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'The hooks are drawn up on sound principles, and should obtain what their merits deserve— an extensive circulation.' Journal of Education. LONDON : RIVINGTON, PERCIVAL & CO. ENGLISH GRAMMAR ADAPTED TO THE USE OF THOSE PREPARING FOR LOCAL AND OTHER EXAMLNATLONS BY J. ARNOLD TURNER ASSISTANT MASTER AT HAILEYBURY COLLEGE AND A. R. S. HALLIDIE 9 FORMERLY JUNIOR STUDENT OF CHRIST CHURCH, OXFORD WITH A PREFACE BY The Hon. and Rev. E. LYTTELTON, M.A. HEAD MASTER OF HAILEYBURY COLLEGE SECOND EDITION RIVINGTON, PERCIVAL & CO. KLNG STREET, CO VENT GARDEN LONDON . 1895. PEEFACE It will, perhaps, be in the recoUectioii of some who use this book, that Professor Seeley, in his brilliant volume of Lectures and Essays, presses the claim of the English lan- guage as an important ingredient in the education of English children. The chief reason he adduces is one which must commend itself to any one who has ever sincerely tried to train boys or girls in any subject: namely, that to begin with English is to begin with what is known, from which the child may be led on to what is unknown. Children have, as a rule, a knowledge of English which, compared with their knowledge of any other subject, may be de- scribed as extensive : and it is a sad waste of opportunities to begin any serious, formal'* training of the intellect, without first grappUng with the principles of a language which by ten years of age a child has learnt to speak with ease. These and similar ideas took shape in a resolution passed at the Head Masters' Conference in 1892, to th€ effect that the study of English grammar and literature vi English Grammar is deserving of encouragement in schools. Some of those present thought that the disputable second half of this resolution was carried through by being yoked to the first half, which no one was prepared to vote against. Be that as it may, the passing of the resolution explains the genesis of this English GraTYiraar. Without having had either the time or the experience to give to an exhaustive study of this book, I can safely say that it is constructed on sound principles ; the gram- matical terminology is handled with due reserve, and every possible attempt is made to induce the learner to use his reasoning powers. E. LYTTELTON. Haileybury, July 1894. CONTENTS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24." 25., 26. 27. 28. [-Introductory Definitions Relations of the English Language Sources of English * The Alphabet Vowels .... Diphthongs and Digraphs Consonants Classification of Consonant Letters Table of Consonant Sounds Syllables . . . . Parts of Speech . Words used in several capacities Nouns .... Substantives Common Substantives General Names . Abstract Names . Collective Names Inflexions of Substantives Case .... The Cases and their functions . ^ Anglo- Saxon Declensions Instrumental, Ablative and Locative Cases Defects of Case-Inflexion Nominative Case . PAGE 1,2 2 4 8 9 9 10 10 11 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 16 16 17 17 18 18 18 19 Vlll English Gramrnar 6./ Genitive Case — Its uses. SECTION 29. Nominative Absolute 30. Nominative of Address (Vocative 31. Accusative Case , 32. Dative Case 33. Genitive Case — Its Formation . 34. Genitive of Compound Expressions 35. 36 37. Number . 38. First Form of the Plural . 39. Second Form of the Plural 40. Third Form of the Plural 41. Plural of Compounds 42. Foreign Plurals . 43. Singulars treated as Plurals 44. Plurals treated as Singulars 45. Plurals without Singulars 46. Substantives having different meanings in Singular and Plural 47. Substantives which in the Singular denote an action, and in the Plural the results of the action . 48. Substantives with two forms in the Plural 49. Plurals of Proper Names 50. Plurals of Abstract Names 51. Plurals of Substances which are counted 52. Gender 53. Gender in other Languages 54.^ ^ y Terminations denoting Sex 55. J 56. Adjectives 57. Classes of Adjectives 58. Adjectives of Quantity . 59. Notes on Adjectives of Quality 60. Demonstrative Adjectives 61. Articles . 62. The Definite Article measured or weighed but not PAGE 20 21 21 23 23 24 25,26 26 27 28 28 29 30 30 31 31 31 32 32 32 32 32 33 34 34,35 36 37 37 38 38 39 40 Contents IX SECTION 63. Numerals .... 64. Ordinal Numerals 65. Multiplicatives . 66. Distributives and Numeral Adverbs 67. Uses of Adjectives 68. Inflexion of Adjectives . 69. Comparison of Adjectives 70. First method of Comparison 71. Irregular Comparisons . 72. Notes on Irregular Comparisons . 73. Second method of Comparison . 74. Adjectives which cannot be compared 75. Pronouns .... 76. Classes of Pronouns 77. Personal Pronouns 78. Notes on Personal Pronouns 79. Personal Pronoun of the Third Person 80. Notes on Personal Pronoun of the Third Person 81. Reflexive Forms . . 82. Emphatic use of Reflexive Forms 83. Possessive Pronouns 84. Demonstrative Pronouns 85. TU8 and That . 86. S'o . 87. Such .... 88. Yon, Yonder 89. Interrogative Pronouns . 90. -» V Relative Pronouns 91. / 92. Who .... 93. Which .... 94. That .... 95. Difi'erent uses of That, Who, Which 96. What .... 97. ^s 98. But . . , * . English Grammar SECTION PAGE 99. Universal Relatives ..... 64 100. Relative and Antecedent .... 64 101. Distributive Pronouns ..... 65 102. Notes on Distributive Pronouns . 65 103. Indefinite Pronouns . . . . , 67 104. Notes on Indefinite Pronouns .... . 67 105. Verbs ....... 68 106. Transitive and Intransitive use of Verbs 69 107. Verb-Inflexion : Person ..... 70 108. Number ....... 70 109. Tense . . . . . . . 71 110. English and Latin Tenses compared • 72 \ Tense-Forming Auxiliaries .... 112. J 72, 73 113. Peculiar uses of Tenses . 73 114. Voice . . 74 115. Mood ....... 75 116. The Indicative Mood 75 117. The Imperative Mood ..... 75 118. The Subjunctive Mood ..... 76 119. Uses of the Subjunctive Mood .... 77 120. Subordinate Clauses ..... 77 121. Verbal Nouns Substantive .... 78 122. The Gerund 80 123. Distinction between Gerund, Present Participle, and Abstraci Substantive in -ing ..... 80 124. Verbal Nouns Adjective . . . 81 125. Conjugation ...... 82 126. Strong Conjugation ..... 83 127. Instances of Strong Verbs .... 84 128. Weak Conjugation ..... 84 129. Peculiarities in Weak Verbs .... 85 130. Anomalous or Irregular Verbs . . . . . 86 131. Be . . . 87 132. Have . . . . 87 133. Do ........ 88 Contents XI SECTION 134. Shall, Will 135. Uses of Shall, Will 136. May ^. 137. Conjugation of a Strong Verb- 138. Adverbs . 139. Comparison of Adverbs . 140. Conjunctions 141. Prepositions 142. Interjections 143. Syntax 144. Phrases and Sentences 145. Phrases -^ee 146. 147, 160, 151 152 Subject and Predicate Qualification of Subject and Predicate . 148. Complements .... 149. The Nature of Predication Rules of Agreement Agreement of Verb with Subject Agreement of Adjective and Substantive 153. Apposition .... 154. Agreement of Relative with Antecedent 155. Combinations of Simple Sentences 156. Compound Sentences 157. Clauses 158. Substantival Clauses 159. Adverbial Clauses 160. Adjectival Clauses 161. Clauses Adjectival only in Form 162. How to Distinguish the Nature of Clauses 163. Co-ordinate and Subordinate Clauses 164. Contracted and Elliptical Sentences 165. Analysis of Sentences 166. Analysis of Simple Sentences 167. Analysis of Combinations of Simple Sentences 168. Analysis of Compound Sentences 169. Compound Sentences with one Clause . Xll English Grammar SECTION 170. Compound Sentences with more than one Clause 171. Clauses dependent upon other Clauses . 172. Harder Examples of Analysis Appendix I. Hints on Parsing ,, II. Punctuation Index ...... PAGE 132 134 136 139 141 143 INTRODUCTORY 1 Grammar is the science that treats of language and the art of using language correctly. Language is the expression of thoughts or feelings by means of words. When we speak of any language in particular — of the English language, for instance — we mean the whole collection of words used by the people who speak the language. Dialects are local variations in a language ; for instance, in the Lowlands of Scotland, in Lancashire, in Norfolk, and in Somerset people speak dialects which differ con- siderably from one another and from ordinary EngHsh. Words are sounds that are articulate and significant ; for instance hat is a word ; but haf is not a word, for though articulate it is not significant ; a yawn is not a word, for though it may be significant it is not articulate^ English Grammar, then, deals with the English language, the words that compose it, and the rules that govern it. 2 The sounds of which words are composed are repre- sented to the eye by signs called letters ; the aggregate of letters used in any language for this purpose is called an Alphabet, from alpha, beta, the Greek names for A and B, Orthography (from the Greek orthos, ' right,' grapho, ' I write ') deals with the correct way of representing words, by letters. A 2 English Grammar 3 Grammar has two branches, Accidence and Syntax; the former is concerned with words, the latter with sentences. Accidence (from the Latin accidere, ' to befall ') treats of the changes of form that happen to words according to variations in their meaning or use ; for instance, man, Tnen, men's; he, him, his; loves, loving, loved. These changes are called Inflexions (from the Latin inflexio, ' a bending '), being, as it were, bondings or adaptations of the form of the word to express changes in its meaning or use. Syntax (from the Greek syntaxis, ' arrangement ') treats of the arrangement of words in sentences, and the arrange- ment of sentences among themselves. Etymology (from the Greek etymon, *true meaning'; logos, 'science') is sometimes considered a third branch of grammar; it deals with the derivation and formation of words. A Sentence (from the Latin sententia, ' sense ') is a col- lection of words so arranged as to express a statement, a question, a command, or a wish. RELATIONS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 4 Most of the languages of Europe are related to one another ; by, which is meant that their structure is, or has been, similar, and that many of the words that compose them have sprung from a common source. English, for instance, is closely related to Dutch, distantly related to Welsh, and not related at all to Hebrew or Hungarian. The relationship between European languages arose thus : — In Central Asia (or, according to more recent authorities, in N.E. Europe) there once lived a numerous people, the Aryans, speaking (more or less) the same language and possessing the same institutions. As they grew in numbers and power they sent off from time to time great hordes that conquered and colonised the Relations of the E^iglish Language 3 neighbouring countries. Some of these went southwards into India and Persia; the rest swept westwards in succes- sive waves across the face of Europe, each horde in turn pressing upon the one that had preceded it. Now, as each of these hordes left the parent body at a different time, and consequently at a different stage in its development, and as each horde would thenceforth live in different surroundings, it is not surprising that their languages, at the time when we first know anything of them, had come to differ very widely indeed, and have generally continued to diverge ever since. Yet they are all undoubtedly related ; they have sprung from a common source, and the words that express certain elementary notions (as hrealc, hear, thirst, two, three, ten, thou, tooth, brother, father) may still be traced running through them all. There are in Europe six families of languages descended from the Aryan tongue : 1. Celtic, spoken in the Scottish Highlands, Ireland, Isle of Man, Wales, and Brittany; and, until lately, in Cornwall. 2. Latin, from which are descended the languages spoken in Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, Southern Switzerland, and Roumania. 3. Greek, Ancient and Modern. [The Latin and Greek families are not separate off- shoots from the Aryan, but are more closely re- lated.] 4. Lettic, or Lithuanian, spoken in Eastern and North- Eastern Prussia. 5. Slavonic, spoken in Russia, Poland, Bohemia, Bulgaria, and Servia. [These two are also closely related.] 6. Teutonic, spoken in Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Holland, Belgium, and England. 4 English Grammar These Teutonic languages fall into three groups : (i) Scandinavian, spoken in Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. (ii) High German, originally spoken in the Highlands, or southern part, of Germany, and now the recognised German speech. (iii) Low German, originally the languages of the vari- ous tribes living in the Lowlands, or northern part of Germany; now represented by Dutch, Frisian, Plat-Deutsch, Flemish, and English. SOURCES OF ENGLISH 5 When we first hear of the British Islands in history, they were inhabited by a Celtic race. In 55 B.C., the Romans, who had subdued the Celts in Northern Italy and Gaul, invaded Britain, but their object was rather to terrify than to conquer, and it was not until a century later, in 43 A.!)., that they made any permanent settlement in the country. For the next 400 years Britain was a Roman province, administered by Roman governors, and protected by Roman legions; but in 410 the incursions of various' Teutonic tribes into Gaul, and the general break-up of the Roman Empire, led to the withdrawal of the Roman garri- son from Britain. Their occupation has left its trace upon our language only in certain names of places ; thus, Chester, M.aii'ChesteT, Lan-Gaster, Wox-cester, were formed from the Latin castra, a camp; StTat-iorA, StreatrhMn, Streat-ley, from strata, a street ; (7oZ-chester, Lin-coln, from colonia, a colony; Foss-bury, irom fossa, a moat; and some others. The British Celts, left without the protection of the Roman legions, soon fell an easy prey to the more warlike Teutons. The invaders of Britain belonged to three Teutonic tribes, Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and spoke a Low-German dialect; their invasion began in 449, and Sources of English 5 went on for about 100 years; it was a war not merely of conquest, but in many parts of extermination, and by 577 the invaders were masters of the country from Edinburgh to Exeter, and had driven the remnants of theCelts before them into Cumberland, Wales, and Cornwall. From this time the country may be called England, and its language English. But this English, known as Anglo-Saxon, was very unlike the English of to-day. In the first place, it was an unmixed language; that is, all its words were Teutonic, while Modern English, as will be seen, has derived its vocabulary from several sources. In the second place, it was an inflexional language, whereas Modern English is an analytical language ; that is, ideas which in Anglo-Saxon were expressed by means of inflexions are now expressed by prepositions and auxiliary verbs. But although the Celts were almost exterminated throughout the eastern half of England, a few, no doubt, were spared as slaves or wives for the conquerors; and through these some Celtic words found their way into the language. These words are very few in number, and relate to the commonest household objects; instances are darn, mattock, mug, pick. In 597 the conversion of the English to Christianity began, and in the following centuries many words were introduced by the priests into the language from Latin, or from Greek through Latin. These are chiefly ecclesiastical terms, such as alT^is, candle, church, font, priest, and are known as the Latin of the Second Period — that of the First Period consisting of the Latin place-names previously mentioned. In 870 the Danes first formed a settlement in England, and eight years later they were masters of all the country north of a line drawn from London to Liverpool. In this country they settled in large numbers, and, although they 6 English Grmnmar were afterwards for some time subject to the English kings, yet their power revived, and from 1017 to 1041 a Danish dynasty held the throne. The language of the Danes, as has been already pointed out, belonged to the Scandinavian group of the Teutonic family. The effect of their settlement upon the Northern speech was twofold : (1) its inflexions began to decay, as always happens when a language is adopted by a people to whom it is foreign; (2) its vocabulary was increased by many Scandinavian words, of which, however, few remain in Modern English, owing to the fact that it was a Southern and not a Northern dialect that became the recognised literary form of the language; still some remain, as are, hash, ill, till. The Norman Conquest in 1066 introduced a new ele- ment into English. The Northmen, who were the same people as the Danes, had played the same part in France as in England ; they had settled at the mouth of the Seine, and had forced the French king to cede them the province which became known as Normandy. But they had adopted the French language, which was a corruption of Latin spoken by a Celtic people. This language they brought with them into England, and it became the speech of the barons and their retainers, of education, literature, and law ; while English remained the speech of the great body of the people. At first the conquerors and the conquered held apart, and the English language remained intact ; but the loss of Normandy in 1206, and the struggles of the barons against the king, as well as the lapse of time, brought the two races closer together — with the usual effect upon the language : — (1) Its vocabulary was increased by the addition of a large number of French words; these were, of course, of Latin origin, and are known as the Latin of the Third Period. Sources of E^iglish 7 (2) Its inflexions began to decay ; the period of decay was from about 1250 to 1500, and the language of this period is known as Middle English, as distinguished from Old English or Anglo-Saxon on the one hand, and Modern English on the other. Modern English, then, begins with the sixteenth cen- tury ; and at the same time began the revival of classical learning in England. This revival led to the introduction of a large number of words from Latin, known as the Latin of the Fourth Period, and the process has been going on ever since. But the words that belong to this period, coming directly from the Latin, merely rsceived an English termination, and have altered but little in spelling ; while those of the Third Period, which came to us indirectly through French, have been greatly corrupted on the way. This will be clear from the following instances : — LATIN. FOURTH PERIOD. THIRD PERIOD. fragilis fragile frail legalis legal loyal paeniteiitia penitence penance potio potion poison praedicare predicate preach prosequi prosecute pursue providere provide purvey pungens pungent poignant quietus quiet coy redemptio redemption ransom respicere respect respite rotundus rotund round securus secure sure sententia sentence sense vocalis vocal vowel. Many Greek words have also been introduced into Modern English, especially as scientific terms; and the 8 English Grammar expansion of the British Empire and of English trade has added to the language a considerable number of words from various sources. Thus the main sources of English are two : — 1. Saxon, which has given us the whole foundation and structure of our language, and about one-third of its vocabulary. 2. Latin, which (setting aside place-names and ecclesiastical words introduced with Christianity) has come to us either — (A) through Norman French, or (B) directly from Latin literature. A few words were also introduced into Old and Middle English from — 3. Geliic^ chiefly through Saxon, but in some instances through the Celtic element in French. 4. Scandinavian, chiefly through the Danes, but in some instances through the Norse element in Norman French. The sources from which words have been introduced into Modern English are too numerous to mention. THE ALPHABET 6 English spelling is etymological, not phonetic ; that is, it depends upon the derivation of a word, not upon its sound. The English Alphabet consists of twenty-six letters, each of which has two forms, the capital and the small. Rules as to the use of Capitals. — Capitals are to be used at the beginning of the following words : I. The first word in any writing ; the first word after a full stop ; the first word in a line of poetry ; the first word in a quotation. Vowels — Diphthongs 9 2. Titles and proper names ; adjectives formed from proper names; common nouns personified; names of days and months. 3. The words / and OA; and words considered as very- important. The twenty-six letters are divided into Vowels (Lat. vocalis, ' sounding '), letters that sound by themselves, and Consonants (Latin con, ' with/ sonans, ' sounding '), letters that only sound fully when pronounced with a vowel. VOWELS 7 The vowel letters are A,E,I, 0, CT, and the consonantal vowels TT, F. These last are consonants when they stand at the beginning of a word or syllable, as in wet, yet, unwitting, unyielding] vowels when they stand at the end, as in few, try. The vowel sounds in English are twelve in number, seen in the following words : fat, fate, fast, fall ; TYiet, mete ; fit ; dot, dote ; pun, pull, prude. These sounds are spelt in many different ways. DIPHTHONGS 8 A Diphthong (Greek di-phtkongos, ' having two sounds') is composed of two consecutive vowel sounds pronounced together so as to form one syllable. There are four of these sounds in English : Si (in fast) +e (in mete) = the sound of i inj^Ti^. i (in^^) +\i {in prvde) =the sound oi evL in Euro2}e, s, (in fall) +i {in fit) = the sound of oi in foil. a {in fast) +u {in prude) =th.e sound of ou in foul These sounds are spelt in many different ways. lO English Grami7tar A digraph (Greek di-, ' twice/ grapho, ' I write ') is the name given to a combination of two vowel letters used to represent one simple vowel sound, as in great, aunt, fraud, heifer, receipt, boat, chough, fruit. CONSONANTS 9 The consonant letters are classified as Mutes and Spirants. The Mutes (or ' dumb ' letters) are those which involve a complete stoppage of the breath. The Spirants (or 'breathing' letters) are those that involve a check, but not a complete stoppage, of the breath. Consonants are also classified according to the organs by which they are pronounced, being named Labials (' lip- letters '), Labio-dentals ('lip and tooth letters'). Dentals (' tooth letters '), Palatals (' palate letters '), Gutturals (' throat letters '). These names are derived from the Latin words labium, dens, palatum, and guttur. 10 CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANT LETTERS. Lip. Lip and Tooth. Tooth. Palate. Throat. Mutes . . . P,B * T, D / K, G Spirants . . M, W F, V N,S,Z Y,L,R Add to these the aspirant H and the superfluous letters C, Q, X. [ahard = K, Csoft^S; Q=K; Z=KS or GS.] L, M, N, R are called Liquids because they are easily pronounced after certain other consonants. Consonants, II ill, N are also called Nasals because in pronouncing them the breath passes through the nose. iS, Z are called Sibilants, that is, * hissing ' sounds. The consonant sounds consist of the seventeen repre- sented in the above table, the aspirate, and the following six: OR in ckin (the sound is almost t%li^ while / is dsh). NG a nasal guttural. SB, ZH. The latter is the sound of the s in treasure, or the z in azure TH, DH, The former is the sound of th in thin, the latter in this. J J TABLE OF CONSONANT SOUNDS. Note. — Many of the consonant sounds are in pairs, one hard and the other soft, as pjb. Lip. Lip-Tooth. Tooth. Palate. Throat. Mutes plh tjd chlj % Spirants - ' Sibilants . Liquids '^Others Sjz sh/zh m n l,r n(j w fiv thjdh Many of these twenty-four sounds are spelt in more ways than one, and many of the consonant letters repre- sent more than one sound. The ideal alphabet would represent each sound by a separate letter ; but the English alphabet has to represent 12 English Grammar at least forty sounds by means of twenty-six letters, of which three ((7, Q, X) ^re duplicates. Apart from this deficiency and redundancy, its faults are: (i) That it often spells one sound in many different ways : compare fad^ aunt, clerk ; fate, faith, fay, freight, great, grey, gaol, gauge ; touch, hutch. (•2) That it often uses one letter, or one combination of letters, as in great, treat, hread, to represent many different sounds : for instance c in cat, cot, cut, cent, city, Cymon; ch in machine, mechanics, much;* g in gem, get, gin, begin, and the different vowel sounds given above, § 7. 12 SYLLABLES A Syllable (Greek sylldbe, 'a holding together') is as much of a word as can be pronounced by a single effort of the voice. If the whole word can be pronounced by one eftbrt, it is called a monosyllable, as in trust ; if it requires two efforts, a dissyllable, as in trustful; if three, a tri- syllable, as in trustworthy ; if four or more, a polysyllable, as in trustworthiness. Words are divided into syllables according to the following rules: 1. The derivation or composition of a word must always be considered, and suffixes, prefixes, and inflexions should form separate syllables : thus, transport, ah-ol-ish, di-jphthong, out-run, hill-ocJc, drunk-ard, child-ish, grand-est, fill-ing ; but hum-ming, because the verb is hwn, not humm. 2. Generally a syllable should begin, if possible, with a consonant, as con-ser-va-tive. Occasionally, however, a word is otherwise divided, as lih-er-al. Parts of Speech 1 3 Two consecutive consonants are divided: sec-tioriy mar- quis. Exception : — mutes when followed by r, some- times when followed hy I ; as in re-trad, a-gree-a-ble. But ob-lo-quy (under rule i). Two vowels forming different syllables are divided^ as a-er-i-al. PARTS OF SPEECH 13 Words are divided into eight classes, according to the part they play in a sentence; these classes are called Parts of Speech. They are — 1. Substantive Nouns, or Substantives. 2. Adjective Nouns, or Adjectives, including a special kind called Articles. 3. Pronouns. 6. Prepositions. 4. Verbs. 7. Conjunctions. 5. Adverbs. 8. Interjections. In the sentence Alas! A small hut determined party of their enemies quickly dislodged them, the words "party, ener)iies are substantives; small, determined are adjectives* a is an article; their, them are pronouns ; dislodged is a verb ; quickly an adverb ; of a preposition; hut a conjunction; alas an interjection. 14 Note. — In English the same word is often used in more than one of these capacities : thus common is substantive in a village common, adjec- tive in a common rumour, and was formerly used also as a verb (Sir T. More writes we commoned of our sorrows) and as an adverb (Shakespeare has / am more than common tall). Again, the word outside is substantive in the outside of the house, adjective in an outside passenger, adverb in it is raining outside, a preposition in a man stood outside the window. Thus the only way of telling what part of speech a word is in any par- ticular sentence is to find out what it does in that sentence. 14 English Grammar NOUNS 15 The word Noun is derived from the Latin nomen, 'a name ' ; and Nouns are Names of persons or things. For instance, Jack, ship, "man, bravery are Nouns or Names. But if man is a name, so is black man ; only in the latter we have added the name black to the name m^an, to describe more exactly the sort of man we mean. Both these words, then, are nouns, but the word black is called an Adjective Noun or Adjective (from the Latin adjectns, 'added') because it is a name that can be added to a substantive name, while the word man is called a Sub- stantive Noun, or Substantive (from the Latin substantia, 'substance'), because it forms a sort of groundwork or substance to which adjective names can be added. Note. — An adjective is not the name of a quality or attribute ; bravery, blackness are names of qualities or attributes, and they are substantives ; the adjectives brave, black are names given to the persons or things that possess the qualities of bravery or blackness. SUBSTANTIVES 16 Substantives are of two kinds. Proper and Common. A Proper Substantive (or Proper Name) is a name given to a person or thing as an individual and not as a member of a class; they are called 'proper' from the Latin proprius, ' one's own,' and are always spelt with an initial capital. Jack, Neptune, England, Shakespeare are proper substantives. Note. — A proper name may be used as a common name when we wish to imply that the subject to whom it is metaphorically applied possesses the same qualities as the original bearer of the name ; thus we speak of a Hercules, a Paul Pry, a miniahire England, the Micaivbcrs of politics, etc. Substantives 1 5 17 A Common Substantive (or Common Name) is a name that is applied to an individual as one of a class ; they are called ' common ' from the Latin communis, ' shared '. The following kinds of Common Substantives are to be noticed : General Names. Abstract Names. Collective Names. 18 General Names (from the Latin genus, ' a kind ') mark out the individual as belonging to a certain kind or class of objects which resemble each other in certain respects; the same general name can be applied to each of these objects. Thus boy, house are general names. Boys differ among themselves in many ways, but they are all male human beings within certain limits of age ; and so we give the general name boy to each member of the class. Again, houses in Park Lane differ considerably from houses in Katcliff Highway, but they all agree in being human dwellings of a certain solidity and within certain limits of size ; and so we call each of them by the general name house, 19 Abstract Names are the names of qualities (such as roundness) considered apart from, the material things in which they exist ; hence they are called ' abstract,' from the Latin abstractus, 'separated'. When we look at a number of oranges, and observe that they agree more or less in shape, we form a conception of this shape by itself V^^ and name it roundness. But roundness is the name of a ^" mental, not a material, thing ; we cannot handle round- ness, although we can handle round things, such as m oranges. The opposite to ' abstract ' is ' concrete ' (from the Latin concretus, 'condensed'), so called because the material thing may be regarded as the condensation or 1 6 English Grammar embodiment of the various abstract qualities it pos- sesses. Note. — Many substantives, properly or originally abstract, are used concretely as general names ; for instance, related people are properly called by the concrete name relatives^ and the position in which they stand towards one another is properly called by the abstract name relation' {^^ when we speak of the relation of father and son, or of husband and wife); but relation has come to be used concretely, to mean a related person, and so a new abstract term, relationship^ has had to be coined. 20 Collective Names are those given to a collection of persons or things, such as a football team, a jury, an army, a library of books. Note 1. — Distinction between General Names and Collective Names. A general name is applied to each member of a class, as soldier ^ juryman ; but a Collective Name is applied to the collection as a whole, and not to any member of it ; for instance, we cannot say, Lord Wolseley is an army, or Mr. Jones is a jury. Note 2. — A Collective Name is a Common Substantive because it is applied to any individual collection out of the whole number of similar collections ; for instance, the name army is applied to the British Army, the French Army, and any similar collection of armed men ; the name team is applied to any one of the numerous football teams, and so on. Note 3. — Many substantives, properly abstract, are also used as collective ; thus we say the peerage for the whole body of peers, the youth for the whole body of young people, the democracy for the people who partake in this form of government. INFLEXIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES 21 Substantives are inflected (that is, changed in form) to mark variations of Number and Case. The inflexion of Number is a change of form that marks the difference between one and more than one ; thus, dog, dogs ; ox, oxen ; goose, geese. The first is called the Singular Number (from the JjSitin singuli, ' one' 2it a time'), the second is called the Plural Number (from the Latin lolures, ' more '). Case 17 CASE 22 The inflexion of Case is a change of form which marks the relation that a substantive has towards some other word in the sentence. It is so called from the Latin casus, ' a falling/ because the ancient grammarians took the Nominative as the normal form, and considered the other cases as sloping or falling away from it. For the same reason they gave the name Declension (from the Latin declinatio, ' a slope ') to the whole set of changes in any substantive. 23 In English there are four cases : Nominative (from the Latin nominare, ' to name '), the case of the Subject, answering the question who ? what ? Thus, Caesar conquered the Britons, Who conquered the Britons ? Caesar. The sun lights the earth. What lights the earth? The sun. — So Caesar and sun are in the Nominative case. Accusative (from the Latin accusare, ' to bring an action against'), the case of the Direct Object, answering the question whom ? what ? Thus, Caesar conquered the Britons, Conquered whom ? The Britons. The sun lights the earth. Lights what? The earth. — So Britons and earth are in the Accusative case. Genitive is the Descriptive case, and answers the question of whom? of what? Thus, Caesars army. The army of ^^hom ? Of Caesar. The sun's light. The light of what ? Of the sun. — So Caesars and sun's are in the Genitive case. 1 8 English Grammar Dative (from the Latin datuTn, 'given') is the case of the Indirect Object, and answers the questions to or for whom ? to or for what ? Thus, Give the door a push. Give a push to what ? To the door. Order me a eab. Order a cab for whom ? For me. — So door and Tne are in the Dative case. ^4 The following are examples of some of the Anglo-Saxon Declensions. W^hen a second form is given, it is that which was in use in the thirteenth century, and the first is that in use previously. Sing. No7n. wulf wolf tung-e tongue fot foot Ace. wulf wolf tung-an (-e) fot Gen. wulf-es wolf^s tung-an(-e, -es) fot-es Dat. wulf-e to ovfor a wolf tung-an (-e, -en) fet Plur. Nom. wulf-as {v-es) wolves tung-an (-en) fet Ace. wulf -as {v-es) wolves tung-an (-en) fet Gen. wulf -a (v-e) wolves^ tung-ena(-ene) fot-a (-e) Dat. wulf-um(v-e) to or for wolves tung-um (-en) fot-UH] L(-e) 25 Note. — The genitive form timge explains why we say Lady -day {as compared with Lord^s day) : ladie once made genitive ladie. The genitive form tungan explains why we say Sun-day, Man-day (as compared with Tues-day, Wednes-day) ; sumie and mona made genitives sunnan, monan, while Tiw and Woden made Tiwes, Wodnes. The genitive plural form tungena explains the Saxon name for Parlia- ment, Witenagemot ; gemot is the * meeting,' witena * of the wise men.' ^^ In addition to these four cases Anglo-Saxon had also an Instrumental Case, answering the question by means of ivhat P Its form was the same as the dative's, except in some adjectives and pronouns. Latin has an Ablative Case (which answers the question from what ? and includes also the Instrumental) and a Locative Case, answering the question where ? • 27 It has been said (§ 22) that case-inflexions mark the relations in which substantives stand to other words in a Case 19 sentence. But they have two defects, which have led to their being supplemented in all languages by Prepositions. These defects are — (1) That they express relations very vaguely ; and (2) That there are many relations which they do not express at all. As an instance of the first defect compare ' write nue fifty lines ' with ' write me a letter ' ; the first me =fov me, the second me = to me. Again, compare ' Caesar's army ' with ' a moment's hesitation ' ; the first genitive is posses- sive, while the second is descriptive. With regard to the second defect, consider the variety of relations expressed by prepositions in the following sentence : I started with my friend from Paris at midnight, and went by railway across the Alps to Eome in Italy. Here the different relations are expressed, not by means of case-inflexions, but by the use of various prepositions governing the accusative case. When English came to be spoken to and by foreigners (the Danes in the North and the Normans in the South) the case-inflexions began to disappear. By the year 1400 the separate forms of the genitive plural and of the dative (singular and plural) had vanished ; and for the last three hundred years we have had separate inflexions only for the genitive and (in the case of some pronouns) for the accu- sative. The other cases are shown by the meaning of the sentence or by the position of the substantive in it. Nominative Case. 28 The Nominative is the case of the person or thing spoken of (Nominative of the Subject) or spoken to (Nominative of Address, or Vocative). 20 English Gram7nar A. (i) Nominative of the Subject. A substantive is in the nominative when it is the subject of a sentence ; for instance, in the sentences Caesar conquered the Britons. The sun lights the earth, Caesar and sun are the subjects, and are in the nominative. In sentences which make a statement the nominative precedes the verb, as in the instances just given, and is therefore distinguishable from the dative or accusative by its position. But sometimes, in poetry or for emphasis, the nomina- tive follows the verb ; as in, ' To arms i cried Mortimer. Such resting found the sole Of unblest feet. In such cases the sense is the only guide, unless, of course, either subject or object happens to be a pronoun with a distinct form for the accusative ; as in For many a joke had he. Him followed his next mate. (2) Nominative Absolute. 29 This is the name given to a phrase in which a substan- tive is combined with a participle (see § 124) and not with a verb. It is called ' absolute ' (from the Latin absolutus, ' set free '*), because it is not the subject of any verb ; and it is known to be in the nominative from the fact that pro- nouns, similarly constructed, are in the nominative. Instances are — Adam . . . shall live with her enjoying, / extinct. This done, they summoned the police. Dinner ended, we went to the billiard-room. Case 2 1 Note 1. — Modern writers generally insert hting ; as, thin being done; dinner being ended. Note 2. — Sometimes the participle is omitted ; as, Thou away, the very birds are mute. Dinner over, the speeches began. Note 3. — In Anglo-Saxon the dative was used in this construction, in Latin the ablative ; so we find in WyclifFe him speaking these things, and in Milton its dispossessed, him destroyed, me overthrown. But this con- struction is now obsolete. B. Nominative of Address. 30 This marks the person or thing spoken to, and is generally known as the Vocative (from the Latin vocare, ' to call '). It is distinguished from other cases and from other uses of the nominative by the fact that it stands alone in the sentence without any construction, and marked off by commas ; as, Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon. Now, Lycidas, the shepherds weep no more. Accusative Case. 31 The Accusative is primarily the case of the Direct Object ; it has a distinct inflexion in certain pronouns but not in substantives. It is used — A. To mark the direct object of a verb. B. As a cognate accusative. C. In various adverbial expressions. D. After prepositions, and in exclamations. A. When used to mark the direct object of a verb it is, as a rule, distinguished from the nominative of the subject by the fact that it follows the verb. 22 English GramTnar But sometimes, in poetry or for emphasis (as in this the prisoners denied) it precedes the verb : the sense is then the only guide. In such instances the subject sometimes follows the verb (see instances quoted in § 28) ; sometimes both subject and object precede the verb; as in, Hoards after hoards his rising raptures fill. B. Some verbs can be constructed with an accusative of cognate or related meaning (Cognate Accusative); instances are, Hope told a flattering tale. He plays a good game. He died a miserable death. I have lived my life. She sang a song. In these instances the substantives are classed as accusatives by analogy with the preceding construc- tion (A). C. Adverbial phrases (see § 145) like the following, generally expressing extent, are classed together as accusa- tives, partly on account of their analogy with cognate accusatives or the accusatives used with prepositions, but chiefly for the sake of convenience. In Anglo Saxon some of them were genitives or datives. Instances are, We went one way, and came back the other. They went twenty miles. I waited an hour. He does not care a lit. He works night and day. I started this molding. The game's not worth the candle. Nine fathom deep. Ten years old. D. For the accusative with prepositions, see § 141 ;. in exclamations, § 142. Case 23 Dative Case. 32 The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object, and denotes that the person or thing is interested in what is done, and affected by it without being the direct object of the action. Its form is now the same as the accusative's, but was formerly distinct : the relation it marks is quite different from that denoted by the accusative. The prepositions to or for can always be supplied before it without affecting the sense. For instance, Give the horse (=to the horse) corn. Give the house ( = to the house) a thorough cleaning. Write mg (=to me) a letter. Fetch me ( = for me) a cab. Buy the dog (=for the dog) a collar. Knock me (=for me) on that door. In position it stands after the verb and before the direct object, as in the above instances. We cannot say give corn the horse, or fetch a cab Tne. The only exception is when it forms the direct object ; as, give it me. Note. — There are several old expressions in which the dative has sur- vived ; such are, * woe is me,' ' woe worth[the day,' * methrnks,' * meseems.' Here ivorth is from the Anglo-Saxon weorthan, *to become,' 'to be'; methinJcs=meseems=^ it seems to me.' In Anglo-Saxon thincan is 'to seem,' thencarif * to think.' Genitive Case — Its Formation. 33 The Genitive is the only case of substantives that has a distinct inflexion. It is formed from the Anglo-Saxon termination -es, and is written 's in the singular (the apostrophe marking the omission of e) ; in the plural it is 'formed in the same way when the nominative plural does not end in s ; but when 24 English Grmnmai" the nominative does end in s, the apostrophe only is added for the genitive ; thus, Sing. Nom. dog Gen. dog's Plur. Norn. dogs Gen. dogs' ox ox's oxen oxen's goose s geese geese's. When a substantive ends in a sibilant sound in the singular, its genitive is sometimes formed by the apo- strophe alone, especially in foreign or long words ; thus, For goodness' sake, for righteousness' sake, Mars' hill, Saumarez' Physiology, Moses' law ; but the modern practice is generally to write and pro- nounce 's in full : Charles's Wain, Dickens's works. Prince of Wales's feathers, etc. For a long while, in fact until the time of Addison, the s of the genitive was supposed to be a contraction of his ; hence such expressions as for Jesus Christ his sake. The theory is of course absurd : it would make Marys lamb = Mary his lamb : mien's labour = men his labour, ^^ Genitive of Compound Expressions. — When a name or title consists of more words than one, or when a group of words is considered to form one substantive, the genitive inflexion is added at the end ; thus, the Queen of England's life ; Henry the Eighth's reign ; the Duke of Clarence's death ; a day or two's fishing ; my father-in-law's hat. But this construction cannot be used in the plural ; we cannot say the Queens of England's lives, but must use the preposition of with the accusative : the lives of the Queens of England. When the compound expression is formed by a substantive in apposi- tion, as Jackson the butcher, the genitive is sometimes formed in the same way, as Jackson the butcher's cart ; but this is clumsy, and often leads to Case 25 ambiguity : for instance, in Tom the piper's son, Tom may be the name of the piper or of his son. In forming the genitive of two or more substantives connected by and (closely and without the intervention of other words), we add the genitive inflexion only to the last when they are connected jointly with the sub- stantive on which the genitive depends ; otherwise we add it to each of them. Thus we say Besant and Rice's novels^ Gilbert and Sullivan's operas. Day and Martin's blacking, because each of Besant and Rice's novels was the joint work of them both, and so with the others. But we say Besanfs and Meredith's novels, Gilbert's and Robertson's plays, Gladstone's and Morley's speeches, because we mean Besant's novels and Meredith's novels, etc. We have a sort of strengthened genitive in such phrases as a play of Shakespeare's, that boy of Norcott's, this England of ours. These are often explained to mean * a play (one) of Shakespeare's (plays) ' ; but Norcott may have had — indeed in the story he had — only one boy ; and we have only one England. Genitive Case— Its uses. 35 A substantive in the Genitive always depends upon another substantive, expressed or understood. The substantive upon which it depends is understood in such phrases as 'St. Peter's (church),' *I bought it at White- ley's (shop)/ ' I dined at the Wilsons' (house),' ' the earth is the Lord's (earth).' A substantive in the genitive acts as an attribute to the substantive on which it depends, as is shown by the fact that we can replace it by an adjective (if there be one) without altering the sense ; thus, The consul's army The consular army Man's life Human life Shakespeare's plays Shakespearian plays The earth's magnetism Terrestrial magnetism The year's revenue Annual revenue A moment's hesitation Momentary hesitation. 26 English Grammar 36 Three uses of the Genitive may be noticed : 1. Possessive, denoting that something belongs to or is produced by the person or thing named by the substantive in the genitive; as, Caesars wife ; the earth's magnetism ; the day's end ; the oppressors wrong ; the proud man's contu7}iely, 2. Objective, denoting that the person or thing named by the substantive is the object of the action impHed in the substantive upon which it depends ; as, Caesars murderer ( = the man who murdered Caesar); a stone's throw ( = the distance one can throw a stone). Compare in Thy fear and love ( = in the fear and love of Thee). 3. Definitive, in which the substantive in the genitive defines the meaning of the substantive upon which it depends, generally in respect of extent; thus, a hand's breadth; a moment's hesitation] a day's ride] a week's holiday; a month's notice ; a years time ; a life's romance. NUMBER 37 The Plural Number sometimes has the same form as the Singular; thus, sheep, deer, teal, grouse, cod, trout. Especially in substantives denoting a number or measure- ment ; thus, ' three brace of partridges,' ' twelve couple of hounds,' ' six dozen,' ' ten gross,' ' nine stone' ' three score years.' ^ Full fathom five thy father Hes.' But usually the two numbers have different forms, the plural being formed from the singular in one of three ways. Nttmbe7'' 27 38 First Form of the Plural is that produced by adding -es to the singular ; but the es is shortened, both in writing and pronunciation, to s, except in words ending in sibilant or palatal sounds; thus, cads, cats, classes, ashes, axes, blazes, cages. Note 1. — In Old English and sometimes even in Spenser's time, the es formed a separate syllable after other than sibilant sounds ; thus, 2^he silver dropes hongyng on the leeves. — (Chaucer.) Departed thence, albe, his woundes wide. — (Spenser.) Note 2. — Words ending in -o form the plural sometimes in -es^ some- times in -s. The following add -es : buffalo embargo mulatto tomato calico flamingo negro tornado cargo hero no torpedo echo ■ mango potato volcano. The following have es or s : archipelago bravo domino grotto innuendo mosquito motto peccadillo portico. The following (chiefly words connected with books or music) have canto folio oratorio solo cento ditto duodecimo embryo halo merino nuncio octavo piano portfolio quarto rondo soprano stiletto tobacco two tyro. Note 3. — The following words change/ or /e into ves in the plural : beef (in obsolete sense of *ox,' Johnson, 1775) calf leaf sheaf elf life shelf half loaf thief knife self wife wolf. And (generally) scarves, staves, wharves. Other words in/ and /e add s, as usual : chiefs, fifes. Note 4. — Substantives ending in y were formerly spelt with -le, as navie, stndie, and this spelling was retained in the plural : navies, studies. But in Modern English this is only the case when the y is preceded by a con- 28 English Grammar sonant ; if the y is preceded by a vowel the plural is formed as usual ; thus, days, keys. Qu is treated as a consonant : colloquies. In proper names the usage varies : sometimes we find Marys, more often Maries. Alkali makes plural alkalies. Note 5. — When any new substantive is coined or any foreign word naturalised, its plural can only be formed by this method ; for instance, trams, telephones, pianos. 39 Second Form of the Plural is that produced by adding -en to the Singular. In Old English this form was common, especially in the thirteenth century, when Anglo- Saxon plurals in -u and -a were modified into -e and then into -en. The only instances nom in use are ox-en, brethr- en, childr-en, Jd-ne, Hosen occurs in the Bible (Dan. iii. 21); housen is still used by peasants in the Midlands ; shoon and eyen have been used in modern poetry, but only as intentional archaisms. Brethren, children, kine are double plurals ; brethren is formed by the addition of -en to hr ether, which is still used as the plural in Lancashire and Scotland. Children : the former plural, childer, is still used in Leicestershire and Scotland. Kine : the plural of cow was cy (the Scotch still use kye as the plural), and kine = cy-en. 40 Third Form of the Plural is that produced by vowel- change. The only instances now in use are goose geese "^ > compare brother, brether foot feet tooth teeth mouse mice louse lice man men, V compare cow, kye men, and derivatives, such as loonian, English- man, nobleman, Northman. Number 29 But Norman (a softened form of Nmihman) and German, Mussulman, Ottoman (which are not compounds of man), form their plurals in s : Normans, Germans, etc. Plural of Compounds. 41 I. In compounds formed of a substantive and an uninflected word, the substantive is inflected ; as, passers- by, bystanders. 2. In compounds formed of two substantives, the last is inflected; as, letter-boxes, house-agents, maid-servants, garden-rollers, collar-studs. But in the following both parts are inflected: men-children, men-servants, Knights-Templars, Lords- Justices, Lords- Appellants, Lords- Com- missioners ot the Treasury, Lords Ordainers. 3. In compounds formed of a substantive and an adjective the substantive is inflected; as, heirs-apparent, courts-martial, knights-errant, solicitors-general. So Shakespeare has Attorneys-general ; but now we generally write Attorney -generals, and always Major-generals, Lord-lieutenants. 4. In compounds formed of two substantives joined by a preposition, the first substantive is inflected ; thus, men- of-war. Queens of England, sons-in-law. Note. — This is the reverse of the rule as to the formation of the geni- tive in similar cases ; see § 34. 30 English Grannnar Foreign Plurals. 42 When foreign words become naturalised in English they take an English plural, as geniuses, diplomas \ but many which are incompletely naturalised keep their original plurals ; thus, French. — Beau, beaux ; trousseau, trousseaux. [For the plur. of Mister (Mr.) we use Messieurs (Messrs.), the French plur. of Monsieur. For the plur. of Mrs. we use Mesdames (Mmes. ), the French plur. of Madame. ] Italian. — Bandit, banditti ; virtuoso, virtuosi ; signor, signori ; dilettante, dilettanti, Latin. — The following are instances : formula, for- mulae; radius, radii: datum, data; genus, genera ; index, indices ; species, species. Greek words ending in -sis form their plurals in -ses ; as, crises, analyses, hypotheses, periphrases. Automaton, phenomycnon form automata, pheno- mena. Hebrew. — Cherubim, seraphim are the plurals of cherub and seraph. Singulars treated as Plurals. 43 The words alms, eaves, riches are treated as plurals (on account of their final s) although they are really singular. Alms was in Anglo-Saxon aelmesse, from the Low Latin elimosina, Greek eleemosyne. It is sometimes used as a singular; thus Addison writes an alms, while Dryden writes /or alm^s are but the vehicles of prayer. Eaves is the Anglo-Saxon efese, ' an edge/ Riches is the French richesse. Number 3 1 Plurals treated as Singulars. 44 The words gallows, Tneans, news, small-pox are usually treated as singulars, although really plurals ; thus we say a high gallows, a means of grace, this news is serious, small-pox is prevalent. Small-pox = small-pocks (compare pock-marked) ; pock is the same word as pocket (poke in Shakespeare) and pouch. The words amends, odds, pains, thanks, tidings, wages, have also in the past been used as singulars, but are now generally treated as plurals. Many substantives ending in -ics, which are properly plurals of adjectives formed from the Greek, are used as singulars, as mechanics treats of motion ; some few have a singular form, as logic, music, rhetoric. Plurals without Singulars. 45 These consist of two classes : A. Things that are made double ; as, Breeches, bellows, scissors, shears, pincers, scales, tongs, trousers. B. Things that are considered as collections or masses, e.g. Diseases : measles, mumps, rheumatics Games : billiards, rounders Ceremonies : matins, vespers. Also embers, dregs, lees, oats. 46 Some substantives have different meanings in the singular and in the plural ; such are Beef, beeves List, lists (at a tournament) Compass, compasses Pain, pains Draught, draughts Spectacle, spectacles (eye-glasses). Effect, effects 32 English Grammar 47 Perhaps we may mention here the numerous substantives like leavings, parings, savings, which in the singular denote an action, and in the plural denote the results of the action. In some of them, however, the singular also has the concrete meaning ; as, a writing. ^g Some substantives have two forms of the plural, differing in meaning ; such are Brothers (by blood) Brethren (of a community) Cherubs (angelic children) Cherubim (angels) Cloths (pieces or sorts of cloth) Clothes (garments) Dies (for stamping) Dice (for playing) Geniuses (men of genius) Genii (spirits in fairy tales) Indexes (of a book) Indices (in Algebra) Pennies (taken individually) Pence (taken collectively) Peas (taken individually) Pease (taken collectively). The last word was originally a singular {pease, plural peasen), derived from Anglo-Saxon pisa, plural pisan, Latin pisum ; being taken for a plural the singular pea was formed from it ; and pea was afterwards pro- vided with a new plural, peas. Plurals of Proper Names. 49 A Proper Name, being the name of an individual, cannot usually make a plural; but it -can do so (1) when it is borne by more than one person ; as, the Georges, the Smiths ; (2) when it is used metaphorically for a common name; see § 16. Plurals of Abstract Names. 50 Abstract substantives, being the names of qualities, could not properly be used in the plural ; but some of them may be so used to denote several instances of the exhibi- tion of the quality ; as. To the Lord our God belong mercies and forgivenesses. To forgive us our sins, negligences, and ignorances. 5]_ In the same way substantives that denote materials and things which are measured or weighed, but not numbered, do not as a rule form a plural ; but they can be used in the plural in speaking of several kinds or pieces ; tlnis we can speak of teas, brandies, marbles, irons. Gender 33 GENDER 52 Every living thing belongs to one of the two sexes, male (from Latin TnasculuSy 'a male') and female (from Latin femella, ' a female '), while inanimate things have no sex. Thus everything belongs either (1) to the male sex, or (2) to the female sex, or (3) to neither. In the same way substantives, which are the names of things, belong either (1) to the masculine gender, or (2) to the feminine gender, or (3) to the neuter gender (from Latin neutrum, ' neither '). SeXy then, is a distinction between things, gender a dis- tinction between words. In EngHsh, gender always depends upon sex ; that is a substantive which is the name of a male is masculine, and may be replaced by a masculine pronoun ; a substan- tive which is the name of a female is feminine, and may be replaced by a feminine pronoun; and a substantive which is the name of an inanimate thing is neuter, and may be replaced by a neuter pronoun. Note 1. — A baby or an animal whose sex does not matter or is unknown to the speaker is frequently spoken of by a neuter pronoun ; as, The hdby is very like its father. Give the cat its dinner. Note 2. — By Personification we attribute life, and therefore sex, to inanimate objects ; and their names, properly neuter, thereby become of the corresponding gender. This is most common in poetry. The Male Sex is usually attributed to Time, Death, Sleep, Sun, Rivers, Mountains, Ocean, Wind, War, and the coarser or stronger emotions. The Female Sex is usually attributed to Soul, Night, Morning, Moon, Earth, Countries, Towns, Ships, Arts and Sciences, other Abstractions (such as Freedom, Fate, Fortune, Nature, Religion, Virtue, Wisdom, Justice, Peace), and the softer emotions. In English this is \\i every case the result of a figure of speech, and the gender of the substantive in question is not thereby permanently afifected. I 34 English Grammar Oo In many other languages (partly owing perhaps to some general practice of personification in the remote past) the gender of words does not necessarily correspond with the sex of the things they name. Thus in Latin and Anglo-Saxon, while the names of males are generally masculine and those of females generally feminine, the names of inanimate objects may belong to any one of the three genders. In French, again, there is no neuter gender, and all names of inanimate* things are either masculine or feminine. 54 There are certain terminations which are, or once were, used to denote that the person named is of the female sex ; as in, laundress, spinster, vixen, heroine. Note. — These must not be ranked as inflexions ; they are instances of word-formation, and the words that end with these terminations are dis- tinct substantives inflected separately throughout. In Latin, victrix is not an inflexion of victor, but a separate substantive. And in English, goddess is no more an inflexion of god than godliness is ; murderous and murderess stand in the same relation to the word murder. The terminations in question are -ess, -ster, -en, and some others. -ess. This is the Latin -issa, coming to us through Norman- French; in the fourteenth century it began to supplant the Anglo-Saxon -ster. The following instances show the different ways in which it is added to words : (i) Mayor, mayoress ; prince, princess ; Jew, Jewess. (ii) Governor, governess ; murderer, murderess. (iii) Emperor, anpress) actor, actress) tiger, tigress ; negro, negress ; votary, votaress. (iv) Master, mistress, miss ; lad, (ladess) lass. This is the only termination that is still alive; that is, it alone can be used in new formations ; such are lecturess, stewardess. Gender 35 m -ster. This was the Anglo-Saxon feminine termination answering to the masculine -er ; thus tapper (bar- man) had feminine tapster (barmaid), hucker or hawker had feminine huckster, seamer (a sewer) had feminine sempster. In and after the four- teenth century they were supplanted by the end- ing -esSy and began to lose their feminine meaning ; only one word retains it : spinster, the feminine of spinner. From several others fresh feminines -ess have been formed, as songstress, semp- The termination has often a depreciatory sense now, as in huckster, punster, tipster, young- ster. -en, as in vix-en (0. E. Fyxen), the feminine of fox. This is the only instance in Modern English, but Anglo- Saxon had many ; for instance, gyd-en, a goddess. -ine, as in margravine, heroine ; in the former it is a Teutonic sufBx answering to the A.-S. -en ; in the latter it is a Greek termination. -ina, in Czarina, is apparently the same as -en and Teutonic -ine, -a, in sultan-a is ItaUan. -trix, in testatrix, executrix, etc., is Latin. 55 Sex is also denoted in two other ways : A, By using different words ; instances are, Boy girl Horse mare Brother sister Husband ^ wife Buck doe King queen Bull cow Nephew niece Cock hen Son daughter Drake duck , Stag . hind Father mother Uncle aunt. 36 English Grammar Gaffer and gammer^ used proviiicially for any old man and woman, are contractions of grandfather and grandmother, B. By prefixing one of the above pairs to the common word ; as. Buck-rabbit doe-rabbit I Cock-sparrow hen-sparrow Bull-calf cow-calf | He-bear she-bear. Sometimes the distinctive words are affixed ; as in, Peacock peahen | Turkey-cock turkey-hen. ADJECTIVES 56 An Adjective is an additional name joined to a sub- stantive or its equivalent in order to denote some attribute belonging to the object named by the substantive; by- adding the adjective we describe the object more clearly. Thus when we say 'Friday was a hlaclc man' we describe him more definitely than if we merely said 'Friday was a man.' The whole class of objects to which a substantive name can be applied comprise what is called its denotation ; because the substantive denotes each of them. The aggregate of qualities which a substantive name implies is called its connotation. By adding an adjective to a substantive we increase its connotation and diminish its denotation; thus 'black man' implies more than 'man,' but can be applied to fewer people. Adjectives, however, do not always diminish the denotation of substantives ; when we say ' the gallant 64th regiment made a splendid charge,' the adjective 'gallant' is added byway of further description, not in order to restrict the application of the name '64th regiment'; on the other hand, the adjective ' 64th ' does restrict the application of the name ' regiment ' to one particular regiment, numbered 64. Adjectives 37 57 There are three classes of Adjectives : A. Adjectives of Quality. B. 'Adjectives of Quantity. C. Demonstrative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Rela- tion. A. Adjectives of Quality answer the question Of what kind ? ' (Latin qualis ?) To this class belong all ordinary adjectives, implying that the person or thing named by the substantive possesses some attribute; as, idle boys, happy boys, troublesome boys. Participles also belong to this class, as fasting men, frightened horses. 58 B. Adjectives of Quantity answer the question How mxiny? or How much? (Lettin quantus?) These adjec- tives are of two kinds, definite and indefinite. 1. The Definite adjectives of quantity are the Car- dinal Numerals, one, two, three, etc. • [For Numerals see § 63 below.] 2. The Indefinite adjectives of quantity are given in the following instances : All men are liars. All flesh is as grass. Don't make any mistake. Both my friends have left. The bank charges a certain percentage. For divers reasons. Enough leek to swear by. Few men are perfectly happy. A little food. Many men, many minds. Much good may it do them ! They have no chance. Several years ago. Some time ago. The Scripture moveth us in sundry places. 38 English Grammar 59 Notes — All. The Church Service has * all we like sheep have gone astray ' ; in Modern English we say, ' we all ' or * all of us.' In the latter * all ' is a substantive ( = * the whole ') ; in this construction it is generally used only with pronouns, but sometimes with substan- tives ; as in, * 'Tis not the whole of life to live, nor all of death to die. ' Any. In ' Have you any ink ? ' any is quantitative, but in * Any pen will do,' any is qualitative. Both. We can say ' Both my friends have leiu,' v>r ' My friends have both left,' or *My friends both left.' We say, * we both,' not * both we ' ; but we can say, ' both which. ' So also we can say, 'both of us,' 'both of which,' where hoth is a substantive; in this construction hoth (like all) is generally used only with pro- nouns in writing, but such phrases as ' both of the goal-keepers, ' * both of the ships,' are not unusual in speaking. Certain. This adjective is also used qualitatively, in the sense of ' sure ' ; thus we speak of * a certain cure. ' Z)i?;er5=*more than one,' c?^■^;erse =* different ' ; both words are derived from the Latin diversus. Enoiigh generally follows its substantive, as ' bread enough and to spare. ' Few. The opposite of * few ' is ' many,' of * a few ' is ' none. ' Little is qualitative in 'little boys,' quantitative in 'little noise.' Many is used with a substantive in the singular, if a comes between ; thus, ' many a swarthy face.' In 'a great many faces,' many is a substantive. Much. In such phrases as 'much of their time,' much is a substan- tive. None was once used (where we now use 'no') as an adjective with a substantive expressed : * He had made the cross of Christ to be of none effect.' Several is qualitative in ' they went their several ways. ' Some is sometimes used for ' about,' as in ' some five or six years ago.' Note. — Many of these words are also used as substantive pronouns, and some are also used as adverbs. 60 C. Demonstrative Adjectives answer the question Which ? They are so called (from the Latin demonstrdre, 'to point out') because they point out persons or things instead of describing them. They are also called Kela- tional, since they distinguish things not by means of any Articles 39 quality or quantity of the things themselves, but by means of some relation in which the things stand to the speaker or to some other things ; for instance, jirsi hoy, this boy, the boy. They are of three kinds : — 1. Ordinal Numerals, such as first, second, third. [See on Numerals, § 64 below] 2. Adjective Pronouns, such as this, every, our, [See on Pronouns, § 75 below.] 3. Articles. AKTICLES 61 There are two Articles, the Indefinite and the Definite. (i) The Indefinite Article, a, an, is the Anglo-Saxon an, ' one ' (the Scotch ane). J. is a shortened form of an, and came into use between 1150 and 1300, but an con- tinued to be used before a consonant up to 1600. The rule now is that an is used before a word begin- ning with a vowel sound ; as, an umpire, an hour, an f, an M.F.H, ; while a is used before words beginning with a consonant sound (including ^/-sounds and aspirated h) ; as, a cry, a howl, a yell, at, a unicorn, a eulogy. Some writers retain an before h, u, and eu, if the syllable that begins with one of those letters is not ac- cented; thus, an harangue, an Eurasian, an unique example. But this is seldom heard in speech, and less frequently met with in writing than formerly. When two substantives are joined together, the inde- finite article is put before both ; as in, a walrus and a carpenter ; but it is omitted before the second when the two things form one whole or are constantly used together ; as in, a knife and fork, a horse and cart, a carriage and pair. 40 English Grammar Besides its ordinary use with a single indefinite object, the indefinite article is also used when we wish to indi- vidualise a substance, a quality, or a state ; thus we speak of a fine Ceylon tea, a strange unselfishness, a deep sleep. The indefinite article follows the adjectives ma^iT/, sneh, what ; as, many a man, such a coward, what a fool. It also follows adjectives preceded by how, so, as, too] for instance, how great a man, so wise a judge, as good a player, too had a player. The phrases a few men, a good onany men, etc., stand on the same footing as a dozen, a hundred, etc. ; the words few, many, being substantives when so used. Note. — We say a few, a good many ; but a many, a good few, are provincial. The original meaning of a ( = one) is seen in such phrases as birds of a feather, two of a sort, one at a t%me, they are both in a tale. A in the sense of each (as in fourpence a pound, forty "pounds a year, ninepence a head) is not the article, but a shortened form of the Old English preposition an, ' on.' 62 (ii) The Definite Article, the, is the same as the Anglo- Saxon demonstrative pronoun, masc. the (se), fem. theo (seo), neut. thmt. It particularises the object alluded to ; as in, Nathan said unto David, ' Thou art the man' (that is, the man referred to). So when we say / met a postman, we mean any one postman out of many ; but when we say / met the post- man, we mean the particular postman who brings us our letters, or the one we have been speaking of, or to whom (for any reason) we shall be understood to allude. So another is any other out of many ; the other is the only other out of two. Numerals 41 In ilie more the merrier, the article represents the instrumental case of the demonstrative pronoun, and may be parsed as an adverb ; the phrase means ' in what degree (we are) more in number, in that degree (we shall be) merrier.' If the be repeated before several adjectives, we divide the objects named into as many groups as there are adjec- tives ; for instance, the lazy, ' the dishonest, and- the incapable officials ; but if we do not repeat the, we class all the objects in one group, each member of which possesses all the qualities denoted by the adjectives ; as in the lazy, dishonest, and incapable officials. NUMERALS 63 Numeral Adjectives are — A. Cardinal ; as, one, two, three. B. Ordinal; as, first, second, third. C. Multiplicative ; as, twofold, triple. In addition to these we may notice — (d) Distributive Phrases ; and (e) Numeral Adverbs. A. Cardinal Numerals (one, two, three, etc.) are so called from the Latin cardo, ' sl hinge,' because they are the principal kind of numerals, and the other kinds depend (or hinge) upon them. They answer the question ' How many V and are quantitative adjectives. One = A.-S. dn. An initial i^-sound first developed in the fifteenth century ; this had the eff'ect of altering the vowel sound from its natural pronunciation as seen in alone to the present pro- nunciation luun. Two was in A. -S. masc. twegen, fern, and neut. twd ; from the latter we get two, from the former twain. 42 English Grammar Ten = A,-S. tin or tin. Teen in thirteen is a suffix formed by adding a plural e to tin (A.-S. threotine). Thirteen = three and ten. Eleven=A.S. endlufon. Liif=lif is a suffix having same value as teen. Eleven = one and ten. Twelve = A.S. twelf. The same suffix /?/ appears ; and twelve =^two and ten. Twenty =. A. -8. twentig=' two tens'; from twegen and a suffix tig, derived from the same base as ten. As in Latin, we say, 'twenty-two,' or *two and twenty,' not 'twenty and two.' Hundred is from hund and red, the latter meaning 'reckoning'; hund is the same word as the Latin cent-um, which is considered a shortened form of decentum, meaning 'tenth (ten).' Dozen is the Old French dozaine (Modern French douzaine)^ douze being derived from the Latin duodecimo ' twelve. ' Score means a ' cut ' : in reckoning by notches on a stick * the score ' is the long cut, which was the twentieth. To * go off at score,' is properly to make the running at the start, the ' score ' being the ' scratch ' or line from which the start is made. The words dozen, score, hundred, thousand, are substantives when followed by of or used in the plural ; as in, a dozen of them, dozens of instances, a score oj sheep, scores of times, a hundred of us, hundreds of pounds, a thousand of bricks, thousands of men. Otherwise they are adjectives ; as in, two dozen bottles, three score years, several hundred men, ten thousand miles. 64 B. Ordinal Numerals (from the Latin ordo, ' rank ') are those that denote rank, and answer the question ' Which in numerical order ?' They are qualitative adjectives. The series is first, second, third, fourth, and so on. First is superlative of /ore, as primus is of prae. Second is the French second, from Latin secundum, 'following.' The Anglo-Saxon used * other' in the sense of 'second,' and the use is ^till found in such phrases as ' every other step.' Other was replaced by ' second,' just as in Latin alter was replaced by secundus. Third = thrid, the r having been transposed as in thirteen and thirty ; in thrice the r has kept its original position. From the form thrid we get the 'Ridings ' of Yorkshire; riding =thriding, which means a third part, just as farthing (fourthing) means a fourth part. Uses of A dje dives 4 3 The Ordinals ivomjlfth to nineteenth are formed by adding th to the Cardinals, a final ve becoming/. Eighth = eight-th, as eighteen= eight-teen. Tenth has another form, tithe, from which the n has disappeared. 65 C. Multiplicatives are numeral adjectives that denote multiplication, that is, that an object is repeated so many- times or consists of so many similar parts. They answer the question ' How many-fold ? ' There are two series : — (i) One is of Saxon origin, and is formed by adding -fold to the numerals from two upwards : some sixty-fold, some thirty -fold, our manifold sins and wickedness. (ii) The other is of Latin origin ; the forms most in use are single, double, triple (treble), quadruple, quintuple, sextuple ; other forms are rare. Single is from the Latin distributive singuli, * one at a time ' ; the Latin multiplicative is simplex, whence simple. 66 (^) Distributives answer the questions * How many each ? ' or *How many at a time ? ' There are no separate forms in English, as there are in Latin ; we have to use phrases, such as tioo each, two apiece, two hy tico, two at a time, by twos. (e) Numeral Adverbs correspond to each of the three classes of Adjec- tives, A, B, C. Thus we have (A) once, twice, thrice ; (B) first, secondly, etc. ; (C) singly, doubly, trebly. USES OF ADJECTIVES 67 The following points may be noticed : I. Adjectives can be used either attributively or pre- dicatively ; in ' the idle boy learns nothing,' idle is used attributively ; in ' the boy is idle,' idle is used predicatively. In the first case, the connection between substantive and adjective is implied; in the second, it is asserted by means of the verb. 44 English Grmnmar 2. Adjectives are sometimes used for substantives, and can then receive genitive and plural inflexions ; instances are hy twos, others , officials, rheumatics, Liberals, superior's, and national names such as Egyptian, American. Of the latter, those that end in sibilants, such as Spanish, Dutch, take no inflexion. 3. Sometimes an adjective stands as an attribute of the substantive implied in a possessive pronoun ; for instance, for both our sakes. INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES 68 Only two instances of the inflexion of adjectives remain : these, plural of this ; those, plural of that Note 1. — l^hose is really a second plural of this, but from about 1400 it has been used as the plural of that. Note 2. — In Anglo-Saxon adjectives were inflected not only with cases like substantives, but also in three genders, just as in Latin ; for instance, goda, gode, gode, 'good,' was thus inflected : Singular. Plural. Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat. M. goda god-an god-an god-an F. god-e god-an god-an god-an N. god-e god-e god-an god-an M.F.N. god-an god-an god-ena god-um. Note 3. — And so every adjective agreed, in gender, number, and case, with the substantive to which it belonged. And although no adjectives now mark by inflexion any difference of gender or case, and only the adjectives this, that mark distinctions of number, adjectives must still be considered to agree with their substantives in all these respects, and are to be parsed accordingly. Comparison of Adjectives 45 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 69 The Comparison of an adjective means the formation from it of derivative adjectives (or equivalent phrases) to express the degree of the quality denoted by the ad- jective. There are three degrees : Positive, Comparative, Super- lative. The Positive is the .simple form of the adjective; as, fair, heautiful. The Comparative (from Latin comparare, ' to place to- gether ') is a form or phrase expressing a higher degree in the comparison oitwo objects; SiS, fairer, more heautiful. The Superlative (from Latin superlatus, 'carried above') is a form or phrase expressing the highest degree in the comparison of more than two objects; as, fairest, most beautiful. Note 1. — Thus we cannot say * the more beautiful of the three ' nor * the fairest of the two.' Note 2. — The Superlative is sometimes used absolutely to denote a very high degree ; but in this use we employ the phrase with ' most ' rather than the superlative adjective in -est. Thus we say most strange it is, not strangest it is. But not so in older English : Milton has * Hail, divinest Melancholy.' Note 3. — The same idea can be expressed either by the comparative or the superlative ; thus we may say * Toby was the wisest of all dogs, or * Toby was wiser than all other dogs.' In the first instance there is a comparison between all dogs, including Toby — that is, more than two objects ; in the second, there is a comparison between Toby on the one hand, and all other dogs on the other hand. There are two ways of forming the Comparative and Superlative : — 70 I. By forming derivative adjectives in -er and -est ; as, hard, harder, hardest ; black, blacker, blackest If the Positive ends in a mute e it is omitted : wiser bravest 46 English Grammar If it ends in a consonant preceded by a short vowel, the consonant is doubled : redder, fittest If it ends in y, the y becomes i : jollier, prettiest But not if the y is preceded by another vowel : gayer, greyest This method only applies (A) to words of one syllable, (B) to certain words of two syllables, especially (1) those that end in -hie, -er, -ow, -y, as abler, slenderest, shallower, heaviest] (2) those that have the accent on the last syllable, as remdter, profoundest But in the case of dissyllables there are numerous exceptions (as hdndsomer, pledsanter, more infirm, Tnost select), and the ear is the only guide. 71 The same terminations are seen in the folio wing- irregular comparisons : [aft, adv.] bad (ill, evil) far [forth, adv.] fore good hind [in, adv. and pr.] late little many ) much ) [be-neath] nigh old [out, adv.] top under [up, adv.] after worse farther further former better hinder r later 1 I latter / (less \ .lesser J more (mo) nether [nigher] folder) I elder/ J outer \ \ utter / upper aftermost worst farthest furthest foremost, first best J hindmost [ hindermost f innermost \ inmost J latest / last least most nethermost next /oldest \ eldest r outmost, outermost I utmost, uttermost topmost undermost uppermost. Comparison of Adjectives 47 72 Notes : — 1. Aftermost = afte-most ; the r was inserted from a mistaken idea that the word was compounded of after and most. The termination -most is doubly superlative. Anglo-Saxon had two superlative endings, -ma (com- pare Latin opt-i-mus, etc. ), and -est. The combination of these two, -mest, was mistaken for the adverb most, and so written ; so that the termination -most really = the Latin iss-i-mus reversed, Aftermest is already found in the twelfth century ; then it disappears for six centuries, so that after- most may be a modern compound. It does not occur in the Bible. 2. BaddeVj baddest, occur occasionally from fourteenth to eighteenth centuries, e.g. in Defoe, but not in Shakespeare. Worse was originally a positive, whence comparative worser (in Shakespeare, Dry den, etc.), superlative worsest, contracted to wm^st. 3. The th in farther is due to its being confused ^ii\i further. Further =A.-S. furthur ; fore (before), and comparative suffix ther (cf. o-ther and Lat. al-ter). 4. The Anglo-Saxon forma, the superlative of foi^e, was used in the sense of * first.' Foremost, originally /orw-es^, is thus a double super- lative. The spelling was altered to suit the mistaken association with fore, most. Former is a false formation made to correspond ^ith. for m-est. First is a contraction oifore-est. 5. Better is a comparative formed from the same root as hoot (*to boot '= * to the good ') ; test is a contraction of het-est. 6. Hind is a modern positive of the older hinder. Hindmost is formed like /oremos^, hindermost like aftermost. 7. Latter is a variety of later ; last is a contraction of lat-est. 8. Less is a comparative formed from a root las, * weak,' whence lazy ; lesser is a double comparative ; least is a contraction of A.-S. Icesest, 9. More is from A.-S. mar a, used as a comparative of m^ceZ= great (Modern English much) ; mo is from ma, the adverbial form of mdra. The word most has nothing to do with the suffix -most, except that both con- tain the superlative termination -est. 10. A.-S. nedh = Modern English nigh; this is regularly compared nigher, nighest. But nedh had in A.-S. an adverbial comparative form near ; this became used as a positive adjective about the sixteenth century, and was regularly compared nearer, nearest. The A.-S. superlative of nedh : ndhst is Modern English next ; compare Jiext ( * when bale is hext, boot is next/'), from A.-S. h^hst, the superlative of hedh (high). 11. Elder, eldest are used of persons. The comparatives after, former, hinder, inner, latter, nether, elder, utter, outer, upper, cannot be used with than, i.e. cannot be used predicatively. There are certain Latin comparatives which have been imported ready made ^ anterior, junior, major, prior, senior, superior, inferior, minor, exterior, interior, idterior. Most of them are used with to instead of than ; the remainder take neither. 48 English Grammar 73 II- The second way of forming the Comparative and Superlative is by using the adverbs more and -r^ios^; as, "more industrious, most industrious. All adjectives except those mentioned in class I. are thus compared. Note. — Most of the previous class can also be compared this way ; thus Tennyson has ' makes love himself more dear,' * more black than ash-buds,' * things grew more tragic and more strange.' 74 There are certain adjectives the meaning of which does not admit of degree, and which consequently cannot be compared, such as right, left, square, weekly, golden. But some of these, when used with a weakened meaning, are capable of comparison ; for instance, we can say rounder, squarer, straighter. PRONOUNS 75 Pronouns are words that indicate persons or things without being names for them ; for instance ' I am the king,' ' Thou art the man,' ' The brave who fell at Thermo- pylae.' The king may be named Frederick or George; he is not named ' I ' ; / merely denotes the person who happens to be speaking. A substantive is a name only for certain persons or things, and cannot be applied to any other persons or things. We cannot apply the name sailor to a railway guard, for instance, or the name bridge to a river; the persons and things are different, and have different names. But the railway guard as well as the sailor would allude to himself as /; even the river may be imagined to speak and say — Men may come, and men may go, But / flow on for ever. Personal Pronouns 49 Pronouns, in fact, indicate persons or things by means of the relations in which those persons or things stand to others. The name Pronoun is deceptive; it is derived from Latin pro, ' instead of,' and nomen, ' noun,' and imphes that pronouns only serve the purpose of enabling us to avoid the .repetition of nouns. Some pronouns serve this purpose among others; other pronouns, such as /, thou, do not serve this purpose at all. As nouns are both substantive and adjective, so there are both substantive and adjective pronouns. Often the same word serves both purposes. Pronominal adjectives belong to the class of demon- strative or relational adjectives, § 60. Pronouns, like well-worn coins, have undergone great changes from constant use; but owing to the important part they play in language, their inflexions have been preserved to a greater extent than those of any other part of speech. 76 Y Pronouns may be divided into six classes : ^ \ I. Personal, Eeflexive, and Possessive. 2. Demonstrative. 3. Interrogative. 4. Kelative, including Universal Relative. 5. Distributive. 6. Indefinite. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 77 There are three Persons : — First, the person speaking : I or we. Second, the person spoken to : Thou or ye, you. Third, the person spoken of : He, she, it, they, D 50 English GraTfiniar The pronouns of the first and second persons are only substantival ; their forms are : riRST PERSON. Sing. Nom. I SECOND PERSON. thou Ace. me thee Gen, Bat [mine, my] me [thine, thee thy] Plur. Nom, we ye or you Ace. Gen. Bat us [our] us you [your] you. The Anglo-Saxon forms were : SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR, Nom. Ic (Ich) w6 thli g6 . Ace. mec (me) lisic (lis) thee (th^) eowic, eow Qen, min user (lire) thin edwer Bat, m^ lis th6 eow. 78 Notes : — The form Ich is said to exist still in the south-west of England. In Old English it som'etimes coalesced with the following verb ; as, Icham, Ichahhe (I have). So Shakespeare in King Lear makes Edgar, when pre- tending to be a rustic, say che for 7, chill for I will, chud for 1 would. We is not exactly the plural of / (which cannot, strictly speaking, have a plural) : it means / and you, or / and he {she, it, they). It is used of a single person in the case of Royalty : Thinking that we are a queen. — Shakes. As we ourself have been. — Tennyson. Thou, as may be seen above, was in Anglo-Saxon exclusively singular, and you exclusively plural. The use of you as a singular was due to Norman-French influence ; the Old French vos (Modern French vou^), was universal as the polite form of address, whether singular or plural. Thus it is that, down to the time of Shakespeare, thou was the pronoun employed towards equals and inferiors ; you was used in addressing superiors. The polite singular form became general; and thou is in Modern English used only in poetry or in prayer. You is always in parsing to be considered as plural. Personal Pronouns 5 1 Ye nowadays stands on the same footing as thou. In the Bible ye is always nominative, you accusative, but this is not invariably the case in other writers ; Shakespeare has I do beseech ye if you bear me hard. That you should here repent ye. The genitive of the personal pronouns when used in a possessive sense was in Anglo-Saxon declined like an adjective ; in fact it was replaced by an adjective of which the masculine nominative had the same form. And as this possessive sense is almost the only sense in which these forms are now used, most Grammars consider them as adjectives rather than as cases of the personal pronouns. They are occasionally found, however, as Objective Genitives (§ 36), in such phrases as * in Thy faith and fear ' ( = in faith and fear towards Thee), * my betrayal ' ( = the betrayal of me), * our imprisonment,' etc. 79 The Personal Pronoun of the Third Person has in the singular different forms for the three genders: because, while the sex of the person speaking or spoken to is evi- dent, that of the person or thing spoken of is not evident, and so requires to be marked by a grammatical inflexion for gender. The forms of the pronoun of the third person are Singular. Plural. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom, he she it they Ace, him her it them Gen, his her its their Dat. him her it them. In Anglo-Saxon the declension was Singular. Plural. ■--.^ MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. he h^o hit hi Ace, hine hi . hit hi Gen. his hire his hira Dat. him hire him him (hem). 52 English Grammar O V It will be noticed that slie^ they^ their, them, are not from the same stem as the other forms : they have been adopted from the demonstrative se, seo, thcet. The final t in it, that, what, is the same neuter termination as is seen in id, illud, quod. The abbreviation 'em is not formed from them, but is a relic of the older hem : so a in * quotha,' 'and so a goes to heaven,' 'Parson a coomes and a goes ' is for he. KEFLEXIVE FORMS 81 A Reflexive Pronoun (from the Latin reflectere, 'to bend back ') is a personal pronoun which is used to refer back to another word which is either in grammar or in meaning the subject of the sentence. From its very meaning a reflexive pronoun cannot have a nominative case ; but, as will be seen, the forms in -self may be used emphatically, not reflexively, and may then stand in the nominative. A. The ordinary personal pronouns may be used re- flexively; thus, I met a fool who laid him down and basked him in the sun. He who hath bent him o'er the dead. Get thee behind me, Satan. This is nowadays confined to poetical and archaic diction. B. Generally they are combined with the word self to express the reflexive idea : / cut Tnyself, He praises him- self The word self means same. So Shakespeare, Merchant of Venice, i. i. 148 : To shoot another arrow that self way Which you did shoot the first. So selfsame. Reflexive Forms 53 Self, in Anglo-Saxon and Early English, was used both as an adjective and a substantive : the latter use was the later. And, corresponding to these two uses, we have in Modern English the forms himself , herself, itself, themselves, on the one hand, and myself, thyself, yourself, ourselves, yourselves, on the other hand. Theoretically, there would be nothing ungrammatical in saying hisself theirselves, but custom has decided against them. In the same way we may say one's self or oneself (both modern expressions). The word self is of course often a substantive in Modern English : Tennyson has her sweet self, her falser self their dead selves, your great self etc. Our self is used of the ' plural of dignity ' : We ourself will follow in the main. — Shakes. What touches us ourself shall be last served. — Id, 82 The forms in -self, when used emphatically, not re- flexively, may be either adjectival or substantival. They are adjectival in such phrases as I myself, he himself, and substantival in such as hvmself will choose (Shakespeare), ourself will swiftness to your nerves impart (Pope). In these cases the question arises. What should be the person of the verb ? Milton writes. Myself am hell, Shakespeare Myself have often seen. But Shakespeare also has Myself hath often overheard them say. Myself bewails good Gloucester's case, Thyself should govern Rome and me. 54 English Grammar POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 83 The Possessive Pronouns are adjectives, originally the genitives of the personal pronouns, but declined through- out like other adjectives. So in Latin meus, mea, Tneum, tuns, tua, tuurrij are formed from Tnei and tui, genitives of ego and tu. The forms now in use are mine, my ; thine, thy ; his, her, its ; owr ; your ; their ; and the double genitives hers, ours, yours, theirs. These latter are only used without a following substan- tive ; as, that hat is hers, this one is yours. This is also the case, as a rule, with m^ine and thine, but in poetry and elevated language these are sometimes found in their original use with a substantive. This is chiefly the case {a) when the substantive begins with a vowel sound, thine honour, thine ear, but also (b) when it begins with an h, thine heritage, mine host, and (c) when the possessive follows the substantive : lady mine. My, thy are shortened forms of mine, thine, as a is of an. The neuter hit (it) formed a regular genitive his, which is the only form in the Bible except in one passage (Levit. XXV. 5), of its own accord, where the original version had ' of it own accord.' This uninflected genitive it is found from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries. It occurs several times in Shakespeare, e.g. the innocent milk in it most innocent mouth, W, T. ill. ii. 102 ; it had it head bit off, K. L. i. iv. 236. For of his, of mine, etc., see § 34 ; and for such expres- sions as Ulysses his bow, see § 33. Demonstrative Pronouns DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 55 84 The Demonstrative Pronouns are this, that, so, such, yonder. This and that have plurals these and those ; the rest are indeclinable. Anglo-Saxon had two demonstratives, thes, theds, this, *this,' and se. sdo, thcet, *that,' which were thus declined : MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. SING. Nomt thes th^os this se seo thaet Ace, thisne thds this thone thd thaet Gen, thisses thisse(re) thisses thses tha^re thaes Dat. thissum thissere thissum thdm tha^re thdm Instr. th^s thissere th^s thy thaere thy PLURAL Nom, thds thd Ace, thds thd Gen. thissera thara Dat, thissum tham 85 This and that were therefore originally neuters ; those was originally plural of this, like these ; its present use as plural of that dates from the fourteenth century. This and that can be used both as substantives and adjectives; for instance, this is good, these are they, those "men are hungry, zuho is that ? Usually this refers to what is nearer the speaker, that to what is further away ; this refers to the latter of two things previously mentioned, that to the former. 86 So may be used as a pronoun, substantive, or adjective, and is equivalent to that or such ; for instance, an hour or so, he is not clever, but his parents think him so, Shakespeare has so as thou art for such as thou art 87 Such (Anglo-Saxon swilc) is a compound of so and like. Each and which (Anglo-Saxon oelc and hwilc) are compounded with the same suffix. 56 English Grammar Such may be used both as substantive and adjective. It is substantive in such as are desolate and oppressed, If you are a gentleman, behave as such, Such were his words ; it is adjective in such legal phrases as to pay such rental or sum of £50 . . . 88 Yon {yonder) in Modern English is only used adjec- tivally; but in provincial dialects it is sometimes used as a substantive, Yon is a good man. The adverbs here, there, sometimes replace the demonstrative pronouns when combined with prepositions ; thus, herein, therewith, for in this, with that. Demonstratives are so named from the Latin demonstrare, * to point out.' The pointing out may be actual when the things referred to are tangible and present, this referring to what is near the speaker, that to what is farther off ; or the pointing out may be metaphorical, as when we say 'this new play at the Lyceum,' *that memorable day.' So and such are rarely used in the former sense, yon never in the latter. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 89 Interrogative Pronouns are those used in questions ; they are so called from the Latin interrogare, 'to ask questions.' They are who, what, which, and (formerly) whether, and the emphatic forms whoever, whatever, whichever. Which and whether are not declined ; who, what is thus declined in singular and plural : Modern English. Anglo-Saxon. MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Norn, who what hwd hwset Ace. whom what hwone hwaet Gen, whose hwses hwaes Dat, whom what hwam hwam [Instr.] [why] hwy hwy. Relative Pronouns 57 Whom is properly a dative, like him ; but since the thirteenth century it has also been used as accusative. Who can only be used as a substantive, and of persons ; what can be used as substantive or adjective ; as a substantive it is always neuter ; as an adjective it may also be masculine or feminine. What in the dramatists is often used as an exclamation : What, wife, I say ! — Shakespeare, Merry Wives of Windsor, IV. ii. 125. Which (Anglo-Saxon hwilc) is a compound of who, like. Compare such. It can be used as substantive or adjective, and of persons or things ; it refers to one or more out of a restricted number. Thus we say, * Which did you meet ? ' referring to a certain family or body of persons, * Whom did you meet ? ' without any such reference. Whether was used in older English for ' which of the two,' as in the Bible, * Whether is greater, the gold or the temple ? ' It is now obsolete. KELATIVE PRONOUNS 90 The Relative Pronouns are who, which, that, what, as ; some grammarians also include hut. The following are instances : He who hath bent him o'er the dead. This dim spot Which men call earth. The sound of a voice that is still. The days that are no more. And what is writ is writ. Such notes as drew iron tears down Pluto's cheek. Who hut must laugh, if such a man there be 1, 91 Eelative Pronouns are so called because they refer (Latin referre, supine relatnm) to some other pronoun or substantive; they introduce a dependent clause,^ and refer to a substantive or pronoun in the sentence upon which the clause depends. This substantive or pronoun is called the antecedent, from Latin antecedere, ' to go before.' 1 See Syntax, § 157 58 English Grmnmar The name 'relative' is objectionable, because other pronouns also refer to an antecedent substantive or pro- noun. Thus in Qrace is out; he has made 104, the pronoun he refers to Grace, but is not relative. Kelatives ought, in fact, to be called ' subjunctive ' or ' subordmating ' pronouns ; for their peculiarity is that they make the clause which they introduce grammatically subordinate to, or dependent upon, the sentence in which their antecedent stands ; while if we substitute a demon- strative or personal pronoun for the relative, the two sentences are co-ordinate, that is, stand side by side inde- pendently. In For I, who hold sage Homer's rule the best, Welcome the coming, speed the going guest, the clause who . . . best is introduced by a relative, and is subordinate to, or dependent upon, the sentence / welcome, etc. But if we substituted a personal pronoun for the relative who, and said, ' I hold sage Homer's rule the best ; I welcome,' etc., the two sentences would be co-ordinate or independent. In Anglo-Saxon the (indeclinable) was the usual relative ; sometimes it was combined with se (the demonstrative) ; and sometimes se was used by itself. 92 The present relatives who, which, were originally inter- rogatives; that was originally demonstrative. The latter was used as a relative some time before the two former. Who is declined like the interrogative who (see § 89) ; it is used of persons only, and is never used adjectivally. Its antecedent may be omitted ; as in. Whom the gods love die young (=they whom). Who does a kindness is not therefore kind ( = he who). Relative Pronouns 59 93 Which is not etymologically the neuter of who, but a separate word ; see § 89. It is now only used of things, but was formerly used also of persons, as in Our Father, which art in heaven. All those friends which I thought buried (Shakespeare). This is due to the fact that in early Modern English which was the only relative. Ben Jonson says, 'there is one relative, which.' [In sentences like He Tiientioned which of them were coming, the which is, of course, interrogative.] Sometimes its antecedent is a clause ; as in. He says that we have no policy ; which is not true, where the antecedent of which is that we have no policy. Or it may be the idea implied in a clause : The less would then be equal to the greater; which is absurd. where the antecedent of which is that the less is equal to the greater. Sometimes its antecedent is an adjective ; as in, He thought her pretty, which she was not, and never sus- pected her of being clever, which she undoubtedly was. Which may be either substantive or adjective: it is adjective (a) in such instances as the last; (b) when it is joined to a substantive; as in. He was unable to contradict me; for which reason he held his tongue ; (c) where its antecedent is repeated ; as, The fault was hers ; which fault . . . {King John, i. i. 119); Shed out his innocent soul through streams of blood ; Which blood, like sacrificing AbePs, cries {Richard 11, l. i. 104); {d) or repeated with a variation ; as, A dozen years ; within which space she died. — Tempest. A cloven pine ; within which rift. — Ibid. 6o English Grammar Which, when governed by a preposition, is sometimes replaced by the adverb where ; as, I built my soul a lordly pleasure-house, Wherein at ease for age to dwell. The play 's the thing Wherein 1 '11 catch the conscience of the king. Formerly ' the which ' was used ; as in, The worthy name by the which . . . {St. James ii. 7) ; and often in Shakespeare, e.g., The party 'gainst the which he doth contrive. — Merchant of Venice^ IV. i. 352. 94 That was originally a demonstrative, but came to be used as a relative some time before who or which. It may be used either of persons or things, and is always a substantive. It is indeclinable, and xaay be used as a singular and a plural, but only in the nominative or accusative case ; thus, Nom. Sing. Sweet bird, that shunst the noise of folly. — Milton. Ace. Sing. This is the house that Jack built. Nom. Plur. We that are true lovers run into strange capers. — As You Like It, i. iv. 50. Ace. Plur. These are the books that I read. That cannot be used after a preposition; when it is governed by one, the preposition comes at the end of the sentence ; thus, ' The town that I was born in,' ' The man that I bought this hat from.' This use has been subsequently applied to the other relatives. Relative Pronouns 6i In the same way, that cannot be used after ihan\ for instance, it could not be used in such an instance as this : ' A man, than whom no one stands higher in popular favour/ OsVrhe different uses of THAT and WHO or WHICH. Y (1) That is generally used to introduce a clause defining its antecedent ; as in, This is the house that Jack built If the antecedent is already sufficiently described, we use who or which, not that \ for instance, My brother Dick, who (not that) died when I was a boy, The Tower of London, which (not that) is open to visitors, because I have only one brother Dick, and there is only one Tower of London. On the other hand, I could say My brother that is in Burmah, if I have another brother elsewhere. (2) Sometimes who, which stand for and he, and it, etc., as in the following instances ^ : My name is Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk ; Who hither come engaged by my oath i\ (Fdchard 11. i. iii. 17), where who = and I. fp^ I leave him to your gracious acceptance, whose trial shall better publish his commendation (Merchant of Venice, IV. i. 165), where whose = for his. In such cases that cannot be used. (3) Who, which cannot be omitted except when they can be replaced by that. That can always be omitted when it is the object of the verb, or is governed by a preposition : This is the house Jack built ; This is the house I live in. Formerly also (as ^ From Abbott, Shaks. Gram. 62 English Grammar well as who, which) it was omitted when it was the subject of the verb ; as in/ In war was never lion (that) raged more fierce. — Richard II. ii. i. 173. You are one of those (who) would have him wed again.— Winter's Tale, v. i. 23. (4) Formerly that was used as a relative after that (demonstrative), as an antecedent ; as in, That that dieth, let it die (Zech. ix. 9). We now use which, . 96 What is properly the neuter of who (§ 89) ; it is only used with reference to things, but may be either sub- stantive, as in / did what I could, or adjective, as in / gave up what tione I could spare. It is equivalent to that which, and therefore its ante- • cedent, when it would naturally precede, is omitted; when, however, the relative clause comes first, the ante- cedent is sometimes expressed ; as in. What I promised you, that I have performed. The relative what is only used in the singular ; so while it is right to say / asked him what hooks he wanted (where what is interrogative), it is incorrect to say / gave him what hooks he wanted (where what is relative). 97/CAs is used as a relative pronoun after such and same :X Savoury meat such as I love. Bees like the same odours as we do. In provincial and vulgar Enghsh, it is used as an ordinary relative pronoun after other antecedents : It isn't them as has money as breaks into houses and steals. — Tennyson. ^ From Abbott, Shahs. Gram. Relative Pronouns 63 And so in Shakespeare : Those as sleep and think not of their sins. That kind of fruit as maids call medlars. 98 /Y But is considered by some writers a relative pronoun, Avnen it stands as the equivalent for who . . . not after negative sentences ; as in, There 's not a man I meet but doth salute m.e. This use is due to the omission of the pronoun which would follow but, and stand as subject or object of the sentence. The pronoun was probably omitted because the person or thing denoted by it has always just been emphatically referred to. Sometimes the pronoun is expressed ; as in. There 's not a villain dwelling in all Denmark But he 's an arrant knave. The omitted pronoun is generally the subject of the relative clause ; as in, There 's not the smallest orb which thou beholdest But in his motion like an angel sings. (But = which . . . not) Sometimes it is the object ; as in, ^ What is in Silvia's face, but I may spy more fresh in ' Julia's. (But = which . . . not) Sometimes it is governed by a preposition, which is also omitted ; as in. Never morning wore to evening, but some heart did break. (Where but = in which . . . not) This use of but is parallel to the use of quin in Latin ; quin being equivalent to qui . . . non. 64 English Grammar 99 Universal Relatives (also called General or Indefinite Relatives) are formed by adding -so, -ever, or -soever, to who, which, or what. Only whosoever is declined ; its forms are tlie same for singular and plural, and are Gen. Wliosesoever. Bat and Ace. Whomsoever. The Universal Relatives are used, like what, without an antecedent expressed ; as in, For forms of government let fools contest ; Whate'er is best administered is best. Only the forms in -ever are common now ; the others are archaic. RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT 100 The Relative agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and person. Thus we say ' a man who,' not ' a man which ' ; ' a thing which,' not ' a thing who.' Thus, too, we say, ' I who am the king,' ' You who are rich,' because who is in each case ' of the same person and number as its antecedent. The case of the relative depends upon its function in the clause it introduces ; thus we say, ' Great Anna, whom three realms obey,' or 'Great Anna, who rules three realms.' The antecedent is sometimes expressed after the relative what ; as in. What I have promised, that will I perform. Sometimes the antecedent is omitted ; as in, Whom the gods love, die young. Who steals my purse, steals trash. This is the rule with what and the Universal Relatives. Distribtitive Pronouns 65 Sometimes the relative is omitted; in modern prose only when it is the object of the verb ; as in, This is the book I am reading, There is the man I mentioned ; or when governed by a preposition ; as in, This is a book I am very fond of. There is the man I spoke of. But in older English and in poetry the relative is also omitted sometimes, when it would have formed the subject of the relative clause ; as in, Show me the man hath suffered more than I. — Tennyson. DISTKIBUTIVE PEONOUNS 101 The words each, every, either, neither are sometimes classed as Distributive Pronouns: that is, they denote persons or things which form a pair or a number, but are considered separately. These words are always singular, and may be used either as substantives or as adjectives. Either is the only one that forms a genitive. 1 02 A Each is adjective in such phrases as each sex, each man, each one of flJiem ; it is substantive in instances like the following : Wandering each his several way. — Milton. Like school broke up, each hurries towards his home. — Shakes, Formerly it was occasionally used as a plural, in the sense of * both ' : And each, though enemies to cither's reign, Do in consent ;9hake hands to torture me. — Shakes. E 66 English Grammar The reciprocal phrase ' each other ' is properly used of two ; when three or more are spoken of * one another ' should be used. ' They praise each other ' stands for * each praises the other.' So we find in Shakespeare * that which each to other hath so strongly sworn. ' In Modern English we use a plural verb with the phrase, and if other would be governed by a preposition (as in the last example) we put the preposition before eac/i : * that which they have sworn to each other. ' . / Every is a compound, ever-each, the ever having the same generalising V Yforce as in whoever, etc. It means * all of a collection, taken one at a \/^ It is now only used as an adjective : * every human being,' * every one.' But it was formerly used also as a substantive, where we should now use * every one ' ; thus in ^s You Like It : Every of this happy number That have endured shrewd days and nights with us K Shall share the good of our returned fortune. Either and Neither are used both as adjectives and substantives : / neither is ne-either, 'not either.' Either has two meanings — (1) ' one or the other of two' ; (2) *one and the other of two, ' * each. ' Neither is only the negative of the first meaning. Instances are — (1) Adjective : Spirits, when they please, Can either sex assume, or both. — Milton. Where neither party is nor true nor kind. — Shakes, (1) Substantive : Lepidus flatters both, Of both is flattered : but he neither loves Nor either cares for him. — Shakes, (2) Adjective : On either side of the river was there the tree of life. — Rev, xxii. 2. (2) Substantive : The king of Israel and Jehoshaphat sat either of them on his throne. — 2 Chron. xviii. 9. / The distinction between both, each, and either must be carefully ob- served. Take this instance : * The town lies on both sides of the river ;. there is a steamboat pier on each bank ; and the tickets are available at either pier. ' We see that both = ' two, taken together, ' each = ' two (or more) taken separately,' either = *one or the other of two, indiff'erently. ' Indefinite Pronouns 67 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 103 Indefinite Pronouns are used vaguely, without refer- ence to definite persons or things. They can only be con- sidered pronouns when used as substantives, and even then many of them are hardly distinguishable from ordinary adjectives used substantivally. The following may be mentioned : 104 AU, as in * that's all.' At Barton Bridge on the Avon is an inn with the sign, '*'The Four Alls' : the King, ' I govern all'; the Bishop, * I pray for all ' ; the Soldier, * I fight for all ' ; the Farmer, ' I pay for all.' " \Any. In Early English the Southern form was ewy, the Midland any^ the Northern, ony. We have kept the Midland form and the Southern pronunciation. Instances : Unknown to any but those two alonCc — Keats. The Lord is not willing that any should perish. — 2 Peter iii. 9. Aught is a substantive : it is derived from a wliit = e'er a whit : Unfaith in aught is want of faith in all. — Tennyson. Few and many : Many be called, but few chosen. — Matt. xx. 16. We are left but a few of many. — Jer. xliii. 2. None is a compound of ne or no, and one. One, as a pronoun, makes a genitive and a plural ; it has several uses : (1) To avoid repetition of a substantive; as, * This knife is dirty : give me a clean one.' (2) In the sense of * person' ; as in, * little ones.' (3) As antecedent to a relative : * One whom all admire.' (4) As meaning * a certain person ' : * There 's one at the door. ' (5) As opposed to other : ' the one . . . the other ' ; ' one . . . another. ' (6) Impersonal : * One would think.' Other, as a pronoun, makes a genitive and a plural : I think so : others don't. It is not used in Modern English in the singular without an article, but was so used formerly : And leave their riches for other. — Ps. xlix. 10, Prayer- Book Vers. 68 English Gram^nar Some ; as in, * some say he killed himself ' ; ' some are dead. ' Who may be an indefinite pronoun in *as who should say " I am Sir Oracle " ' (=as if some one should say). But Abbott points out^ that in Shakespeare (though not in Gower and Early English is always possible to supply the antecedent * as (one) who . . . ' VERBS 105 ^ Verb is a word ^ that says sometliing about a person or thing. This person or thing is in the nominative case, and is called the Subject of the Verb. The Verb and the Subject together form a sentence. Thus we can say that a Verb is a word by means of which alone we can form a sentence about a subject. A sentence, as we have seen in § 3, must contain a statement or a question or a command or a wish : but it will be more convenient to postpone the consideration of the latter until we deal with Syntax, and confine ourselves here to sentences which make a state- ment or assertion. In such sentences the Verb asserts that the subject does something or is in some condition, or has something done to it. It may be said that an adjective also can tell us this; we can say, a man desirous of praise, an empty train, a subject 2^eople, as well as the man desires praise, the train is empty, the people have been conquered. The difference is that the adjective implies the connection between the two ideas {man and desirous, train and empty, p)eople and subject), while the verb asserts it. The word ' verb ' is derived from the Latin verbum, ' a word/ ' saying,' because it is the word in the sentence that says something. 1 Shahs. Gram. p. 175. 2 See below, § 112. Verbs 69 106 Verbs can be used in one of two ways, transitively or in- transitively ; many verbs can be used in both of these ways. A verb is said to be transitive, or to be used transi- tively, when it expresses an action (or a feeling) that passes over, or is directed, to some object ; the word transitive being derived from the Latin transire, ' to go across/ Thus in he fells trees, the action denoted by fells passes over from the subject he to the object trees. The person or thing directly aiBfected by the action denoted by a transitive verb is called its object, and is in the accusative case. A verb is said to be intransitive, or to be used intransi- tively, when it expresses an action or condition that does not pass over to an object, but directly affects only the sub- ject, as in he laughs, she weeps, they live in London, Intransitive verbs are often used with a preposition so as to convey the same meaning as a transitive verb ; thus, ' he laughs at the foreigner ' means the same thing as * he derides the foreigner, ' but grammatically the former is an intransitive verb (having no direct object in the accusative case), while the latter (having such an object) is a transitive verb. Transitive verbs are used reflexively when they express an action (or a feeling) done (or felt) by the subject to (or towards) himself ; thus, * he loves himself,' * thej^ have hurt themselves.' They are used reciprocally when they express an action (or feeling) by two or more subjects towards one another, as in *they help one another.' Sometimes the reflexive pronoun is omitted, and a verb, usually transitive, comes to be used intransitively ; as, * the train is moving (itself),' ' the shadows lengthen (themselves),' * I turn (myself) to other things.' But, apart from this usage, many verbs proper!}' or originally tran- sitive can be used intransitively; as, *the horse will not eat,' *he is writing. ' On the other hand, many verbs, properly or originally intransitive, can also be used transitively ; thus we can say, * he is trying to float a com- pany.' Some intransitive verbs have a causative form corresponding to the intransitive one ; thus, y to fall ... to fell (to cause to fall) . to lie ... to lay (to cause to lie) VT to rise ... to raise (to cause to rise). ^ 70 English Grammar Whether a verb can be used transitively or intransitively, or in both ways, depends solely upon usage, and usage is continually being altered. The sum of the whole matter is that, while certain verbs can only be used in one of these ways, many others can be used in both. Some verbs, usually intransitive, take what is called a cognate accusative ; that is, an accusative of cognate (or kindred) meaning ; as. Let him die the death of a traitor, I have lived my life, He sleeps the sleep that knows no waking. See § 31, B. And this accusative is often extended so as to include a fresh idea ; as in. He runs a raee, He walks a mile, It blew a hurricane. Impersonal verbs are those which are used in the third person only with a vague and impersonal subject; as, It seems to me, It thunders. 107 Verbs are inflected or combined with auxiliaries to ex- press differences of person, number, tense, mood, and voice. Person. A verb has three persons, answering to the three persons in pronouns ; that is to say — \ho first person, that of the speaker; the second person, of the person or thing spoken to ; the third person, of the person or thing spoken of. Number. 108 A verb has two numbers. Singular and Plural, corre- sponding to the two numbers of substantive nouns and pronouns. In these two respects, Person and Number, the verb agrees with its subject. These two modifications of meaning (Person and Num- ber) are expressed solely, if at all, by means of inflexion. Verbs 7 1 Tense. 109 Tenses are modifications of the form of a verb, either by inflexion or by the use of compound phrases, to denote time\ the word 'tense' being derived from the Latin tempus, ' time.' But besides denoting the time to which we refer the action or feehng expressed by the verb, they also mark whether the action or feehng is regarded as complete at that time or not. With regard to time, there are three obvious divisions, the Present, the Past, and the Future; and the tenses which refer an action to one of these periods are named accordingly. With regard to completeness, tenses which denote that an action was complete at the time referred to are named Perfects — Present Perfect (generally called Perfect), Past Perfect (or Pluperfect), and Future Perfect. Thus there are six tenses in English, the Present,Past,and Future Simple, and the Present, Past, and Future Perfect. And each of these tenses has a continuous tense corre- sponding to it, as shown below. Thus we get altogether twelve tenses ; viz., 1 a Present I see 1 b Continuous Present . I am seeing 2a Present Perfect (or Perfect) I have seen 26 Continuous Perfect I have been seeing 3a Past I saw 3b Continuous Past (or Imperfect) I was seeing 4a Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) I had seen 46 Continuous Pluperfect I had been seeing . 5 a Future I shall see 56 Continuous Future I shall be seeing 6 a Future Perfect I shall have seen 66 Continuous Future Perfect I shall have been seeing. 72 English Grammar 110 All languages do not express all the above varieties of tense by means of different forms. Latin, for instance, has only six tenses, which corre- spond to the English twelve in the following manner : — English Tense. English Form. Latin Form, Latin Tense. Present Continuous Present Perfect Continuous Perfect Past Continuous Past Pluperfect Continuous Pluperf Future Continuous Future Future Perfect Continuous Future Perfect I see ) I am seeing \ I have seen '\ I have been seeing \ I saw J I was seeing I had seen ) I had been seeing \ I shall see ) I shall be seeing ( I shall have seen ^ I shall have been V seeing J video vidi videbam videram videbo videro Present Perfect Imperfect Pluperfect - Future Future Perfect 111 There are no passive forms of the Continuous Perfect or Future Perfect. It will be noticed that only two of the above tenses are formed without auxiliaries — the Present and the Past; the remainder are formed by means of the auxiliary verbs ' have/ ' be/ ' shall/ ' will/ in combination with the Present or Perfect Participle or the Infinitive of the principal verb. N.B. — These verbs a.re only auxiliary when used to form a tense. The Perfect Tenses are formed with ' have.' The Continuous Tenses with ' be.' The Future Tenses with ' shall ' or ' will.' Thus the Continuous Future Perfect employs all these auxiliaries : / shall have been seeing. Here the word have is in the infinitive, been and seeing are participles (perfect and present), and shall is an auxiliary verb. Verbs ']i 112 It will have been noticed that we said (§ 105) that a verb is a word. Now, 'shall have been seen' is four words, and the Latin equivalent, visns ero, is two words : can we call either of these expressions a verb ? They are, of course, strictly speaking, verbal phrases, in which all the words are verbal of one kind or another. But they have always been known as verbs in both English and Latin grammar, and it would be inconvenient to introduce a change which would reduce the English tenses to two, and abolish the Passive Yoice entirely. We shall therefore continue to speak of these compound forms as 'Verbs,' at the same time dealing separately with the infinitive and participles, by means of which such forms are con- structed. llo The following peculiar uses of tenses may be noticed : Historical Present, by which things really past are vividly described as present; as, And now he feels the bottom ; Now on dry earth he stands ; Now round him throng the fathers To press his gory hands. Present used for Future : I am dining with them to-morrow. Oblique Future and Future Perfect. By the aid of the past tenses of 'shall' and 'will' (viz. * should' and 'would') we can describe an action as having at some past time been about to happen or to be completed : *I told him I should consult my solicitor' {i.e. *was about to con- sult.' The consultation was future on that day, now past, when I told him). * I told him I should have left England before then. ' At the time when I told him, my having left England was future. Some Intransitive Verbs form their Perfects in the Active Voice by means of the Auxiliary Verb ' be ' ; for instance, Arthur is come again ; he cannot die. Gone he is to wage grim war. This gentleman is happily arrived. Whither are they vanished ? This use is only occasionally met with in modern prose. 74 English Graimnar Voice. 114 There are two Voices (derived from Latin vox, ' voice ') viz., The Active Voice (derived from Latin agere, ' to do '), used in expressing what the subject of the sentence does ; as, ' The cat lias killed your bird.' The Passive Voice (derived from Latin 'pati, ' to suffer '), used in expressing what is done to the subject of the sentence ; as, ' Your bird }ias been killed by the cat.' From these instances we see that the same idea may be expressed in two ways; and that when the verb is changed from the Active to the Passive, its former direct object becomes its subject. It follows from this that (except as stated below) only transitive verbs can be put into the Passive ; for they alone take a direct object in the Active. The Passive is formed by means of the auxiliary verb 'be,' joined to the perfect passive participle of the verb. See § 124 Logically, as has been said, only transitive verbs can be put into the Passive, and only the direct objects of the Active verb can become its subject in the Passive. This is the rule in many other languages — in Latin, for instance. But in English, there are two exceptions to this rule : — (1) Owing to the confusion in form of the dative and the accusative, the indirect (as well as the direct) object can generally stand as the subject of the passive verb. Thus, They showed me (ind. obj.) the letter (dir. obj.) may become in the passive / was shown the letter, or The letter was shown me (to me). And He has refused the sailor leave becomes The sailor has been refused leave, or Leave has been refused (to) the sailor. Verbs 75 (2) Often a group of words ending with a pr.eposition (and, therefore, followed by a substantive in the accusative) is treated as if it were a transitive verb governing the sub- stantive, and is turned into the passive with the sub- stantive as its subject: They spoke very highly of her : she was spoken very highly of. I have taken the greatest care of them : they have been taken the greatest care of. Mood. 115 Moods (from the Latin modus, ' manner ') are variations in the conjugation of a verb which are used to show different ways or modes in which we predicate anything of the subject, or in which we regard the connection between the subject and the predicate; the subject being the person or thing we speak about, and the predicate being what we say about that person or thing. 116 The Indicative Mood (from the Latin indicare, ' to point out ') is the ordinary form of the verb, and is used mainly in making direct statements or asking direct questions; as Saying, ' dost thou love me, cousin ? ' weeping, * I have loved thee long.' It can also, however, be used of suppositions or com- mands; as in. If he comes, I will tell him, You will give him. this letter, ^1^ The Imperative Mood (from the Latin imperare, ' to order ') expresses a command or request ; as, ^ But now delay not ; take Excalibur, And fling him far into the middle mere. — Tennyson. Ask me no more. — Id. 76 English Grammar As a direct command can only be addressed to another person, we are prepared to find that in Enghsh the Im- perative is only used in the second person, singular and plural; for the other persons we employ the auxiliary verb let {=allow, cause)) as, Let us pray. Let is an imperative in the second person governing the accusative us, Sind pray is an infinitive. Cf. Hamlet, iv. vi. 11 : If your name be Horatio, as I am let to know it is. From the fact that a direct command is always addressed to another person, it follows that it is never necessary to express the subject of an imperative, the subject being suiSficiently distinguished by being ad- dressed. 118 The Subjunctive Mood is used when referring to a state of things as thought of. It may or may not be an actual fact, but the use of the Subjunctive denotes that it is only regarded as a conception of the mind. The name 'Subjunctive' (from the Latin subjungere, * to join on') is doubly misleading, because (1) the Subjunctive Mood is used in principal, as well as in subjoined, clauses; (2) the verb in a subjoined clause need not be in the Subjunctive Mood. The name ' conceptive ' would be preferable to ' sub- junctive,' inasmuch as the mood marks the fact that we are speaking of something as a conception, not as a matter of fact. The Subjunctive Mood is almost obsolete; in ordinary English we generally employ auxiliaries may, m.ight, should, etc. (which are themselves in the subjunctive) to express ideas which were formerly expressed by the subjunctive. Thus for Be wise, lest sorrow lend me ^ Verbs 77 words, many would now say, Be wise, lest sorrow should lend me words. 119 The main uses of the Subjunctive are— A. In principal sentences, 1. To express Wish or Bequest : I Go we to the king. Perish India. God save the Queen. Thy kingdom come. And he will sit on his right hand, commanding us to take possession of his glorious kingdom . . . ; unto which he vouchsafe to bring us all.^ — Prayer-Booh Note. — These instances can be distinguished from imperatives by the fact that the subject is (and must be) expressed, which would not be the case if we were directly commanding. It is possible to regard such phrases as ' Go we to the king ' as imperatives in the first person plural, we being equivalent to you + /or you + we, and the command being really addressed to you ; but, as the subject must be expressed in such cases, it is simpler to regard them as subjunctives. 2. In the principal clause in a conditional sentence where the supposition in the subordinate ^/-clause is not supposed to be the fact : The desert were a paradise, if thou wert there. — Burns. L20 B. In subordinate clauses ; viz., I. i7-clauses and other clauses, stating a condition not in accordance with fact. [These are the subordinate clauses depending on the sentences noticed above, A. 2.] It would be disgraceful if it were true. If thou wert the lion, the fox would beguile thee. — Shakes. Sometimes the if is omitted, and the subject follows the verb : wert thou in the cauld blast, I'd shelter thee. — Burns. yS English Grammar 2. //"-clauses and other clauses stating a condition which may be the fact, but which we do not mean to assert to be the fact. [Here the principal sentence has the indicative or imperative.] ^ If it were so, it was a grievous fault. If such there breathe, go mark him well. 3. Clauses expressing purpose : Be wise, lest sorrow lend me words. That they were (living) I wish myself were mudded in that oozy bed where my son lies. 4. Dependent commands and wishes : I wish myself were mudded. We enjoin thee that thou carry. 5. Dependent questions : I asked if James were coming. VERBAL NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE The Infinitive. 121 In addition to the three finite moods (the Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive), there is a fourth mood, the Infinitive. The three former are called ' finite ' (from the Jj^tinfinitus, * bounded ') because they are limited in their meaning by inflexions of persons and number. The Infini- tive (Latin infinitns, ' not bounded ') has no such limita- tion. It is used of all persons and numbers without variation of form, while the finite moods have, or originally had, different forms for each person and number. It is in reality an abstract verbal substantive, and cannot be used to assert anything directly of a subject. But it has tenses, and can be constructed with a subject in a phrase (as Verbal Nouns Substantive 79 I hnew him to he a liar), and therefore may be called a mood. The preposition to is often called a sign of the In- finitive; but originally the infinitive proper was used / without to, and it still is after certain auxiliary and other /(^ ^ verbs; thus, 'You will escape. Do not go. Let us pray. To help unarm our Hector. Bid me to live ... or bid me die! The use of * to ' with the infinitive arose thus : The infinitive was in A.-S. an abstract substantive ending in -an, and had a dative case in -anne formed from it. This dative case was constructed with the preposition * to ' in order to express purpose ; as, god to etanne, *good to eat.' The inflexion has been dropped, but the * to ' has remained, and is now used not only with the infinitive of purpose, but with other infinitives. The following are instances of its use with the infinitive of purpose : Is there none here to give this woman ? I will go to look for him. The little wide-mouthed heads upon the spout Had cunning eyes to see. This wine is not fit to drinh. This House to Let. When used with other infinitives, to has no meaning whatever, as in * I want to go,^ * to err is human ' ; in such instances to must be regarded as a meaningless word which custom has attached to the infinitive. We cannot say what part of speech it is, for we cannot say what it does in the sentence : it does nothing. The infinitive being an abstract substantive, may stand as the subject or object of a verb, or after a preposition: To he, contents his natural desire. To err is human, to forgive divine. She did not wish to blame him. She cannot choose but love (i.e. except to love). They are all to blame. But though the infinitive is a substantive, its verbal character is shown by the fact that it is qualified by an / adverb, not an adjective ; that it has tenses ; and that it can govern an accusative, and be constructed with a subject. 8o English Grammar The Gerund. 122 The Gerund is an abstract substantive ending in -ing, X formed from a verb, and capable, if the verb be transitive, of governing an accusative ; it has a present, or simple, form, and a perfect, or compound, form in both the Active and the Passive Yoice ; thus, A sorrow's crown of sorrows is rememhering happier things. One might well be proud of having written that line. He was rewarded by leing promoted. He was annoyed at having been forgotten. Its origin is doubtful ; it is generally supposed to have descended from ' the abstract substantives (not verbal) which in Anglo-Saxon ended in -ung. But some further explanation is necessary, because these substan- tives in -ung could not govern an accusative ; moreover, how are we to account for the compound forms, * having written,' etc. ? These difficulties are met by supposing that the substantives in -ung, in course of time changing their termination to -iwgr, were confused with the present participle (which, having originally ended in -ende, afterwards changed its termination to inde, and finally to -inge, -ing), and so acquired its power of governing an accusative ; and it has been suggested that this confusion was encouraged by the identity in form of the French gerund in -ant (which represents the Latin gerund in -andum or -endum), and the French present participle in -ant (which represents the Latin present participle in -ans or -ens). 123 The Gerund, then, is to be carefully distinguished from — (1) The present participle, which also ends in -ing (-ende J in Anglo-Saxon), but is adjective, not substantive; thus in Is there any peace In ever cHmbing up the climbing wave 1 the 'first climbing is a gerund or verbal substantive, the second is a participle, or verbal adjective, qualifying wave. Verbal Nouns Adjective 8i (2) The abstract substantive in -ing {-nng in Anglo- / Saxon) ; this, not being verbal, does not govern an accusa- "^ tive, but is followed by of, and preceded by the ; thus. The sudden making of splendid names. A song from out the distance in the ringing of thine ears. But of course the same word may be used in both capaci- ties ; only when followed by of it is an abstract substantive when governing an accusative it is a gerund. Older writers and poets confuse the two constructions ; thus, Be cunning in the working this. — Shakes. The drying up a single tear has more Of honest fame than shedding seas of gore. — Byron. The Gerund, being a verbal substantive, can stand as (a) subject of a verb, as 'Playing cricket is healthier than playing billiards '; (6) object of a verb, as ' He did not regret having left early ' ; (c) accusative after a preposition, as My latest breath was spent in blessing her. Is this a time for singing comic soDgs ? VERBAL NOUNS ADJECTIVE 24 The verbal adjectives are called Participles (from the Latin participare, 'to partake') because they partake of the properties of both verb and adjective, being able to govern an object in the accusative while at the same time they can qualify a substantive. The Present Participle is formed by inflexion and ends in 'ing (in Anglo-Saxon -ande or -ende); it is always active in sense, and when formed from a transitive verb may govern an accusative. In phrases like 'Your breakfast is cooking' we have a gerund, not a participle. ' Cooking ' = ' a-cooking ' =on or in cooking, just as Chaucer says ^on himting been they ridden,' while we say ^a-hunting we will go.' h. 82 English Grammar The Perfect Participle when formed from a transitive verb is passive, as give, given, but when from an intransi- tive verb it is active, as go, gone. But sometimes perfect participles, properly passive, are used actively ; thus, I was mistaken, instead of meaning I was misunderstood, means / had misunderstood. The Perfect Participle ends either in -en, as give^ given, or in -d (or -t), as trimmed, dipt The place of a Future Participle is supplied by the use of about ; as, those who are about to marry. CONJUGATION 125 Conjugation (from the Latin conjugare, 'to yoke together') means the bringing together of the various \ I inflexions and compound phrases which in a verb express V variations of Person, Number, Tense, Mood, and Voice ; it / also means the method or principle according to which these inflexions are formed, and the class or set of verbs whose inflexions are formed by a certain method. There are two conjugations in English : (1) The Old or Strong Conjugation. (2) The New or Weak Conjugation. These are distinguished from one another by the way in which the Past Tense is formed. (1) In the Strong Conjugation it is formed by changing V^the root vowel ; as, give, gave. The Perfect Participles of Strong Verbs once ended invariably in -en, as given ; but this ending has now been dropped in many cases. No n.ew verbs can be conjugated in this way. Conjugation 83 X(2) In the Weak Conjugation, the Past Tense is formed by adding -d (or -t^ to the Present, as save, saved ; dwell, dwelt Many Weak Verbs have also vowel change in the Past Tense, but must not therefore be confused with strong verbs. Their Perfect Participles end in -d or -t. All new verbs are conjugated in this way. Strong Conjugation. 126 In the Strong conjugation, the Past Tense and Perfect Participle are formed by a change in the vowel sound of the root. The Strong verbs, being all native English words, are the oldest verbs in the language ; all borrowed verbs form their Past Tense and Perfect Participle by addition of a suffix. Strong verbs are therefore those which retain an obsolete formation of the Past Tense. This vowel change in the past tense of Strong verbs was in some cases the result of contraction, the tense having originally been formed by reduplication. Reduplication is an Aryan method of forming a Past Tense, seen, for instance, in the Latin vio-mordi ; pe-pigi ; dedi ; and in the English did, the past of do. When the reduplication and the root syllable were fused together, vowel change resulted. [In other and more numerous cases, this change was due to what is called vowel-gradation, a subject beyond the scope of the present work]. 84 English Grafytmar 127 The following are instances of Strong Verbs : PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. forsake forsook forsaken steal stole stolen give gave given wind wound wound ring rang rung sting . stung stung know knew known fly flew flown fall fell fallen slay slew slain rise rose risen. Many strong verbs have weak past tenses or participles in addition to, or instead of, the strong forms ; as, hewed, sowed, swelled, waked. When there are two forms of the participle the form in -en is generally used only as an adjective. Instances are, honnden, drwnken, shrunken, cloven (cleft), graven, lorn (lost), molten, mown, shaven. Weak Conjugation. 128 The Past Tense of Weak Verbs is formed by adding -d (-ed or -t) to the Present; as, save, saved; mix, mixed; Tnean, meant A single final consonant following a short vowel is doubled ; as, dabbed, padded, fitted, fulfilled, gripped, blotted. A final y is changed to i ; as, married, buried. Conjugation 85 The Weak may be considered as the Eegular Con- jugation, because it is the living one, the conjugation to which borrowed verbs have at all times conformed. More- over, in Anglo-Saxon, Weak verbs were mostly derivatives; the verbs of the Strong conjugation were, therefore, older than those of the Weak. In Modern Enghsh the Weak conjugation contains all those verbs which are not among the oldest in the language. The Past Tense was in Anglo-Saxon formed by addition of -de, 'te (earlier -da, -to), and the Perfect Participle by addition of -6cZ, -t to the stem. The termination -ed is only pronounced as a separate syllable after a dental ; as, sorted, landed. 129 The following peculiarities in Weak Verbs must be noticed : (1) In some Weak verbs, the vowel of the root has in the Present and Infinitive been weakened ; the Past Tense and Perfect Participle retain the original vowel : sell sold sold seek sought sought. (2) Vowel change often takes the form of a shortening ; as, flee fled fled feel felt felt. (3) Sometimes the suffix has been entirely dropped and the Past Tense has the same form as the Present; as, set set set rid rid rid. 86 English Grammar (4) Sometimes, in verbs ending in a dental, the suflBx is dropped, but the vowel sound is shortened ; as, feed fed fed meet met met. (5) Sometimes the suffix is dropped, but a final d is changed to t : send sent sent wend went (wended) wended. (6) The verbs have, make are contracted in the past tense ; haved becomes had, and mahed becomes made. ANOMALOUS OK IREEGULAR VERBS 130 The principal irregular verbs are the auxiharies. Auxiliary Verbs are those which help (Latin auxilium, ' help ') to form those tenses of other verbs which are not formed by inflexion. They are Be, Have, Do, Shall, Will, May. Besides their use as auxiliaries all these verbs can be used as ordinary verbs, that is, with their own independent meaning ; for instance. His services are not likely to be forgotten (Auxiliary). To he, contents his natural desire (Independent). That which I have done (Auxiliary). That which I have, I freely give (Independent). Did you do that alone? (Auxiliary.) Alone I did it (Independent). I shall hear you when you pass (Auxiliary). Thou shall do no murder (Independent). This mounting wave mil roll us shoreward soon (Auxiliary). Not as I will, but as Thou wilt (Independent). Eat that V you may live (Auxiliary, marking Subjunctive). You may (are allowed to) go (Independent). Anomalous or h^regular Verbs 87 131 Be. 1 sing. 2 Sing. 3 Sing. 1 Plur. 2 Plur. 3 Plur. Indicative. Imperative. Subjunctive. Present. Past. Present. Past. /am thou art he is We ^ you J- are they } was wast (wert) was were 2 Sing. Be 2 Plur. Be be be be be were wert were were Present Infinitive. (To) be. Present Participle. Being. Past Participle. Been. This verb comprises forms from three roots, be, was, and as ; from be we get Imperative, Present Subjunctive, Infinitive, etc. ; from was the Past Indicative and Subjunctive (originally tenses of wesan, * to be ') ; from as we get the Present Indicative : am = as-mi, where mi is from the same root as me; cf. Greek elfii = k(yixi, Latin {e)sum. Besides being used as a Tense-auxiliary, be is also used as a Voice- auxiliary to form the Passive. 132 Have. Indicative. Imperative. Subjunctive. Present. Past. Present. Past. /have thou hast he has We ) you > have they ) /had thou hadst he had We ) you > had they ] 2 Sing. Ijx a.iid Plur. j^^^^ I ] thou he We you they -have Same as Indicative Present Infinitive. (To) have. Present Participle. Having. Past Participle. Had. Hast, hath, has, had are contractions of havest, haveth, haves, haved. 88 English Grammar Do. 133 The uncontracted forms of the second and third persons singular Present Indicative, doest, doeth, and the infinitive and participles are not used as auxiUaries. The verb do is used as an auxiliary — (1) To form present and past tenses with the asme meaning as the inflexional tenses. If the auxiliary is emphasised, the assertion or com- mand made by the verb becomes more emphatic ; as, ' I do object,' ' He did look surprised,' ^ Do go aw9,y,' * Do let me alone.' When the auxiliary is not emphasised, this form of tense is archaic or poetical ; as, ' They set bread before him, and he did eat,' * All round the coast the languid air did swoon.' (2) In interrogative and negative sentences: *Did you go?' 'I do not know.' Do is also used to avoid repeating a verb : 'He made more runs than I did. ' 134 ShaU. Indicative. Subjunctive. Present. Past, Past. I shall thou shalt he shall We ] you > shall they ) should shouldst should should should should should should The second person singular Subjunctive Past is sometimes in Modem English shouldst ^ like the Indicative. Shall was originally a past tense ; hence the third person singular does not end in s. The same is the case with Can, Dare, May, Must. Will. / Present. I will, thou wilt, he will ; We, you, ) they will. Indicative \ Pad. I would, thou wouldst, he would ; JFe, you, \ they would. Subjunctive Past like the Indicative. Anomalous or Irregular Verps 89 The present participle willing is used only as an adjective, the infinitive, to loill, only as an ordinary transitive verb. When the verb is used thus it is conjugated throughout like a weak verb ; he wills, we willed, etc. 135 With regard to Shall and Will, it is to be remarked that if we use these verbs to foretell something, they are auxiliaries, and, together with the infinitive of the principal verb, form its future tense. But if we use them to promise or command rather than to foretell, they are no longer auxiliaries, and do not form a future tense; thus. Thou shall do no onurder, and / will do it, and no one shall stop me, are not future tenses. In the former case— that is, in the future tense — we use shall for the first person, will for the second or third, in principal sentences. In subordinate sentences we use shall with all persons. ' You must endure me, and you shall ' : here ' shall ' is not an auxiliary at all. ' I will be drowned, no one shall save me ' : neither auxiliaries. ^ I shall be drowned, no one will save me ' : both auxiliaries. 'Ill sigh celestial breath, whose gentle wind shall cool the heat ' : subordinate sentence. ' When forty winters shall besiege thy brow ' : subor- dinate sentence. ' If peradventure he shall ever return ' : subordinate sentence. In reported speech we use the same verb as would have been used in direct speech : He said he should go. He said, * I shall go.' He said he should have missed his way, but for my directions. He said, * I should have missed my way.' He said he would not pay. He said, ' I will not pay.' 90 English Grammar May. 136 May has the same forms in the Indicative and the Subjunctive ; viz., Present. I may, fhon mayst (may est), he may; We^ you, they may. Past. I might, thou mightest, he might: We, you, they might. May is only used as an auxiliary when it is in the Subjunctive ; it is then used in Modern English to form a compound present and past sub- junctive after that. When it is used of possibility or permission, as in * There may be an accident,' ' You may go,' it is not an auxiliary. 137 Conjugation of a Strong Verb. SEE. Active Voice. Present Plur. Indicative Mood. Subjunctive Mood. 1 I see I see 2 thou seest thou see 3 he sees he see 1 We see We see 2 you see 3 they see you see they see. [After that, 'I may see, ' etc. ] 1 I am seeing, etc. I be seeing, etc. [After that, though, if, lest, etc.] Present Perfect or^ Sing. 1 I have seen I have seen Perfect / 2 thou hast seen thou have seen 3 he has seen, etc. he have seen, etc. Continuous Present^ Sing. 1 I have been seeing I have been seeing Perfect, or Con- j- 2 thou hast been thou have been see- TiNUOUS Perfect J seeing ing. 3 he has been see- he have been seeing, ing, etc. Conjugatiofi of Strong Verb ' See ' 9^ Indicative Mood. Subjunctive Mood. Past . Sing. 1 I saw 2 thou sawest Plur, 3 he saw 1 We saw 2 you saw 3 they saw [Same as Indicative.] Compound Form.'^ I should see thou wouldst see he would see We should see you would see they would see. Continuous Past or ) Imperfect ) Sing. 1 I was seeing I were seeing 2 thou wast seeing thou wert seeing 3 he was seeing he were seeing Plur. 1 We were seeing We were seeing 2 you were seeing you were seeing 3 they were seeing they were seeing. Compound Form, I should be seeing, Past Perfect or ) Pluperfect ) Sing. 1 I had seen 2 thou hadst seen 3 he had seen [Same as Indicative. ] Plur. 1 We had seen (Usually after if, un- 2 you had seen less, though.) 3 they had seen Compound Form. I should have seen, Continuous ) Pluperfect ) Sing. 1 I had been seeing, [Same as Indicative.] etc. Compound Form. I should have been seeing, etc.^ 1 This is the form when no Conjunction precedes ; after if, lest, that, etc., we use shouldst in 2nd Singular, should in the other persons. After that the tense is also formed by means of the past Subjunctive of may ; as, that I might see. 2 'Shonldst,' 'should,' in second and third persons, after if, lest, that, etc., ' wouldst * ' would ' when no Conjunction precedes. 92 English Grammar f Indicative Mood. Subjunctive Mood. Future » . Bing. 1 I shall see 2 thou wilt see 3 he will see ^ Plnr, 1 We shall see \None,.^ 2 you will see 3 they will see Continuous Future Sing. 1 I shall be seeing, \_None.'\ etc. Future Perfect Sing. 1 I shall have seen, [None.'] etc. \ ) Sing. 1 1 1 [None.] Perfect. ) seeing, etc. Imperative. Sing. 2 See thou. Plur, 2 See ye or you. Infinitive. Present (To) see Continuous Present (To) be seeing Perfect (To) have seen Continuous Perfect (To) have been seeing. Participles. Present Seeing Perfect Having seen Continuous Perfect Having been seeing Passive Voice. Indicative Mood. Subjunctive Mood. Present • • Sing. 1 I am seen, etc. I be seen, etc. [After that, *I may be seen,' etc.] Continuous Present Siyig. 1 I am being seen, etc. [None. ] Present (Present\ Sing. 1 I have been seen, I have been seen Perfect) j etp. thou have been seen, etc. Continuous Perfect Sing. [None.] [None.] Conjugation of Strong Verb 'See' 93 Indicative Mood. Subjunctive Mood. Past , . . 8ing, 1 I was seen, tie, I were seen, etc. Compound Form, I should be seen, etc.^ Continuous Past or \ Sing. 1 I was being seen. I were being seen. Imperfect J etc, ' etc. Past Perfect or \ Sing, 1 I had been seen, e^c. [Same as Indicative.] Pluperfect j Compound Form. I should have been seen, etc,^ Continuous \ Pluperfect J « [None.-] {None,-] Future Sing, 1 I shall be seen 2 thou wilt be seen, etc. [None.] Continuous Future Sing. 1 I shall be being seen, etc. [None.] Future Perfect . Sing, 1 I shall have been [None,] seen, etc. Continuous Future 1 rxr i mr -i Perfect / [None.] [None.] Imperative. Sing, 2 Be thou seen. Plur, 2 Be you (or ye) seen. Infinitive. Present (To) be seen. Perfect (To) have been seen. Participles. Present Being seen. Perfect i^^^. ^ I Having been seen. ^ *Shouldst,* * should,' in second and third persons, after ij, lestj that, etc. ; wouldst,* would,' when no Conjunction precedes. 94 English Grammar ADVERBS 138 An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, or an adjective, or another adverb; as, 'They came quickly I ' He was nearly dead,' ' I did it quite easily.' It gains its name from its use with verbs, being derived from the Latin ad, ' to,' verbuon, ' verb.' It adds something to the meaning of a verb (or adjective or adverb); thus, 'came quickly' means more than 'came,' 'quite easily' means more than ' easily,' etc. Adverbs sometimes qualify the whole sentence instead of any adjective, verb, or adverb in it ; thus, ' Undoubtedly he spoke well ' = that he spoke well is beyond doubt. Adverbs may be classified according to their meaning, thus: Adverbs of Manner and Degree : so, almost, quite, very, etc. [To this class belong the adverbs in -ly formed from adjectives. ] Adverbs of Place : there, down, secondly, etc. „ Time : presently, then, now, often, etc. „ Cause: therefore, consequently, etc. „ Negation and Afltonation: not, certainly, indeed. Comparison of Adverbs. 139 Many adverbs can be compared. The usual method is by using mfiore and most ; as, POS. COMPAR. SUPERL. quickly more quickly most quickly. Adverbs which in the positive are the same as the corresponding adjectives, are compared like the adjectives in -er and -est ; as, high, higher, highest Some others are compared in the same way ; as, often oftener, oftenest Conjunct'i ions 95 egula] r Comparisons : much more most | late later last little less least forth further furthest ill worse worst far farther farthest well better best near (nigh) nearer next. CONJUNCTIONS 140 Conjunctions (from Latin conjungere, 'to join together') X serve to connect words or sentences. They are of two kinds, Co-ordinating and Subordinating (see Syntax, § 156). A. Co-ordinating Conjunctions connect sentences which are independent of one another in construction ; they are so called from the Latin co-ordinare, 'to arrange along- side.' The simple conjunction is and ; contrast or exception is implied by hut, while or expresses the idea of an alternative. B. Subordinating Conjunctions connect dependent sentences with the sentence upon which they depend: that is, in which these dependent sentences could be replaced by a substantive, adjective or adverb (see Syntax, § 157). They are so called from the Latin subordinare, ' to arrange underneath.' Some conjunctions (for example that) serve merely to connect a subordinate sentence with its principal sentence ; but other conjunctions not only do this, but in addition act as adverbs in the subordinate sentence. Thus in / hope that you will come, the conjunction that merely con- nects the subordinate sentence you will come with the principal sentence / hope. But in They cam^e when I was leaving, the conjunction when not only connects the sub- ordinate sentence / was leaving, but also acts as an adverb 96 English Grammar in it, qualifying the verb was leaving. This becomes evident if we substitute two co-ordinate sentences : Tlney came (at four o clock) ; / was then leaving. Subordinating Conjunctions express : (1) Simple subordination ; as, that, (2) Place ; as, where, whence, (3) Time ; as, until, while, since, (4) Cause and Purpose; as, because, that (in order that), (5) Comparison ; as, than. (6) Concession ; as, though. (7) Condition ; as, if, unless. Interrogative Adverbs introducing dependent questions must not be confused with conjunctions. In They came when you left, the word when is a conjunction ; we might say They came at the tim^e at which you left, using a relative. But in Tell me when you left, the word when is an interrogative adverb ; we might say Tell one — when did you leave ? PREPOSITIONS 141 The name Preposition is derived from the Latin prae- ponere, ' to place before,' and means a word which can be placed before a substantive or its equivalent to form phrases which may take the place of adverbs or adjectives ; thus in He lives in comfort ( = comfortably). He is a man of importance (= important), in comfort is an adverbial phrase, of iTnportance an adjectival phrase. A preposition is said to govern the substantive before which it is placed, and the substantive so governed is in the accusative case. Interjections 97 The chief prepositions are above, about, after, against, along, among, at, by, for, from, in, of, on, out, over, since, through, to, under, unto, up. Many of these are also used as adverbs, some as conjunctions. INTERJECTIONS 142 ^^ Interjection (from the Latin inter jicere, ' to throw among ' ) is a word which may be thrown among the words of a sentence, without entering into its construction; it may also stand entirely alone, without being included in a sentence at all. In Those tim.es, alas ! have passed away, the interjection is included in a sentence, but we could also ejaculate Alas ! by itself. The meanings expressed by interjections are very various, and often depend entirely upon the intonation of the voice ; for instance, we can express a variety of meanings by the word ah ! Some interjections, how- ever, have definite meanings ; hurrah^ for instance, expresses joy, alas grief, lo demonstration, eh interrogation, no negation, yes affirmation. No and yes are generally classed as adverbs, but they are never used to qualify adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs ; we say not had, he cometh not, not very, but we never say no had, he cometh no, or no very. Sometimes an interjection governs an accusative, as in Ah me! Alas poor Yorich! or is qualified by a phrase, as in Alas for the hour. 98 English Grammar SYNTAX 143 Syntax (Greek syntaxis, ' arrangement ') treats of the arrangement of words in sentences, and the arrangement of sentences among themselves. Phrases and Sentences. 144 A sentence (Latin sentential ' sense ') is a collection of words so arranged as to express an assertion, a question, a command, or a wish. Such collections of words as the falsehood of extremes, in the morning early, seventy years ago, for ever and ever, have a meaning, it is true, but they do not of them- selves form an assertion, or a question, or a command, or a wish. They are therefore not called sentences, but phrases (Greek phrasis, ' expression '). On the other hand. Into the valley of Death rode the Six Hundred. When can their glory fade 1 Charge for the guns ! Long live the King ! are sentences, for the iGirst makes an assertion, the second asks a question, the third gives a command, the fourth utters a wish. A sentence contains a finite verb, a phrase does not.^ Thus after dinner, after dining, after having had dinner, dinner over, are all phrases, containing no finite verb; but when we say after he had had dinner we get a dependent sentence, containing the finite verb had had. Sometimes the verb in a sentence is implied ; as, Villainy somewhere ! whose ? Forward, the Light Brigade — 1 It will be remembered that collections of words like *lias been seen,' though really verbal phrases, have been classed as verbs in accordance with general usage. See § 112. Syntax 99 meaning {There was) villainy somewhere ; whose {was it) ? {Go) forward, the Light Brigade] or again, Better fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay; that is, Fifty years of Europe are better than . . . A Simple Sentence is one that contains a single finite verb (expressed or implied) ; a Compound Sentence is one that contains two or more finite verbs; see § 156. Thus, Death is the end of life, Where are they now ? Ask me no more, are simple sentences, but Shall I weep if a Poland fall? Ask me no more, lest I should bid thee live, are compound sentences. A simple sentence need not be shorter than a compound one, for it may contain any number of phrases ; for instance, 'Having made the most elaborate arrangements, and assembled a large and well-equipped escort at Peshawur to accompany the envoy in his dangerous march through a country always , unfriendly, and recently roused by the preaching of fanatical priests to bitter hostility ; having notified the Ameer of its intention to despatch this envoy to his capital, and, after waiting in vain for an answer from Kabul, having issued orders to the envoy himself to set forth upon his journey, the Indian Govern- ment was suddenly informed of the Ameer's strong objection to the proposed mission, and of his resolve not to allow it even to ^ enter his dominions.' PHRASES, 145 Phrases have been defined as groups of words which express a definite meaning, but do not contain a finite verb. They may perform the function of any one of the parts of speech, as in the following instances : — Substantival Phrases : A mournful De Profundis. He never knows when to go. To make good resolutions is easier than to keep them, Malcing good resolutions is easier than keeping them. lOO English Grammar Adjectival: It is time fw me to go. A 'peace at any 'price policy. He has no object for whicli to live. The men of the leading coinpany advanced at the double. Napoleon Bonaparte, the Emperor of the French^ died at St. Helena in 1821. Pronominal : They killed each other. The poor are very good to one another. Verbal : see § 112. Adverbial : One by one they crept forward with the greatest caution. To be sv/re, he arrived after dinner. The men of the leading company advanced at the double. You were right to refuse his invitation. After having dinner, we went to a theatre. To tell the truth, I had no money. Considering all things, he was not to be blamed. Parliament refusing to obey, the King dissolved it. Conjunctional : We eat in order that we may live. Prepositional : He went instead of me. He acted according to instructions. I Interjectional : Good gracious ! For shame ! Note. — Often one phrase forms part of a larger phrase; each must then be named according to the part it plays. Thus in *He acted accord- ing to instructions,' the prepositional phrase according to forms part of the adverbial phrase according to instructions. Syntax loi Subject and Predicate. 146 The Subject of a sentence is the word that denotes the person (or persons, or thing, or things) about whom we make an assertion or ask a question, or whom we order, or wish to do or be something ; thus, Beaili is the end of life. Where is she now % Go thou and do Hkewise. Perish the thought. Note. — The subject of an assertion may be found by putting who or v^Jiat before the verb ; the word that answers the question thus formed is the Subject ; § 23. So with a question, 'Where is she? ' 'Where is who ?' *She ' (Subject). When the sentence itself has who or what before the verb, this is the Subject ; ' Who comes there ? ' (Subject who). The Subject may be — A Substantive ; as, death, A Substantive Prooun ; as, she, A Verbal Substantive ; as, to die^ or dying. An Adjective used as a substantive ; as, the dead, A quotation ; as, * No surrender ' was their motto. Any word, when the word itself is spoken of ; as, * deadly is an adjective.' Or (as we shall see presently) a dependent sentence. Sometimes the subject is not expressed, but implied ; as in, Say {he) what he will, he will never convince me. (/) would that it were possible. Nor do we find him forward to be sounded, But with a crafty madness (he) keeps aloof. The subject of an Imperative is rarely expressed, as we mark the person to whom the order applies by addressing him. On the position of the subject in the sentence see § 28. 102 English Gram77tar In order to form a sentence we must say something about the subject by means of a verb; what we say is called in Logic the Predicate. Thus a sentence in its simplest form consists only of a subject and a verb ; the hne I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance, contains four sentences, of which the four pronouns are the Subjects, and the four verbs the Predicates. 147 But both the Subject and the Verb may.be qualified in various ways. The Subject may be qualified by — An Adjective (including the Article), or a Participle. A Substantive (noun or pronoun) in apposition, that is, placed after the subject to describe or define it, and having the same relation to the rest of the sentence ; as, ' I, the king, say this.' A Substantive in the genitive case ; as, ' Peter's pence.' An Adjectival phrase; as, 'The babes in the wood,' ' A search for treasure.' And (as we shall see presently) an adjectival clause. The Verb may be qualified by — An Adverb. A Substantive in the accusative denoting the direct object of the verb (§ 106). Cognate and adverbial accusatives (§ 31). A Substantive in the dative denoting the indirect object of the verb (§ 32). An Adverbial phrase ; as, * He lived in the wood' ' He sought for treasure,' A phrase containing a nominative absolute (§ 29). And (as we shall see presently) an adverbial clause. Syntax 103 148 Some verbs are used in such a sense as to require the addition of one or more words in order that they may express a complete meaning ; the word or words so added are called the Complement, as completing the meaning of the verb. For instance, in ' He is miserable,' the verb is does not express a meaning of itself, but merely couples the subject lie with an attribute miserahle (which forms the comple- ment) ; hence the verb is said to be used copulatively or to be a copulative verb. The verbs seem, become, etc., are often so used. In such cases the attribute qualifies the subject, and so must agree with it in case : this is what is meant by saying that Copulative Verbs have the same case after them as before them. It must not be supposed that there is a definite class or list of Copula- tive Verbs, but only that certain verbs may be used in this way. Even these verbs can be used with a complete meaning of their own, as in * He was not, for God took him. ' Again, verbs which express making, calling, thinJcing, etc., often require a complement, as in ' They made him king.' In such cases the complement qualifies the object, and is therefore in the accusative. But suppose we turn such a phrase into the passive, ' He was made king ' ; the complement now qualifies the subject, and is therefore in the nominative. Again, verbs like must and can are constructed with an infinitive, as 'I can sing'; this infinitive may be re- garded either as a complement or as the direct object of the verb. I04 English Grammar 149 A sentence expresses the bringing together of two ideas in the mind, one represented by the Subject (that is, the grammatical subject and its quahfication), the other by the Predicate (that is, the verb and its qualifications). If we affirm or deny the connection between these two ideas, we get a declarative sentence or assertion ; as. He came. If we ask whether the connection exists we get an interrogative sentence or question ; as, Bid lie come 1 If, speaking directly to the subject, we order that the connection should exist, we get an imperative sentence or command ; as Gome {thou). If we utter our desire that the connection should exist, we get an optative sentence, or wish ; as. May he come. In a direct command we take it, as it were, for granted that the connection will exist ; but this is not so in a wish. The connection is there only thought of and hoped for, and therefore we use the subjunctive (or conceptive) mood; see §§ 118, 119. Exclamatory sentences, as How cold it is /, are included under assertions. Similarly in such a sentence as The desert were a paradise, if thou wert there, (§ 119, 2), we have a conditional assertion; we do not assert that the desert is a paradise, but we assert that it would he a paradise ' if thou wert there.' There is no other kind of Principal or Independent Sentence. The different kinds of dependent sentence will be noticed later. (See §§ 158, 159, etc.) Rules of Agreement. 150 There are four Concords or Eules of Agreement, affect- ing (1) Yerbs, (2) Adjectives, (3) Substantives in apposi- tion, and (4) Eelative Pronouns. Syntax 105 151 (1) A Verb agrees with its subject in number and person ; we cannot grammatically say ' I is tired/ or ' We has rested/ If the subject consists of two or more substantives coupled (or conjoined) by 'and,' the verb of course is plural. We cannot say, 'Mary and Thomas is here/ because the singular number cannot include two persons. Note. — The verb is sometimes singular when the two substantives are taken as expressing one idea, for instance in Where death and danger dogs the heels of worth. — Shakes, or when the verb comes first, so that it is really uncertain whether there will be a second substantive ; as in Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings. — Shakes, On the other hand, when two substantives, both in the singular, are coupled or disjoined by * either . . . or,' or ^neither . . . nor,^ the verb is singular, for the assertion is made of one or the other of them, but not of both ; for instance, ' Either Thomas or Henry has done this.' A collective substantive (§ 20) in the singular is sometimes constructed with a plural verb when we are thinking of the individual members of the collection ; as, ' The jury were not agreed. ' When the members of a conjoined composite subject differ in person, the verb is to be considered as being of the same person as the plural pro- noun which might be substituted for the whole subject (see § 154) ; but when the members differ in person, and are disjoined, the verb is to be considered as agreeing in person with the last ; but the construction is best avoided unless the form of the verb is such as could apply equally well to either part of the subject ; thus we can say, * Either I or you have made a mistake ' (where have must be parsed as in the second person), but it is very awkward to say, * Either I or he has made a mistake.' 152 (2) An Adjective agrees with the substantive it qualifies in gender, number, and case. This is the rule in languages, such as Latin, where adjectives can express all these variations by inflexion; but in English no adjectives have inflexions of gender or case, and only this and that have inflexions of number. When either of these adjectives qualifies a composite subject, consisting of two singular substantives joined by io6 English Grammar ' andl it agrees with the nearest ; thus, ' This man and woman/ not ' These man and woman.' If the two parts of the subject differ in number, the adjective is repeated: 'These men and this boy/ not 'These men and boy/ 153 (3) A substantive in apposition (§ 147) to another substantive or equivalent agrees with it in case. This follows from the fact that they both stand in the same relation to the rest of the sentence. Thus — I, the king, say this, where Idng is nominative ; The last will and testament of me, John Smith, where John Smith is accusative. 154 (4) A Relative Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and person, but its case depends upon the part it plays in its own clause (see § 100). It is true of all substantive pronouns that they agree in gender and number with the substantive they represent ; for instance, we could not refer to the Queen as * he ' or * they. ' As to person, when a pronoun has to represent different persons (in the grammatical sense), the second person is considered more worthy than the third, and the first more worthy than either of them ; thus we say you for thou + he or you + he, but we say lue for / and thou, or we and thou, or / and you, or ive and you, or / and he, or loe and he, or / and they, or we and they. Combinations of Simple Sentences. 155 Two or more simple sentences may be connected by co-ordinating conjunctions (§ 140, A), as in the following instances : Men must work, and women must weep. Many are called, but few are chosen. Abide with us, for it is toward evening. She must weep or she will die. They toil not, neither do they spin. They are then spoken of as Co-ordinate Simple Sentences. Syntax 107 Sometimes the connection of sense is not expressed by a conjunction, but is left to be implied, as in I cannot for money be vulgarly funny ; My object 's to make you reflect. Trust her not, she 's fooling thee. They are then spoken of as OoUateral Simple Sentences. Compound Sentences. 156 A Compound Sentence has been defined as one which contains two or more finite verbs. Let us confine ourselves for the present to those which contain two finite verbs. Notice in this definition that the two finite verbs must be contained in a single sentence. Now, in the examples given in the preceding section, this is not the case ; in these combinations each verb has a sentence to itself, and each sentence is independent of the other in construction ; either could stand by itself without the other. Consequently, in each of these instances we have not a single compound sentence, but a combination of two simple sentences. Such sentences are said to be co-ordinate (from the Latin co-ordinatnSy 'ranked together,' 'equal in rank'), because they are ranged side by side, as it were, upon equal terms. But now look at such sentences as , He announced that the king was dead. England is the land in which I was born. He returned before we expected him. In each of these there are two finite verbs, but in each there is only the framework of a single sentence. In ' He announced the death of the king,' we have a single sentence in which the death of the king stands as object of the verb announced. When we substitute that the king was dead io8 English G^^ammar for the death of the Jcing we do not alter the framework of the sentence, we only change the expression which forms the object of the verb; instead of a substantive we use what is called a Subordinate Clause, and the result is a compound sentence. Here the two parts are not indepen- dent of each other in construction ; one part, that the king was dead, only forms an element in the structure of the other ; it cannot stand by itself, but has to rest upon the other; hence it is said to be dependent upon it or sub- ordinate to it (from the Latin suhbrdinatus, 'ranked under,' ' inferior in rank '). That part of a compound sentence upon which the sub- ordinate clause depends is sometimes called the Principal sentence; for instance, He announced] England is the land ; He returned, 157 Clauses (from the Latin clausum, 'that which is en- closed') are so called because they are included in the construction of the principal sentences on which they depend. They must contain a finite verb. They play the part of a substantive or an adjective or an adverb in the principal sentence, and can be replaced therein by a sub- stantive, adjective, or adverb if the language happens to contain one that expresses the same idea. Thus, instead of ' He announced that the king was dead,' we can say, ' He announced the death of the king ' (Subst.). Instead of ' England is the land in which I was born,' we can say, ' England is my native land ' (Adj.). Instead of ' He returned before we expected him,' we can say, ' He returned unexpectedly ' (Adv.). Of course there is not always a substantive, adjective, or adverb that expresses the same meaning as the clause, but if we examine any number of clauses we shall find that they always enter into the construction of the principal sentence in the same way as substantives, adjectives, or adverbs would. Syntax 109 Note. — A principal sentence may not make sense by itself (for instance, * he announced ' does not make sense unless we say v:i}iai he announced), but it never enters into the construction of another sentence as a clause does. There are, then, three sorts of Clauses — Substantival, Adjectival, and Adverbial. Note. — A sentence which is quoted must not be confused with a clause. In * She said, *' I am going " ' we have a quotation ; if the quotation became a clause it would run * She said sbe was going.' SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES. 158 A substantival clause is one which stands in the place / of a substantive in the principal sentence ; it generally Y begins with an interrogative word or the conjunction lliaL A A substantival clause may stand as the subject of the principal verb : That iliey are there is well known. Eow they came there is the question. Or it may stand as the object of the principal verb : The village all declared how much he knew, Eemember that life is short. Or it may stand as one of the objects after a verb that can govern two accusatives, 'They asked him how much he knew^; or after a phrase equivalent to a verb, * I am afraid that he ivill come^^ * I am certain that he ivill come ' ; or after a copulative verb, * The important thing is that we should start well,'' ^ . A substantival clause may also stand after a pre- position : I have no knowledge of how it was done, I have no interest in how it is made. Or in apposition : We must face the fact that insanity is increasing. no Encrlish Grafumar vb * This construction is especially frequent with it, the pronoun acting as a temporary subject or object which is afterwards explained by the clause in apposition ; thus. It is asserted that he died in poverty, = That he died in poverty is asserted. Again, It is doubtful whether the news is true. = Whether the news is true is doubtful. So with the object : ' I thought it probable that they would win. Other instances are : It was then that I arose = That I arose occurred then. It is seldom that I feel tired = That I feel tired occurs seldom. How is it that you are here=}iow does it (namely, that you are here) occur ? Compare the adjectival clauses in § 160. Note. —In such sentences as * He never knows ivhen to go,' * He had not where to lay his head,' *He forgot how to do it,' the words introduced by the interrogative cannot form a clause, for they do not contain a finite verb ; they form a substantival phrase. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 159 An adverbial clause is one that plays the part of an X adverb in the principal sentence ; for instance, we may say ' He arrived unexpectedly,* or ' He arrived when he was not expected ' ; ' He was unreasonably angry/ or ' He was angry, although he had no reason.' Moreover, an adverbial clause may stand in apposition to an adverb in the principal sentence ; as, There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, The village preacher's modest mansion rose Syntax 1 1 1 f Adverbial clauses answer the questions How ? When ? Where ? Under what circumstances ? I. Manner, answering the question How ? Suppose we say, He behaves as he ought (to behave). The clause as he ought tells us how he behaves, and instead of it we might use an adverb of manner: 'He behaves welU II. Degree, answering the question How ? combined with an adjective or adverb, how good ? how badly ? etc. Thus, using adverbs of degree, we may say : This pie is very good. He behaves very badly. Using adverbial clauses, we may say : This pie is as good as it could be (good) He behaves as badly as he can (behave badly). Here the clauses tell us how good the pie is, how badly he behaves, and so are adverbial clauses of degree. Gram- matically these clauses stand in apposition to the adverb as in the principal sentences, which qualifies the adjective good or the adverb badly. Or again we may say : He is^ ^Qj.g Urustworthyi .^ ihis brother is (trustworthy), or He listens-^ ^ !- attentively I n \you do (listen attentively). Here the clauses tell us how trustworthy he is, how attentively he listens, and so are adverbial clauses of degree. They do this by means of a comparison, and so are called Comparative clauses. 1 1 2 English Grammar Or again we may say, He is so attentive that nothing escapes him. He listens so attentively that nothing escapes him. Here the clauses tell us how attentive he is, how attentively he listens ; hence they are adverbial clauses of degree ; but they do this by explaining the result or con- sequence of his attentiveness, so they are generally called Consecutive clauses. Note. — All these clauses of degree stand grammatically in apposition to adverbs in the principal sentence. III. Time, answering the question When ? In * Go soon,' soon is an adverb of time, and tells us when to go. Similarly in Go when the clock strikes ten^ Go before the clock strikes ten, the clauses serve the same purpose, and tell us when to go. Or if we say, Wait until the clock strikes ten, the clause tells us how long to wait. These clauses then •are adverbial clauses of time, generally called Temporal clauses (from the Latin tempus, ' time '). IV. Place, answering the question Where ? When we say ' Go there,' ' The book is there,' the adverb of place, there, tells us where to go, or where the book is. And when we say. Go where glory waits thee, The book is where I left it, the clauses serve the same purpose, and so are adverbial clauses of Place. Syntax 1 1 3 Y. Cause, answering the question Why ? When we say, I took the train because I was tiredy As I was in a hurry, I took the train, the clauses tell us why (or, owing to what cause) I took the train, and so are called Causal clauses. VI. Purpose, also answering the question Why ? The question why ? may also mean with what purpose or object? For instance, when we ask 'Why does he practise so regularly ? ' the answer may be ' He practises so regularly that (or, in order that) he may get into the eleven.' Here the adverbial clause expresses the end or object of his practising, and is called a Final clause (from the Latin ^ims, ' end ). VII. Condition, answering the question Under what circumstances ? Suppose we say. The desert were a paradise if thou wert there, the ^/-clause tells us when or under what circumstances the desert would be a paradise. Or again in. Unless I start now, I shall miss the train, the unless-clsiase tells us under what circumstances or conditions I shall miss the train. These adverbial clauses are therefore called Conditional clauses. But now suppose we say. It is still raining, although the barmneter is rising. He started, although he had had no breakfast. H 114 English Grammar The adverbial clauses again answer the question under what circumstances or conditions ? and are therefore plainly conditional, but instead of telling us exactly under what circumstances, they tell us in spite of what circum- stances ; and they are therefore generally called by a separate name — Concessive clauses. Note. — This name is given to them because they may be regarded as stating something that we concede ; thus instead of saying * Although the barometer is rising, it is still raining,' we might say * I concede (or admit) that the barometer is rising ; nevertheless, it is still raining.' In the' instances of adverbial clauses given above, the principal sentence has generally been assertive; it may, however, belong to any of the other kinds of sentence. Take the following examples : How noble his action apjpears, when we remember his motive (Exclamatory assertion). / would not trust him if he had ever deceived me (Con- ditional assertion). How glad I should be if we were to win (Exclamatory Conditional assertion). Go, since you want to (go) (Command). May he be as successful as he deserves (Wish). ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES. 160 Adjectival clauses are those which play the part of an \ i' adjective in the principal sentence; they are generally introduced by a relative pronoun or by a relative adverb . which IS equivalent to a relative pronoun governed by a ' preposition. For instance. This is the house that (rel. pron.) Jack built. This is the house where (= wherein = in which) I live. Syntax 115 As adjectival clauses play the part of adjectives, their main use is of course to qualify substantives ; thus, I have found my sheep which was lost, where we might have had an adjective (or participle used adjectivally), ' lost sheep/ Again, A man who has wealth has a heavy responsibihty, where instead of 'who has wealth' we might have the adjective wealthy, ' a wealthy man/ Note. — Often the relative is omitted; as, *This is the man (that)l spoke of,' 'I did all {that) I could (do)': see §95 (3). Sometimes the relative refers to an antecedent implied in a possessive pronoun ; as in, * A blameless life was his who has left us,' The temporary subject It (see § 158), instead of having a substantival clause in apposition to it, is often qualified by an adjectival clause. Thus in Who was it that did this ? It W£Ls Thomas that did this, the clause that (rel.) did this is adjectival qualifying it (=the person) : ' The person that did this was Thomas/ Similarly with It is I i is to blame, for the meaning is T / 1 X f who ) . , , . ^ it (the person) ) fi, + r ^^ ^c> blame is I. 1 1 6 English Gram7nar Sentences like ' It was of you that I spoke/ cannot be explained in quite tlie same way : we must suppose this to stand for ' It was you that I spoke of.' Note. — In such a sentence as * There was no place in which to hide,'' the words introduced by the relative cannot form a clause, for they do not contain a finite verb; they form an adjectival phrase. In such phrases the relative is often omitted, as * There was no place to hide in.' -^^ RESOLVING THE RELATIVE. 161 Although all adjectival clauses are relative, it is not the fact that all relative clauses are adjectival. Take, for instance, such a sentence as He mentioned it to his wife, who told my daughter. The clause here qualifies the substantive 'wife' only in form; in sense it does not define or describe wife, but simply continues the narrative, and instead of who we could say and she, He mentioned it to his wife, and she told my daughter. The clause is therefore in form subordinate, but in sense co-ordinate. Again, suppose we say. They ought to have put in Shrewsbury, who always tires the bowling. Here who =: for he, and the clause is co-ordinate in sense. This separation of the relative pronoun into a con- junction and a demonstrative pronoun is called resolving the relative. Syntax 117 But now suppose we say, Our best man, who shot very well yesterday ^ has done nothing to-day ; or Our best man, who shot very well yesterday, has been chosen for the English team. In the first of these sentences we should not alter the sense if we said, Our best man, although he shot very well yesterday, has done nothing to-day, substituting although he for who. The relative clause is therefore a concessive (adverbial) clause here. In the second sentence we may substitute as he or since he for who, without altering the sense : Our best man, as he shot very well yesterday, has been chosen. The relative clause is therefore a causal (adverbial) clause here. So in Breathes there the man, with soul so dead. Who never to himself hath said ... who = that he, and introduces a consecutive (adverbial) clause. HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE NATURE OF CLAUSES. 162 Relative clauses form a good instance of the general rule that the nature of a clause (as of a word) is to be decided not by its form, but by its function ; not by what it looks like, but by what it does (compare § 14). The conjunction or other word by which a clause is introduced is no guide to the nature of the clause. This point is so 1 1 8 English Grammar important that although instances have been already noticed, some further examples will be given here. This is the house where 1 live (Adjectival). He asked me where I live (Substantival). He lives where I live (Adverbial). You ask me when I 'played cricket (Substantival). There was a time when I 'played cricket (Adjectival). I used to make runs when I 'played cricket (Adverbial). As the tree felly so it will lie (Adverbial 'manner'). As the treefell^ he ran from under it (Adverbial Hime'). As the treefell^ we had not to cut it down (Adverbial 'cause'). She is as good as she is beautiful (Adverbial ' degree '). Can you tell me if he is poor (Substantival). If he is poor he is also honest (Adverbial * concessive '). If he is poor he needs help (Adverbial ' conditional '). I know the man that (relative) turote this (Adjectival). I know that (conj.) he tmvte this (Substantival). I know that (demonstrative) is so (Substantival). I eat that (conj.) I may live (Adverbial 'final'). I eat so little that (conj.) I am always hungry (Adverbial ' consecutive '). RELATIONS OF CLAUSES TO ONE ANOTHER. ]_g3 Hitherto we have only spoken of compound sentences containing two verbs; we have now to consider those which contain three or more verbs, and which consequently include two or more clauses. Clauses may be independent of one another, or one clause may be dependent upon another. Syntax 1 1 g Clauses independent of one another. In the sentence Long stood Sir Bedivere Eevolving many memories, till the ship Looked one black speck against the verge of dawn And (till) on the mere the wailing died away, the two adverbial clauses till . . . and till ... are in- dependent of one another. Again, in When the goodman mends his armour, And trims his helmet's plume, When the goodwife's shuttle merrily Goes flashing through the loom, With weeping and with laughter Still is the story told, How well Horatius kept the bridge In the brave days of old, the four clauses which are underlined are independent of one another. Clauses dependent on other clauses. One clause may depend upon another; for instance in the sentence I asked him how they got on after I left, the adverbial clause after I left (which is doubly under- lined) depends upon the substantival clause how they got on, qualifying the verb in it. So in I told them that I could not come unless they promised that I should leave whenever I pleased, unless they promised is an adverbial (conditional) clause I20 English Grammar depending on the previous clause, tkat I could not come ; while thai I should leave is a substantive clause, forming the object of promised, and whenever I pleased is an adverbial clause qualifying leave. 164 Contracted and Elliptical Sentences. A sentence is said to be contracted when a word or a group of words has to be supplied from an adjoining sen- tence in order to make it granmiatically complete ; thus in We live and learn, the subject {we) of the second sentence has to be supplied from the first sentence, and in His treachery amazed and disgusted me, the object has to be supplied in the first sentence, the subject in the second. » So in we live and learn the second sentence is con- tracted, in his treachery amazed and disgusted me both sentences are contracted. When the words to be supplied are not actually con- tained in an adjoining sentence, but are only implied in it, the sentence is said to be elliptical; the chief instances are in clauses introduced by as or than (§ 159, 2). For example : He behaves as badly as he can (behave badly). He listens more attentively than you (listen attentively). He has gained more marks than you have (gained many marks). He spoke as (he would speak) if he knew them well. Note. — Sometimes the words to be supplied are not even implied in an adjoining sentence ; as in. As (things stand) for me, I wiU do whatever you please. Analysts of Sentences 121 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 165 To analyse a thing is to separate it into the parts of which it is composed ; the word is derived from the Greek analuo, *I loosen again/ In analysing a sentence we break it up into the various words and phrases (and, in the case of a compound sentence, clauses) of which it is composed, and state the duty which each of them per- forms. Analysis of Simple Sentences. Igg In analysing a simple sentence the first step is to dis- tinguish in one's mind the Logical Subject from the Logical Predicate. The Logical Subject is composed of all the words in the sentence which express or describe the person or thing that the sentence speaks of; the Logical Predicate is composed of all the words that express what the sentence says about the Logical Subject. Thus in (1) The Prince Hved, the Prince is the Logical Subject, lived is the Logical Predicate. In (2) The eccentric Prince of Abyssinia Hved long in seclusion, the words down to Abyssinia form the Logical Subject, and the remainder of the sentence is the Logical Predi- cate. 122 English Grammar Again, in (3) Did the Prince live long % or (4) Long live the Prince ! the Prince is tlie Logical Subject, the remainder of the sentence is the Logical Predicate. Again, in (5) Live in peace, yovy (understood) is the Logical Subject, the remainder is the Logical Predicate. The next step is to take the Logical Subject to pieces in one's mind, distinguishing the grammatical subject (that is, the substantive which stands as the subject of the verb) from its various qualifications or adjuncts, and distinguish- ing these from one another. In the first four of the previous examples Prince is the grammatical subject. In (1), (3), and (4) it is only qualified by the definite article the. In (2) it is quaUfied by (i) thCy definite article ; (ii) 6cce7^^r^c, adjective; (iii) of Abyssinia, adjectival phrase. In (5) the Subject {you, understood) is not qualified. The next step is to break up the logical predicate in one's mind in the same way, distinguishing the verb, the object or objects (if any), and the adverbial qualifications. Thus in (1) the verb lived has no qualification, and so forms by itself the whole of the Predicate. In (2), (3), and (4) the verb is qualified by the adverb long, and in (2) it is also quahfied by the adverbial phrase in seclusion. And in (5) it is qualified by the adverbial phrase in peace. A dialysis of Sentences 123 Having distinguished in one's mind the Logical Subject from the Predicate, and their various qualifications from one another, the next step is to write the sentence down the left-hand side of the paper, word by word, each word below the preceding one. But articles and prepositions need not be taken sepa- rately, and pronominal, prepositional, conjunctional, and interjectional phrases may be treated as if they were single words. In the case of interrogative, negative, or optative sen- tences, the auxiliary verb must be repeated in brackets to form the whole verb. Then, opposite to each word or group of words, write down the part it plays in the sentence. The previous examples will then appear as under : (1) The Prince lived (2) The eccentric Prince of Abyssinia Hved long in seclusion (3) Did the Prince (did) live long (4) Long Hve the Prince (5) (You) live in peace Subject. Verb. Adj. qualifying Prince, Subject. Adj. phrase, qualifying Prince, Verb. Adv. qualifying lived. Adv. phrase, qualifying lived. Auxiliary verb, with live. Subject. Verb. Adverb, qualifying did live. Adverb, qualifying live. Verb. Subject. Subject, understood. Verb. Adv. phrase, qualifying live. 124 English Grammar In the case of questions introduced by an interrogative word, the part played in the sentence by the interrogative word will best be seen by substituting the corresponding demonstrative in one's mind ; thus, Where does the train stop = the train does stop]^ ^^^ * and we see that where quaUfies the verb does stop, just as there would qualify it. Again, Who is that tall man = that tall man is| ^ ^ * and we see that who, like he, forms the complement. Where does (the) train (does) stop Who is that tall man Interrog. adverb, qualifying does stop. Auxiliary verb, with stop. Subject. Verb. Complement. Verb. Demonstr. adj., qualifying man. Adjective, „ Subject. Exclamations are analysed Hke ordinary assertive sentences : How noble was his conduct Adverb, qualifying ^^^^j Complement. Verb. Possessive pronoun, qualifying conduct. Subject. The following examples contain constructions that should be noticed : Being a man of weak will, he was unable to assert himself. Here the phrase being a man of weak will states why Analysis of Sentences 125 he was unable, etc., and therefore, although in form it qualifies he, in reality it qualifies the whole sentence, and is therefore an adverbial phrase. Again, to assert himself tells us in what way he was unable, and is therefore an adverbial phrase, qualifying unable. It was like (to) a sweet dream to sit in the roses and (to) hear (the) bird's song . It was like a sweet dream To sit in the roses and hear the bird's song. Subject. Verb. Adj. qual. dream\k.diY, phrase IComplement. J qual. like J Adv. phrase, qualifying sit Conj. joining si/, hear Adjec. genitive qual. song Object of hear Substantival phrases in apposition to it. He ordered the cottage to be burned to the ground. He ordered (the) cottage to be burned to the ground Subject. Verb. Subject of to he burned ^ Substantival Oblique Predicate of cottage I phrase, Adv. phrase qualifying to be j object of burned J ordered. Here the phrase the cottage to he burned niight be replaced by a clause that the cottage should be burned, in which cottage would be subject, and should be burned predicate. To be burned is therefore called an Oblique Predicate, i.e. a predicate in oblique (indirect) speech. The cottage cannot be considered the object, direct or indirect, of ordered. Nor can to be burned be considered an infinitive of purpose. On the other hand, in He offered the cottage to be used as a hospital, cottage is the direct object of offered, and to be used is an 126 English Gramma}" infinitive of purpose, forming an adjectival phrase qualify- ing cottage. It will have been already noticed that a phrase is often composed of two or three shorter phrases; and it then becomes necessary in a full analysis to state the relations of the shorter phrases to one another before stating the relation of the whole phrase which they compose to the sentence. Take the following instance : Yesterday (the) 12.30 train from Waterloo to Bournemouth was stopped suddenly in the cutting (on the} London side of Winchester (in consequence of) the line having been blocked (by a) large fall of chalk Adv. qualifying was stopped. Adj. phrase qualifying train. Subject. Adj. phrase „ Adj. phrase ., Verb. Adv. qual. was stopped. Adj. qual. side Adj. phrase Adj. phrase qual. side] cutting] ^^'^ ^ ^^^^ Adv. phrase qual. Oblique Pred. of line Adj. qualifying /a/Z j^j^J;^ I qual. " ' Uocked Adj. phrase Adv. phrase qual. was stopped. In this instance, the phrase in consequence of the line having been blocked could be replaced by the clause because the line had been blocked ; cf. the previous example. Analysis of Combinations of Simple Sentences. 167 The simple sentences are to be analysed one after another in the usual way. The only points which require separate notice are the following : Analysis of Sentences 127 Contracted Simple Sentences. In analysing these the omitted words must be supplied in each of the sentences ; thus, His treachery amazed and disgusted me. = His treachery amazed (me) and (his treachery) dis- gusted me. Neither, nor: Where these conjunctions are used, it is best to write not . . . and not in place of them ; thus, I neither like nor dislike him. I (neither) not like (him) , X fand (I) dislike him Subject. Adverb qual. like Verb. Object understood. Conjunction joining sentences. Adverb qual. dislike. Subject understood. Verb. Object. Co-ordinate Relative Sentences. In these instances (see § 161) where the relative sentence merely continues the narrative, the relative should be replaced by and with the corresponding demonstrative. Thus in analysing the instance given in § 161, we should write : Who= '^^^ ^- { she Conjunction joining sentences. Subject of told. So in Then she gained Her bower ; whence re-issuing, robed and crown'd, To meet her lord, she took the tax away, whence = and thence. T28 English Grammar Analysis of Compound Sentences. 168 It must be remembered that a compound sentence forms one whole, and that each of its various clauses, however many there may be, is equivalent to a single word in it. Consequently, in analysing a compound sentence, we must proceed at first exactly as if it were a simple sentence, except that the clauses must be written down and treated as if each were a single word. After the whole sentence has been analysed in this way, each of the clauses must be analysed separately. It must not be forgotten that a clause often forms part of a phrase in the same way as the substantive, adjective, or adverb for which it stands, might do. Note. — In the analysis of compound sentences it will probably be found unnecessary to make the pupil analyse separately the constituent parts of a phrase, or to treat an adjective apart from the substantive it qualifies. COMPOUND SENTENCE WITH ONE CLAUSE. ]^g9 First write out the sentence, underlining the clause. Then write down and analyse the whole sentence, treating the clause as one word, and numbering it (1) for reference. Then analyse the clause as if it were a separate sentence. Clauses may be (§ 157) substantival, adverbial, or adjectival; we will first consider instances containing Substantival Clauses. Analysis of Sentences 129 It comforts me in this one thought to dwell, That I subdued me to my father s will. It comforts me in this one thought to dwell that I subdued me to my father s will (1) that I subdued me to my father's will Subject. Verb. Direct object of comforts. -Subst. phrase in apposition to it. Substantival clause (1) in apposi- tion to thought Conjunction. Subject. Verb. Direct object. Adv. phrase, qual. subdued. What this may be I know not. What this may be I know not (1) What this may be /Subst. clause (1), direct object of \ know. Subject. Verb. Adverb, qual. know. Complement, interrog. pronoun. Subject. Verb. It cannot be but that I shall be saved. It can not (cannot) be but that I shall be saved Subject. Auxiliary verb, with he. Adverb, qual. can. Verb. Subst. clause (1) in apposition to it Here, in analysing the clause, it is easiest to treat hut that as a compound conjunction (cf. when that) equivalent to that . . . not. But it would perhaps be more correct to take hut as a I 130 English Grammar preposition, making the sentence mean, 'It (the event) cannot be (anything) except that I shall be saved.' Adverbial Clauses. Where'er I came, I brought calamity. Adv. clause (1), qual. brought Subject. Verb. Direct object. /Conjunction, + adverb qual. came \ (§140). Subject. Verb. Where'er I came I brought calamity (1) Where'er I came I dipt into the future far as human eye could see. Here the adverbial clause qualifies the adverb far. His voice was thin, as voices from the grave (are thin). Here the adverbial clause quahfies the adjective thin. God fulfils Himself in many ways, Lest one good custom should corrupt the world. Here the adverbial clause qualifies the whole of the principal sentence (§ 138). Adjectival Clauses. What is it that will last ? What is it that will last (1) that will last Complement, interrog. pronoun. Verb. Subject. Adjective clause (1) qual. it Subject, rel. pronoun. Verb Analysis of Sentences That which I have done May He within Himself make pure. That which 1 have done may He within Himself (may) make pure (1) which I have done Object. Adj. clause (1), qual. ilmL Auxiliary verb, with malte. Subject. Adverbial phrase, qual. make. Verb. Complement, qual. tlmt. Object, direct. Subject. Verb. I am going a long way with these thou seest. am gomg a long way with these (whom) thou seest (1) (whom) thou seest Subject. Verb. Adv. phrase, qual. am going. (Adv. phrase, qual. am going. Object. Subject. Verb. It is time that old hysterical mock-disease should die. Here the clause is adjectival, qualifying time; compare the adjectival phrase in 'it is time for dinner,' or the adjective in ' it is dinner time.' Judge thou me by what I am. Here ' what I am '=' that which I am.' Adverbial clauses are frequently introduced by relatives; see § 161. 132 English Grammar COMPOUND SENTENCE WITH MORE THAN ONE CLAUSE. Clauses independent of one another. 170 W^ ^ill fi^^t t^ke some instances in which the clauses depend directly upon the principal sentence, and are inde- pendent of one another. In copying out the sentence for analysis, they should be underlined and numbered separately. I doubt not through the ages one increasing purpose runs, And the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns. I doubt not (that) through the ages one increas- ing purpose runs and (that) the thoughts ' of men are wid- ened with the process of the suns ^ (1) (that) through the ages one increasing pur- pose runs Subject. Verb. Adverb, qual. doM. Subst. clause (1) direct object of dovht. Conjunction, joining (1) and (2). Subst. clause (2), direct object of donU. Conjunction. Adv. phrase, qual. runs. Subject and qualifications. Verb. (2) (that) the thoughts of men are widened with the process of | the suns / Conjunction. Subject and qualifications. Verb. Adv. phrase, qual. are widened. A na lysis of Sentences 133 I had been content to perish, falling on the foeman's ground, When the ranks are rolled in vapour and the winds are laid with sound. Here we have two adverbial clauses independent of each other, ' when the ranks . . .,' and ' (when) the winds/ Thou art staring at the wall, Where the dying night lamp flickers and the shadows rise and fall. Here we have two adjectival clauses independent of each other, both introduced by where (= on^ which) and both qualifying wall. In each of the foregoing instances the two clauses per- form exactly the same function ; in the following instances this is not the case. Tell me what the time is, if you please. Here the substantival clause what the time is form*s the direct object of tell, while the clause if you please qualifies it adverbially. So in The man who sold it me, said it was genuine, who sold it me is an adjectival clause qualifying man, while (that) it was genuine is a substantival clause forming the direct object of said. Again in Although he was armed, he gave up all the money he had, we have an adverbial clause, although he was armed, and an adjectival clause (which) he had. 134 English Grammar Clauses dependent upon other Clauses. 171 A clause may contain another clause, which again may contain another. In analysing such examples the whole of the clause depending on the principal sentence must be underlined first (including any clauses it may contain); then any clause depending on the first clause must be underlined a second time ; then any clause depending on the second clause must be underlined a third time, and so on; see § 163. Clauses in the same degree of dependence upon the principal sentence will thus have the same number of hues under them. Thus, You take my house when you do take the prop That doth sustain my house. You take my house when you do take^ the prop that doth [ sustain my house j Subject. Verb. Direct object. Adv. clause (1), qual. take. (1) when you do take Conj. + adv., qual. do take. Subject. Verb. the prop that doth sustain \ my house J Direct object of do take. Adj. clause (2), qual. pvp. (2) that doth sustain Subject. Verb. ray house Direct object. Analysis of Sentences 135 Make me feel the wild pulsation that I felt before the strife, When I heard my days before me, and the tumult of my life. (You) make^ me feel the wild pulsation that I felt before the strife, when I heard my days before me, and the tumult of my life Subject. Verb. Object. Infin. , gov. pulsation. Object oifeel Adjective clause (1), qual. pulsation. Comple- ment. (1) that I felt before the strife when I heard my days before me and (when I heard) the tumult of my life Direct object of felt. Subject. Verb. Adv. phrase, qual. felt. Adverbial clause (2), q^xal, felt. Conjunction, joining (2) and (3). Adverbial clause (3), qual. felt. (2) when I heard my days before me Conj. + adv., qual. heard. Subject. Verb. Direct object and qualification. Adv. phrase, qual. heard. (3) (when) (I) (heard) the tumult of my life /Conj. + adv., qual. heard under- \ stood. Subject, understood. Verb understood. Direct object with qualifications. 136 English Grammar I am that Rosamund, whom men call fair, If what I was I be. am that Eosamund whom men call fair if what I was I be Subject. Verb. Complement. Adj. clause (1), qual. Eosamund, Adv. clause (2), qual. am. (1) whom men- call fair (2) if what I was I be Direct object of call. Subject. Verb. Complement. Conjunction. TAdj. clause (3), used substantiv- \ ally, forming complement. Subject. Verb. (3) what was Complement. Subject. Verb. J72 ^ f^^ examples containing typical difficulties are. subjoined : — For what are men better than sheep or goats That nourish a blind life within the brain, If, knowing God, they lift not hands of prayer Both for themselves and those that call them friend ? Here there are two adverbial clauses directly dependent upon the principal sentence : (1) than sheep or goats {are Analysis of Sentences 137 good^ that nourish . . . brain \ (2) if . . , they lift not . . . friend. The first qualifies the adjective better, the second qualifies the whole sentence. Then the clause (3) that nourish ... is an adjective clause quahfying sheep and goats, and (4) that call ... is an adjective clause qualifying those. What, in hne 1, is an adverb = in what or how. From them rose A cry that shivered to the tingling stars, And, as it were one voice, an agony Of lamentation, like a wind, that shrills All night in a waste land, where no one comes. Here the chief difficulty lies in the elliptical clause as it were one voice. When the ellipse it supplied, the sentence runs : a cry, an agony of lamentation , . . rose as (it would rise if) it were one voice. The clause where no one comes is, of course, adjectival, and qualifies land. Losing her carol I stood pensively, As one that from a casement leans his head, When midnight bells cease ringing suddenly, And the old year is dead. Here the clause, if fully expressed, would run as one would stand,, etc. ; it qualifies the adverb pensively, and it contains the adjectival clause that . . . leans, etc. (qua- lifying one), which again contains the two adverbial clauses, when midnight bells . . ., and (when) the old year ... 138 English Grammar For I trust if an enemy's fleet came yonder ro und by the hill, ==============================^^ And the rushing battle-bolt sang from the three-decker out of the foam, That the smooth-faced, snub-nosed rogue would leap from his counter and till, And strike, if he could, were it but with his cheating yardwand, home. Here the direct object of trust consists of two substantival clauses, (1) that the . , , rogue would leap . . . and (2) {that the rogue would) strike . . . home. These are both qualified by the adverbial clauses (3) if an enemy's fleet . . ., and (4) if the rushing battle-bolt . . ., and the second one is also quahfied by the adverbial clause (5) if he could and by the elliptical adverbial clause (6) were it but with his cheating yardwand, which = if it were only (possible to strike) with . . ., etc. I never saw, Nor shall see, here or elsewhere, till I die. Not tho' I live three lives of mortal men, So great a miracle as yonder hilt. Here we have a contraction of two sentences : (1) I never saw, here or elsewhere, so great a miracle as yonder hilt (is a great miracle). (2) I never shall see, here or elsewhere, so great a miracle as yonder hilt (is a great miracle), till I die, even if I live three lives of mortal men. The second sentence is quahfied by three adverbial clauses — (i) as yonder hilt, qualifying so. (ii) till I die ] vr • 7, 77 ....; ^ ^, , T7' > quahiYiTiQ; shall see. (m) not tho I hve . . . ) APPENDIX I HINTS ON PAESING The distinction between Analysis and Parsing may be stated thus : — We analyse sentences, we parse words. Analysis considers syntax only ; parsing considers the acci- dence of a word (§ 2) as well as its syntax. In analysis we may take groups of words together; in parsing we consider each word separately, except in the case of verbal phrases (§ 112), and even in these each word may be parsed separately. In parsing a word, we must state, first, what part of speech it is ; and then, according to the part of speech, we must give the following particulars : — Substantive. — 1. Whether Proper or Common. 2. If common, whether Concrete or Abstract. 3. Gender. 4. Number. 5. Case. 6. Eeason for case. Adjective. — 1. Qualitative, Quantitative, or Demonstrative. 2. Degree. 3. Gender. 4. Number. 5. Case. 6. Substantive it agrees with. 7. Whether used attributively o r predicatively . 139 140 English Grammar Pronoun. — 1. Class. 2. Whether Substantive or Adjective. 3. Gender. 4. Number. 5. Case. 6. Keason for case or (if adjective) substantive it agrees with. 7. Person (if Personal or Eelative). 8. Antecedent (if Eelative). Verb finite. — 1. Whether Intransitive or Transitive. 2. If the latter, substantive it governs. 3. Subject it agrees with. 4. Person. 5. Number. 6. Tense. 7. Mood. 8. Voice. 9. Conjugation. Participle (if parsed separately) : — 1. Tense. 2. Voice. 3. Verb it is formed from. 4. Conjugation of verb. 5. Substantive it agrees with. 6. Substantive it governs, if any. Infinitive (if parsed separately) : — 1. Tense. 2. Voice. 3. Case. 4. Eeason for case. Gerund. — 1. Whether Present or Perfect. 2. Voice. 3. Verb it is formed from. 4. Conjugation of Verb. 5. Substantive it governs, if any. 6. Case. 7. Eeason for case. Appendix 141 Adverb. — 1. Class. 2. Degree. 3. Word it qualifies. Conjunction. — 1. Whether Co-ordinating or Subordinating. 2. What it connects. 3. If adverbial, what it qualifies. Preposition. — 1. Substantive it governs. APPENDIX II PUNCTUATION The Stops used in English, arranged according to importance, are The comma, , The semi-colon, ; The colon, : The full-stop or period. Other signs, not properly stops, employed in writing are The note of interrogation, % The note of exclamation, ! The parenthesis, ( ) Inverted commas, " " * * The first two of these are really directions as to the tone of voice in which a sentence should be read. The following are a few general principles of punctuation ; but it must be remembered that it is exceedingly difficult to lay down definite rules, since even the best writers are by no means agreed as to the use of stops in writing, and further, there is a fashion in stops as in most *other things. At present the colon is so unfashionable as to have almost disappeared from current literature. 142 English Gramrnar PRACTICAL HINTS ON PUNCTUATION 1. Avoid the use of unnecessary stops, especially commas, when the sense is clear without them. Dean Alford says : ' The great enemies to understanding anything printed in our language are the commas.' 2. Use the comma i. To separate short co-ordinate sentences: e.g,^ He heard it, but he heeded not. ii. To separate clauses from principal sentence: e.g., He started, though he had had no breakfast. iii. To separate strings of words in the same construction : e.g., The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind. Darkly, deeply, beautifully blue, iv. To separate noun in opposition from principal noun : e.g., Richard, the King, made me. V. To separate a nominative of address from the sentence: e.g., William, did you post that letter? 3. Use the colon or semi-colon between sentences which are independent in construction, but too closely connected in mean- ing to be separated by a full-stop : e.g.. The poetry shines, in spite of him, through the dull 'pedantry of his eleven books ; it is discernible in the most tedious and in the most superficial works on the early times of Rome. 4. Use the full stop at the end of sentences and after ab- breviations. 5. Use the note of interrogation after direct questions. 6. Use a note of exclamation after interjections, exclamatory sentences and invocations. 7. Use the parenthesis for words which do not enter in the construction of the sentence or clause in which they stand. 8. Use inverted commas to mark off quotations. INDEX A or an, 39. -a, feminine suffix, 35. Ablative case, 18. Accidence, definition of, 2. Accusative, how determined, 17 ; of direct object, 21, 22 ; cognate, 22, 70 ; adverbial, 22; with prepositions, 96; in exclama- . tions, 97. Adjectival clauses, 114-116. Adjectival phrases, examples of, 100. Adjectives, definitions of, 14, 36, 56 ; classi- fication of, 37 ; uses of, 43, 44 ; inflexions of, 44 ; comparison of, 45, 46. Address, nominative of, 21. Adverbial clauses, defined and classified, 110-114 ; of manner, 111 ; of degree (com- parative and consecutive), 111 ; of time (temporal), 112 ; of place, 112 ; of cause (causal), 113 ; of purpose (final), 113 ; of condition (conditional and concessive), 113, 114. Adverbial phrases, Examples of, 100. Adverbs, definition and classification of, 94 ; comparison of, 94, 95. Agreement, the four rules of, 104-106. Aftermost, 47. All, 38, 67. AlmSf 30. Alphabet, definition of, 1 ; deficiency, re- dundancy, and inconsistency of English, 11, 12. Analysis of sentences, 121-fin. ; of simple sentences, 121-127; of combinations of simple sentences, 126, 127 ; of compound sentences, 128, 134 ; compound sentences with one clause, 128-132; compound sentences with more than one clause, 132-134; compound sentences with clauses dependent upon other clauses, 134; harder examples of, 136-fin. Angles, 4. Anglo-Saxon, 5 ; declension of substantives, 18; of adjectives, 44; of personal pro- nouns, 50 ; of demonstrative pronouns, 55 ; of interrogative pronouns, 56. Anomalous verbs, 86-90. Antecedent, 57, 64, 65. Any, 38, 67. Apposition, 106. Articles, 39-41. Aryan languages in Europe, classification of, 37 ; uses of, 43, 44 ; inflexion of, 44 ; comparison of, 45, 46. Aryans, 2. As, relative pronoun, 62, Attributive use of adjectives, 43. Aught, 67. Auxiliary verbs, 86-90. Badder, 47. Be, 87. Better, 47. Both, 38. Brethren, 28. Britain, conquered by Romans, 4; by English (Saxons, Jutes, and Angles), 4; by Normans, 6. But, relative pronoun, 63. 143 144 English Grammar Capitals, rules as to use of, 8. Cardinal numbers, 41. Case, definition of, 17 ; how to determine, 17, 18; instrumental, 18; ablative, 18; locative, 18 ; nominative, 19-21 ; accusa- tive, 21, 22; dative, 23; genitive, its formation, 23, 24 ; of compound expres- sions, 24, 25 ; its uses, 25, 26. Case-inflexions, defects of, 18, 19 ; disappear- ance of, 6, 17, 19. Causal clauses, 113. Celtic languages, 3. Celtic words in English, 8. Celts, driven by English into Cumberland, Wales, and Cornwall, 6. Certain, 38. Children, 28. Clauses, explained and classified, 108, 109 ; substantival, 109, 110; adverbial, 110-114 ; adjectival, 114-116; apparently adjectival, 116, 117; how to distinguish, 117-118; clauses independent of one another, 119 ; clauses dependent on other clauses, 119, 120. Cognate accusative, 22, 70. Collateral simple sentences, 107. Common, different parts of speech, 13. Comparative clauses. 111. Comparison, of adjectives, 45, 46 ; of adverbs, 94, 95. Complement, 103. Compound sentences, 99, 107, 108 ; analysis of, 128-fin. Compound substantives, genitive of, 24, 25 ; plural of, 29. Concessive clauses, 113, 114. Concords, the four, 104-106. Conditional clauses, 113. Conjugation, 82, 83. Conjunctional phrases, examples of, 100. Conjunctions, definition of, 95 ; co-ordinat- ing and subordinating, 95 ; classification of subordinating, 96. Connotation, 36. Consecutive clauses, 112. Consonant sounds, 11 ; table of, 11. Consonants, meaning of, 9; classffication of, 10. Continuous forms of tenses, 71. Contracted sentences, 120 ; analysis of, 127. Co-ordinate simple sentences, 106. Co-ordinating conjunctions, 95. Co-ordinating use of the relative,116, 117, 127. Copulative verbs, 103. Danes in England, 5, 6 ; efi'ects of their settlement on Anglo-Saxon, 6. Dare, 88. Dative, how determined, 18 ; of indirect object, 23. Deficiency of English alphabet, 12. Demonstrative adjectives, 38, 39. Demonstrative pronouns, 55, 56. Denotation, 36. Dentals, 10. Dialects, definition of, 1. Did, 84. Digraphs, 10. Diphthongs, 9. Distributive numerals, 43. Distributive pronouns, 65, 66. Divers, Diverse, 38. Do, 88. Dozen, 42. Double plurals, differing in meaning, 32. Each, 65. Eaves, 30. Either, 66. Elder, eldest, 47. Eleven, 42. Elliptical sentences, 120. -en, feminine suffix, 35. English conquest of Britain, 4, 5. English language, its relations, 2; its sources, 4; how it diff'ers from Anglo- Saxon. Enough, 38. Index 145 -z&&^ feminine suffix, 34. -esi, superlative suffix, 47. Etymology, definition of, 2. Eury, m. Farther, 47. Few, 38, 67. Final clauses, 113. Finite and infinite, applied to verb, 78. Foreign plurals, 30. Foremost, 47. Fot, declined, 18. French plurals in English, 30. Future and future perfect, used obliquely, 73. Gaffer, 36. Gallows, 31. Gammer, 36. Gender, 33-36 ; in English dependent on sex, 33 ; not so in other languages, 34. General relatives, see universal relatives. Genitive, how determined, 17 ; its forma- tion, 23, 24 ; of compound expressions, 24, 25 ; its uses, 25 ; possessive, objec- tive, definitive, 26. Gerund, 80; distinguished from present par- ticiple and abstract substantives, 80, 81. Goda, gode, godan, declined, 44. Grammar, definition of, 1 ; branches of, 2. Greek, 3 ; plurals in English, 30. Gutturals, 10 Harder examples of Analysis, 136-138. Have, 87. He, heo, hit, declined, 51. Hebrew plurals in English, 30. High German, 4. Hind, hinder, hindmost, 47. His, 54. Hosen, 28. Housen, 28. Huckster, 35. Hundred, 42. Hwd, hwaet, declined, 56. /, 50. Ic, declined, 50. Imperative mood, 75, 76. Impersonal verbs, 70. -inttf feminine suffix, 35. Inconsistencies of English alphabet, 12. Indefinite pronouns, 67, 68. Indicative mood, 75. -ine, feminine suffix, 35. Infinitive mood, 78, 79. Inflexion, definition of, 2 ; of substantives, 16. Instrumental case, 18. Interjectional phrases, examples of, 100. Interjections, 96. Interrogative pronouns, 56, 57. Intransitive use of verbs, 69. Irregular verbs, 86-90. It, 51, 52 ; old genitive, 54. Italian plurals in English, 30. Jutes, 4. Kine, 28. Labials, 10. Labio-dentals, 10. Ijadess, lass, 34. Lady-day, 18. Language, definition of, 1. Latin languages, 3. Latin, of first period, 4 ; of second period, 5 ; of third period, 7 ; of fourth period, 7; words of third and fourth period con- trasted, 7 ; tenses compared with English, 72 ; plurals in English, 30. Latter, 47. Less, 47. Lettic, 3. Liquids, 10. Lithuanian, 3. • Little, 38. Locative case, 18. Low German, 4. -^ 146 English Gra^nmar -rtm^ superlative suffix, 47. Many, 38, 67. May, 90. Means, 31. Methinks, meseems, 23. Middle English, 7. Might, 90. Mo, 47. Mood, 75. Monday, 18, Much, 88. Multiplicatives, 43. Mutes, 10. i¥2/, 54. Names, general, abstract, concrete and collective, 15, 16 ; distinction between general and collective, 16. Nasals, 11. Near, 47. Neither, QQ; neither . . . nor, how to deal with, in analysis, 127. News, 31. Nominative, how to determine, 17 ; of the subject, 19, 20 ; absolute, 20, 21 ; of address, 21. None, 38, 67. Normans, their conquest of England, 6; effect of their conquest on Anglo-Saxon, 6,7. Nouns, definition of, 14. Number, definition of, 16. Numerals, 41-43; cardinals, 41; ordinals, 42; multiplicatives, 43; distributives 43 ; adverbs, 43. Oblique predicate, 125. One, 41, 67. Ordinal numbers, 42. Orthography, definition of, 1. Other, 67. Ourself, 53. Outside, different parts of speech, 13. Palatals, 10. Participles, present, 81 ; past, 82. Parts of speech, 13 ; how to distinguish, 13. Pease, 32. Person in verbs, 70. Personal pronouns, 49-52. Personification, 33. Phrases, distinguished from sentences, 98, 99 ; instances of phrases equivalent to all the parts of speech, 99, 100. Plural (of substantives) same form as singu- lar, 26 ; first form of, 27 ; second form of, 28 ; third form of, 28 ; of compounds, 29 ; of foreign words, 30; singular words treated as, 30 ; words treated as singular, 31 ; words without singulars, 31 ; of proper names, 32 ; of abstract names, 32. Possessive pronouns, 54. Predicate, 102 ; its qualifications, 102 ; logical and grammatical distinguished, 121, 122. Predication, its nature, 103. Predicative use of adjectives, 43, 44. Prepositional phrases, examples of, 100. Prepositions, 96. Present tense, 71 ; historical, 73 ; used for future, 73. Pronominal phrases, examples of, 100. Pronouns, definition of, 48; classification of, 49 ; personal, 49-52 ; reflexive, 52, 53 ; forms in -self used emphatically, 53 ; pos- sessive, 54 ; demonstrative, 55, 56 ; inter- rogative, 56, 57 ; relative, 57-64 ; relative and antecedent, 64, 65; distributive, 65, 66 ; indefinite, 67, 68. Qualitative adjectives, 37. Quantitative adjectives, 37, 38. Quotha, 52. Redundancy of English alphabet, 12. Reduplication, 83, 84. Reflexive pronouns, 52, 53. Relative pronouns, 57-65 ; objection to the Index 147 name, 58 ; who^ 58 ; widch, 59, 60 ; that, 60, 61 ; drflferent uses of that and who or which, 61, 62 ; what, 62 ; as, 62 ; but, 63 ; universal relatives, 64 ; relative and ante- cedent, 64, 65. Resolving the relative, 116. Revival of classical learning in England, 7. Riches, 30. Ridings, 42. Romans, the, in Britain, 4. Saxons, 4. Scandinavian languages, 4. Scandinavian words in English, 8. Sclavonic languages, 3. Score, 42. Se, seo, thaet, declined, 55. Second, 42. See, conjugated in full, 90-93. Self, 53. Sempstress, 35. Sentence, definition of, 2 ; simple, 99 ; com- pound, 99; combination of simple sen- tences, co-ordinate, 106 ; collateral, 107 ; compound fully explained, 107, 108. Several, 38. Sex, denoted by terminations, 34, 35 ; in other ways, 35, 36. Shall, 88 ; its use, 89. Should, 88, 91. Sibilants, 11. Single, 43. Singular words treated as plurals, 30. Small-pox, 31. So, demonstrative, 55 ; adverb, 94 ; qualified by adverbial clauses of degree, 112. Some, 36, 68. Songstress, 35. Spinster, 35. Spirants, 10. -ster, feminine suffix, 35. Strong verbs, 83, 84; conjugated in full, 90-93. Subject, defined, 101 ; subjects classified, 101 ; qualifications of, 102 ; logical and grammatical, distinguished, 121, 122. Subjunctive mood, 76 ; its main uses, 77, 78. Subordinating conjunctions, 95 ; classifica- tion of, 96. Substantival clauses, 109, 110. Substantival phrases, examples of, 99. Substantives, definition of, 14 ; proper and common, 14, 15, which in the singular denote an action and in the plural its results, 32. Such, 55. Sunday, 18. Syllables, 12 ; rules for dividing words in- to, 12, 13. Syntax, definition of, 2. Tapster, 35. Temporal clauses, 112. Ten, 42. Tenses, 71 ; peculiar uses of, 75. Teutonic languages, 3 ; three groups of, 4. Teutonic tribes, 4. That, 55 ; as relative, 60, 61. The, definite article, 40 ; instrumental case of demonstrative, 41. Thes, thios, this, declined, 55. Third, 42. This, 55. Thou, 50. Thu, declined, 50. Thy, 54. Tithe, 4B. To, with infinitive of purpose, 79; often a meaningless word attached by custom to the infinite, 79. Transitive use of verbs, 69. -trix, feminine suffix, 35. Tuesday, 18. Tnnge, declined, 18. Twelve, 42. Twenty, 42 Two, 41 148 English Grammar Universal relatives, 64. Verbs, definition of, 68; used transitively and intransitively, 69 ; impersonal, 70 ; person, 70 ; number, 70 ; tense, 71 ; English and Latin tenses compared, 72 ; tense-forming auxiliaries, 72, 73 ; peculiar uses of tenses, 75 ; voice, 75 ; exceptions to the rule that only transitive verbs can be used personally in the passive, 74; mood, 75 ; indicative , 75 ; imperative, 75, 76 ; subjunctive, 76 ; main uses of subjunctive, 77, 78 ; verbal nouns sub- stantive, the infinitive, 78, 79; the ger- und, 80; gerund distinguished from present participle and abstract sub- stantives, 80, 81 ; verbal nouns adjective, present participle, 81 ; past participle, 82; conjugation, 82, 83; strong conjuga- tion, 83, 84 ; weak conjugation, 84, 85 ; peculiarities in weak verbs, 85, 86; anomalous or irregular, be, 87 ; liavt, 88 ; do, 88 ; shoXl, 88 ; wiW, 88 ; rules for use of will and &kall, 89; ma^/, 90; conjuga- tion of strong verb see, 90-93; qualifi- cations of, classified, 102 ; copulative, 103. 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