LB 
 
 LH 
 
 CD 
 
REESE LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Class 
 
SCHOOL-ROOK CLASSICS, 
 
 XIII. 
 
 INFANT LIFE 
 
TUB SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 The School Eoom Classics. 
 
 Under the above title we have published a series of Monographs upon 
 Education, as follows, all 16mo, in paper, at 15 cts. each. 
 
 1. Unconscious Tuition. By Bishop HUNTINGTON. Pp. 45. 
 
 " There is probably nothing finer in the whole range of educational lit 
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 "It cannot be read without a wholesome self- weighing, and a yearning 
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 Since this was first published in 1871 for the schools of St. Louis, it has 
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 Physics-Teaching in 1887 of the National Association. 
 
 C. W. BABI>EE]Sr, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
SCHOOL-ROOM CLASSICS. XIII. 
 
 TIEDEMANE'S 
 
 Record of Infant-Life, 
 
 
 
 AN ENGLISH VERSION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 French Translation and Commentary 
 BERNARD PEREZ, 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE "FIRST THREE YEARS OF CHILDHOOD," 
 
 WITH NOTES, 
 
 BY 
 
 F. LOUIS SOLD AN, PH.D., 
 
 PRINCIPAL OF THE NORMAL AND HIGH SCHOOLS, ST. LOI7J8, JttO. 
 
 SYRACUSE, N. Y. : 
 
 C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER. 
 
 1890. 
 
 Copyright, 1890, by C. W. BARUKKN. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This essay is remarkable both on account of its contents 
 and of the influence which its publication in France has had on 
 the study of Childhood. It is a reproduction of a little work 
 by a German writer, which, I think, was written about 100 
 years ago, but was completely forgotten until a French 
 translation of it appeared in 1863, in the Journal General de 
 V Instruction Publique, by Mr. Michelan. This translation 
 attracted much attention, and seems to have given the first 
 impulse to a number of most remarkable monographs on 
 the development of Childhood. I am by no means sure about 
 the identification of the original author. The French ver- 
 sion calls him " Thierry Tiedemann," and Egger says that 
 he was a physician (cf. L" 1 Intelligence, etc., cJiez les en/ants, p. 
 7), but for a number of reasons I am inclined to think that 
 the author is Dietrich Tiedemann, 1748-1803, a professor of 
 philosophy at the German University of Marbury, and that 
 these observations were completely recorded in 1781. If 
 this surmise is correct, the child here described is Friederich 
 Tiedemann, later professor at Heidelberg, and famous as a 
 writer on anatomy and physiology. 
 
 189030 
 
Muni's BKorltfliitatLJA. 
 
 First Month. Beginning with the earli- 
 est days,, Tiedemann observed various move- 
 ments and acts which he attributed to in- 
 stinct and to a predisposition of the organic 
 mechanism. The day after his birth the 
 infant sucked the ringer of his nurse ; yet 
 he never sucked continuously except when 
 something soft tied in a cloth was put in his 
 mouth. The eyes at this early day moved 
 in all directions, but were directed with a 
 preference toward things that were in mo- 
 tion a fact which is more general with new- 
 born infants and even with animals (although 
 they may still be blind) than Tiedemann 
 thinks. The movements of the body to 
 escape the pressure of the swaddling clothes, 
 or to escape pain in general, or to alleviate 
 it through distraction, or to abate local ir- 
 ritation resulting from the accumulation of 
 
6 Perez's Translation of ^ 
 
 blood in certain places all these movements, 
 useful but uncertain, are accounted for by 
 our philosopher, as we should do ourselves, 
 as being irresistible impulses of the organic 
 mechanism, which resemble intentional ac- 
 tions. Tiedemann, very properly, however, 
 raises the question, whether there is not 
 already mingled with them a personal inten- 
 tion and acquired knowledge. I should 
 answer this question as he does, in the af- 
 firmative, notwithstanding the fact, that in 
 our days the widest scope is allowed for re- 
 flex and unconscious action in the mental 
 phenomena of the adult and still 'more in 
 shild.* 
 
 It is repugnant to me to think of a child 
 as a mere machine. From my stand-point, 
 
 * Rousseau, who has well expressed the principle upon 
 which child-psychology should rest, by cautioning us not to 
 seek the man in the child, but to think of what he is before 
 lie becomes man, said that the newly-born infant, fettered 
 by imperfect and but half-developed organs, is a purely 
 sensuous being who has not even the feeling of his own ex- 
 istence and with whom cries and movements are absolute 
 mechanical effects, destitute of knowledge and will. 
 
 Charles Darwin has collected more exact facts in regard 
 to reflex-action among children, than any other naturalist 
 and psychologist. Among the reflex-actions noticed during 
 the first days he mentions: sneezing, hiccoughing, gaping, 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 7 
 
 therefore, I can see even in the infant's first 
 day "a beginning of instruction." I take 
 exception, however, to the circumstances 
 which seemed to Tiedemann to demonstrate 
 the fact just mentioned ; thus he says that 
 when the infant has been suffering hunger, 
 " in or to appease it, he seeks to put into 
 .his mouth, frequently without success, his 
 fingers or those of strangers when Jie hap- 
 pens to take hold of them .... The child 
 knows that when something is put into his 
 mouth hunger is appeased .... He knows how 
 to find the place where hunger and thirst 
 make themselves felt, no matter how inex- 
 perienced he is in the movements of his 
 arms and hands with which he tries to reach 
 it. It is certain that it is neither on the 
 ground of instinctive design, nor through 
 the effect of personal experience, that the 
 child is able during his first days to localize 
 exactly pleasure orvpain, and as little can he 
 distinguish the parts of his body. 
 
 stretching the body, and, of course, sucking and crying; and 
 also at the same period the fact that the desire to suck was 
 occasioned by coming in contact with a soft and warm hand. 
 He also classes with those reflex-actions which are alto- 
 gether independent of experience, the winking of the eyes, 
 which, during the first two weeks, is caused by the hearing 
 of certain noises. 
 

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 simple sensations, although their discrimin- 
 is very easy, ne<; I ^ and imply 
 the possibility arison in order to be- 
 
 ^.ble of distinct and precise observa- 
 tion." All I can admit is, that they reqnire 
 which, together with nutrition, 
 strengthens the organs and adapts them 
 more and more to their functions. But, are 
 suppose that the child must hare a 
 certain number of experiences and oppor- 
 tunities for comparison in order to be able 
 to distinguish the bitter from the sweet? 
 
 *nn, with whom in this respect 
 s, especially Darwin, do not 
 agree - laughter after the fifth day, 
 
 and attributes it not to an apparent rr 
 of pleasure, but rather to a simple effect of 
 the organic mechanism, in the same way in 
 which he attributes exclusively to the irrita- 
 bility of the organism those sounds and 
 movements which are produced during 
 at this time of life ; he does not admit that 
 the infant dreams during the first days. 
 This last hypothesis has never been verified 
 by anybody, although it would be worth 
 while. Our philosopher and that is a proof 
 
10 Perez's Translation of 
 
 of his sincerity is as ready in some respects 
 as he is slow in others to accelerate the pro- 
 gress of intelligence and sensibility in the 
 infant. 
 
 On September 5th, or 13 days after birth, 
 /the child showed some traces of acquired 
 ideas in the simplest sentiments and sensa- 
 tions of the soul. He rejected some medi- 
 cines after having tasted several doses ; he 
 distinguished them from his food by the- 
 smell and by the mode in which they were 
 offered to him ; the progress of comparison 
 had been very rapid ! Eyes and "features dis- 
 played already the expressions of grief and 
 joy ; one could preceive the sustained atten- 
 tion with which he followed the gestures of 
 those that were speaking (evidently an exag- 
 geration) ; their words had an effect on his 
 crying ; * * * 
 
 " All this proves/' says Tiedemann, "the- 
 presence of ideas which he had already 
 gathered, the distinction of creatures resemb- 
 ling himself from all other objects, and a 
 more exact distinguishing of sensations/* 
 All these observations are inexact or at least 
 badly interpreted ; for it is indeed not easy 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 11 
 
 to explain the nature of mental phenomena 
 in the child or in the animal, to indicate 
 their point of departure, whether mechani- 
 cal or conscious, and their true connection 
 and development. I am raising at present 
 a kitten which is about a week old and 
 which presents to my observation facts which 
 are analogous to those described above by 
 Tiedemann, and in regard to which it would 
 be contrary to every scientific method to 
 refer them to pure sensation, to mechanic- 
 ism, to instinct, or to hereditary reflex- 
 action. During more than three days it 
 seemed pleased when I passed my finger over 
 its head and neck, and cried in a terrified or 
 plaintive manner when it was taken hold of 
 with the whole hand. Although its eyes 
 are closed it moves its paws, which it nibbles, 
 and pushes them forward to touch its mother; 
 it does all this with the appearance of an 
 attempt at play; my caresses to-day called 
 forth a purring as soft as the humming of a 
 bee. If all actions are unconscious, at what 
 time shall we begin to believe in the indica- 
 tions which manifest consciousness? But it 
 would be too much to attribute full conscious- 
 ness to these actions. 
 
12 Perez's Translation of 
 
 Eighteen days after Frederic Tiedemann's 
 birth, the observations already enumerated 
 seemed to be confirmed by some new circum- 
 stances. The infant placed himself in atti- 
 tude for taking nourishment whenever he 
 felt a soft hand upon his face, ceased to cry, 
 and sought the breast. Tiedemann sees in 
 this an association of ideas which have al- 
 ready become somewhat fixed. But while 
 the child could distinguish diverse sense-im- 
 pressions, his ideas in regard to his body 
 and to distances "were defective or even 
 lacking : when his hands were left free he 
 would strike or scratch himself so that it 
 would hurt him." The ideas of which Tiede- 
 mann speaks here were not defective, but 
 lacking. 
 
 Second Month. After a month and three 
 days, owing to painful experiences, and, 
 doubtless, to an increase of strength, (( the 
 child would strike or scratch 'his face less 
 frequently." " Sleep would be less long," 
 which explains itself very well from the 
 increase of physical activity, but which with 
 a child of this age may also be due to any 
 other cause, for instance, to insufficient nu- 
 

 
 Tiedemanris Essay on Infancy. 13 
 
 trition. At this period also the child smiled* 
 in mien and gesture, whether on account of 
 taking pleasure in the variety of his move- 
 ments, or whether sympathy had something 
 to do with it, and this seemed to Tiedemann 
 to receive confirmation from the fact, that 
 "when the infant is spoken to, it likewise 
 seeks to produce sounds, simple indeed and 
 without articulation, yet varied enough, f At 
 
 * Darwin did not observe a smile (which is, according to 
 him, the first stage of a laugh or a vestige of the old and in- 
 veterate habit of expressing joy by a laugh) until the forty- 
 fifth or sixth day. Moreover, his children laughed when tHey 
 looked at their mother while she wasmiling, which makes 
 him suppose that the laughs were of mental origin. I am led 
 to think that this was a purely mechanical act, a pure senso- 
 motor reflex-action. Laughing, in its most general features, 
 seems to me to be the characteristic of joy with several 
 mammals: it is impossible to misunderstand the laughing 
 physiognomy of dog or cat at play. But, as is the case in cry- 
 ing or in walking, those transmitted hereditary movements 
 which culminate in a laugh, require gradual exercise and 
 must soon be controlled by consciousness in order to at- 
 tain their normal development. According to Mr. Egger, 
 laughter is not an instinctive action; it is not found in ani- 
 mals; and when it appears in the child it is due to the fact 
 that sensations of the soul begin to mingle with bodily sen- 
 sations; only after the fortieth day laughter and tears man- 
 ifest the unfolding of faculties which until then were latent 
 in the soul. Thus where Darwin sees the results of a devel- 
 opment of organs, Mr. Egger recognizes the effects of ft 
 power which now has appeared in the soul. 
 
 t Darwin noticed toward the sixth week the soft murmur 
 expressive of joy, which is a beginning of recognition and 
 
14 Perez's Translation of 
 
 a month and five days,, Tiedemann thought 
 that he could notice with certainty some 
 
 which, even before the movements of his little arms, is for 
 the infant a means of carrying on a conversation with his 
 people. " When forty-six days old, he first made little noises, 
 without any meaning, to please himself, and these soon be- 
 came varied." The English naturalist has correctly observed 
 that after some time the nature of these cries differs " accord- 
 ing to the cause, for instance, hunger or pain." He has fixed 
 the time for this change: for one infant, eleven weeks, and a 
 little more than eleven weeks for another. This means of 
 communication seems very soon subordinated to the will. 
 Early in that period " he seemed to learn how to cry volun- 
 tarily, or to wrinkle his face in the manner proper for the 
 occasion, so as to show that he wanted something." Is there 
 a Jransition from cry to voice, or does the latter appear 
 simply at its physiological or psychological moment? 
 
 " At the age of five weeks," says Mr. Kggor, "I noticed the 
 transition from cry to voice. The cry is the first sound which 
 the human organ produce's ; it starts from the base of the 
 larynx, at the first moment of life in air and light. During 
 several weeks it is the only sound that we hear from the in- 
 fant, and that only when lie is in pain. Later, towards the 
 fifth week, 1 saw mouth and tongue move, especially through 
 pleasurable impulses, to produce sounds which cannot be 
 expressed through the letters of our alphabet, but which are 
 certainly less guttural than the first sounds. This second 
 kind of sounds, in becoming more perfect, produces true ar- 
 ticulation." Mr. Egger makes an observation in regard to the 
 Toice of infants, whose correctness does not seem tome to be 
 proved : " The voice of infants," he says, " at an early age 
 is not characterized by any individual color or ' timbre. ' The 
 voice becomes characteristic at the same period when it be- 
 comes articulate, and it is then that we can distinguish in it 
 Towels and consonants. " Other observations seem to justify 
 the influence that the infant's cry, as well as later the voice, 
 has always peculiar modulations which mothers and nurses 
 know well how to distinguish. 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 15 
 
 clearly distinguished sensations : "a dose of 
 medicine was taken with visible repugnance; 
 likewise the child distinguished between him- 
 self and external things by making for the 
 first time an effort to seize an object by ex- 
 tending his hands and by bending his whole 
 body." The same movements, more or less 
 conscious, are observed in cats and dogs be- 
 fore the end of the first week ; but little 
 Tiedemann, as a child, seems to me to be 
 very precocious in this respect. 
 
 The tendency to form ideas through sen- 
 sations then shows itself visibly: " Before 
 this time no object was followed for a long 
 time ; each was abandoned quickly at the 
 sight of another: now, however, the glance 
 accompanied them for some length of time ; 
 one could see that the eyes made an effort to 
 seize the image." In this we find the first 
 instances of curiosity, noticed at a later age 
 by Darwin and by Taine. 
 
 At a month and twenty-seven days, the 
 child seemed better able to distinguish his 
 body from other things, for he no longer 
 scratched himself ; his curiosity developed, 
 for he follows none but new objects with his 
 
16' Perez's Translation of 
 
 eyes (exaggerated) ; he recognizes the expres- 
 sion of feelings, for he considers with greater 
 attention the gestures of the people that are 
 talking to him, and allows himself to become 
 pacified b}^ gentle words. He knows his 
 activity : this is indicated by his gestures of 
 joy, as well as by the fits of anger and 
 the violence with which he pushes away dis- 
 agreeable objects. "If any thing was dis- 
 agreeable to him, the infant until then had 
 shown it only by his tears and his resistance. " 
 We must remark contrary to Tiedemann's 
 opinion, that the child at the age which is 
 under discussion does not yet shed tears ; to 
 weep, in his case, means to cry. .We notice 
 also in his philosophical reflexions on the im- 
 perative intention of the tears of the infant 
 a reproduction of Rousseau's ideas on this 
 fact. 
 
 Third Month. It must be said that there 
 is here an absence of data or perhaps of pre- 
 cise observations : and the latter, after all, 
 are of the greatest importance. The sensa- 
 tions which become more and more strong 
 and vivid " strengthen the feelings : we per- 
 ceive for the first time a strong emotion of 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 17 
 
 pleasure ; heretofore a smile had been the 
 sign of contentment; now it is replaced by 
 a pronounced laugh. The feeling (ought 
 he to use the word feeling here ?) of tickling 
 shows itself, but only in the abdomen and not 
 on the sole of the foot." Tiedemann ascribes 
 this progress to the development and the 
 comparison of ideas which render certain 
 pleasant impressions more distinct. We 
 should remember in regard to this the obser- 
 vation made by Darwin on his child when 
 he was a week old, who withdrew his foot 
 quickly when his father touched the sole of 
 his foot with a piece of paper. When the 
 child was two months and seventeen days 
 old the teeth began to grow* and called forth, 
 according to Tiedemann, new ideas and facul- 
 ties: previous to this time the hands had 
 been much less occupied than the eyes, but 
 the pains in the mouth caused the child to 
 put his fingers there continually, and also 
 the objects which he had taken hold of; 
 thus the child learned to grasp firmly, al- 
 though with greatest uncertainty. As yet, 
 
 * Teething as a rule does not begin until seven or eight 
 months after birth ; in some instances it begins towards the 
 fifth month. Perhaps Tiedemann's observation is incorrect. 
 
18 Perez's Translation of 
 
 the child did not grasp things that were at 
 some distance from him ; his movements 
 were still prompted by instinctive desire, 
 which showed itself in the bending of the 
 whole body and the mechanical extension of 
 the arm ; these facts are recorded by Tiede- 
 mann, but placed at too early a period. 
 
 Fourth Month. At three months and two 
 days, " when the child grasped objects within 
 his reach, he began to enjoy it." As soon 
 as the children "perceive that the hands 
 are the instruments of new ideas and, more- 
 over, means of producing movements which 
 occupy them in such a pleasant way, by 
 bringing objects close to their organs of 
 sight and taste, they exercise them more 
 frequently and begin to play with what is 
 given to them." We should observe here 
 that the progress of the half-aesthetic enjoy- 
 ment of play coincides with a growth in 
 strength and skill in the organs which are its 
 first instruments. At this time Tiedemann 
 notices numerous examples of clear associa- 
 tion of ideas.* While seated on his nurse's 
 
 * Darwin, while he notes the presence of practical reason- 
 ing in his son at the age of a hundred and ten days, when he 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 19 
 
 lap, the child, whenever he sees any one 
 drink, turned toward the breast, even when 
 it was covered, and made a movement with 
 his mouth as if he were tasting something. 
 In this last action, besides the ideas of pur- 
 pose through which the child understands 
 the use of the mouth, must we not recognize 
 the effect of that natural motor sympathy, 
 which in beings gifted with the same organ- 
 ization gives birth so readily to imitation 
 and calls forth what is similar at the sight of 
 
 passed his hand along his father's finger to put it into his 
 mouth, did not observe the unmistakable manifestation of 
 an association of ideas in the mind of the child until the age 
 of five months. For instance " whenever his hat and cloak 
 were put on him, he became very cross if he was not taken 
 out at once." At five months he sought his nurse with his 
 eyes when he heard his name pronounced. This last date is 
 very much nearer the truth than that of ten months which 
 Mr. Taine mentions as the time when his daughter manifested 
 this faculty. But Mr. Taine is right in maintaining that the 
 association of ideas going on in the mind of an infant ten 
 months old does hardly go beyond the range of animal intel- 
 ligence, notwithstanding the fact that Darwin sees a marked 
 difference between the aptitude of the little child and that 
 of the most intelligent grown animal in regard to the form- 
 ing of associations due to instruction and spontaneously 
 produced associations. Does the dog which comes running 
 from the rear of the garden whenever he hears the word 
 sugar, show an inferior faculty of association compared 
 with that of the child who turns his head to the right or left 
 when he is told : Move your head? 
 
20 Perez's Translation of 
 
 the similar? Tiedemann noticed at the 
 Bame period the first probable trace of dream- 
 ing ; the child while sleeping "made with 
 his hand the movement of sucking/'* In 
 regard to this last point it seems to me as if 
 Tiedemann's child which is so precocious 
 otherwise, is behind the average child, which 
 shows before this time that it dreams by its 
 movements, its cries^ the tone of its voice, 
 the contractions of forehead and mouth* and 
 by sucking movements. 
 
 * Mr. Egger assigns a still later period to actual dreaming. 
 He did not notice it with certainty until the third year. 
 " Emile, when he was three years and a half old, told us his 
 pretended dreams ; I did not venture to trust myself to his 
 account because dreams had been frequently narrated in his 
 presence and his account might have been a reminiscence or 
 an imitation. But I could no longer doubt the reality of his 
 dreams when I witnessed them myself which happened 
 from time to time. While he was entirely asleep, he im- 
 agined that he saw a cat close by, he called it or tried to 
 chase it away. At another time I heard him wake up and 
 say with an expression of grief : " I have lifted off the rock 
 that hurt me. I am not going to die, mamma, am I ? " The 
 reserve with which these observation? have been conducted 
 is worth as much as the observations themselves. But has 
 Mr. Egger not gone a little too far in it when he asks him- 
 self at what age dreams arise? Notwithstanding the ob- 
 scurity which still surrounds these plain phenomena of ani- 
 mal life, analogy gives us a right to suppose that the child 
 dreams as soon as it has distinct ideas, that is to say pretty 
 soon after the time of birth. 
 
Tiedeinanii's Essay on Infancy. 21 
 
 I do not know whether we can agree with 
 the interpretation which our philosopher 
 gives of the following fact : " When the ag- 
 gravated tooth-ache increased his desire for 
 seizing with his mouth all kinds of objects 
 for the purpose of biting them, the child 
 knew already that distant objects could be 
 brought near, but he did not know clearly 
 that the hands should be used for that pur- 
 pose, for he tried to seize near objects with his 
 mouth instead of carrying them to his mouth 
 with his hands." With a child who knows 
 how to bring objects close to himself and 
 still better how to carry them to his mouth, 
 there must have -been in this case the pre- 
 dominating influence of a very pressing idea 
 and need, namely that of alleviating his 
 tooth-ache without delay, and he tried to 
 take hold of the remedy in what seemed to 
 him the shortest way. Besides, even if there 
 is no tooth-ache to excite him, the child at 
 this age, as has been so well rerharked by 
 Rousseau, lives for his mouth only and tries 
 to seize every object near him with this 
 organ on account of his habit of examining 
 things through taste. Once I followed, for 
 
22 Perez's Translation of 
 
 a quarter of an hour, a mother with a little 
 girl six or seven months old on her arm, who 
 was turning towards me but without pay- 
 ing attention to me and occupied herself 
 incessantly to seize with her mouth the flut- 
 tering corner of her mother's veil. 
 . Fifth Month. I must here mention an 
 important break and at the same time ac- 
 knowledge the sincerity of the observer, al- 
 though his sagacity seems to me to be at 
 fault. "Up to the thirtieth of December 
 nothing remarkable was observed." Does 
 that mean that there was nothing to be ob- 
 served? The contrary is certainly true. 
 But let us pass this. "At that time it was 
 noticed that he made use of his hands to 
 take hold of a support. When after having 
 been carried on the arm he was lowered sud- 
 denly he managed to take a firm hold with 
 his hands to protect himself from falling, 
 and it seemed disagreeable to him to be raised 
 very high." He could have had no idea of 
 a fall; his fear therefore could be nothing 
 but a simple mechanical expression of the 
 same kind that we feel on a specially precipi- 
 iated height and which resembles dizziness 
 
Tiedemanris Essay on Infancy 
 
 to some extent." Here we have a kind of 
 'emotion which cannot be described any bet- 
 ter: but our author, as I can affirm in virtue 
 of numerous experiments, is mistaken in re- 
 gard to the time and the explanation. I have 
 noticed the same signs of fright arid "ab- 
 horrence of a vaccum *' in dogs and cats only 
 two weeks old, and even in cats that were 
 still blind, when I lifted them in the air. 
 There must be therefore some hereditary and 
 unconscious influence in the emotions and 
 aversions which are most frequent with be- 
 ings whose destination is to live on the 
 ground and not to float ki the air. I have 
 mentioned in another place that at the age 
 of two or three years (I know the age from 
 the date of the sojourn of my family in the 
 house where I then lived) some person, I 
 suppose iny nurse, held me in her arms over 
 the window-sill pretending to throw me out, 
 ;and that I still retain a recollection of my 
 terror. 
 
 "The child turned away from persons 
 -clothed in black with visible signs of repug- 
 nance : it seems therefore that black must 
 have something disagreeable in its nature, 
 
M Perez's Translation of 
 
 which explains why this color is elected when 
 we dress for sad occasions. The child had 
 by this time learned to use his hands for 
 grasping and holding things. He could 
 grasp anything now, but he still lacked suf- 
 ficient practice therein. Singing always at- 
 tracted his attention and he accompanied it, 
 to express his pleasure, by jumping and 
 moving his arms ; but he was indifferent to 
 whistling (which surprises me): it must 
 have been therefore sound (and rhythm) alone 
 which produced the impression. The sensa- 
 tions derived from taste were also tolerably 
 distinct. He pushed a bitter medicine way 
 from him with all his might, but he took 
 wine and eatables with pleasure." Lastly, 
 the absence of activity produced tediousness ; 
 but the least change made him forget even a 
 tooth-ache ; he produced all kinds of sounds 
 without being induced to do so, and did not 
 try to imitate* those produced in his pres- 
 
 *Darwin thinks that towards the fourth month he observed 
 the child began to attempt imitating sounds, and that when 
 the clflld was flve months and a half old, he heard him articu- 
 late the sound "da," but without attaching any meaning 
 to it. 
 
 Mr. Taine, in pleading the cause of his theory of inventive 
 or re-inventive spontaneity which, according to him pre- 
 
Tiedenmnn's Essay on Infancy. 25 
 
 ence ; this may be even on account of his 
 having no clear idea of difference of sounds, 
 or because his organs were not yet able to 
 move according to his volition. Tiedemann 
 is the first one who has expressed those ideas 
 on the nature of the child's attempts at lan- 
 
 ceded the work of assimilation, asserts that this unconscious 
 prattle possesses an astonishing flexibility, and that all 
 shades of emotion, astonishment, amusement, contrariness, 
 and sadness are indicated by varieties of tone, and that in 
 this respect the infant is the equal of, or surpasses the adult. 
 Who is the fortunate observer who will succed in recording 
 the mysterious phonetics of infantile life, which are no less 
 difficult to seize than the warbling of the nightingale in re- 
 gard to which this result has been accomplished ? Phono- 
 graphic experiments interpreted by musicians, philologists, 
 naturalists and psychologists would yield remarkable infor- 
 mation. 
 
 Mr. Egger observes at a rather late epoch, in the middle of 
 the sixth month, an evident instance of imitation, together 
 with the act of recollection which it implies. Mr. Egger also 
 attributes a large share of the first development of language 
 to personal initiative. He notices at the age of six months 
 non-voluntary activity of the voice with its infinite varia- 
 tions which form a kind of rough outline of sounds and of 
 articulation. He sees in this an instinctive, natural language 
 which is common to all times and to all peoples, and which 
 becomes gradually restricted by the growth of another lan- 
 guage, which is invented by each child and which is capable 
 of endless individual variation. Mr. Egger and Mr. Taine 
 have done very little towards noting down the forms of this 
 individual language. Their observations are too general and 
 vague to enable me to espouse or reject their hypothetical in- 
 terpretation. 
 
26 Perez's Translation of 
 
 guage, which we have since seen reproduced 
 or confirmed by Taine, Darwin, Egger, Pol- 
 lock, etc. 
 
 At the age of four months and ten days 
 "it was noticed that the child turned his 
 face always exactly towards the direction 
 from which a noise originated which he had 
 heard before." 
 
 I noticed this fact at a later time. The 
 activity increased visibly; in this state of 
 watchfulness the limbs were in constant 
 agitation. When the infant saw the breast 
 he manifested his pleasure visibly; this seems 
 to me rather tardy progress. 
 
 Sixth Month. Here Tiedemann notices a 
 growing desire to become acquainted him- 
 self and to increase his pastimes, which was 
 manifested by the pleasure which the infant 
 showed at the idea of being taken out into 
 the open air, when his cloak was handed to 
 the attendant. He seemed to prefer this 
 girl to his mother except when he was hun- 
 gry. He seemed also fonder of his toys 
 because he knew better how to derive amuse- 
 ment from them, and he did not allow objects 
 given to him to be taken away without cry- 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 27 
 
 ing. At the age of five months and a half 
 the exclamation '"ah" expressed for the 
 first time his astonishment and his pleasure. 
 (Tiedemaiin does not say whether he at- 
 tributes this to imitation or spontaneous 
 action). " He commenced also to make use 
 of his legs in trying to walk, and manifested 
 pleasure whenever he was placed on his feet." 
 " He distinguished persons without having 
 as yet very clear ideas about them. He dis- 
 tinguished very well between the different 
 tones of voice which expressed different 
 emotions and sentiments." Yet I suppose 
 he had had for a long time that power of dis- 
 tinction in this respect which depends on 
 the instinctive knowledge of the univer- 
 sal language,, and which, in some way, is 
 organic and structural in every human being. 
 Seventh Month. The observations gat]j.- 
 ered during this month confine themselves to 
 the following: On the fourteenth of March 
 the infant began to articulate and repeat 
 sounds. His mother pronounced the syllable 
 "ma" for him; he looked attentively at her 
 mouth and tried to repeat this syllable. 
 Whenever he heard a word that was easy to 
 
28 Perez's Translation of 
 
 pronounce it was observed that he moved 
 the lips as if trying torepeat it to himself. 
 
 Eighth Month. Tidemeann observes,rath- 
 er late, " visible signs of affection for persons 
 whom he knew/* and adds "he cried when 
 he was made to believe that his mother or 
 nurse was being whipped/* Would he not 
 have cried if he had seen other persons 
 assume the appearance of beating each other? 
 
 I think that his tears might be explained 
 by simple natural sympathy. Tiedemann 
 noticed also that there appeared the associa- 
 tion between the sign and the object. He 
 calls this I don't know why the most 
 difficult of all associations, one which the 
 animal can but seldom attain, and never by 
 its own efforts. This is an evident error. I 
 can see no difference, from a mental point 
 o^ view, between an animal and a child who 
 both associate the ideas " sugar" or " meat " 
 with the words which express those things. 
 But there is a physiological difference in 
 favor of the child in the fact that his organs 
 enable him to -imitate these sounds which 
 are expressive for the animal and for man 
 alike. As regards the progress in judg- 
 
Tiedemann' s Essay on Infancy. 29 
 
 ment and comparison which the discrimina- 
 ting of articulation implies, Tiedemann very 
 correctly speaks of them as of the conditions 
 of spoken language; but these faculties are 
 just as necessary for the understanding of 
 the language which we hear, and for this 
 reason they must have been active long before 
 the age of eight months. 
 
 On the fifth day of the eighth month 
 Tiedemann notes that the association of ideas 
 was constantly increasing, and that it gave 
 rise to complex sensations and desires. " In 
 proof of this he mentions the fit of anger of 
 his son when he saw another child placed, 
 for a joke, on his mother's lap, and the 
 efforts of the jealous child to draw the other 
 away. Similar facts may be observed long 
 before this period, even at the age of three 
 months or three months and a half.* 
 
 * Darwin also declares it difficult to find a distinct sign of 
 the feeling of anger during the first months. He believes, 
 however, he observed one at about the age of two months 
 and a half ; it consisted in a slight frown on the forehead 
 Vhich lasted the whole time during which the infant was 
 drinking milk which was a little cold. As far as my own 
 observations are concerned, I think that I have, observed 
 very frequently at the end of the first month, if not earlier, 
 signs of impatience in infants who refuse to take jjpe breast 
 of some nurse. But when Darwin's child was about four 
 
30 Perez's Translation of 
 
 Ninth Month. " Whenever anything pre- 
 sented itself to him the child pointed his 
 finger at it to direct the attention of others 
 to it, and then used this exclamation: ah ! 
 ah ! " Tiedemann sees in these facts obvious 
 signs of reflection and of the growth of the 
 faculty of discrimination, and finds occasion 
 to remark "how deeply the desire to com- 
 municate with others is rooted in human 
 nature." These are but few observations 
 for such an important epoch. 
 
 Thirteenth Month. For three months 
 nothing new was observed, which is all the 
 more to be regretted, as not only the first pro- 
 gress in talking and walking, but also that 
 of the faculties of thinking, feeling and will- 
 ing, offer ample material for observation 
 during this epoch. Towards the middle of 
 the thirteenth month more comprehensive 
 ideas, movements better coordinated, a wid- 
 
 months old, or perhaps even before that time, it became 
 evident from the way in which the blood rushed into his 
 face and.scalp,that he easily grot into a violent passion. Angep 
 as well as jealousy manifest themselves very clearly in child- 
 hood, but it is often very difficult to determine whether these 
 manifestations indicate simple or complex feelings. The 
 surest in^rence is, to see in them above all other things, 
 simple and instinctive feelings. 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 31 
 
 er knowledge of language were observed. 
 " When the child saw a glass of water, he- 
 moved towards it, and even towards his cradle, 
 when he was tired. He distinguished better 
 and better the objects which served to satisfy 
 his physical wants, and* made better use of 
 his limbs in satisfying them. He repeated 
 some sounds intelligibly, although without 
 attaching any exact meaning to them. He 
 knew already the meaning of "make a bow"" 
 or "chase away the fly" and executed these 
 commands with precision. It will be noticed 
 that the observations of this month are 
 neither very characteristic, nor abundant.* 
 
 * Mr. F. Pollock records a very distinct progress of lan- 
 guage at this period. At the age of twelve months " M-m,' v 
 often repeated, indicates a desire for something ; " ba-ba " 
 meant an indefinite number of times. When thirteen 
 months old, the child used " da-da " as a kind of vague dem- 
 onstrative adjective, and after a short time this became the 
 proper noun for the father. He said " wa-wa " to express- 
 the ideas of water or drinking ; " wah-wah " rather guttural, 
 when he recognized the form of an animal, a dog for instance 
 in a picture; which, Mr. Pollock says, is a curious fact, con- 
 sidering the inability of adult savages, as reported by travel- 
 lers, to understand even the simplest representations of 
 objects. " Na-na " was a general name for food of all kinds. 
 All these sounds had been furnished by adults, and had been 
 learned according to th^ir value, and were imitated better 
 and better. All these sounds were monosyllables ; the first- 
 dissyllabic word pronounced was baby, pronounced at other 
 times also '* bee-bi " as if it were a reduplicated monosyllable- 
 Mr. Pollock seems to accord more importance to imitation 
 than to spontaneity. 
 
32 Perez's Translation of 
 
 Fourteenth Month. There is but a single 
 observation. The infant had as yet no idea 
 of the fall of bodies from a. height, nor of 
 the difference between filled or empty space 
 (a badly observed, or badly interpreted or 
 badly reported fact)T. He wanted to throw 
 himself down from any height (young ani- 
 mals who are still unused to jumping or 
 flying do the same), and in several instances 
 he let his cracker fall to the ground with the 
 intention of stopping it (this indicates per- 
 haps awkwardness just as much as an inexact 
 though not lacking appreciation of dis- 
 tances). 
 
 Fifteenth Month. Again but one obser- 
 vation. (( When he had done anything by 
 himself, for instance if he had given a cer- 
 tain movement to his toys, he was visibly 
 pleased and took pleasure in repeating it." 
 Tiedemann sees in this the highest degree 
 of the activity and individuality of human 
 nature; equivalent facts can be noticed how- 
 ever in all young animals; they enjoy and 
 in a measure become proud of the develop- 
 ment of their strength and skill. The fol- 
 lowing observation has more justice in it: 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 33 
 
 "The children enjoy doing by themselves 
 that which they have been so far cbmpelled 
 to let others do for them; for this reason 
 they want to take food with their own hands, 
 and do not want to be touched when they 
 are to be dressed or washed, etc/' 
 
 Towards the same time appeared the signs 
 of a sensibility which called into play the 
 most complex feelings. " Affection and self- 
 love had developed gradually into the feel- 
 ing of honor: on the tenth of November he 
 cried because his hand was rejected which * 
 he loved to tender as a sign of affection, and 
 he showed visibly signs of grief when he was 
 made to understand that he had done some- 
 thing wrong. " 
 
 Sixteenth Month. On the 27th of Novem- 
 ber he pronounced several words distinctly 
 and knew their meaning, namely papa and 
 mamma;* he did not use them, however, to 
 
 * At fourteen months, three weeks, the child which Mr. 
 Taine observed understood several words and pronounced 
 some while attaching to them their proper meaning: papa, 
 mamma, tata(food), oua-oua (dog), dada (horse, wagon), coco 
 (chicken), mia (puss, cat), etc. This incipient rocabulary 
 offers to Mr. Taine an opportunity for the interesting dem- 
 onstration of the child's ability to seize analogies and to en- 
 large the meaning of the names which we have given him 
 
 
34 Perez's Translation of 
 
 call anybody, but rather almost accidentally 
 without wishing to express anything by them. 
 There were some sounds however which had 
 ^ signification with the child, as for instance, 
 "ha! ha!"; "indeed the sound ha seems nat- 
 urally to express reflection to astonishment: 
 It is produced by the sudden expulsion of 
 suppressed breath, and it has been suppressed 
 because the unexpected appearance of what 
 is strange or bizarre arrests the course of 
 
 to imitate. Between the fifteenth and the seventeenth 
 months the child understands the meaning and intonation of 
 many phrases, but he has learned or invented very few new 
 words. The principal words are: Pa (Paul), Babert (Gilbert), 
 bebe (baby), baba (the groat), cola chocolate), oua-oua (any- 
 thing good to eat), ham (eat, I want to eat). The ground 
 covered by each of these wordif is enlarged or restricted in 
 proportion to the intellectual progress of the child. But 
 from the very beginning and instinctively, says Mr. Taine, 
 -the child made them serve for general terms. The word 
 " ham " is attributed to the child's own invention. " It is 
 the vocal gesture of one who snaps at something; it begins 
 with a guttural aspiration not far removed from a bark and 
 nds in a closing of the lips as if the food had been seized 
 and swallowed ; a man would make the same sign if he 
 found himself with bound hands among the savages and had 
 only his vocal organs to express himself and wished to say 
 that he would like to eat." The explanation is at least in- 
 genious ; I add to it that it has a scientific appearance and 
 has seemed plausible to Mr. Darwin. The '"ham" of Mr. 
 Taine has with him the corresponding word " mum ^(food, 
 give me to eat), and he also attributes it to the child's initia- 
 tive. 
 
Tiedemann's $ssay on Infancy. 
 
 ideas which then suddenly take another direc- 
 tion.'^ This physiological explanation may 
 be of value ; it is easy to verify its exact- 
 ness. The child whose organs had not had 
 sufficient exercise supplied by his gestures a 
 substitute for the long words which he omit- 
 ted. One could observe indications of this 
 kind and they gave evidence of the coodina- 
 tion of ideas going on in him and allowed us 
 to recognize a beginning of individual poetic 
 force. He had been taught to reply to the 
 questions "How. tall are you?" by raising 
 his hands in the air; he is asked to pronounce 
 grandmamma, and, as if it were too difficult 
 for him to pronounce grand he raised his 
 hands and added the word "mamma."* To- 
 wards the middle of this month, his sight 
 was "well trained in projective. He liked 
 to look at images ; he knew how to distin- 
 guish in the engravings objects which were 
 familiar to him, although they were repre- 
 sented on a small scale." 
 
 * In German as well as in French the word for tall and 
 the first syllable of the word grandmother are identical ; 
 44 tall " is in French grand. Hence the child's attempt to 
 express the first syllable in " grandmother " by the. same 
 gesture which he used to express how tall he was. 
 
36 Perez's Translation of 
 
 Seventeenth Month. Sympathy and self- 
 love developed more and more; he showed 
 evident pleasure when a person laughed at 
 his plays and when he was praised. He 
 even tried to make people laugh by assum- 
 ing various postures, for he already wanted 
 to walk alone. This tendency to play the 
 joke may be observed much earlier, as Dar- 
 win has remarked and as I have indicated 
 myself. Likewise the other progress which 
 Tiedemann has recorded during this period 
 can be observed much earlier: the imitation 
 of various sounds, the speaking of significant 
 words, as for instance take, take, the point- 
 ing of the finger to known places, the ability 
 to recognize his own image in the. glass and 
 even his efforts towards imitating phrases, 
 which resulted in a "number of unintelli- 
 gible sounds/' 
 
 At this period his observation of new ob- 
 jects became more and more attentive and 
 analytical; he understood a large number of 
 phrases which he did not use himself; the 
 desire for praise and for the approval of 
 others increased. 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 37 
 
 
 
 Eighteenth Month. I am astonished not 
 to find at this period a record of the agreea- 
 ble impression which light produces, and 
 especially the sight of the moon or of the 
 rays of the sun falling into the room. 
 
 Nineteenth MoniJi. Manifest progress in 
 language ; various objects called by name 
 when he saw them but the nouns with sev- 
 eral syllables pronounced with difficulty: us- 
 ually the last syllables, or the accented ones 
 are alone pronounced. " He did not seem to 
 be able to pronounce well the consonants, z, 
 set, w, st, sp, or the diphthongs ;*the easiest 
 consonants for him were p, t, k/' "A more 
 and more developed individuality manifested 
 itself in the evident pleasure which he took^ 
 in doing that which presented some difficul- 
 ty : to get himself into a narrow corner, to 
 put himself into dangerous positions, to car- 
 ry heavy things, etc." 
 
 The greater the value of these observations 
 and of those of the previous months, the 
 more we must regret to find such a small 
 number of them in Tiedemann's essay. 
 
 Twentieth Month; "He could already 
 pronounce words of two syllables, knew al- 
 
38 Perez's Translation of 
 
 most all the external parts of the body 
 (which other children do at an earlier peri- 
 od) ; almost everything in the room was 
 known to him by name." 
 
 Tiuenty-first Month. Nothing recorded. 
 
 Twenty-second MontJl. He began to put 
 together several words in order to form a 
 phrase composed of verb and subject; but he 
 always used the infinitive in place of the im- 
 perative and nominative,the article was entire- 
 ly omitted* (we should not forget the language 
 which young Tiedemann had to practice in 
 was German). Although he was ashamed 
 when he had soiled himself, and knew how to 
 ask to be cleaned, he had not yet sufficient 
 command over his organs to avoid uncleanli- 
 ness. " Jealousy and vanity developed more 
 
 * Mr. Egger has noticed at the twenty-eighth month, and 
 Mr. Pollock at the twenty-fourth, the progress which con- 
 sists in forming a phrase of three or four words. " Not open 
 this " meant: the window is closed; " no.curtain this," meant 
 the window has no curtain. Mr. Egger, who, as I take .it, 
 is rather too fond of discovering in the child the character- 
 istics of an inferior civilization, compares these awkward 
 forms of child-speech to the elliptic idiom of the negroes 
 " who borrow from the language of their masters but a lim- 
 ited number of the most neceisary words, which they jum- 
 ble together as necessity requires, -without any regard to 
 -conjugation or even to syntax." 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 39 
 
 and more; when his little sister was being ca- 
 ressed, he came to be caressed also. He 
 tried to take away from her what was given 
 to her and even tried to strike her by stealth/' 
 These last traits are perfectly characteristic 
 of this age, and -even of the age of three or 
 four years. 
 
 Twenty -third Month. Tiedemann men- 
 tions a fact which to him indicates nothing 
 but a well exercised memory, but in which 
 we may see the incipient development of the 
 moral sense, which with the child is the gen- 
 eralization of what he has done and what is 
 done to hrm. 
 
 " On the 20th of July he came to a place 
 of the house where he had been punished the 
 preceding week because he had soiled it, and 
 without further provocation he said at once 
 that anyone who soiled the room gets a Ship- 
 ping." 
 
 This tendency to apply to others the law to 
 which the child is subjected, is confirmed 
 by one of my own recollections. I had been 
 asked to look for a few minutes after an in- 
 fant in the kitchen, in order to prevent it 
 from touching any of the dishes which were 
 
40 Perez's Translation of 
 
 on the stove. I was holding the child on 
 my knees: I wanted to see what was in one 
 of the pots and lifted the cover ; the child 
 jumped immediately to the floor and in the 
 tone of command said: " Don't touch this, it 
 is for supper." I had been'told to look after 
 the child, but it was the child that looked 
 after me. 
 
 Twenty-fourth Month. The progress here 
 noted in regard to memory and association of 
 ideas seems of little importance to me: it con- 
 sists of the words for duck and potato, pro- 
 nounced spontaneously at the si^ht of those 
 objects. The following observation is of 
 higher value for it shows " how in a small 
 brain, several ideas can arise and arrange 
 themselves in a series, by its own power. 
 The child had heard the story that a storm 
 had killed a little girl: the expression of the 
 face of the one who told this had made a 
 deep impression on him so that at the nexk 
 opportunity he tried to relate it, in words 
 interspersed with changes of facial expres- 
 sion which could not indeed be understood 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 41 
 
 except by those who were present during the 
 first narration."* 
 
 At the end of this month the child seemed 
 to become attached more and more to his 
 little sister and to w a little dog, two objects 
 formerly indifferent to him. " I can under- 
 stand that his sister may have called forth 
 jealousy first; but I am astonished that a 
 child of this age and even younger should 
 not have interested himself in an animal 
 from the very beginning. 
 
 From two years to two years and a half, 
 he used cunning to be brought closer to the 
 table where he could reach some eatables 
 with his hands. He pretended that it was 
 
 * This is the germ of dramatic memory. Mr. Egger de- 
 scribes the first appearance of it in his son at the age of 
 eight months. He " knew and recalled to his mind very well 
 some persons he used to see in his walks in the Luxembourg 
 Gardens, a nurse for instance and the child with her. He 
 walked away from us one day, pronouncing fairly well the 
 names of the gardens, of the nurse and the child. He went to 
 the adjoining room as if he were saying good day to those 
 two persons and then came back to tell us in the same sim- 
 ple manner of what he had done." There* is in this, we may 
 say, the first germ of the drama. But in order to explain 
 this tendency of which we find equivalents in the gambols 
 of animals we must go back to primitive ages whose prin- 
 cipal phases of evolution the child for some reason or other 
 is said to reproduce, by Mr. Egger as well as by Mr. Taine. 
 
42 Perez's Translation of 
 
 necessary for him, for some reason, to be 
 seated on his high chair from which he could 
 reach what was on the table. Tiedemann 
 sees in this, signs of reflection and reasoning 
 which, he erroneously says, are 'not found 
 in animals. " The child was in the habit 
 of calling his sister ' silly' when she did 
 not do what he wanted. Thus," says Tiede- 
 mann, "his self -love manifested itself already 
 in the comparison of others with himself." 
 Is it not just as probable that the child had 
 no exact idea of the meaning of the word, 
 and that he repeated it mechanically to in- 
 dicate his dissatisfaction, imitating thai 
 which had been used toward him ? 
 
 "'The child did not want his sister to sit 
 in his chair or to put on any of his things ; 
 he called that his business." "Some vague 
 idea of property had thus arisen in him." 
 But although the child would not allow any- 
 one to touch what was his own, he took what 
 belonged to bis sister quite readily. 
 
 " He admired himself and wanted to be ad- 
 mired in his attitudes or his new dresses. 
 Even as early as the time of the birth of his 
 sister he manifested signs of discontent; he 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 43 
 
 tried to strike her when she was in her moth- 
 er's lap or in his own bed because it was disa- 
 greeable to him to see anything taken from 
 him which he had enjoyed exclusive posses- 
 sion of for a long time." This observation, 
 which is in every way correct, applies not 
 only to this present age, but still more to 
 the following age. A child three years old 
 talked always about wishing to have a broth- 
 er, and how he would love him. When a 
 brother had been born, and when the child 
 saw him absorb the attention and caresses of 
 his parents, he became extremely jealous. 
 He told his mother : " Mamma, won't little 
 Lulu die soon ?"* 
 
 At the same time Tiedemann noticed a 
 fact which may be compared with a trait of 
 similar kind related by Darwin, and which 
 formed a valuable hint for reading the soul 
 of the child. " He had been forbidden sev- 
 eral times to touch any of the eatables except 
 
 * It must be remembered that the child who here uses 
 the word die, as he does many others, has no idea of 
 death. I suppose that the child who thus speaks of his little 
 brother simply repeats, parrot-like, an expression which he 
 has heard. For the child of Mr. Taine the idea of death did 
 not extend beyond that of a broken head, for when his doll's 
 head had become broken he was told it was dead. 
 
44 Perez's Translation of 
 
 what had been given to him expressly, but 
 this prohibition had not deterred him very 
 much. He had taken a little piece of sugar 
 without having been seen ; he stole into a 
 corner where he could not be observed ; his 
 absence attracted attention ; he was hunted 
 after and found eating the sugar. Animals, 
 when they once have been beaten, run away 
 with their prey on account of the associa- 
 tion of ideas, because they recall the chas- 
 tisement. But this could not be the reason 
 here, for he had never been punished. It 
 must have been owing altogether to the re- 
 flection that he could eat the sugar if he was 
 not observed, and that if he was seen the 
 sugar would be taken away from him \" 
 
 When the child had mistaken a cloud for a 
 rainbow, he was told that this was not a 
 rainbow, and he replied : "Rainbow sleeps 
 now." A watch was held close to his ear, 
 and as soon as he heard it tick, he exclaimed 
 that Fripon (a little dog) was shut up in 
 it. These are but the imitations of exam- 
 ples given to the child, or that which be- 
 longs to the child himself in them is based 
 everywhere on superficial reasoning and 
 analogies. 
 
Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy. 45 
 
 When the child did not see the sun in the sky 
 he said, "It has gone to bed; to-morrow it will 
 get up and drink tea and eat a piece of bread 
 and butter/' All these judgments, says Tie- 
 demann, arise in the child's reflections: but 
 were they not rather the free developments 
 of a judgment which had been taught : that 
 the sun went to bed ? The child's anthro- 
 pomorphism is, I believe, to a great extent 
 the work of education and the result of our 
 metaphorical language. 
 
 At the age of two and a half years the 
 moral sense of the child is fairly developed. 
 " The child took in consideration the praise 
 and blame of other persons without distinc- 
 tion. When he believed he had done some- 
 thing good, he would say: ' People will say, 
 what a good boy/ When he was naughty 
 and was told * Our neighbor sees it/ he would 
 stop at once." We regret that our judicious 
 observer has not thought it proper to gather 
 a greater number of observations in regard to 
 the development of the moral sense in the 
 child, which is both important and little 
 known. But even the best observer leaves 
 much for others to observe, and the exam- 
 
46 Tiedemann's Essay on Infancy.- 
 
 pies and observations narrated by Tiedemann 
 belong to those which waken and sustain 
 emulation. 
 
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 University of California 
 Richmond, CA 94804-4698 
 
 LL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 
 month loans may be renewed by calling 
 
 (415)642-6233 
 year loans may be recharged by bringing books 
 
 to NRLF 
 snewals and recharges may be made 4 days 
 
 prior to due date 
 
 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW 
 
 IN 2 2 1990 
 
 
U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARI