MILNER'S 
 
 LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
THE ART AND PRACTICE OF 
 LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
THE 
 
 ART AND PRACTICE 
 
 OF 
 
 LANDSCAPE 
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 BY 
 
 HENRY ERNEST MILNER, F.L.S., Assoc.M.inst.C.E. 
 
 WITH PLANS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 HonOon: 
 
 OF THE AUTHOR, DULWICH WOOD, NORWOOD, S.E., 
 
 AND 
 
 SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT, AND CO., LIMITED. 
 
 STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LONDON. 
 1890. 
 
CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, 
 CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 MY father, the late Edward Milner, as the colleague for many years 
 of Sir Joseph Paxton, was concerned in all the later achievements of 
 Landscape Gardening carried out by that distinguished man ; and 
 from 1850 until 1884 himself designed and completed many of the 
 finest works of the kind that have ever been produced, not only 
 in this country, but in various notable places on the continent of 
 Europe. By this prosecution of his art in such extended practice, 
 he attained a purely exceptional experience, the opportunity for 
 which ripened his artistic powers ; and without question he was 
 enabled to illustrate by his works a steady advance of the art, 
 which is essentially English. On my part, as the colleague of my 
 father, and as successor not only to his profession but to many 
 fruits of his experience, I too have had ample opportunities to 
 practically illustrate the art that I love and. the work that I delight 
 in. Impelled by that love, I have endeavoured to realise the 
 principles on which I have been led to base the artistic conceptions 
 of my work, and the points of practice by which it may be carried 
 out. I do not intend to advance any fashion, past or present, in 
 Landscape Gardening, but to set forth my own opinions and my 
 own practice, however incompletely that may be done. 
 
 H. E. M. 
 
 DULWICH WOOD, S.E., 
 June, 1890. 
 
 Ml 2694 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE v 
 
 INTRODUCTION . . . x 
 
 THE APPROACH 9 
 
 SITE OF THE HOUSE AND OF THE GARDENS 15 
 
 THE TERRACE 23 
 
 ARRANGEMENT AND FORMATION. ... . 3= 
 
 WORK OF FORMATION ' 37 
 
 PLANTING 45 
 
 WATER ......... . 6l 
 
 FOUNTAINS . . ..... . . . . . . ; ?0 
 
 STRUCTURES . / . ... . : \ . . ; . . 73 
 
 HOTHOUSES . . . ./.-.;'. . . .... 77 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN . ..>..-. . . . . 88 
 
 PUBLIC PARKS AND CEMETERIES. .'.. . . . . : . . 93 
 
 ECONOMIC TREATMENT OF LAND ... . -],^ . 100 
 
 EXAMPLES OF WORK: 
 
 (1) KESZTHELY c "-''. .' . . L . .- - . -. . , . . -. 106 
 
 (2) PEVEREY . , . . .- ..-;.,> . . . '' i',. m 
 
THE ART AND PRACTICE OF 
 
 LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 To define the properties of an art must always be an opiniative 
 endeavour, since conceptions of beauty are varied and ever varying, 
 and the means whereby art can express what is beautiful, appeal 
 with their fascination or their fuller force of conviction rather in the 
 measure of the recipient's appreciation than of the giver's power. 
 
 The function of fine art is to exhibit beauty that ineffable 
 beauty which can stir in the human breast emotions claiming 
 for our better nature kindred with higher things. The architect 
 rears a temple or a cathedral in which effects of light and the com- 
 bination of lines create a feeling of awe that compels an ignorant 
 and careless man to speak in a whisper ; the sculptor or the 
 painter records in form, or simulated form and colour, that con- 
 ception of beauty with which the artist has been gifted ; the 
 composer gives being, by musical tone, to some subtle emotion of 
 our nature that has yearned dumbly within us, till the touch of 
 divine genius gives it distinctness of existence. The poet 
 makes beauty articulate to our reason, seeking that path to the 
 
2 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 heart. But there is another form of art yet. There are expres- 
 sions of beauty to which we are all subject, and to an appreciation 
 of which we are most of us educated. We are always under their 
 influence. In a thousand forms Nature herself puts forward her 
 charms, and the influence of these is, in degree, upon us all, 
 arousing emotions, or enriching those we possess. It is difficult to 
 define the working and result of such emotions ; moreover, the 
 wealth of their sweetness and grandeur would be lessened could 
 we impose on ourselves a definite conception of their extent. 
 Nature appeals to us in multitudinous ways, in particular as well 
 as in general effect : in the mute appeal of the violet, as well 
 as in the majesty of the oak ; in light and shade ; in the sheen 
 of water; in the infinite variety of the formation of the earth's 
 surface ; in the disposition of foliage both in colour and outline ; 
 in combination of different features, and in constant development. 
 Simply to accumulate and crowd together natural productions, 
 in themselves beautiful, may give us collections, but not the desired 
 result. If we endeavour to define the art of landscape gardening, 
 it may be stated as the taking true cognizance of Nature's means 
 for the expression of beauty, and so disposing those means artistically 
 as to co-operate for our delight in given conditions. 
 
 It is not the author's intention by this book to give 
 another history of landscape gardening ; his intention is rather to 
 record the present development of the art and his own relation 
 to, and practice of it. The love of natural picturesqueness is 
 of very modern growth in England. Its rise was coincident with 
 that of the modern novel in literature, and of genre painting in 
 art. Little more than a century has, with the aid of conducing 
 influences, ripened the feeling to a passion. Peace and augmenting 
 prosperity have been necessary conditions for advancing the art 
 of gardening in this country, since that time when safety made it 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 possible for the wealthy to live outside towns in unfortified houses. 
 Up to the middle of the last century all progress made was in 
 fetters of artificiality, formal and imitative in respect of the art 
 features. The garden contiguous to the house was laid out for 
 utility or for pleasure with a purpose of distinguishing it from the 
 surrounding scenery ; and it was natural that the same feeling which 
 gave the character to the house should also prevail in the garden. 
 Every possible appearance of uniformity was bestowed on the 
 enclosed ground. Regularity and order contrasted with Nature's 
 aspect outside. Admiration was courted by means of regu- 
 larity, and by marking to the spectator the labour, design, and 
 expense bestowed on the garden. Moreover, in any extension, 
 duplication of lines was aimed at rather than the introduction of a 
 new design. But, as the eighteenth century came on, the newer 
 influences were strengthening ; causes produced effects, which in 
 their turn became causes of advance, and with the appreciation of 
 Nature's beauties in scenery, the art that was to minister to the 
 better feeling became more definite in its tendency, until the present 
 development of the Art of Landscape Gardening truthfully and 
 distinctively styled English has been reached. Our love of natural 
 beauty has been greatly fostered by the modern systems of easy 
 travelling, by peace at home and by the stupendous accretion of 
 private as well as of national wealth. It is startling to note in 
 how narrow a strip of our history, these conditions have been 
 established completely. The Victorian period has these facts on 
 its records. 
 
 Up to the commencement of the eighteenth century, landscape 
 gardening was mostly the work of architects ; and it was characterised 
 by formal art features, by intricacy of design in parts, and by 
 treatment of the ground as a plane surface. That ideal of beauty 
 resulted in a feeling that Nature had been pushed, and coerced,. 
 
4 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 and sometimes dragged to an effect. Nature, it is true, is always 
 at work, and, as time goes on, clothes a neglected grave with 
 beauty, or makes an unsightly rubbish heap lovely with her gifts ; 
 and, in like manner, she gives venerableness to magnificently- 
 grown trees in stately parks, which compel admiration not entirely 
 due to the design of the planter. So natural beauty combines 
 with historical associations to give many old gardens an indescrib- 
 able charm especially valued in this land. Next, the influence 
 of pictorial artists was felt. They strove to modify the old con- 
 strained practice by the imposition of an almost equal artificiality of 
 picturesqueness. The resulting effect, as now appreciated, at all 
 events, is a feeling of unrest and stiffness. Nature seems still to 
 work in fetters. I shall endeavour now briefly to investigate some 
 of the conclusions which, in my estimation, form bases for a 
 better practice of the art, the method of which I have sought to 
 describe in this book. 
 
 Water, by its constant gentle action, or by its sweeping directed 
 force, has, without question, been a principal agent in forming the 
 natural surface of our earth. It has scooped out valleys and modified 
 the hills ; in one place leaving their rounded sides and tops covered 
 with forest, in another bringing down loose earth till the hill-tops 
 and slopes show clear and perfectly curved outlines ; or, again, 
 leaving bare the rocks standing out in grand abruptness. With 
 the subsidence of the water, wide grassy valleys have been formed ; 
 wherein are seen long vistas of lawn running up till they are lost in 
 the obscurity of the forest. Then, through the middle of the hollowed 
 and widening fertile valley, runs the stream, that spreads into the 
 lake, giving an expression of the water's subsidence in the restricted 
 action of the stream or the subsided force of the more placid water. 
 Therefore it is right, in forming a restricted landscape, to bear 
 in mind Nature's grand agent in the formation of her greater land- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 scapes, wherein are presented endless varieties of form, of line, 
 and of colour, far-stretching even plains rich with herbage, hill- 
 sides and tops covered with foliage, as well as swelling downs 
 with their vast sweeping curves. These forms of beauty may exercise 
 their fascination on the most unlearned, or appeal with augmented 
 force to the most cultivated human nature. It is the province of 
 the Landscape Gardener, as I understand the art, to appreciate the 
 multitudinous means whereby Nature expresses her beauty, and so 
 to use those means artistically as to arrange their force for pro- 
 ducing the delightful result he desires to achieve. To servilely 
 copy Nature's forms is to incur the pettiness of mere reproduction 
 in little, with the penalty of a falsification. To utilise her means and 
 to let the spirit of her works influence our art in every practicable 
 way, is the true practice of the art of Landscape Gardening. 
 
 And can we deduce principles of art from the effect of Nature's 
 picturesqueness, and the details of her action ? A loving student 
 of her, with an artistic spirit, does derive some principles ; but 
 he feels more than he can describe of them. He comes to know 
 the truth that he who feels best the infinitude of Nature's expressions 
 of beauty, receives their influence without consciousness of the 
 process. By observation of mankind, he notes how certain mental 
 processes become active when reason and the finer sympathetic spirit, 
 that we call feeling, are pleasantly excited by testimony of the eye. 
 He classifies such phenomena and calls them laws. The artist, 
 after all, can do little more than generalise the truths in this wise 
 he thinks he has discovered ; yet they are the means by which he 
 works, as with a gentle and practised method he designs to bring 
 the sweet influences to bear, with as little evidence as may be of 
 the shaping hand. For illustration, I shall very briefly indicate 
 some such deductions that seem to me to afford guidance for the 
 artist of Landscape Gardening. 
 
6 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 Nature seldom presents a straight line in any of her forms, 
 unless in the seeming regularity of an oceanic horizon, or the smaller 
 line of water surface. A straight line is the product of art, for even 
 the apparently upright line of the Parthenon columns results from 
 a delicate curve. Nature presents in her broad effects and gra- 
 duated detail, an infinity of curvilinear features. There is beauty in 
 contrast of form ; but appropriateness of natural position is a condition 
 of its value in the scene. As in Nature, water plays such an im- 
 portant part in the formation of the land, so in our circumscribed 
 landscape, the feeling that pervades all Nature should prevail in our 
 treatment of the ground. A calculated shadow on a lawn is a 
 resource of value for the artistic use of natural effect. The extended 
 surface of down land shows exquisite gradation of light and shade ; 
 but not the true vastness of space to the unpractised vision. The 
 eye seeks to estimate distant features, and insensibly gains a 
 standard of measurement from intervening objects, and, when 
 these are absent, most frequently miscalculates distance. Lines or 
 objects placed in a direction going from the line of vision, make 
 the space so marked appear longer, whilst lines running across it, 
 make the space appear less distant. Grass, clothing the ground 
 surface, has an expression of stability and repose ; it seems to be 
 immovable ; and in colour it illustrates the tint of foliage to which it 
 forms a base and background. Trees and shrubs, by the contrast 
 of foliage, give variety, and a gradation of colours may promote 
 the idea of distance. They should clothe the hill-tops and slopes in 
 masses of irregular outline. A sky-line of trees should not be con- 
 tinuous, but should be broken. A valley appears deeper by not being 
 planted, as a hill appears higher than it really is by being planted 
 to its summit. Single trees emphasize falling ground, and they, 
 like the shadowy regions of a wood, conduce to a sensation of 
 mystery, subtly stimulating imagination. They induce an idea of 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 possible shelter that bestows pleasurable sensations. Falling ground 
 appears shorter, whilst level ground at the base of a hill, as also 
 rising ground, seems longer than it in reality is. The idea of spacious- 
 ness can be artificially promoted, particularly by the breaking of 
 continuous lines and hard boundary lines, and by providing various 
 objects for the eye to count, just outside the direct line of sight. 
 Vision invariably travels down a hollow, or depression, or through 
 any opening. Thus the idea of distance may be created, and the 
 eye be conducted to realise what is desired. By directing the vision 
 to distant beauties of landscape, they may be brought into the 
 artist's plan. Trees especially serve to frame a particular view. 
 In every situation a beyond implies discovery, and affects the imagi- 
 nation. The area is circumscribed of which we can take cognizance 
 too readily and completely ; imagination is then confused or frustrated. 
 The beauty of water, in motion or still, is of universal acceptance. 
 The created character of a water-feature must be consonant with 
 the surrounding land ; for fitness to surrounding conditions is a 
 measure of beauty to both. A lake expresses spaciousness ; but 
 much of its charm is due to its outline. A river expresses action. 
 Trees or high banks on the edge of water diminish its extent 
 when seen from the opposite bank, and make it dull. An opening 
 in the -trees, or the lowering of a high bank, make a gleam of light, 
 and the length in that direction appears greater. The ground 
 immediately around a dwelling, forming the artificial base on 
 which it rests, should be treated formally, and the site and aspect 
 of the house will, in a measure, determine the relation to it of the 
 contiguous ground. The approaches should be direct, convenient, 
 and not strained. 
 
 Such deductions as the foregoing may serve to illustrate some 
 of the resources of the Landscape Gardener, and by their paucity 
 in relation to the infinite developments of beauty in the nature 
 
8 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 around us, demonstrate the impossibility of denning the range of 
 this art. Its conceptions are more frequently to be felt than described ; 
 and the attempt to deduce from them a set of fixed principles 
 must be as futile as an endeavour to completely systematise the 
 ever varying yet constant manifestations of beauty that we encounter 
 in the vast field of Nature's operations which adorn the surface of 
 our country. Nature is the great exemplar that I follow. The 
 method I adopt I have endeavoured to describe in the several 
 divisions of this book. 
 
THE APPROACH. 
 
 THE approach through an enclosed estate to the house upon it, is 
 one of the most pressing matters to settle in laying out a residential 
 property, and this feature often determines the choice of a site for 
 the structure. The principal points for consideration are, firstly, the 
 place for entrance from the public road, and next the route thence, 
 requiring not only artistic treatment but convenience of approach, 
 and of access to the house, the offices, the stables, kitchen- 
 garden and the farm, and care that on the route such good views, 
 or objects of interest that may exist, shall be displayed. 
 
 It may be taken as an axiom, that the approach to a house 
 should always appear to be direct, and any deviation from such 
 directness should not only arise from, but should also be made to 
 appear to arise from, some decided obstacle. By direct, is not 
 meant straight. A curved line of road is generally to be preferred, 
 because it is more easy of construction, and because more varied 
 views can be obtained, since it can follow in great measure the 
 natural contour of the ground. A straight drive should be used 
 only when an imposing, or somewhat pretentious building is at the 
 end of it. It is only allowable in flat country, or where some 
 special object has to be attained. If the ground is very un- 
 dulating a straight road is out of character with its surrounding. 
 Of course, when a venerable and stately avenue of old trees has to 
 
 c 
 
io THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 be dealt with, a different treatment is taken. Curves should be 
 long and easy. The side slopes of a curved drive, can be more 
 easily and freely dealt with than the sides of a straight drive, 
 because they may be steep or flat, as desired. An uniform slope 
 is unnatural. It is advisable in deep cuttings to bring forward 
 prominent points which may support planting ; or, if in a suitable 
 country, rocky promontories may be made or shown ; and between 
 these projections the spaces should be judiciously excavated, so that 
 the vision following up the hollows thus made will be carried to 
 the ground beyond, and the observer will not realise the fact that 
 an artificial cutting has been introduced. 
 
 The natural slope of earth surface varies ; but, as a rule, it is 
 not wise to make any slope steeper than 2:1, save at exceptional 
 points, where there is planting or rockwork. At such points of 
 abrupt declivity the turf should, if necessary, be pegged down. 
 The gradient of a curved drive can be varied, following within 
 limits the natural undulation of the ground. It should not be made 
 with a series of gradients of certain ratio meeting at angles ; but 
 the gradient should rise or fall imperceptibly, with a line as even, 
 continuous, and graceful as that of a horizontal drive. At the 
 entrance from the public road, and also where the route reaches the 
 house, the gradient should be nearly level, and the line straight, and 
 it is well to keep the gradient level at crossings, or turns to 
 various points. The gradient of a good drive should not be steeper 
 than one in fourteen, though one in nine is a road over which a 
 carriage may be driven with safety. A drive should not run 
 parallel to the public road with the mere purpose of lengthening 
 
 / 
 
 the course, or seeming to prolong it. When the house is at a 
 comparatively short distance from the public road, on a much 
 higher level, and the object is apparent to overcome the difference 
 of level, then the resource may be adopted. It is to be remarked 
 
THE APPROACH. n 
 
 that a curved line looks much straighter on paper than when 
 worked out on the ground. If there is a continuous gradient on 
 a continuous curve, with a dip in the gradient beyond which the 
 drive is again seen, that part of the drive in the hollow should be 
 either straight, or decidedly curved ; otherwise, when seen from 
 either end, the line appears to be broken. 
 
 A straight approach requires very careful treatment. It is 
 artificial in character, and requires, as well as admits of, artificial 
 expression. In undulating or on falling ground it should, if possible, 
 be made at right angles to the slope of the hill. The gradient 
 should be very even, and much flatter than that used for a curved 
 line. Unless it is very even, although a graceful gradient curve 
 be used, the observer looking up such a drive will imagine it is 
 not straight. The slopes, both where cut and where artificially 
 constructed by filling, are better if they are formal and regular ; 
 not with alternate cutting and filling as on a railway, but with 
 uniformity of resource. 
 
 The width of drives is ruled by the character and importance 
 of the traffic they are to take. A breadth of nine feet suffices for 
 the passage of one carriage ; where two carriages may meet, the 
 road should be fourteen feet wide. The above is a minimum 
 dimension, such as may be resorted to when the ground is flat, 
 and on either side of the road is grass, to which a foot passenger 
 can retire, or on to which even a carriage could in case of need 
 be turned ; but in ordinary cases it is better to give eleven or 
 twelve feet for the single drive, and sixteen to eighteen feet for the 
 double road. Economy sometimes rules in regard to these dimen- 
 sions. The width of drives is frequently determined not by the 
 exigencies of the traffic, but by the relatively important character 
 of the route. Thus a drive to the principal entrance of the house 
 would be fourteen feet, or sixteen feet or eighteen feet, while that 
 
12 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 to the stables or offices ten feet. Or as at Beechy Lees the drives 
 are as shown on the sketch I. A drive with a sharp curve must 
 have a greater width than is necessary in the straight. 
 
 As any one enters on an estate from the public road, he always 
 looks around when just inside the gate, and perhaps, unconsciously, 
 records an impression. It should be a matter of careful study, then, 
 to give to the entrance as much realisation and promise of beauty 
 as may be feasible. The difference between a dusty, untidy road 
 outside, and the shaded, well-trimmed drive within the gate, should 
 be made pleasurably apparent ; and, as far as practicable, a view 
 of the outlying grounds, a stretch of park, or the inner foliage of 
 a wood should be visible through an opening, or be seen in broad 
 expanse for the moment as the visitor passes rapidly on. At all 
 cross roads and turning points, the same inspection occurs, and of 
 necessity the opportunity is most favourable when the visitor alights 
 at the entrance to the house, and contemplates the scene the near 
 view, or the distant outspread prospect that he may afterwards look 
 at so often, but never with more zest than when he receives, 
 perhaps hardly noting it, his first impression. 
 
 Drives that leave the main route for unimportant points, should 
 be curved as soon as may be convenient, so that the eye may not 
 be tempted to explore them, and give to them a certain importance 
 to the detriment of the main drive. It is preferable that the drive 
 rise gradually to the house throughout its whole course ; but if 
 that be not practicable, it is important that it should have an as- 
 cending gradient at least during the last stretch, when the front 
 entrance is in view. If the natural surface at this point be higher 
 than the ground level of the house, it should be lowered so that 
 there may be a rise, however slight, for however short a distance, 
 at this termination of the road. Until the drive be made thus to 
 rise, a straight direction should not be adopted, and a direct view 
 
J jj J 1. 'J f 
 
 ,\ L \ ? 'J ','. >\ J J 
 
THE APPROACH. 13 
 
 of the house should be prevented by planting, or by embankment, 
 so that the idea that the house is in a low position may not be 
 aroused. The drive should not skirt the garden, or overlook it. 
 It is sometimes difficult to comply with the former condition ; but 
 the latter can generally be met by sinking the carriage way, by 
 raising a bank along the gardens, and by planting. At Chatsworth, 
 though a straight drive, which is much used by the public, skirts 
 the west garden front, yet it is completely shut off from the 
 gardens by a high wall retaining the terrace gardens. 
 
 The treatment of either end of the main carriage drive is of much 
 importance. Taking first that nearest the house. The direction 
 and level of the approach, and the character of the architectural 
 features, will rule greatly the plan that can be adopted for the 
 facilities of carriage traffic, which must be provided here. For most 
 ordinary purposes the turn (see Plan) is sufficient, but examples 
 of different methods are shown. The gravelled plain in front 
 of the porch should not be less than thirty-three feet for a small 
 house ; but forty to sixty feet are requisite where two or more 
 carriages may stand. It is well at places of importance to arrange 
 this end of the drive, so that waiting carriages may circulate. There 
 must be a sufficient space on each side of the porch, and in line 
 with it, to admit of carriages drawing up close to the door, and 
 to progress beyond it without too abruptly turning. The entrance 
 to the gardens should not be from the drive, but from the house, 
 as, for example, in the turn to a small house. (See Plan.} 
 
 In choosing the place for, and forming, an entrance from the public 
 road (about the artistic effect of which something has already been 
 said) advantage may be taken of a turn in the highway, if the 
 position be suitable, so that by adapting the line of the public 
 road, and continuing it to the entrance gates, much importance 
 may be given them by making it appear that the highway leads 
 
i 4 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 through them. (See Plan, fig. A, and sketches, p. 9.) The entrance 
 gates may be formed at the junction of two roads as at B ; or 
 where a cross road even a minor one comes on to the main road as 
 at C, or the entrance can be set back as D ; or as E, where the gates 
 are set sufficiently back from the public road to allow a carriage to 
 stand clear. To a straight drive the entrance should be imposing ; 
 and though any of the forementioned examples may be adopted, 
 yet it is well that the treatment of this work should be formal in 
 character. (See Plan, Jig. H.) The gates as well as the lodge 
 should be at right angles to the drive, and belong to it rather 
 than to the public road. The line of boundary outside the gates 
 should also be straight for, at any rate, a few feet, before any turn 
 is begun. 
 
 The lodge should be so placed that the windows in the living 
 rooms command a certain length of both the drive and the public 
 road. 
 
 In placing such an entrance to the estate it is well, if possible, 
 not to make it at the boundary of the property. One consideration 
 in fixing the position should be the direction of the principal traffic 
 likely to pass to it ; the position of the town, the village, the 
 church, of notable places or objects of interest. It is moreover 
 advisable to plan the entrance, if it can be, at the foot of a hill 
 or rise in the public road, and not part way up an ascent, or at 
 the top of it. A drive that goes off fairly level ground at the 
 foot of a hill, always promotes a feeling of more repose than is to 
 be experienced in the positions just mentioned. 
 
 The actual work of making drives is dealt with later under the 
 heading of General Formation. 
 
SITE OF THE HOUSE AND OF THE GARDENS. 
 
 THERE are certain leading considerations that should rule our 
 determination in choosing the site for either a house or a garden, 
 which considerations may almost be taken as independent of taste, 
 and more in the nature of necessary conditions. They may be 
 defined as (a) aspect relation to the points of the compass ; 
 (b] prospect relation to the surrounding view ; (c) natural shelter ; 
 
 (d) convenience in regard to the approaches, and in respect of com-, 
 munication with stables and out-offices, as well as with the gardens ; 
 
 (e) the levels of the land ; (f) the formation of the subsoil. 
 Each of these questions will be treated in turn. 
 
 (a). The forms of houses, and the position of the principal i;ooms 
 in them, are so varied that it is difficult to put down a rule that 
 shall be absolute for all, even in the matter of aspect. In the 
 southern and midland counties of England, however, there is no 
 doubt that the main line of the house should be S.E. If the 
 sides of a house form a square, and the front be to the S.E., it would, 
 as the sun in summer rises N. of E., and sets N. of W., have 
 sunlight on all its walls ; whereas if the front of the house 
 were placed due S., the N. face would lack sunshine, while that 
 to the S. would probably have too much. The effect of such 
 conditions on the comfort of the house is enormous and constant, 
 and should never be undervalued. A house thus placed enjoys 
 
16 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 favourable conditions that are important, but are not very readily 
 recognised. The sun exercises its fullest force between i and 2 p.m. 
 At that hour the rays fall at an angle on the wall, and so with 
 an indirect impact that saves much oppressive heat, without undue 
 loss of illumination ; in fact, the extremes of heat and cold are 
 modified. In the northern counties, it may be advisable to give 
 the house a more southern aspect when it is a consideration to 
 gain full advantage of the shorter period of sunshine, and particularly 
 when a series of the best chambers have to be brought under the 
 influence. 
 
 (b\ It is of course an important consideration that such beauty 
 as may be derived from a prospect should be, so far as practicable, 
 open to the dwellers in the best apartments of the house, and the 
 position of the apartments may often be ruled accordingly. But 
 it is not desirable that the aspect of a residence should be 
 sacrificed to secure such a prospect. If need be, other positions may 
 be created in the gardens or grounds wherefrom the beauties of 
 the view may be fittingly contemplated ; but the conditions of 
 the aspect are fixed in their relation. ' No doubt all these questions 
 are matters of compromise in the end, but the steps whereby 
 such compromise is arrived at must be very warily and advisedly 
 taken. If it be determined that a fine view may be taken better 
 from a position in the garden than from the windows, another point 
 of attractiveness is created. Indeed, in country places especially, 
 it is a gain to create particular points of interest, such as a fine 
 prospect, a tennis-ground, a rose garden, an old-fashioned herbaceous 
 garden with trimmed hedges, or walls covered with climbers, a 
 (so-called) American garden, a fernery, a lake, etc. Such objects, 
 beautiful and pleasurable in themselves, yet requiring a slight ex- 
 cursion to reach them, are less commonplace than the stables, or 
 even the hothouses, to which the regulated trips are often made. 
 
SITE OF THE HOUSE AND OF THE GARDENS. 17 
 
 Even a view, however beautiful, that is lacking in variety of pro- 
 minent features, becomes tame to the constant onlooker, though to 
 him who occasionally contemplates it, the effect is fresh and delicious. 
 When the prospect is simply over a long stretch of even country, the 
 eye may get tired of it, and welcome the growth of intervening trees 
 that serve to break up the too regular panorama. When the view 
 is of a mountainous district, or where the surface is broken by- 
 abrupt hills, its ever- changing colours, its light and shade, under sun 
 and cloud, destroy monotony. This is the character of extended 
 scenery to be sought for. Water is always an agreeable feature, 
 especially when there is some promontory or curved shore to 
 diversify the regularity of margin. 
 
 In the circumscribed area of a park, or a garden, where 
 the boundary forms our limit of view, there are modes of treat- 
 ment that may modify or remove the impression of contracted 
 space. The groups of trees with undergrowth (technically called 
 "planting"), or even single trees, by the colour of the foliage, and 
 by the disposing of the boundary plantations, can promote the 
 idea of spaciousness. Such plantations should not exhibit con- 
 tinuous lines, unless for some strong reason, such as the creation 
 of necessary shelter. It is sometimes better even to let in the 
 view of the neighbouring town or fields. When any object in 
 itself disagreeable, or by association unpleasant, lies within view of 
 the house, or of any point near the house that has been made 
 notable, care must be taken to block out the object by an inter- 
 mediate group of planting ; in short, a wall, even though it be of 
 foliage, by too regular form, marks an enclosure too directly, and 
 militates against the idea of spaciousness and freedom, where 
 spaciousness and freedom should be most fully expressed. Any 
 hard formal boundary line, however wide its range may be, is 
 inimical to proper effect in this sense. 
 
 D 
 
1 3 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 When we contemplate any landscape, the vision invariably travels 
 down a hollow or depression, natural or artificial, and the eye 
 seeks to estimate the most distant features first, then to gain from 
 
 ". 
 
 intervening objects its measure, or presumed measure, of distances. 
 Thus the idea of distance can be created and artistically adapted. 
 In arranging the position of its principal chambers in a house, 
 it will be well to consider these facts when deciding on the site, 
 so that, so far as may be practicable, the rooms may be well 
 appropriate to the available views, or points of vantage in that 
 respect, existing, or to be created. The eye may be, as it were, 
 led to realise certain beauties, under the conditions ; but the possi- 
 bility of such conditions must be considered in choosing the site. 
 Sometimes the existence of a natural feature a group of old 
 trees, or even a single tree may go far toward determining many 
 questions of the choice. A venerable tree is a feature in decorative 
 work, having its fifty or sixty years of priceless value, that must 
 not be ignored or underestimated, because it may, and should be, 
 connected with the base of the house, and in such degree with 
 the house itself, to which, and to the whole design, it brings 
 by its mere age a characteristic appropriateness of adornment 
 that is of the highest value. It may be that a site has to be 
 chosen in this densely-populated land, where the least objection- 
 able points of view have to be considered rather than natural 
 beauties of wide prospect. In such circumstances, the site of the 
 residence should be kept as low as may be, and by raising the 
 surrounding ground, and by planting, all that is offensive may be 
 shut out. With every choice a house is well placed on a southern 
 hillside, preferably on a slight spur, at about one-third distance 
 from the top, so that shelter may be obtained from the hill, and 
 by planting above the house. 
 
 (c). The question of natural shelter has an obvious connection 
 
SITE OF THE HOUSE AND OF THE GARDENS. 19 
 
 with the particular district selected, and with the winds that 
 prevail there. The most natural and best protection is found in 
 a wooded hill. Wind force is more effectually modified and tem- 
 pered by growing trees than by any other means. If no hill exist, 
 or the hill be quite bare, planting should be employed. It should 
 extend, and may be liberally used, on north-eastern, northern, 
 and north-western sides. In some districts, notably on the 
 southern coasts, such shelter is to be obtained by planting the 
 south-western side. Dr. Herbert Watney is of opinion that it 
 is not conducive to health to have a mass of foliage close to the 
 house on its south-western side ; but he lays down an opposite 
 rule in regard to the north-eastern side. It is frequently evident 
 to any one who stands at the south-western corner of a wood 
 that the north-eastern wind is tempered by its passage through 
 the trees, whereas the contrary position, with a south-westerly 
 wind passing through the trees, gives the watcher a damp and 
 disagreeable experience. Trees break the force of the wind, in 
 such circumstances, better than does a brick wall, apart even from 
 the question of picturesqueness. Trees break and disperse the 
 waves of wind ; walls divert the wind into draughts. 
 
 (cf). Convenience of approach to a house, and the relation of its 
 position to high roads and lines for public travelling to necessary, 
 or valuable, stations, to town or village, and to the distances from 
 all these, are considerations of serious importance. We may, of 
 course, make our main drive with proper directness to the house, 
 and well-planned branching communications with the stables and 
 offices, through the park or estate ; but the position of all these in 
 regard to the surrounding conditions of public approaches, must be 
 an element of action in choice of site, and in modifying the details 
 of it. More is said on this subject under the head of THE APPROACH. 
 
 (e). The natural levels of the land, however it may be possible 
 
20 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 to modify them by art, have a strong bearing on the selection of 
 a site. The ground level of the house should always be placed 
 high enough, and yet nothing should be done that may give an 
 appearance that the structure is "perched up." This is an initial con- 
 sideration ; and very frequently an error in judgment of this kind 
 vitiates much of the gratification that is gained by the excellence 
 of work in other details. The mistake is most frequently made 
 when dealing with sloping and low ground, and in those circum- 
 stances should be most guarded against. -We should carefully bear 
 in mind that a house will never look perched up if sufficient 
 ground base be given to it. The proper effect is gained by an 
 arrangement of the contiguous surrounding ground- surface ; the 
 relation of the house to the terrace (which is, in fact, the plateau 
 of the building, with its graduating outlying features), and an 
 artistic treatment of these lines in careful avoidance of abruptness. 
 It is conservative of healthy conditions, as well as more tasteful, 
 to keep the house, as it were, out of the ground ; and should the 
 design not include terraced walks, or building constructions connected 
 with them, yet the effect may, in degree, be obtained by earth- 
 working. Soil may be taken from the upper side of the house site, 
 or where the ground requires to be lowered, or where undulations 
 have had to be created, and thus the material requisite may be 
 obtained. The ground level of Lord Wolverton's house at Iwerne 
 Minster, the site of which was of necessity fixed on level ground, 
 was raised ten feet above the surrounding plain ; then by the 
 making of a terrace garden, on the southern and eastern sides, and 
 by graduating the raised ground between the house entrance on 
 the northern side and the level, the desired effect was created, 
 for it is not possible to detect that the house has not been built 
 on a knoll. In a case where the ground rises steeply, or abruptly, 
 on one side of the house, and it would be an unduly expensive 
 
SITE OF THE HOUSE AND OF THE GARDENS. 21 
 
 work to take away, or utilise by transference, great quantities of the 
 earth, deep valleys should be excavated up the steep banks, in proper 
 places, with calculated irregularity of direction, and the promontories 
 so created, should be planted with judgment. In suitable geological 
 positions rocks may be .developed, or rockwork used in like manner. 
 Such hollows fix in the mind the general ratio of the slope. The 
 base or ground-line of the house should always be level. It frequently 
 occurs, however, that the ground-line of the offices is at a lower 
 level. In such case the difference should be marked by low planting. 
 
 (/). With regard to the subsoil, most frequently there is little 
 room for choice. Much prejudice exists against building a residence 
 on any but a gravelly or a sandy soil. Where a dwelling-house 
 has to be erected on a fresh position, a porous soil is to be pre- 
 ferred ; but in a fully inhabited district, where perfect drainage is 
 carried out, and the whole site of the structure can be overlaid 
 with a flooring of concrete, there need not be any fear of building 
 on clay. In gravelly districts that have been formerly old river 
 bottoms, especially when near to existing great rivers, or when 
 they are low-lying, and in similar districts that are thickly in- 
 habited, it is necessary to adopt precautionary means for preventing 
 the exhalation of noxious gases through the light soil, from depths 
 where percolated moisture may be stagnant ; whereas in a moderately 
 dry clay, although there may be a dampness that can be removed 
 by efficient drainage, there will not be any harmful vapours. 
 
 The site of a house, the design and arrangement of the structure, 
 the position of its chief entrance and of its principal apartments, 
 greatly influence judgment as to the position and arrangement of 
 the gardens. In due course the details of such arrangements will 
 be more fully treated of. 
 
 If we imagine a place that possesses most desirable features, the 
 site of a dwelling-house should have fine prospects to the south-east, 
 
22 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 and to the south-west. The principal approach and entrance should 
 be on the north-western face, the offices on the north-eastern side, 
 the stables and the kitchen garden beyond. The pleasure gardens 
 should be on the south-eastern aspect, with a continuation towards 
 the east ; the south-western face might be open to the park. As 
 one does not exhibit a beautiful vase on the floor, but on a pro- 
 portionate pedestal, so the house should be made to appear to rest 
 on some base that may dignify it. That effect is best achieved by 
 giving straight lines of walk, or slope, wall, or balustrade, according 
 with the levels of the ground, and with the architectural character 
 of the house. Such base is called a terrace, and the space enclosed 
 by the horizontal lines, a terrace garden, described in detail here- 
 after. The terrace garden is an artificial creation, and should show 
 in every detail the hand of man, differing in this from the garden 
 proper, which, though fine in calculated detail of its plan, should 
 express by its breadth of treatment, but unmistakably, that nature 
 has triumphed over art, because art has subtly tutored the develop- 
 ment of nature's overwhelming beauty. 
 
THE TERRACE. 
 
 THE terrace is not only the narrow strip of raised level ground 
 placed parallel with the house, or the more stately portion often 
 with architectural adornments that is laid out along the face of 
 the structure, but must be understood as the whole of the ground 
 that forms the base, or setting, for the building. 
 
 The greatest divergence between the work of English and foreign 
 landscape gardeners is to be seen in their several methods of dealing 
 with the ground immediately surrounding the house. In England 
 we lay down as an axiom that the treatment of ground next the 
 house shall be artistically formal, with regular lines of turf, slopes, 
 walks, or beds, all displaying harmony, so far as may be, with the 
 architectural character of the building. On the Continent they 
 surround the house with broad, irregularly curved spaces, or walks, 
 that have nothing in common with the design of the structure. By 
 one practice the endeavour is to give a base to the building, 
 and to create on the contiguous ground an expression of kindred 
 artistic spirit ; by the other the ground is treated as something 
 apart, and a feeling of unrest is created. 
 
 A terrace may have various forms, from the simple walk parallel 
 with the house, to the more elaborate arrangement shown in 
 the Plan. The larger, more important and decorated the building, 
 the more extensive, massive, and ornate may be the terrace. 
 It should have a definite proportion to the size of the house. 
 
24 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 That part nearest the house should be level with its horizontal 
 ground-line. Length of terrace gives importance to a plan. It has 
 been laid down that the width of the terrace should be equal 
 to the height of the front of the house, and the rule is right when 
 applied to many grand buildings ; but for a less pretentious dwelling- 
 house, which is frequently high in comparison with its length, the 
 proportion is not fitting. For such a building the width of the grass 
 might be 10 ft. ; that of the walk, 9 to 12 ft. ; and of the grass 
 thence to the edge of the slope, not less than 6 ft. If beds for 
 flowers are to be cut on the flat space of grass, the width must 
 necessarily be greater. The greater the depth of slope, the greater 
 should be the distance between the edge of the walk and the slope- 
 edge. To shorten this distance is one of the commonest mistakes 
 made ; it creates a sensation of falling off, or insecurity, that is 
 inimical to comfort. When, however, a dwarf wall or balustrade is 
 used, the space that would have been laid in grass in this position 
 should be given to increase the width of the gravel. It is well 
 to give a slight fall of i in. in 10 ft. in the space between the 
 house and the edge of the slope. In determining the distance that 
 the slope-edge, or wall, shall be from the building, care must be 
 taken to avoid cutting off the view beyond. If a portion of the 
 landscape be thus sacrificed, it may be necessary to form a slope 
 quite close to the house, and then make the terrace walk on a 
 lower level beyond. In any case, there should always be a level 
 space at the top and at the bottom of the slope, which should 
 extend its length in unbroken line, not following the irregularity 
 of line that may be formed by the building at its earth level. If 
 a break of any kind must be made in this continuous line, only 
 one such interruption should be suffered. The effect of this slope 
 next the house is to add to its apparent altitude, as the eye in- 
 
THE TERRACE. 25 
 
 sensibly estimates the height from the line of gravel below. The 
 space between the edge of a terrace walk and the upper edge of 
 its outer slope may not be less than 6 ft., but that between the 
 bottom of a slope and the edge of a walk may be as little as i ft. 6 in. 
 Generally slopes should be made in the ratio of 2^ to i if above 
 i ft. 6 in. in depth. In large places, or where importance is required, 
 and the depth is not less than 3 ft., the slope should be 2}^ to i ; 
 smaller slopes, such as for sunk panels, etc., will not have a ratio 
 of more than \y 2 to i. Terrace slopes should not have a greater 
 depth than 5 to 6ft. Where a greater depth is needed, two slopes 
 should be made with a level width between them of not less 
 than 4 ft. 
 
 The arrangement of parterres in the terrace garden should always 
 be formal. It will generally be found that there is some detail in 
 the house itself, or connected with the period of its architecture, 
 that may be used to characterise the arrangement of walks or beds, 
 apart from the strict design of terrace walls, steps, or balustrades. 
 The terrace garden is viewed chiefly from the house, where the 
 spectator's eye is 5 ft. above the floor-line ; therefore, in designing 
 the beds for flowers or foliage plants, such beds should not be 
 placed too near the house ; they should be even in width, with as 
 few acute angles as possible; longer than wide, as seen from the 
 house. If surrounded by gravel, the spaces of bed and of gravel 
 should be evenly disposed. Besides bedding plants, evergreen dwarf 
 foliage plants may be largely introduced, and precise designs of 
 clipped ..box and yew are not out of place, if the building has a 
 character that is consonant with such accompaniment. Of foliage 
 plants, those only should be selected that are dwarf in habit and 
 grow evenly. The whole arrangement in this position is artificial, 
 and this is a place where the recurrence to old fashions in gardening 
 
26 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 is desirable. Good work of this kind is chiefly shown by attention 
 to minute details. In contemplating such a formal arrangement 
 from the house, there are some noticeable effects : the semicircle 
 a form frequently adopted appears flatter than it really is ; lines 
 from the spectator give an expression of length ; cross-lines shorten 
 the area in appearance. Sunk panels, if adopted, should not be 
 deeper than i ft. 6 in., and the beds in them should not be near 
 the edge at bottom of the slope. 
 
 Stone steps, used in connection with terrace slopes, should be 
 made as plain and as solid in appearance as possible. For a 
 2% to i slope the tread of such would be 14 in., the rise 6 in. ; for 
 a 2^ to i slope the tread would be 15 in., with a rise of 6 in. The 
 best steps are made of solid Portland, or other good stone, built 
 as shown in Plan II. At the Crystal Palace the steps are of 
 granite. When the lateral extent of the step is too great to admit 
 of one stretch of stone being used, the joints should be made to 
 recur alternately, and sub-walls should be constructed to support 
 the stones at each juncture ; and the walls at each end should be 
 built wide enough to carry the plinth, or balustrade that contains the 
 whole flight, as well as the end of each tread. Moreover, there 
 must not be any joint in the plinth at the angles, but it should 
 appear in the slope. The nose of the topmost step should be in 
 line with the upper edge of the slope. The steps and the plinth 
 should range with the slope. The width of the plinth will vary to 
 accord with the dimensions of the whole flight, but the ordinary 
 rule is \y 2 in. for each foot in the breadth of the flight. For any 
 ordinary flight of terrace steps, the plinth should be from 3 to 
 6 in. above the line of the slope, and consequently of the steps. 
 Vases chosen to ornament the structure should be imposed on 
 square pedestals situated on the top and at the bottom of the 
 
THE TERRACE. 27 
 
 plinth. In selecting such vases, in which flowers are to be planted, 
 choose those forms that admit of the flowers being placed close to 
 the edge. The margin of the vase should rather tend inwards than 
 outwards. It should not form an overhanging lip. In ordinary 
 circumstances the plinth should be designed to harmonise with the 
 architectural style of the house. When the flight is not -connected 
 with a terrace wall, or it stands apart from the slope, there should 
 not be any balustrade, and ornamentation should be very sparse, 
 or absent. 
 
 When walls are used in connection with terrace gardens, with 
 or without balustrading, whether they take the place of the slope 
 or are formed in conjunction with it, they should agree in archi- 
 tectural character with the house ; and not only that, but be formed 
 of the like material, so that they may seem closely a part of the 
 general design. Such walls should never be less than 3 ft.- in height 
 or more than ioft., exclusive of the balustrade, which usually is 
 made 3 ft. high. But there is an exception to this ruling. On flat 
 ground, for the simple purpose of giving a base-line, or a prominent 
 demarcation of the formal gardening from the natural, a simple 
 plinth, 12 to 1 8 in. high, and of equal width, may be used with a 
 certain effect, as, for example, at Gosforth House. But walls con- 
 sidered and used simply as retaining walls, not seen from below, 
 and on which the turf rests, need not follow the architectural cha- 
 racter of the house. The position of any terrace wall or balustrading 
 must be very carefully considered, for it is inadmissible that it 
 should interfere with the view of falling ground beyond it. It 
 may be advisable to adopt a slope whose lower edge touches a 
 flat parallel space coinciding with and supported by the top of a 
 retaining wall. There should always be a level space at foot of 
 every slope or wall. 
 
28 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 There are two most general forms of terrace walls. One is 
 parallel with the terrace walk and the line of the house, for which 
 it seems to constitute a base ; this may or may not be surmounted 
 by a balustrade. From this terrace there may be steps conducting 
 to a lower level, perhaps to the pleasure grounds, but possibly to 
 the second terrace with its formal gardens, whence flights of steps 
 give access to the naturally-treated landscape gardens. To this 
 second terrace there is generally a balustrade, which bears the 
 expression of a boundary. In either case the treatment is archi- 
 tectural. It is well to remember that an access other than by steps 
 from the terrace to the gardens should be devised for the possible 
 use of invalids. 
 
 As to dimensions, the following may be generally stated : vertical 
 walls should have a thickness in cut stone of '35 of the height ; 
 in brick, -4 of the height ; in dry rubble, -5' of the height. A wall 
 with a " battered " or sloped front will need less material, and 
 have strength equal to a vertical wall, both having an equal thickness 
 of base. Care must be exercised, especially in falling ground, that 
 the foundations are carried deep enough to prevent sliding. There 
 must be drainage from the back of walls, either by pipes built 
 through the structure at proper intervals of distance, or by the 
 insertion of a porous backing from which pipes to carry off 
 water communicate. A backing of sods, laid by hand, will prevent 
 thrust, and admit of a lessened thickness in the wall. The back 
 of the wall should be left rough in construction. The average 
 slope of ground is i ^ ft. horizontal to i ft. vertical. The weight 
 of dressed granite is i56lbs. per cubic foot; sandstone i37lbs., 
 lime concrete 119 Ibs., cement concrete i37lbs., brickwork ii2lbs., 
 sand 100 Ibs., and of clay 119 Ibs. 
 
THE TERRACE. 
 
 Molesworth gives the following formulae for retaining walls 
 
 E = Weight of Earthwork per cube yard. 
 
 W = Weight of Wall. 
 
 H = Height of Wall. 
 
 T = Thickness of Wall at top. 
 
 T = H x Tabular No. 
 
 29 
 
 BATTER OF WALL. 
 
 E : W:: 4 : S . 
 
 E:W::i:i. 
 
 CLAY. 
 
 SAND. 
 
 CLAY. 
 
 SAND. 
 
 i in 4 
 
 083 
 
 O29 
 
 115 
 
 054 
 
 i in 5 
 
 '122 
 
 065 
 
 155 
 
 092 
 
 i in 6 
 
 149 
 
 O92 
 
 183 
 
 118 
 
 i in 8 .' . 
 
 184 
 
 I2S 
 
 218 
 
 153 
 
 i in 12 . 
 
 221 
 
 160 
 
 256 
 
 189 
 
 Vertical . 
 
 300 
 
 239 
 
 336 
 
 267 
 
 03 
 
 In calculating the strength of surcharged walls, substitute Y for H, 
 Y being the perpendicular at the end of a line (L = H) measured 
 along the slope to be retained. 
 
 ? ?V " - i 
 
 Y= 171 H in slopes of I to I. 
 = 1-55 H i^toi. 
 
 1-45 H 2 to i. 
 
 1-31 H 3 to i. 
 
 1-24 H 4 to i. 
 
 An etching is given of the terrace garden at Friar Park, Henley, 
 the residence of Frank Crisp, Esq. It serves to illustrate what 
 is meant by a base being made to a house. In this case walks 
 lead from the forecourt, from the garden entrance, and from the 
 conservatory, on to an upper terrace, from which walks descend 
 to a lower terrace garden with its parterre, which, in its turn, gives 
 place to the flowing lines of the pleasure gardens. In this case a 
 low moulded plinth is fixed on the top of the grass slope. 
 
ARRANGEMENT AND FORMATION. 
 
 THE facts and considerations in this chapter are given in relation 
 to the general plan of a garden. The several matters spoken 
 of, as Planting, etc., are treated in detail elsewhere in the book. 
 
 For arranging the plan of a garden, few rules can be laid down, 
 but artistic principles must be insisted on. So many considerations 
 press in to vary design, that arbitrary dealing by imposition of what 
 may be termed paper designs, however ingenious, is, in its degree, 
 ill-advised. The detailed plan should spring from the site, as an 
 adaptation of its natural or created natural features, and should not 
 be, as it were, forced upon the position, crushing it to an artificial 
 scheme. To copy simply the design of another place is inadmissible. 
 Considerations that rule in this connection are almost infinite : extent, 
 geological formation, soil, existing natural formation or features, 
 climate and aspect, the display of distant beauty, conformity to out- 
 side influences, particularly to the requirements of the possessor, 
 and the expenditure of money that may be made. It is this important 
 variety of modifying influences, and how they are dealt with, that 
 gives charm to each new work of landscape gardening, and to the 
 developments it presents; just as we contemplate a fresh work of 
 the kind in pictorial art, and note how the artist has treated the 
 natural features, the colours and tints, and their modifying juxta- 
 position on the canvas. The painter, however, may indeed have 
 
ARRANGEMENT AND FORMATION. 31 
 
 his rules as to composition, for the use of his colours and the 
 production of his distances. His picture is not a servile copy of 
 Nature in its exact details, but an artistic rendering of the effect 
 of Nature, as seen by his educated eye, and recorded by his skilful 
 hand. His picture is always viewed from the same point ; but in 
 the nature-pictures created by the landscape gardener the point of 
 view is on every side; there is no back to the canvas. In each 
 position the object should be one of beauty, of interest, and of 
 delight, and its relation to other features, and to the whole field 
 of the spectator's vision, be closely and truly considered. The land- 
 scape gardener must remember that his colours change and grow ; 
 he must realise, as he creates his pictures, that in a few years what 
 now seems like a light green stroke of pigment to the painter 
 but a complementary effect will have become a tall tree, beautiful 
 in itself, but of altered beauty, either helping or marring the land- 
 scape. He follows Nature by adapting or garnering her beauties, 
 and tutoring her, so to speak, to the display of them ; but by follow- 
 ing Nature is not meant a slavish imitation or reproduction of any 
 of her particular scenes. Some are unattractive, some very inappro- 
 priate, all are subject to dissimilar conditions ; and imitation in 
 Nature, as well as art, produces pettiness. But the spirit of the 
 beauty of Nature, embodied, as it were, in those of her works or 
 features that express her majesty, simplicity, peacefulness, sweetness, 
 refinement, strength, and variety, in form, colour, abundance, or any 
 of her multifarious aspects of loveliness, should be included and 
 brought into juxtaposition in an ideal scene, so far as we are able 
 to promote its natural development. And always be it remembered, 
 
 Nature is made better by no mean, 
 But nature makes that mean. 
 
 In forming the surface of the ground, as already pointed out, we 
 should realise the fact that most of the graceful undulations of fertile 
 
32 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 soil, result from the action of water. Here is a natural agency the 
 effect of which we may imitate, in modifying the surface in our 
 circumscribed landscape ; so that our treatment of the ground may be 
 consonant with what is in reality a pervading expression. In Nature, 
 straight lines are very rarely found ; straight lines are the production 
 of art. The terrace, as before explained, and the region immediately 
 next the house, and indeed, in a less degree, that next any minor 
 building in the grounds, being by position artificial, should be treated 
 in a formal manner. This postulate will so far influence our treatment 
 of the rest of the landscape, that as the house is approached from the 
 boundaries of the estate, the planting, design and work should become 
 finer, more intricate, and more careful. Beyond the line of the terrace 
 wall, slope, or walk, the design of the garden may be naturally treated. 
 In this position a feeling of freedom should assert itself, and it may 
 be subtly induced by the undulating ground, with the curved lines of 
 walk, and planting. From the terrace, walks should not go off in the 
 same direction, but should, at any rate for some distance, deviate. In 
 the general arrangement of such walks, the curves should be set out 
 with broad sweeping lines, the chord of which should be so great, that 
 each sweep should be hidden from the succeeding bend. A multiplica- 
 tion of meaningless walks should be avoided, as should be the creation 
 of anything like the wriggling serpentine lines so often seen in badly 
 designed villa-gardens. It should be generally apparent that each walk 
 serves some special object, as the route to some distant point, to 
 connect two lawns, to approach some particular group of planting, to 
 reach some point of view, or to provide alternative means of com- 
 munication at different levels. No doubt the designer will have first 
 placed the group of planting, the lawn, the access to the view, or the 
 variation in level, but such a fact must never be obtrusive, and the art 
 which serves to emphasize the idea that the walk can only go rightly in 
 one place, must not be apparent. 
 
k 
 
o- 
 
 SECTION 0-0. 
 
 SECTION XX. 
 
 ^%v D RIGHT 
 _%. 
 
 B WRONG 
 
 JjJ J I. 'Jf 
 
 'J A L 1 f 'J ,'. il 1 ,* 
 
ARRANGEMENT AND FORMATION. 
 
 33 
 
 It is essential that groups of planting should be, and should appear 
 to be, rightly placed in the general composition. If there be old single 
 trees, or groups of trees, on the turf, they should be treated as specimens, 
 and isolated each on its own mound, and not have little bushes put 
 about them. There is an expression of affording shelter, whether from 
 heat or rain, about such objects, and in that way they bestow a pleasing 
 idea, while they contribute their beauty to the scene. In planting, 
 variety of outline in the height is almost as desirable as variety of out- 
 line in the plan. A frequent error in laying out gardens is to make all 
 the groups of planting assimilate, and all walks and undulations alike in 
 appearance and outline. That is to be avoided. The proper method 
 is to make the prominent points high, and to keep the intervening bays 
 low, both in forming the ground, and in selecting the plants. In setting 
 out groups of planting, uniformity of curve, and parts of circles should 
 be avoided. Long bays with the turf running up them should be made ; 
 the spectator's vision is unconsciously led up them if only for the moment. 
 As seen from the house, or its terrace, a plantation, which for example 
 (see Plan, fig. A} may be one skirting the garden, screening it from 
 observation on the approach, or protecting it from harmful winds, may 
 be made very effective by marking the outline of the turf with long 
 bays running up beyond the points, so that the eye cannot follow the 
 whole outline. An appearance of much greater extent and freedom is 
 attained. Variety in such designs is essential, and bald uniformity of 
 parts is to be shunned. There is a killing lameness in such repetition 
 of parts in the outline as is involved in the recurrent use of circles or 
 parts of circles, or of egg-shaped figures such as are frequently to be 
 seen by lines of walk in Continental gardens. These dicta apply equally 
 to the height of trees, the character of the foliage and the tints, and 
 especially to the undulations of the made ground, where uniformity 
 and repetition destroy one of the most exquisite expressions of Nature's 
 beauty the wave line of the ground by rendering it unnatural in form, 
 
34 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 burlesque in fact. Variety within limit of the natural means, and of 
 such aids as art may supply, should indeed be a predominating aim. 
 To that end to create fresh picturesqueness, to open out fresh views, and 
 by contrasts of colour, of line, and of level to tempt Nature herself to 
 exercise her fascinations, so direct on our conceptions, so difficult to bring 
 into dry definition, is worthy of our best effort. The creation in well- 
 chosen position of objects of special interest, such as a rose garden, 
 an herbaceous enclosed garden, an old-fashioned allee of clipped yew, 
 box, or lime, or a secluded rockery, filled with choice Alpine plants, 
 through which, breaking by a cascade from the upper ground, a little 
 stream rushes, and then meanders to the lake below ; or a seat covered 
 with climbing plants, that perhaps half hide some quaint inscription, or 
 mark the site of a local legend of old time ; these are all legitimate 
 means to the same end. But of more consideration than all of them 
 should be the general appearance of the surrounding ground, which 
 must compel the conviction that here Nature is but tutored, not 
 fettered, yet tempted to the expression of her beauties in the freedom 
 of favouring conditions. 
 
 When the lines of distant views are determined, it is necessary 
 that details be carefully considered, so that no breaks be introduced 
 in the direct line of sight. In regard to one such view, walks may 
 be arranged to lead in the direction of the best point for realising 
 the prospect, and they may curve round this point, sunk below it ; 
 but the lawn up to that position must be hollowed out, or concave, 
 so that the eye may be tempted to range up this valley, in the centre 
 of which, or in the line of sight, there must not be planting, although 
 there may be planting on either side (see Plan, fig. B}; or, in another 
 case, there may be a long stretch of lawn ; in a third, especially 
 if the view be narrowed to a single object, such as a church spire, 
 a simple break in the planting, through which the vision will instinc- 
 tively pierce, will be enough, and the object will appear, as it were, 
 
ARRANGEMENT AND FORMATION. 35 
 
 framed by the foreground foliage. If a curve occur in a boundary 
 walk, an effective treatment is to make a small group of planting 
 in the centre of the curve, and form a hollow in the ground between 
 this group and the boundary plantation (as fig, C). The lowering 
 of the walk may be so made that its depth will provide sufficient 
 earth for raising the group, as well as the mound next the boundary. 
 As a matter of fact, it is seldom necessary to bring earth from a 
 distance for such works in the formation of a garden. In forming 
 the terrace, when the ground recedes, the surface may be lowered 
 by increasing the depth of the slope till sufficient earth is provided 
 for the requisite filling (as Jig. D). To raise mounds for planting, 
 hollowed out pathways in the curves may be made between groups ; 
 a whole area, as well as the walks, may be lowered when it becomes 
 necessary to secure soil for an adjacent planting. Sometimes the 
 boundary fence, or wall, shows objectionably in an opening. In 
 such case an earth bank, turfed to the summit, may be raised in 
 front of it, sufficiently high to conceal it altogether (as fig. E). 
 
 The lawn is almost the most pervading landscape feature, and 
 by its beauty it sweetly expresses repose. It is quiescent; it is 
 never agitated by angry winds; its charm is modifying, and is an 
 essential in the nature-picture. The turfed area about a house, and 
 it may be said all turfed ground within the garden enclosure, is 
 generally termed lawn ; but the lawn is properly a grassy expanse 
 in or between woods. The lawn of our garden should so far be 
 true to the definition that it should present, whenever that is possible, 
 the appearance of a natural opening, or grassy glade in a wood, 
 where the sides are closed in by trees, and the distant end is 
 lost in forest gloom. We may not at first have in our garden 
 forest trees to shut in this glade ; but we may arrange groups of 
 planting to border our lawn, and the view may be directed across 
 the park till a broken and undefined ending is reached. For such 
 
36 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 an effect, plainness and simplicity must characterise the treatment 
 adopted. Formal beds for flowers or plants, to break the grand 
 sweep of grass, must be avoided. A lawn should naturally be in 
 the lower ground ; specimen plants may be planted about the sides, 
 preferably on the higher ground, so that the eye may be led to 
 dwell on certain points, and to unconsciously pierce in particular 
 directions ; and particularly in order that the shadow of the trees 
 or shrubs may fall athwart the grass in due season. But the sweep 
 of the lawn should be unimpeded and clear, and nothing should 
 invade its expression of repose. As it is not desirable to have too 
 spacious an area of turfed ground, lawns will most generally take 
 the form of vistas, and will serve chiefly to give a background of 
 rest to the various features displayed. 
 
 Excepting formal slopes, all turfed ground, as well as all surface 
 curves in general formation, must take us from one level to another, 
 not by one inelegant drop, like the edge of an inverted saucer, 
 but by a double curve commonly called Ogee (fig. ff). It is without 
 question desirable to have views so arranged that they may illustrate 
 the extent of the place, and confer, if only by appearance, the 
 sensation of spaciousness ; but, in regard to the garden proper, it 
 is most undesirable that its extent should be visible at a glance 
 from any point. The spectator should receive or retain an idea 
 of its vastness, by reason of the contrasting treatment of its several 
 divisions, each insensibly separated from the other, but not screened 
 off, while every point of view is carefully considered in relation to 
 the desired effect ; and this effect, as well as that of the house 
 and its surroundings, must have its artistic and natural relation to 
 the landscape. Incongruity and inappropriateness are inimical to 
 harmonious, sweet influences. Things beautiful in themselves are 
 destructive of beauty when inappropriately placed, and particularly 
 of that beauty which should come to us in a sweet, indefinable 
 effluence from a landscape near or far. 
 

" f; .-.' [ [' [/ 
 
WORK OF FORMATION. 
 
 THE foregoing observations on general formation have related to 
 the plan. The following concern the practical work for carrying 
 the purpose into effect. 
 
 Firstly, if the general plan showing a proposed arrangement 
 of the house, its terraces, pleasure gardens, fences, groups of 
 planting, drives and walks, its kitchen garden, glass-houses, etc., 
 be designed for uneven ground, and particularly if an estimate 
 of expenditure be required, detailed plans must be prepared, showing 
 the intended levels. If a new place has to be made, it is advisable 
 to strip the surface soil from the site of the house, and of the 
 ground immediately around it. Some, if not all this soil should 
 be run into a convenient heap for future use near the house when 
 the structure is raised, and if there is any soil not needed for this 
 position, it will be available for plantations. When the ground is 
 falling, or uneven, it is advisable to form it roughly about the site 
 before the builders commence their operations. Builders, when once 
 they begin, are apt to spread their material over the ground, and 
 frequently do not remove it till the conclusion of their work. All 
 trees and plantations that remain close to the building must be 
 protected. The next operation must be to make some portion of 
 the approach, preferably only the back road to the house, which 
 can serve the use of the workmen. Levels of all drives should next 
 
38 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 be taken on numbered pegs, at a minimum distance of 100 ft. 
 apart, and the gradient line must be marked on the plotted section ; 
 that will give the depth of cutting or filling, at the position of each 
 peg. It is profitable if you can so arrange the gradient that 
 the soil from a cutting is sufficient for all filling required without 
 length of lead ; yet careful regard must be given to treating the 
 gradient, so that earth may be obtained at any particular point for 
 raising mounds for planting, or for other purposes. Some difference 
 in the slopes and gradients for the approach drive, and for the 
 back drive, should be made ; the former should be flatter and more 
 finished than the latter. When the levels have been settled the 
 drain can be put in ; the capacity of the drain must depend on its 
 length, and on the quantity of water it will have to carry off. If 
 only surface water from the road is to be conducted, 3 in. pipes 
 are sufficiently capacious for a distance of 200 yds. ; but for a longer 
 distance 4 in. pipes are needed. In estimating the quantity of water 
 that is to be provided for, regard must be given to the surface 
 drainage which may come on to the road from falling ground above, 
 unless the general drainage be quite independent. 
 
 The drain is best placed in the centre of a road, with gully 
 holes wherever necessary for the gradient. Drains may, however, 
 be placed at the sides, and they should be filled up with porous 
 material. Gully holes on drives should be built in mortar ; though 
 in garden walks they may be built "dry" that is, without mortar. 
 In long drives through parks, drains are frequently dispensed with, 
 and the water turned on to the grass land at convenient intervals. 
 On drives, 9 in. gratings and frames are generally sufficient ; for 
 garden paths, 7 in. gratings are large enough. On perfectly level 
 roads, or on steep gradients, say from i in 10 to i in 15, gully holes 
 should be 25 yards apart ; but on a slight incline they may be as far 
 apart as 50 yards. On walks they should be more frequent, because 
 
WORK OF FORMATION. 39 
 
 the gradients are steeper, and the gravel used being finer, is more 
 easily displaced by rain ; the walks also intersect, and are more 
 undulatory. Outlet pipes from gully holes should be fixed at least 
 6 in. from the bottom, to allow of that space for possible deposit, 
 which can be cleared out as occasion serves. In forming either 
 drives or walks it is best to make the verges or sides first, as a 
 good 'line is most readily obtained in this manner. The verge 
 should be built up with turves laid on edge if the gradient shows 
 filling. If turves are not available, let the ground be well trodden 
 till it is solidified. A couple of inches should be allowed for sub- 
 sequent cutting when the true line of the drive is neatly trimmed. 
 Care must then be exercised, not only that the true line is cut for 
 exact width of the drive, but that the cutting is carried to full 
 depth, and the depression can be filled with stones. At least 6 
 in. of hard, porous material should be spread over all drives, 
 and 4 in. on all walks. This covering may consist of broken 
 bricks, or stones, or coarse gravel, or well-burnt ballast. On that 
 a coating of stone that has been broken to pass through an inch 
 ring, or of fine gravel, 3 in. thick on drives, or 2 in. thick 
 on walks, should be laid. Drives, where two carriages may pass, 
 must be at least 14 ft. wide ; for one carriage, 9 ft. wide. Walks 
 should never be less than 5 ft. wide ; ordinarily, they should be 
 6 ft. wide. A drive of 14 ft. width should round over 3 in. ; 
 a walk of 6 ft., 2 in. The turf edging should rise i in. 
 above the rolled surface of the road or walk. 
 
 The terraces should be formed thus : First strip the soil from 
 the site. When the filling is over 3 ft. in depth it should be 
 done in layers, and each layer consolidated. In any case, the ground 
 should be well rammed as the earth is deposited, and when it is 
 possible, the ground should be given time to settle before the turf 
 is laid. All terrace slopes, as they have ordinarily a southern aspect, 
 
40 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 should have 9 in. of soil on them, to obviate the danger of the 
 turf " scorching." All slopes and angles must be perfectly formed 
 to receive the turf. The turves should not be rolled over the 
 angles, but be laid to, and join, at them, so that a sharp arris' be 
 secured. On the site of any beds for flowers, or foliage plants, the 
 soil must be of proper quality and sufficient depth, and when de- 
 posited in solid ground should be drained. Grass is cut into turves 
 3 ft. long and i ft. wide ; they should be about i in. thick. 
 When such turves are rolled up, they will in autumnal and early 
 spring weather last for several weeks without permanent damage. 
 Before cutting turves, the grass should be mown, and then well 
 rolled. As they are relaid, all daisy, plantain, and bad grass roots 
 should be taken out. Care is required in cutting turves to regulate 
 the work so that the sections of grass may not be removed, or 
 accumulated, save as the site is prepared to receive them ; and the 
 surface made for them should have 6 in. of loam. When the 
 ground is to be sown instead of turfed, after the site is prepared, 
 let the sowing be made in springtime, and during showery weather. 
 A good mixture of seed for a lawn is that recommended by Mr. R. 
 Thompson, as follows (the kinds of grass are those suitable for 
 forming a good lawn, and the quantities of seed given are those 
 required for an acre) : 
 
 Lolium perenne tenue . :/ t '- -V I " . .20 Ibs. 
 
 Cynosurus cristatus . . . . . 5 
 
 Festuca duriuscula . 3 
 
 Festuca ovina tenuifolia . . . 2 
 
 Poa nemoralis ... 2 ,, 
 
 Poa nemoralis sempervirens . . . 2 
 
 Poa trivialis. ... 2 ,, 
 
 Trisetum flavescens I 
 
 Trifolium repens . . .... 6 
 
 Trifolium minus 2 
 
 45 Ibs. 
 
WORK OF FORMATION. 41 
 
 The above proportions will be found suitable for the generality 
 of soils ; but in shady situations to which Poa nemoralis and its 
 varieties are particularly well adapted, i or 2 Ibs. of each of these 
 may be substituted for Trisetum flavescens and Festuca tenuifolia\ 
 whilst in rich heavy soils, 2 or 3 Ibs. of Cynosurus cristatus and 
 i Ib. of Festuca duriuscula may be substituted for Trisetum flavescens, 
 the quantity of Trifolium minus being reduced to i Ib. 
 
 A single tennis lawn should have its level at least too ft. long 
 by 50 wide. It must be well drained. If to obtain this level 
 place excavation has been made on the upper ground to fill up 
 the lower, a drain should be carried along the foot of the upper 
 sloping ground, and be filled in with ballast, in addition to drains 
 laid across the lawn. The soil laid on the surface of a tennis 
 lawn or cricket ground should not be too deep or too rich. Six 
 inches of moderately good soil is sufficient, and, except for light soils, 
 a thin layer of burnt clay or ashes should be laid 6 in. beneath 
 the surface stratum, and this layer of ballast should connect with 
 the drains, so that quick passage of the water is ensured. 
 
 For all plantations the sites should be doubly trenched, that is, 
 dug two spits deep, and the ground beneath broken up. The 
 difference in growth of trees planted in trenched and untrenched 
 ground is very conspicuous, and the value of the former is so much 
 enhanced that in four years the cost of trenching is repaid. 
 When the planting is to be on a raised mound, first remove the top 
 spit of soil and place it aside ; next trench the ground from which 
 it has been taken, and make the mound ; then use the soil reserved 
 from the upper spit to form the surface and summit of the raised 
 ground. There are many ways of obtaining earth for such work, 
 and although some observations on the subject have been made 
 in treating of the plan, it may be well to enumerate them here. 
 The object will be to obtain earth for raising the ground, not only 
 
 G 
 
42 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 for producing effect, or promoting the growth of plants, but for 
 hiding boundaries or masking unsightly objects that are irremovable. 
 Ground that is taken near at hand is most convenient, and it is 
 cheaper to work it by barrows than to bring it a distance in carts. 
 Such earth may be obtained from the foundations of the building ; 
 by lowering the ground at foot of the terrace ; by making the lawn at 
 lower level ; by lowering the surface between trees or places intended 
 for single plants, or between larger groups ; by removing ridges ; 
 by making hollow sunk panels, descending rose gardens ; by lower- 
 ing the lines of walks in certain places, so that these, in addition to 
 providing such required earth, may add, by their undulating gradient, 
 to the beauty of the landscape. Top soil should always be spared, 
 and subsoil used for general filling, and this last so arranged that 
 2 ft. of top soil should be available for the planting area. 
 
 In lowering a lawn say i ft. the method of work should 
 be what is termed back-handed ; that is to say, the top soil of a 
 narrow strip across a given area should be taken off and laid aside ; 
 then a foot deep of the underlying soil should be taken out and 
 wheeled to the required place of deposit ; then a similar strip 
 should, in like manner, have the topmost foot of earth taken off 
 and cast on the already lowered first strip, the new surface of which 
 being first broken up ; this operation being repeated with each 
 succeeding strip of the space, till the last is reached, when the 
 top soil laid aside from the first division can be deposited to make 
 good the surface. The earth thus gained remains for use. 
 
 One inch of rainfall per acre gives 101 tons or 3,630 cubic ft. 
 of water, which would fill a tank 30 ft. by 12 ft. by 10 ft., yielding 
 2% cubic ft., or 15^ gallons per minute, if the rainfall continue 
 24 hours. The annual rainfall in London averages 26 in., and it is 
 reckoned that two-fifths of it percolates into the soil. It is by access 
 of oxygen conveyed by water that plant growth is stimulated, and 
 
WORK OF FORMATION. 43 
 
 rain-drops are highly oxygenated. Plants will not grow in ground 
 saturated with water from which the oxygen has been more or less 
 taken up, and drainage is therefore necessary in promotion of vigorous 
 vegetable growth. Such drainage 'may be consequent on natural 
 formation of the ground, or be secured by the removal of obstacles, 
 or by artificial means. But the cold stagnant water that has, as it 
 were, served its purpose must be removed, or conducted to where 
 surrounding conditions admit of its return by evaporation to discharge 
 its function again in the rainfall. A circulation of warm air follows 
 the descending rain which percolates charged with many ingredients 
 for the sustentation of plant life. Water is heaviest at a tempe- 
 rature of 40 ; heat cannot pass downwards through water ; hence 
 the saturated ground can only be renovated by sun heat on its 
 surface, and the dense cold water should find its way from the sub- 
 soil by drainage, either natural or artificial. In Denmark they practise 
 a plan of double drainage ; a system of piping serves ordinary pur- 
 poses near the surface, but these drains communicate with a lower 
 system, which again is generally conducted to some natural water 
 storage, the outlets into which are guarded by sluices. In seasons 
 of drought these sluices may be closed and the water retained. The 
 soil there is generally light. The depth at which drain-pipes should 
 be laid, and the distances at which they recur, must be ruled by the 
 nature of the soil. In stiff clay they should be placed 3 ft. below 
 the surface, and 16 ft. apart ; in light soil they may be put at intervals 
 of 40 ft., but 4ft. deep. In non-porous soil, cuttings for the drains 
 should be filled to within 6 in. of the surface with porous material. 
 All main outfall drains should be laid with a minimum fall of I in 
 500, or 10 ft. 6 in. per mile. Collecting drains should have a minimum 
 fall of i in 250, or 21 ft. per mile. These should enter the main 
 ducts at an acute angle. In any system of drainage it is desirable 
 to make wells at convenient places, that may serve as catch-pits, 
 
44 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 and inspection chambers. The direction of main drains should be 
 as closely as practicable that of the lowland, and side drains should 
 follow the slope in parallel lines. The outfall of the main should be 
 above the water level. Ordinarily for a garden the injunctions just 
 made do not so strictly apply. They are modified by important 
 considerations. The walks are generally used for lines of main 
 drainage ; these in most cases traverse ground of steeper inclination 
 than the open land, and there is an obvious variation in the minimum 
 ratio of fall as set out above. It is not advisable to take any main 
 drain nearer to the trunk of an established tree than the limit that 
 is covered by its foliage, because it is not well to alter its former 
 water supply. 
 
PLANTING. 
 
 THE word planting, which means the act or process of planting, 
 has been adapted with an extended signification in connection with 
 landscape gardening ; it has been taken to indicate as well the 
 thing planted, and is so applied in this treatise wherever the context 
 determines its appropriateness. Planting, in act and in result, is a 
 feature of paramount importance in the art. The well-directed 
 practice or the misuse of it is essential to, or fatal to, the development 
 of those aspects and influences of beauty, which it is the artist's 
 purpose to conserve, to emphasize, or to induce by natural operation. 
 It is a principal means in his hand. As a skeleton is clothed in 
 beauty of line and colour by the flesh, so the undulations and sweet 
 or grand features of the ground in its formation, are clothed by 
 the all-pervading colour of the grass, with its delicious expression 
 of restful quietude ; and thereon Nature lavishes her objects of 
 infinite variety in form, height, colour, in gradations of tone, and 
 splendour of contrast the absolute infinity of curve in detail, which 
 exercises a subtle charm on us, that would deteriorate could we 
 define it ; the gradations of the sky-line, the fine irregularities of 
 line where the lower verge of foliage touches lawn or grass land, 
 the emphasis of sunshine and of shadow and her gifts in this wise 
 are trees and plants. These, then, each beautiful in itself, become 
 chief means by which the designer works in forming the landscape. 
 
46 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 A hill is made to appear higher if its summit be planted. A grand 
 irregularity is given to the sky-line. When the hillside is clothed 
 with foliage, then the variety of form, of colour, of light and shadow, 
 are brought into play, and should be profoundly studied for the 
 production of those subtle effects of beauty, the fascination of which 
 we feel without the care of definition. The infinity of form and of 
 tint gives variety of effect. If the foliage were so disposed that 
 formality intruded here, regularity in the height of the trees, similarity 
 of form, and an appearance of massiveness in the leafy clothing of 
 the hillside, how wasteful of opportunity for beauty of effect the 
 planting would appear! When such a regularity in foliage is found, 
 it should be our object to break up its apparent surface. We 
 should never create it. The effect may be narrowed to a single 
 tree. Notice how inferior is the glow of light on an unbroken 
 mass of leaves, when compared with the same rays falling on a tree 
 whose boughs are irregularly branched, as is an old oak ; the 
 illumination touches the tips of the branches, qualifying their tints, 
 which tints appear varied in half shadow, and that is set off by 
 the almost gloom of the deep recesses ; indeed, there is an expression 
 ol mystery in the picturesqueness that is presented which augments 
 the beauty of the object. It is the same when the single tree is 
 part of a grand assemblage of them, or when he towers above 
 his compeers. The artist can use the variety of form in various 
 trees, with the gradations and contrasts of colour they give him in 
 varying conditions, almost as a painter uses his pigments. When 
 the hill is grandly irregular in its natural form, then the effects to be 
 aimed at, in present realisation or in future years, are proportionally 
 more easy of attainment. The landscape gardener must always have 
 his vision projected through the coming years that will develop his 
 scenery by growth ; and he must realise in imagination, as he 
 
PLANTING. 47 
 
 contemplates a rugged prospect that he has newly or partially 
 planted, how it will one day present the 
 
 . . . Magnificence of many-folded hills, 
 And promontories set of solemn pines 1 
 
 This indispensable looking forward need not impair our present 
 means of creating beauty. There are shrubs and trees of large size 
 to be procured that can be carefully transplanted without danger 
 of loss. When trees of small growth are of necessity used, tempo- 
 rary plants, acting as nurses, serve not only to promote the growth 
 of the permanent plants, but also to cover the ground and relieve 
 the monotony of low planting. Groups of trees on artificial or 
 natural eminences should be most carefully selected in regard to the 
 height of their ultimate growth, as well as their outline form at 
 maturity, their juxtaposition, and the contrasts so to be created in 
 enhancement of their beauty, not only as individual specimens, but 
 as component features of the group in which every part has relation 
 to the whole. One paramount use of planting is to hide what may 
 be unsightly or incongruous in a prospect; or, by a well -arranged 
 break in the procession of trees, to admit some beautiful view, or 
 some appropriate object, such as a church spire, or a glimpse of 
 water, to the vision of the spectator at a particular point where the 
 picture presented may be most grateful. Such a picture may be, 
 as it were, framed in the grand forms of the foreground trees. A 
 most important use of trees in the general design is to connect the 
 different parts of it, by continuity of planting and by repetition of 
 tint and form. 
 
 In planting a great place there should be a distinctly apparent 
 difference between the garden, or the enclosed space round the 
 house, and the ground beyond that stretches into the park. The 
 
48 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 distinction can be maintained thus : Near the house the planting 
 should be finer, and of trees and shrubs that are not indigenous ; 
 or, rather, such trees and shrubs may be abundantly used there, to 
 produce their effect ; for the introduction into a district of plants 
 not indigenous to it marks an innovation, as it were, and shows the 
 hand of man. Such plants or trees must be sparingly used, or not 
 at all, in the park, where an object is to conceal the fact that all 
 is not due to nature in its local development. Both the character 
 of the trees and shrubs, as well as th,e disposing of them, should 
 not militate against this idea. The plants used in the garden 
 should be those that in their growth, tint of foliage, and colour of 
 flower, are delicate, rare, of neat outline, and such as we are 
 accustomed to connect in idea with the garden. The more 
 varied sizes of the groups will conduce to a like impression. Such 
 association of idea with particular plants is necessarily a fanciful 
 and changing one, because of the frequent introduction of hardy 
 trees and shrubs from other countries to be naturalised here ; but 
 it nevertheless plays an important part in landscape gardening. 
 
 In the garden we should group the plants with regard to sorts, 
 to colour, to form, and to size ; but such groups will necessarily 
 be small, and they should admit of a view of the individual plant. 
 This particularising of the individual plant differentiates the planting 
 of a garden from that of the park and plantations beyond. In the 
 outside plantations, massing takes the place of grouping, as the 
 effect to be produced is generally realised from a distance, and gives 
 contrast in colour and shape. In the garden we have, to a certain 
 extent, a collection of plants ; in the park we have plantations. In 
 the former, a grouping of plants should be made in different positions ; 
 and though bare repetition, or balanced uniformity, should be sedulously 
 avoided, yet the several clumps should have an inoffensive relation one 
 to the other that should illustrate the oneness of the composition. 
 
PLANTING. 49 
 
 The old saying, " Plant the hills and bare the vales," is, like 
 most proverbs, right in the restricted sense of an obvious application. 
 It holds generally good as coinciding with the natural arrangement 
 of the formation of the land surface by action of water ; but a place 
 would appear very dotted and formal if that mode of treatment 
 only were adopted. If the primal natural operations gave this 
 formation of the ground, and vegetation was first on the hills, yet, 
 as the soil washed from the hillsides to the valleys where the rivers 
 flowed, vegetation soon crept along either side of their course, and 
 was nourished there. If we copy Nature's operations in this way, 
 we find her planting on every side not only on the hills. We 
 should seize on the spirit of the beauty in her operations, and, 
 with such license as her developments allow, foster the expression 
 of her delightful influences, and train them to our use. In the 
 restricted scenes touched by the landscape gardener, we have, by 
 the introduction of foreign plants, the power to create, on a small 
 scale, the beauties of plant life in all temperate climes ; our selection 
 depending on soil, subsoil, elevation, distance from the sea, and 
 latitude. 
 
 There are three points of importance to be determined in regard to 
 groups of planting, viz., the site, the ground outline, and the disposing 
 of the trees and shrubs. The conditions under which the design has 
 to be created, and applied, vary in almost every case, and no hard and 
 fast rules can be made for adoption. In one place the artist's design 
 may be modified by the necessity of creating shelter, in another the 
 planting may be needed to mask unsightly objects that are near, in 
 a third to direct the gaze to distant beauties of landscape that may 
 be brought into the whole effect, like possessions. Each place has its 
 peculiar considerations. All that can be done here, in this connection, 
 is to speak in general terms, and to particularise only with certain 
 groupings that may illustrate the general question. 
 
 H 
 
So THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 When the ground is broken or undulating, the advantage should 
 be seized of marking eminences by planting. Rising ground may be 
 in appearance raised still higher if we cover it with wood. The trees 
 should be tallest as they reach the summit. Trees standing singly 
 mark and emphasize falling ground. Plantations crossing falling 
 ground generally are inharmonious to the broad effect. The brow 
 of an eminence should not be seen above trees ; and if the brow forms 
 a tedious continued line, it should be broken by clumps or large 
 masses along its range, and by dividing the line into very unequal 
 parts. Openings thus created may be treated by placing at the sides 
 of them, at all events not in the line of vision, various small clumps, so 
 as to train the spectator's glance in the given direction, and to promote 
 the idea of distance. The outlines of groups in a park should not 
 be regular, or in a succession of easy sweeps, or form a serpentine 
 line. They should have strong prominences marked by detached 
 trees that stand boldly in the group, and they should present deep 
 recesses. Exactness in outline will not be preserved ; but if the 
 general features be well set out, natural alterations due to the growth 
 of the plants will not spoil the effect. In plantations near the eye, 
 lights and shadows are more apparent than on distant groups of 
 trees ; the effects are stronger ; therefore dark foliage planted in a 
 near recess makes it appear deeper still. White foliage, or blossoms, 
 seem to be nearer to the spectator than they really are. Objects 
 become fainter in effect as they retire from the eye. A detached 
 clump, or a single tree of lighter green, will therefore seem to be 
 further off than an equidistant planting of darker hue. A regulated 
 gradation of one tint to another will apparently alter the length of 
 a continuous plantation, according as the gradation commences with 
 foliage of light or dark green. When a long continuous line of 
 planting fronting the eye cannot well be broken, because perhaps 
 it may serve as shelter, or for some other reason, a variation of line 
 
PLANTING, 51 
 
 and composition may be given to it by placing light green plants in 
 graduated tints at certain positions in its course. The effect is to 
 give the idea of distance at such points, and this effect of expanse 
 will be still more promoted, if the sky-line of the tree-tops is lowered 
 with a gentle curve lowest where is the lightest shade of green. 
 Among the dark-foliaged trees may be particularised the Oak, 
 Chestnut, Beech, Elm, Austrian Pine, Spruce Fir, Cedar of Lebanon, 
 Hemlock Fir, Yew, Holly ; among the light green, Plane, Birch, 
 Ash, Acacia, Lime, Poplar, Willow, Laburnum, Larch, Abies 
 Concolor, Pinus Insignis, Abies Douglasii, Cedrus deodara ; among 
 the red greens are varieties of Maple, the American Oak, Copper 
 Beech, etc. ; among white greens are Poplars, Sea Buckthorns, etc. 
 
 An avenue is the assumptive expression of grandeur of grandeur 
 that must be achieved at its starting-point, belong to its course, 
 and be conspicuous at its ending an essential feature of its purpose. 
 It must never be petty or inconsequential in these respects. It 
 should be planted only when importance is to be given to its line, 
 and when an imposing ending can be bestowed on it. Its line 
 should be, if possible, straight, and free from extraneous planting, 
 unless, indeed, it pass through a wood, and form part of it. Its 
 trees should be considered as belonging to, and forming part of, the 
 road. It is essentially a stately feature in its appearance ; and its 
 purpose should be harmonious with its expression. The mind is 
 apt to resent a paltry result to such promise as it impressively 
 gives, if the ending be unworthy of the beginning. When age and 
 luxuriant growth come upon it, there is a venerableness in its 
 beauty that is not otherwise obtainable by any like means. It has 
 a charm and dignity of purpose when young, if well planned, that is 
 soon apparent. But when ill planned to conduct the vision or the 
 footsteps from some point of little importance to a position of less 
 interest it bears all the penalty of a wasted resource ; and the mis- 
 
52 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 application of such means reacts on the imagination, and the feeling 
 of the spectator, with adjusted force. It must be remembered that 
 an avenue across a park divides it in two parts at that point. It 
 is not fitting except it proceed from some important entrance on a 
 side whence no distant views can be spoiled by its introduction. 
 The width of a grand avenue should be 50 ft. The trees may be, 
 preferably, Elm, Beech, Oak, Chestnut, and they should not be planted 
 nearer in precession than 40 ft, unless they be planted at intervals 
 of half that distance with the purpose of destroying alternate trees, 
 as their growth makes the removal necessary. 
 
 A century ago it was the fashion and practice to make boundary 
 plantations continuous and unbroken on the verge of an estate. 
 That is a practice not to be recommended. It is well to place 
 large masses of foliage towards the boundary, especially if these are 
 arranged to present winding intervals of turf, and so that endings 
 and corners be masked ; or such planting may be made only for 
 effect. But an enclosure pure and simple, even though it be of 
 leaves, and not a brick wall, gives a shut-in and cramped feeling, 
 which needlessly militates against expressions of beauty and expanse 
 that may be deftly gained from outside the boundary line. 
 
 Groups of planting in the garden may be more apparently con- 
 nected with the design than is permissible in the park. The effects 
 are for nearer contemplation, and are more intricate ; they harmonise 
 with, but display, the general design. The seeking after natural 
 formation is restricted, the reproduction of it more in miniature, the 
 arrangement is more elaborate and precise. Our choicer plants 
 have to be displayed here to best advantage, and the mean has to 
 be obtained between a mere collection of rare trees and shrubs, and 
 such a grouping of them as will produce a harmonious polytonous 
 effect as a whole. To achieve this, the outline of different groups, 
 and the position of the plants in them, give us requisite help. By 
 
PLANTING. 53 
 
 the outline of a group is not meant a hard artificial boundary, en- 
 closing an earthen bank on which trees and shrubs are planted ; 
 but a line to which it is intended that the plants should spread, 
 covering the earth surface, and such an outline should be graceful, 
 and give the required filling to the general design, even when the 
 verge first marked may be overgrown. The outline of such groups 
 in a garden is to be set out, and to it the ground is generally turfed. 
 Nothing can be in worse taste, or more in derogation of the pur- 
 pose of such groups, than to mark the outline with a formal row 
 of bedding plants, or other stiff edging a mistake that is frequently 
 committed. Where low flowering plants are introduced, they should 
 grow naturally to the edge, and separate plants may be placed 
 beyond the main group, so as still more to destroy simple formality 
 of effect in this connection. Formal planting may be introduced, 
 with propriety at the intersection of a walk, or at a point where 
 there is some artificial combination ; but unless quite appropriate, 
 its best effect is dearly purchased by the loss of naturalness in ex- 
 pression that may otherwise be achieved 'or maintained. When 
 formal bedding-out is made thus at particular positions, the contain- 
 ing bed should receive a regular shape, and be made with flat surface, 
 to distinguish it from the natural grouping. In other regions of the 
 place, formal arrangement and bedding-out is quite appropriate on 
 the terrace gardens and parterres, where plants are brought from 
 the glass-houses for seasonable growth and decoration, or where 
 permanent evergreen foliage plants are arranged, for instance. There 
 is, moreover, the planting of the so-called "American" garden to 
 be considered, where plants delighting in a peaty soil are grouped 
 together, such as Rhododendrons, Azaleas, Kalmias, Andromedas, etc. 
 There is the trim yew-hedge, lined with recesses for vases and for 
 seats, in close proximity to, or surrounding the old-fashioned her- 
 baceous garden. Another division is the rock garden, where the 
 
54 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 blossoms of Alpine plants glow in their varied colours. The Pinetum, 
 where are collections of hardy conifers, each tree rising separately from 
 the lawn, with a distinctive beauty, which not only charms the eye 
 but creates a special interest. Then we may, perhaps, consider the 
 low ground toward the lake, where the planting may be characterised 
 by introducing a collection of damp-loving plants, beyond which, on 
 the side of the lake itself, will come the collection of weeping trees, 
 overhanging the water surface. These are all special positions, and 
 each has a special planting, and its relation to the whole decorative 
 effect. The disposition of the plants requires skill. In addition to 
 the grouping for foliage, colour, and height, which has been insisted 
 on above, there is another consideration. It is pleasant to find in 
 a group a collection of various kinds of trees of one species for 
 example, of Hollies, having to lighten their effect an undergrowth 
 of variegated Dogwood ; the vacant spaces in the first instance 
 can be temporarily filled with common Holly. Or a collection of 
 Retinosporas may be made, interspersed with Spircea callosa, etc. 
 
 Assuming that the 'ground for the groups has been raised, as 
 already recommended, the arrangement of the planting should follow 
 the indicated level of the bed ; the points should receive prominent 
 trees, and the lower spaces should be filled with less important 
 plants, more dwarf in habit. Those trees and shrubs which are 
 hardy or delicate should be allocated to positions where they may 
 protect, or be protected. By grouping is not meant a repetition of 
 planting by threes or fours, but that some trees of the same species 
 differing in height be planted in juxtaposition to trees of other species 
 having differing form and colour that may harmonise and at the 
 same time contrast. Equally, variety in colour is not to be taken 
 as meaning the repetition of violent contrasts, such as Copper Beech 
 and Variegated Maple, so frequently planted together, with the 
 erroneous idea that strong contrast is all that is required. In mass- 
 

1 Sycamore 
 
 2 finus Awnsuuxv 
 
 3 larch 
 
 & Dutch Abde Poplar 
 
 5 Lombardy Poplar 
 
 6 HornbfMnv 
 
 7 English/ ELrru 
 
 8 Pinus Lanao 
 
 9 Slack/ Judum/ foplar 
 
 10 SOxer Rr 
 
 11 Qjpressns Lawsomcaui' 
 
 12 SpaTash Cfiestrvat 
 
 13 Tarplz Beech, 
 
 14 Cherry 
 
 15 Acaajv 
 
 16 Cedar of Lebanon, 
 
 1 7 
 
 18 Comment Mors & Chestnut/ 
 19 
 
 20 Almond 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 /trjw SpedabiHs 
 
 24 Wi>f>mg Willows 
 '1 5 Tulip Tree 
 
 26 
 
 27 Deciduous (ypress 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 Common J felly 
 
 32 ^2W 
 
 33 Spruce Rr 
 Yew 
 
 35 livergreett 
 
 36 Scarlet Them 
 37 
 
 38 Scotch Fir 
 
 39 
 
 40 Mountain Ash 
 
 41 
 
 42 Service- Tree' 
 
 43 Pimis Excflscu 
 44 
 
 D jj j y. 'j ? 
 j i. J r a ;; jj J ;i 
 
1 limits Awttruica.' <md, Cotaneaster Sinimonsti/ 
 
 2 Abws Gxnadavu & I\rus Spectabilis 
 
 3 Sycamore, of' saris, Holly & Scarlet Dogwood' 
 4- Scotch? Rr. Elder of sorts & Mvet 
 
 5 l,arrh and/ films Luntio 
 
 6 Thorns O7td> Rvrlierix uquifohcu 
 
 7 Piujfo Beech*, S'orbns of sorts 
 IfMy, & Abies (ait&denfus 
 
 8 litrdi. and' Portugal Laurel 
 
 9 Qieny arid; m'al l&aved. Privet 
 
 10 El ms of sort '$ 
 
 10 
 
 Mi 
 
 20 
 
 1\ 
 
 23 N 
 
 10 
 
 200 1 
 
 KITCH EN GARDEN 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 Mountain, Ash- & Fituis 
 
 Abies punyciLS & Snowbe 
 
 Abves Eaxdsa, & 
 
 Ibplarl New Canadiarv) 
 
 Chestnuts of sorts arid *Yews 
 
 BfcJv, Sih'cr Kr & Common- JjiureLs 
 
 Pifea/ ftnsafw 
 
 POOLS Lancw Scarlet Dogwood/ 
 
 and Sweet/ Briar 
 
 Silver Birdu 
 
 Sycarrwre* 
 
 lingluih Ebrv 
 
 Scarlet/ American/ Oak 
 
 /fer Sdavedterii & English, Yew 
 
 Jfountain/ Astt & Rhododendron' pontiaurv 
 ? Purple Sycamore & Common Holly 
 
 Yl&Aivaf Maple 
 
 //w.sv Chestnut 
 
 Cedar of Lebanon/ 
 
 Birch & Spruce; 
 
 Purple. S'y cam ore- 
 
 Scotch/ Fir 
 
 Spanijstu Chestrmt and. Abies Paisccpo 
 
 Spanish CheMnab 
 
 ^cfe/ 
 - Acacuv 
 
 32 
 
 ,18 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
~ r, ,\' i K \s 
 
PLANTING. 55 
 
 ing tints, attention must be constant to realise the form of the tree 
 as well as the colour of its foliage, or the trees may carelessly be 
 so arranged as to present the appearance of strips one beyond 
 another. The group should rather be divided into considerable 
 portions, each of a rounded figure, to be filled in with plants that 
 will give the various tints required, and are of the necessary height. 
 Contrasting tints, such as dark and light greens, coming together in 
 large masses of planting, break the surface, so to speak, on which 
 they meet. An outline which cannot for any reason be varied 
 sufficiently in form, may be diversified in appearance by clever 
 management of such shades. Every opposition of shade will vary a 
 continuous line. When a distinct hollow is apparent between two 
 clumps of trees, it is sometimes effective to plant the sides of each 
 group next the hollow with trees of similar kind, so as . to create 
 or suggest an idea that the groups have been separated by the 
 cause that made the hollow. 
 
 In addition to the clumps of planting made for effect in a park, 
 there are to be considered those that are to have as well a further 
 use, namely, to afford cover for game. For the flight of a pheasant 
 these should be placed about 200 yds. apart. Among the trees 
 should be planted thickly Cotoneaster Simonsii, Rhododendron 
 ponticum, Scarlet Dogwood, Gorse, Broom, Black Thorn, Snowberry, 
 Berberis aquifolia, Sweet Briar, Box, Privet, Elder, etc. An example 
 is given showing the arrangement of trees and shrubs in outlying 
 park plantations (see Plan). 
 
 In planting a villa garden there is a different treatment to be 
 observed from the stocking of a large place. In the small garden it is 
 generally necessary to secure an immediate effect; with an expression 
 of completeness that shall appear in winter as well as summer. 
 Shrubs that are of dwarf habit or of slow growth, if purchased of 
 sufficient size to break the monotony of low planting, are generally 
 
56 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 expensive, and the choice of sorts is somewhat restricted. Recourse 
 is therefore frequently had to plants, chiefly evergreen, which, though 
 looking well for a time, grow in no short period beyond the needs of 
 a small garden, and by their shade injure the growth of rarer shrubs. 
 It is, however, mostly necessary to use some fast-growing trees ; 
 but the best plan is so to arrange the general planting scheme, that 
 such trees may be cut down and removed after serving their 
 purpose. There are, however, many plants that attain a great size 
 with sufficient rapidity, such .as Cedrus deodara and Atlantica, 
 Cupressus Lawsoniana, Thujopsis borealis and dolabrata, Thuja of 
 sorts, Portugal and common Laurel, Hollies, Limes, Acacia, Beech, 
 etc., many of which, by constant pruning, may be kept within size 
 fitting for a small garden. 
 
 The moving, or transplanting, of large growing trees is a resource 
 of great utility, and can be carried out with less difficulty than is 
 frequently incurred by processes ordinarily employed. Some of the 
 methods resorted to, in general circumstances, create much of the 
 difficulty they are designed to overcome ; necessitating the use oi 
 expensive and elaborate machinery, when a much simpler process 
 will serve. In practice, I adopt the method described later on ; I 
 have found it easy, inexpensive, expeditious, and successful. With 
 a staff of 30 men, as many as 20 trees, whose stems average i ft. in 
 diameter at the ground level, with a height of 30 to 40 ft., have 
 been thus safely removed to new positions, at an average distance 
 of 100 yards, in one day. The trees were prepared on the previous 
 day. Trees can be moved in this way over hill and dale, and on to 
 newly-made mounds, where it would be difficult to employ a tree- 
 moving machine dragged by horses. In dealing with an estate it is 
 frequently found that trees have been long planted in belts at the 
 boundaries ; or they are in the way ; or are wrongly placed ; or, 
 perhaps, are crowded together, to their detriment. It is necessary 
 
PLANTING. 57 
 
 to remove some, and they can be shifted for use elsewhere, instead 
 of destroying them. They form most valuable features in a newly- 
 made place, securing immediately effects that would otherwise have 
 to be long waited for, besides conducing to visible beauty. The 
 most suitable trees for such removal are Horse Chestnuts, Sycamores, 
 Maples, Limes, Beeches, Service trees, and Mountain Ash. 
 
 The method to be adopted is as follows : Open out a trench 
 5 to 7 ft. distant from the stem of the tree, such distance depending 
 on the size of the tree, and dig down, cutting off any of the larger 
 roots that may be met with, but carefully preserving all the smaller 
 fibrous roots, following them to their ends and laying them carefully 
 round the ball of the tree. At a depth of from 3 to 4 ft. begin to 
 dig nearer the stem, and shape the ball by removing any superfluous, 
 loose earth at the top and sides, so that the root-ball has somewhat 
 the appearance of a flat inverted cone. Leave a supporting space 
 of 2 ft. diameter under the stem, then place matting round the ball, 
 enclosing the fibrous roots, and rope this round firmly. Next, place 
 thick planks on each side of the central support. Fix two or three 
 guide-ropes two-thirds of the way up the stem of the tree. Pull 
 one of these in the direction of the main planks, and draw the tree 
 over somewhat, separating it from its supporting base, and at the 
 same time, push two or three short 6 ft. planks as far under as 
 possible ; then pull the tree in the opposite direction and repeat the 
 operation on the other side. The cross-planks are to be lightly 
 bound together. The tree is then standing on a platform of planking, 
 which rests, in its turn, on the two main planks first put under. 
 These latter are the sliding-planks, or rails, on which the short 
 cross-planks, forming a carriage, slide. Care will be taken that the 
 sliding-planks are placed in the direction to be traversed, or in the 
 direction of least difficulty in extricating the tree from its site. A 
 piece of matting is then placed above the crown of the root, to 
 
58 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 prevent the bark being frayed, and a man, facing the direction in 
 
 which the tree has to be moved, and behind the tree, takes a strong 
 
 hempen rope in its middle, passes it over the protected stem, and 
 
 drawing each end towards him, crosses the ball diagonally, and 
 
 carries each rope, with a half-hitch, over the stage of cross-planks, 
 
 and delivers an end of the rope to men on either side, who are 
 
 awaiting it on the further side of the tree. These men, 10 to 20 
 
 in number, take the two ends of the rope and are ready to start. 
 
 Planks are, meanwhile, laid from those under the tree to the required 
 
 distance, care being taken that each succeeding plank-end is placed, 
 
 for a distance of six inches, under the preceding one. These planks 
 
 are then wetted and, if the way is uphill, smeared with clay. Two 
 
 men hold guide-ropes to steady the tree, and the men on each rope 
 
 drag it to the required spot without difficulty. If there are several 
 
 trees to be removed, having a stem-diameter of 6 in., with a 
 
 ball weighing about a ton, it is easier to move them on a made 
 
 sledge, instead of the cross-planks ; but the general operation is 
 
 the same. The ground under the new planting site must always 
 
 be broken up, and on the arrival of the tree, after the matting 
 
 has been removed, the fibrous roots should be spread out, the tree 
 
 regulated as to its best side and to its perpendicularity ; and it 
 
 should then be well packed with rammed soil, and the ground well 
 
 filled in to the new surface. If many roots have been removed, 
 
 the tree must be reduced proportionately. As a rule, it has been 
 
 found wise to reduce the leaf area from one-fourth to one-third. 
 
 Branches should be cut where there is another ready to serve as 
 
 a leader in the place of the reduced limb. 
 
 It would only be misleading to compile a list of plants suitable 
 for stocking any and every garden, as each district varies in respect 
 of its soil, subsoil, climatic influences, nearness to the sea, nearness 
 to a town, its sheltered or exposed situation, and its latitude. Such 
 
PLANTING. 59 
 
 conditions must be duly considered in working out the general 
 planting arrangement of each place, independently of the grouping 
 for effect. Nevertheless, it may be found useful to have a list of 
 trees and shrubs suitable for special districts, and the plants, of 
 which lists are given, are those that will grow, if not thrive, in 
 
 (a). Shade, or can be used for undergrowth. 
 
 (b\ Chalky soil. 
 
 (c). Peaty soil. 
 
 (d). Exposed situations, or near the sea. 
 
 (g). Smoky districts, or those in the neighbourhood of towns. 
 
 (a). Aucuba Japonica, Berberis aquifolia, Bramble, Broom, Box, 
 Butcher's Broom, Cotoneaster Simonsii, English Yew, Evergreen 
 Privet, Elder, Holly, Portugal Laurel, Rhododendron ponticum, 
 Phillyrea, Savin, Scarlet Dogwood, Snowberry, St. John's Wort, 
 Skimmia oblata, Thuja Wareana, Vinca, Abies pectinata, Abies alba, 
 Abies Canadensis, Abies nigra, Pinus pumilio, Cephalotaxus Fortunei, 
 Black Thorn, Hornbeam, etc. 
 
 , 
 
 (b}. Privets in variety, Elder, common, black, and golden, Veronica 
 \ 
 Traversii, Currants in variety, Leycesteria formosa, Buddlea globosa, 
 
 Berberis aquifolia, Box in variety, Laurel, both Caucasica and rotundi- 
 folia, Dogwood in variety, Coronilla emerus, Cotoneaster Simonsii, 
 Thorns in variety, Pinus Austriaca, Pinus nobilis, Daphne pontica 
 and mezereum, Beech in variety, Yew in variety, Hibiscus Syriacus, 
 St. John's Wort, Hollies in variety, Poplars, Prunus Pissardi, Service 
 tree, Symphoricarpus racemosus, Larch, Guelder rose, Periwinkle, etc. 
 (c]. Rhododendron, viz. named varieties, seedling varieties of 
 R. Catawbiense, dwarf varieties, e.g. R. Wilsoni, hirsutum, ferrugi- 
 neum, myrtifolium, ovatum, and R. ponticum, Kalmia, Andromeda, 
 Azaleas, both Ghent and pontica, Heaths, Gaultheria, Ledum, Men- 
 siesta, Epigoea, American Cranberry, Pernettya, Polygala, Rhodora 
 Canadensis, Vaccinium, White Cedar, Willow, Birch, Hemlock Spruce. 
 
60 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 (d]. Pinus Austriaca, P. maritima, P. centbra, P. insignis, P. 
 pinaster, P. pinaster minor, P. pumilio, P. pumilio uncinatus, Abies 
 Cephalomca, Abies Hookeriana, Cornish Elm, Wych Elm, Poplars, 
 Sycamore, Evergreen Oak, Thujopsis borealis, Thujopsis dolabrata, 
 Cupressus macrocarpa, Aucuba, Escallonia macrantha, Box, English 
 Yew, Holly, Double Furze, Sea Buckthorn, Juniperus Virginiana, 
 Euonymus, Phillyrea, White and Spanish Broom, Groundsel tree, 
 Bay tree, Berberis, Rhamnus alaternus, Privet, Laurustinus, Buddlea, 
 Spiraea, Currants, Scorpion Senna. 
 
 (e). Ash, Austrian Pine, Birch, Almond, Service tree, Horse 
 Chestnut, Plane, Sycamore, Siberian Crab, Laburnum, Tulip tree, 
 Thorns, Poplar, Willow, Aucuba, Andromeda, Azalea, Berberis aqui- 
 folia and Darwinii, Box, Broom, Cotoneaster Simonsii, Deutzia, 
 Dogwood, Elder, Euonymus, Guelder rose, Hibiscus Syriacus, Hollies, 
 green and Hodgins", Kalmia, Lilac, Laurustinus, Leycesteria formosa, 
 Philadelphus, Privet, evergreen, oval-leaved, and Japanese, Pernettya, 
 Rhododendron, Ribes, Sumach, St. John's Wort, Vinca, Weigela, 
 Wayfaring tree, Ivies, etc. 
 

 WATER. 
 
 OF all beautiful features in a landscape, none is more attractive than 
 water ; whether seen from afar, or contemplated near ; in the form of a 
 running, dimpled stream, or of a broad expanse reflecting the sky and 
 nearer objects on its placid surface ; when it spreads under the burning 
 sunlight, when it glitters in the cool moonlight, or when it pulses 
 and beats the shore, under a wind that bends the plants and trees 
 on its margin all one way. Its beauty has a fascination of its own. 
 A river has almost a personality in its district. When our steps 
 wander, they soon tend to the river or the lake, and on the margin 
 we seem to come near a friend. Wherever it is possible, and is 
 fitting to do so, this means of beauty must be conserved and used 
 by the landscape gardener. 
 
 A stream, or other water feature, has relation to the surrounding 
 land, and its expressive character. A brawling brook, a rushing 
 stream, leaping over a rocky bed, and foaming over rocky barriers, 
 or sweeping between them, does not naturally occur in champaign 
 country, and if artificially created there, is ridiculously unfit, as 
 incongruous as would be any misplaced artistic feature. Water 
 adapts itself to its superficial environment, and expresses its beauty 
 with infinity of conditions. In utilising them, we should imitate the 
 spirit of beauty in Nature's operations, but not distort her effects. 
 The placid lake that may be formed on low-lying land, has a beauty 
 
62 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 and fitness there that are equal, in their way, to the charm of a 
 mountain torrent ; and the fitness to surrounding conditions is the 
 measure of beauty for both. It would be as utterly wrong to 
 imitate in a low, flat country the rushing stream that dashes in 
 cascades over a rocky bottom, as in a mountainous district to work 
 in simulation of a broad, sleepily-flowing river, which in a level 
 region, brimming to the grassy verge of the fat meadows through 
 which it slowly sweeps, is an object of particular charm. Lakes 
 may, it is true, sometimes be properly formed in high ground, provided 
 the inclination of the land is wrought to apparently lend itself to such 
 a formation ; and the question of fitness must be well considered. 
 
 The landscape gardener's treatment of a lake or a river differs. 
 For the former space is necessary, and much of the pleasure de- 
 rived from the object is due to its outline. This outline is gained 
 by the arrangement of bays, creeks, and promontories. No figure 
 perfectly regular should be used, not even a semicircular bay, 
 which, though beautiful in shape, is not natural. The prevailing 
 line must be concave. It is indispensable that portions of the lake 
 and its shore be hidden from the spectator at other points on the 
 margin. If the lake be large, the end may be turned behind a 
 wood or a hill, or, failing such natural objects, by interposition of 
 planting. A vast sheet of water may compel our wonderment, but 
 the picture none the less is circumscribed, if we are able to take 
 cognizance of its features too completely ; our imagination is con- 
 fused or frustrated. In such circumstances the mind seizes with 
 avidity and delight on distant but definite objects, such even as a 
 shore of broken form, or a headland. An artificial lake may -be out 
 of proportion to the size of the estate. If the shore be flat, the 
 scene may be exceedingly uninteresting. In such case, by raising 
 opposite banks, by planting trees, or by making constructions, an 
 effect of proximity may be gained ; for elevation, producing distinct- 
 
WATER. 63 
 
 ness, gives that result ; a low shore, without trees or other like 
 features, though it may apparently increase the extent, does so by 
 the diminution of picturesqueness. In practice, an apparent curved 
 or bay-like outline may be given to a shore when viewed across a 
 large sheet of water, by judicious arrangement of planting, and by 
 irregular height of the banks. The extent of reflecting surface 
 should be in proportion to the extent of the visible surrounding 
 ground. If there seem to be too great a surface of water, and the 
 outlying ground be flat, portions of the distant bank may be raised 
 and planted ; then the effect will be to give proximity to such 
 objects, and to proportionally lessen in appearance the abundant 
 expanse of water. Large trees on the opposite shore of a lake 
 diminish in degree the apparent extent of the water. It is unwise 
 to allow any shore, viewed across an expanse of water, large or con- 
 tracted, to be fringed with trees, because they create a gloomy 
 impression. If for no other consideration than that of admitting 
 light, with its effect of freshness, an unbroken fringe of trees should 
 not be maintained. In such case, the removal of some in particular 
 situations, with a coincident lowering of the bank, will give an effect 
 of lengthening the water area. Promontories or projecting points 
 should be raised above the surrounding level. In forming a bay, 
 not only should the ground be taken out where the water-line 
 is formed, but the rising ground inland should be hollowed, and 
 the surface be given a concave form, gradually diminishing in 
 extent as it touches the water edge. Views from the house, or from 
 settled points, should be directed toward the bays, not only because 
 they give the largest prospect of water surface, or because of the 
 lower pitch of the intervening ground, but because a bay suggests, 
 with more or less appositeness, the idea that here was the line of 
 torrent at the supposed natural formation of the lake, where the land 
 was by such means denuded of trees. Lakes should be made to 
 
64 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 appear as the remainder and result of such a rush of water ; the 
 shores and surroundings should all bear the expression of having 
 been moulded and modified by water action. 
 
 Islands serve to give variety to the outline of a lake ; they can 
 be used to mask the ends, and when they are made by high ground 
 being left, a vast amount of excavation is saved. An island should 
 not be placed in the centre of a bay, but to one side of it ; and 
 there should never be fewer than sixteen feet of water between any 
 point of an island and the mainland. If a bridge be constructed 
 from the mainland to an island, it should be at the narrowest point, 
 and at right angles to the shore. When the surrounding land 
 surface is undulated, water may enter a lake at its highest point by 
 a waterfall or cascade, and the outfall may also be formed to rush 
 over a ledge or brawl over a rocky bottom. There is an expression 
 of propriety when water enters a lake by river-like means, and 
 when it comes by a slight cascade, or a series of rapids, into the 
 placid surface. The verge of water, where planting does not occur, 
 should be turfed to 6 in. below the water-line. The slope of 
 the sides immediately below the water-level should be as steep as 
 i to i, so that, in the event of the water falling, there may not be 
 a stretch of muddy foreshore laid bare. Water should never be 
 less than 3 ft. deep, as with less depth than this evaporation takes 
 place with undue rapidity, the bottom becomes heated by the sun's 
 rays, and vegetation is inconveniently stimulated. Single trees of 
 pendulous habit may be planted on the turf, to hang over the 
 water. 
 
 The practical work in making a lake must be well directed and 
 thoughtfully planned, or vast labour- may be wasted. When the 
 natural soil on the site is not water-holding, or when the level of 
 the water is to come above the line of water-holding stratum, arti- 
 ficial means must be used to prevent unintended escape of the water 
 
WATER. 65 
 
 by percolation. Even on strong clay lands there are generally at 
 least 6 in. of surface-soil, which is more or less porous. Lakes 
 may be made water-holding by use of either cement or " puddle." 
 If the soil be sandy or gravelly, and no clay is available, and above 
 all, if a solid foundation can be found, then concrete may be used. 
 It should be deposited not less than 12 in. thick on the bottom and 
 1 8 in. at the sides, and should be composed by mixture of i part 
 of hydraulic lime with 4 parts of broken stone and sand, or i part 
 of Portland cement with 6 parts of broken stone and sand. This 
 is to be floated with a layer i in. in thickness of cement. Before 
 the concrete is laid, the natural bottom must be worked solid and 
 firm. The result is disappointing if the deposit be made on filled- 
 up ground, or on that which is liable to slip, or is otherwise unstable. 
 When puddle is used, many of the same conditions must be created ; 
 but there are two ways of using this material. It is made by obtaining 
 clay, then cutting it and cross-cutting it, pouring water on it, and 
 working- it in a mortar-mill, or by treading, till it is plastic. The 
 first way of applying the material is this : The ground being excavated 
 to the required depth, allowing for the puddle that is to be deposited, 
 the puddle should be laid not less than i ft. thick on the bottom 
 and 1 8 in. on "the sides. As it is laid, it must be well trodden and 
 rammed till the formation is complete and as homogeneous as possible. 
 The second method is more satisfactory, where it is available, and 
 that is when a bed or substratum of water-holding clay underlies the 
 surface at a moderate depth. The whole lake can then be made 
 water-holding by means of puddle-gutters (see Plan, Jig. A). Such 
 gutters should be based on the water-holding stratum reached by 
 cutting through the overlying soil. From that base must be con- 
 structed the puddle-gutter, or contained wall of puddle, to the height 
 of at least i ft. above the projected water-level. The gutter should 
 be in no part less than 18 in. thick, and should increase in thickness 
 
C6 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 in. the proportion of i in 6 as it descends. The plastic clay should 
 be carefully rammed. It may be necessary in some cases to 
 form such a puddle-gutter all round a lake, but in falling ground 
 on-ly at the lower end, so as to prevent water escape. Some lakes 
 may be formed by utilising a natural gully, and throwing a strong 
 dam across its lower end. Then it is necessary to construct a well- 
 made and well-based puddle-gutter in the dam. and the clay wall 
 being amply supported by earth, the surface of the dam may be 
 treated for picturesque effect by planting or other means. The puddle- 
 gutter of a dam is best placed in the centre, and the dam itself 
 should be built up in layers, each one being well rammed and con- 
 solidated. It should not have a width less than 3 ft. plus the square 
 of the depth, with slopes on the inside of 2 to r, and on the outside 
 of i '/ a to i. It is well to cover the sides of a lake with gravel, 
 especially during the period of the entry of water, or where there 
 is danger of a wash. In large lakes of considerable depth, and in 
 reservoirs, the inner slope should be pitched to prevent wash, and 
 the water-level should be fully 3 ft below the top of the em- 
 bankment. When water enters from a pipe or from any point 
 above the lake-level, the sides below the inlet should be paved : 
 that is, an apron 4 to 6 ft. wide should be laid down the 
 slope. Both the overflow and the emptying pipe, where practicable, 
 should be preferably built in the solid ground. A type of over- 
 flow is shown (see Plan, jig. B], A grating to prevent the escape 
 of fish or leaves and rubbish through this overflow should be placed 
 at a short distance down the slope, so that it may not be choked 
 by accumulation of leaves, etc. ; as they float at the surface of the 
 water, which rises beneath any such accumulation, and so the desired 
 level is maintained. In lakes receiving the drainage of large areas, 
 a storm overflow should be provided ; it may consist of a paved 
 duct or channel, formed 3 or 4 in. above the level of the normal 
 
WATER. 67 
 
 overflow. When forming a lake, the operator should bear in mind 
 the practicability of introducing either a hydraulic ram or a turbine, 
 where the useful work it can do may be needed. For example, 
 a stream that fills a 3- in. pipe with a fall of 6 ft. will force the 
 delivery of 2,000 gallons of water daily to a point 100 ft. above the 
 water-level. 
 
 A lake may be made in two levels, that are separated by a weir, 
 which should be constructed at some comparatively narrow place, 
 over which a bridge can be thrown ; or a cascade can be made at 
 such point ; or the bridge may be placed where a short river joins 
 the broader lake area. 
 
 In commencing the excavation for a lake, all the soil should 
 first be removed from the area and be stored in a convenient posi- 
 tion for use ; or be used at once, in position, to form plantations 
 connected with the lake. Such soil, so utilised, has not only its 
 own inherent value, but will give a luxuriant vegetation more 
 quickly than poorer soil, or soil of lesser depth ; an advantage, in 
 the special circumstances, often of particular usefulness. 
 
 Storage of the water, and maintenance of the proper level, are 
 important considerations. The average evaporation from a water 
 surface amounts to about }i in. per day, or about 30 in. in the 
 year. It is greater from shallow than from deep water, and 
 naturally more in summer than in winter ; it is greater from running 
 than from still water. 
 
 The mean total annual rainfall in the London district is about 
 26 in. Heavy rain, falling for 24 hours, yields about i in. to the 
 depth ; but occasionally rain falls that gives 3 in. of depth in i hour. 
 On an average, about three-fifths of the rainfall is available for storage. 
 It will thus be seen that an extraneous water supply is desirable for 
 adjustment of the normal level. A method of approximately ascer.- 
 taining the quantity of water available from a flowing stream is 
 
68 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 this : Select some part of it where the cross section is for a given 
 distance constant. Find the area of this cross section in square 
 feet. Prepare a float, and start it from the upper end of the 
 measured space. Count the number of seconds this float occupies 
 in passing the given distance ; then multiply the number of square 
 feet by the observed mean velocity in feet per second, and you will 
 obtain the discharge in cubic feet per second. To find the area of 
 a pipe, or a channel-way, or the mean velocity, or the quantity dis- 
 charged (according to Trautwine) when the other two are given : 
 
 Area in discharge in cubic feet per second 
 
 square feet mean velocity in feet per second. 
 
 Mean velocity discharge in cubic feet per second 
 
 =z. ------- . . _. . 
 
 in feet per second area in square feet. 
 
 Discharge in cubic feet mean velocity area of cross section 
 
 per second in feet per second of pipe or channel in square feet. 
 
 These formulae apply to openings in the sides of vessels, to 
 rivers, and to all other channels, as well as to pipes. According 
 to Hawksley, the formula for the delivery of water in pipes when 
 
 G Number of gallons delivered per hour. 
 
 L Length of pipe in yards. 
 
 H Head of water in feet. 
 
 D Diameter of pipe in inches. 
 
 The theoretical velocity in feet per second is 8'O25\/Head of 
 
 water in feet. 
 
 A running spring or a stream delivers about as much water 
 as a pipe having the same area would discharge without extra 
 pressure, and it is worth while to note that a 
 
WATER. 69 
 
 1 in. pipe discharges 3 gallons per minute. 
 
 2 :> )i ;) J ;j )i 
 
 3 " u a 5 ;> 
 
 4 j? )J j) 112 .. ,, ,, 
 
 6 ;, ;> )l 283 ,, 
 
 9 3> ' 77 I* ji 
 
 12 1,600 
 
 *8 ,, ,, 44 ;> >, ,, 
 
 In the treatment of a river, everything that conduces to the 
 expression of movement may characterise it, whereas placidity, and 
 the beauty of rest, and finality of boisterous action dignifies a lake. 
 The shores of a lake are circuitous ; the banks of a river are nearly 
 parallel. Where one bank retires, the other, if it does not advance, 
 should at least continue its direction, though the water may be 
 widened to admit of an island being formed, or where there occurs 
 a confluent stream. In nature we generally see at a river-bend 
 some raised ground that has resisted the rush or wearing action of 
 the stream, and so has diverted its course. In such a place the 
 stream is generally wider, and the opposite bank washed low. 
 There should not be bays in the regular line of a river. It is 
 equally an expression of artificial resource, offensively conspicuous, 
 to make the line straight or canal-like. The ending of a river 
 scene should be hidden, like parts of a lake should be. Bridges 
 may, of course, be introduced for utility ; but they may also be 
 contrived to excite the impression of length and extent of the water- 
 way, by conveying an impression of the impossibility of going 
 round or of crossing by other means. It is well so to arrange a 
 bridge that light may be seen beneath it. 
 
FOUNTAINS. 
 
 THE beautiful forms taken by ejected water, rising in a stately 
 column, and falling in glittering spray, have a charm of their own that 
 sometimes is in the nature of a fascination, exercised not only by 
 the water forms, but appealing to another sense by the melody of 
 rippling sound. The arrangement is almost purely artificial, and 
 the resource is most consonant with those parts of the garden 
 where nature is most directly tutored and linked with the direct 
 evidences of art. There is great opportunity for variety in design 
 and application of the beauty of water forms. 
 
 Fountain basins differ essentially in their construction from lakes. 
 A regular form or artistic outline must be given to them, dependent, 
 it is true, on their position relatively to the house, or to the 
 surrounding ground, but signalised by its artificial character. The 
 outline is marked by a stone coping, which should possess archi- 
 tectural appropriateness to the neighbouring constructions. If the 
 ground be solid, a brick wall carrying the coping may be built to 
 a suitable depth, as at the Crystal Palace ; and the bottom of the 
 basin may be puddled. For small fountains it is usual to form 
 concrete basins, resting against a surrounding wall of brick, on which 
 the coping or kerb is imposed. The inside of such basins should 
 slope from the margin at such an angle that when ice is formed, 
 as it rises and expands, it may find sufficient room and no damage 
 
11 U. 1 V . ^ " 
 
 C -vLU r O .- 
 
~, ft . V f f [[ 
 
 r r r r r, - r j / n 
 
FOUNTAINS. 71 
 
 ensue. Generally it is desirable to keep the edging not more than 
 i ft. above the ground level ; but the coping may be made as high 
 as 3 ft., if arranged to be consonant with a particular design. On 
 the parterre in front of the Palace of Count Festetics at Keszthely, 
 in Hungary, the fountain basins are raised 3 ft. above the general 
 level, and from each basin radiate walks to similar stone basins made 
 to contain plants. The effect is good. The drawing (see Plan, 
 figs. C to H] presents examples of fountain basins in various styles. 
 The height to which a jet of water will rise depends on the 
 force derived from the pressure coming from a head of water placed 
 in a higher position, the vertical height of the surface of such supply 
 giving the measure of force to which the jet of water, if directly 
 connected with the supply, will rise ; but the height of the jet is also 
 ruled by the size and shape of the nozzle, etc. The height of a jet 
 is not so great as that of the head, owing to the resistance of the 
 air; and the difference between the head and the height to which 
 the jet rises, increases with the absolute height of the jet nearly 
 in the ratio of the square of the head, and diminishes with an 
 increase in the diameter nearly in the inverse ratio to the diameter 
 of the jet. For instance, with 80 ft. head, and with a jet of i in. 
 diameter, the loss would be about 10 ft., and the height of the jet 
 70 ft. ; but with a } in. jet the loss would be about 40 ft., and 
 thus the height attained 40 ft. Mr. T. Box is my authority for these 
 
 statements, and he has worked out the following formula for the 
 
 H 2 
 height of jets with different heads: #=-y-x '0125, in which H = the 
 
 head on the jet in feet, ft the difference between the height of head and 
 height of jet, d the diameter of jet in eighths of an inch. Experiments 
 also show that with excessive heads an enormous loss takes place. 
 The quantity of water discharged will vary considerably with the 
 form of nozzle. Assuming this is of good form, it may be found by 
 the following rule (Box): G = \/H Xfl?x -24, in which H = the head 
 
72 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 m 
 
 of water on the jet in feet, d the diameter in eighths of an inch, G the 
 gallons discharged per minute. Thus, with 80 ft. head and j in. jet, 
 the discharge is 8*58 gallons per minute ; with ^ in. jet, 34/3 ; and 
 with i in. jet, 137 gallons per minute. 
 
 Not only do fountain basins admit of varied formation, but the 
 arrangement of the water display in elevation can be made to assume 
 ornamental forms. The water forms should accord with the art 
 character of the basin. A single jet can only fitly spring from a 
 circular or regular figure ; while a combination of jets requires to 
 rise from a surface the outline of which is not only accordant with, 
 but is calculated to set off the water figures. The author condemns 
 the practice of allowing jets to arise from a lake, unless, indeed, 
 that be in form of a basin. A lake should not be made to appear 
 as if it were artificial, whereas a fountain basin is essentially the 
 work of man. Moreover, there should be a distinct difference 
 between an artificial cascade and a natural waterfall. In the former 
 the water should be made in appearance to descend by steps, whereas 
 with the latter, it is a main object to make the water come falling 
 naturally over rock. A sandstone formation lends itself most easily 
 to the production of this effect, as the rockwork can be appropriately 
 stratified in beds of varying thickness and tint. The rock must not 
 look like a wall, but the elevation should be recessed ; pockets should 
 be left for ferns. A " fault " may be made in the strata ; and it is 
 well in constructing rockwork, to inspect and copy some natural 
 formation of the Kind. 
 
STRUCTURES. 
 
 THE word that heads this chapter is intended to refer to a number 
 of art features that are incidentally introduced into the garden or 
 the park, such as Seats, Pavilions, Bridges, etc. ; the appropriateness 
 of which, in their design and for their position, is a consideration of 
 importance. And besides these there is the question to be treated 
 of boundary fencing and of divisional fencing, within the limits of 
 the estate one of the most difficult details of arrangement in the 
 whole subject. 
 
 The place for a seat should be chosen most carefully, with full 
 consideration of its aspect, the prospect from its position, and the 
 influence of its surroundings. The object of raising a seat is for 
 rest, and so far as the scene can minister to placidity and retire- 
 ment, it should be made to do so. If the seat be in a pavilion 
 attached to or near the house, the architectural features of the 
 structure must be consonant with those of the greater building. 
 Such architectural seats will almost always be at no great distance 
 from the house, even when one is placed in an old-fashioned herb 
 garden. In the landscape garden, where positions with purely 
 natural surroundings may be found, the conditions that tempt to rest 
 and delightful contemplation will most frequently be discovered, and 
 there the character of the structure should be, almost without variation, 
 rustic. The first-mentioned seats, temples, or pavilions will be built 
 
74 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 of wrought stone or brick ; the rustic seat, when roofed or sheltered, 
 will be constructed probably of oak or larch posts, with lining of 
 planed wood or hazel strips. The architectural seats, as expressing 
 more art, are directly consonant with artificial treatment in the sur- 
 rounding features ; but the simply rustic seat will be best placed 
 where nature seems to be least touched by art. In the manufacture 
 of such seats it is a mistake none the less because it is common 
 to leave the bark on the wood ; and the lining of roofed seats is 
 too frequently insufficiently permanent. Forethought is valuable in 
 such cases, and it should be particularly exercised, in regard to the 
 incidence of wind and dust, in every choice of position. Sometimes 
 the structure may be yet more elaborated, and may take a chalet 
 form, as a tea-house, etc., and be worked in pitch pine or other 
 wood ; but the foregoing remarks as to position and congruous 
 expression apply with added force. The situation of such a structure 
 may be more prominent. It may well be placed to overlook a 
 formal flower garden, a rose garden, or to terminate a straight walk; 
 or to serve uses near a tennis lawn or other special place. 
 
 The design of bridges should be ruled by their apposition to 
 the surrounding work. If a bridge be connected with a straight 
 walk or other formal work, it should be of massive construction 
 with architectural features ; if it occur as part of a winding walk, 
 crossing a running stream, it is appropriate that it should be given a 
 picturesque and rustic character. For such a structure peeled oak, 
 larch, or fir can be well used (see Plate O). One example given in 
 connection with formal work is that of a bridge over the River 
 Wye, in the public gardens at Buxton, for the main approach from 
 the pavilion to the band-stand, and to the gardens generally ; and 
 the second is a rustic bridge over a narrow arm of the lake at 
 Keszthely. 
 
 Of mere boundary fencing or paling, there is not much to be 
 
STRUCTURES. 75 
 
 said here. In the division on Planting some observations are made 
 as to the proper treatment of this necessary line, and of the trees 
 that are placed on or near the enclosure. But the intrusion of 
 fencing for useful purposes such as the exclusion of cattle or deer 
 from the garden within the boundaries of the estate, requires 
 careful attention. Already, in treating of formation, something has 
 been said as to the making of the boundary between the garden 
 proper and the park. There is a difference in quality of tone 
 between the lawns or trimmed turf of the garden and the pasture 
 of the park or the fields, that is more or less conspicuous as a line 
 of demarcation. The coarser grass is apparent, and the effect is 
 not agreeable. When such a division is close to the eye, that is, 
 not far from the house, it is preferable to make the difference at 
 once marked by a boundary of light iron fencing. But when the 
 landscape, with its features of planting, or distant buildings, cattle 
 or deer, has to be kept in the entire effect of the picture, artifice 
 must be used to save the intrusion of a cutting line, distant though 
 it may be. Though the objects beyond do not belong to the 
 garden proper, and possibly are not under control of the occupier, 
 yet they have been made parts of the picture. When the boundary 
 is sufficiently distant from the sight to make the difference of 
 colour in the turf not so apparent, though a rigid line of fence 
 might be noticed ; or when a place is small in extent, and a line 
 of fencing at right angles to the line of sight would make it appear 
 smaller still, then a hidden fence may be properly used. The 
 ordinary devices that may be employed are : a sunken wall, to the 
 summit of which the ground should be made. The wall should 
 be not less than 4 ft. high, and there should be a level space at 
 its foot of not less than 4 ft. The slope of the ground beyond it 
 should be not less than 2:1; or a bank can be raised on the inner 
 side of the wall to about a foot above its level. This bank should 
 
76 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 be turfed, and the eye will then be carried over the wall, hedge, 
 or other intervening object to the prospect beyond (see figs. I and E). 
 The line may be broken by raising the ground in places, by groups 
 of planting which may be made to extend outside the division 
 in corresponding positions, and single plants may be employed. 
 Frequently fencing is required round artificial lakes. In such cases 
 approaches to the water for cattle drinking must be provided. As a 
 general rule it is better to make artificial drinking places supplied 
 from the lake, but apart from it, so that cattle may not come to trample 
 and damage the edges. Boat-houses are readily made picturesque 
 features in the landscape. They can be constructed on brick 
 foundations in wrought wood, varnished or painted. The roof should 
 be tiled. In more pretentious structures space can be allowed for 
 a tea-room ; but in any case it is well to provide space in the roof 
 for the stowage of sails, sculls, ropes, etc. (see Plate R). The 
 entrance to a boat-house can be from the back or at the side. There 
 should be platforms not less than 3 ft. wide on two sides of the 
 interior for embarking or landing ; and it is well to make provision 
 for slinging the boats in winter to the main beams. 
 

 
HOTHOUSES. 
 
 Two descriptions of glass-houses are commonly used ; one being 
 for the display of plants, the other for their growth. The usual 
 name for the first is the conservatory, while those in the second 
 category are denoted by names signifying the particular use for 
 which each house is designated. Many palms, tree ferns, camellias, etc., 
 usually seen in a conservatory and forming a great attraction, 
 are tall -growing plants, and require a high roof for their display 
 and well-doing ; whilst fine-foliaged and rapidly growing plants 
 generally, require the roof to be low, so that they may be near the 
 glass. We have thus two requirements. The large and permanent 
 plants thrive best and look best when planted in beds where they 
 may have an even temperature and moisture to their roots, and 
 where they may have ample space to grow upwards and spread. 
 The foliage and choice flowering plants, not usually permanent, are 
 generally in pots arranged on stages. There results a type of 
 building having a central part with a high roof, and adjacent 
 divisions with as low a roof as is consistent with comfort and good 
 appearance. Conservatories are something more than plant-houses, 
 and must be spacious in order to provide room for walking and 
 lounging. We must then consider the conservatory as an adjunct 
 of the dwelling-house, designed for the showing, under good and 
 pleasant conditions, those plants placed there permanently and 
 
78 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 those which are being continuously brought there from the growing- 
 houses, such plants being renewed from time to time as required. 
 Seeing, then, that the conservatory is an adjunct of the dwelling- 
 house, and frequently built next to it, it is advisable that the same 
 feeling pervading the design of the house should influence the 
 architectural treatment of the glass structure. If, however, the con- 
 servatory is to be anything more than a mere flower-room, it must 
 not be an architectural "feature," having high sides and steep roof, 
 with brick or stone mullions, and an elaborate parapet intended to 
 hide the glass roof which it frequently does so effectually that it 
 deprives the plants of all light. A conservatory may be treated 
 after this manner only when it is small and unimportant, and when 
 it may be considered as a vestibule or loggia, in which plants are 
 placed. But if the structure is intended to be something more than 
 this, it should, while taking a distinct place in the general composition, 
 and conforming to the architectural character of the house, yet, by 
 its very nature, have a distinctive appearance, and proclaim its object 
 without pretence. Care in the arrangement of the base, the outline 
 of the sashes, the pediment, the entablature, and the mouldings will, 
 without injuring its distinctive features, give the conservatory 
 sufficient connection with the main building to remove all appearance 
 of an excrescence. It is desirable, if possible, to have an ante- 
 chamber or corridor between a living-room and a conservatory, as 
 the damp air of the latter will, unless modified and controlled by 
 an intermediate space, deleteriously affect the air of the former. 
 
 A conservatory is usually constructed two or three steps above 
 the terrace-level, and, as the stages inside are generally lower than 
 those of a greenhouse, we have, outside, a 3 ft. or 3 1 /., ft. base of 
 stone or brick, thus leaving, inside, 2 ft. or 2 1 /, ft. from floor to 
 stage. The staging may be of stone or terra cotta, as well for the 
 horizontal plant-rest as for the vertical ornamental perforated filling 
 
HOTHOUSES. 79 
 
 to support the stage and hide the pipes ; or it may have a slate plant- 
 rest with iron supports ; or it may have wooden laths with half-inch 
 spaces between, on which to stand the plants, with upright wooden 
 supports and lattice work. The height of the cornice or springing 
 of the roof should be about n ft, with a transom i ft. 6 in. or 2 ft. 
 below this, allowing an upper light to open for ventilation. The 
 pitch of the roof is preferably 30, as this angle makes the roof 
 half a hexagon, and so facilitates the use of a semicircular rib 
 as a principal, should the design require such construction, and it 
 is also desirable to have an upper part or lantern with lights 
 opening for ventilation. Ventilation should be also given at the 
 bottom by allowing the outside air to pass over the pipes directly 
 through gratings built in the base of the house, or, better still, by 
 taking the outside air through an opening into a channel running 
 inside the pipes, and allowing the air to pass through to the 
 pipes by regular openings. No horizontal sash-bars should be 
 fixed at the height of 5 ft. or 5'/ 2 ft. from the floor-line, as the line 
 of sight is thereby cut. The floor of a conservatory can be made 
 with marble mosaic pavement, or with tiles of subdued colours. 
 Bright greens and reds should be specially avoided. Pipes below 
 the floor should be covered with a perforated brass grating, or, 
 if expense be much considered, by an iron one, care being taken 
 that the pattern be sufficiently small to prevent the heels of ladies' 
 boots being caught in it. Assuming a stage to be placed next the glass 
 sides, the centre may have a tiered stage ; but the space is preferably 
 occupied by a bed surrounded by marble or stone edging. There 
 must be a drain-pipe from the bottom of such a bed. It is very 
 desirable to have space not only for the walk, which should not be 
 less than 4 ft. wide, but also for chairs, tables, statuary, etc. The back 
 wall can be built plainly, or, as at Hitherwood, of alabaster, and treated 
 ornamentally with water pouring from a lion's head into a shell 
 
8o THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 basin ; or it can have a border next it, and be wired for the growth 
 of climbing plants ; or it can be recessed and lined with tufa, 
 with pockets of soil for ferns, etc. ; or space may be arranged for 
 a fountain basin, or for water dripping from the rockwork into a 
 pool. It is well to avoid as much as possible the employment of 
 iron in continuous lengths, and the rafters should be moulded with 
 drips to take away any superfluous moisture. The heating apparatus 
 can be placed under part of the conservatory, or in an adjacent 
 building, or, if near, the heating can be connected with that of the 
 growing-houses. The general details of construction and heating 
 given for hothouses later on, apply also to conservatory work. 
 
 Growing-houses are built for utility rather than for show ; and 
 therefore it is desirable to construct them with the view of obtaining 
 best results for the well-doing of the plants. A great deal might 
 be written about the best pitch for the roof, or the angle which is 
 made between the roof and a horizontal line drawn from the lowest 
 point of it. The sun's rays naturally strike the glass with greatest 
 intensity when it is placed at right angles to them ; but if the sun's 
 rays strike the glass at any angle between 60 and 90, only about 
 2'/ 2 per cent, is lost, so we have practically a range of 30 on each side 
 of the perpendicular. The angle at which the sun's rays strike a sur- 
 face in the same latitude varies considerably in summer and winter. 
 In summer the angle of the sun's maximum altitude here is 62, and 
 in the winter it is 15. In addition, it is well to remember that 
 the difference in the length of a sunlight day in midsummer and in 
 midwinter is 17 hours as against 7 hours. The higher the latitude, the 
 greater should be the pitch of roof; thus for latitude 50, the pitch 
 would be 36, and for latitude 60, 46. In growing-houses, however, 
 sunlight is not the all-important question. It is desirable that 
 plants should be as near the glass as possible. A pitch that is 
 constructionally good, viz., 26 or 6" in the foot is a very good 
 

 F- 
 
 
 
HOTHOUSES. 8 1 
 
 inclination. By making a low pitch, the hot air is more evenly dis- 
 tributed. In houses having a high pitch, the hot air accumulates at 
 the top of the house, and as the tendency of plants is for the sap 
 to flow to the spot where the greatest heat exists, the lower portions 
 of such plants will suffer. 
 
 These glass buildings may be divided into two classes, viz., the 
 lean-to houses and the span-roof houses. The former are mostly 
 used for vineries and peach-houses, and are the most economical ; 
 the latter are generally used for stoves, forcing- houses, pits, etc. 
 Various examples are given, showing the different combinations 
 alluded to. (See Plan Q.) Wood alone is preferable to iron in such 
 constructions, but a combination of iron and wood is advantageous. 
 The plates, sills, mullions, rafters, and posts should be constructed of 
 wood ; but purlins, strengthening tie-rods, bars, brackets, etc., may be 
 made of iron. 
 
 The houses should be built of best yellow or red deal with oaken 
 sills. This woodwork should be well seasoned, free from defects, 
 and painted two coats before being fixed, and two after. All joints, 
 tenons, mortises, should be primed before fixing. Plate glass is 
 preferable for front lights of a conservatory. The glass for growing- 
 houses should be best 21 oz. English sheet. The front lights and 
 the roof lights should be opened by lever simultaneous opening gear. 
 This gear is constructed by running, through small bearings fixed to 
 each mullion, a rod, to which are fixed at proper intervals the ends 
 of elbow joints ; the other ends being attached to the bottom rails 
 of the lights. When the rod is caused to revolve, the whole of the 
 elbow joints are straightened and the sashes thus opened. In con- 
 servatory work, sometimes the vertical sashes are hung from the 
 top, and sometimes at the sides. They are opened by set-opens, 
 which are brass or iron arms, having holes, which are dropped on to 
 vertical pins. Fresh air should be made to enter as near the 
 
 M 
 
8z THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 bottom as possible, and pass out as near the top as may be. In 
 vineries the roots of the vines may be allowed to grow on the 
 inside or the outside of the houses. As a rule, the front walls of 
 vineries and peach-houses are built on arches, so that the roots 
 may spread in every direction. The greatest care must be taken in 
 the formation of a vine border. It is well to lay a pavement, 
 about 4 ft. beneath the surface, of rough material, and from this 
 take pipes, so that the stratum may be perfectly drained ; then, on 
 this foundation to fill in a mixture composed of best top spit loam, 
 of "/ m - bones, and of soot. The paths inside vineries and peach- 
 houses are best made of perforated iron. In stoves and growing- 
 houses make the footways of concrete floated with cement, or of tiles 
 laid in cement. On falling ground, ranges of hothouses should be 
 built vertically, and stepped when required ; though the path inside 
 should be made on the slope, and steps between the houses avoided. 
 
 The temperature of hothouses is best attained by employing a 
 low-pressure hot water apparatus. Its operation is based on the 
 fact that water is at its greatest density and minimum volume at 
 39-2 Fahrenheit. When the temperature is raised above this point, 
 the volume of water increases and the density decreases ; so that 
 if we allow a given quantity of hot or cold water to intermingle, 
 the result of difference in the respective specific gravities will be 
 that the superheated water will expand and rise, propelling the 
 colder water, that, having given off its heat, returns to the boiler. 
 And so two columns of water are employed ; one is maintained 
 hotter than the other, whilst communication is kept between them, 
 and circulation by displacement is continually going forward. In a 
 boiler there are two openings, the one at the top and the other at 
 the bottom. From the upper opening a pipe is taken, which returns 
 after a certain distance to the opening in the bottom of the boiler. 
 From this point another pipe is led, communicating with a water 
 
HOTHOUSES. 83 
 
 supply cistern. Assuming now that the boiler and pipes are filled 
 from the supply cistern, which should always be left open, and fire 
 is applied to the boiler, the heated water in it rises, and passing 
 by the opening at the top, through the pipes, becomes cold, 
 and enters the boiler again at the bottom, to be again heated and 
 passed through the pipes. Air or vent tubes are fixed at the 
 highest ends of all pipes, so as to prevent the accumulation of air 
 in them. By hot-water pipes glass-houses are heated, and the heat 
 is diffused by radiation from the pipe surface. Pipes are generally 
 
 3 in., 4 in., or 6 in. in diameter. In ordinary greenhouse work 
 
 4 in. pipes are used for both mains and heating pipes. For long 
 distances 6 in. pipes are required for greenhouses. The connection 
 from the boiler to the heating pipes may be by 3 in. or even 2 in. 
 pipes. When speaking of heating pipes, 4 in. diameter is generally 
 understood. According to Fawkes, the length of 4 in. pipe required 
 for 1,000 cubic feet of actual atmospheric contents is : 
 
 Greenhouses, conservatories, etc. . 35 to 40 ft. 
 
 Vineries 45 to 55 
 
 Plant stoves 55 to 65 
 
 Forcing-houses, etc. . . . 60 to 70 
 
 The boiler house and boiler should be placed, in small ranges, at 
 the end, and in very long ranges towards the middle, of the houses. 
 Mains from the boiler should run at a minimum inclination of '/, in. per 
 9 ft.; but the greater difference we have in the temperature between 
 the incoming and outgoing water the shorter may be the column of 
 water to produce circulation, and the higher the column the longer 
 may be the length of pipe. The main should be kept in trenches 
 to prevent radiation, and the pipes for heating the different houses 
 should be taken from the mains at the different points and conducted 
 where required. The heating pipes, once they rise from the mains, 
 should never be allowed to dip. If the pipes must be above the floor- 
 
84 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 line, and there are doorways, a fresh set of pipes should be arranged 
 between the doorways, otherwise the pipes should be placed below 
 the floor-line in a trench and covered by a grating when necessary. 
 Each house should have its own system of heating controlled by 
 valves from the main. The water should be able to rise to the 
 highest point of the heating pipes as soon as possible, and will thus 
 have less opportunity to cool. Pipes are generally in 9 ft. lengths, 
 with either flange ends, or spigot and socket ends. The first-named 
 are made tight with vulcanised indiarubber joints between the flanges, 
 which are bolted together. For the latter the best joint in under- 
 ground work is the rust joint, wherein the space between socket 
 and spigot is caulked with rope, and sealed with a mixture of damp 
 iron filings and sal ammoniac. Above the ground the joints may be 
 made tight by indiarubber rings. Boilers vary much, according to 
 different makers. There are very good ones which are most suitable 
 to the class of work for which they are required. The most 
 effective boiler is that which has a large surface horizontally above 
 the flame ; vertical surfaces above the flame are reckoned to have 
 half the efficiency of the horizontal surface. Horizontal surfaces 
 below the flame are not valued at all. Every square foot of 
 effective heating surface is reckoned to heat 40 ft. of 4 in. pipe. 
 Coke is the best and most economical heating material. If wood 
 be used, a large grate area is necessary. Clean rain water should 
 always be used for the boilers. It is advisable in a large range to 
 have two boilers, connected or disconnected at will, each one capable 
 of heating the range. It is more economical to have an excess of 
 boiler power and piping than is theoretically required, and to work 
 at a low pressure, than to work a smaller system at a high 
 pressure. Water expands in the boiler about one-thirtieth of its bulk, 
 so the supply cistern should be fixed a slight distance above the 
 level of the highest point of the system and connected with the 
 
HOTHOUSES. 85 
 
 return pipe near the boiler. The water when cold should always 
 cover the bottom of the cistern i in., and as this disappears by 
 evaporation, fresh water should be added. A hundred feet of 4 in. 
 pipes contain 54'/ 3 gallons. 
 
 Two ranges of hothouses are shown on Plate Q. The one is 
 at Peverey, near Shrewsbury ; the other, at Gisselfeld, Denmark. 
 On reference to the former, it will be noticed that there is a range 
 nearly 300 ft. long, consisting chiefly of lean-to houses placed 
 against the southern side of the north boundary wall of the kitchen 
 garden, with offices, etc,, at the back. Beginning at the west end 
 is a projecting span-roof stove, A, with central pit for stove plants, 
 and a stage all round, and hanging shelf from roof. Under the 
 stage are six rows of 4 in. pipes, and under the perforated slate 
 bed of central pit are two rows of 3 in. pipes next the wall. Then 
 follow three pits, B and C, for melons, cucumbers, peas, etc. The 
 heating is given by four rows of 4 in. pipes placed next the pit 
 wall next path, and bottom heat is provided by a flow and return pipe 
 under the pit. The roof of these pits is wired, and a shelf fixed 
 against the back wall. These pits are 9 ft. wide, and in front of them 
 are low frame pits heated by a flow and return 4 in. pipe. The 
 lights of these last named are movable. Then follows an early 
 peach house, G, 16 ft. wide, in which a trellis frame is arranged 
 parallel with the glass and stopping at the path, against which, and 
 the wired back wall, peach trees are planted. The heating consists 
 of two 4 in. pipes between the trellis frame and the outside 
 brickwork, with eight rows of pipes arranged in fours between the 
 trellis frame and the path. Next comes an early vinery, H, 16 ft. 
 wide, having a length of rafters of 18 ft., the heating being provided 
 by eight rows of 4 in. pipes arranged in fours. Then is reached the 
 span-roof plant house, J, forming the centre of the range. There 
 are stages next the wall, but the centre is clear for the storage 
 
86 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 and display of the larger foliage plants. Next follow a late vinery, 
 K, and a muscat house, L, each 16 ft. wide, each heated by six 
 rows of 4 in. pipes, of which four are 2 ft. from the front and two 
 of them the same distance from the path. The roofs are wired, 
 and shelving is fixed against back wall. A late peach house, M, 
 also 1 6 ft. wide, succeed, with trellis frame as before described. The 
 heating consists of eight rows of 4 in. pipes, two rows next the 
 outside wall, a group of four rows inside trellis frame, and two rows 
 next the path. We now come to a propagating greenhouse, 9 ft. wide, 
 with stage heated by a flow and return pipe under same, with shelf 
 against back wall, with a frame pit, O, 5 ft. wide, in front, similar 
 to those previously described. P is a span-roof house, with central 
 stepped stage, with tank under the stages next the walls, and hang- 
 ing shelf. It is heated by four rows of 4 in. pipes under the 
 outside stages. The heating is provided by two low-pressure boilers 
 fixed in boiler house, each capable of heating 3,500 ft. of 4 in. pipe, 
 and so arranged that they can be worked independently or coupled. 
 There is a main flow and return pipe laid under the perforated 
 iron pathway running the whole length of the houses, from which 
 pipes, controlled by separate valves, are taken to the several 
 divisional houses. All water gathered from the roof is conducted 
 to either the tank fixed under the greenhouse, P, stage, or to an 
 open tank built at back, Q ; and pumps connected by lead piping 
 with these tanks are fixed in each house. The front brick walls 
 of the vineries and peach houses are built on arches, so that the 
 roots may penetrate on either side. The front upright lights open 
 and shut by simultaneous opening gear, as also the top ventilating 
 lights, which are 2 ft. 6 in. long, in the roof. At the back are to 
 be seen an open tank, Q, with roof over and enclosed by iron 
 railing, and, as already referred to, a mushroom house, with slate 
 shelves resting on brick supports, and heated by a flow and return 
 
HOTHOUSES. 87 
 
 pipe, with light and shutter in roof ; the fuel store, S ; the boiler 
 house, T, necessarily 9 ft. below the ground-line ; the potting shed, U, 
 with entrance also from the plant house, J, and fitted with bench, pot 
 rack, bars, etc. ; a fitted office and seed room, V, from which is 
 entered the fruit room, W, with stages and grape bottle rests on 
 each side of a central path, having a 4 in. flow and return. There 
 are "hit and miss" ventilators next the ground-line, and a large 
 ventilating shaft in the roof. The walls are built hollow, that is, there 
 is a 2*4 in. span between the brickwork, and there is a large light 
 and shutter in roof. Then follow sleeping and mess rooms, X and Y. 
 
 In the second example we have a main range of lean-to hot- 
 houses 150 ft. long, with five span-roof pits in front, each 40 ft. 
 long, and an orchard house behind, 150 ft. long. The main range 
 embraces an early vinery, A, a muscat vinery, B, an early peach 
 house, C, a late peach house, D, and a late vinery, E, with, at back, 
 a boiler house, F, a fuel store, G, a potting shed, H, an office and 
 seed room, J, a fruit room, K, a mushroom house, L, and an open 
 shed, M ; O and P are two stove pits ; Q and R are pine stoves ; 
 S and T are two propagating greenhouses. The orchard house at 
 the back of the main range consists of a three-quarter span house, 
 5 ft. 6 in. wide, with the side lights almost vertical. This house is 
 so framed that the lights can be taken off in summer. There is a 
 separate boiler to these orchard houses, owing to the necessities of 
 the climate. A peculiar feature to be noticed is that the roof and 
 vertical lights of the main range and pits have double glazing, as 
 a protection against frost and snow. The roof lights consist of 
 two framed sashes resting on the main rafters, whilst the double 
 arrangement of glazing in the front lights is provided by the 
 additional glazing being fixed on these lights by screws. The 
 outer glazing is removed in summer. 
 
KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 THE site of a Kitchen Garden must depend chiefly on convenience, 
 on soil, and on aspect ; while the character of the house generally 
 determines the extent of the Kitchen Garden and its propinquity. 
 
 For a moderate country house, the area would profitably be two 
 acres enclosed within walls, with space outside the walls and beyond, 
 for the potatoes and coarser vegetables. This enclosed garden 
 should also be easily accessible from the house and at a moderate 
 distance, say between 300 and 500 yds. An ideal site would be on 
 a hillside, slightly sloping towards the south, to the north-east 
 or north-west of the house and intervening stabling ; with a 
 wooded hillside above giving shelter from northerly winds. There 
 should be, if possible, good communication with the main road. 
 Water also, preferably that drawn from a river or lake, is a desirable 
 adjunct. If water has to be forced from springs or a stream at 
 a lower level, it is good to have it brought to a service reservoir 
 exposed to the air, with short pipes conducting thence to the houses, 
 and fixed hydrants. It is all-important, especially in clayey soils, that 
 the drainage should be perfect. The depth and distance apart of 
 the drains must depend on the nature of the soil, and if this be 
 hard and impervious, they should be filled up to within 12 or 15 in. 
 of the surface with some porous materials. The subsoil should be. 
 improved by trenching, by the addition of manure, lime, or other 
 
KITCHEN GARDEN. 89 
 
 chemical ingredients ; besides which, the top soil may be increased 
 by the addition of soil from outside sources, or if it consist of strong 
 clay, it can be corrected by the addition of sand or slightly burned 
 ballast. A good loam is the best, but it is often convenient to have 
 one part of the garden with stronger soil than the other. The depth 
 of soil should be not less than 2 ft. 6 in. If the subsoil be not good, 
 or if it contain, as often happens, too much oxide of iron, the fruit 
 trees should have a paved space under each, and this must be drained, 
 to prevent roots from penetrating too deeply. When the required 
 soil is brought in from an adjacent meadow, the field should not 
 be stripped, but the surface removed for the depth of one spit in 
 alternate strips, say 2 ft. wide, and the field should be crossed, 
 trenched, and manured. 
 
 The form of the garden does not in reality make any difference 
 to the growth of the plants, but it is more easily worked when it 
 takes a quadrilateral form. Much depends on the aspect of the walls, 
 for fruit ripening on them. The sun's rays are generally most powerful 
 between one and two in the afternoon ; the consequence is, that a 
 wall with a western is warmer than one with an eastern aspect, 
 though the sun shines on one as long as on the other. To equalise 
 this the walls are frequently placed with a south-easterly aspect, but 
 this must depend on the requirements of the place. 
 
 A northern boundary wall is generally used on its southern side 
 for lean-to hothouses, and on its northern for the boiler-house sheds, 
 the fruit-room, mushroom house, etc. ; but the wall forming the 
 southern boundary is not so important, for its southern side is outside 
 the garden, and is more or less liable to be shaded by a screen of 
 planting. 
 
 Speaking generally, the more southerly the latitude of the place, 
 the more can the line of the walls be turned east of south, so that 
 the southern wail may come at right angles to the sun at n a.m. 
 
90 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 The higher the latitude of the place, the more must the aspect be 
 turned towards the west, so that the southern wall may be turned at 
 right angles to the sun at one o'clock p.m. 
 
 If, however, hothouses are not to be extensively employed, then 
 it becomes important for the sake of ripening fruit that there should 
 be a great length of south wall ; and, consequently, a parallelogram 
 is the best form to adopt, with sides as five to three. 
 
 An orchard of standard trees should be contiguous to the kitchen 
 garden, and the trees should be planted regularly. It is important 
 that there should be shelter provided when such protection does not 
 naturally exist. Trees make the best screen, and they should be 
 planted on the north, north-west, and north-east sides. In a new 
 plan such a screen might consist of poplar, spruce, sycamore, beech, or 
 pine, as may be best suited to the district. Various forms of kitchen 
 garden are shown in examples (see Plan). The borders inside the 
 walls should be from 12 to 18 ft. wide, falling about, 6 in. towards 
 the walks. They should be from 2 to 3 ft. deep, well drained, and 
 made with both good top and bottom soil as stated above. If a 
 layer of material be placed under the soil to prevent roots of fruit- 
 trees penetrating too deeply, this layer must be drained, so that by 
 removing the cold stagnant water the soil may be rendered warmer, 
 and capable of receiving air and water warmed by the sun. The 
 main paths in a kitchen garden should be made sufficiently wide 
 to allow the passing of a light cart. The centre walk, leading from 
 the pleasure ground through the kitchen garden to the hothouses, 
 may advantageously be bordered with turf, having immediately 
 beyond a border of herbaceous plants, or of roses or cutting flowers, 
 and beyond that again espalier trees ; or it may pass under an arch 
 covered with cordon fruit- trees; at any rate, it may be made at- 
 tractive, and not have vegetables too prominent along its course. 
 A basin forms a pleasant object in the centre of a kitchen garden, 
 
KITCHEN GARDEN. 9 r 
 
 with or without a fountain, and it is certainly most useful, as giving 
 a supply of aerated water, besides affording a means for the display 
 of hardy aquatic plants. The walks generally should have a tile 
 edging. If expense be not a great consideration, labour is 
 saved and cleanliness promoted if the walks are made of concrete 
 or asphalte instead of being covered with gravel. The wall 
 forming the northern boundary will often vary in height according to 
 the height or extent of the hothouses placed against it. Speaking 
 generally, the colder the climate the higher should be the walls, for 
 these accumulate heat in proportion to their height. It must be 
 remembered that walls not only retain the solar heat, but they afford 
 shelter, and present a surface on which to train fruit-trees. If 
 there are not hothouses to be considered, the walls on the north 
 side may be 12 to 14 ft. high, while the walls on the east, south, 
 and west sides are 10 ft. high. The south wall may be made the 
 same height or less. The walls can be built equally well of stone 
 or brick. The colour should preferably be of a light shade. For 
 10 ft. walls, 9 in. brickwork with piers every 10 ft. will suffice ; but 
 14 in. hollow walls are preferable and very little more costly. The 
 walls, especially if built of stone, should be wired on the side against 
 which fruit-trees are to be trained. This surface should, of course, 
 be plane, and the piers, if any, built on the outside of the wall. It 
 should be remembered that the foundations ought to extend at any 
 rate 3 ft. beneath the surface of the ground. Copings can be of 
 stone or brick, or cement, or tiles and bricks, but they should not 
 project more than 2 1 /,, or 3 in. beyond the face of the wall. Wide, 
 permanent copings are not so good as temporary copings. Mr. R. 
 Thompson writes in the "Gardener's Assistant" that in summer 
 broad copings prevent the foliage from being moistened by dews, 
 the beneficial effects of which cannot be compensated by artificial 
 watering. 
 
92 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 Temporary copings are of great utility, especially during the 
 prevalence of late spring frosts. The heat accumulated in the 
 materials of the wall during the day is abstracted whenever the 
 air is colder than the wall. The cold air coming in contact with 
 the surface of the wall becomes heated, and consequently lighter ; 
 it then ascends, and the heat is lost so far as vegetation is con- 
 cerned. Broad copings obstruct the free ascent of warm air, which 
 then is longer retained where it is wanted on the surface of the 
 wall. The young shoots of vines may often be seen cut off by 
 frost as far as they have pushed beyond 9 in. coping boards, whilst 
 all the shoots that are under shelter of the boards are safe. 
 
 A very good temporary coping is obtained by building in the 
 wall pieces of i % in. galvanised iron tubing, about 6 ft. apart, in 
 which can be placed iron rods projecting i ft. beyond the wall, 
 having a pin at the outer end. On this support, in the spring, 
 are placed 1 2 in. light boards, which are retained there so long as 
 necessary. Netting can also be suspended from these rods if it 
 be required to protect the fruit against frost, birds, or wasps. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 The sides of a square containing I acre are 20871 
 .. .. ,, 2 295-16 
 
 . 3 3 6l> 5 
 
 4 >i 4 r 7'54 
 
 Feet. Feet. 
 
 The sides in the proportion of 5 to 3 of a parallelogram are, for I acre, 269-45 x 161-67 
 ,, 2 381-03x228-63 
 
 ,, ,, 3 466'7ox28o'02 
 
 .. , 4 
 
A n 
 
J jj J I. 'Jf 
 ,1 1 J / 'J '. '1 J 
 
PUBLIC PARKS AND CEMETERIES. 
 
 THE observations and rules given for the general treatment of 
 private parks and gardens apply with equal force to the laying out 
 of public parks and recreation grounds, and of cemeteries. There 
 are, however, modifications rendered necessary by the special purpose 
 for which each is intended. Among others is the case where a 
 generous giver, feeling that open spaces are absolutely necessary, 
 presents, ere the builder has invaded the outskirts of a town, some 
 land to be devoted to the public ; and the landscape gardener, in 
 dealing with such a property, must appreciate the fact that such 
 land may in a few years prove an intramural oasis ; and he must 
 so arrange his laying out and planting that these in the future may 
 bear witness to his forethought. He will, therefore, know that his 
 park may be enclosed by houses ; he will arrange for broad gravel 
 spaces ; for his turfed ground to be unencumbered with overhead 
 trees ; that the plants themselves shall be such as will live amidst 
 smoke and dirt, and he will prepare for what elsewhere are pleasant 
 breezes being converted into biting draughts. In the neighbourhood 
 of towns, too, one is always liable to the ugliness necessitated by 
 modern civilisation, such as the railway embankment, the enforced 
 connection of a park with hospitals, baths, waterworks, etc., or with 
 a large building scheme. At Preston high railway embankments 
 cross the middle of the park and form the western boundary. 
 
94 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 Strangers would scarcely notice the railway that crosses the park unless 
 attention be called to the fact by smoke or noise ; for the line is 
 so broken by planting and by irregular lines of walk and turf, that 
 the hard, straight course is quite concealed. Rockwork even has 
 been introduced to foster the idea that the towering mass is only 
 one part of an old cliff. The stone of the district is sandstone ; so 
 various thicknesses and the dip of these strata are so arranged, that 
 though the lines of rock are constantly broken by turf bays and 
 planting, an observer of nature will find it difficult to recognise that 
 his surroundings are the result of labour, so carefully are the different 
 layers reproduced. At Glossop hospitals and baths formed part 
 of the noble gift to that town, and they had to be introduced 
 and made into integral parts of the whole. In the park some 
 difficulty was created by the existence of a natural ravine with a 
 stream running in the bottom, and completely cutting the land in 
 two. The beautiful and natural parts of this ravine were picked 
 out and made the most of, whilst, in order to convert the parts into 
 a whole, the sides were in places levelled down and the stream 
 covered. A park, too, may be made with the primary object of 
 increasing the value of the surrounding property for building land ; 
 and, instead of the desire being apparent that adjacent buildings should 
 be hidden, the object here is rather to furnish an idea that the park 
 is a larger recreation ground belonging to the individual gardens. 
 A place of public resort has generally some objects of particular 
 interest to which prominence can be given and ready access afforded. 
 Such objects are a winter garden, a pavilion, a band-stand, a shelter 
 seat, and in a lesser degree cricket, tennis, and archery grounds, 
 gymnasia, etc. Around the buildings the ground should be treated 
 formally, and near all points of interest where people will congregate 
 broad spaces of drive or walk must be given. In fact, the walks 
 and grassy spaces in public grounds should be wider than those made 
 
PUBLIC PARKS AND CEMETERIES. 
 
 95 
 
 in private grounds, and the treatment altogether be broader and 
 simpler. In such places, too, people assemble to see and be seen, 
 and it is well to have some special promenade, perhaps emphasized 
 by rows of trees, giving shade, distinctively arranged to serve for a 
 recognised point of rendezvous. Not that the whole place should 
 be considered as a tame plain, visible from all sides, but that the 
 main lines should be drawn with boldness, and a spirit of grandeur 
 asserted. Yet, away from the thronged walks or drives, special 
 charms should be created to tempt visitors with new scenes, and 
 compel them to acknowledge that here is beauty in detail as well 
 as magnificent conception in mass. The area of a cricket ground 
 will in itself give a certain aspect of restful quiet ; while broad 
 spaces of turfed ground, with some trees judiciously planted for 
 landscape effect, will emphasize the feeling, and will contrast with 
 the busy world outside as well as will the more secluded winding 
 walks and hidden shrubberies. , 
 
 A plan is here given of the Public Gardens, at Buxton, as 
 laid out before their pleasantness and appropriateness induced the 
 authorities to extend them, perhaps unmethodically. Part of the 
 site had formerly been used as a garden, and the charm of 
 established trees and water already existed. It will be useful in 
 illustration of some of the conditions already insisted on, to cur- 
 sorily describe some of the features of these gardens. The 
 principal object was to create an attraction to Buxton, that 
 visitors might be induced to frequent the place, and prolong their 
 stay. These visitors were frequently suffering from rheumatism, and 
 to them the renowned springs were beneficial. The place was, there- 
 fore, enclosed, and admission was by a small payment, in return 
 for which good music and other entertainments were provided. A 
 winter garden, about 400 ft. long, was designed, having space for a 
 concert room, promenade, conservatories, etc., all heated by hot 
 
96 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 water. The main entrance was from the public road, at the eastern 
 end of the winter garden. In front of this, for its whole length, 
 was made a terrace walk, finishing at the western end in a 
 Dutch garden, with clipped yew hedges giving sheltered places 
 for seats, bordered beds arranged for bulbs, flowers, and evergreen 
 foliage plants in their season. Beyond the terrace walk was a grassy 
 slope ; on the grass flat between it and the terrace walk vases were 
 set at intervals. From the central hall of the winter garden a main 
 walk, 1 8 ft. wide, led to the gardens, crossing the River Wye, 
 towards which the ground rapidly fell, by a stone and iron bridge. 
 This walk stopped at a band-stand, from the encircling paths round 
 which other walks deviated right and left. Plate O shows a sketch 
 of the bridge here built, and use was made of the falling ground 
 to take a walk by the river-side, under the side arches of the 
 bridge. The water-level of the river itself was raised by means of 
 the stone dam built to represent a natural cascade. From the space 
 around the band-stand views were obtained within the grounds on 
 the north, of the river, with its bridges and ground rising towards 
 the winter garden ; on the east, of the rose garden, with its spirally 
 ascending walk, thus showing the beds on the slope ; on the south, 
 over the lake to the wooded bank beyond ; on the west, of the 
 grassy expanse through which runs a small stream, spreading into 
 the lake. A nearly circular walk, with lime-trees planted on each 
 side, is made round the lawn, and walks are taken off at various 
 points, each one more or less concealed, and giving access to some 
 special attraction, either by a rustic bridge crossing the river, giving 
 a peep of a strong spring of water rushing down in a cascade to 
 join the stream ; by the formation of a formal garden devoted to 
 various kinds of peat-loving plants ; by leading past old trees 
 standing on their grassy mounds and giving shelter; by displaying 
 a flower garden, bright with colour, in front of a covered seat, 
 
T n ,vi 
 
Consecrated Ground shewn thun .___ ^ 
 Uncansefrated . _ " 
 
 Roman. Catholic . 
 
 S T O K E C EM E T E R Y 
 
 Scale of Feet 
 
 ICQ 2OO SOD JG_ 
 
 .-. I' 
 
 J jj J 7. ^ f 
 5 ;. L J 7 'j '. '1 ) 
 
PUBLIC PARKS AND CEMETERIES. 97 
 
 tempting to cool repose ; or the visitor was tempted to explore and 
 note the grouping, and foliage, and flowers of the many plants 
 displayed, each turn of the walk showing fresh beauty. 
 
 In a larger park provision has to be made for driving and riding, 
 and it is advisable for part of the way that the drive and footpath 
 should be made side by side. Space is saved, and persons walking 
 or driving have each an opportunity of meeting. The size and 
 nature of the property, and the purpose for which it will be used, 
 will determine the class of work that is appropriate ; but the details 
 already given will suffice for practical work, and I have now rather 
 concerned myself with the expression of such leading ideas as seem 
 called forth by the nature of the undertaking. 
 
 And if we provide beautiful places for the living, should we not 
 also prepare for those that have gone before a resting-place, so 
 fitly termed "God's acre," that may coincide with the pure and 
 noble emotions stirring within us, not only at the time we are 
 carrying to their last home the loved ones, but also when we 
 retrace our steps to place on their grave a memorial of our 
 affection ? Far too little has been done in this country to alleviate 
 at the saddest moments of our lives the feelings that almost weigh 
 us down. A churchyard or a cemetery can, and should, by the 
 exercise of art, be made as beautiful as possible. The practice 
 of burying in towns is happily being discontinued, and many of the 
 old, dank, sad, neglected, and forsaken churchyards are being turned 
 into new, bright, cheerful, cared-for, and pleasant retreats for the 
 living, where, with the solemn knowledge of the place in which 
 they are assembled, visitors may with ennobled feelings contemplate 
 the various memories that press on them. In a newer cemetery, 
 how much the more should every effort be made to render the 
 place beautiful ; and this is right on every ground, both sentimental 
 and economic. If the cemetery be laid out as a park, access must 
 
 o 
 
9 8 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 necessarily be given to the chapels, to the different portions set apart 
 for the several creeds, to the mortuary house, etc. The desired 
 area next the walks or drives can be divided off equally well in 
 grave spaces whether the roads are straight or curved ; and if, in 
 process of time, that portion of ground taken up at first by groups 
 of planting should be required for burying, the trees and shrubs 
 planted by loving hands at the graves of the departed will serve 
 to replace an effect at first apparent in the general design. 
 
 The chapels should be placed in connection with the ground space 
 allotted respectively to each creed, and it is simple to mark the 
 division of such areas by a walk, or, failing that, by mere stones. 
 It is of the utmost importance that there be very efficient drainage, 
 especially of the subsoil. If this is wet, main drains should be made 
 at a depth of 12 ft. from the surface. Except in the first instance, 
 before the ground is occupied, the ordinary surface drainage is of little 
 use, as it becomes disturbed ; but the drives and walks should be, 
 therefore, the more efficiently drained. It is also wise in convenient 
 places to fill up the main drains to the surface with porous material, 
 that thus the ground may be kept dry. It is of course necessary that 
 in wet land there be a good outlet for the main drain. The worst 
 of all ground is that where there are alternate and uneven layers 
 of clay and gravel. The best is where a poor, dry, sandy or 
 gravelly soil is found on slightly rising ground. In public cemeteries 
 spaces are generally reserved for the Established, Nonconformist, 
 and Roman Catholic creeds, including special allotments for paupers. 
 The grave spaces are divided into classes according to their nearness 
 to the chapels or the main thoroughfares, and the local authorities 
 impose special regulations for the continuous methodical carrying 
 out of their rules. A reserve ground, with a hothouse, is usually 
 provided near the superintendent's lodge for due maintenance of the 
 embellishment of the place. 
 
PUBLIC PARKS AND CEMETERIES. 99 
 
 The plan of a cemetery made for the Corporation of Stoke-upon- 
 Trent is here given as an example of the manner of laying out 
 now advocated. The approach is from either end of the ground 
 from the public road, and lodges are placed at each entrance. The 
 approach is direct to the two Protestant chapels, which are in this 
 instance joined by a corridor. Sufficient room is allowed here for 
 the circulation of hearses and carriages, and these may be driven 
 to, and pass from, all the principal parts of the cemetery without 
 disturbing the mourners. In this instance a separate chapel for the 
 Roman Catholic service was not required, as the town chapel was 
 not far off. All trees on the property were of course left undisturbed, 
 and they helped to redeem much of that appearance of newness which 
 is always, in such cases, associated with young planting. The first 
 class grave spaces are those nearest to the principal walks ; the second 
 class are behind them, and along subsidiary walks ; the third class 
 spaces are apportioned in parts next the boundary. The main drains 
 were laid from 12 to 14 ft. deep, at intervals of about 150 ft. The 
 planting was of deciduous and evergreen shrubs, in equal numbers, 
 chiefly of flowering sorts, with bright blossoms, and on raised mounds. 
 The ground surface was undulated so that a play of light and shade 
 might be produced, and the whole work was carried out as though 
 a garden park were being made. 
 
ECONOMIC TREATMENT OF LAND. 
 
 A MOST important division in the work of a Landscape Gardener 
 is the economic treatment of land, whereby the money value of it 
 may be greatly enhanced, as it is made fit for divided residential 
 settlement. The exercise of sound judgment is as important a pre- 
 liminary, in devoting an estate, or given portions of a land area, to 
 building purposes as to the creation of ornamental ground subserving 
 the purposes of one grand mansion ; or to treatment for agricultural 
 uses under the best conditions. Fitness of position is a primal 
 consideration ; that is, the relation of the ground to existing routes 
 of traffic, high-roads, or railway communications, or the possible 
 creating and development of such means in the future. The formation 
 of the ground surface is of serious import in the plan, which 
 has to deal not only with general effect, but with particular parts, 
 each part possessing individual features complete in themselves, and, 
 as it were, isolated in their completeness, yet retaining their relation to 
 the whole design of which they are to be component parts. There are 
 statutory obligations to be attended to, involving work not perceptible 
 on the surface, but which, by its excellence and good engineering, 
 greatly raises the value of the estate, and is absolutely necessary 
 to it. But this consideration is paramount : that there should be 
 made with the greatest care a complete plan of the whole area to be 
 treated, showing not only the mode of dealing with it as a whole, 
 
ECONOMIC TREATMENT OF LAND. 101 
 
 but also how it will be treated in detail, as occasion may serve ; and 
 that such plan shall be, as it were, a prevailing contract, whereon 
 the working out of each part is based. Upon the excellence of 
 such a plan, and the forethoughtful experience with which it is 
 produced, depends the success of the purpose in view. The money 
 value of an estate may be frequently more than doubled or trebled 
 by such treatment in the course of a term of not many years. 
 
 When laying out landed property in the vicinity of towns, for 
 building purposes, there are certain conditions that must rule and 
 have attention : (a), Drainage and water supply ; (b), approach ; 
 (c), roads ; (d], proportionate allotment ; (e), return for money 
 invested ; (f), common rules ; (g], general improvement ; (K), com- 
 pliance with local regulations. 
 
 To treat these in order : (a). The question of drainage must 
 necessarily be determined by the site, and its propinquity to an 
 existing drainage system. In the last-named case the connection 
 is simple, provided care be taken in laying out the roads and the 
 sites for the adjacent houses, that the levels are rightly maintained. 
 If no such system exists, the drainage may be made by conducting 
 pipes to a separate sewage farm ; by dealing with the refuse matter, 
 and conducting the overflow into a watercourse ; or, as a last resource, 
 by means of distribution on the land, or by cesspools. The supply 
 of water also depends on the means available either from an existing 
 source, from an independent provision, or from wells. Where public 
 water supply, or gas supply, exist, the pipes are severally laid by 
 the authorities supplying the same. 
 
 (3). The approach to any building estate should be made as 
 direct as possible, and every advantage should be taken of existing 
 conditions, such as directing the road into the estate at the foot 
 of a hill, and leading travellers on by an evidently more easy and 
 pleasanter way ; by taking advantage of a turn in the public road 
 
io 2 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 and arranging the new road into the estate as if this were the con- 
 tinuation of the main road ; or, if the road into the estate must be 
 at right angles to the main road, to flatten the corners somewhat 
 towards the principal direction. Should the estate lie somewhat 
 back from the main thoroughfare, it is well to treat the approach to 
 it, if it be through a narrow strip of ground, in a formal manner, 
 and not allow the erection of any small houses which may, perhaps, 
 be appropriate to the available space, but which may, by their small- 
 ness, convey an impression of littleness, deteriorating the effect of 
 the whole estate beyond. 
 
 (<:). The roads themselves will vary with every site. Curved 
 roads are preferable to straight ones, because a building estate is 
 generally in the vicinity of a town, and used for residential purposes ; 
 therefore it is well to mark the difference between straight streets, 
 and the sweep of a neatly kept road, with its trees spreading over- 
 head, and hiding from view the number of houses, because by the 
 curve the houses are more easily hidden from each other, and a 
 sense of spaciousness is created. Generally, more frontage can thus 
 be obtained. The roads should have a main drain laid down the 
 centre of each, depending for its size on the length of road, the 
 gradient of it, and the number of houses of which it must take 
 the drainage. This drain is usually a pipe, with inlets provided at 
 requisite points, for the general house drainage and for the overflow 
 from the gully holes. The gradient should be easy and continuous. 
 After the requisite excavation has been made to acquire the right 
 gradient-level there should be laid a foundation of stone, brickbats, 
 chalk, or other hard and sound material, at least one foot thick, 
 and on this a layer of gravel or broken stone 4 in. thick. The 
 paths should be raised above the roadway, and have a foundation 
 layer of 9 in. in thickness, and on this 3 in. of gravel. There 
 should also be a granite or other hard stone kerb, and paved 
 
"i n ,v i >ni 
 
PLAN 
 
 of 
 
 u i LDI NC ESTATE. 
 
 Scale of Feet 
 
 IPO 2f0 300 
 
ECONOMIC TREATMENT OF LAND. 103 
 
 channels to conduct the water to the gully holes. It is economical 
 that roads be well made and of good width. If it is considered 
 that an estate will take some time to develop, the centre only of 
 the road may be finished, and a grassy space left on either side, 
 till increased traffic necessitates the completion of it. Trees may 
 be planted on each side by the pathway edge ; but it is recommended 
 that these be all of one sort, and of a kind suitable to the district. 
 An ordinary width of road for a moderate estate would be 40 ft., 
 which would allow of a roadway 24 ft. wide and two footpaths 
 each of 8 ft. 
 
 (d\ With regard to the proportionate allotment of the various 
 divisions, no hard and fast rule can be laid down. The frontage 
 and areas given to each lot must vary, as judgment is affected by 
 the nearness of the property to a town, or by the quality of the 
 neighbourhood, and determining the class and value of the house 
 needed. In larger estates which are, most likely, some distance from 
 towns, it is wise to set apart, in the first instance, certain areas of 
 ground, duly divided off, in view of the future development of the 
 property, as occupation land, which may retain its rustic character 
 till the area becomes built over. This enables the landowner to 
 sell smaller portions of land with the houses and, meanwhile, to let 
 on short leases the adjacent ground, as occupation land, till it is 
 required for building on. 
 
 (e). With regard to the return afforded by the development of 
 land for building, it would be well, perhaps, to state a typical real 
 case not at all an extreme instance : 
 
 A piece of land, 30 acres in extent, one mile distant from a town, 
 has a main road skirting its boundary. The value was ^"100 per 
 acre, and the land was let for agricultural purposes at 2 IQS. per 
 acre. The drainage and water supplies were connected with those 
 of the adjacent town. The ground was fairly level, with unimportant 
 
io 4 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 views towards the south. The cost of main drainage, of forming 
 the roads, of erecting oak park paling, 5 ft. high, along each side 
 of the roads, of planting the ground for effect amounted to ,2,800. 
 There became available for building land 26 acres, after deducting 
 the area of the roads and the ground reserved for common use. 
 The land was sold at an average of ,500 per acre, realising ; 13,000. 
 As the first cost was ,3,000, and in addition ,2,800 were spent in 
 developing the land, a profit of ,7,200 was realised. 
 
 In many of our English counties a system of letting the ground 
 on a 99 years' lease prevails, the landowner meanwhile receiving- 
 ground rents, and these may generally be regarded as of 25 years' 
 purchase. 
 
 (y). The nature and value of the proposed buildings must, of 
 course, differ considerably even on different parts of the same estate, 
 and must be carefully adapted to the respective localities. But when 
 this has been done, it cannot be too strongly laid down that the 
 system for each road or locality should be adhered to rigidly ; for 
 only thus will confidence be inspired in builders or private persons 
 erecting houses on the estate. When it is settled that the rules 
 applied to them will be those for their neighbours, and there is 
 no fear of their property being depreciated by the landowner's 
 subsequent dealing, then a security of money value is created. A 
 building line, ruling the distance of structures from the road, should 
 be fixed ; and rules should be made for determining the site of 
 stables, so that these may not be a nuisance or interfere with views. 
 Rules should also be made as to cutting down trees, as to the 
 maintenance of the common ground, and the preservation of natural, 
 
 artistic, characteristic features of the place; also as to the building 
 
 - ;> -~* --''- ., 
 
 of shops, public-houses, etc. 
 
 (g). It is strongly recommended that plantations should be 
 formed and trees should be planted. These will assuredly make the 
 
ECONOMIC TREATMENT OF LAND. 105 
 
 estate as a whole, and the plots individually, more attractive, besides 
 serving to shut out the objectionable parts of buildings the one from 
 the other. If the planting be judiciously arranged, it will prevent 
 the ungainly effect (but too common on building estates) of each 
 plot being treated wholly irrespective of those adjoining it, whereas, 
 by using the planting as a whole, a pleasing, pictorial scene may 
 be obtained that will add artistically to its present beauty, and, con- 
 sequently, to its value. It is also advisable on any large building 
 estate to reserve one or more sites for the erection of a church or 
 churches, and schools, and parsonage houses. These may profitably 
 be erected, at any rate in part, as soon as the development of the 
 estate may justify it, or even before it is actually needed. It is a 
 powerful incentive to the taking of building land. A church may 
 be designed so as to be built only in part at first, and enlarged 
 afterwards by the contributions of residents. The church should 
 generally occupy a commanding position, and be accessible from all 
 sides. On large estates it is also advisable to appropriate portions 
 of the land as recreation ground for the common benefit of residents 
 on the estate. In fact, on some of the most successful building 
 estates a central portion has been laid out as a park, to which 
 residents have access. Such privilege forms a powerful incentive 
 to many persons to take land, for it formulates the knowledge that 
 such part cannot be built over, and also allows of smaller plots being 
 sold without taking land for private recreative purposes. 
 
 In addition, there are certain statutory regulations relating to the 
 width of roads, drainage, water supply, sanitary condition of houses, 
 etc., which vary more or less in each local government, and must 
 be complied with. 
 
EXAMPLES OF WORK. 
 
 (i) KESZTHELY. 
 
 KESZTHELY is a small town in Hungary, at the southern extremity 
 of the great Flatten or Balaton lake. At the western end of the 
 town stood the old family seat of the Counts Festetics. On the 
 western side of the Schloss, a small park had been made about 
 ninety years ago, and many of the trees then planted are now 
 very finely grown to considerable size. Count Tassilo Festetics 
 determined to make this place a palatial home, at the same time 
 maintaining his ancestral castle as far as possible intact. To do 
 this he caused the present structure to be erected, as it were, 
 over, and to contain, the old Schloss. The new Palace was 
 raised from the design of Herr V. Rumpelmeyer, under the 
 immediate direction of Herrn Haas and Paschkis. It then became 
 necessary to consider the artistic treatment of the surrounding 
 land, and the fitting illustration of the grand mansion in its 
 position. To that end I was asked in 1885 to report upon the 
 improvement of the grounds. I found that no view of the distant 
 country could be obtained from any of the principal rooms ; and 
 that on the eastern or true front, the much used, dusty public 
 road passed within twenty yards of the building. Beyond this, 
 the ground sloped gradually down towards the lake, and the whole 
 
EXAMPLES OF WORK. 107 
 
 space was occupied by a dilapidated church and small houses of 
 unpleasant appearance, the nearer of which completely shut off all 
 view of the beautiful water, and of the distant volcanic hills beyond. 
 On the northern and southern sides the boundary was very near the 
 Palace, but could not be extended. On the western, or garden front, 
 the old neglected park contained stables and outbuildings. Many 
 fine trees were found on this side, but the ground surface formed 
 a nearly level plain to within twenty yards of the building, down 
 to which it sloped. A considerable innovation and alteration 
 appeared to me to be needed on the northern front. In Hungary 
 it is very desirable to have rooms on the northern and eastern 
 sides on account of the summer heat ; in fact, several of the 
 principal rooms in the Palace are so placed. A plan is given 
 showing the general arrangement of the grounds that was adopted 
 near the house. 
 
 It will be seen that an imposing arched entrance was built facing 
 the line of the main street of the town, and that the public road 
 was turned at right angles to it, till, with a curve, it was made to 
 reach a distance of 150 yards from the building. Not only was the 
 disagreeable nearness of the public road with its passing traffic 
 removed, but a considerable space of ground was rendered available 
 for private enjoyment. By the removal of a certain number of the 
 intervening buildings, a grand view of the lake and the hills was 
 obtained. Where it leaves the direct line of the public street, the new 
 road was lowered until, by an even gradient of one in twenty-five, 
 a depth of 15 ft. beneath the new levelled garden enclosure was 
 reached ; and thus the road, with its passing traffic, was concealed 
 by being sufficiently sunk, while a wall, with planting on the garden 
 side, formed the enclosure ; but, as the road became deeper, a 
 balustrade, surmounting a retaining wall, formed the only boundary. 
 From the entrance gates the drive now leads to the chief 
 
io8 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 entrances. The ground inside the newly acquired land was laid 
 out somewhat formally, being intended rather for effect than use. 
 It was made to include a large fountain with jets in form of 
 Prince of Wales' feathers, and two flower gardens were enclosed 
 by yew hedges. The straight walk leading from the principal 
 Palace entrance terminates in a stone pavilion, of similar style to 
 the house. In carrying out this part of the work, several trees, 
 chiefly' limes and chestnuts twenty-five to thirty feet high, were 
 moved in the local manner, namely, by digging all round them 
 in the early spring, and leaving such a ball that most of the 
 fibrous root was preserved untouched. On this ball water is poured 
 till the mass becomes frozen. Then the tree and its heavy ball 
 is dragged to the spot it is to occupy. Some of the trees moved 
 a little later by the ordinary English method of digging round 
 and covering the ball with matting, preserving all exposed fibrous 
 roots, and then transporting the tree on a table sliding on planks, 
 gave a better result. By the first method the trees had to be 
 much reduced in size. 
 
 On the northern side the area is very restricted, and, as many 
 of the principal guest-rooms look out in that direction, the ground 
 was treated with flowing lines of walks, and with plantations. The 
 surface was undulated, and treated so as to create an appearance 
 of space. Raised mounds were formed to receive the flowering 
 trees and shrubs, and for concealing the boundary. On the 
 south side of the house, where the space to the boundary is also 
 very confined, a formal sunk garden was made, and the beds 
 filled with dwarf conijerce. Beyond this, marble statues alternating 
 with pyramidal golden yews were placed on the flat at foot of 
 a grassy slope the top of which was planted. Thus the adjacent 
 buildings are completely blocked out. 
 
 On this southern side the problems were : (a) to provide a 
 
KESZTHELY. 
 
 PLA N OF G A. R D- E MS 
 
" fj .VI \' II 
 M K !T r. " \ J ! 
 
EXAMPLES OF WORK. 109 
 
 main approach from the western park entrance, with easy access 
 to various points of the house and to the stables ; (K) to give a 
 base to the building ; (c) to make a formal garden for the display 
 of fountains, of flowers, and of the sub-tropical vegetation that in 
 Hungary during summer produces such a glorious effect ; (d) to open 
 out some views, and show something beautiful beyond. (a) The 
 first part of the drive from the west, where it enters the park 
 by a double avenue of limes, was naturally determined by that 
 fact ; and after crossing a small stream by a bridge, the line 
 curves easily 'so as to conserve views of remarkable trees, and of 
 vistas in the park, and of distant hills, till a sight of the house is 
 obtained. The drive then leads directly to the formal parterre, of 
 which it becomes part, and so on to the Palace. At the southern 
 end of the parterre there is a direct way to the stables. In addition 
 to the main approach there are several miles of subsidiary drives, 
 each affording glimpses of varied scenery, or serving some special 
 purpose such as a way to the racing stable, to lodges, kennels, 
 agents' houses, the kitchen garden, etc. (<5) Much gravelled space 
 was required about the Palace to give sufficient room ,for several 
 equipages to be present together, and to allow of the many 
 entrances being used simultaneously ; so that, in considering the 
 best treatment to be adopted, and to give a base to the Palace, 
 while making apparent the really long extent of its faade, and 
 to provide a line on which this should apparently rest, the question 
 of space had to be taken seriously into account. There is a 
 terrace drive forty feet wide next the building, terminating at its 
 southern limit in a large seat or pavilion, and at its northern 
 extremity narrowing into a drive to the stables. On the western side 
 of this terrace road, the line is fairly continuous ; and on the side 
 next the Palace two plots of turf are introduced in the broad 
 gravelled space between the two wings of the Palace, and in line 
 
no THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 with them, so as to connect these features of the structure, (c) The 
 lines of drive next the Palace, the main one from the west, and 
 especially the outline of the south front, helped to determine the 
 shape of the parterre garden. The chief part consists of two 
 quadrants, each having near its centre a fountain basin, of which 
 the stone plinth is 3'/ 2 ft. above the general level. In each 
 quadrant, walks radiate from the fountain basins towards three 
 other equally raised basins, which are however filled with earth 
 and planted with palms, ferns, and foliage plants. Between these 
 lines of walk the spaces are filled with a geometrical design set out 
 with box edging and coloured gravel walks. On the outer verge 
 of each quadrant, a small rectangular space is made with beds cut 
 in the turf, and planted with dwarf rhododendrons, heaths, azaleas, 
 andromeda, pernettya, etc. The whole of the ground forming the 
 parterre was lowered an average depth of 3 ft., so as to do away 
 with the oppressive feeling that the ground was falling on the 
 Palace, (a) On the eastern side beautiful views were opened out 
 over the lake to the distant hills, and on the northern side of the 
 Palace the nearer wooded hills were brought into the picture, and, 
 by means of planting, the sight was directed to certain points. On 
 the east, the town had to be blocked out, and on the west the 
 park was an even plain. From the Palace, the main drive towards 
 the west passed straight through the middle of the parterre, thus 
 creating a line of view. At the end of the parterre, where the 
 drive turns right and left, the line of sight was forced forward by 
 hollowing out the ground for a considerable width, and depositing 
 the earth in raised mounds on either side, which mounds were 
 planted. Trees and plantations were disposed to give length to 
 this main view just out of the direct line of sight ; and a clear 
 opening was made for half a mile with an undefined ending in a 
 wood. On either side of the main line of view other openings 
 
EXAMPLES OF WORK. m 
 
 were created one towards a small artificial lake, to which the vision 
 was carried over a rustic bridge, to where the water entered, tumbling 
 over a rocky cascade ; another over the half-hidden pleasure gardens, 
 past a water temple, into one of the glades in the park. The 
 pleasure gardens were laid out as shown on the plan, beyond the 
 parterre, and special spots were set aside for roses, American plants 
 tennis, shaded walks, and an open-air theatre, of which the walls, 
 divisions, and dressing-rooms were made with hornbeam and privet. 
 Beyond the pleasure gardens, the ground passes insensibly into 
 the enclosed park without any break. Here the trees have been 
 grouped for effect, openings made, and drives formed, to display 
 the beauty of the place. The kitchen garden and hot houses are 
 placed on the south side of the pleasure gardens, and are approached 
 from these, from the park, and also from the outside road. The 
 water for the Palace and for the fountains was obtained by building 
 an engine - house near a spring that runs into the Balaton lake, 
 and by pumping the water to a reservoir built 150 ft. above it 
 in the hills, distant four miles from the Palace. The water thence 
 is delivered by gravitation as required. 
 
 (2) PEVEREY. 
 
 IN order to practically illustrate the several works incidental to the 
 arrangement of a garden or park, I have chosen to give a general 
 plan and a short description of this place, because there purely 
 agricultural land had to be transformed into a residential estate. 
 The landowner, Sir Offley Wakeman, Bart., determined to build a 
 house on part of his property, and to lay out gardens and a park. 
 The work is not yet actually completed, but, in order to make 
 the description more clear, I am assuming that the whole is 
 
ii2 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 finished in accordance with the plan, and I describe the work as it 
 will appear a little later. The River Perry, running from north-east 
 to south-west, divides that part of the property dealt with, and the 
 ground falls gradually towards the river from either side ; that part 
 to the north having a slope towards the south, the division south 
 of the river having a slope towards the north. The formation 
 varies somewhat, but generally on the higher ground it consists of 
 about a foot of loam on a clay subsoil, whilst on the lower ground 
 a gravelly or sandy soil is met with. The place is seven miles from 
 Shrewsbury, and two miles from the railway station at Baschurch. 
 Before the work was commenced, the land consisted of a number 
 of fields, opening one to the other, with high hedgerows in which 
 trees, chiefly oak of medium size, were standing. Mr. Aston Webb, 
 the architect, and I fixed the site of the mansion about half-way 
 between the public road, forming the northern boundary of the 
 property, and the river, on a nearly level plateau occurring in the 
 southern incline. The aspect of the site is south by east ; very 
 fine views of distant hilly scenery are obtainable towards the south 
 and west, and, in a less degree, towards the east. Dotted lines on 
 the plan show the direction of the principal lines of sight. The 
 house is built of a rich red sandstone, with the principal entrance 
 through an enclosed forecourt on the northern side ; the offices are 
 on the eastern side, the living-rooms on the southern side, the con- 
 servatory and drawing-rooms on the southern and western sides. The 
 stables were fixed 100 yds. north-east of the mansion in the direction 
 of the home farm, and the kitchen garden 300 yds. west of the 
 mansion on a nearly level piece of ground. Two approaches were 
 desirable, one from Shrewsbury, and the other from Baschurch. 
 For the former, advantage was taken of a sudden bend in the public 
 road to make this apparently lead to Peverey, as shown on the plan, 
 and for the latter, a slight bend in the public road enabled the 
 
PLAN 
 
 SHEWING ARRANGEMENT OF 
 
 AT 
 
 PKVEREY. 
 
 Scale of Feet 
 
 100 00 
 
EXAMPLES OF WORK. 113 
 
 hedge line to be continued with a somewhat sharper curve towards 
 the new entrance. Both drives follow the contour of the land 
 with easy curves and gradients until they meet. From this point 
 the main drive leads directly to the forecourt entrance, and a second 
 drive leads to the stables and offices. Additional communication is 
 also made between the forecourt and stables, and besides that, from 
 the stables a back service road leads past the home farm, laundry, 
 etc., to the public road, which it enters at a point just beyond the 
 Shrewsbury entrance lodge. The ground north of the river was 
 somewhat bare of trees, so large masses of planting, besides single 
 trees, have been introduced for effect. A large belt was made 
 round the exposed sides of the new kitchen garden, to provide 
 shelter and to hide it from the mansion ; another continuous belt was 
 planted on raised ground to the north of the pleasure gardens, 
 to screen those from the north wind and from the drive. On the 
 southern side of the house a broad terrace walk was formed, supported 
 by a stone wall 6 ft. high, surmounted by a balustrade, with projecting 
 bastions, and recessed on its face to give space for seats available from 
 a walk formed on the lower level. This work was designed by Mr. 
 Aston Webb. At the eastern end, the terrace walk is narrowed in line 
 with the projecting wing of the house, and is continued to a diamond- 
 shaped garden, enclosed and divided up by yew hedges, with se- 
 cluded walks and spaces for seats, herbaceous borders, etc. From the 
 northern corner of it, a walk leads to the stables, and from the southern 
 corner another leads to the pleasure gardens. On the western side of 
 the house is a shorter and narrower terrace walk, beyond which is 
 a grassy slope, at the foot of which is a parterre containing flower 
 beds in geometrical design, and a fountain basin 60 ft. by 40 ft. 
 There are steps leading from the western end of the main terrace 
 walk to this lower ground, and also from a walk leading to it from 
 the forecourt. At the northern end of the western terrace is a turfed 
 
ii4 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 altte enclosed by a holly hedge, with a group of statuary at the 
 lower end, and recessed spaces for seats at regular intervals in 
 the sides. A small lake, wherein bright waterfowl may disport them- 
 selves among several kinds of aquatic plants, has been formed in 
 the south-eastern part of the pleasure gardens. The end of the lake 
 is left unplanted, and the view is thus extended over the park past 
 an old red-tiled mill to the distant hills. Around the lake, and below 
 the terrace generally, the area has been treated in the natural 
 manner. The ground has been undulated, grassy valleys have been 
 formed between raised mounds planted with varied flowering trees 
 and shrubs, or with single trees, so that a play of light and shade 
 is secured. The walks have been undulated in plan as well as 
 level, and the different parts of the garden are hidden and separated 
 to such an extent that the whole cannot be seen at once, and the 
 former plain field-look has been entirely removed. At the same 
 time a feeling of rest has been made to pervade the whole treat- 
 ment which is consonant with the stately building, the home of an 
 old English family. On the south-western side a principal attraction 
 is the rose garden, in which different kinds of roses are planted 
 in separate masses. It is made in a spiral form, with the walk 
 gradually descending towards the centre, so that the beds of roses 
 are all on a slight slope facing the spectator. This position is much 
 shut off by planting, and quite hidden from a contiguous walk that 
 leads more directly towards a covered seat. This is placed at the 
 extremity of the principal walk made from this point, through the 
 centre of the kitchen garden, to the middle of the range of hothouses. 
 A row of standard hollies has been planted on each side of the walk 
 till the kitchen garden is reached, when a line of espalier fencing, 
 along which horizontally trained trees have been planted, borders 
 the walk. In the centre of the kitchen garden is an old dwarfed 
 oak, round which the walk circles, and other walks are made 
 
EXAMPLES OF WORK. 115 
 
 at right angles, having at their ends small water basins to which 
 the overflow from the hothouse tanks has been conducted. The 
 walks forming the principal squares of the kitchen garden have 
 pyramidal fruit - trees planted on their inner sides ; the walls are 
 planted with suitable trained trees. From the before-mentioned 
 covered seat a walk is prolonged outside the pleasure gardens across 
 the park, and, dividing, one branch turns northward, to give a view 
 of the country and river not obtainable elsewhere, and eventually 
 joins the drive, whilst the other is continued to the river-side 
 walk. Only small peeps of the river were obtainable from the 
 mansion, so in order to bring this water view into the picture, the 
 river has been widened in places, and the level raised where this 
 could be readily done and could be most visible from the house 
 and grounds. A walk has been made by the river-side, which, 
 starting from the eastern end of the pleasure gardens, crosses the 
 park and then skirts the water's edge. In this secluded part, which 
 has been fenced in, places have been reserved for a collection 
 of bog plants, for a Rhododendron garden, for a bulb garden, and 
 for a collection of willows, etc. The walk, after crossing a bend of 
 the river by two rustic bridges, eventually joins the route already 
 referred to coming from the west end of the pleasure gardens. 
 
 In the grounds, lying to the south of the river, and facing the 
 mansion, many trees in hedgerows running at right angles to 
 the eye had to be removed, in order to break up these lines 
 and also to open out views. Of those trees only a few could be 
 transplanted. Groups of planting have been introduced for general 
 effect, to lead the eye in the desired directions, and to give 
 distance by affording so many objects to count just outside the 
 line of sight ; to give variety in colour, to give masses of wood, 
 in order to relieve the monotony of the grass land, to provide 
 cover, and to shut out some adjacent land on which, possibly t 
 
n6 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 objectionable buildings may be raised. All ground was doubly 
 trenched previous to being planted, and the whole land drained. 
 The lines of fencing for dividing off the park into different 
 holdings were arranged so as to be as little seen as possible, 
 and therefore are chiefly set out in a direction running from 
 the eye. The hedges forming the boundaries of the public road 
 on the southern side of the park were in places removed, so 
 that the line of sight might not be interrupted, and new fencing 
 was substituted. All fencing was of the usual continuous bar fencing. 
 The height of the wall on the northern side of the kitchen garden 
 was determined by that of the hothouses built against it ; the height 
 on the eastern and western sides is 9 ft. 3 in. to the under side 
 of the movable coping ; the height of the southern boundary wall is 
 6 ft. The water supply is provided by an engine pumping river- 
 water to a reservoir near the home farm, and for the garden supply 
 an open reservoir has been made from which water gravitates to 
 given points. The lake is supplied by waste water from this, and 
 from the house and garden clear water drainage. 
 
 CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS. 
 
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