as verbs, or participial adjectives. Par'alld, cam'el, flan'nel, enam'el, tun'nel, ken'nd, scoun'drd, sul'len, wool'len, vvom'en (o rep. !), hy'men, sy'ren, bar'rm. E before n, when any other consonants pre- cede, must always be suppressed (see sect. 31 (6) j except in the following words : (14) Sud'den, myn'chen, kitch'en, hy'phen, chicken, tick'en, jerk'en, asp'en, platan, mar'ten, lat'ter, pat'ten, leVen, slov'eo (o rep. u), mit'tens. But e before /, except in the words, sect. 29r (6), must always be retained ; as in (15) Ga'bcl, la'bel,reb'd, parcel, ean'ccl, in'fidel, aspnodrl, in&d'd, far'del, aji'gel, satch'd, gos'pel, um'brd, scoun'drd,, appar'cl, tim'brel, chap'el, mor'sel, nby'e), tas'sd, ves'stfl, lin'Ul, car'tcl, jewVl, bwv'els, vow'el, &c. SIXTH VOWEL SOUND. 129 It is proper to remark, that this diversity of pronunciation ought to be very carefully observed; " for," says Mr. Walker, " nothing is so vulgar and childish as to hear swivel and heaven pro- nounced with the e distinctly, or /zoi^/and chicken with the e suppressed." Lists of words in which two or more vowel letters, succeeding each other, have the present sound. RULE 58 — page 70. JE. Refer for the words in which this com- bination has the open sound of e, to sect. 5, (21). (16) Deed alus, JSJn'-obar'bus, Mich'ad-mas (ch rep. k). RULE 59 — page 70. Ai. The words in which this combination has its regular sound are in sect. 1, (12). (17) He said, he saith, and also ay in he saj/s. RULE 63 — page 71. Ea. For the words in which this combination has its most usual sounds, with references to others, consult sect. 5, (23). (18) Abreast, ahead, already, bed'stead, behead, bespread, bestead, bread, breadth, breakfast, breast, breath, cleanse {s rep. z), cleanly (the adj., as distinguished from the adverb in the other list), cleanliness, dead, deadly, death, deaf, deafen, endeavour, feather, head, heady, health, heaven, heavy, jealous, instead, lead, leaden, leant, leather, leaven, meadow, meant, measure (* rep. zh), peasant, pheasant, pleasant, peasantry, pleasure (s rep. zh), read (past tense and participl* K 130 PRAXIS. — SECT. 6. of to read), readily, ready, realm, seamstress, spread, stead, steadfast, steady, stealth, stealthy, sweat, sweaty, thread, threaden, threat, threaten, treachery, treadle, treasurer, un- cleanly, wealth, wealthy, weapon, weather, zealot, zealous, zealously. Remainder of the above list ; also exemplifying RULE 33, page 62 : Dearth, earl, earldom, early, earn, earnest, earth, earthen, earthly, fearful (in the sense of terrible), heard, hearse, im- pearl, learn, learning, pearl, rehearsal, rehearse, research, search, yearn. RULE 65 — page 71. Ei. For the words with the most usual sound, and references to others, see sect. 5, (25). (19) Nonpareil, heifer. RULE 67 — page 72. Eo. Refer for the words in which this combi- nation has other sounds, to sect.5,(27) ; sect.9, (14); sect. 11, (5); sect. 12, (9) j and sect. 13, (16). (20) Leop-ard, jeop-ardy, feoff, enfeoff, feoffee, feoffer, feoffment. RULE 70 — page 72. le. The words in which this combination has its usual sound, and references, are in sect. 5, (29). (21) Friend, tierce, fieldfare {Id rep. 1), fierce (such at least is the stage pronunciation of the last word). RULE 72— page 73^ (E. Refer for the words with the other sounds SIXTH VOWEL SOUND. 13l to sect. 5, (30); sect. 9, (16); sect. 11, (7); and sect. 13, (18). (22) (Ec'-ortorn'ics, tfc'-umen'ical, fet«id, asafat-icta. RULE 77 — page 74. Ue. Refer for the words in which this com- bination has other sounds to sect. 11, (10), and sect. 12, (12). (23) Guest (u being inserted merely to keep g hard). Words with the present sound, individually contravening various rules. (24-) Were, ere (also exemplifying kule 33, page 62), many, any (though many speakers now pronounce raan-y and an-y : see the words in sect. 2, (7). SECT. 7. Of the seventh vowel sound, I. The long, open sound given to i 9 is not, as already stated, a simple sound, but is formed of & and £, pronounced in immediate succession. This knowledge of its composition may assist persons who have to acquire its true utterance. But it is proper to mention, that though foreigners may accurately pronounce the component parts, yet they frequently protract the former or the latter sound too long, or suffer too great a separa- tion between them, to produce a native enuncia* tion. 7 132 PRAXIS. — SECT. 7- Hie sound I under the accent. Note, i is never used in English as a final Tetter in a word, but employs its representative y in its stead. RULE 1 — page 48. (1) Ply, fly, wliy, fy, my, thy (but of the last two words it is to be remarked, that, when not under the emphasis, y is to be pronounced as the y in ably, lady. Ex. : Give vie thy hand ; Here is my hand. To the former word, my, at least, this observation entirely applies : and on the stage, though perhaps not often elsewhere, thy is made to follow the same rule), apply, defy, ally, affy. RULES— page 50. Bz-ble, brf-dle, pz-lot, ste-fle, fr-nite, vz-per, contn-vance, li-lach (ch rep. k. — This word is vulgarly pronounced laylock), chz-na (vulgarly cha'-ny), to erm-ron (but the substantive plural, environs, is accented on the first syllable), supervz-sor. RULE 53 — page 68. Cn-er, dy-er, elega-ac, sate'-ety (the t preserves its sound — see rule 87, page 77), prosodx-acal, card£-acal, heW-aeal, genethh'-acal, manz-acal, demom-acal, ammoiu-acal, paradi- siacal, aphrodisz-acal, hypocondri-acal. (2) The vowel letters, a, e, o 9 and u, before certain terminations, retain, with few exceptions, their long sounds — see RULE 10, page 5 1 . But to this analogy, which influences all the other letters, i is always an exception (RULE 11, page 52, which maybe seen exemplified, sect. 8, (3). SEVENTH VOWEL SOUND. 133 RULE 8 — page 51. (3) Bri-bery, i-dleness, mi-croscope, cy-nosure (s rep. zh. Many speakers, however, comply in this instance with the ana- logy to which the rule is exceptive, and pronounce cln-zhure). RULE 1 — page 48. (4) B/te, dtqe, pipe, type, wise, thine, live (the adjective distinguished from the verb, which is pronounced liv), thyme (A silent), prize, surprise {s rep .z), bh'the, writhe, oblige. RULES 1 and 39 — pages 48 and 64. Hre, mire, wire, Ijjre, ftyre, aspire. RULE 4,5 — page 66. {!>) Mind, find, hind, blind, rind, kind, mankind, unkind, grind, to wind, wind (substantive. — This word is so pro- nounced on the stage, and in solemn enunciation ; but in other cases wind. Other words which have i short, before nd, are, obscind', prescind', and discind', from the Latin verb scindo). The same RULE. (6) Child, mild, wild {but gild, g hard, has the i short; and so have guild, Guildhall, where u is inserted to keep the g hard ; though this is neglected in the first-mentioned word, and build). The same RULE. (7) High, nigh, thigh, well-nig^ {gh, in these, is silent. — rule 94, page 80). RULE 51 — page 67. (8) Sign, design (s its own sound), resign (s rep. z), be- nign, assign, condign (g in these words is silent.— rule 104», page 81). 134 PRAXIS. — SECT. 7. RULE 52 — page 67. (9) Kind, kindness, kindly, unkmd, unkmdness, sky. The sound I not under the accent. Exceptions to the rule exemplified sect. 5 X (10). (10) To qual'ify, de'ify, artery, ver'ify, ter'rify, liq'uefy, ru'bify, rar'ify, spec'ify, dul'lify, cru'cify, ed'ify, fecun'dify, mun'dify, mod'ify, French'ify, vil'lify, mol'lify, am'plify, exem'plify, dig'nify, sig'nify, indem'nity, person'ify, car'nify, stu'pify, typ'ify, scar'ify, clarify, glo'rify, pu'trify, pu'rify, fal'sify, ver'sify, diver'sify, os'sify, grat'ily, rat'ify, sanc'tify, no'tify, fruc'tify, fortify, mortify, tes'tify, justify, beau'tify, bru'tify, sat'isfy, lab'efy, tab'efy, tu'mefy. Being all verbs in fy ;i with the antepenultimate accent. To these are to be added, Multiply, oc'cupy, and proph'esy (distinguished from the noun prophecy, where they has not the diphthongal sound). Exemplification of the rule at sect. 5 K (id. (11) J-de'a, z-den'tify, z-dol'atry, z-do'neous, r-ras'cible, t-ron'ical, i-sos'celes, z-tin'erant, i-tin'erary. Exemplification of the rule at sect. 5, (12). (12) Fh'-a'tus, ve-olin', di-as'to-le, d/-am'eter, dz-ur'nal, b*-og'raphy. Exemplification of the rule at sect. 5, (13. (13) B*-cap'sular, bt-cip'ital, bz-cip'itous, H-cor'nous, SEVENTH VOWEL SOUND. 135 Iw-cor'poral, tu'-den'tal, bi-fa'rious, bi-fur'cated, bz-lig'inous, bj-noc'ular, bz-pen'nated, bz-quad'rate, tn'-bu'nal, tn-cor'poral, tn-chot'omy (ch pron. k), tn'-gin'tals. The prefixes bi and tri, in these words, come from Latin and Greek words, and signify twice and thrice. It is therefore to mark the meaning of the words with the greater precision, that i is sounded distinctly. And the same observation applies to some words beginning with di. Cbi-rag'rical, clu-rur'gic, du-rur'geon, chz-rog'raphist, ctn-rog'rapher, clu'-rog'raphic, ck'-mac'ter (but in clim- acteric the i is closed by influence of the secondary accent), cn-nig'erous, cr*-te'rion, hy-droceph'alus, hy-drog'ra- pher, hy-drom'eter, hy-drop'ical,*hy-drostat'ics, hy-grom'eter, hy-perbol'ical, hy-perbo'rean, hy-pos'tasis, hy-postat'ical, bj^-pot'enuse, hy-poth'esis, hy-pothet'ical, g£-gan'tic, m- gres'cent, pri-rne'val, pn-me'vous, pn-mit'ial, pri-me'ro, pri- mordial, pri-va'do, pri-va'tion. Exceptions to the rule at sect. 5, (14). (14) Cz'-ba'rious, ce-lic'ious, cz'-ner'utent, a-ta'tion, dz-pet'a- lous, dz-lem'ma, di- gladia'tion, dz-judica'tion, dj-numera'tion, dz-va'ricate, di-rep'tion, dz-rup'tion, minute' (the adj., dis- tinguished from the substantive, which is pronounced min'nit), nn-crom'eter, nu-crog'raphy, rm-gra'tion, pz-rat'ical, rc'-val'ity, rhz-noc'eros, v£-ca'rious, vz-bra'tion, vs-tal'ity, W-vif'ic, \i- vif'icate, vi-vip'arous. Letter i, not under the accent, followed by a consonant and final e mute. Just as much diversity and uncertainty pre- vail in the pronunciation of i, in this situation, as when unaccented and final in a syllable : for in somewordsit retains its diphthongal, and in others 136 PRAXIS. — SECT. 7. it has its closed shut sound (RULE 29, page 60). Nor does it ever, as is the case with a, e, and o, thus circumstanced, assume an undeterminate sound; for in pronouncing it we must give it positively one sound or the other. Guiding rules and examples will therefore be necessary. (15) In the first place, then, when i, situate as above, is in a final syllable, and the penultimate of the word bears the accent, i has its shut sound (sect. 8, (10) ; except in the following words : — Ex'i'le, senile, e'ch'le, em'pe're, um'pzre, pis'mzre (s rep. z), ram'pzre, fe'h'ne, fe'n'ne, ar'chzves {ch rep. k), con'frne, su'pfne, con'trfte (this word is sometimes accented on the ultimate syllable), quag'nure, like'wzse, sex'U'le, length'wese, gen'U'le, mid'wefe (vulgarly mid-if; but the compound, midwifery, is properly pronounced mid'wifry), Cri'nzte, Ar'g2ve (g hard), Sam'nfte, Hi'vite. (16) And also when the accent is higher than the penultimate, if the termination be ice, He, or ive (sect. 8, (11); except the following words : — Sac'rif/ce, to sac'riftce (c rep. z), cock'atr/ee, ree'onc*l«, cham'omzle {ch rep. k), in'fanU'le. ; (17) But in other terminations, idc, ime^bie, ire, ise, ite, ize, the accent being higher than the penultimate, i has its diphthongal sound ; except in the words, sect. 8, (b2). Reg'icule, hom'ictde, tyran'niczde, soror'ic/de, par'ric/de, mai'ricide, vat'icide, infan'ticzde, su'iade, Whit'suntzde, e'Yentide, pan'toimme, can'nabaie, col'umbine, biz'antine, SEVENTH VOWEL SOUND. 13? g^Vantme, leg'atine, con'cubme, mus'cad/ne, incar'nadme, cel'adzne, sec'undzne, amyg'dal/ne, crys'tallme, vit'ulme, cal'amme, as'imne, sat'urmne, sac'channe (ch rep. k), adul'tenne, vip'erine, u'terine, lam'entzne, ar'mentme, ser'pentme, tur'penU'ne, ves'penne, bel'hune, por'cupzne, coun'ternnne, met'alk'ne, le'omne, sap'phen'ne (pph pron. f), ac'rospzre, crit'ic/se, e'quaU'se, au'thonse, tem'ponse, cat'echzse, en'terpnse, oth'erw^se, ex'pech'te, rec'ond/te (but many orthoepists accent it on the second syllable, in which case, by the rule above, (15), 2 is short), in'condz'te, hermaph'rodzte, car'meU'te, theod'ohte, bed'lamzte, cosmop'oh'te, chrys'oh'te, er'ermte, ac'omte, mar'garite, marc'aszte, pai'as/te, ap'pet?'te, bi'parU'te, tri'parU'te, quadrip'artfte, con'verU'te, an'chonte, pit'uite, sat'elh'te (see an observation concerning this word in sect. 5, (17), pros'elyte, het'erocU'te, ju'da/ze, gortnandzze, ag'grandi'ze, apos'troptnze, philos'ophfze, sol'emmze,sy l'log?'ze, apol'og/ze, sym'pathfze, har'monz'ze, re'ah'ze, le'gah'ze, sig'- nah'ze, immor'tahze, mor'ah'ze, tan'tah'ze, hu'mamze, civ'ih'ze, Lists of those words in which two or more vowel letters, succeeding each other, have the present sound. RULE 59 — page 70. Ah The regular sound is in sect. 1, (12). (18) Aisle (s silent). RULE 65 — page 71. Ei. The words with the most usual sound, and references, are in sect. 5, (25). (1Q) Keagta (sometimes improperly written and pro- nounced highth), slc/ij-At (in both words gh is silent — rule 94, page 80). 138 PRAXIS. — SECT. 7- RULE 70 — page 72. Ie. The words in which this combination has other sounds are in sect. 5, (29) ; and sect. 6, (21). (20) Die, hie, pie, tie, vie, flies (s here, and iT» the follow- ing, rep. z. — rule 86, page 77), allies, pies, he vies, he de/fes, he multiplies, he for'tifies, I replied, I fortified. RULE 73 — page 73. Oi. The regular sound is in sect. 15. (21) Choir (c/i rep. kw; — the word also exemplifies rule 39, page 64). RULE 78 — page 15 ; also exemplifying - RULE 52, page 57. UL The words in which this combination has other sounds are in sect. 8, (1?); sect. 11,(11); and sect. 12, (13). (22) Gwile, gwide, gwise, beguile {u is inserted merely to keep g hard). rule 79 — page 75. Uy. See its unaccented sound, sect. 5, (31). (23) Bwy, bwj/er. RULE 60 — page 70. (24) Ay (but the former of the two sounds, which com- pose the present diphthongal sound, is longer protracted than in the utterance of 11*. RULE 6(5 — page 72. (25) Eye. Words individually contravening various rules. * By mistake, this word is in the rule spelled aye y which is another term, signifying ever. EIGHTH VOWJL SOUND. 139 (26) Indict (c silent), pint, chorister (cA rep. k), Christ (ch rep. k), climb (mb rep. m), isle, wland, viscount (t, in the last three words, silent). SECT. 8. Of the eighth vowel sound, 1, The closed i being t{ie corresponding sound to the open e, consistently with the remark under sect. 2, we hear foreigners often use the latter for the former ; pronouncing a little bit, a leetle heet^ The Scotch not unfrequently fall into the sarne error. The sound 1 under the accent, RULE 1 — page 48. (1) Bit, dish, fill, gin, him, kiss, limb {mb rep. m), nip, quit, ring, begin, afflict, assist, commit, equip, intermit, violin, intermix, vixen, bitter, bigger, cygnet, cymbal, dizzy, gilding (g hard), extinguish, malignant, vindictive, episcopal, consistory. Concerning the five succeeding examples, see the observation following the word wind in sect. 7, (5). Wind, abscind, rescind, prescind, discind. RULE 5 — page 50.. (2) Big-otry, crit-ical, hj/p-ocrtte, dyn-asty (but many orthoepists, dy'-nasty), im-Uate, lib-eral, lib-ertine, min-eral, min-ister, chym-ical, chym-istry (these words are now gene- rally spelled chemical, chemistry ; and, in the same manner, chemist. The pronunciation, however, remains as formerly), mis-ery (5 rep. z), priv-ilege, pj/r-amid, situate, sin-ister (in hs figurative sense insidious ; but when it means the left side, \t is usual to accent the second syllable), syc-amore, syc-ophant, 140 PRAXIS.— SECT. 8. activ-ity, aft7n-ity, antip-athy, conspic-uous, consid-erate, contin-ual, delib-erate, invis-ible, perspic-uous, dim-issory, delib-erately, partic-ularly, signif-icancy. RULE 6 — page 5 1 . Sit-ua'tion, trib-ula'tion, clim-acter'ic, did-ascal'ic, pliys-iog'- nomy, typ-ograph'ical. RULE 11, page .52, and the observation, sect. 7, (2), where the following words would have been placed, if letter i had followed the analogy to which the other vowels conform. (3) Bil-ious, dellr-ious, id-iot,vision (s, here and as follows, rep. zh), decision, derision, provision, ambition {t, here and as follows, rep. sh), tradition, edition, sedition, condition, vicious (c, here and as follows,rep. sh),malicious, capricious, auspicious, pigeon (g, here and as follows, rep. d, zh), religious, litigious. RULE 37 — page 63. (4) Spir-it, spir-itual, mir-acle (whence we may see that £he pronunciation sperrit, sperritual, merricle, is not only con- trary to polite usage, but to analogy), lyr-ic, pyr-amid, pyr-i-tes (.« rep. z), tyr-anny, schirrhus (ch rep. k, rh rep. r), pj/r-omancy, pyr-otech'nical (a secondary accent falls on the first syllable; ch rep. k). And hence, too, we perceive, that the pronun- piation of panegyr-ic and squirrel, pannegerric and sfjuerrUy is contrary to analogy, though it is a de- viation to which, in both instances, custom obliges compliance. The following words are exceptions, so far as letter i is concerned, to RULE 3, page 50, already exemplified in sect. 7, (1). EIGHTH VOWEL SOUND. 141 (5) Bfch-op, cit-y, civet, c/v-il, contn'b-ute, deh'v-er, dinun-ish, disfrg-ure, driv-el (e silent), exhzb-it, explicit, f/n-ish, frig-ate, frigid, h/th-er, zm-age, im-plzcit, inszp-id, Itl-y, hm-it, h'n-en, h'v-id, lzz-ard, lyr-ic (rule 37), mzm-ic, imn-ute (a portion of time, distinguished from minute', small), mt-id, ptvys-ic, pz't-y, quzv-er, rigid, n'v-age, rzv-el [e silent), rzv-en, rzv-er, n'v-et, s/gil, szn-ew, spzg-ot, spzn-ach (pron., and more commonly written, spzn-age), spir-it (rule 37), sudorzf-ic, thzth-er, tzm-id, trzb-une, v»c-ar, vzgil, veg-our, vzs-age, v/s-it, vzv-id, whzth-er, w/d-ow, wzz-ard. The sound i not under the accent. RULE 20 — page 59. (6) Clas'sic, ep'zc, splen'dzd, tim'zd, res'tiff) rnln'im, friend'shz'p, ba'szs, profit. (7) Though it was said, in RULE 24, page 59, that the suppression of e, i, and o, sometimes takes place before final I and n; yet we have here to remark, that this analogy, in regard to letter i, operates only in three words, namely, evil, devil, and cousin (pron. £'-vl, d&V-vl, cuz-zn), and that, in all other instances, i, before / and n, must be carefully pronounced, the contrary utterance being gross and vulgar. Bev'zl, pen'dl, vig'z'l, pu'pzl, grif 'fzn, ur'chin, res'zn, ger'nwn, Lat'zn. RULE 27 — page 60. (8) Cab'bage, vil'lage, cour'age {ou rep, u), im'age, crib'bage, ban/dage, appen'doge, bon'dage, cor'dage, rum'mage, manage, um'brage, dispar'age, postage, selv'age, pot'tage. See, however, words where a is more distinct, sect. 1, (11). W2 I>RAXlS.— SECT. S. RULE 19 — page 59. (9) Po'ct, lin'en, cov'et (o rep. u), du'el, hel'met, boxVsr, arch'es, mu'ses, hous'es, fa'ces, ro'ses, sentences, purposes, surprises, he deba'ses, practises, revises, disclo's«s. The e before s y of the possessive case, is pro- nounced in the same manner. Hor'se's, reclu'se's, nur'se's. And this sound is even inserted where there is no letter to represent it - 3 as in Church's, fox's, lass's, kiss's (pron. churchiz, foxiz, &c). Exemplification of the rule, sect. 7> (13). (10) Ser'vile, hos'tile, flab'ile, deb'ile, mob'ile, sor'bile, nu'bile, fac'ile, grac'ile, doc'ile, Ig'ile, pen'sile, dac'tyle, rep'tile, tortile, scis'sile, mis'sile, fic'tile, duc'tile, rep'tile, scul'ptile, fertile, fu'tile, tex'tile, sub'tile (b sounded, the meaning of the word is thin; and it must not be mistaken for subtle, b silent, cunning), coc'tile, quin'tile, vi'rile, adaman'tine, amethys'tine,jaun'dice, pu'mice, cor'nice, bod'iee, accomplice, crev'ice, mal'ice, of'fice, prac'tice, to prac'tise (the vulgar, in- fluenced by an analogy which prevails in the language — see the first general law of accentuation, chap, iv — accent the verb on the last syllable, to distinguish it from the substantive. But good speakers pronounce them alike); trea'tise, an'ise, mortise, sapph'ire (or rather sapphiir; for i, closed by r and un- accented, sounds u — rule 3S, page 64), plain'tive, sportive* often'stve, and all words terminating in ire, res'pite, depos'ite, housewife (pron. kuzzif), enden'ize. Exemplification of the rule, sect. 7, (16). ( U ) Cow'ardice, cock'atrice, prejudice, ben'efice, ed'ifice, art'ifice, sup'erfice, ar'raLstice, juv'enile, mercantile, pu'ertlt-. EIGHTH VOWEL SOUND. 143 di'astyle, versatile, croc'odile, vol'atile, indicative, vindicative, provoc'ative, derog'ative, interrog'ative, rel'ative, explic'ative, jjurif'icat/ve, applicative. Exceptions to the rule, sect. 7, (17). ( 1 2) Maritime, jac'obine, med'icine, discipline, mas'culine, jes'samine, fern'inine, her'oine, nec'tarine, lib'ertine, gen'uzne, hy'aline, pal'atine, al'kaline, aq'uiline, cor'alline, brig'antine, eg'lantine, Cym'beline (proper name), cu'curbite, in'genite, definite, indefinite, in'finite, hyp'ocrite, favourite, req'uisite, prerequisite, perquisite, ex'quisite, ap'posite, op'posite. Lists of the words in which two or more vowel letters, succeeding each other, have the present sound. RULE 59 — page 70. AL See the words with the regular accented sound, sect. 1, (12). Words with other sounds, sect. 2, (10); sect. 6, (17); and sect. 7, (18). (13) Cap'tain, curtain, was'sail (a rep. 6), trav'ail, chieftain, plan'tain, moun'tain, moun'tainous, fountain, sex'tain, certain, uncertain, &c. Boats'wain and cocks'wain, being in constant use among men who have other concerns to mind than pronunciation, have degenerated into b6'-sn and cock'-sn : but they who are not of the profession, are recommended to pronounce each part of the words distinctly. RULE 65 — page 71. EL See the words, with the most usual sound, 144 PRAXIS. — SECT. 8, sect. 5, (25). In the following this combina- tion would have had the same sound, had it been under the accent ; but this being absent, it is shortened into?, the correspondent shut to £. (14) For'feit, counterfeit, surfeit, ior'eign (see rule 104, page 81), sovereign (o rep. u). la. The two following words would, in like manner, have been classed with miniature apcl parliaments sect. 5, (28) ; but, in conformity with our principles, we must say, that ia, in these in- stances, represent an open sound (though it is not protracted), because no consonant sound fol- lows in the same syllable; while, in those annexed, the consonant sounds d, zh, follow, and therefore ia represents a closed sound. (15) Mar'nV/ge, cai'riage. RULE 70 — page 70. Ie. For examples with other sounds, and re- ferences, consult sect. 5, (29), and sect. 7, (20). (16) Dig'nities (s in this, and the following, rep. z, rule 86, p. 77), cifies, beau'ties, fal'sities, ra'rities, he sul'lies, he pit'ies, he en'vies, he worries (o rep. u), he mar'ries, &c. ; I sullied, they pitted, we en'vied, she worried, &c. ■ RULE 78 — page 15. UL Refer for the words with other sounds, to sect. 7, (22); sect. 1 1, (11); and sect. 12,(13). (17) Guilt, guinea (ea rep. c), bis'cw/t, con'dwit (n rep. uj. t NINTH VOWEL SOUND. i45 Words individually contravening various rules. (18) Yes, pretty; let'twce, clef, mln'wte (a portion of time, distinguished from minute', adjective, signifying small), women, se'iV night, vme-yard, to h've, busy, business ($ in these two Words rep. z), gun'ii'rtle {to silent). SECT. 9. Of the ninth vowel sound, h. The open sound of our presents no difficulty to foreigners* since it corresponds, as nearly as two sounds in different languages can correspond, with the sound represented by an in the French words faute, gauche. The Irish and Scotch, in many instances, make use of the fourth vowel sound instead of the present, pronouncing bold, old, cold, bavvld, awld, cawld. The well-educated natives of the north of England are still more liable to this fault in those words which have r and another consonant after ; for this reason, that such words are exceptions only to a rule which gives the fourth sound when in that situation. To free themselves from this error, let them compare the lists, sect. 4, (4), and (10) of the present section. The sound 6 under the accent. RULES 1 and 3 —pages 48 and 50, (1) Go, no, so, wo, ago. But for do, to, refer to sect. 11. L 146 PRAXIS. — SECT. 9. Do-ver, glo-ry (rule 39), o-dour (ou pron. ii),o-bit, o-vai r o-gle, po-ker, po-tent, so-journ (this word is by many ac- cented on the latter syllable, but the present pronunciation is recommended), to-ken, toper, vo-cal, vo-tlve, vo-lant, ancho-vy (c/t rep.tsh),balco-ny, corro-sive, deco-rum (rule 39 }* enclo-sure, unho-ly, interlo-per. For variations from the above analogy, in re.- aspect to letter o, see sect. 10, (5). RULE 53 — page 68. Po-et, po-esy, po-etry. RULE 10 — page 51. (2) O-lio, testimo-nial, asso-ciate, ero-sion, arro-sioo., .cxplo-sion (in these three words, si rep. zh), lo-tion, mo-tion^ fii)o-tion,commo-tion,promo-tion (in these five words, ti rep.sh)* RULES 10 and 39 — pages 51 and 64. O-rient, bo-reas, histo-rian, merito-rious, labo-rious> glo-rious. There are no exceptions to RULE 10, so far as it regards letter o. RULE 8 — page 51. (3) O-versight, no-tify, po-pery, po-tentaU, deplo-rable (the last word also exemplifies rule 39). RULE 1 — page 48. (4) Cope, dole, dome (sometimes improperly pronounced doom), hope, depose, alone, atone, elope, explode, bone, cone, tone. But gone, shone, and done, participles of to go, to shine, and to do, are pronounced g$n, shfin, and,d&n. NINTH VOWEL SOUND. J 47 RULES 1 and 39 — pages 48 and 64. More, gore, sore, bore, deplore, implore. RULE 2 — page 48. Rogue, brogue^ disembogue, prorogue. RULE 46 — page 66. See also sect. 11, (l)j and sect. 13, (6). (5) Drove, wove, strove, clove, throve (preterits of to drive, io weave, to strive, to cleave, and to thrive), grove, cove, clove, to rove. rule 47 — page 67. (6) Host, ghost (gh rep. g, rule 94), post, most, under- most, and the other compounds of most. The exceptions are, l6st, fr6st, t5st, and cSst. O has likewise the present sound before ss in (7) Gross, engross. But before ss, in other words, it is pronounced according to RULE 1. — See sect, io, (2). The same RULE. (8) Roll, to joll, to troll, to knoll {kn rep. n, rule 104), to poll, to roll, scroll, droll, stroll, toll, comptrol (mp rep. n), enrol, unrol, clodpoll, roller: and to these words we may add Bolster, parasol,, and patrol; though they were never written with 11. The last mentioned of these, patrol, is by many accented LSI 148 PRAXIS. — SECT. 9. on the first syllable when used as a substantive ; but polite pronunciation requires that it should always be accented on the last. The word extol was never spelled with Us nor is it, as these three, required by good usage to conform to the like pronunciation. (9) It should have been mentioned in RULE 47, that o also has the present sound always before Id, Ik, and It. Bold, fold, hold, to withhold, to infold, to behold, cold, scold, old, told, gold (goold, which was formerly the received pronunciation of this word, is now nearly obsolete), soldier (d rep. dzh ; to sink the I in this word is vulgar), folk, yolk (rule 99, page 81), bolt, colt, dolt, jolt, molten, revolt (whence we perceive that revolt is a pronunciation contrary to analogy). RULE 35 — page 63. It seems to be the above analogy, exemplified (6), (7), (8), (9), that, extending itself partially to words where o comes before rt y rd, &c, causes the following instances to deviate from a rule, exem- plified sect. 4, (4). These lists ought therefore to be compared. (10) Port, and all words in which port is introduced, viz. porter, portage,, comportment, deport, export, report, import, deportment, portion, proportion, proportionate (except merely from polite usage, important and importunate), borne, corpt (rps rep. r), forge, fort, form (when it signifies a bench), ford, horde, porch, sworn, gword (sty rep. s), divorce. NINTH VOWEL SOUND. 149 Tiie sound 6 not under the accent. RULES 14 and 32 — pages 57 and 61. (11) Mot/to, he'ro, so'lo, ne'gro, sal'vo, alle'gro, ty'ro, al'so (a rep. 6), volca'no. The above; with RULE 12 — page 52. O-bey', pro-cure', pro-fane', ro-mance', ab'so-lute, ad'vo-cate, croc'o-dile, ob'so-lete, op*po-site, syl'lo-gisna, introduce', vio-lin', co-he'rent, invo-ca'tion, do-mes'tic, to-bac'co, chro- nol'o-gy, o-be'dient, no-bil'ity, o-pin'ion, o-rig'inal. Concerning the following words, refer to sect. 5, (8). (12) 0-cca'sion, o-flfen'sive, o-ffic'ial, po-ssess', and its compounds. In the words ob-ligdtion, ?nod-erdtwn, op-erdtion, &c., the secondary accent falls upon the o, and causes the following consonant to close it. RULE SO — page 61. (13) Ep'isode, ep'ode, mi'croscope, tel'escope, an'ecdote, monop'tote, or mon'optote, touch'stone, brim'stone, metamor'- phose, tu'berose. But o 3 in pur'pose, because the word is in more common use than metamorphose, &c, has de- cidedly acquired the sound $ ; and o, in the un- accented termination ogue> is closed into 6, sect. 10, (8). 150 PRAXIS. — SECT. 9. Lists of the words with two vowel letters having the present sound. RULE 67 — page 72. Eo. (14) Yeo-man, yeo-manry. RULE 71 — page 73. Oa. The only instances in which this com- .bination has not the present sound are three words, sect. 4, (10). (15) Oats, oatmeal, boat, coat, coal, loaf, doat, goal (see sect. 1, (14), throat, foal, encroach, &c. Continuation of the above; with RULE 39 — page 64. Hoar, roar, soar. RULE 72 — page 73. Oe. Refer to sect. 5, (30); sect. 6, (22) ; and sect. 11,(7). (16) Dot 1 , foe, sloe, toe, throe, hoe, bil'boes. RULE 74 — page 74. 00. For its usual sound, and references, con- sult sect. 11, (8). (17) Door, floor. RULE 75 — page 74. Ou. For its usual sound, and references, con- sult sect. 16. ( 1 8) Coulter, court, accourt, courtier, gourd, course,discourse, NINTH VOWEL SOUND. 151 source, recourse, resource, bourn, four, mould, mouldy, moult, mourn, shoulder, soul, smoulder, poultice, poulterer, poultry, troul, pour (though some orthoepists pronounce it as the word power, and others as poor, dough (rule 94, page 80), though, bur'ough, fur'lough, thorough (the former o rep. u). RULE 15 — page 74. Ow, For its usual sound, consult sect. 16. (19) Blow, slow, crow, flow, glotu, bow (when it signifies the instrument used to shoot arrows, and also when it means to bend sideways ; as, to bow out : but when it signifies to bend in general, ow has the sound at sect. 1,6), know (the compounds of which, knowledge, acknowledge, &c. have the o shortened into 6), \oiv, to low (as a cow), row (this word is often vulgarly used to signify a riot or disturbance, with ow in its usual sound), show, sow (to scatter grain ; — the feminine to the masculine substantive, boar, requires that ow should have the usual sound), stvoiv, snow, below, trow {by my trow, an ob- solete phrase), bestow, owe, own, to moiy (with a scythe ; in any other signification, this word has ow in the 16th sound), owner, flotan, grown, grozuth, to lower (to bring low, distinguished from lower, to frown, in which ow has the usual sound), throw, thrown, bowl, sor'row, bor'row, fel'lo;y, whVdow, wil'low. (The un- protected, but open sound 6, in these last words, is often cor- rupted by the vulgar into er. This blemish must be carefully avoided. See rule 32, page 61.) Tow-ards, or better tow-ard (such is the pronunciation which should always be. given to this preposition ; and not to-ward', making w a con- sonant. But the adjectives to'-ward, fro'-ward, and the ad- verbs to'-ward ly, fro'-wardly, require that w should be a con- sonant). To the above list may be added the proper substantives, Howes, Stow, How-ard, Soowdon. 152 ' PRAXIS. — SECT. 10. Words individually contravening various rule:-. (20) Job (proper name), comb {nib rep. rru There are four other words which have mb after o, tomb, ivomb, bomb K and rhomb; the two former have o sounded 6, and the two latter, u), both, only. SECT. 10. Of the tenth sound, 6. We hear foreigners pronounce not, top, ancj similar words, nawt, tawp, &c, using the open sound &, instead of its correspondent shut, 6. The Scotch confound the present sound with the pre- ceding: they pronounce mbst for m6st (pre- ceding sect. (6), and lfog for l&ng. The sound 6 under the accent. RULE 1 — page 48. (1) Bog, bond, hot, dodge, Hodge, lodge, nob, mock, extol (not extblc. See sect. 9, (7). RULES 1 and 4 — pages 48 and 50. r/bs-tler {h silent), apos-tle (t in the last two words rep. s, rule 88, page 77), cos-tive, apos-tate, hos-tlle, Zios-pital (h silent). (2) Moth, broth, cloth, froth, troth, betroth (see sect. \en it means the reverence made by women, it drops the secoi vd syllable. Curt'sby is 170 PRAXIS. — SECT. 13. a yulgar pronunciation), courage, encourage, joust, gournet, housewife (wife rep. if), flourish, mounch, nourish, nousle (sle rep. zl), enough (gh, here and as follows, rep. f), chough, roMgh, tough, slough (a cast skin ; when it signifies a miry place, it is pronounced with ou in the sixteenth sound, and gh silent), scowrge, southerly, southern, southernwood, southward (iu silent), touch, touchy, young, younker, youngster. But ou, not under the accent, always has the present sound, unless in a very few instances, where the compound retains the sound of the simple ; as in pro'noun. (2!) Clam'our, val'our, va'pour, hon'our (A silent), col'our (former o rep. u), so'joum, sojourner (the preferable accentua- tion of the last two words : when accented, as we sometimes hear them, on the second syllable, they class with the pre- ceding list, ou still having the present sound), o'dour, mu'cous, fun'gotts, gib'bows, Sid'mouth, Wey 'mouth, pi'ous, querulous,, cov'etous (often pronounced covetshus, but incorrectly; there being no ground in analogy for suffering t, in this word, to ac- quire the sound tsh), ido'ne-ous, miscella'ne-ous, vifre-ows, a'the-ous, ceru'le-ous stu'di-ous, bil'i-oz/s, felo'ni-ous, co'pi-ous > se'ri-ous, luxu'ri-ous (lug-zu're-ous), pre'vi-ous, de'vi-ous. In all which words, ending in e-ous, i-ous, it may be remarked, that the unprotracted open sound, which e or i) ending an unaccented syllable, represents, here acquires the sound of y conso- nant; and the words are pronounced idone-yus, stude-yus, &c. In the following words, the sound sh or zh preceding, generally absorbs the sound i/j as in the terminations sion> and tio?i, though in many of the instances a slight sound of FOURTEENTH VOWEL SOUND. 1?1 the y may be very proper, especially as such a pronunciation has a neat and graceful effect. Herba'ceous (c, here and as follows, rep. sh), fda'ceous, sapona'ceous, farina'ceous, argila'ceous, cro'eeous, auda'cious, saga'cious, sala'cious, fala'cious, efnca'cious, capa'cious, gra'cious, spe'cious, prec'ious, judic'ious, offie'ious, suspic'ious, atro'cious, umbra'geous (g, here and as follows, rep. dzh), coura'geous, advanta'geous, gor'geous, relig'ious, litig'ious, conta'gious, sacrile'gious, piteous (this, and the following five words are pronounced pit'-yus, plent'-yus, &c, but the t will naturally tend to be pronounced tsh; nor is this an improper deviation. The analogy for such changes in consonant sounds, will be explained in the proper place), plenteous, bounteous, courteous, beauteous, duteous, vexatious (t, here and as follows, rep. sh), factious, facetious, ambitious, propitious, superstitious, advectitious, surreptitious, hideous (this, and the seven following words are pronounced hid-yus, perfid-yus, &c. ; but d will naturally tend to be pronounced dzh), perfidious, fastidious, invidious, compendious, odious, melodious, studious, noxious (x is an equivalent either for ks, or gz ; — in these four words, fer ks, where s is pronounced sh ; nokshus, obnokshus, &c), obnoxious, influxiows, prolixious. SECT. 14. Of the fourteenth vowel sound, ft. This incidental sound of u is, in the northern provinces, very generally substituted for &. The well-educated native, in endeavouring to correct this error, is not aware, that there are some words in which closed u has this sound, however irreqru- 172 PRAXIS. — SECT. 14. larly ; and, in consequence, pronounces bull, pull, butcher y with u in its second sound. A careful inspection of the words in the present section, will soon enable him to free himself from this blemish. RULE 49 — page 67- (1) U has its third sound before //, in the words Bali, Ml, pull; and in all the compounds of these words, whether the syllable fall under the accent or not. Bull-baiting, bull-dog, ball -head, bullock, bulrush, bully (which Dr. Johnson is of opinion comes from bull of the Pope), fully, fullness, careful, wonderful (and all the numerous words terminating in/u/), pulley, puller. U also has this sound in some words, which, though not really derivatives from the above words, from their form appear to be so. (2) Bullace, bullet, bulwark, bullion, fuller, fullage, fullery, Fulham (a place), pulpit, pullet. But this observation must not be extended to fulsome, and words from the learned languages beginning with ful; as fulminate, &c. (sect. 13, (8). U has also its present sound in (3) Butcher, puss, put (the verb ; for the substantive put, a game, or as employed in the phrase, a country put, has its FIFTEENTH VOWEL SOUND. 173 regular shut sound), cushion, sugar (s rep. sh — see sect. 1 1, (4), cwckoo, hwzzar, huzza (interjection), pwsh, bush. And these are the only words in the language in which n has the present sound. The sound i is also represented by o \n the words (4) Woman, worsted, wolf, wolves. and in the proper names Wolsey, Worcester, Wolverhampton. RULE 74 — page 74. Oo. In the following words, these letters 4iave the present sound. (5) Wool, wood, good, hood, foot (which the Irish pro- nounce fut), stood, understood, withstood. Concerning the following words, see the con- cluding observations of sect. 11, (8). Took, book, look, nook, cook, hook, soot. RULE 75 — page 74. Ou. The present sound is given to ou in (6) Would, could, should (/, in all three words, silent), SECT. 15- Of the fifteenth vowel sound, oi. The sound exemplified in the next section, the first sound of t, and the present sound, are the 174 PRAXIS. — SFXT. 15. only diphthongal vowel sounds which, properly speaking, exist in the language ; for ii, we have seen, is composed of a consonant sound, y, and a simple vowel sound, 6. Two of these three diph- thongs are represented each by two letters ; the other by a single letter. The two sounds which ■ ei represents are a and £, or, when a consonant follows in the same syllable, & and i, uttered in immediate succession. Oi and oy are the only representatives of the fifteenth vowel sound, and they represent it with but few individual exceptions ; viz. shamois, pro- nounced shammy ; choir, pronounced quire 5 tor- toise y pronounced tortiz. Oy is mostly employed as final, and oi only in the middle of words. RULE 73 — page 73. (1) Boy, joy, hoy, toy, Troy, enjoy, decoy, employ, alloy (which must never be pron. alla'y), annoy, decoy, savoy (a plant), destroy-er, annoy-ance, buo^, buoy-ance (u, in these two words, rep. w cons.). The word voy-age, where the age acquires the sound idzh, is pronounced v&'-idzh, the two kindred sounds, 6 and i, being sunk into one, f. ( 2) Boil, coif, coil, foil, oi\, soi\, spoil, toil, broil, embroil, joint, point, choice, voice, noise, poise, annoint, appoint, aroynt, avoid, devoid, ointment, appointment, disappointment. There is a vulgar pronunciation of many of the SIXTEENTH VOWEL SOUND. 175 above words, which makes them bile, ile, ap- pint, &c. This must be very carefully avoided. The present sound unaccented. En'voy, viee'ro^, con'voy (subs.), Sa'voy (proper name). SECT. 16*. Of the sixteenth vowel sound, ou. This diphthongal sound is composed of a and o; or, if a consonant follow in the same syllable, a and &, uttered in immediate succession. Both the present and the preceding sounds will be acquired without much difficulty, if the component parts are already familiar. RULE 75 — page 74. The only representatives of the sixteenth vowel sound, are ou and ow ; ou is mostly employed in the middle of words, and ow as final. Ow never takes but one sound beside the present, which is the sound 5, sect. 9, (19). Ou has several other sounds; viz. the sound a, sect. 4, (11) ; the sound 6, sect. 9, (18); the sound 6, sect. 10, (10); the sound 6, sect. 11, (9); the sound ft, sect. 13, (20) and (21) ; and the sound &, sect. 14, (6). (1) Ow. Cow, brow, brown, brotvse, now, how, bow (mark of respect ; or to bend in any direction but sideways : see the same word in the list, sect. 9, (19), mow (a heap of barley. See this word also in the same list), sow (a she swine. See in th« 176 PRAXIS. — SE6T. 16. other list, sect. 9, (19), plow (but the best orthography is plough), yoiv, avow, allow, disallotu, endow, down, clown, frown, town, crown, drown, gown, renown, dowager, dowdy, dower, dowry, drowse, drowsy, flower, bower, lower (to look gloomy. See the other list, sect. 9, (19), power, powder, proiv, prowl, vowel, towel, bower, rowel, cowl, scowl, crowd, shower, totuer. RULE 75 — page 74. (2) Ou. Abound, about, account, acoustics, aground, aloud, amount, around, arouse, astound, avouch, bounce, bound, bounty, bounteous, bout, carouse (s rep. z), chouse, cloud, clout, compound (the verb), couch, couchant, crouch, grouse, devour, devout, doubt, doubtful (bt in both words rep. t), douse, encounter, espouse, expound, flout, foul, flounder, found, foundling, fountain, frousy, gout (a disease. See the word, sect. 11, (9), ground, grout, hound, four (h silent), house, impound, loud, lounge, lout, mound, mountain, mountebank, mouse, mouth, noun, ounce, our, oust, out, outer, outermost, pouch, pounce, pozmd, pout, profound, pronounce, propound, proud, rebound, recount, redoubt (bt rep. t), redowbted, redound/ round, roundelay, rouse, rout, scoundrel, scour, scout, shout, shroud, sloz^ch, spouse, spout, sprout, stout, surround, south, thou, thousand, trounse, trousers, trout, wot/nd (did wind. See the word in the list, sect. 1 1, (9), vouch, without, dough (a clifif, gh here, and as follows, silent, rule 94), bough, drought, droughty, plough, slough. See the word in the list, sect. 13, (20). — In all the above words, s, between two vowels, rep. z ; except douse and house. Ou never has the present sound but when under the accent (see sect. 13, (21), except in a few words. Com'pound (the substantive, distinguished from the verb)* paramount, pro'uomi, scaramouch. 177 CONSONANT SOUNDS. See the list of simple consonant sounds, page 25; and of the diphthongal consonant sounds, page 27. SECTION 17. Of the first consonant sound, h. This consonant is nothing more than a forcible expulsion of the breath. A very bad habit pre-? vails, chiefly among the people of London, of sinking it at the beginning of words, where it ought to be sounded, and of sounding it, either where it is not seen, or where it ought to be sunk. We frequently hear heart pronounced art ; arm, harm 5 and honesty where the h ought to be silent* with the h sounded. To correct this mistake, let a number of words, beginning with a, e, *, and 0, be selected from a dictionary* and read ; taking care that h be not pronounced before any of them ; then let the following words be read, observing to pronounce the h by breathing forcibly upon the succeeding vowel sound. Afterward, as a further exercise* let a word beginning with a vowel, and a N 178 PRAXIS. — SECT. 17- word beginning with h y be read alternately, till the pupil obtains a habit of readily uttering, or omit- ting the aspiration, according as he sees it proper. The following, with their compounds, are the only words in which the initial h ought to be silent : heir, heiress, honest, honesty, honour, ho- nourable, hospital, hostler, hour, humble, humour, humourous, humoursome; and, by some orthoepists, herb and herbage, though herbal, and other com- pounds of herb, always have h pronounced. (I) .Hate, Aat, Aaunt, Aall, he, //eld, Aigh, hit, hone, hot, host, Auge, hut, hock, hoist, Aound, hereout', Aer'ald, Zterbes'cent, Aar'mony, Aet'eroclite, Aieioglyp'hical, behind', behest', inAab'it, adAe'sion. //, when it is the only consonant at the end of words, is always silent. % (2) It will seldom be necessary, in any of the sections of the consonant sounds, to give a greater number of words in which a sound is regularly represented, than is proper for method's sake; because a dictionary will, in general, readily furnish a further Praxis. But where numerous rules are to be exemplified, as under sect. 21 -, dt| when a dictionary does not readily furnish a Praxis, as is the case with the sound zh, it will be necessary to be more prolix. In the following words, the sound h is repre- sented by zvh, the usual sound of which two letters is insect. 18, (3). SECOND CONSONANT SOUND. 179 (3) Who, ivhose, whom, toAoev'er, who\e, u'Aole'sale, ivhoW- iome, nhol'ly, whoop. There is no diphthongal consonant sound com- pounded with h, of which h is the last sound ; for zvh, in all words, except such as those above, where o follows, is pronounced with the sounds of the two letters in reversed order. Refer to sect. 18, (3), SECT. 18. Of the second consonant sound, w. Though zv and y have generally been ac- counted consonants at the beginning of words and syllables, yet latterly some grammarians have maintained that they are always vowels. This, opinion has, however, again given way to the old one. So long as there is no danger of mispro- nouncing these letters, it is of little importance what they are called. That they are formed on the bases of the vowel sounds o and 5, cannot be doubted ; but, if we were told always to pronounce zoag, yard*, &c, oo-ag and e-ard* our English organs, instead of giving the vowels their pure sounds, in unguarded speech, would naturally employ a forcible and quick action, which would fall upon the succeeding vowel sound ; and it is this action that changes 3 and e from vowels into N 2 180 PRAXIS.— -SECT. 18. * consonants. In further proof that they are con- sonants, they never occasion an hiatus when they come after a vowel, which they would do if they were purely vocal ; and this is the reason we em- ploy the article a, and not an, before all words that commence with either of these sounds ; as, a zvag, a war, a yell, a yezv, a unit (pron. yo-nit). Mr. Sheridan is not strictly correct when he says, our pronoun we is individually the same sound as the French affirmative oui. Such is, indeed, the way in which Englishmen pronounce this word ; but the French themselves give it an utterance purely vocal ; and find some pains necessary to acquire the organic action, which changes the sound d into w consonant. ( 1 ) Wane, wag, tyar, wall (a fri these two words rep. & ^ we, wet, wine, win, wo, wan {a rep. 6), ivSmb (mb rep.,m), won (o rep. u),wool {oo rep. u), he wound, tcithstand', wil'low, wom'an (o rep. u), tyon'derful, 'warrantable, aiyay', beware', bexyail', farewell', forward, to'iuard (the adjective, not the pre- position. See sect. 9, (19), to'wardly, fro'ward, fro'wardly. The words, One, once, have the present sound prefixed, although there is no letter to represent it ; while o has the sound u. Sect. 13, (7). The diphthongal consonant sounds, of which m is the last, are, hzv, szv, thw, bw, kw, gzv, tzv, dw. (3) Hw is represented only by zvh, the order SECOND CONSONANT SOUND. 181 of the letters, in sounding them, being reversed (RULE 98, page 81). And this is the pronuncia- tion which must always be .given to these two letters, unless the following vowel is oj for then, the sound o, the basis of the sound w, coalesces, and makes but one, with the succeeding vowel sound, be it either <"> or 3. (See the preceding sect., (3). But, in all other cases, both the letters should be heard ; and the following words will consequently have a pronunciation .similar to hoo-ale, hoo-at, hoo-en, the oo (o), being uttered with that forcible action of the organs, which changes it from a vowel, to a consonant sound* Hw. Whale, what, when, whi\e, ivh'ip, where, whee], wJrir], whelm, whist, which, whig, where\'er, whereon', wheih'er, wh'irYpoo), U'Airl'wind. Szv. (4) Swagger, swan, sweet, swe\\, swoon. (To pronounce this word soon is vulgar.) But sword and answer have the w silent. Thw. (5) Thwack, thw&rt, Mtvart'ingly. Tzv. (6) 7u>ain, ft&ang, /wattle (a rep. 6), twee'zers, twelve, ftuen'ty, twig, twin, twine, twirl, it'tle-*u>at'tl© (a rep. 6)v But in the word two, the sound of the w coalesces, and makes but one with the o, pronounced 6. 182 PRAXIS. — SECT. Y$. Dw. (7) .Didirf, dwell, kindle. But w, as part of a diphthongal consonant, is very frequently represented by it, in the combina- tions ua,.ue, id, uo. — RULE .56, page 69. (8) When any of these combinations come afters, the u represents the sound vv. Sw. Sm'sWe, swa'sory, swav'ity, assuage', persuade', dissuade', vnan'swetude, con'-sMetude, des'wetude, suite (i rep. e). Except suit; and its compounds. Bw, in the words (9) Buoy, Zwoyance, is represented by bu. They should never be pro- nounced boy, boyance. (10) And when any of the before mentioned expressions come after q, the u represents the sound w, while q is the equivalent for k. Kw. Suack, ^wal'ity, ^wan'tity (a, in these two words, rep. 6), queen, quo'rum, qu\\\, question [ti rep. tsh), quirk, bequest', require', enquVry, quoth (o pron. u), quote, ^pota'tion, an'tit/uary. ^ Except some words, mostly from the French, in which the u is sunk. See them, sect. 35, (7). (11) Iti the following words, and their com- pounds, the expressions ua, ui, and uo, coming after g, cause u to have the power of w. THIRD CONSONANT SOUND. 183 Gw. Lm'guage {age rep. idzb), lan'gwid, languish, undent, languor (but many speakers drop the u in this word). (12) Kw is very irregularly represented by ch in the words Ooir {oi rep. I), cAorister (o rep. I). SECT. 19. Of the third consonant sound, y. The formation of this consonant is described in the preceding section. See an additional proof that ?/ is a consonant, in the observation at sect. 21, (20). ( 1 ) Yare'ly, yard, yawn, year, yell, yes (e rep. j), yoke, yon, you* {ou rep. 6), yew* {ew rep. u), young {ou rep. u), yes'terday, yoke'fellow, beyond'. RULE 54 — page 68. {2) {Suta'neous {eu rep. u), mal'leable, span'zel, ttTial, mil'k'on, bilious {ou rep. u), pon'/ard, conciliate. (3) But after r, £ does not acquire the sound «/, '* Though the combinations ou and ew, in these two words, represent different sounds, the words are necessarily pro- nounced alike; for, prefixing y before ew, in the tatter, is placing a letter to represent a sound already present, since the sound u, which ew denotes, is composed of y consonant and 6. 184 PRAXIS. — SECT. 19. owing to the difficulty of sounding y after that consonant. Ex. : vitre-ous, ori-ent, vari-egate, pronounced vit'r£-us, 6'r£-ent, v&'r£-£gate. (4) We have seen that the sound & is a com- pound of consonant y and the sound 6 ; and there- fore all words in which that sound occurs, serve to exercise the present sound •> as, Use, useful, utility, 8cc. x „ a equivalent to Yijose, j/oose'ful, ^ootitfty. (5) And consequently, whenever u comes in the same syllable, after a consonant*, it forms with it a diphthongal consonant sound, of which y is the last (see the third class of diphthongal con" sonant sounds, page 27) ; as, Bugle, beauty, human, duke, tune t equivalent to B-j/oogle, b-yooiy, A-j/ooman, d-yooke, t-yocme. The 12th section will therefore serve as a Praxis on those diphthongal consonant sounds, compounded with y y of which y is the latter sound. * Except the consonant be r; for, on account of the diffi- culty of sounding y after r (see above, (3), the y is dropped. —rule 50, page 67. FOURTH CONSONANT SOUND. 185 SECT. 20. Of the fourth consonant sound, ng. The sound denoted byng in gang, ring, &c., is certainly a simple sound. These two letters, occurring together, are neyer pronounced with each sound perfect*, so as to make a diphthongal consonant; but they may be so pronounced, and it will then be seen immediately, that rin-g, with the sound of n and g completed, is by no means the same with ring, where ng has the present sound. In the former instance, the tongue, after finishing the naso-dental n, by pressing with its tip the gums of the upper teeth, takes a position wholly different, and sounds g; but in the latter* instance, though the voice passes through the nose, as with n, yet the sound, thus produced, is not completed by pressing the tip of the tongue to the gums, but the middle of the tongue is brought into gentle contact with the roof of the mouth, near the throat, in the place where g is formed, while the nasal .sound is still going on. Nor are the organs suffered to produce g; for if this were * The hard sound of letter g is here meant. In change, spunge, &c, g has the sound dzh; and the n before it has it* perfect sound. 186 PRAXIS. — SECT. C 2Q. ' done, two sounds would be heard, ng and g; the truth of which in ay be ascertained by comparing anger aild finger ', in which these two sounds are produced, with bring- er and sing-er, where only the sound ?ig is heard. Hence we may see the absurdity of that pronunciation, which, from an affectation of correctness, sounds g at the end of king, song, &c, king-g, song-g. (I) Gang, fang, hang, twang, king, ring, fling, spring, thing, long, sonp:, thong, prong, strong, among (o rep. u), young (mi rep. u), VOkgi dung, be'iwg, noth'ing (o rep. u), wri'tmg,re&6''mg, belong, prolong*, along', diph'tluwg, triph'tbong (ph in these two words rep. p), head'strong, fur'lowg. And all the numerous words terminating in ing. (2) If, however, the preceding syllable ter- minate in ing, as, ringing, singing, bringing, it seems usual to pronounce the latter syllable simply in, in order to prevent tautophony. The following words are formed from originals in which ng was final, by adding er, ing>y, &c; and it must be carefully noted, that the sound g is pot to be inserted and articulated before the syl- lable which follows ng. (3) Sing-er, bring-er, hang-er, spring-y, stri?ig-y, dung-y (adjectives from spring, string, dung), hang-ing, ring-ing, brittg-ifig, sing-ins;, spring-ing. (Concerning the pronuncia- tion of tlie latter ng, m ftl^e five preceding and similar words, #ee Abe note above, (2). (4) In the following words the sound w£ is FOURTH CONSONANT SOUND. i$7 represented by n alone ; for the following g 9 c, or con-gressive, con-cur, con-cubinage, con- creie (adj.). (5) From a review of these principles, it must be seen that the pronunciation of the following adjectives is very irregular. They are nofrprimitive wwds, but are formed by adding er, est, and al to originals in which ng was final, and therefore they ought not to have been pronounced as they always are, ^ 188 PR AXIS. — SECT. 20. Low-ger, stron-ger, youn-ger, t3»-gest, stro??-gest,yoim-gesr, diphthow-gal, triphtho/i-gai. but Long-er, st-rong-er, younger, iong-est, strong-cut, young-est, diphthong-al, triphthong- al, It appears, from Mr. Walker's observation, that the Irish pronounce these words according to the proper analogy. The irregularity is, however, too firmly established in England to admit of contradiction. (6) When k, or an equivalent letter, follows n in the same syllable, from the same reason as was before mentioned, the tongue neglects to finish the n, and, while the nasal sound is going on, keeps in a position ready to sound k; and thus, as before, converts the n into vg, to which the sound k being added, the diphthongal sound ngk is produced, the only diphthongal consonant sound com- pounded with ng. The following words are ad- duced in this place as examples, though their pro- per situation is not here, but under sect. 35, (9), because k, and not ng, is the latter sound. Ib&nk, than/:, blan/c, flanfc, ink, w'mk, drink, sink, slunk, junk, shrunk, drunk, thanHul, drunAeo {ken rep. kn). Anxious, minx; equivalent to t FIFTH CONSONANT SOUND. 189 SECT. 21. Of the fifth consonant sound, s. A mispronunciation of this dental aspirate, by substituting th, or a sound resembling it, is the cause of what is called lisping. S is formed by- pressing the tip of the tongue to the gums of the upper teeth, so close as just to let the breath pass; and lisping generally proceeds from press- ing the teeth instead of the gums. In this case, the habit may be remedied by attending to the just position of the organs, and daily repeating a number of words beginning with s. But lisping often arises from having lost some of the front upper teeth ; when supplying false teeth seems the only remedy. If the following rules for sounding s in its sharp or flat sound are very numerous, and the ex* ceptions extensive, it is hoped these defects will be imputed to the nature of the subject. Indeed it was* with difficulty that any rules could be formed; so uncertain is our language on this point. RULE 81— page 76. (1) S is always sharp at the beginning of words. »Same, sack, saun'ter (au rep. a), sor'did (o rep. a), seal {ea rep. e), set, sign, sin, soak {oa rep. 6), sob, soon, suit («i rep. u). sul'phur, soot {oo rep. u), soil, sound. 190 PRAXIS. — SECT. 21. (2) S also retains its own sound at the be- ginning of syllables which are significant of them- selves, but to which have been prefixed a prepo- sition, or some other modifying word. Re-suscita'tion, re-supera'tion, re-search', re-siege', re-seat r re-survey', pre-suppose', pre-sur»nise\ By which rule Re-sign, and re-sound, when they signify an iteration of the acts of signing and sounding, have the s sfiarp ; though in their usual signification of to give tip, and to rever- berate, the s is pronounced z. (3) k% at the beginning of syllables not initial, zvhen the preceding syllable ends with a consonant , is generally sharps indeed, always so, if that consonant is sharp or hard ; but if it be soft, there are several exceptions, which must be carefully noted. — See them, sect. 22, (2). i Ftot/son, tip'sy, keck'sy, gip'sy, dropsy, protepfeUj elli;. ap'sis, ep'ilepsy. Under tins head, come all those words which divide ss into (liferent syllables. As-sault, pas-sage, dres-ser, rnos-sy. For ss, whether divided or not, has always the sharp sound of single s (see below, (16). — Theiv are, however, a few exceptions, sect. 22, (l) ? which must be remembered. Absurd', absorb', absor 'bent, ab'jonous, absolute, aUiotofi - FIFTH CONSONANT SOUND. 191 \but not in absolve. — See the word among the exceptions), absence, subserve', subside', subsist', men'sal, universal, tin'sel, coun'sel, rnor'sel, intrin'sical, drop'sieal, par'son, per'son, pulsa'tion, condensation, sensa'tion, dispensa'tion, conversa'tion, tergiversation (g rep. dzh), transition *, convulsive, propensity, diversity, compulsory, loathsome, quarrelsome. Indeed s 3 in the terminations of the last six words, is always sharp; as will b$ seen by follow- ing rules. (4) But sy and sey, after a flat consonant in the foregoing syllable, if the accent be on tfc>e pre- ceding syllable, is always an exception to the above rule — see sect. 22, (3). Except in Pursey, owing to its derivation from purse. \ (5) But when the accent is higher, the rule still applies; as in Mins'trelsy, controversy. When s begins a syllable, and the preceding syllable ends with a vowel, there is so great a di- versity in its sound, as to render many rules necessary. * "It is a usual, and perhaps a commendable irregularity, to pronounce the tion, in this word, not shun, as tion is pro- nounced in every other word in the language, but zhun ; and this is on account of the sharp sound of the preceding s: for two sharp sounds, $ and sh, occurring so near each other, would be disagreeable to the ear. For the same reason* ssion in ahsciision is pronounced zhun. 192 PRAXIS. — SECT. 21. (6) If s 3 under the above circumstance, be- longs to the syllables sy and sey\ and the accent is on the syllable preceding, s is pronounced z (refer to sect. 22, (4) ; but when the accent is higher, s has its hissing sound. Her'esy, po'esy, cour'tesy (see the word in the list sect. 13, (20), dys'crasy, Idiosyn'crasy, eu'phrasy, fan'tasy, apos'tasy, prop'heay (substantive), lep'rosy, hypot'risy, pleu'risy, jeal'ousy. (7) S % in the terminations sivc, sary,sojy 3 sity, is always sharp and hissing. SuaSive, persuasive, assuaSive, dissuasive, cohesive, adhe'sive. decisive, derisive, viSive, plauSive, diffusive, infuSive, conclusive, deiuSive, preluSive, alluSive, collusive, obtrusive, dispenSary, ad'versary, suaSory, persuaSory, deciSory, derisory, colluSory, pervicas'ity, obesity, gibbos'ity, verbosity, joco.v'ity, curiosity, animosity, impetuosity.' (8) aS', after the inseparable prepositions pre and pro, in the following words, is sharp. — See those in which it is flat, sect. 22, (5). Presage, to presage', preside', presid'ial, presen'tion, pros'ecute, prosecu'tion, prosody, proaopopae'ia ( puss, truss, discuss, glass-y, mass-y, &c. (16) The same pronunciation is given to is as well when separated into different syllables as when joined in the same syllable. Dis-sonant, dis-sect, dis-soluble, dis-solu'tion, &c; O 194 PRAXIS. — SECT. 21. The only exceptions are the few words, Sect. 22, (1) ; and also where, on account of the latter s acquiring the sound sh, the former runs also into that sound, and makes but one with it ; as in passion. (17) S, in the inseparable preposition mis, is always sharp. Misadventure, misbecome', miscal', miscar'ry, misgive', misguide', mislay', misplace', misrepresent', misname', mis- for'tune, misdeem', misinter'pret, misaim', misor'der, misuse', misdeem', misgov'ern (o rep. 6). (18) S, in the inseparable preposition dis, when either the primary or secondary accent is upon it, is always pronounced sharp : the word dismal, as Mr. Walker observes, though it may seem to be an exception, is not so in reality ; for in this word dis is not a preposition, and therefore the s is pro- nounced z, according to another rule. Dis'count, diScord, discipline, jlis'crepance, dis'tant, dis'tich (ch rep. k), dislocate. Secondary accent on dis. Disability, disabuse', disadvantage, disagree', disconcert', ilisavouch', dislocation, disappoint', disallow', disapprove', dis- believe', disbelie'ver, disembark', disembogue', disena'ble, disengage', disenthrone', disingen'uous, disinherit, disinter 7 , disobey', disoblige', disunite'. (19) But when neither the primary nor se- condary accent is on the preposition dis, which latter can n.ever take place when the primary ac- FIFTH CONSONANT SOUND, 195 cent is on the syllable following, then, if this fol- lowing syllable begin with a vowel or a flat con- sonant, s will have its fiat sound. — Refer to sect. 22, (14) ;- but if it begin with a sharp con- sonant, the s retains its own sound. Discredit, disfa'vour, diskind'ness, dispense', distaste', dis- cretion, dishear'ten, discrim'inate, disfig'ure, disfranchise, dispas'sion, dispeo'ple, display', displease', dispraise', dispo'sal, disjoin'* disjunction, distem'per, distain', disturb', distortion, distrac'tion. But in the words (20) Disu'nion, disu'se, disu'nity, though the accent is on the following syllable, and though this syllable begins with a vowel, the s still keeps its own sound. What other reason can be assigned for this nonconformity to a rule with re- spect to U, which applies with all the other vowels, than this — that the first sound of u, u long as it is called, is not a pure vowel sound, but a vowel sound which is preceded by a consonant sound ? (21) Excluding the rules for the sound of s in the inseparable prepositions mis and dis, the fol- lowing rule obtains : When s finishes a syllable, and the next syllable begins with a flat consonant, $ is flat (see sect. 2&, (15); but w T hen it begins with a sharp consonant, s is sharp. As'-tral, master, fesMsr, blis'-ter, phos'-phoTus, clas'-per, ras*-csri, acoustics, O 2 196 PRAXIS. — SECT. 21. (22) S before £ is pronounced in its own sound in the following words; but in those, sect. 22, (16), it is pronounced z. The e being mute, the sound may be said to be represented by se. Base, abase, debase, case (and compounds staircase, Sec), chase, to chase, purchase, to erase' (but not in to rase), obese, geese', Cher'sonese (ch rep. k), decease 7 , to decease', crease, in'crease, to increase 7 , decrease 7 , to decrease 7 , release 7 , to release 7 , lease, Par'adise, precise', concise', an'ise, mor'tise, trarlse, to prac'tise, trea'tise, globose', verbose', morbose 7 , pulicose', tene- brieose 7 , corticose 7 , jocose 7 , oleose', rugose', desidiose 7 , siliculose', calculose 7 , tumulose 7 , animo.se', venenose 7 , arenose 7 , sillginose', crinose', loose, operose 7 , morose 7 , edem'atose, comatose 7 , acetose 7 , aquose', siliquose 7 , actuose', dose, to dose, goose, to loose, metamor'phose, pur'pose (o rep. u), profuse', occluse 7 , recluse 7 , abstruse', obtuse 7 , hypotenuse, grouse, to douse, to chouse, to souse. The following substantives and adjectives are distinguished from verbs similarly spelled, sect. 22, (17), by havings in its own sound. (23) Grease, close, house, mouse, abuse, excuse, diffuse, use, rise (but in sun-rise s is flat), premise. This last word is generally used in the plural, premises, pronounced prem-is-iz. (24) S, in all the above words where it pre- cedes e in the singular, keeps its sound when the word becomes plural, or, if a verb, when it takes s in its third person ; as, FIFTH CONSONANT SOUND. 197 Purchases, treaties, clones, he do'ses (not the verb to doze, spelled with 2), he practises, &c. An exception, however, seems to have obtained in the word house, which we constantly hear pro- nounced in the plural houziz, contrary to all ana- logy. — For the pronunciation of the other s in the above, see RULE 85, page 76. (25) C, when it comes before e, i, or its equi- valent 3/, is always pronounced s, except in suffice, sacrifice^ both substantive and verb, and discern, where it is pronounced z. Cedar, cease, cell, cel'ebrate, celeb'rity, celes'tial, cen'sure, cite, cita'tion, cir'cuit, cit'adel, civ'il, race, mace, macerate, pincers (the pronunciation pintshurs, is vulgar), implicit, vac'ilate, vac'illancy (but many orthoepists accent this word on the second syllable), placid, tac'it, sic/city, vac/cine, flae'eid (in which last three words the former c has the sound k, and the latter the present sound), eye'le, cyg'net, cyn'ic, cy'nosure, cy'press. (26) And hence, when sc occurs before e, i, or ?/, it is equivalent to ss, and pronounced as single s. Scene, scenic, scent, scep'tre, science, scym'itar, scintillation, Except in two words, sceptic and scirrhus, with derivatives ; in which the c, contrary to all ana^ logy, is allowed to retain the hard sound k before c and L (27) In the following, s and c may or may not separate into different syllables j but in both 198 . PRAXIS. — SECT. 11; cases they are pronounced with the sharp sound of s, in the same manner as ss, to which sc before e and i is exactly an equivalent. Abscind', rescind', discind, descend', descent', descend'ant, descen'sion, discerp', discerp'tion. Except, as was before mentioned, in the single word discern, where the c, being pronounced z 5 $ runs with it into the same sound. ^ (28) The present sound is very irregularly represented by sch in Sc^ed'ule and schism ; for the en ought to have had the sound k, as it has in all similar words. (29) Ps initial, in classical names, represents the present sound, RULE 107/ page 81. Psa'phis (ph rep. f), Psam'mis, fsyl'li, Psy'che (ch rep. k). RULE 107 — page 81. (30) The diphthongal consonant sounds com- pounded with s, of which s is the latter sound, are, fs y ths, ps y ks , ts , and Is , ns , rs , where, it may be observed, that, except in the three latter ex- pressions, the preceding consonants are all sharp or hard ; for s, if it follows a flat consonant in the same syllable, is pronounced z; except only in the particular case of a final e mute succeeding, when the flat consonant preceding is a liquid. Ths. TntfAs, sab'ba*/?s, deaMs, mon*/ in the words (19)* Suffice, sacrifice; the former of which is always a verb, and the latter, being frequently so, has given its irregular pronunciation to the noun; which, however, from the influence of the analogy, we not unfrequently hear pronounced with c in its own sound. Ge- neral usage, however, is against it, and the verb and noun are pronounced alike. f (20) The present sound is represented by X initial, in classical proper names. Xenophon, Xerxes. The diphthongal consonant sounds com- pounded with z, of which z is the last sound, are ngz, vz, dhz, Iz, mz> nz, rz, bz, gz, dz ; and in these, z is always represented by s. It must be remarked, that the preceding sounds are all flat, for s, after a sharp consonant, keeps its own sound. RUL£ 83 — page 76. Bz by bs. Draft*, cobwefo, x\bs, he robs, cu/> ■ SIXTH CONSONANT SOUND. 209 Dz by ds. Beds, beads, toad>. Gz by gs. Bags, legs. (22) Gz is also represented by x, when followed by an accented syllable, beginning with a vowel, or with h. — See sect. 21, (S3). Exhib'it, exhale', exist', exert', exer'tion, exile' (the verb; the substantive is accented on the first syllable), anxi'ety (n rep. ng), luxu'rious, luxu'riant. But these words seem to divide the component parts of x into different syllables. Eg-zist', eg-sert', eg-zer'tion, eg-zile', ang-zi'ety, lug-zu'riant, lug-zu'rious. So that the same rules which affect letter z, will also in part affect x. (23) Lz by Is. Vassa/s, goals. Lz by Us. Balls, he te//s. Mz by ms. Hams, it seems. By mbs, mns, gms, &c. Limis(RULE 89), Hymns (rule 105), apothegww (rule 101), drachms (rule 93). Nz by jis. Dew*, he means. 210 PRAXIS. -7 SECT. 22. By gns. He impugns (rule 104). Rz by rs. Boars, he debars. Ngz by rigs. Riwgs, fangs, he sings. Dhz by ths. — Sect. 21, (34). BaMs, la*As, paMs, mou*//s, oaMs. (24) These diphthongal sounds, all but gz and ngz, are also represented by bes, des, les, mes, nes, res, ves, and thes, the e, which was mute be- fore s was added, still remaining so. Gz is never represented by ges, because g, before e, acquires its flat sound dzh; and tig (the reader is aware that sounds, not letters, are spoken of) is never followed by c mute. — RULE 84, page 76. Ba&es, gle&es, blades, it fades, ta/es, he blades, Sab'ines, care's, he dares, kniees, lifes, it heaves, he breathes, she be- queaMes'. (25) But gz and ngz are represented by gnes and ngues, u, in the former case, being inserted tokeep g in its hard sound. — RULE 2, page 48. "Rogues, fugues, di'alogutt, ped'agogues, harawgwes', tongues (o rep. u). 1 SEVENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 211 SECT. 23. Of the seventh consonant sound, sh. Sh and zh are consonant sounds which spring from s and z. In the two latter, the tip of the tongue is applied to the gums of the upper teeth ; as in pensive, vizor. In order to pronounce the two former, the tongue is drawn further inwards than in s and z, with the top directed towards the palate, but not so close as to touch. By this means a larger space is left for the effusion of breath, which produces sh; and of voice mixed with breath, which produces zh." Ex. : pension, vision, pronounced penshun, vizhun. (1) Shade, shall, sharp, short, sheep, shell, shine, shin, shore, shock, shoot, shut, shook, shout, s/mttlecock, gash, rash, abasA. Let RULE 54, page 68, exemplified in sect. 19, (2), be now referred to -, where it will be seen, that when the unaccented sound £, represented either by e or i, comes before another vowel sound, the sound £ mostly acquires the sound of y consonant. At the same time it must be remembered, that $l is composed of y consonant and a vowel Sound (see page 13). It was necessary to repeat these circumstances, in order that the following rule may be. well understood. (2) When letter s, being in such a situation as to have had its sharp, and not its flat sound, P 2 212 PRAXIS. —SECT. 23. did it not acquire an aspiration, comes before an unaccented vowel letter, which by nature or by circumstance has the sound of y consonant, s assumes the aspirated sound sh 9 and the sound of the y is frequently but not always absorbed (RULE 87, page 77); as, Nau'seate, ca'seous, Persia, pension, mansion, sen'sual, censure ; which we may suppose to have been originally pronounced Naus'-yate, case'-yuA', Perse'-ya, pense'-yun, manse'-yun, sense'-yooal, cense'-yoor. But it is found easier to the organs, instead of completing the dental hiss of s, to pronounce it sh, since they can more easily take the position for uttering y, or, as y is also a species of hiss, can comprehend the y, as well as s y in the new sound. According to this principle, the above words are pronounced Nau'sh-yate, caish'-yus or ca'-shus, Persh'-ya, pen'-shun, man'-shun (in the termination sion, from its frequent occur- rence, the y is always absorbed), sensh-yooal or senshooal, censh-yoor or censhoor. But, as has been observed, unless custom has absolutely decided that the sound of y should be sunk, a slight sound of it seems agreeable to the ear. It must be remembered, that this rule can have place only when the accent is not on the syllable following s; for nothing can be more erroneous, SEVENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 213 than to pronounce suit, suitor, suitable, shoot, shootor, shootable, as some orthoepists have marked them. The words (3) Sure, assure', assu'rance, sugar' (for the sound of u, see sect. II, (4)/ to which the rule has been suffered to extend, notwithstanding the circumstance of accent, must therefore be looked upon as irregular. RULE 88 — page 77. '(4) When the latter s of ss acquires the sound sh, the former also loses its own in the aspirated sound. Issue, tissue, passion, accession, admission, expression, omission, impression, session, discussion, percussion. Except the single word abscission, in which, for the reason given in the note to the word transition, sect. 21, (3), pagel91>itisusual to pronounce .mzh. Sc, before e or i, being equivalent to ss, falls under the same observation. As'cii (the sound y not sunk, but slightly sounded. The latter i in its own sound, as marked), amphis'cii, antis'cif. (5) In all the instances which have been adduced, s would have had its own sharp sound, had it not acquired the aspirated one. When it is in such a situation as to have had its flat sound, it acquires the flat aspiration zh instead of the sharps/*. — See sect 24, (1), 214 PRAXIS. — SECT. 23. (6) X, when it is an equivalent for ks, sect. 21, (34), is in part subject to the same rules with ij Anxious, flexion, complexion, connexion, crucifixion, fluxion, effluxion, luxury, which divide into Ank'-sz'ous, flek'-s/on, complek'-szon, connek'-^on, cruci- fik'-szon, fluk'-saon, effluk'-sion, luk' sury, are properly pronounced angk'-shus, flek'shunj, &c, and luk'sh-yoory or luKshoory. . (7) But x } in the words luxu'rious, luxuriant, luxu'riate, anxi'ety, is equivalent, not to gs, but to gz, because the accent is upon the syllable which follows x, which syllable begins with a vowel (see sect. 22, (22); while, at the same time, the circumstance of the syllable being accented pre- vents, the z from acquiring the aspirated sound zlv — See the latter part of RULE 87, page 77. (8) C, when it comes before e and i, being an equivalent for s, falls in course under the same analogy. 0'<:ean, De'cii, Pho'cion, so'cial, pronuncia'tion, inteme'cion, herba'ceous, farina'ceous, effica'cious, saga'cious, pernic'ious, auspic'ious, vic'ioius, meretric'ious. (9) In society, the i is pronounced in its first sound, and is, besides, under the accent ; and there- fore the e docs not go into the sound sh : and the SEVENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 215 same circumstance of accent prevents the c from becoming sh in financier ; though in this, i is not pronounced in its first sound, but in the sound 6> —Sect. 5, (6). (10) But what seems at first extraordinary is, that the letter t, which never represents the sound s* should, under the same circumstances with s, acquire the aspiration sh. Mr. Walker accounts for this transition in the following manner : " If we attend to the formation of t, we shall find that it is a stoppage of the breath, by the application of the upper part of the tongue, near the end, to the correspondent part of the palate ; and that, if we just detach the tongue from the palate, sufficiently to let the breath pass, a hiss is produced, which forms the sound s. Now the vowel which occasions this transition of t to s, is the squeezed sound of e, as heard in y consonant ; which squeezed sound is a species of hiss; and this hiss, from the absence of accent, easily slides into s; and s as easily into skS* Parent, na'/ion, causation, accusation, excusaVion, position, inquisition, deposition, supposition, transposition, factious, facetious, ambitious, propitious, surreptitious, adventitious, advectif ious, cap'/ious, tor'/ious. But in the word satiety, the i is in its long sound, and the accent is upon it ; and therefore the t ought by no means to go into the present sound. 216 fRAXIS. — SECT. 23. (11) In righteous, cour'teous, na'ture, feature, &c., the t acquires the present sound, and at the same time retains its own before it, because the words are derived from others in which the t was heard. These, therefore, will be exemplified with the diphthongal consonant sounds. (12) Ch, in some words, mostly from the French, is pronounced sh. Its general sound is tsh. — See below, at (15). CAaise, c/jagrin* [i rep. e), c^amade', champaign', c/jam- pign'ion (g, in these last two words, silent), chandelier' (i rep. k), cAar'latan, cAicane', c^ica'nery, capuc/nn' (i rep. k), cartoucA' (ou rep. 6), machine', mac^i'nery, macAi'nist (z, in these last three words, rep. e), cAan'cre (n rep. ng), mar'cAioness. Thediphthongal consonant sounds compounded with sk, of which sh is the last sound, are, Ish, nsh, tsh. (13) Lsh and nsh by Ich and ?ich. Squelch, filch, milch, belch, bra?*cA, wrench, pinch, conch, hauncA. (14) But many orthoepists pronounces//, in the above, tsh, squeltsh, brantsh, &c., as ch is pronounced after other consonauts. In that case, there remains only one diphthongal consonant compounded with sh; namely, tsh. ( 15) Tsh represented by ch, which is the regular sound of ch . Words in which the combination has SEVENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 21? the sound sh, were shown above, (12). Others, in which it has the sound k, may be found, sect. 35, (3). It is silent in schedule, schism, and yacht, pronounced seddule, sizm, and yot. CAafe, chaff, challenge, cAam'ber, cAange, cAar'ity, cAarm, chaste, cAeap, cAeer'ful, cheese, choice, choose, each, coach, attach', rich, much, sloucA, vouch, touch [on rep. u), approach', beech, search, arch, pore//, lurch, scorch, church. (16) When letter t is inserted, which is done in many words, no alteration in the pronuncia- tion takes place, since its sound was already present. Tsh by ten. Scratch, match, watch, wretch (iu silent), witch, notch, hutch. (17) Refer to (11), above, concerning the fol- lowing. R\gh'teous (gh silent), piteous, plenteous, courteous (ou, in both places, rep. u), duteous, feature, 'creaVure, nature, venture, sig'nafure, lig'aftire, spir'ifuous, natural. When the accent is on the syllable following t, we must be careful not to suffer it to acquire the aspirate sound. Tutor, tune, tumult, must by no means be pronounced tshutor, tshune, tshumult. (18) The terminations lute, tude, seem to re- fuse the tendency of/ to aspiration, even though not under the accent ; as, in lon'gitude, lai'itude x substitute, destitute . 218 PRAXIS. — SECT. 24. SECT. 24. Of the eighth consonant sound, zh. This sound, the formation of which has been already described, like all -other flat sounds, is liable to be mispronounced by provincialists of different counties, but particularly by the Welch; and the fault consists in making it sharp, or, at least, not sufficiently vocal : they pronounce evashun, coheshun,forevazhun, cohezhun [evasion, cohesion). Let the pupil be told to give an ut- terance to his voice with an open mouth, and while he is doing this, to place his tongue as if he were to sound sh, still suffering his voice to flow ; and the present sound will infallibly be produced. A similar direction to this will be useful in all the other flat sounds; and, in order to acquire a per- fect utterance, the pupil must, at first, dwell on them to a very considerable length. As the diphthongal sound dzh, heard in jig and gem, so common in our language, is a novelty to foreigners, they must pay particular attention to it, so as always to utter both sounds. They must remember it is the French j preceded by d. (1) When letter s, being in such a situation as to have had its flat, and not its sharp sound, did it not acquire an aspiration (see sect. 23, (5), EIGHTH CONSONANT SOUND. £19 comes before an unaccented vowel letter, which by nature or by circumstance has the sound of* j/ consonant, s assumes the aspirated sound zh - y and the y is frequently, but not always, absorbed. Thus the words Occa'szon, adhe'«on, profa'ison, pleasure, cy'nosure, which might have been formerly pronounced Occaze'-yun, adheze'-yun, profuze'-yun, plez'-yoor, ci'noze-yoor, are now properly pronounced occazhun, pro- f ozhun, plgzhoor or plezh-yoor, &c. (Q) It may be useful to observe, that s, in the terminations sion and sure, when preceded by a consonant, always acquires the sharp aspiration, as may be seen by referring to the preceding section : — when it is preceded by a vowel, it is the flat aspiration which it goes into. Persua'sfon, eva's/on, invasion, inhe'szon, cohe'Mon, ex- he'67on, decision, incis'/on, elis'fon, collision, vision, confu's/on, suffu's/on, conclii'Mon, obtu'won, treasure, measure, pleas'ure, composure, clau'sure, leisure. (3) The same rule generally obtains in regard to other terminations, though not without ex- ception. I Roseate, Arpasia, Euthanasia. The exceptions are, Asia, nauseate, caseous, and perhaps some others, which sound the s in the sharp aspiration, though preceded by a vowel. 220 PRAXIS. — SECT. 24. The only diphthongal consonant sound com- pounded with zh, of which zh is the latter sound* is dzh ; the exact correspondent flat of tsh. It occurs frequently in the language, and is often represented by a single letter, j or g, when it comes before e or i, (4) Jade, jan'gle, jar, jaw, jeer, jel'ly, jilt, jolt, ^g, June, just, joy, injure, per'/ure, jVj'une. And this is the only sound j ever receives in words which are really English. (5) The regular sound of g, before e and /, is dzh; but there are exceptions, which may be gathered at sect. 36, (3). Gen'der, gel'ly, gel'id, ge'nius, geog'raphy, geom'ancy, gin'gle, gill, gibe, gi'ant, gip'sy, stin'gy, spun'gy, geol'ogy, prod'igy, ef'figy, cler'gy, en'ergy. Age, cage, allege', college 7 (concerning these two words, refer to sect. 5, (20), oblige', doge, gamboge', huge, refuge, pig'eon, sur'geon, umbra'geous, advantageous, religious, conta'gfous. By gg — RULE 88, page 77. Agg'erate, agg'eration, exaggeration, suggest'. (6) When letter d is inserted before ge, no change takes place in the consonant sounds, since the sound d was already present. Badge, pledge, ridge, hodge, budge, grudge, drudge. (7) As letter t> under certain circumstances, NINTH CONSONANT SOUND. 221 acquires the diphthongal sound tsh (see sect. 23, (17), it is in perfect compliance with analogy, that d, the soft sound of t, should, under the same circumstances, acquire the sound dzh, the soft sound of tsh. Such, therefore, is the sound of d in the following words. Ver'Jure, gran'^eurjSol'^ierjgra^'uate^iiidivWual^erfuca'tion. (8) And it is evident, that those which suc- ceed, and others of the like form, should be pro- nounced according to the same principle. Indian, immediate, o'dious, teVious, invidious, melo'cTiom. (9) It must however be confessed, that, in these words, correct speakers are generally averse to such a pronunciation of d ; though the same analogy which warrants righteous, to be pro- nounced rl'-tshus, would seem to allow Indian^ odious, &c., to be Indzh-yan, odzhyus, especially as dzh is a vocal, and a very agreeable sound. A slight utterance of zh is recommended. , Let the words be pronounced Ind-yan, ode-yus -, but let not the aspiration be carefully avoided, and the organs will of themselves slightly introduce it. SECT. g5. Of the ninth consonant sound, f. F and v are formed by pressing the upper teeth upon the under lip, and breathing forcibly 222 PRAXIS. — SECT. 25. to produce the former, while the voice must be uttered, and less compression used, iu the latter. {X) Fame, /at, fur, /all, fee, /ell, /ine, /it, foe, /op, /ool, feud, fund, foot, /oil, /ound, /an'ciful, /une'real, /ulmina'tion, ni/T, pre/'ace, pro/it, proffer, su//er, cra/'ty, ra/'ter, dea/, oa/, cha/e, sa/e, li/e, v/\fe. (2) By //*, when it follows a. — RULE 91 > page 80. Ca//, moon'caTf, ha//; beha//. RULE 94 — page 80. (3) By £*, in 'Enough (ou, here and as follows, rep. u), chough, roog/<, tough, slough (a cast skin), cougA (ou, here and as follows, rep. 6), trough, cloiy/*. The faftt word is usually spelled doff. For dough, a cliff,. refer to sect. 16, (2). Laugh (au, here and as follows, rep. a), laug/iter, draughts, draught. - , Though in poetry the latter word is often placed as a rhyme to caught. These two letters, g/j, are variously pronounced. In one or two words they have the sound k ; see them sect. 35, (6). In burgh, burgher, and burgh- ership, they are sounded as if g alone were present; and the same pronunciation takes place in words where they are initial ; as ghost, ghastly. But in general they are both silent; as in weigh, high, kc, which words have been regularly noticed m the NINTH CONSONANT SOUND. 223 sections of those sounds, which, in conjunction with the vowel letters, they may be said to repre- sent. It may, however, be of use to collect and repeat them here. (4) They are neigh, iveigh, inveigh (ei pron. a) , high, nigh, thigh, bough, cloitgh (a cliff), plough, slough (a miry place: which four have on in the sixteenth vowel sound), dough, though, although, furlough, thorough, borough [ou, in these, rep. 6), through, throughout [on, in these, rep. 6), usque- baugh (aurepA), and pugh (interjection; u rep. 6). And when t follows gh in the same sylla- ble, gh is always silent; as in bought, taught, naught. Except, as above, laughter, draughts, and draught. RULE 95 — page 80. (5) F is also represented by ph. PAa'-eton, p/ial'anx, js/iarisa'ical, p/*armacopce'ia,/>Ailos'op/*y, p/iilan'thropy,p/alol / ogy, j pAi / al,/)/iys'ic,7)//ysiog , 'nomy,7?//legm, jjAleg'matic, ser'zph, ep'ita/)/*, an'tograp/*, cen'otaj?/*, c&'Wph, sy\ph, tri'uxnph, \ymph, nymph, soph, hieroglyph, sapphire (in which word, p in the former syllable runs into the same sound with ph in the latter. — bule 88, page 77). There are but a few exceptions to the above. In nephew and Stephen, ph has the soft sound of/, namely, v. In diphthong, triphthong, naphtha, and ophthalmic, the h is dropped, and p has its own sound. In phthisis, phthisic, and phthisical, ph is entirely silent, and th rep. t. 224 praxis. — Sect. 26. The diphthongal sounds compounded with /, of which /is the latter, are If and rf (6) Lf She//, delf, pelf, self, himself, wolf, gu£f. Wharf, dwarf, turf, scurf. SECT. 26. O/ 7 the tenth consonant sound, v. The formation of this consonant was described in the foregoing section. Let it be remembered not to sound it sharp like/, but to give it all the voice possible. (1) Kane, pat, parlet, portex, fere, pent, pine, piv'id, vote* z>ol'ley, piew, rul'gar, poid, pouch, rolubil'ity, pul'nerable, Yw'id, sep'er, core, grope, mope, prope, glope, shppe (a, m these two words, rep. u). (2) By/, in O/, but not in whereof, thereof, &c. (3) By p/z, in Ne/?Aew, Stephen. (4) And very irregularly by eu % m Lieutenant, ELEVENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 225 The diphthongal sounds of v are, Iv arid rv. Lv and rv by Ive and rve. (5) Twelve. In the compound twelvemonth, we oftert-hear the ve silent; and in conversation the omission may be allowed. Delve, revolve, solve, absolve (s rep. z), nerve, serve 1 , deserve, obserre (s, in these two words, rep. z). SECT. 27. Of the eleventh consonant sound, th: This consonant with its flat sound dh, so great a difficulty to foreigners, are among the simplest in their formation; The first is produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the teeth, and breathing, or endeavouring to pronounce s; and the other, by placing the organs in the same situation, and uttering the voice, or endeavouring to pronounce a. As nothing is wanting but the habit, it will be expedient that a foreigner shall, daily repeat a number of words beginning with th; at first pronouncing them in slow succession, and proceeding by gradual degrees, till he can utter them rapidly. Let him continue this ex- ercise, even after he has acquired the sound, because his old habits will still lead him, in ft 226 PRAXIS. — SECT. 27. unguarded conversation, to substitute t in its place. There is a fault very common with northern provincialists, of pronouncing t before th final ; det-th and bret-th, for death and breath. Let them be told not to touch the gums with the tongue, before placing it between the teeth. After pronouncing the vowel, let them at first rest for a moment, before joining th, by which means they may ascertain whether they do or do not interpose the t. RULE 97 — page 81. (1) Th y at the beginning of words, has its sharp sound. — See the exceptions sect. 28, (1). TAane, Mank, Maw, Me'atre, Meft, Migh, Mick, Moras, thong, thumb (b silent), Mought'ful, Mermom'eter, &c. ( 2) Th, at the end of words [not succeeded by e) , is sharp.-— See the exceptions, sect. 28, (2). BaM, oith, \ktk, oaM, mouth, hhh, sooth (adverb), tooth, teeM, smiM, loaM (adjective), breaM, faiM, piM, sloM, mbth, broth, c\6th, growth (ow rep. 6), mouM, south, breaM. The first five of these words, upon taking s in the plural number, have th pronounced in its flat sound.— -See sect. 21, (31). (3) And where any of them are used as verbs, by an analogy similar to that of pronouncing substantives with the sharp, and verbs with the ELEVENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 22? flat sound of s, the th acquires its flat sound : as a mouth, to mouth (moudh) ; sooth, to sooth (soodh)* Indeed, such words, used as verbs, ought to have had final e added to th, as is done in other in- stances (sect. 28, (5), and then their true pro- nunciation could not have been mistaken ; for it is a rule, without exception, that ih followed by e has its flat sound. (4) Th is sharp in the middle of words, wheii it precedes^ or when it follows a consonant in the same or another syllable.— See the exceptions, sect. 28, (3). Pan'-Mer, Nepen'-f&e, or'-Modox, or-f/iog'raphy, or'-Moepy, eM'-nic. (5) Th, between two vowels, is generally ^at in words purely Engtish.— See sect. 28, (4). But in the following, which are principally from the learned languages, it is sharp. Ap'aMy, sym'paMy, antip'afAy, A^A'ens, %'tfoht, auMen'tic, au'Mor, auMor'ity, aMirst', ca^ar'tic, caMe'dral, caM'olic, caMe'ter, e'^er, eth'ics, lefA'argy, Ievi'aMan, Le'tke (final e not mute), liMot'oniy, ma*//'e»is, ma^emat'ics, meM'od, paf/jet'ic, ple^'ora> poiym'aMy, proMon'otary, anaf^'ema, am'eMyst/ apoM'ecary, apoMe'osiS. (6) The diphthongal consonant sounds a, ngth, sth, ftli, Ith, mth, nth, rth, dth. Th is never flat when it follows a consonant in. the same syllable. Q 2 228 PRAXIS. — SECT. 28. Ngthi Length, strength. Slh by xth, in SirM Equivalent to siVsth). Fth. Yifth, twelfth. Lth. Stealth, wealth, filth. Mth. Warmth. Nth. Month (o rep. u). Rth. Birth, north, earth, Dth. Breadth, width, hundredth, thou'saiufrA. SECT. 28. . Of the twelfth consonant sound, dh. The formation of dh will be found at the head of the preceding section. Exceptions to sect. 27, (1). (1) 7%is, that, than, the, thee, their, them, then, thence, there, these, they, thine, thith'er (the latter th also flat), those, these, they, thine, thou, ffcough, thut, thy, and all their compounds. TWELFTH CONSONANT SOUND. 229 Exceptions to sect. 27, (2). (2) Benea^A', booth, with, wreath; and the verbs To wreath, loath, seeth, smooth, sooth, month. Which words ought to assume final e mute; and then they would not be exceptions, but class with those below, (5). Exceptions to sect. 27/ (4). (3) BreM'-ren, far'-Ming, fur'-ther or far'-*Aer, nor'-Mera, wof-thy (o rep. u), bur'-*Aen, mur'-Mer (better written and pronounced, burden and murder). The observation sect. 27, (5), exemplified. (4) FaM'er, fearer, heaM'en, hiM'er, thiM'er (former th u also flat), whiMer, ei'Mer, nei'Mer, weaker, weM'er, wiM'er, gafA'er, togef h'er, poth'er, moth'er (o, in these two words, rep. u). Th, followed by final e mute, always has its flat sound. (5) To bathe, to breathe, sheaf te, bliMe, sithe, tithe, to clothe. (6) There are no diphthongal consonant sounds of which dh is the last; for, as was before observed, th is never flat when it follows a con- sonant in the same syllable. 230 PRAXIS. — SECT. 29- SECT. 29. Of the thirteenth consonant sound, 1. Z is formed by placing the tip of the tongue to the gums of the upper teeth, as in z; but in the former the voice is to utter freely through the mouth, and not to be compressed between the upper gums and tongue, as is the case in uttering the latter. L is the most harmonious of the consonants. (1) Late, /ash, /ark, /ord, /eave, Zet, Zie, Zip, /one, Zot, /oop, /ute, lug, Zook, Zoins, /out, paiZ, a//, ell, bell, piZ/, do//, poo/, nu//, oiZ, cow/, /ive'/y, Zit'urgy, meZ'on, fe/'on, so/'ace, meZ'Zow, haZZ, beZZ, fi/Z, cabaZ', an'vi/, baAr, ga/e, bile, dole, mule, (2) By si and sfe, in I'sZand, \sle, mslc (ai rep. i). Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which I is the latter, are, rf, z/, /, v/, r/, pi, bl, kl, gl % a, di. (3) Bl, fl, &c initial. Shut, ,/Zing, pZan, Z>Zame, cZaim, glut. (4) Represented by ble, die, kc, for m such terminations, e is always silent. — RULE 44, page 66. A'ble, agree'a&Ze, bub'ble, fo\'ble, s&d'dle, mxd'dle, bzf'fle muffle, eafgle, )ug'gle, or'acle, treacle, tzc'kle, spec'+fc, sta'^Zc, FOURTEENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 23 1 disci'ple, axle (equivalent to ak'sle), rat'tle, gen'tle, daz'zle, gr'iz'zle, muz'zle, puz'zle. (5) SI by stle. — RULE 88, page 77. Castle, nestle, trestle, wrestle, thistle, epistle, bristle, gristle., jostle, apostle, thros*/e, bustle, justfe, rustle. But in Vestle, t seems to keep its own sound. Exceptions to the rule, sect. 6, (15), (6) Kl> vl, &c., by kel, vel, &c. Shek'el, na'vel, rav'el, sxiiv'el, sixtiv'el, switfel, driv'el, thov'el (o rep. u), grbv'el, ha'zcl. Zl by sel. it Wea'sel, ou'sel, nou'sel {ou rep. u). VI by vily'm "E'vzl, Dev'il Refer to sect. 8, (7). (7) 77, very irregularly, by dual, in To \lctual, and victuals. SECT. SO. Of the fourteenth consonant sound, m. M is produced by merely joining the lips, and suffering the voice to issue by the nose. And here it is proper to observe, that as many 232 PRAXIS. — SEC! '. 30. of our consonants are nasal, a speaker who wishes to excel, should, among other exercises, habi- tuate himself to breathe ?;>;ely through the nos- trils, by shutting the mouth. This practice will keep the nasal passage clear and open. What is generally called speaking through the nose, is, in reality, a defect which arises from not speaking through Hie nose, — the voice being impeded in its passage through that or^an ; and it would there- fore be more proper to call it speaking in the nose. — Mr. Sheridan, after the Ancients, says of the present sound, " that it is disagreeable where it continues for any length of time after its for- mation, as it resembles the lowing of oxen." (1) May, man, mar, morn, me, mess, my, mill, mote, mop, move, mute, mug, moist, mound, aim, ram, gleam, gem, grim, loam, room, gum, mam'mon, monop'olvze, mon'itory, vom'it, famine, Ham'mon, blame, fame, crime, dome, fume. By mb. — RULE 89, page£0. (2) LamA, lim&, comb, bouib (o rep. u), \\6?nb, t6mb, climb, dumb, thumb, rhomb (o rep. u), plumi-ery (see rule 112). (3) By Im after a. — RULE 102, page 81. Cklm, pa/m, psa/m (p silent). (4) By 7nn. — RULE 105, page 81. Lim;?, hymn, condemn', contemn', damn, sol'em;?, au'tumn, col'u/nn. By ^??, —RULE 101, page 81. 5Phtegm, di'aphragm, ap'othegm, par'apegw. FOURTEENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 23.3 But the compounds of phlegm divide into, an4 are pronounce.!, phleg-monous, phleg-rnatio, phleg-rnagogues. (6) By chm, in Drachm (rule 93, page 80). In drachma, ch is pronounced k. (7) By /, in iSa/-mon (rule 38, page 77). And by mp, in Tewp-ter, presump-tuous, and other words where mp comes before t. Alsa where it comes before s, in Semp-stress. (8) Diphthongal sounds, of which m is the last, are, zm t thm, Im, rm. Zm by sm. — RULE 10,3, page 81, Chasm, mech'anism, (ch, in these two words, rep. It), Hel'enism, Lat'inism, Anglicism, Gallicism, par'oxysm, ca- thol'icism, mi'erocosw. Tkm. Log'ariMm, ar*gori^w, rhythm L??l. . Rea/m, elm, whelm, t\lm. But for Zm after a, see above, (3), Em. Arm, farm, charm, warm, term, firm, infirm, form (shape)* form (a bench), worm (o rep. u). 234 PRAXIS. — SECT. 31. SECT. 3L Of the fifteenth consonant sound, n. N is formed by placing the tongue, as in pro- nouncing s, z, I, t, and d, against the gums of the upper teeth, while the voice is emitted through the nose. It is therefore a dental, vocal, nasal consonant. ( 1 ) A r ame, nack, nard, naught, needy, net, night, nip, note, not, noon, neuter, nut, nook, noise, noun, pain, man, pawn, seen, pen, sin, moan, don, tun, moo??, in?*, lin'en, ban'ner, pen'ance, di?i'ner, wmen'tity, mane, fine, bone, tune. By gji. — RULE 104, page 81. (2) Gno'mon, gnos'tics, gnarl, gnash, gnat, gnaw, impregn', campaign', champaign', awaigir, deign, feign, sovereign (o rep. vi), for'eign (ei, in these two words, rep. 1), indign', condign', malign', consign', assign', benign', sign, design' (s sharp), re- sign' (s rep. z), en'sign, impugn', propugn', oppugn', expugn'. By hi initial. — RULE 104, page 81. (3) Knack, Amap'sack, Ina'very, £nead, knee, knee\, knew, knife, kmght, knit, knock, kno\\, knot, know, £now'ingly, Anowl'edge (oiv rep. 6), A-nuc'kle. Diphthongal sounds, of which n is the latter, are, sn, z?i, fn 9 vn, dhn, In, m, pn, kn, tn, dn. (i) Snatch, snort, snout, \)&rn, fern, born, turn. FIFTEENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 235 (5) The diphthongal sound rn is also occa- sioned by a metathesis, or transposition, in Iron, apron, which are pronounced l'-urn, a'-purw; and, colloquially, we hear the same pronunciation given to ron and ren in citron, saffron, children, and hundred. But the regular pronunciation may, in these, be adhered to without the appear- ance of any remarkable stiffness. Exemplification of the rule, sect. 6, (14). (6) D?i, ftiy kn, &c. ? represented by den, fen, ken, &c. ~Dead'en, lead'en (ea, in these two words, rep. h), mzd'den, red'dcn, hidden, sud'den, gol'den, xv'i'den, rough'en, tough'en (gh, in these two words, rep. f. — rule 94), btec'ken* oz'ken, ta'ken, sidken, bro' ken, garden, gar'derter, bur' den, bufdenspme, fallen, swollen, stolen, sha'pen, cheapen, n'pen, les'sen, loosen, flax'-en, \\x'en (equivalent to fidk'sen, \\k'sen), iat'ten, pai'ten, Y\t'ten, smit'ten, heazfcn, va'ven, sev'en. T?i by tain, in V>x\tain t being an exception to the analogy sect. &, (13). Dhn, by then, in Hea'Mf?». i 236 PRAXIS. — SECT. 31. Zn by sen, in C'ho'sen, hrtizen, doz'en, coz'tn (o, in these two words, rep. u), lengthen, sivengtken. Zn by sin, in Cous'm (ou rep. u), rai's/n (ai rep. a, or, according to some, e), Sn by sin, in which last two words ought to have been added to those mentioned sect. 8, (7). Sn^ndfnbystemxidften. — RULE 88, page 77- Hk'steu, chk'sten (for the sound of a, in these two words, see sect. I, (6), fasten, Ws'ten, gliste?i, christen, moisten, often, yoften. (7) Exemplification of the concluding ob- servation, sect. 13, (15). Kn, dn, &c, by con, kon, don, &c. Ba'corc, bea'co?*, bec'kon, wdkon, pzv'don, weap'on, cz'port. Zn represented by son. Rea'sorc, season, trea'son, ben'ison, den'isow, foi'son, poi'son, pris'on, dam'sow, crim'son, Sn by son, Advow'son, ma'son, gar'rison, les'son, caparfsow, comparison^ disinherison, par 'son, per'son. SIXTEENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 237 SECT. 32- Of the sixteenth consonant sound, r. This consonant has a very peculiar formation, and is more frequently the cause of a defect in pronunciation than any other. In our language it has two sounds; one which may be called rough, and the other smooth. The rough r is formed by placing the tongues nearly in the same position as in pronouncing s; but at such a slight distance from the upper gums, as, by propelling the voice and breath with violence, causes the top part of the tongue to jar against them, making a noise which may be compared to the rolling of a drum. The smooth r is produced by curling back the tongue till its tip almost points toward the throat, while its sides lean against the gums of the upper side teeth, and leave a passage in the middle for the voice ; which, in coming from the throat, slightly agitates the lower part of the tongue. The smooth r ought to be employed only at the end of words ; as in bar, lore, bard, dirt, storm ; and at the end of syllables, when r or a vowel does not imme- diately follow in the next syllable; as in bar~ter, inform-er, heart-en. In every other case the rough r is to be used ; as in red, a-round, barrel (r follows r in another syllable), peril (a vowel 238 PR-AXIS. — SECT. 32. follows r in another syllable), ty-rant> bring, proud* dethrone. In London, we are too liable to sub- stitute the smooth r in place of the rough ; and even in its proper situation, we often pronounce the smooth r with so little exertion in the organs as to make it scarcely any thing more than the; vowel sound £, In Ireland, on the other hand, ft where it ought to be smooth, receives too strong a jar of the tongue, and is accompanied with too strong a breatning. We hear storm* farm, &c, pronounced something like staw'-rum, frr-um. Every good speaker must be able to pronounce the rough r with energy. Many persons, from the force of habit, are* however, utterly incapable o£ doing this , but substitute a weak sound, not unlike /, or sometimes like dh. Others pronounce it with sufficient strength, but the jar is formed in the wrong place, by the lower part of the tongue against the palate, not far from the en- trance of the throat, while the top remains in- active. This erroneous formation is sure to pro- duce, at the same time, a disagreeable noise or burr. All these faults are to be corrected by attending to the manner in which r should really be formed. Let the pupil begin with making the buzzing noise which constitutes z, propelling his voice and breath with violence. Let him curl his tongue in a very slight degree from this SIXTEENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 239 position, keeping the middle part stiff, and the top flexible. To assist himself in this respect, he may insert, at one corner of his mouth, a piece of strong gold or silver wire, so bent as to keep that part of the tongue which makes the impro- per jar at a distance from the palate. By ob- serving these directions, and by persevering efforts, he will, at some fortunate moment, acquire the true jar of the tongue in which the sound con- sists ; and when this is once obtained, in ever so slight a degree, it may quickly be improved by practices — Demosthenes is said to have cured a defect which he had in pronouncing r by en- deavouring to souud it with pebbles in his mouth. If, however, after all his pains, the pupil cannot acquire the proper jar of the tongue, so as to remove the burr, he must, as the smaller of two faults, learn to sound the smooth r at the begin- ning, as well as at the end of words. The smooth r is denoted in the following ex- amples by a Roman capital. .Race, rag, raw, reed, red, rind, rich, robe, rob, rude (a pron. 6), run, rook, royal, round, rus'ticate, rumination, ru'ral, ar'able, ab'rogate, ad'miral, character, fu'rious, op'erator, disinherit, barVel, par'ish, lar'um, faiR, car., heR, siR, noR, fuR, po'weR, eRR, li'aR, ma'yoR, eli'xiR, baR'ter, paR'don, peR'fect, meR'cy, viR'tue, pou'tal, quarter, baRE, faRE, he&E, hiRE, Are, lORE, gORE, pURE, luRE. 240 PRAXIS. — SECT. 33. (2) By wr.— RULE 106, page 81. JTran'gle, wr&p, ivralh (a rep. 6 ; see the 'word, sect. JO, (12), wrapper, wreak, wreath, wreck., wren, wrench, wrest, u-rr tie (tie rep. si), tiretch, wretched, turiggle, wright, tyring, writ, write, wreath, turithe, z-ivry, be-wray, written, tyrong,. wrcih, ivry. ' (3) Bv rh.~ RULE 96, page 81. JRWbarb (w pron. 6), rke'\m (eu pron. 6), rhomb (o pron. u; b silent), rhyme, rhythmical', rhomboid'. (4) By rt, m MoRi'gage. (5) Diphthongal sounds, of which r is the last, are, shr, fr, thr, pr, br, kr, gr, tr, dr. Shred, fry, throw, pry, brim, cry, cAronol'ogy (ch rep. k), grow, try, dram. When ere, tre, are final in a syllable, they are not pronounced cr, tr, but weakly like cur, tur. — See sect. 13, (10). SECT. 33- Of the seventeenth consonant sound, p, P is a sharp mute. Its effect at the end of a word or syllable is, by joining the lips, to put a stop to all further efflux of the voice; and at the EIGHTEENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 241 beginning of a syllable, by separating them, to let the voice and breath rush out. ( 1 ) Pail> pack, par, paw, peer, pest, pine, pin, poke, pot, pool, pu'ny, pun, pull, poise, pound, map, nip, pop, hap'py, vap'id, tropic, prop'er, pan'oply, pap'illary, tape, wipe, hope, dupe. KULE 95 — page 86. (2) By ph, in DipA'thong, trip/i'thong, napA'tha> shepA'erd, op/i'thalmy, and opAthal'mic. (S) Diphthongal sounds, of which p is the last, are, sp, Ip, mp> rp. ' Span, spoil, spine, asp, crisp, lisp, sca/p, help, gu$>, damp;, cramp, limp, pluwp, carp, chirp. SECT. 34 Of the eighteenth consonant sound, b. B is the flat sound of p, which the Welch and Germans are very apt to substitute in its place. To correct this error, they must be told to use less compression of the organs. At the same time, a sound of voice must be heard within the mouth, which ceases as soon as the organs separate. It will be proper, at first, as an exercise, to prolong this sound to the utmost ; till the mouth gets so fall of air, that it is necessary to leave off> in order to give it vent. R 242 PRAXIS. — SECT. 35. (1) Bake, bat, 2>ar, bought, £east, beg, bite, bib, boat, bog, boon, bug\e, but, bu\\, boy, bound, stab, ebb, huk'bub, rib, nob, job, tub, rub, stub'ble, public, su&'tile (fine, thin. In subtle, cunning, the b is silent), taller, &ack'6iter, fear'tarism, babe, g\ebe, gibe, robe, tube. (2) J? is irregularly represented by p, in Cup&oard (rule 88). (3) Diphthongal consonant sounds, of which b is the latter, are, ib and rb. Alb, bulb, herb, superb', verb, prov'erb. SECT. 35- Of the nineteenth consonant sound, k. K is formed by pressing the middle of the tongue to the roof of the mouth near the throat. This action has the effect, as that of p, of suffering the voice to rush out, or stopping its further flow. This sound is represented either by h or c be- fore 0, o, or u> but before e, and i 9 or its equivalent 3/, it is represented only by the former ; for, in that situation, c is pronounced s. (1) Cake, can, car, call, keen, keg, /tine, km, coat, cot, cool, cube, cull, cook, coil, count, pacAr, beck, pick, hock, duck, demo'niac *, al'manac, mu'sic, pol'itic, mim'ic, pan'ic, com'ic, * These words, and others ending in c, were formerly terminated by ck; but it has now become a practice to omit the k in words of more than one syllable. NINETEENTH CONSONANT SOUND. 243 pub'lic, va-cate', vac-cine', vac'-cinate, flac'-cid, sic'-city (the latter c of these four words rep. s. They are not influenced by the rule 88, page77), ftal'endar, cat'echism. (2) By Ik after a or o. — RULE 99, page 81. Talk, calk, balk, stalk, chalk, folk, yolk. (3) By ch in words from the learned languages. For the regular sound of ch, refer to sect. 23, (15). C/zalcc-g'raphy, cAalyb'eate, dtame'leon, c/iam'omile, cAa'os, cAar'acter, chart, chasm, che'\y, cAym'ist, CAer'sonese, cAime'ra, cAirog'raphy, cAir'omancy, cAloro'sis, cAol'er, cAo'rus, chord, cAorog'raphy, chyle (and its compounds), an'c/zor, an'cAoret, cachexy or cacAex'y, cat'ecAism, cat'echise, catec/iet'ical, catec/m'men, drachma (in drachm, ch is silent), ech'o, ecAi'nus, e'poch, ep'ocAa, i'cAor, macAina'tion, machinal, mecAan'ic, mecAan'ical, or'cAestre, technical, an'arcA, an'arcAy, concA, {n rep. ng. — See below, (9), cocA'leary, dis'ticA, hem'isticA, mon'osticA, eu'nucA, mon'arcA, monar'cAical, hi'erarcA, he- res'iarcA, Pen'tateucA, stom'acA, stomacA'ic (o, in these two words, rep. u), scAeme, scAool, scAol'ar, scAe'sis, mas'ticA, senes'cAaL And in all words? where it is followed by r. CArfst, CAris'tian (t rep. tsh), cAronol'ogy, cAron'icle, zckc (more commonly written ake). As late as the time of Dean Swift the ch in this last word was pronounced regularly tsh, and the plural made a word of two syllables ^ like coach, coaches; touch, touches. The exceptions to the above list are, charity, R 2 244 PRAXIS. — SECT. 35. archer, and archery, which, though derived from classical words, have ch pronounced regularly, tsh. (4) When arch, signifying chief, begins a word from the Greek language, and is followed by a vowel, it has always the ch pronounced k; as, ArcAan'gel, ArcAipel'ago, ar'c/ntect, archives', ar'c/*itype, arc//a'ism, arcAiepis'copal, arcAidiac'onal, ar'cAitrave. (5) But when we prefix arch to a word of our own, and this word begins with a consonant, ch is pronounced tsh; as in archduke, archdeacon ; and sometimes, when the following word begins with a vowel, if it is a compound of our own, and the word does not come to us compounded from the Greek or Latin ; as, arch-enemy. RULE 94 — page 80. Refer also to sect. 25, (3) and (4). (6) By gh final, in Hough (lower part of the thigh), shoug/< (a shaggy clog), ]ough (a lake : in all three words ou rep. 6). (7) By qu, in the following words, mostly from the French. For the regular sound of qu, refer to sect. 18,(10). Colette', et'i^wette^mas^Merade', harlequin, oblige', antique*, pi^ue («, in these three words, rep. e), li^'wor, pi^want', piquet', burles has the / silent.— See above, (2). Dar&, mark, clerk (c rep. a). 246 PRAXIS. — SECT. 36. > SECT. 36'. Of the twentieth consonant sound, g. G is the flat sound of k, with the same difference as between b and p. There is, likewise, the same fault attending its pronunciation as with b, and a like method of cure must be pursued. (1) Gate, gap, gar'den, gall, get, guile, gild, goat, got, goose, gules, gush, gown, bag, big, egg, big'ot, beg'gar, gon'dola, gathering. (2) As g before e, z, or its equivalent y, has generally the sound dzh, its soft sound, as it is called, — in order to represent the sound g before these letters, gu is employed, the u being inserted for no other purpose than to keep the g in its proper sound, and therefore entirely silent. Guarantee', guard, guar'dian, guer'don, guest, guess, guide, gui'dage, guile, guilt, guise, guild, guildhall'. See RULE 2 — page 48. Plague* vague, league, fatigue' (• pron. h), disembogue', dem'agogue, men'agogue, prol'ogue, brogue, vogue, fugue. (3) Exceptions to the rule exemplified sect. 24, (5) : for, in the following words, g, though before e y i, and y, does not have its soft sound. Gear, geek, geese, gelding, get, gew'gaw, shag'ged, snag'ged, rag'ged, crag'ged, scag'ged, dog'ged, rug'ged, dag'ger, swagger, stag'ger, trig'ger, dog'ger, pettyfog'ger, ti'ger, an'ger, au'ger, TWENTIETH CONSONANT SOUND. 24? ea'ger, meaner, finder, linger, confer, longer, stron'ger s younger, longest, strongest, youngest (concerning the last six words, see sect. 20, (5), gibbe, gib'cat, gib'ber, gib'berish, gib'bous, gid'dy, gift, gig, gig'gle, gig'glet, gild, gill (of a fish), gim'blet, gimp, gird, gir'dle, girl, girth, giz'zard, begin', give, forgive', big'gin, pig'gin, nog'gin, and all derivatives from nouns or verbs ending in hard g ; as Drug'ged, wag'gish, rig'gisb, hog'gish, dog'gish, slug'gish, rig'ging, dig'ging. Before y, in Shag'gy, jag'gy, snag'gy, , crag'gy, scrag'gy, quag'gy, swag'gy, dreg'gy, sprig'gy, twig'gy, bog'gy, fog'gy, clog'gy, bug'gy, mug-gy. (4) In reading Greek, y, org, is alway sounded hard; and therefore the following derivations from that language are generally pronounced, Gymnas'tics, gym'nic, gymnospher'mous, gynecoc'racy; although many orthoepists recommend the regular pronunciation. (5) G is represented by g/nnitial in the following words (RULE 94, page 80 : see also sect. 25, (3) : Ghost, g/jost'ly, g/jast'ly, agAast', g/ter'kin. (6) G is in part represented by jr, when fol- lowed by an accented syllable, beginning with a vowel.— Refer to sect. 35, (8). Exam'ple, exert', exist', &c. j equivalent to Eg-zam'ple, eg-zert', eg-zist', &c 248 PRAXIS. — SECT. 37. (7) A diphthongal sound, of which g is the latter, is heard in the word Burgh, the h being silent. SECT. 37 Of the twenty-first consonant sound, t. T\$ formed by pressing the tip of the tonguo to the gums of the upper teeth, in order to stop the flow of voice, or, by a separation of the tongue, to suffer its escape, (1) Tape, fan, far, fall, fea, fell, fythe, fen, foe, fop, fool, fune, fug, fook, foil, fown, baf, met, fit, hof, buf, buff, maf'fer, ataxics, crif'ic, faufol'ogy, faufoph'ony, safi'ety, Mil- fi'ades, elephanfi'asis*, bafe, mate, bife, mofe, lute. (2) Th is pronounced simply as t> in Thames (a rep. b), thyme, Thbm'as, asth-ma* jRULE 95 — page 81. (3) T represented by phth> in fhthh'is, phthh'lc, phth\s'\ca\. (4) By pt initial, in J^olemy, Pfoleme'us, Pfoleme'um, Pfe'ria, Pfoleder'ma, * Had not the accent been on the * in these three words, the t would have acquired the sound sh. TWENTY-FIRST CONSONANT SOUND. 249 and pt final, in Recei/?/'. (5) By cht, m Yacht (a rep. 6). (6) By bt, in Debt, indexed, sufo'le (but not in subtile, fine), (7) Byrf.in Indict, indictment. Diphthongal sounds of which t is the last, are, st, sht, ft, It, mt, nt, rt, pt y kt. (8) Bast, bus/, tuft, melt, hunt, bur/, Mt by mpt, in Tempt. RULE 10 — page 76. (9) And these diphthongal sounds are also represented by fed, ked, ped, ced, sed, shed, thed, in verbal terminations ; for the e being dropped in the pronunciation, and the preceding consonant sound being hard, or sharp, the d of necessity ac- quires its, sharp, or hard sound, t. When the preceding consonant sound is flat, d preserves its sound. — See sect. 38, (3), (4), and following. There are some words terminating m.ed, in which the e is not dropped; and in these, it is scarcely necessary to say, d preserves its sound, 250 PRAXIS. — SECT. 37. whatever the preceding consonant may be. — Re- fer to sect. 6, (9), and the four lists which fol- low it. Stuffed, cuffed, whined, backed, sacked, kicked, tripped, faced (c rep. s), dressed, distressed, rushed, gushed. (10) Hence we may perceive, that, as the d in these and similar words is necessarily pro- nounced t, there is no occasion for a correspondent orthography to enforce the right pronunciation ; and, therefore, tript, snapt, checkt, drest, blest, &c., in regard to their spelling, are improper contractions. But there are some verbs which universal custom has made irregular, by pro- nouncing t where d might have been sounded. There it is necessary to spell with t; and these are, therefore, properly called irregular verbs. The others are not irregular. Dealt, felt, dwelt, drea?nt, meant. It is evident that had the above been regularly spelled, they would have been regularly pro- nounced with d in its proper sound. The words learned, spelled, and earned, were formerly always contracted in the same way ; but the well edu- cated now begin to write and pronounce them regularly. (11) But such words as the above, dealt, felt, fee, are not the only regular and allowable or- TWENTY-SECOND CONSONANT SOUND. 251 ihographical contractions. Verbs in which a long sound in the theme is shortened in the pre- terit and participle, are properly spelled with t, instead of ed, although the preceding consonant sound is hard, or sharp. Thus, weepy sleep, and creep, are, in the preterit, properly written, as well as pronounced, Wept, slept, crept; but had the two vowels in the originals been, preserved, the orthographical contraction with the t would have been improper, and the verbs .would have been regular. SECT. 38. Of the twenty-second consonant sound, d. D, the flat sound of t, differs from it in the same way as the other flat and sharp mutes. Like the other flat mutes, it is too often impro- perly made sharp ; a fault which is to be corrected by similar directions with those for properly sounding b. ( 1 ) Date, rfam, daunt (au rep. a), rfawn, deal, debt (b silent), dine, dig, dome, dog, doom, duke, dub, doit, down, dai'sy, dani'nify, mad, bed, rid, sod, mud, odd, mod'est, prod'uct, ped'ant, bod'y, ud'der, med'dler, rid'dle, ped'lar, fade, bide. rode, exude'. (2) By Id, in Would, could, should. 252 PRAXIS. — SECT. 38. Diphthongal sounds of which d is the latter, are, ngd, zd, zhd, vd, dhd, Id, md, nd, rd, bd, gd. In these, it will be observed, all the preceding consonants are soft or flat; for though a sharp consonant may be heard after one that is flat, a flat consonant can never be heard after a sharp; and, therefore, d goes into the sound t, when a sharp consonant precedes. These sounds are all represented by nged, ved> &c, in verbal terminations^ the e being sunk in the pronunciation. For words in which e is not mute, refer to sect. 6, (9), and the four lists which follow it. (3) Ngd by nged. Banged, fanged, twanged, wronged. By ngued. Harangued *. (4) Zd by zed. Buzzed, whizzed. By sed. Pleased, praised, ex'ercised, suffused, amused, used, espoused. (5) Dzhd by ged. Caged, raged, waged, obliged. * The accent of those verbs which are not marked is on the last syllable. TWENTY-SECOND CONSONANT SOUND. 253 By dged. HLdgect, wedged, lodged, judged. Ldzhd by Iged. Bilged, bulged, divulged. Ndzhd by nged. Challenged, changed, ranged, avenged, hinged, plunged. (6) Vd by ved. Hewed, - interleaved, raved, depraved, retrieved, lived, derived, appr6ved, improved, loved (o rep. u), reserved, swerved, revolved, devolved. By Ivd. Qalved, ha/ved, salved. (7) DM by tlied. Bathed, swathed, wreathed, cibthed, smoothed. (8) Ld. , , Bald, sca/d, beheld. By led. Appealed, compelled, oiled, called, schooled, bowled (ow rep, 6). Bid by bled. Disabled, fa'bled, troub'led (ou rep. u"). Kid by cled and hied. Chron'ic/ed, wrin'/tfed (n rep. ng), spar'A/ed, tic'Med. 254 PRAXIS. — SECT. 38. Sid by cled. — RULE 88, page 77* Mus'cled. Did by died. Han'dled, dw'm'died, hud' died. Fid by fled. Baffled, trifled, muffled. Gld by gled. Drag'gled, }ug'gled, struggled. Fid by pled. Grap'pled, tripled, peo'pled, Tld by tied. Net' tied, ti' tied, boft'cdi, Zld by zled. Daz'zled, dr'iz'zled, muz'zled. (9) Md by med. "Esteemed, formed, axmed, named, blamed* By mned. Damned, condemned, contemned. By Imfd. Calmed, palmed. (10) Nd> hand, hand, command mend, &nd, bund. TWENTY-SECOND CONSONANT SOUND. 255 By ned. Planned, manned, groaned, regained. By gne d. Designed, impr egned, impugned. Fnd by ghened. Rough'ened, tough'ened. Pnd by pened. % Hap'pened, deepened, shafpened. Dnd by dened. Sad'dened, bur'dened, wi'dened. Knd by kened. Li'kened, quk'kened, bXac'kened. Snd by tened. Hi'stened, fas'tened, chrls'tened. Tnd by tened. Uigh'tened (gh silent), fattened. %nd by zened. Coz'ened (o rep. u), bediz'zened. (11) Rd. Bard, card, herd, bird, cord, board, heard. 256 PRAXIS. —SECT. 38. By red. Barred*, scarred, jarred, jeered, Gum'ber.^, bewil'dera/ (12) Bd by bed. Stabbed, rubbed, drubbed, throbbed, curbed, daubed. (13) Gdbyged. Twigged, swigged. By gued. V\agued, fatigued (i pron. e), leagued. * It is worth while to remark, that those words which, be- fore ed was added, consisted but of one syllable, or of more than one, but accented on the last, and which ended in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel ; upon taking the d or ed, double their original final consonant. The others have that consonant single before ed. ADDENDA TO THE PRAXIS. Sect. 1 . — Sound L Rai'sm (sin rep. sn. — Sect. 31, (6*), page 236). Mr. Walker pronounces this word with ai in the sound e. He gives, as his reasons, that it is the most ancient pronunciation, and that, if it were regularly pronounced, it would spoil a pun of Shakspeare's. But as it appears good usage is on the regular side, neither of these reasons should have weight. This word, therefore, and also Y\ait (vulgarly sounded plete), belong to list (12) of the above section. Re«r (signifying half roasted. Mr. Walker says this is a corrupt pronunciation, and pronounces it rere. But the cor- ruption, if it be one, seems established). This word to be added to bear, tear, &c., in list (15). R«*n, femt, m\eigh, neigfthc\x\r < th^'r, th«rs (for the last two words, see rule 39}. The above to be added to list (16) of thesam^ section. This addition makes out that Jj and aot £, is the more usual sound of el. belongs to the same section. 258 ADDENDA TO Bis, beece§. Bon ton, boNG'J tc-NG'ij;. Bon mot, boNG't mo'. Bon vivant, boNG't vivoNG'J. i Boudoir, boo-dwar'. Boulli, boo'-il-ye. § It will be seen, that in marking the pronunciation of words, we do not precisely adhere to our orthoepical charac- ters (pages 14 and 95), but often employ redundant letters. Unless this'* we re done, the force of habit might lead the English reader to mistake the pronunciation. Thus, if the above word bad been marked bes, he would perhaps have in- considerately sounded it bes, or bez. %66 APPENDIX TO THE PRAXIS. Bulletin, bu||I'-taNG'J. But this word will, by degrees, be« come perfectly Anglicized; and it is now frequently pro- nounced bulleteen. Cantata, canta'-ti. Charge d'affaires, shar'-zha-daf-fare'. Chef d'wuvre, sha-doEu'5[-vr . Chevaux defrize, shEfvc-dEf-freez. • Cicisbeo, che-chis-be'-o (ch rep. tsh). Ci-devant, see' dEf v6ngJ, or (by uttering the phrase mort rapidly), seed'-voNG't. Concerto, concher'to (ch rep. tsh). Connoisseur, con-nace-suu*'. Cotillion,' cotedyoNG't. Coup dc main, coo'-dEf-maNG't, or cdod'-miNG'J. Coup d'eeil, coo-du'-il. U to have the same sound as it has before r, in the English word furs or the same as i before r m dirt. This is, in fact, but a prolongation of the sound Ef. Courrier, or Courier, coo'- re -a', or, more generally, coo*- reer. Da capo, da'-ca'po. Debut, dabu'|J. Denouement, dEf-noo-moNG't. Depot, dapo'. [| The sound of the French u cannot be expressed to any degree of exactness by our vowel characters. In order to pronounce it, the lips must be placed almost as in whistling. 51' The sound of oeu cannot tye marked. While the mouth is in the proper position for sounding u in fur, let the lips approach, as if, to whistle, bnt not so close as to "produce the sound u, mentioned in the last note. English orthoepists have in general fixed upon the sound q, heard in the word do, as the nearest to the above French one. APPENDIX TO THE PRAXIS. 26? Diligence, de-le-zhoNGls (s s&arp). Divertissement, de-vare'-teece-moNG't. Eclaircisse?nent, cclare'-ceece-moNG'^. Eclat, ec-la'. Encore, oNGJ-cor'. En deshabilie, ung d^z'-a-beel'-ya. ; but we generally say 6ng dezabeel, and often make it perfectly English and say, in dish'abil. En /ami lie, ong' fa m eel'. Enfilade, cmg'fe-lad'. En masse, ongJ mass'. Ennui, anujl-e', or a-n-we'. En passant, oNG't-passoNG'j. Entree, oNG'Jtra'. Envelope, ONG^-v-lope". Escritoire, es'-cre-twar'. Espionage, es'-pe-6-nazh. Etiquette, ete-ket'. Faux pas, fo'-pa'. " Fete, fate. Feu dejoie, foEu'^f dEf zhwa'. Figurons, fe-gu[j-roNGt. Fricasee, fre-cas-sa'. Fracas, fraoa'. Generate, zhen-a-ral'. Je ne sais quoi, zhun-sa-kvva'. Le tout ensemble, lE-toot'-oNGl-soNG'Ji-b!. Madame, ma-dam'. Mademoiselle, m ad~m-\va-zel\ Manoeuvre, manoEu'^-vr. Messieurs, mace-yuit*, or mace-yoEu^[. Mezzotinto, met'-zc-tin'-to. Monsieur, moxGJs-yuR {$ sharp), or mSss-yc-Eu'^J". Naivete, na-eev-ta'. Oglio, 61e'-y6. 268 APPENDIX TO THE PRAXIS. Outre, 6o-tra'. Palanquin, pal-ang-keen' (English ng). Pas seul, pa' sul'. Pas de deux, pa dEf doEu^j". Pas de trois, pa dEf tr6'-a. Petit maitre, p-te' mi'-tr. Promenade, prom-nad'. Ragout, ra-goo. Rendezvous, roNcJ-da-voo', or r£n-de-vooz. Rouge, roozh. Sangfroid, songJ fro'- a. Sans soucis, soNG't-soose'. Seraglio, se-ra' le-6. Soi disant, so'-a-de-zoNG'j. Tete-d-tete, tate'-a-tate'. Valet de chambre, val'-a-dEf -shoNG'J-br. Vermicelli, T^r-me-chel'-le {ch rep. tsh). Vingt et un, vaNG'J-ta-uNG / i. Violoncello, ve-6-16n-chello {ch rep. tsh). Vis~d-vis, veez'-a-ve'. Vivace, ve-va'-che {ch rep. tsh). 269 CHAP. IV. OF ACCENT. Causes of the uncertainly of English accentuation, General rules for the assistance of foreigners. Useful lists. IN the English language, every word, not a monosyllable, has one of its syllables distinguished by being pronounced with a superior degree of energy and force*, and this is said to be accented, * Mr. Walker says of the accented syllable, " that it is always louder than the rest ; but when it has the rising in- flection, it is higher than the preceding, and lower than the succeeding syllable ; and when it has the falling inflection, it is pronounced higher as well as louder than the other syl- lables, either preceding or following. The only exception to this rule is, when the accent is on the last syllable of a word which has no emphasis, and which is the concluding word of a discourse." Hence he always supposes that the accented syllable has an upward or a downward slide of the voice, for that is the meaning of the term inflection. But as this sub- ject does not yet come under our consideration, it will be sufficient to call the reader's attention to the other propertied of accent, and which are quite enough for the present pur- pose. First, then, it must be remembered, that force or stress is what principally constitutes accent. Secondly, that accent 270 OF ACCENT. We say one of its syllables; for though words of many syllables are frequently uttered with two or more accents, yet only one of these, called the primary accent y is absolutely material to*the pro- per pronunciation of the word; as that on the first syllable of apoplexy, the third of d'eclaration y and the fifth of indivisibility. The secondary accent may be omitted or retained at pleasure. Its proper seat is quickly determined by the ear when the place of the primary accent is known; belongs to syllables, not to letters; and therefore it is im- proper to say, a consonant is accented, or a vowel, unless it is the only letter in the syllable. And thirdly, that accent and quantity are things independent of each other; for a vowel ma}^ have a long or a short quantity [*. e. it may be open or shut), whether in an accented or an unaccented syllable. Thus a in the accented syllable of hate'ful has a. long quan- tity, and u, in the other* a short one, as in the separate words itute and full; a, in the accented syllable of (ai'cal, has a short quantity, and a, in the other, a long one, as in the sepa- rate words cat and call: The absence of accent does, indeed, generally deprive of some part of their length those vowels which are. naturally long ; but even this does not necessarily take ptacc. And those vowels which are naturally short must always have the same quantity. Neither must it be supposed, that, if the vowel of the accented syllable isinot longer than the vowels in the others, the syllable itself is made longer by, protracting the consonant sound, or by a pnuse ; for we must not pause after, and we cannot protract the t in catcuL Words would have been unnecessary on In ted, if our prosodians had not almost universally identified quantity with accent. OF ACCENT. 271 and it will therefore be sufficient, in the present consideration, to direct the attention solely to the primary. But first, it may be requisite further to observe, concerning the secondary accent, that although it is omitted or retained at option, the syllable to which it belongs is fixed ; and in each case, whether omitted or retained, any effect it may have on the sounds of letters will be the same. Thus, if we would accent any other syl- lable beside the third of dtc'lara'tioji, it must be the first; and whether we employ the accentual force or not, the e will have its shut sound, be- cause the syllable in which it occurs is the pro- per seat of the secondary accent. Placing the accent on the proper syllable is 'not only of material consequence in itself to the just pronunciation of a word, but the sounds of letters are greatly influenced by the absence or presence of accent, as is evident from many parts of the foregoing Praxis. Under these circum- stances, it is much to be regretted, that the ac- centuation of the English language is not directed by rules, few in number and of easy application, by which foreigners might learn it with little difficulty. This is not the case; for though it has its laws, some of which are founded in the idiom and genius of the language, and some owe their origin to a number of words derived from foreign tongues, which preserve their original 272 OF ACCENT. accent, and induce the same accentuation on words of a similar form ; yet these laws very fre- quently cross each other, and occasion uncertainty as to their application : and in a thing so unsettled, caprice finds room to introduce irregularities, and form new laws, which sometimes are, and some- times are not complied with. Hence, many grammarians have entirely neglected to give rules for accentuation, conceiving it could be learned only by practice 5 while those writers who have treated the subject, all except Mr. Nares, present ns only with speculative rules, or with such as can be but partially useful. Mr. Nares has alone attempted to teach accentuation altogether by a system, having thrown every word which does not come under the rules he has formed, among lists of exceptions. But the number of these exceptions, together with the exceptive rules, each of which is accompanied by its individual exceptions, precludes the utility of his plan to the extent that was designed. In short, w 7 hat he has done, proves that a correct English accentua- tion is unattainable by rules alone. Much, as Dr. Johnson says, must be gathered from example and authority. Rules may, however, afford great assistance, and the point is, to select such as are likely to give the most. Those of Dr. Johnson are the best known, having been copied into most <»f the grammars and dictionaries which hav- OF ACCENT. 273 succeeded his work. But they embrace only the most common classes of words, without naming exceptions, and therefore can be of no utility to a native ; while, from their nature, they are so difficult to be retained in mind, that even a foreigner finds himself but little assisted. The subject seems to require rules upon more general principles. It is manifest that there are laws which guide natives to the accentuation of words; for in general a native would fix upon one way of accenting a word he had never seen before, which he would prefer to a different accentuation, though probably without being able to specify the reason. Such a preference, whether in the par- ticular instance it might happen to be right or not, proves the existence of a law operating on words of a similar form. The same thing is proved by the very misaccentuation to which cer- tain words are liable : for the reason that im 'pious, acceptable , elegiac, and many other words, are often, by uneducated persons, accented impro- perly, is the influence of a rule, from which, in these instances, the learned and fashionable have determined a variation. Now if these general laws, however liable to clash, however subject to exceptions they may be, can be arrested and made known to foreigners, it is presumed a very essential service will be rendered ; for a foreigner who is well acquainted with these, will be liable T 274 OF ACCENT. only to the same faults with a native : and for the assistance of both may then be given some further rules, and a list of the principal words that contravene the general laws, and are there- fore most likely, on all sides, to bernisaccented. THE FIRST GENERAL LAW OF ACCENTUATION Is, that where no other law forbids, nouns and adjectives of two syllables have the accent on the former syllable; verbs, adverbs, and prepositions, on the latter syllable : and that words of more than two syllables, whatever parts of speech they maybe, have the accent on the antepenultimate, or last syllable but two; this being the favourite accent of the language. Rides which may cause exceptions to the above. c 2. As it is the purport of accent to bring the syllable on which it is placed forward to notice, and distinguish it from others, it can scarcely be supposed that it will rest on syllables so insigni- ficant as common terminations or common pre- fixes ; such as age, le, ure, ish, ei\ ow, y, SyC., and mis, arch, u?i. This is the reason that the following and similar words contravene rule I. To man'age, to trcm'ble, to cen'sure, to brandish, to render, to follow, to carry: and mishap', archduke', unkind!. But it is necessary to re- mark, that there are terminations to some verbs Or ACCENT. 2?.5 which have the form of common terminations without being so in effect. This is the case with er, y, and ow, in to prefer, to defer, to decry, to defy, to allow, to avoiv, which are essential parts of the words, as may be proved by citing^the words in the languages from which they are de- rived : prufero, dffero, decrier, defier, allouer, avouer. Upon such words, therefore, the pri- mary rule still continues to operate. 3. Words which are derivatives of other words in the language retain the accent of their ori- ginals. Thus, from the verb to advance' comes the substantive an advance ; from the substantive a balance, the verb to balance ; from to pretend, comes pretence' ; from pru'dent, comes imprn!dent; from resist', comes resist' ed, unresisted; from ser'vice, comes serviceable, ser'viceably, \inser- viccably, wiser 'viceableness. Here is a very great source of deviation from the general rule. The present law of accentuation, which Mr. Walker calls the radical, is one of extensive ii}- fluence, and, if always obeyed, would direct us to the proper seat of accent of nearly all the poly- syllables in the language. But there are two principal causes which produce an infraction of this law. One is, the influence of the general rule, which, in some instances, overbalances the present, and causes a ditferenqe of accentuation ia order to distinguish substantives and vcrtysi T 2 27(> OF ACCENT. similarly spelled, from one another (see these instances collected in list 2, at the end of the chapter). The other and the greater cause is a regard to harmony; for if derivative words always retained the accent of their primitives, they would often sound insufferably harsh and grating. The next rule will therefore show how a regard to harmony may cause variations both from the general, and from the present rule. 4. It is very evident, that when two conso- nant sounds, which are effected by different organs, immediately follow each other, some exertion is required in making the transition. Thus the successive sounds of p and t, c and /, in ductile, reptile, are uttered with greater exer- tion than single p and t, in reprove, retort. Now as accent is in itself weight and force, in all instances where two consonants of different organs thus succeed each other, nothing so greatly facilitates their utterance as placing the accent on that syllable in which is one of them at least. Hence the reason for so placing it, frequently in opposition to other laws; as upon the second syllables of invective, advantage, repugnant, which, probably, by the general rule, would have had the accent on the first syllable, but for the concurrence of consonants ; and also upon the se- cond syllable of preceptive, though coming from precept. It will therefore be proper to remember, OF ACCENT. 277 that a concurrence of consonants frequently at- tracts the accent. In fact, the accentuation of words of four syllables on the penultimate, when it is clogged with consonants, "is : ftften attended with great propriety: for in this case a secondary accent, which supplies the place of the primary, falls on the first syllable, and the word is separated into two equal harmonious di- visions. Thus, in the words accidental, manifes'tor, adamantine, we find the accent, for the sake of harmony, placed on the penultimate, while we scarcely feel their nonconformity to the radical law, which would iix their accents on the same syllables as in their primitives, ac'cident, manifest, ad'amant; because the secondary accent, in some degree, supplies the place of the primary. 5. But the secondary accent must, in part, have the effect of the primary in facilitating the utterance of any concurrence of consonants ; and therefore, from the tendency which substantives, adjectives, and adverbs formed by adding ly to adjectives, possess, of throwing back the accent, we shall frequently, in these parts of speech, find the order reversed, the primary accent coming first, and the secondary last; as in the words alabaster, ag'ricidture, oligarchy, apoplexy, dili- gently. Thus comi'terbalance, when a substantive,, has the primary accent on the first syllable, and the secondary, two syllables lower ; and when a 2?8 OF ACCENT. verb, to counterbalance, the accents change places: for it should be remembered, that when polysyl- lables are not accented on the antepenultimate, according to rule 1, they will incline to have the accent higher, if they are substantives or adjectives, and lower if they are verbs. In some substantives, which are equally divided by the primary and secondary accents, it seems not to be material on which syllable the primary accent falls. We hear malefac'tor, benefac'tor, and male- factor, benlef actor. 6. Words which have ei, ia, io, eu, eon, iou, in their termination, always have the accent on the preceding syllable: thus, atheist, alien, regalia, ambrosia, caduceus, &c.; the numerous termina- tions in ion, ian, &c., as grada'tion, promotion, confusion, logic' ian, physic' ian, &c; those in ious, as abstemious, &c. ; and those in eous, as outra'geous, advantageous, &c. The necessity for this rule would however be precluded, if the vowels in these words were always considerejl, as they are by some writers, to be in different syl- lables, caducc-us, plnjsici-an, gradati-on, kc; for then the words might be said to be accented, by rule 1, on the antepenultimate. But it is a useful rule to keep in mind, however it may be anticipated, because it is so little liable to ex- ception. The only word that contravenes it is elegiac, which, contrary to the present rule, the OF ACCENT. 279 learned have determined shall be accented on the i, on account of its derivation : unless to this we add the words ending in iacal (Praxis, sect. 7, (1), examples to RULE 53). But here, ia is followed by another syllable, so that these words can scarcely be reckoned exceptions to the present rule. / is thrown into the antepenultimate, and receives the accent by rule 1. Such are assumed as the chief laws which regulate the accentuation of the English language. That they are expressed in very general terms, and all, except the last, liable to numerous ex- ceptions, must be allowed. But, in excuse for these defects, the nature of the subject must plead. Rules of a different kind must have been so numerous, that few persons would have taken the trouble to learn and retain them. The principles of these will be easily remembered ; and they will certainly give a foreigner a considerable in- sight into our accentuation, till he gathers more knowledge from practice, and observes where the rules apply, and where exceptions are to be made. To show the assistance they are likely to afford, the following sentence is taken at hazard, and the rules applied in accenting every w r ord of more than one syllable. " This happy faculty, Taste, which it is more easy to con- ceive than define, is less the effect of genius than judgment, 280 OF ACCENT. and a kind of natural reason, wrought up to perfection by study. It serves in composition to guide and direct the understanding. It makes use of the imagination, but without submitting to it, and keeps it always in subjection. It con- sults nature universally, follows it step by step, and is a faith- ful image of it. Reserved and sparing in the midst of abundance and riches, it disperses the beauties and graces of discourse with temper and wisdom. It never suffers itself to be dazzled with the false, how glittering a figure soever it may make." Here the dissyllables hap'py, effect'* judgment, rea'son, study, na'ture, faithful, im'age, beau'ties, discourse' ', temper, wisdom, have all, by the rules 1 or 2, the accent on the former syllable, except effect and discourse', which, being related to verbs of the same form, are accented as the verbs. Reserved is derived evidently from to re- serve', and has therefore the same accent, rule 3. Easy, conceive', define', direct, without, sub- mitting (IVom to submit), al'ways, consult', follows, dispenses (from to dispense'), suffer, daz'zle, are dissyllabic verbs and adverbs, and are, therefore, by rule 1, accented on the latter syllable; except al'zvays, ca'sy, follow, suffer, daz'zle, the latter four of which, having common terminations, are accented on the former, rule 2. As to the word always, it is accented on the first syllable, be- cause that evidently is the most significant part of the word. ■ Validly and natural are accented on the ante- OF ACCENT. 281 penultimate, by rule 1. Ge'nius, perfection, corn- posit' ion, imagination, subjec'tion, on the syllable preceding iu, io, by rule 6. Understanding is accented by the radical law, 3 : — stand is the principal part of the word ; under and trig are subordinate. Univer'sally may be referred, as it now stands, to rule 1, being accented on the antepenultimate. But it is formed from universal by adding hj, and unker'sal has the penultimate accent from the attractive power of the two con- sonants, rule 4. Soev'er comes under the radical law : ev'er is accented on the first, because it has a common termination ; and so is a mere prefix. But as the foregoing rules are offered for the assistance of foreigners only, who are entirely ignorant of accentuation, something further will be requisite for those who are supposed to have acquired from habit all that such rules can teach, but are often at a loss in words of unfrequent oc- currence, or accent many words contrary to learned and polite usage. Here, however, there is still less room for rules than before. For, as was lately observed, it is not in words that are accented according to the rules and idiom of their own language that natives are liable to error, but in derivative words that are regulated by foreign rules, or in words that caprice and fashion have made irregular. By classical authority we are 282 OF ACCENT. made to accent hori'xon and sono'rous on tlie pe- nultimate, while an Englishman, guided by his idiom alone, would accent the antepenultimate. In like manner, custom and fashion direct us to say disputable and advertisement, though nothing is more natural than to say disputable and adver- tisement, because of the originals, to dispute' and to advertise'. We may remark too, that, though classical authority determines the accentuation of some derivative words, our own idiom gets the better of that authority in others. Thus we ac- cent orator, senator, min'ister, &c., on the ante- penultimate, though an observance of classical laws would have placed the accent on the fol- lowing syllable -, and we say condolence from its relation to condole', though, accenting it from the Latin word con'dolens, would have made it condo- lence. In the midst of so much diversity, little more can be done for the assistance of the English scholar, than exhibiting a list of the chief words that are hkely to betray him into error. Two rules, to direct the accentuation of some classes of words, may however be previously given : — 7. As words derived immediately from the French are, in general, very easily known, it will be useful to remember, that, according to the genius of that language, we accent them on the OF ACCENT. 233 last syllabic. Hence, caprice', cravat', critique , fatigue' [ue, in both words, silent), devoir', police \ debonnair', connoisseur', rendezvous', &c. 8. The accentuation of words of four syl- lables on the first or third syllable, as men- tioned in rule 4, being so well calculated for equally dividing the words, we often find it adopted, even by an English ear, in preference to the antepenultimate accent. Thus an English- man will very naturally and properly say ortho- doxy, nec'romancy, epiphone'ma, &c. But, on other occasions, he will be led to use this ac- centuation improperly, and say superfiu'ous, cacophony, orthography, sarcopha'gus, &c ; so that it will be necessary for him to remember, that words with the following terminations have always the accent on the antepenultimate. In logy; as apol'ogy, ambil'ogy, geneal'ogy, &c. In graph]/; as geography, orthog'raphy, historiography, &c. In phagus; as sarcoph'agus, cesoph'agus. In loquy; as obloquy, solil'oquy, ventril'oquy, Sec. In strophe; as catas'trophe, apostrophe, auas'trophe, &c. In meter; as geom'eter, barom'eter, thermom'eter, &c. In gonal ; as diag'onal, octag'onal, polyg'onal, &c.' In vorous; as carniv'orous, graniv'orous, piseiv'orous, &c In ferous; as baccif'erous, coccif'erous, somniferous, &c. In jluous; as superfluous, mellifluous, feliifluous, &c. In Jiuent; as meili fluent, circurn'fluent, inter'fluent, &c. In vomous; as igniv'omous, flammiv'omous, &c. Jn parous; as viviparous, ovip'arous, deip'arous, &c. 284 OF ACCENT. In cracy; as theoc'racy, aristoc'racy, democ'racy, &c. In govy ; as theog'ony, cosmog'oiiy, hexag'ony, &c. In pkony; as sym'phony, cacoph'ony, coloph'ony, &c. In mac/iy; as theoin'achy, logom'adiy, sciom'achy, &t\ In nomy; as econ'omy, astron'omy, Deuteron'omy, &c. In tomy; as anat'omy, lithot'onay, arteriot/omy, &c. In scopy; as metopos'copy, deuterosVopy, aeros'copy, &c» In pathy; as ap'athy, antip'athy, idiop'athy, &c. In mathy; as opsim'athy, polym'atby, &c. But some Greek compounds refuse the antepe- nultimate accent; such as or'thodoxy, or'thoepy y necromancy , chir'omancy, hydromancy; and those terminating in archy, as hierarchy, oligarchy y patriarchy. Periphrasis and antiph'rasis are ac- cented on the antepenultimate for etymological reasons. We may observe, however, that, when any of the words in the list have the syllable cat added, the accent is removed a syllable lower, so that the antepenultimate accent is still adhered to: genealogical, orthographical, &c OF ACCENT. %$5 List 1. — Words which are liable to misaccentuation, from being accented contrary to the genuine idiom of the language, from affectation, from a difficulty in fixing upon any particular syllable as proper to bear the accent, and other causes** Ab'dicative, abdo'meri, acceptable-}-, access', ac'cessary, nccli'vous, acu'men, adamante'an, ad'mirable, adju'tor and * What is conceived to be the politest usage has been taken as the guide in the accentuation given. This usage, as was said before, sometimes obliges us to neglect the idiom of our own tongue, and conform to the usage of others ; as in inimi'cal, bitu'meti : sometimes, on the contrary, to neglect the usage of others and conform to the idiom of our own; as in orator, doc'trinal. Am\ not unfrequently to violate our own idiom for no other reason than a distinction from the vulgar; as in sue'eessor, confessor. Where usage was thought equal, analogy has been suflered to prevail, f It seems strange that this, and some other similar ad- jectives, should have the accent on the first syllable, though three circumstances concur in making the next syllables a more proper seat; namely, being the antepenultimate, the con* currence of consonants, and derivation; as acceptable, from the verb to accept'. This accentuation has been said to arise from an idea formerly prevalent, that it is conformable to the genius of English pronunciation to throw back the accent as far as possible from the end of a polysyllable ; and, in respect to the present and other adjectives, it has been defended by saying, that accenting them on the second syllable, acceptable, admi'rable, compa'rable, would make them signify only a phy* sical possibility of' being Mcepted, admired, and compared: but when the accent is on the first, they signify, what is ge- nerally meant to be inferred, a fitness or worthiness of being C 2S6 OF ACCKN J. coadju'tor — but coad'jument and coad'jutant — adolescence, ad'ulatorj', a'eromancy, a'eronaut, a'lienable and inalienable, ally' (both verb and noun), anaph'ora, anas'trophe (e not . mute), apostol'ic, apothe'osis (this word and uietamor'phosis- are the only words ending in osis in which the accent is not on the penultimate), apparatus, ar'millary (Mr. Walker has given good reasons that other words of, this termination should be accented in a similar manner; as, axillary, cap'illary, mamillary, med'ullary, pap'illary, pu'pillary : nor compared, admired, and accepted. Thus, one thing is literally cnmpa'rablc with another, if it can be compared with it, thouglr not perhaps com'parable, that is, fit to be compared to it; so a thing may be acceptable by a man, that is far from being ac'ceptable to him. The following reason which Mr. Walker gives for this high accentuation is the most probable. Com'- parable, disputable, ad'mirable, are derived from the Latin cojnparab'ilis, disputab'ilis, admiral/ ilia, which are accented on the antepenultimate, but to which, in our way of pro- nouncing them, we also give a secondary accent on the first syllable; so that when the words become Anglicized, by dropping a syllable, we very naturally make the seat of the secondary accent that of the primary. Hence we formerly- pronounced adademy, because it comes from ad-a-def-mia: hence the high accentuation of the above adjectives, and hence, an analogy being established, ac'ceptable, rec'cptacle, &c. We should do well, however, lo avoid this method of accentuation, which is certainly uncouth, whenever it can be done without violence to polite usage ; and therefore susccp'tiblc, corrup'tib't, pcrfunc'tory, rcfradtory, ought by no- means to be accented on the fust syllable, unless in a verse, rvhich demands it ; as Blow, with empty words, the sus'cepttble flame. Priop.. OF ACCENT. 287 •Iocs usage forbid It in any of them), asy'lum, asyndeton, bandil'ti, bitu'men, blasphemous, cach'exy [ch rep. k), caesu'ra, cal'iber, caloric, cano'rous, catachre'sis, cel'ibacy, cenlnf'ugal, ceru'men, coliosse'an, com'mendable, commit/tee, compa'ges, com'parable and incom'parable, concordance, comlo'lence, con'fes.sor, confis'cate (verb), con'sistory, con- summate, con'Uary, con'trarily, con'trite, con'troversj^, con'versant, cor'ollary, courtezail' (ou rep. u), deco'rus, dedec'orous — but indecoVous — deprecatory, derivative, dcs'ultory, diabe'tes, diaer'esis, dun'issony,dioc'esan, dis'putable, indis'putable, doctrinal, dys'entery, eehi'nus [ch rej). k), elegi'ac, ener'vate, epicure'an, equi'pol'lence, erra'tum, erra'ta, Kurope'an, evanescent, e::plor'atory, finance', hendy'adys, hereditary, homoioteleu'ton, hori'zon, hyper'bole [e not mute), im'pious, im'precatory, inimical, inler'calar, intercalate, intercal'ary, interle'rence, interfluent, interloc'utor — but pro- locutor — in'ventory, irreme'diable, isochronal [ch rep. k), laboratory, lamentable, legu'men, li'entery, machinist [ch rep* sh; i rep. e), medici'nal, mes'entery, met'onyrny, mis'cellany, mis'chievous, mosche'tto [ch rep. k; e rep.' e), moun'tamous, omnip'otent, omnipres'ence, or'ison, oxymoron, panace'a, parago'ge [e not mute), peremptory, per'emptorily, phrenetic, phreni'tis, pos'sessory, primitive, prolix', prom'ontory, prosopopce'ia, ratan', rec'eptacle, rec'eptory, ref'ragable, and irref'ragable, rep'ertory, retin'ue, reven'ue, to revel' (in the sense of to draiv back), sali'va, sali'vous, sali'val, sec'undine, seques'ter, seques'trate, sono'rous, sub'altern, subjec'ted, suc'cessor, synaloe'pha, synec'doche [ch rep. k ; e not mute), the'atre and amphithe'atre. It would tend much to infix into the pupil's memory the right accentuation of these words, if he were to employ himself in arranging them in '288 OF ACCENT. classes, according to their number of syllables and seat of accent, as we see in spelling books. This is a proper place to observe, that in read- ing the poets, it is frequently proper to accent a word contrary to the best modern usage, that we may not spoil the melody of the verse. OF ACCENT. 289 List 0.. — Disyllabic nouns and verbs* similurly spelled, distin- guished by a diversity of accent ; the former being accented on the first, and the latter on the last syllable. — See rule 3, page 275. Neuns &, adj. V T erbs. Nouns & adj. Verbs. Ab'ject, to abject'. Des'ert, to desert'. Ab'sent, Ab'stract, — absent'. — abstract'. Di'gest, Dis'count, — digest'. — discount'. Ac'cent, Af.'fix, — accent'. — affix'. Es'say, Ex'ile (.r-ks) — essay'. , — exile'(x-gz). As'sign, Attribute, — assign'. — attrib'ute. Ex'port, Ex'tract, — export'. — extract'. Aug'ment, — augment'. Fer'ment, — ferment'. Botn'bard, — bombard'. Fre'quent, — frequent'. Cem'ent, Colieague, — cement'. — colleague'. Im'port, In'cense, — import'. — incense'. Col'lect, — collect'. Insult, — insult'. Com'pact, Com'pound, — compact'. — compound'. Ob'ject, Per' fume, * — object'. — perfume'. Com'press, Con'cert, — compress'. — concert'. Per'mit, Pre'fix, — permit'. — prefix'. Con'crete, — concrete'. Premise, — premise'. Con'duct, — conduct'. Pres'age, — presage'. Con'fine, — confine'. Pres'ent, — present'. Con'flict, — conflict'. Prod'uce, — produce'. Con'serve, — conserve'. Proj'ect, — project'. Con'sort, — consort'. Prot'est, — protest'. Con'test, — contest'. Reb'el, — rebel'. Con'tract, — contract'. Rec'ord, — record'. Con'trast, — contrast'. Refuse, — refuse'. Con'vent, — convent'. Sub'ject, — subject'. Con' verse, — converse'. Sur'vey, — survey'. Con'vert, — convert'. Tor'ment, — torment'. Con'vict, — convict'. • Traj'ect, — traject'. Con'voy, Des'cant, — convoy'. — descant'. Trans'fer, Trans'port, U — transfer 7 . — transport*. 290 OF ACCENT. List 3. — Some substantives and adjectives similarly spelled are distinguished by a difference of accent. Substantives. Au'gust, the month. Com'pact. Champaign', wine. Ex'ile, banishment. Gallant', a lover. Ins'tinct. Invalid' (or invalide'), a sick person. Levant', a place. Min'ute, of time. Su'pine, in grammar. In the following, the same a different accent to mark a fication. To con'jure, to practise magic. Des'ert, a wilderness. Buffet, a blow. Sin'ister, insidious. Adjectives. August', noble. Compact'. Cham'paign, open. Exile', small. Gal'lant, bold. Instinct'. Inval'id, not valid. Le'vant, eastern. Minute', small. Supine', indolent. part of speech has difference of signi- To conjure', to entreat. Desert', merit. Buffet', a cupboard. Sinis'ter, the left side. mi CHAP. V. ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF SENTENCES. The orthoepical junction of words — Emphasis — • Inflection. THOUGH every assistance that could be de- vised for enabling a person to give words, singly and separately considered, their proper pronun- ciation, has now been furnished, there still re- mains something to be said, in order to complete the design of this volume. In the first place, it is thought necessary to present a few observations and directions, respecting the continued suc- cession of elementary sounds, in pronouncing words as arranged in sentences. This will be done in order to prevent or remove a very com- mon defect in reading, which may possibly have been fostered by the exercise in chap. hi. and which consists in making a sudden cessation of voice between words where no pause, either of sense or for effect, is required. In the second place, it is deemed proper to give a few hints to foreigners and provincialists, respecting emphasis and inflection ; for, however strange it may ap- pear, we know by experience, that a foreigner or V Q, 292 THE OfcTI-IOEPICAL provincialist may pronounce every word with ex- act propriety, and yet his general enunciation may not be like that of a native. And because, after the utmost pains to instruct such a person, his pronunciation, upon an analyzed and minute in- spection, appears to be without fault, and yet upon the whole to depart widely from the desired idiom, we are often told, by those who are unable to fix upon the cause of the deviation, that there is a certain something, an undefinable and peculiar tone or tune, belonging to every dialect, which can never be caught by any one who is not accustomed to it from infancy. This certain something can, however, be nothing else than a correct emphasis and proper inflection ; and a foreigner who pronounces every single word in the same manner as a native, and also uses the same relative forces on the different words of a sentence, and the same turnings of the voice, will infallibly pronounce so as not to be distin- guished from a native. In the last place, in order to assist another class of persons, for whose use this book is intended, it will be necessary to enter into a cursory investigation of the princi- ples of that measured proportion which is in- stinctively observed by every good speaker; the enforcing of these having been found of the greatest avail in removing the species of im- pediment called stammering. JUNCTION OF WORDS. 293 The orthoepical junction of words, and the hints to foreigners, &c:, respecting emphasis and inflection, will occupy the present chapter: quan- tity, or proportional admeasurement, will be ex- amined in the sixth and last. And let it be ob- served, in passing, that a more extensive treat- ment and application of these topics than is here intended, would belong to a treatise on elo- cution*, and not such a work as the present. We have first to speak of the *■ Elocution {the modern sense of the word) teaches to de- liver language, not only with common correctness, so as to be clearly understood, but with all the grace, energy, and effect, of which it is susceptible. It takes account only of sentences, not of separate words. It supposes a person to be already capable of uttering single words with exact propriety, to be free from every kind of impediment, and to have a masterly use of the organs in pronouncing the simple elements of speech. It is to these ends last mentioned that have tended all which has hitherto been said in this volume, and what is yet to be said in the last chapter. The study of elocution also supposes a person to be possessed of that common cor- rect use of emphasis and inflection in ordinary discourse, which every native acquires from habit; and of which it is the design of what follows in this chapter to give some notion to a foreigner. This volume, then, undertakes to remove every impropriety, and to supply every requisite of pronun- ciation, up to that point at which the study of elocution com- 294 THE ORTHOEPICAL Orthoepical junction of words. Many persons, in reading, have a habit of catching up with the breath, or snapping short, a sound that admits of protraction. Let it be re- membered, that vowel, or semivowel sounds, ex- cept where some particular expression is aimed at, should be suffered to flow out freely. Such should be the utterance of the sounds a, A, 1, 6, ng, dh, v s I, n, in the words gay, awe, high, ioe, sing, breathe, heave, fa//, maw. This remark being observed, the fault of making a sudden stop or cessation of voice, between words that ought not to be separated, will be corrected by attending to what follows. In reading or speaking, the breath is never to be taken but at a proper place for a pause*; and between these pauses the voice must be in con- tinual flow, interrupted only by the occasional occurrence of mutes and aspirates. The organs, having assisted in the formation of one sound, are to take their position, easily and readily, for forming the next, even while the previous sound is still going on, if this should be a vowel. Thus, while uttering the sound &, represented by aw, in the phrase, he saw nobody, the organs are * The reader is aware, that this is very often to be found where no stop is marked. JUNCTION OF WORDS. 295 to take their position for soundings which begins the following word, and the voice passes from the utterance of the former sound to that of the latter without a break. Also in pronouncing the phrases, a low party to do service, while the voice is uttering the sounds 6 and 6, represented by ow and o in the respective sentences, the organs are to take their position for producing p and s; and there is to be no other break in the voice than that caused by closing the lips in p, and hissing in s. In pronouncing the sentence, he breathes loudly (h£ br£dhz loud'l£), the tongue, in forming the sounds, having assisted in producing dh, passes from between the teeth to the gums, where a buzz is made ; and this buzz, with a very little alteration in the position of the organs, is changed forthe more purely vocal sound /; all of which is to be accomplished without any cessation of voice. In the phrase, with pride, the tongue Withdraws itself from between the teeth, in finishing the sound dh*, and the efflux of voice is stopped by the * When consonant sounds of different formation im- mediately succeed each other, the organs must completely finish one before they begin to form the next. If this rule is not attended to, the articulation will not be sufficiently strong. Thus, in the above phrase, the tongue must be entirely withdrawn from between the teeth, before the lips join in order to sound p. This active separation of the organs, in order completely to finish the consonant, will, when it is a 296 THE ORTHOEPICAL sound p till it again becomes manifest in the utterance of r. What causes the fault above alluded to is, either a want of pliability in the organs of the reader or speaker to start with ease and readiness from one position to another, obliging him to stop after having uttered one word in order to make pre- parations for sounding the next; or it proceeds from his inability to distinguish in any other w T ay the finishing of one word and the beginning of another, when final and initial sounds are in danger of being mistaken by a hearer. Thus, he will stop between the words mad ox, that the mute, make the ear sensible of a kind of rebounding. Sup- pose the following sentence were to be read — He received the whole of the rent before he parted with the land: "We shall perceive," says Mr. Walker," the superior distinctness of pronouncing it with the t and d finished by a smart separation of the organs, and somewhat as if written, He receive-de the whole of the ren-te before he parted-de with the lan-de. The judicious reader," he continues, " will observe that this rule must be followed with discretion ; and that the final conso- nant must not be so pronounced as to form a distinct syllable ; this would be to commit a greater error than that which it was intended to prevent : but as it may with confidence be asserted, that audibility depends chiefly on articulation, so it may be affirmed that articulation depends much on the dis- tinctness with which we hear the final consonant, and trifling, therefore, as this observation may appear at first sight, when we consider the importance of audibility, we shall not think any thing that conduces to such an object below our notice." JUNCTION OF WORDS. 297 d may not appear to belong to the latter word, as if the phrase were written mad dox. He will also stop between two words, one of which finishes, and the other begins with the same sound ; because he will find, that, unless he does stop, this sound can be but once uttered ; as in the phrases, wild duck, chief folly, to dig gardens, black cake, to call lustily, a prim man, begin nobly, a ripe pear, bare recollection, this summer. It is indeed true, that it often requires a degree of nice management to make a proper distinction, without pausing between words, for the same reason that the pronunciation of vap-id, ben-efit, Jin-ish, pop-ular, sub-urb, would not be altered if we were to write them vap-pid, ben-neft, fin-nish, pop-pular, sub-burb (see the note at page 64), Having this principle in view, a person would naturally ask the difference between the pronun- ciation of the following phrases, if no pause is made between the words. Sad angler, Sad dangler. The same arrow, The same marrow. To obtain either, To obtain neither. Goodness enters in the heart, Goodness centers in the heart. The difference is made as follows : in the former sentences the consonant sound is not protracted, and the organs separate without exertion to utter the vowel which begins the next word ; in the latter, it is necessary to dwell upon this consonant sound, 298 THE ORTHOEPICAL and to make its effect manifest before the latter word by a renewed forcible use of the organs, which, however, must not be for a moment detached .from their position*. Thus, also, in the phrases to call lustily, a prim man, begin nobly, bare recollection, chief folly, this summer, the semivowels /, m, n, r, and the aspirates /, s, must be kept in continuation between the words to some length, and they must be showed to belong to the latter word as well as to the other, by the organs separating with exertion to utter the following vowel. If, indeed, instead of a semivowel or aspirate, a sharp mute * This rule does not interfere with the following of Mr. Walker's : that " where there is a perceptible pause at the end of a sentence, or member of a sentence, the final consonant ought then to be pronounced distinctly; and" {when it is a mute or aspirate), " instead of letting the organs remain on the last letter, they ought to be smartly separated by sound- ing what the French call the mute c after the final consonant. All the mute consonants are liable to an imperfect pronuncia- tion ; but it is in none more perceptible than in words ending with t or d, especially if preceded by another consonant. Thus, if I say, J took down my hat, but before I had put it on my head, Mr. Johnson came into the room, and let the tongue remain on the palate on the / and d, at the end of the words hat and head, they want much of that articulation they would have if the tongue were smartly separated by a rebound, as it were, from the palate, and the mute e pronounced after them somewhat as if spelled in this manner : / took down my hat-te, but before I had put it on my head-de, Mr. Johnson came int* the room.' 1 JUNCTION OF WORDS. £99 «nds and begins the words, then there must be a cessation of voice ; as in the phrases, a ripe pear, a black cane, fat turtle. This cessation must be equal to what would have been the length of a vocal or aspirate sound ; and the organs are to keep their position after finishing the former word, till they separate with a renewed exertion to pro- nounce the next. On the other hand, if the former word ends with a consonant, and the next begins with a vowel, the sound of the consonant need receive no extraordinary prolongation, and the organs are to separate without exertion to utter the vowel sound ; as in the phrases, a tall ozier, to inform early, to gain innocence, bare elbow , to loath envy, chief object, to give openly, red oint- ment, to beg earnestly, mad ox, to leap over, a mock orator, great honour [h mute). The application of these rules will again point out the difference in the pronunciation of the phrases given above. And if it be asked, why the same difference may not be made in the utterance of words where the con- sonant is single, and where doubled ; it is answered, that the correct pronunciation of words requires their parts to be so immediately joined, as to render it impossible that the difference should be made. It may be useful to observe, in passing, that nothing is more common, in reading, than omitting the sound of d in the conjunction and, 300 THE ORTIIOEPICAL where it comes before a vowel. D is never to be omitted in the utterance of this word. When the former word ends with a vowel sound, and the latter begins with a consonant, there is not so much difficulty in making it ap- parent which is the final sound of one word, and which the beginning of the next. Thus, most readers would be able to read the former sentences of those that follow without feeling it necessary to make any cessation in their voice. His cry moved me, His crime moved me. He will pray to any body, He will prate to any body. The row proved long, The rope proved long. The tea refused to flow, The tear refused to flow. He could pay nobody, He could pain nobody. The difference in the pronunciation of these sentences will be readily seen. That of the latter class has already been pointed out. Iu the former there will be little danger of the consonant being supposed to belong to the foregoing word, because the vowel sound with which it ends will have received its full length of sound before the consonant begins, and the consonant, without any protraction, will immediately sound upon the vowel of its own word. But it is not only when words meet which end and begin with the same sound, that this sound has only one utterance. Sounds, not quite alike. JUNCTION OF WORDS. 30i but akin to each other, will often be confounded in the same manner. Thus the kindred sounds s and z; z and s ; f and v ; v and f; th and dh, and dh and ///; p and b; b and p; k and g, g and k ; t and d, d and /, will, in conversation, infallibly be confounded in the utterance of the following phrases : less zeal, his sin, chief valour, to achieve fame, both those,, zvith thanks, to weep bitterly, a job piece, a quick gaze, a big counsellor, a stout dame, afield tent. In slow reading, these sounds are to be separated, not by materially altering the position of the organs, for they keep the same position in uttering each two; but by varying the degrees of compression, and introducing the voice or breath to change a vocal sound to an aspirate, or an aspirate to a vocal. Thus the final aspirate of the w T ord less is to be changed, without any cessation of sound, to the buzz of z, or the buzz of z in his, to the aspirate s in sin. The sharp mute p, in the phrase to weep bitterly, is changed by lessening the compression, and slightly introducing the voice to the flat mute, b, &c. It will also frequently be necessary to use some management in separating consonants of different organs to their proper words, without making an improper cessation. Thus, in reading the sen- tence, Lead us not into temptation, we should pro- tract the sound n in the word not. 302 THE GRTHOEPJCAL An hiatus, or the meeting of two vowel sounds without the intervention of a consonant, is fre- quently the occasion of a reader's making an improper pause between the words. It is worthy remark that, if no cessation be here made, we almost always slightly insert w or y consonant, which, in a great measure, prevents the hiatus. These two consonants have already been showed to be formed by a jerking action of the organs when in the positions for sounding 6 and £. Now, if the former of the proximate vowel sounds should be one of these, as is the case in the phrases, thtt Arbour, high and low (hi hid low: — i is adiphthongal sound, composed of & and £,page 13), two hours (f§ oun*), a new onset (a n-yb '6nset),joy hid merriment (oy is a diphthongal sound com- posed of & and c), ?zow or never (ozu is composed of a and 6) ; in these phrases nothing certainly is more natural than that the organs should fall into this action, and slightly introduce y orw, making the phrases sound almost as if written the y arbour, high yand lozv, tzvo zvours, new wonset, joy yand merriment, now zvor never. But it appears that we may also introduce the same very slight sound of y and w in the phrases gay age, to convey under, no aim, slozv evil: in which the former vowel sounds are k and 6. This can no otherwise be accounted for than by saying, that we do some- times make k and c> diphthongal, by suffering them JUNCTION OF WORDS. 305 to finish with an almost imperceptible sound of £ or 3. Thus, we often pronounce the words hay, day, grey, convey, letter a, no, go, toe, foe, hk'h, dl\% gr&'S, conva'£, k% n6'3, gd'5, t6'd, f&&. The semivocal sound ng, coming before a vowel in the succeeding word, often occasions a reader to make an improper pause. Let this fault be corrected in reading the following and like phrases, taking care, at the same time, that ng has its simplesound, as before 8 in singer and bringer: — being Eminent, writing Uvoay, bring Ml, king hid queen. They who are endeavouring to correct the habit of omitting the aspirate h, generally stop when they come to that letter, in order to draw in a large quantity of breath, which they expel with violence. An attention to correct speakers will amend both these faults. When a word ending with a silent letter is fol- lowed by one which begins with a vowel, some readers hesitate whether or not the letter is to continue silent; as in solemn altars, Lamb of God. But if mute letters still continue silent before the vowel of an additional syllable (RULE 112, page 82), they certainly must remain so before the vowel of another word. Having said that r has a rough sound at the beginning, and a smooth one at the end of words and syllables (page 237), an attentive reader will 504 THE ORTIIOEPICAL properly ask, whether it is still to retain its smooth sound at the end of a word when the next begins with a vowel, as in bare elbow, nor all your arts; since, if no pause be made, r appears to be in the same situation with r in barrel and pexil. It is recommended, in this case, to use the rough r, but not with force. Another principal cause of making an improper cessation of voice between words, was mentioned to be a want of pliability in the organs to start with ease and readiness, from one position to another. Now, therefore, that the pupil is, by the use of the Praxis, competent to the utterance of every elementary sound, it will be necessary to acquire facility in passing from one to the other; and for this purpose he should make a list of all those phrases which he .finds, in the course of reading, have consonant sounds in them that oblige him to stop in order to utter them cor- rectly, and on these he should repeatedly exer- cise himself; remembering, that a masterly use of the organs of speech as much distinguishes a good reader or speaker, as a masterly use of the fingers distinguishes a good performer on the violin or harpsichord. In regard to emphasis and inflection, which are next to be spoken of, little more will be done than endeavouring to furnish a clear explanation of th»eir nature. The foreigner or provincialist JUNCTION OF WORDS. 305 will perceive, by the sequel, that any thing fur- ther would rather tend to embarrass than assist him. It is intended to point out the cause of a faulty utterance on the whole, while every single word is pronounced correctly -, and having given him this key, leave it to himself, by closely ob- serving the manner of others, and comparing it with his own, to make the necessary corrections* Simple Stress. And first we may observe, in confirmation of what has been advanced, that, if a foreigner were to lay an equal stress on every word in the sentence, He offers me some advice; though he might pronounce every word correctly, we should immediately see he was not a native. The words he, me, and some, are of inferior import to the other two words ; some is a common quali- fying epithet, and he and me denote persons already known between the hearer and speaker. A native would therefore give them a subordinate stress, in order that the others might be pro- minent; and the relative degree of stress between the words will be exactly the same as between the accented and unaccented syllables of any single word : so that the subordinate words in this sentence will receive only the same stress with the unaccented syllables of offers and advice. Let the subordinate words, then, be considered as X 306 SIMPLE STRESS. syllables merely of the other words, and, so far as stress is concerned, a foreigner will read it as a native — Heof 'fersme someadvice' ; to be accented as Poster'ity disregards'. The words which receive this kind of stress cannot however, with much propriety, be said to be emphatical. Such as are really under an em- phasis occur but seldom, but words under the above sort of stress are the principal words in every sentence. Emphasis, properly so called, will be noticed presently. The foregoing short sentence would be pro- nounced in the same manner by every native, and therefore it is easy to point out the words which must have the stress. But, in general, a sentence admits of being uttered in different ways, according to the taste of the speaker; and the difference con- sists in laying a stress on more or less words. Hence the sententious or formal, and the familiar or easy style of speaking, each of which we know to be proper in its place. To make this clear by an example* the following sentence may be pro- nounced with a stress on four words, Iwillcer'tainly wait'onyon atanear'ly opportunity, or a stress on only two, Iwillcer'tainlywaitonyou atanear'lyopportunity ; placing, as before, in both instances, the wordb not under the stress, on the footing of unaccented SIMPLE STRESS. 30? syllables of the words that are under the stress. However, we may remark in the last example, that, as the supposed two words are very long, there will be required a secondary accent beside the primary; and this very naturally falls where the primary did in the first example, namely, on wait, and tu. But though some speakers lay a stress on more words than others, we perceive that there are words which all agree in passing over without any stress. An examination of different sentences will show what these are. The following is a simple sentence, which con- sists of a substantive, a verb, and another sub- stantive, being the object of that verb : Ava'ro cov'ets wealth'. Here every word bears an equal part in con- veying the meaning of the whole, and must there- fore receive an equal stress. If each of these take a qualifying word, the qualifying words will also have the same stress — Old' Ava'ro gree'dily cov'ets immod'erate wealth'. With this restriction, however, that each word is to convey a new idea to the hearer. For, sup- pose Avaro was well known between the person? speaking to be old, the adjective may very pro- perly be passed over as an unaccented syllable of Avaro, A subsequent remark will also show, x 2 308 SIMPLE STRESS. that earnestness or passion may cause greedily and immoderate to be pronounced with more stress than the words they qualify. Avaro, who is a miser, wishes for wealth and large possessions. In this sentence, we find words of quite a dif- ferent employment and description introduced. Who stands in place of a word already mentioned; is, though a verb, conveys no idea except that of mere existence, and therefore acts only as a con- nective ; for denotes a common relation ; and is nothing more than a connective. These words, then, which are among those that act as the serviles and the links in all sentences, give place to the other words, and the sentence will be thus accented : Ava'ro, whoisami'ser, wish'es forwealth' andlarge' possessions. Hence we may gather, that all such words as merely connect sentences, denote ordinary re- lations, express simple existence, or qualify other words without adding a new idea, are always jmssed over without stress, except on particular occasions, when emphasis, properly so called, makes them prominent. ; and of this nature are conjunctions, prepositions, the verb to be through- out its variations, and the pronominal adjectives his, her, our, some, &c. : personal and relative pronouns, too, being employed instead of other words, which are already known between the SIMPLE STRESS. 309 hearer and speaker, seldom need to be marked with any stress, particularly if they should be in an oblique case. Examples: He offers me some advice, which he believes to be good. To be accented and read— Heof'fersme someadvice,' whichhebelieves' tobegood'. Respect and honour are the reward of integrity. To be accented and read — Respect' andhon'our arethereward' ofinteg'rity. And as a further corroboration that the words not under the stress are in the same predicament with the unaccented syllables of single words, we shall find the sounds of the letters affected in the same manner. Thus, in the first example, e in me is as unprotected a sound as e in de-vout' (RULE 14, page 57). In the second example, the closed sound of a in and verges towards the sound fi (RULE 18, page 58); and the closed sound of o in of also verges towards the sound & (RULE 21, page 59). These two words would be pronounced in conversation and and nv*. * Attentive observation will discover to a foreigner num- berless other of these deviations from the sound we give to words when separately pronounced, owing to their coming under the predicament of unaccented syllables. Thus ou in your, which, if we pronounce the word separately, represents, the sound 6, when the same word occurs in a sentence in the predicament of an unaccented syllable, represents the sound u 310 SIMPLE STRESS, Thus much for that kind of stress which is laid on the principal words in every sentence, but (see the observation preceding list (21), page 170). In the former case, we find the word pronounced yoor ; in the latter, yur, as in the sentence, Give me your hand. Thus, too, it appears that the word my is generally pronounced with y in the same sound as it has in dainty, &c. (see the observation after the word, page 132, (1). From the same cause we shall also find that are and for, which, in a separate pronun- ciation, have a and o sounded a and a, mostly suffer these vowels to degenerate into u (rule 38, page 64). Nay, the word the falls into a corruption not allowable to open, un- accented em any other case (rule 14, page 57); for, except when this article comes before a word beginning with a vowel, e has an indefinite sound, not to be specified on paper. But as there are some limitations to these corruptions of words, which so often occur in the predicament of unaccented syllables, it is deemed advisable to extract the observations on this head from Walker's Rhetorical Grammar. * A very common error arises from pronouncing the per- sonal pronoun you in the same manner, whether it is in the nominative or the oblique case ; or, in other words, whether it is the principal or the subordinate word in a sentence. It is certain that the pronouns you and my, when they are con- tradistinguished from other pronouns, and consequently em- phatical, are always pronounced with their full, open sound, you, my. But it is as certain, if we observe the pronunciation of correct conversation, that we shall find them sounded ye and me when they are subordinate words in a sentence, and have no emphasis on them For example: you told him all the truth. Here the \\q\'& you is in the nominative case ; that is, it goes before the word denoting action, and must there- fore be pronounced full and open, so as to rhyme with neiv. SIMPLE STRESS. 511 which we will not call emphasis. It will now be proper to speak of the latter. In this sentence also, He told you before he told any body else, the word you is in the oblique case, or comes after the word denoting action ; but as it is emphatical, by being contradis- tinguished from any body else, it preserves its full, open sound, as before. But in the sentence, Though he told you, he had no right to tell you: here the pronoun you is in the oblique case, or follows the word denoting action ; and, having no distinctive emphasis, invariably falls into the sound of the antiquated form of this pronoun, ye; and as if written, Though he told ye, he had no right to tell ye." It is however not a distinct, but an indefinite sound, like that in the word the, which is here heard in uttering the pronoun. In readingthe above sentence, we may at the same time make another remark, that the d coming before the unaccented sound, y consonant, evidently tends to slide into the aspiration dzh; the reason of which will be seen, page 220, (7) and (8). " The word your is exactly under the same predicament with you. When the emphasis is upon this word, it is always pronounced full and open, exactly like the substantive ewer; as, the moment I had read your letter, I sat down to write mine: but when it is not emphatical, it sinks naturally into yur, exactly like the last syllable of lawyer; as, / had just answered yur first letter as yur last arrived. On the con- trary, if it were to be said, I had just answered your first letter as your last arrived, with your sounded like ewer, as in the former sentence, every delicate ear would be offended. ** ' Your paper is a part of my tea-equipage ; and my servant knows my humour so well, that calling for my break- fast this morning (it being past my usual hour), she answered, the Spectator was not yet come in/ — Spect. No. 92. "In this example, we find every my but the fourth may be 312 EMPHASIS. Emphasis, To constitute emphasis, there must always be some word or meaning, expressed or understood, pronounced so as to rhyme with high ; and it would intimate the singularity of the tea-equipage, the servant, and the humour, as opposed to, or distinguished from those who have no such tea-equipage, servant, or humour: but breakfast, having no such singularity or opposition of meaning to other breakfasts, cannot have my before it pronounced like high, without being absurd. Not that the sense necessarily re- quires the full sound of my before the former words, but admits of it only ; nay, the repetition of their sound being disagreeable to the ear, and the sense not demanding it, per- haps the best mode of reading this passage would be to con- fine the full sound of my to that which precedes the word humour. Your, at the beginning of the sentence, requires the full sound, rhyming with pure; as it distinguishes the Spectator from other papers. ***** " A distinction similar to those we have been mentioning seems to take place in the pronunciation of the preposition of. The consonant in this word is pronounced like the consonant v;" (sect. 26', (2J, page 224,) " and when the word does not come before some of the pronouns at the end of a sentence, or member of a sentence, we sometimes suffer the vowel o to slide into the sound of the vowel u; and the word may be said to rhyme with love, dove, ike. Thus, in the well-known couplet in the tragedy of the Fair Penitent — Of all the various wretches love has made, How few have been by men of sense betray 'd ! The two ofs in this couplet we find, may, without any palpable departure from propriety, be pronounced as i( EMPHASIS. 513 in antithesis or opposition to the emphatic word; Thus, the word wealth, in the simple sentence, Avaro covets wealth, may become emphatic by placing it in oppo^ sition to another word : Avaro covets wealth and not learning. Here, however, let it be remarked, that as the words in antithesis are both expressed, the opposition is sufficiently apparent without any written uv, rhyming with dove, &c. ; but when the word it, him, her, them, or any other personal pronoun, follows of, either in the middle or at the end of a sentence, the word of must then be pronounced as when heard singly, rhyming wirh the first syllable of hov-el, nov-el. Thus every ear will perceive the impropriety of reciting the following sentence in this manner — We never knoiv the value uv time till we are deprived uv it; and the superior propriety as well as harmony of the manner — We never know the true value uv time till we are de- prived ov it. " The same observations hold good with respect to the words from, by, for, and every word that in certain positions may admit of a less distinct and emphatical sound: for we may allowably pronounce from as if written frum in the sentence, / delivered him from the danger he was in; but we must always pronounce it nearly as if written fraum" (from) " in such sentences as the following: I came from him; 1 delivered him from it. " The word by is liable also to a double sound in different situations; that is, sometimes like the verb be, and sometimes like buy. Thus we may say either, He died by (be) his own hands, or, He died by (buy) his oion hands: but we must necessarily pronounce it buy, when it comes before the word SI 4 EMPHASIS. great effort of the voice to show it ; so that, in this case, there is no absolute necessity for pro- nouncing the antithetic words with greater force than the word which claims only simple stress, Avaro. It is not so much by making the word wealth more forcible than when it has simple stress, that we show it to be emphatic, as by de- af, him, or any similar word at the end of a sentence : as, whatever was the weapon, he died by {bay) it. " In the same manner we may say, / wrote to a friend for (fur) his advice ; but we must invariably say, He would not give me his advice, though I wrote for (faur) it. In these in- stances we plainly perceive, that there is something left to taste, and something established by custom. Eut notwith- standing the little hold we have of these fleeting sounds, that convey to us these less important parts of a sentence, we have still sufficient perception of them for establishing this general rule: When these signs of cases, of, from, by, for, are in the middle of a sentence, they are sometimes liable to a double sound ; but when at the end of a sentence, or member of a sentence, and succeeded by it, him, her, them, they are invariably pronounced as when heard singly, of, from, by, for, ,y &c. Mr. Walker then proceeds to say, that the word thy ought, apparently, to follow the same analogy with my and by, and when it occurs in a very familiar phrase, which is not often the case, we may then, he thinks, suffer the y, as in those two words, to be, with the same restrictions, sounded like e. But as this pronoun is generally confined to subjects elevated above common life, he would advise that on these occasions it should uniformly retain its sound, rhyming with high, and oot degenerate, as we hear it on the stage, into the. EMPHASIS. 315 pvivmg covets of its simple stress, and pronouncing it as unaccented syllables of wealth. Ava'ro covets wealth' andnotlearn'ing. And, by the same process, depriving covets of its stress, we may make wealth emphatic without expressing the word in opposition. Thus, when we say, Ava'ro cov'ets wealth', giving to every word an equal stress, we mean simply what the sentence denotes ; but when we say, Ava'ro co*vetsivealth, pronouncing covets as unaccented syllables of wealth, we evidently mean that he covets xvealth, in opposition or exclusion to something else. But here, xvealth must have a degree of force superior to that on Avaro, because its antithetic word is not expressed, but the opposition is shown wholly by the speaker's manner of de- livery. In further example of what has been shown, we may observe, that placing a name in oppo- sition to Avaro would make that word emphatic, as well as wealth : Ava'ro covetswealth', butStudio'sus covetsknowl'edge. And dropping the latter half of the sentence, we * The accented syllable of covets will be as the secondary accent of the supposed word, covetswealth. 3W EMPHASIS. may still preserve the opposition, by giving Avaro and wealth an additional increase of force : and by this means covets will be sunk in the pro- nunciation to a very inferior degree — Ava'ro coyetszvealth' ; plainly implying, that Avaro covets wealth, while some other person covets, not wealth, but something else. Another remark is here necessary. In pro- nouncing a sentence for the purpose of applying what has been said, we must suppose it to be uttered without any passion, or peculiar earnest- ness in the speaker ; for these circumstances are not without their effect on the force which is given to words. If we say, Ava'ro isanold' villain, without being influenced by any emotion, the accented syllables of Avaro and villain, and the word old, will have an equal stress; but if we utter the sentence with any degree of asperity, the accented syllable of villain will be sounded with proportionate energy. In like manner, if the speaker wishes it to be strongly remarked, that, while Avaro covets wealth, the great object of Studiosus* desire is KNOWLEDGE, he will, in a correspondent degree, increase the emphasis on the accented syllable of the latter word. And now, in order to have a clearer idea of the different force given to different words in EMPHASIS. 317 discourse, let us, in the first place, suppose the following sentence to be uttered without any passion or peculiar earnestness, and without in- tending to place any of the words in opposition to some other word understood : He generously foregoes his claim to pecuniary remune- ration. In this case, the sentence will be thus accented: Hegen'erously foregoes' hisclaim' topecu'niary remune- ration. Here every thing is equal and regular: there is no emphatic word, but a like degree of the same species of stress is laid on the proper syllables to the end of the sentence. The syllable mu in the last word has indeed a somewhat stronger force than the other weak syllables, because it is the seat of a secondary accent; but this dif- ference is so trifling, that the ear scarcely takes account of it. If the sentence be spoken with earnestness and feeling, the strong force will be increased throughout ; and perhaps the accented syllable of generous will receive a greater degree of it than any other accented syllable, but not so much as to destroy the sense of equality between them, for, as soon as this is done, we shall find that generously stands opposed to some word understood, a sense we do not suppose to be in- tended. But if pecuniary remuneration be opposed, in 318 EMPHASIS. the mind of the speaker, to remuneration of some other kind, the word remuneration then becomes common to both parts of an antithesis ; namely, to pecuniary, which is expressed, and to another epithet, which is understood. Now, whenever words fall under this predicament, they are pro- nounced more swiftly, in a lower tone*, and with less stress than the other words of the sentence; the reason of which proceeding is evidently this: in employing an antithesis, the object is, to enforce a contrariety; but what is common to both members of the antithesis forms no part of the contrariety. This, therefore, is mentioned only that it" may be assented to, and is mentioned with as little consequence as possible, in order that the contrary parts may appear with stronger opposition. In pronouncing the above sentence, then, with an intention to enforce the antithesis, the word remuneration is no longer upon an equality with the others, and the ear cannot take the same account of its accented syllable. There are now, indeed, four degrees, or rather species of force ; namely, that on the unaccented syllables ; that on the syllables claiming simple stress; that on the emphatic syllable ; and that on the accented syllable of * The voice slides down to the lower tone in pronouncing the syllable cu of the emphatic word. But this coDsuieiatfcftl more properly belongs to Inflection. EMPHASIS. 319 the word common to the two parts of the anti- thesis. We may besides remark, that as the primary accent of the last word is divested of a great part of its comparative force, so the se- condary accent on the syllable mu is reduced in the same proportion : Hegen'erously foregoes' hisclaim' topeca'niaryremimeration. With regard to the difference between these species of force, this is not determinate ; for pro- vided we make it sensibly evident, that the accented syllable of remuneration is secondary to that of pecuniary, the latter necessarily re- quires but very little more force than what we give the words and syllables claiming only simple stress. The degree of stress on the accented syllable of remuneration depends, therefore, in a great measure, on that which we choose to give the accented syllable of the foregoing emphatic word. It may be further remarked, that if the mem- ber which is common to the two parts of the antithesis had consisted of several words, the same reduction of force would have taken place on all. Hegen'erously foregoes' hisclaim' topecw'niaryremunerationforhisgreatandmeritoriousservices. The secondary or subordinate stress is denoted by a dot over the end of the word or syllable. 320 EMPHASIS, The following sentence affords another ex- ample: Pleasure and Pain immediately agreed upon this point, that the former should take possession of the virtuous, and the latter of the vicious part of that species, which was delivered up to them. Pleas'ure andPain' imme'diately agreed' uponthis' point', thatthe/or'mer shouldtakepossessionoftherzVtuous, andthe/arter oftheczc'iouspartofthatspecieswhichwasdelivereduptothem. In pronouncing this sentence we find, as far as the word point, that the words and syllables have either simple stress or no stress. Former is emphatic; but the other part of its antithesis, latter, being expressed, its accented syllable does not require more force than what is given the accented syllables of the preceding words. The same observation applies in course to the word latter; and also to virtuous and vicious. The member, should take possession of the, being com- mon to both parts of an antithesis, is pronounced more swiftly, in a lower tone, and with less stress on the accented syllables than other words not in the same predicament. And the concluding member, beginning at part, falls under exactly the same observation. Thus we see, that, however equal the force we give to monosyllables, and the accented syllables of words unconnected in sense with EMPHASIS. 321 each other, as in reading the Praxis, yet when these words are arranged in sentences, and have a relation to one another, the accentual force then becomes relative, being in different degrees, ac- cording to the importance of a word to the whole sense^ the peculiar meaning intended by the speaker, and the earnestness or passion which in*- iluences him. Now, as it must be evident, that to place upon a syllable the exact proportion of stress which may give the peculiar cast of mean- ing, or convey a lively idea of the feelings of the speaker, is beyond the direction of written rules; so it is fortunate that no rules are here wanting. Natural impulse will, in this respect, be a sufficient guide to either foreigner or native who delivers the spontaneous effusions of his own thought; and how the composition of others should be read is a consideration foreign to the present purpose. The kind of stress or emphasis which results from these causes belongs to all modern tongues. But the other kind, which we have designated simple stress, not being so immediately directed by the feelings or the understanding, does not exist, under exactly the same circumstances, in every language. The difference which, in dif- ferent nations, takes place in this part of pro- nunciation, would indeed be a subject worthy the attention of any one able to investigate it. In regard to the English language it is certain, Y 322 EMPHASIS. that strong and weak efforts of the voice form one of its most prominent characteristics ; and to the various intermixture of these it owes its pro- portions, and the varieties of its prosodiacal move- ment. As this point will be again taken up in the following chapter, it remains in this place to be said, that the fault in foreigners already men- tioned, of laying an equal stress on almost every word of a plainly-intended, unimpassioned sen- tence, arises from their not being aware of the characteristic alluded to. It is, then, to the proper application of the simple stress, that they should pay particular attention ; and as this part of the subject is not entirely beyond the reach of rules, so it is hoped that the observations already made will be of material service. To render them more practically useful, the following directions •are subjoined. 'As uniting words in writing, in order to get a clear idea of their relative stress, will be rather troublesome, a foreigner may employ Ihe hyphen for this purpose, taking care to mark the accented words or syllables ; as, He-of'fers-me some-advice'. I-wiU-cer'tainly wait'-on-you at-art-ear'ly opportunity. Or, less sententiously, I-will-cer'tainly-wait-on-you at-an-ear'ly-opportunity. EMPHASIS, 323 Words or syllables having a secondary stress, the pupil may, as above, mark with a dot over •the end. Noticing more' enga'ges the-affec'tions of-men', than-a-hand'some address' and-grace'ful conversa'tion. Or, Noth'ing-more-enga'ges the-affec'tions-of-men, than-a-hand'some-address and-grace'ful-conversatiom No' pb'ject is-raore' pleas'ing to-the-eye' than-the-sight' of-the-man' whom' you-have-obliged'; nor-an'y mu'sic so-agree'able to-the-ear' as-the-voice' of-one' that-owns'-yoii for-his-benefac'tor. It having been said, page 309, that personal and relative pronouns, especially if in an oblique case, are seldom to have any stress, the reader may perhaps wonder why, in this sentence, whom is not made a weak syllable. The reason is, that, in the sententious pronunciation, so many weak syllables coming together, whom, you, have, o, would make this part of the sentence ill accord with the rest. The same cause will give an increase of stress to the secondary accent on the last Word. Less sententiously, No'-o'bject is-more-plea'sing to-the-eye' than-the-sight' of-the-man' whom-you-have-obliged'; nor-any-mu'sic so-agree'able to-the-ear' as-the-voice' of-one-that-own's-yott for-his-benefac'tor. Y £ 324 INFLECTION. Emphatic words, or their accented syllables, may be underlined with a pen, or printed in Italic. The stress of words common to both parts of an antithesis may be denoted by the dot; as was already exemplified by the following sentence : Pleas'ure and-Pain imme'diately agreed' upon-this' point', that-the-/or'mer shouW-take-possession-of-the-nVtuous, and -the- /after of-thc-yic'ious-part-of-that-speeies-which-was-givcn-up-to-them. Having thus endeavoured, by a slight im- provement on Mr. Walker's plan, to assist the foreigner in respect to stress, the next subject to be considered is Inflection. Few persons have a correct idea of the tones of voice which are employed in speaking. The opinion of any one who begins to turn his thoughts this way generally is, that every sen- tence has a particular key, in which it is pro- nounced from the beginning to the end. To this opinion he is led from constantly hearing, that some sentiments require to be expressed in a high, and some in a low key. And if he were asked the cause of that diversity observable in the course of every sentence ; of the suspension of voice that marks an unfinished sense, and the fall or cadence which denotes completion ; of the INFLECTION. 3*5 difference between an interrogative and a de- clarative sentence, though the words constituting them are the same, and they are each begun with the same pitch of voice : — this he would make out to consist, first, in the various species of vowel and consonant sounds that are employed; secondly, in the different stress which is applied to different words and syllables ; and, thirdly, in the loudness or softness of the voice, which is kept up, or is as loud as at .the beginning of a sentence, when a stop is made in the middle, and something is to follow, but drops, or becomes gradually softer and softer as a sentence draws towards a conclusion: the same difference taking place between an interrogative and a declarative sentence; the former being generally required to finish with the voice kept up, and the latter with a depression*. But the incorrectness of * The author of a Treatise on Reading (Mr. John Rice — 1765) says, that he repeated, at different times, several passages from Milton and other poets in the hearing of one of the greatest masters of the scienee of music ; who, after paying the utmost attention to the several articulate sounds, in each sentence, declared them to be all of the same tone. This remark is very properly noticed by another author on the same subject (Art of delivering written Language — 1775), which writer, by a very correct definition of speaking sounds, seems to have led the way to the acute and accurate in- vestigations of IVJr. Walker. 326 INFLECTION. such an opinion may be immediately demon- strated by endeavouring to adapt any key of a musical instrument to the voice while speaking; a thing which, we shall discover, cannot be ac- complished : or better, by designedly pronounc- ing a sentence in unison with any single key; for in this proceeding we shall find, that though we employ the same variety of vowel and consonant sounds, the same diversity of stress, and the same loudness and softness to the different parts, yet the sentence thus pronounced is widely distant from the delivery of common discourse. Since, then, no sentence, properly pronounced, will accord throughout with any single note, the tones of voice must, in all kinds of sentences, and with all speakers, be changed somewhere. When, therefore, we speak of pronouncing a sentence in a low or a high key, we refer only to its predominant tone : just as a piece of music is said to be in a higher or lower key than another, notwithstanding the variety of notes it contains. And when we talk of a monotonous speaker, we do not mean that he absolutely never changes his tone, but that his pronunciation is monoto- nous in comparison with that of other speakers. But having assured ourselves that we do not pronounce sentences in a monotone, the greatest part of the difficulty still remains behind. For INFLECTION. 327 though we may be convinced, by the foregoing simple experiment, that there are changes of tone in the course of a sentence, it is not so easy to determine when and how these changes are made. It may be asked, why cannot the tones of speaking, since they are found to vary, be accompanied by the notes of a musical scale, and changes of the latter made to correspond with those of the former ? or, if the musical scale be not calculated to answer this purpose, why cannot a scale be contrived that shall answer? To understand the force of this objection, let the nature of a scale of notes be considered. This is an assortment of' tones taken from between two extremes of low and high ; each tone or note having a regular and stated interval between it and the next, both above and below *. Hence, in producing the musical notes upon a violin, the fingers press the strings upon the finger board at small distances. Now it does not occur to them who make the objection, that there is any other * This is meant as a general definition. The intervals between the musical notes are not quite regular; but in what is called the major mode of the diatonic scale, the intervals between the third, and fourth, and seventh, and eighth notes of the octave are Only half as great as those between tne others. In the chromatic scale, which consists entirely of half tones, the intervals are all regular. 328 INFLECTION. way of changing from a high tone to a low one, or the contrary, than by stepping over the inter- vals from one to the other; but it is evidently possible to run through all these intervals without dwelling in the least at any point during the progress; just as we may run the finger up or down the string of a violin, while the bow brings out the sound, without stopping at any particular- places so as to produce musical notes" In this manner a sliding tone, or inflection, will be formed; which cannot certainly be accompanied by any notes like those of a musical scale ; and hence the essential difference between singing and speaking. In singing, every word or syllable is uttered in some one certain note, agreeing with one of those in an established scale :. in speaking, every word or syllable, in which the voice varies, is uttered with a slide, being a species of tone wholly different from any of those notes. Inflec- tion, then, is this sliding up and down of the voice, and it seems to be the concomitant of every sound employed in discourse. Mr. Walker does indeed say, that when a plaintive manner is required in reading poetry, the slides are often reduced almost to monotones, and that a perfect monotone may sometimes be introduced in de- scribing what is vast and magnificent ; in proof of which, he instances the third and fourth line of INFLECTION. 329 the following passage, where he would advise no change of tone to be used previous to the words pearl and gold: High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Inde ; Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Show*rs on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, Satan exaUed sat.i These two lines must, according to the di- rection, be so read as to agree exactly with some musical note. But such a mode of reading will, it is presumed, upon actual experiment, be found no longer of the nature of discourse, but a kind of chant. The pronunciation maybe, as nearly as possible, monotonous, but not perfectly so. Hence it appears, that every succession of words which resemble discourse must partake of inflection ; which is, therefore, one of its necessary ingre- dients. And as words and syllables are the parts of discourse, we may further naturally suppose, that they will all in some degree be partakers of it. Experiment seems to confirm this sup-* position ; for it does not appear that any woi'4 or syllable, uttered in conversation, will, with- out altering it, agree with a musical note. Nay, it is this general participation which makes it go difficult to discover the inflection; since, if some words were inflected, and some perfectly monotonous, we could scarcely fail to remark a^ 330 INFLECTION. difference. And thus it happens, that when the slides in a part of a sentence receive a general reduction, so as to make it border on a monotone, the most experienced and delicate ear may, from neglect of experiment, suppose it to be perfectly monotonous ; which, it is presumed, was Mr. Walker's case in regard to the above example. If these remarks are true, it follows, that every word or syllable employed in discourse is uttered with a slide of the voice upward, downward, beginning upward and ending downward, or beginning downward and ending upward ; these four being the only possible varieties of slide that can take place on one syllable. It will be seen, by a subsequent illustration, that all these va- rieties do occasionally take place. The use of one or another of them is determined sometimes in part by a regard to harmony, but principally by the meaning or intention which the speaker has in view. Thus, by the kind of inflection employed, we distinguish a question from an answer; an incomplete sentence from a com- plete one ; an exclamatory phrase from one that simply affirms; an arch, ironical, or sneering meaning, from a plain one. Nay, so far does intention go in determining the inflections of a passage, that if we are desirous of repeating a sentence which we have uttered in conversation, for the purpose of ascertaining the tones that INFLECTION. 331 were employed, this change of intention will, probably, without a good ear and great care, occasion us to alter every slide. Now, when we consider this circumstance ; when we also call to mind what was said above, that every sound being in some degree inflected renders the slides less obvious to notice; when to this we add the difficulty of separating force from tone, so as to distinguish a depression in regard to the latter, although the voice is manifestly louder, or an elevation, although the voice is softer ; and when, moreover, we reflect how rapid and instantaneous are these motions of the voice, never resting, like the notes of music, for a measurable time at one point, but continually gliding, so as almost to defy scrutiny : when we put all these considera- tions together, we shall probably feel some abate- ment of our wonder, that the true nature of in- flection was so long a secret even to the masters of the art of speaking themselves. And we shall be still less surprised, that they who have scarcely even thought on the subject should at first be unable to ascertain any of these slides, and afterwards find the utmost difficulty in distinr guishing between one and another. What is further to be remarked to foreigners on this subject will be comprised in a few words. — As all languages have some difference from each, 33<2 INFLECTION. other in most of their parts, it is reasonable to believe they are not quite alike in this parti- cular; — that different nations sometimes use a different inflection of voice in expressing sen- tences of the same meaning. Hence, a foreigner or provincialist, retaining the peculiarities of in- flection of his own nation or district, would not escape discovery, although his pronunciation should be unexceptionable in other respects. This is not a mere supposition : people frequently talk of a foreigner's not having caught the tune of a language 5 which term, reduced to a more de- finite meaning, is nothing more or less than inflection. But what is still more convincing, Mr. Walker has shown, that a Scotchman is re- markable from a too great use of the rising, and an Irishman from a like use of the falling slide. The nature of the fault, then, being pretty evident, what directions can be given for en- abling the pupil to correct it? It is possi- ble, by following the plan of the gentleman just named, to present a number of varied sentences in which the proper slides shall be marked. But even supposing these marks would be readily understood, still would they not be enough y for the slides of voice are not only different in themselves, but the same slide may bp made in different ways - y and it appears that INFLECTION. 333 a native inflection as often consists in the way of making the slides as in the peculiar use of them. An inflection may for instance be, by comparison, rapid or drawling, or run in different degrees to the high or low pitch. The slides also vary considerably in respect to the equability of their motion, some being pretty regular throughout, but others beginning slowly and be- coming more rapid as they advance. Difficult as it may be to conceive the existence of these varieties in the small compass of single syllables, they certainly do exist in much greater number than is here noticed 5 and they are regulated, as the inflections themselves, by the meaning of the speaker*. But as marking the inflections with this exactness, were it possible, cannot certainly be attempted here, and would not be compre- hended though it could, it seems better to throw aside the plan of marking them altogether. The method may be used without much danger in pointing out the pronunciation of a passage to * It is not easy to say to what degree of exactness the slides of voice might be ascertained. Perhaps, by using a pitchpipe, their exact lengths, and any other properties might be discovered. That different persons vary the voice, in dis- course, to different degrees of height and depth, is evident from the comparative monotony of some speakers. But we may presume the slides always preserve the same relation to each other, and we might possibly ascertain some principle which regulates this relation. But after all, the ultimate uti- lity of this kind of experiment is questionable. 334 INFLECTION. one who uses inflection properly in common dis- course ; because, in adopting the slides marked, he will habitually so modify and adjust them, that the pronunciation of the sentence shall agree with the idiom of the language. But a foreigner, having no restraint, may, by closely pursuing a theory of this kind, acquire peculiarities much more ridiculous than those he is seeking to remove. This part of pronunciation must, there- fore, be left to the ear. And, luckily, there is not the same difficulty in catching the slides of voice, and the exact way in which they are made, as there is in specifying them, or in understanding them when specified. An Englishman can ge- nerally imitate a Scotch or Irish manner, and why should not a Scotch or Irishman be equally capable of imitating an English manner? Nor will it be of small avail to have a clear idea of the nature of the fault to be corrected, — such a one, as it is presumed, has been given. If a proper use be made of this knowledge, it may prove half way to a cure. Let the pupil give his utmost attention to discover, in the turnings and variations of voice occurring in conversation, the slides and their varieties which have been spoken of; and choosing proper models, let him sedulously endeavour to copy them in his own pronuncia- tion. However, not to leave him entirely to himself in this employment, one or two sentences are subjoined, which exemplify the four varieties INFLECTION. 355 of inflection that have been mentioned. These should be read to him exactly as they would be uttered in discourse. In the following phrases, the word go, printed in Italics, has the rising inflection : Shall you go ? \V hat ! not go ? If I go, it will be in the evening. The last instance has the shortest slide; and the second, if the question be asked with great surprise, the longest. In the following, the same word has the falling inflection : Shall you stay or go ? I shall go ? Go, then. The inflection, which begins upward and ends downward on the same syllable, called the cir- cumflexed slide, is exemplified by the proper utter- ance of the word they in the succeeding instance: Not he, but they are in fault. And the inflection, which is just the reverse of this, namely, which begins downward and ends upward, called the inverted circumflex, may be instanced by the same word in Italic, as fol- lows: They tell us to be moderate ; — but they, they are to wallow in profusion. These two kinds of slide take place in con- versation more frequently, the author thinks, S3Q INFLECTION. than Mr. Walker is aware. The examples given above, of the rising and falling inflection, may all, for instance, by a little alteration in the speaker's feelings, receive a slight turn at the end, which will make them circumflexes. But these niceties stand so much in need of oral illustration as to forbid their being insisted upon. In the preceding examples, we have noticed only the slides of a single word. We may now show the inflection of a whole sentence. He-gen'erously foregoes' his-claim' to-pecu'uiary remunera'tion. If this be uttered so as to convey the simplest meaning, the slides will be as follows: he will have a rising slide, little distinguishable, indeed, because it is an unaccented word. The accented syllable of generously will be uttered with a falling slide. This continues till the next accent, which is on the last syllable of foregoes ; and here the voice, having returned by a step to the same pitch at which it commenced the last slide, begins another downward slide, which continues to the next accent, on claim. This word is pro- nounced with a rising slide, continuing to the accented syllable of pecuniary, when the voice steps back to its former pitch, and begins another upward slide. This is changed at the accented syllable of remuneration for the cadence or down- ward slide which finishes the sentence. INFLECTION. 337 The following illustration will show how these slides are opposed to one another ; and also make it evident, that a regard to harmony has some share in the arrangement of them. When it becomes necessary to mark, by the manner of pronouncing this sentence, an oppo- sition between the word pecuniary and an epithet understood, we shall find inflection assists em- phasis in this office; and the harmony in the arrangement of the slides will in consequence be broken. The last falling slide will then begin upon the emphatic syllable of pecuniary, and continue throughout. The arrangement will be thus : A3 every reader may not be able to discern J38 INFLECTION. the inflections specified, while the sentence is pronounced as it would be heard in conversation, he must be warned against any artificial way of reading calculated to make the slides more manifest. In short, let him not despair of being able to catch by imitation the right practice, however incapable he may be of entering into the theory of inflection. The modulation of the voice in oratorical speaking was, among the ancients, studied upon musical principles, and -the exact degree to which the voice might rise or fall was thus determined. This was possibly not attended with great difficulty ; because the tuning up and down of the voice (however it might have been accomplished), which was the definition of the ancient accent, had place only on particular syllables, and did not pervade their whole delivery, like our inflection. Our speaking tones, as has been shown, are quite opposite in their nature to those of music : the harmony often produced by them is the mere result of orderly arrangement; and with regard to the compass they take from low to high, or high to low, this depends on the nature of the discourse, and the manner of the speaker. It would, indeed, be difficult to prove they are in any way directed by the principles of music. $39 CHAP. VI. ON QUANTITY, OR PROSODIACAL ADMEA- SUREMENT. The causes of stammering— Method of curing it. Mistakes of Prosodians respecting quantity. True nature of English prosodiacal movement. Directions and remarks for enabling the student to divide verse and prose into the real number of feet heard in the pronunciation. ORTHOEPISTS, in speaking of quantity, sel- dom look further than the relative length of time employed in uttering the different syllables of single words. But as the rules for the proper pronunciation of words involve almost every thing that is to be said on quantity to this extent of meaning, with which rules the reader is already acquainted, it is intended to use the term in a larger sense; and the present chapter will principally be taken up in examining the relative proportion of the different divisions of sentences. The immediate view, in giving such a considera- tion a place in this volume, is to free persons who stammer or stutter in their speech from that un* graceful defect, by pointing out to them the prin- ciples of harmony in verse and prose, in order Z 2 340 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. that they may accustom themselves to observe it ia their reading and speaking. However remote this means may at first appear, a little reflection will show its expediency. The ungainly defect spoken of is almost always owing to some constitu- tional peculiarity, that affects the manner of think- ing; as, liability to a frequent and sudden rush of spirits 5 uncommon eagerness of temperament, that strives for vent at the least occasion of effort ; quickness and irritability of feeling; weakness of the nervous system : all of which tend occa- sional^ to throw confusion over the mind, and render it, for the time they operate, incompetent to a clear arrangement of thought, at the same time that they incapacitate the organs for their office by overpowering them, or communicating a spasmodic and convulsive action. Hence it is evident, that whatever tends to introduce clear- ness and order into the mind, whatever helps to qualify and restrain the feelings, is worthy the highest attention. And, therefore, not only the means hereafter explained, but others likely to produce the same effects may also be employed ; the solving of geometrical problems, for instance ; an exercise which obliges the mind to follow, step by step, a regular and dependent chain of reasoning. Some cases of impediment there may indeed be, which are not likely to yield to such methods of cure: where the spasmodic affection is very violent, and takes place in an equal degree ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 541 whether the person converses with friends or strangers; when he reads aloud to himself, as well as when he reads to others ; when he is not influenced by eagerness or emotion, as well as when he is. But in cases not of this obstinate description, every method calculated to have the above named effects' may be tried with good prospect of success, or at least, when judged in- sufficient alone, may usefully cooperate with medical or chirurgical assistance. Now, what is so likely to avail in this way, as laying open to the mind the principles of harmony, of decorum and order in delivery, and rendering the feelings intent upon the observance of them ? It has been already observed, that persons who stammer lose the impediment when they sing, and have less of it in reading verse than prose. Poetry not written in free verse, that is, in which the lines are com- posed of regular feet, is particularly favourable to such as have the defect. Always expecting and always finding a rest at the same place, and the melody being so apparent, they are almost as little liable to stammer as in singing. Could they be made sensible of the more varied harmony of freer verse, could they be taught habitually to observe a well regulated movement in reading prose, and in ordinary speaking, there is reason to expect much would be done towards removing the impediment altogether. It evidently requires, for this purpose, that the ear should be cultivated' 342 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. in order that it may gain what a good ear has from nature. We know, that one person will read the same piece with a much more agreeable movement than another, because his ear enables him to observe proportions, which the other dis- regards. We know, that a good reader can make even a bad proportioned sentence very passable, by his manner of pronouncing it. The exact process by which' this is accomplished, we can- not indeed here attempt to describe, because in every differently constructed sentence different means are employed ; and perhaps there is not a sound uttered, or a pause made, necessary to the effect or the meaning of a well delivered sentence, which the sense of proportion has not some share in regulating and adjusting. But though it is not possible to go so far as this, ge- neral principles may be developed, and the pupil acquainted with these may proceed to im- prove himself The course he must take for this purpose is as follows : he is to begin with reading verse which has most of its lines regular: — he is to mark out the feet according to principles which will be explained, and accustom himself to beat time with his hand or toe to the movement. He is afterward to use the same methods in reading verse of a less confined structure. He must then proceed to prose; not, at first, of the familiar kind, but that appropriated to exalted and poetic subjects, in which the rhythm is studied. Prose ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 343 of the common kind is next in order ; and here the feet must still be marked out according to the best of the pupil's judgment, and as regular a movement as is at all consistent with propriety must be kept, by beating time as before. By this exercise, continually repeated, he will learn to remark the various rhythm of different sen- tences, and, if there is little harmony in the struc- ture, to make some in the reading. This mea- sured way of delivery, he must copy into his ordi- nary speaking ; and in particular he must have recourse to it, and keep the mind intent upon it, on occasions when the impediment is rising to an ascendency. If it should be here said, that the method proposed will give a person a formal, strange manner of expressing himself, it is an- swered, that a good judgment, or proper advice, will enable him to observe this regular movement without violating any of the essentials of cor- rect speaking : but allowing he may contract some peculiarity of manner, if by this means he should get rid of his impediment, there can be little cause for regret*. It will, however, be necessary, previous to * The author does not advance this Method on mere speculation. He uses it himself in assisting persons to over- come the defect; and, with the aid of every other means that circumstances suggest, finds it fully answerable to his ex- pectations. 344 ON PltOSO'DIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. entering on the main design of the chapter, to* recapitulate what is already understood respecting quantity in the limited sense above mentioned. By the quantity of a syllable, as was before observed, grammarians mean the time occu- pied in pronouncing it. Of this they have made a twofold division, founded on the nature of the vowels, which are all either open or shut — or, to use the common terms, long or short (see the observations following the table, page 14 ; see' also the table, page 17, in which the vowels are exhibited according to this distinction). When- ever a syllable is formed with a long, that is an open vowel, they account the syllable long; and whenever formed with a short, that is a shut vowel, they reckon it short. But if the con- sonants are to have any share in the considera- tion, and they certainly ought, this twofold division will be found extremely inaccurate. Who can say with propriety of the monosylla- bles plunged and go, occurring in the same sen- tence, that the former is pronounced in a short, and the latter in a comparatively long time ? In fact, if we make the ear judge of the quantity of syllables, we shall find them to be of all degrees of length between the extremes of long and short: one of which extremes may be exem- plified by the monosyllable it, composed of a shut vowel and a single consonant not admitting ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 545 the least protraction ; and the other, by the last syllable of the word estranged (pron.e-str&ndzhd'), composed of an open vowel and as many con- sonants as are likely often to occur in one sylla- ble, all of them except s and t requiring some protraction. In the midway, between these ex- tremes, we shall find syllables composed of a short vowel and several consonants, as plunged ; and syllables formed of a long vowel and one or two consonants, as go, which may afford matter of dispute as to which are the longest. If, then, hy quantity we really mean the length of time taken up in pronouncing syllables, no such di- vision as grammarians have adopted can have place in our language. There is besides another circumstance which makes the reducing of sylla- bles into a common standard of long and short inaccurate. We have seen what influence the absence of accent has upon the length of the vowels; for though this circumstance cannot render less short syllables which are already short under the accent, it almost always curtails of some part of their length those which, under this predicament, would be long > that is, in which the vowel is open (see the RULES, pages 57 and 60). Thus the first syllables of de-vout\ i de'a, po-l'ite ; and the last of pri'-mate, cat'-cal, con'-crete, tele- scope, prod'-uce, chit 'Main \> whirl'- 346 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. pool, will generally, in any sentence, be pro- nounced in a shorter time than if they had been accented. The vowels still, however, retain their open sounds; and, therefore, consistently with the theory. of grammarians, cannot be said to have a short quantity *. Upon the whole, then, it is evident, that by quantity, in the common use of the term, nothing more- is inferred than the distinction of vowels into open and shut; in which sense it is certainly preferable to use an- other term, because, as was observed in the note, page 15, sounds naturally long may, from cir- cumstance, be pronounced with so little pro- traction, as to differ little in length from sounds naturally short. The settling of these points will lead us to see, in a clear light, what it is that marks the grada- tions of movement in English verse and prose. We shall, in the first place, discover that it can- not be quantity, since this would necessarily re- quire a standard division of syllables into long and short, such as we have seen does not really exist. We must, then, look for some other effi- * Unaccented y, in lovely, truly, is generally called a short sound. It is, indeed, always pronounced as short as possible, but it is the same sound with e m devout, and is not closed by a consonant. If we adhere to the above theory, we must therefore call it long. ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 34? cient of these gradations; and where else shall we find it but in that alternation of strong and weak efforts of the voice, which, as was ob- served page 322, forms a prominent character- istic of English pronunciation ? Nothing, in fact, can more naturally attract the ear: — first, a forcible effort ; then an intermediate weak effort, or more than one 5 then a strong effort again : — ■ the ear compares together the relative distances between the forcible efforts, and hence, ac- cording to the difference in these distances, the different proportions of our verse or prose, all arising from stress. But, it may be" said, will not stress be the same thing with quantity ; for when we are told to pronounce a syllable with- out stress, does not this mean we are to pass over it lightly, by dwelling on it as little as possible; and when told to pronounce it with stress, is not just the contrary implied ? Undoubtedly : but still this reasoning does not prove stress and quantity to be identical ; since a syllable may have a short quantity, and yet be accented ; and it may have a long quantity, and yet be unac- cented. Another thing, however, it does prove — \ that the absence of stress universally tends to shorten all syllables naturally long, and does shorten them as far as is possible without altering the vowel sounds from open to shut ; while stress as generally tends to lengthen all syllables, and 348 ON PROSOD1ACAL ADMEASUREMENT. wankl lengthen those naturally short, did not their proper pronunciation render it impossible* : nay, when the accent falls on these naturally short syllables, it certainly is agreeable to the ear to make up for their want of length by a pause; but this, as we shall see, is on another account not always allowable. Or, to sum up the whole in a few words : — the primary efficient of English prosodiacal movement is stress; — stress involves in its nature something of quantify, and, therefore, speaking with an eye to simple melody, the ear is always best pleased when the syllables without stress are naturally short, and those with stress naturally long j but as this arrangement cannot always have place, when the stress falls on a short syllable, if propriety in other respects will allow, we compensate for its want of length by a pause ; and when stress is absent from a long * Mr. Sheridan, who has the praise of being among the first that exposed the errors of our prosodians in respect to accent and quantity, in order to prove that accent does not always lengthen syllables, takes the opposite extreme, and says it sometimes shortens them. •* We have," sa}>"s he, " two ways of distinguishing syllables by accent, which pro- duce contrary effects : the one, by dwelling on the syllable, ne- cessarily makes it long ; the other, by a smart percussion of tin voice, as necessarily makes it short." But the latter effect results, not from accent, but the nature of the shut vowels, which cannot be lengthened. They are equally short, whether under or not under the accent. ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 349 syllable, we shorten it as much as we possibly can without utterly changing the sounds of the letters*. * The identifying of quantity with stress or accent, ant! saying, " that, though the accent does not indeed make every syllable upon which it is placed really long, yet we must consider it as long/' would have been errors of little conse- quence, if prosodians bad always kept the principle in sight; because, however improperly, quantity wouid then have become only another term for stress. Buf, unfortunately, when the scanning of a verse was not immediately in view, they spoke of a long quantity independent of accent, and a short quantity which was accented ; thus confounding both themselves and their readers, as to the true nature of ©u* versification. In fact, the term quantity, in what regards the English language, had better be laid aside altogether. If instead of long and short, we had always used terms that do not so immediately relate to the duration of our vowel sounds, and had employed stress in reference to versification, the confusion which reigns throughout our prosodies would have been avoided. It is rather strange, that Mr. Sheridan, who combats the idea of our verse being formed by quantity, should himself fall into some inconsistency in this respect. We have, he intimates, feet of two kinds; those formed by quantity, and those by accent. If the accent falls on a vowel (h% which is meant, if the vowel is open), then the foot is a genuine foot by quantity; as, advice' is a genuine spondee by quantity : but if the accent falls on the consonant (hy which is meant, if the vowel is shut), then it is a foot by accent; as, admit' is a spondee by accent. And hence he takes occasion to compliment our language on its advantages over the ancient in thus having duplicates of eada. 350 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. Thus we see that the principle upon which our prosody is founded differs essentially from that of the ancients : they formed their various foot they possessed. But are not all our feet formed by accent? And the circumstance arising from this formation of them, which he notices in so strange a way, would have been more clearly and simply pointed out by saying, that though laying a stress on syllables will generally lengthen them, yet sometimes the stress falls on syllables which can- not be lengthened. It may, likewise, not be amiss here to make a few remarks on what this gentleman advances, in regard to our manner of pronouncing Latin. " The modern prosodians," he says, " found a rule in the ancient writers upon the Roman language, that there nevtir was an accent laid upon the last syllable of a Latin word ; which rule they immediately adopted, without considering that the term accent is used by us in a very different sense from what it was among the Ro- mans. With them the term had reference only to the ele- vation or depression of the voice, in giving a higher or lower note to certain syllables; in our accent, the elevation or depression of the voice has no concern, nor is there any sensible difference of a high or low note belonging to one syllable of a word to distinguish it from the rest, but the distinction is made merely by a greater stress of the voice upon that syllable than upon any other. Now, had they *een this difference, they would have seen the absurdity of adopting this rule." Some remarks may, in the first place, be made on this passage, which, however, will not invalidate the reasoning. Mr. Sheridan was evidently not aware of the nature of inflection as pointed out in the last chapter, or he would not have said, that election or depression of voice has »© cottcern in our accent. It is. however, still true, " that the ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 351 movements by different ways of arranging long and short syllables ; we form ours by using a strong effort of voice in pronouncing some sylla- term accent is used by us in a very different sense from what it was among the Romans ; " for though all our accented syllables have an inflection of voice — nay, the inflections begin at the accents, yet the unaccented syllables partake of the same inflections, and, therefore, to an ear not prepared to remark a variation of tone, " there is no sensible difference of a high or low note belonging to one syllable of a word to distinguish it from the rest, but the distinction is made/* principally, " by a greater stress of the voice upon that sylla- ble than upon any other." Whereas, in the Latin language, it does not appear that there was any peculiar stress on the accented syllable, but only a change of tone. This change of tone Mr. Walker maintains, in the author's opinion satis- factorily (Observations on Greek and Latin accent), to have been also of the nature of inflection ; but as it took place only on that one syllable, and the other syllables had a different tone (unaccented syllables being accounted grave), it must have distinguished it as much as our accented syllable is distinguished by stress. Since, then, it is true, that accent implies a different^ thing with us from what it did among the Romans, " if our grammarians had seen this difference/* says Mr. Sheridan, " they would have seen the absurdity of adopting this rule." Now the Roman method of accenting words, as we have no precise ideas of it, we could not cer- tainly have adopted; and therefore he must infer, that the more correct plan would have been to read Latin without ?my accentuation. But if we give up our manner of accenting Words, we ought also to give up our manner of inflection ; since, though inflection does not essentially constitute accent, yet they are so much involved, that we can scarcely use one 352 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. bles, and a weak one in others; the for- cible effort or stress taking place at dis- tances more or less regular, according as the without introducing the other. Let us, then, suppose Latin to be read in a monotone, without any accent : we shall now, as Mr. Sheridan intimates, be in a condition to preserve the true quantity of every syllable, which, as things before stood, we were unable to do. Here, as quantity and stress have been so confounded in our own language, we may very properly inquire, what was the nature of quantity in Latin. This may be answered with little difficulty. A long vowel was, among the Romans, essentially the same with a short one (we have at least no reason to think the contrary), and differed only in respect to duration, the one being always twice the length of the other. Thus the o in no-men was protracted to twice the length of the o in no-vus, but in both cases was in other respects the same. The relative difference between these quantities was always preserved with exactness, because there was nothing to interfere with it. Now compare this state of the Roman quantity with our own. Each vowel is, with us as with them, said by prosodians to have a long and short sound; but the first remarkable difference is, that what is called the short sound of any of our vowels is essen- tially distinct from what is called the long one. Thus the short o in not is not only shorter but quite a different sound from o in note; and the same is to be said of all the other vowels (see the list, page 17). The next difference is, that the long vowels, as they are called, do not always preserve their relative duration to the short ones; for though the ac- cented o in potent may possibly be twice the length of the o in not, yet the unaccented o in po-lite appears not to have any difference of length. And, lastly, a vowel cannot with «s have what is called its short sound, unless immediately fol- ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 353 movement is intended to be more or le9s re- gular. This essential difference should make us throw aside all ideas borrowed from the ancient lowed by a consonant. From this general review of various particulars it appears, that to have followed with consistency Mr. Sheridan's suggestion in reading Latin, we must not only have thrown aside accentuation, but also inflection ; and we must always have pronounced each long and short vowel in the same sound, making the difference to consist merely in their duration. What would have been the advan- tages and disadvantages of such a manner, it is unnecessary to inquire. It was not adopted, and it is likely never will be. In pronouncing Latin, we are guided by the genius of our own language. A y e, i, o, u, which are accounted long in the Latin words, mater, lego (to send), nidus, nomen,sumo; and short in pater, lego (to read), cihus, novus, super, are by us pronounced in both cases exactly the same. To u short in (lira, we give the open sound u ; to u long in curro, we give the shut sound u. And this nonobservance of quantity must necessarily have place, so long as we retain the Latin rule for accent wjth the modern sense of the term. It is because this accent falls on the first syllable of mater, lego, &c. ; pater, lego, &e.j that we give the vowels in this syllable their open protracted sounds, a, e, i, 6, u, according to rule 3, page 50. It is because u in cur-ro is followed by a consonant in the same syllable, that we give it its shut sound. A long in fab'ula has the shut sound a, by rule 5 ; a short in va'leo the open sound a, by rule 10, u short in (U'hitus the open sound u, by rule 9. Nor will it at all mend the matter, as some people seem to think, by affecting to deviate from this general practice, if the long vowels were always pronounced pith open sounds, and the short with shut sounds; for an open sound will certainly not distinguish itself as a long one, c 2a 354 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. writers on prosody, when we would ascertain the true nature of a foot in English pronunciation. The ancients might very well have feet that consisted if it should be without stress ; and a shut sound, when pro- nounced with the energy of accent, is not likely to pass for a short one. Indeed it is manifest, that accent destroys the per- ception of any other quantity than that it makes itself; and such being the case, if we are to follow the Latin rule with the English sense of the term, any deviation from the com- mon manner of sounding Latin syllables will only betray how little we have examined these points. Having mentioned, according to Mr. Sheridan's idea, how Latin might be read so as to preserve the perception of quan- tity, we may now take notice of what at first appears to be a likely method of producing the same effect, without depart- ing from the genius of our own pronunciation. If we are to believe our prosodians, that stress with us answers exactly the same purpose with the long quantity of the ancients, let it be emploj'ed, not according to the Latin rule, but in place of quantity; that is to say, let every syllable which by classical law is long be accented, and let every short syllable be unaccented. This may easily be done in reading hexa- meter lines. As for example, instead of pronouncing the fol- lowing verses according to the Latin rule of accentuation, Ol'Ii in'ter se'se mag'na vi brach'ia tol'lunt. Quadrupedan'te pu'trem son'itu qua'tit un'gula cam'pum. we make accent an equivalent for quantity, the former line will be thus read — Oil'* in' ter' se' se' mag' na' vi' brach'ia tol'lunt; every syllable, except the last two of the dactyl, brachia, and the common syllable of the last foot, having an equal ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 355 wholly of long or of short syllables, just as bars in music may consist wholly of long or short notes: but this is no reason that we should have stress, as if they were separate monosyllables. ' The other line will be, Quad' rupedan' teputrem' sonitu' quatitun' gulacam'pum. Also these Greek lines, 'E>CAay£ay #' do oirroi g-r wpwv %w6[ievQUJ, Aurov yuvrfizvro$. 'Pt/x^a I yovvz $£gn psta r rfistz xai vopov lifrtiuv. will, according to the same principle, be read, Ek' clanx' san'^Jar-o-is' toi-ep-6' mon' cho'-omen no'-& Au' tou' ki' ne' theu'tos. Rim' pha-e-gou' na-phe-rei' meta-te' the-a-kai' nomon-hip'pon. It will very probably be thought, that the latter of the Latin and Greek verses thus read, sound more poetical than in the common reading. This is not to be wondered at ; for they are, by this means, reduced to the same movement with one species of our verse. The truth is, stress with us does not answer the same purpose with the long quantity of the an- cients. It is essentially a different thing, and produces dif- ferent consequences. In the new pronunciation of the former Latin line, ten distinct impressions are made upon the ear; and the reader will know, when he reaches the end of the present chapter, that, thus pronounced, it consists of nine mono- syllabic feet, a trissyllabic, and a redundant syllable, and that this is not a poetic movement ; which indeed the ear already sufficiently informs him. The former of the Greek lines, by the new reading, will also be known to consist of three mono- syllabic feet, two trissyllabic, two monosyllabic, a trissyllabic, and a redundant syllable; the hemistich, of five monosyllabic 2 A 2 3d6 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. feet made up wholly of weak, or of forcible syl- lables. We may indeed mark out such feet to the eye; but the ear never acknowledges them. While the voice passes over weak syllables, the ear is always kept in suspense, looking with expectation for the forcible syllable: nothing is completed till that comes. And if two syllables and a redundant syllable: in neither of which is any poetic movement apparent. The latter of the Latin and Greek lines consist, each of them, of a monosyllabic, five trissyllabics, and a redundant syllable, which is an English poetic movement. We find, then, that stress and no stress have a different effect from long and short quantity ; and it would of course be er- roneous to employ them for the same purpose in reading the verse of the ancients. It also appears, that using accent in this way causes every accented syllable, along with those which are unaccented, if any, to sound like so many new words. In fact, if we consider that accent, however different in its nature, was the same, as to its use, both anciently and at present, we shall have some reason to doubt whether we could have avoided what Mr. Sheridan calls an absurdity. He himself says, that the very essence of a word of more than one syllable is its accent, without which it would be only so many disjointed parti. Now the Greek and Roman accent was of such a nature, as to have all the effect for which accent is intended without spoiling the quantity of their syllables ; but the method of making this kind of accent we have lost. What then could we do but substitute our own accent in its place, although to the utter destruction of that arrangement of long and short syllables, which was so much the care of their poets and orators, and formed one of the highest beauties of their languages ? ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 357 equally forcible succeed each other, two distinct impressions, and consequently two feet are made. Upon these principles, the reality of which ex- periment will show, we may confidently affirm, that every forcible syllable in English pronuncia- tion marks the end of a foot. We say the end; for though this, as will be seen hereafter, is not uniformly the case, yet the nature of the thing certainly suggests, that where the stress is made, upon that syllable where the voice falls with weight, and rests itself, there the pace or foot finishes. Now, we have already seen, that it is the sense of any passage that determines the syl- lables on which the stress is to be placed ; and also, that some sentences admit of fewer or more syllables bearing the stress, according to the manner of the speaker (see page 306 - 3 also the sentences, 323). It will therefore be said, that the feet in any line cannot be ascertained, till these circumstances are adjusted. This is pre- cisely the case. By reading with a faulty stress, we inevitably use the wrong feet ; and there are sentences in which one speaker will, with little or no impropriety, make a rest on almost every other syllable, while another will step lightly over, and make his rests or feet at much longer intervals. It was also shown (page 317), that those sentences only are equal and regular in which there is no emphatic word, hut alikedegree 35% ON PROSOD1ACAL ADMEASUREMENT. of the same-species of stress on the proper syllables throughout. For as the ear remarks the progress of the voice only from one forcible syllable to another equally forcible, taking but little account of any secondary stress that may come between; when a syllable occurs on which the voice is required, by the sense of the passage, to dwell with particular energy, the ear will be at a loss to reckon the movement, because the equality of stress will be disturbed. If the following part of the sentence should be interspersed with other emphatic syllables, it will now note the move- ment by them, since what before was strong force will, by. comparison, have become secondary; if not, until the regular footsteps of the voice again become manifest, it will not object to give up the perception of an even flow of melody, for the more refined gratification of conveying to the mind a strong and significant meaning. Should these general remarks poiut out the true nature of English prosody, how much mis- taken have the greater part of our writers been in treating this subject ! This is Mr. Sheridan's opinion, who says, " there is not one of them that seems to have the least idea of the mutable nature of our quantity ; on the contrary, they consider it as certainly fixed to the syllables, in the same manner as the Roman, and lay down their rules accordingly. This error proceeds ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 359 from applying the principles and rules of one tongue to another with which they cannot square, on account of their constitutional difference." But Mr. Sheridan himself, in handling this sub- ject, appears frequently to lose sight of the genius of our pronunciation ; and the melody, harmony, and expression of the different passages he quotes from our poets, will, in general, admit of a much more natural and easy explanation than what he has adopted : for which reason, and because his work (Lectures on the Art of Reading Verse), is deservedly held in repute, the author will avail himself of several of those quotations, in order to apply to them what he has to advance on the same subject. According to the principles adduced, English feet may be exhibited in the manner following, from a monosyllabic, the shortest that can occur, to an octasyllabic, the longest that can often occur even in prose ; for in our freest verse we scarcely ever meet with a foot of more than four syllables, and in a regular line no foot is to be found beyond the anapaest. The pale' | moon' | \ Sink' | to peace' j b , * A monosyllabic foot. 6 A dissyllabic foot, or iambus. 360 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. Remem' | bcr the poor' | c . Brought death' | intv the -world' | \ Lu' | dicrou* discompo' | sure'. En' | tering on the defence' | '. Opportu' | nity of retalia' | tion 8 . In' | timacy with the super inten' | dant h . Some readers would probably divide the last three or four of these feet, by making the secon- dary accent of the words as strong as the prima- ry: — lu' | dicrous dis' | compo' \ sure,opportw \ ni- ty of ret al' | ia! | tion, in' \ timacy with the su' \ per- inten' \ dant. But it may be given as a rule, never to pronounce a syllable entitled only to a secon- dary accent with so much force as to make the ear sensible of a completed foot, unless some- times in reading poetry, when, without so doing, the measure would be absolutely destroyed. We have now to show the application of these feet both to poetry and prose ; and, first of all, to such poetic lines as are quite regular ; that is, such as, when read according to the sense, have uniformly the same number of weak syllables between each forcible one. In reading the e A trissyllabic foot, or anapaest. d A tetrasyllable foot. * A pentasyllable foot. f A hexasyllabic foot. » A heptasyllabic foot. 11 An octasyllabic foot. ON PRGSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT, 361 examples throughout the chapter, the pupil is requested to keep time to the movement, by making his hand or toe descend at the forcible syllable, and rise at the beginning of the next foot. 1. What place' | is here' | \ 2. Beside' [ a faun' | tain b . ,3. In pla' 1 ces far' | or near' J e . 4. Our feearts' j no Ion' | ger Ian' | guish d . 5. And may' | at last' J my wear' | y age' | e . 6. The melt' | ing voice' | through ma' | zes run' | ning f . 7. A time' | there was', | ere Eng' | land's griefs' | be- gan' | e . 8. From past' | events' | we well' | may judge' | the fu' | ture\ 9. He tun'd' | his rus' | tic pipe', j and thus' | began' | the lay'. 10. To truth' | and wis' | dom firm', | he scorn'd' | the path' | allu' j ring*. ."•••' ■ i n . ■ ii i i iiii i » ) • A line containing two dissyllabic feet or iambuses. b The same with a redundant syllable. c A line of three dissyllabic feet. rt The same with a redundant syllable. * A line of four dissyllabic feet. f The same with a redundant syllable. 8 A line of five dissyllabic feet, which is our standard heroic measure. h The same with a redundant syllable. 1 A line of six dissyllabic feet, called an Alexandrine. k The same with a redundant syllable. 362 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. These are specimens of all the regular forms which have hitherto come under the denomination of iambic verse. But what is called trochaic verse, may be scanned in the same manner, as it differs from the regular iambic only by having a monosyllabic foot in the beginning of the line instead of a dissyllabic. 1. — TV | mult cease'. | 2. — Near' | a foun' | tain. 3. — Worth' | and beau' | ty join'd'. 4. — When' | our hearts' | are mourn' | ing. 5. — Bliss' | in vain' | from earth' | is sought'. | 6. — Round' | us roars' | the tern' | pest loud' | er. 7. — Sat' | a far' | mer, ro' | sy, fat', | and fair'. | 8. — Sat' | a far 7 | mer, ro' | sy, fair 7 , | and jol' | ly. 9. — Lay' | a youth' ) ful swain', | and view'd' | the rol' | ling sea'. 10. — Lay' | a youth' | ful swain', | and view'd' | the rol' | ling bil' | low. If these lines are respectively compared with the correspondent numbers in the other class, as the feet are here marked, no other difference will be found, to the eye at least, than the want of a weak syllable at the beginning of each. And it is presumed that the ear, if properly consulted, will acknowledge the same similarity. It may, in the first place, be observed, that it is at the ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 363 option of the ear to perceive the progress of a movement either from weak to strong, or from strong to weak. Let the reader make a regular alternation of strong and feeble percussions with his hand or foot, and he will find the truth of this remark ; he will find that the ear can change its manner of perceiving the movement, without the least change being made in the movement itself. But, as we have already seen, it is most natural to perceive the movement from weak to strong, be- cause to the strong syllable there is generally allowed a longer time for the voice to dwell, or the want of time is made up in some way or other ; and this has the effect of a rest. Nor let it be objected, that, because the line begins with a strong syllable and a weak one follows, the ear will take this as a pattern for the movement. The want of a weak syllable to the first loot is not felt, otherwise than as being a brisker beginning to the line; and, by thus suffering a foot of one syllable to supply the place of a dissyllabic, the verse appears manifestly of the iambic kind. This reasoning will be confirmed by reflecting, that it is very common with our poets to begin an heroic line with an accented syllable, especially if it should introduce a sprightly or striking idea; and in Milton's Allegro and Penseroso, as well as other poems written in iambic metre, many lines 364 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. will be found which have a monosyllabic foot in the first place, by which means they have one syllable less than other lines. If, then, it is so natural for the ear to perceive the movement of a line from weak to strong, that it cannot be prevented from doing so, notwithstanding the want of a weak syllable at the beginning of the line, what becomes of the propriety of Mr. Sheridan's considering verses of the above class, after the example of other prosodians, as being of a different species from the iambic ? Nay, Mr. Sheridan himself was well aware, that an accented syllable at the beginning of a line may supply the place of an iambus, for he gives instances of it, and calls such feet, syllabic iambuses. He also notices the lines of the Allegro waa\Penseroso y in which this proceeding is followed, observing, that the syllabic foot ought to have place only at a word sufficiently significant to warrant the stress laid upon it, and pointing out where Milton has erred against this rule. Should the reader be satisfied with this reasoning, he may perhaps doubt whether any verse can be so written as to induce the ear to perceive the movement of a line from strong to weak. That this is not impossible, there will be occasion to show y and in the mean- while he may take it for granted, that what are usually termed trochaic verses are nothing more ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT, 365 than acephalous or headless iambics*; and the superior liveliness they are said to possess over the perfect iambic, independent of sense, arises only from their beginning in a brisker manner. The next kind of verse that may be exemplified is the trissyllabic or anap^stic. 1. But in vain" | . 2. But his cour' | age 'gan fail' | b . 3. But his cour' | age 'gan fail 7 | him c . 4. O ye woods', | spread your branch' | es apace' | \ 5. May I gov' | ern my pas' | sions with ab' | solute sway' j \ Mr. Sheridan mentions a kind of verse, under the denomination of amphibrachic, that is, in which the feet are formed of a long or accented syllable, having a short or unaccented one at both sides of it; but the same reasoning which proves trochaic to be of the nature of iambic, will prove this to be of the anapaestic kind. We may * Since the above was written, the author has had the pleasure of meeting with the " Practical English Prosody " of Dr. Carey, who, he is happy to find, professes the same opinion with himself, in regard to what our English prosodians are pleased to call trochaic verse. ■ A line containing one trissyllabic foot, or anapaest. b A line of two trissyllabics. c The same with a redundant syllable. * Of three trissyllabics, * Of four. 366 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. therefore scan the examples in the following manner: 1. Since con' | jugal pas' | sion Is come' | into fash' | ion, And mar' | riage so blest on the throne' | is 2. If e'er 7 | in thy sight' | I found fa' | vour, Apol' | lo, Defend' | me from all' | the disas' | ters that fol' | low. These lines have a redundant syllable at the end, which, as we have seen, is a common cir- cumstance in all our lines ; and they want a weak syllable at the beginning, which is a variation grammarians allow to our anapaestic verse; as, Diog' | enes, sur' j ly and proud'. | I think' | not of I' | ris, nor I' | ris of me'. | But Mr. Sheridan, having called them amphi- brachic, complains that our poets should have used them indiscriminately with the anapaestic. This very circumstance proves them, however* to be of the same species, since, if they had been essentially different, the ear would never have suffered them to be confounded. The brisker beginning of the lines, and the redundant syl- lable at the end, which has the effect of a rebound to the foregoing percussion of the voice, are quite sufficient to account for their superior sprightliness over the perfect anapaestic. Thus do the four grand species, into which this gentleman reduces our verse, prove, when ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 367 strictly examined, to be only two species, iambic and anapaestic ; and under this denomination all our verse may pass, whatever other term writers iuay please to employ. What is called the dac- tylic may, for instance, be scanned as the ana- paestic ; as, Go' [ and delight' | your compan' | ions at home', j This line, it will be observed, differs from No. 4 of the perfect anapaestic only by being prefaced with a forcible syllable, the effect of which is merely to awaken the attention of the hearer to the rest of the line. We have now reviewed every acknowledged species of English metre in its regular form, and applied to each the general idea of the nature of our prosody, which was at first assumed. If nothing else could be advanced in support of this idea, its simplicity would go a great way in its favour ; as the simplest way of accounting for things is generally found to be the true one. And this recommendation will be strengthened when we come to see how well the same principles apply in making out the deviations from a regular movement, which are allowed to our poets for the sake of variety and expression. No poem observes regularity in all its lines. Someone metre is taken as a standard, but it is often difficult to select a line perfectly regular. 36$ ON PROSODIACA1 ADMEASUREMENT. Even those which our prosodians adduce as ex- amples of regular lines do not all appear to be entitled to this appellation. Many of them are of a doubtful kind; such as the generality of readers might pronounce with a regular move- ment, but which some, induced by the sense or expression included in certain words, would make irregular. The following line might, for instance, pass in general for a regular iambic, agreeing with No. 8 of the first class: As if to learn to die Were no' | concern' | of ours'; | Oh! more' [ than sot' | tish! But dwelling, for the sake of expression, upon the interjection would introduce a new foot. — The succeeding line is usually scanned as a regular anapaestic of four feet, and a redundant syllable: On the warm' | cheek of youth' | smiles and ro' j ses are blend' | ing. Yet an observing reader would naturally ask why the substantive cheek should be a weak syllable, and its adjective warm a strong one^ why roses should lay claim to stress, and smiles be without it. To this it might be answered, that so long as the sense is not perverted, we may be allowed to read verse with some little deviation from the manner we should employ in prose,; especially, as even in prose we often give more stress to an epithet than a principal, or dwell upon one circumstance with more energy or ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. S6§ complacency than upon another: that a good reader will know how to pronounce such verses in a regular movement, without any manifest violation of their sense. Each of these pleas is entitled to attention ; and therefore the reader is desired to judge for himself in regard to many of the irregular feet hereafter specified to have place in various lines. Let him, however, keep in mind, that sense is a superior quality to sound ; for which reason, when their interests are too much at variance to admit of being reconciled, the latter must always give way to the former: and also, that a correct ear will expect to be gratified with variety, and will think a continual return of regular lines intolerable. Those are indeed readers of the most wretched class, who violate the natural pronunciation of every line in order to preserve what is ludicrously styled the H-turn ti'tum ti'tum. The first deviation from regularity which will be noticed, arises from the natural shortness of an accented syllable, when it is not allowable to make up for its want of length by a pause, and there are not consonants sufficient to answer the same purpose by retarding the voice. The pupil will have observed, that in beating time to a line perfectly regular, his toe descends at the ac- cented syllable, makes a rest, and does not rise 2 B 370 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. till the weak syllable following ; as in these two lines : Resound' | ye hills', | resound' | my mourn' | ful lay', | Farewel' | ye woods', | adieu' | the light' | of day'. | The time during which the toe makes the rest is in every foot of these verses fully taken up in pronouncing the accented syllable, which is either naturally long, from being formed with an open vowel; as, sound, mourn, lay, dieu, light, day; or is accompanied with consonant sounds that sufficiently retard the voice; as, hills, wel, woods. The syllable wel has indeed only one con- sonant sound after the shut vowel. This, however, is a vocal consonant, and admits of protraction. But had it been a mute, the regularity would not have. been disturbed ; for as it comes at the last syllable of a word, there is no necessity to hasten to the pronunciation of what follows, and, con- sequently, the want of time would have been supplied by a slight pause ; as, I quit' | the woods' | and bid' | adieu' | to day'. | The same remark applies to the. word bid. But now let the pupil beat time to the following line: Thus long' | succeed' | ing crit' | ics junt' | ly reign'd.' | He will feel it necessary to make a pause after the accented syllable of the third foot, in order to compensate for its very short quantity, in ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. S71 such a manner that the toe may rise at the following weak syllable. But propriety in the pronunciation of the word critics does not admit of such a pause between the syllables, and we utter both of them while the toe is making its rest. When it rises, in order to mark the be- ginning of the next foot, a pause will in conse- quence be there made, in order to stand in lieu of the unaccented syllable, which was snatched into the foregoing foot. We are not sensible of the same defect in the next foot; for although the syllable is naturally short, yet the interpo- sition of another consonant, s a sufficiently retards the voice to fill up the foot. The proper di- vision of the line is as follows : Thus long' | succeed' | ing crit'ics | — just' | ly reign'd'. j And this brings us to a point whence we can examine the truth of another of Mr. Sheridan's positions; viz. that it is a false rule which limits our heroic lines to ten syllables. Every reader will acknowledge that the whole word, critics, in the above verse, takes up only as much time as might be employed by a single accented syllable ; as, Thus long' ] succeed' | ing stran' | gers just' | ly reign'd'. | For the word critics has but two sounds more than the syllable strtoi: three are common to both, namely, s, t, and r; in critics there remain the shut vowel sounds, i, 1, and the sharp mutes, 2b2 . 372 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. k, k : and in strhi, there remain the open vowel a, and the vocal consonant n; which two sounds will certainly take up as much time as those four. Or, if the reader might not be disposed to admit this, let critics be pronounced without the s. The word will still have two syllables : but there will then remain only one sound, and that a mute, more than in the single syllable strhi ; when certainly the former will be allowed to occupy no more time than the latter. In for' | mer times' | a crit'ic | — jusf | ly reign'd'. | In for' | mer times' | a stran' | ger just' | ly reignM'. | We shall find, however, that the ear will not suffer the introduction of another syllable, though as short a one as can be found, to supply the pause after the word critic in the former line : In for' | mer times' | a crit'ic | atten' | tive reign'd'. j A proof that the ear will acknowledge no line to be correct, when it counts more than the due number of syllables. For it is only because the two syllables which compose this word are articulated so distinctly as to render it impossible the ear should account it a monosyllable, that the line reads badly : if it could be persuaded to this, it is evident that nothing would be wanting. Those lines, there- fore, which Mr. Sheridan produces in support of his opinion, however the eye may count their ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 373 syllables, must be considered by the ear to have only their regular number: and this proceeds from the smooth and liquid manner with which some of the sounds run into each other : a thing we shall have no difficulty in allowing, when we reflect how readily the ear conceives two vowel sounds closely united, as in a diphthong, to exist in one and the same syllable ; nay, even three to exist in the same syllable ; for the words hire, jive, &c., are undoubtedly pronounced hi'-fir, fl'-fir (see RULE 39, page 64); and the sound I is as cer- tainly composed of two sounds, & and £ (see page 13). — Now for Mr. Sheridan's examples: And the shrill sounds run eeho/ng through the woods. The word echoing in this line is evidently placed by the ear on the footing of a word of two syllables, from the manner in which the two vowels that meet in it flow into each other. The same rea- soning may be applied in the following lines : O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp. And many an amorous, many a humorous lay, Which many a bard had chanted many a day. Amorous and humorous are conceived to have only two syllables, because the sound fi, which o represents, is so nearly allied in its nature to the following smooth r, that it is difficult to know when one ends and the other begins ; and standing 374 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. moreover in the obscure shade of feeble stress, they easily pass themselves upon the ear as a single sound*. So that upon the whole, if these examples are properly examined, instead of sup- porting Mr. Sheridan's opinion, they will rather favour the contrary doctrine. Lines with super- numerary syllables often occur in our poets; but a good reader, without employing any harsh or barbarous contraction, will use every artifice that may induce the ear to perceive only the regular numberf. The occasion may now be taken for showing what was advanced a few pages back, — that though we almost always perceive the movement of verse from weak force to strong, yet aline may be so written as to make the ear sensible of the opposite movement. This is to be done by em- ploying words which oblige us to hasten from the accented syllables to the unaccented ones, without stopping to dwell on, or pause after, the former ; and which do not lay us under the same * Many other instances may be met with, in which the un- accented sounds ur pass for a single sound; as, sufferance, every, numerable, dangerous, f This remark can of course apply only to lines which are limited to a certain number of syllables. Blank verse, as we shall hereafter see, is not : and, therefore, the only object for using such artifice in reading it, is, to preserve the move- went, ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 37<5 necessity to hasten from the weak to the strong ones; as, Pret'ty, | lit/tie, | hap'py, | loving, | cou'ple. | Lines written wholly with this sort of feet are not likely to occur. We may, it is true, read any other line so as to have a similar effect, but not without departing from the usual mode of pro- nouncings succession of words. Feet of the above sort must however occasionally present themselves. Their effect is lively, and if interspersed in great number, in a very gay passage, may perhaps induce us to pronounce all the other feet in a correspond- ing manner. The lines Mr. Sheridan quotes from Dryden's Ode, to instance the trochaic move- ment, appear to admit of this reading. Softly sweet in Lydian measures Soon he sooth'd his soul to pleasures; War, he sung, is toil and trouble, Honour but an empty bubble, Never ending, still beginning, Fighting still, and still destroying. But it is very rare indeed to meet with a passage that will, with any propriety, allow of being thus read. And with regard to those feet whose proper pronunciation obliges the ear to perceive the movement from strong to weak, we may look upon their occasional occurrence as an irregu- larity, serving, like other irregularities, to intro- duce an occasional diversity. Another, and the most common way of di- 576 ON PROSODIAC AL ADMEASUREMENT. versifying our poetic metre is, by increasing or diminishing the number of feet in various lines; or by making the feet differ in respect to the number of syllables they contain. In our heroic verse, the only measure in which we need ex- emplify this method of diversification, this is accomplished as follows: when any of the odd syllables (which, it is to be remembered, are un^ accented in a regular line) assume a stress, so many feet are added to the ordained number ; and when any of the even syllables (which, we have seen, are accented in a regular line) forego their stress, so many feet are taken away. Hope' | — hum 7 | bly then', j* with trem' | bling pin' | ions soar 7 . | The proper expression of this line seems to re- quire that the first word, hope, should haye a stress ^qual to what is given the even syllables: hence, it forms a monosyllabic foot; and, by the supe- rior protraction it receives, fills up the same space of time with the other feet : while a short suspensive pause, which is almost unavoidably made between that and the next word, places the second foot, though likewise a monosyllabic, on the same level of time also. Let the reader pro- nounce hope as an unaccented syllable, and thus reduce the two monosyllabic ftet to a dissyllabic, he will find they take but half the time in the utterance which they did before. ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 377 Fa' | vours to none', | to all' | she smiles' | extends'. | And these' | our mo' | tions vain' | sees' | and derides'. | These lines, though not regularly accented, contain each of them the regular number of feet; for the increase which was made by accenting one of the odd syllables, is balanced by taking the accent from one of the even syllables. But though, by this means, we have a monosyllabic and a trissyllabic foot mingled with the others, we shall not find an unequal time in uttering any of them. Setting all kinds of pauses out of the question, which are not dictated by the necessity of making up for what is wanting in any of the feet, we shall perceive, in beating the time, that the toe marks the accents to be at regular dis- tances. Hence it is evident, that, in order to equalize the time of feet, we naturally strive to accelerate the utterance of one of many syllables, and retard the utterance of that which has but one or two, either by protracting the sound, or making up for the want of sound by a pause. Now this principle, which appears to have escaped the notice of our prosodians, deserves the greatest attention, as it will prove still further how much at variance the nature of the ancient versification is with our own, and the consequent absurdity of following in our language their manner of treating the subject. Qur verse is not, like theirs, limited to a certain number of feet; 378 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. for if it were, each line would, as theirs did, take op an equal lime in the pronunciation, all pauses not required by the sense of harmony being set out of the account :*and this is a position no one would venture to support. Nobody, for example, would say the following two lines, equably read, with the stress on those words the sense requires, are pronounced in equal time. Oh ! bless'd with temper, whose unclouded ray Can make to-morrow cheerful as to-day. And if they are not, what can so well account for the inequality, as reckoning the first line to contain six feet, and the latter four? Oh' ! | — bless'M | with tern' | per, whose' | uncloud' | ed ray' | Can make' | to-mor' | row cheer' | ful as to-day'. | There is indeed this opposite difference be- tween the mode of diversifying ancient poetry and our own. The ancients were allowed a variable number of syllables in almost each species of their verse, but were limited in the number of feet; while we are allowed a variable number of feet, but are limited in the number of syllables. As to the reality of the principle, that we naturally accelerate a polysyllabic foot, and re- tard, as much as possible, one of an inferior number of syllables, any one may satisfy himself concerning it, who will observe his own prouun- ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 379 ciation of either verse or prose. It is true, that when feet which differ greatly in this respect come near each other, the equality of time aimed at by this proceeding cannot, without too much violence, be completely accomplished ; but it is as true, that we willingly seize every opportunity, afforded^ by the sense or expression of a passage, to obtain this end. What principally operates against it is the immediate succession of mono- syllabic feet that are closely connected in sense: if they are not too closely connected, we can make out their time by pausing ; but otherwise, there must necessarily occur a short foot \ as will be perceived in reading the following examples : Not half | so swift' | ly the fierce' | ea! | gle moves'. | On her white' | breast' | a spark' | ling cross' | she wore'. | That on weak' | wings' | from far' | pursues' | her flight'. | On the green' | bank' \ to look' | into the clear' | Smooth' | lake'. \ In the next examples, we shall find occasion taken from the sense to make up the time of monosyllabic feet by pausing ; and it will be re- marked how well some of these pauses assist the expression, at the same time that they reduce the lines to a regularity of movement which they would otherwise want. Nature gave signs of wo, That all' | was lost'. | Back' | to the thick' | et slunk' | The guilty serpent. 380 ON PROSODJACAL ADMEASUREMENT. Well understood Of Eve', | whose eye' | — dart' | ed conta' | gious fire'. | — The soft delicious air Shall breath*' | her balm'. | But first' j —whom' | shall we send' j In search of this new world. The temp' j ter stood', | nor had' | -. — what' |'to reply'. | to look into the clear, Smooth' | lake', | that to me' | — seem'd' | anoth' | er sky'. | Through pain' [ — up' | by the roots' | Thessa' | lian pines'. | The reader's attention is now requested to another point, — the means by which the end of every line in poetry is distinguished to the ear. "When verse is rhymed, this circumstance serves to distinguish it, though not sufficiently of itself; for where the sense of a line runs immediately into the next, the effect of the rhyme, unless we violate the natural reading, is almost wholly lost; as we may perceive in the following examples: And who but wishes to invert the laws Of order, sins against the eternal cause. Which, without passing through the judgment, gains The heart, and all its end at once obtains. But, in blank verse, how is the ending of each line to be made known to the ear ? As correct delivery does not allow us to employ any kind of tone for this purpose, certainly only by a pause. And when the poet has made his principal pauses of sense fall at the conclusion of the lines, these ON PROSODiACAL ADMEASUREMENT. SSI do accordingly distinguish them. It is, however, reckoned one of the greatest perfections of our blank heroic verse to continue the sense from one line to another; and as the pauses will then fall at other parts of the verse, the .perception of the end of each line arising from this cause is, in consequence, lost. Mr. Sheridan proposes, under such circumstances, a suspensive pause, a slight cessation of voice, that brings with it no other alteration of manner. But this pause, if it be .only a slight one, although it differs in its nature from pauses of sense, will not have the intended effect; for the ear is accustomed to perceive both prose and verse by those portions which the understanding marks out ; that is, by the pauses of sense; and a mere cessation of voice, which is inferior in duration to these pauses, cannot cer- tainly divert it from its common practice. This remark, which, it is presumed, carries its evidence along with it, may be proved by experiment. To produce the effect intended by a pause of this kind, we must make it very sensibly longer than the sentential stops; and then indeed, so soon as these become manifestly of a subordinate description, we shall, as Mr. Sheridan requires* have raised a separate interest to the ear from that of the understanding. But surely no reader would venture to pronounce blank verse in this manner; in a manner that would almost entirely 382 ON PROSOD1ACAL ADMEASUREMENT. destroy the energy and spirit of the composition? Mr. Sheridan himself certainly did not, for he speaks only of a slight pause ; in regard to the effect of which he mast have deceived himself, since reason and experiment prove it to be in- adequate to its end ; and being so, it becomes wholly unnecessary, and ought, as employed merely for this purpose, to be laid aside*. * Merely for this purpose, because, as will be shown, it may often be proper to use this suspensive pause, but not with the view of distinguishing the end of the line. The author would have supposed the idea of Mr. Sheridan was wholly exploded, if the rule on this head, copied from the Art of Reading, did not daily meet his eye in the English Grammar now generally put into the hands of youth. As it is founded on an erroneous principle, and may lead to a faulty manner of reading, this is to be regretted. It has already been combated, first by Mr. Rice, a cotemporary lecturer with Mr. Sheridan, and latterly by Mr. Walker, a gen- tleman not in the habit of suffering his judgment to be led astray in a wild pursuit of imaginary beauties. He, after a variety of reasons against it, instances the following lines from Milton as a proof that blank verse must divide itself to the ear according to its portions of sense, notwithstanding the use of the slight suspensive pause. Deeds of eternal fame Were done, but infinite; for wide was spread That war, and various ; sometimes on firm ground A standing fight ; then soaring on main wing, Tormented all the air; all air seeni'd then Conflicting fire : long time in even scale The battle hun^. ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 383 What follows from this reasoning is, that when the poet does not think proper to compose his blank verse in lines often syllables each, marked out by the sense, it matters not to the ear that it is so written upon paper y for, in listening to the pronunciation of such verse, it infallibly divides into the portions which are made by the sense, be they what they may. Indeed, much might be said to prove, that this kind of composition owes a principal part of its effect to the manner in which the portions of sense are varied and arranged; and that our best poets have always been secretly intent upon such variation and arrange- ment, however they might at the same time have employed themselves in confounding them to the eye, by uniformly marking down ten syllables in each line. Be this as it may, Mr. Sheridan was evidently mistaken in regard to the nature of blank verse; and the mistake has led him into another, in accounting for certain pauses in it, which he terms caesural. But, before Which, he "says, must address the ear in the same manner it does the eye in the following arrangement : Deeds of eternal fame were done, but infinite; For wide was spread that war and various ; Sometimes on firm ground a standing fight; '^hen soaring on main wing, ^ormented all the air: All air seem'd then conflicting fire : Long time in even scale the battle hung. 584 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. this is shown, it will be proper to explain what the caesura, in English versification, really is. The whole doctrine of the caesura mav be conveyed in a few words. In reading poetry, whether rhymed or not, which addresses itself to the ear in verses of ten syllables each, the want of some other pause than the final is, from the length of the lines, very sensibly felt •> and as the division of a line into two equal parts is more harmonious than any other division, a verse sounds most agreeably when the sense allows us to pause at or near the middle. But a long succession of lines thus equally divided would be tiresome ; and therefore, for the sake of variety, we are glad when the sense occasionally leads us to separate a line into parts less proportionate. This diversity of pause gives, at the same time, a difference of expression to different lines. When, for example, the pause comes early, the expression is brisk, and well suited to lively subjects -> as, Favours to none, [} to all she smiles extends, Oft she rejects, || but never once offends. When it comes after the fifth syllable, and thus equally divides the line, the expression is more harmonious, and proper to convey correspondent sentiments. Eternal sunshine |j of the spotless mind, Each pray'r accepted, || and each wish resign'd. ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 385 If the sense carry it forwarder, the air of the verse becomes solid, grave, or plaintive; The wrath of Peleus' son, || the direful spring Of all the Grecian woes, || O, goddess, siug! And in the smooth description || murmur still. The above quotations, showing the power of the caesura, are copied from Blair's Lectures. But, after all, what does this stop amount to? It certainly is not, as some writers appear desirous of persuading us, a musical pause perfectly inde- pendent of sense. The utmost to be urged on the point is, that feeling it agreeable not to pro- nounce an heroic verse of ten syllables without any stop before the end, we are glad to find, somewhere about the middle, a pause of sense; and, let this opportunity of pausing be ever so slight, we never fail to seize it*. But we cannot * It is not to be imagined, because we should not probably have used the pause which is made at the caesura in verse, if the same arrangement had occurred in prose, that therefore we might not. Let it be observed, that the pauses which are marked in books serve only to point out the grammatical connexion between different parts of sentences, and are very properly called grammatical stops. But rhetorical pauses, which enable us to express sense in the most distinct and advantageous manner, are much more numerous ; and indeed there are not many connexions but what admit such a pause. This point could be incontrovertibly proved by oral illustra- 386 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. stop unless the sense will allow of it ; and there- fore it is, in reality, a pause of sense, which, because it falls at an agreeable place, we take care never to lose. We cannot, for example, pause in the first of the following two lines, before the end of the word imagination — Where beams of warm imagination play, The memory's soft figures mtlt away ; although the ear manifestly solicits a stop at the word warm. And, by the by, if another proof were wanting, as to the impropriety of the final suspensive pause in blank verse, here is one: for, if we are not allowed to make a stop, indepen- dent of the sense, when the ear solicits one, where can be the propriety of obliging the ear to look for a pause equally independent of sense, when it does not solicit one? In regard to what is called the demi-ceesura, — as the author has already been obliged to Mr. Walker for several hints on the foregoing points, so he will here make use of this gentleman's own words : " But, beside the capital pause, or caesura, there are certain subordinate pauses, which, though not so essential as the capital tion. And if the reader would make himself acquainted with the principles of it, he must consult Mr. Walter's system of rhetorical punctuation, in his Elements of Elocution. ON PRQSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. S87 pause, yet, according to some of our prosodists, form some of the greatest delicacies in reading verse, and are an inexhaustible source of variety and harmony in the composition of poetic num* bers. But, in the exemplifying of this demi- csesura, or subordinate pause, our prosodists either show the impropriety of many of these pauses, or that they may be accounted for upon a different; principle ; as, Relent — less walls || whose darksome round — contains. For her — while virgins jj hyme — neals sing. In these — deep solitudes || and aw — ful cells. Nothing could be more puerile and destructive of the sense, than to make pauses as they are here marked in the middle of the words relentless* hymeneal, and awful* which are the instances Lord Kaims brings of the use of this half pause. In the lines quoted by Mr. Sheridan, as instances, of the demi-cassura, we find an opposition at every one; and this opposition always requires 4 pause, whether in prose or verse. Glows — while he reads || but trembles — as he writes. Reason — the card || but passion — is the gale. , From storms-»-a shelter [J and from heat — a shade. So that, on the whole, notwithstanding the de- cided manner in which these prosodists speak of the demi-csesura as necessary in verse, I am apt 2 C 2 388 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. to conclude that it often exists no where but in their own imaginations. " But, to return to the principal pause, or caesura. — As it has its origin in the length of lines of ten syllables, from the want of some pause beside the final, we may readily conceive that it is rarely a property of blank verse; since this, however it may be written to the eye, does not uniformly address the ear in lines of ten syl- lables each: and accordingly, what Mr. Sheridan gives as examples of it in blank verse, will all ad- mit of a different interpretation; as, TJnrespited, — unpitied, — unreprieved. Thus sitting, — thus consulting, — thus in arm*. In these lines, as Mr. Sheridan himself ob- serves, there are pauses of sense; and this suffi- ciently accounts for them without calling them caesural. But in the following, as he says, there is no pause of sense: And sweet — reluctant — amorous delay. Yet what good reader, if the same arrangement occurred in prose, would not make the same pauses, if he were desirous of giving the sentiment any expression and effect ? Outstretch'd he lay, — on the cold ground,— and oft -Curs'd his creation. What he calls the caesural pauses, will here be as ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 38§ easily accounted for. And we may, at the same time, take some notice of that which he has marked as the suspensive pause at the word oft. There it is certainly admissible to make a slight pause ; for, if we run on the line in writing, as it does in sense, into the next line, we shall find a monosyllabic foot following a dissyllabic; and therefore, the sense not absolutely forbidding, we shall gratify the ear by pausing before the mo- nosyllabic, in order to make up its due quan- tity; as, on the cold' | ground', \ and oft' | curs'd' | his crea' | tion. Upon this principle, the use of such a pause, in almost every example Mr. Sheridan has given, may be proved strictly proper; which may well lead us to think, that, as he was evidently deceived in regard to the purpose for which he professes to employ it, he was in fact unknowingly guided by another principle, — by this very principle we have in view. This idea will be strengthened by attending to his remark on the following line: Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, &c. He intimates, that by omitting the suspensive pause at fruit 9 we hurt the movement. Let the reader mark out the feet, as follows, and beat time to them ; Of man's' j —first' \ disobe' | dience, and the fruit' \ — of that' \ forbidden', \ &c. ; he will #90 OS PitOSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. find, that the length of the fourth foot, and the grammatical pause occurring in it, suggests to the ear the propriety of a short pause in the next foot, in order to bring it nearer upon an equality of time ; and although the words in it have so close a connexion in sense with those that pre- cede, as to render it unlikely we should employ this pause in the delivery of common prose, yet the connexion is not so very close as absolutely to forbid it, and therefore, to gratify the ear, we may make it. The author, having now, he trusts, furnished the reader with the means of accounting for the melody, variety, harmony, and expression to be met with in different parts of English poetry, upon principles much more simple than those commonly held out, and enabled the student to divide any line into the real number of feet heard in pronouncing it, will take leave of the subject of versification by summing up these principles into one view. 1. In any alternation of strong and weak per- cussions, regular or irregular, the strong percus- sions must attract peculiar attention from the ear. The others, from their comparative indistinctness, will never make any complete impression ; for, while they continue, the ear will be in a state of suspense for the return of a forcible percussion. <$S PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 391 2. It is at the option of the ear to perceive the movement of an alternation of such percussions, either from weak to strong, or from strong to weak} but the former is more natural : and, when the strong percussions are accompanied by a pro- traction, so as to have the effect of a rest, this mode of perception becomes almost a ne- cessity. 3. A syllable pronounced with stress, is of the nature of a strong percussion ; a syllable pro- nounced without stress, is of the nature of a weak percussion. Hence, the primary efficient of English prosodiacal admeasurement is stress. 4. Stress, from its nature, usually lengthens the syllable it falls on; owing to which, the ear acquires a habit of expecting a certain duration with every accented syllable ; and, if the allotted time should not be occupied, solicits a pause to make it up. 5. From the above premises it plainly appears, that every syllable bearing a primary accent marks the end of a foot ; except, 6. When the accented syllable is pronounced in less than its allotted time, and no pause makes up for its short duration \ for then any syllable or syllables, that are snatched into the time of the accented syllable, may be considered as belonging to it, and may be called redundant, 7. Accprding to these principles, English feet 392 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. may be called monosyllabic, dissyllabic, &c, each of which may occasionally be redundant. 8. The regular movement of any poetic line in English is (if the epithet will be allowed), by zmredundant dissyllabic or trissyllabic feet : and hence the first distinction of our verse; namely, into dissyllabic and trissyllabic. 9. All our poetry, except, blank verse, is limited to a certain number of syllables in each line; or, at least, the ear must perceive only that number. 10. Though the regular movement of these lines is by w?zredundant dissyllabic or trissyllabic feet, yet, as the feet at the beginning and end of the lines are not material to the movement, a diversity is admitted in them without producing any irregularity; and this diversity aids ex* pression. Lines redundant at the end have a sprightly air: those which want weak syllables at the commencement, by the brisk manner in which they set out, are also lively. As to the re- dundant lines, they occur occasionally among those which are not redundant ; but it not being quite so usual to intermix those wanting weak syllables at the beginning, with those not wanting them, a second distinction of our ver?e is pro- duced; namely, into the perfect and acephalous. 11. Our verse may next be distinguished by the number of feet in each line ; any line being denominated, according to this circumstance, a ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 393 unaped, a biped, a triped, a tetraped, a pentaped, a hex aped, a kept aped, or an oc taped. 12. By the foregoing terms, all our standard poetic metres may be distinguished; as, for ex- ample, the following line, ♦ Rest | less mor | tals toil | for nought, | may be called an acephalous dissyllabic tetraped j and this one, "Go | and delight | your compan | ions at home, j a trissyllabic tetraped, acephalous by tvvo syl- lables. 13. The first deviation from regularity in our poetic lines, arises from pronouncing a weak syllable in part of the time allotted to an accented syllable ; by which means one of the feet is made redundant, and another is deprived of a syllable. 14. But the principal source of variety in our versification, arises from accenting the syllables differently from what they are accented in a regular line; which procedure has the following eifect: when any of the weak syllables of a regular line assume a stress, so many feet are added to the ordained number; and when any of the strong syllables forego their stress, so many feet are taken away. 15. We always preserve, as much as sense will permit, an equality of time between feet differing in their number of syllables, by an accelerated 594 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. or retarded pronunciation, and by the use of pauses. 16. The caesura is a pause of sense in our heroic verse of ten syllables in each line, the standard of which is a perfect dissyllabic pen- taped ; which pause we never fail to use, because it is at the same time conducive to harmony. 17- Blank verse does not uniformly address the ear in lines of ten syllables each. To be Tegular, it must consist only of dissyllabic feet, except at the pauses of sense which mark out its portions; at which, in the manner of other verse, it may end with a redundant weak syllable. Its movement is diversified in the same way with other poetic lines. There now remains something to be said on the admeasurement or scanning of prose. Very little, however, will be necessary ; for as the pupil already knows, that every syllable bearing pri- mary stress marks the end of a foot, he has only to observe his pronunciation, to make a division after every such syllable, and he will have divided the composition into those feet by which he pro- nounces it. The following sentence may be given as an example : In all' I our rea' | sonings and underta' | kings, mistakes' | are al' | most uuavoid' | able, from the fallibil' | ity of our ua' I ture. ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 395 This, it is presumed, is correctly marked inti the feet which the sense dictates. In pro- nouncing it, we shall have occasion to observe, that the same principle has place, in prose as in verse, of endeavouring to equalize the time of feet, by accelerating the polysyllabic, and re- tarding those of few syllables. And though, in- general, prose is too much diversified in its feet, to admit much of this equality, yet there is fre- quently a near approximation. If, for example, the above be read without attention to the gram- matical stops, the time of the feet will not be found to differ greatly, although so different in their number of syllables. Reading it with attention to the pauses will cause us, in beating time, to keep the toe at rest after the accented syllable of the word undertakings, till the whole word is pronounced, and the due pause made. The same proceeding takes place at unavoidable, and the toe rises with the word from. The difference between prose and verse will be readily comprehended. In verse, as we have seen, the forcible syllables are so placed as to have, in one species, a single weak syllable, in another, two, between each; although, for the sake of variety, occasional deviations from this regularity are allowed. In prose, a studied arrangement of the forcible syllables is seldom observed, but the feet are mixed 3 that is, an unequal number 896 ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. of accented syllables comes between each stress. When, however, a prose writer chooses to adopt -an even and regular movement, his composition approaches, in a correspondent degree, to verse, and is called numerous prose. Indeed, the difference between free blank verse and very numerous prose is trifling; sometimes there is none. For what always characterises blank verse is, its dissyllabic movement ; of which it never loses sight, however it may occasionally deviate ; and if in writing prose we use much of the same movement, we shall inevitably confound it with blank verse. A characteristic movement is not, however, necessary to numerous prose. What is here principally attended to is, pre- venting as much as possible feet that differ greatly in their number of syllables from following each other ; and, above all, not suffering weak syllables, which afford no resting place to the voice, to occur in a long, uninterrupted succession. The reader will discover the truth of these observations by scanning any sentence of remarkable har- mony. Wheresoev | er the sun ] doth shine, | wheresoev | er the wind 1 doth blow, | wheresoev | er there is an ear | to hear, | and a mind | to conceive ; | — —there | let the pre | cepts of life | be made known, | let the max | ims of truth | be hou | wired and obeyed. | The cadences to the paragraphs of set orations ON PROSODIACAL ADMEASUREMENT. 397 and other writings, will generally be found to have much of this regularity of movement. As to prose of the more common kind, it will not be found easy to scan it with great exactness, because, as we have already seen, so much di- versity takes place in laying the primary accent. If, therefore, the pupil, while pronouncing any sentence with all possible attention to its proper delivery, will beat time at certain returns of stress, and place the mark at those syllables, it matters little that he does not make precisely the same division another would make. Nor will it be of consequence should he omit to mark with his toe or pen some of the syllables that he pronounces with primary stress; especially if by such omission he gratifies the ear with greater, re- gularity in beating time. His object at all times must be, to raise in the mind a perception of order and harmony; and, provided he be re- strained from violating the essentials of correct pronunciation, after putting him in possession of some general directions, the particular means may be left to himself. THE E N B. Printed by C. Wood, Poppin's Court, Fleet Street. °&) 14 DAY TT^p RBTURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. Renewedbo ob are subject to Mediate recall ^221 A -50m.8/62 "17097*1 0U7fiK .General Library University of CaLforoia