* * * * * *. 
 
 .TOE FRENQ& 
 
 Du BREUIL. 
 



 f 
 
THE 
 
 CULTITEE OF FEUIT TEEES. 
 
THE 
 
 SCIENTIFIC AND PROFITABLE CULTURE 
 
 OF 
 
 FRUIT TREES; 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 CHOICE OF TEEES, PLANTING, GRAFTING, TRAINING, RESTORATION 
 
 OF UNFRUITFUL TREES, GATHERING AND PRESERVATION 
 
 OF FRUIT, ETC. 
 
 FROM THE FRENCH OF 
 
 M. DU BREUIL, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF ARBORICULTURE IN THE CONSERVATOIRE IMPERIAL DES ARTS ET METIERS. 
 
 ADAPTED FOR ENGLISH CULTIVATORS BY 
 
 WILLIAM WARDLE, 
 
 NURSERYMAN. 
 
 WITH 187 ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 .Scrottb (EMtian, rarcfuUg rebissfc, toith an Itttraburtion hg 
 
 GEORGE GLENNY, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "HANDBOOK TO THE FLOWER GARDEN," "GARDENING FOR THE MILLION, 
 
 ETC-, ETC. 
 
 ometi 
 
 LONDON : 
 LOCKWOOD & CO., 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT. 
 
 LUDGATE HILL. 
 1872. 
 
LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO. 
 CITY ROAD. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO THE 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 THE following treatise on the grafting, pruning, train- 
 ing, and general management of fruit trees having 
 been submitted for my opinion, with a view to the 
 issue of a new edition, with such alterations and im- 
 provements as I might suggest, I have carefully read 
 it, and examined the practical directions throughout. 
 There would have been no difficulty in making altera- 
 tions and additions, since the subject is capable of 
 enlargement to any extent ; but the work is complete. 
 It professes to direct the gardener in all the operations 
 necessary, from the insertion of the graft to the 
 completion of the tree, and the proper management 
 through all its stages ; and the instructions in all the 
 various modes of grafting are full and comprehensive ; 
 many of them fanciful, and perhaps whimsical ; but 
 now that amateur gardening has become a fashionable 
 amusement, the ingenious methods adopted by the 
 French, who are in advance of us in fanciful grafting, 
 
 348914 
 
VI INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 budding, and training, are especially interesting. 
 The instructions apply to all the useful fruits as well 
 as the various plans of management ; and the descrip- 
 tive lists of all the most useful varieties are invaluable. 
 The author has turned out a work that does him great 
 credit, and the translator has shown that he perfectly 
 understood the subject in all its bearings. The illus- 
 trations, nearly two hundred in number, are excellent. 
 
 GEORGE GLENNY. 
 
 Gipsy Hill, Norwood, 
 December, 1871. 
 
TKANSLATOB'S PEEFACE. 
 
 ONE of the ways of increasing our own knowledge is 
 that of comparing it with the knowledge of others. It 
 is not to be doubted that the various branches of 
 Garden Practice and Literature have been well culti- 
 vated in England; and it is still less doubtful that 
 these subjects have been as thoroughly studied in 
 France, and expounded with unrivalled precision and 
 clearness. 
 
 The present Work on the Cultivation of Fruit Trees 
 is an evidence of this. It can scarcely be read by 
 the most proficient Arboriculturist without imparting 
 something to his previous knowledge, while to the 
 many whose information is limited it cannot fail to be 
 of great value. 
 
 It would be no small addition to our smaller pleasures 
 to be able to grow for home use a good supply of our 
 choicest fruits ; and if a sufficient modicum of this 
 knowledge could be imparted to our agricultural 
 labourers and persons of limited means residing in 
 
Vlll TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. 
 
 the country, how much might be done to improve their 
 incomings by growing good crops of the best descrip- 
 tions of Pears, Peaches, &c., instead of a poor crop 
 (if any at all) of comparatively worthless and un- 
 marketable fruit. In France, this subject is considered 
 of sufficient importance to be taught in schools and 
 colleges, M. Du Breuil himself being a Professor of 
 Arboriculture. The present Manual was honoured 
 with the Prize of the Imperial Society of Horticulture. 
 The value of the Work to English Cultivators will 
 be much enhanced by the additional notes of Mr. 
 Wardle. 
 
 W. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 GRAFTING 1 
 
 Grafting Mastic 3 
 
 Grafting by Approach, or Inarching 4 
 
 Branch Grafting 9 
 
 Cleft Grafting 12 
 
 Crown Grafting 15 
 
 Side Branch Grafting . . . . . . . .16 
 
 Budding on Shield Grafting 19 
 
 ON PRUNING AND TRAINING . 23 
 
 General Principles ........ 24 
 
 Periods for Pruning 40 
 
 Instruments . . 42 
 
 Method of Pruning 43 
 
 THE PEAR 45 
 
 List of Choice Pears 47 
 
 Training and Pruning . . . . . . .52 
 
 Obtaining Fruit-branches . 64 
 
 Maintaining ditto .77 
 
 Training in Vase or Goblet form . . . . .82 
 
 form of Column .86 
 
 as Double Contra Espaliers . . . .89 
 
 ,, Verrier's Palmetto 95 
 
 Nailing up . .103 
 
 Wire Trellis for Palmetto 106 
 
 In Oblique Cordon 109 
 
 Trellis for ditto . . ' . . . . . . .116 
 
 Training in Vertical Cordon 119 
 
 Trellis for ditto 121 
 
 Standard Pear Trees ... .... .123 
 
 THE APPLE 127 
 
 Varieties 128 
 
 Training and Pruning 131 
 
 Low Apple Espalier 132 
 
 Mode of Inarching 133 
 
X CONTEXTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 THE PEAGH 135 
 
 Varieties 136 
 
 Training in Palmette form 137 
 
 Trellis for ditto 145 
 
 Obtaining Fruit-branches . 145 
 
 Training in Simple Oblique Cordon . . . . ,168 
 
 Trellis for ditto 172 
 
 New mode of forming Fruit-branches . . . .174 
 
 Advantages of ditto 183 
 
 THE PLUM 188 
 
 Varieties 189 
 
 Select list of 189 
 
 Training and Pruning . . ' 190 
 
 Training in Pyramidal form 191 
 
 Management of Fruit-branches 191 
 
 As Double Contra Espaliers 194 
 
 Verrier's Palmette 194 
 
 Single Oblique and Vertical Cordon 194 
 
 Standards 194 
 
 THE CHERRY 195 
 
 Varieties 195 
 
 Select list of 196 
 
 Pruning and Management 197 
 
 THE APRICOT 199 
 
 Varieties 199 
 
 Select list of 200 
 
 Pruning and Management 200 
 
 RESTORATION OF BADLY-TRAINED TREES .... 204 
 
 Standards 204 
 
 Espaliers 208 
 
 RENOVATION OF AGED TREES . 209 
 
 Pyramidal form of 209 
 
 Espaliers 211 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE FRUIT GVRDEV . . .213 
 
 Digging 213 
 
 Manuring 214 
 
 To counteract Excessive Dryness of Soil . . . .215 
 Protection from the Late Frosts of Spring . . . .216 
 
 GATHERING AND PRESERVATION OF FRUIT . . . .221 
 
 Gathering 221 
 
 Preservation 222 
 
 Fruit-house 222 
 
 Care of Fruit . 227 
 
THE CULTUBE 
 
 OF 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 GKAFTING. 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL METHODS OF GRAFTING TREES. INSTRUMENTS, LIGA- 
 TURES, AND MASTICS, OR GRAFTING CLAY. 
 
 NEARLY all fruit trees are propagated by grafting. It 
 is necessary, therefore, to carefully study the practice 
 of this operation ; but we must limit our attention to 
 those kinds of grafting that are really useful. 
 
 For the practice of grafting it is necessary to be 
 provided with the following instruments. First a 
 hand- saw (fig. 1), to be used in cutting the stems and 
 branches that are too large to be cut with the knife. 
 The saw-blade should be thin towards the back, A, 
 and the teeth, B, wide, for cutting through green 
 wood. A pruning-knife also is required for cutting 
 the smaller stems and branches that are intended to 
 receive the graft. This instrument will be described 
 further on (p. 42). 
 
 A small wood mallet is also necessary to strike the 
 back of the pruning-knife in making slits in thick 
 stems for cleft grafting ; also a small wooden wedge 
 /) B 
 
 n 
 
2 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 to introduce into tKe opening while the graft is being 
 placed in the slit. Lastly, a grafting or budding-knife 
 is required (fig. 2). The spatula at the lower end of 
 the knife should be made of hard wood, bone, or ivory. 
 With this knife the lower part of the graft must be 
 cut into proper shape, and shield grafting or budding 
 performed. 
 
 Until the grafts become firmly grown to the wood, it 
 
 !A 
 
 Fig. 1. Hand- Saw. 
 
 Fig. 2. Budding-Knife. 
 
 is of the utmost importance to keep them in their first 
 position, and this is done by means of bandages com- 
 posed of wool, drawn into coarse threads and slightly 
 twisted, or strands of matting soaked in water, or of the 
 bark of the willow or lime tree, made supple by soaking 
 in water. 
 
 In order to protect the parts from the action of the 
 atmosphere, various mastics are employed. One kind, 
 
GRAFTING. 3 
 
 called Saint Fiacre's Ointment, is chiefly composed of 
 clay. Other descriptions, known as grafting mastics, 
 are composed chiefly of resinous materials. The clay 
 mastic has the inconvenience of being liable to be 
 washed away by heavy showers, and of cracking when 
 very dry, by which means it ceases to be a sufficient 
 protection to the tender graft. When used upon apple 
 trees, it also serves as a harbour for insects, which 
 prove hurtful to the graft, and endanger the success of 
 the operation. 
 
 Grafting mastics possess none of these inconveniences. 
 They are used cold or hot. The mastic of which the 
 following is the composition is always used hot. 
 
 For one hundred parts by weight : 
 
 Black pitch ... 28 parts. 
 
 Burgundy pitch . . 28 
 
 Beeswax .... 16 
 
 Grease 14 ,, 
 
 Yellow Ochre 14 
 
 100 
 
 This composition must be used sufficiently warm to 
 be liquid, but not so hot as to injure the tissues of the 
 tree. A small brush is used to spread it with. 
 
 All the grafting mastics to be used cold were, until 
 quite recently, in the form of a soft paste, and had the 
 unpleasant inconvenience of sticking to the fingers of 
 the operator. Hot mastics have, therefore, been pre- 
 ferred, notwithstanding the extra trouble of heating 
 them. But now, M. L'homme Lefort, of Belleville, 
 
 B2 
 
4 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 near Paris, lias invented a liquid mastic that may be 
 used cold. This mastic (the composition of which the 
 inventor reserves the secret) is of the consistency of 
 thin paste, which can be easily applied with a wooden 
 spatula. In the course of a very few days it acquires 
 an extraordinary degree of hardness, and is not 
 affected by either sun or frost ; humidity only hastens 
 its solidification. This material, being sold at a 
 moderate price, is likely to take the place of all other 
 mastics. 
 
 The tree that is operated upon, and which receives 
 the graft, is called the subject or stock; the small 
 branch that is planted upon it is called the graft or 
 scion. 
 
 The different methods of grafting, applicable to fruit 
 trees, may be ranged in the three following groups : 
 
 I. GRAFTING BY APPROACH, OR INARCHING. 
 
 The peculiarity of this description of grafting is that 
 the scion is not separated from the parent stem until 
 after it has become completely united with the stock 
 upon which it has been grafted ; it is commonly per- 
 formed in spring. 
 
 GRAFTING BY ORDINARY APPROACH. This mode of 
 grafting is employed to complete the number of lateral 
 branches in a young tree, where there is no original 
 insertion of either branch or bud, and where an inci- 
 sion would be useless. The part of the stem (fig. 3, A) 
 which is deficient of one of its lateral branches, may be 
 filled up by the aid of the branch B. An incision 
 
GRAFTING. 5 
 
 must be made round the stem of the subject (A, fig. 4), 
 immediately above the point where the branch B is to 
 be grafted. This is done in order to retard the flow of 
 sap from the roots ; immediately below this, a vertical 
 incision must be made, about 2 inches long, and of a 
 width and depth equal to the diameter of the branch 
 
 Fig. 3. Grafting by Approach, Fig. 4,-Method of Catting Fig. 5.-Cutting 
 or Inarching the Stock. the Graft. 
 
 B, fig. 3. The branch must be cut at the point A, fig. 3, 
 in a form (fig. 5) to fit exactly in the vertical incision, 
 B (fig. 4), and the edges of the bark of the graft and of 
 the subject must be brought into perfect contact. This 
 
6 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 being done, the parts must be brought together, and 
 maintained in their positions by means of bandages, 
 and covered with the grafting mastic. 
 
 By the following year, at the time of the winter 
 pruning, the graft will have become firmly grown to 
 its subject, and may then be cut off immediately below 
 
 Fig. 6. English Method of Inarching or Grafting by Approach. 
 
 its point of attachment. The lower part, F, fig. 3, after 
 trimming, will serve for one of the lateral branches 
 as before. 
 
 ENGLISH METHOD OF GRAFTING BY APPROACH, OR 
 INARCHING (fig. 6). Make, both upon the stock and 
 graft, a longitudinal cut, in depth about one-third of 
 the diameter ; insert the one in the other ; then place 
 
GRAFTING. 7 
 
 a clasp or bandage round the middle, to make the con- 
 tact complete. 
 
 GRAFTING SHOOTS BY APPROACH (fig. 7). In the 
 preceding methods, the plants operated upon are at 
 least a year old. In twig grafting, the graft, and 
 sometimes even the stock, consist of tender herbaceous 
 shoots. This method can only be practised from the 
 middle of June until the beginning of August. The 
 mode of operation differs also in other respects. 
 
 This kind of grafting is employed to greatest ad- 
 vantage upon peach trees and other stone fruits for fill- 
 ing up the vacant spaces on the fruit-branches, which 
 constitute the lateral branches upon the principal 
 branches. 
 
 Fig. 7. Shoot Grafting by Approach. 
 
 Suppose that there is a vacant space among the fruit- 
 branches of a peach, C (fig. 7) ; the shoot B will serve 
 to fill up the vacancy. For this purpose, make upon 
 the branch, at the point C, an incision, about 1J inch 
 long, and terminated at each extremity by a transverse 
 
8 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 incision, C (fig. 8). The shoot B (fig. 7) must be cut 
 as shown at D (fig. 8), and slipped under the raised 
 bark, and the parts united by a ligature. 
 
 It is important that the graft should have a leaf at 
 D, fig. 8, on the side opposite to the incision, which 
 must be taken care of when applying the bandage. 
 
 Fig. 8. Shoot Grafting by Approach. 
 
 By the spring of the following year the union will 
 be complete ; nevertheless, it is desirable to delay the 
 severance of the grafts from the lower part of the 
 shoot until the second spring, otherwise many of them 
 will be dried up. The proper time being arrived, the 
 small branch which supplied the graft is cut at C (fig. 
 7), and the lower part of the branch D is allowed to 
 grow as before. 
 
GRAFTING. 9 
 
 If there are several continuous spaces upon the 
 branch, and the smaller branch is sufficiently vigorous, 
 there may be a succession of grafts upon each of the 
 points A, A, A (fig. 9). When the grafting is com- 
 
 Fig. 9. Multiplied Shoot Grafting. 
 
 plete, and the proper time arrived, the severance of 
 each is effected immediately below each point of con- 
 tact. It is better to allow eight or ten days to elapse 
 between each grafting of the same shoot, to avoid 
 injury to the future development of the grafts. 
 
 II. BRANCH GRAFTING. 
 
 This mode of grafting is effected by means of 
 branches, or parts of branches, previously separated 
 from the parent stem. 
 
 To operate with success, it is essential : 1st, to 
 select for grafts the most vigorous and perfectly ripened 
 shoots of the previous year. That is, such only as have 
 been developed sufficiently early in the preceding year 
 
 B3 
 
10 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 to allow time for their wood to have become firm and 
 well constituted before the first frosts of winter. 
 
 2nd. So arrange that the graft be in a less advanced 
 stage of vegetation than the stock ; otherwise, the 
 graft, instead of finding a sufficient quantity of sap to 
 develop its growth, will rapidly dry up. To prevent 
 this, the grafts must be severed from their parent stem 
 a month or two before grafting, and completely buried 
 in the earth at the foot of a northern wall. They will 
 retain their vitality in this situation, while their vege- 
 tation remains stationary, and that of the subject de- 
 velops itself. 
 
 3rd. Perform the cutting operations very neatly, 
 that the bark be not torn, or frayed at its edges. 
 
 4th. Place the graft upon the subject in such a 
 manner as to ensure the perfect contact of the edges of 
 the inner bark of the stock with the corresponding 
 edges of the inner bark of the graft. 
 
 5th. Bind round the parts operated upon, and cover 
 over with grafting mastic. 
 
 6th. Protect the grafts, during the first five days 
 after grafting, from the action of the atmosphere and 
 heat of the sun. A cone of white paper answers this 
 purpose perfectly (fig. 10). The cap, however, is liable 
 to harbour insects that eat the buds as soon as they 
 open. 
 
 7th. Great care is requisite that the grafts, once 
 placed, be never afterwards disturbed. The least shock 
 is sufficient, when the graft has begun to grow to its 
 stem, to destroy the success of the entire operation. 
 The grafts most exposed to accidents are those placed 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 11 
 
 upon the top of high trees, they being frequently 
 broken by the larger birds perching upon them. To 
 prevent accidents from this cause, a kind of perch, A 
 (fig. 11), may be affixed, fastened to each side of the stem 
 by two osier bandages. This possesses an additional 
 advantage in the security it affords to the principal 
 
 Fig. 10. Paper Cap for Grafts. 
 
 Pig. 11. Graft Protector. 
 
 branches, B B, during the summer which develops the 
 graft, the grafts being tied to the stock to prevent 
 their being blown off by the wind. 
 
 8th. Lastly, it is necessary to be careful that the 
 numerous branches which always grow from the head 
 of the stock do not destroy the graft by absorbing all 
 the sap. During the summer which follows grafting, 
 
12 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 the stem of the subject will be covered with young 
 shoots. These must be taken off, but not until the 
 graft has begun to grow, for until that period it has 
 need of them to draw the sap towards itself. As soon 
 as the graft begins to shoot, the buds growing from the 
 lower part of the stem must be suppressed ; afterwards, 
 the buds higher up progressively ; but those growing 
 close about the graft must not be removed until the 
 graft has attained a height of from 6 to 10 inches. 
 
 Branch grafting proper for fruit trees is of the three 
 following kinds : 
 
 1. CLEFT GRAFTING. This requires a longitudinal 
 incision in the wood of the stock. The operation is 
 performed in spring, as soon as the buds of the stock 
 begin to open. 
 
 Single Cleft Grafting (fig. 12). The branch which 
 serves for graft may be from 3 to 6 inches in length, 
 according to the degree of vigour shown by the 
 stock. Choose for the graft a branch with a bud upon 
 its summit, A. Cut the lower part of the graft in a 
 flat pointed form, to the length of 1J or 2 inches, 
 commencing from the bud B. When the graft is thus 
 prepared, cut the head of the stock horizontally across, 
 and smooth it with a sharp knife ; upon this cut make 
 with a knife a vertical cleft, C, down the middle of the 
 stem, about 2 inches long. The cleft must be kept open 
 by a small wedge while the graft is being placed in it. 
 
 The top of the graft E, fig. 13, should be slightly 
 inclined towards the centre of the stem, while the lower 
 part, F, should project a little outwards, in order that 
 the interior bark of the graft and of the subject may 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 13 
 
 be brought into exact contact at one point of their 
 exposed surface. Finally, the graft must be bandaged, 
 and the parts covered with a coating of grafting mastic. 
 This method is employed for fruit trees either with 
 high or low stems, provided the stems be not too thick. 
 Double Cleft Grafting (fig. 13). This differs from 
 the preceding by two grafts being placed in the cleft 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. 12. Single Cleft Graft. 
 
 Fig. 13. Double Cleft Graft. 
 
 instead of one. This method is to be preferred when 
 the thickness of the stock allows of it. The parts heal 
 more quickly, and there is a better chance of success 
 than with only one graft. Nevertheless, if both prove 
 successful, we must not hesitate to suppress the least 
 vigorous one as soon as the place is completely closed, 
 especially in the case of tall trees ; otherwise, the head 
 of the tree being formed of two parts quite distinct 
 from each other, the stem would be liable to be torn 
 
14 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 asunder when heavily laden with fruit, or exposed to 
 the influence of high winds. 
 
 Bertemboise Cleft Grafting (fig. 14). Cut the head 
 of the stock on a slant, reserving at the highest point 
 
 Fig. 14. The Bertem- 
 boise Cleft Graft. 
 
 Fig. 15. -English 
 Cleft Graft. 
 
 Fig. 16. Crown 
 Graft. 
 
 a small portion of flat surface, and operate as before. 
 When the stock is not large enough to carry two grafts, 
 this method is preferable to the two preceding ones. 
 The point of union between the graft and stock will 
 be better formed, and the oblique shape of the crown 
 of the stock will dispose the sap to flow more freely 
 towards the graft, which will develop more vigorously. 
 English Cleft Grafting (fig. 15). Cut the stem of 
 the stock on a long slant, and make a vertical cleft 
 down it, commencing about a third of the distance 
 
GRAFTING. 15 
 
 from the top. Cut the lower part of the graft in a 
 corresponding slant, and make a vertical cleft com- 
 mencing about a third of the distance from the base ; 
 introduce the tongue of the graft into the cleft of the 
 stock, in such a manner that the parts may be perfectly 
 covered by each other, and so that the barks come into 
 perfect contact on at least one side of the stem. This 
 is a very ready and firm mode of grafting, and suitable 
 for young stocks, the parts covering each other over 
 their entire surface. 
 
 2. CROWN GRAFTING. In this description of graft- 
 ing the wood of the stock is not cleft, but the bark 
 alone is cut vertically. The operation is performed 
 when the buds are grown a third of an inch long. 
 
 Crown Grafting, Theophraste (fig. 16). Cut hori- 
 zontally the head of the stock, or the branches only 
 of the second or third order, according to the age of the 
 tree, at about 18 inches from their spring. Then cut 
 through the bark to the wood in a vertical line about 
 2J inches long. Cut the lower part of the graft in a 
 pointed form, A, with a notch on the upper part. Raise 
 the bark of the stock, and introduce the graft between 
 the bark and the wood in such a manner that the cut 
 side of the graft fits close upon the wood. Surround 
 with a bandage, and cover with the mastic. 
 
 Several grafts may be placed upon the same section 
 of the wood, provided there be a clear space of about 
 3 inches between each of the grafts. This sort of graft 
 is frequently used for aged trees, and when it is desir- 
 able to change the fruit for another variety. 
 
 Perfected Crown Grafting, J)u Breuil (fig. 17). The 
 
16 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 head of the stock must be cut obliquely, then the bark 
 cut vertically a little to the left of the top of the slant. 
 The lower part of the graft must be cut in a pointed 
 form, with a small tooth or notch at the thick end of 
 the cut. A thin line of bark is then cut away upon the 
 left side of the point end of the graft. The graft is 
 inserted between the bark and the wood, so that the 
 
 Tig. 17. Du Breuil's Improved Crown Graft. 
 
 notch on the graft fits close down upon the top of the 
 stock, and the point of the graft introduced under the 
 bark of the right side only of the stock, fits closely 
 against the unraised bark on the left side of the stock. 
 3. SIDE BRANCH GRAFTING. In this kind of graft- 
 ing it is not necessary to cut the head of the stock. 
 The graft is attached to the side of the stem. It is 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 17 
 
 practised at the same period of the year as crown graft- 
 ing. We shall explain only two varieties of this method. 
 The Richard Side Graft (fig. 18). Choose for the 
 graft a branch slightly arched, A ; cut the lower part 
 
 Fig. 18. The Richard 
 Side Graft. 
 
 Fig. 19. Lateral Fruit-Bud for 
 Girardin Side Graft. 
 
 in a long slant. Make an incision, G, upon the bark of 
 the stock in the form of a T. Make immediately 
 above this another incision, B, penetrating to the 
 exterior wood, for the purpose of arresting at this point 
 the flow of sap from the roots. Raise the incised bark 
 with the spatula of the grafting-knife, introduce the 
 graft, bind round, and apply the mastic. 
 
 This mode of grafting is applied with advantage to 
 the stems of pepin* fruits, to restore the regularity of 
 
 * This word implies fruits that have "pips/ 1 and is used in that 
 sense throughout the work. 
 
18 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 their branches, when grafting by approach, or other 
 methods, cannot be resorted to. 
 
 The Girardin Side Graft (figs. 19 to 22). This kind 
 of grafting, described by Professor Thouin, and popu- 
 larised by M. Luiset, of Ecully, near Lyons, is prac- 
 tised thus : Towards the end of August take from 
 a tree, either of the same variety or a different one, 
 some very small branches, each bearing a fruit-bud 
 that would open in the following spring (fig. 19) ; in 
 
 Fig. 20. Terminal Fruit- 
 Bud for Side Graft. 
 
 Fig. 21. Cut upon the Branch 
 for Reception of Side Graft. 
 
 Fig. 22. Girardin 
 Side Graft. 
 
 selecting the grafts, give preference to terminal 
 branches (fig. 20), Cut off the leaves, and cut the 
 lower part to the form indicated in figs. 19 and 20 ; 
 make upon the bark of the stem upon which the graft 
 is to be inserted an incision, as shown on fig. 21, insert 
 the graft underneath the bark, bind round, as shown 
 on fig. 22, and cover the parts with mastic. The grafts 
 become attached to the branch, expand their blossoms, 
 and fructify in the following spring. This method 
 may be practised at the beginning of April, but with 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 19 
 
 less chance of success ; it will then be necessary to 
 detach the branches which bear the grafts, a month 
 before, and to cover them over in a shady place till the 
 time of grafting. 
 
 This mode of grafting is now frequently employed 
 to replace fruit-branches that have disappeared from 
 the large boughs, or to transform too vigorous but 
 unfruitful branches into fruit-bearing ones. 
 
 III. BUDDING OR SHIELD GRAFTING. 
 
 In grafts belonging to this group the piece cut from 
 the bark to form the graft is most frequently in the 
 form of a shield, A (fig. 23) ; this piece of bark must 
 have upon it, near its centre, an eye or bud. 
 
 These grafts are especially used for young stocks, or 
 
 Fig. 23. Shield Graft or Budding 
 by Dormant Bud. 
 
 Fig. 24. Inside of Cutting of 
 Shield or Bud. 
 
 branches, of from one to four years of age, having thin, 
 smooth, and tender bark. There are several varieties 
 of shield grafting, but the two following will be found 
 sufficient for general use. 
 
 SHIELD GRAFTING WITH DORMANT BUD (fig. 23). 
 This is practised from the end of July till the be- 
 
20 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 ginning of September, according to the state of the 
 vegetation of the subject. The head of the stock must 
 not be cut off until the following spring, when it will 
 be seen whether the graft-bud has been successful. 
 The following are the principal points to be observed 
 in shield grafting : 
 
 1st. Cut from the tree a branch having some leaves 
 and eyes at its base, or buds well constituted ; take off 
 the leaves, leaving only a small piece of the stem, C 
 (fig. 23), of one of them, to hold the shield A by between 
 two fingers. Keep the grafts or buds, when thus pre- 
 pared, in a dark, cold, and damp place, until the time 
 that they are required for placing upon the stock. 
 
 2nd. Make an incision, B, upon the subject, in the 
 form of a T, penetrating to the wood, and separate 
 with the spatula the two lips of the bark towards the 
 top. 
 
 3rd. Separate the shield from its branch in such a 
 manner as to take off with the bark the smallest pos- 
 sible portion of the wood, preserving in every case the 
 green tissue behind the bud, as shown at fig. 24. 
 Unless this be attended to, the success of the graft is 
 impossible. 
 
 4th. Slip in the shield between the bark and the 
 wood by means of the incision B (fig. 23) ; then bring 
 the edges of the bark together by means of a ligature, 
 in such a manner that the base of the bud press closely 
 to the wood of the stock ; this is an essential point 
 
 5th. Some time after budding, look at the buds and 
 slacken the bandages if they have become too tight. 
 6th. On the arrival of spring, if the buds have taken 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 21 
 
 effect, cut off the stem or branches of the subject about 
 three inches above the bud ; this is done to stimulate 
 the development of the bud. 
 
 7th. When the buds begin to vegetate, support them 
 by a stake (A, fig. 25), fastened against the stem of the 
 
 Pig. 25. Support for 
 Shield Graft. 
 
 Fig. 26. Double Shield 
 Graft. 
 
 subject, in order to protect them from the violence of 
 the winds. 
 
 8th. Eemove the shoots that grow from the stem of 
 the subject, and follow the directions given for branch 
 grafting. 
 
 9th. Cut the head of the subject D at the line B 
 (fig. 25) in the winter following. 
 
 Shield grafts (or budding) are almost always used 
 for young fruit trees. If they have not been successful 
 (that no time may be lost), replace them by branch 
 grafting in the following spring. 
 
22 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 DOUBLE SHIELD GRAFTING OR BUDDING (fig. 26). 
 Operate as before, placing upon the same stem or 
 branch two or more shields. This will be found very 
 useful in hastening the wood formations of young 
 espaliers. To form a palmette* the stock should receive 
 three shield grafts, placed as shown in fig. 26. We 
 thus gain a year for the formation of the wood. 
 
 * So called because the shape resembles the extended palm or hand, 
 the fingers being spread out in the form of a fan. 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 23 
 
 OF PBUNING AND TEAINING. 
 
 UTILITY OF TRAINING. 
 
 TRAINING, properly applied to fruit trees, gives the 
 following result : 
 
 1. It enables us to impart to trees a form suitable to 
 the place they are intended to occupy. Thus we may 
 desire to give to standards (trees that are not nailed 
 against a wall or trellis) the pyramidal form, or the 
 form of a vase. 
 
 Trees trained in these forms give larger and more 
 abundant fruit than when left to themselves ; and 
 when become tall trees, they occupy less space than 
 others. Training applied to espaliers makes the trees 
 develop their wood in a regular and systematic manner, 
 and compels them to occupy usefully the whole surface of 
 the ivall or space assigned to them. 
 
 2. By means of training, each of the principal 
 branches of the tree is furnished with fruit-branches 
 throughout its full extent. This result is most re- 
 markable in the stone fruits, and especially in the 
 peach, the branches of which, if not trained, would 
 rapidly degenerate, and grow only towards the top. 
 
 3. Training renders the fructification more equal ; 
 
'J { FRUIT TREES. 
 
 for in removing every year the superabundant buds 
 and branches, we contribute to the formation of new 
 fruit-buds for the next year ; preventing the sap from 
 being wasted upon the parts cut away. 
 
 4. Training conduces to the production of larger 
 fruit and of finer quality. In fact, the greater part of 
 the liquid nourishment which would have fed the 
 suppressed parts is turned to the advantage of the 
 fruits that are retained. 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING. 
 
 The wood of trees ought to be perfectly symmetrical. 
 This regularity has not only for its purpose to render 
 the trees pleasant objects to look at, but, most of all, 
 to make them occupy with regularity, and without loss 
 of space, the walls or borders where they are planted. 
 It also promotes equality of vegetation throughout the 
 tree, by preventing the sap from being drawn more to 
 one side than another. 
 
 The permanency of form of trained frees is dependent 
 upon the equal diffusion of sap being maintained through- 
 out the ir/iole extent of their branches. 
 
 In fruit trees left to themselves, and entirely un- 
 trained, the sap distributes itself equally, because the 
 trees take the forms most in harmony with the natural 
 tendency of the sap. In trees, however, that are sub- 
 mitted to training, the forms imposed upon them neces- 
 sitate the development of branches at the base of the 
 stem more or less large and numerous. The sap 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 25 
 
 ]i;itur;i!ly tends towards the summit of the stem; it 
 follows, therefore, that the lower branches become weak, 
 and soon die off, and the form that had been obtained 
 disappears, to be replaced by the natural disposition of 
 the tree ; that is, a naked stem carrying a head more 
 or less voluminous. It is, therefore, indispensable to 
 change the natural current of the sap, and thus main- 
 tain the direction towards each of the points to which 
 it is desired to train the branches. 
 
 "We suppose an espalier (fig. 27) in which the 
 
 Fig. 27. Espalier, in which the Circulation of the Sap is irregular. 
 
 equilibrium of vegetation has been broken ; in order to 
 retard the vegetation in the direction in which the sap 
 flows too abundantly, and to favour those parts where 
 its flow is insufficient, we employ the following 
 means : 
 
 Prune the strong branches, B, short ; but allow the 
 weaker ones. A, to grow long. We know that the 
 sap is drawn by the leaves ; therefore, in suppressing 
 upon the most vigorous parts the greater number of 
 
 e 
 
26 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 wood-buds, we deprive those parts of the leaves that 
 the buds would have developed, and in consequence of 
 doing so, the sap flows there in less abundance, and 
 the vegetation is diminished. By allowing, on the 
 contrary, a considerable number of wood-producing 
 buds to remain upon the weak parts, it will become 
 covered with a large number of leaves, and an abun- 
 dant vegetation. 
 
 Depress the strong parts of the tree, and elevate the 
 weak branches. The sap on its way to the roots acts 
 with greater force upon the branch extensions, in 
 proportion to their being in a vertical direction ; the 
 branches will therefore push out with more force in 
 the weak parts that have been raised nearer to a 
 vertical line, and the numerous leaves that they will 
 develop will draw the sap in greater quantity from the 
 strong parts that have been inclined towards a hori- 
 zontal direction. 
 
 Suppress the useless buds upon the strong parts as 
 early as possible, and practise this suppression as late 
 as possible upon the weak parts. The fewer shoots 
 upon the branch, the fewer will be the leaves, and of 
 course the smaller the quantity of sap that will be 
 drawn there. By allowing the shoots to remain upon 
 the weak part as long as possible, the sap will be 
 drawn there in greater abundance, and when they 
 come to be cut off, the sap, having set in to that side, 
 will still continue to flow there. This is only appli- 
 cable to espaliers, and particularly to peaches, from 
 which it is often necessary to take a number of the 
 buds. 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 27 
 
 Suppress very early the herbaceous extremities of the 
 strong part, hit practise the suppression as late as possible 
 upon the weak part ; taking off only the most vigorous 
 shoots, and those that must in any case be removed on 
 account of the positions they occupy. This arrests the 
 vegetation of the strong part ; it is applicable both to 
 standards and espaliers. 
 
 Nail up very early, and very close to the icall or trellis, 
 the strong part, but delay doing so to the weak part; we 
 thus retard the circulation towards the first, and 
 promote it towards the second. This is only practi- 
 cable for espaliers and wall trees. 
 
 Suppress a number of the leaves upon the strong side. 
 By removing a portion of the leaves on that side of 
 the tree, we impede the sap, and prevent its too abun- 
 dant flow in that direction. It will be necessary to 
 suppress only a number of leaves proportionate to the 
 difference in vigour of the two sides of the tree, and 
 to choose those upon the most vigorous branches. 
 The leaves must not be torn off, but cut, leaving the 
 petiole, or leaf-stern, upon the branch. 
 
 Allow as large a quantity of the fruit as possible to 
 remain upon the strong side, and suppress all upon the 
 weak side. We have already explained that the fruit 
 has the property of drawing to itself the sap from the 
 roots, and of absorbing it entirely in its growth ; by 
 this means, all the sap drawn to the strong side will 
 be absorbed by the fruits, and that part will be less 
 developed than the weak side. 
 
 Soften all the green parts on the weak side with a solu- 
 tion of sulphate of iron. This solution, in a proportion 
 
 c2 
 
28 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 of twenty-four grains to a pint of water, applied after 
 sunset, is absorbed by the leaves, and powerfully 
 stimulates their action in drawing the sap from the 
 roots. 
 
 Bring forward the weak side from the watt, and keep 
 the strong side close to it. By bringing the weak part 
 forward, away from the wall, we allow the branches 
 to receive the light on both sides. As light is the 
 element which determines the functions of the leaves, 
 and their action upon the sap, this part will vegetate 
 with more vigour than the part which is only exposed 
 to the action of the light upon one of its sides. This 
 is applicable only to wall trees; and is only to be 
 resorted to towards the month of May, by which time 
 there is nothing to fear from the storms of winter, 
 and the tree is able to support itself apart from the 
 wall. 
 
 Place a covering upon the strong part, so as to deprive 
 it of the light. By this method we obtain the same 
 result, but in a more complete manner. This is not 
 to be resorted to unless the preceding method has 
 proved insufficient, for if it should happen that the 
 part be kept too long from the light, it will soon lose 
 all its leaves. To avoid this, we must not keep it 
 covered for more than eight or twelve days, and must 
 then take advantage of a cloudy day to remove the 
 covering. 
 
 The different expedients we have described may be 
 employed in succession, and in the order set down, 
 until the desired result has been obtained. 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 29 
 
 The sap dewlaps the branches much more vigorously 
 upon a branch cut short, than upon one left long. 
 
 It is evident that if the sap acts only upon one or 
 two branches, it makes them develop with much 
 greater vigour than if it is divided among fifteen or 
 twenty. If, therefore, we desire to obtain more wood, 
 we must prune the branches down a great deal, be- 
 cause vigorous shoots develop very few flower-buds ; 
 if, on the contrary, we wish to develop fruit-branches, 
 we must be careful to cut them down very little, 
 because the least vigorous branches are the most 
 charged with fruit blossoms. Another application of 
 this principle is in the case of a tree that has been 
 exhausted by bearing a too great quantity of fruit ; 
 we re-establish its vigour by pruning it short for a year. 
 
 This last application may appear to contradict what 
 has been advanced in a former paragraph (p. 25), but 
 the contradiction is only in appearance. In the first 
 instance, we only cut short certain branches of the 
 tree ; and so far diminish, to the profit of those left to 
 grow to a greater length, the powers of absorption 
 that they exercise upon the sap from the roots. The 
 shoots which they develop are certainly more vigorous 
 than those growing upon the long branches, but they 
 are less so than if all the branches of the tree were 
 subjected to the same suppression, for one part of the 
 sap due to them is turned to the profit of the nume- 
 rous shoots growing upon the long branches, and the 
 vigour of which is thus augmented. In a word, the 
 shoots upon the long branches are not so vigorous as 
 
30 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 those upon the branches cut short, but they are much 
 more numerous, and determine the formation of a 
 great mass of woody tissue and buds, which do not 
 fail to weaken the strong part to the profit of the 
 feeble one. 
 
 But when the re-establishment of an exhausted tree 
 is in question, the circumstances are altogether dif- 
 ferent. Instead of pruning down certain branches 
 only, we submit all the branches upon the tree to the 
 same treatment, and the sap, not being drawn in too 
 great abundance either to one side or the other, acts 
 with equal intensity, and promotes the vigorous deve- 
 lopment of each separate branch : all this tends to 
 the formation of fresh wood and bark, more ample and 
 well constituted than the first, so that the new root 
 extensions better fulfil their functions, the tree recovers 
 its former vigour, and in due time recommences fruit- 
 bearing. 
 
 The preceding remarks explain the cause of the 
 different results obtained by this operation, according 
 to the manner in which it is practised, and ought to 
 put an end to the differences which exist upon the 
 subject among different cultivators. 
 
 The sap has always a tendency to flow toirards the 
 extremity of the branches, and to make the terminal bud 
 develop with more vigour than the lateral ones. 
 
 According to this principle, whenever we wish to 
 give greater length to a branch, we must train upon one 
 vigorous terminal bud, and not allow any other shoot 
 to grow that would draw away the action of the sap. 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 31 
 
 The more the sap is retarded in its circulation, the less 
 wood, and the more fruit-buds trill it develop. 
 
 Trees do not begin to form their flower-buds until 
 they have acquired a certain development. Before 
 these flower-buds appear, it is necessary that the sap 
 circulate slowly, and that it by this means undergoes 
 a more complete elaboration in the leaves; without 
 this it can only grow wood-producing buds. When 
 trees have acquired a certain degree of development, 
 the rapidity of the circulation is checked by the extent 
 and broken character of the ramifications through 
 which the sap has to run ; it is only then that the 
 flower-buds begin to form. The appearance of these 
 organs is so much due to the diminished action of the 
 sap upon the branches, that trees never have more 
 flower-buds than when suffering in this way. 
 
 The following operations, in the order set down, will 
 tend to retard the action of the sap, and cause a greater 
 quantity of fruit-bearing spurs upon the trees. Allow 
 the branch to extend itself by training the wood very 
 long, and the result will be a less vigorous growth 
 which is more conducive to fruit-bearing. 
 
 Apply to the branches which groiv from the successive 
 extensions of the wood, and also to those ichich spring from 
 them, the operations calculated to diminish their vigour. 
 These operations are, for shoots, pinching and twisting, 
 and for the branches, breaking, either complete or 
 partial. These mutilations, which we shall describe 
 further on, have for their object to diminish the vigour 
 both of these smaller and larger branches, by forcing 
 
32 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 the sap to concentrate its action upon the development 
 of new wood. 
 
 Practise the winter pruning very late in spring, 
 when the shoots have obtained a length of 1^ inch. 
 It results from this late pruning, that a greater portion 
 of the sap is dispersed to the advantage of the other 
 parts of the branches. These being at this moment 
 checked, the shoots at the base push less vigorously 
 than if that loss of sap had not taken place, and are more 
 easily put into fruit-bearing. This mode of operating, 
 and also the following, should not be resorted to, ex- 
 cept for trees of such vigour that the preceding methods 
 have proved insufficient to put them in fruit-bearing. 
 
 -Apply to the larger branches a certain number of 
 Girardin's side grafts (figs. 19 to 22). These fruit- 
 spur grafts when fruiting will absorb a considerable 
 part of the superabundant sap. We shall see from this 
 time a considerable number of flower-buds form them- 
 selves upon the trees. This method is only to be 
 employed for pepin fruits. 
 
 Arch all the branches, so that a part of their extent be 
 directed toicards the sun. The sap acts with more force 
 upon the development of shoots if they are attached to 
 branches growing in the nearest approach to a vertical 
 line ; it follows, therefore, that arching the branches 
 tends to diminish their vigour, and promotes fruit- 
 bearing. When this result has been obtained, it will 
 be advisable to replace these branches in their former 
 position, lest the tree become exhausted by a super- 
 abundant production of fruit. Fig. 28 is a pyramidal 
 tree with the branches arched. 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 33 
 
 Tig. 28.- Pyramidal Pear Tree, with Arched Branches. 
 
 c 3 
 
34 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 Iii the month of February, make an annular incision 
 with the hand-saw, near the base of the stem, rather less 
 than J of an inch in width, and sufficiently deep to pene- 
 trate the exterior layer of the wood. The sap ascends 
 from the roots to the leaves, passing through the sap 
 vessels embedded in the exterior layer of wood. The 
 incision has the effect of retarding the ascension of the 
 sap ; the branches acquire less vigour ; and the tree 
 forms fruit. 
 
 At the spring of the year, uncover the foot of the tree in 
 such a manner as to expose the principal roots throughout 
 nearly their entire extent, and allow them to remain in 
 this state during the summer. The exposure of the roots 
 to the action of the air and light retards their fruition, 
 and thus diminishes the vigour of the tree, and deter- 
 mines its fruit-bearing. 
 
 Uncover the foot of the tree at spring, and cut away 
 part of the roots, and then replace the earth. This opera- 
 tion, more energetic than the preceding, produces the 
 same results, but must be resorted to with caution, to 
 avoid injury to the tree. 
 
 Transplant the trees at the end of autumn, but .with 
 great care so as to preserve all the roots. This affords the 
 same results as the preceding. The displacement of the 
 tree has the effect of weakening it ; in the following 
 year it will put forth a great number of fruit-buds. 
 
 Every method which conduces to diminish the vigour of 
 the wood, and to make the sap flow to the fruit, tends to 
 augment the size of the fruit. 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 35 
 
 The fruit and the branches have the property of 
 drawing to themselves the sap from the roots. If, 
 therefore, the shoots are numerous and strong, it fol- 
 lows that they absorb nearly all the sap, to the injury 
 of the fruit, which remains small. This explains how 
 it occurs that, other things being equal, fruits are 
 smaller upon vigorous trees than upon weaker ones ; 
 and we also understand from this how it is that, the 
 growth of the fruit being determined by the sap, the 
 fruit becomes much larger if the sap flows to it freely. 
 
 The following operations have for their object to 
 increase the size of the fruit : 
 
 Graft upon stocks of a less vigorous species than the 
 scions. If the stocks are too vigorous, the shoots will 
 absorb nearly the whole of the sap, to the injury of the 
 fruit. Pears grafted upon quinces, apples upon paradise 
 stocks, produce, other things being equal, larger fruit 
 than when grafted upon pear stocks. 
 
 Apply to the trees a suitable winter pruning ; that is, 
 do not leave upon them more branches, or parts of branches, 
 than are requisite for the symmetrical development of the 
 tree, and the formation of fruit-bearing branches. This 
 tends to concentrate the sap upon the parts retained, 
 and consequently upon the fruit. Trees left to their 
 natural growth always produce smaller fruit than those 
 submitted to suitable pruning. 
 
 Make fruit-spurs to grow close upon the branches, by 
 pruning them as short as possible. By this means the 
 fruit will be attached very close to the wood, will re- 
 ceive the direct influence of the sap, and acquire a 
 large development. 
 
36 FllUIT TREES. 
 
 Cut the branches very close tchcn the flower-buds are 
 formed. This concentrates the sap upon a smaller ex- 
 tent of wood, and the fruit receives, in consequence, a 
 larger supply. 
 
 Mutilate the summer shoots by repeatedly pinching off 
 those shoots that are not required for the development of 
 the size of the tree. This mutilation, which is performed 
 by repeated pinchings, prevents the shoots absorbing a 
 too large supply of sap, which then remains, to the 
 advantage of the fruit. 
 
 When the fruits have attained a fifth degree of their 
 development, suppress a further number of them. The 
 fruits left upon the tree absorb the sap of those taken 
 away, and therefore become much larger. There will 
 be a smaller number, but the same weight, which is 
 always to be preferred. 
 
 Make an annular incision upon the fruit-bearing 
 branches at the time they expand their blossoms ; the 
 incision must not be icider than -A- of an inch. Experience 
 continually demonstrates, that following such incision, 
 the fruit becomes much larger, and ripens better. 
 Many attempts have been made to explain the cause, 
 but none are satisfactory ; the fact, however, is certain. 
 Stone fruits, and vines especially, are the better for 
 this operation being applied to them. 
 
 Graft some of the fruit-branches of vigorous trees with 
 the Girardin side graft. This kind of graft produces 
 an effect similar to the annular incision. The fruit is 
 always larger than upon the other branches ; the cause 
 is doubtless the same. 
 
 Place under the fruits, during their growth y a support, 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 37 
 
 to prevent their stretching or twisting their footstalks. 
 The sap reaches the fruit through the vessels which 
 traverse the stalk. If left without support it will often 
 happen that the fruit grows unequally, and a twisting 
 movement of the stalk follows, which injures the sap 
 vessels. Besides, the weight of the fruit alone, hanging 
 upon its stem, stretches the sap vessels, and diminishes 
 their diameter. When the fruits are supported, the 
 sap penetrates more freely, and their size is augmented 
 accordingly. 
 
 Keep the fruits in their normal position during the 
 entire period of their development, that is, with the fruit- 
 stem lowermost. The sap acts with greater force when 
 it flows upwards ; a vertical position, therefore, of the 
 stalk causes the sap to ascend more easily and in 
 greater quantity, and the fruit will become larger. 
 
 Place the fruits under the shade of the leaves during the 
 entire period of their growth. The action of strong light 
 and heat has the effect of hardening the tissues, and 
 destroying their elasticity, and consequently the power 
 of extension in yielding to the action of the sap. If a 
 young fruit he exposed to the power of the sun, it will 
 be smaller than one shaded by the leaves, because its 
 skin will be hardened, and not give way to the tendency 
 of the sap to expand it. Fruits, when arrived at their 
 full size, will be greatly improved by exposure to the 
 sun, as it will impart colour and a finer flavour, and 
 ripen them in greater perfection. 
 
 Apply to the young fruits a solution of sulphate of iron. 
 We have already seen that a solution of sulphate of 
 iron applied to the leaves stimulates their powers of 
 
38 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 absorbing sap. The thought occurred to apply the 
 solution to the fruits, and the effect in increasing their 
 size was extraordinary. The solution should be in the 
 proportion of 24 grains to a pint of water. Apply it 
 only when the fruit is cool; repeat the operation three 
 times ; viz., when the fruits have obtained a fourth 
 part of their development, when they are a little 
 larger, and again when they are three parts grown. 
 This solution excites their powers of absorption, and 
 they draw to themselves a large quantity of sap which 
 would otherwise flow to the leaves, and they then 
 become larger fruit. 
 
 Graft by approach a small shoot upon the peduncle or 
 fruit-spur, to which the fruit is attached when it has 
 attained a third part of its development. It has been 
 found that consequent on this operation the fruit 
 becomes larger, doubtless because the graft draws to 
 the peduncle a larger quantity of sap. 
 
 The leaves serve the important purpose of elaborating 
 the sap of the roots and preparing it for the proper 
 nourishment of the tree, and the formation of buds upon 
 the boughs. A tree therefore that is deprived of its leaves 
 is in danger of perishing. 
 
 It is therefore essential to guard against removing 
 too many of the leaves under pretext of placing 
 the fruit more immediately under the action of the 
 sun, for the trees, deprived of a part of their organs 
 of nutrition, will cease both growing and fruit-bearing. 
 Besides, branches stripped of their leaves produce 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 39 
 
 ill- formed buds, which are only succeeded the following 
 year by a weak and languishing vegetation. 
 
 When the ramifications of the tree have arrived at 
 their second year, the buds that are still undeveloped 
 will remain so, except under the influence of very close 
 pruning. Peaches seldom yield to this operation. 
 
 It is necessary, therefore, to prune so as to determine 
 the development of these dormant buds upon the branch 
 extensions, and to take care of the shoots which result 
 therefrom. Without this precaution the middle part 
 of the tree might remain bare and unproductive, and 
 there would soon be no remedy, for it is impossible to 
 develop buds that have remained long dormant. We 
 obtain the development of all such buds by cutting 
 away each year a certain portion of the new extensions 
 of the wood. 
 
 The yearly extensions of wood should be shortened more 
 or less, as the branches approach a vertical line, or the 
 contrary. 
 
 The sap acting upwards from the base of the tree, if 
 a branch grows in a vertical direction, the buds remain 
 dormant upon two-thirds of its length from the base. 
 To prevent this, it is necessary to suppress at least 
 one-half the length of this branch. If it is inclined to 
 an angle of 45 degrees, the sap acts with less force 
 upon the buds at the upper part of the branch, but it 
 will develop much too great a number at the same 
 time ; only the lower third of the branch will remain 
 unfurnished with buds. It will be sufficient in this 
 case to suppress only a third part of the branch. 
 
40 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 Lastly, if the branch grows horizontally, it may be left 
 entire, for in this case the sap will act equally, and 
 buds will spring from every part of the bough, from 
 one end to the other. 
 
 THE MOST SUITABLE PERIODS FOR PRUNING. 
 
 The various operations of pruning fruit trees are 
 practised at two different periods of the year. Those 
 comprehended under the name of winter pruning are 
 performed while vegetation is at rest ; the others, 
 called summer pruning, at various periods of vegetation. 
 
 "We shall first point out the most favourable period 
 for performing the winter pruning. 
 
 Winter Priming. The best time is that which follows 
 the severe frosts, and which precedes the first move- 
 ment of vegetation, towards the month of February. 
 
 If the pruning be performed before the severe frosts, 
 the cut portions of the bough will be exposed to the 
 action of the air, damp, and frosts, long before the first 
 movement of the sap, which is' necessary to cicatrise 
 the parts, and it frequently follows that the terminal 
 bud reserved at the top of the branch is by this means 
 destroyed. 
 
 These accidents occur also if the pruning be 
 attempted during severe frosts. The instruments cut 
 the frozen wood with difficulty, the parts are torn and 
 do not heal, the injury descends below, the nearest bud, 
 which is destroyed. 
 
 If we wait until the buds begin to open, the conse- 
 quences ars still more serious. The sap is spread 
 throughout every part of the tree, and that which was 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 41 
 
 absorbed by the suppressed branches is lost. Besides, 
 in pruning so late, there is great danger of breaking 
 off a number of the buds. Finally, the sap, in rushing 
 back from the summit to the base, will burst the sap 
 vessels, and cause canker or gum. 
 
 The winter pruning, in February, is always im- 
 portant for peaches ; the buds on the lower parts of 
 the fruit-branches frequently remaining dormant for 
 want of a sufficiently powerful action of the sap. 
 
 By early pruning, the sap is made to act upon the 
 buds unfavourably situated upon the tree, brings them 
 out, and also develops latent buds upon the old wood. 
 
 We are thus, by early pruning, enabled to prevent 
 the middle part of the tree from becoming bare and 
 unproductive. 
 
 By late, pruning, waiting even to the period when 
 the shoots begin to lengthen, we may operate with 
 advantage upon trees that possess too much vigour, 
 and which would not otherwise be easily put into a 
 fruit-bearing condition. One part of the action of the 
 sap is thus dispensed to the parts cut away, and acts 
 with less force towards the reserved buds, which thus 
 more readily assume the character of fruit-bearing ones. 
 
 In southern parts of the country [France], however, 
 where vegetation is early, the pruning must necessarily 
 be performed before winter. 
 
 If, also, we have such a number of trees that we 
 shall not be able to complete the pruning of the whole 
 in February, rather than go beyond that time it will 
 be better to anticipate it, by pruning the fruit-branches 
 before winter, and leaving the rest until February. 
 
42 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 It will in every case be necessary, in pruning, to 
 follow the order of vegetation of the different species, 
 pruning first the apricots, next the peaches, plums, 
 cherries, pears, apples, and lastly the vines. 
 
 Summer Pruning. The operations of summer 
 pruning are practised while vegetation is entire ; but 
 the precise moment can only be determined by the 
 actual state of vegetation of the parts of the tree that 
 require pruning. In order to describe these indications 
 with greater clearness, and to avoid useless repetition, 
 we shall defer our remarks on this head until we 
 come to apply these operations to the various species 
 of fruit trees of which we have to speak. 
 
 INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED FOR PRUNING. 
 
 The pruning-knife (fig. 29) is the oldest and best of 
 the instruments employed in pruning. The blade 
 should be sufficiently curved, but not so much as to . 
 form a right angle, for in that case it would be as 
 difficult to cut with as if the blade were nearly straight. 
 The haft should be large enough to fill the hand. It 
 is requisite to be provided with two knives, a very 
 strong one for winter pruning, and the other much 
 smaller for summer operations. 
 
 It has been proposed to substitute the sector (fig. 30) 
 or pruning shears for the pruning-knife. The sector 
 offers the advantage of effecting its work more promptly 
 than the knife, but it flattens the wood at the point of 
 section, detaches the bark for a short distance below 
 the place, and the end of the branch withers instead of 
 healing ; the injury often extends below the terminal 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 
 
 43 
 
 bud, which, is thus destroyed. To obviate this, it is 
 necessary to cut about half-an-inch above the bud ; 
 
 Fig. 29. Pruning-Knife. 
 
 Fig. 30. Sector. 
 
 this leaves a short piece of dried branch which it is 
 necessary to cut off the following year, which unneces- 
 sarily multiplies the operations. The knife is, in our 
 opinion, the better instrument. If, however, we some- 
 times use the sector, we should place it in such a 
 manner upon the branch as to cut away nearly all the 
 part injured by the pressure. 
 
 The operator should also provide himself with a 
 small hand-saw (fig. 1, page 2). 
 
 METHOD OF PRUNING. 
 
 The manner of cutting the branches is far from 
 being unimportant. If we wish to shorten a branch 
 (fig. 31), we make the amputation as near as possible 
 to a bud, but not so near as to injure it. We place 
 
44 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 the pruning-knife exactly opposite the bud, and cut in 
 a slanting direction, in the line A B, coming out a 
 little above the bud. By this means the bud remains 
 uninjured, and the part more readily buds. 
 
 If we cut higher than this point, in the line A B 
 (fig. 32), the wood dies down to the line C, leaving a 
 little dried stump, which has to be cut off the following 
 year. If we follow the line A B (fig. 33), the bud is 
 weakened, and its development will be much less 
 vigorous. 
 
 When it is desired to cut away a branch entirely, 
 the cut is made quite at the base, always leaving, how- 
 
 Fxg. 31. Cut for 1 Fig. 32. branch cut I Fig. 33. branch Fig. 34 Complete sup- 
 branch in pruning I too far from the bud | cut too slanting pression of branch. 
 
 ever, a very small stump, A (fig. 34). "We thus make 
 a smaller wound, and it heals more rapidly than if it 
 had been cut closer to the stem. 
 
 If a branch is too large to be cut with the knife, and 
 the saw has to be applied, it will be necessary to plane 
 or smooth off the rough part left by the saw, otherwise 
 the place will heal badly. If the parts that have been 
 cut are large, it will be desirable to cover with the 
 grafting mastic. 
 
THE PEAR. 45 
 
 THE PEAE. 
 
 Soil. The pear takes a deep clayey flinty soil, ratlier 
 cool, but not humid. In every case where this is not 
 the native character of the soil, it must be made so by 
 the mixture of other materials, and by digging to at 
 least a yard in depth. If the under soil is too damp, it 
 must be properly drained. 
 
 Choice of Trees. If the pears be taken from the 
 nursery ready grafted, choose healthy vigorous trees of 
 one, or at least of two years' grafting. More aged ones 
 than these take root less freely, and their vegetation is 
 always retarded. The stocks might be planted in the 
 nursery for grafting them the year following, and plant- 
 ing them out where they are to remain the next year. 
 
 Grafting. Pears are most frequently grafted upon 
 pear stocks obtained by sowing the pepins ; they are 
 also grafted upon quince stocks. The first produces 
 the most vigorous and durable trees, but the quince 
 stocks more rapidly come to fruit-bearing. 
 
 We prefer pear stocks for dry and rather poor soils, 
 and quince for ground of richer and better quality. 
 The varieties that have a less vigorous habit should in 
 every case be planted upon pear stocks. We point out 
 which these are in the list on page 47. 
 
46 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 The grafts to be employed are, the shield graft or 
 budding, the English cleft graft, and the protected 
 crown graft. The shield graft or budding must be 
 practised in August, on young wood of the current 
 year's growth ; the crown and cleft grafts are used for 
 more advanced trees, or to replace a shield graft that 
 does not grow. The crown graft mutilates the tree 
 less than cleft grafting. 
 
 Varieties. "We are acquainted at the present time 
 with more than five hundred varieties of pears. But 
 the whole of them are far from being equally valuable. 
 We shall here point out only some of the best for each 
 month of the year, and place opposite to each name 
 certain directions necessary to their culture. The 
 names in italics indicate the principal synonymes. 
 
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 s 
 * 
 
 N* 
 
 ftd 
 
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 II 
 
 P o 
 
 11 
 
 fl 3 
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 OQ02 
 
 "- 
 
 ; re- 
 warf 
 
 imb 
 11 a 
 
 i! iH 
 
 .^1 Us 
 
 oyenn 
 Roi J 
 
 .2 
 
 1 -5 
 IP 
 
 II 
 w 
 
 rt 
 
 II 
 1^ 
 g^ 
 
 PQ 
 
 .2-s 
 
 it 
 
 at 
 p^ 
 s< 
 
 Fon 
 n O 
 sou 
 qui 
 
 ^ s 
 
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 IS 
 
 3,3 
 
 P 
 
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 gj 
 
 P 
 
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 p) 
 
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 $ s 
 
 isi 
 
 2 g-5 1 
 
 t t! 
 
 p p o 
 
 03 -<!> 
 
 HI 
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 *3S 
 
 52; 52; 
 
 OQ 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 
 
 W 
 
 H H H H H H 
 
 ^jO vcS^TS pq,a 6DT3 ^ xo ~ 
 >^ g~?> o.S "S^fefc 
 
 14 Illl I 
 
 g-1 gfii^^ 
 
 - '- 
 
 lil 
 
 111 
 
 s ^ 
 
 Is 51 
 
 ?s 
 
 g I ss 
 
 ft ? 
 
 gK) p^ 
 
 P5 P 
 
fc fc 
 
 W H H H 
 
 W W 
 
 -2 -S 
 
 IllliJ 
 
 l!i!S.r 
 
 ? * -i .k C s 
 
 g^f?^6^ 
 
 PQ 
 
Li -a 
 
 It 
 
 II 
 
 O2 GQ CQ 
 
 - - 
 
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 3 fH H H W 
 a -a ra ^ 13 
 
 00 00 02 00 
 
 B & fe 
 
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 II 
 
 i* I B 
 
 il 
 
 11 
 
 -S ^Ci3 
 ^04, 
 
 s ft s 
 
 1^1. 
 
 | lllS 
 ,e<l gooS^ 
 
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 5* >< 
 
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 R x. 
 
 E- P 
 
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 C -s ^ -^ I I 
 
 bCxa O 8 r3 ^ 
 
 1111 1111 
 
THE PEAK. 
 
 51 
 
 The following is a list of pears selected from a great 
 variety grown by the editor. They are all suitable 
 for the midland and north-midland counties ; they bear 
 well and ripen to perfection, which is not the case with 
 many of the French and Flemish pears. The late- 
 ripening pears depend much on climate and situation. 
 
 111? 
 
 S-jtK CD 03 
 
 la 
 
 8 i, 57! o x 
 &o^f H O'i>c3&OjLia>-< 
 
 ,?nmsu- 
 
 
 III 
 
 _ 
 
 l! 
 
 ^^ <u Q) O 
 
 SS 53S 3S33338" I 1 !! I 
 
 5 ^ : i 1 ; ei 
 
 iljHini 
 
 !S 
 
 
 <OQP-1> 
 
 illllllli' 
 
 ,^^133^030 
 
 
 p '43 g p 'g 
 
 |gh5 I 
 
 Slllla 1^.1 
 III 
 
52 THE PEAK. 
 
 TRAINING AND PRUNING OF PEAR TREES. 
 
 The pear is cultivated both as a standard and espalier. 
 The forms in which it may be trained are various ; 
 but what we shall now consider are the following : full 
 standards, the pyramid or cone, the vase or goblet, the 
 column, the double contra-espalier in vertical cordon, 
 and tall standards ; for espaliers, the Yerrier palmette, 
 the simple oblique cordon, and vertical cordon. These 
 forms are the most simple and easily obtained ; they 
 are suitable for the places most frequently assigned to 
 the pear, and trees submitted to these forms are durable 
 and fertile. 
 
 TRAINING OF A PEAR TREE IN PYRAMIDAL FORM. 
 
 In this operation we shall consider separately the 
 formation of the wood and of the fruit-branches. 
 
 Formation of the Wood. A tree trained in this form 
 (fig. 35) is composed of a vertical stem furnished from 
 the top downwards, to a foot above the soil, with lateral 
 branches, the length of which should increase down to 
 the base. Each lateral branch should have an interval 
 of twelve inches between it and the branch immediately 
 above, allowing the light to penetrate between them. 
 They should be kept free from bifurcations and furnished 
 with fruit - branches alone, from end to end, and form 
 an angle with the horizon of 25 degrees at the most. 
 In general, the widest diameter of the pyramid should 
 equal the third part of its height ; if the height be six 
 
THE PEAR. 
 
 53 
 
 Fig. 35.-Pyramidal Pear Tree. 
 
54 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 yards, then the diameter should be two yards at its 
 widest part. 
 
 In soils of medium fertility, trees of this form and 
 size are planted ten or eleven feet apart, so that the 
 light may act equally upon their entire circumference. 
 
 Young trees are not submitted to their first pruning 
 until the second year after they have been planted. 
 If performed earlier, the pruning takes away too many 
 of the branches, and the quantity of leaves that they 
 should develop is too much diminished. As it is the 
 leaves which cause the roots to extend themselves, 
 these are less developed, and the growth of buds, 
 which the early pruning was intended to promote, will 
 be feeble, poor, and insufficient to form a foundation 
 for the wood-branches of the tree. "When the pruning 
 is not performed until the following year, the tree forms 
 new roots, and when the greater part of the branches 
 come to be pruned away, the sap which the roots now 
 supply in great abundance, reacts with force upon the 
 buds that are reserved upon the tree, and a greater 
 length of wood is obtained, during a single summer, 
 than would be obtained in two years by the former 
 method. Time is gained, and the tree is in a more 
 favourable condition for giving the desired direction 
 and growth to the wood. Nevertheless, as the roots of 
 young trees are more or less damaged by deplantation, 
 it is necessary to cut away a portion of the wood in 
 order to re-establish a proper equilibrium with the 
 roots. The suppression of a third of the length of the 
 most vigorous branches will generally be sufficient. 
 
 This rule applies to all fruit trees, except peaches, of 
 
THE PEAT?. 
 
 55 
 
 which we shall speak further on. There is no excep- 
 tion save in the very rare case when the tree has been 
 transplanted with all its roots entire, and the roots have 
 not been dried in any degree by the action of the air 
 before being again placed in the earth. In this case 
 only should we apply the first pruning the same year 
 that the tree is transplanted. 
 
 First Pruning. This operation is intended to pro- 
 mote the development of the first lateral branches, 
 which ought to grow from the stem, from about a foot 
 above the ground. In order that these branches be 
 
 V 
 
 Fig. 36. Two Years' Graft. 
 First Pruning. 
 
 Fig. 37. Three Years' Graft. 
 First Pruning. 
 
 sufficiently vigorous, especially those growing at the 
 base, it will be necessary to develop only six or eight 
 at a time. For this purpose the stem of the young 
 tree is cut at about 20 inches above the ground, at A, 
 
56 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 fig. 36. The terminal bud reserved at the top should 
 be on the side opposite to that on which the graft has 
 been placed upon the stock at B, in order to maintain 
 the perpendicular direction of the stem. 
 
 This mode applies to young trees taken from the 
 nursery, whether of two or three years' grafting, as 
 shown by figures 36 and 37. 
 
 In the latter instance, whatever lateral branches 
 have grown upon the stem below the cut are taken off 
 very close to the stem, leaving always the small founda- 
 tion of the branch upon the stem. 
 
 If, while the young trees have stood in the nursery, 
 they have received such attention that the base of the 
 stem is already provided with a sufficient number of 
 lateral branches (fig. 38), such as we would wish to 
 obtain as the results of the first pruning, we apply to 
 them the operations described further on for the second 
 pruning, but always one year after transplantation. 
 It is essential to guard against their bearing fruit at 
 this early period, or they will be debilitated. 
 
 During the summer which follows the first pruning, 
 all the buds develop vigorously. When they have 
 obtained a length of four or five inches, we disbud, 
 that is, cut off all the buds from the lower part of the 
 stem to a foot from the ground. From among the 
 buds situated above that point, we reserve six or more 
 of those most regularly placed, but only one at each 
 point. The terminal bud must be maintained in its 
 place by means of a " tutor," or small support fixed at 
 the top of the stem. 
 
 Watch carefully that the lateral buds maintain an 
 
THE PEAR. 
 
 57 
 
 equal degree of vigour. If one of them lias grown too 
 long, as shown A (fig. 39), its vegetation must be 
 checked by pinching, that is, by taking off about two- 
 
 Fig. 38. Pyramidal Pear. 
 Second Pruning. 
 
 Fig. 39. Stem of Pyramidal Pear. 
 Pinching. 
 
 thirds of an inch from the extremity with the finger 
 nails. 
 
 Second Pruning. By spring of the following year 
 the young trees present the appearance of fig. 38. The 
 second pruning is to determine the formation of a new 
 
 D 3 
 
58 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 series of lateral branches, and to promote the extension 
 of those previously obtained. The new branches should 
 be as numerous as those of the preceding year, and 
 commence about twelve inches above the first. We 
 obtain this result by cutting the terminal shoot a*bout 
 sixteen inches (fig. 38) above its spring. We choose 
 again for the terminal bud one on the opposite side to 
 that from which the branch springs that it grows upon. 
 
 The lateral branches previously obtained must be 
 pruned in such a manner as to transform them finally 
 into fruit-branches. But only so much of the branches 
 must be cut away as is necessary to obtain that result, 
 otherwise it will diminish too much the vigour required 
 by the branches to secure their continued growth. The 
 buds which spring from these lateral branches develop 
 themselves too vigorously if not sufficiently pruned, and 
 will with difficulty be put into fruit-bearing condition. 
 The degree of pruning to be applied to them must vary 
 according to the position of the branches upon the stem 
 of the tree. Those near to the ground must be left 
 longer, in order to favour their development. Thus, 
 towards the base, only a third part of the length must 
 be pruned off, and half of those next above them, and 
 finally, three-fourths of the length of those highest up 
 on the tree. Figure 38 explains this operation. 
 
 The bud over which we effect the section of the 
 lateral branch should be upon the outside of the tree 
 (A, fig. 40), in order that the shoot which springs from 
 it may follow naturally in the oblique ascent of the 
 other branches. The only exception to this is, when 
 the proper bud is situated too close to the neighbouring 
 
THE PEAR. 
 
 59 
 
 ones right and left. In this case select a bud a little 
 sideways of the one that would otherwise be chosen. 
 
 If during the preceding summer some of the lateral 
 branches have been imperfectly developed, which takes 
 place occasionally towards the base of the tree, it will 
 be necessary to prune them but little, or leave them 
 entire, in order to impart to them their proper vigour. 
 If these branches be only half the length of the others, 
 it will be well to make an incision on the outside of 
 the main stem, immediately above the spring of the 
 
 Fig. 40. Terminal Bud to prolong a 
 Lateral Branch. 
 
 Fig. 41. Incisions. 
 
 branch A, as shown at A, fig. 41. The incision should 
 penetrate the exterior wood of the tree, sever the sap 
 vessels which press on that side, and thus compel the 
 sap to develop the branch. The cut should be made 
 with a fine hand-saw, in order that it may heal up 
 less rapidly. If the bud on which we reckoned to form 
 
60 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 one of the lateral branches remains dormant, the in- 
 cision will be still more indispensable (B, fig. 41). 
 
 When, on the contrary, a branch shall have ac- 
 quired, notwithstanding pinching, a disproportionate 
 development, it must be cut shorter than the others ; 
 if the difference in size between it and the other 
 branches be excessive, an incision must be made like 
 the one shown at C (fig. 41), immediately below its 
 point of attachment to the stem. This will greatly 
 diminish the action of the sap. 
 
 During the summer which follows the second 
 pruning, apply the operation of disbudding to the 
 terminal branch, the same as that made upon the 
 young stem during the first year. This must be done 
 so as to leave only six or eight well-placed buds, for 
 forming a second series of lateral branches. Also pinch 
 off the herbaceous extremities of the terminal buds 
 upon the side branches, in order to maintain between 
 them an equal degree of vigour. Be careful that the 
 lateral buds towards the end of the branch do not 
 become too vigorous, and overgrow the terminal one, 
 which ought always to maintain its superiority. 
 
 Third Pruning. In the following spring the tree 
 presents the aspect of the figure 42. 
 
 The terminal branch extension is cut in the same 
 proportion as in the preceding year. The extensions 
 of the lateral branches of two years' growth are cut 
 back also in the same proportion as before. The lateral 
 branches developed during the preceding summer are 
 cut shorter, in order to favour the growth of the lower 
 branches. It must be borne in mind that these direc- 
 
THE PEAR. 61 
 
 tions may be modified by particular circumstances, 
 indicated at the time of the second pruning, and that 
 the use of incisions must be resorted to in the cases 
 before specified. 
 
 Fig. 42. Third Pruning of the Pyramidal Pear. 
 
 The summer operations are the same as after the 
 second year's pruning. 
 
 Fourth Pruning. Figure 43 indicates the changes 
 that the tree has experienced during the preceding 
 summer. 
 
 The fourth pruning differs from the others in several 
 particulars. We allow to the new extensions of the 
 lower branches only half the length of former pruning, 
 because they are on the point of attaining the limit 
 beyond which they must not be allowed to grow ; be- 
 sides which, they have now attained a size which will 
 enable them to maintain their proper vigour. 
 
62 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 We allow to the new branch extensions of the 
 second series two-thirds of their length, and suppress 
 the half or three- fourths of the length of the upper 
 branches. These various ramifications are cut a little 
 
 Fig. 43. Fourth Pruning of the Pyramidal Pear. 
 
 longer than before, because the lower branches have 
 now less need of protection, and it is time to com- 
 mence giving to the tree its pyramidal form. The 
 new terminal shoot is treated the same as in preceding 
 years. 
 
 During the following summer, we observe the same 
 
THE PEAR. 63 
 
 treatment as in preceding ones ; but as the lower 
 branches have now almost attained their proper length, 
 it will be necessary to restrain the further growth by 
 
 Fig. 44. Fifth Pruning of the Pyramidal Pear. 
 
 pinching off the terminal shoots that have acquired a 
 length of ten or twelve inches. The sap will, by this 
 means, be forced back, to the benefit of the higher parts 
 of the tree. 
 
 Fifth Pruning. The tree now shows somewhat of 
 
64 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 its intended proportions (fig. 44), the lower branches 
 being inclined a little by their own weight, the tree 
 assumes its pyramidal shape. The pruning does not 
 differ from preceding years, only that the inferior 
 branches having now attained their intended length, 
 we cut their new extensions quite close. The other 
 branch extensions should be all cut following the line 
 A B (fig. 44). The summer operations are the same as 
 the preceding year. 
 
 Sixth Priming. This does not differ from the fifth, 
 only as the lateral branches lengthen they increase in 
 weight, and hang down too much towards the ground 
 on the neighbouring branches, and must be brought 
 into their first direction again, by means of strings or 
 supports, so that the space between each may always 
 remain equal. The same treatment is carried on until 
 the twelfth year, at which time the tree presents the 
 aspect of figure 35. 
 
 If there is still sufficient earth for the roots to extend 
 themselves further, the tree will still have a tendency 
 to increase its size, and this may be turned to advan- 
 tage. Allow the terminal shoots and the lateral 
 branches to extend themselves afresh, but in such a 
 manner as to preserve the proportion between the 
 height and the diameter, as before directed. 
 
 OBTAINING AND MAINTAINING FRUIT-BRANCHES. 
 
 All that we have hitherto said has related to the 
 formation of the wood of the tree. We shall now de- 
 
THE PEAR. 65 
 
 scribe the operations that promote the growth of fruit- 
 branches, and the care and treatment they require. 
 
 The fruit-branches of pepin fruits that have been 
 regularly pruned every year, ought now to be growing 
 upon the entire length of every branch without inter- 
 ruptions. In open standards the fruit-branches ought 
 to occupy the entire circumference of the tree. In 
 espaliers the only part without them is that against the 
 wall. The fruit-branches are generally constituted 
 towards the end of the third year following their first 
 development. If this result is obtained earlier, it indi- 
 cates a diseased or enfeebled condition in the part of 
 the tree where they grow. 
 
 The fruit-branches are kept as short as possible, that 
 the fruits may be close to the principal branches ; they 
 will then receive the most direct action of the sap, and 
 become larger than if placed at a further distance from 
 its source. We shall now explain how these different 
 results are to be obtained. 
 
 First Year. Fruit-branches are developed from the 
 less vigorous buds upon the wood-branches. In order 
 to obtain a continued series of fruit-buds upon the 
 entire length of a branch extension, it is necessary to 
 cut back a little of the branch, otherwise the wood-buds 
 on one part, towards the base, will remain undeveloped. 
 We have already given directions, p. 39, as to the 
 length that the branch extensions should be cut back 
 according to their degree of inclination. 
 
 Suppose the pruning has been duly performed upon 
 the branch extension (fig. 45), by the beginning of 
 May the branch will be covered with buds upon its 
 
66 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 entire length (fig. 46). The vigour of the buds will 
 be greatest as they approach the highest part of the 
 branch, and those quite at the extremity will, unless 
 arrested, acquire a great development. Now, it is only 
 
 Fig. 45. Wood Branch Extension. 
 
 the weak buds that become fruit- spurs ; it is, therefore, 
 important to diminish their vigour. This result is 
 
 Fig. 46. Wood-Branch Extension. 
 
 obtained by pinching. As soon as the buds intended 
 to form fruit-branches have attained a length of about 
 four inches, they must be pinched off with the nails 
 (fig. 47). In performing this operation some pinch off 
 too much, leaving two or three leaves only towards the 
 base (fig. 48). Two inconveniences may follow: very 
 
THE PEAR. 
 
 67 
 
 soon the fragment of the shoot ceases to grow, and 
 after the fall of the leaves all that remains is a small 
 stump without any buds (fig. 49), which dries up and 
 
 Fig. 47. Bud rightly pinched. 
 
 dies, leaving a vacant place the following year. This 
 occurs most frequently upon certain varieties of pears, 
 which do not produce any eyes near the base of the 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 Buds pinched too far back, and the Result in different Stages of Growth. 
 
 branches; such as the Bon-chretien d'Hiver, the 
 Beurre Magnifique or Beurre Diel, the Doyenne, &c. 
 Sometimes there appear, a year or two after this ex- 
 cessive pinching, two buds placed on each side the 
 
68 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 lower end of the suppressed shoot (fig. 50), which, in 
 three years more, become flower-buds. The vacant 
 part is then filled up, but at least a year is lost in the 
 formation of flower-buds. At other times, when the 
 lower leaves of the suppressed shoot have eyes at their 
 base, those eyes give place to so many premature buds 
 immediately after this excessive pinching (fig. 51). 
 These premature shoots do not become well-constituted 
 branches, and set for fruit less freely than branches 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 produced from shoots pinched in the proper manner, 
 that is, leaving to them a length of two or three inches 
 (fig. 47). 
 
 Each of the branch extensions of the wood is fur- 
 nished with a bud so favourably situated, as regards 
 the action of the sap (A, fig. 45), that the repeated 
 pinchings to which we may submit the shoot which it 
 produces, diminish its vigour very slightly, and it 
 always produces a too vigorous shoot. It will be better 
 to treat such in the following manner : When it has 
 obtained a length of about three inches, cut it off at 
 the base, leaving only a very small portion of the 
 lower end (A, fig. 53). The two supplementary buds, 
 
THE PEAR. 
 
 69 
 
 which accompany the primary one (C, fig. 52), give 
 place almost immediately to two small shoots much 
 less strong than the one suppressed (fig. 53). We 
 pinch off the most vigorous of the two, and the one 
 that is reserved (which must also be pinched if neces- 
 sary) gives place to a small branch which easily sets 
 for fruit. 
 
 Fig. 52. Side Buds. 
 
 Fig. 53. Side Buds after removal 
 of principal Bud. 
 
 i'ig. 54. Pinched Shoot with 
 new Shoot D. 
 
 The first pinching is generally sufficient to arrest 
 the too rapid growth of the shoots. The most vigorous, 
 however, will often produce an anticipative bud towards 
 their summit (D, fig. 54). These also must be pinched 
 when they have attained a length of three or four 
 inches. 
 
 If some shoots have been neglected until they have 
 attained a length of eight or twelve inches or more, it 
 
70 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 will then be too late to pinch them. If, indeed, we 
 then cut them off at four inches from their base, we 
 should see all the eyes situated at the base of the 
 leaves, that we wished to form into flower-buds, develop 
 themselves under the action of the sap, which has set 
 in to flow to that part, into anticipative buds, which all 
 at once find themselves in too strait bounds. It will 
 be better, therefore, to submit these neglected buds to 
 twisting, at about four inches from their base, B A, as 
 shown at fig. 55, and to pinch off their tops. It will 
 
 Fig. 55. Shoot submitted to 
 Twisting. 
 
 Fig. 56. Small Shoot near the 
 lower end of the Extension. 
 
 follow from this double operation that the development 
 of these buds will be arrested, and the eyes at the base 
 will advance without pushing forward into anticipative 
 buds. 
 
 Such is the treatment required by shoots intended to 
 become fruit-branches, during the summer of their first 
 development. It is seen that the whole of these opera- 
 tions are not to be practised at once. The proper 
 time for each is indicated by the different stages of 
 growth, and this treatment should be followed during 
 nearly the entire period of vegetation. 
 
 Second Year. In consequence of the various opera- 
 tions that we have described, the shoots which grow 
 
THE PEAK. 71 
 
 upon the branch extensions (take for example figs. 45 
 and 46) have given place to a series of small branches, 
 which are less vigorous as they approach the lower 
 end of the branch. During the succeeding winter, a 
 mode of treatment must be pursued to be regulated by 
 the degree of vigour of the shoots, the end in view 
 being to fatigue and enfeeble the branches, and by 
 this means hasten their fruit-bearing. 
 
 The buds situated towards the lower third of the 
 extension (fig. 46) have grown slightly and become 
 very short branches, resembling fig. 56. We perform 
 
 Fig. 57 Small Shoot in the middla * Fig-. 58. Pinched 
 
 of Extension. Branch. 
 
 no operation upon these ; they will transform them- 
 selves into fruit-branches. 
 
 The shoots upon the middle third portion of the 
 extension (fig. 46) are rather more grown, and resemble 
 fig. 57, and are called dards (darts). Nothing further 
 is to be done to them. 
 
 Lastly, towards the upper third part of the exten- 
 sion (fig. 46) the shoots have pushed out with more 
 vigour, but they have been submitted to pinching or 
 
(4 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 twisting. 'These have given place to the following 
 series of shoots : The less vigorous, or of medium 
 vigour, resemble those of fig. 58. These are broken 
 off at A, about three inches from their base, and 
 immediately below a bud. The fracture fatigues the 
 branch by producing a contused and torn place. There 
 is then less probability that the lower buds will 
 develop into vigorous shoots ; the small piece left 
 above the upper bud will still further favour the set 
 to fruit by allowing the sap to expend part of its 
 action upon the issue at the end of the branch. 
 
 The other more vigorous branches, that have been 
 repeatedly pinched during the summer, now resemble 
 fig. 59. These should receive the partial fracture (B), 
 as shown in the figure. If broken completely, the 
 sap, being more abundant than in the other shoots, 
 would be confined in too narrow limits, and make the 
 lower buds, that should set for fruit, push out into 
 vigorous shoots. The partial fracture affords a suffi- 
 cient issue for the sap, while enough is retained to 
 enable the lower buds to develop a rosette of leaves. 
 
 The shoots that have been twisted during the pre- 
 ceding summer, present the appearance of fig. 60. 
 They must be submitted to the complete fracture at A, 
 if they are of less or medium vigour, or to A and 
 complete at B if very vigorous. 
 
 The branches we have now spoken of are the only 
 ones that ought to be found upon the extension, fig. 
 46, if the operations of pinching and twisting have 
 been duly performed in the preceding summer. But 
 it may happen that some of the shoots have been 
 
THE PEAR. 73 
 
 neglected, and grown to a length of twelve or eighteen 
 inches, and are more or less thick. These shoots are 
 called brindilks. If let alone, these may set for fruit ; 
 but as they spring from the summit of the extension, 
 their situation is unfavourable to their development; 
 besides, such long fruit-branches produce confusion in 
 
 Fig. 59. Branch pinched several Times. Fig. 60. Twisted Branch. 
 
 the tree, and should be shortened. They may be 
 broken completely at four inches from their base, at 
 C, fig. 61, if of feeble or medium vigour ; if more 
 vigorous, they may be completely broken eight inches 
 from their base, and partially at four inches (fig. 62). 
 If these branches possess extraordinary vigour, they 
 assume the character of gourmand branches, and may 
 readily be transformed into fruit-branches by placing 
 a Girardin side graft at their base, and cutting the 
 branch off above the graft at the winter pruning. 
 
 E 
 
74 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 Third Tear. During the summer that has followed 
 these operations, and in consequence of them, the 
 branches have produced the following results : 
 
 The minute branches situated near the base of the 
 
 Fig. 61. Twig of medium Vigour. Fig. 62. Vigorous Twig fractured Twice. 
 
 extension (fig. 56) have only developed a rosette of 
 leaves, having a bud in the centre, and have increased 
 a very little in length. Their appearance after vege- 
 tation, as shown by fig. 63, is that of a bud very 
 thick at the upper part. This bud will expand its 
 flowers in spring. These minute branches, which are 
 in the third year of their formation, now become fruit- 
 spurs.* 
 
 The dards (fig. 57) have developed two or three very 
 short buds, which have produced minute branches, as 
 shown at fig. 64. So also have the branches submitted 
 
 * French name, lambourdes. 
 
THE TEAR. 75 
 
 to complete or partial fracture (figs. 58, 59, 60, 61, 
 and 62) ; two or three of their buds have pushed 
 
 Tig. 63. Small Branch trans- Fig. 64. Small Two Years' 
 
 formed into a Fruit-Spur. Shoot. 
 
 forward into small shoots, and produced other small 
 branches extremely minute (figs. 65, 66, and 67). 
 
 . to. Shoot completely Fig. 66. Shoot partially 
 
 Fractured. Fractured. 
 
 If, during the summer, the bud situated towards the 
 end of the branch has grown into a slightly vigorous 
 shoot, it must be pinched down to four inches (A, fig. 
 67). There is no further operation to be applied to 
 these various productions during the second winter. 
 
 E 2 
 
76 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 Fourth Tear. During the third summer, the fruit- 
 spur, shown at fig. 63, has fructified. It has formed, 
 
 Fig. 68. Fruit-Spur after 
 first Fructification. 
 
 Fig< 67. Shoot doubly Fractured. Fig. 69. Fruit-Spur with small Branch. 
 
 at the point where the fruit grew, and its accompanying 
 rosette of leaves, a kind of spongy swelling, shown at 
 figs. 68 and 69, called a purse (bourse). We observe, 
 besides, certain buds borne upon very short branches 
 springing from the leaf-roots of the purse. These 
 become flower-buds in the course of two or three years. 
 Sometimes one of the eyes growing at the leaf-roots 
 develops itself into a vigorous shoot. It must be 
 pinched to four inches. The small branch, which is 
 the result of this (A, fig. 69), must then receive the 
 complete fracture at C. The only further care to be 
 applied to the purses consists in cutting off the top, 
 
THE PEAR. 77 
 
 which is now in a state of decomposition, at A (fig. 
 68), or atB (fig. 69). 
 
 The dards have extended their small branches and 
 grown a little longer ; the small flower-bud at the end 
 is about to expand, and will give place to a purse, like 
 fig. 68. The same treatment must be observed as 
 
 Fig. 70. Small Three Years' Branch, Fig. 71. Small Branch Two Years after 
 bearing Fruit-Spurs. Fracture, bearing Fruit-Spurs. 
 
 directed in the former case, at the period of winter 
 pruning. 
 
 The fractured branches (fig. 65) also bear flower-buds 
 (fig. 71). The time has arrived to cut off at D, fig. 71, 
 the little extension left at the end of the branch. The 
 purses that they will produce must also receive the 
 treatment before described. Lastly, the branches sub- 
 mitted to partial fracture (figs. 66 and 67) also bear 
 small fruit-spurs (figs. 72 and 73). These branches 
 may be cut back at A, for the flower-buds being formed, 
 there is no longer danger of the sap being restrained 
 in too confined limits, nor of the branches pushing out 
 into vigorous but unproductive shoots. 
 
 Maintaining the Fruit-Branches m Bearing Condition. 
 As we have already stated, the fruit- spurs (fig. 68), 
 
78 
 
 FRVIT TREES. 
 
 which, have fructified, may produce new flower-buds 
 two or three years afterwards, the fruit-spur having 
 ramified, as shown at fig. 74. So also will each of the 
 small fruit-spurs situated upon the branches of which 
 
 Fig. 72. Two Years' Branch after partial Fig-. 73. Two Years' Branch after 
 Fracture, bearing Fruit-Si. urs. double Fracture, bearing Fruit-Spurs. 
 
 we have spoken above. In six years after their first 
 fructification, each of these fruit- spurs will be con- 
 stituted as shown at fig. 75. If the fruit-spurs have 
 not been injured during their development, and the 
 tree is sufliciently vigorous, they will, after a certain 
 time, present the appearance of fig. 76. The question 
 now arises, ought we to allow them to continue to 
 increase in this manner to an indefinite extent ? If so, 
 the fruits will soon grow at too great a distance from 
 
THE PEAR. 79 
 
 their principal branch, and receive an insufficient 
 supply of sap, the action of which will be further 
 restrained by the numerous little ramifications it will 
 have to traverse before reaching the fruit. Besides, 
 such a development of fruit-spurs produces much con- 
 
 rig. 74.- Six Years' Fruit-Spur. Fig. 75. Eight or Ten Years' Fruit-Spur. 
 
 fusion throughout the tree, prevents the light from 
 penetrating, and confines fructification to the ends of 
 the outside branches. If the fruit-spurs are allowed 
 to grow in this way it will be necessary to greatly 
 diminish the number of wood-branches, and leave large 
 vacancies in the tree. 
 
 It will thus be seen that it is necessary to restrain 
 the fruit- spurs within reasonable limits, not allowing 
 them to exceed a length of more than about two 
 inches. When, therefore, they have attained the 
 dimensions, as shown at fig. 75, they must be cut back 
 at A. The action of the sap will thus be forced back 
 towards the base, and give rise to new fruit-buds. 
 
 If the fruit- spurs have already been allowed to attain 
 too great dimensions (fig. 76), it will be necessary to 
 
80 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 reduce them very gradually ; they must be cut succes- 
 sively, first at B, the year following at C, and so on. 
 If cut immediately at D, the action of the sap being 
 too much restrained, the fruit-spurs will develop vigor- 
 ous shoots and become transformed into wood-branches. 
 
 Fig. 76. Method of Pruning an Old Fruit-Spur. 
 
 Such are the operations required to develop the fruit- 
 bearing functions of pepin fruits, and to maintain 
 them in a healthful and fruit-bearing condition. We 
 have shown that their fertility is the result of suc- 
 cessive mutilations of the wood of the lateral branches, 
 by which their vigour has been restrained and dimi- 
 nished. It must not, however, be lost sight of, that this 
 object jhas also been powerfully promoted by allowing 
 the annual extensions of the lateral branches to grow 
 to a greater length, thus opening a large outlet for the 
 sap, which thus acts with less intensity upon each of 
 the separate shoots. The pruning, almost always too 
 short, that is applied to these extensions, has the con- 
 trary effect, giving rise to shoots of such extreme 
 
THE PEAR. 81 
 
 vigour, as to require five or six years of successive 
 mutilations to transform them into fruit-bearers. 
 
 Attention to the Fruit. To complete the preceding 
 observations, it should be observed, that nothing tends 
 more to exhaust a tree and destroy the fruit-spurs 
 than allowing too great a quantity of fruit to ripen 
 upon it. It absorbs almost all the sap, and not only is 
 the formation of new fruit-buds prevented for the fol- 
 lowing year, but the existing ones are destroyed for 
 want of nourishment. The principal branches put out 
 only small, poor terminal shoots, and the roots are 
 scarcely able to put forth sufficient force to extend 
 their ramifications, so as to draw nourishment from a 
 wider zone of earth beyond that which has been im- 
 poverished by the precedent vegetation. The tree 
 then remains in a languishing and sterile condition 
 for years. The end which nature purposes to attain 
 by the fructification of fruit trees differs from the object 
 that we have in view. Nature only seeks the pro- 
 duction of the largest quantity of seeds, irrespective of 
 the pulp of the fruit, in order to promote in the 
 greatest degree the multiplication of the individual 
 species. The object we strive to attain is the largest 
 quantity of pulpy material, without regard to seeds. 
 The quantity of seeds is in proportion to the number 
 of the fruits ; the larger the number, the less pulpy 
 are they, and their quality is, in an equal degree, 
 deteriorated. 
 
 It is therefore of the greatest importance to suppress 
 the superabundant fruits, in order to regulate the crop 
 and improve the quality. We lose in number, truly, 
 
 E 3 
 
82 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 but have an equal weight, for the fruit retained in- 
 creases by means of the sap of those suppressed. As 
 to the proportion of the fruit to be retained, the fol- 
 lowing rule should be observed : The number of fruits 
 allowed to ripen should equal about the fourth of the 
 number of all the fruit-branches. The suppression 
 must only be made when nature has made her choice, 
 that is, when the fruits have attained about one-fourth 
 of their development. 
 
 TRAINING OF THE PEAR IN YASE OR GOBLET FORM. 
 
 Trees in the pyramidal form are, in some situations, 
 liable to injury from high winds. When that is the 
 case, the vase or goblet form may be substituted. But 
 it is not otherwise to be preferred, for it requires as 
 much room as the pyramid form, and does not present 
 so great a fruit-bearing surface. 
 
 Trees in vase form should have a diameter of about 
 six feet six inches (and an equal height), so that the 
 solar rays may act upon the whole interior surface of 
 the vase. An interval of twelve inches should be left 
 between each of the branches. Supposing the tree to be 
 20 feet in circumference, there should be about twenty 
 branches at the base, from which to form the tree. 
 
 The branches may either be trained vertically, or 
 made to cross each other alternately right to left, fol- 
 lowing an angle of 30 degrees, as shown in fig. 77. We 
 consider the latter form preferable. The sap acts more 
 equally throughout the entire extent of the branches, 
 
THE PEAR. 
 
 83 
 
 which also fruit more regularly, and the tree can better 
 support itself when completely formed. 
 
 The method of proceeding to develop the wood is as 
 follows : Choose plants that have been grafted a year, 
 and apply the first pruning ; when they have been 
 
 Fig. 77. Pear trained in Vase Shape. 
 
 planted out another year, cut them down to 16 inches 
 from the ground. During the summer select five shoots, 
 and maintain an equal degree of vigour by pinching. 
 
81 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 At the second pruning cut off each of the branches to 
 16 inches from their base, above two buds growing 
 laterally, so as to make each of the branches fork ; 
 lower the branches a little, and dispose them regularly 
 round the circumference of the stem by means of a 
 hoop. During the summer equalise the vigour between 
 the ten shoots that have now been obtained. At the 
 third pruning, cut back each of the ten shoots to 12 
 inches from their base, to make them fork a second time. 
 Incline the branches again, and equalise the spaces 
 between them by means of two hoops, the uppermost 
 being the larger. Treat the twenty shoots that have 
 grown during the summer in the same manner as the 
 previous ones. At the fourth pruning, suppress only 
 the third of the length of the new branches, and again 
 incline them downwards to an angle of about twenty 
 degrees, then raise the ends of the branches in a ver- 
 tical position at about three feet from the stem, and 
 keep them in that position by means of additional 
 hoops. During the summer allow only one terminal 
 bud to develop. When the time arrives for the fifth 
 operation, cross the branches at the place of their 
 second forking, directing them alternately right and 
 left, inclined to an angle of thirty degrees. Figure 78 
 shows the plan of a pear tree trained in this form, and 
 how the branches should be crossed. The new exten- 
 sions obtained during the previous summer must be 
 left entire, and so on from year to year, until the tree 
 has attained its proper size. The inclined position of 
 the branches will cause them to put forth numerous 
 shoots, each of which must be trained in a spiral direc- 
 
THE PEAR. 85 
 
 tion, to be arrested only when the tree attains a height 
 of about six or seven feet, when it will be fully formed, 
 and resemble the figure 77. 
 
 As the tree increases in height, each of the branches 
 must be grafted together by approach at each of the 
 
 Fig. 78. Plan of Fig. 77. 
 
 points where they cross. This will give great strength 
 and solidity to the tree, and enable it to dispense with 
 any other support when the wood is completely esta- 
 blished. 
 
 The fruit-branches, which are not shown on the 
 figures, are formed and kept in bearing in the same 
 manner as in pyramid trees. 
 
86 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 TRAINING OF THE PEAR TREE IN THE FORM OF A 
 COLUMN. 
 
 The two forms we have described are the most con- 
 venient, especially the pyramid. They both, however, 
 require much space, and are therefore less suited for 
 small gardens, as so few varieties can be cultivated. 
 The column form will be better adapted for small 
 gardens. This form consists of a single vertical stem, 
 growing to the height of 20 feet or more, and furnished 
 from bottom to top with fruit-branches. 
 
 The column form is not so sightly, but presents 
 several advantages ; it casts less shade, and occupies 
 less ground than pyramid trees, permits the cultivation 
 of other products in the neighbourhood, and more 
 varieties may be grown upon the same space of ground. 
 We are disposed to think, moreover, that the fruit- 
 branches form more readily, and being better exposed 
 to the action of the sun, and growing directly from the 
 main stem, are more fertile, and the fruit is generally 
 finer. But this success can only be obtained under 
 certain conditions. First, the trees must be grafted 
 upon quince stocks. If grafted upon the pear they will 
 become too vigorous, and produce only wood- branches. 
 The trees should be planted in warm, light soil, of 
 medium fertility. 
 
 The method of forming these trees is very simple. 
 At the first pruning the young stem is cut much longer 
 than for pyramid trees. The object aimed at is to 
 cover the entire length of the stem with dards or twigs, 
 and on no account with vigorous woody branches. 
 
THE PEAR. 
 
 87 
 
 During the summer all the buds may be allov/ed to 
 develop themselves freely, preserv- ^ 
 
 ing the pre-eminence to the ter- 
 minal shoot. At tho second 
 pruning, the new extension is 
 treated in the same manner ; the 
 most vigorous wood-branches of 
 the new extension developed a 
 little below the point of attach- 
 ment are cut close off; the more 
 feeble branches, and the twigs 
 below them, are broken above a 
 well-formed bud three inches from 
 their spring. Finally, the twigs 
 at the base are left entire. During 
 the summer they must be left to 
 grow without interference, except 
 to protect the terminal shoot. 
 
 At the third pruning the small 
 twigs that have grown upon the 
 lower part of the boughs cut 
 during the preceding year must 
 be broken, if more vigorous than 
 twigs ; the same must be done to 
 all the other shoots that are loo 
 vigorously developed below this 
 point. The new ramifi cations 
 growing upon the extension pruned 
 the preceding year must be treated 
 the same as the former ones, and 
 so on year after year. The re- rig. 79. Pear trained as 
 
 J Column. 
 
88 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 suit of this mode of treatment, and of the conditions 
 laid down, will be a quick formation of small branches, 
 extending from the base to the summit of the stem, 
 and covered with fruit-spurs, also some wood- shoots, 
 &c. ; these latter must be cut off every year above 
 their foundations. As these little branches will be- 
 come very numerous, and produce confusion, some of 
 them must be cut back every year, but only here and 
 there, for fear of concentrating too much the action of 
 the sap upon too small a space, and thus injuring the 
 formation of fruit-spurs. 
 
 ]\L Choppm completes his series of operations by 
 applying to the stem a number of annular incisions, 
 with the view of restraining the flow of sap in the 
 lower part of the tree, and diminishing its too great 
 vigour. The first incision is made about ten inches 
 above the graft, towards the fourth year of pruning ; 
 the other incisions must be applied from time to time 
 as required. The more vigorous the tree, the more 
 frequent and numerous the incisions. 
 
 That which most characterises this mode of pruning 
 is, that the summer operations of pinching arid disbud- 
 ding are never practised. All the shoots are allowed 
 to develop freely. If the more vigorous of them were 
 pinched off, the sap not having, as in the preceding 
 forms, a great space to run through, would be checked 
 in its course, and cause the small branchlets to shoot 
 out and become vigorous woody branches, which would 
 otherwise have remained simple twigs. 
 
THE PEAR. 89 
 
 TRAINING or PEAR TREES IN VERTICAL CORDON AS 
 DOUBLE CONTRA ESPALIERS. 
 
 Of the forms that we have already described for 
 standard pear trees, the pyramid or cone will generally 
 be found most suitable; the goblet form affords less 
 fruit for the same surface of ground occupied, and 
 is only suited for very hot, dry soils. The vase or 
 goblet form certainly offers some advantages; but it 
 has also grave inconveniences, amongst which are the 
 following : 
 
 1. The wood is not completely formed until towards 
 the twelfth year, and fruit does not appear until about 
 the fourteenth year after plantation. 
 
 2. It requires great space, and is unsuitable for small 
 gardens. 
 
 3. The training requires such great care and precise 
 observation, that few gardeners are found competent 
 for the task. 
 
 4. It is almost impossible to protect the tree from 
 spring frosts. 
 
 5. Lastly, there is an insufficient proportion between 
 the product of fruit and the ground that the tree 
 occupies. 
 
 The form we shall now describe presents none of 
 these disadvantages. 
 
 The double espaliers must be placed upon the ordi- 
 nary borders of the fruit-gardens ; the borders should 
 be about two yards wide, having a road between each 
 border of about a yard in width, running, as nearly as 
 
90 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 possible, north, and south. The figures 81, 82, 83 show 
 the details. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF FIGURES 81, 82, AND 83. 
 
 A. Posts placed 18 or 20 feet apart. 
 
 B. Galvanised iron wire. 
 
 P. Galvanised iron wire, forming a line between the two posts, 
 holding them together, and made fast to a wall. 
 
 D. Screw tightener. 
 
 E. Laths placed in front to support the stems of the trees. 
 
 F. Laths placed upon the back surface. 
 
 O. "Wires crossing the tops of the posts at right anglos made fast to 
 walls. 
 
 N. Apple trees trained in low horizontal lines. 
 
 The posts, A, should be made of resinous wood ; if 
 passed through, a solution of sulphate of copper it will 
 add to their durability ; their length should be 9 feet, 
 and about 5 inches diameter. They should be sunk in 
 the ground to a depth of 20 inches in the middle of the 
 garden border, and be from 6 to 7 yards apart from 
 each other. The galvanised iron wire (P, figs. 81 and 
 82) passes over the top of each post through a ring 
 or staple, and is fastened at each extremity to a 
 wall.* 
 
 Other galvanised wires (0, figs. 82 and 83) also pass 
 over the tops of the posts, but in a direction at right 
 angles with the first, and are also fixed to the top of 
 the walls. These wires are made tight by the screw 
 
 * If there are no walls to fasten ihe supporting wires to, the posts 
 must be somewhat stronger, and the lower post left thick and sunk 
 deeper in the ground. 
 
THE PEAR. 91 
 
 (D, figs. 81 and 82). The posts are thus solidly fixed 
 from the top to the bottom. Then extend from the 
 front and back of the two posts other iron wires 
 (B, figs. 81, 82, and 83), traversing a ring on the sides 
 of the posts. These wires have also each a screw 
 tightener. Finally, fix upon these last four wires (B) 
 on each side, a series of wood laths about an inch and a 
 half wide, and a third of an inch thick (E F, figs. 81, 
 82, and 83). Fasten the laths by a knot of fine wire, 
 12 inches apart upon the surface of the wires back and 
 front, alternately, as shown at fig. 82. 
 
 Next proceed to the planting. The trees must be 
 planted back and front, a tree against each of the 
 laths to be trained as single vertical cordon espaliers 
 (fig. 80). In the front of each of the borders, a line 
 of apple trees may be planted, to be trained in low 
 horizontal espaliers (N, figs. 83 and ] 12.) 
 
 Let us compare, for a moment, the results of this 
 new mode of training with the results of the old 
 methods. Suppose two fruit-gardens, both having 
 exactly the same extent of surface, and both equally 
 divided into borders six feet wide, separated by roads 
 40 inches in width, which is the common arrangement 
 for plantations of pyramidal trees. Let one of these 
 gardens be set apart for pyramids, and the other for 
 double contra espaliers. The total length of wood- 
 branches that we can obtain from pyramids may be set 
 down at 2,500 yards, and the contra espaliers will give 
 a length of 5,000 yards, double that of the pyramids 
 on the same extent of border. 
 
 It must be added to this that the maximum product 
 
92 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 could not be obtained from the pyramidal trees until 
 about the fourteenth year after planting, while the 
 contra espaliers would begin to bear at the sixth year 
 at latest. 
 
 These contra espaliers give, on the same quantity of 
 ground, twice the extent of wood, and 
 therefore twice the quantity of fruit com- 
 pared with the other forms of training, and 
 attain their maximum product of fruit eight 
 years sooner. 
 
 It may be objected, however, that the 
 new method will be more expensive than the 
 old forms of training. This is true, because, 
 by the old method, only one tree would be 
 required for a border, while twenty must be 
 planted on the new method. But it will be 
 a sufficient answer to this objection that 
 three years' produce would more than repay 
 the extra expense, and there would still 
 remain, to the advantage of the new method, 
 five years of more than double the crop of 
 ordinary trees before the others came into 
 full bearing. Besides, the expense may be 
 diminished about one-half ; instead of pur- 
 Fig a> -Pear cnasm g ready-grafted trees, buy young 
 cordon. stocks that may be had for a mere trifle, 
 and plant them out in the nursery; after they have 
 been grafted a year, plant them in their proper posi- 
 tions upon the border. 
 
 By following this course, the period of maximum 
 fruit-bearing will be retarded two years, but there will 
 
THE PEAR. 
 
 93 
 
 still remain six years to the advantage of the new 
 method. 
 
 Fig. 81. Elevation of Contra Espalier. 
 
 P D 
 
 1 | F ; 
 
 n 
 
 i i : 
 
 i i j 
 
 D B 
 
 fei 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W ; 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 E" E 
 
 
 
 
 ~B 
 
 Fig. 82. Plan of Fig. 81. 
 
 On a comparison of the two methods the whole 
 matter stands thus : 
 
 1. The maximum product of fruit is obtained eight 
 years earlier. 
 
94 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 2. Double the amount of produce is obtained from 
 the same extent of ground. 
 
 3. The easy way in which they may be protected 
 from the late frosts of spring. For this purpose it is 
 sufficient to place a white cloth over the espaliers, from 
 end to end, which may remain until the end of May. 
 
THE PEAR. 95 
 
 4. The wood-branches are more regularly exposed to 
 the action of the light, and better furnished with fruit- 
 branches. 
 
 5. The advantage of being able to plant a greater 
 number of varieties in a small garden, and of prolonging 
 the duration of fruit-bearing. 
 
 6. Great simplicity in the training and pruning 
 operations. 
 
 7. Lastly, the vacant spaces left by the decay of 
 some trees may be more easily filled up than in the 
 case of cone or other forms of trees. 
 
 With these advantages we do not hesitate to re- 
 commend almost the exclusive adoption of the new 
 method for pear trees in the open air. The mode of 
 forming the wood of these trees is, in all respects, the 
 same as that described further on (p. 119) for espaliers 
 in vertical cordons. 
 
 TRAINING OF PEAR TREES IN THE FORM OF 
 TERRIER'S PALMETTE. 
 
 There are many forms in which espaliers and double 
 espaliers may be trained, but the most convenient are 
 those known by the name of palmettes. 
 
 These are very simple and easy to manage, and 
 accommodate themselves to walls of various heights. 
 The best form of palmette is one we saw for the first 
 time at the district farm of Saulsaye, under the 
 management of M. Terrier, whose name we have given 
 to it. 
 
96 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
THE PEAR. 97 
 
 Trees submitted to this form of training (fig. 84) 
 are composed of a vertical stem, with a series of 
 branches growing from the sides opposite each other 
 at 12 inches apart. 
 
 These branches are at first trained horizontally, then 
 turned upwards in a vertical direction, and rise to the 
 summit of the wall. 
 
 This form is preferable on some accounts to the 
 palmette with oblique branches. 
 
 The form is more favourable to the equal distribution 
 of sap throughout the tree, and vegetation is more 
 easily and equally maintained. The method to be 
 followed in obtaining this form is as follows : 
 
 Choose for planting grafts of one year. Plant the 
 trees at such distances against the walls that each will 
 cover a surface of about 20 square yards. Suppress 
 such a proportion of the stem as is required to establish 
 an equilibrium between the tree and its roots. 
 
 First Pruning. Do not apply the first pruning until 
 the trees have well taken root, or rather, until they 
 have been planted one year. Cut the stem at about 12 
 inches from the ground, A (fig. 85), immediately above 
 three buds, one upon each side. Two of these buds 
 will form the first lateral branches, and the highest or 
 front one the extension of the stem. 
 
 During the summer, preserve upon each of the young 
 stems the three buds only that we have just mentioned, 
 and keep them in an equal state of vigour. If one of 
 them grows faster than the other, loosen it from the 
 wall, incline it a little downwards, and raise the feebler 
 one. 
 
98 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 Second Pruning. After the fall of the leaves the 
 trees will resemble fig. 86. Cut back the two branches 
 one-third at A, in order to make them put out fresh 
 shoots, and consequently fruit-branches from end to 
 end. If one is more vigorous than the other, cut it 
 a little shorter, and leave the feeble one rather longer. 
 In pruning espaliers, the cut must always be made 
 
 Fig. 85. First Pruning 
 of Palmetto. 
 
 
 Fig. 86. Second Pruning 
 of Palmette. 
 
 above a front bud, in order that the cut part may be 
 directed towards the wall. 
 
 Cut the stem at B, about five inches above the spring 
 of the lateral branches, leaving a bud well placed for 
 forming the new extension of the stem. No more 
 lateral branches are allowed to grow during the second 
 year, in order to avoid the risk of weakening those 
 already formed, which will remain feeble if the stem 
 be lengthened too rapidly. Maintain during the fol- 
 
THE PEAR. 
 
 99 
 
 lowing summer an equal degree of vigour between the 
 new extensions of the two side branches. 
 
 Third Pruning. The year following the trees will 
 resemble figure 87. Proceed now in the following 
 manner : 
 
 Cut back the side branches the same as the first 
 year, reducing the new extension one-third. Cut the 
 stem at A, about six inches above the previous one, 
 
 Fig. 87. Third Pruning of Palmette. 
 
 and above three well-placed buds for obtaining a new 
 set of laterals during the following summer. From 
 this period a fresh set of side branches may be developed 
 every year, for the lower ones have now acquired suf- 
 ficient power. Keep the vegetation equal throughout 
 the tree during the summer. 
 
 r 2 
 
100 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 Fourth Pruning. The figure 88 shows the progress 
 that the tree has made during the preceding vegetation. 
 Cut the new extensions as in previous prunings. Cut 
 also the stem at A, to obtain a new set of lateral 
 
 branches. Attend to them during the summer as in 
 former years. 
 
 Fifth Pruning. By this time the trees have acquired 
 the development shown by figure 89. Cut the stem 
 at A, to obtain a fourth set of side branches. Cut the 
 
THE PEAK. 
 
 I'Ol 
 
,102 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 extensions of the laterals as in former years. By this 
 time the lower laterals have generally grown sufficiently 
 long to allow of their being curved in a vertical direc- 
 tion, as shown hy the figure 89. A bent piece of wood 
 may be used to form the curve and keep the branches 
 in position. They must be encouraged to extend them- 
 selves in a vertical direction, forming successive exten- 
 sions, to be cut back one-third of their length each 
 year. When they have reached the top of the wall 
 they must be cut off to 18 inches each year below the 
 coping, in order to leave room for the terminal shoot, 
 required each year, to draw the sap to that point, and 
 in passing upwards to supply and nourish the fruit- 
 branches. All the lateral branches are subjected to 
 this treatment. Towards the sixteenth or eighteenth 
 year the wood of the tree will be completely esta- 
 blished. It will then cover a space of about 20 square 
 yards, and present the aspect of figure 84. 
 
 The symmetry and regularity of the wood are impor- 
 tant, not only as regards the appearance of the tree, but 
 also, and most of all, to secure an equal degree of vigour 
 in all parts, and thus to promote the fertility and dura- 
 tion of the tree. We shall not always find at the time 
 of winter pruning buds suitably placed for forming the 
 new branches. WTien this happens, the inconvenience 
 may be counteracted by budding, in August, on the 
 places where the buds are deficient. [If desirable a 
 bud of another variety may be inserted.] 
 
 Pruning the Fruit- Branches. All that we have said 
 at present respecting Yerrier's palmette relates to the 
 wood-branches. The treatment of the fruit-branches 
 
THE PEAR. 103 
 
 is the same as that of the pyramidal trees, the only 
 exception being, that in wall trees, the buds nearest to 
 the wall must not be allowed to grow, but be pinched 
 off as they appear. 
 
 NAILING UP OF WALL TREES. 
 
 Only the wood-branches of pears trained as wall 
 trees, and their shoots, must be nailed to the wall. 
 
 Winter Nailing. The following rules must be ob- 
 served : Train each branch in a perfectly straight 
 line, from the place where it springs from the stem to 
 its farthest extremity. The smallest deviation from the 
 straight line creates an obstacle to the circulation, and 
 branches of excessive vigour will grow out near the 
 curve, and uselessly absorb a great quantity of the sap. 
 
 Place the branches which grow at the same height 
 from the opposite side of the stem in exactly the same 
 line of inclination as their fellow-branches on the other 
 side, otherwise the lower will be less vigorous than the 
 higher ones. If, however, the equilibrium of vegeta- 
 tion has been already broken, it will be necessary to 
 lower the strong branches and raise the more feeble 
 ones. 
 
 The branches which are finally to occupy an oblique 
 or horizontal position must not be forced in that direc- 
 tion at once, but gradually ; if brought into that posi- 
 tion suddenly, the sap will all flow up the stem, and 
 the development of the side branches be almost wholly 
 suspended. The branch E (fig. 89) was first inclined 
 to B, then to C, and the following year to D, and only 
 
104 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 when grown to the length of F was it brought to its 
 final position E. The other side branches must all be 
 inclined in the same gradual manner. 
 
 The Summer Nailing. The summer nailing of pear 
 trees relates only to the new shoots growing from the 
 side branches ; these shoots, when they have attained a 
 length of twelve inches, must be nailed to the wall or 
 trellis, in the same direction as the branches upon 
 which they grow. 
 
 In nailing to a trellis, a small straight stick may be 
 employed, fixed at the extremity of each branch, and 
 in a parallel line with it, to conduct and support the 
 young shoot. 
 
 Two methods of fastening branches to the wall may 
 be used ; nailing them with list or fastening to a 
 trellis. 
 
 Fig. 90. Garden Hammer. 
 
 Nailing with List is the most perfect and convenient 
 method. The kind of hammer and a convenient 
 form of nail-basket are shown in figures 90 and 91. 
 If the old lists are used again, it is a good precaution 
 to boil them, in order to destroy the eggs of noxious 
 
THE PEAR. 
 
 105 
 
 insects with which they abound. It is an advantage to 
 have the walls covered with a thick layer of plaster, so 
 that the nails may be driven in sufficiently deep at any 
 
 Fig. 91. Nail Basket. 
 
 lig. 92. Branch fixed 
 against a wall. 
 
 point. When this cannot be done, on account of the 
 expense, or for other reasons the wall is unsuitable for 
 nailing, it is best to fasten by means of a trellis. 
 
 Fastening by Trellis. The trellis may be made either 
 
 Fig. 93. Wood Trellis. 
 
 of wood or iron wire. There has always been a preju- 
 dice against the latter material ; but as long experi- 
 
 r3 
 
!()(> Kit i IT TREES, 
 
 cncc lias proved tin it no Injury results from its use, 
 OVCll ill the case of peaehes, We do not, hesitate to ro- 
 
 commond it in preference to wood, as being nnidi the 
 nioro economical of the two. 
 
 The form of the trellis must depend upon the form 
 that ifl intended to be given to the tree. If made of 
 wood it must bo well nailed together, pointed with 
 three coats, and fastened with staples. 
 
 A wire trellis must be made as follows : Extend 
 along the wall a sufficient number of lengths of gal- 
 
 B 
 
 A B 
 
 
 
 f-r) n 
 
 
 rr* n 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - II- 
 
 Fig. 94.- Wire Trellis for 1'ulinulto. 
 
 vanised iron wires, about twelve inches apart. These 
 wires, being securely fastened at each end, must be 
 supported, at distances of a yard apart, by iron pins 
 having a hole through the thick end (B, figs. 94 and 
 95). The wires must be made as tight as possible by 
 means of a tightener (A, figs. 94 and 90). This tighten, i 
 
THE PEAR. 
 
 107 
 
 is used thus : When one end of the wire has been made 
 fast to the wall and passed through the eyes of the 
 supporting pins as far as the half of the entire length 
 
 Fig. 95. Fastener. Fig. 96. Tightener. Fig. 97. Key. 
 
 of the line, it is brought through one end of the tight- 
 ener, through the centre of the axle, and out at the 
 opposite end, then through the eyes of a number of 
 pins sufficient for the second bolt of the wire, then 
 fasten the wire at the other extremity, and tighten a 
 little. Drive the pins into the wall at their proper 
 distances, then tighten the wires as much as possible, 
 using the key (fig. 97). When sufficiently tight, 
 
108 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
THE PEAR. 109 
 
 lower the stop upon the toothed wheel (B, fig. 96), 
 which will hold all secure. 
 
 The best material for tying the branches to the 
 trellis is osier. It is a security against injury if a 
 small piece of cloth or soft material be placed between 
 the wood of the trellis and the branches, at each place 
 where they are tied. When the trellis is made of wire, 
 the same result may be obtained by twisting together 
 the two ends of osier upon the wire before applying the 
 branch. 
 
 It will be necessary during the summer to see that 
 the branches are not injured by the bandages becoming 
 too tight. When this is the case the ligatures must bo 
 immediately removed. 
 
 PEAR TREES IN OBLIQUE CORDON. 
 
 At present we have only described such methods of 
 training as will result in complete and full-sized wall 
 trees in the course of sixteen or eighteen years, cover- 
 ing a surface of 20 yards and upwards. The care 
 required in obtaining even the most simple of these 
 forms, and the difficulty of maintaining an equal vege- 
 tation in all parts of the tree, often render it very diffi- 
 cult for ordinary gardeners to succeed with them. 
 
 To remove these inconveniences we have now in- 
 vented a new and original form, much less difficult to 
 manage, which may be made to cover the entire sur- 
 face of a wall in a very short time, and to obtain the 
 maximum of product at an early period, without short- 
 ening the duration of the trees. We were the first to 
 
110 
 
 FRL'IT TREES. 
 
 apply this method, in 1852, and gave it the present 
 name of oblique cordon (fig. 98). The following is the 
 way to proceed : 
 
 Choose healthy and vigorous young trees of one 
 year's grafting, carrying only one stem. Plant them 
 
 Fig. 99.-Cordon, First Year. 
 
 Fig. 100. -Cordon, Second Year. 
 
 16 inches apart, and incline them one over the other at 
 an angle of 60 degrees. Cut off about a third of the 
 length at A (fig. 99), just above a front fruit-bud. 
 
 During the following summer favour as much as 
 possible the development of the terminal shoot; all 
 the others must be transformed into fruit-branches by 
 the same means as described for pyramidal trees. By 
 spring of the following year each of the young trees 
 will present the aspect of figure 100. 
 
THE PEAR. 
 
 Ill 
 
 The second pruning has for its object to transform 
 the lateral shoots into fruit-spurs ; the new extension 
 of the stem must be cut back a third. If the terminal 
 extension has grown but slightly, and shows signs of 
 weakness, the cut must be made lower down, on the 
 two-years' wood, in order to obtain a more vigorous 
 
 Fig. 101. Cordon, Third Year. 
 
 terminal shoot. Apply the same treatment to these 
 young trees during the summer as during the pre- 
 ceding one ; the res alt is shown by figure 101. 
 
112 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 By the time of the third priming, the young stem 
 has generally attained two-thirds of its entire length ; 
 it must then be inclined to an angle of 45 degrees, 
 following the line B, fig. 101 ; the same terminal shoot 
 and side branches must be pruned as the last year. If 
 
 Fig. 102. Cordon, Fourth Year. 
 
 the stem Lad been inclined in this manner at the first, 
 the consequence would have been a growing out of 
 vigorous (gourmand) branches at the base of the stem, 
 to the injury of the terminal shoot. The new shoots 
 must be treated as usual. Figure 102 shows the state 
 of the tree at the end of this year's vegetation. 
 
THE PEAR. 113 
 
 There is now nothing more to be done than to com- 
 plete the tree, by continuing the same treatment until 
 it reaches the top of the wall. Arrived at its final 
 height, it must be cut every year about 16 inches below 
 the coping of the wall, to allow space for the growth of 
 a vigorous shoot every year, which will force the sap to 
 circulate freely through the whole extent of the stem. 
 
 If the wall runs east and west, it is not important 
 to which side the stem is inclined ; but if the wall 
 extends north and south, it should be inclined to the 
 south, to afford as much light as possible to the under- 
 side fruit-branches. When the wall is built on the 
 descent of a hill, the trees should be inclined towards 
 the summit, or their growth will be too soon arrested 
 by the top of the wall. The trees being planted 16 
 inches apart, and each developing a single stem, the 
 result will be an espalier, composed of a parallel series 
 of slanting trees having a space of about 12 inches 
 between each stem (fig. 98). 
 
 If it is desired to fill up the vacant space on the 
 wall left by the inclined position of the trees, a half 
 palmetto may be grown for that purpose. To accom- 
 plish this, first plant a young tree, and treat the same 
 as the others ; after it has been inclined to an angle of 
 45 degrees, allow a strong shoot to grow from the base 
 of the stem, and develop itself freely during the 
 summer. The following year incline it parallel with 
 the other stem, and twelve inches from it. During the 
 summer allow another shoot to grow from the bend of 
 the previous one, incline it as before, and so on each 
 year until the vacant space is filled. 
 
114 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 The vacant space at the other end must be filled up 
 thus : The last tree must be planted at about two 
 yards from the limit of the espalier ; it must first be 
 treated as the others have been ; then, instead of 
 lowering it to 45 degrees, it must be lowered a little 
 further ; the following year lowered still more, and 
 when the stem of the plant has acquired such a length 
 that when placed horizontally it will occupy the whole 
 space shown in figure 98, it is brought into its proper 
 horizontal position. During the following summer 
 allow the four or five shoots, intended to form upward 
 branches growdng upon it, to develop themselves. 
 
 Wall trees trained in this way attain their full size 
 in five years, a gain, of at least ten or twelve years 
 compared with other methods. 
 
 By this plan the trees become fruitful in the fourth 
 year, and attain their maximum in the sixth year, 
 while other and larger forms require twenty years to 
 attain their maximum. If the extent of wall is 
 limited, only a small number of varieties can be 
 planted by the ordinary method of growing large 
 trees ; while the method we have now described allows 
 of -a considerable number of varieties being planted, 
 their fruit ripening throughout the season. 
 
 If a large pear tree die, it will require fifteen or 
 eighteen years to replace it. With the new methods 
 of oblique cordon it will be only necessary to proceed 
 thus : Dig a hole, about 16 inches wide and 20 
 inches in depth, in the centre of the spot left vacant 
 by the dead tree. Cut away the roots of the neigh- 
 bouring trees which grow into the hole. Drive two 
 
THE PEAK. 115 
 
 thin pieces of board, about twenty incites square, to 
 the level of the ground, at each end of the hole, 
 plant the tree, a young vigorous one, in the space 
 between them, and cover over with good fresh soil. 
 The pieces of wood will prevent the roots of the trees 
 on each side encroaching on the ground of the new 
 plant. They will soon rot, but the new tree is then in 
 a state to take care of itself. By this means the vacant 
 space will be filled up in five or six years. The wood 
 of such trees as we have now described is more easily 
 established than any other, and the regular inclination 
 given to each stem renders the equal distribution of 
 the sap easy and certain. 
 
 Objections have been made to this form. It has 
 been said that the limited extent given to the wood 
 would conduce to such great vigour as to injure the 
 fruit-bearing qualities of the tree. But this vigour 
 is counteracted by the trees being planted so closely 
 together upon such a small surface of ground. It has 
 been also said that trees so near to each other will be 
 unable to live. We answer that an extent of wood is 
 only allowed to each tree in proportion to the extent 
 of soil that the roots occupy. It has been also ob- 
 jected that such a mode of planting is more expensive 
 than the old method. This is true as regards the first 
 expense ; but in addition to the operations of pruning 
 being much more easily performed by the new method, 
 it must be considered that ordinary wall trees do not 
 attain their maximum of fruit-bearing until the six- 
 teenth or twentieth year; while the oblique cordon 
 becomes fruitful in four years, and repays its original 
 
116 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 cost three or four times over. If the walls are suffi- 
 ciently high seven feet nothing can be more simple 
 and profitable than the method we have now described ; 
 but if less than that height, it will be better to keep 
 to the palmette form. 
 
 Trellis for the Oblique Cordon. The most simple 
 form is that shown by figure 104. For a wall nine or 
 
 Fig. 103. Iron Pin. 
 
 ten feet high, there will be required three cross pieces 
 of wood or strong iron wire, firmly attached to the 
 wall ; then a series of laths fastened to the cross pieces, 
 16 inches apart, and inclined 45 degrees, each of the 
 laths supporting one of the young trees. 
 
 The cost will be much less if the trellis be made of 
 wire (fig. 105), as invented by M. Thiry, jun. At 
 the points A, B, C, D. E, F, strong round nails, fig. 103, 
 are driven firmly into the wall ; then at the points 
 G, H, I, J, K, L, pins with a hole through the 
 head (fig. 95). The end of the wire is made fast at 
 the point A, then passed through the eyes of the iron 
 pins G II, then supported by the two nails B C, it is 
 passed through the pins I J, under the two nails D E, 
 
TTIE TEAR. 
 
 117 
 
118 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
THE PEAR. 119 
 
 through, the pins K L, and then fixed upon the nail 
 F. It is made tight by means of the tightener (fig. 
 96), fixed below the nail C, as shown in the figure at M. 
 A little oil placed upon the nails B, C, D, E, will 
 facilitate the tightening of the wires by means of the 
 tightener. The same operation being repeated all 
 along the wall, it will then be covered with a series of 
 well- stretched wires, in parallel lines, inclined 45 
 degrees, 12 inches apart from each other. This trellis 
 costs (in France) about 5s. per square yard, not in- 
 cluding fixing. 
 
 TRAINING OF THE PEAR IN VERTICAL CORDON. 
 
 The walls are sometimes of such height, as in the 
 case of gable ends of buildings, that it would be in- 
 convenient to train in oblique cordon. Whenever the 
 wall is higher than 13 feet we recommend the vertical 
 cordon to be employed. 
 
 The method for planting is, in this case, the same as 
 for the oblique cordon, only the trees are planted ver- 
 tically (fig. 106), and 12 inches only apart from each 
 other. The stems must be trained towards the summit 
 of the wall, in the same manner as directed for the 
 oblique cordon. 
 
 If the wall will not allow of the trees being fastened 
 up with nails and list, recourse must be had to a 
 wood trellis, as shown at fig. 107, or a wire one (fig. 
 108), which is much less expensive. 
 
120 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 * 
 
 s 
 
 J * \ 
 
 u at 
 
 \ 
 
 k ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ?^ 
 
 Fig. 106. Pears in Vertical Cordon. 
 
THE PEAK. 
 
 121 
 
 r 
 
 Fig. 107. Wood Trellis for Vertical Cordon. 
 G 
 
122 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 > a 
 i 
 
 a t 
 i 
 
 f 
 
 i 
 
 C 
 
 E 
 
 < 
 t 
 
 I C 
 
 r 
 
 > r 
 
 1 C 
 
 I i 
 
 C 
 i t 
 i r 
 I r 
 
 ( 
 
 t 
 
 i f 
 i f 
 
 C 
 i 
 
 1 C 
 
 i e 
 
 r 
 
 3 e 
 i ' 
 
 i i 
 
 ~ 
 
 i e 
 
 1 c 
 
 i 
 
 r 
 
 ] C 
 
 I r 
 
 i 
 
 Fig. 108. Iron Trellis for Vertical Cordon. 
 
THE PEAR. 123 
 
 STANDARD PEAR TREES. 
 
 Standard trees are not adapted for gardens ; their 
 proper place is the orchard, where they should stand 
 ten or fifteen yards apart. Standards being too fre- 
 quently neglected, left entirely to themselves in fact, 
 often grown on one side, the branches run into confu- 
 sion, and the middle of the tree becomes so thick that 
 the light cannot penetrate ; and this part of the tree 
 remains completely barren. 
 
 To prevent these inconveniences, the tree must be 
 trained so that the principal branches at the summit 
 ray out regularly from the trunk, first in a horizontal 
 direction, then a little depressed, then vertically. The 
 head of the tree being kept open, the branches will 
 grow somewhat in the form of a goblet. There 
 will be as great an extent of branches if trained in 
 this regular manner, and the light being able to pene- 
 trate the interior surface, the produce will be doubled. 
 
 In order to obtain standard trees of the form just 
 described, the following course must be pursued : 
 
 We suppose the trees to have been grafted, standard 
 high, a year after plantation in the orchard. The first 
 year after grafting we only allow two, three, or four 
 shoots to grow, according to the degree of vigour of 
 vegetation ; the shoots must be left to grow at equal 
 distances round the stem. The superfluous shoots must 
 be pinched off when they have grown about four 
 inches. The equal growth of the reserved shoots must 
 be carefully maintained one must not be allowed to 
 
 G 2 
 
124 
 
 FRTJIT TREE*. 
 
 become more vigorous than another : this must be 
 regulated by means of pinching. 
 
 In the following spring, if three shoots have been 
 preserved, the tree will resemble fig. 109. The 
 
 Fig. 109. Tall Standards, First Year 
 of Grafting. 
 
 Fig. 110. Tall Standards, Second Year 
 of Grafting. 
 
 branches must then be cut back at A, about eight 
 inches from their spring, above two buds growing from 
 each side the branch, which alone should develop 
 vigorously during the following summer. All other 
 shoots must be pinched off when three inches grown, 
 and an equal vigour must be maintained between the 
 
THE PEAR. 125 
 
 six reserved shoots ; at the third spring 'the young 
 tree will resemble figs. 110 and 111. The shoots 
 must be again cut back about sixteen inches from 
 their spring, above two buds as before. The other 
 operations must be repeated during the summer. 
 
 By the fourth year the head of the tree is composed 
 of twelve principal branches growing at regular dis- 
 tances from and around the tree. These operations are 
 
 Fig. ill. Plan of Fig. 110. 
 
 sufficient to impart a good form to the tree, and little 
 more is necessary than to maintain an equal vigour in 
 the growth of the branches, and to remove, about the 
 end of May, the vigorous shoots which spring from 
 the base and interior face of the principal branches. 
 These shoots weaken the branches, and disarrange and 
 confuse the orderly growth of the tree. 
 
 The formation and treatment of fruit-branches must, 
 in the case of standard pear trees, be left to nature. 
 
 If, instead of grafting after one year's planting in 
 the orchard, it is more convenient to plant trees already 
 grafted, it will be well to choose such as have been 
 grafted only one or two years, and furnished with at 
 
126 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 least two well-placed principal branches, to serve as 
 a foundation for establishing the wood of the tree. 
 After planting, the branches must be cut back only 
 one-third of their length. The first pruning mast 
 not be applied until the following year, when the use- 
 less branches must be suppressed, and those reserved 
 cut back to make them fork, as before described. 
 
THE APPLE. 127 
 
 THE APPLE. 
 
 Soil. The apple will grow in more humid soil than 
 is suitable for the pear, but it prospers most in soils of 
 medium consistency, rather sandy, but moderately cool. 
 
 Choice of Trees. The directions already given for 
 pears apply equally to apple trees. 
 
 Grafting. The apple is grafted upon apple stocks 
 grown from pepins, upon Doucin stocks grown from 
 layers, and upon paradise stocks also grown from layers. 
 
 The most vigorous stock of the three is the apple,* 
 which is only employed when high- stemmed standard 
 trees are desired. The Doucin stock is less vigorous, 
 and is chosen for pyramid, espalier, and vase-formed 
 trees. The paradise stock is used for dwarf trees, 
 trained in the form of small vases or bushes, the fruit 
 of which is abundant and of excellent quality, and 
 appears at the third year. Unfortunately these dwarf 
 
 * Apple stocks, also called free stocks, are used for standards for 
 orchard planting. They are raised in numbers from the residuum 
 in cider-making. Apples grafted upon these stocks are much longer 
 in coming to bearing. The best stock for apples is the crab ; the trees 
 are hardier, and the fruit better. The Doucin or French stock is not 
 equal to the paradise for dwarf trees. The paradise stock is chiefly 
 used for trees to be grown in pots, for miniature orchards, and for 
 ornamental trees in the flower-border. 
 
FRUIT TREES. 
 
 trees are of much shorter duration than those grafted 
 upon the other stocks. 
 
 The directions given for choice of grafts and modes 
 of grafting pears apply also to apples. 
 
 Varieties. Although less considerahle than that of 
 pears, the number of varieties of apples for table use 
 is sufficiently extended. We have counted as many as 
 five hundred varieties, amongst which we consider the 
 following to be the best, affording a supply for the 
 table for each month in the year. 
 
 Names of Varieties and 
 Synonymes. 
 
 Name test kncwra by 
 in England. 
 
 Time of Maturity. 
 
 Calville rouge d'ete . . 
 
 
 August and Sept. 
 
 Tasse-pomme rouge. 
 Borowiski 
 
 BorovitsJci i 
 
 End of August. 
 
 Monstrueux pepin . . . 
 
 Dessert. Good. 
 Gloria Mundi 
 
 Sept. and Oct. 
 
 Louis XVIII 
 
 Kitchen. Inferior. 
 
 October. 
 
 Belle Dubois. 
 Rhode Island 
 Gloria Mundi. 
 Pater Roster. 
 Reinetto Blanche .... 
 Reinette d' Espagne. 
 Reinette tendre. 
 Quatre gouts cotelee. . 
 
 Rhode Island 
 Greening culinary. 
 
 Gobbet? s Fall Pippin 
 Very large & good. 
 
 Red Calville 
 
 November to March. 
 Oct. and Nov. 
 Oct. and Nov. 
 
 Tomme violette. 
 Calville rouge d'aout. 
 Pomme grelot. 
 Calville de St. Sauveur. 
 
 
 November. 
 
 Belle Josephine ... . 
 
 Hans Mutterchen . 
 
 November. 
 
 Menagere. 
 Brabant belle-fleur . . 
 Reinette d'Angleterre 
 
 Red Belle-Fleur 
 
 Nov. and Dec. 
 Nov Dec. 
 
 Pomme d'or. 
 Citron 
 
 Citron 
 
 December. 
 
 Eeinette doree. 
 Golden Pippin 
 
 Very fine dessert . . 
 
 Nov., March. 
 
 Ronssejaune tar dive. 
 Cornish gillyflower . . 
 
 Pigeon d'hiver 
 
 Cornish Gillyflower 
 Very excellent. 
 Arabian Apple 
 
 Dec. to Feb. 
 Dec. to Feb. 
 
 Gros pigeon. 
 
 
 
THE APPLE. 
 
 129 
 
 Names of Varieties and 
 Synonymes. 
 
 Name best known by 
 in England. 
 
 Time of Maturity. 
 
 Gravenstein . . 
 
 Gravenstein 
 
 Dec. to Feb. 
 
 Reine des reinettes . . 
 Reinette gr. du Canada 
 
 Reinette du Canada bl. 
 Roy ale d'Angleterre . . 
 
 Grosse reinette d'An- 
 gleterre. 
 Calville blanc d'hivtr 
 
 Royal Reinette .... 
 Eeinette gr. du Canada 
 Very good. 
 St. Helena Russet . . 
 Herefordshire Pear- 
 main. 
 
 Calville Blanc 
 
 Dec. to Feb. 
 January to March. 
 
 January to March. 
 January to March. 
 
 January to March. 
 
 Bonnet carre. 
 Api gros 
 
 Bedfordshire Found- 
 ling. 
 Kitchen. Very good 
 
 January to March. 
 January to March. 
 
 Reinette de Hollande 
 Reinette du Vigan 
 
 Holland Pippin .... 
 Kitchen. 
 
 January, March. 
 February to May. 
 
 Reinette fr. a cotes . . 
 
 
 February to May. 
 
 Reinette franche ordin. 
 
 
 February to May 
 
 Reinette gr. h. bonte 
 
 
 until August. 
 February to May 
 
 Eeinette de Eouen. 
 Reinette de Caux 
 
 Reinette Carse . 
 
 until July. 
 February to May. 
 
 
 
 
 The Editor recommends tlie following list of dessert 
 and kitchen apples, adapted for general planting 
 throughout England. In Scotland, the later varieties 
 would require to be planted against a wall. 
 
 SUMMER APPLES. 
 
 DESSERT 
 
 Astrachan. 
 Borovitski. 
 
 Devonshire Quarendon. 
 Jenneting. 
 Margaret. 
 
 KITCHEN 
 Keswick Codling. 
 Outhenden or Hawthornden. 
 Lord Suffield. 
 Manks Codling. 
 Springrove Codling. 
 
 G 3 
 
130 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 AUTUMN APPLES. 
 
 DESSERT 
 
 Blenheim Orange. 
 Coe's Golden Drop. 
 Cox's Orange Pippin. 
 Early Nonpareil. 
 Fearn's Pippin. 
 Golden Pippin. 
 Golden Reinette. 
 Margil. 
 
 Bibston Pippin. 
 Stamford Pippin. 
 Reinette Van Mons. 
 Sykehouse Russet. 
 
 KITCHEN 
 
 Bedfordshire Foundling. 
 Cellini. 
 
 Cox's Pomona. 
 Gloria Mundi. 
 Golden Noble. 
 Greenup's Pippin. 
 Harvey's Apple. 
 Lemon Pippin. 
 Nelson's Codling. 
 Tower of Glammis. 
 Winter Quoining. 
 "Wormsley Pippin. 
 
 WINTER APPLES. 
 
 DESSERT 
 
 Braddick's Nonpareil. 
 
 Clay gate Pearmain. 
 
 Court-pendu plat. 
 
 Cornish Gillyflower. 
 
 Cockle Pippin. 
 
 Dutch Mignonne. 
 5 Golden Harvey. 
 
 Golden Russet. 
 
 Keddleston Pippin. 
 
 Mannington's Pearmain. 
 
 Old Nonpareil. 
 
 Pearson's Plate Apple. 
 
 Ross Nonpareil. 
 
 Spring Ribston Pippin, 
 
 Stunner Pippin. 
 
 Wykin Pippin. 
 
 KITCHEN 
 Alfriston. 
 Beauty of Kent. 
 Bess Pool. 
 
 Dumelous's Seedling. 
 Gooseberry Apple. 
 Norfolk Biffin. 
 Northern Greening. 
 Reinette Blanche d'Espagne. 
 Rhode Island Greening. 
 Royal Pearmain. 
 Royal Russet. 
 Striped Biffin. 
 Winter Majeting. 
 French Crab. 
 Kirk's Lord Nelson. 
 
 The Canadian Golden Reinette requires an east or 
 west wall to ripen in the midland counties. The Api 
 petit ripens very well as a dwarf bush, but is inferior 
 except for its great beauty. It is of a very red colour 
 and a great bearer. 
 
THE APPLE. 131 
 
 TRAINING AND PRUNING. 
 
 The apple may be cultivated like the pear, either as 
 standard or espalier ; the form of standard, however, is 
 better suited for the apple than that of espalier. The 
 apple will not endure exposure to great heat so well as 
 the pear ; it requires a cool and rather humid air. 
 Some varieties, such as the Canadian and golden 
 reinette, white calville, api, winter pigeon, &c., &c., 
 endure heat better, and may be planted as espaliers, 
 but facing the west. 
 
 Training as JEspaliers. Any of- the forms described 
 for pear trees may be adopted for apples, and the trees 
 should be planted in the same manner. The treatment 
 of the fruit-branches is also exactly the same as de- 
 scribed for pears. 
 
 Standard Trees. The pyramidal form might, per- 
 haps, be applied to apple trees, but it is not so well 
 adapted for them as for pears. The vase or goblet form, 
 described page 82, is more suitable, or the double 
 espalier, page 89. The directions for forming them are 
 the same. 
 
 The form recommended is that of the small goblet 
 or bush, more or less regular, for trees grafted on 
 paradise stocks. These small trees are extremely 
 fertile, but, unfortunately, are not very long-lived. 
 They are planted a number together about four feet 
 apart. The cultivation of these small trees has been 
 brought to great perfection by training them in single 
 horizontal lines, which we shall now proceed to describe 
 (fig. 112). 
 
132 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 I g 
 
 Select trees grafted on paradise stocks of one year if 
 the soil is of good quality, or grafted 
 on French stocks if the soil is parched 
 and dry. Plant in a straight line five 
 feet apart if paradise, and eight feet if 
 on French [crab]- stocks. Cut off one- 
 third of the length of the stem, and 
 then leave the plants to themselves 
 during the summer. The following 
 year, at the winter pruning, place a 
 galvanised iron wire (A), securely 
 fastened at each extremity, along the 
 line of the trees ; this must be made 
 I H tight by means of the tightener B, and 
 J f supported every twelve feet by a small 
 "I post (C) about eighteen inches above 
 
 GO 
 
 the ground. The wire being properly 
 I* fixed, bend the branches of the trees 
 o in a horizontal direction, and fasten 
 Ji them to the wire. During the fol- 
 eo lowing year remove all the shoots 
 which spring from the upright por- 
 tion of the stem; they absorb too 
 much of the sap, to the deprivation 
 of the horizontal branches. Apply to 
 the other shoots the treatment de- 
 scribed for pears, in order to trans- 
 form them into fruit-branches. Leave 
 the terminal shoot to grow as much 
 as it will during the summer. At 
 the winter priming treat the fruit- 
 
THE APPLE. 
 
 133 
 
 branches as directed for pears; leave the new exten- 
 sion of the terminal branch entire, and fasten it to the 
 wire. 
 
 The same treatment must be continued until each 
 stem has grown sufficiently long to reach the next 
 stem, and beyond it, to the extent of about twenty 
 
 Fig. 113-. Mode of Inarching. 
 
 inches ; it must then be grafted to it by inarching, at the 
 point D, fig. 112. The proper time for this is the month 
 of March ; and the mode of operating is shown at figure 
 113. The following year the stems will be completely 
 united, and the extremity must be cut off at A, figure 
 113. The result will be that all the superabundant sap 
 of one tree will flow to the next one, and so along the 
 whole line, all the stems being maintained in the same 
 degree of vigour. 
 
 Such lines of small apple trees are easily formed, and 
 come to fruit-bearing in the second year after plant- 
 
134 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 ing. They may be placed in the edges of borders 
 where espaliers have grown, and occupy places that 
 could not be more usefully employed. Their diminutive 
 height will form no impediment to the other trees upon 
 the border. 
 
THE PEACH. 135 
 
 THE PEACH. 
 
 Soil. The peach requires a deep open soil, of medium 
 consistency, containing a certain proportion of calcareous 
 matter, and, which is very important, the soil must be 
 free from all superabundant moisture. Soils which do not 
 possess these qualities must have them imparted by other 
 soils being added, and thoroughly mixed by deep digging. 
 
 The peach is almost always cultivated as a wall tree ; 
 the aspect may be east, south, or south-west, but it 
 prefers the south-east. 
 
 Choice of Trees. Peaches are generally planted 
 already grafted. They should be grafts of only one 
 year, healthy, vigorous, and with well-formed buds at 
 the base. The kind of stock in which the peach is 
 budded has much to do with the success of the tree. 
 
 The stocks most suited for the peach and nectarine, 
 for out-door planting in England, are the muscle plum, 
 St. Julian plum, and pear plum the two latter for the 
 more delicate kinds, and for pot culture, but the muscle 
 for general planting. 
 
 For deep dry soils the almond forms the best stock, 
 for more humid soils the plum, the roots of which are less 
 liable to strike deeply into the soil than the almond ; un- 
 
136 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 fortunately these trees are less vigorous, and shorter 
 lived.* 
 
 Grafting. These stocks may be grafted by the shield 
 graft, double or single, the almond at the beginning of 
 September, the plum in July. 
 
 Varieties. There are fifty varieties of the peach at 
 the present time, but many of them are only suitable 
 for the climate of the south of France, and others are 
 only of inferior quality. The following is a list of the 
 best sorts arriving at maturity at different periods of 
 the fruit season : 
 
 Names of Varieties 
 and Synonymes. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Time of Maturity. 
 
 Desse hative 
 
 
 
 End of July. 
 
 Grosse rDinon. hative 
 
 
 Beginning of August. 
 
 Pourpree hative 
 
 
 Middle of August 
 
 Grosse mignon. tardive 
 
 
 End of August. 
 
 Belle Bausse 
 
 
 End of August. 
 
 Reine des vergers .... 
 
 
 Beginning of Sept. 
 
 Madeleine r courson 
 
 
 Middle of September 
 
 Lisse gros violette hat 
 
 
 Middle of September 
 
 Violette de courson. 
 Brugnon de Stanwick 
 
 
 Middle of September 
 
 Admirable jaune .... 
 
 
 End of September. 
 
 Admirable 
 
 
 End of September. 
 
 JBelle de Vitry. 
 Bourdine de Narbonne 
 
 
 End of September. 
 
 Grosse royale. 
 Chevreuse tardive . . 
 
 
 End of September. 
 
 Bonouvrier. 
 Desse tardive ........ 
 
 Good late Peach .... 
 
 Beginning of October. 
 
 
 
 
 * The almond would do little or no good in this country on its own 
 roots ; it is always propagated by budding on the Brussels plum stock, 
 or on the Brampton plum stock. The Muscle plum stock is the prin- 
 cipal stock for peaches and nectarines suitable for English planting. 
 The peach is certainly the finest fruit produced in the open air in 
 England, and a practical knowledge of the best manner of bringing it 
 to perfection is most desirable ; there cannot be too much care 
 bestowed in the propagation, culture, and management of the many 
 fine varieties we possess. ED. 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 137 
 
 The following is a list of some of the best kinds 
 of peaches and nectarines now in cultivation in 
 England : 
 
 Names of Peaches. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 Time of Ripening. 
 
 Small Mignonne .... 
 Early Grosse Mignonne 
 
 Well adapted for cul- 
 ture. 
 
 August. 
 August. 
 
 Abec 
 
 Ripens well 
 
 August. 
 
 Crawford's Early .... 
 Grosse Mignonne 
 
 Very large and good 
 
 September. 
 September. 
 
 Royal George 
 
 
 September. 
 
 Noblesse 
 
 
 September. 
 
 Bellegarde 
 
 
 September. 
 
 Barrington 
 
 
 September. 
 
 Walburton' s Admirable 
 
 
 October. 
 
 Catharine .... 
 
 
 October. 
 
 Violette native . 
 
 
 September. 
 
 Names of Nectarines. 
 
 Time of Ripening. 
 
 Elruge . . 
 
 August and September. 
 
 Hardwicke Seedling 
 Rivers' s Orange 
 
 August. 
 September. 
 
 Roman ". 
 
 September. 
 
 Violette hative 
 
 August and September. 
 
 White 
 
 September. 
 
 
 
 TRAINING AND PRUNING. 
 
 The peach may be trained to various forms ; but we 
 shall only describe two, the Terrier palmette, and the 
 simple oblique cordon, because these forms are more 
 easily obtained, and may be best accommodated to local 
 requirements. 
 
 TRAINING THE PEACH IN THE PALMETTE FORM. 
 
 Formation of the Wood. The treatment is in all 
 respects the same as described for the palmette form of 
 
138 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 the pear (fig. 84, p. 96), the only difference being that 
 in the pear the side branches are trained twelve inches 
 apart, while the side branches of the peach must be 
 from 20 to 24 inches apart, in order to allow sufficient 
 space for nailing up the lateral shoots during the 
 summer. Besides this, all the branches of the peach, 
 both the main stem and side branches, are furnished 
 on each of their sides with fruit-branches, about four 
 inches apart. 
 
 The trees must be planted at such distances as to 
 cover a medium surface of about 20 square yards of the 
 wall. Thus, for a wall three and a half feet high, it 
 will be necessary to plant about six yards apart. 
 
 First Pruning. Pears, and other trees of the same 
 species, ought not to receive their first pruning until 
 they have struck root, that is, about a year after 
 planting ; the peach, however, must be pruned the 
 same year that it is planted, otherwise the buds at the 
 base of the stem which should be developed into shoots 
 would be completely withered by the following year. 
 
 The first pruning has for its object to develop 
 towards the base of the tree the first two side branches, 
 and to obtain a new extension of the stem. To effect 
 this, select two lateral buds, B (fig. 114), situate about 
 twelve inches from the ground. Also the bud A above 
 and in front ; it is immediately above this latter bud, 
 at the point D, that the stem must be cut. The buds 
 B are intended to form the first side branches, and the 
 bud A the extension of the stem. 
 
 The buds selected for the extension of the stem and 
 for the side branches should be as much in front as 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 139 
 
 possible ; by this means the slight deformity at each 
 point, from which the new extension springs, is less 
 apparent, and the place of the cut is better shaded from 
 the sun, and more readily heals. 
 
 During the following summer the development of 
 the three buds must be watched ; if other branches 
 
 Fig. 114. Peach, Palmette Form, 
 First Year. 
 
 Fig. 115. Peach, Second 
 Year. 
 
 grow upon them, they must be pinched when they 
 have grown to six inches, and be suppressed entirely 
 when the reserved shoots have attained a length of 
 16 inches. The side branches must be maintained at 
 
140 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 an equal degree of vigour by the means described in 
 the chapter on the PRINCIPLES or PRUNING. 
 
 Second Pruning. Figure 115 shows the result of the 
 operations of the preceding year. At the second 
 pruning, about the third part of the length of each 
 side branch must be suppressed, selecting for the place 
 a front bud suitable for the new extension. The main 
 
 Fig. 116. Peach, Third Year. 
 
 stem is cut at A, about twelve inches above the spring 
 of the side branches, and immediately above a front 
 bud. The stem might be cut higher up, with a view to 
 another set of side branches during the summer ; but 
 
THE PEACH. 141 
 
 it is more prudent to allow an interval of two years 
 between the formation of the first and second sets of 
 side branches. By this means the growth of the lower 
 branches will be best promoted, they having always a 
 tendency to be less vigorous than the higher ones. 
 
 During the following summer the terminal buds 
 must receive such attention as is necessary to keep 
 them in the same degree of vigour. The other buds 
 must be treated as described on p. 146, in order to 
 transform them into fruit-branches. 
 
 Third Pruning. At the third spring the young 
 peach tree will resemble fig. 116. The main stem must 
 how be cut 24 inches above the spring of the side 
 branches at A, above the two side buds B and C, 
 intended to develop two new side branches, and a bud 
 in front to prolong the main .stem. The side branches 
 must be cut back about one-third of their new growth 
 at D, in order to make them develop all their remain- 
 ing buds. 
 
 In pruning the side branches, it is of importance to 
 give the same length to each of the parallel branches, 
 in order to maintain an equilibrium between both sides 
 of the tree. If one side branch has become stronger 
 than the corresponding one, it must be cut rather 
 shorter. The fruit-branches growing towards the 
 lower part of the tree must be treated as described 
 further on (p. 152). 
 
 During the whole of the summer the same treat- 
 ment must be applied to the principal shoots as in the 
 year preceding. 
 
 Fourth Pruning. The result of the operations of 
 
142 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 the previous year are a new set of side branches, as 
 shown by fig. 117. These must be cut back about a 
 
 third of their length at D ; and the new growth of the 
 lower side branches must also be cut back one-third 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 143 
 
144 FRTI1T TREES. 
 
 at E. The new extension of the main stem must be cut 
 at about 24 inches above the spring of the upper side 
 branches at A, so as to obtain, by means of the buds 
 B and C, a new set of side branches. A new series of 
 side branches may from this period be obtained every 
 year ; for the lower side branches have now acquired 
 sufficient strength to draw to themselves all the sap 
 which they require for their continued growth. The 
 summer treatment is the same as before. 
 
 Fifth Pruning. A third set of side branches have 
 grown during the preceding summer (fig. 118). The 
 new extensions of the side branches must be cut back 
 as in previous years. The main stem must be cut at A, 
 and a new set of side branches obtained from the buds 
 C and D. The remaining treatment as before. 
 
 The operations we have described must be continued 
 from year to year, in order to obtain new side branches 
 and regular extensions of them, until they acquire the 
 desired length, when their ends must be directed up- 
 wards, as shown (figs. 84 and 89), until each of them 
 attains the summit of the wall. Towards the tenth or 
 twelfth year the trees treated in the manner we have 
 described will assume the aspect of fig. 84, with this 
 difference, that the fruit-branches are distributed on 
 each side of the wood-branches, as shown at fig. 118. 
 
 Wailing up. If it is not wished to fasten up the 
 branches with list, as described at p. 104, it may be 
 done by forming a trellis. It is necessary to fasten up 
 not only the wood-branches of peach trees, but, as we 
 shall see further on, the fruit-branches after the winter 
 pruning and the lateral shoots during the summer. As 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 145 
 
 the points where fastenings are required are very 
 numerous, the trellis bars must be rather close toge- 
 ther, and for this reason it will be expensive if made 
 
 Fig. 119.-Trellis of Wood and Iron for Peach. 
 
 altogether of wood. A wire trellis will be preferable 
 (fig. 94, p. 106), having spaces of 32 inches between 
 each of the horizontal lines. If there is already upon 
 the wall a wooden trellis with wide squares, it may be 
 used, dividing the squares with lines of iron wire 
 (fig. 119). 
 
 OBTAINING AND REPLACING FRUIT-BRANCHES ON THE 
 PEACH TREE. 
 
 There is an important difference between pepin 
 fruits and stone fruits. In the former the fruit- spurs 
 require about three years for their growth, but when 
 formed they last for an indefinite period with proper 
 attention. In stone fruits, and especially in the peach, 
 the fruit- spurs expand their blossoms in the spring 
 
 H 
 
146 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 following their birth, but they produce no more blos- 
 soms. Those which appear the following year are from 
 new fruit-buds which have grown during the preceding 
 summer upon the primitive branch. It follows, there- 
 fore, that the first thing to be attended to in the 
 management of peaches is to obtain the fruit- spurs, 
 and to replace them year by year. 
 
 We have already said that the fruit-spurs must be 
 made to grow regularly from each side of the branches, 
 about four inches apart, in such a manner that each 
 branch shall be in the form of a fish's skeleton. This 
 result is obtained as follows : 
 
 First Year. We take, for example, any extension of 
 a branch developed during the preceding summer 
 (fig. 120). At the winter pruning a part of the new 
 extension is cut back, in order to make it develop all 
 the buds that it carries. Unless this operation were 
 performed, a number of buds at the base of the tree 
 would remain inactive, and there would be a void 
 upon the branch very difficult to fill up, for the buds 
 that had not been developed the first year would be 
 useless the next. Towards the middle of May the 
 extension presents the appearance of fig. 121 ; all the 
 buds have expanded into shoots. When the shoots 
 have attained a length of about three inches, the useless 
 buds must be removed, including such as grow in front 
 (A, fig. 121) or at the back of the branches. There is 
 no exception to this, unless some of the side' buds are 
 too wide apart, in which case a front or back bud may 
 be left to supply the vacant place (C D, fig. 121). li 
 there is any choice, the bud at the back of the branch 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 147 
 
 is the better one to leave, as the irregularity will be 
 less apparent. 
 
 The extensions of the branches generally present 
 single wood-buds (A, fig. 120), but they are frequently 
 double, and even treble, B. It is necessary to leave a 
 single bud only at each point. If these double or treble 
 
 A B 
 
 Fig. 120. Peach, Wood Extension. 
 
 * C A 6 
 
 Fig. 121. Peach, Wood Extension. 
 
 buds occupy the place of a fruit-branch, the weakest 
 bud (E, fig. 121) must be retained, as in this case there 
 is greater reason to fear an excess of vigour than of 
 weakness. If it is desired to increase the length of 
 the branch, the most vigorous bud, F, must be retained. 
 The buds must not be torn off, but cut away with a 
 sharp knife. 
 
 The buds that are retained must not be abandoned 
 to their own growth, for many will become too vigorous, 
 to the injury of the terminal bud, which ought to pre- 
 serve the pre-eminence ; and they will seldom produce 
 fruit-blossoms. It is, therefore, necessary to restrain 
 
 H 2 
 
148 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 the vigour of tlie too luxuriant shoots, in order to pre- 
 serve the general symmetry of the tree, and the proper 
 direction of the branches. 
 
 The first of these objects is obtained by pinching. 
 
 Fig. 122. Peach Bud Pinched. 
 
 The shoots that grow too vigorous upon the upper side 
 of the lateral branches, and those which are too near 
 the summit of the vertical branch, must be pinched 
 
 Fig. 123. Gourmand Bud 
 Pinched. 
 
 Fig. 124. Result of Pinching* 
 No. 123. 
 
 back at A (fig. 122), when they are of the length of 
 ten or twelve inches. 
 
 Buds that indicate by their vigour that they will 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 149 
 
 become gourmand branches (fig. 123) must be cut at 
 A, above their two lower leaves. This will give rise to 
 buds which will become shoots (B, fig. 124), and which 
 can be treated as fruit-branches at the winter pruning. 
 
 The buds that are less vigorous should not be pinched, 
 unless they have grown beyond sixteen inches. 
 
 The first pinching generally suffices to arrest the 
 excessive growth of shoots intended to become fruit- 
 branches ; but they not unfrequently afterwards send 
 
 Fig. 125. Pinching Irregular 
 Buds. 
 
 Fig. 126. Shoot bearing a succession of 
 Irregular Shoots. 
 
 out towards the top one or two irregular branches 
 (fig. 125), which must be pinched when grown about 
 eight inches. It is seldom that pinching has to be 
 
150 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 resorted to a third time. Should this, however, occur, 
 as A (fig. 126), the main shoot, must be cut off at B, 
 then the shoot C D. The shoot E, which is reserved, 
 is at the same time to he pinched. By this means con- 
 fusion is avoided at the nailing up in summer. 
 
 When the gourmand shoot (fig. 127), which extends 
 each branch, has attained a certain length, it will de- 
 velop irregular shoots ; these may be disbudded and 
 pinched. This mode of operating, however, only gives 
 rise to badly-formed fruit-branches for the winter 
 
 Fig. 127. Extension bearing Irregular Shoots. 
 
 pruning. It will be preferable to proceed thus : When 
 they show their second pair of leaves (E, fig. 128), cut 
 them with the nail below these last two leaves. Their 
 vegetation is thus suspended, and there will be by the 
 time of winter pruning a very short branch, much pre- 
 ferable to the result of the former process. 
 
 It will be better not to apply these operations upon 
 the shoots further back than the point to which it may 
 be expected that they will be cut back at the winter 
 pruning. 
 
 We have said that it is most important to train these 
 
THE PEACH. 151 
 
 shoots in their proper direction, which must be done at 
 the time of nailing up in summer. During the sum- 
 mer, the shoots which form the extensions of the wood- 
 branches must be nailed up as soon as they are twelve 
 inches long. The most vigorous of the lateral shoots 
 must be nailed up when they are grown about ten 
 inches, and the feebler ones when they are fourteen 
 inches. The shoot must be fastened in such a direction 
 
 Fig. 128. Irregular Bud, Pinched early. 
 
 as to form an acute angle with the branch upon which 
 it grows. Care must be observed not to enclose the 
 leaves in the list, and not to make the shoots cross 
 each other. Nails and list are used for fastening, 
 if the wall is suitable for nailing ; a green rush is used 
 if the trees are supported by a trellis.* The nailing 
 
 * A green willow twig is generally used for fastening to a trellis, 
 or prepared wire. 
 
152 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 up, or fastening, must be done progressively (not all at 
 once, as is too often done), in order to keep the different 
 shoots of an equal vigour. 
 
 Second Tear. The operations of the summer are 
 intended to transform the shoots into branches, like 
 those we shall now describe. 
 
 The shoots growing below the side branches, near 
 their spring, often remain nothing more than very 
 short branches, bearing scarcely anything except blos- 
 soms, and a wood-bud at the end (fig. 129). These 
 minute fruit-branches do not require pruning ; the fruit 
 which grows upon them is the best which the tree pro- 
 duces. 
 
 Some other shoots, rather longer, but growing also 
 in unfavourable situations, have become branches of 
 from six to eight inches in length, covered with flower- 
 buds, except towards the base, where may be seen two 
 or three wood-buds (fig. 130) ; these are the fruit- 
 branches proper. They must be cut back, in order to 
 obtain a new well-placed fruit-bearing branch for the 
 next year ; but some of the flower-buds must be re- 
 served, to insure fructification. 
 
 In order to prove, by an example, the absolute neces- 
 sity of cutting back these fruit -branches every year, we 
 will suppose that the branch a (fig. 130) has been left 
 unpruned : it will bear fruit the first year, and then 
 put forth at the top one or two shoots, which will be- 
 come branches the following spring, and upon which 
 only will appear flower-buds, for, as we have observed, 
 the fruit-branches of the peach bear only once. This 
 ramification will present in the following spring the ap- 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 153 
 
 pearance of fig. 131. If left to itself again, the same 
 results will follow ; and it will be seen, that if each of 
 the side, branches were left to grow in this manner, the 
 branches would become so indefinitely prolonged, that 
 it would not be possible for the sap to afford sufficient 
 nutriment for them, and many would wither, especially 
 
 Fig. 129. Small Fruit-Branch 
 in Blossom. 
 
 Fig. 130. Ordinary Fruit-Branch 
 of Peach. 
 
 towards the base ; and the vacant places would seriously 
 detract from the appearance and regularity of the tree. 
 It is in this way that unpruned, or badly pruned, peaches 
 are often destroyed. 
 
 Under these circumstances, we see how the branch a 
 (fig. 130) ought to be pruned, retaining at the same 
 time a sufficient number of flowers to determine the 
 development of the wood-buds b and c. This double 
 
 H3 
 
154 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 result will be attained by cutting at a, about three or 
 four inches from the spring of the branch. 
 
 The flower-buds B (fig. 131) are almost always ac- 
 
 Fig. 131. Wood-Bud and Fruit-Bud 
 of Peach. 
 
 Fig. 132. Neglected Fruit- 
 Branch. 
 
 companied by a wood-bud A, and also sometimes by 
 small branches without any wood-buds, unless there be 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 155 
 
 one or two minute ones towards the base (fig. 133). It 
 might be thought, that the blossoms upon these small 
 branches, unaccompanied by a wood-bud, must prove 
 
 Fig. 133. Small Irre- Fig. 134. Fruit-Branch, Fig. 135. Wood-Branch, 
 gular Fruit-Branch. Mixed Buds, First Pruning. First Pruning. 
 
 sterile, and ought to be cut off at pruning, as though 
 of no value ; quite the contrary, -however ; experience 
 proves that these blossoms produce the finest fruit. 
 
156 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 These branches, therefore, must be preserved, and 
 pruned at A. 
 
 Some of the buds more favourably situated produce 
 more vigorous branches, and bear only wood-buds (fig. 
 134) for three or four inches from their base upwards. 
 These must be cut above the second bud, in order to 
 produce the result before described. 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. 136. Irregular Branch, without Buds at Base. 
 
 If the shoots are still more vigorous than those which 
 produce both wood and fruit buds, they will resemble 
 fig. 135, and will produce wood -buds only, with, per- 
 haps, one flower or so at the top. These must be cut 
 above the second wood-bud from the base. If not cut 
 low down, they will not produce new shoots at their 
 base, and their extended growth will weaken, and per- 
 haps destroy them. 
 
 In speaking of gourmand shoots, we referred to 
 irregular shoots. If the gourmand shoots have been 
 pinched off at too great length, they give place the fol- 
 lowing winter to irregular branches (fig. 136). These 
 branches differ in structure from any that we have at 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 157 
 
 present described. They are, in fact, almost without 
 buds for three or four inches from their base ; this is a 
 very troublesome disposition, for whatever we may do, 
 in the process of obtaining buds, the branch will grow 
 to too great a length. Sometimes, however, these 
 branches present two buds, as shown at A (fig. 137). 
 
 Fig. 137. Irregular Branch, 
 with Wood-Buds at Base. 
 
 Fig. 138. Irregular Branch, Pinched too 
 early. 
 
 These branches are cut at B, above the wood-bud 
 nearest to the base. This close pruning, repeated 
 during several years, often gives rise to new wood-buds 
 at the point of junction with the main branch. But 
 if the irregular shoots have been pinched much shorter 
 than we have described, they will produce small 
 branches (D, fig. 138), which need not be cut at all. 
 
 The different branches which we have now described 
 are the only ones that should be met with on a care- 
 fully pruned tree. Unfortunately, however, the pinch- 
 ing is often not performed soon enough, and the 
 branches will become gourmand shoots, which will take 
 
158 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 the place of fruit-bearing branches (fig. 139). If these 
 
 Fig. 139. Gourmand Branch of Peach, First Pruning. 
 
 branches are cut above the two lower wood-buds, two 
 
THE PEACH. 159 
 
 new branches will grow during the summer, which it 
 will not be possible to prevent becoming too vigorous, 
 the sap having taken so strong a current in that direc- 
 tion. The desired result will be better accomplished 
 by twisting the branch about an inch abova the base, 
 and for four inches upwards ; then cut between three 
 and four inches above the twisting. One part of the 
 sap will traverse the twisted portion, and will be lost 
 above, and the lower buds, receiving only just suffi- 
 cient for their development, will push out less vigor- 
 ously, and give place the following year to two new 
 branches, covered with fruit-blossoms. The primitive 
 branch must now be cut immediately above the two 
 
 Fig. 140. Fastening Fruit-Branches. 
 
 new branches, and all the twisted part will disappear. 
 Instead of twisting, we may take off about half the 
 thickness of the branch (on the wall side of the branch), 
 about the same length as the twisted part mentioned 
 above. The same effect will be produced. 
 
 When the fruit-branches have been pruned, and also 
 the wood-branches, and the latter fixed to the wall, we 
 proceed immediately to the winter nailing of the fruit- 
 branches. The branches A (fig. 140), upon and above 
 the oblique and horizontal branches, are bent so as to 
 form a free curve. This form, very little deviating 
 
160 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 from its natural direction, tends to restrain the flow of 
 sap towards the top of the branch, and to promote the 
 development of the lower buds, which ought to produce 
 the replacing branches. 
 
 The branches D, below the horizontal or oblique 
 branches, must also be bent towards them as much as 
 possible, to secure the same result. 
 
 Finally, the branches growing from the sides of the 
 vertical branches ought to be nailed so as to form a 
 right angle with the branch. If trained vertically, the 
 
 Fig. 141. Fastening 
 Fruit-Branches. 
 
 Fig. 142. Disbudding Fruit- 
 Branches. 
 
 action of the sap will favour the buds at the top, to the 
 injury of those at the base. 
 
 Figure 141 shows how these branches are fixed by 
 means of nail and list. Those grown upon a trellis 
 may be tied with osier twigs. Some employ lead wire, 
 
THE PEACH. 161 
 
 which is quicker than the other mode, and neater, but 
 rather more expensive. 
 
 During the ensuing summer the fruit-branches re- 
 ceive the series of operations we shall now describe. 
 When the shoots have attained a length of two or 
 three inches, they must be deprived of all their fruit- 
 buds, except the two nearest the base, and each of 
 those which accompany a fruit (fig. 142). The two 
 buds A are suppressed to avoid confusion at the sum- 
 mer nailing up, and to preserve more vigour for the 
 replacing shoots. 
 
 It may occur that some of the flower-buds reserved 
 on certain branches at the winter pruning turn out 
 
 Fig. 143. Green Pruning, First Year. 
 
 unproductive. These branches must be submitted to 
 green pruning : thus, the branch B (fig. 143) being 
 entirely fruitless, the shoots A, which would otherwise 
 be reserved to nourish these fruits, are now useless. 
 
162 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 The branch B is then to be cut at C, to preserve the 
 two buds D, which will then take a more favourable 
 form for developing the replacing shoots. 
 
 When the proper time arrives, apply successively 
 pinching and the summer nailing; bearing in mind 
 at all times that when the branches accompanied by 
 the young fruits (fig. 142) have grown to six inches, 
 they must be pinched in order to favour the develop- 
 ment of replacing shoots at the base. 
 
 Notwithstanding every care to keep the two sides of 
 the branches well furnished with fruit-branches, vacant 
 spaces will occur owing to the destruction of buds or 
 the decay of some of the fruit-branches. The best 
 way of filling up these vacancies is grafting by herba- 
 ceous approach (page 5), which may be done at the 
 time of summer nailing. 
 
 The remaining operations of the second summer 
 relate to the fruit. 
 
 The superabundance of fruit is a more serious evil 
 in regard to peach trees than to pephi fruits. When, 
 therefore, the fruit is too abundant, it will be necessary 
 to remove a certain number, leaving only half as many 
 peaches as there are fruit-branches. This thinning 
 must be made (when the fruit is about the size of a 
 large walnut) from the lower side of the branches and 
 lower part of the tree rather than from the upper. 
 
 When the peaches have nearly attained their full 
 size, the leaves which shade them must be removed, 
 in order to allow them to attain their natural bloom 
 and colour; but the leaves must not be removed all 
 at once, but at two different times on cloudy days, so 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 163 
 
 as to habituate the fruit gradually to the full influence 
 of the sun. The leaves must not be carelessly torn 
 off, but cut away so as to leave a small portion of each 
 stem and leaf. If this is not attended to, the eye at 
 the base of the leaf-stem will be lost, to the injury of 
 next year's crop. 
 
 Third Tear. At the third year the winter pruning 
 is practised as follows : 
 
 Fig. 144. Fruit-Branch, Second Pruning. 
 
 The fruit-branches proper (fig. 130), which have 
 borne during the preceding summer, have now grown 
 to the form of figure 144. The fruit-branch is cut 
 
164 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 at A ; the lower part E being intended to bear the 
 succession of fruit-branches, is called the stock-branch. 
 The branch B is selected for a new fruit-branch, and 
 must be cut at B, reserving a number of the fruit- 
 buds. The branch D, intended to replace branches 
 that have borne once and are now useless, must be 
 cut at D immediately above two wood-buds, the 
 nearest to the base, which will furnish two new 
 fruit-branches for the following year, and which must 
 be cut as we shall describe. It follows that the stock- 
 branch will bear every year two new fruit-branches, 
 one furthest removed from, the main branch, and 
 which is cut long, while the other, the replacer nearest 
 the base, is cut short above two of the lower buds. 
 This is called crochet pruning. 
 
 Sometimes the branch B, the best situated for 
 fruit-bearing, is without flower-buds. As it is too 
 far from the main branch to be the replacer, we cut 
 the primitive fruit-branch at E, and the branch D is 
 cut at F above one or two flower-buds, to serve as 
 replacers when wanted. 
 
 If there are no buds on any of these branches, we 
 cut the primitive branch at E, and then the branch 
 Fat D. 
 
 All the other branches having received, during the 
 preceding winter and summer, operations intended to 
 give them the form we have described, the same mode 
 of treatment must be applied to them. 
 
 It is important to remove every year, at the time 
 of the winter pruning, the tail ends of the peach stems, 
 which would otherwise injure the circulation of the 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 165 
 
 sap. All dry little stems and twigs must now be 
 removed. 
 
 The nailing or fastening up is the same as the 
 first year. When summer comes the disbudding must 
 be performed, only leaving, upon each fruit-bearing 
 branch (fig. 145), the shoots which accompany one 
 fruit ; all others must be removed. Thus, in the 
 figure 145, the three shoots C C and A must be re- 
 moved; the branch B bears the two shoots which will 
 replace the fruit-branches. If one of the two shoots 
 on B does not develop itself properly, we must preserve 
 the next one nearest to the base of the primitive fruit- 
 branch. 
 
 If any of the flower-buds preserved upon the fruit- 
 
 Fig. 145. Disbudding, Second Year. Fig. 146. Spring Pruning, Second Year. 
 
 branch have not produced a fertile flower, the branch 
 E must be cut at F (fig. 146), then the branch G 
 insures the success of the replacing branches. 
 The disbudding and green pruning of fruit-branches 
 
166 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 at the second year often involve the suppression of a 
 third part of the shoot. This occasions much trouble, 
 and the flow of gum is perhaps the result. It may be 
 desirable, therefore, not to perform the operation all at 
 
 Fig. 147. Fruit-Branch, Third Pruning. 
 
 one time, but at twice, first on the higher part of the 
 tree, and eight or ten days later on the lower half. 
 There is the additional advantage in this plan, that the 
 sap drawn in such great abundance towards the lower 
 part of the tree during these eight or ten days tends to 
 augment the vigour of this part, always less favoured 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 167 
 
 than the summit. The pinching, nailing up, removal 
 of superfluous fruit and leaves, ar*e all executed as 
 during the preceding summer. 
 
 Fourth Year. At the spring of the fourth year the 
 branches that have been treated as fig. 144, and which 
 have fructified during the summer, are now grown as 
 
 Fig. 148. Renewal of Peach Branch. Fig. 149. Renewal of Peach Branch. 
 
 fig. 147. The stock- branch which bears the old fruit - 
 branch D is cut at A ; the branch F at F to form the 
 replacer ; the branch C at C for the new fruit-branch. 
 This operation gives the same result at spring as before 
 described. The same pruning must be applied from 
 year to year. The other operations, both for summer 
 and winter are the same as for the third year. 
 
 It frequently happens that the stock-branches of 
 about three or four years' growth develop, towards 
 their base, one or more wood-buds (A, fig. 148). We 
 
168 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 may take advantage of this to renovate the stock- 
 branch that has become weak by successive prunings. 
 For this purpose, instead of the crochet pruning, we 
 preserve only the branch B, and cut it long for a fruit- 
 branch. Daring the summer all the shoots that ac- 
 company a fruit must be preserved, besides the one 
 which is nearest the base, and also one of the buds 
 appearing at A. At the end of a year we have ob- 
 tained the result represented by fig. 149. The primitive 
 branch B is then cut at C, and the branch which it 
 bears at its base at E : this last will be the fruit-branch. 
 The branch F is cut at Gr above two wood-buds which 
 furnish the replacers for the next year, at which time 
 the stock-branch becomes useless and is cut off at H. 
 
 TRAINING THE PEACH IN SIMPLE OBLIQUE CORDON. 
 
 Ten or twelve years are generally required to perfect 
 the wood of peach trees, trained as Verrier palmettes, 
 or one of the other large forms now in use. 
 
 Now the average duration of a peach as an espalier 
 is twenty years ; it appears, therefore, that we employ 
 the half of their existence to form their wood, and that 
 half the surface of the wall remains unoccupied during 
 five years. 
 
 Considering that the care and attention necessary to 
 obtain these forms, even the least complex of them, are 
 so complicated as to be beyond the time and means of 
 ordinary gardeners, we now propose a method that 
 will avoid these inconveniences altogether. This 
 method (see fig. 150) is the same that we have re- 
 
THE TEACH. 
 
 1G9 
 
170 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 commended and- described for espalier pears, which we 
 called the simple oblique cordon. We applied this 
 form to peaches, in the year 1843, at the Jardin des 
 Plantes, at Eouen. The operation is performed thus : 
 We choose for planting, young trees of one year, 
 from budding with only one stem (fig. 151) ; these are 
 
 Fig. 151. Oblique Cordon, 
 First Year. 
 
 Fig. 152. Oblique Cordon, 
 Second Year. 
 
 planted 30 inches apart, and inclined at first to an 
 angle of 60 degrees. At the first pruning they must 
 be cut at eight or twelve inches from their base, above 
 a front wood-bud (A, fig. 151). If there are any 
 irregular shoots below the cut, they must be entirely 
 removed from before and behind ; all the rest must be 
 cut above the two wood-buds nearest their base. 
 
THE PEACH. 171 
 
 During summer we promote as vigorously as pos- 
 sible the growth of the terminal shoot, and use the 
 necessary means to transform the other shoots into 
 fruit-branches. 
 
 The disbudding, green pruning, pinching, nailing up 
 in summer, and the rest are all performed as directed 
 for other forms of peach trees. In the following spring 
 each of the young trees resembles the figure 152. 
 
 At the second pruning we take off about one-third 
 of the entire length, cutting always above a front bud 
 (A, fig. 152). The fruit-branches must be pruned and 
 nailed up for the winter, as described for other forms. 
 We continue to extend the stem from year to year, 
 and to furnish its sides with fruit-branches only, 
 keeping the degree of inclination bofore described. 
 When they have attained two-thirds of their height, 
 we bend them to an angle of 45 degrees. If they 
 were inclined to this extent at once, it would stimulate 
 too powerfully the growth of the lower shoots to the 
 injury of the terminal one.. When the stems have 
 attained the height of the wall, the espalier is ter- 
 minated, and the extremities must be treated in the 
 manner directed for other peach trees that are com- 
 pletely formed. 
 
 No vacant space should be allowed upon the wall 
 from one end of the stems to the other. This kind of 
 espalier is commenced and terminated, as shown fig. 
 150, the same as the pear trees (pp. 110-12), and the 
 other directions for pears in simple oblique cordon also 
 apply to peaches. The advantages of this method of 
 growing are as great in one case as in the other. 
 
172 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 Tt'cUis for Peaches iti Single Oblique Cordon. If 
 a trellis be preferred, the following will be found the 
 simplest and least costly form (fig. 153). It is made 
 as follows : 
 
 Fix at A a galvanised iron wire ; pass it through 
 the eyes of the iron hold- fasts, driven into the wall at 
 B and C ; then upon the round nails D and E ; then 
 bring it down, and through the hold-fasts F and Gr, 
 then upon the nails H and I, then up and through the 
 hold-fasts J and K, and fix it at L. Commence a new 
 length of wire, fastening it at JS", and continue as 
 before to the end of the wall. These first lines of 
 thick iron wire, fixed as we have directed, thirty 
 inches apart, and inclined to an angle of forty-five 
 degrees, will support the stems of the peach trees. 
 The winter fastening, and the support of the fruit- 
 branches, are provided for by two other lines of thinner 
 iron wire placed on each side of the first, one about 
 two and a half inches from the stem, the other about 
 eight inches. One of these iron wires is fixed at <?, 
 then taken up to, and through, the hold-fast b, then 
 round the nails c and d, then down and through the 
 hold-fast e, round the nails / and g, through the hold- 
 fast h, over the nails i and /, through the hold-fast k, 
 and is fixed at I. A fresh wire is then fastened at the 
 right of the thick wire, and continued to the end of 
 the wall. 
 
 We use for fixing the wires the iron hold-fast and 
 round nails described at page 106 ; and the tighteners, 
 described at page 107, are placed at the points P, 
 to tighten the wires. This kind of trellis costs (in 
 
THE 1'EACII. 
 
 173 
 
174 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 France) lOd. per square yard, not including the cost 
 of fixing. 
 
 Pruning the Peach in Vertical Cordon. When the 
 wall is as high as twelve feet or more, it may be pre- 
 ferable to train peaches in vertical cordon, as described 
 for pear trees (p. 119). In this case, the trees are 
 planted two feet apart, and trained in the same way as 
 pear trees of this form. If a trellis be used, it should 
 be the same as the one just described, only the lines of 
 wire must be vertical. 
 
 MODE OF FORMING FRUIT-BRANCHES ON THE 
 PEACH. 
 
 The mode of training that we have already described 
 is that which has been universally recommended and 
 followed up to the present time. 
 
 For some years, however, we have been occupied 
 with a new method, of which we did not intend to say 
 anything until time had sufficiently proved its advan- 
 tages. The new form* was first practised in 1847, by 
 M. Picot-Amet, of Aincourt, near Magny, and a little 
 later by M. Grin, sen., of Bourgneuf, Chartres, but 
 with great improvements. We saw, in October, 1856, 
 at M. Grin's, such striking results from this method, 
 which had been practised by him for five years upon 
 the same trees, that we do not hesitate to recommend 
 
 * This method is not altogether so new as may be supposed, for the 
 leading principles of it are described by an English writer, and in the 
 Jardinier Solitaire, published in 1712. But to M. Grin belongs the 
 merit of re-discovery and directing public attention to it. 
 
THE PEACH. 175 
 
 it in preference to all others. The mode of practising 
 it is as follows : 
 
 When the shoots of the successive branch extensions 
 (fig. 154) have attained a length of about three inches, 
 suppress only the buds behind, then the double or 
 treble buds, so as to have only one bud at each 
 point. The front buds must be preserved. At the 
 
 Fig. 154. First Pinching of Shoots. 
 
 same time, these buds must be vigorously pinched off 
 by the nail at A (fig. 154), above two of the lower 
 leaves that are well developed. We do not count the 
 small partially developed leaves, B, which often form 
 a rosette at the lower part of the shoot. 
 
176 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 Very soon after,, we see new shoots springing from 
 the foot of the leaves A A (fig. 155). These must be 
 pinched as soon as they are two inches long, above 
 their first leaf. 
 
 The irregular shoots will still spring from the base 
 of the latter, as shown at A (fig. 156) ; but the season 
 
 Fig. 155. Second Pinching of Irregular Shoot. 
 
 is too far advanced, and the sap acts with less force, so 
 that the development is feeble, often attaining to a 
 length of little more than an inch or two. Those at 
 the top are the only ones that lengthen much. All of 
 them are pinched above their first leaf, when they are 
 about two inches long. If new shoots appear after 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 177 
 
 this third pinching, they must be suppressed entirely. 
 After the fall of the leaves, and at the winter pruning, 
 these different shoots give place to a mass of branches, 
 shown by figs. 157 and 158. 
 
 Fig. 156. Irregular Shoots, pinched above the First Leaf. 
 
 The different pinchings that we have described have 
 had the effect of gradually weakening the shoots, by 
 concentrating the action of the sap towards the exten- 
 sion shoot of the principal branch, Thus all the 
 
 i3 
 
178 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 shoots have given place to branches less vigorous, and 
 which are covered with flower-buds. 
 
 In pruning these branches, we cut at the points A 
 (figs. 157 and 158), so as to preserve only the fruit- 
 buds of the lower part. During the following summer, 
 the new shoots, which give rise to certain wood-buds 
 
 Fig. 157. New Treatment of Fruit-Branch. 
 
 among the flower-buds, and which develop at the same 
 time as the fruit, must be removed by pinching, as 
 during the previous summer, and at the winter pruning 
 must be cut still shorter, to concentrate the action of 
 the sap towards the base, and to give rise to new fruit 
 
THE PEACH. 179 
 
 productions. The same mode of operating must be 
 repeated from year to year. 
 
 The irregular shoots C (fig. 159), which spring very 
 
 Fig. 153. Another Fruit-Branch, after the same Treatment as Fig. 157. 
 
 numerously upon the shoots of the branch extension 
 must be pinched off, those at the back entirely, and 
 
180 FRUIT TREKS. 
 
 the rest pinched as soon as the second pair of leaves 
 appear, and the eyes of the lower leaves are formed, the 
 leaves at the base being alone retained. If this is 
 performed too late, the pair of leaves at the base are 
 drawn out by the lengthening of the shoot, and there 
 will be at the winter pruning a branch resembling the 
 figure 160. If the operation be performed too soon, 
 
 Fig. 159. Irregular Shoot, pinched Short. 
 
 before the eyes of the lower leaves are properly formed, 
 the shoot will wither, as shown at fig. 161. When, 
 however, the operation is performed at the proper time, 
 the shoot ceases to grow longer, and the lower pair of 
 leaves remain at the base. At the time of winter 
 pruning the branch is constituted, as shown at figs. 162 
 and 163. 
 
 It not unfrequently occurs that the irregular shoots 
 develop so vigorously that, notwithstanding pinching, 
 their stems continue lengthening and draw out with 
 
THE PEACH. 
 
 181 
 
 them the two lower leaves. To avoid this, M. Grin 
 recommends an operation, of which we have proved the 
 
 Fig. 1GO. Irregular Branch with One Shoot, pinched too late. 
 
 efficacy. As soon as one of the vigorous shoots appears, 
 an incision about half an inch long is made with the 
 point of the grafting-knife on one of its sides of attach- 
 ment to the principal shoot A (fig. 159). The incision 
 
182 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 checks the growth of the shoot it produces, and the 
 eyes of the lower leaves develop. After six or seven 
 days they must be pinched as before directed. The 
 result of these operations is shown at fig. 163. All the 
 irregular shoots having been pinched the first time, 
 there spring up on many of them one or two genera- 
 tions of shoots. These must be pinched above the leaf 
 nearest to the base, the same as directed for buds 
 proper. These operations result in branches formed as 
 figures 160 and 162. We then cut them at B. 
 
 Fig. 161. Irregular Shoot, pinched too soon. 
 
 Possibly these repeated pinchings practised upon 
 the irregular shoots may result in a small branch 
 covered only with flower-buds (fig. 164). If left to 
 fructify, it will wither after the fruit is gathered, 
 leaving a bare place. To avoid this, it will be advisable 
 to suppress all the flower-buds at the winter pruning 
 (fig. 165), then make a deep incision at A, penetrating 
 below the insertion of the branch. We shall then see 
 at the following spring, near the base, new shoots, 
 better constituted, and which must be pinched short. 
 
 The same kind of incision, practised at the same 
 period, at the base of the long irregular branch 
 (tig. 160), will result in new shoots, but only in the 
 
THE PEACH. 183 
 
 following spring. To facilitate this operation, prune 
 the top of these branches very close. We take ad- 
 vantage of these new shoots to obtain a better formed 
 branch. 
 
 The advantages resulting from this method of treat- 
 ing peach trees are as follow : 
 
 1. We dispense with the summer fastening up of 
 the shoots, and of the fruit-branches in winter ; this 
 allows of an ordinary trellis being used, such as for 
 other fruit trees, of much less expense. Thus, for 
 palmettes or other large forms we can use the trellis, 
 fig. 94 (p. 106) ; for trees in an oblique cordon that 
 described at page 116. 
 
 2. The winter and summer pruning is much simplified, 
 and brought within the capacity of every gardener. 
 
 Fig. 162. Irregular Branch with Shoot, pinched at proper time. 
 
 3. The fruit-branches may, by this method, be re- 
 tained in front of the wood-branches, the front being 
 
181 
 
 FRUIT TREKS. 
 
 protected from the. heat of the sun by the leaves. By 
 the old method this could not be done, the fruit only 
 growing on both sides of the branches. 
 
 4. The shoots and fruit- branches being kept much 
 shorter, it is no longer necessary to leave between the 
 wood-branches a space of 20 or 24 inches for the fasten- 
 ing np of the shoots and branches, an interval of twelve 
 
 Fig. 163. Small Irregular Branch with one Shoot. 
 
 inches being sufficient by the new method. By this 
 means the number of principal branches may be doubled 
 on a given' surface of wall, and the quantity of fruit 
 will be also double. 
 
 Fig. 164. Irregular Branch, bearing only Fruit-Buds. 
 
 Peach trees trained as Yerrier palmettes submitted to 
 this modification will present the appearance of the 
 
THE PEACH. 185 
 
 pear tree figured page 96, and those of the ohlique 
 cordon, page 108. 
 
 True it is that the last advantage must be accom- 
 panied by an inconvenience in certain circumstances, 
 when, for example, the trees are in the palmette or 
 other large form. In this case it will be necessary to 
 double the number of the principal branches. Now, as 
 in general we are only able to obtain one set of these 
 
 Fig. 165. Being Fig. 164 deprived of the Buds. 
 
 side branches in a year, it follows that the wood cannot 
 be made to cover completely the space it would occupy 
 by the former method until after a lapse of sixteen or 
 eighteen years, or half as long again. 
 
 The medium duration of the peach is twenty years ; 
 this new mode of management, therefore, loses its most 
 important advantage in the case of large single peach 
 trees. The new mode is of the greatest value when 
 applied to peaches trained in vertical or oblique cordon. 
 The trees need only to be planted at from thirteen to 
 
186 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 sixteen inches apart, instead of from 24 to 30 inches, 
 as by the former method. 
 
 The plan is not only applicable to future planting, 
 but quite as much so to trees already planted, be their 
 age less or more. The method of proceeding is as 
 follows : 
 
 1. For trees that have been planted one year in 
 oblique cordon, 30 inches apart, leave them to complete 
 their second summer's . growth, and in November 
 shift them, bringing them within sixteen inches of 
 each other. 
 
 2. Those that have been planted a year longer treat 
 in the same manner. 
 
 3. Those trees that are of greater age, whatever be 
 their form, cut the fruit-branches above the flower-buds 
 nearest to the base ; then, during the following summer, 
 pinch back the shoots at the base of these branches. 
 At the winter pruning suppress altogether the primitive 
 fruit-branches ; and the new branches resulting from 
 the short pinchings must be cut off in the new manner. 
 
 The new method offers but a part of its advantages 
 in the case of older trees, on account of the too great 
 intervals between the principal branches. This may 
 be remedied in the case of trees planted in cordon, by 
 allowing a gourmand shoot to grow from the base of 
 each peach tree, and obtaining from them a second 
 series of stems, to be bent in the same manner as the 
 rest. In the case of the larger trees the inconvenience 
 will remain, but we shall obtain by the new method 
 the advantage of doing away with the nailing and 
 fastening up both in summer and winter. 
 
THE PEACH. 187 
 
 We conclude by two observations which are of great 
 importance for the success of this mode of training. 
 
 1. It will not be advisable to apply the shoot pinch- 
 ing until the trees have been planted one year. During 
 the first year we must be content with the old method 
 of pinching. At the winter pruning all the branches 
 must be cut back above the bud nearest the base, and 
 the shoot that springs from it must be pinched short. 
 By this method the reforming of the tree is facilitated, 
 and it furnishes the trees during the first summer with 
 a great number of shoots. 
 
 2. The short pinching of the regular shoots ought 
 to be commenced as soon as possible, that is, when the 
 shoots have attained a suitable length. This must be 
 followed up without interruption as shoots continue to 
 lengthen. If this be delayed or be repeated too seldom, 
 there will be too many shoots pinched at one time, 
 which would stop vegetation in all parts of the tree, 
 gum disease will set in, the fruit fall off, and, it may 
 be, the tree will perish. These accidents, which make 
 some persons condemn short pinching altogether, may 
 be avoided by pinching soon enough and successively, 
 in the course of fifteen or twenty days, so that the 
 vegetation pursues its proper course unchecked from 
 the first to the last pinchings. 
 
 Such is the mode of performing the new method of 
 treating the fruit-branches of peach trees. By follow- 
 ing it intelligently we obtain at once the valuable 
 results we have pointed out, and which induce us to 
 persevere in the new method. 
 
188 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 THE PLUM. 
 
 Soil. The soil most suitable for tlie plum is a rather 
 open calcareous clay. As the roots do not strike down- 
 wards to any extent, a great depth of earth is not re- 
 quired. Sandy or damp soils are wholly unsuitable. 
 
 Choice of Trees. It is usual to purchase the plants 
 already grafted, but if it is preferred to graft after- 
 wards, the method is as follows : 
 
 Grafting. The plum is grafted on stocks of the same 
 species, generally obtained from shoots or suckers, 
 which spring up in great numbers round the lower part 
 of trees whose roots have been wounded from whatever 
 cause. These shoots are planted out and then grafted. 
 This mode of cultivation is, however, objectionable. 
 We obtain in this way nothing but trees without proper 
 roots, which do not take good hold of the soil, and ex- 
 haust themselves by the suckers that they throw out in 
 great abundance ; besides, they will not stand any 
 degree of drought, and never acquire the dimensions 
 of large trees. It is much better to use stocks obtained 
 from plum stones, choosing from the most vigorous 
 varieties. 
 
 The grafts a#e the same as recommended for the 
 pear, budding being generally preferred as the most 
 
THE PLUM. 
 
 189 
 
 certain. Budding is generally performed in the month 
 of July. 
 
 Varieties. At the present time there are more than 
 eighty varieties of the plum in cultivation, which may 
 be divided into two groups : those eaten in their fresh 
 state, and those dried as prunes. We give a list of 
 some of the best varieties ripening at various periods. 
 
 NAMES AND SYNONYMES. 
 
 ENGLISH 
 NAMES. 
 
 WHEN BJPE. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 ASPECT. 
 
 De Monfort 
 
 
 End of July. Au 
 Begin, of Aug... 
 
 End of August . 
 
 End of August . 
 Begin, of Sept.. 
 Middle of Sept.. 
 Middle of Sept.. 
 End of Sept 
 
 Begin, of Oct.... 
 End of October 
 
 Begin, of Sept.. 
 
 Middle of Sept.. 
 Middle of Sept.. 
 
 End of Sept 
 End of Sept 
 
 Stand. Espal 
 Stand. Espal 
 
 Stand. Espal. 
 
 Stand. Espal. 
 Stand. Espal. 
 Stand. Espal. 
 Stand. Espal. 
 Stand. Espal. 
 
 Stand. Espal. 
 Standard 
 
 Standard 
 
 Standard 
 Standard 
 
 Standard 
 Standard 
 
 E W S 
 W S 
 
 E W S 
 
 W S 
 
 W S 
 W S 
 E W S 
 
 E 
 
 De Monsieur 
 
 
 Gros Mtif. 
 Eeine-Claude ordinaire . . 
 
 Verte-et-lonne. 
 Heine- Claude, abricot, vert. 
 Heine Victoria 
 
 Green Gage... 
 Victoria 
 
 Petite Mirabelle 
 Reine-Claude r. Van Mons 
 Reine-Claude violette 
 Eeine-Claude de Bayay .. 
 
 Coe' s Golden Drop 
 
 Waterloo. 
 De la Saint-Martin 
 
 Purple Gage.. 
 Reine-Claude 
 de Bavay 
 Coe's Golden 
 Drop 
 
 *D'Agen 
 *Pobe de Sergent. 
 ^Washington 
 *Pond's Seedling 
 
 *Couestche d'ltalie 
 
 Washington.. 
 Pond's Seed- 
 ling 
 
 *Fette,rtiberg. 
 * Prune suisse. 
 *Sainte-Catherine 
 
 Catharine 
 
 Those marked with an Asterisk (*) are Plums for Drying. 
 
 A Selected List of Plums for General Cultivation in 
 England. The sorts are arranged in the order of their 
 ripening, which is desirable and necessary in writing a 
 list of fruits. We are indebted to the French for the 
 greater number of the sorts of plums now in cultiva- 
 tion in this country. The plum does not thrive so 
 
190 
 
 FllUIT TREES. 
 
 well trained as an espalier. In the list those marked 
 with an asterisk do best on a wall, the rest are 
 standards. 
 
 NAMES OF PLUSIS FOR 
 DESSERT. 
 
 NAMES OF PLUMS FOR 
 COOKING. 
 
 PLUMS FOR WALLS. 
 
 *July Green Gage. 
 
 Early Orleans. 
 
 July Green Gage. 
 
 Peach. 
 
 Mrs. Gisborn's. 
 
 Coe's Golden Drop. 
 
 *Perdrigon Violet. 
 
 Goliath. 
 
 Green Gage. 
 
 Hative. 
 
 Prince of Wales. 
 
 Purple Gage. 
 
 * Green Gage. 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 Italian Quetsche. 
 
 *Purple Gage. 
 
 *Diamond. 
 
 Blue Imperative. 
 
 * Jefferson. 
 
 
 Ickworth Imperative. 
 
 Kirke's. 
 
 
 
 
 FOR PRESERVING. 
 
 PLUMS FOR STANDARDS. 
 
 *Coe's Golden Drop. 
 
 Green Gage. 
 
 Early Prolific. 
 
 *Reine-Claude de Ba- 
 
 * White Magnum Bo- 
 
 Early Orleans. 
 
 vay. 
 
 num. 
 
 Orleans. 
 
 Coe's Late Red. 
 
 Washington. 
 
 Prince of Wales. 
 
 Cooper's Large. 
 
 Wine Sour. 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 Late Orleans. 
 
 Damson. 
 
 Pond's Seedling. 
 
 
 * Diamond. 
 
 (Very good.) 
 
 
 Autumn Compote. 
 
 Coe's Late Red. 
 
 
 
 Damsor,. 
 
 TRAINING AND PRUNING. 
 
 The plum is cultivated either in the garden or 
 orchard. It is usual to plant in gardens as standards, 
 not as espaliers, but this is a mistake ; espaliers produce 
 a better quality of fruit than standards. The best 
 forms for standards are the pyramid and contra double 
 espalier in vertical cordon ; and for espaliers, the Yerrier 
 palmette, simple oblique cordon, and vertical cordon. 
 For trees planted in the orchard the tall standard form 
 is the best. We proceed to inquire what treatment 
 these four forms of the plum require. 
 
THE PLUM. 
 
 191 
 
 TRAINING THE PLUM IN PYRAMID FORM. 
 
 Formation of the Wood. The mode of proceeding 
 in this case is the same as for the pear. Trees one 
 
 Fig. 166. First Year's Pruning for 
 forming Fruit-Bud Branches. 
 
 Fig. 167. Second Year's Pruning 
 of Fruit-Branches. 
 
 year old from the graft are placed at the same distance 
 apart. We have nothing to add to the directions 
 previously given for the pear. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF FRUIT-BRANCHES. 
 
 First Year. Take one of the lateral branches of the 
 pyramid (fig. 166). This branch presents at the spring 
 following its first year nothing but wood-buds. During 
 
192 Fill 'IT TREES. 
 
 the following summer the branch which has been cut 
 at A, in order to make it develop all its buds, including 
 those at the base, has transformed each of them into 
 shoots more or less vigorous as they are nearer the 
 extremity of the branch or further from it. Those at 
 the lower part B only develop very minute shoots ; 
 those at C, growing about the middle, attain a length 
 of from two to four and a half inches ; lastly, those at 
 D will perhaps grow to from eight to twenty inches in 
 length. These last, with the exception of the terminal 
 shoot, are pinched off when, they have attained a length 
 of four inches, in order to transform them into fruit- 
 branches and to favour the extension of the terminal 
 shoot. We suppress besides all the double and treble 
 shoots, preserving the most feeble or most vigorous, 
 according as it is desired to obtain fruit-branches or an 
 extension of the branch. 
 
 Second Year. At the spring which follows, this 
 branch presents the aspect of figure 167. The very 
 small branches at the base B support a group of flower- 
 buds, in the centre of which is a wood-bud which will 
 form the extension of this small fruit-branch. These 
 small branches must remain untouched. Others that 
 are larger, 0, and which bear flower-buds about the 
 middle part, and wood-buds at the top, must be cut 
 back. Those at D that are too long and too vigorous 
 must be shortened by complete or partial fracture, as 
 they are more or less vigorous, in the manner we have 
 explained for the pear trees. These cuttings are neces- 
 sary in order to obtain new branches towards the base, 
 for it must not be forgotten that the fruit-branches of 
 
THE PLUM. 
 
 193 
 
 stone fruits only bear fruit once. During the follow- 
 ing summer we pinch again those of the new extensions 
 that have attained a length of two or three inches. 
 
 Fig. 168. Third Year's Pruning of Fruit-Branches. 
 
 Third Year. At the third spring the branch is 
 constituted as figure 168. It will be observed that the 
 small branches B and C have grown a little, and those 
 at D have shot out new branches ; most of these last 
 must be cut back a little in order to diminish the 
 number of the blossoms, and to prevent the too great 
 lengthening of the shoots. The same operations must 
 be continued from year to year, carefully cutting back, 
 not only the branches D, which will continue to 
 lengthen, but still more C and B, in order to develop 
 new replacing branches towards the base. 
 
 K 
 
194 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 PLUMS AS DOUBLE CONTRA ESPALIERS IN VERTICAL 
 CORDON. 
 
 The same methods are used as directed for pears of 
 the same form. 
 
 PLUMS AS ESPALIERS TERRIER'S PALMETTE. 
 
 In this case also the same process is adopted as for 
 pears. The fruit-branches must be treated as described 
 for plums in the pyramid form. Space between each 
 tree should be allowed, so as to afford about twenty 
 square yards upon the wall for every tree. 
 
 PLUMS IN SINGLE OBLIQUE AND VERTICAL CORDON. 
 
 These are particularly suitable forms for the plum. 
 The same operations are required as for the pear. 
 The vertical cordon is suitable under the same circum- 
 stances as for the pear, viz., for walls at least five yards 
 high. 
 
 PLUMS AS TALL STANDARDS. 
 
 
 
 This form is suitable only for orchards. The same 
 mode of treatment as the pear. 
 
THE CHERRY. 195 
 
 THE CHEEKY. 
 
 Soil. The cherry prefers a dry to a damp situation, 
 and a sandy, and, most of all, chalky soil of medium 
 consistency. 
 
 Grafting. The cherry is grafted on two kinds of 
 stocks, the St. Lucie plum and wild cherry. The St. 
 Lucie plum is preferable for low- stemmed trees of 
 whatever form. These trees both look better, and 
 accommodate themselves more easily to all situations. 
 The stocks from the wild cherry produce the most 
 vigorous trees, but are more liable to gum, and require 
 a better soil. They are only suitable for tall standards. 
 
 The shield graft is the kind generally used, except 
 for the wild cherry stock, which may be grafted with 
 the cleft or crown graft, if too old for the shield graft. 
 The St. Lucie is shield grafted at the beginning of 
 September, the wild cherry in August. 
 
 Varieties. About eighty varieties of the cherry are 
 cultivated ; we recommend the following selection for 
 coming to maturity at successive periods : 
 
 [The cherry thrives best in a light sandy loam upon 
 a dry sub- soil, and the stock most suitable for English 
 culture (except for pots in orchard houses) is that 
 
 K2 
 
196 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 raised from seed from the wild black cherry. The 
 cherry is grafted in March, or more commonly budded 
 in July or August. For standards they are best 
 budded near the ground, as they then grow a tall 
 straight stem. ED.] 
 
 NAMES AND SYNONYMES. 
 
 WHEN RIPE. 
 
 FORJI. 
 
 ASPECT. 
 
 Bigarreau de mai 
 
 End of May 
 
 Espalier 
 
 s 
 
 Angleterre hative 
 May Duke. 
 Belle de Choisy 
 
 Beginning of June 
 June 
 
 Espalier 
 Espalier 
 
 E W S 
 W S 
 
 Doucette. 
 Griotte de Chaux 
 
 End of June 
 
 Espalier 
 
 W S 
 
 Griotte d' Attemagne. 
 Royale cherry-Duke 
 
 End of June . . . 
 
 Stand. Espa 
 
 W S 
 
 Dowton "..., 
 
 Beginning of July 
 
 Stand. Espa. 
 
 W S 
 
 Noire de Pnisse . ... 
 
 Beginning of July 
 
 Stand. Espa. 
 
 W S 
 
 Reine Hortense 
 
 Beginning of July 
 
 Stand Espa 
 
 E W S 
 
 Monstrueuse de Bavay. 
 Belle de Sceaux . . 
 
 End of July 
 
 Stand. Espa. 
 
 E W S 
 
 Belle de Chatenay. 
 Marello de Charmeux 
 
 End of Aug. to end Oct. 
 
 Stand. Espa. 
 
 EWE 
 
 [The following is a selected list of cherries suitable 
 for English cultivation. They will all do well in the 
 open ground as standards or espaliers, but the dessert 
 kinds are improved by being grown against a wall ; 
 they will be earlier, and the flavour better. ED.] 
 
 DESSERT. 
 
 June or middle of July. 
 
 Belle d' Orleans. 
 
 Early Prolific. 
 
 Monstrous Heart. 
 
 Mammoth. 
 July to middle of August. 
 
 Knight's Early Black. 
 
 May Duke. 
 
 Waterloo. 
 
 Black Eagle. 
 Elton. 
 
 Jeffry's Duke. 
 August. 
 
 Florence. 
 
 Coe's Late Carnation. 
 
 Late Duke. 
 
 Kentish. 
 
 Morello. 
 
THE CHERRY. 
 
 197 
 
 ORCHARDS. 
 
 May Duke. 
 Elton. 
 
 Black Hawk. 
 Hogg's Black Gem. 
 
 Mammoth. 
 Late Duke. 
 Knight's Early Black. 
 Early Prolific. 
 
 PKUNING AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The cherry resembles the plum in its mode of growth 
 and fructification ; we have, therefore, little to add to 
 the directions given for the plum. 
 
 Fig. 169. Fruit-Branch of Cherry 
 a Year Old. 
 
 Fig. 170. Fruit-Branch 
 Two Years. 
 
 The cherry is grown chiefly in three forms : the 
 
198 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 standard for orchards ; the pyramid, the double vertical 
 cordon, and espalier for the fruit-garden ; Verrier 
 palmette and oblique simple cordon are the forms we 
 recommend for espaliers, to which may be added the 
 vertical cordon. 
 
 The management of the wood and the fruit branches 
 is the same as for the plum. Thus the shoots which 
 grow upon the last extension of the wood-branches, 
 being pinched at three or four inches in the summer, 
 produce, as the result, a branch resembling fig. 169. 
 At the winter pruning these are cut at A. After 
 another year's growth these branches present the 
 aspect of fig. 170. They are next cut at B, in order to 
 force back the sap to the lower part, to obtain new 
 fruit-buds, and so on from year to year= 
 
THE APRICOT. 
 
 190 
 
 THE APEICOT. 
 
 Climate and Soil. The apricot ripens in all climates 
 of France ; but as it blossoms early, its fructification is 
 often destroyed by the late frosts of spring. Thus its 
 cultivation as a standard is not profitable further north 
 than Paris. In a colder climate than this it must be 
 trained exclusively as an espalier [wall tree]. This is 
 an unfortunate necessity ; for, contrary in this respect 
 to its allied species, the flavour of espalier apricots is 
 much inferior to that of standards. The soil best suited 
 for the apricot is the same as for the plum. 
 
 Grafting. The apricot is always multiplied by 
 shield grafting (budding) upon plum stocks. 
 
 Varieties. The apricot has about twenty varieties, 
 of which the following are the best : 
 
 NAMES AND SYNONYMES. 
 
 WHEN BIPB. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 ASPECT. 
 
 Musch 
 
 Middle of July 
 
 Stand. Espa. 
 
 E W S 
 
 Montgamet 
 
 End of July 
 Beginning of August 
 
 Stand. Espa. 
 Stand. Espa. 
 
 E W S 
 E W S 
 
 Royal 
 Peche 
 
 Middle of August 
 End of August 
 
 Stand. Espa. 
 Stand. Espa. 
 
 E W S 
 E W S 
 
 De Nancy, 
 Beaug6 
 
 Beginning of Sept 
 
 Stand. Espa. 
 
 E W S 
 
 
 
 
 
200 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 A selection of the most desirable apricots for culti- 
 vation in England : 
 
 Moorpark Apricot, ripe beginning of September. The best bearer 
 
 and most desirable for general cultivation. 
 Roman Apricot, an excellent bearer when the tree gets a little v 
 
 aged, or arrives at maturity ; ripens about the middle of August. 
 Orange Apricot, ripens in August. 
 Hemskirke Apricot, ripe about the second week in August. 
 
 The above apricots succeed well on a wall on any 
 intermediate aspect from east to west. 
 
 [The apricot is one of our principal English wall 
 fruits, as it comes into bearing earlier, and ripens its 
 fruit more quickly than any other tree that requires 
 the assistance of a wall. It will not ripen its fruit even 
 in the south of England (to depend upon for a crop) 
 either as an espalier or a standard. It requires the best 
 situation against a wall, especially in the midland and 
 more northern parts of England. The different kinds 
 of apricots are propagated by budding, in July or 
 August, on plum stocks, two of the best of which are 
 the Muscle plum and the Brussels plum ; the first is 
 more generally used. ED.] 
 
 PRUNING AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The apricot, as before stated, is best cultivated as a 
 standard, where the climate or situation is such as to 
 insure the preservation of its fruit from the frosts of 
 early spring. In the fruit-garden it may be trained 
 in the goblet form, or better as an espalier. The form 
 may be Verrier palmette, or simple oblique cordon. 
 Choose the best and most sheltered situation in the 
 
THE APRICOT. 
 
 201 
 
 garden, and cultivate against a trellis (fig. 171). The 
 trellis C is fastened to the supports B, placed six feet 
 apart, and being at least seven feet in height ; any of 
 the forms of espaliers may be adopted that have been 
 previously described. About the middle of February 
 fasten straw matting, A, behind the trellis, extending 
 from the top to the bottom, make this quite secure, 
 and then fix a roof of straw or matting, E E, at the top, 
 projecting about two feet. This shelter will protect 
 
 Fig. 171. Cover for Apricots 
 in Contra Espalier. 
 
 Fig. 172. Apricot Fruit-Branch 
 before Pruning. 
 
 the trees from cold. They may be taken off at the end 
 of May, and the apricots will grow and ripen as well as 
 upon standards. 
 
 The management of the fruit-branches is the same as 
 
 K3 
 
202 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 that of the two preceding species ; thus the branch A 
 (fig. 172) is the result of pinching practised upon the 
 shoots that spring from the new extension of one of 
 
 Fig. 173. Apricot Fruit- 
 Branch, Pruning ne- 
 glected. 
 
 Fig. 174.^Fruit-Branch, -Fig. 175. Another Fruit- 
 Year after First Prun- Branch, Year after 
 ing. First Pruning. 
 
 the branches. If left entire until the winter pruning, 
 they will fructify and send out a new terminal branch 
 (A ? fig. 173) ; if this is left entire, it will lengthen 
 itself again, and thus year after year become weaker 
 until it will finally disappear, leaving a vacant space. 
 
THE AFRICOT. 203 
 
 It will be necessary to cut back the branch at A 
 (fig. 172), preserving a sufficient number of flower- 
 buds to force the sap towards the base, in order to 
 obtain new fruit-branches. The result of this operation 
 will be a new branch, like the figures 174 and 175. In 
 the first case (fig. 174) the primitive branch B at a y 
 and the new fruit-branch A at b, are cut in order to 
 obtain again the same result. On fig. 175 we suppress 
 one of the small branches at A to make a new fruit- 
 branch spring from the base, and so on every year. 
 
204 FRUIT TREES. 
 
 EESTOEATION 
 
 OF 
 
 BADLY-TEAINED AND AGED TEEES. 
 
 FEW trees are trained in the careful manner prescribed 
 in the foregoing pages. It is not, therefore, a matter 
 of surprise that a great number fail to be so productive 
 and profitable as probably would be the case if they 
 were properly trained. Are they then to be destroyed 
 and replaced by new ones ? No. In most cases they 
 may be restored by suitable operations, if not to perfect 
 symmetry, yet to as much regularity and fertility as 
 they are capable of. 
 
 All fruit trees, however carefully managed, become 
 weak and comparatively barren when they have ex- 
 ceeded a certain age. Trees in this condition ought 
 not in all cases to be destroyed, for they may for the 
 most part be renovated. As profitable results may be 
 obtained by this means sooner than by planting a new 
 orchard, the subject is one of much importance. 
 
 EESTORATION or BADLY-TRAINED TREES. 
 
 We shall treat standards and espaliers separately. 
 Standards. The lower side branches of standard 
 trees intended for the pyramidal form are generally 
 
RESTORATION OF BADLY-TRATNED TREES. 
 
 205 
 
 pruned too short, and those immediately above them 
 too long. The result is, that nearly all the sap flows 
 towards the top of the tree, leaving little for the lower 
 part, and the branches towards the base are arrested in 
 their growth before they have attained their proper 
 
 Fig. 176. Restoration of a Young Pyramidal Tree. 
 
 length ; owing to this cause, the lower branches bear a 
 too great abundance of fruit, which weakens them, and 
 gradually they die off, the tree running to head. 
 
 If the trees are not higher than five or six feet 
 (fig. 176), and retain sufficient vigour, it is best to cut 
 
206 RESTORATION OF 
 
 them at about 20 inches above the ground, and to cut 
 
 Fig. 177. Eestoration of an Old Pyramidal Tree. 
 
BADLY-TRAINED AND AGED TREES. 207 
 
 back the lateral branches, B, to the stem, and after- 
 wards proceed in " the same way as for young trees 
 intended for the standards of the pyramidal form, from 
 their first start. 
 
 But when the tree has attained a height of twelve or 
 fifteen feet, as fig. 177, and the base of the stem is still 
 provided with a certain number of branches, two-thirds 
 only of the total height should be cut away ; and the 
 branches situated immediately below cut back to about 
 one and a half inches from the stem. The branches 
 quite at the base must be left entire. The branches 
 situated between these two points must be cut so that 
 their highest points maintain an oblique line from the 
 extremities of the lower branches to those of the 
 branches at the top of the tree. It is also necessary to 
 make incisions upon the stem, either to determine the 
 formation of new lateral branches, where they are 
 deficient, or to strengthen feeble branches or those that 
 have been newly grafted upon the stem by approach on 
 the Richard side graft (pp. 5 and 17), where incisions 
 alone have not succeeded in developing new shoots. If, 
 however, the lower branches are too feeble, relatively 
 to those situated at the point where the stem is cut, 
 and also if their number is insufficient, it may be neces- 
 sary to cut them away altogether, in order to develop a 
 new series of side branches. 
 
 During the following summer the growth of the 
 lower branches must be accelerated by -pinching those 
 at the summit, with the exception of that, however, 
 which has been retained for lengthening the stem. At 
 the winter pruning the lower branches should be left 
 
208 RESTORATION OF 
 
 almost entire, and the others cut back successively, 
 giving a length of six inches to those at the top, and of 
 twelve to the central one which continues the stem. 
 
 During the following summer the sap is again forced 
 back towards the lower part by means of continued 
 pinchings, and the tree will then shortly begin to 
 assume the desired pyramidal form. 
 
 Espaliers. It is necessary to make a distinction 
 between the treatment of pepin and stone fruit. 
 
 In proceeding to restore pear or apple trees, of what- 
 ever age, provided they are sufficiently vigorous, to a 
 regular form, we seek among the various ramifications 
 at the base three branches, one to form the new stem, 
 and the other two for the first principal side branches. 
 All the other branches are removed, and the two side 
 ones cut back to about twelve inches. The stem is cut 
 immediately above the place where the second stage of 
 side branches ought to spring. Afterwards the treat- 
 ment is the same as for palmettes, previously described. 
 
 If the trees contain no branches suitable for the 
 purpose, they must be cut at twelve inches above the 
 ground to make them develop three shoots proper for 
 commencing the wood of the palmette. 
 
 These methods of renovating pepin fruits will 
 almost always prove successful, because they possess 
 the property of developing new shoots upon even the 
 most aged branches ; but this does not apply to stone 
 fruits, and particularly not to peaches. Their restora- 
 tion is therefore much more difficult, however vigorous 
 they may be. 
 
 Restoration in this case can only be assured when 
 
BADLY-TRAINED AND AGED TREES. 209 
 
 there are young branches so situated that they can be 
 used for forming the new wood, or in their absence 
 a bud or a small shoot at the base. In the former case 
 we only reserve the branches useful for forming the 
 new wood ; in the second case we cut oif the stem en- 
 tirely above the leading or small shoot, and when this 
 is developed make it the base of a new tree. 
 
 RENOVATION OF AGED TREES. 
 
 Whatever care be taken in the pruning of fruit trees, 
 it will not fail to happen in the course of time that there 
 will be found knots close to the fruit-branches, caused 
 by cutting, and the successive removals of those 
 branches. These protuberances are serious obstacles to 
 the free circulation of the sap from the roots to the 
 bud, and from the shoots to the roots ; a state of disease 
 quickly sets in, and the tree soon perishes. 
 
 If the tree is taken in hand before it falls into a state 
 of complete decrepitude, it is almost always possible to 
 rejuvenate it, and restore it to its original vigour, espe- 
 cially if it is an apple or pear. But success is far less 
 certain in stone fruits, most difficult of all in the case 
 of peaches, which scarcely ever send out new shoots 
 from the old wood. 
 
 Trees of Pyramid Form. The essential point in re- 
 novating trees is to concentrate all the little sap that 
 the tree has to dispose of upon a smaller extent of stem 
 and branches, to make it put forth new shoots, and by 
 the same means a new set of roots. It will be sufficient 
 for such a tree to cut the stem half-way up, and also to 
 
210 RESTORATION OF 
 
 cut the lateral branches, increasing their length to- 
 
 Fig. 178. Pyramidal Pear Tree Renovated. 
 
 wards the base so as to preserve the pyramid form. 
 
BADLY-TRAINED AND AGED TREES. 211 
 
 Those at the base should be cut at two feet from 
 their spring, and the upper one at six inches. If the 
 tree is an apple or a pear of large size with thick hard 
 bark, it will be better, instead of reckoning upon the 
 growth of new terminal shoots for the stem and 
 branches, to crown graft each of the extremities, which 
 will develop more vigorously than mere shoots from 
 old trees. 
 
 At the end of the year the rejuvenated pyramid will 
 resemble fig. 178. During the first years which follow, 
 in order to favour the growth of the lower branches, it 
 will be necessary to cut short those at the top, and to 
 pinch, during summer, their terminal shoots. 
 
 Espaliers. Espaliers in the palmette form are cut at 
 one-half the length of their stem, and the side branches 
 cut back, those at the top to six inches, those at the 
 base one-half their length, and the intermediate ones 
 so as not to pass their proper line of growth. A crown 
 graft is also placed at the top of the stem and at the 
 extremities of each side of the branches. Lastly, the 
 lower branches are favoured in their growth by cutting 
 short the upper ones and pinching their shoots. 
 
 To further insure success it will be well to take off 
 the old outside bark of the entire tree with a plane, and 
 then cover the whole with a coat of lime-wash, applied 
 hot. This will stimulate the vital energies of the tree, 
 and facilitate the growth of new shoots. 
 
 It will also be an advantage at the close of the third 
 year to make a circular trench three feet from the foot 
 of the tree, three feet wide, and thirty inches deep, and 
 fill it with fresh earth enriched with manure. If some 
 
212 RESTORATION OF BADLY-TRAINED TREES. 
 
 of the old roots are met with in digging they must be 
 left untouched. 
 
 "We ought to observe that the operations now de- 
 scribed for the restoration and regeneration of trees 
 have lost much of their importance since the introduc- 
 tion of the method of growing fruit trees in oblique and 
 vertical cordon. These forms allow of the maximum 
 product of standards and espaliers being obtained 
 about the sixth year after plantation, while fourteen or 
 sixteen are required for restored or rejuvenated trees of 
 the larger forms ; hence it follows that it will generally 
 be more advantageous to substitute for these operations 
 a new plantation in cordons. In the case of all the 
 trees in a garden or orchard requiring these operations 
 to restore and rejuvenate them, we proceed thus : 
 Remove altogether the old trees upon a third part of 
 the ground where they are in the worst condition, and 
 replace them by occupying the ground with cordons. 
 When these begin to fructify we proceed in the same 
 way upon the second third of the ground, and some 
 time after on the rest of the space. All the garden or 
 orchard will be thus restored without ever being 
 deprived of fruit. 
 
DIRECTIONS FOR FRUIT GARDEN. 213 
 
 GENEEAL DIRECTIONS 
 
 THE FBUIT GAEDEK 
 
 IN addition to the directions already given there are 
 certain other indispensable points to be observed in 
 order to assure a vigorous growth of the trees. These 
 relate to the annual cultivation of the borders on which 
 the trees are planted, the protection of the trees from 
 the late frosts of spring, or the too great heat of the sun 
 in summer. 
 
 The cultivation of the borders on which the trees 
 grow is of much importance. The digging renders the 
 soil permeable at all times to the action of the atmo- 
 sphere, and frees it from weeds ; a sufficient quantity 
 of fertilising matter is supplied by the manure, and 
 the trees are preserved from drought. 
 
 Digging. This should not be too deep, to avoid in- 
 juring the roots, particularly of trees grafted on quince, 
 plum, or paradise stocks, which always develop them- 
 selves more superficially than others. In the latter 
 case, instead of using the spade, it will be better to 
 
214 GENERAL DIRECTIONS 
 
 employ the fork or hoe fork, fig. 179, which is less 
 liable to cut the roots. The digging should be per- 
 formed every year immediately after pruning. 
 
 Tig. 179. Hoe Fork. 
 
 It is a common practice to grow vegetables upon 
 fruit-tree borders ; but it is a bad one, for the numerous 
 diggings to which the ground is subjected will con- 
 stantly expose the roots of the trees to mutilation. 
 Besides, the vegetables absorb nearly all the nutriment 
 of the soil. At all events, we should confine the prac- 
 tice to the growth of such vegetables as least exhaust 
 the soil, such as salads. Above all, avoid planting 
 cabbage. 
 
 Manuring. It is not desirable to manure fruit trees 
 very abundantly until they have attained their intended 
 dimensions, otherwise the production of fruit will be 
 retarded. Some manure every three years, but the 
 practice is wrong, for it compels the use of too much 
 manure at a time, and the fruit contracts a bad flavour, 
 and stone fruits, especially peaches, are liable to the 
 gum disease from this cause. It is better to manure a 
 little at a time every year. 
 
FOR THE FRUIT GARDEN. 215 
 
 In clayey soils it is usual to employ horse and sheep 
 manure rather fresh, and in lighter soils that of the 
 cow. We prefer, however, crushed bones, woollen 
 rags, waste wool, hair, or feathers. This forms very 
 powerful manure, decomposes slowly, and the effect is 
 greatly prolonged. It is better for the trees than ordi- 
 nary manure. It will be sufficient to repeat such 
 manuring every seven or eight years. Any surplus 
 manure that remains may be dug into the border occu- 
 pied by the roots. 
 
 To COUNTERACT EXCESSIVE DRYNESS OF SOIL. 
 
 The operations consist in watering, covering, and 
 keeping the surface of the soil light and open. 
 
 Watering. The great heats of summer render fre- 
 quent waterings necessary, most of all in light soils, 
 and for trees recently planted. In order to prevent the 
 hardening of the surface of the soil, it is desirable to 
 cover the foot of the tree with litter. Young trees 
 ought to be well watered every eight days. Liquid 
 manure is preferable to water when it can be had, as it 
 stimulates the activity of the vegetation. Watering 
 should always be performed after sunset. 
 
 Lightening the Soil to the depth of two inches imme- 
 diately it begins to dry and harden. This will take 
 the place of watering for trees after their "first year of 
 planting. This practice is most resorted to upon strong 
 lands. 
 
 Covering. This produces the same result as the last, 
 and consists in covering the soil round the trees with 
 dried leaves, decomposed straw, fern, &c., to the depth 
 
216 GENERAL DIRECTIONS 
 
 of two or three inches. May is the proper month for 
 this. It is most employed for light soils. 
 
 PROTECTION FROM THE LATE FROSTS OF SPRING. 
 
 The late frosts, snow, hail, and cold wet weather 
 of spring are extremely injurious to fruit trees, and 
 notably so to stone fruits. We shall point out what 
 may be done to counteract this, considering espaliers 
 and standards separately. 
 
 Espaliers. The coping of walls against which fruit 
 trees are planted often projects ten or twelve inches ; 
 insufficient to protect from cold, it becomes positively 
 injurious towards the end of May, by depriving the trees 
 of the full action of the warm and genial summer rains. 
 It is, therefore, better to let the copings project only 
 about four inches, and to protect the trees thus : 
 
 For walls without trellis we fasten a number of 
 wooden rods or supports (fig. 180), projecting about 
 
 iiil 
 
 Fig. 180. Protection for Espaliers. 
 
 two feet, and inclined to an angle of about 30 degrees. 
 In February, when the trees begin to vegetate, we 
 fasten to these supports the straw matting made into 
 
FOR THE FRUIT GARDEN. 
 
 217 
 
 the form of hurdles (A, fig. 182), by means of two 
 wooden rods before, and two behind, and the whole 
 fastened together with iron w r ire. These protectors are 
 kept up until the end of May, when the fruit begins to 
 set. 
 
 Upon walls covered with trellis a wooden horse 
 (fig. 181) is substituted for the wooden rods. These 
 protectors are indispensable for stone fruits ; but apples 
 and pears will be much better for them, particularly 
 
 Fig. 181. Matting Horse. 
 
 those which have a west or north aspect, in damp 
 localities. In this case the protection should be put up 
 in June, and kept in use till the end of September. 
 They prevent injury from fogs and cold rains of sum- 
 mer. These weather protectors should not project 
 more than about sixteen inches. They will be suffi- 
 cient to protect the trees from injury from cold when 
 the temperature is as low as one degree below freezing ; 
 but are insufficient against colds of two or three degrees, 
 which too often destroy the fruit crops of our gardens. 
 Let us see what can be done to protect the trees against 
 these more severe frosts. 
 
218 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS 
 
 For this purpose we place a rod of wood upon the 
 lower part of the top covering at B, fig. 182, supported 
 
 Fig. 182. Protection for Stone Fruit Trees. 
 
 by the extremity of the house which forms the projec- 
 tion. We then drive a line of stakes, D, .into the 
 ground, about 30 inches high, placed 5 feet apart, and 
 5 feet in advance of the wall. We fix at the top of the 
 stakes a cross piece, E ; then stretch a cloth from B to 
 E. The cloth may be of the coarse canvas used for 
 walls before papering. Its durability will be increased 
 by soaking it in linseed oil. The canvas allows of 
 light passing through it sufficient for the trees, and 
 will protect the vegetation from the most severe of the 
 late frosts of spring. We secure by this means almost 
 
FOR THE FRUIT GARDEN. 219 
 
 as many fruits as there have been blossoms. The space 
 underneath is sufficient to allow the gardener to pass, 
 and to perform his various operations of disbudding, 
 pruning, and pinching without hindrance. This cover- 
 ing and the straw hurdles are laid aside for the year 
 towards the end of May, when the fruit is nearly set, 
 and there is nothing more to fear from late frosts. 
 
 Standards. It is much more difficult to protect 
 standard fruit trees. The only practicable method of 
 doing so consists in fixing upon the branches, imme- 
 diately after the pruning, handfuls of dry fern or straw, 
 so that each branch may be protected to its full extent. 
 Or the tree may be covered all over with canvas, like 
 that just described. To protect cordons, double or 
 vertical, we can stretch the canvas horizontally at the 
 tcp, ind fix it with wire, to be taken off towards the 
 end of May. 
 
 Shading. Espaliers, and especially stone fruits, are 
 exposed in all their green surfaces to such a powerful 
 evaporation, that the roots cannot supply the loss of 
 humidity that takes place. Besides this, their position 
 deprives them in a great measure of the benefits of 
 the night dews, little as they may be, during the great 
 heats of summer. 
 
 Unless protected in some way, many trees will then 
 perish, as we may say from sunstroke. To prevent 
 this, they must be watered freely, and the foliage be 
 well syringed three times a week. 
 
 The heat of the sun is not less injurious to the bark 
 of the stems of espaliers, most of all to the part not 
 protected by the leaves. It hardens the bark so that it 
 
 L2 
 
220 DIRECTIONS FOR FRUIT GARDEN. 
 
 loses its elasticity, does not allow the tree to expand, 
 and hinders the circulation of the sap, by compressing 
 the sap vessels. The bark is sometimes destroyed in 
 this way, and falls off, leaving the wood bare. 
 
 Fig. 183. Wood Shade for Stems. 
 
 To prevent this the more exposed part of the stem 
 may be covered with a shade made of wood like fig. 
 183. The upper part may be protected by a coating 
 of half whiting, half clay, mixed with sufficient water 
 to form a thick paste.* 
 
 * The injury here referred to applies mostly, if not entirely, to the 
 climate of France. In England fruit trees are not often injured by 
 too much sun. 
 
GATHERING AND PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 221 
 
 GATHERING 
 
 AND 
 
 PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 
 
 Gathering of most fruits should be performed before 
 the fruit is quite ripe ; the quality and flavour will be 
 better for it. But it will not do to anticipate their 
 maturity for more than eight days for pears and 
 apples, and one day for peaches, apricots, and plums. 
 Cherries should only be gathered perfectly ripe. 
 
 Pears and apples which are not ripened before 
 winter must be gathered in October, or when the 
 vegetation of the trees ceases. Whatever be the kind 
 of fruit, it should only be gathered when quite dry, 
 and on fine clear days. The fruit has then its finest 
 flavour, and will keep much better. 
 
 The best method of detaching the fruit is to gather 
 it carefully one by one with the hand ; various con- 
 trivances have been devised, more or less ingenious, 
 for gathering those at the top of the trees, but all of 
 them are liable to injure the fruit, and it is better to 
 reach them by a ladder. 
 
 As the fruits are detached, they should be placed in 
 a large shallow basket, lined at the bottom with moss 
 
222 GATHERING AND PRESERVATION 
 
 or dry leaves. Not more than three layers should be 
 disposed in one basket, and each layer should be kept 
 separate by leaves. The fruit must be taken imme- 
 diately under cover. 
 
 Preservation of fruits applies mostly to those fruits 
 which only ripen during winter. The object is : 
 
 1. To preserve them from frosts, which completely 
 disorganise them. 
 
 2. To so manage that the ripening takes place 
 gradually, and is prolonged, for a portion of the fruit, 
 until the end of May. The complete or partial success 
 of this depends upon the construction of the fruit-room, 
 or place where the fruit is kept. 
 
 The Fruit-house. Experience proves that the fruit- 
 house or fruit-room affords the most satisfactory results 
 which fulfils the following seven conditions : 
 
 1. An equal temperature at all seasons. 
 
 2. A temperature eight or ten degrees above freezing. 
 
 3. Complete exclusion of the light. 
 
 4. Absence of all communication between the fruit- 
 room and the exterior atmosphere. 
 
 5. The place should be dry rather than damp. 
 
 6. Such an arrangement as prevents, as much as 
 possible, the fruit being injured by the pressure of its 
 own weight. 
 
 7. A northern aspect, on a very dry soil, slightly 
 elevated. 
 
 These are the arrangements of a fruit-house that we 
 think fulfil all the required conditions. The size, of 
 course, must depend upon the quantity of fruit. That 
 of which we now give a plan (figs. 184 and 185) is 
 
OF FRUIT. 
 
 223 
 
 about sixteen and a half feet in length, thirteen feet 
 wide, and ten feet high. Eight thousand fruit may be 
 stored in it, allowing four square inches to each fruit. 
 
 The floor is twenty-eight inches below the surround- 
 ing ground ; if it is very dry it may be three feet 
 lower. This arrangement allows of the atmosphere of 
 the fruit-house being more easily protected from the 
 exterior atmosphere. To prevent the wet from drain- 
 
 Fig. 184. Elevation of Fruitery, following the line K L, Fig. 185. 
 
 ing in, the ground outside is slanted off from the walls 
 all round (A, fig. 184), and the outside walls are con-, 
 structed in cement to just above the ground. 
 
 The fruit- house is surrounded with double walls, A 
 and B (fig. 185), having a vacant space C between them 
 twenty inches wide. This space admirably secures 
 the fruit from the action of the atmosphere outside. 
 
224 
 
 GATHERING AND PRESERVATION 
 
 Each of the walls is thirteen inches in thickness, made 
 of a kind of mortar or clay formed of clayey earth, 
 straw, and a little marl. This material is preferable 
 to common masonry, because it is a worse conductor 
 of heat, and is besides much cheaper. The walls 
 should be so arranged that the floor of the vacant space 
 between the walls, E, should be on a level with the floor 
 of the fruit-room. 
 
 There are six openings in the walls, three in the 
 
 i/ 
 
 Fig. 185. Plan of Fruitery, following the line Q H, Fig. 184. 
 
 The 
 
 outer and three in the inner, opposite each other, 
 openings form : 
 
 1st. A double door, D, fig. 185 ; the exterior door 
 opens outwards, the interior one inwards, which is 
 also made to fold like a shutter. During the extreme 
 cold the space between the two doors must be packed 
 with straw. 
 
 2nd. Two apertures, E, twenty inches square, placed 
 on each side the fruit-house, and opening three feet 
 
OF FRUIT. 225 
 
 above the ground, closed by double shutters, one 
 opening outwards, the other inwards. The space 
 between should be carefully packed with straw at the 
 beginning of winter. 
 
 The inner wall has a single door, F, and two open- 
 ings, G. The openings are closed by a shutter sliding 
 up and down, and inside by a door opening outwards. 
 As soon as the fruits are fairly deposited in the fruit- 
 house, the exterior air should be still further excluded 
 from the interior, by pasting strips of paper round the 
 joints and nicks of the openings. These openings are 
 only intended to allow of air and light being admitted 
 into the fruit-house, to air and sweeten it before the 
 fruits are deposited. 
 
 The ceiling (B, fig. 184) is formed of a bed of moss, 
 kept in its place by laths, ceiled over above and below 
 with mortar and hair, the whole presenting a thickness 
 of twelve inches. This mode of structure is indis- 
 pensable for preventing the exterior air from traversing 
 the ceiling. 
 
 The ceiling is surmounted by a roof of thatch, C, 
 twelve inches thick. A skylight in the roof will allow 
 the space between the ceiling and the thatch being 
 used as a garret. The skylight should close perfectly, 
 so as to completely exclude the air. 
 
 The floor of the fruit-house may be either of wood or 
 asphalt. The inner walls, and even the roof, will be 
 better if lined with a deal wainscoting. All these 
 precautions tend to the same important object, that of 
 keeping the interior of an equable temperature, free 
 from dampness. 
 
226 
 
 GATHERING AND PRESERVATION 
 
 All the inner walls are fitted from the top to within 
 twenty inches of the ground with deal shelves to 
 receive the fruit. These are placed ten inches above 
 each other, and are twenty inches in width. 
 
 In order that all the fruit may be seen at once, the 
 shelves are gradually raised towards the back about 
 45 degrees (A, fig. 186). This slant is diminished 
 gradually as the shelves approach the floor, and at five 
 feet above the floor they are horizontal. All the in- 
 clined shelves in front present the appearance of a 
 
 Fig. 186. Horizontal and Inclined Shelves for the Fruitery. 
 
 rising stage or platform (A, fig. 186), each step rising 
 about four inches, and protected in front by a ledge, 
 E, about an inch high, to keep the fruit from falling 
 forwards. 
 
 In order to allow the air to circulate freely, the 
 inclined shelves are each left open behind. The same 
 object is attained in the horizontal shelves (B), by 
 forming them in separate leaves about four inches 
 wide, and sufficiently apart from each other. The 
 shelves are fixed to the wainscot by brackets, and 
 supported in front by uprights (D) placed at five feet 
 
OF FRUIT. 227 
 
 apart. The cross pieces (E) attached to the uprights 
 support other cross pieces (F), both those that are 
 horizontal and oblique, the latter cut in notches fol- 
 lowing the rise of the shelves, and upon which the 
 shelves are placed. 
 
 In the centre of the fruit-house must be a table, I, fig. 
 185, ten feet long and 40 inches wide, separated from the 
 shelves by a space of three feet. The table should be 
 surrounded by a ledge, and the space beneath occu- 
 pied by shelves placed horizontally, like the others. 
 
 It may occur that a great part of the cost of the 
 fruit-house may be avoided. If, for instance, there is 
 an underground cave or grotto, advantage may be 
 taken of it to establish the fruit-house therein. In 
 this case there will be nothing to do but to fit it up 
 interiorly with shelves and so on, as we have just 
 described. In every case it is indispensable that the 
 cave or grotto be perfectly dry and well protected from 
 the exterior temperature. 
 
 Care of the Fruit in the Fruit-house. The success of 
 the preservation of fruit still depends upon the care 
 taken of it while in the fruit-house. As the fruit is 
 brought in it is placed upon the table, which should be 
 covered with a thin layer of dry moss. The fruit is 
 then sorted, and each variety set apart ; all the bruised 
 and unsound fruit should be carefully put aside ; the 
 rest of the fruit should then be left upon the table 
 for two or three days, in order to lose part of its 
 humidity. When this time has elapsed, after covering 
 the shelves with a thin layer of dry moss or cotton, 
 and wiping each fruit carefully with a small piece of 
 
228 GATHERING AND PRESERVATION 
 
 flannel, the fruit must be placed upon the shelves, each 
 half an inch apart, keeping the varieties separate. 
 
 When the fruits are thus disposed of, the doors and 
 openings must be left open during the day, at least 
 when the weather is not too damp. Eight more days 
 of exposure to the air are necessary, in order to allow 
 the superabundant moisture to evaporate. Afterwards 
 all the openings must be hermetically closed, and only 
 opened when required to take out the fruit. No means, 
 except currents of air, have at the present time been 
 employed to remove dampness from the fruit-house 
 caused by the sweating of the fruit after it has been 
 stored. There are serious objections to the use of air 
 currents for this object. It subjects the fruit- house to 
 great changes of temperature, which are very injurious, 
 and to alternate light and darkness, which hasten 
 maturity. The plan can only be adopted in dry 
 weather and during the absence of frost ; that is, it 
 cannot be practised throughout a great part of every 
 winter, and the fruit-house must be left in its damp 
 state, to the injury of the fruit. 
 
 To avoid this, we recommend the use of chloride of 
 calcium. This salt has the property of absorbing so 
 large a quantity of moisture (about double its own 
 weight) that it becomes liquid after being exposed 
 for a certain time to the influence of a moist atmo- 
 sphere. We can, therefore, see that if a sufficient 
 quantity be introduced into the fruit-house, it will 
 absorb the dampness exhaled by the fruit. Quicklime 
 answers nearly the same purpose. 
 
 The chloride of calcium, F, should be placed in a kind 
 
OF FRUIT. 
 
 229 
 
 of slanting trough, A D (fig. 187), so as to allow the 
 chloride, as it absorbs water, to drain off into a jar, 
 E, set underneath to receive it. This liquid should be 
 taken care of, and when required next year placed 
 
 Fig. 187. A Jar for receiving the Chloride of Calcium in the Fruitery. 
 
 upon a fire and the moisture evaporated. The residue 
 is chloride of calcium, which may be used again as 
 before. 
 
 The fruit-house should be visited every eighth day, 
 to remove the fruits that are beginning to decay, to set 
 apart those that are ripe, and to renew the chloride of 
 calcium as may be required. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO., CITY ROAD, LONDON. 
 
 M 
 
LONDON, November, 1873. 
 
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 INCLUDING MANY 
 
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 AGRICULTURE, MATHEMATICS, MECHANICS, 
 
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 PUBLISHED BY 
 
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 7, STATIONERS'-HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.C. 
 
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 Humbers New Work on Water-Supply. 
 
 A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-SUPPLY 
 of CITIES and TOWNS. By WILLIAM HUMBER, Assoc. Inst. 
 C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Author of "Cast and Wrought Iron 
 Bridge Construction," &c. &c. This work, it is expected, will con- 
 tain about 50 Double Plates, and upwards of 300 pages of Text. 
 Imp. 4to, half bound in morocco. [/ the press. 
 
 *#* In accumulating information for this volume, the Author has 
 been very liberally assisted by several professional friends, who have 
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 been in a position to prepare a work which, within the limits of a 
 single volume, will supply the reader with the most complete and 
 reliable information upon all subjects, theoretical and practical, con- 
 nected with water supply. Through the kindness of Messrs. Ander- 
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 Milne, Quick, Rawlinson, Simpson, and others, several works, con- 
 structed and in course of construction, from the designs of these gentle- 
 men, will be fully illustrated and described. 
 
 AMONGST OTHER IMPORTANT SUBJECTS THE FOLLOWING WILL BE TREATED 
 IN THE TEXT : 
 
 Historical Sketch of the means that have been proposed and adopted for the Supply 
 of Water. Water and the Foreign Matter usually associated with it. Rainfall and 
 Evaporation. Springs and Subterranean Lakes. Hydraulics. The Selection of 
 Sites for Water Works. Wells. Reservoirs. Filtration and Filter Beds. Reservoir 
 and Filter Bed Appendages. Pumps and Appendages. Pumping Machinery. 
 Culverts and Conduits, Aqueducts, Syphons, &c. Distribution of Water. Water 
 Meters and general House Fittings. Cost of Works for the Supply of Water. Con- 
 stant and Intermittent Supply. Suggestions for preparing Plans, &c. &c., together 
 with a Description of the numerous Works illustrated, viz : Aberdeen, Bideford, 
 Cockermouth, Dublin, Glasgow, Loch Katrine, Liverpool, Manchester, Rotherham, 
 Sunderland, and several others ; with copies of the Contract, Drawings and Specifi- 
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 Humber s Modern Engineering. First Series. 
 
 J.111LJ* ^.\.\J) VV1L1J \J J_/WU.UA\* 
 
 1 Photographic Portrait of John 
 rice 3/. 3-r. half morocco. 
 
 A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- 
 ING, 1863. Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, 
 Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By WILLIAM 
 HUMBER, Assoc. List. C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double 
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 Hawkshaw, C. E. , F. R. S . , &c. Price 
 
 List of the Plates. 
 
 NAME AND DESCRIPTION. ' PLATES. NAME OF ENGINEER. 
 
 Victoria Station and Roof L. B.& S. C. Rail. i to 8 Mr. R. Jacomb Hood, C.E, 
 
 Southport Pier 9 and 10 Mr. James Brunlees, C.E. 
 
 Victoria Station and Roof L. C. &D. &G.W. 
 
 Railways ntoi5A Mr. John Fowler, C.E. 
 
 Roof of Cremorne Music Hall 16 Mr. William Humber, C.E. 
 
 Bridge over G. N. Railway 17 Mr. Joseph Cubitt, C.E. 
 
 Roof of Station Dutch Rhenish Railway .. iSandig Mr. Euschedi, C.E. 
 
 Bridge over the Thames West London Ex- 
 tension Railway 20 to 24 
 
 Armour Plates 25 
 
 Suspension Bridge, Thames 26 to 29 
 
 The Allen Engine 30 
 
 Suspension Bridge, Avon 31 
 
 Underground Railway 34 to 36 
 
 Mr. William Baker, C.E. 
 Mr. James Chalmers, C.E. 
 Mr. Peter W. Barlow, C.E. 
 Mr. G. T. Porter, M.E. 
 to 33 Mr. John Hawkshaw, C.E. 
 andW. H. Barlow, C.E. 
 Mr. John Fowler, C.E. 
 
 With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. 
 
 " Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour with many who desire 
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 Humberts Modern Engineering. Second Series. 
 
 A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- 
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 NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. 
 
 Birkenhead Docks. Low Water Basin i to 15 
 
 Charing Cross Station Roof C. C. Railway. 16 to 18 
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 Iron Permanent Way zoa 
 
 Clydach Viaduct Merthyr, Tredegar, and 
 
 Abergavenny Railway 21 
 
 Ebbw Viaduct ditto ditto ditto 22 
 
 College Wood Viaduct Cornwall Railway . . 23 
 
 Dublin Winter Palace Roof 24 to 26 
 
 Bridge over the Thames L. C. & D. Railw. 27 to 32 
 
 Albert Harbour, Greenock 33 to 36 
 
 With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. 
 
 NAME OF ENGINEER. 
 
 Mr. G. F. Lyster, C.E 
 Mr. Hawkshaw, C.E. 
 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E. 
 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E. 
 
 Mr. Gardner, C.E. 
 
 Mr. Gardner, C.E. 
 
 Mr. Brunei. 
 
 Messrs. Ordish & Le Feuvre. 
 
 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E. 
 
 Messrs. Bell & Miller. 
 
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WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 Humberts Modern Engineering. Third Series. 
 
 A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- 
 ING, 1865. Imp. 410, with 40 Double Plates, drawn to a large 
 scale, and Photographic Portrait of J. R. M 'Clean, Esq., late Pre- 
 sident of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Price 3/. 3-r. half 
 morocco. 
 
 List of Plates and Diagrams. 
 
 MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS. 
 
 NORTH SIDE. 
 
 Map showing Interception of Sewers. 
 Middle Level Sewer. Sewer under Re- 
 gent's Canal. 
 Middle Level Sewer. Junction with Fleet 
 
 Ditch. 
 Outfall Sewer. Bridge over River Lea. 
 
 Elevation. 
 Outfall S2wer. Bridge over River Lea. 
 
 Details. 
 
 Outfall Sewer. Bridge over River Lea. 
 Details. 
 Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Marsh Lane, 
 
 North Woolwich Railway, and Bow and 
 
 Barking Railway Junction. 
 Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Bow and 
 
 Barking Railway. Elevation. 
 Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Bow and 
 
 Barking Railway. Details. 
 Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Bow and 
 
 Barking Railway. Details. 
 Outfall Sewer. Bridge over East London 
 
 Waterworks' Feeder. Elevation. 
 Outfall Sewer. Bridge over East London 
 
 Waterworks' Feeder. Details. 
 Outfall Sewer. Reservoir. Plan. 
 Outfall Sewer. Reservoir. Section. 
 Outfall Sewer. Tumbling Bay and Outlet. 
 Outfall Sewer. Penstocks. 
 
 SOUTH SIDE. 
 
 Outfall Sewer. Bermondsey Branch. 
 Outfall Sewer. Bermondsey Branch. 
 Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. 
 Plan. 
 
 MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS, 
 
 continued 
 Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. 
 
 Details. 
 Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. 
 
 Details. 
 Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. 
 
 Details. 
 
 Outfall Sewer. Filth Hoist. 
 Sections of Sewers (North and South 
 
 Sides). 
 
 THAMES EMBANKMENT. 
 
 Section of River Wall. 
 
 Steam-boat Pier, Westminster. Elevation 
 
 Steam-boat Pier, Westminster. Details. 
 
 Landing Stairs between Charing Cross 
 and Waterloo Bridges. 
 
 York Gate. Front Elevation. 
 
 York Gate. Side Elevation and Details. 
 
 Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer. 
 Details. 
 
 Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer. 
 Penstock. 
 
 Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer. 
 Penstock. 
 
 Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. Eleva- 
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 Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. De- 
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 Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. De- 
 tails. 
 
 Junction of Sewers. Plans and Sections. 
 
 Gullies. Plans and Sections. 
 
 Rolling Stock. 
 
 Granite and Iron Forts. 
 
 With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. 
 
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4 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 Humberts Modern Engineering. Fourth Series. 
 
 A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- 
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 of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Price 3/. $s. half-morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 
 NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OF ENGINEER. 
 
 Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drainage, 
 
 Metropolis i to 4 Mr. Bazalgette, C. E. 
 
 Barrow Docks 5 to 9 Messrs. M'Clean & Stillman, 
 
 Manquis Viaduct, Santiago and Valparaiso [C. E. 
 
 Railway 10, n Mr. W. Loyd, C.E. 
 
 Adams' Locomotive, St. Helen's Canal Railw. 12, 13 Mr. H. Cross, C.E. 
 Cannon Street Station Roof, Charing Cross 
 
 Railway 14 to 16 Mr. J. Hawkshaw, C.E. 
 
 Road Bridge over the River Moka 17, 18 Mr. H. Wakefield, C.E. 
 
 Telegraphic Apparatus for Mesopotamia 
 Viaduct over the River Wye, Midland Railw 
 St. Germans Viaduct, Cornwall Railway . . . 
 Wrought-Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell 
 
 19 Mr. Siemens, C.E. 
 
 20 to 22 Mr. W. H. Barlow, C.E. 
 
 23, 24 Mr. Brunei, C.E. 
 
 25 Mr. J. Coode, C.E. 
 
 Millwall Docks 26 to 31 Messrs. J. Fowler, C.E., and 
 
 William Wilson, C.E. 
 
 Milroy's Patent Excavator 32 Mr. Milroy, C. E. 
 
 Metropolitan District Railway 33 to 38 Mr. J. Fowler, Engineer-in- 
 
 Chief, and Mr? T. M. 
 Johnson, C.E. 
 
 Harbours, Ports, and Breakwaters A to C 
 
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 Number s Great Work on Bridge Construction. 
 
 A COMPLETE and PRACTICAL TREATISE on CAST and 
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 Earthwork, Measurement and Calculation of. 
 
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 THE DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION of HARBOURS. By 
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 ARCHITECTURE, &c. 
 
 Construction. 
 
 THE SCIENCE of BUILDING : an Elementary Treatise on 
 
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 Beaton s Pocket Estimator. 
 
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 Drains. By A. C. BEATON, Author of ' Quantities and Measure- 
 ments.' With 19 Woodcuts. Leather. Waistcoat pocket size. 2s. 
 
 [IVcnv ready. 
 
 Villa Architecture. 
 
 A HANDY BOOK of VILLA ARCHITECTURE ; being a 
 
 Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With 
 
 Detailed Specifications and Estimates. By C. WICKES, Architect, 
 
 Author of " The Spires and Towers of the Mediaeval Churches of 
 
 England," &c. First Series, consisting of 30 Plates ; Second 
 
 Series, 31 Plates. Complete in I vol., 4to, price 2/. los. half 
 
 morocco. Either Series separate, price I/, 'js. each, half morocco. 
 
 " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic 
 
 architect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive to architects, students, and 
 
 amateurs." Building News. 
 
 The Architect's Guide. 
 
 THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE ; or, Office and Pocket Com- 
 panion for Engineers, Architects, Land and Building Surveyors, 
 Contractors, Builders, Clerks of Works, &c. By W. DAVIS 
 HASKOLL, C.E., R. W. BILLINGS, Architect, F. ROGERS, and 
 P. THOMPSON. With numerous Experiments by G. RENNIE, 
 C.E., &c. Woodcuts, I2mo, cl6th, price 3-r. 6d. 
 
WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 Vitruvius' Architecture* 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF MARCUS VITRUVIUS 
 POLLIO. Translated by JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. 
 Numerous Plates. I2mo, cloth limp, price $s. 
 
 The Young Architect's Book. 
 
 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By GEORGE WIGHT- 
 WICK, Architect, Author of " The Palace of Architecture," &c. &c. 
 Second Edition. With numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, 7-r., extra cloth. 
 
 Drawing for Builders and Students. 
 
 PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING for the OPERATIVE 
 BUILDER and YOUNG STUDENT in ARCHITECTURE. 
 By GEORGE PYNE, Author of a " Rudimentary Treatise on Per- 
 spective for Beginners." With 14 Plates, 4to, 7-r. 6d., boards. 
 
 CONTENTS. I. Practical Rules on Drawing Outlines. II. Ditto the Grecian 
 and Roman Orders. III. Practical Rules on Drawing Perspective. IV. Practical 
 Rules on Light and Shade. V. Practical Rules on Colour, &c. &c. 
 
 Drawing for Engineers, &c. 
 
 THE WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING 
 DRAWING. By JOHN MAXTON, Instructor in Engineering 
 Drawing, South Kensington. Second Edition, carefully revised. 
 With upwards of 300 Plates and Diagrams. I2mo, cloth, 
 strongly bound, 4^. 6</. \_Now ready. 
 
 " Even accomplished draughtsmen will find in it much that will be of use to them. 
 A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office." Engineering. 
 
 "An indispensable book for teachers of engineering drawing." Mechanics* 
 Magazine. 
 
 Cottages, Villas, and Country Houses. 
 
 DESIGNS and EXAMPLES of COTTAGES, VILLAS, and 
 COUNTRY HOUSES; being the Studies of several eminent 
 Architects and Builders ; consisting of Plans, Elevations, and Per- 
 spective Views ; with approximate Estimates of the Cost of each. 
 In 4to, with 67 plates, price i/. is., cloth. 
 
 Builders Price Book. 
 
 ATCHLEY'S BUILDERS' PRICE BOOK for 1873, contain- 
 ing a complete List of Prices of Builder's Materials and Labour of 
 all Trades in connection with Building ; useful and important 
 Tables and Memoranda for preparing Estimates, compiled by a 
 staff of experienced men. To which are added, Builders' Prices 
 for the West Riding of Yorkshire, specially prepared for this work ; 
 Tables for Calculating wages ; Builders' Measurements, with Bills 
 of Quantities. By A. C. BEATON. Marks and Qualities of 
 Timber, with Rules for Calculating the Various Standards ; Iron 
 as applied to Building Structures. By a CIVIL ENGINEER. Crown 
 8vo, strongly bound, price 3^. 6d. 
 
16 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 Handbook of Specifications. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS ; or, Practical 
 Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing 
 up Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. 
 Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent 
 Architects and Engineers. Preceded by a Preliminary Essay, and 
 Skeletons of Specifications and Contracts, &c., &c., and explained 
 by numerous Lithograph Plates and Woodcuts. By Professor 
 THOMAS L. DONALDSON, President of the Royal Institute of British 
 Architects, Professor of Architecture and Construction, University 
 College, London, M.I.B.A., Member of the various European 
 Academies of the Fine Arts. With A REVIEW OF THE LAW OF 
 CONTRACTS, and of the Responsibilities of Architects, Engineers, 
 and Builders. By W. CUNNINGHAM GLEN, Barrister-at-Law, of 
 the Middle Temple. 2 vols., 8vo, with upwards of iioopp. of 
 text, and 33 Lithographic Plates, cloth, 2/. 2s. (Published at 4/. ) 
 
 " In these two volumes of i, 100 pages 'together), forty-four specifications of executed 
 Works are given, including the specifications for parts of the new Houses of Parliament, 
 by Sir Charles Barry, and for the new Royal Exchange, by Mr. Tite, M.P. The 
 latter, in particular, is a very complete and remarkable document It embodies, to a 
 great extent, as Mr. Donaldson mentions, ' the bill of quantities, with the description 
 of the works,' and occupies more than 100 printed pages. 
 
 "Amongst the other known buildings, the specifications of which are given, are 
 the Wiltshire Lunatic Asylum (Wyatt and Brandon) ; Tothill Fields Prison (R. Abra- 
 ham) ; the City Prison, Holloway(Bunning) ; the High School, Edinburgh (Hamilton) ; 
 Clothworkers' Hall, London (Angel) ; Wellington College, Sandhurst (J. Shaw) ; 
 Houses in Grosvenor Square, and elsewhere ; St. George's Church, Doncaster 
 (Scott) ; several works of smaller size by the Author, including Messrs. Shaw's Ware- 
 house in Fetter Lane, a very successful elevation ; the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Railway 
 Station (J. Dobson) ; new Westminster Bridge (Page) ; the High Level Bridge, New- 
 castle (R. Stephenson) ; various works on the Great Northern Railway (Brydone) ; 
 and one French specification for Houses in the Rue de Rivoli, Paris (MM. Armand, 
 Hittorff, Pellechet, and Rohault de Fleury, architects). The last is a very elaborate 
 composition, occupying seventy pages. The majority of the specifications have illus- 
 trations in the shape of elevations and plans. 
 
 "We are most glad to have the present work. It is valuable as a record, and more 
 valuable still as a book of precedents. 
 
 "About 140 pages of the second volume are appropriated to an exposition of the 
 law in relation to the legal liabilities of engineers, architects, contractors, and builders, 
 by Mr. W. Cunningham Glen, Barrister-at-law ; intended rather for those persons 
 than for the legal practitioner. Suffice it, in conclusion, to say in words what our 
 readers will have gathered for themselves from the particulars we have given, that 
 Donaldson's Handbook of Specifications must be bought by all architects." Builder. 
 
 Specifications for Practical Architecture. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE : 
 A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder ; with 
 an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. By 
 FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect. With numerous Illustrations. 
 Demy 8vo, price 15^., cloth. 
 
 \* A volume of specifications of a practical character being greatly required, and the 
 old standard work of Alfred Bartholomew being out of print, the author, on the basis 
 of that work, has produced the above. Some of the specifications he has so altered 
 as to bring in the now universal use of concrete, the improvements in drainage, the 
 use of iron, glass, asphalte, and other material. He has also inserted specifications 
 of works that have been erected in his own practice. 
 
WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 Granthams Iron Skip-Building, enlarged. 
 
 ON IRON SHIP-BUILDING ; with Practical Examples and 
 Details. Fifth Edition. Imp. 4to, boards, enlarged from 24 to 40 
 Plates (21 quite new), including the latest Examples. Together 
 with separate Text, I2mo, cloth limp, also considerably enlarged, 
 By JOHN GRANTHAM, M. Inst. C.E., &c. Price 2/. 2s. complete. 
 
 Description of Plates. 
 
 22-4. 
 
 1. Hollow and Bar Keels, Stem and 
 
 Stern Posts. [Pieces. 
 
 2. Side Frames, Floorings, and Bilge 
 
 3. Floorings continued Keelsons, Deck 
 
 Beams, Gunwales, and Stringers. 
 
 4. Gunwales continued Lower Decks, 
 
 and Orlop Beams. 
 4#. Gunwales and Deck Beam Iron. 
 
 5. Angle-Iron, T Iron, Z Iron, Bulb 
 
 Iron, as Rolled for Building. 
 
 6. Rivets, shown in section, natural size ; 
 
 Flush and Lapped Joints, with 
 Single and Double Riveting. 
 
 7. Plating, three plans ; Bulkheads and 
 
 Modes of Securing them. 
 
 8. Iron Masts, with Longitudinal and 
 
 Transverse Sections. 
 
 9. Sliding Keel, Water Ballast, Moulding 
 
 the Frames in Iron Ship Building, 
 Levelling Plates. 
 
 10. Longitudinal Section, and Half- 
 
 breadth Deck Plan of Large Vessels 
 on a reduced Scale. 
 
 11. Midship Sections of Three Vessels. 
 
 12. Large Vessel, showing Details Fore 
 
 End in Section, and End View, 
 with Stern Post, Crutches, &c. 
 
 13. Large l^essel,showmg Details After 
 
 End in Section, with End View, 
 Stern Frame for Screw, and Rudder. 
 
 14. Large Vessel, showing Details Mid- 
 
 ship Section, half breadth. 
 
 15. Machines for Punching and Shearing 
 
 Plates and Angle-Iron, and for 
 Bending Plates ; Rivet Hearth. 
 15*1. Beam-Bending Machine, Indepen- 
 dent Shearing, Punching and Angle- 
 Iron Machine. 
 
 "An enlarged edition of an elaborately illustrated work." Builder. 
 
 " This edition of Mr. Grantham's work has been enlarged and improved, both with 
 respect to the text and the engravings being brought down to the present period . . . 
 The practical operations required in producing a shipare described and illustrated with 
 care and precision." Mechanics' Magazine. 
 
 " A thoroughly practical work, and every question of the many in relation to iron 
 shipping which admit of diversity of opinion, or have various and conflicting personal 
 interests attached to them, is treated with sober and impartial wisdom and good sense. 
 . . . . As good a volume for the instruction of the pupil or student of iron naval 
 architecture as can be found in any language." Practical Mechanics' Journal. 
 
 " A very elaborate work. . . . It forms a most valuable addition to the history 
 of iron shipbuilding, while its having been prepared by one who has made the subject 
 his study for many years, and whose qualifications have been repeatedly recognised, 
 will recommend it as one of practical utility to all interested in shipbuilding." Army 
 and Navy Gazette. 
 
 15^. Double Lever Punching and Shearing 
 Machine, arranged for cutting 
 Angle and T Iron, with Dividing 
 Table and Engine. 
 
 16. Machines. Garforth's Riveting Ma- 
 
 chine, Drilling and Counter-Sinking 
 Machine. 
 i6a. Plate Planing Machine. 
 
 17. Air Furnace for Heating Plates and 
 
 Angle- Iron : Various Tools used in 
 Riveting and Plating. 
 
 18. Gunwale ; Keel and Flooring ; Plan 
 
 for Sheathing with Copper. 
 i8<r. Grantham's Improved Plan of Sheath- 
 ing Iron Ships with Copper. 
 
 19. Illustrations of the Magnetic Condi- 
 
 tion of various Iron Ships. 
 
 20. Gray's Floating Compass and Bin- 
 
 nacle, with Adjusting Magnets, c. 
 
 21. Corroded Iron Bolt in Frame of 
 
 Wooden Ship ; Jointing Plates. 
 Great Eastern Longitudinal Sec- 
 tions and Half-breadth Plans Mid- 
 ship Section, with Details Section 
 in Engine Room, and Paddle Boxes. 
 
 25-6. Paddle Steam Vessel of Steel. 
 
 27. Scarbroiigh Paddle Vessel of Steel. 
 
 28-9. Proposed Passenger Steamer. 
 
 30. Persian Iron Screw Steamer. 
 
 31. Midship Section of H.M. Steam 
 
 Frigate, Warrior. 
 
 32. Midship Section of H.M. Steam 
 
 Frigate, Hercules. 
 
 33. Stem, Stern, and Rudder of H.M. 
 
 Steam Frigate, Bellerophon. 
 
 34. Midship Section of H.M. Troop Ship, 
 
 Serapis. 
 
 35. Iron Floating Dock. 
 
1 8 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 CARPENTRY, TIMBER, &c. 
 
 4 
 
 TredgolcTs Carpentry, new, enlarged, and cheaper 
 Edition. 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY : 
 
 a Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the 
 Resistance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, 
 Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which 
 is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., 
 with Descriptions of the Kinds of Wood used in Building ; also 
 numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes, 
 the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By THOMAS TREDGOLD, 
 C.E. Edited by PETER BARLOW, F.R.S. Fifth Edition, cor- 
 rected and enlarged. With 64 Plates (n of which now first appear 
 in this edition), Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In 
 I vol., 4to, published at 2/. 2J., reduced to I/. 5.$-., cloth. . 
 
 " ' Tredgold's Carpentry' ought to be in every architect's and every builder's 
 library, and those who do not already possess it ought to avail themselves of the new 
 issue. " Builder. 
 
 "A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful car- 
 pentry is concerned. The Author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by 
 time, and, as now presented, combine the surest base with the most interesting display 
 of progressive science. The additional plates are of great intrinsic value." Building 
 News. 
 
 "'Tredgold's Carpentry' has ever held a high position, and the issue of the fifth 
 edition, in a still more improved and enlarged form, will give satisfaction to a very 
 large number of artisans who desire to raise themselves in their business, and who 
 seek to do so by displaying a greater amount of knowledge and intelligence than their 
 fellow-workmen. It is as complete a work as need be desired. To the superior 
 workman the volume will prove invaluable ; it contains treatises written in language 
 which he will readily comprehend. " Mining Journal. 
 
 Grandys Timber Tables. 
 
 THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, 
 and BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By RICHARD E. 
 GRANDY. Comprising : An Analysis of Deal Standards, Home 
 and Foreign, with comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements 
 for Fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, 
 including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, Duty, &c., 
 &c. ; together with Copious Information for the Retailer and 
 Builder. I2mo, price Js. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a 
 treenail, and throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, 
 cisterns, &c. all that the class to whom it appeals requires." English Mechanic. 
 
 " The only difficulty we have is as to what is NOT in its pages. What we have tested 
 of the contents, taken at random, is in variably correct." Illustrated Builder's Journal, 
 
 Tables for Packing-Case Makers. 
 
 PACKING-CASE TABLES ; showing the number of Superficial 
 Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and 
 upwards. Compiled by WILLIAM RICHARDSON, Accountant. 
 Oblong 4to, cloth, price 3^. 6d. 
 
 "Will save much labour and calculation to packing-case makers and those who use 
 packing-cases." Grocer. "Invaluable labour-saving tables." Ironmonger. 
 
WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 19 
 
 Nicholsons Carpenter s Gidde. 
 
 THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE ; or, BOOK of LINES 
 for CARPENTERS : comprising all the Elementary Principles 
 essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the 
 late PETER NICHOLSON'S standard work. A new Edition, revised 
 by ARTHUR ASHPITEL, F.S.A., together with Practical Rules on 
 Drawing, by GEORGE PYNE. With 74 Plates, 4to, i/. is. cloth. 
 
 Dowsing' s Timber Merchant's Companion. 
 
 THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S AND BUILDER'S COM- 
 PANION ; containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced 
 Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from 
 One to a Thousand Pieces, and the relative Price that each size 
 bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per Petersburgh Standard 
 Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of Square Timber to any given 
 Price per Load of 50 Feet ; the proportionate Value of Deals and 
 Battens by the Standard, to Square Timber by the Load of 50 Feet; 
 the readiest mode of ascertaining the Price of Scantling per Lineal 
 Foot of any size, to any given Figure per Cube Foot. Also a 
 variety of other valuable information. By WILLIAM DOWSING, 
 Timber Merchant. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 3-r. cloth. 
 
 " Everything is as concise and clear as it can possibly be made. There can be no 
 doubt that every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it." Hull Advertiser* 
 
 Timber Freight Book. 
 
 THE TIMBER IMPORTERS' AND SHIPOWNERS' 
 FREIGHT BOOK : Being a Comprehensive Series of Tables for 
 the Use of Timber Importers, Captains of Ships, Shipbrokers, 
 Builders, and all Dealers in Wood whatsoever. By WILLIAM 
 RICHARDSON, Timber Broker, author of " Packing Case Tables,'' 
 &c. Crown 8vo, cloth, price 6s. 
 
 MECHANICS, &c. 
 
 Mechanic s Workshop Companion. 
 
 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COM- 
 PANION, and THE SCIENTIFIC GENTLEMAN'S PRAC- 
 TICAL ASSISTANT ; comprising a great variety of the most 
 useful Rules in Mechanical Science ; with numerous Tables of Prac- 
 tical Data and Calculated Results. By W. TEMPLETON, Author 
 of "The Engineer's, Millwright's, and Machinist's Practical As- 
 sistant." Eleventh Edition, with Mechanical Tables for Operative 
 Smiths, Millwrights, Engineers, &c. ; together with several Useful 
 and Practical Rules in Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics, a variety 
 of Experimental Results, and an Extensive Table of Powers and 
 Roots, n Plates. I2mo, 5-r. bound. {Recently published. 
 
 " As a text-book of reference, in which mechanical and commercial demands are 
 judiciously met, TEMPLETON'S COMPANION stands unrivalled." Mechanics' Magazine. 
 
 " Admirably adapted to the wants of a very large class. It has met with great 
 success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many 
 men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little work. " Building News. 
 
20 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 Engineer s Assistant. 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHINIST'S 
 PRACTICAL ASSISTANT ; comprising a Collection of Useful 
 Tables, Rules, and Data. Compiled and Arranged, with Original 
 Matter, by W. TEMPLETON. 5th Edition. i8mo, zs.bd. cloth. 
 
 " So much varied information compressed into so small a space, and published at a 
 price which places it within the reach of the humblest mechanic, cannot fail to com- 
 mand the sale which it deserves. With the utmost confidence we commend this book 
 to the attention of our readers." Mechanics' Magazine. 
 
 " Every mechanic should become the possessor of the volume, and a more suitable 
 present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be made." 
 Building News. 
 
 Designing, Measuring, and Vahting. 
 
 THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEA- 
 SURING, and VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS; containing 
 Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing 
 the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants, and copious 
 Memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials in the re- 
 . spective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carpenter and Joiner, 
 Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, &c. With 43 Plates and Wood- 
 cuts. Originally edited by EDWARD DOBSON, Architect. New 
 Edition, re-written, with Additions on Mensuration and Construc- 
 tion, and several useful Tables for facilitating Calculations and 
 Measurements. By E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Architect. 8vo, 
 IDs. 6d. cloth. [Recently published. 
 
 " This useful book should be in every architect's and builder's office. It contains 
 a vast amount of information absolutely necessary to be known." The Irish Builder. 
 
 " The book is well worthy the attention of the student in architecture and surveying, 
 as by the careful study of it his progress in his profession will be much facilitated." 
 Mining Journal. 
 
 " We have failed to discover anything connected with the building trade, from ex- 
 cavating foundations to bell-hanging, that is not fully treated upon in this valuable 
 work." The Artizan. 
 
 " Mr. Tarn has well performed the task imposed upon him, and has made many 
 further and valuable additions, embodying a large amount of information relating to 
 the technicalities and modes of construction employed in the several branches of the 
 
 building trade From the extent of the information which the volume 
 
 embodies, and the care taken to secure accuracy in every detail, it cannot fail to prove 
 of the highest value to students, whether training in the offices of provincial surveyors, 
 or in those of London practitioners." Colliery Guardian. 
 
 " Altogether the book is one which well fulfils the promise of its title-page, and we 
 can thoroughly recommend it to the class for whose use it has been compiled. Mr. 
 Tarn's additions and revisions have much increased the usefulness of the work, and 
 have especially augmented its value to students. Finally, it is only just to the pub- 
 lishers to add that the book has been got up in excellent style, the typography being 
 bold and clear, and the plates very well executed." Engineering. 
 
 Superficial Measurement. 
 
 THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA- 
 SUREMENT. Tables calculated from i to 200 inches in length, 
 by I to 108 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, 
 Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders, &c. By JAMES HAW- 
 KINGS. Fcp. 3-r. 6d. cloth. 
 
WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 21 
 
 MATHEMATICS, &c. 
 
 Gregory s Practical Mathematics. i 
 
 MATHEMATICS for PRACTICAL MEN ; being a Common- 
 place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly 
 for the Use of Civil Engineers, Architects, and Surveyors. Part I. 
 PURE MATHEMATICS comprising Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, 
 Mensuration, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Properties of Curves. 
 Part II. MIXED MATHEMATICS comprising Mechanics in general, 
 Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics, 
 Mechanical Agents, Strength of Materials. With an Appendix of 
 copious Logarithmic and other Tables. By OLINTHUS GREGORY, 
 LL.D., F.R. A.S. Enlarged by HENRY LAW, C.E. 4th Edition, 
 carefully revised and corrected by J. R. YOUNG, formerly Profes- 
 sor of Mathematics, Belfast College; Author of "A Course of 
 Mathematics," &c. With 13 Plates. Medium 8vo, I/, is. cloth. 
 
 " As n standard work on mathematics it has not been excelled." Artizan. 
 
 " The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand, rules for solving nearly 
 every mnthevnatical difficulty that may arise in his practice. As a moderate acquaint- 
 ance with arithmetic, algebra, and elementary geometry is absolutely necessary to the 
 proper understanding of the most useful portions of this book, the author very wisely 
 has devoted the first three chapters to those subjects, so that the most ignorant may be 
 enabled to master the whole of the book, without aid from any other. The rules are in 
 all cases explained by means of examples, in which every step of the process is clearly 
 worked out." Builder. 
 
 ' ' One of the most serviceable books to the practical mechanics of the country. . 
 The edition of 1847 was fortunately entrusted to the able hands of Mr. Law, who 
 revised it thoroughly, re-wrote many chapters, and added several sections to those 
 which had been rendered imperfect by advanced knowledge. On examining the various 
 and many improvements which he introduced into the work, they seem almost like a 
 new structure on an old plan, or rather like the restoration of an old ruin, not only to 
 its former substance, but to an extent which meets the larger requirements of modern 
 
 times In the edition just brought out, the work has again been revised by 
 
 Professor Young. He has modernised the notation throughout, introduced a few 
 paragraphs here and there, and corrected the numerous typographical errors which 
 have escaped the eyes of the former Editor. The book is now as complete as it is 
 
 possible to make it We have carried our notice of this book to a greater 
 
 length than the space allowed us justified, but the experiments it contains are so 
 interesting, and the method of describing them so clear, that we may be excused for 
 overstepping our limit. It is an instructive book for the student, and a Text- 
 book for him who having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasionally to 
 refresh his memory upon them." Building News. 
 
 The Metric System. 
 
 A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British 
 Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the 
 Metric System at present in use on the Continent. By C. H. 
 DOWLING, C. E. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo, 
 icxr. 6d. strongly bound. 
 
 "Mr. Bowling's Tables, which are well put together, come just in time as a ready 
 reckoner for the conversion of one system into the other." Atherueum. 
 
 " Their accuracy has been certified by Professor Airy, the Astronomer-Royal." 
 Builder. 
 
 " Resolution 8. That advantage will be derived from the recent publication of 
 Metric Tables, by C. H. Dowling, C.E." Report of Section F, British Association, 
 Bath. 
 
22 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 Inwoods Tables, greatly enlarged and improved. 
 
 TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING of ESTATES, Freehold, 
 Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, &c., and for the 
 Renewing of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or 
 other corporate bodies ; for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives ; 
 also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next 
 Presentations, &c., together with Smart's Five Tables of Compound 
 Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower and Intermediate 
 Rates. By WILLIAM INWOOD, Architect. The i8th edition, with 
 considerable additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms 
 for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest of Money, Dis- 
 count, Annuities, &c., by M. FEDOR THOMAN, of the Societe 
 Credit Mobilier of Paris. I2mo, Ss. cloth. 
 
 %* This edition (the i8//z) differs in many important particulars 
 from former ones. The changes consist, first, in a more convenient 
 and systematic arrangement of the original Tables , and in the removal 
 of certain numerical errors which a very careful revision of the whole 
 has enabled the present editor to discover ; and secondly, in the 
 extension of practical utility conferred on the work by the introduction 
 of Tables now inserted for the first time. This new and important 
 matter is all so miich actually added to INWOOD'S TABLES ; nothing 
 has been abstracted from the original collection : so that those who have 
 been long in the habit of consulting INWOOD for any special profes- 
 sional purpose will, as heretofore, find the information sought still in 
 its pages. 
 
 " Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of 
 compensation cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will 
 find the present edition of eminent service." Engineering. 
 
 Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, &c. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer, and 
 Mechanic ; giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of 
 various Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. TARN, 
 M.A., Architect, Author of "The Science of Building," &c. 
 With 164 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 12s. 6d. [Now ready. 
 
 " No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the 
 clearness of the rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satis- 
 factory. " Scotsman. 
 
 Compound Interest and Annuities. 
 
 THEORY of COMPOUND INTEREST and ANNUITIES ; 
 with Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of 
 Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c., in all their Applications and 
 Uses for Mercantile and State Purposes. With an elaborate Intro- 
 duction. By FEDOR THOMAN, of the Societe Credit Mobilier, 
 Paris. I2mo, cloth, 5.?. 
 
 " A very powerful work, and the Author has a very remarkable command of hie 
 subject." Professor A. de Morgan. 
 
 "We recommend it to the notice of actuaries and accountants." Athenaum. 
 
WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 23 
 
 SCIENCE AND ART. 
 
 The Military Sciences. 
 
 AIDE-MEMOIRE to the MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed 
 from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the dif- 
 ferent Services. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of 
 Royal Engineers. Second Edition, most carefully revised by an 
 Officer of the Corps, with many additions ; containing nearly 350 
 Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts. 3 vols. royal Svo, extra 
 cloth boards, and lettered, price 4/. los. 
 
 "A compendious encyclopaedia of military knowledge, to which we are greatly in- 
 debted." Edinburgh Review. 
 
 " The most comprehensive work of reference to the military and collateral sciences. 
 Among the list of contributors, some seventy-seven in number, will be found names of 
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 AGRICULTURE, &c. 
 
 Yo^tatt and Burn's Complete Grazier. 
 
 THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE- 
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 On the Breeding, Rearing, Fattening, 
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 ments 
 ton of 
 
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 OUTLINE OF MODERN FARMING. By R. SCOTT BURN. 
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