LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/americanbotanistOOwoodrich .■■7 fTy^^2y^^^^^^ ^^^/. t> THE American Botanist AND Florist : INCLUDING LESSONS IN THE STRUCTURE, LIFE, AND GROWTH OF PLANTS; TOGETHER WITH A SIMPLE ANALYTICAL FLORA DESCRIPTIVE OF THE NATIVE AND CULTIVATED PLANTS GROWING IN THE ATLANTIC DIVISION OF THE AMERICAN UNION, BY ALPHONSO WOOD, A. M., ▲UTnOR OP THE CLASS-BOOK OP BOTANY, BTtt LIBRARY UNIVE RSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS A. S. BARNES & COMPANY, NEW YOKK AND CHICAGO. H. B. NIMS & COMPANY, TROY, N. Y. UNIV£r;::^iTY ( r 1 -L.. wKiNlA vV^OGDS BOTANY. I. OBJiiCT IwESSONS IN BOTANY, Pleasin:^ lessons for young learners. II. BOTANIST AND FLORIST, A thoroiigli text-book, comprehensive and practical. III. THE NEW CLASS-BOOK, A superb and exhaustive compilation and encyclopedia of the science. IV. BOTANICAL APPARATUS, A complete field outfit, consisting of Portable Trunk, Drying Press, Trowel, Lens, Tweezers, Etc., prepared under the supervision of Prof. Wood. V. THE STUDENT'S PLANT RECORD, A book of blank forms, facilitating the analysis of plants, and recording the results of such analysis, and the progress of the student. *** The Publishers will send either of above, postage or freight prepaid, on receipt of price. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S70, by A . S . B A li N K S & CO., [n the Clerk's Offic« of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York, PREFACE In preparing the present work, it was our purpose to furntsli the student In BotaDy with a complete manual within the compass of an ordinary duo- decimo volume. To this end, we have revised the introductory treatise and recorded the principles of the Science in fewer words, occupying but two-thirds the space so used in the Class-Book. We have thus made room for the introduction of a series of Synoytical Tables — a feature entirely new — exhibiting the principles contained in the several chapters at a single glance, and in their combined relations. In the preparation of these tables we have received important aid from Prof. S. A. Norton, of Mount Au- burn Seminary, Cincinnati. They are intended for the blackboard, and we are confident that both teacher and pupil will find them an essential aid both to the understanding and memory. Our new Flora will be found a phenomenon in brevity. Within the space of 426 duodecimo pages, in fair leaded type, we have recorded and defined nearly 4,500 species— all the known Flowering and Fern-like plants, both native and cultivated (hot excepting the Sedges and Grasses), grow- ing in the Atlantic half of the countrj'. This conciseness has been attained, not by the omission of anything necessary to the complete definition and prompt recognition of every species, but simply by avoiding repetitions. In i\iQ final definition of the species (sec, for example, R. bulbosus, the Bulbous Buttercup, p. 20) we give but one, two, three, rarely 4 lines. This cannot, of course, include its full portraiture. It includes only those few features which have not already been given elsewhere, and which Jiere serve to distinguish the R. bulbos^.is from the two preceding species with which it stands grouped in the tabic. But the full portraiture of R. bulbosus (and of every species) w.:i nevertheless be found in the Flora. Some of its fea- tures are given under its genus, Ranunculus ; some under its Order ; some under its Cohort ; others under its Class, its Province, and its Sub-kingdom. a PREFACE. Moreover, all along the path of its analysis through the tables its charao ters are announced and recognized ; so that if all the statements descrip- tive of R. buWoms were collected, we should have nearly a half-page of text, and no important character left unnoticed. Between the cultivated exotics and the wild native or naturalized species constituting our own flora, a distinction is made in the type. The names of tlie latter are expressed in full-face, Roman for the species, and Itaiu for the varieties. The names of the exotics are in small capitals. The geographical limits of the present flora are the same as those adopted in the Class-Book ; viz., all the States of the American Union lying east of the Mississippi River. This will necessarily include so many of the plants of the States bordering on the western shore of the Missis- sippi, that the book may be regarded as well adapted to those States also. It gives me great pleasure to acknowledge my obligations to the friends whose names occur below and in many other parts of our work, for their contributions of new and rare plants, and for valuable information con- ceraing them ; — first, and especially, to Prof. Thos. C. Porter, of Lafayette College ; to E. L. Hankenson, Newark, N. Y. ; to John Wolf, Canton, 111. ; to Chs. H. Peck, Albany, N. Y. ; to Wm. R. Girard, Esq., Poughkeepsie, N. Y. ; to N. CoLMAN, Iowa ; to Rev. J. H. Carruth, Kansas ; to Dr. W. Matthews, Dakota ; to H. Mapes, Michigan, &c., &c. And as a just tribute to the memory of my lamented wife, I would add that whatever is new and peculiar in the plan of the present Flora, that on which its definite conciseness depends, is due to Tier alom. She first Indicated the method, and for years assiduously advocated its adoption. CUJUS NOMINI AC MEMORLE CARISSIMiE, hoc opus, in medio dolore ac desiderio confectum, dedicat conjxjx. TABLE OF CONTENTS: 1X)GBTHER WITH A SYLLABUS OP THE MORE PRACTICAL StJBJECT8, DESIGNED AS EXERCISES ON THE BLACKBOARD, PRELIMINARY TO THE LESSONS. X. B.— Wfl gire the Syllabns of but a few Chapters, and of fewer entire, in order that the pnpil may exercise his own skill in supplying the deficiencies. The teacher should require this. The abbreviation ( INTRODUOTIOISr. CHAPTER I. AIDS TO THE STUDY OP BOTANY. 1. The proper season for the commencement oi the stady of Botany in schools, is late in winter, at the opening of the first session after New- Year's. The class will thus be prepared be- forehand, by a degree of acquaintance with first principles, for the analysis of the earliest Spring-flowers^the Blood-root, Liv- erwort, Spring-beauty, Sweet Mayflower, Erigenia, and the Vio- lets. We have arranged the topics of the present treatise with a special view to the convenience of the learner in this respect, beginning with that which is the first requisite in analysis — the Flower. -2. Specimens of leaves, steins, roots, fruit, flowers, etc., in unlimited supply are re- quisite during the whole course. In the absence of the living, let the dried specimens of the herbarium be consulted. Crayon sketches upon the blackboard, if truthful, are always good fur displaying minute or obscure forms. In the city, classes in Botany may employ, at small expense, a collector to supply them daily with fresh specimens from the country. Moreover, the gardens and conservatories will furnish to such, an abundant supply of cttl- Uvafed species for study and analysis, with almost equal advantage,— since the present work embraces, together with the native flora, all exotics which are in any degree com- mon in cultivation. 3. An Herbarium (Latin, hortus siccus^ or h. s.) is a col- lection of botanic specimens, artificially dried, protected in papers, and systematically arranged. Herbaria are useful in many ways j — («) for preserving the knowledge of rare, or inaccessible, or lost species ; (b) for exchanges, enabling one to possess the flora of other countries ; (c) for refreshing one's memory of early scenes and studies ; {d) for aiding in more 10 INTRODUCTION. exact researches at leisure; (e) for the comparison of spenea with species, genus with genus, etc. 4. Apparatus. For collecting botanic specimens, a strong knife for digging and cutting is needed, and a close tin box, fifteen inches in length, of a portable form. Enclosed in such a box, with a little moisture, specimens will remain fresh a week. 5. Specimens for the herbarium should represent the leaves, flowers, and fruit — and, if herbaceous, the root also. Much care is requisite in so drying them as to preserve the natural appearance, form, and color. The true secret of this art con- sists in extracting the moisture from them before decomposition can take place. G. The drying-press, to be most efficient and convenient, should consist of a dozen quires of unsized paper, at least 11 x 14 inches folio ; two sheets of wire-gauze (same size) as covers, stiffened by folded edges; and three or four leather straps a yard in length, with buckles. When in use, suspend this press in the wind and sunshine ; or, in rainy weather, by the fire. In such circumstances, specimens dry well without once changing. But if boards be used instead of wire-gauze, the papers must bo changed and dried daily. Succulent plants may be immersed in boiling water before pressing, to hasten their desiccation. 7. The lens, either single, double, or triple, is almost indis- pensable in analysis. In viewing minute flowers, or parts of flowers, its use cannot be too highly appreciated. Together with tlie lens, a needle inserted in a handle, a penknife, and tweezers are rc(piired for dissection. 8. The compound microscope is undoubtedly a higher aid in scientific investigation than any other instrument of human invention. It is like the bestowment of a new sense, or the opening of a new world. Through this, almost solely, all our knowledge of the cells, the tissues, growth, fertilization, etc., is derived. The skilful use of this noble instrument is itself an art, which it is no part of our plan to explain. For such informa- tion the student is referred to the works of Carpenter and Quekett. 9. On the preparation of botanical subjects for examination wc remark briefly. The Gold of view is necessarily small, and only minute portions of objects can be s^ecn at once. The parts arc to be brought under inspection succccLivcly by the movcmcntij of Uio stajre. DErARTMENl'8 OF SCIENCE. 11 10. The tissues of leaves, etc., are best seen by transmitted light. They are to be di- vided by the razor or scalpel into extremely thin parings or cuttings. Such cuttings may be made by holding the leaf between the two halves of a split cork. They are then made wet and viewed upon glass. The stomata are best seen in the epidermis stripped off; but in the Sorrel-leaf (Oxalis violacea) they appear beautifully distinct upon the entire leaf. (§ 397, Fig. 497.) 11. Woody tissues, etc., may be viewed either as opaque or transparent. Sections and cuttings should be made in all directions, and attached to the glass by water, white of egg, or Canada balsam. To obtain the elementary cells separately for inspection, tho fragment of wood may be macerated in a few drops of nitric acid added to a grain of chlo- rate of potassa. Softer structures may be macerated simply in boiling water. Jietietc of the Chapter.—!. Advantage of beginning the study in early spring. 2. Speci- mens for illustration, llow to obtain them in the city, 3, The herbarium. Uses of it. 4. Apparatus for collecting. 5. Good specimens. Secret of preparing them. 6. Th« drying-press. 7. The use of lenses. 8. Of the microscope, etc. CHAPTER II. DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE. 12. Three great departments in nature are universally recog- nized, commonly called the mineral, vegetable, and animal king- doms. The first constitutes the Inorganic^ the other two the Organic Wbi'lcl. 13. A mineral is an inorganic mass of matter — that is, without distinction of parts or organs. A stone, for example, may be broken into any number of fragments, each of which will retain all the essential characteristics of the original body, so that each fragment will still be a stone. 14. A plant is an organized body, endowed with vitality but not with sensation, composed of distinct parts, each of which is essential to the completeness of its being. A Tulip is composed of organs which may be separated and subdivided indefinitely, but no one of the fragments alone will be a complete plant. 15. Animals, like plants, are organized bodies endowed witli vitality, and composed of distinct parts, no one of which is com- plete in itself; but they are elevated above either plants or min- erals by their power of perception. 16. Physics is the general name of the science which treats of the mineral or inorganic world. 17. Zoology relates to the animal kingdom. 12 INTRODUCTION. 18. Botany is the science of the vegetable kingdom. It in- cludes the knowledge of the forms, organs, structure, growth, and uses of plants, together with their history and classification. Its several departments correspond to the various subjects to which they relate. Thus, 19. Structural Botany^ or Organography, treats of the special organs of plants as compared with each other, answering to Comparative Anatomy in the science of Zoology. Morphology is a term often used in a similar sense ; but it especially relates to the mutual or typical transformations which the organs un- dergo in the course of development. 29. Elementary Botany treats of the elementary tissues — the organic elements out of which the vegetable fabric is constructed. 21. Physiological Botany is that department which relates to the vital action of the several organs and tissues, including both the vital and chemical phenomena in the germination, growth, and reproduction of plants. It has, therefore, a dh-eet and prac- tical bearing upon the labors of husbandry in the propagation and culture of plants, both in the garden and in the field. 22. Systematic Botany arises from the consideration of plants in relation to each other. It aims to arrange and classify plants into groups and families, according to their mutual affinities and relative rank, so as to constitute of them all one unbroken series or system. 23. Descriptive Botany^ or Phytology, is the art of expressing the distinctive characters of species and groups of plants with accuracy and precision, in order to their complete recognition. A Flora is a descriptive work of this kind, embracing the plants of some particular country or district. 24. Finally, in its extended sense, Botany comprehends also the knowledge of the rela- tions of plants to the other departments of nature— particularly to mankind. The ulti- mate aim of its researches is the development of the boundless resources of the vegetable kingdom, for our sustenance and pi«)tection as well as education ; for the healing of our diseases and the alleviati(m of our wants and woes. This branch of botanical science is called Applied Sotamj, including several departments— as Medical Botany, or Pharmacy; Agricultural Botany, or Chemistry ; Pomology, etc. 25. The name of a plant or other natural object is twofold, — • the trivial or popular name, by which it is generally known in the co\mtry; and the. Latin name, by which it is accurately DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE. 13 designated in science throughout the world. For example, Strawberry is- the popular name, and Fragaria vesoa the Latin or scientific name, of the same plant. In elementary treatises, like the present, for the sake of being readily understood, plants are usually called by their popular names. Yet we earnestly recommend the learner to accustom himself early to the use of the more accurate names employed in science. 26. The Latin name of a plant is always double — generic and specific. Thus Fragaria is generic, or the name of the genus of the plant — vesca is specific, or the name of the species. 27. A. Species embraces all such individuals as may hav« originated from a common stock. Such individuals bear an essential resemblance to each other as well as to their common parent, in all their parts. For example, the White Clover (Tri- folium repens) is a species embracing thousands of contemporarj individuals scattered over our hills and plains, all of common descent, and producing other individuals of their own kind from their seed. 28. To this law of resemblance in plants of one common orighi there are some apparent exceptions. Lidividuals descended from the same parent often bear flowers diflering in color, or fruit differing in flavor, or leaves differing in form, etc. Such plants are called Varieties. They are never permanent, but exhibit a constant tendency to revert to their oi-iginal type. Varieties occur chiefly in species maintained by cultivation, as the Apple, Potato, Rose, Dahlia. They also occur more or less in native plants (as Hcpatica triloba), often rendering the limits of the species extremely doubtful. They are due to the diflTerent cir- cumstances of climate, soil, and culture to which they are sub- jected, and continue distinct only until left again to multiply spontaneously from seed in their own proper soil, or some other ol ange of circumstances. 29. A Genus is an assemblage of species closely related to eacli other in the structure of their flowers and fruit, and having more points of resemblance than of difference throughout. Thus, the genus Clover (Trifolium) includes many species, as the White Clover (T. repens), the Red Clover (T. pratense), the Buflfalo Clover (T. refiexum), etc., agreeing in floral structure and gen- 14 INTEODUCTION. eral aspect bo obviously that the most hasty observer would notice their relationshij:). So in the genus Pinus, no one would hesitate to include the White Pine, the Pitch Pine, the Long- leafed Pine (P. strobus, rigida, and palustris), any more than we would fail to observe their differences. 30. Thus individuals are grouped into sj^ecies, and species are associated into genera. These groups constitute the bases of all the systems of classification in use, whether by artificial or natural methods. ^etJiew.— 12. Three Kingdoms of Nature ? 13. A mineral ? Illustrate. 14. A plant? niuetratc. 15. An animal? 16. Define Physics. 17. Zoology. 18. Define Botany. 19. Organography, Morphology. 20. Elementary Botany. 21. Physiological Botany. 22. Systematic Botany. 23. Phytology. 24. Applied Botany. 25. Names. 2*). Latin name*. 87. A Species. Illustrato. 2S. Varieties. 29. What is a Genus ? CHAPTER III. THE FOUR STAGES OF PLANT LIFE. 31. In its earliest stage of life, the plant is an embryo sleeping in the seed. It then consists of two parts, the radicle or rootlet, and the plumule. Both may be seen in the Pc^ Bean, or Acorn. Besides the embryo, the seed contains also its food in some form, provided for its first nourishment. 32. At length the genial warmth and moisture of the Spring awakens the embryo, and it begins to feed and grow. The radi- cle protrudes the slender rootlet (fig. 2, ?•), whicli turns down- ward, seeking the dark damp earth, avoiding the air and light, and forms the root or descending axis. The plumule, taking tlie opposite direction (fig. 3, p), ascends, seeking the air and light, and expanding itself to their influence. This constitutes the stem or ascendliu/ axis, bcarii ^ the leaves. Thus tlic acorn (/erminates, and the Oak enters upon the second stage of its existence. 33. At first the ascending axis is merely a hud, that is, a grow- ing point clothed with and protected by little scales, the rudi- ments of leaves. As the growing point advances and its lower scales gradually expand into leaves, new scales successively ap- pear above. Thus the axis is always terminated by a bud. THE FOUR STAGES OF PLANT LIFE. 15 ' 34. By the growth of the terminal biid, the axis is simply- lengthened in one direction, an undivided stem. But besides this, buds also exist, ready formed, in the axils of the leaves, one in each. These axillary buds, a part or all of them, may grow and develop like the terminal bud, or they may always sleep, as in the simple-stemmed Mullein or Palm. But in growing they become branches^ and these branches may, in turn, generate buds and hranchlets in the axils of their own leaves in like manner. By the continued repetition of this simple process, the vegetable fabric arises, ever advancing in the direction of the growing points, clothinj itself with leaves as it advances, and en- larging the volume of its axis, until it reaches the limit of being assigned by its Creator. 35. Reared by this process alone, the plant consists of Buch organs only as were designed for its own individual nourishment— roots to absorb its food, stem and branches to transmit it, and leaves to digest it. These are called organs of nutrition. But the divine command which caused the tribes of vege- tation in their diversified beauty to spring from the earth, required that each plant should have its "?ced within itself" for the perpetuation of its kind. (See. 1 ; 11.) 36. In the third stage of vegetation, therefore, a change occurs in the development of some of the buds. The grow- ing point ceases to extend it- self as hitherto, and still remains a point, expand- ing its scales in crowded whorls, each successive whorl undergoing a gradual transformation, departing more and more from the original type — the leaf. Thus, instead of a leafy branchy the ordinary product of the bud, a flower is the result. 37. Hence a flower may be considered as a transformed branch, Acorn (seed of Quercvx paluslHj)) germinating : 1, section showing th« radicle (r) wnich is to become the root, and tlie two cotyledons (r) which are to nourish it ; 2, the radicle r, desccKdins ; 3 and 4, the radicle, r, descending, and the plumule (p) ascending. 16 INTBODUCTION. having the leaves crowded together by the non-development of tlie axis, moulded into more delicate forms and tinged with more brilliant hues, not only to adorn the face of nature, but to fulfil the important office of reproduction. 38. Lastly comes fruit-bearing, the fourth stage of plant life, for which the flower has prepared the way. The work and bloom ■ >f tlie flower are soon accomplished, its deciduous parts fall, and the remaining energies of the plant are directed to the develop- nuMit oi xXiQ pistil into the perfect y/'i«z7. ^?meifj.— 31. First stage of plant life. Contents of a seed. 32. Second stage. Tendency of tlie radicle.— Of the plumule. 83. Structure of the first bud. How does it grow? 34. What it develops ? Other buds. Whence the branches arise. 36. Origin of the flower. 37. What then is its nature ? 38. Fourth stage. CHAPTER IV. TEEM OR PERIOD OF PLANT LIFE. 39. Flowering and fruit-bearing is an exhausting process. If it occur within the first or second year of the life of the plant, it generally proves the fatal event. In all other cases it is either immediately preceded or followed by a state of needful repose. Now if flowering be prevented by nipping the buds, the tender annual may become ^^erennial, as in the florist's Tree- mignonette. 40. We distinguish plants, as to their term of life, into the an- nual ( (l) ), the biennial ( d) ), and the perennial ( %. ). An annual ( (D ) herb is a plant whose entire life is limited to a single season. It germinates from the seed in Spring, attains its growth, blos- soms, bears fruit, and dies in Autumn; as the Flax, Corn, ^U)rning-glory. 41. A hlentilal herh (@) is a plant which germinates and vege- tates, bearing leaves only the first season, blossoms, bears fruit, and dies the second ; as the Beet and Turnip. Wheat, Rye, etc., are annual plants; but when sown in Autumn they have the habit of biennials, in consequence of the prevention of flowering by the sudden cold. TERM OR PERIOD OF PLANT LIFE. 17 42. Monocarpic herbs. The Centnry-plant (Agave), the Talipot-palm, etc., are so called They vegetate, boaring leaves only, for many years, accumulating materiali* and t*trength for oue mighiy effort in fructification, which being accomplished, they die. In some species the term of life depends on climate alone. The Castor-bean (Ricinus) is an annual herb in the Northern States, a shrub in the Southern, and a tree of large size in its native India. So Petunia, annual in onr gardens, is perennial at home (in Brazil). 43. Perennial plants are such as have an indefinite duration of life, usually of many years. They may be either herbaceous or woody. Herbaceous perennials, or perennial herbs (It), are plants whose parts are annual above ground and perennial below. In other words, their roots or subterranean stems live from yeai to year, sending up annually, in Spring, flowering shoots which perish after they have ripened their fruit in Autumn ; as the Lily, Dandelion, Hop. 44. Wood)/ perennials usually vegetate several years, and at- tain well-nigh their ordinary stature before flowering; thence- forward they fructify annually, resting or sleeping in winter. They are known as trees (5), shrubs (b), bushes, and under- shrubs (b) — distinctions founded on size alone. 45. A shrub (b) is a diminutive tree, limited to eighteen or twenty feet in stature, and generally dividing into branches at or near the surface of the ground (Alder, Quince). If the woody plant be limited to a still lower growth, say about the human stature, it is called a bush (Snowball, Andromeda). If still smaller, it is an undershrub (b) (Whortleberry). 46. A tree (b) is understood to attain to a height many timei* greater than the human stature, with a permanent woody stem, whose lower part, the trunk, is unbranched. 47. As to age, some trees live only a few years, rapidly attaining their growth and rap- idly decaying, as the Peach ; others have a longevity exceeding the age of man ; and some species outlive many generations. Age may be estimated by the number of wood-circles or rings seen in a cross-section of the trunk (§ 40S), each ring being (very generally) au annual growth. Instances of great longevity are on record. See Class Book of Botany, §§ 99, 100. The monarch tree of the world is that Californiau Cedar— Sequoya giganiea. One which had fallen measured 26 feet in diameter, and 363 in length 1 The wood-cir- cles of this specimen are unusually thick, yet count up to 1,:330 years. Among those yet standing (a. d. 1S66), are many of even greater dimensions, as beautiful in form as they are sublime in height— the growth, probably, of moi'e than 2,000 years. 48. Trees are again distinguished as deciduous (b) and ever- green (b) — the former losing their foliage in Autumn, and re- maining naked until the following Spring ; the latter retaining 18 INTllODUCTION. their leaves and verdure throughout all seasons. The Fir tribe (Coniferai) includes nearly all the evergreens of the North : those of the South are far more numerous in kind — e. g.^ the Magnolias, the Live-oaks, Holly, Cherry, Palmetto, etc. B&oiew.—Z'^. What of flowering and fruiting? When do they prove fatal ? An exnori- ment. 40. Define an annual herb. 41. A biennial herb. 42. Monocarpic herbs. What of the Castor-bean ? 43. Perennial plants. Herbaceous perennials. 44. Woody percn nials. 45. Shrub. Bush. Undershrub. 46. A tree. 47. The age of trees. How ascer- tained. The "monarch" of trees. Eelate its age and dimensions. 48. Distinctions in reference to verdure. PART FIRST. STRUCTUEAL BOTANY; OR, ORGANOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I. THE FLOWER. 49. The flower is the immediate agent in the production ol the seed with its embryo, and to this end its whole structure is designed. Moreover, its superior beauty attracts earliest atten- tion, and an intimate knowledge of its organism is the first re- quisite in analysis and classification. 50. The flower may consist of the following members — the floral envelopes and the essential floral organs. The floral envel- opes consist of one or more circles or lohorls of leaves surrounding the essential organs. The outer of these whorls is called the calyx ; and the other, if there be any, the corolla. The calyx may, therefore, exist without the corolla ; but the corolla cannot exist without the calyx. 51. Calyx is a Greek Avord signifying a cup. It is applied to the external envelope of the flower, consisting of a whorl of leaves with their edges distinct or united, usually green, but sometimes highly colored. The leaves or pieces composing the calyx are called sepals. 52. Corolla is a Latin word signifying a little crown, applied to the interior envelope of the flower. It consists of one or more circles of leaves, either distinct or united by their edges, usually of some other color than green, and of a more delicate texture than the calyx. Its leaves are qaWqA 2>etals. 20 STRUCTUliAL ]iOTANY. 53. Perianth ('^'tvj, around, avh^, flower) is a word in com- mon use to designate the floral envelopes as a whole, without distinction of calyx and corolla. It is used in description, espe-. cially when these two envelopes are so similar as not to be readily distinguished, as in the Tulii), Lily, and the Endogens generally ; also where only one envelope exists, as in Phytolacca, Elm, etc. 54. The essential floral orga7is stand within the circles of the perianth, and are so called because they are the immediate in- struments in perfecting the seed, and thus accomplishing the final purposes of the flower. These organs are of two kinds, perfectly distinct in position and oftice — viz., the stamens and the pistils. 55. The stamens are those thread-like organs situated just within the perianth and around the pistils. Their number varies from one to a hundred or more ; but the most common number i&five. Collectively they are called the androecium. 56. The pistils (called also carpels) occupy the centre of the flower at the absolute terminus of the flowering axis. They are sometimes numerous, often apparently but one. always destined to bear the seed. Collectively they are called the gynoecium. 6 Flower of the Strawberry. C, Flower of tlie Pink. 7. Flower of tbe Lily (Lilium superbuiii). Tho pupil will point out the parts. 5V. The torus or receptacle is the axis of the flower, situated at the summit of the flower-stalk. It commonly appears a flat- tened or somewhat convex disk, whose centre corresponds to the apex of the axis. On this disk, as on a platform, stand the floral organs above described, in four concentric circles. The gyncc,-. PLAN OF THE FLOWER. 21 cium (pistils) occupies tbe centre; the androecium encircles it; the corolla is next without , and the calyx embraces the whole. Review.— 49. Agency of the Flower. 50. MeraherB. What are the Floral envelopes ? Which is the calyx ? The corolla? 51. The calyx defined. The sepals. 52. The corolla defined. Petals. 53. What of the perianth? 54. The essential organs. 55. The sta- mens. Another name. 56. The pistils. Their collective name. 57. The torus. Order of the whole. CHAPTER II. PLAN OF THE FLOWER. 58. Such, in general, is the organization of the flower. It is ^Axiiple enough in theory ; and in most of the plants with which he meets, the student will easily recognize these several organs by name. But, in truth, flowers vary in form and fashion to a degree almost infinite. Each organ is subject to transformations, disguises, and even to entire extinction ; so that the real nature of the flower may become an intricate and perplexing study. 59. But we shall soon see that in all these variations there is method. They are never capricious or accidental, however much they may appear so. U?iiti/ in diversity is characteristic of Na- ture in all her departments, and eminently so in the flowers ; and the iiist step in the successful study of them is to discover that unity — that simple idea of the floral structure in which all its diversities harmonize. Before flowers were created, that idea or t'l/pe was cc^nceived ; and to possess it ourselves is a near ap- proach to comniunlon with the Infinite Author of Nature. 60. The typical flower, one that exemplifies the full idea of the floral structure, consists of four difi*erent circles of organs, as before described, placed circle within circle on the torus, and all having a common centre. Such a flower must possess these five attributes — viz. : It must be a, Complete ; having the four kinds or sets of organs arranged in as many concentric circles. That it is perfect, having both kinds of the essential organs, is ^lecessarily included under its completeness. bj Reaidar ; having the organs ol the same name all similar 22 STRUCTUllAL BOTANY. and alike ; that is, all the petals of one pattern, all tlie stamens alike in form, size, position, etc. c, Symraetrical ; having the same number of organs in each set or circle. d^ Alternating in respect to the position of the organs. This implies that the several organs of each set stand not opposite to, but alternating with the organs of the adjacent set ; — the petals alternate with the sepals and stamens; the stamens alternate with the petals and pistils. e. That the organs be distinct^ all disconnected and free from each other. Gl. This is the Type. But it is seldom fully realized in the flowers as they actually grow, although the tendency toward it is universal. Deviations occur in every imaginable mode and degree, causing that endless variety in the floral world which we never cease to admire. For example, in our pattern flowers (5, 6, 7,) the pistils seem too few in the Pink and Lily, and tlie stamens too many in all of them. G2. The flower of the Flax (10) corahinea very nearly all the conditions above specified. It is complete, regular, symmetrical. Its organs are alternate and all separate ; and (dis- regarding the slight cohesion of the pistils at their base) this flower well realizes our type. Admitting two whorls of stamens instead of one, we have a good example of our type in Stone-crop (Sedura ternatum), a little fleshy herb of our woods. Its flowers are both 4-parted and 5-parted in the same plant. See also the 12-parted flowers of the coni mon Houseleek, 8, Flower of Crassula lactea, regular, svnimetricHl, organs distinct. 9, DiaRfam showing its plan. 10, Flower of the Scarlet Flax. 11, Diagram of its plan. 03. The flowers of Crassula (8), an African genus sometimes cultivated, afford unexceptionable examples, the sepals, petals, STUDY OF ANOMAI.OUS FLOWERS. 28 Btam<,'ns, and pistils each being five in number, regularly alter- nating and perfectly separate. Jiei-iew.—58. Whence the difficnlties in the stndy of flowers ? 59. A grand character- istic in Nature. First step in the study of the flowers. bO. Deftnc the typical flower. Why is it complete ? Why regular '; Why symmetrical ? How alternating ? How dis- tinct? fil. Is the type often realized? Whence the endless variety ? Faults in Pinlc, Strawberry, Lily. 62. One fault of Flax— of Sedura. 63. One perfect example. CHAPTER III. STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS. 64. No"w the true method of studying the flower is by comparing it with this type. So shall we be able, and ever delischted, to learn the nature of each origan in all its dis- guises of form, and to discern the features of the general plan even under its widest deviations. The more important of them are included under the following heads, which will be considered in order: 1, Vanations of the radical number of the flower; 2, Deficiencies ; 3, Redundancies ; 4, Union of parts ; 5, Irregular- ities of development. 65. The radical number of the flower is that which enu- merates the parts composing each whorl. Here nature seems most inclined to the number Jive, as in Crassula, Flax, Rose, and Strawberry. It varies, however, from one to twelve, and is expressed by word or sign as follows : di-merous, or 2-parted (-^), tri-merous or 3-parted (v^), penta-merous or 5-parted (v^), etc. The flow^- crs of Hippuris (12 ) are 1- parted, having but one stamen and one pistil. Those of Cir- ctea (13) are 2-parted, hav- ing 2 sepals, 2 petals, 2 stamens, etc. Those of Xyris (14) are 4^, having all the part« in 3s. Xyris is one of the Endogens. 12, Flower of Hippuris, one-parted. 13, Flower of Circaea Lutetiana, ^. 14, FIowerofXyriB, ^^ 24 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. Trimorous flowers are characteristic of this great group of Plants, while pentaraeroijs flowers commonly distinguish the Exogens. 66. Deficiencies often occur, rendering the flower incom.- plete. Such flowers lack some one or more entire sets of organs When only one of the floral envelopes, the calyx, exists, the flower is said to be apetalons or moncchlamydeous (^Xajjiuf, a cloak), as in Elm, Phytolacca. These terms are also loosely ap- plied to such plants as Rhubarb, Anemone, Liverwort, where the pieces of the perianth are all similar, although in two or three whorls. When the perianth is wholly wanting, the flower is said to be achlamydeous, or naJced^ as in Lizard-tail (15). IB, Flower nf Saururus (Lizard-tail)— achlamydeons. 16, Flower of Fraxinut [Xsti). 17, Flower of '^aHx AVillow), staminate— 18, pistillate. 67. Imperfect flowers are also of frequent occurrence. They are deficient in respect to the essential organs. A sterile or staminate flower (denoted thus ^) has stamens without pistils. A fertile or pistillate flower ( $ ) has pistils without stamens. Such flowers being counterparts of each other, and both neces- sary to the perfection of the seed, must exist either together upon the same plant or upon separate plants of the same f pecicR. In the former case the species is mojioecious ( 6* ), as in Oak ; in 19, PSetlllate flower of Balm-of-Gilead. 20, Stamkiate. 21. Begonia— a, slamiuate; 6, pistillate STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS. '2o the latter ease dioecions [^ $ ), as in Willow. The term diclinous, denoting either 8 or $ '^ without distinction, is in common use. 68. A neutral floicer is a perianth or calyx only, having neither stamens nor pistils. Such are the ray-flowers of many of the Corapositse, and of the cymes of Hydrangea, High-cranberry, etc., which in cultivation may all become neutral, as in the Snow-ball. 69. Unsymmetrical floicers. The term symmetry, as used in Botany, refers to number only. A flower becomes unsymmetri- cal by the partial development of any set or circle in respect to the number of its organs. The Mustard family, called the Cru- cifers, afford good examples. 70. The flowers of Mustard, Cress, etc., are understood to be 4-meron8 (4/)- The sepals are four, petals four, but the stamens are six and the styles but two. Thfi stamens are arranged in two circles, having two of those in the outer circle suppressea or reduced to mere glands. Two of the carpels are also suppressed (429). In the Mint family and the Figworts one or three of the stamens are generally abortive. Here, while the flowers are .y, the stamens are four in some species and only two in others. The missing stamens, however, often appear in the guise of slender processes— the rudiments of stamens- proving in an interesting manner the natural tendency to symmetry, 71. In the ^ flowers of Poppy, the sepals are but two ; in y Spring-beauty they are but two ; in both cases too few for symmetry. In Larkspur (^fi) the ^' flowers have but four petals ; and in Monk's-hood (29), also ^\ the petals are apparently but two, strangely de- formed bodies. A careful inspection, however, generally reveals the other three, very minute, in their proper places, as displayed in the cut. 72. " Organs opposite''' is a condition much less frequent than " organs alternate," but is highly interesting, as being sometimes characteristic of whole families. Thus in the Primrose, Thrift, and Buckthorn families, the stamens always stand opposite to the petals ! 73. How happens this ? Among the Prim worts this question is solved in the flowers of Lysimachia and Samolus, where wo Diwrams.— 22, Flower of Samolus, showinj^ the rudimentary stamens alternating with the perfect. IS, Flower of a Labiate plant, showing the place of the deficient stamen, 24, Flower of Asarum— fhrefl sepals t^felve stamens, etc. 25, Flower of Saxifrage— two pistils, t«n stamens, etc. 20 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. find a circle of five teeth (abortive filaments) between the petals and stamens, alternating with both sets, thus restoring the lost symmetry. Hence we infer that in such cases generally a circle of alternating organs has been either partially or wholly sup- pressed. In the Buckthorn, however, a different explanation has been given. 74. Redundancy. The multiplication of organs \^ ^y.Q.(tKi(i- ingly common, and usually according to a definite plan. The increase takes place, as a rule, by circles, and consequently by multiples. That is, e. g.^ the stamens of a ij/ flower, if increased, will be so by 3s ; of a ^J^ flower by 5s, etc. — sometimes to the ex- tent of twenty such circles. 75. In the Crowfoot family the stamens are almost always multiplied. The carpels are also generally multiplied, yet often, on the contrary, diminished, as in the Paeony. In Roeaceie, also, the stamens are generally multiplied, while the carpels exist in all condi- tions as to number. Thus in Strawberry they are multiplied, in the Apple they are regu- larly five, in Agrimony reduced to two, and in the Cherry to one. In Magnolia the ^/ flowers have three sepals in one circle, six or nine petals in two or three circles, numer- ous stamens and carpels in many circles of each. In the ^ flowers or Blood-root there are two sepals, eight petals, twenty-four stamens, and two carpels. 76. ChoHsis. In other cases the organs seem to be increased in number by clusters, rather than by circles, as when in the same circle several stamens stand in the place of one — e. g., in Squirrel-corn, St. Johnswort, Linden. Such cases afford wide scope for con- jecture. Perhaps each cluster originates by division, as the compound from the simple leaf; or as a tuft of axillary leaves ; or thirdly, by a partial union of organs. Jieriew.—Gi. How to study flowers. Five general modes of deviation from the Type. 65. The radical number. How expressed. Give examples. 66. Incomplete flowers. ApetaloHs flowers. Naked flowers. Examples. 67. Imperfect flowers. The sterile. The fertile. Monoecious. Dioecious. Examples. 68. Neutral flowers. 69. Unsymmet- rical flowers. 70. Case of the Mustard. Case of the Mint tribe. 71. Case of the Poppy, Larkspur. 72. Organs opposite. 73. How explained. 74. Law of the multiplication of organs. Illustrate this in Pinks, Lilies, Syringa, Magnolia. CHAPTER IV. ANOMALOUS FLOWERS CONTINUED. V7. Ap2yendicular organs consist of spurs, scales, crown, glands, etc., and often afford excellent distinctive marks. The old term nectary was indiscriminately applied to all such organs, because some of them produced honey. Vs. Spurs are singular processes of the flower, tubular and projecting from behind it. In Columbine each petal is thus STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS. 27 spurred; — in Violet, one petal only; in Larkspur, two jDetais and a sepal, the spur of the latter inclosing that of the former. The curved spur of the Jewel-weed belongs to a sepal (27, 28). 79. Scales are attached to the inner side of the corolla, usually upon the claw of the petals, as in Buttercups, or within the throat of the corolla tube, as in the Borrageworts. Similar ap- pendages, when enlarged and conspicuous, constitute a crown in Catchfly, Corn-cockle, Narcissus. See also the staminal crown or corona of the Silk-grass (Asclepias, fig. 532). 26, Flower of Delphinium Consolida (common Larkspur), displaying », «, /», «, «, the five sepals— a, the upper one spnrrert; r, the corolla of four petals, here united into one and produced into a spur. 27, Flower of Impatiens fulva (Touch-me-not). 28, Displaying «, », «, y, the four sepals, y being saccate and spurred ; p, p, the two petals, both double, preserving the symmetry. 80. Glandular bodies are often found upon the receptacle in the places of missing stamens or carpels, or as abortive organs of some kind. Examples are seen in the Crucifers and Grape. In Grass-Parnassus they are stalked and resemble stamens. 81. The union of organs in some way occurs in almost ever^ flower ; and, more perhaps than any other cause, tends to disguise its plan and origin. The separate pieces which stood each as the representative of a leaf, now, by a gradual fusion, lose themselves in the common mass. Nevertheless, marks of this process are always discernible, either in parts yet remaining free, or in the seams where the edges were conjoined. The floral organs may unite by cohesion or adhesion. 82. Cohesion, when the parts of the same whorl arc joined 28 STKUCTUllAL BOTANY. together ; as the sepals of the Pink, the petals of Morning-glory, the stamens of Mallows, the carpels of Poppy. Adhesion, when the parts of dilFerent whorls are conjoined ; as the stamens with the corolla in Phlox, with the pistils in Milkweed, Lady's- slip- per; or calyx with ovary, in Apple or Wintergreen (Gaultheria). The adjective free is used in a sense opposite to adhesion, im- plying that the organ is inserted on (or grows out of) the recep- tacle, and otherwise separated from any other kind of organ. The adjective distinct is opposed to cohesion, implying that like organs are separate from each other. More of this in another chapter. 29, Flower of Aconitum Napellus displayed; », *, />, », «, the five sepals, the upper one hooded; p, p, p, the five petals, of which the two upper are nectaries covered by the hood, and the three lower very mintite. 30, Flower of Catalpa, 21ipped, 5-ljbed. 31, Corolla laid open, showing the two peuect sta- mens and the three rudimentary. 83. Irregular development. Our typical flower, it will be remembered, is regular; and observation proves that all flowers are actually alike regular in the early bud. Those in- equalities or "one-sided" forms, therefore, which characterize certain flowers, are occasioned by subsequent irregular growth from a regular type. The irregularity of flowers occurs in a thousand ways and modes ; — in the unequal size of like organs ; in thmr dissimilar /brms and positio?is ; in their unequal cohe- sions, and in their partial suppressions. So in the Violet (50), Monk's-hood (29), Catalpa (30), the Labiates (69), the Pea tribe (59), etc. 84. The torus, or receptacle, is sometimes strangely modified. In the little Myosurus (32), in some Buttercups, and in tho STUDY OF ANOlB^iLOUS FLOWERS. 29 Tulip-tree we find a lengthened or spindlershaped torus — length- ened according to the nature of t branch (§ 35), and all covered with the multiplied pistils. On the contrary, we have in the Rose (35) and LadyVmantle (38), an excavated torus, within which the carpels are held, -vi hile the other organs are borne upon its elevated rim. S2. Flower (magnified) of Myosurus; a vertical section showing its elongated torus, etc. 33, Th« name, natural size. 34, Flower of Isopyrum bitematnm; vertical section, showing the coavex or globu- lar torus, etc. 35, Flower of Row, showing its excavated torus. 85. The disk is a portion of the receptacle raised into a rim somewhere in the midst of the whorls. It is found between the ovary and stamens in Paeony and Buckthorn. It bears the sta- mens in Maple and Mignonette, and crowns the ovary in the Umbellifer83. 36, Paeonia Moutan, showing its very large disk (tJ) sheathing the ovaries (p). 37, Pistil of the Lein<».», with its base surrounded by the disk, d. 38. Section of flower of Alchemilla, showing its single simple pistil, large disk, and excavated torus. 86. Combined deviations are quite frequent, and sometimes obscure the typical charac- ter of the flower to such a degree as to require close observation in tracing it out. The «tndy of such cases is full of 'ioth amusement and improvement. For example, the ^ 80 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. Poppy has suppression in the calyx, multiplication in the stamens and carpe s, and la the latter cohesion also. The ^ Sage has cohesion and irregularity in the calyx, every kind of irregularity in the corolla, suppression and irregularity in the stamens, suppres- sion and cohesion in the pistils. The ^ Cypripedium is perfectly symmetrical, yet has Irregular cohesion in the calyx, great inequality in the petals, cohesion, adhesion, and metamorphosis in the stamens, and cohesion in the carpels. (In this way let the pupil analyze the deviations in the flower of Geranium. Hollyhock, Moth-mullein, Larkspur, Sweetbrier, Touch-me-not, Petunia, Snapdragon, Violel, I'oly- gala. Squirrel-corn, Orchis, Henbit, Monk's-hood, Calceolaria, etc.) Review.— 11. Mention some appendicular organs. 78. What are spurs in Larkspur etc. ? 79. Scales in Buttercups, etc. ? Explain the cuts 2G-28. — Thy crown in Narcit^sus, etc.— In Aselepias. 8(). Appendages in Grass-Parnassus. 8L Kcmarks on the union of organs. How detected? 82. Distinguish between cohesion and adliesion. — Between free and distinct. 83. What of flowers in the early bud? Whence irregularity ? Certain modes of irregularity mentioned. Exani})les. 84. Two singular modifications of the torus. Explain cuts 32-35. &5. What is tlie disk ?— flgs. 3t>-38. 86. Trace the combined deviations in Poppy.— In Cypripedium.— In any flower at hand. CHAPTER Y. THE FLOKAL ENVELOPES, OR PERIANTH. 87. In our idea of the typical flower, the perianth consists ot two whorls of expanded floral leaves encircling and protecting the more delicate essential organs in their midst. As a rule, the outer circle, calyx, is green and far less conspicuous than the inner circle of highly colored leaves — the corolla. J^ut there are many exceptions to this rule. Strictly speaking, the calyx and corolla are in no w^ay distinguishable except by position. The outer circle is the calyx, whatever be its form or color; and the i?iner, if there be more than one, is the corolla. Forme of pfUil ».—'?,% Buttercup, showing the scale at base. 40, Mipnenette, fringed at top. 41, Si- lene stellata. frinired and ungiiiculate. 42, Flower of Osmorhiza longistylis, petals inflected. 43, Flowei of Mitella diphylla, petals pectiuatepimiatifld. 44, Fetal of Cerastiuiu uutiins. 2-clott. THE FLORAL ENYELOPES. 31 88. Both blade and petiole are distinguishable in the floral leaves, especially in the petals. The blade, or expanded part, is here called limb, or lamina ; the petiolar part, when narrowed into a stalk, is called the claw. In form, or outline, there is a general resemblance between the limb and the leaf. It is ovate, oval, lanceolate, obcordate, orbicular, etc. In margin it is gen- erally entire. (See § 308.) 89. Some peculiar forms, however, should be noticed, as the bilobate petal of the Chickweed (44), the pinnatifid petal of Miterwort (43), the inflected petal of the Umbelliferae (42), the fan-shaped petal of Pink, the fringed (fimbriate) petal of Cam- pion (Silene stellata) (40), the hooded sepal of Napellus (29), the saccate petal of Calceolaria, Cypripedium (71). The limb is, moreover, often distorted into a true nectary, spurred, as already shown (§ V8), or otherwise deformed, as in Napellus, Coptis, etc. 90. We have seen that the floral organs are often in various ways united. Considering their crowded state in the flower, we rather wonder that they do not always coalesce in their growth. The calyx with united sepals was called by the early botanists monosepalous • the corolla with united petals was called mono- petalous (fAovoff, one — from the false idea that such an organ con- sisted of a single piece or leaf!) Opposed to these terms were polypetalous {mokug^ many), petals distinct; and polysepalous^ sepals distinct. 91. The monosepalous calyx, or monopetalous corolla, although thus compounded of several pieces, is usually described as a sim- ple organ, wheel-shaped, cup-shaped, tubular, according to the degree of cohesion. The lower part of it, formed by the united claws, whether long or short, is the tube / the upper part, com- posed of the confluent laminae, is the border, or Ihnh j the opening of the tube above is the throat. 92. The border is either lobed, toothed, crenate, etc., by the distinct ends of the pieces composing it, as in the calyx of Pink, the calyx and corolla of Primula, Phlox, and Bell wort, or it may become, by a complete lateral cohesion, entire, as in the Morning- glory. Heie the compound nature of the organ is shown by the seams alone. 32 STKUCTURAL BOTANY. 93. A terminal cohesion, where summit as well as sides are joined, forming a cap rather than cup, rarely occurs, as in the calyx of the garden Escholtzia and the corolla of the Grape. »», Flower of Saponaria (Bouncing Bet): petals aiul claws quite distinct. 46, Phlox; claws united, with lamina distinct. 47, Spigelia (Pink-root), petals still further united. 48, Quamoclit cocciuea; petals united throughout. 94. The modes of adhesion are various and important, fur- nishing some of the most valuable distinctive characters. An organ is said to be adherent when it is conjoined with some dis- similar organ, as stamen with pistil. All the organs of our typical flower are described as/ree. 95. The term hypogynous (u-rw, under, /uvv, the pistil) is an adjective in frequent use, denoting that the organs are inserted into the torus under, or at the base of the ovary or pistil. Or- gans so situated are, of course, in the normal condition and free^ there being no adhesions. Observe and explain the sections of Oeifersonia and Violet (49, 50), THE FLORAL ENVELOPES. 33 96. Perigynous (-tts^j, around) is a term applicable to the stamens and petals only, and implies that they are (apparently) inserted on the calyx or corolla around the free ovary. In Phlox, the stamens are perigynous on the corollii-tubc. In Cher- ry and Plum, the petals and stamens are perigynous on the calyx-tube. (See H 51 51.) 97. Epigynous (s-jt/, upon) denotes that the organs are in- serted (apparently) iqjoyi the ovary, as appears in Apple, Pear, Caraway, Sunflower. (See cuts 42, 51.) The common phrases "calyx superior," "ovary inferior," have the same signification as "calyx epigynous," all implying the apparent insertion of the organs upon or above the ovary. In this condition all the 68, Rilwi aarentn and (54) Fuchsia graciali,?; ovary inferior or adlierent, Btamcn? and petals e{)Ig>noc« (above Xh^ culherent o\&ry). 53, Saxifraga Yirginiensis; ovary half-superior. organs, or at least the calyx, are blended with the ovary to its top. Hence the phrases " ovary adherent," or " calyx adherent," liave also the same meaning, and are preferable, because in ac- cordance with the fact. (Explain the sections of Golden Cur- rant and Ear-drop — 52, 54.) %* 34 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 1)8. Calyx inferior or free, ovary superior or free, are all phrases of the same import as calyx hypogynous. Between the two conditions, calyx superior and calyx inferior, there are nu- merous gradations, of which one onl^ is defined, to wit, calyx half- superior, as exemplified in the Mock-orange and Saxifrage (53). 7?e^Aew. — 87. The type once more. State the only true distinction hctwccn calyx and corolla, as. What part in tiie floral leaves corresponds to blade ? What part to petiole ? General forms. 89. Several peculiar forms meutioned. 90. Why should tlie floral organs be united? What absurdity in the word monosepalous, etc.* The opposite terraa. 91. What the tube?— the limb? 92. Varieties in the degree of cohesion (figs. 4.5-48). 93. How in Grape, etc.? 94. Define adherent. 95. Use of the word hypogyncusf 9(i. Ferigynous? 97. Ejngynous ? Two equivaleut phrases. 98. Calyx half-superior. Ex- plain flgs. 49-54. CHAPTER VI. FOKMS OF THE TElilANTH. y9. The. innumerable forms of the perianth, whether calyx or corolla, or both, are first to be distinguished as polypetalous or GAMOPETALOUS, and secondly, as regular or irregular. The POLYPETALOUS-^'e^i^^ar forms may be referred to the four types represented in the drawings below, and described as follows. Forrnn of corollas.— ^, Cheirwithus (Stock). ."56, Silene regia (Scarlet CatchBy). 57, Pyriis coronanr. 58, Amaryllis (Atamasco Lily). 100. First, Cruciform {criicis^ of a cross) or cross-shaped corollas consist of four long-clawed petals, placed at right angh^s to each other, as in Mustard, Wall-flower (55). 2d, CaryophyV FORMS OF THE FERIANTH. 35 laceous or pink-like corollas consist of five petals with long, erect elates, and spreading laminsB; as in the Pink (56). 3d, Rosa- ceous or rose-like corollas are composed of five short-clawed open petals; as in the Rose (fig. 57). 4th, Liliaceous flowers, like the Lilies, consist of a six-leaved perianth ; each leaf gradually spreading so as to resemble, as a whole, the funnel-form (58). 101. Polypetalous-irregular forms (59, 71) may generally be referred to these two types — the papilionaceous and the or- chidaceous. The Papilionaceous {papilio, butterfly) corolla or flower may consist of five dissimilar petals, designated thus : the upper, largest, and exterior petal is the banner (vexillum) ; the two lateral, half-exterior, are the wings (alee) ; the two lower, interior petals, often united at their lower margin, are the keel (carina). The flowers of the Pea, Locust, Clover, and of the great family of the Leguminosae in general are examples. The Orchidaceous is a form of the perianth peculiar to the Orchis, and to that large and singular tribe in general. It is a 6-pai'ted double perianth, very irregular, characterized chiefly by its lip, which is the upper petal (lower by the twisting of the ovary) enlarged and variously deformed. 61 U9, Papilionaceous flower of the Pea. 60, Displayed; r, the vexillum; a, a, the al»; c, c, the cariut til, Section of flower of Dicentra Cucullaria. 102. Gamopetalous-regular perianths (62-67) may in elude mainly the following forms, although some of them may become irregular. First, Motatc, wheel-shaped, or st"*r-shapea, is a form with tube very short, if any, and a flat, spreading bor- der; as the calyx of Chickweed, corolla of Trientalis, Elder. It is sometimes a little irregular, as in Mullein. 2d, Cup-shaped^ with pieces cohering into a concave border, as in the calyx of 36 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. Malk)ws, eorolla of Kalraia, etc. 3d, Campaiiulate^ or bell- shaped ; when the tube widens abruptly at base and gradually in the border, as in the Harebell, Canterbury-bell. 4th, Urceo- late^ urn-shaped ; an oblong or globular corolla with a narrow opening, as the Whortleberry, Heath. 5th, Funnel-form (in- fundibuliform), narrow-tubular below, gradually enlarging to the border, as Morning-glory. 6th, Salver-form (hypocrateri- form), the tube ending abruptly in a horizontal border, as in Phlox, Petunia, both of which are slightly irregular. Vth, Tubu- lar^ a cylindraceous form spreading little or none at the border ; as the calyx of the Pink, corolla of the Honeysuckle. It is often a little curved. Tubular flowers are common in the CompositfP, as the Thistle, Sunflower, when they are often associated with the next form, the ligtdate, 62 Form." of coroll4i.o.—62. Cainpiinula AmericaiiH iirceolate. 65, Convolvulus (Morning-glory). " rotate. 63, Campanula divaricata. 64, Andromeda; 6, Petunia. 67, Lonicera senipervircns (floueysucklp). (vS, Dandelion: ligulate corolla ('•), 5-toothed; (i, five anthers united into a tube around .v, the style 69, Synandra grandiflora, ringent, upper lip 2-lobed, lower 3-lobed. 70, Linaria (yellow Snapdragon,, personate 71, Cypripedium acaule, orchidaceous. 103. Gamopetalous-irregular perianths may be either li.g- ulate 01 labiate. The Ijlgulate corolla {ligula^ tongue) is formed as if by splitting a tubular corolla on one side. The notches at the end plainly indicate the number of united petals composing FOKMS OF THE PEKIANTH. 37 It, as also do the parallel longitudinal seams. (See figa 68, t ).) The labiate^ bilabiate or lip-shaped, resembling the mouth of some animal, is a very common form, resulting from the unequal union of the parts, accompanied with other irregularities. In the labiate corolla three petals unite more or less to form the lower lip, and two to form the upper. In the calyx, when bila- l)iate, this rule is reversed, according to the law of alternation of organs; two sepals are united in the lower lip and three in the upper, as seen in the Sage and the Labiate Order generally. Labiate flowers are said to be galeate or helmeted when the upper lip is concave, as in Catmint ; ringent or gaping when the throat or mouth is wide open (69) ; personate or masked when the throat is closed as with d^ palate^ like the Snapdragon (70). 104. Certain reduced forms of the perianth should be noticed in this place. The Pappus {iro^'jr'jrQs, grandfather, alluding to his gray hairs) is the hair-like calyx of the florets of the Compositae, and other kindred Orders. Tlie florets of this Order are col lected into heads so compactly that the calyxes have not room for expansion in the ordinary way. The pappus is commonly persistent, and often increases as the fruit matures, forming a feathery sail to waft away the seed through the air, as in the Dandelion and Thistle. It varies greatly in form and size, as seen in the cuts ; sometimes consisting of scales, sometimes of hairs, again of feathers or bristles. Sometimes it is mounted on a stipe, which is the beak of the fruit. • ,>s la (incorrectly called achenium) of the Composita-, with variotis forms of pappas. 72, EclijHa Pk > i.nv.ens, no pappus. 73, Ambrosia triflda. 74, Heliajithus grosse-serratus, pappus 2-awneTl. 75, Aollen. 97, Malva, anther 1-celled. 98, Ephedra (after I'eyer), anther 4-celle(J. 115. The cells of the anthers are at first commonly four, all parallel, becoming two only at maturity. In some plants the four are retained, as in the anthers of Ephedra (98). In others, as Mallows, all the cells coalesce into one (97). 116. Ai)pendages of many kinds distinguish the stamens of different species. In the Ericacete there are horns, spurs, tails, queues, etc. In Onions ai 1 elarlic, the filament is 2 or 3 forked, bearing the anther on one of the tips. Sometimes i pair of appendages appear at base, as if stipulate. It is often conspicuously clothed with hairs, as in Trades- cantia. (See 89-94, .) 117. Stami7Wdia, or sterile filaments with abortive anthers or none, occur singly in many of the Figworts and Labiates, or in entire whorls next within the petals, alternat- ing with them, as in Loose-strife. The curious fringes of the Passion-flower are regarded as composed of staminodia (112). THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 41 118. The number of the stamens is said to be definite Avhen not exceeding twenty, as is sometimes definitely expressed by such terms as follow, compounded of the Greek numerals— viz., monandrous, having one stamen to each flower; dlandrous^ with two stamens ; pentandrous, with five stamens. If the num- ber exceeds twenty, it is said to be indefinite (denoted thus, QO ) or polyandrous. Esseniinl nrgnnx.— 99, Rhododendron, five stamens (.s), one pistil (p), oblique or slightly irregular. 100. Flower of /Esculns (Buckeye), regular. .Vtoothed calyx (r), very irregular 4-petalled corolla, seven stameui nnequitl. one style (■«). 101, Flower of Hydrastis; s, sepals deciduous. 119. The position or insertion of the stamens (§ 55 ) may be more definitely stated here as hypogynoiis^ on the receptacle below the ovaries ; perigynoiis^ on the calyx around the ovary ; r^^ 102, Stamens (diadelphous) of a Legumin(>us plant. 103, Stamens (syngenesious) of a Composite; / fllaments distinct: n, anthers united; s, stigmas revolute. etc. lOi, Tetradynamous stamens of a t!ni' cifer. 105, (iyuandrous column of Cypripedium; o, ovary; r, torus; s, sterile stamen; a, two poUiiiia c, stigma. ItXJ, Didyniimous stamens of Lophospermum. eplpettdoHs^ on the corolla, as in Phlox; epigynous, on the ovary at its summit, and gynandrous (/uvii, pistil, aviJpsf, stamens) on the pistil, that is, when the stamens are adherent to the style, as ^ STRUCTUKAL BOTANY. in Orchis. Inequality in length is definitely marked in two cases, as tetradynamous ('fs-pacr, four, 6oM(x,\h\c:^ power) when the sta- mens are six, whereof four are longer than the other two, as in all the Crucifers ; didyiiamous^ where the stamens are four, two of them longer than the other two, as in all the Labiates (104, 106). 120. Cohesion is as frequent with stamens as with petals. They are monadelphous (cc(j£X(pot:, a brother) when thoy are all united, as in Mallow, into one set or brotherhood by the fila- ments ; diadelphous in two sets, whether equal or unequal, as in Pea, Squirrel-corn; polyadelphous^ many sets, as in St. Johns- wort ; and syngenesious^ when they are united by their anthers, as in the Composit^e. Finally, the absence of the stamens alto- gether, whether by abortion, as in the $ flowers of Veratrum, or by suppression, as in Oak, occurs in various modes, render- ing the plant monoecious (5*), dioecious (6 ?), or polygamous (5 ^ ? ), as already explained (§ 67). Ill 108 109 PoUku araimt.—Vil , Tinns larico. 108, Basella rubra. 109, Ranunculus repens. 110, Scoiymus grandl- tiorus. Ill, Passifioia iucarnata. 121. The pollen is in appearance a small, yellow dust, con- tained in the cells of the anther. When viewed with the mi- croscope it appears as grains of various forms, usually spheroidal or oval, sometimes triangular or polyhedral, but always of the same form and appearance in the same species. Externally they are curiously, and often elegantly figured with stripes, bands, dots, checks, etc. Each grain of pollen is a membranous cell or sack containing a fluid. Its coat is double — the outer is more thick and firm, exhibiting one or more breaks where the inner THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 43 coat, which is very thin and expansible, is uncovered. In the fluid are suspended molecules of incon- ceivable minuteness, said to possess a trem- ulous motion. When the membrane is ex- posed to moisture, it swells and bursts, discharging its con- tents. 122. In the Orchids and Silk weed tribe, the pollen grains do not separate as into a dust or powder, but mamLS all cohere into masses called POLLixiA, accompanied by a viscid fluid. Review.— \\Q. Position of the stamens. 111. Members, compared with a leaf. Pollen. The filament. 113. The anther. Connectile. Dehiscence. In 82, point out these parts. 114. How the anther is attached to the filament— 3 modes. Of dehiscence— 3 modes. Define "anther introrse"— "Anther extrorse." What figures illustrate ? What are dimidiate anthers? 115. The cells in regard to number. Mention some appendages. What are staminodia? 118. Define the terms definite and indefinite, as applied to the stamens. Define the terms relating to position— To inequality in length. 120. Four terms relating to cohesion. Three terms expressing absence. The pollen as seen under the microscope. Structure. Pollinia, 112, Section of the Passion-flower (Passiflora coerulea); h, brncts of the involucre; «, sepals; j», petals; o, a, staminodia or Sieril* stipe; o, ovary; d, stamens; t, stigmas. CHAPTER VIII. OF THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. THE PISTILS. 123. The Gynoeciuin occupies the centre of the flower, at tliu termination of the axis. It consists regularly of a circle of distinct pistils {\ 60), symmetrical in number with the other circles. It is subject to great variation. The pistil may oe dis- tinct and simple^ as in Columbine, or coherent in various degrees into a compound body, as in St. Johnswort. Also instead of being free and superior, as it regularly should be, it may adhere to the other circles, as already explained (§ 97), ?nid become u STRUCTURAL BOTANY. inferior; that is, apparently placed below the flower, as in the Currant (52). 124. The number of the pistils is by no means coniined to the radical of the flower. They may be increased by multiples, hecoming a spiral on a lengthened receptacle, as in Tulip-tree, or still remaining a circle, as in Poppy. On the other hand, they may be reduced in number often to one, as in Cherry and Pea. Certain terms are employed to denote the number of pistils in the flower, such as mo?iog^nous, with one pistil ; trigynous^ with three ; poly gy nous ^ with many, etc. 125. The simple pistil may usually be known from the compound, by its one-sided forms — having two sides similar and two dissimilar. If the pistils appear distinct, they are all simple, never being united into more than one set, as the stamens often are. The parts of a simple pistil are three — the ovary (o, 113) at base, the stigma (s) at the summit, and the style {sty) intervening. Like 116 ll3. Pistil of Tobacfo. U4, Pistil, stamens, and calyx of Azalea. 115. Trillium— stigmas OD and antliera («) nearly sessile. 116, Pistils of Rue Anemone (A. thalictroidfA)—RtigmRs sessile. the tilament, the style is not essential; and when it is wanting, the stigma is sessile upon the ovary, as in Anemone (116). In order to understand the relation of these parts, we must needs first study — 126. The morphology of the pistil. As before stated, the pistil consists of a modified leaf called a carpel (xap-roc:, fruit), or carpellary leaf This leaf is folded together toward the axis, so that the upper surface becomes the inner, while tlie THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 45 lower becomes tbc outer surface of the ovary. By this arrange- ment two sutures or seams will be formed — the dorsal, at the back, by the midvein ; the ventral, in front, by the joined mar- gins of the leaf. This view of the pistil is remarkably confirmed and illustrated by the flowers of the Double Cherry (124, 125), where the pistil may be seen in every degree of transition, re- verting toward the form of a leaf. This carpellary leaf stands in the place of the pistil, having the edges infolded toward each other, the midvein prolonged and dilated at the apex, as shown in 125. M7, Simple pistil of Strawberry, the style lateral. US, Simple pistil of Crowfoot, cut to show tlio ovule. U9, Simple pistil of the Cherr*'. 120, Vertical section showing ihe ovule (o), style («), stigma ((«). 121, Cross-section of the same. 122, Compound pistil of SprinK-heauty. 123, Cross-section of the same, showing the S c«lls of the ovary. 124, fixpauded carpellary leaf of the Double Ckerry. 125, The same partly folded, as if to form a pistil. 127. The placentae are usually prominent lines or ridges extending along the ventral suture within the cell of the ovary, and bearing the ovules. They are developed at each of the two edges of the carpellary leaf, and are consequently closely parallel when those edges are united, forming one double placenta in the cell of each ovary. 128. The simple carpd, with all its parts, is completely exemplified in the Pea-pod. When this is laid open at the ventral snture, the leaf form becomes manifest, with the peas (ovules) arranged in an alternate order along each margin, so as to form but one row when the pod is closed. In the pod of Columbine (127), the ovules form two distinct rows ; in the simple Plum carpel, each margin bears a single ovule ; and in the one-ovuled Cherry, only one of the margins is fruitful. > 129. The stigma is the glandular orifice of the ovary, communi- cating with it either directly or through the tubiform style. It is usually globular and terminal, often linear and lateral, but subject to great variations in form. It is sometimes double or halved, or 2-lobed, even when belonging to a single carpel or to 46 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. a simple style, as in Linden, where these carpels are surmounted by three pairs of stigmas. 130. The compound pistil consists of the united circle of pis- tils, just as the monopetalous corolla consists of the united circle of petals. The union occurs in every degree, always commencing at the base of the ovary and proceeding upward. Thus in Col- umbine, we see the carpels (piskls) quite distinct ; in early Saxi- frage, cohering just at base ; in Pink, as far as the top of the ovaries, with styles distinct ; in Spring-beauty, to the top of the styles, with stigmas distinct ; and in Rhododendron, the union is complete throughout. j26. Ovary (follicle) of Larkspur, composed of a single carpellary leaf. 127, Ovaries of the Columbine, live, coutipuous but distinct. 128, Compound ovary of Hypericum, of carpels United below with distinct rtyles. 129, Ovary of another Hypericum of three carpels completely united. 130, Ovary of Flax; car- pels five, united below, distinct above. 131, Diantlins (Fi'ik). 132, Saxifraga. 131. To determine the number of carpels in a compound ovary is an important and sometimes difficult matter. It may be known, first, by the number of the styles ; or, by the number of the free stigmas (remembering that these organs are liable to be halved — § 129) ; or 3d, by the lobes, angles, or seams of the ovary ; or 4th, by the cells ; or 5th, by the placentae. But in Dodecatheon, etc., all these indications fail, so perfect is the union, and we are left to decide from analogy alone. 132. The student will notice two very diverse modes of cohe- sion in the carpels of the compound ovary. First and regularly, the carpels may each be closed, as when simple, and joined by their sides and fronts; as in St. Johnswort (129) and Lily (171). In this case, he may prove the following propositions. 1st. Thfi compound ovary will have as many cells as carpels. 2d. The partitions between the cells will be doub\?, and alternate with THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 47 the stigmas. 3d. A partition dividing the cell of a single carpel must be 2^ false one; as occurs in Flax (136). 4th. The Pla- centa, as well as the ventral suture, will be axial. 133. Again: the carpels may each be open and conjoined by their edges, as are the petals of a gamopetalous corolla. So it IS in the ovary of Violet (137) and Rock-rose (139). In this case, 1st. There will be no partition (unless a false one, as in the Crucifers), and but one cell; 2d. 'Y\iQi Placentoz will be iKirletal^ i. e., on the wall of the cell [jyaries, a wall). 134. Between the two conditions of axial (or central) and parietal jylacentce, we find ail degrees of transition, as illustrated in the different species of St. Johnswort and in Poppy, where the inflected margins of the carpels carry the placentye inward, well-nigh to the axis. Moreover, the placenta3 are not always mere marginal lines, but often wide spaces covering large portions of the walls of the cell, as in Poppy and Water-lily ; in other cases, as Datura (168), they become large and fleshy, nearly filling the cell. 133, Samolus Valerandi, section of flower showing the free axial placenta. 134, Ovary of Scrophulit- riaceae. 135, Ovary of Tulip. 136. Cross-section of ovary of Flax, S-celled, falsely 10-celled. 137, Ovarv of Violet, 1-cclled. 1.38, Ovary of Fuchsia, 4-celled. 139, Ovary of Rock-rose, 1-celled, 5-carpelled 140, Geiitianaceie, 2-valved, 1-celled. 135. A free axial placenta^ without partitions, occurs in some compound one-celled ovaries, as in the Pink and Primrose orders (133). This anomaly is explained in two ways — first, by the obliteration of the early formed partitions, as is actually seen to occur in the Pinks ; secondly, by supposing the placenta to be, at least in some cases, an axial rather than a marginal growth ; that is, to grow from the point of the axis rather than from the margin of the carpellary leaf, for in Primrose no partitions ever appear. 136. A few peculiar forms of the style and stigma are worthy of note in our narrow limits, as the lateral style of Strawberry; the basilar style of the Labiatie and Borrage- ■worts; the branching style of Emblica, one of the Enphorbiacese ; also the globular 48 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. stigma of Mirabilis ; the linear stigma of Gyromia ; the feathery stigma of Grasses ; the filiform stigma of Indian corn ; the lateral stigma of Aster; the petaloid stigmas of Iris; the hooded stigma of Violet (141-149). Pistih. — 141, Sj-mphyttim, basilar style, ovary 4-parted. branching styles. 143, Mirabilis Jalapa, globular stigma. Feathery stigmas of a Grass. 146, Stigmas of Aster. 147, of Zea Mays (Corn). 142, ? Flower of Emblica (Euphorbiacese), 144, Flower of Luzula, stigmas linear. 14.5, Runiex. 148, Poppy. 149, Filiform stigma 137. In the Pino, Cedar, and the Conifer® generally, both the style and stigma are wanting; and the ovary is represented only by a flat, open, carpellary scale, bearing the naked ovules at its base. i?m(?2C.— 123. What the Gynoecium regularly consists of. How it may vary. Varia- tions in number. What is the meaning of trigynous, etc. ? 125. How to know the simple pistil. Its members. Which is non-essential ? Define the carpel. How it is folded. Proofs of the theory. Explain by figs. 124, 125. Define placentae. The Pea-pod as a simple carpel. Describe the stigma. l;iO. Various degrees of union in the pistils. Six signs indicating the number of carpels. First mode of cohesion. Four theorems. Second mode. Two theorems. Explain the free axial placenta. Peculiar forms (141-149). 137. Stigma in the Pine. CHAPTER IX THE OVULES. 138. The ovules are understood to be transformed huds^ des- tined to become seeds in the fruit. Their development from the margins and inner surface of the carpel favors this view ; for the ordinary leaves of Bryophyllum and some other plants do habit- ually produce buds at their margin or on their upper surface; and in the Mignonette, ovules themselves have been seen trans- formed into leaves. 139. The number of ovules in the ovary varies from one to hundreds. Thus in Buttercups, Composiia?, and Grasses, the THE OVULES. 49 ovule is solitary ; in Umbelliferse it is also solitary in each of the two carpels ; in the Pea order they are definite^ being but few ; in Mullein and Poppy, indefinite { Cc), too many to be readily counted. As to position, the ovule is erect when it grows up- ward from the base of the cell, as in Compositae; ascending, when it turns upward from the side of the cell ; horizontal^ when neither turning upward nor downward ; pendulous^ when turned downward; and stcspended, when growing directly downward from the top of the cell, as in Birch (158-161). 150, Pistil of Celosia; the pericarp detached, showing the young ovules. 151, Flower of Rhubarb, pericarp removed, showing the young ovule. 152, A similar ovule (orthotropous) of Polygonum. 153, The same, full grown; foramen at top. 154, Section showing its two coats, nucleus, and sac. 155, Ana- tropous ovule, as of Columbine; a, foramen. 156, Section of same. 157, Campylotropous ovule, as of Bean; a, foramen. 158, Section of a Cherry; ovule anatropous, suspended. 159, Section of carpel of Ranunculus; ovule ascending. 160, Senecio; ovule erect. 161, llippuris; ovule pendulous. 140. The ovule at the time of flowering is soft and pulpy, consisting of a nucleus within two coats, supported on a stalk. The stalk is called funiculus ; the point of its juncture with the base of the nucleus is the chalaza. The nucleus was first formed ; then the tegmen^ or inner coat, grew up from the chalaza and covered it; and lastly the outer coat, the testa^ invested the whole. Both coats remain open at the top by a small orifice, Ihe foramen. 141. In most cases the ovule, in the course of its growth, changes position — curving over in various degrees upon its lengthening funiculus or upon itself. When no such curvature exists, and it stands straight, as in the Buckwheat order, it is 50 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. orthdtropous. It is andtropous when completely inverted. In this state a portion of the funiculus adheres to the testa, forming a ridge called raphe, reaching from the chalaza to the hilum. It is campylotropous when curved upon itself. In this state the foramen is brought near to the chalaza, and both are next the placenta, as in the Pinks and Cruciferge ; and aynphUropoxis when half inverted, so that its axis becomes parallel with the placenta, as in Mallow. Here the raphe exists, but is short. In campylo- tropous there is no raphe. 142. The ovule contains no young plant (embryo) yet; but a cavity, the embryo sac, is already provided to receive it just within the upper end of the nucleus. The relations of the ovule to the pollen grain will be more suitably discussed hereafter, under the head of fertilization. We briefly remark here that the immediate contact of the two is brought about, at the time of flowering, by special arrangements ; and that, as the undoubted result of their combined action, the embryo soon after originates in the embryo sac. Revieic.—\^. Nature of the ovules. 139. How many? Five terms indicative of their position. What is funiculus?— Chalaza? How the ovule develops. An orthotropoua ovule. Anatropous. Two other similar terms. 142. What provision for the coming ftmbryo ? Relation to the pollen grain. CHAPTER X. THE FRUIT. PERICARP. 143. After having imbibed the pollen which the anthers have discharged, the pistil or its ovary continues its growth and en- largement, and is finally matured in the form of the peculiar fruit of the plant. The fruit is, therefore, properly speaking, the ovary brought to perfection. 144. As to the other organs of the flower, having accomplished their work— the fertiliza- tion of the ovary— they soon wither and fall away. Some of them, however, often persist, to protect or become blended with the ripening fruit. Thus the tube of the svperior calyx (§ 97) always blends with the ovary in fruit; as in Currant, Cucumber, Apple, etc. Ii <^oniposita3, the persistent limb enlarges into the pappus of the fruit. In Buttercups, tl i fruit is beaked with the short, persistent style. In Clematis and Geum, it is caudate (tailed) with the long, growing style. In the Potato tribe, Labiatae, and many others, the iv^'eHoi' calyx continues to vegetate like leaves until the fruit ripens. In some cases the fruit, so called, con-ists of the receptacle and ovaries blended; as in Blackberry and Strawberry. Again— in Mulberry, Pig, and Pineapple, the whole inflorescence is con- solidated into the matured fruit. THE FRUIT. 51 145. As a rule, the structure of the fruit agrees essentially with that of the ovary. In many cases, however, the fruit un- dergoes such changes in the course of its growth from the ovary as to disguise its real structure. An early examination, there- fore, is always more reliable in its results than a late one. For example, the Oak-acorn is a fruit with but one cell and one seed, although its ovary had three cells and six ovules ! This singular change is due to the non-development of five of its ovules, while the sixth grew the more rapidly, obliterated the partitions by pressing them to the wall, and filled the whole space itself Similar changes characterize the Chestnut, Hazel- nut, and that whole Order. The ovary of the Birch is 2-celled, 2-ovuled ; but by the suppression of one cell with its ovule, the fruit becomes 1-celled and 1-seeded. 162, Section of the ovary of an Acorn, 3-celled, 6-ovuled. 163, Section of ovary of Bircli, 2-celled, 2-ovuled. 164. Vertical section of tlie same in fruit. 165, Pericarp of Miirnonette open soon after flow ering. 166, Naked seed of Taxus Canadensis, surrounded, not covered, by the tieshy pericarp. On the other hand, the cells are sometimes multiplied in the fruit by the formation of false partitions. Thus the pod of Thornapple (Datura) becomes 4-celled from a S-celled ovary; and the longer pods of some Leguminous plants have cross-partitions formed between the seeds. 146. The Pericarp. The fruit consists of the pericarp and the seed. The pericarp {irspl, around) is the envelope of the seeds, consisting of the carpels and whatever other parts they may be combined with. It varies greatly in texture and sub- stance when mature, being then either dry, as the Pea-pod, or succulent, as the Currant. Dry pericarps are membranous, or coriaceous (leathery), or woody. Succulent pericarps may be either wholly so, as the Grape, or partly so, as the Peach and other stone fruit. 147. With very few exceptions the pericarp encloses the seed while maturing. In Mignonette (105), however, it opens, ex- 52 STRUCTUEAlj BOTANY. posing tlie seed, immediately after flowering. The membranous pericarp of Cohosh (Leontice) falls away early, leaving the seed to ripen naked. In Yew (Taxus) the seed is never enclosed wholly by its fleshy pericarp ; but in most of the other Coni- ferse, the close-pressed, carpellary scales cover the seeds. One- seeded fruits, like those of Butter-cups, etc., are liable to be mistaken for naked seeds. Capsule, 167. of Scroplmlaria, 2-celled; 168, of Datura Stramonium; 169, of Iris; 170, showing its mode of dehiscence (h)culicidiil). 171, of Colchicum, 3-ceIled. 172, Regma, ripe fruit of Geranium, the carpels (cocci) separating from the axis and bending upward on the elastic styles. 148. Dehiscence. The fleshy pericarp is always mf?e^^scew^. Its seeds are liberated only by its decay, or bursting in germi- nation. So also in many cases the dry pericarp, as the acorn. But more commonly the dry fruit, when arrived at maturity, opens in some way, discharging its seeds. Such fruits are de- hiscent. Dehiscence is either valvular, porous, or circumscissile ; valvular^ when the pericarp opens vertically along the sutures, forming regular parts called valves. These valves may separate quite to the base, or only at the top, forming teeth, as in Chick- weed. We notice four modes of valvular dehiscence, viz, : 1, Suttiral^ when it takes place at the sutures of any 1 -celled pericarp, as Columbine, Pea, Violet. 2, Septlcidal [septum^ partition, cmdo^ to cut), when jt takes j)lace through the dissepiments (which are double, § 132). The carpels thus separated may open severally by sutures (Mallows), or remain indehiscent, as in Vervain. 3, LocuVicidal (locidus, a cell, ccedo, to cut), when each carpel FORMS OF THE PERICAlir. 6a opens at its dorsal suture directly into the cell (Evening Prim- rose, Lily). Here the dissepiments come away attached to the middle of the valves. 4. Septtf vagal {septum^ and frajiffo, to break), when the valves separate from the dissepiments which remain still united in the axis (Convolvulus.) 173 Dehiscence; 173, septicidal; 174, icculicidai, 175. scptifragal. 149. Porous dehiscence is exemplified in the Poppy, where the seeds escape by orifices near the top of the fruit. It is not common. Glrcumscissile {circu?nscmdo, to cut around), when the top of the ovary opens or falls off like a lid, as in Jefferso- nia. Henbane, Plantain. Some fruits, as the Gerania and Um- belliferse, are furnished with a carpophore^ that is, a slender col- umn from the receptacle — a fusiform torus, prolonged through the axis of the fruit, supporting the carpels. 7?«ri«w.— 143. Origin of the fruit. Death of the flower. What parts may survive ?— In Apple? Genm? Potato? Strawberry? 145. A rule and an exception. Instance in Oak- Birch. What change in Thornapple ? 14(J. Constituents of the fruit. Etymology of pericarp. Texture. 147. Open pericarps. 148. What is dehiscence and indehiscence. Three general modes of dehiscence. Four modes of valvular dehiscence. 149. Define Porous dehiscence — Circumscissile. What is a carpophore ? Illustrate by 172, 177. CHAPTER XL FOKMS OF THE PERICARP. 150. The morphology of the pericarp is exceedingly diversified; but it will suffice the learner at first to acquaint himself with the leading forms only, such as are indicated in the following synopsis and more definitely described afterward. The following is a synopsis of the principal forms of Pericarps for the blackboard. 54 STKUCTURAL BOTANY. § 1. Free Fruits {/armed by a single Flower). * Pericarps iiideliiscent. t With usually but one seed, and :|; Uniform, or 1-coated. 1. Separated from the seed. 2. Inflated, often breaking away. 3. Inseparable from the seed. 4. Invested with a cupule (involucre). 5. Having winged appendages. X Double or triple-coated, fleshy or fibrous. 6. Three-coated. Stone cell entire. 7. Two-coated. Stone cell 2-partcd. 8. Drupes aggregated. t With two or more seeds, t Immersed in a fleshy or pulpy mass. 9. Kind membranous. 10. Rind leathery, separable. 11. Kind hard, crustaceous. t 12. Inclosed in distinct cells. * Pericarps dcliiscent. t 13. Dehiscence circumscissile, seeds oo . + Dehiscence valvular or porous ; i Simple, or 1-carpelled, 14. Opening by the ventral suture. 15. Opening by both sutures. 10. Legume jointed. X Compound pericar])s ; 17. Placentie parietal with two cells. Silique short. 18. Placentie parietal only when 1-celled. Achenium (Buttercups), Utricle (Pigweed). Caryopsis (Grasses) Glans (Oak). Samara (Ash). Drupe (Cherry). Tryma (Walnut). Etaerio (Raspberry). Berry (Gooseberry). Ilesperidium (Orange). Pepo (Squash). Pome (Apple). Pyxis (Henbane). Follicle (Columbine). Legume (Pea). Loment (Desmodium). Silique (Mustard). Silicle (Shepherd's Purse;. Capsule (Flax). 19. Capsule with cari)ophore and elastic styles. Regma (Geranium). § 2. Conflmnt Fruits (Jornwd of an Inflorescence). ♦ 20. With open carpels aggregated into a cone. • 21. With closed carpels aggregated into a mass. Strobile (Pine). Sorosis (Pineapple.) 151. The achenium is a small, dry, indehiscent pericarp, free from the one seed which it contains, and tipped with the remains of the Style (Buttercups, Lithospermum). The double achenium of the UmbcUifene, supported on a cariwphoi'e, is called cremo- carp (177). The 2-carpcllcd achenium of the Composita^, usually crowned with a pappus, is called ci/psela (178). The achenia are often mistaken for seeds. In the Labiatie and Borrageworts they are associated in fours (141). In Geum, Anemone, etc., they are collected in heads. 'I'he rich pulp of the Strawberry consists wholly of the overgrown receptacle, which bears the dry achenia on its surface (184). 152. The utricle is a small, thin pericarp, fitting loosely upon its one seed, and often opening transversely to discharge it (Pigweed, Prince's Feather). FORMS OF THE PERICARP. 153. Cari/opsis, the grain or fruit of the Grasses, is a thin, dry, 1-seeded pericarp, inseparable from the seed. 154. Samara; dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, furnished with a membranous wing or wings (Ash, Elm, Maple). 184 - A yfC^ -irft ^»v 176 176, Achenia of Anemone tnalictroides. 177, Creniocarp of Archansrelica oflRcinalis, its halves (mero- carps) separated and suspended on the carpophore. 178, Cypsela of Thistle with its plnnious pappus. 179, Utricle of Chenopodium (PifTweed). 180, Caryopsis of W lio.it. 181, Samara of Elm. 182, Glaus o» Beech. 183, Drupe of Frunus. 181, Fruit of Fragaria Indica, a fleshy torus like tho Strawberry. 155. GlanSj or met; hard, dry, indehiscent, commonly 1-seeded by suppression (§145), and invested with a persistent involucre called a cupule, either solitary (Acorn, Hazelnut) or several together. (Chestnut, Beechnut). 156. Drupe, stone-fruit ; a 3-coated, 1-celled, indehiscent peri- carp, exemplified in the Cherry and Peach. The outer coat ((epidermis) is called the epicarp ; the inner is the nucleus or endocarp, hard and stony ; the* intervening pulp or fleshy coat is the sarcocarp ((J'ap^, flesh). These coats are not distinguish- able in the ovary. 157. Tryma, a kind of dryish drupe, 2-coated; the epicarp fibro-fleshy (Butternut) or woody (Hickory) ; the nucleus bony, with its cell often deeply 2-parted (Cocoanut). 158. Etfjerio, an aggregate fruit consisting of numerous little drupes united to each other (Raspberry) or to the fleshy recep- tacle (Blackberry). 159. Berry, a succulent, thin-skinned pericarp, holding the seeds loosely imbedded in the pulp (Currant, Grape). 160. IIci